,transcriber's ,note ,this ,plain ,text version uses the ,latin-#a character set4 ,the figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance as the plates in the original1 but moved to follow the section which each illustrates4 ,minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original4 ,where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references added1 these are listed at the end of this book4 ,bold and small capital typeface in the original is represented in the ,plain ,text version by ,,upper ,,case4 ,italic typeface in the original is indicated in the ,plain ,text version by underscores4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,general view of water yards and ducklings on a large ,long ,island duck farm4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,,ducks ,,and ,,geese ,,by ,,harry ,m4 ,,lamon ,,senior ,,poultryman1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,animal ,,industry1 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,and ,,rob ,r4 ,,slocum ,,poultryman1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,animal ,,industry1 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,authors of ,the ,mating and ,breeding of ,poultry and ,turkey ,raising ,,illustrated ,,new ,,york ,,orange ,,judd ,,publishing ,,company ,,london ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench1 ,t,r,ue,b,n,e,r ,,co41 ,,limited #aibb ,,copyright1 #aibb1 ,,by ,,orange ,,judd ,,publishing ,,company ,all ,rights ,reserved ,,printed ,,in ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,preface ,of all lines of poultry keeping1 duck raising is unique in that it lends itself to the greatest degree of specialization and intensification along lines which are purely commercial4 ,on a comparatively small area thousands of ducklings can be reared and marketed yearly4 ,the call for information concerning the methods used by these commercial duck raisers has been considerable1 and since such information is not available in complete concise form the present book has been prepared partly to furnish just this information4 ,the methods used by successful ,long ,island duck raisers differ widely in some particulars and since in the space at command1 it has been impossible to describe all the methods used1 the plan has been adopted of detailing in the main the methods of one successful grower4 ,this it is believed will prove to be more helpful and less confusing than to attempt to give the method of several different men4 ,much space has been given to the operations of the commercial duck raisers but the fact is recognized that the great bulk of the ducks entering into the trade of the country is the product of small flocks kept on general farms4 ,for this reason a chapter has been added dealing with duck raising on the farm1 and attention is here called to the fact that most of the information given under commercial duck raising can be readily adapted to use in connection with the farm flock4 ,detailed1 complete information on goose raising is even more fragmentary than is the case with ducks4 ,yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a few geese at a profit on many farms1 and the need and call for information is quite general4 ,it is for this reason that a section of this book has been devoted to goose raising and in that section all the good reliable information available on the subject is given4 ,the special attention of the women of the farm is directed to the opportunity which goose raising offers to make a good profit on a small side line with the minimum of initial investment and of labor4 ,the greatest care has been taken to make the information on both duck and goose raising as complete and clear as possible4 ,however1 the authors appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations in making clear methods and operations which are more difficult to grasp from a word description1 and have therefore assembled a set of illustrations for this book1 the completeness and excellence of which have never before been approached in any book on the subject4 ,the illustrations alone are an education4 ,in preparing and presenting this book to the public1 the authors take pleasure in acknowledging their deep indebtedness to the following persons for help and information furnished3 ,roy ,e4 ,pardee ,john ,c4 ,kriner ,charles ,mc,clave ,stanley ,mason ,dr4 ,balliet ,william ,minnich ,george ,w4 ,hackett ,dawson ,brothers ,particular acknowledgment is due ,robert ,a4 ,tuttle for the manner in which he threw open his duck plant to the authors and for the most generous amount of time which he gave in furnishing information4 ,special acknowledgment is likewise due ,alfred ,r4 ,lee1 ,poultryman1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 for information secured from his ,farmers' ,bulletins on duck raising and goose raising4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,preface ,list of ,illustrations4 ,,part ,i--,,ducks ,chapter4 ,page4 ,i4 ,extent of the ,industry--,opportunities #c ,present ,extent of the ,industry--,different ,types of ,duck ,raising--,opportunities for ,duck ,raising--,prices for ,breeding ,stock--,ducks for ,ornamental ,purposes4 ,,ii4 ,breeds and ,varieties--,how to ,mate to ,produce ,exhibition ,specimens--,preparing ,ducks for the ,show--,catching and ,handling #i ,breeds of ,ducks--,classification of ,breeds--,marking the ,ducks--,nomenclature--,distinguishing the ,sex--,size--,popularity of ,breeds--,egg ,production--,size of ,duck ,eggs--,color of ,eggs--,broodiness--,general ,considerations in ,making the ,mating--,making the ,mating--,the ,pekin--,the ,aylesbury--,the ,rouen--,the ,cayuga--,the ,call--,the ,gray ,call--,the ,white ,call--,the ,black ,east ,india--,the ,muscovy--,the ,colored ,muscovy--,the ,white ,muscovy--,the ,blue ,swedish--,the ,crested ,white--,the ,buff--,the ,runner--,the ,fawn and ,white ,runner--,the ,white ,runner--,the ,penciled ,runner--,preparing ,ducks for the ,show--,catching and ,handling ,ducks--,packing and ,shipping ,hatching ,eggs4 ,,iii4 ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,location--,estimate of ,equipment and ,capital ,necessary in ,starting the ,business #db ,distribution--,stock ,used--,location of ,plant--,making a ,start in ,duck ,farming--,equipment1 ,capital1 etc4 ,required--,lay-out or ,arrangement of the ,plant--,land ,required--,number of ,breeders required--,housing ,required for ,breeders--,incubator ,capacity--,brooder ,capacity--,fattening ,houses or ,sheds--,feed ,storage--,killing and ,picking ,house--,resident--,horse ,power--,feeding ,track--,electric ,lights--,water ,supply--,fences--,labor--,invested ,capital--,working ,capital--,profits4 ,,iv4 ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,management of the ,breeding ,stock #ee ,age of ,breeders--,distinguishing ,young from ,old ,ducks--,selection of ,breeding ,ducks--,number of ,females to a ,drake--,securing ,breeding ,drakes--,houses and ,yards for ,breeders--,bedding and ,cleaning the ,breeding ,houses--,cleaning the ,breeding ,yards--,water ,yards for ,breeders--,feeding the ,breeders--,egg ,production--,time of ,marketing ,breeders--,disease--,insect ,pests--,dogs4 ,v4 ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,incubation #gj ,kinds of incubators used--,incubator ,cellar--,incubator ,capacity ,required--,age of ,hatching ,eggs--,care of ,hatching ,eggs--,selecting the ,eggs for ,hatching--,temperature--,position of ,thermometer--,testing--,turning the ,eggs--,cooling the ,eggs--,moisture--,fertility--,hatching- -,selling ,baby ,ducks4 ,,vi4 ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,brooding and ,rearing the ,young ,stock #hj ,removing the ,newly ,hatched ,ducklings to the ,brooder ,house--,brooder ,houses ,required--,brooder ,house ,no4 #a--;,construction of ,house--,heating ,apparatus--,pens--,equipment of the ,pens--,grading and ,sorting the ,ducklings--,cleaning and ,bedding the ,pens--,ventilation--,other ,types of ,brooder ,houses--,length of ,time in ,brooder ,house ,no4 #a--;,brooder ,house ,no4 #b--;,brooder ,house ,no4 #c--,yard ,accommodations for ,ducklings--,shade--,feeding--,lights for ,ducklings--,pounds of ,feed to ,produce a ,pound of ,market ,duck--,water for ,young ,ducks--,age and ,weight when ,ready for ,market--,cripples--,cleaning the ,yards--,critical ,period with ,young ,ducks--,disease ,prevention--,gapes or ,pneumonia--,fits--,diarrhoea--,lameness --,sore ,eyes--,feather ,eating or ,quilling--,rats--,cooperative ,feed ,association4 ,,vii4 ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,marketing #ajb ,proper ,age to ,market--,weights at ,time of ,marketing--,the ,last ,feed for ,market ,ducks--,sorting ,market ,ducklings--,killing--,scalding--,pickin g--,dry ,picking--,cooling--,packing--,shipping- -,cooperative ,marketing ,association--,prices for ,ducks--,shipping ,ducks ,alive--,saving the ,feathers--,prices and ,uses of ,duck ,feathers--,marketing ,eggs4 ,,viii4 ,duck ,raising1 on the ,farm #abj ,conditions ,suitable for ,duck ,raising--,size of ,flock--,making a ,start--,selecting the ,breed--,age of ,breeding ,stock--,size of ,matings--,breeding and ,laying ,season--,management of ,breeders--,housing--,feeding--,water--, yards--,care of ,eggs for ,hatching--,hatching the ,eggs--,brooding and ,rearing--,feeding the ,ducklings--,water for ,ducklings--,distinguishing the ,sexes--,marketing the ,ducks--,diseases and ,insect ,pests4 ,,part ,,ii--,,geese ,,ix4 ,extent of the ,industry--,opportunities #ada ,nature of the ,industry--,opportunities for ,goose ,raising--,goose ,raising as a ,business for ,farm ,women--,geese as ,weed ,destroyers--,objections to ,geese4 ,x4 ,breeds and ,varieties--,how to ,mate to ,produce ,exhibition ,specimens--,preparing ,geese for the ,show--,catching and ,handling #adg ,breeds of ,geese--,nomenclature--,size--,popularit y of the ,breeds--,egg ,production--,size of ,goose ,eggs--,color of ,goose ,eggs--,broodiness--,size of ,mating--,age of ,breeders--,marking ,young ,geese--,general ,considerations in ,making the ,mating--,making the ,mating--,the ,toulouse--,the ,embden--,the ,african--,the ,chinese--,the ,brown ,chinese--,the ,white ,chinese--,the ,wild or ,canadian--,the ,egyptian--,preparing ,geese for the ,show--,catching and ,handling ,geese--,packing and ,shipping ,hatching ,eggs--,prices for ,breeding ,stock4 ,,xi4 ,management of ,breeding ,geese #afd ,range for ,breeders--,number of ,geese to the ,acre--,water for ,breeding ,geese--,distinguishing the ,sex--,purchase of ,breeding ,stock--,time of ,laying--,housing--,yards--,feeding the ,breeding ,geese4 ,,xii4 ,incubation #agb ,care of ,eggs for ,hatching--,methods of ,incubation--,period of ,incubation--,hatching with ,chicken ,hens--,hatching with ,geese--,breaking ,up ,broody ,geese--,hatching with an ,incubator--,moisture for ,hatching ,eggs--,hatching4 ,,xiii4 ,brooding and ,rearing ,goslings #agh ,methods of ,brooding--,brooding with ,hens or ,geese--,length of ,time ,brooding is ,necessary--,artificial ,brooding--,general ,care of ,growing ,goslings--,feeding the ,goslings--,percentage of ,goslings ,raised--,rapidity of ,growth--,diseases4 ,,xiv4 ,fattening and ,marketing ,geese #ahg ,classes of ,geese ,marketed--,markets and ,prices--,prejudice ,against ,roast ,goose--,methods of ,fattening ,geese for ,market--,pen ,fattening--,noodling ,geese--,methods ,used on ,fattening ,farms--,selling ,geese ,alive--,killing--,picking--,packing for ,shipment--,saving the ,feathers--,plucking ,live ,geese for their ,feathers4 ,index #bae ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,frontispiece4 ,water ,yards and ,ducklings4 #a4 ,mule ,ducks and ,blue ,swedish ,ducks #aj #b4 ,mallard ,ducks #aa #c4 ,goose1 ,duck and ,hen ,eggs #ah #d4 ,young ,pekins for ,breeders and ,aylesbury ,drake #ai #e4 ,rouen ,drake and ,black ,east ,india ,ducks #bd #f4 ,rouen ,drake in ,summer ,plumage and ,rouen ,duck #be #g4 ,cayuga ,ducks #bf #h4 ,gray ,call ,ducks #bg #i4 ,white ,call ,ducks #bh #aj4 ,colored ,muscovy ,drake and ,white ,muscovy ,drake #bi #aa4 ,crested ,white ,drake and ,young ,white ,muscovy ,showing ,black on ,head #cb #ab4 ,wing of ,blue ,swedish ,duck #cc #ac4 ,pair of ,buff ,ducks #cf #ad4 ,penciled ,runner ,drake and ,white ,runner ,drake #cg #ae4 ,methods of ,carrying ,ducks #dj #af4 ,power ,feed ,mixer #da #ag4 ,duck ,houses #eh #ah4 ,house for ,breeding ,ducks #ei #ai4 ,another ,type of ,breeding ,house #fb #bj4 ,feeding the ,breeders #fc #ba4 ,interior of ,breeding ,house #gd #bb4 ,incubator ,cellar #ge #bc4 ,interior of ,no4 #a ,brooder ,house #hb #bd4 ,watering ,arrangement in ,brooder ,pens #hc #be4 ,another ,type of ,no4 #a ,brooder ,house #hf #bf4 ,brooder ,house ,no4 #b #hg #bg4 ,brooder ,house ,no4 #c #hh #bh4 ,long ,brooder ,house and ,yards #hi #bi4 ,pekin ,ducklings #c ,days and #b ,weeks ,old #ij #cj4 ,pekin ,ducklings #c ,weeks and #f ,weeks ,old #ia #ca4 ,interior of ,cold ,brooder ,house #ib #cb4 ,yard ,ducks #ic #cc4 ,duck ,sheds #id #cd4 ,feeding and ,watering ,arrangements #ie #ce4 ,green ,feed for ,ducks #if #cf4 ,feeding from ,track #ig #cg4 ,yard ,ducks at ,rest #ih #ch4 ,artificial ,water ,yards #ii #ci4 ,catching ,pens for ,fattening ,ducklings #ajd #dj4 ,carrying ,ducklings to ,slaughter #aje #da4 ,hanging ,ducklings and ,cutting ,throat ,veins #ajf #db4 ,bleeding ,ducklings #ajg #dc4 ,washing ,heads #ajh #dd4 ,ducklings ,ready for the ,pickers #aji #de4 ,scalding #aaj #df4 ,picking ,ducks #aaa #dg4 ,dressed ,duckling #aab #dh4 ,weighing ,out ,ducklings for ,packing #aac #di4 ,curing ,duck ,feathers #adh #ej4 ,egyptian ,gander and ,sebastapol ,goose #adi #ea4 ,toulouse and ,embden ,ganders #aed #eb4 ,canadian and ,african ,ganders #aee #ec4 ,brown and ,white ,chinese ,ganders #aeh #ed4 ,methods of ,handling ,geese #aei #ee4 ,geese ,fattening in an ,orchard #aih 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ducks ,,part ,i ,chapter ,i ,present ,extent of the ,industry ,duck raising while representing an industry of considerable value to the ,united ,states when considered from a national standpoint1 is one of the minor branches of the poultry industry4 ,according to the #aibj census there were #b1hag1fbd ducks in the ,united ,states with a valuation of #c1cgc1iff4 ,as compared with this the census for #aiaj shows a slightly greater number of ducks1 #b1ijf1ebe1 but their value was considerably less being only #a1efg1afd4 ,in the ten years between the census of #aijj and that of #aiaj there was a decrease in the number of ducks of nearly #dj4 ,according to the #aibj census the more important duck raising states arranged in their order of importance were ,iowa1 ,illinois1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 ,missouri1 ,minnesota1 ,tennessee1 ,ohio1 ,south ,dakota1 ,indiana1 ,nebraska and ,kentucky4 ,the number reported for ,iowa was #bce1bdi and for ,kentucky #ii1egg4 ,new ,england1 the ,north ,atlantic1 the ,east ,north ,central1 the ,west ,north ,central1 the ,mountain and the ,pacific states showed an increase1 while the ,south ,atlantic1 ,east ,south ,central and ,west ,south ,central states showed a decrease4 ,in spite of the existence of quite a number of large commercial duck farms1 the great bulk of ducks produced are those which come from the general farms where only small flocks are kept4 ,yet only a small proportion of farms have ducks on them4 ,the comparatively small number of ducks is distributed over practically the entire ,united ,states1 being more common in some sections than others1 particularly along the ,atlantic ,coast and along the ,pacific ,coast1 with fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the ,middle ,west4 ,different ,types of ,duck ,raising4 ,the conditions under which ducks are kept and the purpose for which they are kept fall under four heads3 ,first1 commercial duck raising for the production of duck meat2 second1 duck raising as a by-product of the general farm2 third1 duck raising for egg production2 fourth1 duck breeding for pleasure1 exhibition or the sale of breeding stock4 ,opportunities for ,duck ,raising4 ,undoubtedly the greatest opportunity for profitable duck growing lies under the first of these heads1 namely1 commercial duck raising4 ,where the conditions of climate1 soil and land are favorable and where the location is good with respect to market there exists an excellent opportunity for one skilled in duck growing to engage in that business in an intensive manner for the purpose of putting on the market spring or green ducklings4 ,where these are in demand they bring a good price and since the output per farm is large they pay a good return even with a small margin of profit per pound4 ,the second greatest opportunity undoubtedly consists of duck raising as a by-product of the general farm4 ,where conditions are suitable1 that is to say1 where there is a considerable amount of pasture land easily accessible1 and particularly where there is a stream or pond to which the ducks can have access1 a small flock of ducks1 say #aj or #ab females1 can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm4 ,the cost of maintaining them will not be great and they will not only provide a most acceptable variety in the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers' table but they will also produce a surplus which can be sold at a profit4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that where only a small flock is kept it is generally impracticable for the farmer to give his ducks the attention necessary to cater to the market for green ducklings4 ,as a result he usually keeps them until fall and sells them on the market at a considerably lower price than is obtained by the commercial duck grower4 ,there also exists an opportunity which has not been developed to any great extent to keep some one of the egg producing breeds of ducks such as the ,indian ,runner for the primary purpose of egg production4 ,a few ventures of this sort seem to have been successful but it must be remembered that the market for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that for hens' eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption4 ,before engaging in duck raising primarily for the production of market eggs it would therefore be necessary to investigate and consider carefully the market conditions in the neighborhood so as to know whether the eggs could be marketed to advantage4 ,while the ,runner ducks are prolific layers there is no advantage in keeping them in preference to fowls as egg producers4 ,the eggs are larger in size but it takes more feed to produce them1 while they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any higher price than can be secured for hens' eggs4 ,for baking purposes duck eggs can be readily sold on account of their larger size4 ,there is always an opportunity to produce fine stock of any kind1 whether it be ducks1 chickens1 turkeys or geese4 ,ducks are not exhibited to the same extent as are chickens and the competition in the shows is not as a rule so keen4 ,nevertheless many persons are interested in producing and exhibiting good stock and there exists a very definite market for birds of quality4 ,there is also a probability that a good business could be worked up by one who would pay special attention to producing a strain of ducks of early maturity1 large size and good vigor in order to supply breeding drakes to many of the commercial duck farms4 ,these farms usually secure drakes for breeding from sources outside their own flocks each year but the usual practice is to exchange drakes with some other commercial grower4 ,while very good birds are to be found on these duck farms there is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic breeding1 the selection of the breeding stock being of rather a hurried nature during certain seasons of the year when the ducks are being marketed4 ,moreover1 the long continued custom of exchanging drakes with the neighboring farmers has in most cases led to the blood being so largely confined within one circle that no great percentage of new blood is obtained by these exchanges4 ,of course1 the opportunity along breeding lines for this purpose is limited to the ,pekin duck as this is the breed which is kept upon all the large commercial duck farms in the ,united ,states4 ,prices for ,breeding ,stock4 ,duck breeders who make a specialty of selling breeding stock or eggs for hatching find a steady and quite a wide demand for their stock4 ,the eggs are usually sold in sittings of #aa and bring a price of from #c to #e per sitting depending on the quality of the stock4 ,the prices received for the birds themselves depend of course upon their quality and may run anywhere from about #e to #be per bird4 ,ducks for ,ornamental ,purposes4 ,on estates or in parks where natural or artificial ponds are included in the grounds1 waterfowl are often kept for ornamental purposes4 ,any breeds may be used1 and often the gay colored ,wood ,duck and ,mandarin1 or some one of the small breeds such as the ,calls1 ,black ,east ,indian or the ,mallards are kept for this purpose4 ,it is said that these small ducks will absolutely destroy the mosquito larvae in any such ponds or lakes4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,breeds and ,varieties--,how to ,mate to ,produce ,exhibition ,specimens--,preparing ,ducks for the ,show--,catching and ,handling ,breeds of ,ducks4 ,there are #aa standard breeds of ducks4 ,all of these breeds with the exception of the ,call1 ,muscovy and ,runner consist of a single variety4 ,the ,call is divided into two varieties1 the ,gray and the ,white2 the ,muscovy consists of two varieties1 the ,colored and the ,white2 and the ,runner consists of three varieties1 the ,fawn and ,white1 the ,white and the ,penciled4 ,duck breeders1 of course1 whether raising the birds for fancy or for profit1 keep one of the standard breads or varieties4 ,frequently1 also1 the farm flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many farms1 probably a great majority1 the flock consists of the common or so-called puddle duck4 ,in certain parts of the ,south there is a duck known as the mule duck which is a cross between the ,muscovy and the common duck4 ,this is a duck of good market quality but will not breed from which characteristic it gets its name4 ,most of the common or puddle ducks which are found on farms are of rather small size1 are indifferent as layers1 and do not make a desirable type of market duck4 ,they have arisen simply from the crossing of standard breeds with resultant carelessness and indifference in breeding4 ,because of the care with which they have been selected and bred for definite purposes1 the standard breeds are decidedly superior to the common puddle ducks and should by all means be kept in preference since they will yield better results and greater profits4 ,in addition to the standard breeds and varieties flocks of ,mallards are also kept to a limited extent4 ,the ,mallard is a common small wild duck which has lent itself readily to domestication and which thrives with proper care under confined conditions4 ,in weight1 the drakes will run from #b-a_/b pounds to #c pounds or even a little larger4 ,the ducks average about #ba_/d pounds with a variation of from #a pound #ab ounces to #b pounds #h ounces4 ,by selecting the large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding1 it is easy to increase the size of ,mallards to such an extent that they resemble small ,rouens rather than wild ,mallards4 ,the plumage of the ,mallard is very similar to that of the ,rouen but of a lighter shade4 ,another small wild duck known as the ,wood or ,carolina duck1 which is a native of ,north ,america1 has been domesticated and on account of the great beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever ornamental waterfowl are kept4 ,the ,mandarin duck is a small duck of about the same size as the ,wood duck1 is of beautiful plumage and like the ,wood duck is generally kept for ornamental purposes4 ,this duck is said to be a native of ,china4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,upper--,pair of ,mule ,ducks4 ,lower--,pair of ,blue ,swedish ,ducks4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,upper--,mallard ,duck4 ,lower--,mallard ,drake4 ,the ,mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has a plumage color very similar to the ,rouen4 ,it is small in size4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,classification of ,breeds ,so far as the standard breeds and varieties are concerned they may be divided into three classes according to the purpose for which they are kept and for which they are best suited4 ,first is the meat class which consists of the ,pekin1 ,aylesbury1 ,muscovy1 ,rouen1 ,buff1 ,cayuga and ,blue ,swedish4 ,these breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks for they are quite good layers in addition to producing excellent table carcasses and are therefore well suited for general farm use4 ,they are1 however1 kept more particularly for meat production4 ,the second class is known as the egg class and consists of the three varieties of the ,runner ,duck1 formerly known as the ,indian ,runner4 ,the ,runner ,duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the meat class1 is longer in leg and more active1 and is not so well suited for the production of table ducks but is a very prolific layer4 ,with proper feeding and management the ,runner ducks will compare favorably with hens as egg producers4 ,the third class is known as the ornamental class and is composed of the ducks which are kept and bred principally for ornamental purposes4 ,this class consists of the ,call duck with its two varieties1 the ,black ,east ,india duck and the ,crested ,white duck4 ,both the ,call and ,east ,india ducks are small in size being really the bantams of the duck family4 ,while they make good table birds1 their small size handicaps them as commercial meat fowl4 ,the ,crested ,white duck is of larger size1 possesses a crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl4 ,marking the ,ducks4 ,the duck raiser who is breeding his ducks for exhibition quality has need for knowledge of the breeding of the birds he may contemplate using in his matings4 ,in order that this information may be available1 the young ducks as they are hatched can be marked by toe punching them on the webs of their feet in the same manner that baby chicks are toe punched4 ,a different set or combination of marks is used for each mating so that the breeding of the different ducks can be distinguished4 ,mature ducks can1 if desired1 be leg banded in order to furnish a distinguishing mark4 ,nomenclature ,before taking up a description of the matings of the different standard breeds and varieties it is well to indicate the common nomenclature which is used in connection with these fowls and which differs from that used for chickens4 ,the male duck is called drake1 the female duck is termed duck1 and the young duck of either sex is termed duckling4 ,in giving the standard weights for the different breeds of ducks1 weights are given for adult ducks and adult drakes1 and for young ducks and young drakes4 ,by adult duck or drake is meant a bird which is over one year old4 ,by young duck or drake is meant a bird which is less than one year old4 ,the horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being termed beak as in chickens are called bill1 and the separate division of the upper bill at its extremity is termed the bean4 ,ducks do not show any comb or wattles as in chickens4 ,in ,england use is made of the terms ducklet and drakerel4 ,ducklet is used to signify a female during her first laying season just as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen4 ,drakerel is used to signify a young drake as contrasted with an older drake just as the word cockerel is used in comparison to cock in chickens4 ,distinguishing the ,sex4 ,the sex of mature ducks can be readily told by their voices and also by a difference in the feathering4 ,the duck gives voice to a coarse1 harsh sound which is the characteristic quack usually thought of in connection with this class of fowl4 ,the drake on the other hand utters a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but which is more of a hissing sound4 ,distinction of sex by this means can be made after the ducklings are from #d to #f weeks old4 ,before this age1 both sexes make the same peeping noise4 ,mature drakes are also distinguished from the ducks by the presence of two sex feathers at the base of the tail4 ,these are short feathers which curl or curve upward and forward toward the body of the bird4 ,in ducks these feathers are absent4 ,size ,an idea of the size of the different standard breeds can best be obtained by giving the standard weights4 ,they are as follows3-- ,adult ,drake4 ,adult ,duck4 ,young ,drake4 ,young ,duck4 ,pekin #i #h #h #g ,aylesbury #i #h #h #g ,rouen #i #h #h #g ,cayuga #h #g #g #f ,muscovy #aj #g #h #f ,blue ,swedish #h #g #f-a_/b #e-a_/b ,crested ,white #g #f #f #e ,buff #h #g #g #f ,runner #d-a_/b #d #d #c-a_/b ,there are no standard weights for the ,call duck and for the ,black ,east ,india duck but these are all small in size1 being really bantam ducks4 ,the drakes will weigh from #b-a_/b to #c pounds and the ducks from #b to #b-a_/b pounds4 ,popularity of ,breeds ,in the meat class by far the most popular duck in this country is the ,pekin4 ,it is the breed which is used exclusively on the large commercial duck farms4 ,next to the ,pekin in this class probably comes the ,muscovy which is quite commonly kept in some sections of the country1 particularly in the ,south4 ,the ,aylesbury duck has never proved to be very popular in the ,united ,states perhaps due to its white bill and skin1 although it is the popular market duck of ,england4 ,the other breeds included in the meat class are kept more or less commonly but do not approach in popularity either the ,pekin or the ,muscovy4 ,any of the breeds in this class will prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock1 although the ,colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage when dressed due to their dark pin feathers4 ,in the egg class there is included only the ,indian ,runner and this of course is the breed which is kept wherever the production of duck eggs is the primary object4 ,the ,fawn and ,white is the most popular variety of this breed4 ,in the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding breed1 since the ducks belonging in this class are kept very largely to satisfy the pleasure of the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a matter of personal preference4 ,egg ,production ,while the conditions under which ducks are kept and the care they are given will affect their egg production greatly1 there are certain rather definite comparisons that can be made between the different breeds4 ,the ,pekin is a good layer and will produce from #hj to #abj eggs4 ,the ,aylesbury and the ,rouen are about alike in laying ability1 neither being quite as good as the ,pekin4 ,the ,cayuga is a good layer ranking with the ,aylesbury and ,rouen or between these and the ,pekin4 ,the ,muscovy is an excellent layer being fully as prolific as the ,pekin1 especially if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit4 ,the ,blue ,swedish is about equal to the ,cayuga in laying ability4 ,the ,buff duck is an excellent layer comparing favorably with the ,pekin or even with the ,runner4 ,the ,runner ducks are the best layers of the duck family and if given proper care and good feed will compare favorably with hens in egg producing ability4 ,the ,crested ,white duck is not a particularly good layer4 ,the ,calls and the ,black ,east ,india ducks will lay from #bj to #fj eggs per year1 approaching the latter number if the eggs are collected as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which will induce some of them to continue to lay for quite a portion of the year4 ,extremely large ducks of any breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized birds4 ,size of ,duck ,eggs4 ,the eggs of the different meat breeds will run about the same in size with the exception of the ,muscovy whose eggs run a little larger4 ,actual weights of eggs from representative flocks show ,pekin1 ,rouen1 ,aylesbury and ,cayuga eggs to average about #b-a_/b pounds per dozen although there is a tendency for the ,rouen eggs to run somewhat larger and for ,cayugas to run a little smaller4 ,muscovy eggs weigh about #c pounds per dozen with selected large eggs weighing as high as #c-a_/d pounds4 ,eggs of the ,runner duck are smaller but are considerably larger than average hens' eggs or about the size of large ,minorca eggs4 ,they weigh about #b pounds per dozen4 ,eggs of the bantam breeds of ducks1 the ,calls and the ,black ,east ,india1 together with those of the ,mandarin and ,wood ducks will weigh from one pound to #a-a_/b pounds per dozen depending upon the size of the ducks themselves4 ,eggs of the ,mallard duck will run from #bf to #cb ounces to the dozen4 ,the size of eggs laid by ducks1 especially the bantam breeds and the ,mallard can be increased somewhat by liberal feeding4 ,average hens' eggs should weigh about #a-a_/b pounds per dozen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,upper--,comparison of size of goose egg on the left a black egg of a ,cayuga duck in the center and a hen egg on the right4 ,lower--,duck eggs--,at the left is a ,pekin duck egg1 next a black egg laid by a ,cayuga duck1 third a ,muscovy egg1 fourth a duck egg of green color and on the extreme right the egg of a ,runner duck4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,color of ,eggs4 ,the color of duck eggs ranges from white to a polished black4 ,pekin eggs run mostly white although some show a decided blue or green tint4 ,aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly white4 ,the color of ,rouen eggs varies from white to a dark green4 ,the ,cayuga produces very few white eggs1 most of them being green or black1 some being as black as though polished4 ,muscovy eggs run from a white to a greenish cream in color4 ,the eggs of the ,blue ,swedish and the ,buff ducks usually run white4 ,the ,runner duck lays white eggs as a rule while the ,crested ,white duck lays eggs which range in color from white to green4 ,the eggs of the ,call ducks run from white to green while the eggs of the ,black ,east ,india1 like the ,cayuga1 for the most part run from green to black4 ,a peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the same female may lay eggs which are widely different in color4 ,it is likewise true that the color of the shell is influenced to some extent by the feed4 ,ducks on range will lay darker colored eggs than those which are yarded4 ,there is also a tendency for the eggs to run darker in color when laying first begins and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds4 ,a peculiarity in regard to duck eggs with a dark colored shell is that a thorough washing will lighten up the shell color decidedly4 ,broodiness4 ,the ,muscovy1 the ,call and the ,black ,east ,india ducks are broody breeds4 ,the ducks of these breeds will make their nests1 hatch their eggs and are good mothers4 ,all the other breeds are classed as non-broody breeds4 ,of course1 a certain percentage of them will go broody and show a desire to sit but they do not make reliable sitters and mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose4 ,considerations in ,making the ,mating#a ,since ducks are kept for different purposes there will of course be certain fundamental differences in the different classes in the selection of the individuals to make up the mating4 ,whatever the purpose1 however1 the first consideration in selecting the breeders must be to secure those which possess excellent vigor and general health and which meet insofar as possible the standard requirements for size4 ,where the ,call duck and the ,black ,east ,india are concerned the selection for size must be for smallness since that is a characteristic greatly desired4 ,in the other breeds the selection for size must be to see that they come up to the standard weights for the particular breed in question4 ,as in other classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of the plumage and the general appearance and actions of the birds are good indications of their health and thriftiness4 ,a bright eye is likewise a valuable indication of good health while a watery eye is usually a sign of weakness4 ,it is necessary to guard against birds which show any tendency toward crooked or roach back1 hump back1 crooked tails1 or twisted wings4 ,since all breeds of ducks should have clean or unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard against any breeders which show down on the shanks or between the toes as this sometimes occurs4 ,footnote #a3 ,for a more detailed discussion of the principles of breeding as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to ducks1 the reader is referred to ,the ,mating and ,breeding of ,poultry by ,harry ,m4 ,lamon and ,rob ,r4 ,slocum1 published by the ,orange ,judd ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,in selecting the mating for any one of the meat breeds use birds which have good length1 width and depth of body so that they will have plenty of meat carrying capacity4 ,for breeders of market ducks1 birds which are active1 well matured and which are not extreme in size for the breed are preferable as the fertility is likely to run better than with the extremely large birds4 ,where birds are bred for exhibition purposes1 it frequently happens that it is desirable to use large breeders and to hold them for breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding condition4 ,where this is the case it becomes necessary to mate a smaller number of females to a drake than would be the case with smaller and younger breeders4 ,where old birds are used as breeders better results will be secured by mating old ducks to a young drake or vice versa than by mating together old birds of both sexes4 ,while ducks of any of the meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production1 it is essential that the egg production be good throughout the breeding season in order to raise as many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible4 ,selection of the females as breeders should be made therefore on the basis of good egg production as well as good meat type if the conditions under which the ducks are kept are such as to make it possible to check this in any manner4 ,in selecting the mating in the ,runner breed it is necessary to keep in mind that the general type of body is quite different from that of the meat breeds1 being much slimmer and much more upright in body carriage4 ,for this mating select thrifty1 healthy birds and those which are active4 ,some breeders trapnest their ,runner ducks or have some other means of checking up the better layers4 ,as in chickens1 it is of course desirable to use these better layers as breeders since the purpose in keeping this kind of duck is primarily egg production4 ,in selecting the mating in the ,call and ,east ,india breeds it is necessary to use the smaller ducks since the object here is to keep the size small4 ,in addition1 with these breeds or with any other breeds kept and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes1 it is necessary to conform just as closely as possible to the standard requirements#b both insofar as size and type are concerned1 and also with respect to color4 ,footnote #b3 ,for a complete and official description and list of disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks1 the reader is referred to the ,american ,standard of ,perfection published by the ,american ,poultry ,association1 and obtained by ,orange ,judd ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,breeds of ,ducks ,the ,pekin4 ,while this variety wants to be of good size and to have length1 breadth and depth of body it is somewhat more upstanding than some of the other meat breeds1 showing a definite slope of body downward from shoulders to tail4 ,the back line of the ,pekin should show a slight concavity from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of the bill is likewise slightly concave between the point where it joins the head and its extremity4 ,the shoulders should be broad and any tendency toward narrowness at this point must be avoided4 ,while a good depth of keel is desired1 the standard does not call for so deep a keel as in the ,aylesbury4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the winning specimens as seen in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage as called for by the standard illustration1 there being a tendency to get them almost if not quite as deep in keel as the ,aylesbury4 ,in fact1 some breeders seem to strive for a low down keel approaching a condition where they are nearly as low in front as behind but this is not desirable ,pekin type4 ,sometimes a drake will show a rough neck1 that is1 the feathers on the back of the neck will be crossed or folded over showing a tendency to curl4 ,these birds should be avoided as breeders since there is a tendency for them to produce ducks having a crest4 ,sometimes a green or a greenish spotted bill will be encountered4 ,since the bill should be a clear yellow1 breeders showing this defect should be avoided particularly as they are likely to produce birds having greenish or olive colored legs4 ,the shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange4 ,black sometimes occurs in the bean4 ,this may occur in birds of either sex but is more common in the ducks than in the drakes4 ,in the drake black in the bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a serious defect in the duck it does not disqualify4 ,the color of the plumage is white or creamy white throughout4 ,creaminess in this variety is not a serious defect as it is in white chickens4 ,the use1 however1 of yellow corn and of foods very rich in oil tends to increase the creaminess of the plumage and should not be used to excess for birds which are to be exhibited4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,upper--,young ,pekins which on account of their size1 thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to be killed for market and saved for breeders4 ,lower--,aylesbury ,drake--,notice the depth and development of the breast4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,aylesbury4 ,this breed is particularly noted for its deep keel4 ,it differs from the ,pekin in type in that it is more nearly level in body4 ,there is a decided tendency for the ,aylesbury to run too short in body which has probably come about by extreme selection for deep keel4 ,it is well1 therefore1 in making the mating to select breeders with good length of body4 ,since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic of this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders which show any tendency toward a flat breast4 ,as in the case of the ,pekins avoid any birds which have green or olive colored bills4 ,the back line of the ,aylesbury should be straight1 showing no tendency toward a slight concavity as in the ,pekin4 ,birds showing this shape back should be avoided4 ,as in the ,pekin black on the bill or bean of the drake will disqualify and in the duck is a serious defect4 ,the color of plumage should be white throughout and should show no tendency toward creaminess4 ,the bill in this breed is flesh colored instead of yellow as in the ,pekin4 ,the ,aylesbury is not quite as nervous a breed as the ,pekin4 ,the ,rouen4 ,the ,rouen duck is a parti-colored breed and is therefore much more difficult to secure in perfection of color and marking than is the case with the white breeds4 ,moreover1 the dark pin feathers make the ducks more difficult to dress than in white breeds4 ,in type these birds are very level in body and are massive1 carrying a great deal of meat4 ,avoid birds showing a lack of length of body or depth of keel or which are too flat in breast4 ,the back of the ,rouen should have a slightly convex or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary to guard against birds which have a flat or a concave back4 ,the body of the ,rouen should be carried practically horizontal4 ,the upper line of the bill should be slightly dished or concave4 ,the white ring about the neck of the drake is an important part of the marking4 ,this should not be too wide but should run about a quarter of an inch in width4 ,it should be as distinct and clean cut as possible but should not quite come together in the rear4 ,any approach to a ring in the female is a disqualification4 ,white in the primary or secondary wing feathers is a serious defect since it constitutes a disqualification4 ,it must therefore be carefully avoided4 ,white feathers in the fluff of the drake is another color defect which must be guarded against4 ,breast of ,drake4 ,the farther the claret color on the breast of the drake extends down the better will be the females secured from the mating4 ,drakes which are deficient in the amount of claret on the breast should therefore be thrown out as breeders4 ,a purple rump in drakes must be avoided as must black feathers over the rump as they tend to keep up too dark a body color in the female4 ,on the other hand too bright or light a color in the male or exhibition female will produce females which are too light in color4 ,drakes with light olive colored bills must be avoided as these will have a tendency to produce offspring which show too much yellow in the females' bills1 and clear yellow bills constitute a disqualification4 ,in the females solid yellow bills1 fawn colored breasts and absence of penciling must be avoided4 ,females which are dark or nearly black over the rump are good breeders as they tend to keep up the ground color of the body and tail4 ,the ,rouen shows some tendency to fade in color4 ,this is evidenced first on the tips of the wings4 ,the fading will also show in the fluff of drakes4 ,the drakes of this breed and likewise of the ,gray ,call and the ,mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect to the color of their plumage4 ,about ,june #a the drakes moult1 losing their characteristic male adult plumage and the new plumage is practically that of the female4 ,this female plumage is retained until about ,october when they gradually regain their normal winter male plumage4 ,young ,rouens of both sexes have female plumage until the last moult which occurs at about four or five months of age1 when the drakes assume the adult male plumage4 ,the sex of the young ,rouens can1 however1 be told by the difference in the color of the bills4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,upper--,rouen ,drake4 ,notice the low set1 nearly horizontal body1 the massive appearance and the arched back4 ,lower--,pair of ,black ,east ,india ,ducks4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,upper--,rouen ,drake showing summer plumage4 ,at this season the ,rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite closely that of the female4 ,in the fall the drake again assumes the normal male plumage4 ,lower--,rouen ,duck4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,cayuga4 ,the ,cayuga is much like the other breeds of the meat class in general type or shape of body showing good length1 breadth and depth4 ,it is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks4 ,the body carriage is slightly more upright than the ,rouen but not so much so as the ,pekin4 ,the back line should be straight and any tendency toward an arched back must be avoided4 ,it is slightly smaller than the ,pekin1 ,aylesbury and ,rouen1 averaging about a pound less4 ,in making the mating1 size is important and breeders should be selected which are up to standard weights if possible4 ,while this breed is not kept very widely at the present time1 nevertheless it is an excellent market duck1 dressing out into a very plump yellow carcass in spite of its black plumage which is a disadvantage in dressing4 ,the color should be a lustrous greenish black throughout1 being somewhat brighter in the drake than in the duck4 ,the duck is more likely to show a brownish cast of plumage1 particularly as she grows older4 ,it is hard to hold good black color with age4 ,moreover1 white or gray is apt to occur in the breast of females4 ,with age also a little white sometimes develops on the back of the neck1 around the eyes and underneath the neck at the base of the bill4 ,the white which occurs in breast is more likely to come in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes4 ,in the drakes on the other hand1 there is a tendency for the white to come on the throat under the bill4 ,drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their color better than do the ducks4 ,where the white mottling occurs in plumage with age one need not hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of good black color as young birds4 ,the drakes of the best color do not as a rule fade or become mottled to any great extent with age4 ,it is necessary to guard against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown lacing on the breast and under the wings1 also those which have a wing-bow laced with brown4 ,there is a tendency for the bill of drakes1 which should be black1 to be too light or olive in color and this tendency increases with age4 ,drakes with bills of this color should be avoided as breeders4 ,when ,cayugas are first hatched the baby ducks all show a white breast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,upper--,cayuga ,duck4 ,lower--,cayuga ,drake4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,call4 ,the ,call ducks are the bantams of the duck race4 ,there is always a tendency for them to grow too large and this is especially true when they have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example when they are fed with the larger ducks4 ,they should not be fed too liberally and should be given wheat or some other solid grain rather than any mash4 ,if there is a good pond of water to which the ,call ducks can have access they do not need to be fed much of anything4 ,in breeding1 the smallest individuals which are suitable in other respects for breeders1 should be selected in order to keep down the size and offset the tendency to breed larger in successive generations4 ,in type the ,calls are practically miniature ,pekins except that they should have a very short1 rather broad head and bill4 ,the broad flat and short bill and the round short head give the head an appearance which is often described by the term button headed4 ,in this breed avoid birds which show arched backs4 ,the body should have what is known as a flatiron shape1 that is1 should be broad at the shoulders and taper toward the tail4 ,too deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided as should also too long bills4 ,call ducks1 together with ,east ,indias and ,mallards should have their wings clipped or be pinioned1 that is1 have the first joint of one wing cut off1 to prevent them from flying away4 ,the ,gray ,call4 ,the plumage of the ,gray ,call is practically that of the ,rouen although they are not quite as good in color as a breed4 ,there is more of a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and others1 especially the males1 to run too light in color4 ,while they are likely to be well penciled the shade of color is apt to be wrong4 ,white in the flights and under the wings must be guarded against as must also absence of ribbon or wing bar in females4 ,the color of the plumage is likely to fade with age but after the birds moult and secure their new plumage1 the color is usually higher again4 ,in general the same color characteristics hold true as with the ,rouen and the same defects must be guarded against4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,upper--,gray ,call ,drake4 ,lower--,gray ,call ,duck4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,white ,call4 ,this variety is1 both in type and color1 practically a miniature ,pekin except for the short1 rather broad head and bill4 ,they breed very true in color and should be free from creaminess4 ,the same general defects must be watched for and avoided as in the ,pekin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,upper--,white ,call ,duck4 ,lower--,white ,call ,drake4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,black ,east ,india4 ,this is a black breed which is small in size being a bantam duck like the ,call4 ,as a matter of fact it is a miniature ,cayuga4 ,the color should be black throughout and the same color characteristics hold true as in the case of the ,cayuga4 ,the same color defects must therefore be guarded against1 the worst one being white in the breast of females especially4 ,avoid breeding from a drake with a black bill as in this respect the breed differs from the ,cayuga since the bill of the duck should be black but that of the drake should be very dark green4 ,purple barring must be carefully selected against4 ,the ,muscovy4 ,this breed differs in certain respects very markedly from the other standard breeds of ducks4 ,they are long and broad in body which is carried in a horizontal position but are not so deep in keel as the ,pekin1 ,aylesbury or ,rouen4 ,the longest bodied young ducks will make the largest individuals4 ,the head should have feathers on the top which can be elevated at will to form a crest4 ,guard against breeders having smooth heads1 or in other words1 lacking a crest4 ,the face is covered with corrugations or caruncles and should be red in color4 ,at the base of the upper bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the drake which serves as one of the distinguishing characteristics between the duck and drake of this breed4 ,the more prominent the knob and the more wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the specimen in this respect4 ,the wings are long and strong and these birds fly very well4 ,they will also climb fences4 ,the drakes are quite pugnacious and fight one another badly at times4 ,they are especially pugnacious when they have young4 ,this breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like chickens or in the trees or on the barn4 ,they do not quack like other ducks and unlike other domesticated breeds which moult two or three times a year1 they moult only once1 taking longer to do so1 usually about #ij days1 although the female may complete her moult a little sooner4 ,the period of incubation for ,muscovy eggs is longer1 being from #cc to #ce days as compared to #bh days for other breeds4 ,in size the male and female differ considerably as will be seen from the standard weights given 7,see ,page #ad71 the male being considerably larger4 ,these ducks lay well1 the fertility runs good1 the eggs hatch well1 and the little ducks are hardy and easily raised4 ,they are a broody breed4 ,the ducks will make their nests and hatch out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent mothers4 ,sometimes they will fly up and make their nests in a hollow tree4 ,a ,muscovy duck can cover properly about #bj eggs4 ,in spite of the fact that they fly well they are easily domesticated4 ,it takes about two years for the males of this breed to fully mature although the ducks get their full size when one year of age4 ,the ,muscovy is perhaps the best general purpose breed for a farm flock4 ,the extent and intensity of the red of the face increases up to maturity and the redder the face the better4 ,the plumage of the ,muscovy is not as downy or oily as other breeds1 the feathers being harder4 ,for this reason the birds are more apt to become water soaked and to drown as a result when they have not been accustomed to water in which to swim4 ,this is especially true of the drakes on account of their large size and long wing feathers4 ,muscovy ducks dress well1 having a rich yellow skin1 and therefore make a good market duck1 although the difference in size of the duck and drake and the dark pin feathers of the ,colored variety are disadvantages from a market standpoint4 ,select against breeders which run small in size as there is more or less of a tendency for this breed to decrease in size4 ,the ,muscovy is long lived1 specimens having been known to breed until they were eight or ten years of age4 ,the ,colored ,muscovy4 ,although the standard calls for more or less white in different sections of this variety1 as a matter of fact breeders desire to get the birds as dark as possible except for a very small patch of white on the breast and a small patch of white on the center of the wing4 ,indeed1 birds without the white on the breast and with very little on the wing are valuable breeders since there is a tendency for too much white to occur in the plumage4 ,occasionally all black birds occur and these can be used to advantage in breeding when there is a tendency toward too much white in plumage4 ,plumage more than half white is a disqualification4 ,the dark plumage birds such as are wanted are very likely to show considerable black or gypsy color in the face which should be a good red4 ,this must be selected against insofar as possible4 ,the nearly black or the darkest birds are quite likely to show some white or grizzling on the head4 ,grizzled or brownish penciled feathers sometimes occur in various parts of the plumage and must of course be guarded against as the markings should be distinctly black and white4 ,the baby ducks of this variety are quite apt to show considerable white although the best of them come yellowish black4 ,this variety tends to run a little larger in size than the white variety although the standard weights are the same for both4 ,dun or chocolate colored ducks sometimes come from ,colored ,muscovies while ,blue ,muscovies can be produced by crossing the ,colored and the white varieties4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,upper--,colored ,muscovy ,drake4 ,notice the partly erect crest feather on top of the head4 ,lower--,white ,muscovy ,drake4 ,notice the long1 horizontal body and the rough or carunculated face4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,white ,muscovy4 ,this variety should have pure white plumage throughout4 ,young ,muscovies of both sexes often have a patch of black on top of the head up to the time they moult at maturity4 ,since black disqualifies it is impossible to show young ducks in this condition but these black feathers usually come in white after the moult and such birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders4 ,when it is desired to show young ,white ,muscovies which have black on the head it is customary to pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before the show so that the white feathers which come in their place will have time to grow out4 ,there is little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this variety4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,upper--,crested ,white ,drake4 ,lower--,young ,white ,muscovy duck showing black on top of the head4 ,this is not an unusual occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its mature plumage in the fall4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,blue ,swedish4 ,in type and size this breed is about the same as the ,cayuga although perhaps slightly more upstanding4 ,in selecting the mating it is important to use birds which are close to standard weight as there is somewhat of a tendency for the size to be too small4 ,as its name indicates the color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped patch or bib which should be present on the breast4 ,sometimes this white extends along the underside of the body from the under-bill almost to the vent4 ,such birds are undesirable as breeders since they show too much white4 ,on the other hand birds lacking a prominent white bib must also be avoided4 ,two of the flight feathers should be white and birds lacking these must be avoided4 ,guard against any red1 gray or black in any part of the plumage4 ,sometimes1 however1 birds having more or less black throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the purpose of strengthening the blue color4 ,avoid any tendency toward a ribbon on the wing-bow and also birds that are too light1 ashy or washed out in the blue color4 ,sometimes birds show lines of white feathers around the eyes and over the head and these should be selected against as breeders as they are likely to cause white splashing in the plumage4 ,yellow or greenish bills must likewise be avoided since the first of these is a disqualification4 ,in general this variety in breeding behaves insofar as color is concerned1 very much like the ,blue ,andalusian chicken4#c ,the young ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy blue and from blue matings there are also produced black and white ducklings4 ,as in other colored breeds and varieties1 the dark pin feathers are somewhat of a disadvantage from a market standpoint4 ,footnote #c3 ,for a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the ,blue ,andalusian in breeding1 the reader is referred to ,the ,mating and ,breeding of ,poultry by ,harry ,m4 ,lamon and ,rob ,r4 ,slocum1 published by the ,orange ,judd ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,blue ,swedish duck showing white flight feathers4 ,the ,standard calls for only two white flights1 but there is a decided tendency as shown here for more flights to be white4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,crested ,white4 ,although not so large1 this breed is much like the ,pekin but with body carried more nearly horizontal and with a crest on the head4 ,the type varies considerably however1 the principal selection practiced having been for crest4 ,the plumage is white in color throughout4 ,what is desired in the crest is to have as large a one as possible1 round and perfect in form1 and set squarely on the head4 ,not infrequently crooked crests occur and also double or split crests1 that is to say1 where the crest is parted or divided4 ,in some cases the crests may even come treble1 that is1 split into three parts4 ,entire absence of crest is by no means uncommon4 ,in fact1 it is considered a pretty good proportion if one half of the ducks hatched have crests although the matings vary considerably in this1 occasionally one producing practically #ajj of the offspring with crests4 ,avoid as breeders birds with small crests1 lopped crests1 split crests or showing an absence of crest4 ,avoid also breeders showing mottled or green bills in females and black bean in the bill of drakes4 ,the ,buff4 ,in type this breed is similar to the ,swedish4 ,as will be seen from the standard weights it is one of the medium sized breeds and makes a very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice round fat carcass and is a good layer4 ,in color the birds of both sexes should be as uniform a buff as possible except that the head and upper part of the neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full plumage4 ,color defects which are likely to be encountered and which should be avoided are the tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut color and for his neck to be too light or faded out in color4 ,sometimes the head of the drake runs too dark in color approaching a greenish black like the head of the ,rouen4 ,this is of course undesirable4 ,the wings of both sexes are apt to run to light or even in some cases1 pure white flights4 ,blue wing bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully avoided4 ,penciling such as is found in the ,fawn and ,white ,runner sometimes occurs and since it is a serious defect must be rigidly guarded against4 ,any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring around the neck of both sexes must likewise be avoided4 ,greenish or mottled bills must be avoided in ducks which are to be used as breeders4 ,not much trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as a rule comes good4 ,any blue cast in the feathers on the rump and back of both sexes must be selected against4 ,as a rule the females of this breed tend to be better colored than the males4 ,at certain periods of the moult the head coloring of the drakes becomes a good buff color and later when the moult is complete1 it changes to a copper color4 ,when hatched the ducklings are a creamy yellow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,pair of ,buff ,ducks--,drake on the right 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,runner4 ,the type of this breed is quite different from that of the other breed of ducks and type is very important4 ,the ,runner wants to be decidedly upstanding and to be very reachy4 ,it should have very slim slender lines4 ,the neck should be straight and the head should be carried at right angles to the neck4 ,the bill should be perfectly straight on top and on a line with the skull showing absolutely no tendency to be dished4 ,the legs of this breed are longer than those of other ducks and this accounts for the fact that they run rather than waddle when they move about4 ,it is from this fact that they get their name4 ,they are very active and are troublesome about crawling through fences4 ,they are good layers and non-sitters and they have often been called the ,leghorns of the duck family4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that while they have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they will do this only when they receive proper feed and care4 ,it is quite useless to expect a high egg yield from them when they are carelessly fed and improperly housed and cared for4 ,avoid as breeders ducks of both sexes that are too heavy behind1 or in other words1 are too heavy-bottomed4 ,avoid birds which are too short in legs4 ,avoid crooked or sharp backs4 ,round heads must likewise be avoided4 ,the ,fawn and ,white ,runner4 ,in this variety the markings must be very distinct and definite4 ,there is a tendency which must be avoided for the head to run to black instead of chestnut1 especially in males4 ,it is likewise necessary to avoid females which tend to show penciling on the sides of the breast or on the wing-bows4 ,these defects are apt to be associated with colored flight feathers which is also a defect to be avoided4 ,guard against too much fawn extending up the neck from the body to the head as the neck should be white in color4 ,too dark tail coverts approaching a greenish black sometimes occur and are undesirable4 ,in type this variety will not average quite as good as the ,white4 ,the ,white ,runner4 ,this variety is best in type and it likewise runs good in color which should be white throughout4 ,sometimes foreign color will be shown in the back of females and this of course must be avoided4 ,also avoid birds as breeders with green or mottled bills4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,penciled ,runner ,drake on left and ,white ,runner ,drake on right4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the ,penciled ,runner4 ,in type this variety runs about the same as the ,fawn and ,white4 ,the color combination is rather difficult to breed as it is hard to get the good penciling desired in the female together with the white markings4 ,in general1 in breeding this variety there is a tendency to pay more attention to type than to color4 ,the penciling is like that of the ,rouen but lighter in color consisting of a brown penciling on a fawn colored ground4 ,avoid any grayish stippling on the breast of the drake and also on the wing-bows4 ,these defects are likely to be associated with colored flights which are undesirable4 ,the colored portion of the head of the drake is darker than that of the duck in this variety4 ,avoid lack of white on the neck in both sexes and avoid females which are lacking in penciling4 ,preparing ,ducks for the ,show4 ,aside from selecting the individuals which most nearly approach the standard requirements there is very little which can be done in the way of preparing the birds for the show as these fowls are practically self-prepared4 ,for a period of at least a week or ten days before they are shipped to the show those intended for exhibition should be given access to a grass range and also if possible to running water4 ,the grass range will keep them in good condition and the running water will allow them to clean themselves4 ,any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown in order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out again4 ,it must be remembered that most ducks after getting in a good condition of flesh do not tend to hold this for a very long period but soon grow thinner again and will not take on fat the second time for some little period4 ,often there will be a difference in weight as high as #c pounds when a duck is in good condition and after it has thinned4 ,in order to have the ducks in top form1 therefore1 it is necessary to bring them up to flesh at the proper time4 ,in order to bring ducks which are to be exhibited up to standard weight1 they should be fed twice daily1 for at least #aj days before shipping1 a grain mixture consisting of one part corn and two parts oats4 ,give them all they will eat of this mixture4 ,with ,runners and the small breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on too much weight if corn is used in the ration and it is therefore best to give them oats alone4 ,when the birds are shipped to the show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey4 ,when this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water4 ,then as the ducks are taken out of the shipping coops take three of them at a time1 put them in the barrel and cover it over1 leaving them for a few minutes4 ,when they are taken out they will usually be clean4 ,catching and ,handling ,ducks ,ducks should never be caught by the legs which are short and weak and are very likely to be injured4 ,for the same reason they should never be carried by the legs4 ,ducks should be caught by the neck1 grasping them just below the head4 ,they can be carried short distances without injury in this way but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck for any considerable distance4 ,the best way to handle them is to catch them by the neck1 then carry them on the arm with the legs in the hand just as one would carry a chicken4 ,see ,fig4 #ae4 ,a scoop net about #ah inches in diameter and with a six foot handle can also be used to excellent advantage in catching ducks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,two methods of carrying ducks4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,packing and ,shipping ,hatching ,eggs ,eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh as duck eggs tend to deteriorate in quality quite rapidly4 ,they may be shipped fairly long distances4 ,shipment may be made either by express or by ,parcel ,post4 ,in order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment1 they must be carefully packed4 ,one of the best methods is to use an ordinary market basket4 ,line the basket well on the bottom and sides with excelsior4 ,wrap each egg in paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will be a good thick cushion of excelsior between the eggs and they will not be allowed to come in contact with one another4 ,pack the eggs in the basket securely standing them on end so that they cannot move or shift around4 ,cover the top of the eggs with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that it runs up well above the sides of the basket4 ,over the top sew a piece of strong cotton cloth4 ,instead of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up under the outside rim of the basket with a case knife1 this being quicker and equally as effective as sewing4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,location--,estimate of ,equipment and ,capital ,necessary in ,starting the ,business ,distribution4 ,commercial ,duck farming is confined very largely to the sections within easy shipping distance of the larger cities4 ,a great majority of these farms are located about ,new ,york ,city1 particularly on ,long ,island4 ,some duck farms are located on the ,pacific ,coast and a few commercial plants are scattered about here and there throughout the country4 ,the size of these farms ranges all the way from plants with an output of #e1jjj or #aj1jjj ducklings up to those with an output around #ajj1jjj yearly4 ,stock ,used4 ,the stock used on the commercial duck plants of the ,united ,states consists exclusively of the ,pekin4 ,the reasons for the use of this particular breed are the fact that it has white plumage and therefore dresses out well1 that it is of good size1 that its egg production is good1 and that it makes quick growth4 ,location of ,plant4 ,on ,long ,island the commercial duck plants are located along the streams1 especially those on the southern shore of the ,island1 which empty into the various bays4 ,locations along these streams are not easy to secure at the present time owing to the fact that duck farms are not allowed in many sections where summer homes have been built4 ,a water site of this sort is very valuable1 although not absolutely essential1 since it provides water yards for the breeding ducks and for the fattening ducklings if desired1 and reduces the labor and cost of equipment materially since the ducks always have access to water and no additional provision need be made to provide them with drinking water4 ,it also enables the ducks to keep their plumage clean4 ,usually these locations are on fresh water streams but some of them are further out toward the bay where the water is salty or at least brackish4 ,the mature ducks thrive well on the salt water and do not have to be furnished with fresh drinking water in addition4 ,for the young ducks1 however1 with a salt water location it is necessary to provide fresh drinking water4 ,a few farms in other sections of the country are what are known as dry land farms1 that is to say1 they are not situated on the bank of a stream4 ,in such locations running water is carried through the yards so that the ducks have an ample supply of drinking water and in some cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide water in which the breeding ducks can swim4 ,formerly the idea was universally held that swimming water was essential for the breeders in order to secure good fertility1 and many duck farmers still believe that better results can be secured in this way4 ,on some of the dry land duck farms1 however1 breeding ducks are successfully kept without such swimming places4 ,the young market ducklings do not require water to swim in although some raisers prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where readily available4 ,on the dry land farms provision is made simply for a continuous supply of fresh drinking water for the fattening ducklings4 ,ducklings kept out of the water1 do not take as much exercise and1 in consequence1 fatten a little more readily4 ,making a ,start in ,duck ,farming ,duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on a considerable scale at the beginning1 the plans being carefully laid by some experienced duck man4 ,in these cases1 operations at the start may be of sufficient magnitude so that the output will amount to #ae1jjj or #bj1jjj ducklings in a year4 ,in most cases1 however1 these places have been the result of a more gradual growth from a small beginning1 a condition made necessary either by the inexperience of the grower or by lack of capital4 ,not infrequently men engaged in other forms of farming but possessing a suitable location will keep #bjj or #cjj breeding ducks and from this gradually build up a good sized duck plant4 ,equipment1 ,capital1 etc4 ,required4 ,the estimates given as to the amount of equipment and capital required are based on the assumption that a plant is to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly output of about #cj1jjj ducklings4 ,it must be understood in this connection that location and various other conditions or circumstances will influence the cost of different items of equipment and for this reason these estimates must not be considered as absolute but should rather serve as a guide or basis on which to figure4 ,the figures here given contemplate the building up of an establishment which is efficient but which is in no particular elaborate1 the buildings and other equipment being as simple and inexpensive as possible4 ,lay-out or ,arrangement of the ,plant4 ,the plant must be carefully planned so as to make the best possible use of the land and particularly of the water frontage4 ,it is particularly important to arrange the buildings in such a manner as to cut down labor as much as possible4 ,if there is any expectation of enlarging the capacity at some future time1 this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement of the various buildings and yards4 ,the incubator cellar should be convenient to the ,no4 #a brooder house and the various brooder houses to one another4 ,the brooder house must likewise be convenient to the growing and fattening houses and yards and these in turn to the killing house4 ,the feed room should be centrally located so as to save labor as much as possible in feeding the ducks4 ,land ,required4 ,for a duck plant of the size indicated #aj acres of land should be ample4 ,this1 however1 means that no effort would be made to grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with the exception of green feed4 ,in some cases where the lay of the land is unusually favorable so that the plant can be laid out to the very best advantage1 a smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient but it is not well to figure on less than #aj acres4 ,number of ,breeders ,required4 ,with the usual methods of management and with good success1 one may estimate that #dj young ducks can be marketed each year from each breeding female4 ,this is a good average although in some good years duck raisers will do a little better than this4 ,on the other hand in poor years they will not do so well4 ,for a plant having an output of #cj1jjj market ducks there would therefore be needed in the neighborhood of #hjj breeding ducks in addition to #ajj drakes4 ,housing ,required for ,breeders4 ,in figuring on the amount of housing required for this number of breeding ducks1 it is necessary to figure on #b-a_/b to #c square feet of floor space per bird1 #c square feet being better than #b-a_/b4 ,this would require a housing space #bj feet deep by #abj feet long4 ,however ducks are not usually housed in one building of this size1 and in fact it is better not to do so since the smaller the flock of breeders kept together the better they will do4 ,in no case should a duck raiser run more than #djj ducks in a flock and it is very much better to run them in pens of #ajj each4 ,in fact1 some breeders do not place more than #be to #ej breeding ducks in a pen4 ,incubator ,capacity4 ,incubators are used exclusively for hatching the eggs4 ,at the present time in practically all cases some form of hot water mammoth incubator is utilized for this purpose4 ,an investment is required both in incubators and in a cellar in which to operate them4 ,in figuring on the incubator capacity necessary to take care of a proposition of this size1 it is necessary to base the estimate on the number of eggs produced during the season of flush production4 ,the duck raiser figures on incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather than to sell any of them for other purposes as there is a greater profit in rearing and marketing the ducklings4 ,for that reason he must have incubator capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at any time of the year4 ,during the season of flush production the yield will ordinarily run in the neighborhood of #hj4 ,the period of incubation is #bh days but #b days more should be added to this to allow for cleaning out the machines1 etc41 before starting another hatch4 ,this means that there would be #cj days between hatches4 ,figuring on #hjj ducks with an #hj production for #cj days an incubator capacity of around #ai1bjj eggs would be required4 ,brooder ,capacity4 ,a brooder house capacity1 where artificial heat can be supplied1 sufficient to take care of about half of the total output of the plant at one time is necessary4 ,this means there would have to be on this plant a heated brooder house capacity for #ae1jjj ducklings4 ,about half of this number or #gejj would need accommodations in the number #a or warmest brooder house where the heat can be kept up to #fe or #gj degrees in the house itself1 and warmer of course under the hover4 ,the other #gejj ducklings capacity would be in the number #b house1 that is1 a house where heat could be supplied in the early spring and where the temperature could be run up to #fj degrees4 ,hovers in such a house are not really needed but it is common to cover the hot waterpipes with a platform in order to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel barrow and thus simplify feeding4 ,ordinarily after ,may #a no heat is needed in the number #b brooder house4 ,the young ducks are usually #b to #c weeks old when they go into the number #b house and they stay there for about #b weeks depending on the weather4 ,heat for the brooder houses is supplied by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning stove such as are used in brooder houses for chickens4 ,a number #c or cold brooder house is also needed where ducklings can be housed and can be driven in at night and in cold weather after they have graduated from the number #b house4 ,from the number #c house a part of the ducklings are taken directly to the yards where they are housed in open front sheds4 ,fattening ,houses or ,sheds4 ,in addition to the brooder houses1 there are required fattening houses or sheds for the ducks when they are moved from the ,no4 #c brooder house to the yards4 ,suitable houses for this purpose are #af feet deep by #bd feet long4 ,in front they are #e feet high and in the rear #c-a_/b feet4 ,they are set on posts with a base board around to make them tight4 ,the fronts are entirely open and provided with curtains which are used only in the winter to keep out the snow4 ,the ducklings are shut in these houses when desired by means of wire panels which close the lower part of the front4 ,houses such as described are divided into two parts and each side will accommodate #bjj ducklings4 ,feed ,storage4 ,considerable feed storage room is necessary as it is very desirable to be able to buy feed in quantity and also to carry a considerable stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not being able to secure feed at any time4 ,there should be storage capacity for #d cars of #cj tons each1 in other words1 for #abj tons of feed4 ,still greater capacity than this is desirable4 ,in connection with the feed storage there should be a place where the feed can be mixed and where feed can be cooked4 ,two power operated feed mixers are required as one is not sufficient during the busy season to allow the mixing and feeding of the mash for both the breeders and the young stock at the same time4 ,a feed cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed which is mixed in the mash4 ,the usual type of kettle feed cooker is commonly used for boiling fish and preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a small four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good advantage as this makes it possible to cook the feed right in the mixer by using a steam hose4 ,killing and ,picking ,house4 ,a killing and picking house where the ducks can be prepared for market is another necessary building but this need not be an expensive building4 ,it must be located with reference to its convenience to the rest of the plant4 ,it is also desirable to locate it over a spring if one is available for the spring water can be used to excellent advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings4 ,when a spring is not available water must be piped to this building4 ,the killing house is usually built with at least one side open or partly open4 ,a place is provided outside the picking room where the ducks can be hung and bled4 ,inside room is required for six or eight pickers4 ,a kettle for heating water to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are also tanks in which to place the ducks after they are picked4 ,additional room is needed where the ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment4 ,residence4 ,in addition to the other buildings enumerated1 a residence would of course be necessary4 ,the size and elaborateness of this and consequently its cost depends entirely upon the owner's needs and wishes4 ,horse ,power4 ,one horse and wagon for the purpose of drawing the feed about the plant and for certain other necessary work would be required4 ,if the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed from the railroad and the other necessary trucking he would1 of course1 have to keep more horses1 a team at least1 or an automobile truck4 ,where only one horse is kept1 this trucking must be hired done4 ,feeding ,track4 ,on many of the larger duck farms1 a feed track is employed in feeding the stock4 ,such a track consists of a framework of sufficient strength to support a car filled with mash which is pushed along the track by hand4 ,the track leads from the feed mixer across the various yards where the ducks to be fed are located1 including both the breeding ducks1 yard ducks and brooder ducks in yards4 ,this involves a considerable amount of trackage which must be fairly level and which runs over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards so that the feed can be shoveled directly from the car into the feeding trays in the yards4 ,the use of a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but its construction is quite expensive4 ,where a track is not used1 the feed as mixed is dumped into a low wagon which is driven along the yards1 or through them by removing movable panels in the fences and the feed shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,power feed mixer4 ,the feed is dumped into a low wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,electric ,lights4 ,most duck farms at the present time are located where electric lighting is available4 ,it is desirable and in fact almost necessary to have the various houses wired so that lights can be turned on when desired4 ,in addition1 lights are usually provided in the yards for fattening ducks and are used at night and especially during storms to keep the ducks from stampeding4 ,water ,supply4 ,an adequate water supply is essential4 ,this will consist of a well or spring furnishing an ample amount of water1 a power pump and a water supply tank4 ,from the tank1 the water must be piped to the incubator cellar1 the brooder houses1 the killing house1 the feed house and to any of the yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural supply of good water4 ,in addition1 of course1 the water from the same tank is usually used to supply the residence4 ,fences4 ,not a great deal of investment is necessary in fences since the yards are rather small and the fences are low4 ,two-foot fences of two-inch mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the little ducks #ah-;inch wire of one-inch mesh is used4 ,the biggest items of expense connected with the fences are the cost of the stakes or posts used in their construction and the labor used in this work4 ,the portion of the yards extending into the water are the most troublesome and most expensive to build4 ,in some cases1 rather elaborate wooden picket fences are used in the water yards4 ,these are more permanent but are more expensive to build4 ,labor4 ,for a plant of the size indicated there would be required in addition to an active working proprietor three other men4 ,one man would be needed to operate the incubators1 one man would devote his time to the brooder houses1 one man would feed the yard ducks and the fattening pens1 and one man would do the killing and packing1 take care of the feathers1 clean the yards1 etc4 ,of course1 there would be periods when these men would not have their entire time taken up with their particular duties and this would permit them to turn in and help with the miscellaneous work on the plant4 ,in addition to the regular men employed1 additional labor would be necessary to do the picking4 ,for this purpose pickers are usually brought in and work by the piece4 ,during the spring of #aibj these pickers received six cents per duck and they will average about #ge ducks a day1 beginning work at #f in the morning and finishing by noon or a little later4 ,some pickers will average as high as #ajj ducks a day4 ,in the busy season from #hjj to #abjj ducks will be marketed per week and the usual practice is to kill and pick not over three days a week1 usually during the first part of the week4 ,invested ,capital4 ,investment in the business exclusive of working capital1 that is to say1 the money in the land and buildings and other equipment would require under present conditions about #a1jjj for each thousand ducks marketed4 ,in other words1 in a plant of this size1 close to #cj1jjj would be invested4 ,the amount of invested capital depends to some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness of the buildings and other equipment but with a well laid out economical plant an investment of the size indicated should be sufficient4 ,working ,capital4 ,in addition to the capital invested in the plant there would be required a considerable amount of working capital4 ,from the first of ,november to the beginning of the marketing of the ducks there would be required from #f1jjj to #h1jjj with which to purchase feed1 meet the pay roll1 and for other running expenses4 ,even after the marketing begins there would be a period of from a month to six weeks when the expenses will continue to be greater than the receipts so that some additional capital might be necessary4 ,however1 returns would begin to come in which could be used to take care of the more pressing current obligations so that additional working capital which might be needed over that indicated would not be large4 ,profits4 ,the profits in commercial duck raising vary widely1 as must be expected1 depending upon the management1 upon the season and upon prices received4 ,after deducting all overhead charges and interest on the investment1 the net return per duck should be at least #aj cents per duckling marketed4 ,in fact the return should be #ae cents to provide much inducement to engage in the business4 ,some seasons the returns will run greater than this but on the other hand1 there is always the chance of occasional big losses4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,management of the ,breeding ,stock ,age of ,breeders4 ,on most large commercial duck plants the entire breeding stock is renewed each year4 ,in other words1 the breeders are kept only through their first laying season4 ,this makes it necessary to select from the young stock reared and save for breeders as many head as it is desired to carry for the coming year4 ,this practice is used for the reason that ducks lay best during their first year4 ,therefore1 since it is desired to keep up the maximum egg production in order to raise as many market ducks as possible1 young breeders are considered better4 ,some raisers1 however1 keep a part of their breeding ducks for two years and occasionally for #c or even #d years but this is not the usual practice4 ,recent comparison made between young and two year old ducks as breeders would seem to indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of the latter live a little better4 ,distinguishing ,young from ,old ,ducks4 ,in this connection it is of interest to know how young ducks can be readily distinguished from the older birds4 ,the young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills while the old ducks after a period of laying1 lose a considerable amount of the yellow from these sections4 ,in addition1 soon after the ducks begin to lay1 their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with black4 ,young ducks can also be told from the old ducks by feeling of the end of the breast bone which runs to a point at the abdomen4 ,in the older ducks this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and bends easily4 ,the windpipe of an old duck is hard and rather difficult to compress or dent while in the young duck it is softer and easily dented4 ,selection of ,breeding ,ducks4 ,the breeders are usually selected from the ducklings which reach market age from the last week in ,june through ,july4 ,as these lots become ready for market and are driven into the pens to be slaughtered each duck is handled and any especially good birds which the proprietor thinks will make good breeders are thrown out at this time4 ,in making selection of breeders those are chosen which are healthy and thrifty and which have good wide1 long and deep bodies4 ,ducks with crooked wings1 crooked tails1 hump backs or paddle legs are rejected for this purpose4 ,after the young ducks for breeders are selected they are put in a yard or fattening pen until the number which the owner expects to keep is complete4 ,these young breeders generally begin to moult soon after they are selected and from this time on they are fed whole corn and plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding the laying ration4 ,some of the breeding ducks will usually begin to lay about ,december #a although they will not lay heavily at that time4 ,the laying ration described later should be begun about that time or a couple of weeks earlier4 ,number of ,females to a ,drake4 ,as a rule on commercial duck farms the birds are mated in the proportion of about one drake to seven ducks4 ,this proportion will vary to some extent under different methods of management and weather conditions and may run all the way from #a to #e to #a to #h4 ,the smaller number of drakes should be used late in the season while the larger number will give better fertility early in the breeding season4 ,since the drakes do not fight seriously1 flock matings can be made4 ,better results will be obtained from smaller flocks than from large flocks and there will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty eggs from the smaller flocks4 ,before the ducks are let out in the morning there is a tendency for them to run back and forth through the pens1 and in this way they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere about the floor4 ,the larger the flock the more cracked and dirty eggs will result4 ,while the drakes do not fight each other they do at times injure and kill the ducks to some extent when three or four drakes may chase one duck4 ,in this way they may injure the ducks' backs and often pick their eyes and necks4 ,whenever a duck is found which is injured she should be removed from the flock4 ,difficulty of this sort is most prevalent about the #ast of ,march4 ,if the trouble gets very bad it can be stopped to some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the drakes about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip or by reducing the proportion of drakes4 ,securing ,breeding ,drakes4 ,it is common practice on duck plants to avoid inbreeding by securing drakes from some other flock each year4 ,this is usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright from some neighboring duck farmer4 ,it may also be accomplished by purchasing a few eggs for hatching in order to secure new blood4 ,in any particular community there is a tendency for the duck farmers to trade breeding drakes among themselves for a period of years with the result that they all have much the same blood and not a great deal of benefit is obtained from securing the drakes from some neighbor's flock4 ,it is undoubtedly good practice to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of breeding drakes4 ,in purchasing stock for new blood be sure that it is as good as the home stock and better if it can be found4 ,it will do no good to purchase and use inferior stock and may do much harm4 ,houses and ,yards for ,breeders ,the breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding yards4 ,the size of these yards depends upon the size of the breeding flock but large yards are not required4 ,a yard for #bjj breeders is not as a rule larger than #ajj by #bjj feet including the water part of the yard4 ,houses and yards should be located on sand if possible as this is easier to keep clean and therefore keeps the birds in better condition4 ,occasional flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their liberty but this is not common practice nor is it good practice unless the surroundings are clean and the ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse in which they can work4 ,if ducks work too much in this kind of material they will eat more or less of it which injures the eggs for hatching purposes4 ,many different styles of houses are used for breeders1 some of which are decidedly more elaborate than is necessary4 ,a very satisfactory economical house is one #bj feet deep1 #g feet high in front and #d feet at back1 with a shed roof4 ,this can be constructed of tongue and groove material or may be made of unmatched stuff and covered with paper4 ,a house of this proportion makes a good light house and it can be carried in length according to the size of the flock4 ,for a breeding unit of #bjj ducks1 which is a good unit to use1 a house #bj feet deep and #cj to #dj feet long is suitable4 ,no floor is used in the house but it should be well filled up with dirt so that the water will not come in4 ,one or more good sized openings are left in the front of the breeding house for ventilation1 or windows may be placed in the front which can be used for this purpose4 ,good ventilation is necessary4 ,additional ventilation is secured from the doors4 ,if the weather is mild the doors are left partly open1 if cold they are nearly closed1 while when the weather is hot they are left entirely open4 ,a good scheme is to use a sort of ,dutch door so that the bottom or top half can be opened independently4 ,in this way the top part of the doors can be left open so as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks in the house or the top may be left closed and the bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to go in or out and still cut down the amount of ventilation4 ,when the weather is warm the doors may be left entirely open except for a board #ah inches to #b feet wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is desired to keep the ducks in4 ,shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided naturally by trees must be supplied by means of artificial shelters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,upper--,rear and end view of house or shed used for fattening ducks4 ,lower--,general view on a duck plant1 showing open front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for breeders in the background4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,a good house for breeding ducks4 ,it is #bj feet deep1 #dj feet long1 #g feet high in front and #d feet in the rear and will accommodate #bjj breeders4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,bedding and ,cleaning the ,breeding ,houses4 ,usually straw1 meadow hay1 or swale hay is used for bedding4 ,shavings make good material for this purpose if they do not contain too much sawdust4 ,the principal objection to shavings is that it takes longer to bed with them4 ,often a few joists are laid at the back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will serve as an emergency supply available for bedding the house in stormy days4 ,the houses should be bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean and dry and so as not to allow the ducks' feet to get cold4 ,the frequency with which bedding is necessary will depend upon the weather4 ,in winter it may at times be necessary to bed every day4 ,in ,may it may be necessary only twice a week and still later in the season only once a week4 ,in wet weather the ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent bedding helps to keep the eggs clean4 ,the houses are cleaned out only once a year and this is usually done after the ducks have stopped laying4 ,to clean out the houses while the ducks are laying would disturb them and tend to stop their egg production4 ,cleaning the ,breeding ,yards4 ,the yards should be cleaned whenever they need it1 that is1 whenever they begin to get sloppy or sticky4 ,it is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary4 ,the character of the soil influences this1 as sandy yards absorb the droppings better and do not need cleaning as frequently as heavier soils4 ,in the yards for the breeding ducks1 or the water yards1 this will as a rule not be over #b or #c times a season4 ,in dry weather cleaning is accomplished by sweeping the yards with a broom4 ,in wet weather the droppings spread over the yard and are packed down by the ducks' feet until they form a layer of putty-like material which cannot be swept off but is scraped off by means of a hoe4 ,water ,yards for ,breeders4 ,formerly it was the consensus of opinion that breeders needed water in which they could swim in order to keep in good breeding condition and to give the best results in fertility of the eggs4 ,at present it is not considered necessary to have sufficient water to permit swimming although many breeders prefer to do this and feel that they get better results from it4 ,however1 breeding ducks have been and are being kept successfully in dry yards where water is supplied to them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to drink and to clean themselves4 ,where water yards are provided this should not be on stagnant water but there should be some circulation of the water so as to keep it clean and fresh4 ,where the lay of the land is such that it is not possible to run all the yards down to a stream for this purpose it is sometimes possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the water4 ,where the yards can extend into the water it saves a great deal of labor or considerable expense in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide the ducks with drinking water by means of some artificial arrangement such as a concrete gutter or ditch extending through the yards or by means of artificial ponds4 ,if the water yards used freeze over in winter it is necessary to cut holes in the ice so that the ducks can get water for drinking purposes4 ,sometimes the ducks will go into these water holes and after getting their plumage wet will come out and sit down in the yard and freeze fast to the ground4 ,during such weather conditions it is necessary to make the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen any ducks that have frozen fast4 ,if they are left in that condition they are apt to injure themselves in trying to pull free and if left too long will die4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,another successful type of house for breeding ducks4 ,it is #bj ft4 by #dj ft4 and is divided into two pens each of which will accommodate #ajj breeders4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,meal time for the breeders4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,feeding the ,breeders4 ,breeding ducks are fed twice a day1 in the morning and at night4 ,it is usual practice to feed the breeders last in the morning and first at night4 ,the reason for feeding them last in the morning is that they are usually fed in the yards rather than the house and they should be kept in until they are through laying which will be after daylight4 ,a good breeding ration consists of the following1 the proportions being given by measure in bushels4 #a bushel bran4 #a bushel low-grade flour4 #a bushel corn meal4 #a bushel green feed4 #a_/b bushel either raw or cooked vegetables4 #a bushel in #aj of beef scrap4 #a_/b bushel in #aj of cooked fish4 ,this ration will keep the breeding ducks in good flesh but there will be no difficulty in their getting too fat4 ,it is also a good laying ration and will promote good egg production4 ,the vegetables used in this ration usually consist of sugar beets1 cow beets1 potatoes1 etc4 ,however1 if potatoes are used the amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a little so as not to make the ration too heavy4 ,beets1 when used1 are fed raw cut up and mixed in the feed4 ,small potatoes1 boiled and mixed in the feed are more valuable as they have a greater food value than beets4 ,some duck growers feed fish entirely1 using no beef scrap4 ,this is done where a plentiful supply of fish can be secured by going out into the bay after them4 ,however1 this is not very good practice for a sufficient supply of fish may not always be available and the ducks are so fond of the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap used as a substitute for the fish1 until they have become used to it4 ,fish is prepared for feeding by boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker4 ,the available land on the plant is used to grow a supply of green feed4 ,rye is used for this purpose early in the spring as soon as it is high enough to mow4 ,it is mowed the first time when it is like a lawn4 ,at this stage it does not have to be cut up4 ,oats are used in the same way4 ,during the summer fodder corn is used4 ,this is the poorest crop for the purpose but is as a rule the only one available at that time4 ,rape is sowed in ,august and its use begun about the time of the first frost and kept up until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under the snow4 ,creek grass which is secured from the fresh water streams on ,long ,island by going out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek bottom with a wooden rake1 is very much relished by the ducks and is used whenever it is available4 ,however1 the supply of this material is not as plentiful as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get4 ,when it is available it can be used either in winter or summer4 ,good field clover cut up and boiled with the potatoes or with the fish makes a good green feed4 ,all of these green materials for use in the ration1 unless they are already in short lengths1 are cut up by means of a power feed cutter before they are mixed in the mash4 ,when no other form of green feed is available ground alfalfa is used but only half as much of this material is mixed with the ration as is used of any of the other kinds of green feed4 ,wherever possible the various duck yards should be used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or rye as this not only helps out on the supply of green feed but also helps to sweeten the soil4 ,the growing of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for ducks is especially important as such soils are more likely to become contaminated from the droppings4 ,the ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power feed mixer which works much on the principle of a power dough mixer4 ,in fact1 dough mixers are used on some plants4 ,in mixing the feed enough water should be added to bring the material to a consistency where it will hold together when squeezed in the hand4 ,in fact1 the consistency should be between crumbly and sticky1 but should never be sloppy4 ,the feed is dumped from the mixer into a low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the various yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed troughs or trays4 ,on some large duck plants a track is provided which runs over the yards and over this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the feed shoveled into the feed trays4 ,the breeders should be fed in the same place4 ,if feeding is begun in the house this practice should be continued4 ,if feeding is begun in the yards it should be continued there4 ,to change disturbs the ducks and interferes with their egg production4 ,coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn should be kept before the breeders all the time in boxes where they can help themselves4 ,a flock of #gjj or #hjj breeders will eat upwards of #bjj pounds a week of this material4 ,unless sand is available in the yards where they can get it1 ducks should also have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit need be furnished4 ,the usual method of feeding is to utilize flat troughs on which the feed is shoveled4 ,only as much feed should be given at the regular feeding time as the ducks will eat up clean4 ,this makes it necessary to watch the feeding carefully and to regulate the amount accordingly4 ,it is good practice to gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that it will not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed is bad for the birds4 ,egg ,production ,the average egg production of ,pekin ducks kept under commercial farm conditions will run from #hj to #abe eggs per head for the season4 ,this will vary somewhat from year to year and also with the management and feed given the ducks4 ,the laying begins to a small extent about ,december #a and gradually increases until the ducks are laying freely in ,february4 ,as the hot weather of summer begins to come on the laying drops off until about ,july #a and after this not enough eggs are produced as a rule to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer4 ,often many ducks will stop laying considerably before this1 especially those which have started laying early and it may not pay to keep such pens later than ,may4 ,laying takes place early in the morning and practically all the eggs are laid soon after daylight4 ,it is for this reason that the ducks are usually shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured as some of them would otherwise be lost by their being laid around in the yard or in the water4 ,in the spring the ducks can be let out about #f a4 m41 as the laying will be pretty well over by that time1 but in winter they must be kept shut up later in order to secure all the eggs4 ,after the ducks start laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous layers and will miss fewer days than most hens4 ,after the breeding ducks are first put in the breeding pens and shut in the houses at night it is common practice to use electric lights for the first #b or #c weeks in order to keep them from stampeding as ducks in strange surroundings are quite nervous and are quite likely to stampede and to run over one another thus causing cripples4 ,electric lights have also been used to some extent during the late fall and winter for the purpose of inducing egg production earlier than the natural season4 ,as a rule the ducks can be started to laying about #d weeks after turning on the lights but the average production under this system is not likely to run more than #fj eggs for the season as so handled they moult quite early in the spring4 ,a single #be watt light is sufficient for a house or pen #af x #bd feet and the lights are left turned on all night4 ,the object in feeding and caring for the breeding ducks is to keep them from moulting and to keep them laying as long as possible4 ,it must be remembered that any radical change in feed or manner of feeding1 shutting them up too closely1 change of temperature1 or other disturbing conditions are likely to cause moulting and to check egg production4 ,any change in feed must be made carefully and gradually1 not suddenly4 ,it must also be remembered that ducks are excitable birds and must be handled and driven carefully so as to disturb them as little as possible4 ,time of ,marketing ,breeders ,the breeders should be turned off to market whenever their egg production drops off so decidedly that it no longer pays to hold them4 ,in most cases this will be about the #ast of ,july but it may range considerably earlier than this1 especially with pens of ducks that have started laying early4 ,when the ducks finish laying their eggs they begin to moult and it is at this time that they should be marketed4 ,if marketing is delayed1 the ducks will lose condition as the moulting progresses and will therefore be held at a loss4 ,diseases and ,pests ,disease4 ,old ducks1 that is1 mature ducks1 are practically free from disease4 ,of course1 there will be a certain amount of loss in the breeding stock from various causes but this should not run for the entire season more than #aj of the flock4 ,ducks do not become egg bound1 but sometimes1 especially during heavy laying1 they become ruptured4 ,insect ,pests4 ,ducks are remarkably free from lice and other insect pests and those which they do have do not trouble them much4 ,it is unnecessary therefore to take any precautions in the way of treating the ducks to keep them free of insects4 ,dogs4 ,occasionally trouble may be experienced from dogs4 ,if these animals get into the yards with the breeders or the fattening ducks1 they may kill a good many and in addition will seriously injure the rest by chasing them and by the fright which the ducks are given4 ,,chapter ,v ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,incubation ,the ,pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed4 ,it1 therefore1 becomes necessary to resort to incubators for the purpose of hatching the eggs4 ,occasional ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not the practice on commercial duck farms to allow them to sit and hatch their young4 ,no special means are taken to break them of broodiness other than not to allow them eggs to sit on4 ,kinds of ,incubators ,used4 ,both the smaller kerosene lamp heated incubators and the large or mammoth hot water heated incubators are used for hatching duck eggs4 ,at the present time the mammoth hot water machines are those which are in principal use due largely to the lessened labor required to operate them4 ,incubator ,cellar4 ,it is necessary to provide some room in which the incubators can be installed and operated4 ,this may take the form of a cellar1 or the incubators may be operated in rooms above the ground4 ,many of the incubator cellars on duck farms are only partially under ground and not a few of them are built entirely out of ground4 ,the particular size and shape of the cellar or incubator room will1 of course1 depend upon the number of incubators to be installed and upon their make and shape4 ,usually these buildings are constructed with rather thick walls so that the temperature of the room will fluctuate less with changes in outside temperature4 ,provision is also necessary by means of windows or other ventilating devices to provide for good ventilation in the room4 ,the cellars are usually constructed with cement floors as moisture is used freely and wooden floors would rot out quickly4 ,incubator ,capacity ,required4 ,the aim on commercial duck farms is to hatch all of the eggs produced which are suitable for the purpose4 ,practically no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or those which would not give good results in the incubator such as too large or too small eggs4 ,occasionally1 of course1 there will be sales of duck eggs in comparatively large lots for incubation purposes where someone is starting a duck farm4 ,occasionally also duck farmers buy from each other a few eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood4 ,on the whole1 however1 practically all of the eggs laid are incubated and it is necessary to have an incubator capacity sufficient to take care of the eggs as they are produced during the flush season4 ,since the egg production at this time will run around about #hj and since the period of incubation is #bh days and a couple more days must be allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines and to clean up the machines1 it is necessary to figure on #cj days between hatches4 ,to take care of the flush production at this time there would be required an incubator capacity of from #bj to #be eggs per head of breeding ducks4 ,the latter figure is a safer estimate than the former4 ,of course1 eggs sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not put in the machines at any one time but different lots are put in as soon as a sufficient number is obtained to make it worth while4 ,there will be1 therefore1 eggs in various stages of incubation in different sections of the machines at the same time4 ,while ,pekin duck eggs will run about #a_/b heavier in weight than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately greater amount of space in the incubator4 ,an incubator tray will accommodate about #e_/f as many ,pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs4 ,age of ,hatching ,eggs4 ,duck eggs should be set as often as enough are secured to fill one or more trays in the incubator or enough to produce a sufficient number of ducklings to utilize brooding space to advantage4 ,since duck eggs deteriorate more rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be kept so long before they are set4 ,it is best not to save them for longer than one week4 ,during the season of flush production it is not1 of course1 necessary to save them that long since enough eggs will be secured to set each day if desired4 ,the usual practice at this time is to set twice a week4 ,during the early part of the season when the production of eggs is low and the temperature cool the eggs are often saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably bad results4 ,care of ,hatching ,eggs4 ,eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool place4 ,any place suitable for keeping hens' eggs for hatching is a suitable place for duck eggs4 ,the temperature should be from #ej deg4 to #gj deg4 ,fahrenheit4 ,where the eggs are not kept longer than one week1 it is not necessary to turn them1 especially if they are kept on end4 ,if kept longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day or once in two days1 handling them carefully so as not to crack any or to injure their hatching qualities4 ,selecting the ,eggs for ,hatching4 ,medium sized eggs are preferred for this purpose4 ,therefore1 the extremely large eggs and the very small ones are thrown out4 ,rough shelled eggs or eggs with crooked or deformed shells are likewise thrown out since they are not likely to hatch well4 ,eggs that are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily are washed but the clean eggs are not4 ,all the eggs intended for incubation purposes are sounded by striking them gently against one another in order to detect and remove the cracked eggs4 ,no selection is made on the basis of color4 ,the eggs may be white1 creamy white or a blue1 or bluish green in color4 ,at the present time a considerably less proportion of the eggs show a blue tint than formerly4 ,as the egg laying season advances the eggs laid by the ducks tend to get a little larger4 ,temperature4 ,up to the time of testing1 that is1 about the fifth day1 the incubator is run at a temperature of from #aja to #ajb degrees4 ,after the fifth day the temperature is kept as near #ajc as possible4 ,the most sensitive period for a duck egg is during the first #c or #d days of incubation4 ,if they are allowed to get too warm during this time the germ may be killed while if the temperature is too low1 development will be retarded4 ,position of the ,thermometer4 ,in figuring on the proper temperature at which to run the incubator1 the thermometer should be so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs1 preferably touching a fertile egg4 ,if the thermometer bulb rests on an infertile egg the temperature recorded will be lower than the actual temperature of fertile eggs in the later stages of incubation1 due to the animal heat of the developing embryos1 with the result that the machine would be operated at too high a temperature4 ,testing4 ,it is common practice to make only one complete test4 ,this is done on the evening of the fifth day4 ,testing may be done by means of an ordinary candling device such as is used with hens' eggs1 each egg being examined separately4 ,to save time a piece of apparatus may be used which is simple in construction and which simplifies the process of candling considerably4 ,this may be termed a testing table4 ,it consists of a table the same width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray4 ,in the table there is an opening the size of a row of eggs and beneath this are placed several electric light bulbs with reflectors back of them so as to throw the light up through the eggs4 ,by sliding the tray along the table each row of eggs is brought over the lights and their condition can be quickly noted4 ,at this test all the infertile eggs are taken out as well as any eggs in which the germs have died4 ,the infertile eggs after a careful retest are then packed in cases and sent to market where they are usually sold to bakers as tested eggs4 ,while no second test is made of the eggs left in the machines the experienced incubator operator is constantly on the watch for and is constantly removing any eggs which die at a later time4 ,to the experienced eye the color of the egg indicates that it has died as it takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish tint4 ,duck eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must be removed promptly as the odor which they throw off is very strong and will prove harmful to the other eggs4 ,the inexperienced operator can readily locate dead eggs by smelling over the tray4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,interior of house for breeding ducks4 ,notice the heavy bedding and the feeding track4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,incubator cellar on large duck plant4 ,trays of eggs set out to turn and cool4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,turning the ,eggs4 ,the eggs are neither turned1 cooled nor otherwise disturbed after they are put in the incubator until after they are tested on the fifth day4 ,from this time on they are turned twice a day1 morning and night1 until they begin to pip4 ,cooling the ,eggs4 ,there is a considerable difference in the practice of incubator operators with regard to cooling4 ,no cooling should be done until after the first test4 ,after this some incubator men cool the eggs by dropping the doors of the machine4 ,others take the trays of eggs out and put them on top of the machine4 ,cooling is usually done once a day4 ,the amount of cooling which the eggs require seems to vary greatly and here again the judgment of the operator comes into play4 ,about the best general rule which can be given is that the eggs should be cooled until they do not feel warm to the face but they should never be cooled to the extent that they feel cold to the face or hands4 ,the length of time to bring this about varies with the age of the eggs and the temperature of the room4 ,moisture4 ,a good deal of moisture is used in incubating duck eggs4 ,it is usual to begin to spray the eggs with water the next day after testing4 ,however1 this may vary anywhere from the sixth to the tenth day4 ,they are sprayed quite thoroughly1 some men using water enough so that it runs out of the bottom of the machine4 ,no particular care is taken to see that the water used is warm4 ,ordinary water just as it comes from the pipes is commonly used and is applied by means of a spray nozzle attached to a hose4 ,however1 extremely cold water should not be used for this purpose4 ,this spraying is done once or twice a day as the operator may think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch4 ,in many cases even then if the ducklings seem to be drying too fast after they come out of the shell1 or to be having difficulty to get out it is well to open the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly4 ,fertility4 ,the fertility varies with the season that is1 with the weather4 ,at the beginning of the laying season when the weather is cold the fertility usually runs rather low4 ,this is likewise true at the end of the laying season when the heat of summer sets in4 ,during the interval between these two times of low fertility there will usually be one or more periods during which the fertility will go down and then come back again4 ,this seems to occur even though the weather remains about the same and though there is no change in the method of feeding4 ,fertility may be considered to be good when it runs about #he4 ,when the fertility is running poor the hatching of the eggs left in the machines after testing will usually be poor also4 ,hatching4 ,it takes longer as a rule from the time that the ducklings pip the eggs until they hatch than it does with chicks4 ,to retain the moisture which is so necessary during hatching1 the machines are usually shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching is pretty well completed unless it becomes necessary to add more moisture as indicated above4 ,the little ducklings should be left in the incubator until the hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off4 ,as soon as the hatching is completed1 the ventilators in the machines are opened to hasten the drying process4 ,if the ducklings open their bills and pant it is an indication that they are not getting enough ventilation and this should be supplied by fastening the machine door open a little way4 ,if the ducks are not ready to be taken out of the machines by noon or soon after1 it is best to leave them until the next morning before removing them to the brooder house4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the old eggs and shells and other refuse should be taken out4 ,usually the hatch is completed in time so that the ducklings can be removed to the brooder house on the afternoon of the #bhth day4 ,as a rule the earlier the hatch is completed the better are the ducklings4 ,figures secured on results in hatching for the entire season on ,long ,island duck farms indicate that as a whole the duck raisers will not average much over #dj hatch of all eggs set4 ,some hatches may run as high as #fj or even more and in some seasons the average percentage will run higher than #dj4 ,some especially skilled operators may also secure considerably better average results than this4 ,it is quite a common practice on the part of duck farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus on all ducklings over #dj hatched during the season4 ,this bonus may range anywhere from #a to #e per thousand ducklings4 ,such an arrangement serves to give the incubator man a greater incentive to give the machines good attention and to secure just the best results of which he is capable4 ,selling ,baby ,ducks4 ,within the last two or three years there has sprung into existence a small but increasing trade in baby ducks4 ,they are handled and shipped about the same as baby chicks4 ,baby ducks are ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly dry1 usually about #ab hours after the hatch starts to come off4 ,they are neither fed nor watered before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes used in shipping baby chicks4 ,as a rule the shipping boxes will accommodate about half the number of ducklings that they will chicks4 ,of course the outside temperature very largely governs the matter of the number to a compartment4 ,in warm summer weather1 a two compartment box intended for #ej chicks will accommodate #bf ducklings if well ventilated at the sides and top4 ,they are shipped by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within a radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require more than #cf hours4 ,for best results the ducklings should not be allowed to go much beyond this length of time before they are fed4 ,on receipt they should be placed immediately in a brooder already prepared for them4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,brooding and ,rearing the ,young ,stock ,young ducks are easier to brood than chicks4 ,they seem to learn more quickly where the source of heat is and they are less likely to cause trouble from crowding4 ,they are also less subject to disease4 ,removing the ,newly ,hatched ,ducklings to the ,brooder ,house4 ,the ducklings should be left in the incubator until they are thoroughly dried off4 ,usually they will be dried so that they can be moved on the afternoon of the #bhth day of incubation4 ,if1 however1 they are not ready early in the afternoon it is best to leave them in the machine until the next morning4 ,in moving the ducklings1 place them in boxes1 baskets or other suitable carriers and cover them with burlap or cloth to avoid any danger of the ducklings becoming chilled4 ,brooder ,houses ,repaired4 ,there are many different types and styles of brooder houses which are used with success4 ,for this reason only one type of each class of brooder house needed is described in detail4 ,these particular houses have been in successful use for a considerable period of time and are given because they embody all the necessary requisites for such houses and at the same time utilize the space to good advantage and are economical in construction4 ,in general there are required three different brooder houses4 ,the first of these requires sufficient heating capacity so that the temperature of the house itself can be maintained at #fe to #gj degrees even in the cold weather of winter or early spring4 ,in addition1 hovers are required in this house under which a temperature can be maintained from #hj to #ij degrees4 ,for convenience this house will be spoken of as brooder house ,no4 #a4 ,a second brooder house which can be called brooder house ,no4 #b will be required which is equipped with heating apparatus so that the temperature can be run up to #fj degrees when required4 ,the third brooder house known as brooder house ,no4 #c is a cold brooder house or one without artificial heat4 ,it furnishes shelter for the young ducks where they can be driven in at night and during the day in cold weather4 ,as the ducklings pass out of the brooder house ,no4 #c they are housed in sheds or shelters with yards which usually extend into the water but which may not do so in all cases4 ,brooder ,house ,no4 #a ,the length of this house determines its capacity1 the required amount of which will depend upon the output of any particular plant4 ,there should be brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for approximately #a_/d of the total output for the year at one time4 ,construction of ,house4 ,a suitable house which has been in practical use for some time consists of one #bj feet wide and running east and west with windows in the south or front side4 ,if the location were right such a house could be run north and south to good advantage and should then have windows on each side so as to let in the sunlight from both directions4 ,the front wall of this house is #g feet high1 the back wall #d feet4 ,the ridge of the house is about #b feet in front of the center1 the front slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while the back slope has a #f inch pitch4 ,the roof rafters are #b x #d's placed every two feet4 ,the studs and plates are likewise #b x #d4 ,the walls are made of matched material4 ,the roof is constructed of #a x #b inch strips placed every #d inches and these covered with shingles4 ,tie beams every #h feet extend from front to rear plates4 ,this particular brooder house is not ceiled but a good tight ceiling #h feet above the walk or runway would make it easier to keep the house clean and would also render it somewhat easier in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired4 ,the house is built on a concrete wall or foundation and a dirt floor is used but the dirt must be filled in well above the level of the ground outside so that there is no danger of water coming into the house or the floors becoming damp or sloppy4 ,windows are placed in the front wall1 one to each pen4 ,in every other pen there is a small door in the back of the house to facilitate cleaning out the pens4 ,a window can be substituted for this door to good advantage as it makes the house lighter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,interior of ,no4 #a brooder house showing walk and hover combined in the middle of the house and pens on each side4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,heating ,apparatus4 ,heat is furnished by means of a coal burning stove which heats water and causes it to circulate through pipes run the length of the house4 ,the heater must always be placed in the windward end of the building as otherwise it is hard to get the heat down to the other end as the wind tends to drive it back4 ,the hot water pipes are carried down the center of the house and the return pipes are located in the same place4 ,a low partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing the pipes and thus forming double pens1 half extending from the center to the front and half from the center to the rear of the house4 ,the pipes and the partition between them is covered over with boards making a #d foot walk or runway directly over the pipes1 which comes into most convenient use as a place to convey1 by means of a wheelbarrow1 feed or other material needed in the house1 and as a convenient place from which to care for the ducklings in the pens on each side4 ,this board covering over the pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms hovers4 ,it is advisable to partition off the first third of the house1 that is1 the portion in which the heater is located1 with a solid partition4 ,then by having suitable valves in the pipes1 the heat can be cut off from the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned off end used as a separate and independent section of the brooder4 ,this is especially useful when only a small number of ducklings are being hatched early in the spring when the weather is cold and it may be difficult to heat the whole building properly4 ,it is also economical in fuel under such conditions4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the number of ducklings hatched during the cold weather is so large that all or nearly all of the house capacity is needed to care for them1 it will usually pay to install an additional heater1 the pipes from which can be run along the rear wall of the building1 in order to keep up a proper house temperature when the weather is severe4 ,pens4 ,having the hovers in the center of the house1 makes it possible to have double sets of pens1 one running from the center to the front wall and the other from the center to the rear wall4 ,the pens are divided off by means of partitions made of one foot boards4 ,these are high enough to confine the ducklings to their own pen and at the same time are easy to step over4 ,in a house of this width1 #bj feet1 with #d feet in the center taken up by the double hovers or walk1 each pen is #h feet long in the clear or #aj feet to the partition under the hover4 ,the pens in the first third of the house are made #e feet wide1 in the next third #f feet and in the last third #g feet wide4 ,when the ducklings are first brought from the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat higher there than in the portions of the house more remote from the heater4 ,these #e x #aj foot pens will accommodate #abe baby ducklings although better results will be obtained by placing only #ajj in a pen if sufficient room is available4 ,some duck growers use boards which can be slipped into slots made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different distances from the hover and which serve to confine the baby ducklings close to the hover for the first few days or until they learn to go under the hover to get warm4 ,as additional ducklings are hatched later and brought to the brooder house1 the ducklings already there are moved along the necessary number of pens in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens nearest the heater4 ,for this purpose1 a small door is made in each partition next the outside wall of the house through which the ducklings can be driven4 ,a broom is a handy implement to use in driving the ducklings as they can be pushed along in front of it4 ,it is best to drive the ducklings just after they have been fed as they are not so nervous and afraid at that time4 ,the increased width of the pens in the second and third portions of the house is for the purpose of taking care of the growth of the ducklings as they are moved along the house4 ,pens of the same width as those in which they were started become too crowded as the ducklings increase in size4 ,equipment of the ,pen4 ,the equipment of the pens is quite simple4 ,water is piped through the house along both walls so that it is available to each pen4 ,a spigot is provided in each pen and under this is placed the drinking dish1 which consists of a round metal pan about a foot in diameter and #c or #d inches deep4 ,a square pan should never be used as the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in the corners4 ,one quarter inch mesh wire netting is bent in a circle and placed in the drinking dish as a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the pan4 ,this guard should be made of such size that there is a space between the wire and the edge of the dish of about #a-a_/b inches all around4 ,this guard should be about #h inches high4 ,the water pan itself is set upon a wire covered frame about #ah inches square under which is dug a pit #d or #e inches deep to drain away any water which the ducklings slop out of the pan4 ,such an arrangement keeps the pens from becoming sloppy and damp4 ,each pen must also have a flat metal dish on which to place the feed for the little ducks4 ,metal pans are better than wooden feeding trays as they are easier to keep clean4 ,in each pen is provided a small hopper filled with fine sharp creek sand to which the ducklings have access at all times4 ,some duck growers prefer to mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in hoppers4 ,after the ducklings are allowed to run in the yards1 sand need not be furnished if the yards are sand as the ducklings will help themselves4 ,if the land in the yards is not sand1 however1 it is necessary to continue to furnish this material4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,watering arrangement in the brooder pens for young ducklings4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,another type of ,no4 #a brooder house4 ,here the hovers are along the back of the house and the work is done from an alleyway along the front4 ,the box with handles on top of the hover is used in carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar to the brooder house4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,grading and ,sorting the ,ducklings4 ,as the ducklings are moved from pen to pen through this house as well as the other houses1 they are constantly graded for size and thriftiness1 the smaller1 less thrifty individuals being left with younger lots4 ,some ducklings do not grow as quickly as others1 and these if left with ducklings larger than themselves will not get their share of the feed and will not do as well4 ,in this connection it should be noted that when young ducks are not fairly clean it is a good indication that they are not doing as well as they should4 ,cleaning and ,bedding the ,pens4 ,careful attention must be given to keeping the pens and the ducklings themselves clean if they are to do well4 ,therefore the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be necessary to accomplish this purpose4 ,the judgment of the brooder man must decide how often this is necessary but it will be at least once a week4 ,when cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out from the front pens through the windows and from the back pens through the door provided in the rear wall for this purpose4 ,bedding the pens must be done more frequently1 usually about every other day4 ,fresh bedding will help to absorb the droppings and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy or sticky4 ,for bedding1 straw1 meadow hay1 swale hay or any other suitable material available should be utilized4 ,ventilation4 ,plenty of ventilation is required in the brooder house in order to take out the ammonia odor which arises from the droppings4 ,properly managed1 the doors and windows provide sufficient means of ventilation but some duck growers prefer to have roof ventilators in addition4 ,other ,types of ,brooder ,houses4 ,many other types of brooder houses are used1 some of them being shed roof construction and many of them being built narrower than this house1 that is to say1 #ad1 #af or #ah feet wide with an alleyway along the front or rear side of the house from which the work is done4 ,the hovers are placed at the back of the pens when the alley-way is in the front1 otherwise1 they are placed next to the alley-way4 ,the disadvantages of these houses are that only single pens are provided and that valuable brooding space is used up by the alley-way4 ,the advantages of the house described above lie in the fact that the hovers are in the center of the house with the pens on each side of this1 thus doubling the capacity1 and that by making use of a walk over the hover pipe no room is wasted in an alley-way4 ,having pens on each side also lessens the labor of taking care of the ducklings to some extent as the arrangement is more compact4 ,length of ,time in ,brooder ,in ,house ,no4 #a4 ,as a rule the ducklings are kept in the ,no4 #a house until they are from #b to #c weeks old1 this of course depending somewhat upon the time of year and the weather and also upon the number of ducklings for which accommodations must be provided at any particular time4 ,as the ducks are moved down through the house and eventually reach the last pens they are taken from this house and placed in brooder house ,no4 #b4 ,brooder ,house ,no4 #b4 ,this is a heated house like brooder house ,no4 #a but in which it is not necessary to maintain so high a temperature4 ,sufficient heating apparatus should be installed to make it possible to maintain the temperature at #fj degrees if this becomes necessary in the early spring4 ,the particular brooder house described is #ad feet wide and has a shed roof4 ,it is provided with a window in the front of each pen4 ,no openings are required along the back since this is not a double pen house4 ,the space in such a house could undoubtedly be used to better advantage if it were constructed as wide as the ,no4 #a house and the hot water pipes and walk put through the middle of the house so as to provide double pens4 ,in this house the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the pens1 and while hovers are not really necessary1 a walk is constructed over the pipes in order to save space and provide a convenient place from which to do the work1 and this forms hovers4 ,ordinarily after ,may #a no heat is needed in the ,no4 #b house4 ,the pens in this house are #ab feet wide and they are equipped with feeding and watering arrangements as in brooder house ,no4 #a4 ,as the ducklings are moved to this house from the ,no4 #a house from #aej to #bjj are placed in each pen4 ,they are moved through the house from pen to pen in the same manner as in the ,no4 #a house to make way for new arrivals4 ,as a rule they stay in this house about two weeks depending somewhat on the weather and upon the number of ducklings being brooded4 ,yards are used in connection with this house which are the same width as the pens and #ej feet in length4 ,as in the ,no4 #a house the pens in this house should be cleaned at least once a week and they should be bedded with straw or other bedding material every other day4 ,as soon as the ducks have been moved through this ,no4 #b house they are put in brooder house ,no4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,brooder house ,no4 #b and yards4 ,the trees furnish fine shade for the growing ducklings4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,brooder ,house ,no4 #c ,this is a shed roof house #af feet wide equipped with single pens4 ,no heat is required in this house4 ,yards of the same width as the pens and #ej feet deep are used4 ,usually the ducks are fed outside the house from a wagon driven along a roadway just in front of the yards4 ,the pens are #af feet wide and the same number of ducks is used in them as in the ,no4 #b house4 ,as a rule the ducks stay in this house about #b weeks and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters with the larger yards which may or may not have water4 ,from this point on the ducks are termed yard ducks4 ,in all three of the brooder houses the young ducks are supplied with their drinking water from pipes through the houses4 ,they are not given access to water until they are moved to the yards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,brooder house ,no4 #c4 ,at the time this picture was taken there were no ducklings in the house and advantage was taken of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and droppings1 which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,long brooder house and yards with feeding track4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,upper--,pekin ducklings #c days old4 ,lower--,pekin ducklings #b weeks old4 ,duck egg used for size comparison4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,upper--,pekin ducklings #c weeks old4 ,lower--,pekin ducklings #f weeks old4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,interior of a cold brooder house4 ,the low partitions can easily be stepped over4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,yard ,accommodations for ,ducklings ,as the ducklings get to be #h weeks old they can stand ordinary weather conditions and it is not absolutely necessary to have houses for them4 ,however1 it is common and good practice to provide shelter where they can be housed at night and can take refuge from storms4 ,a suitable house for this purpose consists of a building #af x #bd feet divided into two parts with #bjj ducklings to a side4 ,this house is #e feet high in front and #c-a_/b feet in back4 ,it is set on posts with a baseboard around it to make it tight4 ,it can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched stuff covered with paper4 ,the front is left open but curtains are placed on the front which can be used to close the openings so as to keep out the snow4 ,these are used only in the winter4 ,when the ducklings are first started in these sheds they are shut in when desired by means of wire panels fitted into the lower part of the open front4 ,the ducklings are left in these yards and fed there until they are ready for market4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,eat1 drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die4 ,fattening or yard ducks with fattening house or shelter used4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,shade4 ,shade is important for the ducklings as soon as the sun gets hot4 ,exposure to the sun without shade will cause quite a heavy loss in ducklings4 ,if natural shade is not furnished by trees1 some artificial means must be adopted to supply the shade4 ,this may take the form of shelters or low frames covered with boards1 brush or burlap4 ,feeding4 ,the first feed and water is given as soon as the ducks are placed in the ,no4 #a brooder house or when #bd to #cf hours old4 ,they are fed #c times a day1 in the morning about #f a4 m41 at noon1 and at night about #d3cj or #e o'clock4 ,the time of feeding should be regular1 and fairly early in the morning but not any earlier in the afternoon than one can help so that the time between the evening and the morning feed will not be too long4 ,some growers prefer to feed #d or #e times daily for the first week or two4 ,the birds are fed as much as they will clean up at each feeding and if any feed is left it should be gathered up so that it will not sour and cause digestive troubles4 ,the first feed consists of the following3--,one measure corn meal1 one measure bran1 one measure ground crackers1 stale bread or shredded wheat waste1 one measure in #aj of beef scrap or fish1 one measure in #f of creek grass or other very fine green stuff4 ,green rye or oats should never be used for this purpose after it becomes jointed4 ,if the feed is mixed up with cold water about -#a_/b measure of low-grade wheat flour should be used to cause it to stick together4 ,if hot water is used in the mixing this is not needed4 ,sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent of about #c of the ration or the sand can be fed separately in hoppers as previously described4 ,this same mixture may be fed in the ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b1 and ,no4 #c brooder houses1 or in other words1 until ducklings go to the yards1 or ration ,no4 #b given below may be substituted either at the start or after a week or ten days4 ,after the ducklings go to the yards the following fattening ration is used3 #bjj pounds corn meal1 #ajj pounds low-grade flour1 #ajj pounds bran1 #a part in #aj of beef scrap and #b tubs or bushels of green stuff4 ,some duck growers prefer to feed #cjj pounds of corn meal instead of #bjj pounds4 ,this ration like the other is fed #c times a day4 ,of course1 there are many different rations in use with good results1 every grower having more or less personal preferences in this matter4 ,a proper proportion of animal feed1 consisting of beef scrap or fish is very important as the ducklings will not grow and make normal gains if this is omitted or reduced in amount4 ,much has been written about the feeding of celery seed to fattening ducklings for the purpose of improving the flavor of the flesh and formerly ducklings were advertised and sold as celery-fed4 ,as a matter of fact1 the amount of celery seed fed was small and it is questionable how much influence it had on the flavor of the birds4 ,at the present time1 celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on most of the large duck farms of ,long ,island4 ,a comparison of gains made by ducklings on two different rations is shown in the following table4 ,ration ,no4 #a consists of the fattening ration given above4 ,ration ,no4 #b consists of #ajj pounds bran1 #ajj pounds corn meal1 #ej pounds rolled oats1 #ej pounds gluten feed1 #aj beef scrap4 ,the ducks used were three days old at the first weighing and there were #bg in each lot4 ,after the second weighing the number in each lot was reduced to #bd ducks4 ,feed ,no4 #a ,feed ,no4 #b ,total ,weight ,average ,weight ,total ,weight ,average ,wt ,august #ad #d-c_/d lbs4 #j4agf #d-c_/d lbs4 #j4agf ,august #ba #aj #j4cg #i-a_/b #j4ceb ,august #bh #af-a_/b #j4fhg #ag-a_/b #j4gbi ,september #e #be #a4jda #bg #a4abe ,september #ac #dd-a_/b #a4hed #dh-a_/b #b4jb ,september #ai #ej #b4jhc #ef-a_/b #b4ced ,september #bg #fd #b4fff #fg #b4fb ,october #d #gh-a_/b #c4bg #hb-a_/b #c4dcg ,october #aa #ii-a_/b #d4ade #ajc-a_/b #d4cab ,october #ah #aae-a_/b #d4hab #aai #d4ieh ,october #be #abf #e4be #ace #e4fb ,lights for ,ducklings4 ,often when the ducks are about one-third grown or about #d weeks old they will stampede at night at any unusual noise or any other disturbance4 ,in doing this1 especially when they are in fairly large lots1 they surge back and forth in the pens1 running over one another with the result that their backs are torn and scratched while not infrequently more serious injuries result and may cause cripples4 ,to keep them quiet it is common to use lights at night4 ,formerly lanterns were used but now on most duck plants electric lights are available for this purpose4 ,for a house #adj feet long1 six #ae-watt lights scattered at equal intervals will be sufficient1 and these can be used in like proportion for houses of other lengths4 ,the lights are left on all night4 ,even when the ducks are half grown and may be out on the yards it is still necessary to use lights on stormy nights so that they will stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the rain4 ,with a #af x #bd foot house such as described previously1 a single #be watt light is sufficient4 ,ducklings are especially likely to be stampeded during thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well to turn on the lights and to shut the ducklings in their shelters when they are first placed in the yards4 ,one should not carry a lantern when moving among the ducklings at night as this will cause moving shadows which are very likely to frighten and stampede the birds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,another type of duck shed used on ,long ,island4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,convenient feeding arrangements4 ,at the right of the feeding track runs a water pipe with spigots and pans at frequent intervals4 ,at the left are the feeding trays4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,pounds of ,feed to ,produce a ,pound of ,market ,duck4 ,it is stated by long established duck growers that from #e to #g pounds of feed is required1 this including the feed given to the breeding ducks for the season1 to produce a pound of market duck4 ,water for ,young ,ducks4 ,drinking water is provided to the ducklings while in the brooder houses by means of a piped supply4 ,the drinking pans are filled at each feeding time but at no other time4 ,water is not left before them continuously while they are in the brooder houses as they would be working in it all the time and this would keep them dirty and make the house sloppy4 ,after they are put out on the yards they may or may not be provided with water in which they can swim4 ,most duck growers on ,long ,island allow them to have access to water4 ,while it is undoubtedly true that swimming in the water induces them to take more exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the rapidity of fattening1 at the same time it lessens the labor very materially as they do not need to be provided with a supply of drinking water other than the water in which they swim4 ,ducklings can be grown very successfully with only a limited amount of water1 that is1 only enough to drink and in which to wash themselves4 ,age and ,weight ,when ,ready for ,market4 ,ducklings are usually marketed when they are #aj to #ab weeks old4 ,a partial moult on the neck and breast occurs about this time giving them a somewhat rough look4 ,this indicates that they are in proper condition to kill4 ,if killing is not done within a week after this moult starts they will begin to lose flesh and it will be some time before they will fatten again4 ,ducks when ready to ship will average from #e to #f pounds4 ,a majority will weigh nearer #e than #f pounds4 ,a pen of fattened ducks is driven up to the killing house and into a pen where each one is caught up and examined to see if it is in good condition4 ,if the duck has a good smooth breast so that the breastbone is not felt when handled and is well fleshed on the back it is ready to kill4 ,if it is not in this condition it is thrown out and these thin ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening or are utilized for shipping alive4 ,thin ducks are generally used for live shipments as they will not shrink as much as well fattened ducks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,an important part of rations for ducks4 ,green feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable for mixing in the feed4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding track4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,cripples4 ,there will always be found in the flocks more or less crippled ducks and those with crooked backs1 twisted wings1 etc4 ,as a rule ducks with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition and can be killed about as soon as any of the others4 ,the crippled ducks are sorted out into a lot by themselves where they are held until they can be put into condition to market4 ,it is doubtful whether it pays the duck growers to bother with these ducks since they are rather difficult to condition and it would probably pay better to kill them4 ,however1 it is quite common practice to carry them until they can be marketed4 ,cleaning the ,yards4 ,the yards must be cleaned whenever they need it4 ,it is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary but they must be cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy4 ,the weather will have a considerable influence upon the frequency of cleaning which may be necessary once in two weeks1 or in the yards of brooder houses ,nos4 #b and #c may run as often as once a week4 ,in dry weather the yards are cleaned by sweeping up the droppings and carting them away4 ,in wet weather the ducks in running about over the yard pack down the droppings until they form a sort of putty-like layer which has to be scraped off with a hoe4 ,critical ,period with ,young ,ducks4 ,the critical period with young ducks is the first week of their existence4 ,with good management after they have passed this point not many are lost4 ,the loss in young ducks from the time they are hatched until they are ready for market will range all the way from #e to #cj4 ,when the loss does not average more than #aj for the season this is considered good4 ,undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a greater percent than #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,yard ducks at rest4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,on this plant1 the lay of the land was such that not all of the yards could be run down to the stream4 ,so a shallow canal was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural water frontage4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,disease ,prevention ,trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe although there is a greater loss from this source than in the case of mature ducks4 ,the aim of the grower should be to use such methods of management and feeding as will keep the ducklings in good health and reduce the losses to a minimum4 ,to accomplish this care must be taken to see that the brooding temperatures are correct1 that the feed used contains what the ducklings need1 that they are not overfed and that the house and yards are clean and dry and the feed and water dishes are clean4 ,remember that green feed and animal feed are essential ingredients in the ration4 ,gapes or ,pneumonia4 ,one of the principal troubles is a disease which is called pneumonia by some duck raisers and by others gapes4 ,it is not the same disease which is called gapes in chickens4 ,in fact1 it is a form of cold which approaches pneumonia4 ,the little ducks stretch their necks up and breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively short time4 ,this disease may affect either the baby ducks or ducks which are old enough to kill4 ,all that can be done is to make sure that the housing and brooding conditions are such as to correct the trouble which causes the colds4 ,fits4 ,in addition1 the little ducks for the first #c or #d days may be more or less subject to a disease which is called fits by some duck growers4 ,with this disease they simply keel over and soon die4 ,it is probably a digestive difficulty of some sort4 ,the feeding of plenty of green stuff or the turning of the ducks out on grass will usually stop this trouble4 ,diarrhoea4 ,this is a fairly common trouble4 ,it may be due to improper feeding1 or to too high or low temperature in the brooder4 ,the obvious treatment is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble4 ,lameness4 ,not infrequently growers1 particularly beginners1 experience difficulty from a fairly large proportion of their ducklings becoming lame4 ,this may grow worse until a considerable number of the birds will die4 ,this trouble may be due to a lack of animal matter and mineral matter in the ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by poor rations1 by over feeding1 by failing to gather up feed not eaten by the ducklings and leaving it to sour1 or by lack of cleanliness of the feed and water dishes4 ,where the pens are allowed to become damp and sloppy this may also cause some lameness4 ,sore ,eyes4 ,occasionally duck growers complain that their ducklings suffer from sore eyes4 ,this may be due to a cold causing a discharge from the eyes or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which adheres to the eyes and causes an irritation4 ,affected birds should be placed in a separate pen from the others and the eyes should be bathed with an antiseptic solution4 ,feather ,eating or ,quilling4 ,this is a bad habit which is apt to cause more or less trouble when the ducklings are about two-thirds grown4 ,it is much more likely to occur when the birds are kept in cramped quarters4 ,it is usually started by one or a few individuals but when the feathers are injured so that they begin to bleed1 which they will very quickly do1 the vice will spread among the whole flock and serious damage will occur4 ,it is therefore necessary to be on the lookout for this trouble1 and as soon as detected1 the birds responsible should be removed4 ,if the culprits are placed with older birds which are already feathered1 they will not trouble by trying to eat the feathers4 ,it is the blood in the growing feathers which attracts them4 ,if the habit has become general1 it is more difficult to check4 ,about the best thing that can be done1 is to turn them out in a roomy yard1 one with a growing green crop1 if available1 where they will be so busy as to stop the feather eating of their own accord4 ,rats4--,rats are very destructive if they get into the brooder house4 ,a single rat has been known to kill and drag off as many as #bjj ducklings in one night4 ,if a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore of the utmost importance that it be hunted down and killed without delay4 ,otherwise serious losses will result4 ,cooperative ,feed ,association ,a very large proportion of the feed used on a duck plant is that which is fed to the market ducks4 ,by purchasing feed in considerable quantities the duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some extent4 ,a number of the duck raisers on ,long ,island have developed this idea further by forming a cooperative feed organization4 ,stock in this concern is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders but is controlled by the duck growers4 ,the feed association maintains a feed warehouse1 purchases feeds in quantity and does business both with the duck growers and with other persons in the market for feed4 ,the existence of a cooperative feed purchasing association of this sort not only cuts down to some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance of securing the supply which is so necessary to them during the growing season4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,commercial ,duck ,farming--,marketing ,on commercial duck farms1 the business consists mainly of producing large quickly grown ducklings which are marketed before they are mature4 ,because of this immaturity1 the ducks are quite commonly termed green ducks4 ,the business has also become so highly specialized on ,long ,island and this is such a center of the industry1 that the birds are commonly quoted on the ,new ,york market as ,long ,island ducklings4 ,proper ,age to ,market4 ,it is important that the ducklings be marketed as soon as they have reached the proper age and stage of development4 ,when the ducklings are about #aj to #ab weeks old they begin to shed their first growth of feathers4 ,this is apparent first on the neck and breast1 giving them somewhat of a rough appearance4 ,the ducklings must be marketed within one week after they begin this moult4 ,if they are allowed to go longer than this they will begin to get thin and as it will take them #f weeks or more to grow a new crop of feathers it will be a considerable period before they get back in market condition again and any additional weight which they may attain will not be sufficient to pay for the feed eaten during this period4 ,weights at the ,time of ,marketing4 ,well grown ducklings should average in weight from #e to #f pounds at #aj to #ab weeks of age when they are ready to be marketed4 ,a majority of the ducks will weigh closer to #e pounds than they will to #f4 ,the vast majority of ducklings are marketed at this age as it does not pay to keep them past the time they reach prime market condition4 ,on commercial duck farms practically the only ducks which are marketed at an older age than this are the breeders which are turned off at the end of the laying season and the ducklings which by reason of their being crippled or less thrifty are not in suitable market condition at this time and are held longer until they are in good condition4 ,the ducklings are marketed from early spring until late fall4 ,the time at which ducklings are first available for market in any quantity depends upon the earliness with which the breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends upon how late the breeders continue to lay at a profitable rate4 ,the ,last ,feed for ,market ,ducks4 ,it is important in order to have the dressed ducklings appear to the best advantage and also in order to insure their keeping qualities as much as possible that they should have no feed in their crops when they are killed4 ,this means that if they are to be killed in the morning1 which is the usual practice1 they should be fed for the last time the previous night4 ,if1 however1 they are not to be killed until afternoon they can be fed lightly in the morning4 ,sorting ,market ,ducklings4 ,when a pen of ducklings which are being fattened are deemed ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing house and a few of them at a time driven into a small pen where it is easy to catch and examine them4 ,each duck as it is caught is examined to make sure that it is in proper market condition4 ,the examination consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it has a good smooth breast so that the breast bone cannot be readily felt4 ,if it is in that condition it is ready to kill4 ,ducks which do not show this condition are thrown out and returned to the yards where they are fed for a longer period unless it is desired to ship them alive4 ,at the proper season of the year when breeders for the next season are to be selected1 suitable birds for that purpose are picked out from the market lots as they are examined4 ,in any lot of ducks there will be found some cripples4 ,it is common practice to sort these out and group them together in a pen by themselves where they are held until they are in suitable condition for marketing4 ,it is doubtful whether it pays to hold these cripples as they are hard to get in good condition and in many cases are probably kept and fed at a loss4 ,some ducklings will show twisted wings but as a rule they are thrifty and will fatten readily and be in good market condition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,awaiting slaughter4 ,the fattened ducklings are driven into these catching pens4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to the killing place4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,killing4 ,as the ducklings suitable for killing are selected1 #aj or #ab of them1 depending upon the capacity of the killing room1 are hung up by their feet1 the head being fastened down by means of a hook or else weighted down by means of a blood can hung from a hook inserted through the bill4 ,by means of a long1 narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to cause free bleeding4 ,the blood flows either into the blood can or into a trough above which the birds are hung4 ,the birds are not stuck or brained unless it is desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule stunned by hitting them on the head before bleeding4 ,in some states1 however1 the law requires that all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner4 ,the bleeding of the ducks causes their death and they are allowed to hang until they are thoroughly bled out4 ,they are then taken down1 the blood washed off of their heads and placed on a table or on the floor convenient to the pickers1 other ducks being hung in their places4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,the ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause free bleeding4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,after the throat veins are cut1 the ducks are allowed to hang until they are well bled out4 ,the blood is caught in the trough below4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,ducks which have been bled1 ready to have the blood washed from their heads and mouths before they are picked4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,after they are bled and washed1 the ducks are laid in the picking room ready for the pickers4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,scalding4 ,the picker selects a duck from the table where they are placed after being taken down and carries it to a large kettle of water which is maintained at a temperature just below boiling4 ,they are thoroughly soused in this water holding them by the head and feet so as to allow the water to penetrate into the feathers until they can be readily plucked4 ,the picker tests the readiness with which the feathers come out by plucking a few from the breast or body and thus determines whether the scalding is sufficient or whether more is required4 ,care is taken not to dip the feet or head in the water as this might discolor these parts4 ,practically all market ducks from ,long ,island are scald picked at the present time4 ,dry picking which is demanded in some markets such as ,boston makes a somewhat better looking carcass and also increases the value of the feathers1 but is generally considered too slow and too highly skilled a process for use on the average duck farm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,holding the head in one hand and the feet in the other1 the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling point and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they pluck easily4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,picking44 ,after scalding the picker starts removing the feathers4 ,in doing this the duck is held either on the lap or on a board nailed to the side of the feather box4 ,the feathers on the breast are picked first1 then working down toward the tail1 pulling the feathers with the grain4 ,the soft body feathers as plucked are thrown into the feather box1 the coarser feathers being thrown on the floor4 ,the main wing and tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of the feathers of the neck next the head4 ,the most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing the down4 ,this may be removed to some extent by rubbing with the hand although care must be taken not to bruise the skin severely4 ,in some cases the down is shaved off with a sharp knife4 ,in some of the commercial packing houses the duck's body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then dipped into the hot water4 ,this melts the rosin so that the down and rosin can be rubbed off easily with the hand leaving the body clean4 ,pin feathers are usually removed by grasping them between the thumb and a dull knife4 ,in some packing houses1 ducks are steamed before picking4 ,where this is done they are picked clean and the wing and tail feathers are pulled before steaming takes place4 ,six or eight ducks which have been bled are hung at the same time in the top of a steam box or barrel which can be made air-tight and the steam turned on until the soft feathers of the breast come off easily4 ,the length of time to steam depends on the temperature of the steam itself and varies from one-half to #b minutes4 ,in some cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the heads outside so as to prevent the steam from coming into contact with the heads1 possibly discoloring them4 ,on ,long ,island women are used very largely for picking and they secure for this service #f cents per duck4 ,a good picker should do #ge ducks or even more a day4 ,the value of the feathers will slightly more than pay for the cost of picking4 ,picking usually begins early in the morning about #f o'clock and is generally finished by noon or soon after4 ,most duck raisers figure on doing their killing and picking during the first half of the week and do not like to kill if they can help it during the latter days of the week4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,picking the ducks4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,dry ,picking4 ,where the market requires it1 the ducks must be dry picked4 ,in doing this the procedure is the same as in dry picking chickens4 ,after the cut is made to bleed the ducks1 the point of the knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until it reaches the brain when it is turned to cause a paralysis of the muscles which enables the feathers to be plucked more easily4 ,the duck is then struck on the back of the head with a club to stun it and make it easier to handle when picking4 ,the picker seats himself by the feather box1 with the duck on his lap1 holding the head pressed against the outside of the box and held there by the picker's leg4 ,he then proceeds immediately and as quickly as possible to pluck the feathers4 ,it is necessary to accomplish this without delay1 for the feathers soon set and are then much harder to pluck and are more likely to result in tears in the skin4 ,when removing the down1 the hand is moistened when much of the down can be rubbed off4 ,pin feathers are removed by grasping them between the thumb and the edge of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in this way are shaved off with a sharp knife4 ,after picking1 the carcasses are cooled in cold water the same as the scalded birds4 ,cooling4 ,after the birds are plucked they are thrown into cold water and are left there for several hours or until the body heat is entirely removed4 ,it is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished for if any body heat is left in the carcasses they are almost sure to become green-struck when packed4 ,the length of time that they must be left in the water depends upon the weather conditions4 ,if the weather is warm so that the water is not very cool it is necessary to add ice in order to hasten the cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly4 ,cooling in water also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat4 ,packing4 ,after the ducks are thoroughly cooled they are removed from the water and packed4 ,long ,island ducklings are usually packed in barrels4 ,forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and #cc in a flour barrel4 ,the proper number for the barrel used is placed on hanging spring scales and weighed before being packed4 ,the best method of packing is to lay the ducks on their sides4 ,if they are packed on their backs or bellies1 the ice used between the layers is apt to cause a cutting or bruising of the soft abdomens and injure the appearance of the carcasses4 ,between each layer of ducks a scoopful of cracked ice is used although in cool weather it may only be necessary to use half a scoop of ice4 ,after the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand for a while to settle4 ,then the top of the barrel is piled up with cracked ice and covered with burlap4 ,on the side of the barrel is marked the number of ducks and their weight4 ,later a card is tacked alongside of this showing the consignee's and the shipper's names as well as the number of ducks and their weight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,dressed duckling4 ,the main feathers of the tail and wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head to the body are left on4 ,the rest of the body is picked clean4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,after thorough cooling a sufficient number of ducks to fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice depending upon the weather4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,shipping4 ,the barrels should be packed and shipped the same evening4 ,shipping may be done either by express or by automobile truck4 ,a good many of the ,long ,island ducklings are now shipped into ,new ,york ,city by truck4 ,cooperative ,marketing ,association4 ,the duck growers on ,long ,island have formed a cooperative marketing association4 ,this association maintains its own house in ,new ,york ,city and sells practically the entire output of ,long ,island ducklings1 controlling probably #ij4 ,during the year #aiai there were in the neighborhood of #hjj1jjj head of ducks marketed through this house4 ,practically all of the capital stock of this concern is held by the duck growers and they are not allowed to sell any of their stock without first offering it to the association4 ,prices for ,ducks4 ,early in the season the ducklings bring the best prices1 that is to say from ,march #a to ,may #a4 ,then as the output of ducks increases prices gradually drop4 ,the heaviest shipments occur in ,june1 ,july and ,august4 ,in ,september as the output of ducks begins to drop off the price begins to climb a little4 ,the following prices as quoted in the ,new ,york ,produce ,review show the range from ,march1 #aibj1 to ,june1 #aiba4 ,long ,island ,ducklings--,fresh ,dressed #aibj ,march #ca #de;c per lb4 ,april #ba #de;c #bh #ch;c ,may #e #ce;c #ab #ce;c #bf #ce;c ,june #b #ce;c #i #ce;c #af #ce;c #bc #ce;c #cj #ce;c ,july #g #ce;c #ad #ce;c #ba #ce;c #bh #ce;c ,august #d #cf;c #aa #cf;c #ah #cf;c #be #cf;c ,september #a #cf;c #h #cg;c #ae #cg;c #bb #ch;c #bi #ch;c ,october #f #ch;c #ac #ch;c #bj #ci;c #bg #ci;c ,november #c #dj;c #aiba ,march #cj #dh;c per lb4 ,april #f #df;c #ac #ch;c #bj #ch;c #bg #ch;c ,may #d #ce;c #aa #cb;c #ah #bh;c #be #bh;c ,june #a #bh;c ,the following quotations from the same source give the prices for frozen ,long ,island ducklings4 #aibj ,january #g #da;c per lb4 #ad #da;c #ba #da;c #bh #da;c ,february #d #da;c #aa #da;c #ah #da;c #be #da;c ,march #c #da;c #aj #da;c #ag #da;c ,november #aj #dj;c #ag #dj;c #bd #dj;c ,december #a #dj;c #h #dj;c #h #dj;c #ae #dj;c #bb #dj;c #bi #dj;c #aiba ,january #e #dj;c per lb4 #ab #dj;c #ai #dj;c #bf #dj;c ,february #b #da;c #i #da;c #af #da;c #bc #da;c ,march #b #da;c #i #da;c #af #da;c #bc #da;c ,quotations from the same source are given below to give some idea of the range in price of the live ,long ,island spring ducklings and likewise of live old ,long ,island ducks or breeders4 ,long ,island ,spring ,ducklings--,live4 #aibj ,march #c #ej;c per lb4 #bd #ej;c #ca #ee;c ,may #e #dj;c #ab #dj;c #ai #cf #dj;c per lb4 #bf #dj #da;c ,june #b #dj;c per lb4 #i #cf #ch;c per lb4 #af #cf;c per lb4 #bc #cg;c #cj #ch;c ,july #g #ch;c #ad #ch;c #ba #dj;c #bh #dj;c ,august #d #ch;c #aa #cd #cf;c per lb4 #ah #ch;c per lb4 #be #ch;c ,september #a #dj;c #h #db #de;c per lb4 #ae #de;c per lb4 #bb #de;c #bi #dj;c ,october #f #db;c #ac #db;c #bg #db;c ,november #c #db;c #aj #db;c #ag #dd;c #bd #dd;c ,december #a #dd;c #ae #db #df;c per lb4 #aiba ,march #b #ee;c #i #ee;c #af #eb;c #bc #ej;c #cj #ee;c ,april #f #ej;c #ac #dj;c #bj #de;c #bg #ch #db;c per lb4 ,may #d #ch;c per lb4 #aa #ch;c #ah #cc;c #be #cc;c ,june #a #cb;c ,long ,island ,old ,ducks or ,breeders--,live #aibj ,march #ag #de;c per lb4 #ca #de;c ,may #ai #cj;c #bf #ce;c ,june #i #cj #cb;c per lb4 #af #cb;c per lb4 #bc #cb;c #cj #ce;c ,july #g #ce;c #ad #ce;c #bh #cj;c ,august #d #ce;c ,april #f #db;c #ac #cf;c #bj #ci;c #bg #cc #cg;c per lb4 ,may #aa #cc;c per lb4 #be #cj;c ,shipping ,ducks ,alive4 ,while the great majority of ducks are shipped dressed there is some shipment of live ducks4 ,this is particularly true during the ,jewish holidays in ,march and in ,september and ,october when the demand for live ducks and the price paid for them is excellent4 ,as a rule it pays better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to be a little thin rather than to ship those which are in top market condition4 ,this is due to the fact that fat ducks will shrink very considerably when cooped and shipped alive1 this shrinkage running from one-half to three-quarters of a pound per head where they are cooped not to exceed #ab to #ae hours4 ,the ducks which are in the fattest condition will shrink the most4 ,at the season of the year when live ducks are in best demand it often pays to ship alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not being in the best condition rather than to hold them for further fattening4 ,saving the ,feathers4 ,the feathers from the ducks form quite an important source of revenue to the duck farmers4 ,as stated before the value of the feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of picking and since this is a considerable item of expense the grower cannot afford to neglect the feathers4 ,the soft body feathers are kept separate from the coarser feathers1 the latter being thrown on the floor as they are plucked4 ,these coarser feathers are later swept up and are commonly spoken of as sweepings4 ,feathers from dry-picked ducks are superior in quality and bring a better price but most of the duck feathers now marketed from commercial duck farms are scalded feathers4 ,the feathers after each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over #c or #d inches deep4 ,this should be an airy place so as to give the feathers a good place to dry out4 ,on the second day they are scraped up in a pile and then spread out again1 thus turning them over and changing their position4 ,they are then left until they are dry enough to sack which should be in a little over a week4 ,unless the feathers are thoroughly dried out they will heat when sacked and this will seriously hurt their market quality4 ,when dry they are packed either in the large special feather sacks made for this purpose or in smaller sacks1 about as big as two bran sacks1 which will hold from #fj to #hj pounds of feathers4 ,the feathers are shipped to regular feather dealers or manufacturers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,a valuable by-product of duck plants4 ,the feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of picking4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,prices and ,uses of ,duck ,feathers4 ,the soft body feathers and the coarser feathers often called sweepings should be kept and sold separate4 ,while scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry picked feathers1 the former if properly dried out or cured will find a ready sale4 ,feathers packed before they are thoroughly dried out1 are likely to arrive at their destination in a matted and musty or heated condition4 ,this1 of course1 injures their quality and the price paid for them is discounted according to their condition4 ,the soft body feathers of ducks are used almost entirely for bedding purposes1 that is1 are put in pillows and feather beds4 ,white feathers are preferred and usually bring a somewhat higher price4 ,the prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely at different times of the year1 and in different sections of the country1 and also of course with the condition of the feathers themselves4 ,the quotations given below represent the prices paid in ,june1 #aiba4 ,duck ,feathers ,cents ,per ,pound ,pure white1 dry picked #ej ,stained and scalded white #dj ,dark or mixed1 dry picked #cc ,dark or mixed1 scalded #bj to #be ,marketing ,eggs4 ,on commercial duck farms very few eggs are marketed4 ,this is due to the fact that the duck growers find it more profitable to incubate all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and market the ducklings rather than to sell the eggs4 ,there are always1 however1 a certain number of cracked eggs and others which may be too large or too small to use for hatching and which are therefore marketed4 ,in addition the infertile eggs tested out on the #eth day are sold4 ,the eggs may be packed in ordinary #cj dozen egg cases such as are used for hens' eggs1 utilizing a special filler #e cells square4 ,with these fillers a case holds #bj #e-f dozen duck eggs4 ,a special duck case1 holding #cj dozen duck eggs may be used1 the fillers in this case being #f cells square like the fillers used for hens' eggs4 ,the cells in these fillers are #b inches square and #b-a_/d or #b-a_/b inches deep4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,duck ,raising on the ,farm ,duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general farm consists of the keeping of a comparatively small flock purely as a side line4 ,ducks on the general farm may be kept for the production of meat and eggs1 for egg production1 or mainly as a breeding proposition where the idea is to produce birds of exhibition quality4 ,on occasional farms ducks of the rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental purposes4 ,conditions ,suitable for ,duck ,raising4 ,a small flock of ducks on the farm can be kept to best advantage where they can be separated from the other poultry and where they can have access to a pasture or an orchard which will provide them with a plentiful supply of green feed4 ,ducks stand confinement quite well but if they are closely confined it is necessary to provide for them the green feed which they cannot secure for themselves4 ,on many farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at liberty and under these conditions the cost of maintaining them is much lower since they pick up a considerable part of their feed4 ,an enclosed run or yard1 however1 should be available where they can be confined when desired4 ,it is also necessary to provide a house or shed in which they can be shut at night and during the early morning4 ,otherwise1 many of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the place or in the water with the result that some of them will be lost4 ,a pond or stream to which the ducks can have access and in which they can swim is a great advantage since it helps to keep them in good breeding condition4 ,it is a common but mistaken idea that low1 wet land is best suited for ducks4 ,size of ,flock4--,the average farm flock of ducks is small1 rarely running over #ae to #bj head4 ,in many cases not over #aj or #ab ducks with one or two drakes will be kept4 ,a flock of this size will furnish quite a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or for sale in addition to more or less eggs which can either be used at home or sold4 ,making a ,start4 ,in making a start with a farm flock of ducks it is probably best to figure on keeping only a few head4 ,if the farmer begins with #d or #e ducks and one drake he can make his start at small expense and from this number he will be able to increase the size of his flock if he finds that results warrant it4 ,probably the best way to make a start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the fall4 ,this will give the ducks a chance to get settled and to be in good condition and accustomed to their quarters by spring so that they will begin to breed and lay4 ,eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired and the young ducklings hatched and reared with chicken hens4 ,baby ducks are rarely purchased in making a start as are baby chicks4 ,selecting the ,breed4 ,any one of the breeds forming the so-called meat class will prove satisfactory for a farm flock4 ,this class includes the ,pekin1 ,aylesbury1 ,muscovy1 ,rouen1 ,cayuga1 ,buff and ,blue ,swedish4 ,the birds of any of these breeds are of good size and therefore produce a suitable table fowl4 ,at the same time they are layers and will produce eggs for the table or for market as well4 ,where the purpose in keeping the ducks is mainly that of producing eggs for market the ,runner is undoubtedly the breed to select4 ,while these ducks are smaller in size the ducklings will make good carcasses of broiler size for the table being killed for this purpose when about #b-a_/b to #c pounds in weight4 ,in addition1 the ,runner is the best laying breed and by many persons is considered to be equal in its egg producing qualities to any of the breeds of chickens4 ,selection of any breed or variety of the meat or egg classes and especially the selection of a breed or variety for ornamental purposes or for the pleasure of breeding will depend upon the individual preference of the owner for body shape1 color of plumage and other characteristics4 ,a pure breed of some kind should by all means be kept in preference to the common or so-called puddle duck4 ,not only will the pure breeds give greater uniformity in the carcasses produced but the results in egg production will likewise be better4 ,age of ,breeding ,stock4 ,the best results in breeding are secured from ducks during their first laying season4 ,not only is egg production better but they are less likely to become so fat and large as to interfere with the fertility and hatchability of the eggs4 ,in fact1 on commercial duck farms the breeding stock is entirely renewed each year4 ,however1 ducks can be profitably kept until they are #b or #c years old1 and it is common practice in a farm flock to hold over some of the breeders after they have finished their first year4 ,of course1 where the duck breeder has some especially fine stock which will produce just the quality he desires in the offspring1 he holds and utilizes these birds just as long as they are in good breeding condition4 ,as a rule it is best not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished their second laying season4 ,size of ,matings4 ,the proper number of ducks which should be mated to a drake varies with the different breeds4 ,pekins and ,aylesbury can be mated in the proportion of one drake to #f to #h ducks4 ,in the ,rouen mate #d or #e ducks to a drake and in the ,cayuga #e or #f ducks to a drake4 ,in the ,muscovy as high as #aj females may be mated with one male4 ,in the ,blue ,swedish and ,buff mate in the proportion of #f or #g ducks to one drake4 ,in the ,call and ,east ,india breeds from #e to #h ducks can be mated to one drake4 ,in the ,crested ,white use #e or #f ducks and in the ,runner #f to #h ducks to a drake4 ,where young drakes are used more ducks can be mated to them than is the case with old drakes4 ,it is also true that where especially large exhibition birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a drake as otherwise the fertility is very likely to run lower with these older heavier ducks4 ,breeding and ,laying ,season4 ,under ordinary farm conditions where the ducks receive only fairly good care and feed the laying does not begin to any extent until ,february or ,march4 ,with exceptional care the ducks will begin to lay in ,january and a few may even lay in ,december4 ,the ducks lay very persistently and continue their laying until hot weather sets in or usually about the first of ,july4 ,they gradually let up in their laying until it ceases almost entirely soon after that date4 ,the breeding season is at its height in the months of ,april and ,may4 ,at this time the fertility will run best and the results in hatching will be most satisfactory4 ,however1 it is possible to continue to hatch the duck eggs which are produced with fair results as long as the ducks continue to lay4 ,management of ,breeders4 ,housing4 ,some sort of house or shelter must be provided for the breeding flock4 ,any available shed or a part of the poultry house may be utilized for this purpose4 ,no special requirements are necessary except that the house should provide sufficient ventilation4 ,this is best furnished by means of a window and in addition1 an opening in the front of the house should be provided which can be closed by means of a curtain during severe winter weather4 ,a board floor is not necessary if the dirt floor is filled up #f or #h inches above the ground level outside the house4 ,the floors should be provided with an abundance of litter which is usually changed only once or twice during the year4 ,as the litter tends to become dirty more litter must be added4 ,no equipment is necessary in the houses as the birds rest on the floor and lay their eggs anywhere about the house or wherever they may make their nests4 ,the house should be so arranged that the ducks can be shut in at night and can be kept there until they have finished laying in the morning4 ,as most of the duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be let out by #h or #i o'clock in the summer4 ,if let out earlier than this they are likely to lay some of their eggs in the pond or stream to which they have access and these would be lost4 ,feeding4 ,on many farms the breeding flock of ducks is fed on the same ration which is given the farm fowls4 ,however1 better results will be obtained if they are given special feeds4 ,after the laying season is over the breeding ducks can be fed sparingly on a mash consisting of one part by weight corn meal1 #b parts bran1 #a part low grade wheat flour1 #a part green feed1 #h beef scrap and #c oyster shell4 ,this mash is mixed up with water until it has a consistency just between sticky and crumbly4 ,it should never be fed in a sloppy condition4 ,a feed of this mash should be given in the morning and at night and during the long days of summer it is well also to give a light feed of cracked corn or mixed grains in the middle of the day4 ,however1 judgment must be used in feeding ducks especially if they have range over which they can roam where they can pick up more or less animal feed and other material4 ,in this case it is not necessary to feed nearly so much4 ,another mash which may be used instead of the one given consists of #c parts by measure of corn meal1 #d parts bran1 #b parts low grade wheat flour1 three-fourths part beef scrap and #b parts green feed with a supply of oyster shell4 ,along about ,december #a the feed should be changed with the idea of inducing egg production4 ,a feed consisting of one part by weight corn meal1 #a part low grade flour or middlings1 #a part bran1 #ae beef scrap1 #ae vegetables or green feed together with oyster shell should be fed morning and evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn and wheat may be given at noon in a quantity of about one quart for each #cj ducks4 ,as much mash should be given them at the morning and evening feed as they will clean up4 ,another good mash feed which may be used consists of #b parts by weight of bran1 #b parts middlings1 #b parts corn meal1 #a part beef scrap1 #a part ground oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand4 ,in addition1 of course1 green feed must be added to the ration if it is not available at all times in the yard4 ,this mash is fed in the morning and in the evening4 ,the noon feed consists of #a part by weight of corn and #b parts oats4 ,where green feed is not available and must be supplied1 cut clover1 alfalfa1 rye1 oats and corn may be utilized cut up into short pieces and mixed in the mash4 ,the mash should be fed either to breeding stock or to ducklings on flat trays or boards rather than in troughs as the ducks can get at it better in this form4 ,it must be kept in mind that while ducks are good egg producers during the laying and breeding season they will not lay any great number of eggs unless they are fed for this purpose4 ,for rations used on commercial duck farms see ,chapter ,,iv4 ,water4 ,it is important that a plentiful supply of drinking water be available to the ducks4 ,a fresh supply must be provided at each feeding time before the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to eat and drink alternately when feeding4 ,where the breeding ducks have access to a stream or pond of fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other supply of drinking water4 ,where water is available in which the ducks can swim it is essential to see that provision is made so that the ducks can get in and out of the water easily4 ,if this is not done they may become exhausted and unable to climb out or they may become partially cramped when the water is very cold with the result that they will drown4 ,if given access to water in which they can swim during cold weather it is necessary to be on the look-out to see that the ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when they come out of the water4 ,yards4 ,where yards are provided for ducks poultry netting about #b feet high is ordinarily used4 ,this will confine most of the breeds but higher fences even #e or #f feet high must be provided for the breeds which fly readily such as the ,muscovy1 ,call1 ,east ,india1 ,mallard1 ,wood and ,mandarin4 ,in some cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out or to pinion the birds1 that is1 to cut off the outermost joint of one wing4 ,the netting used for yards should be strung on posts set in the ground and the lower edge should be pegged down so that the birds cannot get under it4 ,care of ,eggs for ,hatching4 ,duck eggs for hatching must be gathered each day and should be put in some cool place to be held until they are set4 ,they should be turned daily1 the same as hens' eggs and the general care is exactly similar4 ,it does not1 however1 pay to keep duck eggs as long before setting them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs4 ,in fact1 it is best to set duck eggs when they are not over a week old if this can be arranged4 ,hatching the ,eggs4 ,the period of incubation for duck eggs ranges from #bf to #bh days for all of the breeds except the ,muscovy4 ,in this breed it takes from #cc to #cf days for the eggs to hatch4 ,inasmuch as most of the commonly kept breeds are not very broody and therefore do not make reliable hatchers and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize incubators4 ,either one of these methods can be used with good success4 ,with the small farm flock it is very common to utilize hens4 ,the ordinary hen will be able to cover #i to #aa duck eggs to advantage depending on her size and upon the season of the year4 ,in cold weather the smaller number should be used rather than the larger number4 ,before setting the hen she should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder to free her from lice4 ,several hens can be set in the same room but they should be confined on their nests allowing them to come off only once a day for feed and water4 ,cracked corn makes an excellent feed for sitting hens4 ,if desired ,muscovy1 ,call1 ,east ,india1 ,mallard1 ,wood or ,mandarin ducks can be allowed to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as they are reliable sitters and good mothers4 ,after the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses a longer period of time before the ducklings get out of the shell than is the case with chicks4 ,for this reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and water when the first eggs are pipped returning them to the nest as quickly as possible and confining them there until the hatch is over4 ,during the last week of incubation it is desirable to sprinkle the eggs daily with water using quite a liberal amount as duck eggs seem to require more moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well4 ,all duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should be washed before they are set4 ,washing does not seem to injure their hatching qualities4 ,in fact1 some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether dirty or not1 feeling that this opens up the pores and causes a better hatch4 ,this belief is based upon the idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under natural conditions they have access to water in which they swim and in coming back on the nest their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs4 ,where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs are placed in the machine just as hens' eggs4 ,for the first week the temperature is kept about #ajb degrees and for the rest of the period is maintained as close to #ajc degrees as possible1 the bulb of the thermometer being on a level with the tops of the eggs4 ,often the temperature will run up a little higher than this at hatching time but this does not do any harm4 ,an incubator will accommodate from four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck eggs as it will hens' eggs4 ,about the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are tested and all infertile and dead germs removed4 ,from this time on eggs are turned twice a day and usually cooled once a day until they pip4 ,a second test may be made about the fifteenth or sixteenth day when any eggs which have died are removed4 ,if dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil very quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it necessary to remove them4 ,during the last week or ten days and in some cases for a longer period than this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the machine4 ,this is usually provided by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water which has been warmed to about the temperature of the machine4 ,however1 if warm water is not available1 water of ordinary temperature may be used although it is not well to use extremely cold water4 ,as a rule the eggs begin to pip about the twenty-sixth day4 ,at this time the machine should be tightly closed up and left so until the hatching is over4 ,in case moisture seems to be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard time to get out of the shell the machine can be opened and the eggs sprinkled again4 ,if there seems to be sufficient moisture1 however1 the machines should not be opened or disturbed4 ,as a rule it takes ducklings from #bd to #dh hours to hatch after the pipping first begins4 ,it is advisable to leave the ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried off before removing them to the brooder4 ,as a rule the hatching will be entirely over by the twenty-eighth day4 ,brooding and ,rearing4 ,ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of chicken hens4 ,in this case the ducklings which the hen hatches should be given to her and she should be confined to some kind of a coop which will allow the ducklings to run at liberty4 ,if the hen is given her liberty she goes too far and takes too much exercise for the little ducks4 ,where artificial brooders are used any type of brooding apparatus can be utilized which is used with success for chickens4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that ducklings do not require as high a degree of heat as do baby chicks and should be started off at a temperature of about #ij degrees under the hover4 ,this can be reduced rather rapidly until it is down to #hj at about #b weeks of age4 ,the length of time that the ducklings require heat after this depends upon the season and the weather4 ,even in fairly cool weather they do not need any heat after they are #e or #f weeks old4 ,it is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in order to do this they must be cleaned out frequently and new litter supplied4 ,while the ducklings are small the brooders should be cleaned at least every other day and as they get larger1 cleaning once a week with the addition of fresh litter between times will be sufficient4 ,feeding the ,ducklings4 ,ducklings do not need to be fed until they are from #bd to #cf hours old4 ,at this time they may be given a mixture composed of equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread crumbs with #c of sharp sand mixed in the feed4 ,this may be given them five times daily although some duck raisers feed only #c times daily from the start4 ,about the third day this feed is changed to equal parts of bread1 rolled oats1 bran and corn meal4 ,after the seventh day the ration may consist of #c parts bran1 #a part each of low-grade wheat flour and corn meal1 #aj green feed1 #e beef scrap with about #c of sand mixed in4 ,the ducklings should be fed four times daily after the seventh day until they are two or three weeks old4 ,after that time they need be fed only three times daily1 morning1 noon and night4 ,the sand may be given to the ducklings either by mixing it in the mash or by feeding it in a hopper where they can help themselves4 ,the mash feed which is prepared for the ducklings is mixed with water until it has a consistency a little wetter than crumbly but not exactly sticky4 ,sloppy feed should never be used4 ,as the ducklings grow older the amount of beef scrap can be increased until it consists of #ae of the ration by the end of the third week4 ,the proportion of corn meal can likewise be increased and simultaneously the amount of bran decreased until the ducklings are on a fattening ration4 ,unless they have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards to which they have access it is necessary to provide this to the extent of about #aj of the feed and it should consist of tender green stuff rather finely chopped and mixed in with the mash4 ,about #b weeks before the ducklings are to be marketed they should be put on a ration consisting of three parts by weight of corn meal1 two parts low-grade flour or middlings1 one part bran1 one-half part beef scrap1 #aj green feed and about #c oyster shell or sand4 ,this mash is fed three times daily4 ,another ration which can be used for fattening purposes consists of #c parts corn meal1 #a part low-grade wheat flour1 #a part bran1 #e beef scrap and #c oyster shell with green feed and grit in addition4 ,where fish is available it can be substituted for the beef scrap but on most farms this is impractical4 ,the fish where fed is boiled and mixed in the mash4 ,however1 no fish should be fed up to within #b weeks before the ducks are killed as there is danger of giving a fishy taste to the carcass4 ,for additional information as to feeding methods used on commercial duck farms which could be utilized to advantage for the farm flocks1 see ,chapter ,,vi4 ,birds which are to be reserved for breeders should be selected out and taken away from the ducklings which are to be fattened4 ,these breeding birds should be carried along on the ration which they have been receiving until about ,december #a when they should be put on a laying ration4 ,it is very necessary to see that the ducklings have a plentiful supply of drinking water4 ,it is especially important to renew this supply just before the ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water while they are consuming their feed4 ,the water should be given in dishes deep enough so that the ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables them to wash the sand out of their nostrils4 ,water for ,ducklings4 ,in addition to the drinking water provided duck raisers sometimes allow the growing ducklings access to water in which they can swim4 ,if it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly and turn them off on the market as green ducks many raisers do not consider this advisable as it induces the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it more difficult to fatten them4 ,however1 access to water in which they can swim makes it unnecessary to provide any other supply of drinking water and for this reason lessens the work considerably4 ,unless it is easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the water there is danger of some of them drowning as they are likely to get tired and unable to climb out4 ,little ducklings allowed access to very cold water are subject to cramp and may be drowned as a result4 ,distinguishing the ,sexes4 ,it is difficult to distinguish the sexes of growing ducks until they begin to reach maturity4 ,there is1 however1 a difference in their appearance4 ,the drakes are coarser or thicker and more masculine in appearance showing this especially about the head and neck4 ,also as they secure their mature plumage the drake shows curled feathers on top of the tail which are often referred to as sex feathers4 ,in addition1 the voice of the duck is harsher and coarser than that of the drake4 ,marketing the ,ducks4 ,most of the ducks produced on farms are marketed alive4 ,this is because the farmer has no special market and he does not find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks with the chance that they might spoil4 ,in fact1 most of the farm raised ducks are not turned off as green ducks at #aj to #ab weeks as is done on the commercial duck plants but are held until fall and then sold as spring ducks4 ,they will weigh somewhat more at that time but as a rule the price received per pound will be lower than that obtained for green ducks during the spring and summer4 ,where there is a special demand for ducklings which the farmer can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the ducks4 ,if it is desired to dress the ducks1 the directions given under ,chapter ,,vii can be modified to suit the farmer's needs4 ,the soft body feathers should be saved in accordance with the directions given on page #ajf1 as they can be used at home in making pillows or can be sold4 ,such eggs as are produced in surplus may either be utilized on the home table or sent to market4 ,as a rule duck eggs are not in great demand except at certain seasons such as at ,easter and during the ,jewish holidays in the spring and fall when they bring somewhat higher prices than hens' eggs4 ,the larger size of duck eggs1 however1 makes them favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at any time in a city of any size at prices as good as those received for hens' eggs4 ,eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary #cj-;dozen hen egg cases by using special fillers which hold #be eggs instead of #cf as in the case of hens' eggs4 ,see page #aai4 ,a farmer with a small flock of ducks will usually not have eggs enough to fill a case frequently and for this reason he usually finds it more convenient to market the few eggs he has by taking them into town in a basket4 ,disease and ,insect ,pests4 ,ducks are very little troubled by insect pests1 nor are they greatly troubled by diseases4 ,the usual difficulties encountered along this line are those discussed under this head in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,losses are often experienced as the result of predatory animals4 ,rats will cause a great amount of havoc among the young ducks if they are able to get at them4 ,a single night's work on the part of one rat may practically clean out a small flock of ducklings4 ,it is necessary to make sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that rats cannot get at them4 ,,geese ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,extent of the ,industry--,opportunities ,geese can be raised successfully in practically all parts of the ,united ,states and are in fact scattered in small flocks over a considerable portion of the country being most abundant in the ,south and in the ,middle ,west4 ,the census figures for the year #aibj show ,illinois with #aie1gfi geese to be the leading state in numbers1 closely followed by ,missouri1 ,arkansas and ,iowa4 ,next in order of importance as goose raising states come ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,minnesota1 ,north ,carolina and ,texas4 ,the census figures of #aibj compared with those for #aiaj show a decrease in the number of geese from #d1dca1ihj to #b1ici1bjc4 ,the only groups of states which showed an increase in the number of geese during this period were the ,north ,atlantic and the ,mountain states4 ,of the total farms in the ,united ,states only a small proportion1 probably one-tenth1 have any geese and the number of geese per farm would not average over #d to #aj depending on the section4 ,nature of the ,industry4 ,geese are kept almost wholly in small flocks as a side line on general farms4 ,the purpose of goose raising is primarily one of the production of meat although in the past flocks of geese have been kept to some extent1 particularly in the south for the purpose of plucking them to secure the feathers4 ,this practice of plucking live geese is decreasing and is much less common than formerly4 ,the eggs of the geese do not enter to any extent into the egg trade of the country4 ,as a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for the purpose of rearing young geese and it is only occasionally that goose eggs are used for culinary purposes4 ,opportunities for ,goose ,raising4 ,undoubtedly the greatest opportunity along the line of goose raising lies in the small flock kept on the general farm4 ,where conditions are suitable1 that is to say1 where there is an abundance of suitable pasture land together with some water to which the geese can have access1 a small flock can be most profitably kept4 ,they can be reared very cheaply as both the young and old geese will secure practically their entire living during the summer from pasture if an abundant supply of suitable green material is available4 ,the cost of rearing them therefore is low4 ,in addition both the young and old geese are very hardy and require comparatively little care4 ,they are little subject to disease and therefore losses are small4 ,geese live and breed for a long time and this makes it possible to turn off to market a larger proportion of the young stock reared than is the case with most other classes of poultry4 ,for all of these reasons1 therefore1 a small flock of geese will return a good profit to the farmer without having to supply any great amount of equipment or without having to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds4 ,in addition to the geese which can be marketed1 the maintenance of a small flock also helps to provide a variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable birds for the holiday seasons such as ,thanksgiving and ,christmas4 ,in addition to the opportunity for goose raising in small flocks on general farms there likewise exists a definite opportunity to specialize along this line somewhat more extensively4 ,in certain places1 notably the state of ,wisconsin1 goose raising becomes a more important activity on some farms than merely that of a by-product4 ,larger numbers are reared and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing them for market either by means of pen fattening or by means of hand fattening or noodling the geese4 ,geese so finished for market bring a special price and allow a good profit to the raiser for the time which he has put into them4 ,an outgrowth of the goose raising industry which has been worked to a limited extent consists of the gathering together of the geese raised in any particular portion of the country on one farm and the feeding of them there in large flocks in the fields so as to fatten them for market4 ,there are not many of these special fattening farms but several persons in different sections of the country who have made a practice of gathering together and marketing the geese in this way have found it very profitable4 ,probably a similar opportunity exists in certain other sections where goose raising on the farms in small numbers is common and where no one has yet made the effort to collect and fatten the geese before marketing them4 ,while geese are not exhibited to the same extent as chickens1 still there will always be found a market for birds of good quality1 both for the purpose of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving the stock of other goose raisers4 ,goose ,raising as a ,business for ,farm ,women4 ,like turkey raising goose raising as a side line on the farm offers an excellent money making opportunity for the farm women4 ,without any great outlay of capital to get a start and without its being necessary to provide much in the way of buildings or other equipment1 a flock of geese can be started which will allow a nice profit to the farm woman for the care and attention which she gives them4 ,in this connection it should be remembered that while the opportunities for profit may not be so large as in turkey raising1 yet the care required is much less and the chances of serious difficulties due to disease and to inability to raise the young stock are relatively small4 ,goose raising therefore offers a most profitable side line employment for the farm woman4 ,geese as ,weed ,destroyers4 ,as stated before geese are close grazers4 ,in fact1 during the growing season of the year green vegetation forms most and in some cases practically all of their diet4 ,the vegetation which they will eat readily is quite varied and in many cases geese will be found to be very valuable in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome weeds4 ,in the southern states geese are often kept on farms where cotton is raised for the purpose of keeping the cotton fields free from weeds4 ,objection to ,geese ,an objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for other stock4 ,this is not true if the pasture is not overstocked with geese4 ,of course geese are very close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a field they will eat the grass down so close that there will be none for other animals to get4 ,similarly the idea that other animals will not eat grass grown where goose droppings have fallen is not true except where the birds are too thick so that the grass is soiled badly by the droppings4 ,the fact that geese are noisy creatures makes them undesirable to some persons4 ,it is true that they make a good deal of noise and that their cry is of a very hoarse1 rasping character and to a person with bad nerves they may be annoying but this is no valid or weighty objection to the normal1 healthy farmer4 ,the ,chinese geese are the noisiest and consequently the greatest offenders in this particular4 ,a more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of their rather ugly disposition4 ,ganders1 especially as they grow older and during the breeding season1 are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to attack human beings4 ,they strike heavy formidable blows with their wings and with their strong bills they inflict most painful bites4 ,where there are children about the house it may be necessary to dispose of ugly ganders to safeguard the children from serious injury4 ,,chapter ,x ,breeds and ,varieties--,how to ,mate to ,produce ,exhibition ,specimens--,preparing ,geese for the ,show--,catching and ,handling ,breeds of ,geese4 ,there are six standard breeds of geese consisting of the following3 ,toulouse1 ,embden1 ,african1 ,chinese1 ,wild or ,canadian and ,egyptian4 ,all of these breeds consist of a single variety with the exception of the ,chinese which is composed of two4 ,the ,toulouse is known as the ,gray ,toulouse1 the ,embden as the ,white ,embden1 the ,african as the ,gray ,african1 the two varieties of the ,chinese as the ,brown ,chinese and the ,white ,chinese1 the ,wild or ,canadian as the ,gray and the ,egyptian as the ,colored4 ,the first four of these breeds are the ones which are commonly kept in domestication4 ,in a general way it may be said that these breeds are meat breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for the production of meat4 ,the ,wild or ,canadian and the ,egyptian are more in the nature of ornamental breeds since they are not so commonly kept and are principally to be found where ornamental water-fowls are maintained4 ,the ,chinese are sometimes classed as ornamental geese on account of their smaller size but they are much more commonly kept than either the ,canadian or the ,egyptian and make a good market fowl where the demand is not for such a large carcass4 ,in addition to the standard breeds there are several other rare breeds among which is the ,sebastapol which is kept purely as an ornamental breed by reason of its peculiar feathering4 ,the ,sebastapol is a white goose in which the feathers of the upper part of the body show a twisted or frizzled condition which gives it much the general effect of the feathers being curled4 ,in addition to the standard breeds of geese there are kept on a great majority of farms ordinary common geese of no definite breed or variety4 ,these geese in general are of smaller size than the larger standard breeds and have probably arisen as the result of the crossing of the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration in size and color marking is due to careless breeding and selection4 ,in some sections and for certain special purposes definite crosses of standard breeds are made for the production of table geese having certain desired qualities4 ,for this purpose the ,african ganders are very popular used upon the ,toulouse geese4 ,to some extent there is produced and marketed a goose known as the mongrel goose4 ,this has excellent table quality and is in good demand on account of its superior eating qualities and its rapid growth4 ,it is produced by using the ,wild or ,canadian gander upon ,toulouse1 ,african or ,embden geese4 ,the result of this cross is a hybrid goose which has much the appearance of the ,wild goose but which will not breed although the females will lay eggs4 ,as a rule ,toulouse or ,african females are used for the cross rather than ,embden as from the latter there is a greater tendency to get a lighter cross which would not resemble its ,wild father so closely and might not therefore be so readily recognized as genuine mongrel geese4 ,nomenclature4 ,the term geese is used to indicate the birds of both sexes taken as a whole and also as a plural form for the word goose4 ,the term goose is used to distinguish the female of the species4 ,the male is given the specific name of gander to distinguish it from goose4 ,the young of both sexes are termed goslings4 ,in giving the standard weights for the different breeds of geese the birds are classified as adult ganders and young ganders and as adult geese and young geese4 ,by adult goose or gander is meant a bird which is over one year old1 by young goose or gander is meant a bird which is less than one year4 ,not infrequently in connection with market reports use will be made of the term green geese4 ,this indicates birds which are marketed when they are of large size but still young and immature1 the green referring to this immature condition4 ,size4 ,an idea of the size of the different standard breeds of geese can best be secured by giving the standard weights4 ,they are as follows3 ,breed ,adult ,adult ,young ,young ,gander ,goose ,gander ,goose ,toulouse #bf lbs4 #bj lbs4 #bj lbs4 #af lbs4 ,embden #bj #ah #ah #af ,african #bj #ah #af #ad ,chinese #ab #aj #aj #h ,wild or ,canadian #ab #aj #aj #h ,egyptian #aj #h #h #f ,popularity of the ,breeds4 ,of the different standard breeds kept the ,toulouse is undoubtedly the most popular in this country probably due to its large size as well as to its quick growth4 ,the ,embden follows the ,toulouse closely in popularity4 ,the ,chinese geese are probably third most numerous in numbers while the ,african ranks fourth4 ,in certain sections the ,african seems to be very popular and one would expect to find more of this breed than seem to be present on farms4 ,neither the ,canadian nor the ,egyptians are to be found in any great numbers1 the latter in particular being very rare4 ,egg ,production ,it must always be remembered in speaking of the egg production of any breed of poultry that there will be a considerable variation in individuals within a breed and that egg production will also be affected very largely by the conditions under which the birds are kept4 ,for this reason any attempt to give an average egg production for a breed is at best only an approximation4 ,these approximations often serve1 however1 to show some well established contrast between the different breeds with respect to their egg laying ability4 ,the ,toulouse is a fairly prolific breed of geese and individuals should average from #ab to #cf eggs1 the majority laying about #bj eggs4 ,the ,embden is very similar to the ,toulouse in laying ability although probably on the whole not quite so good a layer4 ,the ,african is generally considered a good layer and is said to average from #bj to #dj eggs4 ,some breeders state that the pure ,african are not as good layers as this1 being about equal to the ,embden and that the better laying ,africans really have some ,brown ,chinese blood in them which has been introduced to increase prolificacy4 ,the ,chinese is the most prolific breed4 ,the birds of either the ,white or ,brown variety should average from #fj to #ajj eggs4 ,the eggs laid by the ,chinese are smaller than those of the ,toulouse1 ,embden or ,african4 ,the ,wild or ,canadian and the ,egyptian geese are small layers4 ,they rarely lay more than one sitting during a season and the eggs will as a rule range from #d to #h in number4 ,size of ,goose ,eggs4 ,goose eggs are decidedly larger than duck eggs4 ,there is a considerable variation in size1 depending upon the breed4 ,the eggs of the ,toulouse1 ,african and ,embden are of about the same size and will vary from #f-a_/b to #h ounces each4 ,the eggs of the ,chinese are smaller and will weigh from #e-a_/b to #f ounces each1 while eggs of the ,canadian and ,egyptian are the smallest of the standard breeds1 running from #e to #e-a_/b ounces each4 ,color of ,goose ,eggs4 ,in general goose eggs are whitish in color but may shade to a gray or buff tinge4 ,the ,wild or ,canadian sometimes lay eggs which are off the white1 showing a considerable green tinge4 ,about ,geese and ,matings ,broodiness4 ,all of the breeds of geese with the exception of the ,toulouse may be classed as broody breeds1 that is to say1 they will make their nests and hatch their young if given a chance to do so4 ,not infrequently individuals of the ,toulouse breed will do this also but as a rule they are not dependable for this purpose4 ,size of ,mating4 ,in making the mating it is usual in order to secure best results to use one gander with from two to four geese in the ,toulouse1 ,embden and ,african breeds4 ,in fact1 better results will be secured in these breeds where not over #c geese are used and in many cases the geese are mated in trios or even in pairs4 ,in the ,chinese geese a somewhat larger mating can be employed1 one gander being used with #d to #f geese4 ,the ,wild or ,canadian and the ,egyptian geese in most cases pair only4 ,age of ,breeders4 ,geese can be retained and will give good results as breeders for a longer period than most other classes of poultry4 ,while the young geese will often lay during their first year the results from the eggs produced by them are not as a rule very satisfactory4 ,it is sometimes claimed that the eggs of young geese will not hatch but this is untrue and goslings have been raised from such eggs4 ,canadian and ,egyptian geese do not lay until they are #c years old4 ,females may be kept for breeding purposes until they are #h to #aj years old and should give good results during this time4 ,if they continue to lay longer than this and are valuable breeding individuals they should of course be retained just so long as they lay at a profitable rate4 ,instances are reported where geese #ae to #bj years old were still giving good results as breeders4 ,as a rule ganders cannot be successfully kept for breeding purposes as long as can the geese4 ,yearling ganders are often used but they are at their best for breeding purposes when from #c to #e years old and it is not generally wise to retain them after they are #f or #g years old4 ,egyptian and ,canadian ganders will not breed before they are #b years old4 ,in general it is good practice to mate young ganders to older geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders as this seems to get better results both in fertility and in hatching4 ,marking ,young ,geese4 ,it is often desirable to mark young geese in some way so that their breeding can be told or so that a record can be kept of their age4 ,this can be readily accomplished by punching various combinations of holes in the webs between the toes at the time the goslings are hatched4 ,considerations in ,making the ,mating4#d ,in making the mating in breeding geese it must be kept in mind that it is of primary importance to select the breeders first of all for size1 prolificacy and vitality4 ,without these qualities no matter what else the breeding geese may be there is scant chance of satisfactory results4 ,having selected birds which are of suitable size and vitality those should then be utilized for breeding which approach most nearly both in type and color to the requirements as given in the ,american ,standard of ,perfection4 ,as a rule1 a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected and shutting them up together in a pen away from the other birds and out of sound of the voices of their former mates4 ,as a rule about a month of this treatment will suffice to bring about the new matings desired and the birds can then be allowed to range at liberty4 ,footnote #d3 ,for a more detailed description of the principles of breeding as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to geese1 the reader is referred to ,the ,mating and ,breeding of ,poultry by ,harry ,m4 ,lamon and ,rob ,r4 ,slocum1 published by the ,orange ,judd ,publishing ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,some ganders are very troublesome about mating4 ,this is particularly true as they get older4 ,in some cases it is impossible to get ganders to mate at all while frequently they will refuse to mate with more than one goose4 ,as a rule1 matings once made are permanent from year to year unless changed by the breeder on account of poor results4 ,where new matings are to be made or where changes are to be made this should be done in the fall so that the birds will have been mated for several months before the breeding season begins in order to insure good results4 ,after the matings are made the geese can be allowed to run together in larger flocks but the practice is frequently employed of keeping the different matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the fighting which will otherwise occur between the ganders4 ,during the breeding season the ganders are quite savage and will fight fiercely4 ,breeds of ,geese#e ,the ,toulouse4 ,this breed is characterized by its very low down deep broad massive body4 ,the body should come well down in front and should be so deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the ground when the bird walks4 ,the skin of the rear portion of the body should have folds4 ,the appearance or type of the ,toulouse depends a great deal upon the condition of flesh which a bird may be in at the time as a fat well fleshed condition will improve type very materially4 ,a dewlap1 that is to say1 a pendulous flap of skin on the throat1 is desired but comparatively few birds show a well developed dewlap4 ,it is more likely to appear with age than it is in the younger birds4 ,in color the ,toulouse breeds quite true4 ,the principal difficulty which is encountered is the occasional appearance of one1 two or three white flight feathers in the wing4 ,these white flights constitute a disqualification and must of course be avoided in the breeding4 ,it is necessary also to avoid any birds which lack in size1 length1 breadth or depth of body1 particularly depth in front4 ,birds of this breed are of large size and make quick growth and for this reason are a fine market goose although the dark colored pin feathers are somewhat of a drawback from a market point of view4 ,footnote #e3 ,for a complete and official description and list of disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of geese1 the reader is referred to the ,american ,standard of ,perfection published by the ,american ,poultry ,association1 obtainable from ,orange ,judd ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the ,embden4 ,this breed is of good size but somewhat smaller than the ,toulouse4 ,it has not quite so long a keel or underline as the ,toulouse and while deep in body it is not so baggy4 ,there should be no dewlap in this breed4 ,the plumage should be pure white throughout1 the only difficulty of any importance occurring here being the occasional appearance of slate on the backs of young geese4 ,this1 however1 is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult4 ,embden geese are rapid growers and mature early which together with the fact that their plumage is white makes them an excellent market bird4 ,the ,african4 ,in type the ,african is much the same as the ,toulouse although not quite as large being about the size of the ,embden4 ,what is desired is a low down body which is flat in keel and without any folds of skin4 ,the neck should be short4 ,this bird unlike the ,toulouse is characterized by a knob or protuberance extending out from the head at the base of the upper bill4 ,this knob should be black in color and should show no tinge of yellow on the top or about the base4 ,if the knob gets scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing likewise is apt to cause it to turn yellow4 ,birds of this breed both young and old should show dewlaps1 the absence of these in adult specimens constituting a disqualification4 ,as in the ,toulouse avoid any white flight feathers4 ,the ,african makes an excellent market goose being like the ,embden and ,toulouse1 quick growing and early maturing4 ,the ganders are especially in favor for use in crossing with other varieties for the production of market geese4 ,it seems probable that some ,brown ,chinese blood has been crossed into the ,africans on various occasions probably for the purpose of increasing the prolificacy of the ,african as the ,brown ,chinese is an excellent layer4 ,it is also true that crosses between the ,brown ,chinese and the ,toulouse are sometimes shown for ,africans but as a rule this cross results in too dark a bird and such crosses should never be used for breeding purposes since they would not continue to give the uniformity and other qualities obtained in the first generation4 ,the ,chinese4 ,the ,chinese is quite different in type from the three preceding breeds4 ,it is much smaller and higher set on legs and has a body much more upright in carriage4 ,the neck is long and slender and the head has a large knob4 ,an important part about the type is to secure a very slender neck1 another important point being to secure a very large knob2 the larger this is the better4 ,there is1 however1 a decided tendency for the knob to run small when the neck is slender and it is difficult to secure in perfection the combination of a very slender neck and a large knob4 ,the ,chinese geese should be in good condition but should not be too fat when shown as too good a condition of flesh injures the type materially4 ,if fat there is a decided tendency for the birds to bag down behind which is undesirable4 ,the ,chinese geese are the best layers but the egg which they lay is smaller4 ,on account of their smaller size they do not make as good market geese where large sized carcasses are desired but where smaller carcasses suitable for family use are in demand the ,chinese make a satisfactory market breed4 ,the ,brown ,chinese4 ,in this variety the knob should be dark brown or black4 ,as in the ,african1 injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow which is undesirable4 ,the plumage should be a rich brown shade of color1 a faded gray color being very undesirable4 ,the stripe down the back of the neck should be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast with the rest of the neck color4 ,white feathers in the primaries or secondaries must be avoided4 ,the ,white ,chinese4 ,the knob in this variety should be orange and any tendency toward yellow should be avoided4 ,the plumage should be pure white throughout4 ,occasional young females may show slate in the back but this is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult4 ,the ,wild or ,canadian4 ,contrary to expectation this breed when domesticated is very peaceable and very tame4 ,there is often1 however1 a tendency for them to grow uneasy when the migratory season comes4 ,to keep the birds from flying away it is necessary to clip the flight feathers of one wing or what is safer still to pinion the bird4 ,pinioning consists of cutting off the first joint of one wing4 ,this may be done when the birds are small or may be done at any time and does not seem to bother them much4 ,one of the best ways to accomplish this is to break the joint and then cut it off by using a chisel and hammer4 ,not much bleeding will result but it is well to put a little iodine on the cut4 ,these birds breed very true in type and color and progress in the mating simply consists of continuing to select those birds for breeders which show markings in the greatest excellence4 ,in type a ,canadian goose is quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned4 ,it is smaller1 set much higher on legs and its body is neater and trimmer1 and is oblong and carried in a horizontal position4 ,the neck is long and slender4 ,these birds mate only in pairs as a rule and the females do not mature and lay until they are three years old4 ,the ganders often breed when they are two years old4 ,usually only a single sitting of eggs is laid consisting of from #d to #h4 ,usually1 however1 all of these eggs will hatch and the young prove to be strong and easily reared4 ,the ,egyptian4 ,this is the smallest of the standard breeds of geese4 ,in type it more nearly approaches the ,canadian than any other breed but it is somewhat longer in legs1 showing more of the thigh beneath the body4 ,the body is not carried in quite such a horizontal position as the ,canadian but slopes downward slightly from the breast to the tail4 ,the neck is neither so long nor quite so slender as that of the ,canadian4 ,this breed is the brightest colored of any of the geese and breeds fairly true in color and markings4 ,like the ,canadian the ,egyptian goose is likely to become uneasy at times and one wing should therefore be pinioned or the flight feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying away4 ,like the ,canadian the ,egyptians mate in pairs only and lay but one sitting during the year4 ,the females do not lay until they are three years old4 ,neither the ,egyptian nor the ,canadian geese should be closely confined or no eggs will be laid4 ,the goose should be allowed to make her own nest and hatch her eggs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,left--,egyptian ,gander4 ,right--,sebastapol ,goose4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,left4--,toulouse ,gander4 ,right--,embden ,gander4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,left--,wild or ,canadian ,gander4 ,right--,african ,gander4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,left--,brown ,chinese ,gander4 ,right--,white ,chinese ,gander4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,preparing ,geese for the ,show ,the preparation of geese for the show is comparatively a simple matter4 ,it requires first of all that individuals shall be selected which approach nearest to the standard requirements both in type and in color4 ,as to the actual preparation for exhibition the geese are practically self-prepared4 ,for a period of at least a week or ten days before they are shipped to the show they should be given access to a grass range and to running water4 ,the grass range tends to put them in good condition while the running water will give them an opportunity to clean themselves4 ,any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown so as to give them an opportunity to grow in new ones4 ,since all of the common breeds of geese1 with the exception of the ,chinese1 should be shown in a fat condition in order to give them their best type they should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a period of at least ten days before the show in order to get them in good flesh and to bring them up to standard weight4 ,this ration should consist of one part corn and two parts oats4 ,in ,chinese geese where it is desired to have them in good condition of flesh but without showing any tendency toward bagginess1 oats alone should be fed as they are apt to put on too much fat when corn is fed as well4 ,when the birds are shipped to the show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey4 ,if this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water4 ,as the geese are taken from the shipping coops place two of them at a time in the barrel1 cover it over and leave them for a few minutes4 ,then take them out and they will usually be clean4 ,catching and ,handling ,geese ,never catch geese by the legs which are weak and are easily broken or injured4 ,for the same reason they should never be carried by the legs4 ,in catching geese grasp them by the neck just below the head4 ,often a crooked stick is of value in getting hold of the birds by the neck4 ,geese can be carried short distances by the neck without injury but it is not advisable to carry them for any considerable distance in this manner1 particularly if they are fat4 ,the best way to handle the geese is to catch them by the neck1 then place one arm over the shoulders and around the bird's body thus holding the wings in place while both legs are grasped with the hand4 ,the neck should be held with the other hand to keep the bird from biting4 ,in releasing the bird in a pen or shipping coop do not let go of the neck until the bird is placed where it is wanted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed--,proper manner of picking up and carrying geese with the head and neck under the arm4 7,photographs from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,packing and ,shipping ,hatching ,eggs ,goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh if they are to be received in good condition and are to give good results in hatching4 ,they can be shipped long distances either by express or by parcel post4 ,in order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment they should be carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable receptacle4 ,the same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page #acg4 ,prices for ,breeding ,stock ,while the demand for breeding stock is not so broad with geese as it is with some other classes of poultry1 there does exist a steady and profitable demand for this class of fowls4 ,goose eggs for hatching are usually sold in sittings of #e and the price varies somewhat depending upon the variety4 ,as a rule1 ,embden and ,toulouse eggs will bring from #fj cents to #a4bj each4 ,chinese goose eggs will bring from #dj cents to #a each while the eggs of the ,african goose will bring from #a to #b each4 ,of course the price of eggs for hatching like that of breeding birds depends on the quality of the stock4 ,the prices for the birds themselves for breeding purposes will run anywhere from about #h to #aj apiece for good birds suitable for breeding on farm flocks1 to #be or even #ej each of birds of especially fine quality4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,management of ,breeding ,geese ,range for ,breeders4 ,since grass or other vegetation1 when plentiful1 will furnish practically the entire living both for breeding and growing geese1 it is by all means desirable to have suitable range for the breeding stock4 ,aside from economy of production range is desirable from the fact that the breeders keep in better condition and better results in breeding and fertility are obtained4 ,the range for breeding geese should therefore consist of grass land or pasture4 ,often rather low wet land can be used for this purpose1 particularly if some higher land is also available to provide a more favorable kind of grass4 ,often geese can be ranged on the same pasture with horses or cattle4 ,later in the season after the harvest1 both breeding and growing geese can be given the range of the stubble fields to good advantage as they will glean most of the shelled grain4 ,the entire flock of breeders is generally allowed to run together but the flock may be divided if desired1 or each mating may be kept in a colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders proves troublesome4 ,number of ,geese to the ,acre4 ,the number of geese which can be kept or run to the acre depends of course upon the nature of the land available for the purpose4 ,the better the pasture and therefore the more green feed available throughout the summer and fall1 the more geese can be run4 ,in general1 the practice is to run from #d to #be geese to an acre2 ten is a fair average under normal conditions4 ,water for ,breeding ,geese4 ,while water to which the geese can have access for swimming is not absolutely essential for their well being1 they like it and it is well to provide water if possible especially during the breeding season4 ,it not only takes care of the problem of supplying drinking water1 but in the opinion of many goose raisers1 increases the fertility of the eggs laid4 ,a natural water supply such as a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable1 but if none is available an artificial pond or tank can be furnished to good advantage4 ,distinguishing the ,sex4 ,it is difficult to distinguish the sex of geese4 ,it is1 of course1 necessary to know the sex so as to provide the proper number of ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together in making a mating4 ,once the sex of a bird is determined it is well for the novice to mark it by means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be easily distinguished in the future4 ,it is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young than of old geese4 ,the gander is generally slightly larger and coarser than the goose1 with a longer1 thicker neck and larger head4 ,the gander also has a shriller cry than the goose whose cry consists of a harsher sound4 ,some goose raisers claim that they can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the body shape1 the underline of the body of the gander from the tail to the point where the legs join the body being nearly straight1 while in the goose this line tends to round out with the fuller development of the abdomen4 ,this difference is more marked during the laying season than at other times4 ,considerable experience is necessary in order to distinguish sex by any of the means described and the really sure way is by an examination of the sexual organs or by observing the actions of the geese when mating4 ,upon examination the sphincter muscle which closes the anus of the female when stretched will be found to have a folded appearance4 ,if the gander is placed upon his back and pressure applied around the anus1 the penis will protrude4 ,this test is more easily made on a mature than on an immature gander and is also easier to make during warm than during cold weather4 ,purchase of ,breeding ,stock4 ,geese when mated usually stay mated permanently4 ,matings are not1 therefore1 changed from year to year as a rule so long as they continue to give satisfactory results4 ,if it becomes necessary to make new matings or to break up old matings1 this should be done in the fall1 so that the birds will be thoroughly used to the new order of things by the time the breeding season arrives1 and the results in eggs laid and young stock grown will not1 therefore1 be adversely affected4 ,for this reason1 any breeding stock purchased should be secured in the fall rather than to wait until just before the breeding season opens4 ,as a rule1 also1 a better selection of breeding stock to choose from is available to the purchaser in the fall4 ,time of ,laying4 ,geese start laying in the early spring and continue to lay throughout the spring4 ,with special attention given to the feeding1 they should begin in the northeastern part of the ,united ,states about ,february #a and should continue to lay until about ,june #a when geese of the heavier breeds such as the ,toulouse1 ,african and ,embden will generally be pretty well through4 ,some individuals will lay later than this and the ,chinese geese also have a rather longer laying season extending further into the summer4 ,the length of the laying season is also affected by whether the geese are broken up when they become broody or whether they are allowed to sit4 ,the latter practice1 of course1 stops the layings4 ,it must be remembered that the ,canadian and ,egyptian as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs during the season4 ,as a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon4 ,the frequency of laying varies1 some geese laying every other day while others lay more or less often4 ,housing4 ,geese withstand the weather very well and do not need much in the way of houses or shelter except during winter and during severe storms4 ,in the ,north it is the usual practice and good practice to provide shelter for the geese1 which may take the form of a poultry house1 or of any shed or barn available for the purpose4 ,a shed with openings on the south side makes an ideal goose shelter or house4 ,most breeders in the ,south who give their flocks good attention also provide shelter for them during the winter although geese are also successfully kept in that section without shelter4 ,the houses provided for the breeders must be kept clean and as dry as possible4 ,the best way to do this is to bed them liberally with straw1 shavings or some similar material1 especially during the winter4 ,as the bedding becomes soiled1 more should be added and the house should be cleaned out from time to time and fresh litter put in4 ,no equipment for the houses is necessary4 ,the geese will lay their eggs in nests which they make on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is provided1 the eggs will not get badly soiled4 ,large boxes1 barrels1 or similar shelter provided with an abundance of nesting material may be scattered about the range to provide places in which the geese may make their nests4 ,yards4 ,usually no yards are provided for geese as they are allowed the range of a pasture or are allowed to roam at liberty about the farm4 ,any ordinary woven wire stock fence such as might be used to fence a pasture will serve to keep the geese confined as well as the other stock4 ,if for any reason it is desired to confine geese to a yard1 the effort should be made to provide yard enough so that the geese will have a constant supply of green feed4 ,in a small yard this is impossible4 ,a #b-a_/b or #c foot fence is high enough to confine any of the common breeds of geese and will also serve for ,canadian and ,egyptian geese if they have been pinioned which should always be done4 ,feeding the ,breeding ,geese4 ,while the flock of geese may be allowed to pick most of their living from a good grass range during the summer and fall1 it is necessary to feed them during the winter4 ,in fact during the summer it may be necessary to feed them lightly on grain or wet mash if the pasture gets short4 ,the quantity of feed necessary for this purpose depends upon the condition of the pasture and must be judged by the condition of the birds4 ,during the winter1 they must be fed regularly4 ,the feed given them should consist of both grain and some form of roughage4 ,it is necessary to be careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become too fat1 for while they should be in good condition of flesh at the beginning of the breeding season1 if they are too fat1 poor fertility and poor hatches will result4 ,feed4 ,oats makes the best feed for breeding geese as it is not too fattening4 ,corn1 wheat or barley fed alone is likely to prove too fattening but a limited quantity should be fed for variety4 ,the grain should be fed twice a day throughout the winter and should be given rather sparingly1 depending on roughage to make up the bulk of the feed4 ,vegetables1 clover or alfalfa hay1 chopped corn stover or silage make good roughage for this purpose4 ,corn silage is a fine feed if it is not moldy and does not contain so much corn as to be too fattening4 ,about three weeks or a month before it is desired to have the geese commence laying1 which should be at such a time that the first goslings hatched will have good grass pasture1 a mash should be added to the feed to stimulate egg production4 ,this mash is generally fed in the morning with the vegetables or roughage and may consist of three parts bran or shorts1 one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat scrap4 ,if available buttermilk or skim milk can be used to mix the mash and replace the meat scrap4 ,another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal one-fourth part1 bran two parts1 and ground oats one part1 mixed up with skim milk or buttermilk4 ,grit and oyster shell should be kept where the geese can help themselves particularly during the laying season4 ,drinking water must be available at all times and if a natural supply is not available1 must be given in drinking fountains or dishes which should be so arranged that the geese cannot get their feet into the water4 ,when they can get into the drinking water1 they will quickly get it into a filthy condition4 ,when the geese are running in a field with horses or cattle a small enclosure should be fenced in to which the geese can gain access by means of suitable openings but which will keep the other stock out4 ,in this should be placed the drinking fountain for the geese and in this enclosure the geese should be fed4 ,otherwise the cattle or horses will get most of the feed intended for the geese and in addition1 some of the geese may be stepped on or kicked and injured when the stock crowds around at feeding time4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,incubation ,care of ,eggs for ,hatching4 ,since egg production usually begins early in the spring while the weather is still cold1 it is necessary to gather the eggs at frequent intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming chilled4 ,later in the season daily collection will be satisfactory4 ,the eggs as collected should be kept in a cool place and where the evaporation of the egg contents will not be too great4 ,if set at fairly frequent intervals1 there will be no difficulty on this score4 ,if they are to be kept for some time1 they may be stored in bran to prevent evaporation4 ,it is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date they are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving too long any eggs for hatching4 ,some goose raisers think that it is best to wash goose eggs before setting them4 ,this belief is based on the fact that when a goose makes her own nest and has access to water in which to swim she comes on the nest with her feathers wet4 ,it is to simulate this condition that the eggs are washed4 ,certainly any dirty eggs should be washed4 ,methods of ,incubation4 ,the most usual methods of hatching goose eggs are by means of the chicken hen and the goose4 ,incubators may also be used but do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they do with hen or duck eggs4 ,turkey hens may also be utilized for this purpose but are not commonly available although they make good mothers4 ,probably the most common method of hatching is the use of chicken hens4 ,next common is to allow the goose to hatch her own eggs4 ,goose eggs hatch well under hens or geese4 ,during the height of the season nearly every fertile egg should hatch if the breeding geese are managed and fed so that they are in good condition4 ,early in the season the eggs may not run as fertile or hatch as well as later4 ,period of ,incubation4 ,the period of incubation of goose eggs is approximately #cj days1 but may vary from #bh to #cc or occasionally even #ce days4 ,hatching with ,chicken ,hens4 ,chicken hens are used very commonly to hatch goose eggs both because they give good results and are readily available and also because it is desirable to take the first eggs laid by the geese away and not to let them get broody and sit so that they will lay more eggs4 ,for the latter reason practically all the eggs laid early in the season are hatched by chicken hens4 ,the nest can be prepared for the hen either in a suitable place in a poultry house or in a shed or other building or in a box or barrel on the ground4 ,as soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by staying on the nest1 in which has been placed a nest egg or two1 for a couple of nights in succession1 she may be given a sitting of eggs4 ,four to #f goose eggs will constitute a sitting for a common hen4 ,the hen should be confined to the nest being let off only once a day for exercise1 feed and water4 ,the sitting hen must be given good care1 being even more particular in this respect than when she is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of incubation is longer4 ,in addition to being careful to see that the hen comes off her nest for food and water she should be dusted #b or #c times during the hatch with some good insect powder to keep her free from lice and therefore contented to stay on the nest4 ,two or #c days before the goslings hatch she should be dusted with especial care so that the goslings will be free from vermin4 ,on account of the large size of the eggs the hen should not be depended upon to turn them and this should be done by hand once or twice daily4 ,hatching with ,geese4 ,all breeds of geese will hatch their eggs although some are more persistently broody than others while there is a considerable difference in individuals in this respect4 ,toulouse and ,chinese are perhaps the least broody of the breeds and are sometimes termed non-broody4 ,the eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as laid4 ,if this were not done they will become broody and stop laying quicker than they do under this treatment4 ,the goose should be allowed to make her own nest4 ,often she will do this in a barrel1 box or other shelter if these are conveniently available4 ,when she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying she should be given a sitting of eggs which will consist of #aj or #aa4 ,geese are often difficult to manage when they have young4 ,wild and ,egyptian geese should always be allowed to make their own nests which they like to do on dry ground near the water1 using straw leaves or similar material to make the nest4 ,they should not be disturbed as they are ugly during this time4 ,they will hatch practically every egg4 ,breaking ,up ,broody ,geese4 ,a goose which shows a desire to sit1 can be broken up quite easily by confining her to a slat-bottomed coop without any feed1 but with plenty of water to drink1 for from #b to #d days4 ,after being broken up she will generally commence laying again after an interval of a few days4 ,hatching with an ,incubator4 ,while it is more difficult to hatch goose eggs in incubators than it is hen or duck eggs1 this can be done by an experienced operator with a fair degree of success4 ,the incubator should be operated at a temperature of #aja4e to #ajb4e degrees ,f41 with the thermometer so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs4 ,beginning with the third day1 the eggs should be turned twice a day as with hens' eggs4 ,beginning about the tenth day1 the eggs should be cooled once a day1 and they need more cooling than hens' eggs require4 ,they should be cooled down to a temperature of about #hj to #he degrees4 ,all goose eggs whether in incubators or under hens or geese should be tested once during the hatch4 ,the best time to do this is sometime between the tenth and fourteenth days1 when any infertile eggs or dead germs should be thrown out4 ,moisture for ,hatching ,eggs4 ,where eggs are being hatched in an incubator1 there is need for the use of considerable moisture4 ,it should be added first at about the end of the first week of incubation and should be repeated a couple of times during the second week4 ,this can best be done by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water heated to about #ajj degrees4 ,beginning with the #aeth day and until #b or #c days before the eggs are ready to hatch soak them in warm water for from one-half a minute to a minute once every #b or #c days4 ,for the last #b or #c days do this daily4 ,when the eggs are being hatched by chicken hens or geese in nests indoors or in boxes or barrels and in dry weather1 moisture should be added in the same manner and with the same frequency and amount as in the incubator4 ,when the nest is on damp ground1 it is not necessary to use any moisture on the eggs4 ,hatching4 ,goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly and somewhat unevenly1 especially when under hens4 ,for this reason it is well to remove each gosling as it hatches from under the hen or goose and place it in a covered1 cloth-lined box or basket and keep near the stove until the hatch is completed4 ,as soon as the hatch is over1 the goslings that have been removed from the nest can be put back under the hen or goose which is to be allowed to assume the duties of motherhood4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,brooding and ,rearing ,goslings ,when the hatch is completed all the goslings which have been removed from the nest should be returned2 and the hen or goose removed to the coop which she is to occupy while brooding them4 ,at this time1 if hatched with a hen the goslings should be examined carefully on the head and neck to see whether there are any head lice present4 ,if any are found the heads and necks of the goslings must be greased with a little lard or vaseline4 ,not too much grease should be used as it may prove harmful to the goslings4 ,methods of ,brooding4 ,the most common methods of brooding goslings are the use of geese1 of chicken hens or of artificial means4 ,geese make the best mothers but are not always available especially during the early hatches4 ,geese may also prove rather unruly when they have young and for this reason are not in favor with some goose raisers4 ,when hatching is done simultaneously with geese and hens it is the practice of some raisers to give all the goslings hatched to the geese to rear4 ,hens can be used very successfully for rearing goslings especially if they are confined to a coop for the first week or two so that they cannot range too far and too fast and tire the goslings out4 ,not over #f or #h goslings should be given to a hen to brood4 ,artificial methods are very successful with goslings much more so in fact than are artificial methods of hatching the eggs4 ,some goose raisers prefer to use artificial means of brooding1 especially if they have only a few goslings and are brooding at the same time some chicks or ducklings4 ,brooding with ,hens or ,geese4 ,a suitable roomy coop should be provided to which the goslings with their mother1 either hen or goose1 can be moved when the hatch is completed4 ,the coop should be so constructed by means of a slatted front or otherwise1 that the hen can be confined and the goslings allowed to range4 ,it is very desirable to get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible4 ,a goose with goslings is often allowed to have her liberty but many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the same as when a hen is used4 ,the coop should have a board floor well bedded with straw1 shavings or similar material4 ,this will not only help to keep the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them from their enemies during the night4 ,for this same reason the coop should be so constructed that it can be closed at night by means of a wire covered door so as to shut out marauders1 and at the same time allow plenty of ventilation4 ,the coop must be cleaned often so as to keep the goslings clean and dry4 ,length of ,time ,brooding ,is ,necessary4 ,the time that goslings need brooding will1 of course1 depend upon the weather4 ,during mild weather #aj days is usually sufficient1 after which they can do without any brooding4 ,early in the season1 brooding must be extended over a longer period4 ,this may mean anywhere from #b to #d weeks or even longer4 ,artificial ,brooding4 ,for this purpose any brooder utilized for chicks or ducks can be used for goslings4 ,to start with they should have a temperature of about #ajj degrees but this can be reduced in a few days until in a week or ten days it is only #gj to #hj degrees or if the weather is mild artificial heat may be dispensed with entirely4 ,where there are only a few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks as long as they need heat4 ,it does not work so well to put them with chicks both because they do not require a high temperature so long as the chicks and also because they are so large as to be likely to tread on and injure some of the chicks4 ,brooders should be well bedded with straw1 shavings or some similar material and should be cleaned out every #b or #c days so as to be kept clean and dry4 ,do not crowd the goslings2 give them plenty of room4 ,some goose raisers do not depend upon heated brooders at all1 especially when only a few goslings are to be brooded4 ,for the first day or two the goslings are kept in a covered basket or box in the house near a fire and after this are put out during the warmth of the day but brought into the house and put in the basket or box at night until they are two or three weeks old4 ,the same practice should be followed with goslings reared in brooders1 these being used only during the night after the first #b or #c days1 the goslings being put out-doors during the day in good weather4 ,when goslings which are being artificially brooded are put out during the day on the grass1 they should be confined at first4 ,this can be easily accomplished by building a triangular enclosure1 formed of #c boards1 #a foot wide or wider1 placed up on edge4 ,this enclosure can be easily shifted to a new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh ground and fresh grass4 ,general ,care of ,growing ,goslings ,goslings should be kept dry and for this reason should be kept shut up until the dew is off the grass in the morning4 ,for the same reason they should not be allowed access to water in which to swim until they are at least #c or #d weeks old4 ,when allowed to swim1 care should be taken to see that they can get out of the water easily4 ,goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome and apparently dead4 ,frequently they can be revived and saved by wrapping them in a heated cloth and placing them near a warm fire4 ,while they are still young1 goslings should be driven under shelter whenever a rain storm comes up4 ,when allowed to run at liberty1 goslings must be kept track of to some extent4 ,they may become lost and have to be driven back to their shelter at night4 ,or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences and corners and must be released4 ,when allowed to run with larger stock they are more or less liable to injury from being stepped upon or kicked4 ,a growing coop or shelter of some sort should be provided for the growing goslings although this is not always done after they are pretty well feathered out4 ,such a coop should be large enough so that the goslings are not crowded1 and should be well ventilated4 ,it should have a board floor and be capable of being closed so as to protect the goslings from their enemies1 but without cutting off ventilation4 ,if natural shade is not available where the goslings range1 artificial shade of some sort must be provided during the hot weather4 ,growing goslings are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not make as good growth if not provided with shade4 ,artificial shade of boards or brush can be easily provided4 ,if for any reason it is necessary to confine growing goslings1 they should be provided with good grass yards or runs and their coops or shelters should be moved to a fresh location frequently4 ,it is better1 if possible1 to keep the growing stock separate from the old breeding stock as they will do better and make more rapid growth under these conditions4 ,usually1 however1 where only a few geese are reared each year1 old and young stock are allowed to range together4 ,feeding the ,goslings4 ,like chicks or ducks1 goslings do not need to be fed as soon as hatched1 the yolk of the eggs providing all the nourishment they need for at least #cf hours4 ,they should1 however1 be furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is completed4 ,the first feed should consist of stale bread1 soaked in milk or water4 ,with this material should be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine4 ,the goslings should be fed #c or preferably #d times daily until they are #b or #c weeks old4 ,chopped grass or some other green feed should be added to the feed1 the quantity fed being increased steadily4 ,it is important to get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible1 which should be after the first #b or #c days if the weather is good1 so that they will be able to graze for themselves4 ,five per cent of fine grit or sharp sand should likewise be added to the feed4 ,some growers prefer to feed the grit or sand in a hopper to which the goslings have constant access and from which they can help themselves4 ,a constant supply of fresh drinking water is essential and this should be provided in drinking fountains or dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or bodies in them4 ,when a good grass range is available1 the goslings1 after they are #b or #c weeks old1 will need only one light feed of mash daily in addition to the grass they eat4 ,such a mash will consist of #b parts shorts and #a part corn meal1 ground oats or ground barley4 ,where the pasture is good many goslings are raised from the age of #b or #c weeks until they are ready to be fattened without any other feed than the grass and other material which they get for themselves4 ,however1 the feeding of one light feed of mash a day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for their need and promotes quicker growth4 ,after the goslings are #f weeks old1 if they are still fed1 the mash should be changed to equal parts shorts1 corn meal and ground oats with #e meat scrap4 ,this same mash can be continued until fattening time4 ,whole grains are not generally fed to goslings until they are well feathered and often not until it is desired to fatten them4 ,percentage of ,goslings ,raised4 ,goslings are for the most part quite hardy and are comparatively easy to brood4 ,this coupled with the fact that they are relatively free from disease and are not much troubled with insect pests makes it possible to raise a large per cent of the thrifty goslings hatched4 ,with good care and with good strong healthy stock1 it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of #ij of the goslings hatched4 ,rapidity of ,growth4 ,goslings make a very rapid growth4 ,when marketed as green geese they are usually turned off at from #ab to #af weeks of age4 ,at this age they should weigh from #i to #ab pounds1 depending upon the breed and upon the rapidity of growth4 ,many1 probably most1 young geese are not marketed at as early an age as this but are held until the ,christmas season or later and marketed at heavier weight4 ,the best grown ,toulouse goslings should attain a weight of #af to #ah pounds by ,christmas or when #f to #h months old4 ,other breeds will weigh proportionately less4 ,special attention or special feeding will1 of course1 increase the weight over that attained without such feeding4 ,as a rule the heavier breeds such as the ,toulouse do not get their full growth until they are about #ah months old4 ,after this as geese of both sexes grow older1 they will1 of course1 fill out more and attain greater weight4 ,disease4 ,goslings are remarkably free from disease and a very large percentage of all strong goslings hatched should be reared4 ,one of the principal difficulties is diarrhoea4 ,this is usually caused by faulty feeding4 ,it may be due to feeding too great a quantity of soft feed or to giving soft feed in too sloppy a condition4 ,access to stagnant water1 unclean enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may also cause diarrhoea4 ,when partly grown goslings which are being given soft feed are troubled with diarrhoea1 this may sometimes be checked by substituting a light feed of corn daily for a part of the soft feed4 ,goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness4 ,this is usually caused by faulty feeding also1 particularly by feeding a ration which is lacking in something needed1 such as some form of animal feed like beef scrap which may cause a lack of mineral matter in the ration4 ,if the goslings cannot secure it for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be placed at their disposal4 ,there is an infectious disease of geese which sometimes causes trouble known as goose septicemia or hemorrhagic septicemia4 ,this is a disease similar to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature geese4 ,it is not often found on farms where the geese are raised in small lots1 but sometimes proves troublesome on farms where a large number of geese are gathered together for fattening4 ,the geese are often found dead when one goes to feed them without having shown much preliminary sickness4 ,the disease is usually fatal4 ,shortly before they die the affected geese may acquire an uncertain gait and may twist the head about and burrow it in the dirt4 ,treatment is of no avail4 ,if the disease occurs in a flock1 the affected birds should be removed and killed1 while the rest of the flock should be moved to new ground if possible4 ,the ground which they previously occupied should be plowed and any houses1 shelter1 feed troughs1 and drinking vessels should be thoroughly disinfected4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,fattening and ,marketing ,geese ,classes of ,geese ,marketed4 ,the market geese consist principally of the surplus young ganders not required for breeding purposes and such of the old geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable to get rid of4 ,some young females1 when the number raised is in excess of the number required for breeders also find their way to market4 ,while these geese are marketed in the largest numbers during the ,thanksgiving and ,christmas holiday season1 particularly the latter1 some geese of course find their way to market practically throughout the year4 ,there is also a rather limited trade in green geese which corresponds to the trade in spring or green ducklings4 ,green geese are goslings about #ab to #af weeks old1 generally of the larger breeds1 which are forced for rapid growth and are made to weigh in the neighborhood of #aj pounds at that age4 ,these bring a good price and yield a good profit where there is demand for this class of geese4 ,markets and ,prices4 ,as with most classes of poultry1 the large cities offer the best market for geese4 ,especially the cities which have a large foreign population make good markets as many foreigners are more in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish than are native ,americans4 ,the most favorable market usually occurs at ,christmas when roast goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor4 ,considerable numbers of geese are also used at ,thanksgiving time and in recent years as the price of turkeys has steadily increased there has been an increasing tendency to substitute goose for turkey on that day4 ,following are prices paid for various classes of geese on the ,new ,york wholesale market from ,may #aibj to ,june #aiba as reported by the ,new ,york ,produce ,review4 ,quite a wide variation in price will be noted in many cases which reflects the difference in condition of the geese as received4 ,in the case of express receipts of live geese where a wide variation in prices occurs the high quotations represent the receipt of especially fattened geese from nearby farms4 ,,western ,,geese1 ,,frozen #aibj ,may #e #be #ca;c per lb4 #ab #be #ca;c #ai #be #ca;c #bf #be #ca;c ,june #b #be #ca;c #i #be #ca;c #af #be #ca;c #bc #be #ca;c #cj #bc #bi;c ,july #g #bc #bi;c #ad #ba #bg;c #ba #ba #bg;c #bh #ba #bg;c ,aug4 #d #bj #be;c #aiba ,jan4 #bf #bf #cd;c ,feb4 #b #bf #cd;c #i #bf #cf;c #af #bf #cf;c #bc #bf #cf;c ,mar4 #b #bf #cf;c #i #be #ce;c #af #be #ce;c #bc #be #ce;c #cj #be #ce;c ,apr4 #f #be #ce;c #ac #be #ce;c #bj #be #ce;c #bg #be #ce;c ,may #d #be #ce;c #aa #be #ce;c ,,fresh ,,dressed ,,geese #aibj ,nov4 #ag #cd #dc;c per lb4 #bd #cj #ch;c ,dec4 #a #be #cf;c #h #cj #cf;c #ae #cj #ci;c #bb #cj #dj;c #bi #cj #dj;c #aiba ,jan4 #e #cj #cg;c #ab #be #ce;c #ai #be #cd;c #bf #be #cd;c ,,fresh ,,dressed ,,geese #aiba ,feb4 #b #be #cd;c per lb4 #i #bf #cf;c #af #bf #cf;c #bc #bf #cf;c ,mar4 #b #bf #cf;c #i #be #ce;c #af #be #ce;c #bc #be #ce;c ,,live ,,geese--,,via ,,freight #aibj ,may #e #ah #bj;c per lb4 #ab #bb;c #ai #bj #bb;c #bf #bj #bb;c ,june #b #bj #bb;c #i #bj #bb;c #af #bj #bb;c #bc #ah #bj;c #cj #ah #bj;c ,july #g #ah #bj;c #ad #ah #bj;c #bh #be;c ,aug #d #be;c #ah #be;c #be #be;c ,sept4 #a #be;c #bb #bf;c #bi #bf;c ,oct4 #bj #be #bh;c #bg #bg #cj;c ,nov4 #c #cb;c #aj #cb;c #ag #cb;c #bd #bh #cb;c ,dec4 #a #bh #cj;c #h #cj #cd;c #ae #bh #ce;c #bb #be #cj;c #bi #bg #cb;c #aiba ,jan4 #e #bf #cb;c #ab #bf #cj;c #ai #be #bi;c #bf #be #bi;c ,feb4 #b #bg #cc;c #i #bh #cc;c #af #bf #cb;c #bc #be #bf;c ,,live ,,geese--,,via ,,freight #aiba ,mar4 #b #be;c per lb4 #i #ah #bj;c #af #ah #bj;c #bc #bj;c #cj #bj;c ,apr4 #f #ae #ah;c #ac #ae #ah;c #bj #ae #ah;c #bg #ae #ah;c ,may #d #ad #af;c #aa #ad #af;c #ah #ad #af;c #be #ad #af;c ,june #a #ad #af;c ,,live ,,geese--,,via ,,express #aibj ,nov4 #bd #cj #cc;c per lb4 ,dec4 #a #cj #cb;c #h #cb #ce;c #ae #cj;c #bb #cj;c #bi #bh #ce;c #aiba ,jan4 #e #bi #ch;c #ab #bh #ch;c #ai #bh #cf;c #bf #bg #cg;c ,feb4 #i #bh #dj;c #af #bh #db;c #bc #bf #bh;c ,mar4 #b #be #bh;c #i #bj #bc;c #af #ah #bb;c #bc #ah #bb;c #cj #bj #bc;c ,apr4 #f #ag #bj;c #ac #ag #bj;c #bj #ag #ba;c #bg #af #bj;c ,may #d #ae #ah;c #aa #ae #ah;c #ah #ae #ah;c #be #ae #ah;c ,prejudice ,against ,roast ,goose4 ,there exists on the part of some persons a prejudice against goose on the grounds that it is too greasy a dish4 ,when improperly cooked1 goose will prove to be too greasy to suit many fastidious palates but this condition is not so much the fault of the fowl as it is of the method of preparation and cooking4 ,when dressed if the goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat1 as it usually does and should1 a large part of this should be removed4 ,this fat when tried out is highly esteemed by many cooks and by other persons is treasured as an efficacious treatment for croup in children4 ,also while the goose is roasting1 a part of the fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be removed4 ,treated in this way one need have no fear that the roast goose will prove too greasy but instead one will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses4 ,methods of ,fattening ,geese for ,market4 ,many geese are sent to market without any special treatment or effort to fatten them1 being taken right off pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at best with only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them by feeding a little corn or some other grain for a short period4 ,when a real effort is made to fatten geese for the market it is generally done in one of three ways4 ,first is pen fattening which is the method best adapted to small lots of geese on the average farm4 ,second is by noodling which is only attempted in sections where the goose raisers are somewhat of specialists and where the effort is made to turn out geese of superior quality4 ,third is fattening in large flocks which is practiced only by a very limited number of farmers in scattered sections who take the unfattened geese raised on the general farms and finish them for market4 ,pen ,fattening4 ,for this purpose the geese are put in pens large enough to hold them comfortably but without any yards4 ,not over #bj to #be geese should be penned together for this purpose4 ,to get the best results the geese should be kept as quiet as possible and to accomplish this the pens are partly darkened and the geese disturbed only at feeding time4 ,the geese are fed three times daily2 in the morning1 at noon and at night1 being given all they will clean up4 ,one feed should consist of a moist mash composed of one part shorts and two parts corn meal4 ,this mash should not be sloppy4 ,the other two feeds consist mainly of corn with some oats or barley4 ,some roughage such as vegetables or hay should also be supplied4 ,the pens should be deeply bedded with good oat straw4 ,the geese will eat a considerable amount of this which thus helps to supply the roughage which they need4 ,the straw also1 of course1 serves to keep the pen and the birds clean4 ,a plentiful supply of good drinking water is also necessary4 ,the usual period of fattening is three to five weeks and a gain of from #d to #f pounds per bird can be secured4 ,this method of fattening is commonly used by goose raisers in ,wisconsin and the geese from this state are noted for their fine quality4 ,a less intensive form of pen fattening is often used by farmers where a small yard is provided in addition to the pen itself and where no effort is made to darken the pen4 ,if no other means for fattening are available1 a small yard can be built1 a few boards arranged for a shelter at one end and the birds fed in this enclosure as described above4 ,noodling ,geese4 ,noodling geese is a method of hand feeding which has for its purpose the production of the best fattened geese4 ,it is not employed to any extent except in the section about ,watertown1 ,wisconsin1 where the farmers specialize to some extent on goose fattening4 ,it is a method requiring long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably carried on unless a special price can be obtained for the product4 ,in noodling geese1 #h or #aj geese are placed in a pen about #h by #ab feet which is heavily bedded with straw4 ,a partition extends halfway across the pen and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they are fed4 ,young ganders and any old ganders or geese which are to be marketed are used for noodling4 ,the pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed only at feeding time4 ,the first feed is given at #e o'clock in the morning and five feeds are given daily at about #d hour intervals1 the last feed coming at #aa p4 m4 ,however1 when the geese are first put on feed they are noodled only #c times a day this being gradually increased to #e times4 ,the feeder sits on a box or stool in a corner of the pen1 grasps each goose in turn holding it between his legs to keep it from struggling as he stuffs it with noodles4 ,the goose is handled by its neck1 never by its legs which are easily injured1 and is held with its back toward the feeder4 ,the feeder usually wears gloves to protect his hands from the severe bites which the birds will inflict4 ,the feeder must also handle the birds as carefully as possible1 especially as killing time approaches for the flesh bruises easily and the discolored patches spoil the appearance of the dressed goose4 ,the feeder at the start usually gives each goose from #c to #e noodles1 gradually increasing this to #f or #g noodles if the birds will stand it1 the number of noodles fed depending upon the size and condition of each bird1 the feeder being obliged to use his judgment in this matter4 ,in general if any feed can be felt in the craw1 no noodles are given until the next feeding time4 ,failure to observe this is likely to cause the bird to go off feed4 ,if any geese are noticed which are off feed they should be taken out and marketed4 ,the noodles are made of scalded corn meal1 ground oats1 ground barley and ground wheat or wheat flour1 using equal parts of each4 ,this material is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would bread and is then put through a sausage stuffer4 ,the product as it comes from the stuffer is cut into noodles about #b-a_/b or #c inches long and these are boiled for #aj or #ae minutes or until they float4 ,a wash boiler with a wire rack forming a false bottom about #a-a_/b inches above the boiler bottom is used for this purpose4 ,when cooked the noodles are dipped in cold water and then rolled in flour to keep them from sticking together4 ,a supply of noodles is made which will last for #b or #c days' feeding4 ,just before feeding1 hot water is poured over the noodles to make them warm and slippery4 ,the mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles are put in1 one at a time1 and worked down by using the fingers on the outside of the neck4 ,as each goose is fed it is placed on the other side of the partition until all in the pen have been fed4 ,it is important that plenty of drinking water be kept before the geese4 ,the feeding period where geese are noodled usually extends from #c to #d weeks4 ,gains of #f to #aj pounds per bird can be secured and often an increased price of #aj to #ae cents a pound can be secured for such specially fattened geese4 ,noodled geese will average about #be pounds and some individuals have been made to weigh nearly #dj pounds4 ,one man can noodle from #ej to #ajj geese but has to put in long hours4 ,noodled geese should be dressed where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would shrink badly if shipped alive4 ,fattening methods similar to the noodling described are used in parts of ,europe for the production of the enlarged goose livers which are employed in making patte de fois gras4 ,methods ,used on ,fattening ,farms ,as previously mentioned1 a few farmers make a specialty of buying the geese in their section of the country in the fall when it is too late for serious trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia1 a disease similar to fowl cholera1 and to fatten or finish them in large flocks for the ,thanksgiving and ,christmas markets4 ,methods are employed in different sections which differ quite widely4 ,on a farm in the ,middle ,west the geese are collected from the general farms where they are produced in small flocks and brought to the farm where they are kept in flocks as large as #a1jjj or even more1 and are allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard4 ,they are fattened for about a month4 ,corn on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the geese all the time and if they are running in a cornfield they eat the leaves off the corn stalks for roughage4 ,roughage is supplied if not available otherwise and straw1 hay or vegetables are utilized for this purpose4 ,no shelter is provided during mild weather1 the geese getting such protection as they can from the trees or corn stalks4 ,if the weather turns unusually severe1 the geese are generally driven into sheds or barns4 ,when fattened the geese are usually shipped to some large market alive4 ,several farms in the neighborhood of ,boston make a specialty of finishing geese each fall1 and the methods used are quite different from those described above4 ,no geese are raised on these farms1 the operation being confined to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing and dressing them for the market4 ,some of these goose fatteners also have stalls or stands in the ,boston markets where they are enabled to dispose of their fattened geese to the best advantage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,large flock of geese fattening in an orchard4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,fatteners4 ,in previous years these fatteners depended largely upon the geese produced on the ,rhode ,island farms for their supply4 ,in the past few years1 however1 the supply from this source has dwindled greatly and the bulk of the geese for fattening are now shipped from ,prince ,edward ,island1 ,canada1 in carload lots4 ,such summer geese as are now fattened still come from ,rhode ,island and are brought in by truck4 ,the fattening season begins in ,september and lasts until ,christmas4 ,some early goslings are bought in ,june but there is not as good a profit from the summer geese1 the demand and prices being adversely affected by the supply of spring ducklings available at that time4 ,experience and good judgment will benefit the goose fattener greatly when purchasing his supply of geese for fattening4 ,what he wants are goslings1 not older geese1 which have made a good growth and which have a large frame but which are in poor flesh rather than fat4 ,such geese will make more rapid and more profitable gains4 ,when geese are bought for shipment by the carload from ,prince ,edward ,island1 they should be penned and fed at the point of shipment for #c or #d days before they are loaded in the cars1 so as to put them in shape to stand the journey well4 ,on the farms from which they come1 the goslings are not fed much and in consequence are not in shape to stand shipment4 ,the ,goslings which are secured from the farms for fattening are mainly common geese of no particular breed4 ,some pure bred geese are also obtained as are some first crosses between the pure breeds4 ,a class of geese which is obtained in some numbers from ,prince ,edward ,island and which is much desired is the so-called ,mongrel goose4 ,these are obtained by breeding a ,wild or ,canadian gander to geese of dark plumage similar to the ,toulouse or ,african4 ,the mongrel geese much resemble the wild gander in type and color and are in demand on the market because of their wild or gamy flavor4 ,they bring about #aj cents per pound more than common geese4 ,the market1 however1 is somewhat limited4 ,these geese will not breed although the females will lay eggs4 ,where the wild gander is mated with light colored or white geese the offspring will have more or less light colored feathers and will not as closely resemble the wild parent and for this reason are not as desirable4 ,shipping4 ,the geese are loaded into stock cars into which three separate decks are built to accommodate them4 ,from #abjj to #adjj geese can be loaded into a car thus arranged4 ,the journey usually takes about #e or #f days and some fatteners send a man along with the car to feed and water the geese #b or #c times during the trip4 ,if a man does not accompany the car1 buckets of corn should be placed in the car for feed and some potatoes should also be supplied as these will serve in place of drinking water4 ,if the car is not subjected to unusual delay1 the geese should come through in good shape1 but if much delayed there may be #be to #ajj geese dead when the car arrives at its destination4 ,when the car arrives at the end of its journey1 the geese are unloaded and driven to the farm where they are turned into the fields together in a large flock4 ,the fields in which they are thus kept should have a supply of growing green feed or grass and a good supply of fresh drinking water4 ,they are kept here until they are wanted for the fattening pens which may be from a week to #bj days after their arrival at the farm4 ,while in this large supply flock they are fed on corn and grass which they can get for themselves4 ,summer ,geese to be fattened are placed only about #ej in a pen or enclosure2 and are provided with a few boards set on posts to protect them from the hot sun4 ,the later geese are fattened in lots of #c or #d hundred or even more1 depending upon how many pickers are available to be kept busy4 ,it is for this reason also that the geese are not all put on the fattening ration at the same time1 but are started at intervals so as to have a continuous supply coming along to keep the pickers busy4 ,the geese not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in the fields to grow and develop until they are needed4 ,the enclosures in which the geese are penned for fattening are small lots or fields enclosed by stone walls or board fences #b-a_/b to #c feet high4 ,these lots should be dry and well-drained1 a location on a side hill being good for this purpose4 ,the fattening lots must be kept clean and stagnant water must not be allowed to stand in the lots as this is likely to cause sickness1 especially diarrhoea4 ,these yards should be plowed up each spring and planted to oats1 corn or some other growing crop to sweeten them4 ,no houses or shelters are provided for these geese but some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a measure of protection from the wind4 ,feeding4 ,when the geese are placed in the fattening lots1 some fatteners prefer to fast the geese for from #c to #e days1 giving them no feed but plenty of water to drink4 ,this gives them a good appetite and puts them in good shape for fattening4 ,the geese are fed three times a day1 in the morning1 at noon and at night4 ,the morning and night feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed fed in troughs2 while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on the ground4 ,the use of one feed of corn a day is supposed to check any tendency toward diarrhoea4 ,in very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed feed at noon and the corn at night4 ,at first the geese are not given all they will eat but are worked up gradually1 increasing the amount each day until they are getting all they want4 ,as a rule the geese will drop back a little in feed consumption after they reach the point where they get all they want and from this time on1 the feeding must be very carefully watched to see that they are not given so much that they will leave some to sour which would cause diarrhoea4 ,the morning and noon feeds are lighter1 the heaviest feed being given at night4 ,the bird's appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best to make the rounds twice in feeding to make sure that they have enough and that none is left4 ,if any is left it must be gathered up and carried away4 ,no provision is made for furnishing the fattening geese with green feed or roughage4 ,the practice with respect to drinking water varies4 ,some fatteners keep a supply before the birds in troughs which must be washed out each day to keep them clean4 ,others furnish no water except that used in mixing up the feed4 ,corn ,meal is the principal ingredient of the fattening mixture4 ,to a sack of corn meal is added #aj beef scrap and five good shovels of grit or medium sized gravel4 ,in addition some fatteners add #aj of flour to bind the mixture together4 ,this material should be thoroughly mixed up in a dry state as a better mix can be obtained in this way4 ,it is then mixed up with water1 the practice here varying4 ,some fatteners mix in a trough with boiling water a short time before feeding1 while others mix it with cold water letting it soak over night and adding more water in the morning if it is too dry at that time4 ,it should be mixed until it can be shoveled readily but should be quite solid1 never in a sloppy condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea4 ,a little salt may be added1 if desired1 as an appetizer4 ,while corn meal is generally used1 hominy may take its place4 ,after the geese are started on the fattening ration1 this must be given throughout the fattening period4 ,changing to some other feed will throw the geese off feed and cause a loss4 ,feeding4 ,when the mixed feed is ready it is shoveled into boxes or barrels on a low wagon and driven to the fattening lots where it is shoveled into the troughs for the geese4 ,ordinary ,v-shaped troughs are favored instead of flat troughs as the latter afford hiding places for rats which may cause damage in addition to the feed which they eat by frightening the geese4 ,geese are easily frightened and must therefore be handled rather carefully and gently as a severe fright will interfere with the gains they will make4 ,some fatteners provide electric lights where the geese rest at night so that they can see and will not be so likely to become frightened4 ,when the geese are ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing house and into a pen where they may be easily caught4 ,each goose as caught is examined to see whether it is in condition for killing4 ,if it is not it is put back with a later lot for additional fattening4 ,good condition in a goose is judged by its weight when handled and also by the condition of its breast and the fat on its back4 ,a good place to test geese for fat is on the side of the body just below the point where the wing joins the body4 ,if fat can be seized between the thumb and finger at that point1 the goose is in good condition4 ,dry ,picking4 ,all fattened geese for the ,boston market are dry picked4 ,the goose is held between the knees of the picker with the wings held fast against the sides of the body4 ,the head is grasped by the left hand1 the mouth forced open and the veins in the back of the throat just beyond the skull severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding the bird4 ,if the bird is to be stuck1 which is not always done1 the point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the brain4 ,the legs are then seized in the left hand1 together with the ends of the wings to prevent the goose from struggling and the goose is struck once or twice sharply on the back of the head with a club held in the right hand4 ,this is for the purpose of stunning the bird4 ,the geese may also be bled by sticking the knife through the neck from the outside just below the head4 ,the picker then takes his seat beside the feather box1 holding the goose on his lap with the head held between his knee and the outside of the box4 ,he proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible1 removing all the feathers except the main wing feathers or those of the first joint of the wing and the feathers of the neck half way from the head to the body4 ,all the soft body feathers are thrown in the box and saved4 ,the coarser feathers are thrown on the floor4 ,the down is removed by rubbing the moistened hand over the skin4 ,to save the hands1 ordinary rubber heels dipped in water are often used4 ,sharp knives are also used to shave off the pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down not removed by rubbing4 ,the dry picked goose presents a much better appearance than a scalded goose and the feathers are more valuable4 ,the skin of a dry picked bird is not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down4 ,the ,value of the ,feathers is sufficient to pay for the cost of the picking or perhaps a little more4 ,the cost of picking in the fall of #aibj ranged from #ae to #bj cents per goose where the picker was boarded and #bd cents without board4 ,a good man can pick about #dj geese in a day4 ,women are not employed for this work as the geese are too big and too strong for them to handle4 ,after the geese are picked1 the blood is washed from the head and the feet washed if that is necessary4 ,they are then thrown into barrels of cold water to cool and must be left there until the body heat is entirely removed4 ,the wings are tied in place by means of a string or tape tied around the body and wings and the legs may also be crossed over the back and tied4 ,the geese when ready for market are either shipped in by express or are taken in by automobile truck4 ,gain in ,weight4 ,in fattening according to the methods described above a gain in weight is secured of from #f to #h pounds per goose4 ,this does not represent the total gain in value1 however1 for the fattened geese will bring more per pound as a result of their finished condition4 ,the fattened geese when ready for market will weigh from #ab to #bj pounds4 ,weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese showed an average weight of #ad pounds4 ,on ,december #b1 #aibj1 fattened geese from these farms were bringing #db cents per pound on the ,boston market while the mongrel geese were worth #ej cents or a little better4 ,the question may arise as to the size of farm necessary to carry on a business of this sort4 ,using the methods employed about ,boston a farm of #cj acres would be sufficient to handle #bj1jjj geese in a season4 ,in selecting a farm for such a purpose1 a location should be chosen where there are no close neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is offensive to most persons4 ,selling ,geese ,alive4 ,most farmers who raise only a few geese ship them alive1 either sending them to some commission house or selling them to someone who makes a specialty of fattening4 ,such geese are often in poor condition and bring the lowest quotation4 ,large coops similar to those used for turkeys should be used in shipping geese4 ,killing4 ,where geese are killed on the farm for shipment to market they are usually hung up by means of a cord about the legs4 ,when geese are to be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are first severed with a long bladed knife such as used for killing turkeys to cause good bleeding and the point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing the stick which serves to make the feathers come out more easily as with other classes of poultry4 ,since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese1 they are usually scalded or steamed and where this is done1 the stick is not made but after the veins in the throat are cut1 the goose is stunned by a blow on the back of the head with a short club4 ,a blood can or weight is then hooked through the lower bill which keeps the neck straightened out and prevents the blood from being thrown about the room or on the birds4 ,the birds are allowed to hang until they are dead and thoroughly bled out4 ,picking4 ,when geese are dry picked1 the feathers are removed just as soon as the birds are stuck for the longer the delay the harder the feathers pull4 ,the wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers of the neck half-way to the head4 ,the soft pin feathers and fine down may be removed by shaving the skin or rubbing the body with moistened hands will partially remove them4 ,usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking4 ,for steaming a wash boiler three-quarters full of boiling water and with a burlap sack tightly stretched over its top can be used4 ,the goose is simply laid on the sack and the steam coming through the burlap steams the feathers and makes them easy to remove4 ,the breast should be steamed first1 then the back and then each side4 ,two or three minutes will be time enough to complete the steaming4 ,the feathers are steamed until they pull out easily4 ,the goose must be kept moving to prevent the flesh from becoming scalded and since the breast is especially tender it is usual to lay the head under the breast to prevent the latter from scalding4 ,after steaming the body feathers are removed and the bird is then singed over a flame furnished by alcohol burned in shallow tin plates1 in order to remove the down4 ,the down may also be removed by sprinkling powdered rosin over the goose's body which is then dipped into hot water4 ,the hot water melts the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and rosin can then be rubbed off together4 ,geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in hot water and then wrapping tightly in burlap or some other cloth4 ,they are kept wrapped for about five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly through the feathers which can then be plucked easily4 ,exactly the same methods can and often are employed in dressing geese as are used with ducks4 ,the reader is therefore also referred to the material in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,there seems to be no great insistence on the part of most markets for dry picked geese4 ,some will pay slightly more for the dry picked birds but others make no difference4 ,packing for ,shipment4 ,after picking1 the geese are washed and then placed in cold water to cool4 ,ice water is best for this purpose and is essential in warm weather4 ,the carcasses must be allowed to remain in the water until they are thoroughly cooled1 which will take at least one to two hours4 ,if any animal heat is left in the bodies1 they will spoil very quickly4 ,often the carcasses are dipped in hot water1 before being thrown in the cold water1 to plump them4 ,after they are thoroughly cooled1 the geese are packed in barrels for shipping4 ,if the weather is cool they may be packed in well ventilated barrels without ice1 but if the weather is warm1 cracked ice must be used in packing1 proceeding in the same way as when packing ducks as described on page #aji4 ,it is always risky to pack without ice4 ,saving the ,feathers4 ,goose feathers are valuable and should therefore be saved when the geese are plucked4 ,the soft body feathers and the coarser feathers should be kept separate4 ,the feathers should be cured by spreading them out in a thin layer on the floor of a loft or room1 stirring them up occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out1 when they can be sacked and sold4 ,failure to dry the feathers thoroughly will result in their heating and molding with the result that they will arrive at their destination in bad shape and will be worth less money4 ,the soft body feathers of geese are practically all used in making beds and pillows while the quills are sometimes utilized in making toothpicks and cigarette holders4 ,prices for goose feathers in ,june #aiba were as follows3 ,pure ,white dry picked #ge;c per lb4 ,good average white #fe;c ,largely gray #ee;c ,largely gray scalded #dj;c ,long goose quills #e;c ,these prices were for good dry feathers4 ,plucking ,live ,geese for their ,feathers ,in the days of feather beds and home-made pillows the practice of plucking live geese for their feathers was very common4 ,now1 however1 with the demand for goose feathers less and with the opinion of some breeders that plucking geese is both cruel and injurious1 the practice seems to be decreasing4 ,many goose raisers in the ,south and a less number in the ,middle ,west and ,north however still pluck the feathers from the live geese prior to the time of moulting4 ,the frequency with which the picking is done varies greatly1 some picking as often as every six weeks during the spring1 summer and early fall while others pick twice1 once in the spring and once in the fall1 or once in the spring only4 ,geese should never be picked during the late fall or winter when the weather is cold or during the breeding season4 ,both young and old geese are plucked and the average yearly production of feathers per goose is about one pound4 ,when the quills of the feathers are dry and do not contain any blood1 the feathers are ripe for picking4 ,in plucking1 a stocking is placed over the head of the goose and the goose held on the lap and between the legs during the process4 ,an assistant to hold the goose during the plucking simplifies the work greatly4 ,in plucking1 part of the soft feathers of the breast1 sides1 abdomen and back are taken but these sections should not be plucked clean4 ,it is especially important that enough short feathers be left to support the wings4 ,after plucking1 the feathers must be cured before they are shipped4 ,this may be done by spreading them out on a floor as described for the feathers taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed loosely in burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or loft4 ,hanging in this way and in the loosely woven sacks1 they are subjected to a good circulation of air and will dry out without heating4 ,sacks of feathers should not be piled or packed closely together1 on top of one another or even be allowed to lie on the floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they are almost sure to heat and mold4 ,,index ,a ,absence of crest in ,crested ,white ,duck1 #cd ,african ,goose1 #aef1 #aeg ,age of breeding ducks1 #ee1 #abc breeding geese1 #aeb duck eggs for hatching1 #gb ducklings for market1 #if1 #ajb1 #acf green geese1 #ahg ,muscovy duck1 #ca ,amount of feed per pound of market duck1 #ie for noodled geese1 #aig ,amount of land for duck plant1 #df for goose fattening farm1 #bjh ,arrangement of cars for shipping live geese1 #bjb ,arrangement of duck plant1 #de ,artificial water yards for ducks1 #fb ,aylesbury duck1 #bc ,b ,baby ducks1 selling1 #gh ,bantam ducks1 #bg1 #bi ,bean1 definition of1 #ac black in1 #bb1 #bc1 #ce ,bedding brood coop for goslings1 #ahj duck breeding houses1 #fj duck brooder houses1 #hg goose breeding houses1 #afh pens for fattening geese1 #aie ,beef scrap1 feeding1 to ducks1 #fd ,bib in ,blue ,swedish ducks1 #cc ,buff ducks1 #cf ,bill1 definition of1 #ac black in1 of ,black ,east ,india1 #bi ,black ,east ,india duck1 #bi ,black in bean of ,aylesbury1 #bc ,crested ,white ,duck1 #ce ,pekin1 #bb ,black bill in ,black ,east ,india drakes1 #bi ,black head1 greenish1 in ,buff drakes1 #ce head1 in ,fawn and ,white ,runners1 #cg in face of ,muscovy1 #cb plumage of ,blue ,swedish1 #cc on head of young ,white ,muscovy1 #cb tail coverts1 greenish1 in ,fawn and ,white ,runners1 #cg ,bleeding ducks1 #aje geese1 #bjf1 #bji ,blue cast in ,buff ducks1 #cf ,muscovy1 #cb ,swedish ducks1 #cc wing bar in ,buff ducks1 #ce ,body shape in breeding ducks1 selecting for1 #ai ,braining geese1 #bjf1 #bji ,breaking up goose matings1 #aed broody geese1 #age ,breast-bone as index of age in ducks1 #ef ,breeding drakes1 securing1 #eh ducks1 opportunity to produce1 #f ducks1 prices for1 #g season for ducks1 #abd ,breeds of ducks1 #i ,aylesbury1 #bc ,blue ,swedish1 #cc broodiness of1 #ah ,buff1 #ce ,call1 #bg ,cayuga1 #be common or puddle1 #i ,crested ,white1 #cd ,east ,india1 #bi egg1 #aa egg production of1 #ae ,mallard1 #aj ,mandarin1 #aj meat1 #aa mule1 #i ,muscovy1 #bi ornamental1 #aa ,pekin1 #ba popularity of1 #ad ,rouen1 #bc ,runner1 #cf size of1 #ad ,wood1 #aj ,breeds of geese1 #adg ,african1 #aef ,canadian1 #aei ,chinese1 #aeh common1 #adh ,egyptian1 #afj ,embden1 #aef mongrel1 #adh ,sebastapol1 #adh ,toulouse1 #aee ,wild1 #aei ,brood coop for goslings1 #agi ,brooder capacity on duck plants1 #dg houses for ducklings1 #hj-ij ,brooders for goslings1 #ahj ,broodiness of ducks1 #ah geese1 #aeb geese1 breaking up1 #age ,brooding ducklings1 #hj-ij1 #aca goslings1 #agh by artificial means1 #ahj with geese1 #agi with hens1 #agi without artificial heat1 #ahj ,brown ,chinese goose1 #aeh ,brownish color in ,cayuga ducks1 #bf ,buff ,ducks1 #ce ,button head in ,call ducks1 #bh ,buying geese for fattening1 #bjj ,c ,call ducks1 #bg ,canadian goose--see ,wild ,capacity of car for geese1 #bjb farm for fattening geese1 #bjh incubator for duck eggs1 #acj ,capital1 invested1 for duck plant1 #ec working1 for duck plant1 #ed ,care of duck eggs for hatching1 #gc1 #abh goose eggs for hatching1 #agb growing goslings1 #aha hen sitting on goose eggs1 #agd ,carrying ducks1 #ci geese1 #afb ,caruncles on face of ,muscovy1 #bi ,cases1 shipping1 for duck eggs1 #aai1 #acg ,catching ducks1 #ci geese1 #afb ,cayuga duck1 #be ,celery seed1 feeding1 to fattening ducks1 #ic ,changing feed for fattening geese1 #bje ,chestnut colored head in ,buff drakes1 #ce ,chilling of goslings by rain1 #aha ,chinese goose1 #aeh ,chocolate colored ducks from ,colored ,muscovy1 #cb ,claret in breast of ,rouen drakes1 deficiency of1 #bd ,classification of breeds of ducks1 #aa ,cleaning brood coops for goslings1 #agi duck breeding houses1 #fj brooder houses1 #hg yards1 #fa1 #ig goose breeding houses1 #afh ,cleanliness of plumage as indication of health1 #ai ,color of duck eggs1 #ag goose eggs1 #aeb ,colored flights in ,fawn and ,white ,runners1 #cg ,penciled ,runners1 #ch ,colored ,muscovy1 #ca ,commercial duck farming1 opportunity for1 #d distribution of1 #db ,condition of breeding geese1 #afi ducks ready to kill1 #if geese for fattening1 #bjj geese ready to kill1 #bjf ,conditioning exhibition ducks1 #ch ,conditions for duck raising on the farm1 #abj ,confining goslings to yards1 #aha ,considerations1 general1 in making duck matings1 #ah-ba goose matings1 #aed ,consistency of feed for ducks1 #fe1 #abf1 #acc fattening geese1 #bje ,construction of brooder houses for ducks1 #hb ,cooking geese to overcome greasiness1 #aid ,cooling duck carcasses1 #ajh eggs during incubation1 #ge1 #aca ,cooling goose carcasses1 #bjg1 #baa eggs during incubation1 #age ,coop1 growing1 for goslings1 #ahb ,cooperative feed buying1 #aja marketing1 #aaj ,copper colored head of ,buff drakes1 #cf ,cost of picking ducks1 #ajg geese1 #bjg ,creaminess in plumage of ,aylesbury1 #bc ,pekin1 #bc ,crest1 tendency toward1 in the ,pekin1 #bb of ,muscovy1 #bi of ,crested ,white1 #cd ,crested ,white duck1 #cd ,crippled ducks1 #ig1 #ajd ,critical period with young ducks1 #ih ,crooked back in ducks1 #ai in ,runner ducks1 #cg ,crooked crest in ,crested ,white1 #cd ,crooked tail in ducks1 #ai ,crossed feathers on neck of ,pekin drake1 #bb ,crossing ,african and ,brown ,chinese geese1 #aeg ,curing duck feathers1 #aag goose feathers1 #baa1 #bac ,d ,darkening pens for fattening geese1 #aie for noodling geese1 #aif ,dewlap in ,toulouse geese1 #aee ,african geese1 #aeg ,diarrhoea of ducklings1 #ii of goslings1 #ahe ,diseases of ducklings1 #ih-ajj of goslings1 #ahe of mature ducks1 #fi prevention of1 #ih ,dished bill in ,rouen1 #bd ,distinguishing sex in ducks1 #ac1 #ace in geese1 #afe young from old ducks1 #ee ,distribution of duck raising1 #c ,dogs a source of loss in ducks1 #fi ,double crest in ,crested ,white ducks1 #cd ,down1 removing1 from market ducks1 #ajh from market geese1 #bjg1 #baj ,drake1 definition of1 #ab adult1 meaning of1 #ac young1 meaning of1 #ac ,drakerel1 definition of1 #ac ,drinking dishes for ducklings1 #hf for goslings1 #ahc ,driving geese from railway to farm1 #bjb ,drowning ducks1 #ca1 #abh1 #ace ,dry1 keeping goslings1 #aha ,dry land duck farms1 #dd ,dry picking ducks1 #ajg geese1 #bjf ,duck1 definition of1 #ab adult1 meaning of1 #ac young1 meaning of1 #ac ,duck raising as a side line1 #abj distribution of1 #c for egg production1 #e for ornamental purposes1 #g kinds of1 #d on the general farm1 #e opportunities for1 #d1 #abj ,ducklet1 definition of1 #ac ,duckling1 meaning of1 #ab ,ducks1 number of1 in leading states1 #c in ,u4 ,s41 #c value of1 in ,u4 ,s41 #c ,dun colored ducks from ,colored ,muscovy1 #cb ,e ,egg class of ducks1 #aa ,egg production1 duck raising for1 #e of breeds of ducks1 #ae of breeds of geese1 #aej of ,pekins on commercial plants1 #ff selection of breeders for1 #ba ,eggs1 duck1 color of1 #ag for hatching1 age of1 #gb care of1 #gc1 #abh frequency of setting1 #gb packing and shipping1 #dj prices of1 #g selection of1 #gc washing1 #acj marketing1 #aah size of1 #af ,eggs1 goose1 care of1 for hatching1 #agb color of1 #aeb size of1 #aea washing for hatching1 #agb ,egyptian goose1 #afj ,electric lights for breeding ducks1 #fg for duck plants1 #ea for ducklings1 #id for fattening geese1 #bje ,embden goose1 #aef ,equipment of pens in duck brooders1 #hf ,examining geese to determine sex1 #afe fattened geese for market condition1 #bjf ,extent of duck industry1 #c goose industry1 #ada ,eye as indication of health in ducks1 #ai ,f ,faded gray in ,brown ,chinese geese1 #aeh ,fading of color in ,buff ducks1 #ce ,cayuga ducks1 #bg ,gray ,call ducks1 #bh ,rouen ducks1 #be ,fasting geese before fattening1 #bjc ,fattening farms for geese1 #aii ,fattening geese1 by noodling1 #aif methods of1 #aid on farms in the east1 #bjj on farms in the middle west1 #aii on large fattening farms1 #aii-bjh pen1 #aie ,fattening houses or sheds for ducklings1 #dh ,fattening summer geese1 #bjb ,fawn and ,white ,runner1 #cg ,fawn colored breasts in ,rouen females1 #be ,fawn on neck1 too much1 in ,fawn and ,white ,runner1 #cg ,feather eating in ducklings1 #ajj ,feathered legs in ducks1 #ai ,feathers1 saving duck1 #aag saving geese1 #bjg1 #baa plucking from live geese1 #bab ,feed1 cooperative buying of1 #aja ,feed cooker for ducks1 #di cutter for ducks1 #di last1 for market ducklings1 #ajc mixer for ducks1 #di storage for duck plant1 #di troughs or trays for ducks1 #ff troughs for fattening geese1 #bje wagon for ducks1 #fe for geese1 #bje ,feeding breeding ducks1 #fc breeding geese1 #afi ,call ducks1 #bg ducklings1 #ib1 #acb fattening geese1 #aie1 #aif1 #bjc geese during shipment1 #bjb goslings1 #ahc growing and fattening ducklings1 #ib-id1 #acb noodles to geese1 #aih show ducks1 #ci show geese1 #afa supply geese on fattening farms1 #bjb track on duck plants1 #ea1 #fe ,fences for ducks1 #eb1 #abh for fattening geese1 #bjc for geese1 #afh ,fertility of duck eggs1 #bj1 #gg ,fireless brooding goslings1 #ahj ,first feed for ducklings1 #ib for goslings1 #ahc ,fish1 feeding1 to ducks1 #fc1 #ib1 #acd ,fits in ducklings1 #ii ,flat breast in ,aylesburys1 #bc ,flatiron shape in ,call ducks1 #bh ,folded feathers on neck of ,pekin drake1 #bb ,foreign color in back of ,white ,runner ducks1 #cg ,free range for ducks1 #abj for geese1 #afh for goslings1 #ahb ,freezing of ducks to the ground1 #fb1 #abh ,frequency of plucking live geese for feathers1 #bab of setting duck eggs1 #gb ,frightening breeding ducks1 #fg ducklings1 #id fattening geese1 #bje ,g ,gains in weight made by ducklings1 #id secured in noodling geese1 #aih secured in pen fattening geese1 #aie secured on goose fattening farms1 #bjh ,gander1 definition of1 #adi ,gapes in ducklings1 #ii ,geese as weed destroyers1 #ade ,goose eggs for hatching1 care of1 #agb washing1 #agb ,goose fattening farms1 #aii ,goose raising1 as a business for farm women1 #add as a side line1 #ada distribution of1 #ada on general farms1 #adb opportunities for1 #adb ,goose septicemia1 #ahf ,gosling1 definition of1 #adi ,grading growing ducklings1 #hg ,grass yards for goslings1 #ahb ,gray ,call duck1 #bh ,gray1 faded1 in ,brown ,chinese geese1 #aeh in plumage of ,blue ,swedish ducks1 #cc stippling on ,penciled ,runner drakes1 #ch ,greasing heads of goslings for lice1 #agh ,green bill in ,aylesbury1 #bc in ,buff ducks1 #cf in ,crested ,white ducks1 #ce in ,pekin1 #bb in ,white ,runner1 #cg ,green ducks1 #ajb ,green feed for breeding ducks1 #fd for breeding geese1 #afi for ducklings1 #ib1 #acc for fattening geese1 #bjd for goslings1 #ahc ,green geese1 #adi1 #ahg ,grit for breeding geese1 #agj for fattening geese1 #bjd for goslings1 #ahc ,growing green feed for ducks1 #fd ,growth of goslings1 rapidity of1 #ahd ,gypsy face in ,muscovy ducks1 #cb ,h ,handling ducks1 #ci geese1 #afb geese during noodling1 #aig ,hatches of duck eggs1 #gh ,hatching duck eggs with an incubator1 #gj1 #acj with hens1 #abi ,hatching eggs1 duck1 packing and shipping1 #dj ,hatching goose eggs with chicken hens1 #agc with geese1 #agd with incubators1 #age ,health1 selection of breeding ducks for1 #ai indications of1 in ducks1 #ai ,heating apparatus for duck brooder house1 #hc ,heavy bottoms in ,runner ducks1 #cg ,hemorrhagic septicemia of geese1 #ahf ,horse power required on a duck plant1 #ej ,house capacity for breeding ducks1 #df for fattening ducks1 #dh ,houses for breeding ducks1 #ei for breeding geese1 #afg ,hump back in ducks1 #ai ,i ,identification of ducks by toe punching1 #ab ,incubation1 period of1 for ducks1 #dg1 #abi for geese1 #agc ,incubator capacity on duck plants1 #dg1 #ga ,incubator cellar1 #gj ,incubators1 kinds of1 for duck eggs1 #gj ,injury to ducks1 #eg1 #fb to goslings1 #ahb ,insect pests of ducks1 #fi ,k ,keel1 deep1 in ,aylesbury1 #bc in ,call1 #bh in ,pekin1 #bb in ,rouen1 #bd ,killing ducks1 #aje geese1 #bjf1 #bji house for duck plants1 #ej ,knob on head of ,african geese1 #aeg of ,chinese geese1 #aeh of ,muscovy drake1 #bi ,l ,labor required on duck plants1 #eb in noodling geese1 #aih ,lameness of ducklings1 #ii of goslings1 #ahe ,land required for duck plants1 #df ,laying ration for ducks1 #abf for geese1 #afi ,laying season for ducks1 #ff1 #abd for geese1 #afg ,lay-out of duck plant1 #de ,length of time in brooder house for ducklings1 #hh brooding necessary for goslings1 #ahj ,lights for breeding ducks1 #fg for ducklings1 #id for fattening geese1 #bje ,live ducks1 shipping to market1 #aaf ,live geese1 shipping to market1 #bjh plucking for feathers1 #bab ,location of duck plant1 #db of goose fattening farm1 #bjh ,lopped crest in ,white ,crested ducks1 #ce ,loss in ducklings1 #ih in geese during shipment1 #bjb ,lost1 goslings becoming1 #ahb ,lots1 fattening1 for geese1 #bjc ,m ,making a start in duck raising1 #aba ,making new goose matings1 #aed ,mallard duck1 #aj summer plumage of males1 #be ,mandarin duck1 #aj ,marketing duck eggs1 #aah1 #acf ducks1 #ajb1 #ace ,markets for geese1 #ahg ,marking ducklings1 #ab goslings1 #aec ,mating ducks1 general considerations in1 #ah geese1 general considerations in1 #aed ,meat class of ducks1 #aa ,mixing feed for ducks1 #fe for fattening geese1 #bjd ,moisture for duck eggs during incubation1 #gf1 #aca for goose eggs during incubation1 #agf ,molt of ducklings as indication of market condition1 #ajb ,mongrel goose1 #adh1 #bja ,mortality of breeding ducks1 #fi of geese during shipment1 #bjb ,mosquito larvae1 destruction of1 by ducks1 #h ,mule ducks1 #i ,muscovy duck1 #bi ,n ,narrow shoulders in ,call ducks1 #bh in ,pekin ducks1 #bb ,nest1 preparing the1 for hatching goose eggs1 #agc ,nomenclature of ducks1 #ab of geese1 #adi ,noodles1 making1 for fattening geese1 #aig ,noodling geese1 #aif ,number of breeding ducks required1 #df of ducklings marketed per breeding duck1 #df of ducklings to a pen1 #he1 #ij of ducks in leading states1 #c of ducks in ,u4 ,s41 #c of ducks to a drake1 #eg of geese carried on fattening farms1 #bjh of geese in leading states1 #ada of geese in ,u4 ,s41 #ada of geese noodled by one man1 #aih of geese to the acre1 #afd of times ducklings are fed1 #ib geese are fed on fattening farms1 #bjc noodled geese are fed1 #aig pen fattened geese are fed1 #aie ,o ,objections to duck farms1 #dc to geese1 #ade to goose fattening farms1 #bjh ,odor from goose fattening farms1 #bjh ,opportunities for duck raising1 #d for goose raising1 #adb ,ornamental purposes1 ducks for1 #g class of ducks1 #aa ,output of duck plants1 #db1 #de ,oyster shell1 feeding1 to breeding ducks1 #ff to breeding geese1 #agj ,p ,packing dressed ducks for shipment1 #aji geese for shipment1 #baa ,packing duck hatching eggs1 #dj goose hatching eggs1 #afb ,pasturing geese1 #afd goslings1 #ahc ,patte de fois gras1 #aii ,pay for picking ducks1 #ajg geese1 #bjg ,pekin duck1 #ba ,pekin duck on commercial plants1 #db ,penciled ,runner duck1 #cg ,penciling in ,buff ducks1 #ce ,fawn and ,white ,runner females1 #cg ,rouen females1 #be ,penciling1 lack of1 in ,penciled ,runner females1 #ch ,pen fattening geese1 #aie ,pens for fattening geese1 #bjc for noodling geese1 #aif in brooder house for ducklings #hd1 #hi ,percent hatch of duck eggs set1 #gh loss in ducklings1 #ih in goslings1 #ahd ,period of incubation for duck eggs1 #abi for goose eggs1 #agc for ,muscovy duck1 #cj ,period of feeding noodled geese1 #aih pen fattening geese1 #aie ,picking house for duck plants1 #ej ,picking market ducks1 #ajf market geese1 #bjf ,pin feathers1 removing1 from ducks1 #ajg ,pinioning ducks1 #bh wild geese1 #aei ,pneumonia in ducklings1 #ii ,popularity of breeds of ducks1 #ad of geese1 #aej ,pounds feed to produce pound of market duck1 #ie ,prejudice against roast goose1 #aid ,preparing ducks for the show1 #ch geese for the show1 #afa ,prevention of disease in ducklings1 #ih ,prices of duck breeding stock and eggs1 #g of duck feathers1 #aah of goose breeding stock and eggs1 #afc of goose feathers1 #bab of market ducks1 #aaj of market geese1 #ahh of mongrel geese1 #bjh of specially fattened geese1 #bjh ,prince ,edward ,island geese1 #bja ,production1 yearly1 of feathers from live geese1 #bac ,profits from duck farming1 #ed ,protecting feed of geese from other stock1 #aga ,puddle ducks1 #i ,pulling broken feathers in ducks1 #ch in geese1 #afa ,purple barring in ,black ,east ,india ducks1 #bi ,purple rump in ,rouen drake1 #bd ,q ,quilling in ducklings1 #ajj ,r ,range for fattening geese1 #aii for geese1 #afd ,rapidity of growth of goslings1 #ahd ,rations for breeding ducks1 #fc1 #abe for breeding geese1 #afi for ducklings1 #ib1 #acb for fattening geese1 #aie1 #aig1 #bjc for goslings1 #ahc ,rats as source of loss in ducklings1 #aja ,red in plumage of ,blue ,swedish1 #cc ,removing baby ducks to the brooder1 #hj newly hatched goslings from the nest1 #agf ,reviving goslings chilled by rain1 #aha ,rhode ,island geese1 #bjj ,ribbon or wing bar1 absence of1 in ,gray ,call1 #bh ,ring1 white1 in ,buff ducks1 #cf in ,rouen1 #bd width of1 in ,rouen1 #bd ,roach back in ducks1 #ai ,rouen duck1 #bc ,roughage for fattening geese1 #aie1 #aii1 #bjd in rations for geese1 #agj ,round head in ,runner ducks1 #cg ,runner duck1 #cf ,s ,sand1 feeding1 to breeding ducks1 #ff to ducklings1 #hf1 #ic to goslings1 #ahc ,scalding market ducks1 #aje geese1 #bji ,sebastapol goose1 #adh ,selection of breeding ducks1 #ai on commercial plants1 #ef on general farms1 #acd ,selection of breeding geese1 #aed ,selection of duck eggs for hatching1 #gc ,selecting the breed of ducks1 #abb ,separating growing goslings from old stock1 #ahb ,septicemia1 goose or hemorrhagic1 #ahf ,sex in ducks1 distinguishing1 #ac1 #ace in geese1 distinguishing1 #afe ,shade for breeding ducks1 #fj for fattening summer geese1 #bjb for goslings1 #ahb for growing ducklings1 #ib ,sharp backs in ,runner ducks1 #cg ,shaving market geese to remove down1 #bji ,shelter for fattening geese1 #aii1 #bjc for growing goslings1 #aha ,shipping dressed ducks1 #aji dressed geese1 #bjh hatching eggs1 duck1 #dj geese1 #afb ,shipping live geese for fattening1 #bja ,short legs in ,runner ducks1 #cg ,shrinking in shipping ducks alive1 #aaf ,size of breeding ducks1 #ai of breeds of ducks1 #ad of breeds of geese1 #aej of duck eggs1 #af of duck farms1 #db1 #dd1 #df of flocks of breeding ducks1 #df of flocks of ducks on general farms1 #aba of flocks of fattening geese1 #aie1 #aif1 #aii1 #bjb of goose eggs1 #aea of male and female ,muscovy1 #cj of mating in ducks1 #bj1 #abc of mating in geese1 #aeb of sitting of duck eggs1 #g1 #abi of sitting of goose eggs1 #afc1 #agd ,slate on backs of young ,embden geese1 #aef of young ,white ,chinese geese1 #aei ,smooth head in ,muscovy duck1 #bi ,sore eyes in ducklings1 #ajj ,sorting growing ducklings1 #hg market ducklings1 #ajd ,split crest in ,crested ,white ducks1 #cd ,steaming ducks for picking1 #ajg geese for picking1 #baj ,sticking or braining geese1 #bjf1 #bji ,stippling1 gray1 on ,penciled ,runner ducks1 #ch ,stunning geese1 #bjf1 #bji ,summer geese1 fattening1 #bjb ,summer plumage of ,rouen drakes1 #be ,swimming1 preventing goslings from1 #aha ,temperatures1 incubation1 for duck eggs1 #gd for goose eggs1 #age ,temperatures1 brooder1 for ducklings1 #ha for goslings1 #ahj ,testing duck eggs1 #gd1 #acj table for candling duck eggs1 #ge ,time of feeding breeding ducks1 #fc1 #abf geese on fattening farms1 #bjc noodled geese1 #aif pen fattened geese1 #aie ,time of first feed for ducklings1 #ib for goslings1 #ahc ,time of laying with ducks1 #fg with geese1 #afg ,time of marketing breeding ducks1 #fh of plucking live geese for feathers1 #bab to purchase breeding ducks1 #aba breeding geese1 #aff ,toulouse goose1 defects in1 #aee ,tray1 feed1 for ducks1 #ff ,triple crest in ,crested ,white ducks1 #cd ,trough1 feed1 for ducks1 #ff ,turning duck eggs during incubation1 #ge goose eggs during incubation1 #agd1 #age ,twisted wings in ducks1 #ai ,u ,uses for duck feathers1 #aah for goose feathers1 #bab ,v ,value of duck feathers1 #aag of ducks in the ,u4 ,s41 #h of goose feathers1 #bjg ,vegetables1 feeding1 to ducks1 #fc ,ventilation for goslings1 #agi of brooder houses1 #hh of incubator cellars1 #ga of incubators when hatching1 #gg ,vigor1 selection of breeding ducks for1 #ai ,w ,washing duck eggs for hatching1 #acj goose eggs for hatching1 #agb show ducks1 #ci show geese1 #afb ,water for breeding ducks1 #fa1 #abg for breeding geese1 #afe for ducklings1 #if1 #ace for fattening geese1 #aie1 #aih1 #bjd for geese during shipment1 #bjb for goslings1 #ahc ,water site for duck plants1 #db ,water supply for duck plants1 #eb ,water yards for breeding ducks1 #fa for growing and fattening ducklings1 #if1 #ace ,weed destruction by geese1 #if1 #ajc ,weight of ducklings when ready for market1 #if1 #ajc of geese from fattening farms1 #bjh of goslings when ready for market1 #ahe of green geese1 #ahd1 #ahg of noodled geese1 #aih ,weights of ,black ,east ,india ducks1 #ad of ,call ducks1 #ad of duck eggs1 #ad of goose eggs1 #aea of ,mallard ducks1 #aj of standard breeds of ducks1 #ad of standard breeds of geese1 #aej ,white around eyes of ,blue ,swedish1 #cd of ,cayuga1 #bf ,white bib in ,blue ,swedish1 #cc in ,buff ducks1 #cf ,white ,call duck1 description of1 #bh ,white ,chinese goose1 #aei ,white in breast of ,black ,east ,india1 #bi of ,cayuga1 #bf ,white in fluff of ,rouen drake1 #bd ,white in wings of ,african geese1 #aeg of ,blue ,swedish ducks1 #cc of ,brown ,chinese geese1 #aei of ,buff ducks1 #ce of ,gray ,call ducks1 #bh of ,rouen ducks1 #bd of ,toulouse geese1 #aef ,white ,muscovy duck1 description of1 #cb black on head of young1 #cb ,white on head of ,colored ,muscovy1 #cb ,white on neck of ,cayuga1 #bf ,white ,runner duck1 #cg ,wild or ,canadian goose1 #aei ,windpipe as indication of age in ducks1 #ef ,wing bar1 absence of1 in ,gray ,call females1 #bh ,wood duck1 #aj ,y ,yards for breeding ducks1 #eh1 #abh for breeding geese1 #afh for fattening ducklings1 #ia for fattening geese1 #bjc for goslings1 #aha ,yellow bills in ,blue ,swedish1 #cd in ,rouen females1 #be ,yellow1 loss of1 legs and bills of ,pekin with laying1 #ef ,yellow on knob of ,african geese1 #aeg of ,brown ,chinese geese1 #aeh of ,white ,chinese geese1 #aei ,yield of feathers from live geese1 #bac 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,apart from minor changes to formatting1 table alignment and punctuation1 the only changes made to the text from the original are as follows3 ,preface 7#bnd page73 minumum changed to minimum 7444 with the minimum of initial investment and of labor47 ,sebastapool changed to ,sebastapol in ,list of ,illustrations 7,egyptian ,gander and ,sebastapol ,goose7 ,figure #ej caption1 and twice in the index4 ,this is consistent with the use of ,sebastapol in the text4 ,page #bj3 neccessary changed to necessary 7444 it becomes neccessary to mate a smaller number of females 44474 ,page #cj3 missing page reference added 7,see ,page #ad74 ,page #gb3 comma deleted after ,of 7,of course1 eggs sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity 44474 ,fig #bh caption3 yords changed to yards 7,long brooder house and yards with feeding track47 ,page #ajg3 duplicate word the deleted 7444 hung in a steam box with the heads outside 4447 ,page #aca3 chickens changed to chicken 7,ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of chicken hens47 ,page #acf3 missing page reference added 7444 in accordance with the directions given on page #ajf74 ,page #acg3 missing page reference added 7,see page #aai74 ,page #ada3 #aibj changed to #aiaj 7,the census figures of #aibj compared with those for #aiaj 4447 ,page #ade3 in changed to is 7,an objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for other stock47 ,page #aed3 ,ameriacn changed to ,american 7444 the ,american ,standard of ,perfection47 ,page #aee ,footnote3 standard changed to initial upper case ,standard 7,american ,standard of ,perfection74 ,page #afc3 missing page reference added 7,the same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page #acg47 ,page #afe3 thoughout changed to throughout 7444 green feed available throughout the summer and fall 4447 ,page #aff3 penus changed to penis 7444 the penis will protrude47 ,page #ahb3 close changed to closed 7,it should have a board floor and be capable of being closed 4447 ,page #aid3 pleasanty changed to pleasantly 7 444one will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses47 ,page #baa3 missing page reference added 7 444 in the same way as when packing ducks as described on page #aji47 ,page #bbb 7,index73 stipling changed to stippling 7,gray stippling on ,penciled ,runner drakes74