file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,this ,plain ,text version has been prepared using the ,,ascii character set only4 ,italic typeface is indicated by underscore4 ,bold typeface1 which is used in the advertisements only1 is indicated by equals4 ,the oe ligature is indicated by the use of square brackets3 oe4 ,the symbol for pound ,sterling 7currency7 is indicated by ,l4 ,where changes have been made to the text 7of typographical errors etc47 these are listed at the end of the book4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,photo1 ,reid1 ,wishaw4 ,,breeding ,,sows ,,of ,,the ,,large ,,and ,,middle ,,white ,,breeds4 ,the ,middle ,white ,sow in the forefront 7the property of the ,author7 was one of the best ever bred1 ,holywell ,countess ,victoria4 ,,the ,,pig ,,the ,,pig ,,breeding1 ,,rearing1 ,,and ,,marketing ,,by ,,sanders ,,spencer ,london ,c4 ,arthur ,pearson ,ltd4 ,henrietta ,street #aiai ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,introduction #ac ,i4 ,,non-,,pedigree ,,pigs #ai ,,ii4 ,,pure ,,breeds 7with ,standard ,descriptions and ,scales of ,points7 #bf ,,iii4 ,,cross-,,bred ,,pigs #ci ,,iv4 ,,dentition ,,and ,,age ,,of ,,pigs #di ,v4 ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,boar #ed ,,vi4 ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,sow #fc ,,vii4 ,,the ,,sow',s ,,udder #fg ,,viii4 ,,mating ,,the ,,young ,,sow #gb ,,ix4 ,,the ,,farrowing ,,sow #gi ,x4 ,,weaning ,,pigs #ia ,,xi4 ,,the ,,rearing ,,of ,,young ,,pigs #ig ,,xii4 ,,housing ,,of ,,pigs #ajg ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,exhibition ,,of ,,pigs #aac ,,xiv4 ,,present ,,and ,,future ,,pig-,,keeping #abe ,,xv4 ,,pig-,,fattening #aca ,,xvi4 ,a ,,pig ,,calendar #adh ,,xvii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,pig #aeg ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,curing ,,of ,,pork #aga ,,index #ahb ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,breeding ,,sows ,,of ,,the ,,large ,,and ,,middle ,,white ,,breeds ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,,large ,,black ,,boar1 ,,drayton ,,king #af ,,pair ,,of ,l4,c4,c4 ,,gilts1 ,,exhibited ,,at ,,smithfield ,,show #aiad #ag ,a ,,berkshire ,,sow #cb ,,large ,,black ,,sow1 ,,sudbourne ,,sadie #cc ,,three ,,middle ,,white ,,breeding ,,sows #dh ,a ,,middle ,,white ,,boar #di ,,tamworth ,,boar3 ,,bishop ,,of ,,webton #fd ,,gloucester ,,old ,,spot ,,sow #fe ,,large ,,white ,,boar #hj ,,tamworth ,,sow1 ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,fairies #ha ,,middle ,,white ,,sow #if ,,cumberland ,,sow #ig ,,large ,,white ,,sow1 ,,worsley ,,sunbeam #aab ,,large ,,white ,,ulster ,,boar #aac ,,introduction ,there are few points in the breeding of stock on which a greater variation of opinion has been confidently expressed than on the origin of the domesticated pig4 ,it has been contended that our various types had a common origin in the wild hog1 and that the difference in form1 colour1 and character amongst the local breeds is due1 in the main1 to the requirements1 imaginary or real1 of the interested residents in the particular districts4 ,on the other hand1 it is asserted with equal confidence1 and probably with the same amount of actual proof1 that it would be impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection as to render it the equal of the domesticated hog4 ,there must1 therefore1 have been an infusion of blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even that amount of success which was noticeable in the improved pig of a century1 or less1 ago4 ,unfortunately1 for this argument1 it has not been possible to obtain any information of value as to the alleged source of origin of this cultivated breed of pigs4 ,again1 those pigs which possess in a marked degree early maturity1 fine quality of flesh1 and those other characteristics of the improved pig1 are so various in colour1 that one cultivated breed only could not have been utilised in the general improvement4 ,all the ancient writers on pigs appear to have experienced the same difficulty when endeavouring to discover the sources of origin of the material which might have been used in the production of the pig which in their time was looked upon as the domesticated and improved pig of the period4 ,this difficulty extends even to the present day4 ,so far as is known there exists no actual proof that the domesticated hog has been evolved in any particular way other than by continued selection of those animals for breeding purposes which possessed in the greatest degree those particular qualities held in the highest estimation at the time4 ,of course1 the soil1 climate1 etc41 of the district in which pigs are reared have a certain amount of influence1 but this is noticeable to a much lesser extent with pigs than with horses1 cattle1 or sheep1 since under the present system of pig-breeding the greater portion of the food used in the different districts is of a very similar character--indeed1 much of it has a common origin--having been imported from abroad4 ,as a rule1 comparatively speaking very little difference is noticeable in the development1 form1 and character of pigs bred in the various parts of the country1 whereas with some of the other domesticated animals a very considerable change follows the removal of sheep of a pure breed from one district to another4 ,the quality and quantity of the wool1 flesh1 and bone are all affected4 ,an exactly similar effect is noticeable when horses of a particular breed are moved from one district to another4 ,for instance1 a ,shire foal bred in the ,fens may possess the characteristic bone1 flesh1 and hair1 yet if it be moved into portions of the ,eastern counties where the soil is of a totally different character1 it will when matured have lost1 to a very considerable extent1 its peculiar characteristics of bone and hair4 ,the changes wrought may be due in small measure to climate1 but the predominant cause must be due to the variation in the food grown on soils of a different character4 ,this question of the original cause or causes of the varying colour of the pigs in different localities appears to be equally difficult of solution4 ,as to the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one colour1 custom and even prejudice have a great effect4 ,so strong is this prejudice that some persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is superior to that from pigs of any other colour4 ,as this weakness is common in districts where black and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted that prejudice alone must be the foundation of the belief4 ,probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with respect to the variation in colour of the pigs noticeable in certain districts is that in the long ago the native pig in the wild state was of the colour of the soil and the herbage in which it sheltered1 and was thus less conspicuous to its enemies1 whether human or animal4 ,a marked instance of this is to be found in the colour of the common or original pig found in some parts of the country where the soil is of a decidedly red colour4 ,in the district referred to one actually hears some farms spoken of as red land farms4 ,what more natural than to find in the districts in which land of this hue predominates that the pigs should be a red rusty hue such as was the original colour of that breed of pigs now called the ,tamworth breed4 ,some persons1 who do not agree with this theory of the origin of the various coloured pigs1 cite as a proof of their belief the fact that in so many districts the pigs are of a mixed colour1 and that this peculiar marking is equally as general in localities as is any particular or special colour in the pigs4 ,this is perfectly true1 and it is probably due to exactly the same causes1 fancy1 prejudice1 or custom4 ,the residents in certain districts have grown accustomed to certain things or certain forms1 and are loth to change2 the manufacturer of any article must humour the actual or fancied requirements of his customers if he is to secure success2 and in a similar manner the breeder of pigs has to consider and to produce pigs of the form1 size1 and colour which are most in demand4 ,further if1 as confidently alleged1 there is a preference in some districts for pork from pigs of a certain colour1 then the butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of that colour which most fully satisfy the fancies of his customers1 and thus we find a similarity of form and colour in the pigs of various districts4 ,as to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs1 the explanation offered is that even in pre-railway times there was a certain amount of interchange of the different local breeds of stock4 ,this would be affected in various ways1 which need not be specified4 ,at the present time we have several defined and distinct breeds of pigs which have secured recognition at our principal agricultural shows4 ,indeed it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock which have become so general in all parts of the country have been one of the chief factors in fixing to a certain extent the type and character of certain local breeds4 ,within the memory of the present writer the classification of pigs at our principal shows was of a very simple character2 it consisted of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of any other colour4 ,there was no attempt at any definition as to size1 form1 and quality of the pigs4 ,these points were left entirely to the judges1 who naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which they bred4 ,there was thus a greater amount of uncertainty as to the success of an exhibitor's stock than at the present time4 ,this uncertainty--save as to the members of the ,show ,committees or their friends--was increased by the unfair system of withholding from the knowledge of the average exhibitor the names of those selected to judge4 ,the necessity of some definition1 if only of colour1 quickly became obvious4 ,at first classes were established for pigs of certain colours2 then the prizes were offered for pigs of certain breeds1 which were more or less loosely defined4 ,now at the chief shows the pigs exhibited in the various classes must be qualified for entry in the herd books of the particular breeds4 ,at the ,royal ,agricultural ,shows there have been classes for pigs of the ,large ,white1 ,middle ,white1 ,berkshire1 ,tamworth1 ,large ,black and ,lincolnshire ,curly ,coated breeds2 whilst for the next show classes for pigs of the so-called ,gloucestershire ,old ,spots breed are to be included4 ,as showing the changes which are in progress it may be noted that two breeds of pigs which had classes provided for them at the ,royal and some other ,shows have become extinct4 ,these were the ,small ,white and the ,small ,black breeds--the sole cause of their disappearance being the unsuitability of the pigs of the breeds to supply the present requirements of the consumer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,sport and ,general4 ,,large ,,black ,,boar1 ,,drayton ,,king4 ,owner1 ,terah ,f4 ,hooley4 #ast ,prize1 ,somerset ,county ,agricultural ,show1 #aiac4 ,to face page #af4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,block kindly supplied by ,e4 ,f4 ,casswell1 ,manor ,house1 ,graby1 ,folkingham4 ,,pair ,,of ,l4,c4,c4 ,,gilts1 ,exhibited at ,,smithfield ,,show #aiad4 #ast ,prize4 ,age #h months1 #a week1 #e days4 ,weight #g cwts4 ,to face page #ag4 ,,the ,,pig ,,chapter ,i ,,non-,,pedigree ,,pigs ,although the more general use of so-called pedigree pigs has tended to modify the characteristics of the various local breeds of pigs1 yet it is possible to find a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the type of pig which has been in the past most generally found in their district4 ,this type was undoubtedly fixed by the wants or fancies of those resident in the particular portions of the country4 ,in the past it has been the practice when describing these local breeds to write as though they were confined to certain counties4 ,it may be that pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more numerous within the borders of various counties1 but this is by no means always the case4 ,the habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than the soil and climate--as with horses1 cattle and sheep--have the greatest influence on the form1 size and quality of the local pigs1 whilst use and custom appear to determine the colour of the pig4 ,we are of opinion that it will be more instructive if we give a short description of some of the more common types of these local breeds of pigs1 and mention the names of those counties in which they are more generally found4 ,amongst the most distinct of these local breeds is that which is variously termed the sheeted or saddle-backed pig1 which in the ,united ,states has a society to look after its interests1 and where it bears the name of ,,the ,,hampshire ,just why our ,american cousins should have decided to call these sheeted pigs ,hampshires is not on the surface1 since the oldest writers on pigs give to the county of ,sussex the credit of being their original home4 ,the description given by ,sidney of the ,hampshire pig is that it is a coarse and useful black pig1 inferior to the ,berkshire1 and not in the same refined class as the ,essex4 ,richardson writes ,the ,hampshire breed is not infrequently confounded with the ,berkshire2 but its body is longer and its sides flatter2 the head is long and the snout sharp4 ,the colour of the breed is usually dark spotted2 but it is sometimes black altogether1 and more frequently white4 ,the sheeted pig has also been bred in the county of ,essex for over a century1 but it is recorded that it was introduced into this county by a ,mr4 ,western who subsequently became ,lord ,western1 and whose estate was situated in ,essex4 ,in ,sidney's book ,the ,pig1 we read1 ,west ,sussex1 ,hampshire1 ,berkshire1 ,dorset1 ,shropshire and ,wales had indigenous black or red and black breeds of swine2 and between the whites1 the blacks and the reds the parti-colours were produced which have since in a great degree disappeared under the influence of prizes1 generally awarded to pure breeds of single colours4 ,sidney also states that ,youatt and all the authors who have followed him down to the latest work published on the subject1 occupy space in describing various county pigs which have long ceased to possess1 if they ever possessed1 any merit worth the attention of the breeder4 ,the ,rudgwick1 which is another name for the sheeted pig1 is included in the list4 ,richardson at a still earlier date describes the ,sussex breed as black and white in colour1 but not spotted2 that is to say1 these colours are distributed in very large patches2 one half--say1 for instance1 the fore part of the body white and the hinder end black2 or sometimes both ends black and the middle white or vice versa2 these pigs are in no way remarkable2 they seldom feed to over twenty stone4 ,they are well made1 of middle size1 and their skin covered with scanty bristles4 ,the snout tapering and firm1 the ears upright and pointed1 the jowl deep and the body compactly round4 ,they arrive at early maturity1 fatten quickly1 and the flesh is excellent4 ,richardson also writes1 ,there is another improved ,essex breed1 called the ,essex ,half-,blacks1 resembling that which ,i have described in colour1 said to be descended from the ,berkshire4 ,this breed was originally introduced by ,lord ,western1 and obtained much celebrity1 etc4 etc4 ,he then quotes from ,the ,complete ,grazier1 sixth edition1 as follows3 ,they are black and white1 short haired1 fine skinned with smaller heads and ears than the ,berkshire1 but feathered with inside hair which is a distinctive mark of both2 have short snubby noses1 very fine bone1 broad and deep in the belly1 full in the hind quarters1 but light in the bone and offal4 ,they feed remarkably fast and are of an excellent quality of meat4 ,the sows are good breeders1 and bring litters of from eight to twelve2 but they have the character of being bad nurses4 ,if this allegation were true at the time it was written1 it is not at the present time as the ,half-,blacks or sheeted sows are both prolific and first-rate mothers4 ,malden describes the ,sussex3 ,a large breed called the ,rudgwick1 was one of the largest in ,england4 ,there appears to be a doubt as to whether the coloured pig was descended from the spotted ,berkshire or the black and white ,essex4 ,they were of medium size1 of good quality generally1 but of somewhat heavy bone4 ,the generally accepted view is that the ,essex sheeted pig was descended from importations from the county of ,sussex4 ,these sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in ,essex1 but the system of crossing which is generally followed by pig breeders in the county is gradually reducing its number1 although even amongst the cross-breeds the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself4 ,at the time of writing there is a movement on foot to form a society for the purpose of reviving the breed4 ,from the utility point of view the sheeted pig has much to recommend it1 but whether or not one or more of the breeds of pigs whose pedigrees are already recorded do not possess at least equal merits must be left for decision by others4 ,,spotted ,,pigs ,in many districts are found other parti-coloured pigs1 but in these the black1 the white1 and the red colours show themselves in spots of varying size and extent4 ,probably amongst the best types of these spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of the county of ,northampton1 and portions of the counties of ,leicester and ,oxford adjoining4 ,in the former county the pigs have more of black than white in their colouring1 whilst in the two latter red spots are more often seen4 ,this is probably due to a stronger infusion of the blood of the ,staffordshire red pig which is now known as the ,tamworth4 ,the blood of the ,neapolitan pig through the ,berkshire or the ,small ,black is credited with being the origin of the darker coloured ,northamptonshire spotted pig4 ,the qualities claimed for these spotted or plum pudding pigs as they are locally termed1 are prolificacy1 quick growth1 hardihood1 and the production of pork possessing a large proportion of lean to fat meat4 ,they are also good grazers1 and grow to a size quite the equal of the ,berkshire4 ,in form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh pork trade than for the manufacture of bacon of the kind now so much in demand4 ,,the ,,large ,,white ,,and ,,blue ,,pigs ,those large1 coarse-boned pigs with hair of a white colour and skins more or less mottled with blue are gradually giving place to pigs with finer hair1 skin1 bone1 and quality of meat4 ,the coarse lop ears are being reduced in size and thickness1 whilst the pig itself is becoming less gaunt and its early maturity considerably increased by crossing with the better quality ,large ,white and the quickly maturing ,middle ,white4 ,these coarse white with blue markings pigs were common in the ,fens of ,cambridgeshire1 ,norfolk1 the ,isle of ,ely and ,lincolnshire1 and in the counties of ,bedford1 ,cheshire1 etc4 ,,white ,,pigs ,within the memory of persons now living1 white pigs of varying types were found in various parts of this country4 ,many of these white pigs found in ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,shropshire1 and ,wales had little to recommend them as they were flat sided1 long legged1 hard feeders1 and required to be comparatively old before they could be turned into pork4 ,a vast improvement has of late years been effected in these unprofitable swine by crossing them with compact and early maturing pigs of different colours1 but mainly white pigs until the last few years1 when ,large ,blacks and even a few ,gloucestershire ,old ,spots boars have been introduced in ,norfolk4 ,at one time white pigs of a small size were by no means uncommon in ,suffolk1 ,essex1 ,middlesex1 ,yorkshire1 and parts of ,berkshire1 and other counties4 ,the origin of these small1 compact1 and early maturing pigs appears to have been a cross of the imported ,chinese on the neater and shorter country pigs of a white colour4 ,for a period these handsome pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do1 but the general public objected to the pork produced by them1 owing to its excessive fatness4 ,the bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the cured carcases4 ,during the last thirty years comparatively few of these pretty1 but useless1 pigs have been bred4 ,,black ,,pigs ,the description given of the two main types of white pigs would apply equally well to the ,black pigs common in this country1 save with respect to colour4 ,the long flat-sided black pig was found in ,essex1 ,suffolk1 ,cambridgeshire1 ,sussex1 etc4 ,these pigs were noted for their prolificacy1 hardihood1 and quick growth1 whilst the sows furnished a full supply of milk to their youngsters1 but they were such slow feeders that it became necessary to cross them with pigs which matured more quickly4 ,a type of black pig similar in form to the ,small ,white was also found in ,essex and ,suffolk1 whilst in ,devonshire1 ,dorset1 and one or two other counties the colour of the pigs was blue rather than black1 and of a somewhat larger size1 but possessing the same weakness1 too large a proportion of fat to lean meat4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,pure ,,breeds ,the task of writing a description of the various breeds of swine has been rendered less difficult by the formation during the past half-century of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the pigs of the different breeds1 and by the setting up of scales of those points which pigs for entry in the particular herd books should possess4 ,the first of these societies was the ,national ,pig ,breeders ,association1 of which the present writer was the honorary secretary for two years4 ,at the time of its formation the breeds of pigs most generally recognised were the ,berkshire1 the ,large1 ,middle1 and ,small ,whites or ,yorkshires1 and the ,small ,black breed4 ,it was intended that the pedigrees of the pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be recorded by the ,association and published in one herd book4 ,there is no doubt that this would have been an ideal plan1 and would have resulted in a saving of much labour and expense1 and decidedly more convenient for those connected with the export trade4 ,for reasons into which it is not now necessary to enter1 the breeders of ,berkshires determined to have a separate herd book2 therefore1 they started a society which they named the ,british ,berkshire ,society1 to distinguish it from the ,american ,berkshire ,record4 ,subsequently the ,tamworth breed of pigs became recognised by the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 and the breeders of the red pig joined the ,national ,pig ,breeders ,association4 ,then the demand for ,small ,white and ,small ,black pigs ceased1 so that eventually the pedigrees of ,large ,white1 ,middle ,white1 and ,tamworth pigs only were registered in the ,n4,p4,a4 ,herd ,book4 ,subsequently the breeders of ,tamworth pigs formed themselves into a society presumably for propaganda work1 and to conserve the interests of breeders of ,tamworth pigs4 ,of late years other breeds of pigs have been brought to public notice1 and have had herd books1 and societies specially devoted to their particular interests4 ,the ,large ,black1 ,large ,white ,ulster1 the ,lincolnshire ,curly ,coated pigs1 the ,gloucestershire ,old ,spots1 and the ,cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded4 ,an attempt was made some years since to resuscitate the ,oxfordshire ,spotted pig1 but it was not a continued success4 ,it is quite possible that other local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to form societies to bring before the public the many good qualities possessed by the pigs of these breeds1 but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if any permanent benefit will supervene from this multiplication of herd books--save that it may increase the interest in pig breeding1 a result devoutly to be prayed for4 ,the issuing of the scales of points of those breeds of pigs whose pedigrees are recorded in the various herd books has rendered it unnecessary for us to endeavour to formulate the good qualities which are presumably those which are more or less completely possessed by these pedigreed animals1 nor does the necessity exist for us to mention those particular qualities which each breed is supposed by the admirers of other breeds to lack4 ,there is no doubt that each breed possesses certain points which render it specially suitable for differing localities and varying purposes4 ,some persons who look upon a pig solely as an animal1 as a converter of various substances into pork1 are of opinion that the tendency of those responsible for the running of these societies is towards fancy points to the detriment of the practical points4 ,there appears to have been some grounds for this view4 ,the ,small ,white1 the ,small ,black1 the ,berkshire1 and the ,large ,white have all been affected by the acts of faddists4 ,the three first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase the so-called quality until the consumers of pork refused to follow the fashion2 whilst the craze which has seriously affected the utility of the ,large ,white pigs has been exactly the opposite1 i4e4 an endeavour to so vastly increase the size that they ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of joints which the general public demanded4 ,it may be natural for fanciers to declare that a ,small ,white or a ,small ,black pig must be a small animal1 but this is only on comparison with the large breeds of the same colour and characteristics4 ,the usefulness of the pig in the commercial world must be studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the market4 ,the opposite extreme to that followed by the breeders of the small breeds is that of the breeders of ,large ,whites1 who look upon mere size as the most important of the points to be studied4 ,the mere increase in bulk1 in length of head and leg and weight of bone may appeal to the mere fancier or faddist1 but by paying undue attention to these fancy points the actual object of the breeding and fattening of pigs is lost sight of1 and the consumer who is after all the one whose wants must first receive study1 is estranged and the commercial market is lost4 ,in the following pages will be found full particulars together with the scales of points1 as issued by the various societies1 of the chief breeds and varieties4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,standard ,,of ,,excellence ,,large ,,white ,,colour4--,white1 free from black hairs1 and as free as possible from blue spots on the skin4 ,,head4--,moderately long1 face slightly dished1 snout broad1 not too much turned up1 jowl not too heavy1 wide between the ears4 ,,ears4--,long1 thin1 slightly inclined forward1 and fringed with fine hair4 ,,neck4--,long1 and proportionately full to shoulders4 ,,chest4--,wide and deep4 ,,shoulders4--,level across the top1 not too wide1 free from coarseness4 ,,legs4--,straight and well set1 level with the outside of the body with flat bone4 ,,pasterns4--,short and springy4 ,,feet4--,strong1 even1 and wide4 ,,back4--,long1 level1 and wide from neck to rump4 ,,loin4--,broad4 ,,tail4--,set high1 stout and long1 but not coarse1 with tassel of fine hair4 ,,sides4--,deep4 ,,ribs4--,well sprung4 ,,belly4--,full1 but not flabby1 with straight under line4 ,,flank4--,thick1 and well let down4 ,,quarters4--,long and wide4 ,,hams4--,broad1 full1 and deep to hocks4 ,,coat4--,long and moderately fine4 ,,action4--,firm and free4 ,,skin4--,not too thick1 quite free from wrinkles4 ,large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old1 the pig at five months often proving at a year or #ae months a much better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and vice versa2 but size and quality are most important4 ,,objections4--,black hairs1 black spots1 a curly coat1 a coarse mane1 short snout1 inbent knees1 hollowness at back of shoulders4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,middle ,,white ,,colour4--,white1 free from black hairs or blue spots on the skin4 ,,head4--,moderately short1 face dished1 snout broad and turned up1 jowl full1 wide between ears4 ,,ears4--,fairly large1 carried erect and fringed with fine hair4 ,,neck4--,medium length1 proportionately full to the shoulders4 ,,chest4--,wide and deep4 ,,shoulders4--,level across the top1 moderately wide1 free from coarseness4 ,,legs4--,straight and well set1 level with the outside of body with fine bone4 ,,pasterns4--,short and springy4 ,,feet4--,strong1 even1 and wide4 ,,back4--,long1 level1 and wide from neck to rump4 ,,loin4--,broad4 ,,tail4--,set high1 moderately long1 but not coarse1 with tassel of fine hair4 ,,sides4--,deep4 ,,ribs4--,well sprung4 ,,belly4--,full1 but not flabby1 with straight under line4 ,,flank4--,thick and well let down4 ,,quarters4--,long and wide4 ,,hams4--,broad1 full1 and deep to hocks4 ,,coat4--,long1 fine1 and silky4 ,,action4--,firm and free4 ,,skin4--,fine1 and quite free from wrinkles4 ,,objections4--,black hairs1 black or blue spots1 a coarse mane1 inbent knees1 hollowness at back of shoulders1 wrinkled skin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tamworth ,,colour4--,golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin1 free from black4 ,,head4--,fairly long1 snout moderately long and quite straight1 face slightly dished1 wide between ears4 ,,ears4--,rather large1 with fine fringe1 carried rigid and inclined slightly forward4 ,,neck4--,fairly long and muscular1 especially in boar4 ,,chest4--,wide and deep4 ,,shoulders4--,fine1 slanting1 and well set4 ,,legs4--,strong and shapely1 with plenty of bone and set well outside body4 ,,pasterns4--,strong and sloping4 ,,feet4--,strong1 and of fair size4 ,,back4--,long and straight4 ,,loin4--,strong and broad4 ,,tail4--,set on high and well tasselled4 ,,sides4--,long and deep4 ,,ribs4--,well sprung and extending well up to flank4 ,,belly4--,deep1 with straight under line4 ,,flank4--,full and well let down4 ,,quarters4--,long1 wide1 and straight from hip to tail4 ,,hams4--,broad1 and full1 well let down to hocks4 ,,coat4--,abundant1 long1 straight1 and fine4 ,,action4--,firm and free4 ,,objections4--,black hair1 very light or ginger hair1 curly coat1 coarse mane1 black spots on skin1 slouch or drooping ears1 short or turned up snout1 heavy shoulders1 wrinkled skin1 inbent knees1 hollowness at back of shoulders4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,berkshire ,,pigs ,,colour4--,black1 with white on face1 feet and tip of tail4 ,,skin4--,fine1 and free from wrinkles4 ,,hair4--,long1 fine1 and plentiful4 ,,head4--,moderately short1 face dished1 snout broad2 and wide between the eyes and ears4 ,,ears4--,fairly large1 carried erect or slightly inclined forward1 and fringed with fine hair4 ,,neck4--,medium length1 evenly set on shoulders2 jowl full and not heavy4 ,,shoulders4--,fine and well sloped backwards2 free from coarseness4 ,,back4--,long and straight1 ribs well sprung1 sides deep4 ,,hams4--,wide and deep to hocks4 ,,tail4--,set high1 and fairly large4 ,,flank4--,deep and well let down1 and making straight under line4 ,,legs ,,and ,,feet4--,short1 straight1 and strong1 set wide apart1 and hoofs nearly erect4 ,,imperfections4--,a perfectly black face1 foot1 or tail4 ,a white ear4 ,a crooked jaw4 ,white or sandy spots1 or white skin on the body4 ,a rose back4 ,a very coarse mane1 and inbent knees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,large ,,black ,,pig ,,scale ,,of ,,points ,,head4--,medium length and wide between the ears #e ,,ears4--,thin1 inclined well over the face1 and not extending beyond point of nose #d ,,jowl4--,medium size #c ,,neck4--,fairly long and muscular #c ,,chest4--,wide and deep #c ,,shoulders4--,well developed1 in line with the ribs #h ,,back4--,long and level #ae ,,ribs4--,well sprung #e ,,sides4--,very deep #h ,,loin4--,broad #e ,,belly ,,and ,,flank4--,thick and well developed #g ,,quarters4--,long1 wide1 and not drooping #h ,,hams4--,large and well filled to hocks #aj ,,tail4--,set high1 of moderate size #c ,,legs4--,short1 straight1 flat1 and strong #e ,,skin ,,and ,,coat4--,fine and soft1 with moderate quantity of straight1 silky hair #h --- #ajj ,,objections4--,head--narrow forehead or dished nose4 ,ears--thick1 coarse1 or pricked4 ,coat--curly or coarse1 with rose1 bristly mane4 ,skin--wrinkled4 ,,disqualification4--,colour--any other than black4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,large ,,white ,,ulster ,,scale ,,of ,,points ,,head4--,moderately long1 wide between the ears #e ,,ears4--,long1 thin1 and inclined well over the face #f ,,jowl4--,light #e ,,neck4--,fairly long and muscular #b ,,chest4--,wide and deep #c ,,shoulders4--,not coarse1 oblique1 narrow plate #h ,,legs4--,short1 straight1 and well set1 level with the outside of the body1 with flat bone1 not coarse #e ,,pasterns4--,straight #e ,,back4--,long and level 7rising a little to centre of back not objected to7 #ab ,,sides4--,very deep #aj ,,ribs4--,well sprung #e ,,loin4--,broad #c ,,quarters4--,long1 wide1 and not drooping #h ,,hams4--,large and well filled to hocks #ab ,,belly ,,and ,,flank4--,thick and well filled #e ,,tail4--,well set and not coarse #a ,,skin4--,fine and soft #aj ,,coat4--,small quantity of fine silky hair #aj --- ,total #ajj ,,objections4--,head--narrow forehead4 ,ears--thick1 coarse1 or pricked4 ,coat--coarse or curly2 bristly mane4 ,,disqualification4--,colour--any other than white4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lincolnshire ,,curly-,,coated ,,pig ,,scale ,,of ,,points ,,colour4--,white ,,face ,,and ,,neck4--,medium length and wide between the eyes and ears #e ,,ears4--,medium length1 and not too much over face #aj ,,jowl4--,heavy #c ,,chest4--,wide and deep #c ,,shoulders4--,wide #ae ,,back4--,long and level #aj ,,sides4--,very deep1 and ribs well sprung #aj ,,loin4--,broad #e ,,quarters4--,long1 wide1 and not drooping #e ,,hams4--,large and well filled to hocks #ae ,,tail4--,set high and thick #c ,,legs4--,short and straight #e ,,belly ,,and ,,flank4--,thick and well filled #c ,,coat4--,fair quantity of curly or wavy hair #h --- #ajj ,,objections4--,head--narrow forehead4 ,ears--,thin4 ,,disqualifications4--,ears--pricked4 ,nose--dished or long4 ,coat--coarse1 straight1 or bristly4 ,colour of hair--any other than white4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,gloucestershire ,,old ,,spots ,,head4--,medium length and wide between the ears1 nose wide and medium length1 slightly dished4 ,,ears4--,rather long and drooping4 ,,jowl4--,medium size4 ,,neck4--,fairly long and muscular4 ,,chest4--,wide and deep4 ,,shoulders4--,well developed but not projecting and in line with ribs1 must not show any coarseness4 ,,back4--,long and level4 ,,ribs4--,deep1 well sprung4 ,,loin4--,very broad4 ,,sides4--,very deep and presenting straight bottom line4 ,,belly ,,and ,,flank4--,full and thick4 ,,quarters4--,long1 wide1 and not drooping4 ,,tail4--,set high1 of moderate size1 yet fairly strong and long and carrying brush4 ,,hams4--,large1 not too flat1 and well filled to the hocks4 ,,legs4--,short1 straight and strong4 ,,skin ,,and ,,coat4--,skin light or dark1 must not show coloured splotches otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat4 ,the latter should be full and fairly thick1 hair long and silky but not curly1 with an absence of mane bristles4 ,colour3 white spots on black ground1 or black spots on white ground4 ,such spots to be of medium size4 ,,teats4--,minimum number of teats to be considered4 ,,objections4--,head--narrow1 face and nose both dished4 ,ears--thick1 floppy1 coarse1 or elevated4 ,coat--,coarse or curly with rose2 bristly mane1 or decidedly sandy colour2 skewbald or saddleback markings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cumberland ,,pig ,,head4--,fairly short1 wide snout1 dished face1 wide between ears4 ,,ears4--,falling forward over face1 long and thin4 ,,jowl4--,heavy4 ,,neck4--,fairly long and muscular4 ,,chest4--,deep and wide4 ,,shoulders4--,deep and sloping into the back1 blades not prominent1 but in line with ribs1 not too wide on top4 ,,back4--,long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail4 ,,ribs4--,deep and well sprung4 ,,loins4--,broad and strong4 ,,sides4--,deep4 ,,belly ,,and ,,flank4--,full and thick4 ,,quarters4--,long and level or with only very slight droop4 ,,tail4--,set high1 not coarse4 ,,hams4--,very large and well filled to hocks4 ,,legs4--,short1 straight1 and strong4 ,,colour4--,white4 ,,skin ,,and ,,coat4--,smooth2 hair straight1 fine1 and silky and not too much of it4 ,,size4--,large without coarseness4 ,,disqualifications4--,black spots1 black hair1 prick ears4 ,,objections4--,blue spots4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,from a ,painting by ,wippell4 ,a ,,berkshire ,,sow4 ,to face page #cb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,sport and ,general4 ,,large ,,black ,,sow1 ,,sudbourne ,,sadie4 ,owner1 ,k4 ,m4 ,clark4 #ast ,prize and ,champion1 ,r4 ,a4 ,show1 ,norwich4 ,to face page #cc4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,cross-,,bred ,,pigs ,this term has a varying meaning to different persons4 ,there are those who term a pig a cross-bred unless it be bred from parents of recorded pedigree1 or those which possess pedigrees capable of registration4 ,others claim that a cross-bred is any pig which is bred indiscriminately from boar and sow of no particular type or breeding--in fact common pigs of the country2 whilst still others declare that the title of cross-bred can be legitimately applied only to a pig whose parents were of two different pure breeds in contradistinction to a pig sired by a pure bred boar1 and from a common sow1 or the diverse way4 ,it is not for us to determine the knotty point1 but we may venture the opinion that the two first definitions of a cross-bred are not convincing to us1 since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary to have a sire1 or a dam1 or both of defined breeds4 ,probably the most correct definition of a cross-bred animal is one bred from the mating of sire and dam of two distinct breeds1 but the term is now loosely applied to an animal begotten by a sire or from a dam of pedigree breeding1 the other parent being of no particular breed4 ,this system of breeding has become somewhat common owing to the comparatively small outlay required in the purchase of a boar as compared with the purchase of both boar and sows1 and also to the belief which is general that a greater improvement in the produce is noticeable when the boar is pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular breed1 than if the sows are pure bred and the boar a common bred one4 ,in addition to this there is the important point that the pure bred boar should be able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas the pure bred sow will not produce more than two litters annually1 so that the advantage obtainable from the outlay on one pure bred boar is twenty-five times as great as is possible from the purchase of a pure bred sow4 ,there is also another advantage to the owner of a boar who has only a limited number of sows1 he can allow his neighbours to make use of his boar on payment of a liberal service fee1 which combined will partially pay for the prime cost of the boar4 ,a considerable number of pig breeders are influenced in the purchase of a pure bred boar rather than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows are neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are common bred sows4 ,this belief was even more common in years gone by than it is at the present time1 and it must be candidly confessed that there existed substantial grounds for it4 ,some fifty years since it became fashionable1 particularly amongst those who had suddenly become rich by trade or in other ways1 to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural shows4 ,they may have been animated by the laudable desire of endeavouring to assist farmers and stock breeders generally1 or a desire to gain a place in the sun may have had some slight influence4 ,as the majority of these exhibitors of stock had no special knowledge of stock1 they were compelled to place themselves entirely in the hands of their managers and stockman1 who generally received by arrangement a certain percentage of the prize money won by the stock4 ,it was then only natural that they gave far more attention to the show points of the animals in their charge than to the breeding qualities4 ,the supply of pedigree animals was also very limited at about the period mentioned so that it was much more difficult to avoid too close breeding1 nor was there the same care taken in the private record of the pedigrees of the animals bred4 ,these various causes combined led to a loss of vitality amongst the so-called pedigree stock1 and this weakening of the constitution showed itself in a reduction in the number of the offspring and in the power of the dam to furnish its young with a full supply of well-balanced milk4 ,there is little doubt that in the third quarter of the past century a considerable proportion of the pedigree sows were not so prolific as they ought to have been1 nor did they produce and rear thoroughly well so many pigs at each litter as the common sow of the country was capable of doing4 ,a more general study of stock breeding has tended to compel attention to the practical apart from the show points of pedigree pigs1 but probably the strongest influence has been the formation of the various breed societies1 and the registration of the produce including the number1 sex1 and sire of the pigs4 ,these entries most clearly showed those breeders of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility points of their pigs1 especially those particular points in which pedigree pigs were generally believed to be deficient4 ,the succeeding records of sows of the same families afforded the best possible confirmation of the belief which was becoming general that prolificacy like many other qualities was most certainly hereditary4 ,this recorded proof that pure bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily slow breeders1 helped vastly to increase the demand for pedigree animals for crossing purposes in the breeding of commercial stock4 ,the enormous benefit which has resulted from the use of pedigree sires is most clearly proved in the ,irish live stock4 ,the so-called premium bulls and boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with the sanction of the ,live ,stock ,commissioners and placed at the service of the general public at a somewhat reduced fee1 the ,government paying to the owner an annual premium of some ,l#ae for each bull1 and a certain sum for each boar4 ,it is alleged that the original improvement in the ordinary pig stock of those parts of ,ireland where pig-keeping on a considerable scale is followed1 was due to the purchase in ,england of numbers of ,large ,white boars1 as after experiments carried out in ,denmark1 these boars were found to effect the greatest improvement in the common country pigs and to render them far more suitable for conversion into the kind of bacon which was in most general demand1 and of course realised the highest price4 ,for the beginning of the vast improvement in the ,irish pig which has followed the importation of these ,large ,white boars1 the ,irish bacon curers must receive the credit1 as they joined together in the purchase of these boars which were distributed in those districts from which the various factories drew their supplies of fat pigs4 ,a similar plan was adopted by ,messrs4 ,harris of ,calne who purchased some hundreds of boars of the ,large ,white breed1 and at first lent them on certain conditions to pig breeders1 but later on resold the young boars by auction for whatever they would fetch1 their object being to secure the use of these boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers4 ,there may or may not be any grounds for the belief that the sire has a greater influence in the external form of the joint produce than does the dam1 but this belief has also had its influence in determining breeders of cross breds to use the pure bred sire on the ordinary stock of the country1 rather than the reverse way4 ,there is no doubt that apart from the improvement in the general quality of the produce of the pure bred sire there results a general uniformity of the young stock1 which is a great recommendation when they are placed on the market either as stores1 or when fattened for the butcher or bacon curer4 ,this uniformity of type and character in the young stock would be more noticeable still if the buyers of the pure bred sires were to continue their purchases from the same herds1 providing that the owners of them were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous breeding4 ,so many people appear to be content with the knowledge that the sire which they are purchasing has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred sire eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed1 but they forget that it is possible in the crossing of two pedigree animals of a similar breed to obtain as great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances4 ,uniformity in a herd1 stud1 or flock can only be rendered comparatively certain by the continued use of sires of similar breeding4 ,in making a compound1 its character is determined by the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture4 ,so it is in the breeding of stock1 those points which are most predominant in proportion in the blood of the sire and dam will1 on the average1 be represented in an equal degree in the joint produce4 ,this it is which renders so impressive a sire which is descended from closely bred parents4 ,each of its forbears has handed down a proportion of its own particular characteristics so that the larger the number of animals amongst its forbears which possessed these particular points the greater the certainty of their being possessed by the produce4 ,the meaning of this may be made more clear by pointing out that the result of the mixing together of various mixtures will depend entirely on the proportion of the substances used in the manufacture or compounding of those mixtures4 ,in each animal is embodied the characteristics of its forbears4 ,there exists generally an opinion that the produce of two parents of distinct breeds1 or as it is termed a first cross is commonly superior to a pure bred of either of the two breeds represented by the parents4 ,it is difficult to discover the cause of this1 if it be a fact4 ,if one of the parents were deficient in stamina the produce might conceivably be more robust1 and it might also occasionally happen that the mixture of the qualities or properties possessed by the parents would result in improvement1 as happens when a distinct new breed is originated2 but as a rule the good and the bad qualities of the produce from the mating of two animals of diverse breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities possessed by the parents4 ,the mere mixing of the blood of two animals differently bred cannot increase the good or bad properties1 but the combination might possibly result in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand4 ,another claim commonly made for the crossing of animals is that the risk of that delicacy of constitution which they assert is far too common amongst pure bred animals1 and is due to close breeding1 is hereby avoided4 ,it must be admitted that in times past there was a certain amount of cause for this complaint of want of constitution amongst pedigree animals1 but the cause has been considerably if not entirely removed by the more careful recording of the breeding1 and by the more drastic screening out of any animals suspected of delicacy of constitution4 ,the buyers of pure bred animals for crossing purposes have also become more careful in their selection4 ,they have ceased to imagine that because the owner of certain animals most of which he has purchased is successful in winning prizes at the chief agricultural shows1 the whole of the animals in his stud1 herd1 or flock must be of equal excellence or at all events sufficiently good for the production of profitable commercial stock4 ,action on this mistaken belief has led to much disappointment in the past1 since the home bred animals may have been of totally different blood from those which have won prizes1 and further they may not be inbred for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to render them prepotent enough to impress their good qualities on their produce4 ,amongst the objections made to cross-breeding is the heavy cost of replacing the breeding stock1 as to obtain a first cross1 a succession of sires and dams must be purchased4 ,many persons meet this difficulty by merely buying sires of a breed similar to the first used1 but then the produce ceases to be cross-breds and become grades until such time as by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar breed the produce become eligible for entry in the herd book of the sires which have been continuously used4 ,this system of breeding insures a greater uniformity in the produce providing that the sires selected are of similar breeding1 type1 and character1 than even by the system of crossing sire and dam of two pure breeds4 ,the risk attending too close breeding as in the breeding of pure breds is also avoided provided that the herd from which the sires are bought is sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood1 yet of similar breeding4 ,no one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary farm stock of the country will for one moment deny that there is still vast room for improvement in our live stock1 and particularly in our pigs1 and it is equally the fact that our ,government has not shown a readiness equal to that of some foreign ,governments1 and even of the authorities in some of our colonies to assist farmers in obtaining the use of improved sires4 ,take ,canada as an instance4 ,for years the ,dominion ,live ,stock ,branch has been purchasing and delivering free into districts needing them1 male animals for the use of farmers and stock owners free1 save stallions1 for which a covering fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance of the stallion4 ,the other important condition which relates to all the sires provided by the authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be paid by the ,local ,association which has the management of the sire and the arrangement of its services4 ,another noticeable point is that all the sires allocated to the various districts are ,canadian bred1 and so far as is possible are purchased in the province in which they are to be located4 ,the object is undoubtedly to encourage in ,canada the breeding of pure bred animals and may thus far be considered satisfactory1 but it is acting on an assumption which may not be justified that there exists in the ,dominion a sufficiency of stock equal in quality and breeding to those which it may be possible to import4 ,within the past three or four years our ,board of ,agriculture have taken some steps to assist our farmers to improve their stock4 ,the assistance has taken the form of offering premiums of fixed amounts to private persons or associations who hired or purchased approved stallions1 bulls1 and boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service of the stock of the public4 ,already great benefit has been derived from the use of the stallions and bulls1 and this to a far greater extent than in the pigs1 as owing to an unfortunate condition which was attempted to be enforced as to the formation of pig clubs and impracticable conditions the number of boars located in the country has been much smaller than would have been had the conditions at present in force been adopted at the initiation of the scheme4 ,the boar conditions are now of a similar character to those in force from the first with regard to stallions and bulls4 ,in addition to the supply of male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt has been made to assist in the recording of the milk yield of cows1 a matter of the highest importance4 ,if only this could be extended to sows there would soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint of the owners of sows of certain breeds of pedigree pigs1 as to the limited quantity of milk which is provided by the sows for their litters of pigs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,francis ,davis1 ,needingworth4 ,,three ,,middle ,,white ,,breeding ,,sows4 ,the ,property of the ,author4 ,also portion of #ag ,sties at ,holywell ,manor1 near ,st4 ,ives4 ,to face page #dh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,sport and ,general4 ,a ,,middle ,,white ,,boar4 ,from the ,author's ,pig ,farm4 ,to face page #di4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,dentition ,,and ,,age ,,of ,,pigs ,although the majority of pig sellers may claim to be1 and may be able to substantiate the claim to be1 equally as honest as the majority of others in trade1 yet there may be a small minority who are apt to attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they really are4 ,it is most annoying when you are anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven months old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened1 to have pigs of four or five months old which continue to make growth instead of flesh1 so that they are not ready for killing until two or three months after they are required for conversion into bacon4 ,although the object of the ,council of the ,smithfield ,club is to prevent fraud of a different character1 i4e4 the exhibition in classes limited to certain ages of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry form1 yet the following table showing the normal state of the dentition of pigs at certain fixed ages will enable purchasers to discover whether or not the seller has attempted to deceive him4 ,it may at once be admitted that there will be a limited number of cases in which the state of dentition of pigs is abnormal1 but after examining the teeth of some thousands of pigs during the past sixty years1 we have no hesitation in asserting that more than half1 at least1 of the variations from the normal are allayed dentition4 ,it is claimed that a man of experience is quite able to arrive at the approximate age of a pig by its development and appearance2 some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge more or less fully developed1 but this examination of the state of dentition is of the greatest possible assistance in arriving at the actual age of the pig1 particularly desirable as it is in case of a difference of opinion between buyer and seller4 ,the following are the conditions of the state of dentition to which all pigs have to conform ere they are allowed to compete for the prizes offered by the ,smithfield ,club at their annual shows3-- ,pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as exceeding six months4 ,pigs having their permanent tusks more than half up will be considered as exceeding nine months4 ,pigs having their central permanent incisors up1 and any of the first three permanent molars cut1 will be considered as exceeding twelve months4 ,pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed1 and the permanents appearing will be considered as exceeding fifteen months4 ,pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be considered as exceeding eighteen months4 ,as the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by amateurs are young pigs it may be advisable to state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old should have its two central incisors fully grown4 ,a pig three months old should have all four temporary incisors cut1 the two outside ones being more than half as long as the two central incisors4 ,as the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a child are merely temporary1 and as these give place at fairly definite ages of the owner to permanent ones1 it may be well to endeavour to describe as clearly as possible the position and appearance of the temporaries as compared with the permanents4 ,the pig is one of the few animals which is possessed of teeth at its birth2 these number eight1 two on each side of the upper and lower jaw4 ,it has been suggested that these early teeth are provided to assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when in the act of sucking4 ,these eight teeth vary somewhat in length2 those pigs which are carried by the sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently have longer and even sharper teeth than those of pigs which are born at the usual time4 ,these longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark colour4 ,this is doubtless the origin of the remark commonly made by old-fashioned pigmen that pigs born with black teeth never do well4 ,this might have been so prior to the discovery that the breaking off the sharp teeth of the newly born pigs frequently saved trouble1 and often the life of the little pigs4 ,pigs whose teeth are discoloured at birth are usually more robust rather than the reverse1 since the sow carrying them beyond the allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of health1 and her pigs consequently more fully developed4 ,when the pig is about a month old1 the two central incisors are cut in each jaw1 these are two of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig at a subsequent age4 ,two temporary molars are also cut on each side of the jaw above and below1 with the first temporary molar in each place ready to come through the gum4 ,at two months the temporary central incisors are fully developed1 and the two lateral temporary incisors can be seen in the gums1 if they are not already through4 ,all three temporary molars are now about level4 ,when the pig is about three months old its temporary teeth are all in position1 the temporary lateral incisors are through1 and nearly as long as the temporary central incisors4 ,owing to the lengthening of the jaws the two temporary corner teeth which were present at birth will have become further apart4 ,when the pig is about five months1 the fourth molar in either jaw shows itself in the gums1 then at six months the wolf teeth show between the tusks and the premolars1 and the fourth molar is nearly level with the first premolar4 ,the corner incisors and the tusks usually disappear1 and are replaced by permanents when the pig is nine months old4 ,the second permanent molar also shows itself4 ,at twelve months the two central temporary incisors give place to the permanents2 these last are more square in form than the temporaries1 and are thus easily distinguished4 ,the three temporary molars will also be ready for displacement by three permanents4 ,these last will be level with the other permanent molars when the pig is fifteen months4 ,the two lateral incisors will also have given place to permanents4 ,at eighteen months the third permanent molars will be coming through1 and at the age of twenty months the pig's teeth are fully developed4 ,,chapter ,v ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,boar ,the hackneyed saying ,the sire is half the herd appears to have a different meaning to varying persons4 ,to some it conveys the idea that the selection of the sire is of far more importance than the selection of the dam because the influence of the sire is so much more powerful than that of the dam on at least the external form and character of the produce4 ,the late ,mr4 ,james ,howard1 who took a particularly keen interest in the breeding of pigs1 used to declare that the appearance and form of the young pigs far more generally followed those of the sire than of the dam2 whilst the influence of the latter was more shown in the character and constitution of their joint produce2 or in other words1 that the boar stamped his character to a greater extent on the external points of the young1 whilst the sow more strongly influenced the internal parts of the youngsters4 ,it is quite possible that this idea has gained ground to a large extent from the fact that the use of a pure bred sire on ordinary or grade females has been very much more common than the crossing of pure bred females by the ordinary or non-pedigree sire2 as also from the far greater numbers of young which each pure bred sire would improve1 than would be improved by each pure bred female which might be crossed4 ,if only for this reason alone1 we would always recommend buyers who are desirous of grading up and improving their farm stock to attempt to do this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved sire4 ,the original outlay is infinitely less1 whilst the immediate results are comparatively longer4 ,it is scarcely desirable to go further into the question as to the comparative influence on the young of the sire and the dam since our actual knowledge of the subject is by no means large4 ,indeed1 it is at the least doubtful1 if by the closest observation any definite opinion on the subject is possible1 so great is the difference which varying parents have on the chief characteristics of their joint progeny1 and even in the separate specimens which they have procreated4 ,of course1 it is quite possible to breed animals especially well developed or endowed with certain qualities1 providing that the parents have been for generations selected because of their possession in a marked degree of those particular qualities sought4 ,it is in this power of prepotency that one of the chief benefits from the use of a pure bred sire or dam arises4 ,by the term pure bred is not meant merely that the names of a certain number of the forbears of the animal shall have been recorded in the register of the breed1 but that the animal shall for a certain number of generations have been bred on similar lines so that it shall possess a considerable amount of concentrated blood4 ,this is a point to which sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers of so-called pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary bred or graded stock4 ,the far too common practice is to purchase each boar required from a totally different herd1 or from one of quite dissimilar breeding1 with the result that there is not the slightest uniformity in the appearance or character of the herd1 or of the mature animals when ready for market4 ,it is far too frequently forgotten that the chief value of a record of the pedigree is that by it one can trace the breeding of the animal's progenitors1 and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of the probable produce--providing it is possible to learn the chief characteristics of the progenitors4 ,failing this1 the only course open is to note the names of the breeders of the more recent parents1 as from this a certain amount of information as to the probable qualities of the parents may be obtained or surmised4 ,another point on which at least a diversity of opinion exists1 is the wisdom of giving so much consideration to the fact that the herd from which the sire is purchased shall have been recently successful in the show yard1 or in extreme cases1 that the sire itself shall have been a prize winner4 ,it is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded in winning one or more prizes is a proof that it possesses in a marked degree those qualities which are most highly prized4 ,this may be conceded1 yet there is no certainty that the mating of this winning sire even with dams that have also been prize winners shall result in the production of young the equal of the parents1 since the winners at the various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding4 ,but the case would be quite different if the winning sire and dam came from the same old established herd in which the animals had been bred for generations on similar lines4 ,it is this concentration of certain qualities in generation after generation which renders the pedigree animal so intensely prepotent1 particularly when mated with animals of an ordinary character or not possessing concentrated breeding4 ,indeed1 it may be safely assumed that the power of a parent to impress its own individuality and qualities on its produce1 depends to a very large extent1 if not entirely1 on the comparative hereditary extent of those qualities in comparison with the other qualities possessed by itself1 or by the animal with which it may have been mated4 ,in other words1 it is contended that the sire or the dam has not the power to impress certain of its characteristics on its young1 merely because of its sex1 but that this power depends on the proportion in the sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who possessed in a marked degree certain qualities4 ,it is with the breeding of animals as with the manufacture of a compound article4 ,the character and quality of that compound will vary according to the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture4 ,it is to this law or fact that the marked impressiveness of certain strains of blood is attributable4 ,again1 the marked and long continued success of the blood of the animals bred by a few of our most successful breeders of live stock is in the main due to the fact that the owners set up a standard and persistently selected and bred together only animals possessing to a greater or lesser extent the particular qualities which together comprised that standard4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that in carrying out their system they were often compelled to mate animals related in blood the one to the other1 but in this there is little risk providing that all those animals which show the slightest symptom of delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted out4 ,it will be inferred from the above remarks that we hold to the belief that the breeding of the boar should receive attention as well as the following points in its form and character4 ,one of the most important of these points is good temper4 ,this is a quality not usually attributed to the pig in its wild state1 and consequently not natural to the domesticated pig1 yet on the possession of it depends to a very great extent the thrift and well doing of the produce of the boar4 ,the produce of an irritable boar are almost certain to inherit this quality which is fatal to profitable fatting4 ,in sows this weakness is still more unfortunate1 as a bad tempered sow is almost invariably an indifferent mother4 ,the rigid avoidance of this failing of bad temper in a boar is advisable not only because this quality is almost invariably hereditary1 but a savage boar is a continual source of danger to man and beast4 ,it may be said that little trouble is likely if the boar is kept in confinement1 but there are times1 such as when sows are placed with him1 when a certain amount of liberty must be given to him1 and it is generally on such occasions of excitement when the bad temper is the most in evidence4 ,the mere fact that irritability and nervousness are natural to the pig should make us the more careful to avoid any increase in the failing by using a boar which is the least inclined to be bad tempered4 ,many persons hold that in the selection of a boar one of the principal points is size4 ,they contend that size1 in pigs especially1 is imperative if a profitable return is to be made4 ,this view may have arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of method and observation which is characteristic of so many stock owners4 ,the one point which to them is of the greatest importance is the selling price of the fat or store animal sold being fully up to the average4 ,little or no thought is given to the value of the food eaten by each animal4 ,if it had been1 very frequently it would have been found that the smaller animal of a lot had actually given the best return for the food it had consumed4 ,it is not the size alone of the animal which determines its value as the producer of meat1 but more than anything it is the feeding qualities of the animal fattened4 ,in addition to this there never was a time when the consumer more strongly demanded small joints of meat1 and these of the best quality and with as little bone as possible4 ,apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as it is invariably awkward when serving--it can be used only for large and strong sows1 and its average period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that of a medium sized and compact boar4 ,a large boar generally possesses an undue proportion of bone1 its shoulders are heavy1 and its ankles round1 and feet large and spreading4 ,now these are all objections4 ,the bone of a boar should be solid1 not porous2 the ankles compact and the feet small1 and the pasterns short4 ,the head should be wide so that the brain can be well developed1 the head inclined to be short rather than long1 since an animal with an extremely long head is certain to be deficient in natural flesh4 ,on the question of the size and hang of the ears a variety of opinion exists2 pigs with long ears1 and pigs with short ears are found possessing good carcases4 ,it is the quality of the ear rather than its size and hang which seems to indicate the character most4 ,a pig with a thin and firm ear is usually of fine quality1 whereas a pig which has a thick1 coarse ear is generally coarse in bone1 skin1 flesh1 and hair4 ,the neck of the boar should be muscular as indicating constitution and natural vigour2 the shoulders fine and obliquely laid1 the ribs well sprung1 the loin wide1 the quarters long and square1 not drooping1 the hams full and extending quite down to the hocks1 and without any of that loose skin which is far too common amongst the largest of our breeds of pigs1 and which is a sure sign of coarseness4 ,the flank should be thick and well let down1 as this indicates constitution and lean meat1 the legs should be fairly short and set well apart so that the heart1 lungs1 and other organs have plenty of room to perform their share of the work of the pig4 ,the skin should be fine and the hair straight and silky1 as well as plenty of it4 ,sparsity of hair is generally an indication of shortage of lean meat1 whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far too frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness of meat4 ,with regard to the reproductive parts of the boar there are one or two points which should receive special attention4 ,a boar with excessively small testicles should be avoided1 as such a one is often barren4 ,again1 a boar with one testicle of normal size and the other smaller1 ordinarily suffers from the same disqualification to a lesser extent4 ,a ruptured boar should not on any account be used1 as this weakness is strongly hereditary4 ,the weakness may not possibly show itself in the first generation1 but it is certain to appear sooner or later4 ,not only is it a sure index of weakness of constitution1 but pigs so affected occasionally die suddenly1 whilst there is always a certain amount of risk from the operation of castration4 ,occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a litter will be found to be malformed1 in that only one of the testicles is apparent4 ,generally speaking1 the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached to the inside of the pig1 and thus is unable to descend into the scrotum or purse1 so that the act of castration is only partially performed4 ,a boar pig with only one testicle down is commonly termed a rig4 ,the removal of one of the testicles does not deprive the rig of reproducing its species1 and it is thus a source of continual trouble when herded with a lot of sow pigs now that the general custom is to allow the female pigs of a litter to remain unspayed4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to fatten a rig either alone1 or with male pigs which have been operated upon4 ,in addition to this extra trouble1 the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept fattening after it is some five or six months old is almost certain to be strong in flavour1 like unto that of a boar4 ,it is1 therefore1 advisable to fatten a rig quite early in life and convert it into a porket or porker carcase of pork4 ,it may appear strange to some readers to specially mention the teats of the boar1 but it is equally as necessary to avoid boars having small teats1 teats unevenly placed1 and commencing any distance from the fore legs1 and blind teats1 as it is in the case of the sow1 since any weaknesses of the kind are equally as hereditary from the boar as from the sow4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,sow ,it is impossible to agree with the view held by so many persons that the necessity for the same care is non-existent in the selection of a sow as in the choice of a boar4 ,we hold that the desirability for studying the forbears1 especially the dam1 of a young sow intended for breeding purposes is fully as great as when selecting the young boar1 since many1 if not most1 of the qualities which we desire the brood sow to possess are strongly hereditary4 ,take1 for instance1 the question of gentleness or a quiet disposition1 it follows from dam to produce with a regularity equal to that of bad temper1 and the latter is wellnigh a certainty4 ,again1 whoever found that the female produce of a sow deficient in the maternal instincts proved1 if saved for breeding purposes1 to be a really good mother8 ,as a rule the daughters of a sow which gives but a small quantity of milk1 and that of an inferior quality1 are also cursed with the same grievous failings1 but this does not appear to be universally the case1 since the milking qualities of the dam descend through her sons1 so that if the female progenitors of the boar have been good milkers it is probable that the boar's daughters may be able to rear their pigs successfully1 even if their dam had not been in the habit of suckling her pigs well4 ,still1 it is quite safe to assert that with this one exception we may fairly anticipate that the good qualities which we seek in a sow are far more likely to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the possessor1 than from one which does not possess them4 ,we are inclined to the belief that the alleged failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood sows is in the main due to the continued selection for breeding purposes of those pure-bred yelts which show early maturing and flesh-forming qualities1 rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably to be found in a sow which is prolific1 a free milker1 and a really good mother4 ,there is a marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving and a fat-producing sow--the latter is generally somewhat heavy in the shoulders1 has a muscular or fat neck1 is rather short in the head and heavy in the jowl1 and is altogether more compactly built1 whereas a good brood sow has rather a long face1 is wide between the eyes1 has a light muscular neck1 is fine in the shoulders1 possesses long and square quarters and appears to be heavier in the hind than in the forequarters4 ,she is somewhat more loosely built and often shows less of quality4 ,thickness of flank and length of side are desirable1 the first as indicating substance and flesh1 whilst the second gives plenty of room for her pigs to suck4 ,the bone should be of good quality2 the same remarks apply to the skin and hair4 ,about half a century since there existed a fancy1 which almost amounted to a craze for sows of small size2 they could not be too neat1 and showing too much so-called feminine character4 ,the almost certain result of selecting the neatest of the female pigs followed1 the fat pigs sent to market were light in weight1 deficient in lean meat and rightly named animated bladders of lard4 ,within about the same distance of time it was the common practice of exhibitors of pigs at the ,smithfield ,club's ,shows to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of wood on which the fat pigs rested their heads so that these were raised in order to prevent the pigs becoming suffocated4 ,in addition1 the pigs were fed on forcing foods until they were at least one and a half year old and allowed to take1 or were given little exercise1 with the result that the pork consisted mainly of soft fat or lard4 ,to such an extent had this craze for neatness been followed that the bacon curers and consumers of pork wellnigh ceased to purchase or consume pork4 ,at the present time we are afraid that the tendency is in the opposite direction1 and mere size is receiving far too much attention4 ,at some of our agricultural shows the judges select for honour great unwieldly sows which could not possibly perform with any amount of success those maternal duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept solely to perform4 ,an extremely large sow is very frequently a poor milker1 the quantity of milk she gives is not large1 nor does she continue to give even this reduced supply for a period long enough to allow her young to grow strong enough to make a good start in life on their own account4 ,another great objection to a sow of extreme size is that her produce almost invariably take after her to such an extent that it is difficult1 if not wellnigh impossible1 to make them fat until they are from nine to twelve months old1 and by that time they are too large and heavy for the general demand which is at the present time1 and likely to become still more so in the future1 for small joints of meat which carry a large proportion of lean and a limited quantity of bone4 ,the most successful manufacturer is he who most nearly supplies the consumer with that which he requires or fancies4 ,we are not moved by the contention of breeders of pedigree pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which possesses in the greatest degree those special points which are characteristic of the breed1 as1 for instance1 size in the pigs of the ,large ,white1 the ,large ,black1 and the ,lincolnshire ,curly ,coated pigs1 therefore the biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem4 ,in our opinion the best1 as it is in the long run the most profitable1 is the pig which furnishes to the greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the most general demand4 ,in addition to these objections to an extremely large and ungainly sow is the fact that such an one is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen1 she is almost certain to lay on some of her pigs4 ,it is even alleged that her period of usefulness as a breeder is shorter than that of a sow of ordinary size4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,sport and ,general4 ,,tamworth ,,boar3 ,,bishop ,,of ,,webton4 ,owner1 ,c4 ,l4 ,coxon4 #ast and ,champion1 ,royal ,show4 ,to face page #fd 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,g4 ,h4 ,parsons1 ,rostrevor4 ,,gloucester ,,old ,,spot ,,sow4 ,from the herd of ,lord ,sherbourne4 ,to face page #fe4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,sow',s ,,udder ,one of the most important points in connection with the reproduction of the species of our various domestic animals is the provision of a full supply of milk for the young in the early portion of their existence4 ,nature herself has set us a good example in a duplicated source of milk supply even amongst animals which usually produce only one animal at a birth4 ,if this duplication be necessary under such conditions1 it must be imperative on us to select those sow pigs which are intended for breeding pigs which possess a well-formed udder1 having a full supply of teats1 and these of good shape and properly placed on the belly of the sow4 ,not only is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner1 but it is held that the number of teats possessed by a sow indicates to a remarkable extent the probable degree of prolificacy of the sow4 ,one can readily understand that nature would not be likely to endow a sow with the power to produce a larger number of young at each birth than she would be able to rear4 ,of course it may be said that the sow of the present day is not as nature first made her1 in that1 by selection and by feeding1 the number of pigs produced at each birth is now so much larger than the litters of the wild sows1 which have some seven or eight teats and farrow at each litter a similar number of pigs4 ,on the other hand1 neither the number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in the domesticated sow1 or the sow in a wild state1 so that by continued selection we are able to permanently increase1 within limits1 the production of larger litters and the increased supply of milk for their sustenance when young4 ,the provision of a suitable udder is even of more importance with the domesticated than with the sow running wild1 since the latter produces each year one litter only1 and that in the season of the year when the young are less dependent on their dams2 whereas the domesticated sow is expected to rear at least two litters per year1 and frequently owing to want of care on the part of the owner the young pigs are farrowed at the most unfavourable time of the year4 ,apart from the provision of a certain number of teats there is another point to be considered1 the power of the sow to produce milk enough to satisfy the given number of pigs4 ,this of course varies with each family or tribe of pigs1 and even with the various members in it1 so that to obtain the best results selection must be made of the produce of those sows which give the largest quantity of the most nutritious milk4 ,there exists amongst pig keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of pigs each sow should be allowed to rear1 probably the average of this number would be ten for a mature sow1 and seven or eight for a first litter4 ,if so1 the selected sow pig should possess twelve teats1 as frequently one of these may not give a full supply of milk from either natural or accidental causes4 ,the teats should be regular in size and form4 ,it is not uncommon to find one or more of the teats of a sow much smaller in size than the others4 ,these smaller teats will produce a reduced quantity of milk1 so that the pigling which is unfortunate enough to decide on making this small teat its very own--and each pigling is confined by the others to its own special teat--is certain to be less well developed than its brothers and sisters1 even if it should succeed in surviving4 ,the necessity for the teats being placed equidistant the one from the other arises from the desirability of each pig having room to suck comfortably4 ,should two of the teats be closely placed the two pigs will probably fight1 when not only will sores be caused on the cheeks of the pigs1 but the milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually cease to flow4 ,another point of great importance is that the teats should commence as near as possible to the fore legs--this for two reasons3 it gives more room for the pigs to suck as they grow larger2 the other and more important one is that the teats most forward on the udder of the sow produce the larger quantity of milk1 or milk of a better quality4 ,it will be almost invariably found that the pigs sucking the foremost teats thrive the best4 ,it is advisable to avoid the selection of a female pig for breeding purposes from a sow which has large and coarse teats1 as these invariably accompany coarseness of skin1 bone1 hair1 and flesh1 this in turn affects the sale value of the carcase4 ,it will also be found that those sows with a neat and compact udder1 with fine teats1 will give more milk and a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and flabby udder4 ,another weakness to be avoided when selecting a sow pig for breeding purposes is that which is commonly termed a blind teat1 since it is undoubtedly hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose of rearing pigs4 ,the normal teat projects boldly from the udder1 whereas the blind teat is almost flat or on a level with the udder4 ,in appearance it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed nipple in its centre4 ,at the time of parturition the blind teat contains milk to the same extent as do the other teats1 but it promptly dries up since it is impossible for the little pigs to extract the milk from it since the nipple recedes as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it with its lips and tongue1 instead of becoming more extended so that the little pig can suck the milk from it4 ,an ideal udder can be briefly described as one possessing at least twelve fully developed teats1 the more the better--these should commence from a point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible1 and be placed as nearly as possible an equal distance the one from the other4 ,some persons hold that large teats and much loose skin are sure indications that the sow has proved to be a good milker4 ,this is a mistaken view2 it is with sows as with cows1 the most prolific milkers are those with well formed and soft udders which almost disappear when the lactation period has passed4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,mating ,,the ,,young ,,sow ,as in most other details in the management of our domesticated animals there exists a variety of opinion as to the age at which the young sow1 or1 as it is commonly locally termed1 a gilt1 yelt1 yilt1 hilt1 elt1 etc41 should be mated with the boar4 ,perhaps the most important point to consider is the time of the year when the anticipated pigs should arrive4 ,if possible the period between the middle of the month of ,september and the middle of ,december should be avoided4 ,the long nights and the short and dull days generally experienced during this period are most unsuitable for young pigs4 ,many litters of pigs farrowed in ,october are not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month of ,march as those farrowed during the early portion of ,january in the following year1 and very frequently the loss amongst the ,october and ,november farrowed pigs from lameness1 or1 as it is commonly termed1 cramp1 is very large4 ,an attempt should be made so that the two litters which should be bred each year from the sow arrive so that they are weaned during the longer and brighter days of the year2 thus a sow which farrows in the beginning of ,february may be expected to farrow again in ,july4 ,the weather is sometimes rather cold for little pigs early in the year1 but it is surprising how little they are affected by it providing the sow furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is dry and plentiful4 ,the pigs farrowed in the months of ,january and ,february are generally the most profitable1 as they will be ready for the consumption of the separated milk1 butter milk1 whey1 etc41 which is generally abundant in the month of ,may in districts where dairying and cheese making are followed4 ,these pigs are also ready for turning out to grass in ,april or ,may1 or as soon as the weather is suitable1 and the grass has grown sufficiently4 ,these young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly providing that some additional food is fed to them and shelter provided4 ,this natural system of pig raising is of great benefit to those pigs which are intended for breeding purposes and was consistently followed by the writer from the year #ahfc4 ,it was by no means a new plan even at that period1 although strange claims have recently been made that the system is a novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one or two enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in pig breeding4 ,in the middle of the last century it was quite a common practice in parts of the counties of ,cambridge1 ,essex1 and ,suffolk to graze the seeds which comprised clovers1 trefoils1 etc41 with pigs which received in addition extra food1 such as peas or beans in accordance with the amount of vegetable food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs were required2 those intended for pork receiving the larger supply4 ,although it may not be possible to allow the young boar pigs to have their liberty after they become five months old1 yet the sow pigs will grow and develop far better in the field if properly fed than they will in an inclosed sty2 further1 the young pigs which they produce will be much more lusty than if the sows had been kept in close confinement4 ,although the sow pig will generally come in heat when she is about six months old1 it is advisable that she should not be mated until she is some eight months old1 so that her first litter of pigs is not farrowed until she is about a year old1 when she should be quite strong enough to rear a fair litter of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully natured specimen of its breed4 ,in some districts where the breeding pigs are generally kept in confinement and high keeping is followed the sow pigs are mated with the boar at an earlier age1 but the system has its disadvantages which more than outweigh the saving of the extra few weeks of the keep of the yelt ere she is put to the boar4 ,this early mating is especially harmful if the number of the pigs in the first litter should be large4 ,so few pig keepers have the hardihood to knock a certain portion of the too numerous litter on the head1 and so reduce the number to say seven or eight1 which most young sows should be able to rear fairly well and without any undue drain on the sow's system--but the whole of the large litter are left on the sow1 which becomes very much reduced in condition1 and checked in growth1 whilst the too large litter of pigs are badly reared and frequently become a source of trouble and annoyance to the owner4 ,on the other hand1 there are many practical pig keepers who make it a rule to delay the mating of their young sows beyond the eight months' age4 ,they contend that a sow pig at eight months is not sufficiently matured to bear the strain of producing a litter of pigs when she is about one year old1 and then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of milk to give them a good start in life4 ,the plan which they adopt is to mate the sow when she is about a year old so that she is some sixteen months old before her family troubles commence4 ,another very curious reason has been recently made public by an enthusiastic novice for delaying the mating of the yelt until she is at least a year old4 ,it is the following1 that it is quite possible to ensure that the produce of young sows which have reached the age of sixteen or seventeen months ere they farrow their first litter shall possess the desired characteristics of the breed1 whereas this is by no means certain if the young pigs arrive before the sow has reached that age or is about a year old4 ,unfortunately1 we have see no attempt made to account for this alleged curious variation in the qualities inherited from a parent of about one year old and the parent which had arrived at the more matured age of about sixteen months1 so that it is impossible to discover a solution of the strange problem4 ,therefore1 we should be unable to admit the correctness of the assertion even though it was not directly in opposition to our belief which is founded on experience of a most extensive character extending over some sixty years4 ,to aver that the power of a young sow to impress its hereditary characteristics on its young are only fully developed by deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or five months1 or until the sow is sixteen instead of twelve months old when she farrows must surely cause surprise1 if not1 disbelief4 ,perhaps the object of the propounder of the theory was to create a discussion--it could not have been to bring his name prominently before the public4 ,another advantage in mating the young sow so that her first litter appears when she is about a year old1 her daughters will in turn farrow during the most suitable months of the year1 providing of course that she herself had been farrowed in early spring or about the month of ,july4 ,when the sow pig which is intended to be kept for breeding has been farrowed in some other part of the year1 it is advisable to defer beyond the eight months the mating of her so that she farrows at the best times1 or perhaps even better than that1 if the pigs are not intended for breeding purposes1 would it be to have the sow mated when she is about eight months old1 and then allow the pigs to remain on the sow a few weeks beyond the usual period of eight weeks so that the pigs are taken off the sow three or four days before it is desired to have her again mated with the boar4 ,the risk of the sow returning to the boar will be minimised1 as a sow which has been baulked is sometimes difficult to settle4 ,in addition1 the sow will be stronger and more vigorous and likely to produce a strong litter of pigs1 whilst the piglings will scarcely miss their mother's milk when they are weaned from her4 ,those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding the boar from the young sow until she is about a year old aver that early mating results in the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding at a much younger age than if she be not mated until she is well matured4 ,this is not in accordance with the writer's experience1 as many of his sows which farrowed their first litter when they were about a year old continued to breed regularly until they were six or seven years old--indeed1 one ,middle ,white1 ,holywell ,victoria ,countess farrowed her last litter when she was in her eleventh year4 ,this sow also disproved the confident assertion that the showing of sows renders them comparatively useless for breeding purposes1 since she not only continued to rear her pigs well1 but she produced a number of most successful prize winning boars and sows1 and also won many prizes herself from the age of five months to five years4 ,the principal cause of premature old age amongst sows is not due to their being first mated when they are eight months old1 but to the want of care in the management and feeding of the sow during her pregnancy and whilst she is suckling her litter of pigs4 ,to a sow with a good constitution the act of breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only the most important act of nature which cannot be harmful to her1 providing that she received that amount of proper food and attention which nature required4 ,there may be very occasional instances of harm being done to the breeding sow by over feeding1 or rather by injudicious feeding1 but in comparison there are hundreds of instances where under feeding and neglect are the cause of trouble and loss4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,farrowing ,,sow ,the pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about sixteen weeks4 ,the variations are neither great nor numerous1 when they do occur it is usually with sows with their first litters or aged sows which sometimes farrow ere the full time has expired1 or with robust sows in good condition which occasionally carry their young beyond the one hundred and twelve days which may be taken as the average period4 ,we assume that each owner of a breeding sow keeps a record of the date of service of the sow in order that the necessary preparation of the sty1 etc41 can be made in readiness for the arrival of the expected litter4 ,even when this wise precaution is neglected nature gives a sufficient warning to the observant owner4 ,apart from the increasing size of the body1 the udder gradually becomes more prominent1 and each pap becomes more defined1 the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness1 whilst in the vast majority of cases milk appears in the udder some twelve hours before the arrival of the pigs4 ,the teats shine and become more prominent1 the presence of milk is easily ascertained by gently pressing the teat between the finger and thumb4 ,another certain indication of the early arrival of a family is the act of the sow carrying straw about in her mouth wherewith to make her farrowing bed4 ,one of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing sow arises from the sow not having been allowed to take sufficient exercise4 ,of course1 the best of all systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at all seasons of the year save when she is within about a fortnight of her time1 and when she is rearing a litter of pigs4 ,even if there be no grass field or paddock in which she is able to pick up a good portion of her living1 or a roadside where she can get a few blades of grass1 an open yard is infinitely better than the confinement of a sty1 as apart from the reduction in the cost of keep1 the sow will produce stronger pigs1 and have a decidedly easier time of farrowing4 ,in the case of a sow showing a disinclination to take a sufficiency of exercise either owing to laziness1 to high condition1 or heaviness of body1 it is advisable to exercise her by walking her about quietly for a short time each morning and evening before and after the heat of the day has become excessive1 or has passed off4 ,there is a difference of opinion amongst pig breeders as to the desirability or the reverse of having someone in attendance on the sow during the time she is farrowing4 ,those who object to this procedure do so on the ground that the presence of a man simply tends to irritate the sow1 and to frequently cause her to become restless1 with the result that the little pigs are trodden upon or become laid upon and killed4 ,this view is generally held by those who are not particularly fond of animals1 as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between pig and owner which consists of rubbing the head of the pig1 or scratching its side1 when in response to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its side like ,oliver and asks for more4 ,the trouble if any1 which arises from the owner or pig man being in the sty with the farrowing sow almost invariably arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling between the two4 ,sows1 and indeed wellnigh all animals1 pine for sympathy and company1 and no animal more so than a pig4 ,still there are very occasional instances where the young sow becomes very excitable as she commences to farrow even when she and her owner or attendant have previously been on the best of terms4 ,but there the cause is not the presence of a human being1 but the arrival of one of her own little pigs4 ,so long as the pigling remains quiet there is peace1 but as soon as the youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially if in the endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak1 the young sow will jump up from her nest and endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth1 when unless prevented the sow quickly squeezes all life out of the pig2 and in some cases when the pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of the piglet1 and the sow tastes blood1 she will proceed to eat the dead pig4 ,when affairs have arrived at this sad state1 the chances of the remaining pigs having a pleasant reception into the world are comparatively slight4 ,when there exists a good understanding between the sow and attendant1 as there invariably is when the latter is not rough and unkind1 as only bad tempered men can be1 the trouble in a case such as just referred to is greatly reduced1 as the attendant runs no risk in entering the sty and in removing the little pigs as they arrive1 and placing them in a hamper or box partially filled with straw until such time as the sow has completed her farrowing1 when the pigs can be placed against the sow's udder1 and providing they do not bite her1 all will settle down in peace and comfort4 ,in order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is advisable when the pigs are apart from the sow to break off with a pair of pliers the four little teeth with which the pigs are endowed prior to their birth4 ,care being taken to remove the pigs beyond the hearing of the sow each little pig in turn is tucked under the left arm1 the mouth is opened by the left hand1 and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers1 or even a slight turn of the wrist given1 when necessary1 and the brittle teeth are crushed4 ,as soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected this should be removed4 ,a little slop food should be fed to the sow1 and whilst she is eating it1 the wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a little short and dry straw just enough to render the nest comfortable for the little pigs4 ,the nest should be disturbed as little as possible1 as should the whole of it be removed and fresh straw given1 the sow will probably spend a considerable time in remaking the nest1 and in the meantime the little pigs will be in danger from a chill1 or in being mixed up in the straw and being laid upon4 ,the risk from delay in the sow laying down and suckling her pigs is much greater in cold weather1 as not only will they become chilled1 but they will persist in crowding round the sow and so run the greater risk of being trodden upon1 or rolled up in the bedding in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable nest4 ,some persons strongly recommend the giving of a strong dose of medicine to the sow after she has farrowed4 ,in ordinary cases this is not necessary1 the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and natural operation4 ,in those occasional instances where manual assistance has to be given to the sow owing to the unusual size of the pig1 or wrong presentation1 or even of a pig which has been dead for a day or two and has begun to decompose and consequently to increase in bulk1 it is advisable to give medicine to the sow1 since there is every probability of some amount of inflammation due to the insertion of the hand4 ,as the sow's bowels are likely to be somewhat constipated it is always advisable to exercise her for a few minutes during the morning after she has farrowed4 ,in most cases the exercise will at once cause her to relieve her bowels and her bladder1 when she can be returned to her sty4 ,we found sharps1 or the finest portion of miller's offals 7which usually go by varying names in different parts of the country71 the most suitable food for newly farrowed sows1 and until the pigs were at least four weeks old4 ,some persons recommend that a portion of the food should consist of bran1 this on two grounds--the first that its use tends to prevent constipation1 and secondly on account of the food analysis which it gives4 ,our experience has been that when sharps are fed to the sow no trouble should arise from constipation1 whilst as to the nutriment which bran contains the claim may be good1 but the pig is unable to extract it2 so large a proportion of the bran passes through the pig in an undigested condition4 ,as a rule the pig1 unlike the horse1 cow1 or sheep1 does not masticate its food1 nor does it1 like the two last named1 chew its cud1 but it usually bolts its food1 and thus casts a greater labour on its digestive organs which have neither the time nor power to extract the whole of the nutriment from the bran4 ,in addition to this1 bran tends to too great looseness of the bowels1 which in the case of young pigs tends to become diarrhoea4 ,there is a tendency on the part of some pigmen who are over anxious to succeed to feed the sow too large a quantity of food during the first ten days or so after she has farrowed4 ,during this period the demand on the sow is really not much greater than it was during the last two or three weeks of carrying the pigs4 ,as the pigs grow older an increased supply of food is necessary1 but for a week or two after the arrival of the pigs twice feeding of the sow should suffice unless she is very low in condition1 or a very large litter of pigs is left on her4 ,in such cases it may be advisable to feed her three times per day just as much as she will promptly clear up4 ,it is a great mistake to give so much food at one time that a portion is left over in the trough1 particularly is this so when the pigs are over three weeks old1 as nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs of the youngsters as sour food4 ,if in ordinary cases feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in1 the same quantity of food given should simply be distributed over the three feedings1 as an excess of food is only less a mistake than underfeeding4 ,three of the most common troubles with young pigs are diarrhoea1 fits1 and loss of the tail4 ,there is a belief amongst many old pigmen that every litter of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of diarrhoea ere it is weaned4 ,they look upon it as a fatality which is certain to eventuate1 no matter what steps may be taken4 ,of course1 this is folly4 ,the liability of little pigs to an attack of what is commonly called scouring is great as the causes are several1 amongst them the greatest is perhaps a chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected2 insufficient1 unsuitable1 or damp bedding2 neglect of proper sanitation1 or the frequent cleaning out of the sty2 and most frequently of all from injudicious feeding of the sow4 ,in fact1 anything which affects the health of the young pig to any great extent appears to result in indigestion1 which causes constipation1 and this in turn nature endeavours to remove by a special effort which softens the faeces somewhat4 ,on removal of the cause of the constipation1 the bowels perform their duty normally1 but if this be not removed the result is diarrhoea1 which again if continued for any length of time often becomes dysentery1 when the fever is acute2 the pigling neglects its mother's teat1 and instead sucks up any moisture however foul which it can find in the sty4 ,this is almost invariably a precursor of death4 ,from the above it will be gathered that prevention is better than cure4 ,in case of an attack1 the first thing is to discover the cause1 and the second is to remove it1 when1 generally speaking1 the trouble ceases4 ,as a help to this end1 depriving the sow of one meal is recommended4 ,coal1 cinders1 or even earth will be readily eaten by the young pigs and prove of benefit4 ,medicine is not often required if the steps recommended are promptly taken4 ,in our earlier days hog's madder was the common medicine used with pigs for most ailments1 but of late years sulphur appears to have taken its place4 ,it is less violent than castor oil1 which is apt to cause constipation of the bowels after its first effect has passed off4 ,the soreness of the tails1 which if not attended to generally results in the pig becoming bob-tailed1 appears most generally in damp and cold weather1 and is the result of impaired circulation of the blood4 ,the cure is simple4 ,the application of fat or oil as soon as the tail becomes red and cold1 twice per day1 and continued for two or three days will almost always result in a cure4 ,for some years we used boro-glyceride1 a compound1 we believe1 of boracic acid and glycerine1 but we are not certain that it is now procurable4 ,the third of the common troubles of the young pig is fits of an apoplectic and epileptic character4 ,as a rule the shortest1 thickest1 and fattest pigs of the litter are those which are affected4 ,this points to the chief cause1 too much food in the form of mother's milk4 ,a reduction in the quantity of the food fed to the sow will generally be effectual1 except when the pigs are old enough to eat4 ,then both the quantity and the quality of the food given to them should be reduced4 ,prompt removal of the cause is usually sufficient1 but it may be necessary to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent cases1 or when remedial measures are not promptly taken4 ,the ordinary symptoms are unmistakable1 the pig falls on its side1 struggles and gasps for breath1 then in a minute or two it rises and appears to be little the worse4 ,unless continued over a period1 fits are not usually fatal4 ,very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion of the rectum1 or as it is commonly termed shooting of the gut4 ,this is due to various causes which result in straining4 ,of these constipation and diarrhoea are the two most common4 ,as soon as the protrusion of the gut is noticeable1 the enlargement should be carefully washed1 then oiled and gently pressed back into its natural position4 ,some pigmen advise the dusting of flour on to the protruded portion before it is returned1 but there is a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation which is generally present4 ,if known the original cause of the trouble should be removed1 but in any case it is advisable not to give any solid food to the pig for two or three days after the operation4 ,still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is heir is hernia1 or rupture4 ,this is of two kinds1 umbilical and scrotum4 ,the former is the escape of a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly closed navel opening1 whilst the latter shows itself in an enlargement of the scrotum or purse due to an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal contents4 ,both of these ailments are considered to be hereditary1 but the most common and the most troublesome is the latter1 since there is always a chance of strangulation of the escaped portions1 which nearly always results in death4 ,at one time it was considered to be inadvisable to castrate the boar pigs affected1 but of late years the plan has been adopted of making only one incision in the scrotum in place of two1 and making that one as high as possible4 ,then after the operation is performed1 the aperture is sown up4 ,the pig should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to give time for the healing of the wound4 ,umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance1 the navel opening gradually closes as the pig grows stronger and the enlargement disappears4 ,it is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which has been affected1 nor to continue to use a boar which has begotten ruptured pigs1 as both failings are hereditary4 ,for a time at least1 there is certain to be a difficulty in obtaining a full supply of sharps1 even of the greatly reduced feeding value of the present quantity available4 ,it may1 therefore1 be advisable to refer to another system of feeding the suckling sow and the young pigs4 ,it is now perforce being generally adopted1 but the result is not generally considered to be equal to the old system recommended4 ,it is that of feeding pigs of the kind mentioned on vegetable food1 and a mixture of palm nut1 cocoa nut1 ground nut1 or linseed cake4 ,the proportions fed at the ,cambridge ,university ,farm are mangolds #bj lbs42 a mixture of two parts palm nut cake1 and one part cocoa nut cake1 #b lbs42 linseed cake1 #b lbs42 and ground nut cake1 #a lb4 ,the two former were fed in the morning and evening1 and the other two at midday4 ,the various cakes seem to have been fed in a dry condition1 but other pig feeders have found it beneficial to soak the cake in water for some twelve hours4 ,this view seems to have received support from the practice at ,cambridge1 which was to mix the cake with the cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake would become softened by the mangold juice4 ,almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable as mangold1 indeed more so during the period from ,october to ,april4 ,in the winter months cooked potatoes2 kohl rabi1 swedes1 parsnips1 cabbages1 artichokes1 etc41 fed raw2 and in the summer grass1 lucerne1 clover1 vetches1 rape1 or almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily eaten by the pigs4 ,even where the wasteful practice of peeling the potatoes before being cooked for the household is still followed 7and just how wasteful this old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved to be a loss of nearly one quarter of the nutriment7--it is advisable to boil the parings and then mix the whole with the pig's food4 ,it cannot be too strongly impressed on pig keepers that a certain proportion of vegetable food is most beneficial for pigs of all ages1 as not only is a saving in cost effected1 but the pigs will continue in a more healthy condition than when fed solely on meal or other concentrated food4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,large ,,white ,,boar4 ,the property of the ,author4 ,the ,winner of many ,prizes4 ,to face page #hj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,sport and ,general4 ,,tamworth ,,sow1 ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,fairies4 ,,chapter ,x ,,weaning ,,pigs ,there are few points in connection with the breeding and feeding of pigs on which there is a greater diversity of opinion and practice than on the question of the weaning of the young pigs4 ,for instance1 take the age at which it is most satisfactory to take the pigs off the sow4 ,this practice varies greatly in different districts1 and even in the same district where one would naturally suppose that the determining influences would be similar weaning at five or six weeks old4 ,one pig breeder will declare that a little pig of five or six weeks old should be and is able to support itself alone1 and will act accordingly4 ,should perchance a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the excuses made will be various4 ,the weather is at fault1 it is either too hot or too cold1 or the sharps1 etc41 on which they have been fed were not good or sweet1 that the sow's milk was not sufficiently plentiful1 or it was wanting in nutriment4 ,in fact1 any excuse will be made rather than the actual cause admitted4 ,in far too many instances the real reason for the want of thrift on the part of the young pigs taken from their mother when they are not more than five or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are not sufficiently developed as to enable them to digest enough food to nourish them properly4 ,another excuse often made for what we consider to be undue haste in weaning young pigs is the alleged desire of the owner not to waste the time of the sow4 ,he is anxious to have her served again and hasten the arrival of the next litter4 ,occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean the pigs for this purpose as the sow will come in heat and can be served by the boar1 but if she should become in pig the result will be much the same so far as the pigs are concerned1 since as soon as the sow has conceived the milk will promptly cease or become very reduced in quantity and quality4 ,on the other hand1 if the sow does not stand to the boar time may be wasted4 ,it is most unlikely that the sow will again become in heat for some three weeks1 whereas this almost always occurs within a few days of the weaning of the litter of pigs4 ,then another extreme1 and one which is practised by some pig breeders1 is to allow the young pigs to remain on the sow until the former are from ten to twelve weeks old4 ,it is claimed for this practice that the young pigs grow much faster when left on the sow than when weaned1 and that less food is consumed for a live weight increase from a given quantity of food4 ,also1 it is said that food of more inferior kind can be fed to the sow than could be fed to the pigs if they were weaned1 and thus the sow and litter are kept at less expense1 and that if the pigs are not weaned until nearly three months1 the milk of the sow will have gradually ceased to flow1 and the pigs will not miss the help from their dam4 ,their digestive organs will then have become sufficiently developed to enable them to make the best use of the food given to them1 and they will sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are weaned4 ,in this question of weaning pigs the good old fashioned plan of following the middle course will probably be found to be the best4 ,anyway1 it was the one which we followed for a great number of years and found the results generally satisfactory for the following among other reasons4 ,as a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or yelts for breeding purposes1 we were naturally anxious to give the pigs a good start in life so that we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible1 and that they should thrive when they came into the possession of their new owners1 and thus prove the best possible advertisement of our herds4 ,as a rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain on the sows until they were some eight weeks old they were quite strong enough to fend for themselves1 that by gradually increasing the length of time which the sow was allowed to remain from the pigs1 the latter became accustomed to exist without the mother's milk1 and as the milk of the sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially ceased to withdraw it1 no trouble was experienced with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly the case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow which is in full milk4 ,there is also another advantage apart from that to the sow and pigs1 it is that the sow will almost invariably come in heat within three or four days of the weaning1 and with the best possible chance of becoming in pig4 ,some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their litter of pigs at an early age1 and then if the sow be low in condition to baulk her at the first time of oestrum4 ,there are objections to this--one of them is that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the sow to conceive after she has been baulked4 ,why this should be so we have not been able to ascertain4 ,we only record what we know to be a fact4 ,in our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest points in favour of the practice of allowing the young pigs of a sow with her first litter1 or of an old sow which has become low in condition 7either from having had too many pigs left on her1 or from other natural cause71 to remain on the sow for a longer period than about eight weeks4 ,some persons will keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three months old in the belief that both sow and pigs are benefited1 and that the pigs can be kept quite as cheaply if not more so when unweaned than weaned4 ,they also claim that the sow is so much stronger and better fitted to prepare for another litter4 ,experiments have been carried out in the ,united ,states which go far to prove that the first of these two claims is founded on fact2 and it has further been demonstrated that certain foods can be fed to the sow without affecting the thrift and health of the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the latter direct1 yet when fed through the sow the pigs will thrive on the milk produced therefrom4 ,it is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for the sow during the extra two or three weeks1 and the benefit to the sow and her pigs4 ,one occasionally sees in the press a claim for what is considered to be a great achievement in that some one has bred three litters of pigs from one sow within the year4 ,there really is something wonderful in this since of the fifty-two weeks constituting a year1 the sow would be carrying her pigs some forty-eight weeks4 ,this would allow only four weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled1 and this would also include the few days between the pigs being weaned and the sow coming in heat4 ,apart from the natural difficulty of successfully breeding three litters of pigs from one sow within twelve months1 there exists a far greater possibility of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying on the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow1 especially of the profitable kind of sow4 ,some forty years since when ,small ,whites1 ,small ,blacks1 and short thick ,berkshires were fashionable1 the number of pigs in each litter was few1 and the number reared still fewer1 owing to the limited quantity of milk furnished by the sow4 ,now1 the ,large ,black1 the ,large ,white1 the ,middle ,white1 the ,lincolnshire ,curly ,coat1 the old ,gloucester ,spots1 the ,tamworth1 the ,cumberland1 and even the sows of most of the local breeds of pigs are expected to rear nine or ten pigs each litter4 ,even if it were possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within the year1 she could not possibly do justice to them either before or after the piglings arrived in this world2 and further1 the life of such a sow would of necessity be a short one4 ,it must not be forgotten that in the production of each litter of pigs the sow is compelled to manufacture from #bj to #cj lbs4 of flesh1 skin1 hair1 etc41 which together constitute the newly farrowed pig1 and very frequently this has to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of suitable food4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,from a ,painting by ,wippell4 ,,middle ,,white ,,sow4 ,to face page #if4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,block kindly supplied by ,cumberland ,pig ,breeders' ,association1 ,carlisle4 ,,cumberland ,,sow4 ,owned by ,mr4 ,carr1 ,kirkbride1 ,carlisle4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,rearing ,,of ,,young ,,pigs ,one of the most important points in the profitable raising of stock is to give the animals a good start in their earliest days4 ,there is an old and true saying amongst shepherds that the best and most profitable sheep are those which have never lost their lamb fat4 ,it may with equal truth be declared that the most profitable pig is the one which has a good start when on its mother1 and never afterwards lacks suitable food1 judiciously given4 ,at frequent intervals1 the question as to the number of pigs which a sow should have left on her to rear is the subject of discussion in the press4 ,at each of these periods very similar arguments for and against large litters are used with much the same inconclusive results4 ,this probably arises to a great extent from the varying conditions under which the particular litter of pigs is to be reared4 ,the time of year has a vast influence1 a sow farrowing in ,may will more successfully rear a dozen pigs than she would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the month of ,october4 ,the age and condition of the sow should also be considered4 ,a young sow of about twelve months should not have more than seven or eight pigs left on her to rear1 whereas with her succeeding litters until she is at least four years old she would rear at least ten pigs each litter4 ,after the sow has reached the age of about four years1 if that time has been fully employed in her maternal duties1 she becomes gradually less able to rear so large a number of pigs with an equal amount of success4 ,it is then advisable to vary the number according to the season1 and to the physical condition of the sow2 generally speaking an aged sow will bring up more pigs in the summer months than in the colder months4 ,reference is made elsewhere to the manner in which the young pigs should be cared for until they are weaned from their dam1 but no harm can arise from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs should be so managed and fed that only the very slightest difference will be noticed by the youngsters when parted from their mother4 ,many pigs are permanently checked in growth by being suddenly deprived of a full supply of mother's milk if weaned when their digestive organs are insufficiently developed as to treat a sufficiency of food to make growth and progress without the assistance received from their mother's milk4 ,opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs are sufficiently developed as to exist and thrive without their dam's help4 ,here again the time of the year1 not only as far as the weather is concerned1 but the desirability of prompt or deferred remating of the sow in order that her succeeding litters should arrive during the most favourable portions of the year1 must be considered4 ,the thrift and growth of each litter of pigs varies greatly4 ,the health of the sow1 her condition before farrowing1 and other causes1 some of which are not always on the surface1 have their influence1 but it may be taken as a rule that young pigs are fully able to fend for themselves by the time they are eight weeks old4 ,should it be possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow for so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing the next litters as to the time of year of their arrival1 the pigs may benefit1 and no loss of food will be sustained1 since it has been clearly proved that pigs beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as economically1 if not more so1 on the sow than if weaned4 ,it may also be possible to feed the sow on somewhat coarser and less expensive food than could be satisfactorily fed to the young pigs1 as her digestive organs would be better able to treat the coarser food4 ,another advantage generally follows keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the latter be well fed is that she will be in a stronger and better condition to start the building up of her next litter4 ,as a rule young pigs will commence to eat when they are from three to four weeks old4 ,if the sow is fed in the sty in which the little pigs are1 these will endeavour to share in the food2 at first they may content themselves with licking any food which may be outside the trough1 but they quickly show a desire for more1 and attempt to get into the trough4 ,when this is evident1 it is advisable to feed the little pigs apart from the sow2 a low flat trough is best1 as one with high sides is said to cause high backed pigs1 or pigs suffering from a curvature of the spine4 ,if a little milk can be obtained1 the pigs will promptly drink it1 if the milk be whole they will thrive best1 but even if only skim or separated milk be obtainable1 or butter milk1 providing that it be drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn1 a small quantity will be beneficial1 but the pigs will not be able to digest so large a quantity of the separated as of the whole milk4 ,the former is apt to have a constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters4 ,should an ample supply of separated milk be available it can be fed through the sow1 who will be better able to digest it1 and whose yield of milk will be increased1 provided that sufficient separated milk to affect her bowels be not given to her4 ,a few kernels of wheat or white peas will be readily eaten by the little pigs1 which will benefit therefrom4 ,if no other food is available1 sharps1 or whatever the local term for the finer miller's offals may be1 mixed with a little warm water and fed to the piglings1 will prove beneficial1 care being taken to give only so much as the pigs will eat up readily1 or that any surplus is taken away1 so that it does not become sour1 as in this last condition it will cause diarrhoea in the young pigs4 ,when the pigs are about six weeks old the sow can be allowed to remain from them for a longer time1 and the youngsters fed two or three times each day4 ,the sow's milk will then gradually dry up1 and the pigs will become accustomed to the food1 so that when the latter are about eight weeks old they will have become weaned naturally1 and receive no check from the loss of the sow's milk4 ,this system1 will also prevent any trouble arising from the collection of milk in the sow's udder1 and the occasional attacks of inflammation or garget which follow a chill to the sow when her udder is in an inflamed condition from being closely impacted with milk4 ,assuming that the economical and beneficial practice of supplying the suckling sow with vegetable food of some kind after the pigs are some three or four weeks old has been adopted1 the pigs will have become accustomed to its consumption4 ,it will be found to be advisable to continue this whether it has taken the form of cooked potatoes1 of mangolds1 swedes1 kohl rabi1 cabbages1 artichokes1 etc41 as not only will the food bill be reduced1 as the pigs will make equal growth and thrift on food containing say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they will if fed wholly on sharps1 but the vegetable food will have a beneficial effect on the health of the pigs1 and tend to prevent those attacks of constipation and diarrhoea which are so frequently the result of food of too rich a character4 ,of the vegetable foods1 cooked potatoes and raw artichokes are the most nourishing and the most readily eaten1 lucerne and clover in a green state come next in food value and favouritism with the pigs2 cabbages are credited with causing constipation when fed to young pigs1 whilst mangolds are said to have the opposite effect1 and in addition when grown on light land by the aid of artificial manure mangolds are apt to affect the kidneys and cause excessive urination4 ,kohl rabi are not so much used in the feeding of pigs as would be advisable4 ,they are easily grown and will take the place of swedes on land on which swedes are subject to mildew2 they are very nutritious1 and are readily eaten by both old and young pigs4 ,coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this country to anything approaching the same extent as in ,canada and the ,united ,states2 its value and results are of a very similar character to those of cabbages4 ,tares or vetches contain too large a proportion of water for young pigs1 and they also have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels4 ,the growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green state has been recommended by some writers1 but in practice we found it most unsuitable for young pigs1 and of little value for aged pigs1 owing to the small proportion of nourishment contained in it in comparison with its bulk4 ,further1 pigs both old and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by hunger4 ,it is needless to remark that no pigs1 especially young ones1 will thrive under such conditions4 ,one of the most common mistakes made by pig feeders is allowing too long a time to pass between feeding times4 ,twice or three times per day is considered to be quite frequent enough1 whereas prior to their being weaned the pigs would have had a meal wellnigh each two hours both day and night4 ,infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so hungry that they bolt their food1 and a greater quantity than is desirable1 and then suffer from indigestion4 ,it must also be remembered that the pig's capacity for storing food is very small1 especially as compared with some others of our domesticated animals4 ,four or five meals per day at least should be given to newly weaned pigs4 ,that most troublesome of ailments commonly termed cramp more generally results from injudicious feeding than from all other causes combined4 ,even when the young pigs are properly fed on suitable food there is a tendency in some little pigs to attacks of cramp4 ,one of the best preventatives and even remedies is to compel the pigs to leave their nests late in the evening or prior to the pigman retiring for the night1 as they will then relieve the bowels and bladder4 ,otherwise1 particularly in cold weather1 the pigs would remain quiescent in their nests from feeding time in the afternoon until they were fed the following morning1 or in winter a period of some fifteen or sixteen hours--far too long a time for the good health of the young pigs4 ,another point which requires attention is the provision of a dry bed4 ,pigs are naturally clean animals1 and will not as a rule foul their bed when they are in a healthy state4 ,still the straw will in winter time become damp solely from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when huddled together in their nest4 ,all damp litter should be carefully removed at least once each day4 ,the best of all materials for the bedding of pigs is wheat straw4 ,this will absorb a larger amount of moisture than any other kind of straw1 whilst the skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter colour than if bedded on oat or barley straw4 ,of these two1 the former is more suitable than the latter1 which so readily becomes damp and foul4 ,in those parts of the country where comparatively little corn is grown1 sawdust and wood shavings are commonly used for litter for pigs4 ,so far as the comfort of the pigs is concerned there is little difference as compared with straw with regard to pigs of all ages in the warmer weather1 but in the winter little pigs suffer1 as they are unable to make the warm nest which straw enables them to make and enjoy4 ,when peat moss was first introduced it was strongly recommended for the bedding of pigs4 ,it was claimed for it that it was a far better absorbent of moisture than sawdust1 and that its manurial value was much greater4 ,it is probable that both claims are founded on fact1 as sawdust is of comparatively no value as a manure4 ,but there exists one serious objection to the use of peat moss as litter for young pigs4 ,it is that the pigs are given to eat it1 that it causes severe attacks of indigestion1 and often the death of the pig eating it4 ,of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has ceased to be general4 ,the causes of this neglect may be several1 amongst them the dislike of trouble1 but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called store period of the pig's life is now so much shorter than in the olden days1 and consequently the loss of food1 and the risk of the arrival of unexpected litters of pigs are less1 from the repeated periods of heat1 indeed under the present or recent conditions of pig keeping a large proportion of the pigs are killed ere they have become sufficiently developed to be troublesome in this respect4 ,still1 there is little doubt that the castrating and spaying of young pigs at about the age of six weeks1 or before they have been weaned from the sow is advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid4 ,an unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in company with other pigs1 and when it is put up to fatten will make no progress on some three or four days during each three weeks when she ordinarily becomes in heat4 ,in addition to her own waste of time she will1 if penned with others1 be continually worrying her mates and preventing them from resting and thriving4 ,until recently another objection was taken to the unspayed sow pig1 it was that if she were killed during the period of oestrum that great difficulty would be experienced in curing the meat properly1 and that signs of her heated condition would be noticed in the mammary glands in the form of dark globules of what was considered to be blood1 but investigation carried out at the ,university ,farm at ,cambridge by ,messrs4 ,russell and ,kenneth ,mackensie have proved that the discoloration and the consequent loss in value of a certain portion of the belly of a side of bacon is not due to the pig having been in a state of heat at the time of its slaughter1 but to an excess of pigment1 noticeable only amongst coloured pigs4 ,thus1 the globules would be of a dark colour when the bacon was from a pig of a black colour1 and red from the pigs of the ,tamworth breed4 ,this shows another cause of the marked preference of the bacon curers for pigs of a white colour in the manufacture of the highest priced bacon4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,housing ,,of ,,pigs ,in the general management of pigs there are many points on which improvements might be effected without any very considerable amount of trouble or expense4 ,far too frequently this neglect or want of care and thought is observable in the housing of pigs4 ,many of the sties in the country districts are neither wind nor water tight1 and they are far too often in a most unsanitary condition1 indeed in such a disgraceful state that some excuse was afforded for the drastic1 if injudicious order of the sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection of a pigsty within from sixty to one hundred feet of a dwelling house4 ,undoubtedly it would have been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs within a much shorter distance of the house only so long as the necessary steps were taken to prevent a nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house suffering in health4 ,the proximity of a pigsty to a house can be rendered perfectly innocuous with ordinary care1 and the cottager not be deprived of very considerable advantages not only in making a profit1 but in the provision of manure for his allotment or garden which will benefit greatly from its application4 ,the mistakes or want of care in the erection of pigsties is by no means confined to the owners of cottages or small holdings1 as a considerable proportion of the piggeries on which great outlay is expended are equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary4 ,even in so-called model buildings the piggery has often been the last thing thought of2 the stables1 the cow house1 etc41 have been conveniently placed for feeding the occupants1 for air1 light1 and sun1 and then the piggery has been placed in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied1 and as this generally happens to be on the northern side of the buildings1 the unhappy pigs are deprived of the rays of the sun1 which are to them quite as necessary1 if not more so1 than to any others of our domesticated animals4 ,this same want of sun1 and the exposure to cold is noticeable in only a lesser degree in those buildings which comprise a double row of sties with a passage down the centre1 a store and a cooking and mixing house at one end1 and an exercise or feeding yard adjoining4 ,it matters not whether the building be placed north or south1 or east or west1 one half of the sties have a wrong aspect2 even if the sties facing the west can be said to possess one4 ,the trouble is still greater with the system of having a yard attached to each sty4 ,the north or east wind renders the sties with such an aspect a most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for young pigs during more than half the year1 whilst older pigs cannot thrive on the same amount of food as they would if their quarters were comfortable4 ,apart from the waste of food which results from these draughty and cold sties1 the latter are the chief cause1 with injudicious feeding1 of that most troublesome ailment amongst pigs1 rheumatic gout1 or1 as it is commonly termed1 cramp4 ,how very draughty and uncomfortable these sties are which have an open yard attached1 and an inlet at all times usable1 can be readily discovered in cold and windy weather by noticing the position in which the occupant has made its bed4 ,this will be found not on the highest part of the sty1 which will be opposite to the opening into the yard1 but in the corner next to the opening1 since in this position it is less exposed to the cold wind which rushes into the sty through the opening4 ,apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting from the exposure to draughts it is not apparent to the writer that any advantage is gained from the provision of these yards4 ,in many instances they serve only for an excuse to limit the height of the sties1 as unless these are of a fair height there is a considerable difficulty in cleaning them out4 ,the money expended on building the yard would easily cover the extra cost of raising the side walls of the pigsty by two feet1 and thus not only render it free from draughts1 but also make it far more healthy and less subject to the extremes of heat and cold4 ,the ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy for a growing or matured pig1 but in the colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born pigs1 of which numbers are annually lost from exposure or are greatly checked in their growth4 ,one of the very best places in which to house pigs in the experience of the writer was a large barn with a thatched roof4 ,this was divided off into sties by partitions some #d ft4 #f in4 high2 owing to the height of the building the temperature was not unduly high in the hottest weather nor did the pigs suffer to any extent during severe weather4 ,these advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in temperature1 and an abundant supply of uncontaminated air4 ,one of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of the pigsties is the absence of ventilation without draught4 ,this trouble is especially noticeable where the side walls are not more than about #d ft4 high1 whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs increases the sufferings of the pigs from the heat when the weather is excessively hot4 ,some of our most successful pig feeders on a large scale have found it profitable to erect cheap buildings very similar to small barns1 the side walls being at least #aj feet high4 ,this will permit of thorough ventilation1 quite free from draughts1 whilst the variations in the temperature will be comparatively slight4 ,the building being complete within itself1 and entirely used for the pigs1 there is no disturbance of the pigs between the feeding times1 so that the pigs will rest and grow fat4 ,these houses are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs1 whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties or houses are more convenient4 ,these should be at least #aj ft4 square1 the front #f ft4 #f in4 high1 the doors divided so that the upper half can be opened when the weather is favourable2 ventilation can be obtained by hanging or sliding doors just under the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by the draught2 the floor should be laid with brick and gradually incline to the front of the building so that the liquid can run through an aperture in the lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed close to the building4 ,a row of these houses1 which should face to the south1 can be more cheaply erected than a single house1 as the wooden partitions between the houses need not be more than #d ft4 high1 and one of these would take the place of two gables or ends4 ,several of the houses which the writer erected had brick foundations and feather-edged boarded sides and ends2 the roofs were of tiles unpointed1 as in this way the houses were much cooler in the summer1 whilst in the winter the upper portions of the houses were packed with straw which still permitted of the escape of the foul air1 yet greatly added to the warmth and comfort of the building4 ,the one thing of all others most needful in the sty or house for the well doing of pigs is a sufficiency of pure air without draughts2 pigs of even a few days old will suffer less from cold than from moist and foul hot air4 ,it is not the most costly building in which pigs will thrive best1 but the one in which they are the most comfortable and free from the extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which to rest and be thankful4 ,when making a tour of the ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations and ,agricultural ,schools in ,denmark some few years since1 the writer saw near ,aarhuss what was then a novelty in the form of a two decker pigsty1 i4e4 a sty with a sleeping place above--one could scarcely term it an upstairs room as access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined board with struts of wood fastened across it to give a firm holding to the pigs as they ascended to the upper story4 ,the incline was very steep1 but the pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and down4 ,the advantages claimed for it by the principal were that the sleeping compartment was so much cleaner and sweeter2 that less straw was required for bedding1 and that the pigs were far more comfortable and rested better than when boxed up1 especially in the summer season when the heat in the lower portion was very oppressive4 ,the feeding took place in the lower portion4 ,it was stated that nearly the whole of the urine and dung was deposited below4 ,this was a great advantage as the moisture ran off at once into the drains1 and the solids were easily cleared out as there was no litter mixed with them1 or the dung could be readily washed into the drains by water from a hose1 which was used in the summer for the purpose of bathing or of washing the pigs4 ,the chief objection to the plan would be its expense1 as unless the pigsties were in a barn or a shed already erected for some other purpose the pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side walls and consequently more strongly built4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,sport and ,general4 ,,large ,,white ,,sow1 ,,worsley ,,sunbeam4 ,to face page #aab4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photo kindly lent by ,kenneth ,mac,rae1 ,r4,u4,a4,s41 ,balmoral1 ,belfast4 ,,large ,,white ,,ulster ,,boar4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,exhibition ,,of ,,pigs ,when the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common1 a belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show was most deleterious to the animals shown4 ,it was also contended that exhibitors were prone to pay attention1 to a far greater extent1 to the fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary stock breeder and the consumer4 ,it was also believed that the feeding or training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their procreative powers1 and especially so with the animals of the feminine gender4 ,it may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too great attention to the claims of the judges who were1 in too many cases1 chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture or the requirements of the consumers of meat4 ,for so acting1 the exhibitors were not beyond blame1 as in the earlier days of showing1 their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals4 ,the actual improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval1 of which the present generation has been the witness1 has proved it to be4 ,it may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig exhibitors of to-day4 ,this is in part due to the fact that the cramming on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the non-practical judge1 who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when in its natural breeding condition1 but that to be able to follow the present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen1 this excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake4 ,it may not be possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of the past1 but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become alive to the fact that it is not profitable4 ,not only is the expense excessive1 but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow4 ,again1 there has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows4 ,when the writer began pig showing1 on his own account1 fifty years since1 the common classification at most of the shows was1 boar any age1 sows any age1 and pens of three breeding pigs1 not exceeding nine or in some cases even twelve months4 ,there were no restrictions as to the age of the boar or of the sow1 no condition as to utility1 of the sow having at any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig1 so that it was by no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and sows appear year after year1 having been guiltless of any attempt to procreate their species1 but having been kept solely for the purpose of winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners1 if not directly adding much to their balances at the bank4 ,the only way in which the continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors1 who in far too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals4 ,to so great an extent had this purchase1 frequently from middlemen or dealers of exhibition pigs1 become in the seventies of the last century1 that some of the live stock papers in the ,united ,states took up the cudgels on behalf of the ,american breeders of pigs1 who had been in the habit of importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the ,english definition of a pure bred pig4 ,it was pointed out at a recent show of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society several winners shown by one exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds1 yet neither age1 pedigree1 nor name of breeder was given1 the only particulars given in the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor1 the name of the pig1 and the further statement age and breeder unknown4 ,as our ,american cousins asked1 how could it be possible to ensure that a pig was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who bred it4 ,this scandal1 as it was termed1 was one of the contributing causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs4 ,other changes which have been great improvements have been the limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown1 the requirement that the sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over4 ,the age of the young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months1 or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show4 ,in the good old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or three or five1 varied from six to twelve months1 and the asserted age given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct4 ,at many of the important shows not only are some means of identification asked for1 but the state of the dentition are variously dealt with2 at some shows they are disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the veterinary surgeon4 ,it may at once be admitted that this mode of procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally--and such cases are not unknown--- although as a rule the various stages in the cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular1 the majority of the irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor1 since delayed rather than precocious development of dentition is the most common4 ,just how imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited1 many cases could be cited1 but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard4 ,during the last forty years1 great improvements have been made in the classification for pigs at our principal ,fat ,stock shows4 ,the division of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the various classes have been greatly reduced4 ,for instance1 when the writer was judging pigs with two colleagues at the #ahhj show of the ,smithfield ,club1 there were classes for ,small ,white pigs1 not exceeding nine months2 above nine months1 and not exceeding twelve months1 and above twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months4 ,a more ridiculous classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old4 ,a similar classification existed for pigs of the ,large ,white breed1 for ,black breeds1 and for ,berkshires4 ,in addition there was a class for a single pig of any age or breed4 ,the condition of some of the exhibits in the oldest classes was most pitiable1 they had been stuffed to such an extent that their life must have been a misery to them1 they were unable to walk any distance1 and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on which to raise their heads4 ,the only way in which to describe these unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of lard4 ,at the recent shows of the ,smithfield ,club1 not only has the age limit been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding #ajj lbs4 live weight have been instituted1 in addition to classes for all the recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross4 ,even this great reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers1 as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to nine months1 so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs not exceeding #ajj lbs4 live weight1 for pigs not exceeding six months old and for pigs between six and nine months old1 with certain classes for single pigs under nine months4 ,it is contended that fat pigs cannot be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months4 ,another innovation of recent years at the ,smithfield ,show has been the establishment of the so-called slaughter classes4 ,this is probably by far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section4 ,classes are provided for pigs not exceeding #ajj lbs4 live weight1 pigs weighing over #ajj lbs4 and not exceeding #bbj lbs41 and for pigs above #bbj lbs4 and not exceeding #cjj lbs4 live weight4 ,the pigs are first exhibited and judged alive1 then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork merits4 ,there is also one class for pigs above #afj lbs4 and not exceeding #bdj lbs4 live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon4 ,these various classes have created great interest and have proved of the greatest educational value4 ,another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an age varying from three months upwards1 and which together were exhibited in the class for breeding sows1 or breeding sows and pigs4 ,a fine fat sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine4 ,an old and well-known pigman1 ,dick by name1 assured the writer that no fewer than sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in company of one well-known sow4 ,at the present time the pigs shown with a sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of eight weeks4 ,it is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain actions on the part of a human being4 ,it has been declared that there is an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing to exhibit his animals4 ,surely this last assertion is at least of a doubtful character4 ,what greater proof could a stock breeder give of his pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good qualities to the public gaze4 ,in addition to this1 few men are entirely free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions1 particularly in the show yards4 ,the winning of prizes with stock may not be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races1 still1 there is enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great excitement4 ,some persons will even contend that the showing of farm stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to assume so great a similarity with gambling1 that attending the shows means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits4 ,on the other hand1 it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock breeders4 ,further1 the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars1 as without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we have had to import4 ,it may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock1 but on these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour1 the desire grew to suggest how good they were1 or in many instances the original entries have been made in response to a request to support the local show4 ,this may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock4 ,even if the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders1 and out of old established herds1 is certain to prove a good investment4 ,there is just as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic stock1 as there is in the various human families and of animals1 and it may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors4 ,this is evident in almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock1 it is so in thoroughbred and shire horses1 and so one might go through the whole list of domesticated or farm animals4 ,it is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families which1 in the past1 have furnished a large proportion of the winners1 and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen4 ,this combination is most important1 as it does not necessarily follow that a line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals which are not only good in type1 character1 and form1 but possessed of prolificacy1 free milking properties1 and ability to raise large litters4 ,the difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds this most desirable combination is due1 in the main1 to the far too frequent neglect of the utility points1 the two aims of the herdsman are in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves4 ,although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in our show yards a large amount of mystery1 yet1 the practice is most simple1 it consists in the employment of the greatest possible observation1 care1 and attention2 without the continual use of these qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman4 ,in very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the scales4 ,the one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock man is the art of taking pains4 ,unlike most of the other exhibitors of pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a professional pigman4 ,the comparatively small number of pigmen who assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm labourers1 save in one case1 and he was an old sailor1 yet one of the best feeders and trainers we ever employed4 ,he was naturally fond of animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their needs4 ,it was once jokingly said of him that1 having no children1 he bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people bestowed on their children4 ,there is much of truth in the assertion made by a coloured preacher in the ,united ,states when discussing the want of success of ordinary pig-keeping in the ,states1 the chief cause he declared was the absence of love4 ,we would call it want of natural fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and satisfactory as circumstances will allow4 ,with regard to the system of rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition1 nothing more is needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals4 ,a liberal supply of suitable food1 prepared in the most tempting form and judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required1 as frequently as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it4 ,little and often is a good motto for the pig feeder4 ,the more closely we adhere to nature1 the more successful shall we be4 ,it is to this1 perhaps1 that exercise is so specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard4 ,it is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show1 and more particularly at several successive shows1 without plenty of exercise4 ,each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the ages1 etc41 of the pigs is desirable4 ,another point to which some professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their charges with secret medicines4 ,this is not only unnecessary1 but may with breeding animals prove harmful4 ,a sound healthy pig seldom requires medicine if it is properly fed and exercised4 ,it is the over feeding or intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders medicine necessary4 ,a word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition4 ,this last can only be a work of time1 and the commencement of the process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be steadily continued until within a few days of the show4 ,this slight reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate in an enclosed truck4 ,many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the shows or soon after arriving at the shows1 have been fed just prior to being loaded up1 because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the journey4 ,this is an entire mistake2 not only should the pigs not be fed1 but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels1 or the bladder4 ,care in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in every case prevent trouble1 but it will most certainly reduce to a minimum the chance of it4 ,should a pig suffer from the heat1 cold water should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth1 and should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the better4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,present ,,and ,,future ,,pig-,,keeping ,as it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous war will have upon the pig-breeding industry1 we have deemed it expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of feeding1 etc41 which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner4 ,one of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under which pigs were kept1 i4e4 when they were in a wild state or when they were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own living to a greater or lesser extent4 ,we are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure1 but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more nearly allied with youth than old age4 ,the practice may not have been generally followed of late years1 but in the middle of the last century it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the ,eastern ,counties1 particularly in ,suffolk and portions of ,essex and ,cambridgeshire1 where a considerable acreage of grass and especially clovers was grazed by pigs1 having a greater or lesser quantity of other food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes4 ,generally speaking1 some shelter of a temporary character was provided failing that furnished by trees1 and straw stacks1 etc41 but our ,american cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised for a sow and her pigs1 or for a number of stores4 ,in the former course1 an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright4 ,the chief difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the ,united ,states to the extent it is in this country1 since the general custom there is to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to fatten off both sow and pigs1 save those reserved for breeding purposes next year4 ,this plan1 which appears to be wasteful1 also handicaps the owner who desires to improve his pig stock1 since an opportunity is denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd4 ,the system is not an entirely new one1 as it is practised to a great extent in some parts of ,lincolnshire and other ,northern counties1 where there is not the excuse made for it in the ,states that it avoids the trouble and risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the winter4 ,it may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great1 but the cold1 damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in ,england during the last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house young pigs1 and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size1 as these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed1 or damp and cold when unclosed4 ,again1 the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed in isolated sties must be very considerable4 ,another objection raised against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on the sow1 further1 that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old1 as when the weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they quickly become blistered1 both conditions materially interfering with their well doing4 ,it is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion of their living1 but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do justice to her young1 whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any quantity of grass until they are some weeks old2 besides this1 the youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in quarters than when trailing about after the sow4 ,could we ensure fairly fine weather1 and an absence of cold nights and very changeable weather1 the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions would be considerably enhanced4 ,another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large in woods and plantations1 wooden huts or open sheds being provided as shelter4 ,by this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained where the trees are not closely planted1 so that grass grows freely1 or1 in the autumn1 in the woods in which oaks1 beech1 hazel1 or sweet chestnut form a portion of the trees4 ,in such woods strong store pigs are able to obtain the major portion of their food1 but where the trees are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted1 the additional food must be more plentiful1 whilst the manurial value of the food is wasted to a considerable extent4 ,perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of running the pigs in orchards4 ,this system has many advantages1 the pigs are able to live without much additional food for some months in the year1 they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit1 and so act as insecticides4 ,the pigs also usually leave their droppings under the trees1 which are thus benefited therefrom1 and especially is this the case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them to make flesh4 ,many years since1 the writer had several customers for breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards4 ,one fruit grower in ,kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size1 better colour1 and finer flavour4 ,another whose apple orchard was disappointing followed my advice to fatten pigs in it1 declared that the quantity of apples grown was much greater1 whilst both the size and quality of these were infinitely better4 ,under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty1 it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised1 and no better place than an orchard can be found1 since shelter from sun and wind is furnished by the fruit trees1 and the pigs deposit their urine and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required4 ,the practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed1 artichokes1 peas of various kinds1 beans1 etc41 to be fed off by pigs is not followed extensively in this country1 although pig-keepers in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,germany1 ,denmark1 etc41 have a partiality to it1 since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good manurial condition for the growth of corn crops2 still some few of our more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne1 clovers1 and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs1 which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots1 corn1 or meal4 ,it is asserted1 and evidence is available to prove the truth of the statement1 that land can be economically and quickly and vastly improved by following the system referred to above4 ,the scarcity and high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs1 has caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place4 ,the residuum from the crushing of palm nuts1 cocoa-nuts1 and ground nuts has been most successfully used in connection with various forms of vegetable food2 even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about #b lbs4 of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil from the nuts mentioned1 with the addition of some form of vegetable food4 ,this last has comprised cooked potatoes1 raw artichokes1 mangolds1 kohl rabi1 swedes1 cabbages1 etc41 during the winter months1 and grass1 lucerne1 clover1 vetches1 cole seed1 etc41 during the summer months4 ,fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated food and a reduced amount of vegetable food4 ,the pre-war belief that sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified4 ,whether or not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war and thus its use become general as of old1 must be left1 but it is probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,pig-,,fattening ,if there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of any individual1 it is that of feeding a pig4 ,in the good old times1 the one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal1 as much of this as the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter4 ,this was a very simple and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig4 ,the first consisted of building up a frame on which fat could be stored4 ,just why these two processes were not combined has never been fully explained4 ,one excuse made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any animal intended for the food of man1 that in which the structure was erected1 and that in which the building was completely furnished with the material--flesh--in a state which most nearly satisfied the requirements or fancies of humanity4 ,the system of first growing the frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the owners of pigs1 as it was also adopted with cattle1 which in the good old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef4 ,sheep1 again1 spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and strength1 before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton economically4 ,another excuse which could have been offered by our forbears1 but which is not now available1 is that the cattle1 sheep1 and pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them sufficiently fat for slaughter4 ,the very great improvement which has taken place during the past half century1 in wellnigh every breed of pig1 has deprived our present day pig-breeders of such an excuse1 yet they persist in far too many instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of first growing the pig and then fatting it1 whereas it is not only possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations4 ,so many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a small amount of nutriment which1 undisposed of1 would become a nuisance or offensive to one or other of our organs4 ,even the pig itself has been considered by many farmers1 especially those termed gentlemen farmers1 as a necessary nuisance1 whereas the pig is really a machine for the conversion of farm produce into meat1 and like all machines1 its output will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material1 and the manner in which it is supplied4 ,if the raw material be of inferior quality and supplied irregularly1 or in too limited quantities1 the article manufactured will be more costly and of an inferior quality4 ,an extension in the time of manufacture means increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery4 ,a certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace whether the engine is running at full power or at half power4 ,it is exactly the same with the meat making machine1 the pig every day of its existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one return only1 its life4 ,it has been conclusively proved that each pig weighing #ajj lbs4 requires #b lbs4 of food daily to enable it to sustain life1 i4e4 to replace loss of tissue1 to provide heat1 progression1 etc41 so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat1 it will have eaten to waste over #c cwt4 of good food4 ,a pig is like unto any other machine1 it will produce the manufactured article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable raw material4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that the least costly pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in the object of its existence1 the manufacture of pork4 ,there is a further point of great importance4 ,wellnigh all those materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of fat or1 as it is commonly termed1 the making of meat4 ,evidently nature intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously4 ,those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat1 consequently if the frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh1 a considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted1 since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them4 ,they simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them1 and are wasted4 ,opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much during the past half century1 and especially so since the full effect of the fearful war has been felt4 ,rather before the first-mentioned period1 the late ,sir ,john ,lawes1 whose researches and experiments have been of lasting benefit to agriculturists1 undertook to carry out experiments in connection with pig-breeding1 and the result which appears to have impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal was the best single food for the fatting of pigs4 ,at the time named1 our importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period prior to the war1 still1 it seems to be strange to the enlightened pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs1 since this had been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig4 ,fortunately for us1 and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the world1 experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in various countries1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,germany1 and indeed in nearly all countries1 save to any great extent in ,england4 ,in connection with pigs1 the practices of a few of our more intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed4 ,amongst these ideas which the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads1 was that of feeding pigs of all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of vegetable food4 ,experiments have conclusively proved that the substitution of some #aj per cent of vegetable matter in place of an equal amount of meal or concentrated food1 does not result in the slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig1 and further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the cooking was not founded on fact4 ,another fact which has evolved from these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food4 ,this was clearly proved in many experiments as at the ,wisconsin ,agricultural ,station1 where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone1 a second lot on corn meal alone1 and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and middlings4 ,to make an increase of #ajj lbs4 in their live weight1 the pigs in ,lot #a ate #ebb lbs4 of middlings1 those in ,lot #b ate #ecg lbs4 of corn meal to make an equal increase in weight1 whilst ,lot #c1 which were fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings1 required only #dci lbs41 or a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food4 ,in experiments with regard to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the ,missouri ,college1 middlings also gave the best returns1 but unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted4 ,this is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the feeding of young than of older pigs1 whilst the reverse holds good of corn or maize meal4 ,other trials were carried out at ,wisconsin with the use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and half corn meal4 ,in these the average quantity of wheat meal required for #ajj lbs4 increased live weight was #ejj lbs41 whilst only #dhe lbs4 of the mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase or a saving of some #e per cent was obtained by mixing the meals4 ,in the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened1 yet our forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food1 that day after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar2 surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal whose organs are of an exactly similar character4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food on which the pigs are being fattened4 ,by this1 it is not intended to suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in the fatting pigs' food1 as this would certainly result in a loss of time and food1 but that a slight variation in the proportions of the different kinds of food is beneficial1 or in the case where several different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture1 another kind of food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite4 ,a long continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the appetite4 ,in addition to this1 it is considered that a variation in the food tends to stimulate the digestive organs4 ,it is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times2 the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables it to stow away a large quantity of food4 ,even the old system of feeding twice a day might be improved upon1 and the fatting pig fed three times per day would make greater thrift1 even should the actual daily quantity of food be not increased4 ,again1 so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at one meal4 ,should this be pointed out to them1 their usual reply would be that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day1 as they frequently would do4 ,this sounds plausible until the argument be closely examined4 ,what would the pigman think if he were treated in a similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate1 and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him until it was finished8 ,this certainly would not increase his appetite nor aid his digestion4 ,yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the greatest amount of food possible4 ,in pig fattening1 as in many other things1 time is money4 ,further it is just as much a mistake for fatting pigs as for human beings to be continually eating1 or at irregular intervals1 small quantities of food4 ,the two most certain indications that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep and that their feeding troughs are empty4 ,when pigs are fed a greater quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently getting up to eat a little more of the surplus1 and each time they rise from their bed they will evacuate their bowels1 and in most cases before the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted4 ,still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at least approaching maturity and ripeness1 or complete fatness4 ,it was useless to argue with them1 since anyone could see that it was so4 ,if you suggested the use of the scales1 the idea was scouted1 since a person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the increase in bulk of the pig4 ,it is true that apparently the pig would be making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of its fatting process1 since the addition to its weight and bulk would be almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the outside of the carcase4 ,all the vacant space in the interior of the pig would have been occupied1 the pig would have stored fat away in its muscles1 around its kidneys1 on its stomach1 its bowels1 and wherever it was possible to stow it away1 but these additions to the weight of the carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting could not be observed1 nevertheless they were proceeding1 and in this was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable return for the food consumed4 ,fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture2 many experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its later stages of life4 ,the young pig also possesses over its older companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater quantity of food in proportion to its weight or1 in other words1 the young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the manufactured article than the more matured pig1 in proportion to the amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery4 ,experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in ,denmark1 in the ,united ,states1 etc4 ,at ,copenhagen nearly seventy different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights1 with the result that pigs weighing about #bge lbs4 live weight were found to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live weight as did pigs weighing from #ce to #ge lbs4 ,that this was not an exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live weight was gradual1 and shown in every stage2 thus pigs of from #ce to #ge lbs4 consumed #cgf lbs4 of food for each #ajj lbs4 increase2 pigs of #ge to #aae lbs41 #dce lbs42 pigs of #aae to #aee lbs41 #dff lbs42 pigs of #aee lbs4 to #aie lbs41 #eac lbs42 pigs of #aie lbs4 to #bce lbs41 #edj lbs42 pigs of #bce lbs4 to #bge lbs41 #fad lbs42 and pigs of #bge lbs4 to #cae lbs41 #fci lbs4 ,even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction1 but similar tests were made at many of the ,american ,experiment ,stations1 these tests together numbering some hundred4 ,the results are given in tabulated form in ,henry's ,feeds and ,feeding1 where the various points are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the whole of the notes relating to weight1 gain1 and feed consumed by pigs4 ,at many of our stations1 records of weights and gains of pigs and feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on the consumption of food4 ,all of the available data from trials of this character conducted in this country 7the ,united ,states7 up to the time of going to press1 enter into the composition of the table given below4 ,in compiling this table1 six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to one pound of grain1 according to the ,danish valuation of these articles4 ,for convenience of study1 the data are presented for each period covering fifty pounds of growth1 the actual average weight of the pigs1 however1 being given for each division3 ,,data ,,relative ,,to ,,feed1 ,,weight1 ,,and ,,gain ,,of ,,pigs-- ,,many ,,american ,,stations ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,weight of ,actual ,no4 of ,total ,no4 of pigs in ,average stations ,no4 of animals pounds4 weight4 reporting4 trials4 fed4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- lbs4 #ae to #ej #ch #i #da #agd #ej #ajj #gh #ac #ajj #dag #ajj #aej #abh #ac #aai #die #aej #bjj #agd #aa #ajg #dhi #bjj #bej #bbf #ab #gb #cjj #bej #cjj #bga #h #df #bbc #cjj #cej #cbj #c #ai #aje ---------------------------------------- --------------- #cej #djj #cgh #a #e #cf #djj #dej #dbi #a #e #cf #dej #ejj #dga #a #b #ah ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,average ,feed ,weight of feed eaten per ,average ,feed for pigs in eaten #ajj lbs4 gain per #ajj lbs4 pounds4 per day4 weight4 day4 gain4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 #ae to #ej #b4bc #e4ie 4#gf #bic #ej #ajj #c4ce #d4cb 4#hc #djj #ajj #aej #d4gi #c4ge #a4aj #dcg #aej #bjj #e4ia #c4dc #a4bd #dhb #bjj #bej #f4eg #b4ia #a4cc #dih #bej #cjj #g4dj #b4gd #a4df #eaa #cjj #cej #g4ej #b4ce #a4dj #ece ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #cej #djj #h4eb #b4be #a4ih #dca #djj #dej #h4ah #a4ia #a4ga #dgi #dej #ejj #aj4jj #b4ab #a4gg #efb ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,in the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs weighing up to #cej lbs4 each furnishes reliable data4 ,after this point is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages4 ,the heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were fed by the writer 7,professor ,henry74 ,they were mature specimens1 with large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began1 having been summered on pasture without grain4 ,the figures are introduced to show what may be accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening4 ,we learn from the main portion of the table that from #aje to #dce pigs were employed in calculating each line of data4 ,the number of trials furnishing the data varied from #ai to #aai1 and were conducted by from #c to #ac experiment stations4 ,amount of food consumed daily by the pig4 ,the sixth column of the table shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different weights4 ,from it we learn that pigs weighing less than #ej lbs4 each1 averaging #ch lbs41 consumed on the average #b4bc lbs4 of grain or grain equivalent1 daily4 ,as the animal increased in weight there was a gradual increase in the amount of food consumed1 until we find the #dej lbs4 hog eating #aj lbs4 of grain daily1 or more than four times as much as the #ej lbs4 pig4 ,feed per #ajj lbs4 live weight3 ,in the seventh column it is shown that pigs weighing #ch lbs4 consumed #e4ie lbs4 of feed for each #ajj lbs4 of live weight4 ,this is about #f per cent of their live weight4 ,as the pigs grew larger they consumed less feed for #ajj lbs4 of live weight1 until with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than #b per cent of their live weight4 ,here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the feed consumption per #ajj lbs4 between early weight and maturity4 ,average daily gain3 ,in the next column are presented data concerning the daily gain of the pig4 ,it is shown that the #ch lb4 pig gained 4#gf of a lb41 or #b per cent of its own weight daily4 ,as it increased in size the pig made larger daily gains1 the maximum being reached with those weighing #bga lbs41 which made a daily gain of #a4df lb4 ,with large thin hogs the gain reached #a4ih lb41 or practically #b lbs4 per day1 but these animals1 because of their mature frames and thin flesh1 were fed under exceptional circumstances4 ,feed for #ajj lbs4 of gain3 ,the last column is of interest to all1 especially the practical feeder1 for it teaches a most interesting and important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs4 ,those which average #ch lbs4 each made #ajj lbs4 of gain from #bic lbs4 of feed4 ,this exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk1 which was practically all digestible1 the other feed being also more highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals4 ,with pigs weighing #gh lbs41 #djj lbs4 of feed were required for #ajj lbs4 of gain4 ,there was a gradual increase of feed requirements for #ajj lbs4 of gain1 until the hog weighing #cbj lbs4 required #ebe lbs4 for each #ajj lbs4 of gain4 ,this is #ace lbs4 or #cc per cent more feed than was required by the #gh lbs4 pig4 ,these tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is an entirely mistaken one1 and that the young and growing pig1 if well kept1 not only eats more in proportion to its weight1 but gives a better return for the food it consumes1 besides requiring a smaller amount of food to keep life within itself1 and to replace the certain loss sustained by movement1 etc4 ,there is still another point on which the young pig scores3 its carcase realises a higher price per lb4 on a majority of the markets4 ,the fatting pig which pays best is one which has a short life and a merry one1 never having to seek or wait for its food4 ,amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food1 is that of the advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs4 ,when the practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of forcing the exhibits was practised1 since early maturity was of so great importance1 especially in the classes for the younger animals4 ,the cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had been found beneficial1 as the risk of fever in the feet and other ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice4 ,the stock man naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved to be of advantage1 similar good results would follow the steaming of the other kinds of food4 ,in this fanciful theory they would have been able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which were published in the first half of the last century and even later4 ,like many other novelties1 the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards4 ,then1 as now1 the ,germans took little for granted1 they proceeded to test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle1 with the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry #df per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only #cj per cent was digested from the steamed hay4 ,but as our present business is with pig-feeding1 we will confine our remarks to the results of experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs4 ,perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable work1 ,feeds and ,feeding1 by ,professor ,henry1 who wrote ,experiments with ,cooked ,feed for ,pigs4 ,these have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented4 ,those given are selected because they are strictly representative1 covering a wide range of country foods and conditions4 ,at the ,kansas ,agricultural ,college1 ,shelton fed one lot of five pigs on cooked shelled corn1 while a second lot of four1 similar in all respects1 was given uncooked shelled corn1 the trial lasting ninety days4 ,in cooking1 the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over it2 into this mass a pipe carried steam1 at a pressure ranging from #cj to #fj lbs4 ,the kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger4 ,at the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college1 ,stalker conducted trials for #abj days in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to ,berkshire pigs4 ,at the ,dominion 7,canada7 ,station1 ,robertson fed grade ,chester ,whites1 a mixture of ground peas1 barley1 and rye1 the trials beginning in ,december and lasting #ada days4 ,at the ,ohio ,station1 ,devol fed pure bred ,poland ,chinas and ,berkshires for #aab days in winter4 ,one lot of three pigs received the meal cooked1 while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked4 ,at the ,wisconsin ,station1 the writer 7,henry7 has conducted many trials with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs4 ,only the later ones are here reported4 ,these trials lasted from #ef to #hd days each1 the kinds of feed experimented being given in the table4 ,the five trials reported from the ,wisconsin ,station1 as will be seen by consulting the table1 are slightly in favour of cooked food1 the difference being very small1 however4 ,these are the only feeding trials reported from any experiment station1 so far as known to the writer1 where the results are favourable to cooking4 ,ten other trials by the writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results unfavourable to cooking these1 and a number of trials at other stations with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of space4 ,a table showing the stations at which the various experiments were carried out1 the numbers and weights of the pigs1 the varieties of foods1 the duration of the different trials1 the daily gain1 the weights of cooked and uncooked food consumed1 the manner of cooking1 the total increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food required for increases of #ajj lbs4 in the live weights of the pigs are given4 ,professor ,henry sums these up and writes3 ,including all the trials then1 so far as is known1 that have been favourable to cooking feed and omitting many for lack of space1 that are unfavourable to that operation1 the average shows that #dgf lbs4 of uncooked meal or grain were required for #ajj lbs4 of gain with pigs1 while after it was cooked #eje lbs4 were required4 ,this shows a loss of #f per cent of the feeding value of these substances through cooking4 ,some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize2 in each case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than cooked maize1 and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from the food consumed4 ,only one opinion appears to be possible1 and this is that the cooking of food for pigs1 save potatoes1 entails a loss of time1 an increase in cost1 and a reduced return4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,a ,,pig ,,calendar ,the pig-keeper1 like the gardener1 seldom has to seek for employment1 indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed4 ,there are always many little odd jobs to do1 which if neglected may result in loss1 or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period4 ,the old proverb ,a stitch in time saves nine is equally as true in connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work4 ,in years gone by the month of ,january was considered to be quite a slack time for pig-keepers1 the sows and the store pigs usually found the greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail4 ,many of the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which found their way under the cribs4 ,in most of the old-fashioned large yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a few turnips1 swedes1 or small potatoes1 and occasionally a handful or two of beans or even a sheaf of beans4 ,those fatting pigs which had not already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail corn grown by the farmer4 ,at the present time the most up-to-date pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this month of ,january so that the sows have their second litter of the year late in the month of ,june or early in ,july in order that both litters of pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot season1 since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when the sun shines4 ,of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in ,january4 ,this has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in providing water and wind-tight sties1 in which the sows farrow4 ,warmth with free ventilation is needed4 ,the latter is particularly necessary after the pigs are a few days old1 as these do not suffer so much from cold as they do from damp and draughts4 ,of course whilst the sow is farrowing warmth is imperative1 as the moist little pigs when first ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost1 unless they are promptly wiped with a dry cloth1 allowed a draught or two of new milk from the sow1 and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with dry wheat straw4 ,when once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does not affect them very much1 providing that the sow furnishes her family with a full supply of milk4 ,the cost of heating a little water so that the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have warmed food1 will be slight1 as there is nearly always a fire required in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather4 ,warm food makes a vast difference in the thrift of pigs1 especially of young ones4 ,very slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food4 ,in the former case the pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep1 whilst the poor beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold1 much of its natural heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere its digestive organs can commence work4 ,coal and wood are at all times less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in nature's lamp4 ,provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable food which pigs require1 particularly when in confinement4 ,kohl rabi1 swedes and cabbages1 of which the first named is the best1 are all suitable1 but the most nourishing are artichokes1 which like the three former should be fed raw1 and potatoes which should be cooked ere they are fed to the pigs4 ,the difference in the feeding value between cooked and uncooked potatoes is great4 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from frost4 ,the operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in ,february to those of the preceding month4 ,towards the end of the month kohl rabis will have lost much of their feeding value4 ,on sunny days a run out for a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month old2 as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again1 as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result in cramp or rheumatism4 ,sows with litters two or three weeks old should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short time4 ,the month of ,march brings with it an extra amount of work for the pig-keeper1 who will now think of selling the pigs born early in ,january unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat pigs in harvest time1 when there is always a good demand for medium sized fat pigs4 ,anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been picked out and earmarked1 this last should not be neglected after the others have been spayed4 ,this last operation has of late years been much neglected2 this is a great mistake1 as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on #e per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig1 when both have become some five or six months old1 and the periods of oestrum have commenced4 ,the sows which farrowed in ,january should now be weaned from their pigs1 and should be ready to be mated within a few days4 ,the sows should be carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness4 ,some sows give little indication of this unrest1 which is almost certain to appear within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous condition4 ,to miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable time1 besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after she had been baulked4 ,with the passing of the month swedes and artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment2 mangolds can now take their place4 ,it is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs2 this exposure hastens their ripening and reduces the proportion of water4 ,of course care must be taken to prevent them becoming frozen1 as in ,march this might be the case4 ,in the ,southern counties tares1 lucerne1 and grass are sufficiently forward towards the end of ,april to be cut and fed to the pigs which are confined in the buildings4 ,the pigs both fat and store will fully repay the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods4 ,brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them1 should be allowed their liberty in the grass fields4 ,this will both greatly reduce the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing4 ,young pigs over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon4 ,newly weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the months of ,april and ,may at prices higher than in any other portion of the year1 owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a superabundance of whey1 of which #ab lbs4 when fed in proper combination is considered to be equal in value to #a lb4 of meal4 ,unfortunately1 so many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig1 and imagine that it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey4 ,without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey4 ,numbers of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making is carried on to consume the butter milk1 and in ordinary times much of the separated or skim milk4 ,in the feeding of this again the results are not so good as they should be owing to neglect4 ,both foods have been rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat1 so that although new milk may be fed alone1 the others require additional food which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them1 or they cause indigestion and want of thrift1 particularly in young and immature pigs4 ,the roots of all kinds1 save potatoes and mangolds1 have ceased to be of much value before ,april ends1 vetches and lucerne will prove to be the best of substitutes4 ,spring cabbages are generally of more value for human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food4 ,if there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores1 should there be such1 should now find the major portion of their food out of doors4 ,as a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in this country4 ,it is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our vegetable crops4 ,it also produces a large weight of food extending over several months1 and continues fruitful for many years providing attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses4 ,it has the additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little4 ,it is true that in the initial stage it requires time and care1 but the results from it amply repay both4 ,one of the best seasons for sowing it is the month of ,may4 ,the operation is simple1 the land having been cleared the seed is sown in drills about #a ft4 apart1 the quantity of seed required being at the rate of #bj lbs4 per acre1 say #b oz4 per pole or a drill #ce yards long4 ,as soon as the plants are high enough the land should be hand hoed1 and if kept free of weeds a light crop can generally be cut from it towards the end of ,august4 ,in the following years it will produce at least three cuttings annually4 ,some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant manure is unnecessary4 ,it is true that the roots penetrate several feet into the soil1 still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable matter applied each autumn will give a good return4 ,the chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of a maximum crop is to cut it when young4 ,the pigs will thrive on it far better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky4 ,in the latter stage it is likely to cause constipation4 ,it is best not to graze it with either horses1 cattle1 or pigs1 but benefit to it results from folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of their other food on the stubbles1 commons1 heaths1 etc4 ,all the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their whole time out of doors4 ,it might be noted that lucerne will grow on almost any kind of land providing it is well drained--stagnant water destroys it4 ,the duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of ,june to those of the previous month4 ,prior to the outbreak of war it was becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten pigs all the year round4 ,the old-fashioned idea that pork was not a suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter r had become exploded4 ,not only did the bacon curers require a supply of fat pigs weighing from #bjj to #bbj lbs4 alive1 but there was a good demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from #hj to #adj lbs4 alive4 ,it must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months4 ,this has been clearly proved in many experiments4 ,the difference varies according to the temperature4 ,in the very cold weather experienced in some portions of the ,united ,states it was found that some pigs actually made no increase in weight when well fed1 the whole of the nutriment having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs4 ,the months of ,july and ,august see little change in the duties of the attendant on pigs4 ,the old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion4 ,the improved system of harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land1 whilst the cost of labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive4 ,at one time there used to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of ,august for so-called shacking or running on the stubbles4 ,experience has proved that these pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under the old ones4 ,the scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in ,august is now1 in ,september1 met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early digging of potatoes4 ,large quantities of chats1 and sometimes of slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain proportion of meal4 ,as a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the month of ,september4 ,towards the end of the month all pigs should be under shelter at night4 ,during the last three months of the year there is little variation in the management of pigs4 ,one of the common mistakes made by farmers is to neglect their pigs in the autumn1 at the very season when a little extra food is needed1 and for which the pigs will give a better return than at almost any time of the year4 ,the early portion of ,october is one of the best periods for mating the sows1 the yelts may be left until the latter part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of ,february when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power4 ,it is advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of ,november ends1 as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three weeks prior to and after ,christmas4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,pig ,fortunately1 the pig is subject to comparatively few serious diseases--save swine fever1 swine erysipelas1 and very occasionally anthrax1 which are contagious or infectious1 and all in the special charts of the veterinary department of the ,board of ,agriculture1 and within the contagious ,diseases ,animals ,acts4 ,prior to the stamping out of ,foot and ,mouth ,disease or apthous fever and rabies1 pigs suffered from these contagious and infectious diseases1 particularly the former of the two1 which caused immense losses1 especially of young pigs1 during the latter half of the past century4 ,of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir1 the majority and the chief of them are mainly due to that want of knowledge or care in the feeding and in the housing of the pigs which renders them more susceptible to the sudden changes in the temperature or to the inclemency of the season4 ,in former chapters some1 if not all1 of these ailments have been referred to1 but it may be more convenient to our readers to include in one chapter a brief description of the ailments and the remedies and means of prevention4 ,,swine ,,fever ,some thirty years since the losses from this disease were of so serious a nature that the ,board of ,agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it out1 as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura pneumonia in cattle1 and foot and mouth disease4 ,the success of their efforts was not at all commensurate with the outlay4 ,the failure was attributed to many causes2 amongst them the want of a complete knowledge of the disease1 the impossibility of diagnosing it during the life of the patient1 the absence of sympathy on the part of the local veterinary surgeons owing to certain steps taken by the then ,veterinary ,adviser of the ,board1 to which further reference is now inadvisable1 and to the general opposition of pig-keepers who had as little faith in many of the post mortems and their results as in the power of the authorities to stamp out the disease which under various names had been more or less common in the country so long as they could remember4 ,doubts were also passed on the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever1 or as it was variously termed red soldier1 spots1 etc4 ,this disbelief was probably due in part to the fact that some of the external symptoms of swine fever1 swine erysipelas1 and heart disease1 such as discoloration of the skin were of a similar character4 ,in some instances this redness of the skin1 which was looked upon as a sure sign that the pig had died from swine fever1 did not prove to be infectious1 as no other cases followed amongst the in-contact pigs4 ,this led to the general belief that swine fever was not necessarily infectious4 ,dissatisfaction with the arbitrary manner in which the restrictions in movement1 etc41 were carried out did not mend matters1 nor help to render the efforts of the ,board more successful4 ,at the present time it is imperative on the part of the owner of an ill pig to report the fact to the nearest policeman4 ,the owner then merely carries out the instructions supplied to him by the police so that it is almost unnecessary to state that the symptoms of swine fever are several4 ,at times the attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead the next morning1 no discoloration of the skin or other external symptoms being visible before or immediately after death4 ,as a rule when the pig is attacked the first symptom is loss of appetite1 generally accompanied by a feverish condition of the skin which shows more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder1 and inside the thighs1 or in those portions of the body where the skin is the thinnest and most free from hair4 ,the great desire of the affected pig is to burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed1 save when the feverish thirst impels it to seek moisture of any sort or kind1 even urine which may have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the sty4 ,many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry1 husky cough1 a gummy discharge exudes from the eyes and forms a ring round them1 the ankles become affected1 and the muscles of the back become weakened so that the pig has difficulty in walking4 ,the discoloration of the skin may or may not increase1 but the weakness gradually becomes greater so that death may follow within a day or two from the first attack4 ,occasionally the affected pig will continue to live for several days1 and eventually recover so much that it can be fatted1 but there exists a great risk of the recovered pig being what is termed a carrier of the disease1 and possessing the ability to infect other pigs with which it may come in close contact1 although the germs of the disease which it carries do not affect its own health4 ,similar instances of human beings being carriers of the disease have been recorded4 ,so difficult is it at times to discover the source of the infection of swine fever that certain persons who are not amongst the strongest believers in the practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary profession assert that swine fever need not necessarily be the result of infection1 but that injudicious feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will sometimes cause an outbreak4 ,there does not appear to be the slightest ground for this belief1 as there is a specific virus which when it obtains ingress into the body of the pig1 whether by the mouth1 nose1 or in any other way1 may result in an attack1 more or less severe1 of swine fever1 unless the virus has become so attenuated that it is unable to affect the host sufficiently4 ,this attenuation1 which is due to causes which are probably not completely known1 is commonly the cause of the absence of further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of pigs which has had a very mild attack4 ,this variation in the virulence of most infectious diseases has been noticed and recorded4 ,at the present time the ,board of ,agriculture have suspended the slaughter order in cases where the owner of the pigs desires to inoculate the in-contact pigs with serum which is supplied from the ,veterinary ,college4 ,the experiment has not been in operation sufficiently long enough to express a confident opinion upon its results1 but it is stated that in ,denmark the inoculation of the pigs which have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved to be a success4 ,the risks of carrying out the experiment are by no means slight1 but appear to be worth running if there be any great probability of success4 ,,swine ,,erysipelas ,the symptoms of this disease1 which fortunately is not so common as swine fever1 owing probably to its being more fatal and in a shorter time1 are very similar to those of swine fever1 save that the husky cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back are generally absent4 ,the post mortem shows distinctive differences from those of swine fever4 ,there appears to be far greater difficulty in thoroughly disinfecting the sty in which pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed than after swine fever cases2 not only so1 but the virus remains active for a very long period1 so that any accident which may expose the virus even after many months may affect any pigs with which it comes in contact4 ,in an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable to have the unaffected pigs inoculated as well as those housed in a sty or building in which at any time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed4 ,a certain limited number may die1 and a few suffer for a time1 but the total loss will be considerably reduced4 ,,anthrax1 ,,foot ,,and ,,mouth ,,disease ,,and ,,rabies ,it may be unnecessary to describe these very infectious or contagious diseases to which pigs are subject1 as fortunately the steps taken to stamp them out1 and which were much decried when taken by the ,board of ,agriculture1 have proved so successful that the two latter are stamped out1 and the first named is so promptly and effectually dealt with that a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded4 ,,cramp1 ,,diarrh,,oe,a ,,and ,,epileptic ,,fits ,these diseases1 which are more frequent amongst young pigs1 have been fully described in the chapters dealing with the rearing1 weaning1 and growing of pigs1 where it is pointed out that they are all mainly due to faults in feeding1 and the simple remedies applicable are there given4 ,hernia and ,scrotal ,hernia are also treated upon in the chapter on the ,farrowing ,sow4 ,,inversion ,,of ,,the ,,vagina ,,or ,,the ,,uterus ,these two troubles1 of which the latter is a complete expulsion and the former only a partial protrusion of the breeding bag1 are generally the result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing4 ,the second is almost impossible of treatment1 and indeed may be declared as fatal1 so that the loss may be reduced by prompt slaughter4 ,the first varies in extent2 a partial or limited inversion may at times be noticeable during the latter stages of pregnancy1 and then after delivery may disappear without treatment until the pressure due to the increasing size of the foetus again causes it4 ,even in serious cases which attend the delivery and are due to excessive straining of the sow1 the attack is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment is applied4 ,the first thing is to wash the protruding part with warm water1 to which some disinfectant has been added1 in order that all dirt1 short straw1 etc41 shall be removed4 ,the sow should then be made to rise1 or if she refuses1 as is not uncommon1 the hind quarters of the sow should be raised and the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced back4 ,in order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches with strong cord or leather lace should be inserted into the edges of the vulva--these need not be very close together or otherwise the sow would be unable to make water4 ,for a few days the sow must be kept as quiet as possible and fed on a little nourishing but laxative food1 so that the pressure on the vagina is slight until the muscles regain their normal strength4 ,should there be the slightest symptom of constipation1 salts or castor oil should be given to the sow4 ,no harm1 but rather good1 will attend the giving of a gentle dose of salts at the first time of feeding after the operation as there is certain to be an amount of inflammation present4 ,,inversion ,,of ,,the ,,rectum ,this expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed is not often experienced amongst mature pigs4 ,young pigs are not uncommonly affected save when constipation is neglected1 or when the food is of a heating nature which causes continual difficulty on the part of the pig in expelling the faeces4 ,the effort of straining causes the gut to exude4 ,similar treatment1 save as to the stitching of the part1 as with inversion of the vagina1 should be followed4 ,,tender ,,feet ,this trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or rheumatism1 and is generally due to the same causes1 injudicious feeding1 etc4 ,in the latter disease the ankles are mainly affected1 in the case of fever in the feet1 the feet only are affected4 ,a strong dose of ,epsom salts should be given and daily doses of nitre should be given in the food4 ,the object should be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure or remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet which follows the fever4 ,poulticing the feet and applying diluted white oils by adding equal quantities of water and vinegar around the coronets are both remedial measures of great value4 ,,constipation ,this trouble is very common amongst pigs which are confined to the sties1 its avoidance is comparatively easy1 when the want of exercise is the sole cause4 ,a run in an enclosure or even in the road will almost always result in the pig evacuating dung and water4 ,a dose of salts1 varying from #a_/b oz4 to #a-a_/b oz4 for each pig1 according to age1 in the next supply of food is advisable4 ,constipation is usually the first indication of many of the troubles to which the pig is heir4 ,the little pig on its mother becomes constipated when the food fed to the mother is unsuitable1 and the pig suffers from indigestion2 fever caused by a chill is also foretold by constipation which should be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor oil2 the last only to be used in severe cases4 ,linseed oil is also frequently used to relieve the constipation1 but with this there is a fear of billiousness following its use4 ,if exercise and the above remedies do not effect a cure1 an enema of soap and water or even glycerine may be necessary4 ,old-fashioned pigmen remove the hard and knotty faeces by the aid of the finger4 ,,eczema ,this is sometimes called a skin disease1 but it appears to be rather a symptom of a severe attack of indigestion or of billiousness than a disease in itself4 ,it shows itself in the form of a bright red spot1 varying in size from that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling1 these spots vary greatly in number4 ,small pimples appear on the spots from which a sticky fluid exudes4 ,as soon as the bowels are thoroughly relieved by aperient medicine1 the spots become dark in colour and peel off the skin4 ,the application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding of them4 ,a dose of sulphur of one to eight drachms in addition to the salts will be beneficial4 ,frequently the pig will refuse to eat1 it will then be necessary to dose it4 ,the pig must be caught1 its head raised and the liquid gently poured down its throat1 the greatest care being taken not to pour the liquid whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine will go into the lungs and cause suffocation1 or inflammation of the lungs which will generally prove fatal4 ,,measles ,this is a trouble of a very similar character to eczema save that the red spots are more numerous and of a more irritating character4 ,the patient is continually rubbing itself against the wall or any prominence in an endeavour to relieve the itching4 ,the pig is also more feverish4 ,the pig should be placed in a warm sty1 with plenty of dry straw1 into which it will quickly burrow4 ,a dose of ,epsom salts to which is added a small quantity of spirit of nitre should be given1 as the pig affected will almost invariably refuse food for a time4 ,neat's foot or sweet oil applied to the spots will relieve the irritation4 ,,rickets ,this is not by any means a common ailment amongst pigs1 but it is very hereditary4 ,the most common cause is too close breeding4 ,the bones and joints appear to be unequal to the performance of their duties1 the pig staggers and stumbles when it attempts to move1 whilst sometimes the back is affected1 when the pig is stated to be suffering from swayback4 ,as a rule treatment is inadvisable as recovery is doubtful4 ,the first loss by knocking the pig on the head is generally the least4 ,,tuberculosis ,pigs1 like unto human beings1 are much subject to tuberculosis when they are kept under conditions similar to those which result in human beings becoming affected4 ,the disease is highly infectious1 pigs coming in contact with or even being housed in sties where pigs affected have been recently kept are very likely to become infected4 ,some persons declare that tuberculosis1 or1 as it is more commonly called1 consumption1 is hereditary4 ,for this there does not appear to be any foundation4 ,the chief thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to keep them away from contagion4 ,although many parts of the body may be attacked by tuberculosis1 the lungs are more frequently affected than any other of the organs1 owing probably to the ease with which infection by the minute germ is conveyed to the lungs in the act of breathing4 ,in the past a considerable number of pigs became infected through being fed on skim milk which contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering from a tuberculous udder4 ,in these cases of the lungs and the bowels becoming tubercular1 the pigs become unthrifty and frequently waste away and die4 ,when the bones and other portions of the body are attacked the development of the disease is not so rapid1 but in any case the wisest plan is to destroy the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in which it has been kept4 ,save when the disease is local and of very limited duration the meat of a pig suffering from tuberculosis is unfit for human consumption4 ,,worms ,pigs are subject to various kinds of worms4 ,of these the most serious by far is the worm which causes the disease called ,trichinosis in man4 ,the worms are transmitted to man in pork from a diseased pig4 ,thorough cooking of meat appears to destroy the vitality of the worm1 but in foreign countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or an undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon4 ,fortunately1 ,trichinosis is almost unknown in this country1 owing to our more stringent sanitary conditions1 the disease being due in the pig to the eating of human excrement in which are thread worms4 ,the most common kind of pig worm in this country is the round white worm1 pointed at both ends4 ,its length varies from one to several inches4 ,its presence is often unsuspected until one or more of the worms are noticed in the dung of the pig4 ,it is readily got rid of by keeping the pigs from food for at least twelve hours1 and then giving them a little tempting food in which a dose of santonine1 varying from three to ten grains for each pig1 according to its age1 has been added4 ,some two hours later a dose of castor oil of from #a_/d oz4 to #b oz41 or of one to two ounces of ,epsom salts1 should be given in milk or some other tempting food4 ,similar treatment will prove successful in the case of pigs affected with the smaller kind of worms save that of the worm which causes what is commonly known as husk4 ,this worm makes its home in the windpipe and bronchial tubes4 ,it is advisable to obtain from a chemist a drench for the riddance of this worm1 as the remedies will consist of linseed oil1 turpentine1 spirits of camphor1 and asafoetida4 ,,sore ,,teats ,occasionally the teats of sows1 especially sows with their first litters1 become chapped or sore4 ,this trouble is frequently due to the too vigorous sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is short1 to the biting of the teats when the sharp little teeth have not been broken off1 or even to cold winds4 ,an application of boro-glyceride will usually effect a speedy cure4 ,in persistent cases it will be advisable to give the sow a dose or two of opening medicine such as salts or sulphur4 ,,salt ,,and ,,soda ,,poisoning ,although these can scarcely be classed as diseases1 the effects are often more serious than those of some actual diseases to which swine are more or less subject4 ,in the majority of cases the cause is the neglect of the cook to keep separate from the swill the water in which salted meat or other food has been boiled1 or the water to which soda has been added in the washing of the plates1 etc4 ,an attack if at all severe is usually fatal4 ,the symptoms are a discoloration of the skin1 and a refusal of food4 ,as these are the usual symptoms of several other ailments1 it is difficult to determine the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination4 ,it is to be feared that this mixing of a solution of salt and soda with the other swill will be one of the difficulties met with in the more general utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,curing ,,of ,,pork ,in the good old times bacon curing was carried on in the large majority of farm-houses as well as in many houses in the country districts1 not only where there were conveniences for the keeping of pigs1 but many householders were in the habit of buying carcases of pork from their neighbours and curing the major portion for the following year's supply of cured meats4 ,even the better class labourers would kill and cure it so that as long as it lasted they had on hand a supply of most nutritious and suitable food4 ,unfortunately a great change has taken place of late years2 this convenient and profitable plan has been superseded4 ,the causes may have been many2 amongst them1 the importation of immense quantities of salt pork of very inferior quality at very low prices from the ,united ,states2 the change in the public taste which is now for mild cured and lean bacon from young pigs1 instead of the more heavily salted meats from older and fatter pigs2 the great decrease in the number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in urban districts through the operation of the so-called sanitary regulations2 and probably from the different style of living1 which may or may not be an improvement1 amongst the residents in country districts4 ,it may be that one of the many changes which have been brought about by1 and which will also follow1 the war will be a return to the more simple and less luxurious manner of living4 ,it is certain that a more economical system will have to be followed1 and one of the means of effecting this may be a return to the keeping of pigs during their growing stage on the house and garden refuse1 and then when the pigs have been fattened1 by the killing and curing of the carcase for home consumption4 ,much has been written during recent years about the folly of allowing so many millions of sovereigns to go out of the country in payment for the vast weight of bacon1 hams1 and lard which we import from foreign countries4 ,residents in the country have been blamed by town residents and literary men for their alleged want of enterprise in not breeding and fattening the few extra million pigs which would furnish an amount of pig produce equal to that imported1 and thus1 as they declare1 save the country that outlay which is a dead loss to these islands4 ,it may at once be frankly admitted that a very considerable increase in the number of our pig population is possible without any very greatly extended cost of food1 but when it is contended that farmers and even cottagers are grossly neglectful in not producing sufficient pork and its products for the use of the whole of the population of these islands1 an injustice is done1 as the breeding and feeding of pigs is a business calling1 not a philanthropical pursuit4 ,farmers and cottagers are like other manufacturers of necessary articles2 they produce in order to live1 and they cease to manufacture an article when its production ceases to repay them for their outlay and trouble4 ,they must of necessity do so1 or they come to grief and are unable to carry on their farms or businesses4 ,it matters not what the cause be for the ability of the foreigner to produce and land on our markets articles cheaper than we can afford to offer them at1 the result is the same--the home production is automatically reduced4 ,there are many causes which have helped to render it possible for foreigners to supply us with a certain proportion of the pork and bacon which we require at a less cost than our home breeder and feeders of pigs can supply it4 ,these include help to the farmers from the ,governments of certain countries such as ,denmark1 where assistance is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs for the improvement of the native pigs1 in the reduced railway and other rates on the transit of pigs1 foods1 and bacon1 in the provision of certain foods1 and in carrying out experiments in order to show how they may be utilised in the best manner4 ,stud farms have also been established from which pure bred boars are distributed1 whilst the whole industry of pig breeding and bacon curing is carried on under the supervision and with the advice of many ,government officials appointed for the purpose4 ,the intrinsic value of this assistance is perceptible1 as in no other country are pig-keeping and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary success than in ,denmark4 ,it is also asserted that the general system of farming in ,denmark has also contributed very largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig industry1 in that a very large proportion of the land is owned and farmed by comparatively small farmers1 men who have a direct interest in the improvement of the land1 and who with their families perform the major portion of the work on the land and in attendance on the stock4 ,the land is almost certain to be well managed and the stock to receive the best possible attention with1 comparatively speaking1 little cost as to labour4 ,the animals on the farm are likely to be of a higher grade and the returns from them of an increased character1 than when strangers and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds them4 ,another of the great advantages possessed by some of our foreign competitors is the very much better supply of feeding stuffs and their very considerably lower cost4 ,take the ,united ,states1 for instance1 the enormous supply of maize alone enables ,american pigmen to manufacture pork at a cost which enables the packers to land bacon1 hams1 and lard on the ,british shores which our home pig producers cannot approach4 ,although it cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the ,states than in ,england1 yet there are some countries from which we import pork products where the labour is far more plentiful and less costly4 ,in the future the allowance for labour will have to be on a more liberal scale than hitherto when estimating the cost of producing pork1 unless the number of persons owning and occupying small holdings is greatly increased4 ,it has been stated that our home producers of pork and bacon will obtain a considerable advantage in the future in that the freight on the imported meats will be so much higher4 ,it is most probable that this will increase the expense of landing bacon1 etc41 on our markets2 on the other hand1 as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening foods1 the cost of food will most likely be increased to quite the same if not to a greater extent4 ,the only plan to reduce this extra expense will be to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying more attention to the growth of various foods suitable for pigs1 attending more carefully to our pigs and feeding them on common-sense lines4 ,in these particulars there is room for much improvement in many piggeries4 ,by reducing the cost of the production of pork and by the more general adoption of the system of home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon at less cost1 but we shall have a far greater amount of the finest quality of bacon and hams generally available4 ,we imagine that the reader of the earlier portion of this book will experience little difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a minimum cost--it will then remain to cure and dry it properly4 ,the fattened pig should not be fed for some twenty-four hours before it is killed2 after slaughter the carcase should remain hanging until it is thoroughly cooled4 ,the manner of cutting up will depend on the custom in the particular district4 ,in some parts of the country the pig is split down1 the head1 feet1 and tail taken off1 the leaf and kidneys and the skirt taken out1 the loin and the crop with a certain proportion of the lean cut off1 and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn2 after the necessary trimming a ,wiltshire side remains4 ,in other districts the ham and the shoulder are cut off and the side is converted into a middle1 a ham and a shoulder or fore-ham4 ,the jowls are taken off the head and salted with the bacon and hams4 ,the upper part of the head1 or1 as it is commonly termed1 the scorf1 is usually used with the feet in the manufacture of brawn1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 pork cheese--presumably from its being cooled in a form1 and then turned out on to the dish on which it is served at table4 ,the first operation in curing is to distribute a small quantity of salt all over the meat to be cured4 ,if allowed to remain about forty-eight hours the blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved1 and will have exuded from the carcase4 ,this liquid should be thrown away4 ,a mixture in the proportion of #d lbs4 salt1 #a lb4 coarse brown sugar1 #a oz4 saltpetre1 #a_/d oz4 bay salt1 and #a_/d oz4 salt prunell should be prepared1 and a portion of it be applied to all parts of the meat and particularly in the pocket hole1 if the shoulder blade has been drawn4 ,this should be continued for from twenty to thirty days1 according to the thickness of the meat and the degree of saltness desired4 ,in one or two districts of a limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat violently with a large pebble when applying the salt mixture1 the alleged object being to rub in the salt2 but for this there is not the slightest necessity as the result of the rubbing is nil1 since the salt will penetrate the meat equally as well without the manipulation as with it4 ,the principal point is to secure the distribution of the salt to every part of the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve it4 ,when sufficiently cured the meat should be hung up and dried4 ,if it be desired to have it smoked this is best done at the village bakery or smoke drying house4 ,smoking of hams and bacon is possible on a small scale with the aid of a smoke oven such as supplied by ,messrs4 ,douglas and ,sons of ,putney1 but it is1 as a rule1 cheaper and less troublesome to send the meat to the village smoking house4 ,it will be advisable to brand or otherwise mark each piece of cured meat sent to be smoked1 as the return of the same pieces is thus assured4 ,where the home curing of bacon and hams is followed1 this is best carried out from the middle of ,october to the end of ,march2 if it be attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is necessary4 ,the manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the year through as the meat is usually kept in the brine1 where it will keep perfectly good for a considerable time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed in the brine4 ,to secure this it is advisable to have the pig killed in the evening1 covered over with a cloth to prevent the flies approaching it1 and hanging it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has escaped ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot4 ,it may be advisable to note that the last is only possible with a small pig during the hot weather4 ,in the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only salt and saltpetre4 ,the use of sugar should be avoided in the summer1 as its use is likely to result in fermentation in hot weather4 ,there are two other points in connection with bacon curing on which a change of opinion has taken place1 or is taking place4 ,these are the cause of what are called in the trade seedy bellies1 and the effect on the bacon of the female fat pig being in a state of oestrum when it is slaughtered4 ,until quite recently the first of these troubles1 and it is a most serious one to the trade1 was generally considered to be due to the second4 ,it was believed by curers that the slight inflammation noticeable in the mammary glands of the female pig when she is in heat resulted in these so-called seedy bellies if the pig was in that condition when she was slaughtered4 ,this belief may have been either the cause or the result1 or both1 of the common saying that the meat of a sow pig killed when it was in heat will not take the salt properly1 and that it is therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition has passed away before the pig is slaughtered4 ,this contention has been one of the arguments used when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated4 ,of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been spayed1 so that the unspayed fat pigs have been nearly as numerous as those male pigs which have been castrated1 and as the sow pigs come in heat each three weeks1 and continue so for from three to five days1 a very considerable proportion of them must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the large bacon-curing factories1 without any loss resulting4 ,we may1 therefore1 assume that it matters little whether the pig be in heat or not when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies result4 ,on this point also the verdict is against the common belief1 as ,messrs4 ,mackenzie and ,marsh have carried out a series of investigations at ,cambridge which clearly proved that seedy bellies were equally as common when the sow pigs were not in heat and when they were2 but that the discoloration which resembles numbers of small spots of colour varying from dark blue to light red in the mammary glands is merely an excess of pigment1 the darker shade being common in pigs with dark coloured hair and skin such as the ,large ,blacks1 ,berkshires1 etc41 and the lighter shade in pigs of the ,tamworth breed4 ,in the bacon manufactured from pigs with a white skin and white hair there is no discoloration or seedy bellies4 ,although it has been generally considered by bacon curers that pigs of a white colour were preferable for their trade1 and this to such an extent that some of the bacon curers in ,ireland will pay a slightly higher price for a pig with a white skin1 the preference was generally considered to be due to the more presentable appearance of a side of bacon from a white than from a black pig2 it would appear that in the future a still greater preference will be observable when it becomes generally known that the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy bellies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to make money out of ,pigs ,one must go on the ,,non-,,stop ,,principle1 every little check to growth means so much less profit4 ,now we know and there are thousands of other pig feeders know that ,,willson',s ,,canadian ,,pig ,,powders are just the very thing that is wanted1 one or two powders a week to each ,pig enables them to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it4 ,nature does the rest4 ,you will find this so and the cost of powders is very small4 ,illustration3 ,willson's ,canadian ,pig ,powders are a ,great ,investment ,illustration3 -------------------------- #g for #f;d41 post free #g;d4 #af #a_/- #a_/b #dh #b_/i #c_/- #add #h_/- and in bulk in tins #ba_/- post free4 ,we have agents almost everywhere4 -------------------------- ,sole ,manufacturer3 ,,stephen ,,willson ,canadian ,pig ,powder ,factory ,,peterborough 7,who also keeps a big experimental piggery74 99 99 99 99 99 ,continuous ,cropping and ,tillage ,dairy ,farming for ,small ,farmers4 ,by ,t4 ,,wibberley1 ,n4,d4,a41 ,n4,d4,d4 ,third ,edition4 ,price #c_/f net2 postage #d;d4 ,here ,mr4 ,wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man his system of all-weather farming1 capable of doubling or trebling the profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms4 ,in this book he discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him4 ,of all ,booksellers or from the ,publishers1 ,c4 ,,arthur ,,pearson1 ,ltd41 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4#b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,anthrax1 #afb ,apthous fever1 #ae1 #afb ,arrival of little pigs1 #hb ,artichokes for pigs1 #hi ,attendance on farrowing sow1 #hj ,bacon curing1 #agg ,bacon smoking1 #agg ,bacon from young pigs1 #aga ,barley meal as sole fatting food1 #acd ,barn for pigsty1 #aji ,baulked sows1 #gf ,baulking sows1 #id ,berkshire breed1 #cc ,black pigs1 #ge ,blind teats1 #gj ,boar's teats1 #fb ,board of ,agriculture's premiums1 #dg ,bob-tailed pigs1 #hf ,breeds of pigs at shows1 #ag ,british ,berkshire ,society1 #bg ,butter milk1 #aec ,cabbages for pigs1 #aja ,canadian system1 #dg ,carriers of swine fever1 #aeh1 #ahh ,castrating pigs1 #aje ,castrating ruptured pigs1 #hh ,cause of parti-coloured pigs1 #ae ,close breeding1 #df ,clover for pigs1 #hi ,coleseed for pigs1 #ajc ,constipation in pigs1 #afd ,consumption in pigs1 #afg ,cooked v4 uncooked maize1 #adg ,cooked v4 uncooked potatoes1 #aej ,cooking pig foods1 #add ,cooking potatoes1 #adg ,cross-bred pigs1 #ci ,cross breds v4 pure breds1 #de ,cumberland pigs1 #ch ,cutting up the pig1 #agf ,danish pig-keeping1 #agd ,dead pigs1 #hc ,delicacy of pure-bred pigs1 #de ,dentition of pigs1 #di ,diarrhoea1 #afb ,difficulty in disinfecting sties1 #afa ,diseases of pigs1 #aeg ,anthrax ,apthous fever ,constipation ,cramp ,diarrhoea ,eczema ,epileptic fits ,foot and mouth disease ,inversion of the rectum vagina uterus ,measles ,rabies ,rickets ,salt poisoning ,soda poisoning ,sore teats ,swine erysipelas ,swine fever ,tender feet ,tuberculosis ,worms ,dorset pigs1 #be ,dosing pigs1 #aff ,dry beds1 #ajc ,dysentery1 #he ,eczema1 #afe ,effect of food and climate1 #adh ,epileptic fits1 #afb ,essex half-blacks1 #ba ,excited young sows1 #ha ,exhibition of pigs1 #aac ,exposure of mangolds1 #aeb ,extra food in the autumn1 #aee ,farmer owners1 #agd ,farrowing sow1 #gi ,fits1 #hf ,flabby udders1 #gj ,foot and mouth disease1 #ae ,foster mothers1 #aai ,garget1 #aja ,gloucestershire ,old ,spots breed1 #cg ,government help1 #dg ,grade breeding pigs1 #df ,grazing pigs1 #gc ,ham curing1 #aga ,hampshire pigs1 #bj ,hernia1 #afb ,high-backed pigs1 #ajj ,holywell ,victoria ,countess1 #gg ,husk1 #afj ,importation of bacon and lard1 #agb ,improved breeds1 origin of1 #ac ,increased cost of freight1 #age ,infectivity of swine fever1 #aeh ,influence of sire1 #dc1 #ed dam1 #ed ,inoculation for erysipelas1 #afb swine fever1 #afb ,inversion of the rectum1 #afd vagina1 #afd uterus1 #afb ,large boars1 #ei ,large ,black breed1 #cj ,large blue and white pigs1 #bc ,large ,white breed1 #cj ,large ,white ,ulster breed1 #ce ,lincolnshire ,curly ,coated breed1 #cf ,litter for pigs1 #ajc ,lucerne for pigs1 #hi1 #aec ,maize supply1 #agd ,mangolds for pigs1 #aja ,mating the young sow1 #gb suckling sow1 #ib ,measles1 #aff ,medicine for farrowing sow1 #hc ,mere size studied1 #fe ,messrs4 ,harris's scheme1 #dc ,middle ,white breed1 #ca ,milk for sucking pigs1 #ajj ,mixture of food1 #ace ,model piggeries1 #ajh ,neat sows1 #fe ,non-infectious swine fever1 #afj ,norfolk pigs1 #bd ,northamptonshire pigs1 #bc ,number of pigs for a sow1 #ig ,number in a litter1 #fh ,origin of improved breeds1 #ac ,oxfordshire pigs1 #bc1 #bg ,parsnips for pigs1 #hi ,parti-coloured pigs1 cause of1 #aae ,peat moss litter1 #ajd ,persistence of erysipelas virus1 #afa ,pig calendar1 #adh ,pig fattening1 #acb ,pig keeping in orchards1 #abh woods1 #abh ,pigment1 excess of1 #agi ,pig pillows1 #fe ,pig shacking1 #aec ,pigs suffering from heat1 #abd ,plenty of teats1 #fg ,potatoes for pigs1 #hi ,poulticing pigs' feet1 #afd ,practical v4 show points1 #da ,prepotency of dam1 #ee sire1 #ee ,prolificacy1 #db indications of1 #fg value of1 #db ,pure breeds1 #bf ,quality of bone1 #fj ,rabies1 #afb ,rape for pigs1 #hi ,rearing of young pigs1 #ig ,recorded pedigree insufficient1 #dd ,rectum1 inversion of1 #afd ,registering produce1 #db ,remaking sow's bed1 #hc ,rickets in pigs1 #aff ,ring pigs1 #fa ,rollers for fat pigs1 #aag ,round white worms1 #afh ,rudgwick pigs1 #ba ,rupture in pigs hereditary1 #hh ,ruptured boar1 #fa ,salt poisoning1 #afi ,santonine as a cure for worms1 #afh ,scrotal hernia1 #afb ,seedy bellies1 #agg ,selection of boar1 #ec sow1 #fc ,separated milk for little pigs1 #ajj ,sheeted pigs1 #bb ,size in boars1 #ei of pigs' ears1 #fj ,skim milk and tuberculosis1 #afg ,slaughter classes1 #aah ,small black breed1 #ah ,small joints wanted1 #ff ,small testicles1 #fa ,smoke ovens1 #agg ,smoking bacon1 #agg ,soft pork1 #ace ,sore-tailed pigs1 #hf ,sore teats1 #afi ,sow's udder1 #fg ,spaying sow pigs1 #aea ,sty facing east1 #ajh north1 #ajh south1 #ajh west1 #ajh ,sugar in pork curing1 #agg ,sussex pigs1 #ba ,swayback pigs1 #aff ,swine erysipelas1 #afa ,swine fever1 #aeh virus1 #afj ,tares for pigs1 #aeb ,tender feet1 #afd ,trichinosis1 #afh ,tuberculosis in pigs1 #afg ,tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary1 #afg ,tuberculosis meat unhealthy1 #afg ,udder1 the sow's1 #fg ,undersized teats1 #gj ,uniformity in a herd1 #dd young pigs1 #dc ,unwieldly sows1 #fe ,utility points1 #db ,value of feeding qualities1 #ei ,value of whey1 #aeb ,variation in virulence of infectious diseases1 #afa ,varying food1 #acf ,vegetable food for pigs1 #hi1 #ace1 #aej ,weaning pigs1 #hi ,wheat meal1 #acf ,white peas for little pigs1 #ajj ,white-skinned pigs for bacon1 #ajf1 #agi ,worms1 #afh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dennis',s ,,lincolnshire ,,pig ,,powders ,,are ,,the ,,best ,,medicine for all ,,diseases of ,,pigs4 ,used by most of the leading ,,breeders and ,,exhibitors4 ,it will pay you well to use them regularly4 ,the cost is so small1 #aj;d4 per doz41 post free #a_/-4 #add ,powders post free #aj_/-4 ,sidenote3 ,,healthy ,,pigs ,,pay ,,well ,illustration3 ,,dennis's ,,lincolnshire ,,pig ,,powders ,,proprietor ,j4 ,w4 ,,dennis ,,louth4 ,,england ,trade ,mark ,no4 #ad1hci4 ,sidenote3 ,,sold ,,everywhere ,,dennis',s ,,special ,,worm ,,powders are recognised as the surest means of ridding pigs of these parasites4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,,payne1 of ,tor ,hole1 ,chewton ,mendip1 says3--,i found #fc worms in my stye1 after giving your ,worm ,powders4 ,in packets1 #f;d4 ,post free #g-a_/b;d4 #f packets ,post free #c_/d4 ,sold by all ,chemists1 ,boots ,ltd41 ,taylor's ,drug ,co4 ,ltd41 and ,co-operative ,societies1 at all ,branches4 ,proprietor3 ,,john ,w4 ,,dennis1 ,veterinary ,chemist ,,louth1 ,,lincs4 ,all practical ,farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should get at once a copy of ,,farming ,,on ,,factory ,,lines ,,or ,continuous ,cropping for ,large ,farmers ,,by ,t4 ,,wibberley1 ,n4,d4,a41 ,n4,d4,d4 7,of ,queen's ,university1 ,belfast74 99 99 99 99 99 ,second ,edition #f_/- net 7postage #d;d47 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 pointing finger ,it forms the great authoritative test book on the ,wibberley ,continuous ,cropping ,system1 and is a new and frankly revolutionary guide to ,,all-,,weather ,farming and to cheaper ,milk1 ,corn and ,beef ,production4 ,in times past the climate has often conquered the ,british ,farmer1 but it has not conquered ,wibberley4 ,he has conquered it1 turning what otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in tilling the land4 ,it sounds impossible4 ,it reads like a fairy tale--yet the whole of the scheme of ',wibberleyism' or ',continuous ,cropping1' ',farming on ,factory ,lines'--as the system is variously termed--is in reality beautifully simple4 ,it is so effective that one wonders what our highly paid officials have been thinking about1 when they have not hammered out some such a tillage system as ,wibberley's years before ,wibberley was born4--,,the ,,smallholder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,read all about it in this new and valuable work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,can be obtained by order from any ,bookseller1 or post free for #f_/d from ,messrs4 ,c4 ,,arthur ,,pearson1 ,limited1 #ah ,henrietta ,street1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 #b4 ,,some ,,useful ,,handbooks ,,for ,,smallholders ,,and ,,others ,the ,hobby ,gardener4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,marshall1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,with #bb full-page ,illustrations showing clearly the various operations throughout a year's work in the garden4 ,in ,stiff ,three-coloured ,cover4 ,price #a_/f net1 post free #a_/i4 ,small ,gardens and ,how to make the ,most of ,them4 ,by ,v4 ,p4 ,,biddle4 ,cloth ,boards4 ,price #a_/f1 post free #a_/i4 ,a most useful ,handbook for the ,amateur4 ,full instructions are given for laying out1 bedding1 arrangement of borders1 vegetable culture1 flowers and fruit trees1 room plants1 window boxes1 etc4 ,greenhouses3 ,how to ,make and ,manage ,them4 ,by ,,william ,f4 ,,rowles4 ,with numerous ,diagrams4 ,cloth4 ,price #a_/f1 post free #a_/i4 ,the ,dog3 ,in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,f4 ,m4 ,,archer4 ,with #ab ,illustrations by ,s4 ,t4 ,,dadd4 ,cloth4 ,price #a_/f1 post free #a_/i4 ,cage and ,singing ,birds4 ,by ,,george ,,gardner4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 ,price #a_/f1 post free #a_/i4 ,some of the ,contents are3--,birds for ,song1 for ,exhibition and for ,breeding--,care of ,young--,seeds3 how and what to buy--,moulting for ,song and for ,exhibition--,colour-feeding3 how it is done--,diseases of ,cage ,birds and how to treat them--,bird ,fever--,parasites and how to destroy them1 etc4 etc4 ,an ,easy ,poultry ,guide4 ,by ,,edward ,,brown1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with #h full-page ,illustrations and other ,diagrams4 ,pocket size4 ,cloth4 ,price #a_/-net1 post free #a_/b4 ,war on ,weeds4 ,by ,,farmer ,,giles4 ,price #f;d4 net1 post free #g;d4 ,this book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen proscribed weeds1 also a complete list of all other farm and garden weeds1 with sketches1 full descriptions1 and preventive measures4 ,war-,time ,farming4 ,by ,t4 ,,wibberley4 ,price #f;d4 net1 post free #g;d4 ,this small book tells how the man on the land can use it to the greatest advantage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller1 or will be sent post-paid on receipt of the price mentioned by ,a4 ,f4 ,,sowter1 ,publisher1 ,smallholder and ,small ,owner ,offices1 #af-ah1 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 ,,farming ,,made ,,easy ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,newsham1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,principal of the ,monmouthshire ,agricultural and ,horticultural ,institution1 ,usk4 ,author of ,the ,potato ,book1 c41 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #c_/f net4 ,this is an easy ,guide to the most useful ,elements of ,agriculture4 ,it has been specially written by a thoroughly qualified agriculturist1 with a wide and successful practical knowledge of his subject1 for the use of the countless thousands of men and women who are now streaming back--eager but half instructed--to work on the land4 ,it covers practically every department of farm labour and enterprise1 and provides the fullest and most reliable instruction for all who propose to take up ,agriculture in a serious and practical spirit1 as a means of livelihood4 ,can be obtained by order from any ,bookseller1 or post free for #c_/aj from ,,messrs4 ,c4 ,,arthur ,,pearson1 ,,limited1 #ah ,henrietta ,street1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 #b4 ,,books ,,for ,,smallholders1 ,,etc4 ,a ,,standard ,,book ,,by ,,an ,,expert ,,authority4 ,,dairy ,,farming ,,for ,,smallholders ,by ,,james ,,long1 formerly ,professor of ,dairy ,farming1 ,royal ,agricultural ,college2 ,author of ,the ,book of the ,pig1 etc4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #b_/f net1 post free #b_/i4 ,,the ,,chapters ,,deal ,,with3--,our ,dairy ,cows2 ,the ,cow and ,her ,management2 ,foods and ,feeding2 ,milk2 ,butter and ,butter ,making2 ,cheese ,making1 etc4 ,professor ,long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it4 ,the explanations are lucid and clear4--,standard4 ,the smallholder who has made dairying part of his system1 or has facilities for doing so1 will be all the better for adding this book to those already in his possession4--,field4 ,this is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the dairy farmer's shelf4--,the ,dairy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,poultry ,,for ,,profit4 ,by ,e4 ,t4 ,,brown4 ,author of ,profitable ,poultry ,keeping 7,smallholders' ,library71 ,ducks1 ,geese and ,turkeys1 c4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 with #ae full-page illustrations and many diagrams4 ,a thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper4 ,,roses ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,them4 ,by ,,edwin ,,beckett1 ,v4,m4,h41 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,with portrait frontispiece4 ,price #b_/f net 7postage #c;d4 extra74 ,a handy little book by ,mr4 ,e4 ,beckett1 gardener at ,aldenham ,house1 and famous as a grower of exhibition vegetables1 as well as of plants generally4 ,he writes as a practical grower in a practical way1 dealing with soil and situation1 planting1 pruning1 watering1 propagation1 the cultivation of roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is satisfying4--,the ,field4 ,,the ,,smallholder',s ,,year ,,book4 ,published annually in ,december4 ,price #a_/f net1 per post #a_/i4 ,the ,smallholder's ,year ,book is now an institution4 ,it is the recognised court of appeal in all matters connected with the land1 in gardening1 farming1 poultry-keeping1 goat1 rabbit and bee-keeping circles4 ,it contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in ,,the ,,smallholder4 ,it solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to puzzle ,,you4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these ,handbooks may be obtained through your ,bookseller1 or will be forwarded post free1 on receipt of the price mentioned1 from ,c4 ,,arthur ,,pearson1 ,ltd41 #ag ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,london ,w4,c4 #b4 ,,the ,,smallholder ,,charts4 ,,on ,,card #aa-a_/b in4 ,,by #h-a_/b in4 ,,for ,,hanging ,,up4 7#a7 ,how to ,make a ,garden ,frame 7#b7 ,how and ,when to ,sow ,vegetable ,seeds 7#c7 ,the ,a4,b4,c4 of ,pig ,keeping 7#d7 ,the ,a4,b4,c4 of ,utility ,rabbit ,keeping 7#e7 ,the ,a4,b4,c4 of ,poultry ,keeping 7#f7 ,garden and ,orchard ,pests 7#g7 ,how and ,when to ,sow ,flower ,seeds 7#h7 ,how to ,cure ,poultry ,diseases 7#i7 ,how to ,cure ,pig ,diseases 7#aj7 ,fruit ,bottling 7#aa7 ,manuring ,made ,easy 7#ab7 ,the ,whole ,art of ,goat ,keeping ,single ,charts cost #d;d4 each1 or any ,six may be had for #a_/h post free4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,smallholder is issued in half-yearly volumes1 ,march to ,august1 and ,september to ,february4 ,bound in ,strong ,cloth4 ,price #d_/-net each2 post free #d_/f4 ,cases for binding1 including ,title ,page and ,index1 price #a_/i each2 post free #b_/-4 ,write to the ,editor ,the ,,smallholder ,office1 #af-ah ,henrietta ,street1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 #b4 ,,an ,,attractive ,,nature ,,book ,,for ,,the ,,young4 ,,in ,,nature',s ,,ways ,,by ,,marcus ,,woodward4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a book for all young ,lovers of ,natural ,history4 ,being an ,introduction to ,gilbert ,white's immortal ,natural ,history of ,selborne4 ,illustrated by ,j4 ,a4 ,,shepherd4 ,with ,preface by ,,wilfrid ,,mark ,,webb1 ,secretary of the ,selborne ,society4 ,this volume contains #h full-page ,illustrations on ,art ,paper in addition to the ,drawings in the ,text4 ,price in paper wrapper #a_/-net1 postage #c;d4 extra2 or in cloth boards1 price #b_/-net1 postage #d;d4 extra4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is a ',white's ,selborne' for the young2 giving passages from the original under different headings and side by side1 some talk about the bird or beast referred to2 with plenty of illustrations by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,shepherd1 full of his usual vitality4--,times4 ,we think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the young4--,field4 ,white's ',history of ,selborne' is here amplified and explained for young readers4 ,mr4 ,woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing on nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers1 and for many readers who are no longer young4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,shepherd's illustrations catch the spirit of the letterpress1 and are of a piece with the work that has made his reputation as an artist4--,literary ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,may be had of all ,booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of published price and postage from ,c4 ,,arthur ,,pearson1 ,,ltd41 ,henrietta ,street1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 #b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,changes to the text are listed as follows3 page #afh1 oze changed to oz41 7from #a_/d oz4 to #b oz417 page #afh1 b41 changed to be 7should be given in milk7 page #ahf1 suspected typo test for text 7the great authoritative test book7 page #ahg1 ,f4,r4,h4,s changed to ,f4,r4,h4,s4 7,a4 ,c4 ,marshall1 ,f4,r4,h4,s47