----------------------------------------
------------   ,transcriber's note3     
,there are a very large number of words 
in the text    which occur joined1      
hyphenated and spaced with              
similar frequencies4 ,no attempt has    
been made to      assure consistency as 
this would mean revising the    whole   
book4 ,a ,caret symbol is used for a    
,german       abbreviation4             
----------------------------------------
------------       ,,principles    ,,of 
,,geology4     ,illustration3 ,,view    
,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,serapis ,,at 
,,puzzuoli ,,in #ahcf4     ,,principles 
,,of    ,,geology2    ,,or1    ,,the    
,,modern ,,changes ,,of ,,the ,,earth   
,,and ,,its   ,,inhabitants             
,,considered ,,as ,,illustrative ,,of   
,,geology4    ,,by    ,,sir ,,charles   
,,lyell1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4               
,,vice-,,president ,,of ,,the           
,,geological ,,society ,,of ,,london2   
,,author ,,of   ,a ,,manual ,,of        
,,elementary ,,geology1 ,,travels ,,in  

,,north ,,america1   ,a ,,second ,,visit
 ,,to ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,etc4   
,,etc4    ,,new ,,and ,,entirely        
,,revised ,,edition4    ,,illustrated   
,,with ,,maps1 ,,plates1 ,,and          
,,woodcuts4    ,,new ,,york3   ,d4      
,,appleton  ,,co41 #cdf  #cdh           
,,broadway4    ,m4,,dccc4,,liv4   ,vere 
scire est per causas scire4--,,bacon4   
,the stony rocks are not primeval1 but  
the daughters of ,time4--,,linnaeus1    
,syst4 ,nat4 ed4 #e1 ,stockholm1 #agdh1 
p4 #bai4   ,amid all the revolutions of 
the globe1 the economy of nature has    
been uniform1 and her laws are the only 
things that have resisted the general   
movement4 ,the rivers and the rocks1 the
 seas and the continents have been      
changed in all their parts2 but the laws
 which direct those changes1 and the    
rules to which they are subject1 have   
remained invariably the                 
same4--,,playfair1 ,illustrations of the
 ,huttonian ,theory1 ,section #cgd4     
,the inhabitants of the globe1 like all 

the other parts of it1 are subject to   
change4 ,it is not only the individual  
that perishes1 but whole species4  ,a   
change in the animal kingdom seems to be
 a part of the order of ,nature1 and is 
visible in instances to which human     
power cannot have extended4--,,playfair1
 ,illustrations of the ,huttonian       
,theory1 ,section #dac4     ,,preface   
,,to ,,the ,,ninth ,,edition4   ,the    
,principles of ,geology in the first    
five editions embraced not only a view  
of the modern changes of the earth and  
its inhabitants1 as set forth in the    
present work1 but also some account of  
those monuments of analogous changes of 
ancient date1 both in the organic and   
inorganic world1 which it is the        
business of the geologist to interpret4 
,the subject last mentioned1 or geology 
proper1 constituted originally a fourth 
book1 now omitted1 the same having been 
enlarged into a separate treatise1 first
 published in #ahch1 in one volume      
#abmo41 and called ,the ,elements of    

,geology1 afterwards recast in two      
volumes #abmo4 in #ahdb1 and again      
re-edited under the title of ,manual of 
,elementary ,geology1 in one volume     
#hvo4 in #ahea4 ,the ,principles and    
,manual thus divided1 occupy1 with one  
exception1 to which ,i shall presently  
allude1 very different ground4 ,the     
,principles treat of such portions of   
the economy of existing nature1 animate 
and inanimate1 as are illustrative of   
,geology1 so as to comprise an          
investigation of the permanent effects  
of causes now in action1 which may serve
 as records to after ages of the present
 condition of the globe and its         
inhabitants4 ,such effects are the      
enduring monuments of the ever-varying  
state of the physical geography of the  
globe1 the lasting signs of its         
destruction and renovation1 and the     
memorials of the equally fluctuating    
condition of the organic world4 ,they   
may be regarded1 in short1 as a         
symbolical language1 in which the       

earth's autobiography is written4  ,in  
the ,manual of ,elementary ,geology1 on 
the other hand1 ,i have treated briefly 
of the component materials of the       
earth's crust1 their arrangement and    
relative position1 and their organic    
contents1 which1 when deciphered by aid 
of the key supplied by the study of the 
modern changes above alluded to1 reveal 
to us the annals of a grand succession  
of past events--a series of revolutions 
which the solid exterior of the globe1  
and its living inhabitants1 have        
experienced in times antecedent to the  
creation of man4  ,in thus separating   
the two works1 however1 ,i have retained
 in the ,principles 7book i47 the       
discussion of some matters which might  
fairly be regarded as common to both    
treatises2 as for example1 an historical
 sketch of the early progress of        
geology1 followed by a series of        
preliminary essays to explain the facts 
and arguments which lead me to believe  
that the forces now operating upon and  

beneath the earth's surface may be the  
same1 both in kind and degree1 as those 
which at remote epochs have worked out  
geological changes4 7,see ,analysis of  
,contents of this work1 p4 ix47  ,if ,i 
am asked whether the ,principles or the 
,manual should be studied first1 ,i feel
 much the same difficulty in answering  
the question as if a student should     
inquire whether he ought to take up     
first a treatise on ,chemistry1 or one  
on ,natural ,philosophy1 subjects       
sufficiently distinct1 yet inseparably  
connected4 ,on the whole1 while ,i have 
endeavored to make each of the two      
treatises1 in their present form1 quite 
independent of the other1 ,i would      
recommend the reader to study first the 
modern changes of the earth and its     
inhabitants as they are discussed in the
 present volume1 proceeding afterwards  
to the classification and interpretation
 of the monuments of more remote ages4  
,,charles ,,lyell4     #aa ,harley      
,street1 ,london1 ,may #bd1 #ahec4      

,dates of the successive ,editions of   
the ,principles and ,elements 7or       
,manual7 of ,geology1 by the ,author4   
,principles1 #ast vol4 in octvo1        
published in               ,jan4 #ahcj4 
----------1  #b;d vol4   do4   do4      
,jan4 #ahcb4   ----------1 #ast vol4    
#b;d edition in octavo                  
#ahcb4   ----------1  #b;d vol4 #b;d    
edition do4                       ,jan4 
#ahcc4   ----------1  #c;d vol4 #ast    
edition do4                      ,may1  
#ahcc4   ----------1 ,new edition       
7called the #c;d7 of the whole work     
in #d vols4 #abmo                       
,may1 #ahcd4   ----------1 #dth edition1
 #d vols4 #abmo                         
,june1 #ahce4   ----------1 #eth do4    
do4  do4                                
,mar4 #ahcg4   ,elements1 #ast edition  
in one vol                              
,july1 #ahch4   ,principles1 #fth do4   
#c vols4 #abmo                          
,june1 #ahdj4   ,elements1 #b;d edition 
in #b vols4 #abmo                       

,july1 #ahda4   ,principles1 #gth       
edition in one vol4 #hvo                
,feb4 #ahdg4   ----------1 #hth edition 
in one vol4 #hvo                   ,may1
 #ahej4   ,manual of ,elementary        
,geology 7or ,elements1 #c;d edition7   
in one vol4 #hvo                        
,jan4 #ahea4   ,manual1 #dth edition1   
one vol4 #hvo                           
,jan4 #aheb4   ,principles1 #ith        
edition1 now published in one vol4 #hvo 
,june1 #ahec4       ,,analysis ,,of     
,,the ,,contents   ,,of   ,,the         
,,principles ,,of ,,geology4     ,,book 
,i4 7,,chapters ,i4 ,,to ,,xiii47       
,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,the        
,,progress ,,of ,,geology1 ,,with ,a    
,,series ,,of     ,,essays ,,to ,,show  
,,that ,,the ,,monuments ,,of ,,the     
,,ancient ,,state ,,of ,,the     ,,earth
 ,,and ,,its ,,inhabitants1 ,,which     
,,this ,,science ,,interprets1 ,,can    
,,only ,,be ,,understood ,,by ,a        
,,previous ,,acquaintance ,,with        
,,terrestrial     ,,changes ,,now ,,in  

,,progress1 ,,both ,,in ,,the ,,organic 
,,and ,,inorganic     ,,worlds4         
,,chapter ,i4   ,geology defined--,its  
relation to other ,sciences             
,page #a    ,,chapter ,,ii4   ,oriental 
and ,egyptian ,cosmogonies--,doctrines  
of the ,greeks     and ,romans bearing  
on ,geology                             
#d    ,,chapter ,,iii4   ,historical    
progress of ,geology--,arabian          
,writers--,italian1     ,french1        
,german1 and ,english geologists before 
the #aith                               
century--,physico-theological school    
#ag    ,,chapter ,,iv4   ,werner and    
,hutton--,modern progress of the science
                    #df    ,,chapter ,v4
   ,prepossessions in regard to the     
duration of past time1     and other    
causes which have   retarded the        
progress     of ,geology                
#fa    ,,chapter ,,vi4   ,agreement of  
the ancient and modern course of nature 
considered--,changes of climate         
#gc    ,,chapters ,,vii4 ,,viii4        

,causes of vicissitudes in climate1 and 
their connection     with changes in    
physical geography                      
#ib1 #aad    ,,chapter ,,ix4   ,theory  
of the progressive development of       
organic life     at successive periods  
considered--,modern origin of ,man      
#acj    ,,chapter ,x4   ,supposed       
intensity of aqueous forces at remote   
periods--,erratic blocks--,deluges      
#aec    ,,chapter ,,xi4   ,supposed     
former intensity of the igneous         
forces--,upheaval     of land--,volcanic
 action                                 
#afj    ,,chapter ,,xii4   ,causes of   
the difference in texture of older and  
newer     rocks--,plutonic and          
,metamorphic action                     
#age    ,,chapter ,,xiii4   ,supposed   
alternate periods of repose and         
disorder--,opposite     doctrine1 which 
refers geological phenomena to an       
uninterrupted series of changes in the  
organic and inorganic     world1        
unattended with general catastrophes1   

or the development of paroxysmal forces 
#ahj     ,,book ,,ii4 7,,chapters ,,xiv4
 to ,,xxxii47    ,,observed ,,changes   
,,in ,,the ,,inorganic ,,world ,,now    
,,in ,,progress3 ,,first1     ,,the     
,,effects ,,of ,,aqueous ,,causes1      
,,such ,,as ,,rivers1 ,,springs1        
,,glaciers1 ,,waves1 ,,tides1 ,,and     
,,currents2 ,,secondly1 ,,of ,,igneous  
,,causes1 ,,or ,,subterranean ,,heat1   
,,as ,,exhibited ,,in ,,the ,,volcano   
,,and     ,,the ,,earthquake4           
,,chapter ,,xiv4   ,aqueous             
causes--,excavating and transporting    
power of rivers         #aih            
,,chapter ,,xv4   ,carrying power of    
river-ice--,glaciers and ,icebergs      
#bai    ,,chapter ,,xvi4   ,phenomena of
 springs                                
#bcb    ,,chapter ,,xvii4               
,reproductive effects of rivers--,deltas
 of lakes and inland     seas           
#bea    ,,chapter ,,xviii4   ,deltas of 
the ,mississippi1 ,ganges1 and other    
rivers exposed     to tidal action      

#bfc    ,,chapters ,,xix4 ,,xx4 ,,xxi4  
,denuding1 transporting1 and depositing 
agency of the waves1     tides1 and     
currents--,waste of sea-cliffs on the   
coast     of ,england--,delta of the    
,rhine--,deposition of sediment         
under the influence of marine currents  
#bij1 #cba1 #ccg    ,,chapter ,,xxii4   
,observed effects of igneous            
causes--,regions of active     volcanoes
                                        
#cdd    ,,chapters ,,xxiii4 ,,xxiv4     
,history of the volcanic eruptions of   
the district round                      
,naples--,structure of                  
,vesuvius--,herculaneum and ,pompeii    
#cfj1 #cge    ,,chapter ,,xxv4          
,etna--,its eruptions--,structure and   
antiquity of the cone            #cif   
,,chapter ,,xxvi4   ,volcanoes of       
,iceland1 ,mexico1 the ,canaries1 and   
,grecian     ,archipelago--,mud         
volcanoes                               
#dbd    ,,chapter ,,xxvii4              
,earthquakes and the permanent changes  

attending them                #dea      
,,chapter ,,xxviii4   ,earthquake of    
#aghc in ,calabria                      
#dga    ,,chapter ,,xxix4   ,elevation  
and subsidence of dry land1 and of the  
bed of     the sea during               
earthquakes--,evidence of the same      
afforded     by the ,temple of ,serapis 
near ,naples                            
#dic    ,,chapter ,,xxx4   ,elevation   
and subsidence of land in regions free  
from     volcanoes and                  
earthquakes--,rising of land in ,sweden 
#eai    ,,chapters ,,xxxi4 ,,xxxii4     
,causes of earthquakes and              
volcanoes--,theory of central           
fluidity of the earth--,chemical theory 
of volcanoes--,causes     of permanent  
upheaval and depression of land         
#ecc1 #ede     ,,book ,,iii4 7,,chapters
 ,,xxxiii to ,l47    ,,observed         
,,changes ,,of ,,the ,,organic ,,world  
,,now ,,in ,,progress2 ,,first1         
,,nature ,,and ,,geographical           
,,distribution ,,of ,,species1 ,,and    

,,theories     ,,respecting ,,their     
,,creation ,,and ,,extinction2          
,,secondly1 ,,the     ,,influence ,,of  
,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,,modifying     
,,physical ,,geography2     ,,thirdly1  
,,the ,,laws ,,according ,,to ,,which   
,,they ,,are ,,imbedded ,,in            
,,volcanic1 ,,freshwater1 ,,and ,,marine
 ,,deposits4    ,,chapters ,,xxxiii4    
,,xxxiv4 ,,xxxv4 ,,xxxvi4   ,whether    
species have a real existence in        
nature--,theory     of transmutation of 
species--,variability of                
species--,phenomena of hybrids in       
animals and     plants                  
#eff1 #egh1 #eia1 #fjj    ,,chapter     
,,xxxvii4   ,laws which regulate the    
geographical distribution of            
species--,distinct provinces of peculiar
 species of     plants--,their mode of  
diffusion                               
#fab    ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4   ,distinct
 provinces of peculiar species of       
animals--,distribution and dispersion of
     quadrupeds1 birds1 and reptiles    

#fbi    ,,chapter ,,xxxix4              
,geographical distribution and          
migrations     of fish--,of             
testacea--,of zoophytes--,of            
insects--,geographical distribution and 
diffusion of the human race             
#fdf    ,,chapter ,,xl4   ,theories     
respecting the original introduction of 
species--,reciprocal influence of       
species on each other            #ffe   
,,chapters ,,xli4 ,,xlii4   ,extinction 
of species--,how every extension of the 
range     of a species alters the       
condition of many others--,effect     of
 changes of climate                     
#fgg1 #fhi    ,,chapter ,,xliii4        
,creation of species--,whether the loss 
of certain animals     and plants is    
compensated by the introduction of      
new species                             
#gja    ,,chapter ,,xliv4               
,modifications in physical geography    
caused by organic beings        #gjh    
,,chapter ,,xlv4   ,imbedding of organic
 remains in peat1 blown sand1     and   

volcanic ejections                      
#gah    ,,chapter ,,xlvi4   ,imbedding  
of the same in alluvial deposits and in 
caves             #gcj    ,,chapter     
,,xlvii4   ,imbedding of organic remains
 in aqueous deposits--,terrestrial      
plants--,insects1 reptiles1 birds1      
quadrupeds                      #gdb    
,,chapter ,,xlviii4   ,imbedding of the 
remains of man and his works            
#gec    ,,chapter ,,xlix4   ,imbedding  
of aquatic animals and plants1 both     
freshwater     and marine1 in aqueous   
deposits                                
#gfe    ,,chapter ,l4   ,formation of   
coral reefs                             
#gge     ,,list ,,of ,,plates4          
,,directions ,,to ,,the ,,binder4       
,,frontispiece1 ,view of the ,temple of 
,serapis     at ,puzzuoli in #ahcf1     
to face title page4    ,,plate #a4 ,map 
showing the ,area in ,europe which      
has been covered by ,water since the    
beginning of the ,eocene ,period        
to face p4 #aba          #b4 ,boulders  

drifted by ,ice on the ,shores          
of the ,st4 ,lawrence                   
#bbj          #c4 ,view looking up the  
,val del ,bove1 ,etna                   
#djc          #d4 ,view of the ,val del 
,bove1 ,etna1 as seen from above        
#djd   ,,principles ,,of ,,geology4     
,,book ,i4     ,,chapter ,i4            
,geology defined--,compared to          
,history--,its relation to other        
,physical ,sciences--,not to be         
confounded with ,cosmogony4   ,geology  
is the science which investigates the   
successive changes that have taken place
 in the organic and inorganic kingdoms  
of nature2 it inquires into the causes  
of these changes1 and the influence     
which they have exerted in modifying the
 surface and external structure of our  
planet4  ,by these researches into the  
state of the earth and its inhabitants  
at former periods1 we acquire a more    
perfect knowledge of its present        
condition1 and more comprehensive views 
concerning the laws now governing its   

animate and inanimate productions4 ,when
 we study history1 we obtain a more     
profound insight into human nature1 by  
instituting a comparison between the    
present and former states of society4   
,we trace the long series of events     
which have gradually led to the actual  
posture of affairs2 and by connecting   
effects with their causes1 we are       
enabled to classify and retain in the   
memory a multitude of complicated       
relations--the various peculiarities of 
national character--the different       
degrees of moral and intellectual       
refinement1 and numerous other          
circumstances1 which1 without historical
 associations1 would be uninteresting or
 imperfectly understood4 ,as the present
 condition of nations is the result of  
many antecedent changes1 some extremely 
remote1 and others recent1 some gradual1
 others sudden and violent2 so the      
state1 of the natural world is the      
result of a long succession of events2  
and if we would enlarge our experience  

of the present economy of nature1 we    
must investigate the effects of her     
operations in former epochs4  ,we often 
discover with surprise1 on looking back 
into the chronicles of nations1 how the 
fortune of some battle has influenced   
the fate of millions of our             
contemporaries1 when it has long been   
forgotten by the mass of the population4
 ,with this remote event we may find    
inseparably connected the geographical  
boundaries of a great state1 the        
language now spoken by the inhabitants1 
their peculiar manners1 laws1 and       
religious opinions4 ,but far more       
astonishing and unexpected are the      
connections brought to light1 when we   
carry back our researches into the      
history of nature4 ,the form of a coast1
 the configuration of the interior of a 
country1 the existence and extent of    
lakes1 valleys1 and mountains1 can often
 be traced to the former prevalence of  
earthquakes and volcanoes in regions    
which have long been undisturbed4 ,to   

these remote convulsions the present    
fertility of some districts1 the sterile
 character of others1 the elevation of  
land above the sea1 the climate1 and    
various peculiarities1 may be distinctly
 referred4 ,on the other hand1 many     
distinguishing features of the surface  
may often be ascribed to the operation1 
at a remote era1 of slow and tranquil   
causes--to the gradual deposition of    
sediment in a lake or in the ocean1 or  
to the prolific increase of testacea and
 corals4  ,to select another example1 we
 find in certain localities subterranean
 deposits of coal1 consisting of        
vegetable matter1 formerly drifted into 
seas and lakes4 ,these seas and lakes   
have since been filled up1 the lands    
whereon the forests grew have           
disappeared or changed their form1 the  
rivers and currents which floated the   
vegetable masses can no longer be       
traced1 and the plants belonged to      
species which for ages have passed away 
from the surface of our planet4 ,yet the

 commercial prosperity1 and numerical   
strength of a nation1 may now be mainly 
dependent on the local distribution of  
fuel determined by that ancient state of
 things4  ,geology is intimately related
 to almost all the physical sciences1 as
 history is to the moral4 ,an historian 
should1 if possible1 be at once         
profoundly acquainted with ethics1      
politics1 jurisprudence1 the military   
art1 theology2 in a word1 with all      
branches of knowledge by which any      
insight into human affairs1 or into the 
moral and intellectual nature of man1   
can be obtained4 ,it would be no less   
desirable that a geologist should be    
well versed in chemistry1 natural       
philosophy1 mineralogy1 zoology1        
comparative anatomy1 botany2 in short1  
in every science relating to organic and
 inorganic nature4 ,with these          
accomplishments1 the historian and      
geologist would rarely fail to draw     
correct and philosophical conclusions   
from the various monuments transmitted  

to them of former occurrences4 ,they    
would know to what combination of causes
 analogous effects were referable1 and  
they would often be enabled to supply1  
by inference1 information concerning    
many events unrecorded in the defective 
archives of former ages4 ,but as such   
extensive acquisitions are scarcely     
within the reach of any individual1 it  
is necessary that men who have devoted  
their lives to different departments    
should unite their efforts2 and as the  
historian receives assistance from the  
antiquary1 and from those who have      
cultivated different branches of moral  
and political science1 so the geologist 
should avail himself of the aid of many 
naturalists1 and particularly of those  
who have studied the fossil remains of  
lost species of animals and plants4     
,the analogy1 however1 of the monuments 
consulted in geology1 and those         
available in history1 extends no farther
 than to one class of historical        
monuments--those which may be said to be

 undesignedly commemorative of former   
events4 ,the canoes1 for example1 and   
stone hatchets found in our peat bogs1  
afford an insight into the rude arts and
 manners of the earliest inhabitants of 
our island2 the buried coin fixes the   
date of the reign of some ,roman        
emperor2 the ancient encampment         
indicates the districts once occupied by
 invading armies1 and the former method 
of constructing military defences2 the  
,egyptian mummies throw light on the art
 of embalming1 the rites of sepulture1  
or the average stature of the human race
 in ancient ,egypt4 ,this class of      
memorials yields to no other in         
authenticity1 but it constitutes a small
 part only of the resources on which the
 historian relies1 whereas in geology it
 forms the only kind of evidence which  
is at our command4 ,for this reason we  
must not expect to obtain a full and    
connected account of any series of      
events beyond the reach of history4 ,but
 the testimony of geological monuments1 

if frequently imperfect1 possesses at   
least the advantage of being free from  
all intentional misrepresentation4 ,we  
may be deceived in the inferences which 
we draw1 in the same manner as we often 
mistake the nature and import of        
phenomena observed in the daily course  
of nature2 but our liability to err is  
confined to the interpretation1 and1 if 
this be correct1 our information is     
certain4  ,it was long before the       
distinct nature and legitimate objects  
of geology were fully recognized1 and it
 was at first confounded with many other
 branches of inquiry1 just as the limits
 of history1 poetry1 and mythology were 
ill-defined in the infancy of           
civilization4 ,even in ,werner's time1  
or at the close of the eighteenth       
century1 geology appears to have been   
regarded as little other than a         
subordinate department of mineralogy2   
and ,desmarest included it under the    
head of ,physical ,geography4 ,but the  
most common and serious source of       

confusion arose from the notion1 that it
 was the business of geology to discover
 the mode in which the earth originated1
 or1 as some imagined1 to study the     
effects of those cosmological causes    
which were employed by the ,author of   
,nature to bring this planet out of a   
nascent and chaotic state into a more   
perfect and habitable condition4 ,hutton
 was the first who endeavored to draw a 
strong line of demarcation between his  
favorite science and cosmogony1 for he  
declared that geology was in nowise     
concerned with questions as to the      
origin of things4  ,an attempt will be  
made in the sequel of this work to      
demonstrate that geology differs as     
widely from cosmogony1 as speculations  
concerning the mode of the first        
creation of man differ from history4    
,but1 before entering more at large on  
this controverted question1 it will be  
desirable to trace the progress of      
opinion on this topic1 from the earliest
 ages to the commencement of the present

 century4     ,,chapter ,,ii4           
,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,the        
,,progress ,,of ,,geology4              
,oriental ,cosmogony--,hymns of the     
,vedas--,institutes of                  
,menu--,doctrine of the successive      
destruction and renovation of      the  
world--,origin of this doctrine--,common
 to the      ,egyptians--,adopted by the
 ,greeks--,system of ,pythagoras--,of   
,aristotle--,dogmas concerning the      
extinction and reproduction      of     
genera and species--,strabo's theory of 
elevation by                            
earthquakes--,pliny--,concluding        
,remarks on the knowledge of the        
,ancients4   ,oriental ,cosmogony4--,the
 earliest doctrines of the ,indian and  
,egyptian schools of philosophy agreed  
in ascribing the first creation of the  
world to an omnipotent and infinite     
,being4 ,they concurred also in         
representing this ,being1 who had       
existed from all eternity1 as having    
repeatedly destroyed and reproduced the 

world and all its inhabitants4 ,in the  
sacred volume of the ,hindoos1 called   
the ,ordinances of ,menu1 comprising the
 ,indian system of duties religious and 
civil1 we find a preliminary chapter    
treating of the ,creation1 in which the 
cosmogony is known to have been derived 
from earlier writings and traditions2   
and principally from certain hymns of   
high antiquity1 called the ,vedas4      
,these hymns were first put together1   
according to ,mr4 ,colebrooke1#a in a   
connected series1 about thirteen        
centuries before the ,christian era1 but
 they appear from internal evidence to  
have been written at various antecedent 
periods4 ,in them1 as we learn from the 
researches of ,professor ,wilson1 the   
eminent ,sanscrit scholar1 two distinct 
philosophical systems are discoverable4 
,according to one of them1 all things   
were originally brought into existence  
by the sole will of a single ,first     
,cause1 which existed from eternity2    
according to the other1 there have      

always existed two principles1 the one  
material1 but without form1 the other   
spiritual and capable of compelling     
inert matter to develop its sensible    
properties4 ,this development of matter 
into individual and visible existences  
is called creation1 and is assigned to a
 subordinate agent1 or the creative     
faculty of the ,supreme ,being embodied 
in the person of ,brahma4  ,in the first
 chapter of the ,ordinances of ,menu    
above alluded to1 we meet with the      
following passages relating to former   
destructions and renovations of the     
world3--  ,the ,being1 whose powers are 
incomprehensible1 having created me     
7,menu7 and this universe1 again became 
absorbed in the supreme spirit1 changing
 the time of energy for the hour of     
repose4  ,when that ,power awakes1 then 
has this world its full expansion2 but  
when he slumbers with a tranquil spirit1
 then the whole system fades away44444  
,for while he reposes1 as it were1      
embodied spirits endowed with principles

 of action depart from their several    
acts1 and the mind itself becomes inert4
  ,the absorption of all beings into the
 ,supreme essence is then described1 and
 the ,divine soul itself is said to     
slumber1 and to remain for a time       
immersed in the first idea1 or in       
darkness4 ,after which the text thus    
proceeds 7verse fifty-seven71 ,thus that
 immutable power by waking and reposing 
alternately1 revivifies and destroys1 in
 eternal succession1 this whole         
assemblage of locomotive and immovable  
creatures4  ,it is then declared that   
there has been a long succession of     
manwantaras1 or periods1 each of the    
duration of many thousand ages1 and--   
,there are creations also1 and          
destructions of worlds innumerable3 the 
,being1 supremely exalted1 performs all 
this with as much ease as if in sport1  
again and again1 for the sake of        
conferring happiness4#b  ,no part of the
 ,eastern cosmogony1 from which these   
extracts are made1 is more interesting  

to the geologist than the doctrine1 so  
frequently alluded to1 of the reiterated
 submersion of the land beneath the     
waters of a universal ocean4 ,in the    
beginning of things1 we are told1 the   
,first ,sole ,cause with a thought      
created the waters1 and then moved upon 
their surface in the form of ,brahma the
 creator1 by whose agency the emergence 
of the dry land was effected1 and the   
peopling of the earth with plants1      
animals1 celestial creatures1 and man4  
,afterwards1 as often as a general      
conflagration at the close of each      
manwantara had annihilated every visible
 and existing thing1 ,brahma1 on awaking
 from his sleep1 finds the whole world a
 shapeless ocean4 ,accordingly1 in the  
legendary poems called the ,puranas1    
composed at a later date than the       
,vedas1 the three first ,avatars or     
descents of the ,deity upon earth have  
for their object to recover the land    
from the waters4 ,for this purpose      
,vishnu is made successively to assume  

the form of a fish1 a tortoise1 and a   
boar4  ,extravagant as may be some of   
the conceits and fictions which         
disfigure these pretended revelations1  
we can by no means look upon them as a  
pure effort of the unassisted           
imagination1 or believe them to have    
been composed without regard to opinions
 and theories founded on the observation
 of ,nature4 ,in astronomy1 for         
instance1 it is declared that1 at the   
,north ,pole1 the year was divided into 
a long day and night1 and that their    
long day was the northern1 and their    
night the southern course of the sun2   
and to the inhabitants of the moon1 it  
is said one day is equal in length to   
one month of mortals4#c ,if such        
statements cannot be resolved into mere 
conjectures1 we have no right to refer  
to mere chance the prevailing notion    
that the earth and its inhabitants had  
formerly undergone a succession of      
revolutions and aqueous catastrophes    
interrupted by long intervals of        

tranquillity4  ,now there are two       
sources in which such a theory may have 
originated4 ,the marks of former        
convulsions on every part of the surface
 of our planet are obvious and striking4
 ,the remains of marine animals imbedded
 in the solid strata are so abundant1   
that they may be expected to force      
themselves on the attention of every    
people who have made some progress in   
refinement2 and especially where one    
class of men are expressly set apart    
from the rest1 like the ancient         
priesthoods of ,india and ,egypt1 for   
study and contemplation4 ,if these      
appearances are once recognized1 it     
seems natural that the mind should      
conclude in favor1 not only of mighty   
changes in past ages1 but of alternate  
periods of repose and disorder2--of     
repose1 when the animals now fossil     
lived1 grew1 and multiplied--of         
disorder1 when the strata in which they 
were buried became transferred from the 
sea to the interior of continents1 and  

were uplifted so as to form part of high
 mountain-chains4 ,those modern writers1
 who are disposed to disparage the      
former intellectual advancement and     
civilization of ,eastern nations1 may   
concede some foundation of observed     
facts for the curious theories now under
 consideration1 without indulging in    
exaggerated opinions of the progress of 
science2 especially as universal        
catastrophes of the world1 and          
exterminations of organic beings1 in the
 sense in which they were understood by 
the ,brahmins1 are untenable doctrines4 
,we know that the ,egyptian priests were
 aware1 not only that the soil beneath  
the plains of the ,nile1 but that also  
the hills bounding the great valley1    
contained marine shells2 and ,herodotus 
inferred from these facts1 that all     
lower ,egypt1 and even the high lands   
above ,memphis1 had once been covered by
 the sea4#d ,as similar fossil remains  
occur in all parts of ,asia hitherto    
explored1 far in the interior of the    

continent as well as near the sea1 they 
could hardly have escaped detection by  
some ,eastern sages not less capable    
than the ,greek historian of reasoning  
philosophically on natural phenomena4   
,we also know that the rulers of ,asia  
were engaged in very remote eras in     
executing great national works1 such as 
tanks and canals1 requiring extensive   
excavations4 ,in the fourteenth century 
of our era 7in the year #acfj71 the     
removal of soil necessary for such      
undertakings brought to light geological
 facts1 which attracted the attention of
 a people less civilized than were many 
of the older nations of the ,east4 ,the 
historian ,ferishta relates that fifty  
thousand laborers were employed in      
cutting through a mound1 so as to form a
 junction between the rivers ,selima and
 ,sutlej2 and in this mound were found  
the bones of elephants and men1 some of 
them petrified1 and some of them        
resembling bone4 ,the gigantic          
dimensions attributed to the human bones

 show them to have belonged to some of  
the larger pachydermata4#e  ,but1       
although the ,brahmins1 like the priests
 of ,egypt1 may have been acquainted    
with the existence of fossil remains in 
the strata1 it is possible that the     
doctrine of successive destructions and 
renovations of the world1 merely        
received corroboration from such proofs2
 and that it may have been originally   
handed down1 like the religious         
traditions of most nations1 from a ruder
 state of society4 ,the system may have 
had its source1 in part at least1 in    
exaggerated accounts of those dreadful  
catastrophes which are occasioned by    
particular combinations of natural      
causes4 ,floods and volcanic eruptions1 
the agency of water and fire1 are the   
chief instruments of devastation on our 
globe4 ,we shall point out in the sequel
 the extent of many of these calamities1
 recurring at distant intervals of time1
 in the present course of nature2 and   
shall only observe here1 that they are  

so peculiarly calculated to inspire a   
lasting terror1 and are so often fatal  
in their consequences to great          
multitudes of people1 that it scarcely  
requires the passion for the marvellous1
 so characteristic of rude and          
half-civilized nations1 still less the  
exuberant imagination of ,eastern       
writers1 to augment them into general   
cataclysms and conflagrations4  ,the    
great flood of the ,chinese1 which their
 traditions carry back to the period of 
,yaou1 something more than #bjjj years  
before our era1 has been identified by  
some persons with the universal deluge  
described in the ,old ,testament2 but   
according to ,mr4 ,davis1 who           
accompanied two of our embassies to     
,china1 and who has carefully examined  
their written accounts1 the ,chinese    
cataclysm is therein described as       
interrupting the business of            
agriculture1 rather than as involving a 
general destruction of the human race4  
,the great ,yu was celebrated for having

 opened nine channels to draw off the   
waters1 which covered the low hills and 
bathed the foot of the highest          
mountains4 ,mr4 ,davis suggests that a  
great derangement of waters of the      
,yellow ,river1 one of the largest in   
the world1 might even now cause the     
flood of ,yaou to be repeated1 and lay  
the most fertile and populous plains of 
,china under water4 ,in modern times the
 bursting of the banks of an artificial 
canal1 into which a portion of the      
,yellow ,river has been turned1 has     
repeatedly given rise to the most       
dreadful accidents1 and is a source of  
perpetual anxiety to the government4 ,it
 is easy1 therefore1 to imagine how much
 greater may have been the inundation1  
if this valley was ever convulsed by a  
violent earthquake4#f  ,humboldt relates
 the interesting fact that1 after the   
annihilation of a large part of the     
inhabitants of ,cumana1 by an earthquake
 in #agff1 a season of extraordinary    
fertility ensued1 in consequence of the 

great rains which accompanied the       
subterranean convulsions4 ,the ,indians1
 he says1 celebrated1 after the ideas of
 an antique superstition1 by festivals  
and dancing1 the destruction of the     
world and the approaching epoch of its  
regeneration4#g  ,the existence of such 
rites among the rude nations of ,south  
,america is most important1 as showing  
what effects may be produced by local   
catastrophes1 recurring at distant      
intervals of time1 on the minds of a    
barbarous and uncultivated race4 ,i     
shall point out in the sequel how the   
tradition of a deluge among the         
,araucanian ,indians may be explained1  
by reference to great earthquake-waves  
which have repeatedly rolled over part  
of ,chili since the first recorded flood
 of #aeij4 7,see chap4 #bi1 ,book ,,ii47
 ,the legend also of the ancient        
,peruvians of an inundation many years  
before the reign of the ,incas1 in which
 only six persons were saved on a float1
 relates to a region which has more than

 once been overwhelmed by inroads of the
 ocean since the days of ,pizarro4      
7,chap4 #bi1 ,book ,,ii47 ,i might refer
 the reader to my account of the        
submergence of a wide area in ,cutch so 
lately as the year #ahai1 when a single 
tower only of the fort of ,sindree      
appeared above the waste of waters 7see 
,chap4 #bh1 ,book ,,ii471 if it were    
necessary1 to prove how easily the      
catastrophes of modern times might give 
rise to traditionary narratives1 among a
 rude people1 of floods of boundless    
extent4 ,nations without written        
records1 and who are indebted for all   
their knowledge of past events          
exclusively to oral tradition1 are in   
the habit of confounding in one legend a
 series of incidents which have happened
 at various epochs2 nor must we forget  
that the superstitions of a savage tribe
 are transmitted through all the        
progressive stages of society1 till they
 exert a powerful influence on the mind 
of the philosopher4 ,he may find1 in the

 monuments of former changes on the     
earth's surface1 an apparent            
confirmation of tenets handed down      
through successive generations1 from the
 rude hunter1 whose terrified           
imagination drew a false picture of     
those awful visitations of floods and   
earthquakes1 whereby the whole earth as 
known to him was simultaneously         
devastated4  ,egyptian                  
,cosmogony4--,respecting the cosmogony  
of the ,egyptian priests1 we gather much
 information from writers of the        
,grecian sects1 who borrowed almost all 
their tenets from ,egypt1 and amongst   
others that of the former successive    
destruction and renovation of the       
world4#h ,we learn from ,plutarch1 that 
this was the theme of one of the hymns  
of ,orpheus1 so celebrated in the       
fabulous ages of ,greece4 ,it was       
brought by him from the banks of the    
,nile2 and we even find in his verses1  
as in the ,indian systems1 a definite   
period assigned for the duration of each

 successive world4#i ,the returns of    
great catastrophes were determined by   
the period of the ,annus ,magnus1 or    
great year1--a cycle composed of the    
revolutions of the sun1 moon1 and       
planets1 and terminating when these     
return together to the same sign whence 
they were supposed at some remote epoch 
to have set out4 ,the duration of this  
great cycle was variously estimated4    
,according to ,orpheus1 it was #abj1jjj 
years2 according to others1 #cjj1jjj2   
and by ,cassander it was taken to be    
#cfj1jjj years4#aj  ,we learn           
particularly from the ,timaeus of       
,plato1 that the ,egyptians believed the
 world to be subject to occasional      
conflagrations and deluges1 whereby the 
gods arrested the career of human       
wickedness1 and purified the earth from 
guilt4 ,after each regeneration1 mankind
 were in a state of virtue and          
happiness1 from which they gradually    
degenerated again into vice and         
immorality4 ,from this ,egyptian        

doctrine1 the poets derived the fable of
 the decline from the golden to the iron
 age4 ,the sect of ,stoics adopted most 
fully the system of catastrophes        
destined at certain intervals to destroy
 the world4 ,those they taught were of  
two kinds2--the ,cataclysm1 or          
destruction by water1 which sweeps away 
the whole human race1 and annihilates   
all the animal and vegetable productions
 of nature2 and the ,ecpyrosis1 or      
destruction by fire1 which dissolves the
 globe itself4 ,from the ,egyptians also
 they derived the doctrine of the       
gradual debasement of man from a state  
of innocence4 ,towards the termination  
of each era1 the gods could no longer   
bear with the wickedness of men1 and a  
shock of the elements or a deluge       
overwhelmed them2 after which calamity1 
,astrea again descended on the earth to 
renew the golden age4#aa  ,the          
connection between the doctrine of      
successive catastrophes and repeated    
deteriorations in the moral character of

 the human race is more intimate and    
natural than might at first be imagined4
 ,for1 in a rude state of society1 all  
great calamities are regarded by the    
people as judgments of ,god on the      
wickedness of man4 ,thus1 in our own    
time1 the priests persuaded a large part
 of the population of ,chili1 and       
perhaps believed themselves1 that the   
fatal earthquake of #ahbb was a sign of 
the wrath of ,heaven for the great      
political revolution just then          
consummated in ,south ,america4 ,in like
 manner1 in the account given to ,solon 
by the ,egyptian priests1 of the        
submersion of the island of ,atlantis   
under the waters of the ocean1 after    
repeated shocks of an earthquake1 we    
find that the event happened when       
,jupiter had seen the moral depravity of
 the inhabitants4#ab ,now1 when the     
notion had once gained ground1 whether  
from causes before suggested or not1    
that the earth had been destroyed by    
several general catastrophes1 it would  

next be inferred that the human race had
 been as often destroyed and renovated4 
,and since every extermination was      
assumed to be penal1 it could only be   
reconciled with divine justice1 by the  
supposition that man1 at each successive
 creation1 was regenerated in a state of
 purity and innocence4  ,a very large   
portion of ,asia1 inhabited by the      
earliest nations1 whose traditions have 
come down to us1 has been always subject
 to tremendous earthquakes4 ,of the     
geographical boundaries of these1 and   
their effects1 ,i shall speak in the    
proper place4 ,egypt has1 for the most  
part1 been exempt from this scourge1 and
 the ,egyptian doctrine of great        
catastrophes was probably derived in    
part1 as before hinted1 from early      
geological observations1 and in part    
from ,eastern nations4   ,pythagorean   
,doctrines4--,pythagoras1 who resided   
for more than twenty years in ,egypt1   
and1 according to ,cicero1 had visited  
the ,east1 and conversed with the       

,persian philosophers1 introduced into  
his own country1 on his return1 the     
doctrine of the gradual deterioration of
 the human race from an original state  
of virtue and happiness2 but if we are  
to judge of his theory concerning the   
destruction and renovation of the earth 
from the sketch given by ,ovid1 we must 
concede it to have been far more        
philosophical than any known version of 
the cosmogonies of ,oriental or         
,egyptian sects4  ,although ,pythagoras 
is introduced by the poet as delivering 
his doctrine in person1 some of the     
illustrations are derived from natural  
events which happened after the death of
 the philosopher4 ,but notwithstanding  
these anachronisms1 we may regard the   
account as a true picture of the tenets 
of the ,pythagorean school in the       
,augustan age2 and although perhaps     
partially modified1 it must have        
contained the substance of the original 
scheme4 ,thus considered1 it is         
extremely curious and instructive2 for  

we here find a comprehensive summary of 
almost all the great causes of change   
now in activity on the globe1 and these 
adduced in confirmation of a principle  
of a perpetual and gradual revolution   
inherent in the nature of our           
terrestrial system4 ,these doctrines1 it
 is true1 are not directly applied to   
the explanation of geological phenomena2
 or1 in other words1 no attempt is made 
to estimate what may have been in past  
ages1 or what may hereafter be1 the     
aggregate amount of change brought about
 by such never-ending fluctuations4 ,had
 this been the case1 we might have been 
called upon to admire so extraordinary  
an anticipation with no less interest   
than astronomers1 when they endeavor to 
define by what means the ,samian        
philosopher came to the knowledge of the
 ,copernican system4  ,let us now       
examine the celebrated passages to which
 we have been adverting3#ac  ,nothing   
perishes in this world2 but things      
merely vary and change their form4 ,to  

be born1 means simply that a thing      
begins to be something different from   
what it was before2 and dying1 is       
ceasing to be the same thing4 ,yet1     
although nothing retains long the same  
image1 the sum of the whole remains     
constant4 ,these general propositions   
are then confirmed by a series of       
examples1 all derived from natural      
appearances1 except the first1 which    
refers to the golden age giving place to
 the age of iron4 ,the illustrations are
 thus consecutively adduced4  #a4 ,solid
 land has been converted into sea4  #b4 
,sea has been changed into land4 ,marine
 shells lie far distant from the deep1  
and the anchor has been found on the    
summit of hills4  #c4 ,valleys have been
 excavated by running water1 and floods 
have washed down hills into the sea4#ad 
#d4 ,marshes have become dry ground4    
#e4 ,dry lands have been changed into   
stagnant pools4  #f4 ,during earthquakes
 some springs have been closed up1 and  
new ones have broken out4 ,rivers have  

deserted their channels1 and have been  
re-born elsewhere1 as the ,erasinus in  
,greece1 and ,mysus in ,asia4  #g4 ,the 
waters of some rivers1 formerly sweet1  
have become bitter2 as those of the     
,anigris1 in ,greece1 c4#ae  #h4        
,islands have become connected with the 
mainland by the growth of deltas and new
 deposits2 as in the case of ,antissa   
joined to ,lesbos1 ,pharos to ,egypt1 c4
  #i4 ,peninsulas have been divided from
 the main land1 and have become islands1
 as ,leucadia2 and according to         
tradition1 ,sicily1 the sea having      
carried away the isthmus4  #aj4 ,land   
has been submerged by earthquakes2 the  
,grecian cities of ,helice and ,buris1  
for example1 are to be seen under the   
sea1 with their walls inclined4  #aa4   
,plains have been upheaved into hills by
 the confined air seeking vent2 as at   
,troezene in the ,peloponnesus4  #ab4   
,the temperature of some springs varies 
at different periods4 ,the waters of    
others are inflammable4#af  #ac4 ,there 

are streams which have a petrifying     
power1 and convert the substances which 
they touch into marble4  #ad4           
,extraordinary medicinal and deleterious
 effects are produced by the water of   
different lakes and springs4#ag  #ae4   
,some rocks and islands1 after floating 
and having been subject to violent      
movements1 have at length become        
stationary and immovable2 as ,delos and 
the ,cyanean ,isles4#ah  #af4 ,volcanic 
vents shift their position2 there was a 
time when ,etna was not a burning       
mountain1 and the time will come when it
 will cease to burn4 ,whether it be that
 some caverns become closed up by the   
movements of the earth1 and others      
opened1 or whether the fuel is finally  
exhausted1 c41 c4  ,the various causes  
of change in the inanimate world having 
been thus enumerated1 the doctrine of   
equivocal generation is next propounded1
 as illustrating a corresponding        
perpetual flux in the animate           
creation4#ai  ,in the ,egyptian and     

,eastern cosmogonies1 and in the ,greek 
version of them1 no very definite       
meaning can1 in general1 be attached to 
the term destruction of the world2 for  
sometimes it would seem almost to imply 
the annihilation of our planetary       
system1 and at others a mere revolution 
of the surface of the earth4  ,opinions 
of ,aristotle4--,from the works now     
extant of ,aristotle1 and from the      
system of ,pythagoras1 as above exposed1
 we might certainly infer that these    
philosophers considered the agents of   
change now operating in nature1 as      
capable of bringing about in the lapse  
of ages a complete revolution2 and the  
,stagyrite even considers occasional    
catastrophes1 happening at distant      
intervals of time1 as part of the       
regular and ordinary course of nature4  
,the deluge of ,deucalion1 he says1     
affected ,greece only1 and principally  
the part called ,hellas1 and it arose   
from great inundations of rivers1 during
 a rainy winter4 ,but such extraordinary

 winters1 he says1 though after a       
certain period they return1 do not      
always revisit the same places4#bj      
,censorinus quotes it as ,aristotle's   
opinion that there were general         
inundations of the globe1 and that they 
alternated with conflagrations2 and that
 the flood constituted the winter of the
 great year1 or astronomical cycle1     
while the conflagration1 or destruction 
by fire1 is the summer1 or period of    
greatest heat4#ba ,if this passage1 as  
,lipsius supposes1 be an amplification1 
by ,censorinus1 of what is written in   
the ,meteorics1 it is a gross           
misrepresentation of the doctrine of the
 ,stagyrite1 for the general bearing of 
his reasoning in that treatise tends    
clearly in an opposite direction4 ,he   
refers to many examples of changes now  
constantly going on1 and insists        
emphatically on the great results which 
they must produce in the lapse of ages4 
,he instances particular cases of lakes 
that had dried up1 and deserts that had 

at length become watered by rivers and  
fertilized4 ,he points to the growth of 
the ,nilotic ,delta since the time of   
,homer1 to the shallowing of the ,palus 
,maeotis within sixty years from his own
 time2 and although1 in the same chapter
 he says nothing of earthquakes1 yet in 
others of the same treatise he shows    
himself not unacquainted with their     
effects4#bb ,he alludes1 for example1 to
 the upheaving of one of the ,eolian    
islands previous to a volcanic eruption4
 ,the changes of the earth1 he says1 are
 so slow in comparison to the duration  
of our lives1 that they are overlooked  
7,greek3 lanthanei73 and the migrations 
of people after great catastrophes1 and 
their removal to other regions1 cause   
the event to be forgotten4#bc  ,when we 
consider the acquaintance displayed by  
,aristotle1 in his various works1 with  
the destroying and renovating powers of 
,nature1 the introductory and concluding
 passages of the twelfth chapter of his 
,meteorics are certainly very           

remarkable4 ,in the first sentence he   
says1 ,the distribution of land and sea 
in particular regions does not endure   
throughout all time1 but it becomes sea 
in those parts where it was land1 and   
again it becomes land where it was sea3 
and there is reason for thinking that   
these changes take place according to a 
certain system1 and within a certain    
period4 ,the concluding observation is  
as follows3--,as time never fails1 and  
the universe is eternal1 neither the    
,tanais1 nor the ,nile1 can have flowed 
forever4 ,the places where they rise    
were once dry1 and there is a limit to  
their operations2 but there is none to  
time4 ,so also of all other rivers2 they
 spring up1 and they perish2 and the sea
 also continually deserts some lands and
 invades others4 ,the same tracts1      
therefore1 of the earth are not1 some   
always sea1 and others always           
continents1 but every thing changes in  
the course of time4  ,it seems1 then1   
that the ,greeks had not only derived   

from preceding nations1 but had also1 in
 some slight degree1 deduced from their 
own observations1 the theory of         
periodical revolutions in the inorganic 
world3 there is1 however1 no ground for 
imagining that they contemplated former 
changes in the races of animals and     
plants4 ,even the fact that marine      
remains were inclosed in solid rocks1   
although observed by some1 and even made
 the groundwork of geological           
speculation1 never stimulated the       
industry or guided the inquiries of     
naturalists4 ,it is not impossible that 
the theory of equivocal generation might
 have engendered some indifference on   
this subject1 and that a belief in the  
spontaneous production of living beings 
from the earth or corrupt matter1 might 
have caused the organic world to appear 
so unstable and fluctuating1 that       
phenomena indicative of former changes  
would not awaken intense curiosity4 ,the
 ,egyptians1 it is true1 had taught1 and
 the ,stoics had repeated1 that the     

earth had once given birth to some      
monstrous animals1 which existed no     
longer2 but the prevailing opinion seems
 to have been1 that after each great    
catastrophe the same species of animals 
were created over again4 ,this tenet is 
implied in a passage of ,seneca1 where1 
speaking of a future deluge1 he says1   
,every animal shall be generated anew1  
and man free from guilt shall be given  
to the earth4#bd  ,an old ,arabian      
version of the doctrine of the          
successive revolutions of the globe1    
translated by ,abraham ,ecchellensis1#be
 seems to form a singular exception to  
the general rule1 for here we find the  
idea of different genera and species    
having been created4 ,the ,gerbanites1 a
 sect of astronomers who flourished some
 centuries before the ,christian era1   
taught as follows3--,that after every   
period of thirty-six thousand four      
hundred and twenty-five years1 there    
were produced a pair of every species of
 animal1 both male and female1 from whom

 animals might be propagated and inhabit
 this lower world4 ,but when a          
circulation of the heavenly orbs was    
completed1 which is finished in that    
space of years1 other genera and species
 of animals are propagated1 as also of  
plants and other things1 and the first  
order is destroyed1 and so it goes on   
forever and ever4#bf  ,theory of        
,strabo4--,as we learn much of the      
tenets of the ,egyptian and ,oriental   
schools in the writings of the ,greeks1 
so1 many speculations of the early      
,greek authors are made known to us in  
the works of the ,augustan and later    
ages4 ,strabo1 in particular1 enters    
largely1 in the second book of his      
,geography1 into the opinions of        
,eratosthenes and other ,greeks on one  
of the most difficult problems in       
geology1 viz41 by what causes marine    
shells came to be plentifully buried in 
the earth at such great elevations and  
distances from the sea4  ,he notices1   
amongst others1 the explanation of      

,xanthus the ,lydian1 who said that the 
seas had once been more extensive1 and  
that they had afterwards been partially 
dried up1 as in his own time many lakes1
 rivers1 and wells in ,asia had failed  
during a season of drought4 ,treating   
this conjecture with merited disregard1 
,strabo passes on to the hypothesis of  
,strato1 the natural philosopher1 who   
had observed that the quantity of mud   
brought down by rivers into the ,euxine 
was so great1 that its bed must be      
gradually raised1 while the rivers still
 continue to pour in an undiminished    
quantity of water4 ,he1 therefore1      
conceived that1 originally1 when the    
,euxine was an inland sea1 its level had
 by this means become so much elevated  
that it burst its barrier near          
,byzantium1 and formed a communication  
with the ,propontis2 and this partial   
drainage1 he supposed1 had already      
converted the left side into marshy     
ground1 and thus1 at last1 the whole    
would be choked up with soil4 ,so1 it   

was argued1 the ,mediterranean had once 
opened a passage for itself by the      
,columns of ,hercules into the          
,atlantic2 and perhaps the abundance of 
sea-shells in ,africa1 near the ,temple 
of ,jupiter ,ammon1 might also be the   
deposit of some former inland sea1 which
 had at length forced a passage and     
escaped4  ,but ,strabo rejects this     
theory1 as insufficient to account for  
all the phenomena1 and he proposes one  
of his own1 the profoundness of which   
modern geologists are only beginning to 
appreciate4 ,it is not1 he says1 because
 the lands covered by seas were         
originally at different altitudes1 that 
the waters have risen1 or subsided1 or  
receded from some parts and inundated   
others4 ,but the reason is1 that the    
same land is sometimes raised up and    
sometimes depressed1 and the sea also is
 simultaneously raised and depressed1 so
 that it either overflows or returns    
into its own place again4 ,we must1     
therefore1 ascribe the cause to the     

ground1 either to that ground which is  
under the sea1 or to that which becomes 
flooded by it1 but rather to that which 
lies beneath the sea1 for this is more  
movable and1 on account of its humidity1
 can be altered with greater            
celerity4#bg ,it is proper1 he observes 
in continuation1 to derive our          
explanations from things which are      
obvious1 and in some measure of daily   
occurrence1 such as deluges1            
earthquakes1 and volcanic eruptions1#bh 
and sudden swellings of the land beneath
 the sea2 for the last raise up the sea 
also2 and when the same lands subside   
again1 they occasion the sea to be let  
down4 ,and it is not merely the small1  
but the large islands also1 and not     
merely the islands1 but the continents  
which can be lifted up together with the
 sea2 and both large and small tracts   
may subside1 for habitations and cities1
 like ,bure1 ,bizona1 and many others1  
have been engulphed by earthquakes4  ,in
 another place1 this learned geographer1

 in alluding to the tradition that      
,sicily had been separated by a         
convulsion from ,italy1 remarks1 that at
 present the land near the sea in those 
parts was rarely shaken by earthquakes1 
since there were now open orifices      
whereby fire and ignited matters1 and   
waters escape2 but formerly1 when the   
volcanoes of ,etna1 the ,lipari         
,islands1 ,ischia1 and others1 were     
closed up1 the imprisoned fire and wind 
might have produced far more vehement   
movements4#bi ,the doctrine1 therefore1 
that volcanoes are safety-valves1 and   
that the subterranean convulsions are   
probably most violent when first the    
volcanic energy shifts itself to a new  
quarter1 is not modern4  ,we learn from 
a passage in ,strabo1#cj that it was a  
dogma of the ,gaulish ,druids that the  
universe was immortal1 but destined to  
survive catastrophes both of fire and   
water4 ,that this doctrine was          
communicated to them from the ,east1    
with much of their learning1 cannot be  

doubted4 ,caesar1 it will be remembered1
 says that they made use of ,greek      
letters in arithmetical computations4#ca
  ,pliny4--,this philosopher had no     
theoretical opinions of his own         
concerning changes of the earth's       
surface2 and in this department1 as in  
others1 he restricted himself to the    
task of a compiler1 without reasoning on
 the facts stated by him1 or attempting 
to digest them into regular order4 ,but 
his enumeration of the new islands which
 had been formed in the ,mediterranean1 
and of other convulsions1 shows that the
 ancients had not been inattentive      
observers of the changes which had taken
 place within the memory of man4  ,such1
 then1 appear to have been the opinions 
entertained before the ,christian era1  
concerning the past revolutions of our  
globe4 ,although no particular          
investigations had been made for the    
express purpose of interpreting the     
monuments of ancient changes1 they were 
too obvious to be entirely disregarded2 

and the observation of the present      
course of nature presented too many     
proofs of alterations continually in    
progress on the earth to allow          
philosophers to believe that nature was 
in a state of rest1 or that the surface 
had remained1 and would continue to     
remain unaltered4 ,but they had never   
compared attentively the results of the 
destroying and reproductive operations  
of modern times with those of remote    
eras1 nor had they ever entertained so  
much as a conjecture concerning the     
comparative antiquity of the human race1
 or of living species of animals and    
plants1 with those belonging to former  
conditions of the organic world4 ,they  
had studied the movements and positions 
of the heavenly bodies with laborious   
industry1 and made some progress in     
investigating the animal1 vegetable1 and
 mineral kingdoms2 but the ancient      
history of the globe was to them a      
sealed book1 and1 although written in   
characters of the most striking and     

imposing kind1 they were unconscious    
even of its existence4     ,,chapter    
,,iii4  ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,progress 
,,of ,,geology--continued4     ,arabian 
writers of the tenth                    
century--,avicenna--,omar--,cosmogony   
of the ,koran--,kazwini--,early ,italian
 writers--,leonardo da                  
,vinci--,fracastoro--,controversy as to 
the real nature of                      
fossils--,attributed to the ,mosaic     
deluge--,palissy--,steno                
--,scilla--,quirini--,boyle--,lister--,l
eibnitz--,hooke's     ,theory of        
,elevation by ,earthquakes--,of lost    
species of                              
animals--,ray--,physico-theological     
writers--,woodward's ,diluvial          
,theory--,burnet--,whiston--,vallisneri-
-,lazzaro                               
,moro--,generelli--,buffon--,his theory 
condemned by the ,sorbonne     as       
unorthodox--,his                        
declaration--,targioni--,arduino--,miche
ll     --,catcott--,raspe               

,fuchsel--,fortis--,testa--,whitehurst--
,pallas     --,saussure4   ,arabian     
writers4--,after the decline of the     
,roman empire1 the cultivation of       
physical science was first revived with 
some success by the ,saracens1 about the
 middle of the eighth century of our    
era4 ,the works of the most eminent     
classic writers were purchased at great 
expense from the ,christians1 and       
translated into ,arabic2 and ,al ,mamun1
 son of the famous ,harun-al-,rashid1   
the contemporary of ,charlemagne1       
received with marks of distinction1 at  
his court at ,bagdad1 astronomers and   
men of learning from different          
countries4 ,this caliph1 and some of his
 successors1 encountered much opposition
 and jealousy from the doctors of the   
,mahometan law1 who wished the ,moslems 
to confine their studies to the ,koran1 
dreading the effects of the diffusion of
 a taste for the physical sciences4#cb  
,avicenna4--,almost all the works of the
 early ,arabian writers are lost4       

,amongst those of the tenth century1 of 
which fragments are now extant1 is a    
short treatise1 ,on the ,formation and  
,classification of ,minerals1 by        
,avicenna1 a physician1 in whose        
arrangement there is considerable merit4
 ,the second chapter1 ,on the ,cause of 
,mountains1 is remarkable2 for          
mountains1 he says1 are formed1 some by 
essential1 others by accidental causes4 
,in illustration of the essential1 he   
instances a violent earthquake1 by which
 land is elevated1 and becomes a        
mountain2 of the accidental1 the        
principal1 he says1 is excavation by    
water1 whereby cavities are produced1   
and adjoining lands made to stand out   
and form eminences4#cc                  
,omar--,cosmogony of the ,koran4--,in   
the same century1 also1 ,omar1 surnamed 
,el ,aalem1 or ,the ,learned1 wrote a   
work on ,the ,retreat of the ,sea4 ,it  
appears that on comparing the charts of 
his own time with those made by the     
,indian and ,persian astronomers two    

thousand years before1 he had satisfied 
himself that important changes had taken
 place since the times of history in the
 form of the coasts of ,asia1 and that  
the extension of the sea had been       
greater at some former periods4 ,he was 
confirmed in this opinion by the        
numerous salt springs and marshes in the
 interior of ,asia1--a phenomenon from  
which ,pallas1 in more recent times1 has
 drawn the same inference4  ,von ,hoff  
has suggested1 with great probability1  
that the changes in the level of the    
,caspian 7some of which there is reason 
to believe have happened within the     
historical era71 and the geological     
appearances in that district1 indicating
 the desertion by that sea of its       
ancient bed1 had probably led ,omar to  
his theory of a general subsidence4 ,but
 whatever may have been the proofs      
relied on1 his system was declared      
contradictory to certain passages in the
 ,koran1 and he was called upon publicly
 to recant his errors2 to avoid which   

persecution he went into voluntary      
banishment from ,samarkand4#cd  ,the    
cosmological opinions expressed in the  
,koran are few1 and merely introduced   
incidentally3 so that it is not easy to 
understand how they could have          
interfered so seriously with free       
discussion on the former changes of the 
globe4 ,the ,prophet declares that the  
earth was created in two days1 and the  
mountains were then placed on it2 and   
during these1 and two additional days1  
the inhabitants of the earth were       
formed2 and in two more the seven       
heavens4#ce ,there is no more detail of 
circumstances2 and the deluge1 which is 
also mentioned1 is discussed with equal 
brevity4 ,the waters are represented to 
have poured out of an oven2 a strange   
fable1 said to be borrowed from the     
,persian ,magi1 who represented them as 
issuing from the oven of an old         
woman4#cf ,all men were drowned1 save   
,noah and his family2 and then ,god     
said1 ,o earth1 swallow up thy waters2  

and thou1 ,o heaven1 withhold thy rain2 
and immediately the waters abated4#cg   
,we may suppose ,omar to have           
represented the desertion of the land by
 the sea to have been gradual1 and that 
his hypothesis required a greater lapse 
of ages than was consistent with ,moslem
 orthodoxy2 for it is to be inferred    
from the ,koran1 that man and this      
planet were created at the same time2   
and although ,mahomet did not limit     
expressly the antiquity of the human    
race1 yet he gave an implied sanction to
 the ,mosaic chronology1 by the         
veneration expressed by him for the     
,hebrew ,patriarchs4#ch  ,a manuscript  
work1 entitled the ,wonders of ,nature1 
is preserved in the ,royal ,library at  
,paris1 by an ,arabian writer1 ,mohammed
 ,kazwini1 who flourished in the seventh
 century of the ,hegira1 or at the close
 of the thirteenth century of our       
era4#ci ,besides several curious remarks
 on aerolites1 earthquakes1 and the     
successive changes of position which the

 land and sea have undergone1 we meet   
with the following beautiful passage    
which is given as the narrative of      
,kidhz1 an allegorical personage3--,i   
passed one day by a very ancient and    
wonderfully populous city1 and asked one
 of its inhabitants how long it had been
 founded4 ',it is indeed a mighty city1'
 replied he2 'we know not how long it   
has existed1 and our ancestors were on  
this subject as ignorant as ourselves4' 
,five centuries afterwards1 as ,i passed
 by the same place1 ,i could not        
perceive the slightest vestige of the   
city4 ,i demanded of a peasant1 who was 
gathering herbs upon its former site1   
how long it had been destroyed4 ',in    
sooth a strange question6' replied he4  
',the ground here has never been        
different from what you now behold      
it4'--',was there not of old1' said ,i1 
'a splendid city here8'--',never1'      
answered he1 'so far as we have seen1   
and never did our fathers speak to us of
 any such4' ,on my return there #ejj    

years afterwards1 ,i found the sea in   
the same place1 and on its shores were a
 party of fishermen1 of whom ,i inquired
 how long the land had been covered by  
the waters8 ',is this a question1' said 
they1 'for a man like you8 this spot has
 always been what it is now4' ,i again  
returned1 #ejj years afterwards1 and the
 sea had disappeared2 ,i inquired of a  
man who stood alone upon the spot1 how  
long ago this change had taken place1   
and he gave me the same answer as ,i had
 received before4 ,lastly1 on coming    
back again after an equal lapse of time1
 ,i found there a flourishing city1 more
 populous and more rich in beautiful    
buildings1 than the city ,i had seen the
 first time1 and when ,i would fain have
 informed myself concerning its origin1 
the inhabitants answered me1 ',its rise 
is lost in remote antiquity3 we are     
ignorant how long it has existed1 and   
our fathers were on this subject as     
ignorant as ourselves4'  ,early ,italian
 writers4--,it was not till the earlier 

part of the sixteenth century that      
geological phenomena began to attract   
the attention of the ,christian nations4
 ,at that period a very animated        
controversy sprang up in ,italy1        
concerning the true nature and origin of
 marine shells1 and other organized     
fossils1 found abundantly in the strata 
of the peninsula4 ,the celebrated       
painter ,leonardo da ,vinci1 who in his 
youth had planned and executed some     
navigable canals in the north of ,italy1
 was one of the first who applied sound 
reasoning to these subjects4 ,the mud of
 rivers1 he said1 had covered and       
penetrated into the interior of fossil  
shells at a time when these were still  
at the bottom of the sea near the coast4
 ,they tell us that these shells were   
formed in the hills by the influence of 
the stars2 but ,i ask where in the hills
 are the stars now forming shells of    
distinct ages and species8 and how can  
the stars explain the origin of gravel1 
occurring at different heights and      

composed of pebbles rounded as if by the
 motion of running water2 or in what    
manner can such a cause account for the 
petrifaction in the same places of      
various leaves1 sea-weeds1 and          
marine-crabs8#dj  ,the excavations made 
in #aeag1 for repairing the city of     
,verona1 brought to light a multitude of
 curious petrifactions1 and furnished   
matter for speculation to different     
authors1 and among the rest to          
,fracastoro1#da who declared his        
opinion1 that fossil shells had all     
belonged to living animals1 which had   
formerly lived and multiplied where     
there exuviae are now found4 ,he exposed
 the absurdity of having recourse to a  
certain plastic force1 which it was said
 had power to fashion stones into       
organic forms2 and with no less cogent  
arguments1 demonstrated the futility of 
attributing the situation of the shells 
in question to the ,mosaic deluge1 a    
theory obstinately defended by some4    
,that inundation1 he observed1 was too  

transient2 it consisted principally of  
fluviatile waters2 and if it had        
transported shells to great distances1  
must have strewed them over the surface1
 not buried them at vast depths in the  
interior of mountains4 ,his clear       
exposition of the evidence would have   
terminated the discussion forever1 if   
the passions of mankind had not been    
enlisted in the dispute2 and even though
 doubts should for a time have remained 
in some minds1 they would speedily have 
been removed by the fresh information   
obtained almost immediately afterwards1 
respecting the structure of fossil      
remains1 and of their living analogues4 
,but the clear and philosophical views  
of ,fracastoro were disregarded1 and the
 talent and argumentative powers of the 
learned were doomed for three centuries 
to be wasted in the discussion of these 
two simple and preliminary questions3   
first1 whether fossil remains had ever  
belonged to living creatures2 and1      
secondly1 whether1 if this be admitted1 

all the phenomena could not be explained
 by the deluge of ,noah4 ,it had been   
the general belief of the ,christian    
world down to the period now under      
consideration1 that the origin of this  
planet was not more remote than a few   
thousand years2 and that since the      
creation the deluge was the only great  
catastrophe by which considerable change
 had been wrought on the earth's        
surface4 ,on the other hand1 the opinion
 was scarcely less general1 that the    
final dissolution of our system was an  
event to be looked for at no distant    
period4 ,the era1 it is true1 of the    
expected millennium had passed away2 and
 for five hundred years after the fatal 
hour when the annihilation of the planet
 had been looked for1 the monks remained
 in undisturbed enjoyment of rich grants
 of land bequeathed to them by pious    
donors1 who1 in the preamble of deeds   
beginning appropinquante mundi          
termino----appropinquante magno judicii 
die1 left lasting monuments of the      

popular delusion4#db  ,but although in  
the sixteenth century it had become     
necessary to interpret certain          
prophecies respecting the millennium    
more liberally1 and to assign a more    
distant date to the future conflagration
 of the world1 we find1 in the          
speculations of the early geologists1   
perpetual allusion to such an           
approaching catastrophe2 while in all   
that regarded the antiquity of the      
earth1 no modification whatever of the  
opinions of the dark ages had been      
effected4 ,considerable alarm was at    
first excited when the attempt was made 
to invalidate1 by physical proofs1 an   
article of faith so generally received2 
but there was sufficient spirit of      
toleration and candor amongst the       
,italian ecclesiastics1 to allow the    
subject to be canvassed with much       
freedom4 ,they even entered warmly into 
the controversy themselves1 often       
favoring different sides of the         
question2 and however much we may       

deplore the loss of time and labor      
devoted to the defence of untenable     
positions1 it must be conceded that they
 displayed far less polemic bitterness  
than certain writers who followed them  
beyond the ,alps1 two centuries and a   
half later4   ,,controversy ,,as ,,to   
,,the ,,real ,,nature ,,of ,,fossil     
,,organic ,,remains4                    
,mattioli--,falloppio4--,the system of  
scholastic disputations1 encouraged in  
the universities of the middle ages1 had
 unfortunately trained men to habits of 
indefinite argumentation2 and they often
 preferred absurd and extravagant       
propositions1 because greater skill was 
required to maintain them2 the end and  
object of these intellectual combats    
being victory1 and not truth4 ,no theory
 could be so far-fetched or fantastical 
as not to attract some followers1       
provided it fell in with popular        
notions2 and as cosmogonists were not at
 all restricted1 in building their      
systems1 to the agency of known causes1 

the opponents of ,fracastoro met his    
arguments by feigning imaginary causes1 
which differed from each other rather in
 name than in substance4 ,andrea        
,mattioli1 for instance1 an eminent     
botanist1 the illustrator of            
,dioscorides1 embraced the notion of    
,agricola1 a skilful ,german miner1 that
 a certain materia pinguis1 or fatty    
matter1 set into fermentation by heat1  
gave birth to fossil organic shapes4    
,yet ,mattioli had come to the          
conclusion1 from his own observations1  
that porous bodies1 such as bones and   
shells1 might be converted into stone1  
as being permeable to what he termed the
 lapidifying juice4 ,in like manner1    
,falloppio of ,padua conceived that     
petrified shells were generated by      
fermentation in the spots where they are
 found1 or that they had in some cases  
acquired their form from the tumultuous 
movements of terrestrial exhalations4   
,although celebrated as a professor of  
anatomy1 he taught that certain tusks of

 elephants1 dug up in his time in       
,apulia1 were mere earthy concretions2  
and1 consistently with these principles1
 he even went so far as to consider it  
probable1 that the vases of ,monte      
,testaceo at ,rome were natural         
impressions stamped in the soil4#dc ,in 
the same spirit1 ,mercati1 who          
published1 in #aegd1 faithful figures of
 the fossil shells preserved by ,pope   
,sixtus ,v4 in the ,museum of the       
,vatican1 expressed an opinion that they
 were mere stones1 which had assumed    
their peculiar configuration from the   
influence of the heavenly bodies2 and   
,olivi of ,cremona1 who described the   
fossil remains of a rich museum at      
,verona1 was satisfied with considering 
them as mere sports of nature4  ,some of
 the fanciful notions of those times    
were deemed less unreasonable1 as being 
somewhat in harmony with the            
,aristotelian theory of spontaneous     
generation1 then taught in all the      
schools4#dd ,for men who had been taught

 in early youth1 that a large proportion
 of living animals and plants was formed
 from the fortuitous concourse of atoms1
 or had sprung from the corruption of   
organic matter1 might easily persuade   
themselves that organic shapes1 often   
imperfectly preserved in the interior of
 solid rocks1 owed their existence to   
causes equally obscure and mysterious4  
,cardano1 #aeeb4--;,but there were not  
wanting some who1 during the progress of
 this century1 expressed more sound and 
sober opinions4 ,the title of a work of 
,cardano's1 published in #aeeb1 ,de     
,subtilitate 7corresponding to what     
would now be called ,transcendental     
,philosophy71 would lead us to expect1  
in the chapter on minerals1 many        
far-fetched theories characteristic of  
that age2 but when treating of petrified
 shells1 he decided that they clearly   
indicated the former sojourn of the sea 
upon the mountains4#de                  
,cesalpino--,majoli1                    
#aeig4--;,cesalpino1 a celebrated       

botanist1 conceived that fossil shells  
had been left on the land by the        
retiring sea1 and had concreted into    
stone during the consolidation of the   
soil2#df and in the following year      
7#aeig71 ,simeone ,majoli#dg went still 
farther2 and1 coinciding for the most   
part with the views of ,cesalpino1      
suggested that the shells and submarine 
matter of the ,veronese1 and other      
districts1 might have been cast up upon 
the land by volcanic explosions1 like   
those which gave rise1 in #aech1 to     
,monte ,nuovo1 near ,puzzuoli4 ,this    
hint seems to have been the first       
imperfect attempt to connect the        
position of fossil shells with the      
agency of volcanoes1 a system afterwards
 more fully developed by ,hooke1        
,lazzaro ,moro1 ,hutton1 and other      
writers4  ,two years afterwards1        
,imperati advocated the animal origin of
 fossilized shells1 yet admitted that   
stones could vegetate by force of an    
internal principle2 and1 as evidence of 

this1 he referred to the teeth of fish  
and spines of echini found petrified4#dh
  ,palissy1 #aehj4--,palissy1 a ,french 
writer on ,the ,origin of ,springs from 
,rain-water1 and of other scientific    
works1 undertook1 in #aehj1 to combat   
the notions of many of his              
contemporaries in ,italy1 that petrified
 shells had all been deposited by the   
universal deluge4 ,he was the first1    
said ,fontenelle1 when1 in the ,french  
,academy1 he pronounced his eulogy1     
nearly a century and a half later1 who  
dared assert1 in ,paris1 that fossil    
remains of testacea and fish had once   
belonged to marine animals4  ,fabio     
,colonna4--,to enumerate the multitude  
of ,italian writers1 who advanced       
various hypotheses1 all equally         
fantastical1 in the early part of the   
seventeenth century1 would be           
unprofitably tedious2 but ,fabio        
,colonna deserves to be distinguished2  
for1 although he gave way to the dogma1 
that all fossil remains were to be      

referred to the deluge of ,noah1 he     
resisted the absurd theory of ,stelluti1
 who taught that fossil wood and        
ammonites were mere clay1 altered into  
such forms by sulphureous waters and    
subterranean heat2 and he pointed out   
the different states of shells buried in
 the strata1 distinguishing between1    
first1 the mere mould or impression2    
second1 the cast or nucleus2 and1       
thirdly1 the remains of the shell       
itself4 ,he had also the merit of being 
the first to point out that some of the 
fossils had belonged to marine and some 
to terrestrial testacea4#di  ,steno1    
#affi4--;,but the most remarkable work  
of that period was published by ,steno1 
a ,dane1 once professor of anatomy at   
,padua1 and who afterwards resided many 
years at the court of the ,grand ,duke  
of ,tuscany4 ,his treatise bears the    
quaint title of ,de ,solido intra       
,solidum naturaltier contento 7#affi71  
by which the author intended to express1
 ,on ,gems1 ,crystals1 and organic      

,petrifactions inclosed within solid    
,rocks4 ,this work attests the priority 
of the ,italian school in geological    
research2 exemplifying at the same time 
the powerful obstacles opposed1 in that 
age1 to the general reception of        
enlarged views in the science4 ,it was  
still a favorite dogma1 that the fossil 
remains of shells and marine creatures  
were not of animal origin2 an opinion   
adhered to by many from their extreme   
reluctance to believe1 that the earth   
could have been inhabited by living     
beings before a great part of the       
existing mountains were formed4 ,in     
reference to this controversy1 ,steno   
had dissected a shark recently taken    
from the ,mediterranean1 and had        
demonstrated that its teeth and bones   
were identical with many fossils found  
in ,tuscany4 ,he had also compared the  
shells discovered in the ,italian strata
 with living species1 pointed out their 
resemblance1 and traced the various     
gradations from shells merely calcined1 

or which had only lost their animal     
gluten1 to those petrifactions in which 
there was a perfect substitution of     
stony matter4 ,in his division of       
mineral masses1 he insisted on the      
secondary origin of those deposits in   
which the spoils of animals or fragments
 of older rocks were inclosed4 ,he      
distinguished between marine formations 
and those of a fluviatile character1 the
 last containing reeds1 grasses1 or the 
trunks and branches of trees4 ,he argued
 in favor of the original horizontality 
of sedimentary deposits1 attributing    
their present inclined and vertical     
position sometimes to the escape of     
subterranean vapors heaving the crust of
 the earth from below upwards1 and      
sometimes to the falling in of masses   
overlying subterranean cavities4  ,he   
declared that he had obtained proof that
 ,tuscany must successively have        
acquired six distinct configurations1   
having been twice covered by water1     
twice laid dry with a level1 and twice  

with an irregular and uneven surface4#ej
 ,he displayed great anxiety to         
reconcile his new views with ,scripture1
 for which purpose he pointed to certain
 rocks as having been formed before the 
existence of animals and plants3        
selecting unfortunately as examples     
certain formations of limestone and     
sandstone in his own country1 now known 
to contain1 though sparingly1 the       
remains of animals and plants1--strata  
which do not even rank as the oldest    
part of our secondary series4 ,steno    
suggested that ,moses1 when speaking of 
the loftiest mountains as having been   
covered by the deluge1 meant merely the 
loftiest of the hills then existing1    
which may not have been very high4 ,the 
diluvian waters1 he supposed1 may have  
issued from the interior of the earth   
into which they had retired1 when in the
 beginning the land was separated from  
the sea4 ,these1 and other hypotheses on
 the same subject1 are not calculated to
 enhance the value of the treatise1 and 

could scarcely fail to detract from the 
authority of those opinions which were  
sound and legitimate deductions from    
fact and observation4 ,they have served1
 nevertheless1 as the germs of many     
popular theories of later times1 and in 
an expanded form have been put forth as 
original inventions by some of our      
contemporaries4  ,scilla1               
#afgj4--,scilla1 a ,sicilian painter1   
published1 in #afgj1 a treatise1 in     
,latin1 on the fossils of ,calabria1    
illustrated by good engravings4 ,this   
work proves the continued ascendancy of 
dogmas often refuted2 for we find the   
wit and eloquence of the author chiefly 
directed against the obstinate          
incredulity of naturalists as to the    
organic nature of fossil shells4#ea     
,like many eminent naturalists of his   
day1 ,scilla gave way to the popular    
persuasion1 that all fossil shells were 
the effects and proofs of the ,mosaic   
deluge4 ,it may be doubted whether he   
was perfectly sincere1 and some of his  

contemporaries who took the same course 
were certainly not so4 ,but so eager    
were they to root out what they justly  
considered an absurd prejudice          
respecting the nature of organized      
fossils1 that they seem to have been    
ready to make any concessions1 in order 
to establish this preliminary point4    
,such a compromising policy was         
short-sighted1 since it was to little   
purpose that the nature of the documents
 should at length be correctly          
understood1 if men were to be prevented 
from deducing fair conclusions from     
them4  ,diluvial ,theory4--,the         
theologians who now entered the field in
 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,france1 and         
,england1 were innumerable2 and         
henceforward1 they who refused to       
subscribe to the position1 that all     
marine organic remains were proofs of   
the ,mosaic deluge1 were exposed to the 
imputation of disbelieving the whole of 
the sacred writings4 ,scarcely any step 
had been made in approximating to sound 

theories since the time of ,fracastoro1 
more than a hundred years having been   
lost1 in writing down the dogma that    
organized fossils were mere sports of   
nature4 ,an additional period of a      
century and a half was now destined to  
be consumed in exploding the hypothesis1
 that organized fossils had all been    
buried in the solid strata by ,noah's   
flood4 ,never did a theoretical fallacy1
 in any branch of science1 interfere    
more seriously with accurate observation
 and the systematic classification of   
facts4 ,in recent times1 we may         
attribute our rapid progress chiefly to 
the careful determination of the order  
of succession in mineral masses1 by     
means of their different organic        
contents1 and their regular             
superposition4 ,but the old diluvialists
 were induced by their system to        
confound all the groups of strata       
together instead of discriminating1--to 
refer all appearances to one cause and  
to one brief period1 not to a variety of

 causes acting throughout a long        
succession of epochs4 ,they saw the     
phenomena only as they desired to see   
them1 sometimes misrepresenting facts1  
and at other times deducing false       
conclusions from correct data4 ,under   
the influence of such prejudices1 three 
centuries were of as little avail as a  
few years in our own times1 when we are 
no longer required to propel the vessel 
against the force of an adverse current4
  ,it may be well1 therefore1 to        
forewarn the reader1 that in tracing the
 history of geology from the close of   
the seventeenth to the end of the       
eighteenth century1 he must expect to be
 occupied with accounts of the          
retardation1 as well as of the advance1 
of the science4 ,it will be necessary to
 point out the frequent revival of      
exploded errors1 and the relapse from   
sound to the most absurd opinions2 and  
to dwell on futile reasoning and        
visionary hypothesis1 because some of   
the most extravagant systems were       

invented or controverted by men of      
acknowledged talent4 ,in short1 a sketch
 of the progress of geology is the      
history of a constant and violent       
struggle of new opinions against        
doctrines sanctioned by the implicit    
faith of many generations1 and supposed 
to rest on scriptural authority4 ,the   
inquiry1 therefore1 although highly     
interesting to one who studies the      
philosophy of the human mind1 is too    
often barren of instruction to him who  
searches for truths in physical science4
  ,quirini1 #afgf4--,quirini1 in        
#afgf1eb contended1 in opposition to    
,scilla1 that the diluvian waters could 
not have conveyed heavy bodies to the   
summit of mountains1 since the agitation
 of the sea never 7as ,boyle had        
demonstrated7 extended to great         
depths2#ec and still less could the     
testacea1 as some pretended1 have lived 
in these diluvian waters2 for the       
duration of the flood was brief1 and the
 heavy rains must have destroyed the    

saltness of the sea6 ,he was the first  
writer who ventured to maintain that the
 universality of the ,mosaic cataclysm  
ought not to be insisted upon4 ,as to   
the nature of petrified shells1 he      
conceived that as earthy particles      
united in the sea to form the shells of 
mollusca1 the same crystallizing process
 might be effected on the land2 and     
that1 in the latter case1 the germs of  
the animals might have been disseminated
 through the substance of the rocks1 and
 afterwards developed by virtue of      
humidity4 ,visionary as was this        
doctrine1 it gained many proselytes even
 amongst the more sober reasoners of    
,italy and ,germany2 for it conceded    
that the position of fossil bodies could
 not be accounted for by the diluvial   
theory4  ,plot--,lister1 #afgh4--;,in   
the mean time1 the doctrine that fossil 
shells had never belonged to real       
animals maintained its ground in        
,england1 where the agitation of the    
question began at a much later period4  

,dr4 ,plot1 in his ,natural ,history of 
,oxfordshire 7#afgg71 attributed to a   
plastic virtue latent in the earth the  
origin of fossil shells and fishes2 and 
,lister1 to his accurate account of     
,british shells1 in #afgh1 added the    
fossil species1 under the appellation of
 turbinated and bivalve stones4 ,either1
 said he1 these were terriginous1 or1 if
 otherwise1 the animals they so exactly 
represent have become extinct4 ,this    
writer appears to have been the first   
who was aware of the continuity over    
large districts of the principal groups 
of strata in the ,british series1 and   
who proposed the construction of regular
 geological maps4#ed  ,leibnitz1        
#afhj4--,the great mathematician        
,leibnitz published his ,protogoea in   
#afhj4 ,he imagined this planet to have 
been originally a burning luminous mass1
 which ever since its creation has been 
undergoing refrigeration4 ,when the     
outer crust had cooled down sufficiently
 to allow the vapors to be condensed1   

they fell1 and formed a universal ocean1
 covering the loftiest mountains1 and   
investing the whole globe4 ,the crust1  
as it consolidated from a state of      
fusion1 assumed a vesicular and         
cavernous structure2 and being rent in  
some places1 allowed the water to rush  
into the subterranean hollows1 whereby  
the level of the primeval ocean was     
lowered4 ,the breaking in of these vast 
caverns is supposed to have given rise  
to the dislocated and deranged position 
of the strata which ,steno had          
described1 and the same disruptions     
communicated violent movements to the   
incumbent waters1 whence great          
inundations ensued4 ,the waters1 after  
they had been thus agitated1 deposited  
their sedimentary matter during         
intervals of quiescence1 and hence the  
various stony and earthy strata4 ,we may
 recognize1 therefore1 says ,leibnitz1 a
 double origin of primitive masses1 the 
one by refrigeration from igneous       
fusion1 the other by concretion from    

aqueous solution4#ee ,by the repetition 
of similar causes 7the disruption of the
 crust and consequent floods71          
alternations of new strata were         
produced1 until at length these causes  
were reduced to a condition of quiescent
 equilibrium1 and a more permanent state
 of things was established4#ef  ,hooke1 
#afhh4--,the ,posthumous ,works of      
,robert ,hooke1 ,m4 ,d41 well known as a
 great mathematician and natural        
philosopher1 appeared in #agje1         
containing ,a ,discourse of             
,earthquakes1 which1 we are informed by 
his editor1 was written in #affh1 but   
revised at subsequent periods4#eg ,hooke
 frequently refers to the best ,italian 
and ,english authors who wrote before   
his time on geological subjects2 but    
there are no passages in his works      
implying that he participated in the    
enlarged views of ,steno and ,lister1 or
 of his contemporary1 ,woodward1 in     
regard to the geographical extent of    
certain groups of strata4 ,his treatise1

 however1 is the most philosophical     
production of that age1 in regard to the
 causes of former changes in the organic
 and inorganic kingdoms of nature4      
,however trivial a thing1 he says1 a    
rotten shell may appear to some1 yet    
these monuments of nature are more      
certain tokens of antiquity than coins  
or medals1 since the best of those may  
be counterfeited or made by art and     
design1 as may also books1 manuscripts1 
and inscriptions1 as all the learned are
 now sufficiently satisfied has often   
been actually practised1 c42 and though 
it must be granted that it is very      
difficult to read them 7the records of  
nature7 and to raise a chronology out of
 them1 and to state the intervals of the
 time wherein such or such catastrophes 
and mutations have happened1 yet it is  
not impossible4#eh  ,respecting the     
extinction of species1 ,hooke was aware 
that the fossil ammonites1 nautili1 and 
many other shells and fossil skeletons  
found in ,england1 were of different    

species from any then known2 but he     
doubted whether the species had become  
extinct1 observing that the knowledge of
 naturalists of all the marine species1 
especially those inhabiting the deep    
sea1 was very deficient4 ,in some parts 
of his writings1 however1 he leans to   
the opinion that species had been lost2 
and in speculating on this subject1 he  
even suggests that there might be some  
connection between the disappearance of 
certain kinds of animals and plants1 and
 the changes wrought by earthquakes in  
former ages4 ,some species1 he observes1
 with great sagacity1 are peculiar to   
certain places1 and not to be found     
elsewhere4 ,if1 then1 such a place had  
been swallowed up1 it is not improbable 
but that those animate beings may have  
been destroyed with it2 and this may be 
true both of aerial and aquatic animals2
 for those animated bodies1 whether     
vegetables or animals1 which were       
naturally nourished or refreshed by the 
air1 would be destroyed by the water1   

c4#ei ,turtles1 he adds1 and such large 
ammonites as are found in ,portland1    
seem to have been the productions of    
hotter countries2 and it is necessary to
 suppose that ,england once lay under   
the sea within the torrid zone6 ,to     
explain this and similar phenomena1 he  
indulges in a variety of speculations   
concerning changes in the position of   
the axis of the earth's rotation1 a     
shifting of the earth's centre of       
gravity1 analogous to the revolutions of
 the magnetic pole1 c4 ,none of these   
conjectures1 however1 are proposed      
dogmatically1 but rather in the hope of 
promoting fresh inquiries and           
experiments4  ,in opposition to the     
prejudices of his age1 we find him      
arguing against the idea that nature had
 formed fossil bodies for no other end  
than to play the mimic in the mineral   
kingdom2--maintaining that figured      
stones were really the several bodies   
they represent1 or the mouldings of them
 petrified1 and not1 as some have       

imagined1 'a lusus naturae1' sporting   
herself in the needless formation of    
useless beings4#fj  ,it was objected to 
,hooke1 that his doctrine of the        
extinction of species derogated from the
 wisdom and power of the omnipotent     
,creator2 but he answered1 that1 as     
individuals die1 there may be some      
termination to the duration of a        
species2 and his opinions1 he declared1 
were not repugnant to ,holy ,writ3 for  
the ,scriptures taught that our system  
was degenerating1 and tending to its    
final dissolution2 and as1 when that    
shall happen1 all the species will be   
lost1 why not some at one time and some 
at another8#fa  ,but his principal      
object was to account for the manner in 
which shells had been conveyed into the 
higher parts of the ,alps1 ,apennines1  
and ,pyrenean hills1 and the interior of
 continents in general4 ,these and other
 appearances1 he said1 might have been  
brought about by earthquakes1 which have
 turned plains into mountains1 and      

mountains into plains1 seas into land1  
and land into seas1 made rivers where   
there were none before1 and swallowed up
 others that formerly were1 c41 c42 and 
which1 since the creation of the world1 
have wrought many great changes on the  
superficial parts of the earth1 and have
 been the instruments of placing shells1
 bones1 plants1 fishes1 and the like1 in
 those places where1 with much          
astonishment1 we find them4#fb ,this    
doctrine1 it is true1 had been laid down
 in terms almost equally explicit by    
,strabo1 to explain the occurrence of   
fossil shells in the interior of        
continents1 and to that geographer1 and 
other writers of antiquity1 ,hooke      
frequently refers2 but the revival and  
development of the system was an        
important step in the progress of modern
 science4  ,hooke enumerated all the    
examples known to him of subterranean   
disturbance1 from the sad catastrophe of
 ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 down to the      
,chilian earthquake of #afdf4 ,the      

elevating of the bottom of the sea1 the 
sinking and submersion of the land1 and 
most of the inequalities of the earth's 
surface1 might1 he said1 be accounted   
for by the agency of these subterranean 
causes4 ,he mentions that the coast near
 ,naples was raised during the eruption 
of ,monte ,nuovo2 and that1 in #aeia1   
land rose in the island of ,st4         
,michael1 during an eruption3 and       
although it would be more difficult1 he 
says1 to prove1 he does not doubt but   
that there had been as many earthquakes 
in the parts of the earth under the     
ocean1 as in the parts of the dry land2 
in confirmation of which1 he mentions   
the immeasurable depth of the sea near  
some volcanoes4 ,to attest the extent of
 simultaneous subterranean movements1 he
 refers to an earthquake in the ,west   
,indies1 in the year #afij1 where the   
space of earth raised1 or struck        
upwards1 by the shock1 exceeded1 he     
affirms1 the length of the ,alps and    
,pyrenees4  ,hooke's diluvial           

,theory4--,as ,hooke declared the       
favorite hypothesis of the day1 that    
marine fossil bodies were to be referred
 to ,noah's flood1 to be wholly         
untenable1 he appears to have felt      
himself called upon to substitute a     
diluvial theory of his own1 and thus he 
became involved in countless            
difficulties and contradictions4 ,during
 the great catastrophe1 he said1 there  
might have been a changing of that part 
which was before dry land into sea by   
sinking1 and of that which was sea into 
dry land by raising1 and marine bodies  
might have been buried in sediment      
beneath the ocean1 in the interval      
between the creation and the deluge4#fc 
,then follows a disquisition on the     
separation of the land from the waters1 
mentioned in ,genesis2 during which     
operation some places of the shell of   
the earth were forced outwards1 and     
others pressed downwards or inwards1 c4 
,his diluvial hypothesis very much      
resembled that of ,steno1 and was       

entirely opposed to the fundamental     
principles professed by him1 that he    
would explain the former changes of the 
earth in a more natural manner than     
others had done4 ,when1 in despite of   
this declaration1 he required a former  
crisis of nature1 and taught that       
earthquakes had become debilitated1 and 
that the ,alps1 ,andes1 and other       
chains1 had been lifted up in a few     
months1 he was compelled to assume so   
rapid a rate of change1 that his        
machinery appeared scarcely less        
extravagant than that of his most       
fanciful predecessors4 ,for this reason1
 perhaps1 his whole theory of           
earthquakes met with undeserved neglect4
  ,ray1 #afib4--,one of his             
contemporaries1 the celebrated          
naturalist1 ,ray1 participated in the   
same desire to explain geological       
phenomena by reference to causes less   
hypothetical than those usually resorted
 to4#fd ,in his essay on ,chaos and     
,creation1 he proposed a system1        

agreeing in its outline1 and in many of 
its details1 with that of ,hooke2 but   
his knowledge of natural history enabled
 him to elucidate the subject with      
various original observations4          
,earthquakes1 he suggested1 might have  
been the second causes employed at the  
creation1 in separating the land from   
the waters1 and in gathering the waters 
together into one place4 ,he mentions1  
like ,hooke1 the earthquake of #afdf1   
which had violently shaken the ,andes   
for some hundreds of leagues1 and made  
many alterations therein4 ,in assigning 
a cause for the general deluge1 he      
preferred a change in the earth's centre
 of gravity to the introduction of      
earthquakes4 ,some unknown cause1 he    
said1 might have forced the subterranean
 waters outwards1 as was1 perhaps1      
indicated by the breaking up of the     
fountains of the great deep4  ,ray was  
one of the first of our writers who     
enlarged upon the effects of running    
water upon the land1 and of the         

encroachment of the sea upon the shores4
 ,so important did he consider the      
agency of these causes1 that he saw in  
them an indication of the tendency of   
our system to its final dissolution2 and
 he wondered why the earth did not      
proceed more rapidly towards a general  
submersion beneath the sea1 when so much
 matter was carried down by rivers1 or  
undermined in the sea-cliffs4 ,we       
perceive clearly from his writings1 that
 the gradual decline of our system1 and 
its future consummation by fire1 was    
held to be as necessary an article of   
faith by the orthodox1 as was the recent
 origin of our planet4 ,his discourses1 
like those of ,hooke1 are highly        
interesting1 as attesting the familiar  
association in the minds of             
philosophers1 in the age of ,newton1 of 
questions in physics and divinity4 ,ray 
gave an unequivocal proof of the        
sincerity of his mind1 by sacrificing   
his preferment in the church1 rather    
than take an oath against the           

,covenanters1 which he could not        
reconcile with his conscience4 ,his     
reputation1 moreover1 in the scientific 
world placed him high above the         
temptation of courting popularity1 by   
pandering to the physico-theological    
taste of his age4 ,it is1 therefore1    
curious to meet with so many citations  
from the ,christian fathers and prophets
 in his essays on physical science--to  
find him in one page proceeding1 by the 
strict rules of induction1 to explain   
the former changes of the globe1 and in 
the next gravely entertaining the       
question1 whether the sun and stars1 and
 the whole heavens1 shall be            
annihilated1 together with the earth1 at
 the era of the grand conflagration4    
,woodward1 #afie4--;,among the          
contemporaries of ,hooke and ,ray1      
,woodward1 a professor of medicine1 had 
acquired the most extensive information 
respecting the geological structure of  
the crust of the earth4 ,he had examined
 many parts of the ,british strata with 

minute attention2 and his systematic    
collection of specimens1 bequeathed to  
the ,university of ,cambridge1 and still
 preserved there as arranged by him1    
shows how far he had advanced in        
ascertaining the order of superposition4
 ,from the great number of facts        
collected by him1 we might have expected
 his theoretical views to be more sound 
and enlarged than those of his          
contemporaries2 but in his anxiety to   
accommodate all observed phenomena to   
the scriptural account of the ,creation 
and ,deluge1 he arrived at most         
erroneous results4 ,he conceived the    
whole terrestrial globe to have been    
taken to pieces and dissolved at the    
flood1 and the strata to have settled   
down from this promiscuous mass as any  
earthy sediment from a fluid4#fe ,in    
corroboration of these views he insisted
 upon the fact1 that marine bodies are  
lodged in the strata according to the   
order of their gravity1 the heavier     
shells in stone1 the lighter in chalk1  

and so of the rest4#ff ,ray immediately 
exposed the unfounded nature of this    
assertion1 remarking truly that fossil  
bodies are often mingled1 heavy with    
light1 in the same stratum2 and he even 
went so far as to say1 that ,woodward   
must have invented the phenomena for the
 sake of confirming his bold and strange
 hypothesis#fg--;a strong expression    
from the pen of a contemporary4         
,burnet1 #afij4--;,at the same time     
,burnet published his ,theory of the    
,earth4#fh ,the title is most           
characteristic of the age1--,the ,sacred
 ,theory of the ,earth2 containing an   
,account of the ,original of the ,earth1
 and of all the general ,changes which  
it hath already undergone1 or is to     
undergo1 till the ,consummation of all  
,things4 ,even ,milton had scarcely     
ventured in his poem to indulge his     
imagination so freely in painting scenes
 of the ,creation and ,deluge1 ,paradise
 and ,chaos4 ,he explained why the      
primeval earth enjoyed a perpetual      

spring before the flood6 showed how the 
crust of the globe was fissured by the  
sun's rays1 so that it burst1 and thus  
the diluvial waters were let loose from 
a supposed central abyss4 ,not satisfied
 with these themes1 he derived from the 
books of the inspired writers1 and even 
from heathen authorities1 prophetic     
views of the future revolutions of the  
globe1 gave a most terrific description 
of the general conflagration1 and proved
 that a new heaven and a new earth will 
rise out of a second chaos--after which 
will follow the blessed millennium4     
,the reader should be informed1 that1   
according to the opinion of many        
respectable writers of that age1 there  
was good scriptural ground for presuming
 that the garden bestowed upon our first
 parents was not on the earth itself1   
but above the clouds1 in the middle     
region between our planet and the moon4 
,burnet approaches with becoming gravity
 the discussion of so important a topic4
 ,he was willing to concede that the    

geographical position of ,paradise was  
not in ,mesopotamia1 yet he maintained  
that it was upon the earth1 and in the  
southern hemisphere1 near the           
equinoctial line4 ,butler selected this 
conceit as a fair mark for his satire1  
when1 amongst the numerous              
accomplishments of ,hudibras1 he says1--
     ,he knew the seat of ,paradise1    
,could tell in what degree it lies2     
,and1 as he was disposed1 could prove it
    ,below the moon1 or else above it4  
,yet the same monarch1 who is said never
 to have slept without ,butler's poem   
under his pillow1 was so great an       
admirer and patron of ,burnet's book1   
that he ordered it to be translated from
 the ,latin into ,english4 ,the style of
 the ,sacred ,theory was eloquent1 and  
the book displayed powers of invention  
of no ordinary stamp4 ,it was1 in fact1 
a fine historical romance1 as ,buffon   
afterwards declared2 but it was treated 
as a work of profound science in the    
time of its author1 and was panegyrized 

by ,addison in a ,latin ode1 while      
,steele praised it in the ,spectator4   
,whiston1 #afif4--;,another production  
of the same school1 and equally         
characteristic of the time1 was that of 
,whiston1 entitled1 ,a ,new ,theory of  
the ,earth2 wherein the ,creation of the
 world in ,six ,days1 the ,universal    
,deluge1 and the ,general               
,conflagration1 as laid down in the     
,holy ,scriptures1 are shown to be      
perfectly agreeable to ,reason and      
,philosophy4 ,he was at first a follower
 of ,burnet2 but his faith in the       
infallibility of that writer was shaken 
by the declared opinion of ,newton1 that
 there was every presumption in         
astronomy against any former change in  
the inclination of the earth's axis4    
,this was a leading dogma in ,burnet's  
system1 though not original1 for it was 
borrowed from an ,italian1 ,alessandro  
degli ,alessandri1 who had suggested it 
in the beginning of the fifteenth       
century1 to account for the former      

occupation of the present continents by 
the sea4 ,la ,place has since           
strengthened the arguments of ,newton1  
against the probability of any former   
revolution of this kind4  ,the          
remarkable comet of #afhj was fresh in  
the memory of every one when ,whiston   
first began his cosmological studies2   
and the principal novelty of his        
speculations consisted in attributing   
the deluge to the near approach to the  
earth of one of these erratic bodies4   
,having ascribed an increase of the     
waters to this source1 he adopted       
,woodward's theory1 supposing all       
stratified deposits to have resulted    
from the chaotic sediment of the flood4 
,whiston was one of the first who       
ventured to propose that the text of    
,genesis should be interpreted          
differently from its ordinary           
acceptation1 so that the doctrine of the
 earth having existed long previous to  
the creation of man might no longer be  
regarded as unorthodox4 ,he had the art 

to throw an air of plausibility over the
 most improbable parts of his theory1   
and seemed to be proceeding in the most 
sober manner1 and1 by the aid of        
mathematical demonstration1 to the      
establishment of his various            
propositions4 ,locke pronounced a       
panegyric on his theory1 commending him 
for having explained so many wonderful  
and before inexplicable things4 ,his    
book1 as well as ,burnet's1 was attacked
 and refuted by ,keill4#fi ,like all who
 introduced purely hypothetical causes  
to account for natural phenomena1       
,whiston retarded the progress of truth1
 diverting men from the investigation of
 the laws of sublunary nature1 and      
inducing them to waste time in          
speculations on the power of comets to  
drag the waters of the ocean over the   
land--on the condensation of the vapors 
of their tails into water1 and other    
matters equally edifying4  ,hutchinson1 
#agbd4--;,john ,hutchinson1 who had been
 employed by ,woodward in making his    

collection of fossils1 published        
afterwards1 in #agbd1 the first part of 
his ,moses's ,principia1 wherein he     
ridiculed ,woodward's hypothesis4 ,he   
and his numerous followers were         
accustomed to declaim loudly against    
human learning2 and they maintained that
 the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 when rightly  
translated1 comprised a perfect system  
of natural philosophy1 for which reason 
they objected to the ,newtonian theory  
of gravitation4  ,celsius4--,andrea     
,celsius1 the ,swedish astronomer1      
published about this time his remarks on
 the gradual diminution and sinking of  
the waters in the ,baltic1 to which ,i  
shall have occasion to advert more      
particularly in the sequel 7ch4 #bi74   
,scheuchzer1 #agjh4--;,in ,germany1 in  
the mean time1 ,scheuchzer published his
 ,complaint and ,vindication of the     
,fishes 7#agjh71 ,piscium ,querelae et  
,vindiciae1 a work of zoological merit1 
in which he gave some good plates and   
descriptions of fossil fish4 ,among     

other conclusions he labored to prove   
that the earth had been remodelled at   
the deluge4 ,pluche1 also1 in #agcb1    
wrote to the same effect2 while         
,holbach1 in #agec1 after considering   
the various attempts to refer all the   
ancient formations to the flood of      
,noah1 exposed the inadequacy of this   
cause4  ,italian                        
,geologists--,vallisneri4--,i return    
with pleasure to the geologists of      
,italy1 who preceded1 as has been       
already shown1 the naturalists of other 
countries in their investigations into  
the ancient history of the earth1 and   
who still maintained a decided          
pre-eminence4 ,they refuted and         
ridiculed the physico-theological       
systems of ,burnet1 ,whiston1 and       
,woodward2#gj while ,vallisneri1#ga in  
his comments on the ,woodwardian theory1
 remarked how much the interests of     
religion1 as well as those of sound     
philosophy1 had suffered by perpetually 
mixing up the sacred writings with      

questions in physical science4 ,the     
works of this author were rich in       
original observations4 ,he attempted the
 first general sketch of the marine     
deposits of ,italy1 their geographical  
extent1 and most characteristic organic 
remains4 ,in his treatise ,on the       
,origin of ,springs1 he explained their 
dependence on the order1 and often on   
the dislocations1 of the strata1 and    
reasoned philosophically against the    
opinions of those who regarded the      
disordered state of the earth's crust as
 exhibiting signs of the wrath of ,god  
for the sins of man4 ,he found himself  
under the necessity of contending1 in   
his preliminary chapter1 against ,st4   
,jerome1 and four other principal       
interpreters of ,scripture1 besides     
several professors of divinity1 that    
springs did not flow by subterranean    
siphons and cavities from the sea       
upwards1 losing their saltness in the   
passage1 for this theory had been made  
to rest on the infallible testimony of  

,holy ,writ4  ,although reluctant to    
generalize on the rich materials        
accumulated in his travels1 ,vallisneri 
had been so much struck with the        
remarkable continuity of the more recent
 marine strata1 from one end of ,italy  
to the other1 that he came to the       
conclusion that the ocean formerly      
extended over the whole earth1 and after
 abiding there for a long time1 had     
gradually subsided4 ,this opinion1      
however untenable1 was a great step     
beyond ,woodward's diluvian hypothesis1 
against which ,vallisneri1 and after him
 all the ,tuscan geologists1 uniformly  
contended1 while it was warmly supported
 by the members of the ,institute of    
,bologna4#gb  ,among others of that day1
 ,spada1 a priest of ,grezzana1 in      
#agcg1 wrote to prove that the petrified
 marine bodies near ,verona were not    
diluvian4#gc ,mattani drew a similar    
inference from the shells of ,volterra  
and other places2 while ,costantini1 on 
the other hand1 whose observations on   

the valley of the ,brenta and other     
districts were not without value1       
undertook to vindicate the truth of the 
deluge1 as also to prove that ,italy had
 been peopled by the descendants of     
,japhet4#gd  ,moro1 #agdj4--,lazzaro    
,moro1 in his work 7published in #agdj7 
,on the ,marine ,bodies which are found 
in the ,mountains1#ge attempted to apply
 the theory of earthquakes1 as expounded
 by ,strabo1 ,pliny1 and other ancient  
authors1 with whom he was familiar1 to  
the geological phenomena described by   
,vallisneri4#gf ,his attention was      
awakened to the elevating power of      
subterranean forces by a remarkable     
phenomenon which happened in his own    
time1 and which had also been noticed by
 ,vallisneri in his letters4 ,a new     
island rose in #agjg from deep water in 
the ,gulf of ,santorin1 in the          
,mediterranean1 during continued shocks 
of an earthquake1 and1 increasing       
rapidly in size1 grew in less than a    
month to be half a mile in              

circumference1 and about twenty-five    
feet above high-water mark4 ,it was soon
 afterwards covered by volcanic         
ejections1 but1 when first examined1 it 
was found to be a white rock1 bearing on
 its surface living oysters and         
crustacea4 ,in order to ridicule the    
various theories then in vogue1 ,moro   
ingeniously supposes the arrival on this
 new island of a party of naturalists   
ignorant of its recent origin4 ,one     
immediately points to the marine shells1
 as proofs of the universal deluge2     
another argues that they demonstrate the
 former residence of the sea upon the   
mountains2 a third dismisses them as    
mere sports of nature2 while a fourth   
affirms that they were born and         
nourished within the rock in ancient    
caverns1 into which salt water had been 
raised in the shape of vapor by the     
action of subterranean heat4  ,moro     
pointed with great judgment to the      
faults and dislocations of the strata   
described by ,vallisneri1 in the ,alps  

and other chains1 in confirmation of his
 doctrine1 that the continents had been 
heaved up by subterranean movements4 ,he
 objected1 on solid grounds1 to the     
hypothesis of ,burnet and of ,woodward2 
yet he ventured so far to disregard the 
protest of ,vallisneri1 as to undertake 
the adaptation of every part of his own 
system to the ,mosaic account of the    
creation4 ,on the third day1 he said1   
the globe was everywhere covered to the 
same depth by fresh water2 and when it  
pleased the ,supreme ,being that the dry
 land should appear1 volcanic explosions
 broke up the smooth and regular surface
 of the earth composed of primary rocks4
 ,these rose in mountain masses above   
the waves1 and allowed melted metals and
 salts to ascend through fissures4 ,the 
sea gradually acquired its saltness from
 volcanic exhalations1 and1 while it    
became more circumscribed in area1      
increased in depth4 ,sand and ashes     
ejected by volcanoes were regularly     
disposed along the bottom of the ocean1 

and formed the secondary strata1 which  
in their turn were lifted up by         
earthquakes4 ,we need not follow this   
author in tracing the progress of the   
creation of vegetables and animals on   
the other days of creation2 but1 upon   
the whole1 it may be remarked1 that few 
of the old cosmological theories had    
been conceived with so little violation 
of known analogies4  ,generelli's       
illustrations of ,moro1 #agdi4--,the    
style of ,moro was extremely prolix1    
and1 like ,hutton1 who1 at a later      
period1 advanced many of the same views1
 he stood in need of an illustrator4    
,the ,scotch geologist was hardly more  
fortunate in the advocacy of ,playfair1 
than was ,moro in numbering amongst his 
admirers ,cirillo ,generelli1 who1 nine 
years afterwards1 delivered at a sitting
 of ,academicians at ,cremona a spirited
 exposition of his theory4 ,this learned
 ,carmelitan friar does not pretend to  
have been an original observer1 but he  
had studied sufficiently to enable him  

to confirm the opinions of ,moro by     
arguments from other writers2 and his   
selection of the doctrines then best    
established is so judicious1 that a     
brief abstract of them cannot fail to be
 acceptable1 as illustrating the state  
of geology in ,europe1 and in ,italy in 
particular1 before the middle of the    
last century4  ,the bowels of the earth1
 says he1 have carefully preserved the  
memorials of past events1 and this truth
 the marine productions so frequent in  
the hills attest4 ,from the reflections 
of ,lazzaro ,moro1 we may assure        
ourselves that these are the effects of 
earthquakes in past times1 which have   
changed vast spaces of sea into terra   
firma1 and inhabited lands into seas4   
,in this1 more than in any other        
department of physics1 are observations 
and experiments indispensable1 and we   
must diligently consider facts4 ,the    
land is known1 wherever we make         
excavations1 to be composed of different
 strata or soils placed one above the   

other1 some of sand1 some of rock1 some 
of chalk1 others of marl1 coal1 pummice1
 gypsum1 lime1 and the rest4 ,these     
ingredients are sometimes pure1 and     
sometimes confusedly intermixed4 ,within
 are often imprisoned different marine  
fishes1 like dried mummies1 and more    
frequently shells1 crustacea1 corals1   
plants1 c41 not only in ,italy1 but in  
,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 ,africa1   
,asia1 and ,america2--sometimes in the  
lowest1 sometimes in the loftiest beds  
of the earth1 some upon the mountains1  
some in deep mines1 others near the sea1
 and others hundreds of miles distant   
from it4 ,woodward conjectured that     
these marine bodies might be found      
everywhere2 but there are rocks in which
 none of them occur1 as is sufficiently 
attested by ,vallisneri and ,marsilli4  
,the remains of fossil animals consist  
chiefly of their more solid parts1 and  
the most rocky strata must have been    
soft when such exuviae were inclosed in 
them4 ,vegetable productions are found  

in different states of maturity1        
indicating that they were imbedded in   
different seasons4 ,elephants1 elks1 and
 other terrestrial quadrupeds1 have been
 found in ,england and elsewhere1 in    
superficial strata1 never covered by the
 sea4 ,alternations are rare1 yet not   
without example1 of marine strata1 with 
those which contain marshy and          
terrestrial productions4 ,marine animals
 are arranged in the subterraneous beds 
with admirable order1 in distinct       
groups1 oysters here1 dentalia or corals
 there1 c41 as now1 according to        
,marsilli1#gg on the shores of the      
,adriatic4 ,we must abandon the         
doctrine1 once so popular1 which denies 
that organized fossils were derived from
 living beings1 and we cannot account   
for their present position by the       
ancient theory of ,strabo1 nor by that  
of ,leibnitz1 nor by the universal      
deluge1 as explained by ,woodward and   
others2 nor is it reasonable to call the
 ,deity capriciously upon the stage1 and

 to make him work miracles for the sake 
of confirming our preconceived          
hypothesis4 --,i hold in utter          
abomination1 most learned ,academicians6
 those systems which are built with     
their foundations in the air1 and cannot
 be propped up without a miracle2 and ,i
 undertake1 with the assistance of      
,moro1 to explain to you how these      
marine animals were transported into the
 mountains by natural causes4#gh  ,a    
brief abstract then follows of ,moro's  
theory1 by which1 says ,generelli1 we   
may explain all the phenomena1 as       
,vallisneri so ardently desired1 without
 violence1 without fictions1 without    
hypothesis1 without miracles4#gi ,the   
,carmelitan then proceeds to struggle   
against an obvious objection to ,moro's 
system1 considered as a method of       
explaining the revolutions of the earth1
 naturally4 ,if earthquakes have been   
the agents of such mighty changes1 how  
does it happen that their effects since 
the times of history have been so       

inconsiderable8 ,this same difficulty   
had1 as we have seen1 presented itself  
to ,hooke1 half a century before1 and   
forced him to resort to a former crisis 
of nature3 but ,generelli defended his  
position by showing how numerous were   
the accounts of eruptions and           
earthquakes1 of new islands1 and of     
elevations and subsidences of land1 and 
yet how much greater a number of like   
events must have been unattested and    
unrecorded during the last six thousand 
years4 ,he also appealed to ,vallisneri 
as an authority to prove that the       
mineral masses containing shells1 bore1 
upon the whole1 but a small proportion  
to those rocks which were destitute of  
organic remains2 and the latter1 says   
the learned monk1 might have been       
created as they now exist1 in the       
beginning4  ,generelli then describes   
the continual waste of mountains and    
continents1 by the action of rivers and 
torrents1 and concludes with these      
eloquent and original observations3--,is

 it possible that this waste should have
 continued for six thousand1 and perhaps
 a greater number of years1 and that the
 mountains should remain so great1      
unless their ruins have been repaired8  
,is it credible that the ,author of     
,nature should have founded the world   
upon such laws1 as that the dry land    
should forever be growing smaller1 and  
at last become wholly submerged beneath 
the waters8 ,is it credible that1 amid  
so many created things1 the mountains   
alone should daily diminish in number   
and bulk1 without there being any repair
 of their losses8 ,this would be        
contrary to that order of ,providence   
which is seen to reign in all other     
things in the universe4 ,wherefore ,i   
deem it just to conclude1 that the same 
cause which1 in the beginning of time1  
raised mountains from the abyss1 has    
down to the present day continued to    
produce others1 in order to restore from
 time to time the losses of all such as 
sink down in different places1 or are   

rent asunder1 or in other way suffer    
disintegration4 ,if this be admitted1 we
 can easily understand why there should 
now be found upon many mountains so     
great a number of crustacea and other   
marine animals4  ,in the above extract1 
,i have not merely enumerated the       
opinions and facts which are confirmed  
by recent observation1 suppressing all  
that has since proved to be erroneous1  
but have given a faithful abridgment of 
the entire treatise1 with the omission  
only of ,moro's hypothesis1 which       
,generelli adopted1 with all its faults 
and excellences4 ,the reader will       
therefore remark1 that although this    
admirable essay embraces so large a     
portion of the principal objects of     
geological research1 it makes no        
allusion to the extinction of certain   
classes of animals2 and it is evident   
that no opinions on this head had1 at   
that time1 gained a firm footing in     
,italy4 ,that ,lister and other ,english
 naturalists should long before have    

declared in favor of the loss of        
species1 while ,scilla and most of his  
countrymen hesitated1 was perhaps       
natural1 since the ,italian museums were
 filled with fossil shells belonging to 
species of which a great portion did    
actually exist in the ,mediterranean2   
whereas the ,english collectors could   
obtain no recent species from such of   
their own strata as were then explored4 
,the weakest point in ,moro's system    
consisted in deriving all the stratified
 rocks from volcanic ejections2 an      
absurdity which his opponents took care 
to expose1 especially ,vito ,amici4#hj  
,moro seems to have been misled by his  
anxious desire to represent the         
formation of secondary rocks as having  
occupied an extremely short period1     
while at the same time he wished to     
employ known agents in nature4 ,to      
imagine torrents1 rivers1 currents1     
partial floods1 and all the operations  
of moving water1 to have gone on        
exerting an energy many thousand times  

greater than at present1 would have     
appeared preposterous and incredible1   
and would have required a hundred       
violent hypotheses2 but we are so       
unacquainted with the true sources of   
subterranean disturbances1 that their   
former violence may in theory be        
multiplied indefinitely1 without its    
being possible to prove the same        
manifest contradiction or absurdity in  
the conjecture4 ,for this reason1       
perhaps1 ,moro preferred to derive the  
materials of the strata from volcanic   
ejections1 rather than from             
transportation by running water4        
,marsilli4--,marsilli1 whose work is    
alluded to by ,generelli1 had been      
prompted to institute inquiries into the
 bed of the ,adriatic1 by discovering1  
in the territory of ,parma 7what ,spada 
had observed near ,verona1 and ,schiavo 
in ,sicily71 that fossil shells were not
 scattered through the rocks at random1 
but disposed in regular order1 according
 to certain genera and species4         

,vitaliano ,donati1 #agej4--;,but with a
 view of throwing further light upon    
these questions1 ,donati1 in #agej1     
undertook a more extensive investigation
 of the ,adriatic1 and discovered1 by   
numerous soundings1 that deposits of    
sand1 marl1 and tufaceous incrustations1
 most strictly analogous to those of the
 ,subapennine hills1 were in the act of 
accumulating there4 ,he ascertained that
 there were no shells in some of the    
submarine tracts1 while in other places 
they lived together in families1        
particularly the genera ,arca1 ,pecten1 
,venus1 ,murex1 and some others4 ,he    
also states that in divers localities he
 found a mass composed of corals1       
shells1 and crustaceous bodies of       
different species1 confusedly blended   
with earth1 sand1 and gravel4 ,at the   
depth of a foot or more1 the organic    
substances were entirely petrified and  
reduced to marble2 at less than a foot  
from the surface1 they approached nearer
 to their natural state2 while at the   

surface they were alive1 or1 if dead1 in
 a good state of preservation4          
,baldassari4--,a contemporary           
naturalist1 ,baldassari1 had shown that 
the organic remains in the tertiary     
marls of the ,siennese territory were   
grouped in families1 in a manner        
precisely similar to that above alluded 
to by ,donati4  ,buffon1                
#agdi4--;,buffon first made known his   
theoretical views concerning the former 
changes of the earth1 in his ,natural   
,history1 published in #agdi4 ,he       
adopted the theory of an original       
volcanic nucleus1 together with the     
universal ocean of ,leibnitz4 ,by this  
aqueous envelope the highest mountains  
were once covered4 ,marine currents then
 acted violently1 and formed horizontal 
strata1 by washing away solid matter in 
some parts1 and depositing it in others2
 they also excavated deep submarine     
valleys4 ,the level of the ocean was    
then depressed by the entrance of a part
 of its waters into subterranean        

caverns1 and thus some land was left    
dry4 ,buffon seems not to have profited1
 like ,leibnitz and ,moro1 by the       
observations of ,steno1 or he could not 
have imagined that the strata were      
generally horizontal1 and that those    
which contain organic remains had never 
been disturbed since the era of their   
formation4 ,he was conscious of the     
great power annually exerted by rivers  
and marine currents in transporting     
earthy materials to lower levels1 and he
 even contemplated the period when they 
would destroy all the present           
continents4 ,although in geology he was 
not an original observer1 his genius    
enabled him to render his hypothesis    
attractive2 and by the eloquence of his 
style1 and the boldness of his          
speculations1 he awakened curiosity1 and
 provoked a spirit of inquiry amongst   
his countrymen4  ,soon after the        
publication of his ,natural ,history1 in
 which was included his ,theory of the  
,earth1 he received an official letter  

7dated ,january1 #agea7 from the        
,sorbonne1 or ,faculty of ,theology in  
,paris1 informing him that fourteen     
propositions in his works were          
reprehensible1 and contrary to the creed
 of the church4 ,the first of these     
obnoxious passages1 and the only one    
relating to geology1 was as             
follows3--,the waters of the sea have   
produced the mountains and valleys of   
the land--the waters of the heavens1    
reducing all to a level1 will at last   
deliver the whole land over to the sea1 
and the sea successively prevailing over
 the land1 will leave dry new continents
 like those which we inhabit4 ,buffon   
was invited by the ,college1 in very    
courteous terms1 to send in an          
explanation1 or rather a recantation of 
his unorthodox opinions4 ,to this he    
submitted2 and a general assembly of the
 ,faculty having approved of his        
,declaration1 he was required to publish
 it in his next work4 ,the document     
begins with these words3--,i declare    

that ,i had no intention to contradict  
the text of ,scripture2 that ,i believe 
most firmly all therein related about   
the creation1 both as to order of time  
and matter of fact2 and ,i abandon every
 thing in my book respecting the        
foundation of the earth1 and1 generally1
 all which may be contrary to the       
narration of ,moses4#ha  ,the grand     
principle which ,buffon was called upon 
to renounce was simply this1--that the  
present mountains and valleys of the    
earth are due to secondary causes1 and  
that the same causes will in time       
destroy all the continents1 hills1 and  
valleys1 and reproduce others like them4
 ,now1 whatever may be the defects of   
many of his views1 it is no longer      
controverted that the present continents
 are of secondary origin4 ,the doctrine 
is as firmly established as the earth's 
rotation on its axis2 and that the land 
now elevated above the level of the sea 
will not endure forever1 is an opinion  
which gains ground daily1 in proportion 

as we enlarge our experience of the     
changes now in progress4  ,targioni1    
#agea4--,targioni1 in his voluminous    
,travels in ,tuscany1 #agea and #aged1  
labored to fill up the sketch of the    
geology of that region left by ,steno   
sixty years before4 ,notwithstanding a  
want of arrangement and condensation in 
his memoirs1 they contained a rich store
 of faithful observations4 ,he has not  
indulged in many general views1 but in  
regard to the origin of valleys1 he was 
opposed to the theory of ,buffon1 who   
attributed them principally to submarine
 currents4 ,the ,tuscan naturalist      
labored to show that both the larger and
 smaller valleys of the ,apennines were 
excavated by rivers and floods1 caused  
by the bursting of the barriers of      
lakes1 after the retreat of the ocean4  
,he also maintained that the elephants  
and other quadrupeds1 so frequent in the
 lacustrine and alluvial deposits of    
,italy1 had inhabited that peninsula2   
and had not been transported thither1 as

 some had conceived1 by ,hannibal or the
 ,romans1 nor by what they were pleased 
to term a catastrophe of nature4        
,lehman1 #agef4--;,in the year #agef the
 treatise of ,lehman1 a ,german         
mineralogist1 and director of the       
,prussian mines1 appeared1 who also     
divided mountains into three classes3   
the first1 those formed with the world1 
and prior to the creation of animals1   
and which contained no fragments of     
other rocks2 the second class1 those    
which resulted from the partial         
destruction of the primary rocks by a   
general revolution2 and a third class1  
resulting from local revolutions1 and in
 part from the deluge of ,noah4  ,a     
,french translation of this work        
appeared in #agei1 in the preface of    
which1 the translator displays very     
enlightened views respecting the        
operations of earthquakes1 as well as of
 the aqueous causes4#hb  ,gesner1       
#ageh4--;,in this year ,gesner1 the     
botanist1 of ,zurich1 published an      

excellent treatise on petrifactions1 and
 the changes of the earth which they    
testify4#hc ,after a detailed           
enumeration of the various classes of   
fossils of the animal and vegetable     
kingdoms1 and remarks on the different  
states in which they are found          
petrified1 he considers the geological  
phenomena connected with them2          
observing1 that some1 like those of     
,o,eningen1 resembled the testacea1     
fish1 and plants indigenous in the      
neighboring region2#hd while some1 such 
as ammonites1 gryphites1 belemnites1 and
 other shells1 are either of unknown    
species1 or found only in the ,indian   
and other distant seas4 ,in order to    
elucidate the structure of the earth1 he
 gives sections1 from ,verenius1        
,buffon1 and others1 obtained in digging
 wells2 distinguishes between horizontal
 and inclined strata2 and1 in           
speculating on the causes of these      
appearances1 mentions ,donati's         
examination of the bed of the ,adriatic2

 the filling up of lakes and seas by    
sediment2 the imbedding of shells now in
 progress2 and many known effects of    
earthquakes1 such as the sinking down of
 districts1 or the heaving up of the bed
 of the sea1 so as to form new islands1 
and lay dry strata containing           
petrifactions4 ,the ocean1 he says1     
deserts its shores in many countries1 as
 on the borders of the ,baltic2 but the 
rate of recession has been so slow in   
the last #bjjj years1 that to allow the 
,apennines1 whose summits are filled    
with marine shells1 to emerge to their  
present height1 would have required     
about #hj1jjj years1--a lapse of time   
ten times greater1 or more1 than the age
 of the universe4 ,we must therefore    
refer the phenomenon to the command of  
the ,deity1 related by ,moses1 that the 
waters should be gathered together in   
one place1 and the dry land appear4     
,gesner adopted the views of ,leibnitz1 
to account for the retreat of the       
primeval ocean3 his essay displays much 

erudition2 and the opinions of preceding
 writers of ,italy1 ,germany1 and       
,england1 are commented upon with       
fairness and discrimination4  ,arduino1 
#agei4--;,in the year following1        
,arduino1#he in his memoirs on the      
mountains of ,padua1 ,vicenza1 and      
,verona1 deduced1 from original         
observations1 the distinction of rocks  
into primary1 secondary1 and tertiary1  
and showed that in those districts there
 had been a succession of submarine     
volcanic eruptions4  ,michell1          
#agfj4--;,in the following year 7#agfj7 
the ,rev4 ,john ,michell1 ,woodwardian  
,professor of ,mineralogy at ,cambridge1
 published in the ,philosophical        
,transactions1 an ,essay on the ,cause  
and ,phenomena of ,earthquakes4#hf ,his 
attention had been drawn to this subject
 by the great earthquake of ,lisbon in  
#agee4 ,he advanced many original and   
philosophical views respecting the      
propagation of subterranean movements1  
and the caverns and fissures wherein    

steam might be generated4 ,in order to  
point out the application of his theory 
to the structure of the globe1 he was   
led to describe the arrangement and     
disturbance of the strata1 their usual  
horizontality in low countries1 and     
their contortions and fractured state in
 the neighborhood of mountain chains4   
,he also explained1 with surprising     
accuracy1 the relations of the central  
ridges of older rocks to the long narrow
 slips of similar earth1 stones1 and    
minerals1 which are parallel to these   
ridges4 ,in his generalizations1 derived
 in great part from his own observations
 on the geological structure of         
,yorkshire1 he anticipated many of the  
views more fully developed by later     
naturalists4  ,catcott1                 
#agfa4--,michell's papers were entirely 
free from all physico-theological       
disquisitions1 but some of his          
contemporaries were still earnestly     
engaged in defending or impugning the   
,woodwardian hypothesis4 ,we find many  

of these writings referred to by        
,catcott1 a ,hutchinsonian1 who         
published a ,treatise on the ,deluge in 
#agfa4 ,he labored particularly to      
refute an explanation offered by his    
contemporary1 ,bishop ,clayton1 of the  
,mosaic writings4 ,that prelate had     
declared that the deluge could not be   
literally true1 save in respect to that 
part where ,noah lived before the flood4
 ,catcott insisted on the universality  
of the deluge1 and referred to          
traditions of inundations mentioned by  
ancient writers1 or by travellers1 in   
the ,east ,indies1 ,china1 ,south       
,america1 and other countries4 ,this    
part of his book is valuable1 although  
it is not easy to see what bearing the  
traditions have1 if admitted to be      
authentic1 on the ,bishop's argument1   
since no evidence is adduced to prove   
that the catastrophes were              
contemporaneous events1 while some of   
them are expressly represented by       
ancient authors to have occurred in     

succession4  ,fortis--,odoardi1         
#agfa4--,the doctrines of ,arduino1     
above adverted to1 were afterwards      
confirmed by ,fortis and ,desmarest1 in 
their travels in the same country2 and  
they1 as well as ,baldassari1 labored to
 complete the history of the            
,subapennine strata4 ,in the work of    
,odoardi1#hg there was also a clear     
argument in favor of the distinct ages  
of the older ,apennine strata1 and the  
,subapennine formations of more recent  
origin4 ,he pointed out that the strata 
of these two groups were unconformable1 
and must have been the deposits of      
different seas at distant periods of    
time4  ,raspe1 #agfc4--;,a history of   
the new islands1 by ,raspe1 a           
,hanoverian1 appeared in #agfc1 in      
,latin4#hh ,in this work1 all the       
authentic accounts of earthquakes which 
had produced permanent changes on the   
solid parts of the earth were collected 
together and examined with judicious    
criticism4 ,the best systems which had  

been proposed concerning the ancient    
history of the globe1 both by ancient   
and modern writers1 are reviewed2 and   
the merits and defects of the doctrines 
of ,hooke1 ,ray1 ,moro1 ,buffon1 and    
others1 fairly estimated4 ,great        
admiration is expressed for the         
hypothesis of ,hooke1 and his           
explanation of the origin of the strata 
is shown to have been more correct than 
,moro's1 while their theory of the      
effects of earthquakes was the same4    
,raspe had not seen ,michell's memoirs1 
and his views concerning the geological 
structure of the earth were perhaps less
 enlarged2 yet he was able to add many  
additional arguments in favor of ,hook's
 theory1 and to render it1 as he said1 a
 nearer approach to what ,hooke would   
have written had he lived in later      
times4 ,as to the periods wherein all   
the earthquakes happened1 to which we   
owe the elevation of various parts of   
our continents and islands1 ,raspe says 
he pretends not to assign their         

duration1 still less to defend ,hooke's 
suggestion1 that the convulsions almost 
all took place during the deluge of     
,noah4 ,he adverts to the apparent      
indications of the former tropical heat 
of the climate of ,europe1 and the      
changes in the species of animals and   
plants1 as among the most obscure and   
difficult problems in geology4 ,in      
regard to the islands raised from the   
sea1 within the times of history or     
tradition1 he declares that some of them
 were composed of strata containing     
organic remains1 and that they were not1
 as ,buffon had asserted1 made of mere  
volcanic matter4 ,his work concludes    
with an eloquent exhortation to         
naturalists to examine the isles which  
rose1 in #agjg1 in the ,grecian         
,archipelago1 and1 in #agbj1 in the     
,azores1 and not to neglect such        
splendid opportunities of studying      
nature in the act of parturition4 ,that 
,hooke's writings should have been      
neglected for more than half a century1 

was matter of astonishment to ,raspe2   
but it is still more wonderful that his 
own luminous exposition of that theory  
should1 for more than another half      
century1 have excited so little         
interest4  ,fuchsel1 #agfb and          
#aggc4--;,fuchsel1 a ,german physician1 
published1 in #agfb1 a geological       
description of the country between the  
,thuringerwald and the ,hartz1 and a    
memoir on the environs of               
,rudelstadt2#hi and afterwards1 in      
#aggc1 a theoretical work on the ancient
 history of the earth and of man4#ij ,he
 had evidently advanced considerably    
beyond his predecessor ,lehman1 and was 
aware of the distinctness1 both as to   
position and fossil contents1 of several
 groups of strata of different ages1    
corresponding to the secondary          
formations now recognized by geologists 
in various parts of ,germany4 ,he       
supposed the ,european continents to    
have remained covered by the sea until  
the formation of the marine strata1     

called in ,germany muschelkalk1 at the  
same time that the terrestrial plants of
 many ,european deposits1 attested the  
existence of dry land which bordered the
 ancient sea2 land which1 therefore1    
must have occupied the place of the     
present ocean4 ,the pre-existing        
continent had been gradually swallowed  
up by the sea1 different parts having   
subsided in succession into subterranean
 caverns4 ,all the sedimentary strata   
were originally horizontal1 and their   
present state of derangement must be    
referred to subsequent oscillations of  
the ground4  ,as there were plants and  
animals in the ancient periods1 so also 
there must have been men1 but they did  
not all descend from one pair1 but were 
created at various points on the earth's
 surface2 and the number of these       
distinct birth-places was as great as   
are the original languages of nations4  
,in the writings of ,fuchsel we see a   
strong desire manifested to explain     
geological phenomena as far as possible 

by reference to the agency of known     
causes2 and although some of his        
speculations were fanciful1 his views   
coincide much more nearly with those now
 generally adopted1 than the theories   
afterwards promulgated by ,werner and   
his followers4  ,brander1               
#agff4--;,gustavus ,brander published1  
in #agff1 his ,fossilia ,hantoniensia1  
containing excellent figures of fossil  
shells from the more modern 7or ,eocene7
 marine strata of ,hampshire4 ,various  
opinions1 he says in the preface1 had   
been entertained concerning the time    
when and how these bodies became        
deposited4 ,some there are who conceive 
that it might have been effected in a   
wonderful length of time by a gradual   
changing and shifting of the sea1 c4    
,but the most common cause assigned is  
that of the deluge4 ,this conjecture1 he
 says1 even if the universality of the  
flood be not called in question1 is     
purely hypothetical4 ,in his opinion1   
fossil animals and testacea were1 for   

the most part1 of unknown species2 and  
of such as were known1 the living       
analogues now belonged to southern      
latitudes4  ,soldani1 #aghj4--,soldani  
applied successfully his knowledge of   
zoology to illustrate the history of    
stratified masses4 ,he explained that   
microscopic testacea and zoophytes      
inhabited the depths of the             
,mediterranean2 and that the fossil     
species were1 in like manner1 found in  
those deposits wherein the fineness of  
their particles1 and the absence of     
pebbles1 implied that they were         
accumulated in a deep sea1 or far from  
shore4 ,this author first remarked the  
alternation of marine and freshwater    
strata in the ,paris basin4#ia          
,fortis--,testa1 #agic4--;,a lively     
controversy arose between ,fortis and   
another ,italian naturalist1 ,testa1    
concerning the fish of ,monte ,bolca1 in
 #agic4 ,their letters1#ib written with 
great spirit and elegance1 show that    
they were aware that a large proportion 

of the ,subapennine shells were         
identical with living species1 and some 
of them with species now living in the  
torrid zone4 ,fortis proposed a somewhat
 fanciful conjecture1 that when the     
volcanoes of the ,vicentin were burning1
 the waters of the ,adriatic had a      
higher temperature2 and in this manner1 
he said1 the shells of warmer regions   
may once have peopled their own seas4   
,but ,testa was disposed to think that  
these species of testacea were still    
common to their own and to equinoctial  
seas2 for many1 he said1 once supposed  
to be confined to hotter regions1 had   
been afterwards discovered in the       
,mediterranean4#ic                      
,cortesi--,spallanzani--,wallerius--,whi
tehurst4--,while these ,italian         
naturalists1 together with ,cortesi and 
,spallanzani1 were busily engaged in    
pointing out the analogy between the    
deposits of modern and ancient seas1 and
 the habits and arrangement of their    
organic inhabitants1 and while some     

progress was making1 in the same        
country1 in investigating the ancient   
and modern volcanic rocks1 some of the  
most original observers among the       
,english and ,german writers1           
,whitehurst#id and ,wallerius1 were     
wasting their strength in contending1   
according to the old ,woodwardian       
hypothesis1 that all the strata were    
formed by ,noah's deluge4 ,but          
,whitehurst's description of the rocks  
of ,derbyshire was most faithful2 and he
 atoned for false theoretical views1 by 
providing data for their refutation4    
,pallas--,saussure4--,towards the close 
of the eighteenth century1 the idea of  
distinguishing the mineral masses on our
 globe into separate groups1 and        
studying their relations1 began to be   
generally diffused4 ,pallas and         
,saussure were among the most celebrated
 whose labors contributed to this end4  
,after an attentive examination of the  
two great mountain chains of ,siberia1  
,pallas announced the result1 that the  

granitic rocks were in the middle1 the  
schistose at their sides1 and the       
limestones again on the outside of      
these2 and this he conceived would prove
 a general law in the formation of all  
chains composed chiefly of primary      
rocks4#ie  ,in his ,travels in ,russia1 
in #agic and #agid1 he made many        
geological observations on the recent   
strata near the ,wolga and the ,caspian1
 and adduced proofs of the greater      
extent of the latter sea at no distant  
era in the earth's history4 ,his memoir 
on the fossil bones of ,siberia         
attracted attention to some of the most 
remarkable phenomena in geology4 ,he    
stated that he had found a rhinoceros   
entire in the frozen soil1 with its skin
 and flesh3 an elephant1 found          
afterwards in a mass of ice on the shore
 of the ,north ,sea1 removed all doubt  
as to the accuracy of so wonderful a    
discovery4#if  ,the subjects relating to
 natural history which engaged the      
attention of ,pallas1 were too          

multifarious to admit of his devoting a 
large share of his labors exclusively to
 geology4 ,saussure1 on the other hand1 
employed the chief portion of his time  
in studying the structure of the ,alps  
and ,jura1 and he provided valuable data
 for those who followed him4 ,he did not
 pretend to deduce any general system   
from his numerous and interesting       
observations2 and the few theoretical   
opinions which escaped from him1 seem1  
like those of ,pallas1 to have been     
chiefly derived from the cosmological   
speculations of preceding writers4      
,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,history ,,of ,,the   
,,progress ,,of ,,geology--continued4   
,werner's application of geology to the 
art of      mining--,excursive character
 of his lectures--,enthusiasm of his    
pupils--,his authority--,his theoretical
 errors--,desmarest's ,map      and     
,description of ,auvergne--,controversy 
between the      ,vulcanists and        
,neptunists--,intemperance of the rival 
sects--,hutton's ,theory of the         

earth--,his discovery of granite        
veins--,originality of his views--,why  
opposed--,playfair's                    
illustrations--,influence of ,voltaire's
 writings on      geology--,imputations 
cast on the ,huttonians by ,williams1   
,kirwan1 and ,de ,luc--,smith's ,map of 
,england--,geological ,society      of  
,london--,progress of the science in    
,france--,growing      importance of the
 study of organic remains4              
,werner4--,the art of mining has long   
been taught in ,france1 ,germany1 and   
,hungary1 in scientific institutions    
established for that purpose1 where     
mineralogy has always been a principal  
branch of instruction4  ,werner was     
named1 in #agge1 professor of that      
science in the ,school of ,mines1 at    
,freyberg1 in ,saxony4 ,he directed his 
attention not merely to the composition 
and external characters of minerals1 but
 also to what he termed geognosy1 or the
 natural position of minerals in        
particular rocks1 together with the     

grouping of those rocks1 their          
geographical distribution1 and various  
relations4 ,the phenomena observed in   
the structure of the globe had hitherto 
served for little else than to furnish  
interesting topics for philosophical    
discussion2 but when ,werner pointed out
 their application to the practical     
purposes of mining1 they were instantly 
regarded by a large class of men as an  
essential part of their professional    
education1 and from that time the       
science was cultivated in ,europe more  
ardently and systematically4 ,werner's  
mind was at once imaginative and richly 
stored with miscellaneous knowledge4 ,he
 associated every thing with his        
favorite science1 and in his excursive  
lectures1 he pointed out all the        
economical uses of minerals1 and their  
application to medicine2 the influence  
of the mineral composition of rocks upon
 the soil1 and of the soil upon the     
resources1 wealth1 and civilization of  
man4 ,the vast sandy plains of ,tartary 

and ,africa1 he would say1 retained     
their inhabitants in the shape of       
wandering shepherds2 the granitic       
mountains and the low calcareous and    
alluvial plains gave rise to different  
manners1 degrees of wealth1 and         
intelligence4 ,the history even of      
languages1 and the migration of tribes1 
had been determined by the direction of 
particular strata4 ,the qualities of    
certain stones used in building would   
lead him to descant on the architecture 
of different ages and nations2 and the  
physical geography of a country         
frequently invited him to treat of      
military tactics4 ,the charm of his     
manners and his eloquence kindled       
enthusiasm in the minds of his pupils2  
and many1 who had intended at first only
 to acquire a slight knowledge of       
mineralogy1 when they had once heard    
him1 devoted themselves to it as the    
business of their lives4 ,in a few      
years1 a small school of mines1 before  
unheard of in ,europe1 was raised to the

 rank of a great university2 and men    
already distinguished in science studied
 the ,german language1 and came from the
 most distant countries to hear the     
great oracle of geology4#ig  ,werner had
 a great antipathy to the mechanical    
labor of writing1 and1 with the         
exception of a valuable treatise on     
metalliferous veins1 he could never be  
persuaded to pen more than a few brief  
memoirs1 and those containing no        
development of his general views4       
,although the natural modesty of his    
disposition was excessive1 approaching  
even to timidity1 he indulged in the    
most bold and sweeping generalizations1 
and he inspired all his scholars with a 
most implicit faith in his doctrines4   
,their admiration of his genius1 and the
 feelings of gratitude and friendship   
which they all felt for him1 were not   
undeserved2 but the supreme authority   
usurped by him over the opinions of his 
contemporaries1 was eventually          
prejudicial to the progress of the      

science2 so much so1 as greatly to      
counterbalance the advantages which it  
derived from his exertions4 ,if it be   
true that delivery be the first1 second1
 and third requisite in a popular       
orator1 it is no less certain1 that to  
travel is of first1 second1 and third   
importance to those who desire to       
originate just and comprehensive views  
concerning the structure of our globe4  
,now ,werner had not travelled to       
distant countries2 he had merely        
explored a small portion of ,germany1   
and conceived1 and persuaded others to  
believe1 that the whole surface of our  
planet1 and all the mountain chains in  
the world1 were made after the model of 
his own province4 ,it became a ruling   
object of ambition in the minds of his  
pupils to confirm the generalizations of
 their great master1 and to discover in 
the most distant parts of the globe his 
universal formations1 which he supposed 
had been each in succession             
simultaneously precipitated over the    

whole earth from a common menstruum1 or 
chaotic fluid4 ,it now appears that the 
,saxon professor had misinterpreted many
 of the most important appearances even 
in the immediate neighborhood of        
,freyberg4 ,thus1 for example1 within a 
day's journey of his school1 the        
porphyry1 called by him primitive1 has  
been found not only to send forth veins 
or dikes through strata of the coal     
formation1 but to overlie them in mass4 
,the granite of the ,hartz mountains1 on
 the other hand1 which he supposed to be
 the nucleus of the chain1 is now well  
known to traverse the other beds1 as    
near ,goslar2 and still nearer          
,freyberg1 in the ,erzgebirge1 the mica 
slate does not mantle round the granite 
as was supposed1 but abuts abruptly     
against it4 ,fragments1 also1 of the    
greywacka slate1 containing organic     
remains1 have recently been found       
entangled in the granite of the ,hartz1 
by ,m4 de ,seckendorf4#ih  ,the         
principal merit of ,werner's system of  

instruction consisted in steadily       
directing the attention of his scholars 
to the constant relations of            
superposition of certain mineral groups2
 but he had been anticipated1 as has    
been shown in the last chapter1 in the  
discovery of this general law1 by       
several geologists in ,italy and        
elsewhere2 and his leading divisions of 
the secondary strata were at the same   
time1 and independently1 made the basis 
of an arrangement of the ,british strata
 by our countryman1 ,william ,smith1 to 
whose work ,i shall refer in the sequel4
  ,controversy between the ,vulcanists  
and ,neptunists4--,in regard to basalt  
and other igneous rocks1 ,werner's      
theory was original1 but it was also    
extremely erroneous4 ,the basalts of    
,saxony and ,hesse1 to which his        
observations were chiefly confined1     
consisted of tabular masses capping the 
hills1 and not connected with the levels
 of existing valleys1 like many in      
,auvergne and the ,vivarais4 ,these     

basalts1 and all other rocks of the same
 family in other countries1 were1       
according to him1 chemical precipitates 
from water4 ,he denied that they were   
the products of submarine volcanoes2 and
 even taught that1 in the primeval ages 
of the world1 there were no volcanoes4  
,his theory was opposed1 in a twofold   
sense1 to the doctrine of the permanent 
agency of the same causes in nature2 for
 not only did he introduce1 without     
scruple1 many imaginary causes supposed 
to have once effected great revolutions 
in the earth1 and then to have become   
extinct1 but new ones also were feigned 
to have come into play in modern times2 
and1 above all1 that most violent       
instrument of change1 the agency of     
subterranean heat4  ,so early as #agfh1 
before ,werner had commenced his        
mineralogical studies1 ,raspe had truly 
characterized the basalts of ,hesse as  
of igneous origin4 ,arduino1 we have    
seen1 had pointed out numerous varieties
 of trap-rock in the ,vicentin as       

analogous to volcanic products1 and as  
distinctly referable to ancient         
submarine eruptions4 ,desmarest1 as     
before stated1 had1 in company with     
,fortis1 examined the ,vicentin in      
#agff1 and confirmed ,arduino's views4  
,in #aggb1 ,banks1 ,solander1 and ,troil
 compared the columnar basalt of ,hecla 
with that of the ,hebrides4 ,collini1 in
 #aggd1 recognized the true nature of   
the igneous rocks on the ,rhine1 between
 ,andernach and ,bonn4 ,in #agge1       
,guettard visited the ,vivarais1 and    
established the relation of basaltic    
currents to lavas4 ,lastly1 in #aggi1   
,faujas published his description of the
 volcanoes of the ,vivarais and ,velay1 
and showed how the streams of basalt had
 poured out from craters which still    
remain in a perfect state4#ii           
,desmarest4--,when sound opinions had   
thus for twenty years prevailed in      
,europe concerning the true nature of   
the ancient trap-rocks1 ,werner by his  
simple dictum caused a retrograde       

movement1 and not only overturned the   
true theory1 but substituted for it one 
of the most unphilosophical that can    
well be imagined4 ,the continued        
ascendancy of his dogmas on this subject
 was the more astonishing1 because a    
variety of new and striking facts were  
daily accumulated in favor of the       
correct opinions previously entertained4
 ,desmarest1 after a careful examination
 of ,auvergne1 pointed out1 first1 the  
most recent volcanoes which had their   
craters still entire1 and their streams 
of lava conforming to the level of the  
present river-courses4 ,he then showed  
that there were others of an            
intermediate epoch1 whose craters were  
nearly effaced1 and whose lavas were    
less intimately connected with the      
present valleys2 and1 lastly1 that there
 were volcanic rocks1 still more        
ancient1 without any discernible craters
 or scoriae1 and bearing the closest    
analogy to rocks in other parts of      
,europe1 the igneous origin of which was

 denied by the school of ,freyberg4#ajj 
,desmarest's map of ,auvergne was a work
 of uncommon merit4 ,he first made a    
trigonometrical survey of the district1 
and delineated its physical geography   
with minute accuracy and admirable      
graphic power4 ,he contrived1 at the    
same time1 to express without the aid of
 colors1 many geological details1       
including the different ages and        
sometimes even the structure1 of the    
volcanic rocks1 and distinguishing them 
from the fresh-water and the granitic4  
,they alone who have carefully studied  
,auvergne1 and traced the different lava
 streams from their craters to their    
termination1--the various isolated      
basaltic cappings1--the relation of some
 lavas to the present valleys1---the    
absence of such relations in            
others1--can appreciate the             
extraordinary fidelity of this elaborate
 work4 ,no other district of equal      
dimensions in ,europe exhibits1 perhaps1
 so beautiful and varied a series of    

phenomena2 and1 fortunately1 ,desmarest 
possessed at once the mathematical      
knowledge required for the construction 
of a map1 skill in mineralogy1 and a    
power of original generalization4       
,dolomieu--,montlosier4--,dolomieu1     
another of ,werner's contemporaries1 had
 found prismatic basalt among the       
ancient lavas of ,etna2 and1 in #aghd1  
had observed the alternations of        
submarine lavas and calcareous strata in
 the ,val di ,noto1 in ,sicily4#aja ,in 
#agij1 also1 he described similar       
phenomena in the ,vicentin and in the   
,tyrol4#ajb ,montlosier published1 in   
#aghh1 an essay on the theories of      
volcanoes of ,auvergne1 combining       
accurate local observations with        
comprehensive views4 ,notwithstanding   
this mass of evidence the scholars of   
,werner were prepared to support his    
opinions to their utmost extent2        
maintaining1 in the fulness of their    
faith1 that even obsidian was an aqueous
 precipitate4 ,as they were blinded by  

their veneration for the great teacher1 
they were impatient of opposition1 and  
soon imbibed the spirit of a faction2   
and their opponents1 the ,vulcanists1   
were not long in becoming contaminated  
with the same intemperate zeal4         
,ridicule and irony were weapons more   
frequently employed than argument by the
 rival sects1 till at last the          
controversy was carried on with a degree
 of bitterness almost unprecedented in  
questions of physical science4          
,desmarest alone1 who had long before   
provided ample materials for refuting   
such a theory1 kept aloof from the      
strife2 and whenever a zealous          
,neptunist wished to draw the old man   
into an argument1 he was satisfied with 
replying1 ,go and see4#ajc  ,hutton1    
#aghh4--;,it would be contrary to all   
analogy1 in matters of graver import1   
that a war should rage with such fury on
 the ,continent1 and that the           
inhabitants of our island should not    
mingle in the affray4 ,although in      

,england the personal influence of      
,werner was wanting to stimulate men to 
the defence of the weaker side of the   
question1 they contrived to find good   
reason for espousing the ,wernerian     
errors with great enthusiasm4 ,in order 
to explain the peculiar motives which   
led many to enter1 even with party      
feeling1 into this contest1 it will be  
necessary to present the reader with a  
sketch of the views unfolded by ,hutton1
 a contemporary of the ,saxon geologist4
 ,the former naturalist had been        
educated as a physician1 but declining  
the practice of medicine1 he resolved1  
when young1 to remain content with the  
small independence inherited from his   
father1 and thenceforth to give his     
undivided attention to scientific       
pursuits4 ,he resided at ,edinburgh1    
where he enjoyed the society of many men
 of high attainments1 who loved him for 
the simplicity of his manners1 and the  
sincerity of his character4 ,his        
application was unwearied2 and he made  

frequent tours through different parts  
of ,england and ,scotland1 acquiring    
considerable skill as a mineralogist1   
and consequently arriving at grand and  
comprehensive views in geology4 ,he     
communicated the results of his         
observations unreservedly1 and with the 
fearless spirit of one who was conscious
 that love of truth was the sole        
stimulus of his exertions4 ,when at     
length he had matured his views1 he     
published1 in #aghh1 his ,theory of the 
,earth1#ajd and the same1 afterwards    
more fully developed in a separate work1
 in #agie4 ,this treatise was the first 
in which geology was declared to be in  
no way concerned about questions as to  
the origin of things2 the first in which
 an attempt was made to dispense        
entirely with all hypothetical causes1  
and to explain the former changes of the
 earth's crust by reference exclusively 
to natural agents4 ,hutton labored to   
give fixed principles to geology1 as    
,newton had succeeded in doing to       

astronomy2 but1 in the former science1  
too little progress had been made       
towards furnishing the necessary data1  
to enable any philosopher1 however great
 his genius1 to realize so noble a      
project4  ,huttonian theory4--,the ruins
 of an older world1 said ,hutton1 are   
visible in the present structure of our 
planet2 and the strata which now compose
 our continents have been once beneath  
the sea1 and were formed out of the     
waste of pre-existing continents4 ,the  
same forces are still destroying1 by    
chemical decomposition or mechanical    
violence1 even the hardest rocks1 and   
transporting the materials to the sea1  
where they are spread out1 and form     
strata analogous to those of more       
ancient date4 ,although loosely         
deposited along the bottom of the ocean1
 they become afterwards altered and     
consolidated by volcanic heat1 and then 
heaved up1 fractured1 and contorted4    
,although ,hutton had never explored any
 region of active volcanoes1 he had     

convinced himself that basalt and many  
other trap-rocks were of igneous origin1
 and that many of them had been injected
 in a melted state through fissures in  
the older strata4 ,the compactness of   
these rocks1 and their different aspect 
from that of ordinary lava1 he          
attributed to their having cooled down  
under the pressure of the sea2 and in   
order to remove the objections started  
against this theory1 his friend1 ,sir   
,james ,hall1 instituted a most curious 
and instructive series of chemical      
experiments1 illustrating the           
crystalline arrangement and texture     
assumed by melted matter cooled under   
high pressure4  ,the absence of         
stratification in granite1 and its      
analogy1 in mineral character1 to rocks 
which he deemed of igneous origin1 led  
,hutton to conclude that granite also   
must have been formed from matter in    
fusion2 and this inference he felt could
 not be fully confirmed1 unless he      
discovered at the contact of granite and

 other strata a repetition of the       
phenomena exhibited so constantly by the
 trap-rocks4 ,resolved to try his theory
 by this test1 he went to the           
,grampians1 and surveyed the line of    
junction of the granite and             
superincumbent stratified masses1 until 
he found in ,glen ,tilt1 in #aghe1 the  
most clear and unequivocal proofs in    
support of his views4 ,veins of red     
granite are there seen branching out    
from the principal mass1 and traversing 
the black micaceous schist and primary  
limestone4 ,the intersected stratified  
rocks are so distinct in color and      
appearance as to render the example in  
that locality most striking1 and the    
alteration of the limestone in contact  
was very analogous to that produced by  
trap veins on calcareous strata4 ,this  
verification of his system filled him   
with delight1 and called forth such     
marks of joy and exultation1 that the   
guides who accompanied him1 says his    
biographer1 were convinced that he must 

have discovered a vein of silver or     
gold4#aje ,he was aware that the same   
theory would not explain the origin of  
the primary schists1 but these he called
 primary1 rejecting the term primitive1 
and was disposed to consider them as    
sedimentary rocks altered by heat1 and  
that they originated in some other form 
from the waste of previously existing   
rocks4  ,by this important discovery of 
granite veins1 to which he had been led 
by fair induction from an independent   
class of facts1 ,hutton prepared the way
 for the greatest innovation of the     
systems of his predecessors4 ,vallisneri
 had pointed out the general fact that  
there were certain fundamental rocks    
which contained no organic remains1 and 
which he supposed to have been formed   
before the creation of living beings4   
,moro1 ,generelli1 and other ,italian   
writers1 embraced the same doctrine2 and
 ,lehman regarded the mountains called  
by him primitive1 as parts of the       
original nucleus of the globe4 ,the same

 tenet was an article of faith in the   
school of ,freyberg2 and if any one     
ventured to doubt the possibility of our
 being enabled to carry back our        
researches to the creation of the       
present order of things1 the granitic   
rocks were triumphantly appealed to4 ,on
 them seemed written1 in legible        
characters1 the memorable inscription-- 
,dinanzi a me non fur cose create   ,se 
non eterne2#ajf  and no small sensation 
was excited when ,hutton seemed1 with   
unhallowed hand1 desirous to erase      
characters already regarded by many as  
sacred4 ,in the economy of the world1   
said the ,scotch geologist1 ,i can find 
no traces of a beginning1 no prospect of
 an end2 a declaration the more         
startling when coupled with the         
doctrine1 that all past ages on the     
globe had been brought about by the slow
 agency of existing causes4 ,the        
imagination was first fatigued and      
overpowered by endeavoring to conceive  
the immensity of time required for the  

annihilation of whole continents by so  
insensible a process2 and when the      
thoughts had wandered through these     
interminable periods1 no resting-place  
was assigned in the remotest distance4  
,the oldest rocks were represented to be
 of a derivative nature1 the last of an 
antecedent series1 and that1 perhaps1   
one of many pre-existing worlds4 ,such  
views of the immensity of past time1    
like those unfolded by the ,newtonian   
philosophy in regard to space1 were too 
vast to awaken ideas of sublimity       
unmixed with a painful sense of our     
incapacity to conceive a plan of such   
infinite extent4 ,worlds are seen beyond
 worlds immeasurably distant from each  
other1 and1 beyond them all1 innumerable
 other systems are faintly traced on the
 confines of the visible universe4  ,the
 characteristic feature of the          
,huttonian theory was1 as before hinted1
 the exclusion of all causes not        
supposed to belong to the present order 
of nature4 ,but ,hutton had made no step

 beyond ,hooke1 ,moro1 and ,raspe1 in   
pointing out in what manner the laws now
 governing subterranean movements might 
bring about geological changes1 if      
sufficient time be allowed4 ,on the     
contrary1 he seems to have fallen far   
short of some of their views1 especially
 when he refused to attribute any part  
of the external configuration of the    
earth's crust to subsidence4 ,he        
imagined that the continents were first 
gradually destroyed by aqueous          
degradation2 and when their ruins had   
furnished materials for new continents1 
they were upheaved by violent           
convulsions4 ,he therefore required     
alternate periods of general disturbance
 and repose2 and such he believed had   
been1 and would forever be1 the course  
of nature4  ,generelli1 in his          
exposition of ,moro's system1 had made a
 far nearer approximation towards       
reconciling geological appearances with 
the state of nature as known to us2 for 
while he agreed with ,hutton1 that the  

decay and reproduction of rocks were    
always in progress1 proceeding with the 
utmost uniformity1 the learned          
,carmelite represented the repairs of   
mountains by elevation from below to be 
effected by an equally constant and     
synchronous operation4 ,neither of these
 theories1 considered singly1 satisfies 
all the conditions of the great problem1
 which a geologist1 who rejects         
cosmological causes1 is called upon to  
solve2 but they probably contain        
together the germs of a perfect system4 
,there can be no doubt1 that periods of 
disturbance and repose have followed    
each other in succession in every region
 of the globe2 but it may be equally    
true1 that the energy of the            
subterranean movements has been always  
uniform as regards the whole earth4 ,the
 force of earthquakes may for a cycle of
 years have been invariably confined1 as
 it is now1 to large but determinate    
spaces1 and may then have gradually     
shifted its position1 so that another   

region1 which had for ages been at rest1
 became in its turn the grand theatre of
 action4  ,playfair's illustrations of  
,hutton4--,the explanation proposed by  
,hutton1 and by ,playfair1 the          
illustrator of his theory1 respecting   
the origin of valleys and of alluvial   
accumulations1 was also very imperfect4 
,they ascribed none of the inequalities 
of the earth's surface to movements     
which accompanied the upheaving of the  
land1 imagining that valleys in general 
were formed in the course of ages by the
 rivers now flowing in them2 while they 
seem not to have reflected on the       
excavating and transporting power which 
the waves of the ocean might exert on   
land during its emergence4  ,although   
,hutton's knowledge of mineralogy and   
chemistry was considerable1 he possessed
 but little information concerning      
organic remains2 they merely served him1
 as they did ,werner1 to characterize   
certain strata1 and to prove their      
marine origin4 ,the theory of former    

revolutions in organic life was not yet 
fully recognized2 and without this class
 of proofs in support of the antiquity  
of the globe1 the indefinite periods    
demanded by the ,huttonian hypothesis   
appeared visionary to many2 and some1   
who deemed the doctrine inconsistent    
with revealed truths1 indulged very     
uncharitable suspicions of the motives  
of its author4 ,they accused him of a   
deliberate design of reviving the       
heathen dogma of an eternal succession1 
and of denying that this world ever had 
a beginning4 ,playfair1 in the biography
 of his friend1 has the following       
comment on this part of their           
theory3--,in the planetary motions1     
where geometry has carried the eye so   
far1 both into the future and the past1 
we discover no mark either of the       
commencement or termination of the      
present order4 ,it is unreasonable1     
indeed1 to suppose that such marks      
should anywhere exist4 ,the ,author of  
,nature has not given laws to the       

universe1 which1 like the institutions  
of men1 carry in themselves the elements
 of their own destruction4 ,he has not  
permitted in ,his works any symptom of  
infancy or of old age1 or any sign by   
which we may estimate either their      
future or their past duration4 ,he may  
put an end1 as he no doubt gave a       
beginning1 to the present system1 at    
some determinate period of time2 but we 
may rest assured that this great        
catastrophe will not be brought about by
 the laws now existing1 and that it is  
not indicated1 by any thing which we    
perceive4#ajg  ,the party feeling       
excited against the ,huttonian          
doctrines1 and the open disregard of    
candor and temper in the controversy1   
will hardly be credited by the reader1  
unless he recalls to his recollection   
that the mind of the ,english public was
 at that time in a state of feverish    
excitement4 ,a class of writers in      
,france had been laboring industriously 
for many years1 to diminish the         

influence of the clergy1 by sapping the 
foundations of the ,christian faith2 and
 their success1 and the consequences of 
the ,revolution1 had alarmed the most   
resolute minds1 while the imagination of
 the more timid was continually haunted 
by dread of innovation1 as by the       
phantom of some fearful dream4          
,voltaire4--,voltaire had used the      
modern discoveries in physics as one of 
the numerous weapons of attack and      
ridicule directed by him against the    
,scriptures4 ,he found that the most    
popular systems of geology were         
accommodated to the sacred writings1 and
 that much ingenuity had been employed  
to make every fact coincide exactly with
 the ,mosaic account of the creation and
 deluge4 ,it was1 therefore1 with no    
friendly feelings that he contemplated  
the cultivators of geology in general1  
regarding the science as one which had  
been successfully enlisted by           
theologians as an ally in their         
cause4#ajh ,he knew that the majority of

 those who were aware of the abundance  
of fossil shells in the interior of     
continents1 were still persuaded that   
they were proofs of the universal       
deluge2 and as the readiest way of      
shaking this article of faith1 he       
endeavored to inculcate skepticism as to
 the real nature of such shells1 and to 
recall from contempt the exploded dogma 
of the sixteenth century1 that they were
 sports of nature4 ,he also pretended   
that vegetable impressions were not     
those of real plants4#aji ,yet he was   
perfectly convinced that the shells had 
really belonged to living testacea1 as  
may be seen in his essay ,on the        
formation of ,mountains4#aaj ,he would  
sometimes1 in defiance of all           
consistency1 shift his ground when      
addressing the vulgar2 and1 admitting   
the true nature of the shells collected 
in the ,alps and other places1 pretend  
that they were ,eastern species1 which  
had fallen from the hats of pilgrims    
coming from ,syria4 ,the numerous essays

 written by him on geological subjects  
were all calculated to strengthen       
prejudices1 partly because he was       
ignorant of the real state of the       
science1 and partly from his bad        
faith4#aaa ,on the other hand1 they who 
knew that his attacks were directed by a
 desire to invalidate ,scripture1 and   
who were unacquainted with the true     
merits of the question1 might well deem 
the old diluvian hypothesis             
incontrovertible1 if ,voltaire could    
adduce no better argument against it    
than to deny the true nature of organic 
remains4  ,it is only by careful        
attention to impediments originating in 
extrinsic causes1 that we can explain   
the slow and reluctant adoption of the  
simplest truths in geology4 ,first1 we  
find many able naturalists adducing the 
fossil remains of marine animals as     
proofs of an event related in           
,scripture4 ,the evidence is deemed     
conclusive by the multitude for a       
century or more2 for it favors opinions 

which they entertained before1 and they 
are gratified by supposing them         
confirmed by fresh and unexpected       
proofs4 ,many who see through the       
fallacy have no wish to undeceive those 
who are influenced by it1 approving the 
effect of the delusion1 and conniving at
 it as a pious fraud2 until1 finally1 an
 opposite party1 who are hostile to the 
sacred writings1 labor to explode the   
erroneous opinion1 by substituting for  
it another dogma1 which they know to be 
equally unsound4  ,the heretical        
,vulcanists were soon after openly      
assailed in ,england1 by imputations of 
the most illiberal kind4 ,we cannot     
estimate the malevolence of such a      
persecution1 by the pain which similar  
insinuations might now inflict2 for     
although charges of infidelity and      
atheism must always be odious1 they were
 injurious in the extreme at that moment
 of political excitement2 and it was    
better1 perhaps1 for a man's good       
reception in society1 that his moral    

character should have been traduced1    
than that he should become a mark for   
these poisoned weapons4  ,i shall pass  
over the works of numerous divines1 who 
may be excused for sensitiveness on     
points which then excited so much       
uneasiness in the public mind2 and shall
 say nothing of the amiable poet        
,cowper1#aab who could hardly be        
expected to have inquired into the merit
 of doctrines in physics4 ,but in the   
foremost ranks of the intolerant are    
found several laymen who had high claims
 to scientific reputation4 ,among these 
appears ,williams1 a mineral surveyor of
 ,edinburgh1 who published a ,natural   
,history of the ,mineral ,kingdom1 in   
#aghi2 a work of great merit1 for that  
day1 and of practical utility1 as       
containing the best account of the coal 
strata4 ,in his preface he misrepresents
 ,hutton's theory altogether1 and       
charges him with considering all rocks  
to be lavas of different colors and     
structure2 and also with warping every  

thing to support the eternity of the    
world4#aac ,he descants on the          
pernicious influence of such skeptical  
notions1 as leading to downright        
infidelity and atheism1 and as being    
nothing less than to depose the         
,almighty ,creator of the universe from 
his office4#aad  ,kirwan--,de           
,luc4--,kirwan1 president of the ,royal 
,academy of ,dublin1 a chemist and      
mineralogist of some merit1 but who     
possessed much greater authority in the 
scientific world than he was entitled by
 his talents to enjoy1 said1 in the     
introduction to his ,geological ,essays1
 #agii1 that sound geology graduated    
into religion1 and was required to      
dispel certain systems of atheism or    
infidelity1 of which they had had recent
 experience4#aae ,he was an             
uncompromising defender of the aqueous  
theory of all rocks1 and was scarcely   
surpassed by ,burnet and ,whiston1 in   
his desire to adduce the ,mosaic        
writings in confirmation of his         

opinions4  ,de ,luc1 in the preliminary 
discourse to his ,treatise on           
,geology1#aaf says1 ,the weapons have   
been changed by which revealed religion 
is attacked2 it is now assailed by      
geology1 and the knowledge of this      
science has become essential to         
theologians4 ,he imputes the failure of 
former geological systems to their      
having been anti-,mosaical1 and directed
 against a sublime tradition4 ,these and
 similar imputations1 reiterated in the 
works of ,de ,luc1 seem to have been    
taken for granted by some modern        
writers3 it is therefore necessary to   
state1 in justice to the numerous       
geologists of different nations1 whose  
works have been considered1 that none of
 them were guilty of endeavoring1 by    
arguments drawn from physics1 to        
invalidate scriptural tenets4 ,on the   
contrary1 the majority of those who were
 fortunate enough to discover the true  
causes of things1 rarely deserved       
another part of the poet's panegyric1   

,atque metus omnes subjecit pedibus4    
,the caution and even timid reserve1 of 
many eminent ,italian authors of the    
earlier period is very apparent2 and    
there can hardly be a doubt1 that they  
subscribed to certain dogmas1 and       
particularly to the first diluvian      
theory1 out of deference to popular     
prejudices1 rather than from conviction4
 ,if they were guilty of dissimulation1 
we may feel regret1 but must not blame  
their want of moral courage1 reserving  
rather our condemnation for the         
intolerance of the times1 and that      
inquisitorial power which forced        
,galileo to abjure1 and the two ,jesuits
 to disclaim the theory of ,newton4#aag 
,hutton answered ,kirwan's attacks with 
great warmth1 and with the indignation  
justly excited by unmerited reproach4   
,he had always displayed1 says          
,playfair1 the utmost disposition to    
admire the beneficent design manifested 
in the structure of the world2 and he   
contemplated with delight those parts of

 his theory which made the greatest     
additions to our knowledge of final     
causes4 ,we may say with equal truth1   
that in no scientific works in our      
language can more eloquent passages be  
found1 concerning the fitness1 harmony1 
and grandeur of all parts of the        
creation1 than in those of ,playfair4   
,they are evidently the unaffected      
expressions of a mind1 which            
contemplated the study of nature1 as    
best calculated to elevate our          
conceptions of the attributes of the    
,first ,cause4 ,at any other time the   
force and elegance of ,playfair's style 
must have insured popularity to the     
,huttonian doctrines2 but by a singular 
coincidence1 ,neptunianism and orthodoxy
 were now associated in the same creed2 
and the tide of prejudice ran so strong1
 that the majority were carried far away
 into the chaotic fluid1 and other      
cosmological inventions of ,werner4     
,these fictions the ,saxon professor had
 borrowed with little modification1 and 

without any improvement1 from his       
predecessors4 ,they had not the smallest
 foundation either in ,scripture or in  
common sense1 and were probably approved
 of by many as being so ideal and       
unsubstantial1 that they could never    
come into violent collision with any    
preconceived opinions4  ,according to   
,de ,luc1 the first essential           
distinction to be made between the      
various phenomena exhibited on the      
surface of the earth was1 to determine  
which were the results of causes still  
in action1 and which had been produced  
by causes that had ceased to act4 ,the  
form and composition of the mass of our 
continents1 he said1 and their existence
 above the level of the sea1 must be    
ascribed to causes no longer in action4 
,these continents emerged1 at no very   
remote period1 on the sudden retreat of 
the ocean1 the waters of which made     
their way into subterranean caverns4    
,the formation of the rocks which enter 
into the crust of the earth began with  

the precipitation of granite from a     
primordial liquid1 after which other    
strata containing the remains of        
organized bodies were deposited1 till at
 last the present sea remained as the   
residuum of the primordial liquid1 and  
no longer continued to produce mineral  
strata4#aah  ,william ,smith1           
#agij4--,while the tenets of the rival  
schools of ,freyberg and ,edinburgh were
 warmly espoused by devoted partisans1  
the labors of an individual1 unassisted 
by the advantages of wealth or station  
in society1 were almost unheeded4 ,mr4  
,william ,smith1 an ,english surveyor1  
published his ,tabular ,view of the     
,british ,strata in #agij1 wherein he   
proposed a classification of the        
secondary formations in the ,west of    
,england4 ,although he had not          
communicated with ,werner1 it appeared  
by this work that he had arrived at the 
same views respecting the laws of       
superposition of stratified rocks2 that 
he was aware that the order of          

succession of different groups was never
 inverted2 and that they might be       
identified at very distant points by    
their peculiar organized fossils4  ,from
 the time of the appearance of the      
,tabular ,view1 the author labored to   
construct a geological map of the whole 
of ,england2 and with the greatest      
disinterestedness of mind1 communicated 
the results of his investigations to all
 who desired information1 giving such   
publicity to his original views1 as to  
enable his contemporaries almost to     
compete with him in the race4 ,the      
execution of his map was completed in   
#ahae1 and remains a lasting monument of
 original talent and extraordinary      
perseverance2 for he had explored the   
whole country on foot1 without the      
guidance of previous observers1 or the  
aid of fellow-laborers1 and had         
succeeded in throwing into natural      
divisions the whole complicated series  
of ,british rocks4 ,d',aubuisson1 a     
distinguished pupil of ,werner1 paid a  

just tribute of praise to this          
remarkable performance1 observing1 that 
what many celebrated mineralogists had  
only accomplished for a small part of   
,germany in the course of half a        
century1 had been effected by a single  
individual for the whole of             
,england4#aai  ,werner invented a new   
language to express his divisions of    
rocks1 and some of his technical terms1 
such as grauwacke1 gneiss1 and others1  
passed current in every country in      
,europe4 ,smith adopted for the most    
part ,english provincial terms1 often of
 barbarous sound1 such as gault1        
cornbrash1 clunch clay2 and affixed them
 to subdivisions of the ,british series4
 ,many of these still retain their place
 in our scientific classifications1 and 
attest his priority of arrangement4     
,,modern ,,progress ,,of ,,geology4     
,the contention of the rival factions of
 the ,vulcanists and ,neptunists had    
been carried to such a height1 that     
these names had become terms of         

reproach2 and the two parties had been  
less occupied in searching for truth1   
than for such arguments as might        
strengthen their own cause or serve to  
annoy their antagonists4 ,a new school  
at last arose1 who professed the        
strictest neutrality1 and the utmost    
indifference to the systems of ,werner  
and ,hutton1 and who resolved diligently
 to devote their labors to observation4 
,the reaction1 provoked by the          
intemperance of the conflicting parties1
 now produced a tendency to extreme     
caution4 ,speculative views were        
discountenanced1 and1 through fear of   
exposing themselves to the suspicion of 
a bias towards the dogmas of a party1   
some geologists became anxious to       
entertain no opinion whatever on the    
causes of phenomena1 and were inclined  
to skepticism even where the conclusions
 deducible from observed facts scarcely 
admitted of reasonable doubt4           
,geological ,society of ,london4--,but  
although the reluctance to theorize was 

carried somewhat to excess1 no measure  
could be more salutary at such a moment 
than a suspension of all attempts to    
form what were termed theories of the   
earth4 ,a great body of new data were   
required2 and the ,geological ,society  
of ,london1 founded in #ahjg1 conduced  
greatly to the attainment of this       
desirable end4 ,to multiply and record  
observations1 and patiently to await the
 result at some future period1 was the  
object proposed by them2 and it was     
their favorite maxim that the time was  
not yet come for a general system of    
geology1 but that all must be content   
for many years to be exclusively engaged
 in furnishing materials for future     
generalizations4 ,by acting up to these 
principles with consistency1 they in a  
few years disarmed all prejudice1 and   
rescued the science from the imputation 
of being a dangerous1 or at best but a  
visionary pursuit4  ,a distinguished    
modern writer has with truth remarked1  
that the advancement of three of the    

main divisions of geological inquiry    
have during the last half century been  
promoted successively by three different
 nations of ,europe1--the ,germans1 the 
,english1 and the ,french4#abj ,we have 
seen that the systematic study of what  
may be called mineralogical geology had 
its origin and chief point of activity  
in ,germany1 where ,werner first        
described with precision the mineral    
characters of rocks4 ,the classification
 of the secondary formations1 each      
marked by their peculiar fossils1       
belongs1 in a great measure1 to         
,england1 where the labors before       
alluded to of ,smith1 and those of the  
most active members of the ,geological  
,society of ,london1 were steadily      
directed to these objects4 ,the         
foundation of the third branch1 that    
relating to the tertiary formations1 was
 laid in ,france by the splendid work of
 ,cuvier and ,brongniart1 published in  
#ahjh1 ,on the ,mineral ,geography and  
,organic ,remains of the ,neighborhood  

of ,paris4  ,we may still trace1 in the 
language of the science and our present 
methods of arrangement1 the various     
countries where the growth of these     
several departments of geology was at   
different times promoted4 ,many names of
 simple minerals and rocks remain to    
this day ,german2 while the ,european   
divisions of the secondary strata are in
 great part ,english1 and are1 indeed1  
often founded too exclusively on        
,english types4 ,lastly1 the            
subdivisions first established of the   
succession of strata in the ,paris basin
 have served as normal groups to which  
other tertiary deposits throughout      
,europe have been compared1 even in     
cases where this standard was wholly    
inapplicable4  ,no period could have    
been more fortunate for the discovery1  
in the immediate neighborhood of ,paris1
 of a rich store of well-preserved      
fossils1 than the commencement of the   
present century2 for at no former era   
had ,natural history been cultivated    

with such enthusiasm in the ,french     
metropolis4 ,the labors of ,cuvier in   
comparative osteology1 and of ,lamarck  
in recent and fossil shells1 had raised 
these departments of study to a rank of 
which they had never previously been    
deemed susceptible4 ,their              
investigations had eventually a powerful
 effect in dispelling the illusion which
 had long prevailed concerning the      
absence of analogy between the ancient  
and modern state of our planet4 ,a close
 comparison of the recent and fossil    
species and the inferences drawn in     
regard to their habits1 accustomed the  
geologist to contemplate the earth as   
having been at successive periods the   
dwelling-place of animals and plants of 
different races1 some terrestrial1 and  
others aquatic--some fitted to live in  
seas1 others in the waters of lakes and 
rivers4 ,by the consideration of these  
topics1 the mind was slowly and         
insensibly withdrawn from imaginary     
pictures of catastrophes and chaotic    

confusion1 such as haunted the          
imagination of the early cosmogonists4  
,numerous proofs were discovered of the 
tranquil deposition of sedimentary      
matter1 and the slow development of     
organic life4 ,if many writers1 and     
,cuvier himself in the number1 still    
continued to maintain1 that the thread  
of induction was broken1#aba yet1 in    
reasoning by the strict rules of        
induction from recent to fossil species1
 they in a great measure disclaimed the 
dogma which in theory they professed4   
,the adoption of the same generic1 and1 
in some cases1 even of the same         
specific1 names for the exuviae of      
fossil animals and their living         
analogues1 was an important step towards
 familiarizing the mind with the idea of
 the identity and unity of the system in
 distant eras4 ,it was an               
acknowledgment1 as it were1 that part at
 least of the ancient memorials of      
nature were written in a living         
language4 ,the growing importance1 then1

 of the natural history of organic      
remains may be pointed out as the       
characteristic feature of the progress  
of the science during the present       
century4 ,this branch of knowledge has  
already become an instrument of great   
utility in geological classification1   
and is continuing daily to unfold new   
data for grand and enlarged views       
respecting the former changes of the    
earth4  ,when we compare the result of  
observations in the last fifty years    
with those of the three preceding       
centuries1 we cannot but look forward   
with the most sanguine expectations to  
the degree of excellence to which       
geology may be carried1 even by the     
labors of the present generation4       
,never1 perhaps1 did any science1 with  
the exception of astronomy1 unfold1 in  
an equally brief period1 so many novel  
and unexpected truths1 and overturn so  
many preconceived opinions4 ,the senses 
had for ages declared the earth to be at
 rest1 until the astronomer taught that 

it was carried through space with       
inconceivable rapidity4 ,in like manner 
was the surface of this planet regarded 
as having remained unaltered since its  
creation1 until the geologist proved    
that it had been the theatre of         
reiterated change1 and was still the    
subject of slow but never-ending        
fluctuations4 ,the discovery of other   
systems in the boundless regions of     
space was the triumph of astronomy2 to  
trace the same system through various   
transformations--to behold it at        
successive eras adorned with different  
hills and valleys1 lakes and seas1 and  
peopled with new inhabitants1 was the   
delightful meed of geological research4 
,by the geometer were measured the      
regions of space1 and the relative      
distances of the heavenly bodies2--by   
the geologist myriads of ages were      
reckoned1 not by arithmetical           
computation1 but by a train of physical 
events--a succession of phenomena in the
 animate and inanimate worlds--signs    

which convey to our minds more definite 
ideas than figures can do of the        
immensity of time4  ,whether our        
investigation of the earth's history and
 structure will eventually be productive
 of as great practical benefits to      
mankind as a knowledge of the distant   
heavens1 must remain for the decision of
 posterity4 ,it was not till astronomy  
had been enriched by the observations of
 many centuries1 and had made its way   
against popular prejudices to the       
establishment of a sound theory1 that   
its application to the useful arts was  
most conspicuous4 ,the cultivation of   
geology began at a later period2 and in 
every step which it has hitherto made   
towards sound theoretical principles1 it
 had to contend against more violent    
prepossessions4 ,the practical          
advantages already derived from it have 
not been inconsiderable2 but our        
generalizations are yet imperfect1 and  
they who come after us may be expected  
to reap the most valuable fruits of our 

labor4 ,meanwhile1 the charm of first   
discovery is our own2 and1 as we explore
 this magnificent field of inquiry1 the 
sentiment of a great historian of our   
times may continually be present to our 
minds1 that he who calls what has       
vanished back again into being1 enjoys a
 bliss like that of creating4#abb       
,,chapter ,v4  ,,prejudices ,,which     
,,have ,,retarded ,,the ,,progress ,,of 
,,geology     ,prepossessions in regard 
to the duration of past                 
time--,prejudices     arising from our  
peculiar position as inhabitants of the 
land--,of     those occasioned by our   
not seeing subterranean changes now in  
progress--,all these causes combine to  
make the former course of     ,nature   
appear different from the               
present--,objections to the             
doctrine1 that causes similar in kind   
and energy to those now     acting1 have
 produced the former changes of the     
earth's surface1     considered4   ,if  
we reflect on the history of the        

progress of geology1 as explained in the
 preceding chapters1 we perceive that   
there have been great fluctuations of   
opinion respecting the nature of the    
causes to which all former changes of   
the earth's surface are referable4 ,the 
first observers conceived the monuments 
which the geologist endeavors to        
decipher to relate to an original state 
of the earth1 or to a period when there 
were causes in activity1 distinct1 in   
kind and degree1 from those now         
constituting the economy of nature4     
,these views were gradually modified1   
and some of them entirely abandoned1 in 
proportion as observations were         
multiplied1 and the signs of former     
mutations more skilfully interpreted4   
,many appearances1 which had for a long 
time been regarded as indicating        
mysterious and extraordinary agency1    
were finally recognized as the necessary
 result of the laws now governing the   
material world2 and the discovery of    
this unlooked-for conformity has at     

length induced some philosophers to     
infer1 that1 during the ages            
contemplated in geology1 there has never
 been any interruption to the agency of 
the same uniform laws of change4 ,the   
same assemblage of general causes1 they 
conceive1 may have been sufficient to   
produce1 by their various combinations1 
the endless diversity of effects1 of    
which the shell of the earth has        
preserved the memorials2 and1           
consistently with these principles1 the 
recurrence of analogous changes is      
expected by them in time to come4       
,whether we coincide or not in this     
doctrine1 we must admit that the gradual
 progress of opinion concerning the     
succession of phenomena in very remote  
eras1 resembles1 in a singular manner1  
that which has accompanied the growing  
intelligence of every people1 in regard 
to the economy of nature in their own   
times4 ,in an early state of            
advancement1 when a great number of     
natural appearances are unintelligible1 

an eclipse1 an earthquake1 a flood1 or  
the approach of a comet1 with many other
 occurrences afterwards found to belong 
to the regular course of events1 are    
regarded as prodigies4 ,the same        
delusion prevails as to moral phenomena1
 and many of these are ascribed to the  
intervention of demons1 ghosts1 witches1
 and other immaterial and supernatural  
agents4 ,by degrees1 many of the enigmas
 of the moral and physical world are    
explained1 and1 instead of being due to 
extrinsic and irregular causes1 they are
 found to depend on fixed and invariable
 laws4 ,the philosopher at last becomes 
convinced of the undeviating uniformity 
of secondary causes2 and1 guided by his 
faith in this principle1 he determines  
the probability of accounts transmitted 
to him of former occurrences1 and often 
rejects the fabulous tales of former    
times1 on the ground of their being     
irreconcilable with the experience of   
more enlightened ages4  ,prepossessions 
in regard to the duration of past       

time4--,as a belief in the want of      
conformity in the causes by which the   
earth's crust has been modified in      
ancient and modern periods was1 for a   
long time1 universally prevalent1 and   
that1 too1 amongst men who were         
convinced that the order of nature had  
been uniform for the last several       
thousand years1 every circumstance which
 could have influenced their minds and  
given an undue bias to their opinions   
deserves particular attention4 ,now the 
reader may easily satisfy himself1 that1
 however undeviating the course of      
nature may have been from the earliest  
epochs1 it was impossible for the first 
cultivators of geology to come to such a
 conclusion1 so long as they were under 
a delusion as to the age of the world1  
and the date of the first creation of   
animate beings4 ,however fantastical    
some theories of the sixteenth century  
may now appear to us1--however unworthy 
of men of great talent and sound        
judgment1--we may rest assured that1 if 

the same misconception now prevailed in 
regard to the memorials of human        
transactions1 it would give rise to a   
similar train of absurdities4 ,let us   
imagine1 for example1 that ,champollion1
 and the ,french and ,tuscan literati   
lately engaged in exploring the         
antiquities of ,egypt1 had visited that 
country with a firm belief that the     
banks of the ,nile were never peopled by
 the human race before the beginning of 
the nineteenth century1 and that their  
faith in this dogma was as difficult to 
shake as the opinion of our ancestors   
that the earth was never the abode of   
living beings until the creation of the 
present continents1 and of the species  
now existing1--it is easy to perceive   
what extravagant systems they would     
frame1 while under the influence of this
 delusion1 to account for the monuments 
discovered in ,egypt4 ,the sight of the 
pyramids1 obelisks1 colossal statues1   
and ruined temples1 would fill them with
 such astonishment1 that for a time they

 would be as men spell-bound--wholly    
incapable of reasoning with sobriety4   
,they might incline at first to refer   
the construction of such stupendous     
works to some superhuman powers of a    
primeval world4 ,a system might be      
invented resembling that so gravely     
advanced by ,manetho1 who relates that a
 dynasty of gods originally ruled in    
,egypt1 of whom ,vulcan1 the first      
monarch1 reigned nine thousand years2   
after whom came ,hercules and other     
demigods1 who were at last succeeded by 
human kings4  ,when some fanciful       
speculations of this kind had amused    
their imaginations for a time1 some vast
 repository of mummies would be         
discovered1 and would immediately       
undeceive those antiquaries who enjoyed 
an opportunity of personally examining  
them2 but the prejudices of others at a 
distance1 who were not eye-witnesses of 
the whole phenomena1 would not be so    
easily overcome4 ,the concurrent report 
of many travellers would1 indeed1 render

 it necessary for them to accommodate   
ancient theories to some of the new     
facts1 and much wit and ingenuity would 
be required to modify and defend their  
old positions4 ,each new invention would
 violate a greater number of known      
analogies2 for if a theory be required  
to embrace some false principle1 it     
becomes more visionary in proportion as 
facts are multiplied1 as would be the   
case if geometers were now required to  
form an astronomical system on the      
assumption of the immobility of the     
earth4  ,amongst other fanciful         
conjectures concerning the history of   
,egypt1 we may suppose some of the      
following to be started4 ,as the banks  
of the ,nile have been so recently      
colonized for the first time1 the       
curious substances called mummies could 
never in reality have belonged to men4  
,they may have been generated by some   
plastic virtue residing in the interior 
of the earth1 or they may be abortions  
of ,nature produced by her incipient    

efforts in the work of creation4 ,for if
 deformed beings are sometimes born even
 now1 when the scheme of the universe is
 fully developed1 many more may have    
been 'sent before their time1 scarce    
half made up1' when the planet itself   
was in the embryo state4 ,but if these  
notions appear to derogate from the     
perfection of the ,divine attributes1   
and if these mummies be in all their    
parts true representations of the human 
form1 may we not refer them to the      
future rather than the past8--,may we   
not be looking into the womb of ,nature1
 and not her grave8 ,may not these      
images be like the shades of the unborn 
in ,virgil's ,elysium--the archetypes of
 men not yet called into existence8     
,these speculations1 if advocated by    
eloquent writers1 would not fail to     
attract many zealous votaries1 for they 
would relieve men from the painful      
necessity of renouncing preconceived    
opinions4 ,incredible as such skepticism
 may appear1 it has been rivalled by    

many systems of the sixteenth and       
seventeenth centuries1 and among others 
by that of the learned ,falloppio1 who  
regarded the tusks of fossil elephants  
as earthy concretions1 and the pottery  
or fragments of vases in the ,monte     
,testaceo1 near ,rome1 as works of      
nature1 and not of art4 ,but when one   
generation had passed away1 and another1
 not compromised to the support of      
antiquated dogmas1 had succeeded1 they  
would review the evidence afforded by   
mummies more impartially1 and would no  
longer controvert the preliminary       
question1 that human beings had lived in
 ,egypt before the nineteenth century3  
so that when a hundred years perhaps had
 been lost1 the industry and talents of 
the philosopher would be at last        
directed to the elucidation of points of
 real historical importance4  ,but the  
above arguments are aimed against one   
only of many prejudices with which the  
earlier geologists had to contend4 ,even
 when they conceded that the earth had  

been peopled with animate beings at an  
earlier period than was at first        
supposed1 they had no conception that   
the quantity of time bore so great a    
proportion to the historical era as is  
now generally conceded4 ,how fatal every
 error as to the quantity of time must  
prove to the introduction of rational   
views concerning the state of things in 
former ages1 may be conceived by        
supposing the annals of the civil and   
military transactions of a great nation 
to be perused under the impression that 
they occurred in a period of one hundred
 instead of two thousand years4 ,such a 
portion of history would immediately    
assume the air of a romance2 the events 
would seem devoid of credibility1 and   
inconsistent with the present course of 
human affairs4 ,a crowd of incidents    
would follow each other in thick        
succession4 ,armies and fleets would    
appear to be assembled only to be       
destroyed1 and cities built merely to   
fall in ruins4 ,there would be the most 

violent transitions from foreign or     
intestine war to periods of profound    
peace1 and the works effected during the
 years of disorder or tranquillity would
 appear alike superhuman in magnitude4  
,he who should study the monuments of   
the natural world under the influence of
 a similar infatuation1 must draw a no  
less exaggerated picture of the energy  
and violence of causes1 and must        
experience the same insurmountable      
difficulty in reconciling the former and
 present state of nature4 ,if we could  
behold in one view all the volcanic     
cones thrown up in ,iceland1 ,italy1    
,sicily1 and other parts of ,europe1    
during the last five thousand years1 and
 could see the lavas which have flowed  
during the same period2 the             
dislocations1 subsidences1 and          
elevations caused during earthquakes2   
the lands added to various deltas1 or   
devoured by the sea1 together with the  
effects of devastation by floods1 and   
imagine that all these events had       

happened in one year1 we must form most 
exalted ideas of the activity of the    
agents1 and the suddenness of the       
revolutions4 ,were an equal amount of   
change to pass before our eyes in the   
next year1 could we avoid the conclusion
 that some great crisis of nature was at
 hand8 ,if geologists1 therefore1 have  
misinterpreted the signs of a succession
 of events1 so as to conclude that      
centuries were implied where the        
characters imported thousands of years1 
and thousands of years where the        
language of ,nature signified millions1 
they could not1 if they reasoned        
logically from such false premises1 come
 to any other conclusion than that the  
system of the natural world had         
undergone a complete revolution4  ,we   
should be warranted in ascribing the    
erection of the great pyramid to        
superhuman power1 if we were convinced  
that it was raised in one day2 and if we
 imagine1 in the same manner1 a         
continent or mountain-chain to have been

 elevated during an equally small       
fraction of the time which was really   
occupied in upheaving it1 we might then 
be justified in inferring1 that the     
subterranean movements were once far    
more energetic than in our own times4   
,we know that during one earthquake the 
coast of ,chili may be raised for a     
hundred miles to the average height of  
about three feet4 ,a repetition of two  
thousand shocks1 of equal violence1     
might produce a mountain-chain one      
hundred miles long1 and six thousand    
feet high4 ,now1 should one or two only 
of these convulsions happen in a        
century1 it would be consistent with the
 order of events experienced by the     
,chilians from the earliest times2 but  
if the whole of them were to occur in   
the next hundred years1 the entire      
district must be depopulated1 scarcely  
any animals or plants could survive1 and
 the surface would be one confused heap 
of ruin and desolation4  ,one           
consequence of undervaluing greatly the 

quantity of past time1 is the apparent  
coincidence which it occasions of events
 necessarily disconnected1 or which are 
so unusual1 that it would be            
inconsistent with all calculation of    
chances to suppose them to happen at one
 and the same time4 ,when the           
unlooked-for association of such rare   
phenomena is witnessed in the present   
course of nature1 it scarcely ever fails
 to excite a suspicion of the           
preternatural in those minds which are  
not firmly convinced of the uniform     
agency of secondary causes2--as if the  
death of some individual in whose fate  
they are interested happens to be       
accompanied by the appearance of a      
luminous meteor1 or a comet1 or the     
shock of an earthquake4 ,it would be    
only necessary to multiply such         
coincidences indefinitely1 and the mind 
of every philosopher would be disturbed4
 ,now it would be difficult to          
exaggerate the number of physical       
events1 many of them most rare and      

unconnected in their nature1 which were 
imagined by the ,woodwardian hypothesis 
to have happened in the course of a few 
months2 and numerous other examples     
might be found of popular geological    
theories1 which require us to imagine   
that a long succession of events        
happened in a brief and almost momentary
 period4  ,another liability to error1  
very nearly allied to the former1 arises
 from the frequent contact of geological
 monuments referring to very distant    
periods of time4 ,we often behold1 at   
one glance1 the effects of causes which 
have acted at times incalculably remote1
 and yet there may be no striking       
circumstances to mark the occurrence of 
a great chasm in the chronological      
series of ,nature's archives4 ,in the   
vast interval of time which may really  
have elapsed between the results of     
operations thus compared1 the physical  
condition of the earth may1 by slow and 
insensible modifications1 have become   
entirely altered2 one or more races of  

organic beings may have passed away1 and
 yet have left behind1 in the particular
 region under contemplation1 no trace of
 their existence4  ,to a mind           
unconscious of these intermediate       
events1 the passage from one state of   
things to another must appear so        
violent1 that the idea of revolutions in
 the system inevitably suggests itself4 
,the imagination is as much perplexed by
 the deception1 as it might be if two   
distant points in space were suddenly   
brought into immediate proximity4 ,let  
us suppose1 for a moment1 that a        
philosopher should lie down to sleep in 
some arctic wilderness1 and then be     
transferred by a power1 such as we read 
of in tales of enchantment1 to a valley 
in a tropical country1 where1 on        
awaking1 he might find himself          
surrounded by birds of brilliant        
plumage1 and all the luxuriance of      
animal and vegetable forms of which     
,nature is so prodigal in those regions4
 ,the most reasonable supposition1      

perhaps1 which he could make1 if by the 
necromancer's art he were placed in such
 a situation1 would be1 that he was     
dreaming2 and if a geologist form       
theories under a similar delusion1 we   
cannot expect him to preserve more      
consistency in his speculations than in 
the train of ideas in an ordinary dream4
  ,it may afford1 perhaps1 a lively     
illustration of the principle here      
insisted upon1 if ,i recall to the      
reader's recollection the legend of the 
,seven ,sleepers4 ,the scene of that    
popular fable was placed in the two     
centuries which elapsed between the     
reign of the emperor ,decius and the    
death of ,theodosius the younger4 ,in   
that interval of time 7between the years
 #bdi and #dej of our era7 the union of 
the ,roman ,empire had been dissolved1  
and some of its fairest provinces       
overrun by the barbarians of the north4 
,the seat of government had passed from 
,rome to ,constantinople1 and the throne
 from a pagan persecutor to a succession

 of ,christian and orthodox princes4    
,the genius of the empire had been      
humbled in the dust1 and the altars of  
,diana and ,hercules were on the point  
of being transferred to ,catholic saints
 and martyrs4 ,the legend relates1 that 
when ,decius was still persecuting the  
,christians1 seven noble youths of      
,ephesus concealed themselves in a      
spacious cavern in the side of an       
adjacent mountain1 where they were      
doomed to perish by the tyrant1 who gave
 orders that the entrance should be     
firmly secured with a pile of huge      
stones4 ,they immediately fell into a   
deep slumber1 which was miraculously    
prolonged1 without injuring the powers  
of life1 during a period of #ahg years4 
,at the end of that time the slaves of  
,adolius1 to whom the inheritance of the
 mountain had descended1 removed the    
stones to supply materials for some     
rustic edifice3 the light of the sun    
darted into the cavern1 and the ,seven  
,sleepers were permitted to awake4      

,after a slumber1 as they thought1 of a 
few hours1 they were pressed by the     
calls of hunger1 and resolved that      
,jamblichus1 one of their number1 should
 secretly return to the city to purchase
 bread for the use of his companions4   
,the youth could no longer recognize the
 once familiar aspect of his native     
country1 and his surprise was increased 
by the appearance of a large cross      
triumphantly erected over the principal 
gate of ,ephesus4 ,his singular dress   
and obsolete language confounded the    
baker1 to whom he offered an ancient    
medal of ,decius as the current coin of 
the empire2 and ,jamblichus1 on the     
suspicion of a secret treasure1 was     
dragged before the judge4 ,their mutual 
inquiries produced the amazing          
discovery1 that two centuries were      
almost elapsed since ,jamblichus and his
 friends had escaped from the rage of a 
pagan tyrant4#abc  ,this legend was     
received as authentic throughout the    
,christian world before the end of the  

sixth century1 and was afterwards       
introduced by ,mahomet as a divine      
revelation into the ,koran1 and from    
hence was adopted and adorned by all the
 nations from ,bengal to ,africa who    
professed the ,mahometan faith4 ,some   
vestiges even of a similar tradition    
have been discovered in ,scandinavia4   
,this easy and universal belief1        
observes the philosophical historian of 
the ,decline and ,fall1 so expressive of
 the sense of mankind1 may be ascribed  
to the genuine merit of the fable       
itself4 ,we imperceptibly advance from  
youth to age1 without observing the     
gradual1 but incessant1 change of human 
affairs2 and even1 in our larger        
experience of history1 the imagination  
is accustomed1 by a perpetual series of 
causes and effects1 to unite the most   
distant revolutions4 ,but if the        
interval between two memorable eras     
could be instantly annihilated2 if it   
were possible1 after a momentary slumber
 of two hundred years1 to display the   

new world to the eyes of a spectator who
 still retained a lively and recent     
impression of the old1 his surprise and 
his reflections would furnish the       
pleasing subject of a philosophical     
romance4#abd  ,prejudices arising from  
our peculiar position as inhabitants of 
the land4--,the sources of prejudice    
hitherto considered may be deemed       
peculiar for the most part to the       
infancy of the science1 but others are  
common to the first cultivators of      
geology and to ourselves1 and are all   
singularly calculated to produce the    
same deception1 and to strengthen our   
belief that the course of nature in the 
earlier ages differed widely from that  
now established4 ,although these        
circumstances cannot be fully explained 
without assuming some things as proved1 
which it will be the object of another  
part of this work to demonstrate1 it may
 be well to allude to them briefly in   
this place4  ,the first and greatest    
difficulty1 then1 consists in an        

habitual unconsciousness that our       
position as observers is essentially    
unfavorable1 when we endeavor to        
estimate the nature and magnitude of the
 changes now in progress4 ,in           
consequence of our inattention to this  
subject1 we are liable to serious       
mistakes in contrasting the present with
 former states of the globe4 ,as        
dwellers on the land1 we inhabit about a
 fourth part of the surface2 and that   
portion is almost exclusively a theatre 
of decay1 and not of reproduction4 ,we  
know1 indeed1 that new deposits are     
annually formed in seas and lakes1 and  
that every year some new igneous rocks  
are produced in the bowels of the earth1
 but we cannot watch the progress of    
their formation2 and as they are only   
present to our minds by the aid of      
reflection1 it requires an effort both  
of the reason and the imagination to    
appreciate duly their importance4 ,it   
is1 therefore1 not surprising that we   
estimate very imperfectly the result of 

operations thus invisible to us2 and    
that1 when analogous results of former  
epochs are presented to our inspection1 
we cannot immediately recognize the     
analogy4 ,he who has observed the       
quarrying of stone from a rock1 and has 
seen it shipped for some distant port1  
and then endeavors to conceive what kind
 of edifice will be raised by the       
materials1 is in the same predicament as
 a geologist1 who1 while he is confined 
to the land1 sees the decomposition of  
rocks1 and the transportation of matter 
by rivers to the sea1 and then endeavors
 to picture to himself the new strata   
which ,nature is building beneath the   
waters4  ,prejudices arising from our   
not seeing subterranean changes4--,nor  
is his position less unfavorable when1  
beholding a volcanic eruption1 he tries 
to conceive what changes the column of  
lava has produced1 in its passage       
upwards1 on the intersected strata2 or  
what form the melted matter may assume  
at great depths on cooling2 or what may 

be the extent of the subterranean rivers
 and reservoirs of liquid matter far    
beneath the surface4 ,it should1        
therefore1 be remembered1 that the task 
imposed on those who study the earth's  
history requires no ordinary share of   
discretion2 for we are precluded from   
collating the corresponding parts of the
 system of things as it exists now1 and 
as it existed at former periods4 ,if we 
were inhabitants of another element--if 
the great ocean were our domain1 instead
 of the narrow limits of the land1 our  
difficulties would be considerably      
lessened2 while1 on the other hand1     
there can be little doubt1 although the 
reader may1 perhaps1 smile at the bare  
suggestion of such an idea1 that an     
amphibious being1 who should possess our
 faculties1 would still more easily     
arrive at sound theoretical opinions in 
geology1 since he might behold1 on the  
one hand1 the decomposition of rocks in 
the atmosphere1 or the transportation of
 matter by running water2 and1 on the   

other1 examine the deposition of        
sediment in the sea1 and the imbedding  
of animal and vegetable remains in new  
strata4 ,he might ascertain1 by direct  
observation1 the action of a mountain   
torrent1 as well as of a marine current2
 might compare the products of volcanoes
 poured out upon the land with those    
ejected beneath the waters2 and might   
mark1 on the one hand1 the growth of the
 forest1 and1 on the other1 that of the 
coral reef4 ,yet1 even with these       
advantages1 he would be liable to fall  
into the greatest errors1 when          
endeavoring to reason on rocks of       
subterranean origin4 ,he would seek in  
vain1 within the sphere of his          
observation1 for any direct analogy to  
the process of their formation1 and     
would therefore be in danger of         
attributing them1 wherever they are     
upraised to view1 to some primeval state
 of nature4  ,but if we may be allowed  
so far to indulge the imagination1 as to
 suppose a being entirely confined to   

the nether world--some dusky melancholy 
sprite1 like ,umbriel1 who could flit on
 sooty pinions to the central earth1 but
 who was never permitted to sully the   
fair face of light1 and emerge into the 
regions of water and of air2 and if this
 being should busy himself in           
investigating the structure of the      
globe1 he might frame theories the exact
 converse of those usually adopted by   
human philosophers4 ,he might infer that
 the stratified rocks1 containing shells
 and other organic remains1 were the    
oldest of created things1 belonging to  
some original and nascent state of the  
planet4 ,of these masses1 he might say1 
whether they consist of loose incoherent
 sand1 soft clay1 or solid stone1 none  
have been formed in modern times4 ,every
 year some part of them are broken and  
shattered by earthquakes1 or melted by  
volcanic fire2 and when they cool down  
slowly from a state of fusion1 they     
assume a new and more crystalline form1 
no longer exhibiting that stratified    

disposition and those curious           
impressions and fantastic markings1 by  
which they were previously              
characterized4 ,this process cannot have
 been carried on for an indefinite time1
 for in that case all the stratified    
rocks would long ere this have been     
fused and crystallized4 ,it is therefore
 probable that the whole planet once    
consisted of these mysterious and       
curiously bedded formations at a time   
when the volcanic fire had not yet been 
brought into activity4 ,since that      
period there seems to have been a       
gradual development of heat2 and this   
augmentation we may expect to continue  
till the whole globe shall be in a state
 of fluidity and incandescence4  ,such  
might be the system of the ,gnome at the
 very time that the followers of        
,leibnitz1 reasoning on what they saw on
 the outer surface1 might be teaching   
the opposite doctrine of gradual        
refrigeration1 and averring that the    
earth had begun its career as a fiery   

comet1 and might be destined hereafter  
to become a frozen mass4 ,the tenets of 
the schools of the nether and of the    
upper world would be directly opposed to
 each other1 for both would partake of  
the prejudices inevitably resulting from
 the continual contemplation of one     
class of phenomena to the exclusion of  
another4 ,man observes the annual       
decomposition of crystalline and igneous
 rocks1 and may sometimes see their     
conversion into stratified deposits2 but
 he cannot witness the reconversion of  
the sedimentary into the crystalline by 
subterranean fire4 ,he is in the habit  
of regarding all the sedimentary rocks  
as more recent than the unstratified1   
for the same reason that we may suppose 
him to fall into the opposite error if  
he saw the origin of the igneous class  
only4  ,it was not an impossible        
contingency1 that astronomers might have
 been placed at some period in a        
situation much resembling that in which 
the geologist seems to stand at present4

 ,if the ,italians1 for example1 in the 
early part of the twelfth century1 had  
discovered at ,amalfi1 instead of the   
pandects of ,justinian1 some ancient    
manuscripts filled with astronomical    
observations relating to a period of    
three thousand years1 and made by some  
ancient geometers who possessed optical 
instruments as perfect as any in modern 
,europe1 they would probably1 on        
consulting these memorials1 have come to
 a conclusion that there had been a     
great revolution in the solar and       
sidereal systems4 ,many primary and     
secondary planets1 they might say1 are  
enumerated in these tables1 which exist 
no longer4 ,their positions are assigned
 with such precision that we may assure 
ourselves that there is nothing in their
 place at present but the blue ether4   
,where one star is visible to us1 these 
documents represent several thousands4  
,some of those which are now single     
consisted then of two separate bodies1  
often distinguished by different colors1

 and revolving periodically round a     
common centre of gravity4 ,there is     
nothing analogous to them in the        
universe at present2 for they were      
neither fixed stars nor planets1 but    
seem to have stood in the mutual        
relation of sun and planet to each      
other4 ,we must conclude1 therefore1    
that there has occurred1 at no distant  
period1 a tremendous catastrophe1       
whereby thousands of worlds have been   
annihilated at once1 and some heavenly  
bodies absorbed into the substance of   
others4  ,when such doctrines had       
prevailed for ages1 the discovery of    
some of the worlds1 supposed to have    
been lost 7the satellites of ,jupiter1  
for example71 by aid of the first rude  
telescope invented after the revival of 
science1 would not dissipate the        
delusion1 for the whole burden of proof 
would now be thrown on those who        
insisted on the stability of the system 
from a remote period1 and these         
philosophers would be required to       

demonstrate the existence of all the    
worlds said to have been annihilated4   
,such popular prejudices would be most  
unfavorable to the advancement of       
astronomy2 for1 instead of persevering  
in the attempt to improve their         
instruments1 and laboriously to make and
 record observations1 the greater number
 would despair of verifying the         
continued existence of the heavenly     
bodies not visible to the naked eye4    
,instead of confessing the extent of    
their ignorance1 and striving to remove 
it by bringing to light new facts1 they 
would indulge in the more easy and      
indolent employment of framing imaginary
 theories concerning catastrophes and   
mighty revolutions in the system of the 
universe4  ,for more than two centuries 
the shelly strata of the ,subapennine   
hills afforded matter of speculation to 
the early geologists of ,italy1 and few 
of them had any suspicion that similar  
deposits were then forming in the       
neighboring sea4 ,they were as          

unconscious of the continued action of  
causes still producing similar effects1 
as the astronomers1 in the case above   
supposed1 of the existence of certain   
heavenly bodies still giving and        
reflecting light1 and performing their  
movements as of old4 ,some imagined that
 the strata1 so rich in organic remains1
 instead of being due to secondary      
agents1 had been so created in the      
beginning of things by the fiat of the  
,almighty4 ,others1 as we have seen1    
ascribed the imbedded fossil bodies to  
some plastic power which resided in the 
earth in the early ages of the world4   
,in what manner were these dogmas at    
length exploded8 ,the fossil relics were
 carefully compared with their living   
analogues1 and all doubts as to their   
organic origin were eventually          
dispelled4 ,so1 also1 in regard to the  
nature of the containing beds of mud1   
sand1 and limestone3 those parts of the 
bottom of the sea were examined where   
shells are now becoming annually        

entombed in new deposits4 ,donati       
explored the bed of the ,adriatic1 and  
found the closest resemblance between   
the strata there forming1 and those     
which constituted hills above a thousand
 feet high in various parts of the      
,italian peninsula4 ,he ascertained by  
dredging that living testacea were there
 grouped together in precisely the same 
manner as were their fossil analogues in
 the inland strata2 and while some of   
the recent shells of the ,adriatic were 
becoming incrusted with calcareous rock1
 he observed that others had been newly 
buried in sand and clay1 precisely as   
fossil shells occur in the ,subapennine 
hills4 ,this discovery of the identity  
of modern and ancient submarine         
operations was not made without the aid 
of artificial instruments1 which1 like  
the telescope1 brought phenomena into   
view not otherwise within the sphere of 
human observation4  ,in like manner1 the
 volcanic rocks of the ,vicentin had    
been studied in the beginning of the    

last century2 but no geologist          
suspected1 before the time of ,arduino1 
that these were composed of ancient     
submarine lavas4 ,during many years of  
controversy1 the popular opinion        
inclined to a belief that basalt and    
rocks of the same class had been        
precipitated from a chaotic fluid1 or an
 ocean which rose at successive periods 
over the continents1 charged with the   
component elements of the rocks in      
question4 ,few will now dispute that it 
would have been difficult to invent a   
theory more distant from the truth2 yet 
we must cease to wonder that it gained  
so many proselytes1 when we remember    
that its claims to probability arose    
partly from the very circumstance of its
 confirming the assumed want of analogy 
between geological causes and those now 
in action4 ,by what train of            
investigations were geologists induced  
at length to reject these views1 and to 
assent to the igneous origin of the     
trappean formations8 ,by an examination 

of volcanoes now active1 and by         
comparing their structure and the       
composition of their lavas with the     
ancient trap-rocks4  ,the establishment1
 from time to time1 of numerous points  
of identification1 drew at length from  
geologists a reluctant admission1 that  
there was more correspondence between   
the condition of the globe at remote    
eras and now1 and more uniformity in the
 laws which have regulated the changes  
of its surface1 than they at first      
imagined4 ,if1 in this state of the     
science1 they still despaired of        
reconciling every class of geological   
phenomena to the operations of ordinary 
causes1 even by straining analogy to the
 utmost limits of credibility1 we might 
have expected1 at least1 that the       
balance of probability would now have   
been presumed to incline towards the    
close analogy of the ancient and modern 
causes4 ,but1 after repeated experience 
of the failure of attempts to speculate 
on geological monuments1 as belonging to

 a distinct order of things1 new sects  
continued to persevere in the principles
 adopted by their predecessors4 ,they   
still began1 as each new problem        
presented itself1 whether relating to   
the animate or inanimate world1 to      
assume an original and dissimilar order 
of nature2 and when at length they      
approximated1 or entirely came round to 
an opposite opinion1 it was always with 
the feeling1 that they were conceding   
what they had been justified a priori in
 deeming improbable4 ,in a word1 the    
same men who1 as natural philosophers1  
would have been most incredulous        
respecting any extraordinary deviations 
from the known course of nature1 if     
reported to have happened in their own  
time1 were equally disposed1 as         
geologists1 to expect the proofs of such
 deviations at every period of the past4
  ,i shall proceed in the following     
chapters to enumerate some of the       
principal difficulties still opposed to 
the theory of the uniform nature and    

energy of the causes which have worked  
successive changes in the crust of the  
earth1 and in the condition of its      
living inhabitants4 ,the discussion of  
so important a question on the present  
occasion may appear premature1 but it is
 one which naturally arises out of a    
review of the former history of the     
science4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible  
to enter into such speculative topics1  
without occasionally carrying the novice
 beyond his depth1 and appealing to     
facts and conclusions with which he will
 be unacquainted1 until he has studied  
some elementary work on geology1 but it 
may be useful to excite his curiosity1  
and lead him to study such works by     
calling his attention at once to some of
 the principal points of                
controversy4#abe     ,,chapter ,,vi4    
,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,discordance ,,of
 ,,the ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,causes
 ,,of ,,change ,,controverted4          
,climate of the ,northern ,hemisphere   
formerly different--,direct proofs      

from the organic remains of the ,italian
 strata--,proofs from analogy           
derived from extinct                    
quadrupeds--,imbedding of animals in    
icebergs--,siberian mammoths--,evidence 
in regard to temperature1 from     the  
fossils of tertiary and secondary       
rocks--,from the plants of the     coal 
formation--,northern limit of these     
fossils--,whether such plants     could 
endure the long continuance of an arctic
 night4   ,climate of the ,northern     
hemisphere formerly different4--,proofs 
of former revolutions in climate1 as    
deduced from fossil remains1 have       
afforded one of the most popular        
objections to the theory which endeavors
 to explain all geological changes by   
reference to those now in progress on   
the earth4 ,the probable causes1        
therefore1 of fluctuations in climate1  
may first be treated of4  ,that the     
climate of the ,northern hemisphere has 
undergone an important change1 and that 
its mean annual temperature must once   

have more nearly resembled that now     
experienced within the tropics1 was the 
opinion of some of the first naturalists
 who investigated the contents of the   
ancient strata4 ,their conjecture became
 more probable when the shells and      
corals of the older tertiary and many   
secondary rocks were carefully examined2
 for the organic remains of these       
formations were found to be intimately  
connected by generic affinity with      
species now living in warmer latitudes4 
,at a later period1 many reptiles1 such 
as turtles1 tortoises1 and large saurian
 animals1 were discovered in ,european  
formations in great abundance2 and they 
supplied new and powerful arguments1    
from analogy1 in support of the         
doctrine1 that the heat of the climate  
had been great when our secondary strata
 were deposited4 ,lastly1 when the      
botanist turned his attention to the    
specific determination of fossil plants1
 the evidence acquired still fuller     
confirmation2 for the flora of a country

 is peculiarly influenced by            
temperature3 and the ancient vegetation 
of the earth might have been expected   
more readily than the forms of animals1 
to have afforded conflicting proofs1 had
 the popular theory been without        
foundation4 ,when the examination of    
fossil remains was extended to rocks in 
the most northern parts of ,europe and  
,north ,america1 and even to the ,arctic
 regions1 indications of the same       
revolution in climate were discovered4  
,it cannot be said1 that in this1 as in 
many other departments of geology1 we   
have investigated the phenomena of      
former eras1 and neglected those of the 
present state of things4 ,on the        
contrary1 since the first agitation of  
this interesting question1 the          
accessions to our knowledge of living   
animals and plants have been immense1   
and have far surpassed all the data     
previously obtained for generalizing on 
the relation of certain types of        
organization to particular climates4    

,the tropical and temperate zones of    
,south ,america and of ,australia have  
been explored2 and1 on close comparison1
 it has been found that scarcely any of 
the species of the animate creation in  
these extensive continents are identical
 with those inhabiting the old world4   
,yet the zoologist and botanist1 well   
acquainted with the geographical        
distribution of organic beings in other 
parts of the globe1 would have been     
able1 if distinct groups of species had 
been presented to them from these       
regions1 to recognize those which had   
been collected from latitudes within1   
and those which were brought from       
without the tropics4  ,before ,i attempt
 to explain the probable causes of great
 vicissitudes of temperature on the     
earth's surface1 ,i shall take a rapid  
view of some of the principal data which
 appear to support the popular opinions 
now entertained on the subject4 ,to     
insist on the soundness of these        
inferences1 is the more necessary1      

because some zoologists have undertaken 
to vindicate the uniformity of the laws 
of nature1 not by accounting for former 
fluctuations in climate1 but by denying 
the value of the evidence in their      
favor4#abf  ,proofs from fossil shells  
in tertiary strata4--,in ,sicily1       
,calabria1 and in the neighborhood of   
,naples1 the fossil testacea of the most
 modern tertiary formations belong      
almost entirely to species now          
inhabiting the ,mediterranean2 but as we
 proceed northwards in the ,italian     
peninsula we find in the strata called  
,subapennine an assemblage of fossil    
shells departing somewhat more widely   
from the type of the neighboring seas4  
,the proportion of species identifiable 
with those now living in the            
,mediterranean is still considerable2   
but it no longer predominates1 as in the
 ,south of ,italy and part of ,sicily1  
over the unknown species4 ,although     
occurring in localities which are       
removed several degrees farther from the

 equator 7as at ,sienna1 ,parma1 ,asti1 
c471 the shells yield clear indications 
of a warmer climate4 ,this evidence is  
of great weight1 and is not neutralized 
by any facts of a conflicting character2
 such1 for instance1 as the association1
 in the same group1 of individuals      
referable to species now confined to    
arctic regions4 ,whenever any of the    
fossil shells are identified with living
 species foreign to the ,mediterranean1 
it is not in the ,northern ,ocean1 but  
nearer the tropics1 that they must be   
sought3 on the other hand1 the          
associated unknown species belong1 for  
the most part1 to genera which are now  
most largely developed in equinoctial   
regions1 as1 for example1 the genera    
,cancellaria1 ,cassidaria1 ,pleurotoma1 
,conus1 and ,cypraea4  ,on comparing the
 fossils of the tertiary deposits of    
,paris and ,london with those of        
,bourdeaux1 and these again with the    
more modern strata of ,sicily1 we should
 at first expect that they would each   

indicate a higher temperature in        
proportion as they are situated farther 
to the south4 ,but the contrary is true2
 of the shells belonging to these       
several groups1 whether freshwater or   
marine1 some are of extinct1 others of  
living species4 ,those found in the     
older1 or ,eocene1 deposits of ,paris   
and ,london1 although six or seven      
degrees to the north of the ,miocene    
strata at ,bourdeaux1 afford evidence of
 a warmer climate2 while those of       
,bourdeaux imply that the sea in which  
they lived was of a higher temperature  
than that of ,sicily1 where the shelly  
strata were formed six or seven degrees 
nearer to the equator4 ,in these cases  
the greater antiquity of the several    
formations 7the ,parisian being the     
oldest and the ,sicilian the newest7 has
 more than counterbalanced the influence
 which latitude would otherwise exert1  
and this phenomenon clearly points to a 
gradual and successive refrigeration of 
climate4  ,siberian ,mammoths4--,it will

 naturally be asked1 whether some recent
 geological discoveries bringing        
evidence to light of a colder1 or as it 
has been termed glacial epoch1 towards  
the close of the tertiary periods       
throughout the northern hemisphere1 does
 not conflict with the theory above     
alluded to1 of a warmer temperature     
having prevailed in the eras of the     
,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene        
formations4 ,in answer to this inquiry1 
it may certainly be affirmed1 that an   
oscillation of climate has occurred in  
times immediately antecedent to the     
peopling of the earth by man2 but proof 
of the intercalation of a less genial   
climate at an era when nearly all the   
marine and terrestrial testacea had     
already become specifically the same as 
those now living1 by no means rebuts the
 conclusion previously drawn1 in favor  
of a warmer condition of the globe1     
during the ages which elapsed while the 
tertiary strata were deposited4 ,in some
 of the most superficial patches of     

sand1 gravel1 and loam1 scattered very  
generally over ,europe1 and containing  
recent shells1 the remains of extinct   
species of land quadrupeds have been    
found1 especially in places where the   
alluvial matter appears to have been    
washed into small lakes1 or into        
depressions in the plains bordering     
ancient rivers4 ,similar deposits have  
also been lodged in rents and caverns of
 rocks1 where they may have been swept  
in by land floods1 or introduced by     
engulphed rivers during changes in the  
physical geography of these countries4  
,the various circumstances under which  
the bones of animals have been thus     
preserved1 will be more fully considered
 hereafter2#abg ,i shall only state     
here1 that among the extinct mammalia   
thus entombed1 we find species of the   
elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1     
bear1 hyaena1 lion1 tiger1 monkey       
7macacus#abh71 and many others2         
consisting partly of genera now confined
 to warmer regions4  ,it is certainly   

probable that when some of these        
quadrupeds abounded in ,europe1 the     
climate was milder than that now        
experienced4 ,the hippopotamus1 for     
example1 is now only met with where the 
temperature of the water is warm and    
nearly uniform throughout the year1 and 
where the rivers are never frozen over4 
,yet when the great fossil species      
7,hippopotamus major1 ,cuv47 inhabited  
,england1 the testacea of our country   
were nearly the same as those now       
existing1 and the climate cannot be     
supposed to have been very hot4 ,the    
bones of this animal have lately been   
found by ,mr4 ,strickland1 together with
 those of a bear and other mammalia1 at 
,cropthorn1 near ,evesham1 in           
,worcestershire1 in alluvial sand1      
together with twenty-three species of   
terrestrial and freshwater shells1 all1 
with two exceptions1 of ,british        
species4 ,the bed of sand1 containing   
the shells and bones1 reposes on lias1  
and is covered with alternating strata  

of gravel1 sand1 and loam4#abi  ,the    
mammoth also appears to have existed in 
,england when the temperature of our    
latitudes could not have been very      
different from that which now prevails2 
for remains of this animal have been    
found at ,north ,cliff1 in the county of
 ,york1 in a lacustrine formation1 in   
which all the land and freshwater       
shells1 thirteen in number1 can be      
identified with species and varieties   
now existing in that county4 ,bones of  
the bison1 also1 an animal now          
inhabiting a cold or temperate climate1 
have been found in the same place4 ,that
 these quadrupeds1 and the indigenous   
species of testacea associated with     
them1 were all contemporary inhabitants 
of ,yorkshire1 has been established by  
unequivocal proof4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,v4   
,vernon ,harcourt caused a pit to be    
sunk to the depth of twenty-two feet    
through undisturbed strata1 in which the
 remains of the mammoth were found      
imbedded1 together with the shells1 in a

 deposit which had evidently resulted   
from tranquil waters4#acj  ,in the      
valley of the ,thames1 as at ,ilford and
 ,grays1 in ,essex1 bones of the        
elephant and rhinoceros occur in strata 
abounding in freshwater shells of the   
genera ,unio1 ,cyclas1 ,paludina1       
,valvata1 ,ancylus1 and others4 ,these  
fossil shells belong for the most part  
to species now living in the same       
district1 yet some few of them are      
extinct1 as1 for example1 a species of  
,cyrena1 a genus no longer inhabiting   
,europe1 and now entirely restricted to 
warmer latitudes4  ,when reasoning on   
such phenomena1 the reader must always  
bear in mind that the fossil individuals
 belonged to species of elephant1       
rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 bear1 tiger1  
and hyaena1 distinct from those which   
now dwell within or near the tropics4   
,dr4 ,fleming1 in a discussion on this  
subject1 has well remarked that a near  
resemblance in form and osteological    
structure is not always followed1 in the

 existing creation1 by a similarity of  
geographical distribution2 and we must  
therefore be on our guard against       
deciding too confidently1 from mere     
analogy of anatomical structure1        
respecting the habits and physiological 
peculiarities of species now no more4   
,the zebra delights to roam over the    
tropical plains1 while the horse can    
maintain its existence throughout an    
,iceland winter4 ,the buffalo1 like the 
zebra1 prefers a high temperature1 and  
cannot thrive even where the common ox  
prospers4 ,the musk-ox1 on the other    
hand1 though nearly resembling the      
buffalo1 prefers the stinted herbage of 
the arctic regions1 and is able1 by its 
periodical migrations1 to outlive a     
northern winter4 ,the jackal 7,canis    
aureus7 inhabits ,africa1 the warmer    
parts of ,asia1 and ,greece2 while the  
isatis 7,canis lagopus7 resides in the  
arctic regions4 ,the ,african hare and  
the polar hare have their geographical  
distribution expressed in their trivial 

names2#aca and different species of     
bears thrive in tropical1 temperate1 and
 arctic latitudes4  ,recent             
investigations have placed beyond all   
doubt the important fact that a species 
of tiger1 identical with that of        
,bengal1 is common in the neighborhood  
of ,lake ,aral1 near ,sussac1 in the    
forty-fifth degree of north latitude2   
and from time to time this animal is now
 seen in ,siberia1 in a latitude as far 
north as the parallel of ,berlin and    
,hamburgh4#acb ,humboldt remarks that   
the part of ,southern ,asia now         
inhabited by this ,indian species of    
tiger is separated from the ,himalaya by
 two great chains of mountains1 each    
covered with perpetual snow1--the chain 
of ,kuenlun1 lat4 #ce degrees ,n41 and  
that of ,mouztagh1 lat4 #db degrees1--so
 that it is impossible that these       
animals should merely have made         
excursions from ,india1 so as to have   
penetrated in summer to the forty-eighth
 and fifty-third degrees of north       

latitude4 ,they must remain all the     
winter north of the ,mouztagh1 or       
,celestial ,mountains4 ,the last tiger  
killed1 in #ahbh1 on the ,lena1 in lat4 
#eb-a_/d degrees1 was in a climate      
colder than that of ,petersburg and     
,stockholm4#acc  ,we learn from ,mr4    
,hodgson's account of the mammalia of   
,nepal1 that the tiger is sometimes     
found at the very edge of perpetual snow
 in the ,himalaya2#acd and ,pennant     
mentions that it is found among the     
snows of ,mount ,ararat in ,armenia4    
,the jaguar1 also1 has been seen in     
,america1 wandering from ,mexico1 as far
 north as ,kentucky1 lat4 #cg degrees   
,n41#ace and even as far as #db degrees 
,s4 in ,south ,america1--a latitude     
which corresponds to that of the        
,pyrenees in the northern               
hemisphere4#acf ,the range of the puma  
is still wider1 for it roams from the   
equator to the ,straits of ,magellan1   
being often seen at ,port ,famine1 in   
lat4 #ec degrees #ch minutes ,s4  ,a new

 species of panther 7,felis irbis71     
covered with long hair1 has been        
discovered in ,siberia1 evidently       
inhabiting1 like the tiger1 a region    
north of the ,celestial ,mountains1     
which are in lat4 #db degrees4#acg  ,the
 two-horned ,african rhinoceros occurs  
without the tropics at the ,cape of     
,good ,hope1 in lat4 #cd degrees #bi    
minutes ,s41 where it is accompanied by 
the elephant1 hippopotamus1 and hyaena4 
,here the migration of all these species
 towards the south is arrested by the   
ocean2 but if the continent had been    
prolonged still farther1 and the land   
had been of moderate elevation1 it is   
very probable that they might have      
extended their range to a greater       
distance from the tropics4  ,now1 if the
 ,indian tiger can range in our own     
times to the southern borders of        
,siberia1 or skirt the snows of the     
,himalaya1 and if the puma can reach the
 fifty-third degree of latitude in      
,south ,america1 we may easily          

understand how large species of the same
 genera may once have inhabited our     
temperate climates4 ,the mammoth 7,e4   
primigenius71 already alluded to1 as    
occurring fossil in ,england1 was       
decidedly different from the two        
existing species of elephants1 one of   
which is limited to ,asia1 south of the 
#ca degrees of ,n4 lat41 the other to   
,africa1 where it extends1 as before    
stated1 as far south as the ,cape of    
,good ,hope4 ,the bones of the great    
fossil species are very widely spread   
over ,europe and ,north ,america2 but   
are nowhere in such profusion as in     
,siberia1 particularly near the shores  
of the ,frozen ,ocean4 ,are we1 then1 to
 conclude that this animal preferred a  
polar climate8 ,if so1 it may well be   
asked1 by what food was it sustained1   
and why does it not still survive near  
the arctic circle8#ach  ,pallas and     
other writers describe the bones of the 
mammoth as abounding throughout all the 
,lowlands of ,siberia1 stretching in a  

direction west and east1 from the       
borders of ,europe to the extreme point 
nearest ,america1 and south and north1  
from the base of the mountains of       
,central ,asia to the shores of the     
,arctic ,sea4 7,see map1 fig4 #a47      
,within this space1 scarcely inferior in
 area to the whole of ,europe1 fossil   
ivory has been collected almost         
everywhere1 on the banks of the ,irtish1
 ,obi1 ,yenesei1 ,lena1 and other       
rivers4 ,the elephantine remains do not 
occur in the marshes and low plains1 but
 where the banks of the rivers present  
lofty precipices of sand and clay1 from 
which circumstance ,pallas very justly  
inferred that1 if sections could be     
obtained1 similar bones might be found  
in all the elevated lands intervening   
between the great rivers4 ,strahlenberg1
 indeed1 had stated1 before the time of 
,pallas1 that wherever any of the great 
rivers overflowed and cut out fresh     
channels during floods1 more fossil     
remains of the same kind were invariably

 disclosed4  ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of  
,,siberia4  ,fig4 #a4  ,map showing the 
course of the ,siberian rivers from     
south to north1 from temperate to arctic
 regions1 in the country where the      
fossil bones of the ,mammoth abound4    
,as to the position of the bones1       
,pallas found them in some places       
imbedded together with marine remains2  
in others1 simply with fossil wood1 or  
lignite1 such as1 he says1 might have   
been derived from carbonized peat4 ,on  
the banks of the ,yenesei1 below the    
city of ,krasnojarsk1 in lat4 #ef       
degrees1 he observed grinders1 and bones
 of elephants1 in strata of yellow and  
red loam1 alternating with coarse sand  
and gravel1 in which was also much      
petrified wood of the willow and other  
trees4 ,neither here nor in the         
neighboring country were there any      
marine shells1 but merely layers of     
black coal4#aci ,but grinders of the    
mammoth were collected much farther down
 the same river1 near the sea1 in lat4  

#gj degrees1 mixed with marine          
petrifactions4#adj ,many other places in
 ,siberia are cited by ,pallas1 where   
sea shells and fishes' teeth accompany  
the bones of the mammoth1 rhinoceros1   
and ,siberian buffalo1 or bison 7,bos   
priscus74 ,but it is not on the ,obi nor
 the ,yenesei1 but on the ,lena1 farther
 to the east1 where1 in the same        
parallels of latitude1 the cold is far  
more intense1 that fossil remains have  
been found in the most wonderful state  
of preservation4 ,in #aggb1 ,pallas     
obtained from ,wiljuiskoi1 in lat4 #fd  
degrees1 from the banks of the ,wiljui1 
a tributary of the ,lena1 the carcass of
 a rhinoceros 7,r4 tichorhinus71 taken  
from the sand in which it must have     
remained congealed for ages1 the soil of
 that region being always frozen to     
within a slight depth of the surface4   
,this carcass was compared to a natural 
mummy1 and emitted an odor like putrid  
flesh1 part of the skin being still     
covered with black and gray hairs4 ,so  

great1 indeed1 was the quantity of hair 
on the foot and head conveyed to ,st4   
,petersburg1 that ,pallas asked whether 
the rhinoceros of the ,lena might not   
have been an inhabitant of the temperate
 regions of middle ,asia1 its clothing  
being so much warmer than that of the   
,african rhinoceros4#ada  ,professor    
,brandt1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 in a      
letter to ,baron ,alex4 ,von ,humboldt1 
dated #ahdf1 adds the following         
particulars respecting this wonderful   
fossil relic3--,i have been so fortunate
 as to extract from cavities in the     
molar teeth of the ,wiljui rhinoceros a 
small quantity of its half-chewed food1 
among which fragments of pine leaves1   
one-half of the seed of a polygonaceous 
plant1 and very minute portions of wood 
with porous cells 7or small fragments of
 coniferous wood71 were still           
recognizable4 ,it was also remarkable1  
on a close investigation of the head1   
that the blood-vessels discovered in the
 interior of the mass appeared filled1  

even to the capillary vessels1 with a   
brown mass 7coagulated blood71 which in 
many places still showed the red color  
of blood4#adb  ,after more than thirty  
years1 the entire carcass of a mammoth  
7or extinct species of elephant7 was    
obtained in #ahjc1 by ,mr4 ,adams1 much 
farther to the north4 ,it fell from a   
mass of ice1 in which it had been       
encased1 on the banks of the ,lena1 in  
lat4 #gj degrees2 and so perfectly had  
the soft parts of the carcass been      
preserved1 that the flesh1 as it lay1   
was devoured by wolves and bears4 ,this 
skeleton is still in the museum of ,st4 
,petersburg1 the head retaining its     
integument and many of the ligaments    
entire4 ,the skin of the animal was     
covered1 first1 with black bristles1    
thicker than horse hair1 from twelve to 
sixteen inches in length2 secondly1 with
 hair of a reddish brown color1 about   
four inches long2 and thirdly1 with wool
 of the same color as the hair1 about an
 inch in length4 ,of the fur1 upwards of

 thirty pounds' weight were gathered    
from the wet sand-bank4 ,the individual 
was nine feet high and sixteen feet     
long1 without reckoning the large curved
 tusks3 a size rarely surpassed by the  
largest living male elephants4#adc  ,it 
is evident1 then1 that the mammoth1     
instead of being naked1 like the living 
,indian and ,african elephants1 was     
enveloped in a thick shaggy covering of 
fur1 probably as impenetrable to rain   
and cold as that of the musk ox4#add    
,the species may have been fitted by    
nature to withstand the vicissitudes of 
a northern climate2 and it is certain   
that1 from the moment when the          
carcasses1 both of the rhinoceros and   
elephant1 above described1 were buried  
in ,siberia1 in latitudes #fd degrees   
and #gj degrees ,n41 the soil must have 
remained frozen1 and the atmosphere     
nearly as cold as at this day4  ,the    
most recent discoveries made in #ahdc by
 ,mr4 ,middendorf1 a distinguished      
,russian naturalist1 and which he       

communicated to me in ,september1 #ahdf1
 afford more precise information as to  
the climate of the ,siberian lowlands1  
at the period when the extinct          
quadrupeds were entombed4 ,one elephant 
was found on the ,tas1 between the ,obi 
and ,yenesei1 near the arctic circle1   
about lat4 #ff degrees #cj minutes ,n41 
with some parts of the flesh in so      
perfect a state that the bulb of the eye
 is now preserved in the museum at      
,moscow4 ,another carcass1 together with
 a young individual of the same species1
 was met with in the same year1 #ahdc1  
in lat4 #ge degrees #ae minutes ,n41    
near the river ,taimyr1 with the flesh  
decayed4 ,it was imbedded in strata of  
clay and sand1 with erratic blocks1 at  
about #ae feet above the level of the   
sea4 ,in the same deposit ,mr4          
,middendorf observed the trunk of a     
larch tree 7,pinus larix71 the same wood
 as that now carried down in abundance  
by the ,taimyr to the ,arctic ,sea4     
,there were also associated fossil      

shells of living northern species1 and  
which are moreover characteristic of the
 drift or glacial deposits of ,europe4  
,among these ,nucula pygmaea1 ,tellina  
calcarea1 ,mya truncata1 and ,saxicava  
rugosa were conspicuous4  ,so fresh is  
the ivory throughout northern ,russia1  
that1 according to ,tilesius1 thousands 
of fossil tusks have been collected and 
used in turning2 yet others are still   
procured and sold in great plenty4 ,he  
declares his belief that the bones still
 left in northern ,russia must greatly  
exceed in number all the elephants now  
living on the globe4  ,we are as yet    
ignorant of the entire geographical     
range of the mammoth2 but its remains   
have been recently collected from the   
cliffs of frozen mud and ice on the east
 side of ,behring's ,straits1 in        
,eschscholtz's ,bay1 in ,russian        
,america1 lat4 #ff degrees ,n4 ,as the  
cliffs waste away by the thawing of the 
ice1 tusks and bones fall out1 and a    
strong odor of animal matter is exhaled 

from the mud4#ade  ,on considering all  
the facts above enumerated1 it seems    
reasonable to imagine that a large      
region in central ,asia1 including1     
perhaps1 the southern half of ,siberia1 
enjoyed1 at no very remote period in the
 earth's history1 a temperate climate1  
sufficiently mild to afford food for    
numerous herds of elephants and         
rhinoceroses1 of species distinct from  
those now living4 ,it has usually been  
taken for granted that herbivorous      
animals of large size require a very    
luxuriant vegetation for their support2 
but this opinion is1 according to ,mr4  
,darwin1 completely erroneous3--,it has 
been derived1 he says1 from our         
acquaintance with ,india and the ,indian
 islands1 where the mind has been       
accustomed to associate troops of       
elephants with noble forests and        
impenetrable jungles4 ,but the southern 
parts of ,africa1 from the tropic of    
,capricorn to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 
although sterile and desert1 are        

remarkable for the number and great bulk
 of the indigenous quadrupeds4 ,we there
 meet with an elephant1 five species of 
rhinoceros1 a hippopotamus1 a giraffe1  
the bos caffer1 the elan1 two zebras1   
the quagga1 two gnus1 and several       
antelopes4 ,nor must we suppose1 that   
while the species are numerous1 the     
individuals of each kind are few4 ,dr4  
,andrew ,smith saw1 in one day's march1 
in lat4 #bd degrees ,s41 without        
wandering to any great distance on      
either side1 about #aej rhinoceroses1   
with several herds of giraffes1 and his 
party had killed1 on the previous night1
 eight hippopotamuses4 ,yet the country 
which they inhabited was thinly covered 
with grass and bushes about four feet   
high1 and still more thinly with        
mimosa-trees1 so that the wagons of the 
travellers were not prevented from      
proceeding in a nearly direct line4#adf 
,in order to explain how so many animals
 can find support in this region1 it is 
suggested that the underwood1 of which  

their food chiefly consists1 may contain
 much nutriment in a small bulk1 and    
also that the vegetation has a rapid    
growth2 for no sooner is a part consumed
 than its place1 says ,dr4 ,smith1 is   
supplied by a fresh stock4              
,nevertheless1 after making every       
allowance for this successive production
 and consumption1 it is clear1 from the 
facts above cited1 that the quantity of 
food required by the larger herbivora is
 much less than we have usually         
imagined4 ,mr4 ,darwin conceives that   
the amount of vegetation supported at   
any one time by ,great ,britain may     
exceed1 in a ten-fold ratio1 the        
quantity existing on an equal area in   
the interior parts of ,southern         
,africa4#adg ,it is remarked1 moreover1 
in illustration of the small connection 
discoverable between abundance of food  
and the magnitude of indigenous         
mammalia1 that while in the desert part 
of ,southern ,africa there are so many  
huge animals2 in ,brazil1 where the     

splendor and exuberance of the          
vegetation are unrivalled1 there is not 
a single wild quadruped of large        
size4#adh  ,it would doubtless be       
impossible for herds of mammoths and    
rhinoceroses to subsist1 at present1    
throughout the year1 even in the        
southern part of ,siberia1 covered as it
 is with snow during winter2 but there  
is no difficulty in supposing a         
vegetation capable of nourishing these  
great quadrupeds to have once flourished
 between the latitudes #dj degrees and  
#fj degrees ,n4  ,dr4 ,fleming has      
hinted1 that the kind of food which the 
existing species of elephant prefers1   
will not enable us to determine1 or even
 to offer a probable conjecture1        
concerning that of the extinct species4 
,no one acquainted with the gramineous  
character of the food of our            
fallow-deer1 stag1 or roe1 would have   
assigned a lichen to the reindeer4      
,travellers mention that1 even now1 when
 the climate of eastern ,asia is so much

 colder than the same parallels of      
latitude farther west1 there are woods  
not only of fir1 but of birch1 poplar1  
and alder1 on the banks of the ,lena1 as
 far north as latitude #fj degrees4  ,it
 has1 moreover1 been suggested1 that as1
 in our own times1 the northern animals 
migrate1 so the ,siberian elephant and  
rhinoceros may have wandered towards the
 north in summer4 ,the musk oxen        
annually desert their winter quarters in
 the south1 and cross the sea upon the  
ice1 to graze for four months1 from ,may
 to ,september1 on the rich pasturage of
 ,melville ,island1 in lat4 #ge degrees4
 ,the mammoths1 without passing so far  
beyond the arctic circle1 may           
nevertheless have made excursions1      
during the heat of a brief northern     
summer1 from the central or temperate   
parts of ,asia to the sixtieth parallel 
of latitude4  ,now1 in this case1 the   
preservation of their bones1 or even    
occasionally of their entire carcasses1 
in ice or frozen soil1 may be accounted 

for1 without resorting to speculations  
concerning sudden revolutions in the    
former state and climate of the earth's 
surface4 ,we are entitled to assume1    
that1 in the time of the extinct        
elephant and rhinoceros1 the ,lowland of
 ,siberia was less extensive towards the
 north than now2 for we have seen 7p4   
#hj7 that the strata of this ,lowland1  
in which the fossil bones lie buried1   
were originally deposited beneath the   
sea2 and we know1 from the facts brought
 to light in ,wrangle's ,voyage1 in the 
years #ahba1 #ahbb1 and #ahbc1 that a   
slow upheaval of the land along the     
borders of the ,icy ,sea is now         
constantly taking place1 similar to that
 experienced in part of ,sweden4 ,in the
 same manner1 then1 as the shores of the
 ,gulf of ,bothnia are extended1 not    
only by the influx of sediment brought  
down by rivers1 but also by the         
elevation and consequent drying up of   
the bed of the sea1 so a like           
combination of causes may1 in modern    

times1 have been extending the low tract
 of land where marine shells and fossil 
bones occur in ,siberia4#adi ,such a    
change in the physical geography of that
 region1 implying a constant            
augmentation in the quantity of arctic  
land1 would1 according to principles to 
be explained in the next chapter1 tend  
to increase the severity of the winters4
 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that1     
before the land reached so far to the   
north1 the temperature of the ,siberian 
winter and summer was more nearly       
equalized2 and a greater degree of      
winter's cold may1 even more than a     
general diminution of the mean annual   
temperature1 have finally contributed to
 the extermination of the mammoth and   
its contemporaries4  ,on referring to   
the map 7p4 #gi71 the reader will see   
how all the great rivers of ,siberia    
flow at present from south to north1    
from temperate to arctic regions1 and   
they are all liable1 like the           
,mackenzie1 in ,north ,america1 to      

remarkable floods1 in consequence of    
flowing in this direction4 ,for they are
 filled with running water in their     
upper or southern course when completely
 frozen over for several hundred miles  
near their mouths1 where they remain    
blocked up by ice for six months in     
every year4 ,the descending waters1     
therefore1 finding no open channel1 rush
 over the ice1 often changing their     
direction1 and sweeping along forests   
and prodigious quantities of soil and   
gravel mixed with ice4 ,now the rivers  
of ,siberia are among the largest in the
 world1 the ,yenesei having a course of 
#bejj1 the ,lena of #bjjj miles2 so that
 we may easily conceive that the bodies 
of animals which fall into their waters 
may be transported to vast distances    
towards the ,arctic ,sea1 and1 before   
arriving there1 may be stranded upon and
 often frozen into thick ice4           
,afterwards1 when the ice breaks up1    
they may be floated still farther       
towards the ocean1 until at length they 

become buried in fluviatile and         
submarine deposits near the mouths of   
rivers4  ,humboldt remarks that near the
 mouths of the ,lena a considerable     
thickness of frozen soil may be found at
 all seasons at the depth of a few feet2
 so that if a carcass be once imbedded  
in mud and ice in such a region and in  
such a climate1 its putrefaction may be 
arrested for indefinite ages4#aej       
,according to ,prof4 ,von ,baer of ,st4 
,petersburg1 the ground is now frozen   
permanently to the depth of #djj feet1  
at the town of ,yakutzt1 on the western 
bank of the ,lena1 in lat4 #fb degrees  
,n41 #fjj miles distant from the polar  
sea4 ,mr4 ,hedenstrom tells us that1    
throughout a wide area in ,siberia1 the 
boundary cliffs of the lakes and rivers 
consist of alternate layers of earthy   
materials and ice1 in horizontal        
stratification2#aea and ,mr4 ,middendorf
 informed us1 in #ahdf1 that1 in his    
tour there three years before1 he had   
bored in ,siberia to the depth of       

seventy feet1 and1 after passing through
 much frozen soil mixed with ice1 had   
come down upon a solid mass of pure     
transparent ice1 the thickness of which1
 after penetrating two or three yards1  
they did not ascertain4 ,we may         
conceive1 therefore1 that even at the   
period of the mammoth1 when the ,lowland
 of ,siberia was less extensive towards 
the north1 and consequently the climate 
more temperate than now1 the cold may   
still have been sufficiently intense to 
cause the rivers flowing in their       
present direction to sweep down from    
south to north the bodies of drowned    
animals1 and there bury them in drift   
ice and frozen mud4  ,if it be true that
 the carcass of the mammoth was imbedded
 in pure ice1 there are two ways in     
which it may have been frozen in4 ,we   
may suppose the animal to have been     
overwhelmed by drift snow4 ,i have been 
informed by ,dr4 ,richardson1 that1 in  
the northern parts of ,america1         
comprising regions now inhabited by many

 herbivorous quadrupeds1 the drift snow 
is often converted into permanent       
glaciers4 ,it is commonly blown over the
 edges of steep cliffs1 so as to form an
 inclined talus hundreds of feet high2  
and when a thaw commences1 torrents rush
 from the land1 and throw down from the 
top of the cliff alluvial soil and      
gravel4 ,this new soil soon becomes     
covered with vegetation1 and protects   
the foundation of snow from the rays of 
the sun4 ,water occasionally penetrates 
into the crevices and pores of the snow2
 but1 as it soon freezes again1 it      
serves the more rapidly to consolidate  
the mass into a compact iceberg4 ,it may
 sometimes happen that cattle grazing in
 a valley at the base of such cliffs1 on
 the borders of a sea or river1 may be  
overwhelmed1 and at length inclosed in  
solid ice1 and then transported towards 
the polar regions4 ,or a herd of        
mammoths returning from their summer    
pastures in the north1 may have been    
surprised1 while crossing a stream1 by  

the sudden congelation of the waters4   
,the missionary ,huc relates1 in his    
travels in ,thibet in #ahdf1 that1 after
 many of his party had been frozen to   
death1 they pitched their tents on the  
banks of the ,mouroui-,ousson 7which    
lower down becomes the famous ,blue     
,river71 and saw from their encampment  
some black shapeless objects ranged in  
file across the stream4 ,as they        
advanced nearer no change either in form
 or distinctness was apparent2 nor was  
it till they were quite close1 that they
 recognized in them a troop of the wild 
oxen1 called ,yak by the ,thibetans4#aeb
 ,there were more than fifty of them    
incrusted in the ice4 ,no doubt they had
 tried to swim across at the moment of  
congelation1 and had been unable to     
disengage themselves4 ,their beautiful  
heads1 surmounted by huge horns1 were   
still above the surface1 but their      
bodies were held fast in the ice1 which 
was so transparent that the position of 
the imprudent beasts was easily         

distinguishable2 they looked as if still
 swimming1 but the eagles and ravens had
 pecked out their eyes4#aec  ,the       
foregoing investigations1 therefore1    
lead us to infer that the mammoth1 and  
some other extinct quadrupeds fitted to 
live in high latitudes1 were inhabitants
 of ,northern ,asia at a time when the  
geographical conditions and climate of  
that continent were different from the  
present4 ,but the age of this fauna was 
comparatively modern in the earth's     
history4 ,it appears that when the      
oldest or eocene tertiary deposits were 
formed1 a warm temperature pervaded the 
,european seas and lands4 ,shells of the
 genus ,nautilus and other forms        
characteristic of tropical latitudes2   
fossil reptiles1 such as the crocodile1 
turtle1 and tortoise2 plants1 such as   
palms1 some of them allied to the       
cocoa-nut1 the screw-pine1 the          
custard-apple1 and the acacia1 all lead 
to this conclusion4 ,this flora and     
fauna were followed by those of the     

miocene formation1 in which indications 
of a southern1 but less tropical climate
 are detected4 ,finally1 the pliocene   
deposits1 which come next in succession1
 exhibit in their organic remains a much
 nearer approach to the state of things 
now prevailing in corresponding         
latitudes4 ,it was towards the close of 
this period that the seas of the        
northern hemisphere became more and more
 filled with floating icebergs often    
charged with erratic blocks1 so that the
 waters and the atmosphere were chilled 
by the melting ice1 and an arctic fauna 
enabled1 for a time1 to invade the      
temperate latitudes both of ,n4 ,america
 and ,europe4 ,the extinction of a      
considerable number of land quadrupeds  
and aquatic mollusca was gradually      
brought about by the increasing severity
 of the cold2 but many species survived 
this revolution in climate1 either by   
their capacity of living under a variety
 of conditions1 or by migrating for a   
time to more southern lands and seas4   

,at length1 by modifications in the     
physical geography of the northern      
regions1 and the cessation of floating  
ice on the eastern side of the          
,atlantic1 the cold was moderated1 and a
 milder climate ensued1 such as we now  
enjoy in ,europe4#aed  ,proofs from     
fossils in secondary and still older    
strata4--,a great interval of time      
appears to have elapsed between the     
formation of the secondary strata1 which
 constitute the principal portion of the
 elevated land in ,europe1 and the      
origin of the eocene deposits4 ,if we   
examine the rocks from the chalk to the 
new red sandstone inclusive1 we find    
many distinct assemblages of fossils    
entombed in them1 all of unknown        
species1 and many of them referable to  
genera and families now most abundant   
between the tropics4 ,among the most    
remarkable are reptiles of gigantic     
size2 some of them herbivorous1 others  
carnivorous1 and far exceeding in size  
any now known even in the torrid zone4  

,the genera are for the most part       
extinct1 but some of them1 as the       
crocodile and monitor1 have still       
representatives in the warmer parts of  
the earth4 ,coral reefs also were       
evidently numerous in the seas of the   
same periods1 composed of species often 
belonging to genera now characteristic  
of a tropical climate4 ,the number of   
large chambered shells also1 including  
the nautilus1 leads us to infer an      
elevated temperature2 and the associated
 fossil plants1 although imperfectly    
known1 tend to the same conclusion1 the 
,cycadeae constituting the most numerous
 family4  ,but it is from the more      
ancient coal-deposits that the most     
extraordinary evidence has been supplied
 in proof of the former existence of a  
very different climate--a climate which 
seems to have been moist1 warm1 and     
extremely uniform1 in those very        
latitudes which are now the colder1 and 
in regard to temperature1 the most      
variable regions of the globe4 ,we learn

 from the researches of ,adolphe        
,brongniart1 ,goeppert1 and other       
botanists1 that in the flora of the     
carboniferous era there was a great     
predominance of ferns1 some of which    
were arborescent2 as1 for example1      
,caulopteris1 ,protopteris1 and         
,psarronius2 nor can this be accounted  
for1 as some have supposed1 by the      
greater power which ferns possess of    
resisting maceration in water4#aee ,this
 prevalence of ferns indicates a moist1 
equable1 and temperate climate1 and the 
absence of any severe cold2 for such are
 the conditions which1 at the present   
day1 are found to be most favorable to  
that tribe of plants4 ,it is only in the
 islands of the tropical oceans1 and of 
the southern temperate zone1 such as    
,norfolk ,island1 ,otaheite1 the        
,sandwich ,islands1 ,tristan d',acunha1 
and ,new ,zealand1 that we find any near
 approach to that remarkable            
preponderance of ferns which is         
characteristic of the ,carboniferous    

flora4 ,it has been observed that tree  
ferns and other forms of vegetation     
which flourished most luxuriantly within
 the tropics1 extend to a much greater  
distance from the equator in the        
southern hemisphere than in the         
northern1 being found even as far as #df
 degrees ,s4 latitude in ,new ,zealand4 
,there is little doubt that this is     
owing to the more uniform and moist     
climate occasioned by the greater       
proportional area of sea4 ,next to ferns
 and pines1 the most abundant vegetable 
forms in the coal formation are the     
,calamites1 ,lepidodendra1 ,sigillariae1
 and ,stigmariae4 ,these were formerly  
considered to be so closely allied to   
tropical genera1 and to be so much      
greater in size than the corresponding  
tribes now inhabiting equatorial        
latitudes1 that they were thought to    
imply an extremely hot1 as well as humid
 and equable climate4 ,but recent       
discoveries respecting the structure and
 relations of these fossil plants1 have 

shown that they deviated so widely from 
all existing types in the vegetable     
world1 that we have more reason to infer
 from this evidence a widely different  
climate in the ,carboniferous era1 as   
compared to that now prevailing1 than a 
temperature extremely elevated4#aef     
,palms1 if not entirely wanting when the
 strata of the carboniferous group were 
deposited1 appear to have been          
exceedingly rare4#aeg ,the ,coniferae1  
on the other hand1 so abundantly met    
with in the coal1 resemble ,araucariae  
in structure1 a family of the fir tribe1
 characteristic at present of the milder
 regions of the southern hemisphere1    
such as ,chili1 ,brazil1 ,new ,holland1 
and ,norfolk ,island4  ,in regard to the
 geographical extent of the ancient     
vegetation1 it was not confined1 says   
,m4 ,brongniart1 to a small space1 as to
 ,europe1 for example2 for the same     
forms are met with again at great       
distances4 ,thus1 the coal-plants of    
,north ,america are1 for the most part1 

identical with those of ,europe1 and all
 belong to the same genera4 ,some       
specimens1 also1 from ,greenland1 are   
referable to ferns1 analogous to those  
of our ,european coal-mines4#aeh ,the   
fossil plants brought from ,melville    
,island1 although in a very imperfect   
state1 have been supposed to warrant    
similar conclusions2#aei and assuming   
that they agree with those of ,baffin's 
,bay1 mentioned by ,m4 ,brongniart1 how 
shall we explain the manner in which    
such a vegetation lived through an      
arctic night of several months'         
duration8#afj  ,it may seem premature to
 discuss this question until the true   
nature of the fossil flora of the arctic
 regions has been more accurately       
determined2 yet1 as the question has    
attracted some attention1 let us assume 
for a moment that the coal-plants of    
,melville ,island are strictly analogous
 to those of the strata of              
,northumberland--would such a fact      
present an inexplicable enigma to the   

vegetable physiologist8  ,plants1 it is 
affirmed1 cannot remain in darkness1    
even for a week1 without serious injury1
 unless in a torpid state2 and if       
exposed to heat and moisture they cannot
 remain torpid1 but will grow1 and must 
therefore perish4 ,if1 then1 in the     
latitude of ,melville ,island1 #ge      
degrees ,n41 a high temperature1 and    
consequent humidity1 prevailed at that  
period when we know the arctic seas were
 filled with corals and large           
multilocular shells1 how could plants of
 tropical forms have flourished8 ,is not
 the bright light of equatorial regions 
as indispensable a condition of their   
well-being as the sultry heat of the    
same countries8 and how could they      
annually endure a night prolonged for   
three months8#afa  ,now1 in reply to    
this objection1 we must bear in mind1 in
 the first place1 that1 so far as       
experiments have been made1 there is    
every reason to conclude1 that the range
 of intensity of light to which living  

plants can accommodate themselves is far
 wider than that of heat4 ,no palms or  
tree ferns can live in our temperate    
latitudes without protection from the   
cold2 but when placed in hot-houses they
 grow luxuriantly1 even under a cloudy  
sky1 and where much light is intercepted
 by the glass and frame-work4 ,at ,st4  
,petersburg1 in lat4 #fj degrees ,n41   
these plants have been successfully     
cultivated in hot-houses1 although there
 they must exchange the perpetual       
equinox of their native regions1 for    
days and nights which are alternately   
protracted to nineteen hours and        
shortened to five4 ,how much farther    
towards the pole they might continue to 
live1 provided a due quantity of heat   
and moisture were supplied1 has not yet 
been determined2 but ,st4 ,petersburg is
 probably not the utmost limit1 and we  
should expect that in lat4 #fe degrees  
at least1 where they would never remain 
twenty-four hours without enjoying the  
sun's light1 they might still exist4    

,it should also be borne in mind1 in    
regard to tree ferns1 that they grow in 
the gloomiest and darkest parts of the  
forests of warm and temperate regions1  
even extending to nearly the #dfth      
degree of south latitude in ,new        
,zealand4 ,in equatorial countries1 says
 ,humboldt1 they abound chiefly in the  
temperate1 humid1 and shady parts of    
mountains4 ,as we know1 therefore1 that 
elevation often compensates for the     
effect of latitude in the geographical  
distribution of plants1 we may easily   
understand that a class of vegetables1  
which grows at a certain height in the  
torrid zone1 would flourish on the      
plains at greater distances from the    
equator1 if the temperature1 moisture1  
and other necessary conditions1 were    
equally uniform throughout the year4    
,nor must we forget that in all the     
examples above alluded to1 we have been 
speaking of living species2 but the     
coal-plants were of perfectly distinct  
species1 nay1 few of them except the    

ferns and pines can be referred to      
genera or even families of the existing 
vegetable kingdom4 ,having a structure1 
therefore1 and often a form which       
appears to the botanist so anomalous1   
they may also have been endowed with a  
different constitution1 enabling them to
 bear a greater variation of            
circumstances in regard to light4 ,we   
find that particular species of plants  
and tree ferns require at present       
different degrees of heat2 and that some
 species can thrive only in the         
immediate neighborhood of the equator1  
others only a distance from it4 ,in the 
same manner the minimum of light1       
sufficient for the now existing species1
 cannot be taken as the standard for all
 analogous tribes that may ever have    
flourished on the globe4  ,but granting 
that the extreme northern point to which
 a flora like that of the ,carboniferous
 era could ever reach1 may be somewhere 
between the latitudes of #fe degrees and
 #gj degrees1 we should still have to   

inquire whether the vegetable remains   
might not have been drifted from thence1
 by rivers and currents1 to the parallel
 of ,melville ,island1 or still farther4
 ,in the northern hemisphere1 at        
present1 we see that the materials for  
future beds of lignite and coal are     
becoming amassed in high latitudes1 far 
from the districts where the forests    
grew1 and on shores where scarcely a    
stunted shrub can now exist4 ,the       
,mackenzie1 and other rivers of ,north  
,america1 carry pines with their roots  
attached for many hundred miles towards 
the north1 into the ,arctic ,sea1 where 
they are imbedded in deltas1 and some of
 them drifted still farther by currents 
towards the pole4  ,before we can decide
 on this question of transportation1 we 
must know whether the fossil coal-plants
 occurring in high latitudes bear the   
marks of friction and of having decayed 
previously to fossilization4 ,many      
appearances in our ,english coal-fields 
certainly prove that the plants were not

 floated from great distances2 for the  
outline of the stems of succulent       
species preserve their sharp angles1 and
 others have their surfaces marked with 
the most delicate lines and streaks4    
,long leaves1 also1 are attached in many
 instances to the trunks or             
branches2#afb and leaves1 we know1 in   
general1 are soon destroyed when steeped
 in water1 although ferns will retain   
their forms after an immersion of many  
months4#afc ,it seems fair to presume1  
that most of the coal-plants grew upon  
the same land which supplied materials  
for the sandstones and conglomerates of 
the strata in which they are imbedded4  
,the coarseness of the particles of many
 of these rocks attests that they were  
not borne from very remote localities1  
and that there was land therefore in the
 vicinity wasting away by the action of 
moving waters4 ,the progress also of    
modern discovery has led to the very    
general admission of the doctrine that  
beds of coal have for the most part been

 formed of the remains of trees and     
plants that grew on the spot where the  
coal now exists2 the land having been   
successively submerged1 so that a       
covering of mud and sand was deposited  
upon accumulations of vegetable mater4  
,that such has been the origin of some  
coal-seams is proved by the upright     
position of fossil trees1 both in       
,europe and ,america1 in which the roots
 terminate downwards in beds of         
coal4#afd  ,to return1 therefore1 from  
this digression1--the flora of the coal 
appears to indicate a uniform and mild  
temperature in the air1 while the       
fossils of the contemporaneous          
mountain-limestone1 comprising abundance
 of lamelliferous corals1 large         
chambered cephalopods1 and crinoidea1   
naturally lead us to infer a            
considerable warmth in the waters of the
 northern sea of the ,carboniferous     
period4 ,so also in regard to strata    
older than the coal1 they contain in    
high northern latitudes mountain masses 

of corals which must have lived and     
grown on the spot1 and large chambered  
univalves1 such as ,orthocerata and     
,nautilus1 all seeming to indicate1 even
 in regions bordering on the arctic     
circle1 the former prevalence of a      
temperature more elevated than that now 
prevailing4  ,the warmth and humidity of
 the air1 and the uniformity of climate1
 both in the different seasons of the   
year1 and in different latitudes1       
appears to have been most remarkable    
when some of the oldest of the          
fossiliferous strata were formed4 ,the  
approximation to a climate similar to   
that now enjoyed in these latitudes does
 not commence till the era of the       
formations termed tertiary2 and while   
the different tertiary rocks were       
deposited in succession1 from the eocene
 to the pliocene1 the temperature seems 
to have been lowered1 and to have       
continued to diminish even after the    
appearance upon the earth of a          
considerable number of the existing     

species1 the cold reaching its maximum  
of intensity in ,european latitudes     
during the glacial epoch1 or the epoch  
immediately antecedent to that in which 
all the species now contemporary with   
man were in being4      ,,chapter ,,vii4
  ,,farther ,,examination ,,of ,,the    
,,question ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,assumed    
,,discordance ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,and
 ,,modern ,,causes ,,of ,,change4       
,on the causes of vicissitudes in       
climate--,remarks on the present        
diffusion of heat over the globe--,on   
the dependence of the mean              
temperature on the relative position of 
land and sea--,isothermal               
,lines--,currents from equatorial       
regions--,drifting of                   
icebergs--,different temperature of     
,northern and ,southern                 
hemispheres--,combination of causes     
which might produce the extreme     cold
 of which the earth's surface is        
susceptible--,conditions     necessary  
for the production of the extreme of    

heat1 and its     probable effects on   
organic life4   ,causes of ,vicissitudes
 in ,climate4#afe--;,as the proofs      
enumerated in the last chapter indicate 
that the earth's surface has experienced
 great changes of climate since the     
deposition of the older sedimentary     
strata1 we have next to inquire how such
 vicissitudes can be reconciled with the
 existing order of nature4 ,the         
cosmogonist has availed himself of this1
 as of every obscure problem in geology1
 to confirm his views concerning a      
period when the planet was in a nascent 
or half-formed state1 or when the laws  
of the animate and inanimate world      
differed essentially from those now     
established2 and he has in this1 as in  
many other cases1 succeeded so far1 as  
to divert attention from that class of  
facts which1 if fully understood1 might 
probably lead to an explanation of the  
phenomena4 ,at first it was imagined    
that the earth's axis had been for ages 
perpendicular to the plane of the       

ecliptic1 so that there was a perpetual 
equinox1 and uniformity of seasons      
throughout the year2--that the planet   
enjoyed this paradisiacal state until   
the era of the great flood2 but in that 
catastrophe1 whether by the shock of a  
comet1 or some other convulsion1 it lost
 its equal poise1 and hence the         
obliquity of its axis1 and with that the
 varied seasons of the temperate zone1  
and the long nights and days of the     
polar circles4  ,when the progress of   
astronomical science had exploded this  
theory1 it was assumed1 that the earth  
at its creation was in a state of       
fluidity1 and red-hot1 and that ever    
since that era1 it had been cooling     
down1 contracting its dimensions1 and   
acquiring a solid crust1--an hypothesis 
hardly less arbitrary1 yet more         
calculated for lasting popularity2      
because1 by referring the mind directly 
to the beginning of things1 it requires 
no support from observation1 nor from   
any ulterior hypothesis4 ,but if1       

instead of forming vague conjectures as 
to what might have been the state of the
 planet at the era of its creation1 we  
fix our thoughts on the connection at   
present existing between climate and the
 distribution of land and sea2 and then 
consider what influence former          
fluctuations in the physical geography  
of the earth must have had on           
superficial temperature1 we may perhaps 
approximate to a true theory4 ,if doubts
 and obscurities still remain1 they     
should be ascribed to our limited       
acquaintance with the laws of ,nature1  
not to revolutions in her economy2--they
 should stimulate us to farther         
research1 not tempt us to indulge our   
fancies respecting the imaginary changes
 of internal temperature in an embryo   
world4  ,diffusion of ,heat over the    
,globe4--,in considering the laws which 
regulate the diffusion of heat over the 
globe1 we must be careful1 as ,humboldt 
well remarks1 not to regard the climate 
of ,europe as a type of the temperature 

which all countries placed under the    
same latitude enjoy4 ,the physical      
sciences1 observes this philosopher1    
always bear the impress of the places   
where they began to be cultivated2 and  
as1 in geology1 an attempt was at first 
made to refer all the volcanic phenomena
 to those of the volcanoes in ,italy1 so
 in meteorology1 a small part of the old
 world1 the centre of the primitive     
civilization of ,europe1 was for a long 
time considered a type to which the     
climate of all corresponding latitudes  
might be referred4 ,but this region1    
constituting only one-seventh of the    
whole globe1 proved eventually to be the
 exception to the general rule4 ,for the
 same reason1 we may warn the geologist 
to be on his guard1 and not hastily to  
assume that the temperature of the earth
 in the present era is a type of that   
which most usually obtains1 since he    
contemplates far mightier alterations in
 the position of land and sea1 at       
different epochs1 than those which now  

cause the climate of ,europe to differ  
from that of other countries in the same
 parallels4  ,it is now well ascertained
 that zones of equal warmth1 both in the
 atmosphere and in the waters of the    
ocean1 are neither parallel to the      
equator nor to each other4#aff ,it is   
also known that the mean annual         
temperature may be the same in two      
places which enjoy very different       
climates1 for the seasons may be nearly 
uniform1 or violently contrasted1 so    
that the lines of equal winter          
temperature do not coincide with those  
of equal annual heat or isothermal      
lines4 ,the deviations of all these     
lines from the same parallel of latitude
 are determined by a multitude of       
circumstances1 among the principal of   
which are the position1 direction1 and  
elevation of the continents and islands1
 the position and depths of the sea1 and
 the direction of currents and of winds4
  ,on comparing the two continents of   
,europe and ,america1 it is found that  

places in the same latitudes have       
sometimes a mean difference of          
temperature amounting to #aa degrees1 or
 even in a few cases to #ag degrees     
,fahr42 and some places on the two      
continents1 which have the same mean    
temperature1 differ from #g degrees to  
#ag degrees in latitude4 ,thus1         
,cumberland ,house1 in ,north ,america1 
having the same latitude 7#ed degrees   
,n47 as the city of ,york in ,england1  
stands on the isothermal line of #cb    
degrees1 which in ,europe rises to the  
,north ,cape1 in lat4 #ga degrees1 but  
its summer heat exceeds that of         
,brussels or ,paris4#afg ,the principal 
cause of greater intensity of cold in   
corresponding latitudes of ,north       
,america1 as contrasted with ,europe1 is
 the connection of ,america with the    
polar circle1 by a large tract of land1 
some of which is from three to five     
thousand feet in height2 and1 on the    
other hand1 the separation of ,europe   
from the arctic circle by an ocean4 ,the

 ocean has a tendency to preserve       
everywhere a mean temperature1 which it 
communicates to the contiguous land1 so 
that it tempers the climate1 moderating 
alike an excess of heat or cold4 ,the   
elevated land1 on the other hand1 rising
 to the colder regions of the           
atmosphere1 becomes a great reservoir of
 ice and snow1 arrests1 condenses1 and  
congeals vapor1 and communicates its    
cold to the adjoining country4 ,for this
 reason1 ,greenland1 forming part of a  
continent which stretches northward to  
the #hb;d degree of latitude1           
experiences under the #fjth parallel a  
more rigorous climate than ,lapland     
under the #gb;d parallel4  ,but if land 
be situated between the #djth parallel  
and the equator1 it produces1 unless it 
be of extreme height1 exactly the       
opposite effect2 for it then warms the  
tracts of land or sea that intervene    
between it and the polar circle4 ,for   
the surface being in this case exposed  
to the vertical1 or nearly vertical rays

 of the sun1 absorbs a large quantity of
 heat1 which it diffuses by radiation   
into the atmosphere4 ,for this reason1  
the western parts of the old continent  
derive warmth from ,africa1 which1 like 
an immense furnace1 distributes its heat
 to ,arabia1 to ,turkey in ,asia1 and to
 ,europe4#afh ,on the contrary1 the     
northeastern extremity of ,asia         
experiences in the same latitude extreme
 cold2 for it has land on the north     
between the #fjth and #gjth parallel1   
while to the south it is separated from 
the equator by the ,pacific ,ocean4  ,in
 consequence of the more equal          
temperature of the waters of the ocean1 
the climate of islands and of coasts    
differs essentially from that of the    
interior of continents1 the more        
maritime climate being characterized by 
mild winters1 and more temperate        
summers2 for the sea-breezes moderate   
the cold of winter1 as well as the heat 
of summer4 ,when1 therefore1 we trace   
round the globe those belts in which the

 mean annual temperature is the same1 we
 often find great differences in        
climate2 for there are insular climates 
in which the seasons are nearly         
equalized1 and excessive climates1 as   
they have been termed1 where the        
temperature of winter and summer is     
strongly contrasted4 ,the whole of      
,europe1 compared with the eastern parts
 of ,america and ,asia1 has an insular  
climate4 ,the northern part of ,china1  
and the ,atlantic region of the ,united 
,states1 exhibit excessive climates4 ,we
 find at ,new ,york1 says ,humboldt1 the
 summer of ,rome and the winter of      
,copenhagen2 at ,quebec1 the summer of  
,paris and the winter of ,petersburg4   
,at ,pekin1 in ,china1 where the mean   
temperature of the year is that of the  
coasts of ,brittany1 the scorching heats
 of summer are greater than at ,cairo1  
and the winters as rigorous as at       
,upsala4#afi  ,if lines be drawn round  
the globe through all those places which
 have the same winter temperature1 they 

are found to deviate from the           
terrestrial parallels much farther than 
the lines of equal mean annual heat4    
,the lines of equal winter in ,europe1  
for example1 are often curved so as to  
reach parallels of latitude #i degrees  
or #aj degrees distant from each other1 
whereas the isothermal lines1 or those  
passing through places having the same  
mean annual temperature1 differ only    
from #d degrees to #e degrees in        
,europe4  ,influence of currents and    
drift ice on temperature4--,among other 
influential causes1 both of remarkable  
diversity in the mean annual heat1 and  
of unequal division of heat in the      
different seasons1 are the direction of 
currents and the accumulation and       
drifting of ice in high latitudes4 ,the 
temperature of the ,lagullas current is 
#aj degrees or #ab degrees ,fahr4 above 
that of the sea at the ,cape of ,good   
,hope2 for it derives the greater part  
of its waters from the ,mozambique      
channel1 and southeast coast of ,africa1

 and from regions in the ,indian ,ocean 
much nearer the line1 and much hotter   
than the ,cape4#agj ,an opposite effect 
is produced by the equatorial current1  
which crosses the ,atlantic from ,africa
 to ,brazil1 having a breadth varying   
from #afj to #dej nautical miles4 ,its  
waters are cooler by #c degrees or #d   
degrees ,fahr4 than those of the ocean  
under the line1 so that it moderates the
 heat of the tropics4#aga  ,but the     
effects of the ,gulf stream on the      
climate of the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean  
are far more remarkable4 ,this most     
powerful of known currents has its      
source in the ,gulf or ,sea of ,mexico1 
which1 like the ,mediterranean and other
 close seas in temperate or low         
latitudes1 is warmer than the open ocean
 in the same parallels4 ,the temperature
 of the ,mexican sea in summer is1      
according to ,rennell1 #hf degrees      
,fahr41 or at least #g degrees above    
that of the ,atlantic in the same       
latitude4#agb ,from this great reservoir

 or caldron of warm water1 a constant   
current pours forth through the straits 
of ,bahama at the rate of #c or #d miles
 an hour2 it crosses the ocean in a     
northeasterly direction1 skirting the   
great bank of ,newfoundland1 where it   
still retains a temperature of #h       
degrees above that of the surrounding   
sea4 ,it reaches the ,azores in about   
#gh days1 after flowing nearly #cjjj    
geographical miles1 and from thence it  
sometimes extends its course a thousand 
miles farther1 so as to reach the ,bay  
of ,biscay1 still retaining an excess of
 #e degrees above the mean temperature  
of that sea4 ,as it has been known to   
arrive there in the months of ,november 
and ,january1 it may tend greatly to    
moderate the cold of winter in countries
 on the west of ,europe4 4 ,there is a  
large tract in the centre of the ,north 
,atlantic1 between the parallels of #cc 
degrees and #de degrees ,n4 lat41 which 
,rennell calls the recipient of the gulf
 water4 ,a great part of it is covered  

by the weed called sargasso 7,sargassum 
bacciferum71 which the current floats in
 abundance from the ,gulf of ,mexico4   
,this mass of water is nearly stagnant1 
is warmer by #g degrees or #aj degrees  
than the waters of the ,atlantic1 and   
may be compared to the fresh water of a 
river overflowing the heavier salt water
 of the sea4 ,rennell estimates the area
 of the recipient1 together with that   
covered by the main current1 as being   
#bjjj miles in length from ,e4 to ,w41  
and #cej in breadth from ,n4 to ,s41    
which1 he remarks1 is a larger area than
 that of the ,mediterranean4 ,the heat  
of this great body of water is kept up  
by the incessant and quick arrivals of  
fresh supplies of warm water from the   
south2 and there can be no doubt that   
the general climate of parts of ,europe 
and ,america is materially affected by  
this cause4  ,it is considered probable 
by ,scoresby that the influence of the  
,gulf stream extends even to the sea    
near ,spitzbergen1 where its waters may 

pass under those of melted ice2 for it  
has been found that in the neighborhood 
of ,spitzbergen1 the water is warmer by 
#f degrees or #g degrees at the depth of
 one hundred and two hundred fathoms    
than at the surface4 ,this might arise  
from the known law that fresh water     
passes the point of greatest density    
when cooled down below #dj degrees1 and 
between that and the freezing point     
expands again4 ,the water of melted ice 
might be lighter1 both as being fresh   
7having lost its salt in the decomposing
 process of freezing71 and because its  
temperature is nearer the freezing point
 than the inferior water of the ,gulf   
stream4  ,the great glaciers generated  
in the valleys of ,spitzbergen1 in the  
#gi degrees of north latitude1 are      
almost all cut off at the beach1 being  
melted by the feeble remnant of heat    
still retained by the ,gulf stream4 ,in 
,baffin's ,bay1 on the contrary1 on the 
west coast of ,old ,greenland1 where the
 temperature of the sea is not mitigated

 by the same cause1 and where there is  
no warmer under-current1 the glaciers   
stretch out from the shore1 and furnish 
repeated crops of mountainous masses of 
ice which float off into the ocean4#agc 
,the number and dimensions of these     
bergs is prodigious4 ,captain ,sir ,john
 ,ross saw several of them together in  
,baffin's ,bay aground in water fifteen 
hundred feet deep6 ,many of them are    
driven down into ,hudson's ,bay1 and    
accumulating there1 diffuse excessive   
cold over the neighboring continent2 so 
that ,captain ,franklin reports1 that at
 the mouth of ,hayes' ,river1 which lies
 in the same latitude as the north of   
,prussia or the south of ,scotland1 ice 
is found everywhere in digging wells1 in
 summer1 at the depth of four feet6     
,other bergs have been occasionally met 
with1 at midsummer1 in a state of rapid 
thaw1 as far south as lat4 #dj degrees  
and longitude about #fj degrees west1   
where they cool the water sensibly to   
the distance of forty or fifty miles    

around1 the thermometer sinking         
sometimes #ag degrees1 or even #ah      
degrees1 ,fahrenheit1 in their          
neighborhood4#agd ,it is a well-known   
fact that every four or five years a    
large number of icebergs1 floating from 
,greenland1 double ,cape ,langaness1 and
 are stranded on the west coast of      
,iceland4 ,the inhabitants are then     
aware that their crops of hay will fail1
 in consequence of fogs which are       
generated almost incessantly2 and the   
dearth of food is not confined to the   
land1 for the temperature of the water  
is so changed that the fish entirely    
desert the coast4  ,difference of       
climate of the ,northern and ,southern  
hemispheres4--,when we compare the      
climate of the northern and southern    
hemispheres1 we obtain still more       
instruction in regard to the influence  
of the distribution of land and sea on  
climate4 ,the dry land in the southern  
hemisphere is to that of the northern in
 the ratio only of one to three1        

excluding from our consideration that   
part which lies between the pole and the
 #gh degrees of south latitude1 which   
has hitherto proved inaccessible4 ,and  
whereas in the northern hemisphere1     
between the pole and the thirtieth      
parallel of north latitude1 the land and
 sea occupy nearly equal areas1 the     
ocean in the southern hemisphere covers 
no less than fifteen parts in sixteen of
 the entire space included between the  
antarctic circle and the thirtieth      
parallel of south latitude4  ,this great
 extent of sea gives a particular       
character to climates south of the      
equator1 the winters being mild and the 
summers cool4 ,thus1 in ,van ,dieman's  
,land1 corresponding nearly in latitude 
to ,rome1 the winters are more mild than
 at ,naples1 and the summers not warmer 
than those at ,paris1 which is #g       
degrees farther from the equator4#age   
,the effects on animal and vegetable    
life are remarkable4 ,capt4 ,king       
observed large shrubs of ,fuchsia and   

,veronica1 which in ,england are treated
 as tender plants1 thriving and in full 
flower in ,tierra del ,fuego with the   
temperature at #cf degrees4 ,he states  
also that humming birds were seen       
sipping the sweets of the flowers after 
two or three days of constant rain1     
snow1 and sleet1 during which time the  
thermometer had been at the freezing    
point4 ,mr4 ,darwin also saw parrots    
feeding on the seeds of a tree called   
the winter's bark1 south of lat4 #ee    
degrees1 near ,cape ,horn4#agf  ,so the 
orchideous plants which are parasitical 
on trees1 and are generally             
characteristic of the tropics1 advance  
to the #chth and #db;d degree of ,s4    
lat41 and even beyond the #deth degree  
in ,new ,zealand1 where they were found 
by ,forster4 ,in ,south ,america also   
arborescent grasses abound in the dense 
forests of ,chiloe1 in lat4 #db degrees 
,s41 where they entwine the trees into  
one entangled mass to the height of     
thirty or forty feet above the ground4  

,palm-trees in the same quarter of the  
globe grow in lat4 #cg degrees1 an      
arborescent grass very like a bamboo in 
#dj degrees1 and another closely allied 
kind1 of great length1 but not erect1   
even as far south as #de degrees4#agg   
,it has long been supposed that the     
general temperature of the southern     
hemisphere was considerably lower than  
that of the northern1 and that the      
difference amounted to at least #aj     
degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,baron ,humboldt1  
after collecting and comparing a great  
number of observations1 came to the     
conclusion that even a much larger      
difference existed1 but that none was to
 be observed within the tropics1 and    
only a small difference as far as the   
thirty-fifth and fortieth parallel4     
,captain ,cook was of opinion that the  
ice of the antarctic predominated       
greatly over that of the arctic region1 
that encircling the southern pole coming
 nearer to the equator by #aj degrees   
than the ice around the north pole4 ,all

 the recent voyages of discovery have   
tended to confirm this opinion1 although
 ,capt4 ,weddel penetrated1 in #ahbc1   
three degrees farther south than ,capt4 
,cook1 reaching lat4 #gd degrees #ae    
minutes ,south1 long4 #cd degrees #ag   
minutes ,west1 and ,sir ,james ,ross1 in
 #ahdb1 arrived at lat4 #gh degrees #aj 
minutes ,s41 as high a latitude1 within 
three degrees1 as the farthest point    
attained by ,captain ,parry in the      
arctic circle1 or lat4 #ha degrees #ab  
minutes ,north4  ,the description given 
by ancient as well as modern navigators 
of the sea and land in high southern    
latitudes1 clearly attests the greater  
severity of the climate as compared to  
arctic regions4 ,in ,sandwich ,land1 in 
lat4 #ei degrees ,s41 or in nearly the  
same parallel as the north of ,scotland1
 ,capt4 ,cook found the whole country1  
from the summits of the mountains down  
to the very brink of the sea-cliffs1    
covered many fathoms thick with         
everlasting snow1 and this on the #ast  

of ,february1 the hottest time of the   
year2 and what is still more            
astonishing1 in the island of ,s4       
,georgia1 which is in the #ed degrees   
south latitude1 or the same parallel as 
,yorkshire1 the line of perpetual snow  
descends to the level of the ocean4#agh 
,when we consider this fact1 and then   
recollect that the highest mountains in 
,scotland1 which ascend to an elevation 
of nearly #ejjj feet1 and are four      
degrees farther to the north1 do not    
attain the limit of perpetual snow on   
our side of the equator1 we learn that  
latitude is one only of many powerful   
causes1 which determine the climate of  
particular regions of the globe4 ,capt4 
,sir ,james ,ross1 in his exploring     
expedition in #ahda-c1 found that the   
temperature south of the #fjth degree of
 latitude seldom rose above #cb degrees 
,fahr4 ,during the two summer months of 
the year #ahda 7,january and ,february7 
the range of the thermometer was between
 #aa degrees and #cb degrees ,fahr42 and

 scarcely once rose above the freezing  
point4 ,the permanence of snow in the   
southern hemisphere1 is in this instance
 partly due to the floating ice1 which  
chills the atmosphere and condenses the 
vapor1 so that in summer the sun cannot 
pierce through the foggy air4 ,but      
besides the abundance of ice which      
covers the sea to the south of ,georgia 
and ,sandwich ,land1 we may also1 as    
,humboldt suggests1 ascribe the cold of 
those countries in part to the absence  
of land between them and the tropics4   
,if ,africa and ,new ,holland extended  
farther to the south1 a diminution of   
ice would take place in consequence of  
the radiation of heat from these        
continents during summer1 which would   
warm the contiguous sea and rarefy the  
air4 ,the heated aerial currents would  
then ascend and flow more rapidly       
towards the south pole1 and moderate the
 winter4 ,in confirmation of these      
views1 it is stated that the ice1 which 
extends as far as the #fh degrees and   

#ga degrees of south latitude1 advances 
more towards the equator whenever it    
meets an open sea2 that is1 where the   
extremities of the present continents   
are not opposite to it2 and this        
circumstance seems explicable only on   
the principle above alluded to1 of the  
radiation of heat from the lands so     
situated4  ,the cold of the antarctic   
regions was conjectured by ,cook to be  
due to the existence of a large tract of
 land between the seventieth degree of  
south latitude and the pole4 ,the       
justness of these and other speculations
 of that great navigator have since been
 singularly confirmed by the            
investigation made by ,sir ,james ,ross 
in #ahda4 ,he found ,victoria ,land1    
extending from #ga degrees to #gi       
degrees ,s4 latitude1 skirted by a great
 barrier of ice1 the height of the land 
ranging from #djjj to #ad1jjj feet1 the 
whole entirely covered with snow1 except
 a narrow ring of black earth           
surrounding the huge crater of the      

active volcano of ,mount ,erebus1 rising
 #ab1djj feet above the level of the    
sea4 ,the position of a mountainous     
territory of such altitude1 so near the 
pole1 and so obvious a source of intense
 cold1 fully explains why ,graham's and 
,enderby's ,land1 discovered by ,captain
 ,biscoe in #ahca-b 7between lat4 #fd   
degrees and #fh degrees ,s471 presented 
a most wintry aspect1 covered even in   
summer with ice and snow1 and nearly    
destitute of animal life4 ,in           
corresponding latitudes of the northern 
hemisphere we not only meet with herds  
of wild herbivorous animals1 but with   
land which man himself inhabits1 and    
where he has even built ports and inland
 villages4#agi  ,the distance to which  
icebergs float from the polar regions on
 the opposite sides of the line is1 as  
might have been anticipated1 very       
different4 ,their extreme limit in the  
northern hemisphere is lat4 #dj degrees1
 as before mentioned1 and they are      
occasionally seen in lat4 #db degrees   

,n41 near the termination of the great  
bank of ,newfoundland1 and at the       
,azores1 lat4 #db degrees ,n41 to which 
they are sometimes drifted from         
,baffin's ,bay4 ,but in the other       
hemisphere they have been seen1 within  
the last few years1 at different points 
off the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 between   
lat4 #cf degrees and #ci degrees4#ahj   
,one of these 7see fig4 #b7 was two     
miles in circumference1 and #aej feet   
high1 appearing like chalk when the sun 
was obscured1 and having the lustre of  
refined sugar when the sun was shining  
on it4 ,others rose from #bej to #cjj   
feet above the level of the sea1 and    
were therefore of great volume below2   
since it is ascertained by experiments  
on the buoyancy of ice floating in      
sea-water1 that for every cubic foot    
seen above1 there must at least be eight
 cubic feet below water4#aha ,if ice    
islands from the north polar regions    
floated as far1 they might reach ,cape  
,st4 ,vincent1 and there1 being drawn by

 the current that always sets in from   
the ,atlantic through the ,straits of   
,gibraltar1 be drifted into the         
,mediterranean1 so that the serene sky  
of that delightful region might soon be 
deformed by clouds and mists4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4  ,iceberg seen 
off the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,april1   
#ahbi4 ,lat4 #hi degrees #ah minutes ,s4
 ,long4 #dh degrees #df minutes ,e4     
,before the amount of difference between
 the temperature of the two hemispheres 
was ascertained1 it was referred by many
 astronomers to the precession of the   
equinoxes1 or the acceleration of the   
earth's motion in its perihelium2 in    
consequence of which the spring and     
summer of the southern hemisphere are   
now shorter1 by nearly eight days1 than 
those seasons north of the equator4 ,but
 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel reminds us that the 
excess of eight days in the duration of 
the sun's presence in the northern      
hemisphere is not productive of an      
excess of annual light and heat2 since1 

according to the laws of elliptic       
motion1 it is demonstrable that whatever
 be the ellipticity of the earth's      
orbit1 the two hemispheres must receive 
equal absolute quantities of light and  
heat per annum1 the proximity of the sun
 in perigee exactly compensating the    
effect of its swifter motion4#ahb       
,humboldt1 however1 observes1 that there
 must be a greater loss of heat by      
radiation in the southern hemisphere    
during a winter longer by eight days    
than that on the other side of the      
equator4#ahc  ,perhaps no very sensible 
effect may be produced by this source of
 disturbance2 yet the geologist should  
bear in mind that to a certain extent it
 operates alternately on each of the two
 hemispheres for a period of upwards of 
#aj1jjj years1 dividing unequally the   
times during which the annual supply of 
solar light and heat is received4 ,this 
cause may sometimes tend to             
counterbalance inequalities of          
temperature resulting from other far    

more influential circumstances2 but1 on 
the other hand1 it must sometimes tend  
to increase the extreme of deviation    
arising from particular combinations of 
causes4  ,but whatever may be at present
 the inferiority of heat in the         
temperate and frigid zones south of the 
line1 it is quite evident that the cold 
would be far more intense if there      
happened1 instead of open sea1 to be    
tracts of elevated land between the     
#eeth and #gjth parallel2 and1 on the   
other hand1 the cold would be moderated 
if there were more land between the line
 and the forty-fifth degree of south    
latitude4  ,changes in the position of  
land and sea may give rise to           
vicissitudes in climate4--,having       
offered these brief remarks on the      
diffusion of heat over the globe in the 
present state of the surface1 ,i shall  
now proceed to speculate on the         
vicissitudes of climate1 which must     
attend those endless variations in the  
geographical features of our planet     

which are contemplated in geology4 ,that
 our speculations may be confined within
 the strict limits of analogy1 ,i shall 
assume1 #ast1 ,that the proportion of   
dry land to sea continues always the    
same4 #b;dly1 ,that the volume of the   
land rising above the level of the sea  
is a constant quantity2 and not only    
that its mean1 but that its extreme     
height1 is liable only to trifling      
variations4 #c;dly1 ,that both the mean 
and extreme depth of the sea are        
invariable2 and #dthly1 ,it may be      
consistent with due caution to assume   
that the grouping together of the land  
in continents is a necessary part of the
 economy of nature2 for it is possible  
that the laws which govern the          
subterranean forces1 and which act      
simultaneously along certain lines1     
cannot but produce1 at every epoch1     
continuous mountain-chains2 so that the 
subdivision of the whole land into      
innumerable islands may be precluded4   
,if it be objected1 that the maximum of 

elevation of land and depth of sea are  
probably not constant1 nor the gathering
 together of all the land in certain    
parts1 nor even perhaps the relative    
extent of land and water1 ,i reply1 that
 the arguments about to be adduced will 
be strengthened if1 in these            
peculiarities of the surface1 there be  
considerable deviations from the present
 type4 ,if1 for example1 all other      
circumstances being the same1 the land  
is at one time more divided into islands
 than at another1 a greater uniformity  
of climate might be produced1 the mean  
temperature remaining unaltered2 or if1 
at another era1 there were mountains    
higher than the ,himalaya1 these1 when  
placed in high latitudes1 would cause a 
greater excess of cold4 ,or1 if we      
suppose that at certain periods no chain
 of hills in the world rose beyond the  
height of #aj1jjj feet1 a greater heat  
might then have prevailed than is       
compatible with the existence of        
mountains thrice that elevation4        

,however constant may be the relative   
proportion of sea and land1 we know that
 there is annually some small variation 
in their respective geographical        
positions1 and that in every century the
 land is in some parts raised1 and in   
others depressed in level1 and so       
likewise is the bed of the sea4 ,by     
these and other ceaseless changes1 the  
configuration of the earth's surface has
 been remodelled again and again1 since 
it was the habitation of organic beings1
 and the bed of the ocean has been      
lifted up to the height of some of the  
loftiest mountains4 ,the imagination is 
apt to take alarm when called upon to   
admit the formation of such             
irregularities in the crust of the      
earth1 after it had once become the     
habitation of living creatures2 but1 if 
time be allowed1 the operation need not 
subvert the ordinary repose of nature2  
and the result is in a general view     
insignificant1 if we consider how       
slightly the highest mountain-chains    

cause our globe to differ from a perfect
 sphere4 ,chimborazo1 though it rises to
 more than #ba1jjj feet above the sea1  
would be represented1 on a globe of     
about six feet in diameter1 by a grain  
of sand less than one-twentieth of an   
inch in thickness4  ,the superficial    
inequalities of the earth1 then1 may be 
deemed minute in quantity1 and their    
distribution at any particular epoch    
must be regarded in geology as temporary
 peculiarities1 like the height and     
outline of the cone of ,vesuvius in the 
interval between two eruptions4 ,but    
although1 in reference to the magnitude 
of the globe1 the unevenness of the     
surface is so unimportant1 it is on the 
position and direction of these small   
inequalities that the state of the      
atmosphere1 and both the local and      
general climate1 are mainly dependent4  
,before considering the effect which a  
material change in the distribution of  
land and sea must occasion1 it may be   
well to remark1 how greatly organic life

 may be affected by those minor         
variations1 which need not in the least 
degree alter the general temperature4   
,thus1 for example1 if we suppose1 by a 
series of convulsions1 a certain part of
 ,greenland to become sea1 and1 in      
compensation1 a tract of land to rise   
and connect ,spitzbergen with           
,lapland1--an accession not greater in  
amount than one which the geologist can 
prove to have occurred in certain       
districts bordering the ,mediterranean1 
within a comparatively modern           
period1--this altered form of the land  
might cause an interchange between the  
climate of certain parts of ,north      
,america and of ,europe1 which lie in   
corresponding latitudes4 ,many ,european
 species of plants and animals would    
probably perish in consequence1 because 
the mean temperature would be greatly   
lowered2 and others would fail in       
,america1 because it would there be     
raised4 ,on the other hand1 in places   
where the mean annual heat remained     

unaltered1 some species which flourish  
in ,europe1 where the seasons are more  
uniform1 would be unable to resist the  
greater heat of the ,north ,american    
summer1 or the intenser cold of the     
winter2 while others1 now fitted by     
their habits for the great contrast of  
the ,american seasons1 would not be     
fitted for the insular climate of       
,europe4 ,the vine1 for example1        
according to ,humboldt1 can be          
cultivated with advantage #aj degrees   
farther north in ,europe than in ,north 
,america4 ,many plants endure severe    
frost1 but cannot ripen their seeds     
without a certain intensity of summer   
heat and a certain quantity of light2   
others cannot endure a similar intensity
 either of heat or cold4  ,it is now    
established that many of the existing   
species of animals have survived great  
changes in the physical geography of the
 globe4 ,if such species be termed      
modern1 in comparison to races which    
preceded them1 their remains1           

nevertheless1 enter into submarine      
deposits many hundred miles in length1  
and which have since been raised from   
the deep to no inconsiderable altitude4 
,when1 therefore1 it is shown that      
changes in the temperature of the       
atmosphere may be the consequence of    
such physical revolutions of the        
surface1 we ought no longer to wonder   
that we find the distribution of        
existing species to be local1 in regard 
to longitude as well as latitude4 ,if   
all species were now1 by an exertion of 
creative power1 to be diffused uniformly
 throughout those zones where there is  
an equal degree of heat1 and in all     
respects a similarity of climate1 they  
would begin from this moment to depart  
more and more from their original       
distribution4 ,aquatic and terrestrial  
species would be displaced1 as ,hooke   
long ago observed1 so often as land and 
water exchanged places2 and there would 
also1 by the formation of new mountains 
and other changes1 be transpositions of 

climate1 contributing1 in the manner    
before alluded to1 to the local         
extermination of species4#ahd  ,if we   
now proceed to consider the             
circumstances required for a general    
change of temperature1 it will appear1  
from the facts and principles already   
laid down1 that whenever a greater      
extent of high land is collected in the 
polar regions1 the cold will augment2   
and the same result will be produced    
when there is more sea between or near  
the tropics2 while1 on the contrary1 so 
often as the above conditions are       
reversed1 the heat will be greater4     
7,see figs4 #e and #f1 p4 #aaa47 ,if    
this be admitted1 it will follow1 that  
unless the superficial inequalities of  
the earth be fixed and permanent1 there 
must be never-ending fluctuations in the
 mean temperature of every zone2 and    
that the climate of one era can no more 
be a type of every other2 than is one of
 our four seasons of all the rest4  ,it 
has been well said1 that the earth is   

covered by an ocean1 in the midst of    
which are two great islands1 and many   
smaller ones2 for the whole of the      
continents and islands occupy an area   
scarcely exceeding one-fourth of the    
whole superficies of the spheroid4 ,now1
 according to this analogy1 we may      
fairly speculate on the probability that
 there would not be usually1 at any     
given epoch of the past1 more than about
 one-fourth dry land in a particular    
region2 as1 for example1 near the poles1
 or between them and the #geth parallels
 of ,n4 and ,s4 latitude4 ,if1          
therefore1 at present there should      
happen to be1 in both these quarters of 
the globe1 much more than this average  
proportion of land1 some of it in the   
arctic region1 being above1 five        
thousand feet in height1 and if in      
antarctic latitudes a mountainous       
country has been found varying from     
#djjj to #ad1jjj feet in height1 this   
alone affords ground for concluding     
that1 in the present state of things1   

the mean heat of the climate is below   
that which the earth's surface1 in its  
more ordinary state1 would enjoy4 ,this 
presumption is heightened when we       
reflect on the results of the recent    
soundings made by ,sir ,james ,ross1 in 
the ,southern ,ocean1 and continued for 
four successive years1 ending #ahdd1    
which seem to prove that the mean depth 
of the ,atlantic and ,pacific is as     
great as ,laplace and other eminent     
astronomers had imagined2#ahe for then  
we might look not only for more than    
two-thirds sea in the frigid zones1 but 
for water of great depth1 which could   
not readily be reduced to the freezing  
point4 ,the same opinion is confirmed1  
when we compare the quantity of land    
lying between the poles and the #cjth   
parallels of north and south latitude1  
with the quantity placed between those  
parallels and the equator2 for1 it is   
clear1 that we have at present not only 
more than the usual degree of cold in   
the polar regions1 but also less than   

the average quantity of heat within the 
tropics4  ,position of land and sea     
which might produce the extreme of cold 
of which the earth's surface is         
susceptible4--,to simplify our view of  
the various changes in climate1 which   
different combinations of geographical  
circumstances may produce1 we shall     
first consider the conditions necessary 
for bringing about the extreme of cold1 
or what would have been termed in the   
language of the old writers the winter  
of the great year1 or geological cycle1 
and afterwards1 the conditions requisite
 to produce the maximum of heat1 or the 
summer of the same year4  ,to begin with
 the northern hemisphere4 ,let us       
suppose those hills of the ,italian     
peninsula and of ,sicily1 which are of  
comparatively modern origin1 and contain
 many fossil shells identical with      
living species1 to subside again into   
the sea1 from which they have been      
raised1 and that an extent of land of   
equal area and height 7varying from one 

to three thousand feet7 should rise up  
in the ,arctic ,ocean between ,siberia  
and the north pole4 ,in speaking of such
 changes1 ,i shall not allude to the    
manner in which ,i conceive it possible 
that they may be brought about1 nor of  
the time required for their             
accomplishment--reserving for a future  
occasion1 not only the proofs that      
revolutions of equal magnitude have     
taken place1 but that analogous         
operations are still in gradual         
progress4 ,the alteration now supposed  
in the physical geography of the        
northern regions1 would cause additional
 snow and ice to accumulate where now   
there is usually an open sea2 and the   
temperature of the greater part of      
,europe would be somewhat lowered1 so as
 to resemble more nearly that of        
corresponding latitudes of ,north       
,america3 or1 in other words1 it might  
be necessary to travel about #aj degrees
 farther south in order to meet with the
 same climate which we now enjoy4 ,no   

compensation would be derived from the  
disappearance of land in the            
,mediterranean countries2 but the       
contrary1 since the mean heat of the    
soil in those latitudes probably exceeds
 that which would belong to the sea1 by 
which we imagine it to be replaced4     
,but let the configuration of the       
surface be still farther varied1 and let
 some large district within or near the 
tropics1 such as ,brazil1 with its      
plains and hills of moderate height1 be 
converted into sea1 while lands of equal
 elevation and extent rise up in the    
arctic circle4 ,from this change there  
would1 in the first place1 result a     
sensible diminution of temperature near 
the tropic1 for the ,brazilian soil     
would no longer be heated by the sun2 so
 that the atmosphere would be less warm1
 as also the neighboring ,atlantic4 ,on 
the other hand1 the whole of ,europe1   
,northern ,asia1 and ,north ,america1   
would be chilled by the enormous        
quantity of ice and snow1 thus generated

 on the new arctic continent4 ,if1 as we
 have already seen1 there are now some  
points in the southern hemisphere where 
snow is perpetual down to the level of  
the sea1 in latitudes as low as central 
,england1 such might assuredly be the   
case throughout a great part of ,europe1
 under the change of circumstances above
 supposed3 and if at present the extreme
 range of drifted icebergs is the       
,azores1 they might easily reach the    
equator after the assumed alteration4   
,but to pursue the subject still        
farther1 let the ,himalaya mountains1   
with the whole of ,hindostan1 sink down1
 and their place be occupied by the     
,indian ,ocean1 while an equal extent of
 territory and mountains1 of the same   
vast height1 rise up between ,north     
,greenland and the ,orkney ,islands4 ,it
 seems difficult to exaggerate the      
amount to which the climate of the      
northern hemisphere would then be       
cooled4#ahf  ,but the refrigeration     
brought about at the same time in the   

southern hemisphere1 would be nearly    
equal1 and the difference of temperature
 between the arctic and equatorial      
latitudes would not be much greater than
 at present2 for no important           
disturbance can occur in the climate of 
a particular region without its         
immediately affecting all other         
latitudes1 however remote4 ,the heat and
 cold which surround the globe are in a 
state of constant and universal flux and
 reflux4 ,the heated and rarefied air is
 always rising and flowing from the     
equator towards the poles in the higher 
regions of the atmosphere2 while in the 
lower1 the colder air is flowing back to
 restore the equilibrium4 ,that this    
circulation is constantly going on in   
the aerial currents is not disputed2 it 
is often proved by the opposite course  
of the clouds at different heights1 and 
the fact has been farther illustrated in
 a striking manner by two recent events4
 ,the trade wind continually blows with 
great force from the island of          

,barbadoes to that of ,st4 ,vincent2    
notwithstanding which1 during the       
eruption of the volcano in the island of
 ,st4 ,vincent1 in #ahab1 ashes fell in 
profusion from a great height in the    
atmosphere upon ,barbadoes4#ahg ,in like
 manner1 during the great eruption of   
,sumbawa1 in #ahae1 ashes were carried  
to the islands of ,amboyna and ,banda1  
which last is about #hjj miles east from
 the site of the volcano4 ,yet the      
southeast monsoon was then at its       
height4#ahh ,this apparent transposition
 of matter against the wind1 confirmed  
the opinion of the existence of a       
counter-current in the higher regions1  
which had previously rested on          
theoretical conclusions only4  ,that a  
corresponding interchange takes place in
 the seas1 is demonstrated1 according to
 ,humboldt1 by the cold which is found  
to exist at great depths within the     
tropics2 and1 among other proofs1 may be
 mentioned the mass of warmer water     
which the ,gulf stream is constantly    

bearing northwards1 while a cooler      
current flows from the north along the  
coast of ,greenland and ,labrador1 and  
helps to restore the equilibrium4#ahi   
,currents of colder and therefore       
specifically heavier water pass from the
 poles towards the equator1 which cool  
the inferior parts of the ocean2 so that
 the heat of the torrid zone and the    
cold of the polar circle balance each   
other4 ,the refrigeration1 therefore1 of
 the polar regions1 resulting from the  
supposed alteration in the distribution 
of land and sea1 would be immediately   
communicated to the tropics1 and from   
them its influence would extend to the  
antarctic circle1 where the atmosphere  
and the ocean would be cooled1 so that  
ice and snow would augment4 ,although   
the mean temperature of higher latitudes
 in the southern hemisphere is1 as      
before stated1 for the most part1 lower 
than that of the same parallels in the  
northern1 yet1 for a considerable space 
on each side of the line1 the mean      

annual heat of the waters is found to be
 the same in corresponding parallels4   
,if1 therefore1 by the new position of  
the land1 the formation of icebergs had 
become of common occurrence in the      
northern temperate zone1 and if these   
were frequently drifted as far as the   
equator1 the same degree of cold which  
they generated would immediately be     
communicated as far as the tropic of    
,capricorn1 and from thence to the lands
 or ocean to the south4  ,the freedom1  
then1 of the circulation of heat and    
cold from pole to pole being duly       
considered1 it will be evident that the 
mean temperature which may prevail at   
the same point at two distinct periods1 
may differ far more widely than that of 
any two points in the same parallels of 
latitude1 at one and the same period4   
,for the range of temperature1 or in    
other words1 the curvature of the       
isothermal lines in a given zone1 and at
 a given period1 must always be         
circumscribed within narrow limits1 the 

climate of each place in that zone being
 controlled by the combined influence of
 the geographical peculiarities of all  
other parts of the earth4 ,whereas1 if  
we compare the state of things at two   
distinct and somewhat distant epochs1 a 
particular zone may at one time be under
 the influence of one class of          
disturbing causes1 and at another time  
may be affected by an opposite          
combination4 ,the lands1 for example1 to
 the north of ,greenland cause the      
present climate of ,north ,america to be
 colder than that of ,europe in the same
 latitudes2 but the excess of cold is   
not so great as it would have been if   
the western hemisphere had been entirely
 isolated1 or separated from the eastern
 like a distinct planet4 ,for not only  
does the refrigeration produced by      
,greenland chill to a certain extent the
 atmosphere of northern and western     
,europe1 but the mild climate of ,europe
 reacts also upon ,north ,america1 and  
moderates the chilling influence of the 

adjoining polar lands4  ,to return to   
the state of the earth after the changes
 above supposed1 we must not omit to    
dwell on the important effects to which 
a wide expanse of perpetual snow would  
give rise4 ,it is probable that nearly  
the whole sea1 from the poles to the    
parallels of #de degrees1 would be      
frozen over2 for it is well known that  
the immediate proximity of land is not  
essential to the formation and increase 
of field ice1 provided there be in some 
part of the same zone a sufficient      
quantity of glaciers generated on or    
near the land1 to cool down the sea4    
,captain ,scoresby1 in his account of   
the arctic regions1 observes1 that when 
the sun's rays fall upon the snow-clad  
surface of the ice or land1 they are in 
a great measure reflected1 without      
producing any material elevation of     
temperature2 but when they impinge on   
the black exterior of a ship1 the pitch 
on one side occasionally becomes fluid  
while ice is rapidly generated at the   

other4#aij  ,now field ice is almost    
always covered with snow2#aia and thus  
not only land as extensive as our       
existing continents1 but immense tracts 
of sea in the frigid and temperate      
zones1 might present a solid surface    
covered with snow1 and reflecting the   
sun's rays for the greater part of the  
year4 ,within the tropics1 moreover1    
where the ocean now predominates1 the   
sky would no longer be serene and clear1
 as in the present era2 but masses of   
floating ice would cause quick          
condensations of vapor1 so that fogs and
 clouds would deprive the vertical rays 
of the sun of half their power4 ,the    
whole planet1 therefore1 would receive  
annually a smaller portion of the solar 
influence1 and the external crust would 
part1 by radiation1 with some of the    
heat which had been accumulated in it1  
during a different state of the surface4
 ,this heat would be dissipated in the  
spaces surrounding our atmosphere1      
which1 according to the calculations of 

,m4 ,fourier1 have a temperature much   
inferior to that of freezing water4     
,after the geographical revolution above
 assumed1 the climate of equinoctial    
lands might be brought at last to       
resemble that of the present temperate  
zone1 or perhaps be far more wintry4    
,they who should then inhabit such small
 isles and coral reefs as are now seen  
in the ,indian ,ocean and ,south        
,pacific1 would wonder that zoophytes of
 large dimensions had once been so      
prolific in their seas2 or if1          
perchance1 they found the wood and fruit
 of the cocoa-nut tree or the palm      
silicified by the waters of some ancient
 mineral spring1 or incrusted with      
calcareous matter1 they would muse on   
the revolutions which had annihilated   
such genera1 and replaced them by the   
oak1 the chestnut1 and the pine4 ,with  
equal admiration would they compare the 
skeletons of their small lizards with   
the bones of fossil alligators and      
crocodiles more than twenty feet in     

length1 which1 at a former epoch1 had   
multiplied between the tropics3 and when
 they saw a pine included in an iceberg1
 drifted from latitudes which we now    
call temperate1 they would be astonished
 at the proof thus afforded1 that       
forests had once grown where nothing    
could be seen in their own times but a  
wilderness of snow4  ,if the reader     
hesitate to suppose so extensive an     
alteration of temperature as the        
probable consequence of geographical    
changes1 confined to one hemisphere1 he 
should remember how great are the local 
anomalies in climate now resulting from 
the peculiar distribution of land and   
sea in certain regions4 ,thus1 in the   
island of ,south ,georgia1 before       
mentioned 7p4 #ih71 ,captain ,cook found
 the everlasting snows descending to the
 level of the sea1 between lat4 #ed     
degrees and #ee degrees ,s42 no trees or
 shrubs were to be seen1 and in summer a
 few rocks only1 after a partial melting
 of the ice and snow1 were scantily     

covered with moss and tufts of grass4   
,if such a climate can now exist at the 
level of the sea in a latitude          
corresponding to that of ,yorkshire in  
spite of all those equalizing causes    
before enumerated1 by which the mixture 
of the temperatures of distant regions  
is facilitated throughout the globe1    
what rigors might we not anticipate in a
 winter generated by the transfer of the
 mountains of ,india to our arctic      
circle6  ,but we have still to          
contemplate the additional refrigeration
 which might be effected by changes in  
the relative position of land and sea in
 the southern hemisphere4 ,if the       
remaining continents were transferred   
from the equatorial and contiguous      
latitudes to the south polar regions1   
the intensity of cold produced might1   
perhaps1 render the globe uninhabitable4
 ,we are too ignorant of the laws       
governing the direction of subterranean 
forces1 to determine whether such a     
crisis be within the limits of          

possibility4 ,at the same time1 it may  
be observed1 that no distribution of    
land can well be imagined more          
irregular1 or1 as it were1 capricious1  
than that which now prevails2 for at    
present1 the globe may be divided into  
two equal parts1 in such a manner1 that 
one hemisphere shall be almost entirely 
covered with water1 while the other     
shall contain less water than land 7see 
figs4 #c and #d72aib and1 what is still 
more extraordinary1 on comparing the    
extratropical lands in the northern and 
southern hemispheres1 the lands in the  
northern are found to be to those in the
 southern in the proportion of thirteen 
to one6#aic ,to imagine all the lands1  
therefore1 in high1 and all the sea in  
low latitudes1 as delineated in fig4 #f1
 p4 #aaa1 would scarcely be a more      
anomalous state of the surface4         
,illustration3 ,map showing the present 
unequal ,distribution of ,,land and     
,,water on the ,surface of the ,,globe4 
,fig4 #c4 ,here ,london is taken as a   

centre1 and we behold the greatest      
quantity of land existing in one        
hemisphere4  ,fig4 #d4 ,here the centre 
is the antipodal point to ,london1 and  
we see the greatest quantity of water   
existing in one hemisphere4  ,the black 
shading expresses land having land      
opposite or antipodal to it4            
,illustration3 ,maps showing the        
position of ,,land and ,,sea which might
 produce the ,extremes of ,,heat and    
,,cold in the ,climates of the ,,globe4 
,fig4 #e4  ,extreme of ,heat4  ,fig4 #f4
  ,extreme of ,cold4                    
,,observations4--,these maps are        
intended to show that continents and    
islands having the same shape and       
relative dimensions as those now        
existing1 might be placed so as to      
occupy either the equatorial or polar   
regions4  ,in fig4 #e1 scarcely any of  
the land extends from the equator       
towards the poles beyond the #cjth      
parallel of latitude2 and fig4 #f1 a    
very small proportion of it extends from

 the poles towards the ,equator beyond  
the #djth parallel of latitude4         
,position of land and sea which might   
give rise to the extreme of heat4--,let 
us now turn from the contemplation of   
the winter of the great year1 and       
consider the opposite train of          
circumstances which would bring on the  
spring and summer4 ,to imagine all the  
lands to be collected together in       
equatorial latitudes1 and a few         
promontories only to project beyond the 
thirtieth parallel1 as represented in   
the annexed maps 7figs4 #e and #f71     
would be undoubtedly to suppose an      
extreme result of geological change4    
,but if we consider a mere approximation
 to such a state of things1 it would be 
sufficient to cause a general elevation 
of temperature4 ,nor can it be regarded 
as a visionary idea1 that amidst the    
revolutions of the earth's surface1 the 
quantity of land should1 at certain     
periods1 have been simultaneously       
lessened in the vicinity of both the    

poles1 and increased within the tropics4
 ,we must recollect that even now it is 
necessary to ascend to the height of    
fifteen thousand feet in the ,andes     
under the line1 and in the ,himalaya    
mountains1 which are without the tropic1
 to seventeen thousand feet1 before we  
reach the limit of perpetual snow4 ,on  
the northern slope1 indeed1 of the      
,himalaya range1 where the heat radiated
 from a great continent moderates the   
cold1 there are meadows and cultivated  
land at an elevation equal to the height
 of ,mont ,blanc4#aid ,if then there    
were no arctic lands to chill the       
atmosphere1 and freeze the sea1 and if  
the loftiest chains were near the line1 
it seems reasonable to imagine that the 
highest mountains might be clothed with 
a rich vegetation to their summits1 and 
that nearly all signs of frost would    
disappear from the earth4  ,when the    
absorption of the solar rays was in no  
region impeded1 even in winter1 by a    
coat of snow1 the mean heat of the      

earth's crust would augment to          
considerable depths1 and springs1 which 
we know to be in general an index of the
 mean temperature of the climate1 would 
be warmer in all latitudes4 ,the waters 
of lakes1 therefore1 and rivers1 would  
be much hotter in winter1 and would be  
never chilled in summer by melted snow  
and ice4 ,a remarkable uniformity of    
climate would prevail amid the          
archipelagoes of the temperate and polar
 oceans1 where the tepid waters of      
equatorial currents would freely        
circulate4 ,the general humidity of the 
atmosphere would far exceed that of the 
present period1 for increased heat would
 promote evaporation in all parts of the
 globe4 ,the winds would be first heated
 in their passage over the tropical     
plains1 and would then gather moisture  
from the surface of the deep1 till1     
charged with vapor1 they arrived at     
extreme northern and southern regions1  
and there encountering a cooler         
atmosphere1 discharged their burden in  

warm rain4 ,if1 during the long night of
 a polar winter1 the snows should whiten
 the summits of some arctic islands1    
they would be dissolved as rapidly by   
the returning sun1 as are the snows of  
,etna by the blasts of the sirocco4  ,we
 learn from those who have studied the  
geographical distribution of plants1    
that in very low latitudes1 at present1 
the vegetation of small islands remote  
from continents has a peculiar          
character2 the ferns and allied         
families1 in particular1 bearing a great
 proportion to the total number of other
 plants4 ,other circumstances being the 
same1 the more remote the isles are from
 the continents1 the greater does this  
proportion become4 ,thus1 in the        
continent of ,india1 and the tropical   
parts of ,new ,holland1 the proportion  
of ferns to the phaenogamous plants is  
only as one to twenty-six2 whereas1 in  
the ,south-,sea ,islands1 it is as one  
to four1 or even as one to three4#aie   
,we might expect1 therefore1 in the     

summer of the great year1 or cycle of   
climate1 that there would be a          
predominance of tree ferns and plants   
allied to genera now called tropical1 in
 the islands of the wide ocean1 while   
many forms now confined to arctic and   
temperate regions1 or only found near   
the equator on the summit of the        
loftiest mountains1 would almost        
disappear from the earth4 ,then might   
those genera of animals return1 of which
 the memorials are preserved in the     
ancient rocks of our continents4 ,the   
pterodactyle might flit again through   
the air1 the huge iguanodon reappear in 
the woods1 and the ichthyosaurs swarm   
once more in the sea4 ,coral reefs might
 be prolonged again beyond the arctic   
circle1 where the whale and the narwal  
now abound2 and droves of turtles might 
begin again to wander through regions   
now tenanted by the walrus and the seal4
  ,but not to indulge too far in these  
speculations1 ,i may observe1 in        
conclusion1 that however great1 during  

the lapse of ages1 may be the           
vicissitudes of temperature in every    
zone1 it accords with this theory that  
the general climate should not          
experience any sensible change in the   
course of a few thousand years2 because 
that period is insufficient to affect   
the leading features of the physical    
geography of the globe4                 
,notwithstanding the apparent           
uncertainty of the seasons1 it is found 
that the mean temperature of particular 
localities is very constant1 when       
observations made for a sufficient      
series of years are compared4  ,yet     
there must be exceptions to this rule2  
and even the labors of man have1 by the 
drainage of lakes and marshes1 and the  
felling of extensive forests1 caused    
such changes in the atmosphere as       
greatly to raise our conception of the  
more important influence of those forces
 to which1 in certain latitudes1 even   
the existence of land or water1 hill or 
valley1 lake or sea1 must be ascribed4  

,if we possessed accurate information of
 the amount of local fluctuation in     
climate in the course of twenty         
centuries1 it would often1 undoubtedly1 
be considerable4 ,certain tracts1 for   
example1 on the coast of ,holland and of
 ,england consisted of cultivated land  
in the time of the ,romans1 which the   
sea1 by gradual encroachments1 has at   
length occupied4 ,here1 at least1 a     
slight alteration has been effected2 for
 neither the distribution of heat in the
 different seasons1 nor the mean annual 
temperature of the atmosphere investing 
the sea1 is precisely the same as that  
which rests upon the land4  ,in those   
countries1 also1 where earthquakes and  
volcanoes are in full activity1 a much  
shorter period may produce a sensible   
variation4 ,the climate of the great    
table-land of ,malpais in ,mexico1 must 
differ materially from that which       
prevailed before the middle of the last 
century2 for1 since that time1 six      
mountains1 the highest of them rising   

sixteen hundred feet above the plateau1 
have been thrown up by volcanic         
eruptions4 ,it is by the repetition of  
an indefinite number of such local      
revolutions1 and by slow movements      
extending simultaneously over wider     
areas1 as will be afterwards shown1 that
 a general change of climate may finally
 be brought about4     ,,chapter ,,viii4
  ,,on ,,former ,,changes ,,in          
,,physical ,,geography ,,and ,,climate4 
,geographical features of the northern  
hemisphere1 at the period of     the    
oldest fossiliferous strata--,state of  
the surface when the     mountain       
limestone and coal were                 
deposited--,changes in physical         
geography1 between the carboniferous    
period and the chalk--,abrupt           
transition from the secondary to the    
tertiary fossils--,accession of         
land1 and elevation of mountain chains1 
after the consolidation of     the      
secondary rocks--,explanation of ,map1  
showing the area covered by     sea1    

since the commencement of the tertiary  
period--,astronomical     theories of   
the causes of variations in             
climate--,theory of the     diminution  
of the supposed primitive heat of the   
globe4   ,in the sixth chapter1 ,i      
stated the arguments derived from       
organic remains for concluding that in  
the period when the carboniferous strata
 were deposited1 the temperature of the 
ocean and the air was more uniform in   
the different seasons of the year1 and  
in different latitudes1 than at present1
 and that there was a remarkable absence
 of cold as well as great moisture in   
the atmosphere4 ,it was also shown that 
the climate had been modified more than 
once since that epoch1 and that it had  
been reduced1 by successive changes1    
more and more nearly to that now        
prevailing in the same latitudes4       
,farther1 ,i endeavored1 in the last    
chapter1 to prove that vicissitudes in  
climate of no less importance may be    
expected to recur in future1 if it be   

admitted that causes now active in      
nature have power1 in the lapse of ages1
 to produce considerable variations in  
the relative position of land and sea4  
,it remains to inquire whether the      
alterations1 which the geologist can    
prove to have actually taken place at   
former periods1 in the geographical     
features of the northern hemisphere1    
coincide in their nature1 and in the    
time of their occurrence1 with such     
revolutions in climate as might         
naturally have resulted1 according to   
the meteorological principles already   
explained4  ,period of the primary      
fossiliferous rocks4--,the oldest system
 of strata which afford by their organic
 remains any evidence as to climate1 or 
the former position of land and sea1 are
 those formerly known as the transition 
rocks1 or what have since been termed   
,lower ,silurian or primary             
fossiliferous formations4 ,these have   
been found in ,england1 ,france1        
,germany1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 and other   

parts of central and northern ,europe1  
as also in the great ,lake district of  
,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,the   
multilocular or chambered univalves1    
including the ,nautilus1 and the corals1
 obtained from the limestones of these  
ancient groups1 have been compared to   
forms now most largely developed in     
tropical seas4 ,the corals1 however1    
have been shown by ,m4 ,milne ,edwards  
to differ generally from all living     
zoophytes2 so that conclusions as to a  
warmer climate drawn from such remote   
analogies must be received with caution4
 ,hitherto1 few1 if any1 contemporaneous
 vegetable remains have been noticed2   
but such as are mentioned agree more    
nearly with the plants of the           
carboniferous era than any other1 and   
would therefore imply a warm and humid  
atmosphere entirely free from intense   
cold throughout the year4  ,this absence
 or great scarcity of plants as well as 
of freshwater shells and other          
indications of neighboring land1 coupled

 with the wide extent of marine strata  
of this age in ,europe and ,north       
,america1 are facts which imply such a  
state of physical geography 7so far at  
least as regards the northern           
hemisphere7 as would1 according to the  
principles before explained1 give rise  
to such a moist and equable climate4    
7,see p4 #aji1 and fig4 #e1 p4 #aaa47   
,carboniferous group4--,this group comes
 next in the order of succession2 and   
one of its principal members1 the       
mountain limestone1 was evidently a     
marine formation1 as is shown by the    
shells and corals which it contains4    
,that the ocean of that period was of   
considerable extent in our latitudes1 we
 may infer from the continuity of these 
calcareous strata over large areas in   
,europe1 ,canada1 and the ,united       
,states4 ,the same group has also been  
traced in ,north ,america1 towards the  
borders of the arctic sea4#aif  ,there  
are also several regions in ,scotland1  
and in the central and northern parts of

 ,england1 as well as in the ,united    
,states1 where marine carboniferous     
limestones alternate with strata        
containing coal1 in such a manner as to 
imply the drifting down of plants by    
rivers into the sea1 and the alternate  
occupation of the same space by fresh   
and salt water4  ,since the time of the 
earlier writers1 no strata have been    
more extensively investigated1 both in  
,europe and ,north ,america1 than those 
of the ancient carboniferous group1 and 
the progress of science has led to a    
general belief that a large portion of  
the purest coal has been formed1 not1 as
 was once imagined1 by vegetable matter 
floated from a distance1 but by plants  
which grew on the spot1 and somewhat in 
the manner of peat on the spaces now    
covered by the beds of coal4 ,the former
 existence of land in some of these     
spaces has been proved1 as already      
stated1 by the occurrence of numerous   
upright fossil trees1 with their roots  
terminating downwards in seams of coal2 

and still more generally by the roots of
 trees 7stigmariae7 remaining in their  
natural position in the clays which     
underlie almost every layer of coal4    
,as some nearly continuous beds of such 
coal have of late years been traced in  
,north ,america1 over areas #ajj or #bjj
 miles and upwards in diameter1 it may  
be asked whether the large tracts of    
ancient land implied by this fact are   
not inconsistent with the hypothesis of 
the general prevalence of islands at the
 period under consideration8 ,in reply1 
,i may observe that the coal-fields must
 originally have been low alluvial      
grounds1 resembling in situation the    
cypress-swamps of the ,mississippi1 or  
the sunderbunds of the ,ganges1 being   
liable like them to be inundated at     
certain periods by a river or by the    
sea1 if the land should be depressed a  
few feet4 ,all the phenomena1 organic   
and inorganic1 imply conditions nowhere 
to be met with except in the deltas of  
large rivers4 ,we have to account for an

 abundant supply of fluviatile sediment1
 carried for ages towards one and the   
same region1 and capable of forming     
strata of mud and sand thousands of     
feet1 or even fathoms1 in thickness1    
many of them consisting of laminated    
shale1 inclosing the leaves of ferns and
 other terrestrial plants4 ,we have also
 to explain the frequent intercalations 
of root-beds1 and the interposition here
 and there of brackish and marine       
deposits1 demonstrating the occasional  
presence of the neighboring sea4 ,but   
these forest-covered deltas could only  
have been formed at the termination of  
large hydrographical basins1 each       
drained by a great river and its        
tributaries2 and the accumulation of    
sediment bears testimony to             
contemporaneous denudation on a large   
scale1 and1 therefore1 to a wide area of
 land1 probably containing within it one
 or more mountain chains4  ,in the case 
of the great ,ohio or ,appalachian      
coal-field1 the largest in the world1 it

 seems clear that the uplands drained by
 one or more great rivers were chiefly  
to the eastward1 or they occupied a     
space now filled by part of the         
,atlantic ,ocean1 for the mechanical    
deposits of mud and sand increase       
greatly in thickness and coarseness of  
material as we approach the eastern     
borders of the coal-field1 or the       
southeast flanks of the ,alleghany      
mountains1 near ,philadelphia4 ,in that 
region numerous beds of pebbles1 often  
of the size of a hen's egg1 are seen to 
alternate with beds of pure coal4  ,but 
the ,american coal-fields are all       
comprised within the #cjth and #ejth    
degrees of north latitude2 and there is 
no reason to presume that the lands at  
the borders of which they originated    
ever penetrated so far or in such masses
 into the colder and arctic regions1 so 
as to generate a cold climate4 ,in the  
southern hemisphere1 where the          
predominance of sea over land is now the
 distinguishing geographical feature1 we

 nevertheless find a large part of the  
continent of ,australia1 as well as ,new
 ,zealand1 placed between the #cjth and 
#ejth degrees of ,s4 latitude4 ,the two 
islands of ,new ,zealand taken together1
 are between #hjj and #ijj miles in     
length1 with a breadth in some parts of 
ninety miles1 and they stretch as far   
south as the #dfth degree of latitude4  
,they afford1 therefore1 a wide area for
 the growth of a terrestrial vegetation1
 and the botany of this region is       
characterized by abundance of ferns1 one
 hundred and forty species of which are 
already known1 some of them attaining   
the size of trees4 ,in this respect the 
southern shores of ,new ,zealand in the 
#dfth degree of latitude almost vie with
 tropical islands4 ,another point of    
resemblance between the ,flora of ,new  
,zealand and that of the ancient        
carboniferous period is the prevalence  
of the fir tribe or of coniferous wood4 
,an argument of some weight in          
corroboration of the theory above       

explained respecting the geographical   
condition of the temperate and arctic   
latitudes of the northern hemisphere in 
the carboniferous period may also be    
derived from ah examination of those    
groups of strata which immediately      
preceded the coal4 ,the fossils of the  
,devonian and ,silurian strata in       
,europe and ,north ,america have led to 
the conclusion1 that they were formed   
for the most part in deep seas1 far from
 land4 ,in those older strata land      
plants are almost as rare as they are   
abundant or universal in the coal       
measures4 ,those ancient deposits1      
therefore1 may be supposed to have      
belonged to an epoch when dry land had  
only just begun to be upraised from the 
deep2 a theory which would imply the    
existence during the carboniferous epoch
 of islands1 instead of an extensive    
continent1 in the area where the coal   
was formed4  ,such a state of things    
prevailing in the north1 from the pole  
to the #cjth parallel of latitude1 if   

not neutralized by circumstances of a   
contrary tendency in corresponding      
regions south of the line1 would give   
rise to a general warmth and uniformity 
of climate throughout the globe4        
,changes in physical geography between  
the formation of the carboniferous      
strata and the chalk4--,we have evidence
 in ,england that the strata of the     
ancient carboniferous group1 already    
adverted to1 were1 in many instances1   
fractured and contorted1 and often      
thrown into a vertical position1 before 
the deposition of some even of the      
oldest known secondary rocks1 such as   
the new red sandstone4  ,fragments of   
the older formations are sometimes      
included in the conglomerates of the    
more modern2 and some of these fragments
 still retain their fossil shells and   
corals1 so as to enable us to determine 
the parent rocks from whence they were  
derived4 ,there are other proofs of the 
disturbance at successive epochs of     
different secondary rocks before the    

deposition of others2 and satisfactory  
evidence that1 during these reiterated  
convulsions1 the geographical features  
of the northern hemisphere were         
frequently modified1 and that from time 
to time new lands emerged from the deep4
 ,the vegetation1 during some parts of  
the period in question 7from the lias to
 the chalk inclusive71 when genera      
allied to ,cycas and ,zamia were        
abundant1 appears to have approached to 
that of the larger islands of the       
equatorial zone2 such1 for example1 as  
we now find in the ,west ,indian        
archipelago4#aig ,these islands appear  
to have been drained by rivers of       
considerable size1 which were inhabited 
by crocodiles and gigantic oviparous    
reptiles1 both herbivorous and          
carnivorous1 belonging for the most part
 to extinct genera4 ,of the contemporary
 inhabitants of the land we have as yet 
acquired but scanty information1 but we 
know that there were flying reptiles1   
insects1 and small mammifers1 allied to 

the marsupial tribes4  ,a freshwater    
deposit1 called the ,wealden1 occurs in 
the upper part of the secondary series  
of the south of ,england1 which1 by its 
extent and fossils1 attests the         
existence in that region of a large     
river draining a continent or island of 
considerable dimensions4 ,we know that  
this land was clothed with wood1 and    
inhabited by huge terrestrial reptiles  
and birds4 ,its position so far to the  
north as the counties of ,surrey and    
,sussex1 at a time when the mean        
temperature of the climate is supposed  
to have been much hotter than at        
present1 may at first sight appear      
inconsistent with the theory before     
explained1 that the heat was caused by  
the gathering together of all the great 
masses of land in low latitudes1 while  
the northern regions were almost        
entirely sea4 ,but it must not be taken 
for granted that the geographical       
conditions already described 7p4 #aji1  
and fig4 #e1 p4 #aaa7 as capable of     

producing the extreme of heat were ever 
combined at any geological period of    
which we have yet obtained information4 
,it is more probable1 from what has been
 stated in the preceding chapters1 that 
a slight approximation to such an       
extreme state of things would be        
sufficient2 in other words1 if most of  
the dry land were tropical1 and scarcely
 any of it arctic or antarctic1 a       
prodigious elevation of temperature must
 ensue1 even though a part of some      
continents should penetrate far into the
 temperate zones4  ,changes during the  
tertiary periods4--,the secondary and   
tertiary formations of ,europe1 when    
considered separately1 may be contrasted
 as having very different characters2   
the secondary appearing to have been    
deposited in open seas1 the tertiary in 
regions where dry land1 lakes1 bays1 and
 perhaps inland seas1 abounded4 ,the    
secondary series is almost exclusively  
marine2 the tertiary1 even the oldest   
part1 contains lacustrine strata1 and   

not unfrequently freshwater and marine  
beds alternating4 ,in fact there is     
evidence of important geographical      
changes having occurred between the     
deposition of the cretaceous system1 or 
uppermost of the secondary series1 and  
that of the oldest tertiary group1 and  
still more between the era of the latter
 and that of the newer tertiary         
formations4 ,this change in the physical
 geography of ,europe and ,north        
,america was accompanied by an          
alteration no less remarkable in organic
 life1 scarcely any species being common
 both to the secondary and tertiary     
rocks1 and the fossils of the latter    
affording evidence of a different       
climate4  ,on the other hand1 when we   
compare the tertiary formations of      
successive ages1 we trace a gradual     
approximation in the imbedded fossils1  
from an assemblage in which extinct     
species predominate1 to one where the   
species agree for the most part with    
those now existing4 ,in other words1 we 

find a gradual increase of animals and  
plants fitted for our present climates1 
in proportion as the strata which we    
examine are more modern4 ,now1 during   
all these successive tertiary periods1  
there are signs of a great increase of  
land in ,european and ,north ,american  
latitudes4 ,by reference to the map     
7,pl4 #a71 and its description1 p4 #aba1
 the reader will see that about         
two-thirds of the present ,european     
lands have emerged since the earliest   
tertiary group originated4 ,nor is this 
the only revolution which the same      
region has undergone within the period  
alluded to1 some tracts which were      
previously land having gained in        
altitude1 others1 on the contrary1      
having sunk below their former level4   
,that the existing lands were not all   
upheaved at once into their present     
position is proved by the most striking 
evidence4 ,several ,italian geologists1 
even before the time of ,brocchi1 had   
justly inferred that the ,apennines were

 elevated several thousand feet above   
the level of the ,mediterranean before  
the deposition of the modern            
,subapennine beds which flank them on   
either side4 ,what now constitutes the  
central calcareous chain of the         
,apennines must for a long time have    
been a narrow ridgy peninsula1 branching
 off1 at its northern extremity1 from   
the ,alps near ,savona4 ,this peninsula 
has since been raised from one to two   
thousand feet1 by which movement the    
ancient shores1 and1 for a certain      
extent1 the bed of the contiguous sea1  
have been laid dry1 both on the side of 
the ,mediterranean and the ,adriatic4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4  ,the nature of
 these vicissitudes will be explained by
 the accompanying diagram1 which        
represents a transverse section across  
the ,italian peninsula4 ,the inclined   
strata ,a are the disturbed formations  
of the ,apennines1 into which the       
ancient igneous rocks a are supposed to 
have intruded themselves4 ,at a lower   

level on each flank of the chain are the
 more recent shelly beds b b1 which     
often contain rounded pebbles derived   
from the waste of contiguous parts of   
the older ,apennine limestone4 ,these1  
it will be seen1 are horizontal1 and lie
 in what is termed unconformable        
stratification on the more ancient      
series4 ,they now constitute a line of  
hills of moderate elevation between the 
sea and the ,apennines1 but never       
penetrate to the higher and more ancient
 valleys of that chain4  ,the same      
phenomena are exhibited in the ,alps on 
a much grander scale2 those mountains   
being composed in some even of their    
higher regions of the newer secondary   
and oldest tertiary formations1 while   
they are encircled by a great zone of   
more modern tertiary rocks both on their
 southern flank towards the plains of   
the ,po1 and on the side of ,switzerland
 and ,austria1 and at their eastern     
termination towards ,styria and         
,hungary4#aih ,this newer tertiary zone 

marks the position of former seas or    
gulfs1 like the ,adriatic1 wherein      
masses of strata accumulated1 some      
single groups of which are not inferior 
in thickness to the most voluminous of  
our secondary formations in ,england4   
,some even of these newer groups have   
been raised to the height of three or   
four thousand feet1 and in proportion to
 their antiquity1 they generally rise to
 greater heights1 the older of them     
forming interior zones nearest to the   
central ridges of the ,alps4 ,we have   
already ascertained that the ,alps      
gained accessions to their height and   
width at several successive periods1 and
 that the last series of improvements   
occurred when the seas were inhabited by
 many existing species of animals4  ,we 
may imagine some future series of       
convulsions once more to heave up this  
stupendous chain1 together with the     
adjoining bed of the sea1 so that the   
mountains of ,europe may rival the      
,andes in elevation2 in which case the  

deltas of the ,po1 ,adige1 and ,brenta1 
now encroaching upon the ,adriatic1     
might be uplifted so as to form another 
exterior belt of considerable height    
around the southeastern flank of the    
,alps4  ,the ,pyrenees1 also1 have      
acquired their present altitude1 which  
in ,mont ,perdu exceeds eleven thousand 
feet1 since the deposition of the       
nummulitic or ,eocene division of the   
tertiary series4 ,some of the tertiary  
strata at the base of the chain are     
raised to the height of only a few      
hundred feet above the sea1 and retain a
 horizontal position1 without partaking 
in general in the disturbance to which  
the older series has been subjected2 so 
that the great barrier between ,france  
and ,spain was almost entirely upheaved 
in the interval between the deposition  
of certain groups of tertiary strata4   
,the remarkable break between the most  
modern of the known secondary rocks and 
the oldest tertiary1 may be apparent    
only1 and ascribable to the present     

deficiency of our information4 ,already 
the marles and green sand of ,heers near
 ,tongres1 in ,belgium1 observed by ,m4 
,dumont1 and the pisolitic limestone of 
the neighborhood of ,paris1 both        
intermediate in age between the         
,maestricht chalk and the lower ,eocene 
strata1 begin to afford us signs of a   
passage from one state of things to     
another4 ,nevertheless1 it is far from  
impossible that the interval between the
 chalk and tertiary formations          
constituted an era in the earth's       
history1 when the transition from one   
class of organic beings to another was1 
comparatively speaking1 rapid4 ,for if  
the doctrines above explained in regard 
to vicissitudes of temperature are      
sound1 it will follow that changes of   
equal magnitude in the geographical     
features of the globe may at different  
periods produce very unequal effects on 
climate2 and1 so far as the existence of
 certain animals and plants depends on  
climate1 the duration of species would  

be shortened or protracted1 according to
 the rate at which the change of        
temperature proceeded4  ,for even if we 
assume that the intensity of the        
subterranean disturbing forces is       
uniform and capable of producing nearly 
equal amounts of alteration on the      
surface of the planet1 during equal     
periods of time1 still the rate of      
alteration in climate would be by no    
means uniform4 ,let us imagine the      
quantity of land between the equator and
 the tropic in one hemisphere to be to  
that in the other as thirteen to one1   
which1 as before stated1 represents the 
unequal proportion of the extra-tropical
 lands in the two hemispheres at        
present4 7,see figs4 #c and #d1 p4      
#aaj47 ,then let the first geographical 
change consist in the shifting of this  
preponderance of land from one side of  
the line to the other2 from the southern
 hemisphere1 for example1 to the        
northern4 ,now this need not affect the 
general temperature of the earth4 ,but  

if1 at another epoch1 we suppose a      
continuance of the same agency to       
transfer an equal volume of land from   
the torrid zone to the temperate and    
arctic regions of the northern and      
southern hemispheres1 or into one of    
them1 there might be so great a         
refrigeration of the mean temperature in
 all latitudes1 that scarcely any of the
 pre-existing races of animals would    
survive2 and1 unless it pleased the     
,author of ,nature that the planet      
should be uninhabited1 new species1 and 
probably of widely different forms1     
would then be substituted in the room of
 the extinct4 ,we ought not1 therefore1 
to infer that equal periods of time are 
always attended by an equal amount of   
change in organic life1 since a great   
fluctuation in the mean temperature of  
the earth1 the most influential cause   
which can be conceived in exterminating 
whole races of animals and plants1 must1
 in different epochs1 require unequal   
portions of time for its completion4    

,,plate ,i4 ,map showing the extent of  
surface in ,europe which has at one     
period or another been covered by the   
sea since the commencement of the       
deposition of the older or ,eocene      
,tertiary strata4  ,this map will enable
 the reader to perceive at a glance the 
great extent of change in the physical  
geography of ,europe1 which can be      
proved to have taken place since some of
 the older tertiary strata began to be  
deposited4 ,the proofs of submergence1  
during some part or other of this       
period1 in all the districts            
distinguished by ruled lines1 are of a  
most unequivocal character2 for the area
 thus described is now covered by       
deposits containing the fossil remains  
of animals which could only have lived  
in salt water4 ,the most ancient part of
 the period referred to cannot be deemed
 very remote1 considered geologically2  
because the deposits of the ,paris and  
,london basins1 and many other districts
 belonging to the older tertiary epoch1 

are newer than the greater part of the  
sedimentary rocks 7those commonly called
 secondary and primary fossiliferous or 
paleozoic7 of which the crust of the    
globe is composed4 ,the species1        
moreover1 of marine testacea1 of which  
the remains are found in these older    
tertiary formations1 are not entirely   
distinct from such as now live4 ,yet1   
notwithstanding the comparatively recent
 epoch to which this retrospect is      
carried1 the variations in the          
distribution of land and sea depicted on
 the map form only a part of those which
 must have taken place during the period
 under consideration4 ,some             
approximation has merely been made to an
 estimate of the amount of sea converted
 into land in parts of ,europe best     
known to geologists2 but we cannot      
determine how much land has become sea  
during the same period2 and there may   
have been repeated interchanges of land 
and water in the same places1 changes of
 which no account is taken in the map1  

and respecting the amount of which      
little accurate information can ever be 
obtained4  ,i have extended the sea in  
some instances beyond the limits of the 
land now covered by tertiary formations1
 and marine drift1 because other        
geological data have been obtained for  
inferring the submergence of these      
tracts after the deposition of the      
,eocene strata had begun4 ,thus1 for    
example1 there are good reasons for     
concluding that part of the chalk of    
,england 7the ,north and ,south ,downs1 
for example1 together with the          
intervening secondary tracts7 continued 
beneath the sea until the oldest        
tertiary beds had begun to accumulate4  
,a strait of the sea separating ,england
 and ,wales has also been introduced1 on
 the evidence afforded by shells of     
existing species found in a deposit of  
gravel1 sand1 loam1 and clay1 called the
 northern drift1 by ,sir ,r4            
,murchison4#aii ,and ,mr4 ,trimmer has  
discovered similar recent marine shells 

on the northern coast of ,north ,wales1 
and on ,moel ,tryfane1 near the ,menai  
,straits1 at the height of #acib feet   
above the level of the sea6  ,some      
raised sea-beaches1 and drift containing
 marine shells1 which ,i examined in    
#ahdc1 between ,limerick and ,dublin1   
and which have been traced over other   
parts of ,ireland by different          
geologists1 have required an extension  
of the dark lines so as to divide that  
island into several4 ,in improving this 
part of my map ,i have been especially  
indebted to the assistance of ,mr4      
,oldham1 who in #ahdc announced to the  
,british ,association at ,cork the fact 
that at the period when the drift or    
glacial beds were deposited1 ,ireland   
must have formed an archipelago such as 
is here depicted4 ,a considerable part  
of ,scotland might also have been       
represented in a similar manner as under
 water when the drift originated4  ,a   
portion of ,brittany is divided into    
islands1 because it is known to be      

covered with patches of marine tertiary 
strata chiefly miocene4 ,when ,i        
examined these in #ahcj and #ahdc1 ,i   
convinced myself that the sea must have 
covered much larger areas than are now  
occupied by these small and detached    
deposits4 ,the former connection of the 
,white ,sea and the ,gulf of ,finland is
 proved by the fact that a multitude of 
huge erratic blocks extend over the     
intervening space1 and a large portion  
of ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark1 as   
well as ,germany and ,russia1 are       
represented as sea1 on the same         
evidence1 strengthened by the actual    
occurrence of fossil sea-shells1 of     
recent species1 in the drift of various 
portions of those countries4 ,the       
submergence of considerable areas under 
large bodies of fresh water1 during the 
tertiary period1 of which there are many
 striking geological proofs in          
,auvergne1 and elsewhere1 has not been  
expressed by ruled lines4 ,they bear    
testimony to the former existence of    

neighboring lands1 and a certain        
elevation of the areas where they occur 
above the level of the ocean2 they are  
therefore left blank1 together with all 
the space that cannot be demonstrated to
 have been part of the sea at some time 
or other1 since the commencement of the 
,eocene epoch4  ,in compiling this map1 
which has been entirely recast since the
 first edition1 ,i have availed myself  
of the latest geological maps of the    
,british isles1 and north of ,europe2   
also of those published by the          
government surveyors of ,france1 ,,mm4  
de ,beaumont and ,dufresnoy2 the map of 
,germany and part of ,europe1 by ,von   
,dechen1 and that of ,italy by ,m4      
,tchihatchoff 7,berlin1 #ahdb74 ,lastly1
 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's important map of 
,russia1 and the adjoining countries1   
has enabled me to mark out not only a   
considerable area1 previously little    
known1 in which tertiary formations     
occur2 but also a still wider expanse1  
over which the northern drift1 and      

erratic blocks with occasional marine   
shells1 are traceable4 ,the southern    
limits of these glacial deposits in     
,russia and ,germany indicate the       
boundary1 so far as we can now determine
 it1 of the northern ocean1 at a period 
immediately antecedent to that of the   
human race4  ,i was anxious1 even in the
 title of this map1 to guard the reader 
against the supposition that it was     
intended to represent the state of the  
physical geography of part of ,europe at
 any one point of time4 ,the difficulty1
 or rather the impossibility1 of        
restoring the geography of the globe as 
it may have existed at any former       
period1 especially a remote one1        
consists in this1 that we can only point
 out where part of the sea has been     
turned into land1 and are almost always 
unable to determine what land may have  
become sea4 ,all maps1 therefore1       
pretending to represent the geography of
 remote geological epochs must be ideal4
 ,the map under consideration is not a  

restoration of a former state of things1
 at any particular moment of time1 but a
 synoptical view of a certain amount of 
one kind of change 7the conversion of   
sea into land7 known to have been       
brought about within a given period4    
,it may be proper to remark that the    
vertical movements to which the land is 
subject in certain regions1 occasion    
alternately the subsidence and the      
uprising of the surface2 and that1 by   
such oscillations at successive periods1
 a great area may have been entirely    
covered with marine deposits1 although  
the whole may never have been beneath   
the waters at one time2 nay1 even though
 the relative proportion of land and sea
 may have continued unaltered throughout
 the whole period4 ,i believe1 however1 
that since the commencement of the      
tertiary period1 the dry land in the    
northern hemisphere has been continually
 on the increase1 both because it is now
 greatly in excess beyond the average   
proportion which land generally bears to

 water on the globe1 and because a      
comparison of the secondary and tertiary
 strata affords indications1 as ,i have 
already shown1 of a passage from the    
condition of an ocean interspersed with 
islands to that of a large continent4   
,but supposing it were possible to      
represent all the vicissitudes in the   
distribution of land and sea that have  
occurred during the tertiary period1 and
 to exhibit not only the actual         
existence of land where there was once  
sea1 but also the extent of surface now 
submerged which may once have been land1
 the map would still fail to express all
 the important revolutions in physical  
geography which have taken place within 
the epoch under consideration4 ,for the 
oscillations of level1 as was before    
stated1 have not merely been such as to 
lift up the land from below the water1  
but in some cases to occasion a rise of 
many thousand feet above the sea4 ,thus 
the ,alps have acquired an additional   
altitude of #djjj1 and even in some     

places #aj1jjj feet2 and the ,apennines 
owe a considerable part of their present
 height to subterranean convulsions     
which have happened within the tertiary 
epoch4  ,on the other hand1 some        
mountain chains may have been lowered   
during the same series of ages1 in an   
equal degree1 and shoals may have been  
converted into deep abysses4#bjj ,since 
this map was recast in #ahdg1 geologists
 have very generally come to the        
conclusion that the nummulitic          
limestone1 together with the overlying  
fucoidal grit and shale1 called ,flysch1
 in the ,alps1 belongs to the older     
tertiary or ,eocene group4 ,as these    
nummulitic rocks enter into the         
structure of some of the most lofty and 
disturbed parts of the ,alps1           
,apennines1 ,carpathians1 ,pyrenees1 and
 other mountain chains1 and form many of
 the elevated lands of ,africa and      
,asia1 their position almost implies the
 ubiquity of the post-,eocene ocean1    
not1 indeed1 by the simultaneous1 but by

 the successive1 occupancy of the whole 
ground by its waters4#bja  ,concluding  
remarks on changes in physical          
geography4--,the foregoing observations1
 it may be said1 are confined chiefly to
 ,europe1 and therefore merely establish
 the increase of dry land in a space    
which constitutes but a small portion of
 the northern hemisphere2 but it was    
stated in the preceding chapter1 that   
the great ,lowland of ,siberia1 lying   
chiefly between the latitudes #ee       
degrees and #ge degrees ,n4 7an area    
nearly equal to all ,europe71 is covered
 for the most part by marine strata1    
which1 from the account given by        
,pallas1 and more recently by ,sir ,r4  
,murchison1 belongs to a period when all
 or nearly all the shells were of a     
species still living in the north4 ,the 
emergence1 therefore1 of this area from 
the deep is1 comparatively speaking1 a  
very modern event1 and must1 as before  
remarked1 have caused a great increase  
of cold throughout the globe4  ,upon a  

review1 then1 of all the facts above    
enumerated1 respecting the ancient      
geography of the globe as attested by   
geological monuments1 there appear good 
grounds for inferring that changes of   
climate coincided with remarkable       
revolutions in the former position of   
sea and land4 ,a wide expanse of ocean1 
interspersed with islands1 seems to have
 pervaded the northern hemisphere at the
 periods when the ,silurian and         
carboniferous rocks were formed1 and a  
warm and very uniform temperature then  
prevailed4 ,subsequent modifications in 
climate accompanied the deposition of   
the secondary formations1 when repeated 
changes were effected in the physical   
geography of our northern latitudes4    
,lastly1 the refrigeration became most  
decided1 and the climate most nearly    
assimilated to that now enjoyed1 when   
the lands in ,europe and northern ,asia 
had attained their full extension1 and  
the mountain chains their actual height4
  ,soon after the first publication of  

this theory of climate1 an objection was
 made by an anonymous ,german critic in 
#ahcc that there are no geological      
proofs of the prevalence at any former  
period of a temperature lower than that 
now enjoyed2 whereas1 if the causes     
above assigned were the true ones1 it   
might reasonably have been expected that
 fossil remains would sometimes indicate
 colder as well as hotter climates than 
those now established4#bjb ,in answer to
 this objection1 ,i may suggest1 that   
our present climates are probably far   
more distant from the extreme of        
possible heat than from its opposite    
extreme of cold4 ,a glance at the map   
7fig4 #f1 p4 #aaa7 will show that all   
the existing lands might be placed      
between the #cjth parallels of latitude 
on each side of the equator1 and that   
even then they would by no means fill   
that space4 ,in no other position would 
they give rise to so high a temperature4
 ,but the present geographical condition
 of the earth is so far removed from    

such a state of things1 that the land   
lying between the poles and the         
parallels of #cj1 is in great excess2 so
 much so that1 instead of being to the  
sea in the proportion of #a to #c1 which
 is as near as possible the average     
general ratio throughout the globe1 it  
is #i to #bc4bjc ,hence it ought not to 
surprise us if1 in our geological       
retrospect1 embracing perhaps a small   
part only of a complete cycle of change 
in the terrestrial climates1 we should  
happen to discover everywhere the signs 
of a higher temperature4 ,the strata    
hitherto examined may have originated   
when the quantity of equatorial land was
 always decreasing and the land in      
regions nearer the poles augmenting in  
height and area1 until at length it     
attained its present excess in high     
latitudes4 ,there is nothing improbable 
in supposing that the geographical      
revolutions of which we have hitherto   
obtained proofs had this general        
tendency2 and in that case the          

refrigeration must have been constant1  
although1 for reasons before explained1 
the rate of cooling may not have been   
uniform4  ,it may1 however1 be as well  
to recall the reader's attention to what
 was before said of the indication      
brought to light of late years1 of a    
considerable oscillation of temperature1
 in the period immediately preceding the
 human era4 ,we have seen that on       
examining some of the most northern     
deposits1 those commonly called the     
northern drift in ,scotland1 ,ireland1  
and ,canada1 in which nearly all1 in    
some cases1 perhaps all1 the fossil     
shells are of recent species1 we        
discover the signs of a climate colder  
than that now prevailing in             
corresponding latitudes on both sides   
the ,atlantic4 ,it appears that an      
arctic fauna specifically resembling    
that of the present seas1 extended      
farther to the south than now4 ,this    
opinion is derived partly from the known
 habitations of the corresponding living

 species1 and partly from the abundance 
of certain genera of shells and the     
absence of others4#bjd ,the date of the 
refrigeration thus inferred appears to  
coincide very nearly with the era of the
 dispersion of erratic blocks over      
,europe and ,north ,america1 a          
phenomenon which will be ascribed in the
 sequel 7ch4 #af7 to the cold then      
prevailing in the northern hemisphere4  
,the force1 moreover1 of the ,german    
critic's objection has been since in a  
great measure destroyed1 by the larger  
and more profound knowledge acquired in 
the last few years of the ancient       
carboniferous flora1 which has led the  
ablest botanists to adopt the opinion1  
that the climate of the coal period was 
remarkable for its warmth1 moisture1    
equability1 and freedom from cold1      
rather than the intensity of its        
tropical heat4 ,we are therefore no     
longer entitled to assume that there has
 been a constant and gradual decline in 
the absolute amount of heat formerly    

contained in the atmosphere and waters  
of the ocean1 such as it was conjectured
 might have emanated from the           
incandescent central nucleus of a new   
and nearly fluid planet1 before the     
interior had lost1 by radiation into    
surrounding space1 a great part of its  
original high temperature4              
,astronomical causes of fluctuations in 
climate4--,sir ,john ,herschel has      
lately inquired1 whether there are any  
astronomical causes which may offer a   
possible explanation of the difference  
between the actual climate of the       
earth's surface1 and those which        
formerly appear to have prevailed4 ,he  
has entered upon this subject1 he says1 
impressed with the magnificence of that 
view of geological revolutions1 which   
regards them rather as regular and      
necessary effects of great and general  
causes1 than as resulting from a series 
of convulsions and catastrophes1        
regulated by no laws1 and reducible to  
no fixed principles4 ,geometers1 he     

adds1 have demonstrated the absolute    
invariability of the mean distance of   
the earth from the sun2 whence it would 
at first seem to follow1 that the mean  
annual supply of light and heat derived 
from that luminary would be alike       
invariable3 but a closer consideration  
of the subject will show1 that this     
would not be a legitimate conclusion2   
but that on the contrary1 the mean      
amount of solar radiation is dependent  
on the eccentricity of the earth's      
orbit1 and therefore liable to          
variation4#bje  ,now the eccentricity of
 the orbit1 he continues1 is actually   
diminishing1 and has been so for ages   
beyond the records of history4 ,in      
consequence1 the ellipse is in a state  
of approach to a circle1 and the annual 
average of solar heat radiated to the   
earth is actually on the decrease4 ,so  
far this is in accordance with          
geological evidence1 which indicates a  
general refrigeration of climate2 but   
the question remains1 whether the amount

 of diminution which the eccentricity   
may have ever undergone can be supposed 
sufficient to account for any sensible  
refrigeration4 ,the calculations        
necessary to determine this point1      
though practicable1 have never yet been 
made1 and would be extremely laborious2 
for they must embrace all the           
perturbations which the most influential
 planets1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and  
,saturn1 would cause in the earth's     
orbit1 and in each other's movements    
round the sun4  ,the problem is also    
very complicated1 inasmuch as it depends
 not merely on the ellipticity of the   
earth's orbit1 but on the assumed       
temperature of the celestial spaces     
beyond the earth's atmosphere2 a matter 
still open to discussion1 and on which  
,m4 ,fourier and ,sir ,j4 ,herschel have
 arrived at very different opinions4    
,but if1 says ,herschel1 we suppose an  
extreme case1 as if the earth's orbit   
should ever become as eccentric as that 
of the planet ,juno or ,pallas1 a great 

change of climate might be conceived to 
result1 the winter and summer           
temperatures being sometimes mitigated1 
and at others exaggerated1 in the same  
latitudes4  ,it is much to be desired   
that the calculations alluded to were   
executed1 as even if they should        
demonstrate1 as ,m4 ,arago thinks highly
 probable1#bjf that the mean amount of  
solar radiation can never be materially 
affected by irregularities in the       
earth's motion1 it would still be       
satisfactory to ascertain the point4    
,such inquiries1 however1 can never     
supersede the necessity of investigating
 the consequences of the varying        
position of continents1 shifted as we   
know them to have been during successive
 epochs1 from one part of the globe to  
the other4  ,another astronomical       
hypothesis respecting the possible cause
 of secular variations in climate1 has  
been proposed by a distinguished        
mathematician and philosopher1 ,m4      
,poisson4 ,he begins by assuming1 #ast1 

that the sun and our planetary system   
are not stationary1 but carried onward  
by a common movement through space2     
#b;dly1 that every point in space       
receives heat as well as light from     
innumerable stars surrounding it on all 
sides1 so that if a right line of       
indefinite length be produced in any    
direction from such a point1 it must    
encounter a star either visible or      
invisible to us4 #c;dly1 ,he then goes  
on to assume1 that the different regions
 of space1 which in the course of       
millions of years are traversed by our  
system1 must be of very unequal         
temperature1 inasmuch as some of them   
must receive a greater1 others a less1  
quantity of radiant heat from the great 
stellary inclosure4 ,if the earth1 he   
continues1 or any other large body1 pass
 from a hotter to a colder region1 it   
would not readily lose in the second all
 the heat which it has imbibed in the   
first region1 but retain a temperature  
increasing downwards from the surface1  

as in the actual condition of our       
planet4#bjg  ,now the opinion originally
 suggested by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 that  
our sun and its attendant planets were  
all moving onward through space1 in the 
direction of the constellation          
,hercules1 is very generally thought by 
eminent astronomers to be confirmed4    
,but even if its reality be no longer   
matter of doubt1 conjectures as to its  
amount are still vague and uncertain2   
and great1 indeed1 must be the extent of
 the movement before this cause alone   
can work any material alteration in the 
terrestrial climates4 ,mr4 ,hopkins1    
when treating of this theory1 remarked1 
that so far as we were acquainted with  
the position of the stars not very      
remote from the sun1 they seem to be so 
distant from each other1 that there are 
no points in space among them1 where the
 intensity of radiating heat would be   
comparable to that which the earth      
derives from the sun1 except at points  
very near to each star4 ,thus1 in order 

that the earth should derive a degree of
 heat from stellar radiation comparable 
to that now derived from the sun1 she   
must be in close proximity to some      
particular star1 leaving the aggregate  
effect of radiation from the other stars
 nearly the same as at present4 ,this   
approximation1 however1 to a single star
 could not take place consistently with 
the preservation of the motion of the   
earth about the sun1 according to its   
present laws4  ,suppose our sun should  
approach a star within the present      
distance of ,neptune4 ,that planet could
 no longer remain a member of the solar 
system1 and the motions of the other    
planets would be disturbed in a degree  
which no one has ever contemplated as   
probable since the existence of the     
solar system4 ,but such a star1         
supposing it to be no larger than the   
sun1 and to emit the same quantity of   
heat1 would not send to the earth much  
more than one-thousandth part of the    
heat which she derives from the sun1 and

 would therefore produce only a very    
small change in terrestrial             
temperature4#bjh  ,variable splendor of 
stars4--,there is still another         
astronomical suggestion respecting the  
possible causes of secular variations in
 the terrestrial climates which deserves
 notice4 ,it has long been known that   
certain stars are liable to great and   
periodical fluctuations in splendor1 and
 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel has lately          
ascertained 7,jan4 #ahdj71 that a large 
and brilliant star1 called alpha        
,orionis1 sustained1 in the course of   
six weeks1 a loss of nearly half its    
light4 ,this phenomenon1 he remarks1    
cannot fail to awaken attention1 and    
revive those speculations which were    
first put forth by my father ,sir ,w4   
,herschel1 respecting the possibility of
 a change in the lustre of our sun      
itself4 ,if there really be a community 
of nature between the sun and fixed     
stars1 every proof that we obtain of the
 extensive prevalence of such periodical

 changes in those remote bodies1 adds to
 the probability of finding something of
 the kind nearer home4 ,referring then  
to the possible bearing of such facts on
 ancient revolutions1 in terrestrial    
climates1 he says1 that it is a matter  
of observed fact1 that many stars have  
undergone1 in past ages1 within the     
records of astronomical history1 very   
extensive changes in apparent lustre1   
without a change of distance adequate to
 producing such an effect4 ,if our sun  
were even intrinsically much brighter   
than at present1 the mean temperature of
 the surface of our globe would1 of     
course1 be proportionally greater4 ,i   
speak now not of periodical1 but of     
secular changes4 ,but the argument is   
complicated with the consideration of   
the possibly imperfect transparency of  
the celestial spaces1 and with the cause
 of that imperfect transparency1 which  
may be due to material non-luminous     
particles diffused irregularly in       
patches analogous to nebulae1 but of    

greater extent--to cosmical clouds1 in  
short--of whose existence we have1 ,i   
think1 some indication in the singular  
and apparently capricious phenomena of  
temporary stars1 and perhaps in the     
recent extraordinary sudden increase and
 hardly less sudden diminution of       
,greek3 e ,argus4#bji  ,more recently   
7#aheb7 ,schwabe has observed that the  
spots on the sun alternately increase   
and decrease in the course of every ten 
years1 and ,captain ,sabine has pointed 
out that this variable obscuration      
coincides in time both as to its maximum
 and minimum with changes in all those  
terrestrial magnetic variations which   
are caused by the sun4 ,hence he infers 
that the period of alteration in the    
spots is a solar magnetic period4       
,assuming such to be the case1 the      
variable light of some stars may        
indicate a similar phenomenon1 or they  
may be stellar magnetic periods1        
differing only in the degree of         
obscuration and its duration4 ,and as   

hitherto we have perceived no           
fluctuation in the heat received by the 
earth from the sun coincident with the  
solar magnetic period1 so the           
fluctuations in the brilliancy of the   
stars may not perhaps be attended with  
any perceptible alteration in their     
power of radiating heat4 ,but before we 
can speculate with advantage in this new
 and interesting field of inquiry1 we   
require more facts and observations4    
,supposed gradual diminution of the     
earth's primitive heat4--,the gradual   
diminution of the supposed primitive    
heat of the globe has been resorted to  
by many geologists as the principal     
cause of alterations of climate4 ,the   
matter of our planet is imagined1 in    
accordance with the conjectures of      
,leibnitz1 to have been originally in an
 intensely heated state1 and to have    
been parting ever since with portions of
 its heat1 and at the same time         
contracting its dimensions4 ,there are1 
undoubtedly1 good grounds for inferring 

from recent observation and experiment1 
that the temperature of the earth       
increases as we descend from the surface
 to that slight depth to which man can  
penetrate3 but there are no positive    
proofs of a secular decrease of internal
 heat accompanied by contraction4 ,on   
the contrary1 ,la ,place has shown1 by  
reference to astronomical observations  
made in the time of ,hipparchus1 that in
 the last two thousand years at least   
there has been no sensible contraction  
of the globe by cooling2 for had this   
been the case1 even to an extremely     
small amount1 the day would have been   
shortened1 whereas its length has       
certainly not diminished during that    
period by #a_/cjjth of a second4  ,baron
 ,fourier1 after making a curious series
 of experiments on the cooling of       
incandescent bodies1 considers it to be 
proved mathematically1 that the actual  
distribution of heat in the earth's     
envelope is precisely that which would  
have taken place if the globe had been  

formed in a medium of a very high       
temperature1 and had afterwards been    
constantly cooled4#baj ,he contends1    
that although no contraction can be     
demonstrated to have taken place within 
the historical period 7the operation    
being slow and the time of observation  
limited71 yet it is no less certain that
 heat is annually passing out by        
radiation from the interior of the globe
 into the planetary spaces4 ,he even    
undertook to demonstrate that the       
quantity of heat thus transmitted into  
space in the course of every century1   
through every square metre of the       
earth's surface1 would suffice to melt a
 column of ice having a square metre for
 its base1 and being three metres 7or #i
 feet #aj inches7 high4  ,it is at the  
same time denied1 that there is any     
assignable mode in which the heat thus  
lost by radiation can be again restored 
to the earth1 and consequently the      
interior of our planet must1 from the   
moment of its creation1 have been       

subject to refrigeration1 and is        
destined together with the sun and stars
 forever to grow colder4 ,but ,i shall  
point out in the sequel 7chapter #ca7   
many objections to these views1 and to  
the theory of the intense heat of the   
earth's central nucleus1 and shall then 
inquire how far the observed            
augmentation of temperature1 as we      
descend below the surface1 may be       
referable to other causes unconnected   
with the supposed pristine fluidity of  
the entire globe4     ,,chapter ,,ix4   
,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,progressive       
,,development ,,of ,,organic ,,life ,,at
 ,,successive ,,geological ,,periods4   
,theory of the progressive development  
of organic life--,evidence in     its   
support inconclusive--,vertebrated      
animals1 and plants of the     most     
perfect organization1 in strata of very 
high     antiquity--,differences between
 the organic remains of successive      
formations--,comparative modern origin  
of the human race--,the popular         

doctrine of successive development not  
established by the admission     that   
man is of modern origin--,introduction  
of man1 to what extent a     change in  
the system4   ,progressive development  
of organic life4--,in the preceding     
chapters ,i have considered whether     
revolutions in the general climate of   
the globe afford any just ground of     
opposition to the doctrine that the     
former changes of the earth which are   
treated of in geology belong to one     
uninterrupted series of physical events 
governed by ordinary causes4 ,against   
this doctrine some popular arguments    
have been derived from the great        
vicissitudes of the organic creation in 
times past2 ,i shall therefore proceed  
to the discussion of such objections1   
which have been thus formally advanced  
by the late ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,it is
 impossible1 he affirms1 to defend the  
proposition1 that the present order of  
things is the ancient and constant order
 of nature1 only modified by existing   

laws3 in those strata which are deepest1
 and which must1 consequently1 be       
supposed to be the earliest deposited1  
forms even of vegetable life are rare2  
shells and vegetable remains are found  
in the next order2 the bones of fishes  
and oviparous reptiles exist in the     
following class2 the remains of birds1  
with those of the same genera mentioned 
before1 in the next order2 those of     
quadrupeds of extinct species in a still
 more recent class2 and it is only in   
the loose and slightly consolidated     
strata of gravel and sand1 and which are
 usually called diluvian formations1    
that the remains of animals such as now 
people the globe are found1 with others 
belonging to extinct species4 ,but1 in  
none of these formations1 whether called
 secondary1 tertiary1 or diluvial1 have 
the remains of man1 or any of his works1
 been discovered2 and whoever dwells    
upon this subject must be convinced1    
that the present order of things1 and   
the comparatively recent existence of   

man as the master of the globe1 is as   
certain as the destruction of a former  
and a different order1 and the          
extinction of a number of living forms  
which have no types in being4 ,in the   
oldest secondary strata there are no    
remains of such animals as now belong to
 the surface2 and in the rocks1 which   
may be regarded as more recently        
deposited1 these remains occur but      
rarely1 and with abundance of extinct   
species2--there seems1 as it were1 a    
gradual approach to the present system  
of things1 and a succession of          
destructions and creations preparatory  
to the existence of man4#baa  ,in the   
above passages1 the author deduces two  
important conclusions from geological   
data3 first1 that in the successive     
groups of strata1 from the oldest to the
 most recent1 there is a progressive    
development of organic life1 from the   
simplest to the most complicated        
forms2--secondly1 that man is of        
comparatively recent origin1 and these  

conclusions he regards as inconsistent  
with the doctrine1 that the present     
order of things is the ancient and      
constant order of nature only modified  
by existing laws4  ,with respect1 then1 
to the first of these propositions1 we  
may ask whether the theory of the       
progressive development of animal and   
vegetable life1 and their successive    
advancement from a simple to a more     
perfect state1 has any secure foundation
 in fact8 ,no geologists who are in     
possession of all the data now          
established respecting fossil remains1  
will for a moment contend for the       
doctrine in all its detail1 as laid down
 by the distinguished philosopher to    
whose opinions we have referred3 but    
naturalists1 who are not unacquainted   
with recent discoveries1 continue to    
defend it in a modified form4 ,they say 
that in the first period of the world   
7by which they mean the earliest of     
which we have yet brought to light any  
memorials71 the vegetation was          

characterized by a predominance of      
cryptogamic plants1 while the animals   
which coexisted were almost entirely    
confined to zoophytes1 testacea1 and a  
few fish4 ,plants of a less simple      
structure1 coniferae and cycadeae1      
flourished largely in the next epoch1   
when oviparous reptiles began also to   
abound4 ,lastly1 the terrestrial flora  
became most diversified and most perfect
 when the highest orders of animals1 the
 mammalia and birds1 were called into   
existence4  ,now in the first place1 it 
may be observed1 that many naturalists  
are guilty of no small inconsistency in 
endeavoring to connect the phenomena of 
the earliest vegetation with a nascent  
condition of organic life1 and at the   
same time to deduce from the numerical  
predominance of certain forms1 the      
greater heat or uniformity of the       
ancient climate4 ,the arguments in favor
 of the latter conclusion are without   
any force1 unless we can assume that the
 rules followed by the ,author of       

,nature in the creation and distribution
 of organic beings were the same        
formerly as now2 and that1 as certain   
families of animals and plants are now  
most abundant in1 or exclusively        
confined to regions where there is a    
certain temperature1 a certain degree of
 humidity1 a certain intensity of light1
 and other conditions1 so also analogous
 phenomena were exhibited at every      
former era4  ,if this postulate be      
denied1 and the prevalence of particular
 families be declared to depend on a    
certain order of precedence in the      
introduction of different classes into  
the earth1 and if it be maintained that 
the standard of organization was raised 
successively1 we must then ascribe the  
numerical preponderance1 in the earlier 
ages1 of plants of simpler structure1   
not to the heat1 or other climatal      
conditions1 but to those different laws 
which regulate organic life in newly    
created worlds4  ,before we can infer a 
warm and uniform temperature in high    

latitudes1 from the presence of #bej    
species of ferns1 some of them          
arborescent1 accompanied by lycopadiacae
 of large size1 and araucariae1 we must 
be permitted to assume1 that at all     
times1 past1 present1 and future1 a     
heated and moist atmosphere pervading   
the northern hemisphere has a tendency  
to produce in the vegetation a          
predominance of analogous forms4  ,it   
should moreover be borne in mind1 when  
we are considering the question of      
development from a botanical point of   
view1 that naturalists are by no means  
agreed as to the existence of an        
ascending scale of organization in the  
vegetable world corresponding to that   
which is very generally recognized in   
animals4 ,from the sponge to man1 in the
 language of ,de ,blainville1 there may 
be a progressive chain of being1        
although often broken and imperfect2 but
 if we seek to classify plants according
 to a linear arrangement1 ascending     
gradually from the lichen to the lily or

 the rose1 we encounter incomparably    
greater difficulties4 ,yet the doctrine 
of a more highly developed organization 
in the plants created at successive     
periods presupposes the admission of    
such a graduated scale4  ,we have as yet
 obtained but scanty information        
respecting the state of the terrestrial 
flora at periods antecedent to the coal4
 ,in the carboniferous epoch1 about #ejj
 species of fossil plants are enumerated
 by ,adolphe ,brongniart1 which we may  
safely regard as a mere fragment of an  
ancient flora2 since1 in ,europe alone1 
there are now no less than #aa1jjj      
living species4 ,i have already hinted  
that the plants which produced coal were
 not drifted from a distance1 but that  
nearly all of them grew on the spots    
where they became fossil4 ,they appear  
to have belonged1 as before explained   
7p4 #aae71 to a peculiar class of       
stations1--to low level and swampy      
regions1 in the deltas of large rivers1 
slightly elevated above the level of the

 sea4 ,from the study1 therefore1 of    
such a vegetation1 we can derive but    
little insight into the nature of the   
contemporaneous upland flora1 still less
 of the plants of the mountainous or    
,alpine country2 and if so1 we are      
enabled to account for the apparent     
monotony of the vegetation1 although its
 uniform character was doubtless in part
 owing to a greater uniformity of       
climate then prevailing throughout the  
globe4 ,some of the commonest trees of  
this period1 such as the sigillariae1   
which united the structure of ferns and 
of cycadeae1 departed very widely from  
all known living types4 ,the coniferae  
and ferns1 on the contrary1 were very   
closely allied to living genera4 ,it is 
remarkable that none of the exogens of  
,lindley 7dicotyledonous angiosperms of 
,brongniart71 which comprise four-fifths
 of the living flora of the globe1 and  
include all the forest trees of ,europe 
except the fir-tribe1 have yet been     
discovered in the coal measures1 and a  

very small number--fifteen species      
only--of monocotyledons4 ,if several of 
these last are true plants1 an opinion  
to which ,messrs4 ,lindley1 ,unger1     
,corda1 and other botanists of note     
incline1 the question whether any of the
 most highly organized plants are to be 
met with in ancient strata is at once   
answered in the affirmative4 ,but the   
determination of these palms being      
doubtful1 we have as yet in the coal no 
positive proofs either of the existence 
of the most perfect1 or of the most     
simple forms of flowering or flowerless 
vegetation4 ,we have no fungi1 lichens1 
hepatici or mosses3 yet this latter     
class may have been as fully represented
 then as now4  ,in the flora of the     
secondary eras1 all botanists agree that
 palms existed1 although in ,europe     
plants of the family of zamia and cycas 
together with coniferae predominated1   
and must have given a peculiar aspect to
 the flora4 ,as only #bjj or #cjj       
species of plants are known in all the  

rocks ranging from the ,trias to the    
,oolite inclusive1 our data are too     
scanty as yet to affirm whether the     
vegetation of this second epoch was or  
was not on the whole of a simpler       
organization than that of our own times4
  ,in the ,lower ,cretaceous formation1 
near ,aix-la-,chapelle1 the leaves of a 
great many dicotyledonous trees have    
lately been discovered by ,dr4 ,debey1  
establishing the important fact of the  
coexistence of a large number of        
angiosperms with cycadeae1 and with that
 rich reptilian fauna comprising the    
ichthyosaur1 plesiosaur1 and            
pterodactyl1 which some had supposed to 
indicate a state of the atmosphere      
unfavorable to a dicotyledonous         
vegetation4  ,the number of plants      
hitherto obtained from tertiary strata  
of different ages is very limited1 but  
is rapidly increasing4 ,they are        
referable to a much greater variety of  
families and classes than an equal      
number of fossil species taken from     

secondary or primary rocks1 the         
angiosperms bearing the same proportion 
to the gymnosperms and acrogens as in   
the present flora of the globe4 ,this   
greater variety may1 doubtless1 be      
partly ascribed to the greater diversity
 of stations in which the plants grew1  
as we have in this case an opportunity1 
rarely enjoyed in studying the secondary
 fossils1 of investigating inland or    
lacustrine deposits accumulated at      
different heights above the sea1 and    
containing the memorials of plants      
washed down from adjoining mountains4   
,in regard1 then1 to the strata from the
 cretaceous to the uppermost tertiary   
inclusive1 we may affirm that we find in
 them all the principal classes of      
living plants1 and during this vast     
lapse of time four or five complete     
changes in the vegetation occurred1 yet 
no step whatever was made in advance at 
any of these periods by the addition of 
more highly organized species4  ,if we  
next turn to the fossils of the animal  

kingdom1 we may inquire whether1 when   
they are arranged by the geologists in a
 chronological series1 they imply that  
beings of more highly developed         
structure and greater intelligence      
entered upon the earth at successive    
epochs1 those of the simplest           
organization being the first created1   
and those more highly organized being   
the last4  ,our knowledge of the        
,silurian fauna is at present derived   
entirely from rocks of marine origin1 no
 fresh-water strata of such high        
antiquity having yet been met with4 ,the
 fossils1 however1 of these ancient     
rocks at once reduce the theory of      
progressive development to within very  
narrow limits1 for already they comprise
 a very full representation of the      
radiata1 mollusca1 and articulata proper
 to the sea4 ,thus1 in the great        
division of radiata1 we find asteriod   
and helianthoid zoophytes1 besides      
crinoid and cystidean echinoderms4 ,in  
the mollusca1 between #bjj and #cjj     

species of cephalopoda are enumerated4  
,in the articulata we have the          
crustaceans represented by more than    
#bjj species of trilobites1 besides     
other genera of the same class4 ,the    
remains of fish are as yet confined to  
the upper part of the ,silurian series2 
but some of these belong to placoid     
fish1 which occupy a high grade in the  
scale of organization4 ,some naturalists
 have assumed that the earliest fauna   
was exclusively marine1 because we have 
not yet found a single ,silurian helix1 
insect1 bird1 terrestrial reptile or    
mammifer2 but when we carry back our    
investigation to a period so remote from
 the present1 we ought not to be        
surprised if the only accessible strata 
should be limited to deposits formed far
 from land1 because the ocean probably  
occupied then1 as now1 the greater part 
of the earth's surface4 ,after so many  
entire geographical revolutions1 the    
chances are nearly three to one in favor
 of our finding that such small portions

 of the existing continents and islands 
as expose ,silurian strata to view1     
should coincide in position with the    
ancient ocean rather than the land4 ,we 
must not1 therefore1 too hastily infer1 
from the absence of fossil bones of     
mammalia in the older rocks1 that the   
highest class of vertebrated animals did
 not exist in remoter ages4 ,there are  
regions at present1 in the ,indian and  
,pacific ,oceans1 coextensive in area   
with the continents of ,europe and      
,north ,america1 where we might dredge  
the bottom and draw up thousands of     
shells and corals1 without obtaining one
 bone of a land quadruped4 ,suppose our 
mariners were to report1 that1 on       
sounding in the ,indian ,ocean near some
 coral reefs1 and at some distance from 
the land1 they drew up on hooks attached
 to their line portions of a leopard1   
elephant1 or tapir1 should we not be    
skeptical as to the accuracy of their   
statements8 and if we had no doubt of   
their veracity1 might we not suspect    

them to be unskilful naturalists8 or1 if
 the fact were unquestioned1 should we  
not be disposed to believe that some    
vessel had been wrecked on the spot8    
,the casualties must always be rare by  
which land quadrupeds are swept by      
rivers far out into the open sea1 and   
still rarer the contingency of such a   
floating body not being devoured by     
sharks or other predaceous fish1 such as
 were those of which we find the teeth  
preserved in some of the carboniferous  
strata4 ,but if the carcass should      
escape1 and should happen to sink where 
sediment was in the act of accumulating1
 and if the numerous causes of          
subsequent disintegration should not    
efface all traces of the body1 included 
for countless ages in solid rock1 is it 
not contrary to all calculation of      
chances that we should hit upon the     
exact spot--that mere point in the bed  
of an ancient ocean1 where the precious 
relic was entombed8 ,can we expect for a
 moment1 when we have only succeeded1   

amidst several thousand fragments of    
corals and shells1 in finding a few     
bones of aquatic or amphibious animals1 
that we should meet with a single       
skeleton of an inhabitant of the land8  
,clarence1 in his dream1 saw1 in the    
slimy bottom of the deep1       ----a   
thousand fearful wrecks2   ,a thousand  
men1 that fishes gnaw'd upon3   ,wedges 
of gold1 great anchors1 heaps of pearl4 
,had he also beheld1 amid the dead bones
 that lay scattered by1 the carcasses of
 lions1 deer1 and the other wild tenants
 of the forest and the plain1 the       
fiction would have been deemed unworthy 
of the genius of ,shakspeare4 ,so daring
 a disregard of probability and         
violation of analogy would have been    
condemned as unpardonable1 even where   
the poet was painting those incongruous 
images which present themselves to a    
disturbed imagination during the visions
 of the night4  ,until lately it was    
supposed that the old red sandstone1 or 
,devonian rocks1 contained no vertebrate

 remains except those of fish1 but in   
#ahej the footprints of a chelonian1 and
 in #ahea the skeleton of a reptile1    
allied both to the batrachians and      
lizards1 were found in a sandstone of   
that age near ,elgin in ,scotland4#bab  
,up to the year #ahdd it was laid down  
as a received dogma in many works of    
high authority in geology1 that reptiles
 were not created until after the close 
of the carboniferous epoch4 ,in the     
course of that year1 however1 ,hermann  
,von ,meyer announced the discovery1 in 
the coal measures of ,rhenish ,bavaria1 
of a reptile1 called by him ,apateon1   
related to the salamanders2 and in #ahdg
 three species of another genus1 called 
archegosaurus by ,goldfuss1 were        
obtained from the coal of ,saarbruck1   
between ,treves and ,strasburg4 ,the    
footprints of a large quadruped1        
probably batrachian1 had also been      
observed by ,dr4 ,king in the           
carboniferous rocks of ,pennsylvania in 
#ahdd4 ,the first example of the bones  

of a reptile in the ,coal of ,north     
,america was detected so lately as      
,september1 #aheb1 by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4      
,dawson and myself in ,nova ,scotia4    
,these remains1 referred by ,messrs4    
,wyman and ,owen to a perennibranchiate 
batrachian1 were met with in the        
interior of an erect fossil tree1       
apparently a sigillaria4 ,they seem     
clearly to have been introduced together
 with sediment into the tree1 during its
 submergence and after it had decayed   
and was standing as a hollow cylinder of
 bark1 this bark being now converted    
into coal4  ,when ,agassiz1 in his great
 work on fossil fish1 described #aeb    
species of ichthyolites from the ,coal1 
he found them to consist of #id         
placoids1 belonging to the families of  
shark and ray1 and #eh ganoids4 ,one    
family of the latter he called sauroid  
fish1 including the megalicthys and     
holoptychius1 often of great size1 and  
all predaceous4 ,although true fish1 and
 not intermediate between that class and

 reptiles1 they seem to have been more  
highly organized than any living fish1  
reminding us of the skeletons of        
saurians by the close suture of their   
cranial bones1 their large conical      
teeth1 striated longitudinally1 and the 
articulation of the spinous processes   
with the vertebrae4 ,among living       
species they are most nearly allied to  
the lepidosteus1 or bony pike of the    
,north ,american rivers4 ,before the    
recent progress of discovery above      
alluded to had shown the fallacy of such
 ideas1 it was imagined by some         
geologists that this ichthyic type was  
the more highly developed1 because it   
took the lead at the head of nature     
before the class of reptiles had been   
created4 ,the confident assumption      
indulged in till the year #ahdd1 that   
reptiles were first introduced into the 
earth in the ,permian period1 shows the 
danger of taking for granted that the   
date of the creation of any family of   
animals or plants in past time coincides

 with the age of the oldest stratified  
rock in which the geologist has detected
 its remains4 ,nevertheless1 after      
repeated disappointments1 we find some  
naturalists as much disposed as ever to 
rely on such negative evidence1 and to  
feel now as sure that reptiles were not 
introduced into the earth till after the
 ,silurian epoch1 as they were in #ahdd1
 that they appeared for the first time  
at an era subsequent to the             
carboniferous4  ,scanty as is the       
information hitherto obtained in regard 
to the articulata of the coal formation1
 we have at least ascertained that some 
insects winged their way through the    
ancient forests4 ,in the ironstone of   
,coalbrook ,dale1 two species of        
coleoptera of the ,linnaean genus       
curculio have been met with3 and a      
neuropterous insect resembling a        
corydalis1 together with another of the 
same order related to the phasmidae4 ,as
 an example of the insectivorous        
arachnidae1 ,i may mention the scorpion 

of the ,bohemian coal1 figured by ,count
 ,sternberg1 in which even the eyes1    
skin1 and minute hairs were             
preserved4#bac ,we need not despair1    
therefore1 of obtaining eventually      
fossil representatives of all the       
principal orders of hexapods and        
arachnidae in carboniferous strata4     
,next in chronological order above the  
,coal comes the allied ,magnesian       
,limestone1 or ,permian group1 and the  
secondary formations from the ,trias to 
the ,chalk inclusive4 ,these rocks      
comprise the monuments of a long series 
of ages in which reptiles of every      
variety of size1 form1 and structure    
peopled the earth2 so that the whole    
period1 and especially that of the ,lias
 and ,oolite1 has been sometimes called 
the age of reptiles4 ,as there are now  
mammalia entirely confined to the land2 
others which1 like the bat and vampire1 
fly in the air2 others1 again1 of       
amphibious habits1 frequenting rivers1  
like the hippopotamus1 otter1 and       

beaver2 others exclusively aquatic and  
marine1 like the seal1 whale1 and       
narwal2 so in the early ages under      
consideration1 there were terrestrial1  
winged1 and aquatic reptiles4 ,there    
were iguanodons walking on the land1    
pterodactyls winging their way through  
the air1 monitors and crocodiles in the 
rivers1 and ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs
 in the ocean4 ,it appears also that    
some of these ancient saurians          
approximated more nearly in their       
organization to the type of living      
mammalia than do any of the reptiles now
 existing4#bad  ,in the vast range of   
strata above alluded to1 comprising the 
,permian1 the ,upper ,new ,red          
,sandstone and ,muschelkalk1 the ,lias1 
,oolite1 ,wealden1 ,green-sand1 and     
,chalk1 scarcely any well-authenticated 
instances of the occurrence of fossil   
birds in ,europe are on record1 and only
 two or three of fossil mammalia4  ,in  
regard to the absence of birds1 they are
 usually wanting1 for reasons afterwards

 to be explained 7see chap4 #dg71 in    
deposits of all ages1 even in the       
tertiary periods1 where we know that    
birds as well as land quadrupeds        
abounded4 ,some at least of the fossil  
remains formerly referred to this class 
in the ,wealden 7a great freshwater     
deposit below the chalk71 have been     
recently shown by ,mr4 ,owen to belong  
to pterodactyls4#bae ,but in ,north     
,america still more ancient indications 
of the existence of the feathered tribe 
have been detected1 the fossil          
foot-marks of a great variety of        
species1 of various sizes1 some larger  
than the ostrich1 others smaller than   
the plover1 having been observed4 ,these
 bipeds have left marks of their        
footsteps on strata of an age decidedly 
intermediate between the ,lias and the  
,coal4#baf  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4    
,natural ,size4  ,thylacotherium        
,prevostii 7,valenciennes74             
,amphitherium 7,owen74 ,lower jaw1 from 
the slate of ,stonesfield1 near         

,oxford4#bah  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4  
,myrmecobius fasciatus 7,waterhouse74   
,recent from ,swan ,river4 ,lower jaw of
 the natural size4#bai  ,the examples of
 mammalia1 above alluded to1 are        
confined to the ,trias and the ,oolite4 
,in the former1 the evidence is as yet  
limited to two small molar teeth1       
described by ,professor ,plieninger in  
#ahdg1 under the generic name of        
,microlestes4 ,they were found near     
,stuttgart1 and possess the double fangs
 so characteristic of mammalia4#bag ,the
 other fossil remains of the same class 
were derived from one of the inferior   
members of the oolitic series in        
,oxfordshire1 and afford more full and  
satisfactory evidence1 consisting of the
 lower jaws of three species of small   
quadrupeds about the size of a mole4    
,cuvier1 when he saw one of them 7during
 a visit to ,oxford in #ahah71 referred 
it to the marsupial order1 stating1     
however1 that it differed from all known
 carnivora in having ten molar teeth in 

a row4 ,professor ,owen afterwards      
pointed out that the jaw belonged to an 
extinct genus1 having considerable      
affinity to a newly discovered          
,australian mammifer1 the ,myrmecobius  
of ,waterhouse1 which has nine molar    
teeth in the lower jaw4 7,fig4 #i47 ,a  
more perfect specimen enabled ,mr4 ,owen
 in #ahdf to prove that the inflection  
of the angular process of the lower jaw 
was not sufficiently marked to entitle  
the osteologist to infer that this      
quadruped was marsupial1 as the process 
is not bent inwards in a greater degree 
than in the mole or hedgehog4 ,hence the
 genus amphitherium1 of which there are 
two species from ,stonesfield1 must be  
referred to the ordinary or placental   
type of insectivorous mammals1 although 
it approximates in some points of       
structure to the myrmecobius and allied 
marsupials of ,australia4 ,the other    
contemporary genus1 called              
phascolotherium1 agrees much more nearly
 in osteological character and precisely

 in the number of the teeth with the    
opossums2 and is believed to have been  
truly marsupial4 7,fig4 #aj47           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4  ,natural     
size4  ,phascolotherium ,bucklandi1     
,owen4 7,syn4 ,didelphis ,bucklandi1    
,brod47 ,lower jaw1 from                
,stonesfield4#bbj  #a4 ,the jaw         
magnified twice in length4 #b4 ,the     
second molar tooth magnified six times4 
,the occurrence of these most ancient   
memorials of the mammiferous type1 in so
 low a member of the oolitic series1    
while no other representatives of the   
same class 7if we except the            
microlestes7 have yet been found in any 
other of the inferior or superior       
secondary strata1 is a striking fact1   
and should serve as a warning to us     
against hasty generalizations1 founded  
solely on negative evidence4 ,so        
important an exception to a general rule
 may be perfectly consistent with the   
conclusion1 that a small number only of 
mammalia inhabited ,european latitudes  

when our secondary rocks were formed2   
but it seems fatal to the theory of     
progressive development1 or to the      
notion that the order of precedence in  
the creation of animals1 considered     
chronologically1 has precisely coincided
 with the order in which they would be  
ranked according to perfection or       
complexity of structure4  ,it was for   
many years suggested that the marsupial 
order to which the fossil animals of    
,stonesfield were supposed exclusively  
to belong constitutes the lowest grade  
in the class ,mammalia1 and that this   
order1 of which the brain is of more    
simple form1 evinces an inferior degree 
of intelligence4 ,if1 therefore1 in the 
oolitic period the marsupial tribes were
 the only warm-blooded quadrupeds which 
had as yet appeared upon our planet1 the
 fact1 it was said1 confirmed the theory
 which teaches that the creation of the 
more simple forms in each division of   
the animal kingdom preceded that of the 
more complex4 ,but on how slender a     

support1 even if the facts had continued
 to hold true1 did such important       
conclusions hang6 ,the ,australian      
continent1 so far as it has been        
hitherto explored1 contains no          
indigenous quadrupeds save those of the 
marsupial order1 with the exception of a
 few small rodents1 while some          
neighboring islands to the north1 and   
even southern ,africa1 in the same      
latitude as ,australia1 abound in       
mammalia of every tribe except the      
marsupial4 ,we are entirely unable to   
explain on what physiological or other  
laws this singular diversity in the     
habitations of living mammalia depends2 
but nothing is more clear than that the 
causes which stamp so peculiar a        
character on two different provinces of 
wide extent are wholly independent of   
time1 or of the age or maturity of the  
planet4  ,the strata of the ,wealden1   
although of a later date than the oolite
 of ,stonesfield1 and although filled   
with the remains of large reptiles1 both

 terrestrial and aquatic1 have not      
yielded as yet a single marsupial bone4 
,were we to assume on such scanty data  
that no warm-blooded quadrupeds were    
then to be found throughout the northern
 hemisphere1 there would still remain a 
curious subject of speculation1 whether 
the entire suppression of one important 
class of vertebrata1 such as the        
mammiferous1 and the great development  
of another1 such as the reptilian1      
implies a departure from fixed and      
uniform rules governing the fluctuations
 of the animal world2 such rules1 for   
example1 as appear from one century to  
another to determine the growth of      
certain tribes of plants and animals in 
arctic1 and of other tribes in tropical 
regions4  ,in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1
 and many other parts of the southern   
hemisphere1 where the indigenous land   
quadrupeds are comparatively few1 and of
 small dimensions1 the reptiles do not  
predominate in number or size4 ,the     
deposits formed at the mouth of an      

,australian river1 within the tropics1  
might contain the bones of only a few   
small marsupial animals1 which1 like    
those of ,stonesfield1 might hereafter  
be discovered with difficulty by        
geologists2 but there would1 at the same
 time1 be no megalosauri and other      
fossil remains1 showing that large      
saurians were plentiful on the land and 
in the waters at a time when mammalia   
were scarce4 ,this example1 therefore1  
would afford a very imperfect parallel  
to the state of the animal kingdom1     
supposed to have prevailed during the   
secondary periods1 when a high          
temperature pervaded ,european          
latitudes4  ,it may nevertheless be     
advantageous to point to some existing  
anomalies in the geographical           
development of distinct classes of      
vertebrata which may be comparable to   
former conditions of the animal creation
 brought to light by geology4 ,thus in  
the arctic regions1 at present1 reptiles
 are small1 and sometimes wholly        

wanting1 where birds1 large land        
quadrupeds1 and cetacea abound4 ,we meet
 with bears1 wolves1 foxes1 musk oxen1  
and deer1 walruses1 seals1 whales1 and  
narwals1 in regions of ice and snow1    
where the smallest snakes1 efts1 and    
frogs are rarely1 if ever1 seen4  ,a    
still more anomalous state of things    
presents itself in the southern         
hemisphere4 ,even in the temperate zone1
 between the latitudes #eb degrees and  
#ef degrees ,s41 as1 for example1 in    
,tierra del ,fuego1 as well as in the   
woody region immediately north of the   
,straits of ,magellan1 and in the       
,falkland ,islands1 no reptiles of any  
kind are met with1 not even a snake1    
lizard1 or frog2 but in these same      
countries we find the guanaco 7a kind of
 llama71 a deer1 the puma1 a large      
species of fox1 many small rodentia1    
besides the seal and otter1 together    
with the porpoise1 whale1 and other     
cetacea4  ,on what grand laws in the    
animal physiology these remarkable      

phenomena depend1 cannot in the present 
state of science be conjectured2 nor    
could we predict whether any opposite   
condition of the atmosphere1 in respect 
to heat1 moisture1 and other            
circumstances1 would bring about a state
 of animal life which might be called   
the converse of that above described1   
namely1 a state in which reptiles of    
every size and order might abound1 and  
mammalia disappear4  ,the nearest       
approximation to such a fauna is found  
in the ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,these  
islands1 situated under the equator1 and
 nearly #fjj miles west of the coast of 
,peru1 have been called the land of     
reptiles1 so great is the number of     
snakes1 large tortoises1 and lizards1   
which they support4 ,among the lizards1 
the first living species proper to the  
ocean has been discovered4 ,yet1        
although some of these islands are from 
#cjjj to #djjj feet high1 and one of    
them #ge miles long1 they contain1 with 
the exception of one small mouse1 no    

indigenous mammifer4 ,even here1        
however1 it is true that in the         
neighboring sea there are seals1 and    
several kinds of cetacea4#bba  ,it may  
be unreasonable to look for a nearer    
analogy between the fauna now existing  
in any part of the globe1 and that which
 we can show to have prevailed when our 
secondary strata were deposited1 because
 we must always recollect that a climate
 like that now experienced at the       
equator1 coexisting with the unequal    
days and nights of ,european latitudes1 
was a state of things to which there is 
now no counterpart on the globe4        
,consequently1 the type of animal and   
vegetable existence required for such a 
climate might be expected to deviate    
almost as widely from that now          
established1 as do the flora and fauna  
of our tropical differ from those of our
 arctic regions4  ,in the ,tertiary     
strata4--,the tertiary formations were  
deposited when the physical geography of
 the northern hemisphere had been       

entirely altered4 ,large inland lakes   
had become numerous1 as in central      
,france and other countries4 ,there were
 gulfs of the sea1 into which           
considerable rivers emptied themselves1 
and where strata like those of the      
,paris basin were accumulated4 ,there   
were also formations in progress1 in    
shallow seas not far from shore1 such as
 are indicated by portions of the       
,faluns of the ,loire1 and the ,english 
,crag4  ,the proximity1 therefore1 of   
large tracts of dry land to the seas and
 lakes then existing1 may1 in a great   
measure1 explain why the remains of land
 animals1 so rare in the older strata1  
are not uncommon in these more modern   
deposits4 ,yet even these have sometimes
 proved entirely destitute of           
mammiferous relics for years after they 
had become celebrated for the abundance 
of their fossil testacea1 fish1 and     
reptiles4 ,thus the calcaire grossier1 a
 marine limestone of the district round 
,paris1 had afforded to collectors more 

than #aajj species of shells1 besides   
many zoophytes1 echinodermata1 and the  
teeth of fish1 before the bones of one  
or two land quadrupeds were met with in 
the same rock4 ,the strata called       
,london and ,plastic clay in ,england   
have been studied for more than half a  
century1 and about #djj species of      
shells1 #ej or more of fish1 besides    
several kinds of chelonian and saurian  
reptiles1 were known before a single    
mammifer was detected4 ,at length1 in   
the year #ahci1 there were found in this
 formation the remains of a monkey1 an  
opossum1 a bat1#bbb and a species of the
 extinct genus ,hyracotherium1 allied to
 the ,peccary or hog tribe4  ,if we     
examine the strata above the ,london    
clay in ,england1 we first meet with    
mammiferous remains in the ,isle of     
,wight1 in beds also belonging to the   
,eocene epoch1 such as the remains of   
the ,palaeotherium1 ,anoplotherium1 and 
other extinct quadrupeds1 agreeing very 
closely with those first found by       

,cuvier1 near ,paris1 in strata of the  
same age1 and of similar freshwater     
origin4  ,in ,france we meet with       
another fauna1 both conchological and   
mammalian in the ,miocene faluns of the 
,loire2 above which in the ascending    
series in ,great ,britain we arrive at  
the coralline crag of ,suffolk1 a marine
 formation which has yielded three or   
four hundred species of shells1 very    
different from the ,eocene testacea1 and
 of which a large proportion1 although a
 minority of the whole number1 are      
recent1 besides many corals1 echini1    
foraminifera1 and fish1 but as yet no   
relic decidedly mammalian except the    
ear-bone of a whale4  ,in the shelly    
sand1 provincially termed ,red ,crag1 in
 ,suffolk1 which immediately succeeds   
the coralline1 constituting a newer     
member of the same tertiary group1 about
 #bej species of shells have been       
recognized1 of which a still larger     
proportion are recent4 ,they are        
associated with numerous teeth of fish2 

but no signs of a warm-blooded quadruped
 had been detected until #ahci1 when the
 teeth of a leopard1 a bear1 a hog1 and 
a species of ruminant1 were found at    
,newbourn1 in ,suffolk1 and since that  
time1 several other genera of mammalia  
have been met with in the same          
formation1 or in the ,red ,crag4#bbc    
,of a still newer date is the ,norwich  
,crag1 a fluvio-marine deposit of the   
,pleiocene epoch1 containing a mixture  
of marine1 fluviatile1 and land shells1 
of which #ij per cent4 or more are      
recent4 ,these beds1 since the time of  
their first investigation1 have yielded 
a supply of mammalian bones of the      
genera mastodon1 elephant1 rhinoceros1  
pig1 horse1 deer1 ox1 and others1 the   
bodies of which may have been washed    
down into the sea by rivers draining    
land1 of which the contiguity is        
indicated by the occasional presence of 
terrestrial and freshwater shells4  ,our
 acquaintance with the newer ,pleiocene 
mammalia in ,europe1 ,south ,america1   

and ,australia1 is derived chiefly from 
cavern deposits1 a fact which we ought  
never to forget if we desire to         
appreciate the superior facilities we   
enjoy for studying the more modern as   
compared to the more ancient terrestrial
 faunas4 ,we know nothing of the fossil 
bones which must have been inclosed in  
the stalagmite of caverns in the older  
,pleiocene1 or in the ,miocene or       
,eocene epochs1 much less can we derive 
any information respecting the          
inhabitants of the land from a similar  
source1 when we carry back our inquiries
 to the ,wealden or carboniferous       
epochs4 ,we are as well assured that    
land and rivers then existed1 as that   
they exist now2 but it is evident that  
even a slight geographical revolution1  
accompanied by the submergence and      
denudation of land1 would reduce to an  
extreme improbability the chance of our 
hitting on those minute points of space 
where caves may once have occurred in   
limestone rocks4  ,fossil               

quadrumana4--,until within a few years  
7#ahcf1 #ahcg71 not a single bone of any
 quadrumanous animal1 such as the orang1
 ape1 baboon1 and monkey1 had been      
discovered in a fossil state1 although  
so much progress had been made in       
bringing to light the extinct mammalia  
of successive tertiary eras1 both       
carnivorous and herbivorous4 ,the total 
absence of these anthropomorphous tribes
 among the records of a former world1   
had led some to believe that the type of
 organization most nearly resembling the
 human1 came so late in the order of    
creation1 as to be scarcely1 if at all1 
anterior to that of man4 ,that such     
generalizations were premature1 ,i      
endeavored to point out in the first    
edition of this work1#bbd in which ,i   
stated that the bones of quadrupeds     
hitherto met with in tertiary deposits  
were chiefly those which frequent       
marshes1 rivers1 or the borders of      
lakes1 as the elephant1 rhinoceros1     
hippopotamus1 tapir1 hog1 deer1 and ox1 

while species which live in trees are   
extremely rare in a fossil state4 ,i    
also hinted1 that we had as yet no data 
for determining how great a number of   
the one kind we ought to find1 before we
 have a right to expect a single        
individual of the other4 ,lastly1 ,i    
observed that the climate of the more   
modern 7or ,post-,eocene7 tertiary      
periods in ,england was not tropical1   
and that in regard to the ,london clay1 
of which the crocodiles1 turtles1 and   
fossil fruits implied a climate hot     
enough for the quadrumana1 we had as yet
 made too little progress in            
ascertaining what were the ,eocene      
pachydermata of ,england1 to entitle us 
to expect to have discovered any        
quadrumana of the same date4  ,since    
those remarks were first written1 in    
#ahbi1 a great number of extinct species
 have been added to our collections of  
tertiary mammalia from ,great ,britain  
and other parts of the world4 ,at       
length1 between the years #ahcf and     

#ahci1 a few remains of quadrumana were 
found in ,france and ,england1 ,india   
and ,brazil4 ,those of ,india1 belonging
 to more than one extinct species of    
monkey1 were first discovered near the  
,sutlej1 in lat4 #cj degrees ,n41 in    
tertiary strata1 of which the age is not
 yet determined2 the ,brazilian fossil1 
brought from the basin of the ,rio das  
,velhas1 about lat4 #ah degrees ,s41 is 
referable to a form now peculiar in     
,america1 allied to the genus           
,callithrix1 the species being extinct4 
,the skull and other bones met with in  
the ,south of ,france belong to a       
gibbon1 or one of the tailless apes1    
which stand next in the scale of        
organization to the orang4 ,it occurred 
at ,sansan1 about forty miles west of   
,toulouse1 in lat4 #dc degrees #dj      
minutes ,n41 in freshwater strata1      
probably of the ,miocene or middle      
tertiary period4 ,lastly1 the ,english  
quadrumane first met with1 occurred in a
 more ancient stratum than the rest1 and

 at a point more remote from the        
equator4 ,it belongs to the genus       
,macacus1 is an extinct species1 and was
 found in ,suffolk1 in lat4 #eb         
degrees1#bbe in the ,london clay1 the   
fossils of which1 such as crocodiles1   
turtles1 shells of the genus ,nautilus1 
and many curious fruits1 had already led
 geologists to the conclusion that the  
climate of that era 7the ,eocene7 was   
warm and nearly tropical4  ,some years  
later 7in #ahdf7 the jaw of another     
,british species of fossil monkey1      
,macacus pliocenus1 was announced by    
,mr4 ,owen as having been met with in   
the newer ,pleiocene strata1 on the     
banks of the ,thames1 at ,grays1 in     
,essex1 accompanying the remains of     
hippopotamus1 elephant1 and other       
quadrupeds1 and associated with         
freshwater and land shells1 most of     
which are now inhabitants of the        
,british ,isles4#bbf  ,when we consider 
the small area of the earth's surface   
hitherto explored geologically1 and the 

new discoveries brought to light daily1 
even in the environs of great ,european 
capitals1 we must feel that it would be 
rash to assume that the ,lower ,eocene  
deposits mark the era of the first      
creation of quadrumana4 ,it would1      
however1 be still more unphilosophical  
to infer1 as some writers have done1    
from a single extinct species of this   
family obtained in a latitude far from  
the tropics1 that the ,eocene quadrumana
 did not attain as high a grade of      
organization as they do in our own      
times4 ,what would the naturalist know  
of the apes and orangs now contemporary 
with man1 if our investigations were    
restricted to such northern latitudes as
 those where alone the geologist has    
hitherto found all the fossil quadrumana
 of ,europe8  ,cetacea4--,the absence of
 ,cetacea from rocks older than the     
,eocene has been frequently adduced as  
lending countenance to the theory of the
 very late appearance of the highest    
class of ,vertebrata on the earth4      

,professor ,sedgwick possesses in the   
,cambridge ,museum a mass of anchylosed 
cervical vertebrae of a whale1 which he 
found in drift clay near ,ely1 and which
 he has no doubt was washed out of the  
,kimmeridge clay1 an upper member of the
 ,oolite4 ,according to ,professor      
,owen1 it exhibits well-marked specific 
characters1 distinguishing it from all  
other known recent or fossil cetacea4   
,dr4 ,leidy1 of ,philadelphia1 has      
lately described 7#ahea7 two species of 
cetacea of a new genus1 which he has    
called ,priscodelphinus from the green  
sand of ,new ,jersey1 which corresponds 
in age with the ,english ,chalk or the  
cretaceous strata above the gault4 ,the 
specimens consist of dorsal and cervical
 vertebrae4#bbg ,even in the ,eocene    
strata of ,europe1 the discovery of     
cetaceans has never kept pace with that 
of land quadrupeds4 ,the only instance  
cited in ,great ,britain is a species of
 ,monodon1 from the ,london clay1 of    
doubtful authenticity as to its         

geological position4 ,on the other hand1
 the gigantic ,zeuglodon of ,north      
,america occurs abundantly in the       
,middle ,eocene strata of ,georgia and  
,alabama1 from which as yet no bones of 
land quadrupeds have been obtained4  ,in
 the present imperfect state then of our
 information1 we can scarcely say more  
than that the cetacea seem to have been 
scarce in the secondary and primary     
periods4 ,it is quite conceivable that  
when aquatic saurians1 some of them     
carnivorous1 like the ,ichthyosaurus1   
were swarming in the sea1 and when there
 were large herbivorous reptiles1 like  
the ,iguanodon1 on the land1 the class  
of reptiles may1 to a certain extent1   
have superseded the cetacea1 and        
discharged their functions in the animal
 economy4  ,that mammalia had been      
created long before the epoch of the    
,kimmeridge clay1 is shown by the       
,microlestes of the ,trias before       
alluded to1 and by the ,stonesfield     
quadrupeds from the ,inferior ,oolite4  

,and we are bound to remember1 whenever 
we infer the poverty of the flora or    
fauna of any given period of the past1  
from the small number of fossils        
occurring in ancient rocks1 that it has 
been evidently no part of the plan of   
,nature to hand down to us a complete or
 systematic record of the former history
 of the animate world4 ,we may have     
failed to discover a single shell1      
marine or freshwater1 or a single coral 
or bone in certain sandstones1 such as  
that of the valley of the ,connecticut1 
where the footprints of bipeds and      
quadrupeds abound2 but such failure may 
have arisen1 not because the population 
of the land or sea was scanty at that   
era1 but because in general the         
preservation of any relics of the       
animals or plants of former times is the
 exception to a general rule4 ,time so  
enormous as that contemplated by the    
geologist may multiply exceptional cases
 till they seem to constitute the rule1 
and so impose on the imagination as to  

lead us to infer the non-existence of   
creatures of which no monuments happen  
to remain4 ,professor ,forbes has       
remarked1 that few geologists are aware 
how large a proportion of all known     
species of fossils are founded on single
 specimens1 while a still greater number
 are founded on a few individuals       
discovered in one spot4 ,this holds true
 not only in regard to animals and      
plants inhabiting the land1 the lake1   
and the river1 but even to a surprising 
number of the marine mollusca1          
articulata1 and radiata4 ,our knowledge1
 therefore1 of the living creation of   
any given period of the past may be said
 to depend in a great degree on what we 
commonly call chance1 and the casual    
discovery of some new localities rich in
 peculiar fossils may modify or entirely
 overthrow all our previous             
generalizations4  ,upon the whole then  
we derive this result from a general    
review of the fossils of the successive 
tertiary strata1 namely1 that since the 

,eocene period1 there have been several 
great changes in the land quadrupeds    
inhabiting ,europe1 probably not less   
than five complete revolutions1 during  
which there has been no step whatever   
made in advance1 no elevation in the    
scale of being2 so that had man been    
created at the commencement of the      
,eocene era1 he would not have          
constituted a greater innovation on the 
state of the animal creation previously 
established than now1 when we believe   
him to have begun to exist at the close 
of the ,pleiocene4 ,the views1          
therefore1 which ,i proposed in the     
first edition of this work1 ,january1   
#ahcj1 in opposition to the theory of   
progressive development1 do not seem to 
me to require material modification1    
notwithstanding the large additions     
since made to our knowledge of fossil   
remains4  ,these views may be thus      
briefly stated4 ,from the earliest      
period at which plants and animals can  
be proved to have existed1 there has    

been a continual change going on in the 
position of land and sea1 accompanied by
 great fluctuations of climate4 ,to     
these ever-varying geographical and     
climatal conditions the state of the    
animate world has been unceasingly      
adapted4 ,no satisfactory proof has yet 
been discovered of the gradual passage  
of the earth from a chaotic to a more   
habitable state1 nor of any law of      
progressive development governing the   
extinction and renovation of species1   
and causing the fauna and flora to pass 
from an embryonic to a more perfect     
condition1 from a simple to a more      
complex organization4  ,the principle of
 adaptation to which ,i have alluded1   
appears to have been analogous to that  
which now peoples the arctic1 temperate1
 and tropical regions contemporaneously 
with distinct assemblages of species and
 genera1 or which1 independently of mere
 temperature1 gives rise to a           
predominance of the marsupial or        
didelphous tribe of quadrupeds in       

,australia1 of the placental or         
monodelphous tribe in ,asia and ,europe1
 or which causes a profusion of reptiles
 without mammalia in the ,galapagos     
,archipelago1 and of mammalia without   
reptiles in ,greenland4  ,recent origin 
of man4--,if1 then1 the popular theory  
of the successive development of the    
animal and vegetable world1 from the    
simplest to the most perfect forms1     
rests on a very insecure foundation2 it 
may be asked1 whether the recent origin 
of man lends any support to the same    
doctrine1 or how far the influence of   
man may be considered as such a         
deviation from the analogy of the order 
of things previously established1 as to 
weaken our confidence in the uniformity 
of the course of nature4  ,antecedently 
to investigation1 we might reasonably   
have anticipated that the vestiges of   
man would have been traced back at least
 as far as those modern strata in which 
all the testacea and a certain number of
 the mammalia are of existing species1  

for of all the mammalia the human       
species is the most cosmopolite1 and    
perhaps more capable than any other of  
surviving considerable vicissitudes in  
climate1 and in the physical geography  
of the globe4  ,no inhabitant of the    
land exposes himself to so many dangers 
on the waters as man1 whether in a      
savage or a civilized state2#bbh and    
there is no animal1 therefore1 whose    
skeleton is so liable to become imbedded
 in lacustrine or submarine deposits2   
nor can it be said that his remains are 
more perishable than those of other     
animals2 for in ancient fields of       
battle1 as ,cuvier has observed1 the    
bones of men have suffered as little    
decomposition as those of horses which  
were buried in the same grave4#bbi ,but 
even if the more solid parts of our     
species had disappeared1 the impression 
of their form would have remained       
engraven on the rocks1 as have the      
traces of the tenderest leaves of       
plants1 and the soft integuments of many

 animals4 ,works of art1 moreover1      
composed of the most indestructible     
materials1 would have outlasted almost  
all the organic contents of sedimentary 
rocks4 ,edifices1 and even entire       
cities1 have1 within the times of       
history1 been buried under volcanic     
ejections1 submerged beneath the sea1 or
 engulfed by earthquakes2 and had these 
catastrophes been repeated throughout an
 indefinite lapse of ages1 the high     
antiquity of man would have been        
inscribed in far more legible characters
 on the framework of the globe than are 
the forms of the ancient vegetation     
which once covered the islands of the   
northern ocean1 or of those gigantic    
reptiles which at still later periods   
peopled the seas and rivers of the      
northern hemisphere4#bcj  ,dr4 ,prichard
 has argued that the human race have not
 always existed on the surface of the   
earth1 because the strata of which our  
continents are composed were once a part
 of the ocean's bed--mankind had a      

beginning1 since we can look back to the
 period when the surface on which they  
lived began to exist4#bca ,this proof1  
however1 is insufficient1 for many      
thousands of human beings now dwell in  
various quarters of the globe where     
marine species lived within the times of
 history1 and1 on the other hand1 the   
sea now prevails permanently over large 
districts once inhabited by thousands of
 human beings4 ,nor can this interchange
 of sea and land ever cease while the   
present causes are in existence4        
,terrestrial species1 therefore1 might  
be older than the continents which they 
inhabit1 and aquatic species of higher  
antiquity than the lakes and seas which 
they now people4  ,but so far as our    
interpretation of physical movements has
 yet gone1 we have every reason to infer
 that the human race is extremely       
modern1 even when compared to the larger
 number of species now our              
contemporaries on the earth1 and we may1
 therefore1 ask whether his creation can

 be considered as one step in a supposed
 progressive system1 by which the       
organic world has advanced slowly from a
 more simple to a more complex and      
perfect state8 ,if we concede1 for a    
moment1 the truth of the proposition1   
that the sponge1 the cephalopod1 the    
fish1 the reptile1 the bird1 and the    
mammifer1 have followed each other in   
regular chronological order1 the        
creation of each class being separated  
from the other by vast intervals of     
time1 should we be able to recognize1 in
 man's entrance upon the earth1 the last
 term of one and the same series of     
progressive developments8  ,in reply to 
this question it should first be        
observed1 that the superiority of man   
depends not on those faculties and      
attributes which he shares in common    
with the inferior animals1 but on his   
reason1 by which he is distinguished    
from them4 ,when it is said that the    
human race is of far higher dignity than
 were any pre-existing beings on the    

earth1 it is the intellectual and moral 
attributes of our race1 rather than the 
physical1 which are considered2 and it  
is by no means clear that the           
organization of man is such as would    
confer a decided pre-eminence upon him1 
if1 in place of his reasoning powers1 he
 was merely provided with such instincts
 as are possessed by the lower animals4 
,if this be admitted1 it would not      
follow1 even if there were sufficient   
geological evidence in favor of the     
theory of progressive development1 that 
the creation of man was the last link in
 the same chain4 ,for the sudden passage
 from an irrational to a rational       
animal1 is a phenomenon of a distinct   
kind from the passage from the more     
simple to the more perfect forms of     
animal organization and instinct4 ,to   
pretend that such a step1 or rather     
leap1 can be part of a regular series of
 changes in the animal world1 is to     
strain analogy beyond all reasonable    
bounds4  ,introduction of man1 to what  

extent a change in the system4--,but    
setting aside the question of           
progressive development1 another and a  
far more difficult one may arise out of 
the admission that man is comparatively 
of modern origin4 ,is not the           
interference of the human species1 it   
may be asked1 such a deviation from the 
antecedent course of physical events1   
that the knowledge of such a fact tends 
to destroy all our confidence in the    
uniformity of the order of nature1 both 
in regard to time past and future8 ,if  
such an innovation could take place     
after the earth had been exclusively    
inhabited for thousands of ages by      
inferior animals1 why should not other  
changes as extraordinary and            
unprecedented happen from time to time8 
,if one new cause was permitted to      
supervene1 differing in kind and energy 
from any before in operation1 why may   
not others have come into action at     
different epochs8 ,or what security have
 we that they may not arise hereafter8  

,and if such be the case1 how can the   
experience of one period1 even though we
 are acquainted with all the possible   
effects of the then existing causes1 be 
a standard to which we can refer all    
natural phenomena of other periods8     
,now these objections would be          
unanswerable1 if adduced against one who
 was contending for the absolute        
uniformity throughout all time of the   
succession of sublunary events--if1 for 
example1 he was disposed to indulge in  
the philosophical reveries of some      
,egyptian and ,greek sects1 who         
represented all the changes both of the 
moral and material world as repeated at 
distant intervals1 so as to follow each 
other in their former connection of     
place and time4 ,for they compared the  
course of events on our globe to        
astronomical cycles2 and not only did   
they consider all sublunary affairs to  
be under the influence of the celestial 
bodies1 but they taught that on the     
earth1 as well as in the heavens1 the   

same identical phenomena recurred again 
and again in a perpetual vicissitude4   
,the same individual men were doomed to 
be re-born1 and to perform the same     
actions as before2 the same arts were to
 be invented1 and the same cities built 
and destroyed4 ,the ,argonautic         
expedition was destined to sail again   
with the same heroes1 and ,achilles with
 his ,myrmidons to renew1 the combat    
before the walls of ,troy4     ,alter   
erit tum ,tiphys1 et altera quae vehat  
,argo   ,dilectos heroas2 erunt etiam   
altera bella1   ,atque iterum ad ,trojam
 magnus mittetur ,achilles4#bcb   ,the  
geologist1 however1 may condemn these   
tenets as absurd1 without running into  
the opposite extreme1 and denying that  
the order of nature has1 from the       
earliest periods1 been uniform in the   
same sense in which we believe it to be 
uniform at present1 and expect it to    
remain so in future4 ,we have no reason 
to suppose1 that when man first became  
master of a small part of the globe1 a  

greater change took place in its        
physical condition than is now          
experienced when districts1 never before
 inhabited1 become successively occupied
 by new settlers4 ,when a powerful      
,european colony lands on the shores of 
,australia1 and introduces at once those
 arts which it has required many        
centuries to mature2 when it imports a  
multitude of plants and large animals   
from the opposite extremity of the      
earth1 and begins rapidly to extirpate  
many of the indigenous species1 a       
mightier revolution is effected in a    
brief period than the first entrance of 
a savage horde1 or their continued      
occupation of the country for many      
centuries1 can possibly be imagined to  
have produced4 ,if there be no          
impropriety in assuming that the system 
is uniform when disturbances so         
unprecedented occur in certain          
localities1 we can with much greater    
confidence apply the same language to   
those primeval ages when the aggregate  

number and power of the human race1 or  
the rate of their advancement in        
civilization1 must be supposed to have  
been far inferior4 ,in reasoning on the 
state of the globe immediately before   
our species was called into existence1  
we must be guided by the same rules of  
induction as when we speculate on the   
state of ,america in the interval that  
elapsed between the introduction of man 
into ,asia1 the supposed cradle of our  
race1 and the arrival of the first      
adventurers on the shores of the ,new   
,world4 ,in that interval1 we imagine   
the state of things to have gone on     
according to the order now observed in  
regions unoccupied by man4 ,even now1   
the waters of lakes1 seas1 and the great
 ocean1 which teem with life1 may be    
said to have no immediate relation to   
the human race--to be portions of the   
terrestrial system of which man has     
never taken1 nor ever can take          
possession2 so that the greater part of 
the inhabited surface of the planet may 

still remain as insensible to our       
presence as before any isle or continent
 was appointed to be our residence4  ,if
 the barren soil around ,sydney had at  
once become fertile upon the landing of 
our first settlers2 if1 like the happy  
isles whereof the poets have given such 
glowing descriptions1 those sandy tracts
 had begun to yield spontaneously an    
annual supply of grain1 we might then1  
indeed1 have fancied alterations still  
more remarkable in the economy of nature
 to have attended the first coming of   
our species into the planet4 ,or if1    
when a volcanic island like ,ischia was1
 for the first time1 brought under      
cultivation by the enterprise and       
industry of a ,greek colony1 the        
internal fire had become dormant1 and   
the earthquake had remitted its         
destructive violence1 there would then  
have been some ground for speculating on
 the debilitation of the subterranean   
forces1 when the earth was first placed 
under the dominion of man4 ,but after a 

long interval of rest1 the volcano      
bursts forth again with renewed energy1 
annihilates one half of the inhabitants1
 and compels the remainder to emigrate4 
,the course of nature remains evidently 
unchanged2 and1 in like manner1 we may  
suppose the general condition of the    
globe1 immediately before and after the 
period when our species first began to  
exist1 to have been the same1 with the  
exception only of man's presence4  ,the 
modifications in the system of which man
 is the instrument do not1 perhaps1     
constitute so great a deviation from    
previous analogy as we usually imagine2 
we often1 for example1 form an          
exaggerated estimate of the extent of   
our power in extirpating some of the    
inferior animals1 and causing others to 
multiply2 a power which is circumscribed
 within certain limits1 and which1 in   
all likelihood1 is by no means          
exclusively exerted by our species4#bcc 
,the growth of human population cannot  
take place without diminishing the      

numbers1 or causing the entire          
destruction1 of many animals4 ,the      
larger beasts of prey1 in particular1   
give way before us2 but other quadrupeds
 of smaller size1 and innumerable birds1
 insects1 and plants1 which are inimical
 to our interests1 increase in spite of 
us1 some attacking our food1 others our 
raiment and persons1 and others         
interfering with our agricultural and   
horticultural labors4 ,we behold the    
rich harvest which we have raised by the
 sweat of our brow1 devoured by myriads 
of insects1 and are often as incapable  
of arresting their depredations1 as of  
staying the shock of an earthquake1 or  
the course of a stream of lava4  ,a     
great philosopher has observed1 that we 
can command nature only by obeying her  
laws2 and this principle is true even in
 regard to the astonishing changes which
 are superinduced in the qualities of   
certain animals and plants by           
domestication and garden culture4 ,i    
shall point out in the third book that  

we can only effect such surprising      
alterations by assisting the development
 of certain instincts1 or by availing   
ourselves of that mysterious law of     
their organization1 by which individual 
peculiarities are transmissible from one
 generation to another4#bcd  ,it is     
probable from these and many other      
considerations1 that as we enlarge our  
knowledge of the system1 we shall become
 more and more convinced1 that the      
alterations caused by the interference  
of man deviate far less from the analogy
 of those effected by other animals than
 is usually supposed4#bce ,we are often 
misled1 when we institute such          
comparisons1 by our knowledge of the    
wide distinction between the instincts  
of animals and the reasoning power of   
man2 and we are apt hastily to infer1   
that the effects of a rational and      
irrational species1 considered merely as
 physical agents1 will differ almost as 
much as the faculties by which their    
actions are directed4  ,it is not1      

however1 intended that a real departure 
from the antecedent course of physical  
events cannot be traced in the          
introduction of man4 ,if that latitude  
of action which enables the brutes to   
accommodate themselves in some measure  
to accidental circumstances could be    
imagined to have been at any former     
period so great1 that the operations of 
instinct were as much diversified as are
 those of human reason1 it might1       
perhaps1 be contended1 that the agency  
of man did not constitute an anomalous  
deviation from the previously           
established order of things4 ,it might  
then have been said1 that the earth's   
becoming at a particular period the     
residence of human beings1 was an era in
 the moral1 not in the physical         
world--that our study and contemplation 
of the earth1 and the laws which govern 
its animate productions1 ought no more  
to be considered in the light of a      
disturbance or deviation from the       
system1 than the discovery of the       

satellites of ,jupiter should be        
regarded as a physical event affecting  
those heavenly bodies4 ,their influence 
in advancing the progress of science    
among men1 and in aiding navigation and 
commerce1 was accompanied by no         
reciprocal action of the human mind upon
 the economy of nature in those distant 
planets2 and so the earth might be      
conceived to have become1 at a certain  
period1 a place of moral discipline and 
intellectual improvement to man1 without
 the slightest derangement of a         
previously existing order of change in  
its animate and inanimate productions4  
,the distinctness1 however1 of the human
 from all other species1 considered     
merely as an efficient cause in the     
physical world1 is real2 for we stand in
 a relation to contemporary species of  
animals and plants widely different from
 that which other irrational animals can
 ever be supposed to have held to each  
other4 ,we modify their instincts1      
relative numbers1 and geographical      

distribution1 in a manner superior in   
degree1 and in some respects very       
different in kind from that in which any
 other species can affect the rest4     
,besides1 the progressive movement of   
each successive generation of men causes
 the human species to differ more from  
itself in power at two distant periods1 
than any one species of the higher order
 of animals differs from another4 ,the  
establishment1 therefore1 by geological 
evidence1 of the first intervention of  
such a peculiar and unprecedented       
agency1 long after other parts of the   
animate and inanimate world existed1    
affords ground for concluding that the  
experience during thousands of ages of  
all the events which may happen on this 
globe1 would not enable a philosopher to
 speculate with confidence concerning   
future contingencies4  ,if1 then1 an    
intelligent being1 after observing the  
order of events for an indefinite series
 of ages1 had witnessed at last so      
wonderful an innovation as this1 to what

 extent would his belief in the         
regularity of the system be             
weakened8--would he cease to assume that
 there was permanency in the laws of    
nature8--would he no longer be guided in
 his speculations by the strictest rules
 of induction8 ,to these questions it   
may be answered1 that1 had he previously
 presumed to dogmatize respecting the   
absolute uniformity of the order of     
nature1 he would undoubtedly be checked 
by witnessing this new and unexpected   
event1 and would form a more just       
estimate of the limited range of his own
 knowledge1 and the unbounded extent of 
the scheme of the universe4 ,but he     
would soon perceive that no one of the  
fixed and constant laws of the animate  
or inanimate world was subverted by     
human agency1 and that the modifications
 now introduced for the first time were 
the accompaniments of new and           
extraordinary circumstances1 and those  
not of a physical but a moral nature4   
,the deviation permitted would also     

appear to be as slight as was consistent
 with the accomplishment of the new     
moral ends proposed1 and to be in a     
great degree temporary in its nature1 so
 that1 whenever the power of the new    
agent was withheld1 even for a brief    
period1 a relapse would take place to   
the ancient state of things2 the        
domesticated animal1 for example1       
recovering in a few generations its wild
 instinct1 and the garden-flower and    
fruit-tree reverting to the likeness of 
the parent stock4  ,now1 if it would be 
reasonable to draw such inferences with 
respect to the future1 we cannot but    
apply the same rules of induction to the
 past4 ,we have no right to anticipate  
any modifications in the results of     
existing causes in time to come1 which  
are not conformable to analogy1 unless  
they be produced by the progressive     
development of human power1 or perhaps  
by some other new relations which may   
hereafter spring up between the moral   
and material worlds4 ,in the same       

manner1 when we speculate on the        
vicissitudes of the animate and         
inanimate creation in former ages1 we   
ought not to look for any anomalous     
results1 unless where man has           
interfered1 or unless clear indications 
appear of some other moral source of    
temporary derangement4     ,,chapter ,x4
  ,,supposed ,,intensity ,,of ,,aqueous 
,,forces ,,at ,,remote ,,periods4       
,intensity of aqueous causes--,slow     
accumulation of strata proved by        
fossils--,rate of denudation can only   
keep pace with                          
deposition--,erratics1 and effects of   
ice--,deluges1 and the causes to        
which they are referred--,supposed      
universality of ancient deposits4       
,intensity of aqueous causes4--,the     
great problem considered in the         
preceding chapters1 namely1 whether the 
former changes of the earth made known  
to us by geology1 resemble in kind and  
degree those now in daily progress1 may 
still be contemplated from several other

 points of view4 ,we may inquire1 for   
example1 whether there are any grounds  
for the belief entertained by many1 that
 the intensity both of aqueous and of   
igneous forces1 in remote ages1 far     
exceeded that which we witness in our   
own times4  ,first1 then1 as to aqueous 
causes3 it has been shown1 in our       
history of the science1 that ,woodward  
did not hesitate1 in #afie1 to teach    
that the entire mass of fossiliferous   
strata contained in the earth's crust   
had been deposited in a few months2 and1
 consequently1 as their mechanical and  
derivative origin was already admitted1 
the reduction of rocky masses into mud1 
sand1 and pebbles1 the transportation of
 the same to a distance1 and their      
accumulation elsewhere in regular       
strata1 were all assumed to have taken  
place with a rapidity unparalleled in   
modern times4 ,this doctrine was        
modified by degrees1 in proportion as   
different classes of organic remains1   
such as shells1 corals1 and fossil      

plants1 had been studied with attention4
 ,analogy led every naturalist to       
assume1 that each full-grown individual 
of the animal or vegetable kingdom1 had 
required a certain number of months or  
years for the attainment of maturity1   
and the perpetuation of its species by  
generation2 and thus the first approach 
was made to the conception of a common  
standard of time1 without which there   
are no means whatever of measuring the  
comparative rate at which any succession
 of events has taken place at two       
distinct periods4 ,this standard        
consisted of the average duration of the
 lives of individuals of the same genera
 or families in the animal and vegetable
 kingdoms2 and the multitude of fossils 
dispersed through successive strata     
implied the continuance of the same     
species for many generations4 ,at length
 the idea that species themselves had   
had a limited duration1 arose out of the
 observed fact that sets of strata of   
different ages contained fossils of     

distinct species4 ,finally1 the opinion 
became general1 that in the course of   
ages1 one assemblage of animals and     
plants had disappeared after another    
again and again1 and new tribes had     
started into life to replace them4      
,denudation4--,in addition to the proofs
 derived from organic remains1 the forms
 of stratification led also1 on a fuller
 investigation1 to the belief that      
sedimentary rocks had been slowly       
deposited2 but it was still supposed    
that denudation1 or the power of running
 water1 and the waves and currents of   
the ocean1 to strip off superior strata1
 and lay bare the rocks below1 had      
formerly operated with an energy wholly 
unequalled in our times4 ,these opinions
 were both illogical and inconsistent1  
because deposition and denudation are   
parts of the same process1 and what is  
true of the one must be true of the     
other4 ,their speed must be always      
limited by the same causes1 and the     
conveyance of solid matter to a         

particular region can only keep pace    
with its removal from another1 so that  
the aggregate of sedimentary strata in  
the earth's crust can never exceed in   
volume the amount of solid matter which 
has been ground down and washed away by 
running water4 ,how vast1 then1 must be 
the spaces which this abstraction of    
matter has left vacant6 how far         
exceeding in dimensions all the valleys1
 however numerous1 and the hollows1     
however vast1 which we can prove to have
 been cleared out by aqueous erosion6   
,the evidences of the work of denudation
 are defective1 because it is the nature
 of every destroying cause to obliterate
 the signs of its own agency2 but the   
amount of reproduction in the form of   
sedimentary strata must always afford a 
true measure of the minimum of          
denudation which the earth's surface has
 undergone4  ,erratics4--,the next      
phenomenon to which the advocates of the
 excessive power of running water in    
times past have appealed1 is the        

enormous size of the blocks called      
erratic1 which lie scattered over the   
northern parts of ,europe and ,north    
,america4 ,unquestionably a large       
proportion of these blocks have been    
transported far from their original     
position1 for between them and the      
parent rocks we now find1 not           
unfrequently1 deep seas and valleys     
intervening1 or hills more than a       
thousand feet high4 ,to explain the     
present situation of such travelled     
fragments1 a deluge of mud has been     
imagined by some to have come from the  
north1 bearing along with it sand1      
gravel1 and stony fragments1 some of    
them hundreds of tons in weight4 ,this  
flood1 in its transient passage over the
 continents1 dispersed the boulders     
irregularly over hill1 valley1 and      
plain2 or forced them along over a      
surface of hard rock1 so as to polish it
 and leave it indented with parallel    
scratches and grooves--such markings as 
are still visible in the rocks of       

,scandinavia1 ,scotland1 ,canada1 and   
many other countries4  ,there can be no 
doubt that the myriads of angular and   
rounded blocks above alluded to1 cannot 
have been borne along by ordinary rivers
 or marine currents1 so great is their  
volume and weight1 and so clear are the 
signs1 in many places1 of time having   
been occupied in their successive       
deposition2 for they are often          
distributed at various depths through   
heaps of regularly stratified sand and  
gravel4 ,no waves of the sea raised by  
earthquakes1 nor the bursting of lakes  
dammed up for a time by landslips or by 
avalanches of snow1 can account for the 
observed facts2 but ,i shall endeavor to
 show1 in the next book1 chap4 #ae1bcf  
that a combination of existing causes   
may have conveyed erratics into their   
present situations4  ,the causes which  
will be referred to are1 first1 the     
carrying power of ice1 combined with    
that of running water2 and second1 the  
upward movement of the bed of the sea1  

converting it gradually into land4      
,without entering at present into any   
details respecting these causes1 ,i may 
mention that the transportation of      
blocks by ice is now simultaneously in  
progress in the cold and temperate      
latitudes1 both of the northern and     
southern hemisphere1 as1 for example1 on
 the coasts of ,canada and ,gulf of ,st4
 ,lawrence1 and also in ,chili1         
,patagonia1 and the island of ,south    
,georgia4 ,in those regions the uneven  
bed of the ocean is becoming strewed    
over with ice-drifted fragments1 which  
have either stranded on shoals1 or been 
dropped in deep water by melting bergs4 
,the entanglement of boulders in        
drift-ice will also be shown to occur   
annually in ,north ,america1 and these  
stones1 when firmly frozen into ice1    
wander year after year from ,labrador to
 the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and reach points of
 the western hemisphere farther south   
than any part of ,great ,britain4  ,the 
general absence of erratics in the      

warmer parts of the equatorial regions  
of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1        
confirms the same views4 ,as to the     
polishing and grooving of hard rocks1 it
 has lately been ascertained that       
glaciers give rise to these effects when
 pushing forward sand1 pebbles1 and     
rocky fragments1 and causing them to    
grate along the bottom4 ,nor can there  
be any reasonable doubt that icebergs1  
when they run aground on the floor of   
the ocean1 must imprint similar marks   
upon it4  ,it is unnecessary1 therefore1
 to refer to deluges1 or even to        
speculate on the former existence of a  
climate more severe than that now       
prevailing in the western hemisphere1 to
 explain the geographical distribution  
of most of the ,european erratics4      
,deluges4--,as deluges have been often  
alluded to1 ,i shall say something of   
the causes which may be supposed to give
 rise to these grand movements of water 
in addition to those already alluded to 
7p4 #i74 ,geologists who believe that   

mountain-chains have been thrown up     
suddenly at many successive epochs1     
imagine that the waters of the ocean may
 be raised by these convulsions1 and    
then break in terrific waves upon the   
land1 sweeping over whole continents1   
hollowing out valleys1 and transporting 
sand1 gravel1 and erratics1 to great    
distances4 ,the sudden rise of the ,alps
 or ,andes1 it is said1 may have        
produced a flood even subsequently to   
the time when the earth became the      
residence of man4 ,but it seems strange 
that none of the writers who have       
indulged their imaginations in          
conjectures of this kind1 should have   
ascribed a deluge to the sudden         
conversion of part of the unfathomable  
ocean into a shoal rather than to the   
rise of mountain-chains4 ,in the latter 
case1 the mountains themselves could do 
no more than displace a certain quantity
 of atmospheric air1 whereas1 the       
instantaneous formation of the shoal    
would displace a vast body of water1    

which being heaved up to a great height 
might roll over and permanently submerge
 a large portion of a continent4  ,if we
 restrict ourselves to combinations of  
causes at present known1 it would seem  
that the two principal sources of       
extraordinary inundations are1 first1   
the escape of the waters of a large lake
 raised far above the sea2 and1         
secondly1 the pouring down of a marine  
current into lands depressed below the  
mean level of the ocean4  ,as an example
 of the first of these cases1 we may    
take ,lake ,superior1 which is more than
 #djj geographical miles in length and  
about #aej in breadth1 having an average
 depth of from #ejj to #ijj feet4 ,the  
surface of this vast body of fresh water
 is no less than #fjj feet above the    
level of the ocean2 the lowest part of  
the barrier which separates the lake on 
its southwest side from those streams   
which flow into the head waters of the  
,mississippi being about #fjj feet high4
 ,if1 therefore1 a series of subsidences

 should lower any part of this barrier  
#fjj feet1 any subsequent rending or    
depression1 even of a few yards at a    
time1 would allow the sudden escape of  
vast floods of water into a             
hydrographical basin of enormous extent4
 ,if the event happened in the dry      
season1 when the ordinary channels of   
the ,mississippi and its tributaries are
 in a great degree empty1 the inundation
 might not be considerable2 but if in   
the flood-season1 a region capable of   
supporting a population of many millions
 might be suddenly submerged4 ,but even 
this event would be insufficient to     
cause a violent rush of water1 and to   
produce those effects usually called    
diluvial2 for the difference of level of
 #fjj feet between ,lake ,superior and  
the ,gulf of ,mexico1 when distributed  
over a distance of #ahjj miles1 would   
give an average fall of only four inches
 per mile4  ,the second case before     
adverted to is where there are large    
tracts of dry land beneath the mean     

level of the ocean4 ,it seems1 after    
much controversy1 to be at length a     
settled point1 that the ,caspian is     
really #hc feet #f inches lower than the
 ,black ,sea4 ,as the ,caspian covers an
 area about equal to that of ,spain1 and
 as its shores are in general low and   
flat1 there must be many thousand square
 miles of country less than #hc feet    
above the level of that inland sea1 and 
consequently depressed below the ,black 
,sea and ,mediterranean4 ,this area     
includes the site of the populous city  
of ,astrakhan and other towns4 ,into    
this region the ocean would pour its    
waters1 if the land now intervening     
between the ,sea of ,azof and the       
,caspian should subside4 ,yet even if   
this event should occur1 it is most     
probable that the submergence of the    
whole region would not be accomplished  
simultaneously1 but by a series of minor
 floods1 the sinking of the barrier     
being gradual4#bcg  ,supposed           
universality of ancient deposits4--,the 

next fallacy which has helped to        
perpetuate the doctrine that the        
operations of water were on a different 
and grander scale in ancient times1 is  
founded on the indefinite areas over    
which homogeneous deposits were supposed
 to extend4 ,no modern sedimentary      
strata1 it is said1 equally identical in
 mineral character and fossil contents1 
can be traced continuously from one     
quarter of the globe to another4 ,but   
the first propagators of these opinions 
were very slightly acquainted with the  
inconstancy in mineral composition of   
the ancient formations1 and equally so  
of the wide spaces over which the same  
kind of sediment is now actually        
distributed by rivers and currents in   
the course of centuries4 ,the           
persistency of character in the older   
series was exaggerated1 its extreme     
variability in the newer was assumed    
without proof4 ,in the chapter which    
treats of river-deltas and the          
dispersion of sediment by currents1 and 

in the description of reefs of coral now
 growing over areas many hundred miles  
in length1 ,i shall have opportunities  
of convincing the reader of the danger  
of hasty generalizations on this head4  
,in regard to the imagined universality 
of particular rocks of ancient date1 it 
was almost unavoidable that this notion1
 when once embraced1 should be          
perpetuated2 for the same kinds of rock 
have occasionally been reproduced at    
successive epochs2 and when once the    
agreement or disagreement in mineral    
character alone was relied on as the    
test of age1 it followed that similar   
rocks1 if found even at the antipodes1  
were referred to the same era1 until the
 contrary could be shown4  ,now it is   
usually impossible to combat such an    
assumption on geological grounds1 so    
long as we are imperfectly acquainted   
with the order of superposition and the 
organic remains of these same           
formations4 ,thus1 for example1 a group 
of red marl and red sandstone1          

containing salt and gypsum1 being       
interposed in ,england between the ,lias
 and the ,coal1 all other red marls and 
sandstones1 associated some of them with
 salt1 and others with gypsum1 and      
occurring not only in different parts of
 ,europe1 but in ,north ,america1 ,peru1
 ,india1 the salt deserts of ,asia1     
those of ,africa--in a word1 in every   
quarter of the globe1 were referred to  
one and the same period4 ,the burden of 
proof was not supposed to rest with     
those who insisted on the identity in   
age of all these groups--their identity 
in mineral composition was thought      
sufficient4 ,it was in vain to urge as  
an objection the improbability of the   
hypothesis which implies that all the   
moving waters on the globe were once    
simultaneously charged with sediment of 
a red color4  ,but the rashness of      
pretending to identify1 in age1 all the 
red sandstones and marls in question1   
has at length been sufficiently exposed1
 by the discovery that1 even in ,europe1

 they belong decidedly to many different
 epochs4 ,it is already ascertained1    
that the red sandstone and red marl     
containing the rock-salt of ,cardona in 
,catalonia is newer than the ,oolitic1  
if not more modern than the ,cretaceous 
period4 ,it is also known that certain  
red marls and variegated sandstones in  
,auvergne which are undistinguishable in
 mineral composition from the ,new ,red 
,sandstone of ,english geologists1      
belong1 nevertheless1 to the ,eocene    
period2 and1 lastly1 the gypseous red   
marl of ,aix1 in ,provence1 formerly    
supposed to be a marine secondary group1
 is now acknowledged to be a tertiary   
freshwater formation4 ,in ,nova ,scotia 
one great deposit of red marl1          
sandstone1 and gypsum1 precisely        
resembling in mineral character the ,new
 ,red of ,england1 occurs as a member of
 the ,carboniferous group1 and in the   
,united ,states near the ,falls of      
,niagara1 a similar formation           
constitutes a subdivision of the        

,silurian series4#bch  ,nor was the     
nomenclature commonly adopted in geology
 without its influence in perpetuating  
the erroneous doctrine of universal     
formations4 ,such names1 for example1 as
 ,chalk1 ,green ,sand1 ,oolite1 ,red    
,marl1 ,coal1 and others1 were given to 
some of the principal fossiliferous     
groups in consequence of mineral        
peculiarities which happened to         
characterize them in the countries where
 they were first studied4 ,when         
geologists had at length shown1 by means
 of fossils and the order of            
superposition1 that other strata1       
entirely dissimilar in color1 texture1  
and composition1 were of contemporaneous
 date1 it was thought convenient still  
to retain the old names4 ,that these    
were often inappropriate was admitted2  
but the student was taught to understand
 them in no other than a chronological  
sense2 so that the ,chalk might not be a
 white cretaceous rock1 but a hard      
dolomitic limestone1 as in the ,alps1 or

 a brown sandstone or green marl1 as in 
,new ,jersey1 ,u4 ,s4 ,in like manner1  
the ,green ,sand1 it was said1 might in 
some places be represented by red       
sandstone1 red marl1 salt1 and gypsum1  
as in the north of ,spain4 ,so the      
oolitic texture was declared to be      
rather an exception than otherwise to   
the general rule in rocks of the        
,oolitic period2 and it often became    
necessary to affirm that no particle of 
carbonaceous matter could be detected in
 districts where the true ,coal series  
abounded4 ,in spite of every precaution 
the habitual use of this language could 
scarcely fail to instil into the mind of
 the pupil an idea that chalk1 coal1    
salt1 red marl1 or the ,oolitic         
structure were far more widely          
characteristic of the rocks of a given  
age than was really the case4  ,there is
 still another cause of deception1      
disposing us to ascribe a more limited  
range to the newer sedimentary          
formations as compared to the older1    

namely1 the very general concealment of 
the newer strata beneath the waters of  
lakes and seas1 and the wide exposure   
above waters of the more ancient4 ,the  
,chalk1 for example1 now seen stretching
 for thousands of miles over different  
parts of ,europe1 has become visible to 
us by the effect1 not of one1 but of    
many distinct series of subterranean    
movements4 ,time has been required1 and 
a succession of geological periods1 to  
raise it above the waves in so many     
regions2 and if calcareous rocks of the 
middle and upper tertiary periods have  
been formed1 as homogeneous in mineral  
composition throughout equally extensive
 regions1 it may require convulsions as 
numerous as all those which have        
occurred since the origin of the ,chalk 
to bring them up within the sphere of   
human observation4 ,hence the rocks of  
more modern periods may appear partial1 
as compared to those of remoter eras1   
not because of any original inferiority 
in their extent1 but because there has  

not been sufficient time since their    
origin for the development of a great   
series of elevatory movements4  ,in     
regard1 however1 to one of the most     
important characteristics of sedimentary
 rocks1 their organic remains1 many     
naturalists of high authority have      
maintained that the same species of     
fossils are more uniformly distributed  
through formations of high antiquity    
than in those of more modern date1 and  
that distinct zoological and botanical  
provinces1 as they are called1 which    
form so striking a feature in the living
 creation1 were not established at      
remote eras4 ,thus the plants of the    
,coal1 the shells1 the trilobites of the
 ,silurian rocks1 and the ammonites of  
the ,oolite1 have been supposed to have 
a wider geographical range than any     
living species of plants1 crustaceans1  
or mollusks4 ,this opinion seems in     
certain cases to be well founded1       
especially in relation to the plants of 
the ,carboniferous epoch1 owing probably

 to the more uniform temperature of the 
globe1 at a time when the position of   
sea and land was less favorable to      
variations in climate1 according to     
principles already explained in the     
seventh and eighth chapters4 ,but a     
recent comparison of the fossils of     
,north ,american rocks with those of    
corresponding ages in the ,european     
series1 has proved that the terrestrial 
vegetation of the ,carboniferous epoch  
is an exception to the general rule1 and
 that the fauna and flora of the earth  
at successive periods1 from the oldest  
,silurian to the newest ,tertiary was as
 diversified as now4 ,the shells1       
corals1 and other classes of organic    
remains demonstrate the fact that the   
earth might then have been divided into 
separate zoological provinces1 in a     
manner analogous to that observed in the
 geographical distribution of species   
now living4     ,,chapter ,,xi4  ,,on   
,,the ,,supposed ,,former ,,intensity   
,,of ,,the ,,igneous ,,forces4          

,volcanic action at successive          
geological periods--,plutonic rocks of  
different ages--,gradual development of 
subterranean                            
movements--,faults--,doctrine of the    
sudden upheaval of parallel             
mountain-chains--,objections to the     
proof of the suddenness of the          
upheaval1 and the contemporaneousness of
 parallel chains--,trains of     active 
volcanoes not parallel--,as large tracts
 of land are rising or     sinking      
slowly1 so narrow zones of land may be  
pushed up gradually     to great        
heights--,bending of strata by lateral  
pressure--,adequacy of     the volcanic 
power to effect this without paroxysmal 
convulsions4   ,when reasoning on the   
intensity of volcanic action at former  
periods1 as well as on the power of     
moving water1 already treated of1       
geologists have been ever prone to      
represent ,nature as having been        
prodigal of violence and parsimonious of
 time4 ,now1 although it is less easy to

 determine the relative ages of the     
volcanic than of the fossiliferous      
formations1 it is undeniable that       
igneous rocks have been produced at all 
geological periods1 or as often as we   
find distinct deposits marked by        
peculiar animal and vegetable remains4  
,it can be shown that rocks commonly    
called trappean have been injected into 
fissures1 and ejected at the surface1   
both before and during the deposition of
 the ,carboniferous series1 and at the  
time when the ,magnesian ,limestone1 and
 when the ,upper ,new ,red ,sandstone   
were formed1 or when the ,lias1 ,oolite1
 ,green ,sand1 ,chalk1 and the several  
tertiary groups newer than the chalk1   
originated in succession4 ,nor is this  
all3 distinct volcanic products may be  
referred to the subordinate divisions of
 each period1 such as the               
,carboniferous1 as in the county of     
,fife1 in ,scotland1 where certain      
masses of contemporaneous trap are      
associated with the ,lower1 others with 

the ,upper ,coal measures4 ,and if one  
of these masses is more minutely        
examined1 we find it to consist of the  
products of a great many successive     
outbursts1 by which scoriae and lava    
were again and again emitted1 and       
afterwards consolidated1 then fissured1 
and finally traversed by melted matter1 
constituting what are called dikes4#bci 
,as we enlarge1 therefore1 our knowledge
 of the ancient rocks formed by         
subterranean heat1 we find ourselves    
compelled to regard them as the         
aggregate effects of innumerable        
eruptions1 each of which may have been  
comparable in violence to those now     
experienced in volcanic regions4  ,it   
may indeed be said that we have as yet  
no data for estimating the relative     
volume of matter simultaneously in a    
state of fusion at two given periods1 as
 if we were to compare the columnar     
basalt of ,staffa and its environs with 
the lava poured out in ,iceland in      
#aghc2 but for this very reason it would

 be rash and unphilosophical to assume  
an excess of ancient as contrasted with 
modern outpourings of melted matter at  
particular periods of time4#bdj ,it     
would be still more presumptuous to take
 for granted that the more deep-seated  
effects of subterranean heat surpassed  
at remote eras the corresponding effects
 of internal heat in our own times4     
,certain porphyries and granites1 and   
all the rocks commonly called plutonic1 
are now generally supposed to have      
resulted from the slow cooling of       
materials fused and solidified under    
great pressure2 and we cannot doubt that
 beneath existing volcanoes there are   
large spaces filled with melted stone1  
which must for centuries remain in an   
incandescent state1 and then cool and   
become hard and crystalline when the    
subterranean heat shall be exhausted4   
,that lakes of lava are continuous for  
hundreds of miles beneath the ,chilian  
,andes1 seems established by            
observations made in the year #ahce4bda 

,now1 wherever the fluid contents of    
such reservoirs are poured out          
successively from craters in the open   
air1 or at the bottom of the sea1 the   
matter so ejected may afford evidence by
 its arrangement of having originated at
 different periods2 but if the          
subterranean residue after the          
withdrawal of the heat be converted into
 crystalline or plutonic rock1 the      
entire mass may seem to have been formed
 at once1 however countless the ages    
required for its fusion and subsequent  
refrigeration4 ,as the idea that all the
 granite in the earth's crust was       
produced simultaneously1 and in a       
primitive state of the planet1 has now  
been universally abandoned2 so the      
suggestion above adverted to1 may put us
 on our guard against too readily       
adopting another opinion1 namely1 that  
each large mass of granite was generated
 in a brief period of time4  ,modern    
writers indeed1 of authority1 seem more 
and more agreed that in the case of     

granitic rocks1 the passage from a      
liquid or pasty to a solid and          
crystalline state must have been an     
extremely gradual process4  ,the        
doctrine so much insisted upon formerly1
 that crystalline rocks1 such as        
granite1 gneiss1 mica-schist1 quartzite1
 and others were produced in the        
greatest abundance in the earlier ages  
of the planet1 and that their formation 
has ceased altogether in our own times1 
will be controverted in the next        
chapter4  ,gradual development of       
subterranean movements4--,the extreme   
violence of the subterranean forces in  
remote ages has been often inferred from
 the facts that the older rocks are more
 fractured and dislocated than the      
newer4 ,but what other result could we  
have anticipated if the quantity of     
movement had been always equal in equal 
periods of time8 ,time must1 in that    
case1 multiply the derangement of strata
 in the ratio of their antiquity4       
,indeed the numerous exceptions to the  

above rule which we find in nature1     
present at first sight the only         
objection to the hypothesis of          
uniformity4 ,for the more ancient       
formations remain in many places        
horizontal1 while in others much newer  
strata are curved and vertical4 ,this   
apparent anomaly1 however1 will be seen 
in the next chapter to depend on the    
irregular manner in which the volcanic  
and subterranean agency affect different
 parts of the earth in succession1 being
 often renewed again and again in       
certain areas1 while others remain      
during the whole time at rest4  ,that   
the more impressive effects of          
subterranean power1 such as the upheaval
 of mountain-chains1 may have been due  
to multiplied convulsions of moderate   
intensity rather than to a few          
paroxysmal explosions1 will appear the  
less improbable when the gradual and    
intermittent development of volcanic    
eruptions in times past is once         
established4 ,it is now very generally  

conceded that these eruptions have their
 source in the same causes as those     
which give rise to the permanent        
elevation and sinking of land2 the      
admission1 therefore1 that one of the   
two volcanic or subterranean processes  
has gone on gradually1 draws with it the
 conclusion that the effects of the     
other have been elaborated by successive
 and gradual efforts4  ,faults4--,the   
same reasoning is applicable to great   
faults1 or those striking instances of  
the upthrow or downthrow of large masses
 of rock1 which have been thought by    
some to imply tremendous catastrophes   
wholly foreign to the ordinary course of
 nature4 ,thus we have in ,england      
faults1 in which the vertical           
displacement is between #fjj and #cjjj  
feet1 and the horizontal extent thirty  
miles or more1 the width of the fissures
 since filled up with rubbish varying   
from ten to fifty feet4 ,but when we    
inquire into the proofs of the mass     
having risen or fallen suddenly on the  

one side of these great rents1 several  
hundreds or thousands of feet above or  
below the rock with which it was once   
continuous on the other side1 we find   
the evidence defective4 ,there are      
grooves1 it is said1 and scratches on   
the rubbed and polished walls1 which    
have often one common direction1        
favoring the theory that the movement   
was accomplished by a single stroke1 and
 not by a series of interrupted         
movements4 ,but1 in fact1 the striae are
 not always parallel in such cases1 but 
often irregular1 and sometimes the      
stones and earth which are in the middle
 of the fault1 or fissure1 have been    
polished and striated by friction in    
different directions1 showing that there
 have been slidings subsequent to the   
first introduction of the fragmentary   
matter4 ,nor should we forget that the  
last movement must always tend to       
obliterate the signs of previous        
trituration1 so that neither its        
instantaneousness nor the uniformity of 

its direction can be inferred from the  
parallelism of the striae that have been
 last produced4  ,when rocks have been  
once fractured1 and freedom of motion   
communicated to detached portions of    
them1 these will naturally continue to  
yield in the same direction1 if the     
process of upheaval or of undermining be
 repeated again and again4 ,the         
incumbent mass will always give way     
along the lines of least resistance1 or 
where it was formerly rent asunder4     
,probably1 the effects of reiterated    
movement1 whether upward or downward1 in
 a fault1 may be undistinguishable from 
those of a single and instantaneous rise
 or subsidence2 and the same may be said
 of the rising or falling of continental
 masses1 such as ,sweden or ,greenland1 
which we know to take place slowly and  
insensibly4  ,doctrine of the sudden    
upheaval of parallel                    
mountain-chains4--,the doctrine of the  
suddenness of many former revolutions in
 the physical geography of the globe has

 been thought by some to derive         
additional confirmation from a theory   
respecting the origin of                
mountain-chains1 advanced in #ahcc by a 
distinguished geologist1 ,m4 ,elie de   
,beaumont4 ,in several essays on this   
subject1 the last published in #aheb1 he
 has attempted to establish two points2 
first1 that a variety of independent    
chains of mountains have been thrown up 
suddenly at particular periods2 and1    
secondly1 that the contemporaneous      
chains thus thrown up1 preserve a       
parallelism the one to the other4       
,these opinions1 and others by which    
they are accompanied1 are so adverse to 
the method of interpreting the history  
of geological changes which ,i have     
recommended in this work1 that ,i am    
desirous of explaining the grounds of my
 dissent1 a course which ,i feel myself 
the more called upon to adopt1 as the   
generalizations alluded to are those of 
a skilful writer1 and an original       
observer of great talent and experience4

 ,i shall begin1 therefore1 by giving a 
brief summary of the principal          
propositions laid down in the works     
above referred to4#bdb  #ast4 ,m4 de    
,beaumont supposes that in the history  
of the earth there have been long       
periods of comparative repose1 during   
which the deposition of sedimentary     
matter has gone on in regular           
continuity2 and there have also been    
short periods of paroxysmal violence1   
during which that continuity was broken4
  #b;dly4 ,at each of these periods of  
violence or 'revolution1' in the state  
of the earth's surface1 a great number  
of mountain-chains have been formed     
suddenly4  #c;dly4 ,the chains thrown up
 by a particular revolution have one    
uniform direction1 being parallel to    
each other within a few degrees of the  
compass1 even when situated in remote   
regions2 whilst the chains thrown up at 
different periods have1 for the most    
part1 different directions4  #dthly4    
,each 'revolution1' or 'great           

convulsion1' has fallen in with the date
 of another geological phenomenon2      
namely1 'the passage from one           
independent sedimentary formation to    
another1' characterized by a            
considerable difference in 'organic     
types4'  #ethly4 ,there has been a      
recurrence of these paroxysmal movements
 from the remotest geological periods2  
and they may still be reproduced1 and   
the repose in which we live may         
hereafter be broken by the sudden       
upthrow of another system of parallel   
chains of mountains4  #fthly4 ,the      
origin of these chains depends not on   
partial volcanic action1 or a           
reiteration of ordinary earthquakes1 but
 on the secular refrigeration of the    
entire planet4 ,for the whole globe1    
with the exception of a thin envelope1  
much thinner in proportion than the     
shell to an egg1 is a fused mass1 kept  
fluid by heat1 but constantly cooling   
and contracting its dimensions4 ,the    
external crust does not gradually       

collapse and accommodate itself century 
after century to the shrunken nucleus1  
subsiding as often as there is a slight 
failure of support1 but it is sustained 
throughout whole geological periods1 so 
as to become partially separated from   
the nucleus1 until at last it gives way 
suddenly1 cracking and falling in along 
determinate lines of fracture4 ,during  
such a crisis the rocks are subjected to
 great lateral pressure1 the unyielding 
ones are crushed1 and the pliant strata 
bent1 and are forced to pack themselves 
more closely into a smaller space1      
having no longer the same room to spread
 themselves out horizontally4 ,at the   
same time1 a large portion of the mass  
is squeezed upwards1 because it is in   
the upward direction only that the      
excess in size of the envelope1 as      
compared to the contracted nucleus1 can 
find relief4 ,this excess produces one  
or more of those folds or wrinkles in   
the earth's crust which we call         
mountain-chains4  ,lastly1 some chains  

are comparatively modern2 such as the   
,alps1 which were partly upheaved after 
the middle tertiary period4 ,the        
elevation of the ,andes was much more   
recent1 and was accompanied by the      
simultaneous outburst for the first time
 of #bgj of the principal volcanoes now 
active4#bdc  ,the agitation of the      
waters of the ocean caused by this      
convulsion probably occasioned that     
transient and general deluge which is   
noticed in the traditions of so many    
nations4#bdd  ,several of the topics    
enumerated in the above summary1 such as
 the cause of interruptions in the      
sedimentary series1 will be discussed in
 the thirteenth chapter1 and ,i shall   
now confine myself to what ,i conceive  
to be the insufficiency of the proofs   
adduced in favor of the suddenness of   
the upthrow1 and the contemporaneousness
 of the origin of the parallel chains   
referred to4 ,at the same time ,i may   
remark1 that the great body of facts    
collected together by ,m4 de ,beaumont  

will always form a most valuable        
addition to our knowledge1 tending as   
they do to confirm the doctrine that    
different mountain-chains have been     
formed in succession1 and1 as ,werner   
first pointed out1 that there are       
certain determinate lines of direction  
or strike in the strata of various      
countries4  ,the following may serve as 
an analysis of the evidence on which the
 theory above stated depends4 ,we       
observe1 says ,m4 de ,beaumont1 when we 
attentively examine nearly all          
mountain-chains1 that the most recent   
rocks extend horizontally up to the foot
 of such chains1 as we should expect    
would be the case if they were deposited
 in seas or lakes1 of which these       
mountains have partly formed the shores2
 whilst the other sedimentary beds1     
tilted up1 and more or less contorted1  
on the flanks of the mountains1 rise in 
certain points even to their highest    
crests4#bde ,there are1 therefore1 in   
and adjacent to each chain1 two classes 

of sedimentary rocks1 the ancient and   
inclined beds1 and the newer or         
horizontal4 ,it is evident that the     
first appearance of the chain itself was
 an event intermediate between the      
period when the beds now upraised were  
deposited1 and the period when the      
strata were produced horizontally at its
 feet4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4  ,thus
 the chain ,a assumed its present       
position after the deposition of the    
strata b1 which have undergone great    
movements1 and before the deposition of 
the group c1 in which the strata have   
not suffered derangement4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4  ,if we then  
discover another chain ,b1 in which we  
find not only the formation b1 but the  
group c also1 disturbed and thrown on   
its edges1 we may infer that the latter 
chain is of subsequent date to ,a2 for  
,b must have been elevated after the    
deposition of c1 and before that of the 
group d2 whereas ,a had originated      
before the strata c were formed4  ,it is

 then argued1 that in order to ascertain
 whether other mountain ranges are of   
contemporaneous date with ,a and ,b1 or 
are referable to distinct periods1 we   
have only to inquire whether the        
inclined and undisturbed sets of strata 
in each range correspond with or differ 
from those in the typical chain ,a and  
,b4  ,now all this reasoning is         
perfectly correct1 so long as the period
 of time required for the deposition of 
the strata b and c is not made identical
 in duration with the period of time    
during which the animals and plants     
found fossil in b and c may have        
flourished2 for the latter1 that is to  
say1 the duration of certain groups of  
species1 may have greatly exceeded1 and 
probably did greatly exceed1 the former1
 or the time required for the           
accumulation of certain local deposits1 
such as b and c 7figs4 #aa and #ab74 ,in
 order1 moreover1 to render the         
reasoning correct1 due latitude must be 
given to the term contemporaneous2 for  

this term must be understood to allude1 
not to a moment of time1 but to the     
interval1 whether brief or protracted1  
which elapsed between two events1       
namely1 between the accumulation of the 
inclined and that of the horizontal     
strata4  ,but1 unfortunately1 no attempt
 has been made in the treatises under   
review to avoid this manifest source of 
confusion1 and hence the very terms of  
each proposition are equivocal2 and the 
possible length of some of the intervals
 is so vast1 that to affirm that all the
 chains raised in such intervals were   
contemporaneous is an abuse of language4
  ,in order to illustrate this argument1
 ,i shall select the ,pyrenees as an    
example4 ,originally ,m4 ,e4 de         
,beaumont spoke of this range of        
mountains as having been uplifted       
suddenly 7a un seul jet71 but he has    
since conceded that in this chain1 in   
spite of the general unity and          
simplicity of its structure1 six1 if not
 seven1 systems of dislocation of       

different dates can be recognized4#bdf  
,in reference1 however1 to the latest1  
and by far the most important of these  
convulsions1 the chain is said to have  
attained its present elevation at a     
certain epoch in the earth's history1   
namely1 between the deposition of the   
chalk1 or rocks of about that age1 and  
that of certain tertiary formations as  
old as the plastic clay2 for the chalk  
is seen in vertical1 curved1 and        
distorted beds on the flanks of the     
chain1 as the beds b1 fig4 #aa1 while   
the tertiary formations rest upon them  
in horizontal strata at its base1 as c1 
ibid4  ,the proof1 then1 of the extreme 
suddenness of the convulsion is supposed
 to be the shortness of the time which  
intervened between the formation of the 
chalk and the origin of certain tertiary
 strata4#bdg ,even if the interval were 
deducible within these limits1 it might 
comprise an indefinite lapse of time4   
,in strictness of reasoning1 however1   
the author cannot exclude the           

,cretaceous or ,tertiary periods from   
the possible duration of the interval   
during which the elevation may have     
taken place4 ,for1 in the first place1  
it cannot be assumed that the movement  
of upheaval took place after the close  
of the ,cretaceous period2 we can merely
 say1 that it occurred after the        
deposition of certain strata of that    
period2 secondly1 although it were true 
that the event happened before the      
formation of all the tertiary strata now
 at the base of the ,pyrenees1 it would 
by no means follow that it preceded the 
whole ,tertiary epoch4  ,the age of the 
strata1 both of the inclined and        
horizontal series1 may have been        
accurately determined by ,m4 ,de        
,beaumont1 and still the upheaving of   
the ,pyrenees may have been going on    
before the animals of the ,chalk period1
 such as are found fossil in ,england1  
had ceased to exist1 or when the        
,maestricht beds were in progress1 or   
during the indefinite ages which may    

have elapsed between the extinction of  
the ,maestricht animals and the         
introduction of the ,eocene tribes1 or  
during the ,eocene epoch1 or the rise   
may have been going on throughout one1  
or several1 or all of these periods4    
,it would be a purely gratuitous        
assumption to say that the inclined     
cretaceous strata 7b1 fig4 #aa7 on the  
flanks of the ,pyrenees1 were the very  
last which were deposited during the    
,cretaceous period1 or that1 as soon as 
they were upheaved1 all or nearly all   
the species of animals and plants now   
found fossil in them were suddenly      
exterminated2 yet1 unless this can be   
affirmed1 we cannot say that the        
,pyrenees were not upheaved during the  
,cretaceous period4 ,consequently1      
another range of mountains1 at the base 
of which cretaceous rocks may lie in    
horizontal stratification1 may have been
 elevated1 like the chain ,a1 fig4 #ab1 
during some part of the same great      
period4  ,there are mountains in ,sicily

 two or three thousand feet high1 the   
tops of which are composed of limestone1
 in which a large proportion of the     
fossil shells agree specifically with   
those now inhabiting the ,mediterranean4
 ,here1 as in many other countries1 the 
deposits now in progress in the sea must
 inclose shells and other fossils       
specifically identical with those of the
 rocks constituting the contiguous land4
 ,so there are islands in the ,pacific  
where a mass of dead coral has emerged  
to a considerable altitude1 while other 
portions of the mass remain beneath the 
sea1 still increasing by the growth of  
living zoophytes and shells4 ,the chalk 
of the ,pyrenees1 therefore1 may at a   
remote period have been raised to an    
elevation of several thousand feet1     
while the species found fossil in the   
same chalk still continued to be        
represented in the fauna of the         
neighboring ocean4 ,in a word1 we cannot
 assume that the origin of a new range  
of mountains caused the ,cretaceous     

period to cease1 and served as the      
prelude to a new order of things in the 
animate creation4  ,to illustrate the   
grave objections above advanced1 against
 the theory considered in the present   
chapter1 let us suppose1 that in some   
country three styles of architecture had
 prevailed in succession1 each for a    
period of one thousand years2 first the 
,greek1 then the ,roman1 and then the   
,gothic2 and that a tremendous          
earthquake was known to have occurred in
 the same district during one of the    
three periods--a convulsion of such     
violence as to have levelled to the     
ground all the buildings then standing4 
,if an antiquary1 desirous of           
discovering the date of the catastrophe1
 should first arrive at a city where    
several ,greek temples were lying in    
ruins and half engulphed in the earth1  
while many ,gothic edifices were        
standing uninjured1 could he determine  
on these data the era of the shock8     
,could he even exclude any one of the   

three periods1 and decide that it must  
have happened during one of the other   
two8 ,certainly not4 ,he could merely   
affirm that it happened at some period  
after the introduction of the ,greek    
style1 and before the ,gothic had fallen
 into disuse4 ,should he pretend to     
define the date of the convulsion with  
greater precision1 and decide that the  
earthquake must have occurred after the 
,greek and before the ,gothic period1   
that is to say1 when the ,roman style   
was in use1 the fallacy in his reasoning
 would be too palpable to escape        
detection for a moment4  ,yet such is   
the nature of the erroneous induction   
which ,i am now exposing4 ,for as1 in   
the example above proposed1 the erection
 of a particular edifice is perfectly   
distinct from the period of architecture
 in which it may have been raised1 so is
 the deposition of chalk1 or any other  
set of strata1 from the geological      
epochs characterized by certain fossils 
to which they may belong4  ,it is almost

 superfluous to enter into any farther  
analysis of the theory of parallelism1  
because the whole force of the argument 
depends on the accuracy of the data by  
which the contemporaneous or            
non-contemporaneous date of the         
elevation of two independent chains can 
be demonstrated4 ,in every case1 this   
evidence1 as stated by ,m4 de ,beaumont1
 is equivocal1 because he has not       
included in the possible interval of    
time between the depositions of the     
deranged and the horizontal formations1 
part of the periods to which each of    
those classes of formations are         
referable4 ,even if all the geological  
facts1 therefore1 adduced by the author 
were true and unquestionable1 yet the   
conclusion that certain chains were or  
were not simultaneously upraised is by  
no means a legitimate consequence4  ,in 
the third volume of my first edition of 
the ,principles1 which appeared in      
,april1 #ahcc1 ,i controverted the views
 of ,m4 de ,beaumont1 then just         

published1 in the same terms as ,i have 
now restated them4 ,at that time ,i took
 for granted that the chronological date
 of the newest rocks entering into the  
disturbed series of the ,pyrenees had   
been correctly ascertained4 ,it now     
appears1 however1 that some of the most 
modern of those disturbed strata belong 
to the nummulitic formation1 which are  
regarded by the majority of geologists  
as ,eocene or older tertiary1 an opinion
 not assented to by ,m4 ,e4 de          
,beaumont1 and which ,i cannot discuss  
here without being led into too long a  
digression4#bdh  ,perhaps a more        
striking illustration of the            
difficulties we encounter1 when we      
attempt to apply the theory under       
consideration even to the best known    
,european countries1 is afforded by what
 is called ,the ,system of the          
,longmynds4 ,this small chain1 situated 
in ,shropshire1 is the third of the     
typical systems to which ,m4 ,e4 de     
,beaumont compares other mountain ranges

 corresponding in strike and structure4 
,the date assigned to its upheaval is   
after the unfossiliferous greywacke1 or 
,cambrian strata1 and before the        
,silurian4 ,but ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison 
had shown in #ahch1 in his ,silurian    
,system1 and the ,british government    
surveyors1 since that time1 in their    
sections 7about #ahde71 that the        
,longmynds and other chains of similar  
composition in ,north ,wales are        
post-,silurian4 ,in all of them         
fossiliferous beds of the lower         
,silurian formation1 or ,llandeilo flags
 are highly inclined1 and often         
vertical4 ,in one limited region the    
,caradoc sandstone1 a member of the     
lower ,silurian1 rests unconformably on 
the denuded edges of the inferior 7or   
,llandeilo7 member of the same group2   
whilst in some cases both of these sets 
of strata are upturned4 ,when1          
therefore1 so grave an error is detected
 in regard to the age of a typical      
chain1 we are entitled to inquire with  

surprise1 by what means nine other      
parallel chains in ,france1 ,germany1   
and ,sweden1 assumed to be              
ante-,silurian1 have been made to agree 
precisely in date with the ,longmynds8  
,if they are correctly represented as   
having been all deposited before the    
deposition of the ,silurian strata1 they
 cannot be contemporaneous with the     
,longmynds1 and they only prove how     
little reliance can be placed on        
parallelism as a test of                
simultaneousness of upheaval4 ,but in   
truth it is impossible1 for reasons     
already given1 to demonstrate that each 
of those nine chains coincide in date   
with one another1 any more than with the
 ,longmynds4  ,the reader will see in   
the sequel 7chap4 #cabdi7 that ,mr4     
,hopkins has inferred from astronomical 
calculations1 that the solid crust of   
the earth cannot be less than #hjj or   
#ajjj miles thick1 and may be more4     
,even if it be solid to the depth of    
#ajj miles1 such a thickness would be   

inconsistent with ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont's
 hypothesis1 which requires a shell not 
more than thirty miles thick1 or even   
less4 ,mr4 ,hopkins admits that the     
exterior of the planet1 though solid as 
a whole1 may contain within it vast     
lakes or seas of lava4 ,if so1 the      
gradual fusion of rocks1 and the        
expansive power of heat exerted for     
ages1 as well as the subsequent         
contraction of the same during slow     
refrigeration1 may perhaps account for  
the origin of mountain-chains1 for      
these1 as ,dolomieu has remarked1 are   
far less important1 proportionally      
speaking1 than the inequalities on the  
surface of an egg-shell1 which to the   
eye appears smooth4 ,a centripetal force
 affecting the whole planet as it cools1
 seems a mightier cause than is required
 to produce wrinkles of such            
insignificant size4  ,in pursuing his   
investigations1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has
 of late greatly multiplied the number  
of successive periods of instantaneous  

upheaval1 admitting at the same time    
that occasionally new lines of upthrow  
have taken the direction of older       
ones4#bej ,these admissions render his  
views much more in harmony with the     
principles advocated in this work1 but  
they impair the practical utility of    
parallelism considered as a             
chronological test2 for no rule is laid 
down for limiting the interval1 whether 
in time or space1 which may separate two
 parallel lines of upheaval of different
 dates4#bea  ,among the various         
propositions above laid down 7p4 #afd71 
it will be seen that the sudden rise of 
the ,andes is spoken of as a modern     
event1 but ,mr4 ,darwin has brought     
together ample data in proof of the     
local persistency of volcanic action    
throughout a long succession of         
geological periods1 beginning with times
 antecedent to the deposition of the    
oolitic and cretaceous formations of    
,chili1 and continuing to the historical
 epoch4 ,it appears that some of the    

parallel ridges which compose the       
,cordilleras1 instead of being          
contemporaneous1 were successively and  
slowly upheaved at widely different     
epochs4 ,the whole range1 after twice   
subsiding some thousands of feet1 was   
brought up again by a slow movement in  
mass1 during the era of the ,eocene     
tertiary formations1 after which the    
whole sank down once more several       
hundred feet1 to be again uplifted to   
its present level by a slow and often   
interrupted movement4#beb ,in a portion 
of this latter period the ,pampean mud  
was formed1 in which the ,megatherium   
mylodon and other extinct quadrupeds are
 buried4 ,this mud contains in it recent
 species of shells1 some of them proper 
to brackish water1 and is believed by   
,mr4 ,darwin to be an estuary or delta  
deposit4 ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny1 however1   
has advanced an hypothesis referred to  
by ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont1 that the       
agitation and displacement of the waters
 of the ocean1 caused by the elevation  

of the ,andes1 gave rise to a deluge1 of
 which this ,pampean mud1 which rises   
sometimes to the height of #ab1jjj feet1
 is the result and monument4#bec  ,in   
studying many chains of mountains1 we   
find that the strike or line of outcrop 
of continuous sets of strata1 and the   
general direction of the chain1 may be  
far from rectilinear4 ,curves forming   
angles of #bj degrees or #cj degrees may
 be found in the same range as in the   
,alleghanies2 just as trains of active  
volcanoes and the zones throughout which
 modern earthquakes occur are often     
linear1 without running in straight     
lines4 ,nor are all of these1 though    
contemporaneous or belonging to our own 
epoch1 by any means parallel1 but some  
at right angles1 the one to the other4  
,slow upheaval and subsidence4--,recent 
observations have disclosed to us the   
wonderful fact1 that not only the west  
coast of ,south ,america1 but also other
 large areas1 some of them several      
thousand miles in circumference1 such as

 ,scandinavia1 and certain archipelagoes
 in the ,pacific1 are slowly and        
insensibly rising2 while other regions1 
such as ,greenland1 and parts of the    
,pacific and ,indian ,oceans1 in which  
atolls or circular coral islands abound1
 are as gradually sinking4 ,that all the
 existing continents and submarine      
abysses may have originated in movements
 of this kind1 continued throughout     
incalculable periods of time1 is        
undeniable1 and the denudation which the
 dry land appears everywhere to have    
suffered1 favors the idea that it was   
raised from the deep by a succession of 
upward movements1 prolonged throughout  
indefinite periods4 ,for the action of  
waves and currents on land slowly       
emerging from the deep1 affords the only
 power by which we can conceive so many 
deep valleys and wide spaces to have    
been denuded as those which are         
unquestionably the effects of running   
water4  ,but perhaps it may be said that
 there is no analogy between the slow   

upheaval of broad plains or table-lands1
 and the manner in which we must presume
 all mountain-chains1 with their        
inclined strata1 to have originated4 ,it
 seems1 however1 that the ,andes have   
been rising century after century1 at   
the rate of several feet1 while the     
,pampas on the east have been raised    
only a few inches in the same time4     
,crossing from the ,atlantic to the     
,pacific1 in a line passing through     
,mendoza1 ,mr4 ,darwin traversed a plain
 #hjj miles broad1 the eastern part of  
which has emerged from beneath the sea  
at a very modern period4 ,the slope from
 the ,atlantic is at first very gentle1 
then greater1 until the traveller finds1
 on reaching ,mendoza1 that he has      
gained1 almost insensibly1 a height of  
#djjj feet4 ,the mountainous district   
then begins suddenly1 and its breadth   
from ,mendoza to the shores of the      
,pacific is #abj miles1 the average     
height of the principal chain being from
 #ae1jjj to #af1jjj feet1 without       

including some prominent peaks1 which   
ascend much higher4 ,now all we require1
 to explain the origin of the principal 
inequalities of level here described1 is
 to imagine1 first1 a zone of more      
violent movement to the west of         
,mendoza1 and1 secondly1 to the east of 
that place1 an upheaving force1 which   
died away gradually as it approached the
 ,atlantic4 ,in short1 we are only      
called upon to conceive1 that the region
 of the ,andes was pushed up four feet  
in the same period in which the ,pampas 
near ,mendoza rose one foot1 and the    
plains near the shores of the ,atlantic 
one inch4 ,in ,europe we have learnt    
that the land at the ,north ,cape       
ascends about five feet in a century1   
while farther to the south the movements
 diminish in quantity first to a foot1  
and then1 at ,stockholm1 to three inches
 in a century1 while at certain points  
still farther south there is no         
movement4  ,but in what manner1 it is   
asked1 can we account for the great     

lateral pressure which has been exerted 
not only in the ,andes1 ,alps1 and other
 chains1 but also on the strata of many 
low and nearly level countries8 ,do not 
the folding and fracture of the beds1   
the anticlinal and synclinal ridges and 
troughs1 as they are called1 and the    
vertical1 and even sometimes the        
inverted position of the beds1 imply an 
abruptness and intensity in the         
disturbing force wholly different in    
kind and energy to that which now rends 
the rocks during ordinary earthquakes8  
,i shall treat more fully in the sequel 
7end of chap4 #cb7 of the probable      
subterranean sources1 whether of upward 
or downward movement1 and of great      
lateral pressure2 but it may be well    
briefly to state in this place that in  
our own times1 as1 for example1 in      
,chili1 in #ahbb1 the volcanic force has
 overcome the resistance1 and           
permanently uplifted a country of such  
vast extent that the weight and volume  
of the ,andes must be insignificant in  

comparison1 even if we indulge the most 
moderate conjectures as to the thickness
 of the earth's crust above the volcanic
 foci4  ,to assume that any set of      
strata with which we are acquainted are 
made up of such cohesive and unyielding 
materials1 as to be able to resist a    
power of such stupendous energy1 if its 
direction1 instead of being vertical1   
happened to be oblique or horizontal1   
would be extremely rash4 ,but if they   
could yield to a sideway thrust1 even in
 a slight degree1 they would become     
squeezed and folded to any amount if    
subjected for a sufficient number of    
times to the repeated action of the same
 force4 ,we can scarcely doubt that a   
mass of rock several miles thick was    
uplifted in ,chili in #ahbb and #ahce1  
and that a much greater volume of solid 
matter is upheaved wherever the rise of 
the land is very gradual1 as in         
,scandinavia1 the development of heat   
being probably1 in that region1 at a    
greater distance from the surface4 ,if  

continents1 rocked1 shaken1 and         
fissured1 like the western region of    
,south ,america1 or very gently         
elevated1 like ,norway and ,sweden1 do  
not acquire in a few days or hours an   
additional height of several thousand   
feet1 this can arise from no lack of    
mechanical force in the subterranean    
moving cause1 but simply because the    
antagonist power1 or the strength1      
toughness1 and density of the earth's   
crust is insufficient to resist1 so     
long1 as to allow the volcanic energy an
 indefinite time to accumulate4 ,instead
 of the explosive charge augmenting in  
quantity for countless ages1 it finds   
relief continuously1 or by a succession 
of shocks of moderate violence1 so as   
never to burst or blow up the covering  
of incumbent rock in one grand          
paroxysmal convulsion4 ,even in its most
 energetic efforts it displays an       
intermittent and mitigated intensity1   
being never permitted to lay a whole    
continent in ruins4 ,hence the numerous 

eruptions of lava from the same vent1 or
 chain of vents1 and the recurrence of  
similar earthquakes for thousands of    
years along certain areas or zones of   
country4 ,hence the numerous monuments  
of the successive ejection and injection
 of melted matter in ancient geological 
epochs1 and the fissures formed in      
distinct ages1 and often widened and    
filled at different eras4  ,among the   
causes of lateral pressure1 the         
expansion by heat of large masses of    
solid stone intervening between others  
which have a different degree of        
expansibility1 or which happen not to   
have their temperature raised at the    
same time1 may play an important part4  
,but as we know that rocks have so often
 sunk down thousands of feet below their
 original level1 we can hardly doubt    
that much of the bending of pliant      
strata1 and the packing of the same into
 smaller spaces1 has frequently been    
occasioned by subsidence4 ,whether the  
failure of support be produced by the   

melting of porous rocks1 which1 when    
fluid1 and subjected to great pressure1 
may occupy less room than before1 or    
which1 by passing from a pasty to a     
crystalline condition1 may1 as in the   
case of granite1 according to the       
experiments of ,deville1 suffer a       
contraction of #aj per cent41 or whether
 the sinking be due to the subtraction  
of lava driven elsewhere to some        
volcanic orifice1 and there forced      
outwards1 or whether it be brought on by
 the shrinking of solid and stony masses
 during refrigeration1 or by the        
condensation of gases1 or any other     
imaginable cause1 we have no reason to  
incline to the idea that the consequent 
geological changes are brought about so 
suddenly1 as that large parts of        
continents are swallowed up at once in  
unfathomable subterranean abysses4 ,if  
cavities be formed1 they will be        
enlarged gradually1 and as gradually    
filled4 ,we read1 indeed1 accounts of   
engulphed cities and areas of limited   

extent which have sunk down many yards  
at once2 but we have as yet no authentic
 records of the sudden disappearance of 
mountains1 or the submergence or        
emergence of great islands4 ,on the     
other hand1 the creeps in coal mines#bed
 demonstrate that gravitation begins to 
act as soon as a moderate quantity of   
matter is removed even at a great depth4
 ,the roof sinks in1 or the floor of the
 mine rises1 and the bent strata often  
assume as regularly a curved and        
crumpled arrangement as that observed on
 a grander scale in mountain-chains4    
,the absence1 indeed1 of chaotic        
disorder1 and the regularity of the     
plications in geological formations of  
high antiquity1 although not            
unfrequently adduced to prove the unity 
and instantaneousness of the disturbing 
force1 might with far greater propriety 
be brought forward as an argument in    
favor of the successive application of  
some irresistible but moderated force1  
such as that which can elevate or       

depress a continent4  ,in conclusion1 ,i
 may observe that one of the soundest   
objections to the theory of the sudden  
upthrow or downthrow of mountain-chains 
is this1 that it provides us with too   
much force of one kind1 namely1 that of 
subterranean movement1 while it deprives
 us of another kind of mechanical force1
 namely1 that exerted by the waves and  
currents of the ocean1 which the        
geologist requires for the denudation of
 land during its slow upheaval or       
depression4 ,it may be safely affirmed  
that the quantity of igneous and aqueous
 action1--of volcanic eruption and      
denudation1--of subterranean movement   
and sedimentary deposition1--not only of
 past ages1 but of one geological epoch1
 or even the fraction of an epoch1 has  
exceeded immeasurably all the           
fluctuations of the inorganic world     
which have been witnessed by man4 ,but  
we have still to inquire whether the    
time to which each chapter or page or   
paragraph of the earth's autobiography  

relates1 was not equally immense when   
contrasted with a brief era of #cjjj or 
#ejjj years4 ,the real point on which   
the whole controversy turns1 is the     
relative amount of work done by         
mechanical force in given quantities of 
time1 past and present4 ,before we can  
determine the relative intensity of the 
force employed1 we must have some fixed 
standard by which to measure the time   
expended in its development at two      
distinct periods4 ,it is not the        
magnitude of the effects1 however       
gigantic their proportions1 which can   
inform us in the slightest degree       
whether the operation was sudden or     
gradual1 insensible or paroxysmal4 ,it  
must be shown that a slow process could 
never in any series of ages give rise to
 the same results4  ,the advocate of    
paroxysmal energy might assume a uniform
 and fixed rate of variation in times   
past and present for the animate world1 
that is to say1 for the dying-out and   
coming-in of species1 and then endeavor 

to prove that the changes of the        
inanimate world have not gone on in a   
corresponding ratio4 ,but the adoption  
of such a standard of comparison would  
lead1 ,i suspect1 to a theory by no     
means favorable to the pristine         
intensity of natural causes4 ,that the  
present state of the organic world is   
not stationary1 can be fairly inferred  
from the fact1 that some species are    
known to have become extinct in the     
course even of the last three centuries1
 and that the exterminating causes      
always in activity1 both on the land and
 in the waters1 are very numerous2 also1
 because man himself is an extremely    
modern creation2 and we may therefore   
reasonably suppose that some of the     
mammalia now contemporary with man1 as  
well as a variety of species of inferior
 classes1 may have been recently        
introduced into the earth1 to supply the
 places of plants and animals which have
 from time to time disappeared4 ,but    
granting that some such secular         

variation in the zoological and         
botanical worlds is going on1 and is by 
no means wholly inappreciable to the    
naturalist1 still it is certainly far   
less manifest than the revolution always
 in progress in the inorganic world4    
,every year some volcanic eruptions take
 place1 and a rude estimate might be    
made of the number of cubic feet of lava
 and scoriae poured or cast out of      
various craters4 ,the amount of mud and 
sand deposited in deltas1 and the       
advance of new land upon the sea1 or the
 annual retreat of wasting sea-cliffs1  
are changes the minimum amount of which 
might be roughly estimated4 ,the        
quantity of land raised above or        
depressed below the level of the sea    
might also be computed1 and the change  
arising from such movements in a century
 might be conjectured4 ,suppose the     
average rise of the land in some parts  
of ,scandinavia to be as much as five   
feet in a hundred years1 the present    
sea-coast might be uplifted #gjj feet in

 fourteen thousand years2 but we should 
have no reason to anticipate1 from any  
zoological data hitherto acquired1 that 
the molluscous fauna of the northern    
seas would in that lapse of years       
undergo any sensible amount of          
variation4 ,we discover sea-beaches in  
,norway #gjj feet high1 in which the    
shells are identical with those now     
inhabiting the ,german ,ocean2 for the  
rise of land in ,scandinavia1 however   
insensible to the inhabitants1 has      
evidently been rapid when compared to   
the rate of contemporaneous change in   
the testaceous fauna of the ,german     
,ocean4 ,were we to wait therefore until
 the mollusca shall have undergone as   
much fluctuation as they underwent      
between the period of the ,lias and the 
,upper ,oolite formations2 or between   
the ,oolite and ,chalk1 nay1 even       
between any two of eight subdivisions of
 the ,eocene series1 what stupendous    
revolutions in physical geography ought 
we not to expect1 and how many          

mountain-chains might not be produced by
 the repetition of shocks of moderate   
violence1 or by movements not even      
perceptible by man6  ,or1 if we turn    
from the mollusca to the vegetable      
kingdom1 and ask the botanist how many  
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions might
 be expected1 and how much the relative 
level of land and sea might be altered1 
or how far the principal deltas will    
encroach upon the ocean1 or the         
sea-cliffs recede from the present      
shores1 before the species of ,european 
forest-trees will die out1 he would     
reply that such alterations in the      
inanimate world might be multiplied     
indefinitely before he should have      
reason to anticipate1 by reference to   
any known data1 that the existing       
species of trees in our forests would   
disappear and give place to others4 ,in 
a word1 the movement of the inorganic   
world is obvious and palpable1 and might
 be likened to the minute-hand of a     
clock1 the progress of which can be seen

 and heard1 whereas the fluctuations of 
the living creation are nearly          
invisible1 and resemble the motion of   
the hour-hand of a timepiece4 ,it is    
only by watching it attentively for some
 time1 and comparing its relative       
position after an interval1 that we can 
prove the reality of its motion4#bee    
,,chapter ,,xii4  ,,difference ,,in     
,,texture ,,of ,,the ,,older ,,and      
,,newer ,,rocks4     ,consolidation of  
fossiliferous strata--,some deposits    
originally     solid--,transition and   
slaty texture--,crystalline character of
     ,plutonic and ,metamorphic         
rocks--,theory of their                 
origin--,essentially                    
subterranean--,no proofs that they were 
produced more abundantly at     remote  
periods4   ,another argument in favor of
 the dissimilarity of the causes        
operating at remote and recent eras has 
been derived by many geologists from the
 more compact1 stony1 and crystalline   
texture of the older as compared with   

the newer rocks4  ,consolidation of     
strata4--,this subject may be           
considered1 first in reference to the   
fossiliferous strata2 and1 secondly1 in 
reference to those crystalline and      
stratified rocks which contain no       
organic remains1 such as gneiss and     
mica-schist4 ,there can be no doubt that
 the former of these classes1 or the    
fossiliferous1 are generally more       
compact and stony in proportion as they 
are more ancient4 ,it is also certain   
that a great part of them were          
originally in a soft and incoherent     
state1 and that they have been since    
consolidated4 ,thus we find occasionally
 that shingle and sand have been        
agglutinated firmly together by a       
ferruginous or siliceous cement1 or that
 lime in solution has been introduced1  
so as to bind together materials        
previously incoherent4 ,organic remains 
have sometimes suffered a singular      
transformation1 as for example1 where   
shells1 corals1 and wood are silicified1

 their calcareous or ligneous matter    
having been replaced by nearly pure     
silica4 ,the constituents of some beds  
have probably set and become hard for   
the first time when they emerged from   
beneath the water4  ,but1 on the other  
hand1 we observe in certain formations  
now in progress1 particularly in coral  
reefs1 and in deposits from the waters  
of mineral springs1 both calcareous and 
siliceous1 that the texture of rocks may
 sometimes be stony from the first4     
,this circumstance may account for      
exceptions to the general rule1 not     
unfrequently met with1 where solid      
strata are superimposed on others of a  
plastic and incoherent nature1 as in the
 neighborhood of ,paris1 where the      
tertiary formations1 consisting often of
 compact limestone and siliceous grit1  
are more stony than the subjacent chalk4
  ,it will readily be understood1 that  
the various solidifying causes1         
including those above enumerated1       
together with the pressure of incumbent 

rocks and the influence of subterranean 
heat1 must all of them require time in  
order to exert their full power4 ,if in 
the course of ages they modify the      
aspect and internal structure of        
stratified deposits1 they will give rise
 to a general distinctness of character 
in the older as contrasted with the     
newer formations4 ,but this distinctness
 will not be the consequence of any     
original diversity2 they will be unlike1
 just as the wood in the older trees of 
a forest usually differs in texture and 
hardness from that of younger           
individuals of the same species4        
,transition texture4--,in the original  
classification1 of ,werner1 the highly  
crystalline rocks1 such as granite and  
gneiss1 which contain no organic        
remains1 were called primary1 and the   
fossiliferous strata secondary1 while to
 another class of an age intermediate   
between the primary and secondary he    
gave the name of transition4 ,they were 
termed transition because they partook  

in some degree in their mineral         
composition of the nature of the most   
crystalline rocks1 such as gneiss and   
mica-schist1 while they resembled the   
fossiliferous series in containing      
occasionally organic remains1 and       
exhibiting evident signs of a mechanical
 origin4 ,it was at first imagined1 that
 the rocks having this intermediate     
texture had been all deposited          
subsequently to the series called       
primary1 and before all the more earthy 
and fossiliferous formations4 ,but when 
the relative position and organic       
remains of these transition rocks were  
better understood1 it was perceived that
 they did not all belong to one period4 
,on the contrary1 the same mineral      
characters were found in strata of very 
different ages1 and some formations     
occurring in the ,alps1 which several of
 the ablest scholars of ,werner had     
determined to be transition1 were       
ultimately ascertained1 by means of     
their fossil contents and position1 to  

be members of the ,cretaceous1 and even 
of the nummulitic or ,eocene period4    
,these strata had1 in fact1 acquired the
 transition texture from the influence  
of causes which1 since their deposition 
had modified their internal arrangement4
  ,texture and origin of ,plutonic and  
metamorphic rocks4--,among the most     
singular of the changes superinduced on 
rocks1 we have occasionally to include  
the slaty texture1 the divisional planes
 of which sometimes intersect the true  
planes of stratification1 and even pass 
directly through imbedded fossils4 ,if1 
then1 the crystalline1 the slaty1 and   
other modes of arrangement1 once deemed 
characteristic of certain periods in the
 history of the earth1 have in reality  
been assumed by fossiliferous rocks of  
different ages and at different times1  
we are prepared to inquire whether the  
same may not be true of the most highly 
crystalline state1 such as that of      
gneiss1 mica-schist1 and statuary       
marble4 ,that the peculiar              

characteristics of such rocks are really
 due to a variety of modifying causes   
has long been suspected by many         
geologists1 and the doctrine has gained 
ground of late1 although a considerable 
difference of opinion still prevails4   
,according to the original ,neptunian   
theory1 all the crystalline formations  
were precipitated from a universal      
menstruum or chaotic fluid antecedently 
to the creation of animals and plants1  
the unstratified granite having been    
first thrown down so as to serve as a   
floor or foundation on which gneiss and 
other stratified rocks might repose4    
,afterwards1 when the igneous origin of 
granite was no longer disputed1 many    
conceived that a thermal ocean enveloped
 the globe1 at a time when the          
first-formed crust of granite was       
cooling1 but when it still retained much
 of its heat4 ,the hot waters of this   
ocean held in solution the ingredients  
of gneiss1 mica-schist1                 
hornblende-schist1 clay-slate1 and      

marble1 rocks which were precipitated1  
one after the other1 in a crystalline   
form4 ,no fossils could be inclosed in  
them1 the high temperature of the fluid 
and the quantity of mineral matter which
 it held in solution1 rendering it unfit
 for the support of organic beings4  ,it
 would be inconsistent with the plan of 
this work to enter here into a detailed 
account of what ,i have elsewhere termed
 the metamorphic theory2#bef but ,i may 
state that it is now demonstrable in    
some countries that fossiliferous       
formations1 some of them of the age of  
the ,silurian strata1 as near           
,christiana in ,norway1 others belonging
 to the ,oolitic period1 as around      
,carrara in ,italy1 have been converted 
partially into gneiss1 mica-schist1 and 
statuary marble4 ,the transmutation has 
been effected apparently by the         
influence of subterranean heat1 acting  
under great pressure1 or by chemical and
 electrical causes operating in a manner
 not yet understood1 and which have been

 termed ,plutonic action1 as expressing1
 in one word1 all the modifying causes  
which may be brought into play at great 
depths1 and under conditions never      
exemplified at the surface4 ,to this    
,plutonic action the fusion of granite  
itself in the bowels of the earth1 as   
well as the superinducement of the      
metamorphic texture into sedimentary    
strata1 must be attributed2 and in      
accordance with these views the age of  
each metamorphic formation may be said  
to be twofold1 for we have first to     
consider the period when it originated1 
as an aqueous deposit1 in the form of   
mud1 sand1 marl1 or limestone2 secondly1
 the date at which it acquired a        
crystalline texture4 ,the same strata1  
therefore1 may1 according to this view1 
be very ancient in reference to the time
 of their deposition1 and very modern in
 regard to the period of their assuming 
the metamorphic character4  ,no proofs  
that these crystalline rocks were       
produced more abundantly at remote      

periods4--,several modern writers1      
without denying the truth of the        
,plutonic or metamorphic theory1 still  
contend that the crystalline and        
non-fossiliferous formations1 whether   
stratified or unstratified1 such as     
gneiss and granite1 are essentially     
ancient as a class of rocks4 ,they were 
generated1 say they1 most abundantly in 
the primeval state of the globe1 since  
which time the quantity produced has    
been always on the decrease1 until it   
became very inconsiderable in the       
,oolitic and ,cretaceous periods1 and   
quite evanescent before the commencement
 of the tertiary epoch4  ,now the       
justness of these views depends almost  
entirely on the question whether        
granite1 gneiss1 and other rocks of the 
same order ever originated at the       
surface1 or whether1 according to the   
opinions above adopted1 they are        
essentially subterranean in their       
origin1 and therefore entitled to the   
appellation of hypogene4 ,if they were  

formed superficially in their present   
state1 and as copiously in the modern as
 in the more ancient periods1 we ought  
to see a greater abundance of tertiary  
and secondary than of primary granite   
and gneiss2 but if we adopt the hypogene
 theory before explained1 their rapid   
diminution in volume among the visible  
rocks in the earth's crust in proportion
 as we investigate the formations of    
newer date1 is quite intelligible4 ,if a
 melted mass of matter be now cooling   
very slowly at the depth of several     
miles beneath the crater of an active   
volcano1 it must remain invisible until 
great revolutions in the earth's crust  
have been brought about4 ,so also if    
stratified rocks have been subjected to 
,plutonic action1 and after having been 
baked or reduced to semi-fusion1 are now
 cooling and crystallizing far under    
ground1 it will probably require the    
lapse of many periods before they will  
be forced up to the surface and exposed 
to view1 even at a single point4 ,to    

effect this purpose there may be need of
 as great a development of subterranean 
movement as that which in the ,alps1    
,andes1 and ,himalaya has raised marine 
strata containing ammonites to the      
height of #hjjj1 #ad1jjj1 and #af1jjj   
feet4 ,by parity of reasoning we can    
hardly expect that any hypogene rocks of
 the tertiary periods will have been    
brought within the reach of human       
observation1 seeing that the emergence  
of such rocks must always be so long    
posterior to the date of their origin1  
and still less can formations of this   
class become generally visible until so 
much time has elapsed as to confer on   
them a high relative antiquity4         
,extensive denudation must also combine 
with upheaval before they can be        
displayed at the surface throughout wide
 areas4  ,all geologists who reflect on 
subterranean movements now going on1 and
 the eruptions of active volcanoes1 are 
convinced that great changes are now    
continually in progress in the interior 

of the earth's crust far out of sight4  
,they must be conscious1 therefore1 that
 the inaccessibility of the regions in  
which these alterations are taking      
place1 compels them to remain in        
ignorance of a great part of the working
 of existing causes1 so that they can   
only form vague conjectures in regard to
 the nature of the products which       
volcanic heat may elaborate under great 
pressure4  ,but when they find in       
mountain-chains of high antiquity1 that 
what was once the interior of the       
earth's crust has since been forced     
outwards and exposed to view1 they will 
naturally expect in the examination of  
those mountainous regions1 to have an   
opportunity of gratifying their         
curiosity by obtaining a sight not only 
of the superficial strata of remote     
eras1 but also of the contemporaneous   
nether-formed rocks4 ,having recognized1
 therefore1 in such mountain-chains some
 ancient rocks of aqueous and volcanic  
origin1 corresponding in character to   

superficial formations of modern date1  
they will regard any other class of     
ancient rocks1 such as granite and      
gneiss1 as the residual phenomena of    
which they are in search4 ,these latter 
rocks will not answer the expectations  
previously formed of their probable     
nature and texture1 unless they wear a  
foreign and mysterious aspect1 and have 
in some places been fused or altered by 
subterranean heat2 in a word1 unless    
they differ wholly from the             
fossiliferous strata deposited at the   
surface1 or from the lava and scoriae   
thrown out by volcanoes in the open air4
 ,it is the total distinctness1         
therefore1 of crystalline formations1   
such as granite1 hornblende-schist1 and 
the rest1 from every substance of which 
the origin is familiar to us1 that      
constitutes their claim to be regarded  
as the effects of causes now in action  
in the subterranean regions4 ,they      
belong not to an order of things which  
has passed away2 they are not the       

monuments of a primeval period1 bearing 
inscribed upon them in obsolete         
characters the words and phrases of a   
dead language2 but they teach us that   
part of the living language of nature1  
which we cannot learn by our daily      
intercourse with what passes on the     
habitable surface4     ,,chapter ,,xiii4
  ,,uniformity ,,in ,,the ,,series ,,of 
,,past ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,animate   
,,and ,,inanimate ,,world4     ,supposed
 alternate periods of repose and        
disorder--,observed facts in     which  
this doctrine has originated--,these may
 be explained by     supposing a uniform
 and uninterrupted series of            
changes--,threefold     consideration of
 this subject2 first1 in reference to   
the living     creation1 extinction of  
species1 and origin of new animals and  
plants2 secondly1 in reference to the   
changes produced in the     earth's     
crust by the continuance of subterranean
 movements in     certain areas1 and    
their transference after long periods to

 new     areas2 thirdly1 in reference to
 the laws which govern the formation    
of fossiliferous strata1 and the        
shifting of the areas of     sedimentary
 deposition--,on the combined influence 
of all these modes     and causes of    
change in producing breaks and chasms in
 the chain of     records--,concluding  
remarks on the identity of the ancient  
and     present system of terrestrial   
changes4   ,origin of the doctrine of   
alternate periods of repose and         
disorder4--,it has been truly observed1 
that when we arrange the fossiliferous  
formations in chronological order1 they 
constitute a broken and defective series
 of monuments3 we pass without any      
intermediate gradations1 from systems of
 strata which are horizontal to other   
systems which are highly inclined1 from 
rocks of peculiar mineral composition to
 others which have a character wholly   
distinct1--from one assemblage of       
organic remains to another1 in which    
frequently all the species1 and most of 

the genera1 are different4 ,these       
violations of continuity are so common1 
as to constitute the rule rather than   
the exception1 and they have been       
considered by many geologists as        
conclusive in favor of sudden           
revolutions in the inanimate and animate
 world4 ,according to the speculations  
of some writers1 there have been in the 
past history of the planet alternate    
periods of tranquillity and convulsion1 
the former enduring for ages1 and       
resembling that state of things now     
experienced by man3 the other brief1    
transient1 and paroxysmal1 giving rise  
to new mountains1 seas1 and valleys1    
annihilating one set of organic beings1 
and ushering in the creation of another4
  ,it will be the object of the present 
chapter to demonstrate1 that these      
theoretical views are not borne out by a
 fair interpretation of geological      
monuments4 ,it is true that in the solid
 framework of the globe1 we have a      
chronological chain of natural records1 

and that many links in this chain are   
wanting2 but a careful consideration of 
all the phenomena will lead to the      
opinion that the series was originally  
defective1--that it has been rendered   
still more so by time--that a great part
 of what remains is inaccessible to man1
 and even of that fraction which is     
accessible1 nine-tenths are to this day 
unexplored4  ,how the facts may be      
explained by assuming a uniform series  
of changes4--,the readiest way1 perhaps1
 of persuading the reader that we may   
dispense with great and sudden          
revolutions in the geological order of  
events1 is by showing him how a regular 
and uninterrupted series of changes in  
the animate and inanimate world may give
 rise to such breaks in the sequence1   
and such unconformability of stratified 
rocks1 as are usually thought to imply  
convulsions and catastrophes4 ,it is    
scarcely necessary to state1 that the   
order of events thus assumed to occur1  
for the sake of illustration1 must be in

 harmony with all the conclusions       
legitimately drawn by geologists from   
the structure of the earth1 and must be 
equally in accordance with the changes  
observed by man to be now going on in   
the living as well as in the inorganic  
creation4 ,it may be necessary in the   
present state of science to supply some 
part of the assumed course of nature    
hypothetically2 but if so1 this must be 
done without any violation of           
probability1 and always consistently    
with the analogy of what is known both  
of the past and present economy of our  
system4 ,although the discussion of so  
comprehensive a subject must carry the  
beginner far beyond his depth1 it will  
also1 it is hoped1 stimulate his        
curiosity1 and prepare him to read some 
elementary treatises on geology with    
advantage1 and teach him the bearing on 
that science of the changes now in      
progress on the earth4 ,at the same time
 it may enable him the better to        
understand the intimate connection      

between the second and third books of   
this work1 the former of which is       
occupied with the changes in the        
inorganic1 the latter with those of the 
organic creation4  ,in pursuance1 then1 
of the plan above proposed1 ,i shall    
consider in this chapter1 first1 what   
may be the course of fluctuation in the 
animate world2 secondly1 the mode in    
which contemporaneous subterranean      
movements affect the earth's crust2 and1
 thirdly1 the laws which regulate the   
deposition of sediment4   ,,uniformity  
,,of ,,change ,,considered ,,first ,,in 
,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,living         
,,creation4  ,first1 in regard to the   
vicissitudes of the living creation1 all
 are agreed that the sedimentary strata 
found in the earth's crust are divisible
 into a variety of groups1 more or less 
dissimilar in their organic remains and 
mineral composition4 ,the conclusion    
universally drawn from the study and    
comparison of these fossiliferous groups
 is this1 that at successive periods    

distinct tribes of animals and plants   
have inhabited the land and waters1 and 
that the organic types of the newer     
formations are more analogous to species
 now existing1 than those of more       
ancient rocks4 ,if we then turn to the  
present state of the animate creation1  
and inquire whether it has now become   
fixed and stationary1 we discover that1 
on the contrary1 it is in a state of    
continual flux--that there are many     
causes in action which tend to the      
extinction of species1 and which are    
conclusive against the doctrine of their
 unlimited durability4 ,but natural     
history has been successfully cultivated
 for so short a period1 that a few      
examples only of local1 and perhaps but 
one or two of absolute1 extirpation can 
as yet be proved1 and these only where  
the interference of man has been        
conspicuous4 ,it will nevertheless      
appear evident1 from the facts and      
arguments detailed in the third book    
7from the thirty-seventh to the         

forty-second chapters1 inclusive7 that  
man is not the only exterminating agent2
 and that1 independently of his         
intervention1 the annihilation of       
species is promoted by the              
multiplication and gradual diffusion of 
every animal or plant4 ,it will also    
appear1 that every alteration in the    
physical geography and climate of the   
globe cannot fail to have the same      
tendency4 ,if we proceed still farther1 
and inquire whether new species are     
substituted from time to time for those 
which die out1 and whether there are    
certain laws appointed by the ,author of
 ,nature to regulate such new creations1
 we find that the period of human       
observation is as yet too short to      
afford data for determining so weighty a
 question4 ,all that can be done is to  
show that the successive introduction of
 new species may be a constant part of  
the economy of the terrestrial system1  
without our having any right to expect  
that we should be in possession of      

direct proof of the fact4 ,the          
appearance again and again of new       
species may easily have escaped         
detection1 since the numbers of known   
animals and plants have augmented so    
rapidly within the memory of persons now
 living1 as to have doubled in some     
classes1 and quadrupled in others4 ,it  
will also be remarked in the sequel     
7book iii4 chap4 #dc71 that it must     
always be more easy if species proceeded
 originally from single stocks1 to prove
 that one which formerly abounded in a  
given district has ceased to be1 than   
that another has been called into being 
for the first time4 ,if1 therefore1     
there be as yet only one or two         
unequivocal instances of extinction1    
namely1 those of the dodo and solitaire 
7see ch4 #da71 it is scarcely reasonable
 as yet to hope that we should be       
cognizant of a single instance of the   
first appearance of a new species4      
,recent origin of man1 and gradual      
approach in the tertiary fossils of     

successive periods from an extinct to   
the recent fauna4--,the geologist1      
however1 if required to advance some    
fact which may lend countenance to the  
opinion that in the most modern times1  
that is to say1 after the greater part  
of the existing fauna and flora were    
established on the earth1 there has     
still been a new species superadded1 may
 point to man himself as furnishing the 
required illustration--for man must be  
regarded by the geologist as a creature 
of yesterday1 not merely in reference to
 the past history of the organic world1 
but also in relation to that particular 
state of the animate creation of which  
he forms a part4 ,the comparatively     
modern introduction of the human race is
 proved by the absence of the remains of
 man and his works1 not only from all   
strata containing a certain proportion  
of fossil shells of extinct species1 but
 even from a large part of the newest   
strata1 in which all the fossil         
individuals are referable to species    

still living4  ,to enable the reader to 
appreciate the full force of this       
evidence1 ,i shall give a slight sketch 
of the information obtained from the    
newer strata1 respecting fluctuations in
 the animate world1 in times immediately
 antecedent to the appearance of man4   
,in tracing the series of fossiliferous 
formations from the more ancient to the 
more modern1 the first deposits in which
 we meet with assemblages of organic    
remains1 having a near analogy to the   
fauna of certain parts of the globe in  
our own time1 are those commonly called 
tertiary4 ,even in the ,eocene1 or      
oldest subdivision of these tertiary    
formations1 some few of the testacea    
belong to existing species1 although    
almost all of them1 and apparently all  
the associated vertebrata1 are now      
extinct4 ,these ,eocene strata are      
succeeded by a great number of more     
modern deposits1 which depart gradually 
in the character of their fossils from  
the ,eocene type1 and approach more and 

more to that of the living creation4 ,in
 the present state of science1 it is    
chiefly by the aid of shells that we are
 enabled to arrive at these results1 for
 of all classes the testacea are the    
most generally diffused in a fossil     
state1 and may be called the medals     
principally employed by nature1 in      
recording the chronology of past events4
 ,in the ,miocene deposits1 which are   
next in succession to the ,eocene1 we   
begin to find a considerable number1    
although still a minority1 of recent    
species1 intermixed with some fossils   
common to the preceding epoch4 ,we then 
arrive at the ,pliocene strata1 in which
 species now contemporary with man begin
 to preponderate1 and in the newest of  
which nine-tenths of the fossils agree  
with species still inhabiting the       
neighboring sea4  ,in this passing from 
the older to the newer members of the   
tertiary system we meet with many       
chasms1 but none which separate         
entirely1 by a broad line of            

demarcation1 one state of the organic   
world from another4 ,there are no signs 
of an abrupt termination of one fauna   
and flora1 and the starting into life of
 new and wholly distinct forms4         
,although we are far from being able to 
demonstrate geologically an insensible  
transition from the ,eocene to the      
,miocene1 or even from the latter to the
 recent fauna1 yet the more we enlarge  
and perfect our general survey1 the more
 nearly do we approximate to such a     
continuous series1 and the more         
gradually are we conducted from times   
when many of the genera and nearly all  
the species were extinct1 to those in   
which scarcely a single species         
flourished which we do not know to exist
 at present4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,philippi1 indeed1
 after an elaborate comparison of the   
fossil tertiary shells of ,sicily with  
those now living in the ,mediterranean1 
announces as the result of his          
examination that there are strata in    
that island1 which attest a very gradual

 passage from a period1 when only       
thirteen in a hundred of the shells were
 like the species now living in the sea1
 to an era when the recent species had  
attained a proportion of ninety-five in 
a hundred4 ,there is therefore evidence1
 he says1 in ,sicily of this revolution 
in the animate world having been        
effected without the intervention of any
 convulsion or abrupt changes1 certain  
species having from time to time died   
out1 and others having been introduced1 
until at length the existing fauna was  
elaborated4  ,it had often been objected
 that the evidence of fossil species    
occurring in two consecutive formations1
 was confined to the testacea or        
zoophytes1 the characters of which are  
less marked and decisive than those     
afforded by the vertebrate animals4 ,but
 ,mr4 ,owen has lately insisted on the  
important fact1 that not a few of the   
quadrupeds which now inhabit our island1
 and among others the horse1 the ass1   
the hog1 the smaller wild ox1 the goat1 

the red deer1 the roe1 the beaver1 and  
many of the diminutive rodents1 are the 
same as those which once coexisted with 
the mammoth1 the great northern         
hippopotamus1 two kinds of rhinoceros1  
and other mammalia long since extinct4  
,a part1 he observes1 and not the whole 
of the modern tertiary fauna has        
perished1 and hence we may conclude that
 the cause of their destruction has not 
been a violent and universal catastrophe
 from which none could escape4#beg  ,had
 we discovered evidence that man had    
come into the earth at a period as early
 as that when a large number of the     
fossil quadrupeds now living1 and almost
 all the recent species of land1        
freshwater1 and marine shells were in   
existence1 we should have been compelled
 to ascribe a much higher antiquity to  
our species1 than even the boldest      
speculations of the ethnologist require1
 for no small part of the great physical
 revolution depicted on the map of      
,europe 7,pl4 #c71 before described1    

took place very gradually after the     
recent testacea abounded almost to the  
exclusion of the extinct4 ,thus1 for    
example1 in the deposits called the     
northern drift1 or the glacial formation
 of ,europe and ,north ,america1 the    
fossil marine shells can easily be      
identified with species either now      
inhabiting the neighboring sea1 or      
living in the seas of higher latitudes4 
,yet they exhibit no memorials of the   
human race1 or of articles fabricated by
 the hand of man4 ,some of the newest of
 these strata passing by the name of    
raised beaches1 occur at moderate       
elevations on the coast of ,england1    
,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,other examples
 are met with on a more extended scale  
in ,scandinavia1 as at the height of    
#bjj feet at ,uddevalla in ,sweden1 and 
at twice that elevation1 near           
,christiana1 in ,norway1 also at an     
altitude of #fjj or #gjj feet in places 
farther north4 ,they consist of beds of 
sand and clay1 filling hollows in a     

district of granite and gneiss1 and they
 must closely resemble the accumulations
 of shelly matter now in progress at the
 bottom of the ,norwegian fiords4 ,the  
rate at which the land is now rising in 
,scandinavia1 is far too irregular in   
different places to afford a safe       
standard for estimating the minimum of  
time required for the upheaval of the   
fundamental granite1 and its marine     
shelly covering1 to the height of so    
many hundred feet2 but according to the 
greatest average1 of five or six feet in
 a century1 the period required would be
 very considerable1 and nearly the whole
 of it1 as well as the antecedent epoch 
of submergence1 seems to have preceded  
the introduction of man into these parts
 of the earth4  ,there are other        
post-tertiary formations of fluviatile  
origin1 in the centre of ,europe1 in    
which the absence of human remains is   
perhaps still more striking1 because1   
when formed1 they must have been        
surrounded by dry land4 ,i allude to the

 silt or loess of the basin of the      
,rhine1 which must have gradually filled
 up the great valley of that river since
 the time when its waters1 and the      
contiguous lands1 were inhabited by the 
existing species of freshwater and      
terrestrial mollusks4 ,showers of ashes1
 thrown out by some of the last         
eruptions of the ,eifel volcanoes1 fell 
during the deposition of this fluviatile
 silt1 and were interstratified with it4
 ,but these volcanoes became exhausted1 
the valley was re-excavated through the 
silt1 and again reduced to its present  
form before the period of human history4
 ,the study1 therefore1 of this shelly  
silt reveals to us the history of a long
 series of events1 which occurred after 
the testacea now living inhabited the   
land and rivers of ,europe1 and the     
whole terminated without any signs of   
the coming of man into that part of the 
globe4  ,to cite a still more remarkable
 example1 we observe in ,sicily a lofty 
table-land and hills1 sometimes rising  

to the height of #cjjj feet1 capped with
 a limestone1 in which from #gj to #he  
per cent4 of the fossil testacea are    
specifically identical with those now   
inhabiting the ,mediterranean4 ,these   
calcareous and other argillaceous strata
 of the same age are intersected by deep
 valleys which have been gradually      
formed by denudation1 but have not      
varied materially in width or depth     
since ,sicily was first colonized by the
 ,greeks4 ,the limestone1 moreover1     
which is of so late a date in geological
 chronology1 was quarried for building  
those ancient temples of ,girgenti and  
,syracuse1 of which the ruins carry us  
back to a remote era in human history4  
,if we are lost in conjectures when     
speculating on the ages required to lift
 up these formations to the height of   
several thousand feet above the sea1 how
 much more remote must be the era when  
the same rocks were gradually formed    
beneath the waters6  ,to conclude1 it   
appears that1 in going back from the    

recent to the ,eocene period1 we are    
carried by many successive steps from   
the fauna now contemporary with man to  
an assemblage of fossil species wholly  
different from those now living4 ,in    
this retrospect we have not yet         
succeeded in tracing back a perfect     
transition from the recent to an extinct
 fauna2 but there are usually so many   
species in common to the groups which   
stand next in succession as to show that
 there is no great chasm1 no signs of a 
crisis when one class of organic beings 
was annihilated to give place suddenly  
to another4 ,this analogy1 therefore1   
derived from a period of the earth's    
history which can best be compared with 
the present state of things1 and more   
thoroughly investigated than any other1 
leads to the conclusion that the        
extinction and creation of species1 has 
been and is the result of a slow and    
gradual change in the organic world4    
,,uniformity ,,of ,,change ,,considered1
 ,,secondly1 ,,in ,,reference ,,to      

,,subterranean ,,movements4  ,to pass on
 to another of the three topics before  
proposed for discussion1 the reader will
 find1 in the account given in the      
second book of the earthquakes recorded 
in history1 that certain countries have1
 from time immemorial1 been rudely      
shaken again and again1 while others1   
comprising by far the largest part of   
the globe1 have remained to all         
appearance motionless4 ,in the regions  
of convulsion rocks have been rent      
asunder1 the surface has been forced up 
into ridges1 chasms have opened1 or the 
ground throughout large spaces has been 
permanently lifted up above or let down 
below its former level4 ,in the regions 
of tranquillity some areas have remained
 at rest1 but others have been          
ascertained by a comparison of          
measurements1 made at different periods1
 to have risen by an insensible motion1 
as in ,sweden1 or to have subsided very 
slowly1 as in ,greenland4 ,that these   
same movements1 whether ascending or    

descending1 have continued for ages in  
the same direction has been established 
by geological evidence4 ,thus1 we find  
both on the east and west coast of      
,sweden1 that ground which formerly     
constituted the bottom of the ,baltic   
and of the ocean has been lifted up to  
an elevation of several hundred feet    
above high-water mark4 ,the rise within 
the historical period has not amounted  
to many yards1 but the greater extent of
 antecedent upheaval is proved by the   
occurrence in inland spots1 several     
hundred feet high1 of deposits filled   
with fossil shells of species now living
 either in the ocean or the ,baltic4    
,to detect proofs of slow and gradual   
subsidence must in general be more      
difficult2 but the theory which accounts
 for the form of circular coral reefs   
and lagoon islands1 and which will be   
explained in the last chapter of the    
third book1 will satisfy the reader that
 there are spaces on the globe1 several 
thousand miles in circumference1        

throughout which the downward movement  
has predominated for ages1 and yet the  
land has never1 in a single instance1   
gone down suddenly for several hundred  
feet at once4 ,yet geology demonstrates 
that the persistency of subterranean    
movements in one direction has not been 
perpetual throughout all past time4     
,there have been great oscillations of  
level by which a surface of dry land has
 been submerged to a depth of several   
thousand feet1 and then at a period long
 subsequent raised again and made to    
emerge4 ,nor have the regions now       
motionless been always at rest2 and some
 of those which are at present the      
theatres of reiterated earthquakes have 
formerly enjoyed a long continuance of  
tranquillity4 ,but although disturbances
 have ceased after having long          
prevailed1 or have recommenced after a  
suspension for ages1 there has been no  
universal disruption of the earth's     
crust or desolation of the surface since
 times the most remote4 ,the            

non-occurrence of such a general        
convulsion is proved by the perfect     
horizontally now retained by some of the
 most ancient fossiliferous strata      
throughout wide areas4  ,inferences     
derived from unconformable              
strata4--,that the subterranean forces  
have visited different parts of the     
globe at successive periods1 is inferred
 chiefly from the unconformability of   
strata belonging to groups of different 
ages4 ,thus1 for example1 on the borders
 of ,wales and ,shropshire we find the  
slaty beds of the ancient ,silurian     
system curved and vertical1 while the   
beds of the overlying carboniferous     
shale and sandstone are horizontal4 ,all
 are agreed1 that in such a case the    
older set of strata had suffered great  
dislocation before the deposition of the
 newer or carboniferous beds1 and that  
these last have never since been        
convulsed by any movements of excessive 
violence4 ,but the strata of the        
inferior group suffered only a local    

derangement1 and rocks of the same age  
are by no means found everywhere in a   
curved or vertical position4 ,in various
 parts of ,europe1 and particularly near
 ,lake ,wener in the south of ,sweden1  
and in many parts of ,russia1 beds of   
the same ,silurian system maintain the  
most perfect horizontality2 and a       
similar observation may be made         
respecting limestones and shales of the 
like antiquity in the great lake        
district of ,canada and the ,united     
,states4 ,they are still as flat and    
horizontal as when first formed2 yet    
since their origin not only have most of
 the actual mountain-chains been        
uplifted1 but the very rocks of which   
those mountains are composed have been  
formed4  ,it would be easy to multiply  
instances of similar unconformability in
 formations of other ages2 but a few    
more will suffice4 ,the coal measures   
before alluded to as horizontal on the  
borders of ,wales are vertical in the   
,mendip ,hills in ,somersetshire1 where 

the overlying beds of the ,new ,red     
,sandstone are horizontal4 ,again1 in   
the ,wolds of ,yorkshire the last       
mentioned sandstone supports on its     
curved and inclined beds the horizontal 
,chalk4 ,the ,chalk again is vertical on
 the flanks of the ,pyrenees1 and the   
tertiary strata repose unconformably    
upon it4  ,consistency of local         
disturbances with general               
uniformity4--,as almost every country   
supplies illustrations of the same      
phenomena1 they who advocate the        
doctrine of alternate periods of        
disorder and repose may appeal to the   
facts above described1 as proving that  
every district has been by turns        
convulsed by earthquakes and then       
respited for ages from convulsions4 ,but
 so it might with equal truth be        
affirmed that every part of ,europe has 
been visited alternately by winter and  
summer1 although it has always been     
winter and always summer in some part of
 the planet1 and neither of these       

seasons has ever reigned simultaneously 
over the entire globe4 ,they have been  
always shifting about from place to     
place2 but the vicissitudes which recur 
thus annually in a single spot are never
 allowed to interfere with the          
invariable uniformity of seasons        
throughout the whole planet4  ,so1 in   
regard to subterranean movements1 the   
theory of the perpetual uniformity of   
the force which they exert on the       
earth's crust is quite consistent with  
the admission of their alternate        
development and suspension for          
indefinite periods within limited       
geographical areas4   ,,uniformity ,,of 
,,change ,,considered1 ,,thirdly1 ,,in  
,,reference ,,to ,,sedimentary          
,,deposition4  ,it now remains to speak 
of the laws governing the deposition of 
new strata4 ,if we survey the surface of
 the globe we immediately perceive that 
it is divisible into areas of deposition
 and non-deposition1 or1 in other words1
 at any given time there are spaces     

which are the recipients1 others which  
are not the recipients of sedimentary   
matter4 ,no new strata1 for example1 are
 thrown down on dry land1 which remains 
the same from year to year2 whereas1 in 
many parts of the bottom of seas and    
lakes1 mud1 sand1 and pebbles are       
annually spread out by rivers and       
currents4 ,there are also great masses  
of limestone growing in some seas1 or in
 mid-ocean1 chiefly composed of corals  
and shells4  ,no sediment deposited on  
dry land4--,as to the dry land1 so far  
from being the receptacle of fresh      
accessions of matter1 it is exposed     
almost everywhere to waste away4        
,forests may be as dense and lofty as   
those of ,brazil1 and may swarm with    
quadrupeds1 birds1 and insects1 yet at  
the end of ten thousand years one layer 
of black mould1 a few inches thick1 may 
be the sole representative of those     
myriads of trees1 leaves1 flowers1 and  
fruits1 those innumerable bones and     
skeletons of birds1 quadrupeds1 and     

reptiles1 which tenanted the fertile    
region4 ,should this land be at length  
submerged1 the waves of the sea may wash
 away in a few hours the scanty covering
 of mould1 and it may merely impart a   
darker shade of color to the next       
stratum of marl1 sand1 or other matter  
newly thrown down4 ,so also at the      
bottom of the ocean where no sediment is
 accumulating1 sea-weed1 zoophytes1     
fish1 and even shells1 may multiply for 
ages and decompose1 leaving no vestige  
of their form or substance behind4      
,their decay1 in water1 although more   
slow1 is as certain and eventually as   
complete as in the open air4 ,nor can   
they be perpetuated for indefinite      
periods in a fossil state1 unless       
imbedded in some matrix which is        
impervious to water1 or which at least  
does not allow a free percolation of    
that fluid1 impregnated as it usually   
is1 with a slight quantity of carbonic  
or other acid4 ,such a free percolation 
may be prevented either by the mineral  

nature of the matrix itself1 or by the  
superposition of an impermeable stratum3
 but if unimpeded1 the fossil shell or  
bone will be dissolved and removed1     
particle after particle1 and thus       
entirely effaced1 unless petrifaction or
 the substitution of mineral for organic
 matter happen to take place4  ,that    
there has been land as well as sea at   
all former geological periods1 we know  
from the fact1 that fossil trees and    
terrestrial plants are imbedded in rocks
 of every age4 ,occasionally lacustrine 
and fluviatile shells1 insects1 or the  
bones of amphibious or land reptiles1   
point to the same conclusion4 ,the      
existence of dry land at all periods of 
the past implies1 as before mentioned1  
the partial deposition of sediment1 or  
its limitation to certain areas2 and the
 next point to which ,i shall call the  
reader's attention1 is the shifting of  
these areas from one region to another4 
,first1 then1 variations in the site of 
sedimentary deposition are brought about

 independently of subterranean          
movements4 ,there is always a slight    
change from year to year1 or from       
century to century4 ,the sediment of the
 ,rhone1 for example1 thrown into the   
,lake of ,geneva1 is now conveyed to a  
spot a mile and a half distant from that
 where it accumulated in the tenth      
century1 and six miles from the point   
where the delta began originally to     
form4 ,we may look forward to the period
 when this lake will be filled up1 and  
then the distribution of the transported
 matter will be suddenly altered1 for   
the mud and sand brought down from the  
,alps will thenceforth1 instead of being
 deposited near ,geneva1 be carried     
nearly #bjj miles southwards1 where the 
,rhone enters the ,mediterranean4  ,in  
the deltas of large rivers1 such as     
those of the ,ganges and ,indus1 the mud
 is first carried down for many         
centuries through one arm1 and on this  
being stopped up it is discharged by    
another1 and may then enter the sea at a

 point #ej or #ajj miles distant from   
its first receptacle4 ,the direction of 
marine currents is also liable to be    
changed by various accidents1 as by the 
heaping up of new sand-banks1 or the    
wearing away of cliffs and promontories4
  ,but1 secondly1 all these causes of   
fluctuation in the sedimentary areas are
 entirely subordinate to those great    
upward or downward movements of land    
which have been already described as    
prevailing over large tracts of the     
globe4 ,by such elevation or subsidence 
certain spaces are gradually submerged1 
or made gradually to emerge3--in the one
 case sedimentary deposition may be     
suddenly renewed after having been      
suspended for ages1 in the other as     
suddenly made to cease after having     
continued for an indefinite period4     
,causes of variation in mineral         
character of successive sedimentary     
groups4--,if deposition be renewed after
 a long interval1 the new strata will   
usually differ greatly from the         

sedimentary rocks previously formed in  
the same place1 and especially if the   
older rocks have suffered derangement1  
which implies a change in the physical  
geography of the district since the     
previous conveyance of sediment to the  
same spot4 ,it may happen1 however1     
that1 even when the inferior group is   
horizontal and conformable to the upper 
strata1 these last may still differ     
entirely in mineral character1 because  
since the origin of the older formation 
the geography of some distant country   
has been altered4 ,in that country rocks
 before concealed may have become       
exposed by denudation2 volcanoes may    
have burst out and covered the surface  
with scoriae and lava1 or new lakes may 
have been formed by subsidence2 and     
other fluctuations may have occurred1 by
 which the materials brought down from  
thence by rivers to the sea have        
acquired a distinct mineral character4  
,it is well known that the stream of the
 ,mississippi is charged with sediment  

of a different color from that of the   
,arkansas and ,red ,rivers1 which are   
tinged with red mud1 derived from rocks 
of porphyry in the far west4 ,the waters
 of the ,uruguay1 says ,darwin1 draining
 a granitic country1 are clear and      
black1 those of the ,parana1 red4#beh   
,the mud with which the ,indus is       
loaded1 says ,burnes1 is of a clayey    
hue1 that of the ,chenab1 on the other  
hand1 is reddish1 that of the ,sutlej is
 more pale4#bei ,the same causes which  
make these several rivers1 sometimes    
situated at no great distance the one   
from the other1 to differ greatly in the
 character of their sediment1 will make 
the waters draining the same country at 
different epochs1 especially before and 
after great revolutions in physical     
geography1 to be entirely dissimilar4   
,it is scarcely necessary to add1 that  
marine currents will be affected in an  
analogous manner in consequence of the  
formation of new shoals1 the emergence  
of new islands1 the subsidence of       

others1 the gradual waste of neighboring
 coasts1 the growth of new deltas1 the  
increase of coral reefs1 and other      
changes4  ,why successive sedimentary   
groups contain distinct fossils4--,if1  
in the next place1 we assume1 for       
reasons before stated1 a continual      
extinction of species and introduction  
of others into the globe1 it will then  
follow that the fossils of strata formed
 at two distant periods on the same     
spot1 will differ even more certainly   
than the mineral composition of the     
same4 ,for rocks of the same kind have  
sometimes been reproduced in the same   
district after a long interval of time1 
whereas there are no facts leading to   
the opinion that species which have once
 died out have ever been reproduced4    
,the submergence then of land must be   
often attended by the commencement of a 
new class of sedimentary deposits1      
characterized by a new set of fossil    
animals and plants1 while the           
reconversion of the bed of the sea into 

land may arrest at once and for an      
indefinite time the formation of        
geological monuments4 ,should the land  
again sink1 strata will again be formed2
 but one or many entire revolutions in  
animal or vegetable life may have been  
completed in the interval4  ,conditions 
requisite for the original completeness 
of a fossiliferous series4--,if we      
infer1 for reasons before explained1    
that fluctuations in the animate world  
are brought about by the slow and       
successive removal and creation of      
species1 we shall be convinced that a   
rare combination of circumstances alone 
can give rise to such a series of strata
 as will bear testimony to a gradual    
passage from one state of organic life  
to another4 ,to produce such strata     
nothing less will be requisite than the 
fortunate coincidence of the following  
conditions3 first1 a never-failing      
supply of sediment in the same region   
throughout a period of vast duration2   
secondly1 the fitness of the deposit in 

every part for the permanent            
preservation of imbedded fossils2 and1  
thirdly1 a gradual subsidence to prevent
 the sea or lake from being filled up   
and converted into land4  ,it will      
appear in the chapter on coral          
reefs1#bfj that1 in certain parts of the
 ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans1 most of  
these conditions1 if not all1 are       
complied with1 and the constant growth  
of coral1 keeping pace with the sinking 
of the bottom of the sea1 seems to have 
gone on so slowly1 for such indefinite  
periods1 that the signs of a gradual    
change in organic life might probably be
 detected in that quarter of the globe1 
if we could explore its submarine       
geology4 ,instead of the growth of      
coralline limestone1 let us suppose1 in 
some other place1 the continuous        
deposition of fluviatile mud and sand1  
such as the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra   
have poured for thousands of years into 
the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,part of this bay1 
although of considerable depth1 might at

 length be filled up before an          
appreciable amount of change was        
effected in the fish1 mollusca1 and     
other inhabitants of the sea and        
neighboring land4 ,but1 if the bottom be
 lowered by sinking at the same rate    
that it is raised by fluviatile mud1 the
 bay can never be turned into dry land4 
,in that case one new layer of matter   
may be superimposed upon another for a  
thickness of many thousand feet1 and the
 fossils of the inferior beds may differ
 greatly from those entombed in the     
uppermost1 yet every intermediate       
gradation may be indicated in the       
passage from an older to a newer        
assemblage of species4 ,granting1       
however1 that such an unbroken sequence 
of monuments may thus be elaborated in  
certain parts of the sea1 and that the  
strata happen to be all of them well    
adapted to preserve the included fossils
 from decomposition1 how many accidents 
must still concur before these submarine
 formations will be laid open to our    

investigation6 ,the whole deposit must  
first be raised several thousand feet1  
in order to bring into view the very    
foundation2 and during the process of   
exposure the superior beds must not be  
entirely swept away by denudation4  ,in 
the first place1 the chances are as     
three to one against the mere emergence 
of the mass above the waters1 because   
three-fourths of the globe are covered  
by the ocean4 ,but if it be upheaved and
 made to constitute part of the dry     
land1 it must also1 before it can be    
available for our instruction1 become   
part of that area already surveyed by   
geologists2 and this area comprehends   
perhaps less than a tenth of the whole  
earth4 ,in this small fraction of land  
already explored1 and still very        
imperfectly known1 we are required to   
find a set of strata1 originally of     
limited extent1 and probably much       
lessened by subsequent denudation4  ,yet
 it is precisely because we do not      
encounter at every step the evidence of 

such gradations from one state of the   
organic world to another1 that so many  
geologists embrace the doctrine of great
 and sudden revolutions in the history  
of the animate world4 ,not content with 
simply availing themselves1 for the     
convenience of classification1 of those 
gaps and chasms which here and there    
interrupt the continuity of the         
chronological series1 as at present     
known1 they deduce1 from the frequency  
of these breaks in the chain of records1
 an irregular mode of succession in the 
events themselves both in the organic   
and inorganic world4 ,but1 besides that 
some links of the chain which once      
existed are now clearly lost and others 
concealed from view1 we have good reason
 to suspect that it was never complete  
originally4 ,it may undoubtedly be said1
 that strata have been always forming   
somewhere1 and therefore at every moment
 of past time nature has added a page to
 her archives2 but1 in reference to this
 subject1 it should be remembered that  

we can never hope to compile a          
consecutive history by gathering        
together monuments which were originally
 detached and scattered over the globe4 
,for as the species of organic beings   
contemporaneously inhabiting remote     
regions are distinct1 the fossils of the
 first of several periods which may be  
preserved in any one country1 as in     
,america1 for example1 will have no     
connection with those of a second period
 found in ,india1 and will therefore no 
more enable us to trace the signs of a  
gradual change in the living creation1  
than a fragment of ,chinese history will
 fill up a blank in the political annals
 of ,europe4  ,the absence of any       
deposits of importance containing recent
 shells in ,chili1 or anywhere on the   
western coast of ,south ,america1       
naturally led ,mr4 ,darwin to the       
conclusion that where the bed of the sea
 is either stationary or rising1        
circumstances are far less favorable    
than where the level is sinking to the  

accumulation of conchiferous strata of  
sufficient thickness and extension to   
resist the average vast amount of       
denudation4#bfa ,an examination of the  
superficial clay1 sand1 and gravel of   
the most modern date in ,norway and     
,sweden1 where the land is also rising1 
would incline us to admit a similar     
proposition4 ,yet in these cases there  
has been a supply of sediment from the  
waste of the coast and the interior1    
especially in ,patagonia and ,chili4    
,nevertheless wherever the bottom of the
 sea has been continually elevated1 the 
total thickness of sedimentary matter   
accumulating at depths suited to the    
habitation of most of the species of    
shells can never be great1 nor can the  
deposits be thickly covered by          
superincumbent matter1 so as to be      
consolidated by pressure4 ,when they are
 upheaved1 therefore1 the waves on the  
beach will bear down and disperse the   
loose materials2 whereas if the bed of  
the sea subsides slowly1 a mass of      

strata containing abundance of such     
species as live at moderate depths may  
increase in thickness to any amount1 and
 may extend over a broad area1 as the   
water gradually encroaches on the land4 
,if1 then1 at particular periods1 as in 
the ,miocene epoch1 for example1 both in
 ,europe and ,north ,america1           
contemporaneous shelly deposits have    
originated1 and have been preserved at  
very distant points1 it may arise from  
the prevalence at that period of        
simultaneous subsidence throughout very 
wide areas4 ,the absence in the same    
quarters of the globe of strata marking 
the ages which immediately succeeded1   
may be accounted for by supposing that  
the level of the bed of the sea and the 
adjoining land was stationary or was    
undergoing slow upheaval4  ,how far some
 of the great violations of continuity  
which now exist in the chronological    
table of fossiliferous rocks1 will      
hereafter be removed or lessened1 must  
at present be mere matter of conjecture4

 ,the hiatus which exists in ,great     
,britain between the fossils of the     
,lias and those of the ,magnesian       
,limestone1 is supplied in ,germany by  
the rich fauna and flora of the         
,muschelkalk1 ,keuper1 and ,bunter      
,sandstein1 which we know to be of a    
date precisely intermediate2 those three
 formations being interposed in ,germany
 between others which agree perfectly in
 their organic remains with our ,lias   
and ,magnesian ,limestone4 ,until lately
 the fossils of the ,coal-measures were 
separated from those of the antecedent  
,silurian group by a very abrupt and    
decided line of demarcation2 but recent 
discoveries have brought to light in    
,devonshire1 ,belgium1 the ,eifel1 and  
,westphalia1 the remains of a fauna of  
an intervening period4 ,this connecting 
link is furnished by the fossil shells1 
fish1 and corals of the ,devonian or    
,old ,red ,sandstone group1 and some    
species of this newly intercalated fauna
 are found to be common to it and the   

subjacent ,silurian rocks1 while other  
species belong to it in common with the 
,coal-measures4 ,we have also in like   
manner had some success of late years in
 diminishing the hiatus which still     
separates the ,cretaceous and ,eocene   
periods in ,europe4 ,still we must      
expect1 for reasons before stated1 that 
some such chasms will forever continue  
to occur in some parts of our           
sedimentary series4  ,consistency of the
 theory of gradual change with the      
existence of great breaks in the        
series4--,to return to the general      
argument pursued in this chapter1 it is 
assumed1 for reasons above explained1   
that a slow change of species is in     
simultaneous operation everywhere       
throughout the habitable surface of sea 
and land2 whereas the fossilization of  
plants and animals is confined to those 
areas where new strata are produced4    
,these areas1 as we have seen1 are      
always shifting their position2 so that 
the fossilizing process1 by means of    

which the commemoration of the          
particular state of the organic world1  
at any given time1 is affected1 may be  
said to move about1 visiting and        
revisiting different tracts in          
succession4  ,to make still more clear  
the supposed working of this machinery1 
,i shall compare it to a somewhat       
analogous case that might be imagined to
 occur in the history of human affairs4 
,let the mortality of the population of 
a large country represent the successive
 extinction of species1 and the births  
of new individuals the introduction of  
new species4 ,while these fluctuations  
are gradually taking place everywhere1  
suppose commissioners to be appointed to
 visit each province of the country in  
succession1 taking an exact account of  
the number1 names1 and individual       
peculiarities of all the inhabitants1   
and leaving in each district a register 
containing a record of this information4
 ,if1 after the completion of one       
census1 another is immediately made on  

the same plan1 and then another1 there  
will1 at last1 be a series of           
statistical documents in each province4 
,when those belonging to any one        
province are arranged in chronological  
order1 the contents of such as stand    
next to each other will differ according
 to the length of the intervals of time 
between the taking of each census4 ,if1 
for example1 there are sixty provinces1 
and all the registers are made in a     
single year1 and renewed annually1 the  
number of births and deaths will be so  
small1 in proportion to the whole of the
 inhabitants1 during the interval       
between the compiling of the two        
consecutive documents1 that the         
individuals described in such documents 
will be nearly identical2 whereas1 if   
the survey of each of the sixty         
provinces occupies all the commissioners
 for a whole year1 so that they are     
unable to revisit the same place until  
the expiration of sixty years1 there    
will then be an almost entire           

discordance between the persons         
enumerated in two consecutive registers 
in the same province4 ,there are1       
undoubtedly1 other causes besides the   
mere quantity of time1 which may augment
 or diminish the amount of discrepancy4 
,thus1 at some periods a pestilential   
disease may have lessened the average   
duration of human life1 or a variety of 
circumstances may have caused the births
 to be unusually numerous1 and the      
population to multiply2 or1 a province  
may be suddenly colonized by persons    
migrating from surrounding districts4   
,these exceptions may be compared to the
 accelerated rate of fluctuation in the 
fauna and flora of a particular region1 
in which the climate and physical       
geography may be undergoing an          
extraordinary degree of alteration4     
,but ,i must remind the reader1 that the
 case above proposed has no pretensions 
to be regarded as an exact parallel to  
the geological phenomena which ,i desire
 to illustrate2 for the commissioners   

are supposed to visit the different     
provinces in rotation2 whereas the      
commemorating processes by which organic
 remains become fossilized1 although    
they are always shifting from one area  
to the other1 are yet very irregular in 
their movements4 ,they may abandon and  
revisit many spaces again and again     
before they once approach another       
district2 and1 besides this source of   
irregularity1 it may often happen that1 
while the depositing process is         
suspended1 denudation may take place1   
which may be compared to the occasional 
destruction by fire or other causes of  
some of the statistical documents before
 mentioned4 ,it is evident that1 where  
such accidents occur1 the want of       
continuity in the series may become     
indefinitely great1 and that the        
monuments which follow next in          
succession will by no means be          
equidistant from each other in point of 
time4  ,if this train of reasoning be   
admitted1 the occasional distinctness of

 the fossil remains1 in formations      
immediately in contact1 would be a      
necessary consequence of the existing   
laws of sedimentary deposition and      
subterranean movement1 accompanied by a 
constant mortality and renovation of    
species4  ,as all the conclusions above 
insisted on are directly opposed to     
opinions still popular1 ,i shall add    
another comparison1 in the hope of      
preventing any possible misapprehension 
of the argument4 ,suppose we had        
discovered two buried cities at the foot
 of ,vesuvius1 immediately superimposed 
upon each other1 with a great mass of   
tuff and lava intervening1 just as      
,portici and ,resina1 if now covered    
with ashes1 would overlie ,herculaneum4 
,an antiquary might possibly be entitled
 to infer1 from the inscriptions on     
public edifices1 that the inhabitants of
 the inferior and older city were       
,greeks1 and those of the modern towns  
,italians4 ,but he would reason very    
hastily if he also concluded from these 

data that there had been a sudden change
 from the ,greek to the ,italian        
language in ,campania4 ,but if he       
afterwards found three buried cities1   
one above the other1 the intermediate   
one being ,roman1 while1 as in the      
former example1 the lowest was ,greek   
and the uppermost ,italian1 he would    
then perceive the fallacy of his former 
opinion1 and would begin to suspect that
 the catastrophes by which the cities   
were inhumed might have no relation     
whatever to the fluctuations in the     
language of the inhabitants2 and that1  
as the ,roman tongue had evidently      
intervened between the ,greek and       
,italian1 so many other dialects may    
have been spoken in succession1 and the 
passage from the ,greek to the ,italian 
may have been very gradual2 some terms  
growing obsolete1 while others were     
introduced from time to time4  ,if this 
antiquary could have shown that the     
volcanic paroxysms of ,vesuvius were so 
governed as that cities should be buried

 one above the other1 just as often as  
any variation occurred in the language  
of the inhabitants1 then1 indeed1 the   
abrupt passage from a ,greek to a       
,roman1 and from a ,roman to an ,italian
 city1 would afford proof of            
fluctuations no less sudden in the      
language of the people4  ,so1 in        
,geology1 if we could assume that it is 
part of the plan of ,nature to preserve1
 in every region of the globe1 an       
unbroken series of monuments to         
commemorate the vicissitudes of the     
organic creation1 we might infer the    
sudden extirpation of species1 and the  
simultaneous introduction of others1 as 
often as two formations in contact are  
found to include dissimilar organic     
fossils4 ,but we must shut our eyes to  
the whole economy of the existing       
causes1 aqueous1 igneous1 and organic1  
if we fail to perceive that such in not 
the plan of ,nature4  ,concluding       
remarks on the identity of the ancient  
and present system of terrestrial       

changes4--,i shall now conclude the     
discussion of a question with which we  
have been occupied since the beginning  
of the fifth chapter2 namely1 whether   
there has been any interruption1 from   
the remotest periods1 of one uniform    
system of change in the animate and     
inanimate world4 ,we were induced to    
enter into that inquiry by reflecting   
how much the progress of opinion in     
,geology had been influenced by the     
assumption that the analogy was slight  
in kind1 and still more slight in       
degree1 between the causes which        
produced the former revolutions of the  
globe1 and those now in every-day       
operation4 ,it appeared clear that the  
earlier geologists had not only a scanty
 acquaintance with existing changes1 but
 were singularly unconscious of the     
amount of their ignorance4 ,with the    
presumption naturally inspired by this  
unconsciousness1 they had no hesitation 
in deciding at once that time could     
never enable the existing powers of     

nature to work out changes of great     
magnitude1 still less such important    
revolutions as those which are brought  
to light by ,geology4 ,they1 therefore1 
felt themselves at liberty to indulge   
their imaginations in guessing at what  
might be1 rather than inquiring what is2
 in other words1 they employed          
themselves in conjecturing what might   
have been the course of nature at a     
remote period1 rather than in the       
investigation of what was the course of 
nature in their own times4  ,it appeared
 to them more philosophical to speculate
 on the possibilities of the past1 than 
patiently to explore the realities of   
the present2 and having invented        
theories under the influence of such    
maxims1 they were consistently unwilling
 to test their validity by the criterion
 of their accordance with the ordinary  
operations of nature4 ,on the contrary1 
the claims of each new hypothesis to    
credibility appeared enhanced by the    
great contrast1 in kind or intensity1 of

 the causes referred to1 and those now  
in operation4  ,never was there a dogma 
more calculated to foster indolence1 and
 to blunt the keen edge of curiosity1   
than this assumption of the discordance 
between the ancient and existing causes 
of change4 ,it produced a state of mind 
unfavorable in the highest degree to the
 candid reception of the evidence of    
those minute but incessant alterations  
which every part of the earth's surface 
is undergoing1 and by which the         
condition of its living inhabitants is  
continually made to vary4 ,the student1 
instead of being encouraged with the    
hope of interpreting the enigmas        
presented to him in the earth's         
structure1--instead of being prompted to
 undertake laborious inquiries into the 
natural history of the organic world1   
and the complicated effects of the      
igneous and aqueous causes now in       
operation1 was taught to despond from   
the first4 ,geology1 it was affirmed1   
could never rise to the rank of an exact

 science1--the greater number of        
phenomena must forever remain           
inexplicable1 or only be partially      
elucidated by ingenious conjectures4    
,even the mystery which invested the    
subject was said to constitute one of   
its principal charms1 affording1 as it  
did1 full scope to the fancy to indulge 
in a boundless field of speculation4    
,the course directly opposed to this    
method of philosophizing consists in an 
earnest and patient inquiry1 how far    
geological appearances are reconcilable 
with the effect of changes now in       
progress1 or which may be in progress in
 regions inaccessible to us1 and of     
which the reality is attested by        
volcanoes and subterranean movements4   
,it also endeavors to estimate the      
aggregate result of ordinary operations 
multiplied by time1 and cherishes a     
sanguine hope that the resources to be  
derived from observation and experiment1
 or from the study of nature such as she
 now is1 are very far from-being        

exhausted4 ,for this reason all theories
 are rejected which involve the         
assumption of sudden and violent        
catastrophes and revolutions of the     
whole earth1 and its                    
inhabitants1--theories which are        
restrained by no reference to existing  
analogies1 and in which a desire is     
manifested to cut1 rather than patiently
 to untie1 the ,gordian knot4  ,we have 
now1 at least1 the advantage of knowing1
 from experience1 that an opposite      
method has always put geologists on the 
road that leads to truth1--suggesting   
views which1 although imperfect at      
first1 have been found capable of       
improvement1 until at last adopted by   
universal consent2 while the method of  
speculating on a former distinct state  
of things and causes1 has led invariably
 to a multitude of contradictory        
systems1 which have been overthrown one 
after the other1--have been found       
incapable of modification1--and which   
have often required to be precisely     

reversed4  ,the remainder of this work  
will be devoted to an investigation of  
the changes now going on in the crust of
 the earth and its inhabitants4 ,the    
importance which the student will attach
 to such researches will mainly depend  
in the degree of confidence which he    
feels in the principles above expounded4
 ,if he firmly believes in the          
resemblance or identity of the ancient  
and present system of terrestrial       
changes1 he will regard every fact      
collected respecting the causes in      
diurnal action as affording him a key to
 the interpretation of some mystery in  
the past4 ,events which have occurred at
 the most distant periods in the animate
 and inanimate world1 will be           
acknowledged to throw light on each     
other1 and the deficiency of our        
information respecting some of the most 
obscure parts of the present creation   
will be removed4 ,for as1 by studying   
the external configuration of the       
existing land and its inhabitants1 we   

may restore in imagination the          
appearance of the ancient continents    
which have passed away1 so may we obtain
 from the deposits of ancient seas and  
lakes an insight into the nature of the 
subaqueous processes now in operation1  
and of many forms of organic life1      
which1 though now existing1 are veiled  
from sight4 ,rocks1 also1 produced by   
subterranean fire in former ages1 at    
great depths in the bowels of the earth1
 present us1 when upraised by gradual   
movements1 and exposed to the light of  
heaven1 with an image of those changes  
which the deep-seated volcano may now   
occasion in the nether regions4 ,thus1  
although we are mere sojourners on the  
surface of the planet1 chained to a mere
 point in space1 enduring but for a     
moment of time1 the human mind is not   
only enabled to number worlds beyond the
 unassisted ken of mortal eye1 but to   
trace the events of indefinite ages     
before the creation of our race1 and is 
not even withheld from penetrating into 

the dark secrets of the ocean1 or the   
interior of the solid globe2 free1 like 
the spirit which the poet described as  
animating the universe1                 
----ire per omnes   ,terrasque1         
tractusque maris1 coelumque profundum4  
,,book ,,ii4  ,,changes ,,in ,,the      
,,inorganic ,,world4  ,,aqueous         
,,causes4     ,,chapter ,,xiv4          
,division of the subject into changes of
 the organic and inorganic              
world--,inorganic causes of change      
divided into aqueous and                
igneous--,aqueous causes first          
considered--,fall of rain--,recent      
rain-prints in mud--,destroying and     
transporting power of running           
water--,newly formed valleys in         
,georgia--,sinuosities of rivers--,two  
streams when united do not occupy a bed 
of double     surface--,inundations in  
,scotland--,floods caused by landslips  
in the     ,white ,mountains--,bursting 
of a lake in ,switzerland--,devastations
     caused by the ,anio at             

,tivoli--,excavations in the lavas of   
,etna by     ,sicilian rivers--,gorge of
 the ,simeto--,gradual recession of the 
cataract of ,niagara4   ,division of the
 subject4--,geology was defined to be   
the science which investigates the      
former changes that have taken place in 
the organic as well as in the inorganic 
kingdoms of nature4 ,as vicissitudes in 
the inorganic world are most apparent1  
and as on them all fluctuations in the  
animate creation must in a great measure
 depend1 they may claim our first       
consideration4 ,the great agents of     
change in the inorganic world may be    
divided into two principal classes1 the 
aqueous and the igneous4 ,to the aqueous
 belong ,rain1 ,rivers1 ,torrents1      
,springs1 ,currents1 and ,tides2 to the 
igneous1 ,volcanoes1 and ,earthquakes4  
,both these classes are instruments of  
decay as well as of reproduction2 but   
they may also be regarded as antagonist 
forces4 ,for the aqueous agents are     
incessantly laboring to reduce the      

inequalities of the earth's surface to a
 level2 while the igneous are equally   
active in restoring the unevenness of   
the external crust1 partly by heaping up
 new matter in certain localities1 and  
partly by depressing one portion1 and   
forcing out another1 of the earth's     
envelope4  ,it is difficult1 in a       
scientific arrangement1 to give an      
accurate view of the combined effects of
 so many forces in simultaneous         
operation2 because1 when we consider    
them separately1 we cannot easily       
estimate either the extent of their     
efficacy1 or the kind of results which  
they produce4 ,we are in danger1        
therefore1 when we attempt to examine   
the influence exerted singly by each1 of
 overlooking the modifications which    
they produce on one another2 and these  
are so complicated1 that sometimes the  
igneous and aqueous forces co-operate to
 produce a joint effect1 to which       
neither of them unaided by the other    
could give rise1--as when repeated      

earthquakes unite with running water to 
widen a valley2 or when a thermal spring
 rises up from a great depth1 and       
conveys the mineral ingredients with    
which it is impregnated from the        
interior of the earth to the surface4   
,sometimes the organic combine with the 
inorganic causes2 as when a reef1       
composed of shells and corals1 protects 
one line of coast from the destroying   
power of tides or currents1 and turns   
them against some other point2 or when  
drift timber1 floated into a lake1 fills
 a hollow to which the stream would not 
have had sufficient velocity to convey  
earthy sediment4  ,it is necessary1     
however1 to divide our observations on  
these various causes1 and to classify   
them systematically1 endeavoring as much
 as possible to keep in view that the   
effects in nature are mixed and not     
simple1 as they may appear in an        
artificial arrangement4  ,in treating1  
in the first place1 of the aqueous      
causes1 we may consider them under two  

divisions2 first1 those which are       
connected with the circulation of water 
from the land to the sea1 under which   
are included all the phenomena of rain1 
rivers1 glaciers1 and springs2 secondly1
 those which arise from the movements of
 water in lakes1 seas1 and the ocean1   
wherein are comprised the phenomena of  
waves1 tides1 and currents4 ,in turning 
our attention to the former division1 we
 find that the effects of rivers may be 
subdivided into1 first1 those of a      
destroying and transporting1 and1       
secondly1 those of a renovating nature2 
in the former are included the erosion  
of rocks and the transportation of      
matter to lower levels2 in the          
renovating class1 the formation of      
deltas by the influx of sediment1 and   
the shallowing of seas2 but these       
processes are so intimately related to  
each other1 that it will not always be  
possible to consider them under their   
separate heads4  ,fall of ,rain4--,it is
 well known that the capacity of the    

atmosphere to absorb aqueous vapor1 and 
hold it in suspension1 increases with   
every increment of temperature4 ,this   
capacity is also found to augment in a  
higher ratio than the augmentation of   
the heat4 ,hence1 as was first suggested
 by the geologist1 ,dr4 ,hutton1 when   
two volumes of air1 of different        
temperatures1 both saturated with       
moisture1 mingle together1 clouds and   
rain are produced1 for a mean degree of 
heat having resulted from the union of  
the two moist airs1 the excess of vapor 
previously held in suspension by the    
warmer of the two is given out1 and if  
it be in sufficient abundance is        
precipitated in the form of rain4  ,as  
the temperature of the atmosphere       
diminishes gradually from the equator   
towards the pole1 the evaporation of    
water and the quantity of rain diminish 
also4 ,according to ,humboldt's         
computation1 the average annual depth of
 rain at the equator is #if inches1     
while in lat4 #de degrees it is only #bi

 inches1 and in lat4 #fj degrees not    
more than #ag inches4 ,but there are so 
many disturbing causes1 that the actual 
discharge1 in any given locality1 may   
deviate very widely from this rule4 ,in 
,england1 for example1 where the average
 fall at ,london is #bd-a_/b inches1 as 
ascertained at the ,greenwich           
,observatory1 there is such irregularity
 in some districts1 that while at       
,whitehaven1 in ,cumberland1 there fell 
in #ahdi1 #cb inches1 the quantity of   
rain in ,borrowdale1 near ,keswick 7only
 #ae miles to the westward71 was no less
 than #adb inches6#bfb ,in like manner1 
in ,india1 ,colonel ,sykes found by     
observations made in #ahdg and #ahdh1   
that at places situated between #ag     
degrees and #ah degrees north lat41 on a
 line drawn across the ,western ,ghauts 
in the ,deccan1 the fall of rain varied 
from #ba to #bai inches4#bfc ,the annual
 average in ,bengal is probably below   
#hj inches1 yet ,dr4 ,g4 ,hooker        
witnessed at ,churrapoonjee1 in the year

 #ahej1 a fall of #cj inches in #bd     
hours1 and in the same place during a   
residence of six months 7from ,june to  
,november7 #ecj inches6 ,this occurred  
on the south face of the ,khasia 7or    
,garrow7 mountains in ,eastern ,bengal  
7see map1 ,chap4 ,,xviii471 where the   
depth during the whole of the same year 
probably exceeded #fjj inches4 ,so      
extraordinary a discharge of water1     
which1 as we shall presently see1 is    
very local1 may be thus accounted for4  
,warm1 southerly winds1 blowing over the
 ,bay of ,bengal1 and becoming laden    
with vapor during their passage1 reach  
the low level delta of the ,ganges and  
,brahmapootra1 where the ordinary heat  
exceeds that of the sea1 and where      
evaporation is constantly going on from 
countless marshes and the arms of the   
great rivers4 ,a mingling of two masses 
of damp air of different temperatures   
probably causes the fall of #gj or #hj  
inches of rain1 which takes place on the
 plains4 ,the monsoon having crossed the

 delta1 impinges on the ,khasia         
mountains1 which rise abruptly from the 
plain to a mean elevation of between    
#djjj and #ejjj feet4 ,here the wind not
 only encounters the cold air of the    
mountains1 but1 what is far more        
effective as a refrigerating cause1 the 
aerial current is made to flow upwards1 
and to ascend to a height of several    
thousand feet above the sea4 ,both the  
air and the vapor contained in it1 being
 thus relieved of much atmospheric      
pressure1 expand suddenly1 and are      
cooled by rarefaction4 ,the vapor is    
condensed1 and about #ejj inches of rain
 are thrown down annually1 nearly twenty
 times as much as falls in ,great       
,britain in a year1 and almost all of it
 poured down in six months4 ,the channel
 of every torrent and river is swollen  
at this season1 and much sandstone      
horizontally stratified1 and other rocks
 are reduced to sand and gravel by the  
flooded streams4 ,so great is the       
superficial waste 7or denudation71 that 

what would otherwise be a rich and      
luxuriantly wooded region1 is converted 
into a wild and barren moorland4  ,after
 the current of warm air has been thus  
drained of a large portion of its       
moisture1 it still continues its        
northerly course to the opposite flank  
of the ,khasia range1 only #bj miles    
farther north1 and here the fall of rain
 is reduced to #gj inches in the year4  
,the same wind then blows northwards    
across the valley of the ,brahmapootra1 
and at length arrives so dry and        
exhausted at the ,bhootan ,himalaya     
7lat4 #bh degrees ,n471 that those      
mountains1 up to the height of #ejjj    
feet1 are naked and sterile1 and all    
their outer valleys arid and dusty4 ,the
 aerial current still continuing its    
northerly course and ascending to a     
higher region1 becomes further cooled1  
condensation again ensues1 and ,bhootan1
 above #ejjj feet1 is densely clothed   
with vegetation4#bfd  ,in another part  
of ,india1 immediately to the westward1 

similar phenomena are repeated4 ,the    
same warm and humid winds1 copiously    
charged with aqueous vapor from the ,bay
 of ,bengal1 hold their course due north
 for #cjj miles across the flat and hot 
plains of the ,ganges1 till they        
encounter the lofty ,sikkim mountains4  
7,see map1 ,chap4 ,,xviii47 ,on the     
southern flank of these they discharge  
such a deluge of rain that the rivers in
 the rainy season rise twelve feet in as
 many hours4 ,numerous landslips1 some  
of them extending three or four thousand
 feet along the face of the mountains1  
composed of granite1 gneiss1 and slate1 
descend into the beds of streams1 and   
dam them up for a time1 causing         
temporary lakes1 which soon burst their 
barriers4 ,day and night1 says ,dr4     
,hooker1 we heard the crashing of       
falling trees1 and the sound of boulders
 thrown violently against each other in 
the beds of torrents4 ,by such wear and 
tear rocky fragments swept down from the
 hills are in part converted into sand  

and fine mud2 and the turbid ,ganges1   
during its annual inundation1 derives   
more of its sediment from this source   
than from the waste of the fine clay of 
the alluvial plains below4#bfe  ,on the 
verge of the tropics a greater quantity 
of rain falls annually than at the      
equator4 ,yet parts even of the tropical
 latitudes are entirely destitute of    
rain3 ,peru1 for example1 which owes its
 vegetation solely to rivers and nightly
 dews4 ,in that country easterly winds  
prevail1 blowing from the ,pacific1 and 
these being intercepted by the ,andes1  
and cooled as they rise1 are made to    
part with all their moisture before     
reaching the low region to the leeward4 
,the desert zone of ,north ,africa1     
between lat4 #ae degrees and #cj degrees
 ,n41 is another instance of a rainless 
region4 ,five or six consecutive years  
may pass in ,upper ,egypt1 ,nubia1 and  
,dongola1 or in the ,desert of ,sahara1 
without rain4  ,from the facts above    
mentioned1 the reader will infer that in

 the course of successive geological    
periods there will be great variations  
in the quantity of rain falling in one  
and the same region4 ,at one time there 
may be none whatever during the whole   
year2 at another a fall of #ajj or #ejj 
inches2 and these two last averages may 
occur on the two opposite flanks of a   
mountain-chain1 not more than #bj miles 
wide4 ,while1 therefore1 the valleys in 
one district are widened and deepened   
annually1 they may remain stationary in 
another1 the superficial soil being     
protected from waste by a dense covering
 of vegetation4 ,this diversity depends 
on many geographical circumstances1 but 
principally on the height of the land   
above the sea1 the direction of the     
prevailing winds1 and the relative      
position1 at the time being1 of the     
plains1 hills1 and the ocean1 conditions
 all of which are liable in the course  
of ages to undergo a complete           
revolution4  ,recent rain-prints4--,when
 examining1 in #ahdb1 the extensive     

mud-flats of ,nova ,scotia1 which are   
exposed at low tide on the borders of   
the ,bay of ,fundy1 ,i observed not only
 the foot-prints of birds which had     
recently passed over the mud1 but also  
very distinct impressions of rain-drops4
 ,a peculiar combination of             
circumstances renders these mud-flats   
admirably fitted to receive and retain  
any markings which may happen to be made
 on their surface4 ,the sediment with   
which the waters are charged is         
extremely fine1 being derived from the  
destruction of cliffs of red sandstone  
and shale1 and as the tides rise fifty  
feet and upwards1 large areas are laid  
dry for nearly a fortnight between the  
spring and neap tides4 ,in this interval
 the mud is baked in summer by a hot    
sun1 so that it solidifies and becomes  
traversed by cracks1 caused by          
shrinkage4 ,portions of the hardened mud
 between these cracks may then be taken 
up and removed without injury4 ,on      
examining the edges of each slab1 we    

observe numerous layers1 formed by      
successive tides1 each layer being      
usually very thin1 sometimes only       
one-tenth of an inch thick4 ,when a     
shower of rain falls1 the highest       
portion of the mud-covered flat is      
usually too hard to receive any         
impressions2 while that recently        
uncovered by the tide near the water's  
edge is too soft4 ,between these areas a
 zone occurs1 almost as smooth and even 
as a looking-glass1 on which every drop 
forms a cavity of circular or oval form1
 and1 if the shower be transient1 these 
pits retain their shape permanently1    
being dried by the sun1 and being then  
too firm to be effaced by the action of 
the succeeding tide1 which deposits upon
 them a new layer of mud4 ,hence we     
often find1 in splitting open a slab an 
inch or more thick1 on the upper surface
 of which the marks of recent rain      
occur1 that an inferior layer1 deposited
 during some previous rise of the tide1 
exhibits on its under side perfect casts

 of rain-prints1 which stand out in     
relief1 the moulds of the same being    
seen on the layer below4 ,but in some   
cases1 especially in the more sandy     
layers1 the markings have been somewhat 
blunted by the tide1 and by several     
rain-prints having been joined into one 
by a repetition of drops falling on the 
same spot2 in which case the casts      
present a very irregular and blistered  
appearance4  ,the finest examples which 
,i have seen of these rain-prints were  
sent to me by ,dr4 ,webster1 from       
,kentville1 on the borders of the ,bay  
of ,mines1 in ,nova ,scotia4 ,they were 
made by a heavy shower which fell on the
 #bast of ,july1 #ahdi1 when the rise   
and fall of the tides were at their     
maximum4 ,the impressions 7see fig4 #ac7
 consist of cup-shaped or hemispherical 
cavities1 the average size of which is  
from one-eighth to one-tenth of an inch 
across1 but the largest are fully half  
an inch in diameter1 and one-tenth of an
 inch deep4 ,the depth is chiefly below 

the general surface or plane of         
stratification1 but the walls of the    
cavity consist partly of a prominent rim
 of sandy mud1 formed of the matter     
which has been forcibly expelled from   
the pit4 ,all the cavities having an    
oval form are deeper at one end1 where  
they have also a higher rim1 and all the
 deep ends have the same direction1     
showing towards which quarter the wind  
was blowing4 ,two or more drops are     
sometimes seen to have interfered with  
each other2 in which case it is usually 
possible to determine which drop fell   
last1 its rim being unbroken4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4  ,recent      
rain-prints1 formed ,july #ba1 #ahdi1 at
 ,kentville1 ,bay of ,fundy1 ,nova      
,scotia4 ,the arrow represents the      
direction of the shower4  ,on some of   
the specimens the winding tubular tracks
 of worms are seen1 which have been     
bored just beneath the surface 7see fig4
 #ac1 left side74 ,they occasionally    
pass under the middle of a rain-mark1   

having been formed subsequently4        
,sometimes the worms have dived beneath 
the surface1 and then reappeared4 ,all  
these appearances1 both of rain-prints  
and worm-tracks1 are of great geological
 interest1 as their exact counterparts  
are seen in rocks of various ages1 even 
in formations of very high              
antiquity4#bff ,small cavities1 often   
corresponding in size to those produced 
by rain1 are also caused by air-bubbles 
rising up through sand or mud2 but these
 differ in character from rain-prints1  
being usually deeper than they are wide1
 and having their sides steeper4 ,these1
 indeed1 are occasionally vertical1 or  
overarching1 the opening at the top     
being narrower than the pit below4 ,in  
their mode1 also1 of mutual interference
 they are unlike rain-prints4#bfg  ,in  
consequence of the effects of mountains 
in cooling currents of moist air1 and   
causing the condensation of aqueous     
vapor in the manner above described1 it 
follows that in every country1 as a     

general rule1 the more elevated regions 
become perpetual reservoirs of water1   
which descends and irrigates the lower  
valleys and plains4 ,the largest        
quantity of water is first carried to   
the highest region1 and then made to    
descend by steep declivities towards the
 sea2 so that it acquires superior      
velocity1 and removes more soil1 than it
 would do if the rain had been          
distributed over the plains and         
mountains equally in proportion to their
 relative areas4 ,the water is also made
 by these means to pass over the        
greatest distances before it can regain 
the sea4  ,it has already been observed 
that in higher latitudes1 where the     
atmosphere being colder is capable of   
holding less water in suspension1 a     
diminished fall of rain takes place4    
,thus at ,st4 ,petersburg1 the amount is
 only #af inches1 and at ,uleaborg in   
the ,gulf of ,bothnia 7,n4 lat4 #fe     
degrees71 only #ac-a_/b inches1 or less 
than half the average of ,england1 and  

even this small quantity descends more  
slowly in the temperate zone1 and is    
spread more equally over the year than  
in tropical climates4 ,but in reference 
to geological changes1 frost in the     
colder latitude acts as a compensating  
power in the disintegration of rocks1   
and the transportation of stones to     
lower levels4  ,water when converted    
into ice augments in bulk more than     
one-twentieth of its volume1 and owing  
to this property it widens the minute   
crevices 7or joints7 of rocks into which
 it penetrates4 ,ice also in various    
ways1 as will be shown in the next      
chapter1 gives buoyancy to mud and sand1
 even to huge blocks of stone1 enabling 
rivers of moderate size and velocity to 
carry them to a great distance4  ,the   
mechanical force exerted by running     
water in undermining cliffs1 and        
rounding off the angles of hard rock1 is
 mainly due to the intermixture of      
foreign ingredients4 ,sand and pebbles1 
when hurried along by the violence of   

the stream1 are thrown against every    
obstacle lying in their way1 and thus a 
power of attrition is acquired1 capable 
of wearing through the hardest siliceous
 stones1 on which water alone could make
 no impression4  ,newly formed          
valleys4--,when travelling in ,georgia  
and ,alabama1 in #ahdf1 ,i saw in both  
those ,states the commencement of       
hundreds of valleys in places where the 
native forest had recently been removed4
 ,one of these newly formed gulleys or  
ravines is represented in the annexed   
woodcut 7fig4 #ad71 from a drawing which
 ,i made on the spot4 ,it occurs three  
miles and a half due west of            
,milledgeville1 the capital of ,georgia1
 and is situated on the farm of ,pomona1
 on the direct road to ,macon4#bfh      
,twenty years ago1 before the land was  
cleared1 it had no existence2 but when  
the trees of the forest were cut down1  
cracks three feet deep were caused by   
the sun's heat in the clay2 and1 during 
the rains1 a sudden rush of water       

through the principal crack deepened it 
at its lower extremity1 from whence the 
excavating power worked backwards1 till1
 in the course of twenty years1 a chasm1
 measuring no less than #ee feet in     
depth1 #cjj yards in length1 and varying
 in width from #bj to #ahj feet1 was the
 result4 ,the high road has been several
 times turned to avoid this cavity1 the 
enlargement of which is still           
proceeding1 and the old line of road may
 be seen to have held its course        
directly over what is now the wildest   
part of the ravine4 ,in the             
perpendicular walls of this great chasm 
appear beds of clay and sand1 red1      
white1 yellow1 and green1 produced by   
the decomposition in situ of hornblendic
 gneiss1 with layers and veins of       
quartz1 which remain entire1 to prove   
that the whole mass was once solid and  
crystalline4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 
,ravine on the farm of ,pomona1 near    
,milledgeville1 ,georgia1 as it appeared
 ,january1 #ahdf4  ,excavated in twenty 

years1 #ee feet deep1 and #ahj feet     
broad4  ,i infer1 from the rapidity of  
the denudation which only began here    
after the removal of the native wood1   
that this spot1 elevated about #fjj feet
 above the sea1 has been always covered 
with a dense forest1 from the remote    
time when it first emerged from the sea4
 ,the termination of the cavity on the  
right hand in the foreground is the head
 or upper end of the ravine1 and in     
almost every case1 such gulleys are     
lengthened by the streams cutting their 
way backwards4 ,the depth at the upper  
end is often1 as in this case1          
considerable1 and there is usually at   
this point1 during floods1 a small      
cascade4  ,sinuosities of rivers4--,in  
proportion as such valleys are widened1 
sinuosities are caused by the deflection
 of the stream first to one side and    
then to the other4 ,the unequal hardness
 of the materials through which the     
channel is eroded tends partly to give  
new directions to the lateral force of  

excavation4 ,when by these1 or by       
accidental shiftings of the alluvial    
matter in the channel1 the current is   
made to cross its general line of       
descent1 it eats out a curve in the     
opposite bank1 or in the side of the    
hills bounding the valley1 from which   
curve it is turned back again at an     
equal angle1 so that it recrosses the   
line of descent1 and gradually hollows  
out another curve lower down in the     
opposite bank1 till the whole sides of  
the valley1 or river bed1 present a     
succession of salient and retiring      
angles4 ,among the causes of deviation  
from a straight course1 by which        
torrents and rivers tend in mountainous 
regions to widen the valleys through    
which they flow1 may be mentioned the   
confluence of lateral torrents1 swollen 
irregularly at different seasons by     
partial storms1 and discharging at      
different times unequal quantities of   
sand1 mud1 and pebbles1 into the main   
channel4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4     

,when the tortuous flexures of a river  
are extremely great1 as often happens in
 alluvial plains1 the aberration from   
the direct line of descent may be       
restored by the river cutting through   
the isthmus which separates two         
neighboring curves4 ,thus in the annexed
 diagram1 the extreme sinuosity of the  
river has caused it to return for a     
brief space in a contrary direction to  
its main course1 so that a peninsula is 
formed1 and the isthmus 7at a7 is       
consumed on both sides by currents      
flowing in opposite directions4 ,in this
 case an island is soon formed1--on     
either side of which a portion of the   
stream usually remains4  ,transporting  
power of water4--,in regard to the      
transporting power of water1 we may     
often be surprised at the facility with 
which streams of a small size1 and      
descending a slight declivity1 bear     
along coarse sand and gravel2 for we    
usually estimate the weight of rocks in 
air1 and do not reflect on their        

comparative buoyancy when submerged in a
 denser fluid4 ,the specific gravity of 
many rocks is not more than twice that  
of water1 and very rarely more than     
thrice1 so that almost all the fragments
 propelled by a stream have lost a      
third1 and many of them a half1 of what 
we usually term their weight4  ,it has  
been proved by experiment1 in           
contradiction to the theories of the    
earlier writers on hydrostatics1 to be a
 universal law1 regulating the motion of
 running water1 that the velocity at the
 bottom of the stream is everywhere less
 than in any part above it1 and is      
greatest at the surface4 ,also that the 
superficial particles in the middle of  
the stream move swifter than those at   
the sides4 ,this retardation of the     
lowest and lateral currents is produced 
by friction2 and when the velocity is   
sufficiently great1 the soil composing  
the sides and bottom gives way4 ,a      
velocity of three inches per second at  
the bottom is ascertained to be         

sufficient to tear up fine clay1--six   
inches per second1 fine sand1--twelve   
inches per second1 fine gravel1--and    
three feet per second1 stones of the    
size of an egg4#bfi  ,when this         
mechanical power of running water is    
considered1 we are prepared for the     
transportation before alluded to of     
large quantities of gravel1 sand1 and   
mud1 by torrents which descend from     
mountainous regions4 ,but a question    
naturally arises1 ,how the more tranquil
 rivers of the valleys and plains1      
flowing on comparatively level ground1  
can remove the prodigious burden which  
is discharged into them by their        
numerous tributaries1 and by what means 
they are enabled to convey the whole    
mass to the sea8 ,if they had not this  
removing power1 their channels would be 
annually choked up1 and the valleys of  
the lower country1 and plains at the    
base of mountain-chains1 would be       
continually strewed over with fragments 
of rock and sterile sand4 ,but this evil

 is prevented by a general law          
regulating the conduct of running       
water1--that two equal streams do not1  
when united1 occupy a bed of double     
surface4 ,nay1 the width of the         
principal river1 after the junction of a
 tributary1 sometimes remains the same  
as before1 or is even lessened4 ,the    
cause of this apparent paradox was long 
ago explained by the ,italian writers1  
who had studied the confluence of the   
,po and its feeders in the plains of    
,lombardy4  ,the addition of a smaller  
river augments the velocity of the main 
stream1 often in the same proportion as 
it does the quantity of water4 ,thus the
 ,venetian branch of the ,po swallowed  
up the ,ferranese branch and that of    
,panaro without any enlargement of its  
own dimensions4 ,the cause of the       
greater velocity is1 first1 that after  
the union of two rivers the water1 in   
place of the friction of four shores1   
has only that of two to surmount2       
#b;dly1 because the main body of the    

stream being farther distant from the   
banks1 flows on with less interruption2 
and lastly1 because a greater quantity  
of water moving more swiftly1 digs      
deeper into the river's bed4 ,by this   
beautiful adjustment1 the water which   
drains the interior country is made     
continually to occupy less room as it   
approaches the sea2 and thus the most   
valuable part of our continents1 the    
rich deltas and great alluvial plains1  
are prevented from being constantly     
under water4  ,river floods in          
,scotland1 #ahbi4--,many remarkable     
illustrations of the power of running   
water in moving stones and heavy        
materials were afforded by the storm and
 floods which occurred on the #c;d and  
#dth of ,august1 #ahbi1 in              
,aberdeenshire and other counties in    
,scotland4 ,the elements during this    
storm assumed all the characters which  
mark the tropical hurricanes2 the wind  
blowing in sudden gusts and whirlwinds1 
the lightning and thunder being such as 

is rarely witnessed in our climate1 and 
heavy rain falling without intermission4
 ,the floods extended almost            
simultaneously1 and with equal violence 
over that part of the northeast of      
,scotland which would be cut off by two 
lines drawn from the head of            
,lochrannoch1 one towards ,inverness and
 the other to ,stonehaven4 ,the united  
line of the different rivers which were 
flooded1 could not be less than from    
five to six hundred miles in length2 and
 the whole of their courses were marked 
by the destruction of bridges1 roads1   
crops1 and buildings4 ,sir ,t4 ,d4      
,lauder has recorded the destruction of 
thirty-eight bridges1 and the entire    
obliteration of a great number of farms 
and hamlets4 ,on the ,nairn1 a fragment 
of sandstone1 fourteen feet long by     
three feet wide and one foot thick1 was 
carried above #bjj yards down the river4
 ,some new ravines were formed on the   
sides of mountains where no streams had 
previously flowed1 and ancient          

river-channels1 which had never been    
filled from time immemorial1 gave       
passage to a copious flood4#bgj  ,the   
bridge over the ,dee at ,ballater       
consisted of five arches1 having upon   
the whole a water-way of #bfj feet4 ,the
 bed of the river1 on which the piers   
rested1 was composed of rolled pieces of
 granite and gneiss4 ,the bridge was    
built of granite1 and had stood         
uninjured for twenty years2 but the     
different parts were swept away in      
succession by the flood1 and the whole  
mass of masonry disappeared in the bed  
of the river4 ,the river ,don1 observes 
,mr4 ,farquharson1 in his account of the
 inundations1 has upon my own premises  
forced a mass of four or five hundred   
tons of stones1 many of them two or     
three hundred pounds' weight1 up an     
inclined plane1 rising six feet in eight
 or ten yards1 and left them in a       
rectangular heap1 about three feet deep 
on a flat ground3--the heap ends        
abruptly at its lower extremity4#bga    

,the power even of a small rivulet1 when
 swollen by rain1 in removing heavy     
bodies1 was exemplified in ,august1     
#ahbg1 in the ,college1 a small stream  
which flows at a slight declivity from  
the eastern watershed of the ,cheviot   
,hills4 ,several thousand tons' weight  
of gravel and sand were transported to  
the plain of the ,till1 and a bridge1   
then in progress of building1 was       
carried away1 some of the arch-stones of
 which1 weighing from half to three     
quarters of a ton each1 were propelled  
two miles down the rivulet4 ,on the same
 occasion1 the current tore away from   
the abutment of a mill-dam a large block
 of greenstone-porphyry1 weighing nearly
 two tons1 and transported it to the    
distance of a quarter of a mile4        
,instances are related as occurring     
repeatedly1 in which from one to three  
thousand tons of gravel are1 in like    
manner1 removed by this streamlet to    
still greater distances in one day4#bgb 
,floods caused by landslips1            

#ahbf4--,the power which running water  
may exert in the lapse of ages1 in      
widening and deepening a valley1 does   
not so much depend on the volume and    
velocity of the stream usually flowing  
in it1 as on the number and magnitude of
 the obstructions which have1 at        
different periods1 opposed its free     
passage4 ,if a torrent1 however small1  
be effectually dammed up1 the size of   
the valley above the barrier1 and its   
declivity below1 and not the dimensions 
of the torrent1 will determine the      
violence of the dabacle4 ,the most      
universal source of local deluges1 are  
landslips1 slides1 or avalanches1 as    
they are sometimes called1 when great   
masses of rock and soil1 or sometimes   
ice and snow1 are precipitated into the 
bed of a river1 the boundary cliffs of  
which have been thrown down by the shock
 of an earthquake1 or undermined by     
springs or other causes4 ,volumes might 
be filled with the enumeration of       
instances on record of these terrific   

catastrophes2 ,i shall therefore select 
a few examples of recent occurrence1 the
 facts of which are well authenticated4 
,two dry seasons in the ,white          
,mountains1 in ,new ,hampshire 7,united 
,states71 were followed by heavy rains  
on the #bhth ,august1 #ahbf1 when from  
the steep and lofty declivities which   
rise abruptly on both sides of the river
 ,saco1 innumerable rocks and stones1   
many of sufficient size to fill a common
 apartment1 were detached1 and in their 
descent swept down before them1 in one  
promiscuous and frightful ruin1 forests1
 shrubs1 and the earth which sustained  
them4 ,although there are numerous      
indications on the steep sides of these 
hills of former slides of the same kind1
 yet no tradition had been handed down  
of any similar catastrophe within the   
memory of man1 and the growth of the    
forest on the very spots now devastated1
 clearly showed that for a long interval
 nothing similar had occurred4 ,one of  
these moving masses was afterwards found

 to have slid three miles1 with an      
average breadth of a quarter of a mile4 
,the natural excavations commenced      
generally in a trench a few yards in    
depth and a few rods in width1 and      
descended the mountains1 widening and   
deepening till they became vast chasms4 
,at the base of these hollow ravines was
 seen a confused mass of ruins1         
consisting of transported earth1 gravel1
 rocks1 and trees4 ,forests of          
spruce-fir and hemlock1 a kind of fir   
somewhat resembling our yew in foliage1 
were prostrated with as much ease as if 
they had been fields of grain2 for1     
where they disputed the ground1 the     
torrent of mud and rock accumulated     
behind1 till it gathered sufficient     
force to burst the temporary barrier4   
,the valleys of the ,amonoosuck and     
,saco presented1 for many miles1 an     
uninterrupted scene of desolation2 all  
the bridges being carried away1 as well 
as those over their tributary streams4  
,in some places1 the road was excavated 

to the depth of from fifteen to twenty  
feet2 in others1 it was covered with    
earth1 rocks1 and trees1 to as great a  
height4 ,the water flowed for many weeks
 after the flood1 as densely charged    
with earth as it could be without being 
changed into mud1 and marks were seen in
 various localities of its having risen 
on either side of the valley to more    
than twenty-five feet above its ordinary
 level4 ,many sheep and cattle were     
swept away1 and the ,willey family1 nine
 in number1 who in alarm had deserted   
their house1 were destroyed on the banks
 of the ,saco2 seven of their mangled   
bodies were afterwards found near the   
river1 buried beneath drift-wood and    
mountain ruins4#bgc ,eleven years after 
the event1 the deep channels worn by the
 avalanches of mud and stone1 and the   
immense heaps of boulders and blocks of 
granite in the river channel1 still     
formed1 says ,professor ,hubbard1 a     
picturesque feature in the scenery4#bgd 
,when ,i visited the country in #ahde1  

eight years after ,professor ,hubbard1  
,i found the signs of devastation still 
very striking2 ,i also particularly     
remarked that although the surface of   
the bare granitic rocks had been        
smoothed by the passage over them of so 
much mud and stone1 there were no       
continuous parallel and rectilinear     
furrows1 nor any of the fine scratches  
or striae which characterize glacial    
action4 ,the absence of these is nowhere
 more clearly exemplified than in the   
bare rocks over which passed the great  
,willey slide of #ahbf4bge  ,but the    
catastrophes in the ,white ,mountains   
are insignificant1 when compared to     
those which are occasioned by           
earthquakes1 when the boundary hills1   
for miles in length1 are thrown down    
into the hollow of a valley4 ,i shall   
have opportunities of alluding to       
inundations of this kind1 when treating 
expressly of earthquakes1 and shall     
content myself at present with selecting
 an example of a flood due to a         

different cause4  ,flood in the valley  
of ,bagnes1 #ahah4--,the valley of      
,bagnes is one of the largest of the    
lateral embranchments of the main valley
 of the ,rhone1 above the ,lake of      
,geneva4 ,its upper portion was1 in     
#ahah1 converted into a lake by the     
damming up of a narrow pass1 by         
avalanches of snow and ice1 precipitated
 from an elevated glacier into the bed  
of the river ,dranse4 ,in the winter    
season1 during continued frost1 scarcely
 any water flows in the bed of this     
river to preserve an open channel1 so   
that the ice barrier remained entire    
until the melting of the snows in       
spring1 when a lake was formed above1   
about half a league in length1 which    
finally attained in some parts a depth  
of about two hundred feet1 and a width  
of about seven hundred feet4 ,to prevent
 or lessen the mischief apprehended from
 the sudden bursting of the barrier1 an 
artificial gallery1 seven hundred feet  
in length1 was cut through the ice1     

before the waters had risen to a great  
height4 ,when at length they accumulated
 and flowed through this tunnel1 they   
dissolved the ice1 and thus deepened    
their channel1 until nearly half of the 
whole contents of the lake were slowly  
drained off4 ,but at length1 on the     
approach of the hot season1 the central 
portion of the remaining mass of ice    
gave way with a tremendous crash1 and   
the residue of the lake was emptied in  
half an hour4 ,in the course of its     
descent1 the waters encountered several 
narrow gorges1 and at each of these they
 rose to a great height1 and then burst 
with new violence into the next basin1  
sweeping along rocks1 forests1 houses1  
bridges1 and cultivated land4 ,for the  
greater part of its course the flood    
resembled a moving mass of rock and mud1
 rather than of water4 ,some fragments  
of granitic rocks1 of enormous          
magnitude1 and which from their         
dimensions1 might be compared without   
exaggeration to houses1 were torn out of

 a more ancient alluvion1 and borne down
 for a quarter of a mile4 ,one of the   
fragments moved was sixty paces in      
circumference4#bgf ,the velocity of the 
water1 in the first part of its course1 
was thirty-three feet per second1 which 
diminished to six feet before it reached
 the ,lake of ,geneva1 where it arrived 
in six hours and a half1 the distance   
being forty-five miles4#bgg  ,this flood
 left behind it1 on the plains of       
,martigny1 thousands of trees torn up by
 the roots1 together with the ruins of  
buildings4 ,some of the houses in that  
town were filled with mud up to the     
second story4 ,after expanding in the   
plain of ,martigny1 it entered the      
,rhone1 and did no farther damage2 but  
some bodies of men1 who had been drowned
 above ,martigny1 were afterwards found1
 at the distance of about thirty miles1 
floating on the farther side of the     
,lake of ,geneva1 near ,vevay4  ,the    
waters1 on escaping from the temporary  
lake1 intermixed with mud and rock1     

swept along1 for the first four miles1  
at the rate of above twenty miles an    
hour2 and ,m4 ,escher1 the engineer1    
calculated that the flood furnished     
#cjj1jjj cubic feet of water every      
second--an efflux which is five times   
greater than that of the ,rhine below   
,basle4 ,now1 if part of the lake had   
not been gradually drained off1 the     
flood would have been nearly double1    
approaching in volume to some of the    
largest rivers in ,europe4 ,it is       
evident1 therefore1 that when we are    
speculating on the excavating force     
which a river may have exerted in any   
particular valley1 the most important   
question is1 not the volume of the      
existing stream1 nor the present levels 
of its channel1 nor even the nature of  
the rocks1 but the probability of a     
succession of floods at some period     
since the time when the valley may have 
been first elevated above the sea4  ,for
 several months after the dabacle of    
#ahah1 the ,dranse1 having no settled   

channel1 shifted its position           
continually from one side to the other  
of the valley1 carrying away            
newly-erected bridges1 undermining      
houses1 and continuing to be charged    
with as large a quantity of earthy      
matter as the fluid could hold in       
suspension4 ,i visited this valley four 
months after the flood1 and was witness 
to the sweeping away of a bridge1 and   
the undermining of part of a house4 ,the
 greater part of the ice-barrier was    
then standing1 presenting vertical      
cliffs #aej feet high1 like ravines in  
the lava-currents of ,etna or ,auvergne1
 where they are intersected by rivers4  
,inundations1 precisely similar1 are    
recorded to have occurred at former     
periods in this district1 and from the  
same cause4 ,in #aeie1 for example1 a   
lake burst1 and the waters1 descending  
with irresistible fury1 destroyed the   
town of ,martigny1 where from sixty to  
eighty persons perished4 ,in a similar  
flood1 fifty years before1 #adj persons 

were drowned4  ,flood at ,tivoli1       
#ahbf4--;,i shall conclude with one more
 example derived from a land of classic 
recollections1 the ancient ,tibur1 and  
which1 like all the other inundations   
above alluded to1 occurred within the   
present century4 ,the younger ,pliny1 it
 will be remembered1 describes a flood  
on the ,anio1 which destroyed woods1    
rocks1 and houses1 with the most        
sumptuous villas and works of arts4#bgh 
,for four or five centuries             
consecutively1 this headlong stream1 as 
,horace truly called it1 has often      
remained within its bounds1 and then1   
after so long an interval of rest1 has  
at different periods inundated its banks
 again1 and widened its channel4 ,the   
last of these catastrophes happened     
#aeth ,nov4 #ahbf1 after heavy rains1   
such as produced the floods before      
alluded to in ,scotland4 ,the waters    
appear also to have been impeded by an  
artificial dike1 by which they were     
separated into two parts1 a short       

distance above ,tivoli4 ,they broke     
through this dike2 and leaving the left 
trench dry1 precipitated themselves1    
with their whole weight1 on the right   
side4 ,here they undermined1 in the     
course of a few hours1 a high cliff1 and
 widened the river's channel about      
fifteen paces4 ,on this height stood the
 church of ,st4 ,lucia1 and about       
thirty-six houses of the town of        
,tivoli1 which were all carried away1   
presenting as they sank into the roaring
 flood1 a terrific scene of destruction 
to the spectators on the opposite bank4 
,as the foundations were gradually      
removed1 each building1 some of them    
edifices of considerable height1 was    
first traversed with numerous rents1    
which soon widened into large fissures1 
until at length the roofs fell in with a
 crash1 and then the walls sunk into the
 river1 and were hurled down the        
cataract below4#bgi  ,the destroying    
agency of the flood came within two     
hundred yards of the precipice on which 

the beautiful temple of ,vesta stands2  
but fortunately this precious relic of  
antiquity was spared1 while the wreck of
 modern structures was hurled down the  
abyss4 ,vesta1 it will be remembered1 in
 the heathen mythology1 personified the 
stability of the earth2 and when the    
,samian astronomer1 ,aristarchus1 first 
taught that the earth revolved on its   
axis1 and round the sun1 he was publicly
 accused of impiety1 for removing the   
everlasting ,vesta from her place4      
,playfair observed1 that when ,hutton   
ascribed instability to the earth's     
surface1 and represented the continents 
which we inhabit as the theatre of      
incessant change and movement1 his      
antagonists1 who regarded them as       
unalterable1 assailed him in a similar  
manner with accusations founded on      
religious prejudices4#bhj ,we might     
appeal to the excavating power of the   
,anio as corroborative of one of the    
most controverted parts of the          
,huttonian theory2 and if the days of   

omens had not gone by1 the geologists   
who now worship ,vesta might regard the 
late catastrophe as portentous4 ,we may1
 at least1 recommend the modern votaries
 of the goddess to lose no time in      
making a pilgrimage to her shrine1 for  
the next flood may not respect the      
temple4  ,excavation of rocks by running
 water4--,the rapidity with which even  
the smallest streams hollow out deep    
channels in soft and destructible soils 
is remarkably exemplified in volcanic   
countries1 where the sand and           
half-consolidated tuffs opposed but a   
slight resistance to the torrents which 
descend the mountain-side4 ,after the   
heavy rains which followed the eruption 
of ,vesuvius in #ahbd1 the water flowing
 from the ,atrio del ,cavallo cut1 in   
three days1 a new chasm through strata  
of tuff and ejected volcanic matter1 to 
the depth of twenty-five feet4 ,i found 
the old mule-road1 in #ahbh1 intersected
 by this new ravine4  ,the gradual      
erosion of deep chasms through some of  

the hardest rocks1 by the constant      
passage of running water1 charged with  
foreign matter1 is another phenomenon of
 which striking examples may be adduced4
 ,illustrations of this excavating power
 are presented by many valleys in       
central ,france where the channels of   
rivers have been barred up by solid     
currents of lava1 through which the     
streams have re-excavated a passage1 to 
the depth of from twenty to seventy feet
 and upwards1 and often of great width4 
,in these cases there are decisive      
proofs that neither the sea1 nor any    
denuding wave or extraordinary body of  
water1 has passed over the spot since   
the melted lava was consolidated4 ,every
 hypothesis of the intervention of      
sudden and violent agency is entirely   
excluded1 because the cones of loose    
scoriae1 out of which the lavas flowed1 
are oftentimes at no great elevation    
above the rivers1 and have remained     
undisturbed during the whole period     
which has been sufficient for the       

hollowing out of such enormous ravines4 
,recent excavation by the ,simeto4--,but
 ,i shall at present confine myself to  
examples derived from events which have 
happened since the time of history4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4  ,recent      
excavation of lava at the foot of ,etna 
by the river ,simeto4  ,at the western  
base of ,etna1 a current of lava 7,a ,a1
 fig4 #af71 descending from near the    
summit of the great volcano1 has flowed 
to the distance of five or six miles1   
and then reached the alluvial plain of  
the ,simeto1 the largest of the         
,sicilian rivers1 which skirts the base 
of ,etna1 and falls into the sea a few  
miles south of ,catania4 ,the lava      
entered the river about three miles     
above the town of ,aderno1 and not only 
occupied its channel for some distance1 
but1 crossing to the opposite side of   
the valley1 accumulated there in a rocky
 mass4 ,gemmellaro gives the year #afjc 
as the date of the eruption4#bha ,the   
appearance of the current clearly       

proves1 that it is one of the most      
modern of those of ,etna2 for it has not
 been covered or crossed by subsequent  
streams or ejections1 and the olives    
which had been planted on its surface   
were all of small size1 when ,i examined
 the spot in #ahbh1 yet they were older 
than the natural wood on the same lava4 
,in the course1 therefore1 of about two 
centuries1 the ,simeto has eroded a     
passage from fifty to several hundred   
feet wide1 and in some parts from forty 
to fifty feet deep4  ,the portion of    
lava cut through is in no part porous or
 scoriaceous1 but consists of a compact 
homogeneous mass of hard blue rock1     
somewhat inferior in weight to ordinary 
basalt1 and containing crystals of      
olivine and glassy felspar4 ,the general
 declivity of this part of the bed of   
the ,simeto is not considerable2 but1 in
 consequence of the unequal waste of the
 lava1 two water-falls occur at ,passo  
,manzanelli1 each about six feet in     
height4 ,here the chasm 7,b1 fig4 #af7  

is about forty feet deep1 and only fifty
 broad4  ,the sand and pebbles in the   
river-bed consist chiefly of a brown    
quartzose sandstone1 derived from the   
upper country2 but the materials of the 
volcanic rock itself must have greatly  
assisted the attrition4 ,this river1    
like the ,caltabiano on the eastern side
 of ,etna1 has not yet cut down to the  
ancient bed of which it was             
dispossessed1 and of which the probable 
position is indicated in the annexed    
diagram 7,c1 fig4 #af74  ,on entering   
the narrow ravine where the water foams 
down the two cataracts1 we are entirely 
shut out from all view of the           
surrounding country2 and a geologist who
 is accustomed to associate the         
characteristic features of the landscape
 with the relative age of certain rocks1
 can scarcely dissuade himself from the 
belief that he is contemplating a scene 
in some rocky gorge of a primary        
district4 ,the external forms of the    
hard blue lava are as massive as any of 

the most ancient trap-rocks of          
,scotland4 ,the solid surface is in some
 parts smoothed and almost polished by  
attrition1 and covered in others with a 
white lichen1 which imparts to it an air
 of extreme antiquity1 so as greatly to 
heighten the delusion4 ,but the moment  
we reascend the cliff the spell is      
broken2 for we scarcely recede a few    
paces1 before the ravine and river      
disappear1 and we stand on the black and
 rugged surface of a vast current of    
lava1 which seems unbroken1 and which we
 can trace up nearly to the distant     
summit of that majestic cone which      
,pindar called the pillar of heaven1 and
 which still continues to send forth a  
fleecy wreath of vapor1 reminding us    
that its fires are not extinct1 and that
 it may again give out a rocky stream1  
wherein other scenes like that now      
described may present themselves to     
future observers4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ag4 ,lake ,erie4 ,the ,falls4          
,limestone ,shale4  ,lewiston4 ,niagara 

,river4 ,queenstown4  ,falls of         
,niagara4--,the falls of ,niagara afford
 a magnificent example of the           
progressive excavation of a deep valley 
in solid rock4 ,that river flows over a 
flat table-land1 in a depression of     
which ,lake ,erie is situated4 ,where it
 issues from the lake1 it is nearly a   
mile in width1 and #ccj feet above ,lake
 ,ontario1 which is about #cj miles     
distant4 ,for the first fifteen miles   
below ,lake ,erie the surrounding       
country1 comprising ,upper ,canada on   
the west1 and the state of ,new ,york on
 the east1 is almost on a level with its
 banks1 and nowhere more than thirty or 
forty feet above them4#bhb 7,see fig4   
#ag47 ,the river being occasionally     
interspersed with low wooded islands1   
and having sometimes a width of three   
miles1 glides along at first with a     
clear1 smooth1 and tranquil current1    
falling only fifteen feet in as many    
miles1 and in this part of its course   
resembling an arm of ,lake ,erie4 ,but  

its character is afterwards entirely    
changed1 on approaching the ,rapids1    
where it begins to rush and foam over a 
rocky and uneven limestone bottom1 for  
the space of nearly a mile1 till at     
length it is thrown down perpendicularly
 #afe feet at the ,falls4 ,here the     
river is divided into two sheets of     
water by an island1 the largest cataract
 being more than a third of a mile      
broad1 the smaller one having a breadth 
of six hundred feet4 ,when the water has
 precipitated itself into an            
unfathomable pool1 it rushes with great 
velocity down the sloping bottom of a   
narrow chasm1 for a distance of seven   
miles4 ,this ravine varies from #bjj to 
#djj yards in width from cliff to cliff2
 contrasting1 therefore1 strongly in its
 breadth with that of the river above4  
,its depth is from #bjj to #cjj feet1   
and it intersects for about seven miles 
the table-land before described1 which  
terminates suddenly at ,queenstown in an
 escarpment or long line of inland cliff

 facing northwards1 towards ,lake       
,ontario4 ,the ,niagara1 on reaching the
 escarpment and issuing from the gorge1 
enters the flat country1 which is so    
nearly on a level with ,lake ,ontario1  
that there is only a fall of about four 
feet in the seven additional miles which
 intervene between ,queenstown and the  
shores of that lake4  ,it has long been 
the popular belief that the ,niagara    
once flowed in a shallow valley across  
the whole platform1 from the present    
site of the ,falls to the escarpment    
7called the ,queenstown heights71 where 
it is supposed that the cataract was    
first situated1 and that the river has  
been slowly eating its way backwards    
through the rocks for the distance of   
seven miles4 ,this hypothesis naturally 
suggests itself to every observer1 who  
sees the narrowness of the gorge at its 
termination1 and throughout its whole   
course1 as far up as the ,falls1 above  
which point the river expands as before 
stated4 ,the boundary cliffs of the     

ravine are usually perpendicular1 and in
 many places undermined on one side by  
the impetuous stream4 ,the uppermost    
rock of the table-land at the ,falls    
consists of hard limestone 7a member of 
the ,silurian series71 about ninety feet
 thick1 beneath which lie soft shales of
 equal thickness1 continually undermined
 by the action of the spray1 which rises
 from the pool into which so large a    
body of water is projected1 and is      
driven violently by gusts of wind       
against the base of the precipice4 ,in  
consequence of this action1 and that of 
frost1 the shale disintegrates and      
crumbles away1 and portions of the      
incumbent rock overhang #dj feet1 and   
often when unsupported tumble down1 so  
that the ,falls do not remain absolutely
 stationary at the same spot1 even for  
half a century4 ,accounts have come down
 to us1 from the earliest period of     
observation1 of the frequent destruction
 of these rocks1 and the sudden descent 
of huge fragments in #ahah and #ahbh1   

are said to have shaken the adjacent    
country like an earthquake4 ,the        
earliest travellers1 ,hennepin and      
,kalm1 who in #afgh and #agea visited   
the ,falls1 and published views of them1
 attest the fact1 that the rocks have   
been suffering from dilapidation for    
more than a century and a half1 and that
 some slight changes1 even in the       
scenery of the cataract have been       
brought about within that time4 ,the    
idea1 therefore1 of perpetual and       
progressive waste is constantly present 
to the mind of every beholder2 and as   
that part of the chasm1 which has been  
the work of the last hundred and fifty  
years resembles precisely1 in depth1    
width1 and character1 the rest of the   
gorge which extends seven miles below1  
it is most natural to infer1 that the   
entire ravine has been hollowed out in  
the same manner1 by the recession of the
 cataract4  ,it must at least be        
conceded1 that the river supplies an    
adequate cause for executing the whole  

task thus assigned to it1 provided we   
grant sufficient time for its           
completion4 ,as this part of the country
 was a wilderness till near the end of  
the last century1 we can obtain no      
accurate data for estimating the exact  
rate at which the cataract has been     
receding4 ,mr4 ,bakewell1 son of the    
eminent geologist of that name1 who     
visited the ,niagara in #ahbi1 made the 
first attempt to calculate from the     
observations of one who had lived forty 
years at the ,falls1 and who had been   
the first settler there1 that the       
cataract had during that period gone    
back about a yard annually4 ,but after  
the most careful inquiries which ,i was 
able to make1 during my visit to the    
spot in #ahda-b1 ,i came to the         
conclusion that the average of one foot 
a year would be a much more probable    
conjecture4 ,in that case1 it would have
 required thirty-five thousand years for
 the retreat of the ,falls1 from the    
escarpment of ,queenstown to their      

present site4 ,it seems by no means     
improbable that such a result would be  
no exaggeration of the truth1 although  
we cannot assume that the retrograde    
movement has been uniform4 ,an          
examination of the geological structure 
of the district1 as laid open in the    
ravine1 shows that at every step in the 
process of excavation1 the height of the
 precipice1 the hardness of the         
materials at its base1 and the quantity 
of fallen matter to be removed1 must    
have varied4 ,at some points it may have
 receded much faster than at present1   
but in general its progress was probably
 slower1 because the cataract1 when it  
began to recede1 must have had nearly   
twice its present height4  ,from        
observations made by me in #ahda1 when  
,i had the advantage of being           
accompanied by ,mr4 ,hall1 state        
geologist of ,new ,york1 and in #ahdb1  
when ,i re-examined the ,niagara        
district1 ,i obtained geological        
evidence of the former existence of an  

old river-bed1 which1 ,i have no doubt1 
indicates the original channel through  
which the waters once flowed from the   
,falls to ,queenstown1 at the height of 
nearly three hundred feet above the     
bottom of the present gorge4 ,the       
geological monuments alluded to1 consist
 of patches of sand and gravel1 forty   
feet thick1 containing fluviatile shells
 of the genera ,unio1 ,cyclas1 ,melania1
 c41 such as now inhabit the waters of  
the ,niagara above the ,falls4 ,the     
identity of the fossil species with the 
recent is unquestionable1 and these     
freshwater deposits occur at the edge of
 the cliffs bounding the ravine1 so that
 they prove the former extension of an  
elevated shallow valley1 four miles     
below the falls1 a distinct prolongation
 of that now occupied by the ,niagara1  
in the elevated region intervening      
between ,lake ,erie and the ,falls4     
,whatever theory be framed for the      
hollowing out of the ravine further     
down1 or for the three miles which      

intervene between the whirlpool and     
,queenstown1 it will always be necessary
 to suppose the former existence of a   
barrier of rock1 not of loose and       
destructible materials1 such as those   
composing the drift in this district1   
somewhere immediately below the         
whirlpool4 ,by that barrier the waters  
were held back for ages1 when the       
fluviatile deposit1 #dj feet in         
thickness1 and #bej feet above the      
present channel of the river1           
originated4 ,if we are led by this      
evidence to admit that the cataract has 
cut back its way for four miles1 we can 
have little hesitation in referring the 
excavation of the remaining three miles 
below to a like agency1 the shape of the
 chasm being precisely similar4  ,there 
have been many speculations respecting  
the future recession of the ,falls1 and 
the deluge that might be occasioned by  
the sudden escape of the waters of ,lake
 ,erie1 if the ravine should ever be    
prolonged #af miles backwards4 ,but a   

more accurate knowledge of the          
geological succession of the rocks1     
brought to light by the ,state ,survey1 
has satisfied every geologist that the  
,falls would diminish gradually in      
height before they travelled back two   
miles1 and in consequence of a gentle   
dip of the strata to the south1 the     
massive limestone now at the top would  
then be at their base1 and would retard1
 and perhaps put an effectual stop to1  
the excavating process4     ,,chapter   
,,xv4  ,,transportation ,,of ,,solid    
,,matter ,,by ,,ice4     ,carrying power
 of river-ice--,rocks annually conveyed 
into the ,st4     ,lawrence by its      
tributaries--,ground-ice2 its origin and
 transporting                           
power--,glaciers--,theory of their      
downward movement--,smoothed and        
grooved rocks--,the moraine             
unstratified--,icebergs covered with mud
     and stones--,limits of glaciers and
 icebergs--,their effects on the        
bottom when they run aground--,packing  

of coast-ice--,boulders drifted     by  
ice on coast of ,labrador--,blocks moved
 by ice in the ,baltic4   ,the power of 
running water to carry sand1 gravel1 and
 fragments of rock to considerable      
distances is greatly augmented in those 
regions where1 during some part of the  
year1 the frost is of sufficient        
intensity to convert the water1 either  
at the surface or bottom of rivers1 into
 ice4  ,this subject may be considered  
under three different heads3--first1 the
 effect of surface-ice and ground-ice in
 enabling streams to remove gravel and  
stones to a distance2 secondly1 the     
action of glaciers in the transport of  
boulders1 and in the polishing and      
scratching of rocks2 thirdly1 the       
floating off of glaciers charged with   
solid matter into the sea1 and the      
drifting of icebergs and coast-ice4     
,river-ice4--,pebbles and small pieces  
of rock may be seen entangled in ice1   
and floating annually down the ,tay in  
,scotland1 as far as the mouth of that  

river4 ,similar observations might      
doubtless be made respecting almost all 
the larger rivers of ,england and       
,scotland2 but there seems reason to    
suspect that the principal transfer from
 place to place of pebbles and stones   
adhering to ice goes on unseen by us    
under water4 ,for although the specific 
gravity of the compound mass may cause  
it to sink1 it may still be very        
buoyant1 and easily borne along by a    
feeble current4 ,the ice1 moreover1     
melts very slowly at the bottom of      
running streams in winter1 as the water 
there is often nearly at the freezing   
point1 as will be seen from what will be
 said in the sequel of ground-ice4  ,as 
we traverse ,europe in the latitudes of 
,great ,britain1 we find the winters    
more severe1 and the rivers more        
regularly frozen over4 ,m4 ,lariviere   
relates that1 being at ,memel on the    
,baltic in #ahba1 when the ice of the   
river ,niemen broke up1 he saw a mass of
 ice thirty feet long which had         

descended the stream1 and had been      
thrown ashore4 ,in the middle of it was 
a triangular piece of granite1 about a  
yard in diameter1 resembling in         
composition the red granite of          
,finland4#bhc  ,when rivers in the      
northern hemisphere flow from south to  
north1 the ice first breaks up in the   
higher part of their course1 and the    
flooded waters1 bearing along large icy 
fragments1 often arrive at parts of the 
stream which are still firmly frozen    
over4 ,great inundations are thus       
frequently occasioned by the            
obstructions thrown in the way of the   
descending waters1 as in the case of the
 ,mackenzie in ,north ,america1 and the 
,irtish1 ,obi1 ,yenesei1 ,lena1 and     
other rivers of ,siberia4 7,see map1    
fig4 #a1 p4 #gi47 ,a partial stoppage of
 this kind lately occurred 7,jan4 #ca1  
#ahdj7 in the ,vistula1 about a mile and
 a half above the city of ,dantzic1     
where the river1 choked up by packed    
ice1 was made to take a new course over 

its right bank1 so that it hollowed out 
in a few days a deep and broad channel1 
many leagues in length1 through a tract 
of sand-hills which were from #dj to #fj
 feet high4  ,in ,canada1 where the     
winter's cold is intense1 in a latitude 
corresponding to that of central        
,france1 several tributaries of the ,st4
 ,lawrence begin to thaw in their upper 
course1 while they remain frozen over   
lower down1 and thus large slabs of ice 
are set free and thrown upon the        
unbroken sheet of ice below4 ,then      
begins what is called the packing of the
 drifted fragments2 that is to say1 one 
slab is made to slide over another1     
until a vast pile is built up1 and the  
whole being frozen together1 is urged   
onwards by the force of the dammed up   
waters and drift-ice4 ,thus propelled1  
it not only forces along boulders1 but  
breaks off from cliffs1 which border the
 rivers1 huge pieces of projecting rock4
 ,by this means several buttresses of   
solid masonry1 which1 up to the year    

#ahcf1 supported a wooden bridge on the 
,st4 ,maurice1 which falls into the ,st4
 ,lawrence1 near the town of ,trois     
,rivieres1 lat4 #df degrees #bj minutes1
 were thrown down1 and conveyed by the  
ice into the main river2 and instances  
have occurred at ,montreal of wharfs and
 stone-buildings1 from #cj to #ej feet  
square1 having been removed in a similar
 manner4 ,we learn from ,captain        
,bayfield that anchors laid down within 
high-water mark1 to secure vessels      
hauled on shore for the winter1 must be 
cut out of the ice on the approach of   
spring1 or they would be carried away4  
,in #ahcd1 the ,gulnare's bower-anchor1 
weighing half a ton1 was transported    
some yards by the ice1 and so firmly was
 it fixed1 that the force of the moving 
ice broke a chain-cable suited for a    
#aj-;gun brig1 and which had rode the   
,gulnare during the heaviest gales in   
the gulf4 ,had not this anchor been cut 
out of the ice1 it would have been      
earned into deep water and lost4#bhd    

,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4  ,,boulders
 ,,drifted ,,by ,,ice ,,on ,,shores ,,of
 ,,the ,,st4 ,,lawrence  ,view taken by 
,lieut4 ,bowen1 from the ,n4 ,e41 in the
 ,spring of #ahce1 at ,richelieu ,rapid1
 lat4 #df degrees ,n4  ,the scene       
represented in the annexed plate 7pl4   
#b71 from a drawing by ,lieutenant      
,bowen1 ,r4 ,n41 will enable the reader 
to comprehend the incessant changes     
which the transport of boulders produces
 annually on the low islands1 shores1   
and bed of the ,st4 ,lawrence above     
,quebec4 ,the fundamental rocks at      
,richelieu ,rapid1 situated in lat4 #df 
degrees ,n41 are limestone and slate1   
which are seen at low-water to be       
covered with boulders of granite4 ,these
 boulders owe their spheroidal form     
chiefly to weathering1 or action of     
frost1 which causes the surface to      
exfoliate in concentric plates1 so that 
all the more prominent angles are       
removed4 ,at the point a is a cavity in 
the mud or sand of the beach1 now filled

 with water1 which was occupied during  
the preceding winter 7#ahce7 by the huge
 erratic b1 a mass of granite1 #gj tons'
 weight1 found in the spring following  
7#ahcf7 at a distance of several feet   
from its former position4 ,many small   
islands are seen on the river1 such as c
 d1 which afford still more striking    
proofs of the carrying and propelling   
power of ice4 ,these islets are never   
under water1 yet every winter ice is    
thrown upon them in such abundance1 that
 it packs to the height of #bj1 and even
 #cj feet1 bringing with it a continual 
supply of large stones or boulders1 and 
carrying away others2 the greatest      
number being deposited1 according to    
,lieutenant ,bowen1 on the edge of deep 
water4 ,on the island d1 on the left of 
the accompanying view1 a lighthouse is  
represented1 consisting of a square     
wooden building1 which having no other  
foundation than the boulders1 requires  
to be taken down every winter1 and      
rebuilt on the reopening of the river4  

,these effects of frost1 which are so   
striking on the ,st4 ,lawrence above    
,quebec1 are by no means displayed on a 
smaller scale below that city1 where the
 gulf rises and falls with the tide4 ,on
 the contrary2 it is in the estuary1    
between the latitudes #dg degrees and   
#di degrees1 that the greatest quantity 
of gravel and boulders of large         
dimensions are carried down annually    
towards the sea4 ,here the frost is so  
intense1 that a dense sheet of ice is   
formed at low water1 which1 on the rise 
of the tide1 is lifted up1 broken1 and  
thrown in heaps on the extensive shoals 
which border the estuary4 ,when the tide
 recedes1 this packed ice is exposed to 
a temperature sometimes #cj degrees     
below zero1 which freezes together all  
the loose pieces of ice1 as well as the 
granitic and other boulders4 ,the whole 
of these are often swept away by a high 
tide1 or when the river is swollen by   
the melting of the snow in ,spring4 ,one
 huge block of granite1 #ae feet long by

 #aj feet both in width and height1 and 
estimated to contain #aejj cubic feet1  
was conveyed in this manner to some     
distance in the year #ahcg1 its previous
 position being well known1 as up to    
that time it had been used by ,captain  
,bayfield as a mark for the surveying   
station4  ,ground-ice4--,when a current 
of cold air passes over the surface of a
 lake or stream it abstracts from it a  
quantity of heat1 and the specific      
gravity of the water being thereby      
increased1 the cooled portion sinks4    
,this circulation may continue until the
 whole body of fluid has been cooled    
down to the temperature of #dj degrees  
,f41 after which1 if the cold increase1 
the vertical movement ceases1 the water 
which is uppermost expands and floats   
over the heavier fluid below1 and when  
it has attained a temperature of #cb    
degrees ,fahr4 it sets into a sheet of  
ice4 ,it should seem therefore          
impossible1 according to this law of    
congelation1 that ice should ever form  

at the bottom of a river2 and yet such  
is the fact1 and many speculations have 
been hazarded to account for so singular
 a phenomenon4 ,m4 ,arago is of opinion 
that the mechanical action of a running 
stream produces a circulation by which  
the entire body of water is mixed up    
together1 and cooled alike1 and the     
whole being thus reduced to the freezing
 point1 ice begins to form at the bottom
 for two reasons1 first1 because there  
is less motion there1 and secondly1     
because the water is in contact with    
solid rock or pebbles which have a cold 
surface4#bhe ,whatever explanation we   
adopt1 there is no doubt of the fact1   
that in countries where the intensity   
and duration of the cold is great1      
rivers and torrents acquire an increase 
of carrying power by the formation of   
what is called ground-ice4 ,even in the 
,thames we learn from ,dr4 ,plott that  
pieces of this kind of ice1 having      
gravel frozen on to their under side1   
rise up from the bottom in winter1 and  

float on the surface4 ,in the ,siberian 
rivers1 ,weitz describes large stones as
 having been brought up from the river's
 bed in the same manner1 and made to    
float4#bhf  ,glaciers4--,in the         
temperate zone1 the snow lies for months
 in winter on the summit of every high  
mountain1 while in the arctic regions1 a
 long summer's day of half a year's     
duration is insufficient to melt the    
snow1 even on land just raised above the
 level of the sea4 ,it is therefore not 
surprising1 since the atmosphere becomes
 colder in proportion as we ascend in   
it1 that there should be heights1 even  
in tropical countries1 where the snow   
never melts4 ,the lowest limit to which 
the perpetual snow extends downwards1   
from the tops of mountains at the       
equator1 is an elevation of not less    
than #af1jjj feet above the sea2 while  
in the ,swiss ,alps1 in lat4 #df degrees
 ,n4 it reaches as low as #h1ejj feet   
above the same level1 the loftier peaks 
of the ,alpine chain being from #ab1jjj 

to #ae1jjj feet high4 ,the frozen mass  
augmenting from year to year would add  
indefinitely to the altitude of alpine  
summits1 were it not relieved by its    
descent through the larger and deeper   
valleys to regions far below the general
 snow-line4 ,to these it slowly finds   
its way in the form of rivers of ice1   
called glaciers1 the consolidation of   
which is produced by pressure1 and by   
the congelation of water infiltered into
 the porous mass1 which is always       
undergoing partial liquefaction1 and    
receiving in summer occasional showers  
of rain on its surface4 ,in a day of hot
 sunshine1 or mild rain1 innumerable    
rills of pure and sparkling water run in
 icy channels along the surface of the  
glaciers1 which in the night shrink1 and
 come to nothing4 ,they are often       
precipitated in bold cascades into deep 
fissures in the ice1 and contribute     
together with springs to form torrents1 
which flow in tunnels at the bottom of  
the glaciers for many a league1 and at  

length issue at their extremities1 from 
beneath beautiful caverns or arches4    
,the waters of these streams are always 
densely charged with the finest mud1    
produced by the grinding of rock and    
sand under the weight of the moving     
mass4 7,see fig4 #ah47  ,illustration3  
,fig #ah4  ,glacier with medial and     
lateral moraines and with terminal cave4
  ,the length of the ,swiss glaciers is 
sometimes twenty miles1 their width in  
the middle portion1 where they are      
broadest1 occasionally two or three     
miles2 their depth or thickness         
sometimes more than #fjj feet4 ,when    
they descend steep slopes1 and          
precipices1 or are forced through narrow
 gorges1 the ice is broken up1 and      
assumes the most fantastic and          
picturesque forms1 with lofty peaks and 
pinnacles1 projecting above the general 
level4 ,these snow-white masses are     
often relieved by a dark background of  
pines1 as in the valley of ,chamouni2   
and are not only surrounded with        

abundance of the wild rhododendron in   
full flower1 but encroach still lower   
into the region of cultivation1 and     
trespass on fields where the            
tobacco-plant is flourishing by the side
 of the peasant's hut4  ,the cause of   
glacier motion has of late been a       
subject of careful investigation and    
much keen controversy4 ,although a      
question of physics1 rather than of     
geology1 it is too interesting to allow 
me to pass it by without some brief     
mention4 ,de ,saussure1 whose travels in
 the ,alps are full of original         
observations1 as well as sound and      
comprehensive general views1 conceived  
that the weight of the ice might be     
sufficient to urge it down the slope of 
the valley1 if the sliding motion were  
aided by the water flowing at the       
bottom4 ,for this gravitation theory    
,charpentier1 followed by ,agassiz1     
substituted the hypothesis of           
dilatation4 ,the most solid ice is      
always permeable to water1 and          

penetrated by innumerable fissures and  
capillary tubes1 often extremely minute4
 ,these tubes imbibe the aqueous fluid  
during the day1 which freezes1 it is    
said1 in the cold of the night1 and     
expands while in the act of congelation4
 ,the distension of the whole mass      
exerts an immense force1 tending to     
propel the glacier in the direction of  
least resistance--in other words1 down  
the valley4 ,this theory was opposed by 
,mr4 ,hopkins on mathematical and       
mechanical grounds1 in several able     
papers4 ,among other objections1 he     
pointed out that the friction of so     
enormous a body as a glacier on its bed 
is so great1 that the vertical direction
 would always be that of least          
resistance1 and if a considerable       
distension of the mass should take      
place1 by the action of freezing1 it    
would tend to increase its thickness1   
rather than accelerate its downward     
progress4 ,he also contended 7and his   
arguments were illustrated by many      

ingenious experiments71 that a glacier  
can move along an extremely slight      
slope1 solely by the influence of       
gravitation1 owing to the constant      
dissolution of ice in contact with the  
rocky bottom1 and the number of separate
 fragments into which the glacier is    
divided by fissures1 so that freedom of 
motion is imparted to its several parts 
somewhat resembling that of an imperfect
 fluid4 ,to this view ,professor ,james 
,forbes objected1 that gravitation would
 not supply an adequate cause for the   
sliding of solid ice down slopes having 
an inclination of no more than four or  
five degrees1 still less would it       
explain how the glacier advances where  
the channel expands and contracts4 ,the 
,mer de ,glace in ,chamouni1 for        
example1 after being #bjjj yards wide1  
passes through a strait only #ijj yards 
in width4 ,such a gorge1 it is          
contended1 would be choked up by the    
advance of any solid mass1 even if it be
 broken up into numerous fragments4 ,the

 same acute observer remarked1 that     
water in the fissures and pores of      
glaciers cannot1 and does not part with 
its latent heat1 so as to freeze every  
night to a great depth1 or far in the   
interior of the mass4 ,had the          
dilatation theory been true1 the chief  
motion of the glacier would have        
occurred about sunset1 when the freezing
 of the water must be greatest1 and it  
had1 in fact1 been at first assumed by  
those who favored that hypothesis1 that 
the mass moved faster at the sides1     
where the melting of ice was promoted by
 the sun's heat1 reflected from boundary
 precipices4  ,agassiz appears to have  
been the first to commence1 in #ahda1   
aided by a skilful engineer1 ,m4 ,escher
 de la ,linth1 a series of exact        
measurements to ascertain the laws of   
glacier motion1 and he soon discovered1 
contrary to his preconceived notions1   
that the stream of ice moved more slowly
 at the sides than at the centre1 and   
faster in the middle region of the      

glacier than at its extremity4#bhg      
,professor ,james ,forbes1 who had      
joined ,mr4 ,agassiz during his earlier 
investigations in the ,alps1 undertook  
himself an independent series of        
experiments1 which he followed up with  
great perseverance1 to determine the    
laws of glacier motion4 ,these he found 
to agree very closely with the laws     
governing the course of rivers1 their   
progress being greater in the centre    
than at the sides1 and more rapid at the
 surface than at the bottom4 ,this fact 
was verified by carefully fixing a great
 number of marks in the ice1 arranged in
 a straight line1 which gradually       
assumed a beautiful curve1 the middle   
part pointing down the glacier1 and     
showing a velocity there1 double or     
treble that of the lateral parts4#bhh   
,he ascertained that the rate of advance
 by night was nearly the same as by day1
 and that even the hourly march of the  
icy stream could be detected1 although  
the progress might not amount to more   

than six or seven inches in twelve      
hours4 ,by the incessant though         
invisible advance of the marks placed on
 the ice1 time1 says ,mr4 ,forbes1 was  
marked out as by a shadow on a dial1 and
 the unequivocal evidence which ,i      
obtained1 that even while walking on a  
glacier we are1 day by day1 and hour by 
hour1 imperceptibly carried on by the   
resistless flow of the icy stream1      
filled me with admiration4 7,travels in 
the ,alps1 p4 #acc47 ,in order to       
explain this remarkable regularity of   
motion1 and its obedience to laws so    
strictly analogous to those of fluids1  
the same writer proposed the theory that
 the ice1 instead of being solid and    
compact1 is a viscous or plastic body1  
capable of yielding to great pressure1  
and the more so in proportion as its    
temperature is higher1 and as it        
approaches more nearly to the melting   
point4 ,he endeavors to show that this  
hypothesis will account for many        
complicated phenomena1 especially for a 

ribboned or veined structure which is   
everywhere observable in the ice1 and   
might be produced by lines of           
discontinuity1 arising from the         
different rates at which the various    
portions of the semi-rigid glacier      
advance and pass each other4 ,many      
examples are adduced to prove that a    
glacier can model itself to the form of 
the ground over which it is forced1     
exactly as would happen if it possessed 
a certain ductility1 and this power of  
yielding under intense pressure1 is     
shown not to be irreconcilable with the 
idea of the ice being sufficiently      
compact to break into fragments1 when   
the strain upon its parts is excessive2 
as where the glacier turns a sharp      
angle1 or descends upon a rapid or      
convex slope4 ,the increased velocity in
 summer is attributed partly to the     
greater plasticity of the ice1 when not 
exposed to intense cold1 and partly to  
the hydrostatic pressure of the water in
 the capillary tubes1 which imbibe more 

of this liquid in the hot season4  ,on  
the assumption of the ice being a rigid 
mass1 ,mr4 ,hopkins attributed the more 
rapid motions in the centre to the      
unequal rate at which the broad stripes 
of ice1 intervening between longitudinal
 fissures1 advance2 but besides that    
there are parts of the glacier where no 
such fissures exist1 such a mode of     
progression1 says ,mr4 ,forbes1 would   
cause the borders of large transverse   
rents or crevasses1 to be jagged like a 
saw1 instead of being perfectly even and
 straight-edged4#bhi ,an experiment     
recently made by ,mr4 ,christie1        
secretary to the ,royal ,society1       
appears to demonstrate that ice1 under  
great pressure1 possesses a sufficient  
degree of moulding and self-adapting    
power to allow it to be acted upon1 as  
if it were a pasty substance4 ,a hollow 
shell of iron an inch and a half thick1 
the interior being ten inches in        
diameter1 was filled with water1 in the 
course of a severe winter1 and exposed  

to the frost1 with the fuze-hole        
uppermost4 ,a portion of the water      
expanded in freezing1 so as to protrude 
a cylinder of ice from the fuze-hole2   
and this cylinder continued to grow inch
 by inch in proportion as the central   
nucleus of water froze4 ,as we cannot   
doubt that an outer shell of ice is     
first formed1 and then another within1  
the continued rise of the column through
 the fuze-hole must proceed from the    
squeezing of successive shells of ice   
concentrically formed1 through the      
narrow orifice2 and yet the protruded   
cylinder consisted of entire1 and not   
fragmentary ice4#bij  ,the agency of    
glaciers in producing permanent         
geological changes consists partly in   
their power of transporting gravel1     
sand1 and huge stones to great          
distances1 and partly in the smoothing1 
polishing1 and scoring of their rocky   
channels1 and the boundary walls of the 
valleys through which they pass4 ,at the
 foot of every steep cliff or precipice 

in high ,alpine regions1 a talus is seen
 of rocky fragments detached by the     
alternate action of frost and thaw4 ,if 
these loose masses1 instead of          
accumulating on a stationary base1      
happen to fall upon a glacier1 they will
 move along with it1 and1 in place of a 
single heap1 they will form in the      
course of years a long stream of blocks4
 ,if a glacier be #bj miles long1 and   
its annual progression about #ejj feet1 
it will require about two centuries for 
a block thus lodged upon its surface to 
travel down from the higher to the lower
 regions1 or to the extremity of the icy
 mass4 ,this terminal point remains     
usually unchanged from year to year1    
although every part of the ice is in    
motion1 because the liquefaction by heat
 is just sufficient to balance the      
onward movement of the glacier1 which   
may be compared to an endless file of   
soldiers1 pouring into a breach1 and    
shot down as fast as they advance4  ,the
 stones carried along on the ice are    

called in ,switzerland the moraines of  
the glacier4 ,there is always one line  
of blocks on each side or edge of the   
icy stream1 and often several in the    
middle1 where they are arranged in long 
ridges or mounds1 often several yards   
high4 7,see fig4 #ah1 p4 #bbc47 ,the    
cause of these medial moraines was first
 explained by ,agassiz1 who referred    
them to the confluence of tributary     
glaciers4#bia ,upon the union of two    
streams of ice1 the right lateral       
moraine of one of the streams comes in  
contact with the left lateral moraine of
 the other1 and they afterwards move on 
together1 in the centre1 if the         
confluent glaciers are equal in size1 or
 nearer to one side if unequal4  ,all   
sand and fragments of soft stone which  
fall through fissures and reach the     
bottom of the glaciers1 or which are    
interposed between the glacier and the  
steep sides of the valley1 are pushed   
along1 and ground down into mud1 while  
the larger and harder fragments have    

their angles worn off4 ,at the same time
 the fundamental and boundary rocks are 
smoothed and polished1 and often scored 
with parallel furrows1 or with lines and
 scratches produced by hard minerals1   
such as crystals of quartz1 which act   
like the diamond upon glass4#bib ,this  
effect is perfectly different from that 
caused by the action of water1 or a     
muddy torrent forcing along heavy       
fragments2 for when stones are fixed    
firmly in the ice1 and pushed along by  
it under great pressure1 in straight    
lines1 they scoop out long rectilinear  
furrows or grooves parallel to each     
other4#bic ,the discovery of such       
markings at various heights far above   
the surface of the existing glaciers and
 for miles beyond their present         
terminations1 affords geological        
evidence of the former extension of the 
ice beyond its present limits in        
,switzerland and other countries4  ,the 
moraine of the glacier1 observes        
,charpentier1 is entirely devoid of     

stratification1 for there has been no   
sorting of the materials1 as in the case
 of sand1 mud1 and pebbles1 when        
deposited by running water4 ,the ice    
transports indifferently1 and to the    
same spots1 the heaviest blocks and the 
finest particles1 mingling all together1
 and leaving them in one confused and   
promiscuous heap wherever it melts4#bid 
,icebergs4--,in countries situated in   
high northern latitudes1 like           
,spitzbergen1 between #gj degrees and   
#hj degrees ,n41 glaciers1 loaded with  
mud and rock1 descend to the sea1 and   
there huge fragments of them float off  
and become icebergs4 ,scoresby counted  
#ejj of these bergs drifting along in   
latitudes #fi degrees and #gj degrees   
,n41 which rose above the surface from  
the height of #ajj to #bjj feet1 and    
measured from a few yards to a mile in  
circumference4#bie ,many of them were   
loaded with beds of earth and rock of   
such thickness1 that the weight was     
conjectured to be from #ej1jjj to       

#ajj1jjj tons4 ,specimens of the rocks  
were obtained1 and among them were      
granite1 gneiss1 mica-schist1           
clay-slate1 granular felspar1 and       
greenstone4 ,such bergs must be of great
 magnitude2 because the mass of ice     
below the level of the water is about   
eight times greater than that above4    
,wherever they are dissolved1 it is     
evident that the moraine will fall to   
the bottom of the sea4 ,in this manner  
may submarine valleys1 mountains1 and   
platforms become strewed over with      
gravel1 sand1 mud1 and scattered blocks 
of foreign rock1 of a nature perfectly  
dissimilar from all in the vicinity1 and
 which may have been transported across 
unfathomable abysses4 ,if the bergs     
happen to melt in still water1 so that  
the earthy and stony materials may fall 
tranquilly to the bottom1 the deposit   
will probably be unstratified1 like the 
terminal moraine of a glacier2 but      
whenever the materials are under the    
influence of a current of water as they 

fall1 they will be sorted and arranged  
according to their relative weight and  
size1 and therefore more or less        
perfectly stratified4  ,in a former     
chapter it was stated that some ice     
islands have been known to drift from   
,baffin's ,bay to the ,azores1 and from 
the ,south ,pole to the immediate       
neighborhood of the ,cape of ,good      
,hope1 so that the area over which the  
effects of moving ice may be            
experienced1 comprehends a large portion
 of the globe4  ,we learn from ,von     
,buch that the most southern point on   
the continent of ,europe at which a     
glacier comes down to the sea is in     
,norway1 in lat4 #fg degrees ,n4#bif    
,but ,mr4 ,darwin has shown1 that they  
extend to the sea1 in ,south ,america1  
in latitudes more than #bj degrees      
nearer the equator than in ,europe2 as1 
for example1 in ,chili1 where1 in the   
,gulf of ,penas1 lat4 #df degrees #dj   
minutes ,s41 or the latitude of central 
,france2 and in ,sir ,george ,eyre's    

,sound1 in the latitude of ,paris1 they 
give origin to icebergs1 which were seen
 in #ahcd carrying angular pieces of    
granite1 and stranding them in fiords1  
where the shores were composed of       
clay-slate4#big ,a large proportion1    
however1 of the ice-islands seen        
floating both in the northern and       
southern hemispheres1 are probably not  
generated by glaciers1 but rather by the
 accumulation of coast ice4 ,when the   
sea freezes at the base of a lofty      
precipice1 the sheet of ice is prevented
 from adhering to the land by the rise  
and fall of the tide4 ,nevertheless1 it 
often continues on the shore at the foot
 of the cliff1 and receives accessions  
of drift snow blown from the land4      
,under the weight of this snow the ice  
sinks slowly if the water be deep1 and  
the snow is gradually converted into ice
 by partial liquefaction and            
re-congelation4 ,in this manner1 islands
 of ice of great thickness and many     
leagues in length1 originate1 and are   

eventually blown out to sea by off-shore
 winds4 ,in their interior are inclosed 
many fragments of stone which had fallen
 upon them from overhanging cliffs      
during their formation4 ,such floating  
icebergs are commonly flat-topped1 but  
their lower portions are liable to melt 
in latitudes where the ocean at a       
moderate depth is usually warmer than   
the surface water and the air4 ,hence   
their centre of gravity changes         
continually1 and they turn over and     
assume very irregular shapes4  ,in a    
voyage of discovery made in the         
antarctic regions in #ahci1 a           
dark-colored angular mass of rock was   
seen imbedded in an iceberg1 drifting   
along in mid-ocean in lat4 #fa degrees  
,s4 ,that part of the rock which was    
visible was about #ab feet in height1   
and from #e to #f in width1 but the dark
 color of the surrounding ice indicated 
that much more of the stone was         
concealed4 ,a sketch made by ,mr4       
,macnab1 when the vessel was within a   

quarter of a mile of it1 is now         
published4#bih ,this iceberg1 one of    
many observed at sea on the same day1   
was between #bej and #cjj feet high1 and
 was no less than #adjj miles from any  
certainly known land4 ,it is exceedingly
 improbable1 says ,mr4 ,darwin1 in his  
notice of this phenomenon1 that any land
 will hereafter be discovered within    
#ajj miles of the spot1 and it must be  
remembered that the erratic was still   
firmly fixed in the ice1 and may have   
sailed for many a league farther before 
it dropped to the bottom4#bii  ,captain 
,sir ,james ,ross1 in his antarctic     
voyage in #ahda1 #db1 and #dc1 saw      
multitudes of icebergs transporting     
stones and rocks of various sizes1 with 
frozen mud1 in high southern latitudes4 
,his companion1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker1       
informs me that he came to the          
conclusion that most of the southern    
icebergs have stones in them1 although  
they are usually concealed from view by 
the quantity of snow which falls upon   

them4  ,in the account given by ,messrs4
 ,dease and ,simpson1 of their recent   
arctic discoveries1 we learn that in    
lat4 #ga degrees ,n41 long4 #aef degrees
 ,w41 they found a long low spit1 named 
,point ,barrow1 composed of gravel and  
coarse sand1 in some parts more than a  
quarter of a mile broad1 which the      
pressure of the ice had forced up into  
numerous mounds1 that1 viewed from a    
distance1 assumed the appearance of huge
 boulder rocks4#cjj  ,this fact is      
important1 as showing how masses of     
drift ice1 when stranding on submarine  
banks1 may exert a lateral pressure     
capable of bending and dislocating any  
yielding strata of gravel1 sand1 or mud4
 ,the banks on which icebergs           
occasionally run aground between        
,baffin's ,bay and ,newfoundland1 are   
many hundred feet under water1 and the  
force with which they are struck will   
depend not so much on the velocity as   
the momentum of the floating            
ice-islands4 ,the same berg is often    

carried away by a change of wind1 and   
then driven back again upon the same    
bank1 or it is made to rise and fall by 
the waves of the ocean1 so that it may  
alternately strike the bottom with its  
whole weight1 and then be lifted up     
again until it has deranged the         
superficial beds over a wide area4 ,in  
this manner the geologist may account1  
perhaps1 for the circumstance that in   
,scandinavia1 ,scotland1 and other      
countries where erratics are met with1  
the beds of sand1 loam1 and gravel are  
often vertical1 bent1 and contorted into
 the most complicated folds1 while the  
underlying strata1 although composed of 
equally pliant materials1 are           
horizontal4 ,but some of these          
curvatures of loose strata may also have
 been due to repeated alternations of   
layers of gravel and sand1 ice and snow1
 the melting of the latter having caused
 the intercalated beds of indestructible
 matter to assume their present         
anomalous position4  ,there can be      

little doubt that icebergs must often   
break off the peaks and projecting      
points of submarine mountains1 and must 
grate upon and polish their surface1    
furrowing or scratching them in         
precisely the same way as we have seen  
that glaciers act on the solid rocks    
over which they are propelled4#cja  ,to 
conclude3 it appears that large stones1 
mud1 and gravel are carried down by the 
ice of rivers1 estuaries1 and glaciers1 
into the sea1 where the tides and       
currents of the ocean1 aided by the     
wind1 cause them to drift for hundreds  
of miles from the place of their origin4
 ,although it will belong more properly 
to the seventh and eighth chapters to   
treat of the transportation of solid    
matter by the movements of the ocean1 ,i
 shall add here what ,i have farther to 
say on this subject in connection with  
ice4  ,the saline matter which sea-water
 holds in solution1 prevents its        
congelation1 except where the most      
intense cold prevails4 ,but the drifting

 of the snow from the land often renders
 the surface-water brackish near the    
coast1 so that a sheet of ice is readily
 formed there1 and by this means a large
 quantity of gravel is frequently       
conveyed from place to place1 and heavy 
boulders also1 when the coast-ice is    
packed into dense masses4 ,both the     
large and small stones thus conveyed    
usually travel in one direction like    
shingle-beaches1 and this was observed  
to take place on the coast of ,labrador 
and ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 between the
 latitudes #ej degrees and #fj degrees  
,n41 by ,capt4 ,bayfield1 during his    
late survey4 ,the line of coast alluded 
to is strewed over for a distance of    
#gjj miles with ice-borne boulders1     
often #f feet in diameter1 which are for
 the most part on their way from north  
to south1 or in the direction of the    
prevailing current4 ,some points on this
 coast have been observed to be         
occasionally deserted1 and then again at
 another season thickly bestrewed with  

erratics4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4    
,boulders1 chiefly of granite1 stranded 
by ice on the coast of ,labrador1       
between lat4 #ej degrees and #fj degrees
 ,n4 7,lieut4 ,bowen1 ,r4 ,n47  ,the    
accompanying drawing 7fig4 #ai71 for    
which ,i am indebted to ,lieut4 ,bowen1 
,r4 ,n41 represents the ordinary        
appearance of the ,labrador coast1      
between the latitudes of #ej degrees and
 #fj degrees ,n4 ,countless blocks1     
chiefly granitic1 and of various sizes1 
are seen lying between high and         
low-water mark4 ,capt4 ,bayfield saw    
similar masses carried by ice through   
the ,straits of ,belle ,isle1 between   
,newfoundland and the ,american         
continent1 which he conceives may have  
travelled in the course of years from   
,baffin's ,bay1 a distance which may be 
compared in our hemisphere to the       
drifting of erratics from ,lapland and  
,iceland as far south as ,germany1      
,france1 and ,england4  ,it may be asked
 in what manner have these blocks been  

originally detached8 ,we may answer that
 some have fallen from precipitous      
cliffs1 others have been lifted up from 
the bottom of the sea1 adhering by their
 tops to the ice1 while others have been
 brought down by rivers and glaciers4   
,the erratics of ,north ,america are    
sometimes angular1 but most of them have
 been rounded either by friction or     
decomposition4 ,the granite of ,canada1 
as before remarked 7p4 #bba 71 has a    
tendency to concentric exfoliation1 and 
scales off in spheroidal coats when     
exposed to the spray of the sea during  
severe frosts4 ,the range of the        
thermometer in that country usually     
exceeds1 in the course of the year1 #ajj
 degrees1 and sometimes #abj degrees    
,f42 and1 to prevent the granite used in
 the buildings of ,quebec from peeling  
off in winter1 it is necessary to oil   
and paint the squared stones4  ,in parts
 of the ,baltic1 such as the ,gulf of   
,bothnia1 where the quantity of salt in 
the water amounts in general to one     

fourth only of that in the ocean1 the   
entire surface freezes over in winter to
 the depth of #e or #f feet4 ,stones are
 thus frozen in1 and afterwards lifted  
up about #c feet perpendicularly on the 
melting of the snow in summer1 and then 
carried by floating ice-islands to great
 distances4 ,professor ,von ,baer       
states1 in a communication on this      
subject to the ,academy of ,st4         
,petersburg1 that a block of granite1   
weighing a million of pounds1 was       
carried by ice during the winter of     
#ahcg-h from ,finland to the island of  
,hockland1 and two other huge blocks    
were transported about the years #ahjf  
and #ahad by packed ice on the south    
coast of ,finland1 according to the     
testimony of the pilots and inhabitants1
 one block having travelled about a     
quarter of a mile1 and lying about #ah  
feet above the level of the sea4#cjb    
,more recently ,dr4 ,forchhammer has    
shown that in the ,sound1 the ,great    
,belt1 and other places near the        

entrance of the ,baltic1 ground-ice     
forms plentifully at the bottom and then
 rises to the surface1 charged with sand
 and gravel1 stones and sea-weed4       
,sheets of ice1 also1 with included     
boulders1 are driven up on the coast    
during storms1 and packed to a height of
 #ej feet4 ,to the motion of such       
masses1 but still more to that of the   
ground-ice1 the ,danish professor       
attributes the striation of rocky       
surfaces1 forming the shores and bed of 
the sea1 and he relates a striking fact 
to prove that large quantities of rocky 
fragments are annually carried by ice   
out of the ,baltic4 ,in the year #ahjg1 
he says1 at the time of the bombardment 
of the ,danish fleet1 an ,english       
sloop-of-war1 riding at anchor in the   
roads at ,copenhagen1 blew up4 ,in      
#ahdd1 or thirty-seven years afterwards1
 one of our divers1 known to be a       
trustworthy man1 went down to save      
whatever might yet remain in the        
shipwrecked vessel4 ,he found the space 

between decks entire1 but covered with  
blocks from #f to #h cubic feet in size1
 and some of them heaped one upon the   
other4 ,he also affirmed1 that all the  
sunk ships which he had visited in the  
,sound1 were in like manner strewed over
 with blocks4  ,dr4 ,forchhammer also   
informs us1 that during an intense frost
 in ,february1 #ahdd1 the ,sound was    
suddenly frozen over1 and sheets of ice1
 driven by a storm1 were heaped up at   
the bottom of the ,bay of ,taarbeijk1   
threatening to destroy a fishing-village
 on the shore4 ,the whole was soon      
frozen together into one mass1 and      
forced up on the beach1 forming a mound 
more than #af feet high1 which threw    
down the walls of several buildings4    
,when ,i visited the spot next day1 ,i  
saw ridges of ice1 sand1 and pebbles1   
not only on the shore1 but extending far
 out into the bottom of the sea1 showing
 how greatly its bed had been changed1  
and how easily1 where it is composed of 
rock1 it may be furrowed and streaked by

 stones firmly fixed in the moving      
ice4#cjc     ,,chapter ,,xvi4           
,,phenomena ,,of ,,springs4    ,origin  
of ,springs--,artesian wells--,borings  
at ,paris--,distinct causes     by which
 mineral and thermal waters may be      
raised to the     surface--,their       
connection with volcanic                
agency--,calcareous                     
springs--,travertin of the ,elsa--,baths
 of ,san ,vignone and of ,san           
,filippo1 near ,radicofani--,spheroidal 
structure in travertin--,lake of     the
 ,solfatara1 near ,rome--,travertin at  
,cascade of ,tivoli--,gypseous1         
siliceous1 and ferruginous              
springs--,brine springs--,carbonated    
springs--,disintegration of granite in  
,auvergne--,petroleum                   
springs--,pitch lake of ,trinidad4      
,origin of springs4--,the action of     
running water on the surface of the land
 having been considered1 we may next    
turn our attention to what may be termed
 the subterranean drainage1 or the      

phenomena of springs4 ,every one is     
familiar with the fact1 that certain    
porous soils1 such as loose sand and    
gravel1 absorb water with rapidity1 and 
that the ground composed of them soon   
dries up after heavy showers4 ,if a well
 be sunk in such soils1 we often        
penetrate to considerable depths before 
we meet with water2 but this is usually 
found on our approaching the lower parts
 of the formation1 where it rests on    
some impervious bed2 for here the water1
 unable to make its way downwards in a  
direct line1 accumulates as in a        
reservoir1 and is ready to ooze out into
 any opening which may be made1 in the  
same manner as we see the salt water    
flow into1 and fill1 any hollow which we
 dig in the sands of the shore at low   
tide4  ,the facility with which water   
can percolate loose and gravelly soils  
is clearly illustrated by the effect of 
the tides in the ,thames between        
,richmond and ,london4 ,the river1 in   
this part of its course1 flows through a

 bed of gravel overlying clay1 and the  
porous superstratum is alternately      
saturated by the water of the ,thames as
 the tide rises1 and then drained again 
to the distance of several hundred feet 
from the banks when the tide falls1 so  
that the wells in this tract regularly  
ebb and flow4  ,if the transmission of  
water through a porous medium be so     
rapid1 we cannot be surprised that      
springs should be thrown out on the side
 of a hill1 where the upper set of      
strata consist of chalk1 sand1 or other 
permeable substances1 while the         
subjacent are composed of clay or other 
retentive soils4 ,the only difficulty1  
indeed1 is to explain why the water does
 not ooze out everywhere along the line 
of junction of the two formations1 so as
 to form one continuous land-soak1      
instead of a few springs only1 and these
 far distant from each other4 ,the      
principal cause of this concentration of
 the waters at a few points is1 first1  
the frequency of rents and fissures1    

which act as natural drains2 secondly1  
the existence of inequalities in the    
upper surface of the impermeable        
stratum1 which lead the water1 as       
valleys do on the external surface of a 
country1 into certain low levels and    
channels4  ,that the generality of      
springs owe their supply to the         
atmosphere is evident from this1 that   
they become languid1 or entirely cease  
to flow1 after long droughts1 and are   
again replenished after a continuance of
 rain4 ,many of them are probably       
indebted for the constancy and          
uniformity of their volume to the great 
extent of the subterranean reservoirs   
with which they communicate1 and the    
time required for these to empty        
themselves by percolation4 ,such a      
gradual and regulated discharge is      
exhibited1 though in a less perfect     
degree1 in every great lake which is not
 sensibly affected in its level by      
sudden showers1 but only slightly       
raised2 so that its channel of efflux1  

instead of being swollen suddenly like  
the bed of a torrent1 is enabled to     
carry off the surplus water gradually4  
,much light has been thrown1 of late    
years1 on the theory of springs1 by the 
boring of what are called by the ,french
 ,artesian wells1 because the method has
 long been known and practised in       
,artois2 and it is now demonstrated that
 there are sheets1 and in some places   
currents of fresh water1 at various     
depths in the earth4 ,the instrument    
employed in excavating these wells is a 
large augur1 and the cavity bored is    
usually from three to four inches in    
diameter4 ,if a hard rock is met with1  
it is first triturated by an iron rod1  
and the materials being thus reduced to 
small fragments or powder1 are readily  
extracted4 ,to hinder the sides of the  
well from falling in1 as also to prevent
 the spreading of the ascending water in
 the surrounding soil1 a jointed pipe is
 introduced1 formed of wood in ,artois1 
but in other countries more commonly of 

metal4 ,it frequently happens that1     
after passing through hundreds of feet  
of retentive soils1 a water-bearing     
stratum is at length pierced1 when the  
fluid immediately ascends to the        
surface1 and flows over4 ,the first rush
 of the water up the tube is often      
violent1 so that for a time the water   
plays like a fountain1 and then1        
sinking1 continues to flow over         
tranquilly1 or sometimes remains        
stationary at a certain depth below the 
orifice of the well4 ,this spouting of  
the water in the first instance is      
probably owing to the disengagement of  
air and carbonic acid gas1 for both of  
these have been seen to bubble up with  
the water4#cjd  ,at ,sheerness1 at the  
mouth of the ,thames1 a well was bored  
on a low tongue of land near the sea1   
through #cjj feet of the blue clay of   
,london1 below which a bed of sand and  
pebbles was entered1 belonging1         
doubtless1 to the plastic clay          
formation2 when this stratum was        

pierced1 the water burst up with        
impetuosity1 and filled the well4 ,by   
another perforation at the same place1  
the water was found at the depth of #cbh
 feet below the surface clay2 it first  
rose rapidly to the height of #ahi feet1
 and then1 in the course of a few hours1
 ascended to an elevation of eight feet 
above the level of the ground4 ,in #ahbd
 a well was dug at ,fulham1 near the    
,thames1 at the ,bishop of ,london's1 to
 the depth of #cag feet1 which1 after   
traversing the tertiary strata1 was     
continued through #fg feet of chalk4    
,the water immediately rose to the      
surface1 and the discharge was about #ej
 gallons per minute4 ,in the garden of  
the ,horticultural ,society at          
,chiswick1 the borings passed through   
#ai feet of gravel1 #bdb-a_/b feet of   
clay and loam1 and #fg-a_/b feet of     
chalk1 and the water then rose to the   
surface from a depth of #cbi feet4#cje  
,at the ,duke of ,northumberland's1     
above ,chiswick1 the borings were       

carried to the extraordinary depth of   
#fbj feet1 so as to enter the chalk1    
when a considerable volume of water was 
obtained1 which rose four feet above the
 surface of the ground4 ,in a well of   
,mr4 ,brooks1 at ,hammersmith1 the rush 
of water from a depth of #cfj feet was  
so great1 as to inundate several        
buildings and do considerable damage2   
and at ,tooting1 a sufficient stream was
 obtained to turn a wheel1 and raise the
 water to the upper stories of the      
houses4#cjf ,in #ahch1 the total supply 
obtained from the chalk near ,london was
 estimated at six million gallons a day1
 and1 in #ahea1 at nearly double that   
amount1 the increase being accompanied  
by an average fall of no less than two  
feet a year in the level to which the   
water rose4 ,the water stood commonly1  
in #ahbb1 at high-water mark1 and had   
sunk in #ahea to #de1 and in some wells 
to #fe feet below high-water mark4#cjg  
,this fact shows the limited capacity of
 the subterranean reservoir4 ,in the    

last of three wells bored through the   
chalk at ,tours1 to the depth of several
 hundred feet1 the water rose #cb feet  
above the level of the soil1 and the    
discharge amounted to #cjj cubic yards  
of water every twenty-four hours4#cjh   
,by way of experiment1 the sinking of a 
well was commenced at ,paris in #ahcd1  
which had reached1 in ,november1 #ahci1 
a depth of more than #afjj ,english     
feet1 and yet no water ascended to the  
surface4 ,the government were persuaded 
by ,m4 ,arago to persevere1 if          
necessary1 to the depth of more than    
#bjjj feet2 but when they had descended 
above #ahjj ,english feet below the     
surface1 the water rose through the tube
 7which was about ten inches in         
diameter71 so as to discharge half a    
million of gallons of limpid water every
 twenty-four hours4 ,the temperature of 
the water increased at the rate of #a4h 
degrees ,f4 for every #aja ,english     
feet1 as they went down1 the result     
agreeing very closely with the          

anticipations of the scientific advisers
 of this most spirited undertaking4     
,mr4 ,briggs1 the ,british consul in    
,egypt1 obtained water between ,cairo   
and ,suez1 in a calcareous sand1 at the 
depth of thirty feet2 but it did not    
rise in the well4#cji ,but other borings
 in the same desert1 of variable depth1 
between #ej and #cjj feet1 and which    
passed through alternations of sand1    
clay1 and siliceous rock1 yielded water 
at the surface4#caj  ,the rise and      
overflow of the water in ,artesian wells
 is generally referred1 and apparently  
with reason1 to the same principle as   
the play of an artificial fountain4 ,let
 the porous stratum or set of strata1 a 
a1 rest on the impermeable rock d1 and  
be covered by another mass of an        
impermeable nature4 ,the whole mass a a 
may easily1 in such a position1 become  
saturated with water1 which may descend 
from its higher and exposed parts--a    
hilly region to which clouds are        
attracted1 and where rain falls in      

abundance4 ,suppose that at some point1 
as at b1 an opening be made1 which gives
 a free passage upwards to the waters   
confined in a a1 at so low a level that 
they are subjected to the pressure of a 
considerable column of water collected  
in the more elevated portion of the same
 stratum4 ,the water will then rush out1
 just as the liquid from a large barrel 
which is tapped1 and it will rise to a  
height corresponding to the level of its
 point of departure1 or1 rather1 to a   
height which balances the pressure      
previously exerted by the confined      
waters against the roof and sides of the
 stratum or reservoir a a4 ,in like     
manner1 if there happen to be a natural 
fissure c1 a spring will be produced at 
the surface on precisely the same       
principle4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4   
,among the causes of the failure of     
,artesian wells1 we may mention those   
numerous rents and faults which abound  
in some rocks1 and the deep ravines and 
valleys by which many countries are     

traversed2 for1 when these natural lines
 of drainage exist1 there remains a     
small quantity only of water to escape  
by artificial issues4 ,we are also      
liable to be baffled by the great       
thickness either of porous or impervious
 strata1 or by the dip of the beds1     
which may carry off the waters from the 
adjoining high lands to some trough in  
an opposite direction1 as when the      
borings are made at the foot of an      
escarpment where the strata incline     
inwards1 or in a direction opposite to  
the face of the cliffs4  ,the mere      
distance of hills or mountains need not 
discourage us from making trials2 for   
the waters which fall on these higher   
lands readily penetrate to great depths 
through highly inclined or vertical     
strata1 or through the fissures of      
shattered rocks1 and after flowing for a
 great distance1 must often reascend and
 be brought up again by other fissures1 
so as to approach the surface in the    
lower country4 ,here they may be        

concealed beneath the covering of       
undisturbed horizontal beds1 which it   
may be necessary to pierce in order to  
reach them4 ,it should be remembered1   
that the course of waters flowing under 
ground bears but a remote resemblance to
 that of rivers on the surface1 there   
being1 in the one case1 a constant      
descent from a higher to a lower level  
from the source of the stream to the    
sea2 whereas1 in the other1 the water   
may at one time sink far below the level
 of the ocean1 and afterwards rise again
 high above it4  ,among other curious   
facts ascertained by aid of the borer1  
it is proved that in strata of different
 ages and compositions1 there are often 
open passages by which the subterranean 
waters circulate4 ,thus1 at ,st4 ,ouen1 
in ,france1 five distinct sheets of     
water were intersected in a well1 and   
from each of these a supply obtained4   
,in the third waterbearing stratum1 at  
the depth of #aej feet1 a cavity was    
found in which the borer fell suddenly  

about a foot1 and thence the water      
ascended in great volume4#caa ,the same 
falling of the instrument1 as in a      
hollow space1 has been remarked in      
,england and other countries4 ,at       
,tours1 in #ahcj1 a well was perforated 
quite through the chalk1 when the water 
suddenly brought up1 from a depth of    
#cfd feet1 a great quantity of fine     
sand1 with much vegetable matter and    
shells4 ,branches of a thorn several    
inches long1 much blackened by their    
stay in the water1 were recognized1 as  
also the stems of marsh plants1 and some
 of their roots1 which were still white1
 together with the seeds of the same in 
a state of preservation1 which showed   
that they had not remained more than    
three or four months in the water4      
,among the seeds were those of the marsh
 plant ,galium uliginosum2 and among the
 shells1 a freshwater species           
7,planorbis marginatus71 and some land  
species1 as ,helix rotundata1 and ,h4   
striata4 ,m4 ,dujardin1 who1 with       

others1 observed this phenomenon1       
supposes that the waters had flowed from
 some valleys of ,auvergne or the       
,vivarais since the preceding           
autumn4#cab  ,an analogous phenomenon is
 recorded at ,reimke1 near ,bochum in   
,westphalia1 where the water of an      
,artesian well brought up1 from a depth 
of #aef feet1 several small fish1 three 
or four inches long1 the nearest streams
 in the country being at a distance of  
some leagues4#cac  ,in both cases it is 
evident that water had penetrated to    
great depths1 not simply by filtering   
through a porous mass1 for then it would
 have left behind the shells1 fish1 and 
fragments of plants1 but by flowing     
through some open channels in the earth4
 ,such examples may suggest the idea    
that the leaky beds of rivers are often 
the feeders of springs4   ,,mineral     
,,and ,,thermal ,,springs4  ,almost all 
springs1 even those which we consider   
the purest1 are impregnated with some   
foreign ingredients1 which1 being in a  

state of chemical solution1 are so      
intimately blended with the water as not
 to affect its clearness1 while they    
render it1 in general1 more agreeable to
 our taste1 and more nutritious than    
simple rain-water4 ,but the springs     
called mineral contain an unusual       
abundance of earthy matter in solution1 
and the substances with which they are  
impregnated correspond remarkably with  
those evolved in a gaseous form by      
volcanoes4 ,many of these springs are   
thermal1 i4 e41 their temperature is    
above the mean temperature of the place1
 and they rise up through all kinds of  
rock2 as1 for example1 through granite1 
gneiss1 limestone1 or lava1 but are most
 frequent in volcanic regions1 or where 
violent earthquakes have occurred at    
eras comparatively modern4  ,the water  
given out by hot springs is generally   
more voluminous and less variable in    
quantity at different seasons than that 
proceeding from any others4 ,in many    
volcanic regions1 jets of steam1 called 

by the ,italians stufas1 issue from     
fissures1 at a temperature high above   
the boiling point1 as in the            
neighborhood of ,naples1 and in the     
,lipari ,isles1 and are disengaged      
unceasingly for ages4 ,now1 if such     
columns of steam1 which are often mixed 
with other gases1 should be condensed   
before reaching the surface by coming in
 contact with strata filled with cold   
water1 they may give rise to thermal and
 mineral springs of every degree of     
temperature4 ,it is1 indeed1 by this    
means only1 and not by hydrostatic      
pressure1 that we can account for the   
rise of such bodies of water from great 
depths2 nor can we hesitate to admit the
 adequacy of the cause1 if we suppose   
the expansion of the same elastic fluids
 to be sufficient to raise columns of   
lava to the lofty summits of volcanic   
mountains4 ,several gases1 the carbonic 
acid in particular1 are disengaged in a 
free state from the soil in many        
districts1 especially in the regions of 

active or extinct volcanoes2 and the    
same are found more or less intimately  
combined with the waters of all mineral 
springs1 both cold and thermal4 ,dr4    
,daubeny and other writers have         
remarked1 not only that these springs   
are most abundant in volcanic regions1  
but that when remote from them1 their   
site usually coincides with the position
 of some great derangement in the       
strata2 a fault1 for example1 or great  
fissure1 indicating that a channel of   
communication has been opened with the  
interior of the earth at some former    
period of local convulsion4 ,it is also 
ascertained that at great heights in the
 ,pyrenees and ,himalaya mountains hot  
springs burst out from granitic rocks1  
and they are abundant in the ,alps also1
 these chains having all been disturbed 
and dislocated at times comparatively   
modern1 as can be shown by independent  
geological evidence4  ,the small area of
 volcanic regions may appear1 at first  
view1 to present an objection to these  

views1 but not so when we include       
earthquakes among the effects of igneous
 agency4 ,a large proportion of the land
 hitherto explored by geologists can be 
shown to have been rent or shaken by    
subterranean movements since the oldest 
tertiary strata were formed4 ,it will   
also be seen1 in the sequel1 that new   
springs have burst out1 and others have 
had the volume of their waters          
augmented1 and their temperature        
suddenly raised after earthquakes1 so   
that the description of these springs   
might almost with equal propriety have  
been given under the head of igneous    
causes1 as they are agents of a mixed   
nature1 being at once igneous and       
aqueous4  ,but how1 it will be asked1   
can the regions of volcanic heat send   
forth such inexhaustible supplies of    
water8 ,the difficulty of solving this  
problem would1 in truth1 be             
insurmountable1 if we believed that all 
the atmospheric waters found their way  
into the basin of the ocean2 but in     

boring near the shore we often meet with
 streams of fresh water at the depth of 
several hundred feet below the sea      
level2 and these probably descend1 in   
many cases1 far beneath the bottom of   
the sea1 when not artificially          
intercepted in their course4 ,yet1 how  
much greater may be the quantity of salt
 water which sinks beneath the floor of 
the ocean1 through the porous strata of 
which it is often composed1 or through  
fissures rent in it by earthquakes4     
,after penetrating to a considerable    
depth1 this water may encounter a heat  
of sufficient intensity to convert it   
into vapor1 even under the high pressure
 to which it would then be subjected4   
,this heat would probably be nearest the
 surface in volcanic countries1 and     
farthest from it in those districts     
which have been longest free from       
eruptions or earthquakes4  ,it would    
follow from the views above explained1  
that there must be a twofold circulation
 of terrestrial waters2 one caused by   

solar heat1 and the other by heat       
generated in the interior of our planet4
 ,we know that the land would be unfit  
for vegetation1 if deprived of the      
waters raised into the atmosphere by the
 sun2 but it is also true that mineral  
springs are powerful instruments in     
rendering the surface subservient to the
 support of animal and vegetable life4  
,their heat is said to promote the      
development of the aquatic tribes in    
many parts of the ocean1 and the        
substances which they carry up from the 
bowels of the earth to the habitable    
surface1 are of a nature and in a form  
which adapts them peculiarly for the    
nutrition of animals and plants4  ,as   
these springs derive their chief        
importance to the geologist from the    
quantity and quality of the earthy      
materials which1 like volcanoes1 they   
convey from below upwards1 they may     
properly be considered in reference to  
the ingredients which they hold in      
solution4 ,these consist of a great     

variety of substances2 but chiefly salts
 with bases of lime1 magnesia1 alumine1 
and iron1 combined with carbonic1       
sulphuric1 and muriatic acids4 ,muriate 
of soda1 silica1 and free carbonic acid 
are frequently present2 also springs of 
petroleum1 or liquid bitumen1 and of    
naphtha4  ,calcareous springs4--,our    
first attention is naturally directed to
 springs which are highly charged with  
calcareous matter1 for these produce a  
variety of phenomena of much interest in
 geology4 ,it is known that rain-water  
collecting carbonic acid from the       
atmosphere has the property of          
dissolving the calcareous rocks over    
which it flows1 and thus1 in the        
smallest ponds and rivulets1 matter is  
often supplied for the earthy secretions
 of testacea1 and for the growth of     
certain plants on which they feed4 ,but 
many springs hold so much carbonic acid 
in solution1 that they are enabled to   
dissolve a much larger quantity of      
calcareous matter than rain-water2 and  

when the acid is dissipated in the      
atmosphere1 the mineral ingredients are 
thrown down1 in the form of porous tufa 
or of more compact travertin4#cad       
,auvergne4--,calcareous springs1        
although most abundant in limestone     
districts1 are by no means confined to  
them1 but flow out indiscriminately from
 all rock formations4 ,in central       
,france1 a district where the primary   
rocks are unusually destitute of        
limestone1 springs copiously charged    
with carbonate of lime rise up through  
the granite and gneiss4 ,some of these  
are thermal1 and probably derive their  
origin from the deep source of volcanic 
heat1 once so active in that region4    
,one of these springs1 at the northern  
base of the hill upon which ,claremont  
is built1 issues from volcanic peperino1
 which rests on granite4 ,it has formed1
 by its incrustations1 an elevated mound
 of travertin1 or white concretionary   
limestone1 #bdj feet in length1 and1 at 
its termination1 sixteen feet high and  

twelve wide4 ,another encrusting spring 
in the same department1 situated at     
,chaluzet1 near ,pont ,gibaud1 rises in 
a gneiss country1 at the foot of a      
regular volcanic cone1 at least twenty  
miles from any calcareous rock4 ,some   
masses of tufaceous deposit1 produced by
 this spring1 have an oolitic texture4  
,valley of the ,elsa4--,if we pass from 
the volcanic district of ,france to that
 which skirts the ,apennines in the     
,italian peninsula1 we meet with        
innumerable springs which have          
precipitated so much calcareous matter1 
that the whole ground in some parts of  
,tuscany is coated over with tufa and   
travertin1 and sounds hollow beneath the
 foot4  ,in other places in the same    
country1 compact rocks are seen         
descending the slanting sides of hills1 
very much in the manner of lava         
currents1 except that they are of a     
white color and terminate abruptly when 
they reach the course of a river4 ,these
 consist of a calcareous precipitate    

from springs1 some of which are still   
flowing1 while others have disappeared  
or changed their position4 ,such masses 
are frequent on the slope of the hills  
which bound the valley of the ,elsa1 one
 of the tributaries of the ,arno1 which 
flows near ,colle1 through a valley     
several hundred feet deep1 shaped out of
 a lacustrine formation1 containing     
fossil shells of existing species4 ,i   
observed here that the travertin was    
unconformable to the lacustrine beds1   
its inclination according with the slope
 of the sides of the valley4 ,one of the
 finest examples which ,i saw was at the
 ,molino delle ,caldane1 near ,colle4   
,the ,sena1 and several other small     
rivulets which feed the ,elsa1 have the 
property of encrusting wood and herbs   
with calcareous stone4 ,in the bed of   
the ,elsa itself1 aquatic plants1 such  
as ,charae1 which absorb large          
quantities of carbonate of lime1 are    
very abundant4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ba4  ,section of travertin1 ,san       

,vignone4  ,baths of ,san               
,vignone4--,those persons who have      
merely seen the action of petrifying    
waters in ,england1 will not easily form
 an adequate conception of the scale on 
which the same process is exhibited in  
those regions which lie nearer to the   
active centres of volcanic disturbance4 
,one of the most striking examples of   
the rapid precipitation of carbonate of 
lime from thermal waters1 occurs in the 
hill of ,san ,vignone in ,tuscany1 at a 
short distance from ,radicofani1 and    
only a few hundred yards from the high  
road between ,sienna and ,rome4 ,the    
spring issues from near the summit of a 
rocky hill1 about #ajj feet in height4  
,the top of the hill stretches in a     
gently inclined platform to the foot of 
,mount ,amiata1 a lofty eminence1 which 
consists in great part of volcanic      
products4 ,the fundamental rock1 from   
which the spring issues1 is a black     
slate1 with serpentine 7b b1 fig4 #ba71 
belonging to the older ,apennine        

formation4 ,the water is hot1 has a     
strong taste1 and1 when not in very     
small quantity1 is of a bright green    
color4 ,so rapid is the deposition near 
the source1 that in the bottom of a     
conduit-pipe for carrying off the water 
to the baths1 and which is inclined at  
an angle of #cj degrees1 half a foot of 
solid travertin is formed every year4 ,a
 more compact rock is produced where the
 water flows slowly2 and the            
precipitation in winter1 when there is  
least evaporation1 is said to be more   
solid1 but less in quantity by          
one-fourth1 than in summer4 ,the rock is
 generally white2 some parts of it are  
compact1 and ring to the hammer2 others 
are cellular1 and with such cavities as 
are seen in the carious part of bone or 
the siliceous millstone of the ,paris   
basin4 ,a portion of it also below the  
village of ,san ,vignone consists of    
incrustations of long vegetable tubes1  
and may be called tufa4 ,sometimes the  
travertin assumes precisely the         

botryoidal and mammillary forms1 common 
to similar deposits in ,auvergne1 of a  
much older date2 and1 like them1 it     
often scales off in thin1 slightly      
undulating layers4  ,a large mass of    
travertin 7c1 fig4 #ba7 descends the    
hill from the point where the spring    
issues1 and reaches to the distance of  
about half a mile east of ,san ,vignone4
 ,the beds take the slope of the hill at
 about an angle of #f degrees1 and the  
planes of stratification are perfectly  
parallel4 ,one stratum1 composed of many
 layers1 is of a compact nature1 and    
fifteen feet thick2 it serves as an     
excellent building stone1 and a mass of 
fifteen feet in length was1 in #ahbh1   
cut out for the new bridge over the     
,orcia4 ,another branch of it 7a1 fig4  
#ba7 descends to the west1 for #bej feet
 in length1 of varying thickness1 but   
sometimes #bjj feet deep2 it is then cut
 off by the small river ,orcia1 as some 
glaciers in ,switzerland descend into a 
valley till their progress is suddenly  

arrested by a transverse stream of      
water4  ,the abrupt termination of the  
mass of rock at the river1 where its    
thickness is undiminished1 clearly shows
 that it would proceed much farther if  
not arrested by the stream1 over which  
it impends slightly4 ,but it cannot     
encroach upon the channel of the ,orcia1
 being constantly undermined1 so that   
its solid fragments are seen strewed    
amongst the alluvial gravel4 ,however   
enormous1 therefore1 the mass of solid  
rock may appear which has been given out
 by this single spring1 we may feel     
assured that it is insignificant in     
volume when compared to that which has  
been carried to the sea since the time  
when it began to flow4 ,what may have   
been the length of that period of time  
we have no data for conjecturing4 ,in   
quarrying the travertin1 ,roman tiles   
have been sometimes found at the depth  
of five or six feet4  ,baths of ,san    
,filippo4--,on another hill1 not many   
miles from that last mentioned1 and also

 connected with ,mount ,amiata1 the     
summit of which is about three miles    
distant1 are the celebrated baths of    
,san ,filippo4 ,the subjacent rocks     
consist of alternations of black slate1 
limestone1 and serpentine4 ,there are   
three warm springs containing carbonate 
and sulphate of lime1 and sulphate of   
magnesia4 ,the water which supplies the 
baths falls into a pond1 where it has   
been known to deposit a solid mass      
thirty feet thick in about twenty       
years4#cae ,a manufactory of medallions 
in basso-relievo is carried on at these 
baths4 ,the water is conducted by canals
 into several pits1 in which it deposits
 travertin and crystals of sulphate of  
lime4 ,after being thus freed from its  
grosser parts1 it is conveyed by a tube 
to the summit of a small chamber1 and   
made to fall through a space of ten or  
twelve feet4 ,the current is broken in  
its descent by numerous crossed sticks1 
by which the spray is dispersed around  
upon certain moulds1 which are rubbed   

lightly over with a solution of soap1   
and a deposition of solid matter like   
marble is the result1 yielding a        
beautiful cast of the figures formed in 
the mould4 ,the geologist may derive    
from these experiments considerable     
light1 in regard to the high slope of   
the strata at which some                
semi-crystalline precipitations can be  
formed2 for some of the moulds are      
disposed almost perpendicularly1 yet the
 deposition is nearly equal in all      
parts4  ,a hard stratum of stone1 about 
a foot in thickness1 is obtained from   
the waters of ,san ,filippo in four     
months2 and1 as the springs are         
powerful1 and almost uniform in the     
quantity given out1 we are at no loss to
 comprehend the magnitude of the mass   
which descends the hill1 which is a mile
 and a quarter in length and the third  
of a mile in breadth1 in some places    
attaining a thickness of #bej feet at   
least4 ,to what length it might have    
reached it is impossible to conjecture1 

as it is cut off1 like the travertin of 
,san ,vignone1 by a small stream1 where 
it terminates abruptly4 ,the remainder  
of the matter held in solution is       
carried on probably to the sea4         
,spheroidal structure in                
travertin4--,but what renders this      
recent limestone of peculiar interest to
 the geologist1 is the spheroidal form  
which it assumes1 analogous to that of  
the cascade of ,tivoli1 afterwards to be
 described4 7,see fig4 #bb1 p4 #bdd47   
,the lamination of some of the          
concentric masses is so minute that     
sixty may be counted in the thickness of
 an inch1 yet1 notwithstanding these    
marks of gradual and successive         
deposition1 sections are sometimes      
exhibited of what might seem to be      
perfect spheres4 ,this tendency to a    
mammillary and globular structure arises
 from the facility with which the       
calcareous matter is precipitated in    
nearly equal quantities on all sides of 
any fragment of shell or wood or any    

inequality of the surface over which the
 mineral water flows1 the form of the   
nucleus being readily transmitted       
through any number of successive        
envelopes4 ,but these masses can never  
be perfect spheres1 although they often 
appear such when a transverse section is
 made in any line not in the direction  
of the point of attachment4 ,there are1 
indeed1 occasionally seen small oolitic 
and pisolitic grains1 of which the form 
is globular2 for the nucleus1 having    
been for a time in motion in the water1 
has received fresh accessions of matter 
on all sides4  ,in the same manner ,i   
have seen1 on the vertical walls of     
large steam-boilers1 the heads of nails 
or rivets covered by a series of        
enveloping crusts of calcareous matter1 
usually sulphate of lime2 so that a     
concretionary nodule is formed1         
preserving a nearly globular shape1 when
 increased to a mass several inches in  
diameter4 ,in these1 as in many         
travertins1 there is often a combination

 of the concentric and radiated         
structure4  ,campagna di ,roma4--,the   
country around ,rome1 like many parts of
 the ,tuscan ,states already referred   
to1 has been at some former period the  
site of numerous volcanic eruptions2 and
 the springs are still copiously        
impregnated with lime1 carbonic acid1   
and sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,a hot spring
 was discovered about #ahbg1 near       
,civita ,vecchia1 by ,signor ,riccioli1 
which deposits alternate beds of a      
yellowish travertin1 and a white        
granular rock1 not distinguishable1 in  
hand specimens1 either in grain1 color1 
or composition1 from statuary marble4   
,there is a passage between this and    
ordinary travertin4 ,the mass           
accumulated near the spring is in some  
places about six feet thick4  ,lake of  
the ,solfatara4--,in the ,campagna1     
between ,rome and ,tivoli1 is the ,lake 
of the ,solfatara1 called also ,lago di 
,zolfo 7lacus albula71 into which flows 
continually a stream of tepid water from

 a smaller lake1 situated a few yards   
above it4 ,the water is a saturated     
solution of carbonic acid gas1 which    
escapes from it in such quantities in   
some parts of its surface1 that it has  
the appearance of being actually in     
ebullition4 ,i have found by experiment1
 says ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 that the     
water taken from the most tranquil part 
of the lake1 even after being agitated  
and exposed to the air1 contained in    
solution more than its own volume of    
carbonic acid gas1 with a very small    
quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,its 
high temperature1 which is pretty       
constant at #hj degrees of ,fahr41 and  
the quantity of carbonic acid that it   
contains1 render it peculiarly fitted to
 afford nourishment to vegetable life4  
,the banks of travertin are everywhere  
covered with reeds1 lichen1 confervae1  
and various kinds of aquatic vegetables2
 and at the same time that the process  
of vegetable life is going on1 the      
crystallizations of the calcareous      

matter1 which is everywhere deposited1  
in consequence of the escape of carbonic
 acid1 likewise proceed4 ,there is1 ,i  
believe1 no place in the world where    
there is a more striking example of the 
opposition or contrast of the laws of   
animate and inanimate nature1 of the    
forces of inorganic chemical affinity1  
and those of the powers of life4#caf    
,the same observer informs us that he   
fixed a stick in a mass of travertin    
covered by the water in the month of    
,may1 and in ,april following he had    
some difficulty in breaking1 with a     
sharp-pointed hammer1 the mass which    
adhered to the stick1 and which was     
several inches in thickness4 ,the upper 
part was a mixture of light tufa and the
 leaves of confervae2 below this was a  
darker and more solid travertin1        
containing black and decomposed masses  
of confervae2 in the inferior part the  
travertin was more solid1 and of a gray 
color1 but with cavities probably       
produced by the decomposition of        

vegetable matter4#cag  ,the stream which
 flows out of this lake fills a canal   
about nine feet broad and four deep1 and
 is conspicuous in the landscape by a   
line of vapor which rises from it4 ,it  
deposits calcareous tufa in this        
channel1 and the ,tiber probably        
receives from it1 as well as from       
numerous other streams1 much carbonate  
of lime in solution1 which may          
contribute to the rapid growth of its   
delta4 ,a large proportion of the most  
splendid edifices of ancient and modern 
,rome are built of travertin1 derived   
from the quarries of ,ponte ,lucano1    
where there has evidently been a lake at
 a remote period1 on the same plain as  
that already described4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #bb4  ,section of spheroidal      
concretionary ,travertin under the      
,cascade of ,tivoli4  ,travertin of     
,tivoli4--,in the same neighborhood the 
calcareous waters of the ,anio incrust  
the reeds which grow on its banks1 and  
the foam of the cataract of ,tivoli     

forms beautiful pendant stalactites4 ,on
 the sides of the deep chasm into which 
the cascade throws itself1 there is seen
 an extraordinary accumulation of       
horizontal beds of tufa and travertin1  
from four to five hundred feet in       
thickness4 ,the section immediately     
under the temples of ,vesta and the     
,sibyl1 displays1 in a precipice about  
four hundred feet high1 some spheroids  
which are from six to eight feet in     
diameter1 each concentric layer being   
about the eighth of an inch in          
thickness4 ,the preceding diagram       
exhibits about fourteen feet of this    
immense mass1 as seen in the path cut   
out of the rock in descending from the  
temple of ,vesta to the ,grotto di      
,nettuno4 ,i have not attempted to      
express in this drawing the innumerable 
thin layers of which these magnificent  
spheroids are composed1 but the lines   
given mark some of the natural divisions
 into which they are separated by minute
 variations in the size or color of the 

laminae4 ,the undulations also are much 
smaller in proportion to the whole      
circumference than in the drawing4 ,the 
beds 7a a7 are of hard travertin and    
soft tufa2 below them is a pisolite 7b71
 the globules being of different sizes3 
underneath this appears a mass of       
concretionary travertin 7c c71 some of  
the spheroids being of the              
above-mentioned extraordinary size4 ,in 
some places 7as at d7 there is a mass of
 amorphous limestone1 or tufa1          
surrounded by concentric layers4 ,at the
 bottom is another bed of pisolite 7b71 
in which the small nodules are about the
 size and shape of beans1 and some of   
them of filberts1 intermixed with some  
smaller oolitic grains4 ,in the         
tufaceous strata1 wood is seen converted
 into a light tufa4  ,there can be      
little doubt that the whole of this     
deposit was formed in an extensive lake 
which existed when the external         
configuration of this country varied    
greatly from that now observed4 ,the    

,anio throws itself into a ravine       
excavated in the ancient travertin1 and 
its waters give rise to masses of       
calcareous stone1 scarcely if at all    
distinguishable from the older rock4 ,i 
was shown1 in #ahbh1 in the upper part  
of the travertin1 the hollow left by a  
cart-wheel1 in which the outer circle   
and the spokes had been decomposed1 and 
the spaces which they filled left void4 
,it seemed to me at the time impossible 
to explain the position of this mould   
without supposing that the wheel was    
imbedded before the lake was drained2   
but ,sir ,r4 ,murchison suggests that it
 may have been washed down by a flood   
into the gorge in modern times1 and then
 incrusted with calcareous tufa in the  
same manner as the wooden beam of the   
church of ,st4 ,lucia was swept down in 
#ahbf1 and stuck fast in the ,grotto of 
the ,syren1 where it still remains1 and 
will eventually be quite imbedded in    
travertin4  ,i have already endeavored  
to explain 7p4 #bda71 when speaking of  

the travertin of ,san ,filippo1 how the 
spheroidal masses represented in figure 
#bb may have been formed4  ,sulphureous 
and gypseus springs4--,the quantity of  
other mineral ingredients wherewith     
springs in general are impregnated1 is  
insignificant in comparison to lime1 and
 this earth is most frequently combined 
with carbonic acid4 ,but as sulphuric   
acid1 and sulphuretted hydrogen are very
 frequently supplied by springs1 gypsum 
may1 perhaps1 be deposited largely in   
certain seas and lakes4 ,among other    
gypseous precipitates at present known  
on the land1 ,i may mention those of    
,baden1 near ,vienna1 which feed the    
public bath4 ,some of these supply      
singly from #fjj to #ajjj cubic feet of 
water per hour1 and deposit a fine      
powder1 composed of a mixture of        
sulphate of lime with sulphur and       
muriate of lime4#cah ,the thermal waters
 of ,aix1 in ,savoy1 in passing through 
strata of ,jurassic limestone1 turn them
 into gypsum or sulphate of lime4 ,in   

the ,andes1 at the ,puenta del ,inca1   
,lieutenant ,brand found a thermal      
spring at the temperature of #ia degrees
 ,fahr41 containing a large proportion  
of gypsum with carbonate of lime and    
other ingredients4#cai ,many of the     
mineral springs of ,iceland1 says ,mr4  
,r4 ,bunsen1 deposit gypsum4#cbj and    
sulphureous acid gas escapes plentifully
 from them as from the volcanoes of the 
same island4 ,it may1 indeed1 be laid   
down as a general rule1 that the mineral
 substances dissolved in hot springs    
agree very closely with those which are 
disengaged in a gaseous form from the   
craters of active volcanoes4  ,siliceous
 springs4--,azores4--,in order that     
water should hold a very large quantity 
of silica in solution1 it seems         
necessary that it should be raised to a 
high temperature4#cba ,the hot springs  
of the ,valle das ,fernas1 in the island
 of ,st4 ,michael1 rising through       
volcanic rocks1 precipitate vast        
quantities of siliceous sinter4 ,around 

the circular basin of the largest       
spring1 which is between twenty and     
thirty feet in diameter1 alternate      
layers are seen of a coarser variety of 
sinter mixed with clay1 including grass1
 ferns1 and reeds1 in different states  
of petrifaction4 ,in some instances1    
alumina1 which is likewise deposited    
from the hot waters1 is the mineralizing
 material4 ,branches of the same ferns  
which now flourish in the island are    
found completely petrified1 preserving  
the same appearance as when vegetating1 
except that they acquire an ash-gray    
color4 ,fragments of wood1 and one      
entire bed from three to five feet in   
depth1 composed of reeds now common in  
the island1 have become completely      
mineralized4  ,the most abundant variety
 of siliceous sinter occurs in layers1  
from a quarter to half an inch in       
thickness1 accumulated on each other    
often to the height of a foot and       
upwards1 and constituting parallel1 and 
for the most part horizontal1 strata    

many yards in extent4 ,this sinter has  
often a beautiful semi-opalescent       
lustre4 ,a recent breccia is also in the
 act of forming1 composed of obsidian1  
pumice1 and scoriae1 cemented by        
siliceous sinter4#cbb  ,geysers of      
,iceland4--,but the hot springs in      
various parts of ,iceland1 particularly 
the celebrated geysers1 afford the most 
remarkable example of the deposition of 
silex4#cbc ,the circular reservoirs into
 which the geysers fall1 are lined in   
the interior with a variety of opal1 and
 round the edges with sinter4 ,the      
plants incrusted with the latter        
substance have much the same appearance 
as those incrusted with calcareous tufa 
in our own country4 ,they consist of    
various grasses1 the horse-tail         
7,equisetum71 and leaves of the         
birch-tree1 which are the most common of
 all1 though no trees of this species   
now exist in the surrounding country4   
,the petrified stems also of the birch  
occur in a state much resembling        

agatized wood4#cbd  ,by analysis of the 
water1 ,mr4 ,faraday has ascertained    
that the solution of the silex is       
promoted by the presence of the alkali1 
soda4 ,he suggests that the deposition  
of silica in an insoluble state takes   
place partly because the water when     
cooled by exposure to the air is unable 
to retain as much silica as when it     
issues from the earth at a temperature  
of #ahj degrees or #aij degrees ,fahr42 
and partly because the evaporation of   
the water decomposes the compound of    
silica and soda which previously        
existed4 ,this last change is probably  
hastened by the carbonic acid of the    
atmosphere uniting with the soda4 ,the  
alkali1 when disunited from the silica1 
would readily be dissolved in and       
removed by running water4#cbe  ,mineral 
waters1 even when charged with a small  
proportion of silica1 as those of       
,ischia1 may supply certain species of  
corals1 sponges1 and infusoria1 with    
matter for their siliceous secretions2  

but there is little doubt that rivers   
obtain silex in solution from another   
and far more general source1 namely1 the
 decomposition of felspar4 ,when this   
mineral1 which is so abundant an        
ingredient in the hypogene and trappean 
rocks1 has disintegrated1 it is found   
that the residue1 called porcelain clay1
 contains a small proportion only of the
 silica which existed in the original   
felspar1 the other part having been     
dissolved and removed by water4#cbf     
,ferruginous springs4--,the waters of   
almost all springs contain some iron in 
solution2 and it is a fact familiar to  
all1 that many of them are so copiously 
impregnated with this metal1 as to stain
 the rocks or herbage through which they
 pass1 and to bind together sand and    
gravel into solid masses4 ,we may       
naturally1 then1 conclude that this     
iron1 which is constantly conveyed from 
the interior of the earth into lakes and
 seas1 and which does not escape again  
from them into the atmosphere by        

evaporation1 must act as a coloring and 
cementing principle in the subaqueous   
deposits now in progress4 ,geologists   
are aware that many ancient sandstones  
and conglomerates are bound together or 
colored by iron4  ,brine springs4--,so  
great is the quantity of muriate of soda
 in some springs1 that they yield       
one-fourth of their weight in salt4     
,they are rarely1 however1 so saturated1
 and generally contain1 intermixed with 
salt1 carbonate and sulphate of lime1   
magnesia1 and other mineral ingredients4
 ,the brine springs of ,cheshire are the
 richest in our country2 those of       
,northwich being almost saturated4      
,those of ,barton also1 in ,lancashire1 
and ,droitwich in ,worcestershire1 are  
extremely rich4#cbg ,they are known to  
have flowed for more than #ajjj years1  
and the quantity of salt which they have
 carried into the ,severn and ,mersey   
must be enormous4 ,these brine springs  
rise up through strata of sandstone and 
red marl1 which contain large beds of   

rock salt4 ,the origin of the brine1    
therefore1 may be derived in this and   
many other instances from beds of fossil
 salt2 but as muriate of soda is one of 
the products of volcanic emanations and 
of springs in volcanic regions1 the     
original source of salt may be as deep  
seated as that of lava4  ,many springs  
in ,sicily contain muriate of soda1 and 
the fiume salso1 in particular1 is      
impregnated with so large a quantity1   
that cattle refuse to drink of it4 ,a   
hot spring1 rising through granite1 at  
,saint ,nectaire1 in ,auvergne1 may be  
mentioned as one of many1 containing a  
large proportion of muriate of soda1    
together with magnesia and other        
ingredients4#cbh  ,carbonated           
springs4--,auvergne4--,carbonic acid gas
 is very plentifully disengaged from    
springs in almost all countries1 but    
particularly near active or extinct     
volcanoes4 ,this elastic fluid has the  
property of decomposing many of the     
hardest rocks with which it comes in    

contact1 particularly that numerous     
class in whose composition felspar is an
 ingredient4 ,it renders the oxide of   
iron soluble in water1 and contributes1 
as was before stated1 to the solution of
 calcareous matter4 ,in volcanic        
districts these gaseous emanations are  
not confined to springs1 but rise up in 
the state of pure gas from the soil in  
various places4 ,the ,grotto del ,cane1 
near ,naples1 affords an example1 and   
prodigious quantities are now annually  
disengaged from every part of the       
,limagne d',auvergne1 where it appears  
to have been developed in equal quantity
 from time immemorial4 ,as the acid is  
invisible1 it is not observed1 except an
 excavation be made1 wherein it         
immediately accumulates1 so that it will
 extinguish a candle4 ,there are some   
springs in this district1 where the     
water is seen bubbling and boiling up   
with much noise1 in consequence of the  
abundant disengagement of this gas4 ,in 
the environs of ,pont-,gibaud1 not far  

from ,clermont1 a rock belonging to the 
gneiss formation1 in which lead-mines   
are worked1 has been found to be quite  
saturated with carbonic acid gas1 which 
is constantly disengaged4 ,the          
carbonates of iron1 lime1 and manganese 
are so dissolved1 that the rock is      
rendered soft1 and the quartz alone     
remains unattacked4#cbi ,not far off is 
the small volcanic cone of ,chaluzet1   
which once broke up through the gneiss1 
and sent forth a lava stream4  ,supposed
 atmosphere of carbonic acid4--,prof4   
,bischoff in his history of             
volcanoes1#ccj has shown what enormous  
quantities of carbonic acid gas are     
exhaled in the vicinity of the extinct  
craters of the ,rhine 7in the           
neighborhood of the ,laacher-see1 for   
example1 and the ,eifel71 and also in   
the mineral springs of ,nassau and other
 countries1 where there are no immediate
 traces of volcanic action4 ,it would be
 easy to calculate in how short a period
 the solid carbon1 thus emitted from the

 interior of the earth in an invisible  
form1 would amount to a quantity as     
great as could be obtained from the     
trees of a large forest1 and how many   
thousand years would be required to     
supply the materials of a dense seam of 
pure coal from the same source4         
,geologists who favor the doctrine of   
the former existence of an atmosphere   
highly charged with carbonic acid1 at   
the period of the ancient coal-plants1  
have not sufficiently reflected on the  
continual disengagement of carbon1 which
 is taking place in a gaseous form from 
springs1 as also in a free state from   
the ground and from volcanic craters    
into the air4 ,we know that all plants  
are now engaged in secreting carbon1 and
 many thousands of large trees are      
annually floated down by great rivers1  
and buried in their alluvial deposits2  
but before we can assume that the       
quantity of carbon which becomes        
permanently locked up in the earth by   
such agency will bring about an         

essential change in the chemical        
composition of the atmosphere1 we must  
be sure that the trees annually buried  
contain more carbon than is given out   
from the interior of the earth in the   
same lapse of time4 ,every large area   
covered by a dense mass of peat1 bears  
ample testimony to the fact1 that       
several million tons of carbon have been
 taken from the air1 by the powers of   
vegetable life1 and stored up in the    
earth's crust1 a large quantity of      
oxygen having been at the same time set 
free2 but we cannot infer from these    
circumstances1 that the constitution of 
the atmosphere has been materially      
deranged1 until we have data for        
estimating the rate at which dead animal
 and vegetable substances are daily     
putrefying1--organic remains and various
 calcareous rocks decomposing1 and      
volcanic regions emitting fresh volumes 
of carbonic acid gas4 ,that the ancient 
carboniferous period was one of vast    
duration all geologists are agreed2     

instead1 therefore1 of supposing an     
excess of carbonic acid in the air at   
that epoch1 for the support of a        
peculiar flora1 we may imagine ,time to 
have multiplied the quantity of carbon  
given out annually by mineral springs1  
volcanic craters1 and other sources1    
until the component elements of any     
given number of coal-seams had been     
evolved from below1 without any         
variation taking place in the           
constitution of the atmosphere4 ,it has 
been too common1 in reasoning on this   
question1 to compute the loss of carbon 
by the volume of coal stored up in the  
ancient strata1 and to take no account  
of the annual gain1 by the restoration  
of carbonic acid to the atmosphere1     
through the machinery above alluded     
to4#cca  ,disintegrating effects of     
carbonic acid4--,the disintegration of  
granite is a striking feature of large  
districts in ,auvergne1 especially in   
the neighborhood of ,clermont4 ,this    
decay was called by ,dolomieu1 la       

maladie du granite2 and the rock may    
with propriety be said to have the rot1 
for it crumbles to pieces in the hand4  
,the phenomenon may1 without doubt1 be  
ascribed to the continual disengagement 
of carbonic acid gas from numerous      
fissures4  ,in the plains of the ,po1   
between ,verona and ,parma1 especially  
at ,villa ,franca1 south of ,mantua1 ,i 
observed great beds of alluvium1        
consisting chiefly of primary pebbles1  
percolated by spring-water1 charged with
 carbonate of lime and carbonic acid in 
great abundance4 ,they are for the most 
part incrusted with calc-sinter2 and the
 rounded blocks of gneiss1 which have   
all the outward appearance of solidity1 
have been so disintegrated by the       
carbonic acid as readily to fall to     
pieces4  ,the subtraction of many of the
 elements of rocks by the solvent power 
of carbonic acid1 ascending both in a   
gaseous state and mixed with            
spring-water in the crevices of rocks1  
must be one of the most powerful sources

 of those internal changes and          
rearrangements of particles so often    
observed in strata of every age4 ,the   
calcareous matter1 for example1 of      
shells1 is often entirely removed and   
replaced by carbonate of iron1 pyrites1 
silex1 or some other ingredient1 such as
 mineral waters usually contain in      
solution4 ,it rarely happens1 except in 
limestone rocks1 that the carbonic acid 
can dissolve all the constituent parts  
of the mass2 and for this reason1       
probably1 calcareous rocks are almost   
the only ones in which great caverns and
 long winding passages are found4       
,petroleum springs4--,springs of which  
the waters contain a mixture of         
petroleum and the various minerals      
allied to it1 as bitumen1 naphtha1      
asphaltum1 and pitch1 are very numerous1
 and are1 in many cases1 undoubtedly    
connected with subterranean fires1 which
 raise or sublime the more subtle parts 
of the bituminous matters contained in  
rocks4 ,many springs in the territory of

 ,modena and ,parma1 in ,italy1 produce 
petroleum in abundance2 but the most    
powerful1 perhaps1 yet known1 are those 
on the ,irawadi1 in the ,burman empire4 
,in one locality there are said to be   
#ebj wells1 which yield annually        
#djj1jjj hogsheads of petroleum4#ccb    
,pitch lake of ,trinidad4--,fluid       
bitumen is seen to ooze from the bottom 
of the sea1 on both sides of the island 
of ,trinidad1 and to rise up to the     
surface of the water4 ,near ,cape ,la   
,braye there is a vortex which1 in      
stormy weather1 according to ,captain   
,mallet1 gushes out1 raising the water  
five or six feet1 and covers the surface
 for a considerable space with          
petroleum1 or tar2 and the same author  
quotes ,gumilla1 as stating1 in his     
,description of the ,orinoco1 that about
 seventy years ago1 a spot of land on   
the western coast of ,trinidad1 near    
half-way between the capital and an     
,indian village1 sank suddenly1 and was 
immediately replaced by a small lake of 

pitch1 to the great terror of the       
inhabitants4#ccc  ,it is probable that  
the great pitch lake of ,trinidad owes  
its origin to a similar cause2 and ,dr4 
,nugent has justly remarked1 that in    
that district all the circumstances are 
now combined from which deposits of     
pitch may have originated4 ,the ,orinoco
 has for ages been rolling down great   
quantities of woody and vegetable bodies
 into the surrounding sea1 where1 by the
 influence of currents and eddies1 they 
may be arrested and accumulated in      
particular places4 ,the frequent        
occurrence of earthquakes and other     
indications of volcanic action in those 
parts lend countenance to the opinion1  
that these vegetable substances may have
 undergone1 by the agency of            
subterranean fire1 those transformations
 and chemical changes which produce     
petroleum2 and this may1 by the same    
causes1 be forced up to the surface1    
where1 by exposure to the air1 it       
becomes inspissated1 and forms the      

different varieties of pure and earthy  
pitch1 or asphaltum1 so abundant in the 
island4#ccd  ,it may be stated          
generally1 that a large portion of the  
finer particles and the more crystalline
 substances1 found in sedimentary rocks 
of different ages1 are composed of the  
same elements as are now held in        
solution by springs1 while the coarser  
materials bear an equally strong        
resemblance to the pebbles and          
sedimentary matter carried down by      
torrents and rivers4 ,it should also be 
remembered1 that it is not only during  
inundations1 when the muddy sediment is 
apparent1 that rivers are busy in       
conveying solid matter to the sea1 but  
that even when their waters are         
perfectly transparent1 they are annually
 bearing along vast masses of carbon1   
lime1 and silica to the ocean4          
,,chapter ,,xvii4  ,,reproductive       
,,effects ,,of ,,rivers4     ,lake      
deltas--,growth of the delta of the     
,upper ,rhine in the ,lake of           

,geneva--,computation of the age of     
deltas--,recent deposits in ,lake       
,superior--,deltas of inland            
seas--,course of the ,po--,artificial   
embankments of the ,po and              
,adige--,delta of the ,po1 and other    
rivers     entering the                 
,adriatic--,rapid conversion of that    
gulf into     land--,mineral characters 
of the new deposits--,marine delta of   
the     ,rhone--,various proofs of its  
increase--,stony nature of its          
deposits--,coast of ,asia ,minor--,delta
 of the ,nile4   ,,deltas ,,in ,,lakes4 
,i have already spoken in the #adth     
chapter of the action of running water1 
and of the denuding power of rivers1 but
 we can only form a just conception of  
the excavating and removing force       
exerted by such bodies of water1 when we
 have the advantage of examining the    
reproductive effects of the same agents3
 in other words1 of beholding in a      
palpable form the aggregate amount of   
matter1 which they have thrown down at  

certain points in their alluvial plains1
 or in the basins of lakes and seas4    
,yet it will appear1 when we consider   
the action of currents1 that the growth 
of deltas affords a very inadequate     
standard by which to measure the entire 
carrying power of running water1 since a
 considerable portion of fluviatile     
sediment is swept far out to sea4       
,deltas may be divided into1 first1     
those which are formed in lakes2        
secondly1 those in island seas1 where   
the tides are almost imperceptible2 and1
 thirdly1 those on the borders of the   
ocean4 ,the most characteristic         
distinction between the lacustrine and  
marine deltas consists in the nature of 
the organic remains which become        
imbedded in their deposits2 for1 in the 
case of a lake1 it is obvious that these
 must consist exclusively of such genera
 of animals as inhabit the land or the  
waters of a river or a lake2 whereas1 in
 the other case1 there will be an       
admixture1 and most frequently a        

predominance1 of animals which inhabit  
salt water4 ,in regard1 however1 to the 
distribution of inorganic matter1 the   
deposits of lakes and seas are formed   
under very analogous circumstances4     
,lake of ,geneva4--,lakes exemplify the 
first reproductive operations in which  
rivers are engaged when they convey the 
detritus of rocks and the ingredients of
 mineral springs from mountainous       
regions4 ,the accession of new land at  
the mouth of the ,rhone1 at the upper   
end of the ,lake of ,geneva1 or the     
,leman ,lake1 presents us with an       
example of a considerable thickness of  
strata which have accumulated since the 
historical era4 ,this sheet of water is 
about thirty-seven miles long1 and its  
breadth is from two to eight miles4 ,the
 shape of the bottom is very irregular1 
the depth having been found by late     
measurements to vary from #bj to #afj   
fathoms4#cce ,the ,rhone1 where it      
enters at the upper end1 is turbid and  
discolored2 but its waters1 where it    

issues at the town of ,geneva1 are      
beautifully clear and transparent4 ,an  
ancient town1 called ,port ,vallais     
7,portus ,valesiae of the ,romans71 once
 situated at the water's edge1 at the   
upper end1 is now more than a mile and a
 half inland--this intervening alluvial 
tract having been acquired in about     
eight centuries4 ,the remainder of the  
delta consists of a flat alluvial plain1
 about five or six miles in length1     
composed of sand and mud1 a little      
raised above the level of the river1 and
 full of marshes4  ,sir ,henry ,de la   
,beche found1 after numerous soundings  
in all parts of the lake1 that there was
 a pretty uniform depth of from #abj to 
#afj fathoms throughout the central     
region1 and on approaching the delta1   
the shallowing of the bottom began to be
 very sensible at a distance of about a 
mile and three quarters from the mouth  
of the ,rhone2 for a line drawn from    
,st4 ,gingoulph to ,vevey gives a mean  
depth of somewhat less than #fjj feet1  

and from that part of the ,rhone1 the   
fluviatile mud is always found along the
 bottom4#ccf ,we may state1 therefore1  
that the new strata annually produced   
are thrown down upon a slope about two  
miles in length2 so that1               
notwithstanding the great depth of the  
lake1 the new deposits are inclined at  
so slight an angle1 that the dip of the 
beds would be termed1 in ordinary       
geological language1 horizontal4  ,the  
strata probably consist of alternations 
of finer and coarser particles2 for1    
during the hotter months from ,april to 
,august1 when the snows melt1 the volume
 and velocity of the river are greatest1
 and large quantities of sand1 mud1     
vegetable matter1 and drift-wood are    
introduced2 but during the rest of the  
year1 the influx is comparatively       
feeble1 so much so1 that the whole lake1
 according to ,saussure1 stands six feet
 lower4 ,if1 then1 we could obtain a    
section of the accumulation formed in   
the last eight centuries1 we should see 

a great series of strata1 probably from 
#fjj to #ijj feet thick 7the supposed   
original depth of the head of the lake71
 and nearly two miles in length1        
inclined at a very slight angle4 ,in the
 mean time1 a great number of smaller   
deltas are growing around the borders of
 the lake1 at the mouths of rapid       
torrents1 which pour in large masses of 
sand and pebbles4 ,the body of water in 
these torrents is too small to enable   
them to spread out the transported      
matter over so extensive an area as the 
,rhone does4 ,thus1 for example1 there  
is a depth of eighty fathoms within half
 a mile of the shore1 immediately       
opposite the great torrent which enters 
east of ,ripaille1 so that the dip of   
the strata in that minor delta must be  
about four times as great as those      
deposited by the main river at the upper
 extremity of the lake4#ccg             
,chronological computations of the age  
of deltas4--,the capacity of this basin 
being now ascertained1 it would be an   

interesting subject of inquiry1 to      
determine in what number of years the   
,leman ,lake will be converted into dry 
land4 ,it would not be very difficult to
 obtain the elements for such a         
calculation1 so as to approximate at    
least to the quantity of time required  
for the accomplishment of the result4   
,the number of cubic feet of water      
annually discharged by the river into   
the lake being estimated1 experiments   
might be made in the winter and summer  
months1 to determine the proportion of  
matter held in suspension or in chemical
 solution by the ,rhone4 ,it would be   
also necessary to allow for the heavier 
matter drifted along at the bottom1     
which might be estimated on             
hydrostatical principles1 when the      
average size of the gravel and the      
volume and velocity of the stream at    
different seasons were known4 ,supposing
 all these observations to have been    
made1 it would be more easy to calculate
 the future than the former progress of 

the delta1 because it would be a        
laborious task to ascertain1 with any   
degree of precision1 the original depth 
and extent of that part of the lake     
which is already filled up4 ,even if    
this information were actually obtained 
by borings1 it would only enable us to  
approximate within a certain number of  
centuries to the time when the ,rhone   
began to form its present delta2 but    
this would not give us the date of the  
origin of the ,leman ,lake in its       
present form1 because the river may have
 flowed into it for thousands of years1 
without importing any sediment whatever4
 ,such would have been the case1 if the 
waters had first passed through a chain 
of upper lakes2 and that this was       
actually the fact1 seems indicated by   
the course of the ,rhone between        
,martigny and the ,lake of ,geneva1 and1
 still more decidedly1 by the channels  
of many of its principal feeders4  ,if  
we ascend1 for example1 the valley      
through which the ,dranse flows1 we find

 that it consists of a succession of    
basins1 one above the other1 in each of 
which there is a wide expanse of flat   
alluvial lands1 separated from the next 
basin by a rocky gorge1 once perhaps the
 barrier of a lake4 ,the river seems to 
have filled these lakes1 one after the  
other1 and to have partially cut through
 the barriers1 some of which it is still
 gradually eroding to a greater depth4  
,before1 therefore1 we can pretend even 
to hazard a conjecture as to the era at 
which the principal delta of ,lake      
,leman or any other delta commenced1 we 
must be thoroughly acquainted with the  
geographical features and geological    
history of the whole system of higher   
valleys which communicate with the main 
stream1 and all the changes which they  
have undergone since the last series of 
convulsions which agitated and altered  
the face of the country4  ,lake         
,superior4--,lake ,superior is the      
largest body of freshwater in the world1
 being above #agjj geographical miles in

 circumference when we follow the       
sinuosities of its coasts1 and its      
length1 on a curved line drawn through  
its centre1 being more than #djj1 and   
its extreme breadth above #aej          
geographical miles4 ,its surface is     
nearly as large as the whole of         
,england4 ,its average depth varies from
 #hj to #aej fathoms2 but1 according to 
,captain ,bayfield1 there is reason to  
think that its greatest depth would not 
be overrated at #bjj fathoms1 so that   
its bottom is1 in some parts1 nearly    
#fjj feet below the level of the        
,atlantic1 its surface being about as   
much above it4 ,there are appearances in
 different parts of this1 as of the     
other ,canadian lakes1 leading us to    
infer that its waters formerly occupied 
a higher level than they reach at       
present2 for at a considerable distance 
from the present shores1 parallel lines 
of rolled stones and shells are seen    
rising one above the other1 like the    
seats of an amphitheatre4 ,these ancient

 lines of shingle are exactly similar to
 the present beaches in most bays1 and  
they often attain an elevation of #dj or
 #ej feet above the present level4 ,as  
the heaviest gales of wind do not raise 
the waters more than three or four feet1
 the elevated beaches have by some been 
referred to the subsidence of the lake  
at former periods1 in consequence of the
 wearing down of its barrier2 by others 
to the upraising of the shores by       
earthquakes1 like those which have      
produced similar phenomena on the coast 
of ,chili4  ,the streams which discharge
 their waters into ,lake ,superior are  
several hundred in number1 without      
reckoning those of smaller size2 and the
 quantity of water supplied by them is  
many times greater than that discharged 
at the ,falls of ,st4 ,mary1 the only   
outlet4 ,the evaporation1 therefore1 is 
very great1 and such as might be        
expected from so vast an extent of      
surface4 ,on the northern side1 which is
 encircled by primary mountains1 the    

rivers sweep in many large boulders with
 smaller gravel and sand1 chiefly       
composed of granitic and trap rocks4    
,there are also currents in the lake in 
various directions1 caused by the       
continued prevalence of strong winds1   
and to their influence we may attribute 
the diffusion of finer mud far and wide 
over great areas2 for by numerous       
soundings made during ,captain          
,bayfield's survey1 it was ascertained  
that the bottom consists generally of a 
very adhesive clay1 containing shells of
 the species at present existing in the 
lake4 ,when exposed to the air1 this    
clay immediately becomes indurated in so
 great a degree1 as to require a smart  
blow to break it4 ,it effervesces       
slightly with diluted nitric acid1 and  
is of different colors in different     
parts of the lake2 in one district blue1
 in another red1 and in a third white1  
hardening into a substance resembling   
pipeclay4#cch ,from these statements1   
the geologist will not fail to remark   

how closely these recent lacustrine     
formations in ,america resemble the     
tertiary argillaceous and calcareous    
marls of lacustrine origin in ,central  
,france4 ,in both cases many of the     
genera of shells most abundant1 as      
,limnea and ,planorbis1 are the same2   
and in regard to other classes of       
organic remains there must be the       
closest analogy1 as ,i shall endeavor   
more fully to explain when speaking of  
the imbedding of plants and animals in  
recent deposits4   ,,deltas ,,of        
,,inland ,,seas4  ,having thus briefly  
considered some of the lacustrine deltas
 now in progress1 we may next turn our  
attention to those of inland seas4      
,course of the ,po4--,the ,po affords an
 instructive example of the manner in   
which a great river bears down to the   
sea the matter poured into it by a      
multitude of tributaries descending from
 lofty chains of mountains4 ,the changes
 gradually effected in the great plain  
of ,northern ,italy1 since the time of  

the ,roman republic1 are considerable4  
,extensive lakes and marshes have been  
gradually filled up1 as those near      
,placentia1 ,parma1 and ,cremona1 and   
many have been drained naturally by the 
deepening of the beds of rivers4        
,deserted river-courses are not         
unfrequent1 as that of the ,serio       
,morto1 which formerly fell into the    
,adda1 in ,lombardy4 ,the ,po also      
itself has often deviated from its      
course1 having after the year #acij     
deserted part of the territory of       
,cremona1 and invaded that of ,parma2   
its old channel being still             
recognizable1 and bearing the name of   
,po ,morto4 ,there is also an old       
channel of the ,po in the territory of  
,parma1 called ,po ,vecchio1 which was  
abandoned in the twelfth century1 when a
 great number of towns were destroyed4  
,artificial embankments of ,italian     
rivers4--,to check these and similar    
aberrations1 a general system of        
embankment has been adopted2 and the    

,po1 ,adige1 and almost all their       
tributaries1 are now confined between   
high artificial banks4 ,the increased   
velocity acquired by streams thus closed
 in1 enables them to convey a much      
larger portion of foreign matter to the 
sea2 and1 consequently1 the deltas of   
the ,po and ,adige have gained far more 
rapidly on the ,adriatic since the      
practice of embankment became almost    
universal4 ,but1 although more sediment 
is borne to the sea1 part of the sand   
and mud1 which in the natural state of  
things would be spread out by annual    
inundations over the plain1 now subsides
 in the bottom of the river-channels2   
and their capacity being thereby        
diminished1 it is necessary1 in order to
 prevent inundations in the following   
spring1 to extract matter from the bed1 
and to add it to the banks of the river4
 ,hence it happens that these streams   
now traverse the plain on the top of    
high mounds1 like the waters of         
aqueducts1 and at ,ferrara the surface  

of the ,po has become more elevated than
 the roofs of the houses4#cci ,the      
magnitude of these barriers is a subject
 of increasing expense and anxiety1 it  
having been sometimes found necessary to
 give an additional height of nearly one
 foot to the banks of the ,adige and ,po
 in a single season4  ,the practice of  
embankment was adopted on some of the   
,italian rivers as early as the         
thirteenth century2 and ,dante1 writing 
in the beginning of the fourteenth1     
describes1 in the seventh circle of     
hell1 a rivulet of tears separated from 
a burning sandy desert by embankments   
like those which1 between ,ghent and    
,bruges1 were raised against the ocean1 
or those which the ,paduans had erected 
along the ,brenta to defend their villas
 on the melting of the ,alpine snows4   
,quale i ,fiamminghi tra ,guzzante e    
,bruggia1   ,temendo il fiotto che in   
ver lor s'avventa1   ,fanno lo schermo1 
perche il mar si fuggia1   ,e quale i   
,padovan lungo la ,brenta1   ,per       

difender lor ville e lor castelli1      
,anzi che ,chiarentana il caldo senta4--
    ,inferno1 ,canto xv4   ,in the      
,adriatic1 from the northern part of the
 ,gulf of ,trieste1 where the ,isonzo   
enters1 down to the south of ,ravenna1  
there is an uninterrupted series of     
recent accessions of land1 more than    
#ajj miles in length1 which1 within the 
last #bjjj years1 have increased from   
two to twenty miles in breadth4 ,a line 
of sand-bars of great length has been   
formed nearly all along the western     
coast of this gulf1 inside of which are 
lagunes1 such as those of ,venice1 and  
the large lagune of ,comacchio1 #bj     
miles in diameter4 ,newly deposited mud 
brought down by the streams is          
continually lessening the depth of the  
lagunes1 and converting part of them    
into meadows4#cdj ,the ,isonzo1         
,tagliamento1 ,piave1 ,brenta1 ,adige1  
and ,po1 besides many other inferior    
rivers1 contribute to this advance of   
the coast-line and to the shallowing of 

the lagunes and the gulf4  ,delta of the
 ,po4--,the ,po and the ,adige may now  
be considered as entering by one common 
delta1 for two branches of the ,adige   
are connected with arms of the ,po1 and 
thus the principal delta has been pushed
 out beyond those bars which separate   
the lagunes from the sea4 ,the rate of  
the advance of this new land has been   
accelerated1 as before stated1 since the
 system of embanking the rivers became  
general1 especially at that point where 
the ,po and ,adige enter4 ,the waters   
are no longer permitted to spread       
themselves far and wide over the plains1
 and to leave behind them the larger    
portion of their sediment4 ,mountain    
torrents also have become more turbid   
since the clearing away of forests1     
which once clothed the southern flanks  
of the ,alps4 ,it is calculated that the
 mean rate of advance of the delta of   
the ,po on the ,adriatic between the    
years #abjj and #afjj was #be yards or  
metres a year1 whereas the mean annual  

gain from #afjj to #ahjd was #gj        
metres4#cda  ,adria was a seaport in the
 time of ,augustus1 and had1 in ancient 
times1 given its name to the gulf2 it is
 now about twenty ,italian miles inland4
 ,ravenna was also a seaport1 and is now
 about four miles from the main sea4    
,yet even before the practice of        
embankment was introduced1 the alluvium 
of the ,po advanced with rapidity on the
 ,adriatic2 for ,spina1 a very ancient  
city1 originally built in the district  
of ,ravenna1 at the mouth of a great arm
 of the ,po1 was1 so early as the       
commencement of our era1 eleven miles   
distant from the sea4#cdb  ,but although
 so many rivers are rapidly converting  
the ,adriatic into land1 it appears1 by 
the observations of ,m4 ,morlot1 that   
since the time of the ,romans1 there has
 been a general subsidence of the coast 
and bed of this sea in the same region  
to the amount of five feet1 so that the 
advance of the new-made land has not    
been so fast as it would have been had  

the level of the coast remained         
unaltered4 ,the signs of a much greater 
depression anterior to the historical   
period have also been brought to light  
by an ,artesian well1 bored in #ahdg1 to
 the depth of more than #djj feet1 which
 still failed to penetrate through the  
modern fluviatile deposit4 ,the auger   
passed chiefly through beds of sand and 
clay1 but at four several depths1 one of
 them very near the bottom of the       
excavation1 it pierced beds of turf1 or 
accumulations of vegetable matter1      
precisely similar to those now formed   
superficially on the extreme borders of 
the ,adriatic4 ,hence we learn that a   
considerable area of what was once land 
has sunk down #djj feet in the course of
 ages4#cdc  ,the greatest depth of the  
,adriatic1 between ,dalmatia and the    
mouths of the ,po1 is twenty-two        
fathoms2 but a large part of the ,gulf  
of ,trieste and the ,adriatic1 opposite 
,venice1 is less than twelve fathoms    
deep4 ,farther to the south1 where it is

 less affected by the influx of great   
rivers1 the gulf deepens considerably4  
,donati1 after dredging the bottom1     
discovered the new deposits to consist  
partly of mud and partly of rock1 the   
rock being formed of calcareous matter1 
incrusting shells4 ,he also ascertained1
 that particular species of testacea    
were grouped together in certain places1
 and were becoming slowly incorporated  
with the mud or calcareous              
precipitates4#cdd ,olivi1 also1 found   
some deposits of sand1 and others of    
mud1 extending half way across the gulf2
 and he states that their distribution  
along the bottom was evidently          
determined by the prevailing            
current4#cde ,it is probable1 therefore1
 that the finer sediment of all the     
rivers at the head of the ,adriatic may 
be intermingled by the influence of the 
current2 and all the central parts of   
the gulf may be considered as slowly    
filling up with horizontal deposits1    
similar to those of the ,subapennine    

hills1 and containing many of the same  
species of shells4 ,the ,po merely      
introduces at present fine sand and mud1
 for it carries no pebbles farther than 
the spot where it joins the ,trebia1    
west of ,piacenza4 ,near the northern   
borders of the basin1 the ,isonzo1      
,tagliamento1 and many other streams1   
are forming immense beds of sand and    
some conglomerate2 for here some high   
mountains of ,alpine limestone approach 
within a few miles of the sea4  ,in the 
time of the ,romans1 the hot-baths of   
,monfalcone were on one of several      
islands of ,alpine limestone1 between   
which and the mainland1 on the north1   
was a channel of the sea1 about a mile  
broad4 ,this channel is now converted   
into a grassy plain1 which surrounds the
 islands on all sides4 ,among the       
numerous changes on this coast1 we find 
that the present channel of the ,isonzo 
is several miles to the west of its     
ancient bed1 in part of which1 at       
,ronchi1 the old ,roman bridge which    

crossed the ,via ,appia was lately found
 buried in fluviatile silt4  ,marine    
delta of the ,rhone4--,the lacustrine   
delta of the ,rhone in ,switzerland has 
already been considered 7p4 #bea71 its  
contemporaneous marine delta may now be 
described4 ,scarcely has the river      
passed out of the ,lake of ,geneva      
before its pure waters are again filled 
with sand and sediment by the impetuous 
,arve1 descending from the highest      
,alps1 and bearing along in its current 
the granitic detritus annually brought  
down by the glaciers of ,mont ,blanc4   
,the ,rhone afterwards receives vast    
contributions of transported matter from
 the ,alps of ,dauphiny1 and the primary
 and volcanic mountains of ,central     
,france2 and when at length it enters   
the ,mediterranean1 it discolors the    
blue waters of that sea with a whitish  
sediment1 for the distance of between   
six and seven miles1 throughout which   
space the current of fresh water is     
perceptible4  ,strabo's description of  

the delta is so inapplicable to its     
present configuration1 as to attest a   
complete alteration in the physical     
features of the country since the       
,augustan age4 ,it appears1 however1    
that the head of the delta1 or the point
 at which it begins to ramify1 has      
remained unaltered since the time of    
,pliny1 for he states that the ,rhone   
divided itself at ,arles into two arms4 
,this is the case at present2 one of the
 branches1 the western1 being now called
 ,le ,petit ,rhone1 which is again      
subdivided before entering the          
,mediterranean4 ,the advance of the base
 of the delta1 in the last eighteen     
centuries1 is demonstrated by many      
curious antiquarian monuments4 ,the most
 striking of these is the great and     
unnatural datour of the old ,roman road 
from ,ugernum to ,beziers 7,boeterrae7  
which went round by ,nismes 7,nemausus74
 ,it is clear that1 when this was first 
constructed1 it was impossible to pass  
in a direct line1 as now1 across the    

delta1 and that either the sea or       
marshes intervened in a tract now       
consisting of terra firma4#cdf ,astruc  
also remarks1 that all the places on low
 lands1 lying to the north of the old   
,roman road between ,nismes and         
,beziers1 have names of ,celtic origin1 
evidently given to them by the first    
inhabitants of the country2 whereas1 the
 places lying south of that road1       
towards the sea1 have names of ,latin   
derivation1 and were clearly founded    
after the ,roman language had been      
introduced4  ,another proof1 also1 of   
the great extent of land which has come 
into existence since the ,romans        
conquered and colonized ,gaul1 is       
derived from the fact1 that the ,roman  
writers never mention the thermal waters
 of ,balaruc in the delta1 although they
 were well acquainted with those of     
,aix1 and others still more distant1 and
 attached great importance to them1 as  
they invariably did to all hot springs4 
,the waters of ,balaruc1 therefore1 must

 have formerly issued under the sea--a  
common phenomenon on the borders of the 
,mediterranean2 and on the advance of   
the delta they continued to flow out    
through the new deposits4  ,among the   
more direct proofs of the increase of   
land1 we find that ,mese1 described     
under the appellation of ,mesua ,collis 
by ,pomponius ,mela1#cdg and stated by  
him to be nearly an island1 is now far  
inland4 ,notre ,dame des ,ports1 also1  
was a harbor in #hih1 but is now a      
league from the shore4 ,psalmodi was an 
island in #hae1 and is now two leagues  
from the sea4 ,several old lines of     
towers and sea-marks occur at different 
distances from the present coast1 all   
indicating the successive retreat of the
 sea1 for each line has in its turn     
become useless to mariners2 which may   
well be conceived1 when we state that   
the ,tower of ,tignaux1 erected on the  
shore so late as the year #agcg1 is     
already a mile remote from it4#cdh  ,by 
the confluence of the ,rhone and the    

currents of the ,mediterranean1 driven  
by winds from the south1 sand-bars are  
often formed across the mouths of the   
river2 by these means considerable      
spaces become divided off from the sea1 
and subsequently from the river also1   
when it shifts its channels of efflux4  
,as some of these lagoons are subject to
 the occasional ingress of the river    
when flooded1 and of the sea during     
storms1 they are alternately salt and   
fresh4 ,others1 after being filled with 
salt water1 are often lowered by        
evaporation till they become more salt  
than the sea2 and it has happened1      
occasionally1 that a considerable       
precipitate of muriate of soda has taken
 place in these natural salterns4       
,during the latter part of ,napoleon's  
career1 when the excise laws were       
enforced with extreme rigor1 the police 
was employed to prevent such salt from  
being used4 ,the fluviatile and marine  
shells inclosed in these small lakes    
often live together in brackish water2  

but the uncongenial nature of the fluid 
usually produces a dwarfish size1 and   
sometimes gives rise to strange         
varieties in form and color4  ,captain  
,smyth in his survey of the coast of the
 ,mediterranean1 found the sea opposite 
the mouth of the ,rhone1 to deepen      
gradually from four to forty fathoms1   
within a distance of six or seven miles1
 over which the discolored fresh water  
extends2 so that the inclination of the 
new deposits must be too slight to be   
appreciable in such an extent of section
 as a geologist usually obtains in      
examining ancient formations4 ,when the 
wind blew from the southwest1 the ships 
employed in the survey were obliged to  
quit their moorings2 and when they      
returned1 the new sand-banks in the     
delta were found covered over with a    
great abundance of marine shells4 ,by   
this means1 we learn how occasional beds
 of drifted marine shells may become    
interstratified with freshwater strata  
at a river's mouth4  ,stony nature of   

its deposits4--,that a great proportion1
 at least1 of the new deposit in the    
delta of the ,rhone consists of rock1   
and not of loose incoherent matter1 is  
perfectly ascertained4 ,in the ,museum  
at ,montpelier is a cannon taken up from
 the sea near the mouth of the river1   
imbedded in a crystalline calcareous    
rock4 ,large masses1 also1 are          
continually taken up of an arenaceous   
rock1 cemented by calcareous matter1    
including multitudes of broken shells of
 recent species4 ,the observations      
lately made on this subject corroborate 
the former statement of ,marsilli1 that 
the earthy deposits of the coast of     
,languedoc form a stony substance1 for  
which reason he ascribes a certain      
bituminous1 saline1 and glutinous nature
 to the substances brought down with    
sand by the ,rhone4#cdi ,if the number  
of mineral springs charged with         
carbonate of lime which fall into the   
,rhone and its feeders in different     
parts of ,france be considered1 we shall

 feel no surprise at the lapidification 
of the newly deposited sediment in this 
delta4 ,it should be remembered1 that   
the fresh water introduced by rivers    
being lighter than the water of the sea1
 floats over the latter1 and remains    
upon the surface for a considerable     
distance4 ,consequently it is exposed to
 as much evaporation as the waters of a 
lake2 and the area over which the       
river-water is spread1 at the junction  
of great rivers and the sea1 may well be
 compared1 in point of extent1 to that  
of considerable lakes4  ,now1 it is well
 known1 that so great is the quantity of
 water carried off by evaporation in    
some lakes1 that it is nearly equal to  
the water flowing in2 and in some inland
 seas1 as the ,caspian1 it is quite     
equal4 ,we may1 therefore1 well suppose 
that1 in cases where a strong current   
does not interfere1 the greater portion 
not only of the matter held mechanically
 in suspension1 but of that also which  
is in chemical solution1 may be         

precipitated at no great distance from  
the shore4 ,when these finer ingredients
 are extremely small in quantity1 they  
may only suffice to supply crustaceous  
animals1 corals1 and marine plants1 with
 the earthy particles necessary for     
their secretions2 but whenever it is in 
excess 7as generally happens if the     
basin of a river lie partly in a        
district of active or extinct           
volcanoes71 then will solid deposits be 
formed1 and the shells will at once be  
included in a rocky mass4  ,coast of    
,asia ,minor4--,examples of the advance 
of the land upon the sea are afforded by
 the southern coast of ,asia ,minor4    
,admiral ,sir ,f4 ,beaufort has pointed 
out in his survey the great alterations 
effected since the time of ,strabo1     
where havens are filled up1 islands     
joined to the mainland1 and where the   
whole continent has increased many miles
 in extent4 ,strabo himself1 on         
comparing the outline of the coast in   
his time with its ancient state1 was    

convinced1 like our countryman1 that it 
had gained very considerably upon the   
sea4 ,the new-formed strata of ,asia    
,minor consist of stone1 not of loose   
incoherent materials4 ,almost all the   
streamlets and rivers1 like many of     
those in ,tuscany and the south of      
,italy1 hold abundance of carbonate of  
lime in solution1 and precipitate       
travertin1 or sometimes bind together   
the sand and gravel into solid          
sandstones and conglomerates2 every     
delta and sand-bar thus acquires        
solidity1 which often prevents streams  
from forcing their way through them1 so 
that their mouths are constantly        
changing their position4#cej  ,delta of 
the ,nile4--,that ,egypt was the gift of
 the ,nile1 was the opinion of her      
priests before the time of ,herodotus2  
and ,rennell observes1 that the         
configuration and composition of the low
 lands leave no room for doubt that the 
sea once washed the base of the rocks on
 which the pyramids of ,memphis stand1  

the present base of which is washed by  
the inundation of the ,nile1 at an      
elevation of #gj or #hj feet above the  
,mediterranean4 ,but when we attempt to 
carry back our ideas to the remote      
period when the foundation of the delta 
was first laid1 we are lost in the      
contemplation of so vast an interval of 
time4#cea ,herodotus observes1 that the 
country round ,memphis seemed formerly  
to have been an arm of the sea gradually
 filled by the ,nile1 in the same manner
 as the ,meander1 ,achelous1 and other  
streams1 had formed deltas4 ,egypt1     
therefore1 he says1 like the ,red ,sea1 
was once a long narrow bay1 and both    
gulfs were separated by a small neck of 
land4 ,if the ,nile1 he adds1 should by 
any means have an issue into the        
,arabian ,gulf1 it might choke it up    
with earth in #bj1jjj or even1 perhaps1 
in #aj1jjj years2 and why may not the   
,nile have filled a still greater gulf  
with mud in the space of time which has 
passed before our age8#ceb  ,the        

distance between ,memphis and the most  
prominent part of the delta in a        
straight line north and south1 is about 
#ajj geographical miles2 the length of  
the base of the delta is more than #bjj 
miles if we follow the coast between the
 ancient extreme eastern and western    
arms2 but as these are now blocked up1  
that part only of ,lower ,egypt which   
intervenes between the ,rosetta and     
,damietta branches1 is usually called   
the delta1 the coast line of which is   
about #ij miles in length4 ,the bed of  
the river itself1 says ,sir ,j4 ,g4     
,wilkinson1 undergoes a gradual increase
 of elevation varying in different      
places1 and always lessening in         
proportion as the river approaches the  
sea4 ,this increase of elevation in     
perpendicular height is much smaller in 
,lower than in ,upper ,egypt1 and in the
 delta it diminishes still more2 so     
that1 according to an approximate       
calculation1 the land about             
,elephantine1 or the first cataract1    

lat4 #bd degrees #e minutes1 has been   
raised nine feet in #agjj years2 at     
,thebes1 lat4 #be degrees #dc minutes1  
about seven feet2 and at ,heliopolis and
 ,cairo1 lat4 #cj degrees1 about five   
feet ten inches4 ,at ,rosetta and the   
mouths of the ,nile1 lat4 #ca degrees   
#cj minutes1 the diminution in the      
perpendicular thickness of the deposit  
is lessened in a much greater decreasing
 ratio than in the straitened valley of 
,central and ,upper ,egypt1 owing to the
 great extent1 east and west1 over which
 the inundation spreads4#cec  ,for this 
reason the alluvial deposit does not    
cause the delta to protrude rapidly into
 the sea1 although some ancient cities  
are now a mile or more inland1 and the  
mouths of the ,nile1 mentioned by the   
earlier geographers1 have been many of  
them silted up1 and the outline of the  
coast entirely changed4  ,the bed of the
 ,nile always keeps pace with the       
general elevation of the soil1 and the  
banks of this river1 like those of the  

,mississippi and its tributaries 7see p4
 #bfe71 are much higher than the flat   
land at a distance1 so that they are    
seldom covered during the highest       
inundations4 ,in consequence of the     
gradual rise of the river's bed1 the    
annual flood is constantly spreading    
over a wider area1 and the alluvial soil
 encroaches on the desert1 covering1 to 
the depth of six or seven feet1 the base
 of statues and temples which the waters
 never reached #cjjj years ago4         
,although the sands of the ,libyan      
deserts have in some places been drifted
 into the valley of the ,nile1 yet these
 aggressions1 says ,wilkinson1 are far  
more than counterbalanced by the        
fertilizing effect of the water which   
now reaches farther inland towards the  
desert1 so that the number of square    
miles of arable soil is greater at      
present than at any previous period4    
,mud of the ,nile4--,on comparing the   
different analyses which have been      
published of this mud1 it will be found 

that it contains a large quantity of    
argillaceous matter1 with much peroxide 
of iron1 some carbonate of lime1 and a  
small proportion of carbonate of        
magnesia4 ,the latest and most careful  
analysis by ,m4 ,lassaigne shows a      
singularly close resemblance in the     
proportions of the ingredients of       
silica1 alumina1 iron1 carbon1 lime1 and
 magnesia1 and those observed in        
ordinary mica2#ced but a much larger    
quantity of calcareous matter is        
sometimes present4  ,in many places1 as 
at ,cairo1 where artificial excavations 
have been made1 or where the river has  
undermined its banks1 the mud is seen to
 be thinly stratified1 the upper part of
 each annual layer consisting of earth  
of a lighter color than the lower1 and  
the whole separating easily from the    
deposit of the succeeding year4 ,these  
annual layers are variable in thickness2
 but1 according to the calculations of  
,girard and ,wilkinson1 the mean annual 
thickness of a layer at ,cairo cannot   

exceed that of a sheet of thin          
pasteboard1 and a stratum of two or     
three feet must represent the           
accumulation of a thousand years4  ,the 
depth of the ,mediterranean is about    
twelve fathoms at a small distance from 
the shore of the delta2 it afterwards   
increases gradually to #ej1 and then    
suddenly descends to #chj fathoms1 which
 is1 perhaps1 the original depth of the 
sea where it has not been rendered      
shallower by fluviatile matter4 ,we     
learn from ,lieut4 ,newbold that nothing
 but the finest and lightest ingredients
 reach the ,mediterranean1 where he has 
observed the sea discolored by them to  
the distance of #dj miles from the      
shore4#cee ,the small progress of the   
delta in the last #bjjj years affords1  
perhaps1 no measure for estimating its  
rate of growth when it was an inland    
bay1 and had not yet protruded itself   
beyond the coast-line of the            
,mediterranean4 ,a powerful current now 
sweeps along the shores of ,africa1 from

 the ,straits of ,gibraltar to the      
prominent convexity of ,egypt1 the      
western side of which is continually the
 prey of the waves2 so that not only are
 fresh accessions of land checked1 but  
ancient parts of the delta are carried  
away4 ,by this cause1 ,canopus and some 
other towns have been overwhelmed2 but  
to this subject ,i shall again refer    
when speaking of tides and currents4    
,,chapter ,,xviii4  ,,reproductive      
,,effects ,,of ,,rivers--continued4     
,deltas formed under the influence of   
tides--,basin and delta of the          
,mississippi--,alluvial                 
plain--,river-banks and bluffs--,curves 
of the     river--,natural rafts and    
snags--,new lakes1 and effects of       
earthquakes--,antiquity of the          
delta--,delta of the ,ganges and        
,brahmapootra--,head of the delta and   
,sunderbunds--,islands formed and       
destroyed--,crocodiles--,amount of      
fluviatile sediment in the              
water--,artesian boring at              

,calcutta--,proofs of subsidence--,age  
of the     delta--,convergence of       
deltas--,origin of existing deltas not  
contemporaneous--,grouping of strata and
 stratification in                      
deltas--,conglomerates--,constant       
interchange of land and sea4   ,in the  
last chapter several examples were given
 of the deltas of inland seas1 where the
 influence of the tides is almost       
imperceptible4 ,we may next consider    
those marine or oceanic deltas1 where   
the tides play an important part in the 
dispersion of fluviatile sediment1 as in
 the ,gulf of ,mexico1 where they exert 
a moderate degree of force1 and then in 
the ,bay of ,bengal1 where they are     
extremely powerful4 ,in regard to       
estuaries1 which ,rennel termed negative
 deltas1 they will be treated of more   
properly when our attention is specially
 turned to the operations of tides and  
currents 7chapters #bj1 #ba1 and #bb74  
,in this case1 instead of the land      
gaining on the sea at the river's mouth1

 the tides penetrate far inland beyond  
the general coast-line4   ,,basin ,,and 
,,delta ,,of ,,the ,,mississippi4       
,alluvial plain4--,the hydrographical   
basin of the ,mississippi displays1 on  
the grandest scale1 the action of       
running water on the surface of a vast  
continent4 ,this magnificent river rises
 nearly in the forty-ninth parallel of  
north latitude1 and flows to the ,gulf  
of ,mexico in the twenty-ninth--a       
course1 including its meanders1 of more 
than three thousand miles4 ,it passes   
from a cold climate1 where the hunter   
obtains his furs and peltries1 traverses
 the temperate latitudes1 and discharges
 its waters into the sea in the region  
of rice1 the cotton plant1 and the      
sugar-cane4 ,from near its mouth at the 
,balize a steamboat may ascend for #bjjj
 miles with scarcely any perceptible    
difference in the width of the river4   
,several of its tributaries1 the ,red   
,river1 the ,arkansas1 the ,missouri1   
the ,ohio1 and others1 would be regarded

 elsewhere as of the first importance1  
and1 taken together1 are navigable for a
 distance many times exceeding that of  
the main stream4 ,no river affords a    
more striking illustration of the law   
before mentioned1 that an augmentation  
of volume does not occasion a           
proportional increase of surface1 nay1  
is even sometimes attended with a       
narrowing of the channel4 ,the          
,mississippi is half a mile wide at its 
junction with the ,missouri1 the latter 
being also of equal width2 yet the      
united waters have only1 from their     
confluence to the mouth of the ,ohio1 a 
medial width of about half a mile4 ,the 
junction of the ,ohio seems also to     
produce no increase1 but rather a       
decrease1 of surface4#cef ,the ,st4     
,francis1 ,white1 ,arkansas1 and ,red   
rivers are also absorbed by the main    
stream with scarcely any apparent       
increase of its width1 although here and
 there it expands to a breadth of       
#a-a_/b1 or even to #b miles4 ,on       

arriving at ,new ,orleans1 it is        
somewhat less than half a mile wide4    
,its depth there is very variable1 the  
greatest at high water being #afh feet4 
,the mean rate at which the whole body  
of water flows is variously estimated2  
according to ,mr4 ,forshey the mean     
velocity of the current at the surface1 
somewhat exceeds #b-a_/d miles an hour  
when the water is at a mean height4 ,for
 #cjj miles above ,new ,orleans the     
distance measured by the winding river  
is about twice as great as the distance 
in a right line4 ,for the first #ajj    
miles from the mouth the rate of fall is
 #a4hj inch per mile1 for the second    
hundred #b inches1 for the third #b4cj1 
for the fourth #b4eg4  ,the alluvial    
plain of the ,mississippi begins to be  
of great width below ,cape ,girardeau1  
#ej miles above the junction of the     
,ohio4 ,at this junction it is about #ej
 miles broad1 south of which it         
contracts to about #cj miles at         
,memphis1 expands again to #hj miles at 

the mouth of the ,white ,river1 and     
then1 after various contractions and    
expansions1 protrudes beyond the general
 coast-line1 in a large delta1 about #ij
 miles in width1 from ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w4
 ,mr4 ,forshey estimates the area of the
 great plain as above defined at #ca1bjj
 square miles1 with a circumference of  
about #cjjj miles1 exceeding the area of
 ,ireland4 ,if that part of this plain  
which lies below1 or to the south of the
 branching off of the highest arm1      
called the ,atchafalaya1 be termed the  
delta1 it constitutes less than half of 
the whole1 being #ad1jjj square ,british
 miles in area4 ,the delta may be said  
to be bounded on the east1 west1 and    
south by the sea2 on the north chiefly  
by the broad valley-plain which entirely
 resembles it in character as in origin4
 ,the east and west boundaries of the   
alluvial region above the head of the   
delta consists of cliffs or bluffs1     
which on the east side of the           
,mississippi are very abrupt1 and are   

undermined by the river at many points4 
,they consist1 from ,baton ,rouge in    
,louisiana1 where they commence1 as far 
north as the borders of ,kentucky1 of   
geological formations newer than the    
cretaceous1 the lowest being ,eocene1   
and the uppermost consisting of loam1   
resembling the loess of the ,rhine1 and 
containing freshwater and land shells   
almost all of existing species4 7,see   
fig4 #bc47 ,these recent shells are     
associated with the bones of the        
mastodon1 elephant1 tapir1 mylodon1     
horse1 ox1 and other quadrupeds1 most of
 them of extinct species4  ,i have      
endeavored to show in my ,second ,visit 
to the ,united ,states1 that this       
extensive formation of loam is either an
 ancient alluvial plain or a delta of   
the great river1 formed originally at a 
lower level1 and since upheaved1 and    
partially denuded4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #bc4  ,,valley ,,of ,,the              
,,mississippi4  ,the ,mississippi in    
that part of its course which is below  

the mouth of the ,ohio1 frequently      
washes the eastern bluffs1 but never    
once comes in contact with the western4 
,these are composed of similar          
formations2 but ,i learn from ,mr4      
,forshey that they rise up more gently  
from the alluvial plain 7as at a1 fig4  
#bc74 ,it is supposed that the waters   
are thrown to the eastern side1 because 
all the large tributary rivers entering 
from the west have filled that side of  
the great valley with their deltas1 or  
with a sloping mass of clay and sand2 so
 that the opposite bluffs are           
undermined1 and the ,mississippi is     
slowly but incessantly advancing        
eastward4#ceg  ,curves of the           
,mississippi4--,the river traverses the 
plain in a meandering course1 describing
 immense curves4 ,after sweeping round  
the half of a circle1 it is carried in a
 rapid current diagonally across the    
ordinary direction of its channel1 to   
another curve of similar shape4         
,opposite to each of these1 there is    

always a sand-bar1 answering1 in the    
convexity of its form1 to the concavity 
of the bend1 as it is called4#ceh ,the  
river1 by continually wearing these     
curves deep1 returns1 like many other   
streams before described1 on its own    
track1 so that a vessel in some places1 
after sailing for twenty-five or thirty 
miles1 is brought round again to within 
a mile of the place whence it started4  
,when the waters approach so near to    
each other1 it often happens at high    
floods that they burst through the small
 tongue of land1 and insulate a portion1
 rushing through what is called the     
cut-off1 so that vessels may pass from  
one point to another in half a mile to a
 distance which it previously required a
 voyage of twenty miles to reach4 ,as   
soon as the river has excavated the new 
passage1 bars of sand and mud are formed
 at the two points of junction with the 
old bend1 which is soon entirely        
separated from the main river by a      
continuous mud-bank covered with wood4  

,the old bend then becomes a            
semicircular lake of clear water1       
inhabited by large gar-fish1 alligators1
 and wild fowl1 which the steam-boats   
have nearly driven away from the main   
river4 ,a multitude of such             
crescent-shaped lakes1 scattered far and
 wide over the alluvial plain1 the      
greater number of them to the west1 but 
some of them also eastward of the       
,mississippi1 bear testimony of the     
extensive wanderings of the great stream
 in former ages4 ,for the last two      
hundred miles above its mouth the course
 of the river is much less winding than 
above1 there being only in the whole of 
that distance one great curve1 that     
called the ,english ,turn4 ,this great  
straightness of the stream is ascribed  
by ,mr4 ,forshey to the superior        
tenacity of the banks1 which are more   
clayey in this region4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #bd4  ,section of channel1 bank1  
levees 7a and b71 and swamps of         
,mississippi river4  ,the ,mississippi  

has been incorrectly described by some  
of the earlier geographers1 as a river  
running along the top of a long hill1 or
 mound in a plain4 ,in reality it runs  
in a valley1 from #ajj to #bjj or more  
feet in depth1 as a1 c1 b1 fig4 #bd1 its
 banks forming long strips of land      
parallel to the course of the main      
stream1 and to the swamps g1 f1 and d1  
e1 lying on each side4 ,these extensive 
morasses1 which are commonly            
well-wooded1 though often submerged for 
months continuously1 are rarely more    
than fifteen feet below the summit level
 of the banks4 ,the banks themselves are
 occasionally overflowed1 but are       
usually above water for a breadth of    
about two miles4 ,they follow all the   
curves of the great river1 and near ,new
 ,orleans are raised artificially by    
embankments 7or levees71 a b1 fig4 #bd1 
through which the river when swollen    
sometimes cuts a deep channel 7or       
crevasse71 inundating the adjoining low 
lands and swamps1 and not sparing the   

lower streets of the great city4  ,the  
cause of the uniform upward slope of the
 river-bank above the adjoining alluvial
 plain is this3 when the waters charged 
with sediment pass over the banks in the
 flood season1 their velocity is checked
 among the herbage and reeds1 and they  
throw down at once the coarser and more 
sandy matter with which they are        
charged4 ,but the fine particles of mud 
are carried farther on1 so that at the  
distance of about two miles1 a thin film
 of fine clay only subsides1 forming a  
stiff unctuous black soil1 which        
gradually envelops the base of trees    
growing on the borders of the swamps4   
,waste of the banks4--,it has been said 
of a mountain torrent1 that it lays down
 what it will remove1 and removes what  
it has laid down2 and in like manner the
 ,mississippi1 by the continual shifting
 of its course1 sweeps away1 during a   
great portion of the year1 considerable 
tracts of alluvium1 which were gradually
 accumulated by the overflow of former  

years1 and the matter now left during   
the spring-floods will be at some future
 time removed4 ,after the flood season1 
when the river subsides within its      
channel1 it acts with destructive force 
upon the alluvial banks1 softened and   
diluted by the recent overflow4 ,several
 acres at a time1 thickly covered with  
wood1 are precipitated into the stream2 
and large portions of the islands are   
frequently swept away4  ,some years ago1
 observes ,captain ,hall1 when the      
,mississippi was regularly surveyed1 all
 its islands were numbered1 from the    
confluence of the ,missouri to the sea2 
but every season makes such revolutions1
 not only in the number1 but in the     
magnitude and situation of these        
islands1 that this enumeration is now   
almost obsolete4 ,sometimes large       
islands are entirely melted away2 at    
other places they have attached         
themselves to the main shore1 or1 which 
is the more correct statement1 the      
interval has been filled up by myriads  

of logs cemented together by mud and    
rubbish4#cei  ,rafts4--,one of the most 
interesting features in the great rivers
 of this part of ,america is the        
frequent accumulation of what are termed
 rafts1 or masses of floating trees1    
which have been arrested in their       
progress by snags1 islands1 shoals1 or  
other obstructions1 and made to         
accumulate1 so as to form natural       
bridges1 reaching entirely across the   
stream4 ,one of the largest of these was
 called the raft of the ,atchafalaya1 an
 arm of the ,mississippi1 which was     
certainly at some former time the       
channel of the ,red ,river1 when the    
latter found its way to the ,gulf of    
,mexico by a separate course4 ,the      
,atchafalaya being in a direct line with
 the general direction of the           
,mississippi1 catches a large portion of
 the timber annually brought down from  
the north2 and the drift-trees collected
 in about thirty-eight years previous to
 #ahaf formed a continuous raft1 no less

 than ten miles in length1 #bbj yards   
wide1 and eight feet deep4 ,the whole   
rose and fell with the water1 yet was   
covered with green bushes and trees1 and
 its surface enlivened in the autumn by 
a variety of beautiful flowers4 ,it went
 on increasing till about #ahce1 when   
some of the trees upon it had grown to  
the height of about sixty feet4 ,steps  
were then taken by the ,state of        
,louisiana to clear away the whole raft1
 and open the navigation1 which was     
effected1 not without great labor1 in   
the space of four years4  ,the rafts on 
,red ,river are equally remarkable3 in  
some parts of its course1 cedar-trees   
are heaped up by themselves1 and in     
other places1 pines4 ,on the rise of the
 waters in summer hundreds of these are 
seen1 some with their green leaves still
 upon them1 just as they have fallen    
from a neighboring bank1 others         
leafless1 broken and worn in their      
passage from a far distant tributary3   
wherever they accumulate on the edge of 

a sand-bar they arrest the current1 and 
soon become covered with sediment4 ,on  
this mud the young willows and the      
poplars called cotton-wood spring up1   
their boughs still farther retarding the
 stream1 and as the inundation rises1   
accelerating the deposition of new soil4
 ,the bank continuing to enlarge1 the   
channel at length becomes so narrow that
 a single long tree may reach from side 
to side1 and the remaining space is then
 soon choked up by a quantity of other  
timber4  ,unfortunately for the         
navigation of the ,mississippi1 observes
 ,captain ,hall1 some of the largest    
trunks1 after being cast down from the  
position on which they grew1 get their  
roots entangled with the bottom of the  
river1 where they remain anchored1 as it
 were1 in the mud4 ,the force of the    
current naturally gives their tops a    
tendency downwards1 and1 by its flowing 
past1 soon strips them of their leaves  
and branches4 ,these fixtures1 called   
snags1 or planters1 are extremely       

dangerous to the steam-vessels          
proceeding up the stream1 in which they 
lie like a lance in rest1 concealed     
beneath the water1 with their sharp ends
 pointed directly against the bows of   
the vessels coming up4 ,for the most    
part these formidable snags remain so   
still that they can be detected only by 
a slight ripple above them1 not         
perceptible to inexperienced eyes4      
,sometimes1 however1 they vibrate up and
 down1 alternately showing their heads  
above the surface and bathing them      
beneath it4#cfj ,so imminent1 until     
lately1 was the danger caused by these  
obstructions1 that almost all the boats 
on the ,mississippi were constructed on 
a particular plan1 to guard against     
fatal accidents2 but in the last ten    
years1 by the aid of the power of steam 
and the machinery of a snag-boat1 as it 
is called1 the greater number of these  
trunks of trees have been drawn out of  
the mud4#cfa  ,the prodigious quantity  
of wood annually drifted down by the    

,mississippi and its tributaries1 is a  
subject of geological interest1 not     
merely as illustrating the manner in    
which abundance of vegetable matter     
becomes1 in the ordinary course of      
nature1 imbedded in submarine and       
estuary deposits1 but as attesting the  
constant destruction of soil and        
transportation of matter to lower levels
 by the tendency of rivers to shift     
their courses4 ,each of these trees must
 have required many years1 some of them 
centuries1 to attain their full size2   
the soil1 therefore1 whereon they grew1 
after remaining undisturbed for long    
periods1 is ultimately torn up and swept
 away4  ,it is also found in excavating 
at ,new ,orleans1 even at the depth of  
several yards below the level of the    
sea1 that the soil of the delta contains
 innumerable trunks of trees1 layer     
above layer1 some prostrate1 as if      
drifted1 others broken off near the     
bottom1 but remaining still erect1 and  
with their roots spreading on all sides1

 as if in their natural position4 ,in   
such situations they appeared to me to  
indicate a sinking of the ground1 as the
 trees must formerly have grown in      
marshes above the sea-level4 ,in the    
higher parts of the alluvial plain1 for 
many hundred miles above the head of the
 delta1 similar stools and roots of     
trees are also seen buried in stiff clay
 at different levels1 one above the     
other1 and exposed to view in the banks 
at low water4 ,they point clearly to the
 successive growth of forests in the    
extensive swamps of the plain1 where the
 ground was slowly raised1 year after   
year1 by the mud thrown down during     
inundations4 ,these roots and stools    
belong chiefly to the deciduous cypress 
7,taxodium distichum71 and other        
swamp-trees1 and they bear testimony to 
the constant shifting of the course of  
the great river1 which is always        
excavating land originally formed at    
some distance from its banks4           
,formation of lakes in                  

,louisiana44--,another striking feature 
in the basin of the ,mississippi1       
illustrative of the changes now in      
progress1 is the formation by natural   
causes of great lakes1 and the drainage 
of others4 ,these are especially        
frequent in the basin of the ,red ,river
 in ,louisiana1 where the largest of    
them1 called ,bistineau1 is more than   
thirty miles long1 and has a medium     
depth of from fifteen to twenty feet4   
,in the deepest parts are seen numerous 
cypress-trees1 of all sizes1 now dead1  
and most of them with their tops broken 
by the wind1 yet standing erect under   
water4 ,this tree resists the action of 
air and water longer than any other1    
and1 if not submerged throughout the    
whole year1 will retain life for an     
extraordinary period4 ,lake ,bistineau1 
as well as ,black ,lake1 ,cado ,lake1   
,spanish ,lake1 ,natchitoches ,lake1 and
 many others1 have been formed1         
according to ,darby1 by the gradual     
elevation of the bed of ,red ,river1 in 

which the alluvial accumulations have   
been so great as to raise its channel1  
and cause its waters1 during the flood  
season1 to flow up the mouths of many   
tributaries1 and to convert parts of    
their courses into lakes4 ,in the       
autumn1 when the level of ,red ,river is
 again depressed1 the waters rush back1 
and some lakes become grassy meadows1   
with streams meandering through         
them4#cfb ,thus1 there is a periodical  
flux and reflux between ,red ,river and 
some of these basins1 which are merely  
reservoirs1 alternately emptied and     
filled1 like our tide estuaries--with   
this difference1 that in the one case   
the land is submerged for several months
 continuously1 and in the other twice in
 every twenty-four hours4 ,it has       
happened1 in several cases1 that a raft 
of timber or a bar has been thrown by   
,red ,river across some of the openings 
of these channels1 and then the lakes   
become1 like ,bistineau1 constant       
repositories of water4 ,but1 even in    

these cases1 their level is liable to   
annual elevation and depression1 because
 the flood of the main river1 when at   
its height1 passes over the bar2 just   
as1 where sand-hills close the entrance 
of an estuary on the ,norfolk or        
,suffolk coast1 the sea1 during some    
high tide or storm1 has often breached  
the barrier and inundated again the     
interior4  ,i am informed by ,mr4       
,featherstonhaugh that the plains of the
 ,red ,river and the ,arkansas are so   
low and flat1 that whenever the         
,mississippi rises thirty feet above its
 ordinary level1 those great tributaries
 are made to flow back1 and inundate a  
region of vast extent4 ,both the streams
 alluded to contain red sediment1       
derived from the decomposition of red   
porphyry2 and since #ahcc1 when there   
was a great inundation in the ,arkansas1
 an immense swamp has been formed near  
the ,mammelle mountain1 comprising      
#cj1jjj acres1 with here and there large
 lagoons1 where the old bed of the river

 was situated2 in which innumerable     
trees1 for the most part dead1 are seen 
standing1 of cypress1 cotton-wood1 or   
poplar1 the triple-thorned acacia1 and  
others1 which are of great size4 ,their 
trunks appear as if painted red for     
about fifteen feet from the ground2 at  
which height a perfectly level line     
extends through the whole forest1       
marking the rise of the waters during   
the last flood4#cfc  ,but most probably 
the causes above assigned for the recent
 origin of these lakes are not the only 
ones4 ,subterranean movements have      
altered1 so lately as the years         
#ahaa-ab1 the relative levels of various
 parts of the basin of the ,mississippi1
 situated #cjj miles northeast of ,lake 
,bistineau4 ,in those years the great   
valley1 from the mouth of the ,ohio to  
that of the ,st4 ,francis1 including a  
tract #cjj miles in length1 and         
exceeding in area the whole basin of the
 ,thames1 was convulsed to such a       
degree1 as to create new islands in the 

river1 and lakes in the alluvial plain4 
,some of these were on the left or east 
bank of the ,mississippi1 and were      
twenty miles in extent2 as1 for example1
 those named ,reelfoot and ,obion in    
,tennessee1 formed in the channels or   
valleys of small streams bearing the    
same names4#cfd  ,but the largest area  
affected by the great convulsion lies   
eight or ten miles to the westward of   
the ,mississippi1 and inland from the   
town of ,new ,madrid1 in ,missouri4 ,it 
is called the sunk country1 and is said 
to extend along the course of the ,white
 ,water and its tributaries1 for a      
distance of between seventy and eighty  
miles north and south1 and thirty miles 
or more east and west4 ,throughout this 
area1 innumerable submerged trees1 some 
standing leafless1 others prostrate1 are
 seen2 and so great is the extent of    
lake and marsh1 that an active trade in 
the skins of muskrats1 mink1 otters1 and
 other wild animals1 is now carried on  
there4 ,in ,march1 #ahdf1 ,i skirted the

 borders of the sunk country nearest to 
,new ,madrid1 passing along the ,bayou  
,st4 ,john and ,little ,prairie1 where  
dead trees of various kinds1 some erect 
in the water1 others fallen1 and strewed
 in dense masses over the bottom1 in the
 shallows1 and near the shore1 were     
conspicuous4 ,i also beheld countless   
rents in the adjoining dry alluvial     
plains1 caused by the movements of the  
soil in #ahaa-ab1 and still open1 though
 the rains1 frost1 and river            
inundations1 have greatly diminished    
their original depth4 ,i observed1      
moreover1 numerous circular cavities1   
called sunk holes1 from ten to thirty   
yards wide1 and twenty feet or more in  
depth1 which interrupt the general level
 of the plain4 ,these were formed by the
 spouting out of large quantities of    
sand and mud during the earthquakes4#cfe
  ,that the prevailing changes of level 
in the delta and alluvial plain of the  
,mississippi have been caused by the    
subsidence1 rather than the upheaval of 

land1 appears to me established by the  
fact1 that there are no protuberances of
 upraised alluvial soil1 projecting     
above the level surface of the great    
plain4 ,it is true that the gradual     
elevation of that plain1 by new         
accessions of matter1 would tend to     
efface every inequality derived from    
this source1 but we might certainly have
 expected to find more broken ground    
between the opposite bluffs1 had local  
upthrows of alluvial strata been of     
repeated occurrence4  ,antiquity of the 
delta4--,the vast size of the alluvial  
plain both above and below the head of  
the delta1 or the branching off of the  
uppermost arm of the ,atchafalaya1 has  
been already alluded to4 ,its           
superficial dimensions1 according to    
,mr4 ,forshey1 exceed #cj1jjj square    
miles1 nearly half of which belong to   
the true delta4 ,the deposits consist   
partly of sand originally formed upon or
 near the banks of the river1 and its   
tributaries1 partly of gravel1 swept    

down the main channel1 of which the     
position has continually shifted1 and   
partly of fine mud slowly accumulated in
 the swamps4 ,the farther we descend the
 river towards its mouth1 the finer     
becomes the texture of the sediment4    
,the whole alluvial formation1 from the 
base of the delta upwards1 slopes with a
 very gentle inclination1 rising about  
three inches in a mile from the level of
 the sea at the ,balize1 to the height  
of about #bjj feet in a distance of     
about #hjj miles4  ,that a large portion
 of this fluviatile deposit1 together   
with the fluvio-marine strata now in    
progress near the ,balize1 consists of  
mud and sand with much vegetable matter 
intermixed1 may be inferred from what   
has been said of the abundance of drift 
trees floated down every summer4 ,these 
are seen matted together into a net-work
 around the extensive mud banks at the  
extreme mouths of the river4 ,every one 
acquainted with the geography of        
,louisiana is aware that the most       

southern part of the delta forms a long 
narrow tongue of land protruding for #ej
 miles into the ,gulf of ,mexico1 at the
 end of which are numerous channels of  
discharge4 ,this singular promontory    
consists simply of the river and its two
 low1 flat banks1 covered with reeds1   
young willows1 and poplars4 ,its        
appearance answers precisely to that of 
the banks far in the interior1 when     
nothing appears above water during      
inundations but the higher part of the  
sloping glacis or bank4 ,in the one case
 we have the swamps or an expanse of    
freshwater with the tops of trees       
appearing above1 in the other the bluish
 green surface of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 
,an opinion has very commonly prevailed 
that this narrow promontory1 the newest 
product of the river1 has gained very   
rapidly upon the sea1 since the         
foundation of ,new ,orleans2 but after  
visiting the ,balize in #ahdf1 in       
company with ,dr4 ,carpenter1 and making
 many inquiries of the pilots1 and      

comparing the present outline of the    
coast with the excellent ,spanish chart1
 published by ,charlevoix #abj years    
before1 we came to a different          
conclusion4 ,the rate of permanent      
advance of the new land has been very   
slow1 not exceeding perhaps one mile in 
a century4 ,the gain may have been      
somewhat more rapid in former years1    
when the new strip of soil projected    
less far into the gulf1 since it is now 
much more exposed to the action of a    
strong marine current4 ,the tides also1 
when the waters of the river are low1   
enter into each opening1 and scour them 
out1 destroying the banks of mud and the
 sand-bars newly formed during the flood
 season4  ,an observation of ,darby1 in 
regard to the strata composing part of  
this delta1 deserves attention4 ,in the 
steep banks of the ,atchafalaya1 before 
alluded to1 the following section1 he   
says1 is observable at low water3--first
 an upper stratum1 consisting invariably
 of bluish clay1 common to the banks of 

the ,mississippi2 below this a stratum  
of red ochreous earth1 peculiar to ,red 
,river1 under which the blue clay of the
 ,mississippi again appears2 and this   
arrangement is constant1 proving1 as    
that geographer remarks1 that the waters
 of the ,mississippi and the ,red ,river
 occupied alternately1 at some former   
periods1 considerable tracts below their
 present point of union4#cff ,such      
alternations are probably common in     
submarine spaces situated between two   
converging deltas2 for1 before the two  
rivers unite1 there must almost always  
be a certain period when an intermediate
 tract will by turns be occupied and    
abandoned by the waters of each stream2 
since it can rarely happen that the     
season of highest flood will precisely  
correspond in each4 ,in the case of the 
,red ,river and ,mississippi1 which     
carry off the waters from countries     
placed under widely distant latitudes1  
an exact coincidence in the time of     
greatest inundation is very improbable4 

,the antiquity of the delta1 or length  
of the period which has been occupied in
 the deposition of so vast a mass of    
alluvial matter1 is a question which may
 well excite the curiosity of every     
geologist4 ,sufficient data have not yet
 been obtained to afford a full and     
satisfactory answer to the inquiry1 but 
some approximation may already be made  
to the minimum of time required4  ,when 
,i visited ,new ,orleans1 in ,february1 
#ahdf1 ,i found that ,dr4 ,riddell had  
made numerous experiments to ascertain  
the proportion of sediment contained in 
the waters of the ,mississippi2 and he  
concluded that the mean annual amount of
 solid matter was to the water as       
#a_/abde in weight1 or about #a_/cjjj in
 volume4#cfg ,from the observations of  
the same gentleman1 and those of ,dr4   
,carpenter and ,mr4 ,forshey1 an eminent
 engineer1 to whom ,i have before       
alluded1 the average width1 depth1 and  
velocity of the ,mississippi1 and thence
 the mean annual discharge of water were

 deduced4 ,i assumed #ebh feet1 or the  
tenth of a mile1 as the probable        
thickness of the deposit of mud and sand
 in the delta2 founding my conjecture   
chiefly on the depth of the ,gulf of    
,mexico1 between the southern point of  
,florida and the ,balize1 which equals  
on an average #ajj fathoms1 and partly  
on some borings #fjj feet deep in the   
delta1 near ,lake ,pontchartrain1 north 
of ,new ,orleans1 in which the bottom of
 the alluvial matter is said not to have
 been reached4 ,the area of the delta   
being about #ac1fjj square statute      
miles1 and the quantity of solid matter 
annually brought down by the river      
#c1gjb1geh1djj cubic feet1 it must have 
taken #fg1jjj years for the formation of
 the whole2 and if the alluvial matter  
of the plain above be #bfd feet deep1 or
 half that of the delta1#cfh it must    
have required #cc1ejj more years for its
 accumulation1 even if its area be      
estimated as only equal to that of the  
delta1 whereas it is in fact larger4 ,if

 some deduction be made from the time   
here stated1 in consequence of the      
effect of the drift-wood1 which must    
have aided in filling up more rapidly   
the space above alluded to1 a far more  
important allowance must be made on the 
other hand1 for the loss of matter1     
owing to the finer particles of mud not 
settling at the mouths of the river1 but
 being swept out far to sea during the  
predominant action of the tides1 and the
 waves in the winter months1 when the   
current of fresh water is feeble4 ,yet  
however vast the time during which the  
,mississippi has been transporting its  
earthy burden to the ocean1 the whole   
period1 though far exceeding1 perhaps1  
#ajj1jjj years1 must be insignificant in
 a geological point of view1 since the  
bluffs or cliffs1 bounding the great    
valley1 and therefore older in date1 and
 which are from #ej to #bej feet in     
perpendicular height1 consist in great  
part of loam containing land1           
fluviatile1 and lacustrine shells of    

species still inhabiting the same       
country4 7,see fig4 #bc1 p4 #bfe47      
,before we take leave of the great      
delta1 we may derive an instructive     
lesson from the reflection that the new 
deposits already formed1 or now         
accumulating1 whether marine or         
freshwater1 must greatly resemble in    
composition1 and the general character  
of their organic remains1 many ancient  
strata1 which enter largely into the    
earth's structure4 ,yet there is no     
sudden revolution in progress1 whether  
on the land or in the waters1 whether in
 the animate or the inanimate world4    
,notwithstanding the excessive          
destruction of soil and uprooting of    
trees1 the region which yields a        
never-failing supply of drift-wood is   
densely clothed with noble forests1 and 
is almost unrivalled in its power of    
supporting animal and vegetable life4   
,in spite of the undermining of many a  
lofty bluff1 and the encroachments of   
the delta on the sea--in spite of the   

earthquake1 which rends and fissures the
 soil1 or causes areas more than sixty  
miles in length to sink down several    
yards in a few months1 the general      
features of the district remain         
unaltered1 or are merely undergoing a   
slow and insensible change4 ,herds of   
wild deer graze on the pastures1 or     
browse upon the trees2 and if they      
diminish in number1 it is only where    
they give way to man and the domestic   
animals which follow in his train4 ,the 
bear1 the wolf1 the fox1 the panther1   
and the wild-cat1 still maintain        
themselves in the fastnesses of the     
forests of cypress and gum-tree4 ,the   
racoon and the opossum are everywhere   
abundant1 while the musk-rat1 otter1 and
 mink still frequent the rivers and     
lakes1 and a few beavers and buffaloes  
have not yet been driven from their     
ancient haunts4 ,the waters teem with   
alligators1 tortoises1 and fish1 and    
their surface is covered with millions  
of migratory waterfowl1 which perform   

their annual voyage between the         
,canadian lakes and the shores of the   
,mexican ,gulf4 ,the power of man begins
 to be sensibly felt1 and many parts of 
the wilderness to be replaced by towns1 
orchards1 and gardens4 ,the gilded      
steamboats1 like moving palaces1 stem   
the force of the current1 or shoot      
rapidly down the descending stream1     
through the solitudes of the forests and
 prairies4 ,already does the flourishing
 population of the great valley far     
exceed that of the thirteen ,united     
,states when first they declared their  
independence4 ,such is the state of a   
continent where trees and stones are    
hurried annually by a thousand torrents1
 from the mountains to the plains1 and  
where sand and finer matter are swept   
down by a vast current to the sea1      
together with the wreck of countless    
forests and the bones of animals which  
perish in the inundations4 ,when these  
materials reach the gulf1 they do not   
render the waters unfit for aquatic     

animals2 but on the contrary1 the ocean 
here swarms with life1 as it generally  
does where the influx of a great river  
furnishes a copious supply of organic   
and mineral matter4 ,yet many           
geologists1 when they behold the spoils 
of the land heaped in successive strata1
 and blended confusedly with the remains
 of fishes1 or interspersed with broken 
shells and corals2 when they see        
portions of erect trunks of trees with  
their roots still retaining their       
natural position1 and one tier of these 
preserved in a fossil state above       
another1 imagine that they are viewing  
the signs of a turbulent instead of a   
tranquil and settled state of the       
planet4 ,they read in such phenomena the
 proof of chaotic disorder and          
reiterated catastrophes1 instead of     
indications of a surface as habitable as
 the most delicious and fertile         
districts now tenanted by man4   ,,delta
 ,,of ,,the ,,ganges ,,and              
,,brahmapootra4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   

#be4  ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,delta ,,of     
,,the ,,ganges ,,and ,,brahmapootra4    
,as an example of a still larger delta  
advancing upon the sea in opposition to 
more powerful tides1 ,i shall next      
describe that of the ,ganges and        
,brahmapootra 7or ,burrampooter74       
,these1 the two principal rivers of     
,india1 descend from the highest        
mountains in the world1 and partially   
mingle their waters in the low plains of
 ,hindostan1 before reaching the head of
 the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,the              
,brahmapootra1 somewhat the larger of   
the two1 formerly passed to the east of 
,dacca1 even so lately as the beginning 
of the present century1 pouring most of 
its waters into one of the numerous     
channels in the delta called the ,megna4
 ,by that name the main stream was      
always spoken of by ,rennell and others 
in their memoirs on this region4 ,but   
the main trunk now unites with an arm of
 the ,ganges considerably higher up1 at 
a point about #ajj miles distant from   

the sea2 and it is constantly1 according
 to ,dr4 ,hooker1 working its way       
westward1 having formerly1 as may be    
seen by ancient maps1 moved eastward for
 a long period4  ,the area of the delta 
of the combined rivers1 for it is       
impossible now to distinguish what      
belongs to each1 is considerably more   
than double that of the ,nile1 even if  
we exclude from the delta a large extent
 of low1 flat1 alluvial plain1 doubtless
 of fluviatile origin1 which stretches  
more than #ajj miles to the hills west  
of ,calcutta 7see map1 fig4 #be71 and   
much farther in a northerly direction   
beyond the head of the great delta4 ,the
 head of a delta is that point where the
 first arm is given off4 ,above that    
point a river receives the waters of    
tributaries flowing from higher levels2 
below it1 on the contrary1 it gives out 
portions of its waters to lower levels1 
through channels which flow into        
adjoining swamps1 or which run directly 
to the sea4 ,the ,mississippi1 as before

 described1 has a single head1 which    
originated at an unknown period when the
 ,red ,river joined it4 ,in the great   
delta of ,bengal there may be said to be
 two heads nearly equidistant from the  
sea1 that of the ,ganges 7,g1 map1 fig4 
#be71 about #cj miles below ,rajmahal1  
or #baf statute miles in a direct line  
from the sea1 and that of the           
,brahmapootra 7,b71 below ,chirapoonjee1
 where the river issues from the ,khasia
 mountains1 a distance of #bbd miles    
from the ,bay of ,bengal4  ,it will     
appear1 by reference to the map1 that   
the great body of fresh water derived   
from the two rivers enters the bay on   
its eastern side2 and that a large part 
of the delta bordering on the sea is    
composed of a labyrinth of rivers and   
creeks1 all filled with salt water1     
except those immediately communicating  
with the ,hoogly1 or principal arm of   
the ,ganges4 ,this tract alone1 known by
 the name of the ,woods1 or ,sunderbunds
 7more properly ,soonderbuns71 a        

wilderness infested by tigers and       
crocodiles1 is1 according to ,rennell1  
equal in extent to the whole            
principality of ,wales4#cfi  ,on the    
sea-coast there are eight great         
openings1 each of which has evidently1  
at some ancient period1 served in its   
turn as the principal channel of        
discharge4 ,although the flux and reflux
 of the tide extend even to the heads of
 the delta when the rivers are low1 yet1
 when they are periodically swollen by  
tropical rains1 their volume and        
velocity counteract the tidal current1  
so that1 except very near the sea1 the  
ebb and flow become insensible4 ,during 
the flood season1 therefore1 the ,ganges
 and ,brahmapootra almost assume in     
their delta1 the character of rivers    
entering an inland sea2 the movements of
 the ocean being then subordinate to the
 force of the rivers1 and only slightly 
disturbing their operations4 ,the great 
gain of the delta in height and area    
takes place during the inundations2 and1

 during other seasons of the year1 the  
ocean makes reprisals1 scouring out the 
channels1 and sometimes devouring rich  
alluvial plains4  ,islands formed and   
destroyed4--,major ,r4 ,h4 ,colebrooke1 
in his account of the course of the     
,ganges1 relates examples of the rapid  
filling up of some of its branches1 and 
the excavation of new channels1 where   
the number of square miles of soil      
removed in a short time 7the column of  
earth being #aad feet high7 was truly   
astonishing4 ,forty square miles1 or    
#be1fjj acres1 are mentioned as having  
been carried away1 in one place1 in the 
course of a few years4#cgj ,the immense 
transportation of earthy matter by the  
,ganges and ,brahmapootra is proved by  
the great magnitude of the islands      
formed in their channels during a period
 far short of that of a man's life4     
,some of these1 many miles in extent1   
have originated in large sand-banks     
thrown up round the points at the       
angular turning of the rivers1 and      

afterwards insulated by breaches of the 
streams4 ,others1 formed in the main    
channel1 are caused by some obstruction 
at the bottom4 ,a large tree1 or a      
sunken boat1 is sometimes sufficient to 
check the current1 and cause a deposit  
of sand1 which accumulates till it      
usurps a considerable portion of the    
channel4 ,the river then undermines its 
banks on each side1 to supply the       
deficiency in its bed1 and the island is
 afterwards raised by fresh deposits    
during every flood4 ,in the great gulf  
below ,luckipour1 formed by the united  
waters of the ,ganges and ,megna1 some  
of the islands1 says ,rennell1 rival in 
size and fertility the ,isle of ,wight4 
,while the river is forming new islands 
in one part1 it is sweeping away old    
ones in others4 ,those newly formed are 
soon overrun with reeds1 long grass1 the
 ,tamarix ,indica1 and other shrubs1    
forming impenetrable thickets1 where the
 tiger1 the rhinoceros1 the buffalo1    
deer1 and other wild animals1 take      

shelter4 ,it is easy1 therefore1 to     
perceive1 that both animal and vegetable
 remains may occasionally be            
precipitated into the flood1 and become 
imbedded in the sediment which subsides 
in the delta4  ,three or four species of
 crocodile1 of two distinct sub-genera1 
abound in the ,ganges1 and its tributary
 and contiguous waters2 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,t4
 ,colebrooke informed me1 that he had   
seen both forms in places far inland1   
many hundred miles from the sea4 ,the   
,gangetic crocodile1 or ,gavial 7in     
correct orthography1 ,garial71 is       
confined to the fresh water1 living     
exclusively on fish1 but the commoner   
kinds1 called ,koomiah and ,muggar1     
frequent both fresh and salt1 being much
 larger and fiercer in salt and brackish
 water4#cga ,these animals swarm in the 
brackish water along the line of        
sand-banks1 where the advance of the    
delta is most rapid4 ,hundreds of them  
are seen together in the creeks of the  
delta1 or basking in the sun on the     

shoals without4 ,they will attack men   
and cattle1 destroying the natives when 
bathing1 and tame and wild animals which
 come to drink4 ,i have not             
unfrequently1 says ,mr4 ,colebrooke1    
been witness to the horrid spectacle of 
a floating corpse seized by a crocodile 
with such avidity1 that he half emerged 
above the water with his prey in his    
mouth4 ,the geologist will not fail to  
observe how peculiarly the habits and   
distribution of these saurians expose   
them to become imbedded in the          
horizontal strata of fine mud1 which are
 annually deposited over many hundred   
square miles in the ,bay of ,bengal4    
,the inhabitants of the land1 which     
happen to be drowned or thrown into the 
water1 are usually devoured by these    
voracious reptiles2 but we may suppose  
the remains of the saurians themselves  
to be continually entombed in the new   
formations4 ,the number1 also1 of bodies
 of the poorer class of ,hindoos thrown 
annually into the ,ganges is so great1  

that some of their bones or skeletons   
can hardly fail to be occasionally      
enveloped in fluviatile mud4  ,it       
sometimes happens1 at the season when   
the periodical flood is at its height1  
that a strong gale of wind1 conspiring  
with a high spring-tide1 checks the     
descending current of the river1 and    
gives rise to most destructive          
inundations4 ,from this cause1 in #agfc1
 the waters at ,luckipour rose six feet 
above their ordinary level1 and the     
inhabitants of a considerable district1 
with their houses and cattle1 were      
totally swept away4  ,the population of 
all oceanic deltas are particularly     
exposed to suffer by such catastrophes1 
recurring at considerable intervals of  
time2 and we may safely assume that such
 tragical events have happened again and
 again since the ,gangetic delta was    
inhabited by man4 ,if human experience  
and forethought cannot always guard     
against these calamities1 still less can
 the inferior animals avoid them2 and   

the monuments of such disastrous        
inundations must be looked for in great 
abundance in strata of all ages1 if the 
surface of our planet has always been   
governed by the same laws4 ,when we     
reflect on the general order and        
tranquillity that reigns in the rich and
 populous delta of ,bengal1             
notwithstanding the havoc occasionally  
committed by the depredations of the    
ocean1 we perceive how unnecessary it is
 to attribute the imbedding of          
successive races of animals in older    
strata to extraordinary energy in the   
causes of decay and reproduction in the 
infancy of our planet1 or to those      
general catastrophes and sudden         
revolutions so often resorted to4       
,deposits in the delta4--,the quantity  
of mud held in suspension by the waters 
of the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra is     
found1 as might be expected1 to exceed  
that of any of the rivers alluded to in 
this or the preceding chapters2 for1 in 
the first place1 their feeders flow from

 mountains of unrivalled altitude1 and  
do not clear themselves in any lakes1 as
 does the ,rhine in the ,lake of        
,constance1 or the ,rhone in that of    
,geneva4 ,and1 secondly1 their whole    
course is nearer the equator than that  
of the ,mississippi1 or any great river1
 respecting which careful experiments   
have been made1 to determine the        
quantity of its water and earthy        
contents4 ,the fall of rain1 moreover1  
as we have before seen1 is excessive on 
the southern flanks of the first range  
of mountains which rise from the plains 
of ,hindostan1 and still more remarkable
 is the quantity sometimes poured down  
in one day4 7,see above1 p4 #bjj47 ,the 
sea1 where the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra
 discharge their main stream at the     
flood season1 only recovers its         
transparency at the distance of from #fj
 to #ajj miles from the delta2 and we   
may take for granted that the current   
continues to transport the finer        
particles much farther south than where 

the surface water first becomes clear4  
,the general slope1 therefore1 of the   
new strata must be extremely gentle4    
,according to the best charts1 there is 
a gradual deepening from four to about  
sixty fathoms1 as we proceed from the   
base of the delta to the distance of    
about one hundred miles into the ,bay of
 ,bengal4 ,at some few points seventy1  
or even one hundred1 fathoms are        
obtained at that distance4  ,one        
remarkable exception1 however1 occurs to
 the regularity of the shape of the     
bottom4 ,opposite the middle of the     
delta1 at the distance of thirty or     
forty miles from the coast1 a deep      
submarine valley occurs1 called the     
swatch of no ground1 about fifteen miles
 in diameter1 where soundings of #ahj1  
and even #cjj1 fathoms fail to reach the
 bottom4 7,see map1 p4 #bge47 ,this     
phenomenon is the more extraordinary1   
since the depression runs north to      
within five miles of the line of shoals2
 and not only do the waters charged with

 sediment pass over it continually1 but1
 during the monsoons1 the sea1 loaded   
with mud and sand1 is beaten back in    
that direction towards the delta4 ,as   
the mud is known to extend for eighty   
miles farther into the gulf1 an enormous
 thickness of matter must have been     
deposited in the swatch4 ,we may        
conclude1 therefore1 either that the    
original depth of this part of the ,bay 
of ,bengal was excessive1 or that       
subsidences have occurred in modern     
times4 ,the latter conjecture is the    
less improbable1 as the whole area of   
the delta has been convulsed in the     
historical era by earthquakes1 and      
actual subsidences have taken place in  
the neighboring coast of ,chittagong1   
while the swatch lies not far from the  
volcanic band which connects ,sumatra1  
,barren ,island1 and ,ramree4#cgb       
,opposite the mouth of the ,hoogly      
river1 and immediately south of ,saugor 
,island1 four miles from the nearest    
land of the delta1 a new islet was      

formed about twenty years ago1 called   
,edmonstone ,island1 on the centre of   
which a beacon was erected as a landmark
 in #ahag4 ,in #ahah the island had     
become two miles long and half a mile   
broad1 and was covered with vegetation  
and shrubs4 ,some houses were then built
 upon it1 and in #ahbj it was used as a 
pilot station4 ,the severe gale of #ahbc
 divided it into two parts1 and so      
reduced its size as to leave the beacon 
standing out in the sea1 where1 after   
remaining seven years1 it was washed    
away4 ,the islet in #ahcf had been      
converted by successive storms into a   
sand-bank1 half a mile long1 on which a 
sea-mark was placed4  ,although there is
 evidence of gain at some points1 the   
general progress of the coast is very   
slow2 for the tides1 when the river     
water is low1 are actively employed in  
removing alluvial matter4 ,in the       
,sunderbunds the usual rise and fall of 
the tides is no more than eight feet1   
but1 on the east side of the delta1 ,dr4

 ,hooker observed1 in the winter of     
#ahea1 a rise of from sixty to eighty   
feet1 producing among the islands at the
 mouths of the ,megna and ,fenny rivers1
 a lofty wave or bore as they ascend1   
and causing the river water to be ponded
 back1 and then to sweep down with great
 violence when the tide ebbs4 ,the bay  
for forty miles south of ,chittagong is 
so fresh that neither algae nor         
mangroves will grow in it4 ,we may1     
therefore1 conceive how effective may be
 the current formed by so great a volume
 of water in dispersing fine mud over a 
wide area4 ,its power is sometimes      
augmented by the agitation of the bay   
during hurricanes in the month of ,may4 
,the new superficial strata consists    
entirely of fine sand and mud2 such1 at 
least1 are the only materials which are 
exposed to view in regular beds on the  
banks of the numerous creeks4 ,neither  
here or higher up the ,ganges1 could    
,dr4 ,hooker discover any land or       
freshwater shells in sections of the    

banks1 which in the plains higher up    
sometimes form cliffs eighty feet in    
height at low water4 ,in like manner ,i 
have stated#cgc that ,i was unable to   
find any buried shells in the delta or  
modern river cliffs of the ,mississippi4
  ,no substance so coarse as gravel     
occurs in any part of the delta of the  
,ganges and ,brahmapootra1 nor nearer   
the sea than #djj miles4 ,yet it is     
remarkable that the boring of an        
,artesian well at ,fort ,william1 near  
,calcutta1 in the years #ahce-ahdj1     
displayed1 at the depth of #abj feet1   
clay and sand with pebbles4 ,this boring
 was carried to a depth of #dha feet    
below the level of ,calcutta1 and the   
geological section obtained in the      
operation has been recorded with great  
care4 ,under the surface soil1 at a     
depth of about ten feet1 they came to a 
stiff blue clay about forty feet in     
thickness2 below which was sandy clay1  
containing in its lower portion         
abundance of decayed vegetable matter1  

which at the bottom assumed the         
character of a stratum of black peat two
 feet thick4 ,this peaty mass was       
considered as a clear indication 7like  
the dirt-bed of ,portland7 of an ancient
 terrestrial surface1 with a forest or  
,sunderbund vegetation4 ,logs and       
branches of a red-colored wood occur    
both above and immediately below the    
peat1 so little altered that ,dr4       
,wallich was able to identify them with 
the ,soondri tree1 ,heritiera           
littoralis1 one of the most prevalent   
forms1 at the base of the delta4 ,dr4   
,falconer tells me that similar peat has
 been met with at other points round    
,calcutta at the depth of nine feet and 
twenty-five feet4 ,it appears1          
therefore1 that there has been a sinking
 down of what was originally land in    
this region1 to the amount of seventy   
feet or more perpendicular2 for         
,calcutta is only a few feet above the  
level of the sea1 and the successive    
peat-beds seem to imply that the        

subsidence of the ground was gradual or 
interrupted by several pauses4 ,below   
the vegetable mass they entered upon a  
stratum of yellowish clay about ten feet
 thick1 containing horizontal layers of 
kunkar 7or kankar71 a nodular1          
concretionary1 argillaceous limestone1  
met with abundantly at greater or less  
depths in all parts of the valley of the
 ,ganges1 over many thousand square     
miles1 and always presenting the same   
characters1 even at a distance of one   
thousand miles north of ,calcutta4 ,some
 of this kunkar is said to be of very   
recent origin in deposits formed by     
river inundations near ,saharanpoor4    
,after penetrating #abj feet1 they found
 loam containing water-worn fragments of
 mica-slate and other kinds of rock1    
which the current of the ,ganges can no 
longer transport to this region4 ,in the
 various beds pierced through below1    
consisting of clay1 marl1 and friable   
sandstone1 with kunkar here and there   
intermixed1 no organic remains of       

decidedly marine origin were met with4  
,too positive a conclusion ought not1 it
 is true1 to be drawn from such a fact1 
when we consider the narrow bore of the 
auger and its effect in crushing shells 
and bones4 ,nevertheless1 it is worthy  
of remark1 that the only fossils        
obtained in a recognizable state were of
 a fluviatile or terrestrial character4 
,thus1 at the depth of #cej feet1 the   
bony shell of a tortoise1 or trionyx1 a 
freshwater genus1 was found in sand1    
resembling the living species of        
,bengal4 ,from the same stratum1 also1  
they drew up the lower half of the      
humerus of a ruminant1 at first referred
 to a hyaena4 ,it was the size and      
shape1 says ,dr4 ,falconer1 of the      
shoulder-bone of the ,cervus porcinus1  
or common hog-deer1 of ,india4 ,at the  
depth of #chj feet1 clay with fragments 
of lacustrine shells was incumbent on   
what appears clearly to have been       
another dirt-bed1 or stratum of decayed 
wood1 implying a period of repose of    

some duration1 and a forest-covered     
land1 which must have subsided #cjj     
feet1 to admit of the subsequent        
superposition of the overlying deposits4
 ,it has been conjectured that1 at the  
time when this area supported trees1 the
 land extended much farther out into the
 ,bay of ,bengal than now1 and that in  
later times the ,ganges1 while enlarging
 its delta1 has been only recovering    
lost ground from the sea4  ,at the depth
 of about #djj feet below the surface1  
an abrupt change was observed in the    
character of the strata1 which were     
composed in great part of sand1 shingle1
 and boulders1 the only fossils observed
 being the vertebrae of a crocodile1    
shell of a trionyx1 and fragments of    
wood very little altered1 and similar to
 that buried in beds far above4 ,these  
gravelly beds constituted the bottom of 
the section at the depth of #dha feet1  
when the operations were discontinued1  
in consequence of an accident which     
happened to the auger4  ,the occurrence 

of pebbles at the depths of #abj and    
#djj feet implies an important change in
 the geographical condition of the      
region around or near ,calcutta4 ,the   
fall of the river1 or the general slope 
of the alluvial plain may have been     
formerly greater2 or1 before a general  
and perhaps unequal subsidence1 hills   
once nearer the present base of the     
delta may have risen several hundred    
feet1 forming islands in the bay1 which 
may have sunk gradually1 and become     
buried under fluviatile sediment4       
,antiquity of the delta4--,it would be a
 matter of no small scientific interest1
 if experiments were made to enable us  
to determine1 with some degree of       
accuracy1 the mean quantity of earthy   
matter discharged annually into the sea 
by the united waters of the ,ganges and 
,brahmapootra4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,everest 
instituted1 in #ahca-b1 a series of     
observations on the earthy matter       
brought down by the ,ganges1 at         
,ghazepoor1 #ejj miles from the sea4 ,he

 found that1 in #ahca1 the number of    
cubic feet of water discharged by the   
river per second at that place was1     
during the     ,rains 7#d months7       
#did1bjh   ,winter 7#e months7          
#ga1bjj   ,hot weather 7#c months7      
#cf1ccj   so that we may state in round 
numbers that #ejj1jjj cubic feet per    
second flow down during the four months 
of the flood season1 from ,june to      
,september1 and less than #fj1jjj per   
second during the remaining eight       
months4  ,the average quantity of solid 
matter suspended in the water during the
 rains was1 by weight1 #a_/dbhth part2  
but as the water is about one-half the  
specific gravity of the dried mud1 the  
solid matter discharged is #a_/hefth    
part in bulk1 or #egg cubic feet per    
second4 ,this gives a total of          
#f1jhb1jda1fjj cubic feet for the       
discharge in the #abb days of the rain4 
,the proportion of sediment in the      
waters at other seasons was             
comparatively insignificant1 the total  

amount during the five winter months    
being only #bdg1hha1fjj cubic feet1 and 
during the three months of hot weather  
#ch1aed1bdj cubic feet4 ,the total      
annual discharge1 then1 would be        
#f1cfh1jgg1ddj cubic feet4  ,this       
quantity of mud would in one year raise 
a surface of #bbh-a_/b square miles1 or 
a square space1 each side of which      
should measure #ae miles1 a height of   
one foot4 ,to give some idea of the     
magnitude of this result1 we will assume
 that the specific gravity of the dried 
mud is only one-half that of granite 7it
 would1 however1 be more72 in that case1
 the earthy matter discharged in a year 
would equal #c1ahd1jch1gbj cubic feet of
 granite4 ,now about #ab-a_/b cubic feet
 of granite weigh one ton2 and it is    
computed that the great ,pyramid of     
,egypt1 if it were a solid mass of      
granite1 would weigh about #fjj1jjj1jjj 
tons4 ,the mass of matter1 therefore1   
carried down annually would1 according  
to this estimate1 more than equal in    

weight and bulk forty-two of the great  
pyramids of ,egypt1 and that borne down 
in the four months of the rains would   
equal forty pyramids4 ,but if1 without  
any conjecture as to what may have been 
the specific gravity of the mud1 we     
attend merely to the weight of solid    
matter actually proved by ,mr4 ,everest 
to have been contained in the water1 we 
find that the number of tons weight     
which passed down in the #abb days of   
the rainy season was #cci1dac1gfj1 which
 would give the weight of fifty-six     
pyramids and a half2 and in the whole   
year #cee1cfa1dfd tons1 or nearly the   
weight of sixty pyramids4  ,the base of 
the great ,pyramid of ,egypt covers     
eleven acres1 and its perpendicular     
height is about five hundred feet4 ,it  
is scarcely possible to present any     
picture to the mind which will convey an
 adequate conception of the mighty scale
 of this operation1 so tranquilly and   
almost insensibly carried on by the     
,ganges1 as it glides through its       

alluvial plain1 even at a distance of   
#ejj miles from the sea4 ,it may1       
however1 be stated1 that if a fleet of  
more than eighty ,indiamen1 each        
freighted with about #adjj tons' weight 
of mud1 were to sail down the river     
every hour of every day and night for   
four months continuously1 they would    
only transport from the higher country  
to the sea a mass of solid matter equal 
to that borne down by the ,ganges1 even 
in this part of its course1 in the four 
months of the flood season4 ,or the     
exertions of a fleet of about #bjjj such
 ships going down daily with the same   
burden1 and discharging it into the     
gulf1 would be no more than equivalent  
to the operations of the great river4   
,the most voluminous current of lava    
which has flowed from ,etna within      
historical times was that of #affi4     
,ferrara1 after correcting ,borelli's   
estimate1 calculated the quantity of    
cubic yards of lava in this current at  
#adj1jjj1jjj4 ,now1 this would not equal

 in bulk one-fifth of the sedimentary   
matter which is carried down in a single
 year by the ,ganges1 past ,ghazepoor1  
according to the estimate above         
explained2 so that it would require five
 grand eruptions of ,etna to transfer a 
mass of lava from the subterranean      
regions to the surface1 equal in volume 
to the mud carried down in one year to  
that place4  ,captain ,r4 ,strachey1 of 
the ,bengal ,engineers1 has remarked to 
me1 not only that ,ghazepoor1 where ,mr4
 ,everest's observations were made1 is  
#ejj miles from the sea1 but that the   
,ganges has not been joined there by its
 most important feeders4 ,these drain   
upon the whole #gej miles of the        
,himalaya1 and no more than #aej miles  
of that mountain-chain have sent their  
contributions to the main trunk at      
,ghazepoor4 ,below that place1 the      
,ganges is joined by the ,gogra1        
,gunduk1 ,khosee1 and ,teesta from the  
north1 to say nothing of the ,sone      
flowing from the south1 one of the      

largest of the rivers which rise in the 
table-land of central ,india4 7,see map1
 fig4 #be1 p4 #bge47 ,moreover the      
remaining #fjj miles of the ,himalaya   
comprise that eastern portion of the    
basin where the rains are heaviest4     
7,see above1 p4 #bjj47 ,the quantity of 
water therefore carried down to the sea 
may probably be four or five times as   
much as that which passes ,ghazepoor4   
,the ,brahmapootra1 according to ,major 
,wilcox1#cgd in the month of ,january1  
when it is near its minimum1 discharges 
#aej1jjj cubic feet of water per second 
at ,gwalpara1 not many miles above the  
head of its delta4 ,taking the          
proportions observed at ,ghazepoor at   
the different seasons as a guide1 the   
probable average discharge of the       
,brahmapootra for the whole year may be 
estimated at about the same as that of  
the ,ganges4 ,assuming this2 and        
secondly1 in order to avoid the risk of 
exaggeration1 that the proportion of    
sediment in their waters is about a     

third less than ,mr4 ,everest's         
estimate1 the mud borne down to the ,bay
 of ,bengal in one year would equal     
#dj1jjj millions of cubic feet1 or      
between six and seven times as much as  
that brought down to ,ghazepoor1        
according to ,mr4 ,everest's            
calculations in #ahca1 and ten times as 
much as that conveyed annually by the   
,mississippi to the ,gulf of ,mexico4   
,captain ,strachey estimates the        
annually inundated portion of the delta 
at #bej miles in length by #hj in       
breadth1 making an area of #bj1jjj      
square miles4 ,the space south of this  
in the bay1 where sediment is thrown    
down1 may be #cjj miles from ,e4 to ,w4 
by #aej ,n4 and ,s41 or #de1jjj square  
miles1 which1 added to the former1 gives
 a surface of #fe1jjj square miles1 over
 which the sediment is spread out by the
 two rivers4 ,suppose then the solid    
matter to amount to #dj1jjj millions of 
cubic feet per annum1 the deposit1 he   
observes1 must be continued for         

forty-five years and three-tenths to    
raise the whole area a height of one    
foot1 or #ac1fjj years to raise it #cjj 
feet2 and this1 as we have seen1 is much
 less than the thickness of the         
fluviatile strata actually penetrated1  
7and the bottom not reached7 by the     
auger at ,calcutta4  ,nevertheless we   
can by no means deduce from these data  
alone1 what will be the future rate of  
advance of the delta1 nor even predict  
whether the land will gain on the sea1  
or remain stationary4 ,at the end of    
#ac1jjj years the bay may be less       
shallow than now1 provided a moderate   
depression1 corresponding to that       
experienced in part of ,greenland for   
many centuries shall take place 7see    
chap4 #cj74 ,a subsidence quite         
insensible to the inhabitants of        
,bengal1 not exceeding two feet three   
inches in a century1 would be more than 
sufficient to counterbalance all the    
efforts of the two mighty rivers to     
extend the limits of their delta4 ,we   

have seen that the ,artesian borings at 
,calcutta attest1 what the vast depth of
 the swatch may also in all likelihood  
indicate1 that the antagonist force of  
subsidence has predominated for ages    
over the influx of fluviatile mud1      
preventing it from raising the plains of
 ,bengal1 or from filling up a larger   
portion of the bay4   ,,concluding      
,,remarks ,,on ,,deltas4  ,convergence  
of deltas4--,if we possessed an accurate
 series of maps of the ,adriatic for    
many thousand years1 our retrospect     
would1 without doubt1 carry us gradually
 back to the time when the number of    
rivers descending from the mountains    
into that gulf by independent deltas was
 far greater in number4 ,the deltas of  
the ,po and the ,adige1 for instance1   
would separate themselves within the    
recent era1 as1 in all probability1     
would those of the ,isonzo and the      
,torre4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we      
speculate on future changes1 we may     
anticipate the period when the number of

 deltas will greatly diminish2 for the  
,po cannot continue to encroach at the  
rate of a mile in a hundred years1 and  
other rivers to gain as much in six or  
seven centuries upon the shallow gulf1  
without new junctions occurring from    
time to time2 so that ,eridanus1 the    
king of rivers1 will continually boast a
 greater number of tributaries4 ,the    
,ganges and the ,brahmapootra have      
perhaps become partially confluent in   
the same delta within the historical1 or
 at least within the human era2 and the 
date of the junction of the ,red ,river 
and the ,mississippi would1 in all      
likelihood1 have been known1 if ,america
 had not been so recently discovered4   
,the union of the ,tigris and the       
,euphrates must undoubtedly have been   
one of the modern geographical changes  
of our ,earth1 for ,col4 ,rawlinson     
informs me that the delta of those      
rivers has advanced two miles in the    
last sixty years1 and is supposed to    
have encroached about forty miles upon  

the ,gulf of ,persia in the course of   
the last twenty-five centuries4  ,when  
the deltas of rivers1 having many       
mouths1 converge1 a partial union at    
first takes place by the confluence of  
some one or more of their arms2 but it  
is not until the main trunks are        
connected above the head of the common  
delta1 that a complete intermixture of  
their joint waters and sediment takes   
place4 ,the union1 therefore1 of the ,po
 and ,adige1 and of the ,ganges and     
,brahmapootra1 is still incomplete4 ,if 
we reflect on the geographical extent of
 surface drained by rivers such as now  
enter the ,bay of ,bengal1 and then     
consider how complete the blending      
together of the greater part of their   
transported matter has already become1  
and throughout how vast a delta it is   
spread by numerous arms1 we no longer   
feel so much surprise at the area       
occupied by some ancient formations of  
homogeneous mineral composition4 ,but   
our surprise will be still farther      

lessened1 when we afterwards inquire    
7ch4 #ba7 into the action of tides and  
currents in disseminating sediment4     
,age of existing deltas4--,if we could  
take for granted1 that the relative     
level of land and sea had remained      
stationary ever since all the existing  
deltas began to be formed--could we     
assume that their growth commenced at   
one and the same instant when the       
present continents acquired their actual
 shape--we might understand the language
 of geologists who speak of the epoch of
 existing continents4 ,they endeavor to 
calculate the age of deltas from this   
imaginary fixed period2 and they        
calculate the gain of new land upon the 
sea1 at the mouths of rivers1 as having 
begun everywhere simultaneously4 ,but   
the more we study the history of deltas1
 the more we become convinced that      
upward and downward movements of the    
land and contiguous bed of the sea have 
exerted1 and continue to exert1 an      
influence on the physical geography of  

many hydrographical basins1 on a scale  
comparable in magnitude or importance to
 the amount of fluviatile deposition    
effected in an equal lapse of time4 ,in 
the basin of the ,mississippi1 for      
example1 proofs both of descending and  
ascending movements to a vertical amount
 of several hundred feet can be shown to
 have taken place since the existing    
species of land and freshwater shells   
lived in that region4#cge  ,the deltas  
also of the ,po and ,ganges have each1  
as we have seen 7p4 #beg71 when probed  
by the ,artesian auger1 borne testimony 
to a gradual subsidence of land to the  
extent of several hundred feet--old     
terrestrial surfaces1 turf1 peat1       
forest-land1 and dirt-beds1 having been 
pierced at various depths4 ,the changes 
of level at the mouth of the ,indus in  
,cutch 7see below1 chap4 #bg71 and those
 of ,new ,madrid in the valley of the   
,mississippi 7see p4 #bgj1 and chap4    
#bg71 are equally instructive1 as       
demonstrating unceasing fluctuations in 

the levels of those areas into which    
running water is transporting sediment4 
,if1 therefore1 the exact age of all    
modern deltas could be known1 it is     
scarcely probable that we should find   
any two of them in the world to have    
coincided in date1 or in the time when  
their earliest deposits originated4     
,grouping of strata in deltas4--,the    
changes which have taken place in       
deltas1 even within the times of        
history1 may suggest many important     
considerations in regard to the manner  
in which subaqueous sediment is         
distributed4 ,with the exception of some
 cases hereafter to be noticed1 there   
are some general laws of arrangement    
which must evidently hold good in almost
 all the lakes and seas now filling up4 
,if a lake1 for example1 be encircled on
 two sides by lofty mountains1 receiving
 from them many rivers and torrents of  
different sizes1 and if it be bounded on
 the other sides1 where the surplus     
waters issue1 by a comparatively low    

country1 it is not difficult to define  
some of the leading geological features 
which must characterize the lacustrine  
formation1 when this basin shall have   
been gradually converted into dry land  
by the influx of sediment4 ,the strata  
would be divisible into two principal   
groups3 the older comprising those      
deposits which originated on the side   
adjoining the mountains1 where numerous 
deltas first began to form2 and the     
newer group consisting of beds deposited
 in the more central parts of the basin1
 and towards the side farthest from the 
mountains4 ,the following characters    
would form the principal marks of       
distinction between the strata in each  
series3--,the more ancient system would 
be composed1 for the most part1 of      
coarser materials1 containing many beds 
of pebbles and sand1 often of great     
thickness1 and sometimes dipping at a   
considerable angle4 ,these1 with        
associated beds of finer ingredients1   
would1 if traced round the borders of   

the basin1 be seen to vary greatly in   
color and mineral composition1 and would
 also be very irregular in thickness4   
,the beds1 on the contrary1 in the newer
 group1 would consist of finer          
particles1 and would be horizontal1 or  
very slightly inclined4 ,their color and
 mineral composition would be very      
homogeneous throughout large areas1 and 
would differ from almost all the        
separate beds in the older series4  ,the
 following causes would produce the     
diversity here alluded to between the   
two great members of such lacustrine    
formations3--,when the rivers and       
torrents first reach the edge of the    
lake1 the detritus washed down by them  
from the adjoining heights sinks at once
 into deep water1 all the heavier       
pebbles and sand subsiding near the     
shore4 ,the finer mud is carried        
somewhat farther out1 but not to the    
distance of many miles1 for the greater 
part may be seen1 as1 for example1 where
 the ,rhone enters the ,lake of ,geneva1

 to fall down in clouds to the bottom1  
not far from the river's mouth4 ,thus   
alluvial tracts are soon formed at the  
mouths of every torrent and river1 and  
many of these in the course of ages     
become of considerable extent4 ,pebbles 
and sand are then transported farther   
from the mountains2 but in their passage
 they decrease in size by attrition1 and
 are in part converted into mud and     
sand4 ,at length some of the numerous   
deltas1 which are all directed towards a
 common centre1 approach near to each   
other2 those of adjoining torrents      
become united1 and each is merged1 in   
its turn1 in the delta of the largest   
river1 which advances most rapidly into 
the lake1 and renders all the minor     
streams1 one after the other1 its       
tributaries4 ,the various mineral       
ingredients of all are thus blended     
together into one homogeneous mixture1  
and the sediment is poured out from a   
common channel into the lake4  ,as the  
average size of the transported         

particles decreases1 while the force and
 volume of the main river augments1 the 
newer deposits are diffused continually 
over a wider area1 and are consequently 
more horizontal than the older4 ,when at
 first there were many independent      
deltas near the borders of the basin1   
their separate deposits differed        
entirely from each other2 one may have  
been charged1 like the ,arve where it   
joins the ,rhone1 with white sand and   
sediment derived from granite--another  
may have been black1 like many streams  
in the ,tyrol1 flowing from the waste of
 decomposing rocks of dark slate--a     
third may have been colored by ochreous 
sediment1 like the ,red ,river in       
,louisiana--a fourth1 like the ,elsa in 
,tuscany1 may have held much carbonate  
of lime in solution4 ,at first they     
would each form distinct deposits of    
sand1 gravel1 limestone1 marl1 or other 
materials2 but1 after their junction1   
new chemical combinations and a distinct
 color would be the result1 and the     

particles1 having been conveyed ten1    
twenty1 or a greater number of miles    
over alluvial plains1 would become      
finer4  ,in those deltas where the tides
 and strong marine currents interfere1  
the above description would only be     
applicable1 with certain modifications4 
,if a series of earthquakes accompany   
the growth of a delta1 and change the   
levels of the land from time to time1 as
 in the region where the ,indus now     
enters the sea1 the phenomena will      
depart still more widely from the       
ordinary type4 ,if1 after a protracted  
period of rest1 a delta sinks down1     
pebbles may be borne along in shallow   
water near the foot of the boundary     
hills1 so as to form conglomerates      
overlying the fine mud previously thrown
 into deeper water in the same area4    
,causes of stratification in            
deltas4--,the stratified arrangement1   
which is observed to prevail so         
generally in aqueous deposits1 is most  
frequently due to variations in the     

velocity of running water1 which cannot 
sweep along particles of more than a    
certain size and weight when moving at a
 given rate4 ,hence1 as the force of the
 stream augments or decreases1 the      
materials thrown down in successive     
layers at particular places are rudely  
sorted1 according to their dimensions1  
form1 and specific gravity4 ,where this 
cause has not operated1 as where sand1  
mud1 and fragments of rock are conveyed 
by a glacier1 a confused heap of rubbish
 devoid of all stratification is        
produced4  ,natural divisions are also  
occasioned in deltas1 by the interval of
 time which separates annually the      
deposition of matter during the         
periodical rains1 or melting of snow    
upon the mountains4 ,the deposit of each
 year may acquire some degree of        
consistency before that of the          
succeeding year is superimposed4 ,a     
variety of circumstances also give rise 
annually1 or sometimes from day to day1 
to slight variations in color1 fineness 

of the particles1 and other characters1 
by which alternations of strata distinct
 in texture and mineral ingredients must
 be produced4 ,thus1 for example1 at one
 period of the year1 drift-wood may be  
carried down1 and1 at another1 mud1 as  
was before stated to be the case in the 
delta of the ,mississippi2 or at one    
time1 when the volume and velocity of   
the stream are greatest1 pebbles and    
sand may be spread over a certain area1 
over which1 when the waters are low1    
fine matter or chemical precipitates are
 formed4 ,during inundations1 the turbid
 current of fresh water often repels the
 sea for many miles2 but when the river 
is low1 salt water again occupies the   
same space4 ,when two deltas are        
converging1 the intermediate space is   
often1 for reasons before explained1    
alternately the receptacle of different 
sediments derived from the converging   
streams 7see p4 #bgb74 ,the one is1     
perhaps1 charged with calcareous1 the   
other with argillaceous matter2 or one  

sweeps down sand and pebbles1 the other 
impalpable mud4 ,these differences may  
be repeated with considerable           
regularity1 until a thickness of        
hundreds of feet of alternating beds is 
accumulated4 ,the multiplication1 also1 
of shells and corals in particular      
spots1 and for limited periods1 gives   
rise occasionally to lines of           
separation1 and divides a mass which    
might otherwise be homogeneous into     
distinct strata4  ,an examination of the
 shell marl now forming in the ,scotch  
lakes1 or the sediment termed warp1     
which subsides from the muddy water of  
the ,humber and other rivers1 shows that
 recent deposits are often composed of a
 great number of extremely thin layers1 
either even or slightly undulating1 and 
preserving a general parallelism to the 
planes of stratification4 ,sometimes1   
however1 the laminae in modern strata   
are disposed diagonally at a            
considerable angle1 which appears to    
take place where there are conflicting  

movements in the waters4 ,in ,january1  
#ahbi1 ,i visited1 in company with      
,professor ,l4 ,a4 ,necker1 of ,geneva1 
the confluence of the ,rhone and ,arve1 
when those rivers were very low1 and    
were cutting channels through the vast  
heaps of dabris thrown down from the    
waters of the ,arve in the preceding    
spring4 ,one of the sandbanks which had 
formed1 in the spring of #ahbh1 where   
the opposing currents of the two rivers 
neutralized each other1 and caused a    
retardation in the motion1 had been     
undermined2 and the following is an     
exact representation of the arrangement 
of laminae exposed in a vertical        
section4 ,the length of the portion here
 seen is about twelve feet1 and the     
height five4 ,the strata ,a ,a consist  
of irregular alternations of pebbles and
 sand in undulating beds3 below these   
are seams of very fine sand ,b ,b1 some 
as thin as paper1 others about a quarter
 of an inch thick4 ,the strata ,c ,c are
 composed of layers of fine             

greenish-gray sand as thin as paper4    
,some of the inclined beds will be seen 
to be thicker at their upper1 others at 
their lower extremity1 the inclination  
of some being very considerable4 ,these 
layers must have accumulated one on the 
other by lateral apposition1 probably   
when one of the rivers was very         
gradually increasing or diminishing in  
velocity1 so that the point of greatest 
retardation caused by their conflicting 
currents shifted slowly1 allowing the   
sediment to be thrown down in successive
 layers on a sloping bank4 ,the same    
phenomenon is exhibited in older strata 
of all ages4#cgf  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#bf4  ,section of a sand-bank in the bed
 of the ,arve at its confluence with the
 ,rhone1 showing the stratification of  
deposits where currents meet4  ,if the  
bed of a lake or of the sea be sinking1 
whether at a uniform or an unequal rate1
 or oscillating in level during the     
deposition of sediment1 these movements 
will give rise to a different class of  

phenomena1 as1 for example1 to repeated 
alternations of shallow-water and       
deep-water deposits1 each with peculiar 
organic remains1 or to frequent         
repetitions of similar beds1 formed at a
 uniform depth1 and inclosing the same  
organic remains1 and to other results   
too complicated and varied to admit of  
enumeration here4  ,formation of        
conglomerates4--,along the base of the  
,maritime ,alps1 between ,toulon and    
,genoa1 the rivers1 with few exceptions1
 are now forming strata of conglomerate 
and sand4 ,their channels are often     
several miles in breadth1 some of them  
being dry1 and the rest easily forded   
for nearly eight months in the year1    
whereas during the melting of the snow  
they are swollen1 and a great           
transportation of mud and pebbles takes 
place4 ,in order to keep open the main  
road from ,france to ,italy1 now carried
 along the sea-coast1 it is necessary to
 remove annually great masses of shingle
 brought down during the flood season4  

,a portion of the pebbles are seen in   
some localities1 as near ,nice1 to form 
beds of shingle along the shore1 but the
 greater part are swept into a deep sea4
 ,the small progress made by the deltas 
of minor rivers on this coast need not  
surprise us1 when we recollect that     
there is sometimes a depth of two       
thousand feet at a few hundred yards    
from the beach1 as near ,nice4 ,similar 
observations might be made respecting a 
large proportion of the rivers in       
,sicily1 and among others1 respecting   
that which1 immediately north of the    
port of ,messina1 hurries annually vast 
masses of granitic pebbles into the sea4
  ,constant interchange of land and     
sea4--,i may here conclude my remarks on
 deltas1 observing that1 imperfect as is
 our information of the changes which   
they have undergone within the last     
three thousand years1 they are          
sufficient to show how constant an      
interchange of sea and land is taking   
place on the face of our globe4 ,in the 

,mediterranean alone1 many flourishing  
inland towns1 and a still greater number
 of ports1 now stand where the sea      
rolled its waves since the era of the   
early civilization of ,europe4 ,if we   
could compare with equal accuracy the   
ancient and actual state of all the     
islands and continents1 we should       
probably discover that millions of our  
race are now supported by lands situated
 where deep seas prevailed in earlier   
ages4 ,in many districts not yet        
occupied by man1 land animals and       
forests now abound where ships once     
sailed2 and1 on the other hand1 we shall
 find1 on inquiry1 that inroads of the  
ocean have been no less considerable4   
,when to these revolutions1 produced by 
aqueous causes1 we add analogous changes
 wrought by igneous agency1 we shall1   
perhaps1 acknowledge the justice of the 
conclusion of ,aristotle1 who declared  
that the whole land and sea on our globe
 periodically changed places4#cgg       
,,chapter ,,xix4  ,,destroying ,,and    

,,transporting ,,effects ,,of ,,tides   
,,and ,,currents4     ,difference in the
 rise of tides--,lagullas and ,gulf     
currents--,velocity of currents--,causes
 of currents--,action of the     sea on 
the ,british coast--,shetland           
,islands--,large blocks                 
removed--,isles reduced to clusters of  
rocks--,orkney isles--,waste of         
,east coast of ,scotland--and ,east     
coast of ,england--,waste of the        
cliffs of ,holderness1 ,norfolk1 and    
,suffolk--,sand-dunes1 how far          
chronometers--,silting up of            
estuaries--,yarmouth estuary--,suffolk  
coast--,dunwich--,essex coast--,estuary 
of the ,thames--,goodwin                
,sands--,coast of ,kent--,formation of  
the ,straits of ,dover--,south coast    
of                                      
,england--,sussex--,hants--,dorset--,por
tland--,origin of the ,chesil           
,bank--,cornwall--,coast of ,brittany4  
,although the movements of great bodies 
of water1 termed tides and currents1 are

 in general due to very distinct causes1
 their effects cannot be studied        
separately2 for they produce1 by their  
joint action1 aided by that of the      
waves1 those changes which are objects  
of geological interest4 ,these forces   
may be viewed in the same manner as we  
before considered rivers1 first1 as     
employed in destroying portions of the  
solid crust of the earth and removing   
them to other places2 secondly1 as      
reproductive of new strata4             
,tides4--,it would be superfluous at the
 present day to offer any remarks on the
 cause of the tides4 ,they are not      
perceptible in lakes or in most inland  
seas2 in the ,mediterranean even1 deep  
and extensive as is that sea1 they are  
scarcely sensible to ordinary           
observation1 their effects being quite  
subordinate to those of the winds and   
currents4 ,in some places1 however1 as  
in the ,straits of ,messina1 there is an
 ebb and flow to the amount of two feet 
and upwards2 at ,naples and at the      

,euripus1 of twelve or thirteen inches2 
and at ,venice1 according to ,rennell1  
of five feet4#cgh ,in the ,syrtes1 also1
 of the ancients1 two wide shallow      
gulfs1 which penetrate very far within  
the northern coast of ,africa1 between  
,carthage and ,cyrene1 the rise is said 
to exceed five feet4#cgi  ,in islands   
remote from any continent1 the ebb and  
flow of the ocean is very slight1 as at 
,st4 ,helena1 for example1 where it is  
rarely above three feet4#chj ,in any    
given line of coast1 the tides are      
greatest in narrow channels1 bays1 and  
estuaries1 and least in the intervening 
tracts where the land is prominent4     
,thus1 at the entrance of the estuary of
 the ,thames and ,medway1 the rise of   
the spring tides is eighteen feet2 but  
when we follow our eastern coast from   
thence northward1 towards ,lowestoff and
 ,yarmouth1 we find a gradual           
diminution1 until at the places last    
mentioned1 the highest rise is only     
seven or eight feet4 ,from this point   

there begins again to be an increase1 so
 that at ,comer1 where the coast again  
retires towards the west1 the rise is   
sixteen feet2 and towards the extremity 
of the gulf called the ,wash1 as at     
,lynn and in ,boston ,deeps1 it is from 
twenty-two to twenty-four feet1 and in  
some extraordinary cases twenty-six     
feet4 ,from thence again there is a     
decrease towards1 the north1 the        
elevation at the ,spurn ,point being    
from nineteen to twenty feet1 and at    
,flamborough ,head and the ,yorkshire   
coast from fourteen to sixteen feet4#cha
  ,at ,milford ,haven in ,pembrokeshire1
 at the mouth of the ,bristol ,channel1 
the tides rise thirty-six feet2 and at  
,king-,road near ,bristol1 forty-two    
feet4 ,at ,chepstow on the ,wye1 a small
 river which opens into the estuary of  
the ,severn1 they reach fifty feet1 and 
sometimes sixty-nine1 and even          
seventy-two feet4 ,a current which sets 
in on the ,french coast1 to the west of 
,cape ,la ,hague1 becomes pent up by    

,guernsey1 ,jersey1 and other islands1  
till the rise of the tide is from twenty
 to forty-five feet1 which last height  
it attains at ,jersey1 and at ,st4      
,malo1 a seaport of ,brittany4 ,the     
tides in the ,basin of ,mines1 at the   
head of the ,bay of ,fundy in ,nova     
,scotia1 rise to the height of seventy  
feet4  ,there are1 however1 some coasts 
where the tides seem to offer an        
exception to the rule above mentioned2  
for while there is scarcely any rise in 
the estuary of the ,plata in ,s4        
,america1 there is an extremely high    
tide on the open coast of ,patagonia1   
farther to the south4 ,yet even in this 
region the tides reach their greatest   
elevation 7about fifty feet7 in the     
,straits of ,magellan1 and so far at    
least they conform to the general       
rule4#chb  ,currents4--,the most        
extensive and best determined system of 
currents1 is that which has its source  
in the ,indian ,ocean under the         
influence of the trade winds2 and which1

 after doubling the ,cape of ,good      
,hope1 inclines to the northward1 along 
the western coast of ,africa1 then      
across the ,atlantic1 near the equator1 
where it is called the equatorial       
current1 and is lost in the ,caribbean  
,sea1 yet seems to be again revived in  
the current which issues from the ,gulf 
of ,mexico4 ,from thence it flows       
rapidly through the ,straits of ,bahama1
 taking the name of the ,gulf ,stream1  
and passing in a northeasterly          
direction1 by the ,banks of             
,newfoundland1 towards the ,azores4  ,we
 learn from the posthumous work of      
,rennell on this subject1 that the      
,lagullas current1 so called from the   
cape and bank of that name1 is formed by
 the junction of two streams1 flowing   
from the ,indian ,ocean2 the one from   
the channel of ,mozambique1 down the    
southeast coast of ,africa2 the other   
from the ocean at large4 ,the collective
 stream is from ninety to one hundred   
miles in breadth1 and runs at the rate  

of from two and a half to more than four
 miles per hour4 ,it is at length turned
 westward by the ,lagullas bank1 which  
rises from a sea of great depth to      
within one hundred fathoms of the       
surface4 ,it must therefore be inferred1
 says ,rennell1 that the current here is
 more than one hundred fathoms deep1    
otherwise the main body of it would pass
 across the bank1 instead of being      
deflected westward1 so as to flow round 
the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,from this    
cape it flows northward1 as before      
stated1 along the western coast of      
,africa1 taking the name of the ,south  
,atlantic current4 ,it then enters the  
,bight1 or ,bay of ,benin1 and is turned
 westward1 partly by the form of the    
coast there1 and partly1 perhaps1 by the
 ,guinea current1 which runs from the   
north into the same great bay4 ,from the
 centre of this bay proceeds the        
equatorial current already mentioned1   
holding a westerly direction across the 
,atlantic1 which it traverses1 from the 

coast of ,guinea to that of ,brazil1    
flowing afterwards by the shores of     
,guiana to the ,west ,indies4 ,the      
breadth of this current varies from #afj
 to #dej geographical miles1 and its    
velocity is from twenty-five to         
seventy-nine miles per day1 the mean    
rate being about thirty miles4 ,the     
length of its whole course is about     
#djjj miles4 ,as it skirts the coast of 
,guiana1 it is increased by the influx  
of the waters of the ,amazon and        
,orinoco1 and by their junction acquires
 accelerated velocity4 ,after passing   
the island of ,trinidad it expands1 and 
is almost lost in the ,caribbean ,sea2  
but there appears to be a general       
movement of that sea towards the        
,mexican ,gulf1 which discharges the    
most powerful of all currents through   
the ,straits of ,florida1 where the     
waters run in the northern part with a  
velocity of four or five miles an hour1 
having a breadth of from thirty-five to 
fifty miles4#chc  ,the temperature of   

the ,gulf of ,mexico is #hf degrees ,f4 
in summer1 or #f degrees higher than    
that of the ocean1 in the same parallel 
7#be degrees ,n4 lat471 and a large     
proportion of this warmth is retained1  
even where the stream reaches the #dc   
degrees ,n4 lat4 ,after issuing from the
 ,straits of ,florida1 the current runs 
in a northerly direction to ,cape       
,hatteras1 in ,north ,carolina1 about   
#ce degrees ,n4 lat41 where it is more  
than seventy miles broad1 and still     
moves at the rate of seventy-five miles 
per day4 ,in about the #dj degrees ,n4  
lat41 it is turned more towards the     
,atlantic by the extensive banks of     
,nantucket and ,st4 ,george1 which are  
from #bjj to #cjj feet beneath the      
surface of the sea2 a clear proof that  
the current exceeds that depth4 ,on     
arriving near the ,azores1 the stream   
widens1 and overflows1 as it were1      
forming a large expanse of warm water in
 the centre of the ,north ,atlantic1    
over a space of #bjj or #cjj miles from 

north to south1 and having a temperature
 of from #h degrees to #aj degrees      
,fahr4 above the surrounding ocean4 ,the
 whole area1 covered by the ,gulf water1
 is estimated by ,rennell at #bjjj miles
 in length1 and1 at a mean1 #cej miles  
in breadth2 an area more extensive than 
that of the ,mediterranean4 ,the warm   
water has been sometimes known to reach 
the ,bay of ,biscay1 still retaining    
five degrees of temperature above that  
of the adjoining ocean2 and a branch of 
the ,gulf current occasionally drifts   
fruits1 plants1 and wood1 the produce of
 ,america and the ,west ,indies1 to the 
shores of ,ireland and the ,hebrides4   
,from the above statements we may       
understand why ,rennell has             
characterized some of the principal     
currents as oceanic rivers1 which he    
describes as being from #ej to #bej     
miles in breadth1 and having a rapidity 
exceeding that of the largest navigable 
rivers of the continents1 and so deep as
 to be sometimes obstructed1 and        

occasionally turned aside1 by banks1 the
 tops of which do not rise within forty1
 fifty1 or even one hundred fathoms of  
the surface of the sea4#chd  ,greatest  
velocity of currents4--,the ordinary    
velocity of the principal currents of   
the ocean is from one to three miles per
 hour2 but when the boundary lands      
converge1 large bodies of water are     
driven gradually into a narrow space1   
and then wanting lateral room1 are      
compelled to raise their level4         
,whenever this occurs their velocity is 
much increased4 ,the current which runs 
through the ,race of ,alderney1 between 
the island of that name and the main    
land1 has a velocity of about eight     
,english miles an hour4 ,captain ,hewett
 found that in the ,pentland ,firth1 the
 stream1 in ordinary spring tides1 runs 
ten miles and a half an hour1 and about 
thirteen miles during violent storms4   
,the greatest velocity of the tidal     
current through the ,shoots or ,new     
,passage1 in the ,bristol ,channel1 is  

fourteen ,english miles an hour2 and    
,captain ,king observed1 in his survey  
of the ,straits of ,magellan1 that the  
tide ran at the same rate through the   
,first ,narrows1 and about eight        
geographical miles an hour1 in other    
parts of those straits4  ,causes of     
currents4--,that movements of no        
inconsiderable magnitude should be      
impressed on an expansive ocean1 by     
winds blowing for many months in one    
direction1 may easily be conceived1 when
 we observe the effects produced in our 
own seas by the temporary action of the 
same cause4 ,it is well known that a    
strong southwest or northwest wind      
invariably raises the tides to an       
unusual height along the west coast of  
,england and in the ,channel2 and that a
 northwest wind of any continuance      
causes the ,baltic to rise two feet and 
upwards above its ordinary level4       
,smeaton ascertained by experiment1 that
 in a canal four miles in length1 the   
water was kept up four inches higher at 

one end than at the other1 merely by the
 action of the wind along the canal2 and
 ,rennell informs us that a large piece 
of water1 ten miles broad1 and generally
 only three feet deep1 has1 by a strong 
wind1 had its waters driven to one side1
 and sustained so as to become six feet 
deep1 while the windward side was laid  
dry4#che  ,as water1 therefore1 he      
observes1 when pent up so that it cannot
 escape1 acquires a higher level1 so1 in
 a place where it can escape1 the same  
operation produces a current2 and this  
current will extend to a greater or less
 distance1 according to the force by    
which it is produced4 ,by the side of   
the principal oceanic currents1 such as 
the ,lagullas and the ,gulf ,stream1 are
 parallel counter-currents running      
steadily in an opposite direction4      
,currents flowing alternately in        
opposite directions are occasioned by   
the rise and fall of the tides4 ,the    
effect of this cause is1 as before      
observed1 most striking in estuaries and

 channels between islands4  ,a third    
cause of oceanic currents is evaporation
 by solar heat1 of which the great      
current setting through the ,straits of 
,gibraltar into the ,mediterranean is a 
remarkable example1 and will be fully   
considered in the next chapter4 ,a      
stream of colder water also flows from  
the ,black ,sea into the ,mediterranean4
 ,it must happen in many other parts of 
the world that large quantities of water
 raised from one tract of the ocean by  
solar heat1 are carried to some other   
where the vapor is condensed and falls  
in the shape of rain1 and this1 in      
flowing back again to restore           
equilibrium1 will cause sensible        
currents4  ,these considerations        
naturally lead to the inquiry whether   
the level of those seas out of which    
currents flow1 is higher than that of   
seas into which they flow4 ,if not1 the 
effect must be immediately equalized by 
under-currents or counter-currents4     
,arago is of opinion that1 so far as    

observations have gone1 there are no    
exact proofs of any such difference of  
level4 ,it was inferred from the        
measurements of ,m4 ,lepare1 that the   
level of the ,mediterranean1 near       
,alexandria1 was lower by #bf feet #f   
inches1 than the ,red ,sea near ,suez at
 low water1 and about #cj feet lower    
than the ,red ,sea at the same place at 
high water1#chf but ,mr4 ,robert        
,stevenson affirms1 as the result of a  
more recent survey1 that there is no    
difference of level between the two     
seas4#chg  ,it was formerly imagined    
that there was an equal1 if not greater1
 diversity in the relative levels of the
 ,atlantic and ,pacific1 on the opposite
 sides of the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,but 
the levellings carried across that      
isthmus by ,capt4 ,lloyd1 in #ahbh1 to  
ascertain the relative height of the    
,pacific ,ocean at ,panama1 and of the  
,atlantic at the mouth of the river     
,chagres1 have shown1 that the          
difference of mean level between those  

oceans is not considerable1 and1        
contrary to expectation1 the difference 
which does exist is in favor of the     
greater height of the ,pacific4         
,according to this survey1 the mean     
height of the ,pacific is three feet and
 a half1 or #c4eb above the ,atlantic1  
if we assume the mean level of a sea to 
coincide with the mean between the      
extremes of the elevation and depression
 of the tides2 for between the extreme  
levels of the greatest tides in the     
,pacific1 at ,panama1 there is a        
difference of #bg4dd feet2 and at the   
usual spring tides #ba4bb feet2 whereas 
at ,chagres this difference is only     
#a4af feet1 and is the same at all      
seasons of the year4  ,the tides1 in    
short1 in the ,caribbean ,sea are       
scarcely perceptible1 not equalling     
those in some parts of the              
,mediterranean1 whereas the rise is very
 high in the ,bay of ,panama2 so that   
the ,pacific is at high tide lifted up  
several feet above the surface of the   

,gulf of ,mexico1 and then at low water 
let down as far below it4#chh ,but      
astronomers are agreed that1 on         
mathematical principles1 the rise of the
 tidal wave above the mean level of a   
particular sea must be greater than the 
fall below it2 and although the         
difference has been hitherto supposed   
insufficient to cause an appreciable    
error1 it is1 nevertheless1 worthy of   
observation1 that the error1 such as it 
may be1 would tend to reduce the small  
difference1 now inferred1 from the      
observations of ,mr4 ,lloyd1 to exist   
between the levels of the two oceans4   
,there is still another way in which    
heat and cold must occasion great       
movements in the ocean1 a cause to      
which1 perhaps1 currents are principally
 due4 ,whenever the temperature of the  
surface of the sea is lowered1          
condensation takes place1 and the       
superficial water1 having its specific  
gravity increased1 falls to the bottom1 
upon which lighter water rises          

immediately and occupies its place4     
,when this circulation of ascending and 
descending currents has gone on for a   
certain time in high latitudes1 the     
inferior parts of the sea are made to   
consist of colder or heavier fluid than 
the corresponding depths of the ocean   
between the tropics4 ,if there be a free
 communication1 if no chain of submarine
 mountains divide the polar from the    
equatorial basins1 a horizontal movement
 will arise by the flowing of colder    
water from the poles to the equator1 and
 there will then be a reflux of warmer  
superficial water from the equator to   
the poles4 ,a well-known experiment has 
been adduced to elucidate this mode of  
action in explanation of the trade      
winds4#chi ,if a long trough1 divided in
 the middle by a sluice or partition1   
have one end filled with water and the  
other with quicksilver1 both fluids will
 remain quiet so long as they are       
divided2 but when the sluice is drawn   
up1 the heavier fluid will rush along   

the bottom of the trough1 while the     
lighter1 being displaced1 will rise1    
and1 flowing in an opposite direction1  
spread itself at the top4 ,in like      
manner the expansion and contraction of 
sea-water by heat and cold1 have a      
tendency to set under-currents in motion
 from the poles to the equator1 and to  
cause counter-currents at the surface1  
which are impelled in a direction       
contrary to that of the prevailing trade
 winds4 ,the geographical and other     
circumstances being very complicated1 we
 cannot expect to trace separately the  
movements due to each cause1 but must be
 prepared for many anomalies1 especially
 as the configuration of the bed of the 
ocean must often modify and interfere   
with the course of the inferior         
currents1 as much as the position and   
form of continents and islands alter the
 direction of those on the surface4     
,thus on sounding at great depths in the
 ,mediterranean1 ,captains ,berard and  
,d',urville have found that the cold    

does not increase in a high ratio as in 
the tropical regions of the ocean1 the  
thermometer remaining fixed at about #ee
 degrees ,f4 between the depths of #ajjj
 and #fjjj feet4 ,this might have been  
anticipated1 as ,captain ,smyth in his  
survey had shown that the deepest part  
of the ,straits of ,gibraltar is only   
#acbj feet1 so that a submarine barrier 
exists there which must prevent the     
influx of any under-current of the ocean
 cooled by polar ice4  ,each of the four
 causes above mentioned1 the wind1 the  
tides1 evaporation1 and the expansion   
and contraction of water by heat and    
cold1 may be conceived to operate       
independently of the others1 and        
although the influence of all the rest  
were annihilated4 ,but there is another 
cause1 the rotation of the earth on its 
axis1 which can only come into play when
 the waters have already been set in    
motion by some one or all of the forces 
above described1 and when the direction 
of the current so raised happens to be  

from south to north1 or from north to   
south4  ,the principle on which this    
cause operates is probably familiar to  
the reader1 as it has long been         
recognized in the case of the trade     
winds4 ,without enlarging1 therefore1 on
 the theory1 it will be sufficient to   
offer an example of the mode of action  
alluded to4 ,when a current flows from  
the ,cape of ,good ,hope towards the    
,gulf of ,guinea1 it consists of a mass 
of water1 which1 on doubling the ,cape1 
in lat4 #ce degrees1 has a rotatory     
velocity of about #hjj miles an hour2   
but when it reaches the line1 where it  
turns westward1 it has arrived at a     
parallel where the surface of the earth 
is whirled round at the rate of #ajjj   
miles an hour1 or about #bjj miles      
faster4 ,if this great mass of water was
 transferred suddenly from the higher to
 the lower latitude1 the deficiency of  
its rotatory motion1 relatively to the  
land and water with which it would come 
into juxtaposition1 would be such as to 

cause an apparent motion of the most    
rapid kind 7of no less than #bjj miles  
an hour7 from east to west4  ,in the    
case of such a sudden transfer1 the     
eastern coast of ,america1 being carried
 round in an opposite direction1 might  
strike against a large body of water    
with tremendous violence1 and a         
considerable part of the continent might
 be submerged4 ,this disturbance does   
not occur1 because the water of the     
stream1 as it advances gradually into   
new zones of the sea which are moving   
more rapidly1 acquires by friction an   
accelerated velocity4 ,yet as this      
motion is not imparted instantaneously1 
the fluid is unable to keep up with the 
full speed of the new surface over which
 it is successively brought4 ,hence1 to 
borrow the language of ,herschel1 when  
he speaks of the trade winds1 it lags or
 hangs back1 in a direction opposite to 
the earth's rotation1 that is1 from east
 to west1#cij and thus a current1 which 
would have run simply towards the north 

but for the rotation1 may acquire a     
relative direction towards the west4    
,we may next consider a case where the  
circumstances are the converse of the   
above4 ,the ,gulf ,stream flowing from  
about lat4 #bj degrees is at first      
impressed with a velocity of rotation of
 about #idj miles an hour1 and runs to  
the lat4 #dj degrees1 where the earth   
revolves only at the rate of #gff miles1
 or #agd miles slower4 ,in this case a  
relative motion of an opposite kind may 
result2 and the current may retain an   
excess of rotatory velocity1 tending    
continually to deflect it eastward4     
,polar currents1 therefore1 or those    
flowing from high to low latitudes1 are 
driven towards the eastern shores of    
continents1 while tropical currents     
flowing towards the poles are directed  
against their western shores4  ,thus it 
will be seen that currents depend1 like 
the tides1 on no temporary or accidental
 circumstances1 but on the laws which   
preside over the motions of the heavenly

 bodies4 ,but although the sum of their 
influence in altering the surface of the
 earth may be very constant throughout  
successive epochs1 yet the points where 
these operations are displayed in       
fullest energy shift perpetually4 ,the  
height to which the tides rise1 and the 
violence and velocity of currents1      
depend in a great measure on the actual 
configuration of the land1 the contour  
of a long line of continental or insular
 coast1 the depth and breadth of        
channels1 the peculiar form of the      
bottom of seas--in a word1 on a         
combination of circumstances which are  
made to vary continually by many igneous
 and aqueous causes1 and1 amongst the   
rest1 by the tides and currents         
themselves4 ,although these agents1     
therefore1 of decay and reproduction are
 local in reference to periods of short 
duration1 such as those which history   
embraces1 they are nevertheless         
universal1 if we extend our views to a  
sufficient lapse of ages4  ,destroying  

and transporting power of               
currents4--,after these preliminary     
remarks on the nature and causes of     
currents1 their velocity and direction1 
we may next consider their action on the
 solid materials of the earth4 ,we shall
 find that their efforts are1 in many   
respects1 strictly analogous to those of
 rivers4 ,i have already treated in the 
third chapter1 of the manner in which   
currents sometimes combine with ice1 in 
carrying mud1 pebbles1 and large        
fragments of rock to great distances4   
,their operations are more concealed    
from our view than those of rivers1 but 
extend over wider areas1 and are        
therefore of more geological importance4
  ,waste of the ,british                
coasts4--,shetland ,islands4--,if we    
follow the eastern and southern shores  
of the ,british islands1 from our       
,ultima ,thule in ,shetland to the      
,land's ,end in ,cornwall1 we shall find
 evidence of a series of changes since  
the historical era1 very illustrative of

 the kind and degree of force exerted by
 tides and currents co-operating with   
the waves of the sea4 ,in this survey we
 shall have an opportunity of tracing   
their joint power on islands1           
promontories1 bays1 and estuaries2 on   
bold1 lofty cliffs1 as well as on low   
shores2 and on every description of rock
 and soil1 from granite to blown sand4  
,the northernmost group of the ,british 
islands1 the ,shetland1 are composed of 
a great variety of rocks1 including     
granite1 gneiss1 mica-slate1 serpentine1
 greenstone1 and many others1 with some 
secondary rocks1 chiefly sandstone and  
conglomerate4 ,these islands are exposed
 continually to the uncontrolled        
violence of the ,atlantic1 for no land  
intervenes between their western shores 
and ,america4 ,the prevalence1          
therefore1 of strong westerly gales1    
causes the waves to be sometimes driven 
with irresistible force upon the coast1 
while there is also a current setting   
from the north4 ,the spray of the sea   

aids the decomposition of the rocks1 and
 prepares them to be breached by the    
mechanical force of the waves4 ,steep   
cliffs are hollowed out into deep caves 
and lofty arches2 and almost every      
promontory ends in a cluster of rocks1  
imitating the forms of columns1         
pinnacles1 and obelisks4  ,drifting of  
large masses of rock4--,modern          
observations show that the reduction of 
continuous tracts to such insular masses
 is a process in which nature is still  
actively engaged4 ,the isle of          
,stenness1 says ,dr4 ,hibbert1 presents 
a scene of unequalled desolation4 ,in   
stormy winters1 huge blocks of stones   
are overturned1 or are removed from     
their native beds1 and hurried up a     
slight acclivity to a distance almost   
incredible4 ,in the winter of #ahjb1 a  
tabular-shaped mass1 eight feet two     
inches by seven feet1 and five feet one 
inch thick1 was dislodged from its bed1 
and removed to a distance of from eighty
 to ninety feet4 ,i measured the recent 

bed from which a block had been carried 
away the preceding winter 7,a4 ,d4      
#ahah71 and found it to be seventeen    
feet and a half by seven feet1 and the  
depth two feet eight inches4 ,the       
removed mass had been borne to a        
distance of thirty feet1 when it was    
shivered into thirteen or more lesser   
fragments1 some of which1 were carried  
still farther1 from #cj to #abj feet4 ,a
 block1 nine feet two inches by six feet
 and a half1 and four feet thick1 was   
hurried up the acclivity to a distance  
of #aej feet4#cia  ,at ,northmavine1    
also1 angular blocks of stone have been 
removed in a similar manner to          
considerable distances by the waves of  
the sea1 some of which are represented  
in the annexed figure4  ,effects of     
lightning4--,in addition to numerous    
examples of masses detached and driven  
by the waves1 tides1 and currents from  
their place1 some remarkable effects of 
lightning are recorded in these isles4  
,at ,funzie1 in ,fetlar1 about the      

middle of the last century1 a rock of   
mica-schist1 #aje feet long1 ten feet   
broad1 and in some places four feet     
thick1 was in an instant torn by a flash
 of lightning from its bed1 and broken  
into three large and several smaller    
fragments4 ,one of these1 twenty-six    
feet long1 ten feet broad1 and four feet
 thick1 was simply turned over4 ,the    
second1 which was twenty-eight feet     
long1 seventeen broad1 and five feet in 
thickness1 was hurled across a high     
point to the distance of fifty yards4   
,another broken mass1 about forty feet  
long1 was thrown still farther1 but in  
the same direction1 quite into the sea4 
,there were also many smaller fragments 
scattered up and down4#cib              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4  ,stony       
fragments drifted by the sea4           
,northmavine1 ,shetland4  ,when we thus 
see electricity co-operating with the   
violent movements of the ocean in       
heaping up piles of shattered rocks on  
dry land and beneath the waters1 we     

cannot but admit that a region which    
shall be the theatre1 for myriads of    
ages1 of the action of such disturbing  
causes1 might present1 at some future   
period1 if upraised far above the bosom 
of the deep1 a scene of havoc and ruin  
that may compare with any now found by  
the geologist on the surface of our     
continents4  ,in some of the ,shetland  
,isles1 as on the west of ,meikle ,roe1 
dikes1 or veins of soft granite1 have   
mouldered away2 while the matrix in     
which they were inclosed1 being of the  
same substance1 but of a firmer texture1
 has remained unaltered4 ,thus1 long    
narrow ravines1 sometimes twenty feet   
wide1 are laid open1 and often give     
access to the waves4 ,after describing  
some huge cavernous apertures into which
 the sea flows for #bej feet in         
,roeness1 ,dr4 ,hibbert1 writing in     
#ahbb1 enumerates other ravages of the  
ocean4 ,a mass of rock1 the average     
dimensions of which may perhaps be rated
 at twelve or thirteen feet square1 and 

four and a half or five in thickness1   
was first moved from its bed1 about     
fifty years ago1 to a distance of thirty
 feet1 and has since been twice turned  
over4  ,passage forced by the sea       
through porphyritic rocks4--,but the    
most sublime scene is where a mural pile
 of porphyry1 escaping the process of   
disintegration that is devastating the  
coast1 appears to have been left as a   
sort of rampart against the inroads of  
the ocean2--the ,atlantic1 when provoked
 by wintry gales1 batters against it    
with all the force of real              
artillery--the waves having1 in their   
repeated assaults1 forced themselves an 
entrance4 ,this breach1 named the ,grind
 of the ,navir 7fig4 #bh71 is widened   
every winter by the overwhelming surge  
that1 finding a passage through it1     
separates large stones from its sides1  
and forces them to a distance of no less
 than #ahj feet4 ,in two or three spots1
 the fragments which have been detached 
are brought together in immense heaps1  

that appear as an accumulation of       
cubical masses1 the product of some     
quarry4#cic  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4  
,grind of the ,navir--passage forced by 
the sea through rocks of hard porphyry4 
,it is evident from this example1 that  
although the greater indestructibility  
of some rocks may enable them to        
withstand1 for a longer time1 the action
 of the elements1 yet they cannot       
permanently resist4 ,there are          
localities in ,shetland1 in which rocks 
of almost every variety of mineral      
composition are suffering               
disintegration2 thus the sea makes great
 inroads on the clay slate of ,fitfel   
,head1 on the serpentine of the ,vord   
,hill in ,fetlar1 and on the mica-schist
 of the ,bay of ,triesta1 on the east   
coast of the same island1 which         
decomposes into angular blocks4 ,the    
quartz rock on the east of ,walls1 and  
the gneiss and mica-schist of           
,garthness1 suffer the same fate4       
,destruction of islands4--,such         

devastation cannot be incessantly       
committed for thousands of years without
 dividing islands1 until they become at 
last mere clusters of rocks1 the last   
shreds of masses once continuous4 ,to   
this state many appear to have been     
reduced1 and innumerable fantastic forms
 are assumed by rocks adjoining these   
islands to which the name of ,drongs is 
applied1 as it is to those of similar   
shape in ,feroe4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#bi4  ,granitic rocks named the ,drongs1
 between ,papa ,stour and ,hillswick    
,ness4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4       
,granitic rocks to the south of         
,hillswick ,ness1 ,shetland4  ,the      
granite rocks 7fig4 #bi71 between ,papa 
,stour and ,hillswick ,ness afford an   
example4 ,a still more singular cluster 
of rocks is seen to the south of        
,hillswick ,ness 7fig4 #cj71 which      
presents a variety of forms as viewed   
from different points1 and has often    
been likened to a small fleet of vessels
 with spread sails4#cid ,we may imagine 

that in the course of time ,hillswick   
,ness itself may present a similar      
wreck1 from the unequal decomposition of
 the rocks whereof it is composed1      
consisting of gneiss and mica-schist    
traversed in all directions by veins of 
felspar-porphyry4  ,midway between the  
groups of ,shetland and ,orkney is ,fair
 ,island1 said to be composed of        
sandstone with high perpendicular       
cliffs4 ,the current runs with such     
velocity1 that during a calm1 and when  
there is no swell1 the rocks on its     
shores are white with the foam of the   
sea driven against them4 ,the ,orkneys1 
if carefully examined1 would probably   
illustrate our present topic as much as 
the ,shetland group4 ,the northeast     
promontory of ,sanda1 one of these      
islands1 has been cut off in modern     
times by the sea1 so that it became what
 is now called ,start ,island1 where a  
lighthouse was erected in #ahjg1 since  
which time the new strait has grown     
broader4  ,east coast of ,scotland4--,to

 pass over to the main land of          
,scotland1 we find that in              
,inverness-shire there have been inroads
 of the sea at ,fort ,george1 and others
 in ,morayshire1 which have swept away  
the old town of ,findhorn4 ,on the coast
 of ,kincardineshire1 an illustration   
was afforded at the close of the last   
century1 of the effect of promontories  
in protecting a line of low shore4 ,the 
village of ,mathers1 two miles south of 
,johnshaven1 was built on an ancient    
shingle beach1 protected by a projecting
 ledge of limestone rock4 ,this was     
quarried for lime to such an extent that
 the sea broke through1 and in #agie    
carried away the whole village in one   
night1 and penetrated #aej yards inland1
 where it has maintained its ground ever
 since1 the new village having been     
built farther inland on the new shore4  
,in the bay of ,montrose1 we find the   
,north ,esk and the ,south ,esk rivers  
pouring annually into the sea large     
quantities of sand and pebbles2 yet they

 have formed no deltas1 for the waves1  
aided by the current1 setting across    
their mouths1 sweep away all the        
materials4 ,considerable beds of        
shingle1 brought down by the ,north     
,esk1 are seen along the beach4         
,proceeding southwards1 we learn that at
 ,arbroath1 in ,forfarshire1 which      
stands on a rock of red sandstone1      
gardens and houses have been carried    
away since the commencement of the      
present century by encroachments of the 
sea4 ,it had become necessary before    
#ahbh1 to remove the lighthouses at the 
mouth of the estuary of the ,tay1 in the
 same county1 at ,button ,ness1 which   
were built on a tract of blown sand1 the
 sea having encroached for              
three-quarters of a mile4  ,force of    
waves and currents in estuaries4--,the  
combined power which waves and currents 
can exert in estuaries 7a term which ,i 
confine to bays entered both by rivers  
and the tides of the sea71 was          
remarkably exhibited during the building

 of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 off the
 mouth of the ,tay4 ,the ,bell ,rock is 
a sunken reef1 consisting of red        
sandstone1 being from twelve to sixteen 
feet under the surface at high water1   
and about twelve miles from the         
mainland4 ,at the distance of #ajj      
yards1 there is a depth1 in all         
directions of two or three fathoms at   
low water4 ,in #ahjg1 during the        
erection of the lighthouse1 six large   
blocks of granite1 which had been landed
 on the reef1 were removed by the force 
of the sea1 and thrown over a rising    
ledge to the distance of twelve or      
fifteen paces2 and an anchor1 weighing  
about #bb cwt41 was thrown up upon the  
rock4#cie ,mr4 ,stevenson informs us    
moreover1 that drift stones1 measuring  
upwards of thirty cubic feet1 or more   
than two tons' weight1 have1 during     
storms1 been often thrown upon the rock 
from the deep water4#cif  ,submarine    
forests4--,among the proofs that the sea
 has encroached on the land bordering   

the estuary of the ,tay1 ,dr4 ,fleming  
has mentioned a submarine forest which  
has been traced for several miles along 
the northern shore of the county of     
,fife4#cig ,but subsequent surveys seem 
to have shown that the bed of peat      
containing tree-roots1 leaves1 and      
branches1 now occurring at a lower level
 than the ,tay1 must have come into its 
present position by a general sinking of
 the ground on which the forest grew4   
,the peat-bed alluded to is not         
confined1 says ,mr4 ,buist1 to the      
present channel of the ,tay1 but extends
 far beyond it1 and is covered by       
stratified clay from fifteen to         
twenty-five feet in thickness1 in the   
midst of which1 in some places1 is a bed
 full of sea-shells4#cih ,recent        
discoveries having established the fact 
that upward and downward movements have 
affected our island since the general   
coast-line had nearly acquired its      
present shape1 we must hesitate before  
we attribute any given change to a      

single cause1 such as the local         
encroachment of the sea upon low land4  
,on the coast of ,fife1 at ,st4         
,andrew's1 a tract of land1 said to have
 intervened between the castle of       
,cardinal ,beaton and the sea1 has been 
entirely swept away1 as were the last   
remains of the ,priory of ,crail1 in the
 same county1 in #ahjc4 ,on both sides  
of the ,frith of ,forth1 land has been  
consumed2 at ,north ,berwick in         
particular1 and at ,newhaven1 where an  
arsenal and dock1 built in the reign of 
,james ,,iv41 in the fifteenth century1 
has been overflowed4  ,east coast of    
,england4--,if we now proceed to the    
,english coast1 we find records of      
numerous lands having been destroyed in 
,northumberland1 as those near          
,bamborough and ,holy ,island1 and at   
,tynemouth ,castle1 which now overhangs 
the sea1 although formerly separated    
from it by a strip of land4 ,at         
,hartlepool1 and several other parts of 
the coast of ,durham composed of        

magnesian limestone1 the sea has made   
considerable inroads4  ,coast of        
,yorkshire4--,almost the whole coast of 
,yorkshire1 from the mouth of the ,tees 
to that of the ,humber1 is in a state of
 gradual dilapidation4 ,that part of the
 cliffs which consist of lias1 the      
oolite series1 and chalk1 decays slowly4
 ,they present abrupt and naked         
precipices1 often #cjj feet in height2  
and it is only at a few points that the 
grassy covering of the sloping talus    
marks a temporary relaxation of the     
erosive action of the sea4 ,the chalk   
cliffs are worn into caves and needles  
in the projecting headland of           
,flamborough1 where they are decomposed 
by the salt spray1 and slowly crumble   
away4 ,but the waste is most rapid      
between that promontory and ,spurn      
,point1 or the coast of ,holderness1 as 
it is called1 a tract consisting of beds
 of clay1 gravel1 sand1 and chalk       
rubble4 ,the irregular intermixture of  
the argillaceous beds causes many       

springs to be thrown out1 and this      
facilitates the undermining process1 the
 waves beating against them1 and a      
strong current setting chiefly from the 
north4 ,the wasteful action is very     
conspicuous at ,dimlington ,height1 the 
loftiest point in ,holderness1 where the
 beacon stands on a cliff #adf feet     
above high water1 the whole being       
composed of clay1 with pebbles scattered
 through it4#cii ,for many years1 says  
,professor ,phillips1 the rate at which 
the cliffs recede from ,bridlington to  
,spurn1 a distance of thirty-six miles1 
has been found by measurement to equal  
on an average two and a quarter yards   
annually1 which1 upon thirty-six miles  
of coast1 would amount to about thirty  
acres a year4 ,at this rate1 the coast1 
the mean height of which above the sea  
is about forty feet1 has lost one mile  
in breadth since the ,norman ,conquest1 
and more than two miles since the       
occupation of ,york 7,eboracum7 by the  
,romans4#djj ,the extent of this        

denudation1 as estimated by the number  
of cubic feet of matter removed         
annually1 will be again spoken of in    
chapter #bb4  ,in the old maps of       
,yorkshire1 we find spots1 now          
sand-banks in the sea1 marked as the    
ancient sites of the towns and villages 
of ,auburn1 ,hartburn1 and ,hyde4 ,of   
,hyde1 says ,pennant1 only the tradition
 is left2 and near the village of       
,hornsea1 a street called ,hornsea ,beck
 has long since been swallowed4#dja     
,owthorne and its church have also been 
in great part destroyed1 and the village
 of ,kilnsea2 but these places are now  
removed farther inland4 ,the annual rate
 of encroachment at ,owthorne for       
several years preceding #ahcj1 is stated
 to have averaged about four yards4 ,not
 unreasonable fears are entertained that
 at some future time the ,spurn ,point  
will become an island1 and that the     
ocean1 entering into the estuary of the 
,humber1 will cause great               
devastation4#djb ,pennant1 after        

speaking of the silting up of some      
ancient ports in that estuary1 observes1
 ,but1 in return1 the sea has made most 
ample reprisals2 the site1 and even the 
very names of several places1 once towns
 of note upon the ,humber1 are now only 
recorded in history2 and ,ravensper was 
at one time a rival to ,hull 7,madox1   
,ant4 ,exch4 i4 #dbb71 and a port so    
very considerable in #accb1 that ,edward
 ,baliol and the confederated ,english  
barons sailed from hence to invade      
,scotland2 and ,henry ,,iv41 in #acii1  
made choice of this port to land at1 to 
effect the deposal of ,richard ,,ii42   
yet the whole of this has long since    
been devoured by the merciless ocean2   
extensive sands1 dry at low water1 are  
to be seen in their stead4#djc  ,pennant
 describes ,spurn ,head as a promontory 
in the form of a sickle1 and says the   
land1 for some miles to the north1 was  
perpetually preyed on by the fury of the
 ,german ,sea1 which devours whole acres
 at a time1 and exposes on the shores   

considerable quantities of beautiful    
amber4  ,lincolnshire4--,the maritime   
district of ,lincolnshire consists      
chiefly of lands that lie below the     
level of the sea1 being protected by    
embankments4 ,some of the fens were     
embanked and drained by the ,romans2 but
 after their departure the sea returned1
 and large tracts were covered with beds
 of silt1 containing marine shells1 now 
again converted into productive lands4  
,many dreadful catastrophes are recorded
 by incursions of the sea1 whereby      
several parishes have been at different 
times overwhelmed4  ,norfolk4--,the     
decay of the cliffs of ,norfolk and     
,suffolk is incessant4 ,at ,hunstanton1 
on the north1 the undermining of the    
lower arenaceous beds at the foot of the
 cliff1 causes masses of red and white  
chalk to be precipitated from above4    
,between ,hunstanton and ,weybourne1 low
 hills1 or dunes1 of blown sand1 are    
formed along the shore1 from fifty to   
sixty feet high4 ,they are composed of  

dry sand1 bound in a compact mass by the
 long creeping roots of the plant called
 ,marram 7,arundo arenaria74 ,such is   
the present set of the tides1 that the  
harbors of ,clay1 ,wells1 and other     
places are securely defended by these   
barriers2 affording a clear proof that  
it is not the strength of the material  
at particular points that determines    
whether the sea shall be progressive or 
stationary1 but the general contour of  
the coast4  ,the waves constantly       
undermine the low chalk cliffs1 covered 
with sand and clay1 between ,weybourne  
and ,sherringham1 a certain portion of  
them being annually removed4 ,at the    
latter town ,i ascertained1 in #ahbi1   
some facts which throw light on the rate
 at which the sea gains upon the land4  
,it was computed1 when the present inn  
was built1 in #ahje1 that it would      
require seventy years for the sea to    
reach the spot3 the mean loss of land   
being calculated1 from previous         
observations1 to be somewhat less than  

one yard1 annually4 ,the distance       
between the house and the sea was fifty 
yards2 but no allowance was made for the
 slope of the ground being from the sea1
 in consequence of which the waste was  
naturally accelerated every year1 as the
 cliff grew lower1 there being at each  
succeeding period less matter to remove 
when portions of equal area fell down4  
,between the years #ahbd and #ahbi1 no  
less than seventeen yards were swept    
away1 and only a small garden was then  
left between the building and the sea4  
,there was1 in #ahbi1 a depth of twenty 
feet 7sufficient to float a frigate7 at 
one point in the harbor of that port1   
where1 only forty-eight years before1   
there stood a cliff fifty feet high1    
with houses upon it6 ,if once in half a 
century an equal amount of change were  
produced suddenly by the momentary shock
 of an earthquake1 history would be     
filled with records of such wonderful   
revolutions of the earth's surface2 but1
 if the conversion of high land into    

deep sea be gradual1 it excites only    
local attention4 ,the flagstaff of the  
,preventive ,service station1 on the    
south side of this harbor1 was thrice   
removed inland between the years #ahad  
and #ahbi1 in consequence of the advance
 of the sea4  ,farther to the south we  
find cliffs1 composed1 like those of    
,holderness before mentioned1 of        
alternating strata of blue clay1 gravel1
 loam1 and fine sand4 ,although they    
sometimes exceed #cjj feet in height1   
the havoc made on the coast is most     
formidable4 ,the whole site of ancient  
,cromer now forms part of the ,german   
,ocean1 the inhabitants having gradually
 retreated inland to their present      
situation1 from whence the sea still    
threatens to dislodge them4 ,in the     
winter of #ahbe1 a fallen mass was      
precipitated from near the lighthouse1  
which covered twelve acres1 extending   
far into the sea1 the cliffs being #bej 
feet in height4#djd ,the undermining by 
springs has sometimes caused large      

portions of the upper part of the       
cliffs1 with houses still standing upon 
them1 to give way1 so that it is        
impossible1 by erecting breakwaters at  
the base of the cliffs1 permanently to  
ward off the danger4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ca4  ,tower of the buried ,church
 of ,eccles1 ,norfolk1 ,a4 ,d4 #ahci4   
,the inland slope of the hills of blown 
sand is shown in this view1 with the    
lighthouse of ,hasborough in the        
distance4  ,on the same coast1 says ,mr4
 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor1 the ancient villages  
of ,shipden1 ,wimpwell1 and ,eccles have
 disappeared2 several manors and large  
portions of neighboring parishes having1
 piece after piece1 been swallowed up2  
nor has there been any intermission1    
from time immemorial1 in the ravages of 
the sea along a line of coast twenty    
miles in length1 in which these places  
stood4#dje ,of ,eccles1 however1 a      
monument still remains in the rained    
tower of the old church1 which is half  
buried in the dunes of sand within a few

 paces 7#fj87 of the sea-beach 7fig4    
#ca74 ,so early as #afje the inhabitants
 petitioned ,james ,i4 for a reduction  
of taxes1 as #cjj acres of land1 and all
 their houses1 save fourteen1 had then  
been destroyed by the sea4 ,not one half
 that number of acres now remains in the
 parish1 and hills of blown sand now    
occupy the site of the houses which were
 still extant in #afje4 ,when ,i visited
 the spot in #ahci1 the sea was fast    
encroaching on the sand-hills1 and had  
laid open on the beach the foundations  
of a house fourteen yards square1 the   
upper part of which had evidently been  
pulled down before it had been buried   
under sand4 ,the body of the church has 
also been long buried1 but the tower    
still remains visible4  ,m4 ,e4 de      
,beaumont has suggested that sand-dunes 
in ,holland and other countries may     
serve as natural chronometers1 by which 
the date of the existing continents may 
be ascertained4 ,the sands1 he says1 are
 continually blown inland by the force  

of the winds1 and by observing the rate 
of their march we may calculate the     
period when the movement commenced4#djf 
,but the example just given will satisfy
 every geologist that we cannot         
ascertain the starting-point of dunes1  
all coasts being liable to waste1 and   
the shores of the ,low ,countries in    
particular1 being not only exposed to   
inroads of the sea1 but1 as ,m4 de      
,beaumont himself has well shown1 having
 even in historical times undergone a   
change of level4 ,the dunes may indeed1 
in some cases1 be made use of as        
chronometers1 to enable us to assign a  
minimum of antiquity to existing        
coast-lines2 but this test must be      
applied with great caution1 so variable 
is the rate at which the sands may      
advance into the interior4  ,hills of   
blown sand1 between ,eccles and         
,winterton1 have barred up and excluded 
the tide for many hundred years from the
 mouths of several small estuaries2 but 
there are records of nine breaches1 from

 #bj to #abj yards wide1 having been    
made through these1 by which immense    
damage was done to the low grounds in   
the interior4 ,a few miles south of     
,happisburgh1 also1 are hills of blown  
sand1 which extend to ,yarmouth4 ,these 
dunes afford a temporary protection to  
the coast1 and an inland cliff1 about a 
mile long1 at ,winterton1 shows clearly 
that at that point the sea must have    
penetrated formerly farther than at     
present4  ,silting up of estuaries--,at 
,yarmouth1 the sea has not advanced upon
 the sands in the slightest degree since
 the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,in the time  
of the ,saxons1 a great estuary extended
 as far as ,norwich1 which city1 is     
represented2 even in the thirteenth and 
fourteenth centuries1 as situated on the
 banks of an arm of the sea4 ,the sands 
whereon ,yarmouth is built1 first became
 firm and habitable ground about the    
year #ajjh1 from which time a line of   
dunes has gradually increased in height 
and breadth1 stretching across the whole

 entrance of the ancient estuary1 and   
obstructing the ingress of the tides so 
completely1 that they are only admitted 
by the narrow passage which the river   
keeps open1 and which has gradually     
shifted several miles to the south4 ,the
 ordinary tides at the river's mouth    
rise1 at present1 only to the height1 of
 three or four feet1 the spring tides to
 about eight or nine4  ,by the exclusion
 of the sea1 thousands of acres in the  
interior have become cultivated lands2  
and1 exclusive of smaller pools1 upwards
 of sixty freshwater lakes have been    
formed1 varying in depth from fifteen to
 thirty feet1 and in extent from one    
acre to twelve hundred4#djg ,the ,yare1 
and other rivers1 frequently communicate
 with these sheets of water2 and thus   
they are liable to be filled up         
gradually with lacustrine and fluviatile
 deposits1 and to be converted into land
 covered with forests4 ,yet it must not 
be imagined1 that the acquisition of new
 land fit for cultivation in ,norfolk   

and ,suffolk indicates any permanent    
growth of the eastern limits of our     
island to compensate its reiterated     
losses4 ,no delta can form on such a    
shore4  ,immediately off ,yarmouth1 and 
parallel to the shore1 is a great range 
of sand-banks1 the shape of which varies
 slowly from year to year1 and often    
suddenly after great storms4 ,captain   
,hewitt1 ,r4 ,n41 found in these banks1 
in #ahcf1 a broad channel sixty-five    
feet deep1 where there was only a depth 
of four feet during a prior survey in   
#ahbb4 ,the sea had excavated to the    
depth of sixty feet in the course of    
fourteen years1 or perhaps a shorter    
period4 ,the new channel thus formed    
serves at present 7#ahch71 for the      
entrance of ships into ,yarmouth ,roads2
 and the magnitude of this change shows 
how easily a new set of the waves and   
currents might endanger the submergence 
of the land gained within the ancient   
estuary of the ,yare4  ,that great banks
 should be thrown across the mouths of  

estuaries on our eastern coast1 where   
there is not a large body of river-water
 to maintain an open channel1 is        
perfectly intelligible1 when we bear in 
mind that the marine current1 sweeping  
along the coast1 is charged with the    
materials of wasting cliffs1 and ready  
to form a bar anywhere the instant its  
course is interrupted or checked by any 
opposing stream4 ,the mouth of the ,yare
 has been1 within the last five         
centuries1 diverted about four miles to 
the south4 ,in like manner it is evident
 that1 at some remote period1 the river 
,alde entered the sea at ,aldborough1   
until its ancient outlet was barred up  
and at length transferred to a point no 
less than ten miles distant to the      
southwest4 ,in this case1 ridges of sand
 and shingle1 like those of ,lowestoff  
,ness1 which will be described by and   
by1 have been thrown up between the     
river and the sea2 and an ancient       
sea-cliff is to be seen now inland4  ,it
 may be asked why the rivers on our east

 coast are always deflected southwards1 
although the tidal current flows        
alternately from the south and north8   
,the cause is to be found in the        
superior force of what is commonly      
called the flood tide from the north1 a 
tidal wave derived from the ,atlantic1 a
 small part of which passes eastward up 
the ,english ,channel1 and through the  
,straits of ,dover and then northwards1 
while the principal body of water1      
moving much more rapidly in a more open 
sea1 on the western side of ,britain1   
first passes the ,orkneys1 and then     
turning1 flows down between ,norway and 
,scotland1 and sweeps with great        
velocity along our eastern coast4 ,it is
 well known that the highest tides on   
this coast are occasioned by a powerful 
northwest wind1 which raises the eastern
 part of the ,atlantic1 and causes it to
 pour a greater volume of water into the
 ,german ,ocean4 ,this circumstance of a
 violent off-shore wind being attended  
with a rise of the waters1 instead of a 

general retreat of the sea1 naturally   
excites the wonder of the inhabitants of
 our coast4 ,in many districts they look
 with confidence for a rich harvest of  
that valuable manure1 the sea-weed1 when
 the north-westerly gales prevail1 and  
are rarely disappointed4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #cb4  ,map of ,lowestoff ,ness1  
,suffolk4#djh  a1 a4 ,the dotted lines  
express a series of sand and shingle1   
forming the extremity of the triangular 
space called the ,ness4  b1 b1 b4 ,the  
dark line represents the inland cliff on
 which the town of ,lowestoff stands1   
between which and the sea is the ,ness4 
,coast of ,suffolk4--,the cliffs of     
,suffolk1 to which we next proceed1 are 
somewhat less elevated than those of    
,norfolk1 but composed of similar       
alternations of clay1 sand1 and gravel4 
,from ,gorleston in ,suffolk1 to within 
a few miles north of ,lowestoff1 the    
cliffs are slowly undermined4 ,near the 
last-mentioned town1 there is an inland 
cliff about sixty feet high1 the sloping

 talus of which is covered with turf and
 heath4 ,between the cliff and the sea  
is a low flat tract of sand called the  
,ness1 nearly three miles long1 and for 
the most part out of reach of the       
highest tides4 ,the point of the ,ness  
projects from the base of the original  
cliff to the distance of #ffj yards4    
,this accession of land1 says ,mr4      
,taylor1 has been effected at distinct  
and distant intervals1 by the influence 
of currents running between the land and
 a shoal about a mile off ,lowestoff1   
called the ,holm ,sand4 ,the lines of   
growth in the ,ness are indicated by a  
series of concentric ridges or          
embankments inclosing limited areas1 and
 several of these ridges have been      
formed within the observation of persons
 now living4 ,a rampart of heavy        
materials is first thrown up to an      
unusual altitude by some extraordinary  
tide1 attended with a violent gale4     
,subsequent tides extend the base of    
this high bank of shingle1 and the      

interstices are then filled with sand   
blown from the beach4 ,the ,arundo and  
other marine plants by degrees obtain a 
footing2 and creeping along the ridge1  
give solidity to the mass1 and form in  
some cases a matted covering of turf4   
,meanwhile another mound is forming     
externally1 which by the like process   
rises and gives protection to the first4
 ,if the sea forces its way through one 
of the external and incomplete mounds1  
the breach is soon repaired4 ,after a   
while the marine plants within the areas
 inclosed by these embankments are      
succeeded by a better species of herbage
 affording good pasturage1 and the sands
 become sufficiently firm to support    
buildings4  ,destruction of ,dunwich by 
the sea4--,of the gradual destruction of
 ,dunwich1 once the most considerable   
seaport on this coast1 we have many     
authentic records4 ,gardner1 in his     
history of that borough1 published in   
#aged1 shows1 by reference to documents1
 beginning with ,doomsday ,book1 that   

the cliffs at ,dunwich1 ,southwold1     
,eastern1 and ,pakefield1 have been     
always subject to wear away4 ,at        
,dunwich1 in particular1 two tracts of  
land which had been taxed in the        
eleventh century1 in the time of ,king  
,edward the ,confessor1 are mentioned in
 the ,conqueror's survey1 made but a few
 years afterwards1 as having been       
devoured by the sea4 ,the losses1 at a  
subsequent period1 of a monastery1--at  
another of several churches1--afterwards
 of the old port1--then of four hundred 
houses at once1--of the church of ,st4  
,leonard1 the high-road1 town-hall1     
jail1 and many other buildings1 are     
mentioned1 with the dates when they     
perished4 ,it is stated that1 in the    
sixteenth century1 not one-quarter of   
the town was left standing2 yet the     
inhabitants retreating inland1 the name 
was preserved1 as has been the case with
 many other ports when their ancient    
site has been blotted out4 ,there is1   
however1 a church of considerable       

antiquity still standing1 the last of   
twelve mentioned in some records4 ,in   
#agdj1 the laying open of the churchyard
 of ,st4 ,nicholas and ,st4 ,francis1 in
 the sea-cliffs1 is well described by   
,gardner1 with the coffins and skeletons
 exposed to view--some lying on the     
beach1 and rocked     ,in cradle of the 
rude imperious surge4   ,of these       
cemeteries no remains can now be seen4  
,ray also says1 that ancient writings   
make mention of a wood a mile and a half
 to the east of ,dunwich1 the site of   
which must at present be so far within  
the sea4#dji ,this city1 once so        
flourishing and populous1 is now a small
 village1 with about twenty houses1 and 
one hundred inhabitants4  ,there is an  
old tradition1 that the tailors sat in  
their shops at ,dunwich1 and saw the    
ships in ,yarmouth ,bay2 but when we    
consider how far the coast at ,lowestoff
 ,ness projects between these places1 we
 cannot give credit to the tale1 which1 
nevertheless1 proves how much the       

inroads of the sea in times of old had  
prompted men of lively imagination to   
indulge their taste for the marvellous4 
,gardner's description of the cemeteries
 laid open by the waves reminds us of   
the scene which has been so well        
depicted by ,bewick1#daj and of which   
numerous points on the same coast might 
have suggested the idea4 ,on the verge  
of a cliff1 which the sea has           
undermined1 are represented the unshaken
 tower and western end of an abbey4 ,the
 eastern aisle is gone1 and the pillars 
of the cloister are soon to follow4 ,the
 waves have almost isolated the         
promontory1 and invaded the cemetery1   
where they have made sport with the     
mortal relics1 and thrown up a skull    
upon the beach4 ,in the foreground is   
seen a broken tombstone1 erected1 as its
 legend tells1 to perpetuate the        
memory--of one whose name is            
obliterated1 as is that of the county   
for which he was ,custos ,rotulorum4 ,a 
cormorant is perched on the monument1   

defiling it1 as if to remind some       
moralizer like ,hamlet1 of the base uses
 to which things sacred may be turned4  
,had this excellent artist desired to   
satirize certain popular theories of    
geology1 he might have inscribed the    
stone to the memory of some philosopher 
who taught the permanency of existing   
continents--the era of repose--the      
impotence of modern causes4  ,the       
incursions of the sea at ,aldborough1   
were formerly very destructive1 and this
 borough is known to have been once     
situated a quarter of a mile east of the
 present shore4 ,the inhabitants        
continued to build farther inland1 till 
they arrived at the extremity of their  
property1 and then the town decayed     
greatly2 but two sand-banks1 thrown up  
at a short distance1 now afford a       
temporary safeguard to the coast4       
,between these banks and the present    
shore1 where the current now flows1 the 
sea is twenty-four feet deep on the spot
 where the town formerly stood4         

,essex4--,harwich is said to have owed  
its rise to the destruction of ,orwell1 
a town which stood on the spot now      
called the west rocks1 and was          
overwhelmed by an inroad of the sea     
since the ,conquest4 ,apprehensions have
 been entertained that the isthmus on   
which ,harwich stands may at no remote  
period become an island1 for the sea may
 be expected to make a breach near      
,lower ,dover ,court1 where ,beacon     
,cliff is composed of horizontal beds of
 ,london clay containing septaria4 ,it  
had wasted away considerably between the
 years #ahbi and #ahch1 at both which   
periods ,i examined this coast4 ,in that
 short interval several gardens and many
 houses had been swept into the sea1 and
 in ,april1 #ahch1 a whole street was   
threatened with destruction4 ,the       
advance of the sea is much accelerated  
by the traffic carried on in septaria1  
which are shipped off for cement as fast
 as they fall down upon the beach4      
,these stones1 if allowed to remain in  

heaps on the shore1 would break the     
force of the waves and retard the       
conversion of the peninsula into an     
island1 an event which might be followed
 by the destruction of the town of      
,harwich4 ,captain ,washington1 ,r4 ,n41
 ascertained in #ahdg1 that ,beacon     
,cliff1 above mentioned1 which is about 
fifty feet high1 had given way at the   
rate of forty feet in forty-seven years1
 between #agji and #agef2 eighty feet   
between #agef and #ahjd2 and three      
hundred and fifty feet between the      
latter period and #ahda2 showing a      
rapidly accelerated rate of             
destruction4#daa  ,among other losses it
 is recorded that1 since the year #ahjg1
 a field called the ,vicar's ,field1    
which belonged to the living of         
,harwich1 has been overwhelmed2#dab and 
in the year #ahbj there was a           
considerable space between the battery  
at ,harwich1 built in the beginning of  
the present century1 and the sea2 part  
of the fortification had been swept away

 in #ahbi1 and the rest then overhung   
the water4  ,at ,walton ,naze1 in the   
same county1 the cliffs1 composed of    
,london clay1 capped by the shelly sands
 of the crag1 reach the height of about 
#ajj feet1 and are annually undermined  
by the waves4 ,the old churchyard of    
,walton has been washed away1 and the   
cliffs to the south are constantly      
disappearing4  ,kent4--,isle of         
,sheppey4--,on the coast bounding the   
estuary of the ,thames1 there are       
numerous examples both of the gain and  
loss of land4 ,the ,isle of ,sheppey1   
which is now about six miles long by    
four in breadth1 is composed of ,london 
clay4 ,the cliffs on the north1 which   
are from sixty to eighty feet high1     
decay rapidly1 fifty acres having been  
lost in twenty years1 between #ahaj and 
#ahcj4 ,the church at ,minster1 now near
 the coast1 is said to have been in the 
middle of the island in #aghj2 and if   
the present rate of destruction should  
continue1 we might calculate the period1

 and that not a very remote one1 when   
the whole island will be annihilated4   
,on the coast of the mainland1 to the   
east of ,sheppey1 is ,herne ,bay3 a     
place still retaining the name of a bay1
 although it is no longer appropriate1  
as the waves and currents have swept    
away the ancient headlands4 ,there was  
formerly a small promontory in the line 
of the shoals where the present pier is 
built1 by which the larger bay was      
divided into two1 called the ,upper and 
,lower4#dac  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4  
,view of ,reculver ,church1 taken in the
 year #agha4  #a4 ,isle of ,sheppey4 #b4
 ,ancient chapel now destroyed4 ,the    
cottage between this chapel and the     
cliff was demolished by the sea1 in     
#aghb4  ,still farther east stands the  
church of ,reculver1 upon a cliff       
composed of clay and sand1 about        
twenty-five feet high4 ,reculver        
7,regulvium7 was an important military  
station in the time of the ,romans1 and 
appears1 from ,leland's account1 to have

 been1 so late as ,henry ,,viii4's      
reign1 nearly one mile distant from the 
sea4 ,in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1    
there is a view of it1 taken in #agha1  
which still represents a considerable   
space as intervening between the north  
wall of the churchyard and the          
cliff4#dad ,sometime before the year    
#aghj1 the waves had reached the site of
 the ancient ,roman camp or             
fortification1 the walls of which had   
continued for several years after they  
were undermined to overhang the sea1    
being firmly cemented into one mass4    
,they were eighty yards nearer the sea  
than the church1 and they are spoken of 
in the ,topographica ,britannica1 in the
 year #aghj1 as having recently fallen  
down4 ,in #ahjd1 part of the churchyard 
with some adjoining houses was washed   
away1 and the ancient church1 with its  
two spires1 was dismantled and abandoned
 as a place of worship1 but kept in     
repair as a landmark well known to      
mariners4 ,i visited the spot in ,june1 

#ahea1 and saw human bones and part of a
 wooden coffin projecting from the      
cliff1 near the top4 ,the whole building
 would probably have been swept away    
long ere this1 had not the force of the 
waves been checked by an artificial     
causeway of stones and large wooden     
piles driven into the sands on the beach
 to break the force of the waves4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4  ,reculver    
,church1 in #ahcd4  ,isle of            
,thanet4--,the isle of ,thanet was1 in  
the time of the ,romans1 separated from 
the rest of ,kent by a navigable        
channel1 through which the ,roman fleets
 sailed on their way to and from        
,london4 ,bede describes this small     
estuary as being1 in the beginning of   
the eighth century1 three furlongs in   
breadth2 and it is supposed that it     
began to grow shallow about the period  
of the ,norman conquest4 ,it was so far 
silted up in the year #adhe1 that an act
 was then obtained to build a bridge    
across it2 and it has since become marsh

 land with small streams running through
 it4 ,on the coast1 ,bedlam ,farm1      
belonging to the hospital of that name1 
lost eight acres in the twenty years    
preceding #ahcj1 the land being composed
 of chalk from forty to fifty feet above
 the level of the sea4 ,it has been     
computed that the average waste of the  
cliff between the ,north ,foreland and  
the ,reculvers1 a distance of about     
eleven miles1 is not less than two feet 
per annum4 ,the chalk cliffs on the     
south of ,thanet1 between ,ramsgate and 
,pegwell ,bay1 have on an average lost  
three feet per annum for the last ten   
years 7preceding #ahcj74  ,goodwin      
,sands4--,the ,goodwin ,sands lie       
opposite this part of the ,kentish      
coast4 ,they are about ten miles in     
length1 and are in some parts three1 and
 in others seven1 miles distant from the
 shore2 and1 for a certain space1 are   
laid bare at low water4 ,that they are a
 remnant of land1 and not a mere        
accumulation of sea sand1 as ,rennell   

imagined1#dae may be presumed from the  
fact that1 when the erection of a       
lighthouse on this shoal was in         
contemplation by the ,trinity ,board in 
the year #ahag1 it was found1 by        
borings1 that the bank consisted of     
fifteen feet of sand1 resting on blue   
clay2 and1 by subsequent borings1 the   
subjacent chalk has been reached4 ,an   
obscure tradition has come down to us1  
that the estates of ,earl ,goodwin1 the 
father of ,harold1 who died in the year 
#ajec1 were situated here1 and some have
 conjectured that they were overwhelmed 
by the flood mentioned in the ,saxon    
chronicle1 sub anno #ajii4 ,the last    
remains of an island1 consisting1 like  
,sheppey1 of clay1 may perhaps have been
 carried away about that time4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4  ,shakspeare's
 ,cliff in #ahcf1 seen from the         
northeast4  ,there are other records of 
waste in the county of ,kent1 as at     
,deal2 and at ,dover1 where             
,shakspeare's ,cliff1 composed entirely 

of chalk1 has suffered greatly1 and     
continually diminishes in height1 the   
slope of the hill being towards the     
land4 7,see fig4 #ce47 ,there was an    
immense landslip from this cliff in     
#ahaj1 by which ,dover was shaken as if 
by an earthquake1 and a still greater   
one in #aggb4daf ,we may suppose1       
therefore1 that the view from the top of
 the precipice in the year #afjj1 when  
the tragedy of ,king ,lear was written1 
was more fearful and dizzy than it is   
now4 ,the best antiquarian authorities  
are agreed1 that ,dover ,harbor was     
formerly an estuary1 the sea flowing up 
a valley between the chalk hills4 ,the  
remains found in different excavations  
confirm the description of the spot     
given by ,caesar and ,antoninus1 and    
there is clear historical evidence to   
prove that at an early period there was 
no shingle at all at ,dover4#dag        
,straits of ,dover4--,in proceeding from
 the northern parts of the ,german      
,ocean towards the ,straits of ,dover1  

the water becomes gradually more        
shallow1 so that1 in the distance of    
about two hundred leagues1 we pass from 
a depth of #abj to that of #eh1 #ch1    
#ah1 and even less than #b fathoms4 ,the
 shallowest part follows a line drawn   
between ,romney ,marsh and ,boulogne4   
,from this point the ,english ,channel  
again deepens progressively as we       
proceed westward1 so that the ,straits  
of ,dover may be said to part two       
seas4#dah  ,whether ,england was        
formerly united with ,france has often  
been a favorite subject of speculation4 
,so early as #afje our countryman       
,verstegan1 in his ,antiquities of the  
,english ,nation1 observed that many    
preceding writers had maintained this   
opinion1 but without supporting it by   
any weighty reasons4 ,he accordingly    
endeavors himself to confirm it by      
various arguments1 the principal of     
which are1 first1 the proximity and     
identity of the composition of the      
opposite cliffs and shores of ,albion   

and ,gallia1 which1 whether flat and    
sandy1 or steep and chalky1 correspond  
exactly with each other2 secondly the   
occurrence of a submarine ridge1 called 
our ,lady's ,sand1 extending from shore 
to shore at no great depth1 and which1  
from its composition1 appears to be the 
original basis of the isthmus2 thirdly1 
the identity of the noxious animals in  
,france and ,england1 which could       
neither have swum across1 nor have been 
introduced by man4 ,thus no one1 he     
says1 would have imported wolves1       
therefore these wicked beasts did of    
themselves pass over4 ,he supposes the  
ancient isthmus to have been about six  
,english miles in breadth1 composed     
entirely of chalk and flint1 and in some
 places of no great height above the    
sea-level4 ,the operation of the waves  
and tides1 he says1 would have been more
 powerful when the straits were         
narrower1 and even now they are         
destroying cliffs composed of similar   
materials4 ,he suggests the possible    

co-operation of earthquakes2 and when we
 consider how many submarine forests    
skirt the southern and eastern shores of
 ,england1 and that there are raised    
beaches at many points above the        
sea-level1 containing fossil shells of  
recent species1 it seems reasonable to  
suppose that such upward and downward   
movements1 taking place perhaps as      
slowly as those now in progress in      
,sweden and ,greenland1 may have greatly
 assisted the denuding force of the     
ocean stream1 ,greek3 ,potamoio mega    
sthenos ,ocheanoto4  ,folkstone4--,at   
,folkstone1 the sea undermines the chalk
 and subjacent strata4 ,about the year  
#agaf there was a remarkable sinking of 
a tract of land near the sea1 so that   
houses became visible from certain      
points at sea1 and from particular spots
 on the sea cliffs1 from whence they    
could not be seen previously4 ,in the   
description of this subsidence in the   
,phil4 ,trans4 #agaf1 it is said1 that  
the land consisted of a solid stony mass

 7chalk71 resting on wet clay 7gault71  
so that it slid forwards towards the    
sea1 just as a ship is launched on      
tallowed planks4 ,it is also stated     
that1 within the memory of persons then 
living1 the cliff there had been washed 
away to the extent of ten rods4         
,encroachments of the sea at ,hythe are 
also on record2 but between this point  
and ,rye there has been a gain of land  
within the times of history2 the rich   
level tract called ,romney ,marsh1 or   
,dungeness1 about ten miles in width and
 five in breadth1 and formed of silt1   
having received great accession4 ,it has
 been necessary1 however1 to protect it 
from the sea1 from the earliest periods1
 by embankments1 the towns of ,lydd and 
,romney being the only parts of the     
marsh above the level of the highest    
tides4#dai ,mr4 ,redman has cited       
numerous old charts and trustworthy     
authorities to prove that the average   
annual increase of the promontory of    
shingle called ,dungeness amounted for  

two centuries1 previous to #ahdd1 to    
nearly six yards4 ,its progress1        
however1 has fluctuated during that     
period2 for between #afhi and #agid1 a  
term of #aje years1 the rate was as much
 as #h-a_/d yards per annum4#dbj ,it is 
ascertained that the shingle is derived 
from the westward4 ,whether the pebbles 
are stopped by the meeting of the tide  
from the north flowing through the      
,straits of ,dover1 with that which     
comes up the ,channel from the west1 as 
was formerly held1 or by the check given
 to the tidal current by the waters of  
the ,rother1 as some maintain1 is still 
a disputed question4  ,rye1 situated to 
the south of ,romney ,marsh1 was once   
destroyed by the sea1 but it is now two 
miles distant from it4 ,the neighboring 
town of ,winchelsea was destroyed in the
 reign of ,edward ,i41 the mouth of the 
,rother stopped up1 and the river       
diverted into another channel4 ,in its  
old bed1 an ancient vessel1 apparently a
 ,dutch merchantman1 was found about the

 year #ahbd4 ,it was built entirely of  
oak1 and much blackened4#dba ,large     
quantities of hazel-nuts1 peat1 and wood
 are found in digging in ,romney ,marsh4
  ,south coast of ,england4--,westward  
of ,hastings1 or of ,st4 ,leonard's1 the
 shore line has been giving way as far  
as ,pevensey ,bay1 where formerly there 
existed a haven now entirely blocked up 
by shingle4 ,the degradation has        
equalled for a series of years seven    
feet per annum in some places1 and      
several martello towers had in          
consequence1 before #ahea1 been removed 
by the ,ordnance4#dbb ,at the promontory
 of ,beachy ,head a mass of chalk1 three
 hundred feet in length1 and from       
seventy to eighty in breadth1 fell in   
the year #ahac with a tremendous crash2 
and similar slips have since been       
frequent4#dbc  ,about a mile to the west
 of the town of ,newhaven1 the remains  
of an ancient intrenchment are seen on  
the brow of ,castle ,hill4 ,this        
earth-work1 supposed to be ,roman1 was  

evidently once of considerable extent   
and of an oval form1 but the greater    
part has been cut away by the sea4 ,the 
cliffs1 which are undermined here1 are  
high2 more than one hundred feet of     
chalk being covered by tertiary clay and
 sand1 from sixty to seventy feet in    
thickness4 ,in a few centuries the last 
vestiges of the plastic clay formation  
on the southern borders of the chalk of 
the ,south ,downs on this coast will    
probably be annihilated1 and future     
geologists will learn1 from historical  
documents1 the ancient geographical     
boundaries of this group of strata in   
that direction4 ,on the opposite side of
 the estuary of the ,ouse1 on the east  
of ,newhaven harbor1 a bed of shingle1  
composed of chalk flints derived from   
the waste of the adjoining cliffs1 had  
accumulated at ,seaford for several     
centuries4 ,in the great storm of       
,november1 #ahbd1 this bank was entirely
 swept away1 and the town of ,seaford   
inundated4 ,another great beach of      

shingle is now forming from fresh       
materials4  ,the whole coast of ,sussex 
has been incessantly encroached upon by 
the sea from time immemorial2 and1      
although sudden inundations only1 which 
overwhelmed fertile or inhabited tracts1
 are noticed in history1 the records    
attest an extraordinary amount of loss4 
,during a period of no more than eighty 
years1 there are notices of about twenty
 inroads1 in which tracts of land of    
from twenty to four hundred acres in    
extent were overwhelmed at once1 the    
value of the tithes being mentioned in  
the ,taxatio ,ecclesiastica4#dbd ,in the
 reign of ,elizabeth1 the town of       
,brighton was situated on that tract    
where the chain pier now extends into   
the sea4 ,in the year #affe1 twenty-two 
tenements had been destroyed under the  
cliff4 ,at that period there still      
remained under the cliff #aac tenements1
 the whole of which were overwhelmed in 
#agjc and #agje4 ,no traces of the      
ancient town are now perceptible1 yet   

there is evidence that the sea has      
merely resumed its ancient position at  
the base of the cliffs1 the site of the 
whole town having been merely a beach   
abandoned by the ocean for ages4        
,hampshire4--,isle of ,wight4--,it would
 be endless to allude to all the        
localities on the ,sussex and ,hampshire
 coasts where the land has given way2   
but ,i may point out the relation which 
the geological structure of the ,isle of
 ,wight bears to its present shape1 as  
attesting that the coast owes its       
outline to the continued action of the  
sea4 ,through the middle of the island  
runs a high ridge of chalk strata1 in a 
vertical position1 and in a direction   
east and west4 ,this chalk forms the    
projecting promontory of ,culver ,cliff 
on the east1 and of the ,needles on the 
west2 while ,sandown ,bay on the one    
side1 and ,compton ,bay on the other1   
have been hollowed out of the softer    
sands and argillaceous strata1 which are
 inferior1 in geological position1 to   

the chalk4  ,the same phenomena are     
repeated in the ,isle of ,purbeck1 where
 the line of vertical chalk forms the   
projecting promontory of ,handfast      
,point2 and ,swanage ,bay marks the deep
 excavation made by the waves in the    
softer strata1 corresponding to those of
 ,sandown ,bay4  ,hurst ,castle         
bank--progressive motion of sea         
beaches4--,although the loose pebbles   
and grains of sand composing any given  
line of sea-beach are carried sometimes 
one way1 sometimes another1 they have1  
nevertheless1 an ultimate motion in one 
particular direction4#dbe ,their        
progress1 for example1 on the south     
coast of ,england1 is from west to east1
 which is owing partly to the action of 
the waves driven eastwards by the       
prevailing wind1 and partly to the      
current1 or the motion of the general   
body of water caused by the tides and   
winds4 ,the force of the waves gives    
motion to pebbles which the velocity of 
the currents alone would be unable to   

carry forwards2 but as the pebbles are  
finally reduced to sand or mud1 by      
continual attrition1 they are brought   
within the influence of a current2 and  
this cause must determine the course    
which the main body of matter derived   
from wasting cliffs will eventually     
take4  ,it appears1 from the            
observations of ,mr4 ,palmer and others1
 that if a pier or groin be erected     
anywhere on our southern or southeastern
 coast to stop the progress of the      
beach1 a heap of shingle soon collects  
on the western side of such artificial  
barriers4 ,the pebbles continue to      
accumulate till they rise as high as the
 pier or groin1 after which they pour   
over in great numbers during heavy      
gales4#dbf  ,the western entrance of the
 ,channel1 called the ,solent1 is       
crossed for more than two-thirds of its 
width by the shingle-bank of ,hurst     
,castle1 which is about two miles long1 
seventy yards broad1 and twelve feet    
high1 presenting an inclined plane to   

the west4 ,this singular bar consists of
 a bed of rounded chalk flints1 resting 
on a submarine argillaceous base4 ,the  
flints and a few other pebbles1         
intermixed1 are derived from the waste  
of ,hordwell1 and other cliffs to the   
westward1 where tertiary strata1 capped 
with a covering of broken chalk flints1 
from five to fifty feet thick1 are      
rapidly undermined4 ,in the great storm 
of ,november1 #ahbd1 this bank of       
shingle was moved bodily forwards for   
forty yards towards the northeast2 and  
certain piles1 which served to mark the 
boundaries of two manors1 were found    
after the storm on the opposite side of 
the bar4 ,at the same time many acres of
 pasture land were covered by shingle1  
on the farm of ,westover1 near          
,lymington4 ,but the bar was soon       
restored in its old position by pebbles 
drifted from the west2 and it appears   
from ancient maps that it has preserved 
the same general outline and position   
for centuries4#dbg  ,mr4 ,austen remarks

 that1 as a general rule1 it is only    
when high tides concur with a gale of   
wind1 that the sea reaches the base of  
cliffs so as to undermine them and throw
 down earth and stone4 ,but the waves   
are perpetually employed in abrading and
 fashioning the materials already       
strewed over the beach4 ,much of the    
gravel and shingle is always travelling 
up and down1 between high-water mark and
 a slight depth below the level of the  
lowest tides1 and occasionally the      
materials are swept away and carried    
into deeper water4 ,owing to these      
movements every portion of our southern 
coast may be seen at one time or other  
in the condition of bare rock4 ,yet     
other beds of sand and shingle soon     
collect1 and1 although composed of new  
materials1 invariably exhibit on the    
same spots precisely similar            
characters4#dbh  ,the cliffs between    
,hurst ,shingle ,bar and ,christchurch  
are undermined continually1 the sea     
having often encroached for a series of 

years at the rate of a yard annually4   
,within the memory of persons now       
living1 it has been necessary thrice to 
remove the coast-road farther inland4   
,the tradition1 therefore1 is probably  
true1 that the church of ,hordwell was  
once in the middle of that parish1      
although now 7#ahcj7 very near the sea4 
,the promontory of ,christchurch ,head  
gives way slowly4 ,it is the only point 
between ,lymington and ,poole ,harbor1  
in ,dorsetshire1 where any hard stony   
masses occur in the cliffs4 ,five layers
 of large ferruginous concretions1      
somewhat like the septaria of the       
,london clay1 have occasioned a         
resistance at this point1 to which we   
may ascribe this headland4 ,in the mean 
time1 the waves have cut deeply into the
 soft sands and loam of ,poole ,bay2    
and1 after severe frosts1 great         
landslips take place1 which by degrees  
become enlarged into narrow ravines1 or 
chines1 as they are called1 with        
vertical sides4 ,one of these chines1   

near ,boscomb1 has been deepened twenty 
feet within a few years4 ,at the head of
 each there is a spring1 the waters of  
which have been chiefly instrumental in 
producing these narrow excavations1     
which are sometimes from #ajj to #aej   
feet deep4  ,isle of ,portland4--,the   
peninsulas of ,purbeck and ,portland are
 continually wasting away4 ,in the      
latter1 the soft argillaceous substratum
 7,kimmeridge clay7 hastens the         
dilapidation of the superincumbent mass 
of limestone4  ,in #afee the cliffs     
adjoining the principal quarries in     
,portland gave way to the extent of one 
hundred yards1 and fell into the sea2   
and in ,december1 #agcd1 a slide to the 
extent of #aej yards occurred on the    
east side of the isle1 by which several 
skeletons buried between slabs of stone1
 were discovered4 ,but a much more      
memorable occurrence of this nature1 in 
#agib1 occasioned probably by the       
undermining of the cliffs1 is thus      
described in ,hutchin's ,history of     

,dorsetshire3--,early in the morning the
 road was observed to crack3 this       
continued increasing1 and before two    
o'clock the ground had sunk several     
feet1 and was in one continued motion1  
but attended with no other noise than   
what was occasioned by the separation of
 the roots and brambles1 and now and    
then a falling rock4 ,at night it seemed
 to stop a little1 but soon moved again2
 and1 before morning1 the ground from   
the top of the cliff to the water-side  
had sunk in some places fifty feet      
perpendicular4 ,the extent of ground    
that moved was about a mile and a       
quarter from north to south1 and #fjj   
yards from east to west4  ,formation of 
the ,chesil ,bank4--,portland is        
connected with the mainland by the      
,chesil ,bank1 a ridge of shingle about 
seventeen miles in length1 and1 in most 
places1 nearly a quarter of a mile in   
breadth4 ,the pebbles forming this      
immense barrier are chiefly siliceous1  
all loosely thrown together1 and rising 

to the height of from twenty to thirty  
feet above the ordinary high-water mark2
 and at the southeastern end1 which is  
nearest the ,isle of ,portland1 where   
the pebbles are largest1 forty feet4    
,the fundamental rocks whereon the      
shingle rests are found at the depth of 
a few yards only below the level of the 
sea4 ,the formation of that part of the 
bar which attaches ,portland to the     
mainland may have been due to an        
original shoal or reef1 or to the set of
 the tides in the narrow channel1 by    
which the course of the pebbles1 which  
are always coming from the west1 has    
been arrested4 ,it is a singular fact   
that1 throughout the ,chesil ,bank1 the 
pebbles increase gradually in size as we
 proceed southeastward1 or as we go     
farther from the quarter which supplied 
them4 ,had the case been reversed1 we   
should naturally have attributed the    
circumstance to the constant wearing    
down of the pebbles by friction1 as they
 are rolled along a beach seventeen     

miles in length4 ,but the true          
explanation of the phenomenon is        
doubtless this3 the tidal current runs  
strongest from west to east1 and its    
power is greater in the more open       
channel or farther from the land4 ,in   
other words its force increases         
southwards1 and as the direction of the 
bank is from northwest to southeast1 the
 size of the masses coming from the     
westward and thrown ashore must always  
be largest where the motion of the water
 is most violent4 ,colonel ,reid states 
that all calcareous stones rolled along 
from the west are soon ground into sand1
 and in this form they pass round       
,portland ,island4#dbi  ,the storm of   
#ahbd burst over the ,chesil ,bank with 
great fury1 and the village of          
,chesilton1 built upon its southern     
extremity1 was overwhelmed1 with many of
 the inhabitants4 ,the same storm       
carried away part of the ,breakwater at 
,plymouth1 and huge masses of rock1 from
 two to five tons in weight1 were lifted

 from the bottom of the weather side1   
and rolled fairly to the top of the     
pile4 ,one block of limestone1 weighing 
seven tons1 was washed round the western
 extremity of the ,breakwater1 and      
carried #aej feet4#dcj ,the propelling  
power is derived in these cases from the
 breaking of the waves1 which run       
fastest in shallow water1 and for a     
short space far exceed the most rapid   
currents in swiftness4 ,it was in the   
same month1 and also during a           
spring-tide1 that a great flood is      
mentioned on the coasts of ,england1 in 
the year #ajii4 ,florence of ,worcester 
says1 ,on the third day of the nones of 
,nov4 #ajii1 the sea came out upon the  
shore and buried towns and men very     
many1 and oxen and sheep innumerable4   
,we also read in the ,saxon ,chronicle1 
for the year #ajii1 ,this year eke on   
,st4 ,martin's mass day1 the #aath of   
,novembre1 sprung up so much of the sea 
flood1 and so myckle harm did1 as no man
 minded that it ever afore did1 and     

there was the ylk day a new moon4       
,south of the ,bill1 or southern point  
of ,portland1 is a remarkable shoal in  
the channel at the depth of seven       
fathoms1 called the ,shambles1          
consisting entirely of rolled and broken
 shells of ,purpura lapillus1 ,mytilus  
edulis1 and other species now living4   
,this mass of light materials is always 
in motion1 varying in height from day to
 day1 and yet the shoal remains         
constant4                               
,dorsetshire4--,devonshire4--,at ,lyme  
,regis1 in ,dorsetshire1 the ,church    
,cliffs1 as they are called1 consisting 
of lias about one hundred feet in       
height1 gradually fell away at the rate 
of one yard a year1 from #ahjj to       
#ahbi4dca  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4    
,landslip1 near ,axmouth1 ,dec4 #ahci4  
7,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare47     ,a4     
,tract of ,downs still remaining at     
their original level4   ,b4 ,new ravine4
   ,c1 ,d4 ,sunk and fractured strip    
united to ,a1 before the convulsion4    

,d1 ,e4 ,bendon undercliff as before1   
but more fissured1 and thrust           
forward about fifty feet1 towards the   
sea4   ,f4 ,pyramidal crag1 sunk from   
seventy to twenty feet in height4   ,g4 
,new reef upheaved from the sea4     ,an
 extraordinary landslip occurred on the 
#bdth of ,december1 #ahci1 on the coast 
between ,lyme ,regis and ,axmouth1 which
 has been described by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4
 ,conybeare1 to whose kindness ,i am    
indebted for the accompanying section1  
fig4 #cf4 ,the tract of downs ranging   
there along the coast is capped by chalk
 7h71 which rests on sandstone1         
alternating with chert 7i71 beneath     
which is more than #ajj feet of loose   
sand 7k71 with concretions at the       
bottom1 and belonging like i to the     
green-sand formation2 the whole of the  
above masses1 h1 i1 k1 reposing on      
retentive beds of clay 7l71 belonging to
 the lias1 which shelves towards the    
sea4 ,numerous springs issuing from the 
loose sand 7k71 have gradually removed  

portions of it1 and thus undermined the 
superstratum1 so as to have caused      
subsidences at former times1 and to have
 produced a line of undercliff between  
,d and ,e4 ,in #ahci an excessively wet 
season had saturated all the rocks with 
moisture1 so as to increase the weight  
of the incumbent mass1 from which the   
support had already been withdrawn by   
the action of springs4 ,thus the        
superstrata were precipitated into      
hollows prepared for them1 and the      
adjacent masses of partially undermined 
rock1 to which the movement was         
communicated1 were made to slide down on
 a slippery basis of watery sand towards
 the sea4 ,these causes gave rise to a  
convulsion1 which began on the morning  
of the #bdth of ,december1 with a       
crashing noise2 and1 on the evening of  
the same day1 fissures were seen opening
 in the ground1 and the walls of        
tenements rending and sinking1 until a  
deep chasm or ravine1 ,b1 was formed1   
extending nearly three-quarters of a    

mile in length1 with a depth of from    
#ajj to #aej feet1 and a breadth        
exceeding #bdj feet4 ,at the bottom of  
this deep gulf lie fragments of the     
original surface thrown together in the 
wildest confusion4 ,in consequence of   
lateral movements1 the tract intervening
 between the new fissure and the sea1   
including the ancient undercliff1 was   
fractured1 and the whole line of        
sea-cliff carried bodily forwards for   
many yards4 ,a remarkable pyramidal     
crag1 ,f1 off ,culverhole ,point1 which 
lately formed a distinguishing landmark1
 has sunk from a height of about seventy
 to twenty feet1 and the main cliff1 ,e1
 before more than fifty feet distant    
from this insulated crag1 is now brought
 almost close to it4 ,this motion of the
 sea-cliff has produced a farther       
effect1 which may rank among the most   
striking phenomena of this catastrophe4 
,the lateral pressure of the descending 
rocks has urged the neighboring strata1 
extending beneath the shingle of the    

shore1 by their state of unnatural      
condensation1 to burst upwards in a line
 parallel to the coast--thus an elevated
 ridge1 ,g1 more than a mile in length1 
and rising more than forty feet1 covered
 by a confused assemblage of broken     
strata1 and immense blocks of rock1     
invested with sea-weed and corallines1  
and scattered over with shells and      
star-fish1 and other productions of the 
deep1 forms an extended reef in front of
 the present range of cliffs4#dcb  ,a   
full account of this remarkable         
landslip1 with a plan1 sections1 and    
many fine illustrative drawings1 was    
published by ,messrs4 ,conybeare and    
,buckland1#dcc from one of which the    
annexed cut has been reduced1 fig4 #cg4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4  ,view of the 
,axmouth landslip from ,great ,bindon1  
looking westward to the ,sidmouth hills1
 and estuary of the ,exe4 ,from an      
original drawing by ,mrs4 ,buckland4    
,cornwall4--,near ,penzance1 in         
,cornwall1 there is a projecting tongue 

of land1 called the ,green1 formed of   
granitic sand1 from which more than     
thirty acres of pasture land have been  
gradually swept away1 in the course of  
the last two or three centuries4#dcd ,it
 is also said that ,st4 ,michael's      
,mount1 now an insular rock1 was        
formerly situated in a wood1 several    
miles from the sea2 and its old ,cornish
 name 7,caraclowse in ,cowse7 signifies1
 according to ,carew1 the ,hoar ,rock in
 the wood4#dce ,between the ,mount and  
,newlyn there is seen under the sand1   
black vegetable mould1 full of          
hazel-nuts1 and the branches1 leaves1   
roots1 and trunks of forest-trees1 all  
of indigenous species4 ,this stratum has
 been traced seaward as far as the ebb  
permits1 and many proofs of a submerged 
vegetable accumulation1 with stumps of  
trees in the position in which they     
grew1 have been traced1 says ,sir ,henry
 ,de la ,beche1 round the shores of     
,devon1 ,cornwall1 and ,western         
,somerset4 ,the facts not only indicate 

a change in the relative level of the   
sea and land1 since the species of      
animals and plants were the same as     
those now living in this district2 but1 
what is very remarkable1 there seems    
evidence of the submergence having been 
effected1 in part at least1 since the   
country was inhabited by man4#dcf  ,a   
submarine forest occurring at the mouth 
of the ,parret in ,somersetshire1 on the
 south side of the ,bristol ,channel1   
was described by ,mr4 ,l4 ,horner1 in   
#ahae1 and its position attributed to   
subsidence4 ,a bed of peat is there seen
 below the level of the sea1 and the    
trunks of large trees1 such as the oak  
and yew1 having their roots still       
diverging as they grew1 and fixed in    
blue clay4#dcg  ,tradition of loss of   
land in ,cornwall4--,the oldest         
historians mention a tradition in       
,cornwall1 of the submersion of the     
,lionnesse1 a country said to have      
stretched from the ,land's ,end to the  
,scilly ,islands4 ,the tract1 if it     

existed1 must have been thirty miles in 
length1 and perhaps ten in breadth4 ,the
 land now remaining on either side is   
from two hundred to three hundred feet  
high2 the intervening sea about three   
hundred feet deep4 ,although there is no
 authentic evidence for this romantic   
tale1 it probably originated in some    
former inroads of the ,atlantic1        
accompanying1 perhaps1 a subsidence of  
land on this coast4#dch  ,west coast of 
,england4--,having now brought together 
an ample body of proofs of the          
destructive operations of the waves1    
tides1 and currents1 on our eastern and 
southern shores1 it will be unnecessary 
to enter into details of changes on the 
western coast1 for they present merely a
 repetition of the same phenomena1 and  
in general on an inferior scale4 ,on the
 borders of the estuary of the ,severn  
the flats of ,somersetshire and         
,gloucestershire have received enormous 
accessions1 while1 on the other hand1   
the coast of ,cheshire1 between the     

rivers ,mersey and ,dee1 has lost1 since
 the year #agfd1 many hundred yards1 and
 some affirm more than half a mile1 by  
the advance of the sea upon the abrupt  
cliffs of red clay and marls4 ,within   
the period above mentioned several      
lighthouses have been successively      
abandoned4#dci ,there are traditions in 
,pembrokeshire#ddj and                  
,cardiganshire#dda of far greater losses
 of territory than that which the       
,lionnesse tale of ,cornwall pretends to
 commemorate4 ,they are all important1  
as demonstrating that the earliest      
inhabitants were familiar with the      
phenomenon of incursions of the sea4    
,loss of land on the coast of           
,france4--,the ,french coast1           
particularly that part of ,brittany1    
where the tides rise to an extraordinary
 height1 is the constant prey of the    
waves4 ,in the ninth century many       
villages and woods are reported to have 
been carried away1 the coast undergoing 
great change1 whereby the hill of ,st4  

,michael was detached from the mainland4
 ,the parish of ,bourgneuf1 and several 
others in that neighborhood1 were       
overflowed in the year #aejj4 ,in #agce1
 during a great storm1 the ruins of     
,palnel were seen uncovered in the      
sea4#ddb     ,,chapter ,,xx4  ,,action  
,,of ,,tides ,,and                      
,,currents--continued4     ,inroads of  
the sea at the mouths of the ,rhine in  
,holland--,changes in     the arms of   
the ,rhine--,proofs of subsidence of    
land--,estuary of the     ,bies ,bosoh1 
formed in #adba--,zuyder ,zee1 in the   
#acth century--,islands                 
destroyed--,delta of the ,ems converted 
into a bay--,estuary of the     ,dollart
 formed--,encroachment of the sea on the
 coast of ,sleswick--,on     shores of  
,north ,america--,tidal wave1 called the
 ,bore--,influence of     tides and     
currents on the mean level of           
seas--,action of currents in     inland 
lakes and seas--,baltic--,cimbrian      
deluge--,straits of     ,gibraltar--,no 

under-current there--,whether salt is   
precipitated in     the                 
,mediterranean--,waste of shores of     
,mediterranean4   ,inroads of the sea at
 the mouths of the ,rhine4--,the line of
 ,british coast considered in the       
preceding chapter offered no example of 
the conflict of two great antagonist    
forces2 the influx1 on the one hand1 of 
a river draining a large continent1 and1
 on the other1 the action of the waves1 
tides1 and currents of the ocean4 ,but  
when we pass over by the ,straits of    
,dover to the ,continent1 and proceed   
northeastwards1 we find an admirable    
illustration of such a contest1 where   
the ocean and the ,rhine are opposed to 
each other1 each disputing the ground   
now occupied by ,holland2 the one       
striving to shape out an estuary1 the   
other to form a delta4 ,there was       
evidently a period when the river       
obtained the ascendancy1 when the shape 
and perhaps the relative level of the   
coast and set of the tides were very    

different2 but for the last two thousand
 years1 during which man has witnessed  
and actively participated in the        
struggle1 the result has been in favor  
of the ocean2 the area of the whole     
territory having become more and more   
circumscribed2 natural and artificial   
barriers having given away1 one after   
another2 and many hundred thousand human
 beings having perished in the waves4   
,changes in the arms of the             
,rhine4--,the ,rhine1 after flowing from
 the ,grison ,alps1 copiously charged   
with sediment1 first purifies itself in 
the ,lake of ,constance1 where a large  
delta is formed2 then swelled by the    
,aar and numerous other tributaries1 it 
flows for more than six hundred miles   
towards the north2 when1 entering a low 
tract1 it divides into two arms1 about  
ten miles northeast of ,cleves1--a point
 which must therefore be considered the 
head of its delta4 7,see,a1 map1 fig4   
#h47 ,in speaking of the delta1 ,i do   
not mean to assume that all that part of

 ,holland which is comprised within the 
several arms of the ,rhine can be called
 a delta in the strictest sense of the  
term2 because some portion of the       
country thus circumscribed1 as1 for     
example1 a part of ,gelderland and      
,utrecht1 consists of strata which may  
have been deposited in the sea before   
the ,rhine existed4 ,these older tracts 
may either have been raised like the    
,ullah ,bund in ,cutch1 during the      
period when the sediment of the ,rhine  
was converting a part of the sea into   
land1 or they may have constituted      
islands previously4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ch4  ,the dark tint between      
,antwerp and ,nieuport1 represents part 
of the ,netherlands which was land in   
the time of the ,romans1 then overflowed
 by the sea before and during the #eth  
century1 and afterwards reconverted into
 land4  ,when the river divides north of
 ,cleves1 the left arm takes the name of
 the ,waal2 and the right1 retaining    
that of the ,rhine1 is connected1 a     

little farther to the north1 by an      
artificial canal with the river ,yssel4 
,the ,rhine then flowing westward       
divides again southeast of ,utrecht1 and
 from this point it takes the name of   
the ,leck1 a name which was given to    
distinguish it from the northern arm    
called the old ,rhine1 which was sanded 
up until the year #ahbe1 when a channel 
was cut for it1 by which it now enters  
the sea at ,catwyck4 ,it is common1 in  
all great deltas1 that the principal    
channels of discharge should shift from 
time to time1 but in ,holland so many   
magnificent canals have been            
constructed1 and have so diverted1 from 
time to time1 the course of the waters1 
that the geographical changes in this   
delta are endless1 and their history1   
since the ,roman era1 forms a           
complicated topic of antiquarian        
research4 ,the present head of the delta
 is about forty geographical miles from 
the nearest part of the gulf called the 
,zuyder ,zee1 and more than twice that  

distance from the general coast-line4   
,the present head of the delta of the   
,nile is about #hj or #ij geographical  
miles from the sea2 that of the ,ganges1
 as before stated1 #bbj2 and that of the
 ,mississippi about #ahj1 reckoning from
 the point where the ,atchafalaya       
branches off to the extremity of the new
 tongue of land in the ,gulf of ,mexico4
 ,but the comparative distance between  
the heads of deltas and the sea affords 
no positive data for estimating the     
relative magnitude of the alluvial      
tracts formed by their respective       
rivers1 for the ramifications depend on 
many varying and temporary              
circumstances1 and the area over which  
they extend does not hold any constant  
proportion to the volume of water in the
 river4  ,the ,rhine therefore has at   
present three mouths4 ,about two-thirds 
of its waters flow to the sea by the    
,waal1 and the remainder is carried     
partly to the ,zuyder ,zee by the       
,yssel1 and partly to the ocean by the  

,leck4 ,as the whole coast to the south 
as far as ,ostend1 and on the north to  
the entrance of the ,baltic1 has1 with  
few exceptions1 from time immemorial1   
yielded to the force of the waves1 it is
 evident that the common delta of the   
,rhine1 ,meuse1 and ,scheldt1 for these 
three rivers may all be considered as   
discharging their waters into the same  
part of the sea1 would1 if its advance  
had not been checked1 have become       
extremely prominent2 and even if it had 
remained stationary1 would long ere this
 have projected far beyond the rounded  
outline of the coast1 like that strip of
 land already described at the mouth of 
the ,mississippi4 ,but we find1 on the  
contrary1 that the islands which skirt  
the coast have not only lessened in     
size1 but in number also1 while great   
bays have been formed in the interior by
 incursions of the sea4  ,in order to   
explain the incessant advance of the    
ocean on the shores and inland country  
of ,holland1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has   

suggested that there has in all         
probability been a general depression or
 sinking of the land below its former   
level over a wide area4 ,such a change  
of level would enable the sea to break  
through the ancient line of sand-banks  
and islands which protected the         
coast1--would lead to the enlargement of
 bays1 the formation of new estuaries1  
and ultimately to the entire submergence
 of land4 ,these views appear to be     
supported by the fact that several      
peat-mosses of fresh-water origin now   
occur under the level of the sea1       
especially on the site of the ,zuyder   
,zee and ,lake ,flevo1 presently to be  
mentioned4 ,several excavations also    
made for wells at ,utrecht1 ,amsterdam1 
and ,rotterdam have proved1 that below  
the level of the ocean1 the soil near   
the coast consists of alternations of   
sand with marine shells1 and beds of    
peat and clay1 which have been traced to
 the depth of fifty feet and            
upwards4#ddc  ,i have said that the     

coast to the south as far as ,ostend has
 given way4 ,this statement may at first
 seem opposed to the fact1 that the     
tract between ,antwerp and ,nieuport1   
shaded black in the annexed map 7fig4   
#ch71 although now dry land1 and        
supporting a large population1 has1     
within the historical period1 been      
covered with the sea4 ,this region1     
however1 consisted1 in the time of the  
,romans1 of woods1 marshes1 and         
peat-mosses1 protected from the ocean by
 a chain of sandy dunes1 which were     
afterwards broken through during storms1
 especially in the fifth century4 ,the  
waters of the sea during these          
irruptions threw down upon the barren   
peat a horizontal bed of fertile clay1  
which is in some places three yards     
thick1 full of recent shells and works  
of art4 ,the inhabitants1 by the aid of 
embankments and the sand dunes of the   
coast1 have succeeded1 although not     
without frequent disasters1 in defending
 the soil thus raised by the marine     

deposit4#ddd  ,inroads of the ,sea in   
,holland4--,if we pass to the northward 
of the territory just alluded to1 and   
cross the ,scheldt1 we find that between
 the fourteenth and eighteenth centuries
 parts of the islands ,walcheren and    
,beveland were swept away1 and several  
populous districts of ,kadzand1 losses  
which far more than counterbalance the  
gain of land caused by the sanding up of
 some pre-existing creeks4 ,in #afeh the
 ,island ,orisant was annihilated4 ,one 
of the most memorable inroads of the sea
 occurred in #adba1 when the tide1      
pouring into the mouth of the united    
,meuse and ,waal1 burst through a dam in
 the district between ,dort and         
,gertrudenberg1 and overflowed          
seventy-two villages1 forming a large   
sheet of water called the ,bies ,bosch4 
7,see map1 fig4 #ch47 ,thirty-five of   
the villages were irretrievably lost1   
and no vestige1 even of their ruins1 was
 afterwards seen4 ,the rest were        
redeemed1 and the site of the others1   

though still very generally represented 
on maps as an estuary1 has in fact been 
gradually filled up by alluvial         
deposits1 and had become in #ahce1 as ,i
 was informed by ,professor ,moll1 an   
immense plain1 yielding abundant crops  
of hay1 though still uninhabited4 ,to   
the north of the ,meuse is a long line  
of shore covered with sand dunes1 where 
great encroachments have taken place    
from time to time1 in consequence       
chiefly of the prevalence of            
southeasterly winds1 which blow down the
 sands towards the sea4 ,the church of  
,scheveningen1 not far from the ,hague1 
was once in the middle of the village1  
and now stands on the shore1 half the   
place having been overwhelmed by the    
waves in #aegj4 ,catwyck1 once far from 
the sea1 is now upon the shore2 two of  
its streets having been overflowed1 and 
land torn away to the extent of #bjj    
yards1 in #agai4 ,it is only by the aid 
of embankments that ,petten1 and several
 other places farther north1 have been  

defended against the sea4  ,formation of
 the ,zuyder ,zee and ,straits of       
,staveren4--,still more important are   
the changes which have taken place on   
the coast opposite the right arm of the 
,rhine1 or the ,yssel1 where the ocean  
has burst through a large isthmus1 and  
entered the inland lake ,flevo1 which1  
in ancient times1 was1 according to     
,pomponius ,mela1 formed by the         
overflowing of the ,rhine over certain  
lowlands4 ,it appears that1 in the time 
of ,tacitus1 there were several lakes on
 the present site of the ,zuyder ,zee1  
between ,friesland and ,holland4 ,the   
successive inroads by which these and a 
great part of the adjoining territory1  
were transformed into a great gulf1     
began about the commencement1 and were  
completed towards the close1 of the     
thirteenth century4 ,alting gives the   
following relation of the occurrence1   
drawn from manuscript documents of      
contemporary inhabitants of the         
neighboring provinces4 ,in the year     

#abje1 the island now called ,wieringen1
 to the south of the ,texel1 was still a
 part of the mainland1 but during       
several high floods1 of which the dates 
are given1 ending in ,december1 #abea1  
it was separated from the continent4 ,by
 subsequent incursions the sea consumed 
great parts of the rich and populous    
isthmus1 a low tract which stretched on 
the north of ,lake ,flevo1 between      
,staveren in ,friesland and ,medemblick 
in ,holland1 till at length a breach was
 completed about the year #abhb1 and    
afterwards widened4 ,great destruction  
of land took place when the sea first   
broke in1 and many towns were swept     
away2 but there was afterwards a        
reaction to a certain extent1 large     
tracts1 at first submerged1 having been 
gradually redeemed4 ,the new straits    
south of ,staveren are more than half   
the width of those of ,dover1 but are   
very shallow1 the greatest depth not    
exceeding two or three fathoms4 ,the new
 bay is of a somewhat circular form1 and

 between thirty and forty miles in      
diameter4 ,how much of this space may   
formerly have been occupied by ,lake    
,flevo is unknown4 7,see map1 fig4 #ch47
  ,destruction of islands4--,a series of
 islands stretching from the ,texel to  
the mouths of the ,weser and ,elbe are  
probably the last relics of a tract once
 continuous4 ,they have greatly         
diminished in size1 and have lost about 
a third of their number1 since the time 
of ,pliny2 for that naturalist counted  
twenty-three islands between the ,texel 
and ,eider1 whereas there are now only  
sixteen1 including ,heligoland and      
,neuwerk4#dde ,the island of            
,heligoland1 at the mouth of the ,elbe1 
consists of a rock of red marl of the   
,keuper formation 7of the ,germans71 and
 is bounded by perpendicular red cliffs1
 above #bjj feet high4 ,although1       
according to some accounts1 it has been 
greatly reduced in size since the year  
#hjj1 ,m4 ,wiebel assures us1 that the  
ancient map by ,meyer cannot be depended

 upon1 and that the island1 according to
 the description still extant by ,adam  
of ,bremen1 was not much larger than    
now1 in the time of ,charlemagne4 ,on   
comparing the map made in the year #agic
 by the ,danish engineer ,wessel1 the   
average encroachment of the sea on the  
cliffs1 between that period and the year
 #ahdh 7or about half a century71 did   
not amount to more than three feet4#ddf 
,on the other hand1 some few islands    
have extended their bounds in one       
direction1 or become connected with     
others1 by the sanding-up of channels2  
but even these1 like ,juist1 have       
generally given way as much on the north
 towards the sea as they have gained on 
the south1 or land side4  ,the ,dollart 
formed4--,while the delta of the ,rhine 
has suffered so materially from the     
movements of the ocean1 it can hardly be
 supposed that minor rivers on the same 
coast should have been permitted to     
extend their deltas4 ,it appears that in
 the time of the ,romans there was an   

alluvial plain of great fertility1 where
 the ,ems entered the sea by three arms4
 ,this low country stretched between    
,groningen and ,friesland1 and sent out 
a peninsula to the northeast towards    
,emden4 ,a flood in #abgg first         
destroyed part of the peninsula4 ,other 
inundations followed at different       
periods throughout the fifteenth        
century4 ,in #aejg1 a part only of      
,torum1 a considerable town1 remained   
standing2 and in spite of the erection  
of dams1 the remainder of that place1   
together with market-towns1 villages1   
and monasteries1 to the number of fifty1
 were finally overwhelmed4 ,the new     
gulf1 which was called the ,dollart1    
although small in comparison to the     
,zuyder ,zee1 occupied no less than six 
square miles at first2 but part of this 
space was1 in the course of the two     
following centuries1 again redeemed from
 the sea4 ,the small bay of ,leybucht1  
farther north1 was formed in a similar  
manner in the thirteenth century2 and   

the bay of ,harlbucht in the middle of  
the sixteenth4 ,both of these have since
 been partially reconverted into dry    
land4 ,another new estuary1 called the  
,gulf of ,jahde1 near the mouth of the  
,weser1 scarcely inferior in size to the
 ,dollart1 has been gradually hollowed  
out since the year #ajaf1 between which 
era and #afea a space of about four     
square miles has been added to the sea4 
,the rivulet which now enters this inlet
 is very small2 but ,arens conjectures  
that an arm of the ,weser had once an   
outlet in that direction4  ,coast of    
,sleswick4--,farther north we find so   
many records of waste on the western    
coast of ,sleswick1 as to lead us to    
anticipate that1 at no distant period in
 the history of the physical geography  
of ,europe1 ,jutland may become an      
island1 and the ocean may obtain a more 
direct entrance into the ,baltic4       
,indeed1 the temporary insulation of the
 northern extremity of ,jutland has been
 affected no less than four times within

 the records of history1 the ocean      
having as often made a breach through   
the bar of sand1 which usually excludes 
it from the ,lym ,fiord4 ,this long     
frith is #abj miles in length including 
its windings1 and communicates at its   
eastern end with the ,baltic4 ,the last 
irruption of salt water happened in     
#ahbd1 and the fiord was still open in  
#ahcg1 when some vessels of thirty tons'
 burden passed through4  ,the ,marsh    
islands between the rivers ,elbe and    
,eider are mere banks1 like the lands   
formed of the warp in the ,humber1      
protected by dikes4 ,some of them1 after
 having been inhabited with security for
 more than ten centuries1 have been     
suddenly overwhelmed4 ,in this manner1  
in #abaf1 no less than ten thousand of  
the inhabitants of ,eiderstede and      
,ditmarsch perished2 and on the #aath of
 ,october1 #afcd1 the islands and the   
whole coast1 as far as ,jutland1        
suffered by a dreadful deluge4          
,destruction of ,northstrand by the     

sea4--,northstrand1 up to the year      
#abdj1 was1 with the islands ,sylt and  
,fohr1 so nearly connected with the     
mainland as to appear a peninsula1 and  
was called ,north ,friesland1 a highly  
cultivated and populous district4 ,it   
measured from nine to eleven            
geographical miles from north to south1 
and six to eight from east to west4 ,in 
the above-mentioned year it was torn    
asunder from the continent1 and in part 
overwhelmed4 ,the ,isle of ,northstrand1
 thus formed1 was1 towards the end of   
the sixteenth century1 only four        
geographical miles in circumference1 and
 was still celebrated for its           
cultivation and numerous population4    
,after many losses1 it still contained  
nine thousand inhabitants4 ,at last1 in 
the year #afcd1 on the evening of the   
#aath of ,october1 a flood passed over  
the whole island1 whereby #acjj houses1 
with many churches1 were lost2 fifty    
thousand head of cattle perished1 and   
above six thousand men4 ,three small    

islets1 one of them still called        
,northstrand1 alone remained1 which are 
now continually wasting4  ,the          
redundancy of river water in the        
,baltic1 especially during the melting  
of ice and snow in spring1 causes in    
general an outward current through the  
channel called the ,cattegat4 ,but after
 a continuance of northwesterly gales1  
especially during the height of the     
spring-tides1 the ,atlantic rises1 and  
pouring a flood of water into the       
,baltic1 commits dreadful devastations  
on the isles of the ,danish             
,archipelago4 ,this current even acts1  
though with diminished force1 as far    
eastward as the vicinity of             
,dantzic4#ddg ,accounts written during  
the last ten centuries attest the       
wearing down of promontories on the     
,danish coast1 the deepening of gulfs1  
the severing of peninsulas from the     
mainland1 and the waste of islands1     
while in several cases marsh land1      
defended for centuries by dikes1 has at 

last been overflowed1 and thousands of  
the inhabitants whelmed in the waves4   
,thus the island ,barsoe1 on the coast  
of ,sleswick1 has lost1 year after year1
 an acre at a time1 and the island      
,alsen suffers in like manner4          
,cimbrian deluge4--,as we have already  
seen that during the flood before       
mentioned1 #fjjj men and #ej1jjj head of
 cattle perished on ,northstrand on the 
western coast of ,jutland1 we are all   
well prepared to find that this         
peninsula1 the ,cimbrica ,chersonesus of
 the ancients1 has from a remote period 
been the theatre of like catastrophes4  
,accordingly1 ,strabo records a story1  
although he treats it as an incredible  
fiction1 that1 during a high tide1 the  
ocean rose upon this coast so rapidly1  
that men on horseback were scarcely able
 to escape4#ddh ,florus1 alluding to the
 same tradition1 says1 ,cimbri1         
,teutoni1 atque ,tigurini1 ab extremis  
,galliae profugi1 cum terras eorum      
inundasset ,oceanus1 novas sedes toto   

orbe quaerebant4#ddi ,this event1       
commonly called the ,cimbrian ,deluge1  
is supposed to have happened about three
 centuries before the ,christian era2   
but it is not improbable that the       
principal catastrophe was preceded and  
followed by many devastations like those
 experienced in modern times on the     
islands and shores of ,jutland1 and such
 calamities may well be conceived to    
have forced on the migration of some    
maritime tribes4  ,inroads of the sea on
 the eastern shores of ,north           
,america4--,after so many authentic     
details respecting the destruction of   
the coast in parts of ,europe best      
known1 it will be unnecessary to        
multiply examples of analogous changes  
in more distant regions of the world4   
,it must not1 however1 be imagined that 
our own seas form any exception to the  
general rule4 ,thus1 for example1 if we 
pass over to the eastern coast of ,north
 ,america1 where the tides rise1 in the 
,bay of ,fundy1 to a great elevation1 we

 find many facts attesting the incessant
 demolition of land4 ,cliffs1 often     
several hundred feet high1 composed of  
sandstone1 red marl1 and other rocks1   
which border that bay and its numerous  
estuaries1 are perpetually undermined4  
,the ruins of these cliffs are gradually
 carried1 in the form of mud1 sand1 and 
large boulders1 into the ,atlantic by   
powerful currents1 aided at certain     
seasons by drift ice1 which forms along 
the coast1 and freezes round large      
stones4  ,at ,cape ,may1 on the north   
side of ,delaware ,bay1 in the ,united  
,states1 the encroachment of the sea was
 shown by observations made             
consecutively for sixteen years1 from   
#ahjd to #ahbj1 to average about nine   
feet a year2#dej and at ,sullivan's     
,island1 which lies on the north side of
 the entrance of the harbor of          
,charleston1 in ,south ,carolina1 the   
sea carried away a quarter of a mile of 
land in three years1 ending in #aghf4dea
  ,tidal wave called the ,bore4--,before

 concluding my remarks on the action of 
the tides1 ,i must not omit to mention  
the wave called the ,bore1 which is     
sometimes produced in a river where a   
large body of water is made to rise     
suddenly1 in consequence of the         
contraction of the channel4 ,this wave  
terminates abruptly on the inland side2 
because the quantity of water contained 
in it is so great1 and its motion so    
rapid1 that time is not allowed for the 
surface of the river to be immediately  
raised by means of transmitted pressure4
 ,a tide wave thus rendered abrupt has a
 close analogy1 observes ,mr4 ,whewell1 
to the waves which curl over and break  
on a shelving shore4#deb  ,the ,bore    
which enters the ,severn1 where the     
phenomenon is of almost daily           
occurrence1 is sometimes nine feet high1
 and at spring-tides rushes up the      
estuary with extraordinary rapidity4    
,the finest example which ,i have seen  
of this wave was at ,nova ,scotia1#dec  
where the tide is said to rise in some  

places seventy feet perpendicular1 and  
to be the highest in the world4 ,in the 
large estuary of the ,shubenacadie1     
which connects with another estuary     
called the ,basin of ,mines1 itself an  
embranchment of the ,bay of ,fundy1 a   
vast body of water comes rushing up1    
with a roaring noise1 into a long narrow
 channel1 and while it is ascending1 has
 all the appearance of pouring down a   
slope as steep as that of the celebrated
 rapids of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,in      
picturesque effect1 however1 it bears no
 comparison1 for instead of the         
transparent green water and snow-white  
foam of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the whole   
current of the ,shubenacadie is turbid  
and densely charged with red mud4 ,the  
same phenomenon is frequently witnessed 
in the principal branches of the ,ganges
 and in the ,megna as before mentioned  
7p4 #bgi74 ,in the ,hoogly1 says        
,rennell1 the ,bore commences at ,hoogly
 ,point1 the place where the river first
 contracts itself1 and is perceptible   

above ,hoogly ,town2 and so quick is its
 motion1 that it hardly employs four    
hours in travelling from one to the     
other1 though the distance is nearly    
seventy miles4 ,at ,calcutta it         
sometimes occasions an instantaneous    
rise of five feet2 and both here1 and in
 every other part of its track1 the     
boats1 on its approach1 immediately quit
 the shore1 and make for safety to the  
middle of the river4 ,in the channels1  
between the islands in the mouth of the 
,megna1 the height of the ,bore is said 
to exceed twelve feet2 and is so        
terrific in its appearance1 and         
dangerous in its consequences1 that no  
boat will venture to pass at            
spring-tide4#ded ,these waves may       
sometimes cause inundations1 undermine  
cliffs1 and still more frequently sweep 
away trees and land animals from low    
shores1 so that they may be carried     
down1 and ultimately imbedded in        
fluviatile or submarine deposits4       
,,currents ,,in ,,inland ,,lakes ,,and  

,,seas4  ,in such large bodies of water 
as the ,north ,american lakes1 the      
continuance of a strong wind in one     
direction often causes the elevation of 
the water1 and its accumulation on the  
leeward side2 and while the equilibrium 
is restoring itself1 powerful currents  
are occasioned4 ,in ,october1 #ahcc1 a  
strong current in ,lake ,erie1 caused   
partly by the set of the waters towards 
the outlet of the lake1 and partly by   
the prevailing wind1 burst a passage    
through the extensive peninsula called  
,long ,point1 and soon excavated a      
channel more than nine feet deep and    
nine hundred feet wide4 ,its width and  
depth have since increased1 and a new   
and costly pier has been erected2 for it
 is hoped that this event will          
permanently improve the navigation of   
,lake ,erie for steamboats4#dee ,on the 
opposite1 or southern coast of this     
lake1 in front of the town of           
,cleveland1 the degradation of the      
cliffs had been so rapid for several    

years preceding a survey made in #ahcg1 
as to threaten many towns with          
demolition4#def ,in the ,black ,sea1    
also1 although free from tides1 we learn
 from ,pallas that there is a           
sufficiently strong current to undermine
 the cliffs in many parts1 and          
particularly in the ,crimea4  ,straits  
of ,gibraltar4--,it is well known that a
 powerful current sets constantly from  
the ,atlantic into the ,mediterranean1  
and its influence extends along the     
whole southern borders of that sea1 and 
even to the shores of ,asia ,minor4     
,captain ,smyth found1 during his       
survey1 that the central current ran    
constantly at the rate of from three to 
six miles an hour eastward into the     
,mediterranean1 the body of water being 
three miles and a half wide4 ,but there 
are also two lateral currents--one on   
the ,european1 and one on the ,african  
side2 each of them about two miles and a
 half broad1 and flowing at about the   
same rate as the central stream4 ,these 

lateral currents ebb and flow with the  
tide1 setting alternately into the      
,mediterranean and into the ,atlantic4  
,the excess of water constantly flowing 
in is very great1 and there is only one 
cause to which this can be attributed1  
the loss of water in the ,mediterranean 
by evaporation4 ,that the level of this 
sea should be considerably depressed by 
this cause is quite conceivable1 since  
we know that the winds blowing from the 
shores of ,africa are hot and dry2 and  
hygrometrical experiments recently made 
in ,malta and other places1 show that   
the mean quantity of moisture in the air
 investing the ,mediterranean is equal  
only to one half of that in the         
atmosphere of ,england4 ,the temperature
 also of the great inland sea is upon an
 average higher1 by #c-a_/b degrees of  
,fahrenheit1 than the eastern part of   
the ,atlantic ,ocean in the same        
latitude1 which must greatly promote its
 evaporation4 ,the ,black ,sea being    
situated in a higher latitude1 and being

 the receptacle of rivers flowing from  
the north1 is much colder1 and its      
expenditure far less2 accordingly it    
does not draw any supply from the       
,mediterranean1 but1 on the contrary1   
contributes to it by a current flowing  
outwards1 for the most part of the year1
 through the ,dardanelles4 ,the         
discharge1 however1 at the ,bosphorus is
 so small1 when compared to the volume  
of water carried in by rivers1 as to    
imply a great amount of evaporation in  
the ,black ,sea4  ,whether salt be      
precipitated in the ,mediterranean4--,it
 is1 however1 objected1 that evaporation
 carries away only fresh water1 and that
 the current from the ,atlantic is      
continually bringing in salt water3 why1
 then1 do not the component parts of the
 waters of the ,mediterranean vary8 or  
how can they remain so nearly the same  
as those of the ocean8 ,some have       
imagined that the excess of salt might  
be carried away by an under-current     
running in a contrary direction to the  

superior2 and this hypothesis appeared  
to receive confirmation from a late     
discovery1 that the water taken up about
 fifty miles within the ,straits1 from a
 depth of #fgj fathoms1 contained a     
quantity of salt four times greater than
 the water of the surface4 ,dr4         
,wollaston1#deg who analyzed this water 
obtained by ,captain ,smyth1 truly      
inferred that an under-current of such  
denser water flowing outward1 if of     
equal breadth and depth with the current
 near the surface1 would carry out as   
much salt below as is brought in above1 
although it moved with less than        
one-fourth part of the velocity1 and    
would thus prevent a perpetual increase 
of saltness in the ,mediterranean beyond
 that existing in the ,atlantic4 ,it was
 also remarked by others1 that the      
result would be the same1 if the        
swiftness being equal1 the inferior     
current had only one-fourth of the      
volume of the superior4 ,at the same    
time there appeared reason to conclude  

that this great specific gravity was    
only acquired by water at immense       
depths2 for two specimens of the water1 
taken within the ,mediterranean1 at the 
distance of some hundred miles from the 
,straits1 and at depths of #djj and even
 #dej fathoms1 were found by ,dr4       
,wollaston not to exceed in density that
 of many ordinary samples of sea-water4 
,such being the case1 we can now prove  
that the vast amount of salt brought    
into the ,mediterranean does not pass   
out again by the ,straits2 for it       
appears by ,captain ,smyth's soundings1 
which ,dr4 ,wallaston had not seen1 that
 between the capes of ,trafalgar and    
,spartel1 which are twenty-two miles    
apart1 and where the ,straits are       
shallowest1 the deepest part1 which is  
on the side of ,cape ,spartel1 is only  
#bbj fathoms4 ,it is therefore evident1 
that if water sinks in certain parts of 
the ,mediterranean1 in consequence of   
the increase of its specific gravity1 to
 greater depths than #bbj fathoms1 it   

can never flow out again into the       
,atlantic1 since it must be stopped by  
the submarine barrier which crosses the 
shallowest part of the ,straits of      
,gibraltar4  ,the idea of the existence 
of a counter-current1 at a certain      
depth1 first originated in the following
 circumstances3--,m4 ,de l',aigle1      
commander of a privateer called the     
,phoenix of ,marseilles1 gave chase to a
 ,dutch merchant-ship1 near ,ceuta      
,point1 and coming up with her in the   
middle of the gut1 between ,tariffa and 
,tangier1 gave her one broadside1 which 
directly sunk her4 ,a few days after1   
the sunken ship1 with her cargo of      
brandy and oil1 was cast ashore near    
,tangier1 which is at least four leagues
 to the westward of the place where she 
went down1 and to which she must have   
floated in a direction contrary to the  
course of the central current4#deh ,this
 fact1 however1 affords no evidence of  
an under-current1 because the ship1 when
 it approached the coast1 would         

necessarily be within the influence of a
 lateral current1 which running westward
 twice every twenty-four hours1 might   
have brought back the vessel to         
,tangier4  ,what1 then1 becomes of the  
excess of salt8--for this is an inquiry 
of the highest geological interest4 ,the
 ,rhone1 the ,po1 the ,nile1 and many   
hundred minor streams and springs1 pour 
annually into the ,mediterranean large  
quantities of carbonate of lime1        
together with iron1 magnesia1 silica1   
alumina1 sulphur1 and other mineral     
ingredients in a state of chemical      
solution4 ,to explain why the influx of 
this matter does not alter the          
composition of this sea has never been  
regarded as a difficulty2 for it is     
known that calcareous rocks are forming 
in the delta of the ,rhone1 in the      
,adriatic1 on the coast of ,asia ,minor1
 and in other localities4 ,precipitation
 is acknowledged to be the means whereby
 the surplus mineral matter is disposed 
of1 after the consumption of a certain  

portion in the secretions of testacea1  
zoophytes1 and other marine animals4    
,but before muriate of soda can1 in like
 manner1 be precipitated1 the whole     
,mediterranean ought1 according to the  
received principles of chemistry1 to    
become as much saturated with salt as   
,lake ,aral1 the ,dead ,sea1 or the     
brine-springs of ,cheshire4  ,it is     
undoubtedly true1 in regard to small    
bodies of water1 that every particle    
must be fully saturated with muriate of 
soda before a single crystal of salt can
 be formed2 such is probably the case in
 all natural salterns3 such1 for        
example1 as those described by          
travellers as occurring on the western  
borders of the ,black ,sea1 where       
extensive marshes are said to be covered
 by thin films of salt after a rapid    
evaporation of sea-water4 ,the salt     
atangs of the ,rhone1 where salt has    
sometimes been precipitated in          
considerable abundance1 have been       
already mentioned4 ,in regard to the    

depth of the ,mediterranean1 it appears 
that between ,gibraltar and ,ceuta1     
,captain ,smyth sounded to the enormous 
depth of #iej fathoms1 and found there a
 gravelly bottom1 with fragments of     
broken shells4 ,saussure sounded to the 
depth of two thousand feet1 within a few
 yards of the shore1 at ,nice2 and ,m4  
,barard has lately fathomed to the depth
 of more than six thousand feet in      
several places without reaching the     
bottom4#dei  ,the central abysses1      
therefore1 of this sea are1 in all      
likelihood1 at least as deep as the     
,alps are high2 and1 as at the depth of 
seven hundred fathoms only1 water has   
been found to contain a proportion of   
salt four times greater than at the     
surface1 we may presume that the excess 
of salt may be much greater at the depth
 of two or three miles4 ,after          
evaporation1 the surface water becomes  
impregnated with a slight excess of     
salt1 and its specific gravity being    
thus increased1 it instantly falls to   

the bottom1 while lighter water rises to
 the top1 or flows in laterally1 being  
always supplied by rivers and the       
current from the ,atlantic4 ,the heavier
 fluid1 when it arrives at the bottom1  
cannot stop if it can gain access to any
 lower part of the bed of the sea1 not  
previously occupied by water of the same
 density4  ,how far this accumulation of
 brine can extend before the inferior   
strata of water will part with any of   
their salt1 and what difference in such 
a chemical process the immense pressure 
of the incumbent ocean1 or the escape of
 heated vapors1 thermal springs1 or     
submarine volcanic eruptions1 might     
occasion1 are questions which cannot be 
answered in the present state of        
science4  ,the ,straits of ,gibraltar   
are said to become gradually wider by   
the wearing down of the cliffs on each  
side at many points2 and the current    
sets along the coast of ,africa1 so as  
to cause considerable inroads in various
 parts1 particularly near ,carthage4    

,near the ,canopic mouth of the ,nile1  
at ,aboukir1 the coast was greatly      
devastated in the year #aghd1 when a    
small island was nearly consumed4 ,by a 
series of similar operations1 the old   
site of the cities of ,nicropolis1      
,taposiris1 ,parva and ,canopus1 have   
become a sand-bank4#dfj     ,,chapter   
,,xxi4  ,,reproductive ,,effects ,,of   
,,tides ,,and ,,currents4               
,estuaries1 how formed--,silting up of  
estuaries does not compensate     the   
loss of land on the borders of the      
ocean--,bed of the ,german              
,ocean--,composition and extent of its  
sand-banks--,strata deposited by        
currents in the ,english channel--,on   
the shores of the                       
,mediterranean--,at the mouths of the   
,amazon1 ,orinoco1 and                  
,mississippi--,wide area over which     
strata may be formed by this     cause4 
,from the facts enumerated in the last  
chapter1 it appears that on the borders 
of the ocean1 currents and tides        

co-operating with the waves of the sea  
are most powerful instruments in the    
destruction and transportation of rocks2
 and as numerous tributaries discharge  
their alluvial burden into the channel  
of one great river1 so we find that many
 rivers deliver their earthy contents to
 one marine current1 to be borne by it  
to a distance1 and deposited in some    
deep receptacle of the ocean4 ,the      
current1 besides receiving this tribute 
of sedimentary matter from streams      
draining the land1 acts also itself on  
the coast1 as does a river on the cliffs
 which bound a valley4 ,yet the waste of
 cliffs by marine currents constitutes  
on the whole a very insignificant       
portion of the denudation annually      
effected by aqueous causes1 as ,i shall 
point out in the sequel of this chapter 
7p4 #cci74  ,in inland seas1 where the  
tides are insensible1 or on those parts 
of the borders of the ocean where they  
are feeble1 it is scarcely possible to  
prevent a harbor at a river's mouth from

 silting up2 for a bar of sand or mud is
 formed at points where the velocity of 
the turbid river is checked by the sea1 
or where the river and a marine current 
neutralize each other's force4 ,for the 
current1 as we have seen1 may1 like the 
river1 hold in suspension a large       
quantity of sediment1 or1 co-operating  
with the waves1 may cause the           
progressive motion of a shingle beach in
 one direction4 ,i have already alluded 
to the erection of piers and groins at  
certain places on our southern coast1 to
 arrest the course of the shingle and   
sand 7see p4 #cah74 ,the immediate      
effect of these temporary obstacles is  
to cause a great accumulation of pebbles
 on one side of the barrier1 after which
 the beach still moves on round the end 
of the pier at a greater distance from  
the land4 ,this system1 however1 is     
often attended with a serious evil1 for 
during storms the waves throw suddenly  
into the harbor the vast heap of pebbles
 which have collected for years behind  

the groin or pier1 as happened during a 
great gale 7,jan4 #ahci7 at ,dover4     
,the formation and keeping open of large
 estuaries are due to the combined      
influence of tidal currents and rivers2 
for when the tide rises1 a large body of
 water suddenly enters the mouth of the 
river1 where1 becoming confined within  
narrower bounds1 while its momentum is  
not destroyed1 it is urged on1 and1     
having to pass through a contracted     
channel1 rises and runs with increased  
velocity1 just as a stream when it      
reaches the arch of a bridge scarcely   
large enough to give passage to its     
waters1 rushes with a steep fall through
 the arch4 ,during the ascent of the    
tide1 a body of fresh water1 flowing    
down in an opposite direction from the  
higher country1 is arrested in its      
course for several hours2 and thus a    
large lake of fresh and brackish water  
is accumulated1 which1 when the sea     
ebbs1 is let loose1 as on the removal of
 an artificial sluice or dam4 ,by the   

force of this retiring water1 the       
alluvial sediment both of the river and 
of the sea is swept away1 and           
transported to such a distance from the 
mouth of the estuary1 that a small part 
only can return with the next tide4  ,it
 sometimes happens1 that during a       
violent storm a large bar of sand is    
suddenly made to shift its position1 so 
as to prevent the free influx of the    
tides1 or efflux of river water4 ,thus  
about the year #aejj the sands at       
,bayonne were suddenly thrown across the
 mouth of the ,adour4 ,that river1      
flowing back upon itself1 soon forced a 
passage to the northward along the sandy
 plain of ,capbreton1 till at last it   
reached the sea at ,boucau1 at the      
distance of seven leagues from the point
 where it had formerly entered4 ,it was 
not till the year #aegi that the        
celebrated architect ,louis de ,foix    
undertook1 at the desire of ,henry      
,,iii41 to reopen the ancient channel1  
which he at last effected with great    

difficulty4#dfa  ,in the estuary of the 
,thames at ,london1 and in the ,gironde1
 the tide rises only for five hours and 
ebbs seven1 and in all estuaries the    
water requires a longer time to run down
 than up2 so that the preponderating    
force is always in the direction which  
tends to keep open a deep and broad     
passage4 ,but for reasons already       
explained1 there is naturally a tendency
 in all estuaries to silt up partially1 
since eddies1 and backwaters1 and points
 where opposing streams meet1 are very  
numerous1 and constantly change their   
position4  ,many writers have declared  
that the gain on our eastern coast1     
since the earliest periods of history1  
has more than counterbalanced the loss2 
but they have been at no pains to       
calculate the amount of loss1 and have  
often forgotten that1 while the new     
acquisitions are manifest1 there are    
rarely any natural monuments to attest  
the former existence of the land that   
has been carried away4 ,they have also  

taken into their account those tracts   
artificially recovered1 which are often 
of great agricultural importance1 and   
may remain secure1 perhaps1 for         
thousands of years1 but which are only a
 few feet above the mean level of the   
sea1 and are therefore exposed to be    
overflowed again by a small proportion  
of the force required to move cliffs of 
considerable height on our shores4 ,if  
it were true that the area of land      
annually abandoned by the sea in        
estuaries were equal to that invaded by 
it1 there would still be no compensation
 in kind4  ,the tidal current which     
flows out from the northwest1 and bears 
against the eastern coast of ,england1  
transports1 as we have seen1 materials  
of various kinds4 ,aided by the waves1  
it undermines and sweeps away the       
granite1 gneiss1 trap-rocks1 and        
sandstone of ,shetland1 and removes the 
gravel and loam of the cliffs of        
,holderness1 ,norfolk1 and ,suffolk1    
which are between twenty and three      

hundred feet in height1 and which waste 
at various rates of from one foot to six
 yards annually4 ,it also bears away1 in
 co-operation with the ,thames and the  
tides1 the strata of ,london clay on the
 coast of ,essex and ,sheppey4 ,the sea 
at the same time consumes the chalk with
 its flints for many miles continuously 
on the shores of ,kent and              
,sussex--commits annual ravages on the  
freshwater beds1 capped by a thick      
covering of chalk-flint gravel1 in      
,hampshire1 and continually saps the    
foundations of the ,portland limestone4 
,it receives1 besides1 during the rainy 
months1 large supplies of pebbles1 sand1
 and mud1 which numerous streams from   
the ,grampians1 ,cheviots1 and other    
chains1 send down to the sea4 ,to what  
regions1 then1 is all this matter       
consigned8 ,it is not retained in       
mechanical suspension by the waters of  
the ocean1 nor does it mix with them in 
a state of chemical solution--it is     
deposited somewhere1 yet certainly not  

in the immediate neighborhood of our    
shores2 for1 in that case1 there would  
soon be a cessation of the encroachment 
of the sea1 and large tracts of low     
land1 like ,romney ,marsh1 would almost 
everywhere encircle our island4  ,as    
there is now a depth of water exceeding 
thirty feet1 in some spots where towns  
like ,dunwich flourished but a few      
centuries ago1 it is clear that the     
current not only carries far away the   
materials of the wasted cliffs1 but is  
capable also of excavating the bed of   
the sea to a certain moderate depth4    
,so great is the quantity of matter held
 in suspension by the tidal current on  
our shores1 that the waters are in some 
places artificially introduced into     
certain lands below the level of the    
sea2 and by repeating this operation1   
which is called warping1 for two or     
three years1 considerable tracts have   
been raised1 in the estuary of the      
,humber1 to the height of about six     
feet4 ,if a current1 charged with such  

materials1 meets with deep depressions  
in the bed of the ocean1 it must often  
fill them up2 just as a river1 when it  
meets with a lake in its course1 fills  
it gradually with sediment4  ,i have    
said 7p4 #ccg7 that the action of the   
waves and currents on sea-cliffs1 or    
their power to remove matter from above 
to below the sea-level1 is insignificant
 in comparison with the power of rivers 
to perform the same task4 ,as an        
illustration we may take the coast of   
,holderness described in the last       
chapter 7p4 #cjd74 ,it is composed1 as  
we have seen1 of very destructible      
materials1 is thirty-six miles long1 and
 its average height may be taken at     
forty feet4 ,as it has wasted away at   
the rate of two and a quarter yards     
annually1 for a long period1 it will be 
found on calculation that the quantity  
of matter thrown down into the sea every
 year1 and removed by the current1      
amounts to #ea1cba1fjj cubic feet4 ,it  
has been shown that the united ,ganges  

and ,brahmapootra carry down to the ,bay
 of ,bengal #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj of cubic    
feet of solid matter every year1 so that
 their transporting power is no less    
than #ghj times greater than that of the
 sea on the coast above-mentioned2 and  
in order to produce a result equal to   
that of the two ,indian rivers1 we must 
have a line of wasting coast1 like that 
of ,holderness1 nearly #bh1jjj miles in 
length1 or longer than the entire       
circumference of the globe by above     
#cjjj miles4 ,the reason of so great a  
difference in the results may be        
understood when we reflect that the     
operations of the ocean are limited to a
 single line of cliff surrounding a     
large area1 whereas great rivers with   
their tributaries1 and the mountain     
torrents which flow into them1 act      
simultaneously on a length of bank      
almost indefinite4  ,nevertheless we are
 by no means entitled to infer1 that the
 denuding force of the great ocean is a 
geological cause of small efficacy1 or  

inferior to that of rivers4 ,its chief  
influence is exerted at moderate depths 
below the surface1 on all those areas   
which are slowly rising1 or are         
attempting1 as it were1 to rise above   
the sea4 ,from data hitherto obtained   
respecting subterranean movements1 we   
can scarcely speculate on an average    
rate of upheaval of more than two or    
three feet in a century4 ,an elevation  
to this amount is taking place in       
,scandinavia1 and probably in many      
submarine areas as vast as those which  
we know to be sinking from the proofs   
derived from circular lagoon islands or 
coral atolls4 7,see chap4 #ej47 ,suppose
 strata as destructible as those of the 
,wealden1 or the lower and upper        
cretaceous formation1 or the tertiary   
deposits of the ,british ,isles to be   
thus slowly upheaved1 how readily might 
they all be swept away by waves and     
currents in an open sea6 ,how entirely  
might each stratum disappear as it was  
brought up successively and exposed to  

the breakers6 ,shoals of wide extent    
might be produced1 but it is difficult  
to conceive how any continent could ever
 be formed under such circumstances4    
,were it not indeed for the hardness and
 toughness of the crystalline and       
volcanic rocks1 which are often capable 
of resisting the action of the waves1   
few lands might ever emerge from the    
midst of an open sea4  ,supposed filling
 up of the ,german ,ocean4--,the ,german
 ,ocean is deepest on the ,norwegian    
side1 where the soundings give #aij     
fathoms2 but the mean depth of the whole
 basin may be stated at no more than    
thirty-one fathoms4#dfb ,the bed of this
 sea is traversed by several enormous   
banks1 the greatest of which is the     
,dogger ,bank1 extending for upwards of 
#ced miles from north to south4 ,the    
whole superficies of these shoals is    
equal to about one-third of the whole   
extent of ,england and ,scotland4 ,the  
average height of the banks measures1   
according to ,mr4 ,stevenson1 about     

seventy-eight feet2 the upper portion of
 them consisting of fine and coarse     
siliceous sand1 mixed with comminuted   
corals and shells4#dfc ,it had been     
supposed that these vast submarine hills
 were made up bodily of loose materials 
supplied from the waste of the ,english1
 ,dutch1 and other coasts2 but the      
survey of the ,north ,sea1 conducted by 
,captain ,hewett1 affords ground for    
suspecting this opinion to be erroneous4
 ,if such immense mounds of sand and mud
 had been accumulated under the         
influence of currents1 the same causes  
ought nearly to have reduced to one     
level the entire bottom of the ,german  
,ocean2 instead of which some long      
narrow ravines are found to intersect   
the banks4 ,one of these varies from    
seventeen to forty-four fathoms in      
depth1 and has very precipitous sides2  
in one part1 called the ,inner ,silver  
,pits1 it is fifty-five fathoms deep4   
,the shallowest parts of the ,dogger    
,bank were found to be forty-two feet   

under water1 except in one place1 where 
the wreck of a ship had caused a shoal4 
,such uniformity in the minimum depth of
 water seems to imply that the currents1
 which vary in their velocity from a    
mile to two miles and a half per hour1  
have power to prevent the accumulation  
of drift matter in places of less depth4
  ,strata deposited by currents4--,it   
appears extraordinary1 that in some     
tracts of the sea1 adjoining the coast  
of ,england1 where we know that currents
 are not only sweeping along rocky      
masses1 thrown down1 from time to time1 
from the high cliffs1 but also          
occasionally scooping out channels in   
the regular strata1 there should exist  
fragile shells and tender zoophytes in  
abundance1 which live uninjured by these
 violent movements4 ,the ocean1 however1
 is in this respect a counterpart of the
 land2 and as1 on the continents1 rivers
 may undermine their banks1 uproot      
trees1 and roll along sand and gravel1  
while their waters are inhabited by     

testacea and fish1 and their alluvial   
plains are adorned with rich vegetation 
and forests1 so the sea may be traversed
 by rapid currents1 and its bed may here
 and there suffer great local           
derangement1 without any interruption of
 the general order and tranquillity4 ,it
 has been ascertained by soundings in   
all parts of the world1 that where new  
deposits are taking place in the sea1   
coarse sand and small pebbles commonly  
occur near the shore1 while farther from
 land1 and in deeper water1 finer sand  
and broken shells are spread out over   
the bottom4 ,still farther out1 the     
finest mud and ooze are alone met with4 
,mr4 ,austen observes that this rule    
holds good in every part of the ,english
 ,channel examined by him4 ,he also     
informs us1 that where the tidal current
 runs rapidly in what are called races1 
where surface undulations are perceived 
in the calmest weather1 over deep banks1
 the discoloration of the water does not
 arise from the power of such a current 

to disturb the bottom at a depth of #dj 
or #hj fathoms1 as some have supposed4  
,in these cases1 a column of water      
sometimes #ejj feet in height1 is moving
 onwards with the tide clear and        
transparent above1 while the lower      
portion holds fine sediment in          
suspension 7a fact ascertained by       
soundings71 when suddenly it impinges   
upon a bank1 and its height is reduced  
to #cjj feet4 ,it is thus made to boil  
up and flow off at the surface1 a       
process which forces up the lower strata
 of water charged with fine particles of
 mud1 which in their passage from the   
coast had gradually sunk to a depth of  
#cjj feet or more4#dfd  ,one important  
character in the formations produced by 
currents is1 the immense extent over    
which they may be the means of diffusing
 homogeneous mixtures1 for these are    
often coextensive with a great line of  
coast2 and1 by comparison with their    
deposits1 the deltas of rivers must     
shrink into significance4 ,in the       

,mediterranean1 the same current which  
is rapidly destroying many parts of the 
,african coast1 between the ,straits of 
,gibraltar and the ,nile1 checks also   
the growth of the delta of the ,nile1   
and drifts the sediment of that great   
river to the eastward4 ,to this source  
may be attributed the rapid accretions  
of land on parts of the ,syrian shores  
where rivers do not enter4  ,among the  
greatest deposits now in progress1 and  
of which the distribution is chiefly    
determined by currents1 we may class    
those between the mouths of the ,amazon 
and the southern coast of ,north        
,america4 ,captain ,sabine found that   
the equatorial current before mentioned 
7p4 #bib7 was running with the rapidity 
of four miles an hour where it crosses  
the stream of the ,amazon1 which river  
preserves part of its original impulse1 
and has its waters not wholly mingled   
with those of the ocean at the distance 
of #cjj miles from its mouth4#dfe ,the  
sediment of the ,amazon is thus         

constantly carried to the northwest as  
far as to the mouths of the ,orinoco1   
and an immense tract of swamp is formed 
along the coast of ,guiana1 with a long 
range of muddy shoals bordering the     
marshes1 and becoming converted into    
land4#dff ,the sediment of the ,orinoco 
is partly detained1 and settles near its
 mouth1 causing the shores of ,trinidad 
to extend rapidly1 and is partly swept  
away into the ,carribean ,sea by the    
,guinea current4 ,according to          
,humboldt1 much sediment is carried     
again out of the ,carribean ,sea into   
the ,gulf of ,mexico4  ,it should not be
 overlooked that marine currents1 even  
on coasts where there are no large      
rivers1 may still be the agents of      
spreading not only sand and pebbles1 but
 the finest mud1 far and wide over the  
bottom of the ocean4 ,for several       
thousand miles along the western coast  
of ,south ,america1 comprising the      
larger parts of ,peru and ,chili1 there 
is a perpetual rolling of shingle along 

the shore1 part of which1 as ,mr4       
,darwin has shown1 are incessantly      
reduced to the finest mud by the waves1 
and swept into the depths of the        
,pacific by the tides and currents4 ,the
 same author however has remarked that1 
notwithstanding the great force of the  
waves on that shore1 all rocks #fj feet 
under water are covered by sea-weed1    
showing that the bed of the sea is not  
denuded at that depth1 the effects of   
the winds being comparatively           
superficial4  ,in regard to the         
distribution of sediment by currents it 
may be observed1 that the rate of       
subsidence of the finer mud carried down
 by every great river into the ocean1 or
 of that caused by the rolling of the   
waves upon a shore1 must be extremely   
slow2 for the more minute the separate  
particles of mud1 the slower will they  
sink to the bottom1 and the sooner will 
they acquire what is called their       
terminal velocity4 ,it is well known    
that a solid body1 descending through a 

resisting medium1 falls by the force of 
gravity1 which is constant1 but its     
motion is resisted by the medium more   
and more as its velocity increases1     
until the resistance becomes sufficient 
to counteract the farther increase of   
velocity4 ,for example1 a leaden ball1  
one inch diameter1 falling through air  
of density as at the earth's surface1   
will never acquire greater velocity than
 #bfj feet per second1 and1 in water1   
its greatest velocity will be #h feet #f
 inches per second4 ,if the diameter of 
the ball were #a_/ajj of an inch1 the   
terminal velocities in air would be #bf 
feet1 and in water 4#hf of a foot per   
second4  ,now1 every chemist is familiar
 with the fact1 that minute particles   
descend with extreme slowness through   
water1 the extent of their surface being
 very great in proportion to their      
weight1 and the resistance of the fluid 
depending on the amount of surface4 ,a  
precipitate of sulphate of baryta1 for  
example1 will sometimes require more    

than five or six hours to subside one   
inch2#dfg while oxalate and phosphate of
 lime require nearly an hour to subside 
about an inch and a half and two inches 
respectively1#dfh so exceedingly small  
are the particles of which these        
substances consist4  ,when we recollect 
that the depth of the ocean is supposed 
frequently to exceed three miles1 and   
that currents run through different     
parts of that ocean at the rate of four 
miles an hour1 and when at the same time
 we consider that some fine mud carried 
away from the mouths of rivers and from 
sea-beaches1 where there is a heavy     
surf1 as well as the impalpable powder  
showered down by volcanoes1 may subside 
at the rate of only an inch per hour1 we
 shall be prepared to find examples of  
the transportation of sediment over     
areas of indefinite extent4  ,it is not 
uncommon for the emery powder used in   
polishing glass to take more than an    
hour to sink one foot4 ,suppose mud     
composed of coarser particles to fall at

 the rate of two feet per hour1 and     
these to be discharged into that part of
 the ,gulf ,stream which preserves a    
mean velocity of three miles an hour for
 a distance of two thousand miles2 in   
twenty-eight days these particles will  
be carried #bjaf miles1 and will have   
fallen only to a depth of #bbd fathoms4 
,in this example1 however1 it is assumed
 that the current retains its           
superficial velocity at the depth of    
#bbd fathoms1 for which we have as yet  
no data1 although we have seen that the 
motion of a current may continue at the 
depth of #ajj fathoms4 7,see above1 p4  
#bh47 ,experiments should be made to    
ascertain the rate of currents at       
considerable distances from the surface1
 and the time taken by the finest       
sediment to settle in sea-water of a    
given depth1 and then the geologist may 
determine the area over which           
homogeneous mixtures may be             
simultaneously distributed in certain   
seas4     ,,chapter ,,xxii4  ,,igneous  

,,causes4     ,changes of the inorganic 
world1 continued--,igneous              
causes--,division of the                
subject--,distinct volcanic             
regions--,region     of the             
,andes--,system of volcanoes extending  
from the ,aleutian isles     to the     
,molucca and ,sunda islands--,polynesian
 archipelago--,volcanic     region      
extending from ,central ,asia to the    
,azores--,tradition of     deluges on   
the shores of the ,bosphorus1           
,hellespont1 and ,grecian               
isles--,periodical alternation of       
earthquakes in ,syria and ,southern     
,italy--,western limits of the ,european
 region--,earthquakes rarer and     more
 feeble as we recede from the centres of
 volcanic action4     ,extinct volcanoes
 not to be included in lines of active  
vents4   ,we have hitherto considered   
the changes wrought1 since the times of 
history and tradition1 by the continued 
action of aqueous causes on the earth's 
surface2 and we have next to examine    

those resulting from igneous agency4 ,as
 the rivers and springs on the land1 and
 the tides and currents in the sea1     
have1 with some slight modifications1   
been fixed and constant to certain      
localities from the earliest periods of 
which we have any records1 so the       
volcano and the earthquake have1 with   
few exceptions1 continued1 during the   
same lapse of time1 to disturb the same 
regions4 ,but as there are signs1 on    
almost every part of our continent1 of  
great power having been exerted by      
running water on the surface of the     
land1 and by waves1 tides1 and currents 
on cliffs bordering the sea1 where1 in  
modern times1 no rivers have excavated1 
and no waves or tidal currents          
undermined--so we find signs of volcanic
 vents and violent subterranean         
movements in places where the action of 
fire or internal heat has long been     
dormant4 ,we can explain why the        
intensity of the force of aqueous causes
 should be developed in succession in   

different districts4 ,currents1 for     
example1 tides1 and the waves of the    
sea1 cannot destroy coasts1 shape out or
 silt up estuaries1 break through       
isthmuses1 and annihilate islands1 form 
shoals in one place1 and remove them    
from another1 without the direction and 
position of their destroying and        
transporting power becoming transferred 
to new localities4 ,neither can the     
relative levels of the earth's crust1   
above and beneath the waters1 vary from 
time to time1 as they are admitted to   
have varied at former periods1 and as it
 will be demonstrated that they still   
do1 without the continents being1 in the
 course of ages1 modified1 and even     
entirely altered1 in their external     
configuration4 ,such events must clearly
 be accompanied by a complete change in 
the volume1 velocity1 and direction of  
the streams and land floods to which    
certain regions give passage4 ,that we  
should find1 therefore1 cliffs where the
 sea once committed ravages1 and from   

which it has now retired--estuaries     
where high tides once rose1 but which   
are now dried up--valleys hollowed out  
by water1 where no streams now flow1 is 
no more than we should expect2 these and
 similar phenomena are the necessary    
consequences of physical causes now in  
operation2 and if there be no           
instability in the laws of nature1      
similar fluctuations must recur again   
and again in time to come4  ,but1       
however natural it may be that the force
 of running water in numerous valleys1  
and of tides and currents in many tracts
 of the sea1 should now be spent1 it is 
by no means so easy to explain why the  
violence of the earthquake and the fire 
of the volcano should also have become  
locally extinct at successive periods4  
,we can look back to the time when the  
marine strata1 whereon the great mass of
 ,etna rests1 had no existence2 and that
 time is extremely modern in the earth's
 history4 ,this alone affords ground for
 anticipating that the eruptions of     

,etna will one day cease4     ,nec quae 
sulfureis ardet fornacibus1 ,a,etna     
,ignea semper erit1 neque enim fuit     
ignea semper1    7,ovid1 ,metam4 lib4   
#ae-cdj17   are the memorable words     
which are put into the mouth of         
,pythagoras by the ,roman poet1 and they
 are followed by speculations as to the 
cause of volcanic vents shifting their  
positions4 ,whatever doubts the         
philosopher expresses as to the nature  
of these causes1 it is assumed1 as      
incontrovertible1 that the points of    
eruption will hereafter vary1 because   
they have formerly done so2 a principle 
of reasoning which1 as ,i have          
endeavored to show in former chapters1  
has been too much set at naught by some 
of the earlier schools of geology1 which
 refused to conclude that great         
revolutions in the earth's surface are  
now in progress1 or that they will take 
place hereafter1 because they have often
 been repeated in former ages4          
,division of the subject4--,volcanic    

action may be defined to be the         
influence exerted by the heated interior
 of the earth on its external covering4 
,if we adopt this definition1 without   
connecting it1 as ,humboldt has done1   
with the theory of secular              
refrigeration1 or the cooling down of an
 original heated and fluid nucleus1 we  
may then class under a general head all 
the subterranean phenomena1 whether of  
volcanoes1 or earthquakes1 and those    
insensible movements of the land1 by    
which1 as will afterwards appear1 large 
districts may be depressed or elevated1 
without convulsions4 ,according to this 
view1 ,i shall consider first1 the      
volcano2 secondly1 the earthquake2      
thirdly1 the rising or sinking of land  
in countries where there are no         
volcanoes or earthquakes2 fourthly1 the 
probable causes of the changes which    
result from subterranean agency4  ,it is
 a very general opinion that earthquakes
 and volcanoes have a common origin2 for
 both are confined to certain regions1  

although the subterranean movements are 
least violent in the immediate proximity
 of volcanic vents1 especially where the
 discharge of aeriform fluids and melted
 rock is made constantly from the same  
crater4 ,but as there are particular    
regions1 to which both the points of    
eruption and the movements of great     
earthquakes are confined1 ,i shall begin
 by tracing out the geographical        
boundaries of some of these1 that the   
reader may be aware of the magnificent  
scale on which the agency of            
subterranean fire is now simultaneously 
developed4 ,over the whole of the vast  
tracts alluded to1 active volcanic vents
 are distributed at intervals1 and most 
commonly arranged in a linear direction4
 ,throughout the intermediate spaces    
there is often abundant evidence that   
the subterranean fire is at work        
continuously1 for the ground is         
convulsed from time to time by          
earthquakes2 gaseous vapors1 especially 
carbonic acid gas1 are disengaged       

plentifully from the soil2 springs often
 issue at a very high temperature1 and  
their waters are usually impregnated    
with the same mineral matters as are    
discharged by volcanoes during          
eruptions4   ,,volcanic ,,regions4      
,region of the ,andes4--,of these great 
regions1 that of the ,andes of ,south   
,america is one of the best defined1    
extending from the southward of ,chili  
to the northward of ,quito1 from about  
lat4 #dc degrees ,s4 to about #b degrees
 ,n4 of the equator4 ,in this range1    
however1 comprehending forty-five       
degrees of latitude1 there is an        
alternation on a grand scale of         
districts of active with those of       
extinct volcanoes1 or which1 if not     
spent1 have at least been dormant for   
the last three centuries4 ,how long an  
interval of rest may entitle us to      
consider a volcano as entirely extinct  
is not easily determined2 but we know   
that in ,ischia there intervened between
 two consecutive eruptions a pause of   

seventeen centuries2 and the discovery  
of ,america is an event of far too      
recent a date to allow us even to       
conjecture whether different portions of
 the ,andes1 nearly the whole of which  
are subject to earthquakes1 may not     
experience alternately a cessation and  
renewal of eruptions4  ,the first line  
of active vents which have been seen in 
eruption in the ,andes extends from lat4
 #dc degrees #bh minutes ,s42 or1 from  
,yantales1 opposite the isle of ,chiloe1
 to ,coquimbo1 in lat4 #cj degrees ,s42 
to these thirteen degrees of latitude   
succeed more than eight degrees in which
 no recent volcanic eruptions have been 
observed4 ,we then come to the volcanoes
 of ,bolivia and ,peru1 reaching six    
degrees from ,s4 to ,n41 or from lat4   
#ba degrees ,s4 to lat4 #ae degrees ,s4 
,between the ,peruvian volcanoes and    
those of ,quito1 another space          
intervenes of no less than fourteen     
degrees of latitude1 said to be free    
from volcanic action so far as yet      

known4 ,the volcanoes of ,quito then    
succeed1 beginning about #ajj           
geographical miles south of the equator1
 and continuing for about #acj miles    
north of the line1 when there occurs    
another undisturbed interval of more    
than six degrees of latitude1 after     
which we arrive at the volcanoes of     
,guatemala or ,central ,america1 north  
of the ,isthmus of ,panama4#dfi  ,having
 thus traced out the line from south to 
north1 ,i may first state1 in regard to 
the numerous vents of ,chili1 that the  
volcanoes of ,yantales and ,osorno were 
in eruption during the great earthquake 
of #ahce1 at the same moment that the   
land was shaken in ,chiloe1 and in some 
parts of the ,chilian coast permanently 
upheaved2 whilst at ,juan ,fernandez1 at
 the distance of no less than #gbj      
geographical miles from ,yantales1 an   
eruption took place beneath the sea4    
,some of the volcanoes of ,chili are of 
great height1 as that of ,antuco1 in    
lat4 #cg degrees #dj minutes ,s41 the   

summit of which is at least #af1jjj feet
 above the sea4 ,from the flanks of this
 volcano1 at a great height1 immense    
currents of lava have issued1 one of    
which flowed in the year #ahbh4 ,this   
event is said to be an exception in the 
general rule2 few volcanoes in the      
,andes1 and none of those in ,quito1    
having been seen in modern times to pour
 out lava1 but having merely ejected    
vapor or scoriae4  ,both the basaltic   
7or augitic7 lavas1 and those of the    
felspathic class1 occur in ,chili and   
other parts of the ,andes2 but the      
volcanic rocks of the felspathic family 
are said by ,von ,buch to be generally  
not trachyte1 but a rock which has been 
called andesite1 or a mixture of augite 
and albite4 ,the last-mentioned mineral 
contains soda instead of the potash     
found in common felspar4  ,the volcano  
of ,rancagua1 lat4 #cd degrees #ae      
minutes ,s41 is said to be always       
throwing out ashes and vapors like      
,stromboli1 a proof of the permanently  

heated state of certain parts of the    
interior of the earth below4 ,a year    
rarely passes in ,chili without some    
slight shocks of earthquakes1 and in    
certain districts not a month4 ,those   
shocks which come from the side of the  
ocean are the most violent1 and the same
 is said to be the case in ,peru4 ,the  
town of ,copiapo was laid waste by this 
terrible scourge in the years #aggc1    
#agif1 and #ahai1 or in both cases after
 regular intervals of twenty-three      
years4 ,there have1 however1 been other 
shocks in that country in the periods   
intervening between the dates above     
mentioned1 although probably all less   
severe1 at least on the exact site of   
,copiapo4 ,the evidence against a       
regular recurrence of volcanic          
convulsions at stated periods is so     
strong as a general fact1 that we must  
be on our guard against attaching too   
much importance to a few striking but   
probably accidental coincidences4 ,among
 these last might be adduced the case of

 ,lima1 violently shaken by an          
earthquake on the #agth of ,june1 #aegh1
 and again on the very same day1 #afgh2 
or the eruptions of ,coseguina in the   
year #agji and #ahji1 which are the only
 two recorded of that volcano previous  
to that of #ahce4dgj  ,of the permanent 
upheaval of land after earthquakes in   
,chili1 ,i shall have occasion to speak 
in the next chapter1 when it will also  
be seen that great shocks often coincide
 with eruptions1 either submarine or    
from the cones of the ,andes1 showing   
the identity of the force which elevates
 continents with that which causes      
volcanic outbursts4#dga  ,the space     
between ,chili and ,peru1 in which no   
volcanic action has been observed1 is   
#afj nautical leagues from south to     
north4 ,it is1 however1 as ,von ,buch   
observes1 that part of the ,andes which 
is least known1 being thinly peopled1   
and in some parts entirely desert4 ,the 
volcanoes of ,peru rise from a lofty    
platform to vast heights above the level

 of the sea1 from #ag1jjj to #bj1jjj    
feet4 ,the lava which has issued from   
,viejo1 lat4 #af degrees #ee minutes    
,s41 accompanied by pumice1 is composed 
of a mixture of crystals of albitic     
felspar1 hornblende1 and mica1 a rock   
which has been considered as one of the 
varieties of andesite4 ,some tremendous 
earthquakes which have visited ,peru in 
modern times will be mentioned in a     
subsequent chapter4  ,the volcanoes of  
,quito1 occurring between the second    
degree of south and the third degree of 
north latitude1 rise to vast elevations 
above the sea1 many of them being       
between #ad1jjj and #ah1jjj feet high4  
,the ,indians of ,lican have a tradition
 that the mountain called ,l',altar1 or 
,capac ,urcu1 which means the chief1 was
 once the highest of those near the     
equator1 being higher than ,chimborazo2 
but in the reign of ,ouainia ,abomatha1 
before the discovery of ,america1 a     
prodigious eruption took place1 which   
lasted eight years1 and broke it down4  

,the fragments of trachyte1 says ,m4    
,boussingault1 which once formed the    
conical summit of this celebrated       
mountain1 are at this day spread over   
the plain4#dgb ,cotopaxi is the most    
lofty of all the ,south ,american       
volcanoes which have been in a state of 
activity in modern times1 its height    
being #ah1heh feet2 and its eruptions   
have been more frequent and destructive 
than those of any other mountain4 ,it is
 a perfect cone1 usually covered with an
 enormous bed of snow1 which has1       
however1 been sometimes melted suddenly 
during an eruption2 as in ,january1     
#ahjc1 for example1 when the snows were 
dissolved in one night4  ,deluges are   
often caused in the ,andes by the       
liquefaction of great masses of snow1   
and sometimes by the rending open1      
during earthquakes1 of subterranean     
cavities filled with water4 ,in these   
inundations fine volcanic sand1 loose   
stones1 and other materials which the   
water meets with in its descent1 are    

swept away1 and a vast quantity of mud1 
called moya1 is thus formed and carried 
down into the lower regions4 ,mud       
derived from this source descended1 in  
#agig1 from the sides of ,tunguragua in 
,quito1 and filled valleys a thousand   
feet wide to the depth of six hundred   
feet1 damming up rivers and causing     
lakes4 ,in these currents and lakes of  
moya1 thousands of small fish are       
sometimes enveloped1 which1 according to
 ,humboldt1 have lived and multiplied in
 subterranean cavities4 ,so great a     
quantity of these fish were ejected from
 the volcano of ,imbaburu in #afia1 that
 fevers1 which prevailed at the period1 
were attributed to the effluvia arising 
from the putrid animal matter4  ,in     
,quito1 many important revolutions in   
the physical features of the country are
 said to have resulted1 within the      
memory of man1 from the earthquakes by  
which it has been convulsed4 ,m4        
,boussingault declares his belief1 that 
if a full register had been kept of all 

the convulsions experienced here and in 
other populous districts of the ,andes1 
it would be found that the trembling of 
the earth had been incessant4 ,the      
frequency of the movement1 he thinks1 is
 not due to volcanic explosions1 but to 
the continual falling in of masses of   
rock which have been fractured and      
upheaved in a solid form at a           
comparatively recent epoch2 but a longer
 series of observations would be        
requisite to confirm this opinion4      
,according to the same author1 the      
height of several mountains of the      
,andes has diminished in modern         
times4#dgc  ,the great crest or         
cordillera of the ,andes is depressed at
 the ,isthmus of ,panama to a height of 
about #ajjj feet1 and at the lowest     
point of separation between the two seas
 near the ,gulf of ,san ,miguel1 to #aej
 feet4 ,what some geographers regard as 
a continuation of that chain in ,central
 ,america lies to the east of a series  
of volcanoes1 many of which are active  

in the provinces of ,pasto1 ,popayan1   
and ,guatemala4 ,coseguina1 on the south
 side of the ,gulf of ,fonseca1 was in  
eruption in ,january1 #ahce1 and some of
 its ashes fell at ,truxillo1 on the    
shores of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,what is
 still more remarkable1 on the same day1
 at ,kingston1 in ,jamaica1 the same    
shower of ashes fell1 having been       
carried by an upper counter-current     
against the regular east wind which was 
then blowing4 ,kingston is about #gjj   
miles distant from ,coseguina1 and these
 ashes must have been more than four    
days in the air1 having travelled #agj  
miles a day4 ,eight leagues to the      
southward of the crater1 the ashes      
covered the ground to the depth of three
 yards and a half1 destroying the woods 
and dwellings4 ,thousands of cattle     
perished1 their bodies being in many    
instances one mass of scorched flesh4   
,deer and other wild animals sought the 
towns for protection2 many birds and    
quadrupeds were found suffocated in the 

ashes1 and the neighboring streams were 
strewed with dead fish4#dgd ,such facts 
throw light on geological monuments1 for
 in the ashes thrown out at remote      
periods from the volcanoes of ,auvergne1
 now extinct1 we find the bones and     
skeletons of lost species of quadrupeds4
  ,mexico4--,the great volcanic chain1  
after having thus pursued its course for
 several thousand miles from south to   
north1 sends off a branch in a new      
direction in ,mexico1 in the parallel of
 the city of that name1 and is prolonged
 in a great platform between the        
eighteenth and twenty-second degrees of 
north latitude4 ,five active volcanoes  
traverse ,mexico from west to           
east--,tuxtla1 ,orizaba1 ,popocatepetl1 
,jorullo1 and ,colima4 ,jorullo1 which  
is in the centre of the great platform1 
is no less than #abj miles from the     
nearest ocean--an important             
circumstance1 as showing that the       
proximity of the sea is not a necessary 
condition1 although certainly a very    

general characteristic of the position  
of active volcanoes4 ,the extraordinary 
eruption of this mountain1 in #agei1    
will be described in the sequel4 ,if the
 line which connects these five vents be
 prolonged in a westerly direction1 it  
cuts the volcanic group of islands      
called the ,isles of ,revillagigedo4    
,to the north of ,mexico there are said 
to be three1 or according to some1 five 
volcanoes in the peninsula of           
,california2 and a volcano is reported  
to have been in eruption in the ,n4 ,w4 
coast of ,america1 near the ,colombia   
river1 lat4 #de degrees #cg minutes ,n4 
,west ,indies4--,to return to the ,andes
 of ,quito3 ,von ,buch inclines to the  
belief that if we were better acquainted
 with the region to the east of the     
,madalena1 and with ,new ,granada and   
the ,caraccas1 we might find the        
volcanic chain of the ,andes to be      
connected with that of the ,west ,indian
 or ,carribee ,islands4 ,the truth of   
this conjecture has almost been set at  

rest by the eruption1 in #ahdh1 of the  
volcano of ,zamba1 in ,new ,grenada1 at 
the mouth of the river ,madalena4#dge   
,of the ,west ,indian islands there are 
two parallel series3 the one to the     
west1 which are all volcanic1 and which 
rise to the height of several thousand  
feet2 the others to the east1 for the   
most part composed of calcareous rocks1 
and very low4 ,in the former or volcanic
 series1 are ,granada1 ,st4 ,vincent1   
,st4 ,lucia1 ,martinique1 ,dominica1    
,guadaloupe1 ,montserrat1 ,nevis1 and   
,st4 ,eustace4 ,in the calcareous chain 
are ,tobago1 ,barbadoes1 ,mariegallante1
 ,grandeterre1 ,desirade1 ,antigua1     
,barbuda1 ,st4 ,bartholomew1 and ,st4   
,martin4 ,the most considerable         
eruptions in modern times have been     
those of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,great          
earthquakes have agitated ,st4 ,domingo1
 as will be seen in the twenty-ninth    
chapter4  ,i have before mentioned 7p4  
#bgj7 the violent earthquake which in   
#ahab convulsed the valley of the       

,mississippi at ,new ,madrid1 for the   
space of #cjj miles in length1 of which 
more will be said in the twenty-seventh 
chapter4 ,this happened exactly at the  
same time as the great earthquake of    
,caraccas1 so that it is possible that  
these two points are parts of one       
subterranean volcanic region4 ,the      
island of ,jamaica1 with a tract of the 
contiguous sea1 has often experienced   
tremendous shocks2 and these are        
frequent along a line extending from    
,jamaica to ,st4 ,domingo and ,porto    
,rico4  ,thus it will be seen that1     
without taking account of the ,west     
,indian and ,mexican branches1 a linear 
train of volcanoes and tracts shaken by 
earthquakes may be traced from the      
island of ,chiloe and opposite coast to 
,mexico1 or even perhaps to the mouth of
 the ,colombia river--a distance upon   
the whole as great as from the pole to  
the equator4 ,in regard to the western  
limits of the region1 they lie deep     
beneath the waves of the ,pacific1 and  

must continue unknown to us4 ,on the    
east they are not prolonged1 except     
where they include the ,west ,indian    
,islands1 to a great distance2 for there
 seem to be no indications of volcanic  
disturbances in ,buenos ,ayres1 ,brazil1
 and the ,united ,states of ,north      
,america4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4    
,,map ,,of ,,active ,,volcanoes ,,and   
,,atolls of ,,the ,,indian              
,,archipelago1 and ,part of the         
adjoining ,,pacific ,,ocean4  ,volcanic 
region from the ,aleutian ,isles to the 
,moluccas and ,isles of ,sunda4--,on a  
scale which equals or surpasses that of 
the ,andes1 is another line of volcanic 
action1 which commences1 on the north1  
with the ,aleutian ,isles in ,russian   
,america1 and extends1 first in a       
westerly direction for nearly #bjj      
geographical miles1 and then southwards1
 with few interruptions1 throughout a   
space of between sixty and seventy      
degrees of latitude to the ,moluccas1   
where it sends off a branch to the      

southeast while the principal train     
continues westerly through ,sumbawa and 
,java to ,sumatra1 and then in a        
northwesterly direction to the ,bay of  
,bengal4#dgf ,this volcanic line1       
observes ,von ,buch1 may be said to     
follow throughout its course the        
external border of the continent of     
,asia2 while the branch which has been  
alluded to as striking southeast from   
the ,moluccas1 passes from ,new ,guinea 
to ,new ,zealand1 conforming1 though    
somewhat rudely1 to the outline of      
,australia4#dgg  ,the connection1       
however1 of the ,new ,guinea volcanoes  
with the line in ,java 7as laid down in 
,von ,buch's map7 is not clearly made   
out4 ,by consulting ,darwin's map of    
coral reefs and active volcanoes1#dgh   
the reader will see that we might almost
 with equal propriety include the       
,mariana and ,bonin volcanoes in a band 
with ,new ,guinea4 ,or if we allow so   
much latitude in framing zones of       
volcanic action1 we must also suppose   

the ,new ,hebrides1 ,solomon ,isles1 and
 ,new ,ireland to constitute one line   
7see map1 fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea74  ,the     
northern extremity of the volcanic      
region of ,asia1 as described by ,von   
,buch1 is on the borders of ,cook's     
,inlet1 northeast of the ,peninsula of  
,alaska1 where one volcano1 in about the
 sixtieth degree of latitude1 is said to
 be #ad1jjj feet high4 ,in ,alaska      
itself are cones of vast height1 which  
have been seen in eruption1 and which   
are covered for two-thirds of their     
height downwards with perpetual snow4   
,the summit of the loftiest peak is     
truncated1 and is said to have fallen in
 during an eruption in #aghf4 ,from     
,alaska the line is continued through   
the ,aleutian or ,fox ,islands to       
,kamtschatka4 ,in the ,aleutian         
,archipelago eruptions are frequent1 and
 about thirty miles to the north of     
,unalaska1 near the ,isle of ,umnack1 a 
new island was formed in #agif4 ,it was 
first observed after a storm1 at a point

 in the sea from which a column of smoke
 had been seen to rise4 ,flames then    
issued from the new islet which         
illuminated the country for ten miles   
round2 a frightful earthquake shook the 
new-formed cone1 and showers of stones  
were thrown as far as ,umnack4 ,the     
eruption continued for several months1  
and eight years afterwards1 in #ahjd1   
when it was explored by some hunters1   
the soil was so hot in some places that 
they could not walk on it4 ,according to
 ,langsdorf and others1 this new island1
 which is now several thousand feet     
high1 and two or three miles in         
circumference1 has been continually     
found to have increased in size when    
successively visited by different       
travellers2 but we have no accurate     
means of determining how much of its    
growth1 if any1 has been due to         
upheaval1 or how far it has been        
exclusively formed by the ejection of   
ashes and streams of lava4 ,it seems1   
however1 to be well attested that       

earthquakes of the most terrific        
description agitate and alter the bed of
 the sea and surface of the land        
throughout this tract4  ,the line is    
continued in the southern extremity of  
the ,peninsula of ,kamtschatka1 where   
there are many active volcanoes1 which1 
in some eruptions1 have scattered ashes 
to immense distances4 ,the largest and  
most active of these is ,klutschew1 lat4
 #ef degrees #c minutes ,n41 which rises
 at once from the sea to the prodigious 
height of #ae1jjj feet4 ,within #gjj    
feet of the summit1 ,erman saw1 in      
#ahbi1 a current of lava1 emitting a    
vivid light1 flow down the northwest    
side to the foot of the cone4 ,a flow of
 lava from the summit of ,mont ,blanc to
 its base in the valley of ,chamouni    
would afford but an inadequate idea of  
the declivity down which this current   
descended4 ,large quantities of ice and 
snow opposed for a time a barrier to the
 lava1 until at length the fiery torrent
 overcame1 by its heat and pressure1    

this obstacle1 and poured down the      
mountain side with a frightful noise1   
which was heard for a distance of more  
than fifty miles4#dgi  ,the ,kurile     
chain of islands constitutes the        
prolongation of the ,kamtschatka range1 
where a train of volcanic mountains1    
nine of which are known to have been in 
eruption1 trends in a southerly         
direction4 ,the line is then continued  
to the southwest in the great island of 
,jesso1 and again in ,nipon1 the        
principal of the ,japanese group4 ,it   
then extends by ,loo ,choo and ,formosa 
to the ,philippine ,islands1 and thence 
by ,sangir and the northeastern         
extremity of ,celebes to the ,moluccas  
7see map1 fig4 #ci74 ,afterwards it     
passes westward through ,sumbawa to     
,java4  ,there are said to be           
thirty-eight considerable volcanoes in  
,java1 some of which are more than      
#aj1jjj feet high4 ,they are remarkable 
for the quantity of sulphur and         
sulphureous vapors which they discharge4

 ,they rarely emit lava1 but rivers of  
mud issue from them1 like the moya of   
the ,andes of ,quito4 ,the memorable    
eruption of ,galongoon1 in #ahbb1 will  
be described in the twenty-fifth        
chapter4 ,the crater of ,taschem1 at the
 eastern extremity of ,java1 contains a 
lake strongly impregnated with sulphuric
 acid1 a quarter of a mile long1 from   
which a river of acid water issues1     
which supports no living creature1 nor  
can fish live in the sea near its       
confluence4 ,there is an extinct crater 
near ,batur1 called ,guevo ,upas1 or the
 ,valley of ,poison1 about half a mile  
in circumference1 which is justly an    
object of terror to the inhabitants of  
the country4 ,every living being which  
penetrates into this valley falls down  
dead1 and the soil is covered with the  
carcasses of tigers1 deer1 birds1 and   
even the bones of men2 all killed by the
 abundant emanations of carbonic acid   
gas1 by which the bottom of the valley  
is filled4  ,in another crater in this  

land of wonders1 near the volcano of    
,talaga ,bodas1 we learn from ,m4       
,reinwardt1 that the sulphureous        
exhalations have killed tigers1 birds1  
and innumerable insects2 and the soft   
parts of these animals1 such as the     
fibres1 muscles1 nails1 hair1 and skin1 
are very well preserved1 while the bones
 are corroded1 and entirely destroyed4  
,we learn from observations made in     
#ahdd1 by ,mr4 ,jukes1 that a recent    
tertiary formation composed of limestone
 and resembling the coral rock of a     
fringing reef1 clings to the flanks of  
all the volcanic islands from the east  
end of ,timor to the west end of ,java4 
,these modern calcareous strata are     
often white and chalk-like1 sometimes   
#ajjj feet and upwards above the sea1   
regularly stratified in thick horizontal
 beds1 and they show that there has been
 a general elevation of these islands at
 a comparatively modern period4#dhj     
,the same linear arrangement which is   
observed in ,java holds good in the     

volcanoes of ,sumatra1 some of which are
 of great height1 as ,berapi1 which is  
more than #ab1jjj feet above the sea1   
and is continually smoking4 ,hot springs
 are abundant at its base4 ,the volcanic
 line then inclines slightly to the     
northwest1 and points to ,barren        
,island1 lat4 #ab degrees #ae minutes   
,n41 in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,this      
volcano was in eruption in #agib1 and   
will be described in the twenty-sixth   
chapter4 ,the volcanic train then       
extends1 according to ,dr4 ,macclelland1
 to the island of ,narcondam1 lat4 #ac  
degrees4 #bb minutes ,n41 which is a    
cone seven or eight hundred feet high1  
rising from deep water1 and said to     
present signs of lava currents          
descending from the crater to the base4 
,afterwards the train stretches in the  
same direction to the volcanic island of
 ,ramree1 about lat4 #ai degrees4 ,n41  
and the adjoining island of ,cheduba1   
which is represented in old charts as a 
burning mountain4 ,thus we arrive at the

 ,chittagong coast1 which in #agfb was  
convulsed by a tremendous earthquake    
7see chap4 #bi74dha  ,to enumerate all  
the volcanic regions of the ,indian and 
,pacific oceans would lead me far beyond
 the proper limits of this treatise2 but
 it will appear in the last chapter of  
this volume1 when coral reefs are       
treated of1 that the islands of the     
,pacific consist alternately of linear  
groups of two classes1 the one lofty1   
and containing active volcanoes1 and    
marine strata above the sea-level1 and  
which have been undergoing upheaval in  
modern times2 the other very low1       
consisting of reefs of coral1 usually   
with lagoons in their centres1 and in   
which there is evidence of a gradual    
subsidence of the ground4 ,the extent   
and direction of these parallel volcanic
 bands have been depicted with great    
care by ,darwin in his map before cited 
7p4 #cea74  ,the most remarkable theatre
 of volcanic activity in the ,northern  
,pacific--or1 perhaps1 in the whole     

world--occurs in the ,sandwich ,islands1
 which have been admirably treated of in
 a recent work by ,mr4 ,dana4#dhb       
,volcanic region from central ,asia to  
the ,azores4--,another great region of  
subterranean disturbance is that which  
has been imagined to extend through a   
large part of ,central ,asia to the     
,azores1 that is to say1 from ,china and
 ,tartary through ,lake ,aral and the   
,caspian to the ,caucasus1 and the      
countries bordering the ,black ,sea1    
then again through part of ,asia ,minor 
to ,syria1 and westward to the ,grecian 
,islands1 ,greece1 ,naples1 ,sicily1 the
 southern part of ,spain1 ,portugal and 
the ,azores4 ,respecting the eastern    
extremity of this line in ,china1 we    
have little information1 but many       
violent earthquakes are known to have   
occurred there4 ,the volcano said to    
have been in eruption in the seventh    
century in ,central ,tartary is situated
 on the northern declivity of the       
,celestial ,mountains1 not far distant  

from the large lake called ,issikoul2   
and ,humboldt mentions other vents and  
solfataras in the same quarter1 which   
are all worthy of notice1 as being far  
more distant from the ocean 7#bfj       
geographical miles7 than any other known
 points of eruption4  ,we find on the   
western shores of the ,caspian1 in the  
country round ,baku1 a tract called the 
,field of ,fire1 which continually emits
 inflammable gas1 while springs of      
naphtha and petroleum occur in the same 
vicinity1 as also mud volcanoes4 ,syria 
and ,palestine abound in volcanic       
appearances1 and very extensive areas   
have been shaken1 at different periods1 
with great destruction of cities and    
loss of lives4 ,continual mention is    
made in history of the ravages committed
 by earthquakes in ,sidon1 ,tyre1       
,berytus1 ,laodicea1 and ,antioch1 and  
in the ,island of ,cyprus4 ,the country 
around the ,dead ,sea appears evidently1
 from the accounts of modern travellers1
 to be volcanic4 ,a district near       

,smyrna1 in ,asia ,minor1 was termed by 
the ,greeks ,catacecaumene1 or the burnt
 up1 where there is a large arid        
territory1 without trees1 and with a    
cindery soil4#dhc ,this country was     
visited in #ahda by ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4        
,hamilton1 who found in the valley of   
the ,hermus perfect cones of scoriae1   
with lava-streams1 like those of        
,auvergne1 conforming to the existing   
river-channels1 and with their surface  
undecomposed4#dhd  ,grecian             
,archipelago4--,proceeding westwards1 we
 reach the ,grecian ,archipelago1 where 
,santorin1 afterwards to be described1  
is the grand centre of volcanic action4 
,it was ,von ,buch's opinion that the   
volcanoes of ,greece were arranged in a 
line running ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,s4    
,e41 and that they afforded the only    
example in ,europe of active volcanoes  
having a linear direction2 but ,m4      
,virlet1 on the contrary1 announces as  
the result of his investigations1 made  
during the ,french expedition to the    

,morea in #ahbi1 that there is no one   
determinate line of direction for the   
volcanic phenomena in ,greece1 whether  
we follow the points of eruptions1 or   
the earthquakes1 or any other signs of  
igneous agency4#dhe  ,macedonia1        
,thrace1 and ,epirus1 have always been  
subject to earthquakes1 and the ,ionian 
,isles are continually convulsed4       
,respecting ,southern ,italy1 ,sicily1  
and the ,lipari ,isles1 it is           
unnecessary to enlarge here1 as ,i shall
 have occasion again to allude to them4 
,i may mention1 however1 that a band of 
volcanic action has been traced by ,dr4 
,daubeny across the ,italian ,peninsula1
 from ,ischia to ,mount ,vultur1 in     
,apulia1 the commencement of the line   
being found in the hot springs of       
,ischia1 after which it is prolonged    
through ,vesuvius to the ,lago          
d',ansanto1 where gases similar to those
 of ,vesuvius are evolved4 ,its farther 
extension strikes ,mount ,vultur1 a     
lofty cone composed of tuff and lava1   

from one side of which carbonic acid and
 sulphuretted hydrogen are emitted4#dhf 
,traditions of deluges4--,the traditions
 which have come down to us from remote 
ages of great inundations said to have  
happened in ,greece and on the confines 
of the ,grecian settlements1 had        
doubtless their origin in a series of   
local catastrophes1 caused principally  
by earthquakes4 ,the frequent migrations
 of the earlier inhabitants1 and the    
total want of written annals long after 
the first settlement of each country1   
make it impossible for us at this       
distance of time to fix either the true 
localities or probable dates of these   
events4 ,the first philosophical writers
 of ,greece were1 therefore1 as much at 
a loss as ourselves to offer a          
reasonable conjecture on these points1  
or to decide how many catastrophes might
 sometimes have become confounded in one
 tale1 or how much this tale may have   
been amplified1 in after times1 or      
obscured by mythological fiction4 ,the  

floods of ,ogyges and ,deucalion are    
commonly said to have happened before   
the ,trojan war2 that of ,ogyges more   
than seventeen1 and that of ,deucalion  
more than fifteen centuries before our  
era4 ,as to the ,ogygian flood1 it is   
generally described as having laid waste
 ,attica1 and was referred by some      
writers to a great overflowing of       
rivers1 to which cause ,aristotle also  
attributed the deluge of ,deucalion1    
which1 he says1 affected ,hellas only1  
or the central part of ,thessaly4       
,others imagined the same event to have 
been due to an earthquake1 which drew   
down masses of rock1 and stopped up the 
course of the ,peneus in the narrow     
defile between mounts ,ossa and         
,olympus4  ,as to the deluge of         
,samothrace1 which is generally referred
 to a distinct date1 it appears that the
 shores of that small island and the    
adjoining mainland of ,asia were        
inundated by the sea4 ,diodorus ,siculus
 says that the inhabitants had time to  

take refuge in the mountains1 and save  
themselves by flight2 he also relates1  
that long after the event the fishermen 
of the island drew up in their nets the 
capitals of columns1 which were the     
remains of cities submerged by that     
terrible catastrophe4#dhg ,these        
statements scarcely leave any doubt that
 there occurred1 at the period alluded  
to1 a subsidence of the coast1          
accompanied by earthquakes and inroads  
of the sea4 ,it is not impossible that  
the story of the bursting of the ,black 
,sea through the ,thracian ,bosphorus   
into the ,grecian ,archipelago1 which   
accompanied1 and1 as some say1 caused   
the ,samothracian deluge1 may have      
reference to a wave1 or succession of   
waves1 raised in the ,euxine by the same
 convulsion4  ,we know that subterranean
 movements and volcanic eruptions are   
often attended not only by incursions of
 the sea1 but also by violent rains1 and
 the complete derangement of the river  
drainage of the inland country1 and by  

the damming up of the outlets of lakes  
by landslips1 or obstructions in the    
courses of subterranean rivers1 such as 
abound in ,thessaly and the ,morea4 ,we 
need not therefore be surprised at the  
variety of causes assigned for the      
traditional floods of ,greece1 by       
,herodotus1 ,aristotle1 ,diodorus1      
,strabo1 and others4 ,as to the area    
embraced1 had all the ,grecian deluges  
occurred simultaneously1 instead of     
being spread over many centuries1 and   
had they1 instead of being extremely    
local1 reached at once from the ,euxine 
to the southwestern limit of the        
,peloponnese1 and from ,macedonia to    
,rhodes1 the devastation would still    
have been more limited than that which  
visited ,chili in #ahce1 when a volcanic
 eruption broke out in the ,andes1      
opposite ,chiloe1 and another at ,juan  
,fernandez1 distant #gbj geographical   
miles1 at the same time that several    
lofty cones1 in the ,cordillera1 #djj   
miles to the eastward of that island1   

threw out vapor and ignited matter4     
,throughout a great part of the space   
thus recently shaken in ,south ,america1
 cities were laid in ruins1 or the land 
was permanently upheaved1 or mountainous
 waves rolled inland from the ,pacific4 
,periodical alternation of ,earthquakes 
in ,syria and ,southern ,italy4--,it has
 been remarked by ,von ,hoff1 that from 
the commencement of the thirteenth to   
the latter half of the seventeenth      
century1 there was an almost entire     
cessation of earthquakes in ,syria and  
,judea2 and1 during this interval of    
quiescence1 the ,archipelago1 together  
with part of the adjacent coast of      
,lesser ,asia1 as also ,southern ,italy 
and ,sicily1 suffered greatly from      
earthquakes2 while volcanic eruptions   
were unusually frequent in the same     
regions4 ,a more extended comparison1   
also1 of the history of the subterranean
 convulsions of these tracts seems to   
confirm the opinion1 that a violent     
crisis of commotion never visits both at

 the same time4 ,it is impossible for us
 to declare1 as yet1 whether this       
phenomenon is constant in this and other
 regions1 because we can rarely trace   
back a connected series of events       
farther than a few centuries2 but it is 
well known that1 where numerous vents   
are clustered together within a small   
area1 as in many archipelagoes for      
instance1 two of them are never in      
violent eruption at once4 ,if the action
 of one becomes very great for a century
 or more1 the others assume the         
appearance of spent volcanoes4 ,it is1  
therefore1 not improbable that separate 
provinces of the same great range of    
volcanic fires may hold a relation to   
one deep-seated focus1 analogous to that
 which the apertures of a small group   
bear to some more superficial rent or   
cavity4 ,thus1 for example1 we may      
conjecture that1 at a comparatively     
small distance from the surface1 ,ischia
 and ,vesuvius mutually communicate with
 certain fissures1 and that each affords

 relief alternately to elastic fluids   
and lava there generated4 ,so we may    
suppose ,southern ,italy and ,syria to  
be connected1 at a much greater depth1  
with a lower part of the very same      
system of fissures2 in which case any   
obstruction occurring in one duct may   
have the effect of causing almost all   
the vapor and melted matter to be forced
 up the other1 and if they cannot get   
vent1 they may be the cause of violent  
earthquakes4 ,some objections advanced  
against this doctrine that volcanoes act
 as safety-valves1 will be considered in
 the sequel4#dhh  ,the northeastern     
portion of ,africa1 including ,egypt1   
which lies six or seven degrees south of
 the volcanic line already traced1 has  
been almost always exempt from          
earthquakes2 but the northwestern       
portion1 especially ,fez and ,morocco1  
which fall within the line1 suffer      
greatly from time to time4 ,the southern
 part of ,spain also1 and ,portugal1    
have generally been exposed to the same 

scourge simultaneously with ,northern   
,africa4 ,the provinces of ,malaga1     
,murcia1 and ,granada1 and in ,portugal 
the country round ,lisbon1 are recorded 
at several periods to have been         
devastated by great earthquakes4 ,it    
will be seen1 from ,michell's account of
 the great ,lisbon shock1 in #agee1 that
 the first movement proceeded from the  
bed of the ocean ten or fifteen leagues 
from the coast4 ,so late as ,february   
#b1 #ahaf1 when ,lisbon was vehemently  
shaken1 two ships felt a shock in the   
ocean west from ,lisbon2 one of them at 
the distance of #abj1 and the other #bfb
 ,french leagues from the coast#dhi--;a 
fact which is more interesting1 because 
a line drawn through the ,grecian       
,archipelago1 the volcanic region of    
,southern ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,southern    
,spain1 and ,portugal1 will1 if         
prolonged westward through the ocean1   
strike the volcanic group of the        
,azores1 which may possibly therefore   
have a submarine connection with the    

,european line4  ,in regard to the      
volcanic system of ,southern ,europe1 it
 may be observed1 that there is a       
central tract where the greatest        
earthquakes prevail1 in which rocks are 
shattered1 mountains rent1 the surface  
elevated or depressed1 and cities laid  
in ruins4 ,on each side of this line of 
greatest commotion there are parallel   
bands of country where the shocks are   
less violent4 ,at a still greater       
distance 7as in ,northern ,italy1 for   
example1 extending to the foot of the   
,alps71 there are spaces where the      
shocks are much rarer and more feeble1  
yet possibly of sufficient force to     
cause1 by continued repetition1 some    
appreciable alteration in the external  
form of the earth's crust4 ,beyond these
 limits1 again1 all countries are liable
 to slight tremors1 at distant intervals
 of time1 when some great crisis of     
subterranean movement agitates an       
adjoining volcanic region2 but these may
 be considered as mere vibrations1      

propagated mechanically through the     
external covering of the globe1 as      
sounds travel almost to indefinite      
distances through the air4 ,shocks of   
this kind have been felt in ,england1   
,scotland1 ,northern ,france1 and       
,germany--particularly during the       
,lisbon earthquake4 ,but these countries
 cannot1 on this account1 be supposed to
 constitute parts of the southern       
volcanic region1 any more than the      
,shetland and ,orkney islands can be    
considered as belonging to the          
,icelandic circle1 because the sands    
ejected from ,hecla have been wafted    
thither by the winds4  ,besides the     
continuous spaces of subterranean       
disturbance1 of which we have merely    
sketched the outline1 there are other   
disconnected volcanic groups1 of which  
several will be mentioned hereafter4    
,lines of active and extinct ,volcanoes 
not to be confounded4--,we must always  
be careful to distinguish between lines 
of extinct and active volcanoes1 even   

where they appear to run in the same    
direction2 for ancient and modern       
systems may interfere with each other4  
,already1 indeed1 we have proof that    
this is the case2 so that it is not by  
geographical position1 but by reference 
to the species of organic beings alone1 
whether aquatic or terrestrial1 whose   
remains occur in beds interstratified   
with lavas1 that we can clearly         
distinguish the relative age of         
volcanoes of which no eruptions are     
recorded4 ,had ,southern ,italy been    
known to civilized nations for as short 
a period as ,america1 we should have had
 no record of eruptions in ,ischia2 yet 
we might have assured ourselves that the
 lavas of that isle had flowed since the
 ,mediterranean was inhabited by the    
species of testacea now living in the   
,neapolitan seas4 ,with this assurance1 
it would not have been rash to include  
the numerous vents of that island in the
 modern volcanic group of ,campania4    
,on similar grounds we may infer1       

without much hesitation1 that the       
eruptions of ,etna1 and the modern      
earthquakes of ,calabria1 are a         
continuation of that action which1 at a 
somewhat earlier period1 produced the   
submarine lavas of the ,val di ,noto in 
,sicily4 ,but on the other hand1 the    
lavas of the ,euganean hills and the    
,vicentin1 although not wholly beyond   
the range of earthquakes in ,northern   
,italy1 must not be confounded with any 
existing volcanic system2 for when they 
flowed1 the seas were inhabited by      
animals almost all of them distinct from
 those now known to live1 whether in the
 ,mediterranean or other parts of the   
globe4     ,,chapter ,,xxiii4           
,,volcanic ,,district ,,of ,,naples4    
,history of the volcanic eruptions in   
the district round     ,naples--,early  
convulsions in the island of            
,ischia--,numerous cones     thrown up  
there--,lake ,avernus--,the             
,solfatara--,renewal of the             
eruptions of ,vesuvius1 ,a4,d4          

#gi--,pliny's description of the        
phenomena--,his silence respecting the  
destruction of ,herculaneum and         
,pompeii--,subsequent history of        
,vesuvius--,lava discharged in ,ischia  
in #acjb--,pause in the eruptions of    
,vesuvius--,monte ,nuovo thrown         
up--,uniformity of the volcanic         
operations of ,vesuvius and ,phlegraean 
,fields in ancient and modern times4    
,i shall next give a sketch of the      
history of some of the volcanic vents   
dispersed throughout the great regions  
before described1 and consider the      
composition and arrangement of their    
lavas and ejected matter4 ,the only     
volcanic region known to the ancients   
was that of the ,mediterranean2 and even
 of this they have transmitted to us    
very imperfect records relating to the  
eruptions of the three principal        
districts1 namely1 that round ,naples1  
that of ,sicily and its isles1 and that 
of the ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,by far   
the most connected series of records    

throughout a long period relates to the 
first of these provinces2 and these     
cannot be too attentively considered1 as
 much historical information is         
indispensable in order to enable us to  
obtain a clear view of the connection   
and alternate mode of action of the     
different vents in a single volcanic    
group4  ,early convulsions in the       
,island of ,ischia4---,the ,neapolitan  
volcanoes extend from ,vesuvius1 through
 the ,phlegraean ,fields1 to ,procida   
and ,ischia1 in a somewhat linear       
arrangement1 ranging from the northeast 
to the southwest1 as will be seen in the
 annexed map of the volcanic district of
 ,naples 7fig4 #dj74 ,within the space  
above limited1 the volcanic force is    
sometimes developed in single eruptions 
from a considerable number of           
irregularly scattered points2 but a     
great part of its action has been       
confined to one principal and habitual  
vent1 ,vesuvius or ,somma4 ,before the  
,christian era1 from the remotest       

periods of which we have any tradition1 
this principal vent was in a state of   
inactivity4 ,but terrific convulsions   
then took place from time to time in    
,ischia 7,pithecusa71 and seem to have  
extended to the neighboring isle of     
,procida 7,prochyta72 for ,strabo#dij   
mentions a story of ,procida having been
 torn asunder from ,ischia2 and         
,pliny#dia derives its name from its    
having been poured forth by an eruption 
from ,ischia4  ,the present             
circumference of ,ischia along the      
water's edge is eighteen miles1 its     
length from west to east about five1 and
 its breadth from north to south three  
miles4 ,several ,greek colonies which   
settled there before the ,christian era 
were compelled to abandon it in         
consequence of the violence of the      
eruptions4 ,first the ,erythraeans1 and 
afterwards the ,chalcidians1 are        
mentioned as having been driven out by  
earthquakes and igneous exhalations4 ,a 
colony was afterwards established by    

,hiero1 king of ,syracuse1 about #chj   
years before the ,christian era2 but    
when they had built a fortress1 they    
were compelled by an eruption to fly1   
and never again returned4 ,strabo tells 
us that ,timaeus recorded a tradition1  
that1 a little before his time1         
,epomeus1 the principal mountain in the 
centre of the island1 vomited fire      
during great earthquakes2 that the land 
between it and the coast had ejected    
much fiery matter1 which flowed into the
 sea1 and that the sea receded for the  
distance of three stadia1 and then      
returning1 overflowed the island4 ,this 
eruption is supposed by some to have    
been that which formed the crater of    
,monte ,corvo on one of the higher      
flanks of ,epomeo1 above ,foria1 the    
lava-current of which may still be      
traced1 by aid of the scoriae on its    
surface1 from the crater to the sea4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4  ,,volcanic   
,,district ,,of ,,naples4  ,a4 ,astroni4
 ,b4 ,monte ,barbaro4 ,m4 ,monte ,nuovo4

 ,s4 ,the ,solfatara4  ,to one of the   
subsequent eruptions in the lower parts 
of the isle1 which caused the expulsion 
of the first ,greek colony1 ,monte      
,rotaro has been attributed1 and it     
bears every mark of recent origin4 ,the 
cone1 which ,i examined in #ahbh1 is    
remarkably perfect1 and has a crater on 
its summit precisely resembling that of 
,monte ,nuovo near ,naples2 but the hill
 is larger1 and resembles some of the   
more considerable cones of single       
eruption near ,clermont in ,auvergne1   
and1 like some of them1 it has given    
vent to a lava-stream at its base1      
instead of its summit4 ,a small ravine  
swept out by a torrent exposes the      
structure of the cone1 which is composed
 of innumerable inclined and slightly   
undulating layers of pumice1 scoriae1   
white lapilli1 and enormous angular     
blocks of trachyte4 ,these last have    
evidently been thrown out by violent    
explosions1 like those which in #ahbb   
launched from ,vesuvius a mass of       

augitic lava1 of many tons' weight1 to  
the distance of three miles1 which fell 
in the garden of ,prince ,ottajano4 ,the
 cone of ,rotaro is covered with the    
arbutus1 and other beautiful evergreens4
 ,such is the strength of the virgin    
soil1 that the shrubs have become almost
 arborescent2 and the growth of some of 
the smaller wild plants has been so     
vigorous1 that botanists have scarcely  
been able to recognize the species4     
,the eruption which dislodged the       
,syracusan colony is supposed to have   
given rise to that mighty current which 
forms the promontory of ,zaro and       
,caruso4 ,the surface of these lavas is 
still very arid and bristling1 and is   
covered with black scoriae2 so that it  
is not without great labor that human   
industry has redeemed some small spots1 
and converted them into vineyards4 ,upon
 the produce of these vineyards the     
population of the island is almost      
entirely supported4 ,it amounted when ,i
 was there1 in #ahbh1 to about          

twenty-five thousand1 and was on the    
increase4  ,illustration3 ,fig #da4     
,part of ,ischia seen from the ,west4   
a4 ,monte ,epomeo or ,san ,niccola4  b4 
,monte ,vico4  c4 ,another of the minor 
cones with a crater4#dib  ,from the date
 of the great eruption last alluded to1 
down to our own time1 ,ischia has       
enjoyed tranquillity1 with the exception
 of one emission of lava hereafter to be
 described1 which1 although it          
occasioned much local damage1 does not  
appear to have devastated the whole     
country1 in the manner of more ancient  
explosions4 ,there are1 upon the whole1 
on different parts of ,epomeo1 or       
scattered through the lower tracts of   
,ischia1 twelve considerable volcanic   
cones which have been thrown up since   
the island was raised above the surface 
of the deep2 and many streams of lava   
may have flowed1 like that of ,arso in  
#acjb1 without cones having been        
produced2 so that this island may1 for  
ages before the period of the remotest  

traditions1 have served as a            
safety-valve to the whole ,terra di     
,lavoro1 while the fires of ,vesuvius   
were dormant4  ,lake ,avernus4--,it     
seems also clear that ,avernus1 a       
circular lake near ,puzzuoli1 about half
 a mile in diameter1 which is now a     
salubrious and cheerful spot1 once      
exhaled mephitic vapors1 such as are    
often emitted by craters after          
eruptions4 ,there is no reason for      
discrediting the account of ,lucretius1 
that birds could not fly over it without
 being stifled1 although they may now   
frequent it uninjured4#dic ,there must  
have been a time when this crater was in
 action2 and for many centuries         
afterwards it may have deserved the     
appellation of atri jauna ,ditis1       
emitting1 perhaps1 gases as destructive 
of animal life as those suffocating     
vapors given out by ,lake ,quilotoa1 in 
,quito1 in #agig1 by which whole herds  
of cattle on its shores were killed1#did
 or as those deleterious emanations     

which annihilated all the cattle in the 
island of ,lancerote1 one of the        
,canaries1 in #agcj4die ,bory ,st4      
,vincent mentions1 that in the same isle
 birds fell lifeless to the ground2 and 
,sir ,william ,hamilton informs us that 
he picked up dead birds on ,vesuvius    
during an eruption4  ,solfatara4--,the  
,solfatara1 near ,puzzuoli1 which may be
 considered as a nearly extinguished    
crater1 appears1 by the accounts of     
,strabo and others1 to have been before 
the ,christian era in very much the same
 state as at present1 giving vent       
continually to aqueous vapor1 together  
with sulphureous and muriatic acid      
gases1 like those evolved by ,vesuvius4 
,ancient history of ,vesuvius4--,such1  
then1 were the points where the         
subterranean fires obtained vent1 from  
the earliest period to which tradition  
reaches back1 down to the first century 
of the ,christian era2 but we then      
arrive at a crisis in the volcanic      
action of this district--one of the most

 interesting events witnessed by man    
during the brief period throughout which
 he has observed the physical changes on
 the earth's surface4 ,from the first   
colonization of ,southern ,italy by the 
,greeks1 ,vesuvius afforded no other    
indications of its volcanic character   
than such as the naturalist might infer1
 from the analogy of its structure to   
other volcanoes4 ,these were recognized 
by ,strabo1 but ,pliny did not include  
the mountain in his list of active      
vents4 ,the ancient cone was of a very  
regular form1 terminating not as at     
present in two peaks1 but with a summit 
which presented1 when seen from a       
distance1 the even outline of an        
abruptly truncated cone4 ,on the summit1
 as we learn from ,plutarch1 there was a
 crater with steep cliffs1 and having   
its interior overgrown with wild vines1 
and with a sterile plain at the bottom4 
,on the exterior1 the flanks of the     
mountain were clothed with fertile      
fields richly cultivated1 and at its    

base were the populous cities of        
,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,but the     
scene of repose was at length doomed to 
cease1 and the volcanic fire was        
recalled to the main channel1 which at  
some former unknown period had given    
passage to repeated streams of melted   
lava1 sand1 and scoriae4  ,renewal of   
its eruptions4--,the first symptom of   
the revival of the energies of this     
volcano was the occurrence of an        
earthquake in the year #fc after        
,christ1 which did considerable injury  
to the cities in its vicinity4 ,from    
that time to the year #gi slight shocks 
were frequent2 and in the month of      
,august of that year they became more   
numerous and violent1 till they ended at
 length in an eruption4 ,the elder      
,pliny1 who commanded the ,roman fleet1 
was then stationed at ,misenum2 and in  
his anxiety to obtain a near view of the
 phenomena1 he lost his life1 being     
suffocated by sulphureous vapors4 ,his  
nephew1 the younger ,pliny1 remained at 

,misenum1 and has given us1 in his      
,letters1 a lively description of the   
awful scene4 ,a dense column of vapor   
was first seen rising vertically from   
,vesuvius1 and then spreading itself out
 laterally1 so that its upper portion   
resembled the head1 and its lower the   
trunk of the pine1 which characterizes  
the ,italian landscape4 ,this black     
cloud was pierced occasionally by       
flashes of fire1 as vivid as lightning1 
succeeded by darkness more profound than
 night4 ,ashes fell even upon the ships 
at ,misenum1 and caused a shoal in one  
part of the sea--the ground rocked1 and 
the sea receded from the shores1 so that
 many marine animals were seen on the   
dry sand4 ,the appearances above        
described agree perfectly with those    
witnessed in more recent eruptions1     
especially those of ,monte ,nuovo1 in   
#aech1 and of ,vesuvius in #ahbb4  ,the 
younger ,pliny1 although giving a       
circumstantial detail of so many        
physical facts1 and describing the      

eruption and earthquake1 and the shower 
of ashes which fell at ,stabiae1 makes  
no allusion to the sudden overwhelming  
of two large and populous cities1       
,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,in          
explanation of this omission1 it has    
been suggested that his chief object was
 simply to give ,tacitus a full account 
of the particulars of his uncle's death4
 ,it is worthy1 however1 of remark1 that
 had the buried cities never been       
discovered1 the accounts transmitted to 
us of their tragical end might well have
 been discredited by the majority1 so   
vague and general are the narratives1 or
 so long subsequent to the event4       
,tacitus1 the friend and contemporary of
 ,pliny1 when adverting in general terms
 to the convulsions1 says merely that   
cities were consumed or buried4#dif     
,suetonius1 although he alludes to the  
eruption incidentally1 is silent as to  
the cities4 ,they are mentioned by      
,martial1 in an epigram1 as immersed in 
cinders2 but the first historian who    

alludes to them by name is ,dion        
,cassius1#dig who flourished about a    
century and a half after ,pliny4 ,he    
appears to have derived his information 
from the traditions of the inhabitants1 
and to have recorded1 without           
discrimination1 all the facts and fables
 which he could collect4 ,he tells us1  
that during the eruption a multitude of 
men of superhuman stature1 resembling   
giants1 appeared1 sometimes on the      
mountain1 and sometimes in the          
environs--that stones and smoke were    
thrown out1 the sun was hidden1 and then
 the giants seemed to rise again1 while 
the sounds of trumpets were heard1 c41  
c42 and finally1 he relates1 two entire 
cities1 ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 were 
buried under showers of ashes1 while all
 the people were sitting in the theatre4
 ,that many of these circumstances were 
invented1 would have been obvious1 even 
without the aid of ,pliny's letters2 and
 the examination of ,herculaneum and    
,pompeii enables us to prove1 that none 

of the people were destroyed in the     
theatres1 and indeed that there were    
very few of the inhabitants who did not 
escape from both cities4 ,yet some lives
 were lost1 and there was ample         
foundation for the tale in its most     
essential particulars4  ,it does not    
appear that in the year #gi any lava    
flowed from ,vesuvius2 the ejected      
substances1 perhaps1 consisted entirely 
of lapilli1 sand1 and fragments of older
 lava1 as when ,monte ,nuovo was thrown 
up in #aech4 ,the first era at which we 
have authentic accounts of the flowing  
of a stream of lava1 is the year #ajcf1 
which is the seventh eruption from the  
revival of the fires of the volcano4 ,a 
few years afterwards1 in #ajdi1 another 
eruption is mentioned1 and another in   
#aach 7or #aaci71 after which a great   
pause ensued of #afh years4 ,during this
 long interval of repose1 two minor     
vents opened at distant points4 ,first1 
it is on tradition that an eruption took
 place from the ,solfatara1 in the year 

#aaih1 during the reign of ,frederick   
,,ii41 ,emperor of ,germany2 and        
although no circumstantial detail of the
 event has reached us from those dark   
ages1 we may receive the fact without   
hesitation4#dih ,nothing more1 however1 
can be attributed to this eruption1 as  
,mr4 ,scrope observes1 than the         
discharge of a light and scoriform      
trachytic lava1 of recent aspect1       
resting upon the strata of loose tuff   
which covers the principal mass of      
trachyte4#dii  ,volcanic eruption in    
,ischia1 #acjb4--,the other occurrence  
is well authenticated--the eruption1 in 
the year #acjb1 of a lava-stream from a 
new vent on the southeast end of the    
,island of ,ischia4 ,during part of     
#acja1 earthquakes had succeeded one    
another with fearful rapidity2 and they 
terminated at last with the discharge of
 a lava-stream from a point named the   
,campo del ,arso1 not far from the town 
of ,ischia4 ,this lava ran quite down to
 the sea--a distance of about two miles2

 in color it varies from iron-gray to   
reddish black1 and is remarkable for the
 glassy felspar which it contains4 ,its 
surface is almost as sterile1 after a   
period of five centuries1 as if it had  
cooled down yesterday4 ,a few scantlings
 of wild thyme1 and two or three other  
dwarfish plants1 alone appear in the    
interstices of the scoriae1 while the   
,vesuvian lava of #agfg is already      
covered with a luxuriant vegetation4    
,pontanus1 whose country-house was burnt
 and overwhelmed1 describes the dreadful
 scene as having lasted two months4#ejj 
,many houses were swallowed up1 and a   
partial emigration of the inhabitants   
followed4 ,this eruption produced no    
cone1 but only a slight depression1     
hardly deserving the name of a crater1  
where heaps of black and red scoriae lie
 scattered around4 ,until this eruption1
 ,ischia is generally believed to have  
enjoyed an interval of rest for about   
seventeen centuries2 but ,julius        
,obsequens1#eja who flourished ,a4 ,d4  

#bad1 refers to some volcanic           
convulsions in the year #ffb after the  
building of ,rome 7#ia ,b4 ,c47 ,as     
,pliny1 who lived a century before      
,obsequens1 does not enumerate this     
among other volcanic eruptions1 the     
statement of the latter author is       
supposed to have been erroneous2 but it 
would be more consistent1 for reasons   
before stated1 to disregard the silence 
of ,pliny1 and to conclude1 that some   
kind of subterranean commotion1 probably
 of no great violence1 happened at the  
period alluded to4  ,history of         
,vesuvius after #aach4--,to return to   
,vesuvius3--the next eruption occurred  
in #acjf2 between which era and #afca   
there was only one other 7in #aejj71 and
 that a slight one4 ,it has been        
remarked1 that throughout this period   
,etna was in a state of such unusual    
activity1 as to lend countenance to the 
idea that the great ,sicilian volcano   
may sometimes serve as a channel of     
discharge to elastic fluids and lava    

that would otherwise rise to the vents  
in ,campania4  ,formation of ,monte     
,nuovo1 #aech4--,the great pause was    
also marked by a memorable event in the 
,phlegraean ,fields--the sudden         
formation of a new mountain in #aech1 of
 which we have received authentic       
accounts from contemporary writers4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4    ,monte     
,nuovo1 formed in the ,bay of ,baiae1   
,sept4 #bith1 #aech4    #a4 ,cone of    
,monte ,nuovo4   #b4 ,brim of crater of 
ditto4   #c4 ,thermal spring1 called    
,baths of ,nero1 or ,stufe di ,tritoli4 
,the height of this mountain1 called    
ever since ,monte ,nuovo1 has been      
determined by the ,italian mineralogist 
,pini1 to be #ddj ,english feet above   
the level of the bay2 its base is about 
eight thousand feet1 or more than a mile
 and a half in circumference4 ,according
 to ,pini1 the depth of the crater is   
#dba ,english feet from the summit of   
the hill1 so that its bottom is only    
nineteen feet above the level of the    

sea4 ,the cone is declared1 by the best 
authorities1 to stand partly on the site
 of the ,lucrine ,lake 7#d1 fig4        
#dc71ejb which was nothing more than the
 crater of a pre-existent volcano1 and  
was almost entirely filled during the   
explosion of #aech4 ,nothing now remains
 but a shallow pool1 separated from the 
sea by an elevated beach1 raised        
artificially4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4
  ,the ,phlegraean ,fields4     #a4     
,monte ,nuovo4   #b4 ,monte ,barbaro4   
#c4 ,lake ,avernus4   #d4 ,lucrine      
,lake4   #e4 ,the ,solfatara4   #f4     
,puzzuoli4   #g4 ,bay of ,baiae4        
,sir ,william ,hamilton has given us two
 original letters describing this       
eruption4 ,the first1 by ,falconi1 dated
 #aech1 contains the following          
passages4#ejc ,it is now two years since
 there have been frequent earthquakes at
 ,puzzuoli1 ,naples1 and the neighboring
 parts4 ,on the day and in the night    
before the eruption 7of ,monte ,nuovo71 
above twenty shocks1 great and small1   

were felt4 ,the eruption began on the   
#bith of ,september1 #aech4 ,it was on a
 ,sunday1 about one o'clock in the      
night1 when flames of fire were seen    
between the hot baths and ,tripergola4  
,in a short time the fire increased to  
such a degree1 that it burst open the   
earth in this place1 and threw up so    
great a quantity of ashes and           
pumice-stones1 mixed with water1 as     
covered the whole country4 ,the next    
morning 7after the formation of ,monte  
,nuovo7 the poor inhabitants of         
,puzzuoli quitted their habitations in  
terror1 covered with the muddy and black
 shower which continued the whole day in
 that country--flying from death1 but   
with death painted in their             
countenances4 ,some with their children 
in their arms1 some with sacks full of  
their goods2 others leading an ass1     
loaded with their frightened family1    
towards ,naples2 others carrying        
quantities of birds1 of various sorts1  
that had fallen dead at the beginning of

 the eruption2 others1 again1 with fish 
which they had found1 and which were to 
be met with in plenty on the shore1 the 
sea having left them dry for a          
considerable time4 ,i accompanied       
,signor ,moramaldo to behold the        
wonderful effects of the eruption4 ,the 
sea had retired on the side of ,baiae1  
abandoning a considerable tract1 and the
 shore appeared almost entirely dry1    
from the quantity of ashes and broken   
pumice-stones thrown up by the eruption4
 ,i saw two springs in the newly        
discovered ruins2 one before the house  
that was the queen's1 of hot and salt   
water1 c4  ,so far ,falconi3 the other  
account is by ,pietro ,giacomo di       
,toledo1 which begins thus3--,it is now 
two years since this province of        
,campagna has been afflicted with       
earthquakes1 the country about ,puzzuoli
 much more so than any other parts2 but 
the #bgth and the #bhth of the month of 
,september last1 the earthquakes did not
 cease day or night in the town of      

,puzzuoli3 that plain which lies between
 ,lake ,avernus1 the ,monte ,barbaro1   
and the sea1 was raised a little1 and   
many cracks were made in it1 from some  
of which issued water2 at the same time 
the sea1 immediately joining the plain1 
dried up about two hundred paces1 so    
that the fish were left on the sand a   
prey to the inhabitants of ,puzzuoli4   
,at last1 on the #bith of the same      
month1 about two o'clock in the night1  
the earth opened near the lake1 and     
discovered a horrid mouth1 from which   
were vomited furiously smoke1 fire1     
stones1 and mud1 composed of ashes1     
making at the time of its opening a     
noise like the loudest thunder4 ,the    
stones which followed were by the flames
 converted to pumice1 and some of these 
were larger than an ox4 ,the stones went
 about as high as a cross-bow can carry1
 and then fell down1 sometimes on the   
edge1 and sometimes into the mouth      
itself4 ,the mud was of the color of    
ashes1 and at first very liquid1 then by

 degrees less so1 and in such           
quantities1 that in less than twelve    
hours1 with the help of the             
above-mentioned stones1 a mountain was  
raised of #ajjj paces in height4 ,not   
only ,puzzuoli and the neighboring      
country was full of this mud1 but the   
city of ,naples also2 so that many of   
its palaces were defaced by it4 ,now    
this eruption lasted two nights and two 
days without intermission1 though1 it is
 true1 not always with the same force2  
the third day the eruption ceased1 and  
,i went up with many people to the top  
of the new hill1 and saw down into its  
mouth1 which was a round cavity about a 
quarter of a mile in circumference1 in  
the middle of which1 the stones which   
had fallen were boiling up1 just as a   
caldron of water boils on the fire4 ,the
 fourth day it began to throw up again1 
and the seventh much more1 but still    
with less violence than the first night4
 ,at this time many persons who were on 
the hill were knocked down by the stones

 and killed1 or smothered with the      
smoke4 ,in the day the smoke still      
continues1 and you often see fire in the
 midst of it in the nighttime4#ejd  ,it 
will be seen that both these accounts1  
written immediately after the birth of  
,monte ,nuovo1 agree in stating that the
 sea retired2 and one mentions that its 
bottom was upraised2 but they attribute 
the origin of the new hill exclusively  
to the jets of mud1 showers of scoriae1 
and large fragments of rock1 cast out   
from a central orifice1 for several days
 and nights4 ,baron ,von ,buch1 however1
 in his excellent work on the ,canary   
,islands1 and volcanic phenomena in     
general1 has declared his opinion that  
the cone and crater of ,monte ,nuovo    
were formed1 not in the manner above    
described1 but by the upheaval of solid 
beds of white tuff1 which were          
previously horizontal1 but which were   
pushed up in #aech1 so as to dip away in
 all directions from the centre1 with   
the same inclination as the sloping     

surface of the cone itself4 ,it is an   
error1 he says1 to imagine that this    
hill was formed by eruption1 or by the  
ejection of pumice1 scoriae1 and other  
incoherent matter2 for the solid beds of
 upraised tuff are visible all round the
 crater1 and it is merely the           
superficial covering of the cone which  
is made up of ejected scoriae4#eje  ,in 
confirmation of this view1 ,m4 ,dufranoy
 has cited a passage from the works of  
,porzio1 a celebrated physician of that 
period1 to prove that in #aech the      
ground where ,monte ,nuovo stands was   
pushed up in the form of a great bubble 
or blister1 which on bursting1 gave     
origin to the present deep crater4      
,porzio1 says1 that after two days and  
nights of violent earthquakes1 the sea  
retired for nearly #bjj yards2 so that  
the inhabitants could collect great     
numbers of fish on this part of the     
shore1 and see some springs of fresh    
water which rose up there4 ,at length1  
on the third day of the calends of      

,october 7,september #bi71 they saw a   
large tract of ground intervening       
between the foot of ,monte ,barbaro1 and
 part of the sea1 near the ,lake        
,avernus1 rise1 and suddenly assume the 
form of an incipient hill2 and at two   
o'clock at night1 this heap of earth1   
opening as it were its mouth1 vomited1  
with a loud noise1 flames1              
pumice-stones1 and ashes4#ejf  ,so late 
as the year #ahdf a fourth manuscript   
7written immediately after the eruption7
 was discovered and published in        
,germany4 ,it was written in #aech by   
,francesco del ,nero1#ejg who mentions  
the drying up of the bed of the sea near
 ,puzzuoli1 which enabled the           
inhabitants of the town to carry off    
loads of fish4 ,about eight o'clock in  
the morning of the #bith ,september1 the
 earth sunk down about #ad feet in that 
place where the volcanic orifice now    
appears1 and there issued forth a small 
stream of water1 at first cold1 and     
afterwards tepid4 ,at noon1 on the same 

day1 the earth began to swell up in the 
same spot where it had sunk down #ad    
feet1 so as to form a hill4 ,about this 
time fire issued forth1 and gave rise to
 the great gulf1 with such a force1     
noise1 and shining light1 that ,i1 who  
was standing in my garden1 was seized   
with terror4 ,forty minutes afterwards1 
although unwell1 ,i got upon a          
neighboring height1 from which ,i saw   
all that took place1 and by my troth it 
was a splendid fire1 that threw up for a
 long time much earth and many stones1  
which fell back again all round the     
gulf1 in a semicircle of from one to    
three bow-shots in diameter1 and1       
filling up part of the sea1 formed a    
hill nearly of the height of ,monte     
,morello4 ,masses of earth and stones1  
as large as an ox1 were shot up from the
 fiery gulf into the air1 to a height   
which ,i estimate at a mile and a half4 
,when they descended1 some were dry1    
others in a soft muddy state4 ,he       
concludes by alluding again to the      

sinking of the ground1 and the elevation
 of it which followed1 and says that to 
him it was inconceivable how such a mass
 of stones and ashes could have been    
poured forth from the gulf4 ,he also    
refers to the account which ,porzio was 
to draw up for the ,viceroy4  ,on       
comparing these four accounts1 recorded 
by eye-witnesses1 there appears to be no
 real discrepancy between them4 ,it     
seems clear that the ground first sunk  
down #ad feet on the site of the future 
volcano1 and after having subsided it   
was again propelled upwards by the lava 
mingled with steam and gases1 which were
 about to burst forth4 ,jets of red-hot 
lava1 fragments of fractured rock1 and  
occasionally mud composed of a mixture  
of pumice1 tuff1 and sea-water1 were    
hurled into the air4 ,some of the blocks
 of stone were very large1 leading us to
 infer that the ground which sank and   
rose again was much shattered and torn  
to pieces by the elastic vapors4 ,the   
whole hill was not formed at once1 but  

by an intermittent action extending over
 a week or more4 ,it seems that the     
chasm opened between ,tripergola and the
 baths in its suburbs1 and that the     
ejected materials fell and buried that  
small town4 ,a considerable part1       
however1 of the hill was formed in less 
than twenty-four hours1 and in the same 
manner as on a smaller scale the mud    
cones of the air volcanoes are produced1
 with a cavity in the middle4 ,there is 
no difficulty in conceiving that the    
pumiceous mud1 if so thrown out1 may    
have set into a kind of stone on drying1
 just as some cements1 composed of      
volcanic ashes1 are known to consolidate
 with facility4  ,i am informed that    
,baron ,von ,buch discovered some marine
 shells of existing species1 such as    
occur fossil in the tuff of the         
neighborhood1 in beds exposed low down  
in the walls of the crater of ,monte    
,nuovo4 ,these may have been ejected in 
the mud mixed with sea-water which was  
cast out of the boiling gulf2 or1 as    

,signor ,arcangelo ,scacchi has         
suggested1#ejh they may have been       
derived from the older tuff1 which      
contains marine shells of recent        
species4 ,the same observer remarks that
 ,porzio's account upon the whole       
corroborates the doctrine of the cone   
having been formed by eruption1 in proof
 of which he cites the following        
passage3--,but what was truly           
astonishing1 a hill of pumice-stones and
 ashes was heaped up round the gulf to  
the height of a mile in a single        
night4#eji ,signor ,scacchi also adds   
that the ancient temple of ,apollo1 now 
at the foot of ,monte ,nuovo1 and the   
walls of which still retain their       
perfect perpendicularity1 could not     
possibly have maintained that position  
had the cone of ,monte ,nuovo really    
been the result of upheaval4            
,tripergola was much frequented as a    
watering-place1 and contained a hospital
 for those who resorted there for the   
benefit of the thermal springs2 and it  

appears that there were no fewer than   
three inns in the principal street4 ,had
 ,porzio stated that any of these       
buildings1 or the ruins of them1 were   
seen by himself or others raised up     
above the plain1 a short time before the
 first eruption1 so as to stand on the  
summit or slope of a newly-raised       
hillock1 we might have been compelled1  
by so circumstantial a narrative1 to    
adopt ,m4 ,dufranoy's interpretation4   
,but in the absence of such evidence1 we
 must appeal to the crater itself1 where
 we behold a section of the whole       
mountain1 without being able to detect  
any original nucleus of upheaved rock   
distinct from the rest2 on the contrary1
 the whole mass is similar throughout in
 composition1 and the cone very         
symmetrical in form2 nor are there any  
clefts1 such as might be looked for1 as 
the effect of the sudden upthrow of     
stony masses4 ,m4 ,c4 ,prevost has well 
remarked1 that if beds of solid and     
non-elastic materials had yielded to a  

violent pressure directed from below    
upward1 we should find not simply a deep
 empty cavity1 but an irregular opening1
 where many rents converged2 and these  
rents would be now seen breaking through
 the walls of the crater1 widening as   
they approach the centre4 7,see ,fig4   
#dd1 a1 b47#eaj ,not a single fissure of
 this kind is observable in the interior
 of ,monte ,nuovo1 where the walls of   
the crater are continuous and entire2   
nor are there any dikes implying that   
rents had existed1 which were afterwards
 filled with lava or other matter4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4  ,it has      
moreover been often urged by ,von ,buch1
 ,de ,beaumont1 and others1 who ascribe 
the conical form of volcanoes chiefly to
 upheaval from below1 that in such      
mountains there are a great number of   
deep rents and ravines1 which diverge on
 all sides like the spokes of a wheel1  
from near the central axis to the       
circumference or base of the cone1 as in
 the case of ,palma1 ,cantal1 and       

,teneriffe4 ,yet the entire absence of  
such divergent fissures or ravines1 in  
such cases as ,monte ,nuovo1 ,somma1 or 
,etna1 is passed by unnoticed1 and      
appears to have raised in their minds no
 objection to their favorite theory4    
,it is1 indeed1 admitted by ,m4         
,dufranoy that there are some facts     
which it is very difficult to reconcile 
with his own view of ,porzio's record4  
,thus1 for example1 there are certain   
,roman monuments at the base of ,monte  
,nuovo1 and on the borders of ,lake     
,avernus1 such as the temples of ,apollo
 7before mentioned7 and ,pluto1 which do
 not seem to have suffered in the least 
degree by the supposed upheaval4 ,the   
walls which still exist have preserved  
their vertical position1 and the vaults 
are in the same state as other monuments
 on the shores of the ,bay of ,baiae4   
,the long gallery which led to the      
,sibyl's ,cave1 on the other side of    
,lake ,avernus1 has in like manner      
escaped injury1 the roof of the gallery 

remaining perfectly horizontal1 the only
 change being that the soil of the      
chamber in which the ,sibyl gave out her
 oracles is now covered by a few inches 
of water1 which merely indicates a      
slight alteration in the level of ,lake 
,avernus4#eaa ,on the supposition1 then1
 that pre-existing beds of pumiceous    
tuff were upraised in #aech1 so as to   
form ,monte ,nuovo1 it is acknowledged  
that the perfectly undisturbed state of 
the contiguous soil on which these      
ancient monuments stand1 is very        
different from what might have been     
expected4  ,mr4 ,darwin1 in his         
,volcanic ,islands1 has described       
several crateriform hills in the        
,galapagos ,archipelago as composed of  
tuff which has evidently flowed like    
mud1 and yet on consolidating has       
preserved an inclination of twenty and  
even thirty degrees4 ,the tuff does not 
fold in continuous sheets round the     
hills as would have happened if they had
 been formed by the upheaval of         

horizontal layers4 ,the author describes
 the composition of the tuff as very    
similar to that of ,monte ,nuovo1 and   
the high angles at which the beds slope1
 both those which have flowed and those 
which have fallen in the form of ashes1 
entirely removes the difficulty supposed
 by ,m4 ,dufranoy to exist in regard to 
the slope of ,monte ,nuovo1 where it    
exceeds an angle of #ah degrees4 to #bj 
degrees4#eab ,mr4 ,dana1 also1 in his   
account of the ,sandwich ,islands1#eac  
shows that in the cinder cones of that  
region1 the strata have an original     
inclination of between #ce degrees and  
#dj degrees1 while in the tufa cones    
formed near the sea1 the beds slope at  
about an angle of #cj degrees4 ,the same
 naturalist also observed in the ,samoan
 or ,navigator ,islands in ,polynesia1  
that fragments of fresh coral had been  
thrown up together with volcanic matter 
to the height of #bjj feet above the    
level of the sea in cones of tufa4#ead  
,i shall again revert to the doctrine of

 the origin of volcanic cones by        
upheaval1 when speaking of ,vesuvius1   
,etna1 and ,santorin1 and shall now     
merely add1 that1 in #aech1 the whole   
coast1 from ,monte ,nuovo to beyond     
,puzzuoli1 was upraised to the height of
 many feet above the bed of the         
,mediterranean1 and has since retained  
the greater part of the elevation then  
acquired4 ,the proofs of these          
remarkable changes of level will be     
considered at length when the phenomena 
of the temple of ,serapis are           
described4#eae  ,volcanoes of the       
,phlegraean ,fields4--,immediately      
adjoining ,monte ,nuovo is the larger   
volcanic cone of ,monte ,barbaro 7#b1   
fig4 #dc1 p4 #cfg71 the ,gaurus inanis  
of ,juvenal--an appellation given to it 
probably from its deep circular crater1 
which is about a mile in diameter4      
,large as is this cone1 it was probably 
produced by a single eruption2 and it   
does not1 perhaps1 exceed in magnitude  
some of the largest of those formed in  

,ischia1 within the historical era4 ,it 
is composed chiefly of indurated tufa   
like ,monte ,nuovo1 stratified          
conformably to its conical surface4     
,this hill was once very celebrated for 
its wines1 and is still covered with    
vineyards2 but when the vine is not in  
leaf it has a sterile appearance1 and1  
late in the year1 when seen from the    
beautiful ,bay of ,baiae1 it often      
contrasts so strongly in verdure with   
,monte ,nuovo1 which is always clothed  
with arbutus1 myrtle1 and other wild    
evergreens1 that a stranger might well  
imagine the cone of older date to be    
that thrown up in the sixteenth         
century4#eaf  ,there is nothing1 indeed1
 so calculated to instruct the geologist
 as the striking manner in which the    
recent volcanic hills of ,ischia1 and   
that now under consideration1 blend with
 the surrounding landscape4 ,nothing    
seems wanting or redundant2 every part  
of the picture is in such perfect       
harmony with the rest1 that the whole   

has the appearance of having been called
 into existence by a single effort of   
creative power4 ,yet what other result  
could we have anticipated if nature has 
ever been governed by the same laws8    
,each new mountain thrown up--each new  
tract of land raised or depressed by    
earthquakes--should be in perfect       
accordance with those previously formed1
 if the entire configuration of the     
surface has been due to a long series of
 similar disturbances4 ,were it true    
that the greater part of the dry land   
originated simultaneously in its present
 state1 at some era of paroxysmal       
convulsion1 and that additions were     
afterwards made slowly and successively 
during a period of comparative repose2  
then1 indeed1 there might be reason to  
expect a strong line of demarcation     
between the signs of the ancient and    
modern changes4 ,but the very continuity
 of the plan1 and the perfect identity  
of the causes1 are to many a source of  
deception2 since by producing a unity of

 effect1 they lead them to exaggerate   
the energy of the agents which operated 
in the earlier ages4 ,in the absence of 
all historical information1 they are as 
unable to separate the dates of the     
origin of different portions of our     
continents1 as the stranger is to       
determine1 by their physical features   
alone1 the distinct ages of ,monte      
,nuovo1 ,monte ,barbara1 ,astroni1 and  
the ,solfatara4  ,the vast scale and    
violence of the volcanic operations in  
,campania1 in the olden time1 has been a
 theme of declamation1 and has been     
contrasted with the comparative state of
 quiescence of this delightful region in
 the modern era4 ,instead of inferring1 
from analogy1 that the ancient ,vesuvius
 was always at rest when the craters of 
the ,phlegraean ,fields were            
burning--that each cone rose in         
succession1--and that many years1 and   
often centuries1 of repose intervened   
between different eruptions1--geologists
 seem to have generally conjectured that

 the whole group sprung up from the     
ground at once1 like the soldiers of    
,cadmus when he sowed the dragon's      
teeth4 ,as well might they endeavor to  
persuade us that on these ,phlegraean   
,fields1 as the poets feigned1 the      
giants warred with ,jove1 ere yet the   
puny race of mortals were in being4     
,modern eruptions of ,vesuvius4--,for   
nearly a century after the birth of     
,monte ,nuovo1 ,vesuvius continued in a 
state of tranquillity4 ,there had been  
no violent eruption for #dib years2 and 
it appears that the crater was then     
exactly in the condition of the present 
extinct volcano of ,astroni1 near       
,naples4 ,bracini1 who visited ,vesuvius
 not long before the eruption of #afca1 
gives the following interesting         
description of the interior3--,the      
crater was five miles in circumference1 
and about a thousand paces deep3 its    
sides were covered with brushwood1 and  
at the bottom there was a plain on which
 cattle grazed4 ,in the woody parts wild

 boars frequently harbored4 ,in one part
 of the plain1 covered with ashes1 were 
three small pools1 one filled with hot  
and bitter water1 another salter than   
the sea1 and a third hot1 but           
tasteless4#eag ,but at length these     
forests and grassy plains were consumed1
 being suddenly blown into the air1 and 
their ashes scattered to the winds4 ,in 
,december1 #afca1 seven streams of lava 
poured at once from the crater1 and     
overflowed several villages1 on the     
flanks and at the foot of the mountain4 
,resina1 partly built over the ancient  
site of ,herculaneum1 was consumed by   
the fiery torrent4 ,great floods of mud 
were as destructive as the lava         
itself1--no uncommon occurrence during  
these catastrophes2 for such is the     
violence of rains produced by the       
evolutions of aqueous vapor1 that       
torrents of water descend the cone1 and 
becoming charged with impalpable        
volcanic dust1 and rolling along loose  
ashes1 acquire sufficient consistency to

 deserve their ordinary appellation of  
aqueous lavas4  ,a brief period of      
repose ensued1 which lasted only until  
the year #afff1 from which time to the  
present there has been a constant series
 of eruptions1 with rarely an interval  
of rest exceeding ten years4 ,during    
these three centuries1 no irregular     
volcanic agency has convulsed other     
points in this district4 ,brieslak      
remarked1 that such irregular           
convulsions had occurred in the ,bay of 
,naples in every second century2 as1 for
 example1 the eruption of the           
,solfatara1 in the twelfth2 of the lava 
of ,arso1 in ,ischia1 in the fourteenth2
 and of ,monte ,nuovo in the sixteenth2 
but the eighteenth has formed an        
exception to this rule1 and this seems  
accounted for by the unprecedented      
number of eruptions of ,vesuvius during 
that period2 whereas1 when the new vents
 opened1 there had always been1 as we   
have seen1 a long intermittence of      
activity in the principal volcano4      

,,chapter ,,xxiv4  ,,volcanic ,,district
 ,,of ,,naples--continued4              
,dimensions and structure of the cone of
 ,vesuvius--,fluidity and     motion of 
lava--,dikes--,alluviums called aqueous 
lavas--,origin and     composition of   
the matter enveloping ,herculaneum and  
,pompeii--,condition and contents of the
 buried cities--,small number     of    
skeletons--,state of preservation of    
animal and vegetable                    
substances--,rolls of                   
papyrus--,stabiae--,torre del           
,greco--,concluding     remarks on the  
,campanian volcanoes4   ,structure of   
the cone of ,vesuvius4--,between the end
 of the eighteenth century and the year 
#ahbb1 the great crater of ,vesuvius had
 been gradually filled by lava boiling  
up from below1 and by scoriae falling   
from the explosions of minor mouths     
which were formed at intervals on its   
bottom and sides4 ,in place of a regular
 cavity1 therefore1 there was a rough   
and rocky plain1 covered with blocks of 

lava and scoriae1 and cut by numerous   
fissures1 from which clouds of vapor    
were evolved4 ,but this state of things 
was totally changed by the eruption of  
,october1 #ahbb1 when violent           
explosions1 during the space of more    
than twenty days1 broke up and threw out
 all this accumulated mass1 so as to    
leave an immense gulf or chasm1 of an   
irregular1 but somewhat elliptical      
shape1 about three miles in             
circumference when measured along the   
very sinuous and irregular line of its  
extreme margin1 but somewhat less than  
three quarters of a mile in its longest 
diameter1 which was directed from ,n4   
,e4 to ,s4 ,w4#eah ,the depth of this   
tremendous abyss has been variously     
estimated2 for from the hour of its     
formation it increased daily by the     
dilapidation of its sides4 ,it measured1
 at first1 according to the account of  
some authors1 two thousand feet in depth
 from the extreme part of the existing  
summit2#eai but ,mr4 ,scrope1 when he   

saw it1 soon after the eruption1        
estimated its depth at less than half   
that amount4 ,more than eight hundred   
feet of the cone was carried away by the
 explosions1 so that the mountain was   
reduced in height from about #dbjj to   
#cdjj feet4#ebj  ,as we ascend the      
sloping sides1 the volcano appears a    
mass of loose materials--a mere heap of 
rubbish1 thrown together without the    
slightest order2 but on arriving at the 
brim of the crater1 and obtaining a view
 of the interior1 we are agreeably      
surprised to discover that the          
conformation of the whole displays in   
every part the most perfect symmetry and
 arrangement4 ,the materials are        
disposed in regular strata1 slightly    
undulating1 appearing1 when viewed in   
front1 to be disposed in horizontal     
planes4 ,but1 as we make the circuit of 
the edge of the crater1 and observe the 
cliffs by which it is encircled         
projecting or receding in salient or    
retiring angles1 we behold transverse   

sections of the currents of lava and    
beds of sand and scoriae1 and recognize 
their true dip4 ,we then discover that  
they incline outwards from the axis of  
the cone1 at angles varying from #cj    
degrees4 to #dj degrees4 ,the whole     
cone1 in fact1 is composed of a number  
of concentric coatings of alternating   
lavas1 sand1 and scoriae4 ,every shower 
of ashes which has fallen from above1   
and every stream of lava descending from
 the lips of the crater1 have conformed 
to the outward surface of the hill1 so  
that one conical envelope may be said to
 have been successively folded round    
another1 until the aggregation of the   
whole mountain was completed4 ,the      
marked separation into distinct beds    
results from the different colors and   
degrees of coarseness in the sands1     
scoriae1 and lava1 and the alternation  
of these with each other4 ,the greatest 
difficulty1 on the first view1 is to    
conceive how so much regularity can be  
produced1 notwithstanding the unequal   

distribution of sand and scoriae1 driven
 by prevailing winds in particular      
eruptions1 and the small breadth of each
 sheet of lava as it first flows out    
from the crater4  ,but1 on a closer     
examination1 we find that the appearance
 of extreme uniformity is delusive2 for 
when a number of beds thin out          
gradually1 and at different points1 the 
eye does not without difficulty         
recognize the termination of any one    
stratum1 but usually supposes it        
continuous with some other1 which at a  
short distance may lie precisely in the 
same plane4 ,the slight undulations1    
moreover1 produced by inequalities on   
the sides of the hill on which the      
successive layers were moulded1 assist  
the deception4 ,as countless beds of    
sand and scoriae constitute the greater 
part of the whole mass1 these may       
sometimes mantle continuously round the 
whole cone2 and even lava streams may be
 of considerable breadth when first they
 overflow1 and since1 in some eruptions1

 a considerable part of the upper       
portion of the cone breaks down at once1
 may form a sheet extending as far as   
the space which the eye usually takes   
in1 in a single section4  ,the high     
inclination of some of the beds1 and the
 firm union of the particles even where 
there is evidently no cement1 is another
 striking feature in the volcanic tuffs 
and breccias1 which seems at first not  
very easy of explanation4 ,but the last 
great eruption afforded ample           
illustration of the manner in which     
these strata are formed4 ,fragments of  
lava1 scoriae1 pumice1 and sand1 when   
they fall at slight distances from the  
summit1 are only half cooled down from a
 state of fusion1 and are afterwards    
acted upon by the heat from within1 and 
by fumeroles or small crevices in the   
cone through which hot vapors are       
disengaged4 ,thus heated1 the ejected   
fragments cohere together strongly2 and 
the whole mass acquires such consistency
 in a few days1 that fragments cannot be

 detached without a smart blow of the   
hammer4 ,at the same time sand and      
scoriae1 ejected to a greater distance1 
remain incoherent4#eba  ,sir ,william   
,hamilton1 in his description of the    
eruption of #aggi1 says that jets of    
liquid lava1 mixed with stones and      
scoriae1 were thrown up to the height of
 at least ten thousand feet1 having the 
appearance of a column of fire4#ebb     
,some of these were directed by the     
winds towards ,ottajano1 and some of    
them falling almost perpendicularly1    
still red-hot and liquid1 on ,vesuvius1 
covered its whole cone1 part of the     
mountain of ,somma1 and the valley      
between them4 ,the falling matter being 
nearly as vividly inflamed as that which
 was continually issuing fresh from the 
crater1 formed with it one complete body
 of fire1 which could not be less than  
two miles and a half in breadth1 and of 
the extraordinary height above          
mentioned1 casting a heat to the        
distance of at least six miles round it4

 ,dr4 ,clarke1 also1 in his account of  
the eruption of #agic1 says that        
millions of red-hot stones were shot    
into the air full half the height of the
 cone itself1 and then bending1 fell all
 round in a fine arch4 ,on another      
occasion he says that1 as they fell1    
they covered nearly half the cone with  
fire4  ,the same author has also        
described the different appearance of   
the lava at its source1 and at some     
distance from it1 when it had descended 
into the plains below4 ,at the point    
where it issued1 in #agic1 from an      
arched chasm in the side of the         
mountain1 the vivid torrent rushed with 
the velocity of a flood4 ,it was in     
perfect fusion1 unattended with any     
scoriae on its surface1 or any gross    
materials not in a state of complete    
solution4 ,it flowed with the           
translucency of honey1 in regular       
channels1 cut finer than art can        
imitate1 and glowing with all the       
splendor of the sun4--,sir ,william     

,hamilton1 he continues1 had conceived  
that no stones thrown upon a current of 
lava would make any impression4 ,i was  
soon convinced of the contrary4 ,light  
bodies1 indeed1 of five1 ten1 and       
fifteen pounds' weight1 made little or  
no impression even at the source2 but   
bodies of sixty1 seventy1 and eighty    
pounds were seen to form a kind of bed  
on the surface of the lava1 and float   
away with it4 ,a stone of three hundred 
weight1 that had been thrown out by the 
crater1 lay near the source of the      
current of lava3 ,i raised it upon one  
end1 and then let it fall in upon the   
liquid lava2 when it gradually sunk     
beneath the surface1 and disappeared4   
,if ,i wished to describe the manner in 
which it acted upon the lava1 ,i should 
say that it was like a loaf of bread    
thrown into a bowl of very thick honey1 
which gradually involves itself in the  
heavy liquid1 and then slowly sinks to  
the bottom4  ,the lava1 at a small      
distance from its source1 acquires a    

darker tint upon its surface1 is less   
easily acted upon1 and1 as the stream   
widens1 the surface1 having lost its    
state of perfect solution1 grows harder 
and harder1 and cracks into innumerable 
fragments of very porous matter1 to     
which they give the name of scoriae1 and
 the appearance of which has led many to
 suppose that it proceeded thus from the
 mountain4 ,there is1 however1 no truth 
in this4 ,all lava1 at its first exit   
from its native volcano1 flows out in a 
liquid state1 and all equally in fusion4
 ,the appearance of the scoriae is to be
 attributed only to the action of the   
external air1 and not to any difference 
in the materials which compose it1 since
 any lava whatever1 separated from its  
channel1 and exposed to the action of   
the external air1 immediately cracks1   
becomes porous1 and alters its form4 ,as
 we proceeded downwards1 this became    
more and more evident2 and the same lava
 which at its original source flowed in 
perfect solution1 undivided1 and free   

from incumbrances of any kind1 a little 
farther down had its surface loaded with
 scoriae in such a manner1 that1 upon   
its arrival at the bottom of the        
mountain1 the whole current resembled   
nothing so much as a heap of unconnected
 cinders from an iron-foundry4 ,in      
another place he says that the rivers of
 lava in the plain resembled a vast heap
 of cinders1 or the scoriae of an       
iron-foundry1 rolling slowly along1 and 
falling with a rattling noise over one  
another4#ebc ,von ,buch1 who was in     
company with ,,mm4 de ,humboldt and     
,gay-,lussac1 describes the lava of     
#ahje 7the most fluid on record7 as     
shooting suddenly before their eyes from
 top to bottom of the cone in one single
 instant4 ,professor ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes    
remarks that the length of the slope of 
the cone proper being about #acjj feet1 
this motion must correspond to a        
velocity of many hundred feet in a few  
seconds1 without interpreting ,von      
,buch's expression literally4 ,the same 

lava1 when it reached the level road at 
,torre del ,greco1 moved at the rate of 
only eighteen inches per minute1 or     
three-tenths of an inch per second4#ebd 
,although common lava1 observes         
,professor ,forbes1 is nearly as liquid 
as melted iron1 when it issues from the 
orifice of the crater1 its fluidity     
rapidly diminishes1 and as it becomes   
more and more burdened by the           
consolidated slag through which it has  
to force its way1 its velocity of motion
 diminishes in an almost inconceivable  
degree2 and at length1 when it ceases to
 present the slightest external trace of
 fluidity1 its movement can only be     
ascertained by careful and repeated     
observations1 just as in the case of a  
glacier4#ebe  ,it appears that the      
intensity of the light and heat of the  
lava varies considerably at different   
periods of the same eruption1 as in that
 of ,vesuvius in #ahai and #ahbj1 when  
,sir ,h4 ,davy remarked different       
degrees of vividness in the white heat  

at the point where the lava             
originated4#ebf  ,when the expressions  
flame and smoke are used in describing  
volcanic appearances1 they must         
generally be understood in a figurative 
sense4 ,we are informed1 indeed1 by ,m4 
,abich1 that he distinctly saw1 in the  
eruption of ,vesuvius in #ahcd1 the     
flame of burning hydrogen2#ebg but what 
is usually mistaken for flame consists  
of vapor or scoriae1 and impalpable dust
 illuminated by that vivid light which  
is emitted from the crater below1 where 
the lava is said to glow with the       
splendor of the sun4 ,the clouds of     
apparent smoke are formed either of     
aqueous and other vapor1 or of finely   
comminuted scoriae4  ,dikes in the      
recent cone1 how formed4--,the inclined 
strata before mentioned which dip       
outwards in all directions from the axis
 of the cone of ,vesuvius1 are          
intersected by veins or dikes of compact
 lava1 for the most part in a vertical  
position4 ,in #ahbh these were seen to  

be about seven in number1 some of them  
not less than four or five hundred feet 
in height1 and thinning out before they 
reached the uppermost part of the cone4 
,being harder than the beds through     
which they pass1 they have decomposed   
less rapidly1 and therefore stand out in
 relief4 ,when ,i visited ,vesuvius1 in 
,november1 #ahbh1 ,i was prevented from 
descending into the crater by the       
constant ejections then thrown out2 so  
that ,i got sight of three only of the  
dikes2 but ,signor ,monticelli had      
previously had drawings made of the     
whole1 which he showed me4 ,the dikes   
which ,i saw were on that side of the   
cone which is encircled by ,somma4 ,the 
eruption before mentioned1 of #ahbh1    
began in ,march1 and in the ,november   
following the ejected matter had filled 
up nearly one-third of the deep abyss   
formed at the close of the eruption of  
#ahbb4 ,in ,november ,i found a single  
black cone at the bottom of the crater  
continually throwing out scoriae1 while 

on the exterior of the cone ,i observed 
the lava of #ahbb1 which had flowed out 
six years before1 not yet cool1 and     
still evolving much heat and vapor from 
crevices4  ,hoffmann1 in #ahcb1 saw on  
the north side of ,vesuvius1 near the   
peak called ,palo1 a great many parallel
 bands of lava1 some from six to eight  
feet thick1 alternating with scoriae and
 conglomerate4 ,these beds1 he says1    
were cut through by many dikes1 some of 
them five feet broad4 ,they resemble    
those of ,somma1 the stone being        
composed of grains of leucite and       
augite4#ebh  ,there can be no doubt that
 the dikes above mentioned have been    
produced by the filling up of open      
fissures with liquid lava2 but of the   
date of their formation we know nothing 
farther than that they are all          
subsequent to the year #gi1 and1        
relatively speaking1 that they are more 
modern than all the lavas and scoriae   
which they intersect4 ,a considerable   
number of the upper strata are not      

traversed by them4 ,that the            
earthquakes1 which almost invariably    
precede eruptions1 occasion rents in the
 mass1 is well known2 and1 in #ahbb1    
three months before the lava flowed out1
 open fissures1 evolving hot vapors1    
were numerous4 ,it is clear that such   
rents must be ejected with melted matter
 when the column of lava rises1 so that 
the origin of the dikes is easily       
explained1 as also the great solidity   
and crystalline nature of the rock      
composing them1 which has been formed by
 lava cooling slowly under great        
pressure4  ,it has been suggested that  
the frequent rending of volcanic cones  
during eruptions may be connected with  
the gradual and successive upheaval of  
the whole mass in such a manner as to   
increase the inclination of the beds    
composing the cone2 and in accordance   
with the hypothesis before proposed for 
the origin of ,monte ,nuovo1 ,von ,buch 
supposes that the present cone of       
,vesuvius was formed in the year #gi1   

not by eruption1 but by upheaval4 ,it   
was not produced by the repeated        
superposition of scoriae and lava cast  
out or flowing from a central source1   
but by the uplifting of strata          
previously horizontal4 ,the entire cone 
rose at once1 such as we now see it1    
from the interior and middle of ,somma1 
and has since received no accession of  
height1 but1 on the contrary1 has ever  
since been diminishing in elevation4#ebi
  ,although ,i consider this hypothesis 
of ,von ,buch to be quite untenable1 ,i 
may mention some facts which may at     
first sight seem to favor it4 ,these are
 recorded by ,m4 ,abich in his account  
of the ,vesuvian eruptions of #ahcc and 
#ahcd1 a work illustrated by excellent  
engravings of the volcanic phenomena    
which he witnessed4#ecj ,it appears     
that1 in the year #ahcd1 the great      
crater of ,vesuvius had been filled up  
nearly to the top with lava1 which had  
consolidated and formed a level and     
unbroken plain1 except that a small cone

 thrown up by the ejection of scoriae   
rose in the middle of it like an island 
in a lake4 ,at length this plain of lava
 was broken by a fissure which passed   
from ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w41 and along this 
line a great number of minute cones     
emitting vapor were formed4 ,the first  
act of formation of these minor cones is
 said to have consisted of a partial    
upheaval of beds of lava previously     
horizontal1 and which had been rendered 
flexible by the heat and tension of     
elastic fluids1 which1 rising from      
below1 escaped from the centre of each  
new monticule4 ,there would be          
considerable analogy between this mode  
of origin and that ascribed by ,von     
,buch to ,vesuvius and ,somma1 if the   
dimensions of the upraised masses were  
not on so different a scale1 and if it  
was safe to reason from the inflation of
 bladders of half-fused lava1 from      
fifteen to twenty-five feet in height1  
to mountains attaining an altitude of   
several thousand feet1 and having their 

component strata strengthened by        
intersecting dikes of solid lava4  ,at  
the same time ,m4 ,abich mentions1 that 
when1 in ,august1 #ahcd1 a great        
subsidence took place in the platform of
 lava within the great crater1 so that  
the structure of the central cone was   
laid open1 it was seen to have been     
evidently formed1 not by upheaval1 but  
by the fall of cinders and scoriae which
 had been thrown out during successive  
eruptions4#eca  ,previous to the year   
#gi1 ,vesuvius appears1 from the        
description of its figure given by      
,strabo1 to have been a truncated cone1 
having a level and even outline as seen 
from a distance4 ,that it had a crater  
on its summit1 we may infer from a      
passage in ,plutarch1 on which ,dr4     
,daubeny has judiciously commented in   
his treatise on volcanoes4#ecb ,the     
walls of the crater were evidently      
entire1 except on one side1 where there 
was a single narrow breach4 ,when       
,spartacus1 in the year #gb1 encamped   

his gladiators in this hollow1 ,clodius1
 the praetor1 besieged him there1       
keeping the single outlet carefully     
guarded1 and then let down his soldiers 
by scaling-ladders over the steep       
precipices which surrounded the crater1 
at the bottom of which the insurgents   
were encamped4 ,on the side towards the 
sea1 the walls of this original cavity1 
which must have been three miles in     
diameter1 have been destroyed1 and      
,brieslak was the first to announce the 
opinion1 that this destruction happened 
during the tremendous eruption which    
occurred in #gi1 when the new cone1 now 
called ,vesuvius1 was thrown up1 which  
stands encircled on three sides by the  
ruins of the ancient cone1 called ,monte
 ,somma4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4     
,supposed section of ,vesuvius and      
,somma4  a1 ,monte ,somma1 or the       
remains of the ancient cone of          
,vesuvius4  b1 ,the ,pedamentina1 a     
terrace-like projection1 encircling the 
base of the recent cone of ,vesuvius on 

the south side4  c1 ,atrio del          
,cavallo4#ecc  d1 e1 ,crater left by    
eruption of #ahbb4  f1 ,small cone      
thrown up in #ahbh1 at the bottom of the
 great crater4  g1 g1 ,dikes            
intersecting ,somma4  h1 h1 ,dikes      
intersecting the recent cone of         
,vesuvius4  ,in the annexed diagram     
7fig4 #de7 it will be seen that on the  
side of ,vesuvius opposite to that where
 a portion of the ancient cone of ,somma
 7a7 still remains1 is a projection 7b7 
called the ,pedamentina1 which some have
 supposed to be part of the             
circumference of the ancient crater     
broken down towards the sea1 and over   
the edge of which the lavas of the      
modern ,vesuvius have poured2 the axis  
of the present cone of ,vesuvius being1 
according to ,visconti1 precisely       
equidistant from the escarpment of      
,somma and the ,pedamentina4  ,in the   
same diagram ,i have represented the    
slanting beds of the cone of ,vesuvius  
as becoming horizontal in the ,atrio del

 ,cavallo 7at c71 where the base of the 
new cone meets the precipitous          
escarpment of ,somma2 for when the lava 
flows down to this point1 as happened in
 #ahbb1 its descending course is        
arrested1 and it then runs in another   
direction along this small valley1      
circling round the base of the cone4    
,sand and scoriae1 also1 blown by the   
winds1 collect at the base of the cone1 
and are then swept away by torrents2 so 
that there is always here a flatish     
plain1 as represented4 ,in the same     
manner1 the small interior cone 7f7 must
 be composed of sloping beds1           
terminating in a horizontal plain2 for1 
while this monticule was gradually      
gaining height by successive ejections  
of lava and scoriae1 in #ahbh1 it was   
always surrounded by a flat pool of     
semi-fluid lava1 into which scoriae and 
sand were thrown4  ,in the steep        
simicircular escarpment of ,somma1 which
 faces the modern ,vesuvius1 we see a   
great number of sheets of lava inclined 

at an angle of about #bf degrees4 ,they 
alternate with scoriae1 and are         
intersected by numerous dikes1 which1   
like the sheets of lava1 are composed   
chiefly of augite1 with crystals of     
leucite1 but the rock in the dikes is   
more compact1 having cooled and         
consolidated under greater pressure4    
,some of the dikes cut through and shift
 others1 so that they have evidently    
been formed during successive eruptions4
 ,while the higher region of ,somma is  
made up of these igneous products1 there
 appear on its flanks1 for some depth   
from the surface1 as seen in a ravine   
called the ,fossa ,grande1 beds of white
 pumiceous tuff1 resembling the tuff    
which1 at ,pausilippo1 and other places1
 near ,naples1 contain shells of living 
,mediterranean species4 ,it is supposed 
by ,pilla1 ,von ,buch1 and others1 that 
the tufaceous beds1 which rise in ,somma
 to more than half the height of that   
mountain1 are1 in like manner1 of       
submarine origin1 because a few         

sea-shells have been found in them1 here
 and there1 together with serpulae of   
recent species attached to included     
blocks of limestone4#ecd  ,it is        
contended1 therefore1 that as these     
strata were once accumulated beneath the
 sea1 they may have been subjected as   
they rose to such an upward movement as 
may have given rise to a conical hill2  
and this hypothesis1 it is said1        
acquires confirmation from the fact1    
that the sheets of lava near the summit 
of ,somma are so compact and            
crystalline1 and of such breadth        
individually1 as would not have been the
 case had they run down a steep slope4  
,they must1 therefore1 have consolidated
 on a nearly level surface1 and have    
been subsequently uplifted into their   
present inclined position4              
,unfortunately there are no sections of 
sufficient depth and continuity on the  
flanks of ,somma1 to reveal to us       
clearly the relations of the lava1      
scoriae1 and associated dikes1 forming  

the highest part of the mountain1 with  
the marine tuffs observed on its        
declivity4 ,both may1 perhaps1 have been
 produced contemporaneously when ,somma 
raised its head1 like ,stromboli1 above 
the sea1 its sides and base being then  
submerged4 ,such a state of things may  
be indicated by a fact noticed by ,von  
,buch1 namely1 that the pumiceous beds  
of ,naples1 when they approach ,somma1  
contain fragments of the peculiar       
leucitic lava proper to that mountain1  
which are not found in the same tuff at 
a greater distance4#ece ,portions1      
therefore1 of this lava were either     
thrown out by explosions1 or torn off by
 the waves1 during the deposition of the
 pumiceous strata beneath the sea4  ,we 
have as yet but a scanty acquaintance   
with the laws which regulate the flow of
 lava beneath water1 or the arrangement 
of scoriae and volcanic dust on the     
sides of a submarine cone4 ,there can1  
however1 be little doubt that showers of
 ejected matter may settle on a steep   

slope1 and may include shells and the   
remains of aquatic animals1 which       
flourish in the intervals between       
eruptions4 ,lava under the pressure of  
water would be less porous2 but1 as ,dr4
 ,daubeny suggests1 it may retain its   
fluidity longer than in the open air2   
for the rapidity with which heated      
bodies are cooled by being plunged into 
water arises chiefly from the conversion
 of the lower portions of water into    
steam1 which steam absorbing much heat1 
immediately ascends1 and is reconverted 
into water4 ,but under the pressure of a
 deep ocean1 the heat of the lava would 
be carried off more slowly1 and only by 
the circulation of ascending and        
descending currents of water1 those     
portions nearest the source of heat     
becoming specifically light1 and        
consequently displacing the water above4
 ,this kind of circulation would take   
place with much less rapidity than in   
the atmosphere1 inasmuch as the         
expansion of water by equal increments  

of heat is less considerable than that  
of air4#ecf  ,we learn from the valuable
 observations made by ,mr4 ,dana on the 
active volcanoes of the ,sandwich       
,islands1 that large sheets of compact  
basaltic lava have been poured out of   
craters at the top or near the summits  
of flattened domes higher than ,etna1 as
 in the case of ,mount ,loa for example1
 where a copious stream two miles broad 
and twenty-five miles long proceeded    
from an opening #ac1jjj feet above the  
level of the sea4 ,the usual slope of   
these sheets of lava is between #e      
degrees4 and #aj degrees42 but ,mr4     
,dana convinced himself that1 owing to  
the suddenness with which they cool in  
the air1 some lavas may occasionally    
form on slopes equalling #be degrees1   
and still preserve a considerable       
compactness of texture4 ,it is even     
proved1 he says1 from what he saw in the
 great lateral crater of ,kilauea1 on   
the flanks of ,mount ,loa1 that a mass  
of such melted rock may consolidate at  

an inclination of #cj degrees1 and be   
continuous for #cjj or #djj feet4 ,such 
masses are narrow1 he admits1 but if the
 source had been more generous1 they    
would have had a greater breadth1 and by
 a succession of ejections overspreading
 each cooled layer1 a considerable      
thickness might have been attained4#ecg 
,the same author has also shown1 as     
before mentioned1 that in the cinder    
cones of the ,sandwich ,islands1 the    
strata have an original inclination of  
between #ce degrees and #dj degrees4#ech
  ,mr4 ,scrope1 writing in #ahbg1       
attributed the formation of a volcanic  
cone chiefly to matter ejected from a   
central orifice1 but partly to the      
injection of lava into dikes1 and to    
that force of gaseous expansion1 the    
intensity of which1 in the central parts
 of the cone1 is attested by local      
earthquakes1 which so often accompany   
eruptions4#eci ,it is the opinion of    
,,mm4 ,von ,buch1 ,de ,beaumont1 and    
,dufranoy1 that the sheets of lava on   

,somma are so uniform and compact1 that 
their original inclination did not      
exceed four or five degrees1 and that   
four-fifths1 therefore1 of their present
 slope is due to their having been      
subsequently tilted and upraised4       
,notwithstanding the light thrown by ,m4
 de ,beaumont on the laws regulating the
 flow and consolidation of lava1 ,i do  
not conceive that these laws are as yet 
sufficiently determined to warrant us in
 assigning so much of the inclined      
position of the beds of ,somma to the   
subsequent rending and dislocation of   
the cone4 ,even if this were admitted1  
it is far more in harmony with the usual
 mode of development of volcanic forces 
to suppose the movement which modified  
the shape of the cone to have been      
intermittent and gradual1 and not to    
have consisted of a single effort1 or   
one sudden and violent convulsion4#edj  
,vesuvian lavas4--,the lavas of ,somma  
are characterized by containing         
disseminated crystals of leucite        

7called1 by the ,french1 amphigene71 a  
mineral said to be very rare in the     
modern lavas of ,vesuvius1 which are in 
general much more scoriaceous and less  
crystalline than those of ,somma4#eda   
,at the fortress near ,torre del ,greco 
a section is exposed1 fifteen feet in   
height1 of a current which ran into the 
sea2 and it evinces1 especially in the  
lower part1 a decided tendency to divide
 into rude columns4 ,a still more       
striking example may be seen to the west
 of ,torre del ,annunziata1 near ,forte 
,scassato1 where the mass is laid open  
to the depth of twenty feet4 ,in both   
these cases1 however1 the rock may      
rather be said to be divided into       
numerous perpendicular fissures1 than to
 be prismatic1 although the same        
picturesque effect is produced4 ,in the 
lava-currents of ,central ,france 7those
 of the ,vivarais1 in particular71 the  
uppermost portion1 often forty feet or  
more in thickness1 is an amorphous mass 
passing downwards into lava irregularly 

prismatic2 and under this there is a    
foundation of regular and vertical      
columns2 but these lavas are often one  
hundred feet or more in thickness4 ,we  
can scarcely expect to discover the same
 phenomenon in the shallow currents of  
,vesuvius1 where the lowest part has    
cooled more rapidly1 although it may be 
looked for in modern streams in         
,iceland1 which exceed even those of    
ancient ,france in volume4  ,mr4 ,scrope
 mentions that1 in the cliffs encircling
 the modern crater of ,vesuvius1 he saw 
many currents offering a columnar       
division1 and some almost as regularly  
prismatic as any ranges of the older    
basalts2 and he adds1 that in some the  
spheroidal concretionary structure1 on a
 large scale1 was equally               
conspicuous4#edb ,brieslak#edc also     
informs us that1 in the siliceous lava  
of #agcg1 which contains augite1        
leucite1 and crystals of felspar1 he    
found very regular prisms in a quarry   
near ,torre del ,greco2 an observation  

confirmed by modern authorities4#edd    
,effects of decomposition on            
lavas4--,the decomposition of some of   
the felspathic lavas1 either by simple  
weathering1 or by gaseous emanations1   
converts them from a hard to a soft     
clayey state1 so that they no longer    
retain the smallest resemblance to rocks
 cooled down from a state of fusion4    
,the exhalations of sulphuretted        
hydrogen and muriatic acid1 which are   
disengaged continually from the         
,solfatara1 also produce curious changes
 on the trachyte of that nearly extinct 
volcano3 the rock is bleached1 and      
becomes porous1 fissile1 and            
honey-combed1 till at length it crumbles
 into a white siliceous powder4#ede     
,numerous globular concretions1 composed
 of concentric laminae1 are also formed 
by the same vapors in this decomposed   
rock4#edf  ,vesuvian minerals4--,a great
 variety of minerals are found in the   
lavas of ,vesuvius and ,somma2 augite1  
leucite1 felspar1 mica1 olivine1 and    

sulphur are most abundant4 ,it is an    
extraordinary fact1 that in an area of  
three square miles round ,vesuvius1 a   
greater number of simple minerals have  
been found than in any spot of the same 
dimensions on the surface of the globe4 
,hauy enumerated only #chj species of   
simple minerals as known to him2 and no 
less than eighty-two had been found on  
,vesuvius and in the tuffs on the flanks
 of ,somma before the end of the year   
#ahbh4edg ,many of these are peculiar to
 that locality4 ,some mineralogists have
 conjectured that the greater part of   
these were not of ,vesuvian origin1 but 
thrown up in fragments from some older  
formation1 through which the gaseous    
explosions burst4 ,but none of the older
 rocks in ,italy1 or elsewhere1 contain 
such an assemblage of mineral products2 
and the hypothesis seems to have been   
prompted by a disinclination to admit   
that1 in times so recent in the earth's 
history1 the laboratory of nature could 
have been so prolific in the creation of

 new and rare compounds4 ,had ,vesuvius 
been a volcano of high antiquity1 formed
 when nature     ,wanton'd as in her    
prime1 and play'd at will   ,her virgin 
fancies1   it would have been readily   
admitted that these1 or a much greater  
variety of substances1 had been sublimed
 in the crevices of lava1 just as       
several new earthy and metallic         
compounds are known to have been        
produced by fumeroles1 since the        
eruption of #ahbb4  ,mass enveloping    
,herculaneum and ,pompeii4--,in addition
 to the ejections which fall on the     
cone1 and that much greater mass which  
finds its way gradually to the          
neighboring sea1 there is a third       
portion1 often of no inconsiderable     
thickness1 composed of alluviums1 spread
 over the valleys and plains at small   
distances from the volcano4 ,aqueous    
vapors are evolved copiously from       
volcanic craters during eruptions1 and  
often for a long time subsequently to   
the discharge of scoriae and lava3 these

 vapors are condensed in the cold       
atmosphere surrounding the high volcanic
 peak1 and heavy rains are thus caused4 
,the floods thus occasioned1 sweep along
 the impalpable dust and light scoriae1 
till a current of mud is produced1 which
 is called in ,campania lava d' acqua1  
and is often more dreaded than an       
igneous stream 7lava di fuoco71 from the
 greater velocity with which it moves4  
,so late as the #bgth of ,october1      
#ahbb1 one of these alluviums descended 
the cone of ,vesuvius1 and1 after       
overspreading much cultivated soil1     
flowed suddenly into the villages of    
,st4 ,sebastian and ,massa1 where1      
filling the streets and interior of some
 of the houses1 it suffocated seven     
persons4 ,it will1 therefore1 happen    
very frequently that1 towards the base  
of a volcanic cone1 alternations will be
 found of lava1 alluvium1 and showers of
 ashes4  ,to which of these two latter  
divisions the mass enveloping           
,herculaneum and ,pompeii should be     

referred1 has been a question of the    
keenest controversy2 but the discussion 
might have been shortened1 if the       
combatants had reflected that1 whether  
volcanic sand and ashes were conveyed to
 the towns by running water1 or through 
the air1 during an eruption1 the        
interior of buildings1 so long as the   
roofs remain entire1 together with all  
underground vaults and cellars1 could be
 filled only by an alluvium4 ,we learn  
from history1 that a heavy shower of    
sand1 pumice1 and lapilli1 sufficiently 
great to render ,pompeii and            
,herculaneum uninhabitable1 fell for    
eight successive days and nights in the 
year #gi1 accompanied by violent        
rains4#edh ,we ought1 therefore1 to find
 a very close resemblance between the   
strata covering these towns and those   
composing the minor cones of the        
,phlegraean ,fields1 accumulated        
rapidly1 like ,monte ,nuovo1 during a   
continued shower of ejected matter2 with
 this difference however1 that the      

strata incumbent on the cities would be 
horizontal1 whereas those on the cones  
are highly inclined2 and that large     
angular fragments of rock1 which are    
thrown out near the vent1 would be      
wanting at a distance where small       
lapilli only can be found4 ,accordingly1
 with these exceptions1 no identity can 
be more perfect than the form1 and      
distribution of the matter at the base  
of ,monte ,nuovo1 as laid open by the   
encroaching sea1 and the appearance of  
the beds superimposed on ,pompeii4 ,that
 city is covered with numerous          
alternations of different horizontal    
beds of tuff and lapilli1 for the most  
part thin1 and subdivided into very fine
 layers4 ,i observed the following      
section near the amphitheatre1 in       
,november1 #ahbh--7;descending          
series73--                              
,feet ,inches4    #a4 ,black sparkling  
sand from the eruption of #ahbb1        
containing minute regularly formed      
crystals of augite        and tourmaline

                                        
#j   #b-a_/b    #b4 ,vegetable mould    
#c   #j    #c4 ,brown incoherent tuff1  
full of pisolitic globules        in    
layers1 from half an inch to three      
inches in        thickness              
#a   #f    #d4 ,small scoriae and white 
lapilli                           #j    
#c    #e4 ,brown earthy tuff1 with      
numerous pisolitic globules      #j   #i
    #f4 ,brown earthy tuff1 with lapilli
 divided into layers      #d   #j    #g4
 ,layer of whitish lapilli              
#j   #a    #h4 ,gray solid tuff         
#j   #c    #i4 ,pumice and white lapilli
                                 #j   #c
                                        
-------                                 
#aj   #c-a_/b                           
-------   ,many of the ashes in these   
beds are vitrified1 and harsh to the    
touch4 ,crystals of leucite1 both fresh 
and farinaceous1 have been found        
intermixed4#edi ,the depth of the bed of
 ashes above the houses is variable1 but

 seldom exceeds twelve or fourteen feet1
 and it is said that the higher part of 
the amphitheatre always projected above 
the surface2 though if this were the    
case1 it seems inexplicable that the    
city should never have been discovered  
till the year #agej4 ,it will be        
observed in the above section that two  
of the brown1 half-consolidated tuffs   
are filled with small pisolitic         
globules4 ,this circumstance is not     
alluded to in the animated controversy  
which the ,royal ,academy of ,naples    
maintained with one of their members1   
,signor ,lippi1 as to the origin of the 
strata incumbent on ,pompeii4 ,the mode 
of aggregation of these globules has    
been fully explained by ,mr4 ,scrope1   
who saw them formed in great numbers in 
#ahbb1 by rain falling during the       
eruption on fine volcanic sand1 and     
sometimes also produced like hail in the
 air1 by the mutual attraction of the   
minutest particles of fine damp sand4   
,their occurrence1 therefore1 agrees    

remarkably well with the account of     
heavy rain1 and showers of sand and     
ashes recorded in history4#eej  ,lippi  
entitled his work1 ,fu il fuoco o l'    
acqua che sottero ,pompei ed            
,ercolano8#eea and he contended that    
neither were the two cities destroyed in
 the year #gi1 nor by a volcanic        
eruption1 but purely by the agency of   
water charged with transported matter4  
,his letters1 wherein he endeavored to  
dispense1 as far as possible1 with      
igneous agency1 even at the foot of the 
volcano1 were dedicated1 with great     
propriety1 to ,werner1 and afford an    
amusing illustration of the polemic     
style in which geological writers of    
that day indulged themselves4 ,his      
arguments were partly of an historical  
nature1 derived from the silence of     
contemporary historians1 respecting the 
fate of the cities1 which1 as we have   
already stated1 is most remarkable1 and 
partly drawn from physical proofs4 ,he  
pointed out with great clearness the    

resemblance of the tufaceous matter in  
the vaults and cellars at ,herculaneum  
and ,pompeii to aqueous alluviums1 and  
its distinctness from ejections which   
had fallen through the air4 ,nothing1 he
 observes1 but moist pasty matter could 
have received the impression of a       
woman's breast1 which was found in a    
vault at ,pompeii1 or have given the    
cast of a statue discovered in the      
theatre at ,herculaneum4 ,it was        
objected to him1 that the heat of the   
tuff in ,herculaneum and ,pompeii was   
proved by the carbonization of the      
timber1 corn1 papyrus-rolls1 and other  
vegetable substances there discovered2  
but ,lippi replied with truth1 that the 
papyri would have been burnt up if they 
had come in contact with fire1 and that 
their being only carbonized was a clear 
demonstration of their having been      
enveloped1 like fossil wood1 in a       
sediment deposited from water4 ,the     
,academicians1 in their report on his   
pamphlet1 assert1 that when the         

amphitheatre was first cleared out1 the 
matter was arranged on the steps in a   
succession of concave layers1           
accommodating themselves to the interior
 form of the building1 just as snow     
would lie if it had fallen there4 ,this 
observation is highly interesting1 and  
points to the difference between the    
stratification of ashes in an open      
building and of mud derived from the    
same in the interior of edifices and    
cellars4 ,nor ought we to call the      
allegation in question1 because it could
 not be substantiated at the time of the
 controversy after the matter had been  
all removed2 although ,lippi took       
advantage of this removal1 and met the  
argument of his antagonists by requiring
 them to prove the fact4 ,there is      
decisive evidence that no stream of lava
 has ever reached ,pompeii since it was 
first built1 although the foundations of
 the town stand upon the old leucitic   
lava of ,somma2 several streams of      
which1 with tuff interposed1 had been   

cut through in excavations4  ,infusorial
 beds covering ,pompeii4--,a most       
singular and unexpected discovery has   
been recently made 7#ahdd-e7 by         
,professor ,ehrenberg1 respecting the   
remote origin of many of the layers of  
ashes and pumice enveloping ,pompeii4   
,they are1 he says1 in great part1 of   
organic and freshwater origin1          
consisting of the siliceous cases of    
microscopic infusoria4 ,what is still   
more surprising1 this fact proves to be 
by no means an isolated or solitary     
example of an intimate relation between 
organic life and the results of volcanic
 activity4 ,on the ,rhine1 several beds 
of tuff and pumiceous conglomerate1     
resembling the mass incumbent upon      
,pompeii and closely connected with     
extinct volcanoes1 are now ascertained  
to be made up to a great extent of the  
siliceous cases of infusoria 7or        
,diatomaceae71 invisible to the naked   
eye1 and often half fused4#eeb ,no less 
than #id distinct species have already  

been detected in one mass of this kind1 
more than #aej feet thick1 at           
,hochsimmer1 on the left bank of the    
,rhine1 near the ,laacher-see4 ,some of 
these ,rhenish infusorial accumulations 
appear to have fallen in showers1 others
 to have been poured out of lake-craters
 in the form of mud1 as in the ,brohl   
valley4  ,in ,mexico1 ,peru1 the ,isle  
of ,france1 and several other volcanic  
regions1 analogous phenomena have been  
observed1 and everywhere the species of 
infusoria belong to freshwater and      
terrestrial genera1 except in the case  
of the ,patagonian pumiceous tuffs1     
specimens of which1 brought home by ,mr4
 ,darwin1 are found to contain the      
remains of marine animalcules4 ,in      
various kinds of pumice ejected by      
volcanoes1 the microscope has revealed  
to ,professor ,ehrenberg the siliceous  
cases of infusoria often half           
obliterated by the action of heat1 and  
the fine dust thrown out into the air   
during eruptions1 is sometimes referable

 to these most minute organic           
substances1 brought up from considerable
 depths1 and sometimes mingled with     
small particles of vegetable matter4    
,in what manner did the solid coverings 
of these most minute plants and         
animalcules1 which can only originate   
and increase at the surface of the      
earth1 sink down and penetrate into     
subterranean cavities1 so as to be      
ejected from the volcanic orifices8 ,we 
have of late years become familiar with 
the fact1 in the process of boring      
,artesian wells1 that the seeds of      
plants1 the remains of insects1 and even
 small fish1 with other organic bodies1 
are carried in an uninjured state by the
 underground circulation of waters1 to  
the depth of many hundred feet4 ,with   
still greater facility in a volcanic    
region we may conjecture1 that water and
 mud full of invisible infusoria may be 
sucked down1 from time to time1 into    
subterranean rents and hollows in       
cavernous lava which has been permeated 

by gases1 or in rocks dislocated by     
earthquakes4 ,it often happens that a   
lake which has endured for centuries in 
a volcanic crater1 disappears suddenly  
on the approach of a new eruption4      
,violent shocks agitate the surrounding 
region1 and ponds1 rivers1 and wells are
 dried up4 ,large cavities far below may
 thus become filled with fen-mud chiefly
 composed of the more indestructible and
 siliceous portions of infusoria1       
destined perhaps to be one day ejected  
in a fragmentary or half-fused state1   
yet without the obliteration of all     
traces of organic structure4#eec        
,herculaneum4--,it was remarked that no 
lava has flowed over the site of        
,pompeii1 since that city was built1 but
 with ,herculaneum the case is          
different4 ,although the substance which
 fills the interior of the houses and   
the vaults must have been introduced in 
a state of mud1 like that found in      
similar situations in ,pompeii2 yet the 
superincumbent mass differs wholly in   

composition and thickness4 ,herculaneum 
was situated several miles nearer to the
 volcano1 and has1 therefore1 been      
always more exposed to be covered1 not  
only by showers of ashes1 but by        
alluviums and streams of lava4          
,accordingly1 masses of both have       
accumulated on each other above the     
city1 to a depth of nowhere less than   
#gj1 and in many places of #aab         
feet4#eed  ,the tuff which envelops the 
buildings consists of comminuted        
volcanic ashes1 mixed with pumice4 ,a   
mask imbedded in this matrix has left a 
cast1 the sharpness of which was        
compared by ,hamilton to those in       
plaster of ,paris2 nor was the mask in  
the least degree scorched1 as if it had 
been imbedded in heated matter4 ,this   
tuff is porous2 and1 when first         
excavated1 is soft and easily worked1   
but acquires a considerable degree of   
induration on exposure to the air4      
,above this lowest stratum is placed1   
according to ,hamilton1 the matter of   

six eruptions1 each separated from the  
other by veins of good soil4 ,in these  
soils ,lippi states that he collected a 
considerable number of land shells--an  
observation which is no doubt correct2  
for many snails burrow in soft soils1   
and some ,italian species descend1 when 
they hybernate1 to the depth of five    
feet and more from the surface4 ,della  
,torre also informs us that there is in 
one part of this superimposed mass a bed
 of true siliceous lava 7lava di pietra 
dura72 and1 as no such current is       
believed to have flowed till near one   
thousand years after the destruction of 
,herculaneum1 we must conclude1 that the
 origin of a large part of the covering 
of ,herculaneum was long subsequent to  
the first inhumation of the place4 ,that
 city1 as well as ,pompeii1 was a       
seaport4 ,herculaneum is still very near
 the shore1 but a tract of land1 a mile 
in length1 intervenes between the       
borders of the ,bay of ,naples and      
,pompeii4 ,in both cases the gain of    

land is due to the filling up of the bed
 of the sea with volcanic matter1 and   
not to elevation by earthquakes1 for    
there has been no change in the relative
 level of land and sea4 ,pompeii stood  
on a slight eminence composed of the    
lavas of the ancient ,vesuvius1 and     
flights of steps led down to the water's
 edge4 ,the lowermost of these steps are
 said to be still on an exact level with
 the sea4  ,condition and contents of   
the buried cities4--,after these        
observations on the nature of the strata
 enveloping and surrounding the cities1 
we may proceed to consider their        
internal condition and contents1 so far 
at least as they offer facts of         
geological interest4 ,notwithstanding   
the much greater depth at which         
,herculaneum was buried1 it was         
discovered before ,pompeii1 by the      
accidental circumstance of a well being 
sunk1 in #agac1 which came right down   
upon the theatre1 where the statues of  
,hercules and ,cleopatra were soon      

found4 ,whether this city or ,pompeii1  
both of them founded by ,greek colonies1
 was the more considerable1 is not yet  
determined2 but both are mentioned by   
ancient authors as among the seven most 
flourishing cities in ,campania4 ,the   
walls of ,pompeii were three miles in   
circumference2 but we have1 as yet1 no  
certain knowledge of the dimensions of  
,herculaneum4 ,in the latter place the  
theatre alone is open for inspection2   
the ,forum1 ,temple of ,jupiter1 and    
other buildings1 having been filled up  
with rubbish as the workmen proceeded1  
owing to the difficulty of removing it  
from so great a depth below ground4     
,even the theatre is only seen by       
torch-light1 and the most interesting   
information1 perhaps1 which the         
geologist obtains there1 is the         
continual formation of stalactite in the
 galleries cut through the tuff2 for    
there is a constant percolation of water
 charged with carbonate of lime mixed   
with a small portion of magnesia4 ,such 

mineral waters must1 in the course of   
time1 create great changes in many      
rocks2 especially in lavas1 the pores of
 which they may fill with calcareous    
spar1 so as to convert them into        
amygdaloids4 ,some geologists1          
therefore1 are unreasonable when they   
expect that volcanic rocks of remote    
eras should accord precisely with those 
of modern date2 since it is obvious that
 many of those produced in our own time 
will not long retain the same aspect and
 internal composition4  ,both at        
,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 temples have 
been found with inscriptions            
commemorating the rebuilding of the     
edifices after they had been thrown down
 by an earthquake4#eee ,this earthquake 
happened in the reign of ,nero1 sixteen 
years before the cities were            
overwhelmed4 ,in ,pompeii1 one-fourth of
 which is now laid open to the day1 both
 the public and private buildings bear  
testimony to the catastrophe4 ,the walls
 are rent1 and in many places traversed 

by fissures still open4 ,columns are    
lying on the ground only half hewn from 
huge blocks of travertin1 and the temple
 for which they were designed is seen   
half repaired4 ,in some few places the  
pavement had sunk in1 but in general it 
was undisturbed1 consisting of large    
irregular flags of lava joined neatly   
together1 in which the carriage wheels  
have often worn ruts an inch and a half 
deep4 ,in the wider streets1 the ruts   
are numerous and irregular2 in the      
narrower1 there are only two1 one on    
each side1 which are very conspicuous4  
,it is impossible not to look with some 
interest even on these ruts1 which were 
worn by chariot wheels more than        
seventeen centuries ago2 and1           
independently of their antiquity1 it is 
remarkable to see such deep incisions so
 continuous in a stone of great         
hardness4  ,small number of             
skeletons4--,a very small number of     
skeletons have been discovered in either
 city2 and it is clear that most of the 

inhabitants not only found time to      
escape1 but also to carry with them the 
principal part of their valuable        
effects4 ,in the barracks at ,pompeii   
were the skeletons of two soldiers      
chained to the stocks1 and in the vaults
 of a country-house in the suburbs were 
the skeletons of seventeen persons1 who 
appear to have fled there to escape from
 the shower of ashes4 ,they were found  
inclosed in an indurated tuff1 and in   
this matrix was preserved a perfect cast
 of a woman1 perhaps the mistress of the
 house1 with an infant in her arms4     
,although her form was imprinted on the 
rock1 nothing but the bones remained4   
,to these a chain of gold was suspended1
 and on the fingers of the skeletons    
were rings with jewels4 ,against the    
sides of the same vault was ranged a    
long line of earthen amphorae4  ,the    
writings scribbled by the soldiers on   
the walls of their barracks1 and the    
names of the owners of each house       
written over the doors1 are still       

perfectly legible4 ,the colors of fresco
 paintings on the stuccoed walls in the 
interior of buildings are almost as     
vivid as if they were just finished4    
,there are public fountains decorated   
with shells laid out in patterns in the 
same fashion as those now seen in the   
town of ,naples2 and in the room of a   
painter1 who was perhaps a naturalist1 a
 large collection of shells was found1  
comprising a great variety of           
,mediterranean species1 in as good a    
state of preservation as if they had    
remained for the same number of years in
 a museum4 ,a comparison of these       
remains1 with those found so generally  
in a fossil state would not assist us in
 obtaining the least insight into the   
time required to produce a certain      
degree of decomposition or              
mineralization2 for1 although under     
favorable circumstances much greater    
alteration might doubtless have been    
brought about in a shorter period1 yet  
the example before us shows that an     

inhumation of seventeen centuries may   
sometimes effect nothing towards the    
reduction of shells to the state in     
which fossils are usually found4  ,the  
wooden beams in the houses at           
,herculaneum are black on the exterior1 
but1 when cleft open1 they appear to be 
almost in the state of ordinary wood1   
and the progress made by the whole mass 
towards the state of lignite is scarcely
 appreciable4 ,some animal and vegetable
 substances of more perishable kinds    
have of course suffered much change and 
decay1 yet the state of preservation of 
these is truly remarkable4 ,fishing-nets
 are very abundant in both cities1 often
 quite entire2 and their number at      
,pompeii is the more interesting from   
the sea being now1 as we stated1 a mile 
distant4 ,linen has been found at       
,herculaneum1 with the texture well     
defined2 and in a fruiterer's shop in   
that city were discovered vessels full  
of almonds1 chestnuts1 walnuts1 and     
fruit of the carubiere1 all distinctly  

recognizable from their shape4 ,a loaf1 
also1 still retaining its form1 was     
found in a baker's shop1 with his name  
stamped upon it4 ,on the counter of an  
apothecary was a box of pills converted 
into a fine earthy substance2 and by the
 side of it a small cylindrical roll    
evidently prepared to be cut into pills4
 ,by the side of these was a jar        
containing medicinal herbs4 ,in #ahbg1  
moist olives were found in a square     
glass-case1 and caviare1 or roe of a    
fish1 in a state of wonderful           
preservation4 ,an examination of these  
curious condiments has been published by
 ,covelli of ,naples1 and they are      
preserved hermetically sealed in the    
museum there4#eef  ,papyri4--,there is a
 marked difference in the condition and 
appearance of the animal and vegetable  
substances found at ,pompeii and        
,herculaneum2 those of ,pompeii being   
penetrated by a gray pulverulent tuff1  
those in ,herculaneum seeming to have   
been first enveloped by a paste which   

consolidated round them1 and then       
allowed them to become slowly           
carbonized4 ,some of the rolls of       
papyrus at ,pompeii still retain their  
form2 but the writing1 and indeed almost
 all the vegetable matter1 appear to    
have vanished1 and to have been replaced
 by volcanic tuff somewhat pulverulent4 
,at ,herculaneum the earthy matter has  
scarcely ever penetrated2 and the       
vegetable substance of the papyrus has  
become a thin friable black matter1     
almost resembling in appearance the     
tinder which remains when stiff paper   
has been burnt1 in which the letters may
 still be sometimes traced4 ,the small  
bundles of papyri1 composed of five or  
six rolls tied up together1 had         
sometimes lain horizontally1 and were   
pressed in that direction1 but sometimes
 they had been placed in a vertical     
position4 ,small tickets were attached  
to each bundle1 on which the title of   
the work was inscribed4 ,in one case    
only have the sheets been found with    

writing on both sides of the pages4 ,so 
numerous are the obliterations and      
corrections1 that many must have been   
original manuscripts4 ,the variety of   
handwritings is quite extraordinary3    
nearly all are written in ,greek1 but   
there are a few in ,latin4 ,they were   
almost all found in a suburban villa in 
the library of one private individual2  
and the titles of four hundred of those 
least injured1 which have been read1 are
 found to be unimportant works1 but all 
entirely new1 chiefly relating to music1
 rhetoric1 and cookery4 ,there are two  
volumes of ,epicurus ,on ,nature1 and   
the others are mostly by writers of the 
same school1 only one fragment having   
been discovered1 by an opponent of the  
,epicurean system1 ,chrysippus4#eeg     
,probability of future discoveries of   
,,mss4--,in the opinion of some         
antiquaries1 not one-hundredth part of  
the city has yet been explored3 and the 
quarters hitherto cleared out at a great
 expense1 are those where there was the 

least probability of discovering        
manuscripts4 ,as ,italy could already   
boast her splendid ,roman amphitheatres 
and ,greek temples1 it was a matter of  
secondary interest to add to their      
number those in the dark and dripping   
galleries of ,herculaneum2 and having so
 many of the masterpieces of ancient    
art1 we could have dispensed with the   
inferior busts and statues which could  
alone have been expected to reward our  
researches in the ruins of a provincial 
town4 ,but from the moment that it was  
ascertained that rolls of papyrus       
preserved in this city could still be   
deciphered1 every exertion ought to have
 been steadily and exclusively directed 
towards the discovery of other          
libraries4 ,private dwellings should    
have been searched1 before so much labor
 and expense were consumed in examining 
public edifices4 ,a small portion of    
that zeal and enlightened spirit which  
prompted the late ,french and ,tuscan   
expedition to ,egypt might long ere     

this1 in a country nearer home1 have    
snatched from oblivion some of the lost 
works of the ,augustan age1 or of       
eminent ,greek historians and           
philosophers4 ,a single roll of papyrus 
might have disclosed more matter of     
intense interest than all that was ever 
written in hieroglyphics4               
,stabiae4--,besides the cities already  
mentioned1 ,stabiae1 a small town about 
six miles from ,vesuvius1 and near the  
site of the modern ,castel-a-,mare 7see 
map of volcanic district of ,naples71   
was overwhelmed during the eruption of  
#gi4 ,pliny mentions that1 when his     
uncle was there1 he was obliged to make 
his escape1 so great was the quantity of
 falling stones and ashes4 ,in the ruins
 of this place1 a few skeletons have    
been found buried in volcanic ejections1
 together with some antiquities of no   
great value1 and rolls of papyrus1      
which1 like those of ,pompeii1 were     
illegible4  ,torre del ,greco overflowed
 by lava4--,of the towns hitherto       

mentioned1 ,herculaneum alone has been  
overflowed by a stream of melted matter2
 but this did not1 as we have seen1     
enter or injure the buildings1 which    
were previously enveloped or covered    
over with tuff4 ,but burning torrents   
have often taken their course through   
the streets of ,torre del ,greco1 and   
consumed or inclosed a large portion of 
the town in solid rock4 ,it seems       
probable that the destruction of three  
thousand of its inhabitants in #afca1   
which some accounts attribute to boiling
 water1 was principally due to one of   
those alluvial floods which we before   
mentioned3 but1 in #agcg1 the lava      
itself flowed through the eastern side  
of the town1 and afterwards reached the 
sea2 and1 in #agid1 another current1    
rolling over the western side1 filled   
the streets and houses1 and killed more 
than four hundred persons4 ,the main    
street is now quarried through this     
lava1 which supplied building stones for
 new houses erected where others had    

been annihilated4 ,the church was half  
buried in a rocky mass1 but the upper   
portion served as the foundation of a   
new edifice4  ,the number of the        
population at present is estimated at   
fifteen thousand2 and a satisfactory    
answer may readily be returned to those 
who inquire how the inhabitants can be  
so inattentive to the voice of time and 
the warnings of nature1#eeh as to       
rebuild their dwellings on a spot so    
often devastated4 ,no neighboring site  
unoccupied by a town1 or which would not
 be equally insecure1 combines the same 
advantages of proximity to the capital1 
to the sea1 and to the rich lands on the
 flanks of ,vesuvius4 ,if the present   
population were exiled1 they would      
immediately be replaced by another1 for 
the same reason that the ,maremma of    
,tuscany and the ,campagna di ,roma will
 never be depopulated1 although the     
malaria fever commits more havoc in a   
few years than the ,vesuvian lavas in as
 many centuries4 ,the district around   

,naples supplies one amongst innumerable
 examples1 that those regions where the 
surface is most frequently renewed1 and 
where the renovation is accompanied1 at 
different intervals of time1 by partial 
destruction of animal and vegetable     
life1 may nevertheless be amongst the   
most habitable and delightful on our    
globe4  ,i have already made a similar  
remark when speaking of tracts where    
aqueous causes are now most active2 and 
the observation applies as well to parts
 of the surface which are the abode of  
aquatic animals1 as to those which      
support terrestrial species4 ,the       
sloping sides of ,vesuvius give         
nourishment to a vigorous and healthy   
population of about eighty thousand     
souls2 and the surrounding hills and    
plains1 together with several of the    
adjoining isles1 owe the fertility of   
their soil to matter ejected by prior   
eruptions4 ,had the fundamental         
limestone of the ,apennines remained    
uncovered throughout the whole area1 the

 country could not have sustained a     
twentieth part of its present           
inhabitants4 ,this will be apparent to  
every geologist who has marked the      
change in the agricultural character of 
the soil the moment he has passed the   
utmost boundary of the volcanic         
ejections1 as when1 for example1 at the 
distance of about seven miles from      
,vesuvius1 he leaves the plain and      
ascends the declivity of the ,sorrentine
 ,hills4  ,yet1 favored as this region  
has been by ,nature from time           
immemorial1 the signs of the changes    
imprinted on it during the period that  
it has served as the habitation of man  
may appear in after-ages to indicate a  
series of unparalleled disasters4 ,let  
us suppose that at some future time the 
,mediterranean should form a gulf of the
 great ocean1 and that the waves and    
tidal current should encroach on the    
shores of ,campania1 as it now advances 
upon the eastern coast of ,england2 the 
geologist will then behold the towns    

already buried1 and many more which will
 evidently be entombed hereafter1 laid  
open in the steep cliffs1 where he will 
discover buildings superimposed above   
each other1 with thick intervening      
strata of tuff or lava--some unscathed  
by fire1 like those of ,herculaneum and 
,pompeii2 others half melted down1 as in
 ,torre del ,greco2 and many shattered  
and thrown about in strange confusion1  
as in ,tripergola1 beneath ,monte       
,nuovo4 ,among the ruins will be seen   
skeletons of men1 and impressions of the
 human form stamped in solid rocks of   
tuff4 ,nor will the signs of earthquakes
 be wanting4 ,the pavement of part of   
the ,domitian ,way1 and the temple of   
the ,nymphs1 submerged at high tide1    
will be uncovered at low water1 the     
columns remaining erect and uninjured4  
,other temples which had once sunk down1
 like that of ,serapis1 will be found to
 have been upraised again by subsequent 
movements4 ,if they who study these     
phenomena1 and speculate on their       

causes1 assume that there were periods  
when the laws of ,nature or the whole   
course of natural events differed       
greatly from those observed in their own
 time1 they will scarcely hesitate to   
refer the wonderful monuments in        
question to those primeval ages4 ,when  
they consider the numerous proofs of    
reiterated catastrophes to which the    
region was subject1 they may1 perhaps1  
commiserate the unhappy fate of beings  
condemned to inhabit a planet during its
 nascent and chaotic state1 and feel    
grateful that their favored race has    
escaped such scenes of anarchy and      
misrule4  ,yet what was the real        
condition of ,campania during those     
years of dire convulsion8 ,a climate    
where heaven's breath smells sweet and  
wooingly--a vigorous and luxuriant      
nature unparalleled in its              
productions--a coast which was once the 
fairy-land of poets1 and the favorite   
retreat of great men4 ,even the tyrants 
of the creation loved this alluring     

region1 spared it1 adorned it1 lived in 
it1 died in it4#eei ,the inhabitants1   
indeed1 have enjoyed no immunity from   
the calamities which are the lot of     
mankind2 but the principal evils which  
they have suffered must be attributed to
 moral1 not to physical1 causes--to     
disastrous events over which man might  
have exercised a control1 rather than to
 the inevitable catastrophes which      
result from subterranean agency4 ,when  
,spartacus encamped his army of ten     
thousand gladiators in the old extinct  
crater of ,vesuvius1 the volcano was    
more justly a subject of terror to      
,campania1 than it has ever been since  
the rekindling of its fires4            
,,chapter ,,xxv4  ,,etna4     ,external 
physiognomy of ,etna--,lateral          
cones--,their successive                
obliteration--,early eruptions--,monti  
,rossi in #affi--,towns overflowed      
by lava--,part of ,catania              
overflowed--,mode of advance of a       
current of     lava--,subterranean      

caverns--,marine strata at base of      
,etna--,val del     ,bove not an ancient
 crater--,its scenery--,form1           
composition1 and     origin of the      
dikes--,linear direction of cones formed
 in #ahaa and     #ahai--,lavas and     
breccias--,flood produced by the melting
 of snow by     lava--,glacier covered  
by a lava stream--,val del ,bove how    
formed--,structure and origin of the    
cone of ,etna--,whether the     inclined
 sheets of lava were originally         
horizontal--,antiquity of               
,etna--,whether signs of diluvial waves 
are observable on ,etna4   ,external    
physiognomy of ,etna4--,after ,vesuvius1
 our most authentic records relate to   
,etna1 which rises near the sea in      
solitary grandeur to the height of      
nearly eleven thousand feet4#efj ,the   
base of the cone is almost circular1 and
 eighty-seven ,english miles in         
circumference2 but if we include the    
whole district over which its lavas     
extend1 the circuit is probably twice   

that extent4  ,divided into three       
regions4--,the cone is divided by nature
 into three distinct zones1 called the  
fertile1 the woody1 and the desert      
regions4 ,the first of these1 comprising
 the delightful country around the      
skirts of the mountain1 is well         
cultivated1 thickly inhabited1 and      
covered with olives1 vines1 corn1       
fruit-trees1 and aromatic herbs4 ,higher
 up1 the woody region encircles the     
mountain--an extensive forest six or    
seven miles in width1 affording         
pasturage for numerous flocks4 ,the     
trees are of various species1 the       
chestnut1 oak1 and pine being most      
luxuriant2 while in some tracts are     
groves of cork and beech4 ,above the    
forest is the desert region1 a waste of 
black lava and scoriae2 where1 on a kind
 of plain1 rises a cone of eruption to  
the height of about eleven hundred feet1
 from which sulphureous vapors are      
continually evolved4  ,cones produced by
 lateral eruption4--,the most grand and 

original feature in the physiognomy of  
,etna is the multitude of minor cones   
which are distributed over its flanks1  
and which are most abundant in the woody
 region4 ,these1 although they appear   
but trifling irregularities when viewed 
from a distance as subordinate parts of 
so imposing and colossal a mountain1    
would1 nevertheless1 be deemed hills of 
considerable altitude in almost any     
other region4 ,without enumerating      
numerous monticules of ashes thrown out 
at different points1 there are about    
eighty of these secondary volcanoes1 of 
considerable dimensions2 fifty-two on   
the west and north1 and twenty-seven on 
the east side of ,etna4 ,one of the     
largest1 called ,monte ,minardo1 near   
,bronte1 is upwards of #gjj feet in     
height1 and a double hill near          
,nicolosi1 called ,monti ,rossi1 formed 
in #affi1 is #dej feet high1 and the    
base two miles in circumference2 so that
 it somewhat exceeds in size ,monte     
,nuovo1 before described4 ,yet it ranks 

only as a cone of the second magnitude  
amongst those produced by the lateral   
eruptions of ,etna4 ,on looking down    
from the lower borders of the desert    
region1 these volcanoes present us with 
one of the most delightful and          
characteristic scenes in ,europe4 ,they 
afford every variety of height and size1
 and are arranged in beautiful and      
picturesque groups4 ,however uniform    
they may appear when seen from the sea1 
or the plains below1 nothing can be more
 diversified than their shape when we   
look from above into their craters1 one 
side of which is generally broken down4 
,there are1 indeed1 few objects in      
nature more picturesque than a wooded   
volcanic crater4 ,the cones situated in 
the higher parts of the forest zone are 
chiefly clothed with lofty pines2 while 
those at a lower elevation are adorned  
with chestnuts1 oaks1 beech1 and holm4  
,successive obliteration of these       
cones4--,the history of the eruptions of
 ,etna1 imperfect and interrupted as it 

is1 affords us1 nevertheless1 much      
insight into the manner in which the    
whole mountain has successively attained
 its present magnitude and internal     
structure4 ,the principal cone has more 
than once fallen in and been reproduced4
 ,in #addd it was #cbj feet high1 and   
fell in after the earthquakes of #aecg4 
,in the year #afic1 when a violent      
earthquake shook the whole of ,sicily1  
and killed sixty thousand persons1 the  
cone lost so much of its height1 says   
,boccone1 that it could not be seen from
 several places in ,valdemone1 from     
which it was before visible4 ,the       
greater number of eruptions happen      
either from the great crater1 or from   
lateral openings in the desert region4  
,when hills are thrown up in the middle 
zone1 and project beyond the general    
level1 they gradually lose their height 
during subsequent eruptions2 for when   
lava runs down from the upper parts of  
the mountain1 and encounters any of     
these hills1 the stream is divided1 and 

flows round them so as to elevate the   
gently sloping grounds from which they  
rise4 ,in this manner a deduction is    
often made at once of twenty or thirty  
feet1 or even more1 from their height4  
,thus1 one of the minor cones1 called   
,monte ,peluso1 was diminished in       
altitude by a great lava stream which   
encircled it in #addd2 and another      
current has recently taken the same     
course--yet this hill still remains four
 or five hundred feet high4  ,there is a
 cone called ,monte ,nucilla near       
,nicolosi1 round the base of which      
several successive currents have flowed1
 and showers of ashes have fallen1 since
 the time of history1 till at last1     
during an eruption in #aecf1 the        
surrounding plain was so raised1 that   
the top of the cone alone was left      
projecting above the general level4     
,monte ,nero1 situated above the ,grotta
 dell' ,capre1 was in #agff almost      
submerged by a current3 and ,monte      
,capreolo afforded1 in the year #affi1 a

 curious example of one of the last     
stages of obliteration2 for a lava      
stream1 descending on a high ridge which
 had been built up by the continued     
superposition of successive lavas1      
flowed directly into the crater1 and    
nearly filled it4 ,the lava1 therefore1 
of each new lateral cone tends to       
detract from the relative height of     
lower cones above their base3 so that   
the flanks of ,etna1 sloping with a     
gentle inclination1 envelop in          
succession a great multitude of minor   
volcanoes1 while new ones spring up from
 time to time4  ,early eruptions of     
,etna4--,etna appears to have been in   
activity from the earliest times of     
tradition2 for ,diodorus ,siculus       
mentions an eruption which caused a     
district to be deserted by the ,sicani  
before the ,trojan war4 ,thucydides     
informs us1 that in the sixth year of   
the ,peloponnesian war1 or in the spring
 of the year #dbe ,b4 ,c41 a lava stream
 ravaged the environs of ,catania1 and  

this he says was the third eruption     
which had happened in ,sicily since the 
colonization of that island by the      
,greeks4#efa ,the second of the three   
eruptions alluded to by the historian   
took place in the year #dge ,b4 ,c41 and
 was that so poetically described by    
,pindar1 two years afterwards1 in his   
first ,pythian ode3--                   
,greek3 kion   ,d' ourania synechei     
,niphoess' ,aitna1 panetes   ,chionos   
oxeias tithena4  ,in these and the seven
 verses which follow1 a graphic         
description is given of ,etna1 such as  
it appeared five centuries before the   
,christian era1 and such as it has been 
seen when in eruption in modern times4  
,the poet is only making a passing      
allusion to the ,sicilian volcano1 as   
the mountain under which ,typhoeus lay  
buried1 yet by a few touches of his     
master-hand every striking feature of   
the scene has been faithfully portrayed4
 ,we are told of the snowy ,etna1 the   
pillar of heaven--the nurse of          

everlasting frost1 in whose deep caverns
 lie concealed the fountains of         
unapproachable fire--a stream of eddying
 smoke by day--a bright and ruddy flame 
by night2 and burning rocks rolled down 
with loud uproar into the sea4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4  ,minor cones 
on the flanks of ,etna4  #a4 ,monti     
,rossi1 near ,nicolosi1 formed in #affi4
 #b4 ,vampeluso8#efb  ,eruption of      
#affi--,monti ,rossi formed4--,the great
 eruption which happened in the year    
#affi is the first which claims         
particular attention4 ,an earthquake had
 levelled to the ground all the houses  
in ,nicolosi1 a town situated near the  
lower margin of the woody region1 about 
twenty miles from the summit of ,etna1  
and ten from the sea at ,catania4 ,two  
gulfs then opened near that town1 from  
whence sand and scoriae were thrown up  
in such quantity1 that in the course of 
three or four months a double cone was  
formed1 called ,monti ,rossi1 about #dej
 feet high4 ,but the most extraordinary 

phenomenon occurred at the commencement 
of the convulsion in the plain of ,s4   
,lio4 ,a fissure six feet broad1 and of 
unknown depth1 opened with a loud crash1
 and ran in a somewhat tortuous course  
to within a mile of the summit of ,etna4
 ,its direction was from north to south1
 and its length twelve miles4 ,it       
emitted a most vivid light4 ,five other 
parallel fissures of considerable length
 afterwards opened1 one after the other1
 and emitted smoke1 and gave out        
bellowing sounds which were heard at the
 distance of forty miles4 ,this case    
seems to present the geologist with an  
illustration of the manner in which     
those continuous dikes of vertical      
porphyry were formed1 which are seen to 
traverse some of the older lavas of     
,etna2 for the light emitted from the   
great rent of ,s4 ,lio appears to       
indicate that the fissure was filled to 
a certain height with incandescent lava1
 probably to the height of an orifice   
not far distant from ,monti ,rossi1     

which at that time opened and poured out
 a lava current4 ,when the melted matter
 in such a rent has cooled1 it must     
become a solid wall or dike1            
intersecting the older rocks of which   
the mountain is composed2 similar rents 
have been observed during subsequent    
eruptions1 as in #ahcb1 when they ran in
 all directions from the centre of the  
volcano4 ,it has been justly remarked by
 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 that such      
star-shaped fractures may indicate a    
slight upheaval of the whole of ,etna4  
,they may be the signs of the stretching
 of the mass1 which may thus be raised  
gradually by a force from below4#efc    
,the lava current of #affi1 before      
alluded to1 soon reached in its course a
 minor cone called ,mompiliere1 at the  
base of which it entered a subterranean 
grotto1 communicating with a suite of   
those caverns which are so common in the
 lavas of ,etna4 ,here it appears to    
have melted down some of the vaulted    
foundations of the hill1 so that the    

whole of that cone became slightly      
depressed and traversed by numerous open
 fissures4  ,part of ,catania           
destroyed4--,the lava1 after overflowing
 fourteen towns and villages1 some      
having a population of between three and
 four thousand inhabitants1 arrived at  
length at the walls of ,catania4 ,these 
had been purposely raised to protect the
 city2 but the burning flood accumulated
 till it rose to the top of the rampart1
 which was sixty feet in height1 and    
then it fell in a fiery cascade and     
overwhelmed part of the city4 ,the wall1
 however1 was not thrown down1 but was  
discovered long afterwards by           
excavations made in the rock by the     
,prince of ,biscari2 so that the        
traveller may now see the solid lava    
curling over the top of the rampart as  
if still in the very act of falling4    
,this great current performed the first 
thirteen miles of its course in twenty  
days1 or at the rate of #afb feet per   
hour1 but required twenty-three days for

 the last two miles1 giving a velocity  
of only twenty-two feet per hour2 and we
 learn from ,dolomieu that the stream   
moved during part of its course at the  
rate of #aejj feet an hour1 and in      
others it took several days to cover a  
few yards4#efd ,when it entered the sea 
it was still six hundred yards broad1   
and forty feet deep4 ,it covered some   
territories in the environs of ,catania 
which had never before been visited by  
the lavas of ,etna4 ,while moving on1   
its surface was in general a mass of    
solid rock2 and its mode of advancing1  
as is usual with lava streams1 was by   
the occasional fissuring of the solid   
walls4 ,a gentleman of ,catania1 named  
,pappalardo1 desiring to secure the city
 from the approach of the threatening   
torrent1 went out with a party of fifty 
men whom he had dressed in skins to     
protect them from the heat1 and armed   
with iron crows and hooks4 ,they broke  
open one of the solid walls which       
flanked the current near ,belpasso1 and 

immediately forth issued a rivulet of   
melted matter which took the direction  
of ,paterno2 but the inhabitants of that
 town1 being alarmed for their safety1  
took up arms and put a stop to farther  
operations4#efe  ,as another            
illustration of the solidity of the     
walls of an advancing lava stream1 ,i   
may mention an adventure related by     
,recupero1 who1 in #agff1 had ascended a
 small hill formed of ancient volcanic  
matter1 to behold the slow and gradual  
approach of a fiery current1 two miles  
and a half broad2 when suddenly two     
small threads of liquid matter issuing  
from a crevice detached themselves from 
the main stream1 and ran rapidly towards
 the hill4 ,he and his guide had just   
time to escape1 when they saw the hill1 
which was fifty feet in height1         
surrounded1 and in a quarter of an hour 
melted down into the burning mass1 so as
 to flow on with it4  ,but it must not  
be supposed that this complete fusion of
 rocky matter coming in contact with    

lava is of universal1 or even common1   
occurrence4 ,it probably happens when   
fresh portions of incandescent matter   
come successively in contact with       
fusible materials4 ,in many of the dikes
 which intersect the tuffs and lavas of 
,etna1 there is scarcely any perceptible
 alteration effected by heat on the     
edges of the horizontal beds1 in contact
 with the vertical and more crystalline 
mass4 ,on the side of ,mompiliere1 one  
of the towns overflowed in the great    
eruption above described1 an excavation 
was made in #agjd2 and by immense labor 
the workmen reached1 at the depth of    
thirty-five feet1 the gate of the       
principal church1 where there were three
 statues1 held in high veneration4 ,one 
of these1 together with a bell1 some    
money1 and other articles1 were         
extracted in a good state of            
preservation from beneath a great arch  
formed by the lava4 ,it seems very      
extraordinary that any works of art1 not
 encased with tuff1 like those in       

,herculaneum1 should have escaped fusion
 in hollow spaces left open in this     
lava-current1 which was so hot at       
,catania eight years after it entered   
the town1 that it was impossible to hold
 the hand in some of the crevices4      
,subterranean caverns on                
,etna4--,mention was made of the        
entrance of a lava-stream into a        
subterranean grotto1 whereby the        
foundations of a hill were partially    
undermined4 ,such underground passages  
are among the most curious features on  
,etna1 and appear to have been produced 
by the hardening of the lava1 during the
 escape of great volumes of elastic     
fluids1 which are often discharged for  
many days in succession1 after the      
crisis of the eruption is over4 ,near   
,nicolosi1 not far from ,monti ,rossi1  
one of these great openings may be seen1
 called the ,fossa della ,palomba1 #fbe 
feet in circumference at its mouth1 and 
seventy-eight deep4 ,after reaching the 
bottom of this1 we enter another dark   

cavity1 and then others in succession1  
sometimes descending precipices by means
 of ladders4 ,at length the vaults      
terminate in a great gallery ninety feet
 long1 and from fifteen to fifty broad1 
beyond which there is still a passage1  
never yet explored2 so that the extent  
of these caverns remains unknown4#eff   
,the walls and roofs of these great     
vaults are composed of rough and        
bristling scoriae1 of the most fantastic
 forms4  ,marine strata at base of      
,etna4--,if we skirt the fertile region 
at the base of ,etna on its southern and
 eastern sides1 we behold marine strata 
of clay sand1 and volcanic tuff1        
cropping out from beneath the modern    
lavas4 ,the marine fossil shells        
occurring in these strata are all of    
them1 or nearly all1 identical with     
species now inhabiting the              
,mediterranean2 and as they appear at   
the height of from #fjj to #hjj feet    
above the sea near ,catania1 they       
clearly prove that there has been in    

this region1 as in other parts of       
,sicily farther to the south1 an upward 
movement of the ancient bed of the sea4 
,it is fair1 therefore1 to infer that   
the whole mountain1 with the exception  
of those parts which are of very modern 
origin1 has participated in this        
upheaval4  ,if we view ,etna from the   
south1 we see the marine deposits above 
alluded to1 forming a low line of hills 
7e1 e1 ,fig4 #dg71 or a steep inland    
slope or cliff 7f71 as in the annexed   
drawing taken from the limestone        
platform of ,primosole4 ,it should be   
observed however1 in reference to this  
view1 that the height of the volcanic   
cone is ten times greater than the hills
 at its base 7e1 e71 although it appears
 less elevated1 because the summit of   
the cone is ten or twelve times more    
distant from the plain of ,catania than 
is ,licodia4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 
,view of ,etna from the summit of the   
limestone platform of ,primosole4  a1   
,highest cone4  b1 ,montagnuola4  c1    

,monte ,minardo1 with smaller lateral   
cones above4  d1 ,town of ,licodia dei  
,monaci4  e1 ,marine formation called   
creta1 argillaceous and sandy beds with 
a few shells1 and associated volcanic   
rocks4  f1 ,escarpment of stratified    
subaqueous volcanic tuff1 c41 northwest 
of ,catania4  g1 ,town of ,catania4  h  
i1 ,dotted line expressing the highest  
boundary along which the marine strata  
are occasionally seen4  k1 ,plain of    
,catania4  l1 ,limestone platform of    
,primosole of the ,newer ,pliocene      
period4  m1 ,la ,motta di ,catania4     
,the mountain is in general of a very   
symmetrical form1 a flattened cone      
broken on its eastern side1 by a deep   
valley1 called the ,val del ,bove1 or in
 the provincial dialect of the peasants1
 ,val di ,bua1 for here the herdsman    
---- in reducta valle mugientium        
,prospectat errantes greges4   ,dr4     
,buckland was1 ,i believe1 the first    
,english geologist who examined this    
valley with attention1 and ,i am        

indebted to him for having described it 
to me1 before ,i visited ,sicily1 as    
more worthy of attention than any single
 spot in that island1 or perhaps in     
,europe4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii  
,,view ,,looking ,,up ,,the ,,val ,,del 
,,bove1 ,,etna  ,the ,val del ,bove     
commences near the summit of ,etna1 and 
descending into the woody region1 is    
farther continued on one side by a      
second and narrower valley1 called the  
,val di ,calanna4 ,below this another1  
named the ,val di ,st4 ,giacomo1        
begins1--a long narrow ravine1 which is 
prolonged to the neighborhood of        
,zaffarana 7e1 fig4 #dh71 on the        
confines of the fertile region4 ,these  
natural incisions into the side of the  
volcano are of such depth that they     
expose to view a great part of the      
structure of the entire mass1 which1 in 
the ,val del ,bove1 is laid open to the 
depth of from #cjjj to above #djjj feet 
from the summit of ,etna4 ,the geologist
 thus enjoys an opportunity of          

ascertaining how far the internal       
conformation of the cone corresponds    
with what he might have anticipated as  
the result of that mode of increase     
which has been witnessed during the     
historical era4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#dh4  ,great valley on the east side of 
,etna4  a1 ,highest cone4  b1           
,montagnuola4  c1 ,head of ,val del     
,bove4  d1 d1 ,serre del ,solfizio4  e1 
,village of ,zaffarana on the lower     
border of the woody region4  f1 ,one of 
the lateral cones4  g1 ,monti ,rossi4   
,description of ,plate ,,iii4--,the     
accompanying view 7,pl4 ,,iii47 is part 
of a panoramic sketch which ,i made in  
,november1 #ahbh1 and may assist the    
reader in comprehending some            
topographical details to be alluded to  
in the sequel1 although it can convey no
 idea of the picturesque grandeur of the
 scene4  ,the great lava-currents of    
#ahai and #ahaa are seen pouring down   
from the higher parts of the valley1    
overrunning the forests of the great    

plain1 and rising up in the foreground  
on the left with a rugged surface1 on   
which many hillocks and depressions     
appear1 such as often characterize a    
lava-current immediately after its      
consolidation4  ,the small cone1 ,no4   
#g1 was formed in #ahaa1 and was still  
smoking when ,i saw it in #ahbh4 ,the   
other small volcano to the left1 from   
which vapor is issuing1 was1 ,i believe1
 one of those formed in #ahai4  ,the    
following are the names of some of the  
other points indicated in the sketch3-- 
#a1 ,montagnuola4    #b1 ,torre del     
,filosofo4    #c1 ,highest cone4    #d1 
,lepra4    #e1 ,finocchio4    #f1       
,capra4    #g1 ,cone of #ahaa4    #h1   
,cima del ,asino4    #i1 ,musara4   #aj1
 ,zocolaro4   #aa1 ,rocca di ,calanna4  
,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,iv4--,the  
second view 7,pl4 ,,iv47 represents the 
same valley as seen from above1 or      
looking directly down the ,val del      
,bove1 from the summit of the principal 
crater formed in #ahai4efg ,i am unable 

to point out the precise spot which this
 crater would occupy in the view        
represented in ,plate ,,iii42 but ,i    
conceive that it would appear in the    
face of the great precipice1 near which 
the smoke issuing from the cone ,no4 #g 
is made to terminate4 ,there are many   
ledges of rock on the face of that      
precipice where eruptions have occurred4
  ,the circular form of the ,val del    
,bove is well shown in this view4 7,pl4 
,,iv47 ,to the right and left are the   
lofty precipices which form the southern
 and northern sides of the great valley1
 and which are intersected by dikes     
projecting in the manner afterwards to  
be described4 ,in the distance appears  
the fertile region of ,etna1 extending  
like a great plain along the sea-coast4 
,the spots particularly referred to in  
the plate are the following3--     a1   
,cape ,spartivento1 in ,italy1 of which 
the outline is seen          in the     
distance4    b1 ,the promontory of      
,taormino1 on the ,sicilian coast4    c1

 ,the river ,alcantra4    d1 ,the small 
village of ,riposto4    f1 ,the town of 
,aci ,reale4    g1 ,cyclopian islands1  
or ,faraglioni1 in the ,bay of ,trezza4 
h1 ,the great harbor of ,syracuse4    k1
 ,the ,lake of ,lentini4    i1 ,the city
 of ,catania1 near which is marked the  
course of          the lava which flowed
 from the ,monti ,rossi in #affi1       
and destroyed part of the city4    l1   
,to the left of the view is the crater  
of #ahaa1 which is          also shown  
at ,no4 #g in ,plate ,,iii4    m1 ,rock 
of ,musara1 also seen at ,no4 #i in     
,plate ,,iii4    e1 ,valley of ,calanna4
   ,the ,val del ,bove is of truly      
magnificent dimensions1 a vast          
amphitheatre four or five miles in      
diameter1 surrounded by nearly vertical 
precipices1 varying from #ajjj to above 
#cjjj feet in height1 the loftiest being
 at the upper end1 and the height       
gradually diminishing on both sides4    
,the feature which first strikes the    
geologist as distinguishing the boundary

 cliffs of this valley1 is the          
prodigious multitude of verticle dikes  
which are seen in all directions        
traversing the volcanic beds4 ,the      
circular form of this great chasm1 and  
the occurrence of these countless dikes1
 amounting perhaps to several thousands 
in number1 so forcibly recalled to my   
mind the phenomena of the ,atrio del    
,cavallo1 on ,vesuvius1 that ,i at first
 imagined that ,i had entered a vast    
crater1 on a scale as far exceeding that
 of ,somma1 as ,etna surpasses ,vesuvius
 in magnitude4  ,but ,i was soon        
undeceived when ,i had attentively      
explored the different sides of the     
great amphitheatre1 in order to satisfy 
myself whether the semicircular wall of 
the ,val del ,bove had ever formed the  
boundary of a crater1 and whether the   
beds had the same quaqua-versal dip     
which is so beautifully exhibited in the
 escarpment of ,somma4 ,had the supposed
 analogy between ,somma and the ,val del
 ,bove held true1 the tufts and lavas at

 the head of the valley would have      
dipped to the west1 those on the north  
side towards the north1 and those on the
 southern side to the south4 ,but such  
,i did not find to be the inclination of
 the beds2 they all dip towards the sea1
 or nearly east1 as in the valleys of   
,st4 ,giacomo and ,calanna below4       
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv  ,,view ,,of
 ,,the ,,val ,,del ,,bove1 ,,etna1 ,,as 
,,seen ,,from ,,above1 ,,or ,,from ,,the
 ,,crater ,,of #ahai  ,scenery of the   
,val del ,bove4--,let the reader picture
 to himself a large amphitheatre1 five  
miles in diameter1 and surrounded on    
three sides by precipices from #bjjj to 
#cjjj feet in height4 ,if he has beheld 
that most picturesque scene in the chain
 of the ,pyrenees1 the celebrated cirque
 of ,gavarnie1 he may form some         
conception of the magnificent circle of 
precipitous rocks which inclose1 on     
three sides1 the great plain of the ,val
 del ,bove4 ,this plain has been deluged
 by repeated streams of lava2 and       

although it appears almost level1 when  
viewed from a distance1 it is1 in fact1 
more uneven than the surface of the most
 tempestuous sea4 ,besides the minor    
irregularities of the lava1 the valley  
is in one part interrupted by a ridge of
 rocks1 two of which1 ,musara and       
,capra1 are very prominent4 ,it can     
hardly be said that they                
----like giants stand   ,to sentinel    
enchanted land2   for although1 like the
 ,trosachs1 in the ,highlands of        
,scotland1 they are of gigantic         
dimensions1 and appear almost isolated1 
as seen from many points1 yet the stern 
and severe grandeur of the scenery which
 they adorn is not such as would be     
selected by a poet for a vale of        
enchantment4 ,the character of the scene
 would accord far better with ,milton's 
picture of the infernal world2 and if we
 imagine ourselves to behold in motion1 
in the darkness of the night1 one of    
those fiery currents which have so often
 traversed the great valley1 we may well

 recall     ----yon dreary plain1       
forlorn and wild1   ,the seat of        
desolation1 void of light1   ,save what 
the glimmering of these livid flames    
,casts pale and dreadful4   ,the face of
 the precipices already mentioned is    
broken in the most picturesque manner by
 the vertical walls of lava which       
traverse them4 ,these masses visually   
stand out in relief1 are exceedingly    
diversified in form1 and of immense     
altitude4 ,in the autumn1 their black   
outline may often be seen relieved by   
clouds of fleecy vapor which settle     
behind them1 and do not disperse until  
mid-day1 continuing to fill the valley  
while the sun is shining on every other 
part of ,sicily1 and on the higher      
regions of ,etna4  ,as soon as the      
vapors begin to rise1 the changes of    
scene are varied in the highest degree1 
different rocks being unveiled and      
hidden by turns1 and the summit of ,etna
 often breaking through the clouds for a
 moment with its dazzling snows1 and    

being then as suddenly withdrawn from   
the view4  ,an unusual silence prevails2
 for there are no torrents dashing from 
the rocks1 nor any movement of running  
water in this valley such as may almost 
invariably be heard in mountainous      
regions4 ,every drop of water that falls
 from the heavens1 or flows from the    
melting ice and snow1 is instantly      
absorbed by the porous lava2 and such is
 the dearth of springs1 that the        
herdsman is compelled to supply his     
flocks1 during the hot season1 from     
stores of snow laid up in hollows of the
 mountain during winter4  ,the strips of
 green herbage and forest land1 which   
have here and there escaped the burning 
lavas1 serve1 by contrast1 to heighten  
the desolation of the scene4 ,when ,i   
visited the valley1 nine years after the
 eruption of #ahai1 ,i saw hundreds of  
trees1 or rather the white skeletons of 
trees1 on the borders of the black lava1
 the trunks and branches being all      
leafless1 and deprived of their bark by 

the scorching heat emitted from the     
melted rock2 an image recalling those   
beautiful lines3--     ----,as when     
heaven's fire   ,hath scath'd the forest
 oaks1 or mountain pines1   ,with singed
 top their stately growth1 though bare1 
,stands on the blasted heath4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4  ,dikes at the
 base of the ,serre del ,solfizio1      
,etna4  ,form1 composition1 and origin  
of the dikes4--,but without indulging   
the imagination any longer in           
descriptions of scenery1 ,i may observe 
that the dikes before mentioned form    
unquestionably the most interesting     
geological phenomenon in the ,val del   
,bove4 ,some of these are composed of   
trachyte1 others of compact blue basalt 
with olivine4 ,they vary in breadth from
 two to twenty feet and upwards1 and    
usually project from the face of the    
cliffs1 as represented in the annexed   
drawing 7fig4 #di74 ,they consist of    
harder materials than the strata which  
they traverse1 and therefore waste away 

less rapidly under the influence of that
 repeated congelation and thawing to    
which the rocks in this zone of ,etna   
are exposed4 ,the dikes are for the most
 part vertical1 but sometimes they run  
in a tortuous course through the tuffs  
and breccias1 as represented in fig4    
#ej4 ,in the escarpment of ,somma1 where
 similar walls of lava cut through      
alternating beds of sand and scoriae1 a 
coating of coal-black rock1 approaching 
in its nature and appearance to         
pitchstone1 is seen at the contact of   
the dike with the intersected beds4 ,i  
did not observe such parting layers at  
the junction of the ,etnean dikes which 
,i examined1 but they may perhaps be    
discoverable4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4
  ,tortuous veins of lava at ,punto di  
,giumento1 ,etna4  ,the geographical    
position of these dikes is most         
interesting1 as they are very numerous  
near the head of the ,val del ,bove1    
where the cones of #ahaa and #ahai were 
thrown up1 as also in that zone of the  

mountain where lateral eruptions are    
frequent2 whereas in the valley of      
,calanna1 which is below that parallel1 
and in a region where lateral eruptions 
are extremely rare1 scarcely any dikes  
are seen1 and none whatever still lower 
in the valley of ,st4 ,giacomo4 ,this is
 precisely what we might have expected1 
if we consider the vertical fissures now
 filled with rock to have been the      
feeders of lateral cones1 or1 in other  
words1 the channels which gave passage  
to the lava-currents and scoriae that   
have issued from vents in the forest    
zone4 ,in other parts of ,etna there may
 be numerous dikes at as low a level as 
the ,valley of ,calanna1 because the    
line of lateral eruptions is not        
everywhere at the same height above the 
sea2 but in the section above alluded   
to1 there appeared to me an obvious     
connection between the frequency of     
dikes and of lateral eruptions4  ,some  
fissures may have been filled from      
above1 but ,i did not see any which1 by 

terminating downwards1 gave proof of    
such an origin4 ,almost all the isolated
 masses in the ,val del ,bove1 such as  
,capra1 ,musara1 and others1 are        
traversed by dikes1 and may1 perhaps1   
have partly owed their preservation to  
that circumstance1 if at least the      
action of occasional floods has been one
 of the destroying causes in the ,val   
del ,bove2 for there is nothing which   
affords so much protection to a mass of 
strata against the undermining action of
 running water as a perpendicular dike  
of hard rock4  ,in the accompanying     
drawing 7fig4 #ea71 the flowing of the  
lavas of #ahaa and #ahai1 between the   
rocks ,finochio1 ,capra1 and ,musara1 is
 represented4 ,the height of the two    
last-mentioned isolated masses has been 
much diminished by the elevation of     
their base1 caused by these currents4   
,they may1 perhaps1 be the remnants of  
lateral cones which existed before the  
,val del ,bove was formed1 and may      
hereafter be once more buried by the    

lavas that are now accumulating in the  
valley4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4      
,view of the rocks ,finochio1 ,capra1   
and ,musara1 ,val del ,bove4  ,from no  
point of view are the dikes more        
conspicuous than from the summit of the 
highest cone of ,etna2 a view of some of
 them is given in the annexed drawing4  
7,fig4 #eb47  ,eruption of #ahaa4--;,i  
have alluded to the streams of lava     
which were poured forth in #ahaa and    
#ahai4 ,gemmellaro1 who witnessed these 
eruptions1 informs us that the great    
crater in #ahaa first testified by its  
loud detonations that a column of lava  
had ascended to near the summit of the  
mountain4 ,a violent shock was then     
felt1 and a stream broke out from the   
side of the cone1 at no great distance  
from its apex4 ,shortly after this had  
ceased to flow1 a second stream burst   
forth at another opening1 considerably  
below the first2 then a third still     
lower1 and so on till seven different   
issues had been thus successively       

formed1 all lying upon the same straight
 line4 ,it has been supposed that this  
line was a perpendicular rent in the    
internal framework of the mountain1     
which rent was probably not produced at 
one shock1 but prolonged successively   
downwards1 by the lateral pressure and  
intense heat of the internal column of  
lava1 as it subsided by gradual         
discharge through each vent4#efh        
,eruption of #ahai4--;,in #ahai three   
large mouths or caverns opened very near
 those which were formed in the         
eruptions of #ahaa1 from which flames1  
red-hot cinders1 and sand were thrown up
 with loud explosions4 ,a few minutes   
afterwards another mouth opened below1  
from which flames and smoke issued2 and 
finally a fifth1 lower still1 whence a  
torrent of lava flowed1 which spread    
itself with great velocity over the deep
 and broad valley called ,val del ,bove4
 ,this stream flowed two miles in the   
first twenty-four hours1 and nearly as  
far in the succeeding day and night4    

,the three original mouths at length    
united into one large crater1 and sent  
forth lava1 as did the inferior         
apertures1 so that an enormous torrent  
poured down the ,val del ,bove4 ,when it
 arrived at a vast and almost           
perpendicular precipice1 at the head of 
the ,valley of ,calanna1 it poured over 
in a cascade1 and1 being hardened in its
 descent1 made an inconceivable crash as
 it was dashed against the bottom4 ,so  
immense was the column of dust raised by
 the abrasion of the tufaceous hill over
 which the hardened mass descended1 that
 the ,catanians were in great alarm1    
supposing a new eruption to have burst  
out in the woody region1 exceeding in   
violence that near the summit of ,etna4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4  ,view from   
the summit of ,etna into the ,val del   
,bove4#efi  ,mode of advance of the     
lava4--,of the cones thrown up during   
this eruption1 not more than two are of 
sufficient magnitude to be numbered     
among those eighty which were before    

described as adorning the flanks of     
,etna4 ,the surface of the lava which   
deluged the ,val del ,bove1 consists of 
rocky and angular blocks1 tossed        
together in the utmost disorder4        
,nothing can be more rugged1 or more    
unlike the smooth and even superficies1 
which those who are unacquainted with   
volcanic countries may have pictured to 
themselves1 in a mass of matter which   
had consolidated from a liquid state4   
,mr4 ,scrope observed this current in   
the year #ahai1 slowly advancing down a 
considerable slope1 at the rate of about
 a yard an hour1 nine months after its  
emission4 ,the lower stratum being      
arrested by the resistance of the       
ground1 the upper or central part       
gradually protruded itself1 and1 being  
unsupported1 fell down4 ,this in its    
turn was covered by a mass of more      
liquid lava1 which swelled over it from 
above4 ,the current had all the         
appearance of a huge heap of rough and  
large cinders rolling over and over upon

 itself by the effect of an extremely   
slow propulsion from behind4 ,the       
contraction of the crust as it          
solidified1 and the friction of the     
scoriform cakes against one another1    
produced a crackling sound4 ,within the 
crevices a dull red heat might be seen  
by night1 and vapor issuing in          
considerable quantity was visible by    
day4#egj  ,it was stated that when the  
lava of #ahai arrived at the head of the
 ,valley of ,calanna1 after flowing down
 the ,val del ,bove1 it descended in a  
cascade4 ,this stream1 in fact1 like    
many previous currents of lava which    
have flowed down successively from the  
higher regions of ,etna1 was turned by a
 great promontory projecting from the   
southern side of the ,val del ,bove4    
,this promontory consists of the hills  
called ,zocolaro and ,calanna1 and of a 
ridge of inferior height which connects 
them4 7,see fig4 #ec47  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ec4     ,a1 ,zocolaro4   ,b1     
,monte di ,calanna4   ,c1 ,plain at the 

head of the ,valley of ,calanna4  a1    
,lava of #ahai descending the precipice 
and flowing through          the valley4
  b1 ,lavas of #ahaa and #ahai flowing  
round the hill of ,calanna4   ,it       
happened in #ahaa and #ahai that the    
flows of lava overtopped the ridge      
intervening between the hills of        
,zocolaro and ,calanna1 so that they    
fell in a cascade over a lofty          
precipice1 and began to fill up the     
valley of ,calanna 7a1 fig4 #ec74 ,other
 portions of the same lava-current 7b7  
flowed round the promontory1 and they   
exhibit one of the peculiar             
characteristics of such streams1 namely 
that of becoming solid externally1 even 
while yet in motion4 ,instead of        
thinning out gradually at their edges1  
their sides may often be compared to two
 rocky walls which are sometimes        
inclined at an angle of between thirty  
and forty degrees4 ,when such streams   
are turned from their course by a       
projecting rock1 they move right onwards

 in a new direction2 and in the ,valley 
of ,calanna a considerable space has    
thus been left between the steep sides  
of the lavas b b1 so deflected1 and the 
precipitous escarpment of ,zocolaro1 ,a1
 which bounds the plain ,c4  ,lavas and 
breccias4--,in regard to the volcanic   
masses which are intersected by dikes in
 the ,val del ,bove1 they consist in    
great part of graystone lavas1 of an    
intermediate character between basalt   
and trachyte1 and partly of porphyritic 
lava resembling trachyte1 but to which  
that name cannot1 according to ,von     
,buch and ,g4 ,rose1 be in strictness   
applied1 because the felspar belongs to 
the variety called ,labradorite4 ,there 
is great similarity in the composition  
of the ancient and modern lavas of      
,etna1 both consisting of felspar1      
augite1 olivine1 and titaniferous iron4 
,the alternating breccias are made up of
 scoriae1 sand1 and angular blocks of   
lava4 ,many of these fragments may have 
been thrown out by volcanic explosions1 

which1 falling on the hardened surface  
of moving lava-currents1 may have been  
carried to a considerable distance4 ,it 
may also happen that when lava advances 
very slowly1 in the manner of the flow  
of #ahai1 the angular masses resulting  
from the frequent breaking of the mass  
as it rolls over upon itself1 may       
produce these breccias4 ,it is at least 
certain that the upper portion of the   
lava-currents of #ahaa and #ahai now    
consist of angular masses to the depth  
of many yards4 ,d',aubuisson has        
compared the surface of one of the      
ancient lavas of ,auvergne to that of a 
river suddenly frozen over by the       
stoppage of immense fragments of        
drift-ice1 a description perfectly      
applicable to these modern ,etnean      
flows4 ,the thickness of the separate   
beds of conglomerate or breccia which   
are seen in the same vertical section1  
is often extremely different1 varying   
from #c to nearly #ej feet1 as ,i       
observed in the hill of ,calanna4       

,flood produced by the melting of snow  
by lava4--,it is possible that some of  
the breccias or conglomerates may be    
referred to aqueous causes1 as great    
floods occasionally sweep down the      
flanks of ,etna1 when eruptions take    
place in winter1 and when the snows are 
melted by lava4 ,it is true that running
 water in general exerts no power on    
,etna1 the rain which falls being       
immediately imbibed by the porous lavas2
 so that1 vast as is the extent of the  
mountain1 it feeds only a few small     
rivulets1 and these1 even1 are dry      
throughout the greater portion of the   
year4 ,the enormous rounded boulders1   
therefore1 of felspar-porphyry and      
basalt1 a line of which can be traced   
from the sea1 from near ,giardini1 by   
,mascali1 and ,zafarana1 to the ,val del
 ,bove1 would offer a perplexing problem
 to the geologist1 if history had not   
preserved the memorials of a tremendous 
flood which happened in this district in
 the year #agee4 ,it appears that two   

streams of lava flowed in that year1 on 
the #b;d of ,march1 from the highest    
crater2 they were immediately           
precipitated upon an enormous mass of   
snow which then covered the whole       
mountain1 and was extremely deep near   
the summit4 ,the sudden melting of this 
frozen mass1 by a fiery torrent three   
miles in length1 produced a frightful   
inundation1 which devastated the sides  
of the mountain for eight miles in      
length1 and afterwards covered the lower
 flanks of ,etna1 where they were less  
steep1 together with the plains near the
 sea1 with great deposits of sand1      
scoriae1 and blocks of lava4  ,many     
absurd stories circulated in ,sicily    
respecting this event2 such as that the 
water was boiling1 and that it was      
vomited from the highest crater2 that it
 was as salt as the sea1 and full of    
marine shells2 but these were mere      
inventions1 to which ,recupero1 although
 he relates them as tales of the        
mountaineers1 seems to have attached    

rather too much importance4  ,floods of 
considerable violence have also been    
produced on ,etna by the fall of heavy  
rains1 aided1 probably1 by the melting  
of snow4 ,by this cause alone1 in #agfa1
 sixty of the inhabitants of ,acicatena 
were killed1 and many of their houses   
swept away4#ega  ,glacier covered by a  
lava-stream4--,a remarkable discovery   
was made on ,etna in #ahbh of a great   
mass of ice1 preserved for many years1  
perhaps for centuries1 from melting1 by 
the singular accident of a current of   
red-hot lava having flowed over it4 ,the
 following are the facts in attestation 
of a phenomenon which must at first     
sight appear of so paradoxical a        
character4 ,the extraordinary heat      
experienced in the ,south of ,europe1   
during the summer and autumn of #ahbh1  
caused the supplies of snow and ice     
which had been preserved in the spring  
of that year1 for the use of ,catania   
and the adjoining parts of ,sicily and  
the island of ,malta1 to fail entirely4 

,great distress was consequently felt   
for want of a commodity regarded in     
those countries as one of the           
necessaries of life rather than an      
article of luxury1 and the abundance of 
which contributes in some of the larger 
cities to the salubrity of the water and
 the general health of the community4   
,the magistrates of ,catania applied to 
,signor ,m4 ,gemmellaro1 in the hope    
that his local knowledge of ,etna might 
enable him to point out some crevice or 
natural grotto on the mountain1 where   
drift-snow was still preserved4 ,nor    
were they disappointed2 for he had long 
suspected that a small mass of perennial
 ice at the foot of the highest cone was
 part of a large and continuous glacier 
covered by a lava-current4 ,having      
procured a large body of workmen1 he    
quarried into this ice1 and proved the  
superposition of the lava for several   
hundred yards1 so as completely to      
satisfy himself that nothing but the    
subsequent flowing of the lava over the 

ice could account for the position of   
the glacier4 ,unfortunately for the     
geologist1 the ice was so extremely     
hard1 and the excavation so expensive1  
that there is no probability of the     
operations being renewed4  ,on the first
 of ,december1 #ahbh1 ,i visited this   
spot1 which is on the southeast side of 
the cone1 and not far above the ,casa   
,inglese2 but the fresh snow had already
 nearly filled up the new opening1 so   
that it had only the appearance of the  
mouth of a grotto4 ,i do not1 however1  
question the accuracy of the conclusion 
of ,signer ,gemmellaro1 who1 being well 
acquainted with all the appearances of  
drift-snow in the fissures and cavities 
of ,etna1 had recognized1 even before   
the late excavations1 the peculiarity of
 the position of the ice in this        
locality4 ,we may suppose that1 at the  
commencement of the eruption1 a deep    
mass of drift-snow had been covered by  
volcanic sand showered down upon it     
before the descent of the lava4 ,a dense

 stratum of this fine dust mixed with   
scoriae is well known to be an extremely
 bad conductor of heat2 and the         
shepherds in the higher regions of ,etna
 are accustomed to provide water for    
their flocks during summer1 by strewing 
a layer of volcanic sand a few inches   
thick over the snow1 which effectually  
prevents the heat of the sun from       
penetrating4  ,suppose the mass of snow 
to have been preserved from liquefaction
 until the lower part of the lava had   
consolidated1 we may then readily       
conceive that a glacier thus protected1 
at the height of ten thousand feet above
 the level of the sea1 would endure as  
long as the snows of ,mont ,blanc1      
unless melted by volcanic heat from     
below4 ,when ,i visited the great crater
 in the beginning of winter 7,december  
#ast1 #ahbh71 ,i found the crevices in  
the interior incrusted with thick ice1  
and in some cases hot vapors were       
actually streaming out between masses of
 ice and the rugged and steep walls of  

the crater4#egb  ,after the discovery of
 ,signor ,gemmellaro1 it would not be   
surprising to find in the cones of the  
,icelandic volcanoes1 which are covered 
for the most part with perpetual snow1  
repeated alternations of lava-streams   
and glaciers4 ,we have1 indeed1         
,lieutenant ,kendall's authority for the
 fact that ,deception ,island1 in ,new  
,south ,shetland1 lat4 #fb degrees4 #ee 
minutes ,s41 is principally composed of 
alternate layers of volcanic ashes and  
ice4#egc  ,origin of the ,val del       
,bove4--,it is recorded1 as will be     
stated in the history of earthquakes    
7ch4 #bi71 that in the year #aggb a     
great subsidence took place on          
,papandayang1 the largest volcano in the
 island of ,java2 an extent of ground   
fifteen miles in length1 and six in     
breadth1 covered by no less than forty  
villages1 was engulphed1 and the cone   
lost #djjj feet of its height4 ,in like 
manner the summit of ,carguairazo1 one  
of the loftiest of the ,andes of ,quito1

 fell in on the #aith ,july1 #afih2 and 
another mountain of still greater       
altitude in the same chain1 called      
,capac ,urcu1 a short time before the   
conquest of ,america by the ,spaniards4 
,it will also be seen in the next       
chapter that1 so late as the year #ahbb1
 during a violent earthquake and        
volcanic eruption in ,java1 one side of 
the mountain called ,galongoon1 which   
was covered by a dense forest1 became an
 enormous gulf in the form of a         
semicircle4 ,the new cavity was about   
midway between the summit and the plain1
 and surrounded by steep rocks4  ,now we
 might imagine a similar event1 or a    
series of subsidences to have formerly  
occurred on the eastern side of ,etna1  
although such catastrophes have not been
 witnessed in modern times1 or only on a
 very trifling scale4 ,a narrow ravine1 
about a mile long1 twenty feet wide1 and
 from twenty to thirty-six in depth1 has
 been formed1 within the historical era1
 on the flanks of the volcano1 near the 

town of ,mascalucia2 and a small        
circular tract1 called the ,cisterna1   
near the summit1 sank down in the year  
#agib1 to the depth of about forty feet1
 and left on all sides of the chasm a   
vertical section of the beds1 exactly   
resembling those which are seen in the  
precipices of the ,val del ,bove4 ,at   
some remote periods1 therefore1 we might
 suppose more extensive portions of the 
mountain to have fallen in during great 
earthquakes4  ,but we ought not to      
exclude entirely from our speculations  
another possible agency1 by which the   
great cavity may in part at least have  
been excavated1 namely1 the denuding    
action of the sea4 ,whether its waves   
may once have had access to the great   
valley before the ancient portion of    
,etna was upheaved to its present       
elevation1 is a question which will     
naturally present itself to every       
geologist4 ,marine shells have been     
traced to a height of #hjj feet above   
the base of ,etna1 and would doubtless  

be seen to ascend much higher1 were not 
the structure of the lower region of the
 mountain concealed by floods of lava4  
,we cannot ascertain to what extent a   
change in the relative level of land and
 sea may have been carried in this spot1
 but we know that some of the tertiary  
strata in ,sicily of no ancient date    
reach a height of #cjjj feet1 and the   
marine deposits on the flanks of ,etna1 
full of recent species of shells1 may   
ascend to equal or greater heights4 ,the
 narrow ,valley of ,calanna leading out 
of the ,val del ,bove1 and that of ,san 
,giacomo lower down1 have much the      
appearance of ravines swept out by      
aqueous action4  ,structure and origin  
of the cone of ,etna4--,our data for    
framing a correct theory of the manner  
in which the cone of ,etna has acquired 
its present dimensions and internal     
structure are very imperfect1 because it
 is on its eastern side only1 in the    
,val del ,bove above described1 that we 
see a deep section exposed4 ,even here  

we obtain no insight into the interior  
composition of the mountain beyond a    
depth of between three and four thousand
 feet below the base of that highest    
cone1 which has been several times      
destroyed and renewed4 ,the precipices  
seen at the head of the ,val del ,bove1 
in the escarpment called the ,serre del 
,solfizio1 exhibit merely the same      
series of alternating lavas and         
breccias1 which1 descending with a      
general dip towards the sea1 form the   
boundary cliffs of all other parts of   
the ,val del ,bove4 ,if then we estimate
 the height of ,etna at about #aa1jjj   
feet1 we may say that we know from      
actual observation less than one-half of
 its component materials1 assuming it to
 extend downwards to the level of the   
sea2 namely1 first1 the highest cone1   
which is about #ajjj feet above its     
base2 and1 secondly1 the alternations of
 lava1 tuff1 and volcanic breccia1 which
 constitute the rocks between the       
,cisterna1 near the base of the upper   

cone1 and the foot of the precipices at 
the head of the ,val del ,bove4 ,at the 
lowest point to which the vertical      
section extends1 there are no signs of  
any approach to a termination of the    
purely volcanic mass1 which may perhaps 
penetrate many thousand feet farther    
downwards4 ,there is1 indeed1 a rock    
called ,rocca ,gianicola1 near the foot 
of the great escarpment1 which consists 
of a large mass between #aej and #bjj   
feet wide1 not divided into beds1 and   
almost resembling granite in its        
structure1 although agreeing very       
closely in mineral composition with the 
lavas of ,etna in general4#egd ,this    
mass may doubtless be taken as a        
representative of those crystalline or  
plutonic formations which would be met  
with in abundance if we could descend to
 greater depths in the direction of the 
central axis of the mountain4 ,for a    
great body of geological evidence leads 
us to conclude1 that rocks of this class
 result from the consolidation1 under   

great pressure1 of melted matter1 which 
has risen up and filled rents and       
chasms1 such1 for example1 as may       
communicate with the principal and minor
 vents of eruption in a volcano like    
,etna4  ,but1 if we speculate on the    
nature of the formation which the lava  
may have pierced in its way upwards1 we 
may fairly presume that a portion of    
these consist of marine tertiary rocks1 
like those of the neighboring ,val di   
,noto1 or those which skirt the borders 
of the ,etnean cone1 on its southern and
 eastern sides4 ,etna may1 in fact1 have
 been at first an insular volcano1      
raising its summit but slightly above   
the level of the sea2 but we have no    
grounds for concluding that any of the  
beds exposed in the deep section of the 
,val del ,bove have formed a part of    
such a marine accumulation4 ,on the     
contrary1 all the usual signs of        
subaqueous origin are wanting2 and even 
if we believe the foundations of the    
mountain to have been laid in the sea1  

we could not expect this portion to be  
made visible in sections which only     
proceed downwards from the summit       
through one-half the thickness of the   
mountain1 especially as the highest     
points attained by the tertiary strata  
in other parts of ,sicily very rarely   
exceed #cjjj feet above the sea4  ,on   
the eastern and southern base of ,etna1 
a marine deposit1 already alluded to1 is
 traced up to the height of #hjj or     
#ajjj feet1 before it becomes concealed 
beneath that covering of modern lavas   
which is continually extending its      
limits during successive eruptions1 and 
prevents us from ascertaining how much  
higher the marine strata may ascend4 ,as
 the imbedded shells belong almost      
entirely to species now inhabiting the  
,mediterranean1 it is evident that there
 has been here an upheaval of the region
 at the base of ,etna at a very modern  
period4 ,it is fair1 therefore1 to infer
 that the volcanic nucleus of the       
mountain1 partly perhaps of submarine1  

and partly of subaerial origin1         
participated in this movement1 and was  
carried up bodily4 ,now1 in proportion  
as a cone gains height by such a        
movement1 combined with the cumulative  
effects of eruptions1 throwing out      
matter successively from one or more    
central vents1 the hydrostatic pressure 
of the columns of lava augments with    
their increasing height1 until the time 
arrives when the flanks of the cone can 
no longer resist the increased pressure2
 and from that period they give way more
 readily1 lateral outbursts becoming    
more frequent4 ,hence1 independently of 
any local expansion of the fractured    
volcanic mass1 those general causes by  
which the modern tertiary strata of a   
great part of ,sicily have been raised  
to the height of several thousand feet  
above their original level1 would tend  
naturally to render the discharge of    
lava and scoriae from the summit of     
,etna less copious1 and the lateral     
discharge greater4  ,if1 then1 a conical

 or dome-shaped mass of volcanic        
materials was accumulated to the height 
of #djjj1 or perhaps #gjjj feet1 before 
the upward movement began1 or1 what is  
much more probable1 during the          
continuance of the upward movement1 that
 ancient mass would not be buried under 
the products of newer eruptions1 because
 these last would then be poured out    
chiefly at a lower level4  ,since ,i    
visited ,etna in #ahbh1 ,m4 de ,beaumont
 has published a most valuable memoir on
 the structure and origin of that       
mountain1 which he examined in #ahcd2ege
 and an excellent description of it has 
also appeared in the posthumous work of 
,hoffmann4#egf  ,in ,m4 de ,beaumont's  
essay1 in which he has explained his    
views with uncommon perspicuity and     
talent1 he maintains that all the       
alternating stony and fragmentary beds1 
more than #cjjj feet thick1 which are   
exposed in the ,val del ,bove1 were     
formed originally on a surface so nearly
 flat that the slope never exceeded     

three degrees4 ,from this horizontal    
position they were at length heaved up  
suddenly 7d'un seul coup7 into a great  
mountain1 to which no important         
additions have since been made4 ,prior  
to this upthrow1 a platform is supposed 
to have existed above the level of the  
sea1 in which various fissures opened2  
and from these melted matter was poured 
forth again and again1 which spread     
itself around in thin sheets of uniform 
thickness4 ,from the same rents issued  
showers of scoriae and fragmentary      
matter1 which were spread out so as to  
form equally uniform and horizontal     
beds1 intervening between the sheets of 
lava4 ,but although1 by the continued   
repetition of these operations1 a vast  
pile of volcanic matter1 #djjj feet or  
more in thickness1 was built up         
precisely in that region where ,etna now
 rises1 and to which nothing similar was
 produced elsewhere in ,sicily1 still we
 are told that ,etna was not yet a      
mountain4 ,no hypothetical diagram has  

been given to help us to conceive how   
this great mass of materials of         
supramarine origin could have been      
disposed of in horizontal beds1 so as   
not to constitute an eminence towering  
far above the rest of ,sicily2 but it is
 assumed that a powerful force from     
below at length burst suddenly through  
the horizontal formation1 uplifted it to
 a considerable height1 and caused the  
beds to be1 in many places1 highly      
inclined4 ,this elevatory force was not 
all expended on a single central point  
as ,von ,buch has imagined in the case  
of ,palma1 ,teneriffe1 or ,somma1 but   
rather followed for a short distance a  
linear direction4#egg  ,among other     
objections that may be advanced against 
the theory above proposed1 ,i may       
mention1 first1 that the increasing     
number of dikes as we approach the head 
of the ,val del ,bove1 or the middle of 
,etna1 and the great thickness of lava1 
scoriae1 and conglomerates in that      
region1 imply that the great centre of  

eruption was always where it now is1 or 
nearly at the same point1 and there     
must1 therefore1 have been a tendency1  
from the beginning1 to a conical or     
dome-shaped arrangement in the ejected  
materials4 ,secondly1 were we to admit a
 great number of separate points of     
eruption1 scattered over a plain or     
platform1 there must have been a great  
number of cones thrown up over these    
different vents2 and these hills1 some  
of which would probably be as lofty as  
those now seen on the flanks of ,etna1  
or from #cjj to #gej feet in height1    
would break the continuity of the sheets
 of lava1 while they would become       
gradually enveloped by them4 ,the       
ejected materials1 moreover1 would slope
 at a high angle on the sides of these  
cones1 and where they fell on the       
surrounding plain1 would form strata    
thicker near the base of each cone than 
at a distance4  ,what then are the      
facts1 it will be asked1 to account for 
which this hypothesis of original       

horizontality1 followed by a single and 
sudden effort of upheaval1 which gave to
 the beds their present slope1 has been 
invented8 ,m4 de ,beaumont observes1    
that in the boundary precipices of the  
,val del ,bove1 sheets of lava and      
intercalated beds of cinders1 mixed with
 pulverulent and fragmentary matter     
evidently cast out during eruptions1 are
 sometimes inclined at steep angles1    
varying from #ae degrees4 to #bg        
degrees4 ,it is impossible1 he says1    
that the lavas could have flowed        
originally on planes so steeply         
inclined1 for streams which descend a   
slope even of #aj degrees form narrow   
stripes1 and never acquire such a       
compact texture4 ,their thickness1      
moreover1 always inconsiderable1 varies 
with every variation of steepness1 in   
the declivity down which they flow2     
whereas1 in several parts of the ,val   
del ,bove1 the sheets of lava are       
continuous for great distances1 in spite
 of their steep inclination1 and are    

often compact1 and perfectly parallel   
one to the other1 even where there are  
more than #ajj beds of interpolated     
fragmentary matter4  ,the intersecting  
dikes also terminate upwards in many    
instances1 at different elevations1 and 
blend 7or1 as ,m4 de ,beaumont terms it1
 articulate7 with sheets of lava1 which 
they meet at right angles4 ,it is       
therefore assumed that such dikes were  
the feeders of the streams of lava with 
which they unite1 and they are supposed 
to prove that the platform1 on the      
surface of which the melted matter was  
poured out1 was at first so flat1 that  
the fluid mass spread freely and equally
 in every direction1 and not towards one
 point only of the compass1 as would    
happen if it had descended the sloping  
sides of a cone4 ,this argument is      
ingeniously and plainly put in the      
following terms3--,had the melted matter
 poured down an inclined plane1 after   
issuing from a rent1 the sheet of lava  
would1 after consolidation1 have formed 

an elbow with the dike1 like the upper  
bar of the letter ,f1 instead of        
extending itself on both sides like that
 of a ,t4#egh ,it is also contended that
 a series of sheets of lava1 formed on a
 conical or dome-shaped mountain1 would 
have been more numerous at points       
farthest from the central axis1 since   
every dike which had been the source of 
a lava-stream1 must have poured its     
contents downwards1 and never upwards4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4  ,dikes as    
they would now appear had they been     
originally perpendicular4  ,in reference
 to the facts here stated1 ,i may       
mention that the dikes which ,i saw in  
the ,val del ,bove were either vertical1
 or made almost all of them a near      
approach to the perpendicular1 which    
could not have been the case had they   
been the feeders of horizontal beds of  
lava1 and had they consequently joined  
them originally at right angles1 for    
then the dikes1 as at a1 b1 c1 fig4 #ed1
 ought subsequently to have acquired a  

considerable slope1 like the beds which 
they intersect4 ,i may also urge another
 objection to the views above set forth1
 namely1 that had the dikes been linear 
vents1 or orifices of eruption1 we must 
suppose the inter-stratified scoriae and
 lapilli1 as well as the lavas1 to have 
come out of them1 and in that case the  
irregular heaping up of fragmentary     
matter around the vents would1 as before
 hinted1 have disturbed that uniform    
thickness and parallelism of the beds   
which ,m4 de ,beaumont describes4  ,if1 
however1 some of the sheets of lava join
 the dikes in such a manner1 as to imply
 that they were in a melted state       
simultaneously with the contents of the 
fissures1--a point not easily           
ascertained1 where the precipices are   
for the most part inaccessible1--the    
fact may admit of a different           
interpretation from that proposed by the
 ,french geologists4 ,rents like those  
before alluded to 7p4 #cii71 which      
opened in the plain of ,s4 ,lio in      

#affi1 filled below with incandescent   
lava1 may have lain in the way of       
currents of melted matter descending    
from higher openings4 ,in that case1 the
 matter of the current would have flowed
 into the fissure and mixed with the    
lava at its bottom4 ,numerous open rents
 of this kind are described by ,mr4     
,dana as having been caused1 during a   
late eruption1 in one of the volcanic   
domes of the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,they  
remained open at various heights on the 
slopes of the great cone1 running in    
different directions1 and demonstrate   
the possibility of future junctions of  
slightly inclined lava-streams with     
perpendicular walls of lava4  ,to me1   
therefore1 it appears far more easy to  
explain the uniform thickness and       
parallelism of so many lavas and beds of
 fragmentary matter seen in the ,val del
 ,bove1 by supposing them to have issued
 successively out of one or more higher 
vents near the summit of a great dome1  
than to imagine them to have proceeded  

from lateral dikes or rents opening in a
 level plain4 ,in the ,sandwich         
,islands1 we have examples of volcanic  
domes #ae1jjj feet high1 produced by    
successive outpourings from vents at or 
near the summit4 ,one of these1 ,mount  
,loa1 has a slope in all directions of  
#f degrees #cj minutes2 another1 ,mount 
,kea1 a mean inclination of #g degrees  
#df minutes4 ,that their lavas may      
occasionally consolidate on slopes of   
#be degrees1 and even more1 and still   
preserve considerable solidity of       
texture1 has been already stated2 see   
above1 p4 #chc4  ,we know not how large 
a quantity of modern lava may have been 
poured into the bottom of the ,val del  
,bove1 yet we perceive that eruptions   
breaking forth near the centre of ,etna 
have already made some progress in      
filling up this great hollow4 ,even     
within the memory of persons now living1
 the rocks of ,musara and ,capra have1  
as before stated1 lost much of their    
height and picturesque grandeur by the  

piling up of recent lavas round their   
base 7see fig4 #ea1 p4 #djh71 and the   
great chasm has intercepted many streams
 which would otherwise have deluged the 
fertile region below1 as has happened on
 the side of ,catania4 ,the volcanic    
forces are now laboring1 therefore1 to  
repair the breach which subsidence has  
caused on one side of the great cone2   
and unless their energy should decline1 
or a new sinking take place1 they may in
 time efface this inequality4 ,in that  
event1 the restored portion will always 
be unconformable to the more ancient    
part1 yet it will consist1 like it1 of  
alternating beds of lava1 scoriae21 and 
conglomerates1 which1 with all their    
irregularities1 will have a general     
slope from the centre and summit of     
,etna towards the sea4  ,i shall        
conclude1 then1 by remarking that ,i    
conceive the general inclination of the 
alternating stony and fragmentary beds  
of the ,val del ,bove1 from the axis of 
,etna towards its circumference or base1

 and the greater thickness of the       
volcanic pile as we approach the central
 parts of the mountain1 to be due to the
 preponderance of eruptions from that   
centre4 ,these gave rise1 from the      
first1 to a dome-shaped mass1 which has 
ever since been increasing in height and
 area1 being fractured again and again  
by the expansive force of vapors1 and   
the several parts made to cohere        
together more firmly after the          
solidification of the lava with which   
every open fissure and chasm has been   
filled4 ,at the same time the cone may  
have gained a portion of its height by  
the elevatory effect of such dislocating
 movements1 and the sheets of lava may  
have acquired in some places a greater1 
in others a less1 inclination than that 
which at first belonged to them4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4  ,non-volcanic
 protuberance and valley of elevation4  
,but had the mountain been due solely1  
or even principally1 to upheaval1 its   
structure would have resembled that     

which geologists have so often          
recognized in dome-shaped hills1 or     
certain elevated regions1 which all     
consider as having been thrust up by a  
force from below4 ,in this case there is
 often an elliptical cavity at the      
summit1 due partly to the fracture of   
the upraised rocks1 but still more to   
aqueous denudation1 as they rose out of 
the sea4 ,the central cavity1 or valley1
 exposes to view the subjacent formation
 c1 fig4 #ee1 and the incumbent mass    
dips away on all sides from the axis1   
but has no tendency to thin out near the
 base of the dome1 or at x1 x2 whereas  
at this point the volcanic mass         
terminates 7see fig4 #ef7 and allows the
 fundamental rock c to appear at the    
surface4 ,in the last diagram1 the more 
ordinary case is represented of a great 
hollow or crater at the summit of the   
volcanic cone2 but instead of this1 we  
have seen that in the case of ,etna     
there is a deep lateral depression1     
called the ,val del ,bove1 the upper    

part of which approaches near to the    
central axis1 and the origin of which we
 have attributed to subsidence4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4  ,volcanic    
mountain and crater4  ,antiquity of the 
cone of ,etna4--,it was before remarked 
that confined notions in regard to the  
quantity of past time have tended1 more 
than any other prepossessions1 to retard
 the progress of sound theoretical views
 in geology2#egi the inadequacy of our  
conceptions of the earth's antiquity    
having cramped the freedom of our       
speculations in this science1 very much 
in the same way as a belief in the      
existence of a vaulted firmament once   
retarded the progress of astronomy4 ,it 
was not until ,descartes assumed the    
indefinite extent of the celestial      
spaces1 and removed the supposed        
boundaries of the universe1 that just   
opinions began to be entertained of the 
relative distances of the heavenly      
bodies2 and until we habituate ourselves
 to contemplate the possibility of an   

indefinite lapse of ages having been    
comprised within each of the modern     
periods of the earth's history1 we shall
 be in danger of forming most erroneous 
and partial views in geology4  ,if      
history had bequeathed to us a faithful 
record of the eruptions of ,etna1 and a 
hundred other of the principal active   
volcanoes of the globe1 during the last 
three thousand years1--if we had an     
exact account of the volume of lava and 
matter ejected during that period1 and  
the times of their production1--we      
might1 perhaps1 be able to form a       
correct estimate of the average rate of 
the growth of a volcanic cone4 ,for we  
might obtain a mean result from the     
comparison of the eruptions of so great 
a number of vents1 however irregular    
might be the development of the igneous 
action in any one of them1 if           
contemplated singly during a brief      
period4  ,it would be necessary to      
balance protracted periods of inaction  
against the occasional outburst of      

paroxysmal explosions4 ,sometimes we    
should have evidence of a repose of     
seventeen centuries1 like that which was
 interposed in ,ischia1 between the end 
of the fourth century ,b4,c41 and the   
beginning of the fourteenth century of  
our era4#ehj ,occasionally a tremendous 
eruption1 like that of ,jorullo1 would  
be recorded1 giving rise1 at once1 to a 
considerable mountain4  ,if we desire to
 approximate to the age of a cone such  
as ,etna1 we ought first to obtain some 
data in regard to the thickness of      
matter which has been added during the  
historical era1 and then endeavor to    
estimate the time required for the      
accumulation of such alternating lavas  
and beds of sand and scoriae as are     
superimposed upon each other in the ,val
 del ,bove2 afterwards we should try to 
deduce1 from observations on other      
volcanoes1 the more or less rapid       
increase of burning mountains in all the
 different stages of their growth4      
,there is a considerable analogy between

 the mode of increase of a volcanic cone
 and that of trees of exogenous growth4 
,these trees augment1 both in height and
 diameter1 by the successive application
 externally of cone upon cone of new    
ligneous matter2 so that if we make a   
transverse section near the base of the 
trunk1 we intersect a much greater      
number of layers than nearer to the     
summit4 ,when branches occasionally     
shoot out from the trunk1 they first    
pierce the bark1 and then1 after growing
 to a certain size1 if they chance to be
 broken off1 they may become inclosed in
 the body of the tree1 as it augments in
 size1 forming knots in the wood1 which 
are themselves composed of layers of    
ligneous matter1 cone within cone4  ,in 
like manner1 a volcanic mountain1 as we 
have seen1 consists of a succession of  
conical masses enveloping others1 while 
lateral cones1 having a similar internal
 structure1 often project1 in the first 
instance1 like branches from the surface
 of the main cone1 and then becoming    

buried again1 are hidden like the knots 
of a tree4  ,we can ascertain the age of
 an oak or pine by counting the number  
of concentric rings of annual growth    
seen in a transverse section near the   
base1 so that we may know the date at   
which the seedling began to vegetate4   
,the ,baobab-tree of ,senegal           
7,adansonia digitata7 is supposed to    
exceed almost any other in longevity4   
,adanson inferred that one which he     
measured1 and found to be thirty feet in
 diameter1 had attained the age of #eaej
 years4 ,having made an incision to a   
certain depth1 he first counted three   
hundred rings of annual growth1 and     
observed what thickness the tree had    
gained in that period4 ,the average rate
 of growth of younger trees1 of the same
 species1 was then ascertained1 and the 
calculation made according to a supposed
 mean rate of increase4 ,de ,candolle   
considers it not improbable that the    
celebrated ,taxodium of ,chapultepec1 in
 ,mexico 7,cupressus disticha1 ,linn471 

which is #aag feet in circumference1 may
 be still more aged4#eha  ,it is1       
however1 impossible1 until more data are
 collected respecting the average       
intensity of the volcanic action1 to    
make any thing like an approximation to 
the age of a cone like ,etna2 because1  
in this case1 the successive envelopes  
of lava and scoriae are not continuous1 
like the layers of wood in a tree1 and  
afford us no definite measure of time4  
,each conical envelope is made up of a  
great number of distinct lava-currents  
and showers of sand and scoriae1        
differing in quantity1 and which may    
have been accumulated in unequal periods
 of time4 ,yet we cannot fail to form   
the most exalted conception of the      
antiquity of this mountain1 when we     
consider that its base is about ninety  
miles in circumference2 so that it would
 require ninety flows of lava1 each a   
mile in breadth at their termination1 to
 raise the present foot of the volcano  
as much as the average height of one    

lava-current4  ,there are no records    
within the historical era which lead to 
the opinion that the altitude of ,etna  
has materially varied within the last   
two thousand years4 ,of the eighty most 
conspicuous minor cones which adorn its 
flanks1 only one of the largest1 ,monti 
,rossi1 has been produced within the    
times of authentic history4 ,even this  
hill1 thrown up in the year #affi1      
although #dej feet in height1 only ranks
 as a cone of second magnitude4 ,monte  
,minardo1 near ,bronte1 rises1 even now1
 to the height of #gej feet1 although   
its base has been elevated by more      
modern lavas and ejections4 ,the        
dimensions of these larger cones appear 
to bear testimony to paroxysms of       
volcanic activity1 after which we may   
conclude1 from analogy1 that the fires  
of ,etna remained dormant for many      
years--since nearly a century of rest   
has sometimes followed a violent        
eruption in the historical era4 ,it must
 also be remembered1 that of the small  

number of eruptions which occur in a    
century1 one only is estimated to issue 
from the summit of ,etna for every two  
that proceed from the sides4 ,nor do all
 the lateral eruptions give rise to such
 cones as would be reckoned amongst the 
smallest of the eighty hills above      
enumerated2 some of them produce merely 
insignificant monticules1 which are soon
 afterwards buried by showers of ashes4 
,how many years then must we not suppose
 to have been expended in the formation 
of the eighty cones8 ,it is difficult to
 imagine that a fourth part of them have
 originated during the last thirty      
centuries4 ,but if we conjecture the    
whole of them to have been formed in    
twelve thousand years1 how              
inconsiderable an era would this portion
 of time constitute in the history of   
the volcano6 ,if we could strip off from
 ,etna all the lateral monticules now   
visible1 together with the lavas and    
scoriae that have been poured out from  
them1 and from the highest crater1      

during the period of their growth1 the  
diminution of the entire mass would be  
extremely slight3 ,etna might lose1     
perhaps1 several miles in diameter at   
its base1 and some hundreds of feet in  
elevation2 but it would still be the    
loftiest of ,sicilian mountains1 studded
 with other cones1 which would be       
recalled1 as it were1 into existence by 
the removal of the rocks under which    
they are now buried4  ,there seems      
nothing in the deep sections of the ,val
 del ,bove to indicate that the         
lava-currents of remote periods were    
greater in volume than those of modern  
times2 and there are abundant proofs    
that the countless beds of solid rock   
and scoriae were accumulated1 as now1 in
 succession4 ,on the grounds1 therefore1
 already explained1 we must infer that a
 mass so many thousand feet in thickness
 must have required an immense series of
 ages anterior to our historical periods
 for its growth2 yet the whole must be  
regarded as the product of a modern     

portion of the tertiary epoch4 ,such1 at
 least1 is the conclusion that seems to 
follow from geological data1 which show 
that the oldest parts of the mountain1  
if not of posterior date to the marine  
strata around its base1 were at least of
 coeval origin4  ,some geologists       
contend1 that the sudden elevation of   
large continents from beneath the waters
 of the sea have again and again        
produced waves which have swept over    
vast regions of the earth4#ehb ,but it  
is clear that no devastating wave has   
passed over the forest zone of ,etna    
since any of the lateral cones before   
mentioned were thrown up2 for none of   
these heaps of loose sand and scoriae   
could have resisted for a moment the    
denuding action of a violent flood4 ,to 
some1 perhaps1 it may appear that hills 
of such incoherent materials cannot be  
of very great antiquity1 because the    
mere action of the atmosphere must1 in  
the course of several thousand years1   
have obliterated their original forms4  

,but there is no weight in this         
objection2 for the older hills are      
covered with trees and herbage1 which   
protect them from waste2 and1 in regard 
to the newer ones1 such is the porosity 
of their component materials1 that the  
rain which falls upon them is instantly 
absorbed2 and for the same reason that  
the rivers on ,etna have a subterranean 
course1 there are none descending the   
sides of the minor cones4  ,no sensible 
alteration has been observed in the form
 of these cones since the earliest      
periods of which there are memorials2   
and there seems no reason for           
anticipating that in the course of the  
next ten thousand or twenty thousand    
years they will undergo any great       
alteration in their appearance1 unless  
they should be shattered by earthquakes 
or covered by volcanic ejections4  ,in  
other parts of ,europe1 as in ,auvergne 
and ,velay1 in ,france1 similar loose   
cones of scoriae1 probably of as high   
antiquity as the whole mass of ,etna1   

stand uninjured at inferior elevations  
above the level of the sea4             
,,chapter ,,xxvi4     ,volcanic eruption
 in ,iceland in #aghc--,new island      
thrown up--,lava     currents of        
,skaptar ,jokul1 in same year--their    
immense     volume--,eruption of        
,jorullo in ,mexico--,humboldt's theory 
of the     convexity of the plain of    
,malpais--,eruption of ,galongoon in    
,java--,submarine volcanoes--,graham    
island1 formed in #ahca--,volcanic      
archipelagoes--,submarine eruptions in  
mid-,atlantic--,the                     
,canaries--,teneriffe--,cones thrown up 
in ,lancerote1 #agcj-cf--,santorin      
and its contiguous isles--,barren island
 in the ,bay of ,bengal--,mud           
volcanoes--,mineral composition of      
volcanic products4   ,volcanic eruptions
 in ,iceland4--,with the exception of   
,etna and ,vesuvius1 the most complete  
chronological records of a series of    
eruptions are those of ,iceland1 for    
their history reaches as far back as the

 ninth century of our era2 and1 from the
 beginning of the twelfth century1 there
 is clear evidence that1 during the     
whole period1 there has never been an   
interval of more than forty1 and very   
rarely one of twenty years1 without     
either an eruption or a great           
earthquake4 ,so intense is the energy of
 the volcanic action in this region1    
that some eruptions of ,hecla have      
lasted six years without ceasing4       
,earthquakes have often shaken the whole
 island at once1 causing great changes  
in the interior1 such as the sinking    
down of hills1 the rending of mountains1
 the desertion by rivers of their       
channels1 and the appearance of new     
lakes4#ehc ,new islands have often been 
thrown up near the coast1 some of which 
still exist2 while others have          
disappeared1 either by subsidence or the
 action of the waves4  ,in the interval 
between eruptions1 innumerable hot      
springs afford vent to subterranean     
heat1 and solfataras discharge copious  

streams of inflammable matter4 ,the     
volcanoes in different parts of this    
island are observed1 like those of the  
,phlegraean ,fields1 to be in activity  
by turns1 one vent often serving for a  
time as a safety-valve to the rest4     
,many cones are often thrown up in one  
eruption1 and in this case they take a  
linear direction1 running generally from
 northeast to southwest1 from the       
northeastern part of the island1 where  
the volcano ,krabla lies1 to the        
promontory ,reykianas4  ,new island     
thrown up in #aghc4--,the convulsions of
 the year #aghc appear to have been more
 tremendous than any recorded in the    
modern annals of ,iceland2 and the      
original ,danish narrative of the       
catastrophe1 drawn up in great detail1  
has since been substantiated by several 
,english travellers1 particularly in    
regard to the prodigious extent of      
country laid waste1 and the volume of   
lava produced4#ehd ,about a month       
previous to the eruption on the         

mainland1 a submarine volcano burst     
forth in the sea in lat4 #fc degrees #be
 minutes ,n41 long4 #bc degrees #dd     
minutes ,w41 at a distance of thirty    
miles in a southwest direction from     
,cape ,reykianas1 and ejected so much   
pumice1 that the ocean was covered with 
that substance to the distance of #aej  
miles1 and ships were considerably      
impeded in their course4 ,a new island  
was thrown up1 consisting of high       
cliffs1 within which fire1 smoke1 and   
pumice were emitted from two or three   
different points4 ,this island was      
claimed by his ,danish ,majesty1 who    
denominated it ,nyoe1 or the ,new       
,island2 but before a year had elapsed1 
the sea resumed its ancient domain1 and 
nothing was left but a reef of rocks    
from five to thirty fathoms under water4
  ,great eruption of ,skaptar           
,jokul4--,earthquakes which had long    
been felt in ,iceland1 became violent on
 the #aath of ,june1 #aghc1 when        
,skaptar ,jokul1 distant nearly #bjj    

miles from ,nyoe1 threw out a torrent of
 lava which flowed down into the river  
,skapta1 and completely dried it up4    
,the channel of the river was between   
high rocks1 in many places from four    
hundred to six hundred feet in depth1   
and near two hundred in breadth4 ,not   
only did the lava fill up this great    
defile to the brink1 but it overflowed  
the adjacent fields to a considerable   
extent4 ,the burning flood1 on issuing  
from the confined rocky gorge1 was then 
arrested for some time by a deep lake1  
which formerly existed in the course of 
the river1 between ,skaptardal and ,aa1 
which it entirely filled4 ,the current  
then advanced again1 and reaching some  
ancient lava full of subterraneous      
caverns1 penetrated and melted down part
 of it2 and in some places1 where the   
steam could not gain vent1 it blew up   
the rock1 throwing fragments to the     
height of more than #aej feet4 ,on the  
#ahth of ,june another ejection of      
liquid lava rushed from the volcano1    

which flowed down with amazing velocity 
over the surface of the first stream4   
,by the damming up of the mouths of some
 of the tributaries of the ,skapta1 many
 villages were completely overflowed    
with water1 and thus great destruction  
of property was caused4 ,the lava1 after
 flowing for several days1 was          
precipitated down a tremendous cataract 
called ,stapafoss1 where it filled a    
profound abyss1 which that great        
waterfall had been hollowing out for    
ages1 and after this1 the fiery current 
again continued its course4  ,on the    
third of ,august1 fresh floods of lava  
still pouring from the volcano1 a new   
branch was sent off in a different      
direction2 for the channel of the       
,skapta was now so entirely choked up1  
and every opening to the west and north 
so obstructed1 that the melted matter   
was forced to take a new course1 so that
 it ran in a southeast direction1 and   
discharged itself into the bed of the   
river ,hverfisfliot1 where a scene of   

destruction scarcely inferior to the    
former was occasioned4 ,these ,icelandic
 lavas 7like the ancient streams which  
are met with in ,auvergne1 and other    
provinces of ,central ,france71 are     
stated by ,stephenson to have           
accumulated to a prodigious depth in    
narrow rocky gorges2 but when they came 
to wide alluvial plains1 they spread    
themselves out into broad burning lakes1
 sometimes from twelve to fifteen miles 
wide1 and one hundred feet deep4 ,when  
the fiery lake which filled up the lower
 portion of the valley of the ,skapta1  
had been augmented by new supplies1 the 
lava flowed up the course of the river  
to the foot of the hills from whence the
 ,skapta takes its rise4 ,this affords a
 parallel case to one which can be shown
 to have happened at a remote era in the
 volcanic region of the ,vivarais in    
,france1 where lava issued from the cone
 of ,thueyts1 and while one branch ran  
down1 another more powerful stream      
flowed up the channel of the river      

,ardeche4  ,the sides of the valley of  
the ,skapta present superb ranges of    
basaltic columns of older lava1         
resembling those which are laid open in 
the valleys descending from ,mont ,dor1 
in ,auvergne1 where more modern         
lava-currents1 on a scale very inferior 
in magnitude to those of ,iceland1 have 
also usurped the beds of the existing   
rivers4 ,the eruption of ,skaptar ,jokul
 did not entirely cease till the end of 
two years2 and when ,mr4 ,paulson       
visited the tract eleven years          
afterwards1 in #agid1 he found columns  
of smoke still rising from parts of the 
lava1 and several rents filled with hot 
water4#ehe  ,although the population of 
,iceland was very much scattered1 and   
did not exceed fifty thousand1 no less  
than twenty villages were destroyed1    
besides those inundated by water2 and   
more than nine thousand human beings    
perished1 together with an immense      
number of cattle1 partly by the         
depredations of the lava1 partly by the 

noxious vapors which impregnated the    
air1 and1 in part1 by the famine caused 
by showers of ashes throughout the      
island1 and the desertion of the coasts 
by the fish4  ,immense volume of the    
lava4--,but the extraordinary volume of 
melted matter produced in this eruption 
deserves the particular attention of the
 geologist4 ,of the two branches1 which 
flowed in nearly opposite directions1   
the greatest was fifty1 and the lesser  
forty miles in length4 ,the extreme     
breadth which the ,skapta branch        
attained in the low countries was from  
twelve to fifteen miles1 that of the    
other about seven4 ,the ordinary height 
of both currents was one hundred feet1  
but in narrow defiles it sometimes      
amounted to six hundred4 ,professor     
,bischoff has calculated that the mass  
of lava brought up from the subterranean
 regions by this single eruption        
surpassed in magnitude the bulk of ,mont
 ,blanc4#ehf ,but a more distinct idea  
will be formed of the dimensions of the 

two streams1 if we consider how striking
 a feature they would now form in the   
geology of ,england1 had they been      
poured out on the bottom of the sea     
after the deposition and before the     
elevation of our secondary and tertiary 
rocks4 ,the same causes which have      
excavated valleys through parts of our  
marine strata1 once continuous1 might   
have acted with equal force on the      
igneous rocks1 leaving1 at the same     
time1 a sufficient portion undestroyed  
to enable us to discover their former   
extent4 ,let us1 then1 imagine the      
termination of the ,skapta branch of    
lava to rest on the escarpment of the   
inferior and middle oolite1 where it    
commands the vale of ,gloucester4 ,the  
great platform might be one hundred feet
 thick1 and from ten to fifteen miles   
broad1 exceeding any which can be found 
in ,central ,france4 ,we may also       
suppose great tabular masses to occur at
 intervals1 capping the summit of the   
,cotswold ,hills between ,gloucester and

 ,oxford1 by ,northleach1 ,burford1 and 
other towns4 ,the wide valley of the    
,oxford clay would then occasion an     
interruption for many miles2 but the    
same rocks might recur on the summit of 
,cumnor and ,shotover ,hills1 and all   
the other oolitic eminences of that     
district4 ,on the chalk of ,berkshire1  
extensive plateaus1 six or seven miles  
wide1 would again be formed2 and lastly1
 crowning the highest sands of ,highgate
 and ,hampstead1 we might behold some   
remnants of the current five or six     
hundred feet in thickness1 causing those
 hills to rival1 or even to surpass1 in 
height1 ,salisbury ,craigs and ,arthur's
 ,seat4  ,the distance between the      
extreme points here indicated would not 
exceed ninety miles in a direct line2   
and we might then add1 at the distance  
of nearly two hundred miles from        
,london1 along the coast of ,dorsetshire
 and ,devonshire1 for example1 a great  
mass of igneous rocks1 to represent     
those of contemporary origin1 which were

 produced beneath the level of the sea1 
where the island of ,nyoe rose up4      
,volume of ancient and modern flows of  
lava compared4--,yet1 gigantic as must  
appear the scale of these modern        
volcanic operations1 we must be content 
to regard them as perfectly             
insignificant in comparison to currents 
of the primeval ages1 if we embrace the 
theoretical views of many geologists1   
which were not inaccurately expressed by
 the late ,professor ,alexander         
,brongniart1 when he declared that aux  
apoques gaognostiques anciennes1 tous   
les phanomenes gaologiques se passoient 
dans des dimensions centuples de celles 
qu'ils prasentent aujourd'hui4#ehg ,had 
,skaptar ,jokul1 therefore1 been a      
volcano of the olden time1 it would have
 poured forth lavas at a single eruption
 a hundred times more voluminous than   
those which were witnessed by the       
present generation in #aghc4 ,but it    
may1 on the contrary1 be affirmed that1 
among the older formations1 no igneous  

rock of such colossal magnitude has yet 
been met with2 nay1 it would be most    
difficult to point out a mass of ancient
 date 7distinctly referable to a single 
eruption7 which would even rival in     
volume the matter poured out from       
,skaptar ,jokul in #aghc4  ,eruption of 
,jorullo in #agei4--;,as another example
 of the stupendous scale of modern      
volcanic eruptions1 ,i may mention that 
of ,jorullo in ,mexico1 in #agei4 ,the  
great region to which this mountain     
belongs has already been described4 ,the
 plain of ,malpais forms part of an     
elevated platform1 between two and three
 thousand feet above the level of the   
sea1 and is bounded by hills composed of
 basalt1 trachyte1 and volcanic tuff1   
clearly indicating that the country had 
previously1 though probably at a remote 
period1 been the theatre of igneous     
action4 ,from the era of the discovery  
of the ,new ,world to the middle of the 
last century1 the district had remained 
undisturbed1 and the space1 now the site

 of the volcano1 which is thirty-six    
leagues distant from the nearest sea1   
was occupied by fertile fields of       
sugar-cane and indigo1 and watered by   
the two brooks ,cuitimba and ,san       
,pedro4 ,in the month of ,june1 #agei1  
hollow sounds of an alarming nature were
 heard1 and earthquakes succeeded each  
other for two months1 until1 at the end 
of ,september1 flames issued from the   
ground1 and fragments of burning rocks  
were thrown to prodigious heights4 ,six 
volcanic cones1 composed of scoriae and 
fragmentary lava1 were formed on the    
line of a chasm which ran in the        
direction from ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,s4   
,w4 ,the least of these cones was #cjj  
feet in height2 and ,jorullo1 the       
central volcano1 was elevated #afjj feet
 above the level of the plain4 ,it sent 
forth great streams of basaltic lava1   
containing included fragments of        
granitic rocks1 and its ejections did   
not cease till the month of ,february1  
#agfj4ehh  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4  a1

 ,summit of ,jorullo4 b1 c1 ,inclined   
plane sloping at an angle of #f degrees 
from the base of the cones4  ,humboldt  
visited the country more than forty     
years after this occurrence1 and was    
informed by the ,indians1 that when they
 returned1 long after the catastrophe1  
to the plain1 they found the ground     
uninhabitable from the excessive heat4  
,when he himself visited the place1     
there appeared1 around the base of the  
cones1 and spreading from them1 as from 
a centre1 over an extent of four square 
miles1 a mass of matter of a convex     
form1 about #eej feet high at its       
junction with the cones1 and gradually  
sloping from them in all directions     
towards the plain4 ,this mass was still 
in a heated state1 the temperature in   
the fissures being on the decrease from 
year to year1 but in #aghj it was still 
sufficient to light a cigar at the depth
 of a few inches4 ,on this slightly     
convex protuberance1 the slope of which 
must form an angle of about #f degrees  

with the horizon1 were thousands of     
flattish conical mounds1 from six to    
nine feet high1 which1 as well as large 
fissures traversing the plain1 acted as 
fumeroles1 giving out clouds of         
sulphurous acid and hot aqueous vapor4  
,the two small rivers before mentioned  
disappeared during the eruption1 losing 
themselves below the eastern extremity  
of the plain1 and reappearing as hot    
springs at its western limit4  ,cause of
 the convexity of the plain of          
,malpais4--,humboldt attributed the     
convexity of the plain to inflation from
 below2 supposing the ground1 for four  
square miles in extent1 to have risen up
 in the shape of a bladder to the       
elevation of #eej feet above the plain  
in the highest part4 ,but ,mr4 ,scrope  
has suggested that the phenomena may be 
accounted for far more naturally1 by    
supposing that lava flowing             
simultaneously from the different       
orifices1 and principally from ,jorullo1
 united into a sort of pool or lake4 ,as

 they were poured forth on a surface    
previously flat1 they would1 if their   
liquidity was not very great1 remain    
thickest and deepest near their source1 
and diminish in bulk from thence towards
 the limits of the space which they     
covered4 ,fresh supplies were probably  
emitted successively during the course  
of an eruption which lasted more than   
half a year2 and some of these1 resting 
on those first emitted1 might only      
spread to a small distance from the foot
 of the cone1 where they would          
necessarily accumulate to a great       
height4 ,the average slope of the great 
dome-shaped volcanoes of the ,sandwich  
,islands1 formed almost exclusively of  
lava1 with scarce any scoriae1 is       
between #f degrees #cj minutes and #g   
degrees #df minutes1 so that the        
inclination of the convex mass around   
,jorullo1 if we adopt ,mr4 ,scrope's    
explanation 7see fig4 #eg71 is quite in 
accordance with the known laws which    
govern the flow of lava4  ,the showers1 

also1 of loose and pulverulent matter   
from the six craters1 and principally   
from ,jorullo1 would be composed of     
heavier and more bulky particles near   
the cones1 and would raise the ground at
 their base1 where1 mixing with rain1   
they might have given rise to the       
stratum of black clay1 which is         
described as covering the lava4 ,the    
small conical mounds 7called hornitos1  
or little ovens7 may resemble those five
 or six small hillocks which existed in 
#ahbc on the ,vesuvian lava1 and sent   
forth columns of vapor1 having been     
produced by the disengagement of elastic
 fluids heaping up small dome-shaped    
masses of lava4 ,the fissures mentioned 
by ,humboldt as of frequent occurrence1 
are such as might naturally accompany   
the consolidation of a thick bed of     
lava1 contracting as it congeals2 and   
the disappearance of rivers is the usual
 result of the occupation of the lower  
part of a valley or plain by lava1 of   
which there are many beautiful examples 

in the old lava-currents of ,auvergne4  
,the heat of the hornitos is stated to  
have diminished from the first2 and ,mr4
 ,bullock1 who visited the spot many    
years after ,humboldt1 found the        
temperature of the hot spring very      
low1--a fact which seems clearly to     
indicate the gradual congelation of a   
subjacent bed of lava1 which from its   
immense thickness may have been enabled 
to retain its heat for half a century4  
,the reader may be reminded1 that when  
we thus suppose the lava near the       
volcano to have been1 together with the 
ejected ashes1 more than five hundred   
feet in depth1 we merely assign a       
thickness which the current of ,skaptar 
,jokul attained in some places in #aghc4
  ,hollow sound of the plain when       
struck4--,another argument adduced in   
support of the theory of inflation from 
below1 was1 the hollow sound made by the
 steps of a horse upon the plain2 which1
 however1 proves nothing more than that 
the materials of which the convex mass  

is composed are light and porous4 ,the  
sound called rimbombo by the ,italians  
is very commonly returned by made ground
 when struck sharply2 and has been      
observed not only on the sides of       
,vesuvius and other volcanic cones where
 there is a cavity below1 but in such   
regions as the ,campagna di ,roma1      
composed in a great measure of tuff and 
porous volcanic rocks4 ,the             
reverberation1 however1 may perhaps be  
assisted by grottoes and caverns1 for   
these may be as numerous in the lavas of
 ,jorullo as in many of those of ,etna2 
but their existence would lend no       
countenance to the hypothesis of a great
 arched cavity1 four square miles in    
extent1 and in the centre #eej feet     
high4#ehi  ,no recent eruptions of      
,jorullo4--,in a former edition ,i      
stated that ,i had been informed by     
,captain ,vetch1 that in #ahai a tower  
at ,guadalaxara was thrown down by an   
earthquake1 and that ashes1 supposed to 
have come from ,jorullo1 fell at the    

same time at ,guanaxuato1 a town        
situated #adj ,english miles from the   
volcano4 ,but ,mr4 ,burkhardt1 a ,german
 director of mines1 who examined        
,jorullo in #ahbg1 ascertained that     
there had been no eruption there since  
,humboldt's visit in #ahjc4 ,he went to 
the bottom of the crater1 and observed a
 slight evolution of sulphurous acid    
vapors1 but the hornitos had entirely   
ceased to send forth steam4 ,during the 
twenty-four years intervening between   
his visit and that of ,humboldt1        
vegetation had made great progress on   
the flanks of the new hills2 the rich   
soil of the surrounding country was once
 more covered with luxuriant crops of   
sugar-cane and indigo1 and there was an 
abundant growth of natural underwood on 
all the uncultivated tracts4#eij        
,galongoon1 ,java1 #ahbb4--,the mountain
 of ,galongoon 7or ,galung ,gung7 was in
 #ahbb covered by a dense forest1 and   
situated in a fruitful and              
thickly-peopled part of ,java4 ,there   

was a circular hollow at its summit1 but
 no tradition existed of any former     
eruption4 ,in ,july1 #ahbb1 the waters  
of the river ,kunir1 one of those which 
flowed from its flanks1 became for a    
time hot and turbid4 ,on the #hth of    
,october following a loud explosion was 
heard1 the earth shook1 and immense     
columns of hot water and boiling mud1   
mixed with burning brimstone1 ashes1 and
 lapilli1 of the size of nuts1 were     
projected from the mountain like a      
waterspout1 with such prodigious        
violence that large quantities fell     
beyond the river ,tandoi1 which is forty
 miles distant4 ,every valley within the
 range of this eruption became filled   
with a burning torrent1 and the rivers1 
swollen with hot water and mud1         
overflowed their banks1 and carried away
 great numbers of the people1 who were  
endeavoring to escape1 and the bodies of
 cattle1 wild beasts1 and birds4 ,a     
space of twenty-four miles between the  
mountain and the river ,tandoi was      

covered to such a depth with bluish mud 
that people were buried in their houses1
 and not a trace of the numerous        
villages and plantations throughout that
 extent was visible4 ,within this space 
the bodies of those who perished were   
buried in mud and concealed1 but near   
the limits of the volcanic action they  
were exposed1 and strewed over the      
ground in great numbers1 partly boiled  
and partly burnt4  ,it was remarked1    
that the boiling mud and cinders were   
projected with such violence from the   
mountain1 that while many remote        
villages were utterly destroyed and     
buried1 others much nearer the volcano  
were scarcely injured4  ,the first      
eruption lasted nearly five hours1 and  
on the following days the rain fell in  
torrents1 and the rivers1 densely       
charged with mud1 deluged the country   
far and wide4 ,at the end of four days  
7,october #abth7 a second eruption      
occurred more violent than the first1 in
 which hot water and mud were again     

vomited1 and great blocks of basalt were
 thrown to the distance of seven miles  
from the volcano4 ,there was at the same
 time a violent earthquake1 and in one  
account it is stated that the face of   
the mountain was utterly changed1 its   
summits broken down1 and one side1 which
 had been covered with trees1 became an 
enormous gulf in the form of a          
semicircle4 ,this cavity was about      
midway between the summit and the plain1
 and surrounded by steep rocks1 said to 
be newly heaped up during the eruption4 
,new hills and valleys are said to have 
been formed1 and the rivers ,banjarang  
and ,wulan changed their course1 and in 
one night 7,october #abth7 #bjjj persons
 were killed4  ,the first intimation    
which the inhabitants of ,bandong       
received of this calamity on the #hth of
 ,october1 was the news that the river  
,wulna was bearing down into the sea the
 dead bodies of men1 and the carcasses  
of stags1 rhinoceroses1 tigers1 and     
other animals4 ,the ,dutch painter      

,payen determined to travel from thence 
to the volcano1 and he found that the   
quantity of the ashes diminished as he  
approached the base of the mountain4 ,he
 alludes to the altered form of the     
mountain after the #abth1 but does not  
describe the new semicircular gulf on   
its side4  ,the official accounts state 
that #aad villages were destroyed1 and  
above #djjj persons killed4#eia         
,submarine volcanoes4--,although we have
 every reason to believe that volcanic  
eruptions as well as earthquakes are    
common in the bed of the sea1 it was not
 to be expected that many opportunities 
would occur to scientific observers of  
witnessing the phenomena4 ,the crews of 
vessels have sometimes reported that    
they have seen in different places      
sulphurous smoke1 flame1 jets of water1 
and steam1 rising up from the sea1 or   
they have observed the waters greatly   
discolored1 and in a state of violent   
agitation as if boiling4 ,new shoals    
have also been encountered1 or a reef of

 rocks just emerging above the surface1 
where previously there was always       
supposed to have been deep water4 ,on   
some few occasions the gradual formation
 of an island by a submarine eruption   
has been observed1 as that of ,sabrina1 
in the year #ahaa1 off ,st4 ,michael's  
in the ,azores4 ,the throwing up of     
ashes in that case1 and the formation of
 a cone about three hundred feet in     
height1 with a crater in the centre1    
closely resembled the phenomena usually 
accompanying a volcanic eruption on     
land4 ,sabrina was soon washed away by  
the waves4 ,previous eruptions in the   
same part of the sea were recorded to   
have happened in #afia and #agbj4 ,the  
rise of ,nyoe1 also1 a small island off 
the coast of ,iceland1 in #aghc1 has    
already been alluded to2 and another    
volcanic isle was produced by an        
eruption near ,reikiavig1 on the same   
coast1 in ,june1 #ahcj4eib  ,graham     
,island#eic1 #ahca4--,we have still more
 recent and minute information          

respecting the appearance1 in #ahca1 of 
a new volcanic island in the            
,mediterranean1 between the ,s4 ,w4     
coast of ,sicily and that projecting    
part of the ,african coast where ancient
 ,carthage stood4 ,the site of the      
island was not any part of the great    
shoal1 or bank1 called ,nerita1 as was  
first asserted1 but a spot where        
,captain ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth had found1 in   
his survey a few years before1 a depth  
of more than one hundred fathoms        
water4#eid  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4   
,form of the cliffs of ,graham ,island1 
as seen from ,s4 ,s4 ,e41 distant one   
mile1 #gth ,august1 #ahca4eif           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,view of the  
interior of ,graham ,island1 #bith      
,sept41 #ahca4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#fj4 ,graham ,island1 #bith ,sept41     
#ahca4eig  ,the position of the island  
7lat4 #cg degrees #h minutes #cj ,n41   
long4 #ab degrees #db minutes #ae ,e47  
was about thirty miles ,s4 ,w4 of       
,sciacca1 in ,sicily1 and thirty-three  

miles ,n4 ,e4 of ,pantellaria4#eie ,on  
the #bhth of ,june1 about a fortnight   
before the eruption was visible1 ,sir   
,pulteney ,malcolm1 in passing over the 
spot in his ship1 felt the shocks of an 
earthquake1 as if he had struck on a    
sand-bank2 and the same shocks were felt
 on the west coast of ,sicily1 in a     
direction from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e4 ,about
 the #ajth of ,july1 ,john ,corrao1 the 
captain of a ,sicilian vessel1 reported 
that1 as he passed near the place1 he   
saw a column of water like a            
water-spout1 sixty feet high1 and #hjj  
yards in circumference1 rising from the 
sea1 and soon afterwards a dense steam  
in its place1 which ascended to the     
height of #ahjj feet4 ,the same ,corrao1
 on his return from ,girgenti1 on the   
#ahth of ,july1 found a small island1   
twelve feet high with a crater in its   
centre1 ejecting volcanic matter1 and   
immense columns of vapor2 the sea around
 being covered with floating cinders and
 dead fish4 ,the scoriae were of a      

chocolate color1 and the water which    
boiled in the circular basin was of a   
dingy red4 ,the eruption continued with 
great violence to the end of the same   
month2 at which time the island was     
visited by several persons1 and among   
others by ,capt4 ,swinburne1 ,r4 ,n41   
and ,m4 ,hoffmann1 the ,prussian        
geologist4 ,it was then from fifty to   
ninety feet in height1 and              
three-quarters of a mile in             
circumference4 ,by the #dth of ,august  
it became1 according to some accounts1  
above #bjj feet high1 and three miles in
 circumference2 after which it began to 
diminish in size by the action of the   
waves1 and it was only two miles round  
on the #beth of ,august2 and on the #c;d
 of ,september1 when it was carefully   
examined by ,captain ,wodehouse1 only   
three-fifths of a mile in circumference2
 its greatest height being then #ajg    
feet4 ,at this time the crater was about
 #ghj feet in circumference4 ,on the    
#bith of ,september1 when it was visited

 by ,mons4 ,c4 ,prevost1 its            
circumference was reduced to about #gjj 
yards4 ,it was composed entirely of     
incoherent ejected matter1 scoriae1     
pumice1 and lapilli1 forming regular    
strata1 some of which are described as  
having been parallel to the steep inward
 slope of the crater1 while the rest    
were inclined outwards1 like those of   
,vesuvius4#eih ,when the arrangement of 
the ejected materials has been          
determined by their falling continually 
on two steep slopes1 that of the        
external cone and that of the crater1   
which is always a hollow inverted cone1 
a transverse section would probably     
resemble that given in the annexed      
figure 7#fa74 ,but when ,i visited      
,vesuvius1 in #ahbh1 ,i saw no beds of  
scoriae inclined towards the axis of the
 cone4 7,see fig4 #de1 p4 #cha47 ,such  
may have once existed2 but the          
explosions or subsidences1 or whatever  
causes produced the great crater of     
#ahbb1 had possibly destroyed them4     

,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4  ,few of the  
pieces of stone thrown out from ,graham 
,island exceeded a foot in diameter4    
,some fragments of dolomitic limestone  
were intermixed2 but these were the only
 non-volcanic substances4 ,during the   
month of ,august1 there occurred on the 
,s4 ,w4 side of the new island a violent
 ebullition and agitation of the sea1   
accompanied by the constant ascension of
 a column of dense white steam1         
indicating the existence of a second    
vent at no great depth from the surface4
 ,towards the close of ,october1 no     
vestige of the crater remained1 and the 
island was nearly levelled with the     
surface of the ocean1 with the          
exception1 at one point1 of a small     
monticule of sand and scoriae4 ,it was  
reported that1 at the commencement of   
the year following 7#ahcb71 there was a 
depth of #aej feet where the island had 
been3 but this account was quite        
erroneous2 for in the early part of that
 year ,captain ,swinburne found a shoal 

and discolored water there1 and towards 
the end of #ahcc a dangerous reef       
existed of an oval figure1 about        
three-fifths of a mile in extent4 ,in   
the centre was a black rock1 of the     
diameter of about twenty-six fathoms1   
from nine to eleven feet under water2   
and round this rock are banks of black  
volcanic stones and loose sand4 ,at the 
distance of sixty fathoms from this     
central mass1 the depth increased       
rapidly4 ,there was also a second shoal 
at the distance of #dej feet ,s4 ,w4 of 
the great reef1 with fifteen feet water 
over it1 also composed of rock1         
surrounded by deep sea4 ,we can scarcely
 doubt that the rock in the middle of   
the larger reef is solid lava1 which    
rose up in the principal crater1 and    
that the second shoal marks the site of 
the submarine eruption observed in      
,august1 #ahca1 to the ,s4 ,w4 of the   
island4  ,from the whole of the facts   
above detailed1 it appears that a hill  
eight hundred feet or more in height was

 formed by a submarine volcanic vent1 of
 which the upper part 7only about two   
hundred feet high7 emerged above the    
waters1 so as to form an island4 ,this  
cone must have been equal in size to one
 of the largest of the lateral volcanoes
 on the flanks of ,etna1 and about half 
the height of the mountain ,jorullo in  
,mexico1 which was formed in the course 
of nine months1 in #agei4 ,in the centre
 of the new volcano a large cavity was  
kept open by gaseous discharges1 which  
threw out scoriae2 and fluid lava       
probably rose up in this cavity4 ,it is 
not uncommon for small subsidiary       
craters to open near the summit of a    
cone1 and one of these may have been    
formed in the case of ,graham ,island2 a
 vent1 perhaps1 connected with the main 
channel of discharge which gave passage 
in that direction to elastic fluids1    
scoriae1 and melted lava4 ,it does not  
appear that1 either from this duct1 or  
from the principal vent1 there was any  
overflowing of lava2 but melted rock may

 have flowed from the flanks or base of 
the cone 7a common occurrence on land71 
and may have spread in a broad sheet    
over the bottom of the sea4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4  ,supposed    
section of ,graham ,island4 7,c4        
,maclaren4#eii7  ,the dotted lines in   
the annexed figure are an imaginary     
restoration of the upper part of the    
cone1 now removed by the waves3 the     
strong lines represent the part of the  
volcano which is still under water3 in  
the centre is a great column1 or dike1  
of solid lava1 two hundred feet in      
diameter1 supposed to fill the space by 
which the gaseous fluids rose2 and on   
each side of the dike is a stratified   
mass of scoriae and fragmentary lava4   
,the solid nucleus of the reef1 where   
the black rock is now found1 withstands 
the movements of the sea2 while the     
surrounding loose tuffs are cut away to 
a somewhat lower level4 ,in this manner 
the lava1 which was the lowest part of  
the island1 or1 to speak more correctly1

 which scarcely ever rose above the     
level of the sea when the island        
existed1 has now become the highest     
point in the reef4  ,no appearances     
observed1 either during the eruption or 
since the island disappeared1 gave the  
least support to the opinion promulgated
 by some writers1 that part of the      
ancient bed of the sea had been lifted  
up bodily4  ,the solid products1 says   
,dr4 ,john ,davy1 whether they consisted
 of sand1 light cinders1 or vesicular   
lava1 differed more in form than in     
composition4 ,the lava contained augite2
 and the specific gravity was #b4jg and 
#b4gj4 ,when the light spongy cinder1   
which floated on the sea1 was reduced to
 fine powder by trituration1 and the    
greater part of the entangled air got   
rid of1 it was found to be of the       
specific gravity #b4fd2 and that of some
 of the sand which fell in the eruption 
was #b4ge2fjj so that the materials     
equalled ordinary granites in weight and
 solidity4 ,the only gas evolved in any 

considerable quantity was carbonic      
acid4#fja  ,submarine eruptions in      
mid-,atlantic4--,in the ,nautical       
,magazine for #ahce1 p4 #fdb1 and for   
#ahch1 p4 #cfa1 and in the ,comptes     
,rendus1 ,april1 #ahch1 accounts are    
given of a series of volcanic phenomena1
 earthquakes1 troubled water1 floating  
scoriae and columns of smoke1 which have
 been observed at intervals since the   
middle of the last century1 in a space  
of open sea between longitudes #bj      
degrees and #bb degrees west1 about half
 a degree south of the equator4 ,these  
facts1 says ,mr4 ,darwin1 seem to show1 
that an island or an archipelago is in  
process of formation in the middle of   
the ,atlantic2 a line joining ,st4      
,helena and ,ascension would1 if        
prolonged1 intersect this slowly nascent
 focus of volcanic action4#fjb ,should  
land be eventually formed here1 it will 
not be the first that has been produced 
by igneous action in this ocean since it
 was inhabited by the existing species  

of testacea4 ,at ,porto ,praya in ,st4  
,jago1 one of the ,azores1 a horizontal1
 calcareous stratum occurs1 containing  
shells of recent marine species1 covered
 by a great sheet of basalt eighty feet 
thick4#fjc ,it would be difficult to    
estimate too highly the commercial and  
political importance which a group of   
islands might acquire1 if in the next   
two or three thousand years they should 
rise in mid-ocean between ,st4 ,helena  
and ,ascension4   ,,canary ,,islands4   
,eruption in ,lancerote1 #agcj to       
#agcf4--,the effects of an eruption     
which happened in ,lancerote1 one of the
 ,canary ,islands1 between the years    
#agcj and #agcf1 were very remarkable2  
and a detailed description has been     
published by ,von ,buch1 who had an     
opportunity1 when he visited that island
 in #ahae1 of comparing the accounts    
transmitted to us of the event1 with the
 present state and geological           
appearances of the country4#fjd ,on the 
#ast of ,september1 #agcj1 the earth    

split open on a sudden two leagues from 
,yaira4 ,in one night a considerable    
hill of ejected matter was thrown up2   
and1 a few days later1 another vent     
opened1 and gave out a lava-stream1     
which overran ,chinanfaya and other     
villages4 ,it flowed first rapidly1 like
 water1 but became afterwards heavy and 
slow1 like honey4 ,on the #gth of       
,september an immense rock was protruded
 from the bottom of the lava with a     
noise like thunder1 and the stream was  
forced to change its course from ,n4 to 
,n4 ,w41 so that ,st4 ,catalina and     
other villages were overflowed4         
,whether this mass was protruded by an  
earthquake1 or was a mass of ancient    
lava1 blown up like that before         
mentioned in #aghc in ,iceland1 is not  
explained4  ,on the #aath of ,september 
more lava flowed out1 and covered the   
village of ,maso entirely1 and for the  
space of eight days precipitated itself 
with a horrible roar into the sea4 ,dead
 fish floated on the waters in          

indescribable multitudes1 or were thrown
 dying on the shore4 ,after a brief     
interval of repose1 three new openings  
broke forth immediately from the site of
 the consumed ,st4 ,catalina1 and sent  
out an enormous quantity of lapilli1    
sand1 and ashes4 ,on the #bhth of       
,october the cattle throughout the whole
 country dropped lifeless to the ground1
 suffocated by putrid vapors1 which     
condensed and fell down in drops4 ,on   
the #ast of ,december a lava-stream     
reached the sea1 and formed an island1  
round which dead fish were strewed4     
,number of cones thrown up4--,it is     
unnecessary here to give the details of 
the overwhelming of other places by     
fiery torrents1 or of a storm which was 
equally new and terrifying to the       
inhabitants1 as they had never known one
 in their country before4 ,on the #ajth 
of ,january1 #agca1 a high hill was     
thrown up1 which1 on the same day1      
precipitated itself back again into its 
own crater2 fiery brooks of lava flowed 

from it to the sea4 ,on the #c;d of     
,february a new cone arose4 ,others were
 thrown up in ,march1 and poured forth  
lava-streams4 ,numerous other volcanic  
cones were subsequently formed in       
succession1 till at last their number   
amounted to about thirty4 ,in ,june1    
#agca1 during a renewal of the          
eruptions1 all the banks and shores in  
the western part of the island were     
covered with dying fish1 of different   
species1 some of which had never before 
been seen4 ,smoke and flame arose from  
the sea1 with loud detonations4 ,these  
dreadful commotions lasted without      
interruption for five successive years1 
so that a great emigration of the       
inhabitants became necessary4  ,their   
linear direction4--,as to the height of 
the new cones1 ,von ,buch was assured   
that the formerly great and flourishing 
,st4 ,catalina lay buried under hills   
#djj feet in height2 and he observes    
that the most elevated cone of the      
series rose #fjj feet above its base1   

and #acgh feet above the sea1 and that  
several others were nearly as high4 ,the
 new vents were all arranged in one     
line1 about two geographical miles long1
 and in a direction nearly east and     
west4 ,if we admit the probability of   
,von ,buch's conjecture1 that these     
vents opened along the line of a cleft1 
it seems necessary to suppose that this 
subterranean fissure was only prolonged 
upwards to the surface by degrees1 and  
that the rent was narrow at first1 as is
 usually the case with fissures caused  
by earthquakes4 ,lava and elastic fluids
 might escape from some point on the    
rent where there was least resistance1  
till1 the first aperture becoming       
obstructed by ejections and the         
consolidation of lava1 other orifices   
burst open in succession along the line 
of the original fissure4 ,von ,buch     
found that each crater was lowest on    
that side on which lava had issued2 but 
some craters were not breached1 and were
 without any lava streams4 ,in one of   

these were open fissures1 out of which  
hot vapors rose1 which in #ahae raised  
the thermometer to #ade degrees         
,fahrenheit1 and was probably at the    
boiling point lower down4 ,the          
exhalations seemed to consist of aqueous
 vapor2 yet they could not be pure      
steam1 for the crevices were incrusted  
on either side by siliceous sinter 7an  
opal-like hydrate of silica of a white  
color71 which extended almost to the    
middle4 ,this important fact attests the
 length of time during which chemical   
processes continue after eruptions1 and 
how open fissures may be filled up      
laterally by mineral matter1 sublimed   
from volcanic exhalations4 ,the lavas of
 this eruption covered nearly a third of
 the whole island1 often forming on     
slightly inclined planes great          
horizontal sheets several square leagues
 in area1 resembling very much the      
basaltic platforms of ,auvergne4        
,pretended distinction between ancient  
and modern lavas4--,one of the new lavas

 was observed to contain masses of      
olivine of an olive-green color1        
resembling those which occur in one of  
the lavas of the ,vivarais4 ,von ,buch  
supposes the great crystals of olivine  
to have been derived from a previously  
existing basalt melted up by the new    
volcanoes2 but we have scarcely         
sufficient data to bear out such a      
conjecture4 ,the older rocks of the     
island consist1 in a great measure1 of  
that kind of basaltic lava called       
dolerite1 sometimes columnar1 and partly
 of common basalt and amygdaloid4 ,some 
recent lavas assumed1 on entering the   
sea1 a prismatic form1 and so much      
resembled the older lavas of the        
,canaries1 that the only geological     
distinction which ,von ,buch appears to 
have been able to draw between them was1
 that they did not alternate with       
conglomerates1 like the ancient basalts4
 ,some modern writers have endeavored to
 discover1 in the abundance of these    
conglomerates1 a proof of the           

dissimilarity of the volcanic action in 
ancient and modern times2 but this      
character is more probably attributable 
to the difference between submarine     
operations and those on the land4 ,all  
the blocks and imperfectly rounded      
fragments of lava1 transported during   
the intervals of eruption1 by rivers and
 torrents1 into the adjoining sea1 or   
torn by the continued action of the     
waves from cliffs which are undermined1 
must accumulate in stratified breccias  
and conglomerates1 and be covered again 
and again by other lavas4 ,this is now  
taking place on the shores of ,sicily1  
between ,catania and ,trezza1 where the 
sea breaks down and covers the shore    
with blocks and pebbles of the modern   
lavas of ,etna2 and on parts of the     
coast of ,ischia1 where numerous        
currents of trachyte are in like manner 
undermined in lofty precipices4 ,so     
often1 then1 as an island is raised in a
 volcanic archipelago by earthquakes    
from the deep1 the fundamental and      

7relatively to all above7 the oldest    
lava will often be distinguishable from 
those formed by subsequent eruptions on 
dry land1 by their alternation with beds
 of sandstone and fragmentary rocks4    
,the supposed want of identity1 then1   
between the volcanic phenomena of       
different epochs resolves itself partly 
at least into the marked difference     
between the operations simultaneously in
 progress1 above and below the waters4  
,such1 indeed1 is the source1 as was    
before stated in the ,first ,book       
7,chap4 ,v471 of many of our strongest  
theoretical prejudices in geology4 ,no  
sooner do we study and endeavor to      
explain submarine appearances1 than we  
feel1 to use a common expression1 out of
 our element2 and unwilling to concede  
that our extreme ignorance of processes 
now continually going on can be the     
cause of our perplexity1 we take refuge 
in a pre-existent order of nature4      
,recent formation of oolitic travertin  
in ,lancerote4--,throughout a           

considerable part of ,lancerote1 the old
 lavas are covered by a thin stratum of 
limestone1 from an inch to two feet in  
thickness4 ,it is of a hard stalactitic 
nature1 sometimes oolitic1 like the     
,jura limestone1 and contains fragments 
of lava and terrestrial shells1 chiefly 
helices and spiral bulimi4 ,it sometimes
 rises to the height of #hjj feet above 
the level of the sea4 ,von ,buch        
imagines that this remarkable           
superstratum has been produced by the   
furious northwest storms1 which in      
winter drive the spray of the sea in    
clouds over the whole island2 from      
whence calcareous particles may be      
deposited stalactitically4 ,mr4 ,darwin 
informs me that he found a limestone in 
,st4 ,helena1 the harder parts of which 
correspond precisely to the stone of    
,lancerote4 ,he attributes the origin of
 this rock in ,st4 ,helena not to the   
spray of the sea1 but to drifting by    
violent winds of the finer particles of 
shells from the sea-beach4 ,some parts  

of this drift are subsequently dissolved
 by atmospheric moisture1 and           
redeposited1 so as to convert calcareous
 sand into oolite4  ,recent eruption in 
,lancerote4--,from the year #agcf to    
#ahae1 when ,von ,buch visited          
,lancerote1 there had been no eruption2 
but1 in ,august1 #ahbd1 a crater opened 
near the port of ,rescif1 and formed by 
its ejections1 in the space of          
twenty-four hours1 a considerable hill4 
,violent earthquakes preceded and       
accompanied this eruption4#fje          
,teneriffe4--,the ,peak of ,teneriffe is
 about #ab1jjj feet high1 and stands1   
says ,von ,buch1 like a tower encircled 
by its fosse and bastion4 ,the bastion  
consists1 like the semicircular         
escarpment of ,somma turned towards     
,vesuvius1 of precipitous cliffs1       
composed of trachyte1 basalt1 coarse    
conglomerates1 and tuffs1 traversed by  
volcanic dikes1 mostly vertical1 and of 
basalt4 ,these cliffs vary in height    
from #ajjj to #ahjj feet1 and are       

supposed by ,von ,buch to have been     
heaved up into their present position by
 a force exerted from below1 in         
accordance with the theory proposed by  
the same author for the origin of the   
cones of ,vesuvius and ,etna4 ,according
 to the observations of ,m4 ,deville in 
#ahcifjf1 the trachytes are often       
granitoid in their aspect1 and contain  
instead of glassy felspar the allied    
mineral called oligoclase1 which had    
been previously considered as           
characteristic of more ancient igneous  
rocks4 ,the same traveller supposes1    
although he found no limestone or trace 
of fossils in any of the rocks of       
,teneriffe1 that the alternating        
trachytes and trachytic conglomerates   
originated beneath the sea4 ,if this    
opinion be correct1 and it is at least  
very probable1 geologists may still     
speculate on two modes in which the mass
 of the island acquired its present form
 and elevation above the sea4 #ast1 ,the
 advocates of ,von ,buch's              

crater-of-elevation hypothesis may      
imagine that a succession of            
horizontally superimposed beds were     
upheaved by a sudden movement1 and      
tilted so as to dip in all directions   
outwards from the centre of a new       
dome-shaped eminence1 in the middle of  
which a large opening or bowl-shaped    
cavity was produced4 #b;dly1 ,or        
according to the theory which to me     
appears preferable1 a submarine hill in 
the form of a flattened dome may have   
gradually accumulated1 partly below the 
waters and partly above by the continued
 outpourings of sheets of lava and the  
ejection of ashes from a central        
orifice4 ,in this case the dikes would  
represent the fissures1 which were      
filled during successive eruptions1 and 
the original inclination of the beds may
 have been increased by the distension  
and upheaval of the mass during         
reiterated convulsions1 acting most     
forcibly at or near the channel of      
discharge1 which would become partially 

sealed up with lava from time to time1  
and then be burst open again during     
eruptions4 ,at length the whole island  
may have been raised bodily out of the  
sea by a gradual upward movement4       
,whatever theory we adopt1 we must      
always explain the abrupt termination of
 the dikes and layers of trachyte and   
basalt in the steep walls of the        
escarpments surrounding the great crater
 by supposing the removal of part of the
 materials once prolonged farther inward
 towards the centre4 ,if1 according to  
the elevation-crater hypothesis1 a      
series of sheets of lava and ashes      
originally spread over a level and even 
surface have been violently broken and  
uplifted1 why do not the opposite walls 
of the chasm correspond in such a manner
 as to imply by their present outline   
that they were formerly united8 ,it is  
evident that the precipices on opposite 
sides of the crateriform hollow would   
not fit if brought together1 there being
 no projecting masses in one wall to    

enter into indentations in the other1 as
 would happen with the sides of many    
mineral veins1 trap-dikes1 and faults1  
could we extract the intrusive matter   
now separating them1 and reunite the    
rocks which have been fractured and     
disjoined4  ,the highest crater of the  
peak has merely disengaged sulphureous  
vapors ever since it has been known to  
,europeans2 but an eruption happened in 
,june1 #agih1 not far from the summit1  
and others are recorded1 which poured   
out streams of lava from great heights1 
besides many which have broken out      
nearer the level of the sea4 ,all these1
 however1 seem to be dependent on one   
great centre of eruption1 or on that    
open channel communicating between the  
interior of the earth and the           
atmosphere1 which terminates in the     
highest crater of the peak4  ,we may    
consider ,teneriffe1 then1 as having    
been from a remote period the principal 
and habitual vent of the volcanic       
archipelago of the ,canaries4 ,the      

discharges which have taken place in the
 contiguous isles of ,palma1 ,lancerote1
 and the rest1 may be of a subsidiary   
kind1 and have probably been most       
frequent and violent when the greater   
crater has been partially sealed up1    
just as the violent eruptions of ,ischia
 or that of ,monte ,nuovo coincided with
 the dormant state of ,vesuvius4        
,,santorin4  ,the ,gulf of ,santorin1 in
 the ,grecian ,archipelago1 has been for
 two thousand years a scene of active   
volcanic operations4 ,the largest of the
 three outer islands of the group 7to   
which the general name of ,santorin is  
given7 is called ,thera 7or sometimes   
,santorin71 and forms more than         
two-thirds of the circuit of the gulf   
7see ,map1 fig4 #fc1 p4 #ddb74 ,the     
length of the exterior coast-line of    
this and the other two islands named    
,therasia and ,aspronisi1 taken         
together1 amounts to about thirty miles1
 and that of the inner coast-line of the
 same islands to about eighteen miles4  

,in the middle of the gulf are three    
other islands1 called the ,little1 the  
,new1 and the ,old ,kaimenis1 or ,burnt 
,islands4 ,the accompanying map has been
 reduced from a recent survey executed  
in #ahdh by ,captain ,graves1 ,r4 ,n41  
and shortly to be published by the      
,admiralty4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4  
,map of ,santorin in the ,grecian       
,archipelago1 from a ,survey in #ahdh1  
by ,captain ,graves1 ,r4 ,n4     ,the   
soundings are given in fathoms4    ,a1  
,shoal formed by submarine volcanic     
eruption in #afej4   ,b1 ,northern      
entrance4   ,c1 ,mansell's ,rock4   ,d1 
,mount ,st4 ,elias1 #ahhg feet high4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4  ,section of  
,santorin1 in a ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,w4     
direction1 from ,thera through the      
,kaimenia to ,aspronisi4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #fe4  ,part of the section1 fig4 
#fd1 enlarged4  ,pliny informs us that  
the year #ahf1 ,b4 ,c41 gave birth to   
the ,old ,kaimeni1 also called ,hiera1  
or the ,sacred ,isle1 and in the year   

#ai of our era ,thia 7the ,divine7 made 
its appearance above water1 and was soon
 joined by subsequent eruptions to the  
older island1 from which it was only    
#bej paces distant4 ,the ,old ,kaimeni  
also increased successively in size in  
#gbf and in #adbg4 ,a century and a half
 later1 in #aegc1 another eruption      
produced the cone and crater called     
,micra-,kaimeni1 or the ,small ,burnt   
,island4 ,the next great event which we 
find recorded occurred in #afej1 when a 
submarine outbreak violently agitated   
the sea1 at a point three and a half    
miles to the ,n4 ,e4 of ,thera1 and     
which gave rise to a shoal 7see ,a in   
the map7 carefully examined during the  
late survey in #ahdh by ,captain        
,graves1 and found to have ten fathoms  
water over it1 the sea deepening around 
it in all directions4 ,this eruption    
lasted three months1 covering the sea   
with floating pumice4 ,at the same time 
an earthquake destroyed many houses in  
,thera1 while the sea broke upon the    

coast and overthrew two churches1       
exposing to view two villages1 one on   
each side of the mountain of ,st4       
,stephen1 both of which must have been  
overwhelmed by showers of volcanic      
matter during some previous eruptions of
 unknown date4#fjg ,the accompanying    
evolution of sulphur and hydrogen       
issuing from the sea killed more than   
fifty persons1 and above #ajjj domestic 
animals4 ,a wave1 also1 #ej feet high1  
broke upon the rocks of the ,isle of    
,nia1 about four leagues distant1 and   
advanced #dej yards into the interior of
 the ,island of ,sikino4 ,lastly1 in    
#agjg and #agji1 ,nea-,kaimeni1 or the  
,new ,burnt ,island1 was formed between 
the two others1 ,palaia and ,micra1 the 
,old and ,little isles4 ,this isle was  
composed originally of two distinct     
parts2 the first which rose was called  
the ,white ,island1 composed of a mass  
of pumice1 extremely porous4 ,gorce1 the
 ,jesuit1 who was then in ,santorin1    
says that the rock cut like bread1 and  

that1 when the inhabitants landed on it1
 they found a multitude of full-grown   
fresh oysters adhering to it1 which they
 ate4#fjh ,this mass was afterwards     
covered1 in great part1 by the matter   
ejected from the crater of a twin-island
 formed simultaneously1 and called      
,black ,island1 consisting of brown     
trachyte4 ,the trachytic lava which rose
 on this spot appears to have been a    
long time in an intumescent state1 for  
the ,new ,kaimeni was sometimes lowered 
on one side while it gained height on   
the other1 and rocks rose up in the sea 
at different distances from the shore   
and then disappeared again4 ,the        
eruption was renewed at intervals during
 the years #agaa and #agab1 and at      
length a cone was piled up to the height
 of #ccj feet above the level of the    
sea1 its exterior slope forming an angle
 of #cc degrees with the horizon1 and   
the crater on its summit being #hj yards
 in diameter4 ,in addition to the two   
points of subaerial eruption on the ,new

 and ,little ,kaimenis1 two other cones1
 indicating the sites of submarine      
outbursts of unknown date1 were         
discovered under water near the         
,kaimenis during the late survey4  ,in  
regard to the ,white ,island1 which was 
described and visited by ,gorce in      
#agjg1 we are indebted to ,mr4 ,edward  
,forbes for having1 in #ahdb1 carefully 
investigated the layer of pumiceous ash 
of which it is constituted4 ,he obtained
 from it many shells of marine genera1  
,pectunculus1 ,arca1 ,cardita1 ,trochus1
 and others1 both univalve and bivalve1 
all of recent ,mediterranean species4   
,they were in a fine state of           
preservation1 the bivalves with the     
epidermis remaining1 and valves closed1 
showing that they had been suddenly     
destroyed4 ,mr4 ,forbes1 from his study 
of the habits of the mollusca living at 
different depths in the ,mediterranean1 
was able to decide that such an         
assemblage of species could not have    
lived at a less depth than #bbj feet1 so

 that a bodily upheaval of the mass to  
that amount must have taken place in    
order to bring up this bed of ashes and 
shells to the level of the sea1 and they
 now rise five or six feet above that   
level4#fji  ,we may compare this partial
 elevation of solid matter to the rise  
of a hardened crust of scoriae1 such as 
is usually formed on the surface of     
lava-currents1 even while they are in   
motion1 and which1 although stony and   
capable of supporting heavy weights1 may
 be upraised without bursting by the    
intumescence of the melted matter below4
 ,that the upheaval was merely local is 
proved by the fact that the neighboring 
,kaimenis did not participate in the    
movement1 still less the three more     
distant or outer islands before         
mentioned4 ,the history1 therefore1 of  
the ,kaimenis shows that they have been 
the result of intermittent action1 and  
it lends no support to the hypothesis of
 the sudden distension of horizontal    
beds blown up like a bladder by a single

 paroxysmal effort of expansive gases4  
,it will be seen by the accompanying map
 and sections1 that the ,kaimenis are   
arranged in a linear direction1 running 
,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,w41 in a manner        
different from that represented in the  
older charts4 ,in their longest diameter
 they form at their base a ridge nearly 
bisecting the gulf or crater 7see       
sections1 figs4 #fd1 #fe74  ,on         
considering these facts we are naturally
 led to compare the smaller and newer   
islands in the centre of the gulf to the
 modern cone of ,vesuvius1 surrounded by
 the older semicircular escarpment of   
,somma1 or to liken them to the ,peak of
 ,teneriffe before described1 as        
surrounded by its fosse and bastion4    
,this idea will appear to be still more 
fully confirmed when we study the       
soundings taken during the late         
hydrographical survey4 ,thera1 which    
constitutes alone more than two-thirds  
of the outer circuit1 presents          
everywhere towards the gulf1 high and   

steep precipices composed of rocks of   
volcanic origin4 ,in all places near the
 base of its cliffs1 a depth of from    
#hjj to #ajjj feet of water was found1  
and ,lieut4 ,leycester informs us#faj   
that if the gulf1 which is six miles in 
diameter1 could be drained1 a           
bowl-shaped cavity would appear with    
walls #bddi feet high in some places1   
and even on the southwest side1 where it
 is lowest1 nowhere less than #abjj feet
 high2 while the ,kaimenis would be seen
 to form in the centre a huge mountain  
five and a half miles in circumference  
at its base1 with three principal       
summits 7the ,old1 the ,new1 and the    
,little ,burnt ,islands7 rising         
severally to the heights of #abea1      
#afbi1 and #aaeh feet above the bottom  
of the abyss4 ,the rim of the great     
caldron thus exposed would be observed  
to be in all parts perfect and unbroken1
 except at one point where there is a   
deep and long chasm or channel1 known by
 mariners as the northern entrance 7,b1 

fig4 #fc7 between ,thera and ,therasia1 
and called by ,lieut4 ,leycester the    
door into the crater4 ,it is no less    
than #aagj feet deep1 and constitutes1  
as will appear by the soundings 7see    
map71 a remarkable feature in the bed of
 the sea4 ,there is no corresponding    
channel passing out from the gulf into  
the ,mediterranean at any other point in
 the circuit between the outer islands1 
the greatest depth there ranging from #g
 to #ff feet4  ,we may conceive1        
therefore1 if at some former time the   
whole mass of ,santorin stood at a      
higher level by #abjj feet1 that this   
single ravine or narrow valley now      
forming the northern entrance1 was the  
passage by which the sea entered a      
circular bay and swept out in the form  
of mud and pebbles1 the materials       
derived by denudation from wasting      
cliffs4 ,in this manner the original    
crater may have been slowly widened and 
deepened1 after which the whole         
archipelago may have been partially     

submerged to its present depth4  ,that  
such oscillations of level may in the   
course of ages have taken place1 will be
 the more readily admitted when we state
 that part of ,thera has actually sunk  
down in modern times1 as1 for example1  
during the great earthquake before      
alluded to1 which happened in #afej4    
,the subsidence alluded to is proved not
 only by tradition1 but by the fact that
 a road which formerly led between two  
places on the east coast of ,thera is   
now twelve fathoms under water4  ,,mm4  
,boblaye and ,virlet mention1#faa that  
the waves are constantly undermining and
 encroaching on the cliffs of ,therasia 
and ,aspronisi1 and shoals or submarine 
ledges were found1 during the late      
survey1 to occur round a great part of  
these islands1 attesting the recent     
progress of denudation4 ,m4 ,virlet also
 remarks1 in regard to the separation of
 the three islands forming the walls of 
the crater1 that the channels between   
them are all to the ,w4 and ,n4 ,w41 the

 quarter most exposed to the waves and  
currents4  ,mr4 ,darwin1 in his work on 
volcanic islands1 has shown that in the 
,mauritius and in ,santiago1 there is an
 external circle of basaltic rocks of   
vast diameter1 in the interior of which 
more modern eruptions have taken place1 
the older rocks dipping away from the   
central space in every direction1 as in 
the outer islands of ,santorin4 ,he     
refers the numerous breaches1 some of   
them very wide in the external ramparts 
of those islands1 to the denuding action
 of the sea4 ,every geologist1          
therefore1 will be prepared to call in  
the aid of the same powerful cause1 to  
account for the removal of a large part 
of the rocks which must once have       
occupied the interior space1 in the same
 manner as they attribute the           
abstraction of matter from elliptical   
valleys of elevation1 such as those of  
,woolhope and the ,wealden in ,england1 
to the waves and currents of the sea4   
,thera1 ,therasia1 and ,aspronisi are   

all composed of volcanic matter1 except 
the southern part of ,thera1 where      
,mount ,st4 ,elias rises to three times 
the height of the loftiest of the       
igneous rocks1 reaching an elevation of 
#ahhg feet above the sea4#fab ,this     
mountain is formed of granular limestone
 and argillaceous schist1 and must have 
been originally a submarine eminence in 
the bed of the ,mediterranean1 before   
the volcanic cone1 one side of the base 
of which now abuts against it1 was      
formed4 ,the inclination1 strike1 and   
fractures of the calcareous and         
argillaceous strata of ,st4 ,elias have 
no relation to the great cone1 but1     
according to ,m4 ,bory ,st4 ,vincent1   
have the same direction as those of the 
other isles of the ,grecian             
,archipelago1 namely1 from ,n4 ,n4 ,w4  
to ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 ,each of the three       
islands1 ,thera1 ,therasia1 and         
,aspronisi1 is capped by an enormous    
mass of white tufaceous conglomerate1   
from forty to fifty feet thick1 beneath 

which are beds of trachytic lava and    
tuff1 having a gentle inclination of    
only #c degrees or #d degrees4 ,each bed
 is usually very narrow and             
discontinuous1 the successive layers    
being moulded or dove-tailed1 as ,m4    
,virlet expresses it1 into the          
inequalities of the previously existing 
surface1 on which showers of cinders or 
streams of melted matter have been      
poured4 ,nothing1 therefore1 seems more 
evident than that we have in ,santorin  
the basal remains of a great ruined     
cone1 or flattened dome2 and the absence
 of dikes in the cliffs surrounding the 
gulf would indicate that the eruptions  
took place originally1 as they have done
 in the last two thousand years1 not    
near the margin but in the centre of the
 space now occupied by the gulf4 ,the   
central portions of the dome have since 
been removed by engulfment1 or          
denudation1 or by both these causes4    
,an important fact is adduced by ,m4    
,virlet1 to show that the gentle dip of 

the lava-streams in the three outer     
islands towards all points of the       
compass1 away from the centre of the    
gulf1 has not been due to the upheaval  
of horizontal beds1 as conjectured by   
,von ,buch1 who had not visited         
,santorin4#fac ,the ,french geologist   
found that the vesicles or pores of the 
trachytic masses were lengthened out in 
the several directions in which they    
would have flowed if they had descended 
from the axis of a cone once occupying  
the centre of the crater4 ,for it is    
well known that the bubbles of confined 
gas in a fluid in motion assume an oval 
form1 and the direction of their longer 
axis coincides always with that of the  
stream4  ,on a review1 therefore1 of all
 the facts now brought to light         
respecting ,santorin1 ,i attribute the  
moderate slope of the beds in ,thera and
 the other external islands to their    
having originally descended the inclined
 flanks of a large volcanic cone1 the   
principal orifice or vents of eruption  

having been always situated where they  
are now1 in or near the centre of the   
space occupied by the gulf or crater--in
 other words1 where the outburst of the 
,kaimenis has been witnessed in         
historical times4 ,the single long and  
deep opening into the crater is a       
feature common to all those remnants of 
ancient volcanoes1 the central portions 
of which have been removed1 and is      
probably connected with aqueous         
denudation4 ,this denuding process has  
been the work of ages when the sea was  
admitted into an original crater1 and   
has taken place during the gradual      
emergence of the island from the sea1 or
 during various oscillations in its     
level4  ,the volcanic island of ,st4    
,paul in the midst of the ,indian       
,ocean1 lat4 #ch degrees #dd minutes    
,s41 long4 #gg degrees #cg minutes ,e41 
surveyed by ,capt4 ,blackwood in #ahdb1 
seems to exemplify the first stage in   
the formation of such an archipelago as 
that of ,santorin4 ,we have there a     

crater one mile in diameter1 surrounded 
by steep and lofty cliffs on every side 
save one1 where the sea enters by a     
single passage nearly dry at low water4 
,in the interior of the small circular  
bay or crater there is a depth of #cj   
fathoms1 or #ahj feet4 ,the surface of  
the island slopes away on all sides from
 the crest of the rocks encircling the  
crater4#fad  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4  
,cone and crater of ,barren ,island1 in 
the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,height of the     
central cone 7according to ,capt        
,miller1 in #ahcd71 #ejj feet4  ,barren 
,island4--,there is great analogy       
between the structure of ,barren ,island
 in the ,bay of ,bengal1 lat4 #ab       
degrees #ae minutes1 and that of        
,santorin last described4 ,when seen    
from the ocean1 this island presents1 on
 almost all sides1 a surface of bare    
rocks1 rising1 with a moderate          
acclivity1 towards the interior2 but at 
one point there is a cleft by which we  
can penetrate into the centre1 and there

 discover that it is occupied by a great
 circular basin1 filled by the waters of
 the sea1 and bordered all around by    
steep rocks1 in the midst of which rises
 a volcanic cone1 very frequently in    
eruption4 ,the summit of this cone is   
about #ejj feet in height1 corresponding
 to that of the circular border which   
incloses the basin2 so that it can be   
seen from the sea only through the      
ravine4 ,it is most probable that the   
exterior inclosure of ,barren ,island   
7c1 d1 fig4 #fg7 is nothing more than   
the remains of a truncated cone c1 a1 b1
 d1 a great portion of which has been   
removed by engulfment1 explosion1 or    
denudation1 which may have preceded the 
formation of the new interior cone1 f1  
e1 g4#fae  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4    
,supposed section of ,barren ,island1 in
 the ,bay of ,bengal4   ,,mud           
,,volcanoes4  ,iceland4--,mr4 ,r4       
,bunsen1 in his account of the          
pseudo-volcanic phenomena of ,iceland1  
describes many valleys where sulphurous 

and aqueous vapors burst forth with a   
hissing sound1 from the hot soil formed 
of volcanic tuff4 ,in such spots a pool 
of boiling water is seen1 in which a    
bluish-black argillaceous paste rises in
 huge bubbles4 ,these bubbles on        
bursting throw the boiling mud to a     
height of fifteen feet and upwards1     
accumulating it in ledges round the     
crater or basin of the spring4  ,baku on
 the ,caspian4--,the formation of a new 
mud volcano was witnessed on the #bgth  
of ,november1 #ahbg1 at ,tokmali1 on the
 peninsula of ,abscheron1 east of ,baku4
 ,flames blazed up to an extraordinary  
height for a space of three hours1 and  
continued for twenty hours to rise about
 three feet above a crater1 from which  
mud was ejected4 ,at another point in   
the same district where flames issued1  
fragments of rock of large size were    
hurled up into the air1 and scattered   
around4#faf  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4  
,mud cones and craters of ,hinglaj near 
,beila1 district of ,lus1 #abj miles    

northwest of mouth of ,indus4 ,from     
original drawing by ,capt4 ,robertson4  
7,see ,map1 p4 #dfj47  ,sicily4--,at a  
place called ,macaluba1 near ,girgenti  
in ,sicily1 are several conical mounds  
from ten to thirty feet in height1 with 
small craters at their summits1 from    
which cold water1 mixed with mud and    
bitumen1 is cast out4 ,bubbles of       
carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen  
gas are also disengaged from these      
springs1 and at certain periods with    
such violence1 as to throw the mud to   
the height of #bjj feet4 ,these air     
volcanoes1 as they are sometimes termed1
 are known to have been in the same     
state of activity for the last fifteen  
centuries2 and ,dr4 ,daubeny imagines   
that the gases which escape may be      
generated by the slow combustion of beds
 of sulphur1 which is actually in       
progress in the blue clay1 out of which 
the springs rise4#fag ,but as the gases 
are similar to those disengaged in      
volcanic eruptions1 and as they have    

continued to stream out for so long a   
period1 they may perhaps be derived from
 a more deep-seated source4  ,beila in  
,india4--,in the district of ,luss or   
,lus1 south of ,beila1 about #abj miles 
,n4 ,w4 of ,cutch and the mouths of the 
,indus 7see ,map1 fig4 #ga1 p4 #dfj71   
numerous mud volcanoes are scattered    
over an area of probably not less than  
#ajjj square miles4 ,some of these have 
been well described by ,captain ,hart1  
and subsequently by ,captain ,robertson1
 who has paid a visit to that region1   
and made sketches of them1 which he has 
kindly placed at my disposal4 ,from one 
of these the annexed view has been      
selected4 ,these conical hills occur to 
the westward of the ,hara mountains and 
the river ,hubb4 7,see ,map1 p4 #dfj47  
,one of the cones is #djj feet high1    
composed of light-colored earth1 and    
having at its summit a crater thirty    
yards in diameter4 ,the liquid mud which
 fills the crater is continually        
disturbed by air-bubbles1 and here and  

there is cast up in small jets4#fah     
,mineral composition of volcanic        
products4--,the mineral called felspar  
forms in general more than half of the  
mass of modern lavas4 ,when it is in    
great excess1 lavas are called          
trachytic3 they consist generally of a  
base of compact felspar1 in which       
crystals of glassy felspar are          
disseminated4#fai ,when augite 7or      
pyroxene7 predominates1 lavas are termed
 basaltic4 ,they contain about #ej per  
cent4 of silica1 or much less than the  
trachytes1 in which there is usually    
about #ge per cent4 of that mineral4    
,they also contain about #aa per cent4  
of protoxide of iron1 and as much of    
lime1 both of which are wanting1 or only
 in insignificant quantities in the     
trachytic rocks4#fbj ,but lavas occur of
 an intermediate composition between the
 trachytic and basaltic1 which from     
their color have been called graystones4
 ,the abundance of quartz1 forming      
distinct crystals or concretions1       

characterizes the granitic and other    
ancient rocks1 now generally considered 
by geologists as of igneous origin2     
whereas that mineral is rarely exhibited
 in a separate form in recent lavas1    
although silica enters so largely into  
their composition4 ,hornblende1 so      
common in hypogene rocks1 or those      
commonly called primary1 is rare in     
modern lava2 nor does it enter largely  
into rocks of any age in which augite   
abounds4 ,it should1 however1 be stated1
 that the experiments of ,mr4 ,gustav   
,rose have made it very questionable1   
whether the minerals called hornblende  
and augite can be separated as distinct 
species1 as their different varieties   
seem to pass into each other1 whether we
 consider the characters derived from   
their angles of crystallization1 their  
chemical composition1 or their specific 
gravity4 ,the difference in form of the 
two substances may be explained by the  
different circumstances under which they
 have been produced1 the form of        

hornblende being the result of slower   
cooling4 ,crystals of augite have been  
met with in the scoriae of furnaces1 but
 never those of hornblende2 and crystals
 of augite have been obtained by melting
 hornblende in a platina crucible2 but  
hornblende itself has not been formed   
artificially4#fba ,mica occurs          
plentifully in some recent trachytes1   
but is rarely present where augite is in
 excess4  ,frequency of eruptions1 and  
nature of subterranean igneous          
rocks4--,when we speak of the igneous   
rocks of our own times1 we mean that    
small portion which1 in violent         
eruptions1 is forced up by elastic      
fluids to the surface of the earth1--the
 sand1 scoriae1 and lava1 which cool in 
the open air4 ,but we cannot obtain     
access to that which is congealed far   
beneath the surface under great         
pressure1 equal to that of many hundred1
 or many thousand atmospheres4  ,during 
the last century1 about fifty eruptions 
are recorded of the five ,european      

volcanic districts1 of ,vesuvius1 ,etna1
 ,volcano1 ,santorin1 and ,iceland2 but 
many beneath the sea in the ,grecian    
archipelago and near ,iceland may       
doubtless have passed unnoticed4 ,if    
some of them produced no lava1 others1  
on the contrary1 like that of ,skaptar  
,jokul1 in #aghc1 poured out melted     
matter for five or six years            
consecutively2 which cases1 being       
reckoned as single eruptions1 will      
compensate for those of inferior        
strength4 ,now1 if we consider the      
active volcanoes of ,europe to          
constitute about a fortieth part of     
those already known on the globe1 and   
calculate that1 one with another1 they  
are about equal in activity to the      
burning mountains in other districts1 we
 may then compute that there happen on  
the earth about #bjjj eruptions in the  
course of a century1 or about twenty    
every year4  ,however inconsiderable1   
therefore1 may be the superficial rocks 
which the operations of fire produce on 

the surface1 we must suppose the        
subterranean changes now constantly in  
progress to be on the grandest scale4   
,the loftiest volcanic cones must be as 
insignificant1 when contrasted to the   
products of fire in the nether regions1 
as are the deposits formed in shallow   
estuaries when compared to submarine    
formations accumulating in the abysses  
of the ocean4 ,in regard to the         
characters of these volcanic rocks1     
formed in our own times in the bowels of
 the earth1 whether in rents and        
caverns1 or by the cooling of lakes of  
melted lava1 we may safely infer that   
the rocks are heavier and less porous   
than ordinary lavas1 and more           
crystalline1 although composed of the   
same mineral ingredients4 ,as the       
hardest crystals produced artificially  
in the laboratory require the longest   
time for their formation1 so we must    
suppose that where the cooling down of  
melted matter takes place by insensible 
degrees1 in the course of ages1 a       

variety of minerals will be produced far
 harder than any formed by natural      
processes within the short period of    
human observation4  ,these subterranean 
volcanic rocks1 moreover1 cannot be     
stratified in the same manner as        
sedimentary deposits from water1        
although it is evident that when great  
masses consolidate from a state of      
fusion1 they may separate into natural  
divisions2 for this is seen to be the   
case in many lava-currents4 ,we may also
 expect that the rocks in question will 
often be rent by earthquakes1 since     
these are common in volcanic regions2   
and the fissures will be often injected 
with similar matter1 so that dikes of   
crystalline rock will traverse masses of
 similar composition4 ,it is also clear1
 that no organic remains can be included
 in such masses1 as also that these     
deep-seated igneous formations          
considered in mass must underlie all the
 strata containing organic remains1     
because the heat proceeds from below    

upwards1 and the intensity required to  
reduce the mineral ingredients to a     
fluid state must destroy all organic    
bodies in rocks included in the midst of
 them4  ,if by a continued series of    
elevatory movements1 such masses shall  
hereafter be brought up to the surface1 
in the same manner as sedimentary marine
 strata have1 in the course of ages1    
been upheaved to the summit of the      
loftiest mountains1 it is not difficult 
to foresee what perplexing problems may 
be presented to the geologist4 ,he may  
then1 perhaps1 study in some            
mountain-chain the very rocks produced  
at the depth of several miles beneath   
the ,andes1 ,iceland1 or ,java1 in the  
time of ,leibnitz1 and draw from them   
the same conclusion which that          
philosopher derived from certain igneous
 products of high antiquity2 for he     
conceived our globe to have been1 for an
 indefinite period1 in the state of a   
comet1 without an ocean1 and            
uninhabitable alike by aquatic or       

terrestrial animals4     ,,chapter      
,,xxvii4  ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,their   
,,effects4     ,earthquakes and their   
effects--,deficiency of ancient         
accounts--,ordinary atmospheric         
phenomena--,changes produced by         
earthquakes in modern times considered  
in chronological     order--,earthquake 
in ,syria1 #ahcg--;,earthquakes in      
,chili in #ahcg and     #ahce--;,isle of
 ,santa ,maria raised ten feet--,chili1 
#ahbb--;,extent of     country          
elevated--,aleppo and ,ionian           
,isles--,earthquake of ,cutch in        
#ahai--,subsidence in the ,delta of the 
,indus--,island of ,sumbawa in          
#ahae--;,earthquake of ,caraccas in     
#ahab--,shocks at ,new ,madrid in #ahaa 
in the valley of the                    
,mississippi--,aleutian ,islands in     
#ahjf--,reflections on the earthquakes  
of the nineteenth                       
century--,earthquake in ,quito1 ,quebec1
 c4--,java1 #aghf--,sinking down     of 
large tracts4   ,in the sketch before   

given of the geographical boundaries of 
volcanic regions1 ,i stated1 that       
although the points of eruption are but 
thinly scattered1 constituting mere     
spots on the surface of those vast      
districts1 yet the subterranean         
movements extend simultaneously over    
immense areas4 ,we may now proceed to   
consider the changes which these        
movements produce on the surface1 and in
 the internal structure of the earth's  
crust4  ,deficiency of ancient          
accounts4--,it is only within the last  
century and a half1 since ,hooke first  
promulgated1 in #afhh1 his views        
respecting the connection between       
geological phenomena and earthquakes1   
that the permanent changes affected by  
these convulsions have excited          
attention4 ,before that time1 the       
narrative of the historian was almost   
exclusively confined to the number of   
human beings who perished1 the number of
 cities laid in ruins1 the value of     
property destroyed1 or certain          

atmospheric appearances which dazzled or
 terrified the observers4 ,the creation 
of a new lake1 the engulfing of a new   
city1 or the raising of a new island1   
are sometimes1 it is true1 adverted to1 
as being too obvious1 or of too much    
geographical or political interest to be
 passed over in silence4 ,but no        
researches were made expressly with a   
view of ascertaining the amount of      
depression or elevation of the ground1  
or any particular alterations in the    
relative position of sea and land2 and  
very little distinction was made between
 the raising of soil by volcanic        
ejections1 and the upheaving of it by   
forces acting from below4 ,the same     
remark applies to a very large          
proportion of modern accounts3 and how  
much reason we have to regret this      
deficiency of information appears from  
this1 that in every instance where a    
spirit of scientific inquiry has        
animated the eye-witnesses of these     
events1 facts calculated to throw light 

on former modifications of the earth's  
structure are recorded4  ,phenomena     
attending earthquakes4--,as ,i shall    
confine myself almost entirely1 in the  
following notice of earthquakes1 to the 
changes brought about by them in the    
configuration of the earth's crust1 ,i  
may mention1 generally1 some            
accompaniments of these terrible events 
which are almost uniformly commemorated 
in history1 that it may be unnecessary  
to advert to them again4 ,irregularities
 in the seasons preceding or following  
the shocks2 sudden gusts of wind1       
interrupted by dead calms2 violent rains
 at unusual seasons1 or in countries    
where such phenomena are almost unknown2
 a reddening of the sun's disk1 and a   
haziness in the air1 often continued for
 months2 an evolution of electric       
matter1 or of inflammable gas from the  
soil1 with sulphurous and mephitic      
vapors2 noises underground1 like the    
running of carriages1 or the discharge  
of artillery1 or distant thunder2       

animals uttering cries of distress1 and 
evincing extraordinary alarm1 being more
 sensitive than men of the slightest    
movement2 a sensation like sea-sickness1
 and a dizziness in the head1           
experienced by men3--these1 and other   
phenomena1 less connected with our      
present subject as geologists1 have     
recurred again and again at distant     
ages1 and in all parts of the globe4  ,i
 shall now begin the enumeration of     
earthquakes with the latest authentic   
narratives1 and so carry back the survey
 retrospectively1 that ,i may bring     
before the reader1 in the first place1  
the minute and circumstantial details of
 modern times1 and thus enable him1 by  
observing the extraordinary amount of   
change within the last #aej years1 to   
perceive how great must be the          
deficiency in the meager annals of      
earlier eras4   ,,earthquakes ,,of ,,the
 ,,nineteenth ,,century4#fbb  ,syria1   
,january1 #ahcg4--;,it has been remarked
 that earthquakes affect elongated      

areas4 ,the violent shock which         
devastated ,syria in #ahcg was felt on a
 line #ejj miles in length by #ij in    
breadth3#fbc more than #fjjj persons    
perished2 deep rents were caused in     
solid rocks1 and new hot springs burst  
out at ,tabereah4  ,chili--,valdivia1   
#ahcg4--,one of the latest earthquakes  
by which the position of solid land is  
known to have been permanently altered  
is that which occurred in ,chili1 on    
,november #gth1 #ahcg4 ,on that day     
,valdivia was destroyed by an           
earthquake1 and a whaler1 commanded by  
,captain ,coste1 was violently shaken at
 sea1 and lost her masts1 in lat4 #dc   
degrees #ch minutes ,s4 in sight of the 
land4 ,the captain went on the #aath of 
,december following to a spot near the  
island of ,lemus1 one of the ,chonos    
archipelago1 where he had anchored two  
years before1 and found that the bottom 
of the sea had been raised more than    
eight feet4 ,some rocks formerly covered
 at all times by the sea were now       

constantly exposed1 and an enormous     
quantity of shells and fish in a        
decaying state1 which had been thrown   
there by the waves1 or suddenly laid dry
 during the earthquake1 attested the    
recent date of the occurrence4 ,the     
whole coast was strewed with uprooted   
trees4#fbd  ,chili--,conception1        
#ahce4--;,fortunately we have a still   
more detailed account of the            
geographical changes produced in the    
same country on the #bjth of ,february1 
#ahce4 ,an earthquake was then felt at  
all places between ,copiapo and ,chiloe1
 from north to south1 and from ,mendoza 
to ,juan ,fernandez1 from east to west4 
,vessels1 says ,mr4 ,caldcleugh1        
navigating the ,pacific1 within #ajj    
miles of the coast1 experienced the     
shock with considerable force4#fbe      
,conception1 ,talcahuano1 ,chillan1 and 
other towns were thrown down4 ,from the 
account of ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 ,r4 ,n41
 who was then employed in surveying the 
coast1 we learn that after the shock the

 sea retired in the ,bay of ,conception1
 and the vessels grounded1 even those   
which had been lying in seven fathoms   
water3 all the shoals were visible1 and 
soon afterwards a wave rushed in and    
then retreated1 and was followed by two 
other waves4 ,the vertical height of    
these waves does not appear to have been
 much greater than from sixteen to      
twenty feet1 although they rose to much 
greater heights when they broke upon a  
sloping beach4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#fi4  ,according to ,mr4 ,caldcleugh and
 ,mr4 ,darwin1 the whole volcanic chain 
of the ,chilian ,andes1 a range #aej    
miles in length1 was in a state of      
unusual activity1 both during the shocks
 and for some time preceding and after  
the convulsion1 and lava was seen to    
flow from the crater of ,osorno4 7,see  
,map1 fig4 #fi47 ,the island of ,juan   
,fernandez1 distant #cfe geographical   
miles from ,chili1 was violently shaken 
at the same time1 and devastated by a   
great wave4 ,a submarine volcano broke  

out there near ,bacalao ,head1 about a  
mile from the shore1 in sixty-nine      
fathoms water1 and illumined the whole  
island during the night4#fbf  ,at       
,conception1 says ,captain ,fitz ,roy1  
the earth opened and closed rapidly in  
numerous places4 ,the direction of the  
cracks was not uniform1 though generally
 from southeast to northwest4 ,the earth
 was not quiet for three days after the 
great shock1 and more than #cjj shocks  
were counted between the #bjth ,february
 and the #dth of ,march4 ,the loose     
earth of the valley of the ,biobio was  
everywhere parted from the solid rocks  
which bound the plain1 there being an   
opening between them from an inch to a  
foot in width4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#gj4  ,for some days after the #bjth of 
,february1 the sea at ,talcahuano1 says 
,captain ,fitz ,roy1 did not rise to the
 usual marks by four or five feet       
vertically4 ,when walking on the shore1 
even at high water1 beds of dead        
mussels1 numerous chitons1 and limpets1 

and withered seaweed1 still adhering1   
though lifeless1 to the rocks on which  
they had lived1 everywhere met the eye4 
,but this difference in the relative    
level of the land and sea gradually     
diminished1 till in the middle of ,april
 the water rose again to within two feet
 of the former high-water mark4 ,it     
might be supposed that these changes of 
level merely indicated a temporary      
disturbance in the set of the currents  
or in the height of the tides at        
,talcahuano2 but1 on considering what   
occurred in the neighboring island of   
,santa ,maria1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy      
concluded that the land had been raised 
four or five feet in ,february1 and that
 it had returned in ,april to within two
 or three feet of its former level4     
,santa ,maria1 the island just alluded  
to1 is about seven miles long and two   
broad1 and about twenty-five miles      
southwest of ,conception4 7,see ,map1   
fig4 #gj47 ,the phenomena observed there
 are most important4 ,it appeared1 says 

,captain ,fitz ,roy1 who visited ,santa 
,maria twice1 the first time at the end 
of ,march1 and afterwards in the        
beginning of ,april1 that the southern  
extremity of the island had been raised 
eight feet1 the middle nine1 and the    
northern end upwards of ten feet4 ,on   
steep rocks1 where vertical measures    
could be correctly taken1 beds of dead  
mussels were found ten feet above       
high-water mark4 ,one foot lower than   
the highest bed of mussels1 a few       
limpets and chitons were seen adhering  
to the rock where they had grown4 ,two  
feet lower than the same1 dead mussels1 
chitons1 and limpets were abundant4  ,an
 extensive rocky flat lies around the   
northern parts of ,santa ,maria4 ,before
 the earthquake this flat was covered by
 the sea1 some projecting rocks only    
showing themselves4 ,now1 the whole flat
 is exposed1 and square acres of it are 
covered with dead shell-fish1 the stench
 arising from which is abominable4 ,by  
this elevation of the land the southern 

port of ,santa ,maria has been almost   
destroyed2 little shelter remaining     
there1 and very bad landing4 ,the       
surrounding sea is also stated to have  
become shallower in exactly the same    
proportion as the land had risen2 the   
soundings having diminished a fathom and
 a half everywhere around the island4   
,at ,tubal1 also1 to the southeast of   
,santa ,maria1 the land was raised six  
feet1 at ,mocha two feet1 but no        
elevation could be ascertained at       
,valdivia4  ,among other effects of the 
catastrophe1 it is stated that cattle   
standing on a steep slope1 near the     
shore1 were rolled down into the sea1   
and many others were washed off by the  
great wave from low land and            
drowned4#fbg  ,in ,november of the same 
year 7#ahce71 ,conception was shaken by 
a severe earthquake1 and on the same day
 ,osorno1 at the distance of #djj miles1
 renewed its activity4 ,these facts     
prove not only the connection of        
earthquakes with volcanic eruptions in  

this region1 but also the vast extent of
 the subterranean areas over which the  
disturbing cause acts simultaneously4   
,ischia1 #ahbh4--,on the #b;d of        
,february the whole island of ,ischia   
was shaken by an earthquake1 and in the 
,october following ,i found all the     
houses in ,casamicciol still without    
their roofs4 ,on the sides of a ravine  
between that town and ,forio1 ,i saw    
masses of greenish tuff which had been  
thrown down4 ,the hot-spring of ,rita1  
which was nearest the centre of the     
movement1 was ascertained by ,m4        
,covelli to have increased in           
temperature1 showing1 as he observes1   
that the explosion took place below the 
reservoirs which heat the thermal       
waters4#fbh  ,bogota1 #ahbg4--,on the   
#afth of ,november1 #ahbg1 the plain of 
,bogota1 in ,new ,granada1 or ,colombia1
 was convulsed by an earthquake1 and a  
great number of towns were thrown down4 
,torrents of rain swelled the           
,magdalena1 sweeping along vast         

quantities of mud and other substances1 
which emitted a sulphurous vapor and    
destroyed the fish4 ,popayan1 which is  
distant #bjj geographical miles ,s4 ,s4 
,w4 of ,bogota1 suffered greatly4 ,wide 
crevices appeared in the road of        
,guanacas1 leaving no doubt that the    
whole of the ,cordilleras sustained a   
powerful shock4 ,other fissures opened  
near ,costa1 in the plains of ,bogota1  
into which the river ,tunza immediately 
began to flow4#fbi ,it is worthy of     
remark1 that in all such cases the      
ancient gravel bed of a river is        
deserted and a new one formed at a lower
 level2 so that a want of relation in   
the position of alluvial beds of the    
existing water-courses may be no test of
 the high antiquity of such deposits1 at
 least in countries habitually convulsed
 by earthquakes4 ,extraordinary rains   
accompanied the shocks before mentioned2
 and two volcanoes are said to have been
 in eruption in the mountain-chain      
nearest to ,bogota4  ,chili1 #ahbb4--,on

 the #aith of ,november1 #ahbb1 the     
coast of ,chili was visited by a most   
destructive earthquake4 ,the shock was  
felt simultaneously throughout a space  
of #abjj miles from north to south4 ,st4
 ,jago1 ,valparaiso1 and some other     
places1 were greatly injured4 ,when the 
district round ,valparaiso was examined 
on the morning after the shock1 it was  
found that the coast for a considerable 
distance was raised above its former    
level4#fcj ,at ,valparaiso the elevation
 was three feet1 and at ,quintero about 
four feet4 ,part of the bed of the sea1 
says ,mrs4 ,graham1 remained bare and   
dry at high water1 with beds of oysters1
 mussels1 and other shells adhering to  
the rocks on which they grew1 the fish  
being all dead1 and exhaling most       
offensive effluvia4#fca  ,an old wreck  
of a ship1 which before could not be    
approached1 became accessible from the  
land1 although its distance from the    
original sea-shore had not altered4 ,it 
was observed that the water-course of a 

mill1 at the distance of about a mile   
from the sea1 gained a fall of fourteen 
inches1 in little more than one hundred 
yards2 and from this fact it is inferred
 that the rise in some parts of the     
inland country was far more considerable
 than on the borders of the ocean4#fcb  
,part of the coast thus elevated        
consisted of granite1 in which parallel 
fissures were caused1 some of which were
 traced for a mile and a half inland4   
,cones of earth about four feet high    
were thrown up in several districts1 by 
the forcing up of water mixed with sand 
through funnel-shaped hollows1--a       
phenomenon very common in ,calabria1 and
 the explanation of which will hereafter
 be considered4 ,those houses in ,chili 
of which the foundations were on rock   
were less damaged than such as were     
built on alluvial soil4  ,mr4           
,cruickshanks1 an ,english botanist1 who
 resided in the country during the      
earthquake1 has informed me that some   
rocks of greenstone at ,quintero1 a few 

hundred yards from the beach1 which had 
always been under water till the shock  
of #ahbb1 have since been uncovered when
 the tide is at half-ebb3 and he states 
that1 after the earthquake1 it was the  
general belief of the fishermen and     
inhabitants of the ,chilian coast1 not  
that the land had risen1 but that the   
ocean had permanently retreated4  ,dr4  
,meyen1 a ,prussian traveller1 who      
visited ,valparaiso in #ahca1 says that 
on examining the rocks both north and   
south of the town1 nine years after the 
event1 he found1 in corroboration of    
,mrs4 ,graham's account1 that remains of
 animals and sea-weed1 the ,lessonia of 
,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 which has a firm
 ligneous stem1 still adhered to those  
rocks which in #ahbb had been elevated  
above high-water mark4#fcc ,according to
 the same author1 the whole coast of    
,central ,chili was raised about four   
feet1 and banks of marine shells were   
laid dry on many parts of the coast4 ,he
 observed similar banks1 elevated at    

unknown periods1 in several places1     
especially at ,copiapo1 where the       
species all agree with those now living 
in the ocean4 ,mr4 ,freyer also1 who    
resided some years in ,south ,america1  
has confirmed these statements2#fcd and 
,mr4 ,darwin obtained evidence that the 
remains of an ancient wall1 formerly    
washed by the sea1 and now #aa-a_/b feet
 above high-water mark1 acquired several
 feet of this additional elevation      
during the earthquake of #ahbb4fce  ,the
 shocks continued up to the end of      
,september1 #ahbc2 even then1           
forty-eight hours seldom passed without 
one1 and sometimes two or three were    
felt during twenty-four hours4 ,mrs4    
,graham observed1 after the earthquake  
of #ahbb1 that besides a beach newly    
raised above high-water mark1 there were
 several older elevated lines of beach1 
one above the other1 consisting of      
shingle mixed with shells extending in a
 parallel direction to the shore1 to the
 height of fifty feet above the sea4#fcf

  ,extent of country elevated4--,by some
 observers it has been supposed that the
 whole country from the foot of the     
,andes to a great distance under the sea
 was upraised in #ahbb1 the greatest    
rise being at the distance of about two 
miles from the shore4 ,the rise upon the
 coast was from two to four feet3--at   
the distance of a mile inland it must   
have been from five to six or seven     
feet4#fcg ,it has also been conjectured 
by the same eye-witnesses to the        
convulsion1 that the area over which    
this permanent alteration of level      
extended may have been equal to #ajj1jjj
 square miles4 ,although the increased  
fall of certain water-courses may have  
afforded some ground for this           
conjecture1 it must be considered as    
very hypothetical1 and the estimate may 
have exceeded or greatly fallen short of
 the truth4 ,it may nevertheless be     
useful to reflect on the enormous amount
 of change which this single convulsion 
occasioned1 if the extent of country    

moved upward really amounted to #ajj1jjj
 square miles1--an extent just equal to 
half the area of ,france1 or about      
five-sixths of the area of ,great       
,britain and ,ireland4 ,if we suppose   
the elevation to have been only three   
feet on an average1 it will be seen that
 the mass of rock added to the continent
 of ,america by the movement1 or1 in    
other words1 the mass previously below  
the level of the sea1 and after the     
shocks permanently above it1 must have  
contained fifty-seven cubic miles in    
bulk2 which would be sufficient to form 
a conical mountain two miles high 7or   
about as high as ,etna71 with a         
circumference at the base of nearly     
thirty-three miles4 ,we may take the    
mean specific gravity of the rock at    
#b4fee1--;a fair average1 and a         
convenient one in such computations1    
because at such a rate a cubic yard     
weighs two tons4 ,then1 assuming the    
great pyramid of ,egypt1 if solid1 to   
weigh1 in accordance with an estimate   

before given1 six million tons1 we may  
state the rock added to the continent by
 the ,chilian earthquake to have more   
than equalled #ajj1jjj pyramids4  ,but  
it must always be borne in mind that the
 weight of rock here alluded to         
constituted but an insignificant part of
 the whole amount which the volcanic    
forces had to overcome4 ,the whole      
thickness of rock between the surface of
 ,chili and the subterranean foci of    
volcanic action may be many miles or    
leagues deep4 ,say that the thickness   
was only two miles1 even then the mass  
which changed place and rose three feet 
being #bjj1jjj cubic miles in volume1   
must have exceeded in weight #cfc       
million pyramids4  ,it may be           
instructing to consider these results in
 connection with others already obtained
 from a different source1 and to compare
 the working of two antagonistic        
forces--the levelling power of running  
water1 and the expansive energy of      
subterranean heat4 ,how long1 it may be 

asked1 would the ,ganges require1       
according to data before explained 7p4  
#bhc71 to transport to the sea a        
quantity of solid matter equal to that  
which may have been added to the land by
 the ,chilian earthquake8 ,the discharge
 of mud in one year by the ,ganges was  
estimated at #bj1jjj million cubic feet4
 ,according to that estimate it would   
require about four centuries 7or #dah   
years7 before the river could bear down 
from the continent into the sea a mass  
equal to that gained by the ,chilian    
earthquake4 ,in about half that time1   
perhaps1 the united waters of the       
,ganges and ,burrampooter might         
accomplish the operation4  ,cutch1      
#ahai4--;,a violent earthquake occurred 
at ,cutch1 in the delta of the ,indus1  
on the #afth of ,june1 #ahai4 7,see     
,map1 fig4 #ga47 ,the principal town1   
,bhooj1 was converted into a heap of    
ruins1 and its stone buildings were     
thrown down4 ,the movement was felt over
 an area having a radius of #ajjj miles 

from ,bhooj1 and extending to           
,kbatmandoo1 ,calcutta1 and             
,pondicherry4#fch ,the vibrations were  
felt in ,northwest ,india1 at a distance
 of #hjj miles1 after an interval of    
about fifteen minutes after the         
earthquake at ,bhooj4 ,at ,ahmedabad the
 great mosque1 erected by ,sultan ,ahmed
 nearly #dej years before1 fell to the  
ground1 attesting how long a period had 
elapsed since a shock of similar        
violence had visited that point4 ,at    
,anjar1 the fort1 with its tower and    
guns1 was hurled to the ground in one   
common mass of ruin4 ,the shocks        
continued until the #bjth2 when1 thirty 
miles northwest from ,bhooj1 the volcano
 called ,denodur is said by some to have
 sent forth flames1 but ,capt4 ,grant   
was unable to authenticate this         
statement4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4   
,,map of ,,the ,,countries at ,,the     
,,mouth ,,of ,,the ,,indus4  ,subsidence
 in the delta of the ,indus4--,although 
the ruin of towns was great1 the face of

 nature in the inland country1 says     
,captain ,macmurdo1 was not visibly     
altered4 ,in the hills some large masses
 only of rock and soil were detached    
from the precipices2 but the eastern and
 almost deserted channel of the ,indus1 
which bounds the province of ,cutch1 was
 greatly changed4 ,this estuary1 or     
inlet of the sea1 was1 before the       
earthquake1 fordable at ,luckput1 being 
only about a foot deep when the tide was
 at ebb1 and at flood-tide never more   
than six feet2 but it was deepened at   
the fort of ,luckput1 after the shock1  
to more than eighteen feet at low       
water4#fci ,on sounding other parts of  
the channel1 it was found1 that where   
previously the depth of the water at    
flood never exceeded one or two feet1 it
 had become from four to ten feet deep4 
,by these and other remarkable changes  
of level1 a part of the inland          
navigation of that country1 which had   
been closed for centuries1 became again 
practicable4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 

,fort of ,sindree1 on the eastern branch
 of the ,indus1 before it was submerged 
by the earthquake of #ahai1 from a      
sketch of ,capt4 ,grindlay1 made in     
#ahjh4  ,fort and village               
submerged4#fdj--,the fort and village of
 ,sindree1 on the eastern arm of the    
,indus1 above ,luckput1 are stated by   
the same writer to have been overflowed2
 and1 after the shock1 the tops of the  
houses and wall were alone to be seen   
above the water1 for the houses1        
although submerged1 were not cast down4 
,had they been situated1 therefore1 in  
the interior1 where so many forts were  
levelled to the ground1 their site      
would1 perhaps1 have been regarded as   
having remained comparatively unmoved4  
,hence we may suspect that great        
permanent upheavings and depressions of 
soil may be the result of earthquakes1  
without the inhabitants being in the    
least degree conscious of any change of 
level4  ,a more recent survey of ,cutch1
 by ,sir ,a4 ,burnes1 who was not in    

communication with ,capt4 ,macmurdo1    
confirms the facts above enumerated1 and
 adds many important details4#fda ,that 
officer examined the delta of the ,indus
 in #ahbf and #ahbh1 and from his       
account it appears that1 when ,sindree  
subsided in ,june1 #ahai1 the sea flowed
 in by the eastern mouth of the ,indus1 
and in a few hours converted a tract of 
land1 #bjjj square miles in area1 into  
an inland sea1 or lagoon4 ,neither the  
rush of the sea into this new           
depression1 nor the movement of the     
earthquake1 threw down entirely the     
small fort of ,sindree1 one of the four 
towers1 the northwestern1 still         
continuing to stand2 and1 the day after 
the earthquake1 the inhabitants who had 
ascended to the top of this tower1 saved
 themselves in boats4#fdb  ,elevation of
 the ,ullah ,bund4--,immediately after  
the shock1 the inhabitants of ,sindree  
saw1 at the distance of five miles and a
 half from their village1 a long        
elevated mound1 where previously there  

had been a low and perfectly level      
plain4 7,see ,map1 fig4 #ga47 ,to this  
uplifted tract they gave the name of    
,ullah ,bund1 or the ,mound of ,god1 to 
distinguish it from several artificial  
dams previously thrown across the       
eastern arm of the ,indus4  ,extent of  
country raised4--,it has been           
ascertained that this new-raised country
 is upwards of fifty miles in length    
from east to west1 running parallel to  
that line of subsidence before          
mentioned1 which caused the grounds     
around ,sindree to be flooded4 ,the     
range of this elevation extends from    
,puchum ,island towards ,gharee2 its    
breadth from north to south is          
conjectured to be in some parts sixteen 
miles1 and its greatest ascertained     
height above the original level of the  
delta is ten feet1--an elevation which  
appears to the eye to be very uniform   
throughout4  ,for several years after   
the convulsion of #ahai1 the course of  
the ,indus was very unsettled1 and at   

length1 in #ahbf1 the river threw a vast
 body of water into its eastern arm1    
that called the ,phurraun1 above        
,sindree2 and forcing its way in a more 
direct course to the sea1 burst through 
all the artificial dams which had been  
thrown across its channel1 and at length
 cut right through the ,ullah ,bund1    
whereby a natural section was obtained4 
,in the perpendicular cliffs thus laid  
open ,sir ,a4 ,burnes found that the    
upraised lands consisted of clay filled 
with shells4 ,the new channel of the    
river where it intersected the bund was 
eighteen feet deep1 and forty yards in  
width2 but in #ahbh the channel was     
still farther enlarged4 ,the ,indus1    
when it first opened this new passage1  
threw such a body of water into the new 
mere1 or salt lagoon1 of ,sindree1 that 
it became fresh for many months2 but it 
had recovered its saltness in #ahbh1    
when the supply of river-water was less 
copious1 and finally it became more salt
 than the sea1 in consequence1 as the   

natives suggested to ,sir ,a4 ,burnes1  
of the saline particles with which the  
,runn of ,cutch is impregnated4  ,in    
#ahbh ,sir ,a4 ,burnes went in a boat to
 the ruins of ,sindree1 where a single  
remaining tower was seen in the midst of
 a wide expanse of sea4 ,the tops of the
 ruined walls still rose two or three   
feet above the level of the water2 and  
standing on one of these1 he could      
behold nothing in the horizon but water1
 except in one direction1 where a blue  
streak of land to the north indicated   
the ,ullah ,bund4 ,this scene presents  
to the imagination a lively picture of  
the revolutions now in progress on the  
earth--a waste of waters where a few    
years before all was land1 and the only 
land visible consisting of ground       
uplifted by a recent earthquake4  ,ten  
years after the visit of ,sir ,a4       
,burnes above alluded to1 my friend1    
,captain ,grant1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 of the    
,bombay ,engineers1 had the kindness to 
send at my request a native surveyor to 

make a plan of ,sindree and ,ullah      
,bund1 in ,march1 #ahch4 ,from his      
description it appears that1 at that    
season1 the driest of the whole year1 he
 found the channel traversing the ,bund 
to be #ajj yards wide1 without water1   
and incrusted with salt4 ,he was told   
that it has now only four or five feet  
of water in it after rains4 ,the sides  
or banks were nearly perpendicular1 and 
nine feet in height4 ,the lagoon has    
diminished both in area and depth1 and  
part near the fort was dry land4 ,the   
annexed drawing1 made by ,captain ,grant
 from the surveyor's plan1 shows the    
appearance of the fort in the midst of  
the lake1 as seen in #ahch from the     
west1 or from the same point as that    
from which ,captain ,grindlay's sketch  
7see fig4 #gb7 was taken in #ahjh1      
before the earthquake4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #gc4  ,view of the ,fort of       
,sindree1 from the west1 in ,march1     
#ahch4  ,the ,runn of ,cutch is a flat  
region of a very peculiar character1 and

 no less than #gjjj square miles in     
area3 a greater superficial extent than 
,yorkshire1 or about one-fourth the area
 of ,ireland4 ,it is not a desert of    
moving sand1 nor a marsh1 but evidently 
the dried-up bed of an inland sea1 which
 for a great part of every year has a   
hard and dry bottom uncovered by weeds  
or grass1 and only supporting here and  
there a few tamarisks4 ,but during the  
monsoons1 when the sea runs high1 the   
salt-water driven up from the ,gulf of  
,cutch and the creeks at ,luckput       
overflows a large part of the ,runn1    
especially after rains1 when the soaked 
ground permits the sea-water to spread  
rapidly4 ,the ,runn is also liable to be
 overflowed occasionally in some parts  
by river-water3 and it is remarkable    
that the only portion which was ever    
highly cultivated 7that anciently called
 ,sayra7 is now permanently submerged4  
,the surface of the ,runn is sometimes  
incrusted with salt about an inch in    
depth1 in consequence of the evaporation

 of the sea-water4 ,islands rise up in  
some parts of the waste1 and the        
boundary lands form bays and            
promontories4 ,the natives have various 
traditions respecting the former        
separation of ,cutch and ,sinde by a bay
 of the sea1 and the drying up of the   
district called the ,runn4 ,but these   
tales1 besides the usual uncertainty of 
oral tradition1 are farther obscured by 
mythological fictions4 ,the conversion  
of the ,runn into land is chiefly       
ascribed to the miraculous powers of a  
,hindoo saint1 by name ,damorath 7or    
,dhoorunnath71 who had previously done  
penance for twelve years on the summit  
of ,denodur hill4 ,captain ,grant       
infers1 on various grounds1 that this   
saint flourished about the eleventh or  
twelfth century of our era4 ,in proof of
 the drying up of the ,runn1 some towns 
far inland are still pointed out as     
having once been ancient ports4 ,it has1
 moreover1 been always said that ships  
were wrecked and engulphed by the great 

catastrophe2 and in the jets of black   
muddy water thrown out of fissures in   
that region1 in #ahai1 there were cast  
up numerous pieces of wrought-iron and  
ship nails4#fdc ,cones of sand six or   
eight feet in height were at the same   
time thrown up on these lands4#fdd  ,we 
must not conclude without alluding to a 
moral phenomenon connected with this    
tremendous catastrophe1 which we regard 
as highly deserving the attention of    
geologists4 ,it is stated by ,sir ,a4   
,burnes1 that these wonderful events    
passed unheeded by the inhabitants of   
,cutch2 for the region convulsed1 though
 once fertile1 had for a long period    
been reduced to sterility by want of    
irrigation1 so that the natives were    
indifferent as to its fate4 ,now it is  
to this profound apathy which all but   
highly civilized nations feel1 in regard
 to physical events not having an       
immediate influence on their worldly    
fortunes1 that we must ascribe the      
extraordinary dearth of historical      

information concerning changes of the   
earth's surface1 which modern           
observations show to be by no means of  
rare occurrence in the ordinary course  
of nature4  ,since the above account was
 written1 a description has been        
published of more recent geographical   
changes in the district of ,cutch1 near 
the mouth of the ,koree1 or eastern     
branch of the ,indus1 which happened in 
,june1 #ahde4 ,a large area seems to    
have subsided1 and the ,sindree lake had
 become a salt marsh4#fde  ,island of   
,sumbawa1 #ahae4--;,in ,april1 #ahae1   
one of the most frightful eruptions     
recorded in history occurred in the     
province of ,tomboro1 in the island of  
,sumbawa 7see ,map1 fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea71 
about #bjj miles from the eastern       
extremity of ,java4 ,in ,april of the   
year preceding the volcano had been     
observed in a state of considerable     
activity1 ashes having fallen upon the  
decks of vessels which sailed past the  
coast4#fdf ,the eruption of #ahae began 

on the #eth of ,april1 but was most     
violent on the #aath and #abth1 and did 
not entirely cease till ,july4 ,the     
sound of the explosions was heard in    
,sumatra1 at the distance of #igj       
geographical miles in a direct line2 and
 at ,ternate1 in an opposite direction1 
at the distance of #gbj miles4 ,out of a
 population of #ab1jjj1 in the province 
of ,tomboro1 only twenty-six individuals
 survived4 ,violent whirlwinds carried  
up men1 horses1 cattle1 and whatever    
else came within their influence into   
the air2 tore up the largest trees by   
the roots1 and covered the whole sea    
with floating timber4#fdg ,great tracts 
of land were covered by lava1 several   
streams of which1 issuing from the      
crater of the ,tomboro mountain1 reached
 the sea3 ,so heavy was the fall of     
ashes1 that they broke into the         
,resident's house at ,bima1 forty miles 
east of the volcano1 and rendered it as 
well as many other dwellings in the town
 uninhabitable4 ,on the side of ,java   

the ashes were carried to the distance  
of #cjj miles1 and #bag towards         
,celebes1 in sufficient quantity to     
darken the air4 ,the floating cinders to
 the westward of ,sumatra formed1 on the
 #abth of ,april1 a mass two feet thick1
 and several miles in extent1 through   
which ships with difficulty forced their
 way4  ,the darkness occasioned in the  
daytime by the ashes in ,java was so    
profound1 that nothing equal to it was  
ever witnessed in the darkest night4    
,although this volcanic dust when it    
fell was an impalpable powder1 it was of
 considerable weight when compressed1 a 
pint of it weighing twelve ounces and   
three quarters4 ,some of the finest     
particles1 says ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 were    
transported to the islands of ,amboyna  
and ,banda1 which last is about #hjj    
miles east from the site of the volcano1
 although the southeast monsoon was then
 at its height4 ,they must have been    
projected1 therefore1 into the upper    
regions of the atmosphere1 where a      

counter-current prevailed4  ,along the  
sea-coast of ,sumbawa and the adjacent  
isles1 the sea rose suddenly to the     
height of from two to twelve feet1 a    
great wave rushing up the estuaries1 and
 then suddenly subsiding4 ,although the 
wind at ,bima was still during the whole
 time1 the sea rolled in upon the shore1
 and filled the lower parts of the      
houses with water a foot deep4 ,every   
prow and boat was forced from the       
anchorage1 and driven on shore4  ,the   
town called ,tomboro1 on the west side  
of ,sumbawa1 was overflowed by the sea1 
which encroached upon the shore so that 
the water remained permanently eighteen 
feet deep in places where there was land
 before4 ,here we may observe1 that the 
amount of subsidence of land was        
apparent1 in spite of the ashes1 which  
would naturally have caused the limits  
of the coast to be extended4  ,the area 
over which tremulous noises and other   
volcanic effects extended1 was #ajjj    
,english miles in circumference1        

including the whole of the ,molucca     
,islands1 ,java1 a considerable portion 
of ,celebes1 ,sumatra1 and ,borneo4 ,in 
the island of ,amboyna1 in the same     
month and year1 the ground opened1 threw
 out water1 and then closed again4#fdh  
,in conclusion1 ,i may remind the       
reader1 that but for the accidental     
presence of ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1    
then ,governor of ,java1 we should      
scarcely have heard in ,europe of this  
tremendous catastrophe4 ,he required all
 the residents in the various districts 
under his authority to send in a        
statement of the circumstances which    
occurred within their own knowledge2    
but1 valuable as were their             
communications1 they are often          
calculated to excite rather than to     
satisfy the curiosity of the geologist4 
,they mention that similar effects1     
though in a less degree1 had1 about     
seven years before1 accompanied an      
eruption of ,carang ,assam1 a volcano in
 the island of ,bali1 west of ,sumatra2 

but no particulars of that great        
catastrophe are recorded4#fdi           
,caraccas1 #ahab4--,on the #bfth of     
,march1 #ahab1 several violent shocks of
 an earthquake were felt in ,caraccas4  
,the surface undulated like a boiling   
liquid1 and terrific sounds were heard  
underground4 ,the whole city with its   
splendid churches was in an instant a   
heap of ruins1 under which #aj1jjj of   
the inhabitants were buried4 ,on the    
#eth of ,april1 enormous rocks were     
detached from the mountains4 ,it was    
believed that the mountain ,silla lost  
from #cjj to #cfj feet of its height by 
subsidence2 but this was an opinion not 
founded on any measurement4 ,on the     
#bgth of ,april1 a volcano in ,st4      
,vincent's threw out ashes2 and1 on the 
#cjth1 lava flowed from its crater into 
the sea1 while its explosions were heard
 at a distance equal to that between    
,vesuvius and ,switzerland1 the sound   
being transmitted1 as ,humboldt         
supposes1 through the ground4 ,during   

the earthquake which destroyed          
,caraccas1 an immense quantity of water 
was thrown out at ,valecillo1 near      
,valencia1 as also at ,porto ,cabello1  
through openings in the earth2 and in   
the ,lake ,maracaybo the water sank4    
,humboldt observed that the             
,cordilleras1 composed of gneiss and    
mica slate1 and the country immediately 
at their feet1 were more violently      
shaken than the plains4#fej  ,south     
,carolina and ,new ,madrid1 ,missouri1  
#ahaa-ab4--,previous to the destruction 
of ,la ,guayra and ,caraccas1 in #ahab1 
earthquakes were felt in ,south         
,carolina2 and the shocks continued till
 those cities were destroyed4 ,the      
valley also of the ,mississippi1 from   
the village of ,new ,madrid to the mouth
 of the ,ohio in one direction1 and to  
the ,st4 ,francis in another1 was       
convulsed in such a degree as to create 
new lakes and islands4 ,it has been     
remarked by ,humboldt in his ,cosmos1   
that the earthquake of ,new ,madrid     

presents one of the few examples on     
record of the incessant quaking of the  
ground for several successive months far
 from any volcano4 ,flint1 the          
geographer1 who visited the country     
seven years after the event1 informs us1
 that a tract of many miles in extent1  
near the ,little ,prairie1 became       
covered with water three or four feet   
deep2 and when the water disappeared a  
stratum of sand was left in its place4  
,large lakes of twenty miles in extent  
were formed in the course of an hour1   
and others were drained4 ,the grave-yard
 at ,new ,madrid was precipitated into  
the bed of the ,mississippi2 and it is  
stated that the ground whereon the town 
is built1 and the river-bank for fifteen
 miles above1 sank eight feet below     
their former level4#fea ,the neighboring
 forest presented for some years        
afterwards a singular scene of          
confusion2 the trees standing inclined  
in every direction1 and many having     
their trunks and branches broken4#feb   

,the inhabitants relate that the earth  
rose in great undulations2 and when     
these reached a certain fearful height1 
the soil burst1 and vast volumes of     
water1 sand1 and pit-coal were          
discharged as high as the tops of the   
trees4 ,flint saw hundreds of these deep
 chasms remaining in an alluvial soil1  
seven years after4 ,the people in the   
country1 although inexperienced in such 
convulsions1 had remarked that the      
chasms in the earth were in a direction 
from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e42 and they       
accordingly felled the tallest trees1   
and laying them at right angles to the  
chasms1 stationed themselves upon them4 
,by this invention1 when chasms opened  
more than once under these trees1       
several persons were prevented from     
being swallowed up4#fec ,at one period  
during this earthquake1 the ground not  
far below ,new ,madrid swelled up so as 
to arrest the ,mississippi in its       
course1 and to cause a temporary reflux 
of its waves4 ,the motion of some of the

 shocks is described as having been     
horizontal1 and of others perpendicular2
 and the vertical movement is said to   
have been much less desolating than the 
horizontal4  ,the above account has been
 reprinted exactly as it appeared in    
former editions of this work1 compiled  
from the authorities which ,i have      
cited2 but having more recently 7,march1
 #ahdf7 had an opportunity myself of    
visiting the disturbed region of the    
,mississippi1 and conversing with many  
eye-witnesses of the catastrophe1 ,i am 
able to confirm the truth of those      
statements1 and to add some remarks on  
the present face and features of the    
country4 ,i skirted1 as was before      
related 7p4 #bgj71 part of the territory
 immediately west of ,new ,madrid1      
called the sunk country1 which was for  
the first time permanently submerged    
during the earthquake of #ahaa-ab4 ,it  
is said to extend along the course of   
the ,white ,water and its tributaries   
for a distance of between #gj and #hj   

miles north and south1 and #cj miles    
east and west4 ,i saw on its borders    
many full-grown trees still standing    
leafless1 the bottoms of their trunks   
several feet under water1 and a still   
greater number lying prostrate4 ,an     
active vegetation of aquatic plants is  
already beginning to fill up some of the
 shallows1 and the sediment washed in by
 occasional floods when the ,mississippi
 rises to an extraordinary height       
contributes to convert the sunk region  
into marsh and forest land4 ,even on the
 dry ground along the confines of the   
submerged area1 ,i observed in some     
places that all the trees of prior date 
to #ahaa were dead and leafless1 though 
standing erect and entire4 ,they are    
supposed to have been killed by the     
loosening of their roots during the     
repeated undulations which passed       
through the ground for three months in  
succession4  ,mr4 ,bringier1 an         
experienced engineer of ,new ,orleans1  
who was on horseback near ,new ,madrid  

when some of the severest shocks were   
experienced1 related to me 7in #ahdf71  
that as the waves advanced the trees    
bent down1 and the instant afterwards1  
while recovering their position1 they   
often met those of other trees similarly
 inclined1 so that their branches       
becoming interlocked1 they were         
prevented from righting themselves      
again4 ,the transit of the wave through 
the woods was marked by the crashing    
noise of countless boughs1 first heard  
on one side and then on the other4 ,at  
the same time powerful jets of water1   
mixed with sand1 mud1 and fragments of  
coaly matter1 were cast up1 endangering 
the lives of both horse and rider4  ,i  
was curious1 to ascertain whether any   
vestiges still remained of these        
fountains of mud and water1 and         
carefully examined between ,new ,madrid 
and the ,little ,prairie several sink   
holes1 as they are termed4 ,they consist
 of cavities from #aj to #cj yards in   
width1 and #bj feet or more in depth1   

and are very conspicuous1 interrupting  
the level surface of a flat alluvial    
plain4 ,i saw abundance of sand1 which  
some of the present inhabitants saw     
spouting from these deep holes1 also    
fragments of decayed wood and black     
bituminous shale1 probably drifted down 
at some former period in the main       
channel of the ,mississippi1 from the   
coal-fields farther north4 ,i also found
 numerous rents in the soil left by the 
earthquake1 some of them still several  
feet wide1 and a yard or two in depth1  
although the action of rains1 frost1 and
 occasional inundations1 and especially 
the leaves of trees blown into them in  
countless numbers every autumn1 have    
done much to fill them up4 ,i measured  
the direction of some of the fissures1  
which usually varied from #aj to #de    
degrees ,w4 of north1 and were often    
parallel to each other2 ,i found1       
however1 a considerable diversity in    
their direction4 ,many of them are      
traceable for half a mile and upwards1  

but they might easily be mistaken for   
artificial trenches if resident settlers
 were not there to assure us that within
 their recollection they were as deep as
 wells4 ,fragments of coaly shale were  
strewed along the edges of some of these
 open fissures1 together with white     
sand1 in the same manner as round the   
sink holes4#fed  ,among other monuments 
of the changes wrought in #ahaa-ab1 ,i  
explored the bed of the lake called     
,eulalie1 near ,new ,madrid1 #cjj yards 
long by #ajj yards in width1 which was  
suddenly drained during the earthquake4 
,the parallel fissures by which the     
waters escaped are not yet entirely     
closed1 and all the trees growing on its
 bottom were at the time of my visit    
less than #cd years old4 ,they consisted
 of cotton-wood1 willows1 and           
honey-locust1 and other species1        
differing from those clothing the       
surrounding higher grounds1 which are   
more elevated by #ab or #ae feet4 ,on   
them the hickory1 the black and white   

oak1 the gum and other trees1 many of   
them of ancient date1 were flourishing4 
,aleutian ,islands1 #ahjf4--;,in the    
year #ahjf1 a new island1 in the form of
 a peak1 with some low conical hills    
upon it1 is said to have risen from the 
sea among the ,aleutian ,islands1 east  
of ,kamtschatka4 ,according to          
,langsdorf1#fee it was four geographical
 miles in circumference2 and ,von ,buch 
infers from its magnitude1 and from its 
not having again subsided below the     
level of the sea1 that it did not       
consist merely of ejected matter1 but of
 a solid rock of trachyte upheaved4#fef 
,another extraordinary eruption happened
 in the spring of the year #ahad1 in the
 sea near ,unalaschka1 in the same      
archipelago4 ,a new isle was then       
produced of considerable size1 and with 
a peak three thousand feet high1 which  
remained standing for a year afterwards1
 though with somewhat diminished height4
  ,although it is not improbable that   
earthquakes accompanying these          

tremendous eruptions may have heaved up 
part of the bed of the sea1 yet the     
circumstance of the islands not having  
disappeared like ,sabrina 7see p4 #daf71
 may have arisen from the emission of   
lava4 ,if ,jorullo1 for example1 in     
#agei1 had risen from a shallow sea to  
the height of #afjj feet1 instead of    
attaining that elevation above the      
,mexican plateau1 the massive current of
 basaltic lava which poured out from its
 crater would have enabled it to        
withstand1 for a long period1 the action
 of a turbulent sea4  ,reflections on   
the earthquakes of the nineteenth       
century4--,we are now about to pass on  
to the events of the eighteenth century2
 but before we leave the consideration  
of those already enumerated1 let us     
pause for a moment1 and reflect how many
 remarkable facts of geological interest
 are afforded by the earthquakes above  
described1 though they constitute but a 
small part of the convulsions even of   
the last forty years4 ,new rocks have   

risen from the waters2 new hot springs  
have burst out1 and the temperature of  
others has been raised2 the coast of    
,chili has been thrice permanently      
elevated2 a considerable tract in the   
delta of the ,indus has sunk down1 and  
some of its shallow channels have become
 navigable2 an adjoining part of the    
same district1 upwards of fifty miles in
 length and sixteen in breadth1 has been
 raised about ten feet above its former 
level2 part of the great plain of the   
,mississippi1 for a distance of eighty  
miles in length by thirty in breadth1   
has sunk down several feet2 the town of 
,tomboro has been submerged1 and twelve 
thousand of the inhabitants of ,sumbawa 
have been destroyed4 ,yet1 with a       
knowledge of these terrific             
catastrophes1 witnessed during so brief 
a period by the present generation1 will
 the geologist declare with perfect     
composure that the earth has at length  
settled into a state of repose8 ,will he
 continue to assert that the changes of 

relative level of land and sea1 so      
common in former ages of the world1 have
 now ceased8 ,if1 in the face of so many
 striking facts1 he persists in         
maintaining this favorite dogma1 it is  
in vain to hope that1 by accumulating   
the proofs of similar convulsions during
 a series of antecedent ages1 we shall  
shake his tenacity of purpose3--     ,si
 fractus illabatur orbis   ,impavidum   
ferient ruinae4    ,,earthquakes ,,of   
,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4  ,quito1  
#agig4--,on the morning of ,february    
#dth1 #agig1 the volcano of ,tunguragua 
in ,quito1 and the surrounding district1
 for forty leagues from south to north1 
and twenty leagues from west to east1   
experienced an undulating movement1     
which lasted four minutes4 ,the same    
shock was felt over a tract of #agj     
leagues from south to north1 from ,piura
 to ,popayan2 and #adj from west to     
east1 from the sea to the river ,napo4  
,in the smaller district first          
mentioned1 where the movement was more  

intense1 every town was levelled to the 
ground2 and ,riobamba1 ,quero1 and other
 places1 were buried under masses       
detached from the mountains4 ,at the    
foot of ,tunguragua the earth was rent  
open in several places2 and streams of  
water and fetid mud1 called moya1 poured
 out1 overflowing and wasting every     
thing4 ,in valleys #ajjj feet broad1 the
 water of these floods reached to the   
height of #fjj feet2 and the mud deposit
 barred up the course of the river1 so  
as to form lakes1 which in some places  
continued for more than eighty days4    
,flames and suffocating vapors escaped  
from the lake ,quilotoa1 and killed all 
the cattle on its shores4 ,the shocks   
continued all ,february and ,march2 and 
on the #eth of ,april they recurred with
 almost as much violence as at first4   
,we are told that the form of the       
surface in the district most shaken was 
entirely altered1 but no exact          
measurements are given whereby we may   
estimate the degree of elevation or     

subsidence4#feg ,indeed it would be     
difficult1 except in the immediate      
neighborhood of the sea1 to obtain any  
certain standard of comparison if the   
levels were really as much altered as   
the narrations imply4  ,cumana1         
#agig4--;,in the same year1 on the #adth
 of ,december1 the small ,antilles      
experienced subterranean movements1 and 
four-fifths of the town of ,cumana was  
shaken down by a vertical shock4 ,the   
form of the shoal of ,mornerouge1 at the
 mouth of the river ,bourdones1 was     
changed by an upheaving of the          
ground4#feh  ,canada--,quebec1          
#agia4--,we learn from ,captain         
,bayfield's memoirs1 that earthquakes   
are very frequent on the shore of the   
estuary of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 of force 
sufficient at times to split walls and  
throw down chimneys4 ,such were the     
effects experienced in ,december1 #agba1
 in ,st4 ,paul's ,bay1 about fifty miles
 ,n4 ,e4 from ,quebec2 and the          
inhabitants say1 that about every       

twenty-five years a violent earthquake  
returns1 which lasts forty days4 ,in the
 ,history of ,canada1 it is stated that1
 in #affc1 a tremendous convulsion      
lasted six months1 extending from       
,quebec to ,tadeausac1--a distance of   
about #acj miles4 ,the ice on the river 
was broken up1 and many landslips       
caused4#fei  ,caraccas1 #agij4--;,in the
 ,caraccas1 near where the ,caura joins 
the ,orinoco1 between the towns ,san    
,pedro de ,alcantara and ,san ,francisco
 de ,aripao1 an earthquake1 on ,st4     
,matthew's day #agij1 caused a sinking  
in of the granitic soil1 and left a lake
 #hjj yards in diameter1 and from eighty
 to one hundred in depth4 ,it was a     
portion of the forest of ,aripao which  
subsided1 and the trees remained green  
for several months under water4#ffj     
,sicily1 #agij4--,on the #ahth of ,march
 in the same year1 at ,s4 ,maria di     
,niscemi1 some miles from ,terranuova1  
near the south coast of ,sicily1 the    
ground gradually sunk down for a        

circumference of three ,italian miles1  
during seven shocks2 and1 in one place1 
to the depth of thirty feet4 ,it        
continued to subside to the end of the  
month4 ,several fissures sent forth     
sulphur1 petroleum1 steam1 and hot      
water1 and a stream of mud1 which flowed
 for two hours1 and covered a space     
sixty feet long and thirty broad4 ,this 
happened far from both the ancient and  
modern volcanic district1 in a group of 
strata consisting chiefly of blue       
clay4#ffa  ,java1 #aghf4--;,about the   
year #aghf1 an earthquake was felt at   
intervals1 for the period of four       
months1 in the neighborhood of ,batur1  
in ,java1 and an eruption followed4     
,various rents were formed1 which       
emitted a sulphurous vapor2 separate    
tracts sunk away1 and were swallowed by 
the earth4 ,into one of these the       
rivulet ,dotog entered1 and afterwards  
continued to follow a subterraneous     
course4 ,the village of ,jampang was    
buried in the ground1 with thirty-eight 

of its inhabitants1 who had not time to 
escape4 ,we are indebted to ,dr4        
,horsfield for having verified the      
above-mentioned facts4#ffb     ,,chapter
 ,,xxviii4  ,,earthquake ,,in           
,,calabria1 #aghc4     ,earthquake in   
,calabria1 ,february #e1 #aghc--,shocks 
continued to the     end of the year    
#aghf--;,authorities--,area             
convulsed--,geological     structure of 
the district--,difficulty of            
ascertaining changes of                 
level--,subsidence of the quay at       
,messina--,movement in the stones of    
two obelisks--,shift or fault in the    
,round ,tower of                        
,terranuova--,opening and closing of    
fissures--,large edifices               
engulfed--,dimensions of new caverns and
 fissures--,gradual closing in     of   
rents--,bounding of detached masses into
 the     air--,landslips--,buildings    
transported entire to great             
distances--,new                         
lakes--,funnel-shaped hollows in        

alluvial plains--,currents of           
mud--,fall of cliffs1 and shore near    
,scilla inundated--,state of            
,stromboli and ,etna during the         
shocks--,how earthquakes contribute to  
the formation of valleys--,concluding   
remarks4   ,calabria1 #aghc4--,of the   
numerous earthquakes which have occurred
 in different parts of the globe1 during
 the last #ajj years1 that of ,calabria1
 in #aghc1 is almost the only one of    
which the geologist can be said to have 
such a circumstantial account as to     
enable him fully to appreciate the      
changes which this cause is capable of  
producing in the lapse of ages4 ,the    
shocks began in ,february1 #aghc1 and   
lasted for nearly four years1 to the end
 of #aghf4 ,neither in duration1 nor in 
violence1 nor in the extent of territory
 moved1 was this convulsion remarkable1 
when contrasted with many experienced in
 other countries1 both during the last  
and present century2 nor were the       
alterations which it occasioned in the  

relative level of hill and valley1 land 
and sea1 so great as those effected by  
some subterranean movements in ,south   
,america1 in later times4 ,the          
importance of the earthquake in question
 arises from the circumstance1 that     
,calabria is the only spot hitherto     
visited1 both during and after the      
convulsions1 by men possessing          
sufficient leisure1 zeal1 and scientific
 information1 to enable them to collect 
and describe with accuracy the physical 
facts which throw light on geological   
questions4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4   
,authorities4--,among the numerous      
authorities1 ,vivenzio1 physician to the
 king of ,naples1 transmitted to the    
court a regular statement of his        
observations during the continuance of  
the shocks2 and his narrative is drawn  
up with care and clearness4#ffc         
,francesco ,antonio ,grimaldi1 then     
secretary of war1 visited the different 
provinces at the king's command1 and    
published a most detailed description of

 the permanent changes in the           
surface4#ffd ,he measured the length1   
breadth1 and depth of the different     
fissures and gulfs which opened1 and    
ascertained their number in many        
provinces4 ,his comments1 moreover1 on  
the reports of the inhabitants1 and his 
explanations of their relations1 are    
judicious and instructive4 ,pignataro1 a
 physician residing at ,monteleone1 a   
town placed in the very centre of the   
convulsions1 kept a register of the     
shocks1 distinguishing them into four   
classes1 according to their degree of   
violence4 ,from his work1 it appears    
that1 in the year #aghc1 the number was 
#idi1 of which #eja were shocks of the  
first degree of force2 and in the       
following year there were #aea1 of which
 #ih were of the first magnitude4       
,count ,ippolito1 also1 and many others1
 wrote descriptions of the earthquake2  
and the ,royal ,academy of ,naples1 not 
satisfied with these and other          
observations1 sent a deputation from    

their own body into ,calabria1 before   
the shocks had ceased1 who were         
accompanied by artists instructed to    
illustrate by drawings the physical     
changes of the district1 and the state  
of ruined towns and edifices4           
,unfortunately these artists were not   
very successful in their representations
 of the condition of the country1       
particularly when they attempted to     
express1 on a large scale1 the          
extraordinary revolutions which many of 
the great and minor river-courses       
underwent4 ,but many of the plates      
published by the ,academy are valuable2 
and as they are little known1 ,i shall  
frequently avail myself of them to      
illustrate the facts about to be        
described4#ffe  ,in addition to these   
,neapolitan sources of information1 our 
countryman1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1    
surveyed the district1 not without some 
personal risk1 before the shocks had    
ceased2 and his sketch1 published in the
 ,philosophical ,transactions1 supplies 

many facts that would otherwise have    
been lost4 ,he has explained1 in a      
rational manner1 many events which1 as  
related in the language of some         
eye-witnesses1 appeared marvellous and  
incredible4 ,dolomieu also examined     
,calabria during the catastrophe1 and   
wrote an account of the earthquake1     
correcting a mistake into which         
,hamilton had fallen1 who supposed that 
a part of the tract shaken had consisted
 of volcanic tuff4 ,it is1 indeed1 a    
circumstance which enhances the         
geological interest of the commotions   
which so often modify the surface of    
,calabria1 that they are confined to a  
country where there are neither ancient 
nor modern rocks of volcanic or trappean
 origin2 so that at some future time1   
when the era of disturbance shall have  
passed by1 the cause of former          
revolutions will be as latent as in     
parts of ,great ,britain now occupied   
exclusively by ancient marine           
formations4  ,extent of the area        

convulsed4--,the convulsion of the      
earth1 sea1 and air extended over the   
whole of ,calabria ,ultra1 the southeast
 part of ,calabria ,citra1 and across   
the sea to ,messina and its environs2 a 
district lying between the #chth and    
#cith degrees of latitude4 ,the         
concussion was perceptible over a great 
part of ,sicily1 and as far north as    
,naples2 but the surface over which the 
shocks acted so forcibly as to excite   
intense alarm did not generally exceed  
#ejj square miles in area4 ,the soil of 
that part of ,calabria is composed      
chiefly1 like the southern part of      
,sicily1 of calcareo-argillaceous strata
 of great thickness1 containing marine  
shells4 ,this clay is sometimes         
associated with beds of sand and        
limestone4 ,for the most part these     
formations resemble in appearance and   
consistency the ,subapennine marls1 with
 their accompanying sands and           
sandstones2 and the whole group bears   
considerable resemblance1 in the        

yielding nature of its materials1 to    
most of our tertiary deposits in ,france
 and ,england4 ,chronologically         
considered1 however1 the ,calabrian     
formations are comparatively of modern  
date1 often abounding in fossil shells  
referable to species now living in the  
,mediterranean4  ,we learn from         
,vivencio1 that on the #bjth and #bfth  
of ,march1 #aghc1 earthquakes occurred  
in the islands of ,zante1 ,cephalonia1  
and ,st4 ,maura2 and in the             
last-mentioned island several public    
edifices and private houses were        
overthrown1 and many people destroyed4  
,if the city of ,oppido1 in ,calabria   
,ultra1 be taken as a centre1 and round 
that centre a circle be described1 with 
a radius of twenty-two miles1 this space
 will comprehend the surface of the     
country which suffered the greatest     
alteration1 and where all the towns and 
villages were destroyed4 ,the first     
shock1 of ,february #eth1 #aghc1 threw  
down1 in two minutes1 the greater part  

of the houses in all the cities1 towns1 
and villages1 from the western flanks of
 the ,apennines in ,calabria ,ultra to  
,messina in ,sicily1 and convulsed the  
whole surface of the country4 ,another  
occurred on the #bhth of ,march1 with   
almost equal violence4 ,the granitic    
chain which passes through ,calabria    
from north to south1 and attains the    
height of many thousand feet1 was shaken
 but slightly by the first shock1 but   
more rudely by some which followed4     
,some writers have asserted that the    
wave-like movements which were          
propagated through the recent strata1   
from west to east1 became very violent  
when they reached the point of junction 
with the granite1 as if a reaction was  
produced where the undulatory movement  
of the soft strata was suddenly arrested
 by the more solid rocks4 ,but the      
statement of ,dolomieu on this subject  
is most interesting1 and perhaps1 in a  
geological point of view1 the most      
important of all the observations which 

are recorded4#fff ,the ,apennines1 he   
says1 which consist in great part of    
hard and solid granite1 with some       
micaceous and argillaceous schists1 form
 bare mountains with steep sides1 and   
exhibit marks of great degradation4 ,at 
their base newer strata are seen of sand
 and clay1 mingled with shells2 a marine
 deposit containing such ingredients as 
would result from the decomposition of  
granite4 ,the surface of this newer     
7tertiary7 formation constitutes what is
 called the plain of ,calabria--a       
platform which is flat and level1 except
 where intersected by narrow valleys or 
ravines1 which rivers and torrents have 
excavated sometimes to the depth of six 
hundred feet4 ,the sides of these       
ravines are almost perpendicular2 for   
the superior stratum1 being bound       
together by the roots of trees1 prevents
 the formation of a sloping bank4 ,the  
usual effect of the earthquake1 he      
continues1 was to disconnect all those  
masses which either had not sufficient  

bases for their bulk1 or which was      
supported only by lateral adherence4    
,hence it follows that throughout almost
 the whole length of the chain1 the soil
 which adhered to the granite at the    
base of the mountains ,caulone1 ,esope1 
,sagra1 and ,aspramonte1 slid over the  
solid and steeply inclined nucleus1 and 
descended somewhat lower1 leaving almost
 uninterruptedly from ,st4 ,george to   
beyond ,st4 ,christina1 a distance of   
from nine to ten miles1 a chasm between 
the solid granitic nucleus and the sandy
 soil4 ,many lands slipping thus were   
carried to a considerable distance from 
their former position1 so as entirely to
 cover others2 and disputes arose as to 
whom the property which had thus shifted
 its place should belong4  ,from this   
account of ,dolomieu we might           
anticipate1 as the result of a          
continuance of such earthquakes1 first1 
a longitudinal valley following the line
 of junction of the older and newer     
rocks2 secondly1 greater disturbance in 

the newer strata near the point of      
contact than at a greater distance from 
the mountains2 phenomena very common in 
other parts of ,italy at the junction of
 the ,apennine and ,subapennine         
formations4  ,mr4 ,mallet1 in his       
valuable essay on the ,dynamics of      
,earthquakes1#ffg offers the following  
explanation of the fact to which        
,dolomieu has called attention4 ,when a 
wave of elastic compression1 of which he
 considers the earth-wave to consist1   
passes abruptly from a body having an   
extremely low elasticity1 such as clay  
and gravel1 into another like granite1  
whose elasticity is remarkably high1 it 
changes not only its velocity but in    
part also its course1 a portion being   
reflected and a portion refracted4 ,the 
wave being thus sent back again produces
 a shock in the opposite direction1     
doing great damage to buildings on the  
surface by thus returning upon itself4  
,at the same time1 the shocks are at    
once eased when they get into the more  

elastic materials of the granitic       
mountains4  ,the surface of the country 
during the ,calabrian earthquakes often 
heaved like the billows of a swelling   
sea1 which produced a swimming in the   
head1 like sea-sickness4 ,it is         
particularly stated1 in almost all the  
accounts1 that just before each shock   
the clouds appeared motionless2 and1    
although no explanation is offered of   
this phenomenon1 it is obviously the    
same as that observed in a ship at sea  
when it pitches violently4 ,the clouds  
seem arrested in their career as often  
as the vessel rises in a direction      
contrary to their course2 so that the   
,calabrians must have experienced       
precisely the same motion on the land4  
,trees1 supported by their trunks1      
sometimes bent during the shocks to the 
earth1 and touched it with their tops4  
,this is mentioned as a well-known fact 
by ,dolomieu2 and he assures us that he 
was always on his guard against the     
spirit of exaggeration in which the     

vulgar are ever ready to indulge when   
relating these wonderful occurrences4   
,it is impossible to suppose that these 
waves1 which are described in ,italy and
 other regions of earthquakes as passing
 along the solid surface of the earth in
 a given direction like a billow on the 
sea1 have any strict analogy with the   
undulations of a fluid4 ,they are       
doubtless the effects of vibrations1    
radiating from some deep-seated point1  
each of which on reaching the surface   
lifts up the ground1 and then allows it 
again to subside4 ,as the distance      
between the source of the subterranean  
movement and the surface must vary      
according to the outline of the country1
 so the vibratory jar will reach        
different points in succession4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4  ,shifts in   
the stones of two obelisks in the       
,convent of ,st ,bruno4  ,the           
,academicians relate that in some of the
 cities of ,calabria effects were       
produced seeming to indicate a whirling 

or vorticose movement4 ,thus1 for       
example1 two obelisks 7fig4 #ge7 placed 
at the extremities of a magnificent     
facade in the convent of ,s4 ,bruno1 in 
a small town called ,stefano del ,bosco1
 were observed to have undergone a      
movement of a singular kind4 ,the shock 
which agitated the building is described
 as having been horizontal and          
vorticose4 ,the pedestal of each obelisk
 remained in its original place2 but the
 separate stones above were turned      
partially round1 and removed sometimes  
nine inches from their position without 
falling4  ,it has been suggested by ,mr4
 ,darwin that this kind of displacement 
may be due to a vibratory rather than a 
whirling motion2#ffh and more lately    
,mr4 ,mallet1 in the paper already      
cited1 has offered a very ingenious     
solution of the problem4 ,he refers the 
twisting simply to an elastic wave1     
which has moved the pedestal forwards   
and back again1 by an alternate         
horizontal motion within narrow limits1 

and he has succeeded in showing that a  
rectilinear movement in the ground may  
have sufficed to cause an incumbent body
 to turn partially round upon its bed1  
provided a certain relation exist       
between the position of the centre of   
gravity of the body and its centre of   
adherence4#ffi  ,i shall now consider1  
in the first place1 that class of       
physical changes produced by the        
earthquake which are connected with     
alterations in the relative level of the
 different parts of the land2 and       
afterwards describe those which are more
 immediately connected with the         
derangement of the regular drainage of  
the country1 and where the force of     
running water co-operated with that of  
the earthquake4  ,difficulty of         
ascertaining changes of level4--,in     
regard to alterations of relative level1
 none of the accounts establish that    
they were on a considerable scale2 but  
it must always be remembered that1 in   
proportion to the area moved is the     

difficulty of proving that the general  
level has undergone any change1 unless  
the sea-coast happens to have           
participated in the principal movement4 
,even then it is often impossible to    
determine whether an elevation or       
depression even of several feet has     
occurred1 because there is nothing to   
attract notice in a band of shingle and 
sand of unequal breadth above the level 
of the sea running parallel to a coast2 
such bands generally marking the point  
reached by the waves during spring      
tides1 or the most violent tempests4    
,the scientific investigator has not    
sufficient topographical knowledge to   
discover whether the extent of beach has
 diminished or increased2 and he who has
 the necessary local information1       
scarcely ever feels any interest in     
ascertaining the amount of the rise or  
fall of the ground4 ,add to this the    
great difficulty of making correct      
observations1 in consequence of the     
enormous waves which roll in upon a     

coast during an earthquake1 and efface  
every landmark near the shore4          
,subsidence of the quay at              
,messina4--,it is evidently in seaports 
alone that we can look for very accurate
 indications of slight changes of level2
 and when we find them1 we may presume  
that they would not be rare at other    
points1 if equal facilities of comparing
 relative altitudes were afforded4      
,grimaldi states 7and his account is    
confirmed by ,hamilton and others71 that
 at ,messina1 in ,sicily1 the shore was 
rent2 and the soil along the port1 which
 before the shock was perfectly level1  
was found afterwards to be inclined     
towards the sea1--the sea itself near   
the ,banchina becoming deeper1 and its  
bottom in several places disordered4    
,the quay also sunk down about fourteen 
inches below the level of the sea1 and  
the houses in its vicinity were much    
fissured4 7,phil4 ,trans4 #aghc47       
,among various proofs of partial        
elevation and depression in the         

interior1 the ,academicians mention1 in 
their ,survey1 that the ground was      
sometimes on the same level on both     
sides of new ravines and fissures1 but  
sometimes there had been a considerable 
shifting1 either by the upheaving of one
 side1 or the subsidence of the other4  
,thus1 on the sides of long rents in the
 territory of ,soriano1 the stratified  
masses had altered their relative       
position to the extent of from eight to 
fourteen palms 7six to ten and a half   
feet74  ,polistena4--,similar shifts in 
the strata are alluded to in the        
territory of ,polistena1 where there    
appeared innumerable fissures in the    
earth4 ,one of these was of great length
 and depth2 and in parts the level of   
the corresponding sides was greatly     
changed4 7,see fig4 #gf47               
,terranuova4--,in the town of           
,terranuova some houses were seen       
uplifted above the common level1 and    
others adjoining sunk down into the     
earth4 ,in several streets the soil     

appeared thrust up1 and abutted against 
the walls of houses3 a large circular   
tower of solid masonry1 part of which   
had withstood the general destruction1  
was divided by a vertical rent1 and one 
side was upraised1 and the foundations  
heaved out of the ground4 ,it was       
compared by the ,academicians to a great
 tooth half extracted from the alveolus1
 with the upper part of the fangs       
exposed4 7,see fig4 #gg47               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4  ,deep        
fissure1 near ,polistena1 caused by the 
earthquake of #aghc4  ,along the line of
 this shift1 or fault1 as it would be   
termed technically by miners1 the walls 
were found to adhere firmly to each     
other1 and to fit so well1 that the only
 signs of their having been disunited   
was the want of correspondence in the   
courses of stone on either side of the  
rent4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4  ,shift
 or fault in the ,round ,tower of       
,terranuova in ,calabria1 occasioned by 
the earthquake of #aghc4  ,dolomieu saw 

a stone well in the convent of the      
,augustins at ,terranuova1 which had the
 appearance of having been driven out of
 the earth4 ,it resembled a small tower 
eight or nine feet in height1 and a     
little inclined4 ,this effect1 he says1 
was produced by the consolidation and   
consequent sinking of the sandy soil in 
which the well was dug4  ,in some walls 
which had been thrown down1 or violently
 shaken1 in ,monteleone1 the separate   
stones were parted from the mortar1 so  
as to leave an exact mould where they   
had rested2 whereas in other cases the  
mortar was ground to dust between the   
stones4  ,it appears that the wave-like 
motions often produced effects of the   
most capricious kind4 ,thus1 in some    
streets of ,monteleone1 every house was 
thrown down but one2 in others1 all but 
two2 and the buildings which were spared
 were often scarcely in the least degree
 injured4 ,in many cities of ,calabria1 
all the most solid buildings were thrown
 down1 while those which were slightly  

built escaped2 but at ,rosarno1 as also 
at ,messina in ,sicily1 it was precisely
 the reverse1 the massive edifices being
 the only ones that stood4              
,fissures4--,it appears evident that a  
great part of the rending and fissuring 
of the ground was the effect of a       
violent motion from below upwards2 and  
in a multitude of cases where the rents 
and chasms opened and closed            
alternately1 we must suppose that the   
earth was by turns heaved up1 and then  
let fall again4#fgj ,we may conceive the
 same effect to be produced on a small  
scale1 if1 by some mechanical force1 a  
pavement composed of large flags of     
stone should be raised up1 and then     
allowed to fall suddenly1 so as to      
resume its original position4 ,if any   
small pebbles happened to be lying on   
the line of contact of two flags1 they  
would fall into the opening when the    
pavement rose1 and be swallowed up1 so  
that no trace of them would appear after
 the subsidence of the stones4 ,in the  

same manner1 when the earth was         
upheaved1 large houses1 trees1 cattle1  
and men were engulfed in an instant in  
chasms and fissures2 and when the ground
 sank down again1 the earth closed upon 
them1 so that no vestige of them was    
discoverable on the surface4 ,in many   
instances1 individuals were swallowed up
 by one shock1 and then thrown out again
 alive1 together with large jets of     
water1 by the shock which immediately   
succeeded4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4   
,fissures near ,jerocarne1 in ,calabria1
 caused by the earthquake of #aghc4     
,at ,jerocarne1 a country which1        
according to the ,academicians1 was     
lacerated in a most extraordinary       
manner1 the fissures ran in every       
direction1 like cracks on a broken pane 
of glass 7see fig4 #gh72 and as a great 
portion of them remained open after the 
shocks1 it is very possible that this   
country was permanently upraised4 ,it   
was usual1 as we learn from ,dolomieu1  
for the chasms and fissures throughout  

,calabria1 to ran parallel to the course
 of some pre-existing gorges in their   
neighborhood4  ,houses engulfed4--,in   
the vicinity of ,oppido1 the central    
point from which the earthquake diffused
 its violent movements1 many houses were
 swallowed up by the yawning earth1     
which closed immediately over them4 ,in 
the adjacent district1 also1 of         
,cannamaria four farm-houses1 several   
oil-stores1 and some spacious           
dwelling-houses were so completely      
engulfed in one chasm1 that not a       
vestige of them was afterwards          
discernible4 ,the same phenomena        
occurred at ,terranuova1 ,s4 ,christina1
 and ,sinopoli4 ,the ,academicians state
 particularly1 that when deep abysses   
had opened in the argillaceous strata of
 ,terranuova1 and houses had sunk into  
them1 the sides of the chasms closed    
with such violence1 that1 on excavating 
afterwards to recover articles of value1
 the workmen found the contents and     
detached parts of the buildings jammed  

together so as to become one compact    
mass4 ,it is unnecessary to accumulate  
examples of similar occurrences2 but so 
many are well authenticated during this 
earthquake in ,calabria1 that we may1   
without hesitation1 yield assent to the 
accounts of catastrophes of the same    
kind repeated again and again in        
history1 where whole towns are declared 
to have been engulfed1 and nothing but a
 pool of water or tract of sand left in 
their place4  ,chasm formed near        
,oppido4--,on the sloping side of a hill
 near ,oppido a great chasm opened2 and1
 although a large quantity of soil was  
precipitated into the abyss1 together   
with a considerable number of           
olive-trees and part of a vineyard1 a   
great gulf remained after the shock1 in 
the form of an amphitheatre1 #ejj feet  
long and #bjj feet deep4 7,see fig4     
#gi47  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4  ,chasm
 formed by the earthquake of #aghc1 near
 ,oppido in ,calabria4  ,dimensions of  
new fissures and chasms4--,according to 

,grimaldi1 many fissures and chasms1    
formed by the first shock of ,february  
#eth1 were greatly widened1 lengthened1 
and deepened by the violent convulsions 
of ,march #bhth4 ,in the territory of   
,san ,fili this observer found a new    
ravine1 half a mile in length1 two feet 
and a half broad1 and twenty-five feet  
deep2 and another of similar dimensions 
in the territory of ,rosarno4 ,a ravine 
nearly a mile long1 #aje feet broad and 
thirty feet deep1 opened in the district
 of ,plaisano1 where1 also1 two gulfs   
were caused--one in a place called      
,cerzulle1 three-quarters of a mile     
long1 #aej feet broad1 and above one    
hundred feet deep2 and another at ,la   
,fortuna1 nearly a quarter of a mile    
long1 above thirty feet in breadth1 and 
no less than #bbe feet deep4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4  ,chasm in the
 hill of ,st4 ,angelo1 near ,soriano1 in
 ,calabria1 caused by the earthquake of 
#aghc4  ,in the district of ,fosolano   
three gulfs opened3 one of these        

measured #cjj feet square1 and above    
thirty feet deep2 another was nearly    
half a mile long1 fifteen feet broad1   
and above thirty-feet deep2 the third   
was #gej feet square4 ,lastly1 a        
calcareous mountain1 called ,zefirio1 at
 the southern extremity of the ,italian 
peninsula1 was cleft in two for the     
length of nearly half a mile1 and an    
irregular breadth of many feet4 ,some of
 these chasms were in the form of a     
crescent4 ,the annexed cut 7fig4 #hj7   
represents one by no means remarkable   
for its dimensions1 which remained open 
by the side of a small pass over the    
hill of ,st4 ,angelo1 near ,soriano4    
,the small river ,mesima is seen in the 
foreground4  ,formation of circular     
hollows and new lakes4--,in the report  
of the ,academy1 we find that some      
plains were covered with circular       
hollows1 for the most part about the    
size of carriage-wheels1 but often      
somewhat larger or smaller4 ,when filled
 with water to within a foot or two of  

the surface1 they appeared like wells2  
but1 in general1 they were filled with  
dry sand1 sometimes with a concave      
surface1 and at other times convex4     
7,see fig4 #ha47 ,on digging down1 they 
found them to be funnel-shaped1 and the 
moist loose sand in the centre marked   
the tube up which the water spouted4    
,the annexed cut 7fig4 #hb7 represents a
 section of one of these inverted cones 
when the water had disappeared1 and     
nothing but dry micaceous sand remained4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4  ,circular  
hollows in the plain of ,rosarno1 formed
 by the earthquake of #aghc4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4  ,section of  
one of the circular hollows formed in   
the plain of ,rosarno4  ,a small        
circular pond of similar character was  
formed not far from ,polistena 7see fig4
 #hc72 and in the vicinity of ,seminara1
 a lake was suddenly caused by the      
opening of a great chasm1 from the      
bottom of which water issued4 ,this lake
 was called ,lago del ,tolfilo4 ,it     

extended #aghe feet in length1 by #icg  
in breadth1 and #eb in depth4 ,the      
inhabitants1 dreading the miasma of this
 stagnant pool1 endeavored1 at great    
cost1 to drain it by canals1 but without
 success1 as it was fed by springs      
issuing from the bottom of the deep     
chasm4  ,vivenzio states1 that near     
,sitizzano a valley was nearly filled up
 to a level with the high grounds on    
each side1 by the enormous masses       
detached from the boundary hills1 and   
cast down into the course of two        
streams4 ,by this barrier a lake was    
formed of great depth1 about two miles  
long and a mile broad4 ,the same author 
mentions that1 upon the whole1 there    
were fifty lakes occasioned during the  
convulsions3 and he assigns localities  
to all of these4 ,the government        
surveyors enumerated #bae lakes2 but    
they included in this number many small 
ponds4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4       
,circular pond near ,polistena1 in      
,calabria1 caused by the earthquake in  

#aghc4  ,cones of sand thrown up4--,many
 of the appearances exhibited in the    
alluvial plains1 such as springs        
spouting up their water like fountains  
at the moment of the shock1 have been   
supposed to indicate the alternate      
rising and sinking of the ground4 ,the  
first effect of the more violent shocks 
was usually to dry up the rivers1 but   
they immediately afterwards overflowed  
their banks4 ,in marshy places1 an      
immense number of cones of sand were    
thrown up4 ,these appearances ,hamilton 
explains1 by supposing that the first   
movement raised the fissured plain from 
below upwards1 so that the rivers and   
stagnant waters in bogs sank down1 or at
 least were not upraised with the soil4 
,but when the ground returned with      
violence to its former position1 the    
water was thrown up in jets through     
fissures4#fga  ,the phenomenon1         
according to ,mr4 ,mallet1 may be simply
 an accident contingent on the principal
 cause of disturbance1 the rapid transit

 of the earth-wave4 ,the sources1 he    
says1 of copious springs usually lie in 
flat plates or fissures filled with     
water1 whether issuing from solid rock1 
or from loose materials2 now1 if a vein1
 or thin flat cavity filled with water1 
be in such a position that the plane of 
the plate of water or fissure be        
transverse to the line of transit of the
 earth-wave1 the effect of the arrival  
of the earth-wave at the watery fissure 
will be1 at the instant1 to compress its
 walls more or less together1 and so    
squeeze out the water1 which will1 for a
 moment1 gush up at the spring-head like
 a fountain1 and again remain in repose 
after the transit of the wave4  ,gradual
 closing in of fissures4--,sir ,w4      
,hamilton was shown several deep        
fissures in the vicinity of ,mileto1    
which1 although not one of them was     
above a foot in breadth1 had opened so  
wide during the earthquake as to swallow
 an ox and nearly one hundred goats4    
,the ,academicians also found1 on their 

return through districts which they had 
passed at the commencement of their     
tour1 that many rents had1 in that short
 interval1 gradually closed in1 so that 
their width had diminished several feet1
 and the opposite walls had sometimes   
nearly met4 ,it is natural that this    
should happen in argillaceous strata1   
while1 in more solid rocks1 we may      
expect that fissures will remain open   
for ages4 ,should this be ascertained to
 be a general fact in countries         
convulsed by earthquakes1 it may afford 
a satisfactory explanation of a common  
phenomenon in mineral veins4 ,such veins
 often retain their full size so long as
 the rocks consist of limestone1        
granite1 or other indurated materials2  
but they contract their dimensions1     
become mere threads1 or are even        
entirely cut off1 where masses of an    
argillaceous nature are interposed4 ,if 
we suppose the filling up of fissures   
with metallic and other ingredients to  
be a process requiring ages for its     

completion1 it is obvious that the      
opposite walls of rents1 where strata   
consist of yielding materials1 must     
collapse or approach very near to each  
other before sufficient time is allowed 
for the accretion of a large quantity of
 veinstone4  ,thermal waters            
augmented4--,it is stated by ,grimaldi1 
that the thermal waters of ,st4         
,eufemia1 in ,terra di ,amato1 which    
first burst out during the earthquake of
 #afch1 acquired1 in ,february1 #aghc1  
an augmentation both in quantity and    
degree of heat4 ,this fact appears to   
indicate a connection between the heat  
of the interior and the fissures caused 
by the ,calabrian earthquakes1          
notwithstanding the absence of volcanic 
rocks1 either ancient or modern1 in that
 district4  ,bounding of detached masses
 into the air4--,the violence of the    
movement of the ground upwards was      
singularly illustrated by what the      
,academicians call the sbalzo1 or       
bounding into the air1 to the height of 

several yards1 of masses slightly       
adhering to the surface4 ,in some towns 
a great part of the pavement stones were
 thrown up1 and found lying with their  
lower sides uppermost4 ,in these cases1 
we must suppose that they were propelled
 upwards by the momentum which they had 
acquired2 and that the adhesion of one  
end of the mass being greater than that 
of the other1 a rotatory motion had been
 communicated to them4 ,when the stone  
was projected to a sufficient height to 
perform somewhat more than a quarter of 
a revolution in the air1 it pitched down
 on its edge1 and fell with its lower   
side uppermost4  ,effects of earthquakes
 on the excavations of valleys4--,the   
next class of effects to be considered1 
are those more immediately connected    
with the formation of valleys1 in which 
the action of water was often combined  
with that of the earthquake4 ,the       
country agitated was composed1 as before
 stated1 chiefly of argillaceous strata1
 intersected by deep narrow valleys1    

sometimes from #ejj to #fjj feet deep4  
,as the boundary cliffs were in great   
part vertical1 it will readily be       
conceived that1 amidst the various      
movements of the earth1 the precipices  
overhanging rivers1 being without       
support on one side1 were often thrown  
down4 ,we find1 indeed1 that inundations
 produced by obstructions in            
river-courses are among the most        
disastrous consequences of great        
earthquakes in all parts of the world1  
for the alluvial plains in the bottoms  
of valleys are usually the most fertile 
and well-peopled parts of the whole     
country2 and whether the site of a town 
is above or below a temporary barrier in
 the channel of a river1 it is exposed  
to injury by the waters either of a lake
 or flood4  ,landslips4--,from each side
 of the deep valley or ravine of        
,terranuova enormous masses of the      
adjoining flat country were detached1   
and cast down into the course of the    
river1 so as to give rise to great      

lakes4 ,oaks1 olive-trees1 vineyards1   
and corn1 were often seen growing at the
 bottom of the ravine1 as little injured
 as their former companions1 which still
 continued to flourish in the plain     
above1 at least #ejj feet higher1 and at
 the distance of about three-quarters of
 a mile4 ,in one part of this ravine was
 an enormous mass1 #bjj feet high and   
about #djj feet at its base1 which had  
been detached by some former earthquake4
 ,it is well attested1 that this mass   
travelled down the ravine nearly four   
miles1 having been put in motion by the 
earthquake of the #eth of ,february4    
,hamilton1 after examining the spot1    
declared that this phenomenon might be  
accounted for by the declivity of the   
valley1 the great abundance of rain     
which fell1 and the great weight of the 
alluvial matter which pressed behind it4
 ,dolomieu also alludes to the fresh    
impulse derived from other masses       
falling1 and pressing upon the rear of  
those first set in motion4  ,the first  

account sent to ,naples of the two great
 slides or landslips above alluded to1  
which caused a great lake near          
,terranuova1 was couched in these       
words3--,two mountains on the opposite  
sides of a valley walked from their     
original position until they met in the 
middle of the plain1 and there joining  
together1 they intercepted the course of
 a river1 c4 ,the expressions here used 
resemble singularly those applied to    
phenomena1 probably very analogous1     
which are said to have occurred at ,fez1
 during the great ,lisbon earthquake1 as
 also in ,jamaica and ,java at other    
periods4  ,not far from ,soriano1 which 
was levelled to the ground by the great 
shock of ,february1 a small valley1     
containing a beautiful olive-grove1     
called ,fra ,ramondo1 underwent a most  
extraordinary revolution4 ,innumerable  
fissures first traversed the river-plain
 in all directions1 and absorbed the    
water until the argillaceous substratum 
became soaked1 so that a great part of  

it was reduced to a state of fluid      
paste4 ,strange alterations in the      
outline of the ground were the          
consequence1 as the soil to a great     
depth was easily moulded into any form4 
,in addition to this change1 the ruins  
of the neighboring hills were           
precipitated into the hollow2 and while 
many olives were uprooted1 others       
remained growing on the fallen masses1  
and inclined at various angles 7see fig4
 #hd74 ,the small river ,caridi was     
entirely concealed for many days2 and   
when at length it reappeared1 it had    
shaped for itself an entirely new       
channel4  ,buildings transported entire 
to great distances4--,near ,seminara an 
extensive olive-ground and orchard were 
hurled to a distance of two hundred     
feet1 into a valley sixty feet in depth4
 ,at the same time a deep chasm was     
riven in another part of the high       
platform from which the orchard had been
 detached1 and the river immediately    
entered the fissure1 leaving its former 

bed completely dry4 ,a small inhabited  
house1 standing on the mass of earth    
carried down into the valley1 went along
 with it entire1 and without injury to  
the inhabitants4 ,the olive-trees1 also1
 continued to grow on the land which had
 slid into the valley1 and bore the same
 year an abundant crop of fruit4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4  ,changes of  
the surface at ,fra ,ramondo1 near      
,soriano1 in ,calabria4     #a1 ,portion
 of a hill covered with olives thrown   
down4   #b1 ,new bed of the river       
,caridi4   #c1 ,town of ,soriano4       
,two tracts of land on which a great    
part of the town of ,polistena stood1   
consisting of some hundreds of houses1  
were detached into a contiguous ravine1 
and nearly across it1 about half a mile 
from their original site2 and what is   
most extraordinary1 several of the      
inhabitants were dug out from the ruins 
alive and unhurt4  ,two tenements1 near 
,mileto1 called the ,macini and         
,vaticano1 occupying an extent of ground

 about a mile long and half a mile      
broad1 were carried for a mile down a   
valley4 ,a thatched cottage1 together   
with large olive and mulberry trees1    
most of which remained erect1 were      
carried uninjured to this extraordinary 
distance4 ,according to ,hamilton1 the  
surface removed had been long undermined
 by rivulets1 which were afterwards in  
full view on the bare spot deserted by  
the tenements4 ,the earthquake seems to 
have opened a passage in the adjoining  
argillaceous hills1 which admitted water
 charged with loose soil into the       
subterranean channels of the rivulets   
immediately under the tenements1 so that
 the foundations of the ground set in   
motion by the earthquake were loosened4 
,another example of subsidence1 where   
the edifices were not destroyed1 is     
mentioned by ,grimaldi1 as having taken 
place in the city of ,catanzaro1 the    
capital of the province of that name4   
,the houses in the quarter called ,san  
,giuseppe subsided with the ground to   

various depths from two to four feet1   
but the buildings remained uninjured4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4  ,landslips   
near ,cinquefrondi1 caused by the       
earthquake of #aghc4  ,it would be      
tedious1 and our space would not permit 
us1 to follow the different authors     
through their local details of landslips
 produced in minor valleys2 but they are
 highly interesting1 as showing to how  
great an extent the power of rivers to  
widen valleys1 and to carry away large  
portions of soil towards the sea1 is    
increased where earthquakes are of      
periodical occurrence4 ,among other     
territories1 that of ,cinquefrondi1 was 
greatly convulsed1 various portions of  
soil being raised or sunk1 and          
innumerable fissures traversing the     
country in all directions 7see fig4     
#he74 ,along the flanks of a small      
valley in this district there appears to
 have been an almost uninterrupted line 
of landslips4  ,currents of mud4--,near 
,s4 ,lucido1 among other places1 the    

soil is described as having been        
dissolved1 so that large torrents of mud
 inundated all the low grounds1 like    
lava4 ,just emerging from this mud1 the 
tops only of trees and of the ruins of  
farm-houses were seen4 ,two miles from  
,laureana1 the swampy soil in two       
ravines became filled with calcareous   
matter1 which oozed out from the ground 
immediately before the first great      
shock4 ,this mud1 rapidly accumulating1 
began1 ere long1 to roll onward1 like a 
flood of lava1 into the valley1 where   
the two streams uniting1 moved forward  
with increased impetus from east to     
west4 ,it now presented a breadth of    
#bbe feet by #ae in depth1 and1 before  
it ceased to move1 covered a surface    
equal in length to an ,italian mile4 ,in
 its progress it overwhelmed a flock of 
thirty goats1 and tore up by the roots  
many olive and mulberry trees1 which    
floated like ships upon its surface4    
,when this calcareous lava had ceased to
 move1 it gradually became dry and hard1

 during which process the mass was      
lowered seven feet and a half4 ,it      
contained fragments of earth of a       
ferruginous color1 and emitting a       
sulphureous smell4  ,fall of the        
sea-cliffs4--,along the sea-coast of the
 ,straits of ,messina1 near the         
celebrated rock of ,scilla1 the fall of 
huge masses detached from the bold and  
lofty cliffs overwhelmed many villas and
 gardens4 ,at ,gian ,greco1 a continuous
 line of cliff1 for a mile in length1   
was thrown down4 ,great agitation was   
frequently observed in the bed of the   
sea during the shocks1 and1 on those    
parts of the coast where the movement   
was most violent1 all kinds of fish were
 taken in abundance1 and with unusual   
facility4 ,some rare species1 as that   
called ,cicirelli1 which usually lie    
buried in the sand1 were taken on the   
surface of the waters in great quantity4
 ,the sea is said to have boiled up near
 ,messina1 and to have been agitated as 
if by a copious discharge of vapors from

 its bottom4  ,shore near ,scilla       
inundated4--,the prince of ,scilla had  
persuaded a great part of his vassals to
 betake themselves to their             
fishing-boats for safety1 and he himself
 had gone on board4 ,on the night of the
 #eth of ,february1 when some of the    
people were sleeping in the boats1 and  
others on a level plain slightly        
elevated above the sea1 the earth       
rocked1 and suddenly a great mass was   
torn from the contiguous ,mount ,jaci1  
and thrown down with a dreadful crash   
upon the plain4 ,immediately afterwards1
 the sea1 rising more than twenty feet  
above the level of this low tract1      
rolled foaming over it1 and swept away  
the multitude4 ,it then retreated1 but  
soon rushed back again with greater     
violence1 bringing with it some of the  
people and animals it had carried away4 
,at the same time every boat was sunk or
 dashed against the beach1 and some of  
them were swept far inland4 ,the aged   
prince1 with #adcj of his people1 was   

destroyed4  ,state of ,stromboli and    
,etna during the shocks4--,the          
inhabitants of ,pizzo remarked that on  
the #eth of ,february1 #aghc1 when the  
first great shock afflicted ,calabria1  
the volcano of ,stromboli1 which is in  
full view of that town1 and at the      
distance of about fifty miles1 smoked   
less1 and threw up a less quantity of   
inflamed matter than it had done for    
some years previously4 ,on the other    
hand1 the great crater of ,etna is said 
to have given out a considerable        
quantity of vapor towards the beginning1
 and ,stromboli towards the close1 of   
the commotions4 ,but as no eruption     
happened from either of these great     
vents during the whole earthquake1 the  
sources of the ,calabrian convulsions1  
and of the volcanic fires of ,etna and  
,stromboli1 appear to be very           
independent of each other2 unless1      
indeed1 they have the same mutual       
relation as ,vesuvius and the volcanoes 
of the ,phlegraean ,fields and ,ischia1 

a violent disturbance in one district   
serving as a safety-valve to the other1 
and both never being in full activity at
 once4  ,excavation of valleys4--,it is 
impossible for the geologist to consider
 attentively the effect of this single  
earthquake of #aghc1 and to look forward
 to the alterations in the physical     
condition of the country to which a     
continued series of such movements will 
hereafter give rise1 without perceiving 
that the formation of valleys by running
 water can never be understood1 if we   
consider the question independently of  
the agency of earthquakes4 ,it must not 
be imagined that rivers only begin to   
act when a country is already elevated  
far above the level of the sea1 for     
their action must of necessity be most  
powerful while land is rising and       
sinking by successive movements4        
,whether ,calabria is now undergoing any
 considerable change of relative level1 
in regard to the sea1 or is1 upon the   
whole1 nearly stationary1 is a question 

which our observations1 confined almost 
entirely to the last half century1      
cannot possibly enable us to determine4 
,but we know that strata1 containing    
species of shells identical with those  
now living in the contiguous parts of   
the ,mediterranean1 have been raised in 
that country1 as they have in ,sicily1  
to the height of several thousand feet4 
,now1 those geologists who grant that   
the present course of ,nature in the    
inanimate world has continued the same  
since the existing species of animals   
were in being1 will not feel surprised  
that the ,calabrian streams and rivers  
have cut out of such comparatively      
modern strata a great system of valleys1
 varying in depth from fifty to six     
hundred feet1 and often several miles   
wide1 if they consider how numerous may 
have been the shocks which accompanied  
the uplifting of those recent marine    
strata to so prodigious a height4 ,some 
speculators1 indeed1 who disregard the  
analogy of existing nature1 and who are 

always ready to assume that her forces  
were more energetic in by-gone ages1 may
 dispense with a long series of         
movements1 and suppose that ,calabria   
rose like an exhalation from the deep1  
after the manner of ,milton's           
,pandemonium4 ,but such an hypothesis   
would deprive them of that peculiar     
removing force required to form a       
regular system of deep and wide valleys2
 for time1 which they are so unwilling  
to assume1 is essential to the          
operation4 ,time must be allowed in the 
intervals between distinct convulsions1 
for running water to clear away the     
ruins caused by landslips1 otherwise the
 fallen masses will serve as buttresses1
 and prevent the succeeding earthquake  
from exerting its full power4 ,the sides
 of the valley must be again cut away by
 the stream1 and made to form precipices
 and over-hanging cliffs1 before the    
next shock can take effect in the same  
manner4  ,possibly the direction of the 
succeeding shock may not coincide with  

that of the valley1 a great extent of   
adjacent country being equally shaken4  
,still it will usually happen that no   
permanent geographical change will be   
produced except in valleys4 ,in them    
alone will occur landslips from the     
boundary cliffs1 and these will         
frequently divert the stream from its   
accustomed course1 causing the original 
ravine to become both wider and more    
tortuous in its direction4  ,if a single
 convulsion of extreme violence should  
agitate at once an entire hydrographical
 basin1 or if the shocks should follow  
each other too rapidly1 the previously  
existing valleys would be annihilated1  
instead of being modified and enlarged4 
,every stream might in that case be     
compelled to begin its operations anew1 
and to shape out new channels1 instead  
of continuing to deepen and widen those 
already excavated4 ,but if the          
subterranean movements have been        
intermittent1 and if sufficient periods 
have always intervened between the      

severer shocks to allow the drainage of 
the country to be nearly restored to its
 original state1 then are both the kind 
and degree of force supplied by which   
running water may hollow out valleys of 
any depth or size consistent with the   
elevation above the sea which the       
districts drained by them may have      
attained4  ,when we read of the drying  
up and desertion of the channels of     
rivers1 the accounts most frequently    
refer to their deflection into some     
other part of the same alluvial plain1  
perhaps several miles distant4 ,under   
certain circumstances a change of level 
may undoubtedly force the water to flow 
over into some distinct hydrographical  
basin2 but even then it will fall       
immediately into some other system of   
valleys already formed4  ,we learn from 
history that1 ever since the first      
,greek colonists settled in ,calabria1  
that region has been subject to         
devastation by earthquakes2 and1 for the
 last century and a half1 ten years have

 seldom elapsed without a shock2 but the
 severer convulsions have not only been 
separated by intervals of twenty1 fifty1
 or one hundred years1 but have not     
affected precisely the same points when 
they recurred4 ,thus the earthquake of  
#aghc1 although confined within the same
 geographical limits as that of #afch1  
and not very inferior in violence1      
visited1 according to ,grimaldi1 very   
different districts4 ,the points where  
the local intensity of the force is     
developed being thus perpetually varied1
 more time is allowed for the removal of
 separate mountain masses thrown into   
river-channels by each shock4  ,number  
of persons who perished during the      
earthquake4--,the number of persons who 
perished during the earthquake in the   
two ,calabrias and ,sicily1 is estimated
 by ,hamilton at about forty thousand2  
and about twenty thousand more died by  
epidemics1 which were caused by         
insufficient nourishment1 exposure to   
the atmosphere1 and malaria1 arising    

from the new stagnant lakes and pools4  
,by far the greater number were buried  
under the ruins of their houses2 but    
many were burnt to death in the         
conflagrations which almost invariably  
followed the shocks4 ,these fires raged 
the more violently in some cities1 such 
as ,oppido1 from the immense magazines  
of oil which were consumed4  ,many      
persons were engulfed in deep fissures1 
especially the peasants when flying     
across the open country1 and their      
skeletons may perhaps be buried in the  
earth to this day1 at the depth of      
several hundred feet4  ,when ,dolomieu  
visited ,messina after the shock of     
,feb4 #eth1 he describes the city as    
still presenting1 at least at a         
distance1 an imperfect image of its     
ancient splendor4 ,every house was      
injured1 but the walls were standing2   
the whole population had taken refuge in
 wooden huts in the neighborhood1 and   
all was solitude and silence in the     
streets3 it seemed as if the city had   

been desolated by the plague1 and the   
impression made upon his feelings was   
that of melancholy and sadness4 ,but    
when ,i passed over to ,calabria1 and   
first beheld ,polistena1 the scene of   
horror almost deprived me of my         
faculties2 my mind was filled with      
mingled compassion and terror2 nothing  
had escaped2 all was levelled with the  
dust2 not a single house or piece of    
wall remained2 on all sides were heaps  
of stone so destitute of form1 that they
 gave no conception of there ever having
 been a town on the spot4 ,the stench of
 the dead bodies still rose from the    
ruins4 ,i conversed with many persons   
who had been buried for three1 four1 and
 even for five days2 ,i questioned them 
respecting their sensations in so       
dreadful a situation1 and they agreed   
that of all the physical evils they     
endured1 thirst was the most            
intolerable2 and that their mental agony
 was increased by the idea that they    
were abandoned by their friends1 who    

might have rendered them assistance4#fgb
  ,it is supposed that about a fourth   
part of the inhabitants of ,polistena1  
and of some other towns1 were buried    
alive1 and might have been saved had    
there been no want of hands2 but in so  
general a calamity1 where each was      
occupied with his own misfortunes or    
those of his family1 aid could rarely be
 obtained4 ,neither tears1 nor          
supplications1 nor promises of high     
rewards were listened to4 ,many acts of 
self-devotion1 prompted by parental and 
conjugal tenderness1 or by friendship1  
or the gratitude of faithful servants1  
are recorded2 but individual exertions  
were1 for the most part1 ineffectual4   
,it frequently happened1 that persons in
 search of those most dear to them could
 hear their moans1--could recognize     
their voices--were certain of the exact 
spot where they lay buried beneath their
 feet1 yet could afford them no succor4 
,the piled mass resisted all their      
strength1 and rendered their efforts of 

no avail4  ,at ,terranuova1 four        
,augustin monks1 who had taken refuge in
 a vaulted sacristy1 the arch of which  
continued to support an immense pile of 
ruins1 made their cries heard for the   
space of four days4 ,one only of the    
brethren of the whole convent was saved1
 and of what avail was his strength to  
remove the enormous weight of rubbish   
which had overwhelmed his companions8   
,he heard their voices die away         
gradually2 and when afterwards their    
four corpses were disinterred1 they were
 found clasped in each other's arms4    
,affecting narratives are preserved of  
mothers saved after the fifth1 sixth1   
and even seventh day of their interment1
 when their infants or children had     
perished with hunger4  ,it might have   
been imagined that the sight of         
sufferings such as these would have been
 sufficient to awaken sentiments of     
humanity and pity in the most savage    
breasts2 but while some acts of heroism 
are related1 nothing could exceed the   

general atrocity of conduct displayed by
 the ,calabrian peasants3 they abandoned
 the farms1 and flocked in great numbers
 into the towns--not to rescue their    
countrymen from a lingering death1 but  
to plunder4 ,they dashed through the    
streets1 fearless of danger1 amid       
tottering walls and clouds of dust1     
trampling beneath their feet the bodies 
of the wounded and half-buried1 and     
often stripping them1 while yet living1 
of their clothes4#fgc  ,concluding      
remarks4--,but to enter more fully into 
these details would be foreign to the   
purpose of the present work1 and several
 volumes would be required to give the  
reader a just idea of the sufferings    
which the inhabitants of many populous  
districts have undergone during the     
earthquakes of the last #aej years4 ,a  
bare mention of the loss of life--as    
that fifty or a hundred thousand souls  
perished in one catastrophe--conveys to 
the reader no idea of the extent of     
misery inflicted3 we must learn1 from   

the narratives of eye-witnesses1 the    
various forms in which death was        
encountered1 the numbers who escaped    
with loss of limbs or serious bodily    
injuries1 and the multitude who were    
suddenly reduced to penury and want4 ,it
 has been often remarked1 that the dread
 of earthquakes is strongest in the     
minds of those who have experienced them
 most frequently2 whereas1 in the case  
of almost every other danger1           
familiarity with peril renders men      
intrepid4 ,the reason is                
obvious--scarcely any part of the       
mischief apprehended in this instance is
 imaginary2 the first shock is often the
 most destructive2 and1 as it may occur 
in the dead of the night1 or if by day1 
without giving the least warning of its 
approach1 no forethought can guard      
against it2 and when the convulsion has 
begun1 no skill1 or courage1 or presence
 of mind1 can point out the path of     
safety4 ,during the intervals1 of       
uncertain duration1 between the more    

fatal shocks1 slight tremors of the soil
 are not unfrequent2 and as these       
sometimes precede more violent          
convulsions1 they become a source of    
anxiety and alarm4 ,the terror arising  
from this cause alone is of itself no   
inconsiderable evil4  ,although         
sentiments of pure religion are         
frequently awakened by these awful      
visitations1 yet we more commonly find  
that an habitual state of fear1 a sense 
of helplessness1 and a belief in the    
futility of all human exertions1 prepare
 the minds of the vulgar for the        
influence of a demoralizing             
superstition4  ,where earthquakes are   
frequent1 there can never be perfect    
security of property under the best     
government2 industry cannot be assured  
of reaping the fruits of its labor2 and 
the most daring acts of outrage may     
occasionally be perpetrated with        
impunity1 when the arm of the law is    
paralyzed by the general consternation4 
,it is hardly necessary to add1 that the

 progress of civilization and national  
wealth must be retarded by convulsions  
which level cities to the ground1       
destroy harbors1 render roads           
impassable1 and cause the most          
cultivated valley-plains to be covered  
with lakes1 or the ruins of adjoining   
hills4  ,those geologists who imagine   
that1 at remote periods ere man became a
 sojourner on earth1 the volcanic agency
 was more energetic than now1 should be 
careful to found their opinion on strict
 geological evidence1 and not permit    
themselves to be biased1 as they have   
often been1 by a notion1 that the       
disturbing force would probably be      
mitigated for the sake of man4  ,i shall
 endeavor to point out in the sequel1   
that the general tendency of            
subterranean movements1 when their      
effects are considered for a sufficient 
lapse of ages1 is eminently beneficial1 
and that they constitute an essential   
part of that mechanism by which the     
integrity of the habitable surface is   

preserved1 and the very existence and   
perpetuation of dry land secured4 ,why  
the working of this same machinery      
should be attended with so much evil1 is
 a mystery far beyond the reach of our  
philosophy1 and must probably remain so 
until we are permitted to investigate1  
not our planet alone and its            
inhabitants1 but other parts of the     
moral and material universe with which  
they may be connected4 ,could our survey
 embrace other worlds1 and the events1  
not of a few centuries only1 but of     
periods as indefinite as those with     
which geology renders us familiar1 some 
apparent contradictions might be        
reconciled1 and some difficulties would 
doubtless be cleared up4 ,but even then1
 as our capacities are finite1 while the
 scheme of the universe may be infinite1
 both in time and space1 it is          
presumptuous to suppose that all sources
 of doubt and perplexity would ever be  
removed4 ,on the contrary1 they might1  
perhaps1 go on augmenting in number1    

although our confidence in the wisdom of
 the plan of ,nature should increase at 
the same time2 for it has been justly   
said1 that the greater the circle of    
light1 the greater the boundary of      
darkness by which it is surrounded4#fgd 
,,chapter ,,xxix4                       
,,earthquakes--continued4               
,earthquake of ,java1 #aggb--,truncation
 of a lofty cone--,st4 ,domingo1        
#aggj--,lisbon1 #agee--;,great area over
 which the shocks     extended--,retreat
 of the sea--,proposed                  
explanations--,conception ,bay1         
#agej--,permanent elevation--,peru1     
#agdf--;,java1 #afii--,rivers obstructed
     by landslips--,subsidence in       
,sicily1 #afic--,moluccas1              
#afic--;,jamaica1     #afib--,large     
tracts engulfed--,portion of ,port      
,royal sunk--,amount of     change in   
the last #aej years--,elevation and     
subsidence of land in     ,bay of       
,baiae--,evidence of the same afforded  
by the ,temple of ,serapis4   ,in the   

preceding chapters we have considered a 
small part only of those earthquakes    
which have occurred during the last     
seventy years1 of which accurate and    
authentic descriptions happen to have   
been recorded4 ,in examining those of   
earlier date1 we find their number so   
great that allusion can be made to a few
 only respecting which information of   
peculiar geological interest has been   
obtained4  ,java1 #aggb4--,truncation of
 a lofty cone4--,in the year #aggb1     
,papandayang1 formerly one of the       
loftiest volcanoes in the island of     
,java1 was in eruption4 ,before all the 
inhabitants on the declivities of the   
mountain could save themselves by       
flight1 the ground began to give way1   
and a great part of the volcano fell in 
and disappeared4 ,it is estimated that  
an extent of ground of the mountain     
itself and its immediate environs1      
fifteen miles long and full six broad1  
was by this commotion swallowed up in   
the bowels of the earth4 ,forty villages

 were destroyed1 some being engulfed and
 some covered by the substances thrown  
out on this occasion1 and #bieg of the  
inhabitants perished4 ,a proportionate  
number of cattle were also killed1 and  
most of the plantations of cotton1      
indigo1 and coffee in the adjacent      
districts were buried under the volcanic
 matter4 ,this catastrophe appears to   
have resembled1 although on a grander   
scale1 that of the ancient ,vesuvius in 
the year #gi4 ,the cone was reduced in  
height from #ijjj to about #ejjj feet2  
and1 as vapors still escape from the    
crater on its summit1 a new cone may one
 day rise out of the ruins of the       
ancient mountain1 as the modern         
,vesuvius has risen from the remains of 
,somma4#fge  ,st4 ,domingo1             
#aggj4--;,during a tremendous earthquake
 which destroyed a great part of ,st4   
,domingo1 innumerable fissures were     
caused throughout the island1 from which
 mephitic vapors emanated and produced  
an epidemic4 ,hot springs burst forth in

 many places where there had been no    
water before2 but after a time they     
ceased to flow4#fgf  ,in a previous     
earthquake1 in ,november1 #agea1 a      
violent shock destroyed the capital1    
,port au ,prince1 and part of the coast1
 twenty leagues in length1 sank down1   
and has ever since formed a bay of the  
sea4#fgg  ,hindostan1 #agfb4--,the town 
of ,chittagong1 in ,bengal1 was         
violently shaken by an earthquake1 on   
the #b;d of ,april1 #agfb1 the earth    
opening in many places1 and throwing up 
water and mud of a sulphureous smell4   
,at a place called ,bardavan1 a large   
river was dried up2 and at ,bar ,charra1
 near the sea1 a tract of ground sunk   
down1 and #bjj people1 with all their   
cattle1 were lost4 ,it is said1 that    
sixty square miles of the ,chittagong   
coast suddenly and permanently subsided 
during this earthquake1 and that        
,ces-lung-,toom1 one of the ,mug        
mountains1 entirely disappeared1 and    
another sank so low1 that its summit    

only remained visible4 ,four hills are  
also described as having been variously 
rent asunder1 leaving open chasms from  
thirty to sixty feet in width4 ,towns   
which subsided several cubits1 were     
overflowed with water2 among others1    
,deep ,gong1 which was submerged to the 
depth of seven cubits4 ,two volcanoes   
are said to have opened in the ,secta   
,cunda hills4 ,the shock was also felt  
at ,calcutta4#fgh ,while the ,chittagong
 coast was sinking1 a corresponding rise
 of the ground took place at the island 
of ,ramree1 and at ,cheduba 7see ,map1  
fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea74fgi  ,lisbon1        
#agee4--;,in no part of the volcanic    
region of southern ,europe has so       
tremendous an earthquake occurred in    
modern times1 as that which began on the
 #ast of ,november1 #agee1 at ,lisbon4  
,a sound of thunder was heard           
underground1 and immediately afterwards 
a violent shock threw down the greater  
part of that city4 ,in the course of    
about six minutes1 sixty thousand       

persons perished4 ,the sea first retired
 and laid the bar dry2 it then rolled   
in1 rising fifty feet or more above its 
ordinary level4 ,the mountains of       
,arrabida1 ,estrella1 ,julio1 ,marvan1  
and ,cintra1 being some of the largest  
in ,portugal1 were impetuously shaken1  
as it were1 from their very foundations2
 and some of them opened at their       
summits1 which were split and rent in a 
wonderful manner1 huge masses of them   
being thrown down into the subjacent    
valleys4#fhj ,flames are related to have
 issued from these mountains1 which are 
supposed to have been electric2 they are
 also said to have smoked2 but vast     
clouds of dust may have given rise to   
this appearance4  ,the area over which  
this convulsion extended is very        
remarkable4 ,it has been computed1 says 
,humboldt1#fha that on the #ast         
,november1 #agee1 a portion of the      
earth's surface four times greater than 
the extent of ,europe was simultaneously
 shaken4 ,the shock was felt in the     

,alps1 and on the coast of ,sweden1 in  
small inland lakes on the shores of the 
,baltic1 in ,thuringia1 and in the flat 
country of northern ,germany4 ,the      
thermal springs of ,toplitz dried up1   
and again returned1 inundating every    
thing with water discolored by ochre4   
,in the islands of ,antigua1 ,barbadoes1
 and ,martinique in the ,west ,indies1  
where the tide usually rises little more
 than two feet1 it suddenly rose above  
twenty feet1 the water being discolored 
and of an inky blackness4 ,the movement 
was also sensible in the great lakes of 
,canada4 ,at ,algiers and ,fez1 in the  
north of ,africa1 the agitation of the  
earth was as violent as in ,spain and   
,portugal2 and at the distance of eight 
leagues from ,morocco1 a village with   
the inhabitants1 to the number of about 
#hjjj or #aj1jjj persons1 are said to   
have been swallowed up2 the earth soon  
afterwards closing over them4           
,subsidence of the quay4--,among other  
extraordinary events related to have    

occurred at ,lisbon during the          
catastrophe was the subsidence of a new 
quay1 built entirely of marble at an    
immense expense4 ,a great concourse of  
people had collected there for safety1  
as a spot where they might be beyond the
 reach of falling ruins2 but suddenly   
the quay sank down with all the people  
on it1 and not one of the dead bodies   
ever floated to the surface4 ,a great   
number of boats and small vessels       
anchored near it1 all full of people1   
were swallowed up1 as in a              
whirlpool4#fhb ,no fragments of these   
wrecks ever rose again to the surface1  
and the water in the place where the    
quay had stood is stated1 in many       
accounts1 to be unfathomable2 but       
,whitehurst says he ascertained it to be
 one hundred fathoms4#fhc               
,circumstantial as are the contemporary 
narratives1 ,i learn from a             
correspondent1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,freeman1 in    
#ahda1 that no part of the ,tagus was   
then more than thirty feet deep at high 

tide1 and an examination of the position
 of the new quay1 and the memorials     
preserved of the time and manner in     
which it was built1 rendered the        
statement of so great a subsidence in   
#agee quite unintelligible4 ,perhaps a  
deep narrow chasm1 such as was before   
described in ,calabria 7p4 #dha71 opened
 and closed again in the bed of the     
,tagus1 after swallowing up some        
incumbent buildings and vessels4 ,we    
have already seen that such openings may
 collapse after the shock suddenly1 or1 
in places where the strata are of soft  
and yielding materials1 very gradually4 
,according to the observations made at  
,lisbon1 in #ahcg1 by ,mr4 ,sharpe1 the 
destroying effects of this earthquake   
were confined to the tertiary strata1   
and were most violent on the blue clay1 
on which the lower part of the city is  
constructed4 ,not a building1 he says1  
on the secondary limestone or the basalt
 was injured4#fhd  ,shocks felt at      
sea4--,the shock was felt at sea1 on the

 deck of a ship to the west of ,lisbon1 
and produced very much the same         
sensation as on dry land4 ,off ,st4     
,lucar1 the captain of the ship ,nancy  
felt his vessel so violently shaken1    
that he thought she had struck the      
ground2 but1 on heaving the lead1 found 
a great depth of water4 ,captain ,clark1
 from ,denia1 in latitude #cf degrees   
#bd minutes ,n41 between nine and ten in
 the morning1 had his ship shaken and   
strained as if she had struck upon a    
rock1 so that the seams of the deck     
opened1 and the compass was overturned  
in the binnacle4 ,another ship1 forty   
leagues west of ,st4 ,vincent1          
experienced so violent a concussion1    
that the men were thrown a foot and a   
half perpendicularly up from the deck4  
,rate at which the movement             
travelled4--,the agitation of lakes1    
rivers1 and springs1 in ,great ,britain1
 was remarkable4 ,at ,loch ,lomond1 in  
,scotland1 for example1 the water1      
without1 the least apparent cause1 rose 

against its banks1 and then subsided    
below its usual level4 ,the greatest    
perpendicular height of this swell was  
two feet four inches4 ,it is said that  
the movement of this earthquake was     
undulatory1 and that it travelled at the
 rate of twenty miles a minute1 its     
velocity being calculated by the        
intervals between the time when the     
first shock was felt at ,lisbon1 and its
 time of occurrence at other distant    
places4#fhe  ,great wave and retreat of 
the sea4--,a great wave swept over the  
coast of ,spain1 and is said to have    
been sixty feet high at ,cadiz4 ,at     
,tangier1 in ,africa1 it rose and fell  
eighteen times on the coast4 ,at        
,funchal1 in ,madeira1 it rose full     
fifteen feet perpendicular above        
high-water mark1 although the tide1     
which ebbs and flows there seven feet1  
was then at half-ebb4 ,besides entering 
the city1 and committing great havoc1 it
 overflowed other seaports in the       
island4 ,at ,kinsale1 in ,ireland1 a    

body of water rushed into the harbor1   
whirled round several vessels1 and      
poured into the market-place4  ,it was  
before stated that the sea first retired
 at ,lisbon2 and this retreat of the    
ocean from the shore1 at the            
commencement of an earthquake1 and its  
subsequent return in a violent wave1 is 
a common occurrence4 ,in order to       
account for the phenomenon1 ,michell    
imagined a subsidence at the bottom of  
the sea1 from the giving way of the roof
 of some cavity in consequence of a     
vacuum produced by the condensation of  
steam4 ,such condensation1 he observes1 
might be the first effect of the        
introduction of a large body of water   
into fissures and cavities already      
filled with steam1 before there has been
 sufficient time for the heat of the    
incandescent lava to turn so large a    
supply of water into steam1 which being 
soon accomplished causes a greater      
explosion4  ,another proposed           
explanation is1 the sudden rise of the  

land1 which would cause the sea to      
abandon immediately the ancient line of 
coast2 and if the shore1 after being    
thus heaved up1 should fall again to its
 original level1 the ocean would return4
 ,this theory1 however1 will not account
 for the facts observed during the      
,lisbon earthquake2 for the retreat     
preceded the wave1 not only on the coast
 of ,portugal1 but also at the island of
 ,madeira1 and several other places4 ,if
 the upheaving of the coast of ,portugal
 had caused the retreat1 the motion of  
the waters1 when propagated to ,madeira1
 would have produced a wave previous to 
the retreat4 ,nor could the motion of   
the waters at ,madeira have been caused 
by a different local earthquake2 for the
 shock travelled from ,lisbon to        
,madeira in two hours1 which agrees with
 the time which it required to reach    
other places equally distant4#fhf  ,the 
following is another solution of the    
problem1 which has been                 
offered3--,suppose a portion of the bed 

of the sea to be suddenly upheaved2 the 
first effect will be to raise over the  
elevated part a body of water1 the      
momentum of which will carry it much    
above the level it will afterwards      
assume1 causing a draught or receding of
 the water from the neighboring coasts1 
followed immediately by the return of   
the displaced water1 which will also be 
impelled by its momentum much farther   
and higher on the coast than its former 
level4#fhg  ,mr4 ,darwin1 when alluding 
to similar waves on the coast of ,chili1
 states his opinion1 that the whole     
phenomenon is due to a common undulation
 in the water1 proceeding from a line or
 point of disturbance some little way   
distant4 ,if the waves1 he says1 sent   
off from the paddles of a steam-vessel  
be watched breaking on the sloping shore
 of a still river1 the water will be    
seen first to retire two or three feet1 
and then to return in little breakers1  
precisely analogous to those consequent 
on an earthquake4 ,he also adds1 that   

the earthquake-wave occurs some time    
after the shock1 the water at first     
retiring both from the shores of the    
mainland and of outlying islands1 and   
then returning in mountainous breakers4 
,their size is modified by the form of  
the neighboring coast2 for it is        
ascertained in ,south ,america1 that    
places situated at the head of shoaling 
bays have suffered most1 whereas towns  
like ,valparaiso1 seated close on the   
border of a profound ocean1 have never  
been inundated1 though severely shaken  
by earthquakes4#fhh  ,more recently     
7,february1 #ahdf71 ,mr4 ,mallet1 in his
 memoir above cited 7p4 #dge71 has      
endeavored to bring to bear on this     
difficult subject the more advanced     
knowledge obtained of late years        
respecting the true theory of waves4 ,he
 conceives that when the origin of the  
shock is beneath the deep ocean1 one    
wave is propagated through the land1 and
 another moving with inferior velocity  
is formed on the surface of the ocean4  

,this last rolls in upon the land long  
after the earth-wave has arrived and    
spent itself4 ,however irreconcilable it
 may be to our common notions of solid  
bodies1 to imagine them capable of      
transmitting1 with such extreme         
velocity1 motions analogous to tidal    
waves1 it seems nevertheless certain    
that such undulations are produced1 and 
it is supposed that when the shock      
passes a given point1 each particle of  
the solid earth describes an ellipse in 
space4 ,the facility with which all the 
particles of a solid mass can be made to
 vibrate may be illustrated1 says ,gay  
,lussac1 by many familiar examples4 ,if 
we apply the ear to one end of a long   
wooden beam1 and listen attentively when
 the other end is struck by a pin's     
head1 we hear the shock distinctly2     
which shows that every fibre throughout 
the whole length has been made to       
vibrate4 ,the rattling of carriages on  
the pavement shakes the largest         
edifices2 and in the quarries underneath

 some quarters in ,paris1 it is found   
that the movement is communicated       
through a considerable thickness of     
rock4#fhi  ,the great sea-wave          
originating directly over the centre of 
disturbance is propagated1 as ,michell  
correctly stated1 in every direction1   
like the circle upon a pond when a      
pebble is dropped into it1 the different
 rates at which it moves depending 7as  
he also suggested7 on variations in the 
depth of the water4 ,this wave of the   
sea1 says ,mr4 ,mallet1 is raised by the
 impulse of the shock immediately below 
it1 which in great earthquakes lifts up 
the ground two or three feet            
perpendicularly4 ,the velocity of the   
shock1 or earth-wave1 is greater because
 it depends upon a function of the      
elasticity of the crust of the earth1   
whereas the velocity of the sea-wave    
depends upon a function of the depth of 
the sea4  ,although the shock in its    
passage under the deep ocean gives no   
trace of its progress1 it no sooner gets

 into soundings or shallow water1 than  
it gives rise to another and smaller    
wave of the sea4 ,it carries1 as it     
were1 upon its back1 this lesser aqueous
 undulation2 a long narrow ridge of     
water which corresponds in form and     
velocity to itself1 being pushed up by  
the partial elevation of the bottom4 ,it
 is this small wave1 called technically 
the 'forced sea-wave1' which            
communicates the earthquake-shock to    
ships at sea1 as if they had struck upon
 a rock4 ,it breaks upon a coast at the 
same moment that the shock reaches it1  
and sometimes it may cause an apparent  
slight recession from the shore1        
followed by its flowing up somewhat     
higher than the usual tide mark3 this   
will happen where the beach is very     
sloping1 as is usual where the sea is   
shallow1 for then the velocity of the   
low flat earth-wave is such1 that it    
slips as it were1 from under the        
undulation in the fluid above4 ,it does 
this at the moment of reaching the      

beach1 which it elevates by a vertical  
height equal to its own1 and as         
instantly lets drop again to its former 
level4  ,while the shock propagated     
through the solid earth has thus        
travelled with extra rapidity to the    
land1 the great sea-wave has been       
following at a slower pace1 though      
advancing at the rate of several miles  
in a minute4 ,it consists1 in the deep  
ocean1 of a long low swell of enormous  
volume1 having an equal slope before and
 behind1 and that so gentle that it     
might pass under a ship without being   
noticed4 ,but when it reaches the edge  
of soundings1 its front slope1 like that
 of a tidal wave under similar          
circumstances1 becomes short and steep1 
while its rear slope is long and gentle4
 ,if there be water of some depth close 
into shore1 this great wave may roll in 
long after the shock1 and do little     
damage2 but if the shore be shelving1   
there will be first a retreat of the    
water1 and then the wave will break upon

 the beach and roll in far upon the     
land4#fij  ,the various opinions which  
have been offered by ,michell and later 
writers1 respecting the remote causes of
 earthquake shocks in the interior of   
the earth1 will more properly be        
discussed in the thirty-second chapter4 
,chili1 #agea4--,on the #bdth of ,may1  
#agea1 the ancient town of ,conception1 
otherwise called ,penco1 was totally    
destroyed by an earthquake1 and the sea 
rolled over it4 7,see plan of the bay1  
fig4 #gj1 p4 #dee47 ,the ancient port   
was rendered entirely useless1 and the  
inhabitants built another town about ten
 miles from the sea-coast1 in order to  
be beyond the reach of similar          
inundations4 ,at the same time1 a colony
 recently settled on the sea-shore of   
,juan ,fernandez was almost entirely    
overwhelmed by a wave which broke upon  
the shore4  ,it has been already stated1
 that in #ahce1 or eighty-four years    
after the destruction of ,penco1 the    
same coast was overwhelmed by a similar 

flood from the sea during an earthquake2
 and it is also known that twenty-one   
years before 7or in #agcj71 a like wave 
rolled over these fated shores1 in which
 many of the inhabitants perished4 ,a   
series of similar catastrophes has also 
been tracked back as far as the year    
#aeij1fia beyond which we have no       
memorials save those of oral tradition4 
,molina1 who has recorded the customs   
and legends of the aborigines1 tells us1
 that the ,araucanian ,indians1 a tribe 
inhabiting the country between the      
,andes and the ,pacific1 including the  
part now called ,chili1 had among them a
 tradition of a great deluge1 in which  
only a few persons were saved1 who took 
refuge upon a high mountain called      
,thegtheg1 the thundering1 which had    
three points4 ,whenever a violent       
earthquake occurs1 these people fly for 
safety to the mountains1 assigning as a 
reason1 that they are fearful1 after the
 shock1 that the sea will again return  
and deluge the world4#fib               

,notwithstanding the tendency of writers
 in his day to refer all traditionary   
inundations to one remote period1       
,molina remarks that this flood of the  
,araucanians was probably very different
 from that of ,noah4 ,we have1 indeed1  
no means of conjecturing how long this  
same tribe had flourished in ,chili1 but
 we can scarcely doubt1 that if its     
experience reached back even for three  
or four centuries1 several inroads of   
the ocean must have occurred within that
 period4 ,but the memory of a succession
 of physical events1 similar in kind1   
though distinct in time1 can never be   
preserved by a people destitute of      
written annals4 ,before two or three    
generations have passed away all dates  
are forgotten1 and even the events      
themselves1 unless they have given      
origin to some customs1 or religious    
rites and ceremonies4 ,oftentimes the   
incidents of many different earthquakes 
and floods become blended together in   
the same narrative2 and in such cases   

the single catastrophe is described in  
terms so exaggerated1 or is so disguised
 by mythological fictions1 as to be     
utterly valueless to the antiquary or   
philosopher4  ,proofs of elevation of   
twenty-four feet4--,during a late survey
 of ,conception ,bay1 ,captain ,beechey 
and ,sir ,e4 ,belcher discovered that   
the ancient harbor1 which formerly      
admitted all large merchant vessels     
which went round the ,cape1 is now      
occupied by a reef of sandstone1 certain
 points of which project above the sea  
at low water1 the greater part being    
very shallow4 ,a tract of a mile and a  
half in length1 where1 according to the 
report of the inhabitants1 the water was
 formerly four or five fathoms deep1 is 
now a shoal2 consisting1 as our         
hydrographers found1 of hard sandstone1 
so that it cannot be supposed to have   
been formed by recent deposits of the   
river ,biobio1 an arm of which carries  
down loose micaceous sand into the same 
bay4  ,it is impossible at this distance

 of time to affirm that the bed of the  
sea was uplifted at once to the height  
of twenty-four feet1 during the single  
earthquake of #agea1 because other      
movements may have occurred             
subsequently2 but it is said1 that ever 
since the shock of #agea1 no vessels    
have been able to approach within a mile
 and a half of the ancient port of      
,penco4 7,see ,map1 p4 #dee47 ,in proof 
of the former elevation of the coast    
near ,penco our surveyors found above   
high-water mark an enormous bed of      
shells of the same species as those now 
living in the bay1 filled with micaceous
 sand like that which the ,biobio now   
conveys to the bay4 ,these shells1 as   
well as others1 which cover the         
adjoining hills of mica-schist to the   
height of several hundred feet1 have    
lately been examined by experienced     
conchologists in ,london1 and identified
 with those taken at the same time in a 
living state from the bay and its       
neighborhood4#fic  ,ulloa1 therefore1   

was perfectly correct in his statement  
that1 at various heights above the sea  
between ,talcahuano and ,conception1    
mines were found of various sorts of    
shells used for lime of the very same   
kinds as those found in the adjoining   
sea4 ,among them he mentions the great  
mussel called ,choros1 and two others   
which he describes4 ,some of these1 he  
says1 are entire1 and others broken2    
they occur at the bottom of the sea1 in 
four1 six1 ten1 or twelve fathom water1 
where they adhere to a sea-plant called 
,cochayuyo4 ,they are taken in dredges1 
and have no resemblance to those found  
on the shore or in shallow water2 yet   
beds of them occur at various heights on
 the hills4 ,i was the more pleased with
 the sight1 he adds1 as it appeared to  
me a convincing proof of the            
universality of the deluge1 although ,i 
am not ignorant that some have          
attributed their position to other      
causes4#fid ,it has1 however1 been      
ascertained that the foundation of the  

,castle of ,penco was so low in #ahce1  
or at so inconsiderable an elevation    
above the highest spring tides1 as to   
discountenance the idea of any permanent
 upheaval in modern times1 on the site  
of that ancient port2 but no exact      
measurements or levellings appear as yet
 to have been made to determine this    
point1 which is the more worthy of      
investigation1 because it may throw some
 light on an opinion often promulgated  
of late years1 that there is a tendency 
in the ,chilian coast1 after each       
upheaval1 to sink gradually and return  
towards its former position4  ,peru1    
#agdf4--,peru was visited1 on the #bhth 
of ,october1 #agdf1 by a tremendous     
earthquake4 ,in the first twenty-four   
hours1 two hundred shocks were          
experienced4 ,the ocean twice retired   
and returned impetuously upon the land3 
,lima was destroyed1 and part of the    
coast near ,callao was converted into a 
bay3 four other harbors1 among which    
were ,cavalla and ,guanape1 shared the  

same fate4 ,there were twenty-three     
ships and vessels1 great and small1 in  
the harbor of ,callao1 of which nineteen
 were sunk2 and the other four1 among   
which was a frigate called ,st4 ,fermin1
 were carried by the force of the waves 
to a great distance up the country1 and 
left on dry ground at a considerable    
height above the sea4 ,the number of    
inhabitants in this city amounted to    
four thousand4 ,two hundred only        
escaped1 twenty-two of whom were saved  
on a small fragment of the fort of ,vera
 ,cruz1 which remained as the only      
memorial of the town after this dreadful
 inundation4 ,other portions of its site
 were completely covered with heaps of  
sand and gravel4  ,a volcano in ,lucanas
 burst forth the same night1 and such   
quantities of water descended from the  
cone that the whole country was         
overflowed2 and in the mountain near    
,pataz1 called ,conversiones de         
,caxamarquilla1 three other volcanoes   
burst out1 and frightful torrents of    

water swept down their sides4#fie       
,there are several records of prior     
convulsions in ,peru1 accompanied by    
similar inroads in the sea1 one of which
 happened fifty-nine years before 7in   
#afhg71 when the ocean1 according to    
,ulloa1 first retired and then returned 
in a mountainous wave1 overwhelming     
,callao and its environs1 with the      
miserable inhabitants4#fif ,this same   
wave1 according to ,lionel ,wafer1      
carried ships a league into the country1
 and drowned man and beast for fifty    
leagues along the shore4#fig            
,inundations of still earlier dates are 
carefully recorded by ,ulloa1 ,wafer1   
,acosta1 and various writers1 who       
describe them as having expended their  
chief fury1 some on one part of the     
coast and some on another4  ,but all    
authentic accounts cease when we ascend 
to the era of the conquest of ,peru by  
the ,spaniards4 ,the ancient ,peruvians1
 although far removed from barbarism1   
were without written annals1 and        

therefore unable to preserve a distinct 
recollection of a long series of natural
 events4 ,they had1 however1 according  
to ,antonio de ,herrera1 who1 in the    
beginning of the seventeenth century1   
investigated their antiquities1 a       
tradition1 that many years before the   
reign of the ,incas1 at a time when the 
country was very populous1 there        
happened a great flood2 the sea breaking
 out beyond its bounds1 so that the land
 was covered with water and all the     
people perished4 ,to this the ,guacas1  
inhabiting the vale of ,xausca1 and the 
natives of ,chiquito1 in the province of
 ,callao1 add that some persons remained
 in the hollows and caves of the highest
 mountains1 who again peopled the land4 
,others of the mountain people affirm   
that all perished in the deluge1 only   
six persons being saved on a float1 from
 whom descended all the inhabitants of  
that country4#fih  ,on the mainland near
 ,lima1 and on the neighboring island of
 ,san ,lorenzo1 ,mr4 ,darwin found      

proofs that the ancient bed of the sea  
had been raised to the height of more   
than eighty feet above water within the 
human epoch1 strata having been         
discovered at that altitude1 containing 
pieces of cotton thread and plaited     
rush1 together with sea-weed and marine 
shells4#fii ,the same author learnt from
 ,mr4 ,gill1 a civil engineer1 that he  
discovered in the interior near ,lima1  
between ,casma and ,huaraz1 the dried-up
 channel of a large river1 sometimes    
worn through solid rock1 which1 instead 
of continually ascending towards its    
source1 has1 in one place1 a steep      
downward slope in that direction1 for a 
ridge or line of hills has been uplifted
 directly across the bed of the stream1 
which is now arched4 ,by these changes  
the water has been turned into some     
other course2 and a district1 once      
fertile1 and still covered with ruins1  
and bearing the marks of ancient        
cultivation1 has been converted into a  
desert4#gjj  ,java1 #afii4--,on the #eth

 of ,january1 #afii1 a terrible         
earthquake visited ,java1 and no less   
than #bjh considerable shocks were      
reckoned4 ,many houses in ,batavia were 
overturned1 and the flame and noise of a
 volcanic eruption were seen and heard  
in that city1 which were afterwards     
found to proceed from ,mount ,salek1#gja
 a volcano six days' journey distant4   
,next morning the ,batavian river1 which
 has its rise from that mountain1 became
 very high and muddy1 and brought down  
abundance of bushes and trees1 half     
burnt4 ,the channel of the river being  
stopped up1 the water overflowed the    
country round the gardens about the     
town1 and some of the streets1 so that  
fishes lay dead in them4 ,all the fish  
in the river1 except the carps1 were    
killed by the mud and turbid water4 ,a  
great number of drowned buffaloes1      
tigers1 rhinoceroses1 deer1 apes1 and   
other wild beasts1 were brought down by 
the current2 and1 notwithstanding1      
observes one of the writers1 that a     

crocodile is amphibious1 several of them
 were found dead among the rest4#gjb    
,it is stated that seven hills bounding 
the river sank down2 by which is merely 
meant1 as by similar expressions in the 
description of the ,calabrian           
earthquakes1 seven great landslips4     
,these hills1 descending some from one  
side of the valley and some from the    
other1 filled the channel1 and the      
waters then finding their way under the 
mass1 flowed out thick and muddy4 ,the  
,tangaran river was also dammed up by   
nine hills1 and in its channel were     
large quantities of drift trees4 ,seven 
of its tributaries also are said to have
 been covered up with earth4 ,a high    
tract of forest land1 between the two   
great rivers before mentioned1 is       
described as having been changed into an
 open country1 destitute of trees1 the  
surface being spread over with fine red 
clay4 ,this part of the account may1    
perhaps1 merely refer to the sliding    
down of woody tracts into the valleys1  

as happened to so many extensive        
vineyards and olive-grounds in          
,calabria1 in #aghc4 ,the close packing 
of large trees in the ,batavian river is
 represented as very remarkable1 and it 
attests in a striking manner the        
destruction of soil bordering the       
valleys which had been caused by floods 
and landslips4#gjc  ,quito1 #afih4--;,in
 ,quito1 on the #aith of ,july1 #afih1  
during an earthquake1 a great part of   
the crater and summit of the volcano    
,carguairazo fell in1 and a stream of   
water and mud issued from the broken    
sides of the hill4#gjd  ,sicily1        
#afic4--,shocks of earthquakes spread   
over all ,sicily in #afic1 and on the   
#aath of ,january the city of ,catania  
and forty-nine other places were        
levelled to the ground1 and about one   
hundred thousand people killed4 ,the    
bottom of the sea1 says ,vicentino      
,bonajutus1 sank down considerably1 both
 in ports1 inclosed bays1 and open parts
 of the coast1 and water bubbled up     

along the shores4 ,numerous long        
fissures of various breadths were       
caused1 which threw out sulphurous      
water2 and one of them1 in the plain of 
,catania 7the delta of the ,simeto71 at 
the distance of four miles from the sea1
 sent forth water as salt as the sea4   
,the stone buildings of a street in the 
city of ,noto1 for the length of half a 
mile1 sank into the ground1 and remained
 hanging on one side4 ,in another       
street1 an opening large enough to      
swallow a man and horse appeared4#gje   
,moluccas1 #afic4--,the small ,isle of  
,sorea1 which consists of one great     
volcano1 was in eruption in the year    
#afic4 ,different parts of the cone     
fell1 one after the other1 into a deep  
crater1 until almost half the space of  
the island was converted into a fiery   
lake4 ,most of the inhabitants fled to  
,banda2 but great pieces of the mountain
 continued to fall down1 so that the    
lake of lava became wider2 and finally  
the whole population was compelled to   

emigrate4 ,it is stated that1 in        
proportion as the burning lake increased
 in size1 the earthquakes were less     
vehement4#gjf  ,jamaica1 #afib4--;,in   
the year #afib1 the island of ,jamaica  
was visited by a violent earthquake2 the
 ground swelled and heaved like a       
rolling sea1 and was traversed by       
numerous cracks1 two or three hundred of
 which were often seen at a time1       
opening and then closing rapidly again4 
,many people were swallowed up in these 
rents2 some the earth caught by the     
middle1 and squeezed to death2 the heads
 of others only appeared above ground2  
and some were first engulfed1 and then  
cast up again with great quantities of  
water4 ,such was the devastation1 that  
even in ,port ,royal1 then the capital1 
where more houses are said to have been 
left standing than in the whole island  
besides1 three-quarters of the          
buildings1 together with the ground they
 stood on1 sank down with their         
inhabitants entirely under water4       

,subsidence in the harbor4--,the large  
storehouses on the harbor side subsided1
 so as to be twenty-four1 thirty-six1   
and forty-eight feet under water2 yet   
many of them appear to have remained    
standing1 for it is stated that1 after  
the earthquake1 the mast-heads of       
several ships wrecked in the harbor1    
together with the chimney-tops of       
houses1 were just seen projecting above 
the waves4 ,a tract of land round the   
town1 about a thousand acres in extent1 
sank down in less than one minute1      
during the first shock1 and the sea     
immediately rolled in4 ,the ,swan       
frigate1 which was repairing in the     
wharf1 was driven over the tops of many 
buildings1 and then thrown upon one of  
the roofs1 through which it broke4 ,the 
breadth of one of the streets is said to
 have been doubled by the earthquake4   
,according to ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,beche1   
the part of ,port ,royal described as   
having sunk was built upon newly formed 
land1 consisting of sand1 in which piles

 had been driven2 and the settlement of 
this loose sand1 charged with the weight
 of heavy houses1 may1 he suggests1 have
 given rise to the subsidence alluded   
to4#gjg  ,there have undoubtedly been   
instances in ,calabria and elsewhere of 
slides of land on which the houses have 
still remained standing2 and it is      
possible that such may have been the    
case at ,port ,royal4 ,the fact at least
 of submergence is unquestionable1 for  
,i was informed by the late ,admiral    
,sir ,charles ,hamilton that he         
frequently saw the submerged houses of  
,port ,royal in the year #aghj1 in that 
part of the harbor which lies between   
the town and the usual anchorage of     
men-of-war4 ,bryan ,edwards also says1  
in his history of the ,west ,indies1    
that in #agic the ruins were visible in 
clear weather from the boats which      
sailed over them4#gjh ,lastly1          
,lieutenant ,b4 ,jeffery1 ,r4 ,n41 tells
 me that1 being engaged in a survey     
between the years #ahbd and #ahce1 he   

repeatedly visited the site in question1
 where the depth of the water is from   
four to six fathoms1 and whenever there 
was but little wind perceived distinct  
traces of houses4 ,he saw these more    
clearly when he used the instrument     
called the diver's eye1 which is let    
down below the ripple of the wave4#gji  
,at several thousand places in ,jamaica 
the earth is related to have opened4 ,on
 the north of the island several        
plantations1 with their inhabitants1    
were swallowed up1 and a lake appeared  
in their place1 covering above a        
thousand acres1 which afterwards dried  
up1 leaving nothing but sand and gravel1
 without the least sign that there had  
ever been a house or a tree there4      
,several tenements at ,yallows were     
buried under land-slips2 and one        
plantation was removed half a mile from 
its place1 the crops continuing to grow 
upon it uninjured4 ,between ,spanish    
,town and ,sixteen-mile ,walk1 the high 
and perpendicular cliffs bounding the   

river fell in1 stopped the passage of   
the river and flooded the latter place  
for nine days1 so that the people       
concluded it had been sunk as ,port     
,royal was4 ,but the flood at length    
subsided1 for the river had found some  
new passage at a great distance4        
,mountains shattered4--,the ,blue and   
other of the highest mountains are      
declared to have been strangely torn and
 rent4 ,they appeared shattered and     
half-naked1 no longer affording a fine  
green prospect1 as before1 but stripped 
of their woods and natural verdure4 ,the
 rivers on these mountains first ceased 
to flow for about twenty-four hours1 and
 then brought down into the sea1 at     
,port ,royal and other places1 several  
hundred thousand tons of timber1 which  
looked like floating islands on the     
ocean4 ,the trees were in general       
barked1 most of their branches having   
been torn off in the descent4 ,it is    
particularly remarked in this1 as in the
 narratives of so many earthquakes1 that

 fish were taken in great numbers on the
 coast during the shocks4 ,the          
correspondents of ,sir ,hans ,sloane1   
who collected with care the accounts of 
eye-witnesses of the catastrophe1 refer 
constantly to subsidences1 and some     
supposed the whole of ,jamaica to have  
sunk down4#gaj  ,reflections on the     
amount of change in the last one hundred
 and sixty years4--,i have now only     
enumerated some few of the earthquakes  
of the last #afj years1 respecting which
 facts illustrative of geological       
inquiries are on record4 ,even if my    
limits permitted1 it would be an        
unprofitable task to examine all the    
obscure and ambiguous narratives of     
similar events of earlier epochs2       
although1 if the places were now        
examined by geologists well practised in
 the art of interpreting the monuments  
of physical changes1 many events which  
have happened within the historical era 
might doubtless be still determined with
 precision4 ,it must not be imagined    

that1 in the above sketch of the        
occurrences of a short period1 ,i have  
given an account of all1 or even the    
greater part1 of the mutations which the
 earth has undergone by the agency of   
subterranean movements4 ,thus1 for      
example1 the earthquake of ,aleppo1 in  
the present century1 and of ,syria1 in  
the middle of the eighteenth1 would     
doubtless have afforded numerous        
phenomena1 of great geological          
importance1 had those catastrophes been 
described by scientific observers4 ,the 
shocks in ,syria in #agei1 were         
protracted for three months1 throughout 
a space of ten thousand square leagues3 
an area compared to which that of the   
,calabrian earthquake in #aghc was      
insignificant4 ,accon1 ,saphat1         
,balbeck1 ,damascus1 ,sidon1 ,tripoli1  
and many other places1 were almost      
entirely levelled to the ground4 ,many  
thousands of the inhabitants perished in
 each2 and1 in the valley of ,balbeck   
alone1 #bj1jjj men are said to have been

 victims to the convulsion4 ,in the     
absence of scientific accounts1 it would
 be as irrelevant to our present purpose
 to enter into a detailed account of    
such calamities1 as to follow the track 
of an invading army1 to enumerate the   
cities burnt or rased to the ground1 and
 reckon the number of individuals who   
perished by famine or the sword4        
,deficiency of historical records4--,if 
such1 then1 be the amount of ascertained
 changes in the last #afj years1        
notwithstanding the extreme deficiency  
of our records during that brief period1
 how important must we presume the      
physical revolutions to have been in the
 course of thirty or forty centuries1   
during which some countries habitually  
convulsed by earthquakes have been      
peopled by civilized nations6 ,towns    
engulfed during one earthquake may1 by  
repeated shocks1 have sunk to great     
depths beneath the surface1 while the   
ruins remain as imperishable as the     
hardest rocks in which they are         

inclosed4 ,buildings and cities1        
submerged1 for a time1 beneath seas or  
lakes1 and covered with sedimentary     
deposits1 must1 in some places1 have    
been re-elevated to considerable heights
 above the level of the ocean4 ,the     
signs of these events have1 probably1   
been rendered visible by subsequent     
mutations1 as by the encroachments of   
the sea upon the coast1 by deep         
excavations made by torrents and rivers1
 by the opening of new ravines1 and     
chasms1 and other effects of natural    
agents1 so active in districts agitated 
by subterranean movements4  ,if it be   
asked why1 if such wonderful monuments  
exist1 so few have hitherto been brought
 to light1 we reply--because they have  
not been searched for4 ,in order to     
rescue from oblivion the memorials of   
former occurrences1 the inquirer must   
know what he may reasonably expect to   
discover1 and under what peculiar local 
circumstances4 ,he must be acquainted   
with the action and effect of physical  

causes1 in order to recognize1 explain1 
and describe correctly the phenomena    
when they present themselves4  ,the best
 known of the great volcanic regions1 of
 which the boundaries were sketched in  
the twenty-second chapter1 is that which
 includes ,southern ,europe1 ,northern  
,africa1 and ,central ,asia2 yet nearly 
the whole1 even of this region1 must be 
laid down1 in a geological map1 as      
,terra ,incognita4 ,even ,calabria may  
be regarded as unexplored1 as also      
,spain1 ,portugal1 the ,barbary ,states1
 the ,ionian ,isles1 ,asia ,minor1      
,cyprus1 ,syria1 and the countries      
between the ,caspian and ,black seas4   
,we are1 in truth1 beginning to obtain  
some insight into one small spot of that
 great zone of volcanic disturbance1 the
 district around ,naples2 a tract by no 
means remarkable for the violence of the
 earthquakes which have convulsed it4   
,if1 in this part of ,campania1 we are  
enabled to establish that considerable  
changes in the relative level of land   

and sea have taken place since the      
,christian era1 it is all that we could 
have expected2 and it is to recent      
antiquarian and geological research1 not
 to history1 that we are principally    
indebted for the information4 ,i shall  
now proceed to lay before the reader    
some of the results of modern           
investigations in the ,bay of ,baiae and
 the adjoining coast4   ,,proofs ,,of   
,,elevation ,,and ,,subsidence ,,in     
,,the ,,bay ,,of ,,baiae4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4  ,ground plan 
of the coast of the ,bay of ,baiae1 in  
the environs of ,puzzuoli4  ,temple of  
,jupiter ,serapis4--,this celebrated    
monument of antiquity1 a representation 
of which is given in the                
frontispiece1#gaa affords in itself     
alone1 unequivocal evidence that the    
relative level of land and sea has      
changed twice at ,puzzuoli since the    
,christian era2 and each movement1 both 
of elevation and subsidence1 has        
exceeded twenty feet4 ,before examining 

these proofs1 ,i may observe1 that a    
geological examination of the coast of  
,baiae1 both on the north and south of  
,puzzuoli1 establishes1 in the most     
satisfactory manner1 an elevation1 at no
 remote period1 of more than twenty     
feet1 and1 at one point1 of more than   
thirty feet2 and the evidence of this   
change would have been complete1 if even
 the temple had1 to this day1 remained  
undiscovered4  ,coast south of          
,puzzuoli4--,if we coast along the shore
 from ,naples to ,puzzuoli1 we find1 on 
approaching the latter place1 that the  
lofty and precipitous cliffs of         
indurated tuff1 resembling that of which
 ,naples is built1 retire slightly from 
the sea2 and that a low level tract of  
fertile land1 of a very different       
aspect1 intervenes between the present  
sea-beach and what was evidently the    
ancient line of coast4  ,the inland     
cliff may be seen opposite the small    
island of ,nisida1 about two miles and a
 half southeast of ,puzzuoli 7see ,map1 

fig4 #dj1 p4 #cfa71 where1 at the height
 of thirty-two feet above the level of  
the sea1 ,mr4 ,babbage observed an      
ancient mark1 such as might have been   
worn by the waves2 and1 upon farther    
examination1 discovered that1 along that
 line1 the face of the perpendicular    
rock1 consisting of very hard tuff1 was 
covered with barnacles 7,balanus        
sulcatus1 ,lamk471 and drilled by boring
 testacea4 ,some of the hollows of the  
lithodomi contained the shells2 while   
others were filled with the valves of a 
species of ,area4#gab ,nearer to        
,puzzuoli1 the inland cliff is eighty   
feet high1 and as perpendicular as if it
 was still undermined by the waves4 ,at 
its base1 a new deposit1 constituting   
the fertile tract above alluded to1     
attains a height of about twenty feet   
above the sea2 and1 since it is composed
 of regular sedimentary deposits1       
containing marine shells1 its position  
proves that1 subsequently to its        
formation1 there has been a change of   

more than twenty feet in the relative   
level of land and sea4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #hg4  a1 ,antiquities on hill ,s4 
,e4 of ,puzzuoli 7see ground plan1 fig4 
#hf74  b1 ,ancient cliff now inland4  c1
 ,terrace composed of recent submarine  
deposit4  ,the sea encroaches on these  
new incoherent strata2 and as the soil  
is valuable1 a wall has been built for  
its protection2 but when ,i visited the 
spot in #ahbh1 the waves had swept away 
part of this rampart1 and exposed to    
view a regular series of strata of tuff1
 more or less argillaceous1 alternating 
with beds of pumice and lapilli1 and    
containing great abundance of marine    
shells1 of species now common on this   
coast1 and amongst them ,cardium        
rusticum1 ,ostrea edulis1 ,donax        
trunculus1 ,lamk41 and others4 ,the     
strata vary from about a foot to a foot 
and a half in thickness1 and one of them
 contains abundantly remains of works of
 art1 tiles1 squares of mosaic pavement 
of different colors1 and small          

sculptured ornaments1 perfectly         
uninjured4 ,intermixed with these ,i    
collected some teeth of the pig and ox4 
,these fragments of building occur below
 as well as above strata containing     
marine shells4 ,puzzuoli itself stands  
chiefly on a promontory of the older    
tufaceous formation1 which cuts off the 
new deposit1 although ,i detected a     
small patch of the latter in a garden   
under the town4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#hh4  ,,view ,,of ,,bay ,,of ,,baiae4   
#a4 ,puzzuoli4 #b4 ,temple of ,serapis4 
#c4 ,caligula's ,bridge   #d4 ,monte    
,barbaro4 #e4 ,monte ,nuovo4 #f4 ,baths 
of ,nero4 #g4 ,baiae4   #h4 ,castle of  
,baiae4 #i4 ,bauli4 #aj4 ,cape ,misenum4
 #aa4 ,mount ,epomeo in   ,ischia4 #ab4 
,south ,part of ,ischia4    ,from the   
town the ruins of a mole1 called        
,caligula's ,bridge1 run out into the   
sea 7see fig4 #hh1 p4 #eji74gac ,this   
mole1 which is believed to be eighteen  
centuries old1 consists of a number of  
piers and arches1 thirteen of which are 

now standing1 and two others appear to  
have been overthrown4 ,mr4 ,babbage     
found1 on the sixth pier1 perforations  
of lithodomi four feet above the level  
of the sea2 and1 near the termination of
 the mole on the last pier but one1     
marks of the same1 ten feet above the   
level of the sea1 together with great   
numbers of balani and flustra4 ,the     
depth of the sea1 at a very small       
distance from most of the piers1 is from
 thirty to fifty feet4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #hi4     a1 ,remains of ,cicero's 
villa1 ,n4 side of ,puzzuoli4#gad   b1  
,ancient cliff now inland4   c1 ,terrace
 7called ,la ,starza7 composed of recent
 submarine deposits4   d1 ,temple of    
,serapis4    ,coast north of            
,puzzuoli4--,if we then pass to the     
north of ,puzzuoli1 and examine the     
coast between that town and ,monte      
,nuovo1 we find a repetition of         
analogous phenomena4 ,the sloping sides 
of ,monte ,barbaro slant down within a  
short distance of the coast1 and        

terminate in an inland cliff of moderate
 elevation1 to which the geologist      
perceives at once that the sea must1 at 
some former period1 have extended4      
,between this cliff and the sea is a low
 plain or terrace1 called ,la ,starza   
7c1 fig4 #hi71 corresponding to that    
before described on the southeast of the
 town2 and as the sea encroaches        
rapidly1 fresh sections of the strata   
may readily be obtained1 of which the   
annexed is an example4  ,section on the 
shore north of the town of ,puzzuoli3-- 
,ft4 ,in4    #a4 ,vegetable soil        
#a   #j    #b4 ,horizontal beds of      
pumice and scoriae1 with broken         
fragments        of unrolled bricks1    
bones of animals1 and marine shells     
#a   #f    #c4 ,beds of lapilli1        
containing abundance of marine shells1  
principally ,cardium rusticum1 ,donax   
trunculus1 ,lam41       ,ostrea edulis1 
,triton cutaceum1 ,lam41 and            
,buccinum serratum1 ,brocchi1 the beds  
varying in        thickness from one to 

eighteen inches                      #aj
   #j    #d4 ,argillaceous tuff1        
containing bricks and fragments         
of buildings not rounded by attrition4  
#a   #f   ,the thickness of many of     
these beds varies greatly as we trace   
them along the shore1 and sometimes the 
whole group rises to a greater height   
than at the point above described4 ,the 
surface of the tract which they compose 
appears to slope gently upwards towards 
the base of the old cliffs4  ,now1 if   
such appearances presented themselves on
 the coast of ,england1 a geologist     
might endeavor to seek an explanation in
 some local change in the set of the    
tides and currents3 but there are scarce
 any tides in the ,mediterranean2 and1  
to suppose the sea to have sunk         
generally from twenty to twenty-five    
feet since the shores of ,campania were 
covered with sumptuous buildings is an  
hypothesis obviously untenable4 ,the    
observations1 indeed1 made during modern
 surveys on the moles and cothons       

7docks7 constructed by the ancients in  
various ports of the ,mediterranean1    
have proved that there has been no      
sensible variation of level in that sea 
during the last two thousand years4#gae 
,thus we arrive1 without the aid of the 
celebrated temple1 at the conclusion1   
that the recent marine deposit at       
,puzzuoli was upraised in modern times  
above the level of the sea1 and that not
 only this change of position1 but the  
accumulation of the modern strata1 was  
posterior to the destruction of many    
edifices1 of which they contain the     
imbedded remains4 ,if we next examine   
the evidence afforded by the temple     
itself1 it appears1 from the most       
authentic accounts1 that the three      
pillars now standing erect continued1   
down to the middle of the last century1 
almost buried in the new marine strata  
7c1 fig4 #hi74 ,the upper part of each  
protruding several feet above the       
surface was concealed by bushes1 and had
 not attracted1 until the year #agdi1   

the notice of antiquaries2 but1 when the
 soil was removed in #agej1 they were   
seen to form part of the remains of a   
splendid edifice1 the pavement of which 
was still preserved1 and upon it lay a  
number of columns of ,african breccia   
and of granite4 ,the original plan of   
the building could be traced distinctly3
 it was of a quadrangular form1 seventy 
feet in diameter1 and the roof had been 
supported by forty-six noble columns1   
twenty-four of granite and the rest of  
marble4 ,the large court was surrounded 
by apartments1 supposed to have been    
used as bathing-rooms2 for a thermal    
spring1 still used for medicinal        
purposes1 issues just behind the        
building1 and the water of this spring  
appears to have been originally conveyed
 by a marble duct1 still extant1 into   
the chambers1 and then across the       
pavement by a groove an inch or two     
deep1 to a conduit made of ,roman       
brickwork1 by which it gained the sea4  
,many antiquaries have entered into     

elaborate discussions as to the deity to
 which this edifice was consecrated4 ,it
 is admitted that1 among other images   
found in excavating the ruins1 there was
 one of the god ,serapis2 and at        
,puzzuoli a marble column was dug up1 on
 which was carved an ancient            
inscription1 of the date of the building
 of ,rome #fdh 7or ,b4 ,c4 #aje71       
entitled ,lex parieti faciundo4 ,this   
inscription1 written in very obscure    
,latin1 sets forth a contract1 between  
the municipality of the town1 and a     
company of builders who undertook to    
keep in repair certain public edifices1 
the ,temple of ,serapis being mentioned 
amongst the rest1 and described as being
 near or towards the sea1 mare vorsum4  
,sir ,edmund ,head1 after studying1 in  
#ahbh1 the topography and antiquities of
 this district1 and the ,greek1 ,roman1 
and ,italian writers on the subject1    
informed me1 that at ,alexandria1 on the
 ,nile1 the chief seat of the worship of
 ,serapis1 there was a ,serapeum of the 

same form as this temple at ,puzzuoli1  
and surrounded in like manner by        
chambers1 in which the devotees were    
accustomed to pass the night1 in the    
hope of receiving during sleep a        
revelation from the god1 as to the      
nature and cure of their diseases4      
,hence it was very natural that the     
priests of ,serapis1 a pantheistic      
divinity1 who1 among other usurpations1 
had appropriated to himself the         
attributes of ,esculapius1 should regard
 the hot spring as a suitable appendage 
to the temple1 although the original    
,serapeum of ,alexandria could boast no 
such medicinal waters4 ,signor          
,carelli#gaf and others1 in objecting to
 these views1 have insisted on the fact1
 that the worship of ,serapis1 which we 
know prevailed at ,rome in the days of  
,catullus 7in the first century before  
,christ71 was prohibited by the ,roman  
,senate1 during the reign of the        
,emperor ,tiberius4 ,but there is little
 doubt that1 during the reigns of that  

emperor's successors1 the shrines of the
 ,egyptian god were again thronged by   
zealous votaries2 and in no place more  
so than at ,puteoli 7now ,puzzuoli71 one
 of the principal marts for the produce 
of ,alexandria4  ,without entering      
farther into an inquiry which is not    
strictly geological1 ,i shall designate 
this valuable relic of antiquity by its 
generally received name1 and proceed to 
consider the memorials of physical      
changes inscribed on the three standing 
columns in most legible characters by   
the hand of ,nature4 7,see              
,frontispiece47 ,these pillars1 which   
have been carved each out of a single   
block of marble1 are forty feet three   
inches and a half in height4 ,a         
horizontal fissure nearly intersects one
 of the columns2 the other two are      
entire4 ,they are all slightly out of   
the perpendicular1 inclining somewhat to
 the southwest1 that is1 towards the    
sea4#gag ,their surface is smooth and   
uninjured to the height of about twelve 

feet above their pedestals4 ,above this 
is a zone1 about nine feet in height1   
where the marble has been pierced by a  
species of marine perforating           
bivalve--,lithodomus1 ,cuv4#gah ,the    
holes of these animals are pear-shaped1 
the external opening being minute1 and  
gradually increasing downwards4 ,at the 
bottom of the cavities1 many shells are 
still found1 notwithstanding the great  
numbers that have been taken out by     
visitors2 in many the valves of a       
species of arca1 an animal which        
conceals itself in small hollows1 occur4
 ,the perforations are so considerable  
in depth and size1 that they manifest a 
long-continued abode of the lithodomi in
 the columns1 for1 as the inhabitant    
grows older and increases in size1 it   
bores a larger cavity1 to correspond    
with the increased magnitude of its     
shell4 ,we must1 consequently1 infer a  
long-continued immersion of the pillars 
in sea-water1 at a time when the lower  
part was covered up and protected by    

marine1 fresh-water1 and volcanic       
strata1 afterwards to be described1 and 
by the rubbish of buildings2 the highest
 part1 at the same time1 projecting     
above the waters1 and being consequently
 weathered1 but not materially injured4 
7,see fig4 #ij1 p4 #ead47  ,on the      
pavement of the temple lie some columns 
of marble1 which are also perforated in 
certain parts2 one1 for example1 to the 
length of eight feet1 while1 for the    
length of four feet1 it is uninjured4   
,several of these broken columns are    
eaten into1 not only on the exterior1   
but on the cross fracture1 and1 on some 
of them1 other marine animals 7serpulae1
 c47 have fixed themselves4#gai ,all the
 granite pillars are untouched by       
lithodomi4 ,the platform of the temple1 
which is not perfectly even1 was1 when  
,i visited it in #ahbh1 about one foot  
below high-water mark 7for there are    
small tides in the bay of ,naples72 and 
the sea1 which was only one hundred feet
 distant1 soaked through the intervening

 soil4 ,the upper part of the           
perforations1 therefore1 were at least  
twenty-three feet above high-water mark2
 and it is clear that the columns must  
have continued for a long time in an    
erect position1 immersed in salt water1 
and then the submerged portion must have
 been upraised to the height of about   
twenty-three feet above the level of the
 sea4  ,by excavations carried on in    
#ahbh1 below the marble pavement on     
which the columns stand1 another costly 
pavement of mosaic was found1 at the    
depth of about five feet below the upper
 one 7a1 b1 fig4 #ij74 ,the existence of
 these two pavements1 at different      
levels1 clearly implies some subsidence 
previously to the building of the more  
modern temple which had rendered it     
necessary to construct the new floor at 
a higher level4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ij4  ,temple of ,serapis at its period 
of greatest depression4     a b1        
,ancient mosaic pavement4   c c1 ,dark  
marine incrustation4   d d1 ,first      

filling up1 shower of ashes4   e e1     
,freshwater calcareous deposit4   f f1  
,second filling up4   ,a1 ,stadium4     
,we have already seen 7p4 #eab7 that a  
temple of ,serapis existed long before  
the ,christian era4 ,the change of level
 just mentioned must have taken place   
some time before the end of the second  
century1 for inscriptions have been     
found in the temple1 from which we learn
 that ,septimius ,severus adorned its   
walls with precious marbles1 between the
 years #aid and #baa of our era1 and the
 emperor ,alexander ,severus displayed  
the like munificence between the years  
#bbb and #bce4gbj ,from that era there  
is an entire dearth of historical       
information for a period of more than   
twelve centuries1 except the significant
 fact that ,alaric and his ,goths sacked
 ,puzzuoli in #def1 and that ,genseric  
did the like in #ede1 ,a4 ,d4 ,yet we   
have fortunately a series of natural    
archives self-registered during the dark
 ages1 by which many events which       

occurred in and about the temple are    
revealed to us4 ,these natural records  
consist partly of deposits1 which       
envelop the pillars below the zone of   
lithodomous perforations1 and partly of 
those which surround the outer walls of 
the temple4 ,mr4 ,babbage1 after a      
minute examination of these1 has shown  
7see p4 #ejg1 note7 that incrustations  
on the walls of the exterior chambers   
and on the floor of the building        
demonstrate that the pavement did not   
sink down suddenly1 but was depressed by
 a gradual movement4 ,the sea first     
entered the court or atrium and mingled 
its waters partially with those of the  
hot spring4 ,from this brackish medium a
 dark calcareous precipitate 7c c1 fig4 
#ij7 was thrown down1 which became1 in  
the course of time1 more than two feet  
thick1 including some serpulae in it4   
,the presence of these annelids teaches 
us that the water was salt or brackish4 
,after this period the temple was filled
 up with an irregular mass of volcanic  

tuff 7d d1 fig4 #ij71 probably derived  
from an eruption of the neighboring     
crater of the ,solfatara1 to the height 
of from five to nine feet above the     
pavement4 ,over this again a purely     
freshwater deposit of carbonate of lime 
7e e1 fig4 #ij7 accumulated with an     
uneven bottom since it necessarily      
accommodated itself to the irregular    
outline of the upper surface of the     
volcanic shower before thrown down4 ,the
 top of the same deposit 7a freshwater  
limestone7 was perfectly even and flat1 
bespeaking an ancient water level4 ,it  
is suggested by ,mr4 ,babbage that this 
freshwater lake may have been caused by 
the fall of ashes which choked up the   
channel previously communicating with   
the sea1 so that the hot spring threw   
down calcareous matter in the atrium1   
without any marine intermixture4 ,to the
 freshwater limestone succeeded another 
irregular mass of volcanic ashes and    
rubbish 7f f1 fig4 #ij71 some of it     
perhaps washed in by the waves of the   

sea during a storm1 its surface rising  
to ten or eleven feet above the         
pavement4 ,and thus we arrive at the    
period of greatest depression expressed 
in the accompanying diagram1 when the   
lower half of the pillars were enveloped
 in the deposits above enumerated1 and  
the uppermost twenty feet were exposed  
in the atmosphere1 the remaining or     
middle portion1 about nine feet long1   
being for years immersed in salt water  
and drilled by perforating bivalves4    
,after this period other strata1        
consisting of showers of volcanic ashes 
and materials washed in during storms1  
covered up the pillars to the height in 
some places of thirty-five feet above   
the pavement4 ,the exact time when these
 enveloping masses were heaped up1 and  
how much of them were formed during     
submergence1 and how much after the     
re-elevation of the temple1 cannot be   
made out with certainty4  ,the period of
 deep submergence was certainly         
antecedent to the close of the fifteenth

 century4 ,professor ,james ,forbes#gba 
has reminded us of a passage in an old  
,italian writer ,loffredo1 who says that
 in #aecj1 or fifty years before he     
wrote1 which was in #aehj1 the sea      
washed the base of the hills which rise 
from the flat land called ,la ,starza1  
as represented in fig4 #ij1 so that1 to 
quote his words1 a person might then    
have fished from the site of those ruins
 which are now called the stadium 7,a1  
fig4 #ij74  ,but we know from other     
evidence that the upward movement had   
begun before #aecj1 for the ,canonico   
,andrea di ,jorio cites two authentic   
documents in illustration of this point4
 ,the first1 dated ,oct4 #aejc1 is a    
deed written in ,italian1 by which      
,ferdinand and ,isabella grant to the   
,university of ,puzzuoli a portion of   
land1 where the sea is drying up 7che va
 seccando el mare72 the second1 a       
document in ,latin1 dated ,may #bc1     
#aeaa1 or nearly eight years after1 by  
which ,ferdinand grants to the city a   

certain territory around ,puzzuoli1     
where the ground is dried up from the   
sea 7desiccatum74#gbb  ,the principal   
elevation1 however1 of the low tract    
unquestionably took place at the time of
 the great eruption of ,monte ,nuovo in 
#aech4 ,that event and the earthquakes  
which preceded it have been already     
described 7p4 #cfh72 and we have seen   
that two of the eye-witnesses of the    
convulsion1 ,falconi and ,giacomo di    
,toledo1 agree in declaring that the sea
 abandoned a considerable tract of the  
shore1 so that fish were taken by the   
inhabitants2 and1 among other things1   
,falconi mentions that he saw two       
springs in the newly discovered ruins4  
,the flat land1 when first upraised1    
must have been more extensive than now1 
for the sea encroaches somewhat rapidly1
 both to the north and southeast of     
,puzzuoli4 ,the coast had1 when ,i      
examined it in #ahbh1 given way more    
than a foot in a twelvemonth2 and ,i was
 assured1 by fishermen in the bay1 that 

it has lost ground near ,puzzuoli1 to   
the extent of thirty feet1 within their 
memory4  ,it is1 moreover1 very probable
 that the land rose to a greater height 
at first before it ceased to move       
upwards1 than the level at which it was 
observed to stand when the temple was   
rediscovered in #agdi1 for we learn from
 a memoir1 of ,niccolini1 published in  
#ahch1 that since the beginning of the  
nineteenth century1 the temple of       
,serapis has subsided more than two     
feet4 ,that learned architect visited   
the ruins frequently1 for the sake of   
making drawings1 in the beginning of the
 year #ahjg1 and was in the habit of    
remaining there throughout the day1 yet 
never saw the pavement overflowed by the
 sea1 except occasionally when the south
 wind blew violently4 ,on his return1   
sixteen years after1 to superintend some
 excavations ordered by the king of     
,naples1 he found the pavement covered  
by sea-water twice every day at high    
tide1 so that he was obliged to place   

there a line of stones to stand upon4   
,this induced him to make a series of   
observations from ,oct4 #ahbb to ,july  
#ahch1 by which means he ascertained    
that the ground had been and was        
sinking1 at the average rate of about   
seven millimetres a year1 or about one  
inch in four years2 so that1 in #ahch1  
fish were caught every day on that part 
of the pavement where1 in #ahjg1 there  
was never a drop of water in calm       
weather4#gbc  ,on inquiring still more  
recently as to the condition of the     
temple and the continuance of the       
sinking of the ground1 ,i learn from    
,signor ,scacchi in a letter1 dated     
,june #aheb1 that the downward movement 
has ceased for several years1 or has at 
least become almost inappreciable4      
,during an examination undertaken by him
 at my request in the summer of that    
year 7#aheb71 he observed that the      
rising tide spread first over the       
seaward side of the flat surface of the 
pedestals of each column 7confirming the

 fact previously noticed by others1 that
 they are out of the perpendicular72 and
 he also remarked that the water gained 
unequally on the base of each pillar1 in
 such a manner as to prove that they    
have neither the same amount of         
inclination1 nor lean precisely in the  
same direction4  ,from what was said    
before 7p4 #eaj71 we saw that the marine
 shells in the strata forming the plain 
called ,la ,starza1 considered          
separately1 establish the fact of an    
upheaval of the ground to the height of 
twenty-three feet and upwards4 ,the     
temple proves much more1 because it     
could not have been built originally    
under water1 and must therefore first   
have sunk down twenty feet at least     
below the waves1 to be afterwards       
restored to its original position4 ,yet 
if such was the order of events we ought
 to meet with other independent signs of
 a like subsidence round the margin of a
 bay once so studded with buildings as  
the ,bay of ,baiae4 ,accordingly        

memorials of such submergence are not   
wanting4 ,about a mile northwest of the 
temple of ,serapis1 and about #ejj feet 
from the shore1 are the ruins of a      
temple of ,neptune and others of a      
temple of the ,nymphs1 now underwater4  
,the columns of the former edifice stand
 erect in five feet of water1 their     
upper portions just rising to the       
surface of the sea4 ,the pedestals are  
doubtless buried in the sand or mud2 so 
that1 if this part of the bottom of the 
bay should hereafter be elevated1 the   
exhumation of these temples might take  
place after the manner of that of       
,serapis4 ,both these buildings probably
 participated in the movement which     
raised the ,starza2 but either they were
 deeper under water than the temple of  
,serapis1 or they were not raised up    
again to so great a height4 ,there are  
also two ,roman roads under water in the
 bay1 one reaching from ,puzzuoli to the
 ,lucrine ,lake1 which may still be     
seen1 and the other near the castle of  

,baiae 7,no4 #h1 fig4 #hh1 p4 #eji74    
,the ancient mole1 too1 of ,puzzuoli    
7,no4 #d1 ibid47 before alluded to1 has 
the water up to a considerable height of
 the arches2 whereas ,brieslak justly   
observes1 it is next to certain that the
 piers must formerly have reached the   
surface before the springing of the     
arches2#gbd so that1 although the       
phenomena before described prove that   
this mole has been uplifted ten feet    
above the level at which it once stood1 
it is still evident that it has not yet 
been restored to its original position4 
,a modern writer also reminds us1 that  
these effects are not so local as some  
would have us to believe2 for on the    
opposite side of the ,bay of ,naples1 on
 the ,sorrentine coast1 which1 as well  
as ,puzzuoli1 is subject to earthquakes1
 a road1 with some fragments of ,roman  
buildings1 is covered to some depth by  
the sea4 ,in the island of ,capri1 also1
 which is situated some way out at sea1 
in the opening of the ,bay of ,naples1  

one of the palaces of ,tiberius is now  
covered with water4#gbe  ,that buildings
 should have been submerged1 and        
afterwards upheaved1 without being      
entirely reduced to a heap of ruins1    
will appear no anomaly1 when we         
recollect that1 in the year #ahai1 when 
the delta of the ,indus sank down1 the  
houses within the fort of ,sindree      
subsided beneath the waves without being
 overthrown4 ,in like manner1 in the    
year #afib1 the buildings round the     
harbor of ,port ,royal1 in ,jamaica1    
descended suddenly to the depth of      
between thirty and fifty feet under the 
sea without falling4 ,even on small     
portions of land transported to a       
distance of a mile down a declivity1    
tenements1 like those near ,mileto1 in  
,calabria1 were carried entire4 ,at     
,valparaiso buildings were left standing
 in #ahbb1 when their foundations1      
together with a long tract of the       
,chilian coast1 were permanently        
upraised to the height of several feet4 

,it is still more easy to conceive that 
an edifice may escape falling during the
 upheaval or subsidence of land1 if the 
walls are supported on the exterior and 
interior with a deposit like that which 
surrounded and filled to the height of  
ten or eleven feet the temple of        
,serapis all the time it was sinking1   
and which enveloped it to more than     
twice that height when it was rising    
again to its original level4  ,we can   
scarcely avoid the conclusion1 as ,mr4  
,babbage has hinted1 that the action of 
heat is in some way or other the cause  
of the phenomena of the change of level 
of the temple4 ,its own hot spring1 its 
immediate contiguity to the ,solfatara1 
its nearness to the ,monte ,nuovo1 the  
hot spring at the baths of ,nero 7,no4  
#f1 fig4 #hh71 on the opposite side of  
the ,bay of ,baiae2 the boiling springs 
and ancient volcanoes of ,ischia on one 
side and ,vesuvius on the other1 are the
 most prominent of a multitude of facts 
which point to that conclusion4#gbf ,and

 when we reflect on the dates of the    
principal oscillations of level1 and the
 volcanic history of the country before 
described 7chap4 #bc71 we seem to       
discover a connection between each era  
of upheaval and a local development of  
volcanic heat1 and again between each   
era of depression and the local         
quiescence or dormant condition of the  
subterranean igneous causes4 ,thus for  
example1 before the ,christian era1 when
 so many vents were in frequent eruption
 in ,ischia1 and when ,avernus and other
 points in the ,phlegraean ,fields were 
celebrated for their volcanic aspect and
 character1 the ground on which the     
temple stood was several feet above     
water4 ,vesuvius was then regarded as a 
spent volcano2 but when1 after the      
,christian era1 the fires of that       
mountain were rekindled1 scarcely a     
single outburst was ever witnessed in   
,ischia1 or around the ,bay of ,baiae4  
,then the temple was sinking4 ,vesuvius1
 at a subsequent period1 became nearly  

dormant for five centuries preceding the
 great outbreak of #afca 7see p4 #cgd71 
and in that interval the ,solfatara was 
in eruption ,a4 ,d4 #aaih1 ,ischia in   
#acjb1 and ,monte ,nuovo was formed in  
#aech4 ,then the foundations on which   
the temple stood were rising again4     
,lastly1 ,vesuvius once more became a   
most active vent1 and has been so ever  
since1 and during the same lapse of time
 the area of the temple1 so far as we   
know any thing of its history1 has been 
subsiding4  ,these phenomena would agree
 well with the hypothesis1 that when the
 subterranean heat is on the increase1  
and when lava is forming without        
obtaining an easy vent1 like that       
afforded by a great habitual chimney1   
such as ,vesuvius1 the incumbent surface
 is uplifted2 but when the heated rocks 
below are cooling and contracting1 and  
sheets of lava are slowly consolidating 
and diminishing in volume1 then the     
incumbent land subsides4  ,signor       
,niccolini1 when he ascertained in #ahch

 that the relative levels of the floor  
of the temple and of the sea were slowly
 changing from year to year1 embraced   
the opinion that it was the sea which   
was rising4 ,but ,signor ,capocci       
successfully controverted this view1    
appealing to many appearances which     
attest the local character of the       
movements of the adjoining country1     
besides the historical fact that in     
#aech1 when the sea retired permanently 
#bjj yards from the ancient shore at    
,puzzuoli1 there was no simultaneous    
retreat of the waters from ,naples1     
,castelamare1 and ,ischia4#gbg          
,permanence of the ocean's level4--,in  
concluding this subject ,i may observe1 
that the interminable controversies to  
which the phenomena of the ,bay of      
,baiae gave rise1 have sprung from an   
extreme reluctance to admit that the    
land1 rather than the sea1 is subject   
alternately to rise and fall4 ,had it   
been assumed that the level of the ocean
 was invariable1 on the ground that no  

fluctuations have as yet been clearly   
established1 and that1 on the other     
hand1 the continents are inconstant in  
their level1 as has been demonstrated by
 the most unequivocal proofs again and  
again1 from the time of ,strabo to our  
own times1 the appearances of the temple
 at ,puzzuoli could never have been     
regarded as enigmatical4 ,even if       
contemporary accounts had not distinctly
 attested the upraising of the coast1   
this explanation should have been       
proposed in the first instance as the   
most natural1 instead of being now      
adopted unwillingly when all others have
 failed4  ,to the strong prejudices     
still existing in regard to the mobility
 of the land1 we may attribute the      
rarity of such discoveries as have been 
recently brought to light in the ,bay of
 ,baiae and the ,bay of ,conception4 ,a 
false theory1 it is well known1 may     
render us blind to facts which are      
opposed to our prepossessions1 or may   
conceal from us their true import when  

we behold them4 ,but it is time that the
 geologist should1 in some degree1      
overcome those first and natural        
impressions1 which induced the poets of 
old to select the rock as the emblem of 
firmness--the sea as the image of       
inconstancy4 ,our modern poet1 in a more
 philosophical spirit1 saw in the sea   
,the image of eternity1 and has finely  
contrasted the fleeting existence of the
 successive empires which have          
flourished and fallen on the borders of 
the ocean with its own unchanged        
stability4                              
------,their decay     ,has dried up    
realms to deserts3--not so thou1        
,unchangeable1 save to thy wild wave's  
play3     ,time writes no wrinkle on    
thine azure brow2   ,such as creation's 
dawn beheld1 thou rollest now4          
,,childe ,,harold1 ,canto iv4           
,,chapter ,,xxx4  ,,elevation ,,and     
,,subsidence ,,of ,,land ,,without      
,,earthquakes4     ,changes in the      
relative level of land and sea in       

regions not     volcanic--,opinion of   
,celsius that the waters of the ,baltic 
,sea and     ,northern ,ocean were      
sinking--,objections raised to his      
opinion--,proofs of the stability of the
 sea level in the                       
,baltic--,playfair's hypothesis that the
 land was rising in                     
,sweden--,opinion of ,von ,buch--,marks 
cut on the rocks--,survey of these      
in #ahbj--;,facility of detecting slight
 alterations of level on coast     of   
,sweden--,shores of the ocean also      
rising--,area upheaved--,shelly         
deposits of ,uddevalla--,of ,stockholm1 
containing fossil shells                
characteristic of the                   
,baltic--,subsidence in south of        
,sweden--,fishing     hut buried under  
marine strata--,upheaval in ,sweden not 
always in     horizontal                
planes--,sinking of land in             
,greenland--,bearing of these     facts 
on geology4   ,we have now considered   
the phenomena of volcanoes and          

earthquakes according to the division of
 the subject before proposed 7p4 #cde71 
and have next to turn our attention to  
those slow and insensible changes in the
 relative level of land and sea which   
take place in countries remote from     
volcanoes1 and where no violent         
earthquakes have occurred within the    
period of human observation4 ,early in  
the last century the ,swedish           
naturalist1 ,celsius1 expressed his     
opinion that the waters1 both of the    
,baltic and ,northern ,ocean1 were      
gradually subsiding4 ,from numerous     
observations1 he inferred that the rate 
of depression was about fifty ,swedish  
inches in a century4#gbh ,in support of 
this position1 he alleged that there    
were many rocks both on the shores of   
the ,baltic and the ocean known to have 
been once sunken reefs1 and dangerous to
 navigators1 but which were in his time 
above water--that the waters of the     
,gulf of ,bothnia had been gradually    
converted into land1 several ancient    

ports having been changed into inland   
cities1 small islands joined to the     
continent1 and old fishing-grounds      
deserted as being too shallow1 or       
entirely dried up4 ,celsius also        
maintained1 that the evidence of the    
change rested not only on modern        
observations1 but on the authority of   
the ancient geographers1 who had stated 
that ,scandinavia was formerly an       
island4 ,this island1 he argued1 must in
 the course of centuries1 by the gradual
 retreat of the sea1 have become        
connected with the continent2 an event  
which he supposed to have happened after
 the time of ,pliny1 and before the     
ninth century of our era4  ,to this     
argument it was objected that the       
ancients were so ignorant of the        
geography of the most northern parts of 
,europe1 that their authority was       
entitled to no weight2 and that their   
representation of ,scandinavia as an    
island1 might with more propriety be    
adduced to prove the scantiness of their

 information1 than to confirm so bold an
 hypothesis4 ,it was also remarked that 
if the land which connected ,scandinavia
 with the main continent was laid dry   
between the time of ,pliny and the ninth
 century1 to the extent to which it is  
known to have risen above the sea at the
 latter period1 the rate of depression  
could not have been uniform1 as was     
pretended2 for it ought to have fallen  
much more rapidly between the ninth and 
eighteenth centuries4  ,many of the     
proofs relied on by ,celsius and his    
followers were immediately controverted 
by several philosophers1 who saw clearly
 that a fall of the sea in any one      
region could not take place without a   
general sinking of the waters over the  
whole globe3 they denied that this was  
the fact1 or that the depression was    
universal1 even in the ,baltic4 ,in     
proof of the stability of the level of  
that sea1 they appealed to the position 
of the island of ,saltholm1 not far from
 ,copenhagen4 ,this island is so low1   

that in autumn and winter it is         
permanently overflowed2 and it is only  
dry in summer1 when it serves for       
pasturing cattle4 ,it appears1 from the 
documents of the year #abhj1 that       
,saltholm was then also in the same     
state1 and exactly on a level with the  
mean height of the sea1 instead of      
having been about twenty feet under     
water1 as it ought to have been1        
according to the computation of         
,celsius4 ,several towns1 also1 on the  
shores of the ,baltic1 as ,lubeck1      
,wismar1 ,rostock1 ,stralsund1 and      
others1 after six and even eight hundred
 years1 are as little elevated above the
 sea as at the era of their foundation1 
being now close to the water's edge4    
,the lowest part of ,dantzic was no     
higher than the mean level of the sea in
 the year #ajjj2 and after eight        
centuries its relative position remains 
exactly the same4#gbi  ,several of the  
examples of the gain of land and        
shallowing of the sea pointed out by    

,celsius1 and afterwards by ,linnaeus1  
who embraced the same opinions1 were    
ascribed by others to the deposition of 
sediment at points where rivers entered2
 and1 undoubtedly1 ,celsius had not     
sufficiently distinguished between      
changes due to these causes and such as 
would arise if the waters of the ocean  
itself were diminishing4 ,many large    
rivers descending from a mountainous    
country1 at the head of the ,gulf of    
,bothnia1 enter the sea charged with    
sand1 mud1 and pebbles2 and it was said 
that in these places the low land had   
advanced rapidly1 especially near       
,torneo4 ,at ,piteo also1 half a mile   
had been gained in forty-five years2 at 
,luleo1#gcj no less than a mile in      
twenty-eight years2 facts which might   
all be admitted consistently with the   
assumption that the level of the ,baltic
 has remained unchanged1 like that of   
the ,adriatic1 during a period when the 
plains of the ,po and the ,adige have   
greatly extended their area4  ,it was   

also alleged that certain insular rocks1
 once entirely covered with water1 had  
at length protruded themselves above the
 waves1 and grown1 in the course of a   
century and a half1 to be eight feet    
high4 ,the following attempt was made to
 explain away this phenomenon3--,in the 
,baltic1 large erratic blocks1 as well  
as sand and smaller stones which lie on 
shoals1 are liable every year to be     
frozen into the ice1 where the sea      
freezes to the depth of five or six     
feet4 ,on the melting of the snow in    
spring1 when the sea rises about half a 
fathom1 numerous ice-islands float away1
 bearing up these rocky fragments so as 
to convey them to a distance2 and if    
they are driven by the waves upon       
shoals1 they may convert them into      
islands by depositing the blocks2 if    
stranded upon low islands1 they may     
considerably augment their height4      
,browallius1 also1 and some other       
,swedish naturalists1 affirmed that some
 islands were lower than formerly2 and  

that1 by reference to this kind of      
evidence1 there was equally good reason 
for contending that the level of the    
,baltic was gradually rising4 ,they also
 added another curious proof of the     
permanency of the water level1 at some  
points at least1 for many centuries4 ,on
 the ,finland coast were some large     
pines1 growing close to the water's     
edge2 these were cut down1 and1 by      
counting the concentric rings of annual 
growth1 as seen in a transverse section 
of the trunk1 it was demonstrated that  
they had stood there for four hundred   
years4 ,now1 according to the ,celsian  
hypothesis1 the sea had sunk about      
fifteen feet during that period1 in     
which case the germination and early    
growth of these pines must have been1   
for many seasons1 below the level of the
 water4 ,in like manner it was asserted1
 that the lower walls of many ancient   
castles1 such as those of ,sonderburg   
and ,abo1 reached then to the water's   
edge1 and must1 therefore1 according to 

the theory of ,celsius1 have been       
originally constructed below the level  
of the sea4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4  
,in reply to this last argument1        
,colonel ,hallstrom1 a ,swedish         
engineer1 well acquainted with the      
,finland coast1 assured me1 that the    
base of the walls of the castle of ,abo 
is now ten feet above the water1 so that
 there may have been a considerable rise
 of the land at that point since the    
building was erected4  ,playfair1 in his
 ,illustrations of the ,huttonian       
,theory1 in #ahjb1 admitted the         
sufficiency of the proofs adduced by    
,celsius1 but attributed the change of  
level to the movement of the land1      
rather than to a diminution of the      
waters4 ,he observed1 that in order to  
depress or elevate the absolute level of
 the sea1 by a given quantity1 in any   
one place1 we must depress or elevate it
 by the same quantity over the whole    
surface of the earth2 whereas no such   
necessity exists with respect to the    

elevation or depression of the land4#gca
 ,the hypothesis of the rising of the   
land he adds1 agrees well with the      
,huttonian theory1 which holds1 that our
 continents are subject to be acted upon
 by the expansive forces of the mineral 
regions2 that by these forces they have 
been actually raised up1 and are        
sustained by them in their present      
situation4#gcb  ,in the year #ahjg1 ,von
 ,buch1 after returning from a tour in  
,scandinavia1 announced his conviction1 
that the whole country1 from            
,frederickshall in ,norway to ,abo in   
,finland1 and perhaps as far as ,st4    
,petersburg1 was slowly and insensibly  
rising4 ,he also suggested that ,sweden 
may rise more than ,norway1 and the     
northern more than the southern         
part4#gcc ,he was led to these          
conclusions principally by information  
obtained from the inhabitants and       
pilots1 and in part by the occurrence of
 marine shells of recent species1 which 
he had found at several points on the   

coast of ,norway above the level of the 
sea4 ,he also mentions the marks set on 
the rocks4 ,von ,buch1 therefore1 has   
the merit of being the first geologist  
who1 after a personal examination of the
 evidence1 declared in favor of the rise
 of land in ,scandinavia4  ,the         
attention excited by this subject in the
 early part of the last century1 induced
 many philosophers in ,sweden to        
endeavor to determine1 by accurate      
observations1 whether the standard level
 of the ,baltic was really subject to   
periodical variations2 and under their  
direction1 lines or grooves1 indicating 
the ordinary level of the water on a    
calm day1 together with the date of the 
year1 were chiselled out upon the rocks4
 ,in #ahbj-ba1 all the marks made before
 those years were examined by the       
officers of the pilotage establishment  
of ,sweden2 and in their report to the  
,royal ,academy of ,stockholm they      
declared1 that on comparing the level of
 the sea at the time of their           

observations with that indicated by the 
ancient marks1 they found that the      
,baltic was lower relatively to the land
 in certain places1 but the amount of   
change during equal periods of time had 
not been everywhere the same4 ,during   
their survey1 they cut new marks for the
 guidance of future observers1 several  
of which ,i had an opportunity of       
examining fourteen years after 7in the  
summer of #ahcd71 and in that interval  
the land appeared to me to have risen at
 certain places north of ,stockholm four
 or five inches4 ,i also convinced      
myself1 during my visit to ,sweden1     
after conversing with many civil        
engineers1 pilots1 and fishermen1 and   
after examining some of the ancient     
marks1 that the evidence formerly       
adduced in favor of the change of level1
 both on the coasts of ,sweden and      
,finland1 was full and satisfactory4#gcd
 ,the alteration of level evidently     
diminishes as we proceed from the       
northern parts of the ,gulf of ,bothnia 

towards the south1 being very slight    
around ,stockholm4 ,some writers have   
indeed represented the rate of          
depression of the waters at ,stockholm  
as very considerable1 because certain   
houses in that city which are built on  
piles have sunk down within the memory  
of persons still living1 so as to be out
 of the perpendicular2 and this in      
consequence of the tops of the piles    
giving way and decaying1 owing to a fall
 of the waters which has exposed them to
 be alternately wet and dry4 ,the houses
 alluded to are situated on the borders 
of ,lake ,maeler1 a large lake1 the     
outlet of which joins the ,baltic1 in   
the middle of ,stockholm4 ,this lake is 
certainly lower than formerly2 but the  
principal cause of the change is not the
 elevation of the land1 but the removal 
of two old bridges built on piles1 which
 formerly obstructed the discharge of   
the fresh water into the sea4 ,another  
cause is the opening1 in the year #ahai1
 of a new canal at ,sodertelje1 a place 

south of ,stockholm1 by means of which a
 new line of communication was formed   
between ,lake ,maeler and the           
,baltic4#gce  ,it will naturally be     
asked1 whether the mean level of a sea  
like the ,baltic can ever be determined 
so exactly as to permit us to appreciate
 a variation of level1 amounting only to
 one or two feet4 ,in reply1 ,i may     
observe1 that1 except near the          
,cattegat1 there are no tides in the    
,baltic2 and it is only when particular 
winds have prevailed for several days in
 succession1 or at certain seasons when 
there has been an unusually abundant    
influx of river water1 or when these    
causes have combined1 that this sea is  
made to rise two or three feet above its
 standard level4 ,the fluctuations due  
to these causes are nearly the same from
 year to year2 so that the pilots and   
fishermen believe and apparently with   
reason1 that they can mark a deviation1 
even of a few inches1 from the ordinary 
or mean height of the waters4  ,there   

are1 moreover1 peculiarities in the     
configuration of the shores of ,norway  
and ,sweden1 which facilitate in a      
remarkable degree the appreciation of   
slight changes in the relative level of 
land and water4 ,it has often been said1
 that there are two coasts1 an inner and
 an outer one2 the inner being the shore
 of the main land2 the outer one1 a     
fringe of countless rocky islands of all
 dimensions1 called the skar 7shair74   
,boats and small vessels make their     
coasting voyages within this skar3 for  
here they may sail in smooth water1 even
 when the sea without is strongly       
agitated4 ,but the navigation is very   
intricate1 and the pilot must possess a 
perfect acquaintance with the breadth   
and depth of every narrow channel1 and  
the position of innumerable sunken      
rocks4 ,if on such a coast the land     
rises one or two feet in the course of  
half a century1 the minute topography of
 the skar is entirely altered4 ,to a    
stranger1 indeed1 who revisits it after 

an interval of many years1 its general  
aspect remains the same2 but the        
inhabitant finds that he can no longer  
penetrate with his boat through channels
 where he formerly passed1 and he can   
tell of countless other changes in the  
height and breadth of isolated rocks1   
now exposed1 but once only seen through 
the clear water4  ,the rocks of gneiss1 
mica-schist1 and quartz are usually very
 hard on this coast1 slow to decompose1 
and1 when protected from the breakers1  
remaining for ages unaltered in their   
form4 ,hence it is easy to mark the     
stages of their progressive emergence by
 the aid of natural and artificial marks
 imprinted on them4 ,besides the summits
 of fixed rocks1 there are numerous     
erratic blocks of vast size strewed over
 the shoals and islands in the skar1    
which have been probably drifted by ice 
in the manner before suggested4#gcf ,all
 these are observed to have increased in
 height and dimension with the last half
 century4 ,some1 which were formerly    

known as dangerous sunken rocks1 are now
 only hidden when the water is highest4 
,on their first appearance1 they usually
 present a smooth1 bare1 rounded        
protuberance1 a few feet or yards in    
diameter2 and a single sea-gull often   
appropriates to itself this             
resting-place1 resorting there to devour
 its prey4 ,similar points1 in the mean 
time1 have grown to long reefs1 and are 
constantly whitened by a multitude of   
sea-fowl2 while others have been changed
 from a reef1 annually submerged1 to a  
small islet1 on which a few lichens1 a  
fir-seedling1 and a few blades of grass1
 attest that the shoal has at length    
been fairly changed into dry land4      
,thousands of wooded islands around show
 the great alterations which time can   
work4 ,in the course of centuries also1 
the spaces intervening between the      
existing islands may be laid dry1 and   
become grassy plains encircled by       
heights well clothed with lofty firs4   
,this last step of the process1 by which

 long fiords and narrow channels1 once  
separating wooded islands1 are deserted 
by the sea1 has been exemplified within 
the memory of living witnesses on       
several parts of the coast4  ,had the   
apparent fall of the waters been        
observed in the ,baltic only1 we might  
have endeavored to explain the          
phenomenon by local causes affecting    
that sea alone4 ,for instance1 the      
channel by which the ,baltic discharges 
its surplus waters into the ,atlantic1  
might be supposed to have been gradually
 widened and deepened by the waves and  
currents1 in which case a fall of the   
water like that before alluded to in    
,lake ,maeler1 might have occurred4 ,but
 the lowering of level would in that    
case have been uniform and universal1   
and the waters could not have sunk at   
,torneo1 while they retained their      
former level at ,copenhagen4 ,such an   
explanation is also untenable on other  
grounds2 for it is a fact1 as ,celsius  
long ago affirmed1 that the alteration  

of level extends to the western shores  
of ,sweden1 bordering the ocean4 ,the   
signs of elevation observed between     
,uddevalla and ,gothenburg are as well  
established as those on the shores of   
the ,bothnian ,gulf4 ,among the places  
where they may be studied1 are the      
islands of ,marstrand and ,gulholmen1   
the last-mentioned locality being one of
 those particularly pointed out by      
,celsius4  ,the inhabitants there and   
elsewhere affirm1 that the rate of the  
sinking of the sea 7or elevation of     
land7 varies in different and adjoining 
districts1 being greatest at points     
where the land is low4 ,but in this they
 are deceived2 for they measure the     
amount of rise by the area gained1 which
 is most considerable where the land    
descends with a gentle slope into the   
sea4 ,in the same manner1 some advocates
 of the ,celsian theory formerly        
appealed to the increase of lands near  
the mouths of rivers1 not sufficiently  
adverting to the fact1 that if the bed  

of the sea is rising1 the change will   
always be most sensible where the bottom
 has been previously rendered shallow2  
whereas1 at a distance from these points
 where the scarped granitic cliffs      
plunge at once into deep water1 a much  
greater amount of elevation is necessary
 to produce an equally conspicuous      
change4  ,as to the area in northern    
,europe which is subject to this slow   
upheaving movement1 we have not as yet  
sufficient data for estimating it       
correctly4 ,it seems probable1 however1 
that it reaches from ,gothenburg to     
,torneo1 and from thence to the ,north  
,cape1 the rate of elevation increasing 
always as we proceed farther northwards4
 ,the two extremities of this line are  
more than a thousand geographical miles 
distant from each other2 and as both    
terminate in the ocean1 we know not how 
much farther the motion may be prolonged
 under water4 ,as to the breadth of the 
tract1 its limits are equally uncertain1
 though it evidently extends across the 

widest parts of the ,gulf of ,bothnia1  
and may probably stretch far into the   
interior1 both of ,sweden and ,finland4 
,now if the elevation continue1 a larger
 part of the ,gulf of ,bothnia will be  
turned into land1 as also more of the   
ocean off the west coast of ,sweden     
between ,gothenburg and ,uddevalla2 and 
on the other hand1 if the change has    
been going on for thousands of years at 
the rate of several feet in a century1  
large tracts of what is now land must   
have been submarine at periods          
comparatively modern4 ,it is natural    
therefore to inquire whether there are  
any signs of the recent sojourn of the  
sea on districts now inland8 ,the answer
 is most satisfactory4--,near ,uddevalla
 and the neighboring coastland1 we find 
upraised deposits of shells belonging to
 species such as now live in the ocean2 
while on the opposite or eastern side of
 ,sweden1 near ,stockholm1 ,gefle1 and  
other places bordering the ,bothnian    
,gulf1 there are analogous beds         

containing shells of species            
characteristic of the ,baltic4  ,von    
,buch announced in #ahjg1 that he had   
discovered in ,norway and at ,uddevalla 
in ,sweden1 beds of shells of existing  
species1 at considerable heights above  
the sea4 ,since that time1 other        
naturalists have confirmed his          
observation2 and1 according to ,strom1  
deposits occur at an elevation of more  
than #djj feet above the sea in the     
northern part of ,norway4 ,m4 ,alex4    
,brongniart1 when he visited ,uddevalla1
 ascertained that one of the principal  
masses of shells1 that of ,capellbacken1
 is raised more than #bjj feet above the
 sea1 resting on rocks of gneiss1 all   
the species being identical with those  
now inhabiting the contiguous ocean4    
,the same naturalist also stated1 that  
on examining with care the surface of   
the gneiss1 immediately above the       
ancient shelly deposit1 he found        
barnacles 7balani7 adhering to the      
rocks1 showing that the sea had remained

 there for a long time4 ,i was fortunate
 enough to be able to verify this       
observation by finding in the summer of 
#ahcd1 at ,kured1 about two miles north 
of ,uddevalla1 and at the height of more
 than #ajj feet above the sea1 a surface
 of gneiss newly laid open by the       
partial removal of a mass of shells used
 largely in the district for making lime
 and repairing the roads4 ,so firmly did
 these barnacles adhere to the gneiss1  
that ,i broke off portions of the rock  
with the shells attached4 ,the face of  
the gneiss was also incrusted with small
 zoophytes 7,cellepora8 ,lam472 but had 
these or the barnacles been exposed in  
the atmosphere ever since the elevation 
of the rocks above the sea1 they would  
doubtless have decomposed and been      
obliterated4  ,the town of ,uddevalla   
7see ,map1 p4 #ebc7 stands at the head  
of a narrow creek overhung by steep and 
barren rocks of gneiss1 of which all the
 adjacent country is composed1 except in
 the low grounds and bottoms of valleys1

 where strata of sand1 clay1 and marl   
frequently hide the fundamental rocks4  
,to these newer and horizontal deposits 
the fossil shells above mentioned       
belong1 and similar marine remains are  
found at various heights above the sea  
on the opposite island of ,orust4 ,the  
extreme distance from the sea to which  
such fossils extend is as yet unknown2  
but they have been already found at     
,trollhattan in digging the canal there1
 and still farther inland on the        
northern borders of ,lake ,wener1 fifty 
miles from the sea1 at an elevation of  
#bjj feet near ,lake ,rogvarpen4  ,to   
pass to the ,baltic3 ,i observed near   
its shores at ,sodertelje1 sixteen miles
 ,s4 ,w4 of ,stockholm1 strata of sand1 
clay1 and marl1 more than #ajj feet     
high1 and containing shells of species  
now inhabiting the ,bothnian ,gulf4     
,these consist partly of marine and     
partly of freshwater species2 but they  
are few in number1 the brackishness of  
the water appearing to be very          

unfavorable to the development of       
testacea4 ,the most abundant species are
 the common cockle and the common mussel
 and periwinkle of our shores 7,cardium 
edule1 ,mytilus edulis1 and ,littorina  
littorea71 together with a small tellina
 7,t4 ,baltica7 and a few minute        
univalves allied to ,paludina ulva4     
,these live in the same water as a      
,lymneus1 a ,neritina 7,n4 fluviatilis71
 and some other fresh-water shells4     
,but the marine mollusks of the ,baltic 
above mentioned1 although very numerous 
in individuals1 are dwarfish in size1   
scarcely ever attaining a third of the  
average dimensions which they acquire in
 the salter waters of the ocean4 ,by    
this character alone a geologist would  
generally be able to recognize an       
assemblage of ,baltic fossils as        
distinguished from those derived from a 
deposit in the ocean4 ,the absence also 
of oysters1 barnacles1 whelks1 scallops1
 limpets 7ostrea1 balanus1 buccinum1    
pecten1 patella71 and many other forms  

abounding alike in the sea near         
,uddevalla1 and in the fossiliferous    
deposits of modern date on that coast1  
supplies an additional negative         
character of the greatest value1        
distinguishing assemblages of ,baltic   
from those of oceanic shells4 ,now the  
strata containing ,baltic shells are    
found in many localities near           
,stockholm1 ,upsala1 and ,gefle1 and    
will probably be discovered everywhere  
around the borders of the ,bothnian     
,gulf2 for ,i have seen similar remains 
brought from ,finland1 in marl          
resembling that found near ,stockholm4  
,the utmost distance to which these     
deposits have yet been traced inland1 is
 on the southern shores of ,lake        
,maeler1 at a place seventy miles from  
the sea4#gcg ,hence it appears from the 
distinct assemblage of fossil shells    
found on the eastern and western coasts 
of ,sweden1 that the ,baltic has been   
for a long period separated as now from 
the ocean1 although the intervening     

tract of land was once much narrower1   
even after both seas had become         
inhabited by all the existing species of
 testacea4  ,as no accurate observations
 on the rise of the ,swedish coast refer
 to periods more remote than a century  
and a half from the present time1 and as
 traditional information1 and that      
derived from ancient buildings on the   
coast1 do not enable the antiquary to   
trace back any monuments of change for  
more than five or six centuries1 we     
cannot declare whether the rate of the  
upheaving force is uniform during very  
long periods4 ,in those districts where 
the fossil shells are found at the      
height of more than #bjj feet above the 
ocean1 as at ,uddevalla1 ,orust1 and    
,lake ,rogvarpen1 the present rate of   
rise seems less than four feet in a     
century4 ,even at that rate it would    
have required five thousand years to    
lift up those deposits4 ,but as the     
movement is now very different in       
different places1 it may also have      

varied much in intensity at different   
eras4  ,we have1 moreover1 yet to learn 
not only whether the motion proceeds    
always at the same rate1 but also       
whether it has been uniformly in one    
direction4 ,the level of the land may   
oscillate2 and for centuries there may  
be a depression1 and afterwards a       
re-elevation1 of the same district4     
,some phenomena in the neighborhood of  
,stockholm appear to me only explicable 
on the supposition of the alternate     
rising and sinking of the ground since  
the country was inhabited by man4 ,in   
digging a canal1 in #ahai1 at           
,sodertelje1 about sixteen miles to the 
south of ,stockholm1 to unite ,lake     
,maeler with the ,baltic1 marine strata1
 containing fossil shells of ,baltic    
species1 were passed through4 ,at a     
depth of about sixty feet1 they came    
down upon what seems to have been a     
buried fishing-hut1 constructed of wood 
in a state of decomposition1 which soon 
crumbled away on exposure to the air4   

,the lowest part1 however1 which had    
stood on a level with the sea1 was in a 
more perfect state of preservation4 ,on 
the floor of this hut was a rude        
fireplace1 consisting of a ring of      
stones1 and within this were cinders and
 charred wood4 ,on the outside lay      
boughs of the fir1 cut as with an axe1  
with the leaves or needles still        
attached4 ,it seems very difficult to   
explain the position of this buried hut1
 without imagining1 as in the case of   
the temple of ,serapis 7see p4 #dhf71   
first a subsidence to the depth of more 
than sixty feet1 then a re-elevation4   
,during the period of submergence1 the  
hut must have become covered over with  
gravel and shelly marl1 under which not 
only the hut1 but several vessels also  
were found1 of a very antique form1 and 
having their timbers fastened together  
by wooden pegs instead of nails4#gch    
,whether any of the land in ,norway is  
now rising1 must be determined by future
 investigations4 ,marine fossil shells1 

of recent species1 have been collected  
from inland places near ,drontheim2 but 
,mr4 ,everest1 in his ,travels through  
,norway1 informs us that the small      
island of ,munkholm1 which is an        
insulated rock in the harbor of         
,drontheim1 affords conclusive evidence 
of the land having in that region       
remained stationary for the last eight  
centuries4 ,the area of this isle does  
not exceed that of a small village1 and 
by an official survey1 its highest point
 has been determined to be twenty-three 
feet above the mean high-water mark1    
that is1 the mean between neap and      
spring tides4 ,now1 a monastery was     
founded there by ,canute the ,great1 ,a4
 ,d4 #ajbh1 and thirty-three years      
before that time it was in use as a     
common place of execution4 ,according to
 the assumed average rate of rise in    
,sweden 7about forty inches in a        
century71 we should be obliged to       
suppose that this island had been three 
feet eight inches below high-water mark 

when it was originally chosen as the    
site of the monastery4  ,professor      
,keilhau of ,christiania1 after         
collecting the observations of his      
predecessors respecting former changes  
of level in ,norway1 and combining them 
with his own1 has made the fact of a    
general change of level at a modern     
period1 that is to say1 within the      
period of the actual testaceous fauna1  
very evident4 ,he infers that the whole 
country from ,cape ,lindesnaes to ,cape 
,north1 and beyond that as far as the   
fortress of ,vardhuus1 has been         
gradually upraised1 and on the southeast
 coast the elevation has amounted to    
more than #fjj feet4 ,the marks which   
denote the ancient coast-line are so    
nearly horizontal that the deviation    
from horizontality1 although the        
measurements have been made at a great  
number of points1 is too small to be    
appreciated4  ,more recently 7#ahdd71   
however1 it appears from the researches 
of ,m4 ,bravais1 member of the ,french  

scientific commission of the ,north1    
that in the ,gulf of ,alten in ,finmark1
 the most northerly part of ,norway1    
there are two distinct lines of upraised
 ancient sea-coast1 one above the other1
 which are not parallel1 and both of    
them imply that within a distance of    
fifty miles a considerable slope can be 
detected in such a direction as to show 
that the ancient shores have undergone a
 greater amount of upheaval in          
proportion as we advance inland4#gci    
,it has been already stated1 that1 in   
proceeding from the ,north ,cape to     
,stockholm1 the rate of upheaval        
diminishes from several feet to a few   
inches in a century4 ,to the south of   
,stockholm1 the upward movement ceases1 
and at length in ,scania1 or the        
southernmost part of ,sweden1 it appears
 to give place to a movement in an      
opposite direction4 ,in proof of this   
fact1 ,professor ,nilsson observes1 in  
the first place1 that there are no      
elevated beds of recent marine shells in

 ,scania like those farther to the      
north4 ,secondly1 ,linnaeus1 with a view
 of ascertaining whether the waters of  
the ,baltic were retiring from the      
,scanian shore1 measured1 in #agdi1 the 
distance between the sea and a large    
stone near ,trelleborg4 ,this same stone
 was1 in #ahcf1 a hundred feet nearer   
the water's edge than in ,linnaeus's    
time1 or eighty-seven years before4     
,thirdly1 there is also a submerged peat
 moss1 consisting of land and freshwater
 plants1 beneath the sea at a point to  
which no peat could have been drifted   
down by any river4 ,fourthly1 and what  
is still more conclusive1 it is found   
that in seaport towns1 all along the    
coast of ,scania1 there are streets     
below the high-water level of the       
,baltic1 and in some cases below the    
level of the lowest tide4 ,thus1 when   
the wind is high at ,malmo1 the water   
overflows one of the present streets1   
and some years ago some excavations     
showed an ancient street in the same    

place eight feet lower1 and it was then 
seen that there had been an artificial  
raising of the ground1 doubtless in     
consequence of that subsidence4 ,there  
is also a street at ,trelleborg1 and    
another at ,skanor1 a few inches below  
high-water mark1 and a street at ,ystad 
is exactly on a level with the sea1 at  
which it could not have been originally 
built4  ,the inferences deduced from the
 foregoing facts are in perfect harmony 
with the proofs brought to light by two 
,danish investigators1 ,dr4 ,pingel and 
,captain ,graah1 of the sinking down of 
part of the west coast of ,greenland1   
for a space of more than #fjj miles from
 north to south4 ,the observations of   
,captain ,graah were made during a      
survey of ,greenland in #ahbc-bd2 and   
afterwards in #ahbh-bi2 those by ,dr4   
,pingel were made in #ahcj-cb4 ,it      
appears from various signs and          
traditions1 that the coast has been     
subsiding for the last four centuries   
from the firth called ,igaliko1 in lat4 

#fj degrees #dc minutes ,n4 to ,disco   
,bay1 extending to nearly the #fith     
degree of north latitude4 ,ancient      
buildings on low rocky islands and on   
the shore of the main land have been    
gradually submerged1 and experience has 
taught the aboriginal ,greenlander never
 to build his hut near the water's edge4
 ,in one case the ,moravian settlers    
have been obliged more than once to move
 inland the poles upon which their large
 boats were set1 and the old poles still
 remain beneath the water as silent     
witnesses of the change4#gdj  ,the      
probable cause of the movements above   
alluded to1 whether of elevation or     
depression1 will be more appropriately  
discussed in the following chapters1    
when the origin of subterranean heat is 
considered4 ,but ,i may remark here1    
that the rise of ,scandinavia has       
naturally been regarded as a very       
singular and scarcely credible          
phenomenon1 because no region on the    
globe has been more free within the     

times of authentic history from violent 
earthquakes4 ,in common1 indeed1 with   
our own island and with almost every    
spot on the globe1 some movements have  
been1 at different periods1 experienced1
 both in ,norway and ,sweden4 ,but some 
of these1 as for example during the     
,lisbon earthquake in #agee1 may have   
been mere vibrations or undulatory      
movements of the earth's crust prolonged
 from a great distance4 ,others1        
however1 have been sufficiently local to
 indicate a source of disturbance       
immediately under the country itself4   
,notwithstanding these shocks1          
,scandinavia has1 upon the whole1 been  
as tranquil in modern times1 and as free
 from subterranean convulsions1 as any  
region of equal extent on the globe4    
,there is also another circumstance     
which has made the change of level in   
,sweden appear anomalous1 and has for a 
long time caused the proofs of the fact 
to be received with reluctance4         
,volcanic action1 as we have seen1 is   

usually intermittent3 and the variations
 of level to which it has given rise    
have taken place by starts1 not by a    
prolonged and insensible movement       
similar to that experienced in ,sweden4 
,yet1 as we enlarge our experience of   
modern changes1 we discover instances in
 which the volcanic eruption1 the       
earthquake1 and the permanent rise or   
fall of land1 whether slow or sudden1   
are all connected4 ,the union of these  
various circumstances was exemplified in
 the case of the temple of ,serapis1    
described in the last chapter1 and we   
might derive other illustrations from   
the events of the present century in    
,south ,america4  ,some writers1 indeed1
 have imagined that there is geological 
evidence in ,norway1 of the sudden      
upheaval of land to a considerable      
height at successive periods1 since the 
era when the sea was inhabited by the   
living species of testacea4 ,they point 
in proof to certain horizontal lines of 
inland cliffs and sea-beaches containing

 recent shells at various heights above 
the level of the sea4#gda ,but these    
appearances1 when truly interpreted1    
simply prove that there have been long  
pauses in the process of upheaval or    
subsidence4 ,they mark eras at which the
 level of the sea has remained          
stationary for ages1 and during which   
new strata were deposited near the shore
 in some places1 while in others the    
waves and currents had time to hollow   
out rocks1 undermine cliffs1 and throw  
up long ranges of shingle4 ,they        
undoubtedly show that the movement has  
not been always uniform or continuous1  
but they do not establish the fact of   
any sudden alterations of level4  ,when 
we are once assured of the reality of   
the gradual rise of a large region1 it  
enables us to account for many          
geological appearances otherwise of very
 difficult explanation4 ,there are large
 continental tracts and high table-lands
 where the strata are nearly horizontal1
 bearing no marks of having been thrown 

up by violent convulsions1 nor by a     
series of movements1 such as those which
 occur in the ,andes1 and cause the     
earth to be rent open1 and raised or    
depressed from time to time1 while large
 masses are engulfed in subterranean    
cavities4 ,the result of a series of    
such earthquakes might be to produce in 
a great lapse of ages a country of      
shattered1 inclined1 and perhaps        
vertical strata4 ,but a movement like   
that of ,scandinavia would cause the bed
 of the sea1 and all the strata recently
 formed in it1 to be upheaved so        
gradually1 that it would merely seem as 
if the ocean had formerly stood at a    
higher level1 and had slowly and        
tranquilly sunk down into its present   
bed4  ,the fact also of a very gradual  
and insensible elevation of land may    
explain many geological movements of    
denudation1 on a grand scale4 ,if1 for  
example1 instead of the hard granitic   
rocks of ,norway and ,sweden1 a large   
part of the bed of the ,atlantic1       

consisting chiefly of soft strata1      
should rise up century after century1 at
 the rate of about half an inch1 or an  
inch1 in a year1 how easily might       
oceanic currents sweep away the thin    
film of matter thus brought up annually 
within the sphere of aqueous denudation6
 ,the tract1 when it finally emerged1   
might present table-lands and ridges of 
horizontal strata1 with intervening     
valleys and vast plains1 where          
originally1 and during its period of    
submergence1 the surface was level and  
nearly uniform4  ,these speculations    
relate to superficial changes2 but      
others must be continually in progress  
in the subterranean regions4 ,the       
foundations of the country1 thus        
gradually uplifted in ,sweden1 must be  
undergoing important modifications4     
,whether we ascribe these to the        
expansion of solid matter by continually
 increasing heat1 or to the liquefaction
 of rock1 or to the crystallization of a
 dense fluid1 or the accumulation of    

pent-up gases1 in whatever conjectures  
we indulge1 we can never doubt for a    
moment1 that at some unknown depth      
beneath ,sweden and the ,baltic1 the    
structure of the globe is in our own    
times becoming changed from day to day1 
throughout a space probably more than a 
thousand miles in length1 and several   
hundred in breadth4     ,,chapter       
,,xxxi4  ,,causes ,,of ,,earthquakes    
,,and ,,volcanoes4     ,intimate        
connection between the causes of        
volcanoes and     earthquakes--,supposed
 original state of fusion of the        
planet--,universal fluidity not proved  
by spheroidal figure of the             
earth--,attempt to calculate the        
thickness of the solid crust of the     
earth by precessional motion--,heat in  
mines increasing with the               
depth--,objections to the supposed      
intense heat of a central               
fluid--,whether chemical changes may    
produce volcanic heat--,currents     of 
electricity circulating in the earth's  

crust4   ,it will hardly be questioned1 
after the description before given of   
the phenomena of earthquakes and        
volcanoes1 that both of these agents    
have1 to a certain extent1 a common     
origin2 and ,i may now1 therefore1      
proceed to inquire into their probable  
causes4 ,but first1 it may be well to   
recapitulate some of those points of    
relation and analogy which lead         
naturally to the conclusion that they   
spring from a common source4  ,the      
regions convulsed by violent earthquakes
 include within them the site of all the
 active volcanoes4 ,earthquakes1        
sometimes local1 sometimes extending    
over vast areas1 often precede volcanic 
eruptions4 ,the subterranean movement   
and the eruption return again and again1
 at irregular intervals of time1 and    
with unequal degrees of force1 to the   
same spots4 ,the action of either may   
continue for a few hours1 or for several
 consecutive years4 ,paroxysmal         
convulsions are usually followed1 in    

both cases1 by long periods of          
tranquillity4 ,thermal and mineral      
springs are abundant in countries of    
earthquakes and active volcanoes4       
,lastly1 hot springs situated in        
districts considerably distant from     
volcanic vents have been observed to    
have their temperature suddenly raised1 
and the volume of their water augmented1
 by subterranean movements4  ,all these 
appearances are evidently more or less  
connected with the passage of heat from 
the interior of the earth to the        
surface2 and where there are active     
volcanoes1 there must exist1 at some    
unknown depth below1 enormous masses of 
matter intensely heated1 and1 in many   
instances1 in a constant state of       
fusion4 ,we have first1 then1 to        
inquire1 whence is this heat derived8   
,it has long been a favorite conjecture1
 that the whole of our planet was       
originally in a state of igneous fusion1
 and that the central parts still retain
 a great portion of their primitive     

heat4 ,some have imagined1 with the late
 ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 that the elementary
 matter of the earth may have been first
 in a gaseous state1 resembling those   
nebulae which we behold in the heavens1 
and which are of dimensions so vast1    
that some of them would fill the orbits 
of the remotest planets of our system4  
,the increased power of the telescope   
has of late years resolved the greater  
number of these nebulous appearances    
into clusters of stars1 but so long as  
they were confidently supposed to       
consist of aeriform matter it was a     
favorite conjecture that they might1 if 
concentrated1 form solid spheres2 and it
 was also imagined that the evolution of
 heat1 attendant on condensation1 might 
retain the materials of the new globes  
in a state of igneous fusion4  ,without 
dwelling on such speculations1 which can
 only have a distant bearing on geology1
 we may consider how far the spheroidal 
form of the earth affords sufficient    
ground for presuming that its primitive 

condition was one of universal fluidity4
 ,the discussion of this question would 
be superfluous1 were the doctrine of    
original fluidity less popular2 for it  
may well be asked1 why the globe should 
be supposed to have had a pristine shape
 different from the present one8--why   
the terrestrial materials1 when first   
called into existence1 or assembled     
together in one place1 should not have  
been subject to rotation1 so as to      
assume at once that form which alone    
could retain their several parts in a   
state of equilibrium8  ,let us1 however1
 concede that the statical figure may be
 a modification of some other           
pre-existing form1 and suppose the globe
 to have been at first a perfect and    
quiescent sphere1 covered with a uniform
 ocean--what would happen when it was   
made to turn round on its axis with its 
present velocity8 ,this problem has been
 considered by ,playfair in his         
,illustrations1 and he has decided1 that
 if the surface of the earth1 as laid   

down in ,hutton's theory1 has been      
repeatedly changed by the transportation
 of the detritus of the land to the     
bottom of the sea1 the figure of the    
planet must in that case1 whatever it   
may have been originally1 be brought at 
length to coincide with the spheroid of 
equilibrium4#gdb ,sir ,john ,herschel   
also1 in reference to the same          
hypothesis1 observes1 a centrifugal     
force would in that case be generated1  
whose general tendency would be to urge 
the water at every point of the surface 
to recede from the axis4 ,a rotation    
might indeed be conceived so swift as to
 flirt the whole ocean from the surface1
 like water from a mop4 ,but this would 
require a far greater velocity than what
 we now speak of4 ,in the case supposed1
 the weight of the water would still    
keep it on the earth2 and the tendency  
to recede from the axis could only be   
satisfied therefore by the water leaving
 the poles1 and flowing towards the     
equator2 there heaping itself up in a   

ridge1 and being retained in opposition 
to its weight or natural tendency       
towards the centre by the pressure thus 
caused4 ,this1 however1 could not take  
place without laying dry the polar      
regions1 so that protuberant land would 
appear at the poles1 and a zone of ocean
 be disposed around the equator4 ,this  
would be the first or immediate effect4 
,let us now see what would afterwards   
happen if things were allowed to take   
their natural course4  ,the sea is      
constantly beating on the land1 grinding
 it down1 and scattering its worn-off   
particles and fragments1 in the state of
 sand and pebbles1 over its bed4        
,geological facts afford abundant proof 
that the existing continents have all of
 them undergone this process even more  
than once1 and been entirely torn in    
fragments1 or reduced to powder1 and    
submerged and reconstructed4 ,land1 in  
this view of the subject1 loses its     
attribute of fixity4 ,as a mass it might
 hold together in opposition to forces  

which the water freely obeys2 but in its
 state of successive or simultaneous    
degradation1 when disseminated through  
the water1 in the state of sand or mud1 
it is subject to all the impulses of    
that fluid4 ,in the lapse of time1 then1
 the protuberant land would be          
destroyed1 and spread over the bottom of
 the ocean1 filling up the lower parts1 
and tending continually to remodel the  
surface of the solid nucleus1 in        
correspondence with the form of         
equilibrium4 ,thus after a sufficient   
lapse of time1 in the case of an earth  
in rotation1 the polar protuberances    
would gradually be cut down and         
disappear1 being transferred to the     
equator 7as being then the deepest sea71
 till the earth would assume by degrees 
the form we observe it to have--that of 
a flattened or oblate ellipsoid4  ,we   
are far from meaning here to trace the  
process by which the earth really       
assumed its actual form2 all we intend  
is to show that this is the form to     

which1 under a condition of a rotation  
on its axis1 it must tend1 and which it 
would attain even if originally and 7so 
to speak7 perversely constituted        
otherwise4#gdc  ,in this passage1 the   
author has contemplated the superficial 
effects of aqueous causes only2 but     
neither he nor ,playfair seem to have   
followed out the same inquiry with      
reference to another part of ,hutton's  
system2 namely1 that which assumes the  
successive fusion by heat of different  
parts of the solid earth4 ,yet the      
progress of geology has continually     
strengthened the evidence in favor of   
the doctrine that local variations of   
temperature have melted one part after  
another of the earth's crust1 and this  
influence has perhaps extended downwards
 to the very centre4 ,if1 therefore1    
before the globe had assumed its present
 form1 it was made to revolve on its    
axis1 all matter to which freedom of    
motion was given by fusion1 must before 
consolidating have been impelled towards

 the equatorial regions in obedience to 
the centrifugal force4 ,thus lava       
flowing out in superficial streams would
 have its motion retarded when its      
direction was towards the pole1         
accelerated when towards the equator2 or
 if lakes and seas of lava existed      
beneath the earth's crust in equatorial 
regions1 as probably now beneath the    
,peruvian ,andes1 the imprisoned fluid  
would force outwards and permanently    
upheave the overlying rocks4 ,the       
statical figure1 therefore1 of the      
terrestrial spheroid 7of which the      
longest diameter exceeds the shortest by
 about twenty-five miles71 may have been
 the result of gradual and even of      
existing causes1 and not of a primitive1
 universal1 and simultaneous            
fluidity4#gdd  ,experiments made with   
the pendulum1 and observations on the   
manner in which the earth attracts the  
moon1 have shown that our planet is not 
an empty sphere1 but1 on the contrary1  
that its interior1 whether solid or     

fluid1 has a higher specific gravity    
than the exterior4 ,it has also been    
inferred1 that there is a regular       
increase in density from the surface    
towards the centre1 and that the        
equatorial protuberance is continued    
inwards2 that is to say1 that layers of 
equal density are arranged elliptically1
 and symmetrically1 from the exterior to
 the centre4 ,these conclusions1        
however1 have been deduced rather as a  
consequence of the hypothesis of        
primitive and simultaneous fluidity than
 proved by experiment4 ,the inequalities
 in the moon's motion1 by which some    
have endeavored to confirm them1 are so 
extremely slight1 that the opinion can  
be regarded as little more than a       
probable conjecture4  ,the mean density 
of the earth has been computed by       
,laplace to be about #e-a_/b1 or more   
than five times that of water4 ,now the 
specific gravity of many of our rocks is
 from #b-a_/b to #c1 and the greater    
part of the metals range between that   

density and #ba4 ,hence some have       
imagined that the terrestrial nucleus   
may be metallic--that it may correspond1
 for example1 with the specific gravity 
of iron1 which is about #g4 ,but here a 
curious question arises in regard to the
 form which materials1 whether fluid or 
solid1 might assume1 if subjected to the
 enormous pressure which must obtain at 
the earth's centre4 ,water1 if it       
continued to decrease in volume         
according to the rate of compressibility
 deduced from experiment1 would have its
 density doubled at the depth of        
ninety-three miles1 and be as heavy as  
mercury at the depth of #cfb miles4 ,dr4
 ,young computed that1 at the earth's   
centre1 steel would be compressed into  
one-fourth1 and stone into one-eighth of
 its bulk4#gde ,it is more than         
probable1 however1 that after a certain 
degree of condensation1 the             
compressibility of bodies may be        
governed by laws altogether different   
from those which we can put to the test 

of experiment2 but the limit is still   
undetermined1 and the subject is        
involved in such obscurity1 that we     
cannot wonder at the variety of notions 
which have been entertained respecting  
the nature and conditions of the central
 nucleus4 ,some have conceived it to be 
fluid1 others solid2 some have imagined 
it to have a cavernous structure1 and   
have even endeavored to confirm this    
opinion by appealing to observed        
irregularities in the vibrations of the 
pendulum in certain countries4  ,an     
attempt has recently been made by ,mr4  
,hopkins to determine the least         
thickness which can be assigned to the  
solid crust of the globe1 if we assume  
the whole to have been once perfectly   
fluid1 and a certain portion of the     
exterior to have acquired solidity by   
gradual refrigeration4 ,this result he  
has endeavored to obtain by a new       
solution of the delicate problem of the 
processional motion of the pole of the  
earth4 ,it is well known that while the 

earth revolves round the sun the        
direction of its axis remains very      
nearly the same1 i4 e4 its different    
positions in space are all nearly       
parallel to each other4 ,this           
parallelism1 however1 is not accurately 
preserved1 so that the axis1 instead of 
coming exactly into the position which  
it occupied a year before1 becomes      
inclined to it at a very small angle1   
but always retaining very nearly the    
same inclination to the plane of the    
earth's orbit4 ,this motion of the pole 
changes the position of the equinoxes by
 about fifty seconds annually1 and      
always in the same direction4 ,thus the 
pole-star1 after a certain time1 will   
entirely lose its claim to that         
appellation1 until in the course of     
somewhat more than #be1jjj years the    
earth's axis shall again occupy its     
present angular position1 and again     
point very nearly as now to the         
pole-star4 ,this motion of the axis is  
called precession4 ,it is caused by the 

attraction of the sun and moon1 and     
principally the moon1 on the protuberant
 parts of the earth's equator2 and if   
these parts were solid to a great depth1
 the motion thus produced would differ  
considerably from that which would exist
 if they were perfectly fluid1 and      
incrusted over with a thin shell only a 
few miles thick4 ,in other words1 the   
disturbing action of the moon will not  
be the same upon a globe all solid and  
upon one nearly all fluid1 or it will   
not be the same upon a globe in which   
the solid shell forms one-half of the   
mass1 and another in which it forms only
 one-tenth4  ,mr4 ,hopkins has1         
therefore1 calculated the amount of     
precessional motion which would result  
if we assume the earth to be constituted
 as above stated2 i4 e4 fluid           
internally1 and enveloped by a solid    
shell2 and he finds that the amount will
 not agree with the observed motion1    
unless the crust of the earth be of a   
certain thickness4 ,in calculating the  

exact amount some ambiguity arises in   
consequence of our ignorance of the     
effect of pressure in promoting the     
solidification of matter at high        
temperatures4 ,the hypothesis least     
favorable for a great thickness is found
 to be that which assumes the pressure  
to produce no effect on the process of  
solidification4 ,even on this extreme   
assumption the thickness of the solid   
crust must be nearly four hundred miles1
 and this would lead to the remarkable  
result that the proportion of the solid 
to the fluid part would be as #di to    
#ea1 or1 to speak in round numbers1     
there would be nearly as much solid as  
fluid matter in the globe4 ,the         
conclusion1 however1 which ,mr4 ,hopkins
 announces as that to which his         
researches have finally conducted him1  
is thus expressed3 ,upon the whole1     
then1 we may venture to assert that the 
minimum thickness of the crust of the   
globe1 which can be deemed consistent   
with the observed amount of precession1 

cannot be less than one-fourth or       
one-fifth of the earth's radius4 ,that  
is from #hjj to #ajjj miles4#gdf  ,it   
will be remarked1 that this is a        
minimum1 and any still greater amount   
would be quite consistent with the      
actual phenomena2 the calculations not  
being opposed to the supposition of the 
general solidity of the entire globe4   
,nor do they preclude us from imagining 
that great lakes or seas of melted      
matter may be distributed through a     
shell #djj or #hjj miles thick1 provided
 they be so inclosed as to move with it1
 whatever motion of rotation may be     
communicated by the disturbing forces of
 the sun and moon4  ,central heat4--,the
 hypothesis of internal fluidity calls  
for the more attentive consideration1 as
 it has been found that the heat in     
mines augments in proportion as we      
descend4 ,observations have been made1  
not only on the temperature of the air  
in mines1 but on that of the rocks1 and 
on the water issuing from them4 ,the    

mean rate of increase1 calculated from  
results obtained in six of the deepest  
coal mines in ,durham and               
,northumberland1 is #a degrees ,fahr4   
for a descent of forty-four ,english    
feet4#gdg ,a series of observations1    
made in several of the principal lead   
and silver mines in ,saxony1 gave #a    
degrees ,fahr4 for every sixty-five     
feet4 ,in this case1 the bulb of the    
thermometer was introduced into cavities
 purposely cut in the solid rock at     
depths varying from #bjj to above #ijj  
feet4 ,but in other mines of the same   
country1 it was necessary to descend    
thrice as far for each degree of        
temperature4#gdh  ,a thermometer was    
fixed in the rock of the ,dolcoath mine1
 in ,cornwall1 by ,mr4 ,fox1 at the     
great depth of #achj feet1 and          
frequently observed during eighteen     
months2 the mean temperature was #fh    
degrees ,fahr41 that of the surface     
being #ej degrees1 which gives #a       
degrees for every seventy-five feet4    

,kupffer1 after an extensive comparison 
of the results in different countries1  
makes the increase #a degrees ,f4 for   
about every thirty-seven ,english       
feet4#gdi ,m4 ,cordier announces1 as the
 result of his experiments and          
observations on the temperature of the  
interior of the earth1 that the heat    
increases rapidly with the depth2 but   
the increase does not follow the same   
law over the whole earth1 being twice or
 three times as much in one country as  
in another1 and these differences are   
not in constant relation either with the
 latitudes or longitudes of places4#gej 
,he is of opinion1 however1 that the    
increase would not be overstated at #a  
degrees ,cent4 for every twenty-five    
metres1 or about #a degrees ,f4 for     
every forty-five feet4#gea ,the         
experimental well bored at ,grenelle1   
near ,paris1 gave about #a degrees ,f4  
for every sixty ,english feet1 when they
 had reached a depth of #acab feet4     
,some writers have endeavored to refer  

these phenomena 7which1 however         
discordant as to the ratio of increasing
 heat1 appear all to point one way7 to  
the condensation of air constantly      
descending from the surface into the    
mines4 ,for the air under pressure would
 give out latent heat1 on the same      
principle as it becomes colder when     
rarefied in the higher regions of the   
atmosphere4 ,but1 besides that the      
quantity of heat is greater than could  
be supposed to flow from this source1   
the argument has been answered in a     
satisfactory manner by ,mr4 ,fox1 who   
has shown1 that in the mines of         
,cornwall the ascending have generally a
 higher temperature than the descending 
aerial currents4 ,the difference between
 them was found to vary from #i degrees 
to #ag degrees ,f42 a proof that1       
instead of imparting heat1 these        
currents actually carry off a large     
quantity from the mines4#geb  ,if we    
adopt ,m4 ,cordier's estimate of #a     
degrees ,f4 for every #de feet of depth 

as the mean result1 and assume1 with the
 advocates of central fluidity1 that the
 increasing temperature is continued    
downwards1 we should reach the ordinary 
boiling point of water at about two     
miles below the surface1 and at the     
depth of about twenty-four miles should 
arrive at the melting point of iron1 a  
heat sufficient to fuse almost every    
known substance4 ,the temperature of    
melted iron was estimated at #ba1jjj    
degrees ,f41 by ,wedgwood2 but his      
pyrometer gives1 as is now demonstrated1
 very erroneous results4 ,professor     
,daniell ascertained that the point of  
fusion is #bghf degrees ,f4#gec         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4  ,section of  
the earth1 in which the breadth of the  
outer boundary line represents a        
thickness of #be miles2 the space       
between the circles1 including the      
breadth of the lines1 #bjj miles4       
,according to ,mr4 ,daniell's scale1 we 
ought to encounter the internal melted  
matter before penetrating through a     

thickness represented by that of the    
outer circular line in the annexed      
diagram 7fig4 #ib72 whereas1 if the     
other or less correct scale be adopted1 
we should meet with it at some point    
between the two circles2 the space      
between them1 together with the lines   
themselves1 representing a crust of #bjj
 miles in depth4 ,in either case1 we    
must be prepared to maintain that a     
temperature many times greater than that
 sufficient to melt the most refractory 
substances known to us1 is sustained at 
the centre of the globe2 while a        
comparatively thin crust1 resting upon  
the fluid1 remains unmelted2 or is even1
 according to ,m4 ,cordier1 increasing  
in thickness1 by the continual addition 
of new internal layers solidified during
 the process of refrigeration4  ,the    
mathematical calculations of ,fourier1  
on the passage of heat through          
conducting bodies1 have been since      
appealed to in support of these views2  
for he has shown that it is compatible  

with theory that the present temperature
 of the surface might coexist with an   
intense heat at a certain depth below4  
,but his reasoning seems to be confined 
to the conduction of heat through solid 
bodies2 and the conditions of the       
problem are wholly altered when we      
reason about a fluid nucleus1 as we must
 do if it be assumed that the heat      
augments from the surface to the        
interior1 according to the rate observed
 in mines4 ,for when the heat of the    
lower portion of a fluid is increased1 a
 circulation begins throughout the mass1
 by the ascent of hotter1 and the       
descent of colder currents4 ,and this   
circulation1 which is quite distinct    
from the mode in which heat is          
propagated through solid bodies1 must   
evidently occur in the supposed central 
ocean1 if the laws of fluids and of heat
 are the same there as upon the surface4
  ,in ,mr4 ,daniell's experiments for   
obtaining a measure of the heat of      
bodies at their point of fusion1 he     

invariably found that it was impossible 
to raise the heat of a large crucible of
 melted iron1 gold1 or silver1 a single 
degree beyond the melting point1 so long
 as a bar of the respective metals was  
kept immersed in the fluid portions4 ,so
 in regard to other substances1 however 
great the quantities fused1 their       
temperature could not be raised while   
any solid pieces immersed in them       
remained unmelted2 every accession of   
heat being instantly absorbed during    
their liquefaction4 ,these results are1 
in fact1 no more than the extension of a
 principle previously established1 that 
so long as a fragment of ice remains in 
water1 we cannot raise the temperature  
of the water above #cb degrees ,f4  ,if1
 then1 the heat of the earth's centre   
amount to #dej1jjj degrees ,f41 as ,m4  
,cordier deems highly probable1 that is 
to say1 about twenty times the heat of  
melted iron1 even according to          
,wedgwood's scale1 and upwards of #afj  
times according to the improved         

pyrometer1 it is clear that the upper   
parts of the fluid mass could not long  
have a temperature only just sufficient 
to melt rocks4 ,there must be a         
continual tendency towards a uniform    
heat2 and until this were accomplished1 
by the interchange of portions of fluid 
of different densities1 the surface     
could not begin to consolidate4 ,nor1 on
 the hypothesis of primitive fluidity1  
can we conceive any crust to have been  
formed until the whole planet had cooled
 down to about the temperature of       
incipient fusion4  ,it cannot be        
objected that hydrostatic pressure would
 prevent a tendency to equalization of  
temperature2 for1 as far as observations
 have yet been made1 it is found that   
the waters of deep lakes and seas are   
governed by the same laws as a shallow  
pool2 and no experiments indicate that  
solids resist fusion under high         
pressure4 ,the arguments1 indeed1 now   
controverted1 always proceed on the     
admission that the internal nucleus is  

in a state of fusion4  ,it may be said  
that we may stand upon the hardened     
surface of a lava-current while it is   
still in motion1--nay1 may descend into 
the crater of ,vesuvius after an        
eruption1 and stand on the scoriae while
 every crevice shows that the rock is   
red-hot two or three feet below us2 and 
at a somewhat greater depth1 all is1    
perhaps1 in a state of fusion4 ,may not1
 then1 a much more intense heat be      
expected at the depth of several hundred
 yards1 or miles8 ,the answer is1--that 
until a great quantity of heat has been 
given off1 either by the emission of    
lava1 or in a latent form by the        
evolution of steam and gas1 the melted  
matter continues to boil in the crater  
of a volcano4 ,but ebullition ceases    
when there is no longer a sufficient    
supply of heat from below1 and then a   
crust of lava may form on the top1 and  
showers of scoriae may then descend upon
 the surface1 and remain unmelted4 ,if  
the internal heat be raised again1      

ebullition will recommence1 and soon    
fuse the superficial crust4 ,so in the  
case of the moving current1 we may      
safely assume that no part of the liquid
 beneath the hardened surface is much   
above the temperature sufficient to     
retain it in a state of fluidity4  ,it  
may assist us in forming a clearer view 
of the doctrine now controverted1 if we 
consider what would happen were a globe 
of homogeneous composition placed under 
circumstances analogous1 in regard to   
the distribution of heat1 to those above
 stated4 ,if the whole planet1 for      
example1 were composed of water covered 
with a spheroidal crust of ice fifty    
miles thick1 and with an interior ocean 
having a central heat about two hundred 
times that of the melting point of ice1 
or #fdjj degrees ,f42 and if1 between   
the surface and the centre1 there was   
every intermediate degree of temperature
 between that of melting ice and that of
 the central nucleus--could such a state
 of things last for a moment8 ,if it    

must be conceded1 in this case1 that the
 whole spheroid would be instantly in a 
state of violent ebullition1 that the   
ice 7instead of being strengthened      
annually by new internal layers7 would  
soon melt1 and form part of an          
atmosphere of steam--on what principle  
can it he maintained that analogous     
effects would not follow1 in regard to  
the earth1 under the conditions assumed 
in the theory of central heat8#ged   ,m4
 ,cordier admits that there must be     
tides in the internal melted ocean2 but 
their effect1 he says1 has become       
feeble1 although originally1 when the   
fluidity of the globe was perfect1 the  
rise and fall of these ancient land     
tides could not have been less than from
 thirteen to sixteen feet4 ,now1        
granting for a moment1 that these tides 
have become so feeble as to be incapable
 of causing the fissured shell of the   
earth to be first uplifted and then     
depressed every six hours1 still may we 
not ask whether1 during eruptions1 the  

lava1 which is supposed to communicate  
with a great central ocean1 would not   
rise and fall sensibly in a crater such 
as ,stromboli1 where there is always    
melted matter in a state of ebullition8 
,whether chemical changes may produce   
volcanic heat4--,having now explained   
the reasons which have induced me to    
question the hypothesis of central heat 
as the primary source of volcanic       
action1 it remains to consider what has 
been termed the chemical theory of      
volcanoes4 ,it is well known that many1 
perhaps all1 of the substances of which 
the earth is composed are continually   
undergoing chemical changes4 ,to what   
depth these processes may be continued  
downwards must1 in a great degree1 be   
matter of conjecture2 but there is no   
reason to suspect that1 if we could     
descend to a great distance from the    
surface1 we should find elementary      
substances differing essentially from   
those with which we are acquainted4     
,all the solid1 fluid1 and gaseous      

bodies known to us consist of a very    
small number of these elementary        
substances variously combined3 the total
 number of elements at present known is 
less than sixty2 and not half of these  
enter into the composition of the more  
abundant inorganic productions4 ,some   
portions of such compounds are daily    
undergoing decomposition1 and their     
constituent parts being set free are    
passing into new combinations4 ,these   
processes are by no means confined to   
minerals at the earth's surface1 and are
 very often accompanied by the evolution
 of heat1 which is intense in proportion
 to the rapidity of the combinations4   
,at the same time there is a development
 of electricity4  ,the spontaneous      
combustion of beds of bituminous shale1 
and of refuse coal thrown out of mines1 
is generally due to the decomposition of
 pyrites2 and it is the contact of air  
and water which brings about the change4
 ,heat results from the oxidation of the
 sulphur and iron1 though on what       

principle heat is generated1 when two or
 more bodies having a strong affinity   
for each other unite suddenly1 is wholly
 unexplained4  ,electricity a source of 
volcanic heat4--,it has already been    
stated1 that chemical changes develop   
electricity2 which1 in its turn1 becomes
 a powerful disturbing cause4 ,as a     
chemical agent1 says ,davy1 its silent  
and slow operation in the economy of    
nature is much more important than its  
grand and impressive operation in       
lightning and thunder4 ,it may be       
considered1 not only as directly        
producing an infinite variety of        
changes1 but as influencing almost all  
which take place2 it would seem1 indeed1
 that chemical attraction itself is only
 a peculiar form of the exhibition of   
electrical attraction4#gee  ,now that it
 has been demonstrated that magnetism   
and electricity are always associated1  
and are perhaps only different          
conditions of the same power1 the       
phenomena of terrestrial magnetism have 

become of no ordinary interest to the   
geologist4 ,soon after the first great  
discoveries of ,oersted in              
electro-magnetism1 ,ampere suggested    
that all the phenomena of the magnetic  
needle might be explained by supposing  
currents of electricity to circulate    
constantly in the shell of the globe in 
directions parallel to the magnetic     
equator4 ,this theory has acquired      
additional consistency the farther we   
have advanced in science2 and according 
to the experiments of ,mr4 ,fox1 on the 
electro-magnetic properties of          
metalliferous veins1 some trace of      
electric currents seems to have been    
detected in the interior of the         
earth4#gef  ,some philosophers ascribe  
these currents to the chemical action   
going on in the superficial parts of the
 globe to which air and water have the  
readiest access2 while others refer     
them1 in part at least1 to              
thermo-electricity excited by the solar 
rays on the surface of the earth during 

its rotation2 successive parts of the   
atmosphere1 land1 and sea being exposed 
to the influence of the sun1 and then   
cooled again in the night4 ,that this   
idea is not a mere speculation1 is      
proved by the correspondence of the     
diurnal variations of the magnet with   
the apparent motion of the sun2 and by  
the greater amount of variation in      
summer than in winter1 and during the   
day than in the night4 ,m4 de la ,rive1 
although conceding that such minor      
variations of the needle may be due to  
thermo-electricity1 contends that the   
general phenomena of terrestrial        
magnetism must be attributed to currents
 far more intense2 which1 though liable 
to secular fluctuations1 act with much  
greater constancy and regularity than   
the causes which produce the diurnal    
variations4#geg ,the remark seems just2 
yet it is difficult to assign limits to 
the accumulated influence even of a very
 feeble force constantly acting on the  
whole surface of the earth4 ,this       

subject1 however1 must evidently remain 
obscure1 until we become acquainted with
 the causes which give a determinate    
direction to the supposed electric      
currents4 ,already the experiments of   
,faraday on the rotation of magnets have
 led him to speculate on the manner in  
which the earth1 when once it had become
 magnetic1 might produce electric       
currents within itself1 in consequence  
of its diurnal rotation4#geh ,we have   
seen also in a former chapter 7p4 #abi7 
that the recent observations of         
,schwabe1 #aheb1 have led ,col4 ,sabine 
to the discovery of a connection between
 certain periodical changes1 which take 
place in the spots on the sun1 and a    
certain cycle of variations in          
terrestrial magnetism4 ,these seem to   
point to the existence of a solar       
magnetic period1 and suggest the idea of
 the sun's magnetism exerting an        
influence on the mass of our planet4    
,in regard to thermo-electricity1 ,i may
 remark1 that it may be generated by    

great inequalities of temperature1      
arising from a partial distribution of  
volcanic heat4 ,wherever1 for example1  
masses of rock occur of great horizontal
 extent1 and of considerable depth1     
which are at one point in a state of    
fusion 7as beneath some active volcano72
 at another1 red-hot2 and at a third1   
comparatively cold--strong              
thermo-electric action may be excited4  
,some1 perhaps1 may object1 that this is
 reasoning in a circle2 first to        
introduce electricity as one of the     
primary causes of volcanic heat1 and    
then to derive the same heat from       
thermo-electric currents4 ,but there    
must1 in truth1 be much reciprocal      
action between the agents now under     
consideration2 and it is very difficult 
to decide which should be regarded as   
the prime mover1 or to see where the    
train of changes1 once begun1 would     
terminate4 ,whether subterranean        
electric currents if once excited might 
sometimes possess the decomposing power 

of the voltaic pile1 is a question not  
perhaps easily answered in the present  
state of science2 but such a power1 if  
developed1 would at once supply us with 
a never-failing source of chemical      
action from which volcanic heat might be
 derived4  ,recapitulation4--,before    
entering1 in the next chapter1 still    
farther into the inquiry1 how far the   
phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes  
accord with the hypothesis of a         
continued generation of heat by chemical
 action1 it may be desirable to         
recapitulate1 in a few words1 the       
conclusions already obtained4  #ast4    
,the primary causes of the volcano and  
the earthquake are1 to a great extent1  
the same1 and must be connected with the
 passage of heat from the interior to   
the surface4  #b;dly4 ,this heat has    
been referred1 by many1 to a supposed   
state of igneous fusion of the central  
parts of the planet when it was first   
created1 of which a part still remains  
in the interior1 but is always          

diminishing in intensity4  #c;dly4 ,the 
spheroidal figure of the earth1 adduced 
in support of this theory1 does not of  
necessity imply a universal and         
simultaneous fluidity1 in the beginning2
 for supposing the original figure of   
our planet had been strictly            
spherical--which1 however1 is a         
gratuitous assumption1 resting on no    
established analogy--still the statical 
figure must have been assumed1 if       
sufficient time be allowed1 by the      
gradual operation of the centrifugal    
force1 acting on the materials brought  
successively within its action by       
aqueous and igneous causes4  #dthly4 ,it
 appears1 from experiment1 that the heat
 in mines increases progressively with  
their depth2 and if the ratio of        
increase be continued uniformly from the
 surface to the interior1 the whole     
globe1 with the exception of a small    
external shell1 must be fluid1 and the  
central parts must have a temperature   
many times higher than that of melted   

iron4  #ethly4 ,but the theory adopted  
by ,m4 ,cordier and others1 which       
maintains the actual existence of such a
 state of things1 seems wholly          
inconsistent with the laws which        
regulate the circulation of heat through
 fluid bodies4 ,for1 if the central heat
 were as intense as is represented1     
there must be a circulation of currents1
 tending to equalize the temperature of 
the resulting fluids1 and the solid     
crust itself would be melted4  #fthly4  
,instead of an original central heat1 we
 may1 perhaps1 refer the heat of the    
interior to chemical changes constantly 
going on in the earth's crust2 for the  
general effect of chemical combination  
is the evolution of heat and            
electricity1 which in their turn become 
sources of new chemical changes4        
,,chapter ,,xxxii4  ,,causes ,,of       
,,earthquakes ,,and                     
,,volcanoes--continued4     ,review of  
the proofs of internal heat--,theory of 
an unoxidated     metallic              

nucleus--,whether the decomposition of  
water may be a source     of volcanic   
heat--,geysers of ,iceland--,causes of  
earthquakes--,wavelike                  
motion--,expansive power of liquid      
gases--,connection between the state of 
the atmosphere and                      
earthquakes--,permanent upheaval and    
subsidence of land--,expansion of       
rocks by heat--,the balance of dry land 
how preserved--,subsidence in           
excess--,conclusion4   ,when we reflect 
that the largest mountains are but      
insignificant protuberances upon the    
surface of the earth1 and that these    
mountains are nevertheless composed of  
different parts which have been formed  
in succession1 we may well feel surprise
 that the central fluidity of the planet
 should have been called in to account  
for volcanic phenomena4 ,to suppose the 
entire globe to be in a state of igneous
 fusion1 with the exception of a solid  
shell1 not more than from thirty to one 
hundred miles thick1 and to imagine that

 the central heat of this fluid spheroid
 exceeds by more than two hundred times 
that of liquid lava1 is to introduce a  
force altogether disproportionate to the
 effects which it is required to        
explain4  ,the ordinary repose of the   
surface implies1 on the contrary1 an    
inertness in the internal mass which is 
truly wonderful4 ,when we consider the  
combustible nature of the elements of   
the earth1 so far as they are known to  
us1--the facility with which their      
compounds may be decomposed and made to 
enter into new combinations1--the       
quantity of heat which they evolve      
during these processes2 when we         
recollect the expansive power of steam1 
and that water itself is composed of two
 gases which1 by their union1 produce   
intense heat2 when we call to mind the  
number of explosive and detonating      
compounds which have been already       
discovered1 we may be allowed to share  
the astonishment of ,pliny1 that a      
single day should pass without a general

 conflagration3--,excedit profecto omnia
 miracula1 ullum diem fuisse quo non    
cuncta conflagrarent4#gei  ,the signs of
 internal heat observable on the surface
 of the earth do not necessarily        
indicate the permanent existence of     
subterranean heated masses1 whether     
fluid or solid1 by any means so vast as 
our continents and seas2 yet how        
insignificant would these appear if     
distributed through an external shell of
 the globe one or two hundred miles in  
depth6 ,the principal facts in proof of 
the accumulation of heat below the      
surface may be summed up in a few words4
 ,several volcanoes are constantly in   
eruption1 as ,stromboli and ,nicaragua2 
others are known to have been active for
 periods of #fj1 or even #aej years1 as 
those of ,sangay in ,quito1             
,popocatepetl in ,mexico1 and the       
volcano of the ,isle of ,bourbon4 ,many 
craters emit hot vapors in the intervals
 between eruptions1 and solfataras      
evolve incessantly the same gases as    

volcanoes4 ,steam of high temperature   
has continued for more than twenty      
centuries to issue from the stufas1 as  
the ,italians call them2 thermal springs
 abound not only in regions of          
earthquakes1 but are found in almost all
 countries1 however distant from active 
vents2 and1 lastly1 the temperature in  
the mines of various parts of the world 
is found to increase in proportion as we
 descend4  ,the diagram 7fig4 #ic7 in   
the next page1 may convey some idea of  
the proportion which our continents and 
the ocean bear to the radius of the     
earth4#gfj ,if all the land were about  
as high as the ,himalaya mountains1 and 
the ocean everywhere as deep as the     
,pacific1 the whole of both might be    
contained within a space expressed by   
the thickness of the line a b2 and      
masses of nearly equal volume might be  
placed in the space marked by the line c
 d1 in the interior4 ,seas of lava1     
therefore1 of the size of the           
,mediterranean1 or even of the          

,atlantic1 would be as nothing if       
distributed through such an outer shell 
of the globe as is represented by the   
shaded portion of the figure a b c d4   
,if throughout that space we imagine    
electro-chemical causes to be           
continually in operation1 even of very  
feeble power1 they might give rise to   
heat which1 if accumulated at certain   
points1 might melt or render red-hot    
entire mountains1 or sustain the        
temperature of stufas and hot springs   
for ages4  ,theory of an unoxidated     
metallic nucleus4--,when ,sir ,h4 ,davy 
first discovered the metallic basis of  
the earths and alkalies1 he threw out   
the idea that those metals might abound 
in an unoxidized state in the           
subterranean regions to which water must
 occasionally penetrate4 ,whenever this 
happened1 gaseous matter would be set   
free1 the metals would combine with the 
oxygen of the water1 and sufficient heat
 might be evolved to melt the           
surrounding rocks4 ,this hypothesis1    

although afterwards abandoned by its    
author1 was at first very favorably     
received both by the chemist and the    
geologist3 for silica1 alumina1 lime1   
soda1 and oxide of iron1--substances of 
which lavas are principally             
composed1--would all result from the    
contact of the inflammable metals       
alluded to with water4 ,but whence this 
abundant store of unsaturated metals in 
the interior8 ,it was assumed that1 in  
the beginning of things1 the nucleus of 
the earth was mainly composed of        
inflammable metals1 and that oxidation  
went on with intense energy at first2   
till at length1 when a superficial crust
 of oxides had been formed1 the chemical
 action became more and more languid4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4  ,centre of   
the earth4  ,this speculation1 like all 
others respecting the primitive state of
 the earth's nucleus1 rests unavoidably 
on arbitrary assumptions4 ,but we may   
fairly inquire whether any existing     
causes may have the power of deoxidating

 the earthy and alkaline compounds      
formed from time to time by the action  
of water upon the metallic bases4 ,if   
so1 and if the original crust or nucleus
 of the planet contained distributed    
through it here and there some partial  
stores of potassium1 sodium1 and other  
metallic bases1 these might be oxidated 
and again deoxidated1 so as to sustain  
for ages a permanent chemical action4   
,yet even then we should be unable to   
explain why such a continuous circle of 
operations1 after having been kept up   
for thousands of years in one district1 
should entirely cease1 and why another  
region1 which had enjoyed a respite from
 volcanic action for one or many        
geological periods1 should become a     
theatre for the development of          
subterranean heat4  ,it is well known to
 chemists1 that the metallization of    
oxides1 the most difficult to reduce1   
may be effected by hydrogen brought into
 contact with them at a red heat2 and it
 is more than probable that the         

production of potassium itself1 in the  
common gun-barrel process1 is due to the
 power of nascent hydrogen derived from 
the water which the hydrated oxide      
contains4 ,according to the recent      
experiments1 also1 of ,faraday1 it would
 appear that every case of metallic     
reduction by voltaic agency1 from saline
 solutions1 in which water is present1  
is due to the secondary action of       
hydrogen upon the oxide2 both of these  
being determined to the negative pole   
and then reacting upon one another4  ,it
 is admitted that intense heat would be 
produced by the occasional contact of   
water with the metallic bases2 and it is
 certain that1 during the process of    
saturation1 vast volumes of hydrogen    
must be evolved4 ,the hydrogen1 thus    
generated1 might permeate the crust of  
the earth in different directions1 and  
become stored up for ages in fissures   
and caverns1 sometimes in a liquid form1
 under the necessary pressure4          
,whenever1 at any subsequent period1 in 

consequence of the changes effected by  
earthquakes in the shell of the earth1  
this gas happened to come in contact    
with metallic oxides at a high          
temperature1 the reduction of these     
oxides might be the result4  ,no theory 
seems at first more startling than that 
which represents water as affording an  
inexhaustible supply of fuel to the     
volcanic fires2 yet is it by no means   
visionary4 ,it is a fact that must not  
be overlooked1 that while a great number
 of volcanoes are entirely submarine1   
the remainder occur for the most part in
 islands or maritime tracts4 ,there are 
a few exceptions2 but some of these1    
observes ,dr4 ,daubeny1 are near inland 
salt lakes1 as in ,central ,tartary2    
while others form part of a train of    
volcanoes1 the extremities of which are 
near the sea4  ,sir ,h4 ,davy suggested 
that1 when the sea is distant1 as in the
 case of some of the ,south ,american   
volcanoes1 they may still be supplied   
with water from subterranean lakes2     

since1 according to ,humboldt1 large    
quantities of fish are often thrown out 
during eruptions4#gfa ,mr4 ,dana also1  
in his valuable and original            
observations on the volcanoes of the    
,sandwich ,islands1 reminds us of the   
prodigious volume of atmospheric water  
which must be absorbed into the interior
 of such large and lofty domes1 composed
 as they are entirely of porous lava4   
,to this source alone he refers the     
production of the steam by which the    
melted matter is propelled upwards1 even
 to the summit of cones three miles in  
height4#gfb  ,when treating of springs  
and overflowing wells1 ,i have stated   
that porous rocks are percolated by     
fresh water to great depths1 and that   
sea-water probably penetrates in the    
same manner through the rocks which form
 the bed of the ocean4 ,but1 besides    
this universal circulation in regions   
not far from the surface1 it must be    
supposed that1 wherever earthquakes     
prevail1 much larger bodies of water    

will be forced by the pressure of the   
ocean into fissures at great depths1 or 
swallowed up in chasms2 in the same     
manner as on the land1 towns1 houses1   
cattle1 and trees are sometimes         
engulfed4 ,it will be remembered1 that  
these chasms often close again after    
houses have fallen into them2 and for   
the same reason1 when water has         
penetrated to a mass of melted lava1 the
 steam into which it is converted may   
often rush out at a different aperture  
from that by which the water entered4   
,the gases1 it is said1 exhaled from    
volcanoes1 together with steam1 are such
 as would result from the decomposition 
of salt water1 and the fumes which      
escape from the ,vesuvian lava have been
 observed to deposit common salt4#gfc   
,the emission of free muriatic acid gas 
in great quantities is also thought by  
many to favor the theory of the         
decomposition of the salt contained in  
sea-water4 ,it has been objected1       
however1 that ,m4 ,boussingault did not 

meet with this gas in his examination of
 the elastic fluids evolved from the    
volcanoes of equatorial ,america2 which 
only give out aqueous vapor 7in very    
large quantity71 carbonic acid gas1     
sulphurous acid gas1 and sometimes fumes
 of sulphur4#gfd ,in reply1 ,dr4        
,daubeny has remarked1 that muriatic    
acid may have ceased to be disengaged1  
because the volcanic action has become  
languid in equatorial ,america1 and     
sea-water may no longer obtain          
admission4  ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 while he  
avows his opinion that the decomposition
 of water contributes largely to        
volcanic action1 called attention1      
nevertheless1 to the supposed fact1 that
 hydrogen had not been detected in a    
separate form among the gaseous products
 of volcanoes2 nor can it1 he says1 be  
present2 for1 in that case1 it would be 
inflamed in the air by the red-hot      
stones thrown out during an eruption4   
,dr4 ,davy1 in his account of ,graham   
,island1 says1 ,i watched when the      

lightning was most vivid1 and the       
eruption of the greatest degree of      
violence1 to see if there was any       
inflammation occasioned by this natural 
electric spark--any indication of the   
presence of inflammable gas2 but in     
vain4#gfe  ,may not the hydrogen1 ,gay  
,lussac inquires1 be combined with      
chlorine1 and produce muriatic acid8 for
 this gas has been observed to be       
evolved from ,vesuvius--and the chlorine
 may have been derived from sea salt2   
which was1 in fact1 extracted by simple 
washing from the ,vesuvian lava of      
#ahbb1 in the proportion of nine per    
cent4#gff ,but it was answered1 that    
,sir ,h4 ,davy's experiments had shown1 
that hydrogen is not combustible when   
mixed with muriatic acid gas2 so that if
 muriatic gas was evolved in large      
quantities1 the hydrogen might be       
present without inflammation4#gfg ,m4   
,abich1 on the other hand1 assures us1  
that although it be true that vapor     
illuminated by incandescent lava has    

often been mistaken for flame1 yet he   
clearly detected in the eruption of     
,vesuvius in #ahcd the flame of         
hydrogen4#gfh  ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 in the 
memoir just alluded to1 expressed doubt 
as to the presence of sulphurous acid2  
but the abundant disengagement of this  
gas during eruptions has been since     
ascertained3 and thus all difficulty in 
regard to the general absence of        
hydrogen in an inflammable state is     
removed2 for1 as ,dr4 ,daubeny suggests1
 the hydrogen of decomposed water may   
unite with sulphur to form sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas1 and this gas will then be 
mingled with the sulphurous acid as it  
rises to the crater4 ,it is shown by    
experiment1 that these gases mutually   
decompose each other when mixed where   
steam is present2 the hydrogen of the   
one immediately uniting with the oxygen 
of the other to form water1 while the   
excess of sulphurous acid alone escapes 
into the atmosphere4 ,sulphur is at the 
same time precipitated4  ,this          

explanation is sufficient2 but it may   
also be observed that the flame of      
hydrogen would rarely be visible during 
an eruption2 as that gas1 when inflamed 
in a pure state1 burns with a very faint
 blue flame1 which even in the night    
could hardly be perceptible by the side 
of red-hot and incandescent cinders4    
,its immediate1 conversion into water   
when inflamed in the atmosphere1 might  
also account for its not appearing in a 
separate form4  ,dr4 ,daubeny is of     
opinion that water containing           
atmospheric air may descend from the    
surface of the earth to the volcanic    
foci1 and that the same process of      
combustion by which water is decomposed 
may deprive such subterranean air of its
 oxygen4 ,in this manner he explains the
 great quantities of nitrogen evolved   
from volcanic vents and thermal waters1 
and the fact that air disengaged from   
the earth in volcanic regions is either 
wholly or in part deprived of its       
oxygen4  ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in his memoir  

on the ,phenomena of ,volcanoes1        
remarks1 that there was every reason to 
suppose in ,vesuvius the existence of a 
descending current of air2 and he       
imagined that subterranean cavities     
which threw out large volumes of steam  
during the eruption1 might afterwards1  
in the quiet state of the volcano1      
become filled with atmospheric air4#gfi 
,the presence of ammoniacal salts in    
volcanic emanations1 and of ammonia     
7which is in part composed of nitrogen7 
in lava1 favors greatly the notion of   
air as well as water being deoxidated in
 the interior of the earth4#ggj  ,it has
 been alleged by ,professor ,bischoff   
that the slight specific gravity of the 
metals of the alkalies is fatal to      
,davy's hypothesis1 for if the mean     
density of the earth1 as determined by  
astronomers1 surpass that of all kinds  
of rocks1 these metals cannot exist1 at 
least not in great quantities in the    
interior of the earth4#gga ,but ,dr4    
,daubeny has shown1 that if we take the 

united specific gravity of potassium1   
sodium1 silicon1 iron1 and all the      
materials which1 when united with       
oxygen1 constitute ordinary lava1 and   
then compare their weight with lava of  
equal bulk1 the difference is not very  
material1 the specific gravity of the   
lava only exceeding by about one-fourth 
that of the unoxidized metals4 ,besides1
 at great depths1 the metallic bases of 
the earths and alkalies may very        
probably be rendered heavier by         
pressure4#ggb ,nor is it fair to        
embarrass the chemical theory of        
volcanoes with a doctrine so purely     
gratuitous1 as that which supposes the  
entire nucleus of the planet to have    
been at first composed of unoxidated    
metals4  ,professor ,bunsen of ,marburg1
 after analyzing the gases which escape 
from the volcanic fumeroles and         
solfataras of ,iceland1 and after       
calculating the quantity of hydrogen    
evolved between two eruptions1 affirms1 
in contradiction of opinions previously 

entertained1 that the hydrogen bears a  
perfect relation in quantity to the     
magnitude of the streams of lava1       
assuming the fusion of these last to    
have been the result of the heat evolved
 during the oxidation of alkaline and   
earthy metals1 and this to have been    
brought about by the decomposition of   
water4 ,yet after having thus succeeded 
in removing the principal objection once
 so triumphantly urged against ,davy's  
hypothesis1 ,bunsen concludes by        
declaring that the hydrogen evolved in  
volcanic regions cannot have been       
generated by the decomposition of water 
coming in contact with alkaline and     
earthy metallic bases4 ,for1 says the   
,professor1 this process presupposes the
 prevalence of a temperature in which   
carbonic acid cannot exist in contact   
with hydrogen without suffering a       
partial reduction to carbonic oxide2 and
 not a trace of carbonic oxide is ever  
found in volcanic exhalations4#ggc ,at  
the same time it will be seen1 by       

consulting the able memoirs of the      
,marburg chemist1 that he supposes many 
energetic kinds of chemical action to be
 continually going on in the interior of
 the earth1 capable of causing the      
disengagement of hydrogen2 and there can
 be no doubt that this gas may be a     
source of innumerable new changes1      
capable of producing the local          
development of internal heat4  ,cause of
 volcanic eruptions4--,the most probable
 causes of a volcanic outburst at the   
surface have been in a great degree     
anticipated in the preceding            
speculations on the liquefaction of     
rocks and the generation of gases4 ,when
 a minute hole is bored in a tube filled
 with gas condensed into a liquid1 the  
whole becomes instantly aeriform1 or1 as
 some writers have expressed it1 flashes
 into vapor1 and often bursts the tube4 
,such an experiment may represent the   
mode in which gaseous matter may rush   
through a rent in the rocks1 and        
continue to escape for days or weeks    

through a small orifice1 with an        
explosive power sufficient to reduce    
every substance which opposes its       
passage into small fragments or even    
dust4 ,lava may be propelled upwards at 
the same time1 and ejected in the form  
of scoriae4 ,in some places1 where the  
fluid lava lies at the bottom of a deep 
fissure1 communicating on the one hand  
with the surface1 and on the other with 
a cavern in which a considerable body of
 vapor has been formed1 there may be an 
efflux of lava1 followed by the escape  
of gas4 ,eruptions often commence and   
close with the discharge of vapor2 and1 
when this is the case1 the next outburst
 may be expected to take place by the   
same vent1 for the concluding evolution 
of elastic fluids will keep open the    
duct1 and leave it unobstructed4  ,the  
breaking out of lava from the side or   
base of a lofty cone1 rather than from  
the summit1 may be attributed to the    
hydrostatic pressure to which the flanks
 of the mountain are exposed1 when the  

column of lava has risen to a great     
height4 ,or if1 before it has reached   
the top1 there should happen to be any  
stoppage in the main duct1 the upward   
pressure of the ascending column of gas 
and lava may burst a lateral opening4   
,in the case however of ,mount ,loa1 in 
the ,sandwich ,islands1 there appears to
 be a singular want of connection or    
sympathy between the eruptions of the   
central and the great lateral vent4 ,the
 great volcanic cone alluded to rises to
 the height of #ac1gfj feet above the   
level of the sea1 having a crater at its
 summit1 from which powerful streams of 
lava have flowed in recent times1 and   
having another still larger crater1     
called ,kilauea1 on its southeastern    
slope1 about #djjj feet above the sea4  
,this lateral cavity resembles a huge   
quarry cut in the mountain's side1 being
 about #ajjj feet deep when in its      
ordinary state4 ,it is seven miles and a
 half in circuit1 and scattered over its
 bottom1 at different levels1 are lakes 

and pools of lava1 always in a state of 
ebullition4 ,the liquid in one of these 
will sometimes sink #ajj or #aej feet1  
while it is overflowing in another at a 
higher elevation1 there being1 it should
 seem1 no communication between them4   
,in like manner1 lava overflows in the  
summit crater of ,mount ,loa1 nearly    
#ad1jjj feet high1 while the great      
lateral cauldron just alluded to 7of    
,kilauea7 continues as tranquil as      
usual1 affording no relief to any part  
of the gases or melted matter which are 
forcing their way upwards in the centre 
of the mountain4 ,how1 asks ,mr4 ,dana1 
if there were any subterranean channel  
connecting the two great vents1 could   
this want of sympathy exist8 ,how1      
according to the laws of hydrostatic    
pressure1 can a column of fluid stand   
#aj1jjj feet higher in one leg of the   
siphon than in the other8 ,the          
eruptions1 he observes1 are not         
paroxysmal2 on the contrary1 the lava   
rises slowly and gradually to the summit

 of the lofty cone1 and then escapes    
there without any commotion manifesting 
itself in ,kilauea1 a gulf always open  
on the flanks of the same mountain4 ,one
 conclusion1 he says1 is certain1       
namely1 that volcanoes are no safety    
valves as they have been called2 for    
here two independent and apparently     
isolated centres of volcanic activity1  
only sixteen miles distant from each    
other1 are sustained in one and the same
 cone4#ggd  ,without pretending to solve
 this enigma1 ,i cannot refrain from    
remarking1 that the supposed            
independence of several orifices of     
eruption in one crater like ,kilauea1   
when adduced in confirmation of the     
doctrine of two distinct sources of     
volcanic action underneath one mountain1
 proves too much4 ,no one can doubt1    
that the pools of lava in ,kilauea have 
been derived from some common reservoir1
 and have resulted from a combination of
 causes commonly called volcanic1 which 
are at work in the interior at some     

unknown distance below4 ,these causes   
have given rise in ,mount ,loa to       
eruptions from many points1 but         
principally from one centre1 so that a  
vast dome of ejected matter has been    
piled up4 ,the subsidiary crater has    
evidently never given much relief to the
 imprisoned1 heated1 and liquefied      
matter1 for ,kilauea does not form a    
lateral protuberance interfering with   
the general shape or uniform outline of 
,mount ,loa4  ,geysers of ,iceland4--,as
 aqueous vapor constitutes the most     
abundant of the aeriform products of    
volcanoes in eruption1 it may be well to
 consider attentively a case in which   
steam is exclusively the moving         
power--that of the ,geysers of ,iceland4
 ,these intermittent hot springs occur  
in a district situated in the           
southwestern division of ,iceland1 where
 nearly one hundred of them are said to 
break out within a circle of two miles4 
,that the water is of atmospheric       
origin1 derived from rain and melted    

snow1 is proved1 says ,professor        
,bunsen1 by the nitrogen which rises    
from them either pure or mixed with     
other gases4 ,the springs rise through a
 thick current of lava1 which may       
perhaps have flowed from ,mount ,hecla1 
the summit of that volcano being seen   
from the spot at the distance of more   
than thirty miles4 ,in this district the
 rushing of water is sometimes heard in 
chasms beneath the surface2 for here1 as
 on ,etna1 rivers flow in subterranean  
channels through the porous and         
cavernous lavas4 ,it has more than once 
happened1 after earthquakes1 that some  
of the boiling fountains have increased 
or diminished in violence and volume1 or
 entirely ceased1 or that new ones have 
made their appearance--changes which may
 be explained by the opening of new     
rents and the closing of pre-existing   
fissures4  ,few of the ,geysers play    
longer than five or six minutes at a    
time1 although sometimes half an hour4  
,the intervals between their eruptions  

are for the most part very irregular4   
,the ,great ,geyser rises out of a      
spacious basin at the summit of a       
circular mound composed of siliceous    
incrustations deposited from the spray  
of its waters4 ,the diameter of this    
basin1 in one direction1 is fifty-six   
feet1 and forty-six in another4 7,see   
fig4 #id47 ,in the centre is a pipe     
seventy-eight feet in perpendicular     
depth1 and from eight to ten feet in    
diameter1 but gradually widening1 as it 
rises into the basin4 ,the inside of the
 basin is whitish1 consisting of a      
siliceous crust1 and perfectly smooth1  
as are likewise two small channels on   
the sides of the mound1 down which the  
water escapes when the bowl is filled to
 the margin4 ,the circular basin is     
sometimes empty1 as represented in the  
following sketch2 but is usually filled 
with beautifully transparent water in a 
state of ebullition4 ,during the rise of
 the boiling water in the pipe1         
especially when the ebullition is most  

violent1 and when the water is thrown up
 in jets1 subterranean noises are heard1
 like the distant firing of cannon1 and 
the earth is slightly shaken4 ,the sound
 then increases and the motion becomes  
more violent1 till at length a column of
 water is thrown up1 with loud          
explosions1 to the height of one or two 
hundred feet4 ,after playing for a time 
like an artificial fountain1 and giving 
off great clouds of vapor1 the pipe or  
tube is emptied2 and a column of steam1 
rushing up with amazing force and a     
thundering noise1 terminates the        
eruption4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4    
,view of the ,crater of the ,great      
,geyser in ,iceland4#gge  ,if stones are
 thrown into the crater1 they are       
instantly ejected2 and such is the      
explosive force1 that very hard rocks   
are sometimes shivered by it into small 
pieces4 ,henderson found that by        
throwing a great quantity of large      
stones into the pipe of ,strockr1 one of
 the ,geysers1 he could bring on an     

eruption in a few minutes4#ggf ,the     
fragments of stone1 as well as the      
boiling water1 were thrown in that case 
to a much greater height than usual4    
,after the water had been ejected1 a    
column of steam continued to rush up    
with a deafening roar for nearly an     
hour2 but the ,geyser1 as if exhausted  
by this effort1 did not send out a fresh
 eruption when its usual interval of    
rest had elapsed4 ,the account given by 
,sir ,george ,mackenzie of a ,geyser    
which he saw in eruption in #ahaj 7see  
fig4 #ie71 agrees perfectly with the    
above description by ,henderson4 ,the   
steam and water rose for half an hour to
 the height of #gj feet1 and the white  
column remained perpendicular           
notwithstanding a brisk gale of wind    
which was blowing against it4 ,stones   
thrown into the pipe were projected to a
 greater height than the water4 ,to     
leeward of the vapor a heavy shower of  
rain was seen to fall4#ggg              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4  ,eruption of 

the ,new ,geyser in #ahaj4 7,mackenzie47
  ,among the different theories proposed
 to account for these phenomena1 ,i     
shall first mention one suggested by    
,sir4 ,j4 ,herschel4 ,an imitation of   
these jets1 he says1 may be produced on 
a small scale1 by heating red hot the   
stem of a tobacco pipe1 filling the bowl
 with water1 and so inclining the pipe  
as to let the water run through the     
stem4 ,its escape1 instead of taking    
place in a continued stream1 is then    
performed by a succession of violent    
explosions1 at first of steam alone1    
then of water mixed with steam2 and1 as 
the pipe cools1 almost wholly of water4 
,at every such paroxysmal escape of the 
water1 a portion is driven back1        
accompanied with steam1 into the bowl4  
,the intervals between the explosions   
depend on the heat1 length1 and         
inclination of the pipe2 their          
continuance1 on its thickness and       
conducting power4#ggh ,the application  
of this experiment to the ,geysers      

merely requires that a subterranean     
stream1 flowing through the pores and   
crevices of lava1 should suddenly reach 
a fissure in which the rock is red hot  
or nearly so4 ,steam would immediately  
be formed1 which1 rushing up the        
fissure1 might force up water along with
 it to the surface1 while1 at the same  
time1 part of the steam might drive back
 the water of the supply for a certain  
distance towards its source4 ,and when1 
after the space of some minutes1 the    
steam was all condensed1 the water would
 return1 and a repetition of the        
phenomena take place4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #if4  ,supposed reservoir and pipe
 of a ,geyser in ,iceland4#ggi  ,there  
is1 however1 another mode of explaining 
the action of the ,geyser1 perhaps more 
probable than that above described4     
,suppose water percolating from the     
surface of the earth to penetrate into  
the subterranean cavity ,a ,d 7fig4 #if7
 by the fissures ,f ,f1 while1 at the   
same time1 steam at an extremely high   

temperature1 such as is commonly given  
out from the rents of lava currents     
during congelation1 emanates from the   
fissures ,c4 ,a portion of the steam is 
at first condensed into water1 while the
 temperature of the water is raised by  
the latent heat thus evolved1 till1 at  
last1 the lower part of the cavity is   
filled with boiling water and the upper 
with steam under high pressure4 ,the    
expansive force of the steam becomes1 at
 length1 so great1 that the water is    
forced up the fissure or pipe ,e ,b1 and
 runs over the rim of the basin4 ,when  
the pressure is thus diminished1 the    
steam in the upper part of the cavity ,a
 expands1 until all the water ,d is     
driven into the pipe2 and when this     
happens1 the steam1 being the lighter of
 the two fluids1 rushes up through the  
water with great velocity4 ,if the pipe 
be choked up artificially1 even for a   
few minutes1 a great increase of heat   
must take place2 for it is prevented    
from escaping in a latent form in steam2

 so that the water is made to boil more 
violently1 and this brings on an        
eruption4  ,professor ,bunsen1 before   
cited1 adopts this theory to account for
 the play of the ,little ,geyser1 but   
says it will not explain the phenomena  
of the ,great one4 ,he considers this1  
like the others1 to be a thermal spring1
 having a narrow funnel-shaped tube in  
the upper part of its course1 where the 
walls of the channel have become coated 
over with siliceous incrustations4 ,at  
the mouth of this tube the water has a  
temperature1 corresponding to the       
pressure of the atmosphere1 of about    
#bab degrees ,fahr41 but at a certain   
depth below it is much hotter4 ,this the
 professor succeeded in proving by      
experiment2 a thermometer suspended by a
 string in the pipe rising to #bff      
degrees ,fahr41 or no less than #dh     
degrees above the boiling point4 ,after 
the column of water has been expelled1  
what remains in the basin and pipe is   
found to be much cooled4  ,previously to

 these experiments of ,bunsen and       
,descloizeaux1 made in ,iceland in      
#ahdf1 it would scarcely have been      
supposed possible that the lower part of
 a free and open column of water could  
be raised so much in temperature without
 causing a circulation of ascending and 
descending currents1 followed by an     
almost immediate equalization of heat4  
,such circulation is no doubt impeded   
greatly by the sides of the well not    
being vertical1 and by numerous         
contractions of its diameter1 but the   
phenomenon may be chiefly due to another
 cause4 ,according to recent experiments
 on the cohesion of liquids by ,mr4     
,donny of ,ghent1 it appears that when  
water is freed from all admixture of    
air1 its temperature can be raised1 even
 under ordinary atmospheric pressure1 to
 #bge degrees ,fahr41 so much does the  
cohesion of its molecules increase#ghj  
when they are not separated by particles
 of air4 ,as water long boiled becomes  
more and more deprived of air1 it is    

probably very free from such            
intermixture at the bottom of the       
,geysers4  ,among other results of the  
experiments of ,bunsen and his          
companion1 they convinced themselves    
that the column of fluid filling the    
tube is constantly receiving accessions 
of hot water from below1 while it       
becomes cooler above by evaporation on  
the broad surface of the basin4 ,they   
also came to a conclusion of no small   
interest1 as bearing on the probable    
mechanism of ordinary volcanic          
eruptions1 namely that the tube itself  
is the main seat or focus of mechanical 
force4 ,this was proved by letting down 
stones suspended by strings to various  
depths4 ,those which were sunk to       
considerable distances from the surface 
were not cast up again1 whereas those   
nearer the mouth of the tube were       
ejected to great heights4 ,other        
experiments also were made tending to   
demonstrate the singular fact1 that     
there is often scarce any motion below1 

when a violent rush of steam and water  
is taking place above4 ,it seems that   
when a lofty column of water possesses a
 temperature increasing with the depth1 
any slight ebullition or disturbance of 
equilibrium in the upper portion may    
first force up water into the basin1 and
 then cause it to flow over the edge4 ,a
 lower portion1 thus suddenly relieved  
of part of its pressure1 expands and is 
converted into vapor more rapidly than  
the first1 owing to its greater heat4   
,this allows the next subjacent stratum1
 which is much hotter1 to rise and flash
 into a gaseous form2 and this process  
goes on till the ebullition has         
descended from the middle to near the   
bottom of the funnel4#gha  ,in          
speculating1 therefore1 on the mechanism
 of an ordinary volcanic eruption1 we   
may suppose that large subterranean     
cavities exist at the depth of some     
miles below the surface of the earth1 in
 which melted lava accumulates2 and when
 water containing the usual mixture of  

air penetrates into these1 the steam    
thus generated may press upon the lava  
and force it up the duct of a volcano1  
in the same manner as a column of water 
is driven up the pipe of a ,geyser4 ,in 
other cases we may suppose a continuous 
column of liquid lava mixed with red-hot
 water 7for water may exist in that     
state1 as ,professor ,bunsen reminds us1
 under pressure71 and this column may   
have a temperature regularly increasing 
downwards4 ,a disturbance of equilibrium
 may first bring on an eruption near the
 surface1 by the expansion and          
conversion into gas of entangled water  
and other constituents of what we call  
lava1 so as to occasion a diminution of 
pressure4 ,more steam would then be     
liberated1 carrying up with it jets of  
melted rock1 which being hurled up into 
the air may fall in showers of ashes on 
the surrounding country1 and at length1 
by the arrival of lava and water more   
and more heated at the orifice of the   
duct or the crater of the volcano1      

expansive power may be acquired         
sufficient to expel a massive current of
 lava4 ,after the eruption has ceased1 a
 period of tranquillity succeeds1 during
 which fresh accessions of heat are     
communicated from below1 and additional 
masses of rock fused by degrees1 while  
at the same time atmospheric or sea     
water is descending from the surface4   
,at length the conditions required for a
 new outburst are obtained1 and another 
cycle of similar changes is renewed4    
,causes of earthquakes--wave-like       
motion4--,i shall now proceed to examine
 the manner in which the heat of the    
interior may give rise to earthquakes4  
,one of the most common phenomena       
attending subterranean movements1 is the
 undulatory motion of the ground4 ,and  
this1 says ,michell1 will seem less     
extraordinary1 if we call to mind the   
extreme elasticity of the earth and the 
compressibility of even the most solid  
materials4 ,large districts1 he         
suggests1 may rest on fluid lava2 and1  

when this is disturbed1 its motions may 
be propagated through the incumbent     
rocks4 ,he also adds the following      
ingenious speculation3--,as a small     
quantity of vapor almost instantly      
generated at some considerable depth    
below the surface of the earth will     
produce a vibratory motion1 so a very   
large quantity 7whether it be generated 
almost instantly1 or in any small       
portion of time7 will produce a         
wave-like motion4 ,the manner in which  
this wave-like motion will be propagated
 may1 in some measure1 be represented by
 the following experiment3--,suppose a  
large cloth1 or carpet 7spread upon a   
floor71 to be raised at one edge1 and   
then suddenly brought down again to the 
floor2 the air under it1 being by this  
means propelled1 will pass along till it
 escapes at the opposite side1 raising  
the cloth in a wave all the way as it   
goes4 ,in like manner1 a large quantity 
of vapor may be conceived to raise the  
earth in a wave1 as it passes along     

between the strata1 which it may easily 
separate in a horizontal direction1     
there being little or no cohesion       
between one stratum and another4 ,the   
part of the earth that is first raised  
being bent from its natural form1 will  
endeavor to restore itself by its       
elasticity2 and the parts next to it    
being to have their weight supported by 
the vapor1 which will insinuate itself  
under them1 will be raised in their     
turn1 till it either finds some vent1 or
 is again condensed by the cold into    
water1 and by that means prevented from 
proceeding any farther4#ghb ,in a memoir
 published in #ahdc1 on the structure of
 the ,appalachian chain1 by the         
,professors ,rogers1#ghc the following  
hypothesis is proposed as simpler and   
more in accordance with dynamical       
considerations1 and the recorded        
observations on earthquakes4--,in place1
 say they1 of supposing it possible for 
a body of vapor or gaseous matter to    
pass horizontally between the strata1 or

 even between the crust and the fluid   
lava upon which it floats1 and with     
which it must be closely entangled1 we  
are inclined to attribute the movement  
to an actual pulsation1 engendered in   
the molten matter itself1 by a linear   
disruption under enormous tension1      
giving vent explosively to elastic      
vapors1 escaping either to the surface1 
or into cavernous spaces beneath4       
,according to this supposition1 the     
movement of the subterranean vapors     
would be towards1 and not from1 the     
disrupted belt1 and the oscillation of  
the crust would originate in the        
tremendous and sudden disturbance of the
 previous pressure on the surface of the
 lava mass below1 brought about by the  
instantaneous and violent rending of the
 overlying strata4  ,this theory        
requires us to admit that the crust of  
the earth is so flexible1 that it can   
assume the form1 and follow the motion  
of an undulation in the fluid below4    
,even if we grant this1 says ,mr4       

,mallet1 another more serious objection 
presents itself1 viz4 the great velocity
 attributed to the transit of the wave  
in the subterranean sea of lava4 ,we are
 called upon to admit that the speed of 
the wave below equals that of the true  
earthquake shock at the surface1 which  
is so immense1 that it is not inferior  
to the velocity of sound in the same    
solids4 ,but the undulation in the fluid
 below must follow the laws of a tidal  
wave1 or of the great sea-wave already  
spoken of4 ,its velocity1 like that of  
the tidal wave of our seas1 will be a   
function of its length and of the depth 
of the fluid1 diminished in this case by
 certain considerations as to the       
density and degree of viscidity of the  
liquid2 and although it would be at     
present impossible1 for want of data1 to
 calculate the exact velocity with which
 this subterraneous lava-wave could     
move1 it may be certainly affirmed that 
its velocity would be immeasurably short
 of the observed or theoretic velocity  

of the great earth-wave1 or true shock  
in earthquakes4#ghd  ,liquid            
gases4--,the rending and upheaving of   
continental masses are operations which 
are not difficult to explain1 when we   
are once convinced that heat1 of        
sufficient power1 not only to melt but  
to reduce to a gaseous form a great     
variety of substances1 is accumulated in
 certain parts of the interior4 ,we see 
that elastic fluids are capable of      
projecting solid masses to immense      
heights in the air2 and the volcano of  
,cotopaxi has been known to throw out1  
to the distance of eight or nine miles1 
a mass of rock about one hundred cubic  
yards in volume4 ,when we observe these 
aeriform fluids rushing out from        
particular vents for months1 or even    
years1 continuously1 what power may we  
not expect them to exert in other       
places1 where they happen to be confined
 under an enormous weight of rock8  ,the
 experiments of ,faraday and others have
 shown1 within the last twelve years1   

that many of the gases1 including all   
those which are most copiously          
disengaged from volcanic vents1 as the  
carbonic1 sulphurous1 and muriatic      
acids1 may be condensed into liquids by 
pressure4 ,at temperatures of from #cj  
degrees to #ej degrees ,f41 the pressure
 required for this purpose varies from  
fifteen to fifty atmospheres2 and this  
amount of pressure we may regard as very
 insignificant in the operations of     
nature4 ,a column of ,vesuvian lava that
 would reach from the lip of the crater 
to the level of the sea1 must be equal  
to about three hundred atmospheres2 so  
that1 at depths which may be termed     
moderate in the interior of the crust of
 the earth1 the gases may be condensed  
into liquids1 even at very high         
temperatures4 ,the method employed to   
reduce some of these gases to a liquid  
state is1 to confine the materials1 from
 the mutual action of which they are    
evolved1 in tubes hermetically sealed1  
so that the accumulated pressure of the 

vapor1 as it rises and expands1 may     
force some part of it to assume the     
liquid state4 ,a similar process may1   
and indeed must1 frequently take place  
in subterranean caverns and fissures1 or
 even in the pores and cells of many    
rocks2 by which means1 a much greater   
store of expansive power may be packed  
into a small space than could happen if 
these vapors had not the property of    
becoming liquid4 ,for1 although the gas 
occupies much less room in a liquid     
state1 yet it exerts exactly the same   
pressure upon the sides of the          
containing cavity as if it remained in  
the form of vapor4  ,if a tube1 whether 
of glass or other materials1 filled with
 condensed gas1 have its temperature    
slightly raised1 it will often burst2   
for a slight increment of heat causes   
the elasticity of the gas to increase in
 a very high ratio4 ,we have only to    
suppose certain rocks1 permeated by     
these liquid gases 7as porous strata are
 sometimes filled with water71 to have  

their temperature raised some hundred   
degrees1 and we obtain a power capable  
of lifting superincumbent masses of     
almost any conceivable thickness2 while1
 if the depth at which the gas is       
confined be great1 there is no reason to
 suppose that any other appearances     
would be witnessed by the inhabitants of
 the surface than vibratory movements   
and rents1 from which no vapor might    
escape4 ,in making their way through    
fissures a very few miles only in       
length1 or in forcing a passage through 
soft yielding strata1 the vapors may be 
cooled and absorbed by water4 ,for water
 has a strong affinity to several of the
 gases1 and will absorb large           
quantities1 with a very slight increase 
of volume4 ,in this manner1 the heat or 
the volume of springs may be augmented1 
and their mineral properties made to    
vary4  ,connection between the state of 
the atmosphere and earthquakes4--,the   
inhabitants of ,stromboli1 who are      
mostly fishermen1 are said to make use  

of that volcano as a weather-glass1 the 
eruptions being comparatively feeble    
when the sky is serene1 but increasing  
in turbulence during tempestuous        
weather1 so that in winter the island   
often seems to shake from its           
foundations4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,scrope1 after    
calling attention to these and other    
analogous facts1 first started the idea 
7as long ago as the year #ahbe7 that the
 diminished pressure of the atmosphere1 
the concomitant of stormy weather1 may  
modify the intensity of the volcanic    
action4 ,he suggests that where liquid  
lava communicates with the surface1 as  
in the crater of ,stromboli1 it may rise
 or fall in the vent on the same        
principle as mercury in a barometer2    
because the ebullition or expansive     
power of the steam contained in the lava
 would be checked by every increase1 and
 augmented by every diminution of       
weight4 ,in like manner1 if a bed of    
liquid lava be confined at an immense   
depth below the surface1 its expansive  

force may be counteracted partly by the 
weight of the incumbent rocks1 and also 
in part by atmospheric pressure acting  
contemporaneously on a vast superficial 
area4 ,in that case1 if the upheaving   
force increase gradually in energy1 it  
will at length be restrained by only the
 slightest degree of superiority in the 
antagonist or repressive power1 and then
 the equilibrium may be suddenly        
destroyed by any cause1 such as an      
ascending draught of air1 which is      
capable of depressing the barometer4 ,in
 this manner we may account for the     
remarkable coincidence so frequently    
observed between the state of the       
weather and subterranean commotions1    
although it must be admitted that       
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions react
 in their turn upon the atmosphere1 so  
that disturbances of the latter are     
generally the consequences rather than  
the forerunners of volcanic             
disturbances4#ghe  ,from an elaborate   
catalogue of the earthquakes experienced

 in ,europe and ,syria during the last  
fifteen centuries1 ,m4 ,alexis ,perrey  
has deduced the conclusion that the     
number which happen in the winter season
 preponderates over those which occur in
 any one of the other seasons of the    
year1 there being1 however1 some        
exceptions to this rule1 as in the      
,pyrenees4 ,curious and valuable as are 
these data1 ,m4 d',archiac justly       
remarks1 in commenting upon them1 that  
they are not as yet sufficiently        
extensive or accordant in different     
regions1 to entitle us to deduce any    
general conclusions from them respecting
 the laws of subterranean movements     
throughout the globe4#ghf  ,permanent   
elevation and subsidence4--,it is easy  
to conceive that the shattered rocks may
 assume an arched form during a         
convulsion1 so that the country above   
may remain permanently upheaved4 ,in    
other cases gas may drive before it     
masses of liquid lava1 which may thus be
 injected into newly opened fissures4   

,the gas having then obtained more room1
 by the forcing up of the incumbent     
rocks1 may remain at rest2 while the    
lava congealing in the rents may afford 
a solid foundation for the newly raised 
district4  ,experiments have recently   
been made in ,america1 by ,colonel      
,totten1 to ascertain the ratio         
according to which some of the stones   
commonly used in architecture expand    
with given increments of heat4#ghg ,it  
was found impossible1 in a country where
 the annual variation of temperature was
 more than #ij degrees ,f41 to make a   
coping of stones1 five feet in length1  
in which the joints should fit so       
tightly as not to admit water between   
the stone and the cement2 the annual    
contraction and expansion of the stones 
causing1 at the junctions1 small        
crevices1 the width of which varied with
 the nature of the rock4 ,it was        
ascertained that fine-grained granite   
expanded with #a degrees ,f4 at the rate
 of 4#jjjjjdhbe2 while crystalline      

marble 4#jjjjjeffh2 and red sandstone   
4#jjjjjiecb1 or about twice as much as  
granite4  ,now1 according to this law of
 expansion1 a mass of sandstone a mile  
in thickness1 which should have its     
temperature raised #bjj degrees ,f41    
would lift a superimposed layer of rock 
to the height of ten feet above its     
former level4 ,but1 suppose a part of   
the earth's crust1 one hundred miles in 
thickness and equally expansive1 to have
 its temperature raised #fjj degrees or 
#hjj degrees1 this might produce an     
elevation of between two and three      
thousand feet4 ,the cooling of the same 
mass might afterwards cause the         
overlying rocks to sink down again and  
resume their original position4 ,by such
 agency we might explain the gradual    
rise of ,scandinavia or the subsidence  
of ,greenland1 if this last phenomenon  
should also be established as a fact on 
farther inquiry4  ,it is also possible  
that as the clay in ,wedgwood's         
pyrometer contracts1 by giving off its  

water1 and then1 by incipient           
vitrification2 so1 large masses of      
argillaceous strata on the earth's      
interior may shrink1 when subjected to  
heat and chemical changes1 and allow the
 incumbent rocks to subside gradually4  
,moreover1 if we suppose that lava      
cooling slowly at great depths may be   
converted into various granitic rocks1  
we obtain another source of depression2 
for1 according to the experiments of    
,deville and the calculations of        
,bischoff1 the contraction of granite   
when passing from a melted or plastic to
 a solid and crystalline state must be  
more than ten per cent4#ghh ,the sudden 
subsidence of land may also be          
occasioned by subterranean caverns      
giving way1 when gases are condensed1 or
 when they escape through newly-formed  
crevices4 ,the subtraction1 moreover1 of
 matter from certain parts of the       
interior1 by the flowing of lava and of 
mineral springs1 must1 in the course of 
ages1 cause vacuities below1 so that the

 undermined surface may at length fall  
in4  ,the balance of dry land1 how      
preserved4--,in the present state of our
 knowledge1 we cannot pretend to        
estimate the average number of          
earthquakes which may happen in the     
course of a single year4 ,as the area of
 the ocean is nearly three times that of
 the land1 it is probable that about    
three submarine earthquakes may occur   
for one exclusively continental2 and    
when we consider the great frequency of 
slight movements in certain districts1  
we can hardly suppose that a day1 if1   
indeed1 an hour1 ever passes without one
 or more shocks being experienced in    
some part of the globe4 ,we have also   
seen that in ,sweden1 and other         
countries1 changes in the relative level
 of sea and land may take place without 
commotion1 and these perhaps produce the
 most important geographical and        
geological changes2 for the position of 
land may be altered to a greater amount 
by an elevation or depression of one    

inch over a vast area1 than by the      
sinking of a more limited tract1 such as
 the forest of ,aripao1 to the depth of 
many fathoms at once4#ghi  ,it must be  
evident1 from the historical details    
above given1 that the force of          
subterranean movement1 whether          
intermittent or continuous1 whether with
 or without disturbance1 does not       
operate at random1 but is developed in  
certain regions only2 and although the  
alterations produced during the time    
required for the occurrence of a few    
volcanic eruptions may be               
inconsiderable1 we can hardly doubt     
that1 during the ages necessary for the 
formation of large volcanic cones1      
composed of thousands of lava currents1 
shoals might be converted into lofty    
mountains1 and low lands into deep seas4
  ,in a former chapter 7p4 #aih71 ,i    
have stated that aqueous and igneous    
agents may be regarded as antagonist    
forces2 the aqueous laboring incessantly
 to reduce the inequalities of the      

earth's surface to a level1 while the   
igneous are equally active in renewing  
the unevenness of the surface4 ,by some 
geologists it has been thought that the 
levelling power of running water was    
opposed rather to the elevating force of
 earthquakes than to their action       
generally4 ,this opinion is1 however1   
untenable2 for the sinking down of the  
bed of the ocean is one of the means by 
which the gradual submersion of land is 
prevented4 ,the depth of the sea cannot 
be increased at any one point without a 
universal fall of the waters1 nor can   
any partial deposition of sediment occur
 without the displacement of a quantity 
of water of equal volume1 which will    
raise the sea1 though in an             
imperceptible degree1 even to the       
antipodes4 ,the preservation1 therefore1
 of the dry land may sometimes be       
effected by the subsidence of part of   
the earth's crust 7that part1 namely1   
which is covered by the ocean71 and in  
like manner an upheaving movement must  

often tend to destroy land2 for if it   
render the bed of the sea more shallow1 
it will displace a certain quantity of  
water1 and thus tend to submerge low    
tracts4  ,astronomers having proved 7see
 above1 p4 #abi7 that there has been no 
change in the diameter of the earth     
during the last two thousand years1 we  
may assume it as probable1 that the     
dimensions of the planet remain uniform4
 ,if1 then1 we inquire in what manner   
the force of earthquakes must be        
regulated1 in order to restore          
perpetually the inequalities of the     
surface which the levelling power of    
water tends to efface1 it will be found1
 that the amount of depression must     
exceed that of elevation4 ,it would be  
otherwise if the action of volcanoes and
 mineral springs were suspended2 for    
then the forcing outwards of the earth's
 envelope ought to be no more than equal
 to its sinking in4  ,to understand this
 proposition more clearly1 it must be   
borne in mind1 that the deposits of     

rivers and currents probably add as much
 to the height of lands which are       
rising1 as they take from those which   
have risen4 ,suppose a large river to   
bring down sediment to a part of the    
ocean two thousand feet deep1 and that  
the depth of this part is gradually     
reduced by the accumulation of sediment 
till only a shoal remains1 covered by   
water at high tides2 if now an upheaving
 force should uplift this shoal to the  
height of #bjjj feet1 the result would  
be a mountain #bjjj feet high4 ,but had 
the movement raised the same part of the
 bottom of the sea before the sediment  
of the river had filled it up2 then1    
instead of changing a shoal into a      
mountain #bjjj feet high1 it would only 
have converted a deep sea into a shoal4 
,it appears1 then1 that the operations  
of the earthquake are often such as to  
cause the levelling power of water to   
counteract itself2 and1 although the    
idea may appear paradoxical1 we may be  
sure1 wherever we find hills and        

mountains composed of stratified        
deposits1 that such inequalities of the 
surface would have had no existence if  
water1 at some former period1 had not   
been laboring to reduce the earth's     
surface to one level4  ,but1 besides the
 transfer of matter by running water    
from the continents to the ocean1 there 
is a constant transportation from below 
upwards1 by mineral springs and volcanic
 vents4 ,as mountain masses are1 in the 
course of ages1 created by the pouring  
forth of successive streams of lava1 so 
stratified rocks1 of great extent1      
originate from the deposition of        
carbonate of lime1 and other mineral    
ingredients1 with which springs are     
impregnated4 ,the surface of the land1  
and portions of the bottom of the sea1  
being thus raised1 the external         
accessions due to these operations would
 cause the dimensions of the planet to  
enlarge continually1 if the amount of   
depression of the earth's crust were no 
more than equal to the elevation4 ,in   

order1 therefore1 that the mean diameter
 of the earth should remain uniform1 and
 the unevenness of the surface be       
preserved1 it is necessary that the     
amount of subsidence should be in       
excess4 ,and such a predominance of     
depression is far from improbable1 on   
mechanical principles1 since every      
upheaving movement must be expected     
either to produce caverns in the mass   
below1 or to cause some diminution of   
its density4 ,vacuities must1 also1     
arise from the subtraction of the matter
 poured out from volcanoes and mineral  
springs1 or from the contraction of     
argillaceous masses by subterranean     
heat2 and the foundations having been   
thus weakened1 the earth's crust1 shaken
 and rent by reiterated convulsions1    
must1 in the course of time1 fall in4   
,if we embrace these views1 important   
geological consequences will follow2    
since1 if there be1 upon the whole1 more
 subsidence than elevation1 the average 
depth to which former surfaces have sunk

 beneath their original level must      
exceed the height which ancient marine  
strata have attained above the sea4 ,if1
 for example1 marine strata1 about the  
age of our chalk and greensand1 have    
been lifted up in ,europe to an extreme 
height of more than eleven thousand     
feet1 and a mean elevation of some      
hundreds1 we may conclude that certain  
parts of the surface1 which existed when
 those strata were deposited1 have sunk 
to an extreme depth of more than eleven 
thousand feet below their original      
level1 and to a mean depth of more than 
a few hundreds4  ,in regard to faults1  
also1 we must infer1 according to the   
hypothesis now proposed1 that a greater 
number have arisen from the sinking down
 than from the elevation of rocks4  ,to 
conclude3 it seems to be rendered       
probable1 by the views above explained1 
that the constant repair of the land1   
and the subserviency of our planet to   
the support of terrestrial as well as   
aquatic species1 are secured by the     

elevating and depressing power of causes
 acting in the interior of the earth2   
which1 although so often the source of  
death and terror to the inhabitants of  
the globe--visiting in succession every 
zone1 and filling the earth with        
monuments of ruin and disorder--are     
nevertheless the agents of a            
conservative principle above all others 
essential to the stability of the       
system4     ,,book ,,iii4     ,,chapter 
,,xxxiii4  ,,changes ,,of ,,the         
,,organic ,,world ,,now ,,in ,,progress4
     ,division of the                   
subject--,examination of the question1  
,whether     species have a real        
existence in nature8--,importance of    
this     question in geology--,sketch of
 ,lamarck's arguments in favor of the   
transmutation of species1 and his       
conjectures respecting the origin     of
 existing animals and plants--,his      
theory of the transformation of     the 
orang-outang into the human species4    
,the last book1 from chapters fourteen  

to thirty-three inclusive1 was occupied 
with the consideration of the changes   
brought about on the earth's surface1   
within the period of human observation1 
by inorganic agents2 such1 for example1 
as rivers1 marine currents1 volcanoes1  
and earthquakes4 ,but there is another  
class of phenomena relating to the      
organic world1 which have an equal claim
 on our attention1 if we desire to      
obtain possession of all the preparatory
 knowledge respecting the existing      
course of nature1 which may be available
 in the interpretation of geological    
monuments4 ,it appeared from our        
preliminary sketch of the progress of   
the science1 that the most lively       
interest was excited among its earlier  
cultivators1 by the discovery of the    
remains of animals and plants in the    
interior of mountains frequently remote 
from the sea4 ,much controversy arose   
respecting the nature of these remains1 
the causes which may have brought them  
into so singular a position1 and the    

want of a specific agreement between    
them and known animals and plants4 ,to  
qualify ourselves to form just views on 
these curious questions1 we must first  
study the present condition of the      
animate creation on the globe4  ,this   
branch of our inquiry naturally divides 
itself into two parts3 first1 we may    
examine the vicissitudes to which       
species are subject2 secondly1 the      
processes by which certain individuals  
of these species occasionally become    
fossil4 ,the first of these divisions   
will lead us1 among other topics1 to    
inquire1 first1 whether species have a  
real and permanent existence in nature8 
or whether they are capable1 as some    
naturalists pretend1 of being           
indefinitely modified in the course of a
 long series of generations8 ,secondly1 
whether1 if species have a real         
existence1 the individuals composing    
them have been derived originally from  
many similar stocks1 or each from one   
only1 the descendants of which have     

spread themselves gradually from a      
particular point over the habitable     
lands and waters8 ,thirdly1 how far the 
duration of each species of animal and  
plant is limited by its dependence on   
certain fluctuating and temporary       
conditions in the state of the animate  
and inanimate world8 ,fourthly1 whether 
there be proofs of the successive       
extermination of species in the ordinary
 course of nature1 and whether there be 
any reason for conjecturing that new    
animals and plants are created from time
 to time1 to supply their place8        
,whether species have a real existence  
in nature4--,before we can advance a    
step in our proposed inquiry1 we must be
 able to define precisely the meaning   
which we attach to the term species4    
,this is even more necessary in geology 
than in the ordinary studies of the     
naturalist2 for they who deny that such 
a thing as a species exists1 concede    
nevertheless that a botanist or         
zoologist may reason as if the specific 

character were constant1 because they   
confine their observations to a brief   
period of time4 ,just as the geographer1
 in constructing his maps from century  
to century1 may proceed as if the       
apparent places of the fixed stars      
remained absolutely the same1 and as if 
no alteration were brought about by the 
precession of the equinoxes2 so1 it is  
said1 in the organic world1 the         
stability of a species may be taken as  
absolute1 if we do not extend our views 
beyond the narrow period of human       
history2 but let a sufficient number of 
centuries elapse1 to allow of important 
revolutions in climate1 physical        
geography1 and other circumstances1 and 
the characters1 say they1 of the        
descendants of common parents may       
deviate indefinitely from their original
 type4  ,now1 if these doctrines be     
tenable1 we are at once presented with a
 principle of incessant change in the   
organic world2 and no degree of         
dissimilarity in the plants and animals 

which may formerly have existed1 and are
 found fossil1 would entitle us to      
conclude that they may not have been the
 prototypes and progenitors of the      
species now living4 ,accordingly ,m4    
,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire has declared his
 opinion1 that there has been an        
uninterrupted succession in the animal  
kingdom1 effected by means of           
generation1 from the earliest ages of   
the world up to the present day1 and    
that the ancient animals whose remains  
have been preserved in the strata1      
however different1 may nevertheless have
 been the ancestors of those now in     
being4 ,this notion is not very         
generally received1 but we are not      
warranted in assuming the contrary1     
without fully explaining the data and   
reasoning by which it may be refuted4   
,i shall begin by stating as concisely  
as possible all the facts and ingenious 
arguments by which the theory has been  
supported2 and for this purpose ,i      
cannot do better than offer the reader a

 rapid sketch of ,lamarck's statement of
 the proofs which he regards as         
confirmatory of the doctrine1 and which 
he has derived partly from the works of 
his predecessors and in part from       
original investigations4  ,his proofs   
and inferences will be best considered  
in the order in which they appear to    
have influenced his mind1 and ,i shall  
then point out some of the results to   
which he was led while boldly following 
out his principles to their legitimate  
consequences4  ,lamarck's arguments in  
favor of the transmutation of           
species4--,the name of species1 observes
 ,lamarck1 has been usually applied to  
every collection of similar individuals 
produced by other individuals like      
themselves4#gij ,this definition1 he    
admits1 is correct2 because every living
 individual bears a very close          
resemblance to those from which it      
springs4 ,but this is not all which is  
usually implied by the term species2 for
 the majority of naturalists agree with 

,linnaeus in supposing that all the     
individuals propagated from one stock   
have certain distinguishing characters  
in common1 which will never vary1 and   
which have remained the same since the  
creation of each species4  ,in order to 
shake this opinion1 ,lamarck enters upon
 the following line of argument3--,the  
more we advance in the knowledge of the 
different organized bodies which cover  
the surface of the globe1 the more our  
embarrassment increases1 to determine   
what ought to be regarded as a species1 
and still more how to limit and         
distinguish genera4 ,in proportion as   
our collections are enriched1 we see    
almost every void filled up1 and all our
 lines of separation effaced6 ,we are   
reduced to arbitrary determinations1 and
 are sometimes fain to seize upon the   
slight differences of mere varieties1 in
 order to form characters for what we   
choose to call a species2 and sometimes 
we are induced to pronounce individuals 
but slightly differing1 and which others

 regard as true species1 to be          
varieties4  ,the greater the abundance  
of natural objects assembled together1  
the more do we discover proofs that     
every thing passes by insensible shades 
into something else2 that even the more 
remarkable differences are evanescent1  
and that nature has1 for the most part1 
left us nothing at our disposal for     
establishing distinctions1 save         
trifling1 and1 in some respects1 puerile
 particularities4  ,we find that many   
genera amongst animals and plants are of
 such an extent1 in consequence of the  
number of species referred to them1 that
 the study and determination of these   
last has become almost impracticable4   
,when the species are arranged in a     
series1 and placed near to each other1  
with due regard to their natural        
affinities1 they each differ in so      
minute a degree from those next         
adjoining1 that they almost melt into   
each other1 and are in a manner         
confounded together4 ,if we see isolated

 species1 we may presume the absence of 
some more closely connected1 and which  
have not yet been discovered4 ,already  
are there genera1 and even entire       
orders--nay1 whole classes1 which       
present an approximation to the state of
 things here indicated4  ,if1 when      
species have been thus placed in a      
regular series1 we select one1 and then1
 making a leap over several intermediate
 ones1 we take a second1 at some        
distance from the first1 these two will1
 on comparison1 be seen to be very      
dissimilar2 and it is in this manner    
that every naturalist begins to study   
the objects which are at his own door4  
,he then finds it an easy task to       
establish generic and specific          
distinctions2 and it is only when his   
experience is enlarged1 and when he has 
made himself master of the intermediate 
links1 that his difficulties and        
ambiguities begin4 ,but while we are    
thus compelled to resort to trifling and
 minute characters in our attempt to    

separate the species1 we find a striking
 disparity between individuals which we 
know to have descended from a common    
stock2 and these newly acquired         
peculiarities are regularly transmitted 
from one generation to another1         
constituting what are called races4     
,from a great number of facts1 continues
 the author1 we learn that in proportion
 as the individuals of one of our       
species change their situation1 climate1
 and manner of living1 they change also1
 by little and little1 the consistence  
and proportions of their parts1 their   
form1 their faculties1 and even their   
organization1 in such a manner that     
every thing in them comes at last to    
participate in the mutations to which   
they have been exposed4 ,even in the    
same climate1 a great difference of     
situation and exposure causes           
individuals to vary2 but if these       
individuals continue to live and to be  
reproduced under the same difference of 
circumstances1 distinctions are brought 

about in them which become in some      
degree essential to their existence4 ,in
 a word1 at the end of many successive  
generations1 these individuals1 which   
originally belonged to another species1 
are transformed into a new and distinct 
species4#gia  ,thus1 for example1 if the
 seeds of a grass1 or any other plant   
which grows naturally in a moist meadow1
 be accidentally transported1 first to  
the slope of some neighboring hill1     
where the soil1 although at a greater   
elevation1 is damp enough to allow the  
plant to live2 and if1 after having     
lived there1 and having been several    
times regenerated1 it reaches by degrees
 the drier and almost arid soil of a    
mountain declivity1 it will then1 if it 
succeeds in growing1 and perpetuates    
itself for a series of generations1 be  
so changed that botanists who meet with 
it will regard it as a particular       
species4#gib ,the unfavorable climate in
 this case1 deficiency of nourishment1  
exposure to the winds1 and other causes1

 give rise to a stunted and dwarfish    
race1 with some organ more developed    
than others1 and having proportions     
often quite peculiar4  ,what nature     
brings about in a great lapse of time1  
we occasion suddenly by changing the    
circumstances in which a species has    
been accustomed to live4 ,all are aware 
that vegetables taken from their        
birthplace1 and cultivated in gardens1  
undergo changes which render them no    
longer recognizable as the same plants4 
,many which were naturally hairy become 
smooth1 or nearly so2 a great number of 
such as were creepers and trailed along 
the ground1 rear their stalks and grow  
erect4 ,others lose their thorns or     
asperities2 others1 again1 from the     
ligneous state which their stem         
possessed in hot climates1 where they   
were indigenous1 pass to the herbaceous2
 and1 among them1 some which were       
perennials become mere annuals4 ,so well
 do botanists know the effects of such  
changes of circumstances1 that they are 

averse to describe species from garden  
specimens1 unless they are sure that    
they have been cultivated for a very    
short period4  ,is not the cultivated   
wheat 7,triticum sativum71 asks         
,lamarck1 a vegetable brought by man    
into the state in which we now see it8  
,let any one tell me in what country a  
similar plant grows wild1 unless where  
it has escaped from cultivated fields8  
,where do we find in nature our         
cabbages1 lettuces1 and other culinary  
vegetables1 in the state in which they  
appear in our gardens8 ,is it not the   
same in regard to a great quantity of   
animals which domesticity has changed or
 considerably modified8#gic ,our        
domestic fowls and pigeons are unlike   
any wild birds4 ,our domestic ducks and 
geese have lost the faculty of raising  
themselves into the higher regions of   
the air1 and crossing extensive         
countries in their flight1 like the wild
 ducks and wild geese from which they   
were originally derived4 ,a bird which  

we breed in a cage cannot1 when restored
 to liberty1 fly like others of the same
 species which have been always free4   
,this small alteration of circumstances1
 however1 has only diminished the power 
of flight1 without modifying the form of
 any part of the wings4 ,but when       
individuals of the same race are        
retained in captivity during a          
considerable length of time1 the form   
even of their parts is gradually made to
 differ1 especially if climate1         
nourishment1 and other circumstances be 
also altered4  ,the numerous races of   
dogs which we have produced by          
domesticity are nowhere to be found in a
 wild state4 ,in nature we should seek  
in vain for mastiffs1 harriers1         
spaniels1 greyhounds1 and other races1  
between which the differences are       
sometimes so great that they would be   
readily admitted as specific between    
wild animals2 yet all these have sprung 
originally from a single race1 at first 
approaching very near to a wolf1 if1    

indeed1 the wolf be not the true type   
which at some period or other was       
domesticated by man4  ,although         
important changes in the nature of the  
places which they inhabit modify the    
organization of animals as well as      
vegetables2 yet the former1 says        
,lamarck1 require more time to complete 
a considerable degree of transmutation2 
and1 consequently1 we are less sensible 
of such occurrences4 ,next to a         
diversity of the medium in which animals
 or plants may live1 the circumstances  
which have most influence in modifying  
their organs are differences in         
exposure1 climate1 the nature of the    
soil1 and other local particulars4      
,these circumstances are as varied as   
are the characters of the species1 and1 
like them1 pass by insensible shades    
into each other1 there being every      
intermediate gradation between the      
opposite extremes4 ,but each locality   
remains for a very long time the same1  
and is altered so slowly that we can    

only become conscious of the reality of 
the change by consulting geological     
monuments1 by which we learn that the   
order of things which how reigns in each
 place has not always prevailed1 and by 
inference anticipate that it will not   
always continue the same4#gid  ,every   
considerable alteration in the local    
circumstances in which each race of     
animals exists causes a change in their 
wants1 and these new wants excite them  
to new actions and habits4 ,these       
actions require the more frequent       
employment of some parts before but     
slightly exercised1 and then greater    
development follows as a consequence of 
their more frequent use4 ,other organs  
no longer in use are impoverished and   
diminished in size1 nay1 are sometimes  
entirely annihilated1 while in their    
place new parts are insensibly produced 
for the discharge of new functions4#gie 
,i must here interrupt the author's     
argument1 by observing1 that no positive
 fact is cited to exemplify the         

substitution of some entirely new sense1
 faculty1 or organ1 in the room of some 
other suppressed as useless4 ,all the   
instances adduced go only to prove that 
the dimensions and strength of members  
and the perfection of certain attributes
 may1 in a long succession of           
generations1 be lessened and enfeebled  
by disuse2 or1 on the contrary1 be      
matured and augmented by active         
exertion2 just as we know that the power
 of scent is feeble in the greyhound1   
while its swiftness of pace and its     
acuteness of sight are remarkable--that 
the harrier and stag-hound1 on the      
contrary1 are comparatively slow in     
their movements1 but excel in the sense 
of smelling4  ,it was necessary to point
 out to the reader this important chasm 
in the chain of evidence1 because he    
might otherwise imagine that ,i had     
merely omitted the illustrations for the
 sake of brevity2 but the plain truth   
is1 that there were no examples to be   
found2 and when ,lamarck talks of the   

efforts of internal sentiment1 the      
influence of subtle fluids1 and acts of 
organization1 as causes whereby animals 
and plants may acquire new organs1 he   
substitutes names for things2 and1 with 
a disregard to the strict rules of      
induction1 resorts to fictions1 as ideal
 as the plastic virtue1 and other       
phantoms of the geologists of the middle
 ages4  ,it is evident that1 if some    
well-authenticated facts could have been
 adduced to establish one complete step 
in the process of transformation1 such  
as the appearance1 in individuals       
descending from a common stock1 of a    
sense or organ entirely new1 and a      
complete disappearance of some other    
enjoyed by their progenitors1 time alone
 might then be supposed sufficient to   
bring about any amount of metamorphosis4
 ,the gratuitous assumption1 therefore1 
of a point so vital to the theory of    
transmutation1 was unpardonable on the  
part of its advocate4  ,but to proceed  
with the system3 it being assumed as an 

undoubted fact1 that a change of        
external circumstances may cause one    
organ to become entirely obsolete1 and a
 new one to be developed1 such as never 
before belonged to the species1 the     
following proposition is announced1     
which1 however staggering and absurd it 
may seem1 is logically deduced from the 
assumed premises4 ,it is not the organs1
 or1 in other words1 the nature and form
 of the parts of the body of an animal1 
which have given rise to its habits1 and
 its particular faculties2 but1 on the  
contrary1 its habits1 its manner of     
living1 and those of its progenitors1   
have in the course of time determined   
the form of its body1 the number and    
condition of its organs--in short1 the  
faculties which it enjoys4 ,thus otters1
 beavers1 waterfowl1 turtles1 and frogs1
 were not made web-footed in order that 
they might swim2 but their wants having 
attracted them to the water in search of
 prey1 they stretched out the toes of   
their feet to strike the water and move 

rapidly along its surface4 ,by the      
repeated stretching of their toes1 the  
skin which united them at the base      
acquired a habit of extension1 until1 in
 the course of time1 the broad membranes
 which now connect their extremities    
were formed4  ,in like manner1 the      
antelope and the gazelle were not       
endowed with light agile forms1 in order
 that they might escape by flight from  
carnivorous animals2 but1 having been   
exposed to the danger of being devoured 
by lions1 tigers1 and other beasts of   
prey1 they were compelled to exert      
themselves in running with great        
celerity2 a habit which1 in the course  
of many generations1 gave rise to the   
peculiar slenderness of their legs1 and 
the agility and elegance of their forms4
  ,the camelopard was not gifted with a 
long flexible neck because it was       
destined to live in the interior of     
,africa1 where the soil was arid and    
devoid of herbage2 but1 being reduced by
 the nature of that country to support  

itself on the foliage of lofty trees1 it
 contracted a habit of stretching itself
 up to reach the high boughs1 until its 
neck became so elongated that it could  
raise its head to the height of twenty  
feet above the ground4  ,another line of
 argument is then entered upon1 in      
farther corroboration of the instability
 of species4 ,in order1 it is said1 that
 individuals should perpetuate          
themselves unaltered by generation1     
those belonging to one species ought    
never to ally themselves to those of    
another2 but such sexual unions do take 
place1 both among plants and animals2   
and although the offspring of such      
irregular connections are usually       
sterile1 yet such is not always the     
case4 ,hybrids have sometimes proved    
prolific1 where the disparity between   
the species was not too great2 and by   
this means alone1 says ,lamarck1        
varieties may gradually be created by   
near alliances1 which would become      
races1 and in the course of time would  

constitute what we term species4#gif    
,but if the soundness of all these      
arguments and inferences be admitted1 we
 are next to inquire1 what were the     
original types of form1 organization1   
and instinct1 from which the diversities
 of character1 as now exhibited by      
animals and plants1 have been derived8  
,we know that individuals which are mere
 varieties of the same species would1 if
 their pedigree could be traced back far
 enough1 terminate in a single stock2   
so1 according to the train of reasoning 
before described1 the species of a      
genus1 and even the genera of a great   
family1 must have had a common point of 
departure4 ,what1 then1 was the single  
stem from which so many varieties of    
form have ramified8 ,were there many of 
these1 or are we to refer the origin of 
the whole animate creation1 as the      
,egyptian priests did that of the       
universe1 to a single egg8  ,in the     
absence of any positive data for framing
 a theory on so obscure a subject1 the  

following considerations were deemed of 
importance to guide conjecture4  ,in the
 first place1 if we examine the whole   
series of known animals1 from one       
extremity to the other1 when they are   
arranged in the order of their natural  
relations1 we find that we may pass     
progressively1 or1 at least1 with very  
few interruptions1 from beings of more  
simple to those of a more compound      
structure2 and1 in proportion as the    
complexity of their organization        
increases1 the number and dignity of    
their faculties increase also4 ,among   
plants1 a similar approximation to a    
graduated scale of being is apparent1   
,secondly1 it appears1 from geological  
observations1 that plants and animals of
 more simple organization existed on the
 globe before the appearance of those of
 more compound structure1 and the latter
 were successively formed at more modern
 periods2 each new race being more fully
 developed than the most perfect of the 
preceding era4  ,of the truth of the    

last-mentioned geological theory1       
,lamarck seems to have been fully       
persuaded2 and he also shows that he was
 deeply impressed with a belief         
prevalent amongst the older naturalists1
 that the primeval ocean invested the   
whole planet long after it became the   
habitation of living beings2 and thus he
 was inclined to assert the priority of 
the types of marine animals to those of 
the terrestrial1 so as to fancy1 for    
example1 that the testacea of the ocean 
existed first1 until some of them1 by   
gradual evolution1 were improved into   
those inhabiting the land4  ,these      
speculative views had already been1 in a
 great degree1 anticipated by ,demaillet
 in his ,telliamed1 and by several      
modern writers2 so that the tables were 
completely turned on the philosophers of
 antiquity1 with whom it was a received 
maxim1 that created things were always  
most perfect when they came first from  
the hands of their ,maker2 and that     
there was a tendency to progressive     

deterioration in sublunary things when  
left to themselves--           ----omnia
 fatis   ,in pejus ruere1 ac retro      
sublapsa referri4   ,so deeply was the  
faith of the ancient schools of         
philosophy imbued with this doctrine1   
that1 to check this universal proneness 
to degeneracy1 nothing less than the    
reintervention of the ,deity was thought
 adequate2 and it was held1 that thereby
 the order1 excellence1 and pristine    
energy of the moral and physical world  
had been repeatedly restored4  ,but when
 the possibility of the indefinite      
modification of individuals descending  
from common parents was once assumed1 as
 also the geological inference          
respecting the progressive development  
of organic life1 it was natural that the
 ancient dogma should be rejected1 or   
rather reversed1 and that the most      
simple and imperfect forms and faculties
 should be conceived to have been the   
originals whence all others were        
developed4 ,accordingly1 in conformity  

to these views1 inert matter was        
supposed to have been first endowed with
 life2 until1 in the course of ages1    
sensation was superadded to mere        
vitality3 sight1 hearing1 and the other 
senses were afterwards acquired2 then   
instinct and the mental faculties2      
until1 finally1 by virtue of the        
tendency of things to progressive       
improvement1 the irrational was         
developed in the rational4  ,the reader1
 however1 will immediately perceive that
 when all the higher orders of plants   
and animals were thus supposed to be    
comparatively modern1 and to have been  
derived in a long series of generations 
from those of more simple conformation1 
some farther hypothesis became          
indispensable1 in order to explain why1 
after an indefinite lapse of ages1 there
 were still so many beings of the       
simplest structure4 ,why have the       
majority of existing creatures remained 
stationary throughout this long         
succession of epochs1 while others have 

made such prodigious advances8 ,why are 
there such multitudes of infusoria and  
polyps1 or of confervae and other       
cryptogamic plants8 ,why1 moreover1 has 
the process of development acted with   
such unequal and irregular force on     
those classes of beings which have been 
greatly perfected1 so that there are    
wide chasms in the series2 gaps so      
enormous1 that ,lamarck fairly admits we
 can never expect to fill them up by    
future discoveries8  ,the following     
hypothesis was provided to meet these   
objections4 ,nature1 we are told1 is not
 an intelligence1 nor the ,deity2 but a 
delegated power--a mere instrument--a   
piece of mechanism acting by            
necessity--an order of things           
constituted by the ,supreme ,being1 and 
subject to laws which are the           
expressions of his will4 ,this ,nature  
is obliged to proceed gradually in all  
her operations2 she cannot produce      
animals and plants of all classes at    
once1 but must always begin by the      

formation of the most simple kinds1 and 
out of them elaborate the more compound1
 adding to them1 successively1 different
 systems of organs1 and multiplying more
 and more their number and energy4      
,this nature is daily engaged in the    
formation of the elementary rudiments of
 animal and vegetable existence1 which  
correspond to what the ancients termed  
spontaneous generation4 ,she is always  
beginning anew1 day by day1 the work of 
creation1 by forming monads1 or rough   
draughts 7abauches71 which are the only 
living things she gives birth to        
directly4  ,there are distinct primary  
rudiments of plants and animals1 and    
probably of each of the great divisions 
of the animal and vegetable             
kingdoms4#gig ,these are gradually      
developed into the higher and more      
perfect classes by the slow but         
unceasing agency of two influential     
principles3 first1 the tendency to      
progressive advancement in organization1
 accompanied by greater dignity in      

instinct1 intelligence1 c42 secondly1   
the force of external circumstances1 or 
of variations in the physical condition 
of the earth1 or the mutual relations of
 plants and animals4 ,for1 as species   
spread themselves gradually over the    
globe1 they are exposed from time to    
time to variations in climate1 and to   
changes in the quantity and quality of  
their food2 they meet with new plants   
and animals which assist or retard their
 development1 by supplying them with    
nutriment1 or destroying their foes4    
,the nature1 also1 of each locality1 is 
in itself fluctuating2 so that1 even if 
the relation of other animals and plants
 were invariable1 the habits and        
organization of species would be        
modified by the influence of local      
revolutions4  ,now1 if the first of     
these principles1 the tendency to       
progressive development1 were left to   
exert itself with perfect freedom1 it   
would give rise1 says ,lamarck1 in the  
course of ages1 to a graduated scale of 

being1 where the most insensible        
transition might be traced from the     
simplest to the most compound structure1
 from the humblest to the most exalted  
degree of intelligence4 ,but1 in        
consequence of the perpetual            
interference of the external causes     
before mentioned1 this regular order is 
greatly interfered with1 and an         
approximation only to such a state of   
things is exhibited by the animate      
creation1 the progress of some races    
being retarded by unfavorable1 and that 
of others accelerated by favorable1     
combinations of circumstances4 ,hence1  
all kinds of anomalies interrupt the    
continuity of the plan2 and chasms1 into
 which whole genera or families might be
 inserted1 are seen to separate the     
nearest existing portions of the series4
  ,lamarck's theory of the              
transformation of the orang-outang into 
the human species4--,such is the        
machinery of the ,lamarckian system2 but
 the reader will hardly1 perhaps1 be    

able to form a perfect conception of so 
complicated a piece of mechanism1 unless
 it is exhibited in motion1 so that we  
may see in what manner it can work out1 
under the author's guidance1 all the    
extraordinary effects which we behold in
 the present state of the animate       
creation4 ,i have only space for        
exhibiting a small part of the entire   
process by which a complete             
metamorphosis is achieved1 and shall    
therefore omit the mode by which1 after 
a countless succession of generations1 a
 small gelatinous body is transformed   
into an oak or an ape2 passing on at    
once to the last grand step in the      
progressive scheme1 by which the        
orang-outang1 having been already       
evolved out of a monad1 is made slowly  
to attain the attributes and dignity of 
man4  ,one of the races of quadrumanous 
animals which had reached the highest   
state of perfection1 lost1 by constraint
 of circumstances 7concerning the exact 
nature of which tradition is            

unfortunately silent71 the habit of     
climbing trees1 and of hanging on by    
grasping the boughs with their feet as  
with hands4 ,the individuals of this    
race being obliged1 for a long series of
 generations1 to use their feet         
exclusively for walking1 and ceasing to 
employ their hands as feet1 were        
transformed into bimanous animals1 and  
what before were thumbs became mere     
toes1 no separation being required when 
their feet were used solely for walking4
 ,having acquired a habit of holding    
themselves upright1 their legs and feet 
assumed1 insensibly1 a conformation     
fitted to support them in an erect      
attitude1 till at last these animals    
could no longer go on all-fours without 
much inconvenience4  ,the ,angola orang 
7,simia troglodytes1 ,linn47 is the most
 perfect of animals2 much more so than  
the ,indian orang 7,simia ,satyrus71    
which has been called the orang-outang1 
although both are very inferior to man  
in corporeal powers and intelligence4   

,these animals frequently hold          
themselves upright2 but their           
organization has not yet been           
sufficiently modified to sustain them   
habitually in this attitude1 so that the
 standing posture is very uneasy to     
them4 ,when the ,indian orang is        
compelled to take flight from pressing  
danger1 he immediately falls down upon  
all-fours1 showing clearly that this was
 the original position of the animal4   
,even in man1 whose organization1 in the
 course of a long series of generations1
 has advanced so much farther1 the      
upright posture is fatiguing1 and can be
 supported only for a limited time1 and 
by aid of the contraction of many       
muscles4 ,if the vertebral column formed
 the axis of the human body1 and        
supported the head and all the other    
parts in equilibrium1 then might the    
upright position be a state of repose3  
but1 as the human head does not         
articulate in the centre of gravity1 as 
the chest1 belly1 and other parts press 

almost entirely forward with their whole
 weight1 and as the vertebral column    
reposes upon an oblique base1 a watchful
 activity is required to prevent the    
body from falling4 ,children who have   
large heads and prominent bellies can   
hardly walk at the end even of two      
years2 and their frequent tumbles       
indicate the natural tendency in man to 
resume the quadrupedal state4  ,now1    
when so much progress had been made by  
the quadrumanous animals before         
mentioned1 that they could hold         
themselves habitually in an erect       
attitude1 and were accustomed to a wide 
range of vision1 and ceased to use their
 jaws for fighting and tearing1 or for  
clipping herbs for food1 their snout    
became gradually shorter1 their incisor 
teeth became vertical1 and the facial   
angle grew more open4  ,among other     
ideas which the natural tendency to     
perfection engendered1 the desire of    
ruling suggested itself1 and this race  
succeeded at length in getting the      

better of the other animals1 and made   
themselves masters of all those spots on
 the surface of the globe which best    
suited them4 ,they drove out the animals
 which approached nearest them in       
organization and intelligence1 and which
 were in a condition to dispute with    
them the good things of this world1     
forcing them to take refuge in deserts1 
woods1 and wildernesses1 where their    
multiplication was checked1 and the     
progressive development of their        
faculties retarded2 while1 in the mean  
time1 the dominant race spread itself in
 every direction1 and lived in large    
companies1 where new wants were         
successively created1 exciting them to  
industry1 and gradually perfecting their
 means and faculties4  ,in the supremacy
 and increased intelligence acquired by 
the ruling race1 we see an illustration 
of the natural tendency of the organic  
world to grow more perfect2 and1 in     
their influence in repressing the       
advance of others1 an example of one of 

those disturbing causes before          
enumerated1 that force of external      
circumstances which causes such wide    
chasms in the regular series of animated
 being4  ,when the individuals of the   
dominant race became very numerous1     
their ideas greatly increased in number1
 and they felt the necessity of         
communicating them to each other1 and of
 augmenting and varying the signs proper
 for the communication of ideas4        
,meanwhile the inferior quadrumanous    
animals1 although most of them were     
gregarious1 acquired no new ideas1 being
 persecuted and restless in the deserts1
 and obliged to fly and conceal         
themselves1 so that they conceived no   
new wants4 ,such ideas as they already  
had remained unaltered1 and they could  
dispense with the communication of the  
greater part of these4 ,to make         
themselves1 therefore1 understood by    
their fellows1 required merely a few    
movements of the body or                
limbs--whistling1 and the uttering of   

certain cries varied by the inflexions  
of the voice4  ,on the contrary1 the    
individuals of the ascendant race1      
animated with a desire of interchanging 
their ideas1 which became more and more 
numerous1 were prompted to multiply the 
means of communication1 and were no     
longer satisfied with mere pantomimic   
signs1 nor even with all the possible   
inflexions of the voice1 but made       
continual efforts to acquire the power  
of uttering articulate sounds1 employing
 a few at first1 but afterwards varying 
and perfecting them according to the    
increase of their wants4 ,the habitual  
exercise of their throat1 tongue1 and   
lips1 insensibly modified the           
conformation of these organs1 until they
 became fitted for the faculty of       
speech4#gih  ,in effecting this mighty  
change1 the exigencies of the           
individuals were the sole agents2 they  
gave rise to efforts1 and the organs    
proper for articulating sounds were     
developed by their habitual employment4 

,hence1 in this peculiar race1 the      
origin of the admirable faculty of      
speech2 hence also the diversity of     
languages1 since the distance of places 
where the individuals composing the race
 established themselves soon favored the
 corruption of conventional signs4#gii  
,in conclusion1 it may be proper to     
observe that the above sketch of the    
,lamarckian theory is no exaggerated    
picture1 and those passages which have  
probably excited the greatest surprise  
in the mind of the reader are literal   
translations from the original4         
,,chapter ,,xxxiv4  ,,transmutation ,,of
 ,,species--,continued4                 
,recapitulation of the arguments in     
favor of the theory of     transmutation
 of species--,their                     
insufficiency--,causes of difficulty    
in discriminating species--,some        
varieties possibly more distinct        
than certain individuals of distinct    
species--,variability in a     species  
consistent with a belief that the limits

 of deviation are     fixed--,no facts  
of transmutation                        
authenticated--,varieties of the        
,dog--the ,dog and ,wolf distinct       
species--,mummies of various animals    
from ,egypt identical in character with 
living individuals--,seeds and          
plants from the ,egyptian               
tombs--,modifications produced in plants
 by     agriculture and gardening4      
,the theory of the transmutation of     
species1 considered in the last chapter1
 has met with some degree of favor from 
many naturalists1 from their desire to  
dispense1 as far as possible1 with the  
repeated intervention of a ,first       
,cause1 as often as geological monuments
 attest the successive appearance of new
 races of animals and plants1 and the   
extinction of those pre-existing4 ,but1 
independently of a predisposition to    
account1 if possible1 for a series of   
changes in the organic world by the     
regular action of secondary causes1 we  
have seen that in truth many perplexing 

difficulties present themselves to one  
who attempts to establish the nature and
 reality of the specific character4 ,and
 if once there appears ground of        
reasonable doubt1 in regard to the      
constancy of species1 the amount of     
transformation which they are capable of
 undergoing may seem to resolve itself  
into a mere question of the quantity of 
time assigned to the past duration of   
animate existence4  ,before entering    
upon the reasons which may be adduced   
for rejecting ,lamarck's hypothesis1 ,i 
shall recapitulate1 in a few words1 the 
phenomena1 and the whole train of       
thought1 by which ,i conceive it to have
 been suggested1 and which have gained  
for this and analogous theories1 both in
 ancient and modern times1 a            
considerable number of votaries4  ,in   
the first place1 the various groups into
 which plants and animals may be thrown 
seem almost invariably1 to a beginner1  
to be so natural1 that he is usually    
convinced at first1 as was ,linnaeus to 

the last1 that genera are as much       
founded in nature as the species which  
compose them4#hjj ,when by examining the
 numerous intermediate gradations the   
student finds all lines of demarcation  
to be in most instances obliterated1    
even where they at first appeared most  
distinct1 he grows more and more        
sceptical as to the real existence of   
genera1 and finally regards them as mere
 arbitrary and artificial signs1        
invented1 like those which serve to     
distinguish the heavenly constellations1
 for the convenience of classification1 
and having as little pretensions to     
reality4  ,doubts are then engendered in
 his mind as to whether species may not 
also be equally unreal4 ,the student is 
probably first struck with the          
phenomenon1 that some individuals are   
made to deviate widely from the ordinary
 type by the force of peculiar          
circumstances1 and with the still more  
extraordinary fact1 that the newly      
acquired peculiarities are faithfully   

transmitted to the offspring4 ,how far1 
he asks1 may such variations extend in  
the course of indefinite periods of     
time1 and during great vicissitudes in  
the physical condition of the globe8    
,his growing incertitude is at first    
checked by the reflection that nature   
has forbidden the intermixture of the   
descendants of distinct original stocks1
 or has1 at least1 entailed sterility on
 their offspring1 thereby preventing    
their being confounded together1 and    
pointing out that a multitude of        
distinct types must have been created in
 the beginning1 and must have remained  
pure and uncorrupted to this day4       
,relying on this general law1 he        
endeavors to solve each difficult       
problem by direct experiment1 until he  
is again astounded by the phenomenon of 
a prolific hybrid1 and still more by an 
example of a hybrid perpetuating itself 
throughout several generations in the   
vegetable world4 ,he then feels himself 
reduced to the dilemma of choosing      

between two alternatives2 either to     
reject the test1 or to declare that the 
two species1 from the union of which the
 fruitful progeny has sprung1 were mere 
varieties4 ,if he prefer the latter1 he 
is compelled to question the reality of 
the distinctness of all other supposed  
species which differ no more than the   
parents of such prolific hybrids2 for   
although he may not be enabled          
immediately to procure1 in all such     
instances1 a fruitful offspring2 yet    
experiments show1 that after repeated   
failures1 the union of two recognized   
species may at last1 under very         
favorable circumstances1 give birth to a
 fertile progeny4 ,such circumstances1  
therefore1 the naturalist may conceive  
to have occurred again and again1 in the
 course of a great lapse of ages4  ,his 
first opinions are now fairly unsettled1
 and every stay at which he has caught  
has given way one after another2 he is  
in danger of falling into any new and   
visionary doctrine which may be         

presented to him2 for he now regards    
every part of the animate creation as   
void of stability1 and in a state of    
continual flux4 ,in this mood he        
encounters the ,geologist1 who relates  
to him how there have been endless      
vicissitudes in the shape and structure 
of organic beings in former ages--how   
the approach to the present system of   
things has been gradual--that there has 
been a progressive development of       
organization subservient to the purposes
 of life1 from the most simple to the   
most complex state--that the appearance 
of man is the last phenomenon in a long 
succession of events--and1 finally1 that
 a series of physical revolutions can be
 traced in the inorganic world1 coeval  
and co-extensive with those of organic  
nature4  ,these views seem immediately  
to confirm all his preconceived doubts  
as to the stability of the specific     
character1 and he begins to think there 
may exist an inseparable connection     
between a series of changes in the      

inanimate world1 and the capability of  
the species to be indefinitely modified 
by the influence of external            
circumstances4 ,henceforth his          
speculations know no definite bounds2 he
 gives the rein to conjecture1 and      
fancies that the outward form1 internal 
structure1 instinctive faculties1 nay1  
that reason itself may have been        
gradually developed from some of the    
simplest states of existence--that all  
animals1 that man himself1 and the      
irrational beings1 may have had one     
common origin2 that all may be parts of 
one continuous and progressive scheme of
 development1 from the most imperfect to
 the more complex2 in fine1 he renounces
 his belief in the high genealogy of his
 species1 and looks forward1 as if in   
compensation1 to the future             
perfectibility of man in his physical1  
intellectual1 and moral attributes4     
,let us now proceed to consider what is 
defective in evidence1 and what         
fallacious in reasoning1 in the grounds 

of these strange conclusions4           
,blumenbach judiciously observes1 that  
no general rule can be laid down for    
determining the distinctness of species1
 as there is no particular class of     
characters which can serve as a         
criterion4 ,in each case we must be     
guided by analogy and probability4 ,the 
multitude1 in fact1 and complexity of   
the proofs to be weighed is so great1   
that we can only hope to obtain         
presumptive evidence1 and we must1      
therefore1 be the more careful to derive
 our general views as much as possible  
from those observations where the       
chances of deception are least4 ,we must
 be on our guard not to tread in the    
footsteps of the naturalists of the     
middle ages1 who believed the doctrine  
of spontaneous generation to be         
applicable to all those parts of the    
animal and vegetable kingdoms which they
 least understood1 in direct            
contradiction to the analogy of all the 
parts best known to them2 and who1 when 

at length they found that insects and   
cryptogamous plants were also propagated
 from eggs or seeds1 still persisted in 
retaining their old prejudices          
respecting the infusory animalcules and 
other minute beings1 the generation of  
which had not then been demonstrated by 
the microscope to be governed by the    
same laws4  ,lamarck has1 indeed1       
attempted to raise an argument in favor 
of his system1 out of the very confusion
 which has arisen in the study of some  
orders of animals and plants1 in        
consequence of the slight shades of     
difference which separate the new       
species discovered within the last half 
century4 ,that the embarrassment of     
those who attempt to classify and       
distinguish the new acquisitions1 poured
 in such multitudes into our museums1   
should increase with the augmentation of
 their number1 is quite natural2 since  
to obviate this1 it is not enough that  
our powers of discrimination should keep
 pace with the increase of the objects1 

but we ought to possess greater         
opportunities of studying each animal   
and plant in all stages of its growth1  
and to know profoundly their history1   
their habits1 and physiological         
characters1 throughout several          
generations2 for1 in proportion as the  
series of known animals grows more      
complete none can doubt there is a      
nearer approximation to a graduated     
scale of being2 and thus the most       
closely allied species will be found to 
possess a greater number of characters  
in common4  ,causes of the difficulty of
 discriminating species4--,but1 in point
 of fact1 our new acquisitions consist1 
more and more as we advance1 of         
specimens brought from foreign and often
 very distant and barbarous countries4  
,a large proportion have never even been
 seen alive by scientific inquirers4    
,instead of having specimens of the     
young1 the adult1 and the aged          
individuals of each sex1 and possessing 
means of investigating the anatomical   

structure1 the peculiar habits1 and     
instincts of each1 what is usually the  
state of our information8 ,a single     
specimen1 perhaps1 of a dried plant1 or 
a stuffed bird or quadruped2 a shell1   
without the soft parts of the animal2 an
 insect in one stage of its numerous    
transformations2--these are the scanty  
and imperfect data which the naturalist 
possesses4 ,such information may enable 
us to separate species which stand at a 
considerable distance from each other2  
but we have no right to expect any thing
 but difficulty and ambiguity1 if we    
attempt1 from such imperfect            
opportunities1 to obtain distinctive    
marks for defining the characters of    
species which are closely related4  ,if 
,lamarck could introduce so much        
certainty and precision into the        
classification of several thousand      
species of recent and fossil shells1    
notwithstanding the extreme remoteness  
of the organization of these animals    
from the type of those vertebrated      

species which are best known1 and in the
 absence of so many of the living       
inhabitants of shells1 we are led to    
form an exalted conception of the degree
 of exactness to which specific         
distinctions are capable of being       
carried1 rather than to call in question
 their reality4  ,when our data are so  
defective1 the most acute naturalist    
must expect to be sometimes at fault1   
and1 like the novice1 to overlook       
essential points of difference1 passing 
unconsciously from one species to       
another1 until1 like one who is borne   
along in a current1 he is astonished on 
looking back1 at observing that he has  
reached a point so remote from that     
whence he set out4  ,it is by no means  
improbable1 that1 when the series of    
species of certain genera is very full1 
they may be found to differ less widely 
from each other than do the mere        
varieties or races of certain species4  
,if such a fact could be established1 it
 would1 undoubtedly1 diminish the chance

 of our obtaining certainty in our      
results2 but it would by no means       
overthrow our confidence in the reality 
of species4  ,some mere varieties       
possibly more distinct than certain     
individuals of distinct species4--,it is
 almost necessary1 indeed1 to suppose   
that varieties will differ in some cases
 more decidedly than some species1 if we
 admit that there is a graduated scale  
of being1 and assume that the following 
laws prevail in the economy of the      
animate creation3--first1 that the      
organization of individuals is capable  
of being modified to a limited extent1  
by the force of external causes2        
secondly1 that these modifications are1 
to a certain extent1 transmissible to   
their offspring2 thirdly1 that there are
 fixed limits1 beyond which the         
descendants from common parents can     
never deviate from a certain type2      
fourthly1 that each species springs from
 one original stock1 and can never be   
permanently confounded by intermixing   

with the progeny of any other stock2    
fifthly1 that each species shall endure 
for a considerable period of time4 ,now1
 let us assume1 for the present1 these  
rules hypothetically1 and see what      
consequences may naturally be expected  
to result from them4  ,we must suppose  
that when the ,author of ,nature creates
 an animal or plant1 all the possible   
circumstances in which its descendants  
are destined to live are foreseen1 and  
that an organization is conferred upon  
it which will enable the species to     
perpetuate itself and survive under all 
the varying circumstances to which it   
must be inevitably exposed4 ,now1 the   
range of variation of circumstances will
 differ essentially in almost every     
case4 ,let us take1 for example1 any one
 of the most influential conditions of  
existence1 such as temperature4 ,in some
 extensive districts near the equator1  
the thermometer might never vary1       
throughout several thousand centuries1  
for more than #bj degrees ,fahrenheit2  

so that if a plant or animal be provided
 with an organization fitting it to     
endure such a range1 it may continue on 
the globe for that immense period1      
although every individual might be      
liable at once to be cut off by the     
least possible excess of heat or cold   
beyond the determinate degree4 ,but if a
 species be placed in one of the        
temperate zones1 and have a constitution
 conferred on it capable of supporting a
 similar range of temperature only1 it  
will inevitably perish before a single  
year has passed away4  ,humboldt has    
shown that1 at ,cumana1 within the      
tropics1 there is a difference of only  
#d degrees ,fahr4 between the           
temperature of the warmest and coldest  
months2 whereas1 in the temperate zones1
 the annual variation amounts to about  
#fj degrees1 and the extreme range of   
the thermometer in ,canada is not less  
than #ij degrees4  ,the same remark     
might be applied to any other condition1
 as food1 for example2 it may be        

foreseen that the supply will be regular
 throughout indefinite periods in one   
part of the world1 and in another very  
precarious and fluctuating both in kind 
and quantity4 ,different qualifications 
may be required for enabling species to 
live for a considerable time under      
circumstances so changeable4 ,if1 then1 
temperature and food be among those     
external causes which1 according to     
certain laws of animal and vegetable    
physiology1 modify the organization1    
form1 or faculties1 of individuals1 we  
instantly perceive that the degrees of  
variability from a common standard must 
differ widely in the two cases above    
supposed2 since there is a necessity of 
accommodating a species in one case to a
 much greater latitude of circumstances 
than in the other4  ,if it be a law1 for
 instance1 that scanty sustenance should
 check those individuals in their growth
 which are enabled to accommodate       
themselves to privations of this kind1  
and that a parent1 prevented in this    

manner from attaining the size proper to
 its species1 should produce a dwarfish 
offspring1 a stunted race will arise1 as
 is remarkably exemplified in some      
varieties of the horse and dog4 ,the    
difference of stature in some races of  
dogs1 when compared to others1 is as one
 to five in linear dimensions1 making a 
difference of a hundred-fold in         
volume4#hja ,now1 there is a good reason
 to believe that species in general are 
by no means susceptible of existing     
under a diversity of circumstances1     
which may give rise to such a disparity 
in size1 and1 consequently1 there will  
be a multitude of distinct species1 of  
which no two adult individuals can ever 
depart so widely from a certain standard
 of dimensions as the mere varieties of 
certain other species--the dog1 for     
instance4 ,now1 we have only to suppose 
that what is true of size1 may also hold
 in regard to color and many other      
attributes2 and it will at once follow1 
that the degree of possible discordance 

between varieties of the same species   
may1 in certain cases1 exceed the utmost
 disparity which can arise between two  
individuals of many distinct species4   
,the same remarks may hold true in      
regard to instincts2 for1 if it be      
foreseen that one species will have to  
encounter a great variety of foes1 it   
may be necessary to arm it with great   
cunning and circumspection1 or with     
courage or other qualities capable of   
developing themselves on certain        
occasions2 such1 for example1 as those  
migratory instincts which are so        
remarkably exhibited at particular      
periods1 after they have remained       
dormant for many generations4 ,the      
history and habits of one variety of    
such a species may often differ more    
considerably from some other than those 
of many distinct species which have no  
such latitude of accommodation to       
circumstances4  ,extent of known        
variability in species4--,lamarck has   
somewhat mis-stated the idea commonly   

entertained of a species2 for it is not 
true that naturalists in general assume 
that the organisation of an animal or   
plant remains absolutely constant1 and  
that it can never vary in any of its    
parts4#hjb ,all must be aware that      
circumstances influence the habits1 and 
that the habits may alter the state of  
the parts and organs2 but the difference
 of opinion relates to the extent to    
which these modifications of the habits 
and organs of a particular species may  
be carried4  ,now1 let us first inquire 
what positive facts can be adduced in   
the history of known species1 to        
establish a great and permanent amount  
of change in the form1 structure1 or    
instinct of individuals descending from 
some common stock4 ,the best            
authenticated examples of the extent to 
which species can be made to vary may be
 looked for in the history of           
domesticated animals and cultivated     
plants4 ,it usually happens1 that those 
species1 both of the animal and         

vegetable kingdom1 which have the       
greatest pliability of organisation1    
those which are most capable of         
accommodating themselves to a great     
variety of new circumstances1 are most  
serviceable to man4 ,these only can be  
carried by him into different climates1 
and can have their properties or        
instincts variously diversified by      
differences of nourishment and habits4  
,if the resources of a species be so    
limited1 and its habits and faculties be
 of such a confined and local character1
 that it can only flourish in a few     
particular spots1 it can rarely be of   
great utility4  ,we may consider1       
therefore1 that in the domestication of 
animals and the cultivation of plants1  
mankind have first selected those       
species which have the most flexible    
frames and constitutions1 and have then 
been engaged for ages in conducting a   
series of experiments1 with much        
patience and at great cost1 to ascertain
 what may be the greatest possible      

deviation from a common type which can  
be elicited in these extreme cases4     
,varieties of the dog--no               
transmutation4--,the modifications      
produced in the different races of dogs 
exhibit the influence of man in the most
 striking point of view4 ,these animals 
have been transported into every climate
 and placed in every variety of         
circumstances2 they have been made1 as a
 modern naturalist observes1 the        
servant1 the companion1 the guardian1   
and the intimate friend of man1 and the 
power of a superior genius has had a    
wonderful influence not only on their   
forms1 but on their manners and         
intelligence4#hjc ,different races have 
undergone remarkable changes in the     
quantity and color of their clothing2   
the dogs of ,guinea are almost naked1   
while those of the arctic circle are    
covered with a warm coat both of hair   
and wool1 which enables them to bear the
 most intense cold without              
inconvenience4 ,there are differences   

also of another kind no less remarkable1
 as in size1 the length of their        
muzzles1 and the convexity of their     
foreheads4  ,but1 if we look for some of
 those essential changes which would be 
required to lend even the semblance of a
 foundation for the theory of ,lamarck1 
respecting the growth of new organs and 
the gradual obliteration of others1 we  
find nothing of the kind4 ,for1 in all  
these varieties of the dog1 says        
,cuvier1 the relation of the bones with 
each other remains essentially the same2
 the form of the teeth never changes in 
any perceptible degree1 except that1 in 
some individuals1 one additional false  
grinder occasionally appears1 sometimes 
on the one side1 and sometimes on the   
other4#hjd ,the greatest departure from 
a common type--and it constitutes the   
maximum of variation as yet known in the
 animal kingdom--is exemplified in those
 races of dogs which have a             
supernumerary toe on the hind foot with 
the corresponding tarsal bones2 a       

variety analogous to one presented by   
six-fingered families of the human      
race4#hje  ,lamarck has thrown out as a 
conjecture1 that the wolf may have been 
the original of the dog2 and eminent    
naturalists are still divided in opinion
 on this subject4 ,it seems now admitted
 that both species agree in the period  
of gestation1 and ,mr4 ,owen has been   
unable to confirm the alleged difference
 in the structure of a part of the      
intestinal canal4#hjf ,mr4 ,bell        
inclines to the opinion that all the    
various races of dogs have descended    
from one common stock1 of which the wolf
 is the original source4  ,it is well   
known that the horse1 the ox1 the boar1 
and other domestic animals which have   
been introduced into ,south ,america1   
and have run wild in many parts1 have   
entirely lost all marks of domesticity1 
and have reverted to the original       
characters of their species4 ,but dogs  
have also become wild in ,cuba1 ,hayti1 
and in all the ,caribbean islands4 ,in  

the course of the seventeenth century1  
they hunted in packs from twelve to     
fifty1 or more1 in number1 and          
fearlessly attacked herds of wild boars 
and other animals4 ,it is natural1      
therefore1 to inquire to what form they 
reverted8 ,now1 they are said by many   
travellers to have resembled very nearly
 the shepherd's dog2 but it is certain  
that they were never turned into wolves4
 ,they were extremely savage1 and their 
ravages appear to have been as much     
dreaded as those of wolves2 but when any
 of their whelps were caught1 and       
brought from the woods to the towns1    
they grew up in the most perfect        
submission to man4#hjg  ,many examples  
might be adduced to prove that the      
extent to which the alteration of       
species can be pushed in the domestic   
state depends on the original capacity  
of the species to admit of variation4   
,the horse has been as long domesticated
 as the dog1 yet its different races    
depart much less widely from a common   

type2 the ass has been still less       
changed1 the camel scarcely at all2 yet 
these species have probably been        
subjected to the influence of           
domestication as long as the horse4     
,mummies of animals in ,egyptian tombs  
identical with species still            
living4--,as the advocates of the theory
 of transmutation trust much to the slow
 and insensible changes which time may  
work1 they are accustomed to lament the 
absence of accurate descriptions1 and   
figures of particular animals and       
plants1 handed down from the earliest   
periods of history1 such as might have  
afforded data for comparing the         
condition of species1 at two periods    
considerably remote4 ,but1 fortunately1 
we are in some measure independent of   
such evidence3 for1 by a singular       
accident1 the priests of ,egypt have    
bequeathed to us1 in their cemeteries1  
that information which the museums and  
works of the ,greek philosophers have   
failed to transmit4  ,for the careful   

investigation of these documents1 we are
 greatly indebted to the skill and      
diligence of those naturalists who      
accompanied the ,french armies during   
their brief occupation of ,egypt3 that  
conquest of four years1 from which we   
may date the improvement of the modern  
,egyptians in the arts and sciences1 and
 the rapid progress which has been made 
of late in our knowledge of the arts and
 sciences of their remote predecessors4 
,instead of wasting their whole time1 as
 so many preceding travellers had done1 
in exclusively collecting human mummies1
 ,m4 ,geoffrey and his associates       
examined diligently1 and sent home great
 numbers of embalmed bodies of          
consecrated animals1 such as the bull1  
the dog1 the cat1 the ape1 the          
ichneumon1 the crocodile1 and the ibis4 
,to those who have never been accustomed
 to connect the facts of ,natural       
,history with philosophical             
speculations1 who have never raised     
their conceptions of the end and import 

of such studies beyond the mere         
admiration of isolated and beautiful    
objects1 or the exertion of skill in    
detecting specific differences1 it will 
seem incredible that amidst the din of  
arms1 and the stirring excitement of    
political movements1 so much enthusiasm 
could have been felt in regard to these 
precious remains4  ,in the official     
report drawn up by the ,professors of   
the ,museum at ,paris1 on the value of  
these objects1 there are some eloquent  
passages1 which may appear extravagant1 
unless we reflect how fully these       
naturalists could appreciate the bearing
 of the facts thus brought to light on  
the past history of the globe4  ,it     
seems1 say they1 as if the superstition 
of the ancient ,egyptians had been      
inspired by ,nature1 with a view of     
transmitting to after ages a monument of
 her history4 ,that extraordinary and   
eccentric people1 by embalming with so  
much care the brutes which were the     
objects of their stupid adoration1 have 

left us in their secret grottoes1       
cabinets of zoology almost complete4    
,the climate has conspired with the art 
of embalming to preserve the bodies from
 corruption1 and we can now assure      
ourselves by our own eyes what was the  
state of a great number of species three
 thousand years ago4 ,we can scarcely   
restrain the transports of our          
imagination1 on beholding thus          
preserved1 with their minutest bones1   
with the smallest portions of their     
skin1 and in every particular most      
perfectly recognizable1 many an animal1 
which at ,thebes or ,memphis1 two or    
three thousand years ago1 had its own   
priests and altars4#hjh  ,among the     
,egyptian mummies thus procured were not
 only those of numerous wild quadrupeds1
 birds1 and reptiles2 but what was      
perhaps of still higher importance in   
deciding the great question under       
discussion1 there were the mummies of   
domestic animals1 among which those     
above mentioned1 the bull1 the dog1 and 

the cat1 were frequent4 ,now1 such was  
the conformity of the whole of these    
species to those now living1 that there 
was no more difference1 says ,cuvier1   
between them than between the human     
mummies and the embalmed bodies of men  
of the present day4 ,yet some of these  
animals have since that period been     
transported by man to almost every      
climate1 and forced to accommodate their
 habits to the greatest variety of      
circumstances4 ,the cat1 for example1   
has been carried over the whole earth1  
and within the last three centuries1 has
 been naturalized in every part of the  
new world1--from the cold regions of    
,canada to the tropical plains of       
,guiana2 yet it has scarcely undergone  
any perceptible mutation1 and is still  
the same animal which was held sacred by
 the ,egyptians4  ,of the ox1           
undoubtedly1 there are many very        
distinct races2 but the bull ,apis1     
which was led in solemn processions by  
the ,egyptian priests1 did not differ   

from some of those now living4 ,the     
black cattle that have run wild in      
,america1 where there were many         
peculiarities in the climate not to be  
found1 perhaps1 in any part of the old  
world1 and where scarcely a single plant
 on which they fed was of precisely the 
same species1 instead of altering their 
form and habits1 have actually reverted 
to the exact likeness of the aboriginal 
wild cattle of ,europe4  ,in answer to  
the arguments drawn from the ,egyptian  
mummies1 ,lamarck said they were        
identical with their living descendants 
in the same country1 because the climate
 and physical geography of the banks of 
the ,nile have remained unaltered for   
the last thirty centuries4 ,but why1 it 
may be asked1 have other individuals of 
these species retained the same         
characters in many different quarters of
 the globe1 where the climate and many  
other conditions are so varied8  ,seeds 
and plants from the ,egyptian           
tombs4--,the evidence derived from the  

,egyptian monuments was not confined to 
the animal kingdom2 the fruits1 seeds1  
and other portions of twenty different  
plants1 were faithfully preserved in the
 same manner2 and among these the common
 wheat was procured by ,delille1 from   
closed vessels in the sepulchres of the 
kings1 the grain of which retained not  
only their form but even their color2 so
 effectual has proved the process of    
embalming with bitumen in a dry and     
equable climate4 ,no difference could be
 detected between this wheat and that   
which now grows in the ,east and        
elsewhere2 and in regard to the barley1 
,i am informed by ,mr4 ,brown1 the      
celebrated botanist1 that its identity  
with the grain of our own times can be  
tested by the closest comparison4 ,on   
examining1 for example1 one of the seeds
 from ,mr4 ,sam's ,egyptian collection  
in the ,british ,museum1 it is found    
that the structure of the husks or that 
part of the flower which is persistent1 
agrees precisely with the barley of the 

present day1 in having one perfect      
flower and the filiform rudiments of a  
second4 ,some naturalists believe that  
the perfect identification of the       
ancient ,egyptian cerealia with the     
varieties now cultivated has been       
carried still further1 by sowing the    
seeds taken out of the catacombs1 and   
raising plants from them2 but we want   
more evidence of this fact4 ,certain it 
is1 that when the experiment was        
recently made in the botanic garden at  
,kew1 with #ajj seeds of wheat1 barley1 
and lentils1 from the ,egyptian         
collection before mentioned of the      
,british ,museum1 not one of them would 
germinate4#hji  ,native country of the  
common wheat4--,and here ,i may observe 
that there is an obvious answer to      
,lamarck's objection1 that the botanist 
cannot point out a country where the    
common wheat grows wild1 unless in      
places where it may have been derived   
from neighboring cultivation4#haj ,all  
naturalists are well aware that the     

geographical distribution of a great    
number of species is extremely limited2 
that it was to be expected that every   
useful plant should first be cultivated 
successfully in the country where it was
 indigenous2 and that1 probably1 every  
station which it partially occupied1    
when growing wild1 would be selected by 
the agriculturist as best suited to it  
when artificially increased4 ,palestine 
has been conjectured1 by a late writer  
on the cerealia1 to have been the       
original habitation of wheat and barley2
 a supposition which is rendered the    
more plausible by ,hebrew and ,egyptian 
traditions1 and by tracing the          
migrations of the worship of ,ceres1 as 
indicative of the migrations of the     
plant4#haa  ,if we are to infer that    
some one of the wild grasses has been   
transformed into the common wheat1 and  
that some animal of the genus ,canis1   
still unreclaimed1 has been             
metamorphosed into the dog1 merely      
because we cannot find the domestic dog1

 or the cultivated wheat1 in a state of 
nature1 we may be next called upon to   
make similar admissions in regard to the
 camel2 for it seems very doubtful      
whether any race of this species of     
quadruped is now wild4  ,changes in     
plants produced by cultivation4--,but if
 agriculture1 it will be said1 does not 
supply examples of extraordinary changes
 of form and organization1 the          
horticulturist can1 at least1 appeal to 
facts which may confound the preceding  
train of reasoning4 ,the crab has been  
transformed into the apple2 the sloe    
into the plum2 flowers have changed     
their color1 and become double2 and     
these new characters can be perpetuated 
by seed2 a bitter plant1 with wavy      
sea-green leaves1 has been taken from   
the sea-side1 where it grew like wild   
charlock2 has been transplanted into the
 garden1 lost its saltness1 and has been
 metamorphosed into two distinct        
vegetables1 as unlike each other as is  
each to the parent plant--the red       

cabbage and the cauliflower4 ,these1 and
 a multitude of analogous facts1 are    
undoubtedly among the wonders of nature1
 and attest more strongly1 perhaps1 the 
extent to which species may be modified1
 than any examples derived from the     
animal kingdom4 ,but in these cases we  
find that we soon reach certain limits1 
beyond which we are unable to cause the 
individuals descending from the same    
stock to vary2 while1 on the other hand1
 it is easy to show that these          
extraordinary varieties could seldom    
arise1 and could never be perpetuated in
 a wild state for many generations1     
under any imaginable combination of     
accidents4 ,they may be regarded as     
extreme cases1 brought about by human   
interference1 and not as phenomena which
 indicate a capability of indefinite    
modification in the natural world4  ,the
 propagation of a plant by buds or      
grafts1 and by cuttings1 is obviously a 
mode which nature does not employ2 and  
this multiplication1 as well as that    

produced by roots and layers1 seems     
merely to operate as an extension of the
 life of an individual1 and not as a    
reproduction of the species such as     
happens by seed4 ,all plants increased  
by grafts or layers retain precisely the
 peculiar qualities of the individual to
 which they owe their origin1 and1 like 
an individual1 they have only a         
determinate existence2 in some cases    
longer1 and in others shorter4#hab ,it  
seems now admitted by horticulturists1  
that none of our garden varieties of    
fruit are entitled to be considered     
strictly permanent1 but that they wear  
out after a time2#hac and we are thus   
compelled to resort again to seeds2 in  
which case there is so decided a        
tendency in the seedlings to revert to  
the original type1 that our utmost skill
 is sometimes baffled in attempting to  
recover the desired variety4  ,varieties
 of the cabbage4--,the different races  
of cabbages afford1 as was admitted1 an 
astonishing example of deviation from a 

common type2 but we can scarcely        
conceive them to have originated1 much  
less to have lasted for several         
generations1 without the intervention of
 man4 ,it is only by strong manures that
 these varieties have been obtained1 and
 in poorer soils they instantly         
degenerate4 ,if1 therefore1 we suppose  
in a state of nature the seed of the    
wild ,brassica oleracea to have been    
wafted from the sea-side to some spot   
enriched by the dung of animals1 and to 
have there become a cauliflower1 it     
would soon diffuse its seed to some     
comparatively sterile soils around1 and 
the offspring would relapse to the      
likeness of the parent stock4  ,but if  
we go so far as to imagine the soil1 in 
the spot first occupied1 to be          
constantly manured by herds of wild     
animals1 so as to continue as rich as   
that of a garden1 still the variety     
could not be maintained2 because we know
 that each of these races is prone to   
fecundate others1 and gardeners are     

compelled to exert the utmost diligence 
to prevent cross-breeds4 ,the           
intermixture of the pollen of varieties 
growing in the poorer soil around would 
soon destroy the peculiar characters of 
the race which occupied the highly      
manured tract2 for1 if these accidents  
so continually happen1 in spite of our  
care1 among the culinary varieties1 it  
is easy to see how soon this cause might
 obliterate every marked singularity in 
a wild state4  ,besides1 it is well     
known that1 although the pampered races 
which we rear in our gardens for use or 
ornament may often be perpetuated by    
seed1 yet they rarely produce seed in   
such abundance1 or so prolific in       
quality1 as wild individuals2 so that if
 the care of man were withdrawn1 the    
most fertile variety would always1 in   
the end1 prevail over the more sterile4 
,similar remarks may be applied to the  
double flowers1 which present such      
strange anomalies to the botanist4 ,the 
ovarium1 in such cases1 is frequently   

abortive2 and the seeds1 when prolific1 
are generally much fewer than where the 
flowers are single4  ,changes caused by 
soil4--,some curious experiments1       
recently made on the production of blue 
instead of red flowers in the ,hydrangea
 hortensis1 illustrate the immediate    
effect of certain soils on the colors of
 the calyx and petals4 ,in garden-mould 
or compost1 the flowers are invariably  
red2 in some kinds of bog-earth they are
 blue2 and the same change is always    
produced by a particular sort of yellow 
loam4  ,varieties of the                
primrose4--,linnaeus was of opinion that
 the primrose1 oxlip1 cowslip1 and      
polyanthus1 were only varieties of the  
same species4 ,the majority of the      
modern botanists1 on the contrary1      
consider them to be distinct1 although  
some conceived that the oxlip might be a
 cross between the cowslip and the      
primrose4 ,mr4 ,herbert has lately      
recorded the following experiment3--,i  
raised from the natural seed of one     

umbel of a highly manured red cowslip a 
primrose1 a cowslip1 oxlips of the usual
 and other colors1 a black polyanthus1 a
 hose-in-hose cowslip1 and a natural    
primrose bearing its flower on a        
polyanthus stalk4 ,from the seed of that
 very hose-in-hose cowslip ,i have since
 raised a hose-in-hose primrose4 ,i     
therefore consider all these to be only 
local varieties1 depending upon soil and
 situation4#had ,professor ,henslow1 of 
,cambridge1 has since confirmed this    
experiment of ,mr4 ,herbert2 so that we 
have an example1 not only of the        
remarkable varieties which the florist  
can obtain from a common stock1 but of  
the distinctness of analogous races     
found in a wild state4#hae  ,on what    
particular ingredient1 or quality in the
 earth1 these changes depend1 has not   
yet been ascertained4#haf ,but gardeners
 are well aware that particular plants1 
when placed under the influence of      
certain circumstances1 are changed in   
various ways1 according to the species2 

and as often as the experiments are     
repeated1 similar results are obtained4 
,the nature of these results1 however1  
depends upon the species1 and they are1 
therefore1 part of the specific         
character2 they exhibit the same        
phenomena1 again and again1 and indicate
 certain fixed and invariable relations 
between the physiological peculiarities 
of the plant1 and the influence of      
certain external agents4 ,they afford no
 ground for questioning the instability 
of species1 but rather the contrary2    
they present us with a class of         
phenomena1 which1 when they are more    
thoroughly understood1 may afford some  
of the best tests for identifying       
species1 and proving that the attributes
 originally conferred endure so long as 
any issue of the original stock remains 
upon the earth4     ,,chapter ,,xxxv4   
,,whether ,,species ,,have ,a ,,real    
,,existence ,,in ,,nature--continued4   
,limits of the variability of           
species--,species susceptible of        

modification may be altered greatly in a
 short time1 and in a few               
generations2 after which they remain    
stationary--,the animals now     subject
 to man had originally an aptitude to   
domesticity--,acquired     peculiarities
 which become hereditary have a close   
connexion with     the habits or        
instincts of the species in a wild      
state--,some     qualities in certain   
animals have been conferred with a view 
of     their relation to man--,wild     
elephant domesticated in a few years1   
but its faculties incapable of further  
development4   ,variability of a species
 compared to that of an individual4--,i 
endeavored1 in the last chapter1 to     
show1 that a belief in the reality of   
species is not inconsistent with the    
idea of a considerable degree of        
variability in the specific character4  
,this opinion1 indeed1 is little more   
than an extension of the idea which we  
must entertain of the identity of an    
individual1 throughout the changes which

 it is capable of undergoing4  ,if a    
quadruped1 inhabiting a cold northern   
latitude1 and covered with a warm coat  
of hair or wool1 be transported to a    
southern climate1 it will often1 in the 
course of a few years1 shed a           
considerable portion of its coat1 which 
it gradually recovers on being again    
restored to its native country4 ,even   
there the same changes are1 perhaps1    
superinduced to a certain extent by the 
return of winter and summer4 ,we know   
that the ,alpine hare 7,lepus           
variabilis1 ,pal47 and the ermine1 or   
stoat1 7,mustela erminea1 ,linn47 become
 white during winter1 and again obtain  
their full color during the warmer      
season2 that the plumage of the         
ptarmigan undergoes a like metamorphosis
 in color and quantity1 and that the    
change is equally temporary4 ,we are    
aware that1 if we reclaim some wild     
animal1 and modify its habits and       
instincts by domestication1 it may1 if  
it escapes1 become in a few years nearly

 as wild and untractable as ever2 and if
 the same individual be again retaken1  
it may be reduced to its former tame    
state4 ,a plant is sown in a prepared   
soil1 in order that the petals of its   
flowers may multiply1 and their color be
 heightened or changed3 if we then      
withhold our care1 the flowers of this  
same species become again single4 ,in   
these1 and innumerable other instances1 
we must suppose that the species was    
produced with a certain number of       
qualities2 and1 in the case of animals1 
with a variety of instincts1 some of    
which may or may not be developed       
according to circumstances1 or which1   
after having been called forth1 may     
again become latent when the exciting   
causes are removed4  ,now1 the formation
 of races seems the necessary           
consequence of such a capability in     
species to vary1 if it be a general law 
that the offspring should very closely  
resemble the parent4 ,but1 before we can
 infer that there are no limits to the  

deviation from an original type which   
may be brought about in the course of an
 indefinite number of generations1 we   
ought to have some proof that1 in each  
successive generation1 individuals may  
go on acquiring an equal amount of new  
peculiarities1 under the influence of   
equal changes of circumstances4 ,the    
balance of evidence1 however1 inclines  
most decidedly on the opposite side2 for
 in all cases we find that the quantity 
of divergence diminishes after a few    
generations in a very rapid ratio4      
,species susceptible of modification may
 be greatly altered in a few            
generations4--,it cannot be objected1   
that it is out of our power to go on    
varying the circumstances in the same   
manner as might happen in the natural   
course of events during some great      
geological cycle4 ,for in the first     
place1 where a capacity is given to     
individuals to adapt themselves to new  
circumstances1 it does not generally    
require a very long period for its      

development3 if1 indeed1 such were the  
case1 it is not easy to see how the     
modification would answer the ends      
proposed1 for all the individuals would 
die before new qualities1 habits1 or    
instincts were conferred4  ,when we have
 succeeded in naturalizing some tropical
 plant in a temperate climate1 nothing  
prevents us from attempting gradually to
 extend its distribution to higher      
latitudes1 or to greater elevations     
above the level of the sea1 allowing    
equal quantities of time1 or an equal   
number of generations1 for habituating  
the species to successive increments of 
cold4 ,but every husbandman and gardener
 is aware that such experiments will    
fail2 and we are more likely to succeed 
in making some plants1 in the course of 
the first two generations1 support a    
considerable degree of difference of    
temperature1 than a very small          
difference afterwards1 though we        
persevere for many centuries4  ,it is   
the same if we take any other cause     

instead of temperature2 such as the     
quality of the food1 or the kind of     
dangers to which an animal is exposed1  
or the soil in which a plant lives4 ,the
 alteration in habits1 form1 or         
organization1 is often rapid during a   
short period2 but when the circumstances
 are made to vary farther1 though in    
ever so slight a degree1 all            
modification ceases1 and the individual 
perishes4 ,thus some herbivorous        
quadrupeds may be made to feed partially
 on fish or flesh2 but even these can   
never be taught to live on some herbs   
which they reject1 and which would even 
poison them1 although the same may be   
very nutritious to other species of the 
same natural order4 ,so when man uses   
force or stratagem against wild animals1
 the persecuted race soon becomes more  
cautious1 watchful1 and cunning2 new    
instincts seem often to be developed1   
and to become hereditary in the first   
two or three generations3 but let the   
skill and address of man increase1      

however gradually1 no farther variation 
can take place1 no new qualities are    
elicited by the increasing dangers4 ,the
 alteration of the habits of the species
 has reached a point beyond which no    
ulterior modification is possible1      
however indefinite the lapse of ages    
during which the new circumstances      
operate4 ,extirpation then follows1     
rather than such a transformation as    
could alone enable the species to       
perpetuate itself under the new state of
 things4  ,animals now subject to man   
had originally an aptitude to           
domesticity4--,it has been well observed
 by ,m4 ,f4 ,cuvier and ,m4 ,dureau de  
la ,malle1 that unless some animals had 
manifested in a wild state an aptitude  
to second the efforts of man1 their     
domestication would never have been     
attempted4 ,if they had all resembled   
the wolf1 the fox1 and the hyaena1 the  
patience of the experimentalist would   
have been exhausted by innumerable      
failures before he at last succeeded in 

obtaining some imperfect results2 so if 
the first advantages derived from the   
cultivation of plants had been elicited 
by as tedious and costly a process as   
that by which we now make some slight   
additional improvements in certain      
races1 we should have remained to this  
day in ignorance of the greater number  
of their useful qualities4  ,acquired   
instincts of some animals become        
hereditary4--,it is undoubtedly true1   
that many new habits and qualities have 
not only been acquired in recent times  
by certain races of dogs1 but have been 
transmitted to their offspring4 ,but in 
these cases it will be observed1 that   
the new peculiarities have an intimate  
relation to the habits of the animal in 
a wild state1 and therefore do not      
attest any tendency to a departure to an
 indefinite extent from the original    
type of the species4 ,a race of dogs    
employed for hunting deer in the        
platform of ,sante ,fa1 in ,mexico1     
affords a beautiful illustration of a   

new hereditary instinct4 ,the mode of   
attack1 observes ,m4 ,roulin1 which they
 employ consists in seizing the animal  
by the belly and overturning it by a    
sudden effort1 taking advantage of the  
moment when the body of the deer rests  
only upon the fore-legs4 ,the weight of 
the animal thus thrown over is often six
 times that of its antagonist4 ,the dog 
of pure breed inherits a disposition to 
this kind of chase1 and never attacks a 
deer from before while running4 ,even   
should the deer1 not perceiving him1    
come directly upon him1 the dog steps   
aside and makes his assault on the      
flank2 whereas other hunting dogs1      
though of superior strength1 and general
 sagacity1 which are brought from       
,europe1 are destitute of this instinct4
 ,for want of similar precautions1 they 
are often killed by the deer on the     
spot1 the vertebrae of their neck being 
dislocated by the violence of the       
shock4#hag  ,a new instinct has also    
become hereditary in a mongrel race of  

dogs employed by the inhabitants of the 
banks of the ,magdalena almost          
exclusively in hunting the white-lipped 
pecari4 ,the address of these dogs      
consists in restraining their ardor1 and
 attaching themselves to no animal in   
particular1 but keeping the whole herd  
in check4 ,now1 among these dogs some   
are found1 which the very first time    
they are taken to the woods1 are        
acquainted with this mode of attack2    
whereas1 a dog of another breed starts  
forward at once1 is surrounded by the   
pecari1 and1 whatever may be his        
strength1 is destroyed in a moment4     
,some of our countrymen1 engaged of late
 in conducting one of the principal     
mining associations in ,mexico1 that of 
,real del ,monte1 carried out with them 
some ,english greyhounds of the best    
breed1 to hunt the hares which abound in
 that country4 ,the great platform which
 is the scene of sport is at an         
elevation of about nine thousand feet   
above the level of the sea1 and the     

mercury in the barometer stands         
habitually at the height of about       
nineteen inches4 ,it was found that the 
greyhounds could not support the        
fatigues of a long chase in this        
attenuated atmosphere1 and before they  
could come up with their prey1 they lay 
down gasping for breath2 but these same 
animals have produced whelps which have 
grown up1 and are not in the least      
degree incommoded by the want of density
 in the air1 but run down the hares with
 as much ease as the fleetest of their  
race in this country4  ,the fixed and   
deliberate stand of the pointer has with
 propriety been regarded as a mere      
modification of a habit1 which may have 
been useful to a wild race accustomed to
 wind game1 and steal upon it by        
surprise1 first pausing for an instant1 
in order to spring with unerring aim4   
,the faculty of the retriever1 however1 
may justly be regarded as more          
inexplicable and less easily referable  
to the instinctive passions of the      

species4 ,m4 ,majendie1 says a ,french  
writer in a recently published memoir1  
having learnt that there was a race of  
dogs in ,england which stopped and      
brought back game of their own accord1  
procured a pair1 and having obtained a  
whelp from them1 kept it constantly     
under his eyes1 until he had an         
opportunity of assuring himself that1   
without having received any instruction1
 and on the very first day that it was  
carried to the chase1 it brought back   
game with as much steadiness as dogs    
which had been schooled into the same   
manoeuvre by means of the whip and      
collar4  ,attributes of animals in their
 relation to man4--,such attainments1 as
 well as the habits and dispositions    
which the shepherd's dog and many others
 inherit1 seem to be of a nature and    
extent which we can hardly explain by   
supposing them to be modifications of   
instincts necessary for the preservation
 of the species in a wild state4 ,when  
such remarkable habits appear in races  

of this species we may reasonably       
conjecture that they were given with no 
other view than for the use of man and  
the preservation of the dog1 which thus 
obtains protection4  ,as a general rule1
 ,i fully agree with ,m4 ,f4 ,cuvier1   
that1 in studying the habits of animals1
 we must attempt1 as far as possible1 to
 refer their domestic qualities to      
modifications of instincts which are    
implanted in them in a state of nature2 
and that writer has successfully pointed
 out1 in an admirable essay on the      
domestication of the mammalia#hah1 the  
true origin of many dispositions which  
are vulgarly attributed to the influence
 of education alone4 ,but we should go  
too far if we did not admit that some of
 the qualities of particular animals and
 plants may have been given solely with 
a view to the connection which it was   
foreseen would exist between them and   
man--especially when we see that        
connexion to be in many cases so        
intimate1 that the greater number1 and  

sometimes1 as in the case of the camel1 
all the individuals of the species which
 exist on the earth are in subjection to
 the human race4  ,we can perceive in a 
multitude of animals1 especially in some
 of the parasitic tribes1 that certain  
instincts and organs are conferred for  
the purpose of defence or attack against
 some other species4 ,now if we are     
reluctant to suppose the existence of   
similar relations between man and the   
instincts of many of the inferior       
animals1 we adopt an hypothesis no less 
violent1 though in the opposite extreme 
to that which has led some to imagine   
the whole animate and inanimate creation
 to have been made solely for the       
support1 gratification1 and instruction 
of mankind4  ,many species1 most hostile
 to our persons or property1 multiply1  
in spite of our efforts to repress them2
 others1 on the contrary1 are           
intentionally augmented many hundred    
fold in number by our exertions4 ,in    
such instances1 we must imagine the     

relative resources of man1 and of       
species friendly or inimical to him1 to 
have been prospectively calculated and  
adjusted4 ,to withhold assent to this   
supposition1 would be to refuse what we 
must grant in respect to the economy of 
nature in every other part of the       
organic creation2 for the various       
species of contemporary plants and      
animals have obviously their relative   
forces1 nicely balanced1 and their      
respective tastes1 passions1 and        
instincts so contrived1 that they are   
all in perfect harmony with each other4 
,in no other manner could it happen that
 each species1 surrounded1 as it is1 by 
countless dangers1 should be enabled to 
maintain its ground for periods of      
considerable duration4  ,the docility of
 the individuals of some of our domestic
 species1 extending1 as it does1 to     
attainments foreign to their natural    
habits and faculties1 may1 perhaps1 have
 been conferred with a view to their    
association with man4 ,but1 lest species

 should be thereby made to vary         
indefinitely1 we find that such habits  
are never transmissible by generation4  
,a pig has been trained to hunt and     
point game with great activity and      
steadiness#hai2 and other learned       
individuals1 of the same species1 have  
been taught to spell2 but such          
fortuitous acquirements never become    
hereditary1 for they have no relation   
whatever to the exigencies of the animal
 in a wild state1 and cannot1 therefore1
 be developments of any instinctive     
propensities4  ,influence of            
domestication4--,an animal in           
domesticity1 says ,m4 ,f4 ,cuvier1 is   
not essentially in a different          
situation1 in regard to the feeling of  
restraint1 from one left to itself4 ,it 
lives in society without constraint1    
because1 without doubt1 it was a social 
animal2 and it conforms itself to the   
will of man1 because it had a chief1 to 
which1 in a wild state1 it would have   
yielded obedience4 ,there is nothing in 

its new situation that is not           
conformable to its propensities2 it is  
satisfying its wants by submission to a 
master1 and makes no sacrifice of its   
natural inclinations4 ,all the social   
animals1 when left to themselves1 form  
herds more or less numerous2 and all the
 individuals of the same herd know each 
other1 are mutually attached1 and will  
not allow a strange individual to join  
them4 ,in a wild state1 moreover1 they  
obey some individual1 which1 by its     
superiority1 has become the chief of the
 herd4 ,our domestic species had1       
originally1 this sociability of         
disposition2 and no solitary species1   
however easy it may be to tame it1 has  
yet afforded true domestic races4 ,we   
merely1 therefore1 develope1 to our own 
advantage1 propensities which propel the
 individuals of certain species to draw 
near to their fellows4  ,the sheep which
 we have reared is induced to follow us1
 as it would be led to follow the flock 
among which it was brought up2 and1 when

 individuals of gregarious species have 
been accustomed to one master1 it is he 
alone whom they acknowledge as their    
chief--he only whom they obey4 ,the     
elephant allows himself to be directed  
only by the carnac whom he has adopted2 
the dog itself1 reared in solitude with 
its master1 manifests a hostile         
disposition towards all others2 and     
every body knows how dangerous it is to 
be in the midst of a herd of cows1 in   
pasturages that are little frequented1  
when they have not at their head the    
keeper who takes care of them4  ,every  
thing1 therefore1 tends to convince us1 
that formerly men were only with regard 
to the domestic animals1 what those who 
are particularly charged with the care  
of them still are--namely1 members of   
the society which these animals form    
among themselves2 and1 that they are    
only distinguished1 in the general mass1
 by the authority which they have been  
enabled to assume from their superiority
 of intellect4 ,thus1 every social      

animal which recognizes man as a member1
 and as the chief of its herd1 is a     
domestic animal4 ,it might even be said1
 that1 from the moment when such an     
animal admits man as a member of its    
society1 it is domesticated1 as man     
could not enter into such society       
without becoming the chief of it4#hbj   
,but the ingenious author whose         
observations ,i have here cited1 admits 
that the obedience which the individuals
 of many domestic species yield         
indifferently to every person1 is       
without analogy in any state of things  
which could exist previously to their   
subjugation by man4 ,each troop of wild 
horses1 it is true1 has some stallion   
for its chief1 who draws after him all  
the individuals of which the herd is    
composed2 but when a domesticated horse 
has passed from hand to hand1 and has   
served several masters1 he becomes      
equally docile towards any person1 and  
is subjected to the whole human race4   
,it seems fair to presume that the      

capability in the instinct of the horse 
to be thus modified1 was given to enable
 the species to render greater services 
to man2 and1 perhaps1 the facility with 
which many other acquired characters    
become hereditary in various races of   
the horse1 may be explicable only on a  
like supposition4 ,the amble1 for       
example1 a pace to which the domestic   
races in some parts of ,spanish ,america
 are exclusively trained1 has1 in the   
course of several generations1 become   
hereditary1 and is assumed by all the   
young colts before they are broken      
in4#hba  ,it seems1 also1 reasonable to 
conclude1 that the power bestowed on the
 horse1 the dog1 the ox1 the sheep1 the 
cat1 and many species of domestic fowls1
 of supporting almost every climate1 was
 given expressly to enable them to      
follow man throughout all parts of the  
globe1 in order that we might obtain    
their services1 and they our protection4
 ,if it be objected that the elephant   
which1 by the union of strength1        

intelligence1 and docility1 can render  
the greatest services to mankind1 is    
incapable of living in any but the      
warmest latitudes1 we may observe that  
the quantity of vegetable food required 
by this quadruped would render its      
maintenance in the temperate zones too  
costly1 and in the arctic impossible4   
,among the changes superinduced by man1 
none appear1 at first sight1 more       
remarkable than the perfect tameness of 
certain domestic races4 ,it is well     
known that1 at however early an age we  
obtain possession of the young of many  
unreclaimed races1 they will retain1    
throughout life1 a considerable timidity
 and apprehensiveness of danger2        
whereas1 after one or two generations1  
the descendants of the same stock will  
habitually place the most implicit      
confidence in man4 ,there is good       
reason1 however1 to suspect that such   
changes are not without analogy in a    
state of nature2 or1 to speak more      
correctly1 in situations where man has  

not interfered4  ,we learn from ,mr4    
,darwin1 that in the ,galapagos         
archipelago1 placed directly under the  
equator1 and nearly #fjj miles west of  
the ,american continent1 all the        
terrestrial birds1 as the finches1      
doves1 hawks1 and others1 are so tame1  
that they may be killed with a switch4  
,one day1 says this author1 a mocking   
bird alighted on the edge of a pitcher  
which ,i held in my hand1 and began     
quietly to sip the water1 and allowed me
 to lift it with the vessel from the    
ground4 ,yet formerly1 when the first   
,europeans landed1 and found no         
inhabitants in these islands1 the birds 
were even tamer than now3 already they  
are beginning to acquire that salutary  
dread of man which in countries long    
settled is natural even to young birds  
which have never received any injury4   
,so in the ,falkland ,islands1 both the 
birds and foxes are entirely without    
fear of man2 whereas1 in the adjoining  
mainland of ,south ,america1 many of the

 same species of birds are extremely    
wild2 for there they have for ages been 
persecuted by the natives4#hbb  ,dr4    
,richardson informs us1 in his able     
history of the habits of the ,north     
,american animals1 that1 in the retired 
parts of the mountains where the hunters
 had seldom penetrated1 there is no     
difficulty in approaching the ,rocky    
,mountain sheep1 which there exhibit the
 simplicity of character so remarkable  
in the domestic species2 but where they 
have been often fired at1 they are      
exceedingly wild1 alarm their           
companions1 on the approach of danger1  
by a hissing noise1 and scale the rocks 
with a speed and agility that baffle    
pursuit4#hbc  ,it is probable1          
therefore1 that as man1 in diffusing    
himself over the globe1 has tamed many  
wild races1 so1 also1 he has made many  
tame races wild4 ,had some of the larger
 carnivorous beasts1 capable of scaling 
the rocks1 made their way into the      
,north ,american mountains before our   

hunters1 a similar alteration in the    
instincts of the sheep would doubtless  
have been brought about4  ,wild         
elephants domesticated in a few         
years4--,no animal affords a more       
striking illustration of the principal  
points which ,i have been endeavouring  
to establish than the elephant2 for1 in 
the first place1 the wonderful sagacity 
with which he accommodates himself to   
the society of man1 and the new habits  
which he contracts1 are not the result  
of time1 nor of modifications produced  
in the course of many generations4      
,these animals will breed in captivity1 
as is now ascertained1 in opposition to 
the vulgar opinion of many modern       
naturalists1 and in conformity to that  
of the ancients ,a,elian and            
,columella#hbd3 yet it has always been  
the custom1 as the least expensive mode 
of obtaining them1 to capture wild      
individuals in the forests1 usually when
 full grown2 and1 in a few years after  
they are taken--sometimes1 it is said1  

in the space of a few months--their     
education is completed4  ,had the whole 
species been domesticated from an early 
period in the history of man1 like the  
camel1 their superior intelligence      
would1 doubtless1 have been attributed  
to their long and familiar intercourse  
with the lord of the creation2 but we   
know that a few years is sufficient to  
bring about this wonderful change of    
habits2 and although the same individual
 may continue to receive tuition for a  
century afterwards1 yet it makes no     
farther progress in the general         
development of its faculties4 ,were it  
otherwise1 indeed1 the animal would soon
 deserve more than the poet's epithet of
 half-reasoning4  ,from the authority of
 our countrymen employed in the late    
,burmese war1 it appears1 in            
corroboration of older accounts1 that   
when elephants are required to execute  
extraordinary tasks1 they may be made to
 understand that they will receive      
unusual rewards4 ,some favourite dainty 

is shown to them1 in the hope of        
acquiring which the work is done2 and so
 perfectly does the nature of the       
contract appear to be understood1 that  
the breach of it1 on the part of the    
master1 is often attended with danger4  
,in this case1 a power has been given to
 the species to adapt their social      
instincts to new circumstances with     
surprising rapidity2 but the extent of  
this change is defined by strict and    
arbitrary limits4 ,there is no          
indication of a tendency to continued   
divergence from certain attributes with 
which the elephant was originally       
endued--no ground whatever for          
anticipating that1 in thousands of      
centuries1 any material alteration could
 ever be effected4 ,all that we can     
infer from analogy is1 that some more   
useful and peculiar races might probably
 be formed1 if the experiment were      
fairly tried2 and that some individual  
characteristic1 now only casual and     
temporary1 might be perpetuated by      

generation4  ,in all cases1 therefore1  
where the domestic qualities exist in   
animals1 they seem to require no        
lengthened process for their            
developement2 and they appear to have   
been wholly denied to some classes1     
which1 from their strength and social   
disposition1 might have rendered great  
services to man2 as1 for example1 the   
greater part of the quadrumana4 ,the    
orang-outang1 indeed1 which1 for its    
resemblance in form to man1 and         
apparently for no other good reason1 has
 been assumed by ,lamarck to be the most
 perfect of the inferior animals1 has   
been tamed by the savages of ,borneo1   
and made to climb lofty trees1 and to   
bring down the fruit4 ,but he is said to
 yield to his masters an unwilling      
obedience1 and to be held in subjection 
only by severe discipline4 ,we know     
nothing of the faculties of this animal 
which can suggest the idea that it      
rivals the elephant in intelligence2    
much less anything which can countenance

 the dreams of those who have fancied   
that it might have been transmuted into 
the dominant race4 ,one of the baboons  
of ,sumatra 7,simia carpolegus7 appears 
to be more docile1 and is frequently    
trained by the inhabitants to ascend    
trees1 for the purpose of gathering     
cocoa-nuts2 a service in which the      
animal is very expert4 ,he selects1 says
 ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1 the ripe nuts1
 with great judgment1 and pulls no more 
than he is ordered4#hbe ,the capuchin   
and cacajao monkeys are1 according to   
,humboldt1 taught to ascend trees in the
 same manner1 and to throw down fruit on
 the banks of the lower ,orinoco4#hbf   
,it is for the ,lamarckians to explain  
how it happens that those same savages  
of ,borneo have not themselves acquired1
 by dint of longing1 for many           
generations1 for the power of climbing  
trees1 the elongated arms of the ourang1
 or even the prehensile tails of some   
,american monkeys3 ,instead of being    
reduced to the necessity of subjugating 

stubborn and untractable brutes1 we     
should naturally have anticipated that  
their wants would have excited them to  
efforts1 and that continued efforts     
would have given rise to new organs2 or 
rather to the re-acquisition of organs  
which1 in a manner irreconcileable with 
the principle of the progressive system1
 have grown obsolete in tribes of men   
which have such constant need of them4  
,recapitulation4--,it follows1 then1    
from the different facts which have been
 considered in this chapter1 that a     
short period of time is generally       
sufficient to effect nearly the whole   
change which an alteration of external  
circumstances can bring about in the    
habits of a species1 and that such      
capacity of accommodation to new        
circumstances is enjoyed in very        
different degrees1 by different species4
  ,certain qualities appear to be       
bestowed exclusively with a view to the 
relations which are destined to exist   
between different species1 and1 among   

others1 between certain species and man2
 but these latter are always so nearly  
connected with the original habits and  
propensities of each species in a wild  
state1 that they imply no indefinite    
capacity of varying from the original   
type4 ,the acquired habits derived from 
human tuition are rarely transmitted to 
the offspring2 and when this happens1 it
 is almost universally the case with    
those merely which have some obvious    
connexion with the attributes of the    
species when in a state of independence4
     ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4  ,,whether      
,,species ,,have ,a ,,real ,,existence  
,,in ,,nature--continued4     ,phenomena
 of hybrids--,hunter's opinions--,mules 
not strictly     intermediate between   
parent species--,hybrid                 
plants--,experiments of     ,kolreuter  
and ,wiegmann--,vegetable hybrids       
prolific throughout     several         
generations--,why rare in a wild        
state--,decundolle on hybrid            
plants--,the phenomena of hybrids       

confirm the distinctness of             
species--,theory of the gradation in the
 intelligence of animals as             
indicated by the facial angle--,doctrine
 that certain organs of the     foetus  
in mammalia assume successively the     
forms of fish1 reptile1     and         
bird--,recapitulation4   ,phenomena of  
hybrids4--,we have yet to consider      
another class of phenomena1 those       
relating to the production of hybrids1  
which have been regarded in a very      
different light with reference to their 
bearing on the question of the permanent
 distinctness of species2 some          
naturalists considering them as         
affording the strongest of all proofs in
 favor of the reality of species2       
others1 on the contrary1 appealing to   
them as countenancing the opposite      
doctrine1 that all the varieties of     
organization and instinct now exhibited 
in the animal and vegetable kingdoms may
 have been propagated from a small      
number of original types4  ,in regard to

 the mammifers and birds it is found    
that no sexual union will take place    
between races which are remote from each
 other in their habits and organization2
 and it is only in species that are very
 nearly allied that such unions produce 
offspring4 ,it may be laid down as a    
general rule1 admitting of very few     
exceptions among quadrupeds1 that the   
hybrid progeny is sterile2 and there    
seem to be no well authenticated        
examples of the continuance of the mule 
race beyond one generation4 ,the        
principal number of observations and    
experiments relate to the mixed         
offspring of the horse and the ass2 and 
in this case it is well established that
 the he-mule can generate1 and the      
she-mule produce4 ,such cases occur in  
,spain and ,italy1 and much more        
frequently in the ,west ,indies and ,new
 ,holland2 but these mules have never   
bred in cold climates1 seldom in warm   
regions1 and still more rarely in       
temperate countries4  ,the hybrid       

offspring of the she-ass and the        
stallion1 the ,greek3 ginnos of         
,aristotle1 and the hinnus of ,pliny1   
differs from the mule1 or the offspring 
of the ass and mare4 ,in both cases1    
says ,buffon1 these animals retain more 
of the dam than of the sire1 not only in
 the magnitude1 but in the figure of the
 body3 whereas1 in the form of the head1
 limbs1 and tail1 they bear a greater   
resemblance to the sire4 ,the same      
naturalist infers1 from various         
experiments respecting cross-breeds     
between the he-goat and ewe1 the dog and
 she-wolf1 the goldfinch and            
canary-bird1 that the male transmits his
 sex to the greatest number1 and that   
the preponderance of males over females 
exceeds that which prevails where the   
parents are of the same species4        
,hunter's opinion4--,the celebrated     
,john ,hunter has observed1 that the    
true distinction of species must        
ultimately be gathered from their       
incapacity of propagating with each     

other1 and producing offspring capable  
of again continuing itself4 ,he was     
unwilling1 however1 to admit that the   
horse and the ass were of the same      
species1 because some rare instances had
 been adduced of the breeding of mules1 
although he maintained that the wolf1   
the dog1 and the jackal were all of one 
species2 because he had found1 by two   
experiments1 that the dog would breed   
both with the wolf and the jackal2 and  
that the mule1 in each case1 would breed
 again with the dog4 ,in these cases1   
however1 it may be observed1 that there 
was always one parent at least of pure  
breed1 and no proof was obtained that a 
true hybrid race could be perpetuated2 a
 fact of which ,i believe no examples   
are yet recorded1 either in regard to   
mixtures of the horse and ass1 or any   
other of the mammalia4  ,should the fact
 be hereafter ascertained1 that two     
mules can propagate their kind1 we must 
still inquire whether the offspring may 
not be regarded in the light of a       

monstrous birth1 proceeding from some   
accidental cause1 or1 rather1 to speak  
more philosophically1 from some general 
law not yet understood1 but which may   
not be permitted permanently to         
interfere with those laws of generation 
by which species may1 in general1 be    
prevented from becoming blended4 ,if1   
for example1 we discovered that the     
progeny of a mule race degenerated      
greatly1 in the first generation1 in    
force1 sagacity1 or any attribute       
necessary for its preservation in a     
state of nature1 we might infer that1   
like a monster1 it is a mere temporary  
and fortuitous variety4 ,nor does it    
seem probable that the greater number of
 such monsters could ever occur unless  
obtained by art2 for1 in ,hunter's      
experiments1 stratagem or force was1 in 
most instances1 employed to bring about 
the irregular connexion4#hbg  ,mules not
 strictly intermediate between the      
parent species4--,it seems rarely to    
happen that the mule offspring is truly 

intermediate in character between the   
two parents4 ,thus ,hunter mentions     
that1 in his experiments1 one of the    
hybrid pups resembled the wolf much more
 than the rest of the litter2 and we are
 informed by ,wiegmann1 that1 in a      
litter lately obtained in the ,royal    
,menagerie at ,berlin1 from a white     
pointer and a she-wolf1 two of the cubs 
resembled the common wolf-dog1 but the  
third was like a pointer with hanging   
ears4  ,there is undoubtedly a very     
close analogy between these phenomena   
and those presented by the intermixture 
of distinct races of the same species1  
both in the inferior animals and in man4
 ,dr4 ,prichard1 in his ,physical       
,history of ,mankind1 cites examples    
where the peculiarities of the parents  
have been transmitted very unequally to 
the offspring2 as where children1       
entirely white1 or perfectly black1 have
 sprung from the union of the ,european 
and the negro4 ,sometimes the colour or 
other peculiarities of one parent1 after

 having failed to show themselves in the
 immediate progeny1 reappear in a       
subsequent generation2 as where a white 
child is born of two black parents1 the 
grandfather having been a white4#hbh    
,the same author judiciously observes   
that1 if different species mixed their  
breed1 and hybrid races were often      
propagated1 the animal world would soon 
present a scene of confusion2 its tribes
 would be every where blended together1 
and we should perhaps find more hybrid  
creatures than genuine and uncorrupted  
races4#hbi  ,hybrid                     
plants4--,kolreuter's experiments4--,the
 history of the vegetable kingdom has   
been thought to afford more decisive    
evidence in favour of the theory of the 
formation of new and permanent species  
from hybrid stocks4 ,the first accurate 
experiments in illustration of this     
curious subject appear to have been made
 by ,kolreuter1 who obtained a hybrid   
from two species of tobacco1 ,nicotiana 
rustica and ,n4 paniculata1 which differ

 greatly in the shape of their leaves1  
the colour of the corolla1 and the      
height of the stem4 ,the stigma of a    
plant of ,n4 rustica was impregnated    
with the pollen of a plant of ,n4       
paniculata4 ,the seed ripened1 and      
produced a hybrid which was intermediate
 between the two parents1 and which1    
like all the hybrids which this botanist
 brought up1 had imperfect stamens4 ,he 
afterwards impregnated this hybrid with 
the pollen of ,n4 paniculata1 and       
obtained plants which much more         
resembled the last4 ,this he continued  
through several generations1 until1 by  
due perseverance1 he actually changed   
the ,nicotiana rustica into the         
,nicotiana paniculata4  ,the plan of    
impregnation adopted1 was the cutting   
off of the anthers of the plant intended
 for fructification before they had shed
 pollen1 and then laying on foreign     
pollen upon the stigma4  ,wiegmann's    
experiments4--,the same experiment has  
since been repeated with success by     

,wiegmann1 who found that he could bring
 back the hybrids to the exact likeness 
of either parent1 by crossing them a    
sufficient number of times4  ,the       
blending of the characters of the parent
 stocks1 in many other of ,wiegmann's   
experiments1 was complete2 the colour   
and shape of the leaves and flowers1 and
 even the scent1 being intermediate1 as 
in the offspring of the two species of  
verbascum4 ,an intermarriage1 also1     
between the common onion and the leek   
7,allium cepa and ,a4 porrum7 gave a    
mule plant1 which1 in the character of  
its leaves and flowers1 approached most 
nearly to the garden onion1 but had the 
elongated bulbous root and smell of the 
leek4  ,the same botanist remarks1 that 
vegetable hybrids1 when not strictly    
intermediate1 more frequently approach  
the female than the male parent species2
 but they never exhibit characters      
foreign to both4 ,a re-cross with one of
 the original stocks generally causes   
the mule plant to revert towards that   

stock2 but this is not always the case1 
the offspring sometimes continuing to   
exhibit the character of a full hybrid4 
,in general1 the success attending the  
production and perpetuity of hybrids    
among plants depends1 as in the animal  
kingdom1 on the degree of proximity     
between the species intermarried4 ,if   
their organization be very remote1      
impregnation never takes place2 if      
somewhat less distant1 seeds are formed1
 but always imperfect and sterile4 ,the 
next degree of relationship yields      
hybrid seedlings1 but these are barren2 
and it is only when the parent species  
are very nearly allied that the hybrid  
race may be perpetuated for several     
generations4 ,even in this case the best
 authenticated examples seem confined to
 the crossing of hybrids with           
individuals of pure breed4 ,in none of  
the experiments most accurately detailed
 does it appear that both the parents   
were mules4  ,wiegmann diversified as   
much as possible his mode of bringing   

about these irregular unions among      
plants4 ,he often sowed parallel rows1  
near to each other1 of the species from 
which he desired to breed2 and1 instead 
of mutilating1 after ,kolreuter's       
fashion1 the plants of one of the parent
 stocks1 he merely washed the pollen off
 their anthers4 ,the branches of the    
plants in each row were then gently bent
 towards each other and intertwined2 so 
that the wind1 and numerous insects1 as 
they passed from the flowers of one to  
those of the other species1 carried the 
pollen and produced fecundation4        
,vegetable hybrids why rare in a wild   
slate4--,the same observer saw a good   
exemplification of the manner in which  
hybrids may be formed in a state of     
nature4 ,some wallflowers and pinks had 
been growing in a garden1 in a dry sunny
 situation1 and their stigmas had been  
ripened so as to be moist1 and to absorb
 pollen with avidity1 although their    
anthers were not yet developed4 ,these  
stigmas became impregnated by pollen    

blown from some other adjacent plants of
 the same species2 but had they been of 
different species1 and not too remote in
 their organization1 mule races must    
have resulted4  ,when1 indeed1 we       
consider how busily some insects have   
been shown to be engaged in conveying   
anther-dust from flower to flower1      
especially bees1 flower-eating beetles1 
and the like1 it seems a most           
enigmatical problem how it can happen   
that promiscuous alliances between      
distinct species are not perpetually    
occurring4  ,how continually do we      
observe the bees diligently employed in 
collecting the red and yellow powder by 
which the stamens of flowers are        
covered1 loading it on their hind legs1 
and carrying it to their hive for the   
purpose of feeding their young6 ,in thus
 providing for their own progeny1 these 
insects assist materially the process of
 fructification4#hcj ,few persons need  
be reminded that the stamens in certain 
plants grow on different blossoms from  

the pistils2 and unless the summit of   
the pistil be touched with the          
fertilizing dust1 the fruit does not    
swell1 nor the seed arrive at maturity4 
,it is by the help of bees chiefly1 that
 the development of the fruit of many   
such species is secured1 the powder     
which they have collected from the      
stamens being unconsciously left by them
 in visiting the pistils4  ,how often1  
during the heat of a summer's day1 do we
 see the males of dioecious plants1 such
 as the yew-tree1 standing separate from
 the females1 and sending off into the  
air1 upon the slightest breath of wind1 
clouds of buoyant pollen6 ,that the     
zephyr should so rarely intervene to    
fecundate the plants of one species with
 the anther-dust of others1 seems almost
 to realize the converse of the miracle 
believed by the credulous herdsmen of   
the ,lusitanian mares--     ,ore omnes  
versae in ,zephyrum1 stant rupibus altis
   ,exceptantque leves auras3 et saepe  
sine ullis   ,conjugiis1 vento gravidae1

 mirabile dictu4#hca   ,but1 in the     
first place1 it appears that there is a 
natural aversion in plants1 as well as  
in animals1 to irregular sexual unions2 
and in most of the successful           
experiments in the animal and vegetable 
world1 some violence has been used in   
order to procure impregnation4 ,the     
stigma imbibes1 slowly and reluctantly1 
the granules of the pollen of another   
species1 even when it is abundantly     
covered with it2 and if it happen that1 
during this period1 ever so slight a    
quantity of the anther-dust of its own  
species alight upon it1 this is         
instantly absorbed1 and the effect of   
the foreign pollen destroyed4 ,besides1 
it does not often happen that the male  
and female organs of fructification1 in 
different species1 arrive at a state of 
maturity at precisely the same time4    
,even where such synchronism does       
prevail1 so that a cross impregnation is
 effected1 the chances are very numerous
 against the establishment of a hybrid  

race4  ,if we consider the vegetable    
kingdom generally1 it must be           
recollected that even of the seeds which
 are well ripened1 a great part are     
either eaten by insects1 birds1 and     
other animals1 or decay for want of room
 and opportunity to germinate4          
,unhealthy plants are the first which   
are cut off by causes prejudicial to the
 species1 being usually stifled by more 
vigorous individuals of their own kind4 
,if1 therefore1 the relative fecundity  
or hardiness of hybrids be in the least 
degree inferior1 they cannot maintain   
their footing for many generations1 even
 if they were ever produced beyond one  
generation in a wild state4 ,in the     
universal struggle for existence1 the   
right of the strongest eventually       
prevails2 and the strength and          
durability of a race depend mainly on   
its prolificness1 in which hybrids are  
acknowledged to be deficient4           
,centaurea hybrida1 a plant which never 
bears seed1 and is supposed to be       

produced by the frequent intermixture of
 two well-known species of ,centaurea1  
grows wild upon a hill near ,turin4     
,ranunculus lacerus1 also sterile1 has  
been produced accidentally at ,grenoble1
 and near ,paris1 by the union of two   
,ranunculi2 but this occurred in        
gardens4#hcb  ,mr4 ,herbert's           
experiments4--,mr4 ,herbert1 in one of  
his ingenious papers on mule plants1    
endeavors to account for their          
non-occurrence in a state of nature1    
from the circumstance that all the      
combinations that were likely to occur  
have already been made many centuries   
ago1 and have formed the various species
 of botanists2 but in our gardens1 he   
says1 whenever species1 having a certain
 degree of affinity to each other1 are  
transported from different countries1   
and brought for the first time into     
contact1 they give rise to hybrid       
species4#hcc ,but we have no data1 as   
yet1 to warrant the conclusion1 that a  
single permanent hybrid race has ever   

been formed1 even in gardens1 by the    
intermarriage of two allied species     
brought from distant habitations4 ,until
 some fact of this kind is fairly       
established1 and a new species1 capable 
of perpetuating itself in a state of    
perfect independence of man1 can be     
pointed out1 it seems reasonable to call
 in question entirely this hypothetical 
source of new species4 ,that varieties  
do sometimes spring up from             
cross-breeds1 in a natural way1 can     
hardly be doubted2 but they probably die
 out even more rapidly than races       
propagated by grafts or layers4         
,opinion of ,de ,candolle4--,de         
,candolle1 whose opinion on a           
philosophical question of this kind     
deserves the greatest attention1 has    
observed1 in his ,essay on ,botanical   
,geography1 that the varieties of plants
 range themselves under two general     
heads3 those produced by external       
circumstances1 and those formed by      
hybridity4 ,after adducing various      

arguments to show that neither of these 
causes can explain the permanent        
diversity of plants indigenous in       
different regions1 he says1 in regard to
 the crossing of races1 ,i can perfectly
 comprehend without altogether sharing  
the opinion1 that1 where many species of
 the same genera occur near together1   
hybrid species may be formed1 and ,i am 
aware that the great number of species  
of certain genera which are found in    
particular regions may be explained in  
this manner2 but ,i am unable to        
conceive how any one can regard the same
 explanation as applicable to species   
which live naturally at great distances4
 ,if the three larches1 for example1 now
 known in the world1 lived in the same  
localities1 ,i might then believe that  
one of them was the produce of the      
crossing of the two others2 but ,i never
 could admit that the ,siberian species 
has been produced by the crossing of    
those of ,europe and ,america4 ,i see1  
then1 that there exist in organized     

beings1 permanent differences which     
cannot be referred to any one of the    
actual causes of variation1 and these   
differences are what constitute         
species4#hcd  ,reality of species       
confirmed by the phenomena of           
hybrids4--,the most decisive arguments  
perhaps1 amongst many others1 against   
the probability of the derivation of    
permanent species from cross-breeds1 are
 to be drawn from the fact alluded to by
 ,de ,candolle1 of species having a     
close affinity to each other occurring  
in distinct botanical provinces1 or     
countries inhabited by groups of        
distinct species of indigenous plants2  
for in this case naturalists1 who are   
not prepared to go the whole length of  
the transmutationists1 are under the    
necessity of admitting that1 in some    
cases1 species which approach very near 
to each other in their characters1 were 
so created from their origin2 an        
admission fatal to the idea of its being
 a general law of nature that a few     

original types only should be formed1   
and that all intermediate races should  
spring from the intermixture of those   
stocks4  ,this notion1 indeed1 is wholly
 at variance with all that we know of   
hybrid generation2 for the phenomena    
entitle us to affirm1 that had the types
 been at first somewhat distinct1 no    
cross-breeds would ever have been       
produced1 much less those prolific races
 which we now recognize as distinct     
species4  ,in regard1 moreover1 to the  
permanent propagation of hybrid races   
among animals1 insuperable difficulties 
present themselves1 when we endeavor to 
conceive the blending together of the   
different instincts and propensities of 
two species1 so as to insure the        
preservation of the intermediate race4  
,the common mule1 when obtained by human
 art1 may be protected by the power of  
man2 but1 in a wild state1 it would not 
have precisely the same wants either as 
the horse or the ass2 and if in         
consequence of some difference of this  

kind1 it strayed from the herd1 it would
 soon be hunted down by beasts of prey1 
and destroyed4  ,if we take some genus  
of insects1 such as the bee1 we find    
that each of the numerous species has   
some difference in its habits1 its mode 
of collecting honey1 or constructing its
 dwelling1 or providing for its young1  
and other particulars4 ,in the case of  
the common hive bee1 the workers are    
described1 by ,kirby and ,spence1 as    
being endowed with no less than thirty  
distinct instincts4#hce ,so also we find
 that1 amongst a most numerous class of 
spiders1 there are nearly as many       
different modes of spinning their webs  
as there are species4 ,when we recollect
 how complicated are the relations of   
these instincts with co-existing        
species1 both of the animal and         
vegetable kingdoms1 it is scarcely      
possible to imagine that a bastard race 
could spring from the union of two of   
these species1 and retain just so much  
of the qualities of each parent stock as

 to preserve its ground in spite of the 
dangers which surround it4  ,we might   
also ask1 if a few generic types alone  
have been created among insects1 and the
 intermediate species have proceeded    
from hybridity1 where are those original
 types1 combining1 as they ought to do1 
the elements of all the instincts which 
have made their appearance in the       
numerous derivative races8 ,so also in  
regard to animals of all classes1 and of
 plants2 if species are in general of   
hybrid origin1 where are the stocks     
which combine in themselves the habits1 
properties1 and organs1 of which all the
 intervening species ought to afford us 
mere modifications8  ,recapitulation of 
the arguments from hybrids4--,i shall   
now conclude this subject by summing up1
 in a few words1 the results to which ,i
 have been led by the consideration of  
the phenomena of hybrids4 ,it appears   
that the aversion of individuals of     
distinct species to the sexual union is 
common to animals and plants2 and that  

it is only when the species approach    
near to each other in their organization
 and habits1 that any offspring are     
produced from their connexion4 ,mules   
are of extremely rare occurrence in a   
state of nature1 and no examples are yet
 known of their having procreated in a  
wild state4 ,but it has been proved1    
that hybrids are not universally        
sterile1 provided the parent stocks have
 a near affinity to each other1 although
 the continuation of the mixed race1 for
 several generations1 appears hitherto  
to have been obtained only by crossing  
the hybrids with individuals of pure    
species2 an experiment which by no means
 bears out the hypothesis that a true   
hybrid race could ever be permanently   
established4  ,hence we may infer1 that 
aversion to sexual intercourse is1 in   
general1 a good test of the distinctness
 of original stocks1 or of species2 and 
the procreation of hybrids is a proof of
 the near affinity of species4 ,perhaps1
 hereafter1 the number of generations   

for which hybrids may be continued1     
before the race dies out 7for it seems  
usually to degenerate rapidly71 may     
afford the zoologist and botanist an    
experimental test of the difference in  
the degree of affinity of allied        
species4  ,i may also remark1 that if it
 could have been shown that a single    
permanent species had ever been produced
 by hybridity 7of which there is no     
satisfactory proof71 it might certainly 
have lent some countenance to the       
notions of the ancients respecting the  
gradual deterioration of created things1
 but none whatever to ,lamarck's theory 
of their progressive perfectibility1 for
 observations have hitherto shown that  
there is a tendency in mule animals and 
plants to degenerate in organization4   
,it was before remarked1 that the theory
 of progressive development arose partly
 from an attempt to ingraft the         
doctrines of the transmutationists upon 
one of the most popular generalizations 
in geology4 ,but we have seen in the    

ninth chapter1 that the modern          
researches of geologists have broken at 
many points the chain of evidence once  
supposed to exist in favor of the       
doctrine1 that1 at each successive      
period in the earth's history1 animals  
and plants of a higher grade1 or more   
complex organization1 have been created4
 ,the recent origin of man1 and the     
absence of all signs of any rational    
being holding an analogous relation to  
former states of the animate world1     
affords one1 and perhaps in the present 
state of science the only argument of   
much weight in support of the hypothesis
 of a progressive scheme2 but none      
whatever in favor of the fancied        
evolution of one species out of another4
  ,theory of the gradation of intellect 
as shown by the facial angle4--,when the
 celebrated anatomist1 ,camper1 first   
attempted to estimate the degrees of    
sagacity of different animals1 and of   
the races of man1 by the measurement of 
the facial angle1 some speculators were 

bold enough to affirm that certain      
,simiae1 or apes1 differed as little    
from the more savage races of men1 as   
those do from the human race in general2
 and that a scale might be traced from  
apes with foreheads villanous low to the
 ,african variety of the human species1 
and from that to the ,european4 ,the    
facial angle was measured by drawing a  
line from the prominent centre of the   
forehead to the most advanced part of   
the lower jaw-bone1 and observing the   
angle which it made with the horizontal 
line2 and it was affirmed1 that there   
was a regular series of such angles from
 birds to the mammalia4  ,the gradation 
from the dog to the monkey was said to  
be perfect1 and from that again to man4 
,one of the ape tribe has a facial angle
 of #db degrees2 and another1 which     
approximated nearest to man in figure1  
an angle of #ej degrees4 ,to this       
succeeds 7longo sed proximus intervallo7
 the head of the ,african negro1 which1 
as well as that of the ,calmuck1 forms  

an angle of #gj degrees2 while that of  
the ,european contains #hj degrees4 ,the
 ,roman painters preferred the angle of 
#ie degrees2 and the character of beauty
 and sublimity so striking in some works
 of ,grecian sculpture1 as in the head  
of the ,apollo1 and in the ,medusa of   
,sisocles1 is given by an angle which   
amounts to #ajj degrees4#hcf  ,a great  
number of valuable facts and curious    
analogies in comparative anatomy were   
brought to light during the             
investigations which were made by       
,camper1 ,john ,hunter1 and others1 to  
illustrate this scale of organization2  
and their facts and generalizations must
 not be confounded with the fanciful    
systems which ,white and others deduced 
from them4#hcg  ,that there is some     
connexion between an elevated and       
capacious forehead1 in certain races of 
men1 and a large developement of the    
intellectual faculties1 seems highly    
probable2 and that a low facial angle is
 frequently accompanied with inferiority

 of mental powers1 is certain2 but the  
attempt to trace a gradual scale of     
intelligence through the different      
species of animals accompanying the     
modifications of the form of the scull1 
is a mere visionary speculation4 ,it has
 been found necessary to exaggerate the 
sagacity of the ape tribe at the expense
 of the dog2 and strange contradictions 
have arisen in the conclusions deduced  
from the structure of the elephant2 some
 anatomists being disposed to deny the  
quadruped the intelligence which he     
really possesses1 because they found    
that the volume of his brain was small  
in comparison to that of the other      
mammalia2 while others were inclined to 
magnify extravagantly the superiority of
 his intellect1 because the vertical    
height of his skull is so great when    
compared to its horizontal length4      
,different races of men are all of one  
species4--,it would be irrelevant to our
 subject if we were to enter into a     
farther discussion on these topics2     

because1 even if a graduated scale of   
organization and intelligence could have
 been established1 it would prove       
nothing in favor of a tendency1 in each 
species1 to attain a higher state of    
perfection4 ,i may refer the reader to  
the writings of ,blumenbach1 ,prichard1 
,lawrence1 and more recently            
,latham#hch1 for convincing proofs that 
the varieties of form1 color1 and       
organization of different races of men1 
are perfectly consistent with the       
generally received opinion1 that all the
 individuals of the species have        
originated from a single pair2 and1     
while they exhibit in man as many       
diversities of a physiological nature as
 appear in any other species1 they      
confirm also the opinion of the slight  
deviation from a common standard of     
which species are capable4  ,the power  
of existing and multiplying in every    
latitude1 and in every variety of       
situation and climate1 which has enabled
 the great human family to extend itself

 over the habitable globe1 is partly1   
says ,lawrence1 the result of physical  
constitution1 and partly of the mental  
prerogative of man4 ,if he did not      
possess the most enduring and flexible  
corporeal frame1 his arts would not     
enable him to be the inhabitant of all  
climates1 and to brave the extremes of  
heat and cold1 and the other destructive
 influences of local situation4#hci     
,yet1 notwithstanding this flexibility  
of bodily frame1 we find no signs of    
indefinite departure from a common      
standard1 and the intermarriages of     
individuals of the most remote varieties
 are not less fruitful than between     
those of the same tribe4  ,tiedemann on 
the brain of the foetus in vertebrated  
animals4--,there is yet another         
department of anatomical discovery to   
which ,i must allude1 because it has    
appeared to some persons to afford a    
distant analogy1 at least1 to that      
progressive development by which some of
 the inferior species may have been     

gradually perfected into those of more  
complex organization4 ,tiedemann found1 
and his discoveries have been most fully
 confirmed and elucidated by ,m4        
,serres1 that the brain of the foetus1  
in the highest class of vertebrated     
animals1 assumes1 in succession1 forms1 
bearing a certain degree of resemblance 
to those which belong to fishes1        
reptiles1 and birds1 before it acquires 
the additions and modifications which   
are peculiar to the mammiferous tribe2  
so that1 in the passage from the embryo 
to the perfect mammifer1 there is a     
typical representation1 it is said1 of  
all those transformations which the     
primitive species are supposed to have  
undergone1 during a long series of      
generations1 between the present period 
and the remotest geological era4  ,if   
you examine the brain of the mammalia1  
says ,m4 ,serres1 at an early stage of  
uterine life1 you perceive the cerebral 
hemispheres consolidated1 as in fish1 in
 two vesicles1 isolated one from the    

other2 at a later period1 you see them  
affect the configuration of the cerebral
 hemispheres of reptiles2 still later   
again1 they present you with the forms  
of those of birds2 finally they acquire1
 at the era of birth1 and sometimes     
later1 the permanent forms which the    
adult mammalia present4  ,the cerebral  
hemispheres1 then1 arrive at the state  
which we observe in the higher animals  
only by a series of successive          
metamorphoses4 ,if we reduce the whole  
of these evolutions to four periods1 we 
shall see1 that in the first are born   
the cerebral lobes of fishes2 and this  
takes place homogeneously in all        
classes4 ,the second period will give us
 the organization of reptiles2 the      
third1 the brain of birds2 and the      
fourth1 the complex hemispheres of      
mammalia4  ,if we could develop the     
different parts of the brain of the     
inferior classes1 we should make1 in    
succession1 a reptile out of a fish1 a  
bird out of a reptile1 and a mammiferous

 quadruped out of a bird4 ,if1 on the   
contrary1 we could starve this organ in 
the mammalia1 we might reduce it        
successively to the condition of the    
brain of the three inferior classes4    
,nature often presents us with this last
 phenomenon in monsters1 but never      
exhibits the first4 ,among the various  
deformities which organized beings may  
experience1 they never pass the limits  
of their own classes to put on the forms
 of the class above them4 ,never does a 
fish elevate itself so as to assume the 
form of the brain of a reptile2 nor does
 the latter ever attain that of birds2  
nor the bird that of the mammifer4 ,it  
may happen that a monster may have two  
heads2 but the conformation of the brain
 always remains circumscribed narrowly  
within the limits of its class4#hdj     
,dr4 ,clark of ,cambridge1 in a memoir  
on ,foetal ,development 7#ahde71 has    
shown that the concurrent labours of    
,valentin1 ,ratka1 and ,bischoff        
disprove the reality of the supposed    

anatomical analogy between the embryo   
condition of certain organs in the      
higher orders1 and the perfect structure
 of the same organs in animals of an    
inferior class4 ,the hearts and brains1 
for example1 of birds and mammals do not
 pass through forms which are permanent 
in fishes and reptiles2 there is only   
just so much resemblance as may point to
 a unity of plan running through the    
organization of the whole series of     
vertebrated animals2 but which lends no 
support whatever to the notion of a     
gradual transmutation of one species    
into another2 least of all of the       
passage1 in the course of many          
generations1 from an animal of a more   
simple to one of a more complex         
structure4  ,recapitulation4--,for the  
reasons1 therefore1 detailed in this and
 the two preceding chapters1 we may draw
 the following inferences in regard to  
the reality of species in nature3--     
#ast4 ,that there is a capacity in all  
species to accommodate themselves1 to a 

certain extent1 to a change of external 
circumstances1 this extent varying      
greatly1 according to the species4      
#bndly4 ,when the change of situation   
which they can endure is great1 it is   
usually attended by some modifications  
of the form1 colour1 size1 structure1 or
 other particulars2 but the mutations   
thus superinduced are governed by       
constant laws1 and the capability of so 
varying1 forms part of the permanent    
specific character4  #c;dly4 ,some      
acquired peculiarities1 of form1        
structure1 and instinct1 are            
transmissible to the offspring2 but     
these consist of such qualities and     
attributes only as are intimately       
related to the natural wants and        
propensities of the species4  #dthly4   
,the entire variation from the original 
type1 which any given kind of change can
 produce1 may usually be effected in a  
brief period of time1 after which no    
farther deviation can be obtained by    
continuing to alter the circumstances1  

though ever so gradually2 indefinite    
divergence1 either in the way of        
improvement or deterioration1 being     
prevented1 and the least possible excess
 beyond the defined limits being fatal  
to the existence of the individual4     
#ethly4 ,the intermixture of distinct   
species is guarded against by the       
aversion of the individuals composing   
them to sexual union1 or by the         
sterility of the mule offspring4 ,it    
does not appear that true hybrid races  
have ever been perpetuated for several  
generations1 even by the assistance of  
man2 for the cases usually cited relate 
to the crossing of mules with           
individuals of pure species1 and not to 
the intermixture of hybrid with hybrid4 
#fthly4 ,from the above considerations1 
it appears that species have a real     
existence in nature2 and that each was  
endowed1 at the time of its creation1   
with the attributes and organization by 
which it is now distinguished4          
,,chapter ,,xxxvii4  ,,laws ,,which     

,,regulate ,,the ,,geographical         
,,distribution ,,of ,,species4          
,analogy of climate not attended with   
identity of species--,botanical         
geography--,stations--,habitations--,dis
tinct provinces of indigenous           
plants--,vegetation of islands--,marine 
vegetation--,in what manner     plants  
become diffused--,effects of wind1      
rivers1 marine     currents--,agency of 
animals--,many seeds pass through the   
stomachs of     animals and birds       
undigested--,agency of man in the       
dispersion of     plants1 both voluntary
 and involuntary--,its analogy to that  
of the     inferior animals4   ,next to 
determining the question whether species
 have a real existence1 the             
consideration of the laws which regulate
 their geographical distribution is a   
subject of primary importance to the    
geologist4 ,it is only by studying these
 laws with attention1 by observing the  
positions which groups of species occupy
 at present1 and inquiring how these may

 be varied in the course of time by     
migrations1 by changes in physical      
geography1 and other causes1 that we can
 hope to learn whether the duration of  
species be limited1 or in what manner   
the state of the animate world is       
affected by the endless vicissitudes of 
the inanimate4  ,different regions      
inhabited by distinct species4--,that   
different regions of the globe are      
inhabited by entirely distinct animals  
and plants1 is a fact which has been    
familiar to all naturalists since       
,buffon first pointed out the want of   
specific identity between the land      
quadrupeds of ,america and those of the 
,old ,world4 ,the same phenomenon has1  
in later times1 been forced in a        
striking manner upon our attention1 by  
the examination of ,new ,holland1 where 
the indigenous species of animals and   
plants were found to be1 almost without 
exception1 distinct from those known in 
other parts of the world4  ,but the     
extent of this parcelling out of the    

globe amongst different nations1 as they
 have been termed1 of plants and        
animals--the universality of a          
phenomenon so extraordinary and         
unexpected1 may be considered as one of 
the most interesting facts clearly      
established by the advance of modern    
science4  ,scarcely fourteen hundred    
species of plants appear to have been   
known and described by the ,greeks1     
,romans1 and ,arabians4 ,at present1    
more than three thousand species are    
enumerated1 as natives of our own       
island4#hda ,in other parts of the world
 there have been now collected 7#ahdf7  
upwards of #ajj1jjj species1 specimens  
of which are preserved in ,european     
herbariums4 ,it was not to be supposed1 
therefore1 that the ancients should have
 acquired any correct notions respecting
 what may be called the geography of    
plants1 although the influence of       
climate on the character of the         
vegetation could hardly have escaped    
their observation4   ,antecedently to   

investigation1 there was no reason for  
presuming that the vegetable            
productions1 growing wild in the eastern
 hemisphere1 should be unlike those of  
the western1 in the same latitude2 nor  
that the plants of the ,cape of ,good   
,hope should be unlike those of the     
south of ,europe2 situations where the  
climate is little dissimilar4 ,the      
contrary supposition would have seemed  
more probable1 and we might have        
anticipated an almost perfect identity  
in the animals and plants which inhabit 
corresponding parallels of latitude4    
,the discovery1 therefore1 that each    
separate region of the globe1 both of   
the land and water1 is occupied by      
distinct groups of species1 and that    
most of the exceptions to this general  
rule may be referred to disseminating   
causes now in operation1 is eminently   
calculated to excite curiosity1 and to  
stimulate us to seek some hypothesis    
respecting the first introduction of    
species which may be reconcileable with 

such phenomena4  ,botanical             
geography4--,a comparison of the plants 
of different regions of the globe       
affords results more to be depended upon
 in the present state of our knowledge  
than those relating to the animal       
kingdom1 because the science of botany  
is more advanced1 and probably          
comprehends a great proportion of the   
total number of the vegetable           
productions of the whole earth4         
,humboldt1 in several eloquent passages 
of his ,personal ,narrative1 was among  
the first to promulgate philosophical   
views on this subject4 ,every           
hemisphere1 says this traveller1        
produces plants of different species2   
and it is not by the diversity of       
climates that we can attempt to explain 
why equinoctial ,africa has no          
,laurinae1 and the ,new ,world no       
,heaths2 why the ,calceolariae are found
 only in the southern hemisphere2 why   
the birds of the continent of ,india    
glow with colors less splendid than the 

birds of the hot parts of ,america3     
finally1 why the tiger is peculiar to   
,asia1 and the ornithorhynchus to ,new  
,holland4#hdb  ,we can conceive1 he     
adds1 that a small number of the        
families of plants1 for instance1 the   
,musaceae and the ,palms1 cannot belong 
to very cold regions1 on account of     
their internal structure and the        
importance of certain organs2 but we    
cannot explain why no one of the family 
of ,melastomas vegetates north of the   
parallel of thirty degrees2 or why no   
rose-tree belongs to the southern       
hemisphere4 ,analogy of climates is     
often found in the two continents       
without identity of productions4#hdc    
,the luminous essay of ,de ,candolle on 
,botanical ,geography presents us with  
the fruits of his own researches and    
those of ,humboldt1 ,brown1 and other   
eminent botanists1 so arranged1 that the
 principal phenomena of the distribution
 of plants are exhibited in connexion   
with the causes to which they are       

chiefly referrible4#hdd ,it might not1  
perhaps1 be difficult1 observes this    
writer1 to find two points1 in the      
,united ,states and in ,europe1 or in   
,equinoctial ,america and ,africa1 which
 present all the same circumstances3 as1
 for example1 the same temperature1 the 
same height above the sea1 a similar    
soil1 an equal dose of humidity2 yet    
nearly all1 perhaps all1 the plants in  
these two similar localities shall be   
distinct4 ,a certain degree of analogy1 
indeed1 of aspect1 and even of          
structure1 might very possibly be       
discoverable between the plants of the  
two localities in question2 but the     
species would in general be different4  
,circumstances1 therefore1 different    
from those which now determine the      
stations1 have had an influence on the  
habitations of plants4  ,stations and   
habitations of plants4--,as ,i shall    
frequently have occasion to speak of the
 stations and habitations of plants in  
the technical sense in which the terms  

are used in the above passage1 ,i may   
remind the geologist that station       
indicates the peculiar nature of the    
locality where each species is          
accustomed to grow1 and has reference to
 climate1 soil1 humidity1 light1        
elevation above the sea1 and other      
analogous circumstances2 whereas1 by    
habitation is meant a general indication
 of the country where a plant grows     
wild4 ,thus the station of a plant may  
be a salt-marsh1 a hill-side1 the bed of
 the sea1 or a stagnant pool4 ,its      
habitation may be ,europe1 ,north       
,america1 or ,new ,holland1 between the 
tropics4 ,the study of stations has been
 styled the topography1 that of         
habitations the geography1 of botany4   
,the terms thus defined1 express each a 
distinct class of ideas1 which have been
 often confounded together1 and which   
are equally applicable in zoology4  ,in 
farther illustration of the principle   
above alluded to1 that difference of    
longitude1 independently of any         

influence of temperature1 is accompanied
 by a great1 and sometimes a complete1  
diversity in the species of plants1 ,de 
,candolle observes1 that1 out of #bhia  
species of phaenogamous plants described
 by ,pursh1 in the ,united ,states1     
there are only #che which are found in  
northern or temperate ,europe4 ,,mm4    
,humboldt and ,bonpland1 in all their   
travels through equinoctial ,america1   
found only twenty-four species 7these   
being all ,cyperaceae and ,gramineae7   
common to ,america and any part of the  
,old ,world4 ,they collected1 it is     
true1 chiefly on the mountains1 or the  
proportion would have been larger2 for  
,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker informs me that many   
tropical plants of the ,new ,world are  
identical with ,african species4        
,nevertheless1 the general discordance  
of these ,floras is very striking4 ,on  
comparing ,new ,holland with ,europe1   
,mr4 ,brown ascertained that1 out of    
#dajj species1 discovered in ,australia1
 there were only #aff common to ,europe1

 and of this small number there were    
some few which may have been transported
 thither by man4 ,almost all of the #aff
 species were cryptogamic1 and the rest 
consist1 in nearly every case1 of       
phaenogamous plants which also inhabit  
intervening regions4  ,but what is still
 more remarkable1 in the more widely    
separated parts of the ancient          
continent1 notwithstanding the existence
 of an uninterrupted land-communication1
 the diversity in the specific character
 of the respective vegetations is almost
 as striking4 ,thus there is found one  
assemblage of species in ,china1 another
 in the countries bordering the ,black  
,sea and the ,caspian1 a third in those 
surrounding the ,mediterranean1 a fourth
 in the great platforms of ,siberia and 
,tartary1 and so forth4  ,the           
distinctness of the groups of indigenous
 plants1 in the same parallel of        
latitude1 is greatest where continents  
are disjoined by a wide expanse of      
ocean4 ,in the northern hemisphere1 near

 the pole1 where the extremities of     
,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america unite or   
approach near to one another1 a         
considerable number of the same species 
of plants are found1 common to the three
 continents4 ,but it has been remarked1 
that these plants1 which are thus so    
widely diffused in the arctic regions1  
are also found in the chain of the      
,aleutian islands1 which stretch almost 
across from ,america to ,asia1 and which
 may probably have served as the channel
 of communication for the partial       
blending of the ,floras of the adjoining
 regions4 ,it has1 indeed1 been observed
 to be a general rule1 that plants found
 at two points very remote from each    
other occur also in places intermediate4
  ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker informs me that in   
high latitudes in the southern ocean1 in
 spite of the great extent of the sea1  
,floras of widely disconnected islands  
contain many species in common4 ,perhaps
 icebergs1 transporting to vast         
distances not only stones1 but soil with

 the seeds of plants1 may explain this  
unusually wide diffusion of insular     
plants4  ,in islands very distant from  
continents the total number of plants is
 comparatively small2 but a large       
proportion of the species are such as   
occur nowhere else4 ,in so far as the   
,flora of such islands is not peculiar  
to them1 it contains1 in general1       
species common to the nearest main      
lands4#hde ,the islands of the great    
southern ocean exemplify these rules2   
the easternmost containing more         
,american1 and the western more ,indian 
plants4#hdf ,madeira and ,teneriffe     
contain many species1 and even entire   
genera1 peculiar to them2 but they have 
also plants in common with ,portugal1   
,spain1 the ,azores1 and the north-west 
coast of ,africa4#hdg  ,in the          
,canaries1 out of #ecc species of       
phaenogamous plants1 it is said that    
#caj are peculiar to these islands1 and 
the rest identical with those of the    
,african continent2 but in the ,flora of

 ,st4 ,helena1 which is so far distant  
even from the western shores of ,africa1
 there have been found1 out of thirty   
native species of the phaenogamous      
class1 only one or two which are to be  
found in any other part of the globe4   
,on the other hand1 of sixty cryptogamic
 plants1 collected by ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker  
in the same island1 twelve only were    
peculiar4  ,the natural history of the  
,galapagos archipelago1 described by    
,mr4 ,darwin1 affords another very      
instructive illustration of the laws    
governing the geographical distribution 
of plants and animals in islands4 ,this 
group consists of ten principal islands1
 situated in the ,pacific ,ocean1 under 
the equator1 about #fjj miles westward  
of the coast of ,south ,america4 ,as    
they are all formed of volcanic rocks1  
many of the craters1 of which there are 
about #bjjj in number1 having a very    
fresh aspect1 we may regard the whole as
 much more modern in origin than the    
mass of the adjoining continent2 yet    

neither has the ,flora nor ,fauna been  
derived from ,south ,america1 but       
consist of species for the most part    
indigenous1 yet stamped with a character
 decidedly ,south ,american4  ,what is  
still more singular1 there is a         
difference between the species          
inhabiting the different islands4 ,of   
flowering plants1 for example1 there are
 #ahe species at present known1 and     
forty cryptogamic1 making together #bbe4
 ,one hundred of the former class are   
new species1 probably confined to this  
archipelago2 and of the rest1 ten at    
least have been introduced by man4 ,of  
twenty-one species of ,compositae1 all  
but one are peculiar1 and they belong to
 twelve genera1 no less than ten of     
which genera are confined to the        
,galapagos4 ,dr4 ,hooker observes1 that 
the type of this ,flora has an undoubted
 relation to that of the western side of
 ,south ,america1 and he detects in it  
no affinity with that of the numerous   
islands scattered over other parts of   

the ,pacific4 ,so in regard to the      
birds1 reptiles1 land-shells1 and       
insects1 this archipelago1 standing as  
it does in the ,pacific ,ocean1 is      
zoologically part of ,america4 ,although
 each small island is not more than     
fifty or sixty miles apart1 and most of 
them are in sight of each other1 formed 
of precisely the same rocks1 rising     
nearly to an equal height1 and placed   
under a similar climate1 they are       
tenanted each by a different set of     
beings1 the tortoises1 mocking-thrushes1
 finches1 beetles1 scarcely any of them 
ever ranging over the whole1 and often  
not even common to any two of the       
islands4  ,the archipelago1 says ,mr4   
,darwin1 is a little world within       
itself1 or rather a satellite attached  
to ,america2 whence it has derived a few
 stray colonists1 and has received the  
general character of its indigenous     
productions4 ,one is astonished1 he     
adds1 at the amount of creative force   
displayed on so many small1 barren1 and 

rocky islands1 and still more so1 at its
 diverse1 yet analogous action on points
 so near each other4 ,i have said that  
the ,galapagos archipelago might be     
called a satellite attached to ,america1
 but it should rather be called a group 
of satellites physically similar1       
organically distinct1 yet intimately    
related to each other1 and all related  
in a marked1 though much lesser degree1 
to the great ,american continent4#hdh   
,number of botanical provinces4--,de    
,candolle has enumerated twenty great   
botanical provinces inhabited by        
indigenous or aboriginal plants2 and    
although many of these contain a variety
 of species which are common to several 
others1 and sometimes to places very    
remote1 yet the lines of demarcation    
are1 upon the whole1 astonishingly well 
defined4#hdi ,nor is it likely that the 
bearing of the evidence on which these  
general views are founded will ever be  
materially affected1 since they are     
already confirmed by the examination of 

nearly one hundred thousand species of  
plants4  ,the entire change of opinion  
which the contemplation of those        
phenomena has brought about is worthy of
 remark4 ,the first travellers were     
persuaded that they should find1 in     
distant regions1 the plants of their own
 country1 and they took a pleasure in   
giving them the same names4 ,it was some
 time before this illusion was          
dissipated2 but so fully sensible did   
botanists at last become of the extreme 
smallness of the number of phaenogamous 
plants common to different continents1  
that the ancient ,floras fell into      
disrepute4 ,all grew diffident of the   
pretended identifications2 and we now   
find that every naturalist is inclined  
to examine each supposed exception with 
scrupulous severity4#hej ,if they admit 
the fact1 they begin to speculate on the
 mode whereby the seeds may have been   
transported from one country into the   
other1 or enquire on which of two       
continents the plant was indigenous1    

assuming that a species1 like an        
individual1 cannot have two birthplaces4
  ,marine vegetation4--,the marine      
vegetation is divisible into different  
systems1 like those prevailing on the   
land2 but they are much fewer1 as we    
might have expected1 the temperature of 
the ocean being more uniform than that  
of the atmosphere1 and consequently the 
dispersion of species from one zone to  
another being less frequently checked by
 the intervention of uncongenial        
climates4 ,the proportion also of land  
to sea throughout the globe being small1
 the migration of marine plants is not  
so often stopped by barriers of land1 as
 is that of the terrestrial species by  
the ocean4 ,the number of hydrophytes1  
as they are termed1 is very             
considerable1 and their stations are    
found to be infinitely more varied than 
could have been anticipated2 for while  
some plants are covered and uncovered   
daily by the tide1 others live at the   
depth of several hundred feet4 ,among   

the known provinces of ,algae1 we may   
mention1 #ast1 ,the north circumpolar1  
from lat #fj degrees ,n4 to the pole2   
#b;dly1 ,the ,north ,atlantic or the    
region of ,fucus proper and             
,delesseriae1 extending from lat4 #dj   
degrees ,n4 to lat4 #fj degrees ,n42    
#c;dly1 ,that of the ,mediterranean1    
which may be regarded as a sub-region of
 the fourth or warmer temperate zone of 
the ,atlantic1 between lat4 #bc degrees 
,n4 and lat4 #dj degrees ,n42 #ethly1   
,the ,tropical ,atlantic1 in which      
,sargassum1 ,rhodomelia1 ,corallinea1   
and ,siphonia abound2 #fthly1 ,the      
,south ,atlantic1 where the ,fucus      
reappears2 #gthly1 ,the ,antarctic      
,american1 comprehending from ,chili to 
,cape ,horn1 the ,falkland ,islands1 and
 thence round the world south of        
latitude #ej degrees ,s42 #hthly1 ,the  
,australian and ,new ,zealand1 which is 
very peculiar1 being characterized1     
among other generic forms1 by           
,cystoseiriae and ,fuceae2 #ithly1 ,the 

,indian ,ocean and ,red ,sea2 and1      
#ajthly1 ,the ,chinese and ,japanese    
seas4#hea ,in addition to the above     
provinces1 there are several others not 
yet well determined in the ,pacific     
,ocean and elsewhere4 ,there are1       
however1 many species which range       
through several of these geographical   
regions of subaqueous vegetation1 being 
common to very remote countries2 as1 for
 example1 to the coasts of  ,europe and 
the ,united ,states1 and others1 to     
,cape ,horn and ,van ,diemen's ,land1   
the same plants extending also for the  
most part to the ,new ,zealand sea4 ,of 
the species strictly antarctic          
7excluding the ,new ,zealand and        
,tasmanian groups7 ,dr4 ,hooker has     
identified not less than a fifth part of
 the whole with ,british ,algae6 ,yet is
 there a much smaller proportion of     
cosmopolite species among the ,algae    
than among the terrestrial cellular     
plants1 such as lichens1 mosses1 and    
,hepaticae4  ,it must always be borne in

 mind1 that the distinctness alluded to 
between the provinces1 whether of       
subaqueous or terrestrial plants1       
relates strictly to species1 and not to 
forms4 ,in regard to the numerical      
preponderance of certain forms1 and many
 peculiarities of internal structure1   
there is usually a marked agreement in  
the vegetable productions of districts  
placed in corresponding latitudes1 and  
under similar physical circumstances1   
however remote their position4 ,thus    
there are innumerable points of analogy 
between the vegetation of the ,brazils1 
equinoctial ,africa1 and ,india2 and    
there are also points of difference     
wherein the plants of these regions are 
distinguishable from all extra-tropical 
groups4 ,but there is a very small      
proportion of the entire number of      
species common to the three continents4 
,the same may be said1 if we compare the
 plants of the ,united ,states with that
 of the middle of ,europe2 the species  
are distinct1 but the forms are often so

 analogous1 as to have been styled      
geographical representatives4 ,there are
 very few species of phaenogamous       
plants1 says ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker1 common to
 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 ,new ,zealand1   
and ,fuegia1 but a great many genera1   
and some of them are confined to those  
three distant regions of the southern   
hemisphere1 being in many instances each
 severally represented by a single      
species4 ,the same naturalist also      
observes that the southern temperate as 
well as the antarctic regions1 possess  
each of them representatives of some of 
the genera of the analogous climates of 
the opposite hemisphere2 but very few of
 the species are identical unless they  
be such as are equally diffused over    
other countries1 or which inhabit the   
,andes1 by the aid of which they have   
evidently effected their passage        
southwards4  ,manner in which plants    
become diffused4--,winds4--,let us now  
consider what means of diffusion1       
independently of the agency of man1 are 

possessed by plants1 whereby1 in the    
course of ages1 they may be enabled to  
stray from one of the botanical         
provinces above mentioned to another1   
and to establish new colonies at a great
 distance from their birthplace4  ,the  
principal of the inanimate agents       
provided by nature for scattering the   
seeds of plants over the globe1 are the 
movements of the atmosphere and of the  
ocean1 and the constant flow of water   
from the mountains to the sea4 ,to begin
 with the winds3 a great number of      
seeds1 are furnished with downy and     
feathery appendages1 enabling them1 when
 ripe1 to float in the air1 and to be   
wafted easily to great distances by the 
most gentle breeze4 ,other plants are   
fitted for dispersion by means of an    
attached wing1 as in the case of the fir
 tree1 so that they are caught up by the
 wind as they fall from the cone1 and   
are carried to a distance4 ,amongst the 
comparatively small number of plants    
known to ,linnaeus1 no less than #ach   

genera are enumerated as having winged  
seeds4  ,as winds often prevail for     
days1 weeks1 or even months together1 in
 the same direction1 these means of     
transportation may sometimes be without 
limits2 and even the heavier grains may 
be borne through considerable spaces1 in
 a very short time1 during ordinary     
tempests2 for strong gales1 which can   
sweep along grains of sand1 often move  
at the rate of about forty miles an     
hour1 and if the storm be very violent1 
at the rate of fifty-six miles4#heb ,the
 hurricanes of tropical regions1 which  
root up trees and throw down buildings1 
sweep along at the rate of ninety miles 
an hour2 so that1 for however short a   
time they prevail1 they may carry even  
the heavier fruits and seeds over friths
 and seas of considerable width1 and    
doubtless are often the means of        
introducing into islands the vegetation 
of adjoining continents4 ,whirlwinds are
 also instrumental in bearing along     
heavy vegetable substances to           

considerable distances4 ,slight ones may
 frequently be observed in our fields1  
in summer carrying up haycocks into the 
air1 and then letting fall small tufts  
of hay far and wide over the country2   
but they are sometimes so powerful as to
 dry up lakes and ponds1 and to break   
off the boughs of trees1 and carry them 
up in a whirling column of air4         
,franklin tells us1 in one of his       
letters1 that he saw1 in ,maryland1 a   
whirlwind which began by taking up the  
dust which lay in the road1 in the form 
of a sugar loaf with the pointed end    
downwards1 and soon after grew to the   
height of forty or fifty feet1 being    
twenty or thirty in diameter4 ,it       
advanced in a direction contrary to the 
wind2 and although the rotary motion of 
the column was surprisingly rapid1 its  
onward progress was sufficiently slow to
 allow a man to keep pace with it on    
foot4 ,franklin followed it on          
horseback1 accompanied by his son1 for  
three quarters of a mile1 and saw it    

enter a wood1 where it twisted and      
turned round large trees with surprising
 force4 ,these were carried up in a     
spiral line1 and were seen flying in the
 air1 together with boughs and          
innumerable leaves1 which1 from their   
height1 appeared reduced to the apparent
 size of flies4 ,as this cause operates 
at different intervals of time          
throughout a great portion of the       
earth's surface1 it may be the means of 
bearing not only plants but insects1    
land testacea and their eggs1 with many 
other species of animals1 to points     
which they could never otherwise have   
reached1 and from which they may then   
begin to propagate themselves again as  
from a new centre4  ,distribution of    
cryptogamous plants4--,it has been found
 that a great numerical proportion of   
the exceptions to the limitation of     
species to certain quarters of the globe
 occur in the various tribes of         
cryptogamic plants4 ,linnaeus observed  
that1 as the germs of plants of this    

class1 such as mosses1 fungi1 and       
lichens1 consist of an impalpable       
powder1 the particles of which are      
scarcely visible to the naked eye1 there
 is no difficulty to account for their  
being dispersed throughout the          
atmosphere1 and carried to every point  
of the globe1 where there is a station  
fitted for them4 ,lichens in particular 
ascend to great elevations1 sometimes   
growing two thousand feet above the line
 of perpetual snow1 at the utmost limits
 of vegetation1 and where the mean      
temperature is nearly at the freezing   
point4 ,this elevated position must     
contribute greatly to facilitate the    
dispersion of those buoyant particles of
 which their fructification             
consists4#hec  ,some have inferred1 from
 the springing up of mushrooms whenever 
particular soils and decomposed organic 
matter are mixed together1 that the     
production of fungi is accidental1 and  
not analogous to that of perfect plants4
 ,but ,fries1 whose authority on these  

questions is entitled to the highest    
respect1 has shown the fallacy of this  
argument in favor of the old doctrine of
 equivocal generation4 ,the sporules of 
fungi1 says this naturalist1 are so     
infinite1 that in a single individual of
 ,reticularia maxima1 ,i have counted   
above ten millions1 and so subtile as to
 be scarcely visible1 often resembling  
thin smoke2 so light that they may be   
raised perhaps by evaporation into the  
atmosphere1 and dispersed in so many    
ways by the attraction of the sun1 by   
insects1 wind1 elasticity1 adhesion1 c41
 that it is difficult to conceive a     
place from which they may be            
excluded4#hed  ,the club-moss called    
,lycopodium cernuum affords a striking  
example of a cryptogamous plant         
universally distributed over all        
equinoctial countries4 ,it scarcely ever
 passes beyond the northern tropic1     
except in one instance1 where it appears
 around the hot-springs in the ,azores1 
although it is neither an inhabitant of 

the ,canaries nor ,madeira4 ,doubtless  
its microscopic sporules are everywhere 
present1 ready to germinate on any spot 
where they can enjoy throughout the year
 the proper quantity of warmth1         
moisture1 light1 and other conditions   
essential to the species4  ,almost every
 lichen brought home from the southern  
hemisphere by the antarctic expedition  
under ,sir ,james ,ross1 amounting to no
 less than #bjj species1 was ascertained
 to be also an inhabitant of the        
northern hemisphere1 and almost all of  
them ,european4  ,agency of rivers and  
currents4--,in considering1 in the next 
place1 the instrumentality of the       
aqueous agents of dispersion1 ,i cannot 
do better than cite the words of one of 
our ablest botanical writers4 ,the      
mountain stream or torrent1 observes    
,keith1 washes down to the valley the   
seeds which may accidentally fall into  
it1 or which it may happen to sweep from
 its banks when it suddenly overflows   
them4 ,the broad and majestic river1    

winding along the extensive plain1 and  
traversing the continents of the world1 
conveys to the distance of many hundreds
 of miles the seeds that may have       
vegetated at its source4 ,thus the      
southern shores of the ,baltic are      
visited by seeds which grew in the      
interior of ,germany1 and the western   
shores of the ,atlantic by seeds that   
have been generated in the interior of  
,america4#hee ,fruits1 moreover1        
indigenous to ,america and the ,west    
,indies1 such as that of the ,mimosa    
scandens1 the cashewnut and others1 have
 been known to be drifted across the    
,atlantic by the ,gulf stream1 on the   
western coasts of ,europe1 in such a    
state that they might have vegetated had
 the climate and soil been favourable4  
,among these the ,guilandina ,bonduc1 a 
leguminous plant1 is particularly       
mentioned1 as having been raised from a 
seed found on the west coast of         
,ireland4#hef  ,sir ,hans ,sloane       
states1 that several kinds of beans cast

 ashore on the ,orkney ,isles1 and      
,ireland1 but none of which appear to   
have naturalized themselves1 are derived
 from trees which grow in the ,west     
,indies1 and many of them in ,jamaica4  
,he conjectures that they might have    
been conveyed by rivers into the sea1   
and then by the ,gulf stream to greater 
distances1 in the same manner as the    
sea-weed called ,lenticula marina1 or   
,sargasso1 which grows on the rocks     
about ,jamaica1 is known to be carried  
by the winds and current towards the    
coast of ,florida1 and thence into the  
,north ,american ocean1 where it lies   
very thick on the surface of the        
sea4#heg  ,the absence of liquid matter 
in the composition of seeds renders them
 comparatively insensible to heat and   
cold1 so that they may be carried       
without detriment through climates where
 the plants themselves would instantly  
perish4 ,such is their power of         
resisting the effects of heat1 that     
,spallanzani mentions some seeds that   

germinated after having been boiled in  
water4#heh ,sir ,john ,herschel informs 
me that he has sown at the ,cape of     
,good ,hope the seeds of the ,acacia    
lophanta after they had remained for    
twelve hours in water of #adj degrees   
,fahrenheit1 and they germinated far    
more rapidly than unboiled seeds4 ,he   
also states that an eminent botanist1   
,baron ,ludwig1 could not get the seeds 
of a species of cedar to grow at the    
,cape till they were thoroughly boiled4 
,when therefore1 a strong gale1 after   
blowing violently off the land for a    
time1 dies away1 and the seeds alight   
upon the surface of the waters1 or      
wherever the ocean1 by eating away the  
sea-cliffs1 throws down into its waves  
plants which would never otherwise reach
 the shores1 the tides and currents     
become active instruments in assisting  
the dissemination of almost all classes 
of the vegetable kingdom4 ,the pandanus 
and many other plants have been         
distributed in this way over the islands

 of the ,pacific4 ,i have before called 
attention 7p4 #fah47 to the interesting 
fact that one-fifth of all the algae    
found in the antarctic regions in       
#ahda-c1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker1 were of   
species common to the ,british seas4 ,he
 has suggested that cold currents which 
prevail from ,cape ,horn to the equator1
 and are there met by other cold water1 
may by their direct influence1 as well  
as by their temperature1 facilitate the 
passage of antarctic species to the     
,arctic ,ocean4 ,in like manner the     
migration of certain marine animals from
 the southern to the northern hemisphere
 may have been brought about by the same
 cause4  ,in a collection of six hundred
 plants from the neighborhood of the    
river ,zaire1 in ,africa1 ,mr4 ,brown   
found that thirteen species were also   
met with on the opposite shores of      
,guiana and ,brazil4 ,he remarked that  
most of these plants were found only on 
the lower parts of the river ,zaire1 and
 were chiefly such as produced seeds    

capable of retaining their vitality a   
long time in the currents of the ocean4 
,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker informs me that after  
an examination of a great many insular  
floras1 he has found that no one of the 
large natural orders is so rich in      
species common to other countries1 as   
the ,leguminosae4 ,the seeds in this    
order1 which comprises the largest      
proportion of widely diffused littoral  
species1 are better adapted than those  
of any other plants for water-carriage4 
,the migration of plants aided by       
islands4--,islands1 moreover1 and even  
the smallest rocks1 play an important   
part in aiding such migrations2 for when
 seeds alight upon them from the        
atmosphere1 or are thrown up by the     
surf1 they often vegetate1 and supply   
the winds and waves with a repetition of
 new and uninjured crops of fruit and   
seeds4 ,these may afterwards pursue     
their course through the atmosphere1 or 
along the surface of the sea1 in the    
same direction4 ,the number of plants   

found at any given time on an islet     
affords us no test whatever of the      
extent to which it may have co-operated 
towards this end1 since a variety of    
species may first thrive there and then 
perish1 and be followed by other        
chance-comers like themselves4 ,if      
neither ,st4 ,helena nor ,ascension have
 promoted the botanical intercourse     
between the ,old and ,new ,worlds1 we   
may easily account for the fact by      
remembering that they are not only      
extremely minute and isolated spots1 but
 are also bounded by lofty and          
precipitous shores without beaches1     
where the seeds of foreign species could
 readily establish themselves4          
,currents and winds in the arctic       
regions drift along icebergs covered    
with an alluvial soil1 on which herbs   
and pine-saplings are seen growing1     
which may often continue to vegetate on 
some distant shore where the ice-island 
is stranded4  ,dispersion of marine     
plants4--,with respect to marine        

vegetation1 the seeds1 being in their   
native element1 may remain immersed in  
water without injury for indefinite     
periods1 so that there is no difficulty 
in conceiving the diffusion of species  
wherever uncongenial climates1 contrary 
currents1 and other causes do not       
interfere4 ,all are familiar with the   
sight of the floating sea-weed1         
,flung from the rock on ocean's foam to 
sail1   ,where'er the surge may sweep1  
the tempest's breath prevail4           
,remarkable accumulations of that       
species of sea-weed generally known as  
gulf-weed1 or sargasso1 occur on each   
side of the equator in the ,atlantic1   
,pacific1 and ,indian ,oceans4 ,columbus
 and other navigators1 who first        
encountered these banks of algae in the 
,northern ,atlantic1 compared them to   
vast inundated meadows1 and state that  
they retarded the progress of their     
vessels4 ,the most extensive bank is a  
little west of the meridian of ,fayal1  
one of the ,azores1 between latitudes   

#ce degrees and #cf degrees3 violent    
north-winds sometimes prevail in this   
space1 and drive the sea-weed to low    
latitudes1 as far as the #bdth or even  
the #bjth degree4#hei ,along the        
northern edge of the ,gulf stream ,dr4  
,hooker found ,fucus nodosus1 and ,f4   
serratus1 which he traced all the way   
from lat4 #cf degrees ,n4 to ,england4  
,the hollow pod-like receptacle in which
 the seeds of many algae are lodged1 and
 the filaments attached to the          
seed-vessels of others1 seem intended to
 give buoyancy2 and ,i may observe that 
these hydrophytes are in general        
proliferous1 so that the smallest       
fragment of a branch can be developed   
into a perfect plant4 ,the seeds1       
moreover1 of the greater number of      
species are enveloped with a mucous     
matter like that which surrounds the    
eggs of some fish1 and which not only   
protects them from injury1 but serves to
 attach them to floating bodies or to   
rocks4  ,agency of animals in the       

distribution of plants4--,but we have as
 yet considered part only of the fertile
 resources of nature for conveying seeds
 to a distance from their place of      
growth4 ,the various tribes of animals  
are busily engaged in furthering an     
object whence they derive such important
 advantages4 ,sometimes an express      
provision is found in the structure of  
seeds to enable them to adhere firmly by
 prickles1 hooks1 and hairs1 to the     
coats of animals1 or feathers of the    
winged tribe1 to which they remain      
attached for weeks1 or even months1 and 
are borne along into every region       
whither birds or quadrupeds may migrate4
 ,linnaeus enumerates fifty genera of   
plants1 and the number now known to     
botanists is much greater1 which are    
armed with hooks1 by which1 when ripe1  
they adhere to the coats of animals4    
,most of these vegetables1 he remarks1  
require a soil enriched with dung4 ,few 
have failed to mark the locks of wool   
hanging on the thorn-bushes1 wherever   

the sheep pass1 and it is probable that 
the wolf or lion never give-chase to    
herbivorous animals without being       
unconsciously subservient to this part  
of the vegetable economy4  ,a deer has  
strayed from the herd when browsing on  
some rich pasture1 when he is suddenly  
alarmed by the approach of his foe4 ,he 
instantly takes to flight1 dashing      
through many a thicket1 and swimming    
across many a river and lake4 ,the seeds
 of the herbs and shrubs which have     
adhered to his smoking flanks are washed
 off again by the waters4 ,the thorny   
spray is torn off1 and fixes itself in  
its hairy coat1 until brushed off again 
in other thickets and copses4 ,even on  
the spot where the victim is devoured   
many of the seeds which he had swallowed
 immediately before the chase may be    
left on the ground uninjured1 and ready 
to spring up in a new soil4  ,the       
passage1 indeed1 of undigested seeds    
through the stomachs of animals is one  
of the most efficient causes of the     

dissemination of plants1 and is of all  
others1 perhaps1 the most likely to be  
overlooked4 ,few are ignorant that a    
portion of the oats eaten by a horse    
preserve their germinating faculty in   
the dung4 ,the fact of their being still
 nutritious is not lost on the sagacious
 rook4 ,to many1 says ,linnaeus1 it     
seems extraordinary1 and something of a 
prodigy1 that when a field is well      
tilled and sown with the best wheat1 it 
frequently produces darnel or the wild  
oat1 especially if it be manured with   
new dung2 they do not consider that the 
fertility of the smaller seeds is not   
destroyed in the stomachs of            
animals4#hfj  ,agency of birds4--,some  
birds of the order ,passeres devour the 
seeds of plants in great quantities1    
which they eject again in very distant  
places1 without destroying its faculty  
of vegetation3 thus a flight of larks   
will fill the cleanest field with a     
great quantity of various kinds of      
plants1 as the melilot trefoil          

7,medicago lupulina71 and others whose  
seeds are so heavy that the wind is not 
able to scatter them to any             
distance4#hfa ,in like manner1 the      
blackbird and misselthrush1 when they   
devour berries in too great quantities1 
are known to consign them to the earth  
undigested in their excrement4#hfb      
,pulpy fruits serve quadrupeds and birds
 as food1 while their seeds1 often hard 
and indigestible1 pass uninjured through
 the intestines1 and are deposited far  
from their original place of growth in a
 condition peculiarly fit for           
vegetation4#hfc ,so well are the        
farmers1 in some parts of ,england1     
aware of this fact1 that when they      
desire to raise a quickset hedge in the 
shortest possible time1 they feed       
turkeys with the haws of the common     
white-thorn 7,crataegus ,oxyacantha71   
and then sow the stones which are       
ejected in their excrement1 whereby they
 gain an entire year in the growth of   
the plant4#hfd ,birds1 when they pluck  

cherries1 sloes1 and haws1 fly away with
 them to some convenient place2 and when
 they have devoured the fruit1 drop the 
stone into the ground4 ,captain ,cook1  
in his account of the volcanic island of
 ,tanna1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1     
which he visited in his second voyage1  
makes the following interesting         
observation3--,mr4 ,forster1 in his     
botanical excursion this day1 shot a    
pigeon1 in the craw of which was a wild 
nutmeg4#hfe ,it is easy1 therefore1 to  
perceive1 that birds in their migrations
 to great distances1 and even across    
seas1 may transport seeds to new isles  
and continents4  ,the sudden deaths to  
which great numbers of frugivorous birds
 are annually exposed must not be       
omitted as auxiliary to the             
transportation of seeds to new          
habitations4 ,when the sea retires from 
the shore1 and leaves fruits and seeds  
on the beach1 or in the mud of          
estuaries1 it might1 by the returning   
tide1 wash them away again1 or destroy  

them by long immersion2 but when they   
are gathered by land birds which        
frequent the sea side1 or by waders and 
water-fowl1 they are often borne inland2
 and if the bird to whose crop they have
 been consigned is killed1 they may be  
left to grow up far from the sea4 ,let  
such an accident happen but once in a   
century1 or a thousand years1 it will be
 sufficient to spread many of the plants
 from one continent to another2 for in  
estimating the activity of these causes1
 we must not consider whether they act  
slowly in relation to the period of our 
observation1 but in reference to the    
duration of species in general4  ,let us
 trace the operation of this cause in   
connection with others4 ,a tempestuous  
wind bears the seeds of a plant many    
miles through the air1 and then delivers
 them to the ocean2 the oceanic current 
drifts them to a distant continent2 by  
the fall of the tide they become the    
food of numerous birds1 and one of these
 is seized by a hawk or eagle1 which1   

soaring across hill and dale to a place 
of retreat1 leaves1 after devouring its 
prey1 the unpalatable seeds to spring up
 and flourish in a new soil4  ,the      
machinery before adverted to1 is so     
capable of disseminating seeds over     
almost unbounded spaces1 that were we   
more intimately acquainted with the     
economy of nature1 we might probably    
explain all the instances which occur of
 the aberration of plants to great      
distances from their native countries4  
,the real difficulty which must present 
itself to every one who contemplates the
 present geographical distribution of   
species1 is the small number of         
exceptions to the rule of the           
non-intermixture of different groups of 
plants4 ,why have they not1 supposing   
them to have been ever so distinct      
originally1 become more blended and     
confounded together in the lapse of     
ages8  ,agency of man in the dispersion 
of plants4--,but in addition to all the 
agents already enumerated as            

instrumental in diffusing plants over   
the globe1 we have still to consider    
man--one of the most important of all4  
,he transports with him1 into every     
region1 the vegetables which he         
cultivates for his wants1 and is the    
involuntary means of spreading a still  
greater number which are useless to him1
 or even noxious4 ,when the introduction
 of cultivated plants1 says ,de         
,candolle1 is of recent date1 there is  
no difficulty in tracing their origin2  
but when it is of high antiquity1 we are
 often ignorant of the true country of  
the plants on which we feed4 ,no one    
contests the ,american origin of the    
maize or the potatoe2 nor the origin1 in
 the ,old ,world1 of the coffee-tree1   
and of wheat4 ,but there are certain    
objects of culture1 of very ancient     
date1 between the tropics1 such for     
example as the banana1 of which the     
origin cannot be verified4 ,armies1 in  
modern times1 have been known to carry1 
in all directions1 grain and cultivated 

vegetables from one extremity of ,europe
 to the other2 and thus have shown us   
how1 in more ancient times1 the         
conquests of ,alexander1 the distant    
expeditions of the ,romans1 and         
afterwards the crusades1 may have       
transported many plants from one part of
 the world to the other4#hff  ,but1     
besides the plants used in agriculture1 
the numbers which have been naturalized 
by accident1 or which man has spread    
unintentionally1 is considerable4 ,one  
of our old authors1 ,josselyn1 gives a  
catalogue of such plants as had1 in his 
time1 sprung up in the colony since the 
,english planted and kept cattle in ,new
 ,england4 ,they were two-and-twenty in 
number4 ,the common nettle was the first
 which the settlers noticed2 and the    
plantain was called by the ,indians     
,englishman's foot1 as if it sprung from
 their footsteps4#hfg  ,we have         
introduced every where1 observes ,de    
,candolle1 some weeds which grow among  
our various kinds of wheat1 and which   

have been received1 perhaps1 originally 
from ,asia along with them4 ,thus1      
together with the ,barbary wheat1 the   
inhabitants of the south of ,europe have
 sown1 for many ages1 the plants of     
,algiers and ,tunis4 ,with the wools and
 cottons of the ,east1 or of ,barbary1  
there are often brought into ,france the
 grains of exotic plants1 some of which 
naturalize themselves4 ,of this ,i will 
cite a striking example4 ,there is1 at  
the gate of ,montpellier1 a meadow set  
apart for drying foreign wool1 after it 
has been washed4 ,there hardly passes a 
year without foreign plants being found 
naturalized in this drying-ground4 ,i   
have gathered there ,centaurea          
parviflora1 ,psoralea palaestina1 and   
,hypericum crispum4 ,this fact is not   
only illustrative of the aid which man  
lends inadvertently to the propagation  
of plants1 but it also demonstrates the 
multiplicity of seeds which are borne   
about in the woolly and hairy coats of  
wild animals4  ,the same botanist       

mentions instances of plants naturalized
 in seaports by the ballast of ships2   
and several examples of others which    
have spread through ,europe from        
botanical gardens1 so as to have become 
more common than many indigenous        
species4  ,it is scarcely a century1    
says ,linnaeus1 since the ,canadian     
erigeron1 or flea-bane1 was brought from
 ,america to the botanical garden at    
,paris2 and already the seeds have been 
carried by the winds so that it is      
diffused over ,france1 the ,british     
islands1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,holland1 and 
,germany4#hfh ,several others are       
mentioned by the ,swedish naturalist1 as
 having been dispersed by similar means4
 ,the common thorn-apple 7,datura       
,stramonium71 observes ,willdenow1 now  
grows as a noxious weed throughout all  
,europe1 with the exception of ,sweden1 
,lapland and ,russia4 ,it came from the 
,east ,indies and ,abyssinia to us1 and 
was thus universally spread by certain  
quacks1 who used its seeds as an        

emetic4#hfi ,the same plant is now      
abundant throughout the greater part of 
the ,united ,states1 along road-sides   
and about farm-yards4 ,the yellow       
monkey-flower1 ,mimulus luteus1 a plant 
from the north-west region of ,america1 
has now established itself in various   
parts of ,england1 and is spreading     
rapidly4  ,in hot and ill-cultivated    
countries1 such naturalization takes    
place more easily4 ,thus the            
,chenopodium ambrosioides1 sown by ,mr4 
,burchell on a point of ,st4 ,helena1   
multiplied so fast in four years as to  
become one of the commonest weeds in the
 island1 and it has maintained its      
ground ever since #ahde4hgj  ,the most  
remarkable proof1 says ,de ,candolle1 of
 the extent to which man is             
unconsciously the instrument of         
dispersing and naturalizing species1 is 
found in the fact1 that in ,new         
,holland1 ,america1 and the ,cape of    
,good ,hope1 the aboriginal ,european   
species exceed in number all the others 

which have come from any distant        
regions2 so that1 in this instance1 the 
influence of man has surpassed that of  
all the other causes which tend to      
disseminate plants to remote districts4 
,of nearly #afjj ,british flowering     
plants1 it is supposed that about #cjj  
species are naturalized2 but a large    
proportion of these would perish with   
the discontinuance of agriculture4      
,although we are but slightly           
acquainted1 as yet1 with the extent of  
our instrumentality in naturalizing     
species1 yet the facts ascertained      
afford no small reason to suspect that  
the number which we introduce           
unintentionally exceeds all those       
transported by design4 ,nor is it       
unnatural to suppose that the functions1
 which the inferior beings1 extirpated  
by man1 once discharged in the economy  
of nature1 should devolve upon the human
 race4 ,if we drive many birds of       
passage from different countries1 we are
 probably required to fulfil their      

office of carrying seeds1 eggs of fish1 
insects1 mollusks1 and other creatures1 
to distant regions3 if we extirpate     
quadrupeds1 we must replace them not    
merely as consumers of the animal and   
vegetable substances which they devour1 
but as disseminators of plants1 and of  
the inferior classes of the animal      
kingdom4 ,i do not mean to insinuate    
that the very same changes which man    
brings about1 would have taken place by 
means of the agency of other species1   
but merely that he supersedes a certain 
number of agents2 and so far as he      
disperses plants unintentionally1 or    
against his will1 his intervention is   
strictly analogous to that of the       
species so extirpated4  ,i may observe1 
moreover1 that if1 at former periods1   
the animals inhabiting any given        
district have been partially altered by 
the extinction of some species1 and the 
introduction of others1 whether by new  
creations or by immigration1 a change   
must have taken place in regard to the  

particular plants conveyed about with   
them to foreign countries4 ,as1 for     
example1 when one set of migratory birds
 is substituted for another1 the        
countries from and to which seeds are   
transported are immediately changed4    
,vicissitudes1 therefore1 analogous to  
those which man has occasioned1 may have
 previously attended the springing up of
 new relations between species in the   
vegetable and animal worlds4  ,it may   
also be remarked1 that if man is the    
most active agent in enlarging1 so also 
is he in circumscribing the geographical
 boundaries of particular plants4 ,he   
promotes the migration of some1 he      
retards that of other species2 so that1 
while in many respects he appears to be 
exerting his power to blend and confound
 the various provinces of indigenous    
species1 he is1 in other ways1          
instrumental in obstructing the fusion  
into one group of the inhabitants of    
contiguous provinces4  ,thus1 for       
example1 when two botanical regions     

exist in the same great continent1 such 
as the ,european region1 comprehending  
the central parts of ,europe1 and those 
surrounding the ,mediterranean1 and the 
,oriental region1 as it has been termed1
 embracing the countries adjoining the  
,black ,sea and the ,caspian1 the       
interposition between these of thousands
 of square miles of cultivated lands1   
opposes a new and powerful barrier      
against the mutual interchange of       
indigenous plants4 ,botanists are well  
aware that garden plants naturalize and 
diffuse themselves with great facility  
in comparatively unreclaimed countries1 
but spread themselves slowly and with   
difficulty in districts highly          
cultivated4 ,there are many obvious     
causes for this difference2 by drainage 
and culture the natural variety of      
stations is diminished1 and those stray 
individuals by which the passage of a   
species from one fit station to another 
is effected1 are no sooner detected by  
the agriculturist1 than they are        

uprooted as weeds4 ,the larger shrubs   
and trees1 in particular1 can scarcely  
ever escape observation1 when they have 
attained a certain size1 and will rarely
 fail to be cut down if unprofitable4   
,the same observations are applicable to
 the interchange of the insects1 birds1 
and quadrupeds of two regions situated  
like those above alluded to4 ,no beasts 
of prey are permitted to make their way 
across the intervening arable tracts4   
,many birds1 and hundreds of insects1   
which would have found some palatable   
food amongst the various herbs and trees
 of the primeval wilderness1 are unable 
to subsist on the olive1 the vine1 the  
wheat1 and a few trees and grasses      
favored by man4 ,in addition1 therefore1
 to his direct intervention1 man1 in    
this case1 operates indirectly to impede
 the dissemination of plants1 by        
intercepting the migration of animals1  
many of which would otherwise have been 
active in transporting seeds from one   
province to another4  ,whether1 in the  

vegetable kingdom1 the influence of man 
will tend1 after a considerable lapse of
 ages1 to render the geographical range 
of species in general more extended1 as 
,de ,candolle seems to anticipate1 or   
whether the compensating agency above   
alluded to will not counterbalance the  
exceptions caused by our                
naturalizations1 admits at least of some
 doubt4 ,in the attempt to form an      
estimate on this subject1 we must be    
careful not to underrate1 or almost     
overlook1 as some appear to have done1  
the influence of man in checking the    
diffusion of plants1 and restricting    
their distribution to narrower limits4  
,,chapter ,,xxxviii4  ,,laws ,,which    
,,regulate ,,the ,,geographical         
,,distribution ,,of                     
,,species--continued4     ,geographical 
distribution of animals--,buffon on     
specific     distinctness of quadrupeds 
of ,old and ,new ,world--,doctrine of   
natural barriers--,different regions of 
indigenous                              

mammalia--,europe--,africa--,india1 and 
,indian                                 
,archipelago--,australia--,north and    
,south ,america--,quadrupeds in         
islands--,range of the                  
,cetacea--,dispersion of                
quadrupeds--,their     powers of        
swimming--,migratory                    
instincts--,drifting of animals on      
ice-floes--,on floating islands of      
drift-timber--,migrations of            
,cetacea--,habitations of birds--,their 
migrations and facilities of            
diffusion--,distribution of reptiles1   
and their power of     dissemination4   
,geographical distribution of           
animals4--,although in speculating on   
philosophical possibilities1 said       
,buffon1 the same temperature might have
 been expected1 all other circumstances 
being equal1 to produce the same beings 
in different parts of the globe1 both in
 the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 yet 
it is an undoubted fact1 that when      
,america was discovered1 its indigenous 

quadrupeds were all dissimilar to those 
previously known in the ,old ,world4    
,the elephant1 the rhinoceros1 the      
hippopotamus1 the camelopard1 the camel1
 the dromedary1 the buffalo1 the horse1 
the ass1 the lion1 the tiger1 the apes1 
the baboons1 and a number of other      
mammalia1 were nowhere to be met with on
 the new continent2 while in the old1   
the ,american species1 of the same great
 class1 were nowhere to be seen--the    
tapir1 the lama1 the pecari1 the jaguar1
 the couguar1 the agouti1 the paca1 the 
coati1 and the sloth4  ,these phenomena1
 although few in number relatively to   
the whole animate creation1 were so     
striking and so positive in their       
nature1 that the great ,french          
naturalist caught sight at once of a    
general law in the geographical         
distribution of organic beings1 namely1 
the limitation of groups of distinct    
species to regions separated from the   
rest of the globe by certain natural    
barriers4 ,it was1 therefore1 in a truly

 philosophical spirit that1 relying on  
the clearness of the evidence obtained  
respecting the larger quadrupeds1 he    
ventured to call in question the        
identifications announced by some       
contemporary naturalists of species of  
animals said to be common to the        
southern extremities of ,america and    
,africa4#hga  ,the migration of         
quadrupeds from one part of the globe to
 another1 observes ,dr4 ,prichard1 is   
prevented by uncongenial climates and   
the branches of the ocean which         
intersect continents4 ,hence1 by a      
reference to the geographical site of   
countries1 we may divide the earth into 
a certain number of regions fitted to   
become the abodes of particular groups  
of animals1 and we shall find1 on       
inquiry1 that each of these provinces1  
thus conjecturally marked out1 is       
actually inhabited by a distinct nation 
of quadrupeds4#hgb ,it will be observed 
that the language of ,buffon respecting 
natural barriers1 which has since been  

so popular1 would be wholly without     
meaning if the geographical distribution
 of organic beings had not led          
naturalists to adopt very generally the 
doctrine of specific centres1 or1 in    
other words1 to believe that each       
species1 whether of plant or animal1    
originated in a single birth-place4     
,reject this view1 and the fact that not
 a single native quadruped is common to 
,australia1 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1   
and ,south ,america1 can in no ways be  
explained by adverting to the wide      
extent of intervening ocean1 or to the  
sterile deserts1 or the great heat or   
cold of the climates1 through which each
 species must have passed1 before it    
could migrate from one of those distant 
regions to another4 ,it might fairly be 
asked of one who talked of impassable   
barriers1 why the same kangaroos1       
rhinoceroses1 or lamas1 should not have 
been created simultaneously in          
,australia1 ,africa1 and ,south         
,america6 ,the horse1 the ox1 and the   

dog1 although foreign to these countries
 until introduced by man1 are now able  
to support themselves there in a wild   
state1 and we can scarcely doubt that   
many of the quadrupeds at present       
peculiar to ,australia1 ,africa1 and    
,south ,america1 might have continued in
 like manner to inhabit each of the     
three continents had they been          
indigenous or could they once have got a
 footing there as new colonists4  ,at   
the same time every zoologist will be   
willing to concede1 that even if the    
departure of each species from a single 
centre had not appeared to be part of   
the plan of ,nature1 the range of       
species in general must have become     
limited1 under the influence of a       
variety of causes1 especially in the    
class of terrestrial mammalia4 ,scarcely
 any one of these could be expected to  
retain as fair a claim to the title of  
cosmopolite as man1 although even the   
human race1 fitted as it is by its      
bodily constitution and intellectual    

resources to spread very widely over the
 earth1 is far from being strictly      
cosmopolite4 ,it is excluded both from  
the arctic and antarctic circles1 from  
many a wide desert and the summits of   
many mountain-chains2 and lastly1 from  
three-fourths of the globe covered by   
water1 where there are large areas very 
prolific in animal life1 even in the    
highest order of the vertebrate class4  
,but the habitations of species are1 as 
before stated1 in reference to plants   
7see above1 p4 #fad71 circumscribed by  
causes different from those which       
determine their stations1 and these     
causes are clearly connected with the   
time and place of the original creation 
of each species4  ,as the names and     
characters of land quadrupeds are much  
better known to the general reader than 
those of other great families of the    
animal kingdom1 ,i shall select this    
class to exemplify the zoological       
provinces into which species are        
divisible1 confining myself1 however1 to

 those facts which may help to elucidate
 some principle1 or rule apparently     
followed by the ,author of ,nature1 in  
regard to that mystery of mysteries1 the
 first peopling of the earth with living
 beings4#hgc ,first1 then1 the ,european
 region comprehends1 besides ,europe1   
the borders of the ,mediterranean1 and  
even the north of ,africa1 and extends  
into ,asia1 beyond the ,oural mountains 
and the ,caspian4 ,although the species 
are almost all peculiar1 the number of  
characteristic genera is remarkably     
small4 ,the bear1 the fox1 the hare1 the
 rabbit1 the deer1 and almost every     
,european form is found equally in      
several of the other large provinces of 
mammalia1 where the species are         
distinct4 ,even the mole 7,talpa71      
although confined to the northern parts 
of the old world1 ranges eastwards1 as  
far as the ,himalaya mountains4  #b;dly4
 ,the ,african ,fauna1 on the other     
hand1 is singularly rich in generic     
forms1 not met with in a living state in

 any other region4 ,the hippopotamus1   
for example1 of which two very distinct 
species are known1 the giraffe1 the     
,chimpanzee1 the blue-faced baboon1 the 
four-fingered monkeys 7,colubus71 many  
carnivora1 such as ,proteles1 allied to 
the hyaena1 and a multitude of other    
forms1 are exclusively ,african4 ,a few 
of the species inhabiting the northern  
confines of this continent1 such as the 
dromedary1 lion1 and jackall1 are also  
common to ,asia2 and a much larger      
number of forms belong equally to the   
great ,asiatic province1 the species    
being distinct4 ,the elephant1 for      
example1 of ,africa is smaller1 has a   
rounder head1 and larger ears than the  
,indian one1 and has only three instead 
of four nails on each hind foot4 ,in    
like manner1 not one of three ,african  
species of ,rhinoceros agrees with one  
of the three ,indian kinds4  #c;dly4    
,the ,southern region of ,africa1 where 
that continent extends into the         
temperate zone1 constitutes another     

separate zoological province1 surrounded
 as it is on three sides by the ocean1  
and cut off from the countries of milder
 climate in the northern hemisphere1 by 
the intervening torrid zone4 ,in many   
instances1 this region contains the same
 genera which are found in temperate    
climates to the northward of the line3  
but then the southern are different from
 the northern species4 ,thus1 in the    
south we find the quagga and the zebra2 
in the north1 the horse1 the ass1 and   
the jiggetai of ,asia4  ,the south of   
,africa is spread out into fine level   
plains from the tropic to the ,cape4 ,in
 this region1 says ,pennant1 besides the
 horse genus1 of which five species have
 been found1 there are also peculiar    
species of rhinoceros1 the hog1 and the 
hyrax1 among pachydermatous races2 and  
amongst the ruminating1 the ,cape       
buffalo1 and a variety of remarkable    
antelopes1 as the springbok1 the oryx1  
the gnou1 the leucophoa1 the pygarga1   
and several others4#hgd  #dthly4 ,the   

assemblage of quadrupeds in ,madagascar 
affords a striking illustration of the  
laws before alluded to1 as governing the
 distribution of species in islands4    
,separated from ,africa by the          
,mozambique channel1 which is #cjj miles
 wide1 ,madagascar forms1 with two or   
three small islands in its immediate    
vicinity1 a zoological province by      
itself1 all the species except one1 and 
nearly all the genera1 being peculiar4  
,the only exception consists of a small 
insectivorous quadruped 7,centetes71    
found also in the ,mauritius1 to which  
place it is supposed to have been taken 
in ships4 ,the most characteristic      
feature of this remarkable fauna        
consists in the number of quadrumana of 
the ,lemur family1 no less than six     
genera of these monkeys being           
exclusively met with in this island1 and
 a seventh genus of the same1 called    
,galago1 which alone has any foreign    
representative1 being found1 as we might
 from analogy have anticipated1 in the  

nearest main land4 ,had the species of  
quadrupeds in ,madagascar agreed with   
those of the contiguous parts of        
,africa1 as do those of ,england with   
the rest of ,europe1 the naturalist     
would have inferred that there had been 
a land communication since the period of
 the coming in of the existing          
quadrupeds1 whereas we may now conclude 
that the ,mozambique channel has        
constituted an insuperable barrier to   
the fusion of the continental fauna with
 that of the great island during the    
whole period that has elapsed since the 
living species were created4  #ethly4   
,another of the great nations of        
terrestrial mammalia is that of ,india1 
containing a great variety of peculiar  
forms1 such as the sloth-bear           
7,prochilus71 the musk-deer 7,moscus71  
the nylghau1 the gibbon or long-armed   
ape1 and many others4  #fthly4 ,a       
portion of the islands of the ,indian   
archipelago might1 perhaps1 be          
considered by some geologists as an     

appendage of the same province4 ,in     
fact1 we find in the large islands of   
,java1 ,sumatra1 and ,borneo1 the same  
genera1 for the most part1 as on the    
continent of ,india1 and some of the    
same species1 e4 g4 the tapir 7,tapirus 
,malayanus71 the rhinoceros of ,sumatra1
 and some others4 ,most of the species1 
however1 are distinct1 and each island  
has many1 and even a few genera1        
peculiar to itself4 ,between eighty and 
ninety species are known to inhabit     
,java1 and nearly the same number occur 
in ,sumatra4 ,of these1 more than half  
are common to the two islands4 ,borneo1 
which is much less explored1 has yielded
 already upwards of sixty species1 more 
than half of which are met with either  
in ,java or ,sumatra4 ,of the species   
inhabiting ,sumatra and not found in    
,java1 ,borneo contains the greater     
portion4 ,upon the whole1 if these three
 large islands were united1 and a fusion
 of their respective indigenous mammalia
 should take place1 they would present a

 fauna related to that of continental   
,india1 and comprising about as many    
species as we might expect from analogy 
to discover in an area of equal extent4 
,the ,philippine ,islands are peopled   
with another assemblage of species      
generically related to the great ,indian
 type4  #gthly4 ,but the islands of     
,celebes1 ,amboina1 ,timor1 and ,new    
,guinea1 constitute a different region  
of mammalia more allied to the          
,australian type1 as having an          
intermixture of marsupial quadrupeds1   
yet showing an affinity also to the     
,indian in such forms as the deer       
7,cervus71 the weasel 7,viverra71 the   
pig 7,sus71 the ,macaque monkey         
7,cercopithecus71 and others4 ,as we    
proceed in a south-westerly direction1  
from ,celebes to ,amboina and thence to 
,new ,guinea1 we find the ,indian types 
diminishing in number1 and the          
,australian 7i4 e4 marsupial forms7     
increasing4 ,thus in ,new ,guinea seven 
species of pouched quadrupeds have been 

detected1 and among them two singular   
tree-kangaroos2 yet only one species of 
the whole seven1 viz4 the flying opossum
 7,petauris ariel71 is common to the    
,indian archipelago and the main land of
 ,australia4 ,the greater the zoological
 affinity1 therefore1 between the latter
 and the ,new ,guinea fauna1 although it
 seems in some way connected with       
geographical proximity1 is not to be    
explained simply by the mutual migration
 of species from the one to the other4  
#hthly4 ,when ,australia was discovered1
 its land quadrupeds1 belonging almost  
exclusively to the marsupial or pouched 
tribe1 such as the kangaroos1 wombats1  
flying opossums1 kangaroo-rats1 and     
others1 some feeding on herbs and       
fruits1 others carnivorous1 were so     
novel in their structure and aspect1    
that they appeared to the naturalist    
almost as strange as if they were the   
inhabitants of some other planet4 ,we   
learn from the recent investigations of 
,mr4 ,waterhouse1#hge that no less than 

#agj species of marsupial quadrupeds    
have now been determined1 and of the    
whole number all but thirty-two are     
exclusively restricted to ,australia4   
,of these thirty-two1 nine belong to the
 islands in the ,indian archipelago     
before mentioned1 and the other         
twenty-three are all species of opossum 
inhabiting the tropical parts of ,south 
,america1 or a few of them extending    
into ,mexico and ,california1 and one1  
the ,virginian opossum1 into the ,united
 ,states4  #ithly4 ,it only remains for 
me to say something of the mammiferous  
fauna of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,it
 has often been said that1 where the    
three continents of ,asia1 ,europe1 and 
,north ,america1 approach very near to  
each other towards the pole1 the whole  
arctic region forms one zoological and  
botanical province4 ,the narrow straits 
which separate the old and new world are
 frozen over in winter1 and the distance
 is farther lessened by intervening     
islands4 ,many plants and animals of    

various classes have accordingly spread 
over all the arctic lands1 being        
sometimes carried in the same manner as 
the polar bear1 when it is drifted on   
floating ice from ,greenland to         
,iceland4 ,but on a close inspection of 
the arctic mammalia1 it has been found  
of late years that a very small number  
of the ,american species are identical  
with those of ,europe or ,asia4 ,the    
genera are1 in great part1 the same or  
nearly allied2 but the species are      
rarely identical1 and are often very    
unlike1 as in the case of the ,american 
badger and that of ,europe4 ,some of the
 genera of arctic ,america1 such as the 
musk ox 7,ovibos71 are quite peculiar1  
and the distinctness of the fauna of the
 great continents goes on increasing in 
proportion as we trace them southwards1 
or as they recede farther from each     
other1 and become more and more         
separated by the ocean4 ,at length we   
find that the three groups of tropical  
mammalia1 belonging severally to        

,america1 ,africa1 and ,india1 have not 
a single species in common4  ,the       
predominant influence of climate over   
all the other causes which limit the    
range of species in the mammalia is     
perhaps nowhere so conspicuously        
displayed as in ,north ,america4 ,the   
arctic fauna1 so admirably described by 
,sir ,john ,richardson1 has scarcely any
 species in common with the fauna of the
 state of ,new ,york1 which is #fjj     
miles farther south1 and comprises about
 forty distinct mammifers4 ,if again we 
travel farther south about #fjj miles1  
and enter another zone1 running east and
 west1 in ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1   
,alabama1 and the contiguous states1 we 
again meet with a new assemblage of land
 quadrupeds1 and this again differs from
 the fauna of ,texas1 where frosts are  
unknown4 ,it will be observed that on   
this continent there are no great       
geographical barriers running east and  
west1 such as high snow-clad mountains1 
barren deserts1 or wide arms of the sea1

 capable of checking the free migration 
of species from north to south4 ,but    
notwithstanding the distinctness of     
those zones of indigenous mammalia1     
there are some species1 such as the     
buffalo 7,bison ,americanus71 the racoon
 7,procyon lotor71 and the ,virginian   
opossum 7,didelphis ,virginiana71 which 
have a wider habitation1 ranging almost 
from ,canada to the ,gulf of ,mexico2   
but they form exceptions to the general 
rule4 ,the opossum of ,texas 7,didelphis
 carnivora7 is different from that of   
,virginia1 and other species of the same
 genus inhabit westward of the ,rocky   
,mountains1 in ,california1 for example1
 where almost all the mammalia differ   
from those of the ,united ,states4      
#ajthly4 ,the ,west ,indian land        
quadrupeds are not numerous1 but several
 of them are peculiar2 and #aathly1     
,south ,america is the most distinct1   
with the exception of ,australia1 of all
 the provinces into which the mammalia  
can be classed geographically4 ,the     

various genera of monkeys1 for example1 
belong to the family ,platyrrhini1 a    
large natural division of the           
quadrumana1 so named from their widely  
separated nostrils4 ,they have a        
peculiar dentition1 and many of them    
prehensile tails1 and are entirely      
unknown in other quarters of the globe4 
,the sloths and armadillos1 the true    
blood-sucking bats or vampyres          
7,phyllostomidae71 the capybara1 the    
largest of the rodents1 the carnivorous 
coatimondi 7,nasua71 and a great many   
other forms1 are also exclusively       
characteristic of ,south ,america4  ,in 
,peru and ,chili1 says ,humboldt1 the   
region of the grasses1 which is at an   
elevation of from #ab1cjj to #ae1djj    
feet1 is inhabited by crowds of lama1   
guanaco1 and alpaca4 ,these quadrupeds1 
which here represent the genus camel of 
the ancient continent1 have not extended
 themselves either to ,brazil or        
,mexico2 because1 during their journey1 
they must necessarily have descended    

into regions that were too hot for      
them4#hgf ,in this passage it will be   
seen that the doctrine of specific      
centres is tacitly assumed4  ,quadrupeds
 in ,islands4--,islands remote from     
continents1 especially those of small   
size1 are either destitute of           
quadrupeds1 except such as have been    
conveyed to them by man1 or contain     
species peculiar to them4 ,in the       
,galapagos archipelago no indigenous    
quadrupeds were found except one mouse1 
which is supposed to be distinct from   
any hitherto found elsewhere4 ,a        
peculiar species of fox is indigenous in
 the ,falkland ,islands1 and a rat in   
,new ,zealand1 which last country1      
notwithstanding its magnitude1 is       
destitute of other mammalia1 except     
bats1 and these1 says ,dr4 ,prichard1   
may have made their way along the chain 
of islands which extend from the shores 
of ,new ,guinea far into the ,southern  
,pacific4 ,the same author remarks1 that
 among the various groups of fertile    

islands in the ,pacific1 no quadrupeds  
have been met with except the rat and a 
few bats as above mentioned1 and the dog
 and hog1 which appear to have been     
conveyed thither by the natives from    
,new ,guinea4 ,rats are to be found even
 on some desert islands1 whither they   
may have been conveyed by canoes which  
have occasionally approached the shore4 
,it is known1 also1 that rats           
occasionally swim in large numbers to   
considerable distances4#hgg             
,geographical range of the              
,cetacea4--,it is natural to suppose    
that the geographical range of the      
different species of ,cetacea should be 
less correctly ascertained than that of 
the terrestrial mammifers4 ,it is1      
however1 well known that the whales     
which are obtained by our fishers in the
 ,south ,seas are distinct from those of
 the ,north2 and the same dissimilarity 
has been found in all the other marine  
animals1 of the same class1 so far as   
they have yet been studied by           

naturalists4  ,dispersion of            
quadrupeds4--,let us now inquire what   
facilities the various land quadrupeds  
enjoy of spreading themselves over the  
surface of the earth4 ,in the first     
place1 as their numbers multiply1 all of
 them1 whether they feed on plants1 or  
prey on other animals1 are disposed to  
scatter themselves gradually over as    
wide an area as is accessible to them4  
,but before they have extended their    
migrations over a large space1 they are 
usually arrested either by the sea1 or a
 zone of uncongenial climate1 or some   
lofty and unbroken chain of mountains1  
or a tract already occupied by a hostile
 and more powerful species4  ,their     
powers of swimming4--,rivers and narrow 
friths can seldom interfere with their  
progress2 for the greater part of them  
swim well1 and few are without this     
power when urged by danger and pressing 
want4 ,thus1 amongst beasts of prey1 the
 tiger is seen swimming about among the 
islands and creeks in the delta of the  

,ganges1 and the jaguar traverses with  
ease the largest streams in ,south      
,america4#hgh ,the bear1 also1 and the  
bison1 cross the current of the         
,mississippi4 ,the popular error1 that  
the common swine cannot escape by       
swimming when thrown into the water1 has
 been contradicted by several curious   
and well-authenticated instances during 
the floods in ,scotland of #ahbi4 ,one  
pig1 only six months old1 after having  
been carried down from ,garmouth to the 
bar at the mouth of the ,spey1 a        
distance of a quarter of a mile1 swam   
four miles eastward to ,port ,gordon1   
and landed safe4 ,three others1 of the  
same age and litter1 swam1 at the same  
time1 five miles to the west1 and landed
 at ,blackhill4#hgi  ,in an adult and   
wild state1 these animals would         
doubtless have been more strong and     
active1 and might1 when hard pressed1   
have performed a much longer voyage4    
,hence islands remote from the continent
 may obtain inhabitants by casualties   

which1 like the late storms in          
,morayshire1 may only occur once in many
 centuries1 or thousands of years1 under
 all the same circumstances4 ,it is     
obvious that powerful tides1 winds1 and 
currents may sometimes carry along      
quadrupeds capable1 in like manner1 of  
preserving themselves for hours in the  
sea1 to very considerable distances2 and
 in this way1 perhaps1 the tapir 7,tapir
 ,indicus7 may have become common to    
,sumatra and the ,malayan peninsula4    
,to the elephant1 in particular1 the    
power of crossing rivers is essential in
 a wild state1 for the quantity of food 
which a herd of these animals consumes  
renders it necessary that they should be
 constantly moving from place to place4 
,the elephant crosses the stream in two 
ways4 ,if the bed of the river be hard1 
and the water not of too great a depth1 
he fords it4 ,but when he crosses great 
rivers1 such as the ,ganges and the     
,niger1 the elephant swims deep1 so     
deep1 that the end of his trunk only is 

out of the water2 for it is a matter of 
indifference to him whether his body be 
completely immersed1 provided he can    
bring the tip of his trunk to the       
surface1 so as to breathe the external  
air4  ,animals of the deer kind         
frequently take to the water1 especially
 in the rutting season1 when the stags  
are seen1 swimming for several leagues  
at a time1 from island to island1 in    
search of the does1 especially in the   
,canadian lakes2 and in some countries  
where there are islands near the        
sea-shore1 they fearlessly enter the sea
 and swim to them4 ,in hunting          
excursions1 in ,north ,america1 the elk 
of that country is frequently pursued   
for great distances through the water4  
,the large herbivorous animals1 which   
are gregarious1 can never remain long in
 a confined region1 as they consume so  
much vegetable food4 ,the immense herds 
of bisons 7,bos ,americanus7 which      
often1 in the great valleys of the      
,mississippi and its tributaries blacken

 the surface of the prairie lands1 are  
continually shifting their quarters1    
followed by wolves1 which prowl about in
 their rear4 ,it is no exaggeration1    
says ,mr4 ,james1 to assert1 that in one
 place1 on the banks of the ,platte1 at 
least ten thousand bisons burst on our  
sight in an instant4 ,in the morning1 we
 again sought the living picture2 but   
upon all the plain1 which last evening  
was so teeming with noble animals1 not  
one remained4#hhj  ,migratory           
instincts4--,besides the disposition    
common to the individuals of every      
species slowly to extend their range in 
search of food1 in proportion as their  
numbers augment1 a migratory instinct   
often developes itself in an            
extraordinary manner1 when1 after an    
unusually prolific season1 or upon a    
sudden scarcity of provisions1 great    
multitudes are threatened by famine4 ,it
 may be useful to enumerate some        
examples of these migrations1 because   
they may put us upon our guard against  

attributing a high antiquity to a       
particular species merely because it is 
diffused over a great space2 they show  
clearly how soon1 in a state of nature1 
a newly created species might spread    
itself1 in every direction1 from a      
single point4  ,in very severe winters1 
great numbers of the black bears of     
,america migrate from ,canada into the  
,united ,states2 but in milder seasons1 
when they have been well fed1 they      
remain and hybernate in the north4#hha  
,the rein-deer1 which1 in ,scandinavia1 
can scarcely exist to the south of the  
sixty-fifth parallel1 descends1 in      
consequence of the greater coldness of  
the climate1 to the fiftieth degree in  
,chinese ,tartary1 and often roves into 
a country of more southern latitude than
 any part of ,england4  ,in ,lapland1   
and other high latitudes1 the common    
squirrels1 whenever they are compelled1 
by want of provisions1 to quit their    
usual abodes1 migrate in amazing        
numbers1 and travel directly forwards1  

allowing neither rocks nor forests1 nor 
the broadest waters1 to turn them from  
their course4 ,great numbers are often  
drowned in attempting to pass friths and
 rivers4 ,in like manner the small      
,norway rat sometimes pursues its       
migrations in a straight line across    
rivers and lakes2 and ,pennant informs  
us1 that when the rats1 in ,kamtschatka1
 become too numerous1 they gather       
together in the spring1 and proceed in  
great bodies westward1 swimming over    
rivers1 lakes1 and arms of the sea4     
,many are drowned or destroyed by       
water-fowl or fish4 ,as soon as they    
have crossed the river ,penginsk1 at the
 head of the gulf of the same name1 they
 turn southward1 and reach the rivers   
,judoma and ,okotsk by the middle of    
,july2 a district more than #hjj miles  
distant from their point of departure4  
,the lemings1 also1 a small kind of rat1
 are described as natives of the        
mountains of ,kolen1 in ,lapland2 and   
once or twice in a quarter of a century 

they appear in vast numbers1 advancing  
along the ground1 and devouring every   
green thing4 ,innumerable bands march   
from the ,kolen1 through ,nordland and  
,finmark1 to the ,western ,ocean1 which 
they immediately enter2 and after       
swimming about for some time1 perish4   
,other bands take their route through   
,swedish ,lapland1 to the ,bothnian     
,gulf1 where they are drowned in the    
same manner4 ,they are followed in their
 journeys by bears1 wolves1 and foxes1  
which prey upon them incessantly4 ,they 
generally move in lines1 which are about
 three feet from each other1 and exactly
 parallel1 going directly forward       
through rivers and lakes2 and when they 
meet with stacks of hay or corn1 gnawing
 their way through them instead of      
passing round4#hhb ,these excursions    
usually precede a rigorous winter1 of   
which the lemings seem in some way      
forewarned4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4  
,the ,leming1 or ,lapland ,marmot 7,mus 
,lemmus1 ,linn47  ,vast troops of the   

wild ass1 or onager of the ancients1    
which inhabit the mountainous deserts of
 ,great ,tartary1 feed1 during the      
summer1 in the tracts east and north of 
,lake ,aral4 ,in the autumn they collect
 in herds of hundreds1 and even         
thousands1 and direct their course      
towards ,persia1 to enjoy a warm retreat
 during winter4#hhc ,bands of two or    
three hundred quaggas1 a species of wild
 ass1 are sometimes seen to migrate from
 the tropical plains of southern ,africa
 to the vicinity of the ,malaleveen     
,river4 ,during their migrations they   
are followed by lions1 who slaughter    
them night by night4#hhd  ,the migratory
 swarms of the springbok1 or ,cape      
antelope1 afford another illustration of
 the rapidity with which a species under
 certain circumstances may be diffused  
over a continent4 ,when the stagnant    
pools of the immense deserts south of   
the ,orange ,river dry up1 which often  
happens after intervals of three or four
 years1 myriads of these animals desert 

the parched soil1 and pour down like a  
deluge on the cultivated regions near   
the ,cape4 ,the havoc committed by them 
resembles that of the ,african locusts2 
and so crowded are the herds1 that the  
lion has been seen to walk in the midst 
of the compressed phalanx with only as  
much room between him and his victims as
 the fears of those immediately around  
could procure by pressing outwards4#hhe 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4  ,mydaus      
meliceps1 or badger-headed ,mydaus4     
,length1 including the tail1 #af inches4
  ,dr4 ,horsfield mentions a singular   
fact in regard to the geographical      
distribution of the ,mydaus meliceps1 an
 animal intermediate between the polecat
 and badger4 ,it inhabits ,java1 and is 
confined exclusively to those mountains 
which have an elevation of more than    
seven thousand feet above the level of  
the ocean2 on these it occurs with the  
same regularity as many plants4 ,the    
long extended surface of ,java1         
abounding with conical points which     

exceed this elevation1 affords many     
places favorable for its resort4 ,on    
ascending these mountains1 the traveller
 scarcely fails to meet with this       
animal1 which1 from its peculiarities1  
is universally known to the inhabitants 
of these elevated tracts1 while to those
 of the plains it is as strange to an   
animal from a foreign county4 ,in my    
visits to the mountainous districts1 ,i 
uniformly met with it2 and1 as far as   
the information of the natives can be   
relied on1 it is found on all the       
mountains4#hhf  ,now1 if asked to       
conjecture how the ,mydaus arrived at   
the elevated regions of each of these   
isolated mountains1 we might say that1  
before the island was peopled by man1 by
 whom their numbers are now thinned1    
they may occasionally have multiplied so
 as to be forced to collect together and
 migrate3 in which case notwithstanding 
the slowness of their motions1 some few 
would succeed in reaching another       
mountain1 some twenty1 or even1 perhaps1

 fifty miles distant2 for although the  
climate of the hot intervening plains   
would be unfavourable to them1 they     
might support it for a time1 and would  
find there abundance of insects on which
 they feed4 ,volcanic eruptions1 which1 
at different times have covered the     
summits of some of those lofty cones    
with sterile sand and ashes1 may have   
occasionally contributed to force on    
these migrations4  ,drifting of animals 
on ice-floes4--,the power of the        
terrestrial mammalia to cross the sea is
 very limited1 and it was before stated 
that the same species is scarcely ever  
common to districts widely separated by 
the ocean4 ,if there be some exceptions 
to this rule1 they generally admit of   
explanation2 for there are natural means
 whereby some animals may be floated    
across the water1 and the sea may in the
 course of ages wear a wide passage     
through a neck of land1 leaving         
individuals of a species on each side of
 the new channel4 ,polar bears are known

 to have been frequently drifted on the 
ice from ,greenland to ,iceland2 they   
can also swim to considerable distances1
 for ,captain ,parry1 on the return of  
his ships through ,barrow's ,straits1   
met with a bear swimming in the water   
about midway between the shores1 which  
were about forty miles apart1 and where 
no ice was in sight4#hhg ,near the east 
coast of ,greenland1 observes ,scoresby1
 they have been seen on the ice in such 
quantities1 that they were compared to  
flocks of sheep on a common2 and they   
are often found on field-ice1 above two 
hundred miles from the shore4#hhh       
,wolves1 in the arctic regions1 often   
venture upon the ice near the shore1 for
 the purpose of preying upon young seals
 which they surprise when asleep4 ,when 
these ice-floes get detached1 the wolves
 are often carried out to sea2 and      
though some may be drifted to islands or
 continents1 the greater part of them   
perish1 and have been often heard in    
this situation howling dreadfully1 as   

they die by famine4#hhi  ,during the    
short summer which visits ,melville     
,island1 various plants push forth their
 leaves and flowers the moment the snow 
is off the ground1 and form a carpet    
spangled with the most lively colours4  
,these secluded spots are reached       
annually by herds of musk-oxen and      
reindeer1 which travel immense distances
 over dreary and desolate regions1 to   
graze undisturbed on these luxuriant    
pastures4#hij ,the rein-deer often pass 
along in the same manner1 by the chain  
of the ,aleutian ,islands1 from         
,behring's ,straits to ,kamtschatka1    
subsisting on the moss found in these   
islands during their passage4#hia ,but  
the musk-ox1 notwithstanding its        
migratory habits1 and its long journeys 
over the ice1 does not exist1 either in 
,asia or ,greenland4#hib  ,on floating  
islands of drift-wood4--,within the     
tropics there are no ice-floes2 but1 as 
if to compensate for that mode of       
transportation1 there are floating      

islets of matted trees1 which are often 
borne along through considerable spaces4
 ,these are sometimes seen sailing at   
the distance of fifty or one hundred    
miles from the mouth of the ,ganges1    
with living trees standing erect upon   
them4 ,the ,amazon1 the ,congo1 and the 
,orinoco1 also produce these verdant    
rafts1 which are formed in the manner   
already described when speaking of the  
great raft of the ,atchafalaya1 an arm  
of the ,mississippi1 where a natural    
bridge of timber1 ten miles long1 and   
more than two hundred yards wide1       
existed for more than forty years1      
supporting a luxuriant vegetation1 and  
rising and sinking with the water which 
flowed beneath it4  ,on these green     
islets of the ,mississippi1 observes    
,malte-,brun1 young trees take root1 and
 the pistia and nenuphar display their  
yellow flowers3 serpents1 birds1 and the
 cayman alligator1 come to repose there1
 and all are sometimes carried to the   
sea and engulphed in its waters4#hic    

,spix and ,martius relate that1 during  
their travels in ,brazil1 they were     
exposed to great danger while ascending 
the ,amazon in a canoe1 from the vast   
quantity of drift-wood constantly       
propelled against them by the current2  
so much so1 that their safety depended  
on the crew being always on the alert to
 turn aside the trunks of trees with    
long poles4 ,the tops alone of some     
trees appeared above water1 others had  
their roots attached to them with so    
much soil that they might be compared to
 floating islets4 ,on these1 say the    
travellers1 we saw some very singular   
assemblages of animals1 pursuing        
peacefully their uncertain way in       
strange companionship4 ,on one raft were
 several grave-looking storks1 perched  
by the side of a party of monkeys1 who  
made comical gestures1 and burst into   
loud cries1 on seeing the canoe4 ,on    
another was seen a number of ducks and  
divers1 sitting by a group of squirrels4
 ,next came down upon the stem of a     

large rotten cedar tree1 an enormous    
crocodile1 by the side of a tiger-cat1  
both animals regarding each other with  
hostility and mistrust1 but the saurian 
being evidently most at his ease1 as    
conscious of his superior strength4#hid 
,similar green rafts1 principally       
composed of canes and brushwood1 are    
called camelotes on the ,parana in      
,south ,america2 and they are           
occasionally carried down by            
inundations1 bearing on them the tiger1 
cayman1 squirrels1 and other quadrupeds1
 which are said to be always            
terror-stricken on their floating       
habitation4 ,no less than four tigers   
7pumas7 were landed in this manner in   
one night at ,monte ,video1 lat4 #ce    
degrees ,s41 to the great alarm of the  
inhabitants1 who found them prowling    
about the streets in the morning4#hie   
,in a memoir lately published1 a naval  
officer relates that1 as he returned    
from ,china by the eastern passage1 he  
fell in1 among the ,moluccas1 with      

several small floating islands of this  
kind1 covered with mangrove trees       
interwoven with underwood4 ,the trees   
and shrubs retained their verdure1      
receiving nourishment from a stratum of 
soil which formed a white beach round   
the margin of each raft1 where it was   
exposed to the washing of the waves and 
the rays of the sun4#hif ,the occurrence
 of soil in such situations may easily  
be explained2 for all the natural       
bridges of timber which occasionally    
connect the islands of the ,ganges1     
,mississippi1 and other rivers1 with    
their banks1 are exposed to floods of   
water1 densely charged with sediment4   
,captain ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth informs me1     
that1 when cruising in the ,cornwallis  
amidst the ,philippine ,islands1 he has 
more than once seen1 after those        
dreadful hurricanes called typhoons1    
floating masses of wood1 with trees     
growing upon them1 and ships have       
sometimes been in imminent peril1 as    
often as these islands were mistaken for

 terra firma1 when1 in fact1 they were  
in rapid motion4  ,it is highly         
interesting to trace1 in imagination1   
the effects of the passage of these     
rafts from the mouth of a large river to
 some archipelago1 such as those in the 
,south ,pacific1 raised from the deep1  
in comparatively modern times1 by the   
operations of the volcano and the       
earthquake1 and the joint labours of    
coral animals and testacea4 ,if a storm 
arise1 and the frail vessel be wrecked1 
still many a bird and insect may succeed
 in gaining1 by flight1 some island of  
the newly formed group1 while the seeds 
and berries of herbs and shrubs1 which  
fall into the waves1 may be thrown upon 
the strand4 ,but if the surface of the  
deep be calm1 and the rafts are carried 
along by a current1 or wafted by some   
slight breath of air fanning the foliage
 of the green trees1 it may arrive1     
after a passage of several weeks1 at the
 bay of an island1 into which its plants
 and animals may be poured out as from  

an ark1 and thus a colony of several    
hundred new species may at once be      
naturalized4  ,the reader should be     
reminded1 that ,i merely advert to the  
transportation of these rafts as of     
extremely rare and accidental           
occurrence2 but it may account1 in      
tropical countries1 for some of the rare
 exceptions to the general law of the   
confined range of mammiferous species4  
,migrations of the ,cetacea4--,many of  
the ,cetacea1 the whales of the northern
 seas for example1 are found to desert  
one tract of the sea1 and to visit      
another very distant1 when they are     
urged by want of food1 or danger4 ,the  
seals also retire from the coast of     
,greenland in ,july1 return again in    
,september1 and depart again in ,march1 
to return in ,june4 ,they proceed in    
great droves northwards1 directing their
 course where the sea is most free from 
ice1 and are observed to be extremely   
fat when they set out on this           
expedition1 and very lean when they come

 home again4#hig  ,species of the       
,mediterranean1 ,black ,sea1 and        
,caspian identical4--,some naturalists  
have wondered that the sea-calves1      
dolphins1 and other marine mammalia of  
the ,mediterranean and ,black ,sea1     
should be identical with those found in 
the ,caspian3 and among other fanciful  
theories1 they have suggested that they 
may dive through subterranean conduits1 
and thus pass from one sea into the     
other4 ,but as the occurrence of wolves 
and other noxious animals1 on both sides
 of the ,british ,channel1 was adduced1 
by ,verstegan and ,desmarest1 as one of 
many arguments to prove that ,england   
and ,france were once united2 so the    
correspondence of the aquatic species of
 the inland seas of ,asia with those of 
the ,black ,sea tend to confirm the     
hypothesis1 for which there are         
abundance of independent geological     
data1 that those seas were connected    
together by straits at no remote period 
of the earth's history4   ,geographical 

,distribution and ,migrations of ,birds4
  ,i shall now offer a few observations 
on some of the other divisions of the   
animal kingdom4 ,birds1 notwithstanding 
their great locomotive powers1 form no  
exception to the general rules already  
laid down2 but1 in this class1 as in    
plants and terrestrial quadrupeds1      
different groups of species are         
circumscribed within definite limits4   
,we find1 for example1 one assemblage in
 the ,brazils1 another in the same      
latitudes in ,central ,africa1 another  
in ,india1 and a fourth in ,new         
,holland4 ,of twenty-six different      
species of land birds found in the      
,galapagos archipelago1 all1 with the   
exception of one1 are distinct from     
those inhabiting other parts of the     
globe2#hih and in other archipelagos a  
single island sometimes contains a      
species found in no other spot on the   
whole earth2 as is exemplified in some  
of the parrot tribes4 ,in this extensive
 family1 which are1 with few exceptions1

 inhabitants of tropical regions1 the   
,american group has not one in common   
with the ,african1 nor either of these  
with the parrots of ,india4#hii         
,another illustration is afforded by    
that minute and beautiful tribe1 the    
humming-birds4 ,the whole of them are1  
in the first place1 peculiar to the new 
world2 but some species are confined to 
,mexico1 while others exist only in some
 of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and have 
not been found elsewhere in the western 
hemisphere4 ,yet there are species of   
this family which have a vast range1 as 
the ,trochilus flammifrons 7or          
,mellisuga ,kingii71 which is found over
 a space of #bejj miles on the west     
coast of ,south ,america1 from the hot  
dry country of ,lima to the humid       
forests of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,captain 
,king1 during his survey in the years   
#ahbf-cj1 found this bird at the        
,straits of ,magellan1 in the month of  
,may--the depth of winter--sucking the  
flowers of a large species of fuchsia1  

then in bloom1 in the midst of a shower 
of snow4  ,the ornithology of our own   
country affords one well-known and      
striking exemplification of the law of a
 limited specific range2 for the common 
grouse 7,tetra scoticus7 occurs nowhere 
in the known world except in the        
,british isles4  ,some species of the   
vulture tribe are said to be            
cosmopolites2 and the common wild goose 
7,anas anser1 ,linn471 if we may believe
 some ornithologists1 is a general      
inhabitant of the globe1 being met with 
from ,lapland to the ,cape of ,good     
,hope1 frequent in ,arabia1 ,persia1    
,china1 and ,japan1 and in the ,american
 continent from ,hudson's ,bay to ,south
 ,carolina4#ijj ,an extraordinary range 
has also been attributed to the         
nightingale1 which extends from western 
,europe to ,persia1 and still farther4  
,in a work entitled ,specchio           
,comparativo1#ija by ,charles           
,bonaparte1 many species of birds are   
enumerated as common to ,rome and       

,philadelphia3 the greater part of these
 are migratory1 but some of them1 such  
as the long-eared owl 7,strix otus71 are
 permanent in both countries4 ,the      
correspondence of the ornithological    
fauna of the eastern and western        
hemispheres increases considerably1 as  
might have been anticipated1 in high    
northern latitudes4#ijb  ,their         
facilities of diffusion4--,in parallel  
zones of the northern and southern      
hemispheres1 a great general            
correspondence of form is observable1   
both in the aquatic and terrestrial     
birds2 but there is rarely any specific 
identity2 and this phenomenon is truly  
remarkable1 when we recollect the       
readiness with which some birds1 not    
gifted with great powers of flight1     
shift their quarters to different       
regions1 and the facility with which    
others1 possessing great strength of    
wing1 perform their aarial voyage4 ,some
 migrate periodically from high         
latitudes1 to avoid the cold of winter1 

and the accompaniments of               
cold1--scarcity of insects and vegetable
 food2 others1 it is said1 for some     
particular kinds of nutriment required  
for rearing their young3 for this       
purpose they often traverse the ocean   
for thousands of miles1 and recross it  
at other periods1 with equal security4  
,periodical migrations1 no less regular1
 are mentioned by ,humboldt1 of many    
,american water-fowl1 from one part of  
the tropics to another1 in a zone where 
there is the same temperature throughout
 the year4 ,immense flights of ducks    
leave the valley of the ,orinoco1 when  
the increasing depth of its waters and  
the flooding of its shores prevent them 
from catching fish1 insects1 and aquatic
 worms4 ,they then betake themselves to 
the ,rio ,negro and ,amazon1 having     
passed from the eighth and third degrees
 of north latitude to the first and     
fourth of south latitude1 directing     
their course south-south-east4 ,in      
,september1 when the ,orinoco decreases 

and re-enters its channel1 these birds  
return northwards4#ijc  ,the            
insectivorous swallows which visit our  
island would perish during winter1 if   
they did not annually repair to warmer  
climes4 ,it is supposed that in these   
aerial excursions the average rapidity  
of their flight is not less than fifty  
miles an hour2 so that1 when aided by   
the wind1 they soon reach warmer        
latitudes4 ,spallanzani calculated that 
the swallow can fly at the rate of      
ninety-two miles an hour1 and conceived 
that the rapidity of the swift might be 
three times greater4#ijd ,the rate of   
flight of the eider duck 7,anas         
mollissima7 is said to be ninety miles  
an hour2 and ,bachman says that the     
hawk1 wild pigeon 7,columba migratoria71
 and several species of wild ducks1 in  
,north ,america1 fly at the rate of     
forty miles an hour1 or nearly a        
thousand miles in twenty-four hours4#ije
  ,when we reflect how easily different 
species1 in a great lapse of ages1 may  

be each overtaken by gales and          
hurricanes1 and1 abandoning themselves  
to the tempest1 be scattered at random  
through various regions of the earth's  
surface1 where the temperature of the   
atmosphere1 the vegetation1 and the     
animal productions1 might be suited to  
their wants1 we shall be prepared to    
find some species capriciously          
distributed1 and to be sometimes unable 
to determine the native countries of    
each4 ,captain ,smyth informs me1 that1 
when engaged in his survey of the       
,mediterranean1 he encountered a gale in
 the ,gulf of ,lyons1 at the distance of
 between twenty and thirty leagues from 
the coast of ,france1 which bore along  
many land birds of various species1 some
 of which alighted on the ship1 while   
others were thrown with violence against
 the sails4 ,in this manner islands     
become tenanted by species of birds     
inhabiting the nearest mainland4        
,geographical ,distribution and         
,dissemination of ,reptiles4  ,a few    

facts respecting the third great class  
of vertebrated animals will suffice to  
show that the plan of nature in regard  
to their location on the globe is       
perfectly analogous to that already     
exemplified in other parts of the       
organic creation1 and has probably been 
determined by similar causes4           
,habitations of reptiles4--,of the great
 saurians1 the gavials which inhabit the
 ,ganges differ from the cayman of      
,america1 or the crocodile of the ,nile4
 ,the monitor of ,new ,holland is       
specifically distinct from the ,indian  
species2 these latter1 again1 from the  
,african1 and all from their congeners  
in the new world4 ,so in regard to      
snakes2 we find the boa of ,america     
represented by the python1 a different  
though nearly allied genus in ,india4   
,america is the country of the          
rattlesnake2 ,africa1 of the cerastes2  
and ,asia1 of the hooded snake1 or cobra
 di capello4 ,the amphibious genera     
,siren and ,menopoma belong to ,north   

,america1 possessing both lungs and     
gills1 and respiring at pleasure either 
air or water4 ,the only analogous animal
 of the old world is the ,proteus       
anguinus of the lakes of ,lower         
,carniola1 and the grotto of ,adelsberg 
between ,trieste and ,vienna4#ijf       
,there is a legend that ,st4 ,patrick   
expelled all reptiles from ,ireland2 and
 certain it is that none of the three   
species of snakes common in ,england1   
nor the toad1 have been observed there  
by naturalists4 ,they have our common   
frog1 and our water-newt1 and according 
to ,ray 7,quad4 #bfd471 the green lizard
 7,lacerta viridis74  ,migrations of the
 larger reptiles4--,the range of the    
large reptiles is1 in general1 quite as 
limited as that of some orders of the   
terrestrial mammalia4 ,the great        
saurians sometimes cross a considerable 
tract in order to pass from one river to
 another2 but their motions by land are 
generally slower than those of          
quadrupeds4 ,by water1 however1 they may

 transport themselves to distant        
situations more easily4 ,the larger     
alligator of the ,ganges sometimes      
descends beyond the brackish water of   
the delta into the sea2 and in such     
cases it might chance to be drifted away
 by a current1 and survive till it      
reached a shore at some distance2 but   
such casualties are probably very rare4 
,turtles migrate in large droves from   
one part of the ocean to another during 
the ovipositing season2 and they find   
their way annually to the island of     
,ascension1 from which the nearest land 
is about #hjj miles distant4 ,dr4       
,fleming mentions1 that an individual of
 the hawk's bill turtle 7,chelonia      
imbricata71 so common in the ,american  
seas1 has been taken at ,papa ,stour1   
one of the ,west ,zetland ,islands2#ijg 
and1 according to ,sibbald1 the same    
animal came into ,orkney4 ,another was  
taken1 in #aggd1 in the ,severn1        
according to ,turton4 ,two instances1   
also1 of the occurrence of the leathern 

tortoise 7,c4 coriacea71 on the coast of
 ,cornwall1 in #agef1 are mentioned by  
,borlase4 ,these animals of more        
southern seas can be considered only as 
stragglers1 attracted to our shores     
during uncommonly warm seasons by an    
abundant supply of food1 or carried by  
the ,gulf stream1 or driven by storms to
 high latitudes4  ,some of the smaller  
reptiles lay their eggs on aquatic      
plants2 and these must often be borne   
rapidly by rivers1 and conveyed to      
distant regions in a manner similar to  
the dispersion of seeds before adverted 
to4 ,but that the larger ophidians may  
be themselves transported across the    
seas1 is evident from the following most
 interesting account of the arrival of  
one at the island of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,it 
is worthy of being recorded1 says ,mr4  
,guilding1 that a noble specimen of the 
,boa constrictor was lately conveyed to 
us by the currents1 twisted round the   
trunk of a large sound cedar tree1 which
 had probably been washed out of the    

bank by the floods of some great ,south 
,american river1 while its huge folds   
hung on the branches1 as it waited for  
its prey4 ,the monster was fortunately  
destroyed after killing a few sheep1 and
 his skeleton now hangs before me in my 
study1 putting me in mind how much      
reason ,i might have had to fear in my  
future rambles through the forests of   
,st4 ,vincent1 had this formidable      
reptile been a pregnant female1 and     
escaped to a safe retreat4#ijh          
,,chapter ,,xxxix4  ,,laws ,,which      
,,regulate ,,the ,,geographical         
,,distribution ,,of                     
,,species--continued4      ,geographical
 distribution and migration of ,fish--of
 ,testaoea--of                          
,zoophytes--,distribution of            
,insects--,migratory instincts of some  
species--,certain types characterize    
particular countries--,their     means  
of dissemination--,geographical         
distribution and diffusion of           
man--,speculations as to the birth-place

 of the human     species--,progress of 
human population--,drifting of canoes to
 vast     distances--,on the involuntary
 influence of man in extending the      
range of many other species4            
,geographical ,distribution and         
,migrations of ,fish4   ,although we are
 less acquainted with the habitations of
 marine animals than with the grouping  
of the terrestrial species before       
described1 yet it is well ascertained   
that their distribution is governed by  
the same general laws4 ,the testimony   
borne by ,,mm4 ,paron and ,lesueur to   
this important fact is remarkably       
strong4 ,these eminent naturalists1     
after collecting and describing many    
thousand species of marine animals which
 they brought to ,europe from the       
southern hemisphere1 insist most        
emphatically on their distinctness from 
those north of the equator2 and this    
remark they extend to animals of all    
classes1 from those of a more simple to 
those of a more complex                 

organization--from the sponges and      
,medusae to the ,cetacea4 ,among all    
those which we have been able to        
examine1 say they1 with our own eyes1 or
 with regard to which it has appeared to
 us possible to pronounce with          
certainty1 there is not a single animal 
of the southern regions which is not    
distinguished by essential characters   
from the analogous species in the       
northern seas4#iji  ,on comparing the   
freshwater fish of ,europe and ,north   
,america1 ,sir ,john ,richardson        
remarks1 that the only species which is 
unequivocally common to the two         
continents is the pike 7,esox lucius72  
and it is curious that this fish is     
unknown to the westward of the ,rocky   
,mountains1 the very coast which        
approaches nearest to the old           
continent4#iaj ,according to the same   
author the genera of freshwater fish in 
,china agree closely with those of the  
peninsula of ,india1 but the species are
 not the same4 ,as in the distribution1 

he adds1 of marine fish1 the            
interposition of a continent stretching 
from the tropics far into the temperate 
or colder parts of the ocean1 separate  
different ichthyological groups2 so with
 respect to the freshwater species1 the 
intrusion of arms of the sea running far
 to the northwards1 or the interposition
 of a lofty mountain-chain1 effects the 
same thing4 ,the freshwater fish of the 
,cape of ,good ,hope and the ,south     
,american ones1 are different from those
 of ,india and ,china1 c4#iaa  ,cuvier  
and ,valenciennes1 in their ,histoire   
des ,poissons1 observe1 that very few   
species of fish cross the ,atlantic4    
,although their statement is correct1 it
 is found that a great many species are 
common to the opposite sides of the     
,indian ,ocean1 inhabiting alike the    
,red ,sea1 the eastern coast of ,africa1
 ,madagascar1 the ,mauritius1 the       
,indian ,ocean1 the southern seas of    
,china1 the ,malay archipelago1 the     
northern coasts of ,australia1 and the  

whole of ,polynesia6#iab ,this very wide
 diffusion1 says ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1  
may have been promoted by chains of     
islands running east and west1 which are
 wanting in the deep ,atlantic4 ,an     
archipelago extending far in longitude1 
favours the migration of fish by        
multiplying the places of deposit for   
spawn along the shores of islands1 and  
on intervening coral banks2 and in such 
places1 also1 fish find their           
appropriate food4  ,the flying fish are 
found 7some stragglers excepted7 only   
between the tropics3 in receding from   
the line1 they never approach a higher  
latitude than the fortieth parallel4    
,the course of the ,gulf stream1        
however1 and the warmth of its water1   
enable some tropical fish to extend     
their habitations far into the temperate
 zone2 thus the chaetodons which abound 
in the seas of hot climates1 are found  
among the ,bermudas on the thirty-second
 parallel1 where they are preserved in  
basins inclosed from the sea1 as an     

important article of food for the       
garrison and inhabitants4 ,other fish1  
following the direction of the same     
great current1 range from the coast of  
,brazil to the banks of                 
,newfoundland4#iac  ,all are aware that 
there are certain fish of passage which 
have their periodical migrations1 like  
some tribes of birds4 ,the salmon1      
towards the season of spawning1 ascends 
the rivers for hundreds of miles1       
leaping up the cataracts which it meets 
in its course1 and then retreats again  
into the depths of the ocean4 ,the      
herring and the haddock1 after          
frequenting certain shores1 in vast     
shoals1 for a series of years1 desert   
them again1 and resort to other         
stations1 followed by the species which 
prey on them4 ,eels are said to descend 
into the sea for the purpose of         
producing their young1 which are seen   
returning into the fresh water by       
myriads1 extremely small in size1 but   
possessing the power of surmounting     

every obstacle which occurs in the      
course of a river1 by applying their    
slimy and glutinous bodies to the       
surface of rocks1 or the gates of a     
lock1 even when dry1 and so climbing    
over it4#iad ,before the year #ahjj     
there were no eels in ,lake ,wener1 the 
largest inland lake in ,sweden1 which   
discharges its waters by the celebrated 
cataracts of ,trolhattan4 ,but ,i am    
informed by ,professor ,nilsson1 that   
since the canal was opened uniting the  
river ,gotha with the lake by a series  
of nine locks1 each of great height1    
eels have been observed in abundance in 
the lake4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that  
though they were unable to ascend the   
falls1 they have made their way by the  
locks1 by which in a very short space a 
difference of level of #aad feet is     
overcome4  ,gmelin says1 that the       
,anseres 7wild geese1 ducks1 and others7
 subsist1 in their migrations1 on the   
spawn of fish2 and that oftentimes1 when
 they void the spawn1 two or three days 

afterwards1 the eggs retain their       
vitality unimpaired4#iae ,when there are
 many disconnected freshwater lakes in a
 mountainous region1 at various         
elevations1 each remote from the other1 
it has often been deemed inconceivable  
how they could all become stocked with  
fish from one common source2 but it has 
been suggested1 that the minute eggs of 
these animals may sometimes be entangled
 in the feathers of water-fowl4 ,these1 
when they alight to wash and plume      
themselves in the water1 may often      
unconsciously contribute to propagate   
swarms of fish1 which1 in due season1   
will supply them with food4 ,some of the
 water-beetles1 also1 as the ,dyticidae1
 are amphibious1 and in the evening quit
 their lakes and pools1 and1 flying in  
the air1 transport the minute ova of    
fishes to distant waters4 ,in this      
manner some naturalists account for the 
fry of fish appearing occasionally in   
small pools caused by heavy rains2 but  
the showers of small fish1 stated in so 

many accounts to have fallen from the   
atmosphere1 require farther             
investigation4   ,geographical          
,distribution and ,migrations of        
,testacea4  ,the ,testacea1 of which so 
great a variety of species occurs in the
 sea1 are a class of animals of peculiar
 importance to the geologist2 because   
their remains are found in strata of all
 ages1 and generally in a higher state  
of preservation than those of other     
organic beings4 ,climate has a decided  
influence on the geographical           
distribution of species in this class2  
but as there is much greater uniformity 
of temperature in the waters of the     
ocean1 than in the atmosphere which     
invests the land1 the diffusion of      
marine mollusks is on the whole more    
extensive4  ,some forms attain their    
fullest development in warm latitudes2  
and are often exclusively confined to   
the torrid zone1 as ,nautilus1 ,harpa1  
,terebellum1 ,pyramidella1 ,delphinula1 
,aspergillum1 ,tridacna1 ,cucullaea1    

,crassatella1 ,corbis1 ,perna1 and      
,plicatula4 ,other forms are limited to 
one region of the sea1 as the ,trigonia 
to parts of ,australia1 and the         
,concholepas to the western coast of    
,south ,america4 ,the marine species    
inhabiting the ocean on the opposite    
sides of the narrow isthmus of ,panama1 
are found to differ almost entirely1 as 
we might have anticipated1 since a ,west
 ,indian mollusk cannot enter the       
,pacific without coasting round ,south  
,america1 and passing through the       
inclement climate of ,cape ,horn4 ,the  
continuity of the existing lines of     
continent from north to south1 prevents 
any one species from belting the globe1 
or from following the direction of the  
isothermal lines4  ,currents also       
flowing permanently in certain          
directions1 and the influx at certain   
points of great bodies of fresh water1  
limit the extension of many species4    
,those which love deep water are        
arrested by shoals2 others1 fitted for  

shallow seas1 cannot migrate across     
unfathomable abysses4 ,the nature also  
of the ground has an important influence
 on the testaceous fauna1 both on the   
land and beneath the waters4 ,certain   
species prefer a sandy1 others a        
gravelly1 and some a muddy sea-bottom4  
,on the land1 limestone is of all rocks 
the most favourable to the number and   
propagation of species of the genera    
,helix1 ,clausilia1 ,bulimus1 and       
others4 ,professor ,e4 ,forbes has shown
 as the result of his labours in        
dredging in the ,a,egean ,sea1 that     
there are eight well-marked regions of  
depth1 each characterized by its        
peculiar testaceous fauna4 ,the first of
 these1 called the littoral zone1       
extends to a depth of two fathoms only2 
but this narrow belt is inhabited by    
more than one hundred species4 ,the     
second region1 of which ten fathoms is  
the inferior limit1 is almost equally   
populous2 and a copious list of species 
is given as characteristic of each      

region down to the seventh1 which lies  
between the depths of #hj and #aje      
fathoms1 all the inhabited space below  
this being included in the eighth       
province1 where no less than #fe species
 of ,testacea have been taken4 ,the     
majority of the shells in this lowest   
zone are white or transparent4 ,only two
 species of ,mollusca are common to all 
the eight regions1 namely1 ,arca lactea 
and ,cerithium lima4#iaf  ,great range  
of some provinces and species4--,in     
,europe conchologists distinguish       
between the arctic fauna1 the southern  
boundary of which corresponds with the  
isothermal line of #cb degrees ,f41 and 
the ,celtic1 which1 commencing with that
 limit as its northern frontier1 extends
 southwards to the mouth of the ,english
 ,channel and ,cape ,finisterre1 in     
,france4 ,from that point begins the    
,lusitanian fauna1 which1 according to  
the recent observations of ,mr4         
,m',andrew 7#aheb71 ranges to the       
,canary ,islands4 ,the ,mediterranean   

province is distinct from all those     
above enumerated1 although it has some  
species in common with each4  ,the      
,indo-,pacific region is by far the most
 extensive of all4 ,it reaches from the 
,red ,sea and the eastern coast of      
,africa1 to the ,indian ,archipelago1   
and adjoining parts of the ,pacific     
,ocean4 ,to the geologist it furnishes a
 fact of no small interest1 by teaching 
us that one group of living species of  
mollusca may prevail throughout an area 
exceeding in magnitude the utmost limits
 we can as yet assign to any assemblage 
of contemporaneous fossil species4 ,mr4 
,cuming obtained more than a hundred    
species of shells from the eastern coast
 of ,africa identical with those        
collected by himself at the ,philippines
 and in the eastern coral islands of the
 ,pacific ,ocean1 a distance equal to   
that from pole to pole4#iag  ,certain   
species of the genus ,ianthina have a   
very wide range1 being common to seas   
north and south of the equator4 ,they   

are all provided with a beautifully     
contrived float1 which renders them     
buoyant1 facilitating their dispersion1 
and enabling them to become active      
agents in disseminating other species4  
,captain ,king took a specimen of       
,ianthina fragilis1 alive1 a little     
north of the equator1 so loaded with    
barnacles 7,pentelasmis7 and their ova  
that the upper part of its shell was    
invisible4 ,the ,rock ,whelk 7,purpura  
lapillus71 a well-known ,british        
univalve1 inhabits both the ,north      
,atlantic and ,north ,pacific4  ,helix  
putris 7,succinea putris1 ,lam471 so    
common in ,europe1 where it reaches from
 ,norway to ,italy1 is also said to     
occur in the ,united ,states and in     
,newfoundland4 ,as this animal inhabits 
constantly the borders of pools and     
streams where there is much moisture1 it
 is not impossible that different       
water-fowl have been the agents of      
spreading some of its minute eggs1 which
 may have been entangled in their       

feathers4 ,the freshwater snail1        
,lymneus palustris1 so abundant in      
,english ponds1 ranges uninterruptedly  
from ,europe to ,cashmere1 and thence to
 the eastern parts of ,asia4 ,helix     
aspersa1 one of the commonest of our    
larger land-shells1 is found in ,st4    
,helena and other distant countries4    
,some conchologists have conjectured    
that it was accidentally imported into  
,st4 ,helena in some ship2 for it is an 
eatable species1 and these animals are  
capable of retaining life during long   
voyages1 without air or nourishment4#iah
  ,perhaps no species has a better claim
 to be called cosmopolite than one of   
our ,british bivalves1 ,saxicava rugosa4
 ,it is spread over all the north-polar 
seas1 and ranges in one direction       
through ,europe to ,senegal1 occurring  
on both sides of the ,atlantic2 while in
 another it finds its way into the      
,north ,pacific1 and thence to the      
,indian ,ocean4 ,nor do its migrations  
cease till it reaches the ,australian   

seas4  ,a ,british brachiopod1 named    
,terebratula caput-serpentis1 is common1
 according to ,professor ,e4 ,forbes1 to
 both sides of the ,north ,atlantic1 and
 to the ,south ,african and ,chinese    
seas4  ,confined range of other         
species4--,mr4 ,lowe1 in a memoir       
published in the ,cambridge             
,transactions in #ahcd1 enumerates      
seventy-one species of land ,mollusca1  
collected by him in the islands of      
,madeira and ,porto ,santo1 sixty of    
which belonged to the genus ,helix      
alone1 including as sub-genera ,bulimus 
and ,achatina1 and excluding ,vitrina   
and ,clausilia2 forty-four of these are 
new4 ,it is remarkable that very few of 
the above-mentioned species are common  
to the neighbouring archipelago of the  
,canaries2 but it is a still more       
striking fact1 that of the sixty species
 of the three genera above mentioned1   
thirty-one are natives of ,porto ,santo2
 whereas1 in ,madeira1 which contains   
ten times the superficies1 were found   

but twenty-nine4 ,of these only four    
were common to the two islands1 which   
are separated by a distance of only     
twelve leagues2 and two even of these   
four 7namely ,helix rhodostoma and ,h4  
ventrosa7 are species of general        
diffusion1 common to ,madeira1 the      
,canaries1 and the south of ,europe4#iai
  ,the confined range of these mollusks 
may easily be explained1 if we admit    
that species have only one birth-place2 
and the only problem to be solved would 
relate to the exceptions--to account for
 the dissemination of some species      
throughout several islands1 and the     
,european continent4 ,may not the eggs1 
when washed into the sea by the         
undermining of cliffs1 or blown by a    
storm from the land1 float uninjured to 
a distant shore8  ,their mode of        
diffusion4--,notwithstanding the        
proverbially slow motion of snails and  
mollusks in general1 and although many  
aquatic species adhere constantly to the
 same rock for their whole lives1 they  

are by no means destitute of provision  
for disseminating themselves rapidly    
over a wide area4 ,some ,mollusca1 says 
,professor ,e4 ,forbes1 migrate in their
 larva state1 for all of them undergo a 
metamorphosis either in the egg or out  
of the egg4 ,the gasteropoda commence   
life under the form of a small spiral   
shell1 and an animal furnished with     
ciliated wings1 or lobes1 like a        
pteropod1 by means of which it can swim 
freely1 and in this form can migrate    
with ease through the sea4#ibj  ,we are 
accustomed to associate in our minds the
 idea of the greatest locomotive powers 
with the most mature and perfect state  
of each species of invertebrate animal1 
especially when they undergo a series of
 transformations2 but in all the        
,mollusca the reverse is true4 ,the     
young fry of the cockle1 for example    
7,cardium71 possess1 when young or in   
the larva state1 an apparatus which     
enables them both to swim and to be     
carried along easily by a marine        

current4 7,see fig4 #ii47               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4  ,tne young   
fry of a cockle 7,cardium pygmaeum17    
from ,loven's ,kongl4 ,vetenskaps4      
,akadem4 ,handling1 #ahdh4      ,a1 ,the
 young just hatched1 magnified #ajj     
diameters4    ,b1 the same farther      
advanced4    a1 ,the ciliated organ of  
locomotion with its filamentous         
appendage b4   c1 ,the rudimentary      
intestine4   d1 ,the rudimentary shell4 
,these small bodies here represented1   
which bear a considerable resemblance to
 the fry of the univalve1 or            
gasteropodous shells above mentioned1   
are so minute at first as to be just    
visible to the naked eye4 ,they begin to
 move about from the moment they are    
hatched1 by means of the long cilia1 a1 
a1 placed on the edges of the locomotive
 disk or velum4 ,this disk shrinks up as
 they increase in size1 and gradually   
disappears1 no trace of it being visible
 in the perfect animal4  ,some species  
of shell-bearing ,mollusca lay their    

eggs in a sponge-like nidus1 wherein the
 young remain enveloped for a time after
 their birth2 and this buoyant substance
 floats far and wide as readily as      
sea-weed4 ,the young of other viviparous
 tribes are often borne along entangled 
in sea-weed4 ,sometimes they are so     
light1 that1 like grains of sand1 they  
can be easily moved by currents4 ,balani
 and ,serpulae are sometimes found      
adhering to floating cocoa-nuts1 and    
even to fragments of pumice4 ,in rivers 
and lakes1 on the other hand1 aquatic   
univalves usually attach their eggs to  
leaves and sticks which have fallen into
 the water1 and which are liable to be  
swept away during floods1 from          
tributaries to the main streams1 and    
from thence to all parts of the same    
basins4 ,particular species may thus    
migrate during one season from the head 
waters of the ,mississippi1 or any other
 great river1 to countries bordering the
 sea1 at the distance of many thousand  
miles4  ,an illustration of the mode of 

attachment of these eggs will be seen in
 the annexed cut4 7,fig4 #ajj47  ,the   
habit of some ,testacea to adhere to    
floating wood is proved by their fixing 
themselves to the bottoms of ships4 ,by 
this mode of conveyance ,mytilus        
polymorphus1 previously known only in   
the ,danube and ,wolga1 may have been   
brought to the ,commercial ,docks in the
 ,thames1 and to ,hamburgh1 where the   
species is now domiciled4 ,but ,mr4     
,gray suggests that as the animal is    
known to have the faculty of living for 
a very long time out of water1 it is    
more probable that it was brought in    
,russian timber1 than borne uninjured   
through the salt water at the bottom of 
a vessel4#iba  ,a lobster 7,astacus     
marinus7 was lately taken alive covered 
with living mussels 7,mytilus           
edulis7#ibb2 and a large female crab    
7,cancer pagurus71 covered with oysters1
 and bearing also ,anomia ephippium1 and
 ,actiniae1 was taken in ,april1 #ahcb1 
off the ,english coast4 ,the oysters1   

seven in number1 include individuals of 
six years' growth1 and the two largest  
are four inches long and three inches   
and a half broad4 ,both the crab and the
 oysters were seen alive by ,mr4 ,robert
 ,brown4#ibc  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4
  ,eggs of ,freshwater mollusks4        
,fig4 #a4 ,eggs of ,ampullaria ovata 7a 
fluviatile species7 fixed to            
a small sprig which had fallen into the 
water4   ,fig4 #b4 ,eggs of ,planorbis  
albus1 attached to a dead leaf lying    
under water4   ,fig4 #c4 ,eggs of the   
common ,limneus 7,l4 vulgaris71 adhering
 to             a dead stick under      
water4    ,from this example we learn   
the manner in which oysters may be      
diffused over every part of the sea     
where the crab wanders2 and if they are 
at length carried to a spot where there 
is nothing but fine mud1 the foundation 
of a new oyster-bank may be laid on the 
death of the crab4 ,in this instance the
 oysters survived the crab many days1   
and were killed at last only by long    

exposure to the air4   ,geographical    
,distribution and ,migrations of        
,zoophytes4  ,zoophytes are very        
imperfectly known2 but there can be     
little doubt that each maritime region  
possesses species peculiar to itself4   
,the ,madrepores1 or lamelliferous      
,polyparia1 are found in their fullest  
development only in the tropical seas of
 ,polynesia and the ,east and ,west     
,indies2 and this family is represented 
only by a few species in our seas4 ,the 
zoophytes of the ,mediterranean1        
according to ,ehrenberg1 differ almost  
entirely from those of the ,red ,sea1   
although only seventy miles distant4    
,out of #abj species of ,anthozoa1 only 
two are common to both seas4#ibd ,paron 
and ,lesueur1 after studying the        
,holothuriae1 ,medusae1 and other       
congeners of delicate and changeable    
forms1 came to the conclusion that each 
kind has its place of residence         
determined by the temperature necessary 
to support its existence4 ,thus1 for    

example1 they found the abode of        
,pyrosoma ,atlantica to be confined to  
one particular region of the ,atlantic  
,ocean4#ibe  ,let us now inquire how the
 transportation of zoophytes from one   
part of the globe to another is         
effected4 ,many of them1 as in the      
families ,flustra and ,sertularia1      
attach themselves to sea-weed1 and are  
occasionally drifted along with it4     
,many fix themselves to the shells of   
,mollusca1 and are thus borne along by  
them to short distances4 ,others1 like  
some species of sea-pens1 float about in
 the ocean1 and are usually believed to 
possess powers of spontaneous motion4   
,but the most frequent mode of          
transportation consists in the buoyancy 
of their eggs1 or certain small         
vesicles1 which are detached1 and are   
capable of becoming the foundation of a 
new colony4 ,these gems1 as they are    
called1 have1 in many instances1 a      
locomotive power of their own1 by which 
they proceed in a determinate direction 

for several days after separation from  
the parent4 ,they are propelled by means
 of numerous short threads or ciliae1   
which are in constant and rapid         
vibration2 and1 when thus supported in  
the water1 they may be borne along by   
currents to a great distance4  ,that    
some zoophytes adhere to floating       
bodies1 is proved by their being found  
attached to the bottoms of ships1 like  
certain ,testacea before alluded to4    
,geographical ,distribution and         
,migrations of ,insects4  ,before ,i    
conclude this sketch of the manner in   
which the habitable parts of the earth  
are shared out among particular         
assemblages of organic beings1 ,i must  
offer a few remarks on insects1 which1  
by their numbers and the variety of     
their powers and instincts1 exert a     
prodigious influence in the economy of  
animate nature4 ,as a large portion of  
these minute creatures are strictly     
dependent for their subsistence on      
certain species of vegetables1 the      

entomological provinces must coincide in
 considerable degree with the botanical4
  ,all the insects1 says ,latreille1    
brought from the eastern parts of ,asia 
and ,china1 whatever be their latitude  
and temperature1 are distinct from those
 of ,europe and of ,africa4 ,the insects
 of the ,united ,states1 although often 
approaching very close to our own1 are1 
with very few exceptions1 specifically  
distinguishable by some characters4 ,in 
,south ,america1 the equinoctial lands  
of ,new ,granada and ,peru on the one   
side1 and of ,guiana on the other1      
contain for the most part distinct      
groups2 the ,andes forming the division1
 and interposing a narrow line of severe
 cold between climates otherwise very   
similar4#ibf  ,migratory                
instincts4--,nearly all the insects of  
the ,united ,states and ,canada1 differ 
specifically from the ,european2 while  
those of ,greenland appear to be in a   
great measure identical with our own4   
,some insects are very local2 while a   

few1 on the contrary1 are common to     
remote countries1 between which the     
torrid zone and the ocean intervene4    
,thus our painted lady butterfly        
7,vanessa cardui7 re-appears at the     
,cape of ,good ,hope and in ,new        
,holland and ,japan with scarcely a     
varying streak4#ibg ,the same species is
 said to be one of the few insects which
 are universally dispersed over the     
earth1 being found in ,europe1 ,asia1   
,africa1 and ,america2 and its wide     
range is the more interesting1 because  
it seems explained by its migratory     
instinct1 seconded1 no doubt1 by a      
capacity1 enjoyed by few species1 of    
enduring a great diversity of           
temperature4  ,a vast swarm of this     
species1 forming a column from ten to   
fifteen feet broad1 was1 a few years    
since1 observed in the ,canton de ,vaud2
 they traversed the country with great  
rapidity from north to south1 all flying
 onwards in regular order1 close        
together1 and not turning from their    

course on the approach of other objects4
 ,professor ,bonelli1 of ,turin1        
observed1 in ,march of the same year1 a 
similar swarm of the same species1 also 
directing their flight from north to    
south1 in ,piedmont1 in such immense    
numbers that at night the flowers were  
literally covered with them4 ,they had  
been traced from ,coni1 ,raconi1 ,susa1 
c4 ,a similar flight at the end of the  
last century is recorded by ,m4 ,louch  
in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of      
,turin4 ,the fact is the more worthy of 
notice1 because the caterpillars of this
 butterfly are not gregarious1 but      
solitary from the moment that they are  
hatched2 and this instinct remains      
dormant1 while generation after         
generation passes away1 till it suddenly
 displays itself in full energy when    
their numbers happen to be in excess4   
,not only peculiar species1 but certain 
types1 distinguish particular countries2
 and there are groups1 observes ,kirby1 
which represent each other in distant   

regions1 whether in their form1 their   
functions1 or in both4 ,thus the honey  
and wax of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 
are in each case prepared by bees       
congenerous with our common hive-bee    
7,apis1 ,latr472 while1 in ,america1    
this genus is nowhere indigenous1 but is
 replaced by ,melipona1 ,trigona1 and   
,euglossa2 and in ,new ,holland by a    
still different but undescribed         
type4#ibh ,the ,european bee 7,apis     
mellifica71 although not a native of the
 new world1 is now established both in  
,north and ,south ,america4 ,it was     
introduced into the ,united ,states by  
some of the early settlers1 and has     
since overspread the vast forests of the
 interior1 building hives in the decayed
 trunks of trees4 ,the ,indians1 says   
,irving1 consider them as the harbinger 
of the white man1 as the buffalo is of  
the red man1 and say that in proportion 
as the bee advances the ,indian and the 
buffalo retire4 ,it is said1 continues  
the same writer1 that the wild bee is   

seldom to be met with at any great      
distance from the frontier1 and that    
they have always been the heralds of    
civilization1 preceding it as it        
advanced from the ,atlantic borders4    
,some of the ancient settlers of the    
west even pretend to give the very year 
when the honey-bee first crossed the    
,mississippi4#ibi ,the same species is  
now also naturalized in ,van ,diemen's  
,land and ,new ,zealand4  ,as almost all
 insects are winged1 they can readily   
spread themselves wherever their        
progress is not opposed by uncongenial  
climates1 or by seas1 mountains1 and    
other physical impediments2 and these   
barriers they can sometimes surmount by 
abandoning themselves to violent winds1 
which1 as ,i before stated1 when        
speaking of the dispersion of seeds 7p4 
#fah471 may in a few hours carry them to
 very considerable distances4 ,on the   
,andes some sphinxes and flies have been
 observed by ,humboldt1 at the height of
 #ai1ahj feet above the sea1 and which  

appeared to him to have been            
involuntarily carried into these regions
 by ascending currents of air4#icj      
,white mentions a remarkable shower of  
aphides which seem to have emigrated1   
with an east wind1 from the great hop   
plantations of ,kent and ,sussex1 and   
blackened the shrubs and vegetables     
where they alighted at ,selbourne1      
spreading at the same time in great     
clouds all along the vale from ,farnham 
to ,alton4 ,these aphides are sometimes 
accompanied by vast numbers of the      
common lady-bird 7,coccinella           
septempunctata71 which feed upon        
them4#ica  ,it is remarkable1 says      
,kirby1 that many of the insects which  
are occasionally observed to emigrate1  
as1 for instance1 the ,libellulae1      
,coccinellae1 ,carabi1 ,cicadae1 c4 are 
not usually social insects2 but seem to 
congregate1 like swallows1 merely for   
the purpose of emigration4#icb ,here1   
therefore1 we have an example of an     
instinct developing itself on certain   

rare emergencies1 causing unsocial      
species to become gregarious and to     
venture sometimes even to cross the     
ocean4  ,the armies of locusts which    
darken the air in ,africa1 and traverse 
the globe from ,turkey to our southern  
counties in ,england1 are well known to 
all4 ,when the western gales sweep over 
the ,pampas they bear along with them   
myriads of insects of various kinds4 ,as
 a proof of the manner in which species 
may be thus diffused1 ,i may mention    
that when the ,creole frigate was lying 
in the outer roads off ,buenos ,ayres1  
in #ahai1 at the distance of six miles  
from the land1 her decks and rigging    
were suddenly covered by thousands of   
flies and grains of sand4 ,the sides of 
the vessel had just received a fresh    
coat of paint1 to which the insects     
adhered in such numbers as to spot and  
disfigure the vessel1 and to render it  
necessary partially to renew the        
paint4#icc ,captain ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth was  
obliged to repaint his vessel1 the      

,adventure1 in the ,mediterranean1 from 
the same cause4 ,he was on his way from 
,malta to ,tripoli1 when a southern wind
 blowing from the coast of ,africa1 then
 one hundred miles distant1 drove such  
myriads of flies upon the fresh paint1  
that not the smallest point was left    
unoccupied by insects4  ,to the         
southward of the river ,plate1 off ,cape
 ,st4 ,antonio1 and at the distance of  
fifty miles from land1 several large    
dragon-flies alighted on the ,adventure 
frigate1 during ,captain ,king's late   
expedition to the ,straits of ,magellan4
 ,if the wind abates when insects are   
thus crossing the sea1 the most delicate
 species are not necessarily drowned2   
for many can repose without sinking on  
the water4 ,the slender long-legged     
tipulae have been seen standing on the  
surface of the sea1 when driven out far 
from our coast1 and took wing           
immediately on being approached4#icd    
,exotic beetles are sometimes thrown on 
our shore1 which revive after having    

been long drenched in salt water2 and   
the periodical appearance of some       
conspicuous butterflies amongst us1     
after being unseen some for five others 
for fifty years1 has been ascribed1 not 
without probability1 to the agency of   
the winds4  ,inundations of rivers1     
observes ,kirby1 if they happen at any  
season except in the depths of winter1  
always carry down a number of insects1  
floating on the surface of bits of      
stick1 weeds1 c42 so that when the      
waters subside1 the entomologist may    
generally reap a plentiful harvest4 ,in 
the dissemination1 moreover1 of these   
minute beings1 as in that of plants1 the
 larger animals play their part4        
,insects are1 in numberless instances1  
borne along in the coats of animals1 or 
the feathers of birds2 and the eggs of  
some species are capable1 like seeds1 of
 resisting the digestive powers of the  
stomach1 and after they are swallowed   
with herbage1 may be ejected again      
unharmed in the dung4   ,geographical   

,distribution and ,diffusion of ,man4   
,i have reserved for the last some      
observations on the range and diffusion 
of the human species over the earth1 and
 the influence of man in spreading other
 animals and plants1 especially the     
terrestrial4  ,many naturalists have    
amused themselves in speculating on the 
probable birth-place of mankind1 the    
point from which1 if we assume the whole
 human race to have descended from a    
single pair1 the tide of emigration must
 originally have proceeded4 ,it has been
 always a favorite conjecture1 that this
 birth-place was situated within or near
 the tropics1 where perpetual summer    
reigns1 and where fruits1 herbs1 and    
roots are plentifully supplied          
throughout the year4 ,the climate of    
these regions1 it has been said1 is     
suited to a being born without any      
covering1 and who had not yet acquired  
the arts of building habitations or     
providing clothes4  ,progress of ,human 
,population4--,the hunter state1 it has 

been argued1 which ,montesquieu placed  
the first1 was probably only the second 
stage to which mankind arrived2 since so
 many arts must have been invented to   
catch a salmon1 or a deer1 that society 
could no longer have been in its infancy
 when they came into use4#ice ,when     
regions where the spontaneous fruits of 
the earth abound became overpeopled1 men
 would naturally diffuse themselves over
 the neighboring parts of the temperate 
zone2 but a considerable time would     
probably elapse before this event took  
place2 and it is possible1 as a writer  
before cited observes1 that in the      
interval before the multiplication of   
their numbers and their increasing wants
 had compelled them to emigrate1 some   
arts to take animals were invented1 but 
far inferior to what we see practised at
 this day among savages4 ,as their      
habitations gradually advanced into the 
temperate zone1 the new difficulties    
they had to encounter would call forth  
by degrees the spirit of invention1 and 

the probability of such inventions      
always rises with the number of people  
involved in the same necessity4#icf  ,a 
distinguished modern writer1 who        
coincides for the most part in the views
 above mentioned1 has introduced one of 
the persons in his second dialogue1 as  
objecting to the theory of the human    
race having gradually advanced from a   
savage to a civilized state1 on the     
ground that the first man must have     
inevitably been destroyed by the        
elements or devoured by savage beasts1  
so infinitely his superiors in physical 
force4#icg ,he then contends against the
 difficulty here started by various     
arguments1 all of which were1 perhaps1  
superfluous2 for if a philosopher is    
pleased to indulge in conjectures on    
this subject1 why should he not assign1 
as the original seat of man1 some one of
 those large islands within the tropics1
 which are as free from large beasts of 
prey as ,van ,diemen's ,land or         
,australia8 ,here man may have remained 

for a period1 peculiar to a single      
island1 just as some of the large       
anthropomorphous species are now limited
 to one island within the tropics4 ,in  
such a situation1 the new-born race     
might have lived in security1 though far
 more helpless than the ,new ,holland   
savages1 and might have found abundance 
of vegetable food4 ,colonies may        
afterwards have been sent forth from    
this mother country1 and then the       
peopling of the earth may have proceeded
 according to the hypothesis before     
alluded to4  ,to form a probable        
conjecture respecting the country from  
whence the early civilization of ,india 
was derived1 has been found almost as   
difficult as to determine the original  
birth-place of the human race4 ,that the
 dawn of oriental civilization did not  
arise within the limits of the tropics1 
is the conclusion to which ,baron       
,william von ,humboldt has come after   
much patient research into the          
diversities of the structure of language

 and their influence on the mental      
development of the human race4          
,according to him the ancient ,zend     
country from whence the spread of       
knowledge and the arts has been traced  
in a south-easterly direction1 lay to   
the north-west of the upper ,indus4#ich 
,as to the time of the first appearance 
of man upon the earth1 if we are to     
judge from the discordance of opinion   
amongst celebrated chronologers1 not    
even a rude approximation has yet been  
made towards determining a point of so  
much interest4 ,the problem seems       
hitherto to have baffled the curiosity  
of the antiquary1 if possible1 more     
completely than the fixing on a         
geographical site for the original      
habitation of the ancestors of the human
 race4 ,the ,chevalier ,bunsen1 in his  
elaborate and philosophical work on     
,ancient ,egypt1#ici has satisfied not a
 few of the learned1 by an appeal to    
monumental inscriptions still extant1   
that the successive dynasties of kings  

may be traced back without a break1 to  
,menes1 and that the date of his reign  
would correspond with the year #cfdj ,b4
 ,c4 ,he supposes at the same time1 what
 is most reasonable1 that the ,egyptian 
people must have existed for a long     
period 7probably at least for five      
centuries71 in their earlier and less   
settled state1 before they reached the  
point of civilization at which ,menes   
consolidated them into a great and      
united empire4 ,this would carry us back
 to upwards of #djjj years ,b4 ,c41 or  
to an epoch coincident with that        
commonly set down for the creation of   
the world in accordance with            
computations founded on the combined    
ages of the successive antediluvian     
patriarchs4 ,it follows that the same   
epoch of ,menes is anterior by a great  
many centuries to the most ancient of   
the dates usually fixed upon for the    
,mosaic deluge4 ,the fact that no record
 or tradition of any great and          
overwhelming flood has been detected in 

the mythology1 or monumental annals of  
the ,egyptians1 will suggest many       
reflections to a geologist who has      
weighed well the evidence we possess of 
a variety of partial deluges which have 
happened in districts not free like     
,egypt1 for the last #cjjj years1 from  
earthquakes and other causes of great   
aqueous catastrophes4 ,the tales and    
legends of calamitous floods preserved  
in ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 the southern  
shores of the ,baltic1 ,china1 ,peru1   
and ,chili1 have1 as we have seen1 been 
all of them handed down to us by the    
inhabitants of regions in which the     
operation of natural causes in modern   
times1 and the recurrence of a          
succession of disastrous floods1 afford 
us data for interpreting the meaning of 
the obscure traditions of an illiterate 
age4#idj  ,in his learned treatise on   
ancient chronology1 ,dr4 ,hales has     
selected1 from a much greater number1 a 
list of no less than #abj authors1 all  
of whom give a different period for the 

epoch of the creation of the world1 the 
extreme range of difference between them
 amounting to no less than #cbfh years4 
,it appears that even amongst           
authorities1 who in ,england are        
generally regarded1 as orthodox1 there  
is a variance1 not of years or of one or
 two centuries1 but of upwards of a     
millennium1 according as they have      
preferred to follow the ,hebrew1 or the 
,samaritan1 or the ,greek versions of   
the ,mosaic writings4 ,can we then      
wonder that they who decipher the       
monuments of ,egypt1 or the geologist   
who interprets the earth's              
autobiography1 should arrive at views   
respecting the date of an ancient       
empire1 or the age of our planet1       
irreconcilable with every one of these  
numerous and conflicting chronologies8  
,the want of agreement amongst the      
learned in regard to the probable date  
of the deluge of ,noah is a source of   
far greater perplexity and confusion    
than our extreme uncertainty as to the  

epoch of the creation1--the deluge being
 a comparatively modern event1 from     
which the repeopling of the earth and   
the history of the present races of     
mankind is made to begin4  ,naturalists 
have long felt that to render probable  
the received opinion that all the       
leading varieties of the human family   
have originally sprung from a single    
pair1 7a doctrine against which there   
appears to me to be no sound objection17
 a much greater lapse of time is        
required for the slow and gradual       
formation of races1 7such as the        
,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 and ,negro17    
than is embraced in any of the popular  
systems of chronology4 ,the existence of
 two of those marked varieties above    
mentioned can be traced back #cjjj years
 before the present time1 or to the     
painting of pictures1 preserved in the  
tombs or on the walls of buried temples 
in ,egypt4 ,in these we behold the      
,negro and ,caucasian physiognomies     
portrayed as faithfully and in as strong

 contrast as if the likenesses of those 
races had been taken yesterday4 ,when we
 consider therefore the extreme slowness
 of the changes1 which climate and other
 modifying causes have produced in      
modern times1 we must allow for a vast  
series of antecedent ages1 in the course
 of which the long-continued influence  
of similar external circumstances gave  
rise to peculiarities1 probably         
increased in many successive            
generations1 until they were fixed by   
hereditary transmission4 ,the           
characteristic forms and features thus  
acquired by certain tribes1 may have    
been afterwards diffused by migration   
from a few centres over wide continental
 spaces4 ,the theory1 therefore1 that   
all the races of man have come from one 
common stock receives support from every
 investigation which forces us to expand
 our ideas of the duration of past time1
 or which multiplies the number of years
 that have passed away since the origin 
of man4 ,hitherto1 geology has neither  

enlarged nor circumscribed the human    
period2 but simply proved that in the   
history of animated nature it is        
comparatively modern1 or the last of a  
long series of antecedent epochs1 in    
each of which the earth has been        
successively peopled by distinct species
 of animals and plants4  ,in an early   
stage of society the necessity of       
hunting acts as a principle of          
repulsion1 causing men to spread with   
the greatest rapidity over a country1   
until the whole is covered with         
scattered settlements4 ,it has been     
calculated that eight hundred acres of  
hunting-ground produce only as much food
 as half an acre of arable land4 ,when  
the game has been in a great measure    
exhausted1 and a state of pasturage     
succeeds1 the several hunter tribes1    
being already scattered1 may multiply in
 a short time into the greatest number  
which the pastoral state is capable of  
sustaining4 ,the necessity1 says ,brand1
 thus imposed upon the two savage       

states1 of dispersing themselves far and
 wide over the country1 affords a reason
 why1 at a very early period1 the worst 
parts of the earth may have become      
inhabited4  ,but this reason1 it may be 
said1 is only applicable in as far as   
regards the peopling of a continuous    
continent2 whereas the smallest islands1
 however remote from continents1 have   
almost always been found inhabited by   
man4 ,st4 ,helena1 it is true1 afforded 
an exception2 for when that island was  
discovered in #aeja1 it was only        
inhabited by sea-fowl1 and occasionally 
by seals and turtles1 and was covered   
with a forest of trees and shrubs1 all  
of species peculiar to it1 with one or  
two exceptions1 and which seem to have  
been expressly created for this remote  
and insulated spot4#ida  ,the islands   
also of ,mauritius1 ,bourbon1           
,pitcairns1 and ,juan ,fernandez1 and   
those of the ,galapagos archipelago1 one
 of which is seventy miles long1 were   
inhabited when first discovered1 and1   

what is more remarkable than all1 the   
,falkland ,islands1 which together are  
#abj miles in length by #fj in breadth1 
and abounding in food fit for the       
support of man4  ,drifting of canoes to 
vast distances4--,but very few of the   
numerous coral islets and volcanoes of  
the vast ,pacific1 capable of sustaining
 a few families of men1 have been found 
untenanted2 and we have1 therefore1 to  
inquire whence and by what means1 if all
 the members of the great human family  
have had one common source1 could those 
savages have migrated4 ,cook1 ,forster1 
and others1 have remarked that parties  
of savages in their canoes must have    
often lost their way1 and must have been
 driven on distant shores1 where they   
were forced to remain1 deprived both of 
the means and of the requisite          
intelligence for returning to their own 
country4 ,thus ,captain ,cook found on  
the island of ,wateoo three inhabitants 
of ,otaheite1 who had been drifted      
thither in a canoe1 although the        

distance between the two isles is #eej  
miles4 ,in #afif1 two canoes1 containing
 thirty persons1 who had left ,ancorso1 
were thrown by contrary winds and storms
 on the island of ,samar1 one of the    
,philippines1 at a distance of #hjj     
miles4 ,in #agba1 two canoes1 one of    
which contained twenty-four1 and the    
other six persons1 men1 women1 and      
children1 were drifted from an island   
called ,farroilep to the island of      
,guaham1 one of the ,marians1 a distance
 of #bjj miles4#idb  ,kotzebue1 when    
investigating the ,coral ,isles of      
,radack1 at the eastern extremity of the
 ,caroline ,isles1 became acquainted    
with a person of the name of ,kadu1 who 
was a native of ,ulea1 an isle #aejj    
miles distant1 from which he had been   
drifted with a party4 ,kadu and three of
 his countrymen one day left ,ulea in a 
sailing boat1 when a violent storm      
arose1 and drove them out of their      
course3 they drifted about the open sea 
for eight months1 according to their    

reckoning by the moon1 making a knot on 
a cord at every new moon4 ,being expert 
fishermen1 they subsisted entirely on   
the produce of the sea2 and when the    
rain fell1 laid in as much fresh water  
as they had vessels to contain it4      
,kadu1 says ,kotzebue1 who was the best 
diver1 frequently went down to the      
bottom of the sea1 where it is well     
known that the water is not so salt1    
with a cocoa-nut shell1 with only a     
small opening4#idc ,when these          
unfortunate men reached the isles of    
,radack1 every hope and almost every    
feeling had died within them2 their sail
 had long been destroyed1 their canoe   
had long been the sport of winds and    
waves1 and they were picked up by the   
inhabitants of ,aur in a state of       
insensibility2 but by the hospitable    
care of those islanders they soon       
recovered1 and were restored to perfect 
health4#idd  ,captain ,beechey1 in his  
voyage to the ,pacific1 fell in with    
some natives of the ,coral ,islands1 who

 had in a similar manner been carried to
 a great distance from their native     
country4 ,they had embarked1 to the     
number of #aej souls1 in three double   
canoes1 from ,anaa1 or ,chain ,island1  
situated about three hundred miles to   
the eastward of ,otaheite4 ,they were   
overtaken by the monsoon1 which         
dispersed the canoes2 and after driving 
them about the ocean1 left them         
becalmed1 so that a great number of     
persons perished4 ,two of the canoes    
were never heard of2 but the other was  
drifted from one uninhabited island to  
another1 at each of which the voyagers  
obtained a few provisions2 and at       
length1 after having wandered for a     
distance of #fjj miles1 they were found 
and carried to their home in the        
,blossom4#ide  ,mr4 ,crawfurd informs me
 that there are several                 
well-authenticated accounts of canoes   
having been drifted from ,sumatra to    
,madagascar1 and by such causes a       
portion of the ,malayan language1 with  

some useful plants1 have been           
transferred to that island1 which is    
principally peopled by negroes4  ,the   
space traversed in some of these        
instances was so great1 that similar    
accidents might suffice to transport    
canoes from various parts of ,africa to 
the shores of ,south ,america1 or from  
,spain to the ,azores1 and thence to    
,north ,america2 so that man1 even in a 
rude state of society1 is liable to be  
scattered involuntarily by the winds and
 waves over the globe1 in a manner      
singularly analogous to that in which   
many plants and animals are diffused4   
,we ought not1 then1 to wonder1 that    
during the ages required for some tribes
 of the human race to attain that       
advanced stage of civilization which    
empowers the navigator to cross the     
ocean in all directions with security1  
the whole earth should have become the  
abode of rude tribes of hunters and     
fishers4 ,were the whole of mankind now 
cut off1 with the exception of one      

family1 inhabiting the old or new       
continent1 or ,australia1 or even some  
coral islet of the ,pacific1 we might   
expect their descendants1 though they   
should never become more enlightened    
than the ,south ,sea ,islanders or the  
,esquimaux1 to spread in the course of  
ages over the whole earth1 diffused     
partly by the tendency of population to 
increase1 in a limited district1 beyond 
the means of subsistence1 and partly by 
the accidental drifting of canoes by    
tides and currents to distant shores4   
,involuntary ,influence of ,man in      
diffusing ,animals and ,plants4  ,many  
of the general remarks which have been  
made respecting the influence of man in 
spreading or in checking the diffusion  
of plants apply equally to his relations
 with the animal kingdom4 ,on a future  
occasion ,i shall be led to speak of the
 instrumentality of our species in      
naturalizing useful animals and plants  
in new regions1 when explaining my views
 of the effects which the spreading and 

increase of certain species exert in the
 extirpation of others4 ,at present ,i  
shall confine myself to a few remarks on
 the involuntary aid which man lends to 
the dissemination of species4  ,in the  
mammiferous class our influence is      
chiefly displayed in increasing the     
number of quadrupeds which are          
serviceable to us1 and in exterminating 
or reducing the number of those which   
are noxious4  ,sometimes1 however1 we   
unintentionally promote the             
multiplication of inimical species1 as  
when we introduced the rat1 which was   
not indigenous in the new world1 into   
all parts of ,america4 ,they have been  
conveyed over in ships1 and now infest a
 great multitude of islands and parts of
 that continent4 ,in like manner the    
,norway rat 7,mus decumanus7 has been   
imported into ,england1 where it        
plunders our property in ships and      
houses4  ,among birds1 the house sparrow
 may be cited as a species known to have
 extended its range with the tillage of 

the soil4 ,during the last century it   
has spread gradually over ,asiatic      
,russia towards the north and east1     
always following the progress of        
cultivation4 ,it made its first         
appearance on the ,irtisch in ,tobolsk1 
soon after the ,russians had ploughed   
the land4 ,it came in #agce up the ,obi 
to ,beresow1 and four years after to    
,naryn1 about fifteen degrees of        
longitude farther east4 ,in #agaj1 it   
had been seen in the higher parts of the
 coast of the ,lena1 in the government  
of ,irkutzk4 ,in all these places it is 
now common1 but is not yet found in the 
uncultivated regions of                 
,kamtschatka4#idf  ,the great viper     
7,fer de lance71 a species no less      
venomous than the rattlesnake1 which now
 ravages ,martinique and ,st4 ,lucia1   
was accidentally introduced by man1 and 
exists in no other part of the ,west    
,indies4  ,many parasitic insects which 
attack our persons1 and some of which   
are supposed to be peculiar to our      

species1 have been carried into all     
parts of the earth1 and have as high a  
claim as man to a universal geographical
 distribution4  ,a great variety of     
insects have been transported in ships  
from one country to another1 especially 
in warmer latitudes4 ,the ,european     
house-fly has been introduced in this   
way into all the ,south ,sea ,islands4  
,notwithstanding the coldness of our    
climate in ,england we have been unable 
to prevent the cockroach 7,blatta       
orientalis7 from entering and diffusing 
itself in our ovens and kneading        
troughs1 and availing itself of the     
artificial warmth which we afford4 ,it  
is well known also1 that beetles1 and   
many other kinds of ligniperdous        
insects1 have been introduced into      
,great ,britain in timber2 especially   
several ,north ,american species4 ,the  
commercial relations1 says              
,malte-,brun#idg1 between ,france and   
,india have transported from the latter 
country the aphis1 which destroys the   

apple tree1 and two sorts of            
,neuroptera1 the ,lucifuga and          
,flavicola1 mostly confined to ,provence
 and the neighbourhood of ,bourdeaux1   
where they devour the timber in the     
houses and naval arsenals4  ,among      
mollusks we may mention the ,teredo     
navalis1 which is a native of equatorial
 seas1 but which1 by adhering to the    
bottom of ships1 was transported to     
,holland1 where it has been most        
destructive to vessels and piles4 ,the  
same species has also become naturalized
 in ,england1 and other countries       
enjoying an extensive commerce4 ,bulimus
 undatus1 a land species of considerable
 size1 native of ,jamaica and other     
,west ,indian islands1 has been         
imported1 adhering to tropical timber1  
into ,liverpool2 and1 as ,i learn from  
,mr4 ,broderip1 is now naturalized in   
the woods near that town4  ,in all these
 and innumerable other instances we may 
regard the involuntary agency of man as 
strictly analogous to that of the       

inferior animals4 ,like them1 we        
unconsciously contribute to extend or   
limit the geographical range and numbers
 of certain species1 in obedience to    
general rules in the economy of nature1 
which are for the most part beyond our  
control4     ,,chapter ,,xl4  ,,theories
 ,,respecting ,,the ,,original          
,,introduction ,,of ,,species4          
,proposal of an hypothesis on this      
subject--,supposed centres or foci      
of creation--,why distinct provinces of 
animals and plants have not     become  
more blended together--,brocchi's       
speculations on the loss of             
species--,stations of plants and        
animals--,causes on which they          
depend--,stations of plants how affected
 by animals--,equilibrium in     the    
number of species how                   
preserved--,peculiar efficacy of insects
 in     this task--,rapidity with which 
certain insects multiply or decrease    
in numbers--,effect of omnivorous       
animals in preserving the               

equilibrium of species--,reciprocal     
influence of aquatic and     terrestrial
 species on each other4   ,theory of    
,linnaeus4--,it would be superfluous to 
examine the various attempts which were 
made to explain the phenomena of the    
distribution of species alluded to in   
the preceding chapters1 in the infancy  
of the sciences of botany1 zoology1 and 
physical geography4 ,the theories or    
rather conjectures then indulged now    
stand refuted by a simple statement of  
facts2 and if ,linnaeus were living he  
would be the first to renounce the      
notions which he promulgated4 ,for he   
imagined the habitable world to have    
been for a certain time limited to one  
small tract1 the only portion of the    
earth's surface that was as yet laid    
bare by the subsidence of the primaeval 
ocean4 ,in this fertile spot he supposed
 the originals of all the species of    
plants which exist on this globe to have
 been congregated together with the     
first ancestors of all animals and of   

the human race4 ,in qua commode         
habitaverint animalia omnia1 et         
vegetabilia laete germinaverint4 ,in    
order to accommodate the various        
habitudes of so many creatures1 and to  
provide a diversity of climate suited to
 their several natures1 the tract in    
which the creation took place was       
supposed to have been situated in some  
warm region of the earth1 but to have   
contained a lofty mountain range1 on the
 heights and in the declivities of which
 were to be found all temperatures and  
every climate1 from that of the torrid  
to that of the frozen zone4#idh  ,that  
there never was a universal ocean since 
the planet was inhabited1 or1 rather1   
since the oldest groups of strata yet   
known to contain organic remains were   
formed1 is proved by the presence of    
terrestrial plants or by indications of 
shores in all the older formations2 and 
if this conclusion was not established1 
yet no geologist could deny that1 since 
the first small portion of the earth was

 laid dry1 there have been many entire  
changes in the species of plants and    
animals inhabiting the land4  ,but1     
without dwelling on the above and other 
refuted theories1 let us inquire whether
 some hypothesis cannot be substituted  
as simple as that of ,linnaeus1 to which
 the phenomena now ascertained in regard
 to the distribution both of aquatic and
 terrestrial species may be referred4   
,the following may1 perhaps1 be         
reconcileable with known facts3--,each  
species may have had its origin in a    
single pair1 or individual1 where an    
individual was sufficient1 and species  
may have been created in succession at  
such times and in such places as to     
enable them to multiply and endure for  
an appointed period1 and occupy an      
appointed space on the globe4  ,in order
 to explain this theory1 let us suppose 
every living thing to be destroyed in   
the western hemisphere1 both on the land
 and in the ocean1 and permission to be 
given to man to people this great       

desert1 by transporting into it animals 
and plants from the eastern hemisphere1 
a strict prohibition being enforced     
against introducing two original stocks 
of the same species4  ,now it is easy to
 show that the result of such a mode of 
colonizing would correspond exactly1 so 
far as regards the grouping of animals  
and plants1 with that now observed      
throughout the globe4 ,in the first     
place1 it would be necessary for        
naturalists1 before they imported       
species into particular localities1 to  
study attentively the climate and other 
physical conditions of each spot4 ,it   
would be no less requisite to introduce 
the different species in succession1 so 
that each plant and animal might have   
time and opportunity to multiply before 
the species destined to prey upon it was
 admitted4 ,many herbs and shrubs1 for  
example1 must spread far and wide before
 the sheep1 the deer1 and the goat could
 be allowed to enter1 lest they should  
devour and annihilate the original      

stocks of many plants1 and then perish  
themselves for want of food4 ,the       
above-mentioned herbivorous animals in  
their turn must be permitted to make    
considerable progress before the        
entrance of the first pair of wolves or 
lions4 ,insects must be allowed to swarm
 before the swallow could be permitted  
to skim through the air1 and feast on   
thousands at one repast4  ,it is evident
 that1 however equally in this case our 
original stocks were distributed over   
the whole surface of land and water1    
there would nevertheless arise distinct 
botanical and zoological provinces1 for 
there are a great many natural barriers 
which oppose common obstacles to the    
advance of a variety of species4 ,thus1 
for example1 almost all the animals and 
plants naturalized by us1 towards the   
extremity of ,south ,america1 would be  
unable to spread beyond a certain limit1
 towards the east1 west1 and south2     
because they would be stopped by the    
ocean1 and a few of them only would     

succeed in reaching the cooler latitudes
 of the northern hemisphere1 because    
they would be incapable of bearing the  
heat of the tropics1 through which they 
must pass4 ,in the course of ages1      
undoubtedly1 exceptions would arise1 and
 some species might become common to the
 temperate and polar regions1 or both   
sides of the equator2 for ,i have before
 shown that the powers of diffusion     
conferred on some classes are very      
great4 ,but we might confidently predict
 that these exceptions would never      
become so numerous as to invalidate the 
general rule4  ,some of the plants and  
animals transplanted by us to the coast 
of ,chili and ,peru would never be able 
to cross the ,andes1 so as to reach the 
eastern plains2 nor1 for a similar      
reason1 would those first established in
 the ,pampas1 or the valleys of the     
,amazon and the ,orinoco1 ever arrive at
 the shores of the ,pacific4  ,in the   
ocean an analogous state of things would
 prevail2 for there1 also1 climate would

 exert a great influence in limiting the
 range of species1 and the land would   
stop the migrations of aquatic tribes as
 effectually as the sea arrests the     
dispersion of the terrestrial4 ,as      
certain birds1 insects1 and the seeds of
 plants1 can never cross the direction  
of prevailing winds1 so currents form   
natural barriers to the dissemination of
 many oceanic races4 ,a line of shoals  
may be as impassable to deep-water      
species1 as are the ,alps and the ,andes
 to plants and animals peculiar to      
plains2 while deep abysses may prove    
insuperable obstacles to the migrations 
of the inhabitants of shallow waters4   
,supposed centres1 or foci1 of          
creation4--,it is worthy of observation1
 that one effect of the introduction of 
single pairs of each species must be the
 confined range of certain groups in    
spots1 which1 like small islands1 or    
solitary inland lakes1 have few means of
 interchanging their inhabitants with   
adjoining regions4 ,now this            

congregating in a small space of many   
peculiar species1 would give an         
appearance of centres or foci of        
creation1 as they have been termed1 as  
if they were favourite points where the 
creative energy has been in greater     
action than in others1 and where the    
numbers of peculiar organic beings have 
consequently become more considerable4  
,i do not mean to call in question the  
soundness of the inferences of some     
botanists1 as to the former existence of
 certain limited spots whence species of
 plants have been propagated1 radiating1
 as it were1 in all directions from a   
common centre4 ,on the contrary1 ,i     
conceive these phenomena to be the      
necessary consequences of the plan of   
nature before suggested1 operating      
during the successive mutations of the  
surface1 some of which the geologist can
 prove to have taken place subsequently 
to the period when many species now     
existing were created4 ,in order to     
exemplify how this arrangement of plants

 may have been produced1 let us imagine 
that1 about three centuries before the  
discovery of ,st4 ,helena 7itself of    
submarine volcanic origin71 a multitude 
of new islands had been thrown up in the
 surrounding sea1 and that these had    
each become clothed with plants         
emigrating from ,st4 ,helena1 in the    
same manner as the wild plants of       
,campania have diffused themselves over 
,monte ,nuovo4 ,whenever the first      
botanist investigated the new           
archipelago1 he would1 in all           
probability1 find a different assemblage
 of plants in each of the islands of    
recent formation2 but in ,st4 ,helena   
itself1 he would meet with individuals  
of every species1 belonging to all parts
 of the archipelago1 and some1 in       
addition1 peculiar to itself1 viz41     
those which had not been able to obtain 
a passage into any one of the           
surrounding new-formed lands4 ,in this  
case it might be truly said that the    
original island was the primitive focus1

 or centre1 of a certain type of        
vegetation2 whereas1 in the surrounding 
islands1 there would be a smaller number
 of species1 yet all belonging to the   
same group4  ,but this peculiar         
distribution of plants would not warrant
 the conclusion that1 in the space      
occupied by ,st4 ,helena1 there had been
 a greater exertion of creative power   
than in the spaces of equal area        
occupied by the new adjacent lands2     
because1 within the period in which ,st4
 ,helena had acquired its peculiar      
vegetation1 each of the spots supposed  
to be subsequently converted into land  
may have been the birth-place of a great
 number of marine animals and plants1   
which may have had time to scatter      
themselves far and wide over the        
southern ,atlantic4  ,why distinct      
provinces not more blended4--,perhaps it
 may be objected to some parts of the   
foregoing train of reasoning1 that      
during the lapse of past ages1          
especially during many partial          

revolutions of the globe of             
comparatively modern date1 different    
zoological and botanical provinces ought
 to have become more confounded and     
blended together--that the distribution 
of species approaches too nearly to what
 might have been expected1 if animals   
and plants had been introduced into the 
globe when its physical geography had   
already assumed the features which it   
now wears2 whereas we know that1 in     
certain districts1 considerable         
geographical changes have taken place   
since species identical with those now  
in being were created4  ,brocchi's      
speculations on loss of species4--,these
 and many kindred topics cannot be fully
 discussed until we have considered1 not
 merely the general laws which may      
regulate the first introduction of      
species1 but those which may limit their
 duration on the earth4 ,brocchi        
remarked1 when hazarding some           
interesting conjectures respecting the  
loss of species1 that a modern          

naturalist had no small assurance1 who  
declared that individuals alone were    
capable of destruction1 and that species
 were so perpetuated that nature could  
not annihilate them1 so long as the     
planet lasted1 or at least that nothing 
less than the shock of a comet1 or some 
similar disaster1 could put an end to   
their existence4#idi ,the ,italian      
geologist1 on the contrary1 had         
satisfied himself that many species of  
,testacea1 which formerly inhabited the 
,mediterranean1 had become extinct1     
although a great number of others1 which
 had been the contemporaries of those   
lost races1 still survived4 ,he came to 
the opinion that about half the species 
which peopled the waters when the       
,subapennine strata were deposited had  
gone out of existence2 and in this      
inference he does not appear to have    
been far wrong4  ,but1 instead of       
seeking a solution of this problem2 like
 some other geologists of his time1 in a
 violent and general catastrophe1       

,brocchi endeavoured to imagine some    
regular and constant law by which       
species might be made to disappear from 
the earth gradually and in succession4  
,the death1 he suggested1 of a species  
might depend1 like that of individuals1 
on certain peculiarities of constitution
 conferred upon them at their birth2 and
 as the longevity of the one depends on 
a certain force of vitality1 which1     
after a period1 grows weaker and weaker1
 so the duration of the other may be    
governed by the quantity of prolific    
power bestowed upon the species which1  
after a season1 may decline in energy1  
so that the fecundity and multiplication
 of individuals may be gradually        
lessened from century to century1 until 
that fatal term arrives when the embryo1
 incapable of extending and developing  
itself1 abandons1 almost at the instant 
of its formation1 the slender principle 
of life by which it was scarcely        
animated1--and so all dies with it4     
,now we may coincide in opinion with the

 ,italian naturalist1 as to the gradual 
extinction of species one after another1
 by the operation of regular and        
constant causes1 without admitting an   
inherent principle of deterioration in  
their physiological attributes4 ,we     
might concede1 that many species are on 
the decline1 and that the day is not far
 distant when they will cease to exist2 
yet deem it consistent with what we know
 of the nature of organic beings1 to    
believe that the last individuals of    
each species retain their prolific      
powers in their full intensity4         
,brocchi has himself speculated on the  
share which a change of climate may have
 had in rendering the ,mediterranean    
unfit for the habitation of certain     
,testacea1 which still continued to     
thrive in the ,indian ,ocean1 and of    
others which were now only represented  
by analogous forms within the tropics4  
,he must also have been aware that other
 extrinsic causes1 such as the progress 
of human population1 or the increase of 

some one of the inferior animals1 might 
gradually lead to the extirpation of a  
particular species1 although its        
fecundity might remain to the last      
unimpaired4 ,if1 therefore1 amid the    
vicissitudes of the animate and         
inanimate world1 there are known causes 
capable of bringing about the decline   
and extirpation of species1 it became   
him thoroughly to investigate the full  
extent to which these might operate1    
before he speculated on any cause of so 
purely hypothetical a kind as the       
diminution of the prolific virtue4  ,if 
it could have been shown that some wild 
plant had insensibly dwindled away and  
died out1 as sometimes happens to       
cultivated varieties propagated by      
cuttings1 even though climate1 soil1 and
 every other circumstance1 should       
continue identically the same--if any   
animal had perished while the physical  
condition of the earth1 and the number  
and force of its foes1 with every other 
extrinsic cause1 remain unaltered1 then 

might we have some ground for suspecting
 that the infirmities of age creep on as
 naturally on species as upon           
individuals4 ,but1 in the absence of    
such observations1 let us turn to       
another class of facts1 and examine     
attentively the circumstances which     
determine the stations of particular    
animals and plants1 and perhaps we shall
 discover1 in the vicissitudes to which 
these stations are exposed1 a cause     
fully adequate to explain the phenomena 
under consideration4  ,stations of      
plants and animals4--,stations          
comprehend all the circumstances1       
whether relating to the animate or      
inanimate world1 which determine whether
 a given plant or animal can exist in a 
given place2 so that if it be shown that
 stations can become essentially        
modified by the influence of known      
causes1 it will follow that species1 as 
well as individuals1 are mortal4  ,every
 naturalist is familiar with the fact1  
that although in a particular country1  

such as ,great ,britain1 there may be   
more than three thousand species of     
plants1 ten thousand insects1 and a     
great variety in each of the other      
classes2 yet there will not be more than
 a hundred1 perhaps not half that       
number1 inhabiting any given locality4  
,there may be no want of space in the   
supposed tract3 it may be a large       
mountain1 or an extensive moor1 or a    
great river plain1 containing room      
enough for individuals of every species 
in our island2 yet the spot will be     
occupied by a few to the exclusion of   
many1 and these few are enabled1        
throughout long periods1 to maintain    
their ground successfully against every 
intruder1 notwithstanding the facilities
 which species enjoy1 by virtue of their
 power of diffusion1 of invading        
adjacent territories4  ,the principal   
causes which enable a certain assemblage
 of plants thus to maintain their ground
 against all others depend1 as is well  
known1 on the relations between the     

physiological nature of each species1   
and the climate1 exposure1 soil1 and    
other physical conditions of the        
locality4 ,some plants live only on     
rocks1 others in meadows1 a third class 
in marshes4 ,of the latter1 some delight
 in a fresh-water morass1--others in    
salt marshes1 where their roots may     
copiously absorb saline particles4 ,some
 prefer an alpine region in a warm      
latitude1 where1 during the heat of     
summer1 they are constantly irrigated by
 the cool waters of melting snows4 ,to  
others loose sand1 so fatal to the      
generality of species1 affords the most 
proper station4 ,the ,carex arenaria and
 the ,elymus arenarius acquire their    
full vigor on a sandy dune1 obtaining an
 ascendancy over the very plants which  
in a stiff clay would immediately stifle
 them4  ,where the soil of a district is
 of so peculiar a nature that it is     
extremely favorable to certain species1 
and agrees ill with every other1 the    
former get exclusive possession of the  

ground1 and1 as in the case of heaths1  
live in societies4 ,in like manner the  
bog moss 7,sphagnum7 is fully developed 
in peaty swamps1 and becomes1 like the  
heath1 in the language of botanists1 a  
social plant4 ,such monopolies1 however1
 are not common1 for they are checked by
 various causes4 ,not only are many     
species endowed with equal powers to    
obtain and keep possession of similar   
stations1 but each plant1 for reasons   
not fully explained by the physiologist1
 has the property of rendering the soil 
where it has grown less fitted for the  
support of other individuals of its own 
species1 or even other species of the   
same family4 ,yet the same spot1 so far 
from being impoverished1 is improved1   
for plants of another family4 ,oaks1 for
 example1 render the soil more fertile  
for the fir tribe1 and firs prepare the 
soil for oaks4 ,every agriculturist     
feels the force of this law of the      
organic world1 and regulates accordingly
 the rotation of his crops4             

,equilibrium in the number of species1  
how preserved4--,all the plants of a    
given country1 says ,de ,candolle1 in   
his usual spirited style1 are at war one
 with another4 ,the first which         
establish themselves by chance in a     
particular spot tend1 by the mere       
occupancy of space1 to exclude other    
species--the greater choke the smaller2 
the longest livers replace those which  
last for a shorter period2 the more     
prolific gradually make themselves      
masters of the ground1 which species    
multiplying more slowly would otherwise 
fill4  ,in this continual strife it is  
not always the resources of the plant   
itself which enable it to maintain or   
extend its ground4 ,its success depends1
 in a great measure1 on the number of   
its foes or allies among the animals and
 plants inhabiting the same region4     
,thus1 for example1 a herb which loves  
the shade may multiply1 if some tree    
with spreading boughs and dense foliage 
flourish in the neighborhood4 ,another1 

which1 if unassisted1 would be          
overpowered by the rank growth of some  
hardy competitor1 is secure because its 
leaves are unpalatable to cattle2 which1
 on the other hand1 annually crop down  
its antagonist1 and rarely suffer it to 
ripen its seed4  ,oftentimes we see some
 herb which has flowered in the midst of
 a thorny shrub1 when all the other     
individuals of the same species1 in the 
open fields around1 are eaten down1 and 
cannot bring their seed to maturity4 ,in
 this case1 the shrub has lent his armor
 of spines and prickles to protect the  
defenceless herb against the mouths of  
the cattle1 and thus a few individuals  
which occupied1 perhaps1 the most       
unfavorable station in regard to        
exposure1 soil1 and other circumstances1
 may1 nevertheless1 by the aid of an    
ally1 become the principal source       
whereby the winds are supplied with     
seeds which perpetuate the species      
throughout the surrounding tract4 ,thus1
 in the ,new ,forest in ,hampshire1 the 

young oaks which are not consumed by the
 deer1 or uprooted by the swine1 are    
indebted to the holly for their escape4 
,in the above examples we see one plant 
shielding another from the attacks of   
animals2 but instances are1 perhaps1    
still more numerous1 where some animal  
defends a plant against the enmity of   
some other subject of the vegetable     
kingdom4  ,scarcely any beast1 observes 
a ,swedish naturalist1 will touch the   
nettle1 but fifty different kinds of    
insects are fed by it4#iej ,some of     
these seize upon the root1 others upon  
the stem2 some eat the leaves1 others   
devour the seeds and flowers2 but for   
this multitude of enemies1 the nettle   
7,urtica dioica71 which is now found in 
all the four quarters of the globe1     
would annihilate a great number of      
plants4 ,linnaeus tells us1 in his ,tour
 in ,scania1 that goats were turned into
 an island which abounded with the      
,agrostis arundinacea1 where they       
perished by famine2 but horses which    

followed them grew fat on the same      
plant4 ,the goat1 also1 he says1 thrives
 on the meadow-sweet and water-hemlock1 
plants which are injurious to           
cattle4#iea  ,agency of insects4--,every
 plant1 observes ,wilcke1 has its proper
 insect allotted to it to curb its      
luxuriancy1 and to prevent it from      
multiplying to the exclusion of others4 
,thus grass in meadows sometimes        
flourishes so as to exclude all other   
plants2 here the ,phalaena graminis     
7,bombyx gram471 with her numerous      
progeny1 finds a well-spread table2 they
 multiply in immense numbers1 and the   
farmer1 for some years1 laments the     
failure of his crop2 but the grass being
 consumed1 the moths die with hunger1 or
 remove to another place4 ,now the      
quantity of grass being greatly         
diminished1 the other plants1 which were
 before choked by it1 spring up1 and the
 ground becomes variegated with a       
multitude of different species of       
flowers4 ,had not nature given a        

commission to this minister for that    
purpose1 the grass would destroy a great
 number of species of vegetables1 of    
which the equilibrium is now kept       
up4#ieb  ,in the above passage allusion 
is made to the ravages committed in     
#agdj1 and the two following years1 in  
many provinces of ,sweden1 by a most    
destructive insect4 ,the same moth is   
said never to touch the foxtail grass1  
so that it may be classed as a most     
active ally and benefactor of that      
species1 and as peculiarly instrumental 
in preserving it in its present         
abundance4#iec ,a discovery of          
,rolander1 cited in the treatise of     
,wilcke above mentioned1 affords a good 
illustration of the checks and          
counter-checks which nature has         
appointed to preserve the balance of    
power among species4 ,the ,phalaena     
strobilella has the fir cone assigned to
 it to deposit its eggs upon2 the young 
caterpillars coming out of the shell    
consume the cone and superfluous seed2  

but1 lest the destruction should be too 
general1 the ,ichneumon strobilellae    
lays its eggs in the caterpillar1       
inserting its long tail in the openings 
of the cone till it touches the included
 insect1 for its body is too large to   
enter4 ,thus it fixes its minute egg    
upon the caterpillar1 which being       
hatched1 destroys it4#ied               
,entomologists enumerate many parallel  
cases where insects1 appropriated to    
certain plants1 are kept down by other  
insects1 and these again by parasites   
expressly appointed to prey on them4#iee
 ,few perhaps are in the habit of duly  
appreciating the extent to which insects
 are active in preserving the balance of
 species among plants1 and thus         
regulating indirectly the relative      
numbers of many of the higher orders of 
terrestrial animals4  ,the peculiarity  
of their agency consists in their power 
of suddenly multiplying their numbers to
 a degree which could only be           
accomplished in a considerable lapse of 

time in any of the larger animals1 and  
then as instantaneously relapsing1      
without the intervention of any violent 
disturbing cause1 into their former     
insignificance4  ,if1 for the sake of   
employing1 on different but rare        
occasions1 a power of many hundred      
horses1 we were under the necessity of  
feeding all these animals at great cost 
in the intervals when their services    
were not required1 we should greatly    
admire the invention of a machine1 such 
as the steam-engine1 which was capable  
at any moment of exerting the same      
degree of strength without any          
consumption of food during periods of   
inaction4 ,the same kind of admiration  
is strongly excited when we contemplate 
the powers of insect life1 in the       
creation of which the ,author of nature 
has been so prodigal4 ,a scanty number  
of minute individuals1 to be detected   
only by careful research1 are ready in a
 few days1 weeks1 or months1 to give    
birth to myriads1 which may repress any 

degree of monopoly in another species1  
or remove nuisances1 such as dead       
carcases1 which might taint the air4    
,but no sooner has the destroying       
commission been executed than the       
gigantic power becomes dormant--each of 
the mighty host soon reaches the term of
 its transient existence1 and the season
 arrives when the whole species passes  
naturally into the egg1 and thence into 
the larva and pupa state4 ,in this      
defenceless condition it may be         
destroyed either by the elements1 or by 
the augmentation of some of its numerous
 foes which may prey upon it in the     
early stages of its transformation3 or  
it often happens that in the following  
year the season proves unfavorable to   
the hatching of the eggs or the         
development of the pupae4  ,thus the    
swarming myriads depart which may have  
covered the vegetation like the aphides1
 or darkened the air like locusts4 ,in  
almost every season there are some      
species which in this manner put forth  

their strength1 and then1 like ,milton's
 spirits1 which thronged the spacious   
hall1 reduce to smallest forms their    
shapes immense--       ----,so thick the
 aary crowd   ,swarm'd and were         
straiten'd2 till the signal given1      
,behold a wonder6 they but how who      
seem'd   ,in bigness to surpass earth's 
giant sons1   ,now less than smallest   
dwarfs4   ,a few examples will          
illustrate the mode in which this force 
operates4 ,it is well known that1 among 
the countless species of the insect     
creation1 some feed on animal1 others on
 vegetable matter2 and upon considering 
a catalogue of eight thousand ,british  
,insects and ,arachnidae1 ,mr4 ,kirby   
found that these two divisions were     
nearly a counterpoise to each other1 the
 carnivorous being somewhat             
preponderant4 ,there are also distinct  
species1 some appointed to consume      
living1 others dead or putrid animal and
 vegetable substances4 ,one female1 of  
,musca carnaria1 will give birth to     

twenty thousand young2 and the larvae of
 many flesh-flies devour so much food in
 twenty-four hours1 and grow so quickly1
 as to increase their weight two        
hundred-fold6 ,in five days after being 
hatched they arrive at their full growth
 and size1 so that there was ground1    
says ,kirby1 for the assertion of       
,linnaeus1 that three flies of ,m4      
vomitoria could devour a dead horse as  
quickly as a lion#ief2 and another      
,swedish naturalist remarks1 that so    
great are the powers of propagation of a
 single species even of the smallest    
insects1 that each can commit1 when     
required1 more ravages than the         
elephant4#ieg  ,next to locusts1 the    
aphides1 perhaps1 exert the greatest    
power over the vegetable world1 and1    
like them1 are so sometimes so numerous 
as to darken the air4 ,the              
multiplication of these little creatures
 is without parallel1 and almost every  
plant has its peculiar species4 ,reaumur
 has proved that in five generations one

 aphis may be the progenitor of         
#e1ijd1ijj1jjj descendants2 and it is   
supposed that in one year there may be  
twenty generations4#ieh ,mr4 ,curtis    
observes that1 as among caterpillars we 
find some that are constantly and       
unalterably attached to one or more     
particular species of plants1 and others
 that feed indiscriminately on most     
sorts of herbage1 so it is precisely    
with the aphides3 some are particular1  
others more general feeders2 and as they
 resemble other insects in this respect1
 so they do also in being more abundant 
in some years than in others4#iei ,in   
#agic they were the chief1 and in #agih 
the sole1 cause of the failure of the   
hops4 ,in #agid1 a season1 almost       
unparalleled for drought1 the hop was   
perfectly free from them2 while peas and
 beans1 especially the former1 suffered 
very much from their depredations4  ,the
 ravages of the caterpillars of some of 
our smaller moths afford a good         
illustration of the temporary increase  

of a species4 ,the oak-trees of a       
considerable wood have been stripped of 
their leaves as bare as in winter by the
 caterpillars of a small green moth     
7,tortrix viridana71 which has been     
observed the year following not to      
abound4#ifj ,the silver ,y moth 7,plusia
 gamma71 although one of our common     
species1 is not dreaded by us for its   
devastations2 but legions of their      
caterpillars have at times created alarm
 in ,france1 as in #agce4 ,reaumur      
observes that the female moth lays about
 four hundred eggs2 so that if twenty   
caterpillars were distributed in a      
garden1 and all lived through the winter
 and became moths in the succeeding     
,may1 the eggs laid by these1 if half of
 them were female and all fertile1 would
 in the next generation produce #hjj1jjj
 caterpillars4#ifa ,a modern writer1    
therefore1 justly observes that1 did not
 ,providence put causes in operation to 
keep them in due bounds1 the            
caterpillars of this moth alone1 leaving

 out of consideration the two thousand  
other ,british species1 might soon      
destroy more than half of our           
vegetation4#ifb  ,in the latter part of 
the last century an ant most destructive
 to the sugar-cane 7,formica            
saccharivora71 appeared in such infinite
 hosts in the island of ,granada1 as to 
put a stop to the cultivation of that   
vegetable4 ,their numbers were          
incredible4 ,the plantations and roads  
were filled with them2 many domestic    
quadrupeds1 together with rats1 mice1   
and reptiles1 and even birds1 perished  
in consequence of this plague4 ,it was  
not till #aghj that they were at length 
annihilated by torrents of rain1 which  
accompanied a dreadful hurricane4#ifc   
,devastations caused by locusts4--,we   
may conclude by mentioning some         
instances of the devastations of locusts
 in various countries4 ,among other     
parts of ,africa1 ,cyrenaica has been at
 different periods infested by myriads  
of these creatures1 which have consumed 

nearly every green thing4 ,the effect of
 the havoc committed by them may be     
estimated by the famine they occasioned4
 ,st4 ,augustin mentions a plague of    
this kind in ,africa1 which destroyed no
 less than #hjj1jjj men in the kingdom  
of ,massinissa alone1 and many more upon
 the territories bordering upon the sea4
 ,it is also related1 that in the year  
#eia an infinite army of locusts        
migrated from ,africa into ,italy2 and1 
after grievously ravaging the country1  
were cast into the sea1 when there arose
 a pestilence from their stench1 which  
carried off nearly a million of men and 
beasts4  ,in the ,venetian territory1   
also1 in #agdh1 more than thirty        
thousand persons are said to have       
perished in a famine occasioned by this 
scourge2 and other instances are        
recorded of their devastations in       
,france1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,germany1 c4   
,in different parts of ,russia also1    
,hungary1 and ,poland1 in ,arabia and   
,india1 and other countries1 their      

visitations have been periodically      
experienced4 ,although they have a      
preference for certain plants1 yet1 when
 these are consumed1 they will attack   
almost all the remainder4 ,in the       
accounts of the invasion of locusts1 the
 statements which appear most marvellous
 relate to the prodigious mass of matter
 which encumbers the sea wherever they  
are blown into it1 and the pestilence   
arising from its putrefaction4 ,their   
dead bodies are said to have been1 in   
some places1 heaped one upon another1 to
 the depth of four feet1 in ,russia1    
,poland and ,lithuania2 and when1 in    
,southern ,africa1 they were driven into
 the sea1 by a north-west wind1 they    
formed1 says ,barrow1 along the shore1  
for fifty miles1 a bank three or four   
feet high4#ifd ,but when we consider    
that forests are stripped of their      
foliage1 and the earth of its green     
garment for thousands of square miles1  
it may well be supposed that the volume 
of animal matter produced may equal that

 of great herds of quadrupeds and       
flights of large birds suddenly         
precipitated into the sea4  ,the        
occurrence of such events1 at certain   
intervals1 in hot countries1 like the   
severe winters and damp summers         
returning after a series of years in the
 temperate zone1 may affect the         
proportional numbers of almost all      
classes of animals and plants1 and      
probably prove fatal to the existence of
 many which would otherwise thrive      
there2 while1 on the contrary1 the same 
occurrences can scarcely fail to be     
favorable to certain species which1 if  
deprived of such aid1 might not maintain
 their ground4  ,although it may usually
 be remarked that the extraordinary     
increase of some one species is         
immediately followed and checked by the 
multiplication of another1 yet this does
 not always happen2 partly because many 
species feed in common on the same kinds
 of food1 and partly because many kinds 
of food are often consumed indifferently

 by one and the same species4 ,in the   
former case1 where a variety of         
different animals have precisely the    
same taste1 as1 for example1 when many  
insectivorous birds and reptiles devour 
alike some particular fly or beetle1 the
 unusual numbers of these insects may   
cause only a slight and almost          
imperceptible augmentation of each of   
these species of bird and reptile4 ,in  
the other instances1 where one animal   
preys on others of almost every class1  
as for example1 where our ,english      
buzzards devour not only small          
quadrupeds1 as rabbits and field-mice1  
but also birds1 frogs1 lizards1 and     
insects1 the profusion of any one of    
these last may cause all such general   
feeders to subsist more exclusively upon
 the species thus in excess1 by which   
means the balance may be restored4      
,agency of omnivorous animals4--,the    
number of species which are nearly      
omnivorous is considerable2 and although
 every animal has1 perhaps1 a           

predilection for some one description of
 food rather than another1 yet some are 
not even confined to one of the great   
kingdoms of the organic world4 ,thus1   
when the raccoon of the ,west ,indies   
can procure neither fowls1 fish1 snails1
 nor insects1 it will attack the        
sugar-canes1 and devour various kinds of
 grain4 ,the civets1 when animal food is
 scarce1 maintain themselves on fruits  
and roots4  ,numerous birds1 which feed 
indiscriminately on insects and plants1 
are perhaps more instrumental than any  
other of the terrestrial tribes in      
preserving a constant equilibrium       
between the relative numbers of         
different classes of animals and        
vegetables4 ,if the insects become very 
numerous and devour the plants1 these   
birds will immediately derive a larger  
portion of their subsistence from       
insects1 just as the ,arabians1         
,syrians1 and ,hottentots feed on       
locusts1 when the locusts devour their  
crops4  ,reciprocal influence of aquatic

 and terrestrial species4--,the intimate
 relation of the inhabitants of the     
water to those of the land1 and the     
influence exerted by each on the        
relative number of species1 must not be 
overlooked amongst the complicated      
causes which determine the existence of 
animals and plants in certain regions4  
,a large portion of the amphibious      
quadrupeds and reptiles prey partly on  
aquatic plants and animals1 and in part 
on terrestrial2 and a deficiency of one 
kind of prey causes them to have        
immediate recourse to the other4 ,the   
voracity of certain insects1 as the     
dragon-fly1 for example1 is confined to 
the water during one stage of their     
transformations1 and in their perfect   
state to the air4 ,innumerable          
water-birds1 both of rivers and seas1   
derive in like manner their food        
indifferently from either element2 so   
that the abundance or scarcity of prey  
in one induces them either to forsake or
 more constantly to haunt the other4    

,thus an intimate connection between the
 state of the animate creation in a lake
 or river1 and in the adjoining dry     
land1 is maintained2 or between a       
continent1 with its lakes and rivers1   
and the ocean4 ,it is well known that   
many birds migrate1 during stormy       
seasons1 from the sea-shore into the    
interior1 in search of food2 while      
others1 on the contrary1 urged by like  
wants1 forsake their inland haunts1 and 
live on substances rejected by the tide4
  ,the migration of fish into rivers    
during the spawning season supplies     
another link of the same kind4 ,suppose 
the salmon to be reduced in numbers by  
some marine foes1 as by seals and       
grampuses1 the consequence must often   
be1 that in the course of a few years   
the otters at the distance of several   
hundred miles inland will be lessened in
 number from the scarcity of fish4 ,on  
the other hand1 if there be a dearth of 
food for the young fry of the salmon in 
rivers and estuaries1 so that few return

 to the sea1 the sand eels and other    
marine species1 which are usually kept  
down by the salmon1 will swarm in       
greater profusion4  ,it is unnecessary  
to accumulate a greater number of       
illustrations in order to prove that the
 stations of different plants and       
animals depend on a great complication  
of circumstances1--on an immense variety
 of relations in the state of the       
inanimate worlds4 ,every plant requires 
a certain climate1 soil1 and other      
conditions1 and often the aid of many   
animals1 in order to maintain its       
ground4 ,many animals feed on certain   
plants1 being often restricted to a     
small number1 and sometimes to one only2
 other members of the animal kingdom    
feed on plant-eating species1 and thus  
become dependent on the conditions of   
the stations not only of their prey1 but
 of the plants consumed by them4        
,having duly reflected on the nature and
 extent of these mutual relations in the
 different parts of the organic and     

inorganic worlds1 we may next proceed to
 examine the results which may be       
anticipated from the fluctuations now   
continually in progress in the state of 
the earth's surface1 and in the         
geographical distribution of its living 
productions4     ,,chapter ,,xli4       
,,extinction ,,of ,,species4--,,changes 
,,in ,,the ,,stations ,,of ,,animals4   
,extension of the range of one species  
alters the condition of many            
others--,the first appearance of a new  
species causes the chief                
disturbance--,changes known to have     
resulted from the advance of     human  
population--,whether man increases the  
productive powers of the                
earth--,indigenous quadrupeds and birds 
extirpated in ,great                    
,britain--,extinction of the            
dodo--,rapid propagation of domestic    
quadrupeds in ,america--,power of       
exterminating species no prerogative    
of man--,concluding remarks4   ,we have 
seen that the stations of animals and   

plants depend not merely on the         
influence of external agents in the     
inanimate world1 and the relations of   
that influence to the structure and     
habits of each species1 but also on the 
state of the contemporary living beings 
which inhabit the same part of the      
globe4 ,in other words1 the possibility 
of the existence of a certain species in
 a given place1 or of its thriving more 
or less therein1 is determined not      
merely by temperature1 humidity1 soil1  
elevation1 and other circumstances of   
the like kind2 but also by the existence
 or non-existence1 the abundance or     
scarcity1 of a particular assemblage of 
other plants and animals in the same    
region4  ,if it be shown that both these
 classes of circumstances1 whether      
relating to the animate or inanimate    
creation1 are perpetually changing1 it  
will follow that species are subject to 
incessant vicissitudes2 and if the      
result of these mutations1 in the course
 of ages1 be so great as materially to  

affect the general condition of         
stations1 it will follow that the       
successive destruction of species must  
now be part of the regular and constant 
order of nature4  ,extension of the     
range of one species alters the         
condition of the others4--,it will be   
desirable1 first1 to consider the       
effects which every extension of the    
numbers or geographical range of one    
species must produce on the condition of
 others inhabiting the same regions4    
,when the necessary consequences of such
 extensions have been fully explained1  
the reader will be prepared to          
appreciate the important influence which
 slight modifications in the physical   
geography of the globe may exert on the 
condition of organic beings4  ,in the   
first place1 it is clear that when any  
region is stocked with as great a       
variety of animals and plants as the    
productive powers of that region will   
enable it to support1 the addition of   
any new species1 or the permanent       

numerical increase of one previously    
established1 must always be attended    
either by the local extermination or the
 numerical decrease of some other       
species4  ,there may undoubtedly be     
considerable fluctuations from year to  
year1 and the equilibrium may be again  
restored without any permanent          
alteration2 for1 in particular seasons1 
a greater supply of heat1 humidity1 or  
other causes1 may augment the total     
quantity of vegetable produce1 in which 
case all the animals subsisting on      
vegetable food1 and others which prey on
 them1 may multiply without any one     
species giving way3 but whilst the      
aggregate quantity of vegetable produce 
remains unaltered1 the progressive      
increase of one animal or plant implies 
the decline of another4  ,all           
agriculturists and gardeners are        
familiar with the fact that when weeds  
intrude themselves into the space       
appropriated to cultivated species1 the 
latter are starved in their growth1 or  

stifled4 ,if we abandon for a short time
 a field or garden1 a host of indigenous
 plants1     ,the darnel1 hemlock1 and  
rank fumitory1   pour in and obtain the 
mastery1 extirpating the exotics1 or    
putting an end to the monopoly of some  
native plants4  ,if we inclose a park1  
and stock it with as many deer as the   
herbage will support1 we cannot add     
sheep without lessening the number of   
the deer2 nor can other herbivorous     
species be subsequently introduced1     
unless the individuals of each species  
in the park become fewer in proportion4 
,so1 if there be an island where        
leopards are the only beasts of prey1   
and the lion1 tiger1 and hyaena         
afterwards enter1 the leopards1 if they 
stand their ground1 will be reduced in  
number4 ,if the locusts then arrive and 
swarm greatly1 they may deprive a large 
number of plant-eating animals of their 
food1 and thereby cause a famine1 not   
only among them1 but among the beasts of
 prey3 certain species perhaps1 which   

had the weakest footing in the island1  
may thus be annihilated4  ,we have seen 
how many distinct geographical provinces
 there are of aquatic and terrestrial   
species1 and how great are the powers of
 migration conferred on different       
classes1 whereby the inhabitants of one 
region may be enabled from time to time 
to invade another1 and do actually so   
migrate and diffuse themselves over new 
countries4 ,now1 although our knowledge 
of the history of the animate creation  
dates from so recent a period1 that we  
can scarcely trace the advance or       
decline of any animal or plant1 except  
in those cases where the influence of   
man has intervened2 yet we can easily   
conceive what must happen when some new 
colony of wild animals or plants enters 
a region for the first time1 and        
succeeds in establishing itself4        
,supposed effects of the first entrance 
of the polar bear into ,iceland4--,let  
us consider how great are the           
devastations committed at certain       

periods by the ,greenland bears1 when   
they are drifted to the shores of       
,iceland in considerable numbers on the 
ice4 ,these periodical invasions are    
formidable even to man2 so that when the
 bears arrive1 the inhabitants collect  
together1 and go in pursuit of them with
 fire-arms--each native who slays one   
being rewarded by the ,king of ,denmark4
 ,the ,danes of old1 when they landed in
 their marauding expeditions upon our   
coast1 hardly excited more alarm1 nor   
did our islanders muster more promptly  
for the defence of their lives and      
property against the common enemy1 than 
the modern ,icelanders against these    
formidable brutes4 ,it often happens1   
says ,henderson1 that the natives are   
pursued by the bear when he has been    
long at sea1 and when his natural       
ferocity has been heightened by the     
keenness of hunger2 if unarmed1 it is   
frequently by stratagem only that they  
make their escape4#ife  ,let us cast our
 thoughts back to the period when the   

first polar bears reached ,iceland1     
before it was colonized by the          
,norwegians in #hgd3 we may imagine the 
breaking up of an immense barrier of ice
 like that which1 in #ahaf and the      
following year1 disappeared from the    
east coast of ,greenland1 which it had  
surrounded for four centuries4 ,by the  
aid of such means of transportation a   
great number of these quadrupeds might  
effect a landing at the same time1 and  
the havoc which they would make among   
the species previously settled in the   
island would be terrific4 ,the deer1    
foxes1 seals1 and even birds1 on which  
these animals sometimes prey1 would be  
soon thinned down4  ,but this would be a
 part only1 and probably an             
insignificant portion1 of the aggregate 
amount of change brought about by the   
new invader4 ,the plants on which the   
deer fed1 being less consumed in        
consequence of the lessened numbers of  
that herbivorous species1 would soon    
supply more food to several insects1 and

 probably to some terrestrial testacea1 
so that the latter would gain ground4   
,the increase of these would furnish    
other insects and birds with food1 so   
that the numbers of these last would be 
augmented4 ,the diminution of the seals 
would afford a respite to some fish     
which they had persecuted2 and these    
fish1 in their turn1 would then multiply
 and press upon their peculiar prey4    
,many water-fowls1 the eggs and young of
 which are devoured by foxes1 would     
increase when the foxes were thinned    
down by the bears2 and the fish on which
 the water-fowls subsisted would then1  
in their turn1 be less numerous4 ,thus  
the numerical proportions of a great    
number of the inhabitants1 both of the  
land and sea1 might be permanently      
altered by the settling of one new      
species in the region2 and the changes  
caused indirectly would ramify through  
all classes of the living creation1 and 
be almost endless4  ,an actual          
illustration of what we have here only  

proposed hypothetically1 is in some     
degree afforded by the selection of     
small islands by the eider duck for its 
residence during the season of          
incubation1 its nest being seldom if    
ever found on the shores of the main    
land1 or even of a large island4 ,the   
,icelanders are so well aware of this1  
that they have expended a great deal of 
labor in forming artificial islands1 by 
separating from the main land certain   
promontories1 joined to it by narrow    
isthmuses4 ,this insular position is    
necessary to guard against the          
destruction of the eggs and young birds1
 by foxes1 dogs1 and other animals4 ,one
 year1 says ,hooker1 it happened that1  
in the small island of ,vidoe1 adjoining
 the coast of ,iceland1 a fox got over  
upon the ice1 and caused great alarm1 as
 an immense number of ducks were then   
sitting on their eggs or young ones4 ,it
 was long before he was taken1 which was
 at last1 however1 effected by bringing 
another fox to the island1 and fastening

 it by a string near the haunt of the   
former1 by which he was allured within  
shot of the hunter4#iff  ,the first     
appearance of a new species causes the  
chief disturbance4--,it is usually the  
first appearance of an animal or plant1 
in a region to which it was previously a
 stranger1 that gives rise to the chief 
alteration2 since1 after a time1 an     
equilibrium is again established4 ,but  
it must require ages before such a new  
adjustment of the relative forces of so 
many conflicting agents can be          
definitely settled4 ,the causes in      
simultaneous action are so numerous1    
that they admit of an almost infinite   
number of combinations2 and it is       
necessary that all these should have    
occurred once before the total amount of
 change1 capable of flowing from any new
 disturbing force1 can be estimated4    
,thus1 for example1 suppose that once in
 two centuries a frost of unusual       
intensity1 or a volcanic eruption of    
great violence accompanied by floods    

from the melting of glaciers1 should    
occur in ,iceland2 or an epidemic       
disease1 fatal to the larger number of  
individuals of some one species1 and not
 affecting others1--these1 and a variety
 of other contingencies1 all of which   
may occur at once1 or at periods        
separated by different intervals of     
time1 ought to happen before it would be
 possible for us to declare what        
ultimate alteration the presence of any 
new comer1 such as the bear before      
mentioned1 might occasion in the animal 
population of the isle4  ,every new     
condition in the state of the organic or
 inorganic creation1 a new animal or    
plant1 an additional snow-clad mountain1
 any permanent change1 however slight in
 comparison to the whole1 gives rise to 
a new order of things1 and may make a   
material change in regard to some one or
 more species4 ,yet a swarm of locusts1 
or a frost of extreme intensity1 or an  
epidemic disease1 may pass away without 
any great apparent derangement2 no      

species may be lost1 and all may soon   
recover their former relative numbers1  
because the same scourges may have      
visited the region again and again1 at  
preceding periods4 ,every plant that was
 incapable of resisting such a degree of
 cold1 every animal which was exposed to
 be entirely cut off by an epidemic or  
by famine caused by the consumption of  
vegetation by the locusts1 may have     
perished already1 so that the subsequent
 recurrence of similar catastrophes is  
attended only by a temporary change4    
,changes caused by ,man  ,we are best   
acquainted with the mutations brought   
about by the progress of human          
population1 and the growth of plants and
 animals favored by man4 ,to these1     
therefore1 we should in the first       
instance turn our attention4 ,if we     
conclude1 from the concurrent testimony 
of history and of the evidence yielded  
by geological data1 that man is1        
comparatively speaking1 of very modern  
origin1 we must at once perceive how    

great a revolution in the state of the  
animate world the increase of the human 
race1 considered merely as consumers of 
a certain quantity of organic matter1   
must necessarily cause4  ,whether man   
increases the productive powers of the  
earth4--,it may perhaps1 be said1 that  
man has1 in some degree1 compensated for
 the appropriation to himself of so much
 food1 by artificially improving the    
natural productiveness of soils1 by     
irrigation1 manure1 and a judicious     
intermixture of mineral ingredients     
conveyed from different localities4 ,but
 it admits of reasonable doubt whether1 
upon the whole1 we fertilize or         
impoverish the lands which we occupy4   
,this assertion may seem startling to   
many2 because they are so much in the   
habit of regarding the sterility or     
productiveness of land in relation to   
the wants of man1 and not as regards the
 organic world generally4 ,it is        
difficult1 at first1 to conceive1 if a  
morass is converted into arable land1   

and made to yield a crop of grain1 even 
of moderate abundance1 that we have not 
improved the capabilities of the        
habitable surface--that we have not     
empowered it to support a larger        
quantity of organic life4 ,in such      
cases1 however1 a tract1 before of no   
utility to man1 may be reclaimed1 and   
become of high agricultural importance1 
though it may1 nevertheless1 yield a    
scantier vegetation4 ,if a lake be      
drained1 and turned into a meadow1 the  
space will provide sustenance to man1   
and many terrestrial animals serviceable
 to him1 but not1 perhaps1 so much food 
as it previously yielded to the aquatic 
races4  ,if the pestiferous ,pontine    
marshes were drained1 and covered with  
corn1 like the plains of the ,po1 they  
might1 perhaps1 feed a smaller number of
 animals than they do now2 for these    
morasses are filled with herds of       
buffaloes and swine1 and they swarm with
 birds1 reptiles1 and insects4  ,the    
felling of dense and lofty forests1     

which covered1 even within the records  
of history1 a considerable space on the 
globe1 now tenanted by civilized man1   
must generally have lessened the amount 
of vegetable food throughout the space  
where these woods grew4 ,we must also   
take into our account the area covered  
by towns1 and a still larger surface    
occupied by roads4  ,if we force the    
soil to bear extraordinary crops one    
year1 we are1 perhaps1 compelled to let 
it lie fallow the next4 ,but nothing so 
much counterbalances the fertilizing    
effects of human art as the extensive   
cultivation of foreign herbs and shrubs1
 which1 although they are often more    
nutritious to man1 seldom thrive with   
the same rank luxuriance as the native  
plants of a district4 ,man is1 in truth1
 continually striving to diminish the   
natural diversity of the stations of    
animals and plants in every country1 and
 to reduce them all to a small number   
fitted for species of economical use4   
,he may succeed perfectly in attaining  

his object1 even though the vegetation  
be comparatively meagre1 and the total  
amount of animal life be greatly        
lessened4  ,spix and ,martius have given
 a lively description of the incredible 
number of insects which lay waste the   
crops in ,brazil1 besides swarms of     
monkeys1 flocks of parrots1 and other   
birds1 as well as the paca1 agouti1 and 
wild swine4 ,they describe the torment  
which the planter and the naturalist    
suffer from the musquitoes1 and the     
devastation of the ants and blattae2    
they speak of the dangers to which they 
were exposed from the jaguar1 the       
poisonous serpents1 crocodiles1         
scorpions1 centipedes1 and spiders4 ,but
 with the increasing population and     
cultivation of the country1 say these   
naturalists1 these evils will gradually 
diminish2 when the inhabitants have cut 
down the woods1 drained the marshes1    
made roads in all directions1 and       
founded villages and towns1 man will1 by
 degrees1 triumph over the rank         

vegetation and the noxious animals1 and 
all the elements will second and amply  
recompense his activity4#ifg  ,the      
number of human beings now peopling the 
earth is supposed to amount to eight    
hundred millions1 so that we may easily 
understand how great a number of beasts 
of prey1 birds1 and animals of every    
class1 this prodigious population must  
have displaced1 independently of the    
still more important consequences which 
have followed from the derangement      
brought about by man in the relative    
numerical strength of particular        
species4  ,indigenous quadrupeds and    
birds extirpated in ,great              
,britain4--,let us make some inquiries  
into the extent of the influence which  
the progress of society has exerted     
during the last seven or eight          
centuries1 in altering the distribution 
of indigenous ,british animals4 ,dr4    
,fleming has prosecuted this inquiry    
with his usual zeal and ability2 and in 
a memoir on the subject has enumerated  

the best-authenticated examples of the  
decrease or extirpation of certain      
species during a period when our        
population has made the most rapid      
advances4 ,i shall offer a brief outline
 of his results4#ifh  ,the stag1 as well
 as the fallow deer and the roe1 were   
formerly so abundant in our island1     
that1 according to ,lesley1 from five   
hundred to a thousand were sometimes    
slain at a hunting match2 but the native
 races would already have been          
extinguished1 had they not been         
carefully preserved in certain forests4 
,the otter1 the marten1 and the polecat1
 were also in sufficient numbers to be  
pursued for the sake of their fur2 but  
they have now been reduced within very  
narrow bounds4 ,the wild cat and fox    
have also been sacrificed throughout the
 greater part of the country1 for the   
security of the poultry-yard or the     
fold4 ,badgers have been expelled from  
nearly every district1 which at former  
periods they inhabited4  ,besides these1

 which have been driven out from their  
favorite haunts1 and everywhere reduced 
in number1 there are some which have    
been wholly extirpated2 such as the     
ancient breed of indigenous horses1 and 
the wild boar2 of the wild oxen a few   
remains are still preserved in some of  
the old ,english parks4 ,the beaver1    
which is eagerly sought after for its   
fur1 had become scarce at the close of  
the ninth century2 and1 by the twelfth  
century1 was only to be met with1       
according to ,giraldus de ,barri1 in one
 river in ,wales1 and another in        
,scotland4 ,the wolf1 once so much      
dreaded by our ancestors1 is said to    
have maintained its ground in ,ireland  
so late as the beginning of the         
eighteenth century 7#agaj71 though it   
had been extirpated in ,scotland thirty 
years before1 and in ,england at a much 
earlier period4 ,the bear1 which1 in    
,wales1 was regarded as a beast of the  
chase equal to the hare or the boar#ifi1
 only perished1 as a native of          

,scotland1 in the year #ajeg4igj  ,many 
native birds of prey have also been the 
subjects of unremitting persecution4    
,the eagles1 larger hawks1 and ravens1  
have disappeared from the more          
cultivated districts4 ,the haunts of the
 mallard1 the snipe1 the redshank1 and  
the bittern1 have been drained equally  
with the summer dwellings of the lapwing
 and the curlew4 ,but these species     
still linger in some portion of the     
,british isles2 whereas the larger      
capercailzies or wood grouse1 formerly  
natives of the pine-forests of ,ireland 
and ,scotland1 have been destroyed      
within the last sixty years4 ,the egret 
and the crane1 which appear to have been
 formerly very common in ,scotland1 are 
now only occasional visitants4#iga  ,the
 bustard 7,otis tarda71 observes        
,graves1 in his ,british                
,ornithology#igb1 was formerly seen in  
the downs and heaths of various parts of
 our island1 in flocks of forty or fifty
 birds2 whereas it is now a circumstance

 of rare occurrence to meet with a      
single individual4 ,bewick also remarks1
 that they were formerly more common in 
this island than at present2 they are   
now found only in the open counties of  
the south and east--in the plains of    
,wiltshire1 ,dorsetshire1 and some parts
 of ,yorkshire4#igc ,in the few years   
that have elapsed since ,bewick wrote1  
this bird has entirely disappeared from 
,wiltshire and ,dorsetshire4  ,these    
changes1 it may be observed1 are derived
 from very imperfect memorials1 and     
relate only to the larger and more      
conspicuous animals inhabiting a small  
spot on the globe2 but they cannot fail 
to exalt our conception of the enormous 
revolutions which1 in the course of     
several thousand years1 the whole human 
species must have effected4  ,extinction
 of the dodo4--,the kangaroo and the emu
 are retreating rapidly before the      
progress of colonization in ,australia2 
and it scarcely admits of doubt1 that   
the general cultivation of that country 

must lead to the extirpation of both4   
,the most striking example of the loss1 
even within the last two centuries1 of a
 remarkable species1 is that of the     
dodo--a bird first seen by the ,dutch1  
when they landed on the ,isle of        
,france1 at that time uninhabited1      
immediately after the discovery of the  
passage to the ,east ,indies by the     
,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it was of a large
 size1 and singular form2 its wings     
short1 like those of an ostrich1 and    
wholly incapable of sustaining its heavy
 body1 even for a short flight4 ,in its 
general appearance it differed from the 
ostrich1 cassowary1 or any known        
bird4#igd  ,many naturalists gave       
figures of the dodo after the           
commencement of the seventeenth century2
 and there is a painting of it in the   
,british ,museum1 which is said to have 
been taken from a living individual4    
,beneath the painting is a leg1 in a    
fine state of preservation1 which       
ornithologists are agreed cannot belong 

to any other known bird4 ,in the museum 
at ,oxford1 also1 there is a foot and a 
head in an imperfect state4  ,in spite  
of the most active search1 during the   
last century1 no information respecting 
the dodo was obtained1 and some authors 
have gone so far as to pretend that it  
never existed2 but a great mass of      
satisfactory evidence in favor of its   
recent existence has now been collected 
by ,mr4 ,broderip1#ige and by ,mr4      
,strickland and ,dr4 ,melville4 ,mr4    
,strickland1 agreeing with ,professor   
,reinhardt1 of ,copenhagen1 in referring
 the dodo to the ,columbidae1 calls it a
 vulture-like frugivorous pigeon4 ,it   
appears1 also1 that another short-winged
 bird of the same order1 called ,the    
,solitaire1 inhabited the small island  
of ,rodrigues1 #cjj miles east of the   
,mauritius1 and has been exterminated by
 man1 as have one or two different but  
allied birds of the ,isle of            
,bourbon4#igf  ,rapid propagation of    
domestic quadrupeds over the ,american  

continent4--,next to the direct agency  
of man1 his indirect influence in       
multiplying the numbers of large        
herbivorous quadrupeds of domesticated  
races may be regarded as one of the most
 obvious causes of the extermination of 
species4 ,on this1 and on several other 
grounds1 the introduction of the horse1 
ox1 and other mammalia1 into ,america1  
and their rapid propagation over that   
continent within the last three         
centuries1 is a fact of great importance
 in natural history4 ,the extraordinary 
herds of wild cattle and horses which   
overran the plains of ,south ,america   
sprung from a very few pairs first      
carried over by the ,spaniards2 and they
 prove that the wide geographical range 
of large species in great continents    
does not necessarily imply that they    
have existed there from remote periods4 
,humboldt observes1 in his ,travels1 on 
the authority of ,azzara1 that it is    
believed there exist1 in the ,pampas of 
,buenos ,ayres1 twelve million cows and 

three million horses1 without           
comprising1 in this enumeration1 the    
cattle that have no acknowledged        
proprietor4 ,in the ,llanos of          
,caraccas1 the rich hateros1 or         
proprietors of pastoral farms1 are      
entirely ignorant of the number of      
cattle they possess4 ,the young are     
branded with a mark peculiar to each    
herd1 and some of the most wealthy      
owners mark as many as fourteen thousand
 a year4#igg ,in the northern plains1   
from the ,orinoco to the lake of        
,maraycabo1 ,m4 ,depons reckoned that   
#a1bjj1jjj oxen1 #ahj1jjj horses1 and   
#ij1jjj mules1 wandered at large4#igh   
,in some parts of the valley of the     
,mississippi1 especially in the country 
of the ,osage ,indians1 wild horses are 
immensely numerous4  ,the establishment 
of black cattle in ,america dates from  
,columbus's second voyage to ,st4       
,domingo4 ,they there multiplied        
rapidly2 and that island presently      
became a kind of nursery from which     

these animals were successively         
transported to various parts of the     
continental coast1 and from thence into 
the interior4 ,notwithstanding these    
numerous exportations1 in twenty-seven  
years after the discovery of the island1
 herds of four thousand head1 as we     
learn from ,oviedo1 were not uncommon1  
and there were even some that amounted  
to eight thousand4 ,in #aehg1 the number
 of hides exported from ,st4 ,domingo   
alone1 according to ,acosta's report1   
was #ce1ddd2 and in the same year there 
were exported #fd1cej from the ports of 
,new ,spain4 ,this was in the           
sixty-fifth year after the taking of    
,mexico1 previous to which event the    
,spaniards1 who came into that country1 
had not been able to engage in anything 
else than war4#igi ,every one is aware  
that these animals are now established  
throughout the ,american continent from 
,canada to the ,straits of ,magellan4   
,the ass has thriven very generally in  
the ,new ,world2 and we learn from      

,ulloa1 that in ,quito they ran wild1   
and multiplied in amazing numbers1 so as
 to become a nuisance4 ,they grazed     
together in herds1 and when attacked    
defended themselves with their mouths4  
,if a horse happened to stray into the  
places where they fed1 they all fell    
upon him1 and did not cease biting and  
kicking till they left him dead4#ihj    
,the first hogs were carried to ,america
 by ,columbus1 and established in the   
,island of ,st4 ,domingo the year       
following its discovery1 in ,november1  
#adic4 ,in succeeding years they were   
introduced into other places where the  
,spaniards settled2 and1 in the space of
 half a century1 they were found        
established in the ,new ,world1 from the
 latitude of #be degrees north1 to the  
#djth degree of south latitude4 ,sheep1 
also1 and goats have multiplied         
enormously in the ,new ,world1 as have  
also the cat and the rat2 which last1 as
 before stated1 has been imported       
unintentionally in ships4 ,the dogs     

introduced by man which have at         
different periods become wild in        
,america1 hunted in packs1 like the wolf
 and the jackall1 destroying not only   
hogs1 but the calves and foals of the   
wild cattle and horses4  ,ulloa in his  
voyage1 and ,buffon on the authority of 
old writers1 relate a fact which        
illustrates very clearly the principle  
before explained1 of the check which the
 increase of one animal necessarily     
offers to that of another4 ,the         
,spaniards had introduced goats into the
 ,island of ,juan ,fernandez1 where they
 became so prolific as to furnish the   
pirates who infested those seas with    
provisions4 ,in order to cut off this   
resource from the buccaneers1 a number  
of dogs were turned loose into the      
island2 and so numerous did they become 
in their turn1 that they destroyed the  
goats in every accessible part1 after   
which the number of the wild dogs again 
decreased4#iha  ,increase of rein-deer  
imported into ,iceland4--,as an example 

of the rapidity with which a large tract
 may become peopled by the offspring of 
a single pair of quadrupeds1 it may be  
mentioned that in the year #aggc        
thirteen rein-deer were exported from   
,norway1 only three of which reached    
,iceland4 ,these were turned loose into 
the mountains of ,guldbringe ,syssel1   
where they multiplied so greatly1 in the
 course of forty years1 that it was not 
uncommon to meet with herds1 consisting 
of from forty to one hundred1 in various
 districts4  ,the rein-deer1 observes a 
modern writer1 is in ,lapland a loser by
 his connexion with man1 but ,iceland   
will be this creature's paradise4 ,there
 is1 in the interior1 a tract which     
,sir4 ,g4 ,mackenzie computes at not    
less than forty thousand square miles1  
without a single human habitation1 and  
almost entirely unknown to the natives  
themselves4 ,there are no wolves3 the   
,icelanders will keep out the bears2 and
 the reindeer1 being almost unmolested  
by man1 will have no enemy whatever1    

unless it has brought with it its own   
tormenting gad-fly4#ihb  ,besides the   
quadrupeds before enumerated1 our       
domestic fowls have also succeeded in   
the ,west ,indies and ,america1 where   
they have the common fowl1 the goose1   
the duck1 the peacock1 the pigeon1 and  
the guinea-fowl4 ,as these were often   
taken suddenly from the temperate to    
very hot regions1 they were not reared  
at first without much difficulty3 but   
after a few generations1 they became    
familiarized to the climate1 which1 in  
many cases1 approached much nearer than 
that of ,europe to the temperature of   
their original native countries4  ,the  
fact of so many millions of wild and    
tame individuals of our domestic        
species1 almost all of them the largest 
quadrupeds and birds1 having been       
propagated throughout the new continent 
within the short period that has elapsed
 since the discovery of ,america1 while 
no appreciable improvement can have been
 made in the productive powers of that  

vast continent1 affords abundant        
evidence of the extraordinary changes   
which accompany the diffusion and       
progressive advancement of the human    
race over the globe4 ,that it should    
have remained for us to witness such    
mighty revolutions is a proof1 even if  
there was no other evidence1 that the   
entrance of man into the planet is1     
comparatively speaking1 of extremely    
modern date1 and that the effects of his
 agency are only beginning to be felt4  
,population which the globe is capable  
of supporting4--,a modern writer has    
estimated1 that there are in ,america   
upwards of four million square miles of 
useful soil1 each capable of supporting 
#bjj persons2 and nearly six million1   
each mile capable of supporting #dij    
persons4#ihc ,if this conjecture be     
true1 it will follow1 as that author    
observes1 that if the natural resources 
of ,america were fully developed1 it    
would afford sustenance to five times as
 great a number of inhabitants as the   

entire mass of human beings existing at 
present upon the globe4 ,the new        
continent1 he thinks1 though less than  
half the size of the old1 contains an   
equal quantity of useful soil1 and much 
more than an equal amount of productive 
power4 ,be this as it may1 we may safely
 conclude that the amount of human      
population now existing constitutes but 
a small proportion of that which the    
globe is capable of supporting1 or which
 it is destined to sustain at no distant
 period1 by the rapid progress of       
society1 especially in ,america1        
,australia1 and certain parts of the old
 continent4  ,power of exterminating    
species no prerogative of man4--,but if 
we reflect that many millions of square 
miles of the most fertile land1 occupied
 originally by a boundless variety of   
animal and vegetable forms1 have been   
already brought under the dominion of   
man1 and compelled1 in a great measure1 
to yield nourishment to him1 and to a   
limited number of plants and animals    

which he has caused to increase1 we must
 at once be convinced1 that the         
annihilation of a multitude of species  
has already been effected1 and will     
continue to go on hereafter1 in certain 
regions1 in a still more rapid ratio1 as
 the colonies of highly civilized       
nations spread themselves over          
unoccupied lands4  ,yet1 if we wield the
 sword of extermination as we advance1  
we have no reason to repine at the havoc
 committed1 nor to fancy1 with the      
,scottish poet1 that we violate the     
social union of nature2 or complain1    
with the melancholy ,jacques1 that we   
,are mere usurpers1 tyrants1 and what's 
worse1   ,to fright the animals and to  
kill them up   ,in their assign'd and   
native dwelling-place4   ,we have only  
to reflect1 that in thus obtaining      
possession of the earth by conquest1 and
 defending our acquisitions by force1 we
 exercise no exclusive prerogative4     
,every species which has spread itself  
from a small point over a wide area     

must1 in like manner1 have marked its   
progress by the diminution or the entire
 extirpation of some other1 and must    
maintain its ground by a successful     
struggle against the encroachments of   
other plants and animals4 ,that minute  
parasitic plant1 called the rust in     
wheat1 has1 like the ,hessian fly1 the  
locust1 and the aphis1 caused famines   
ere now amongst the lords of the        
creation4 ,the most insignificant and   
diminutive species1 whether in the      
animal or vegetable kingdom1 have each  
slaughtered their thousands1 as they    
disseminated themselves over the globe1 
as well as the lion1 when first it      
spread itself over the tropical regions 
of ,africa4  ,concluding                
remarks4--,although we have as yet      
considered one class only of the causes 
7the organic7 by which species may      
become exterminated1 yet it cannot but  
appear evident that the continued action
 of these alone1 throughout myriads of  
future ages1 must work an entire change 

in the state of the organic creation1   
not merely on the continents and        
islands1 where the power of man is      
chiefly exerted1 but in the great ocean1
 where his control is almost unknown4   
,the mind is prepared by the            
contemplation of such future revolutions
 to look for the signs of others1 of an 
analogous nature1 in the monuments of   
the past4 ,instead of being astonished  
at the proofs there manifested of       
endless mutations in the animate world1 
they will appear to one who has thought 
profoundly on the fluctuations now in   
progress1 to afford evidence in favor of
 the uniformity of the system1 unless1  
indeed1 we are precluded from speaking  
of uniformity when we characterize a    
principle of endless variation4         
,,chapter ,,xlii4  ,,extinction ,,of    
,,species4--,,influence ,,of ,,inorganic
 ,,causes4     ,powers of diffusion     
indispensable1 that each species may    
maintain     its ground--,how changes in
 physical geography affect the          

distribution of species--,rate of the   
change of species due to this     cause 
cannot be uniform--,every change in the 
physical geography of     large regions 
tends to the extinction of              
species--,effects of a     general      
alteration of climate on the migration  
of species--,gradual     refrigeration  
would cause species in the northern and 
southern     hemispheres to become      
distinct--,elevation of temperature the 
reverse--,effects on the condition of   
species which must result from          
inorganic changes inconsistent with the 
theory of transmutation4   ,powers of   
diffusion indispensable1 that each      
species may maintain its                
ground4--,having shown in the last      
chapter1 how considerably the numerical 
increase or the extension of the        
geographical range of any one species   
must derange the numbers and            
distribution of others1 let us now      
direct our attention to the influence   
which the inorganic causes described in 

the second book are continually exerting
 on the habitations of species4  ,so    
great is the instability of the earth's 
surface1 that if nature were not        
continually engaged in the task of      
sowing seeds and colonizing animals1 the
 depopulation of a certain portion of   
the habitable sea and land would in a   
few years be considerable4 ,whenever a  
river transports sediment into a lake or
 sea1 so as materially to diminish its  
depth1 the aquatic animals and plants   
which delight in deep water are         
expelled3 the tract1 however1 is not    
allowed to remain useless2 but is soon  
peopled by species which require more   
light and heat1 and thrive where the    
water is shallow4 ,every addition made  
to the land by the encroachment of the  
delta of a river banishes many          
subaqueous species from their native    
abodes2 but the new-formed plain is not 
permitted to lie unoccupied1 being      
instantly covered with terrestrial      
vegetation4 ,the ocean devours          

continuous lines of sea-coasts1 and     
precipitates forests or rich pasture    
land into the waves3 but this space is  
not lost to the animate creation2 for   
shells and sea-weeds soon adhere to the 
new-made cliffs1 and numerous fish      
people the channel which the current has
 scooped out for itself4 ,no sooner has 
a volcanic island been thrown up than   
some lichens begin to grow upon it1 and 
it is sometimes clothed with verdure    
while smoke and ashes are still         
occasionally thrown from the crater4    
,the cocoa1 pandanus1 and mangrove take 
root upon the coral reef before it has  
fairly risen above the waves4 ,the      
burning stream of lava that descends    
from ,etna rolls through the stately    
forest1 and converts to ashes every tree
 and herb which stands in its way2 but  
the black strip of land thus desolated  
is covered again in the course of time1 
with oaks1 pines1 and chestnuts1 as     
luxuriant as those which the fiery      
torrent swept away4  ,every flood and   

landslip1 every wave which a hurricane  
or earthquake throws upon the shore1    
every shower of volcanic dust and ashes 
which buries a country far and wide to  
the depth of many feet1 every advance of
 the sand-flood1 every conversion of    
salt water into fresh when rivers alter 
their main channel of discharge1 every  
permanent variation in the rise or fall 
of tides in an estuary--these and       
countless other causes displace1 in the 
course of a few centuries1 certain      
plants and animals from stations which  
they previously occupied4 ,if1          
therefore1 the ,author of nature had not
 been prodigal of those numerous        
contrivances1 before alluded to1 for    
spreading all classes of organic beings 
over the earth--if he had not ordained  
that the fluctuations of the animate and
 inanimate creation should be in perfect
 harmony with each other1 it is evident 
that considerable spaces1 now the most  
habitable on the globe1 would soon be as
 devoid of life as are the ,alpine      

snows1 or the dark abysses of the ocean1
 or the moving sands of the ,sahara4    
,the powers1 then1 of migration and     
diffusion conferred on animals and      
plants are indispensable to enable them 
to maintain their ground1 and would be  
necessary1 even though it were never    
intended that a species should gradually
 extend its geographical range4 ,but a  
facility of shifting their quarters     
being once given1 it cannot fail to     
happen that the inhabitants of one      
province should occasionally penetrate  
into some other2 since the strongest of 
those barriers which ,i before described
 as separating distinct regions are all 
liable to be thrown down1 one after the 
other1 during the vicissitudes of the   
earth's surface4  ,how changes in       
physical ,geography affect the          
distribution of species4--,the numbers  
and distribution of particular species  
are affected in two ways1 by changes in 
the physical geography of the           
earth3--,first1 these changes promote or

 retard the migrations of species2      
secondly1 they alter the physical       
conditions of the localities which      
species inhabit4 ,if the ocean should   
gradually wear its way through an       
isthmus1 like that of ,suez1 it would   
open a passage for the intermixture of  
the aquatic tribes of two seas          
previously disjoined1 and would1 at the 
same time1 close a free communication   
which the terrestrial plants and animals
 of two continents had before enjoyed4  
,these would be1 perhaps1 the most      
important consequences1 in regard to the
 distribution of species1 which would   
result from the breach made by the sea  
in such a spot2 but there would be      
others of a distinct nature1 such as the
 conversion of a certain tract of land1 
which formed the isthmus1 into sea4     
,this space1 previously occupied by     
terrestrial plants and animals1 would be
 immediately delivered over to the      
aquatic2 a local revolution which might 
have happened in innumerable other parts

 of the globe1 without being attended by
 any alteration in the blending together
 of species of two distinct provinces4  
,rate of change of species cannot be    
uniform4--,this observation leads me to 
point out one of the most interesting   
conclusions to which we are led by the  
contemplation of the vicissitudes of the
 inanimate world in relation to those of
 the animate4 ,it is clear that1 if the 
agency of inorganic causes be uniform1  
as ,i have supposed1 they must operate  
very irregularly on the state of organic
 beings1 so that the rate according to  
which these will change in particular   
regions will not be equal in equal      
periods of time4  ,i am not about to    
advocate the doctrine of general        
catastrophes recurring at certain       
intervals1 as in the ancient ,oriental  
cosmogonies1 nor do ,i doubt that1 if   
very considerable periods of equal      
duration could be compared one with     
another1 the rate of change in the      
living1 as well as in the inorganic     

world1 might be nearly uniform2 but if  
we regard each of the causes separately1
 which we know to be at present the most
 instrumental in remodelling the state  
of the surface1 we shall find that we   
must expect each to be in action for    
thousands of years1 without producing   
any extensive alterations in the        
habitable surface1 and then to give     
rise1 during a very brief period1 to    
important revolutions4  ,illustration   
derived from subsidences4--,i shall     
illustrate this principle by a few of   
the most remarkable examples which      
present themselves4 ,in the course of   
the last century1 as we have seen1 a    
considerable number of instances are    
recorded of the solid surface1 whether  
covered by water or not1 having been    
permanently sunk or upraised by         
subterranean movements4 ,most of these  
convulsions are only accompanied by     
temporary fluctuations in the state of  
limited districts1 and a continued      
repetition of these events for thousands

 of years might not produce any decided 
change in the state of many of those    
great zoological or botanical provinces 
of which ,i have sketched the           
boundaries4  ,when1 for example1 large  
parts of the ocean and even of inland   
seas are a thousand fathoms or upwards  
in depth1 it is a matter of no moment to
 the animate creation that vast tracts  
should be heaved up many fathoms at     
certain intervals1 or should subside to 
the same amount4 ,neither can any       
material revolution be produced in      
,south ,america either in the           
terrestrial or the marine plants or     
animals by a series of shocks on the    
coast of ,chili1 each of which1 like    
that of ,penco1 in #agea1 should uplift 
the coast about twenty-five feet4 ,nor  
if the ground sinks fifty feet at a     
time1 as in the harbor of ,port ,royal1 
in ,jamaica1 in #afib1 will such        
alterations of level work any general   
fluctuations in the state of organic    
beings inhabiting the ,west ,indian     

,islands1 or the ,caribbean ,sea4  ,it  
is only when the subterranean powers1 by
 shifting gradually the points where    
their principal force is developed1     
happen to strike upon some particular   
region where a slight change of level   
immediately affects the distribution of 
land and water1 or the state of the     
climate1 or the barriers between        
distinct groups of species over         
extensive areas1 that the rate of       
fluctuation becomes accelerated1 and    
may1 in the course of a few years or    
centuries1 work mightier changes than   
had been experienced in myriads of      
antecedent years4  ,thus1 for example1 a
 repetition of subsidences causing the  
narrow isthmus of ,panama to sink down a
 few hundred feet1 would1 in a few      
centuries1 bring about a great          
revolution in the state of the animate  
creation in the western hemisphere4     
,thousands of aquatic species would     
pass1 for the first time1 from the      
,caribbean ,sea into the ,pacific2 and  

thousands of others1 before peculiar to 
the ,pacific ,ocean1 would make their   
way into the ,caribbean ,sea1 the ,gulf 
of ,mexico1 and the ,atlantic4 ,a       
considerable modification would probably
 be occasioned by the same event in the 
direction or volume of the ,gulf stream1
 and thereby the temperature of the sea 
and the contiguous lands might be       
altered as far as the influence of that 
current extends4 ,a change of climate   
might thus be produced in the ocean from
 ,florida to ,spitzbergen1 and in many  
countries of ,north ,america1 ,europe1  
and ,greenland4 ,not merely the heat1   
but the quantity of rain which falls1   
would be altered in certain districts1  
so that many species would be excluded  
from tracts where they before           
flourished3 others would be reduced in  
number2 and some would thrive more and  
multiply4 ,the seeds also and the fruits
 of plants would no longer be drifted in
 precisely the same directions1 nor the 
eggs of aquatic animals2 neither would  

species be any longer impeded in their  
migrations towards particular stations  
before shut out from them by their      
inability to cross the mighty current4  
,let us take another example from a part
 of the globe which is at present liable
 to suffer by earthquakes1 namely1 the  
low sandy tract which intervenes between
 the sea of ,azof and the ,caspian4 ,if 
there should occur a sinking down to a  
trifling amount1 and such ravines should
 be formed as might be produced by a few
 earthquakes1 not more considerable than
 have fallen within our limited         
observation during the last #aej years1 
the waters of the ,sea of ,azof would   
pour rapidly into the ,caspian1 which1  
according to the measurements lately    
made by the ,academy of ,st4            
,petersburg1 is #hd feet below the level
 of the ,black ,sea4#ihd ,the ,sea of   
,azof would immediately borrow from the 
,black ,sea1 that sea again from the    
,mediterranean1 and the ,mediterranean  
from the ,atlantic1 so that an          

inexhaustible current would pour down   
into the low tracts of ,asia bordering  
the ,caspian1 by which all the sandy    
salt steppes adjacent to that sea would 
be inundated4 ,an area of several       
thousand square leagues1 now below the  
level of the ,mediterranean1 would be   
converted from land into sea4           
,illustration derived from the elevation
 of land4--,let us next imagine a few   
cases of the elevation of land of small 
extent at certain critical points1 as1  
for example1 in the shallowest part of  
the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 where the   
deepest soundings from the ,african to  
the ,european side give only #bbj       
fathoms4 ,in proportion as this         
submarine barrier of rock was upheaved1 
the whole channel would be contracted in
 width and depth1 and the volume of     
water which the current constantly      
flowing from the ,atlantic pours into   
the ,mediterranean would be lessened4   
,but the loss of the inland sea by      
evaporation would remain the same2 so   

that being no longer able to draw on the
 ocean for a supply sufficient to       
restore its equilibrium1 it must sink1  
and leave dry a certain portion of land 
around its borders4 ,the current which  
now flows constantly out of the ,black  
,sea into the ,mediterranean would then 
rush in more rapidly1 and the level of  
the ,mediterranean would be thereby     
prevented from falling so low2 but the  
level of the ,black ,sea would1 for the 
same reason1 sink2 so that when1 by a   
continued series of elevatory movements1
 the ,straits of ,gibraltar had become  
completely closed up1 we might expect   
large and level sandy steppes to        
surround both the ,black ,sea and       
,mediterranean1 like those occurring at 
present on the skirts of the ,caspian   
and the ,lake of ,aral4 ,the            
geographical range of hundreds of       
aquatic species would be thereby        
circumscribed1 and that of hundreds of  
terrestrial plants and animals extended4
  ,a line of submarine volcanos crossing

 the channel of some strait1 and        
gradually choking it up with ashes and  
lava1 might produce a new barrier as    
effectually as a series of earthquakes2 
especially if thermal springs1 charged  
with carbonate of lime1 silica1 and     
other mineral ingredients1 should       
promote the rapid multiplication of     
corals and shells1 and cement them      
together with solid matter precipitated 
during the intervals between eruptions4 
,suppose in this manner a stoppage to be
 caused of the ,bahama channel between  
the bank of that name and the coast of  
,florida4 ,this insignificant           
revolution1 confined to a mere spot in  
the bottom of the ocean1 would1 by      
diverting the main current of the ,gulf 
stream1 give rise to extensive changes  
in the climate and distribution of      
animals and plants inhabiting the       
northern hemisphere4  ,illustration from
 the formation of new islands4--,a      
repetition of elevatory movements of    
earthquakes might continue over an area 

as extensive as ,europe1 for thousands  
of ages1 at the bottom of the ocean1 in 
certain regions1 and produce no visible 
effects2 whereas1 if they should operate
 in some shallow parts of the ,pacific1 
amid the coral archipelagos1 they would 
soon give birth to a new continent4     
,hundreds of volcanic islands may be    
thrown up1 and become covered with      
vegetation1 without causing more than   
local fluctuations in the animate world2
 but if a chain like the ,aleutian      
archipelago1 or the ,kurile ,isles1 run 
for a distance of many hundred miles1 so
 as to form an almost uninterrupted     
communication between two continents1 or
 two distant islands1 the migrations of 
plants1 birds1 insects1 and even of some
 quadrupeds1 may cause1 in a short time1
 an extraordinary series of revolutions 
tending to augment the range of some    
animals and plants1 and to limit that of
 others4 ,a new archipelago might be    
formed in the ,mediterranean1 the ,bay  
of ,biscay1 and a thousand other places1

 and might produce less important events
 than one rock which should rise up     
between ,australia and ,java1 so placed 
that winds and currents might cause an  
interchange of the plants1 insects1 and 
birds4  ,from the wearing through of an 
isthmus4--,if we turn from the igneous  
to the aqueous agents1 we find the same 
tendency to an irregular rate of change1
 naturally connected with the strictest 
uniformity in the energy of those       
causes4 ,when the sea1 for example1     
gradually encroaches upon both sides of 
a narrow isthmus1 as that of ,sleswick1 
separating the ,north ,sea from the     
,baltic1 where1 as before stated1 the   
cliffs on both the opposite coasts are  
wasting away#ihe1 no material alteration
 results for thousands of years1 save   
only that there is a progressive        
conversion of a small strip of land into
 water4 ,a few feet only1 or a few      
yards1 are annually removed2 but if1 at 
last1 the partition should be broken    
down1 and the tides of the ocean should 

enter by a direct passage into the      
inland sea1 instead of going by a       
circuitous route through the ,cattegat1 
a body of salt water would sweep up as  
far as the ,gulfs of ,bothnia and       
,finland1 the waters of which are now   
brackish1 or almost fresh2 and this     
revolution would be attended by the     
local annihilation of many species4     
,similar consequences must have resulted
 on a small scale1 when the sea opened  
its way through the ,isthmus of         
,staveren in the thirteenth century1    
forming a union between an inland lake  
and the ocean1 and opening1 in the      
course of one century1 a shallow strait1
 more than half as wide as the narrowest
 part of that which divides ,england    
from ,france4  ,changes in physical     
geography which must occasion extinction
 of species4--,it will almost seem      
superfluous1 after ,i have thus traced  
the important modifications in the      
condition of living beings which flow   
from changes of trifling extent1 to     

argue that entire revolutions might be  
brought about1 if the climate and       
physical geography of the whole globe   
were greatly altered4 ,it has been      
stated1 that species are in general     
local1 some being confined to extremely 
small spots1 and depending for their    
existence on a combination of causes1   
which1 if they are to be met with       
elsewhere1 occur only in some very      
remote region4 ,hence it must happen    
that1 when the nature of these          
localities is changed1 the species will 
perish2 for it will rarely happen that  
the cause which alters the character of 
the district will afford new facilities 
to the species to establish itself      
elsewhere4  ,african deserts4--,if we   
attribute the origin of a great part of 
the desert of ,africa to the gradual    
progress of moving sands driven eastward
 by the westerly winds1 we may safely   
infer that a variety of species must    
have been annihilated by this cause     
alone4 ,the sand-flood has been         

inundating1 from time immemorial1 some  
of the rich lands on the west of the    
,nile2 and we have only to multiply this
 effect a sufficient number of times in 
order to understand how1 in the lapse of
 ages1 a whole group of terrestrial     
animals and plants may become extinct4  
,the ,african desert1 without including 
,bornou and ,darfour1 extends1 according
 to the calculation of ,humboldt1 over  
#aid1jjj square leagues2 an area nearly 
three times as great as that of ,france4
 ,in a small portion of so vast a space1
 we may infer from analogy that there   
were many peculiar species of plants and
 animals which must have been banished  
by the sand1 and their habitations      
invaded by the camel1 and by birds and  
insects formed for the arid sands4      
,there is evidently nothing in the      
nature of the catastrophe to favor the  
escape of the former inhabitants to some
 adjoining province2 nothing to weaken1 
in the bordering lands1 that powerful   
barrier against                         

emigration--pre-occupancy4 ,nor1 even if
 the exclusion of a certain group of    
species from a given tract were         
compensated by an extension of their    
range over a new country1 would that    
circumstance tend to the conservation of
 species in general2 for the extirpation
 would merely then be transferred to the
 region so invaded4 ,if it be imagined1 
for example1 that the aboriginal        
quadrupeds1 birds1 and other animals of 
,africa1 emigrated in consequence of the
 advance of drift-sand1 and colonized   
,arabia1 the indigenous ,arabian species
 must have given way before them1 and   
have been reduced in number or          
destroyed4  ,let us next suppose that1  
in some central or more elevated parts  
of the great ,african desert1 the       
upheaving power of subterranean         
movements should be exerted throughout  
an immense series of ages1 accompanied1 
at certain intervals1 by volcanic       
eruptions1 such as gave rise at once1 in
 #agee1 to a mountain #afjj feet high1  

on the ,mexican plateau4 ,when the      
continued repetition of these events had
 caused a mountain-chain1 it is obvious 
that a complete transformation in the   
state of the climate would be brought   
about throughout a vast area4  ,we may  
imagine the summits of the new chain to 
rise so high as to be covered1 like     
,mount ,atlas1 for several thousand     
feet1 with snow1 during a great part of 
the year4 ,the melting of these snows1  
during the greatest heat1 would cause   
the rivers to swell in the season when  
the greatest drought now prevails2 the  
waters1 moreover1 derived from this     
source1 would always be of lower        
temperature than the surrounding        
atmosphere1 and would thus contribute to
 cool the climate4 ,during the numerous 
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions      
supposed to accompany the gradual       
formation of the chain1 there would be  
many floods caused by the bursting of   
temporary lakes1 and by the melting of  
snows by lava4 ,these inundations might 

deposit alluvial matter far and wide    
over the original sands1 as the country 
assumed varied shapes1 and was modified 
again and again by the moving power from
 below1 and the aqueous erosion of the  
surface above4 ,at length the ,sahara   
might be fertilized1 irrigated by rivers
 and streamlets intersecting it in every
 direction1 and covered by jungle and   
morasses2 so that the animals and plants
 which now people ,northern ,africa     
would disappear1 and the region would   
gradually become fitted for the         
reception of a population of species    
perfectly dissimilar in their forms1    
habits1 and organization4  ,there are   
always some peculiar and characteristic 
features in the physical geography of   
each large division of the globe2 and on
 these peculiarities the state of animal
 and vegetable life is dependent4 ,if1  
therefore1 we admit incessant           
fluctuations in the physical geography1 
we must1 at the same time1 concede the  
successive extinction of terrestrial and

 aquatic species to be part of the      
economy of our system4 ,when some great 
class of stations is in excess in       
certain latitudes1 as1 for example1 in  
wide savannahs1 arid sands1 lofty       
mountains1 or inland seas1 we find a    
corresponding development of species    
adapted for such circumstances4 ,in     
,north ,america1 where there is a chain 
of vast inland lakes of fresh water1 we 
find an extraordinary abundance and     
variety of aquatic birds1 fresh-water   
fish1 testacea1 and small amphibious    
reptiles1 fitted for such a climate4    
,the greater part of these would perish 
if the lakes were destroyed1--an event  
that might be brought about by some of  
the least of those important revolutions
 contemplated in geology4 ,it might     
happen that no fresh-water lakes of     
corresponding magnitude might then exist
 on the globe2 or that1 if they occurred
 elsewhere1 they might be situated in   
,new ,holland1 ,southern ,africa1       
,eastern ,asia1 or some region so       

distant as to be quite inaccessible to  
the ,north ,american species2 or they   
might be situated within the tropics1 in
 a climate uninhabitable by creatures   
fitted for a temperate zone2 or1        
finally1 we may presume that they would 
be pre-occupied by indigenous tribes4   
,a vivid description has been given by  
,mr4 ,darwin and ,sir ,w4 ,parish of the
 great droughts which have sometimes    
visited the ,pampas of ,south ,america1 
for three or four years in succession1  
during which an incredible number of    
wild animals1 cattle1 horses1 and birds1
 have perished from want of food and    
water4 ,several hundred thousand animals
 were drowned in the ,parana alone1     
having rushed into the river to drink1  
and being too much exhausted by hunger  
to escape4#ihf ,such droughts are often 
attended in ,south ,america and other   
hot climates by wide-spreading          
conflagrations1 caused by lightning1    
which fires the dried grass and         
brush-wood4 ,thus quadrupeds1 birds1    

insects1 and other creatures1 are       
destroyed by myriads4 ,how many species1
 both of the animal and vegetable world1
 which once flourished in the country   
between the valley of the ,parana and   
the ,straits of ,magellan1 may not have 
been annihilated1 since the first       
drought or first conflagration began6   
,to pursue this train of reasoning      
farther is unnecessary2 the geologist   
has only to reflect on what has been    
said of the habitations and stations of 
organic beings in general1 and to       
consider them in relation to those      
effects which were contemplated in the  
second book1 as resulting from the      
igneous and aqueous causes now in       
action1 and he will immediately perceive
 that1 amidst the vicissitudes of the   
earth's surface1 species cannot be      
immortal1 but must perish1 one after the
 other1 like the individuals which      
compose them4 ,there is no possibility  
of escaping from this conclusion1       
without resorting to some hypothesis as 

violent as that of ,lamarck1 who        
imagined1 as we have before seen1 that  
species are each of them endowed with   
indefinite powers of modifying their    
organization1 in conformity to the      
endless changes of circumstances to     
which they are exposed4   ,effects of a 
general ,alteration in ,climate on the  
,distribution of ,species4  ,some of the
 effects which must attend every general
 alteration of climate are sufficiently 
peculiar to claim a separate            
consideration before concluding the     
present chapter4  ,i have before stated 
that1 during seasons of extraordinary   
severity1 many northern birds1 and in   
some countries many quadrupeds1 migrate 
southwards4 ,if these cold seasons were 
to become frequent1 in consequence of a 
gradual and general refrigeration of the
 atmosphere1 such migrations would be   
more and more regular1 until1 at length1
 many animals1 now confined to the      
arctic regions1 would become the tenants
 of the temperate zone2 while the       

inhabitants of the temperate zone would 
approach nearer to the equator4 ,at the 
same time1 many species previously      
established on high mountains would     
begin to descend1 in every latitude1    
towards the middle regions2 and those   
which were confined to the flanks of    
mountains would make their way into the 
plains4 ,analogous changes would also   
take place in the vegetable kingdom4    
,if1 on the contrary1 the heat of the   
atmosphere be on the increase1 the      
plants and animals of low grounds would 
ascend to higher levels1 the equatorial 
species would migrate into the temperate
 zone1 and those of the temperate into  
the arctic circle4  ,but although some  
species might thus be preserved1 every  
great change of climate must be fatal to
 many which can find no place of retreat
 when their original habitations become 
unfit for them4 ,for if the general     
temperature be on the rise1 then there  
is no cooler region whither the polar   
species can take refuge2 if it be on the

 decline1 then the animals and plants   
previously established between the      
tropics have no resource4 ,suppose the  
general heat of the atmosphere to       
increase1 so that even the arctic region
 became too warm for the musk-ox1 and   
rein-deer1 it is clear that they must   
perish2 so if the torrid zone should    
lose so much of its heat1 by the        
progressive refrigeration of the earth's
 surface1 as to be an unfit habitation  
for apes1 boas1 bamboos1 and palms1     
these tribes of animals and plants1 or1 
at least2 most of the species now       
belonging to them1 would become extinct1
 for there would be no warmer latitudes 
for their reception4  ,it will follow1  
therefore1 that as often as the climates
 of the globe are passing from the      
extreme of heat to that of cold--from   
the summer to the winter of the great   
year before alluded to#ihg--the         
migratory movement will be directed     
constantly from the poles towards the   
equator2 and for this reason the species

 inhabiting parallel latitudes1 in the  
northern and southern hemispheres1 must 
become widely different4 ,for ,i assume1
 on grounds before explained1 that the  
original stock of each species is       
introduced into one spot of the earth   
only1 and1 consequently1 no species can 
be at once indigenous in the arctic and 
antarctic circles4  ,but when1 on the   
contrary1 a series of changes in the    
physical geography of the globe1 or any 
other supposed cause1 occasions an      
elevation of the general                
temperature1--when there is a passage   
from the winter to one of the vernal or 
summer seasons of the great cycle of    
climate1--then the order of the         
migratory movement is inverted4 ,the    
different species of animals and plants 
direct their course from the equator    
towards the poles2 and the northern and 
southern hemispheres may become peopled 
to a certain limited extent by identical
 species4  ,i say limited1 because we   
cannot speculate on the entire          

transposition of a group of animals and 
plants from tropical to polar latitudes1
 or the reverse1 as a probable or even  
possible event4 ,we may believe the mean
 annual temperature of one zone to be   
transferable to another1 but we know    
that the same climate cannot be so      
transferred4 ,whatever be the general   
temperature of the earth's surface1     
comparative equability of heat will     
characterize the tropical regions2 while
 great periodical variations will belong
 to the temperate1 and still more to the
 polar latitudes4 ,these1 and many other
 peculiarities connected with heat and  
light1 depend on fixed astronomical     
causes1 such as the motion of the earth 
and its position in relation to the sun1
 and not on those fluctuations of its   
surface which may influence the general 
temperature4  ,among many obstacles to  
such extensive transference of          
habitations1 we must not forget the     
immense lapse of time required1         
according to the hypothesis before      

suggested1 to bring about a considerable
 change in climate4 ,during a period so 
vast1 the other cause of extirpation1   
before enumerated1 would exert so       
powerful an influence as to prevent all1
 save a very few hardy species1 from    
passing from equatorial to polar        
regions1 or from the tropics to the     
pole4#ihh  ,but the power of            
accommodation to new circumstances is   
great in certain species1 and might     
enable many to pass from one zone to    
another1 if the mean annual heat of the 
atmosphere and the ocean were greatly   
altered4 ,to the marine tribes1         
especially1 such a passage would be     
possible2 for they are less impeded in  
their migrations by barriers of land1   
than are the terrestrial by the ocean4  
,add to this1 that the temperature of   
the ocean is much more uniform than that
 of the atmosphere investing the land2  
so that we may easily suppose that most 
of the testacea1 fish1 and other        
classes1 might pass from the equatorial 

into the temperate regions1 if the mean 
temperature of those regions were       
transposed1 although a second           
expatriation of these species of        
tropical origin into the arctic and     
antarctic circles would probably be     
impossible4  ,let us now consider more  
particularly the effect of vicissitudes 
of climate in causing one species to    
give way before the increasing numbers  
of some other4  ,when temperature forms 
the barrier which arrests the progress  
of an animal or plant in a particular   
direction1 the individuals are fewer and
 less vigorous as they approach the     
extreme confines of the geographical    
range of the species4 ,but these        
stragglers are ready to multiply rapidly
 on the slightest increase or diminution
 of heat that may be favorable to them1 
just as particular insects increase     
during a hot summer1 and certain plants 
and animals gain ground after a series  
of congenial seasons4  ,in almost every 
district1 especially if it be           

mountainous1 there are a variety of     
species the limits of whose habitations 
are conterminous1 some being unable to  
proceed farther without encountering too
 much heat1 others too much cold4       
,individuals1 which are thus on the     
borders of the regions proper to their  
respective species1 are like the        
outposts of hostile armies1 ready to    
profit by every slight change of        
circumstances in their favor1 and to    
advance upon the ground occupied by     
their neighbors and opponents4  ,the    
proximity of distinct climates produced 
by the inequalities of the earth's      
surface1 brings species possessing very 
different constitutions into such       
immediate contact1 that their           
naturalizations are very speedy whenever
 opportunities of advancing present     
themselves4 ,many insects and plants1   
for example1 are common to low plains   
within the arctic circle1 and to lofty  
mountains in ,scotland and other parts  
of ,europe4 ,if the climate1 therefore1 

of the polar regions were transferred to
 our own latitudes1 the species in      
question would immediately descend from 
these elevated stations to overrun the  
low grounds4 ,invasions of this kind1   
attended by the expulsion of the        
pre-occupants1 are almost instantaneous1
 because the change of temperature not  
only places the one species in a more   
favorable position1 but renders the     
others sickly and almost incapable of   
defence4  ,these changes inconsistent   
with the theory of                      
transmutation4--,lamarck1 when          
speculating on the transmutation of     
species1 supposed every modification in 
organization and instinct to be brought 
about slowly and insensibly in an       
indefinite lapse of ages4 ,but he does  
not appear to have sufficiently         
considered how much every alteration in 
the physical condition of the habitable 
surface changes the relations of a great
 number of coexisting species1 and that 
some of these would be ready instantly  

to avail themselves of the slightest    
change in their favor1 and to multiply  
to the injury of others4 ,even if we    
thought it possible that the palm or the
 elephant1 which now flourish in        
equatorial regions1 could ever learn to 
bear the variable seasons of our        
temperate zone1 or the rigors of an     
arctic winter1 we might with no less    
confidence affirm1 that they must perish
 before they had time to become         
habituated to such new circumstances4   
,that they would be displaced by other  
species as often as the climate varied1 
may be inferred from the data before    
explained respecting the local          
extermination of species produced by the
 multiplication of others4  ,suppose the
 climate of the highest part of the     
woody zone of ,etna to be transferred to
 the sea-shore of the base of the       
mountain1 no botanist would anticipate  
that the olive1 lemon-tree1 and prickly 
pear 7,cactus ,opuntia7 would be able to
 contend with the oak and chestnut1     

which would begin forthwith to descend  
to a lower level2 or that these last    
would be able to stand their ground     
against the pine1 which would also1 in  
the space of a few years1 begin to      
occupy a lower position4 ,we might form 
some kind of estimate of the time which 
might be required for the migrations of 
these plants2 whereas we have no data   
for concluding that any number of       
thousands of years would be sufficient  
for one step in the pretended           
metamorphosis of one species into       
another1 possessing distinct attributes 
and qualities4  ,this argument is       
applicable not merely to climate1 but to
 any other cause of mutation4 ,however  
slowly a lake may be converted into a   
marsh1 or a marsh into a meadow1 it is  
evident that before the lacustrine      
plants can acquire the power of living  
in marshes1 or the marsh-plants of      
living in a less humid soil1 other      
species1 already existing in the region1
 and fitted for these several stations1 

will intrude and keep possession of the 
ground4 ,so1 if a tract of salt water   
becomes fresh by passing through every  
intermediate degree of brackishness1    
still the marine mollusks will never be 
permitted to be gradually metamorphosed 
into fluviatile species2 because long   
before any such transformation can take 
place by slow and insensible degrees1   
other tribes1 already formed to delight 
in brackish or fresh water1 will avail  
themselves of the change in the fluid1  
and will1 each in their turn1 monopolize
 the space4  ,it is idle1 therefore1 to 
dispute about the abstract possibility  
of the conversion of one species into   
another1 when there are known causes so 
much more active in their nature1 which 
must always intervene and prevent the   
actual accomplishment of such           
conversions4 ,a faint image of the      
certain doom of a species less fitted to
 struggle with some new condition in a  
region which it previously inhabited1   
and where it has to contend with a more 

vigorous species1 is presented by the   
extirpation of savage tribes of men by  
the advancing colony of some civilized  
nation4 ,in this case the contest is    
merely between two different races--two 
varieties1 moreover1 of a species which 
exceeds all others in its aptitude to   
accommodate its habits to the most      
extraordinary variations of             
circumstances4 ,yet few future events   
are more certain than the speedy        
extermination of the ,indians of ,north 
,america and the savages of ,new        
,holland in the course of a few         
centuries1 when these tribes will be    
remembered only in poetry or history4   
,concluding remarks4--,we often hear    
astonishment expressed at the           
disappearance from the earth in times   
comparatively modern of many small as   
well as large animals1 the remains of   
which have been found in a fossil state1
 under circumstances implying that      
neither any great geographical          
revolution1 nor the exterminating       

influence of man has intervened to      
account for their extinction4 ,but in   
all such cases we should inquire whether
 we are sufficiently acquainted with the
 numerous and complicated conditions on 
which the perpetuation of each species  
depends1 to entitle us to wonder if it  
should be suddenly cut off4  ,mr4       
,darwin1 when calling attention to the  
fact that the horse1 megatherium1       
megalonyx1 and many contemporary        
,mammalia1 had perished in ,south       
,america after that continent had       
acquired its present configuration1 and 
when1 if we may judge by the ,testacea1 
the climate very nearly resembled the   
present1 observes1 that in the living   
creation one species is often extremely 
rare in a given region1 while another of
 the same genus and with closely allied 
habits is exceedingly common4 ,a        
zoologist familiar with such phenomena1 
if asked to explain them1 usually       
replies1 that some slight difference in 
climate1 food1 or the number of its     

enemies1 must determine the relative    
strength of the two species in question1
 although we may be unable to point out 
the precise manner of the action of the 
check4 ,we are1 therefore1 driven to the
 conclusion1 that causes generally quite
 inappreciable by us determine whether a
 given species shall be abundant or     
scanty in numbers4 ,why1 then1 should we
 feel astonishment if the rarity is     
occasionally carried a step farther1--to
 extinction8#ihi     ,,chapter ,,xliii4 
,,extinction ,,and ,,creation ,,of      
,,species4     ,theory of the successive
 extinction of species consistent with a
     limited geographical               
distribution--,opinions of botanists    
respecting     the centres from which   
plants have been diffused--,whether     
there are     grounds for inferring that
 the loss1 from time to time1 of certain
     animals and plants1 is compensated 
by the introduction of new              
species8--,whether any evidence of such 
new creations could be     expected     

within the historical era8--,the        
question whether the     existing       
species have been created in succession 
must be decided by     geological       
monuments4   ,successive ,extinction of 
,species consistent with their limited  
,geographical ,distribution4   ,in the  
preceding chapters ,i have pointed out  
the strict dependence of each species of
 animal and plant on certain physical   
conditions in the state of the earth's  
surface1 and on the number and          
attributes of other organic beings      
inhabiting the same region4 ,i have also
 endeavored to show that all these      
conditions are in a state of continual  
fluctuation1 the igneous and aqueous    
agents remodelling1 from time to time1  
the physical geography of the globe1 and
 the migrations of species causing new  
relations to spring up successively     
between different organic beings4 ,i    
have deduced as a corollary1 that the   
species existing at any particular      
period1 must1 in the course of ages1    

become extinct one after the other4     
,they must die out1 to borrow an        
emphatical expression from ,buffon1     
because ,time fights against them4  ,if 
the views which ,i have taken are just1 
there will be no difficulty in          
explaining why the habitations of so    
many species are now restrained within  
exceedingly narrow limits4 ,every local 
revolution1 such as those contemplated  
in the preceding chapter1 tends to      
circumscribe the range of some species1 
while it enlarges that of others2 and if
 we are led to infer that new species   
originate in one spot only1 each must   
require time to diffuse itself over a   
wide area4 ,it will follow1 therefore1  
from the adoption of this hypothesis1   
that the recent origin of some species1 
and the high antiquity of others1 are   
equally consistent with the general fact
 of their limited distribution2 some    
being local1 because they have not      
existed long enough to admit of their   
wide dissemination2 others1 because     

circumstances in the animate or         
inanimate world have occurred to        
restrict the range which they may once  
have obtained4 ,as a general rule1      
however1 species1 common to many distant
 provinces1 or those now found to       
inhabit very distant parts of the globe1
 are to be regarded as the most ancient4
 ,numerically speaking1 they may not    
perhaps be largely represented1 but     
their wide diffusion shows that they    
have had a long time to spread          
themselves1 and have been able to       
survive many important revolutions in   
physical geography4  ,after so much     
evidence has been brought to light by   
the geologist1 of land and sea having   
changed places in various regions since 
the existing species were in being1 we  
can feel no surprise that the zoologist 
and botanist have hitherto found it     
difficult to refer the geographical     
distribution of species to any clear and
 determinate principles1 since they have
 usually speculated on the phenomena1   

upon the assumption that the physical   
geography of the globe had undergone no 
material alteration since the           
introduction of the species now living4 
,so long as this assumption was made1   
the facts relating to the geography of  
plants and animals appeared capricious  
in the extreme1 and by many the subject 
was pronounced to be so full of mystery 
and anomalies1 that the establishment of
 a satisfactory theory was hopeless4#iij
  ,centres from which plants have been  
diffused4--,some botanists conceived1 in
 accordance with the hypothesis of      
,wildenow1 that mountains were the      
centres of creation from which the      
plants now inhabiting large continents  
have radiated2 to which ,de ,candolle   
and others1 with much reason1 objected1 
that mountains1 on the contrary1 are    
often the barriers between two provinces
 of distinct vegetation4 ,the geologist 
who is acquainted with the extensive    
modifications which the surface of the  
earth has undergone in very recent      

geological epochs1 may be able1 perhaps1
 to reconcile both these theories in    
their application to different regions4 
,a lofty range of mountains1 which is so
 ancient as to date from a period when  
the species of animals and plants       
differed from those now living1 will    
naturally form a barrier between        
contiguous provinces2 but a chain which 
has been raised1 in great part1 within  
the epoch of existing species1 and      
around which new lands have arisen from 
the sea within that period1 will be a   
centre of peculiar vegetation4  ,in     
,france1 observes ,de ,candolle1 the    
,alps and ,cevennes prevent a great     
number of the plants of the south from  
spreading themselves to the northward2  
but it has been remarked that some      
species have made their way through the 
gorges of these chains1 and are found on
 their northern sides1 principally in   
those places where they are lower and   
more interrupted4#iia ,now the chains   
here alluded to have probably been of   

considerable height ever since the era  
when the existing vegetation began to   
appear1 and were it not for the deep    
fissures which divide them1 they might  
have caused much more abrupt            
terminations to the extension of        
distinct assemblages of species4  ,parts
 of the ,italian peninsula1 on the other
 hand1 have gained a considerable       
portion of their present height since a 
majority of the marine species now      
inhabiting the ,mediterranean1 and      
probably1 also1 since the terrestrial   
plants of the same region were in being4
 ,large tracts of land have been added1 
both on the ,adriatic and ,mediterranean
 side1 to what originally constituted a 
much narrower range of mountains1 if not
 a chain of islands running nearly north
 and south1 like ,corsica and ,sardinia4
 ,it may therefore be presumed that the 
,apennines have been a centre whence    
species have diffused themselves over   
the contiguous lower and newer regions4 
,in this and all analogous situations1  

the doctrine of ,wildenow1 that species 
have radiated from the mountains as from
 centres1 may be well founded4          
,introduction of ,new ,species4  ,if the
 reader should infer1 from the facts    
laid before him in the preceding        
chapters1 that the successive extinction
 of animals and plants may be part of   
the constant and regular course of      
nature1 he will naturally inquire       
whether there are any means provided for
 the repair of these losses8 ,is it part
 of the economy of our system that the  
habitable globe should1 to a certain    
extent1 become depopulated both in the  
ocean and on the land2 or that the      
variety of species should diminish until
 some new era arrives when a new and    
extraordinary effort of creative energy 
is to be displayed8 ,or is it possible  
that new species can be called into     
being from time to time1 and yet that so
 astonishing a phenomenon can escape the
 observation of naturalists8  ,humboldt 
has characterized these subjects as     

among the mysteries which natural       
science cannot reach2 and he observes   
that the investigation of the origin of 
beings does not belong to zoological or 
botanical geography4 ,to geology1       
however1 these topics do strictly       
appertain2 and this science is chiefly  
interested in inquiries into the state  
of the animate creation as it now       
exists1 with a view of pointing out its 
relations to antecedent periods when its
 condition was different4  ,before      
offering any hypothesis towards the     
solution of so difficult a problem1 let 
us consider what kind of evidence we    
ought to expect1 in the present state of
 science1 of the first appearance of new
 animals or plants1 if we could imagine 
the successive creation of species to   
constitute1 like their gradual          
extinction1 a regular part of the       
economy of nature4  ,in the first place 
it is obviously more easy to prove that 
a species1 once numerously represented  
in a given district1 has ceased to be1  

than that some other which did not      
pre-exist has made its                  
appearance--assuming always1 for reasons
 before stated1 that single stocks only 
of each animal and plant are originally 
created1 and that individuals of new    
species do not suddenly start up in many
 different places at once4  ,so         
imperfect has the science of natural    
history remained down to our own times1 
that1 within the memory of persons now  
living1 the numbers of known animals and
 plants have been doubled1 or even      
quadrupled1 in many classes4 ,new and   
often conspicuous species are annually  
discovered in parts of the old          
continent1 long inhabited by the most   
civilized nations4 ,conscious1          
therefore1 of the limited extent of our 
information1 we always infer1 when such 
discoveries are made1 that the beings in
 question had previously eluded our     
research2 or had at least existed       
elsewhere1 and only migrated at a recent
 period into the territories where we   

now find them4 ,it is difficult1 even in
 contemplation1 to anticipate the time  
when we shall be entitled to make any   
other hypothesis in regard to all the   
marine tribes1 and to by far the greater
 number of the terrestrial2--such as    
birds1 which possess such unlimited     
powers of migration2 insects1 which1    
besides the variability of each species 
in number1 are also so capable of being 
diffused to vast distances2 and         
cryptogamous plants1 to which1 as to    
many other classes1 both of the animal  
and vegetable kingdom1 similar          
observations are applicable4  ,what kind
 of evidence of new creations could be  
expected8--,what kind of proofs1        
therefore1 could we reasonably expect to
 find of the origin at a particular     
period of a new species8  ,perhaps it   
may be said in reply that1 within the   
last two or three centuries1 some forest
 tree or new quadruped might have been  
observed to appear suddenly in those    
parts1 of ,england or ,france which had 

been most thoroughly investigated2--that
 naturalists might have been able to    
show that no such living being inhabited
 any other region of the globe1 and that
 there was no tradition of anything     
similar having before been observed in  
the district where it had made its      
appearance4  ,now1 although this        
objection may seem plausible1 yet its   
force will be found to depend entirely  
on the rate of fluctuation which we     
suppose to prevail in the animate world1
 and on the proportion which such       
conspicuous subjects of the animal and  
vegetable kingdoms bear to those which  
are less known and escape our           
observation4 ,there are1 perhaps1 more  
than a million species of plants and    
animals1 exclusive of the microscopic   
and infusory animalcules1 now inhabiting
 the terraqueous globe4 ,the terrestrial
 plants may amount1 says ,de ,candolle1 
to somewhere between #aaj1jjj and       
#abj1jjj2iib but the data on which this 
conjecture is founded are considered by 

many botanists to be vague and          
unsatisfactory4 ,sprengel only          
enumerated1 in #ahbg1 about #ca1jjj     
known phaenogamous1 and #fjjj           
cryptogamous plants2 but that naturalist
 omitted many1 perhaps #gjjj            
phaenogamous1 and #ajjj cryptogamous    
species4 ,mr4 ,lindley1 in a letter to  
the author in #ahcf1 expressed his      
opinion that it would be rash to        
speculate on the existence of more than 
#hj1jjj phaenogamous1 and #aj1jjj       
cryptogamous plants4 ,if we take1 he    
says1 in a letter to the author on this 
subject1 #cg1jjj as the number of       
published phaenogamous species1 and then
 add1 for the undiscovered species in   
,asia and ,new ,holland1 #ae1jjj1 in    
,africa #aj1jjj1 and in ,america        
#ah1jjj1 we have #hj1jjj species2 and if
 #gjjj be the number of published       
cryptogamous plants1 and we allow #cjjj 
for the undiscovered species 7making    
#aj1jjj71 there would then be1 on the   
whole1 #ij1jjj species4 ,but since that 

period one catalogue1 as ,i learn from  
,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker1 contains a list of the
 names of #gh1jjj phaenogamous plants   
which had been published before #ahda4  
,it was supposed by ,linnaeus that there
 were four or five species of insects in
 the world for each phaenogamous plant3 
but if we may judge from the relative   
proportion of the two classes in ,great 
,britain1 the number of insects must be 
still greater2 for the total number of  
,british insects1 according to the last 
census1 is about #ab1ejj2iic whereas    
there are only #aejj phaenogamous plants
 indigenous to our island4 ,as the      
insects are much more numerous in hot   
countries than in our temperate         
latitudes1 it seems difficult to avoid  
the conclusion that there are more than 
half a million species in the world4    
,the number of known mammifers1 when    
,temminck wrote1 exceeded #hjj1 and ,mr4
 ,waterhouse informs me that more than  
#abjj are now 7#ahej7 ascertained to    
exist4 ,baron ,cuvier estimated the     

amount of known fishes at #fjjj2 and    
,mr4 ,g4 ,gray1 in his ,genera of       
,birds1 enumerates #hjjj species4 ,we   
have still to add the reptiles1 and all 
the invertebrated animals1 exclusive of 
insects4 ,it remains1 in a great degree1
 mere matter of conjecture what         
proportion the aquatic tribes may bear  
to the denizens of the land2 but the    
habitable surface beneath the waters can
 hardly be estimated at less than double
 that of the continents and islands1    
even admitting that a very considerable 
area is destitute of life1 in           
consequence of great depth1 cold1       
darkness1 and other circumstances4 ,in  
the late polar expedition it was found  
that1 in some regions1 as in ,baffin's  
,bay1 there were marine animals         
inhabiting the bottom at great depths1  
where the temperature of the water was  
below the freezing point4 ,that there is
 life at much greater profundities in   
warmer regions may be confidently       
inferred4  ,the ocean teems with        

life--the class of ,polyps alone are    
conjectured by ,lamarck to be as strong 
in individuals as insects4 ,every       
tropical reef is described as covered   
with ,corals and ,sponges1 and swarming 
with ,crustacea1 ,echini1 and ,testacea2
 while almost every tide-washed rock in 
the world is carpeted with ,fuci1 and   
supports some ,corallines1 ,actiniae1   
and ,mollusca4 ,there are innumerable   
forms in the seas of the warmer zones1  
which have scarcely begun to attract the
 attention of the naturalist2 and there 
are parasitic animals without number1   
three or four of which are sometimes    
appropriated to one genus1 as to the    
whale 7,balaena71 for example4 ,even    
though we concede1 therefore1 that the  
geographical range of marine species is 
more extensive in general than that of  
the terrestrial 7the temperature of the 
sea being more uniform1 and the land    
impeding less the migrations of the     
oceanic than the ocean those of the     
terrestrial species71 yet it seems      

probable that the aquatic tribes far    
exceed in number the inhabitants of the 
land4  ,without insisting on this point1
 it may be safe to assume1 that1        
exclusive of microscopic beings1 there  
are between one and two millions of     
species now inhabiting the terraqueous  
globe2 so that if only one of these were
 to become extinct annually1 and one new
 one were to be every year called into  
being1 much more than a million of years
 might be required to bring about a     
complete revolution in organic life4  ,i
 am not hazarding at present any        
hypothesis as to the probable rate of   
change2 but none will deny that when the
 annual birth and the annual death of   
one species on the globe is proposed as 
a mere speculation1 this at least is to 
imagine no slight degree of instability 
in the animate creation4 ,if we divide  
the surface of the earth into twenty    
regions of equal area1 one of these     
might comprehend a space of land and    
water about equal in dimensions to      

,europe1 and might contain a twentieth  
part of the million of species which may
 be assumed to exist in the animal      
kingdom4 ,in this region one species    
only would1 according to the rate of    
mortality before assumed1 perish in     
twenty years1 or only five out of fifty 
thousand in the course of a century4    
,but as a considerable proportion of the
 whole would belong to the aquatic      
classes1 with which we have a very      
imperfect acquaintance1 we must exclude 
them from our consideration2 and if they
 constitute half of the entire number1  
then one species only might be lost in  
forty years among the terrestrial       
tribes4 ,now the ,mammalia1 whether     
terrestrial or aquatic1 bear so small a 
proportion to other classes of animals1 
forming less1 perhaps1 than one         
thousandth part of the whole1 that if   
the longevity of species in the         
different orders were equal1 a vast     
period must elapse before it would come 
to the turn of this conspicuous class to

 lose one of their number4 ,if one      
species only of the whole animal kingdom
 died out in forty years1 no more than  
one mammifer might disappear in #dj1jjj 
years in a region of the dimensions of  
,europe4  ,it is easy1 therefore1 to    
see1 that in a small portion of such an 
area1 in countries1 for example1 of the 
size of ,england and ,france1 periods of
 much greater duration must elapse      
before it would be possible to          
authenticate the first appearance of one
 of the larger plants and animals1      
assuming the annual birth and death of  
one species to be the rate of           
vicissitude in the animate creation     
throughout the world4  ,the observations
 of naturalists upon living species may1
 in the course of future centuries1     
accumulate positive data1 from which an 
insight into the laws which govern this 
part of our terrestrial system may be   
derived2 but1 in the present deficiency 
of historical records1 we have traced up
 the subject to that point where        

geological monuments alone are capable  
of leading us on to the discovery of    
ulterior truths4 ,to these1 therefore1  
we must appeal1 carefully examining the 
strata of recent formation wherein the  
remains of living species1 both animal  
and vegetable1 are known to occur4 ,we  
must study these strata in strict       
reference to their chronological order1 
as deduced from their superposition1 and
 other relations4 ,from these sources we
 may learn which of the species1 now our
 contemporaries1 have survived the      
greatest revolutions of the earth's     
surface2 which of them have co-existed  
with the greatest number of animals and 
plants now extinct2 and which have made 
their appearance only when the animate  
world had nearly attained its present   
condition4  ,from such data we may be   
enabled to infer1 whether species have  
been called into existence in           
succession1 or all at one period2       
whether singly1 or by groups            
simultaneously2 whether the antiquity of

 man be as high as that of any of the   
inferior beings which now share the     
planet with him1 or whether the human   
species is one of the most recent of the
 whole4  ,to some of these questions we 
can even now return a satisfactory      
answer2 and with regard to the rest1 we 
have some data to guide conjecture1 and 
to enable us to speculate with          
advantage3 but in order to be fully     
qualified to enter upon such discussions
 the reader must study the ample body of
 materials amassed by the industry of   
modern geologists4     ,,chapter ,,xliv4
  ,,effects ,,produced ,,by ,,the       
,,powers ,,of ,,vitality ,,on ,,the     
,,state ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,surface4
     ,modifications in physical         
geography caused by organic beings--,why
     the vegetable soil does not augment
 in thickness--,the theory1 that        
vegetation is an antagonist power       
counterbalancing the degradation        
caused by running water                 
untenable--,conservative influence of   

vegetation--,rain diminished by felling 
of forests--,distribution of            
,american forests dependent on direction
 of predominant     winds--,influence of
 man in modifying the physical geography
 of the     globe4   ,the second branch 
of our inquiry1 respecting changes of   
the organic world1 relates to the       
processes by which the remains of       
animals and plants become fossil1 or1 to
 speak still more generally1 to all the 
effects produced by the powers of       
vitality on the surface and shell of the
 earth4  ,before entering on the        
principal division of this subject1 the 
imbedding and preservation of animal and
 vegetable remains1 ,i shall offer a few
 remarks on the superficial             
modifications caused directly by the    
agency of organic beings1 as when the   
growth of certain plants covers the     
slope of a mountain with peat1 or       
converts a swamp into dry land2 or when 
vegetation prevents the soil1 in certain
 localities1 from being washed away by  

running water4  ,in considering         
alterations of this kind1 brought about 
in the physical geography of particular 
tracts1 we are too apt to think         
exclusively of that part of the earth's 
surface which has emerged from beneath  
the waters1 and with which alone1 as    
terrestrial beings1 we are familiar4    
,here the direct power of animals and   
plants to cause any important variation 
is1 of necessity1 very limited1 except  
in checking the progress of that decay  
of which the land is the chief theatre4 
,but if we extend our views1 and instead
 of contemplating the dry land1 consider
 that larger portion which is assigned  
to the aquatic tribes1 we discover the  
great influence of the living creation1 
in imparting varieties of conformation  
to the solid exterior which the agency  
of inanimate causes alone could not     
produce4  ,thus1 when timber is floated 
into the sea1 it is often drifted to    
vast distances1 and subsides in spots   
where there might have been no deposit1 

at that time and place1 if the earth had
 not been tenanted by living beings4    
,if1 therefore1 in the course of ages1 a
 hill of wood1 or lignite1 be thus      
formed in the subaqueous regions1 a     
change in the submarine geography may be
 said to have resulted from the action  
of organic powers4 ,so in regard to the 
growth of coral reefs2 it is probable   
that a large portion of the matter of   
which they are composed is supplied by  
mineral springs1 which often rise up at 
the bottom of the sea1 and which1 on    
land1 abound throughout volcanic regions
 hundreds of leagues in extent4 ,the    
matter thus constantly given out could  
not go on accumulating for ever in the  
waters1 but would be precipitated in the
 abysses of the sea1 even if there were 
no polyps and testacea2 but these       
animals arrest and secrete the carbonate
 of lime on the summits of submarine    
mountains1 and form reefs many hundred  
feet in thickness1 and hundreds of miles
 in length1 where1 but for them1 none   

might ever have existed4  ,why the      
vegetable soil does not augment in      
thickness4--,if no such voluminous      
masses are formed on the land1 it is not
 from the want of solid matter in the   
structure of terrestrial animals and    
plants2 but merely because1 as ,i have  
so often stated1 the continents are     
those parts of the globe where          
accessions of matter can scarcely ever  
take place--where1 on the contrary1 the 
most solid parts already formed are1    
each in their turn1 exposed to gradual  
degradation4 ,the quantity of timber and
 vegetable matter which grows in a      
tropical forest in the course of a      
century is enormous1 and multitudes of  
animal skeletons are scattered there    
during the same period1 besides         
innumerable land shells and other       
organic substances4 ,the aggregate of   
these materials1 therefore1 might       
constitute a mass greater in volume than
 that which is produced in any          
coral-reef during the same lapse of     

years2 but1 although this process should
 continue on the land for ever1 no      
mountains of wood or bone would be seen 
stretching far and wide over the        
country1 or pushing out bold            
promontories into the sea4 ,the whole   
solid mass is either devoured by        
animals1 or decomposes1 as does a       
portion of the rock and soil on which   
the animals and plants are supported4   
,the waste of the strata themselves1    
accompanied by the decomposition of     
their organic remains1 and the setting  
free of their alkaline ingredients1 is  
one source from whence running water and
 the atmosphere may derive the materials
 which are absorbed by the roots and    
leaves of plants4 ,another source is the
 passage into a gaseous form of even the
 hardest parts of animals and plants    
which die and putrefy in the air1 where 
they are soon resolved into the elements
 of which they are composed3 and while a
 portion of these constituents is       
volatilized1 the rest is taken up by    

rain-water1 and sinks into the earth1 or
 flows towards the sea2 so that they    
enter again and again into the          
composition of different organic beings4
  ,the principal elements found in      
plants are hydrogen1 carbon1 and oxygen2
 so that water and the atmosphere       
contain all of them1 either in their own
 composition or in solution4#iid ,the   
constant supply of these elements is    
maintained not only by the putrefaction 
of animal and vegetable substances1 and 
the decay of rocks1 but also by the     
copious evolution of carbonic acid and  
other gases from volcanoes and mineral  
springs1 and by the effects of ordinary 
evaporation1 whereby aqueous vapors are 
made to rise from the ocean1 and to     
circulate round the globe4  ,it is well 
known1 that when two gases of different 
specific gravity are brought into       
contact1 even though the heavier be the 
lowermost1 they soon become uniformly   
diffused by mutual absorption through   
the whole space which they occupy4 ,by  

virtue of this law1 the heavy carbonic  
acid finds its way upwards through the  
lighter air of the atmosphere1 and      
conveys nourishment to the lichen which 
covers the mountain top4  ,if the       
quantity of food consumed by terrestrial
 animals1 and the elements imbibed by   
the roots and leaves of plants1 were    
derived entirely from that supply of    
hydrogen1 carbon1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and 
other elements1 given out into the      
atmosphere and the waters by the        
putrescence of organic substances1 then 
we might imagine that the vegetable     
mould would1 after a series of years1   
neither gain nor lose a single particle 
by the action of organic beings2 and    
this conclusion is not far from the     
truth2 but the operation which renovates
 the vegetable and animal mould is by no
 means so simple as that here supposed4 
,thousands of carcases of terrestrial   
animals are floated down1 every century1
 into the sea2 and1 together with       
forests of drift-timber1 are imbedded in

 subaqueous deposits1 where their       
elements are imprisoned in solid strata1
 and may there remain locked up         
throughout whole geological epochs      
before they again become subservient to 
the purposes of life4  ,on the other    
hand1 fresh supplies are derived by the 
atmosphere and by running water1 as     
before stated1 from the disintegration  
of rocks and their organic contents1 and
 through the agency of mineral springs  
from the interior of the earth1 from    
whence all the elements before          
mentioned1 which enter principally into 
the composition of animals and          
vegetables1 are continually evolved4    
,even nitrogen is found1 by chemists1 to
 be contained very generally in the     
waters of mineral springs4  ,vegetation 
not an antagonist power counterbalancing
 the action of running water4--,if we   
suppose that the copious supply from the
 nether regions1 by springs and volcanic
 vents1 of carbonic acid and other      
gases1 together with the decomposition  

of rocks1 may be just sufficient to     
counterbalance that loss of matter      
which1 having already served for the    
nourishment of animals and plants1 is   
annually carried down in organized      
forms1 and buried in subaqueous strata1 
we concede the utmost that is consistent
 with probability4 ,an opinion1 however1
 has been expressed1 that the processes 
of vegetable life1 by absorbing various 
gases from the atmosphere1 cause so     
large a mass of solid matter to         
accumulate on the surface of the land1  
that this mass alone may constitute a   
great counterpoise to all the matter    
transported to lower levels by the      
aqueous agents of decay4 ,torrents and  
rivers1 it is said--the waves of the sea
 and marine currents--act upon lines    
only2 but the power of vegetation to    
absorb the elastic and non-elastic      
fluids circulating round the earth1     
extends over the whole surface of the   
continents4 ,by the silent but universal
 action of this great antagonist power1 

the spoliation and waste caused by      
running water on the land1 and by the   
movements of the ocean1 are neutralized1
 and even counterbalanced4#iie  ,in     
opposition to these views1 ,i conceive  
that we shall form a juster estimate of 
the influence of vegetation1 if we      
consider it as being in a slight degree 
conservative1 and capable of retarding  
the waste of land1 but not of acting as 
an antagonist power4 ,the vegetable     
mould is seldom more than a few feet in 
thickness1 and frequently does not      
exceed a few inches2 and we by no means 
find that its volume is more            
considerable on those parts of our      
continents which we can prove1 by       
geological data1 to have been elevated  
at more ancient periods1 and where1     
consequently1 there has been the        
greatest time for the accumulation of   
vegetable matter1 produced throughout   
successive zoological epochs4 ,on the   
contrary1 these higher and older regions
 are more frequently denuded1 so as to  

expose the bare rock to the action of   
the sun and air4  ,we find in the torrid
 zone1 where the growth of plants is    
most rank and luxurious1 that accessions
 of matter due to their agency are by no
 means the most conspicuous4 ,indeed it 
is in these latitudes1 where the        
vegetation is most active1 that1 for    
reasons to be explained in the next     
chapter1 even those superficial peat    
mosses are unknown which cover a large  
area in some parts of our temperate     
zone4 ,if the operation of animal and   
vegetable life could restore to the     
general surface of the continents a     
portion of the elements of those        
disintegrated rocks of which such       
enormous masses are swept down annually 
into the sea1 the effects would long ere
 this have constituted one of the most  
striking features in the structure and  
composition of our continents4 ,all the 
great steppes and table-lands of the    
world1 where the action of running water
 is feeble1 would have become the grand 

repositories of organic matter1         
accumulated without that intermixture of
 earthy sediment which so generally     
characterizes the subaqueous strata4  ,i
 have already stated that1 in the known 
operation of the igneous causes1 a real 
antagonist power is found1 which may    
counterbalance the levelling action of  
running water 7p4 #efc72 and there seems
 no good reason for presuming that the  
upheaving and depressing force of       
earthquakes1 together with the ejection 
of matter by volcanoes1 may not be fully
 adequate to restore that inequality of 
the surface which rivers and the waves  
and currents of the ocean annually tend 
to lessen4 ,if a counterpoise be derived
 from this source1 the quantity and     
elevation of land above the sea may for 
ever remain the same1 in spite of the   
action of the aqueous causes1 which1 if 
thus counteracted1 may never be able to 
reduce the surface of the earth more    
nearly to a state of equilibrium than   
that which it has now attained2 and1 on 

the other hand1 the force of the aqueous
 agents themselves might thus continue  
for ever unimpaired4  ,conservative     
influence of vegetation4--,if1 then1    
vegetation cannot act as an antagonist  
power amid the mighty agents of change  
which are always modifying the surface  
of the globe1 let us next inquire how   
far its influence is conservative1--how 
far it may retard the levelling effects 
of running water1 which it cannot       
oppose1 much less counterbalance4  ,it  
is well known that a covering of herbage
 and shrubs may protect a loose soil    
from being carried away by rain1 or even
 by the ordinary action of a river1 and 
may prevent hills of loose sand from    
being blown away by the wind2 for the   
roots bind together the separate        
particles into a firm mass1 and the     
leaves intercept the rain-water1 so that
 it dries up gradually1 instead of      
flowing off in a mass and with great    
velocity4 ,the old ,italian             
hydrographers make frequent mention of  

the increased degradation which has     
followed the clearing away of natural   
woods in several parts of ,italy4 ,a    
remarkable example was afforded in the  
,upper ,val d' ,arno1 in ,tuscany1 on   
the removal of the woods clothing the   
steep declivities of the hills by which 
that valley is bounded4 ,when the       
ancient forest laws were abolished by   
the ,grand ,duke ,joseph1 during the    
last century1 a considerable tract of   
surface in the ,cassentina 7the         
,clausentinium of the ,romans7 was      
denuded1 and immediately the quantity of
 sand and soil washed down into the     
,arno increased enormously4 ,frisi1     
alluding to such occurrences1 observes1 
that as soon as the bushes and plants   
were removed1 the waters flowed off more
 rapidly1 and1 in the manner of floods1 
swept away the vegetable soil4#iif      
,this effect of vegetation is of high   
interest to the geologist1 when he is   
considering the formation of those      
valleys which have been principally due 

to the action of rivers4 ,the spaces    
intervening between valleys1 whether    
they be flat or ridgy1 when covered with
 vegetation1 may scarcely undergo the   
slightest waste1 as the surface may be  
protected by the green sward of grass2  
and this may be renewed1 in the manner  
before described1 from elements derived 
from rain-water and the atmosphere4     
,hence1 while the river is continually  
bearing down matter in the alluvial     
plain1 and undermining the cliffs on    
each side of every valley1 the height of
 the intervening rising grounds may     
remain stationary4  ,in this manner1 a  
cone of loose scoriae1 sand1 and ashes1 
such as ,monte ,nuovo1 may1 when it has 
once become densely clothed with herbage
 and shrubs1 suffer scarcely any further
 dilapidation2 and the perfect state of 
the cones of hundreds of extinct        
volcanoes in ,france1 the ,neapolitan   
territory1 ,sicily1 and elsewhere1 may  
prove nothing whatever1 either as to    
their relative or absolute antiquity4   

,we may be enabled to infer1 from the   
integrity of such conical hills of      
incoherent materials1 that no flood can 
have passed over the countries where    
they are situated1 since their          
formation2 but the atmospheric action   
alone1 in spots where there happen to be
 no torrents1 and where the surface was 
clothed with vegetation1 could scarcely 
in any lapse of ages have destroyed     
them4  ,during a tour in ,spain1 in     
#ahcj1 ,i was surprised to see a        
district of gently undulating ground in 
,catalonia1 consisting of red and gray  
sandstone1 and in some parts of red     
marl1 almost entirely denuded of        
herbage2 while the roots of the pines1  
holm oaks1 and some other trees1 were   
half exposed1 as if the soil had been   
washed away by a flood4 ,such is the    
state of the forests1 for example1      
between ,oristo and ,vich1 and near ,san
 ,lorenzo4 ,but1 being overtaken by a   
violent thunder-storm1 in the month of  
,august1 ,i saw the whole surface1 even 

the highest levels of some flat-topped  
hills1 streaming with mud1 while on     
every declivity the devastation of      
torrents was terrific4 ,the             
peculiarities in the physiognomy of the 
district were at once explained2 and ,i 
was taught that1 in speculating on the  
greater effects which the direct action 
of rain may once have produced on the   
surface of certain parts of ,england1 we
 need not revert to periods when the    
heat of the climate was tropical4  ,in  
the torrid zone the degradation of land 
is generally more rapid2 but the waste  
is by no means proportioned to the      
superior quantity of rain or the        
suddenness of its fall1 the transporting
 power of water being counteracted by a 
greater luxuriance of vegetation4 ,a    
geologist who is no stranger to tropical
 countries observes1 that the softer    
rocks would speedily be washed away in  
such regions1 if the numerous roots of  
plants were not matted together in such 
a manner as to produce considerable     

resistance to the destructive power of  
the rains4 ,the parasitical and creeping
 plants also entwine in every possible  
direction1 so as to render the forests  
nearly impervious1 and the trees possess
 forms and leaves best calculated to    
shoot off the heavy rains2 which1 when  
they have thus been broken in their     
fall1 are quickly absorbed by the ground
 beneath1 or1 when thrown into the      
drainage depressions1 give rise to      
furious torrents4#iig   ,influence of   
,man in modifying the ,physical         
,geography of the ,globe4  ,before      
concluding this chapter1 ,i shall offer 
a few observations on the influence of  
man in modifying the physical geography 
of the globe2 for we must class his     
agency among the powers of organic      
nature4  ,felling of forests4--,the     
felling of forests has been attended1 in
 many countries1 by a diminution of     
rain1 as in ,barbadoes and ,jamaica4#iih
 ,for in tropical countries1 where the  
quantity of aqueous vapor in the        

atmosphere is great1 but where1 on the  
other hand1 the direct rays of the sun  
are most powerful1 any impediment to the
 free circulation of air1 or any screen 
which shades the earth from the solar   
rays1 becomes a source of humidity2 and 
wherever dampness and cold have begun to
 be generated by such causes1 the       
condensation of vapor continues4 ,the   
leaves1 moreover1 of all plants are     
alembics1 and some of those in the      
torrid zone have the remarkable property
 of distilling water1 thus contributing 
to prevent the earth from becoming      
parched up4  ,distribution of the       
,american forests4--,there can be no    
doubt then1 that the state of the       
climate1 especially the humidity of the 
atmosphere1 influences vegetation1 and  
that1 in its turn1 vegetation re-acts   
upon the climate3 but some writers seem 
to have attributed too much importance  
to the influence of forests1            
particularly those of ,america1 as if   
they were the primary cause of the      

moisture of the climate4  ,the theory of
 a modern author on this subject that   
forests exist in those parts of ,america
 only where the predominant winds carry 
with them a considerable quantity of    
moisture from the ocean1 seems far more 
rational4 ,in all countries1 he says1   
having a summer heat exceeding #gj      
degrees1 the presence or absence of     
natural woods1 and their greater or less
 luxuriance1 may be taken as a measure  
of the amount of humidity1 and of the   
fertility of the soil4 ,short and heavy 
rains in a warm country will produce    
grass1 which1 having its roots near to  
the surface1 springs up in a few days1  
and withers when the moisture is        
exhausted2 but transitory rains1 however
 heavy1 will not nourish trees2 because1
 after the surface is saturated1 the    
remainder of the water runs off1 and the
 moisture lodged in the soil neither    
sinks deep enough1 nor is in sufficient 
quantity1 to furnish the giants of the  
forests with the necessary sustenance4  

,it may be assumed that twenty inches of
 rain falling moderately or at          
intervals1 will leave a greater         
permanent supply in the soil than forty 
inches falling1 as it sometimes does in 
the torrid zone1 in as many hours4#iii  
,in all regions1 he continues1 where    
ranges of mountains intercept the course
 of the constant or predominant winds1  
the country on the windward side of the 
mountains will be moist1 and that on the
 leeward dry2 and hence parched deserts 
will generally be found on the west side
 of countries within the tropics1 and on
 the east side of those beyond them1 the
 prevailing winds in these cases being  
generally in opposite directions4 ,on   
this principle1 the position of forests 
in ,north and ,south ,america may be    
explained4 ,thus1 for example1 in the   
region within the thirtieth parallel1   
the moisture swept up by the trade-wind 
from the ,atlantic is precipitated in   
part upon the mountains of ,brazil1     
which are but low1 and so distributed as

 to extend far into the interior4 ,the  
portion which remains is borne westward1
 and1 losing a little as it proceeds1 is
 at length arrested by the ,andes1 where
 it falls down in showers on their      
summits4 ,the aarial current1 now       
deprived of all the humidity with which 
it can part1 arrives in a state of      
complete exsiccation at ,peru1 where    
consequently no rain falls4 ,but in the 
region of ,america1 beyond the thirtieth
 parallel1 the ,andes serve as a screen 
to intercept the moisture brought by the
 prevailing winds from the ,pacific     
,ocean3 rains are copious on their      
summits1 and in ,chili on their western 
declivities2 but none falls on the      
plains to the eastward1 except          
occasionally when the wind blows from   
the ,atlantic4#ajjj  ,i have been more  
particular in explaining these views1   
because they appear to place in a true  
light the dependence of vegetation on   
climate1 the humidity being increased1  
and more uniformly diffused throughout  

the year1 by the gradual spreading of   
wood4  ,it has been affirmed1 that      
formerly1 when ,france and ,england were
 covered with wood1 ,europe was much    
colder than at present2 that the winters
 in ,italy were longer1 and that the    
,seine1 and many other rivers1 froze    
more regularly every winter than now4   
,m4 ,arago1 in an essay on this subject1
 has endeavored to show1 by tables of   
observations on the congelation of the  
,rhine1 ,danube1 ,rhone1 ,po1 ,seine1   
and other rivers1 at different periods1 
that there is no reason to believe the  
cold to have been in general more       
intense in ancient times4#ajja ,he      
admits1 however1 that the climate of    
,tuscany has been so far modified1 by   
the removal of wood1 as that the winters
 are less cold2 but the summers also1 he
 contends1 are less hot than of old2 and
 the summers1 according to him1 were    
formerly hotter in ,france than in our  
own times4 ,his evidence is derived     
chiefly from documents showing that wine

 was made three centuries ago in the    
,vivarais and several other provinces1  
at an earlier season1 at greater        
elevations1 and in higher latitudes1    
than are now found suitable to the vine4
  ,there seems little doubt that in the 
,united ,states of ,north ,america the  
rapid clearing of the country has       
rendered the winters less severe and the
 summers less hot2 in other words1 the  
extreme temperatures of ,january and    
,july have been observed from year to   
year to approach somewhat nearer to each
 other4 ,whether in this case1 or in    
,france1 the mean temperature has been  
raised1 seems by no means as yet        
decided2 but there is no doubt that the 
climate has become1 as ,buffon would    
have said1 less excessive4  ,i have     
before shown1 when treating of the      
excavation of new estuaries in ,holland 
by inroads of the ocean1 as also of the 
changes on our own coasts1 that although
 the conversion of sea into land by     
artificial labors may be great1 yet it  

must always be in subordination to the  
power of the tides and currents1 or to  
the great movements which alter the     
relative level of the land and sea1     
7,chap4 ,,xx47 ,if1 in addition to the  
assistance obtained by parliamentary    
grants for defending ,dunwich from the  
waves1 all the resources of ,europe had 
been directed to the same end1 the      
existence of that port might perhaps    
have been prolonged for several         
centuries 7p4 #caj47 ,but in the mean   
time1 the current would have continued  
to sweep away portions from the         
adjoining cliffs on each side1 giving to
 the whole line of coast its present    
form1 until at length the town1         
projecting as a narrow promontory1 must 
have become exposed to the irresistible 
fury of the waves4  ,it is scarcely     
necessary to observe1 that the control  
which man can obtain over the igneous   
agents is less even than that which he  
may exert over the aqueous4 ,he cannot  
modify the upheaving or depressing force

 of earthquakes1 or the periods or      
degree of violence of volcanic          
eruptions2 and on these causes the      
inequalities of the earth's surface1    
and1 consequently1 the shape of the sea 
and land1 appear mainly to depend4 ,the 
utmost that man can hope to effect in   
this respect is occasionally to divert  
the course of a lava-stream1 and to     
prevent the burning matter1 for a       
season1 from overwhelming a city1 or    
some other of the proudest works of     
human industry4  ,if all the nations of 
the earth should attempt to quarry away 
the lava which flowed during one        
eruption from the ,icelandic volcanoes  
in #aghc1 and the two following years1  
and should attempt to consign it to the 
deepest abysses of the ocean1 they might
 toil for thousands of years and not    
accomplish their task4 ,yet the matter  
borne down to the sea by two great      
rivers1 the ,ganges and ,burrampooter1  
in each quarter of a century1 probably  
equals in weight and volume the mass of 

,icelandic lava produced by that great  
eruption 7p4 #bhb74 ,so insignificant is
 the aggregate force exerted by man1    
when contrasted with the ordinary       
operations of aqueous or igneous agents 
in the natural world4  ,no application1 
perhaps1 of human skill and labor tends 
so greatly to vary the state of the     
habitable surface1 as that employed in  
the drainage of lakes and marshes1 since
 not only the stations of many animals  
and plants1 but the general climate of a
 district1 may thus be modified4 ,it is 
also a kind of alteration to which it is
 difficult to find anything analogous in
 the agency of inferior beings2 for we  
ought always1 before we decide that any 
part of the influence of man is novel   
and anomalous1 carefully to consider the
 powers of all other animated agents    
which may be limited or superseded by   
him4#ajjb ,many who have reasoned on    
these subjects seem to have forgotten   
that the human race often succeeds to   
the discharge of functions previously   

fulfilled by other species4 ,suppose the
 growth of some of the larger           
terrestrial plants1 or1 in other words1 
the extent of forest1 to be diminished  
by man1 and the climate to be thereby   
modified1 it does not follow that this  
kind of innovation is unprecedented4 ,it
 is a change in the state of vegetation1
 and such may often have been the result
 of the appearance of new species upon  
the earth4 ,the multiplication1 for     
example1 of certain insects in parts of 
,germany1 during the last century1      
destroyed more trees than man1 perhaps1 
could have felled during an equal       
period4  ,it would be rash1 however1 to 
affirm that the power of man to modify  
the surface may not differ in kind or   
degree from that of other living beings2
 although the problem is certainly more 
complex than many who have speculated on
 such topics have imagined4 ,if land be 
raised from the sea1 the greatest       
alteration in its physical condition1   
which could ever arise from the         

influence of organic beings1 would      
probably be produced by the first       
immigration of terrestrial plants1      
whereby the new tract would become      
covered with vegetation4 ,the change    
next in importance would seem to be when
 animals first enter1 and modify the    
proportionate numbers of certain species
 of plants4 ,if there be any anomaly in 
the intervention of man1 in farther     
varying the relative numbers in the     
vegetable kingdom1 it may not so much   
consist in the kind or absolute quantity
 of alteration1 as in the circumstance  
that a single species1 in this case1    
would exert1 by its superior power and  
universal distribution1 an influence    
equal to that of hundreds of other      
terrestrial animals4  ,if we inquire    
whether man1 by his direct power1 or by 
the changes which he may give rise to   
indirectly1 tends1 upon the whole1 to   
lessen or increase the inequalities of  
the earth's surface1 we shall incline1  
perhaps1 to the opinion that he is a    

levelling agent4 ,in mining operations  
he conveys upwards a certain quantity of
 materials from the bowels of the earth2
 but1 on the other hand1 much rock is   
taken annually from the land1 in the    
shape of ballast1 and afterwards thrown 
into the sea1 and by this means1 in     
spite of prohibitory laws1 many harbors1
 in various parts of the world1 have    
been blocked up4 ,we rarely transport   
heavy materials to higher levels1 and   
our pyramids and cities are chiefly     
constructed of stone brought down from  
more elevated situations4 ,by ploughing 
up thousands of square miles1 and       
exposing a surface for part of the year 
to the action of the elements1 we assist
 the abrading force of rain1 and        
diminish the conservative effects of    
vegetation4     ,,chapter ,,xlv4        
,,inclosing ,,of ,,fossils ,,in ,,peat1 
,,brown ,,sand1 ,,and ,,volcanic        
,,ejections4     ,division of the       
subject--,imbedding of organic remains  
in deposits on     emerged land--,growth

 of peat--,site of ancient forests in   
,europe now     occupied by peat--,bog  
iron-ore--,preservation of animal       
substances in     peat--,miring of      
quadrupeds--,bursting of the ,solway    
moss--,great     ,dismal                
,swamp--,imbedding of organic bodies and
 human remains in blown                 
sand--,moving sands of ,african         
deserts--,de ,luc on their recent       
origin--,buried temple of               
,ipsambul--,dried carcases in the       
sands--,towns overwhelmed by            
sand-floods--,imbedding of organic and  
other remains in volcanic formations on 
the land4   ,division of the            
subject4--,the next subject of inquiry  
is the mode in which the remains of     
animals and plants become fossil1 or are
 buried in the earth by natural causes4 
,m4 ,constant ,prevost has observed1    
that the effects of geological causes   
are divisible into two great classes2   
those produced during the submersion of 
land beneath the waters1 and those which

 take place after its emersion4         
,agreeably to this classification1 ,i   
shall consider1 first1 in what manner   
animal and vegetable remains become     
included and preserved in deposits on   
emerged land1 or that part of the       
surface which is not permanently covered
 by water1 whether of seas or lakes2    
secondly1 the manner in which organic   
remains become imbedded in subaqueous   
deposits4  ,under the first division1 ,i
 shall treat of the following           
topics3--#ast1 the growth of peat1 and  
the preservation of vegetable and animal
 remains therein2--#b;dly1 the burying  
of organic remains in blown             
sand2--#c;dly1 of the same in the       
ejections and alluviums of              
volcanoes2--#dthly1 in alluviums        
generally1 and in the ruins of          
landslips2--#ethly1 in the mud and      
stalagmite of caves and fissures4       
,growth of ,peat1 and ,preservation of  
,vegetable and ,animal ,remains therein4
  ,the generation of peat1 when not     

completely under water1 is confined to  
moist situations1 where the temperature 
is low1 and where vegetables may        
decompose without putrefying4 ,it may   
consist of any of the numerous plants   
which are capable of growing in such    
stations2 but a species of moss         
7,sphagnum7 constitutes a considerable  
part of the peat found in marshes of the
 north of ,europe2 this plant having the
 property of throwing up new shoots in  
its upper part1 while its lower         
extremities are decaying4#ajjc ,reeds1  
rushes1 and other aquatic plants may    
usually be traced in peat2 and their    
organization is often so entire that    
there is no difficulty in discriminating
 the distinct species4  ,analysis of    
peat4--,in general1 says ,sir ,h4 ,davy1
 one hundred parts of dry peat contain  
from sixty to ninety-nine parts of      
matter destructible by fire2 and the    
residuum consists of earths usually of  
the same kind as the substratum of clay1
 marl1 gravel1 or rock1 on which they   

are found1 together with oxide of iron4 
,the peat of the chalk counties of      
,england1 observes the same writer1     
contains much gypsum3 but ,i have found 
very little in any specimens from       
,ireland or ,scotland1 and in general   
these peats contain very little saline  
matter4#ajjd ,from the researches of    
,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 it appears that peat 
is intermediate between simple vegetable
 matter and lignite1 the conversion of  
peat to lignite being gradual1 and being
 brought about by a prolonged action of 
water4#ajje  ,peat abundant in cold and 
humid climates4--,peat is sometimes     
formed on a declivity in mountainous    
regions1 where there is much moisture2  
but in such situations it rarely1 if    
ever1 exceeds four feet in thickness4   
,in bogs1 and in low grounds into which 
alluvial peat is drifted1 it is found   
forty feet thick1 and upwards2 but in   
such cases it generally owes one half of
 its volume to the water which it       
contains4 ,it has seldom1 if ever1 been 

discovered within the tropics2 and it   
rarely occurs in the valleys1 even in   
the south of ,france and ,spain4 ,it    
abounds more and more1 in proportion as 
we advance farther from the equator1 and
 becomes not only more frequent but more
 inflammable in northern latitudes4#ajjf
  ,the same phenomenon is repeated in   
the southern hemisphere4 ,no peat is    
found in ,brazil1 nor even in the swampy
 parts of the country drained by the ,la
 ,plata on the east side of ,south      
,america1 or in the island of ,chiloe on
 the west2 yet when we reach the #deth  
degree of latitude and examine the      
,chonos ,archipelago or the ,falkland   
,islands1 and ,tierra del ,fuego1 we    
meet with an abundant growth of this    
substance4 ,almost all plants contribute
 here by their decay to the production  
of peat1 even the grasses2 but it is a  
singular fact1 says ,mr4 ,darwin1 as    
contrasted with what occurs in ,europe1 
that no kind of moss enters into the    
composition of the ,south ,american     

peat1 which is formed by many plants1   
but chiefly by that called by ,brown    
,astelia pumila4#ajjg  ,i learn from    
,dr4 ,forchhammer 7#ahdi7 that water    
charged with vegetable matter in        
solution does not throw down a deposit  
of peat in countries where the mean     
temperature of the year is above #dc    
degrees or #dd degrees ,fahrenheit4     
,frost causes the precipitation of such 
peaty matter1 but in warm climates the  
attraction of the carbon for the oxygen 
of the air mechanically mixed with the  
water increases with the increasing     
temperature1 and the dissolved vegetable
 matter or humic acid 7which is organic 
matter in a progressive state of        
decomposition7 being converted into     
carbonic acid1 rises and is absorbed    
into the atmosphere1 and thus           
disappears4  ,extent of surface covered 
by peat4--,there is a vast extent of    
surface in ,europe covered with peat1   
which1 in ,ireland1 is said to extend   
over a tenth of the whole island4 ,one  

of the mosses on the ,shannon is        
described as being fifty miles long1 by 
two or three broad2 and the great marsh 
of ,montoire1 near the mouth of the     
,loire1 is mentioned1 by ,blavier1 as   
being more than fifty leagues in        
circumference4 ,it is a curious and     
well-ascertained fact1 that many of     
these mosses of the north of ,europe    
occupy the place of forests of pine and 
oak1 which have1 many of them1          
disappeared within the historical era4  
,such changes are brought about by the  
fall of trees and the stagnation of     
water1 caused by their trunks and       
branches obstructing the free drainage  
of the atmospheric waters1 and giving   
rise to a marsh4 ,in a warm climate1    
such decayed timber would immediately be
 removed by insects1 or by putrefaction2
 but1 in the cold temperature now       
prevailing in our latitudes1 many       
examples are recorded of marshes        
originating in this source4 ,thus1 in   
,mar forest1 in ,aberdeenshire1 large   

trunks of ,scotch fir1 which had fallen 
from age and decay1 were soon immured in
 peat1 formed partly out of their       
perishing leaves and branches1 and in   
part from the growth of other plants4   
,we also learn1 that the overthrow of a 
forest by a storm1 about the middle of  
the seventeenth century1 gave rise to a 
peat-moss near ,lochbroom1 in           
,ross-shire1 where1 in less than half a 
century after the fall of the trees1 the
 inhabitants dug peat4#ajjh ,dr4 ,walker
 mentions a similar change1 when1 in the
 year #agef1 the whole wood of          
,drumlaurig in ,dumfries-shire was      
overset by the wind4 ,such events       
explain the occurrence1 both in ,britain
 and on the ,continent1 of mosses where 
the trees are all broken within two or  
three feet of the original surface1 and 
where their trunks all lie in the same  
direction4#ajji  ,it may however be     
suggested in these cases1 that the soil 
had become exhausted for trees1 and     
that1 on the principle of that natural  

rotation which prevails in the vegetable
 world1 one set of plants died out and  
another succeeded4 ,it is certainly a   
remarkable fact that in the ,danish     
islands1 and in ,jutland and ,holstein1 
fir wood of various species1 especially 
,scotch fir1 is found at the bottom of  
the peat-mosses1 although it is well    
ascertained that for the last five      
centuries no ,coniferae have grown wild 
in these countries2 the coniferous trees
 which now flourish there having been   
all planted towards the close of the    
last century4  ,nothing is more common  
than the occurrence of buried trees at  
the bottom of the ,irish peat-mosses1 as
 also in most of those of ,england1     
,france1 and ,holland2 and they have    
been so often observed with parts of    
their trunks standing erect1 and with   
their roots fixed to the subsoil1 that  
no doubt can be entertained of their    
having generally grown on the spot4     
,they consist1 for the most part1 of the
 fir1 the oak1 and the birch3 where the 

subsoil is clay1 the remains of oak are 
the most abundant2 where sand is the    
substratum1 fir prevails4 ,in the marsh 
of ,curragh1 in the ,isle of ,man1 vast 
trees are discovered standing firm on   
their roots1 though at the depth of     
eighteen or twenty feet below the       
surface4 ,some naturalists have desired 
to refer the imbedding of timber in     
peat-mosses to aqueous transportation1  
since rivers are well known to float    
wood into lakes2 but the facts above    
mentioned show that1 in numerous        
instances1 such an hypothesis is        
inadmissible4 ,it has1 moreover1 been   
observed1 that in ,scotland1 as also in 
many parts of the ,continent1 the       
largest trees are found in those        
peat-mosses which lie in the least      
elevated regions1 and that the trees are
 proportionally smaller in those which  
lie at higher levels2 from which fact   
,de ,luc and ,walker have both inferred 
that the trees grew on the spot1 for    
they would naturally attain a greater   

size in lower and warmer levels4 ,the   
leaves1 also1 and fruits of each        
species1 are continually found immersed 
in the moss along with the parent trees2
 as1 for example1 the leaves and acorns 
of the oak1 the cones and leaves of the 
fir1 and the nuts of the hazel4  ,recent
 origin of some peat-mosses4--,in       
,hatfield moss1 in ,yorkshire1 which    
appears clearly to have been a forest   
eighteen hundred years ago1 fir-trees   
have been found ninety feet long1 and   
sold for masts and keels of ships2 oaks 
have also been discovered there above   
one hundred feet long4 ,the dimensions  
of an oak from this moss are given in   
the ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4  
#bge1 which must have been larger than  
any tree now existing in the ,british   
dominions4  ,in the same moss of        
,hatfield1 as well as in that of        
,kincardine1 in ,scotland1 and several  
others1 ,roman roads have been found    
covered to the depth of eight feet by   
peat4 ,all the coins1 axes1 arms1 and   

other utensils found in ,british and    
,french mosses1 are also ,roman2 so that
 a considerable portion of the peat in  
,european peat-bogs is evidently not    
more ancient than the age of ,julius    
,caesar4 ,nor can any vestiges of the   
ancient forests described by that       
general1 along the line of the great    
,roman way in ,britain1 be discovered1  
except in the ruined trunks of trees in 
peat4  ,de ,luc ascertained that the    
very sites of the aboriginal forests of 
,hercinia1 ,semana1 ,ardennes1 and      
several others1 are now occupied by     
mosses and fens2 and a great part of    
these changes have1 with much           
probability1 been attributed to the     
strict orders given by ,severus1 and    
other emperors1 to destroy all the wood 
in the conquered provinces4 ,several of 
the ,british forests1 however1 which are
 now mosses1 were cut at different      
periods1 by order of the ,english       
parliament1 because they harbored wolves
 or outlaws4 ,thus the ,welsh woods were

 cut and burned1 in the reign of ,edward
 ,i42 as were many of those in ,ireland1
 by ,henry ,,ii41 to prevent the natives
 from harboring in them1 and harassing  
his troops4  ,it is curious to reflect  
that considerable tracts have1 by these 
accidents1 been permanently sterilized1 
and that1 during a period when          
civilization has been making great      
progress1 large areas in ,europe have1  
by human agency1 been rendered less     
capable of administering to the wants of
 man4 ,rennie observes1#ajaj with truth1
 that in those regions alone which the  
,roman eagle never reached--in the      
remote circles of the ,german empire1 in
 ,poland and ,prussia1 and still more in
 ,norway1 ,sweden1 and the vast empire  
of ,russia--can we see what ,europe was 
before it yielded to the power of ,rome4
 ,desolation now reigns where stately   
forests of pine and oak once flourished1
 such as might now have supplied all the
 navies of ,europe with timber4         
,sources of bog iron-ore4--,at the      

bottom of peat-mosses there is sometimes
 found a cake1 or pan1 as it is termed1 
of oxide of iron1 and the frequency of  
bog iron-ore is familiar to the         
mineralogist4 ,the oak1 which is so     
often dyed black in peat1 owes its color
 to the same metal4 ,from what source   
the iron is derived has often been a    
subject of discussion1 until the        
discoveries of ,ehrenberg seem at length
 to have removed the difficulty4 ,he had
 observed in the marshes about ,berlin a
 substance of a deep ochre yellow       
passing into red1 which covered the     
bottom of the ditches1 and which1 where 
it had become dry after the evaporation 
of the water1 appeared exactly like     
oxide of iron4 ,but under the microscope
 it was found to consist of slender     
articulated threads or plates1 partly   
siliceous and partly ferruginous1 of    
what he considered an animalcule1       
,gaillonella ferruginea1 but which most 
naturalists now regard as a plant4#ajaa 
,there can be little doubt1 therefore1  

that bog iron-ore consists of an        
aggregate of millions of these organic  
bodies invisible to the naked eye4#ajab 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4  ,gaillonella
 ferruginea4  a4 #bjjj times magnified4 
,preservation of animal substances in   
peat4--,one interesting circumstance    
attending the history of peat mosses is 
the high state of preservation of animal
 substances buried in them for periods  
of many years4 ,in ,june1 #agdg1 the    
body of a woman was found six feet deep1
 in a peat-moor in the ,isle of ,axholm1
 in ,lincolnshire4 ,the antique sandals 
on her feet afforded evidence of her    
having been buried there for many ages3 
yet her nails1 hair1 and skin1 are      
described as having shown hardly any    
marks of decay4 ,on the estate of the   
,earl of ,moira1 in ,ireland1 a human   
body was dug up1 a foot deep in gravel1 
covered with eleven feet of moss2 the   
body was completely clothed and the     
garments seemed all to be made of hair4 
,before the use of wool was known in    

that country the clothing of the        
inhabitants was made of hair1 so that it
 would appear that this body had been   
buried at that early period2 yet it was 
fresh and unimpaired4#ajac ,in the      
,philosophical ,transactions we find an 
example recorded of the bodies of two   
persons having been buried in moist     
peat1 in ,derbyshire1 in #afgd1 about a 
yard deep1 which were examined          
twenty-eight years and nine months      
afterwards2 the color of their skin was 
fair and natural1 their flesh soft as   
that of persons newly dead4#ajad  ,among
 other analogous facts we may mention1  
that in digging a pit for a well near   
,dulverton1 in ,somersetshire1 many pigs
 were found in various postures1 still  
entire4 ,their shape was well preserved1
 the skin1 which retained the hair1     
having assumed a dry1 membranous        
appearance4 ,their whole substance was  
converted into a white1 friable1        
laminated1 inodorous1 and tasteless     
substance2 but which1 when exposed to   

heat1 emitted an odor precisely similar 
to broiled bacon4#ajae  ,cause of the   
antiseptic property of peat4--,we       
naturally ask whence peat derives this  
antiseptic property8 ,it has been       
attributed by some to the carbonic and  
gallic acids which issue from decayed   
wood1 as also to the presence of charred
 wood in the lowest strata of many      
peat-mosses1 for charcoal is a powerful 
antiseptic1 and capable of purifying    
water already putrid4 ,vegetable gums   
and resins also may operate in the same 
way4#ajaf  ,the tannin occasionally     
present in peat is the produce1 says    
,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 of tormentilla1 and  
some other plants2 but the quantity he  
thinks too small1 and its occurrence too
 casual1 to give rise to effects of any 
importance4 ,he hints that the soft     
parts of animal bodies1 preserved in    
peat-bogs1 may have been converted into 
adipocire by the action of water merely2
 an explanation which appears clearly   
applicable to some of the cases above   

enumerated4#ajag  ,miring of            
quadrupeds4--,the manner1 however1 in   
which peat contributes to preserve1 for 
indefinite periods1 the harder parts of 
terrestrial animals1 is a subject of    
more immediate interest to the          
geologist4 ,there are two ways in which 
animals become occasionally buried in   
the peat of marshy grounds2 they either 
sink down into the semifluid mud1       
underlying a turfy surface upon which   
they have rashly ventured1 or1 at other 
times1 as we shall see in the sequel1 a 
bog bursts1 and animals may be involved 
in the peaty alluvium4  ,in the         
extensive bogs of ,newfoundland1 cattle 
are sometimes found buried with only    
their heads and necks above ground2 and 
after having remained for days in this  
situation1 they have been drawn out by  
ropes and saved4 ,in ,scotland1 also1   
cattle venturing on the quaking moss are
 often mired1 or laired1 as it is       
termed2 and in ,ireland1 ,mr4 ,king     
asserts that the number of cattle which 

are lost in sloughs is quite            
incredible4#ajah  ,solway moss4--,the   
description given of the ,solway moss   
will serve to illustrate the general    
character of these boggy grounds4 ,that 
moss1 observes ,gilpin1 is a flat area1 
about seven miles in circumference1     
situated on the western confines of     
,england and ,scotland4 ,its surface is 
covered with grass and rushes1          
presenting a dry crust and a fair       
appearance2 but it shakes under the     
least pressure1 the bottom being unsound
 and semifluid4 ,the adventurous        
passenger1 therefore1 who sometimes in  
dry seasons traverses this perilous     
waste1 to save a few miles1 picks his   
cautious way over the rushy tussocks as 
they appear before him1 for here the    
soil is firmest4 ,if his foot slip1 or  
if he venture to desert this mark of    
security1 it is possible he may never   
more be heard of4  ,at the battle of    
,solway1 in the time of ,henry ,,viii4  
7#aedb71 when the ,scotch army1         

commanded by ,oliver ,sinclair1 was     
routed1 an unfortunate troop of horse1  
driven by their fears1 plunged into this
 morass1 which instantly closed upon    
them4 ,the tale was traditional1 but it 
is now authenticated2 a man and horse1  
in complete armor1 having been found by 
peat-diggers1 in the place where it was 
always supposed the affair had happened4
 ,the skeleton of each was well         
preserved1 and the different parts of   
the armor easily distinguished4#ajai    
,the same moss1 on the #afth of         
,december1 #aggb1 having been filled    
like a great sponge with water during   
heavy rains1 swelled to an unusual      
height above the surrounding country1   
and then burst4 ,the turfy covering     
seemed for a time to act like the skin  
of a bladder retaining the fluid within1
 till it forced a passage for itself1   
when a stream of black half-consolidated
 mud began at first to creep over the   
plain1 resembling1 in the rate of its   
progress1 an ordinary lava-current4 ,no 

lives were lost1 but the deluge totally 
overwhelmed some cottages1 and covered  
#djj acres4 ,the highest parts of the   
original moss subsided to the depth of  
about twenty-five feet2 and the height  
of the moss1 on the lowest parts of the 
country which it invaded1 was at least  
fifteen feet4  ,bursting of a peat-moss 
in ,ireland4--,a recent inundation in   
,sligo 7,january1 #ahca71 affords       
another example of this phenomenon4     
,after a sudden thaw of snow1 the bog   
between ,bloomfield and ,geevah gave    
way2 and a black deluge1 carrying with  
it the contents of a hundred acres of   
bog1 took the direction of a small      
stream and rolled on with the violence  
of a torrent1 sweeping along heath1     
timber1 mud1 and stones1 and            
overwhelming many meadows and arable    
land4 ,on passing through some boggy    
land1 the flood swept out a wide and    
deep ravine1 and part of the road       
leading from ,bloomfield to ,st4        
,james's ,well was completely carried   

away from below the foundation for the  
breadth of #bjj yards4  ,great ,dismal  
,swamp4--,i have described1 in my       
,travels in ,north ,america1#ajbj an    
extensive swamp or morass1 forty miles  
long from north to south1 and           
twenty-five wide1 between the towns of  
,norfolk in ,virginia1 and ,weldon in   
,north ,carolina4 ,it is called the     
,great ,dismal1 and has somewhat the    
appearance of an inundated river-plain  
covered with aquatic trees and shrubs1  
the soil being as black as that of a    
peat bog4 ,it is higher on all sides    
except one than the surrounding country1
 towards which it sends forth streams of
 water to the north1 east1 and south1   
receiving a supply from the west only4  
,in its centre it rises #ab feet above  
the flat region which bounds it4 ,the   
soil1 to the depth of #ae feet1 is      
formed of vegetable matter without any  
admixture1 of earthy particles1 and     
offers an exception to a general rule   
before alluded to1 namely1 that such    

peaty accumulations scarcely ever occur 
so far south as lat4 #cf degrees1 or in 
any region where the summer heat is so  
great as in ,virginia4 ,in digging      
canals through the morass for the       
purpose of obtaining timber1 much of the
 black soil has been thrown out from    
time to time1 and exposed to the sun and
 air1 in which case it soon rots away so
 that nothing remains behind1 showing   
clearly that it owes its preservation to
 the shade afforded by a luxuriant      
vegetation and to the constant          
evaporation of the spongy soil by which 
the air is cooled during the hot months4
 ,the surface of the bog is carpeted    
with mosses1 and densely covered with   
ferns and reeds1 above which many       
evergreen shrubs and trees flourish1    
especially the ,white ,cedar 7,cupressus
 thyoides71 which stands firmly         
supported by its long tap roots in the  
softest parts of the quagmire4 ,over the
 whole the deciduous cypress 7,taxodium 
distichum7 is seen to tower with its    

spreading top1 in full leaf in the      
season when the sun's rays are hottest1 
and when1 if not intercepted by a screen
 of foliage1 they might soon cause the  
fallen leaves and dead plants of the    
preceding autumn to decompose1 instead  
of adding their contributions to the    
peaty mass4 ,on the surface of the wide 
morass lie innumerable trunks of large  
and tall trees1 while thousands of      
others1 blown down by the winds1 are    
buried at various depths in the black   
mire below4 ,they remind the geologist  
of the prostrate position of large stems
 of ,sigillaria and ,lepidodendron1     
converted into coal in ancient          
carboniferous rocks4  ,bones of         
herbivorous quadrupeds in peat4--,the   
antlers of large and full-grown stags   
are amongst the most common and         
conspicuous remains of animals in peat4 
,they are not horns which have been     
shed2 for portions of the skull are     
found attached1 proving that the whole  
animal perished4 ,bones of the ox1 hog1 

horse1 sheep1 and other herbivorous     
animals1 also occur4 ,m4 ,morren has    
discovered in the peat of ,flanders the 
bones of otters and beavers#ajba2 but no
 remains have been met with belonging to
 those extinct quadrupeds1 of which the 
living congeners inhabit warmer         
latitudes1 such as the elephant1        
rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 hyaena1 and   
tiger1 though these are so common in    
superficial deposits of silt1 mud1 sand1
 or stalactite1 in various districts    
throughout ,great ,britain4 ,their      
absence seems to imply that they had    
ceased to live before the atmosphere of 
this part of the world acquired that    
cold and humid character which favors   
the growth of peat4  ,remains of ships1 
c41 in peat mosses4--,from the facts    
before mentioned1 that mosses           
occasionally burst1 and descend in a    
fluid state to lower levels1 it will    
readily be seen that lakes and arms of  
the sea may occasionally become the     
receptacles of drift peat4 ,of this1    

accordingly1 there are numerous         
examples2 and hence the alternations of 
clay and sand with different deposits of
 peat so frequent on some coasts1 as on 
those of the ,baltic and ,german ,ocean4
 ,we are informed by ,deguer1 that      
remains of ships1 nautical instruments1 
and oars1 have been found in many of the
 ,dutch mosses2 and ,gerard1 in his     
,history of the ,valley of the ,somme1  
mentions that in the lowest tier of that
 moss was found a boat loaded with      
bricks1 proving that these mosses were  
at one period navigable lakes and arms  
of the sea1 as were also many mosses on 
the coast of ,picardy1 ,zealand1 and    
,friesland1 from which soda and salt are
 procured4#ajbb ,the canoes1 stone      
hatchets1 and stone arrow-heads found in
 peat in different parts of ,great      
,britain1 lead to similar conclusions4  
,imbedding of human and other remains1  
and works of ,art1 in ,blown ,sand4     
,the drifting of sand may next be       
considered among the causes capable of  

preserving organic remains and works of 
art on the emerged land4  ,african      
,sands4--,the sands of the ,african     
deserts have been driven by the west    
winds over part of the arable land of   
,egypt1 on the western bank of the      
,nile1 in those places where valleys    
open into the plain1 or where there are 
gorges through the ,libyan mountains4   
,by similar sand-drifts the ruins of    
ancient cities have been buried between 
the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon and       
,nubia4 ,m4 ,g4 ,a4 ,de ,luc attempted  
to infer the recent origin of our       
continents1 from the fact that these    
moving sands have arrived only in modern
 times at the fertile plains of the     
,nile4 ,the same scourge1 he said1 would
 have afflicted ,egypt for ages anterior
 to the times of history1 had the       
continents risen above the level of the 
sea several hundred centuries before our
 era4#ajbc ,but the author proceeded in 
this1 as in all his other chronological 
computations1 on a multitude of         

gratuitous assumptions4 ,he ought1 in   
the first place1 to have demonstrated   
that the whole continent of ,africa was 
raised above the level of the sea at one
 period2 for unless this point was      
established1 the region from whence the 
sands began to move might have been the 
last addition made to ,africa1 and the  
commencement of the sand-flood might    
have been long posterior to the laying  
dry of the greater portion of that      
continent4 ,that the different parts of 
,europe were not all elevated at one    
time is now generally admitted4 ,de ,luc
 should also have pointed out the depth 
of drift sand in various parts of the   
great ,libyan deserts1 and have shown   
whether any valleys of large dimensions 
had been filled up--how long these may  
have arrested the progress of the sands1
 and how far the flood had upon the     
whole advanced since the times of       
history4  ,we have seen that ,sir ,j4   
,g4 ,wilkinson is of opinion that1 while
 the sand-drift is making aggressions at

 certain points upon the fertile soil of
 ,egypt1 the alluvial deposit of the    
,nile is advancing very generally upon  
the desert2 and that1 upon the whole1   
the balance is greatly in favor of the  
fertilizing mud4#ajbd  ,no mode of      
interment can be conceived1 more        
favorable to the conservation of        
monuments for indefinite periods than   
that now so common in the region        
immediately westward of the ,nile4 ,the 
sand which surrounded and filled the    
great temple of ,ipsambul1 first        
discovered by ,burckhardt1 and          
afterwards partially uncovered by       
,belzoni and ,beechey1 was so fine as to
 resemble a fluid when put in motion4   
,neither the features of the colossal   
figures1 nor the color of the stucco    
with which some were covered1 nor the   
paintings on the walls1 had received any
 injury from being enveloped for ages in
 this dry impalpable dust4#ajbe  ,at    
some future period1 perhaps when the    
pyramids shall have perished1 the action

 of the sea1 or an earthquake1 may lay  
open to the day some of these buried    
temples4 ,or we may suppose the desert  
to remain undisturbed1 and changes in   
the surrounding sea and land to modify  
the climate and the direction of the    
prevailing winds1 so that these may then
 waft away the ,libyan sands as         
gradually as they once brought them to  
those regions4 ,thus1 many a town and   
temple of higher antiquity than ,thebes 
or ,memphis may reappear in their       
original antiquity1 and a part of the   
gloom which overhangs the history of the
 earlier nations be dispelled4  ,whole  
caravans are said to have been          
overwhelmed by the ,libyan sands2 and   
,burckhardt informs us that after       
passing the ,akaba near the head of the 
,red ,sea1 the bones of dead camels are 
the only guides of the pilgrim through  
the wastes of sand4--,we did not see1   
says ,captain ,lyon1 speaking of a plain
 near the ,soudah mountains1 in         
,northern ,africa1 the least appearance 

of vegetation2 but observed many        
skeletons of animals1 which had died of 
fatigue on the desert1 and occasionally 
the grave of some human being4 ,all     
these bodies were so dried by the heat  
of the sun1 that putrefaction appears   
not to have taken place after death4 ,in
 recently expired animals ,i could not  
perceive the slightest offensive smell2 
and in those long dead1 the skin with   
the hair on it remained unbroken and    
perfect1 although so brittle as to break
 with a slight blow4 ,the sand-winds    
never cause these carcases to change    
their places2 for1 in a short time1 a   
slight mound is formed round them1 and  
they become stationary4#ajbf  ,towns    
overwhelmed by sand floods4--,the       
burying of several towns and villages in
 ,england1 ,france1 and ,jutland1 by    
blown sand1 is on record2 thus1 for     
example1 near ,st4 ,pol de ,leon1 in    
,brittany1 a whole village was          
completely buried beneath drift sand1 so
 that nothing was seen but the spire of 

the church4#ajbg ,in ,jutland marine    
shells adhering to sea-weed are         
sometimes blown by the violence of the  
wind to the height of #ajj feet1 and    
buried in similar hills of sand4  ,in   
,suffolk1 in the year #afhh1 part of    
,downham was overwhelmed by sands which 
had broken loose about #ajj years       
before1 from a warren five miles to the 
south-west4 ,this sand had1 in the      
course of a century1 travelled five     
miles1 and covered more than #ajjj acres
 of land4#ajbh ,a considerable tract of 
cultivated land on the north coast of   
,cornwall has been inundated by drift   
sand1 forming hills several hundred feet
 above the level of the sea1 and        
composed of comminuted marine shells1 in
 which some terrestrial shells are      
enclosed entire4 ,by the shifting of    
these sands the ruins of ancient        
buildings have been discovered2 and in  
some cases where wells have been bored  
to a great depth1 distinct strata1      
separated by a vegetable crust1 are     

visible4 ,in some places1 as at ,new    
,quay1 large masses have become         
sufficiently indurated to be used for   
architectural purposes4 ,the            
lapidification1 which is still in       
progress1 appears to be due to oxide of 
iron held in solution by the water which
 percolates the sand4#ajbi   ,imbedding 
of ,organic and other ,remains in       
,volcanic ,formations on the ,land4  ,i 
have in some degree anticipated the     
subject of this section in former       
chapters1 when speaking of the buried   
cities around ,naples1 and those on the 
flanks of ,etna 7pp4 #che4 #djj474 ,from
 the facts referred to1 it appeared that
 the preservation of human remains and  
works of art is frequently due to the   
descent of floods caused by the copious 
rains which accompany eruptions4 ,these 
aqueous lavas1 as they are called in    
,campania1 flow with great rapidity1 and
 in #ahbb surprised and suffocated1 as  
was stated1 seven persons in the        
villages of ,st4 ,sebastian and ,massa1 

on the flanks of ,vesuvius4  ,in the    
tuffs1 moreover1 or solidified mud1     
deposited by these aqueous lavas1       
impressions of leaves and of trees have 
been observed4 ,some of those1 formed   
after the eruption of ,vesuvius in      
#ahbb1 are now preserved in the museum  
at ,naples4  ,lava itself may become    
indirectly the means of preserving      
terrestrial remains1 by overflowing beds
 of ashes1 pumice1 and ejected matter1  
which may have been showered down upon  
animals and plants1 or upon human       
remains4 ,few substances are better     
non-conductors of heat than volcanic    
dust and scoriae1 so that a bed of such 
materials is rarely melted by a         
superimposed lava-current4 ,after       
consolidation1 the lava affords secure  
protection to the lighter and more      
removable mass below1 in which the      
organic relics may be enveloped4 ,the   
,herculanean tuffs containing the rolls 
of papyrus1 of which the characters are 
still legible1 have1 as was before      

remarked1 been for ages covered by lava4
  ,another mode by which lava may tend  
to the conservation of imbedded remains1
 at least of works of human art1 is by  
its overflowing them when it is not     
intensely heated1 in which case they    
sometimes suffer little or no injury4   
,thus when the ,etnean lava-current of  
#affi covered fourteen towns and        
villages1 and part of the city of       
,catania1 it did not melt down a great  
number of statues and other articles in 
the vaults of ,catania2 and at the depth
 of thirty-five feet in the same        
current1 on the site of ,mompiliere1 one
 of the buried towns1 the bell of a     
church and some statues were found      
uninjured 7p4 #dja474  ,we read of      
several buried cities in ,central       
,india1 and among others of ,oujein 7or 
,oojain7 which about fifty years before 
the ,christian era was the seat of      
empire1 of art1 and of learning2 but    
which in the time of the ,rajah         
,vicramaditya1 was overwhelmed1         

according to tradition1 together with   
more than eighty other large towns in   
the provinces of ,malwa and ,bagur1 by a
 shower of earth4 ,the city which now   
bears the name is situated a mile to the
 southward of the ancient town4 ,on     
digging on the spot where the latter is 
supposed to have stood1 to the depth of 
fifteen or eighteen feet1 there are     
frequently discovered1 says ,mr4        
,hunter1 entire brick walls1 pillars of 
stone1 and pieces of wood of an         
extraordinary hardness1 besides utensils
 of various kinds1 ancient coins1 and   
occasionally buried wheat in a state    
resembling charcoal4#ajcj  ,the soil    
which covers ,oujein is described as    
being of an ash-gray color1 with minute 
specks of black sand4#ajca ,and the     
shower of earth1 said to have fallen    
from heaven1 has been attributed by some
 travellers to volcanic agency4 ,there  
are1 however1 no active volcanoes in    
,central ,india1 the nearest to ,oujein 
being ,denodur hill near ,bhooj1 the    

capital of ,cutch1 #cjj geographical    
miles distant1 if indeed that hill has  
ever poured out lava in historical      
times1 which is doubted by many4#ajcb   
,the latest writers on ,oujein avow     
their suspicion that the supposed       
catastrophe was nothing more than the   
political decline and final abandonment 
of a great city which1 like ,nineveh or 
,babylon1 and many an ancient seat of   
empire in the ,east1 after losing its   
importance as a metropolis1 became a    
heap of ruins4 ,the rapidity with which 
the sun-dried bricks1 of which even the 
most splendid oriental palaces are often
 constructed1 crumble down when exposed 
to rain and sun1 and are converted into 
mounds of ordinary earth and clay1 is   
well known4 ,according to ,captain      
,dangerfield1 trap tuff and columnar    
basalt constitute the rocks in the      
environs of ,oujein#ajcc1 and the       
volcanic nature of these formations1    
from which the materials of the bricks  
were originally derived1 may have led to

 the idea of the city having been       
overwhelmed by a volcanic eruption4     
,,chapter ,,xlvi4  ,,burying ,,of       
,,fossils ,,in ,,alluvial ,,deposits    
,,and ,,in ,,caves4     ,fossils in     
alluvium--,effects of sudden            
inundations--terrestrial     animals    
most abundantly preserved in alluvium   
where earthquakes     prevail--,marine  
alluvium--,buried town--,effects of     
,landslips--,organic     remains in     
fissures and caves--,form and dimensions
 of caverns--their     probable         
origin--,closed basins and subterranean 
rivers of the                           
,morea--,katavothra--,formation of      
breccias with red cement--,human        
remains imbedded in                     
,morea--,intermixture1 in caves of      
,south of ,france     and elsewhere1 of 
human remains and bones of extinct      
quadrupeds1 no     proof of former      
co-existence of man with those lost     
species4   ,fossils in alluvium4--,the  
next subject for our consideration1     

according to the division before        
proposed1 is the embedding of organic   
bodies in alluvium4  ,the gravel1 sand1 
and mud in the bed of a river does not  
often contain any animal or vegetable   
remains2 for the whole mass is so       
continually shifting its place1 and the 
attrition of the various parts is so    
great1 that even the hardest rocks      
contained in it are1 at length1 ground  
down to powder4 ,but when sand and      
sediment are suddenly swept by a flood1 
and then let fall upon the land1 such an
 alluvium may envelop trees or the      
remains of animals1 which1 in this      
manner1 are often permanently preserved4
 ,in the mud and sand produced by the   
floods in ,scotland1 in #ahbi1 the dead 
and mutilated bodies of hares1 rabbits1 
moles1 mice1 partridges1 and even the   
bodies of men1 were found partially     
buried4#ajcd ,but in these and similar  
cases one flood usually effaces the     
memorials left by another1 and there is 
rarely a sufficient depth of undisturbed

 transported matter1 in any one spot1 to
 preserve the organic remains for ages  
from destruction4  ,where earthquakes   
prevail1 and the levels of a country are
 changed from time to time1 the remains 
of animals may more easily be inhumed   
and protected from disintegration4      
,portions of plains1 loaded with        
alluvial accumulations by transient     
floods1 may be gradually upraised2 and1 
if any organic remains have been        
imbedded in the transported materials1  
they may1 after such elevation1 be      
placed beyond the reach of the erosive  
power of streams4 ,in districts where   
the drainage is repeatedly deranged by  
subterranean movements1 every fissure1  
every hollow caused by the sinking in of
 land1 becomes a depository of organic  
and inorganic substances1 hurried along 
by transient floods4  ,marine           
alluvium4--,in ,may1 #aghg1 a dreadful  
inundation of the sea was caused at     
,coringa1 ,ingeram1 and other places1 on
 the coast of ,coromandel1 in the ,east 

,indies1 by a hurricane blowing from the
 ,n4 ,e41 which raised the waters so    
that they rolled inland to the distance 
of about twenty miles from the shore1   
swept away many villages1 drowned more  
than #aj1jjj people1 and left the       
country covered with marine mud1 on     
which the carcasses of about #ajj1jjj   
head of cattle were strewed4 ,an old    
tradition of the natives of a similar   
flood1 said to have happened about a    
century before1 was1 till this event1   
regarded as fabulous by the ,european   
settlers4#ajce ,the same coast of       
,coromandel was1 so late as ,may1 #ahcb1
 the scene of another catastrophe of the
 same kind2 and when the inundation     
subsided1 several vessels were seen     
grounded in the fields of the low       
country about ,coringa4  ,many of the   
storms termed hurricanes have evidently 
been connected with submarine           
earthquakes1 as is shown by the         
atmospheric phenomena attendant on them1
 and by the sounds heard in the ground  

and the odors emitted4 ,such were the   
circumstances which accompanied the     
swell of the sea in ,jamaica1 in #aghj1 
when a great wave desolated the western 
coast1 and bursting upon ,savanna la    
,mar1 swept away the whole town in an   
instant1 so that not a vestige of man1  
beast1 or habitation1 was seen upon the 
surface4#ajcf  ,houses and works of art 
in alluvial deposits4--,a very ancient  
subterranean town1 apparently of ,hindoo
 origin1 was discovered in ,india in    
#ahcc1 in digging the ,doab canal4 ,its 
site is north of ,saharunpore1 near the 
town of ,behat1 and seventeen feet below
 the present surface of the country4    
,more than #agj coins of silver and     
copper have already been found1 and many
 articles in metal and earthenware4 ,the
 overlying deposit consisted of about   
five feet of river sand1 with a         
substratum about twelve feet thick of   
red alluvial clay4 ,in the neighborhood 
are several rivers and torrents1 which  
descend from the mountains charged with 

vast quantities of mud1 sand1 and       
shingle2 and within the memory of       
persons now living the modern ,behat has
 been threatened by an inundation1      
which1 after retreating1 left the       
neighboring country strewed over with a 
superficial covering of sand several    
feet thick4 ,in sinking wells in the    
environs1 masses of shingle and boulders
 have been reached resembling those now 
in the river-channels of the same       
district1 under a deposit of thirty feet
 of reddish loam4 ,captain ,cautley1    
therefore1 who directed the excavations1
 supposes that the matter discharged by 
torrents has gradually raised the whole 
country skirting the base of the lower  
hills2 and that the ancient town1 having
 been originally built in a hollow1 was 
submerged by floods1 and covered over   
with sediment seventeen feet in         
thickness4#ajcg  ,we are informed1 by   
,m4 ,boblaye1 that in the ,morea1 the   
formation termed caramique1 consisting  
of pottery1 tiles1 and bricks1          

intermixed with various works of art1   
enters so largely into the alluvium and 
vegetable soil upon the plains of       
,greece1 and into hard and crystalline  
breccias which have been formed at the  
foot of declivities1 that it constitutes
 an important stratum which might1 in   
the absence of zoological characters1   
serve to mark our epoch in a most       
indestructible manner4#ajch             
,landslips4--,the landslip1 by suddenly 
precipitating large masses of rock and  
soil into a valley1 overwhelms a        
multitude of animals1 and sometimes     
buries permanently whole villages1 with 
their inhabitants and large herds of    
cattle4 ,thus three villages1 with their
 entire population1 were covered1 when  
the mountain of ,piz fell in #aggb1 in  
the district of ,treviso1 in the state  
of ,venice1#ajci and part of ,mount     
,grenier1 south of ,chambery1 in ,savoy1
 which fell down in the year #abdh1     
buried five parishes1 including the town
 and church of ,st4 ,andra1 the ruins   

occupying an extent of about nine square
 miles4#ajdj  ,the number of lives lost 
by the slide of the ,rossberg1 in       
,switzerland1 in #ahjf1 was estimated at
 more than #hjj1 a great number of the  
bodies1 as well as several villages and 
scattered houses1 being buried deep     
under mud and rock4 ,in the same        
country1 several hundred cottages1 with 
eighteen of their inhabitants and a     
great number of cows1 goats1 and sheep1 
were victims to the sudden fall of a bed
 of stones1 thirty yards deep1 which    
descended from the summits of the       
,diablerets in ,vallais4 ,in the year   
#afah1 a portion of ,mount ,conto fell1 
in the county of ,chiavenna1 in         
,switzerland1 and buried the town of    
,pleurs with all its inhabitants1 to the
 number of #bdcj4  ,it is unnecessary to
 multiply examples of similar local     
catastrophes1 which however numerous    
they may have been in mountainous parts 
of ,europe1 within the historical       
period1 have been1 nevertheless1 of rare

 occurrence when compared to events of  
the same kind which have taken place in 
regions convulsed by earthquakes4 ,it is
 then that enormous masses of rock and  
earth1 even in comparatively low and    
level countries1 are detached from the  
sides of valleys1 and cast down into the
 river courses1 and often so            
unexpectedly that they overwhelm1 even  
in the daytime1 every living thing upon 
the plains4   ,preservation of ,organic 
,remains in ,fissures and ,caves4  ,in  
the history of earthquakes it was shown 
that many hundreds of new fissures and  
chasms had opened in certain regions    
during the last #aej years1 some of     
which are described as being of         
unfathomable depth4 ,we also perceive   
that mountain masses have been violently
 fractured and dislocated1 during their 
rise above the level of the sea2 and    
thus we may account for the existence of
 many cavities in the interior of the   
earth by the simple agency of           
earthquakes2 but there are some caverns1

 especially in limestone rocks1 which1  
although usually1 if not always1        
connected with rents1 are nevertheless  
of such forms1 and dimensions1          
alternately expanding into spacious     
chambers1 and then contracting again    
into narrow passages1 that it is        
difficult to conceive that they can owe 
their origin to the mere fracturing and 
displacement of solid masses4  ,in the  
limestone of ,kentucky1 in the basin of 
,green ,river1 one of the tributaries of
 the ,ohio1 a line of underground       
cavities has been traced in one         
direction for a distance of ten miles1  
without any termination2 and one of the 
chambers1 of which there are many1 all  
connected by narrow tunnels1 is no less 
than ten acres in area and #aej feet in 
its greatest height4 ,besides the       
principal series of antres vast1 there  
are a great many lateral embranchments  
not yet explored4#ajda  ,the cavernous  
structure here alluded to is not        
altogether confined to calcareous rocks2

 for it has lately been observed in     
micaceous and argillaceous schist in the
 ,grecian island of ,thermia 7,cythnos  
of the ancients71 one of the ,cyclades4 
,here also spacious halls1 with rounded 
and irregular walls1 are connected      
together by narrow passages or tunnels1 
and there are many lateral branches     
which have no outlet4 ,a current of     
water has evidently at some period      
flowed through the whole1 and left a    
muddy deposit of bluish clay upon the   
floor2 but the erosive action of the    
stream cannot be supposed to have given 
rise to the excavations in the first    
instance4 ,m4 ,virlet suggests that     
fissures were first caused by           
earthquakes1 and that these fissures    
became the chimneys or vents for the    
disengagement of gas1 generated below by
 volcanic heat4 ,gases1 he observes1    
such as the muriatic1 sulphuric1        
fluoric1 and others1 might1 if raised to
 a high temperature1 alter and decompose
 the rocks which they traverse4 ,there  

are signs of the former action of such  
vapors in rents of the micaceous schist 
of ,thermia1 and thermal springs now    
issue from the grottoes of that island4 
,we may suppose that afterwards the     
elements of the decomposed rocks were   
gradually removed in a state of solution
 by mineral waters2 a theory which1     
according to ,m4 ,virlet1 is confirmed  
by the effect of heated gases which     
escape from rents in the isthmus of     
,corinth1 and which have greatly altered
 and corroded the hard siliceous and    
jaspideous rocks4#ajdb  ,when we reflect
 on the quantity of carbonate of lime   
annually poured out by mineral waters1  
we are prepared to admit that large     
cavities must1 in the course of ages1 be
 formed at considerable depths below the
 surface in calcareous rocks4#ajdc      
,these rocks1 it will be remembered1 are
 at once more soluble1 more permeable1  
and more fragile1 than any others1 at   
least all the compact varieties are very
 easily broken by the movements of      

earthquakes1 which would produce only   
flexures in argillaceous strata4        
,fissures once formed in limestone are  
not liable1 as in many other formations1
 to become closed up by impervious      
clayey matter1 and hence a stream of    
acidulous water might for ages obtain a 
free and unobstructed passage4#ajdd     
,morea4--,nothing is more common in     
limestone districts than the engulfment 
of rivers1 which after holding a        
subterranean course for many miles      
escape again by some new outlet4 ,as    
they are usually charged with fine      
sediment1 and often with sand and       
pebbles where they enter1 whereas they  
are usually pure and limpid where they  
flow out again1 they must deposit much  
matter in empty spaces in the interior  
of the earth4 ,in addition to the       
materials thus introduced1 stalagmite1  
or carbonate of lime1 drops from the    
roofs of caverns1 and in this mixture   
the bones of animals washed in by rivers
 are often entombed4 ,in this manner we 

may account for those bony breccias     
which we often find in caves1 some of   
which are of high antiquity while others
 are very recent and in daily progress4 
,in no district are engulfed streams    
more conspicuous than in the ,morea1    
where the phenomena attending them have 
been lately studied and described in    
great detail by ,m4 ,boblaye and his    
fellow-laborers of the ,french          
expedition to ,greece4#ajde ,their      
account is peculiarly interesting to    
geologists1 because it throws light on  
the red osseous breccias containing the 
bones of extinct quadrupeds which are so
 common in almost all the countries     
bordering the ,mediterranean4 ,it       
appears that the numerous caverns of the
 ,morea occur in a compact limestone1 of
 the age of the ,english chalk1         
immediately below which are arenaceous  
strata referred to the period of our    
greensand4 ,in the more elevated        
districts of that peninsula there are   
many deep land-locked valleys1 or       

basins1 closed round on all sides by    
mountains of fissured and cavernous     
limestone4 ,the year is divided almost  
as distinctly as between the tropics    
into a rainy season1 which lasts upwards
 of four months1 and a season of drought
 of nearly eight months' duration4 ,when
 the torrents are swollen by the rains1 
they rush from surrounding heights into 
the inclosed basins2 but1 instead of    
giving rise to lakes1 as would be the   
case in most other countries1 they are  
received into gulfs or chasms1 called by
 the ,greeks ,katavothra1 and which     
correspond to what are termed           
swallow-holes in the north of ,england4 
,the water of these torrents is charged 
with pebbles and red ochreous earth1    
resembling precisely the well-known     
cement of the osseous breccias of the   
,mediterranean4 ,it dissolves in acids  
with effervescence1 and leaves a residue
 of hydrated oxide of iron1 granular    
iron1 impalpable grains of silex1 and   
small crystals of quartz4 ,soil of the  

same description abounds everywhere on  
the surface of the decomposing limestone
 in ,greece1 that rock containing in it 
much siliceous and ferruginous matter4  
,many of the ,katavothra being          
insufficient to give passage to all the 
water in the rainy season1 a temporary  
lake is formed round the mouth of the   
chasm1 which then becomes still farther 
obstructed by pebbles1 sand1 and red    
mud1 thrown down from the turbid waters4
 ,the lake being thus raised1 its waters
 generally escape through other         
openings1 at higher levels1 around the  
borders of the plain1 constituting the  
bottom of the closed basin4  ,in some   
places1 as at ,kavaros and ,tripolitza1 
where the principal discharge is by a   
gulf in the middle of the plain1 nothing
 can be seen over the opening in summer1
 when the lake dries up1 but a deposit  
of red mud1 cracked in all directions4  
,but the ,katavothron is more commonly  
situated at the foot of the surrounding 
escarpment of limestone2 and in that    

case there is sometimes room enough to  
allow a person to enter1 in summer1 and 
even to penetrate far into the interior4
 ,within is seen a suite of chambers1   
communicating with each other by narrow 
passages2 and ,m4 ,virlet relates1 that 
in one instance he observed1 near the   
entrance1 human bones imbedded in recent
 red mud1 mingled with the remains of   
plants and animals of species now       
inhabiting the ,morea4 ,it is not       
wonderful1 he says1 that the bones of   
man should be met with in such          
receptacles2 for so murderous have been 
the late wars in ,greece1 that skeletons
 are often seen lying exposed on the    
surface of the country4#ajdf  ,in       
summer1 when no water is flowing into   
the ,katavothron1 its mouth1 half closed
 up with red mud1 is masked by a        
vigorous vegetation1 which is cherished 
by the moisture of the place4 ,it is    
then the favorite hiding-place and den  
of foxes and jackals2 so that the same  
cavity serves at one season of the year 

for the habitation of carnivorous       
beasts1 and at another as the channel of
 an engulfed river4 ,near the mouth of  
one chasm1 ,m4 ,boblaye and his         
companions saw the carcass of a horse1  
in part devoured1 the size of which     
seemed to have prevented the jackals    
from dragging it in3 the marks of their 
teeth were observed on the bones1 and it
 was evident that the floods of the     
ensuing winter would wash in whatsoever 
might remain of the skeleton4  ,it has  
been stated that the waters of all these
 torrents of the ,morea are turbid where
 they are engulfed2 but when they come  
out again1 often at the distance of many
 leagues1 they are perfectly clear and  
limpid1 being only charged occasionally 
with a slight quantity of calcareous    
sand4 ,the points of efflux are usually 
near the sea-shores of the ,morea1 but  
sometimes they are submarine2 and when  
this is the case1 the sands are seen to 
boil up for a considerable space1 and   
the surface of the sea1 in calm weather1

 swells in large convex waves4 ,it is   
curious to reflect1 that when this      
discharge fails in seasons of drought1  
the pressure of the sea may force its   
salt waters into subterraneous caverns1 
and carry in marine sand and shells1 to 
be mingled with ossiferous mud1 and the 
remains of terrestrial animals4  ,in    
general1 however1 the efflux of water at
 these inferior openings is surprisingly
 uniform4 ,it seems1 therefore1 that the
 large caverns in the interior must     
serve as reservoirs1 and that the water 
escapes gradually from them1 in         
consequence of the smallness of the     
rents and passages by which they        
communicate with the surface4  ,the     
phenomena above described are not       
confined to the ,morea1 but occur in    
,greece generally1 and in those parts of
 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,asia ,minor1 and      
,syria1 where the formations of the     
,morea extend4 ,the ,copaic lake in     
,boeotia has no outlet1 except by       
underground channels2 and hence we can  

explain those traditional and historical
 accounts of its having gained on the   
surrounding plains and overflowed towns1
 as such floods must have happened      
whenever the outlet was partially choked
 up by mud1 gravel1 or the subsidence of
 rocks1 caused by earthquakes4 ,when    
speaking of the numerous fissures in the
 limestone of ,greece1 ,m4 ,boblaye     
reminds us of the famous earthquake of  
#dfi ,b4,c41 when1 as we learn from     
,cicero1 ,plutarch1 ,strabo1 and ,pliny1
 ,sparta was laid in ruins1 part of the 
summit of ,mount ,taygetus torn off1 and
 numerous gulfs and fissures caused in  
the rocks of ,laconia4  ,during the     
great earthquake of #afic1 in ,sicily1  
several thousand people were at once    
entombed in the ruins of caverns in     
limestone1 at ,sortino ,vecchio2 and1 at
 the same time1 a large stream1 which   
had issued for ages from one of the     
grottoes below that town1 changed       
suddenly its subterranean course1 and   
came out from the mouth of a cave lower 

down the valley1 where no water had     
previously flowed4 ,to this new point   
the ancient water-mills were            
transferred1 as ,i learnt when ,i       
visited the spot in #ahbi4  ,when the   
courses of engulfed rivers are thus     
liable to change1 from time to time1 by 
alterations in the levels of a country1 
and by the rending and shattering of    
mountain masses1 we must suppose that   
the dens of wild beasts will sometimes  
be inundated by subterranean floods1 and
 their carcasses buried under heaps of  
alluvium4 ,the bones1 moreover1 of      
individuals which have died in the      
recesses of caves1 or of animals which  
have been carried in for prey1 may be   
drifted along1 and mixed up with mud1   
sand1 and fragments of rocks1 so as to  
form osseous breccias4  ,in #ahcc ,i had
 an opportunity of examining the        
celebrated caves of ,franconia1 and     
among others that of ,rabenstein1 newly 
discovered4 ,their general form1 and the
 nature and arrangement of their        

contents1 appeared to me to agree       
perfectly with the notion of their      
having once served as the channels of   
subterranean rivers4 ,this mode of      
accounting for the introduction of      
transported matter into the ,franconian 
and other caves1 filled up as they often
 are even to their roofs with osseous   
breccia1 was long ago proposed by ,m4   
,c4 ,prevost1#ajdg and seems at length  
to be very generally adopted4 ,but ,i do
 not doubt that bears inhabited some of 
the ,german caves1 or that the cavern of
 ,kirkdale1 in ,yorkshire1 was once the 
den of hyaenas4 ,the abundance of bony  
dung1 associated with hyaenas' bones1   
has been pointed out by ,dr4 ,buckland1 
and with reason1 as confirmatory of this
 opinion4  ,the same author observed in 
every cave examined by him in ,germany1 
that deposits of mud and sand1 with or  
without rolled pebbles and angular      
fragments of rock1 were covered over    
with a single crust of stalagmite4#ajdh 
,in the ,english caves he remarked a    

similar absence of alterations of       
alluvium and stalagmite4 ,but ,dr4      
,schmerling has discovered in a cavern  
at ,chockier1 about two leagues from    
,liege1 three distinct beds of          
stalagmite1 and between each of them a  
mass of breccia1 and mud mixed with     
quartz pebbles1 and in the three        
deposits the bones of extinct           
quadrupeds4#ajdi  ,this exception does  
not invalidate the generality of the    
phenomenon pointed out by ,dr4          
,buckland1 one cause of which may       
perhaps be this1 that if several floods 
pass at different intervals of time     
through a subterranean passage1 the     
last1 if it has power to drift along    
fragments of rock1 will also tear up any
 alternating stalagmitic and alluvial   
beds that may have been previously      
formed4 ,another cause may be1 that a   
particular line of caverns will rarely  
be so situated1 in relation to the      
lowest levels of a country1 as to       
become1 at two distinct epochs1 the     

receptacle of engulfed rivers2 and if   
this should happen1 some of the caves1  
or at least the tunnels of              
communication1 may at the first period  
be entirely choked up with transported  
matter1 so as not to allow the          
subsequent passage of water in the same 
direction4  ,as the same chasms may     
remain open throughout periods of       
indefinite duration1 the species        
inhabiting a country may in the meantime
 be greatly changed1 and thus the       
remains of animals belonging to very    
different epochs may become mingled     
together in a common tomb4 ,for this    
reason it is often difficult to separate
 the monuments of the human epoch from  
those relating to periods long          
antecedent1 and it was not without great
 care and skill that ,dr4 ,buckland was 
enabled to guard against such           
anachronisms in his investigations of   
several of the ,english caves4 ,he      
mentions that human skeletons were found
 in the cave of ,wokey ,hole1 near      

,wells1 in the ,mendips1 dispersed      
through reddish mud and clay1 and some  
of them united by stalagmite into a firm
 osseous breccia4 ,the spot on which    
they lie is within reach of the highest 
floods of the adjacent river1 and the   
mud in which they are buried is         
evidently fluviatile4#ajej  ,in speaking
 of the cave of ,paviland on the coast  
of ,glamorganshire the same author      
states that the entire mass through     
which bones were dispersed appeared to  
have been disturbed by ancient diggings1
 so that the remains of extinct animals 
had become mixed with recent bones and  
shells4 ,in the same cave was a human   
skeleton1 and the remains of recent     
testacea of eatable species1 which may  
have been carried in by man4  ,in       
several caverns on the banks of the     
,meuse1 near ,liege1 ,dr4 ,schmerling   
has found human bones in the same mud   
and breccia with those of the elephant1 
rhinoceros1 bear1 and other quadrupeds  
of extinct species4 ,he has observed    

none of the dung of any of these        
animals3 and from this circumstance1 and
 the appearance of the mud and pebbles1 
he concludes that these caverns were    
never inhabited by wild beasts1 but     
washed in by a current of water4 ,as the
 human skulls and bones were in         
fragments1 and no entire skeleton had   
been found1 he does not believe that    
these caves were places of sepulture1   
but that the human remains were washed  
in at the same time as the bones of     
extinct quadrupeds1 and that these lost 
species of mammalia co-existed on the   
earth with man4  ,caverns in the south  
of ,france4--,similar associations in   
the south of ,france1 of human bones and
 works of art1 with remains of extinct  
quadrupeds1 have induced other          
geologists to maintain that man was an  
inhabitant of that part of ,europe      
before the rhinoceros1 hyaena1 tiger1   
and many fossil species disappeared4 ,i 
may first mention the cavern of ,bize1  
in the department of ,aude1 where ,m4   

,marcel de ,serres met with a small     
number of human bones mixed with those  
of extinct animals and with land shells4
 ,they occur in a calcareous stony mass1
 bound together by a cement of          
stalagmite4 ,on examining the same      
caverns1 ,m4 ,tournal found not only in 
these calcareous beds1 but also in a    
black mud which overlies a red osseous  
mud1 several human teeth1 together with 
broken angular fragments of a rude kind 
of pottery1 and also recent marine and  
terrestrial shells4 ,the teeth preserve 
their enamel2 but the fangs are so much 
altered as to adhere strongly when      
applied to the tongue4 ,of the          
terrestrial shells thus associated with 
the bones and pottery1 the most common  
are ,cyclostoma elegans1 ,bulimus       
decollatus1 ,helix nemoralis1 and ,h4   
nitida4 ,among the marine are found     
,pecten jacobaeus1 ,mytilus edulis1 and 
,natica mille-punctata1 all of them     
eatable kinds1 and which may have been  
brought there for food4 ,bones were     

found in the same mass belonging to     
three new species of deer1 the brown    
bear 7,ursus arctoideus71 and the wild  
bull 7,bos urus71 formerly a native of  
,germany4#ajea  ,in the same parts of   
,france1 ,m4 de ,christol has found in  
caverns in a tertiary limestone at      
,pondres and ,souvignargues1 two leagues
 north of ,lunel-viel1 in the department
 of ,herault1 human bones and pottery   
confusedly mixed with remains of the    
rhinoceros1 bear1 hyaena1 and other     
terrestrial mammifers4 ,they were       
imbedded in alluvial mud1 of the        
solidity of calcareous tufa1 and        
containing some flint pebbles and       
fragments of the limestone of the       
country4 ,beneath this mixed            
accumulation1 which sometimes attained a
 thickness of thirteen feet1 is the     
original floor of the cavern1 about a   
foot thick1 covered with bones and the  
dung of animals 7album graecum71 in a   
sandy and tufaceous cement4  ,the human 
bones in these caverns of ,pondres and  

,souvignargues were found1 upon a       
careful analysis1 to have parted with   
their animal matter to as great a degree
 as those of the hyaena which accompany 
them1 and are equally brittle1 and      
adhere as strongly to the tongue4  ,in  
order to compare the degree of          
alteration of these bones with those    
known to be of high antiquity1 ,m4      
,marcel de ,serres and ,m4 ,ballard1    
chemists of ,montpelier1 procured some  
from a ,gaulish sarcophagus1 in the     
plain of ,lunel1 supposed to have been  
buried for fourteen or fifteen centuries
 at least4 ,in these the cellular tissue
 was empty1 but they were more solid    
than fresh bones4 ,they did not adhere  
to the tongue in the same manner as     
those of the caverns of ,bize and       
,pondres1 yet they had lost at least    
three fourths of their original animal  
matter4  ,the superior solidity of the  
,gaulish bones to those in a fresh      
skeleton is a fact in perfect accordance
 with the observations made by ,dr4     

,mantell on bones taken from a ,saxon   
tumulus near ,lewes4  ,m4 ,tessier has  
also described a cavern near ,mialet1 in
 the department of ,gard1 where the     
remains of the bear and other animals   
were mingled confusedly with human      
bones1 coarse pottery1 teeth pierced for
 amulets1 pointed fragments of bone1    
bracelets of bronze1 and a ,roman urn4  
,part of this deposit reached to the    
roof of the cavity1 and adhered firmly  
to it4 ,the author suggests that the    
exterior portion of the grotto may at   
one period have been a den of bears1 and
 that afterwards the aboriginal         
inhabitants of the country took         
possession of it either for a dwelling  
or a burial-place1 and left there the   
coarse pottery1 amulets1 and pointed    
pieces of bone4 ,at a third period the  
,romans may have used the cavern as a   
place of sepulture or concealment1 and  
to them may have belonged the urn and   
bracelets of metal4 ,if we then suppose 
the course of the neighboring river to  

be impeded by some temporary cause1 a   
flood would be occasioned1 which1       
rushing into the open grotto1 may have  
washed all the remains into the interior
 caves and tunnels1 heaping the whole   
confusedly together4#ajeb  ,in the      
controversy which has arisen on this    
subject1 ,,mm4 ,marcel de ,serres1 ,de  
,christol1 ,tournal1 and others1 have   
contended1 that the phenomena of this   
and other caverns in the south of       
,france prove that the fossil           
rhinoceros1 hyaena1 bear1 and several   
other lost species1 were once           
contemporaneous inhabitants of the      
country1 together with man2 while ,m4   
,desnoyers has supported the opposite   
opinion4 ,the flint hatchets and        
arrow-heads1 he says1 and the pointed   
bones and coarse pottery of many ,french
 and ,english caves1 agree precisely in 
character with those found in the       
tumuli1 and under the dolmens 7rude     
altars of unhewn stone7 of the primitive
 inhabitants of ,gaul1 ,britain1 and    

,germany4 ,the human bones1 therefore1  
in the caves which are associated with  
such fabricated objects1 must belong not
 to antediluvian periods1 but to a      
people in the same stage of civilization
 as those who constructed the tumuli and
 altars4  ,in the ,gaulish monuments we 
find1 together with the objects of      
industry above mentioned1 the bones of  
wild and domestic animals of species now
 inhabiting ,europe1 particularly of    
deer1 sheep1 wild-boars1 dogs1 horses1  
and oxen4 ,this fact has been           
ascertained in ,quercy1 and other       
provinces2 and it is supposed by        
antiquaries that the animals in question
 were placed beneath the ,celtic altars 
in memory of sacrifices offered to the  
,gaulish divinity ,hesus1 and in the    
tombs to commemorate funeral repasts1   
and also from a supposition prevalent   
among savage nations1 which induces them
 to lay up provisions for the manes of  
the dead in a future life4 ,but in none 
of these ancient monuments have any     

bones been found of the elephant1       
rhinoceros1 hyaena1 tiger1 and other    
quadrupeds1 such as are found in caves1 
as might certainly have been expected   
had these species continued to flourish 
at the time that this part of ,gaul was 
inhabited by man4#ajec  ,we are also    
reminded by ,m4 ,desnoyers of a passage 
in ,florus1 in which it is related that 
,caesar ordered the caves into which the
 ,aquitanian ,gauls had retreated to be 
closed up4#ajed ,it is also on record1  
that so late as the eighth century1 the 
,aquitanians defended themselves in     
caverns against ,king ,pepin4 ,as many  
of these caverns1 therefore1 may have   
served in succession as temples and     
habitations1 as places of sepulture1    
concealment1 or defence1 it is easy to  
conceive that human bones1 and those of 
animals1 in osseous breccias of much    
older date1 may have been swept away    
together1 by inundations1 and then      
buried in one promiscuous heap4  ,it is 
not on the evidence of such             

intermixtures that we ought readily to  
admit either the high antiquity of the  
human race1 or the recent date of       
certain lost species of quadrupeds4     
,among the various modes in which the   
bones of animals become preserved1      
independently of the agency of land     
floods and engulfed rivers1 ,i may      
mention that open fissures often serve  
as natural pitfalls in which herbivorous
 animals perish4 ,this may happen the   
more readily when they are chased by    
beasts of prey1 or when surprised while 
carelessly browsing on the shrubs which 
so often overgrow and conceal the edges 
of fissures4#ajee  ,during the          
excavations recently made near ,behat in
 ,india1 the bones of two deer were     
found at the bottom of an ancient well  
which had been filled up with alluvial  
loam4 ,their horns were broken to       
pieces1 but the jaw bones and other     
parts of the skeleton remained tolerably
 perfect4 ,their presence1 says ,captain
 ,cautley1 is easily accounted for1 as a

 great number of these and other animals
 are constantly lost in galloping over  
the jungles and among the high grass by 
falling into deserted wells4#ajef       
,above the village of ,selside1 near    
,ingleborough in ,yorkshire1 a chasm of 
enormous but unknown depth occurs in the
 scar-limestone1 a member of the        
carboniferous series4 ,the chasm1 says  
,professor ,sedgwick1 is surrounded by  
grassy shelving banks1 and many animals1
 tempted towards its brink1 have fallen 
down and perished in it4 ,the approach  
of cattle is now prevented by a strong  
lofty wall2 but there can be no doubt   
that1 during the last two or three      
thousand years1 great masses of bony    
breccia must have accumulated in the    
lower parts of the great fissure1 which 
probably descends through the whole     
thickness of the scar-limestone1 to the 
depth of perhaps five or six hundred    
feet4#ajeg  ,when any of these natural  
pit-falls happen to communicate with    
lines of subterranean caverns1 the      

bones1 earth1 and breccia1 may sink by  
their own weight1 or be washed into the 
vaults below4  ,at the north extremity  
of the rock of ,gibraltar are           
perpendicular fissures1 on the ledges of
 which a number of hawks nestle and rear
 their young in the breeding season4    
,they throw down from their nests the   
bones of small birds1 mice1 and other   
animals1 on which they feed1 and these  
are gradually united into a breccia of  
angular fragments of the decomposing    
limestone with a cement of red earth4   
,at the pass of ,escrinet in ,france1 on
 the northern escarpment of the ,coiron 
hills1 near ,aubenas1 ,i have seen a    
breccia in the act of forming4 ,small   
pieces of disintegrating limestone are  
transported1 during heavy rains1 by a   
streamlet1 to the foot of the declivity1
 where land shells are very abundant4   
,the shells and pieces of stone soon    
become cemented together by stalagmite  
into a compact mass1 and the talus thus 
formed is in one place fifty feet deep1 

and five hundred yards wide4 ,so firmly 
is the lowest portion consolidated1 that
 it is quarried for mill-stones4        
,recent1 stalagmitic limestone of       
,cuba4--,one of the most singular       
examples of the recent growth of        
stalagmitic limestone in caves and      
fissures is that described by ,mr4 ,r4  
,c4 ,taylor1 as observable on the       
north-east part of the island of        
,cuba4#ajeh ,the country there is       
composed of a white marble1 in which are
 numerous cavities1 partially filled    
with a calcareous deposit of a brick-red
 color4 ,in this red deposit are shells1
 or often the hollow casts of shells1   
chiefly referable to eight or nine      
species of land snails1 a few scattered 
bones of quadrupeds1 and1 what is still 
more singular1 marine univalve shells1  
often at the height of many hundred1 or 
even one thousand feet above the sea4   
,the following explanation is given of  
the gradual increase of this deposit4   
,land snails of the genera ,helix1      

,cyclostoma1 ,pupa1 and ,clausilia1     
retire into the caves1 the floors of    
which are strewed with myriads of their 
dead and unoccupied shells1 at the same 
time that water infiltered through the  
mountain throws down carbonate of lime1 
enveloping the shells1 together with    
fragments of the white limestone which  
occasionally falls from the roof4       
,multitudes of bats resort to the caves2
 and their dung1 which is of a bright   
red color1 7probably derived from the   
berries on which they feed17 imparts its
 red hue to the mass4 ,sometimes also   
the ,hutia1 or great ,indian rat of the 
island1 dies and leaves its bones in the
 caves4 ,at certain seasons the         
soldier-crabs resort to the sea-shore1  
and then return from their pilgrimage1  
each carrying with them1 or rather      
dragging1 the shell of some marine      
univalve for many a weary mile4 ,they   
may be traced even at the distance of   
eight or ten miles from the shore1 on   
the summit of mountains #abjj feet high1

 like the pilgrims of the olden times1  
each bearing his shell to denote the    
character and extent of his wanderings4 
,by this means several species of marine
 testacea of the genera ,trochus1       
,turbo1 ,littorina1 and ,monodonta1 are 
conveyed into inland caverns1 and enter 
into the composition of the newly formed
 rock4     ,,chapter ,,xlvii4           
,,imbedding ,,of ,,organic ,,remains    
,,in ,,subaqueous ,,deposits4           
,division of the subject--,imbedding of 
terrestrial animals and                 
plants--,increased specific gravity of  
wood sunk to great depths in     the    
sea--,drift-timber of the ,mackenzie in 
,slave ,lake and ,polar                 
,sea--,floating trees in the            
,mississippi--in the ,gulf ,stream--on  
the     coast of ,iceland1 ,spitzbergen1
 and ,labrador--,submarine              
forests--,example on coast of           
,hampshire--,mineralization of          
plants--,imbedding of marine plants--of 
insects--of reptiles--,bones     of     

birds why rare--,imbedding of           
terrestrial quadrupeds by river         
floods--,skeletons in recent shell      
marl--,imbedding of mammiferous         
remains in marine strata4   ,division of
 the subject4--,having treated of the   
imbedding of organic remains in deposits
 formed upon the land1 ,i shall next    
consider the including of the same in   
deposits formed under water4  ,it will  
be convenient to divide this branch of  
our subject into three parts2           
considering1 first1 the various modes   
whereby the relics of terrestrial       
species may be buried in subaqueous     
formations2 secondly1 the modes whereby 
animals and plants inhabiting fresh     
water may be so entombed2 thirdly1 how  
marine species may become preserved in  
new strata4  ,the phenomena above       
enumerated demand a fuller share of     
attention than those previously         
examined1 since the deposits which      
originate upon dry land are             
insignificant in thickness1 superficial 

extent1 and durability1 when contrasted 
with those of subaqueous origin4 ,at the
 same time1 the study of the latter is  
beset with greater difficulties2 for we 
are here concerned with the results of  
processes much farther removed from the 
sphere of ordinary observation4 ,there  
is1 indeed1 no circumstance which so    
seriously impedes the acquisition of    
just views in our science as an habitual
 disregard of the important fact1 that  
the reproductive effects of the         
principal agents of change are confined 
to another element--to that larger      
portion of the globe1 from which by our 
very organization we are almost entirely
 excluded4#ajei   ,imbedding of         
,terrestrial ,plants4  ,when a tree     
falls into a river from the undermining 
of the banks or from being washed in by 
a torrent or flood1 it floats on the    
surface1 not because the woody portion  
is specifically lighter than water1 but 
because it is full of pores containing  
air4 ,when soaked for a considerable    

time1 the water makes its way into these
 pores1 and the wood becomes waterlogged
 and sinks4 ,the time required for this 
process varies in different woods2 but  
several kinds may be drifted to great   
distances1 sometimes across the ocean1  
before they lose their buoyancy4  ,wood 
sunk to a great depth in the sea4--,if  
wood be sunk to vast depths in the sea1 
it may be impregnated with water        
suddenly4 ,captain ,scoresby informs us1
 in his ,account of the ,arctic         
,regions1 that on one occasion a whale1 
on being harpooned1 ran out all the     
lines in the boat1 which it then dragged
 under water1 to the depth of several   
thousand feet1 the men having just time 
to escape to a piece of ice4 ,when the  
fish returned to the surface to blow1 it
 was struck a second time1 and soon     
afterwards killed4 ,the moment it       
expired it began to sink1--an unusual   
circumstance1 which was found to be     
caused by the weight of the sunken boat1
 which still remained attached to it4   

,by means of harpoons and ropes the fish
 was prevented from sinking1 until it   
was released from the weight by         
connecting a rope to the lines of the   
attached boat1 which was no sooner done 
than the fish rose again to the surface4
 ,the sunken boat was then hauled up    
with great labor2 for so heavy was it1  
that although before the accident it    
would have been buoyant when full of    
water1 yet it now required a boat at    
each end to keep it from sinking4 ,when 
it was hoisted into the ship1 the paint 
came off the wood in large sheets2 and  
the planks1 which were of wainscot1 were
 as completely soaked in every pore as  
if they had lain at the bottom of the   
sea since the flood6 ,a wooden apparatus
 that accompanied the boat in its       
progress through the deep1 consisting   
chiefly of a piece of thick deal1 about 
fifteen inches square1 happened to fall 
overboard1 and1 though it originally    
consisted of the lightest fir1 sank in  
the water like a stone4 ,the boat was   

rendered useless2 even the wood of which
 it was built1 on being offered to the  
cook for fuel1 was tried and rejected as
 incombustible4#ajfj  ,captain ,scoresby
 found that1 by sinking pieces of fir1  
elm1 ash1 c41 to the depth of four      
thousand and sometimes six thousand     
feet1 they became impregnated with      
sea-water1 and when drawn up again1     
after immersion for an hour1 would no   
longer float4 ,the effect of this       
impregnation was to increase the        
dimensions as well as the specific      
gravity of the wood1 every solid inch   
having increased one-twentieth in size  
and twenty-one twenty-fifths in         
weight4#ajfa  ,drift-wood of the        
,mackenzie ,river4--,when timber is     
drifted down by a river1 it is often    
arrested by lakes2 and1 becoming        
water-logged1 it may sink and be        
imbedded in lacustrine strata1 if any be
 there forming2 sometimes a portion     
floats on till it reaches the sea4 ,in  
the course of the ,mackenzie ,river we  

have an example of vast accumulations of
 vegetable matter now in progress under 
both these circumstances4  ,in ,slave   
,lake in particular1 which vies in      
dimensions with some of the great       
fresh-water seas of ,canada1 the        
quantity of drift-timber brought down   
annually is enormous4 ,as the trees1    
says ,dr4 ,richardson1 retain their     
roots1 which are often loaded with earth
 and stones1 they readily sink1         
especially when water-soaked2 and1      
accumulating in the eddies1 form shoals1
 which ultimately augment into islands4 
,a thicket of small willows covers the  
new-formed island as soon as it appears 
above water1 and their fibrous roots    
serve to bind the whole firmly together4
 ,sections of these islands are annually
 made by the river1 assisted by the     
frost2 and it is interesting to study   
the diversity of appearances they       
present1 according to their different   
ages4 ,the trunks of the trees gradually
 decay until they are converted into a  

blackish brown substance resembling     
peat1 but which still retains more or   
less of the fibrous structure of the    
wood2 and layers of this often alternate
 with layers of clay and sand1 the whole
 being penetrated1 to the depth of four 
or five yards or more1 by the long      
fibrous roots of the willows4 ,a        
deposition of this kind1 with the aid of
 a little infiltration of bituminous    
matter1 would produce an excellent      
imitation of coal1 with vegetable       
impressions of the willow-roots4 ,what  
appeared most remarkable was the        
horizontal slaty structure that the old 
alluvial banks presented1 or the regular
 curve that the strata assumed from     
unequal subsidence4  ,it was in the     
rivers only that we could observe       
sections of these deposits2 but the same
 operation goes on1 on a much more      
magnificent scale1 in the lakes4 ,a     
shoal of many miles in extent is formed 
on the south side of ,athabasca ,lake1  
by the drift-timber and vegetable debris

 brought down by the ,elk ,river2 and   
the ,slave ,lake itself must in process 
of time be filled up by matters daily   
conveyed into it from ,slave ,river4    
,vast quantities of drift-timber are    
buried under the sand at the mouth of   
the river1 and enormous piles of it are 
accumulated on the shores of every part 
of the lake4#ajfb  ,the banks of the    
,mackenzie display almost everywhere    
horizontal beds of wood coal1           
alternating with bituminous clay1       
gravel1 sand1 and friable sandstone2    
sections1 in short1 of such deposits as 
are now evidently forming at the bottom 
of the lakes which it traverses4        
,notwithstanding the vast forests       
intercepted by the lakes1 a still       
greater mass of drift-wood is found     
where the ,mackenzie reaches the sea1 in
 a latitude where no wood grows at      
present except a few stunted willows4   
,at the mouths of the river the alluvial
 matter has formed a barrier of islands 
and shoals1 where we may expect a great 

formation of coal at some distant       
period4  ,the abundance of floating     
timber on the ,mackenzie is owing1 as   
,dr4 ,richardson informs me1 to the     
direction and to the length of the      
course of this river1 which runs from   
south to north1 so that the sources of  
the stream lie in much warmer latitudes 
than its mouths4 ,in the country1       
therefore1 where the sources are        
situated1 the frost breaks up at an     
earlier season1 while yet the waters in 
the lower part of its course are        
ice-bound4 ,hence the current of water1 
rushing down northward1 reaches a point 
where the thaw has not begun1 and1      
finding the channel of the river blocked
 up with ice1 it overflows the banks1   
sweeping through forests of pines1 and  
carrying away thousands of uprooted     
trees4  ,drift-timber on coasts of      
,iceland1 ,spitzbergen1 c4--,the ancient
 forests of ,iceland1 observes          
,malte-,brun1 have been improvidently   
exhausted2 but1 although the ,icelander 

can obtain no timber from the land1 he  
is supplied with it abundantly by the   
ocean4 ,an immense quantity of thick    
trunks of pines1 firs1 and other trees1 
are thrown upon the northern coast of   
the island1 especially upon the ,north  
,cape and ,cape ,langaness1 and are then
 carried by the waves along these two   
promontories to other parts of the      
coast1 so as to afford sufficiency of   
wood for fuel and for constructing      
boats4 ,timber is also carried to the   
shores of ,labrador and ,greenland2 and 
,crantz assures us that the masses of   
floating wood thrown by the waves upon  
the island of ,john de ,mayen often     
equal the whole of that island in       
extent4#ajfc  ,in a similar manner the  
bays of ,spitzbergen are filled with    
drift-wood1 which accumulates also upon 
those parts of the coast of ,siberia    
that are exposed to the east1 consisting
 of larch trees1 pines1 ,siberian       
cedars1 firs1 and ,pernambuco and       
,campeachy woods4 ,these trunks appear  

to have been swept away by the great    
rivers of ,asia and ,america4 ,some of  
them are brought from the ,gulf of      
,mexico by the ,bahama stream2 while    
others are hurried forward by the       
current which1 to the north of ,siberia1
 constantly sets in from east to west4  
,some of these trees have been deprived 
of their bark by friction1 but are in   
such a state of preservation as to form 
excellent building timber4#ajfd ,parts  
of the branches and almost all the roots
 remain fixed to the pines which have   
been drifted into the ,north ,sea1 into 
latitudes too cold for the growth of    
such timber1 but the trunks are usually 
barked4  ,the leaves and lighter parts  
of plants are seldom carried out to sea1
 in any part of the globe1 except during
 tropical hurricanes among islands1 and 
during the agitations of the atmosphere 
which sometimes accompany earthquakes   
and volcanic eruptions4  ,comparative   
number of living and fossilized species 
of plants4--,it will appear from these  

observations that1 although the remains 
of terrestrial vegetation1 borne down by
 aqueous causes from the land1 are      
chiefly deposited at the bottom of lakes
 or at the mouths of rivers1 yet a      
considerable quantity is drifted about  
in all directions by currents1 and may  
become imbedded in any marine formation1
 or may sink down1 when water-logged1 to
 the bottom of unfathomable abysses1 and
 there accumulate without intermixture  
with other substances4  ,it may be asked
 whether we have any data for inferring 
that the remains of a considerable      
proportion of the existing species of   
plants will be permanently preserved1 so
 as to be hereafter recognizable1       
supposing the strata now in progress to 
be at some future period upraised8 ,to  
this inquiry it may be answered1 that   
there are no reasons for expecting that 
more than a small number of the plants  
now flourishing in the globe will become
 fossilized2 since the entire           
habitations of a great number of them   

are remote from lakes and seas1 and even
 where they grow near to large bodies of
 water1 the circumstances are quite     
accidental and partial which favor the  
imbedding and conservation of vegetable 
remains4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the
 species of plants inhabiting the       
hydrographical basin of the ,rhine1 or  
that region1 extending from the ,alps to
 the sea1 which is watered by the ,rhine
 and its numerous tributaries1 to be    
about #bejj in number1 exclusive of the 
cryptogamic class4 ,this estimate is by 
no means exaggerated2 yet if a geologist
 could explore the deposits which have  
resulted from the sediment of the ,rhine
 in the ,lake of ,constance1 and off the
 coast of ,holland1 he could scarcely   
expect to obtain from the recent strata 
the leaves1 wood1 and seeds of fifty    
species in such a state of preservation 
as to enable a botanist to determine    
their specific characters with          
certainty4  ,those naturalists1         
therefore1 who infer that the ancient   

flora of the globe was1 at certain      
periods1 less varied than now1 merely   
because they have as yet discovered only
 a few hundred fossil species of a      
particular epoch1 while they can        
enumerate more than one hundred thousand
 living ones1 are reasoning on a false  
basis1 and their standard of comparison 
is not the same in the two cases4       
,submarine forests on coast of          
,hants4--,we have already seen that the 
submarine position of several forests1  
or the remains of trees standing in a   
vertical position on the ,british       
shores1 has been due1 in some instances1
 to the subsidence of land4#ajfe ,there 
are some cases which require a different
 explanation4 ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,charles 
,harris1 discovered1 in #ahca1 evident  
traces of a fir-wood beneath the mean   
level of the sea1 at ,bournmouth1 in    
,hampshire1 the formation having been   
laid open during a low spring tide4 ,it 
is composed of peat and wood1 and is    
situated between the beach and a bar of 

sand about #bjj yards off1 and extends  
fifty yards along the shore4 ,it also   
lies in the direct line of the          
,bournmouth ,valley1 from the           
termination of which it is separated by 
#bjj yards of shingle and drift-sand4   
,down the valley flows a large brook1   
traversing near its mouth a considerable
 tract of rough1 boggy1 and heathy      
ground1 which produces a few            
birch-trees1 and a great abundance of   
the ,myrica gale4 ,seventy-six rings of 
annual growth were counted in a         
transverse section of one of the buried 
fir-trees1 which was fourteen inches in 
diameter4 ,besides the stumps and roots 
of fir1 pieces of alder and birch are   
found in the peat2 and it is a curious  
fact1 that a part of many of the trees  
have been converted into iron pyrites4  
,the peat rests on pebbly strata1       
precisely similar to the sand and       
pebbles occurring on the adjoining      
heaths4  ,as the sea is encroaching on  
this shore1 we may suppose that at some 

former period the ,bourne ,valley       
extended farther1 and that its extremity
 consisted1 as at present1 of boggy     
ground1 partly clothed with fir-trees4  
,the bog rested on that bed of pebbles  
which we now see below the peat2 and the
 sea1 in its progressive encroachments1 
eventually laid bare1 at low water1 the 
sandy foundations2 upon which a stream  
of fresh water1 rushing through the sand
 at the fall of the tides1 carried out  
loose sand with it4 ,the superstratum of
 vegetable matter1 being matted and     
bound together by the roots of trees1   
remained2 but being undermined1 sank    
down below the level of the sea1 and    
then the waves washed sand and shingle  
over it4 ,in support of this hypothesis1
 it may be observed1 that small streams 
of fresh water often pass under the     
sands of the sea-beach1 so that they may
 be crossed dry-shod2 and the water is  
seen1 at the point where it issues1 to  
carry out sand and even pebbles4        
,mineralization of plants--,although the

 botanist and chemist have as yet been  
unable to explain fully the manner in   
which wood becomes petrified1 it is     
nevertheless ascertained that1 under    
favorable circumstances1 the lapidifying
 process is now continually going on4 ,a
 piece of wood was lately procured by   
,mr4 ,stokes1 from an ancient ,roman    
aqueduct in ,westphalia1 in which some  
portions were converted into            
spindle-shaped bodies1 consisting of    
carbonate of lime1 while the rest of the
 wood remained in a comparatively       
unchanged state4#ajff ,it appears that  
in some cases the most perishable1 in   
others the most durable1 portions of    
plants are preserved1 variations which  
doubtless depend on the time when the   
mineral matter was supplied4 ,if        
introduced immediately1 on the first    
commencement of decomposition1 then the 
most destructible parts are lapidified1 
while the more durable do not waste away
 till afterwards1 when the supply has   
failed1 and so never become petrified4  

,the converse of these circumstances    
gives rise to exactly opposite results4 
,professor ,goppert1 of ,breslau1 has   
instituted a series of curious          
experiments1 in which he has succeeded  
in producing some very remarkable       
imitations of fossil petrifactions4 ,he 
placed recent ferns between soft layers 
of clay1 dried these in the shade1 and  
then slowly and gradually heated them1  
till they were red-hot4 ,the result was 
the production of so perfect a          
counterpart of fossil plants as might   
have deceived an experienced geologist4 
,according to the different degrees of  
heat applied1 the plants were obtained  
in a brown or perfectly carbonized      
condition2 and sometimes1 but more      
rarely1 they were in a black shining    
state1 adhering closely to the layer of 
clay4 ,if the red heat was sustained    
until all the organic matter was burnt  
up1 only an impression of the plant     
remained4  ,the same chemist steeped    
plants in a moderately strong solution  

of sulphate of iron1 and left them      
immersed in it for several days1 until  
they were thoroughly soaked in the      
liquid4 ,they were then dried1 and kept 
heated until they would no longer shrink
 in volume1 and until every trace of    
organic matter had disappeared4 ,on     
cooling them he found that the oxide    
formed by this process had taken the    
form of the plants4 ,a variety of other 
experiments were made by steeping animal
 and vegetable substances in siliceous1 
calcareous1 and metallic solutions1 and 
all tended to prove that the            
mineralization of organic bodies can be 
carried much farther in a short time    
than had been previously supposed4#ajfg 
,imbedding of the ,remains of ,insects4 
,i have observed the elytra and other   
parts of beetles in a band of fissile   
clay1 separating two beds of recent     
shell-marl1 in the ,loch of ,kinnordy in
 ,forfarshire4 ,amongst these1 ,mr4     
,curtis recognized ,elator lincatus and 
,atopa cervina1 species still living in 

,scotland4 ,these1 as well as other     
remains which accompanied them1 appear  
to belong to terrestrial1 not aquatic   
species1 and must have been carried down
 in muddy water during an inundation4   
,in the lacustrine peat of the same     
locality1 the elytra of beetles are not 
uncommon2 but in the deposits of drained
 lakes generally1 and in the silt of our
 estuaries1 the relics of this class of 
the animal kingdom are rare4 ,in the    
blue clay of very modern origin of      
,lewes levels1 ,dr4 ,mantell has found  
the ,indusia1 or cases of the larvae of 
,phryganea1 in abundance1 with minute   
shells belonging to the genera          
,planorbis1 ,limnea1 c41 adhering to    
them4#ajfh  ,when speaking of the       
migrations of insects1 ,i pointed out   
that an immense number are floated into 
lakes and seas by rivers1 or blown by   
winds far from the land2 but they are so
 buoyant that we can only suppose them1 
under very peculiar circumstances1 to   
sink to the bottom before they are      

either devoured by insectivorous animals
 or decomposed4   ,remains of ,reptiles4
  ,as the bodies of several crocodiles  
were found in the mud brought down to   
the sea by the river inundation which   
attended an earthquake in ,java1 in the 
year #afii1 we may imagine that         
extraordinary floods of mud may stifle  
many individuals of the shoals of       
alligators and other reptiles which     
frequent lakes and the deltas of rivers 
in tropical climates4 ,thousands of     
frogs were found leaping about among the
 wreck1 carried into the sea by the     
inundations in ,morayshire1 in          
#ahbi2ajfi and it is evident that       
whenever a sea-cliff is undermined1 or  
land is swept by other violent causes   
into the sea1 land reptiles may be      
carried in4   ,remains of ,birds4  ,we  
might have anticipated that the         
imbedding of the remains of birds in new
 strata would be of very rare           
occurrence2 for their powers of flight  
insure them against perishing1 by       

numerous casualties to which quadrupeds 
are exposed during floods2 and if they  
chance to be drowned1 or to die when    
swimming on the water1 it will scarcely 
ever happen that they will be submerged 
so as to become preserved in sedimentary
 deposits4 ,in consequence of the hollow
 tubular structure of their bones and   
the quantity of their feathers1 they are
 extremely light in proportion to their 
volume2 so that when first killed they  
do not sink to the bottom like          
quadrupeds1 but float on the surface    
until the carcass either rots away or is
 devoured by predaceous animals4 ,to    
these causes we may ascribe the absence 
of any vestige of the bones of birds in 
the recent marl formations of ,scotland2
 although these lakes1 until the moment 
when they were artificially drained1    
were frequented by a great abundance of 
waterfowl4   ,imbedding of ,terrestrial 
,quadrupeds4  ,river inundations recur  
in most climates at very irregular      
intervals1 and expend their fury on     

those rich alluvial plains where herds  
of herbivorous quadrupeds congregate    
together4 ,these animals are often      
surprised2 and1 being unable to stem the
 current1 are hurried along until they  
are drowned1 when they sink at first    
immediately to the bottom4 ,here their  
bodies are drifted along1 together with 
sediment1 into lakes or seas1 and may   
then be covered by a mass of mud1 sand1 
and pebbles1 thrown down upon them4 ,if 
there be no sediment superimposed1 the  
gases generated by putrefaction usually 
cause the bodies to rise again to the   
surface about the ninth1 or at latest   
the fourteenth day4 ,the pressure of a  
thin covering of mud would not be       
sufficient to retain them at the bottom2
 for we see the putrid carcasses of dogs
 and cats1 even in rivers1 floating with
 considerable weights attached to them1 
and in sea-water they would be still    
more buoyant4  ,where the body is so    
buried in drift sand1 or mud accumulated
 upon it1 as never to rise again1 the   

skeleton may be preserved entire2 but if
 it comes again to the surface while in 
the process of putrefaction1 the bones  
commonly fall piecemeal from the        
floating carcass1 and may in that case  
be scattered at random over the bottom  
of the lake1 estuary1 or sea2 so that a 
jaw may afterwards be found in one      
place1 a rib in another1 a humerus in a 
third--all included1 perhaps1 in a      
matrix of fine materials1 where there   
may be evidence of slight transporting  
power in the current1 or even of none1  
but simply of some chemical precipitate4
  ,a large number of the bodies of      
drowned animals1 if they float into the 
sea or a lake1 especially in hot        
climates1 are instantly devoured by     
sharks1 alligators1 and other           
carnivorous beasts1 which may have power
 to digest even the bones2 but during   
extraordinary floods1 when the greatest 
number of land animals are destroyed1   
the waters are commonly so turbid1      
especially at the bottom of the channel1

 that even aquatic species are compelled
 to escape into some retreat where there
 is clearer water1 lest they should be  
stifled4 ,for this reason1 as well as   
the rapidity of sedimentary deposition  
at such seasons1 the probability of     
carcasses becoming permanently imbedded 
is considerable4  ,flood in the ,solway 
,firth1 #agid4--,one of the most        
memorable floods of modern date1 in our 
island1 is that which visited part of   
the southern borders of ,scotland1 on   
the #bdth of ,january1 #agid1 and which 
spread particular devastation over the  
country adjoining the ,solway ,firth4   
,we learn from the account of ,captain  
,napier1 that the heavy rains had       
swollen every stream which entered the  
,firth of ,solway2 so that the          
inundation not only carried away a great
 number of cattle and sheep1 but many of
 the herdsmen and shepherds1 washing    
down their bodies into the estuary4     
,after the storm1 when the flood        
subsided1 an extraordinary spectacle was

 seen on a large sand-bank called the   
beds of ,esk1 where there is a meeting  
of the tidal waters1 and where heavy    
bodies are usually left stranded after  
great floods4 ,on this single bank were 
found collected together the bodies of  
#i black cattle1 #c horses1 #ahdj sheep1
 #de dogs1 #ahj hares1 besides a great  
number of smaller animals1 and1 mingled 
with the rest1 the corpses of two men   
and one woman4#ajgj  ,floods in         
,scotland1 #ahbi4--;,in those more      
recent floods in ,scotland1 in ,august1 
#ahbi1 whereby a fertile district on the
 east coast became a scene of dreadful  
desolation1 a vast number of animals and
 plants were washed from the land1 and  
found scattered about after the storm1  
around the mouths of the principal      
rivers4 ,an eye-witness thus describes  
the scene which presented itself at the 
mouth of the ,spey1 in                  
,morayshire3--,for several miles along  
the beach crowds were employed in       
endeavoring to save the wood and other  

wreck with which the heavy-rolling tide 
was loaded2 whilst the margin of the sea
 was strewed with the carcasses of      
domestic animals1 and with millions of  
dead hares and rabbits4#ajga  ,savannahs
 of ,south ,america4--,we are informed  
by ,humboldt1 that during the periodical
 swellings of the large rivers in ,south
 ,america great numbers of quadrupeds   
are annually drowned4 ,of the wild      
horses1 for example1 which graze in     
immense troops in the savannahs1        
thousands are said to perish when the   
river ,apure1 a tributary of the        
,orinoco1 is swollen1 before they have  
time to reach the rising ground of the  
,llanos4 ,the mares1 during the season  
of high water1 may be seen1 followed by 
their colts1 swimming about and feeding 
on the grass1 of which the top alone    
waves above the waters4 ,in this state  
they are pursued by crocodiles2 and     
their thighs frequently bear the prints 
of the teeth of these carnivorous       
reptiles4 ,such is the pliability1      

observes the celebrated traveller1 of   
the organization of the animals which   
man has subjected to his sway1 that     
horses1 cows1 and other species of      
,european origin1 lead1 for a time1 an  
amphibious life1 surrounded by          
crocodiles1 water-serpents1 and         
manatees4 ,when the rivers return again 
into their beds1 they roam in the       
savannah1 which is then spread over with
 a fine odoriferous grass1 and enjoy1 as
 in their native climate1 the renewed   
vegetation of spring4#ajgb  ,floods of  
the ,parana4--,the great number of      
animals which are drowned in seasons of 
drought in the tributaries of the       
,plata1 was before mentioned4 ,sir ,w4  
,parish states1 that the ,parana1       
flowing from the mountains of ,brazil to
 the estuary of the ,plata1 is liable to
 great floods1 and during one of these1 
in the year #ahab1 vast quantities of   
cattle were carried away1 and when the  
waters began to subside1 and the islands
 which they had covered became again    

visible1 the whole atmosphere for a time
 was poisoned by the effluvia from the  
innumerable carcasses of skunks1        
capybaras1 tigers1 and other wild beasts
 which had been drowned4#ajgc  ,floods  
of the ,ganges4--,we find it continually
 stated1 by those who describe the      
,ganges and ,burrampooter1 that these   
rivers carry before them1 during the    
flood season1 not only floats of reeds  
and timber1 but dead bodies of men1     
deer1 and oxen4#ajgd  ,in ,java1        
#afii4--;,i have already referred to the
 effects of a flood which attended an   
earthquake in ,java in #afii1 when the  
turbid waters of the ,batavian river    
destroyed all the fish except the carp2 
and when drowned buffaloes1 tigers1     
rhinoceroses1 deer1 apes1 and other wild
 beasts1 were brought down to the       
sea-coast by the current1 with several  
crocodiles which had been stifled in the
 mud4 7,see above1 p4 #ejc47  ,on the   
western side of the same island1 in the 
territory of ,galongoon1 in the         

,regencies1 a more recent volcanic      
eruption 7that of #ahbb1 before         
described7 7see above1 p4 #dca7 was     
attended by a flood1 during which the   
river ,tandoi bore down hundreds of     
carcasses of rhinoceroses and buffaloes1
 and swept away more than one hundred   
men and women from a multitude assembled
 on its banks to celebrate a festival4  
,whether the bodies reached the sea1 or 
were deposited1 with drift matter1 in   
some large intervening alluvial plains1 
we are not informed4#ajge               
,sumatra4--,on the coast of ,orissa1    
says ,heynes1 ,i have seen tigers and   
whole herds of black cattle carried     
along by what are called freshes1 and   
trees of immense size4#ajgf  ,in        
,virginia1 #agga4--;,i might enumerate a
 great number of local deluges that have
 swept through the fertile lands        
bordering on large rivers1 especially in
 tropical countries1 but ,i should      
surpass the limits assigned to this     
work4 ,i may observe1 however1 that the 

destruction of the islands1 in rivers1  
is often attended with great loss of    
lives4 ,thus when the principal river in
 ,virginia rose1 in #agga1 to the height
 of twenty-five feet above its ordinary 
level1 it swept entirely away ,elk      
,island1 on which were seven hundred    
head of quadrupeds1--horses1 oxen1      
sheep1 and hogs1--and nearly one hundred
 houses4#ajgg  ,the reader will gather1 
from what was before said respecting the
 deposition of sediment by aqueous      
causes1 that the greater number of the  
remains of quadrupeds drifted away by   
rivers must be intercepted by lakes     
before they reach the sea1 or buried in 
freshwater formations near the mouths of
 rivers4 ,if they are carried still     
farther1 the probabilities are increased
 of their rising to the surface in a    
state of putrefaction1 and1 in that     
case1 of being there devoured by aquatic
 beasts of prey1 or of subsiding into   
some spots whither no sediment is       
conveyed1 and1 consequently1 where every

 vestige of them will1 in the course of 
time1 disappear4  ,skeletons of animals 
in recent shell-marl1 ,scotland4--,in   
some instances1 the skeletons of        
quadrupeds are met with abundantly in   
recent shell-marls in ,scotland1 where  
we cannot suppose them to have been     
imbedded by the action of rivers or     
floods4 ,they all belong to species     
which now inhabit1 or are known to have 
been indigenous in ,scotland4 ,the      
remains of several hundred skeletons    
have been procured within the last      
century from five or six small lakes in 
,forfarshire1 where shell-marl has been 
worked4 ,those of the stag 7,cervus     
,elaphas7 are most numerous2 and if the 
others be arranged in the order of their
 relative abundance1 they will nearly   
follow thus--the ox1 the boar1 the      
horse1 the sheep1 the dog1 the hare1 the
 fox1 the wolf1 and the cat4 ,the beaver
 seems extremely rare2 but it has been  
found in the shell-marl of ,loch        
,marlie1 in ,perthshire1 and in the     

parish of ,edrom1 in ,berwickshire4  ,in
 the greater part of these lake-deposits
 there are no signs of floods2 and the  
expanse of water was originally so      
confined1 that the smallest of the      
above-mentioned quadrupeds could have   
crossed1 by swimming from one shore to  
the other4 ,deer1 and such species as   
take readily to the water1 may often    
have been mired in trying to land1 where
 the bottom was soft and quaggy1 and in 
their efforts to escape may have plunged
 deeper into the marly bottom4 ,some    
individuals1 ,i suspect1 of different   
species1 have fallen in when crossing   
the frozen surface in winter2 for       
nothing can be more treacherous than the
 ice when covered with snow1 in         
consequence of the springs1 which are   
numerous1 and which1 retaining always an
 equal temperature1 cause the ice1 in   
certain spots1 to be extremely thin1    
while in every other part of the lake it
 is strong enough to bear the heaviest  
weights4  ,mammiferous remains in marine

 strata4--,as the bones of mammalia are 
often so abundantly preserved in peat1  
and such lakes as have just been        
described1 the encroachments of a sea   
upon a coast may sometimes throw down   
the imbedded skeletons1 so that they may
 be carried away by tides and currents1 
and entombed in submarine formations4   
,some of the smaller quadrupeds1 also1  
which burrow in the ground1 as well as  
reptiles and every species of plant1 are
 liable to be cast down into the waves  
by this cause1 which must not be        
overlooked1 although probably of        
comparatively small importance amongst  
the numerous agents whereby terrestrial 
organic remains are included in         
submarine strata4  ,during the great    
earthquake of ,conception in #ahce1 some
 cattle1 which were standing on the     
steep sides of the island of            
,quiriquina1 were rolled by the shock   
into the sea1 while on a low island at  
the head of the ,bay of ,conception     
seventy animals were washed off by a    

great wave and drowned4#ajgh            
,,chapter ,,xlviii4  ,,imbedding ,,of   
,,the ,,remains ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,his  
,,works ,,in ,,subaqueous ,,strata4     
,drifting of human bodies to the sea by 
river     inundations--,destruction of  
bridges and houses--,loss of lives by   
shipwreck--,how human corpses may be    
preserved in recent                     
deposits--,number of wrecked            
vessels--,fossil skeletons of           
men--,fossil     canoes1 ships1 and     
works of art--,chemical changes which   
metallic     articles have undergone    
after long submergence--,imbedding of   
cities     and forests in subaqueous    
strata by subsidence--,earthquake of    
,cutch     in #ahai--;,buried ,temples  
of ,cashmere--,berkeley's arguments for 
the     recent date of the creation of  
man--,concluding remarks4   ,i shall now
 proceed to inquire in what manner the  
mortal remains of man and the works of  
his hands may be permanently preserved  
in subaqueous strata4 ,of the many      

hundred million human beings which      
perish in the course of every century on
 the land1 every vestige is usually     
destroyed in the course of a few        
thousand years2 but of the smaller      
number that perish in the waters1 a     
certain proportion must be entombed     
under circumstances that may enable     
parts of them to endure throughout      
entire geological epochs4  ,the bodies  
of men1 together with those of the      
inferior animals1 are occasionally      
washed down during river inundations    
into seas and lakes4 7,see pp4          
#gbf-gbh47 ,belzoni witnessed a flood on
 the ,nile in ,september1 #ahah1 where1 
although the river rose only three feet 
and a half above its ordinary level1    
several villages1 with some hundreds of 
men1 women1 and children1 were swept    
away4#ajgi ,it was before mentioned that
 a rise of six feet of water in the     
,ganges1 in #agfc1 was attended with a  
much greater loss of lives4 7,see above1
 p4 #bgh47  ,in the year #agga1 when the

 inundations in the north of ,england   
appear to have equalled the floods of   
,morayshire in #ahbi1 a great number of 
houses and their inhabitants were swept 
away by the rivers ,tyne1 ,can1 ,wear1  
,tees1 and ,greta2 and no less than     
twenty-one bridges were destroyed in the
 courses of these rivers4 ,at the       
village of ,bywell the flood tore the   
dead bodies and coffins out of the      
churchyard1 and bore them away1 together
 with many of the living inhabitants4   
,during the same tempest an immense     
number of cattle1 horses1 and sheep1    
were also transported to the sea1 while 
the whole coast was covered with the    
wreck of ships4 ,four centuries before  
7in #acch71 the same district had been  
visited by a similar continuance of     
heavy rains1 followed by disastrous     
floods1 and it is not improbable that   
these catastrophes may recur            
periodically1 though at uncertain       
intervals4 ,as the population increases1
 and buildings and bridges are          

multiplied1 we must expect the loss of  
lives and property to augment4#ajhj     
,fossilization of human bodies in the   
bed of the sea4--,if to the hundreds of 
human bodies committed to the deep in   
the way of ordinary burial we add those 
of individuals lost by shipwrecks1 we   
shall find that in the course of a      
single year1 a great number of human    
remains are consigned to the subaqueous 
regions4 ,i shall hereafter advert to a 
calculation by which it appears that    
more than five hundred ,british vessels 
alone1 averaging each a burthen of about
 #abj tons1 are wrecked1 and sink to the
 bottom1 annually4 ,of these the crews  
for the most part escape1 although it   
sometimes happens that all perish4 ,in  
one great naval action several thousand 
individuals sometimes share a watery    
grave4  ,many of these corpses are      
instantly devoured by predaceous fish1  
sometimes before they reach the bottom2 
still more frequently when they rise    
again to the surface1 and float in a    

state of putrefaction4 ,many decompose  
on the floor of the ocean1 where no     
sediment is thrown down upon them2 but  
if they fall upon a reef where corals   
and shells are becoming agglutinated    
into a solid rock1 or subside where the 
delta of a river is advancing1 they may 
be preserved for an incalculable series 
of ages4  ,often at the distance of a   
few hundred feet from a coral reef1     
where wrecks are not unfrequent1 there  
are no soundings at the depth of many   
hundred fathoms4 ,canoes1 merchant      
vessels1 and ships of war1 may have sunk
 and have been enveloped1 in such       
situations1 in calcareous sand and      
breccia1 detached by the breakers from  
the summit of a submarine mountain4     
,should a volcanic eruption happen to   
cover such remains with ashes and sand1 
and a current of lava be afterwards     
poured over them1 the ships and human   
skeletons might remain uninjured beneath
 the superincumbent mass1 like the      
houses and works of art in the          

subterranean cities of ,campania4       
,already many human remains may have    
been thus preserved beneath formations  
more than a thousand feet in thickness2 
for1 in some volcanic archipelagoes1 a  
period of thirty or forty centuries     
might well be supposed sufficient for   
such an accumulation4 ,it was stated1   
that at the distance of about forty     
miles from the base of the delta of the 
,ganges there is an elliptical space    
about fifteen miles in diameter1 where  
soundings of from #ajj to #cjj fathoms  
sometimes fail to reach the bottom4     
7,see above1 p4 #bgi47 ,as during the   
flood season the quantity of mud and    
sand poured by the great rivers into the
 ,bay of ,bengal is so great that the   
sea only recovers its transparency at   
the distance of sixty miles from the    
coast1 this depression must be gradually
 shoaling1 especially as during the     
monsoons1 the sea loaded with mud and   
sand1 is beaten back in that direction  
towards the delta4 ,now1 if a ship or   

human body sink to the bottom in such a 
spot1 it is by no means improbable that 
it may become buried under a depth of a 
thousand feet of sediment in the same   
number of years4  ,even on that part of 
the floor of the ocean to which no      
accession of drift matter is carried 7a 
part which probably constitutes1 at any 
given period1 by far the larger         
proportion of the whole submarine area71
 there are circumstances accompanying a 
wreck which favor the conservation of   
skeletons4 ,for when the vessel fills   
suddenly with water1 especially in the  
night1 many persons are drowned between 
decks and in their cabins1 so that their
 bodies are prevented from rising again 
to the surface4 ,the vessel often       
strikes upon an uneven bottom1 and is   
overturned2 in which case the ballast1  
consisting of sand1 shingle1 and rock1  
or the cargo1 frequently composed of    
heavy and durable materials1 may be     
thrown down upon the carcasses4 ,in the 
case of ships of war1 cannon1 shot1 and 

other warlike stores1 may press down    
with their weight the timbers of the    
vessel as they decay1 and beneath these 
and the metallic substances the bones of
 man may be preserved4  ,number of      
wrecked vessels4--,when we reflect on   
the number of curious monuments         
consigned to the bed of the ocean in the
 course of every naval war from the     
earliest times1 our conceptions are     
greatly raised respecting the           
multiplicity of lasting memorials which 
man is leaving of his labors4 ,during   
our last great struggle with ,france1   
thirty-two of our ships of the line went
 to the bottom in the space of          
twenty-two years1 besides seven #ej-;gun
 ships1 eighty-six frigates1 and a      
multitude of smaller vessels4 ,the      
navies of the other ,european powers1   
,france1 ,holland1 ,spain1 and ,denmark1
 were almost annihilated during the same
 period1 so that the aggregate of their 
losses must have many times exceeded    
that of ,great ,britain4 ,in every one  

of these ships were batteries of cannon 
constructed of iron or brass1 whereof a 
great number had the dates and places of
 their manufacture inscribed upon them  
in letters cast in metal4 ,in each there
 were coins of copper1 silver1 and often
 many of gold1 capable of serving as    
valuable historical monuments2 in each  
were an infinite variety of instruments 
of the arts of war and peace2 many      
formed of materials1 such as glass and  
earthenware1 capable of lasting for     
indefinite ages when once removed from  
the mechanical action of the waves1 and 
buried under a mass of matter which may 
exclude the corroding action of         
sea-water4 ,the quantity1 moreover1 of  
timber which is conveyed from the land  
to the bed of the sea by the sinking of 
ships of a large size is enormous1 for  
it is computed that #bjjj tons of wood  
are required for the building of one    
#gd-;gun ship2 and reckoning fifty oaks 
of #ajj years growth to the acre1 it    
would require forty acres of oak forest 

to build one of these vessels4#ajha  ,it
 would be an error to imagine that the  
fury of war is more conducive than the  
peaceful spirit of commercial enterprise
 to the accumulation of wrecked vessels 
in the bed of the sea4 ,from an         
examination of ,lloyd's lists1 from the 
year #agic to the commencement of #ahbi1
 ,captain ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth ascertained    
that the number of ,british vessels     
alone lost during that period amounted  
on an average to no less than one and a 
half daily2 an extent of loss which     
would hardly have been anticipated1     
although we learn from ,moreau's tables 
that the number of merchant vessels     
employed at one time1 in the navigation 
of ,england and ,scotland1 amounts to   
about twenty thousand1 having one with  
another a mean burthen of #abj          
tons4#ajhb ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4     
,prevost1 also informs me that on       
inspecting ,lloyd's list for the years  
#ahbi1 #ahcj1 and #ahca1 he finds that  
no less than #aiec vessels were lost in 

those three years1 their average tonnage
 being about #aej tons1 or in all nearly
 #cjj1jjj tons1 being at the enormous   
rate of #ajj1jjj tons annually of the   
merchant vessels of one nation only4    
,this increased loss arises1 ,i presume1
 from increasing activity in commerce4  
,out of #eea ships of the royal navy    
lost to the country during the period   
above mentioned1 only #afj were taken or
 destroyed by the enemy1 the rest having
 either stranded or foundered1 or having
 been burnt by accident2 a striking     
proof that the dangers of our naval     
warfare1 however great1 may be far      
exceeded by the storm1 the shoal1 the   
lee-shore1 and all the other perils of  
the deep4#ajhc  ,durable nature of many 
of their contents4--,millions of silver 
dollars and other coins have been       
sometimes submerged in a single ship1   
and on these1 when they happen to be    
enveloped in a matrix capable of        
protecting them from chemical changes1  
much information of historical interest 

will remain inscribed1 and endure for   
periods as indefinite as have the       
delicate markings of zoophytes or       
lapidified plants in some of the ancient
 secondary rocks4 ,in almost every large
 ship1 moreover1 there are some precious
 stones set in seals1 and other articles
 of use and ornament composed of the    
hardest substances in nature1 on which  
letters and various images are          
carved--engravings which they may retain
 when included in subaqueous strata1 as 
long as a crystal preserves its natural 
form4  ,it was1 therefore1 a splendid   
boast1 that the deeds of the ,english   
chivalry at ,agincourt made ,henry's    
chronicle                     ----as    
rich with praise   ,as is the ooze and  
bottom of the deep   ,with sunken wreck 
and sumless treasuries   for it is      
probable that a greater number of       
monuments of the skill and industry of  
man will1 in the course of ages1 be     
collected together in the bed of the    
ocean1 than will exist at any one time  

on the surface of the continents4  ,if  
our species be of as recent a date as is
 generally supposed1 it will be vain to 
seek for the remains of man and the     
works of his hands imbedded in submarine
 strata1 except in those regions where  
violent earthquakes are frequent1 and   
the alterations of relative level so    
great1 that the bed of the sea may have 
been converted into land within the     
historical era4 ,we need not despair1   
however1 of the discovery of such       
monuments1 when those regions which have
 been peopled by man from the earliest  
ages1 and which are at the same time the
 principal theatres of volcanic action1 
shall be examined by the joint skill of 
the antiquary and geologist4  ,power of 
human remains to resist decay4--,there  
can be no doubt that human remains are  
as capable of resisting decay as are the
 harder parts of the inferior animals2  
and ,i have already cited the remark of 
,cuvier1 that in ancient fields of      
battle the bones of men have suffered as

 little decomposition as those of horses
 which were buried in the same grave4   
7,see above1 p4 #adg47 ,in the delta of 
the ,ganges bones of men have been found
 in digging a well at the depth of      
ninety feet2#ajhd but as that river     
frequently shifts its course and fills  
up its ancient channels1 we are not     
called upon to suppose that these bodies
 are of extremely high antiquity1 or    
that they were buried when that part of 
the surrounding delta where they occur  
was first gained from the sea4  ,fossil 
skeletons of men4--,several skeletons of
 men1 more or less mutilated1 have been 
found in the ,west ,indies1 on the      
north-west coast of the main land of    
,guadaloupe1 in a kind of rock which is 
known to be forming daily1 and which    
consists of minute fragments of shells  
and corals1 incrusted with a calcareous 
cement resembling travertin1 by which   
also the different grains are bound     
together4 ,the lens shows that some of  
the fragments of coral composing this   

stone still retain the same red color   
which is seen in the reefs of living    
coral which surround the island4 ,the   
shells belong to species of the         
neighboring sea intermixed with some    
terrestrial kinds which now live on the 
island1 and among them is the ,bulimus  
,gaudaloupensis of ,farussac4 ,the human
 skeletons still retain some of their   
animal matter1 and all their phosphate  
of lime4 ,one of them1 of which the head
 is wanting1 may now be seen in the     
,british ,museum1 and another in the    
,royal ,cabinet at ,paris4 ,according to
 ,m4 ,konig1 the rock in which the      
former is inclosed is harder under the  
mason's saw and chisel than statuary    
marble4 ,it is described as forming a   
kind of glacis1 probably an indurated   
beach1 which slants from the steep      
cliffs of the island to the sea1 and is 
nearly all submerged at high tide4      
,similar formations are in progress in  
the whole of the ,west ,indian          
archipelago1 and they have greatly      

extended the plain of ,cayes in ,st4    
,domingo1 where fragments of vases and  
other human works have been found at a  
depth of twenty feet4 ,in digging wells 
also near ,catania1 in ,sicily1 tools   
have been discovered in a rock somewhat 
similar4  ,buried ships1 canoes1 and    
works of art4--,when a vessel is        
stranded in shallow water1 it usually   
becomes the nucleus of a sand-bank1 as  
has been exemplified in several of our  
harbors1 and this circumstance tends    
greatly to its preservation4 ,between   
the years #aghj and #agij a vessel from 
,purbeck1 laden with three hundred tons 
of stone1 struck on a shoal off the     
entrance of ,poole harbor and foundered2
 the crew were saved1 but the vessel and
 cargo remain to this day at the bottom4
 ,since that period the shoal at the    
entrance of the harbor has so extended  
itself in a westerly direction towards  
,peveril ,point in ,purbeck1 that the   
navigable channel is thrown a mile      
nearer that point4#ajhe ,the cause is   

obvious2 the tidal current deposits the 
sediment with which it is charged around
 any object which checks its velocity4  
,matter also drifted along the bottom is
 arrested by any obstacle1 and          
accumulates round it1 just as the       
,african sand-winds1 before described1  
raise a small hillock over the carcass  
of every dead camel exposed on the      
surface of the desert4  ,i before       
alluded to an ancient ,dutch vessel1    
discovered in the deserted channel of   
the river ,rother in ,sussex1 of which  
the oak wood was much blackened1 but its
 texture unchanged4 7,see above1 p4     
#caf47 ,the interior was filled with    
fluviatile silt1 as was also the case in
 regard to a vessel discovered in a     
former bed of the ,mersey1 and another  
disinterred where the ,st4 ,katherine   
,docks are excavated in the alluvial    
plain of the ,thames4 ,in like manner   
many ships have been found preserved    
entire in modern strata1 formed by the  
silting up of estuaries along the       

southern shores of the ,baltic1         
especially in ,pomerania4 ,between      
,bromberg and ,nakel1 for example1 a    
vessel and two anchors in a very perfect
 state were dug up far from the         
sea4#ajhf  ,several vessels have been   
lately detected half buried in the delta
 of the ,indus1 in the numerous deserted
 branches of that river1 far from where 
the stream now flows4 ,one of these     
found near ,vikkar in ,sinde1 was #djj  
tons in burthen1 old fashioned1 and     
pierced for fourteen guns1 and in a     
region where it had been matter of      
dispute whether the ,indus had ever been
 navigable by large vessels4#ajhg  ,at  
the mouth of a river in ,nova ,scotia1 a
 schooner of thirty-two tons1 laden with
 live stock1 was lying with her side to 
the tide1 when the bore1 or tidal wave1 
which rises there about ten feet in     
perpendicular height1 rushed into the   
estuary1 and overturned the vessel1 so  
that it instantly disappeared4 ,after   
the tide had ebbed1 the schooner was so 

totally buried in the sand1 that the    
taffrel or upper rail over the stern was
 alone visible4#ajhh ,we are informed by
 ,leigh that1 on draining ,martin ,meer1
 a lake eighteen miles in circumference1
 in ,lancashire1 a bed of marl was laid 
dry1 wherein no fewer than eight canoes 
were found imbedded4 ,in figure and     
dimensions they were not unlike those   
now used in ,america4 ,in a morass about
 nine miles distant from this ,meer a   
whetstone and an axe of mixed metal were
 dug up4#ajhi ,in ,ayrshire1 also1 three
 canoes were found in ,loch ,doon some  
few years ago2 and during the year #ahca
 four others1 each hewn out of separate 
oak trees4 ,they were twenty-three feet 
in length1 two and a half in depth1 and 
nearly four feet in breadth at the      
stern4 ,in the mud which filled one of  
them was found a war-club of oak and a  
stone battle-axe4 ,a canoe of oak was   
also found in #ahbj1 in peat overlying  
the shell-marl of the ,loch of          
,kinnordy1 in ,forfarshire4#ajij        

,manner in which ships may be preserved 
in a deep sea4--,it is extremely        
possible that the submerged woodwork of 
ships which have sunk where the sea is  
two or three miles deep has undergone   
greater chemical changes in an equal    
space of time1 than in the cases above  
mentioned2 for the experiments of       
,scoresby show that wood may at certain 
depths be impregnated in a single hour  
with salt water1 so that its specific   
gravity is entirely altered4 ,it may    
often happen that hot springs1 charged  
with carbonate of lime1 silex1 and other
 mineral ingredients1 may issue at great
 depths1 in which case every pore of the
 vegetable tissue may be injected with  
the lapidifying liquid1 whether         
calcareous or siliceous1 before the     
smallest decay commences4 ,the          
conversion1 also1 of wood into lignite  
is probably more rapid under enormous   
pressure4 ,but the change of the timber 
into lignite or coal would not prevent  
the original form of a ship from being  

distinguished2 for as we find1 in strata
 of the carboniferous era1 the bark of  
the hollow reed-like trees converted    
into coal1 and the central cavity filled
 with sandstone1 so might we trace the  
outline of a ship in coal2 while in the 
indurated mud1 sandstone1 or limestone1 
filling the interior1 we might discover 
instruments of human art1 ballast       
consisting of rocks foreign to the rest 
of the stratum1 and other contents of   
the ship4  ,submerged metallic          
substances4--,many of the metallic      
substances which fall into the waters   
probably lose1 in the course of ages1   
the forms artificially imparted to them2
 but under certain circumstances these  
may be preserved for indefinite periods4
 ,the cannon enclosed in a calcareous   
rock1 drawn up from the delta of the    
,rhone1 which is now in the museum at   
,montpellier1 might probably have       
endured as long as the calcareous       
matrix2 but even if the metallic matter 
had been removed1 and had entered into  

new combinations1 still a mould of its  
original shape would have been left1    
corresponding to those impressions of   
shells which we see in rocks1 from which
 all the carbonate of lime has been     
subtracted4 ,about the year #aggf1 says 
,mr4 ,king1 some fishermen1 sweeping for
 anchors in the ,gulf stream 7a part of 
the sea near the ,downs71 drew up a very
 curious old swivel gun1 nearly eight   
feet in length4 ,the barrel1 which was  
about five feet long1 was of brass2 but 
the handle by which it was traversed was
 about three feet in length1 and the    
swivel and pivot on which it turned were
 of iron4 ,around these latter were     
formed incrustations of sand converted  
into a kind of stone1 of exceedingly    
strong texture and firmness2 whereas    
round the barrel of the gun1 except     
where it was near adjoining to the iron1
 there were no such incrustations1 the  
greater part of it being clean1 and in  
good condition1 just as if it had still 
continued in use4 ,in the incrusting    

stone1 adhering to it on the outside1   
were a number of shells and corallines1 
just as they are often found in a fossil
 state4 ,these were all so strongly     
attached1 that it required as much force
 to separate them from the matrix as to 
break a fragment off any hard rock4#ajia
  ,in the year #agde1 continues the same
 writer1 the ,fox man-of-war was        
stranded on the coast of ,east ,lothian1
 and went to pieces4 ,about thirty-three
 years afterwards a violent storm laid  
bare a part of the wreck1 and threw up  
near the place several masses1          
consisting of iron1 ropes1 and balls1   
covered over with ochreous sand1        
concreted and hardened into a kind of   
stone4 ,the substance of the rope was   
very little altered4 ,the consolidated  
sand retained perfect impressions of    
parts of an iron ring1 just as          
impressions of extraneous fossil bodies 
are found in various kinds of           
strata4#ajib  ,after a storm in the year
 #ahbd1 which occasioned a considerable 

shifting of the sands near ,st4         
,andrew's1 in ,scotland1 a gun-barrel of
 ancient construction was found1 which  
is conjectured to have belonged to one  
of the wrecked vessels of the ,spanish  
,armada4 ,it is now in the museum of the
 ,antiquarian ,society of ,scotland1 and
 is incrusted over by a thin coating of 
sand1 the grains of which are cemented  
by brown ferruginous matter4 ,attached  
to this coating are fragments of various
 shells1 as of the common cardium1 mya1 
c4  ,many other examples are recorded of
 iron instruments taken up from the bed 
of the sea near the ,british coast1     
incased by a thick coating of           
conglomerate1 consisting of pebbles and 
sand1 cemented by oxide of iron4  ,dr4  
,davy describes a bronze helmet1 of the 
antique ,grecian form1 taken up in      
#ahbe1 from a shallow part of the sea1  
between the citadel of ,corfu and the   
village of ,castrades4 ,both the        
interior and exterior of the helmet were
 partially incrusted with shells1 and a 

deposit of carbonate of lime4 ,the      
surface generally1 both under the       
incrustation1 and where freed from it1  
was of a variegated color1 mottled with 
spots of green1 dirty white1 and red4   
,on minute inspection with a lens1 the  
green and red patches proved to consist 
of crystals of the red oxide and        
carbonate of copper1 and the dirty white
 chiefly of oxide of tin4  ,the         
mineralizing process1 says ,dr4 ,davy1  
which has produced these new            
combinations1 has1 in general1          
penetrated very little into the         
substance of the helmet4 ,the           
incrustation and rust removed1 the metal
 is found bright beneath2 in some places
 considerably corroded1 in others very  
slightly4 ,it proves1 on analysis1 to be
 copper1 alloyed with #ah4e per cent4 of
 tin4 ,its color is that of our common  
brass1 and it possesses a considerable  
degree of flexibility4  ,it is a curious
 question1 he adds1 how the crystals    
were formed in the helmet1 and on the   

adhering calcareous deposit4 ,there     
being no reason to suppose deposition   
from solution1 are we not under the     
necessity of inferring1 that the        
mineralizing process depends on a small 
motion and separation of the particles  
of the original compound8 ,this motion  
may have been due to the operation of   
electro-chemical powers which may have  
separated the different metals of the   
alloy4#ajic   ,effects of the           
,subsidence of ,land1 in imbedding      
,cities and ,forests in subaqueous      
,strata4  ,we have hitherto considered  
the transportation of plants and animals
 from the land by aqueous agents1 and   
their inhumation in lacustrine or       
submarine deposits1 and we may now      
inquire what tendency the subsidence of 
tracts of land may have to produce      
analogous effects4 ,several examples of 
the sinking down of buildings1 and      
portions of towns near the shore1 to    
various depths beneath the level of the 
sea during subterranean movements1 were 

before enumerated in treating of the    
changes brought about by inorganic      
causes4 ,the events alluded to were     
comprised within a brief portion of the 
historical period1 and confined to a    
small number of the regions of active   
volcanoes4 ,yet these authentic facts1  
relating merely to the last century and 
a half1 gave indications of considerable
 changes in the physical geography of   
the globe1 and we are not to suppose    
that these were the only spots          
throughout the surrounding land and sea 
which suffered similar depressions4     
,if1 during the short period since      
,south ,america has been colonized by   
,europeans1 we have proof of alterations
 of level at the three principal ports  
on the western shores1 ,callao1         
,valparaiso1 and ,conception1#ajid we   
cannot for a moment suspect that these  
cities1 so distant from each other1 have
 been selected as the peculiar points   
where the desolating power of the       
earthquake has expended its chief fury4 

,on considering how small is the area   
occupied by the seaports of this        
disturbed region--points where alone    
each slight change of the relative level
 of the sea and land can be             
recognized1--and reflecting on the      
proofs in our possession of the local   
revolutions that have happened on the   
site of each port1 within the last      
century and a half1--our conceptions    
must be greatly exalted respecting the  
magnitude of the alterations which the  
country between the ,andes and the sea  
may have undergone1 even in the course  
of the last six thousand years4  ,cutch 
earthquake4--,the manner in which a     
large extent of surface may be          
submerged1 so that the terrestrial      
plants and animals may be imbedded in   
subaqueous strata1 cannot be better     
illustrated than by the earthquake of   
,cutch1 in #ahai1 before alluded to 7p4 
#dfj74 ,it is stated1 that1 for some    
years after that earthquake1 the        
withered tamarisks and other shrubs     

protruded their tops above the waves1 in
 parts of the lagoon formed by          
subsidence1 on the site of the village  
of ,sindree and its environs2 but1 after
 the flood of #ahbf1 they were seen no  
longer4 ,every geologist will at once   
perceive1 that forests sunk by such     
subterranean movements may become       
imbedded in subaqueous deposits1 both   
fluviatile and marine1 and the trees may
 still remain erect1 or sometimes the   
roots and part of the trunks may        
continue in their original position1    
while the current may have broken off1  
or levelled with the ground1 their upper
 stems and branches4  ,buildings how    
preserved under water4--,some of the    
buildings which have at different times 
subsided beneath the level of the sea   
have been immediately covered up to a   
certain extent with strata of volcanic  
matter showered down upon them4 ,such   
was the case at ,tomboro in ,sumbawa1 in
 the present century1 and at the site of
 the ,temple of ,serapis1 in the        

environs of ,puzzuoli1 probably about   
the #abth century4 ,the entrance of a   
river charged with sediment in the      
vicinity may still more frequently      
occasion the rapid envelopment of       
buildings in regularly stratified       
formations4 ,but if no foreign matter be
 introduced1 the buildings1 when once   
removed to a depth where the action of  
the waves is insensible1 and where no   
great current happens to flow1 may last 
for indefinite periods1 and be as       
durable as the floor of the ocean       
itself1 which may often be composed of  
the very same materials4 ,there is no   
reason to doubt the tradition mentioned 
by the classic writers1 that the        
submerged ,grecian towns of ,bura and   
,helice were seen under water2 and it   
has been already mentioned that         
different eye-witnesses have observed   
the houses of ,port ,royal1 at the      
bottom of the sea1 at intervals of #hh1 
#aja1 and #adc years after the          
convulsion of #afib4 7p4 #eje47  ,buried

 temples of ,cashmere4--,the celebrated 
valley of ,cashmere 7or ,kashmir7 in    
,india1 situated at the southern foot of
 the ,himalaya range1 is about #fj miles
 in length1 and #bj in breadth1         
surrounded by mountains which rise      
abruptly from the plain to the height of
 about #ejjj feet4 ,in the cliffs of the
 river ,jelam and its tributaries1 which
 traverse this beautiful valley1 strata 
consisting of fine clay1 sand1 soft     
sandstone1 pebbles1 and conglomerate are
 exposed to view4 ,they contain         
freshwater shells1 of the genera        
,lymneus1 ,paludina1 and ,cyrena1 with  
land shells1 all of recent species1 and 
are precisely such deposits as would be 
formed if the whole valley were now     
converted into a great lake1 and if the 
numerous rivers and torrents descending 
from the surrounding mountains were     
allowed sufficient time to fill up the  
lake-basin with fine sediment and       
gravel4 ,fragments of pottery met with  
at the depth of #dj and #ej feet in this

 lacustrine formation show that the     
upper part of it at least has           
accumulated within the human epoch4     
,dr4 ,thomas ,thomson1 who visited      
,cashmere in #ahdh1 observes that       
several of the lakes which still exist  
in the great valley1 such as that near  
the town of ,cashmere1 five miles in    
diameter1 and some others1 are deeper   
than the adjoining river-channels1 and  
may have been formed by subsidence      
during the numerous earthquakes which   
have convulsed that region in the course
 of the last #bjjj years4 ,it is also   
probable that the freshwater strata seen
 to extend far and wide over the whole  
of ,cashmere originated not in one      
continuous sheet of water once occupying
 the entire valley1 but in many lakes of
 limited area1 formed and filled in     
succession4 ,among other proofs of such 
lake-basins of moderate dimensions      
having once existed and having been     
converted into land at different        
periods1 ,dr4 ,thomson mentions that the

 ruins of ,avantipura1 not far from the 
modern village of that name1 stand on an
 older freshwater deposit at the base of
 the mountains1 and terminate abruptly  
towards the plain in a straight line1   
such as admits of no other explanation  
than by supposing that the advance of   
the town in that direction was arrested 
by a lake1 now drained or represented   
only by a marsh4 ,in that neighborhood1 
as very generally throughout ,cashmere1 
the rivers run in channels or alluvial  
flats1 bounded by cliffs of lacustrine  
strata1 horizontally stratified1 and    
these strata form low table-lands from  
#bj to #ej feet high between the        
different watercourses4 ,on a table-land
 of this kind near ,avantipura1 portions
 of two buried temples are seen1 which  
have been partially explored by ,major  
,cunningham1 who1 in #ahdg1 discovered  
that in one of the buildings a          
magnificent colonnade of seventy-four   
pillars is preserved underground4 ,he   
exposed to view three of the pillars in 

a cavity still open4 ,all the           
architectural decorations below the     
level of the soil are as perfect and    
fresh-looking as when first executed4   
,the spacious quadrangle must have been 
silted up gradually at first1 for some  
unsightly alterations1 not in accordance
 with the general plan and style of     
architecture1 were detected1 evidently  
of subsequent date1 and such as could   
only have been required when the water  
and sediment had already gained a       
certain height in the interior of the   
temple4  ,this edifice is supposed to   
have been erected about the year #hej of
 our era1 and was certainly submerged   
before the year #adaf1 when the         
,mahomedan king1 ,sikandar1 called      
,butshikan or the idol-breaker1         
destroyed all the images of ,hindoo     
temples in ,cashmere4 ,ferishta the     
historian particularly alludes to       
,sikandar having demolished every       
,cashmerian temple save one1 dedicated  
to ,mahadava1 which escaped in          

consequence of its foundations being    
below the neighboring water4 ,the       
unharmed condition of the human-headed  
birds and other images in the buried    
edifice near ,avantipura leaves no doubt
 that they escaped the fury of the      
iconoclast by being under water1 and    
perhaps silted up before the date of his
 conquest4#ajie  ,berkeley's arguments  
for the recent date of the creation of  
man4--,i cannot conclude this chapter   
without recalling to the reader's mind a
 memorable passage written by ,bishop   
,berkeley a century ago1 in which he    
inferred1 on grounds which may be termed
 strictly geological1 the recent date of
 the creation of man4 ,to any one1 says 
he1 who considers that on digging into  
the earth1 such quantities of shells1   
and in some places1 bones and horns of  
animals1 are found sound and entire1    
after having lain there in all          
probability some thousands of years2 it 
should seem probable that guns1 medals1 
and implements in metal or stone1 might 

have lasted entire1 buried under ground 
forty or fifty thousand years1 if the   
world had been so old4 ,how comes it    
then to pass that no remains are found1 
no antiquities of those numerous ages   
preceding the ,scripture accounts of    
time2 that no fragments of buildings1 no
 public monuments1 no intaglios1 cameos1
 statues1 basso-relievos1 medals1       
inscriptions1 utensils1 or artificial   
works of any kind1 are ever discovered1 
which may bear testimony to the         
existence of those mighty empires1 those
 successions of monarchs1 heroes1 and   
demi-gods1 for so many thousand years8  
,let us look forward and suppose ten or 
twenty thousand years to come1 during   
which time we will suppose that plagues1
 famine1 wars1 and earthquakes shall    
have made great havoc in the world1 is  
it not highly probable that at the end  
of such a period1 pillars1 vases1 and   
statues now in being1 of granite1 or    
porphyry1 or jasper 7stones of such     
hardness as we know them to have lasted 

two thousand years above ground1 without
 any considerable alteration71 would    
bear record of these and past ages8 ,or 
that some of our current coins might    
then be dug up1 or old walls and the    
foundations of buildings show           
themselves1 as well as the shells and   
stones of the primeval world1 which are 
preserved down to our times4#ajif  ,that
 many signs of the agency of man would  
have lasted at least as long as the     
shells of the primeval world1 had our   
race been so ancient1 we may feel as    
fully persuaded as ,berkeley2 and we may
 anticipate with confidence that many   
edifices and implements of human        
workmanship and the skeletons of men1   
and casts of the human form1 will       
continue to exist when a great part of  
the present mountains1 continents1 and  
seas have disappeared4 ,assuming the    
future duration of the planet to be     
indefinitely protracted1 we can foresee 
no limit to the perpetuation of some of 
the memorials of man1 which are         

continually entombed in the bowels of   
the earth or in the bed of the ocean1   
unless we carry forward our views to a  
period sufficient to allow the various  
causes of change1 both igneous and      
aqueous1 to remodel more than once the  
entire crust of the earth4 ,one complete
 revolution will be inadequate to efface
 every monument of our existence2 for   
many works of art might enter again and 
again into the formations of successive 
eras1 and escape obliteration even      
though the very rocks in which they had 
been for ages imbedded were destroyed1  
just as pebbles included in the         
conglomerates of one epoch often contain
 the organized remains of beings which  
flourished during a prior era4  ,yet it 
is no less true1 as a late distinguished
 philosopher has declared1 that none of 
the works of a mortal being can be      
eternal4#ajig ,they are in the first    
place wrested from the hands of man1 and
 lost as far as regards their           
subserviency to his use1 by the         

instrumentality of those very causes    
which place them in situations where    
they are enabled to endure for          
indefinite periods4 ,and even when they 
have been included in rocky strata1 when
 they have been made to enter as it were
 into the solid framework of the globe  
itself1 they must nevertheless          
eventually perish2 for every year some  
portion of the earth's crust is         
shattered by earthquakes1 or melted by  
volcanic fire1 or ground to dust by the 
moving waters on the surface4 ,the river
 of ,lethe1 as ,bacon eloquently        
remarks1 runneth as well above ground as
 below4#ajih     ,,chapter ,,xlix4      
,,imbedding ,,of ,,aquatic ,,species    
,,in ,,subaqueous ,,strata4             
,inhumation of fresh water plants and   
animals--,shell marl--,fossilized       
seed-vessels and stems of chara--,recent
 deposits in ,american                  
lakes--,freshwater species drifted into 
seas and estuaries--,lewes              
levels--,alternations of marine and     

freshwater strata1 how                  
caused--,imbedding of marine plants and 
animals--,cetacea stranded on     our   
shores--,littoral and estuary ,testacea 
swept into the deep     sea--,burrowing 
shells--,living ,testacea found at      
considerable     depths--,blending of   
organic remains of different ages4      
,having treated of the imbedding of     
terrestrial plants and animals1 and of  
human remains1 in deposits now forming  
beneath the waters1 ,i come next to     
consider in what manner aquatic species 
may be entombed in strata formed in     
their own element4  ,freshwater plants  
and animals4--,the remains of species   
belonging to those genera of the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms which are more or
 less exclusively confined to fresh     
water are for the most part preserved in
 the beds of lakes or estuaries1 but    
they are oftentimes swept down by rivers
 into the sea1 and there intermingled   
with the exuviae of marine races4 ,the  
phenomena attending their inhumation in 

lacustrine deposits are sometimes       
revealed to our observation by the      
drainage of small lakes1 such as are    
those in ,scotland1 which have been laid
 dry for the sake of obtaining shell    
marl for agricultural uses4  ,in these  
recent formations1 as seen in           
,forfarshire1 two or three beds of      
calcareous marl are sometimes observed  
separated from each other by layers of  
drift peat1 sand1 or fissile clay4 ,the 
marl often consists almost entirely of  
an aggregate of shells of the genera    
,limnea1 ,planorbis1 ,valvata1 and      
,cyclas1 of species now existing in     
,scotland4 ,a considerable proportion of
 the ,testacea appear to have died very 
young1 and few of the shells are of a   
size which indicates their having       
attained a state of maturity4 ,the      
shells are sometimes entirely           
decomposed1 forming a pulverulent marl2 
sometimes in a state of good            
preservation4 ,they are frequently      
intermixed with stems of ,charae and    

other aquatic vegetables1 the whole     
being matted together and compressed1   
forming laminae often as thin as paper4 
,fossilized seed-vessels and stems of   
,chara4--,as the ,chara is an aquatic   
plant which occurs frequently fossil in 
formations of different eras1 and is    
often of much importance to the         
geologist in characterizing entire      
groups of strata1 ,i shall describe the 
manner in which ,i have found the recent
 species in a petrified state4 ,they    
occur in a marl-lake in ,forfarshire1   
inclosed in nodules1 and sometimes in a 
continuous stratum of a kind of         
travertin4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4  
,seed-vessel of ,chara hispida4     a1  
,part of the stem with the seed-vessel  
attached4 ,magnified4    b1 ,natural    
size of the seed vessel4    c1          
,integument of the ,gyrogonite1 or      
petrified seed-vessel          of ,chara
 hispida1 found in the ,scotch          
marl-lakes4          ,magnified4    d1  
,section showing the nut within the     

integument4    e1 ,lower end of the     
integument to which the stem was        
attached4    f1 ,upper end of the       
integument to which the stigmata were   
attached4    g1 ,one of the spiral      
valves of c4    ,the seed-vessel of     
these plants is remarkably tough and    
hard1 and consists of a membranous nut  
covered by an integument 7d1 fig4 #ajb47
 both of which are spirally striated or 
ribbed4 ,the integument is composed of  
five spiral valves1 of a quadrangular   
form 7g74 ,in ,chara hispida1 which     
abounds in the lakes of ,forfarshire1   
and which has become fossil in the      
,bakie ,loch1 each of the spiral valves 
of the seed-vessel turns rather more    
than twice round the circumference1 the 
whole together making between ten and   
eleven rings4 ,the number of these rings
 differs greatly in different species1  
but in the same appears to be very      
constant4  ,the stems of ,charae occur  
fossil in the ,scotch marl in great     
abundance4 ,in some species1 as in      

,chara hispida1 the plant when living   
contains so much carbonate of lime in   
its vegetable organization1             
independently of calcareous             
incrustation1 that it effervesces       
strongly with acids when dry4 ,the stems
 of ,chara hispida are longitudinally   
striated1 with a tendency to be spiral4 
,these striae1 as appears to be the case
 with all ,charae1 turn always like the 
worm of a screw from right to left1     
while those of the seed-vessel wind     
round in a contrary direction4 ,a cross 
section of the stem exhibits a curious  
structure1 for it is composed of a large
 tube surrounded by smaller tubes 7fig4 
#ajc41 b1 c7 as is seen in some extinct 
as well as recent species4 ,in the stems
 of several species1 however1 there is  
only a single tube4#ajii  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #ajc4  ,stem and branches of     
,chara hispida4     a1 ,stem and        
branches of the natural size4    b1     
,section of the stem magnified4    c1   
,showing the central tube surrounded by 

two rings of smaller tubes4    ,the     
valves of a small animal called cypris  
7,c4 ornata8 ,lam47 occur completely    
fossilized1 like the stems of ,charae1  
in the ,scotch travertin above          
mentioned4 ,the same cypris inhabits the
 lakes and ponds of ,england1 where1    
together with many other species1 it is 
not uncommon4 ,although extremely       
minute1 they are visible to the naked   
eye1 and may be observed in great       
numbers1 swimming swiftly through the   
waters of our stagnant pools and        
ditches4 ,the antennae1 at the end of   
which are fine pencils of hair1 are the 
principal organs for swimming1 and are  
moved with great rapidity4 ,the animal  
resides within two small valves1 not    
unlike those of a bivalve shell1 and    
moults its integuments annually1 which  
the conchiferous mollusks do not4 ,the  
cast-off shells1 resembling thin scales1
 and occurring in countless myriads in  
many ancient freshwater marls1 impart to
 them a divisional structure1 like that 

so frequently derived from plates of    
mica4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4       
,cypris unifasciata1 a living species1  
greatly   magnified4    a1 ,upper part4 
b1 ,side view of the same4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4  ,cypris     
vidua1 a living species1 greatly        
magnified4#aajj  ,the recent strata of  
lacustrine origin above alluded to are  
of very small extent1 but analogous     
deposits on the grandest scale are      
forming in the great ,canadian lakes1 as
 in ,lakes ,superior and ,huron1 where  
beds of sand and clay are seen inclosing
 shells of existing species4#aaja ,the  
,chara also plays the same part in the  
subaqueous vegetation of ,north ,america
 as in ,europe4 ,i observed along the   
borders of several freshwater lakes in  
the state of ,new ,york a luxuriant crop
 of this plant in clear water of        
moderate depth1 rendering the bottom as 
verdant as a grassy meadow4 ,here1      
therefore1 we may expect some of the    
tough seed vessels to be preserved in   

mud1 just as we detect them fossil in   
the ,eocene strata of ,hampshire1 or in 
the neighborhood of ,paris1 and many    
other countries4   ,imbedding of        
freshwater ,species in ,estuary and     
,marine ,deposits4  ,in ,lewes          
levels4--,we have sometimes an          
opportunity of examining the deposits   
which within the historical period have 
silted up some of our estuaries2 and    
excavations made for wells and other    
purposes1 where the sea has been finally
 excluded1 enable us to observe the     
state of the organic remains in these   
tracts4 ,the valley of the ,ouze between
 ,newhaven and ,lewes is one of several 
estuaries from which the sea has retired
 within the last seven or eight         
centuries2 and here1 as appears from the
 researches of ,dr4 ,mantell1 strata    
thirty feet and upwards in thickness    
have accumulated4 ,at the top1 beneath  
the vegetable soil1 is a bed of peat    
about five feet thick1 inclosing many   
trunks of trees4 ,next below is a       

stratum of blue clay containing         
freshwater shells of about nine species1
 such as now inhabit the district4      
,intermixed with these was observed the 
skeleton of a deer4 ,lower down1 the    
layers of blue clay contain1 with the   
above-mentioned freshwater shells1      
several marine species well known on our
 coast4 ,in the lowest beds1 often at   
the depth of thirty-six feet2 these     
marine ,testacea occur without the      
slightest intermixture of fluviatile    
species1 and amongst them the skull of  
the narwal1 or sea unicorn 7,monodon    
monoceros71 has been detected4          
,underneath all these deposits is a bed 
of pipe-clay1 derived from the subjacent
 chalk4#aajb  ,if we had no historical  
information respecting the former       
existence of an inlet of the sea in this
 valley and of its gradual obliteration1
 the inspection of the section above    
described would show1 as clearly as a   
written chronicle1 the following        
sequence of events4 ,first1 there was a 

salt-water estuary peopled for many     
years by species of marine ,testacea    
identical with those now living1 and    
into which some of the larger ,cetacea  
occasionally entered4 ,secondly1 the    
inlet grew shallower1 and the water     
became brackish1 or alternately salt and
 fresh1 so that the remains of          
freshwater and marine shells were       
mingled in the blue argillaceous        
sediment of its bottom4 ,thirdly1 the   
shoaling continued until the river-water
 prevailed1 so that it was no longer    
habitable by marine ,testacea1 but      
fitted only for the abode of fluviatile 
species and aquatic insects4 ,fourthly1 
a peaty swamp or morass was formed1     
where some trees grew1 or perhaps were  
drifted during floods1 and where        
terrestrial quadrupeds were mired4      
,finally1 the soil being flooded by the 
river only at distant intervals1 became 
a verdant meadow4  ,in delta of ,ganges 
and ,indus4--,it was before stated1 that
 on the sea-coast1 in the delta of the  

,ganges1 there are eight great openings1
 each of which has evidently1 at some   
ancient period1 served in its turn as   
the principal channel of discharge4#aajc
 ,as the base of the delta is #bjj miles
 in length1 it must happen that1 as     
often as the great volume of river-water
 is thrown into the sea by a new mouth1 
the sea will at one point be converted  
from salt to fresh1 and at another from 
fresh to salt2 for1 with the exception  
of those parts where the principal      
discharge takes place1 the salt water   
not only washes the base of the delta1  
but enters far into every creek and     
lagoon4 ,it is evident1 then1 that      
repeated alternations of beds containing
 freshwater shells1 with others filled  
with marine exuviae1 may here be formed4
 ,it has also been shown by artesian    
borings at ,calcutta 7see above1 p4     
#bfg71 that the delta once extended much
 farther than now into the gulf1 and    
that the river is only recovering from  
the sea the ground which had been lost  

by subsidence at some former period4    
,analogous phenomena must sometimes be  
occasioned by such alternate elevation  
and depression as has occurred in modern
 times in the delta of the ,indus4#aajd 
,but the subterranean movements affect  
but a small number of the deltas formed 
at one period on the globe2 whereas the 
silting up of some of the arms of great 
rivers and the opening of others1 and   
the consequent variation of the points  
where the chief volume of their waters  
is discharged into the sea1 are         
phenomena common to almost every delta4 
,the variety of species of ,testacea    
contained in the recent calcareous marl 
of ,scotland1 before mentioned1 is very 
small1 but the abundance of individuals 
extremely great1 a circumstance very    
characteristic of freshwater formations 
in general1 as compared to marine2 for  
in the latter1 as is seen on            
sea-beaches1 coral-reefs1 or in the     
bottom of the seas examined by dredging1
 wherever the individual shells are     

exceedingly numerous1 there rarely fails
 to be a vast variety of species4       
,imbedding of the ,remains of ,marine   
,plants and ,animals4  ,marine          
plants4--,the large banks of drift      
sea-weed which occur on each side of the
 equator in the ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 and
 ,indian oceans1 were before alluded    
to4#aaje ,these1 when they subside1 may 
often produce considerable beds of      
vegetable matter4 ,in ,holland1         
submarine peat is derived from ,fuci1   
and on parts of our own coast from      
,zostera marina4 ,in places where ,algae
 do not generate peat1 they may         
nevertheless leave traces of their form 
imprinted on argillaceous and calcareous
 mud1 as they are usually very tough in 
their texture4  ,sea-weeds are often    
cast up in such abundance on our shores 
during heavy gales1 that we cannot doubt
 that occasionally vast numbers of them 
are imbedded in littoral deposits now in
 progress4 ,we learn from the researches
 of ,dr4 ,forchhammer1 that besides     

supplying in common with land plants the
 materials of coal1 the ,algae must give
 rise to important chemical changes in  
the composition of strata in which they 
are imbedded4 ,these plants always      
contain sulphuric acid1 and sometimes in
 as large a quantity as #h-a_/b per     
cent41 combined with potash3 magnesia   
also and phosphoric acid are constant   
ingredients4 ,whenever large masses of  
sea-weeds putrefy in contact with       
ferruginous clay1 sulphuret of iron1 or 
iron pyrites1 is formed by the union of 
the sulphur of the plants with the iron 
of the clay2 while the potash1 released 
from its union with the clay 7i4 e4     
silicate of alumina71 forms with it a   
peculiar compound4 ,many of the mineral 
characteristics of ancient rocks1       
especially the alum slates1 and the     
pyrites which occur in clay slate1 and  
the fragments of anthracite in marine   
,silurian strata1 may be explained by   
the decomposition of fucoids or         
sea-weeds4#aajf  ,imbedding of          

cetacea4--,it is not uncommon for the   
larger ,cetacea1 which can float only in
 a considerable depth of water1 to be   
carried during storms or high tides into
 estuaries1 or upon low shores1 where1  
upon the retiring of high water1 they   
are stranded4 ,thus a narwal 7,monodon  
monoceros7 was found on the beach1 near 
,boston in ,lincolnshire1 in the year   
#ahjj1 the whole of its body buried in  
the mud4 ,a fisherman going to his boat 
saw the horn1 and tried to pull it out1 
when the animal began to stir           
itself4#aajg ,an individual of the      
common whale 7,balaena mysticetus71     
which measured seventy feet1 came ashore
 near ,peterhead1 in #afhb4 ,many       
individuals of the genus ,balaenoptera  
have met the same fate4 ,it will be     
sufficient to refer to those cast on    
shore near ,burnt ,island1 and at       
,alloa1 recorded by ,sibbald and ,neill4
 ,the other individual mentioned by     
,sibbald1 as having come ashore at      
,boyne1 in ,banffshire1 was probably a  

razor-back4 ,of the genus ,catodon      
7,cachalot71 ,ray mentions a large one  
stranded on the west coast of ,holland  
in #aeih1 and the fact is also          
commemorated in a ,dutch engraving of   
the time of much merit4 ,sibbald1 too1  
records that a herd of ,cachalots1      
upwards of #ajj in number1 were found   
stranded at ,cairston1 in ,orkney4 ,the 
dead bodies of the larger ,cetacea are  
sometimes found floating on the surface 
of the waters1 as was the case with the 
immense whale exhibited in ,london in   
#ahca4 ,and the carcase of a sea-cow or 
,lamantine 7,halicora7 was1 in #aghe1   
cast ashore near ,leith4  ,to some      
accident of this kind we may refer the  
position of the skeleton of a whale1    
seventy-three feet long1 which was found
 at ,airthrey1 on the ,forth1 near      
,stirling1 imbedded in clay twenty feet 
higher than the surface of the highest  
tide of the river ,forth at the present 
day4 ,from the situation of the ,roman  
station and causeways at a small        

distance from the spot1 it is concluded 
that the whale must have been stranded  
there at a period prior to the          
,christian era4#aajh  ,other fossil     
remains of this class have also been    
found in estuaries known to have been   
silted up in recent times1 one example  
of which has been already mentioned near
 ,lewes1 in ,sussex4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ajf4  ,fossil eggs of turtles    
from the ,island of ,ascension4#aaji    
,marine reptiles4--,some singular       
fossils have lately been discovered in  
the ,island of ,ascension1 in a stone   
said to be continually forming on the   
beach1 where the waves threw up small   
rounded fragments of shells and corals1 
which1 in the course of time1 become    
firmly agglutinated together1 and       
constitute a stone used largely for     
building and making lime4 ,in a quarry  
on the ,n4 ,w4 side of the island1 about
 #ajj yards from the sea1 some fossil   
eggs of turtles have been discovered in 
the hard rock thus formed4 ,the eggs    

must have been nearly hatched at the    
time when they perished2 for the bones  
of the young turtle are seen in the     
interior1 with their shape fully        
developed1 the interstices between the  
bones being entirely filled with grains 
of sand1 which are cemented together1 so
 that when the egg-shells are removed   
perfect casts of their form remain in   
stone4 ,in the single specimen here     
figured 7fig4 #ajf71 which is only five 
inches in its longest diameter1 no less 
than seven eggs are preserved4#aaaj  ,to
 explain the state in which they occur  
fossil1 it seems necessary to suppose   
that after the eggs were almost hatched 
in the warm sand1 a great wave threw    
upon them so much more sand as to       
prevent the rays of the sun from        
penetrating1 so that the yolk was       
chilled and deprived of vitality4 ,the  
shells were1 perhaps1 slightly broken at
 the same time1 so that small grains of 
sand might gradually be introduced into 
the interior by water as it percolated  

through the beach4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ajg4  ,one of the eggs in fig4 #ajf1  
of the natural size1 showing the bones  
of the foetus which had been nearly     
hatched4  ,marine testacea4--,the       
aquatic animals and plants which inhabit
 an estuary are liable1 like the trees  
and land animals which people the       
alluvial plains of a great river1 to be 
swept from time to time far into the    
deep2 for as a river is perpetually     
shifting its course1 and undermining a  
portion of its banks with the forests   
which cover them1 so the marine current 
alters its direction from time to time1 
and bears away the banks of sand and mud
 against which it turns its force4      
,these banks may consist in great       
measure of shells peculiar to shallow   
and sometimes brackish water1 which may 
have been accumulating for centuries1   
until at length they are carried away   
and spread out along the bottom of the  
sea1 at a depth at which they could not 
have lived and multiplied4 ,thus        

littoral and estuary shells are more    
frequently liable even than freshwater  
species1 to be intermixed with the      
exuviae of pelagic tribes4  ,after the  
storm of ,february #d1 #ahca1 when      
several vessels were wrecked in the     
estuary of the ,forth1 the current was  
directed against a bed of oysters with  
such force1 that great heaps of them    
were thrown alive upon the beach1 and   
remained above high-water mark4 ,i      
collected many of these oysters1 as also
 the common eatable whelks 7,buccina71  
thrown up with them1 and observed that1 
although still living1 their shells were
 worn by the long attrition of sand     
which had passed over them as they lay  
in their native bed1 and which had      
evidently not resulted from the mere    
action of the tempest by which they were
 cast ashore4  ,from these facts we     
learn that the union of the two parts of
 a bivalve shell does not prove that it 
has not been transported to a distance2 
and when we find shells worn1 and with  

all their prominent parts rubbed off1   
they may still have been imbedded where 
they grew4  ,burrowing shells4--,it     
sometimes appears extraordinary1 when we
 observe the violence of the breakers on
 our coast1 and see the strength of the 
current in removing cliffs1 and sweeping
 out new channels1 that many tender and 
fragile shells should inhabit the sea in
 the immediate vicinity of this turmoil4
 ,but a great number of the bivalve     
,testacea1 and many also of the         
turbinated univalves1 burrow in sand or 
mud4 ,the ,solen and the ,cardium1 for  
example1 which are usually found in     
shallow water near the shore1 pierce    
through a soft bottom without injury to 
their shells2 and the ,pholas can drill 
a cavity through mud of considerable    
hardness4 ,the species of these and many
 other tribes can sink1 when alarmed1   
with considerable rapidity1 often to the
 depth of several feet1 and can also    
penetrate upwards again to the surface1 
if a mass of matter be heaped upon them4

 ,the hurricane1 therefore1 may expend  
its fury in vain1 and may sweep away    
even the upper part of banks of sand or 
mud1 or may roll pebbles over them1 and 
yet these ,testacea may remain below    
secure and uninjured4  ,shells become   
fossil at considerable depths4--,i have 
already stated that1 at the depth of    
#iej fathoms1 between ,gibraltar and    
,ceuta1 ,captain ,smith found a gravelly
 bottom1 with fragments of broken       
shells1 carried thither probably from   
the comparatively shallow parts of the  
neighboring straits1 through which a    
powerful current flows4 ,beds of shelly 
sand might here1 in the course of ages1 
be accumulated several thousand feet    
thick4 ,but1 without the aid of the     
drifting power of a current1 shells may 
accumulate in the spot where they live  
and die1 at great depths from the       
surface1 if sediment be thrown down upon
 them2 for even in our own colder       
latitudes1 the depths at which living   
marine animals abound is very           

considerable4 ,captain ,vidal           
ascertained1 by soundings made off ,tory
 ,island1 on the northwest coast of     
,ireland1 that ,crustacea1 ,star-fish1  
and ,testacea occurred at various depths
 between fifty and one hundred fathoms2 
and he drew up ,dentalia from the mud of
 ,galway ,bay1 in #bcj and #bdj fathoms 
water4  ,the same hydrographer          
discovered on the ,rockhall ,bank large 
quantities of shells at depths varying  
from #de to #aij fathoms4 ,the shells   
were for the most part pulverized1 and  
evidently recent1 as they retained their
 colors4 ,in the same region a bed of   
fish bones was observed extending for   
two miles along the bottom of the sea in
 eighty and ninety fathoms water4 ,at   
the eastern extremity also of ,rockhall 
,bank1 fishbones were met with1 mingled 
with pieces of fresh shell1 at the depth
 of #bce fathoms4  ,analogous formations
 are in progress in the submarine tracts
 extending from the ,shetland ,isles to 
the north of ,ireland1 wherever         

soundings can be procured4 ,a continuous
 deposit of sand and mud1 replete with  
broken and entire shells1 ,echini1 c41  
has been traced for upwards of twenty   
miles to the eastward of the ,faroe     
,islands1 usually at the depth of from  
forty to one hundred fathoms4 ,in one   
part of this tract 7lat4 #fa degrees #ej
 minutes1 long4 #f degrees #cj minutes7 
fish-bones occur in extraordinary       
profusion1 so that the lead cannot be   
drawn up without some vertebrae being   
attached4 ,this bone bed1 as it was     
called by our surveyors1 is three miles 
and a half in length1 and forty-five    
fathoms under water1 and contains a few 
shells intermingled with the bones4  ,in
 the ,british seas1 the shells and other
 organic remains lie in soft mud or     
loose sand and gravel2 whereas1 in the  
bed of the ,adriatic1 ,donati found them
 frequently inclosed in stone of recent 
origin4 ,this is precisely the          
difference in character which we might  
have expected to exist between the      

,british marine formations now in       
progress and those of the ,adriatic2 for
 calcareous and other mineral springs   
abound in the ,mediterranean and lands  
adjoining1 while they are almost        
entirely wanting in our own country4 ,i 
have already adverted to the eight      
regions of different depths in the      
,a,egean ,sea1 each characterized by a  
peculiar assemblage of shells1 which    
have been described by ,professor ,e4   
,forbes1 who explored them by dredging4 
7,see above1 p4 #fdi47  ,during his     
survey of the west coast of ,africa1    
,captain ,sir ,e4 ,belcher found1 by    
frequent soundings between the          
twenty-third and twentieth degrees of   
north latitude1 that the bottom of the  
sea1 at the depth of from twenty to     
about fifty fathoms1 consists of sand   
with a great intermixture of shells1    
often entire1 but sometimes finely      
comminuted4 ,between the eleventh and   
ninth degrees of north latitude1 on the 
same coast1 at soundings varying from   

twenty to about eighty fathoms1 he      
brought up abundance of corals and      
shells mixed with sand4 ,these also were
 in some parts entire1 and in others    
worn and broken4  ,in all these cases1  
it is only necessary that there should  
be some deposition of sedimentary       
matter1 however minute1 such as may be  
supplied by rivers draining a continent1
 or currents preying on a line of       
cliffs1 in order that stratified        
formations1 hundreds of feet in         
thickness1 and replete with organic     
remains1 should result in the course of 
ages4  ,but although some deposits may  
thus extend continuously for a thousand 
miles or more near certain coasts1 the  
greater part of the bed of the ocean1   
remote from continents and islands1 may 
very probably receive1 at the same time1
 no new accessions of drift matter1 all 
sediment being intercepted by           
intervening hollows1 in which a marine  
current must clear its waters as        
thoroughly as a turbid river in a lake4 

,erroneous theories in geology may be   
formed not only from overlooking the    
great extent of simultaneous deposits   
now in progress1 but also from the      
assumption that such formations may be  
universal or coextensive with the bed of
 the ocean4  ,we frequently observe1 on 
the sea beach1 very perfect specimens of
 fossil shells1 quite detached from     
their matrix1 which have been washed out
 of older formations1 constituting the  
sea-cliffs4 ,they may be all of extinct 
species1 like the ,eocene freshwater and
 marine shells strewed over the shores  
of ,hampshire1 yet when they become     
mingled with the shells of the present  
period1 and buried in the same deposits 
of mud and sand1 they would appear1 if  
upraised and examined by future         
geologists1 to have been all of the same
 age4 ,that such intermixture and       
blending of organic remains of different
 ages have actually taken place in      
former times1 is unquestionable1 though 
the occurrence appears to be very local 

and exceptional4 ,it is1 however1 a     
class of accidents more likely than     
almost any other to lead to serious     
anachronisms in geological chronology4  
,,chapter ,l4  ,,formation ,,of ,,coral 
,,reefs4     ,growth of coral chiefly   
confined to tropical regions--,principal
     genera of coral-building           
zoophytes--,their rate of               
growth--,seldom     flourish at greater 
depths than twenty fathoms--,atolls or  
annular     reefs with lagoons--,maldive
 ,isles--,origin of the circular        
form--,coral reefs not based on         
submerged volcanic craters--,mr4        
,darwin's theory of subsidence in       
explanation of atolls1 encircling       
and barrier reefs--,why the windward    
side of atolls     highest--,subsidence 
explains why all atolls are nearly on   
one     level--,alternate areas of      
elevation and subsidence--,origin of    
openings into the lagoons--,size of     
atolls and barrier     reefs--,objection
 to the theory of subsidence            

considered--,composition1 structure1 and
 stratified arrangement of     rocks now
 forming in coral reefs--,lime1 whence  
derived--,supposed     increase of      
calcareous matter in modern epochs      
controverted--,concluding remarks4      
,the powers of the organic creation in  
modifying the form and structure of the 
earth's crust1 are most conspicuously   
displayed in the labors of the coral    
animals4 ,we may compare the operation  
of these zoophytes in the ocean1 to the 
effects produced on a smaller scale upon
 the land by the plants which generate  
peat4 ,in the case of the ,sphagnum1 the
 upper part vegetates while the lower   
part is entering into a mineral mass1 in
 which the traces of organization remain
 when life has entirely ceased4 ,in     
corals1 in like manner1 the more durable
 materials of the generation that has   
passed away serve as the foundation on  
which the living animals continue to    
rear a similar structure4  ,the stony   
part of the lamelliform zoophyte may be 

likened to an internal skeleton2 for it 
is always more or less surrounded by a  
soft animal substance capable of        
expanding itself2 yet1 when alarmed1 it 
has the power of contracting and drawing
 itself almost entirely into the cells  
and hollows of the hard coral4 ,although
 oftentimes beautifully colored in their
 own element1 the soft parts become when
 taken from the sea nothing more in     
appearance than a brown slime spread    
over the stony nucleus4#aaaa  ,the      
growth of those corals which form reefs 
of solid stone is entirely confined to  
the warmer regions of the globe1 rarely 
extending beyond the tropics above two  
or three degrees1 except under peculiar 
circumstances1 as in the ,bermuda       
,islands1 in lat4 #cb degrees ,n41 where
 the ,atlantic is warmed by the ,gulf   
stream4 ,the ,pacific ,ocean1 throughout
 a space comprehended between the       
thirtieth parallels of latitude on each 
side of the equator1 is extremely       
productive of coral2 as also are the    

,arabian and ,persian ,gulfs4 ,coral is 
also abundant in the sea between the    
coast of ,malabar and the island of     
,madagascar4 ,flinders describes a reef 
of coral on the east coast of ,new      
,holland as having a length of nearly   
#ajjj miles1 and as being in one part   
unbroken for a distance of #cej miles4  
,some groups of coral islands in the    
,pacific are from #aajj to #abjj miles  
in length1 by #cjj or #djj in breadth1  
as the ,dangerous ,archipelago1 for     
example1 and that called ,radack by     
,kotzebue2 but the islands within these 
spaces are always small points1 and     
often very thinly sown4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #ajh4  ,meandrina labyrinthica1   
,lam4  ,of the numerous species of      
zoophytes which are engaged in the      
production of coral banks1 some of the  
most common belong to the ,lamarckian   
genera ,astrea1 ,porites1 ,madrepora1   
,millepora1 ,caryophyllia1 and          
,meandrina4  ,rate of the growth of     
,coral4--,very different opinions have  

been entertained in regard to the rate  
at which coral reefs increase4 ,in      
,captain ,beechey's late expedition to  
the ,pacific1 no positive information   
could be obtained of any channel having 
been filled up within a given period2   
and it seems established1 that several  
reefs had remained for more than half a 
century1 at about the same depth from   
the surface4  ,ehrenberg also questions 
the fact of channels and harbors having 
been closed up in the ,red ,sea by the  
rapid increase of coral limestone4 ,he  
supposes the notion to have arisen from 
the circumstance of havens having been  
occasionally filled up in some places   
with coral sand1 in others with large   
quantities of ballast of coral rock     
thrown down from vessels4               
,illustration3 ,genera of ,zoophytes    
most common in coral reefs4  ,fig4 #aji4
  ,astrea dipsacea1 ,lam4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4  ,extremity  
of branch of ,madrepora muricata1 ,lin4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4              

,caryophyllia fastigiata1 ,lam4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4  ,porites    
clavaria1 ,lam4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#aac4  ,oculina hirtella1 ,lam4  ,the   
natives of the ,bermuda ,islands point  
out certain corals now growing in the   
sea1 which1 according to tradition1 have
 been living in the same spots for      
centuries4 ,it is supposed that some of 
them may vie in age with the most       
ancient trees of ,europe4 ,ehrenberg    
also observed single corals of the      
genera ,meandrina and ,favia1 having a  
globular form1 from six to nine feet in 
diameter1 which must 7he says7 be of    
immense antiquity1 probably several     
thousand years old1 so that ,pharaoh may
 have looked upon these same individuals
 in the ,red ,sea4#aaab ,they certainly 
imply1 as he remarks1 that the reef on  
which they grow has increased at a very 
slow rate4 ,after collecting more than  
#ajj species1 he found none of them     
covered with parasitic zoophytes1 nor   
any instance of a living coral growing  

on another living coral4 ,to this       
repulsive power which they exert whilst 
living1 against all others of their own 
class1 we owe the beautiful symmetry of 
some large ,meandrinae1 and other       
species which adorn our museums4 ,yet   
,balani and ,serpulae can attach        
themselves to living corals1 and holes  
are excavated in them by saxicavous     
mollusca4  ,at the island called        
,taaopoto1 in the ,south ,pacific1 the  
anchor of a ship1 wrecked about #ej     
years before1 was observed in seven     
fathoms water1 still preserving its     
original form1 but entirely incrusted by
 coral4#aaac ,this fact would seem to   
imply a slow rate of augmentation2 but  
to form a correct estimate of the       
average rate must be very difficult1    
since it must vary not only according to
 the species of coral1 but according to 
the circumstances under which each      
species may be placed2 such1 for        
example1 as the depth from the surface1 
the quantity of light1 the temperature  

of the water1 its freedom from sand or  
mud1 or the absence or presence of      
breakers1 which is favorable to the     
growth of some kinds and is fatal to    
that of others4 ,it should also be      
observed that the apparent stationary   
condition of some coral reefs1 which    
according to ,beechey have remained for 
centuries at the same depth under water1
 may be due to subsidence1 the upward   
growth of the coral having been just    
sufficient to keep pace with the sinking
 of the solid foundation on which the   
zoophytes have built4 ,we shall         
afterwards see how far this hypothesis  
is borne out by other evidence in the   
regions of annular reefs or atolls4  ,in
 one of the ,maldive islands a coral    
reef1 which1 within a few years1 existed
 on an islet bearing cocoa-nut trees1   
was found by ,lieutenant ,prentice1     
entirely covered with live coral and    
madrepore4 ,the natives stated that the 
islet had been washed away by a change  
in the currents1 and it is clear that a 

coating of growing coral had been formed
 in a short time4#aaad ,experiments1    
also1 of ,dr4 ,allan1 on the east coast 
of ,madagascar1 prove the possibility of
 coral growing to a thickness of three  
feet in about half a year1#aaae so that 
the rate of increase may1 under         
favorable circumstances1 be very far    
from slow4  ,it must not be supposed    
that the calcareous masses termed coral 
reefs are exclusively the work of       
zoophytes3 a great variety of shells1   
and1 among them1 some of the largest and
 heaviest of known species1 contribute  
to augment the mass4 ,in the ,south     
,pacific1 great beds of oysters1        
mussels1 ,pinnae marinae1 ,chamoe 7or   
,tridacnae71 and other shells1 cover in 
profusion almost every reef2 and on the 
beach of coral islands are seen the     
shells of echini and broken fragments of
 crustaceous animals4 ,large shoals of  
fish are also discernible through the   
clear blue water1 and their teeth and   
hard palates cannot fail to be often    

preserved although their soft           
cartilaginous bones may decay4  ,it was 
the opinion of the ,german naturalist   
,forster1 in #aghj1 after his voyage    
round the world with ,captain ,cook1    
that coral animals had the power of     
building up steep and almost            
perpendicular walls from great depths in
 the sea1 a notion afterwards adopted by
 ,captain ,flinders and others2 but it  
is now very generally believed that     
these zoophytes cannot live in water of 
great depths4  ,mr4 ,darwin has come to 
the conclusion1 that those species which
 are most effective in the construction 
of reefs1 rarely flourish at a greater  
depth than #bj fathoms1 or #abj feet4   
,in some lagoons1 however1 where the    
water is but little agitated1 there are1
 according to ,kotzebue1 beds of living 
coral in #be fathoms of water1 or #aej  
feet2 but these may perhaps have begun  
to live in shallower water1 and may have
 been carried downwards by the          
subsidence of the reef4 ,there are also 

various species of zoophytes1 and among 
them some which are provided with       
calcareous as well as horny stems1 which
 live in much deeper water1 even in some
 cases to a depth of #ahj fathoms2 but  
these do not appear to give origin to   
stony reefs4  ,there is every variety of
 form in coral reefs1 but the most      
remarkable and numerous in the ,pacific 
consist of circular or oval strips of   
dry land1 enclosing a shallow lake or   
lagoon of still water1 in which         
zoophytes and mollusca abound4 ,these   
annular reefs just raise themselves     
above the level of the sea1 and are     
surrounded by a deep and often          
unfathomable ocean4  ,in the annexed cut
 7fig4 #aad71 one of these circular     
islands is represented1 just rising     
above the waves1 covered with the       
cocoa-nut and other trees1 and inclosing
 within a lagoon of tranquil water4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4  ,view of    
,whitsunday ,island4 7,capt4            
,beechey47#aaaf  ,the accompanying      

section will enable the reader to       
comprehend the usual form of such       
islands4 7,fig4 #aae47  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #aae4  ,section of a ,coral       
,island4     a1 a1 ,habitable part of   
the island1 consisting of a strip       
of coral1 inclosing the lagoon4   b1 b1 
,the lagoon4    ,the subjoined cut 7fig4
 #aaf47 exhibits a small part of the    
section of a coral island on a larger   
scale4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4      
,section of part of a ,coral ,island4   
a1 b1 ,habitable part of the island4  b1
 c1 ,slope of the side of the island1   
plunging at an angle of forty-five to   
the depth of fifteen hundred feet4  c1  
c1 ,part of the lagoon4  d1 d1 ,knolls  
of coral in the lagoon1 with overhanging
 masses of coral resembling the capitals
 of columns4  ,of thirty-two of these   
coral islands visited by ,beechey in his
 voyage to the ,pacific1 twenty-nine had
 lagoons in their centres4 ,the largest 
was #cj miles in diameter1 and the      
smallest less than a mile4 ,all were    

increasing their dimensions by the      
active operations of the lithophytes1   
which appeared to be gradually extending
 and bringing the immersed parts of     
their structure to the surface4 ,the    
scene presented by these annular reefs  
is equally striking for its singularity 
and beauty4 ,a strip of land a few      
hundred yards wide is covered by lofty  
cocoa-nut trees1 above which is the blue
 vault of heaven4 ,this band of verdure 
is bounded by a beach of glittering     
white sand1 the outer margin of which is
 encircled with a ring of snow-white    
breakers1 beyond which are the dark     
heaving waters of the ocean4 ,the inner 
beach incloses the still clear water of 
the lagoon1 resting in its greater part 
on white sand1 and when illuminated by a
 vertical sun1 of a most vivid          
green4#aaag ,certain species of         
zoophytes abound most in the lagoon1    
others on the exterior margin1 where    
there is a great surf4 ,the ocean1 says 
,mr4 ,darwin1 throwing its breakers on  

these outer shores1 appears an          
invincible enemy1 yet we see it resisted
 and even conquered by means which at   
first seem most weak and inefficient4   
,no periods of repose are granted1 and  
the long swell caused by the steady     
action of the trade wind never ceases4  
,the breakers exceed in violence those  
of our temperate regions1 and it is     
impossible to behold them without       
feeling a conviction that rocks of      
granite or quartz would ultimately yield
 and be demolished by such irresistible 
forces4 ,yet these low insignificant    
coral islets stand and are victorious1  
for here another power1 as antagonist to
 the former1 takes part in the contest4 
,the organic forces separate the atoms  
of carbonate of lime one by one from the
 foaming breakers1 and unite them into a
 symmetrical structure2 myriads of      
architects are at work night and day1   
month after month1 and we see their soft
 and gelatinous bodies through the      
agency of the vital laws conquering the 

great mechanical power of the waves of  
an ocean1 which neither the art of man1 
nor the inanimate works of nature could 
successfully resist4#aaah  ,as the coral
 animals require to be continually      
immersed in salt water1 they cannot     
raise themselves by their own efforts1  
above the level of the lowest tides4    
,the manner in which the reefs are      
converted into islands above the level  
of the sea is thus described by         
,chamisso1 a naturalist1 who accompanied
 ,kotzebue in his voyages3--,when the   
reef1 says he1 is of such a height that 
it remains almost dry at low water the  
corals leave off building4 ,above this  
line a continuous mass of solid stone is
 seen composed of the shells of mollusks
 and echini1 with their broken-off      
prickles and fragments of coral1 united 
by calcareous sand1 produced by the     
pulverization of shells4 ,the heat of   
the sun often penetrates the mass of    
stone when it is dry1 so that it splits 
in many places1 and the force of the    

waves is thereby enabled to separate and
 lift blocks of coral1 frequently six   
feet long and three or four in          
thickness1 and throw them upon the reef1
 by which means the ridge becomes at    
length so high that it is covered only  
during some seasons of the year by the  
spring tides4 ,after this the calcareous
 sand lies undisturbed1 and offers to   
the seeds of trees and plants cast upon 
it by the waves a soil upon which they  
rapidly grow1 to overshadow its dazzling
 white surface4 ,entire trunks of trees1
 which are carried by the rivers from   
other countries and islands1 find here1 
at length1 a resting-place after their  
long wanderings3 with these come some   
small animals such as insects and       
lizards1 as the first inhabitants4 ,even
 before the trees form a wood1 the      
sea-birds nestle here2 stray land-birds 
take refuge in the bushes2 and1 at a    
much later period1 when the work has    
been long since completed1 man appears  
and builds his hut on the fruitful      

soil4#aaai  ,in the above description   
the solid stone is stated to consist of 
shell and coral1 united by sand2 but    
masses of very compact limestone are    
also found even in the uppermost and    
newest parts of the reef1 such as could 
only have been produced by chemical     
precipitation4 ,professor ,agassiz also 
informs me that his observations on the 
,florida reefs 7which confirm ,darwin's 
theory of atolls to be mentioned in the 
sequel7 have convinced him1 that large  
blocks are loosened1 not by shrinkage in
 the sun's heat1 as ,chamisso imagined1 
but by innumerable perforations of      
lithodomi and other boring testacea4    
,the carbonate of lime may have been    
principally derived from the            
decomposition of corals and testacea2   
for when the animal matter undergoes    
putrefaction1 the calcareous residuum   
must be set free under circumstances    
very favorable to precipitation1        
especially when there are other         
calcareous substances1 such as shells   

and corals1 on which it may be          
deposited4 ,thus organic bodies may be  
inclosed in a solid cement1 and become  
portions of rocky masses4#aabj  ,the    
width of the circular strip of dead     
coral forming the islands explored by   
,captain ,beechey1 exceeded in no       
instance half a mile from the usual wash
 of the sea to the edge of the lagoon1  
and1 in general1 was only about three or
 four hundred yards4#aaba ,the depth of 
the lagoons is various2 in some1 entered
 by ,captain ,beechey1 it was from      
twenty to thirty-eight fathoms4  ,the   
two other peculiarities which are most  
characteristic of the annular reef or   
atoll are first1 that the strip of dead 
coral is invariably highest on the      
windward side1 and secondly1 that there 
is very generally an opening at some    
point in the reef affording a narrow    
passage1 often of considerable depth1   
from the sea into the lagoon4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4  ,maldive and
 ,laccadive ,isles4--,the chain of reefs

 and islets called the ,maldives 7see   
fig4 #aag471 situated in the ,indian    
,ocean1 to the south-west of ,malabar1  
forms a chain #dgj geographical miles in
 length1 running due north and south1   
with an average breadth of about #ej    
miles4 ,it is composed throughout of a  
series of circular assemblages of       
islets1 all formed of coral1 the larger 
groups being from forty to ninety miles 
in their longest diameter4 ,captain     
,horsburgh1 whose chart of these islands
 is subjoined1 states1 that outside of  
each circle or atoll1 as it is termed1  
there are coral reefs sometimes         
extending to the distance of two or     
three miles1 beyond which there are no  
soundings at immense depths4 ,but in the
 centre of each atoll there is a lagoon 
from fifteen to forty-nine fathoms deep4
 ,in the channels between the atolls no 
soundings can usually be obtained at the
 depth of #aej or even #bej fathoms1 but
 during ,captain ,moresby's survey1     
soundings were struck at #aej and #bjj  

fathoms1 the only instances as yet known
 of the bottom having been reached1     
either in the ,indian or ,pacific       
oceans1 in a space intervening between  
two separate and well characterized     
atolls4  ,the singularity in the form of
 the atolls of this archipelago consists
 in their being made up1 not of one     
continuous circular reef but of a ring  
of small coral islets sometimes more    
than a hundred in number1 each of which 
is a miniature atoll in itself2 in other
 words1 a ring-shaped strip of coral    
surrounding a lagoon of salt water4 ,to 
account for the origin of these1 ,mr4   
,darwin supposes the larger annular reef
 to have been broken up into a number of
 fragments1 each of which acquired its  
peculiar configurations under the       
influence of causes similar to those to 
which the structure of the parent atoll 
has been due4 ,many of the minor rings  
are no less than three1 and even five   
miles in diameter1 and some are situated
 in the midst of the principal lagoon2  

but this happens only in cases where the
 sea can enter freely through breaches  
in the outer or marginal reef4  ,the    
rocks of the ,maldives are composed of  
sandstone formed of broken shells and   
corals1 such as may be obtained in a    
loose state from the beach1 and which is
 seen when exposed for a few days to the
 air to become hardened4 ,the sandstone 
is sometimes observed to be an aggregate
 of broken shells1 corals1 pieces of    
wood1 and shells of the cocoa-nut4#aabb 
,the ,laccadive islands run in the same 
line with the ,maldives1 on the north1  
as do the isles of the ,chagos          
,archipelago1 on the south2 so that     
these may be continuations of the same  
chain of submerged mountains1 crested in
 a similar manner by coral limestones4  
,origin of the circular form--not       
volcanic4--,the circular and oval shape 
of so many reefs1 each having a lagoon  
in the centre1 and being surrounded on  
all sides by a deep ocean1 naturally    
suggested the idea that they were       

nothing more than the crests of         
submarine volcanic craters overgrown by 
coral2 and this theory ,i myself        
advocated in the earlier editions of    
this work4 ,although ,i am now about to 
show that it must be abandoned1 it may  
still be instructive to point out the   
grounds on which it was formerly        
embraced4 ,in the first place1 it had   
been remarked that there were many      
active volcanoes in the coral region of 
the ,pacific1 and that in some places1  
as in ,gambier's group1 rocks composed  
of porous lava rise up in a lagoon      
bordered by a circular reef1 just as the
 two cones of eruption called the       
,kamenis have made their appearance in  
the times of history within the circular
 gulf of ,santorin4#aabc ,it was also   
observed that1 as in ,s4 ,shetland1     
,barren ,island1 and others of volcanic 
origin1 there is one narrow breach in   
the walls of the outer cone by which    
ships may enter a circular gulf1 so in  
like manner there is often a single deep

 passage leading into the lagoon of a   
coral island1 the lagoon itself seeming 
to represent the hollow or gulf just as 
the ring of dry coral recalls to our    
minds the rim of a volcanic crater4     
,more lately1 indeed1 ,mr4 ,darwin has  
shown that the numerous volcanic craters
 of the ,galapagos ,archipelago in the  
,pacific have all of them their southern
 sides the lowest1 or in many cases     
quite broken down1 so that if they were 
submerged and incrusted with coral1 they
 would resemble true atolls in          
shape4#aabd  ,another argument which ,i 
adduced when formerly defending this    
doctrine was derived from ,ehrenberg's  
statement1 that some banks of coral in  
the ,red ,sea were square1 while many   
others were ribbon-like strips1 with    
flat tops1 and without lagoons4 ,since1 
therefore1 all the genera and many of   
the species of zoophytes in the ,red    
,sea agreed with those which elsewhere  
construct lagoon islands1 it followed   
that the stone-making zoophytes are not 

guided by their own instinct in the     
formation of annular reefs1 but that    
this peculiar shape and the position of 
such reefs in the midst of a deep ocean 
must depend on the outline of the       
submarine bottom1 which resembles       
nothing else in nature but the crater of
 a lofty submerged volcanic cone4 ,the  
enormous size1 it is true1 of some      
atolls1 made it necessary for me to     
ascribe to the craters of many submarine
 volcanoes a magnitude which was        
startling1 and which had often been     
appealed to as a serious objection to   
the volcanic theory4 ,that so many of   
them were of the same height1 or just   
level with the water1 did not present a 
difficulty so long as we remained       
ignorant of the fact that the           
reef-building species do not grow at    
greater depths than twenty-five fathoms4
  ,may be explained by subsidence4--,mr4
 ,darwin1 after examining a variety of  
coral formations in different parts of  
the globe1 was induced to reject the    

opinion that their shape represented the
 form of the original bottom4 ,instead  
of admitting that the ring of dead coral
 rested on a circular or oval ridge of  
rock1 or that the lagoon corresponded to
 a preexisting cavity1 he advanced a new
 opinion1 which must1 at first sight1   
seem paradoxical in the extreme2 namely1
 that the lagoon is precisely in the    
place once occupied by the highest part 
of a mountainous island1 or1 in other   
cases1 by the top of a shoal4  ,the     
following is a brief sketch of the facts
 and arguments in favor of this new     
view3--,besides those rings of dry coral
 which enclose lagoons1 there are others
 having a similar form and structure    
which encircle lofty islands4 ,of the   
latter kind is ,vanikoro1 7see map1 fig4
 #ci1 p4 #cea17 celebrated on account of
 the shipwreck of ,la ,peyrouse1 where  
the coral reef runs at the distance of  
two or three miles from the shore1 the  
channel between it and the land having a
 general depth of between #bjj and #cjj 

feet4 ,this channel1 therefore1 is      
analogous to a lagoon1 but with an      
island standing in the middle like a    
picture in its frame4 ,in like manner in
 ,tahiti we see a mountainous land1 with
 everywhere round its margin a lake or  
zone of smooth salt water1 separated    
from the ocean by an encircling reef of 
coral1 on which a line of breakers is   
always foaming4 ,so also ,new           
,caledonia1 a long narrow island east of
 ,new ,holland1 in which the rocks are  
granitic1 is surrounded by a reef which 
runs for a length of #djj miles4 ,this  
reef encompasses not only the island    
itself1 but a ridge of rocks which are  
prolonged in the same direction beneath 
the sea4 ,no one1 therefore1 will       
contend for a moment that in this case  
the corals are based upon the rim of a  
volcanic crater1 in the middle of which 
stands a mountain or island of granite4 
,the great barrier reef1 already        
mentioned as running parallel to the    
north-east coast of ,australia for      

nearly #ajjj miles1 is another most     
remarkable example of a long strip of   
coral running parallel to a coast4 ,its 
distance from the mainland varies from  
twenty to seventy miles1 and the depth  
of the great arm of the sea thus        
enclosed is usually between ten and     
twenty fathoms1 but towards one end from
 forty to sixty4 ,this great reef would 
extend much farther1 according to ,mr4  
,jukes1 if the growth of coral were not 
prevented off the shores of ,new ,guinea
 by a muddy bottom1 caused by rivers    
charged with sediment which flow from   
the southern coast of that great        
island4#aabe  ,two classes of reefs1    
therefore1 have now been considered2    
first1 the atoll1 and1 secondly1 the    
encircling and barrier reef1 all        
agreeing perfectly in structure1 and the
 sole difference lying in the absence in
 the case of the atoll of all land1 and 
in the others the presence of land      
bounded either by an encircling or a    
barrier reef4 ,but there is still a     

third class of reefs1 called by ,mr4    
,darwin fringing reefs1 which approach  
much nearer the land than those of the  
encircling and barrier class1 and which 
indeed so nearly touched the coast as to
 leave nothing in the intervening space 
resembling a lagoon4 ,that these reefs  
are not attached quite close to the     
shore appears to be the result of two   
causes2 first1 that the water           
immediately adjoining the beach is      
rendered turbid by the surf1 and        
therefore injurious to all zoophytes2   
and1 secondly1 that the larger and      
efficient kinds only flourish on the    
outer edge amidst the breakers of the   
open sea4#aabf  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aah4  ,supposed section of an island   
with an encircling reef of coral4  ,a1  
,the island4  b1 c1 ,highest points of  
the encircling reef between which and   
the coast is seen a space occupied by   
still water4  ,it will at once be       
conceded that there is so much analogy  
between the form and position of the    

strip of coral in the atoll1 and in the 
encircling and barrier reef1 that no    
explanation can be satisfactory which   
does not include the whole4 ,if we turn 
in the first place to the encircling and
 barrier reefs1 and endeavor to explain 
how the zoophytes could have found a    
bottom on which to begin to build1 we   
are met at once with a great difficulty4
 ,it is a general fact1 long since      
remarked by ,dampier1 that high land and
 deep seas go together4 ,in other words1
 steep mountains coming down abruptly to
 the sea-shore are generally continued  
with the same slope beneath the water4  
,but where the reef1 as at b and c 7fig4
 #aah71 is distant several miles from a 
steep coast1 a line drawn               
perpendicularly downwards from its outer
 edges b c to the fundamental rock d e1 
must descend to a depth exceeding by    
several thousand feet the limits at     
which the efficient stone-building      
corals can exist1 for we have seen that 
they cease to grow in water which is    

more than #abj feet deep4 ,that the     
original root immediately beneath the   
points b c is actually as far from the  
surface as d e1 is not merely inferred  
from ,dampier's rule1 but confirmed by  
the fact1 that1 immediately outside the 
reef1 soundings are either not met with 
at all1 or only at enormous depths4 ,in 
short1 the ocean is as deep there as    
might have been anticipated in the      
neighborhood of a bold coast2 and it is 
obviously the presence of the coral     
alone which has given rise to the       
anomalous existence of shallow water on 
the reef and between it and the land4   
,after studying in minute detail all the
 phenomena above described1 ,mr4 ,darwin
 has offered in explanation a theory now
 very generally adopted4 ,the           
coral-forming polypi1 he states1 begin  
to build in water of a moderate depth1  
and while they are yet at work1 the     
bottom of the sea subsides gradually1 so
 that the foundation of their edifice is
 carried downwards at the same time that

 they are raising the superstructure4   
,if1 therefore1 the rate of subsidence  
be not too rapid1 the growing coral will
 continue to build up to the surface2   
the mass always gaining in height above 
its original base1 but remaining in     
other respects in the same position4    
,not so with the land2 each inch lost is
 irreclaimably gone2 as it sinks1 the   
water gains foot by foot on the shore1  
till in many cases the highest peak of  
the original island disappears4 ,what   
was before land is then occupied by the 
lagoon1 the position of the encircling  
coral remaining unaltered1 with the     
exception of a slight contraction of its
 dimensions4  ,in this manner are       
encircling reefs and atolls produced2   
and in confirmation of his views ,mr4   
,darwin has pointed out examples which  
illustrate every intermediate state1    
from that of lofty islands1 such as     
,otaheite1 encircled by coral1 to that  
of ,gambier's group1 where a few peaks  
only of land rise out of a lagoon1 and  

lastly1 to the perfect atoll1 having a  
lagoon several hundred feet deep1       
surrounded by a reef rising steeply from
 an unfathomed ocean4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #aai4  ,if we embrace these views1
 it is clear1 that in regions of growing
 coral a similar subsidence must give   
rise to barrier reefs along the shores  
of a continent4 ,thus suppose ,a 7fig4  
#aai71 to represent the north-east      
portion of ,australia1 and b c the      
ancient level of the sea1 when the coral
 reef d was formed4 ,if the land sink so
 that it is submerged more and more1 the
 sea must at length stand at the level e
 f1 the reef in the mean time having    
been enlarged and raised to the point g4
 ,the distance between the shore f1 and 
the barrier reef g1 is now much greater 
than originally between the shore c and 
the reef d1 and the longer the          
subsidence continues the farther will   
the coast of the mainland recede4  ,when
 the first edition of this work appeared
 in #ahca1 several years before ,mr4    

,darwin had investigated the facts on   
which his theory is founded1 ,i had come
 to the opinion that the land was       
subsiding at the bottom of those parts  
of the ,pacific where atolls are        
numerous1 although ,i failed to perceive
 that such a subsidence1 if conceded1   
would equally solve the enigma as to the
 form both of annular and barrier reefs4
  ,i shall cite the passage referred to1
 as published by me in #ahca3--;,it is a
 remarkable circumstance that there     
should be so vast an area in ,eastern   
,oceanica1 studded with minute islands1 
without one single spot where there is a
 wider extent of land than belongs to   
such islands as ,otaheite1 ,owhyhee1 and
 a few others1 which either have been or
 are still the seats of active          
volcanoes4 ,if an equilibrium only were 
maintained between the upheaving and    
depressing force of earthquakes1 large  
islands would very soon be formed in the
 ,pacific2 for1 in that case1 the growth
 of limestone1 the flowing of lava1 and 

the ejection of volcanic ashes1 would   
combine with the upheaving force to form
 new land4  ,suppose a shoal1 #fjj miles
 in length1 to sink fifteen feet1 and   
then to remain unmoved for a thousand   
years2 during that interval the growing 
coral may again approach the surface4   
,then let the mass be re-elevated       
fifteen feet1 so that the original reef 
is restored to its former position3 in  
this case1 the new coral formed since   
the first subsidence will constitute an 
island #fjj miles long4 ,an analogous   
result would have occurred if a         
lava-current fifteen feet thick had     
overflowed the submerged reef4 ,the     
absence1 therefore1 of more extensive   
tracts of land in the ,pacific1 seems to
 show that the amount of subsidence by  
earthquakes exceeds1 in that quarter of 
the globe1 at present1 the elevation due
 to the same cause4#aabg  ,another proof
 also of subsidence derived from the    
structure of atolls1 was pointed out by 
me in the following passage in all      

former editions4 ,the low coral islands 
of the ,pacific1 says ,captain ,beechey1
 follow one general rule in having their
 windward side higher and more perfect  
than the other4 ,at ,gambia and ,matilda
 islands this inequality is very        
conspicuous1 the weather side of both   
being wooded1 and of the former         
inhabited1 while the other sides are    
from twenty to thirty feet under water2 
where1 however1 they may be perceived to
 be equally narrow and well defined4 ,it
 is on the leeward side also that the   
entrances into the lagoons occur2 and   
although they may sometimes be situated 
on a side that runs in the direction of 
the wind1 as at ,bow ,island1 yet there 
are none to windward4 ,these            
observations of ,captain ,beechey accord
 with those which ,captain ,horsburgh   
and other hydrographers have made in    
regard to the coral islands of other    
seas4 ,from this fortunate circumstance 
ships can enter and sail out with ease2 
whereas if the narrow inlets were to    

windward1 vessels which once entered    
might not succeed for months in making  
their way out again4 ,the well-known    
security of many of these harbors       
depends entirely on this fortunate      
peculiarity in their structure4  ,in    
what manner is this singular            
conformation to be accounted for8 ,the  
action of the waves is seen to be the   
cause of the superior elevation of some 
reefs on their windward sides1 where    
sand and large masses of coral rock are 
thrown up by the breakers2 but there is 
a variety of cases where this cause     
alone is inadequate to solve the        
problem2 for reefs submerged at         
considerable depths1 where the movements
 of the sea cannot exert much power1    
have1 nevertheless1 the same            
conformation1 the leeward being much    
lower than the windward side4#aabh  ,i  
am informed by ,captain ,king1 that1 on 
examining the reefs called ,rowley      
,shoals1 which lie off the north-west   
coast of ,australia1 where the east and 

west monsoons prevail alternately1 he   
found the open side of one              
crescent-shaped reef1 the ,imparieuse1  
turned to the east1 and of another1 the 
,mermaid1 turned to the west2 while a   
third oval reef1 of the same group1 was 
entirely submerged4 ,this want of       
conformity is exactly what we should    
expect1 where the winds vary            
periodically4  ,it seems impossible to  
refer the phenomenon now under          
consideration to any original uniformity
 in the configuration of submarine      
volcanoes1 on the summits of which we   
may suppose the coral reefs to grow2 for
 although it is very common for craters 
to be broken down on one side only1 we  
cannot imagine any cause that should    
breach them all in the same direction4  
,but the difficulty will1 perhaps1 be   
removed1 if we call in another part of  
the volcanic agency--subsidence by      
earthquakes4 ,suppose the windward      
barrier to have been raised by the      
mechanical action of the waves to the   

height of two or three yards above the  
wall on the leeward side1 and then the  
whole island to sink down a few fathoms1
 the appearances described would then be
 presented by the submerged reef4 ,a    
repetition of such operations1 by the   
alternate elevation and depression of   
the same mass 7an hypothesis strictly   
conformable to analogy71 might produce  
still greater inequality in the two     
sides1 especially as the violent efflux 
of the tide has probably a strong       
tendency to check the accumulation of   
the more tender corals on the leeward   
reef2 while the action of the breakers  
contributes to raise the windward       
barrier4#aabi  ,previously to my        
adverting to the signs above enumerated 
of a downward movement in the bed of the
 ocean1 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ,captain     
,beechey1 and many other writers1 had   
shown that masses of recent coral had   
been laid dry at various heights above  
the sea-level1 both in the ,red ,sea1   
the islands of the ,pacific1 and in the 

,east and ,west ,indies4 ,after         
describing thirty-two coral islands in  
the ,pacific1 ,captain ,beechey         
mentioned that they were all formed of  
living coral except one1 which1 although
 of coral formation1 was raised about   
seventy or eighty feet above the level  
of the sea1 and was encompassed by a    
reef of living coral4 ,it is called     
,elizabeth or ,henderson's ,island1 and 
is five miles in length by one in       
breadth4 ,it has a flat surface1 and1 on
 all sides1 except the north1 is bounded
 by perpendicular cliffs about fifty    
feet high1 composed entirely of dead    
coral1 more or less porous1 honey-combed
 at the surface1 and hardening into a   
compact calcareous mass1 which possesses
 the fracture of secondary limestone1   
and has a species of millepore          
interspersed through it4 ,these cliffs  
are considerably undermined by the      
action of the waves1 and some of them   
appear on the eve of precipitating their
 superincumbent weight into the sea4    

,those which are less injured in this   
way present no alternate ridges or      
indication of the different levels which
 the sea might have occupied at         
different periods2 but a smooth surface1
 as if the island1 which has probably   
been raised by volcanic agency1 had been
 forced up by one great subterraneous   
convulsion4#aacj ,at the distance of a  
few hundred yards from this island1 no  
bottom could be gained with #bjj fathoms
 of line4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4   
,elizabeth1 or ,henderson's ,island4    
,it will be seen1 from the annexed      
sketch1 communicated to me by           
,lieutenant ,smith1 of the ,blossom1    
that the trees came down to the beach   
towards the centre of the island2 a     
break at first sight resembling the     
openings which usually lead into        
lagoons2 but the trees stand on a steep 
slope1 and no hollow of an ancient      
lagoon was perceived4  ,beechey also    
remarks1 that the surface of            
,henderson's ,island is flat1 and that  

in ,queen ,charlotte's ,island1 one of  
the same group1 but under water1 there  
was no lagoon1 the coral having grown up
 everywhere to one level4 ,the probable 
cause of this obliteration of the       
central basin or lagoon will be         
considered in the sequel4  ,that the bed
 of the ,pacific and ,indian oceans1    
where atolls are frequent1 must have    
been sinking for ages1 might be         
inferred1 says ,mr4 ,darwin1 from simply
 reflecting on two facts2 first1 that   
the efficient coral-building zoophytes  
do not flourish in the ocean at a       
greater depth than #abj feet2 and1      
secondly1 that there are spaces         
occupying areas of many hundred thousand
 square miles1 where all the islands    
consist of coral1 and yet none of which 
rise to a greater height than may be    
accounted for by the action of the winds
 and waves on broken and triturated     
coral4 ,were we to take for granted that
 the floor of the ocean had remained    
stationary from the time when the coral 

began to grow1 we should be compelled to
 assume that an incredible number of    
submarine mountains of vast height 7for 
the ocean is always deep1 and often     
unfathomable between the different      
atolls7 had all come to within #abj feet
 of the surface1 and yet no one mountain
 had risen above water4 ,but no sooner  
do we admit the theory of subsidence1   
than this great1 difficulty vanishes4   
,however varied may have been the       
altitude of different islands1 or the   
separate peaks of particular            
mountain-chains1 all may have been      
reduced to one uniform level by the     
gradual submergence of the loftiest     
points1 and the additions made to the   
calcareous cappings of the less elevated
 summits as they subsided to great      
depths4  ,openings into the             
lagoons4--,in the general description of
 atolls and encircling reefs1 it was    
mentioned that there is almost always a 
deep narrow passage opening into the    
lagoon1 or into the still water between 

the reef and the shore1 which is kept   
open by the efflux of the sea as the    
tide goes down4  ,the origin of this    
channel must1 according to the theory of
 subsidence before explained1 be traced 
back to causes which were in action     
during the existence of the encircling  
reef1 and when an island or mountain-top
 rose within it1 for such a reef        
precedes the atoll in the order of      
formation4 ,now in those islands in the 
,pacific1 which are large enough to feed
 small rivers1 there is generally an    
opening or channel in the surrounding   
coral reef at the point where the stream
 of fresh water enters the sea4 ,the    
depth of these channels rarely exceeds  
twenty-five feet2 and they may be       
attributed1 says ,captain ,beechey1 to  
the aversion of the lithophytes to fresh
 water1 and to the probable absence of  
the mineral matter of which they        
construct their habitations4#aaca  ,mr4 
,darwin1 however1 has shown1 that mud at
 the bottom of river-courses is far more

 influential than the freshness of the  
water in preventing the growth of the   
polypi1 for the walls which inclose the 
openings are perpendicular1 and do not  
slant off gradually1 as would be the    
case1 if the nature of the element      
presented the only obstacle to the      
increase of the coral-building animals4 
,when a breach has thus been made in the
 reef1 it will be prevented from closing
 up by the efflux of the sea at low     
tides2 for it is sufficient that a reef 
should rise a few feet above low-water  
mark to cause the waters to collect in  
the lagoon at high tide1 and when the   
sea falls1 to rush out at one or more   
points where the reef happens to be     
lowest or weakest4 ,this event is       
strictly analogous to that witnessed in 
our estuaries1 where a body of salt     
water accumulated during the flow issues
 with great velocity at the ebb of the  
tide1 and scours out or keeps open a    
deep passage through the bar1 which is  
almost always formed at the mouth of a  

river4 ,at first there are probably many
 openings1 but the growth of the coral  
tends to obstruct all those which do not
 serve as the principal channels of     
discharge2 so that their number is      
gradually reduced to a few1 and often   
finally to one4 ,the fact observed      
universally1 that the principal opening 
fronts a considerable valley in the     
encircled island1 between the shores of 
which and the outer reef there is often 
deep water1 scarcely leaves any doubt as
 to the real origin of the channel in   
all those countless atolls where the    
nucleus of land has vanished4  ,size of 
atolls and barrier reefs4--,in regard to
 the dimensions of atolls1 it was stated
 that some of the smallest observed by  
,beechey in the ,pacific were only a    
mile in diameter4 ,if their external    
slope under water equals upon an average
 an angle of #de degrees1 then would    
such an atoll at the depth of half a    
mile1 or #bfdj feet1 have a diameter of 
two miles4 ,hence it would appear that  

there must be a tendency in every atoll 
to grow smaller1 except in those cases  
where oscillations of level enlarge the 
base on which the coral grows by        
throwing down a talus of detrital matter
 all round the original cone of         
limestone4  ,bow ,island is described by
 ,captain ,beechey as seventy miles in  
circumference1 and thirty in its        
greatest diameter1 but we have seen that
 some of the ,maldives are much larger4 
,as the shore of an island or continent 
which is subsiding will recede from a   
coral reef at a slow or rapid rate      
according as the surface of the land has
 a steep or gentle slope1 we cannot     
measure the thickness of the coral by   
its distance from the coast2 yet1 as a  
general rule1 those reefs which are     
farthest from the land imply the        
greatest amount of subsidence4 ,we learn
 from ,flinders1 that the barrier reef  
of north-eastern ,australia is in some  
places seventy miles from the mainland1 
and it should seem that a calcareous    

formation is there in progress #ajjj    
miles long from north to south1 with a  
breadth varying from twenty to seventy  
miles4 ,it may not1 indeed1 be          
continuous over this vast area1 for     
doubtless innumerable islands have been 
submerged one after another between the 
reef and mainland1 like some which still
 remain1 as1 for example1 ,murray's     
,islands1 lat4 #i degrees #ed minutes   
,s4 ,we are also told that some parts of
 the gulf inclosed within a barrier are 
#djj feet deep1 so that the efficient   
rock-building corals cannot be growing  
there1 and in other parts of it islands 
appear encircled by reefs4  ,it will    
follow as one of the consequences of the
 theory already explained that1 provided
 the bottom of the sea does not sink too
 fast to allow the zoophytes to build   
upwards at the same pace1 the thickness 
of coral will be great in proportion to 
the rapidity of subsidence1 so that if  
one area sinks two feet while another   
sinks one1 the mass of coral in the     

first area will be double that in the   
second4 ,but the downward movement must 
in general have been very slow and      
uniform1 or where intermittent1 must    
have consisted of a great number of     
depressions1 each of slight amount1     
otherwise the bottom of the sea would   
have been carried down faster than the  
corals could build upwards1 and the     
island or continent would be permanently
 submerged1 having reached a depth of   
#abj or #aej feet1 at which the         
effective reef-constructing zoophytes   
cease to live4 ,if1 then1 the subsidence
 required to account for all the        
existing atolls must have amounted to   
three or four thousand feet1 or even    
sometimes more1 we are brought to the   
conclusion that there has been a slow   
and gradual sinking to this enormous    
extent4 ,such an inference is perfectly 
in harmony with views which the grand   
scale of denudation1 everywhere         
observable in the older rocks1 has led  
geologists to adopt in reference to     

upward movements4 ,they must also have  
been gradual and continuous throughout  
indefinite ages to allow the waves and  
currents of the ocean to operate with   
adequate power4  ,the map constructed by
 ,mr4 ,darwin to display at one view the
 geographical position of all the coral 
reefs throughout the globe is of the    
highest geological interest 7see above1 
p4 #cea471 leading to splendid          
generalizations1 when we have once      
embraced the theory that all atolls and 
barrier reefs indicate recent           
subsidence1 while the presence of       
fringing reefs proves the land to be    
stationary or rising4 ,these two classes
 of coral formations are depicted by    
different colors2 and one of the        
striking facts brought to light by the  
same classification of coral formations 
is the absence of active volcanoes in   
the areas of subsidence1 and their      
frequent presence in the areas of       
elevation4 ,the only supposed exception 
to this remarkable coincidence at the   

time when ,mr4 ,darwin wrote1 in #ahdb1 
was the volcano of ,torres ,strait1 at  
the northern point of ,australia1 placed
 on the borders of an area of           
subsidence2 but it has been since proved
 that this volcano has no existence4    
,we see1 therefore1 an evident          
connection1 first1 between the bursting 
forth every now and then of volcanic    
matter through rents and fissures1 and  
the expansion or forcing outwards of the
 earth's crust1 and1 secondly1 between a
 dormant and less energetic development 
of subterranean heat1 and an amount of  
subsidence sufficiently great to cause  
mountains to disappear over the broad   
face of the ocean1 leaving only small   
and scattered lagoon islands1 or groups 
of atolls1 to indicate the spots where  
those mountains once stood4  ,on a      
review of the differently-colored reefs 
on the map alluded to1 it will be seen  
that there are large spaces in which    
upheaval1 and others in which depression
 prevails1 and these are placed         

alternately1 while there are a few      
smaller areas where movements of        
oscillation occur4 ,thus if we commence 
with the western shores of ,south       
,america1 between the summit of the     
,andes and the ,pacific 7a region of    
earthquakes and active volcanoes71 we   
find signs of recent elevation1 not     
attested indeed by coral formations1    
which are wanting there1 but by upraised
 banks of marine shells4 ,then          
proceeding westward1 we traverse a deep 
ocean without islands1 until we come to 
a band of atolls and encircled islands1 
including the ,dangerous and ,society   
archipelagoes1 and constituting an area 
of subsidence more than #djjj miles long
 and #fjj broad4 ,still farther1 in the 
same direction1 we reach the chain of   
islands to which the ,new ,hebrides1    
,salomon1 and ,new ,ireland belong1     
where fringing reefs and masses of      
elevated coral indicate another area of 
upheaval4 ,again1 to the westward of the
 ,new ,hebrides we meet with the        

encircling reef of ,new ,caledonia and  
the great ,australian barrier1 implying 
a second area of subsidence4  ,the only 
objection deserving attention which has 
hitherto been advanced against the      
theory of atolls1 as before explained   
7p4 #gei471 is that proposed by ,mr4    
,maclaren4#aacb ,on the outside1 he     
observes1 of coral reefs very highly    
inclined1 no bottom is sometimes found  
with a line of #bjjj or #cjjj feet1 and 
this is by no means a rare case4 ,it    
follows that the reef ought to have this
 thickness2 and ,mr4 ,darwin's diagrams 
show that he understood it so4 ,now1 if 
such masses of coral exist under the    
sea1 they ought somewhere to be found on
 terra firma2 for there is evidence that
 all the lands yet visited by           
geologists1 have been at one time       
submerged4 ,but neither in the great    
volcanic chain1 extending from ,sumatra 
to ,japan1 nor in the ,west ,indies1 nor
 in any other region yet explored1 has a
 bed or formation of coral even #ejj    

feet thick been discovered1 so far as we
 know4  ,when considering this          
objection1 it is evident that the first 
question we have to deal with is1       
whether geologists have not already     
discovered calcareous masses of the     
required thickness and structure1 or    
precisely such as the upheaval of atolls
 might be expected to expose to view8   
,we are called upon1 in short1 to make  
up our minds both as to the internal    
composition of the rocks that must      
result from the growth of corals1       
whether in lagoon islands or barrier    
reefs1 and the external shape which the 
reefs would retain when upraised        
gradually to a vast height1--a task by  
no means so easy as some may imagine4   
,if the reader has pictured to himself  
large masses of entire corals1 piled one
 upon another1 for a thickness of       
several thousand feet1 he unquestionably
 mistakes altogether the nature of the  
accumulations now in progress4 ,in the  
first place1 the strata at present      

forming very extensively over the bottom
 of the ocean1 within such barrier reefs
 as those of ,australia and ,new        
,caledonia1 are known to consist chiefly
 of horizontal layers of calcareous     
sediment1 while here and there an       
intermixture must occur of the detritus 
of granitic and other rocks brought down
 by rivers from the adjoining lands1 or 
washed from sea-cliffs by the waves and 
currents4 ,secondly1 in regard to       
atolls1 the stone-making polypifers grow
 most luxuriantly on the outer edge of  
the island1 to a thickness of a few feet
 only4 ,beyond this margin broken pieces
 of coral and calcareous sand are       
strewed by the breakers over a steep    
seaward slope1 and as the subsidence    
continues the next coating of live coral
 does not grow vertically over the first
 layer1 but on a narrow annular space   
within it1 the reef1 as was before      
stated 7p4 #gfa71 constantly contracting
 its dimensions as it sinks4 ,thirdly1  
within the lagoon the accumulation of   

calcareous matter is chiefly            
sedimentary1 a kind of chalky mud       
derived from the decay of the softer    
corallines1 with a mixture of calcareous
 sand swept by the winds and waves from 
the surrounding circular reef4 ,here and
 there1 but only in partial clumps1 are 
found living corals1 which grow in the  
middle of the lagoon1 and mixed with    
fine mud and sand1 a great variety of   
shells1 and fragments of testacea and   
echinoderms4  ,we owe to ,lieutenant    
,nelson the discovery that in the       
,bermudas the calcareous mud resulting  
from the decomposition of the softer    
corallines is absolutely                
undistinguishable when dried from the   
ordinary white chalk of ,europe1#aacc   
and this mud is carried to great        
distances by currents1 and spread far   
and wide over the floor of the ocean4   
,we also have opportunities of seeing in
 upraised atolls1 such as ,elizabeth    
,island1 ,tonga1 and ,hapai1 which rise 
above the level of the sea to heights   

varying from ten to eighty feet1 that   
the rocks of which they consist do not  
differ in structure or in the state of  
preservation of their included zoophytes
 and shells from some of the oldest     
limestones known to the geologist4      
,captain ,beechey remarks that the dead 
coral in ,elizabeth ,island is more or  
less porous and honeycombed at the      
surface1 and hardening into a compact   
rock which has the fracture of secondary
 limestone4#aacd  ,the island of ,pulo  
,nias1 off ,sumatra 7see ,map1 fig4 #ci4
 p4 #cea71 which is about #cjjj feet    
high1 is described by ,dr4 ,jack as     
being overspread by coral and large     
shells of the ,chama 7,tridacna7 gigas1 
which rest on quartzose and arenaceous  
rocks1 at various levels from the       
sea-coast to the summit of the highest  
hills4  ,the cliffs of the island of    
,timor in the ,indian ,ocean are        
composed1 says ,mr4 ,jukes1 of a raised 
coral reef abounding in ,astraea1       
,meandrina1 and ,porites1 with shells of

 ,strombus1 ,conus1 ,nerita1 ,arca1     
,pecten1 ,venus1 and ,lucina4 ,on a     
ledge about #aej feet above the sea1 a  
,tridacna 7or large clam shell71 two    
feet across1 was found bedded in the    
rock with closed valves1 just as they   
are often seen in barrier reefs4 ,this  
formation in the islands of ,sandlewood1
 ,sumbawa1 ,madura1 and ,java1 where it 
is exposed in sea cliffs1 was found to  
be from #bjj to #cjj feet thick1 and is 
believed to ascend to much greater      
heights in the interior4 ,it has usually
 the form of a chalk-like rock1 white   
when broken1 but in the weathered       
surface turning nearly black4#aace  ,it 
appears1 therefore1 premature to assert 
that there are no recent coral          
formations uplifted to great heights1   
for we are only beginning to be         
acquainted with the geological structure
 of the rocks of equatorial regions4    
,some of the upraised islands1 such as  
,elizabeth and ,queen ,charlotte1 in the
 ,pacific1 although placed in regions of

 atolls1 are described by ,captain      
,beechey and others as flat-topped1 and 
exhibiting no traces of lagoons4 ,in    
explanation of the fact1 we may presume 
that after they had been sinking for    
ages1 the descending movement was       
relaxed2 and while it was in the course 
of being converted into an ascending    
one1 the ground remained for a long     
season almost stationary1 in which case 
the corals within the lagoon would build
 up to the surface1 and reach the level 
already attained by those on the margin 
of the reef4 ,in this manner the lagoon 
would be effaced1 and the island acquire
 a flat summit4  ,it may1 however1 be   
thought strange that many examples have 
not been noticed of fringing reefs      
uplifted above the level of the sea4    
,mr4 ,darwin1 indeed1 cites one instance
 where the reef preserved1 on dry land  
in the ,mauritius1 its peculiar         
moat-like structure2 but they ought1 he 
says1 to be of rare occurrence1 for in  
the case of atolls or of barrier or     

fringing reefs1 the characteristic      
outline must usually be destroyed by    
denudation as soon as a reef begins to  
rise2 since it is immediately exposed to
 the action of the breakers1 and the    
large and conspicuous corals on the     
outer rim of the atoll or barrier are   
the first to be destroyed and to fall to
 the bottom of vertical and undermined  
cliffs4 ,after slow and continued       
upheaval a wreck alone can remain of the
 original reef4 ,if1 therefore1 says    
,mr4 ,darwin1 at some period as far in  
futurity as the secondary rocks are in  
the past1 the bed of the ,pacific with  
its atolls and barrier reefs should be  
converted into a continent1 we may      
conceive that scarcely any or none of   
the existing reefs would be preserved1  
but only widely spread strata of        
calcareous matter derived from their    
wear and tear4#aacf  ,when it is urged  
in support of the objection before      
stated 7p4 #gfg71 that the theory of    
atolls by subsidence implies the        

accumulation of calcareous formations   
#bjjj or #cjjj feet thick1 it must be   
conceded that this estimate of the      
minimum density of the deposits is by no
 means exaggerated4 ,on the contrary1   
when we consider that the space over    
which atolls are scattered in ,polynesia
 and the ,indian oceans may be compared 
to the whole continent of ,asia1 we     
cannot but infer from analogy that the  
differences in level in so vast an area 
have amounted1 antecedently to          
subsidence1 to #ejjj or even a greater  
number of feet4 ,whatever was the       
difference in height between the        
loftiest and lowest of the original     
mountains or mountainous islands on     
which the different atolls are based1   
that difference must represent the      
thickness of coral which has now reduced
 all of them to one level4 ,flinders1   
therefore1 by no means exaggerated the  
volume of the limestone1 which he       
conceived to have been the work of coral
 animals2 he was merely mistaken as to  

the manner in which they were enabled to
 build reefs in an unfathomed ocean4    
,but is it reasonable to expect1 after  
the waste caused by denudation1 that    
calcareous masses1 gradually upheaved in
 an open sea1 should retain such vast   
thicknesses8 ,or may not the limestones 
of the cretaceous and oolitic epochs1   
which attain in the ,alps and ,pyrenees 
a density of #cjjj or #djjj feet1 and   
are in great part made up of coralline  
and shelly matter1 present us with a    
true geological counterpart of the      
recent coral reefs of equatorial seas8  
,before we attach serious importance to 
arguments founded on negative evidence1 
and opposed to a theory which so        
admirably explains a great variety of   
complicated phenomena1 we ought to      
remember that the upheaval to the height
 of #djjj feet of atolls in which the   
coralline limestone would be #djjj feet 
thick1 implies1 first1 a slow subsidence
 of #djjj feet1 and1 secondly1 an       
elevation of the same amount4 ,even if  

the reverse or ascending movement began 
the instant the downward one ceased1 we 
must allow a great lapse of ages for the
 accomplishment of the whole operation4 
,we must also assume that at the        
commencement of the period in question1 
the equatorial regions were as fitted as
 now for the support of reef-building   
zoophytes4 ,this postulate would demand 
the continuance of a complicated variety
 of conditions throughout a much longer 
period than they are usually persistent 
in one place4  ,to show the difficulty  
of speculating on the permanence of the 
geographical and climatal circumstances 
requisite for the growth of             
reef-building corals1 we have only to   
state the fact that there are no reefs  
in the ,atlantic1 off the west coast of 
,africa1 nor among the islands of the   
,gulf of ,guinea1 nor in ,st4 ,helena1  
,ascension1 the ,cape ,verdes1 or ,st4  
,paul's4 ,with the exception of         
,bermuda1 there is not a single coral   
reef in the central expanse of the      

,atlantic1 although in some parts the   
waves1 as at ,ascension1 are charged to 
excess with calcareous matter4 ,this    
capricious distribution of coral reefs  
is probably owing to the absence of fit 
stations for the reef-building          
polypifers1 other organic beings in     
those regions obtaining in the great    
struggle for existence a mastery over   
them4 ,their absence1 in whatever manner
 it be accounted for1 should put us on  
our guard against expecting upraised    
reefs at all former geological epochs1  
similar to those now in progress4       
,lime1 whence derived4--,dr4 ,maculloch1
 in his system of ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4  
#bai1 expressed himself in favor of the 
theory of some of the earlier           
geologists1 that all limestones have    
originated in organized substances4 ,if 
we examine1 he says1 the quantity of    
limestone in the primary strata1 it will
 be found to bear a much smaller        
proportion to the siliceous and         
argillaceous rocks than in the          

secondary2 and this may have some       
connexion with the rarity of testaceous 
animals in the ancient ocean4 ,he       
farther infers1 that in consequence of  
the operations of animals1 the quantity 
of calcareous earth deposited in the    
form of mud or stone is always          
increasing2 and that as the secondary   
series far exceeds the primary in this  
respect1 so a third series may hereafter
 arise from the depths of the sea1 which
 may exceed the last in the proportion  
of its calcareous strata4  ,if these    
propositions went no farther than to    
suggest that every particle of lime that
 now enters into the crust of the globe1
 may possibly in its turn have been     
subservient to the purposes of life1 by 
entering into the composition of        
organized bodies1 ,i should not deem the
 speculation improbable2 but1 when it is
 hinted that lime may be an animal      
product combined by the powers of       
vitality from some simple elements1 ,i  
can discover no sufficient grounds for  

such an hypothesis1 and many facts      
militate against it4  ,if a large pond  
be made in almost any soil1 and filled  
with rain water1 it may usually become  
tenanted by testacea2 for carbonate of  
lime is almost universally diffused in  
small quantities4 ,but if no calcareous 
matter be supplied by waters flowing    
from the surrounding high grounds1 or by
 springs1 no tufa or shell-marl are     
formed4 ,the thin shells of one         
generation of mollusks decompose1 so    
that their elements afford nutriment to 
the succeeding races2 and it is only    
where a stream enters a lake1 which may 
introduce a fresh supply of calcareous  
matter1 or where the lake is fed by     
springs1 that shells accumulate and form
 marl4  ,all the lakes in ,forfarshire  
which have produced deposits of         
shell-marl have been the sites of       
springs1 which still evolve much        
carbonic acid1 and a small quantity of  
carbonate of lime4 ,but there is no marl
 in ,loch ,fithie1 near ,forfar1 where  

there are no springs1 although that lake
 is surrounded by these calcareous      
deposits1 and although1 in every other  
respect1 the site is favorable to the   
accumulation of aquatic testacea4  ,we  
find those ,charae which secrete the    
largest quantity of calcareous matter in
 their stems to abound near springs     
impregnated with carbonate of lime4 ,we 
know that1 if the common hen be deprived
 altogether of calcareous nutriment1 the
 shells of her eggs will become of too  
slight a consistency to protect the     
contents2 and some birds eat chalk      
greedily during the breeding season4    
,if1 on the other hand1 we turn to the  
phenomena of inorganic nature1 we       
observe that1 in volcanic countries1    
there is an enormous evolution of       
carbonic acid1 either free1 in a gaseous
 form1 or mixed with water2 and the     
springs of such districts are usually   
impregnated with carbonate of lime in   
great abundance4 ,no one who has        
travelled in ,tuscany1 through the      

region of extinct volcanos and its      
confines1 or who has seen the map       
constructed by ,targioni 7#ahbg71 to    
show the principal sites of mineral     
springs1 can doubt1 for a moment1 that  
if this territory was submerged beneath 
the sea1 it might supply materials for  
the most extensive coral reefs4 ,the    
importance of these springs is not to be
 estimated by the magnitude of the rocks
 which they have thrown down on the     
slanting sides of hills1 although of    
these alone large cities might be built1
 nor by a coating of travertin that     
covers the soil in some districts for   
miles in length4 ,the greater part of   
the calcareous matter passes down in a  
state of solution to the sea1 and in all
 countries the rivers which flow from   
chalk and other marly and calcareous    
rocks carry down vast quantities of lime
 into the ocean4 ,lime is also one of   
the component parts of augite and other 
volcanic and hypogene minerals1 and when
 these decompose is set free1 and may   

then find its way in a state of solution
 to the sea4  ,the lime1 therefore1     
contained generally in sea water1 and   
secreted so plentifully by the testacea 
and corals of the ,pacific1 may have    
been derived either from springs rising 
up in the bed of the ocean1 or from     
rivers fed by calcareous springs1 or    
impregnated with lime derived from      
disintegrated rocks1 both volcanic and  
hypogene4 ,if this be admitted1 the     
greater proportion of limestone in the  
more modern formations as compared to   
the most ancient1 will be explained1 for
 springs in general hold no             
argillaceous1 and but a small quantity  
of siliceous matter in solution1 but    
they are continually subtracting        
calcareous matter from the inferior     
rocks4 ,the constant transfer1          
therefore1 of carbonate of lime from the
 lower or older portions of the earth's 
crust to the surface1 must cause at all 
periods and throughout an indefinite    
succession of geological epochs1 a      

preponderance of calcareous matter in   
the newer as contrasted with the older  
formations4   ,,the ,,end4  ,,concluding
 ,,remarks4   ,in the concluding        
chapters of the first book1 ,i examined 
in detail a great variety of arguments  
which have been adduced to prove the    
distinctness of the state of the earth's
 crust at remote and recent epochs4     
,among other supposed proofs of this    
distinctness1 the dearth of calcareous  
matter1 in the ancient rocks above      
adverted to1 might have been considered4
 ,but it would have been endless to     
enumerate all the objections urged      
against those geologists who represent  
the course of nature at the earliest    
periods as resembling in all essential  
circumstances the state of things now   
established4 ,we have seen that1 in     
opposition to this doctrine1 a strong   
desire has been manifested to discover  
in the ancient rocks the signs of an    
epoch when the planet was uninhabited1  
and when its surface was in a chaotic   

condition and uninhabitable4 ,the       
opposite opinion1 indeed1 that the      
oldest of the rocks now visible may be  
the last monuments of an antecedent era 
in which living beings may already have 
peopled the land and water1 has been    
declared to be equivalent to the        
assumption that there never was a       
beginning to the present order of       
things4  ,with equal justice might an   
astronomer be accused of asserting that 
the works of creation extended          
throughout infinite space1 because he   
refuses to take for granted that the    
remotest stars now seen in the heavens  
are on the utmost verge of the material 
universe4 ,every improvement of the     
telescope has brought thousands of new  
worlds into view2 and it would1         
therefore1 be rash and unphilosophical  
to imagine that we already survey the   
whole extent of the vast scheme1 or that
 it will ever be brought within the     
sphere of human observation4  ,but no   
argument can be drawn from such premises

 in favor of the infinity of the space  
that has been filled with worlds2 and if
 the material universe has any limits1  
it then follows1 that it must occupy a  
minute and infinitesimal point in       
infinite space4  ,so if1 in tracing back
 the earth's history1 we arrive at the  
monuments of events which may have      
happened millions of ages before our    
times1 and if we still find no decided  
evidence of a commencement1 yet the     
arguments from analogy in support of the
 probability of a beginning remain      
unshaken2 and if the past duration of   
the earth be finite1 then the aggregate 
of geological epochs1 however numerous1 
must constitute a mere moment of the    
past1 a mere infinitesimal portion of   
eternity4  ,it has been argued1 that1 as
 the different states of the earth's    
surface1 and the different species by   
which it has been inhabited have all had
 their origin1 and many of them their   
termination1 so the entire series may   
have commenced at a certain period4 ,it 

has also been urged1 that1 as we admit  
the creation of man to have occurred at 
a comparatively modern epoch--as we     
concede the astonishing fact of the     
first introduction of a moral and       
intellectual being--so also we may      
conceive the first creation of the      
planet itself4  ,i am far from denying  
the weight of this reasoning from       
analogy2 but1 although it may strengthen
 our conviction1 that the present system
 of change has not gone on from         
eternity1 it cannot warrant us in       
presuming that we shall be permitted to 
behold the signs of the earth's origin1 
or the evidences of the first           
introduction into it of organic beings4 
,we aspire in vain to assign limits to  
the works of creation in space1 whether 
we examine the starry heavens1 or that  
world of minute animalcules which is    
revealed to us by the microscope4 ,we   
are prepared1 therefore1 to find that in
 time also the confines of the universe 
lie beyond the reach of mortal ken4 ,but

 in whatever direction we pursue our    
researches1 whether in time or space1 we
 discover everywhere the clear proofs of
 a ,creative ,intelligence1 and of ,his 
foresight1 wisdom1 and power4  ,as      
geologists1 we learn that it is not only
 the present condition of the globe     
which has been suited to the            
accommodation of myriads of living      
creatures1 but that many former states  
also have been adapted to the           
organization and habits of prior races  
of beings4 ,the disposition of the seas1
 continents1 and islands1 and the       
climates1 have varied2 the species      
likewise have been changed2 and yet they
 have all been so modelled1 on types    
analogous to those of existing plants   
and animals1 as to indicate1 throughout1
 a perfect harmony of design and unity  
of purpose4 ,to assume that the evidence
 of the beginning or end of so vast a   
scheme lies within the reach of our     
philosophical inquiries1 or even of our 
speculations1 appears to be inconsistent

 with a just estimate of the relations  
which subsist between the finite powers 
of man and the attributes of an         
,infinite and ,eternal ,being4          
,,footnotes3      #a ,essays on the     
,philosophy of the ,hindoos4     #b     
,institutes of ,hindoo ,law1 or the     
,ordinances of ,menu1 from the          
,sanscrit1 translated by ,sir ,william  
,jones1 #agif4     #c ,menu1 ,inst4 c4  
i4 #ff1 and #fg4     #d ,herodot4       
,euterpe1 #ab4     #e ,a ,persian ,,ms4 
copy of the historian ,ferishta1 in the 
library        of the ,east ,india      
,company1 relating to the rise and      
progress of        the ,mahomedan empire
 in ,india1 was procured by ,colonel    
,briggs from        the library of      
,tippoo ,sultan in #agii2 which has been
 referred to        at some length by   
,dr4 ,buckland4 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d    
,series1 vol4 ii4        part iii4 p4   
#chi47     #f ,see ,davis on ,the       
,chinese1 published by the ,soc4 for the
        ,diffus4 of ,use4 ,know4 vol4 i4

 pp4 #acg1 #adg4     #g ,humboldt et    
,bonpland1 ,voy4 ,relat4 ,hist4 vol4 i4 
p4 #cj4     #h ,prichard's ,egypt4      
,mythol4 p4 #agg4     #i ,plut4 de      
,defectu ,oraculorum1 cap4 #ab4         
,censorinus de ,die        ,natali4 ,see
 also ,prichard's ,egypt4 ,mythol4 p4   
#ahb4     #aj ,prichard's ,egypt4       
,mythol4 p4 #ahb4     #aa ,prichard's   
,egypt4 ,mythol4 p4 #aic4     #ab       
,plato's ,timaeus4     #ac ,ovid's      
,metamor4 lib4 #ae4     #ad ,eluvie mons
 est deductus in aequor1 v4 #bfg4 ,the  
meaning of         this last verse is   
somewhat obscure2 but1 taken with the   
context1         may be supposed to     
allude to the abrading power of floods1 
torrents1 and rivers4     #ae ,the      
impregnation from new mineral springs1  
caused by         earthquakes in        
volcanic countries1 is perhaps here     
alluded to4     #af ,that is probably an
 allusion to the escape of inflammable  
gas1 like that in the district of ,baku1
 west of the ,caspian2 at               

,pietramala1 in the ,tuscan ,apennines2 
and several other places4     #ag ,many 
of those described seem fanciful        
fictions1 like the         virtue still 
so commonly attributed to mineral       
waters4     #ah ,raspe1 in a learned and
 judicious essay 7,de ,novis ,insulis1  
cap4 #ai71 has made it appear extremely 
probable that all the         traditions
 of certain islands in the              
,mediterranean having at some           
former time frequently shifted their    
positions1 and at length         become 
stationary1 originated in the great     
change produced in         their form by
 earthquakes and submarine eruptions1 of
 which there         have been modern   
examples in the new islands raised in   
the time         of history4 ,when the  
series of convulsions ended1 the island 
was         said to become fixed4       
#ai ,it is not inconsistent with the    
,hindoo mythology to suppose            
that ,pythagoras might have found in the
 ,east not only the system         of   

universal and violent catastrophes and  
periods of repose in         endless    
succession1 but also that of periodical 
revolutions1         effected by the    
continued agency of ordinary causes4    
,for ,brahma1         ,vishnu1 and      
,siva1 the first1 second1 and third     
persons of the         ,hindoo triad1   
severally represented the ,creative1 the
 ,preserving1         and the           
,destroying powers of the ,deity4 ,the  
coexistence of these         three      
attributes1 all in simultaneous         
operation1 might well         accord    
with the notion of perpetual but partial
 alterations         finally bringing   
about a complete change4 ,but the       
fiction         expressed in the verses 
before quoted from ,menu of eternal     
vicissitudes in the vigils and slumbers 
of ,brahma seems         accommodated to
 the system of great general            
catastrophes followed         by new    
creations and periods of repose4     #bj
 ,meteor4 lib4 i4 cap4 #ab4     #ba ,de 

,die ,nat4     #bb ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #ad1  
#ae1 and #af4     #bc ,lib4 ii4 cap4    
#ad1 #ae1 and #af4     #bd ,omne ex     
integro animal generabitur1 dabiturque  
terris homo         inscius             
scelerum4--,quaest4 ,nat4 iii4 c4 #bi4  
#be ,this author was ,regius ,professor 
of ,syriac and ,arabic at               
,paris1 where1 in #afhe1 he published a 
,latin translation of many              
,arabian ,,mss4 on different departments
 of philosophy4 ,this work         has  
always been considered of high          
authority4     #bf ,gerbanitae docebant 
singulos triginta sex mille annos       
quadringentos1 viginti quinque bina ex  
singulis animalium         speciebus    
produci1 marem scilicet ac feminam ex   
quibus animalia         propagantur1    
huncque inferiorem incolunt orbem4      
,absoluta autem         coelestium      
orbium circulatione1 quae illo annorum  
conficitur         spatio1 iterum alia  
producuntur animalium genera et species1
         quemadmodum et plantarum       

aliarumque rerum1 et primus destruitur  
ordo1 sicque in infinitum               
producitur4--,histor4 ,orient ,suppl4   
per         ,abrahamum ,ecchellensem1   
,syrum ,maronitam1 cap4 #g4 et #h4 ad   
calcem         ,chronici ,orientali4    
,parisiis1 e ,typ4 ,regia4 #afhe1 fol4  
,i have given the punctuation as in the 
,paris edition1 there being         no  
comma after quinque2 but1 at the        
suggestion of ,m4 de ,schlegel1         
,i have referred the number twenty-five 
to the period of years1         and not 
to the number of pairs of each species  
created at one         time1 as ,i had  
done in the two first editions4 ,fortis 
inferred         that twenty-five new   
species only were created at a time2 a  
construction which the passage will not 
admit4 ,mam4 sur l',hist4         ,nat4 
de l',italie1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjb4     #bg  
,quod enim hoc attollitur aut subsidit1 
et vel inundat         quaedam loca1 vel
 ab iis recedit1 ejus rei causa non est1
 quod         alia aliis sola humiliora 

sint aut altiora2 sed quod idem solum   
modo attollitur modo deprimitur1        
simulque etiam modo attollitur          
modo deprimitur1 mare3 itaque vel       
exundat vel in suum redit         locum4
          ,postea1 p4 #hh4 ,restat1 ut  
causam adscribamus solo1 sive quod      
mari subest sive quod inundatur2 potius 
tamen ei quod mari         subest4 ,hoc 
enim multo est mobilius1 et quod ob     
humiditatem         celerius multari    
possit4--,strabo1 ,geog4 ,edit4         
,almelov4 ,amst4         #agjg1 lib4 #a4
     #bh ,volcanic eruptions1 eruptiones
 flatuum1 in the ,latin                 
translations1 and in the original       
,greek1 ,greek3 anaphysemata1           
gaseous eruptions8 or inflations of     
land8--,ibid4 p4 #ic4     #bi ,strabo1  
lib4 vi4 p4 #cif4     #cj ,book iv4     
#ca ,l4 vi4 ch4 xiii4     #cb ,mod4     
,univ4 ,hist4 vol4 ii4 chap4 iv4 section
 iii4     #cc ,montes quandoque fiunt ex
 causa essentiali1 quandoque ex         
causa accidentali4 ,ex essentiali causa1

 ut ex vehementi motu         terrae    
elevatur terra1 et fit mons4            
,accidentali1 c4--,de                   
,congelatione ,lapidum1 ed4 ,gedani1    
#afhb4     #cd ,von ,hoff1 ,geschichte  
der ,veranderungen der ,erdoberflache1  
vol4 i4 p4 #djf1 who cites ,delisle1 bey
 ,hismann ,welt- und                    
,volkergeschichte4 ,alte ,geschichte    
#ater theil1 s4 #bcd4--,the             
,arabian persecutions for heretical     
dogmas in theology were often           
very sanguinary4 ,in the same ages      
wherein learning was most in            
esteem1 the ,mahometans were divided    
into two sects1 one of whom             
maintained that the ,koran was increate1
 and had subsisted in the         very  
essence of ,god from all eternity2 and  
the other1 the         ,motazalites1    
who1 admitting that the ,koran was      
instituted by ,god1         conceived it
 to have been first made when revealed  
to the ,prophet         at ,mecca1 and  
accused their opponents of believing in 

two eternal         beings4 ,the        
opinions of each of these sects were    
taken up by         different caliphs in
 succession1 and the followers of each  
sometimes submitted to be beheaded1 or  
flogged till at the point         of    
death1 rather than renounce their       
creed4--,mod4 ,univ4 ,hist4         vol4
 ii4 ch4 iv4     #ce ,koran1 chap4 xli4 
#cf ,sale's ,koran1 chap4 xi4 see note4 
#cg ,ibid4     #ch ,kossa1 appointed    
master to the ,caliph ,al ,mamud1 was   
author         of a book entitled ,the  
history of the ,patriarchs and          
,prophets1         from the ,creation of
 the ,world4--,mod4 ,univ4 ,hist4 vol4  
ii4 ch4         iv4     #ci ,translated 
by ,,mm4 ,chezy and ,de ,sacy1 and cited
 by ,m4 ,elie de         ,beaumont1     
,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 #ahcb4     #dj    
,see ,venturi's extracts from ,da       
,vinci's ,,mms4 now in ,library         
of ,institute of ,france4 ,they are not 
mentioned by ,brocchi1 and my           
attention was first called to them by   

,mr4 ,hallam4 ,l4 da ,vinci         died
 ,a4 ,d4 #aeai4     #da ,museum         
,calceol4--,see ,brocchi's ,discourse on
 the ,progress of         the ,study of 
,fossil ,conchology in ,italy1 where    
some of the         following notices on
 ,italian writers will be found more at 
large4     #db ,in ,sicily1 in          
particular1 the title-deeds of many     
valuable         grants of land to the  
monasteries are headed by such          
preambles1         composed by the      
testators about the period when the good
 ,king         ,roger was expelling the 
,saracens from that island4     #dc ,de 
,fossilib4 pp4 #aji1 #agf4     #dd      
,aristotle1 ,on ,animals1 chaps4 #a1    
#ae4     #de ,brocchi1 ,con4 ,fos4      
,subap4 ,disc1 sui ,progressi4 vol4 i4  
p4         #eg4     #df ,de ,metallicis4
     #dg ,dies ,caniculares4     #dh    
,storia ,naturale4     #di ,osserv4     
sugli ,animali aquat4 e terrest4 #afbf4 
#ej ,sex itaque distinctas ,etruriae    
facies agnoscimus1 dum bis              

fluida1 bis plana1 et sicca1 bis aspera 
fuerit1 c4     #ea ,scilla quotes the   
remark of ,cicero on the story that a   
stone         in ,chios had been cleft  
open1 and presented the head of         
,paniscus         in relief3--,i        
believe1 said the orator1 that the      
figure bore         some resemblance to 
,paniscus1 but not such that you would  
have         deemed it sculptured by    
,scopas2 for chance never perfectly     
imitates the truth4     #eb ,de         
,testaceis fossilibus ,mus4 ,septaliani4
     #ec ,the opinions of ,boyle1       
alluded to by ,quirini1 were published  
a few years before1 in a short article  
entitled ,on the ,bottom of         the 
,sea4 ,from observations collected from 
the divers of the         pearl fishery1
 ,boyle inferred that1 when the waves   
were six or         seven feet high     
above the surface of the water1 there   
were no         signs of agitation at   
the depth of fifteen fathoms2 and that  
even         during heavy gales of wind1

 the motion of the water was            
exceedingly diminished at the depth of  
twelve or fifteen feet4 ,he         had 
also learnt from some of his informants1
 that there were         currents       
running in opposite directions at       
different         depths4--,boyle's     
,works1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aaj4 ,london1     
#agdd4     #ed ,see ,conybeare and      
,phillips1 ,outlines of the ,geology of 
,england and ,wales1 p4 #ab4     #ee    
,unde jam duplex origo intelligitur     
primorum corporum1 una1         cum ab  
ignis fusione refrigescerent1 altera1   
cum reconcrescerent         ex solutione
 aquarum4     #ef ,redeunte mox simili  
causa strata subinde alia aliis         
imponerentur1 et facies teneri adhuc    
orbis saepius novata est4         ,donec
 quiescentibus causis1 atque            
aequilibratis1 consistentior            
emergeret rerum status4--,for an able   
analysis of the views of                
,leibnitz1 in his ,protogoea1 see ,mr4  
,conybeare's ,report to the             

,brit4 ,assoc4 on the ,progress of      
,geological ,science1 #ahcb4     #eg    
,between the year #afhh and his death1  
in #agjc1 he read         several       
memoirs to the ,royal ,society1 and     
delivered lectures on         various   
subjects1 relating to fossil remains and
 the effects of         earthquakes4    
#eh ,posth4 ,works1 ,lecture1 ,feb4 #bi1
 #afhh4     #ei ,posth4 ,works1 p4 #cbg4
     #fj ,posth4 ,works1 ,lecture1 ,feb4
 #ae1 #afhh4 ,hooke explained with      
considerable clearness the different    
modes wherein organic         substances
 may become lapidified2 and1 among other
 illustrations1         he mentions some
 silicified palm-wood brought from      
,africa1 on         which ,m4 de la     
,hire had read a memoir to the ,royal   
,academy of         ,france 7,june1     
#afib71 wherein he had pointed out1 not 
only the         tubes running the      
length of the trunk1 but the roots at   
one         extremity4 ,de la ,hire1    
says ,hooke1 also treated of certain    

trees         found petrified in the    
river that passes by ,bakan1 in the     
kingdom of ,ava1 and which has for the  
space of ten leagues the         virtue 
of petrifying wood4 ,it is an           
interesting fact that the               
silicified wood of the ,irawadi should  
have attracted attention         more   
than one hundred years ago4 ,remarkable 
discoveries have been         made there
 in later times of fossil animals and   
vegetables1 by         ,mr4 ,crawfurd   
and ,dr4 ,wallich4--,see ,geol4 ,trans4 
vol4 ii4 part         iii4 p4 #cgg1     
second series4 ,de la ,hire cites       
,father ,duchatz1 in         the second 
volume of ,observations made in the     
,indies by the         ,jesuits4     #fa
 ,posth4 ,works1 ,lecture1 ,may #bi1    
#afhi4     #fb ,posth4 ,works1 p4 #cab4 
#fc ,posth4 ,works1 p4 #daj4     #fd    
,ray's ,physico-theological ,discourses 
were of somewhat later         date than
 ,hooke's great work on earthquakes4 ,he
 speaks of ,hooke         as one whom   

for his learning and deep insight into  
the mysteries         of nature he      
deservedly honored4--,on the ,deluge1   
chap4 iv4     #fe ,essay towards a      
,natural ,history of the ,earth1 #afie4 
,preface4     #ff ,ibid4     #fg        
,consequences of the ,deluge1 p4 #afe4  
#fh ,first published in ,latin between  
the years #afhj and #afij4     #fi ,an  
,examination of ,dr4 ,burnet's ,theory1 
c41 #b;d ed4 #agcd4     #gj ,ramazzini  
even asserted1 that the ideas of ,burnet
 were         mainly borrowed from a    
dialogue of one ,patrizio2 but ,brocchi1
         after reading that dialogue1   
assures us that there was scarcely      
any other correspondence between these  
systems1 except that both         were  
equally whimsical4     #ga ,dei ,corpi  
,marini1 ,lettere critiche1 c4 #agba4   
#gb ,brocchi1 p4 #bh4     #gc ,ibid4 p4 
#cc4     #gd ,ibid4     #ge ,sui        
,crostacei ed altri ,corpi ,marini che  
si trovano sui         ,monti4     #gf  
,moro does not cite the works of ,hooke 

and ,ray2 and although         so many  
of his views were in accordance with    
theirs1 he was         probably ignorant
 of their writings1 for they had not    
been         translated4 ,as he always  
refers to the ,latin edition of ,burnet1
         and a ,french translation of   
,woodward1 we may presume that he did   
not read ,english4     #gg ,saggio      
fisico intorno alla ,storia del ,mare1  
part i4 p4 #bd4     #gh ,abbomino al    
sommo qualsivoglia sistema1 che sia di  
pianta         fabbricato in aria2      
massime quando e tale1 che non possa    
sostenersi senza un miracolo1 c4--,de'  
,crostacei e di altre         ,produz4  
del ,mare1 c4 #agdi4     #gi ,senza     
violenze1 senza finzioni1 senza         
supposti1 senza         miracoli4 ,de'  
,crostacei e di altre ,produz4 del      
,mare1 c4 #agdi4     #hj ,sui ,testacei 
della ,sicilia4     #ha ,hist4 ,nat4    
tom4 v4 ad4 de l',imp4 ,royale1 ,paris1 
#agfi4     #hb ,essai d'une ,hist4 ,nat4
 des ,couches de la ,terre1 #agei4      

#hc ,john ,gesner published at ,leyden1 
in ,latin4     #hd ,part ii4 chap4 #i4  
#he ,giornale del ,criselini1 #agei4    
#hf ,see a sketch of the ,history of    
,english ,geology1 by ,dr4              
,fitton1 in ,edinb4 ,rev4 ,feb4 #ahah1  
re-edited ,lond4 and ,edinb4            
,phil4 ,mag4 vols4 i4 and ii4 #ahcb-c4  
,some of ,michell's         observations
 anticipate in so remarkable a manner   
the theories         established forty  
years afterwards1 that his writings     
would         probably have formed an   
era in the science1 if his researches   
had         been uninterrupted4 ,he     
held1 however1 his professorship only   
eight years1 when his career was        
suddenly cut short by preferment        
to a benefice4 ,from that time he       
appears to have been engaged in         
his clerical duties1 and to have        
entirely discontinued his               
scientific pursuits1 exemplifying the   
working of a system still         in    
force at ,oxford and ,cambridge1 where  

the chairs of         mathematics1      
natural philosophy1 chemistry1 botany1  
astronomy1         geology1 mineralogy1 
and others1 being frequently filled by  
clergymen1 the reward of success        
disqualifies them1 if they              
conscientiously discharge their new     
duties1 from farther         advancing  
the cause of science1 and that1 too1 at 
the moment when         their labors    
would naturally bear the richest fruits4
     #hg ,sui ,corpi ,marini del        
,feltrino1 #agfa4     #hh ,de ,novis e  
,mari ,natis ,insulis4 ,raspe was also  
the editor of         the ,philosophical
 ,works of ,leibnitz4 ,amst4 et         
,leipzig1 #agfe2         also author of 
,tassie's ,gems1 and ,baron             
,munchausen's ,travels4     #hi ,acta   
,academiae ,electoralis ,maguntinae1    
vol4 ii4 ,erfurt4     #ij ,this account 
of ,fuchsel is derived from an excellent
         analysis of his memoirs by ,m4 
,keferstein4 ,journ4 de ,gaologie1      
tom4 ii4 ,oct4 #ahcj4     #ia ,saggio   

orittografico1 c4 #aghj1 and other      
,works4     #ib ,lett4 sui ,pesci       
,fossili di ,bolca4 ,milan1 #agic4      
#ic ,this argument of ,testa has been   
strengthened of late years         by   
the discovery that dealers in shells had
 long been in the         habit of      
selling ,mediterranean species as shells
 of more southern         and distant   
latitudes1 for the sake of enhancing    
their price4 ,it         appears1       
moreover1 from several hundred          
experiments made by that                
distinguished hydrographer1 ,capt4      
,smith1 on the water within             
eight fathoms of the surface1 that the  
temperature of the                      
,mediterranean is on an average #c-a_/b 
degrees of ,fahrenheit higher           
than the western part of the ,atlantic  
ocean2 an important fact1         which 
in some degree may help to explain why  
many species are         common to      
tropical latitudes and to the           
,mediterranean4     #id ,inquiry into   

the ,original ,state and ,formation of  
the ,earth1         #aggh4     #ie      
,observ4 on the ,formation of           
,mountains4 ,act ,petrop4 ann4          
#aggh1 part i4     #if ,nov4 comm4      
,petr4 ,,xvii4 ,cuvier1 ,eloge de       
,pallas4     #ig ,cuvier1 ,eloge de     
,werner4     #ih ,i am indebted for this
 information partly to ,messrs4         
,sedgwick and ,murchison1 who have      
investigated the country1 and           
partly to ,dr4 ,charles ,hartmann1 the  
translator of this work into            
,german4     #ii ,cuvier1 ,eloge de     
,desmarest4    #ajj ,journ4 de ,phys4   
vol4 xiii4 p4 #aae2 and ,mam4 de        
l',inst41         ,sciences ,mathamat4  
et4 ,phys4 vol4 vi4 p4 #bai4    #aja    
,journ4 de ,phys4 tom4 xxxv4 p4 #aia4   
#ajb ,ib4 tom4 xxxvii4 part ii4 p4 #bjj4
    #ajc ,cuvier1 ,eloge de ,desmarest4 
#ajd ,ed4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghh4    #aje 
,playfair's ,works1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ge4    
#ajf ,before me things create were none1
 save things                            

,eternal4--,dante's ,inferno1 canto iii4
 ,cary's ,translation4    #ajg          
,playfair's ,works1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ee4    
#ajh ,in allusion to the theories of    
,burnet1 ,woodward1 and         other   
physico-theological writers1 he declared
 that they were         as fond of      
changes of scene on the face of the     
globe1 as were         the populace at a
 play4 ,every one of them destroys and  
renovates the earth after his own       
fashion1 as ,descartes framed           
it3 for philosophers put themselves     
without ceremony in the         place of
 ,god1 and think to create a universe   
with a         word4--,dissertation     
envoyae a l',academie de ,boulogne1 sur 
les         ,changemens arrivas dans    
notre ,globe4 ,unfortunately1 this and  
similar ridicule directed against the   
cosmogonists was too well               
deserved4    #aji ,see the chapter on   
,des ,pierres figuras4    #aaj ,in that 
essay he lays it down1 that all         
naturalists are         now agreed that 

deposits of shells in the midst of the  
continents are monuments of the         
continued occupation of these           
districts by the ocean4 ,in another     
place also1 when speaking         of the
 fossil shells of ,touraine1 he admits  
their true origin4    #aaa ,as an       
instance of his desire to throw doubt   
indiscriminately on all geological data1
 we may recall the         passage where
 he says1 that the bones of a reindeer  
and         hippopotamus discovered near
 ,etempes did not prove1 as some        
would have it1 that ,lapland and the    
,nile were once on a tour         from  
,paris to ,orleans1 but merely that a   
lover of curiosities         once       
preserved them in his cabinet4    #aab  
,some drill and bore ,the solid earth1  
and from the strata there               
,extract a register1 by which we learn  
,that he who made it1 and               
revealed its date ,to ,moses1 was       
mistaken in its age4 ,the ,task1        
book iii4 ,the ,garden4    #aac ,p4     

#egg4    #aad ,p4 #ei4    #aae ,introd4 
p4 #b4    #aaf ,london1 #ahji4    #aag  
,in a most able article1 by ,mr4        
,drinkwater1 on the ,life         of    
,galileo1 published in the ,library of  
,useful ,knowledge1 it         is stated
 that both ,galileo's work1 and the book
 of ,copernicus1         ,nisi          
corrigatur 7for1 with the omission of   
certain passages1         it was        
sanctioned71 were still to be seen on   
the forbidden list         of the ,index
 at ,rome1 in #ahbh4 ,i was1 however1   
assured in the         same year1 by    
,professor ,scarpellini1 at ,rome1 that 
,pius ,,vii41 a         pontiff         
distinguished for his love of science1  
had procured a         repeal of the    
edicts against ,galileo and the         
,copernican system4         ,he had     
assembled the ,congregation2 and the    
late ,cardinal         ,toriozzi1       
assessor of the ,sacred ,office1        
proposed that they         should wipe  
off this scandal from the church4 ,the  

repeal was         carried1 with the    
dissentient voice of one ,dominican     
only4 ,long         before that time the
 ,newtonian theory had been taught in   
the         ,sapienza1 and all ,catholic
 universities in ,europe 7with the      
exception1 ,i am told1 of ,salamanca72  
but it was always required         of   
professors1 in deference to the decrees 
of the church1 to         use the term  
hypothesis1 instead of theory4 ,they now
 speak of         the ,copernican       
theory4    #aah ,elementary ,treatise on
 ,geology4 ,london1 #ahji4 ,translated  
by ,de la ,fite4    #aai ,see ,dr4      
,fitton's ,memoir1 before cited1 p4 #eg4
    #abj ,whewell1 ,british ,critic1    
,no4 xvii4 p4 #ahg1 #ahca4    #aba      
,discours sur les ,ravol4 c4    #abb    
,niebuhr's ,hist4 of ,rome1 vol4 i4 p4  
#e4 ,hare and         ,thirlwall's      
translation4    #abc ,gibbon1 ,decline  
and ,fall1 chap4 xxxiii4    #abd ,id4   
,ibid4    #abe ,in the earlier editions 
of this work1 a fourth book was         

added on ,geology ,proper1 or           
,systematic ,geology1 containing an     
account of the former changes of the    
animate and inanimate         creation1 
brought to light by an examination of   
the crust of         the earth4 ,this ,i
 afterwards 7in #ahch7 expanded into a  
separate         publication called the 
,elements of ,manual ,geology1 of which 
a         fourth edition appeared       
,december1 #ahea4    #abf ,see two      
articles by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,fleming1 in 
the         ,edinburgh ,new ,phil4      
,journ4 ,no4 xii4 p4 #bgg1 ,april1      
#ahbi2 and         ,no4 xv4 p4 #fe1     
,jan4 #ahcj4    #abg ,book iii4 chaps4  
#df1 #dg1 c4    #abh ,macacus pliocenus1
 ,owen1 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 ,intr4 p4   
#cg1         found with the extinct     
elephant1 c4 in the modern freshwater   
beds at ,grays ,thurrock 7,essex71 in   
the valley of the ,thames4    #abi      
,geol4 ,proceedings1 ,no4 xxxvi4 ,june1 
#ahcd4    #acj ,phil4 ,mag41 ,sept4     
#ahbi1 and ,jan4 #ahcj4    #aca         

,fleming1 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,journ41 ,no4
 xii4 p4 #bhb1 #ahbi4 ,the              
zebra1 however1 inhabits chiefly the    
extra-tropical parts of         ,africa4
    #acb ,humboldt1 ,fragmens de        
,gaologie1 c41 tome ii4 p4 #chh4        
,ehrenberg1 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 tome 
xxi4 p4 #chg4    #acc ,ehrenberg1 ibid4 
p4 #cij4    #acd ,journ4 of ,asiat4     
,soc41 vol4 i4 p4 #bdj4    #ace         
,rafinesque1 ,atlantic ,journ41 p4 #ah4 
#acf ,darwin's ,journal of ,travels in  
,south ,america1 c41 #ahcb         to   
#ahcf1 in ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4        
,beagle1 p4 #aei4    #acg ,ehrenberg1   
ibid4    #ach ,the speculations which   
follow1 on the ancient physical         
geography of ,siberia1 and its former   
fitness as a residence for         the  
mammoth1 were first given in their      
present form in my #dth         edition1
 ,june1 #ahce4 ,recently ,sir ,r4       
,murchison and his         companions in
 their great work on the ,geology of    
,russia1 #ahde         7vol4 i4 p4      

#dig71 have1 in citing this chapter1    
declared that         their             
investigations have led them to similar 
conclusions4         ,professor ,owen1  
in his excellent ,history of ,british   
,fossil         ,mammalia1 #ahdd1 p4    
#bfa1 et seq41 observes that the teeth  
of         the mammoth differ from those
 of the living ,asiatic or ,african     
elephant in having a larger proportion  
of dense enamel1 which         may have 
enabled it to subsist on the coarser    
ligneous tissues         of trees and   
shrubs4 ,in short1 he is of opinion1    
that the         structure of its teeth1
 as well as the nature of its epidermis 
and coverings1 may have made it a meet  
companion for the         reindeer4     
#aci ,pallas1 ,reise in ,russ4 ,reiche1 
pp4 #dji1 #daj4    #adj ,nov4 ,com4     
,petrop4 vol4 xvii4 p4 #ehd4    #ada    
,nov4 ,com4 ,petrop4 vol4 xvii4 p4 #eia4
    #adb ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4   
,lond4 vol4 iv4 p4 #aj1 ,memoirs4       
#adc ,journal du ,nord1 ,st4            

,petersburg1 #ahjg4    #add ,fleming1   
,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,journ41 ,no4 xii4 p4  
#bhe4         ,bishop ,heber informs us 
7,narr4 of a ,journey through the ,upper
         ,provinces of ,india1 vol4 ii4 
p4 #aff-bai71 that in the lower         
range of the ,himalaya mountains1 in the
 northeastern borders of         the    
,delhi territory1 between lat4 #bi      
degrees and #cj degrees1 he         saw 
an ,indian elephant of a small size1    
covered with shaggy         hair4 ,but  
this variety must be exceedingly rare2  
for ,mr4 ,royle         7late           
superintendent of the ,east ,india      
,company's ,botanic ,garden         at  
,saharunpore7 has assured me1 that being
 in ,india when ,heber's                
,journal appeared1 and having never seen
 or heard of such         elephants1 he 
made the strictest inquiries respecting 
the fact1         and was never able to 
obtain any evidence in corroboration4   
,mr4         ,royle resided at          
,saharunpore1 lat4 #cj degrees ,n41 upon

 the         extreme northern limits of 
the range of the elephant4 ,mr4         
,everest also declares that he has been 
equally unsuccessful in         finding 
any one aware of the existence of such a
 variety or         breed of the animal1
 though one solitary individual was     
mentioned to him as having been seen at 
,delhi1 with a good deal         of long
 hair upon it4 ,the greatest elevation1 
says ,mr4 ,e41 at         which the wild
 elephant is found in the mountains to  
the north         of ,bengal1 is at a   
place called ,nahun1 about #djjj feet   
above the         level of the sea1 and 
in the #cast degree of ,n4 lat41 where  
the         mean yearly temperature may 
be about #fd degrees ,fahrenheit1 and   
the difference between winter and summer
 very great1 equal to         about #cf 
degrees ,f41 the month of ,january      
averaging #de degrees1         and      
,june1 the hottest month1 #ha degrees   
,f4 7,everest on climate         of     
,foss4 ,eleph41 ,journ4 of ,asiat4      

,soc41 ,no4 #be1 p4 #ba47    #ade ,see  
,dr4 ,buckland's description of these   
bones1 ,appen4 to         ,beechy's     
,voy4    #adf ,darwin1 ,journal of      
,travels in ,s4 ,america1 c41 #ahcb-cf1 
in voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,beagle1 p4    
#ih4 #b;d ,ed4 ,london1 #ahde1 p4       
#hf4    #adg ,darwin1 ,journal of       
,travels in ,s4 ,america1 c41 p4 #ii1   
#b;d         ,ed4 p4 #he4    #adh       
,burchell1 cited by ,darwin1 ibid4 p4   
#aja4 #b;d ,ed4 p4 #hg4    #adi ,since  
the above passage was first printed in a
 former         edition1 ,june1 #ahce1  
it has been shown by the observations of
         ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 ,m4 de    
,verneuil1 and ,count ,keyserling1 and  
more recently by ,m4 ,middendorf 7see   
above1 p4 #ha71 that the                
,lowland of ,siberia has actually been  
extended1 since the         existing    
species of shells inhabited the northern
 seas4    #aej ,humboldt1 ,fragmens     
,asiatiques1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cic4    #aea  
,reboul4 ,geol4 de la ,pariode          

,quaternaire1 who cites         ,observ4
 sur la ,sibarie1 ,bibl4 ,univ41        
,juillet1 #ahcb4    #aeb ,conjectured to
 be the wild stock of ,bos grunniens4   
#aec ,recollections of a ,journey       
through ,tartary1 ,thibet1 and          
,china 7ch4 xv4 p4 #bcd71 by ,m4 ,huc4  
,longman1 #aheb4    #aed ,for an account
 of the more modern changes of the      
tertiary         fauna and flora of the 
,british ,isles and adjoining countries1
         and particularly those facts   
which relate to the glacial             
epoch1 see an admirable essay by ,prof4 
,e4 ,forbes4 ,memoirs of         ,geol4 
,survey of ,great ,brit4 vol4 i4 p4     
#ccf4 ,london1 #ahdf4 ,to         this  
important memoir ,i shall have frequent 
occasion to refer         in the sequel4
    #aee ,see a paper by ,charles ,j4   
,f4 ,bunbury1 ,esq41 ,journ4 of         
,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 ,no4 #f1 p4 #hh4 
#ahdf4    #aef ,the ,calamites were     
formerly regarded by ,adolphe           
,brongniart as belonging to the tribe of

 ,equisetaceae2 but he is         now   
inclined to refer them to the class of  
gymnogens1 or         gymnospermous     
exogens1 which includes the ,coniferae  
and ,cycadeae4         ,lepidodendron   
appears to have been either a gigantic  
form of         the lycopodium tribe1   
or1 as ,dr4 ,lindley thinks1            
intermediate         between the        
lycopodia and the fir tribe4 ,the       
,sigillariae were         formerly      
supposed by ,ad4 ,brongniart1 to be     
arborescent ferns2         but the      
discovery of their internal structure1  
and of their         leaves1 has since  
proved that they have no real affinity  
to         ferns4 ,according to the view
 now taken of their structure1          
their nearest allies in the recent world
 are the genera ,cycas         and      
,zamia2 while ,corda1 on the other hand1
 maintains that they         were       
closely related to the succulent        
euphorbias4 ,stigmaria is         now   
generally admitted to have been merely  

the root of         sigillaria4 ,the    
scalariform vessels of these two genera 
are not         conclusive in proving   
them to have a real affinity with ferns1
         as ,mr4 ,brown has discovered  
the same structure of vessels in        
,myzodendron1 a genus allied to the     
mistletoe2 and ,corda has         lately
 shown that in two species of           
,stigmaria1 hardly                      
distinguishable by external characters1 
the vessels of the one         are      
scalariform1 and of the other dotted4   
#aeg ,mr4 ,lindley endeavored formerly  
7#ahcd7 to show1 in the         ,fossil 
,flora1 that ,trigonocarpum             
,noeggerathii1 a fruit found         in 
the coal measures1 has the true         
structure of a palm-fruit2         but  
,ad4 ,brongniart has since inclined to  
regard it as         cycadeous2 nor is  
the ,french botanist satisfied that some
         specimens of supposed palm wood
 from the coal-mines of ,radnitz        
in ,bohemia1 described by ,corda1 really

 belong to palms4 ,on the         other 
hand1 ,corda has proved ,flabellaria    
borassifolia of         ,sternberg to be
 an exogenous plant1 and ,brongniart    
contends         that it was allied to  
the ,cycadeae4 ,see ,tableau des ,genres
 de         ,vagataux ,fossiles4 ,paris1
 #ahdi4    #aeh ,prodrome d'une ,hist4  
des ,vagat4 ,foss4 p4 #agi4 ,see also a 
late paper1 ,quart4 ,journ4 of ,geol4   
,soc4 ,london1 #ahdf1 in which          
coal-plants of ,alabama1 lat4 #cc       
degrees ,n41 collected by the           
author1 are identified by ,mr4 ,bunbury 
with ,british fossil         species1   
showing the great southern extension of 
this flora4    #aei ,konig1 ,journ4 of  
,sci41 vol4 xv4 p4 #bj4 ,mr4 ,konig     
informs         me that he no longer    
believes any of these fossils to be tree
         ferns1 as he at first stated1  
but that they agree generically         
with plants in our ,english coal-beds4  
,the ,melville ,island                  
specimens1 now in the ,british ,museum1 

are very obscure         impressions4   
#afj ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain1 
by ,john ,lindley and         ,william  
,hutton1 ,esqrs41 ,no4 ,,iv4    #afa    
,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain1 by   
,john ,lindley and         ,william     
,hutton1 ,esqrs4 ,no4 ,,iv4    #afb     
,fossil ,flora1 ,no4 ,x4    #afc ,this  
has been proved by ,mr4 ,lindley's      
experiments1 ibid4         ,no4 ,,xvii4 
#afd ,i have treated of this subject in 
my ,manual of ,geology1         and     
still more fully in my ,travels in ,n4  
,america1 vol4 ii4 p4         #agh4 ,for
 a full account of the facts at present 
known1 and the         theories         
entertained by the most eminent         
geologists and         botanists on this
 subject1 see ,mr4 ,horner's            
,anniversary ,address         to the    
,geological ,society of ,london1        
,february1 #ahdf4 ,consult         also 
,sir ,h4 de la ,beche1 on the formation 
of rocks in ,south         ,wales1      
,memoirs of ,geol4 ,survey of ,great    

,britain1 #ahdf1 p4 #a to         #bif4 
#afe ,the theory proposed in this and   
the following chapters1         to      
account for former fluctuations of      
climate at successive         geological
 periods1 agrees in every essential     
particular1 and         has indeed been 
reprinted almost verbatim from that     
published         by me twenty years ago
 in the first edition of my ,principles1
         #ahcj4 ,it was referred to by  
,sir ,john ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel in his     
,discourse on ,natural ,philosophy1     
published in #ahcj4 ,in                 
preceding works the gradual diminution  
of the earth's central         heat was 
almost the only cause assigned for the  
acknowledged         diminution of the  
superficial temperature of our planet4  
#aff ,we are indebted to ,baron ,alex4  
von ,humboldt for having         first  
collected together the scattered data on
 which he founded         an            
approximation to a true theory of the   
distribution of heat         over the   

globe4 ,many of these data were derived 
from the         author's own           
observations1 and many from the works of
 ,m4 ,pierre         ,prevost1 of       
,genera1 on the radiation of heat1 and  
from other         writers4--,see       
,humboldt on ,isothermal ,lines1        
,mamoires d',arcueil1         tom4 iii4 
translated in the ,edin4 ,phil4 ,journ4 
vol4 iii4 ,july1         #ahbj4         
,the map of ,isothermal ,lines1 recently
 published by ,humboldt and             
,dove 7#ahdh71 supplies a large body of 
well-established data for         such  
investigations1 of which ,mr4 ,hopkins  
has most ably availed         himself in
 an essay ,on the ,causes which may have
 produced         ,changes in the       
earth's ,superficial ,temperature4--,q4 
,journ4         ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb1 p4  
#ef4    #afg ,sir ,j4 ,richardson's     
,appendix to ,sir ,g4 ,bach's ,journal1 
#ahdc-ahde1 p4 #dgh4    #afh            
,malte-,brun1 ,phys4 ,geol4 book xvii4  
#afi ,on ,isothermal ,lines1 c4    #agj 

,rennell on ,currents1 p4 #if4 ,london1 
#ahcb4    #aga ,ibid4 p4 #aec4    #agb  
,ibid4 p4 #be4    #agc ,scoresby's      
,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4            
#bjh4--;,dr4 ,latta's                   
,observations on the ,glaciers of       
,spitzbergen1 c4 ,edin4 ,new            
,phil4 ,journ4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ig4    #agd
 ,rennell on ,currents1 p4 #ie4    #age 
,humboldt on ,isothermal ,lines4    #agf
 ,journ4 of ,travels in ,s4 ,america1 c4
 p4 #bgb4    #agg ,darwin's travels in  
,s4 ,america1 p4 #bga4    #agh ,mr4     
,hopkins raises the question whether1 in
 ,south         ,georgia1 the descent of
 glaciers to the margin of the sea might
         not have been mistaken by      
,capt4 ,cook for the descent of the     
snow-line to the sea level4 ,quart4     
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 p4 #he1            
#aheb4 ,the great navigator is generally
 very accurate1 and there         seem  
to be no observations of more recent    
date either to         confirm or       
invalidate his statements4    #agi      

,after all these modern discoveries1 the
 area still         unexplored1 within  
the antarctic circle1 is more than      
double         the area of ,europe4 ,the
 surface of the latter contains about   
#b1gic1jjj square geographical miles4   
,the unexplored antarctic               
region1 as calculated for me by ,mr4    
,gardner1 in #ahdj1 equalled            
about #g1fbj1jjj square miles4    #ahj  
,on icebergs in low latitudes1 by ,capt4
 ,horsburgh1 by whom         the sketch 
was made4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj4    #aha 
,scoresby's ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4
 #bcd4    #ahb ,this follows1 observes  
,herschel1 from a very simple           
theorem1 which may be thus stated3--,the
 amount of heat         received by the 
earth from the sun1 while describing any
 part         of its orbit1 is          
proportional to the angle described     
round the         sun's centre4 ,so that
 if the orbit be divided into two       
portions by a line drawn in any         
direction through the sun's             

centre1 the heat received in describing 
the two unequal         segments of the 
eclipse so produced will be equal4      
,geol4 ,trans4         vol4 iii4 part4  
ii4 p4 #bih2 second series4    #ahc ,on 
,isothermal ,lines4    #ahd ,a full     
consideration of the effect of changes  
in physical         geography on the    
distribution and extinction of species  
is         given in book iii4    #ahe   
,for calculations founded on            
astronomical data1 see         ,young's 
,nat4 ,phil41 ,lect4 xlvii42 ,mrs4      
,somerville's ,connex4 of         ,phys4
 ,sci41 sect4 #ad1 p4 #aaj4 ,laplace1   
endeavoring to estimate         the     
probable depth of the sea from some of  
the phenomena of the         tides1 says
 of the ocean generally1 que sa         
profondeur moyenne         est du meme  
ordre que la hauteur moyenne des        
continens et des         isles au-dessus
 de son niveau1 hauteur qui ne surpasse 
pas         mille metres 7#cbhj ft47    
,mec4 ,caleste1 tom4 xi4 et ,syst4 du   

,monde1 p4 #bed4 ,the expression du meme
 ordre admits in         mathematical   
language of considerable latitude of    
signification1 and does not mean that   
the depth of the water         below the
 level of the sea corresponds exactly to
 the height of         the land above   
it4          ,it appeared from the      
observations of ,sir ,james ,ross1      
communicated to me in #ahdi1 by himself1
 and his fellow voyager1         ,dr4   
,joseph ,hooker1 that in latitude #ae   
degrees #c minutes ,s41                 
longitude #bc degrees #ad minutes ,w4   
7the island of ,trinidad1 the           
nearest land1 being #dhf miles distant1 
and bearing ,s4 #dg ,w471         they  
sounded with a weight of #gf lbs41 and  
#dfjj fathoms of line1         which ran
 out to the very end1 without finding   
bottom4 ,here         therefore in      
mid-ocean the depth exceeded #bg1fjj    
feet4 ,one of         the shallowest    
soundings ever obtained in the open sea 
during         the same survey1 struck  

bottom with #bfgg fathoms1 or #af1jfb   
feet1 latitude #cc degrees #ba minutes  
,s41 longitude #i degrees #d            
minutes ,e4 ,the surveyors arrived at   
the conclusion1 that at a               
moderate distance from the shore1 the   
depth of the great ocean         always 
exceeds #djjj feet4          ,during the
 ,american survey in #ahdi1 a much      
greater depth1 or         #egjj fathoms 
7#cd1bjj feet71 was sounded in the      
,atlantic by         ,lieut4 ,walsh1    
without reaching the bottom1 in lat4 #ca
 degrees #ei         minutes ,n41 long4 
#eh degrees #dc minutes ,w41 or between 
the         ,bermudas and the ,azores4  
,but the deepest soundings yet published
         were taken ,oct4 #cjth #aheb1  
by ,capt4 ,henry ,m4 ,denham1 ,r4 ,n41  
who         reached bottom at #ggjf     
fathoms 7#df1bcf feet71 lat4 #cf degrees
 #di         minutes ,s41 long4 #cg     
degrees #f minutes ,w41 the nearest land
         being at the mouth of the      
,river ,plate4 ,a weight of #i lbs4 was 

attached to the line1 which was         
one-tenth of an inch in                 
diameter2 the day was calm1 and the line
 took #i hours #bd minutes         to   
run out4 ,when the bottom was struck the
 line was raised #ej         fathoms1   
and then allowed to run out again4 ,it  
struck at the         same point as     
before1 verifying the observations4     
,nevertheless         some experienced  
surveyors have remarked that the        
experiment         would have been more 
satisfactory had the weight been        
greater4         ,the highest summits of
 the ,himalaya are about #bh1jjj feet2  
the         ,pacific1 according to this 
sounding1 is probably at some points    
twice as deep as the ,himalaya are high4
    #ahf ,mr4 ,hopkins1 reasoning on    
data furnished by ,dove's               
,isothermal maps1 has arrived at the    
very interesting         conclusion1    
that both on ,snowdon and the lower     
mountains of the         ,west of       
,ireland the snow-line would descend to 

within #ajjj feet         of the sea    
level1 and glaciers reach the sea1 if we
 could         simply assume the three  
following geographical changes3--       
#ast1 ,the diversion of the ,gulf stream
 from its present         northerly     
course2 #b;dly1 the depression of the   
existing land of         ,northern and  
,western ,europe1 to the amount of no   
more than #ejj         feet2 and #c;dly1
 a cold current from the ,north sweeping
 over the         submerged area4       
,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb1 p4  
#he4    #ahg ,daniell's ,meteorological 
,essays1 p4 #ajc4    #ahh ,observed by  
,j4 ,crawfurd1 ,esq4    #ahi ,in        
speaking of the circulation of air and  
water in this         chapter1 no       
allusion is made to the trade winds1 or 
to         irregularities in the        
direction of currents1 caused by the    
rotary motion of the earth4 ,these      
causes prevent the movements            
from being direct from north to south1  
or from south to north1         but they

 do not affect the theory of a constant 
circulation4    #aij ,see ,scoreby's    
,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgh4      
#aia ,ibid4 p4 #cbj4    #aib ,this is   
shown by projecting a map on the horizon
 of         ,london1 that is to say1 by 
supposing the eye of the observer to    
be placed above that city1 and to see   
from thence one half of         the     
globe4 ,for it so happens that from that
 point1 and no         other1 we should 
behold the greatest possible quantity of
 land2         and if we are then       
transferred to the opposite or antipodal
         point1 we should see the       
greatest possible quantity of water4    
7,see figs4 #c and #d47 ,a singular     
fact1 first pointed out by ,mr4         
,james ,gardner1 namely1 that only one  
twenty-seventh part of the         dry  
land has any land opposite to it1 is    
intimately connected         with this  
excess of land in one of the two        
hemispheres above         alluded to4   
,thus1 in fig4 #c1 the land shaded black

 in part of         ,china answers to   
that portion of the extremity of ,south 
,america         and ,tierra del ,fuego 
which is opposite or antipodal to it1   
whilst the dark spots in the northern   
and central parts of         ,south     
,america represent ,borneo1 ,sumatra1   
and other antipodal         islands in  
the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,see         
,gardner1 ,geol4 ,soc4                  
,proceedings1 #ahcc1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhh4   
#aic ,humboldt on ,isothermal ,lines    
#aid ,humboldt1 ,tableaux de la ,nature1
 tom4 i4 p4 #aab4    #aie ,ad4          
,brongniart1 ,consid4 ,ganarales sur la 
,nat4 de la         ,vagat4 c4 ,ann4 des
 ,sciences ,nat41 ,nov4 #ahbh4    #aif  
,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 ,proceedings of   
,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #g1 p4         #fh1   
,march1 #ahbh4    #aig ,ad4 ,brongniart1
 ,consid4 ,ganarales sur la ,nat4 de la 
,vagat4 c41 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 ,nov4
 #ahbh4    #aih ,see a ,memoir on the   
,alps1 by ,professor ,sedgwick and ,sir 
,rod4 ,murchison1 ,trans4 of ,geol4     

,soc4 second ser4 vol4 iii4             
accompanied by a map4    #aii ,see      
,proceedings of ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4
 #ccd4    #bjj ,it may be observed1 that
 the facts and inferences               
exhibited in this map bear not merely on
 the theory of climate         above    
proposed1 but serve also to illustrate  
the views         explained in the third
 book respecting the migration of       
animals         and plants and the      
gradual extinction of species4    #bja  
,see ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's ,paper on the
 ,alps1 ,quart4 ,journ4         ,geol4  
,soc4 vol4 v4 and my ,anniversary       
,address for #ahej1 ibid4         vol4  
vi4    #bjb ,allgemeine ,literatur      
,zeitung1 ,no4 cxxxix4 ,july1 #ahcc4    
#bjc ,in this estimate1 the space within
 the antarctic circle         is not    
taken into account3 if included1 it     
would probably add         to the excess
 of dry land2 for the late discoveries  
of ,capt4         ,sir ,james ,ross1 who
 penetrated to lat4 #gh degrees #aj     

minutes ,s41         confirm the        
conjecture of ,captain ,cook that the   
accumulation of         antarctic ice   
implies the presence of a certain       
quantity of         terra firma4 ,the   
number of square miles on the surface of
 the         globe are #adh1ebb1jjj1 the
 part occupied by the sea being         
#aaj1hdi1jjj1 and that by land1         
#cg1fgc1jjj2 so that the land is        
very nearly to the sea as #a part in #d4
 ,i am informed by ,mr4         ,gardner
 that1 according to a rough             
approximation1 the land         between 
the #cj degrees ,n4 lat4 and the pole   
occupies a space         about equal to 
that of the sea1 and the land between   
the #cj         degrees ,s4 lat4 and the
 antarctic circle about one-sixteenth of
         that zone4    #bjd ,see papers 
by ,mr4 ,smith of ,jordanhill1 ,f4 ,g4  
,s41 and the         author1            
,proceedings ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #fc1     
#ahci1 also that of ,prof4         ,e4  
,forbes1 before cited1 p4 #hf1 note4    

#bje ,the theorem is thus stated3--,the 
eccentricity of the         orbit       
varying1 the total quantity of heat     
received by the earth         from the  
sun in one revolution is inversely      
proportional to the         minor axis  
of the orbit4 ,the major axis is        
invariable1 and         therefore1 of   
course1 the absolute length of the year3
 hence it         follows that the mean 
annual average of heat will also be in  
the same inverse ratio of the minor     
axis4--,geol4 ,trans4 second            
series1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bie4    #bjf ,ann4
 du ,bur4 des ,long4 #ahcd4    #bjg     
,poisson1 ,thaorie ,mathamat4 de la     
,chaleur1 ,comptes ,rendus         de   
l',acad4 des ,sci41 ,jan4 #cj1 #ahcg4   
#bjh ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb1
 p4 #fb4    #bji ,proceedings ,roy4     
,astronom4 ,soc4 ,no4 iii4 ,jan4 #ahdj4 
#baj ,see a ,memoir on the ,temperature 
of the ,terrestrial ,globe1         and 
the ,planetary ,spaces1 ,ann4 de ,chimie
 et ,phys4 tom4 xxvii4         p4 #acf4 

,oct4 #ahbd4    #baa ,sir ,h4 ,davy1    
,consolations in ,travel3 ,dialogue     
,,iii4 ,the         ,unknown4    #bab   
,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb4     
#bac ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise1
 p4 #dji4    #bad ,owen's ,report on    
,british ,fossil ,reptiles1 to ,brit4   
,soc4         #ahda1 p4 #bjj4    #bae   
,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #f1 p4
 #if4    #baf ,see ,hitchcock's ,report 
on ,geol4 of ,massachusetts1 and        
,lyell's ,travels in ,north ,america1   
chap4 #ab4    #bag ,see ,manual of      
,geol4 by the ,author1 index            
,microlestes4    #bah ,this figure 7,no4
 #h7 is from a drawing by ,professor ,c4
         ,prevost1 published ,ann4 des  
,sci4 ,nat4 ,avril1 #ahbe4 ,the fossil  
is a lower jaw1 adhering by its inner   
side to the slab of         oolite1 in  
which it is sunk4 ,the form of the      
condyle1 or         posterior process of
 the jaw1 is convex1 agreeing with the  
mammiferous type1 and is distinctly     
seen1 an impression of it         being 

left on the stone1 although in this     
specimen the bone is         wanting4   
,the anterior part of the jaw has been  
partially broken         away1 so that  
the double fangs of the molar teeth are 
seen         fixed in their sockets1 the
 form of the fangs being                
characteristic of the mammalia4 ,ten    
molars are preserved1 and         the   
place of an eleventh is believed to be  
apparent4 ,the enamel         of some of
 the teeth is well preserved4    #bai ,a
 colored figure of this small and       
elegant quadruped is         given in   
the ,trans4 ,zool4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 pl4   
#bh4 ,it is         insectivorous1 and  
was taken in a hollow tree1 in a country
         abounding in ant-hills1 ninety 
miles to the southeast of the           
mouth of ,swan ,river in                
,australia4--,it is the first living    
marsupial species known to have nine    
molar teeth in the lower         jaw1   
and some of the teeth are widely        
separated from others1         one of   

the peculiarities in the thylacotherium 
of ,stonesfield1         which at first 
induced ,m4 ,blainville to refer that   
creature to         the class of        
reptiles4    #bbj ,this figure 7,no4    
#aj7 was taken from the original1       
formerly in ,mr4 ,broderip's collection1
 and now in the ,british                
,museum4 ,it consists of the right half 
of a lower jaw1 of which         the    
inner side is seen4 ,the jaw contains   
seven molar teeth1 one         canine1  
and three incisors2 but the end of the  
jaw is         fractured1 and traces of 
the alveolus of a fourth incisor are    
seen4 ,with this addition1 the number of
 teeth would agree         exactly with 
those of a lower jaw of a didelphis4    
,the fossil is         well preserved in
 a slab of oolitic structure containing 
shells         of trigoniae and other   
marine remains4 ,two or three other     
similar jaws1 besides those above       
represented1 have been         procured 
from the quarries of ,stonesfield4--,see

 ,broderip1 ,zool4         ,journ4 vol4 
ii4 p4 #djh4 ,owen1 ,proceedings ,geol4 
,soc41 ,november1         #ahch4    #bba
 ,darwin's ,journal1 chap4 #ai4 ,lyell's
 ,manual of ,geol4 chap4         #ba1 p4
 #bgi4    #bbb ,taylor's ,annals of     
,nat4 ,hist4 ,nov4 #ahci4    #bbc ,see  
notice by the ,author1 and ,professor   
,owen1 ,taylor's         ,annals of     
,nat4 ,hist4 ,nov4 #ahci4    #bbd ,see  
,principles of ,geology1 #ast ed4 #ahcj1
 vol4 i p4 #aeb4    #bbe ,the first     
quadrumanous fossils discovered in      
,india were         observed in #ahcf in
 the ,sewalik ,hills1 a lower range of  
the         ,himalayan ,mountains1 by   
,lieutenants ,baker and ,durond1 by whom
         their osteological characters  
were determined 7,journ4 of ,asiat4     
,soc4 of ,bengal1 vol4 v4 p4 #gci71 and 
in the year following1 other            
fossils of the same class were brought  
to light and described by         ,capt4
 ,cantley and ,dr4 ,falconer4 ,these    
were imbedded1 like the         former1 

in tertiary strata of conglomerate1     
sand1 marl1 and clay1         in the    
,sub-,himalayan ,mountains4 7,ibid4 vol4
 v4 p4 #cgi4 ,nov4 #ahcf2         and   
vol4 vi4 p4 #ced4 ,may1 #ahcg47         
,the ,brazilian quadrumane was found1   
with a great many other         extinct 
species of animals1 by a ,danish        
naturalist1 ,dr4 ,lund1         between 
the rivers ,francisco and ,velhas1 in   
#ahcg4          ,the gibbon of the      
,south of ,france was found by ,m4      
,lartet in the         beginning of     
#ahcg1 and determined by ,m4 de         
,blainville4 ,it         occurred near  
,auch1 in the department of ,gers1 about
 forty miles         west of ,toulouse1 
in freshwater marl1 limestone1 and sand4
 ,they         were accompanied by the  
remains of the mastodon1 dinotherium1   
palaeotherium1 rhinoceros1 gigantic     
sloth1 and other extinct                
quadrupeds4 7,bulletin de la ,soc4      
,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 viii4 p4        
#ib47          ,the ,british quadrumane 

was discovered in #ahci1 by ,messrs4    
,william         ,colchester and        
,searles ,wood1 at ,kyson1 near         
,woodbridge1 in         ,suffolk1 and   
was referred by ,professor ,owen to the 
genus ,macacus4         7,mag4 of ,nat4 
,hist4 ,sept4 #ahci4 ,taylor1 ,annals of
 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,no4         xxiii4 ,nov4 
#ahci47    #bbf ,owen's ,introduction to
 ,british ,fossil ,mammals1 p4 #df4     
#bbg ,proceedings of ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sci4 
,philad4 ,dec4 #i1 #ahea4    #bbh ,see  
ch4 #dh4    #bbi ,ibid4    #bcj ,ibid4  
#bca ,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1 vol4 ii4
 p4 #eid4    #bcb ,virgil1 ,eclog4 iv4  
,for an account of these doctrines1 see 
,dugald ,stewart's ,elements of the     
,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1        
vol4 ii4 chap4 ii4 sect4 #d1 and        
,prichard's ,egypt4 ,mythol4 p4 #agg4   
#bcc ,see ch4 #da4    #bcd ,see ch4 #ce4
    #bce ,see ch4 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #da4   
#bcf ,see also ,manual of ,geology1 ch4 
#aa1 #ab4    #bcg ,it has been suspected
 ever since the middle of the last      

century1 that the ,caspian was lower    
than the ocean1 it being         known  
that in ,astrakhan the mercury in the   
barometer generally         stands above
 thirty inches4 ,in #ahaa1 ,,mm4        
,engelhardt and ,parrot                 
attempted to determine the exact amount 
of difference by a series         of    
levellings and barometrical measurements
 across the isthmus at         two      
different places near the foot of ,mount
 ,caucasus4 ,the result         of their
 operations led them to the opinion that
 the ,caspian was         more than #cjj
 feet below the ,black ,sea4 ,but the   
correctness of         the observations 
having afterwards been called in        
question1 ,m4         ,parrot revisited 
the ground in #ahbi and #ahcj1 and      
inferred from         new levellings1   
that the mouth of the ,don was between  
three and         four feet lower than  
that of the ,wolga2 in other words1 that
 the         sea of ,azof1 which        
communicates with the ,black ,sea1 was  

actually         lower than the         
,caspian6 ,other statements1 no less    
contradictory1         having been made 
by other observers1 the ,russian        
government at         length directed   
the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg to send
 an         expedition1 in #ahcf1 to    
decide the point by a trigonometrical   
survey1 from which it appeared that the 
,caspian is #aja ,russian1         or   
#ajh ,english1 feet lower than the      
,black ,sea4 7,for authorities1         
see ,journ4 ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 
viii4 p4 #ace74 ,sir ,r4                
,murchison1 however1 concludes1 in      
#ahde1 from the best ,russian           
authorities1 that the depression of the 
,caspian is only #hc feet #f            
inches4          ,the measurements of   
,major ,anthony ,symonds1 since         
confirmed by         ,french            
authorities1 make the ,dead ,sea to be  
#abjj feet below the                    
,mediterranean4    #bch ,see ,lyell's   
,travels in ,n4 ,america1 ch4 #b and    

#be4    #bci ,see ,manual of ,geology1  
chap4 #bi to #cc1 inclusive4    #bdj    
,see ch4 #bf1 infra4    #bda ,see ch4   
#bg1 infra4    #bdb ,ann4 des ,sci4     
,nat41 ,septembre1 ,novembre1 et        
,dacembre1 #ahbi4         ,revue        
,francaise1 ,no4 #ae1 ,may1 #ahcj4      
,bulletin de la ,sociata ,gaol4         
de ,france1 p4 #hfd1 ,may1 #ahdg4 ,the  
latest edition of ,m4 de                
,beaumont's theory will be found in the 
#abth vol4 of the         ,dictionnaire 
,universel d',hist4 ,nat4 #aheb1 art4   
,systemes des         ,montagues2 also  
the same printed separately4    #bdc    
,systeme de ,mont4 p4 #gfb4    #bdd     
,ibid4 pp4 #gfa and #ggc4    #bde ,phil4
 ,mag4 and ,annals1 ,no4 #eh4 ,new      
,series1 p4 #bdb4    #bdf ,systeme de   
,montagnes1 #aheb1 p4 #dbi4    #bdg     
,phil4 ,mag4 and ,annals1 ,no4 #eh4 ,new
 series1 p4 #bdc4    #bdh ,systeme de   
,montagnes1 #aheb1 p4 #dbi4    #bdi ,for
 page1 see ,index1 ,hopkins4    #bej    
,art4 ,systeme de ,montagnes1 p4 #gge4  

#bea ,m4 ,e de ,beaumont in his later   
inquiries 7,comptes rendus1             
,sept4 #ahej1 and ,systemes des         
,montagnes7 has come to the             
conclusion1 that the principal mountain 
ranges1 if prolonged1         would     
intersect each other at certain angles1 
so as to produce a         regular      
geometric arrangement1 which he calls a 
pentagonal         network4 ,this theory
 has been ably discussed and            
controverted by         ,mr4 ,hopkins1  
in his ,anniversary ,address as         
,president of the ,geol4         ,soc41 
,feb4 #ahec4    #beb ,darwin's ,geology 
of ,south ,america1 p4 #bdh4 ,london1   
#ahdf4    #bec ,systeme de ,montagnes1  
p4 #gdh4    #bed ,see ,lyell's ,manual  
of ,elementary ,geology1 ch4 #e4    #bee
 ,see the ,author's ,anniversary        
,address1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4        
,soc4 #ahej1 vol4 vi4 p4 #df1 from which
 some of the above passages         are 
extracted4    #bef ,see ,lyell's ,manual
 of ,elementary ,geology4    #beg       

,reports to ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 #ahdc1
 and ,introd4 to ,brit4         ,foss4  
,mamm4 p4 #ca4 ,the conchological       
evidence respecting the         ,british
 ,miocene1 ,pliocene1 and ,pleistocene  
fossils1 examined by         ,mr4       
,forbes1 in the paper before cited1 p4  
#hh1 note1 bear out some         of the 
most important conclusions of ,m4       
,deshayes1 quoted by me in         the  
first edition of the ,principles1 #ahca1
 and the recent         observations of 
,philippi in regard to the passage of   
species from         one formation to   
another4 ,i refer to these authorities  
more         especially because this    
doctrine of a gradual transition has    
been         opposed by some living     
naturalists of high distinction1 among  
whom ,i may mention ,m4,a4 d',orbigny   
and ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,i have long          
been convinced that we must abandon many
 of the identifications         formerly
 made of ,eocene with recent shells2 but
 some errors of         this kind do not

 affect the general reasoning on the    
subject4 ,see         a discussion on   
this question1 ,quarterly ,journ4 of    
,geog4 ,soc41         ,no4 #e1 p4 #dg   
,feb4 #ahdf4    #beh ,darwin's ,journal1
 p4 #afc4 #b;d4 ed4 p4 #aci4    #bei    
,journ4 ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4
 p4 #adb4    #bfj ,book iii4 ch4 #ej4   
#bfa ,darwin's ,s4 ,america1 pp4 #acf1  
#aci4    #bfb ,miller1 ,phil4 ,trans4   
#ahea1 p4 #aee4    #bfc ,phil4 ,trans4  
#ahej1 p4 #ced4    #bfd ,hooker's       
,himalayan ,journal1 ined4    #bfe      
,ibid4    #bff ,see ,manual of ,geology1
 ,index1 ,rain-prints4    #bfg ,see     
,lyell on recent and fossil rains4      
,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4         ,soc4    
#ahea1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bci4    #bfh       
,lyell's ,second ,visit to the ,united  
,states1 #ahdf1 vol4 ii4         p4 #be4
    #bfi ,encyc4 ,brit4 art4 ,rivers4   
#bgj ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lauder's ,account of 
the ,great ,floods in                   
,morayshire1 ,august1 #ahbi4    #bga    
,quarterly ,jour4 of ,sci4 c4 ,no4 xii4 

,new ,series1 p4 #cca4    #bgb ,culley1 
,proceed4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahbi4    #bgc   
,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 xv4 ,no4 #b1 
p4 #baf4 ,jan4 #ahbi4    #bgd           
,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 xxxiv4 p4    
#aae4    #bge ,see ,lyell's ,second     
,visit to the ,u4 ,s4 vol4 i4 p4 #fi4   
#bgf ,this block was measured by ,capt4 
,b4 ,hall1 ,r4 ,n4    #bgg ,inundation  
of the ,val de ,bagnes1 in #ahah1 ,ed4  
,phil4 ,journ41         vol4 i4 p4 #ahg1
 from memoir of ,m4 ,escher4    #bgh    
,lib4 viii4 ,epist4 #ag4    #bgi ,when  
at ,tivoli1 in #ahbi1 ,i received this  
account from         eye-witnesses of   
the event4    #bhj ,illustr4 of ,hutt4  
,theory1 ,section #c1 p4 #adg4    #bha  
,quadro ,istorico dell' ,etna1 #ahbd4   
#bhb ,the reader will find in my        
,travels in ,north ,america1 vol4       
i4 ch4 #b1 a colored geological map and 
section of the ,niagara                 
district1 also a bird's-eye view of the 
,falls and adjacent         country1    
colored geologically1 of which the first

 idea was         suggested by the      
excellent original sketch given by ,mr4 
,bakewell4         ,i have referred more
 fully to these and to ,mr4 ,hall's     
,report on         the ,geology of ,new 
,york1 as well as to the earlier        
writings of         ,hennepin and ,kalm 
in the same work1 and have speculated on
 the         origin of the escarpment   
over which the ,falls may have been     
originally precipitated4 ,vol4 i4 p4    
#cb1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #ic4    #bhc       
,consid4 sur les ,blocs ,errat4 #ahbi4  
#bhd ,capt4 ,bayfield1 ,geol4 ,soc4     
,proceedings1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbc4    #bhe 
,m4 ,arago1 ,annuaire1 c4 #ahcc2 and    
,rev4 ,j4 ,farquharson1        ,phil4   
,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #cbi4    #bhf ,journ4 
of ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 vi4 p4   
#daf4    #bhg ,see ,systeme ,glaciaire1 
by ,agassiz1 ,guyot1 and ,desor1 pp4    
#dcf1 #dcg1 #dde4 ,mr4 ,agassiz1 at p4  
#dfb1 states that he published          
in the ,deutsche ,vierteljahrschrift for
 #ahda1 this result as to         the   

central motion being greater than that  
of the sides1 and         was1          
therefore1 the first to correct his own 
previous mistake4    #bhh ,j4 ,forbes4  
#hth ,letter on ,glaciers1 ,aug4 #ahdd4 
#bhi ,see ,mr4 ,hopkins on ,motion of   
,glaciers1 ,cambridge ,phil4            
,trans4 #ahdd1 and ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahde4  
,some of the late concessions         of
 this author as to a certain plasticity 
in the mass1 appear         to me to    
make the difference between him and     
,professor ,forbes         little more  
than one of degree4 7,for the latest    
summary of         ,prof4 ,forbes'      
views1 see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 pt4    
#b47    #bij ,this experiment is cited  
by ,mr4 ,forbes1 ,phil4 ,trans4         
#ahdf1 p4 #bjf2 and ,i have conversed   
with ,mr4 ,christie on the              
subject4    #bia ,etudes sur les        
,glaciers1 #ahdj4    #bib ,see ,manual  
of ,geol4 ch4 xi4    #bic ,agassiz1     
,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,journ4 ,no4 #ed1
 p4 #chh4    #bid ,charpentier1 ,ann4   

des ,mines1 tom4 viii42 see also ,papers
         by ,,mm4 ,venetz and ,agassiz4 
#bie ,voyage in #ahbb1 p4 #bcc4    #bif 
,travels in ,norway4    #big ,darwin's  
,journal1 p4 #bhc4    #bih ,journ4 of   
,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ebf4
    #bii ,journ4 of ,roy4 ,geograph4    
,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ebi4    #cjj ,ibid4  
vol4 viii4 p4 #bba4    #cja ,in my      
,travels in ,n4 ,america1 pp4 #ai1 #bc1 
c41 and ,second         ,visit to the   
,u4 ,s41 vol4 i4 ch4 #b1 also in my     
,manual of         ,geology1 a more full
 account of the action of floating ice  
and         coast-ice1 and its bearing  
on geology1 will be found4    #cjb ,jam4
 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,journ4 ,no4 xlviii4  
p4 #dci4    #cjc ,bulletin de la ,soc4  
,gaol4 de ,france1 #ahdg1 tom4 iv4 pp4  
#aahb1 #aahc4    #cjd ,consult ,j4      
,prestwich1 ,water-bearing ,strata      
around         ,london4 #ahea4 7,van    
,voorst7    #cje ,sabine1 ,journ4 of    
,sci4 ,no4 xxxiii4 p4 #gb4 #ahbd4       
#cjf ,haricart de ,thury1 ,puits ,foras1

 p4 #di4    #cjg ,prestwich1 p4 #fi4    
#cjh ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de       
,france1 tom4 iii4 p4 #aid4    #cji     
,boua ,rasuma des ,prog4 de la ,gaol4 en
 #ahcb1 p4 #ahd4    #caj ,seventh ,rep4 
,brit4 ,ass4 #ahcg1 p4 #ff4    #caa ,h4 
de ,thury1 p4 #bie4    #cab ,bull4 de la
 ,soc4 ,gaol de ,france1 tom4 i4 p4 #ic4
    #cac ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de   
,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bdh4    #cad ,see 
,glossary1 ,tufa1 ,travertin4    #cae   
,dr4 ,grosse on the ,baths of ,san      
,filippo1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,journ4           
vol4 ii p4 #bib4    #caf ,consolations  
in ,travel1 pp4 #abc-abe4    #cag ,ibid4
 p4 #abg4    #cah ,c4 ,prevost1 ,essai  
sur la ,constitution ,physique du       
,bassin         de ,vienne1 p4 #aj4     
#cai ,travels across the ,andes1 p4     
#bdj4    #cbj ,annalen der ,chem4 #ahdg4
    #cba ,daubeny on ,volcanoes1 p4     
#bbb4    #cbb ,dr4 ,webster on the ,hot 
,springs of ,furnas1 ,ed4 ,phil4        
,journ4 vol4 vi4 p4 #cjf4    #cbc ,see a
 cut of the ,icelandic geyser1 chap4    

#cb4    #cbd ,m4 ,robert1 ,bullatin de  
la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4        
vii4 p4 #aa4    #cbe ,barrow's ,iceland1
 p4 #bji4    #cbf ,see ,lyell's ,manual 
of ,elementary ,geology2 and ,dr4       
,turner1 ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,journ4 
,no4 xxx4 p4 #bdf4    #cbg ,l4 ,horner1 
,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 ii4 p4 #id4    #cbh 
,ann4 de l',auvergne1 tome i4 p4 #bcd4  
#cbi ,ann4 ,scient4 de l',auvergne1 tome
 ii4 ,june1 #ahbi4    #ccj ,edinb4 ,new 
,phil4 ,journ4 ,oct4 #ahci4    #cca ,see
 ,lyell's ,travels in ,n4 ,america1 vol4
 i p4 #aej4    #ccb ,symes1 ,embassy to 
,ava1 vol4 ii4 ,geol4 ,trans4 second    
series1 vol4 ii4 part iii4 p4 #chh4     
#ccc ,dr4 ,nugent1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4  
i4 p4 #fi4    #ccd ,ibid4 p4 #fg4       
#cce ,de la ,beche1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,journ4 
vol4 ii4 p4 #ajg4 ,jan4         #ahbj4  
#ccf ,de la ,beche1 ,,ms4    #ccg ,de la
 ,beche1 ,,ms4    #cch ,trans4 of ,lit4 
and ,hist4 ,soc4 of ,quebec1 vol4 i4 p4 
#e1         #ahbi4    #cci ,prony1 see  
,cuvier1 ,disc4 ,prelim1 p4 #adf4       

#cdj ,see ,de ,beaumont1 ,gaologie      
,pratique1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbc1             
#ahdd4    #cda ,prony1 cited by ,cuvier1
 ,discours ,pralimin4    #cdb ,brocchi1 
,conch4 ,foss4 ,subap4 vol4 i4 p4 #aah4 
#cdc ,archiac1 ,histoire des ,progras de
 la ,gaol4 #ahdh1 vol4 ii4         p4   
#bcb4    #cdd ,brocchi1 ,conch4 ,foss4  
,subap4 vol4 i4 p4 #ci4    #cde ,ibid4  
vol4 ii4 p4 #id4    #cdf ,mam4          
d',astruc1 cited by ,von ,hoff1 vol4 i4 
p4 #bhh4    #cdg ,lib4 ii4 c4 v4    #cdh
 ,bouche1 ,chorographie et ,hist4 de    
,provence1 vol4 i4 p4         #bc1 cited
 by ,von ,hoft1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij4    #cdi
 ,hist4 ,phys4 de la ,mer4    #cej      
,karamania1 or a brief ,description of  
the ,coast of ,asia         ,minor1 c4  
,london1 #ahag4    #cea ,geog4 ,syst4 of
 ,herod1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajg4    #ceb      
,euterpe1 ,,xi4    #cec ,journ4 of ,roy4
 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #dcb4     
#ced ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4  
v42 ,memoirs1 p4 #bj2 and               
,lassaigue1 ,journ4 ,pharm4 t4 v4 p4    

#dfh4    #cee ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4    
,soc4 #ahdh1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cdb4    #cef  
,flint's ,geography1 vol4 i4 p4 #adb4   
,lyell's ,second ,visit         to the  
,united ,states1 vol4 ii chaps4 #bh to  
#cd4    #ceg ,geograph4 ,descrip4 of    
,louisiana1 by ,w4 ,darby1              
,philadelphia1 #ahaf1 p4 #ajb4    #ceh  
,flint's ,geography1 vol4 i4 p4 #aeb4   
#cei ,travels in ,north ,america1 vol4  
iii4 p4 #cfa4    #cfj ,travels in ,north
 ,america1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfb4    #cfa   
,the boats are fitted1 says ,captain    
,hall1 with what is         called a    
snag-chamber2--a partition formed of    
stout planks1         which is calked1  
and made so effectually water-tight that
 the         foremost end of the vessel 
is cut off as entirely from the         
rest of the hold as if it belonged to   
another boat4 ,if the                   
steam-vessel happen to run against a    
snag1 and that a hole is         made in
 her bow1 under the surface1 this       
chamber merely fills         with       

water4--,travels in ,north ,america1    
vol4 iii4 p4 #cfc4    #cfb ,darby's     
,louisiana1 p4 #cc4    #cfc             
,featherstonhaugh1 ,geol4 ,report1      
,washington1 #ahce1 p4 #hd4    #cfd     
,trees submerged in an upright position 
have been observed         in other     
parts of ,n4 ,america4 ,thus ,captains  
,clark and ,lewis         found1 about  
the year #ahjg1 a forest of pines       
standing erect         under water in   
the body of the ,columbia river1 which  
they         supposed1 from the         
appearance of the trees1 to have been   
submerged only about twenty years4      
7,travels1 c4 vol4 ii4 p4         #bda47
 ,more lately 7#ahce71 the ,rev4 ,mr4   
,parker observed on the         same    
river 7lat4 #de degrees ,n41 long4 #aba 
degrees ,w47 trees         standing in  
their natural position in spots where   
the water was         more than twenty  
feet deep4 ,the tops of the trees had   
disappeared2 but between high and low   
water-mark the trunks were         only 

partially decayed2 and the roots were   
seen through the         clear water1   
spreading as they had grown in their    
native forest4         7,tour beyond the
 ,rocky ,mountains1 p4 #acb47 ,some have
 inferred         from these facts that 
a tract of land1 more than twenty miles 
in         length1 must have subsided   
vertically2 but ,capt4 ,fremont1 ,dec4  
#ahde 7,rep4 of ,explor4 ,exped4 p4     
#aie71 satisfied himself that the       
submerged forests have been formed by   
immense land-slides from         the    
mountains1 which here closely shut in   
the river4    #cfe ,for an account of   
the sunk country1 shaken by the         
earthquake of #ahaa-ab1 see ,lyell's    
,second ,visit to the ,united           
,states1 ch4 #cc4    #cff ,darby's      
,louisiana1 p4 #ajc4    #cfg ,the       
calculations here given were            
communicated to the         ,british    
,association1 in a lecture which ,i     
delivered at         ,southampton in    
,september1 #ahdf4 7,see ,athenaeum     

,journal1 ,sept4         #bf1 #ahdf1 and
 ,report of ,british ,association1      
#ahdf1 p4 #aag47         ,dr4 ,riddell  
has since repeated his experiments on   
the quantity         of sediment in the 
river at ,new ,orleans without any      
material         variation in the       
results4          ,mr4 ,forshey1 in a   
memoir on the ,physics of the           
,mississippi1         published in      
#ahej1 adopts ,dr4 ,riddell's estimate  
for the         quantity of mud1 but    
takes #ddg1aii cubic feet per second as 
the average discharge of water for the  
year at ,carrolton1 nine         miles  
above ,new ,orleans1 a result deduced   
from thirty years of                    
observations4 ,this being one-tenth more
 than ,i had assumed1         would add 
a tenth to the sediment1 and would      
diminish by         one-eleventh the    
number of years required to accomplish  
the         task above alluded to4 ,the 
cubic contents of sedimentary           
matter1 says ,forshey1 are equal to     

#d1jhc1ccc1ccc1 and this                
sediment would annually cover twelve    
miles square one foot         deep4     
#cfh ,the ,mississippi is continually   
shifting its course in         the great
 alluvial plain1 cutting frequently to  
the depth of         #ajj1 and even     
sometimes to the depth of #bej feet4 ,as
 the old         channels become        
afterwards filled up1 or in a great     
degree         obliterated1 this        
excavation alone must have given a      
considerable depth to the basin1 which  
receives the alluvial         deposit1  
and subsidences like those accompanying 
the         earthquake of ,new ,madrid  
in #ahaa-ab may have given still more   
depth4    #cfi ,account of the ,ganges  
and ,burrampooter rivers1 by ,major     
,rennell1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agha4    #cgj 
,trans4 of the ,asiatic ,society1 vol4  
vii4 p4 #ad4    #cga ,cuvier referred   
the true crocodiles of the ,ganges to a 
single species1 ,c4 biporcatus4 ,but ,i 
learn from ,dr4 ,falconer         that  

there are three well-marked species1 ,c4
 biporcatus1 ,c4         palustris1 and 
,c4 bombifrons4 ,c4 bombifrons occurs in
 the         northern branches of the   
,ganges1 #ajjj miles from ,calcutta2 ,c4
         biporcatus appears to be       
confined to the estuary2 and ,c4        
palustris1 to range from the estuary to 
the central parts of         ,bengal4   
,the garial is found along with ,c4     
bombifrons in the         north1 and    
descends to the region of ,c4 biporcatus
 in the         estuary4    #cgb ,see   
below1 ch4 #bb and #bi4    #cgc ,second 
,visit to the ,united ,states1 vol4 ii4 
p4 #ade4    #cgd ,asiatic ,researches1  
vol4 xvii4 p4 #dff4    #cge ,lyell's    
,second ,visit to the ,united ,states1  
vol4 ii4         chap4 #cd4    #cgf ,see
 ,manual of ,geology by the ,author4    
#cgg ,see p4 #ac4    #cgh ,geog4 of     
,herod1 vol ii4 p4 #cca4    #cgi ,ibid4 
p4 #cbh4    #chj ,romme1 ,vents et      
,courans1 vol4 ii4 p4 #b4 ,rev4 ,f4     
,fallows1         ,quart4 ,journ4 of    

,science1 ,march1 #ahbi4    #cha ,the   
heights of these tides were given me by 
the late         ,captain ,hewett1 ,r4  
,n4    #chb ,on the authority of        
,admiral ,sir ,f4 ,beaufort1 ,r4 ,n4    
#chc ,consult the map of ,currents by   
,capt4 ,f4 ,beechy1 ,r4 ,n41            
,admiralty ,manual1 #ahdi1 ,london4     
#chd ,rennell on ,currents1 p4 #eh4     
#che ,rennell on the ,channel current4  
#chf ,an4 du ,bureau des ,long4 #ahcf4  
#chg ,second ,parliamentary ,report on  
,steam ,communication with              
,india1 ,july1 #ahea4    #chh ,phil4    
,trans4 #ahcj1 p4 #ei4    #chi ,see     
,capt4 ,b4 ,hall1 ,on ,theory of ,trade 
,winds1 ,fragments         of ,voy4     
second series1 vol4 i41 and ,appendix to
 ,daniell's         ,meteorology4       
#cij ,treatise on ,astronomy1 chap4 #c4 
#cia ,descrip4 of ,shetland ,islands1 p4
 #ebg1 ,edin4 #ahbb1 to         which   
work ,i am indebted for the following   
representations of         rocks in the 
,shetland ,isles4    #cib ,dr4 ,hibbert1

 from ,,mss4 of ,rev4 ,george ,low1 of  
,fetlar4    #cic ,hibbert1 p4 #ebh4     
#cid ,hibbert1 p4 #eai4    #cie ,account
 of ,erection of ,bell ,rock            
,lighthouse1 p4 #afc4    #cif ,ed4      
,phil4 ,journ4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ed1 #ahbj4 
#cig ,quart4 ,journ4 of ,sci4 c41 ,no4  
xiii4 ,n4 ,s4 ,march1         #ahcj4    
#cih ,buist1 ,quart4 ,journ4 of         
,agricult41 ,no4 xlv4 p4 #cd1 ,june1    
#ahci4    #cii ,phillips's ,geology of  
,yorkshire1 p4 #fa4    #djj ,rivers1    
,mountains1 and ,sea-coast of ,yorkshire
 p4 #abb1         #ahec1 ,london4       
#dja ,arctic ,zoology1 vol4 i4 p4 #aj1  
,introduction4    #djb ,phillips's      
,geol4 of ,york4 p4 #fj4    #djc ,arct4 
,zool4 vol4 i4 p4 #ac1 ,introd4    #djd 
,taylor's ,geology of ,east ,norfolk1 p4
 #cb4    #dje ,ibid4    #djf ,de        
,beaumont1 ,gaologie ,pratique1 p4 #bah4
    #djg ,taylor's ,geology of ,east    
,norfolk1 p4 #aj4    #djh ,from ,mr4 ,r4
 ,c4 ,taylor's ,mem41 see ,phil4 ,mag41 
,oct4 #ahbg1 p4         #big4    #dji   

,consequences of the ,deluge1 ,phys4    
,theol4 ,discourses4    #daj ,history of
 ,british ,birds1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj ed4  
#ahba4    #daa ,tidal ,harbor           
,commissioners' ,first ,report1 #ahde1  
p4 #agf4    #dab ,on authority of ,dr4  
,mitchell1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s4    #dac ,on the  
authority of ,w4 ,gunnell1 ,esq41 and   
,w4 ,richardson1         ,esq41 ,f4 ,g4 
,s4    #dad ,vol4 ii4 ,new ,ser4 #ahji1 
p4 #hja4    #dae ,geog4 of ,herod4 vol4 
ii4 p4 #cbf4    #daf ,dodsley's ,ann4   
,regist4 #aggb4    #dag ,see ,j4 ,b4    
,redman on ,changes of ,s4 ,e4 ,coast of
 ,england1         ,proceed4 ,instit4   
,civil ,engin4 vol4 ii4 #ahea1 #aheb4   
#dah ,stevenson1 ,ed4 ,phil ,journ4 ,no4
 v4 p4 #de1 and ,dr4 ,fitton1           
,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d series1 vol4 iv4    
plate #i4    #dai ,on the authority of  
,mr4 ,j4 ,meryon1 of ,rye4    #dbj      
,redman1 ibid1 see p4 #cae4    #dba     
,edin4 ,journ4 of ,sci4 ,no4 xix4 p4    
#ef4    #dbb ,redman as cited1 p4 #cae4 
#dbc ,webster1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4  

p4 #aib1 #ast series4    #dbd ,mantell1 
,geology of ,sussex1 p4 #bic4    #dbe   
,see ,palmer on ,shingle ,beaches1      
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1 p4 #efh4    #dbf  
,groins are formed of piles and wooden  
planks1 or of fagots         staked down
 and are used either to break the force 
of the waves1         or to retain the  
beach4    #dbg ,redman as cited1 p4     
#cae4    #dbh ,rob4 ,a4 ,c4 ,austen on  
the ,valley of the ,english ,channel1   
,quart4 ,journ4 ,g4 ,s4 vol4 vi4 p4 #gb4
    #dbi ,see ,palmer on ,motion of     
,shingle ,beaches1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1
         p4 #efh2 and ,col4 ,sir ,w4    
,reid1 ,papers of ,royal ,engineers1    
#ahch1         vol ii4 p4 #abh4    #dcj 
,de la ,beche1 ,geolog4 ,manual1 p4 #hb4
    #dca ,according to the measurement  
of ,carpenter of ,lyme4    #dcb ,rev4   
,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare1 letter dated        
,axminster1 ,dec4 #ca1         #ahci4   
#dcc ,london1 ,j4 ,murray1 #ahdj4       
#dcd ,boase1 ,trans4 ,royal ,geol4 ,soc4
 of ,cornwall1 vol4 ii4 p4         #abi4

    #dce ,boase1 ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ace4
    #dcf ,de la ,beche's ,report on the 
,geology of ,devon1 c4 chap4            
xiii4    #dcg ,geol4 ,trans4 #ast       
series1 vol4 iii4 p4 #chc4    #dch      
,boase1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acj4    #dci       
,stevenson1 ,jameson's ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 
,journ4 ,no4 #h1 p4 #chf4    #ddj       
,camden1 who cites ,gyraldus2 also ,ray1
 ,on the ,deluge1         ,phys4 ,theol4
 p4 #bbh4    #dda ,meyrick's ,cardigan4 
#ddb ,von ,hoff1 ,geschichte1 c4 vol4 i4
 p4 #di4    #ddc ,e4 de ,beaumont1      
,gaologie ,pratique1 vol4 i4 p4 #caf1   
and         ibid4 p4 #bfj4    #ddd      
,belpaire1 ,mam4 de l',acad4 ,roy4 de   
,bruxelles1 tom4 x4 #ahcg4              
,dumont1 ,bulletin of the same ,soc4    
tom4 v4 p4 #fdc4    #dde ,von ,hoff1    
vol4 i4 p4 #cfd4    #ddf ,quart4 ,journ4
 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cb2 ,memoirs4
    #ddg ,see examples in ,von ,hoff2   
vol4 i4 p4 #gc1 who cites               
,pisansky4    #ddh ,book vii4 ,cimbri4  
#ddi ,lib4 iii4 cap #c4    #dej ,new    

,monthly ,mag4 vol4 vi4 p4 #fi4    #dea 
,von ,hoff1 vol4 i4 p4 #if4    #deb     
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcc1 p4 #bjd4    #dec  
,see ,lyell's ,travels in ,north        
,america1 in #ahdb1 vol4 ii4 p4         
#aff4 ,london1 #ahde4    #ded ,rennell1 
,phil4 ,trans4 #agha4    #dee ,,ms4 of  
,capt4 ,bayfield1 ,r4 ,n4    #def       
,silliman's ,journ4 vol4 xxxiv4 p4 #cdi4
    #deg ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbi1 part i4  
p4 #bi4    #deh ,phil4 ,trans4 #agbd4   
#dei ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol de        
,france1--,rasuma1 p4 #gb1 #ahcb4       
#dfj ,clarke's ,travels in ,europe1     
,asia1 and ,africa1 vol4 iii4 pp4       
#cdj and #cfc1 #dth edition4    #dfa    
,nouvelle ,chronique de la ,ville de    
,bayonne1 pp4 #aac1 #aci3         #ahbg4
    #dfb ,stevenson on bed of ,german   
,ocean1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,journ4 ,no4 v4     
p4 #dd3 #ahbj4    #dfc ,stevenson1 ibid4
 p4 #dg3 #ahbj4    #dfd ,robt4 ,a4 ,c4  
,austen1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4   
vol4 vi4 p4         #gf4    #dfe        
,experiments to determine the ,figure of

 the ,earth1 c4 p4         #dde4    #dff
 ,lochead on ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,guiana1   
,edin4 ,trans4 vol4 iv4    #dfg ,on the 
authority of ,mr4 ,faraday4    #dfh ,on 
the authority of ,mr4 ,r4 ,phillips4    
#dfi ,see ,von ,buch's ,description of  
,canary ,islands 7,paris1 ed4           
#ahcf7 for a valuable sketch of the     
principal volcanoes of the              
globe4    #dgj ,darwin1 ,geol4 ,trans4  
#b;d series1 vol4 v4 p4 #fab4    #dga   
,ibid4 p4 #fjf4    #dgb ,bull4 de la    
,soc4 ,gaol4 tom4 vi4 p4 #ee4    #dgc   
,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1   
tom4 vi4 p4 #ef4    #dgd ,caldeleugh1   
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcf1 p4 #bg4    #dge   
,comptes ,rendus1 #ahdi1 vol4 xxix4 p4  
#eca4    #dgf ,see map of volcanic lines
 in ,von ,buch's work on the            
,canaries4    #dgg ,von ,buch1 ibid4 p4 
#dji4    #dgh ,darwin1 ,structure and   
,distrib4 of ,coral reefs1 c41 ,london1 
#ahdb4 ,in the subjoined map1 fig4 #ci1 
,i have copied with         permission a
 small part of the valuable map         

accompanying this         work4    #dgi 
,von ,buch1 ,descrip4 des ,iles ,canar4 
p4 #dej1 who cites ,erman         and   
others4    #dhj ,paper read at meeting  
of ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,southampton1 ,sept4  
#ahdf4    #dha ,macclelland1 ,report on 
,coal and ,min4 ,resources of ,india4   
,calcutta1 #ahch4    #dhb ,geology of   
the ,american ,exploring ,expedition4   
,see also         ,lyell's ,manual1     
,sandwich ,i4 ,volcanoes--,index4       
#dhc ,strabo1 ed ,fal41 p4 #ijj4    #dhd
 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 vol4 ii4  
p4 #ci4    #dhe ,virlet1 ,bulletin de la
 ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 iii4 p4  
#aji4    #dhf ,daubeny on ,mount        
,vultur1 ,ashmolean ,memoirs4 ,oxford1  
#ahce4    #dhg ,book v4 ch4 xlvi4--,see 
letter of ,m4 ,virlet1 ,bulletin de la  
,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4    
#cda4    #dhh ,see ch4 #cb1 ,cause of   
,volcanic ,eruptions4    #dhi ,verneur1 
,journal des ,voyages1 tom4 iv4 p4 #aaa4
 ,von ,hoff1         vol4 ii4 p4 #bge4  
#dij ,lib4 v4    #dia ,nat4 ,hist4 lib4 

iii4 c4 #f4    #dib ,see ,poulett       
,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d series1    
vol4 ii4 pl4         #cd4    #dic ,de   
,rerum ,nat4 vi4 #gdj4--;,forbes1 on    
,bay of ,naples1 ,edin4         ,journ4 
of ,sci4 ,no iii4 new series1 p4 #hg4   
,jan4 #ahcj4    #did ,humboldt1 ,voy4 p4
 #cag4    #die ,von ,buch1 ,ueber einen 
vulcanischen ,ausbruch auf der ,insel   
,lanzerote4    #dif ,haustae aut obrutae
 urbes4--,hist4 lib4 i4    #dig ,hist4  
,rom4 lib4 lxvi4    #dih ,the earliest  
authority1 says ,mr4 ,forbes1 given for 
this         fact1 appears to be        
,capaccio1 quoted in the ,terra         
,tremante of         ,bonito4--,edin4   
,journ4 of ,sci4 c4 ,no4 i4 new series1 
p4 #abg4         ,july1 #ahbi4    #dii  
,geol4 ,trans4 second series1 vol4 ii4  
p4 #cdf4    #ejj ,lib4 vi4 de ,bello    
,neap4 in ,graevii ,thesaur4    #eja    
,prodig4 libel4 c4 cxiv4    #ejb ,this  
representation of the ,phlegraean       
,fields is reduced         from part of 
,plate xxxi4 of ,sir ,william           

,hamilton's great work         ,campi   
,phlegraei4 ,the faithfulness of his    
colored delineations         of the     
scenery of that country cannot be too   
highly praised4    #ejc ,campi          
,phlegraei1 p4 #gj4    #ejd ,campi      
,phlegraei1 p4 #gg4    #eje ,p4 #cdg4   
,paris1 #ahcf4    #ejf ,magnus terrae   
tractus1 qui inter radices montis1 quem 
,barbarum incolae appellant1 et mare    
juxta ,avernum jacet1 sese              
erigere videbatur1 et montis subito     
nascentis figuram imitari4         ,eo  
ipso die hora noctis ,,ii41 iste terrae 
cumulus1 aperto veluti         ore1     
magno cum fremitu1 magnos ignes evomuit2
 pumicesque1 et         lapides1        
cineresque4--,porzio1 ,opera ,omnis1    
,medica1 ,phil41 et         ,mathemat41 
in unum collecta1 #agcf1 cited by       
,dufranoy1 ,mam4         pour servir a  
une ,description ,gaologique de la      
,france1 tom4         iv4 p4 #bgd4      
#ejg ,see ,neues ,jahr ,buch for #ahdf1 
and a translation in the                

,quarterly ,journ4 of the ,geol4 ,soc4  
for #ahdg1 vol iii4 p4 #bj1             
,memoirs4    #ejh ,mem4 ,roy4 ,acad4    
,nap4 #ahdi4    #eji ,verum quod omnem  
superat admirationem1 mons circum eam   
voraginem ex pummicibus et cincere      
plusquam mille passuum                  
altitudine una nocte congestus          
aspicitur4    #eaj ,mam4 de la ,soc4    
,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ia4     
#eaa ,dufranoy1 ,mem4 pour servir1 c4 p4
 #bgg4    #eab ,darwin's ,volcanic      
,islands1 #ajf1 note4    #eac ,geology  
of the ,american ,exploring ,expedition1
 in         #ahch-ahdb1 p4 #ced4    #ead
 ,ibid4 p4 #cbh4    #eae ,see chap4 #bi4
    #eaf ,hamilton 7writing in #aggj7   
says1 the new mountain         produces 
as yet but a very slender               
vegetation4--,campi         ,phlegraei1 
p4 #fi4 ,this remark was no longer      
applicable when ,i         saw it1 in   
#ahbh4    #eag ,hamilton's ,campi       
,phlegraei1 folio1 vol4 i4 p4 #fb2 and  
,brieslak1 ,campanie1 tome i4 p4 #ahf4  

#eah ,account of the ,eruption of       
,vesuvius in ,october1 #ahbb1 by        
,g4 ,p4 ,scrope1 ,esq41 ,journ4 of ,sci4
 c4 vol4 xv4 p4 #age4    #eai ,mr4      
,forbes1 ,account of ,mount ,vesuvius1  
,edin4 ,journ4 of         ,sci4 ,no4    
xviii4 p4 #aie4 ,oct4 #ahbh4    #ebj    
,ibid4 p4 #aid4    #eba ,monticelli and 
,covelli1 ,storia di ,fenon4 del ,vesuv4
 en         #ahba-bc4    #ebb ,campi    
,phlegraei4    #ebc ,otter's ,life of   
,dr4 ,clarke4    #ebd ,phil4 ,trans4    
#ahdf1 p4 #aed4    #ebe ,ibid4 p4 #adh4 
#ebf ,ibid4 p4 #bda4    #ebg ,bulletin  
de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 vii4
 p4 #dc2         and ,illustrations of  
,vesuvius and ,etna1 p4 #c4    #ebh     
,geognost4 ,beobachtungen1 c41 p4 #ahb4 
,berlin1 #ahci4    #ebi ,von ,buch1     
,descrip4 ,phys4 des ,iles ,canaries1 p4
 #cdb4         ,paris1 #ahcf4    #ecj   
,vues ,illust4 de ,phanom4 ,gaol4       
,observ4 sur le ,vasuve et              
l',etna4 ,berlin1 #ahcg4    #eca ,ibid4 
p4 #b4    #ecb #b;d edit4 #ahdh1 p4     

#baf4    #ecc ,so called from travellers
 leaving their horses and mules         
there when they prepare to ascend the   
cone on foot4    #ecd ,dufranoy1 ,mam4  
pour servir a une ,descrip4 ,geol4 de la
         ,france1 tom4 iv4 p4 #bid4     
#ece ,descrip4 ,phys4 des ,iles         
,canaries1 p4 #cdd4    #ecf ,see        
,daubeny's ,volcanoes1 p4 #djj4    #ecg 
,geol4 of ,american ,explor4 ,exped4 p4 
#cei1 note4 ,mr4 ,dana         informed 
me 7,sept4 #aheb71 that an angle of #fj 
degrees instead of         #cj degrees1 
was given by mistake in his work4       
#ech ,ibid4 p4 #ced4    #eci ,geol4     
,trans4 #b;d series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cda4  
#edj ,see a paper by the ,author on     
,craters of ,denudation1         ,quart4
 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahej4    #eda    
,dufranoy1 ,mam4 pour servir1 c4 tom4   
iv4 p4 #bhe4    #edb ,journal of        
,science1 vol4 xv4 p4 #agg4    #edc     
,voy4 dans la ,campanie1 tome i4 p4     
#bja4    #edd ,mr4 ,forbes1 ,edin4      
,journ4 of ,sci4 ,no4 xviii4 ,oct4      

#ahbh4    #ede ,daubeny on ,volcanoes1  
p4 #afi4    #edf ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4
 second series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf4       
#edg ,monticelli and ,covelli1 ,prodrom4
 della ,mineral4 ,vesuv4    #edh ,the   
great eruption1 in #ahbb1 caused a      
covering only a         few inches thick
 on ,pompeii4 ,several feet are         
mentioned by         ,prof4 ,j4 ,d4     
,forbes4--,ed4 ,journ4 of ,science1 ,no4
 xix4 p4 #aha1         ,jan4 #ahbi4 ,but
 he must have measured in spots where it
 had         drifted4 ,the dust and     
ashes were five feet thick at the top of
         the crater1 and decreased      
gradually to ten inches at ,torre del   
,annunziata4 ,the size and weight of the
 ejected fragments         diminished   
very regularly in the same continuous   
stratum1 as         the distance from   
the centre of projection was greater4   
#edi ,forbes1 ,ed4 ,journ4 of ,sci4 ,no4
 xix4 p4 #acj1 ,jan4 #ahbi4    #eej     
,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4 second series1  
vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf4    #eea ,napoli1      

#ahaf4    #eeb ,not a few of the organic
 bodies1 called by ,ehrenberg           
infusoria1 such as ,galionella and      
,bacillaria1 have been         recently 
claimed by many botanists as belonging  
to the         vegetable kingdom1 and   
are referred to the classes called      
,diatomaceae and ,desmidiae4    #eec    
,see ,ehrenberg1 ,proceedings           
7,berichte7 of the ,royal ,acad4        
of ,sci4 ,berlin1 #ahdd1 #ahde1 and an  
excellent abstract of his         papers
 by ,mr4 ,ansted in the ,quart4 ,journ4 
of the ,geol4 ,soc4         ,london1    
,no4 #g1 ,aug4 #ahdf4 ,in regard to     
marine infusoria found         in       
volcanic tuff2 it is well known that on 
the shores of the         island of     
,cephalonia in the ,mediterranean       
7,proceedings1 ,geol4         ,soc4 vol4
 ii4 p4 #bbj71 there is a cavity in the 
rock1 into         which the sea has    
been flowing for ages1 and many others  
doubtless exist in the leaky bottom of  
the ocean4 ,the marine         current  

has been rushing in for many years1 and 
as the         infusoria inhabiting the 
waters of the ,mediterranean are        
exceedingly abundant1 a vast store of   
their cases may         accumulate in   
submarine caverns 7the water1 perhaps1  
being         converted into steam1 and 
so escaping upwards71 and they may      
then be cast up again to furnish the    
materials of volcanic         tuff1     
should an eruption occur like that which
 produced ,graham         ,island1 off  
the coast of ,sicily1 in #ahca4    #eed 
,hamilton1 ,observ4 on ,mount ,vesuvius1
 p4 #id4 ,london1         #aggd4    #eee
 ,swinburne and ,lalande4 ,paderni1     
,phil4 ,trans4 #ageh1 vol4         i4 p4
 #fai4    #eef ,prof4 ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes1  
,edin4 ,journ4 of ,sci4 ,no4 xix4 p4    
#acj1 ,jan4 #ahbi4    #eeg ,in one of   
the manuscripts which was in the hands  
of the         interpreters when ,i     
visited the museum in #ahbh1 the author 
indulges in the speculation that all the
 ,homeric personages         were       

allegorical--that ,agamemnon was the    
ether1 ,achilles the         sun1 ,helen
 the earth1 ,paris the air1 ,hector the 
moon1 c4    #eeh ,sir ,h4 ,davy1        
,consolations in ,travel1 p4 #ff4       
#eei ,forsyth's ,italy1 vol4 ii4    #efj
 ,in #ahae1 ,captain ,smyth ascertained1
 trigonometrically1         that the    
height of ,etna was #aj1hgd feet4 ,the  
,catanians1         disappointed that   
their mountain had lost nearly #bjjj    
feet of         the height assigned to  
it by ,recupero1 refused to acquiesce in
         the decision4 ,afterwards1 in  
#ahbd1 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 not being    
aware of ,captain ,smyth's conclusions1 
determined by careful                   
barometrical measurement that the height
 was #aj1hgb-a_/b feet4         ,this   
singular agreement of results so        
differently obtained was         spoken 
of by ,herschel as a happy accident2 but
 ,dr4 ,wollaston         remarked that  
it was one of those accidents which     
would not         have happened to two  

fools4    #efa ,book iii4 at the end4   
#efb ,the hill which ,i have here       
introduced was called by my             
guide ,vampolara1 but the name given in 
the text is the nearest         to this 
which ,i find in ,gemmellaro's          
,catalogue of ,minor ,cones4    #efc    
,mam4 pour servir1 c4 tom4 iv4 p4 #aaf4 
#efd ,see ,prof4 ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes1 ,phil4
 ,trans4 #ahdf1 p4 #aee1 on             
,velocity of ,lava4    #efe ,ferrara1   
,descriz4 dell' ,etna1 p4 #ajh4    #eff 
,ferrara1 ,descriz4 dell' ,etna4        
,palermo1 #ahah4    #efg ,this view is  
taken from a sketch made by ,mr4 ,james 
,bridges1 corrected after comparison    
with several sketches of         my own4
    #efh ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 p4 #aec4
    #efi ,this drawing is part of a     
panoramic sketch which ,i made          
from the summit of the cone1 ,december  
#a1 #ahbh1 when every part         of   
,etna was free from clouds except the   
,val del ,bove4 ,the         small cone1
 and the crater nearest the foreground1 

were among         those formed during  
the eruptions of #ahaj and #ahaa4       
#egj ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 p4 #ajb4    
#ega ,ferara1 ,descriz4 dell' ,etna1 p4 
#aaf4    #egb ,mr4 ,nasmyth1 the        
inventor of the steam-hammer1 has       
lately illustrated1 by a very striking  
experiment1 the                         
non-conductibility of a thin layer of   
dry sand and clay4 ,into         a      
caldron of iron one-fourth of an inch   
thick1 lined with sand         and clay 
five-eighths of an inch thick1 he poured
 eight tons         of melted iron at a 
white heat4 ,after the fused metal had  
been         twenty minutes in the      
caldron the palm of the hand could be   
applied to the outside without          
inconvenience1 and after forty          
minutes there was not heat enough to    
singe writing-paper4 ,this         fact 
may help us to explain how strata in    
contact with dikes1         or beds of  
fused matter1 have sometimes escaped    
without         perceptible alteration  

by heat4    #egc ,journ4 of ,roy4       
,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 i4 p4 #fd4    #egd
 ,hoffman1 ,geognost4 ,beobachtungen1 p4
 #gja4 ,berlin1 #ahci4    #ege ,mam4    
pour servir1 c41 tom4 iv4 ,paris1 #ahch4
    #egf ,geognost4 ,beobachtungen1 c4  
,berlin1 #ahci4    #egg ,de ,beaumont1  
,mam4 pour servir1 c4 tom4 iv4 pp4 #ahg1
         #ahh4    #egh ,mam4 pour       
servir1 tom4 iv4 p4 #adi4    #egi ,p4   
#fb1 supra4    #ehj ,see p4 #cff4       
#eha ,on the ,longevity of ,trees1      
,bibliot4 ,univ41 ,may1 #ahca4    #ehb  
,sedgwick1 ,anniv4 ,address to ,geol4   
,soc4 p4 #ce4 ,feb4 #ahca4    #ehc ,von 
,hoff1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cic4    #ehd ,the   
first narrative of the eruption was     
drawn up by         ,stephenson1 then   
,chief ,justice in ,iceland1 appointed  
,commissioner by the ,king of ,denmark  
for estimating the damage         done  
to the country1 that relief might be    
afforded to the         sufferers4      
,henderson was enabled to correct some  
of the         measurements given by    

,stephenson1 of the depth1 width1 and   
length of the lava currents1 by         
reference to the ,,ms4 of ,mr4          
,paulson1 who visited the tract in      
#agid1 and examined the lava            
with attention4 7,journal of a          
,residence in ,iceland1 c4 p4           
#bbi47 ,some of the principal facts are 
also corroborated by ,sir               
,william ,hooker1 in his ,tour in       
,iceland1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abh4    #ehe     
,henderson's ,journal1 c4 p4 #bbh4      
#ehf ,jameson's ,phil4 ,journ4 vol4     
xxvi4 p4 #bia4    #ehg ,tableau des     
,terrains qui composent l',ecorce du    
,globe1 p4         #eb4 ,paris1 #ahbi4  
#ehh ,daubeny on ,volcanoes1 p4 #ccg4   
#ehi ,see ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 p4     
#bfg4    #eij ,leonhard and ,bronn's    
,neues ,jahrbuch1 #ahce1 p4 #cf4    #eia
 ,van der ,boon ,mesch1 de ,incendiis   
,montium ,javae1 c4 ,lugd4         ,bat4
 #ahbf2 and ,official ,report of the    
,president1 ,baron ,van der             
,capellen2 also1 ,von ,buch1 ,iles      

,canar4 p4 #dbd4    #eib ,journ4 de     
,gaol4 tome i4    #eic ,in a former     
edition1 ,i selected the name of        
,sciacca out         of seven which had 
been proposed2 but the ,royal and       
,geographical ,societies have now       
adopted ,graham ,island2 a name         
given by ,capt4 ,senhouse1 ,r4 ,n41 the 
first who succeeded in         landing  
on it4 ,the seven rival names are       
,nerita1 ,ferdinanda1         ,hotham1  
,graham1 ,corrao1 ,sciacca1 ,julia4 ,as 
the isle was         visible for only   
about three months1 this is an instance 
of a         wanton multiplication of   
synonyms which has scarcely ever been   
outdone even in the annals of zoology   
and botany4    #eid ,phil4 ,trans4      
#ahcb1 p4 #bee4    #eie ,journ4 of ,roy4
 ,geograph4 ,soc4 #ahcj-ca4    #eif     
,phil4 ,trans4 part4 ii4 #ahcb1 reduced 
from drawings by         ,capt4         
,wodehouse1 ,r4 ,n4    #eig ,in the     
annexed sketch 7fig4 #fj71 drawn by ,m4 
,joinville1         who accompanied ,m4 

,c4 ,prevost1 the beds seem to slope    
towards         the centre of the       
crater2 but ,i am informed by ,m4       
,prevost that         these lines were  
not intended by the artist to represent 
the         dip of the beds4    #eih    
,see ,memoir by ,m4 ,c4 ,prevost1 ,ann4 
des ,sci4 ,nat4 tom4         xxiv4      
#eii ,geol4 of ,fife and the ,lothians1 
p4 #da4 ,edin4 #ahci4    #fjj ,phil4    
,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #bdc4    #fja ,ibid4  
p4 #bdi4    #fjb ,darwin's ,volcanic    
,islands1 p4 #ib4    #fjc ,ibid4 p4 #f4 
#fjd ,this account was principally      
derived by ,von ,buch from         the  
,,ms4 of ,don ,andrea ,lorenzo ,curbeto1
 curate of ,yaira1 the         point    
where the eruption began4--,ueber einen 
vulcanischen         ,ausbruch auf der  
,insel ,lanzerote4    #fje ,farussac1   
,bulletin des ,sci4 ,nat4 tome v4 p4    
#de3 #ahbe4    #fjf ,comptes ,rendus    
,acad4 ,sci4 ,paris1 ,juin1 #ahdf4      
#fjg ,virlet1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 
de ,france1 tom4 iii4 p4         #ajc4  

#fjh ,phil4 ,trans4 ,no4 #ccb4    #fji  
,e4 ,forbes1 ,brit4 ,association1       
,report for #ahdc4    #faj ,see a paper 
read to the ,geographical ,society in   
#ahdi4    #faa ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4
 de ,france1 tome iii4    #fab ,virlet1 
,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1   
tome iii4 p4         #ajc4    #fac      
,poggendorf's ,annalen1 #ahcf1 p4 #ahc4 
#fad ,see ,admiralty ,chart1 with views 
and sections1 #ahdb4    #fae ,for height
 of cone and references1 see ,buist1    
,volcanoes         of ,india1 ,trans4   
,bombay ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 x4 p4 #adc4   
#faf ,humboldt's ,cosmos4    #fag       
,daubeny1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #bfg4    #fah  
,see ,buist1 ,volcanoes of ,india1      
,trans4 ,bombay ,geol4 ,soc4            
vol4 x4 p4 #aed1 and ,captain           
,robertson1 ,journ4 of ,roy4 ,asiat4    
,soc4 #ahej4    #fai ,see ,glossary4    
#fbj ,bunsen1 ,volcanic ,rocks of       
,iceland4    #fba ,bulletin de la ,soc4 
,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bjf4    
#fbb ,since the publication of the first

 edition of this work1         numerous 
accounts of recent earthquakes have been
 published2         but as they do not  
illustrate any new principle1 ,i cannot 
insert them1 as they would enlarge too  
much the size of my         work4 ,the  
late ,von ,hoff published from time to  
time1 in         ,poggendorf's ,annalen1
 lists of earthquakes which happened    
between #ahba and #ahcf2 and1 by        
consulting these1 the reader            
will perceive that every month is       
signalized by one or many               
convulsions in some part of the globe4  
,see also ,mallet's         ,dynamics of
 ,earthquakes1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,irish     
,acad4 #ahdf2 and         ,earthquakes1 
,admiralty ,manual1 #ahdi2 also         
,hopkins' ,report1         ,brit4       
,assoc4 #ahdg-h4    #fbc ,darwin1 ,geol4
 ,proceedings1 vol4 ii4 p4 #feh4    #fbd
 ,dumoulin1 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acad4
 des ,sci4 ,oct4 #ahch1         p4 #gjf4
    #fbe ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcf1 p4 #ba4  
#fbf ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf4    #fbg      

,darwin's ,journ4 of ,travels in ,south 
,america1 ,voyage of         ,beagle1 p4
 #cgb4    #fbh ,biblioth4 ,univ4 ,oct4  
#ahbh1 p4 #aeg4    #fbi ,phil4 ,mag4    
,july #ahbh1 p4 #cg4    #fcj ,geol4     
,trans4 vol4 i4 #b;d ser41 and ,journ4  
of ,sci4 #ahbd1         vol4 xvii4 p4   
#dj4    #fca ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 i4 #b;d
 ser4 p4 #dae4    #fcb ,journ4 of ,sci4 
vol4 xvii4 p4 #db4    #fcc ,reise um die
 ,erde2 and see ,dr4 ,meyen's letter    
cited         ,foreign ,quart4 ,rev4    
,no4 #cc1 p4 #ac1 #ahcf4    #fcd ,geol4 
,soc4 ,proceedings1 ,no4 xl4 p4 #agi1   
,feb4 #ahce4    #fce ,proceed4 ,geol4   
,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ddg4    #fcf ,geol4  
,trans4 vol4 i4 #b;d ser4 p4 #dae4      
#fcg ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xvii4   
pp4 #dj1 #de4    #fch ,see ,asiatic     
,journal1 vol4 i4    #fci ,macmurdo ,ed4
 ,phil4 ,journ4 iv4 #ajf4    #fdj ,i was
 indebted to my friend the late ,sir    
,alexander         ,burnes for the      
accompanying sketch 7fig4 #gb7 of the   
fort of         ,sindree1 as it appeared

 eleven years before the earthquake4    
#fda ,this ,memoir is now in the        
,library of the ,royal ,asiatic         
,society of ,london4    #fdb ,several   
particulars not given in the earlier    
edition         were afterwards obtained
 by me from personal communication      
with ,sir ,a4 ,burnes in ,london4       
#fdc ,capt4 ,burnes' ,account4    #fdd  
,capt4 ,macmurdo's ,memoir1 ,ed4 ,phil4 
,journ4 vol4 iv4 p4         #ajf4       
#fde ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ii4 p4 
#ajc4    #fdf ,,ms4 of ,j4 ,crawfurd1   
,esq4    #fdg ,raffles' ,java1 vol4 i4  
p4 #bh4    #fdh ,raffles' ,hist1 of     
,java1 vol4 i4 p4 #be4 ,ed4 ,phil       
,journ4         vol4 iii4 p4 #chi4      
#fdi ,life and ,services of ,sir        
,stamford ,raffles1 p4 #bda4            
,london1 #ahcj4    #fej ,humboldt's     
,pers4 ,nar4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ab2 and ,ed4  
,phil4         ,journ4 vol4 i4 p4 #bgb3 
#ahai4    #fea ,cramer's ,navigator1 p4 
#bdc4 ,pittsburgh1 #ahba4    #feb       
,long's ,exped4 to the ,rocky           

,mountains1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ahd4    #fec  
,silliman's ,journ4 ,jan4 #ahbi4    #fed
 ,see ,lyell's ,second ,visit to the    
,united ,states1 ch4         xxxiii4    
#fee ,bemerkungen auf einer ,reise um   
die ,welt4 bd4 ii4 s4 #bji4    #fef     
,neue ,allgem4 ,geogr4 ,ephemer4 bd4    
iii4 s4 #cdh4    #feg ,cavanilles1      
,journ4 de ,phys4 tome xlix4 p4 #bcj4   
,gilbert's         ,annalen1 bd4 vi4    
,humboldt's ,voy4 p4 #cag4    #feh      
,humboldt's ,voy41 ,relat4 ,hist41 part4
 i4 p4 #cji4    #fei ,macgregor's       
,travels in ,america4    #ffj           
,humboldt's ,voy41 ,relat4 ,hist41 part4
 ii4 p4 #fcb4    #ffa ,ferrara1 ,camp4  
fl41 p4 #ea4    #ffb ,batav4 ,trans1    
vol4 viii4 p4 #ada4    #ffc ,istoria    
de',tremuoti della ,calabria del #aghc4 
#ffd ,descriz de',tremuoti ,accad4 nelle
 ,calabria nel #aghc4         ,napoli1  
#aghd4    #ffe ,istoria de' ,fenomeni   
del ,tremoto1 c41 nell' ,an4 #aghc1     
posta in luce dalla ,real4 ,accad41 c4  
di ,nap4 ,napoli1 #aghc1         fol4   

#fff ,dissertation on the ,calabrian    
,earthquake1 c41         translated in  
,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 vol4
 v4    #ffg ,proceed4 ,roy4 ,irish      
,acad4 #ahdf1 p4 #bf4    #ffh ,journal  
of a ,naturalist1 p4 #cgf1 and ii4 ib4  
#cjh4    #ffi ,proceedings ,roy4 ,irish 
,acad4 #ahdf1 pp4 #ad-af4    #fgj ,see  
,mr4 ,mallet's attempt to controvert    
this view1 p4 #cb         ibid4    #fga 
,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 lxxiii4 p4 #ahj4    
#fgb ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1
 vol4 v4 as cited above1         p4     
#dee1 note4    #fgc ,dolomieu1 ibid4    
#fgd ,sir ,h4 ,davy's ,consolations in  
,travel1 p4 #bdf4    #fge ,dr4          
,horsfield1 ,batav4 ,trans4 vol4 viii4  
p4 #bf4 ,dr4 ,h4         informs me that
 he has seen this truncated mountain2   
and1         though he did not ascend   
it1 he has conversed with those who     
have examined it4 ,raffles' account     
7,history of ,java1 vol4 i47         is 
derived from ,horsfield4    #fgf ,essai 
sur l',hist4 ,nat4 de l',isle de ,st4   

,domingue4 ,paris1         #aggf4       
#fgg ,hist4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences4  
#ageb1 ,paris4    #fgh ,m',clelland's   
,report on ,min4 ,resources of ,india3  
#ahch1         ,calcutta4 ,for other    
particulars1 see ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4    
liii4    #fgi ,journ4 ,asiat4 ,soc4     
,bengal1 vol4 x4 pp4 #cea1 #dcc4    #fhj
 ,hist1 and ,philos4 of ,earthquakes1 p4
 #cag4    #fha ,cosmos1 vol4 i4    #fhb 
,rev4 ,c4 ,davy's ,letters1 vol4 ii4    
,letter ii4 p4 #ab1 who         was at  
,lisbon at the time1 and ascertained    
that the boats and         vessels said 
to have been swallowed were missing4    
#fhc ,on the ,formation of the ,earth1  
p4 #ee4    #fhd ,geol4 ,soc4            
,proceedings1 ,no4 #fj1 p4 #cf4 #ahch4  
#fhe ,michell on ,earthquakes1 ,phil4   
,trans4 vol4 li4 p4 #eff4         #agfj4
    #fhf ,michell1 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4  
li4 p4 #fad4    #fhg ,quarterly ,review1
 ,no4 lxxxvi4 p4 #dei4    #fhh ,darwin's
 ,travels in ,south ,america1 c41 #ahcb 
to #ahcf4         ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4

 ,beagle1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cgg4    #fhi    
,ann4 de ,ch4 et de ,ph41 tom4 xxii4 p4 
#dbh4    #fij ,mallet1 ,proceed4 ,roy4  
,irish ,acad4 #ahdf4    #fia ,see       
,father ,acosta's work2 and ,sir        
,woodbine ,parish1 ,geol         ,soc4  
,proceedings1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bae4    #fib 
,molina1 ,hist4 of ,chili1 vol4 ii4     
#fic ,captain ,belcher has shown me     
these shells1 and the         collection
 has been examined by ,mr4 ,broderip4   
#fid ,ulloa's ,voyage to ,south         
,america1 vol4 ii4 book viii4 ch4       
vi4    #fie ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 book vii4   
ch4 vii4    #fif ,ulloa's ,voyage1 vol4 
ii4 p4 #hb4    #fig ,wafer1 cited by    
,sir ,w4 ,parish1 ,geol4 ,soc4          
,proceedings1         vol4 ii4 p4 #bae4 
#fih ,hist4 of ,america1 decad4 iii4    
book xi4 ch4 i4    #fii ,darwin's       
,journal1 p4 #dea4    #gjj ,ibid4 p4    
#dac4    #gja ,misspelt ,sales in       
,hooke's ,account4    #gjb ,hooke's     
,posthumous ,works1 p4 #dcg4 #agje4     
#gjc ,phil4 ,trans4 #agjj4    #gjd      

,humboldt1 ,atl4 ,pit4 p4 #ajf4    #gje 
,phil4 ,trans4 #afic-d4    #gjf ,phil4  
,trans4 #afic4    #gjg ,manual of ,geol4
 p4 #acc1 second edition4    #gjh ,vol4 
i4 p4 #bce1 #hvo ed4 #c vols4 #ahja4    
#gji ,letter to the ,author1 ,may1      
#ahch4    #gaj ,phil4 ,trans4 #afid4    
#gaa ,this view of the temple           
7substituted for one by ,a4 de          
,jorio1 given in the earlier editions7  
has been reduced from         part of a 
beautiful colored drawing taken in      
#ahcf1 with the         aid of the      
camera lucida1 by ,mr4 l',anson to      
illustrate a paper         by ,mr4      
,babbage on the temple1 read ,march1    
#ahcd1 and published         in the     
,quart4 ,journ4 of the ,geol4 ,soc4 of  
,london1 vol4 iii4         #ahdg4       
#gab ,mr4 ,babbage examined this spot in
 company with ,sir         ,edmund ,head
 in ,june1 #ahbh1 and has shown me      
numerous specimens         of the shells
 collected there1 and in the ,temple of 
,serapis4    #gac ,this view is taken   

from ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 ,campi         
,phlegraei1         plate #bf4    #gad  
,this spot here indicated on the summit 
of the cliff is         that from which 
,hamilton's view1 plate #bf1 ,campi     
,phlegraei         7reduced in fig4 #hh1
 p4 #eji7 is taken1 and on which1 he    
says1         ,cicero's villa1 called   
the ,academia1 anciently stood4    #gae 
,on the authority of ,captain ,w4 ,h4   
,smyth1 ,r4 ,n4    #gaf ,dissertazione  
sulla ,sagra ,archittetura degli        
,antichi4    #gag ,this appears from the
 measurement of ,captain ,basil ,hall1  
,r4 ,n41 ,proceedings of ,geol4 ,soc41  
,no4 #ch1 p4 #aad2 see also             
,patchwork1 by the same author1 vol4    
iii4 p4 #aeh4 ,the fact of         the  
three standing columns having been each 
formed out of a         single stone was
 first pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,james 
,hall1         and is important1 as     
helping to explain why they were not    
shaken down4    #gah ,modiola           
lithophaga1 ,lam4 ,mytilus lithophagus1 

,linn4    #gai ,serpula contortuplicata1
 ,linn41 and ,vermilia                  
triquetra1 ,lam4 ,these species1 as well
 as the ,lithodomus1         are now    
inhabitants of the neighboring sea4     
#gbj ,brieslak1 ,voy4 dans la ,campanie1
 tom4 ii4 p4 #afg4    #gba ,ed4 ,journ4 
of ,science1 new series1 ,no4 ,,ii4 p4  
#bha4    #gbb ,sul ,tempio di ,serap4   
ch4 viii4    #gbc ,tavola ,metrica      
,chronologica1 c4 ,napoli1 #ahch4 ,mr4  
,smith1 of ,jordan ,hill1 writing in    
#ahdg1 estimated the rate of            
subsidence1 at that period1 at one inch 
annually4 ,quart4         ,journ4 ,geol4
 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bcg4    #gbd ,voy4 
dans la ,campanie1 tome ii4 p4 #afb4    
#gbe ,mr4 ,forbes1 ,physical ,notices of
 the ,bay of ,naples4 ,ed4              
,journ4 of ,sci41 ,no4 ,,ii41 new       
series1 p4 #bhj4 ,october1 #ahbi4       
,when ,i visited ,puzzuoli1 and arrived 
at the above conclusions1         ,i    
knew nothing of ,mr4 ,forbes's          
observations1 which ,i first saw        

on my return to ,england the year       
following4    #gbf ,quart4 ,journ4      
,geol4 ,soc4 #ahdg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjc4  
#gbg ,nuove ,ricerche sul ,temp4 di     
,serap4    #gbh ,the ,swedish measure   
scarcely differs from ours2 the foot    
being divided into twelve inches1 and   
being less than ours by                 
three-eighths of an inch only4    #gbi  
,for a full account of the ,celsian     
controversy1 we may         refer our   
readers to ,von ,hoff1 ,geschichte1 c4  
vol4 i4 p4 #dci4    #gcj ,piteo1 ,luleo1
 and ,obo are spelt1 in many ,english   
maps1         ,pitea1 ,lulea1 ,abo2 the 
a is not sounded in the ,swedish        
diphthong ao or a4    #gca ,sect4 #cic4 
#gcb ,sect4 #cih4    #gcc ,transl4 of   
his ,travels1 p4 #chg4    #gcd ,in the  
earlier editions ,i expressed many      
doubts as to         the validity of the
 proofs of a gradual rise of land in    
,sweden4 ,a detailed statement of the   
observations which ,i made         in   
#ahcd1 and which led me to change my    

opinion1 will be found         in the   
,philosophical ,transactions for #ahce1 
part i4    #gce ,see ,professor         
,johnston's ,paper1 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4    
,journ4 ,no4         #bi1 ,july #ahcc2  
and my remarks1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4
 #ab4    #gcf ,see p4 #ebb2 also chap4  
#ae1 supra4    #gcg ,see a paper by the 
,author1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 part i4  
#gch ,see my paper before referred to1  
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahhe1 part         i4 p4
 #h1 #i4 ,attempts have been since made 
to explain away the         position of 
this hut1 by conjecturing that a more   
recent         trench had been          
previously dug here1 which had become   
filled         up in time by sand       
drifted by the wind4 ,the engineers who 
superintended the works in #ahai1 and   
with whom ,i conversed1         had     
considered every hypothesis of the kind1
 but could not so         explain the   
facts4    #gci ,quart4 ,journ4 of ,geol4
 ,soc4 ,no4 #d1 p4 #ecd4 ,m4 ,bravais'  
observations were verified in #ahdi by  

,mr4 ,r4 ,chambers in his               
,tracings of ,n4 of ,europe1 p4 #bjh4   
#gdj ,see ,proceedings of ,geol4 ,soc4  
,no4 #db1 p4 #bjh4 ,i also              
conversed with ,dr4 ,pingel on the      
subject at ,copenhagen in         #ahcd4
    #gda ,keilhau1 ,bulletin de la ,soc4
 ,gaol de ,france1 tom4 vii4         p4 
#ah4    #gdb ,illust4 of ,hutt4 ,theory1
 ,section #dce-ddc4    #gdc ,herschel's 
,astronomy1 chap4 iii4    #gdd ,see     
,hennessy1 ,on ,changes in ,earth's     
,figure1 c4 ,journ4         ,geol4 ,soc4
 ,dublin1 #ahdi2 and ,proc4 ,roy4 ,irish
 ,acad4 vol4 iv4         p4 #ccg4       
#gde ,young's ,lectures1 and ,mrs4      
,somerville's ,connection of         the
 ,physical ,sciences1 p4 #ij4    #gdf   
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahci1 and ,researches in
 ,physical ,geology1         #ast1 #b;d1
 and #c;d series1 ,london1 #ahci-ahdb2  
also on ,phenomena         and ,theory  
of ,volcanoes1 ,report ,brit4 ,assoc4   
#ahdg4    #gdg ,ed4 ,journ4 of ,sci4    
,april1 #ahcb4    #gdh ,cordier1 ,mam4  

de l',instit4 tom4 vii4    #gdi ,pog4   
,ann4 tom4 xv4 p4 #aei4    #gej ,see ,m4
 ,cordier's ,memoir on the ,temperature 
of the         ,interior of the ,earth1 
read to the ,academy of ,sciences1 #dth 
,june1 #ahbg4--;,edin4 ,new ,phil4      
,journal1 ,no4 viii4 p4 #bgc4    #gea   
,cordier1 ,mam4 de l',instit4 tom4 vii4 
#geb ,phil4 ,mag4 and ,ann4 ,feb4 #ahcj4
    #gec ,the heat was measured in      
,wedgwood's pyrometer by the            
contraction of pure clay1 which is      
reduced in volume when         heated1  
first by the loss of its water of       
combination1 and         afterwards1 on 
the application of more intense heat1 by
         incipient vitrification4 ,the  
expansion of platina is the test        
employed by ,mr4 ,daniell in his        
pyrometer1 and this has been            
found to yield uniform and constant     
results1 such as are in         perfect 
harmony with conclusions drawn from     
various other         independent       
sources4 ,the instrument for which the  

author         received the ,rumford    
,medal from the ,royal ,society1 in     
#ahcc1 is         described in the      
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj1 part ii41 and     
#ahca1 part         ii4    #ged ,the    
above remarks are reprinted verbatim    
from my third         edition1 ,may1    
#ahcd4 ,a memoir was afterwards         
communicated by ,m4         ,poisson to 
the ,academy of ,sciences1 ,january1    
#ahcg1 on the         solid parts of the
 globe1 containing an epitome of a work 
entitled ,thaorie ,mathamatique de la   
,chaleur1 published in         #ahce4   
,in this memoir he controverts the      
doctrine of the high         temperature
 of a central fluid on similar grounds  
to those         above stated4 ,he      
imagines1 that if the globe ever passed 
from         a liquid to a solid state  
by radiation of heat1 the central       
nucleus must have begun to cool and     
consolidate first4    #gee ,consolations
 in ,travel1 p4 #bga4    #gef ,phil4    
,trans4 #ahcj1 p4 #cii4    #geg         

,biblioth4 ,univers4 #ahcc1             
,electricita4    #geh ,phil4 ,trans4    
#ahcb1 p4 #agf2 also pp4 #agb1 #agc1 c4 
#gei ,hist4 ,mundi1 lib4 ii4 c4 #ajg4   
#gfj ,reduced1 by permission1 from a    
figure in plate #dj of ,sir         ,h4 
,de la ,beche's ,geological ,sections   
and ,views4    #gfa ,phil4 ,trans4      
#ahbh1 p4 #bej4    #gfb ,geology of     
,american ,exploring ,expedition1 p4    
#cfi4    #gfc ,davy1 ,phil4 ,trans4     
#ahbh1 p4 #bdd4    #gfd ,ann4 de ,chim4 
et de ,phys4 tom4 iii4 p4 #aha4    #gfe 
,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #bdj4    #gff  
,ann4 de ,chim4 et de ,phys4 tom4 xxii4 
#gfg ,quart4 ,journ4 of ,sci4 #ahbc1 p4 
#acb1 note by editor4    #gfh ,phenom4  
,gaol4 c4 p4 #c4    #gfi ,phil4 ,trans4 
#ahbh4    #ggj ,see ,daubeny1 ,encyc4   
,metrop4 part #dj4    #gga ,jam4 ,ed4   
,new ,phil4 ,journ4 ,no4 li4 p4 #ca4    
#ggb ,see ,daubeny's ,reply to          
,bischoff1 ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4       
,journ4 ,no4 lii4 p4 #bia2 and note in  
,no4 liii4 p4 #aeh4    #ggc ,poggend4   

,ann4 #ahea translated1 ,sci4 ,mem4     
#aheb4    #ggd ,proceed4 ,americ4       
,assoc4 #ahdi4    #gge ,reduced from a  
sketch given by ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker1 in
 his         ,tour in ,iceland1 vol4 i4 
p4 #adi4    #ggf ,journal of a          
,residence in ,iceland1 p4 #gd4    #ggg 
,mackenzie's ,iceland4    #ggh ,,ms4    
read to ,geol4 ,soc4 of ,london1 ,feb4  
#bi1 #ahcb4    #ggi ,from ,sir ,george  
,mackenzie's ,iceland4    #ghj ,see ,mr4
 ,horner's ,anniversary ,address1       
,quart4 ,journ4         ,geol4 ,soc4    
#ahdg1 liii4    #gha ,liebig's ,annalen 
der ,chimie und ,pharmacie1 translated  
in         ,reports and ,memoirs of     
,cavendish ,soc4 ,london1 #ahdh4    #ghb
 ,on the ,cause and ,phenomena of       
,earthquakes1 ,phil4 ,trans4            
vol4 li4 sec4 #eh1 #agfj4    #ghc       
,trans4 of ,assoc4 of ,american ,geol4  
#ahdj-ahdb1 p4 #ebj4    #ghd ,mallet1 p4
 #ci4    #ghe ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 pp4
 #eh-fj4    #ghf ,archiac1 ,hist1 des   
,progras de la ,gaol1 #ahdg1 vol4 i4 pp4

         #fje-faj4    #ghg ,silliman's  
,american ,journ4 vol4 xxii4 p4 #acf4   
,the         application of these       
results to the theory of earthquakes was
         first suggested to me by ,mr4  
,babbage4    #ghh ,bulletin de la ,soc4 
,gaol4 #b;d series1 vol4 iv4 p4 #acab4  
#ghi ,see p4 #dfh4    #gij ,phil4 ,zool4
 tom4 i4 p4 #hd4    #gia ,phil4 ,zool4  
tom4 i4 p4 #fb4    #gib ,ibid4    #gic  
,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #bbg4    #gid  
,ibid4 p4 #bcb4    #gie ,phil4 ,zool4   
tom4 i4 p4 #bcd4    #gif ,phil4 ,zool4  
p4 #fd4    #gig ,animaux sans ,vert4    
tom4 i4 p4 #ef1 ,introduction4    #gih  
,lamarck's ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4     
#cef4    #gii ,ibid4 p4 #ceg4    #hjj   
,genus omne est naturale1 in primordio  
tale creatum1 c4         ,phil4 ,bot4   
,section #aei4 ,see also ibid4 ,section 
#afb4    #hja ,cuvier1 ,discours        
,pralimin4 p4 #abh4    #hjb ,phil4      
,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #bff4    #hjc ,dureau 
de la ,malle1 ,an4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 tom4 
xxi4 p4 #ec4         ,sept4 #ahcj4      

#hjd ,disc4 ,pral4 p4 #aci4 sixth       
edition4    #hje ,ibid4    #hjf         
,guldenstadt1 cited by ,pritchard1      
,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1         vol4 
i4 p4 #if4    #hjg ,history of ,british 
,quadrupeds1 p4 #bjj4 #ahcg4    #hjh    
,ann4 du ,musaum d',hist4 ,nat4 tom4 i4 
p4 #bcd4 #ahjb4 ,the         reporters  
were ,,mm4 ,cuvier1 ,lacapede1 and      
,lamarck4    #hji ,i by no means wish to
 express an opinion that seeds          
cannot retain their vitality after an   
entombment of #c1jjj         years2 but 
one of my botanical friends who         
entertained a         philosophical     
doubt on this subject1 being desirous of
         ascertaining the truth of three
 or four alleged instances of           
the germination of mummy wheat1         
discovered1 on communicating            
with several ,egyptian travellers1 that 
they had procured the         grains in 
question1 not directly from the         
catacombs1 but from         the ,arabs1 
who are always ready to supply strangers

 with an         article now very       
frequently in demand4 ,the presence of  
an         occasional grain of ,indian  
corn or maize in several of the         
parcels of grain shown to my friend as  
coming from the         catacombs       
confirmed his scepticism4    #haj ,phil4
 ,zool41 tom4 i4 p4 #bbg4    #haa       
,l',origine et la ,patrie des ,caraales1
 c41 ,annales des         ,sciences     
,natur41 tom4 ix4 p4 #fa4    #hab       
,smith's ,introduction to ,botany1 p4   
#ach1 edit4 #ahjg4    #hac ,see ,mr4    
,knight's ,observations1 ,hort ,trans41 
vol4 ii4 p4         #afj4    #had ,hort4
 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ai4    #hae       
,loudon's ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,sept4 
#ahcj1 vol4 iii4 p4         #djh4       
#haf ,hort4 ,trans4 vol4 iii4 p4 #agc4  
#hag ,m4 ,roulin1 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 
tom4 xvi4 p4 #af4 #ahbi4    #hah ,mem4  
du ,mus4 d',hist4 ,nat4--,jameson1 ,ed4 
,new ,phil4 ,journ4         ,nos4 #f1   
#g1 #h4    #hai ,in the ,new ,forest1   
near ,ringwood1 ,hants1 by ,mr4 ,toomer1

         keeper of ,broomy ,lodge4 ,i   
have conversed with witnesses of the    
fact4    #hbj ,mam4 du ,mus4 d',hist4   
,nat4    #hba ,dureau de la ,malle4     
,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 tom4 xxi4 p4 #eh4
    #hbb ,darwin's ,journ4 in ,voyage of
 ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle1 p4 #dge4    #hbc    
,fauna ,boreali-,americana1 p4 #bgc4    
#hbd ,mr4 ,corse on the ,habits1 c4 of  
the ,elephant1 ,phil4         ,trans41  
#agii4    #hbe ,linn4 ,trans4 vol4 xiii4
 p4 #bdd4    #hbf ,pers4 ,narr4 of      
,travels to the ,equinoctial ,regions of
 the         ,new ,continent in the     
years #aggi-ahjd4    #hbg ,phil4 ,trans4
 #aghg4 ,additional ,remarks1 ,phil4    
,trans4         #aghi4 ,see also ,essays
 by the late ,dr4 ,samuel ,g4 ,morton1  
on         ,prolific ,hybrids1 c42 and  
on ,hybridity as a ,test of             
,species4--,american ,journ4 of         
,science1 vol4 iii4 #ahdg4    #hbh      
,prichard1 vol4 i4 p4 #bag4    #hbi     
,ibid4 p4 #ig4    #hcj ,see ,barton on  
the ,geography of ,plants1 p4 #fg4      

#hca ,georg4 lib4 iii4 #bgc4    #hcb    
,hon4 and ,rev4 ,w4 ,herbert1 ,hort4    
,trans41 vol4 iv4 p4 #da4    #hcc ,ibid4
    #hcd ,essai ,elamentaire1 c41 #cme  
partie4    #hce ,intr4 to ,entom4 vol4  
ii4 p4 #ejd4 ed4 #ahag4    #hcf         
,prichard's ,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1  
vol4 i4 p4 #aei4    #hcg ,ch4 ,white on 
the ,regular ,gradation in ,man1 c4     
#agii4    #hch ,r4 ,g4 ,latham1 ,the    
,nat4 ,hist4 of the ,varieties of ,man1 
#hvo4 ,london1 #ahej4    #hci ,lawrence1
 ,lectures on ,phys4 ,zool4 and ,nat4   
,hist4 of ,man1         p4 #aij4 ,ed4   
#ahbc4    #hdj ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,serres1     
,anatomie comparae du ,cerveau1         
illustrated by numerous plates1 tome i4 
#ahbd4    #hda ,barton's ,lectures on   
the ,geography of ,plants1 p4 #b4       
#ahbg4    #hdb ,pers4 ,nar41 vol4 v4 p4 
#ahj4    #hdc ,ibid4    #hdd ,essai     
,elamentaire de ,gaographie ,botanique4 
,extrait du         #ahme vol4 du ,dict4
 des ,sci4 ,nat4    #hde ,prichard1 vol4
 i4 p4 #cf4 ,brown1 ,appendix to        

,flinders4    #hdf ,foster1             
,observations1 c4    #hdg ,humboldt1    
,pers4 ,nar41 vol4 i4 p4 #bgj of the    
translation4         ,prichard1 ,phys4  
,hist4 of ,mankind1 vol4 i4 p4 #cg4     
#hdh ,voyage of the ,beagle1 #b;d       
edition1 #ahde1 p4 #cgg4    #hdi ,see a 
farther subdivision1 by which           
twenty-seven         provinces are made1
 by ,m4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 son of ,de
         ,candolle4 ,monogr4 des        
,campanulaes4 ,paris1 #ahcj4    #hej ,de
 ,candolle1 ,essai ,elamen4 de ,gaog4   
,botan41 p4 #de4    #hea ,i am indebted 
for the above sketch of distinct regions
         of algae to my friend ,dr4     
,joseph ,hooker1 who refers the         
botanical student to the labors of ,dr4 
,harvey1 of ,trinity         ,college1  
,dublin4    #heb ,annuaire du ,bureau   
des ,longitudes4    #hec ,linn41 ,tour  
in ,lapland1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhb4    #hed  
,fries1 cited by ,lindley1 ,introd4 to  
,nat4 ,syst4 of         ,botany4    #hee
 ,system of ,physiological ,botany1 vol4

 ii4 p4 #dje4    #hef ,brown1 ,append4  
to ,tuckey1 ,no4 v4 p4 #dha4    #heg    
,phil4 ,trans4 #afif4    #heh ,system of
 ,physiological ,botany1 vol4 ii4 p4    
#djc4    #hei ,greville1 ,introduction  
to ,algae ,britannicae1 p4 #ab4    #hfj 
,linnaeus1 ,amoen4 ,acad41 vol4 ii4 p4  
#dji4    #hfa ,amoen4 ,acad41 vol4 iv4  
,essay #ge4 ,section #h4    #hfb ,ibid41
 vol4 vi4 ,section #bb4    #hfc ,smith's
 ,introd4 to ,phys4 and ,syst4 ,botany1 
p4 #cjd4 #ahjg4    #hfd ,this           
information was communicated to me by   
,professor         ,henslow1 of         
,cambridge4    #hfe ,book iii4 ch4 iv4  
#hff ,de ,candolle1 ,essai ,elamen4 c41 
p4 #ej4    #hfg ,quarterly ,review1 vol4
 xxx4 p4 #h4    #hfh ,essay on the      
,habitable ,earth1 ,amoen4 ,acad41 vol4 
ii4 p4         #dji4    #hfi ,principles
 of ,botany1 p4 #chi4    #hgj ,ibid4    
#hga ,buffon1 vol4 v4--,on the          
,virginian ,opossum4    #hgb ,prichard's
 ,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1 vol4 i4 p4  
#ed4    #hgc ,in the above enumeration  

of the leading zoological               
provinces of land quadrupeds ,i have    
been most kindly assisted         by    
,mr4 ,waterhouse of the ,british        
,museum1 author of a most able          
and comprehensive work on the ,natural  
,history of the         ,mammalia1 now  
in the course of publication4 ,london1  
,bailliere1 #ahdf4    #hgd ,pennant's   
,hist4 of ,quadrupeds1 cited by         
,prichard1 ,phys4         ,hist4 of     
,mankind1 vol4 i4 p4 #ff4    #hge       
,natural ,history of the ,mammalia1 vol4
 i41 on the         ,marsupials4        
,london1 ,bailliere1 #ahdf4    #hgf     
,description of the ,equatorial         
,regions4    #hgg ,prichard1 ,phys4     
,hist41 of ,mankind1 vol4 i4 p4 #ge4    
#hgh ,buffon1 vol4 v4 p4 #bjd4    #hgi  
,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lauder1 ,bart41 on the    
,floods in ,morayshire1         ,aug4   
#ahbi1 p4 #cjb1 second edition4    #hhj 
,expedition from ,pittsburg to the      
,rocky ,mountains1 vol4         ii4 p4  
#aec4    #hha ,richardson's ,fauna      

,boreali-,americana1 p4 #af4    #hhb    
,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 ii4 p4 #hgb4       
#hhc ,wood's ,zoography1 vol4 i4 p4 #aa4
    #hhd ,on the authority of ,mr4      
,campbell4 ,library of ,entert4         
,know41 ,menageries4 vol4 i4 p4 #aeb4   
#hhe ,cuvier's ,animal ,kingdom by      
,griffiths1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aji4           
,library of ,entertaining ,knowledge1   
,menageries1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff4    #hhf   
,horsfield1 ,zoological ,researches in  
,java1 ,no4 ii41 from         which the 
figure is taken4    #hhg ,append4 to    
,parry's ,second ,voyage1 years         
#ahai-bj4    #hhh ,account of the       
,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4 #eah4      
#hhi ,turton in a note to ,goldsmith's  
,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 iii4 p4         #dc4 
#hij ,supplement to ,parry's ,first     
,voyage of ,discovery1 p4 #ahi4    #hia 
,goldman's ,american ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 
i4 p4 #bb4    #hib ,dr4 ,richardson1    
,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 vol4 v4 p4 #afa4
    #hic ,system of ,geography1 vol4 v4 
p4 #aeg4    #hid ,spix and ,martius1    

,reise1 c41 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ajaa4 #ajac4 
#hie ,sir ,w4 ,parish's ,buenos ,ayres1 
p4 #ahg41 and ,robertson's              
,letters on ,paraguay1 p4 #bbj4    #hif 
,united ,service ,journal1 ,no4 xxiv4 p4
 #fig4    #hig ,krantz1 vol4 i4 p4      
#abi41 cited by ,goldsmith1 ,nat4       
,hist41         vol4 iii4 p4 #bfj4      
#hih ,darwin's ,journal1 c41 p4 #dfa4   
#hii ,prichard1 vol4 i4 p4 #dg4    #ijj 
,bewick's ,birds1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bid41 who
 cites ,latham4    #ija ,pisa1 #ahbg    
7not sold74    #ijb ,bachman1           
,silliman's ,amer4 ,journ41 ,no4 #fa1 p4
 #ib4    #ijc ,voyage aux ,ragions      
,equinoxiales1 tome vii4 p4 #dbi4       
#ijd ,fleming1 ,phil4 ,zool41 vol4 ii4  
p4 #dc4    #ije ,silliman's ,amer4      
,journ41 ,no4 #fa4 p4 #hc4    #ijf      
,richardson1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 vol4 
v4 p4 #bjb4    #ijg ,brit4 ,animals1 p4 
#adi41 who cites ,sibbald4    #ijh      
,zool4 ,journ4 vol iii4 p4 #djf4 ,dec4  
#ahbg4    #iji ,sur les ,habitations des
 ,animaux ,marins4--,ann4 du ,mus41     

tome4 xv41 cited by ,prichard1 ,phys4   
,hist4 of ,mankind1 vol4 i4         p4  
#ea4    #iaj ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports1   
vol4 v4 p4 #bjc4    #iaa ,report to the 
,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahde1 p4 #aib4    #iab 
,richardson1 ibid4 p4 #aij4    #iac ,sir
 ,j4 ,richardson1 ibid4 p4 #aij4    #iad
 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agdg1 p4 #cie4    #iae 
,amoen4 ,acad41 ,essay #ge4    #iaf     
,report to the ,brit ,assoc4 #ahdc1 p4  
#acj4    #iag ,quart4 ,journ41 ,geol4   
,soc41 #ahdf1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfh4    #iah 
,four individuals of a large species of 
land shell         7,bulimus71 from     
,valparaiso1 were brought to ,england by
         ,lieutenant ,graves1 who       
accompanied ,captain ,king in his       
expedition to the ,straits of ,magellan4
 ,they had been packed up         in a  
box1 and enveloped in cotton3 two for a 
space of         thirteen1 one for      
seventeen1 and a fourth for upwards of  
twenty months3 but1 on being exposed by 
,mr4 ,broderip to the         warmth of 
a fire in ,london1 and provided with    

tepid water and         leaves1 they    
revived1 and lived for several months in
 ,mr4         ,loddiges' palm-house1    
till accidentally drowned4    #iai      
,camb4 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 iv4 #ahca4  
#ibj ,edin4 ,new ,phil4 ,journ41 ,april 
#ahdd4    #iba ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 
#cjc4    #ibb ,the specimen is preserved
 in the ,museum of the ,zool4           
,soc4 of ,london4    #ibc ,this specimen
 is in the collection of my friend ,mr4 
,broderip1 who observes1 that this crab1
 which was apparently         in perfect
 health1 could not have cast her shell  
for six         years1 whereas some     
naturalists have stated that the species
         moults annually1 without       
limiting the moulting period to the     
early stages of the growth of the       
animal4    #ibd ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4  
,soc41 vol4 iv4 p4 #ccf4    #ibe ,voy4  
aux ,terres ,australes1 tom4 i4 p4 #dib4
    #ibf ,gaographie ,ganarale des      
,insectes et des ,arachnides4 ,mam4     
du ,mus4 d',hist4 ,nat41 tom4 iii4      

#ibg ,kirby and ,spence1 vol4 iv4 p4    
#dhg2 and other authors4    #ibh ,kirby 
and ,spence1 vol4 iv4 p4 #dig4    #ibi  
,washington ,irving's ,tour in the      
,prairies1 ch4 ix4    #icj ,malte-,brun1
 vol4 v4 p4 #cgi4    #ica ,kirby and    
,spence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #i4 #ahag4    #icb 
,kirby and ,spence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ab4    
#ahag4    #icc ,i am indebted to        
,lieutenant ,graves1 ,r4,n41 for this   
information4    #icd ,i state this fact 
on the authority of my friend1 ,mr4     
,john ,curtis4    #ice ,brand's ,select 
,dissert4 from the ,amoen4 ,acad41 vol4 
i4         p4 #aah4    #icf ,ibid4      
#icg ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,consolations in   
,travel1 p4 #gd4    #ich ,w4 von        
,humboldt1 ,on the ,kawi ,language1 c4  
cited in         ,cosmos4 ,introduction4
    #ici ,egypten's ,stelle1 c4 ,egypt  
restored to her ,place in               
,universal ,history1 by ,c4 ,c4 ,j4     
,bunsen4 #ahde4    #idj ,for ,grecian   
and ,asiatic deluges1 see above1 p4     
#cef42         ,cimbrian1 p4 #cca41     

,chinese1 p4 #g4 ,peruvian1 p4 #ejb42   
,chilian         or ,araucanian deluge1 
p4 #ejj4    #ida ,see p4 #fae4    #idb  
,malte-,brun's ,geography1 vol4 iii4 p4 
#dai4    #idc ,chamisso states that the 
water which they brought up was         
cooler1 and in their opinion1 less salt4
 ,it is difficult to         conceive   
its being fresher near the bottom1      
except where         submarine springs  
may happen to rise4    #idd ,kotzebue's 
,voyage1 #ahae-ahah4 ,quarterly ,review1
 vol4         xxvi4 p4 #cfa4    #ide    
,narrative of a ,voyage to the ,pacific1
 c41 in the years         #ahbe1 #ahbf1 
#ahbg1 #ahbh1 p4 #agj4    #idf ,gloger1 
,aband4 der ,vogel1 p4 #ajc42 ,pallas1  
,zoog4         ,rosso-,asiat41 tom4 ii4 
p4 #aig4    #idg ,syst4 of ,geog41 vol4 
viii4 p4 #afi4    #idh ,de terra        
habitabili incremento2 also ,prichard1  
,phys4         ,hist1 of ,mankind1 vol4 
i4 p4 #ag41 where the hypotheses of     
different naturalists are enumerated4   
#idi ,necker1 ,phytozool4 ,philosoph4 p4

 #ba42 ,brocchi1 ,conch4         ,foss4 
,subap41 tome i4 p4 #bbi4    #iej       
,amoen4 ,acad4 vol4 vi4 p4 #ag4 ,section
 #ab4    #iea ,ibid4 vol4 vii4 p4 #dji4 
#ieb ,amoen4 ,acad41 vol4 vi4 p4 #ag4   
,section #aa1 #ab4    #iec ,kirby and   
,spence1 vol4 i4 p4 #agh4    #ied       
,amoen4 ,acad41 vol4 vi4 p4 #bf4        
,section #ad4    #iee ,kirby and        
,spence1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bah4    #ief      
,kirby and ,spence1 vol4 i4 p4 #bej4    
#ieg ,wilcke1 ,amoen4 ,acad4 c4 ii4     
#ieh ,kirby and ,spence1 vol4 i4 p4     
#agd4    #iei ,trans4 ,linn4 ,soc41 vol4
 vi4    #ifj ,lib4 ,ent4 ,know41 ,insect
 ,trans41 p4 #bjc4 ,see ,haworth1       
,lep4    #ifa ,reaumur1 ii4 #ccg4       
#ifb ,lib4 ,ent4 ,know41 ,insect        
,trans41 p4 #bab4    #ifc ,kirby and    
,spence1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahc4 ,castle1      
,phil4 ,trans41         xxx4 #cdf4      
#ifd ,travels in ,africa1 p4 #beg4      
,kirby and ,spence1 vol4 i4 p4          
#bae4    #ife ,journal of a ,residence  
in ,iceland1 p4 #bgf4    #iff ,tour in  

,iceland1 vol4 i4 p4 #fd1 #bnd edit4    
#ifg ,travels in ,brazil1 vol4 i4 p4    
#bfj4    #ifh ,ed4 ,phil4 ,journ41 ,no4 
xxii p4 #bhg4 ,oct4 #ahbd4    #ifi ,ray4
 ,syn4 ,quad41 p4 #bad4    #igj         
,fleming1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,journ41 ,no4     
xxii4 p4 #bie4    #iga ,fleming1 ibid41 
p4 #bib4    #igb ,vol4 iii4 ,london1    
#ahba4    #igc ,land ,birds1 vol4 i4 p4 
#caf4 ed4 #ahba4    #igd ,some have     
complained that inscriptions on         
tomb-stones         convey no general   
information1 except that individuals    
were         born and died1 accidents   
which must happen alike to all men4     
,but the death of a species is so       
remarkable an event in         natural  
history that it deserves commemoration1 
and it is with         no small interest
 that we learn1 from the archives of the
         ,university of ,oxford1 the    
exact day and year when the remains     
of the last specimen of the dodo1 which 
had been permitted to         rot in the
 ,ashmolean ,museum1 were cast away4    

,the relics1 we         are told1 were a
 musaeo subducta1 annuente              
vice-cancellario         aliisque       
curatoribus1 ad ea lustranda convocatis1
 die ,januarii         #hvo1 ,a4,d4     
#agee4 ,zool4 ,journ4 ,no4 #ab4 p4 #eei4
 #ahbh4    #ige ,penny ,cyclopaedia1    
,dodo4 #ahcg4    #igf ,messrs4          
,strickland and ,melville on the ,dodo  
and its         ,kindred4 ,london1      
#ahdh4    #igg ,pers4 ,nar4 vol4 iv4    
#igh ,quarterly ,review1 vol4 xxi4 p4   
#cce4    #igi ,ibid4    #ihj ,ulloa's   
,voyage4 ,wood's ,zoog4 vol4 i4 p4 #i4  
#iha ,buffon1 vol4 v4 p4 #ajj4 ,ulloa's 
,voyage1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj4    #ihb      
,travels in ,iceland in #ahaj1 p4 #cdb4 
#ihc ,maclaren1 art4 ,america1 ,encyc4  
,brit4    #ihd ,see a note on this      
subject1 chap4 x4 p4 #aeg4    #ihe ,see 
above1 p4 #cag4    #ihf ,darwin's       
,journal1 p4 #aef41 #b;d ed4 p4 #acc4   
,sir ,w4 ,parish1         ,buenos       
,ayres1 c4 p4 #cga4 and #aea4    #ihg   
,see above1 chap4 vii4 p4 #aab4    #ihh 

,see above1 chaps4 vi4 vii4 and viii4   
#ihi ,journ4 of ,nat4 ,hist4 c4 #b;d    
edit41 #ahde1 p4 #age2 also             
,lyell's #b;d ,visit to the ,united     
,states1 vol4 i4 p4 #cea4    #iij ,this 
and the preceding chapter1 on the causes
 of         extinction of species and   
their present geographical              
distribution1 are reprinted almost      
verbatim from the original              
edition of the second volume of ,the    
,principles1 published in               
,january1 #ahcb4 ,it was ,i believe the 
first attempt to point out         how  
former changes in the geography and     
local climate of many         parts of  
the globe must be taken into account    
when we endeavor         to explain the 
actual provinces of plants and animals1 
the         changes alluded to having   
been proved by geological evidence      
to be subsequent to the creation of a   
great proportion of the         species 
now living1 and these having been1      
according to the         view which ,i  

advocated1 introduced in succession1 and
 not all         at one geological      
epoch4 ,in my third volume1 published in
 ,may1         #ahcc1 ,i announced my   
conviction that the greater part of the 
existing ,fauna and ,flora of ,sicily   
were older than the         mountains1  
plains1 and rivers1 which the same      
species of         animals and plants   
now inhabit4 7,prin4 of ,geol41 vol4    
iii4 ch4         ix42 repeated in       
,elements of ,geol41 #b;d edit41 vol4 i4
 p4 #big47         ,this line of        
reasoning has since been ably followed  
up and         elucidated by ,professor 
,e4 ,forbes in an excellent paper       
7published in #ahdf7 already alluded to4
 7,see page #hf47    #iia ,essai        
,elamentaire1 c4 p4 #df4    #iib ,geog4 
des ,plantes4 ,diet4 des ,sci4    #iic  
,see ,catalogue of ,brit4 ,insects1 by  
,john ,curtis1 ,esq4    #iid ,see some  
good remarks on the ,formation of       
,soils1         ,bakewell's ,geology1   
chap4 xviii4    #iie ,see ,professor    

,sedgwick's ,anniversary ,address to the
         ,geological ,society1 ,feb4    
#ahca1 p4 #bd4    #iif ,treatise on     
,rivers and ,torrents1 p4 #e4 ,garston's
         translation4    #iig ,de la    
,beche1 ,geol4 ,man41 p4 #ahd41 #ast ed4
    #iih ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 ii4 p4    
#bid4    #iii ,maclaren1 art4 ,america1 
,encyc4 ,britannica4   #ajjj ,maclaren1 
art4 ,america1 ,encyc4 ,britannica1     
where the         position of the       
,american forests1 in accordance with   
this         theory1 is laid down in a  
map4   #ajja ,annuaire du ,bureau des   
,long4 #ahcd4   #ajjb ,since this was   
written ,i have seen in ,new ,brunswick 
7#aheb7 a lake formed by beavers who had
 thrown a dam1         consisting of    
stakes1 stones1 and mud1 across the     
course of a         small streamlet1    
between ,dorchester and the ,portage    
south of         the ,peticodiac river4 
,the beavers have since been extirpated 
by man1 but the lake remains1 and musk  
rats have taken         possession of   

the shallow parts of the lake to build  
their         habitations in them4      
#ajjc ,for a catalogue of plants which  
form peat1 see ,rev4 ,dr4               
,rennie's ,essays on ,peat1 p4 #aga2 and
 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch's ,western           
,isles1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4   #ajjd ,irish 
,bog ,reports1 p4 #bji4   #ajje ,system 
of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cec4   #ajjf  
,rev4 ,dr4 ,rennie on ,peat1 p4 #bfj4   
#ajjg ,darwin's ,journal1 p4 #cdi42 #b;d
 ed4 p4 #bhg4   #ajjh ,rennie's ,essays 
on ,peat1 p4 #fe4   #ajji ,ibid4 p4 #cj4
   #ajaj ,essays on ,peat1 c41 p4 #gd4  
#ajaa ,see above1 p4 #chh1 note4   #ajab
 ,ehrenberg1 ,taylor's ,scientific ,mem4
 vol4 i4 part iii4         p4 #djb4     
#ajac ,dr4 ,rennie1 on ,peat1 p4 #eba2  
where several other         instances   
are referred to4   #ajad ,phil4 ,trans41
 vol4 xxxviii4 #agcd4   #ajae ,dr4      
,rennie1 on ,peat1 c41 p4 #eba4   #ajaf 
,syst4 of ,geol4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cdj-cdf4 
#ajag ,ibid4 p4 #eca4   #ajah ,phil4    
,trans4 vol4 xv4 p4 #idi4   #ajai       

,gilpin1 ,observ4 on ,picturesque       
,beauty1 c41 #aggb4   #ajbj ,travels1   
c41 in #ahda1 #ahdb1 vol4 i4 p4 #adc4   
#ajba ,bulletin de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de   
,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bf4   #ajbb ,dr4  
,rennie1 ,essays on ,peat ,moss1 p4     
#bje4   #ajbc ,m4 ,g4 ,a4 ,de ,luc1     
,mercure de ,france1 ,sept4 #ahji4      
#ajbd ,see p4 #bfb4   #ajbe ,stratton1  
,ed4 ,phil4 ,journ41 ,no4 v4 p4 #fb4    
#ajbf ,travels in ,north ,africa in the 
,years #ahah1 #ahai1 and         #ahbj1 
p4 #hc4   #ajbg ,mam4 de l',acad4 des   
,sci4 de ,paris1 #aggb4 ,see also the   
case of the buried church of ,eccles1   
above1 p4 #cjf4   #ajbh ,phil4 ,trans41 
vol4 ii4 p4 #gbb4   #ajbi ,boase on     
,submersion of ,part of the ,mount's    
,bay1 c41         ,trans4 ,roy4 ,geol4  
,soc4 of ,cornwall1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adj4   
#ajcj ,narrative of ,journey from ,agra 
to ,oujein1 ,asiatic                    
,researches1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cf4   #ajca   
,asiatic ,journal1 vol4 ix4 p4 #ce4     
#ajcb ,see above1 p4 #dfj4   #ajcc ,sir 

,j4 ,malcolm's ,central ,india4         
,appendix1 ,no4 #b4 p4         #cbd4    
#ajcd ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lauder1 ,bart41 on  
,floods in ,morayshire1 ,aug4           
#ahci1 p4 #agg4   #ajce ,dodsley's ,ann4
 ,regist41 #aghh4   #ajcf ,edwards1     
,hist4 of ,west ,indies1 vol4 i4 p4     
#bce1 ed4         #ahja4   #ajcg ,journ4
 of ,asiat4 ,soc41 ,nos4 xxv4 and xxix41
 #ahcd4   #ajch ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4   
tom4 xxii4 p4 #aag1 ,feb4 #ahca4   #ajci
 ,malte-,brun's ,geog41 vol4 i4 p4 #dce4
   #ajdj ,bakewell1 ,travels in the     
,tarentaise1 vol4 i4 p4 #bja4   #ajda   
,nahum ,ward1 ,trans4 of ,antiq4 ,soc4  
of ,massachusetts4         ,holmes's    
,united ,states1 p4 #dch4   #ajdb ,bull4
 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4
 p4 #cbi4   #ajdc ,see above1 p4 #bdj4  
#ajdd ,see remarks by ,m4 ,boblaye1     
,ann4 des ,mines1 #cme sarie1           
tom4 iv4   #ajde ,ann4 des ,mines1 #cme 
sarie1 tom4 iv41 #ahcc4   #ajdf ,bull4  
de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 iii4
 p4 #bbc4   #ajdg ,mam4 de la ,soc4     

d',hist1 ,nat4 de ,paris1 tom4 iv4      
#ajdh ,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 p4 #ajh4  
#ajdi ,journ4 de ,gaol41 tom4 i4 p4     
#bhf4 ,july1 #ahcj4   #ajej ,reliquiae  
,diluvianae1 p4 #afe4   #ajea ,m4       
,marcel de ,serres1 ,gaognosie des      
,terrains ,tertiaires1         p4 #fd4  
,introduction4   #ajeb ,bull4 de la     
,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 pp4   
#ef-fc4   #ajec ,desnoyers1 ,bull4 de la
 ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4      
p4 #beb4   #ajed ,hist4 ,rom4 ,epit41   
lib4 iii4 c4 #aj4   #ajee ,buckland1    
,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 p4 #be4   #ajef 
,see above1 pp4 #gcj1 #gca4   #ajeg ,on 
the ,lake ,mountains of ,north of       
,england1 ,geol4 ,soc4         ,jan4 #e1
 #ahca4   #ajeh ,notes on ,geol4 of     
,cuba1 #ahcf1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,july1      
#ahcg4   #ajei ,see above1 p4 #fg4      
#ajfj ,account of the ,arctic ,regions1 
vol4 ii4 p4 #aic4   #ajfa ,ibid4 p4     
#bjb4   #ajfb ,dr4 ,richardson's        
,geognost ,obs4 on ,capt4 ,franklin's   
,polar ,expedition4   #ajfc             

,malte-,brun1 ,geog41 vol4 v4 part #a4  
p4 #aab4--;,brantz1         ,hist4 of   
,greenland1 tom4 #a4 pp4 #ec1 #ed4      
#ajfd ,olafsen1 ,voyage to ,iceland1    
tom4 i4--,malte-,brun's         ,geog41 
vol4 v4 part i4 p4 #aab4   #ajfe ,see   
above1 pp4 #cjc and #cbc4   #ajff ,geol4
 ,trans41 second series1 vol4 v4 p4     
#bab4   #ajfg ,goppert1 ,poggendorff's  
,annalen der ,physik und ,chemie1       
vol4 xxxviii4 part iv41 ,leipsic1 #ahcf4
 ,see also ,lyell's ,manual         of  
,geol41 p4 #dj4   #ajfh ,trans4 ,geol4  
,soc41 vol4 iii4 part i4 p4 #bja1 second
         series4   #ajfi ,sir ,t4 ,d4   
,lauder's ,account1 #b;d4 ed41 p4 #cab4 
#ajgj ,treatise on ,practical ,store    
,farming1 p4 #be4   #ajga ,sir ,t4 ,d4  
,lauder's ,floods in ,morayshire1 #ahbi2
 and         above1 p4 #aif4   #ajgb    
,humboldt's ,pers4 ,nar41 vol4 iv4 p4   
#cid4   #ajgc ,buenos ,ayres and ,la    
,plata1 p4 #ahg4   #ajgd ,malte-,brun's 
,geog41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bb4   #ajge ,this 
account ,i had from ,mr4 ,baumhauer1    

,director-,general         of ,finances 
in ,java4   #ajgf ,tracts on ,india1 p4 
#cig4   #ajgg ,scots ,mag41 vol4 xxxiii4
   #ajgh ,darwin's ,journal1 p4 #cgb4   
#b;d ed41 #ahde1 p4 #cjd4   #ajgi       
,narrative of ,discovery in ,egypt1 c41 
,london1 #ahbj4   #ajhj ,scots ,mag41   
vol4 xxxiii41 #agga4   #ajha ,quart4    
,journ4 of ,agricult41 ,no4 ix p4 #dcc4 
#ajhb ,caesar ,moreau's ,tables of the  
,navigation of ,great         ,britain4 
#ajhc ,i give these results on the      
authority of ,captain ,w4 ,h4           
,smyth1 ,r4 ,n4   #ajhd ,von ,hoff1 vol4
 i4 p4 #cgi4   #ajhe ,this account ,i   
received from the ,honorable and ,rev4  
,charles ,harris4   #ajhf ,von ,hoff1   
vol4 i4 p4 #cfh4   #ajhg ,lieut4        
,carless1 ,geograph4 ,journ41 vol4 viii4
 p4 #cch4   #ajhh ,silliman's ,geol4    
,lectures1 p4 #gh1 who cites ,penn4     
#ajhi ,leigh's ,lancashire1 p4 #ag1 ,a4 
,d4 #agjj4   #ajij ,geol4 ,trans41      
second series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hg4   #ajia 
,phil4 ,trans41 #agii4   #ajib ,phil4   

,trans41 vol4 lxix41 #aggi4   #ajic     
,phil4 ,trans41 #ahbf1 part4 ii4 p4 #ee4
   #ajid ,see above1 pp4 #dec4 #deg4    
#dii4 #eja4   #ajie ,thomson's ,western 
,himalaya and ,thibet1 p4 #bib4 ,london1
         #aheb4 ,cunningham1 vol4 xvii4 
,journ4 ,asiat4 ,soc4 ,bengal1 pp4      
#bda1 #bgg4   #ajif ,alciphron1 or the  
,minute ,philosopher1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hd1 
#he1 #agcb4   #ajig ,davy1 ,consolations
 in ,travel1 p4 #bgf4   #ajih ,essay on 
the ,vicissitude of ,things4   #ajii ,on
 ,freshwater ,marl1 c4 ,by ,c4 ,lyell4  
,geol4 ,trans41 vol4         ii41 second
 series1 p4 #gc4   #aajj ,see           
,desmarest's ,crustacea1 pl4 #ee4       
#aaja ,dr4 ,bigsby1 ,journ4 of ,science1
 c4 ,no4 xxxvii4 pp4 #bfb1         #bfc4
   #aajb ,mantell1 ,geol4 of ,sussex1 p4
 #bhe2 also ,catalogue of         ,org4 
,rem41 ,geol4 ,trans41 vol4 iii4 part i 
p4 #bja41 #bnd series4   #aajc ,page    
#bgf4   #aajd ,page #dfj4   #aaje ,page 
#eii4   #aajf ,forchhammer1 ,report     
,british ,assoc4 #ahdd4   #aajg         

,fleming's ,brit4 ,animals1 p4 #cg2 in  
which work other         cases are      
enumerated4   #aajh ,quart4 ,journ4 of  
,lit4 ,sci41 c41 ,no4 xv41 p4 #agb4     
,oct4         #ahai4   #aaji ,this      
specimen has been presented by ,mr4     
,lonsdale to the         ,geological    
,society of ,london4   #aaaj ,the most  
conspicuous of the bones represented    
within         the shell in fig4 #ajg1  
appear to be the clavicle and coracoid  
bone4 ,they are hollow2 and for this    
reason resemble1 at first         sight1
 the bones of birds rather than of      
reptiles2 for the         latter have no
 medullary cavity4 ,prof4 ,owen1 of the 
,college of         ,surgeons1 in order 
to elucidate this point1 dissected for  
me a         very young turtle1 and     
found that the exterior portion only of 
the bones was ossified1 the interior    
being still filled with                 
cartilage4 ,this cartilage soon dried up
 and shrank to a mere         thread    
upon the evaporation of the spirits of  

wine in which         the specimen had  
been preserved1 so that in a short time 
the         bones became as empty as    
those of birds4   #aaaa ,ehrenberg1     
,nat4 und ,bild4 der ,coralleninseln4   
c41         ,berlin1 #ahcd4   #aaab ,see
 ,ehrenberg's work above cited1 p4 #gea4
   #aaac ,stutchbury1 ,west of ,england 
,journal1 ,no4 i4 p4 #di4   #aaad       
,darwin's ,coral ,reefs1 p4 #gg4   #aaae
 ,ibid4 #gh4   #aaaf ,voyage to the     
,pacific1 c4 in #ahbe-bh4   #aaag       
,darwin's ,journal1 c41 p4 #edj1 and new
 edit41 of #ahde1         p4 #dec4      
#aaah ,darwin's ,journal1 c41 pp4 #edg1 
#edh41 and #b;d edit41 of         #ahde1
 p4 #dfj4   #aaai ,kotzebue's ,voy41    
#ahae-ah1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cca-ccc4       
#aabj ,stutchbury1 ,west of ,eng4       
,journ41 ,no4 i4 p4 #ej4   #aaba        
,captain ,beechey1 part i4 p4 #ahh4     
#aabb ,captain ,moresby on the          
,maldives1 ,journ4 ,roy4 ,geograph4     
,soc41 vol4 ,v4 part ii4 p4 #djj4       
#aabc ,see above1 p4 #ddb4   #aabd      

,darwin1 ,volcanic ,islands1 p4 #aac4   
#aabe ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #d4  
,,xciii4   #aabf ,darwin's ,journal1 p4 
#eeg4 #b;d edit4 chap4 #bj1 and ,coral  
,islands1 chapters #a1 #b1 #c4   #aabg  
,see ,principles of ,geology1 #ast      
edit41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bif4   #aabh ,voyage
 to the ,pacific1 c41 p4 #ahi4   #aabi  
,see ,principles of ,geology1 #ast ed41 
#ahcb1 vol4 ii4 p4         #bic4   #aacj
 ,beechey's ,voyage to the ,pacific1 c41
 p4 #df4   #aaca ,voyage to the         
,pacific1 c41 p4 #aid4   #aacb          
,scotsman1 ,nov4 #ahdb1 and ,jameson's  
,edin4 ,journ4 of         ,science1     
#ahdc4   #aacc ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41    
,london1 #b;d series1 vol4 v4   #aacd   
,beechey's ,voyage1 vol4 i4 p4 #de4     
#aace ,paper read to ,brit4 ,assoc41    
,southampton1 #ahdf4   #aacf ,letter to 
,mr4 ,maclaren1 ,scotsman1 #ahdc4       
,,glossary    ,,of ,,geological ,,and   
,,other ,,scientific ,,terms ,,used ,,in
 ,,this   ,,work4     ,,acephalous4 ,the
 ,acephala are that division of         

molluscous animals     which1 like the  
oyster and scallop1 are without heads4  
,the class     ,acephala of ,cuvier     
comprehends many genera of animals with 
bivalve     shells1 and a few which are 
devoid of shells4 ,etym41 ,greek3 a1    
a1 without1 and ,greek3 kephale1        
cephale1 the head4    ,,acidulous4      
,slightly acid4    ,,acrogens4 ,one of  
five classes into which all plants may  
be divided2     it includes such        
flowerless ones as grow from the top    
only1 and     whose stems consequently  
do not increase materially in bulk1 as  
,mosses1 ,ferns1 ,lycopodiums1          
,equisetums1 c4 ,the trunk of a tree    
fern     is a good example4 ,they are   
also called ,acrobrya4 ,etym41 ,greek3  
akron1 acron1 the top1 and ,greek3      
genesis1 genesis1 increase4             
,,adipocire4 ,a substance apparently    
intermediate between fat and wax1       
into which dead animal matter is        
converted when buried in the earth1     
and in a certain stage of decomposition4

 ,etym41 adeps1 fat1 and     cera1 wax4 
,,albite4 ,see ,felspar4    ,,alembio4  
,an apparatus for distilling4           
,,algae4 ,an order or division of the   
cryptogamic class of plants4 ,the       
whole of the sea-weeds are comprehended 
under this division1 and the            
application of the term in this work is 
to marine plants4 ,etym41     alga1     
sea-weed4    ,,alluvial4 ,the adjective 
of alluvium1 which see4    ,,alluvion4  
,synonymous with alluvium1 which see4   
,,alluvium4 ,earth1 sand1 gravel1       
stones1 and other transported matter    
which has been washed away and thrown   
down by rivers1 floods1 or     other    
causes upon land not permanently        
submerged beneath the     waters of     
lakes or seas4 ,etym41 alluo1 to wash   
upon1 or     alluvio1 an inundation4    
,,alum-,,stone1 ,,alumen1 ,,aluminous4  
,alum is the base of pure clay1 and     
strata of clay are often met with       
containing much iron pyrites4 ,when     
the latter substance decomposes1        

sulphuric acid is produced1 which       
unites with the aluminous earth of the  
clay to form sulphate of     alumine1 or
 common alum4 ,where manufactories are  
established for     obtaining the alum1 
the indurated beds of clay employed are 
called     ,alum-stone4    ,,ammonite4  
,an extinct and very numerous genus of  
the order of     molluscous animals     
called ,cephalopoda1 allied to the      
modern genus     ,nautilus1 which       
inhabited a chambered shell1 curved like
 a coiled     snake4 ,species of it are 
found in all geological periods of the  
secondary strata2 but they have not been
 seen in the tertiary beds4     ,they   
are named from their resemblance to the 
horns on the statues of     ,jupiter    
,ammon4    ,,amorphous4 ,bodies devoid  
of regular form4 ,etym41 ,greek3 a1 a1  
without1 and ,greek3 morphe1 morphe1    
form4    ,,amygdaloid4 ,one of the forms
 of the ,trap-rocks1 in which agates and
     simple minerals appear to be       
scattered like almonds in a cake4       

,etym41 ,greek3 amygdala1 amygdala1 an  
almond4    ,,analcime4 ,a simple mineral
 of the ,zeolite family1 also called    
,cubizite1 of frequent occurrence in the
 ,trap-rocks4    ,,analogue4 ,a body    
that resembles or corresponds with      
another body4 ,a     recent shell of the
 same species as a fossil shell is the  
analogue     of the latter4             
,,angoiosperms4 ,a term applied to all  
flowering plants in which the     ovules
 are inclosed in an ovary1 and the seeds
 in a pericarp or     covering1 as in   
all flowering plants except those       
mentioned under     gymnosperms and     
gymnogens1 which see4 ,etym41 ,greek3   
angos1     angos1 a vessel1 and ,greek3 
sperma1 a seed4    ,,anoplotherium4 ,a  
fossil extinct quadruped belonging to   
the order     ,pachydermata1 resembling 
a pig4 ,it has received its name because
 the     animal must have been          
singularly wanting in means of defence1 
from     the form of its teeth and the  
absence of claws1 hoofs1 and horns4     

,etym41 ,greek3 anoplos1 anoplos1       
unarmed1 and ,greek3 therion1           
therion1 a wild beast4    ,,antagonist  
,,power4 ,two powers in nature1 the     
action of the one     counteracting that
 of the other1 by which a kind of       
equilibrium or     balance is           
maintained1 and the destructive effect  
prevented that     would be produced by 
one operating without a check4          
,,antennae4 ,the articulated horns with 
which the heads of insects are          
invariably furnished4    ,,anthracite4  
,a shining substance like black-lead2 a 
species of     mineral charcoal4 ,etym41
 ,greek3 anthrax1 anthrax1 coal4        
,,anthracotherium4 ,a name given to an  
extinct quadruped1 supposed to          
belong to the ,pachydermata1 the bones  
of which were first found in     lignite
 and coal of the tertiary strata4       
,etym41 ,greek3 anthrax1     anthrax1   
coal1 and ,greek3 therion1 therion1 wild
 beast4    ,,anthropomorphous4 ,having a
 form resembling the human4 ,etym41     

,greek3 anthropos1 anthropos1 a man1 and
 ,greek3 morphe1     morphe1 form4      
,,antiseptic4 ,substances which prevent 
corruption in animal and     vegetable  
matter1 as common salt does1 are said to
 be antiseptic4     ,etym41 ,greek3     
anti1 anti1 against1 and ,greek3 sepo1  
sepo1     to putrefy4    ,,arenaceous4  
,sandy4 ,etym41 arena1 sand4            
,,argillaceous4 ,clayey1 composed of    
clay4 ,etym41 argilla1 clay4            
,,arragonite4 ,a simple mineral1 a      
variety of carbonate of lime1 so        
called from having been first found in  
,aragon in ,spain4    ,,atolls4 ,coral  
islands of an annular form1 or          
consisting of a     circular strip or   
ring of coral surrounding a central     
lagoon4    ,,augite4 ,a simple mineral  
of a dark green1 or black color1 which  
forms a constituent part of many        
varieties of volcanic rocks4 ,name      
applied by ,pliny to a particular       
mineral1 from the ,greek ,greek3        
auge1 auge1 lustre4    ,,avalanches4    

,masses of snow which1 being detached   
from great heights     in the ,alps1    
acquire enormous bulk by fresh          
accumulations as they     descend2 and  
when they fall into the valleys below   
often cause great     destruction4 ,they
 are also called lavanges and lavanches 
in the     dialects of ,switzerland4    
,,basalt4 ,one of the most common       
varieties of the ,trap-rocks4 ,it is a  
dark green or black stone1 composed of  
augite and felspar1 very     compact in 
texture1 and of considerable hardness1  
often found in     regular pillars of   
three or more sides called basaltic     
columns4     ,remarkable examples of    
this kind are seen at the ,giant's      
,causeway1     in ,ireland1 and at      
,fingal's ,cave1 in ,staffa1 one of the 
,hebrides4     ,the term is used by     
,pliny1 and is said to come from basal1 
an     ,a,ethiopian word signifying     
iron4 ,the rock often contains much     
iron4   ,,basin of ,paris1 ,,basin of   
,london4 ,deposits lying in a hollow or 

trough1 formed of older rocks2 sometimes
 used in geology almost     synonymously
 with formations1 to express the        
deposits lying in a     certain cavity  
or depression in older rocks4           
,,belemnite4 ,an extinct genus of the   
order of molluscous animals     called  
,cephalopoda1 having a long1 straight1  
and chambered conical     shell4 ,etym41
 ,greek3 belemnon1 belemnon1 a dart4    
,,bitumen4 ,mineral pitch1 of which the 
tar-like substance which is     often   
seen to ooze out of the ,newcastle coal 
when on the fire1 and     which makes it
 cake1 is a good example4 ,etym41       
bitumen1 pitch4    ,,bituminous ,,shale4
 ,an argillaceous shale1 much           
impregnated with     bitumen1 which is  
very common in the ,coal ,measures4     
,,blende4 ,a metallic ore1 a compound of
 the metal zinc with sulphur4     ,it is
 often found in brown shining crystals2 
hence its name among     the ,german    
miners1 from the word blenden1 to       
dazzle4    ,,bluffs4 ,high banks        

presenting a precipitous front to the   
sea or a     river4 ,a term used in the 
,united ,states of ,north ,america4     
,,botryoidal4 ,resembling a bunch of    
,grapes4 ,etym41 ,greek3 botrys1        
botrys1 a bunch of grapes1 and ,greek3  
eidos1 eidos1 form4    ,,boulders4 ,a   
provincial term for large rounded blocks
 of stone lying     on the surface of   
the ground1 or sometimes imbedded in    
loose soil1     different in composition
 from the rocks in their vicinity1 and  
which     have been therefore           
transported from a distance4            
,,breccia4 ,a rock composed of angular  
fragments connected together by     lime
 or other mineral substance4 ,an        
,italian term4    ,,calc ,,sinter4 ,a   
,german name for the deposits from      
springs holding     carbonate of lime in
 solution--petrifying springs4 ,etym41  
kalk1     lime1 and sintern1 to drop4   
,,calcaire ,,grossier4 ,an extensive    
stratum1 or rather series of strata1    
found in the ,paris ,basin1 belonging to

 the ,eocene tertiary period4           
,etym41 calcaire1 limestone1 and        
grossier1 coarse4    ,,calcareous       
,,rock4 ,limestone4 ,etym41 calx1 lime4 
,,calcareous ,,spar4 ,crystallized      
carbonate of lime4    ,,carbon4 ,an     
undecomposed inflammable substance1 one 
of the simple     elementary bodies4    
,charcoal is almost entirely composed of
 it4     ,etym41 carbo1 coal4           
,,carbonate ,,of ,,lime4 ,lime combines 
with great avidity with carbonic        
acid1 a gaseous acid only obtained fluid
 when united with     water1--and all   
combinations of it with other substances
 are called     ,carbonates4 ,all       
limestones are carbonates of lime1 and  
quicklime     is obtained by driving off
 the carbonic acid by heat4             
,,carbonated ,,springs4 ,springs of     
water1 containing carbonic acid gas4    
,they are very common1 especially in    
volcanic countries2 and     sometimes   
contain so much gas1 that if a little   
sugar be thrown into     the water it   

effervesces like soda-water4            
,,carbonic ,,acid ,,gas4 ,a natural gas 
which often issues from the ground1     
especially in volcanic countries4       
,etym41 carbo1 coal2 because     the gas
 is obtained by the slow burning of     
charcoal4    ,,carboniferous4 ,a term   
usually applied1 in a technical sense1  
to an     ancient group of secondary    
strata2 but any bed containing coal may 
be said to be carboniferous4 ,etym41    
carbo1 coal1 and fero1 to     bear4     
,,cataclysm4 ,a deluge4 ,etym41 ,greek3 
kataklyzo1 catacluzo1 to     deluge4    
,,cephalopoda4 ,a class of molluscous   
animals1 having their organs of         
motion arranged round their head4       
,etym41 ,greek3 kephale1     cephale1   
head1 and ,greek3 poda1 poda1 feet4     
,,cetacea4 ,an order of vertebrated     
mammiferous animals inhabiting the      
sea4 ,the whale1 dolphin1 and narwal are
 examples4 ,etym41 cete1     whale4     
,,chalcedony4 ,a siliceous simple       
mineral1 uncrystallized4 ,agates are    

partly composed of chalcedony4          
,,chalk4 ,a white earthy limestone1 the 
uppermost of the secondary     series of
 strata4    ,,chert4 ,a siliceous       
mineral1 nearly allied to chalcedony and
 flint1     but less homogeneous and    
simple in texture4 ,a gradual passage   
from     chert to limestone is not      
uncommon4    ,,chloritic ,,sand4 ,sand  
colored green by an admixture of the    
simple     mineral chlorite4 ,etym41    
,greek3 chlorys1 chlorus1 green4        
,,cleavage4 ,certain rocks1 usually     
called ,slate-rocks1 may be cleaved     
into an indefinite number of thin       
laminae which are parallel to each      
other1 but which are generally not      
parallel to the planes of the     true  
strata or layers of deposition4 ,the    
planes of cleavage1     therefore1 are  
distinguishable from those of           
stratification4    ,,clinkstone1 called 
also phonolite1 a felspathic rock of the
 trap     family1 usually fissile4 ,it  
is sonorous when struck with a hammer1  

whence its name4    ,,coal ,,formation4 
,this term is generally understood to   
mean the same     as the ,coal          
,measures1 or ,carboniferous group4     
,,coleoptera4 ,an order of insects      
7,beetles7 which have four wings1 the   
upper pair being crustaceous and forming
 a shield4 ,etym41 ,greek3     koleos1  
coleos1 a sheath1 and ,greek3 pteron1   
pteron1 a wing4      ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ih4    ,,conformable4 ,when the  
planes of one set of strata are         
generally     parallel to those of      
another set which are in contact1 they  
are said     to be conformable4 ,thus   
the set a1 b1 ,fig4 #ih1 rest           
conformably     on the inferior set c1  
d2 but c1 d rest unconformably on ,e4   
,,congeners4 ,species which belong to   
the same genus4    ,,conglomerate1 or   
,,puddingstone4 ,rounded water-worn     
fragments of rock     or pebbles1       
cemented together by another mineral    
substance1 which     may be of a        
siliceous1 calcareous1 or argillaceous  

nature4 ,etym41     con1 together1      
glomero1 to heap4    ,,coniferae4 ,an   
order of plants1 all of which have disks
 in their wood     fibres1 by which they
 are recognized in a fossil state4      
,their ovules     are naked 7see        
,,gymnogens74 ,most of the northern     
kinds bear the seeds     in cones2 but  
the yew does not1 nor do a host of      
tropical and south     temperate        
species4 ,etym41 conus1 a cone1 and     
fero1 to bear4    ,,cosmogony1          
,,cosmology4 ,words synonymous in       
meaning1 applied to     speculations    
respecting the first origin or mode of  
creation of the     earth4 ,etym41      
,greek3 kosmos1 kosmos1 the world1 and  
,greek3     gone1 gonee1 generation1 or 
,greek3 logos1 logos1 discourse4        
,,crag4 ,a provincial name in ,norfolk  
and ,suffolk for certain tertiary       
deposits usually composed of sand with  
shells1 belonging to the     ,older     
,pliocene period4    ,,crater4 ,the     
circular cavity at the summit of a      

volcano1 from which     the volcanic    
matter is ejected4 ,etym41 crater1 a    
great cup or     bowl4    ,,cretaceous4 
,belonging to chalk4 ,etym41 creta1     
chalk4    ,,crop ,,out4 ,a miner's or   
mineral surveyor's term1 to express the 
rising up or exposure at the surface of 
a stratum or series of     strata4      
,,crust ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,see        
,earth's crust4    ,,crustaceous4       
,animals having a shelly coating or     
crust which they     cast periodically4 
,crabs1 shrimps1 and lobsters are       
examples4    ,,cryptogamic4 ,asexual1   
flowerless1 or ,acotyledonous plants2 a 
term     applied to half the vegetable  
kingdom in contradistinction to         
,phaenogamic1 sexual1 or flowering      
plants4 ,it includes ,fungi1            
,sea-weeds1 ,lichens1 ,mosses1 ,ferns1  
c41 which have no obvious     flowers1  
and no cotyledons 7seed-lobes7 to their 
spores or seeds4     ,etym41 ,greek3    
kryptos1 cruptos1 concealed1 and ,greek3
 gamos1     gamos1 marriage4            

,,crystals4 ,simple minerals are        
frequently found in regular forms1      
with facets like the drops of cut glass 
of chandeliers4 ,quartz being     often 
met with in rocks in such forms1 and    
beautifully transparent     like ice1   
was called rock-crystal1 ,greek3        
krystallos1     crystallos1 being ,greek
 for ice4 ,hence the regular forms of   
other     minerals are called crystals1 
whether they be clear or opake4         
,,crystallized4 ,a mineral which is     
found in regular forms or crystals      
is said to be crystallized4             
,,crystalline4 ,the internal texture    
which regular crystals exhibit     when 
broken1 or a confused assemblage of     
ill-defined crystals4     ,loaf-sugar   
and statuary-marble have a crystalline  
texture4     ,sugar-candy and calcareous
 spar are crystallized4                 
,,cupriferous4 ,copper-bearing4 ,etym41 
cuprum1 copper1 and fero1     to bear4  
,,cycadeae4 ,a small and very anomalous 
order of flowering plants1     chiefly  

found in ,mexico1 the ,east ,indian     
,islands1 ,south ,africa1 and           
,australia4 ,they are ,gymnogens as to  
ovules1 and neither ,exogens nor        
,endogens in the wood of their short1   
simple1 or branched trunks1 and     they
 have dicotyledonous seeds4 ,the leaves 
are pinnated 7like those     of         
cocoa-nut palms71 and when young are    
rolled inwards as in ,ferns4     ,the   
wood fibres are curiously perforated1   
and marked1 by which they     are       
recognized in a fossil state as well as 
by the trunk and     foliage1 and the   
cones1 which contain the male flowers4  
,the term is     derived from ,greek3   
kykas1 cycas1 a name applied by the     
ancient     ,greek naturalist           
,threophrastus to a palm4               
,,cyperaceae4 ,a tribe of plants        
answering to the ,english sedges2 they  
are distinguished from grasses by their 
stems being solid1 and     generally    
triangular1 instead of being hollow and 
round4 ,together     with ,gramineae1   

they constitute what writers on         
botanical geography     often call      
glumaceae4    ,,debacle4 ,a great rush  
of waters1 which1 breaking down all     
opposing     barriers1 carries forward  
the broken fragments of rocks1 and      
spreads     them in its course4 ,etym41 
dabacler1 ,french1 to unbar1 to break   
up as a river does at the cessation of a
 long-continued frost4    ,,delta4 ,when
 a great river1 before it enters the    
sea1 divides into     separate streams1 
they often diverge and form two sides of
 a     triangle1 the sea being the base4
 ,the land included by the three        
lines1 and which is invariably alluvial1
 was first called1 in the     case of   
the ,nile a delta1 from its resemblance 
to the letter of the     ,greek alphabet
 which goes by that name ,greek3 ,d4    
,geologists     apply the term to       
alluvial land formed by a river at its  
mouth1     without reference to its     
precise shape4    ,,denudation4 ,the    
carrying away by the action of running  

water of a     portion of the solid     
materials of the land1 by which inferior
 rocks     are laid bare4 ,etym41       
denudo1 to lay bare4    ,,deoxidized1   
,,deoxidated4 ,deprived of oxygen4      
,disunited from oxygen4                 
,,desiccation4 ,the art of drying up4   
,etym41 desicco1 to dry up4             
,,detritus4 ,matter worn or rubbed off  
from rocks4 ,etym41 de1 from1     and   
tero1 to rub4    ,,dicotyledonous4 ,a   
grand division of the vegetable kingdom1
 founded     on the plant having two    
cotyledons1 or seed-lobes4 ,etym41      
,greek3 dis1 dis1 double1 and ,greek3   
kotyledon1 cotyledon4    ,,dikes4 ,when 
a mass of the unstratified or igneous   
rocks1 such as     granite1 trap1 and   
lava1 appears as if injected into a rent
 in the     stratified rocks1 cutting   
across the strata1 it forms a dike4     
,they     are sometimes seen running    
along the ground1 and projecting1 like a
     wall1 from the softer strata on    
both sides of them having wasted        

away2 whence they were first called in  
the north of ,england and in            
,scotland dikes1 a provincial name for  
wall4 ,it is not easy to draw     the   
line between dikes and veins4 ,the      
former are generally of larger          
dimensions1 and have their sides        
parallel for considerable     distances2
 while veins have generally many        
ramifications1 and these     often thin 
away into slender threads4              
,,diluvium4 ,those accumulations of     
gravel and loose materials1 which1      
by some geologists1 are said to have    
been produced by the action of     a    
diluvian wave or deluge sweeping over   
the surface of the earth4     ,etym41   
diluvium1 deluge4    ,,dip4 ,when a     
stratum does not lie horizontally1 but  
is inclined1 it     is said to dip      
towards some point of the compass1 and  
the angle it     makes with the horizon 
is called the angle of dip or           
inclination4    ,,diptera4 ,an order of 
insects1 comprising those which have    

only two     wings4 ,etym41 ,greek3 dis1
 dis1 double1 and ,greek3 pteron1       
pteron1 wing4    ,,dolerite4 ,one of the
 varieties of the ,trap-rocks1 composed 
of augite     and felspar4              
,,dolomite4 ,a crystalline limestone1   
containing magnesia as a     constituent
 part4 ,named after the ,french         
geologist ,dolomieu4    ,,dunes4 ,low   
hills of blown sand that skirt the      
shores of ,holland1     ,england1       
,spain1 and other countries4            
,,earth',s ,,crust4 ,such superficial   
parts of our planet as are              
accessible to human observation4        
,,eopyrosis4 ,a ,greek term for a       
destruction by fire4    ,,elytra4 ,the  
wing-sheaths1 or upper crustaceous      
membranes1 which form     the superior  
wings in the tribe of beetles4 ,they    
cover the body1 and     protect the true
 membranous wing4 ,etym41 ,greek3       
elytron1     elytron1 a sheath4         
,,endogens4 ,a class of flowering       
plants1 whose stems present no          

distinction of wood1 pith1 and bark4    
,the wood is disposed in     bundles1   
placed nearer the axis than those of the
 previous year1 as     in palm trunks4  
,this class answers to the              
,monocotyledones of     ,jussieu4       
,etym41 ,greek3 endon1 endon1 within1   
and ,greek3     genesis1 genesis1       
increase4    ,,entomostraca4 ,cuvier's  
second section of ,crustacea2 so called 
from     their relationship to insects4 
,etym41 ,greek3 entoma1 entoma1         
insects4    ,,eocene4 ,a name given to  
the lowest division of the tertiary     
strata1     containing an extremely     
small percentage of living species      
amongst     its fossil shells1 which    
indicate the first commencement or dawn 
of     the existing state of the animate
 creation4 ,etym41 ,greek3 eos1     eos1
 aurora or the dawn1 and ,greek3 kainos1
 kainos1 recent4    ,,escarpment4 ,the  
abrupt face of a ridge of high land4    
,etym41     escarper1 ,french1 to cut   
steep4    ,,estuaries4 ,inlets of the   

land1 which are entered both by rivers  
and     the tides of the sea4 ,thus we  
have the estuaries of the ,thames1      
,severn1 ,tay1 c4 ,etym41 aestus1 the   
tide4    ,,exogens4 ,a class of         
flowering plants whose stems have bark1 
wood1     and pith4 ,the bark is        
increased by layers deposited within the
     previously formed layers and the   
wood of layers or rings placed          
outside of those of the previous year4  
,this class answers to the              
,dicotyledones of ,jussieu1 and includes
 all common ,english trees     except   
pines1 c4 7,see ,,gymnogens47 ,etym41   
,greek3 exo1 exo1     outside1 ,greek3  
genesis1 genesis1 increase4             
,,experimentum ,,crucis4 ,a decisive    
experiment1 so called1 because1 like    
a cross or direction-post1 it directs   
men to true knowledge2 or1 as     some  
explain it1 because it is a kind of     
torture whereby the nature     of the   
thing is extorted1 as it were1 by       
violence4    ,,exuviae4 ,properly       

speaking1 the transient parts of certain
 animals     which they put off or lay  
down to assume new ones1 as serpents and
     caterpillars shift their skins2 but
 in geology it refers not only to       
the cast-off coverings of animals1 but  
to fossil shells and other     remains  
which animals have left in the strata of
 the earth4 ,etym41     exuere1 to put  
off or divest4    ,,faluns4 ,a ,french  
provincial name for some tertiary strata
 abounding     in shells in ,touraine1  
which resemble in lithological          
characters the     ,crag of ,norfolk and
 ,suffolk4    ,,fault1 in the language  
of miners1 is the sudden interruption of
 the     continuity of strata in the    
same plane1 accompanied by a crack or   
fissure1 varying in width from a mere   
line to several feet1 which is          
generally filled with broken stone1     
clay1 c4      ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 
,the strata1 a1 b1 c1 c41 must at one   
time have been     continuous2 but a    
fracture having taken place at the fault

 ,f1 either     by the upheaving of the 
portion ,a1 or the sinking of the       
portion ,b1     the strata were so      
displaced that the bed a in ,b is many  
feet     lower than the same bed a in   
the portion ,a4    ,,fauna4 ,the various
 kinds of animals peculiar to a country 
constitute     its ,,fauna1 as the      
various kinds of plants constitute its  
,,flora4 ,the     term is derived from  
the ,,fauni1 or rural deities1 in ,roman
     ,mythology4    ,,felspar4 ,a simple
 mineral1 which1 next to quartz1        
constitutes the     chief material of   
rocks4 ,the white angular portions in   
granite are     felspar4 ,this mineral  
always contains some alkali in its      
composition4 ,in common felspar the     
alkali is potash2 in another            
variety1 called ,albite or              
,cleavlandite1 it is soda4 ,glassy      
felspar     is a term applied when the  
crystals have a considerable degree of  
transparency4 ,compact felspar is a name
 of more vague     signification4 ,the  

substance so called appears to contain  
both     potash and soda4               
,,felspathic4 ,of or belonging to       
felspar4    ,,ferruginous4 ,any thing   
containing iron4 ,etym41 ferrum1 iron4  
,,fissile1 easily cleft1 dividing       
readily into an indefinite number of    
parallel laminae1 like slates4          
,,floetz ,,rocks4 ,a ,german term       
applied to the secondary strata by the  
geologists of that country1 because     
these rocks were supposed to     occur  
most frequently in flat horizontal beds4
 ,etym41 flotz1 a     layer or stratum4 
,,flora4 ,the various kinds of trees and
 plants found in any country            
constitute the ,,flora of that country  
in the language of botanists4           
,,fluviatile4 ,belonging to a river4    
,etym41 fluvius1 a river4               
,,foraminifera4 ,a name given by        
,d',orbigny to a family of microscopic  
shells4 ,their different chambers are   
united by a small perforation     or    
foramen4 ,recent observation has shown  

that some at least are     not          
,cephalopoda1 as ,d',orbigny supposed4  
,,formation4 ,a group1 whether of       
alluvial deposits1 sedimentary          
strata1 or igneous rocks1 referred to a 
common origin or period4    ,,fossil4   
,all minerals were once called fossils1 
but geologists now     use the word only
 to express the remains of animals and  
plants found     buried in the earth4   
,etym41 fossilis1 any thing that may be 
dug     out of the earth4               
,,fossiliferous4 ,containing organic    
remains4     ,,galena4 ,a metallic ore1 
a compound of lead and sulphur4 ,it has 
often     the appearance of highly      
polished lead4 ,etym41 ,greek3 galeo1   
galeo1 to shine4    ,,garnet4 ,a simple 
mineral1 generally of a deep red color1 
crystallized2 most commonly met with in 
mica slate1 but also in     granite and 
other igneous rocks4    ,,gasteropods4  
,a division of the ,testacea1 in which1 
as in the limpet1     the foot is       
attached to the body4 ,etym41 ,greek3   

gaster1     gaster1 belly1 and ,greek3  
poda1 poda1 feet4    ,,gault4 ,a        
provincial name in the east of ,england 
for a series of beds     of clay and    
marl1 the geological position of which  
is between the     ,upper and ,lower    
,greensand4    ,,gavial4 ,a kind of     
crocodile found in ,india4    ,,gem1 or 
,,gemmule1 from the ,latin gemma1 a bud4
 ,the term1 applied to     zoophytes1   
means a young animal not confined within
 an envelope or     egg4    ,,geology1  
,,geognosy4 ,both mean the same thing2  
but with an unnecessary     degree of   
refinement in terms1 it has been        
proposed to call our     description of 
the structure of the earth geognosy     
7,etym41     ,greek3 gea1 gea1 earth1   
and ,greek3 ginosco1 ginosco1 to        
know71 and our theoretical speculations 
as to its formation     geology 7,etym41
 ,greek3 gea1 and ,greek3 logos1 logos1 
a     discourse74    ,,glacier4 ,vast   
accumulations of ice and hardened snow  
in the ,alps and     other lofty        

mountains4 ,etym41 glace1 ,french for   
ice4    ,,glacis4 ,a term borrowed from 
the language of fortification1 where it 
means an easy insensible slope or       
declivity1 less steep than a     talus1 
which see4    ,,gneiss4 ,a stratified   
primary rock1 composed of the same      
materials as     granite1 but having    
usually a larger proportion of mica and 
a     laminated texture4 ,the word is a 
,german miner's term4    ,,gramineae4   
,the order of plants to which grasses   
belong4 ,etym41     gramen1 grass4      
,,granite4 ,an unstratified or igneous  
rock1 generally found inferior     to or
 associated with the oldest of the      
stratified rocks1 and     sometimes     
penetrating them in the form of dikes   
and veins4 ,it is     usually composed  
of three simple minerals1 felspar1      
quartz1 and     mica1 and derives its   
name from having a coarse granular      
structure2 granum1 ,latin for grain4    
,waterloo bridge1 and the               
paving-stones in the carriage-way of the

 ,london streets1 afford good           
examples of the most common varieties of
 granite4    ,,greensand4 ,beds of sand1
 sandstone1 limestone1 belonging to the 
,cretaceous ,period4 ,the name is given 
to these beds because they     often1   
but not always1 contain an abundance of 
green earth or     chlorite scattered   
through the substance of the sandstone1 
limestone1 c4    ,,greenstone4 ,a       
variety of trap1 composed of hornblende 
and felspar4    ,,greywacke4 ,grauwacke1
 a ,german name1 generally adopted by   
geologists for some of the most ancient 
fossiliferous strata4 ,the     rock is  
very often of a gray color2 hence the   
name1 grau1 being   ,german for gray1   
and wacke1 being a provincial miner's   
term4    ,,grit4 ,a provincial name for 
a coarse-grained sandstone4             
,,gymnospermous4 ,etym41 ,greek3 gymnos1
 gymnos1 naked1 and     ,greek3 sperma1 
sperma1 a seed4 7,see ,,gymnogens47     
,,gymnogens4 ,a class of flowering      
plants1 in which the ovules are not     

inclosed in an ovary4 ,they are also    
called gymnosperms1 the seeds     in    
like manner not being inclosed in a     
pericarp4 ,it includes all              
,coniferae1 as pine1 fir1 juniper1      
cypress1 yew1 cedar1 c41 and            
,cycadeae4 ,all are ,dicotyledonous 7a  
few have many cotyledons71 and     all  
,exogenous1 except ,cycas1 the growth of
 which is anomalous4 ,the     term is   
applied in contradistinction to         
,angiosperms1 which see4     ,etym41    
,greek3 gymnos1 naked1 and ,greek3      
genesis1 increase4    ,,gypsum4 ,a      
mineral composed of lime and sulphuric  
acid1 hence called     also sulphate of 
lime4 ,plaster and stucco are obtained  
by     exposing gypsum to a strong heat4
 ,it is found so abundantly near        
,paris1 that plaster of ,paris is a     
common term in this country for     the 
white powder of which casts are made4   
,the term is used by ,pliny     for a   
stone used for the same purposes by the 
ancients4 ,the     derivation is        

unknown4    ,,gypseous1 of or belonging 
to gypsum4    ,,gyrogonites4 ,bodies    
found in freshwater deposits1 originally
     supposed to be microscopic shells1 
but subsequently discovered to be       
seed-vessels of freshwater plants of the
 genus ,chara4 ,see above     p4 #gdb4  
,etym41 ,greek3 gyros1 gyros1 curved1   
and ,greek3     gonos1 gonos1 seed1 on  
account of their external structure4    
,,hemiptera4 ,an order of insects1 so   
called from a peculiarity in     their  
wings1 the superior being coriaceous at 
the base and     membranous at the apex1
 ,greek3 hemisy1 hemisu1 half1 and      
,greek3     pteron1 pteron1 wing4       
,,hornblende4 ,a simple mineral of a    
dark green or black color1 which        
enters largely into the composition of  
several varieties of the                
,trap-,rocks4    ,,hornstone4 ,a        
siliceous mineral substance1 sometimes  
approaching     nearly to flint1 or     
common quartz4 ,it has a conchoidal     
fracture1 and     is infusible1 which   

distinguishes it from compact felspar4  
,,humerus4 ,the bone of the upper arm4  
,,hydrophytes4 ,plants which grow in    
water4 ,etym41 ,greek3 hydor1     hydor1
 water1 and ,greek3 phyton1 phyton1     
plant4    ,,hypogene ,,rocks4 ,those    
rocks which are nether-formed1 or which 
have     not assumed their present form 
and structure at the surface1 such as   
granite1 gneiss1 c4 ,the term1 which    
includes both the plutonic and          
metamorphic rocks1 is substituted for   
primary1 because some     members of    
both these classes1 such as granite and 
gneiss1 are     posterior to many       
secondary or fossiliferous rocks4       
,etym41 ,greek3     hypo1 hypo1 under1  
and ,greek3 ginomai1 ginomai1 to be     
formed     or produced4     ,,iceberg4  
,great masses of ice1 often the size of 
hills1 which float     in the polar and 
adjacent seas4 ,etym41 ice1 and berg1   
,german for     hill4                   
,,ichthyosaurus4 ,a gigantic fossil     
marine reptile1 allied in part of       

its structure to a fish4 ,etym41 ,greek3
 ichthus1 ichthus1 a     fish1 and      
,greek3 saura1 saura1 a lizard4         
,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,all rocks1 such as  
lava1 trap1 and granite1 known or       
supposed to have been melted by volcanic
 heat4    ,,incandescent4 ,white        
hot--having a more intense degree of    
heat than     red heat4    ,,induction4 
,a consequence1 inference1 or general   
principle drawn from     a number of    
particular facts or phenomena4 ,the     
inductive philosophy1     says ,mr4     
,whewell1 has been rightly described as 
a science which     ascends from        
particular facts to general principles1 
and then     descends again from these  
general principles to particular        
applications4    ,,infusory             
,,animalcules4 ,minute living creatures 
found in many     infusions2 and the    
term infusori has been given to all such
     animalcules1 whether found in      
infusions or in stagnant water1         
vinegar1 c4    ,,inspissated4           

,thickened4 ,etym41 spissus1 thick4     
,,invertebrated ,,animals4 ,animals     
which are not furnished with a          
back-bone4 ,for a further explanation1  
see ,vertebrated ,animals4              
,,isothermal4 ,such zones or divisions  
of the land1 ocean1 or     atmosphere1  
which have an equal degree of mean      
annual warmth1 are     said to be       
isothermal1 from ,greek3 isos1 isos1    
equal1 and     ,greek3 therme1 therme1  
heat4     ,,ioints4 ,fissures or lines  
of parting in rocks1 often at right     
angles     to the planes of             
stratification4 ,the partings which     
divide columnar     basalt into prisms  
are joints4    ,,iura ,,limestone4 ,the 
limestones belonging to the ,oolite     
,group     constitute the chief part of 
the mountains of ,jura between ,france  
and ,switzerland2 and hence the         
geologists of the ,continent have       
given the name to the group4            
,,keuper4 ,a ,german name for a member  
of the ,upper ,new ,red ,sandstone4     

,,kimmeridge ,,clay4 ,a thick bed of    
clay1 constituting a member of the      
,oolite ,group4 ,so called because it is
 found well developed at                
,kimmeridge1 in the ,isle of ,purbeck1  
,dorsetshire4     ,,lacustrine4         
,belonging to a lake4 ,etym41 lacus1 a  
lake4    ,,lamantine4 ,a living species 
of the herbivorous ,cetacea or whale    
tribe which inhabits the mouth of rivers
 on the coasts of ,africa and     ,south
 ,america3 the sea-cow4                 
,,lamelliferous4 ,having a structure    
consisting of thin plates or     leaves 
like paper4 ,etym41 lamella1 the        
diminutive of lamina1     plate1 and    
fero1 to bear4    ,,laminae4 ,latin for 
plates2 used in geology for the smaller 
layers of     which a stratum is        
frequently composed4    ,,landslip4 ,a  
portion of land that has slid down in   
consequence of     disturbance by an    
earthquake1 or from being undermined by 
water     washing away the lower beds   
which supported it4    ,,lapidification4

 ,lapidifying process4 ,conversion into 
stone4 ,etym41     lapis1 stone1 and    
fio1 to make4    ,,lapilli4 ,small      
volcanic cinders4 ,lapillus1 a little   
stone4    ,,lava4 ,the stone which flows
 in a melted state from a volcano4      
,,lepidodendron1 a genus of fossil      
plants of the ,coal ,measures1          
intermediate in character between the   
,lycopodiums and coniferous     plants4 
,,leucite4 ,a simple mineral found in   
volcanic rocks1 crystallized1 and     of
 a white color4 ,etym41 ,greek3 leucos1 
leucos1 white4    ,,lias4 ,a provincial 
name for an argillaceous limestone1     
characterized     together with its     
associated beds by peculiar fossils1 and
 forming a     particular group of      
strata1 interposed between the ,oolite  
and the     ,new ,red ,sandstone4       
,,ligniperdous4 ,a term applied to      
insects which destroy wood4 ,etym41     
lignum1 wood1 and perdo1 to destroy4    
,,lignite4 ,wood converted into a kind  
of coal4 ,etym41 lignum1     wood4      

,,lithodomi4 ,molluscous animals which  
form holes in the solid rocks in        
which they lodge themselves4 ,the holes 
are not perforated     mechanically1 but
 the rock appears to be dissolved4      
,etym41 ,greek3     lithos1 lithos1     
stone1 and ,greek3 demo1 demo1 to build4
    ,,lithogenous ,,polyps4 ,animals    
which form coral4    ,,lithographic     
,,stone4 ,a slaty compact limestone1 of 
a yellowish color     and fine grain1   
used in lithography1 which is the art of
 drawing     upon and printing from     
stone ,etym41 ,greek3 lithos1 lithos1   
stone1 and ,greek3 grapho1 grapho1 to   
write4    ,,lithoidal4 ,having a stony  
structure4    ,,lithological4 ,a term   
expressing the stony structure or       
character of     a mineral mass4 ,we    
speak of the lithological character of a
 stratum     as distinguished from its  
zoological character4 ,etym41 ,greek3   
lithos1 lithos1 stone1 and ,greek3      
logos1 logos1 discourse4                
,,lithophagi4 ,molluscous animals which 

form holes in solid stones4 ,see        
,lithodomi4 ,etym41 ,greek3 lithos1     
lithos1 stone1 and ,greek3     phagein1 
phagein1 to eat4    ,,lithophites4 ,the 
animals which form ,stone-coral4        
,,littoral4 ,belonging to the shore4    
,etym41 littus1 the shore4    ,,loam4 ,a
 mixture of sand and clay4              
,,lophiodon4 ,a genus of extinct        
quadrupeds1 allied to the tapir1 named  
from eminences on the teeth4            
,,lycopodiaceae4 ,plants of an inferior 
degree of organization to               
,coniferae1 some of which they very much
 resemble in foliage1 but all     recent
 species are infinitely smaller4 ,many  
of the fossil species     are as        
gigantic as recent ,coniferae4 ,their   
mode of reproduction is     analogous to
 that of ferns4 ,in ,english they are   
called club-mosses1     generally found 
in mountainous heaths in the north of   
,england4    ,,lydian ,,stone4 ,flinty  
slate2 a kind of quartz or flint1 allied
 to     ,hornstone1 but of a grayish    

black color4     ,,macigno4 ,in ,italy  
this term has been applied to a         
siliceous     sandstone sometimes       
containing calcareous grains1 mica1 c4  
,,madrepore4 ,a genus of corals1 but    
generally applied to all the     corals 
distinguished by superficial star-shaped
 cavities4 ,there are     several fossil
 species4    ,,magnesian ,,limestone4   
,an extensive series of beds1 the       
geological     position of which is     
immediately above the ,coal ,measures2  
so called1     because the limestone1   
the principal member of the series1     
contains     much of the earth magnesia 
as a constituent part4    ,,mammiferous4
 ,mammifers4 ,animals which give suck to
 their young4 ,to     this class all the
 warm-blooded quadrupeds1 and the       
,cetacea1 or     whales1 belong4 ,etym41
 mamma1 a breast1 fero1 to bear4        
,,mammillary4 ,a surface which is       
studded over with rounded               
projections4 ,etym41 mammilla1 a little 
breast or pap4    ,,mammoth4 ,an extinct

 species of the elephant 7,e4           
primigenius71 of     which the fossil   
bones are frequently met with in various
 countries4     ,the name is of ,tartar 
origin1 and is used in ,siberia for     
animals     that burrow under ground4   
,,manati4 ,one of the ,cetacea1 the     
sea-cow1 or lamantine 7,trichechus      
manatus1 ,lin47    ,,marl4 ,a mixture of
 clay and lime2 usually soft1 but       
sometimes hard1     in which case it is 
called indurated marl4    ,,marsupial   
,,animals4 ,a tribe of quadrupeds having
 a sack or pouch     under the belly1 in
 which they carry their young4 ,the     
kangaroo is a     well-known example4   
,etym41 marsupium1 a purse4             
,,mastodon4 ,a genus of fossil extinct  
quadrupeds allied to the     elephants2 
so called from the form of the hind     
teeth or grinders1     which have their 
surface covered with conical mammillary 
crests4     ,etym41 ,greek3 mastos1     
mastos1 pap1 and ,greek3 odon1 odon1    
tooth4    ,,matrix4 ,if a simple mineral

 or shell1 in place of being detached1  
be     still fixed in a portion of rock1
 it is said to be in its matrix4        
,matrix1 womb4    ,,mechanical ,,origin1
 ,,rocks ,,of4 ,rocks composed of sand1 
pebbles1 or     fragments1 are so called
 to distinguish them from those of a    
uniform     crystalline texture1 which  
are of chemical origin4    ,,medusae4 ,a
 genus of marine radiated animals1      
without shells2 so     called1 because  
their organs of motion spread out like  
the snaky     hair of the fabulous      
,medusa4    ,,megalosaurus4 ,a fossil   
gigantic amphibious animal of the       
saurian or     lizard and crocodile     
tribe4 ,etym41 ,greek3 megale1 megale1  
great1 and ,greek3 saura1 saura1 lizard4
    ,,megatherium4 ,a fossil extinct    
quadruped1 resembling a gigantic        
sloth4 ,etym41 ,greek3 mega1 mega1      
great1 and ,greek3 therion1     therion1
 wild beast4    ,,melastoma4 ,a genus of
 ,,melastomacea1 an order of exotic     
plants of the     evergreen tree and    

shrubby kinds4 ,etym41 ,greek3 melas1   
melas1     black1 and ,greek3 stoma1    
stoma1 mouth2 because the fruit of one  
of these species stains the lips4       
,,mesotype4 ,a simple mineral1 white1   
and needle-shaped1 one of the           
,zeolite family1 frequently met with in 
the ,trap-rocks4    ,,metamorphic       
,,rocks4 ,a stratified division of      
hypogene rocks1 highly     crystalline1 
such as gneiss and mica-schist1 and so  
named because     they have been altered
 by plutonic action4 ,etym41 ,greek3    
meta1     meta1 trans1 and ,greek3      
morphe1 morphe1 form4    ,,mica4 ,a     
simple mineral1 having a shining silvery
 surface1 and     capable of being split
 into very thin elastic leaves or       
scales4 ,it     is often called talc in 
common life2 but mineralogists apply the
     term talc to a different mineral4  
,the brilliant scales in granite     are
 mica4 ,etym41 mico1 to shine4          
,,mica-,,slate1 ,,mica-,,schist1        
,,micaceous ,,schistus4 ,one of the     

metamorphic     or crystalline          
stratified rocks of the hypogene class1 
which is     characterized by being     
composed of a large proportion of mica  
united     with quartz4    ,,miocene4 ,a
 division of tertiary strata intervening
 between the     ,eocene and ,pliocene  
formations2 so called1 because a        
minority of its     fossil shells are   
referable to living species4 ,etym41    
,greek3     meion1 meion1 less1 and     
,greek3 kainos1 kainos1 recent4         
,,molasse4 ,a provincial name for a soft
 green sandstone1 associated     with   
marl and conglomerates1 belonging to the
 ,miocene ,tertiary     ,period1        
extensively developed in the lower      
country of ,switzerland4     ,etym41    
,french1 molle1 soft4    ,,mollusca1    
,,molluscous ,,animals4 ,animals1 such  
as shell-fish1 which1     being devoid  
of bones1 have soft bodies4 ,etym41     
mollis1 soft4    ,,monad4 ,the smallest 
of visible animalcules1 spoken of by    
,buffon and     his followers as        

constituting the elementary molecules of
 organic     beings4    ,,monitor4 ,an  
animal of the saurian or lizard tribe1  
species of which     are found in both  
the fossil and recent state4            
,,monocotyledonous4 ,a grand division of
 the vegetable kingdom     7including   
palms1 grasses1 ,lilaceae1 c471 founded 
on the plant     having only one        
cotyledon1 or seed-lobe4 ,etym41 ,greek3
 monos1     monos1 single4    ,,moraine1
 a ,swiss term for the dabris of rocks  
brought into valleys     by glaciers4   
,see p4 #bbh4    ,,moschus4 ,a quadruped
 resembling the chamois or mountain     
goat1 from     which the perfume musk is
 obtained4    ,,mountain ,,limestone1   
,,or ,,carboniferous ,,limestone4 ,a    
series of     limestone strata of marine
 origin1 usually forming the lowest     
member     of the ,coal ,measures4      
,,moya4 ,a term applied in ,south       
,america to mud poured out from         
volcanoes during eruptions4             
,,multilocular4 ,many-chambered2 a term 

applied to those shells which1     like 
the nautilus1 ammonite1 and others1 are 
divided into many     compartments4     
,etym41 multus1 many1 and loculus1 a    
partition4    ,,muriate ,,of ,,soda4    
,the scientific name for common culinary
 salt1     because it is composed of    
muriatic acid and the alkali soda4      
,,musaceae4 ,a family of tropical       
monocotyledonous plants1 including the  
banana and plantains4    ,,muschelkalk4 
,a limestone1 belonging to the ,upper   
,new ,red ,sandstone     group4 ,its    
position is between the ,magnesian      
,limestone and the ,lias4     ,this     
formation has not yet been found in     
,england1 and the ,german     name is   
adopted by ,english geologists4 ,the    
word means shell     limestone4 ,etym41 
muschel1 shell1 and kalkstein1          
limestone4     ,,naphtha4 ,a very thin1 
volatile1 inflammable1 and fluid mineral
     substance1 of which there are      
springs in many countries1              
particularly in volcanic districts4     

,,nenuphar4 ,a yellow water-lily4 ,p4   
#fah4    ,,new ,,red ,,sandstone4 ,a    
formation so named1 because it consists 
chiefly     of sandy and argillaceous   
strata1 the predominant color of which  
is     brick-red1 but containing        
portions which are of a greenish-gray4  
,these occur often in spots and stripes1
 so that the series has     sometimes   
been called the variegated sandstone4   
,this formation is     divided into the 
,upper ,new ,red in which the           
,muschelkalk is included1     and the   
,lower ,new ,red1 of which the          
,magnesian ,limestone is a member4      
,,nodule4 ,a rounded irregular-shaped   
lump or mass4 ,etym41 diminutive     of 
nodus1 knot4    ,,normal ,,groups4      
,groups of certain rocks taken as a rule
 or standard4     ,etym41 norma1 rule or
 pattern4    ,,nucleus4 ,a solid central
 piece1 around which other matter is    
collected4 ,the word is ,latin for      
kernel4    ,,nummulites4 ,an extinct    
genus of the order of molluscous        

animals1     called ,cephalopoda1 of a  
thin lenticular shape1 internally       
divided     into small chambers4 ,etym41
 nummus1 ,latin for money1 and ,greek3  
lithos1 lithos1 stone1 from its         
resemblance to a coin4     ,,obsidian4  
,a volcanic product1 or species of lava1
 very like common     green bottle      
glass1 which is almost black in large   
masses1 but     semi-transparent in thin
 fragments4 ,pumice-stone is obsidian in
 a     frothy state2 produced1 most     
probably1 by water that was contained   
in or had access to the melted stone1   
and converted into steam4     ,there are
 very often portions in masses of solid 
obsidian1 which are     partially       
converted into pumice4    ,,ochre4 ,a   
yellow powder1 a combination of some    
earth with oxide of     iron4           
,,ogygian ,,deluge4 ,a great inundation 
mentioned in fabulous history1          
supposed to have taken place in the     
reign of ,ogyges in ,attica1 whose      
death is fixed in ,blair's              

,chronological ,tables in the year #agfd
     before ,christ4 ,see p4 #cda4      
,,old ,,red ,,sandstone4 ,a formation   
immediately below the ,carboniferous    
,group4 ,the term ,devonian has been    
recently proposed for strata of     this
 age1 because in ,devonshire they are   
largely developed1 and     contain many 
organic remains4    ,,oligoclase4 ,a    
mineral of the felspar family4          
,,olivine4 ,an olive-colored1           
semi-transparent1 simple mineral1 very  
often occurring in the form of grains   
and of crystals in basalt and     lava4 
,,oolite1 ,,oolitic4 ,a limestone2 so   
named because it is composed of         
rounded particles like the roe or eggs  
of a fish4 ,the name is also     applied
 to a large group of strata1            
characterized by peculiar     fossils1  
in which limestone of this texture      
occurs4 ,etym41 ,greek3     oon1 oon1   
egg1 and ,greek3 lithos1 lithos1 stone4 
,,opalized ,,wood4 ,wood petrified by   
siliceous earth1 and acquiring a        

structure similar to the simple mineral 
called opal4    ,,ophidious ,,reptiles4 
,vertebrated animals1 such as snakes and
     serpents4 ,etym41 ,greek3 ophis1   
ophis1 a serpent4    ,,organic          
,,remains4 ,the remains of animals and  
plants 7organized     bodies7 found in a
 fossil state4    ,,orthocerata ,,or    
,,ohthocerae4 ,an extinct genus of the  
order of     molluscous animals1 called 
,cephalopoda1 that inhabited a          
long-chambered conical shell1 like a    
straight horn4 ,etym41 ,greek3          
orthos1 orthos1 straight1 and ,greek3   
keras1 ceras1 horn4    ,,osseous        
,,breccia4 ,the cemented mass of        
fragments of bones of extinct           
animals found in caverns and fissures4  
,osseous is a ,latin     adjective1     
signifying bony4    ,,osteology4 ,that  
division of anatomy which treats of the 
bones2 from     ,greek3 osteon1 osteon1 
bone1 and ,greek3 logos1 logos1 a       
discourse4    ,,outliers4 ,when a       
portion of a stratum occurs at some     

distance1     detached from the general 
mass of the formation to which it       
belongs1     some practical mineral     
surveyors call it an outlier1 and the   
term     is adopted in geological       
language4    ,,ovate4 ,the shape of an  
egg4 ,etym41 ovum1 egg4                 
,,ovipositing4 ,the laying of eggs4     
,,oxide4 ,the combination of a metal    
with oxygen2 rust is oxide of     iron4 
,,oxygen4 ,one of the constituent parts 
of the air of the atmosphere2     that  
part which supports life4 ,for a farther
 explanation of the     word1 consult   
elementary works on chemistry4          
,,pachydermata4 ,an order of quadrupeds1
 including the elephant1     rhinoceros1
 horse1 pig1 c41 distinguished by having
 thick skins4     ,etym41 ,greek3       
pachus1 pachus1 thick1 and ,greek3      
derma1     derma1 skin1 or hide4        
,,pachydermatous4 ,belonging to         
,pachydermata4    ,,palaeotherium1      
,,paleothere4 ,a fossil extinct         
quadruped1 belonging to     the order   

,pachydermata1 resembling a pig1 or     
tapir1 but of great     size4 ,etym41   
,greek3 palaios1 palaios1 ancient1 and  
,greek3     therion1 therion1 wild      
beast4    ,,paleontology4 ,the science  
which treats of fossil remains1 both    
animal and vegetable4 ,etym41 ,greek3   
palaios1 palaios1 ancient1     ,greek3  
onta1 onta1 beings1 and ,greek3 logos1  
logos1 a     discourse4    ,,pelagian1  
,,pelagic4 ,belonging to the deep sea4  
,etym41 pelagus1     sea4    ,,peperino4
 ,an ,italian name for a particular kind
 of volcanic rock1     formed like tuff1
 by the cementing together of volcanic  
sand1     cinders1 or scoriae1 c4       
,,petroleum4 ,a liquid mineral pitch1 so
 called because it is seen to     ooze  
like oil out of the rock4 ,etym41 petra1
 rock1 and oleum1     oil4              
,,phaenogamous or ,,phanerogamic        
,,plants4 ,a name given by ,linnaeus to 
those     plants in which the           
reproductive organs are apparent4       
,etym41     ,greek3 phaneros1 phaneros1 

evident1 or ,greek3 phaino1     phaino1 
to show1 and ,greek3 gamos1 gamos1      
marriage4    ,,phlegraean ,,fields4     
,campi ,phlegraei1 or the ,burnt        
,fields4 ,the country     around        
,naples1 so named by the ,greeks1 from  
the traces of igneous     action        
everywhere visible4    ,,phonolite4 ,see
 ,clinkstone4    ,,phryganea4 ,a genus  
of four-winged insects1 the larvae of   
which1     called caddis-worms1 are used
 by anglers as a bait4    ,,physics4    
,the department of science which treats 
of the properties of     natural bodies1
 laws of motion1 c42 sometimes called   
natural     philosophy and mechanical   
philosophy4 ,etym41 ,greek3 physis1     
physis1 nature4    ,,phytology1         
,,phytological4 ,the department of      
science which relates to                
plants--synonymous with1 botany and     
botanical4 ,etym41 ,greek3     phyton1  
phyton1 plant1 and ,greek3 logos1 logos1
 discourse4    ,,phytophagous4          
,plant-eating4 ,etym41 ,greek3 phyton1  

phyton1     plant1 and ,greek3 phagein1 
phagein1 to eat4    ,,pisolite4 ,a stone
 possessing a structure like an         
agglutination of     peas4 ,etym41      
,greek3 pison1 pison1 pea1 and ,greek3  
lithos1     lithos1 stone4    ,,pistia4 
,p4 #fah4 ,the plant mentioned by       
,malte-,brun is probably the     ,pistia
 ,stratiotes1 a floating plant1 related 
to ,english duckweed1     but very much 
larger4    ,,pit ,,coal4 ,ordinary coal2
 called so1 because it is obtained by   
sinking pits in the ground4             
,,pitchstone4 ,a rock of a uniform      
texture1 belonging to the               
unstratified and volcanic classes1 which
 has an unctuous appearance     like    
indurated pitch4    ,,plastic ,,clay4   
,one of the beds of the ,eocene         
,tertiary ,period2 so     called1       
because it is used for making pottery4  
,the formation to     which this name is
 applied is a series of beds chiefly    
sands1 with     which the clay is       
associated4 ,etym41 ,greek3 plasso1     

plasso1 to     form or fashion4         
,,plesiosaurus4 ,a fossil extinct       
amphibious animal1 resembling the       
saurian1 or lizard and crocodile tribe4 
,etym41 ,greek3 plesion1     plesion1   
near to1 and ,greek3 saura1 saura1 a    
lizard4    ,,pliocene1 ,,older and      
,,newer4 ,two divisions of the ,tertiary
 ,period     which are the most modern1 
and of which the largest part of the    
fossil shells are of recent species4    
,etym41 ,greek3 pleion1     pleion1     
more1 and ,greek3 kainos1 kainos1       
recent4    ,,plutonic ,,action4 ,the    
influence of volcanic heat and other    
subterranean causes under pressure4     
,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,granite1 porphyry1 
and other igneous rocks supposed     to 
have consolidated from a melted state at
 a great depth from the     surface4    
,,poliparia4 ,,corals4 ,a numerous class
 of invertehrated animals1     belonging
 to the great division called ,radiata4 
,,porphyry4 ,an unstratified or igneous 
rock4 ,the term is as old as the        

time of ,pliny1 and was applied to a red
 rock with small1 angular1     white    
bodies diffused through it1 which are   
crystallized felspar1     brought from  
,egypt4 ,the term is hence applied to   
every species of     unstratifled rock  
in which detached crystals or felspar or
 some     other mineral are diffused    
through a base of other mineral         
composition4 ,etym41 ,greek3 porphyra1  
porphyra1 purple4    ,,portland         
,,limestone1 ,,portland ,,beds4 ,a      
series of limestone strata1             
belonging to the upper part of the      
,oolite ,group1 found chiefly in        
,england in the ,island of ,portland on 
the coast of ,dorsetshire4 ,the         
great supply of the building-stone used 
in ,london is from these     quarries4  
,,pozzuolana4 ,volcanic ashes1 largely  
used as mortar for buildings1           
similar in nature to what is called in  
this country ,roman cement4 ,it     gets
 its name from ,puzzuoli1 a town in the 
,bay of ,naples1 from which     it is   

shipped in large quantities to all parts
 of the ,mediterranean4                 
,,precipitate4 ,substances which1 having
 been dissolved in a fluid1 are         
separated from it by combining          
chemically and forming a solid1 which   
falls to the bottom of the fluid4 ,this 
process is the opposite to     that of  
chemical solution4    ,,producta4 ,an   
extinct genus of fossil bivalve shells  
occurring only     in the older         
secondary rocks4 ,it is closely allied  
to the living     genus ,terebratula4   
,,pterodactyl4 ,a flying reptile3       
species of this genus have been found   
in the ,oolite and ,muschelkalk4 ,some  
of the finger-joints are     lengthened1
 so as to serve as the expansors of a   
membranous wing4     ,hence the name    
wing-fingered4 ,etym41 ,greek3 pteron1  
pteron1     a wing1 and ,greek3         
daktylos1 dactylos1 a finger4           
,,pubescence4 ,the soft hairy down on   
insects4 ,etym41 pubesco1 the     first 
growth of the beard4    ,,puddingstone4 

,see ,conglomerate4    ,,pumice4 ,a     
light spongy lava1 chiefly felspathic1  
of a white color1     produced by gases 
or watery vapor getting access to the   
particular     kind of glassy lava      
called obsidian1 when in a state of     
fusion2 it     may be called the froth  
of melted volcanic glass4 ,the word     
comes     from the ,latin name of the   
stone1 pumex4    ,,purbeck ,,limestone1 
,,purbeck ,,beds4 ,limestone strata1    
belonging to the     ,wealden ,group1   
which intervenes between the ,greensand 
and the     ,oolite4    ,,pyrites4      
7,iron47 ,a compound of sulphur and     
iron1 found usually in     yellow       
shining-crystals like brass1 and in     
almost every rock1     stratified and   
uustratifled4 ,the shining metallic     
bodies so often     seen in common      
roofing slate are a familiar example of 
the mineral4     ,the word is ,greek1   
and comes from ,greek3 pyr1 pyr1 fire2  
because     tinder particular           
circumstances1 the stone produces       

spontaneous     heat1 and even          
inflammation4    ,,pyrometer4 ,an       
instrument for measuring intense degrees
 of heat4     ,,quadrumana4 ,the order  
of mammiferous animals to which apes    
belong4     ,etym41 quadrus1 a          
derivative of the ,latin word for the   
number     four1 and manus1 hand1 the   
four feet of those animals being in     
some degree usable as hands4            
,,qua-,,qua-,,versal ,,dip4 ,the dip of 
beds to all points of the compass       
around a centre1 as in the case of beds 
of lava round the crater of     a       
volcano4 ,etym41 qua-qua-versum1 on     
every side4    ,,quartz4 ,a ,german     
provincial term1 universally adopted in 
scientific     language for a simple    
mineral composed of pure silex1 or earth
 of     flints3 rock-crystal is an      
example4    ,,quartzite or ,,quartz     
,,rock4 ,an aggregate of grains of      
quartz1     sometimes passing into      
compact quartz4     ,,red ,,marl4 ,a    
term often applied to the ,new ,red     

,sandstone4    ,,reticulate4 ,a         
structure of cross lines1 like a net1 is
 said to be     reticulated1 from rete1 
a net4    ,,rock ,,salt4 ,common        
culinary salt1 or muriate of soda1 found
 in vast     solid masses or beds1 in   
different formations1 extensively in the
     ,new ,red ,sandstone formation1 as 
in ,cheshire2 and it is then called     
rock-salt4    ,,rubble4 ,a term applied 
by quarry-men to the upper fragmentary  
and     decomposed portion of a mass of 
stone4    ,,ruminantia4 ,animals which  
ruminate or chew the cud1 such as the   
ox1     deer1 c4 ,etym41 the ,latin verb
 rumino1 meaning the same thing4        
,,saccharoid1 ,,saccharine4 ,when a     
stone has a texture resembling that     
of loaf-sugar4 ,etym41 ,greek3 sakchar1 
sacchar1 sugar1 and     ,greek3 eidos1  
eidos1 form4      ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#ajj4    ,,salient ,,angle4 ,in a zigzag
 line a a are the salient angles1 b b   
the re-entering angles4 ,etym41 salire1 
to leap or bound forward4    ,,salt     

,,springs4 ,springs of water containing 
a large quantity of common     salt4    
,they are very abundant in ,cheshire and
 ,worcestershire1 and     culinary salt 
is obtained from them by mere           
evaporation4    ,,sandstone4 ,any stone 
which is composed of an agglutination of
 grains     of sand1 whether calcareous1
 siliceous1 or of any other mineral     
nature4    ,,saurian4 ,any animal       
belonging to the lizard tribe4 ,etym41  
,greek3     saura1 saura1 a lizard4     
,,saxicavous4 ,hollowing out stone4     
,,schist is often used as synonymous    
with slate2 but it may be very          
useful to distinguish between a         
schistose and a slaty structure4 ,the   
hypogene or primary schists1 as they are
 termed1 such as gneiss1                
mica-schist1 and others1 cannot be split
 into an indefinite number     of       
parallel laminae like rocks which have a
 true slaty cleavage4 ,the     uneven   
schistose layers of mica-schist and     
gneiss are probably     layers of       

deposition1 which have assumed a        
crystalline texture4 ,see     ,cleavage4
 ,etym41 schistus1 adj4 ,latin1 that    
which may be     split4    ,,schistose  
,,rocks4 ,see ,schist4    ,,scoriae4    
,volcanic cinders4 ,the word is ,latin  
for cinders4    ,,seams4 ,thin layers   
which separate two strata of greater    
magnitude4    ,,secondary ,,strata4 ,an 
extensive series of the stratified rocks
 which     compose the crust of the     
globe1 with certain characters in       
common1     which distinguish them from 
another series below them called        
primary1 and from a third series above  
them called tertiary4    ,,secular      
,,refrigeration4 ,the periodical cooling
 and consolidation of     the globe from
 a supposed original state of fluidity  
from heat4     ,saeculum1 age or period4
    ,,sedimentary ,,rocks are those     
which have been formed by their         
materials having been thrown down from a
 state of suspension or     solution in 
water4    ,,selenite4 ,crystallized     

gypsum1 or sulphate of lime--a simple   
mineral4    ,,septaria4 ,flattened balls
 of stone1 generally a kind of          
iron-stone1     which1 on being split1  
are seen to be separated in their       
interior     into irregular masses4     
,etym41 septa1 inclosures4              
,,serpentine4 ,a rock usually containing
 much magnesian earth1 for the     most 
part unstratified1 but sometimes        
appearing to be an altered or           
metamorphic stratified rock4 ,its name  
is derived from frequently              
presenting contrasts of color1 like the 
skin of some serpents4    ,,shale4 ,a   
provincial term1 adopted by geologists1 
to express an     indurated slaty clay4 
,etym41 ,german schalen1 to peel1 to    
split4    ,,shell ,,marl4 ,a deposit of 
clay1 peat1 and other substances mixed  
with     shells1 which collects at the  
bottom of lakes4    ,,shingle4 ,the     
loose and completely water-worn gravel  
on the     sea-shore4    ,,silex4 ,the  
name of one of the pure earths1 being   

the ,latin word for     flint1 which is 
wholly composed of that earth4 ,french  
geologists     have applied it as a     
generic name for all minerals composed  
entirely of that earth1 of which there  
are many of different     external      
forms4    ,,silica4 ,one of the pure    
earths4 ,etym41 silex1 flint1 because   
found in that mineral4    ,,silicate4 ,a
 chemical compound of silica and another
 substance1 such     as silicate of     
iron4 ,consult elementary works on      
chemistry4    ,,siliceous4 ,of or       
belonging to the earth of flint4 ,etym41
 silex1     which see4 ,a siliceous rock
 is one mainly composed of silex4       
,,silicified4 ,any substance that is    
petrified or mineralized by             
siliceous earth4    ,,silt4 ,the more   
comminuted sand1 clay1 and earth1 which 
is     transported by running water4 ,it
 is often accumulated by currents in    
banks4 ,thus the mouth of a river is    
silted up when its entrance into     the
 sea is impeded by such accumulation of 

loose materials4    ,,simple ,,mineral4 
,individual mineral substances1 as      
distinguished from     rocks1 which last
 are usually an aggregation of simple   
minerals4     ,they are not simple in   
regard to their nature2 for when        
subjected to     chemical analysis1 they
 are found to consist of a variety of   
different substances4 ,pyrites is a     
simple mineral in the sense we     use  
the term1 but it is a chemical compound 
of sulphur and iron4    ,,sinter1       
,,calcareous ,,or ,,siliceous4 ,a       
,german name for a rock     precipitated
 from mineral waters4 ,etym41 sintern1  
to drop4    ,,slate4 ,see ,cleavage and 
,schist4    ,,solfatara4 ,a volcanic    
vent from which sulphur1 sulphureous1   
watery1     and acid vapors and gases   
are emitted4    ,,sporules4 ,the        
reproductory corpuscula 7minute bodies7 
of cryptogamic     plants4 ,etym41      
,greek3 spora1 spora1 a seed4           
,,stalactite4 ,when water holding lime  
in solution deposits it as it     drops 

from the roof of a cavern1 long rods of 
stone hang down like     icicles1 and   
these are called stalactites4 ,etym41   
,greek3     stalazo1 stalazo1 to drop4  
,,stalagmite4 ,when water holding lime  
in solution drops on the floor     of a 
cavern1 the water evaporating leaves a  
crust composed of layers     of         
limestone3 such a crust is called       
stalagmite1 from ,greek3     stalagma1  
stalagma1 a drop1 in opposition to      
stalactite1 which     see4    ,,statical
 ,,figure4 ,the figure which results    
from the equilibrium of     forces4     
,from ,greek3 statos1 statos1 stable1 or
 standing still4    ,,sternum4 ,the     
breast-bone1 or the flat bone occupying 
the front of     the chest4             
,,stilbite4 ,a crystallized simple      
mineral1 usually white1 one of the      
,zeolite family1 frequently included in 
the mass of the ,trap-rocks4            
,,stratified4 ,rocks arranged in the    
form of strata1 which see4              
,,stratification4 ,an arrangement of    

rocks in strata1 which see4    ,,strata1
 ,,stratum4 ,the term stratum1 derived  
from the ,latin verb     struo1 to strew
 or lay out1 means a bed or mass of     
matter spread     out over a certain    
surface by the action of water1 or in   
some cases     by wind4 ,the deposition 
of successive layers of sand and gravel 
in     the bed of a river1 or in a      
canal1 affords a perfect illustration   
both of the form and origin of          
stratification4 ,a large portion of     
the masses constituting the earth's     
crust are thus stratified1 the          
successive strata of a given rock       
preserving a general parallelism     to 
each other2 but the planes of           
stratification not being perfectly      
parallel throughout a great extent like 
the planes of cleavage1     which see4  
,,strike4 ,the direction or line of     
bearing of strata1 which is always      
at right angles to their prevailing dip4
    ,,stufas4 ,jets of steam issuing    
from fissures in volcanic regions at a  

temperature often above the boiling     
point4    ,,subapennines4 ,low hills    
which skirt or lie at the foot of the   
great     chain of the ,apennines in    
,italy4 ,the term4 ,subapennine is      
applied     geologically to a series of 
strata of the ,older ,pliocene ,period4 
,,syenite4 ,a kind of granite2 so       
called1 because it was brought from     
,syene in ,egypt4     ,,talus4 ,when    
fragments are broken off by the action  
of the weather     from the face of a   
steep rock1 as they accumulate at its   
foot1 they     form a sloping heap1     
called a talus4 ,the term is borrowed   
from the     language of fortification1 
where talus means the outside of a wall 
of which the thickness is diminished by 
degrees1 as it rises in     height1 to  
make it the firmer4    ,,tarsi4 ,the    
feet in insects1 which are articulated1 
and formed of     five or a less number 
of joints4    ,,tertiary ,,strata4 ,a   
series of sedimentary rocks1 with       
characters     which distinguish them   

from two other great series of          
strata--the     secondary and           
primary--which lie beneath them4        
,,testacea4 ,molluscous animals1 having 
a shelly covering4 ,etym41     testa1 a 
shell1 such as snails1 whelks1 oysters1 
c4    ,,thallogens4 ,a class of         
flowerless plants including all those   
that     have no defined axis1 stem1 or 
leaves2 as ,lichens1 ,seaweeds1 and     
,fungi4 ,etym41 ,greek3 thallos1        
thallos1 a branch1 and ,greek3          
genesis1 genesis1 increase4             
,,thermal4 ,hot4 ,etym41 ,greek3        
thermos1 thermos1 hot4                  
,,thermo-,,electricity4 ,electricity    
developed by heat4    ,,thin ,,out4     
,when a stratum1 in the course of its   
prolongation in any     direction1      
becomes gradually less in thickness1 the
 two surfaces     approach nearer and   
nearer2 and when at last they meet1 the 
stratum     is said to thin out or      
disappear4    ,,trachyte4 ,a variety of 
lava essentially composed of glassy     

felspar1     and frequently having      
detached crystals of felspar in the base
 or     body of the stone1 giving it the
 structure of porphyry4 ,it sometimes   
contains hornblende and augite2 and when
 these last predominate1 the            
trachyte passes into the varieties of   
trap1 called ,greenstone1     ,basalt1  
,dolorite1 c4 ,the term is derived from 
,greek3 trachus1     trachus1 rough1    
because the rock has a peculiar rough   
feel4    ,,trap and ,,trappean ,,rocks4 
,volcanic rocks composed of felspar1    
augite1     and hornblende4 ,the various
 proportions and state of aggregation of
     these simple minerals1 and         
differences in external forms1 give rise
     to varieties1 which have received  
distinct appellations1 such as          
,basalt1 ,amygdaloid1 ,dolorite1        
,greenstone1 and others4 ,the term is   
derived from trappa1 a ,swedish word for
 stair1 because the rocks     of this   
class sometimes occur in large tabular  
masses1 rising one     above another    

like steps4    ,,travertin4 ,a white    
concretionary limestone1 usually hard   
and     semi-crystalline1 deposited from
 the water of springs holding lime      
in solution4--,etym4 ,this stone was    
called by the ancients ,lapis           
,tiburtinus1 the stone being formed in  
great quantity by the river     ,anio1  
at ,tibur1 near ,rome4 ,some suppose    
travertin to be an     abbreviation of  
trasterverino from transtiburtinus4     
,,tripoli4 ,the name of a powder used   
for polishing metals and stones1        
first imported from ,tripoli1 which1 as 
well as a certain kind of     siliceous 
stone of the same name1 has been lately 
found to be     composed of the flinty  
cases of ,infusoria4    ,,trophi1 of    
,insects4 ,organs which form the mouth1 
consisting of an     upper and under    
lip1 and comprising the parts called    
mandibles1     maxillae1 and palpi4     
,,tufa1 ,,calcareous4 ,a porous rock    
deposited by calcareous waters on       
their exposure to the air1 and usually  

containing portions of plants     and   
other organic substances incrusted with 
carbonate of lime4 ,the     more solid  
form of the same deposit is called      
travertin1 into     which it passes4    
,,tufa1 ,,volcanic4 ,see ,tuff4         
,,tufaceous4 ,a rock with the texture of
 tuff1 or tufa1 which see4    ,,tuff1 or
 ,,tufa ,,volcanic4 ,an ,italian name   
for a variety of volcanic     rock of an
 earthy texture1 seldom very compact1   
and composed of an     agglutination of 
fragments of scoriae and loose materials
 ejected     from a volcano4            
,,turbinated4 ,shells which have a      
spiral or screw-form structure4         
,etym41 turbinatus1 made like a top4    
,,turrilite4 ,an extinct genus of       
chambered shells1 allied to the         
,ammonites1 having the siphuncle near   
the dorsal margin4     ,,unconformable4 
,see ,conformable4    ,,unoxidized1     
,,unoxidated4 ,not combined with oxygen4
     ,,veins1 ,,mineral4 ,cracks in     
rocks filled up by substances different 

from the rock1 which may either be      
earthy or metallic4 ,veins are          
sometimes many yards wide2 and they     
ramify or branch off into               
innumerable smaller parts1 often as     
slender as threads1 like the     veins  
in an animal1 hence their name4         
,,vertebrated ,,animals4 ,a great       
division of the animal kingdom1         
including all those which are furnished 
with a back-bone1 as the     mammalia1  
birds1 reptiles1 and fishes4 ,the       
separate joints of the     back-bone are
 called vertebrae1 from the ,latin verb 
verto1 to     turn4    ,,vesicle4 ,a    
small1 circular1 inclosed space1 like a 
little bladder4     ,etym41 diminutive  
of vesica1 ,latin for a bladder4        
,,vitrification4 ,the conversion of a   
body into glass by heat4    ,,volcanic  
,,bombs4 ,volcanoes throw out sometimes 
detached masses of     melted lava1     
which1 as they fall1 assume rounded     
forms 7like     bomb-shells71 and are   
often elongated into a pear-shape4      

,,volcanic ,,foci4 ,the subterranean    
centres of action in volcanoes1         
where the heat is supposed to be in the 
highest degree of energy4    ,,wacke4 ,a
 rock nearly allied to basalt1 of which 
it may be regarded     as a soft and    
earthy variety4    ,,warp4 ,the deposit 
of muddy waters1 artificially introduced
 into low     lands4 ,see p4 #cbf4      
,,zeolite4 ,a family of simple minerals1
 including stilbite1 mesotype1          
analcime1 and some others1 usually found
 in the trap or volcanic     rocks4     
,some of the most common varieties swell
 or boil up when     exposed to the     
blow-pipe1 and hence the name of ,greek3
 zeo1 zeo1     to boil1 and ,greek3     
lithos1 lithos1 stone4    ,,zoophites4  
,corals1 sponges1 and other aquatic     
animals allied to     them2 so called   
because1 while they are the habitation  
of animals1     they are fixed to the   
ground1 and have the form of plants4    
,etym41     ,greek3 zoon1 zoon1 animal1 
and ,greek3 phyton1 phyton1 plant4      

,,index4      ,a4    ,abich1 ,m41 on    
eruption of ,vesuvius in #ahcd1 #cgh1   
#chj1 #eej4    ,abo1 #ebb1 #ebc4        
,acosta cited1 #dii1 #ejb4    ,adams1   
,mr41 on fossil elephant1 #hj4          
,adanson on age of the baobab tree1     
#dbb4    ,addison on ,burnet's theory1  
#cb4    ,adige1 embankment of the1 #bee4
   ----1 delta of the1 #beg4    ,adour1 
,r41 new passage formed by1 #cch4       
,adria1 formerly a seaport1 #bef4       
,adriatic1 deposits in1 #cf1 #hh1 #ga1  
#beg1 #ggd4    ,a,egean ,sea1 ,prof4 ,e4
 ,forbes dredging in1 #fdi4    ,africa1 
fossil shells of1 mentioned by ancients1
 #ae4   ----1 indigenous quadrupeds of1 
#hb4   ----1 heat radiated by1 #id4     
----1 currents on coast of1 #bib1 #cdb4 
----1 drift sands of deserts1 #gbf4     
----1 devastations of locusts in1 #fgd4 
----1 strata forming off tropical coast 
of1 #ggd4   ----1 desert of its area1   
#fid4    ,agassiz1 ,m41 on fish of coal 
formation1 #acf4   ----1 on abrupt      
transition from one fossil fauna to     

another1 #ahd4   ----1 on motion1 c41 of
 glaciers1 #bbd1 #bbf4    ,agricola on  
fossil remains1 #ba4    ,airthrey1      
fossil whale found at1 #gga4            
,alabama1 coal plants1 #hh4    ,alaska1 
volcanoes in1 #ceb4    ,aldborough1     
incursions of sea at1 #caa4             
,alderney1 race of1 #bic4    ,aleutian  
,isles1 eruptions1 c41 in1 #ceb1 #dfh4  
,alexandria1 temple of ,serapis at1     
#eab4    ,algae1 known provinces of1    
#fag4    ,allan1 ,dr41 on coral in      
,madagascar1 #ggh4    ,alloa1 whale cast
 ashore at1 #gga4    ,alluvium1         
imbedding of organic remains in1 #ghj4  
----1 volcanic1 #chf4   ----1           
stalagmite1 alternating with1 in caves1 
#gcf4    ,alps1 ,saussure on the1 #de4  
----1 tertiary rocks of the1 #aai4      
----1 greatly raised during tertiary    
epoch1 #abd4   ----1 signs of lateral   
pressure in the1 #aga4    ,altered      
rocks1 #agg4    ,amazon1 ,r41 land      
formed by its deposits1 #cdb4   ----1   
animals floated down on drift-wood by1  

#fdj4    ,america1 its coast undermined1
 #cca4   ----1 recent strata in lakes   
of1 #bed1 #gfh4   ----1 specific        
distinctness of animals of1 #fab1 #fbi4 
----1 domesticated animals run wild in1 
#ehe1 #fhe4   ----1 ,n41 continuous beds
 of coal in1 #aae4   ----1 ,n41 deposit 
,new red like ,english1 #aeh4   ----1   
,n4 and ,s41 mammiferous fauna of1 #fcc4
    ,ammonia in lavas1 #eej4            
,amonoosuck1 flood in valley of1 #bji4  
,ampere1 ,m41 on electric currents in   
the earth1 #edc4    ,amphitherium1 in   
oolite of ,stonesfleld1 #ach4    ,andes1
 changes of level in1 #gfb4   ----1     
height of perpetual snow on1 #aab4      
----1 volcanoes of1 #cdf4   ----1 sudden
 upheaval of1 #agj4   ----1 signs of    
lateral pressure in1 #aga4    ,andesite1
 rock described1 #cdg4    ,angiospermous
 plants wanting in older rocks1 #acc4   
,animals1 extinction of1 #gjj4   ----1  
quantity of food required by large1 #hb4
   ----1 ,lamarck on production of new  
organs in1 #efh4   ----1 imported into  

,america have ran wild1 #ehe1 #fhe4     
----1 aptitude of some kinds to         
domestication1 #eic1 #eih4   ----1      
hereditary instincts of1 #eic4   ----1  
domestic qualities of1 #eib1 #eie4      
----1 their acquired habits rarely      
transmissible1 #eie1 #fjj4   ----1      
changes in brain of foetus in1 #fji4    
----1 plants diffused by1 #fbc4   ----1 
their geographical distribution1 #gf1   
#gg4   ----1 migrations of1 #fhe4       
----1 causes which determine the        
stations of1 #ffi1 #fgf4   ----1        
influence of man on their distribution1 
#fhb4   ----1 fossil1 in peat caves1 c41
 #gbb1 #gbe1 #gcj1 #gcb1 #gdi1 #geb4    
,anio1 ,r41 flood of the1 #bab4   ----1 
travertin formed by1 #bdd4              
,anoplotherium1 fossil of ,isle of      
,wight1 #adb4    ,antarctic circle1 area
 still unexplored1 #ii4    ,antwerp1    
sunk region near1 #cbg4    ,apennines1  
their relative age1 #aai1 #abd4         
,aphides1 account of a shower of1 #fef4 
----1 their multiplication1 #fgc4       

,aqueous causes1 supposed former        
intensity of1 #aec4   ----1 their action
 described1 #aih4    ,aqueous lavas1    
description of1 #cgd1 #che1 #gbh4       
,arabian ,gulf filling with coral1 #ggf4
    ,arabian writers1 #ag4    ,arago1   
,m41 on influence of forests on climate1
 #gae4   ----1 on solar radiation1 #abg4
   ----1 on level of ,mediterranean and 
,red ,sea1 #bid4   ----1 on formation of
 ground ice1 #bba4    ,araucanian       
tradition of a flood1 #dii4             
,araucaria1 fir in coal1 #hh4           
,arbroath1 houses1 c41 swept away by sea
 at1 #cjb4    ,archiac1 ,m41 #beg4      
,arctic fauna extended farther south    
than now1 #abe4    ,arduino1 memoirs of1
 #da4   ----1 on submarine volcanoes1   
#da1 #ga4    ,areas of elevation and    
subsidence proved by coral islands1     
#gib4    ,aristarchus1 #bab4            
,aristotle1 opinions of1 #ab4   ----1 on
 spontaneous generation1 #bb4   ----1 on
 deluge of ,deucalion1 #cef4            
,arkansas1 ,r41 #bfd4   ----1 floods of1

 #bgj4    ,arso1 volcanic eruption of1  
in ,ischia1 #cfe4    ,artesian well at  
,paris1 temperature of water1 #bcd4     
----1 well1 at ,fort ,william1 near     
,calcutta1 #bhj4   ----1 well in delta  
of ,po1 #beg4    ,artesian wells near   
,london1 #bcd4   ----1 wells1 phenomena 
brought to light by1 #bcc1 #ech4        
,arve1 sediment transported by the1     
#beh4   ----1 section of dabris         
deposited by1 #bhi4    ,ascension1      
,island of1 bounded by lofty shores1    
#fbb4   ----1 fossil eggs of turtle     
from1 #gga4    ,ashes1 volcanic1        
transported to great distances1 #ajf1   
#cdi1 #dfd4    ,asia1 subject to        
earthquakes1 #i4   ----1 coast of1      
changed1 #ah4   ----1 causes of extreme 
cold of part of1 #id4   ----1 ,minor1   
gain of land on coast of1 #bfj4   ----1 
,western1 great cavity in1 #fib4        
,ass1 wild1 #fch1 #fhf4    ,astruc1 on  
,delta of ,rhone1 #beh4    ,atchafalaya1
 ,r41 #bfd4   ----1 drift-wood in1 #bfg4
    ,atlantic1 mean depth of1 #ajd4     

----1 its relative level1 #bid4   ----1 
rise of the tide in1 #bie4   ----1      
absence of coral reefs in1 #gif4        
,atlantis1 submersion of1 #i4    ,atolls
 described1 #ghb1 #ghf4   ----1 theory  
of1 ,mr4 ,maclaren's objections to1     
#gib4    ,atrio del ,cavallo1 #cha4     
,aubenas1 fissures filled with breccia  
near1 #gda4    ,austen1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4    
,c41 on shores of ,english ,channel1    
#cai4   ----1 on new strata formed in1  
#cda4    ,australia1 animals of1 #aci1  
#adc1 #fhd4   ----1 coral reefs of1     
#ggf1 #ghd4   ----1 land quadrupeds of1 
#fcc4    ,auvergne1 salt springs in1    
#bdh4   ----1 carbonic acid gas         
disengaged in1 #bdh4   ----1 state of in
 tertiary period1 #abb4   ----1 fossils 
in volcanic ashes of1 #cdi4   ----1     
volcanic rocks of1 #dh4   ----1 tertiary
 red marl and sandstone of1 #aeh4       
,ava1 fossils of1 #bh4    ,avantipura1  
in ,cashmere1 #gfc4    ,avernus lake1   
#cfh4    ,avicenna on cause of          
mountains1 #ag4    ,axmouth1 great      

landslip near1 #cba4    ,azores1        
icebergs drifted to1 #ii4   ----1       
volcanic line from1 to central ,asia1   
#ced4   ----1 siliceous springs of1     
#bdf4     ,b4    ,babbage1 ,mr41 on the 
coast near ,puzzuoli1 #ejg4   ----1 on  
,temple of ,serapis1 #eag4   ----1 on   
expansion of rocks by heat1 #efb4       
,bachman1 ,mr41 on birds1 #fdc1 #fdd4   
,bacon1 ,lord1 cited1 #gfe4    ,baden1  
gypseous springs of1 #bde4    ,baffin's 
,bay1 icebergs in1 #if4    ,bagnes1     
valley of1 bursting of a lake in the1   
#baj4    ,baiae1 changes on coast of the
 bay of1 #ejg4   ----1 ground plan of   
the coast of1 #ejg4   ----1 sections in 
bay of1 #ejh1 #eaj4    ,baker1 on       
,caspian1 mud volcanoes at1 #ddh4       
,baker1 ,lieut41 on fossil quadrumana1  
#add4    ,bakewell1 ,mr41 on formation  
of soils1 #gji4   ----1 on fall of      
,mount ,grenier1 #ghb4    ,bakewell1    
,mr4 jun41 on ,falls of ,niagara1 #bag4 
,bakie loch1 charae fossil in1 #gfg4    
,baku1 inflammable gas of1 #aa1 #cee4   

,balaruc1 thermal waters of1 #bei4      
,baldassari1 on ,sienese fossils1 #ci4  
,balize1 mouth of ,mississippi1 #bfc1   
#bgb4    ,baltic ,sea1 lowering of level
 of1 #ebj4   ----1 drifting of rocks by 
ice in1 #bai1 #bca4   ----1 currents on 
its shores1 #ccj4    ,banks of          
,mississippi higher than alluvial plain1
 #bff4    ,baobab tree1 its size1       
probable age1 c41 #dbb4    ,barbadoes1  
rain diminished by felling of forests   
in1 #gac4    ,barren ,island described1 
#ddg4    ,barrow1 ,mr41 on a bank formed
 in sea by locusts1 #fge4    ,barrow1   
,mr4 jun41 on the ,geysers of ,iceland1 
#bdg4    ,barton1 ,mr41 on geography of 
plants1 #fab4    ,basalt1 opinions of   
the early writers on1 #dh1 #ga4         
,batavia1 effects of earthquake at1     
#ejb4    ,baton ,rouge1 in ,louisiana1  
#bfe4    ,bay of ,bengal1 its depth1    
recent deposits in1 c41 #bgi4           
,bayfield1 ,capt41 on geology of ,lake  
,superior1 #bed4   ----1 on drifting of 
rock by ice1 #bba1 #bcj4   ----1 on     

bursting of a peninsula by ,lake ,erie1 
#ccc4   ----1 on earthquakes in ,canada1
 #dgj4    ,beaches1 raised1 #ahd4       
,beachey ,head1 #cag4    ,bears1 once   
numerous in ,wales1 #fhc4   ----1 black1
 migrations of1 #fcg4   ----1 drifted on
 ice1 #fgi4    ,beaufort1 ,sir ,f41 on  
gain of land in ,asia ,minor1 #bfj4     
----1 on rise of tides1 #bia4           
,beaumont1 ,m4 ,elie de1 geological map 
of ,france1 #abb4   ----1 on pentagonal 
network of mountain chains1 #agj4       
----1 his theory of contemporaneous     
origin of parallel           mountain   
chains considered1 #afc4   ----1 on     
structure and origin of ,etna1 #djj1    
#daf4   ----1 on sand-dunes1 #cjg4      
----1 on inroads of sea in ,holland1    
#cbg4    ,beaver once inhabited         
,scotland and ,wales1 #fhc4   ----1     
fossil in ,perthshire1 #geb4   ----1    
lake formed by1 in ,new ,brunswick1     
#gaf4    ,beche1 ,sir ,h4 de la4 ,see   
,de la ,beche4    ,bee1 migrations of   
the1 #fee4    ,beechey1 ,capt41 upheaval

 of ,bay of ,conception1 #ejj4   ----1  
on drifting of canoes1 #ffb4   ----1 on 
temple of ,ipsambul1 #gbg4   ----1 on   
coral islands1 #ghj1 #ghb1 #ghg4   ----1
 on changes of level in ,pacific1 #ghh4 
----1 on dead coral in ,elizabeth       
,island1 #gid4    ,beila1 in ,india1 mud
 volcanoes1 #ddi4    ,belcher1 ,sir ,e41
 on upheaval of ,conception1 #ejj4      
----1 on strata forming off coast of    
,africa1 #ggd4    ,bell1 ,mr41 on the   
,dog1 #ehe4    ,bell rock1 stones thrown
 up by storms on1 #cjb4    ,belzoni1 on 
temple of ,ipsambul1 #gbf4   ----1 on a 
flood of the ,nile1 #gec4    ,benin1    
currents in ,bay of1 #bib4    ,barard1  
,m41 on depth and temperature of        
,mediterranean1 #bif1 #ccf4             
,berkeley1 on recent origin of man1     
#gfd4    ,bermudas1 only coral reef far 
out in ,atlantic1 #gif4   ----1 coral   
reefs of the1 #ggf1 #ggh4    ,bewick    
cited1 #caj1 #fdc1 #fhc4    ,bhooj1 in  
,cutch1 destroyed by earthquake1 #dei4  
----1 volcanic eruption at1 #dfj1 #gbi4 

,bies ,bosch formed1 #cbh4    ,bigsby1  
,dr41 on ,north ,american lakes1 #gfh4  
,birds1 diffusion of plants by1 #fbd4   
----1 geographical distribution of1     
#fdb1 #ffc4   ----1 fossils in secondary
 rocks1 #acg4   ----1 tameness of1 in   
uninhabited ,islands1 #eig4   ----1 rate
 of flight of1 #fdd4   ----1 migrations 
of1 #fdc4   ----1 recent extermination  
of some species of1 #fhc4   ----1 bones 
of1 in ,gibraltar breccia1 #gda4   ----1
 rarity of their remains in new strata1 
#gdh4   ----1 rare in deposits of all   
ages1 #acg4    ,bischoff1 ,professor1 on
 volcanoes1 #eea4   ----1 on carbonic   
acid in extinct craters on ,rhine1 #bdh4
    ,biscoe1 ,capt41 discoveries in     
south ,polar ,seas1 #ii4    ,bison1     
fossil1 in ,yorkshire1 #gf4    ,bisons1 
in ,mississippi valley1 #fcf4           
,bistineau lake1 #bfi4    ,bitumen1     
oozing from bottom of sea1 near         
,trinidad1 #bej4    ,bituminous springs1
 #bej4    ,black ,sea1 salt by          
evaporation in1 #cce4   ----1 ,see      

,euxine4    ,blue mountains in ,jamaica1
 #eje4    ,bluffs of ,mississippi       
described1 #bfd4    ,boa constrictor1   
migration of1 #fdf4    ,boase1 ,mr41 on 
inroads of sea in ,cornwall1 #cbc4      
----1 on drift-sand in ,cornwall1 #gbh4 
,boblaye1 ,m41 on ceramique1 in ,morea1 
#gca4   ----1 on engulfed rivers and    
caves in ,morea1 #gcd4   ----1 on       
earthquakes in ,greece1 #gcf4    ,bog   
iron-ore1 whence derived1 #gbb4         
,bogota1 earthquake of1 #deg4           
,bonpland1 on plants common to ,old and 
,new ,world1 #fad4    ,bore1 a tidal    
wave frequent in ,bristol ,channel and  
,ganges1 #ccb4    ,bory de ,st4         
,vincent1 ,m41 on isle of ,santorin1    
#dde4    ,bosphorus1 #ccd4   ----1      
traditions of deluges on shores of the1 
#cef4    ,botanical evidence bearing on 
theory of progressive development1 #acc4
   ----1 geography1 #fac4   ----1       
provinces1 their number1 #faf1 #fff1    
#ffh4    ,bothnia1 ,gulf1 gradual       
elevation of coast of1 #ebj4            

,bourbon1 island1 volcanic1 #edf4       
,bournmouth1 submarine forest at1 #gdf4 
,boussingault4 ,m41 on volcanoes in     
,andes1 #cdh4   ----1 on gases evolved  
by volcanoes1 #edi4    ,bowen1 ,lieut41 
on drifting of rocks by ice1 #bbj1 #bcj4
    ,boyle1 on bottom of the sea1 #bf4  
,bracini1 on ,vesuvius before #afca1    
#cgd4    ,brahmapootra1 delta of1 #bge1 
#bgh4    ,brahmins1 their doctrines1 #d4
    ,brander1 on fossils of ,hampshire1 
#df4    ,brandt1 ,professor1 cited1 #hj4
   ----1 on ,wilui rhinoceros1 #hj4     
,bravais1 ,m41 on upraised sea-coast in 
,finmark1 #ecj4    ,breccias1 in ,val   
del ,bove1 #daa4   ----1 in caves now   
forming in the ,morea1 #gcd4    ,brenta1
 delta of the1 #bef4    ,brieslak1 on   
temple of ,serapis1 #eag4   ----1 on    
,vesuvius1 #cha1 #chd4    ,briggs1 ,mr41
 his discovery of water in ,african     
desert1 #bce4    ,brighton1 waste of    
cliffs of1 #cag4    ,brine springs1     
#bdg4    ,bristol ,channel1 currents in1
 #bic4    ,brittany1 village1 buried    

under blown sand1 #gbg4   ----1 marine  
tertiary strata of1 #abb4   ----1 waste 
of coast of1 #cbd4    ,brocchi1 on      
fossil conchology1 #bj4   ----1 on      
,burnet's theory1 #cd4   ----1 on delta 
of ,po1 #beg4   ----1 on extinction of  
species1 #ffh4   ----1 on the           
,subapennines1 #aah4    ,broderip1 ,mr41
 on opossum of ,stonesfield1 #aci4      
----1 on shells from ,conception ,bay1  
#ejj4   ----1 on bulimi revived1 #fej4  
----1 on moulting of crabs1 #fec4       
----1 on naturalization of a foreign    
landshell1 #ffd4   ----1 on the ,dodo1  
#fhd4    ,brongniart1 ,m4 ,adolphe1 #hg4
   ----1 on fossil plants of coal1 #hh1 
#aag1 #acc4   ----1 on plants in        
islands1 #aab4    ,brongniart1 ,m4      
,alex41 on modern lava streams1 #dbg4   
----1 on elevated beaches in ,sweden1   
#ebg4    ,brown1 ,mr4 ,r41 on structure 
of vessels in myzodendron1 #hh4   ----1 
on plants common to ,africa1 ,guiana1   
and    ,brazil1 #fba4   ----1 on wheat  
in ,egyptian tombs1 #ehg4    ,buch4 ,see

 ,von ,buch4    ,buckland1 ,rev4 ,dr41  
on landslip near ,axmouth1 #cba4   ----1
 on fossil elephants1 c41 in ,india1 #g4
   ----1 on fossils from ,eschscholtz's 
,bay1 #hb4   ----1 on fossils in caves  
and fissures1 #gci1 #gdj4   ----1 on    
,val del ,bove1 #djb4    ,buffon1 his   
theory of the earth1 #ci4   ----1       
reproved by the ,sorbonne1 #ci4   ----1 
on geographical distribution of animals1
 #eij1 #fab1 #fbi4   ----1 on extinction
 of species1 #gja4    ,buist1 ,mr41 on  
submarine forests in the estuary of     
,tay1 #cjc4   ----1 on mud volcanoes in 
,india1 #ddh4    ,bunbury1 ,mr41 on coal
 plants of ,alabama1 #hh4   ----1 on    
ferns in carboniferous era1 #hg4        
,bunsen1 ,chevalier1 on ,ancient ,egypt1
 #fei4    ,bunsen1 ,professor1 on       
,geysers of ,iceland1 #eeh4   ----1 on  
mineral springs in ,iceland1 #bdf4      
----1 on mud volcanoes of ,iceland1     
#ddg4   ----1 on solfataras of ,iceland1
 #eea4    ,bunter ,sandstein1 fossils   
of1 #aic4    ,bura1 submerged ,grecian  

town1 #ae1 #gfb4    ,buried cones on    
,etna1 section of1 #cig4   ----1 temples
 of ,cashmere1 #gfb4    ,burnes1 ,sir   
,a41 on ,cutch1 earthquake of1 #dfa1    
#dfd4    ,burnet1 his theory of the     
earth1 #ca4    ,burntisland1 whale cast 
ashore near1 #gga4    ,burrampooter1    
,r41 delta of the1 #bge4 ,see           
,brahmapootra4   ----1 bodies of men1   
deer1 c4 floated off by1 #gea4          
,bustards recently extirpated in        
,england1 #fhh4     ,c4    ,calabria1   
geological description of1 #dgd4   ----1
 earthquake of #aghc in1 #dga4   ----1  
tertiary strata of1 #gd4    ,calanna1   
lava of ,etna turned from its course by 
hill of1 #dji1 #daj4   ----1 valley of1 
#djb1 #djd4    ,calcareous springs1     
#bci4    ,calcutta1 artesian well at1   
#bhj4    ,caldcleugh1 ,mr41 on          
earthquake in ,chili1 #ahce1 #dec4      
----1 on eruption of ,coseguina1 #cdi4  
,california1 volcanoes in1 #cdi4        
,callao town destroyed by sea1 #ejb4    
----1 changes caused by earthquakes at1 

#eja1 #gfa4    ,camels1 carcasses of1   
imbedded in drift sand1 #gbg4           
,campagna di ,roma1 calcareous deposits 
of1 #bdb4    ,campania1 aqueous lavas   
in1 #gbh4    ,camper1 on facial angle1  
#fjh4    ,canada1 earthquakes frequent  
in1 #dgj4   ----1 climate of1 #ehb4     
----1 probably colder in newest tertiary
 period1 #abe4    ,canary ,islands1     
eruptions in1 #dcf4    ,cannon in       
calcareous rock1 #gei4   ----1 account  
of one taken up near the ,downs1 #gbf4  
,canoes drifted to great distances1     
#ffa4   ----1 fossil1 #gei4    ,cape    
,may1 encroachment of sea at1 #ccb4     
----1 of ,good ,hope1 icebergs seen off1
 #ajj4    ,capocci1 ,m41 on temple of   
,serapis1 #eah4    ,caraccas1           
earthquakes in1 #dfe1 #dgj4    ,carang  
,assam volcano1 #dfe4    ,carbonated    
springs1 #bdh4    ,carbonic acid1       
supposed atmosphere of1 #bdh4   ----1   
gas1 its effects on rocks1 #bdi4        
,carboniferous series1 #aae1 #acg4      
----1 era1 predominance of ferns in1    

#hg4   ----1 era1 climate in1 #hg4      
----1 flora1 knowledge of1 recently     
acquired1 #abf4   ----1 period1 vast    
duration of1 #bdi4   ----1 ,see ,coal4  
,cardiganshire1 tradition of loss of    
land in1 #cbd4    ,cardium1 locomotive  
powers when young1 #feb4    ,caribbean  
,sea1 tides in1 #cdb4    ,carpenter1    
,dr41 observations on ,mississippi ,r41 
#bgb4   ----1 on encroachment of sea at 
,lyme ,regis1 #cba4    ,carrara marble1 
#agg4    ,cashmere1 temples buried in   
freshwater strata1 #gfb4    ,caspian1   
,pallas on former extent of1 #de4       
----1 evaporation of the1 #bfj4   ----1 
its level1 #aef1 #fib4    ,catalonia1   
devastation of torrents in1 #gac4       
,catania1 in part overwhelmed by lava1  
#djj1 #gbh4   ----1 destroyed by        
earthquakes1 #ejc4   ----1 tools        
discovered in digging a well at1 #gec4  
,catastrophes1 theories respecting1 #g4 
,catcott1 on deluges in different       
countries1 #db4    ,cattegat1           
devastations caused by current in the1  

#cca4    ,cautley1 ,capt41 on buried    
,hindoo town1 #gca4   ----1 on fossil   
quadrumana1 #add4   ----1 on bones in   
ancient wells1 #gdj4    ,caves1 organic 
remains in1 #gcb4   ----1 alternations  
of1 and stalagmite in1 #gcf4   ----1 on 
,etna1 #dja4    ,celestial ,mountains1  
#gg1 #cee4    ,celsius1 on diminution of
 ,baltic1 #cc1 #eba4    ,central        
,america1 volcanoes of1 #cdi4   ----1   
,asia1 volcanic line from1 to the       
,azores1 #ced4   ----1 ,france1 lavas   
excavated in1 #bac4   ----1 ,france1    
comparison between the lavas of ,iceland
 and1 #dbf1 #dbg4    ,centres1 specific 
doctrine of1 #fcj4    ,centrifugal      
force1 #ecd1 #edd4    ,cephalonia1      
earthquakes in1 #dgd4   ----1 infusoria 
in submarine caverns in1 #chi4          
,cesalpino1 on organic remains1 #bb4    
,cetacea1 geographical range of1 #fce4  
----1 migrations of the1 #fdb4   ----1  
imbedding of1 in recent strata1 #ggj4   
----1 fossil1 absence of in secondary   
rocks1 #ade4   ----1 fossil in ,new     

,jersey chalk1 #ade4   ----1 rarity of  
in secondary rocks1 #ade4    ,chagos    
coral isles1 #ghc4    ,chaluzet1        
calcareous spring at1 #bci4   ----1     
volcanic cone of1 #bdh4    ,chambers1   
,robert1 cited1 #ecj4    ,chamisso1 ,m41
 on coral islands1 #gha4    ,chamouni1  
glaciers of1 #bbc4    ,chara1 growing in
 lakes of ,n4 ,america1 #gfh4           
,charae1 fossilized1 #gfg4              
,charlevoix1 chart of coast of ,gulf of 
,mexico1 #bgb4    ,charpentier1 ,m41 on 
glaciers1 #bbc1 #bbg4    ,cheirotherium1
 in old red sandstone and coal1 #acf4   
,chemical theory of volcanoes1 #edb1    
#edf4    ,chepstow1 rise of the tides   
at1 #bia4    ,cheshire1 brine springs   
of1 #bdg4   ----1 waste of coast of1    
#cbd4    ,chesil bank1 #cbj4            
,chesilton1 overwhelmed by sea1 #cbj4   
,chili1 earthquakes in1 #fe1 #cdg1 #ceg1
 #dec1 #deg4   ----1 numerous volcanoes 
in1 #cdf4   ----1 coast of1 upheaved1   
#agj1 #agb1 #cdg1 #dee1 #deg4           
,chiloe1 #cdi4    ,chimborazo1 height   

of1 #ajb4    ,china1 climate of1 #ie4   
----1 earthquakes in1 #cee4    ,chinese 
deluge1 #g4    ,chines1 or narrow       
ravines1 described1 #cai4               
,chittagong1 earthquakes at1 #dgf4      
,chockier1 cave at1 #gcf4    ,chonos    
archipelago1 rise of land in1 #dec4     
,christchurch ,head promontory1 #cai4   
,christie1 ,mr41 on plasticity of ice1  
#bbf4    ,christol1 ,m4 de1 on fossils  
in caves1 #gch1 #gci4    ,chronology of 
,hebrew ,scriptures1 #fei4   ----1 of   
,dr4 ,hales1 #fei4    ,cimbrian deluge1 
#cca4    ,cisterna on ,etna1 how formed1
 #dad4    ,cities engulfed1 #agc4       
,civita ,vecchia1 springs at1 #bdc4     
,clarke1 ,dr41 on lava in motion1 #cgg4 
,cleavage1 or slaty structure1 #agf4    
,clermont1 calcareous springs at1 #bci4 
,climate of ,europe1 ,raspe on former1  
#dc4   ----1 changes of #ge1 #hf4       
----1 change of1 in northern hemisphere1
 #gc1 #abc4   ----1 on causes of        
vicissitudes in1 #ib4   ----1           
astronomical causes of fluctuations in1 

#abf4   ----1 its influence on          
distribution of plants1 #fac4   ----1   
effect of changes in1 on range of       
species1 #fif4   ----1 influence of     
vegetation on1 #gac4    ,climates1      
insular and excessive1 #id4    ,coal1   
modern1 at mouths of ,mackenzie1 #gdc4  
----1 ancient beds1 formed of plants1   
#ij4   ----1 ancient1 formed in deltas1 
#aaf4   ----1 fields1 ,american1 #aae4  
----1 formed by plants which grow on the
 spot1 #aae4   ----1 period1 warmth1    
moisture1 c4 of climate1 #abf4   ----1  
formation1 fossil plants of the1 #hh1   
#aae1 #acc4   ----1 climate indicated   
by1 #ia4   ----1 reptilian fossils in1  
#acf4   ----1 ,see ,carboniferous4      
,colchester1 ,mr4 ,w41 on fossil        
quadrumana1 #add4    ,colebrooke1 ,mr4  
,h4 ,t41 on age of ,vedas1 #d4   ----1  
on crocodiles of the ,ganges1 #bgg4     
----1 ,major ,r4 ,h41 on the ,ganges1   
#bgg4    ,colle1 travertin of1 #bdj4    
,colombia1 earthquakes in1 #def4        
,colonna1 on organic remains1 #bc4      

,columbia1 ,r41 submerged forest in1    
#bgj4    ,conception1 earthquakes at1   
#dec1 #def1 #dii1 #gfa4                 
,conglomerates1 now formed by rivers1   
c41 #bhi4   ----1 volcanic1 #daa1 #dch4 
,coniferae of coal1 #acc4   ----1       
,araucarian1 in coal1 #hh4              
,consolidation of strata1 #age4         
,conybeare1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,d41 on ,lister1  
#bf4   ----1 on landslip near ,axmouth1 
#cba1 #cbb4    ,cook1 ,captain1 on      
drifting of canoes far1 #ffa4   ----1 on
 highland near the ,south ,pole1 #ih1   
#ii4    ,copaic lake1 #gce4             
,copernican theory1 edicts against1     
repealed at ,rome1 #ef4    ,copiapo1    
earthquakes at1 #cdg4   ----1 raised    
banks of shells at1 #deh4    ,coral     
islands1 #gge1 #ggf1 #gic4   ----1      
origin of their circular form1 #ghc4    
----1 linear direction of1 #ghb4   ----1
 rate of growth1 #ggf4   ----1 downward 
movement slow and uniform1 #gia4   ----1
 absence of1 in ,atlantic1 c41 #gif4    
,coralline crag fossils1 #adb4          

,corda1 on palm wood in ,bohemian coal1 
#hh4   ----1 cited1 #acc4    ,cordier1  
,m41 on rate of increase of heat in     
mines1 #ech1 #eci4   ----1 his theory on
 central heat and fluidity1 #edj4       
----1 on tides in the internal melted   
ocean1 #eda4    ,cordilleras shaken by  
earthquakes1 #deg1 #dff4   ----1        
parallel ridges successively upheaved1  
#agj4    ,corinth1 decomposition of     
rocks in1 #gcc4    ,cornwall1 waste of  
cliffs of1 #cbc4   ----1 land inundated 
by drift-sand in1 #gbg4   ----1         
temperature of mines in1 #ech4          
,coromandel1 inundations of sea on coast
 of1 #gcj4    ,coseguina volcano1 great 
eruption of1 #cdg4    ,cosmogony        
distinct from geology1 #c4   ----1 of   
the ,hindoos1 #d4   ----1 ,egyptian1 #h4
   ----1 of the ,koran1 #ah4            
,cosmopolite shells1 #fej4    ,coste1   
,capt41 on elevation caused by          
earthquakes1 #dec4    ,cotopaxi1 #cdh1  
#efj4    ,covelli1 ,m41 on hot spring in
 ,ischia1 #def4   ----1 on ,vesuvian    

minerals1 #che4    ,cowper1 the poet1 on
 age of earth1 #ee4    ,crag strata1    
fossils of the1 #adb4    ,craters of    
elevation1 theory of1 #cga1 #chj1 #dae4 
,crawfurd1 ,mr41 his discovery of       
fossils in ,ava1 #bh4   ----1 on        
eruption in ,sumbawa1 #ajf1 #dfd1 #dfe4 
----1 on drifting of canoes1 #ffb4      
,creation1 supposed centres or foci of1 
#ffg4   ----1 epoch of1 difference of   
opinion on1 #ffj4    ,cremona1 lakes    
filled up near1 #bee4    ,crocodiles    
imbedded by a river inundation in ,java1
 #ejc1 #gdh4    ,cromer1 waste of cliffs
 of1 #cjf4    ,cropthorn1 fossils found 
at1 #gf4    ,cruickshanks1 ,mr4 ,a41 on 
,chilian earthquake1 #deg4    ,cuba1    
fossils in caves of1 #gda4    ,culver1  
cliff1 #cah4    ,cumana1 earthquake of1 
#dgj4    ,cunningham1 ,major1 on buried 
temples of ,cashmere1 #gfd4             
,cupressus thyoides1 #gbe4    ,currents 
from equatorial regions1 #if4   ----1   
from the pole to the equator1 #ajg4     
----1 causes and velocity of1 #bic4     

----1 polar and tropical1 direction of1 
#bie4   ----1 destroying and            
transporting power of1 #big1 #cdj4      
----1 in estuaries1 their power1 #ccg4  
----1 in the ,straits of ,gibraltar1    
#ccc4    ,currents1 reproductive effects
 of1 #ccg4   ----1 on the ,british      
shores1 #cci4   ----1 convey species    
from ,antarctic to ,arctic ,ocean1 #fbb4
    ,curtis1 ,mr41 on ravages caused by 
aphides1 #fgd4   ----1 on power of the  
,tipulae to cross the sea1 #feg4   ----1
 on number of ,british insects1 #gje4   
----1 on fossil insects1 #gdh4          
,curves of the ,mississippi1 #bfe4      
,cutch1 changes caused by earthquake of 
#ahai in1 #dfi1 #gfa4    ,cuvier on     
durability of bones of men1 #adg1 #geg4 
----1 on crocodiles of ,ganges1 #bgg4   
----1 on variability in species1 #ehc1  
#ehd4   ----1 on fish not crossing the  
,atlantic1 #fdg4   ----1 on identity of 
,egyptian mummies with living species1  
#ehf4   ----1 on number of fishes1 #gje4
    ,cuvier1 ,m4 ,f41 on aptitude of    

some animals to domestication1 #eic4    
----1 on influence of domestication1    
#eie4    ,cypris1 fossil and living1    
#gfh4     ,d4    ,dana1 ,mr41 on        
,sandwich ,islands1 #ced1 #cgb1 #chc1   
#edh4   ----1 on fragments of recent    
coral thrown up by ,polynesian          
volcanoes1 #cgb4   ----1 on ,mount ,loa1
 volcano1 #eeb4   ----1 on volcanoes no 
safety-valves1 #eeb4    ,dangerfield1   
,capt ,f41 on buried cities ,in ,india1 
#gbi4   ----1 on ,onjein1 #gbi4         
,daniell1 ,professor1 on the trade      
winds1 #ajf4   ----1 on melting point of
 iron1 #eci4    ,dante cited1 #eb1 #bef4
    ,dantzic1 waste of land near1 #cca4 
,darby1 on lakes formed by ,red ,river1 
#bfi4   ----1 on delta of ,mississippi1 
#bgb4    ,darwin1 ,mr4 ,c41 on          
distribution of animals and plants1 #gg1
 #ih1 #ada4   ----1 on vegetation       
required for support of large           
quadrupeds1 #hb4   ----1 ,mr4 ,c41 on   
drifting of rocks by ice1 #bbh4   ----1 
on earthquakes1 #cdg1 #deh1 #def1 #dgf1 

#gec4   ----1 on earthquake waves1 #dig4
   ----1 on rise of land1 #deh1 #ejb4   
----1 on oolitic travertin1 #dci4       
----1 on great droughts in ,s4 ,america1
 #fif4   ----1 on peat of ,s4 ,america1 
#gai4   ----1 on coral islands1 #ggi1   
#ghj1 #ghb1 #ghe1 #ghi4   ----1 geology 
of ,s4 ,america1 #agj4   ----1 on recent
 shells in ,chili1 #aij4   ----1 on     
shingle on coast of ,s4 ,america1 #cdb4 
----1 map of coral reefs1 #ceb1 #gia1   
#gid4   ----1 on crateriform hills of   
,galapagos1 #cgb4   ----1 infusoria     
brought home by1 #chh4   ----1 on new   
islands forming in ,atlantic1 #dcf4     
----1 on nat4 hist4 of ,galapagos1 #ada1
 #eig1 #fae1 #faf1 #fdb4   ----1 on     
extinction of animals1 #gjj4            
,daubeny1 ,dr41 on springs1 #bcg4       
----1 on ,mount ,vultur1 #cef4   ----1  
on ,vesuvius1 #chj4   ----1 on          
decomposition of trachyte1 #che4   ----1
 on flowing of lava under water1 #chc4  
----1 on volcanoes1 #edh1 #edi1 #eej1   
#eea4    ,d',aubuisson cited1 #eh1 #daa4

    ,davis1 ,mr41 on ,chinese deluge1   
#g4    ,davy1 ,sir ,h41 on lake of the  
,solfatara1 #bdc4   ----1 on formation  
of travertin1 #bdc4   ----1 on theory of
 progressive development1 #aca4   ----1 
on eruption of ,vesuvius1 #cgh4   ----1 
on chemical agency of electricity1 #edb4
   ----1 his theory of unoxidated       
metallic nucleus1 #edf4   ----1 on      
agency of air and water in volcanoes1   
#edh1 #eej4   ----1 his analysis of     
peat1 #gah4    ,davy1 ,dr41 on ,graham  
,island1 #dcf1 #edi4   ----1 on helmet  
taken from sea near ,corfu1 #gfj4    ,de
 ,beaumont4 ,see ,beaumont1 ,de4        
,debey1 ,dr41 of ,aix1 on cretaceous    
dicotyledons1 #acc4    ,de ,candolle1 on
 hybrid plants1 #fje4   ----1 on        
distribution of plants1 #fac1 #faf4     
----1 on agency of man in dispersion of 
plants1 #fbe4   ----1 on stations of    
plants1 #fgj4   ----1 on barriers       
separating botanical provinces1 #gjc4   
----1 on number of land plants1 #gje4   
----1 on longevity of trees1 #dbb4      

,dechen1 ,von1 map of ,germany1 c41     
#abc4    ,dee1 ,r41 bridge over1 swept  
away by floods1 #bjh4    ,deer1 their   
powers of swimming1 #fcf4   ----1       
diminished number in ,great ,britain1   
#fhc4   ----1 remains of1 in marl lakes1
 #geb4    ,de la ,beche1 ,sir ,h41 on   
rocks in ,s4 ,wales1 #ia4   ----1 on    
delta of ,rhone in ,lake of ,geneva1    
#bec4   ----1 on storm of ,nov41 #ahbd1 
#cba4   ----1 on submarine forests1     
#cbc4   ----1 on earthquake of ,jamaica1
 #afib1 #ejd4   ----1 on action of rain 
in the tropics1 #gac4    ,de la ,hire1  
on fossil wood from ,ava1 #afib1 #bh4   
,delhi territory1 elephants in1 #ha4    
,delta of the ,adige and ,brenta1 #bef4 
----1 of the ,brahmapootra or           
,burrampooter1 #bge4   ----1 of the     
,ganges1 #bge to #bhd4   ----1 of the   
,mississippi1 #bfc to #bge4   ----1 of  
the ,mississippi1 antiquity of4 #bga4   
----1 of the ,nile1 #bfa4   ----1 of the
 ,po1 #bef4   ----1 of ,rhone1 in ,lake 
of ,geneva1 #beb4   ----1 of ,rhone1 in 

,mediterranean1 #beh4    ,deltas1       
chronological computations of age of1   
#bec1 #bhe4   ----1 of ,lake ,superior1 
#bec4   ----1 grouping of strata in1    
#bhf4    ,de ,luc1 his treatise on      
,geology1 #ef4   ----1 on conversion of 
forests into peat mosses1 #gba4    ,de  
,luc1 ,m4 ,g4 ,a41 his natural          
chronometers1 #gbf4    ,deluge1 ancient 
theories on1 #ah1 #bc1 #be1 #ca1 #db1   
#aee4   ----1 fossil shells referred to 
the1 #bj4    ,deluges1 local1 how       
caused1 #g1 #bfi4   ----1 traditions of 
different1 #g1 #aa1 #db1 #cca1 #cef1    
#ejj1 #eja4    ,demaillet1 speculative  
views of1 #egb4    ,denudation can only 
keep pace with deposition1 #aed4   ----1
 effects of1 #gjh4    ,deposition of    
sediment1 shifting of the area of1 #ahh4
   ----1 and denudation parts of the    
same process1 #aed4    ,deshayes1 ,m41  
on fossils of tertiary1 #ahd4           
,desmarest1 his definition of geology1  
#c4   ----1 on ,auvergne1 #di4          
,desnoyers1 ,m41 on human remains in    

caves1 #gci4    ,desor1 ,m41 on glacier 
motion1 #bbd4    ,deucalion's deluge1   
#ab4    ,deville1 ,m41 on contraction of
 granite1 #agc4   ----1 on trachytes1   
#ddj4    ,devonian strata formed in deep
 seas1 #aag4    ,diatomaceae1 #chh4     
,dikes1 composition and position of1    
#cgi4   ----1 how caused1 #cgi4         
,diluvial waves1 no signs of on ,etna1  
#dbc4   ----1 theory of earlier         
geologists1 #be4    ,diodorus ,siculus  
cited1 #ceg4    ,dion ,cassius cited1   
#cfd4    ,dodo1 recent extinction of    
the1 #fhd4    ,dog1 varieties of the1   
#egj1 #ehd4   ----1 hybrids between wolf
 and1 #fja4   ----1 acquired instincts  
hereditary in1 #eic4   ----1 has run    
wild in ,america1 #fhf4    ,doggerbank1 
#cdj4    ,dollart1 formation of estuary 
of the1 #cbi4    ,dolomieu on ,val di   
,noto1 ,vicentin1 and ,tyrol1 #di4      
----1 on lavas of ,etna1 #di4   ----1 on
 decomposition of granite1 #bdi4   ----1
 on earthquake of #aghc in ,calabria1   
#dgc1 #dge1 #dgh1 #dhj4                 

,domestication1 aptitude of some animals
 for1 #eic1 #eii4   ----1 influence of1 
#eie4    ,don1 river1 rocks transported 
by1 #bjh4    ,donati on bed of          
,adriatic1 #ch1 #ga1 #ggd4    ,donny1   
,mr41 cited1 #eeg4    ,d',orbigny1 ,m4  
,a41 on abrupt transition from one      
fossil     fauna to another1 #ahd4      
,dorsetshire1 landslip in1 #cba4   ----1
 waste of cliffs of1 #cai4    ,dove1    
,mr41 map of isothermal lines1 #ic4     
,dover1 waste of chalk cliffs of1 #cad4 
----1 depth of sea near1 #cae4   ----1  
formation of ,straits of1 #cae4   ----1 
strata at foot of cliffs of1 #cad4      
,downham buried by blown sand1 #gbg4    
,dranse1 ,r41 #baj4    ,drift1 northern1
 fossil marine shells in1 #ahf4         
,drift-sand1 fossils in1 #gbg4          
,drift-wood of ,mississippi1 #bfh4      
----1 abundant in ,north ,sea1 #gdd4    
,drontheim1 #ebi4    ,droughts in ,s4   
,america1 animals destroyed by1 #fif4   
,druids1 their doctrines1 #af4          
,dufresnoy1 ,m41 geological map of      

,france1 #abb4   ----1 on formation of  
,monte ,nuovo1 #cga1 #cgb4   ----1 on   
tuffs of ,somma1 #chb4   ----1 on lavas 
of ,vesuvius1 #chd4    ,dujardin1 ,m41  
on shells1 c41 brought up by artesian   
well at ,tours1 #bcf4    ,dumont1 ,m41  
cited1 #abj1 #cbh4    ,dumoulin1 ,m4 on 
earthquakes in ,chili1 #dec4    ,dunes1 
hills of blown sand1 #cje1 #cjg4        
,dunwich destroyed by the sea1 #caj4    
,durand1 ,lieut41 on fossil quadrumana1 
#add4    ,dureau de la ,malle1 ,m41     
cited1 #ehd1 #eic4    ,durham1 waste of 
coast of1 #cjc4    ,d',urville1 ,capt1  
on temperature of ,mediterranean1 #bif4 
,e4    ,earth1 antiquity of the1 #ba4   
----1 on changes in its axis1 #hj4      
----1 proportion of land and sea on     
surface1 #abe4   ----1 spheroidal form  
of the1 #ecd4   ----1 mean density of   
the1 #ece4   ----1 attempt to calculate 
thickness of its crust1 #ecf4    ,earth1
 electric currents in the1 #edc4   ----1
 sections of the 7see figs4 #gj1 #ga71  
#eci4   ----1 effects produced by powers

 of vitality on surface1 #gjh4          
,earthquakes1 chronologically described1
 #deh1 et seq4   ----1 energy of1       
probably uniform1 #eh4   ----1 earth's  
surface continually remodelled by1 #ajb4
   ----1 recurrence of1 at stated       
periods1 accidental1 #cde4   ----1 felt 
at sea1 #ceh4   ----1 land elevated by1 
#deh1 #dee1 #deg1 #dfb4   ----1 all     
countries liable to slight shocks of1   
#ceh4   ----1 phenomena attending1 #deb4
   ----1 in ,cutch1 #ahai 7see ,map71   
#dfj4   ----1 in ,calabria1 #aghc1 #dga4
   ----1 difficulty of measuring the    
effects of1 #dgg4   ----1 chasms formed 
by1 #dgi4   ----1 excavation of valleys 
aided by1 #dhh4   ----1 renovating      
effects of1 #efe4   ----1 cause of the  
wave-like motion of1 #dge1 #eeh4   ----1
 cause of great waves and retreat of sea
 during1 #dif1 #dih4   ----1 ravages    
caused by sea during1 #dii1 #eja1 #gcj4 
----1 connection between state of       
atmosphere and1 #efa4   ----1 people    
entombed in caverns during1 #gcf4       

----1 causes of volcanoes and1 #ecc4    
----1 recurrence of1 in certain zones of
 country1 #agb4   ----1 of ,lisbon1 area
 over which it extended1 #dif4   ----1  
more frequent in winter1 #efa4          
,eccles1 old church of1 buried under    
blown sand1 #cjf4    ,edmonstone        
,island1 #bgi4    ,eels1 migration of1  
#fdg4    ,egypt nearly exempt from      
earthquakes1 #i1 #ceh4    ,egypt1 towns 
buried under drift-sand in1 #gbf4       
----1 date of civilization of1 according
 to ,bunsen1 #fcf4    ,egyptian         
cosmogony1 #h4   ----1 mummies identical
 with living species1 #ehe4             
,ehrenberg1 on ,bengal tiger in         
,siberia1 #gg4   ----1 on origin of     
bog-iron ore1 #gbb4   ----1 on corals of
 ,red ,sea1 #ggg4   ----1 on ashes      
enveloping ,pompeii1 #chh4   ----1 on   
infusoria in volcanic tuff1 #chi4       
,electricity1 a source of volcanic heat1
 #edb4   ----1 whence derived1 #edc4    
,elephant1 fossil1 in ice1 #de1 #hj4    
----1 covered with hair in ,delhi1 #ha4 

----1 sagacity of1 not attributable to  
intercourse with man1 #eih4   ----1     
their powers of swimming1 #fcf4         
,elevation of land1 how caused1 #bi1    
#ddh1 #ddd1 #dec1 #dee1 #deg4   ----1   
proofs of1 slow and gradual1 #agj1 #ahd1
 #eah1 #efc4    ,elevation and          
subsidence1 proportion of1 #efd4   ----1
 alternate areas of1 in ,pacific1 #gij4 
,elevation crater theory1 #cga1 #chj1   
#dbj4    ,elevation1 valleys of1 #dbj4  
,elizabeth or ,henderson's ,island1     
upraised atoll of1 #ghh1 #gid4    ,elsa1
 travertin formed by the1 #bci4         
,embankment1 system of1 in ,italy1 #bee4
    ,emu in ,australia will become      
exterminated1 #fhd4    ,englehardt on   
the ,caspian ,sea1 #aeg4    ,england1   
waste of cliffs on coast of1 #cjc4      
----1 slight earthquakes felt in1 #ceh4 
----1 height of tides on coast of1 #bia1
 #cjh4   ----1 tertiary strata of1 #gf4 
,eocene period1 fossils of the1 #adb1   
#add1 #ahc4    ,epomeo1 ,mount1 in      
,ischia1 #cfb4    ,equatorial current1  

#ie4    ,equinoxes1 precession of the1  
#ajj1 #ecg4    ,erebus1 ,mount1 the     
active volcano of1 #ii4    ,erie1 ,lake1
 peninsula cut through by1 #ccc4   ----1
 waste of cliffs in1 #ccc4    ,erman1   
,m41 on eruptions in ,kamschatka1 #cec4 
,erratic blocks1 #abb1 #aed1 #bbj4      
----1 icebergs charged with1 #hf4       
,erratic blocks1 submarine1 laid dry by 
upheaval1 #bbi4    ,eruptions1 volcanic1
 number of per year1 #dej4   ----1 cause
 of1 #ecc4    ,erzgebirge1 mica slate of
 the1 #dh4    ,escher1 ,m41 on flood in 
valley of ,bagnes1 #baa4    ,eschscholtz
 ,bay1 fossils of1 #hb4    ,essex1      
tertiary strata of1 #gf4   ----1 inroads
 of sea on coast of1 #caa4              
,estuaries1 how formed1 #cbg1 #ccg4     
----1 imbedding of freshwater species   
in1 #gfh4    ,etna1 description of and  
its eruptions1 #cif to #dbd4   ----1    
towns overflowed by lava of1 #djj1 #gbh4
   ----1 subterranean caverns on1 #dja4 
----1 a glacier under lava on1 #dab4    
----1 marine formations at its base1    

#dja4   ----1 antiquity of cone of1     
#dbb4    ,euganean ,hills1 lavas of1    
#cei4    ,euphrates1 delta of advancing 
rapidly1 #bhd4    ,euxine burst its     
barrier1 according to ,strabo1 #ad4     
----1 gradually filling up1 #ad4   ----1
 ,see ,black ,sea4    ,evaporation1     
water carried off by1 #bfj1 #bid1 #ccd4 
----1 currents caused by1 #bid4         
,everest1 ,rev4 ,e41 on climate of      
fossil elephant1 #ha4   ----1 on        
sediment of ,ganges1 #bhb4              
,excavation of valleys1 #dhh4           
,expansion of rocks by heat1 #efj4      
,extinction of species1 #fig1 #gja4     
----1 of animals1 #gjj1 #gjb4     ,f4   
,fabio ,colonna1 #bc4    ,facial angle1 
#fjh4    ,fair ,island1 action of the   
sea on1 #cja4    ,falconer1 ,dr41 on    
fossil quadrumana1 #add4   ----1 on     
crocodiles of ,ganges1 #bgg4            
,falconer1 ,dr41 on peat near ,calcutta1
 #bhj4    ,falconi on elevation of coast
 of ,baiae1 #cfg4    ,falkland ,islands1
 quadrupeds of1 #ada1 #fce4             

,falloppio on fossils1 #ba4    ,falls of
 ,niagara1 #bad4   ----1 of ,st4 ,mary1 
#bed4    ,faluns of ,touraine1 #adb4    
,faraday1 ,mr41 on water of the         
,geysers1 #bdf4   ----1 on slow         
deposition of sulphate of baryta1 #cdc4 
----1 on electric currents ,in the      
earth1 #edc4   ----1 on metallic        
reduction by voltaic agency1 #edh4      
----1 on liquefaction of gases1 #efj4   
,faroe ,islands1 deposits forming near  
the1 #ggd4    ,farquharson1 ,rev4 ,j41  
on floods in ,scotland1 #bjh4   ----1 on
 formation of ground ice1 #bbb4         
,faujas1 on ,velay and ,vivarais1 #aggi1
 #di4    ,faults1 #afb4    ,fauna       
formerly as diversified as now1 #afj4   
----1 arctic1 described by ,sir ,j4     
,richardson1 #fcd4    ,felspar1         
decomposition of1 #bdg4    ,ferrara on  
lavas of ,etna1 #bhc4   ----1 on floods 
on ,etna1 #dab4   ----1 on earthquake in
 ,sicily1 #dga4    ,ferruginous springs1
 #bdg4    ,fez1 earthquakes in1 #ceh4   
,fife1 trap rocks of1 #afj4   ----1     

coast of1 submarine forests on1 #cjc4   
----1 encroachments of sea on1 #bjc4    
,findhorn town swept away by sea1 #cjb4 
,fish1 their distribution1 and          
migrations1 #fdf4   ----1 fossil1 #gde4 
----1 fossil of coal formation1 #acf4   
,fissures1 sulphur1 c41 ejected by1     
#dgj4   ----1 caused by ,calabrian      
earthquake1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dha4   ----1   
caused by earthquake near ,new ,madrid1 
#dfh4   ----1 preservation of organic   
remains in1 #gcb4    ,fitton1 ,dr41 on  
history of ,english geology1 #ea4       
,fitzroy1 ,capt41 on earthquake in      
,chili1 #ahce1 #dec1 #dee4              
,flamborough ,head1 waste of1 #cjc4     
,fleming1 ,dr41 on uniformity in        
climate1 #gd4   ----1 on fossil         
elephant1 #gf4   ----1 on submarine     
forests1 #cjc4   ----1 on rapid flight  
of birds1 #fdf4   ----1 on turtles taken
 on coast of ,england1 #fde4   ----1 on 
changes in the animal kingdom caused by 
man1 #fhc4   ----1 on stranding of      
cetacea1 #gga4    ,flinders on coral    

reefs1 #ggf1 #gia4    ,flint on course  
of ,mississippi1 c41 #bfd1 #bfe4   ----1
 on earthquakes in ,mississippi valley1 
#dff4    ,floods1 by bursting of lakes1 
#bfi4   ----1 in ,north ,america1 #bji4 
----1 in valley of ,bagnes1 #baj4       
----1 in ,scotland1 #bjg1 #gej4   ----1 
traditions of1 #dii1 #eja4   ----1      
causes which may give rise to1 #aef4    
----1 at ,tivoli1 #baa4   ----1 caused  
by melting of snow by lava1 #cdh1 #daa4 
----1 ,see ,deluge4    ,flysch1 of the  
,alps1 eocene1 #abd4    ,folkstone1     
subsidence of land at1 #caf4            
,fontenelle1 his eulogy on ,palissy1    
#bc4    ,foot-marks1 fossil1 in ,north  
,america1 #acf4    ,forbes1 ,prof4 ,e41 
on glacial epoch1 #hf4   ----1 on       
fossils of tertiary1 #ahd4   ----1 on   
new island in ,gulf of ,santorin1 #ddc4 
----1 on regions of depth in ,a,egean   
,sea1 #fdi4   ----1 on migration of     
mollusca1 #fea4   ----1 cited1 #gjc4    
,forbes1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,d41 on glacier     
motion1 #bbd4   ----1 on rate of flowing

 of lava1 #cgh1 #djj4   ----1 on temple 
of ,serapis1 #eae1 #eag4                
,forchhammer1 ,dr41 on boulders drifted 
by ice1 #bca4   ----1 on peat1 #gai4    
,forests1 influence of1 #gab1 #gac1     
#gae4   ----1 sites of1 now covered by  
peat1 #gbj4   ----1 destroyed by        
insects1 #gag4   ----1 submarine1 #cjc1 
#cbc1 #gdf4    ,forests1 submerged4 ,in 
,colombia ,r4 by landslides1 #bae4      
,forfarshire1 waste of coast of1 #cjb4  
----1 marl lakes of1 #gff1 #gif4        
,forshey1 ,mr41 on ,mississippi1 #bfd1  
#bga4    ,forster1 ,mr41 on coral reefs1
 #ggh4    ,forsyth on climate of ,italy1
 #cie4    ,fortis cited1 #db4   ----1   
views of ,arduino confirmed by1 #dh4    
----1 and ,testa on fossil fish1 #dd4   
,fort ,william1 near ,calcutta1 artesian
 well1 #bhj4    ,fossiliferous          
formations1 breaks in the series1 #ahj4 
,fossilization of organic remains on    
emerged land1 #gah1 #gge4   ----1 in    
peat mosses1 #gbb4   ----1 ,in caves and
 fissures1 #gcb4   ----1 in alluvium and

 landslips1 #gcj4   ----1 in volcanic   
formations on land1 #cdi1 #gbh4   ----1 
in subaqueous deposits1 #gdb1 #gec4     
----1 in marl lakes1 #geb4    ,fossils1 
early speculations concerning their     
nature1 #ai1 #bd to #bg4   ----1        
distinctness of secondary and tertiary1 
#aai4   ----1 mammiferous of tertiary   
eras1 #acg1 #adj4   ----1 why distinct  
in successive groups1 #aij4   ----1 ,see
 ,organic ,remains4    ,fossil trees1   
upright position of some1 #ia4          
,fourier1 ,baron1 on temperature of     
spaces surrounding     our atmosphere1  
#ajh4   ----1 on central heat1 #abg4    
----1 on radiation of heat1 #abg4       
,fox1 ,mr41 on heat in mines1 #ech4     
----1 on electric currents in the earth1
 #edc4    ,france1 waste of coast of1   
#cbd4   ----1 caves of1 #gcg4           
,franconia1 caves of1 #gcf4             
,franklin1 on a whirlwind in ,maryland1 
#fai4    ,fremont1 ,capt41 on submerged 
forests in ,columbia1 #bgj4             
,freshwater plants and animals          

fossilized1 #gff1 #gfh4   ----1 strata  
in ,cashmere1 #gfb4    ,freyberg1 school
 at1 #df1 #eb4    ,fries1 on dispersion 
of cryptogamic plants1 #fbj4            
,fringing reef1 nature and origin of1   
#ghe4   ----1 upraised1 #gid4           
,fuchsel1 opinions of1 #agfb1 #dc4      
,funchal4 rise of sea at1 during        
earthquake1 #dif4    ,fundy1 ,bay of1   
wave called the bore in1 #ccb4     ,g4  
,gaillonella ferruginea1 #gbb4          
,galapagos1 peculiar character of the   
fauna of #aci1 #fce1 #fdc4   ----1      
island1 tameness of birds in1 #eig4     
----1 ,archipelago1 craters form hills  
in1 #cgb4    ,galongoon1 great eruption 
of1 #cec1 #dcj4    ,gambier coral       
island1 #ghc1 #ghg4    ,ganges1 delta   
of1 and ,brahmapootra1 #bge to #bhd4    
----1 antiquity of delta of1 #bha4      
----1 quantity of sediment in waters of1
 #bgh4   ----1 islands formed by the1   
#bgf4   ----1 bones of men found in     
delta of4 #geg4   ----1 artesian borings
 in delta of1 #bfh4    ,gardner1 ,mr41  

on unexplored ,antarctic land1 #ii4     
,gases1 liquefaction of1 #efj4   ----1  
evolved by volcanoes1 #edi4    ,gefle1  
upraised shelly deposits near1 #ebf1    
#ebh4    ,gemmellaro on ,etna1 #djh4    
----1 on ice under lava1 #dab4          
,generation1 spontaneous1 theory of1    
#bb4    ,generelli4 on state of geology 
in ,europe in middle of eighteenth      
century1 #ce1 #ec4    ,geneva1 lake of1 
delta of ,rhone in1 #beb4    ,geognosy  
of ,werner1 #df4    ,geographical       
distribution of plants1 #fac4   ----1 of
 animals1 #fbi4   ----1 of birds1 #fdb4 
----1 of reptiles1 #fdd4   ----1 of     
fishes1 #fdf4   ----1 of testacea4 #fdi4
   ----1 of zoophytes1 #fec4            
,geographical distribution of insects1  
#fed4   ----1 of man1 #fei4             
,geography1 proofs of former changes in 
physical1 #aad1aba4   ----1 effect of   
changes in1 on species1 #fij4           
,geological society of ,london1 #ei4    
----1 theories1 causes of error in1 #fa4
    ,geology defined1 #a4   ----1       

distinct from cosmogony1 #c4   ----1    
causes of its retardation1 #bd1 #ee1    
#fa4   ----1 state of1 before eighteenth
 century1 #hf4   ----1 modern progress  
of1 #eh4    ,georgia1 ,island of1 snow  
to level of sea in1 #ii1 #ajh4   ----1  
,u4 ,s41 new ravines formed in1 #bje4   
,gerbanites1 an ,arabian sect1 their    
doctrines1 #ad4    ,german ,ocean1      
filling up1 #cdj4    ,gesner1 ,john1 on 
organic remains1 #da4    ,geysers of    
,iceland1 #ecc1 #eec4   ----1 cause of  
their intermittent action1 #eee4        
,gibraltar1 birds' bones in breccia at1 
#gdj4   ----1 ,straits of1 #chc4        
,gironde1 tides in its estuary1 #cch4   
,glacial epoch1 #ge4    ,glacier under  
lava1 on ,etna1 #dab4   ----1 moraines  
of1 #bbc4   ----1 view of1 #bbc4        
,glaciers1 formation of1 #bbb to #bbg4  
----1 motion of1 #bbh4   ----1 of       
,spitzbergen1 #if4   ----1              
transportation of rocks by1 #aee4       
,glen ,tilt1 granite veins of1 #ea4     
,gloucestershire1 gain of land in1 #cbd4

    ,gmelin on distribution of fish1    
#fdh4    ,goats1 multiplication of1 in  
,south ,america1 #fhf4    ,goeppert1    
,prof41 #hg4   ----1 on fossilization of
 plants1 #gdg4    ,golden age1 doctrine 
whence derived1 #i4    ,goodwin ,sands1 
#had4    ,gothenburg1 rise of land near1
 #ebf4    ,graab1 ,capt41 on subsidence 
of ,greenland1 #ecj4    ,graham1 ,mrs41 
on earthquake of ,chili in #ahbb1 #dei4 
,graham ,island1 newly formed in #ahca1 
#dcb4   ----1 supposed section of1 #dce4
    ,granite of the ,hartz1 ,werner on1 
#dg4   ----1 disintegration of1 #bba1   
#cdf4   ----1 formed at different       
periods1 #agg4   ----1 veins observed by
 ,hutton in ,glen ,tilt1 #ea4    ,grant1
 ,capt41 on ,chilian earthquake1 #dfb4  
,graves1 ,capt41 on diffusion of insects
 by winds1 #fef4   ----1 survey of      
,santorin by1 #dda4    ,gray1 ,mr41 on  
,mytilus polymorphus1 #feh4    ,great   
,dismal ,swamp1 ,virginia1 #gbd4        
,grecian ,archipelago1 new isles of the1
 #dc4   ----1 volcanoes of the1 #cee1   

#ddb1 #dej4    ,greece1 earthquakes in1 
#cee4   ----1 traditions of deluges in1 
#cef4    ,greeks1 geology of1 #ac4      
,greenland1 why colder than ,lapland1   
#id4   ----1 gradual subsidence of1     
#ecj1 #efb4   ----1 timber drifted to   
shores of1 #gde4    ,grevllle1 ,dr41 on 
drift sea-weed1 #fbc4    ,groins        
described1 #hah4    ,grooves in rocks   
formed by glaciers1 #aee1 #bbg1 #bbh4   
,grotto del ,cane1 #bdh4    ,ground ice1
 #bba4   ----1 transporting rocks in    
,baltic1 #bca4    ,guadalonpe1 human    
skeletons of #geg4    ,guatemala1 active
 volcanoes in1 #cdi4    ,gulana1 partly 
formed by sediment of ,amazon1 #cdb4    
,guilding1 ,rev4 ,l41 on migration of   
,boa ,constrictor1 #fdf4    ,guinea     
current1 #bif4    ,guinea1 ,new1        
mammalia of1 #fhb4    ,gulf stream1 #if1
 #bib1 #bid4 #fba4   ----1 stream aids  
migration of fish1 #fdh4    ,guyot1 ,m41
 on glacier motion1 #bbd4    ,gyrogonite
 described1 #gff4     ,h4               
,habitations of plants described1 #fad4 

,hales1 ,dr41 on epoch of the creation1 
#fei4    ,hall1 ,sir ,j41 his           
experiments on rocks1 #ea4   ----1      
,captain ,b41 on flood in valley of     
,bagnes1 #baa4   ----1 on the           
trade-winds1 #bie4   ----1 on temple of 
,serapis1 #eab4   ----1 ,mr41 ,state    
,geologist of ,new ,york1 #baf1 #bah4   
----1 ,mr4 ,j41 on temple of ,serapis1  
#eab4    ,hamilton1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j41 on    
volcanoes near ,smyrna1 #cee4   ----1   
,sir ,w41 on ,herculaneum1 #chi4   ----1
 on earthquake in ,calabria1 #dgc1 #dhc1
 #dhe4   ----1 ,sir ,w41 on formation of
 ,monte ,nuovo1 #cfg4   ----1 on        
eruption of ,vesuvius in #aggi1 #cgg4   
,hamilton1 ,sir ,c41 on submerged houses
 in ,port ,royal1 #ejd4    ,hampshire1  
,brander on fossils of1 #dd4   ----1    
submarine forest on coast of1 #gdf4     
,harcourt1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,v4 ,v41 on bones  
of mammoth1 c41     in ,yorkshire1 #gf4 
,harris1 ,hon4 ,c41 on sunk vessel near 
,poole1 #geh4   ----1 on submarine      
forest1 ,hampshire1 #gdf4    ,hartmann1 

,dr41 on fossils of ,hartz1 #dh4        
,hartz mountains1 #dh4    ,harwich1     
waste of cliffs at1 #haa4    ,hatfleld  
moss1 trees found in1 #gba4    ,head1   
,sir ,edmund1 on temple of ,serapis1    
#eab4    ,heat1 laws which govern the   
diffusion of1 #ic4    ,heat1 whether    
gradual decline of1 in globe1 #abi4     
----1 expansion of rocks by1 #efa4      
,heber1 ,bishop1 on animals of          
,himalaya1 #ha4    ,hecla1 columnar     
basalt of1 #dh4   ----1 eruptions of1   
#dbd4    ,helena1 ,st1 bounded by lofty 
shores1 #fbb4    ,heligoland1 inroads of
 sea on1 #cbi4    ,helix1 range of      
species of1 #fej4    ,henderson on      
eruption of ,skaptar ,jokul1 #aghc1     
#dbe4    ,henderson's ,island described1
 #ghh4    ,henslow1 ,rev4 ,prof41 on the
 cowslip1 #eij4   ----1 on diffusion of 
plants1 #fbd4    ,herbert1 ,hon4 ,mr41  
on varieties and hybrids in plants1     
#eij1 #fje4    ,herculaneum1 #che1 #chi4
    ,herne ,bay1 waste of cliffs in1    
#cab4    ,herodotus cited1 #h1 #bfa4    

,herschel1 ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w1 on varying  
heat received   by the two hemispheres1 
#ajj4   ----1 on astronomical causes of 
changes in climate1 #abf4   ----1 on    
variable splendor of stars1 #abh4       
----1 on the trade-winds1 #big4   ----1 
on height of ,etna1 #cif4   ----1 on    
form of the earth1 #ecd4   ----1 on     
,geysers of ,iceland1 #eee4   ----1 on  
the effects of heat on seeds1 #fba4     
----1 on the author's theory of climate1
 #ib4    ,herschel1 ,sir ,w41 on the    
elementary matter of the earth1 #ecc4   
,hewett1 ,capt1 on rise of tides1 #bia4 
----1 on currents1 #bic4   ----1 on     
banks in ,north ,sea1 #hjh1 #hdj4       
,hibbert1 ,dr41 on the ,shetland        
,islands1 #bii1 #cjj4    ,hilaire1 ,m4  
,geof4 ,st41 on animal kingdom1 #efg4   
,himalaya mountains1 animals inhabiting 
the1 #ha4   ----1 height of perpetual   
snow on1 #aab4    ,hindoo cosmogony1 #d4
   ----1 town buried1 #gca4             
,hindostan1 earthquakes in1 #did4       
,hippopotamus indicates warmth of river1

 #ge4    ,hitchcock1 ,report on ,geol4  
of ,massachusetts1 #acg4    ,hoff1 ,von1
 on level of ,caspian1 #ah4   ----1 on  
encroachments of sea1 #cca1 #ccb4       
----1 on earthquakes1 #cei4   ----1 on  
human remains in delta of ,ganges1 #geg4
   ----1 on a buried vessel1 #geh4      
,hoffmann1 ,m41 on lavas of ,vesuvius1  
#cgi4   ----1 on ,etna1 #dae1 #daf4     
,holland1 gradual sinking of coast1     
#cbg4   ----1 inroads of sea in1 #cbh4  
----1 submarine peat in1 #ggj4    ,hooke
 on duration of species1 #bg1 #bh4      
----1 on earthquakes1 #bg1 #bi1 #ejc4   
,hooker1 ,dr4 ,j41 on ,icebergs in      
antarctic seas1 #bbi4   ----1 on        
tropical plants1 #fad4   ----1 floras of
 islands in ,southern ,ocean1 #fae4     
----1 on flora of ,galapagos ,islands1  
#faf4   ----1 on wide range of certain  
plants1 #fah1 #fba1 #fbc4   ----1 on    
delta of ,ganges1 #bhj4   ----1 on rain 
in ,india1 #bjj4    ,hocker1 ,sir ,w41  
on eruption of ,skaptar ,jokul1 #dbe4   
----1 his view of the crater of the     

great ,geyser1 #eed4   ----1 on drifting
 of a fox on ice1 #fhj4    ,hopkins1    
,mr41 on glacier motion1 #bbd1 #bbe4    
----1 on thickness of earth's crust1    
#ecf4    ,hopkins1 ,mr41 on astronomical
 causes of change of climate1 #abh4     
----1 on changes of climate1 #ic4       
----1 on earthquakes1 #dec4   ----1 on  
,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont's theory of        
mountain chains1 #agj4    ,hordwell1    
loss of land at1 #cah4    ,horner1 ,mr41
 on brine springs1 #bdg4   ----1 on     
submarine forest in ,somersetshire1     
#cbc4   ----1 dissertation on coal1 #ia4
    ,horsburgh1 ,capt1 on icebergs in   
low latitudes1 #ii4    ,horsburgh on    
coral islands1 #ghb1 #ghg4    ,horses   
drowned in rivers in ,south ,america1   
#gej4    ,horsfield1 ,dr41 on           
earthquakes in ,java1 #dga1 #did4       
----1 on distribution of ,mydaus        
meliceps in ,java1 #fci4    ,hubbard1   
,prof41 cited1 #baj4    ,huc1 on ,yaks  
frozen in ice in ,thibet1 #he4    ,human
 race geologically modern1 #ffj4        

,human remains in peat mosses1 #gbb4    
----1 in caves1 #gce1 #gcf1 #gci4       
----1 their durability1 #adg1 #geg4     
----1 in delta of ,ganges1 #geg4   ----1
 in calcareous rock at ,guadaloupe1     
#geg4   ----1 in breccias in the ,morea1
 #gce4    ,humber1 warp of the1 #bhh4   
----1 encroachment of sea in its        
estuary1 #cjd4    ,humboldt on laws     
regulating diffusion of heat1 #ic4      
----1 on preservation of animals in     
frozen mud1 #he4   ----1 on distribution
 of land and sea1 #aji4   ----1 on      
transportation of sediment by currents1 
#cdb4   ----1 his definition of volcanic
 action1 #cde4   ----1 on mud eruptions 
in the ,andes1 #cdh4   ----1 on volcanic
 eruptions in ,tartary1 #cee4   ----1 on
 eruption of ,jorullo1 #dbh4   ----1 on 
earthquakes1 #dff1 #dgj4   ----1 on     
distribution of species1 #fac1 #fad4    
----1 on migrations of animals1 #fdd1   
#fef1 #fhe4   ----1 cited1 #h1 #gg1 #hd4
   ----1 on earthquake in ,new ,madrid1 
#dff4   ----1 on earthquake of ,lisbon1 

#die4   ----1 on mud volcanoes1 #ddh4   
,humboldt1 ,w4 von1 on dawn of oriental 
civilization1 #fei4    ,humming-birds1  
distribution1 c41 #ig1 #fdc4    ,hunter1
 ,john1 on mule animals1 #fja4          
,huron1 ,lake1 recent strata of1 #gfh4  
,hurricanes connected with earthquakes1 
#gca4   ----1 plants drifted to sea by1 
#gde4    ,hurst ,castle shingle bank1   
#cah4    ,hutchinson1 ,john1 his        
,moses's ,principia1 #cc4    ,hutton1   
distinguished geology from cosmogony1   
#c4   ----1 on igneous rocks and        
granite1 #ea4   ----1 represented oldest
 rock as derivatives1 #eb4    ,huttonian
 theory1 #ea1 #eg4    ,hybrid races1    
,lamarck on1 #egb4   ----1 animals1     
#fjj4   ----1 plants1 #fjb4             
,hydrogen1 deoxidating power of1 #edg4  
----1 flame of2 seen in eruption of     
,vesuvius1 #cgh4   ----1 why not found  
in a separate form among volcanic gases1
 #edh4    ,hydrophytes1 distribution of1
 #fag1 #fbc4    ,hydrostatic pressure of
 ascending lava1 #daf1 #eec4            

,hypogene rocks1 #agh4                  
,hyracotherium1 ,eocene mammifer1 #adb4 
,hythe1 encroachments of sea at1 #caf4  
,i4    ,ianthina fragilis1 its range1   
c41 #fej4    ,ice1 animals imbedded in1 
#hc4    ,ice of rivers1 transporting    
power of1 #bai4   ----1 drift1 influence
 of1 on temperature1 #ie4   ----1       
predominance of1 in antarctic circle1   
#ih4   ----1 formation of field1 #ajg4  
----1 transportation of rocks by1 #aee1 
#bai1 #eba4    ,icebergs1 formation of1 
#if1 #ig4   ----1 distance to which they
 float1 #ajj1 #bbg4   ----1 limits of   
glaciers and1 #bbh4   ----1 plants and  
animals transported by1 #fbb1 #fci4     
----1 action of1 when stranded1 #bbh4   
----1 rocks transported by4 ,see ,ice4  
----1 floating in ,northern hemisphere1 
#hf4   ----1 not all formed by glaciers1
 #bbh4    ,iceland1 icebergs stranded   
on1 #ig4   ----1 geysers of1 #bdf1 #eec1
 #eee4    ,iceland1 volcanic eruptions  
in1 #dbd4   ----1 comparison between the
 lavas of ,central ,france and1 #dbf4   

----1 new island near1 #dbe4   ----1    
polar bear drifted to1 #fgi4    ,igneous
 action4 ,see ,volcanic4    ,igneous    
causes4 ,see ,book ,,ii4   ----1 the    
antagonist power to action of running   
water1 #aih1 #efc1 #gaa4    ,ilford1    
tertiary strata at1 #gf4    ,imbedding  
of organic remains4 ,see ,fossilization4
    ,india1 buried cities in1 #gbi1     
#gca4   ----1 terrestrial mammalia of1  
#fcb4    ,indo-pacific province of      
mollusca1 #fdi4    ,indus1 delta of4    
recent changes in1 #dei1 #gfi4   ----1  
buried ships in1 #geh4    ,infusoria in 
bog iron-ore1 #gbb4   ----1 in volcanic 
rocks in ,mexico1 ,peru1 c41 #chh4      
,infusorial tuff1 ,pompeii1 #chh4       
,inland cliffs1 no proof of sudden      
elevation1 #eca4   ----1 seas1 deltas   
of1 #bee4    ,insects1 geographical     
distribution of1 #fed4   ----1 certain  
types of1 distinguish particular        
countries1 #fee4   ----1 their agency in
 preserving an equilibrium of species1  
#fga4   ----1 fossil1 #gdh4             

,instincts1 migratory1 occasional       
development of1 in animals1 #fdb4       
----1 hereditary1 #eic1 #eif4   ----1   
modified by domestication1 #eie4        
,insular climates1 description of1 #id4 
,inverness-shire1 inroads of sea on     
coast of1 #cjb4    ,irawadi1 ,r41       
silicified wood of1 noticed in #afib1   
#bh4    ,ireland1 raised beaches on     
coast of1 #abb4   ----1 reptiles of1    
#fde4   ----1 peat of1 and fossils in1  
#gai1 #gbj1 #gbd4   ----1 deposits in   
progress off coast of1 #ggd4    ,iron1  
melting point of1 #eci4   ----1 in wood1
 peat1 c41 #gbb4   ----1 instruments    
taken up from sea1 #gfj4    ,ischia1 hot
 springs of1 #bdg1 #def4   ----1        
eruptions and earthquakes in1 #cfj1     
#cfe1 #def4    ,islands1 vegetation of  
small1 #aab1 #fae1 #ffg4   ----1 animals
 in1 #fce4   ----1 formed by the        
,ganges1 #bgf4   ----1 migrations of    
plants aided by1 #fbb4   ----1 new      
volcanic1 #dc1 #dbe1 #dcb1 #dfh4   ----1
 coral1 #gge4   ----1 of driftwood1     

#fdj4    ,isle of ,purbeck1 vertical    
chalk in1 #cah4    ,isle of ,wight1     
mammiferous fossils of1 #adb4   ----1   
waste of its shores1 #cag4              
,isothermal lines1 ,humboldt on1 #ie4   
,italian geologists1 their priority1    
#ai1 #bc4   ----1 of the #ahth century1 
#cc4    ,italy1 tertiary strata of1 #fd1
 #gd4     ,j4    ,jack1 ,dr41 on island 
of ,pulo ,nias1 #gid4    ,jamaica1      
earthquakes in1 #cej1 #ejd1 #eag4       
----1 subsidence in1 #ejd1 #eag4   ----1
 rain diminished in1 by felling of      
forests1 #gac4   ----1 a town swept away
 by sea in1 #gca4    ,java1 volcanoes   
and earthquakes in1 #ced1 #dfd1 #dih1   
#ejb4   ----1 valley of poison in1 #cec4
   ----1 subsidence of volcano of       
,papandayang in1 #dic4   ----1          
river-floods in1 #ejc1 #gdh1 #gea4      
,jones1 ,sir ,w41 on ,institutes of     
,hindoo law1 #e4    ,jorullo1 eruption  
of1 #cdi1 #dbh4    ,juan ,fernandez1    
#ceg1 #dec1 #dii1 #fhf4    ,jukes1 ,mr41
 on cliffs in ,island of ,timor1 #gid4  

----1 on volcanic islands near ,java1   
#ced4   ----1 on coral reef1 #ghd4      
,jura1 ,saussure on the1 #de4           
,jutland1 inroads of sea in1 #ccj4      
,k4    ,kamtschatka1 volcanoes in1 #cec4
   ----1 new island near1 #dfh4         
,kangaroo1 extirpation of2 to           
,australia1 #fhd4    ,kashmir4 ,see     
,cashmere4    ,katavothrons of ,greece1 
breccias formed in1 #gcd4    ,kazwini on
 changes in position of land and sea1   
#ai4    ,keilhan1 ,prof41 of            
,christiana1 on changes of level in     
,norway1 #ebi1 #eca4    ,keith on       
dispersion of plants1 #fbj4    ,kent1   
loss of land on coast of1 #cab4         
,kentucky1 caves in limestone1 #gcc4    
,keyserling1 ,count1 on lowland of      
,siberia1 #hd4    ,kincardineshire1     
village in1 washed away by sea1 #cjb4   
,king1 ,captain ,p41 on humming birds in
 ,tierra del ,fuego1 #ig1 #fdc4   ----1 
on currents in ,straits of ,magellan1   
#bic4   ----1 on coral reefs1 #ghh4     
,king1 ,mr41 on cattle lost in bogs in  

,ireland1 #gbc4   ----1 on submerged    
cannon1 #gei4    ,kinnordy1 ,loch of1   
insects in marl in1 #gdh4   ----1 canoe 
in peat of1 #gei4    ,kirby1 ,rev4 ,mr41
 on insects1 #fjf1 #fee1 #fgc1 #fgd4    
,kirwan1 his geological ,essays1 #ef4   
----1 on connection of geology and      
religion1 #ef4    ,knight1 ,mr41 on     
varieties of fruit trees1 #ehi4         
,konig1 ,mr41 on ,guadaloupe human      
skeleton1 #geg4   ----1 on fossils from 
,melville ,island1 #hh4    ,koran1      
cosmogony of the1 #ag4    ,kotzebue on  
drifted canoe1 #ffb4    ,kunker1        
concretionary limestone of ,ganges1     
#bhj4    ,kurile ,isles1 active         
volcanoes in1 #cec4     ,l4             
,labrador1 drift-timber of1 #gde4       
----1 rocks drifted by ice on coast of1 
#bcj4    ,laccadive ,islands1 #ghb4     
,lagoons1 or salt lakes1 in delta of    
,rhone1 #bei4   ----1 of coral islands1 
#ghj4    ,lagullas current1 #ie4        
,lagunes on coast of ,adriatic1 #bef4   
,lake ,erie4 ,see ,erie1 ,lake4   ----1 

of ,geneva4 ,see ,geneva1 ,lake of4     
----1 ,maeler1 #ebd1 #ebh4   ----1      
,superior4 ,see ,superior1 ,lake4       
,lakes1 filling up of #beb4   ----1     
formation of2 in basin of ,mississippi1 
#dff1 #bfi4   ----1 formed by           
earthquakes1 #dff1 #dha1 #eje4   ----1  
crescent-shaped1 in plain of            
,mississippi1 #bff4   ----1 ,canadian1  
strata forming in1 #gfh4    ,lamarck1   
his definition of species1 #efg4   ----1
 on transmutation of species1 #efg1     
#ehg1 #fif1 #fii4   ----1 on conversion 
of orang into man1 #ege4   ----1 on     
numbers of polyps1 #gjf4    ,lancashire1
 fossil canoes in1 #gei4    ,lancerote1 
eruptions in1 #dcf1 #dci4    ,land1     
quantity of1 in northern and southern   
hemispheres1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aaj4   ----1  
upraised at successive periods1 #aah1   
#aai4   ----1 proofs of existence of1 at
 all periods1 #ahh4   ----1 proportion  
of sea and1 #abd4   ----1 elevation of1 
how caused1 #aga1 #dec1 #deg1 #dei1     
#efb4    ,landslips1 #cai1 #cba1 #dhe1  

#eje4   ----1 imbedding of organic      
remains by1 #gcb4    ,languedoc1        
deposits on coast of1 #bfj4    ,laplace 
on change in the earth's axis1 #cb4     
----1 on mean depth of ,atlantic and    
,pacific1 #ajd4   ----1 on no           
contraction of globe1 #abi4   ----1 on  
mean density of the earth1 #ecf4        
,lapland1 why milder than ,greenland1   
#id4   ----1 migrations of animals in1  
#fcg4    ,lateral pressure caused by    
landslips1 #cbb4   ----1 pressure in    
,andes and ,alps1 #aga4    ,latham1 ,dr4
 ,r4 ,g41 on ,natural ,history of ,man1 
#fji4    ,lauder1 ,sir ,t4 ,d41 on      
floods in ,scotland1 #bjh1 #fhf1 #gcj1  
#gdh4    ,lava excavated by rivers1     
#bac4   ----1 effects of decomposition  
on1 #che4   ----1 flowing of1 under     
water1 #chc4   ----1 hydrostatic        
pressure of ascending1 #eeb4   ----1 of 
,iceland and ,central ,france1 #dbf1    
#dbg4   ----1 comparative volume of     
ancient and modern1 #afa1 #dbg4   ----1 
pretended distinction between ancient   

and modern1 #dch4   ----1 mineral       
composition of1 #ddi1 #eea4   ----1 rate
 of flowing1 #cgh1 #djj4    ,lazzaro    
,moro1 ,see ,moro4    ,lehman1 treatise 
of1 #agei1 #dj4    ,leibnitz1 theory of1
 #bf4    ,leidy1 ,dr41 on               
,priscodelphinus1 #ade4    ,lemings1    
migrations of1 #fcg4    ,lena1 ,r41     
fossil bones on banks of1 #gh1 #hj4     
,leonardo da ,vinci1 #ai4    ,lewes1    
human bones in tumulus near1 #gci4      
----1 estuary recently filled up near1  
#gdh1 #gfh4    ,liege1 caves near1 #gcg4
    ,light1 influence of1 on plants1    
#hi4    ,lightning1 effect of1 in       
,shetland ,islands1 #bii4    ,lignite1  
conversion of wood into1 #gei4    ,lima 
destroyed by earthquake1 #eja4   ----1  
elevated recent marine strata at1 #ejb4 
,lime1 whence derived1 #gif4            
,lincolnshire1 inroads of sea on coast  
of1 #cjd4    ,lindley1 ,dr41 on fossil  
plants of ,melville ,islands1 #hh4      
----1 on number of plants1 #gje4   ----1
 on dispersion of plants1 #fbj4   ----1 

on fossil plants of coal1 #hh1 #acc4    
----1 cited1 #acc4    ,linnaeus on      
filling up of ,gulf of ,bothnia1 #eba4  
----1 on subsidence of ,scania1 #ecj4   
----1 on constancy of species1 #efh4    
----1 on real existence of genera1 #egh4
   ----1 on diffusion of plants1 #fbd1  
#fbf4   ----1 on introduction of        
species1 #ffe4   ----1 cited1 #fga4     
,lionnesse tradition in ,cornwall1 #cbd4
    ,lippi on ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1
 #chg4    ,lipsius1 #ab4    ,lisbon1    
earthquakes at1 #ceh1 #die4    ,lister1 
first proposed geological maps1 #bf4    
----1 on fossil shells1 #bf4    ,lloyd1 
,mr41 on levels of ,atlantic and        
,pacific1 #bid4    ,loa1 ,mount1 volcano
 of ,sandwich ,isles1 #eeb4    ,locusts1
 devastations of1 #fgd4   ----1 bank    
formed in sea by1 #fge4    ,loess of the
 ,rhine1 #ahe4   ----1 of the           
,mississippi valley1 #bfe4    ,loire1   
tertiary strata of the1 #adb4           
,london1 artesian wells near1 #bcd4     
,london basin1 tertiary deposits of1    

#aba4   ----1 clay1 its fossils1 #adb1  
#add4    ,lowestoff ,ness described1    
#cji4   ----1 cliffs undermined near1   
#cji4    ,lowland of ,siberia1 #gh1 #hj1
 #hc1 #he4    ,luckipour1 on the        
,ganges1 #bgf1 #bgg4   ----1 new islands
 formed near1 #bgf4    ,luckput1        
subsidence near1 #dfj4    ,lund1 ,dr41  
on fossil quadrumana1 #add4    ,lybian  
sands1 caravans overwhelmed by1 #gbg4   
,lyme ,regis1 waste of cliffs at1 #cba4 
,lym-,fiord1 breaches made by the sea   
in1 #ccj4     ,m4    ,mac,clelland1     
,dr41 on earthquakes ,in ,chittagong1   
#did4   ----1 on volcanic line ,in ,bay 
of ,bengal1 #ced4    ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41
 on gradation from peat to coal1 #gai4  
----1 on origin of limestones1 #gif4    
,macacus pliocenus of ,owen1 fossil in  
valley of ,thames1 #add4   ----1        
,suffolk ,eocene species1 #add4         
,macaluba1 in ,sicily1 mud volcanoes1   
#ddg4    ,mackenzie1 ,sir ,g41 his      
section of geyser1 #eef4   ----1 on     
reindeer in ,iceland1 #fhf4             

,mackenzie ,river1 driftwood of1 #ij1   
#gdc4   ----1 floods of1 #hd4           
,maclaren1 ,mr4 ,c41 on ,graham ,island1
 #dce4   ----1 on quantity of useful    
soil in ,america1 #fhg4   ----1 on      
position of ,american forests1 #gad4    
----1 remarks1 theory of atolls1 #gib4  
,macmurdo1 ,captain1 on earthquake of   
,cutch1 #dfj4    ,madagascar1 extent of 
coral near1 #ggf4   ----1 assemblage of 
quadrupeds in1 #fcb4    ,madrid1 ,new1  
great earthquake at1 #dff4   ----1 sunk 
country near it1 #bgj4    ,maeler1 lake1
 #ebd1 #ebh4    ,magellan1 ,straits of1 
tides in1 #bia1 #bic4    ,magnesia      
deposited by springs1 #bhc4             
,magnesian limestone and travertin      
compared1 #bdj4    ,magnetism1          
terrestrial1 phenomena of1 #edc4   ----1
 solar1 #abi4    ,mahomet1 his          
cosmogony1 #ah4    ,malabar1 coral near1
 #ggf4    ,maldive ,islands1 coral reefs
 of1 #ggh1 #ghb4    ,mallet1 ,captain1  
on petroleum of ,trinidad1 #bej4        
,mallet1 ,mr41 on the dynamics of       

earthquakes1 #dec1 #dge4   ----1 on     
whirling motion during earthquakes1     
#dgf4   ----1 cited1 #efj4   ----1 on   
transit of the earth-wave1 #dhc4   ----1
 on theory of waves1 #dih4    ,mammalia1
 different regions of indigenous1 #fbi4 
----1 fossil1 of successive tertiary    
periods4 #ach1 #aci4   ----1 imbedding  
of1 in subaqueous strata1 #gdi1 #gec4   
,mammifer1 fossil of trias1 #acg4       
,mammoth1 ,siberian1 #ge4   ----1 bones 
of1 in ,yorkshire1 #gf4    ,man1 recent 
origin of1 #adg1 #ahb1 #fhg1 #gfd4      
----1 why able to live in all climates1 
#fji4   ----1 diffusion of1 #feg4       
----1 changes caused by1 #aej1 #ahb1    
#fcj1 #ffc1 #fha1 #gac4   ----1         
durability of the bones of1 #adg1 #geg4 
----1 remains of1 in osseous breccias of
 ,morea1 #gce4   ----1 his remains and  
works fossil1 #gec4    ,manetho1 #fc4   
,mantell1 ,dr41 on bones from ,saxon    
tumulus1 #ghh4   ----1 on ,lewes levels1
 #gdh1 #gfh4    ,map of ,siberia1 #gi4  
----1 of ,world1 showing present unequal

 distribution of land and sea1          
#aaj4   ----1 showing position of land  
and sea1 which might produce extremes   
of heat and cold1 #aaa4   ----1 of      
,europe1 showing extent of land covered 
by sea since           commencement of  
tertiary period 7,pl4 ,i471 #aba4       
,map of coast from ,nieuport to mouth of
 ,elbe1 #cbf4   ----1 of volcanoes from 
,philippine ,islands to ,bengal1 #cea4  
----1 of volcanic district of ,naples1  
#cfa4   ----1 of ,gulf of ,santorin1    
#ddb4   ----1 of ,chili1 #ded1 #dee4    
----1 of ,cutch1 #dfj4   ----1 of       
,calabria1 #dgb4   ----1 of ,sweden1    
#ebb4    ,maracaybo1 ,lake1 #dff4       
,marine deposits1 imbedding of land     
quadrupeds in1 #gdi1 #geb4   ----1 of   
human remains and works of art in1 #gef4
   ----1 of freshwater species in1 #gfh4
   ----1 plants and animals imbedded in1
 #ggj4    ,marine vegetation4 #fag1     
#fbb4    ,marl lakes of ,scotland1      
animals and plants fossilized in1 #geb1 
#gff4    ,marsili1 on arrangement of    

shells in ,adriatic1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj4     
----1 on deposits of coasts of          
,languedoc1 #bfj4    ,marsupial animals1
 distribution of1 #fcc4   ----1 fossil1 
#ach4    ,martigny destroyed by floods1 
#baa4    ,martius1 on drifting of       
animals by the ,amazon1 #fda4   ----1 on
 ,brazil1 #fhb4    ,maryland1 whirlwind 
in1 #fai4    ,mattani on fossils of     
,volterra1 #cd4    ,mattioli on organic 
remains1 #ba4    ,mauritius1 reef       
uplifted above level of sea1 #gid4      
,mediterranean1 microscopic testacea of1
 #dd4   ----1 deposition of salt in the1
 #ccd4   ----1 new island in1 #dcb4     
----1 its temperature1 depth1 level1 c41
 #de1 #bid1 #ccd1 #eaj4   ----1 same    
level as ,red ,sea1 #bid4    ,megna1    
,r41 arm of ,brahmapootra1 #bgi4        
,melville ,island1 fossils of1 #ij4     
----1 migrations of animals into1 #fdj4 
,melville1 ,dr41 on dodo1 #fhd4         
,memphis1 in delta of ,nile1 #bfa4      
,mendip ,hills1 caves of1 #gcg4         
,menu's ,institutes1 #d1 #e4    ,mercati

 on organic remains1 #bb4    ,mersey1   
vessel in bed of1 #geh4    ,messina1    
tide in ,straits of1 #bij4   ----1      
earthquakes at1 #dgg1 #dhh1 #dij4       
,metallic nucleus1 theory of an         
unoxidated1 #ede4    ,metallic          
substances changed by submersion1 #gei4 
,metamorphic rocks1 how formed1 #agg4   
----1 of the ,alps1 #agh4   ----1 why   
those visible to us must be very        
ancient1 #agh4    ,mexico1 ,gulf of1    
tides in1 #bie4   ----1 currents in1    
#if1 #bib4   ----1 volcanoes of1 #cdi1  
#edf4    ,meyen1 ,dr41 on earthquake in 
,chili1 #ahbb1 #deh4    ,michell on     
phenomena of earthquakes1 #da4   ----1  
on the geology of ,yorkshire1 #db4      
----1 on earthquake at ,lisbon1 #ceh1   
#dig4   ----1 on retreat of the sea     
during earthquakes1 #dih4   ----1 on    
wave-like motion of earthquakes1 #eeh4  
----1 on earthquakes cited1 #dii4       
,microlestes1 triassic mammifer1 #ach1  
#ade4    ,middendorf1 ,mr41 on ,siberian
 mammoth1 #ha4    ,migrations of plants1

 #fah4   ----1 of animals1 #fce1 #fcf4  
----1 of cetacea1 #fdb4   ----1 of      
birds1 #fdb4   ----1 of fish1 #fdf4     
----1 of zoophytes1 #fec4   ----1 of    
insects1 #fee4    ,migratory powers     
indispensable to animals1 #fhi4         
,milford ,haven1 rise of tides at1 #bia4
    ,millennium1 #bj1 #cb4    ,mineral  
waters1 their connection with volcanoes1
 #bcg4   ----1 ingredients most common  
in4 ,see ,springs1 #bcg4                
,mineralization of plants1 #gdg4        
,mines1 heat in1 augments with the      
depth1 #ech4    ,miocene strata of      
,suffolk1 fossils of1 #adb4   ----1     
proportion of living species in fossil  
shells of the1 #ahc4    ,mississippi1   
its course1 delta1 c41 #bfh1 #bge4      
----1 drift-wood of the1 #bfa4   ----1  
earthquakes in valley of1 #bgj1 #cej4   
----1 antiquity of delta of1 #bgb4      
----1 earthquake region of1 #dfg4       
----1 banks higher than swamps1 #bff4   
,missouri1 ,r41 #bfd4    ,mitchell1     
,dr41 on waste of cliffs1 #caa4    ,moel

 ,tryfane1 recent marine shells on1     
#abb4    ,mollusca4 ,see ,testacea4     
----1 provinces of1 #fdi4    ,molluscous
 animals1 longevity of species of1 #gf4 
,moluccas1 eruptions in the1 #ejd4      
,monkeys1 fossil1 #add4    ,monte       
,barbaro1 description of1 #cgc4   ----1 
,bolca1 fossil fish of1 #dd4   ----1    
,nuovo1 formation of1 #cfi1 #eah4       
----1 ,somma1 structure of1 #chb4       
,monti ,rossi on ,etna described1 #cig1 
#cii1 #dbb4    ,montlosier1 on          
,auvergne1 #di4    ,moraines of         
glaciers1 #bbc1 #bbf1 #bbh4             
,morayshire1 town in1 destroyed by sea1 
#cjb4   ----1 effect of floods in1 #bjh1
 #gcj4    ,morea1 ,caramiqne of1 #gca4  
----1 osseous breccias now forming in   
the1 #gcd4   ----1 human remains        
imbedded in1 #gce4    ,moriot1 on       
subsidence in ,adriatic1 #beg4    ,moro1
 ,lazzaro1 his geological views1 #cd4   
----1 on primary rocks1 #eb4            
,morocco1 earthquakes at1 #ceh4         
,morton1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,g41 on hybrids and   

species1 #fja4    ,mountain chains1 on  
the elevation of1 #fe4   ----1 theory of
 sudden rise of1 #afc4    ,moya of the  
,andes described1 #cdh1 #dgj4    ,mud   
eruptions in ,quito1 #agig1 #cdh4       
----1 volcanoes1 #ddg4    ,mules        
sometimes prolific1 #fja4    ,murchison1
 ,sir ,r41 on the ,hartz mountains1 #dh4
   ----1 on tertiary deposits of the    
,alps1 #aai4   ----1 on geography of    
,siberia1 #gh1 #hd1 #abd4   ----1 map of
 ,russia1 #abc4   ----1 on depression of
 ,caspian1 #aeg4   ----1 on travertin of
 ,tivoli1 #bde4   ----1 on tertiary     
deposits of ,alps1 #abd4                
,muschelkalk1 #aic4    ,mydaus meliceps1
 #fci4    ,myrmecobius1 fasciatus1 #ach4
    ,mytilus polymorphus1 #feb4     ,n4 
,nantucket1 banks of1 #bic4    ,naples1 
volcanic district round1 #cfa4   ----1  
recent tertiary strata near1 #gd4       
,narwal stranded near ,boston1 #gga4    
----1 fossil near ,lewes1 #gfi4         
,nasmyth1 ,mr41 on non-conductibility of
 dry sand and clay1 #dah4    ,needles of

 ,isle of ,wight1 #cah4    ,negro       
physiognomy traced back #cjjj years1    
#ffj4    ,neill on whales stranded1     
#gga4    ,nelson1 ,lieut1 on coral      
reefs1 #gih4    ,neptune1 temple of1    
under water1 #eaf4    ,neptunists and   
,vulcanists1 rival factions of1 #ej1    
#ee4    ,nerbuddah1 river1 #gje4        
,newbold1 ,lieut41 on mud of ,nile1     
#bfb4    ,newfoundland cattle mired in  
bogs of1 #gbc4    ,newhaven1 its cliffs 
undermined1 #cag4    ,new ,holland1     
plants of1 #aab1 #fad4   ----1 animals  
of1 #fcj4   ----1 coral reefs of1 #ggf1 
#gia4    ,new ,kameni1 formation of1    
#ddc4    ,new ,madrid1 ,u4 ,s41         
earthquakes at1 #cej1 #dff4    ,new     
,zealand1 animals in1 #fce4   ----1 tree
 ferns in1 #hi4    ,niagara1 ,falls of1 
#bad4   ----1 their recession1 #bag1    
#bah4   ----1 height of1 #baf4          
,niccolini1 ,m41 on ,temple of ,serapis1
 #eah4    ,nicolosi destroyed by        
earthquake1 #cii4    ,nile1 ,r41 delta  
of the1 #bfa4   ----1 cities buried     

under blown sand near the1 #gbf4   ----1
 swept away by flood of1 #gec4          
,nilson1 ,m41 on subsidence of ,scania1 
#ecj4   ----1 on migrations of eels1    
#fdh4    ,nitrogen in springs1 #gaj4    
,nomenclature of geology1 remarks on1   
#aeh4    ,norfolk1 waste of cliffs of1  
#cje4   ----1 gain of land on coast of1 
#cjh4    ,north ,cape1 drift-wood on1   
#gde4    ,northumberland1 land destroyed
 by sea in1 #cjc4    ,norway free from  
earthquakes1 #eca4   ----1 rise of land 
in1 #aib1 #ebg1 #ebi4    ,norwich once  
situated on an arm of the sea1 #cjg4    
,norwich ,crag1 fossils of1 #adb4       
,nova ,scotia1 rise of tides in1 #ccb4  
,nummulitic limestone1 #abd4    ,nymphs1
 temple of1 under water1 #eaf4    ,nyoe1
 a new island formed in #aghc1 #dbe1    
#dcb4     ,o4    ,obi1 ,e41 fossils on  
shores of1 #ha4    ,ocean1 permanency of
 its level1 #eah4    ,odoardi on        
tertiary strata of ,italy1 #db4         
,oersted1 discoveries of1 #edc4         
,ogygian deluge1 #cdi1 #cef4    ,ohio1  

junction of1 with ,mississippi1 #bfd4   
,oldham1 ,mr41 on raised sea beaches in 
,ireland1 #abb4    ,old red sandstone   
formation1 fossils of1 #ace1 #aic4      
,old red sandstone1 reptile in1 #ace4   
,olivi on fossil remains1 #bb4    ,omar1
 an ,arabian writer1 #ag4    ,ontario1  
,lake1 distance from ,niagara1 #baf4    
,oolite1 fossils of the1 #acg4          
,oolitic structure1 recent1 in          
,lancerote1 c41 #dci4    ,orang-outang1 
change of1 to man1 #ege4    ,orbigny1   
,m4 ,a4 de1 on ,pampean mud1 #agj4      
,organic remains1 controversy as to real
 nature of1 #ai4   ----1 imbedding of4  
,see ,fossillzation4   ----1 importance 
of the study of1 #fj4   ----1 abrupt    
transition from those of the secondary  
to those           of the tertiary      
rocks1 #abj4   ----1 ,see also ,fossils4
    ,oriental philosophers1 #aj4        
,oriental cosmogony1 #g4    ,orkney     
,islands1 waste of1 #cja4    ,orleans1  
,new1 ground sinking1 #bfh4   ----1     
trunks of trees in soil of delta1 #bfh4 

,osseous breccias1 #gce1 #gcf1 #gda4    
,otaheite1 coral reefs of1 #ghd1 #ghf4  
,oujein1 buried ,indian city1 #gbi4     
,ouse1 ,r41 has filled up an arm of the 
,sea1 #gdd4    ,ovid cited1 #aj1 #cde4  
,owen1 ,prof41 on bones of turtles1     
#ggb4   ----1 on the dog and wolf1 #ehd4
   ----1 on tertiary mammalia1 #adb1    
#add4   ----1 quoted1 #ahd4   ----1     
teeth of mammoth1 #gh4   ----1 on       
,british fossil mammalia and birds1     
#acg4    ,owhyhee1 #ghg4    ,oysters1   
c41 thrown ashore alive by storm1 #ggc4 
----1 migrations of1 #feb4     ,p4      
,pacific ,ocean1 depth of1 #ajd4   ----1
 its height above the ,atlantic1 #bid4  
----1 subsidence greater than elevation 
in1 #ghg4   ----1 coral and volcanic    
islands of1 #ced1 #ggf1 #ghj1 #ghg4     
,palaeotherium of ,isle of ,wight1 #adb4
    ,palestine shaken by earthquakes1   
#cee4    ,palissy on organic remains1   
#bc4    ,pallas on mountains of         
,siberia1 #de4   ----1 on ,caspian ,sea1
 #de4   ----1 on fossil bones of        

,siberia1 #de1 #gh1 #hj4   ----1 cited1 
#ccc4    ,palmer1 ,mr41 on shingle      
beaches1 #cac1 #cbj4    ,palms1 rare in 
carboniferous group1 #hh4    ,pampas1   
gradual rise of1 #agj4    ,panama1 tides
 in ,bay of1 #bie4    ,papandayang1     
eruption of1 #dic4   ----1 its cone     
truncated1 #dic4    ,papyrus rolls in   
,herculaneum1 #cib4    ,paradise1       
,burnet on seat of1 #cb4    ,parana1    
,r41 animals drifted down on rafts by1  
#fda4   ----1 animals drowned in1 #fif4 
,paris basin1 formations of the1 #aba4  
----1 fossils of the1 #adb4    ,parish1 
,sir ,w41 on inroads of sea during      
earthquakes1 #dii1 #ejb4   ----1 on     
drifting of animals on floating rafts1  
#fda4   ----1 on great droughts in ,s4  
,america1 #fif4   ----1 on floods of    
,parana ,r41 #gea4    ,parma1 tertiary  
strata near1 #gd4    ,paroxysmal energy 
of ancient causes controverted1 #agd4   
,parrot1 on ,caspian ,sea1 #aeg4        
,parrots near ,cape ,horn1 #ig4         
,parry1 ,captain1 highest northern      

latitude reached by1 #ih4   ----1 on    
migration of polar bear1 #fdj4   ----1  
on animals of ,melville ,island1 #fdj4  
,patagonia1 tides on coast of1 #bia4    
,paviland cave1 #gcg4    ,peat in delta 
of ,ganges1 #bhj4   ----1 on            
preservation of fossils in1 #gaa1 #gah1 
#gbb4   ----1 distribution of1 #gai4    
----1 bogs1 bursting of1 #gbd4   ----1  
submarine1 #gbe4    ,peat of ,great     
,dismal ,swamp1 ,virginia1 #gbd4        
,pembrokeshire1 loss of land in1 #cbd4  
,penco destroyed by earthquake1 #dii4   
----1 elevation near1 #ejj4    ,pennant 
on waste of ,yorkshire coast1 #cjd4     
----1 on migration of animals1 #gg1     
#fca1 #fcg4    ,pentagonal network of   
mountain chains1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont   
on1 #agj4    ,penzance1 loss of land    
near1 #cbc4    ,permian rocks1 reptiles 
in1 #acf4    ,paron on distribution of  
species1 #fdg4    ,perrey1 ,m4 ,alexis1 
on frequency of earthquakes in winter1  
#efa4    ,persian ,gulf1 coral in1 #ggf4
    ,peru1 volcanoes in1 #cdg4   ----1  

earthquakes in1 #cdg1 #eja4    ,peruvian
 tradition of a great flood1 #h1 #ejb4  
,peterhead1 whale stranded near1 #gga4  
,phascolotherium ,bucklandi1 #aci4      
,philippi1 ,dr4 ,a41 on fossil tertiary 
shells of ,sicily1 #ahc4    ,phillips1  
,mr4 ,j41 on waste of ,yorkshire coast1 
#cjd4    ,phlegraean fields1 volcanoes  
of1 #cgc4    ,physical ,geography4 ,see 
,geography4    ,pietra ,mala1           
inflammable gas of1 #aa4    ,pigs1      
instincts of1 #eie4   ----1 swim to     
great distances1 #fce4   ----1 fossil1  
#gbc4    ,pilla1 ,m41 on ,monte ,somma1 
#chb4    ,pindar cited1 #cih4           
,pingel1 ,dr41 on subsidence of         
,greenland1 #ecj4    ,pisolitic         
limestone of ,france1 #abj4    ,pitch   
lake of ,trinidad1 #bej4    ,plants1    
carboniferous1 wide geographical range1 
#afj4   ----1 varieties in1 produced by 
horticulture1 #ehh4   ----1 extent of   
variation in1 #ehi4   ----1 their       
geographical distribution1 #ig1 #aab1   
#fac4   ----1 dispersion of1 #fah4      

----1 stations of1 #fad1 #ffi4   ----1  
equilibrium among1 kept up by insects1  
#fgb4   ----1 number of terrestrial1    
#gje4   ----1 imbedding of1 in          
subaqueous deposits1 #gdb1 #gfe1 #ggj4  
----1 on number which are now becoming  
fossil1 #gde4   ----1 mineralization of1
 #gdg4    ,plants1 fossil1 of the coal  
strata1 #hg1 #aae1 #acc4    ,plastic    
clay fossils1 #adb4    ,plastic force1  
fossil shell ascribed to1 #bj4          
,playfair on ,huttonian theory1 #ec1    
#eg4   ----1 on instability of the      
earth's surface1 #bab4   ----1 on       
gradual rise of ,sweden1 #ebc4   ----1  
on form of the earth1 #ecd4             
,plieninger1 ,professor1 on triassic    
mammifer1 #acg4    ,pliny the ,elder1   
#af4   ----1 on delta of ,rhone1 #beh4  
----1 on ,islands at the mouth of the   
,texel1 #cbi4   ----1 killed by eruption
 of ,vesuvius1 ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 #cfd4       
,pliny the ,younger1 on ,vesuvius1 #cfd4
    ,pliocene strata1 fossils of1 #adc4 
,plot on organic remains1 #bf4          

,pluche1 theory of1 #agcb1 #hc4         
,plutonic rocks1 how formed1 #afa4      
----1 action1 changes produced by1 #agf1
 #agh4    ,po1 ,r41 #bjg4   ----1       
frequently shifts to course1 #bee4      
----1 embankment of the1 #bef4   ----1  
delta of the1 #bef1 #bhd4   ----1       
subsidence in delta of1 #beg4           
,poisson1 ,m41 on astronomical causes of
 changes in climate1 #abg4    ,polyps4  
,see ,zoophytes4    ,pomerania1 fossil  
ships in1 #geh4    ,pompeii1 how        
destroyed1 #cfe1 #che1 #chg4   ----1    
section of the mass enveloping1 #chf4   
----1 objects preserved in1 #cij4       
----1 infusorial beds covering it1 #chh4
    ,pont ,gibaud1 gneiss decomposed at1
 #bdh4   ----1 calcareous springs near1 
#bci4    ,poole ,bay cut into by sea1   
#cai4    ,popayan1 volcanoes and        
earthquakes in1 #cdi4    ,portland1     
fossil ammonites of1 #bh4   ----1 its   
peninsula wasting4 #cai4    ,port       
,royal1 subsidence of1 #ejd1 #eag1 #fia1
 #gfb4    ,porto ,praya1 ,azores1       

calcareous stratum1 #dcf4    ,portugal1 
earthquakes in1 #ceh4    ,porzio on     
formation of ,monte ,nuovo1 #cfi1 #cga4 
,post-tertiary formations1 #ahd4        
,precession of the equinoxes1 #ajj1     
#ecg4    ,prentice1 ,lieut1 on coral    
reef in ,maldives1 #ggh4    ,pressure1  
effects of1 #aga4    ,prestwich1 ,mr41  
on artesian wells1 #bcd4    ,prevost    
,const41 on ,stonefield fossil mammalia1
 #ach4   ----1 ,const41 on gypseous     
springs1 #bde4   ----1 on rents formed  
by upheaval1 #cga4   ----1 on new island
 in ,mediterranean1 #dcc4   ----1 on    
geological causes1 #gah4   ----1 on     
osseous breccias of caves1 #gcf4        
,prevost1 ,pierre1 on radiation of heat1
 #ic4    ,prevost1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l41 on     
number of wrecked vessels1 #gef4        
,primary fossiliferous rocks1 fossils   
of1 #aad4    ,priscodelphinus1 cetacean1
 of chalk1 #ade4    ,pritchard1 ,dr41 on
 ,egyptian cosmogony1 #h4   ----1 on    
recent origin of man1 #adg4   ----1 on  
hybrid races1 #fjb4   ----1 on facial   

angle1 #fjh4   ----1 on distribution of 
animals1 #fbi1 #fca4    ,procida1 island
 of1 ancient writers on1 #cfj4          
,progressive development1 theory of1    
#acj-aec4   ----1 in animals1 ,lamarck's
 theory of1 #efg4    ,provinces1        
geographical1 of ,testacea1 #fdi4       
,provinces1 zoological and land         
quadrupeds1 #fca4    ,pterodactyles1    
#acg4    ,pulo ,nias1 upraised coral in1
 #gid4    ,purbeck1 its peninsula       
wasting1 #cai4    ,pursh on plants of   
,united ,states1 #fad4    ,puzzuoli1    
,temple of ,serapis near1 #ejg4   ----1 
inland cliffs near1 #ejh1 #eaj4   ----1 
date of re-elevation of coast of1 #eae1 
#eah4   ----1 encroachment of sea near1 
#eae4   ----1 coast near1 now subsiding1
 #eaf4    ,pyrenees1 their relative age1
 height1 c41 #abj1 #aff4    ,pythagoras1
 system of1 #aj4   ----1 on ,etna1 #cde4
     ,q4    ,quadrumana1 fossil1 #add4  
,quadrupeds1 domestic1 multiply in      
,america1 #ehd1 #fhe4   ----1 regions of
 indigenous1 #fcj1 #fcf4   ----1        

imbedding of terrestrial1 #gdi4         
,quaggas1 migrations of1 #fch4          
,quebec1 climate of1 #ie4   ----1       
earthquakes in1 #dgj4    ,queenstown1   
,canada1 table land terminates at1 #baf4
    ,quintero elevated by earthquake of 
#ahbb1 #deg4    ,quiriui1 theory of1    
#be4    ,quito1 earthquakes and         
volcanoes in1 #cdf1 #cdh1 #dfi4     ,r4 
,rabenstein cave1 #gcf4    ,race of     
,alderney1 its velocity1 #bic4          
,races1 tidal currents so called1 #cda4 
,raffles1 ,sir ,s41 cited1 #dfe1 #eii4  
,rafts1 drift-timber in ,mississippi1   
c41 #bfg4    ,rain1 action of1 #gac4    
----1 diminished by felling of forests1 
#gac4   ----1 fall of1 in basin of      
,ganges1 #bgh4   ----1 ,huttonian theory
 of1 #aii4   ----1 fall of1 varying with
 latitude1 #aii4   ----1 fall of1 in    
,eastern ,bengal1 #bjj4    ,rain-prints1
 recent1 on mud in ,nova ,scotia1 #bjb4 
,raised beaches1 #ahd4    ,ramree1      
volcanic island1 #ced4    ,raspe on     
islands shifting their position 7note71 

#aa4   ----1 his theory1 #agfc1 #db1    
#dc1 #dh4    ,rats1 migrations of1 #fcg4
   ----1 introduced by man into         
,america1 #ffc1 #fhf4    ,rawlinson1    
,col41 on delta of ,tigris1 #bhe4       
,ray1 his physico-theology1 c41 #cj1    
#ca4   ----1 cited1 #fde1 #fhc4         
,reaumur on insects1 #fgd4    ,reculver 
cliff2 action of sea on1 #cab4          
,rocupero on flowing of lava1 #dja4     
,red ,crag1 fossils of1 #adb4           
,redman1 ,j4 ,b41 on changes of ,english
 coast1 #cae1 #caf1 #cai4    ,red marl1 
supposed universality of1 #aeh4    ,red 
,river1 new lakes formed by1 #bfi4      
----1 drift-wood in1 #bfg4   ----1 and  
,mississippi1 their junction recent1    
#bfd1 #bhd4    ,red ,sea1 level of1 and 
of ,mediterranean1 #bid4   ----1 coral  
reefs of1 #ggg1 #ghd4    ,reefs1 coral1 
outline destroyed by denudation1 #gie4  
,refrigeration1 ,leibnitz's theory of1  
#bf4   ----1 causes which might produce 
the extreme of1 #ajf4    ,reid1 ,col41  
on motion of shingle beaches1 #cbj4     

,rein-deer1 geographical range of1 #fcg4
   ----1 migrations of1 #fdj4   ----1   
imported into ,iceland1 #fhf4           
,rennel1 ,major1 on delta of ,ganges1   
#bge4   ----1 on delta of ,nile1 #bfa4  
----1 on currents1 #ie1 #ig1 #bia1 #bib1
 #bic4   ----1 on the tide-wave called  
the ,bore1 #ccc4    ,rennel1 ,mr41 on   
delta of ,ganges1 #bge4    ,rennie1     
,rev4 ,dr41 on peat1 and fossils in     
peat1 #gah1 #gai1 #gbj1 #gbb4           
,reptiles1 their geographical           
distribution1 #fde4   ----1 their powers
 of diffusion1 #fde4   ----1 in         
carboniferous epoch1 #acf4   ----1 in   
,ireland1 #fde4   ----1 imbedded in     
subaqueous strata1 #gdh1 #gga4   ----1  
fossil1 in old red sandstone1 #ace4     
----1 in coal1 #acf4    ,rhine1 ,r41    
description1 of its course1 #cbe4       
----1 its delta1 #cbf4   ----1 tuff made
 of siliceous cases of infusoria1 #chh4 
,rhinoceros1 fossil1 food of1 #hj4      
,rhone1 delta of1 in ,mediterranean1    
#beh4   ----1 delta of1 in ,lake of     

,geneva1 #ahi1 #beb1 #bhf4   ----1      
deposits at its confluence with the     
,arve1 #bhh4    ,rhone1 a cannon in     
calcareous rock in its delta1 #gei4     
,richardson1 ,sir ,j41 on rocks near    
,mackenzie ,river1 #aae4   ----1 on     
sheep of ,rocky ,mountains1 #eih4       
----1 on distribution of animals1 #fdj1 
#fde4   ----1 on drift timber1 in ,slave
 ,lake1 #gdc4   ----1 on arctic fauna1  
#fcd4   ----1 on diffusion of fish1     
#fdg4   ----1 on isothermal lines1 #id4 
,richardson1 ,mr4 ,w41 on ,herne ,bay1  
#cab4    ,riddell1 ,dr41 on sediment of 
,mississippi1 #bgc4    ,rive1 ,m4 de la1
 on terrestrial magnetism1 #edc4        
,river-ice1 carrying power of1 #bai4    
,rivers1 difference in the sediment of1 
#ahi1 #beh4   ----1 sinuosities of1     
#bje4   ----1 submarine1 in ,thessaly1  
c41 #ceg4   ----1 when confluent1 do not
 occupy bed of proportionally larger    
surface1 #bjg4    ,robert1 ,m41 on      
geysers of ,iceland1 #bdf4              
,robertson1 ,capt41 on mud volcanoes1   

#ddi4    ,rockhall bank1 recent deposits
 on1 #ggh4    ,rocks1 specific gravity  
of1 #bjf4   ----1 difference in texture 
of older and newer1 #age4   ----1       
altered by subterranean gases1 #bdh4    
----1 origin of the primary1 #agf4      
----1 persistency of mineral character  
in1 #aeg4   ----1 older1 why most solid 
and disturbed1 #afb4   ----1 action of  
frost on1 #bba1 #bca4   ----1           
transportation of1 by ice1 #aee1 #bai4  
----1 grooved by glacial action1 #aee1  
#bbg1 #bbi4    ,rogers1 ,prof41 on      
,appalachian chain1 #eei4    ,roman     
roads under water in ,bay of ,baiae1    
#eag4    ,romney ,marsh1 gained from    
sea1 #caf4    ,rose1 ,m4 ,g41 on        
hornblende and augite1 #ddi4    ,ross1  
,sir ,j41 on cold of antarctic regions1 
#ii4   ----1 obtained soundings at depth
 of #bg1fjj feet1 #ajd4   ----1 confirms
 ,cook as to antarctic ice1 #abe4       
----1 on icebergs1 #ih1 #bbi4           
,rossberg1 slide of the1 #gcb4          
,rotation of the earth1 currents caused 

by1 #bif4   ----1 of crops1 #fgj1 #gbj4 
,rother1 ,river1 vessel found in its old
 bed1 #caf1 #geh4    ,royle1 ,mr41 #ha4 
,runn of ,cutch described1 #dfc4    ,rye
 formerly destroyed by sea1 #caf4       
,s4    ,saarbuck1 reptiles in coal      
strata at1 #acf4    ,sabine1 ,capt41 on 
well at ,chiswick1 #bcd4   ----1 on     
waters of ,amazon discoloring the sea1  
#cdb4    ,sabine1 ,col41 on solar       
magnetic period1 #abi1 #edd4            
,sabrina1 island of1 #dcb4    ,saco1    
,r41 flood on1 #bji4    ,sahrunpore1    
buried town near1 #gca4    ,st4         
,andrew's1 loss of land at1 #cjc4       
----1 gun-barrel1 fossil1 near1 #gfj4   
,st4 ,domingo1 hot springs caused by    
earthquake in1 #did4   ----1 fossil     
human skeleton in1 #geh4    ,st4        
,helena1 tides at1 #bia4    ,st4 ,jago1 
earthquake at1 #deg4    ,st4            
,katherine's ,docks1 a fossil vessel    
found in1 #geh4    ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,gulf
 of1 earthquakes in1 #dgj4   ----1 rocks
 drifted by ice in the1 #bbj4    ,st4   

,maura1 earthquakes in1 #dgd4    ,st4   
,michael1 siliceous springs of1 #bdf4   
,st4 ,michael's ,mount1 #cbc4    ,st4   
,paul1 volcanic island1 #ddf4    ,st4   
,vincent's1 volcanoes of1 #dff4   ----1 
counter-currents in the air proved by   
eruption in1 #ajf4   ----1 boa          
constrictor conveyed on drift-wood to1  
#fdf4    ,salt1 on its deposition in the
 ,mediterranean1 #ccd4    ,salt springs 
#ah1 #bdg4    ,saltholm1 island of1     
#ebj4    ,samothracian deluge1 #cef4    
,sand bars along western coast of       
,adriatic1 #beg4   ----1 drift1         
estuaries blocked up by1 #cjg4    ,sand1
 imbedding of towns1 c4 in1 #gbf4       
----1 cones of thrown up during         
earthquake1 #dhc4    ,sandown ,bay1     
excavated by sea1 #cah4    ,sandwich    
,islands volcanoes1 #ced1 #cgb1 #chc1   
#dbi1 #edh1 #eeb4    ,sandwich ,land1   
perpetual snow to level of sea-beach in1
 #ii4    ,san ,filippo1 travertin of1   
#bda4    ,san ,lio1 on ,etna1 fissures  
in plain of1 #cii4    ,santa ,maria1    

island of1 raised #aj feet1 #dee4       
,santorin1 geological structure of1     
#dde4   ----1 chart and section of1     
#ddb4   ----1 new islands in ,gulf of1  
#dda4    ,saracens1 learning of the1    
#ag4    ,saussure on the ,alps and      
,jura1 #de4   ----1 on glaciers in      
,alps1 #bbc4    ,savanna la ,mar1 swept 
away by sea1 #gca4    ,saxicava rugosa1 
cosmopolite shell1 #fej4    ,scandinavia
 called an island by the ancients1 #ebj4
   ----1 gradual rise of1 #ebj1 #efc4   
----1 ,see ,sweden4    ,scania1 gradual 
subsidence of1 #ecj4    ,scacchi1 ,sig41
 on temple of ,serapis1 #eaf4   ----1 on
 origin of ,monte ,nuovo1 #cga4         
,scheuchzer1 his theory1 #agjh1 #cc4    
,schmerling1 ,dr41 on fossils in caves1 
#gcg4    ,schwabe1 ,m41 on spots in the 
sun1 #abi1 #edd4    ,sciacca1 island of4
 ,see ,graham ,island4    ,scilla on    
organic remains1 #afgj1 #bd4    ,scilla1
 rock of1 #dhh4    ,scoresby1 ,capt1 on 
the ,gulf stream1 #if4   ----1 on       
formation of field ice1 #ajh4   ----1 on

 weight of rocks transported by         
icebergs1 #bbg4   ----1 cited1 #fdj1    
#gdc4    ,scotland1 floods in1 #bjg1    
#gej4   ----1 colder climate indicated  
by newest tertiary strata of1 #abe4     
----1 waste of islands and coast of1    
#bih4   ----1 slight earthquakes felt   
in1 #ceh4   ----1 peat-mosses of1 #gbj1 
#gbc4   ----1 marl lakes of1 #geb1 #gff1
 #ggj4    ,scrope1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,p41 on     
eruption of ,vesuvius in #ahbb1 #cge4   
----1 on columnar basalts of ,vesuvius1 
#che4   ----1 on pisolitic globules at  
,pompeii1 #chg4   ----1 on eruptions of 
,etna1 #djh1 #daj4   ----1 on cause of  
convexity of plain of ,malpais1 #dbi4   
----1 on connection between state of    
atmosphere and earthquakes1 #efa4       
,sea does not change its level1 but     
land1 #ae4   ----1 its influence on     
climate1 #ig4   ----1 area covered by1  
#abd4   ----1 its encroachments on      
coasts1 #bih1 #cjb1 #cbd4   ----1 its   
rise and retreat during earthquakes1    
#djg4    ,sea-beaches1 raised1 in       

,ireland1 #abb4   ----1 progressive     
motion of1 #caf4    ,seals1 migration   
of1 #fdb4    ,sea-weed1 banks formed by 
drift1 #fbb1 #ggj4    ,secondary rocks1 
fossils of the1 #hf4   ----1 origin of  
the1 #aag4    ,sedgwick1 ,professor1 on 
the ,hartz mountains1 #dh4   ----1 on   
tertiary deposits of the ,alps1 #aai4   
----1 on the antagonist power of        
vegetation1 #gaa4   ----1 on organic    
remains in fissures1 #gdj4   ----1 on   
diluvial waves1 #dbc4    ,sediment of   
the ,mississippi1 #bgb4   ----1 laws    
governing deposition of1 #ahh1 #hdb4    
----1 in river water1 #bgj4   ----1 of  
,ganges compared to lavas of ,etna1     
#bhc4   ----1 rate of subsidence of some
 kinds of1 #cdb4   ----1 area over which
 it may be transported by currents1     
#cdc4    ,sedimentary deposition1 causes
 which occasion a shifting of the areas 
of1 #ahi4    ,seeds1 vitality of1 #ehg4 
----1 of ,leguminosae adapted for       
water-carriage1 #fbb4    ,serapis1      
temple of1 #ejg4   ----1 ground-plan of 

environs of1 #ejg4   ----1 date of its  
re-elevation1 #eab4   ----1 now again   
subsiding1 #eaf4   ----1 worship of1 in 
,italy1 #eab4    ,serres1 ,e4 ,r4 ,a41  
on changes in brain of foetus1 #fji4    
,serres1 ,e4 ,marcel de1 on fossil human
 remains1 #gch4    ,severn1 tides in    
estuary of1 #bia4   ----1 gain of land  
in its estuary1 #cbd4    ,shakspeare's  
cliff1 waste of1 #cad4    ,shambles1 a  
shoal off ,portland ,bill1 #cb4         
,sharpe1 ,mr4 ,d41 on earthquake of     
,lisbon1 #dif4    ,sheep1 multiplication
 of1 in ,south ,america1 #fhf4    ,shell
 marl1 fossils in1 #geb1 #gff1 #gfi4    
,shells1 fossil of older strata buried  
in newer or recent beds1 #gge4     ,see 
,testacea4    ,sheppey1 waste of cliffs1
 #cab4    ,shetland ,islands1 action of 
the sea on1 #bih4   ----1 rock masses   
drifted by sea in1 #bih4   ----1 effect 
of lightning on rocks in1 #bii4   ----1 
formation in progress near1 #ggd4       
,shingle beaches1 #cah1 #cbj4    ,ships1
 number of ,british1 wrecked annually1  

#ged1 #gee4   ----1 fossil1 #caf1 #gbe1 
#geh4    ,siberia1 rhinoceros entire in 
frozen soil of1 #de1 #hb4   ----1 map   
of1 #gi4   ----1 the ,bengal tiger found
 in1 #gh4   ----1 lowland of1 #gh1 #hc1 
#he4   ----1 drift timber on coast of1  
#gde4    ,siberian lowlands1 climate of1
 #hc4   ----1 mammoths1 #hj4    ,sicily1
 earthquakes in1 #ceg1 #dgj1 #dgg1 #dgi1
 #ejc1 #gcf4   ----1 geological         
structure of1 #gd1 #afg1 #ahc4   ----1  
mud volcanoes of1 #ddg4    ,sienna1     
fossil shells of1 #ci1 #gd4             
,sigillariae1 structure of1 #hh4        
,silex1 deposited by springs1 #bdf4     
,silliman1 ,professor1 cited1 #gei4     
,silurian rocks1 wide range of the      
fossils1 #afj4   ----1 fauna1 no land or
 freshwater plants in1 #acd4   ----1    
horizontal1 #ahg4   ----1 altered1 #agg4
   ----1 strata formed in deep seas1    
#aag4    ,simeto1 ,r41 lava excavated   
by1 #bac4    ,sindree1 changes caused by
 earthquakes of #ahai1 near1 #dfa1 #dfd1
 #gfa4   ----1 view of the fort of1     

before the earthquake 7see ,pl4 xi471   
#dfa4   ----1 its appearance in #ahch1  
#dfc4    ,skaptar ,jokul1 eruption of1  
#dbe4    ,slave ,lake1 drift timber in1 
#gdc4    ,sleswick1 waste of coast of1  
#ccj1 #fid4    ,sligo1 bursting of a    
peat-moss in1 #gbd4    ,sloane1 ,sir    
,h41 on earthquake in ,jamaica1 #eje4   
----1 on dispersion of plants1 #fba4    
,smith1 ,william1 agreement of his      
system with ,werner's1 #dh4   ----1 his 
,tabular ,view of the ,british ,strata1 
#agij1 #eh4   ----1 his map of ,england1
 #eh4   ----1 priority of his           
arrangement1 #eh4    ,smith1 ,mr41 of   
,jordan ,hill1 on the colder climate of 
newest tertiary     period1 #abf4       
----1 on temple of ,serapis1 #eaf4      
,smyrna1 volcanic country round1 #cee4  
,smyth1 ,capt4 ,w4 ,h41 on the          
,mediterranean1 #de1 #bei1 #bif1 #eaa4  
----1 on height ,of ,etna1 #cif4   ----1
 on ,straits of ,gibraltar1 #ccc1 #ccf4 
----1 on depth of sea from which ,graham
 ,island rose1 #dcb4   ----1 on floating

 islands of drift-wood1 #fda4   ----1 on
 drifting of birds by the wind1 #fde4   
----1 on diffusion of insects1 #feg4    
----1 on average number of ,british     
ships lost1 from #agic to #ahbi1        
#gee4   ----1 found shells at great     
depths between ,gibraltar and ,ceuta1   
#ggc4    ,snow1 height of perpetual1 in 
the ,andes1 #aab4   ----1 in ,himalaya  
mountains1 #aab4   ----1 lowest limits  
of perpetual1 at equator1 #bbb4   ----1 
lowest limits of perpetual1 at ,swiss   
,alps1 #bbb4    ,sodertelje1 buried hut 
in canal of1 #ebd1 #ebh4    ,soil1 its  
influence on plants1 #eij4    ,soils1 on
 formation of1 #gji4   ----1 influence  
of plants on1 #fgj4    ,soldani1 on     
microscopic shells of ,mediterranean1   
#dd4   ----1 on the ,paris basin1 #dd4  
,solent1 its channel widening1 #cah4    
,solfatara1 lake of1 #bdc4   ----1      
volcano1 #ceh1 #cfc1 #cfg1 #che4        
,solitaire1 recently extinct bird1 #fhd4
    ,solway ,moss1 #gbc4    ,solway     
,firth1 animals washed by river floods  

into1 #gfj4    ,somersetshire1 land     
gained in1 #cbd4   ----1 submarine      
forest on coast of1 #cbc4               
,somerville1 ,mrs41 on depth of ocean1  
#ajd4    ,somma1 escarpment of1 #cha4   
----1 dikes of1 #chb4   ----1 supposed  
section of ,vesuvius and1 #cha4         
,sorbonne1 ,college of the1 #ci4        
,sorting power of water1 #bhg4    ,south
 ,carolina1 earthquake in1 #dff4        
,south ,downs1 waste of plastic clay on1
 #cag4    ,spain1 earthquakes in1 #ceh4 
,spallanzani on effects of heat on      
seeds1 #fba4   ----1 on flight of birds1
 #fdd4    ,species1 definition of the   
term1 #efg4   ----1 ,linnaeus on        
constancy of1 #efh4   ----1 ,lamarck's  
theory of transmutation of1 #efg1 #ehj1 
#fii4   ----1 reality of1 in nature1    
#ehc1 #eia1 #eib1 #faa4   ----1         
geographical distribution of1 #fab4     
----1 theories respecting their origin1 
#fff1 #gjc4   ----1 ,brocchi on         
extinction of1 #ffh4   ----1 reciprocal 
influence of aquatic and terrestrial1   

#fgf4   ----1 their successive creation 
and extinction1 #fgh1 #fhi1 #gjg4       
----1 effect of changes in geography1   
climate1 c41 on their                   
distribution1 #aje1 #fij1 #fig4   ----1 
superior longevity of molluscous1 #gf4  
,specific centres1 doctrine of1 #fcj4   
,spence1 ,mr41 on insects1 cited1 #fjf1 
#fee1 #fgc4    ,spitzbergen1 glaciers   
of1 #if4    ,spix1 ,m41 on animals      
drifted by ,amazon1 #fda4   ----1 on    
,brazil1 #fhb4    ,spontaneous          
generation1 theory of1 #bb4    ,springs1
 origin of1 #bcb4   ----1 the theory of1
 illustrated by bored wells1 #bcc4      
----1 most abundant in volcanic regions1
 #bcg4   ----1 affected by earthquake1  
#bcg1 #dec1 #def1 #dhc1 #did4   ----1   
transporting power of1 #bch4   ----1    
calcareous1 #bci4   ----1 sulphureous   
and gypseous1 #bde4   ----1 siliceous1  
#bdf4   ----1 ferruginous1 #bdi4   ----1
 brine1 #bdg4   ----1 carbonated1 #bdh4 
----1 petroleum1 #bej4    ,squirrels1   
migrations of1 #fcg4    ,stabiae1 buried

 city of1 #cid4    ,stalagmite          
alternating with alluvium in caves1     
#gcg4    ,stars1 variable splendor of1  
#abh4    ,statical figure of the earth1 
#ecd1 #edd4    ,stations of plants1     
description of1 #fad4   ----1 of        
animals1 #fgg4    ,stelluti on organic  
remains1 #bc4    ,steno1 opinions of1   
#bc4    ,stephenson on eruption in      
,iceland1 #dbe4    ,stephenson1 ,mr4    
,r41 on level of ,red ,sea and          
,mediterranean1 #bid4    ,stevenson1    
,mr41 on drift stones on ,bell-,rock1   
#cjb4   ----1 on the ,german ,ocean1    
#cae1 #cdj4   ----1 on waste of cliffs1 
#cbd4    ,stockholm1 rise of land near1 
#ebf1 #ebg4    ,stokes1 ,mr41 on        
mineralization of plants1 #gdg4         
,stonesfleld1 fossils of1 #ach1 #ade4   
,storm of ,november1 #ahbd1 effect of1  
#cag1 #cah1 #cbj4    ,strabo cited1 #ad1
 #bfj1 #cee1 #cfa4   ----1 geology of1  
#ad4    ,strachey1 ,capt1 ,r41 on delta 
of ,ganges1 #bhc4    ,straits of ,dover1
 formation of1 #cae4   ----1 their      

depth1 #cae4    ,straits of ,gibraltar1 
currents in1 c41 #ccc1 #cce4    ,strata1
 laws governing deposition of1 #ahh4    
----1 slow deposition of1 proved by     
fossils1 #aed4   ----1 on consolidation 
of1 #age4    ,stratifications in deltas1
 causes of1 #bhg4   ----1 of debris     
deposited by currents1 #bhh4   ----1    
unconformable1 inferences derived from1 
#ahg4    ,strabo1 hypothesis of1 #ad4   
,strickland1 ,mr41 on tertiary strata1  
,cropthorn1 #gf4   ----1 on dodo1 #fhd4 
,stromboli1 its appearance during       
,calabrlan earthquakes1 #dhh4   ----1   
constancy in eruption1 #edf1 #efa4      
,stufas1 jets of steam in volcanic      
regions1 #bcg1 #edf4    ,stutchbury1    
,mr41 on coral islands1 #ggh1 #ghb4     
,subapennine strata1 #gd4   ----1 early 
,italian geologists on1 #db1 #ga4       
,submarine forests1 #cjc1 #cbc1 #gdf4   
----1 peat1 #gbd1 #ggj4   ----1 rivers1 
#ceg4   ----1 volcanoes1 #dca1 #ded4    
----1 eruptions in mid ,atlantic1 #dcf4 
,subsidence of land1 #dfj1 #dfe1 #dgj1  

#dgg1 #die1 #ejc1 #ejd1 #ejg1 #fia1     
#gfa1     #gfb4   ----1 great areas of1 
#agj1 #gij4   ----1 greater than        
elevation1 #efc1 #ghg4   ----1          
simultaneous in ,miocene epoch1 #aib4   
----1 of land1 delta of ,mississippi1   
#bga4   ----1 of coral islands1 slow and
 uniform1 #gia4    ,subterranean        
movements1 uniformity of1 #ahf4   ----1 
movements near ,new ,madrid1 #ahaa-ab1  
#bgj4    ,suffolk1 cliffs undermined1   
#cji4   ----1 tertiary strata of1 #adb4 
,sulphuric acid1 lake of1 in ,java1     
#cec4    ,sulphureous springs1 #bde4    
,sumatra1 volcanoes in1 #ced4   ----1   
animals destroyed by river floods in1   
#gea4    ,sumbawa1 subsidence in island 
of1 #ahae1 #dfd1 #gfb4   ----1 ashes1   
transported to great distances by       
eruptions of1 #ajf4    ,sun1 variations 
in spots of1 #abi4    ,sunda1 ,isles of1
 volcanic region of1 #cej4              
,sunderbunds1 part of delta of ,ganges1 
#bgf4    ,sunk country1 west of ,new    
,madrid in ,u4 ,s41 #dfg4    ,superior1 

,lake1 deltas of1 #bed4   ----1 recent  
deposits in1 #bed1 #gfh4   ----1 its    
depth1 extent1 c41 #bed4   ----1        
bursting of1 would cause a flood1 #aef4 
,sussex1 waste of its coast1 #cag4      
,sutlej1 ,r41 fossils near1 #f4         
,swanage ,bay1 excavated by sea1 #cah4  
,sweden1 gradual rise of1 #ebj1 #efc4   
----1 gradual subsidence of south of1   
#ecj4   ----1 earthquakes in1 #eca4     
----1 land rising1 #aib4   ----1 ,see   
also ,scandinavia4    ,switzerland1     
towns destroyed by landslips in1 #gcb4  
,syria1 earthquakes in1 #cee1 #dec4     
,t4    ,tacitus cited1 #cfd4            
,tagliamento1 ,r41 delta of the1 #beh4  
,targioni1 on geology of ,tuscany1 #dj4 
,tartary1 volcanoes in1 #cee4           
,taxodium distichum in ,great ,dismal   
,swamp1 #gbe4    ,tay1 estuary of1      
encroachment of sea in1 #cjb4   ----1   
submarine forests in1 #cjc4    ,taylor1 
,mr4 ,r4 ,c41 on waste of cliff's1 #cjf4
   ----1 on gain of land on coast of    
,norfolk1 #cjh4   ----1 on caves in isle

 of ,cuba1 #gda4    ,tchihatchoff1 ,m41 
map of ,italy1 #abc4    ,teissier1 ,m41 
on human bones in caves1 c41 #gci4      
,temperature1 great changes in1 #ib4    
----1 difference of1 in places in same  
latitudes1 #ie4   ----1 warmer in       
tertiary periods1 #ge4   ----1          
oscillation of1 #abe4   ----1 ,see      
,climate4    ,temples1 buried1 in       
,egypt1 #gbf4   ----1 under water in    
,bay of ,baiae1 #eah4   ----1 buried in 
,cashmere1 #gfb4    ,teneriffe1 volcanic
 eruptions in1 #dci4    ,terra del      
,fuego1 fauna of1 #ada4    ,terranuova1 
subsidence near1 #dgj4   ----1 fault in 
the tower of1 #dgh4   ----1 landslips   
near1 #dhe4    ,tertiary formations1    
general remarks on1 #ada1 #ahb1 #ahc4   
----1 geographical changes implied by1  
#aah4   ----1 glacial in ,scotland1     
#abf4   ----1 origin of successive      
periods1 #ahb4   ----1 circumstances    
under which these and the secondary     
formations           may have           
originated1 #aag1 #aah4   ----1 fossils 

of the newest1 #ahc4   ----1 fossil     
mammals of successive1 #adb4   ----1    
formations of ,england1 #gf1 #adb4      
----1 of the ,paris basin1 #adb4   ----1
 deposits1 climate of warmer1 #hf4      
,testacea1 their geographical           
distribution1 #fdi4   ----1 fossil1     
importance of1 #ahc4   ----1 marine1    
imbedding of1 #gfh4   ----1 freshwater1 
#ggj4   ----1 burrowing1 #ggc4   ----1  
longevity of species of1 #gf4   ----1   
number of recent1 in different tertiary 
periods1 #adb1 #ahc4    ,texel1 waste of
 islands near the1 #cbh4    ,thames1    
valley of1 tertiary strata in1 #gf4     
----1 gain and loss of land in its      
estuary1 #cab4   ----1 tide in its      
estuary1 #cch4   ----1 buried vessels in
 alluvial plain of the1 #geh4           
,thanet1 ,isle of1 loss of land in1     
#cac4    ,thermo-electricity1 #edc4     
,thibet1 yak or wild ox of1 in ice1 #he4
    ,thomson1 ,dr4 ,t41 on ,western     
,himalaya and ,thibet1 #gfc4   ----1 on 
buried temples in ,cashmere1 #gfc4      

,thrace subject to earthquakes1 #cee4   
,thury1 ,m4 ,hericart de1 on artesian   
wells1 #bcd1 #bcf4    ,thylacotherium   
,prevostii1 #ach4    ,tiber1 growth of  
its delta1 #bdc4    ,tide wave of the   
,atlantic1 #cjh4    ,tides1 height to   
which they rise1 #bgi1 #bij4   ----1    
effect of winds on the1 #bie4   ----1   
effects of1 on wells near ,london1 #bcc4
   ----1 their destroying and           
transporting power1 #bia4   ----1 their 
reproductive effects1 #ccg4   ----1 and 
currents1 drifting remains of animals   
by1 #gec4    ,tiedemann on changes in   
brain of foetus1 #fji4    ,tiger of     
,bengal found in ,siberia1 #gg4         
,tigris and ,euphrates1 their union a   
modern event1 #bhd4    ,tigris1 river1  
delta of1 advancing1 #bhd4    ,tilesius 
on ,siberian mammoth1 #ha4    ,time1    
prepossessions in regard to the duration
 of past1 #fb4    ,tivoli1 flood at1    
#baa4   ----1 travertin of1 #bdd4       
,tomboro1 volcano1 eruption of1 #dfe4   
----1 town of1 submerged1 #dfe4         

,torre del ,greco overflowed by lava1   
#cid4   ----1 columnar lavas of1 #chd4  
,torrents1 action of1 in widening       
valleys1 #bjd4    ,torres' ,strait1     
volcano of1 #gib4    ,totten1 ,col41 on 
expansion of rocks by heat1 #efb4       
,tournal1 ,m41 on ,french caves1 #gch1  
#gci4    ,towns destroyed by landslips1 
#gcb4    ,trade-winds1 #ajf1 #bie4      
,traditions of losses of land1 #cbd1    
#cbg4   ----1 of floods1 #ejj1 #eja4    
,transition texture1 #agf4   ----1      
formations1 #agg4    ,trap rocks of many
 different ages1 #afj4    ,travertin of 
the ,elsa1 #bci4   ----1 of ,san        
,vignone1 #bdj4   ----1 of ,san         
,filippo1 #bda4   ----1 spheroidal      
structure of1 #bdb4   ----1 compared to 
,english magnesian limestone1 #bdc4     
----1 of ,tivoli1 #bdd4    ,travertin   
politic1 recent1 in ,lancerote1 #dci4   
,tree-ferns1 distribution of1 #hh4      
,tree-ferns1 extend more south than     
north of equator1 #hf4    ,trees1       
longevity of1 #dbb4    ,trias1 fossil   

mammifer of1 #acg4    ,trimmer1 ,mr41 on
 recent marine shells in ,wales1 #abb4  
,trinidad1 subsidence in1 #bej4   ----1 
pitch lake of1 #bej4    ,tripergola1    
#cgj1 #cga1 #cie4    ,tripolitza1 plain 
of1 breccias in1 #gcd4    ,trollhattan1 
#ebg4    ,truncation of volcanic cones1 
#ceb1 #dic4    ,tufa4 ,see ,travertin4  
,tuff1 infusorial1 #chh4    ,turner1    
,dr41 on decomposition of felspar1 #bdg4
    ,turtles1 migrations of1 #fde4      
----1 eggs of1 fossil1 #gga4    ,turton 
cited1 #fdf4    ,tuscany1 geology of1   
#bc1 #dj4   ----1 calcareous springs of1
 #bci4    ,tyrol1 ,dolomieu on the1 #di4
     ,u4    ,uddevalla1 upraised        
deposits at1 #ahd1 #ebg4    ,uliah      
,bund1 formation of the1 #dfb4    ,ulloa
 cited1 #eja1 #ejb1 #fhe4               
,unconformable strata1 inferences       
derived from1 #ahg4    ,uniformity of   
laws of nature1 #ga1 #adi1 #cgc4   ----1
 of system of past changes in animate   
and inanimate world1 #aha4    ,universal
 formations1 theory of1 #di1 #aed4      

,universal ocean1 theory of1 #bf1 #cd4  
----1 disproved by organic remains1     
#aia4    ,upsala1 strata near1 #ebh4    
,v4    ,val d',arno1 ,upper1 effect of  
destruction of forests in1 #gab4    ,val
 del ,bove on ,etna described1 #djc4    
----1 form1 composition1 and origin of  
dikes in1 #djf4   ----1 lavas and       
breccias of the1 #daa4   ----1 origin of
 the1 #dac4   ----1 floods in1 #daa4    
,val di ,calanna1 #dje1 #djg1 #daj4     
,val di ,noto1 ,dolomieu on the1 #di4   
,valdivia1 earthquake at1 #dec4         
,valenciennes1 ,m41 on fish not crossing
 the ,atlantic1 #fdg4    ,valley1 newly 
formed in ,georgia1 ,u4 ,s41 #bje4      
,valleys1 ,targioni on origin of1 #dj4  
----1 excavation of1 in ,central        
,france1 #bac4   ----1 of elevation1    
section of1 #dbj4   ----1 on ,etna1     
account of1 #djd4   ----1 the excavation
 of1 assisted by earthquakes1 #dhd4     
,vallisneri on the origin of springs1   
#cc4   ----1 on marine deposits of      
,italy1 #cd4   ----1 cited1 #cd1 #ce1   

#eb4    ,valparaiso1 changes caused by  
earthquakes at1 #deg1 #eag1 #gfa4       
,van ,dieman's ,land1 climate of1 #ig4  
,vedas1 sacred hymns of1 #d4            
,vegetable soil1 why it does not        
increase1 #gji4   ----1 how formed1     
#gaj4    ,vegetation1 luxuriant1 not    
required to support   large animals1    
#hb4   ----1 centres of1 #gjc4   ----1  
its conservative influence1 #gaj1 #gaa4 
----1 its influence on climate1 #gac4   
,veins1 mineral1 on their formation1    
#dhd4   ----1 of lava4 ,see ,dikes4     
,verneuil1 ,m4 de1 on lowland of        
,siberia1 #hd4    ,verona1 fossils of1  
#bj1 #bb1 #cd4   ----1 ,arduino on      
mountains of1 #da4    ,verstegan1 on    
separation of ,england from ,france1    
#cae1 #fdb4    ,vertebrated animals in  
oldest strata1 #ace4    ,vessels1       
fossil4 ,see ,ships4    ,vesta1 temple  
of1 #bab4    ,vesuvius1 excavation of   
tuff on1 #bac4   ----1 history of1 #bfc1
 #cgd4   ----1 eruptions of1 #cfd1 #cgd4
   ----1 dikes of1 #cgi4   ----1 lava   

of1 #chd4   ----1 structure and origin  
of the cone of1 #chc4   ----1 and       
,somma1 probable section of1 #cha4      
----1 volcanic alluvium on1 #gbh4       
,vicentin1 ,dolomieu on the1 #di4       
----1 submarine lavas of the1 #ga4      
,victoria land1 skirted by ice1 #ii4    
,vidal1 ,capt41 on ,rockhall bank1 #ggc4
    ,villages buried by landslips1 #gcb4
    ,virlet1 ,m41 on ,samothracian      
deluge1 #cef4   ----1 on volcanoes of   
,greece1 #cee4   ----1 on ,santorin1    
#ddc1 #dde1 #ddf4   ----1 on corrosion  
of rocks by gases1 #gcc4   ----1 on     
human bones imbedded in ,morea1 #gce4   
,vivarais1 basalts of the1 #dh4         
,volcanic action1 defined1 #cde4   ----1
 power adequate to effect lateral       
pressure1 #agb4   ----1 lines1 #afi1    
#ceb4   ----1 craters in ,galapagos with
 southern side lowest1 #ghc4   ----1    
action1 uniformity of1 #afb1 #gaa4      
----1 cones1 truncation of1 #ceb1 #dic4 
----1 their perfect state no proof of   
relative age1 #gab4   ----1             

conglomerates1 #dch4   ----1 dikes4 ,see
 ,dikes4   ----1 eruptions1 causes of1  
#edb4   ----1 average number of1 per    
annum1 #dej4   ----1 formations1 fossils
 in1 #cdi1 #gbh4   ----1 products1      
mineral composition of1 #ddi4   ----1   
regions1 their geographical boundaries1 
#cdf4   ----1 map showing extent of1    
#cea4   ----1 rocks1 subterranean1 #agh1
 #dej4   ----1 of all geological        
periods1 #afj4    ,volcanoes1           
safety-valves according to ,strabo1 #ae4
   ----1 remarks on their position1     
#cdf1 #cee4   ----1 and earthquakes1    
effects of same causes1 #cde4   ----1   
agency of water in1 #ede4   ----1 mode  
of computing the age of1 #dbj4   ----1  
sometimes inactive for centuries1 #cdf1 
#dba4   ----1 of ,sandwich ,islands1    
#ced1 #cgb1 #edh1 #chc1 #dbi4   ----1   
chemical theory of1 #edf4   ----1 mud1  
#ddg4   ----1 no safety-valves1 ,dana   
on1 #eec4    ,voltaire on systems of    
geology1 #ed4    ,volterra1 ,mattani1 on
 fossils of1 #cd4    ,von ,baer1 ,prof41

 on frozen soil of ,siberia1 #hd4       
----1 on ice-drifted rocks1 #bca4       
,von ,buch on rise of land in ,sweden1  
#ebc1 #ebf4   ----1 on volcanic lines1  
#ceb4   ----1 on volcanoes of ,greece1  
#cee4   ----1 on formation of ,monte    
,nuovo1 #cfi4   ----1 on ,vesuvius and  
,somma1 #cfg1 #chj1 #chb1 #chd4   ----1 
on eruption in ,lancerote1 #dcf4   ----1
 on glaciers1 #bbh4   ----1 on new      
islands1 #dfh4   ----1 on volcanic      
regions1 #cdf4    ,von ,hoff4 ,see      
,hoff4    ,vulcanists and ,neptunists1  
factions of1 #ej1 #ee4    ,vultur1      
,mount1 #cef4    ,vultures1 range of1   
#fdc4     ,w4    ,wallerius1 theory of1 
#de4    ,wallich1 ,dr41 on ,ava fossils1
 #bh4   ----1 on wood in peat near      
,calcutta1 #bhj4    ,warping1 land      
gained by1 #bhh1 #cci4    ,water1 action
 of running1 #bjd4   ----1 its power on 
freezing1 #bjd4   ----1 excavating power
 of1 #bjd4   ----1 transporting power   
of1 #bjd4   ----1 sorting power of1     
#bhf4   ----1 agency of1 in volcanoes1  

#edh4    ,waterhouse1 ,mr41 of ,british 
,museum1 on provinces of indigenous land
     quadrupeds1 #fca4    ,wealden      
strata1 fossils of1 #aag1 #acg1 #adj4   
,webster1 ,dr41 of ,nova ,scotia1 on    
rain-prints1 #bjb4    ,wells1 artesian1 
#bcc4    ,wener1 ,lake1 strata near1    
#ebg4    ,werner1 ,professor of         
,mineralogy at ,freyberg1 #agge1 #df4   
----1 his lecture1 #dg4   ----1 on      
granite of the ,hartz1 #dg4   ----1     
principal merit of his system1 #dh4     
----1 technical terms of1 #eh4   ----1  
on transition rocks1 #agf4 4   ,west    
,indian land quadrupeds1 #fcd4    ,west 
,indies1 earthquakes in1 #bi1 #cej1     
#eje4   ----1 active volcanoes in1 #cej4
    ,whales stranded1 #gga4    ,whewell1
 ,rev4 ,dr41 on modern progress of      
geology1 #ei4   ----1 on the tides1     
#ccb4    ,whirlwinds1 violent1 during   
eruption in ,sumbawa1 #dfe4             
,whirlwind1 dispersion of seeds by1     
#fai4    ,whiston1 his theory of the    
earth1 #cb4    ,white ,mountains1       

landslips in the1 #bji4    ,whitehurst1 
theory of1 #aggh1 #de4   ----1 on       
subsidence at ,lisbon1 #die4            
,wildenow on diffusion of plants by man1
 #fbf4   ----1 on centres of vegetable  
creation1 #gjc4    ,wilkinson1 ,sir ,j4 
,g41 on deposits of ,nile1 #bfb4   ----1
 on sand drift in ,egypt1 #gbf4         
,wilson1 ,prof41 on cosmogony of ,vedas1
 #d4    ,winds1 trade1 #ajf1 #bie4      
----1 currents caused by the1 #bic4     
----1 sand drifted by the1 #cjg1 #gbf4  
,wolf1 and dog1 distinct species1 #ehe4 
----1 hybrids between the1 #fja4   ----1
 drifted to sea on ice1 #fdj4   ----1   
extirpated in ,great ,britain1 #fhc4    
,wollaston1 ,dr41 on water of           
,mediterranean1 #ccd4    ,wood1 ,mr4    
,s41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4        
,wood impregnated with salt water when  
sunk to great depths1 #gdc4   ----1     
drift1 #ij1 #bfh1 #fdj1 #gdc4   ----1   
converted into lignite1 #gei4           
,woodward1 theory of1 #ca1 #hd1 #ed1    
#ff4    ,wrecks1 number of1 annually1   

#ged1 #gee4     ,x4    ,xanthus1 the    
,lydian1 his theory1 #ad4     ,y4       
,yak1 wild ox of ,thibet1 frozen in ice1
 #he4    ,yakutzt1 frozen soil of1 #hd4 
,yaou1 flood of1 #g4    ,yarmouth1      
estuary silted up at1 #cjg4   ----1 rise
 of the tide at1 #bia1 #cjg4            
,yenesei1 ,r41 fossils on banks of1 #gi4
    ,yorkshire1 bones of mammoth in1    
#gf4   ----1 waste of its coasts1 #cjc4 
,young1 ,dr41 on effects of compression 
at earth's centre1 #ecf4     ,z4        
,zante1 earthquakes in island of1 #dgd4 
,zealand1 ,new1 number of ferns1 #aaf4  
----1 resemblance of plants with ancient
 carboniferous flora1 #aaf4   ----1     
length and breadth of1 #aaf4            
,zeuglodon1 eocene cetacea1 #ade4       
,zoological provinces how formed1 #fff4 
----1 why not more blended together1    
#ffh4    ,zoophytes1 their geographical 
distribution1 #fea4   ----1 their powers
 of diffusion1 #fed4   ----1 abundance  
of1 #gjf4   ----1 which form coral      
reefs1 #ggf4    ,zuyder ,zee1 formation1

 #cbh4   ----1 great mosses on the site 
of1 #cbg4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co4      
,,publish4  ,,uniform ,,with ,,the      
,,principles ,,of ,,geology1  ,a        
,,manual  of  ,,elementary ,,geology2   
,or1 the ,ancient ,changes of the ,earth
 and its ,inhabitants1  ,,as            
,,illustrated ,,by ,,geological         
,,monuments4  ,,by ,,sir ,,charles      
,,lyell1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41  ,author 
of ,principles of ,geology c41 c4       
,reprinted from the last ,london1       
,entirely ,revised ,edition4            
,illustrated with ,five ,hundred        
,wood-,cuts4 ,one handsome volume1 large
 #hvo4 ,price #a #ge4     ,the author of
 this work stands in the very front rank
 of    scientific men1 and his works    
upon the sciences1 to which he    has   
devoted his great powers1 and his       
,indefatigable study1 are    the        
standard books upon those subjects4     
,this ,manual has had a    very great   
sale in ,england1 and its successive    

editions have    kept pace with the     
steady progress of geological science4  
,to    the last edition1 new and        
important pages have been added1        
containing the latest discoveries ,in   
geology4 ,this study has    never before
 received so great attention as at      
present1 and in    no other country can 
it be studied so profitably and with    
such    practical results as in         
this4--,providence ,journal4     ,this  
is a standard work1 on one of the most  
wonderful of    modern sciences4 ,in    
connection with the ,principles of      
,geology1 by the same author1 it gives a
 complete survey of    the science at   
its present stage of advancement4 ,we   
commend    these works to the serious   
attention of those fossil    theologians
 who esteem it their duty to bring the  
,bible1 if    they can1 into conflict   
with the inductive sciences1 and who    
think that their interpretation of      
,genesis is a sufficient    reply to all
 the inductions of ,geology4--,recorder4

     ,the author of this volume is among
 the most eminent of    geologists1 and 
is well qualified to make an exposition 
of the    science4 ,this ,manual is not 
intended as an epitome of    another    
work1 ,the ,principles of ,geology1 but 
occupies a    distinct place1 the       
,principles containing a view of the    
,modern changes of the ,earth and its   
inhabitants1 while the    ,manual       
relates to the ,monuments of ,ancient   
changes4 ,the    author recommends to   
the student of geology who wishes to    
examine his works1 to commence with the 
,principles1 a new    and thoroughly    
revised edition of which is just about  
tube    issued by the ,publishers of the
 present volume4 ,we are not    among   
those who apprehend injury to the cause 
of ,scripture    truth1 by the study of 
this science1 and we only wish it were  
more generally and thoroughly           
investigated by sound minds4 ,it    is  
imperative on all theologians1 and those
 designing to    become such1 to make   

this a branch1 of study1 and thus to be 
prepared to defend the truth when it is 
assayed1 as it has    been by men of    
science4 ,the truth has nothing to fear1
 but    every thing to gain even from   
scientific    investigation4--,observer4
   ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co4 ,,have ,,just  
,,published1  ,a ,,new ,,and ,,enlarged 
,,edition ,,of  ,,dr4 ,,ure',s          
,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1               
,,manufactures ,,and ,,mines4           
,containing a clear exposition of their 
,principles and ,practice4 ,illustrated 
with over #afjj ,wood ,engravings4      
,complete in two large #hvo4 volumes of 
over #bjjj pages4 ,price #e #jj4  ,,new 
,,and ,,useful ,,works4  ,,just         
,,published ,,by  ,d4 ,,appleton        
,,company  ,a new and much enlarged     
edition of  ,,dr4 ,,ure',s  ,,dictionary
 ,,of ,,arts1 ,,manufactures ,,and      
,,mines4     ,containing a clear        
,exposition of their principles and     
practice4 ,illustrated with nearly      
#a1fjj engravings4 ,complete    in two  

large #hvo4 volumes2 counts over #b1jjj 
pages4 ,price    #e4jj4     ,this new   
edition is nearly a quarter of a century
 in advance    of any previous one4     
,it contains one third more matter than 
the latest previous    one4     ,the    
statistics1 inventions1 and             
improvements1 are all brought    down to
 the present time4     ,the results of  
the ,london ,exhibition on the          
respective    subjects of which the     
,dictionary treats1 are presented with  
great fulness and accurracy4     ,the   
numerous errors in the typography of the
 ,london edition    have been corrected 
in this4   ,,sir ,,charles ,,lyell',s   
,,principles ,,of ,,geology2     ,or1   
the ,modern ,changes of the ,earth and  
its ,inhabitants1    considered as      
illustrative of ,geology4 ,a new and    
much enlarged    edition4 ,illustrated  
with maps1 plates1 and wood-cuts4 #a    
vol4    #hvo41 of #hej pages4 ,price    
#b4be4   ,,sir ,,charles ,,lyell',s     
,,manual ,,of ,,elementary ,,geology2   

,or1 the ,ancient ,changes of the ,earth
 and its ,inhabitants1 as    illustrated
 by ,geological ,monuments4 ,a new and  
greatly    enlarged edition4            
,illustrated with #ejj wood-cuts4 #a    
vol4 #hvo4    ,price #a4ge4     999999  
,the author of these works1 stands in   
the very front rank of    scientific    
men1 and his works upon the science to  
which he has    devoted his great powers
 and his indefatigable study1 are the   
standard books upon these subjects4     
,,appleton',s  ,,modern ,,atlas ,,of    
,,the ,,earth4     ,with an             
,alphabetical ,index of the ,latitudes  
and ,longitudes of    #ah1jjj places4   
,thirty-four beautifully engraved and   
colored    maps1 with ,temperature      
,scales4 #dto4 size1 bound in #a vol41  
royal #hvo4 ,price #c4ej4     ,this is  
the only complete portable ,modern      
,atlas yet published4    ,the maps are  
engraved on steel1 and executed with    
great    clearness1 distinctness and    
accuracy4 ,the delineations of          

mountainous districts1 the sources of   
rivers and boundary    lines1 have been 
made with great care4 ,it is designed   
for the    table of the ,student and the
 office of the ,professional ,man    and
 is issued in a very finished and       
elegant style1 and    embraces extensive
 details of all the important parts of  
the    ,earth4