,jewish ,theology ,systematically and ,historically ,considered ,by ,dr4 ,k4 ,kohler ,president ,hebrew ,union ,college ,new ,york ,the ,macmillan ,company #aiah ,,contents ,dedication ,preface ,introductory ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,meaning of ,theology ,chapter ,,ii4 ,what is ,judaism8 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,essence of the ,religion of ,judaism ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,jewish ,articles of ,faith ,part ,i4 ,god ,a4 ,god ,as ,he ,makes ,himself ,known ,to ,man ,chapter ,v4 ,man's ,consciousness of ,god and ,belief in ,god ,chapter ,,vi4 ,revelation1 ,prophecy1 and ,inspiration ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,torah--the ,divine ,instruction ,chapter ,,viii4 ,god's ,covenant ,b4 ,the ,idea ,of ,god ,in ,judaism ,chapter ,,ix4 ,god and the ,gods ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,name of ,god ,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,existence of ,god ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,essence of ,god ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the ,one and ,only ,god ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,god's ,omnipotence and ,omniscience ,chapter ,,xv4 ,god's ,omnipresence and ,eternity ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,god's ,holiness ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,god's ,wrath and ,punishment ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,god's ,long-suffering and ,mercy ,chapter ,,xix4 ,god's ,justice ,chapter ,,xx4 ,god's ,love and ,compassion ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,god's ,truth and ,faithfulness ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,god's ,knowledge and ,wisdom ,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,god's ,condescension ,c4 ,god ,in ,relation ,to ,the ,world ,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,the ,world and its ,master ,chapter ,,xxv4 ,creation ,as the ,act of ,god ,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,the ,maintenance and ,government of the ,world ,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,miracles and the ,cosmic ,order ,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,providence and the ,moral ,government of the ,world ,chapter ,,xxix4 ,god and the ,existence of ,evil ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,god and the ,angels ,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,satan and the ,spirits of ,evil ,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,god and the ,intermediary ,powers ,part ,,ii4 ,man ,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,man's ,place in ,creation ,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,the ,dual ,nature of ,man ,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,the ,origin and ,destiny of ,man ,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,god's ,spirit in ,man ,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,free ,will and ,moral ,responsibility ,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,meaning of ,sin ,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,repentance ,or the ,return ,to ,god ,chapter ,,xl4 ,man1 the ,child of ,god ,chapter ,,xli4 ,prayer and ,sacrifice ,chapter ,,xlii4 ,the ,nature and ,purpose of ,prayer ,chapter ,,xliii4 ,death and the ,future ,life ,chapter ,,xliv4 ,the ,immortal ,soul of ,man ,chapter ,,xlv4 ,divine ,retribution3 ,reward and ,punishment4 ,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,the ,individual and the ,race ,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,the ,moral ,elements of ,civilization ,part ,,iii4 ,israel ,and ,the ,kingdom ,of ,god ,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,the ,election of ,israel ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,the ,kingdom of ,god and the ,mission of ,israel ,chapter ,l4 ,the ,priest-people and its ,law of ,holiness ,chapter ,,li4 ,israel1 the ,people of the ,law1 and its ,world ,mission ,chapter ,,lii4 ,israel1 the ,servant of the ,lord1 ,martyr and ,messiah ,of the ,nations ,chapter ,,liii4 ,the ,messianic ,hope ,chapter ,,liv4 ,resurrection1 a ,national ,hope ,chapter ,,lv4 ,israel and the ,heathen ,nations ,chapter ,,lvi4 ,the ,stranger and the ,proselyte ,chapter ,,lvii4 ,christianity and ,mohammedanism1 the ,daughter-,religions ,of ,judaism ,chapter ,,lviii4 ,the ,synagogue and its ,institutions ,chapter ,,lix4 ,the ,ethics of ,judaism and the ,kingdom of ,god ,list ,of ,abbreviations ,index ,footnotes ,,dedication ,to ,the ,memory ,of ,,edward ,l4 ,,heinsheimer ,,the ,,lamented ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,board ,,of ,,governors ,,of ,,the ,,hebrew ,,union ,,college ,,in ,,whom ,,zeal ,,for ,,the ,,high ,,ideals ,,of ,,judaism ,,and ,,patriotic ,,devotion ,,to ,,our ,,blessed ,,country ,,were ,,nobly ,,embodied ,in ,friendship ,and ,affection ,,preface ,in offering herewith to the ,english-reading public the present work on ,jewish ,theology1 the result of many years of research and of years of activity as ,president and teacher at the ,hebrew ,union ,college of ,cincinnati1 ,i bespeak for it that fairness of judgment to which every pioneer work is entitled4 ,it may seem rather strange that no such work has hitherto been written by any of the leading ,jewish scholars of either the conservative or the progressive school4 ,this can only be accounted for by the fact that up to modern times the ,rabbinical and philosophical literature of the ,middle ,ages sufficed for the needs of the student1 and a systematic exposition of the ,jewish faith seemed to be unnecessary4 ,besides1 a real demand for the specific study of ,jewish theology was scarcely felt1 inasmuch as ,judaism never assigned to a creed the prominent position which it holds in the ,christian ,church4 ,this very fact induced ,moses ,mendelssohn at the beginning of the new era to declare that ,judaism 8contained only truths dictated by reason and no dogmatic beliefs at all40 ,moreover1 as he was rather a deist than a theist1 he stated boldly that ,judaism 8is not a revealed religion but a revealed law intended solely for the ,jewish people as the vanguard of universal monotheism40 ,by taking this legalistic view of ,judaism in common with the former opponents of the ,maimonidean articles of faith--which1 by the way1 he had himself translated for the religious instruction of the ,jewish youth--he exerted a deteriorating influence upon the normal development of the ,jewish faith under the new social conditions4 ,the fact is that ,mendelssohn emancipated the modern ,jew from the thraldom of the ,ghetto1 but not ,judaism4 ,in the ,mendelssohnian circle the impression prevailed1 as we are told1 that ,judaism consists of a system of forms1 but is substantially no religion at all4 ,the entire ,jewish renaissance period which followed1 characteristically enough1 made the cultivation of the so-called science of ,judaism its object1 but it neglected altogether the whole field of ,jewish theology4 ,hence we look in vain among the writings of ,rappaport1 ,zunz1 ,jost and their followers1 the entire ,breslau school1 for any attempt at presenting the contents of ,judaism as a system of faith4 ,only the pioneers of ,reform ,judaism1 ,geiger1 ,holdheim1 ,samuel ,hirsch1 ,formstecher1 ,ludwig ,philippson1 ,leopold ,stein1 ,leopold ,loew1 and the ,reform theologian par excellence ,david ,einhorn1 and likewise1 ,isaac ,m4 ,wise in ,america1 made great efforts in that direction4 ,still a system of ,jewish theology was wanting4 ,accordingly when1 at the suggestion of my dear departed friend1 ,dr4 ,gustav ,karpeles1 ,president of the ,society for the ,promotion of the ,science of ,judaism in ,berlin1 ,i undertook to write a compendium 7,grundriss7 of ,systematic ,jewish ,theology1 which appeared in #aiaj as ,vol4 ,,iv in a series of works on ,systematic ,jewish ,lore 7,grundriss der ,gesammtwissenschaft des ,judenthums71 ,i had no work before me that might have served me as pattern or guide4 ,solomon ,schechter's valuable studies were in the main confined to ,rabbinical ,theology4 ,as a matter of fact ,i accepted the task only with the understanding that it should be written from the view-point of historical research1 instead of a mere dogmatic or doctrinal system4 ,for in my opinion the ,jewish religion has never been static1 fixed for all time by an ecclesiastical authority1 but has ever been and still is the result of a dynamic process of growth and development4 ,at the same time ,i felt that ,i could not omit the mystical element which pervades the ,jewish religion in common with all others4 ,as our prophets were seers and not philosophers or moralists1 so divine inspiration in varying degrees constituted a factor of ,synagogal as well as ,scriptural ,judaism4 ,revelation1 therefore1 is to be considered as a continuous force in shaping and reshaping the ,jewish faith4 ,the religious genius of the ,jew falls within the domain of ethnic psychology concerning which science still gropes in the dark1 but which progressive ,judaism is bound to recognize in its effects throughout the ages4 ,it is from this standpoint1 taken also by the sainted founder of the ,hebrew ,union ,college1 ,isaac ,m4 ,wise1 that ,i have written this book4 ,at the same time ,i endeavored to be1 as it behooves the historian1 just and fair to ,conservative ,judaism1 which will ever claim the reverence we owe to our cherished past1 the mother that raised and nurtured us4 ,while a work of this nature cannot lay claim to completeness1 ,i have attempted to cover the whole field of ,jewish belief1 including also such subjects as no longer form parts of the religious consciousness of the modern ,jew4 ,i felt especially called upon to elucidate the historical relations of ,judaism to the ,christian and ,mohammedan religions and dwell on the essential points of divergence from them4 ,if my language at times has been rather vigorous in defense of the ,jewish faith1 it was because ,i was forced to correct and refute the prevailing view of the ,christian world1 of both theologians and others1 that ,judaism is an inferior religion1 clannish and exclusive1 that it is1 in fact1 a cult of the ,old ,testament ,law4 ,it was a matter of great personal satisfaction to me that the ,german work on its appearance met with warm appreciation in the various theological journals of ,america1 ,england1 and ,france1 as well as of ,germany1 including both ,jewish and ,christian4 ,i was encouraged and urged by many 8soon to make the book accessible to wider circles in an ,english translation40 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,israel ,abrahams of ,cambridge1 ,england1 took such interest in the book that he induced a young friend of his to prepare an ,english version4 ,while this did not answer the purpose1 it was helpful to me in making me feel that1 instead of a literal translation1 a thorough revision and remolding of the book was necessary in order to present it in an acceptable ,english garb4 ,in pursuing this course1 ,i also enlarged the book in many ways1 especially adding a new chapter on ,jewish ,ethics1 which1 in connection with the idea of the ,kingdom of ,god1 appeared to me to form a fitting culmination of ,jewish theology4 ,i have thus rendered it practically a new work4 ,and here ,i wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to my young friend and able pupil1 ,rabbi ,lee ,j4 ,levinger1 for the valuable aid he has rendered me and the painstaking labor he has kindly and unselfishly performed in going over my manuscript from beginning to end1 with a view to revising the diction and also suggesting references to more recent publications in the notes so as to bring it up to date4 ,i trust that the work will prove a source of information and inspiration for both student and layman1 ,jew and non-,jew1 and induce such as have become indifferent to1 or prejudiced against1 the teachings of the ,synagogue1 or of ,reform ,judaism in particular1 to take a deeper insight into1 and look up with a higher regard to the sublime and eternal verities of ,judaism4 8,give to a wise man1 and he will be yet wiser2 teach a righteous man1 and he will increase in learning40 ,,cincinnati1 ,november1 #aiag4 ,,introductory ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,meaning of ,theology #a4 ,the name ,theology1 8the teaching concerning ,god10 is taken from ,greek philosophy4 ,it was used by ,plato and ,aristotle to denote the knowledge concerning ,god and things godly1 by which they meant the branch of ,philosophy later called ,metaphysics1 after ,aristotle4 ,in the ,christian ,church the term gradually assumed the meaning of systematic exposition of the creed1 a distinction being made between ,rational1 or ,natural ,theology1 on the one hand1 and ,dogmatic ,theology1 on the other47#a7 ,in common usage ,theology is understood to be the presentation of one specific system of faith after some logical method1 and a distinction is made between ,historical and ,systematic ,theology4 ,the former traces the various doctrines of the faith in question through the different epochs and stages of culture1 showing their historical process of growth and development2 the latter presents these same doctrines in comprehensive form as a fixed system1 as they have finally been elaborated and accepted upon the basis of the sacred scriptures and their authoritative interpretation4 #b4 ,theology and ,philosophy of ,religion differ widely in their character4 ,theology deals exclusively with a specific religion2 in expounding one doctrinal system1 it starts from a positive belief in a divine revelation and in the continued working of the divine spirit1 affecting also the interpretation and further development of the sacred books4 ,philosophy of ,religion1 on the other hand1 while dealing with the same subject matter as ,theology1 treats religion from a general point of view as a matter of experience1 and1 as every philosophy must1 without any foregone conclusion4 ,consequently it submits the beliefs and doctrines of religion in general to an impartial investigation1 recognizing neither a divine revelation nor the superior claims of any one religion above any other1 its main object being to ascertain how far the universal laws of human reason agree or disagree with the assertions of faith47#b7 #c4 ,it is therefore incorrect to speak of a ,jewish religious philosophy4 ,this has no better right to exist than has ,jewish metaphysics or ,jewish mathematics47#c7 ,the ,jewish thinkers of the ,spanish-,arabic period who endeavored to harmonize revelation and reason1 utilizing the ,neo-,platonic philosophy or the ,aristotelian with a ,neo-,platonic coloring1 betray by their very conceptions of revelation and prophecy the influence of ,mohammedan theology2 this was really a graft of metaphysics on theology and called itself the 8divine science10 a term corresponding exactly with the ,greek 8theology40 ,the so-called ,jewish religious philosophers adopted both the methods and terminology of the ,mohammedan theologians1 attempting to present the doctrines of the ,jewish faith in the light of philosophy1 as truth based on reason4 ,thus they claimed to construct a ,jewish theology upon the foundation of a philosophy of religion4 ,but neither they nor their ,mohammedan predecessors succeeded in working out a complete system of theology4 ,they left untouched essential elements of religion which do not come within the sphere of rational verities1 and did not give proper appreciation to the rich treasures of faith deposited in the ,biblical and ,rabbinical literature4 ,nor does the comprehensive theological system of ,maimonides1 which for centuries largely shaped the intellectual life of the ,jew1 form an exception4 ,only the mystics1 ,bahya at their head1 paid attention to the spiritual side of ,judaism1 dwelling at length on such themes as prayer and repentance1 divine forgiveness and holiness4 #d4 ,closer acquaintance with the religious and philosophical systems of modern times has created a new demand for a ,jewish theology by which the ,jew can comprehend his own religious truths in the light of modern thought1 and at the same time defend them against the aggressive attitude of the ruling religious sects4 ,thus far1 however1 the attempts made in this direction are but feeble and sporadic2 if the structure is not to stand altogether in the air1 the necessary material must be brought together from its many sources with painstaking labor47#d7 ,the special difficulty in the task lies in the radical difference which exists between our view of the past and that of the ,biblical and medieval writers4 ,all those things which have heretofore been taken as facts because related in the sacred books or other traditional sources1 are viewed to-day with critical eyes1 and are now regarded as more or less colored by human impression or conditioned by human judgment4 ,in other words1 we have learned to distinguish between subjective and objective truths17#e7 whereas theology by its very nature deals with truth as absolute4 ,this makes it imperative for us to investigate historically the leading idea or fundamental principle underlying a doctrine1 to note the different conceptions formed at various stages1 and trace its process of growth4 ,at times1 indeed1 we may find that the views of one age have rather taken a backward step and fallen below the original standard4 ,the progress need not be uniform1 but we must still trace its course4 #e4 ,we must recognize at the outset that ,jewish theology cannot assume the character of apologetics1 if it is to accomplish its great task of formulating religious truth as it exists in our consciousness to-day4 ,it can no more afford to ignore the established results of modern linguistic1 ethnological1 and historical research1 of ,biblical criticism and comparative religion1 than it can the undisputed facts of natural science1 however much any of these may conflict with the ,biblical view of the cosmos4 ,apologetics has its legitimate place to prove and defend the truths of ,jewish theology against other systems of belief and thought1 but cannot properly defend either ,biblical or ,talmudic statements by methods incompatible with scientific investigation4 ,judaism is a religion of historical growth1 which1 far from claiming to be the final truth1 is ever regenerated anew at each turning point of history4 ,the fall of the leaves at autumn requires no apology1 for each successive spring testifies anew to nature's power of resurrection4 ,the object of a systematic theology of ,judaism1 accordingly1 is to single out the essential forces of the faith4 ,it then will become evident how these fundamental doctrines possess a vitality1 a strength of conviction1 as well as an adaptability to varying conditions1 which make them potent factors amidst all changes of time and circumstance4 ,according to ,rabbinical tradition1 the broken tablets of the covenant were deposited in the ark beside the new4 ,in like manner the truths held sacred by the past1 but found inadequate in their expression for a new generation1 must be placed side by side with the deeper and more clarified truths of an advanced age1 that they may appear together as the one divine truth reflected in different rays of light4 #f4 ,jewish theology differs radically from ,christian theology in the following three points3 ,a4 ,the theology of ,christianity deals with articles of faith formulated by the founders and heads of the ,church as conditions of salvation1 so that any alteration in favor of free thought threatens to undermine the very plan of salvation upon which the ,church was founded4 ,judaism recognizes only such articles of faith as were adopted by the people voluntarily as expressions of their religious consciousness1 both without external compulsion and without doing violence to the dictates of reason4 ,judaism does not know salvation by faith in the sense of ,paul1 the real founder of the ,church1 who declared the blind acceptance of belief to be in itself meritorious4 ,it denies the existence of any irreconcilable opposition between faith and reason4 ,b4 ,christian theology rests upon a formula of confession1 the so-called ,symbolum of the ,apostolic ,church17#f7 which alone makes one a ,christian4 ,judaism has no such formula of confession which renders a ,jew a ,jew4 ,no ecclesiastical authority ever dictated or regulated the belief of the ,jew2 his faith has been voiced in the solemn liturgical form of prayer1 and has ever retained its freshness and vigor of thought in the consciousness of the people4 ,this partly accounts for the antipathy toward any kind of dogma or creed among ,jews4 ,c4 ,the creed is a conditio sine qua non of the ,christian ,church4 ,to disbelieve its dogmas is to cut oneself loose from membership4 ,judaism is quite different4 ,the ,jew is born into it and cannot extricate himself from it even by the renunciation of his faith1 which would but render him an apostate ,jew4 ,this condition exists1 because the racial community formed1 and still forms1 the basis of the religious community4 ,it is birth1 not confession1 that imposes on the ,jew the obligation to work and strive for the eternal verities of ,israel1 for the preservation and propagation of which he has been chosen by the ,god of history4 #g4 ,the truth of the matter is that the aim and end of ,judaism is not so much the salvation of the soul in the hereafter as the salvation of humanity in history4 ,its theology1 therefore1 must recognize the history of human progress1 with which it is so closely interwoven4 ,it does not1 therefore1 claim to offer the final or absolute truth1 as does ,christian theology1 whether orthodox or liberal4 ,it simply points out the way leading to the highest obtainable truth4 ,final and perfect truth is held forth as the ideal of all human searching and striving1 together with perfect justice1 righteousness1 and peace1 to be attained as the very end of history4 ,a systematic theology of ,judaism must1 accordingly1 content itself with presenting ,jewish doctrine and belief in relation to the most advanced scientific and philosophical ideas of the age1 so as to offer a comprehensive view of life and the world 78,lebens- und ,weltanschauung072 but it by no means claims for them the character of finality4 ,the unfolding of ,judaism's truths will be completed only when all mankind has attained the heights of ,zion's mount of vision1 as beheld by the prophets of ,israel47#g7 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,what is ,judaism8 #a4 ,it is very difficult to give an exact definition of ,judaism because of its peculiarly complex character47#h7 ,it combines two widely differing elements1 and when they are brought out separately1 the aspect of the whole is not taken sufficiently into account4 ,religion and race form an inseparable whole in ,judaism4 ,the ,jewish people stand in the same relation to ,judaism as the body to the soul4 ,the national or racial body of ,judaism consists of the remnant of the tribe of ,judah which succeeded in establishing a new commonwealth in ,juda in place of the ancient ,israelitish kingdom1 and which survived the downfall of state and temple to continue its existence as a separate people during a dispersion over the globe for thousands of years1 forming ever a cosmopolitan element among all the nations in whose lands it dwelt4 ,judaism1 on the other hand1 is the religious system itself1 the vital element which united the ,jewish people1 preserving it and regenerating it ever anew4 ,it is the spirit which endowed the handful of ,jews with a power of resistance and a fervor of faith unparalleled in history1 enabling them to persevere in the mighty contest with heathenism and ,christianity4 ,it made of them a nation of martyrs and thinkers1 suffering and struggling for the cause of truth and justice1 yet forming1 consciously or unconsciously1 a potent factor in all the great intellectual movements which are ultimately to win the entire gentile world for the purest and loftiest truths concerning ,god and man4 #b4 ,judaism1 accordingly1 does not denote the ,jewish nationality1 with its political and cultural achievements and aspirations1 as those who have lost faith in the religious mission of ,israel would have it4 ,on the other hand1 it is not a nomistic or legalistic religion confined to the ,jewish people1 as is maintained by ,christian writers1 who1 lacking a full appreciation of its lofty world-wide purpose and its cosmopolitan and humanitarian character1 claim that it has surrendered its universal prophetic truths to ,christianity4 ,nor should it be presented as a religion of pure ,theism1 aiming to unite all believers in one ,god into a ,church ,universal1 of which certain visionaries dream4 ,judaism is nothing less than a message concerning the ,one and holy ,god and one1 undivided humanity with a world-uniting ,messianic goal1 a message intrusted by divine revelation to the ,jewish people4 ,thus ,israel is its prophetic harbinger and priestly guardian1 its witness and defender throughout the ages1 who is never to falter in the task of upholding and unfolding its truths until they have become the possession of the whole human race4 #c4 ,owing to this twofold nature of a universal religious truth and at the same time a mission intrusted to a specially selected nation or race1 ,judaism offers in a sense the sharpest contrasts imaginable1 which render it an enigma to the student of religion and history1 and make him often incapable of impartial judgment4 ,on the one hand1 it shows the most tenacious adherence to forms originally intended to preserve the ,jewish people in its priestly sanctity and separateness1 and thereby also to keep its religious truths pure and free from encroachments4 ,on the other hand1 it manifests a mighty impulse to come into close touch with the various civilized nations1 partly in order to disseminate among them its sublime truths1 appealing alike to mind and heart1 partly to clarify and deepen those truths by assimilating the wisdom and culture of these very nations4 ,thus the spirit of separatism and of universalism work in opposite directions4 ,still1 however hostile the two elements may appear1 they emanate from the same source4 ,for the ,jewish people1 unlike any other civilization of antiquity1 entered history with the proud claim that it possessed a truth destined to become some day the property of mankind1 and its three thousand years of history have verified this claim4 ,israel's relation to the world thus became a double one4 ,its priestly world-mission gave rise to all those laws and customs which were to separate it from its idolatrous surroundings1 and this occasioned the charge of hostility to the nations4 ,the accusation of ,jewish misanthropy occurred as early as the ,balaam and ,haman stories4 ,as the separation continued through the centuries1 a deep-seated ,jew-hatred sprang up1 first in ,alexandria and ,rome1 then becoming a consuming fire throughout ,christendom1 unquenched through the ages and bursting forth anew1 even from the midst of would-be liberals4 ,in contrast to this1 ,israel's prophetic ideal of a humanity united in justice and peace gave to history a new meaning and a larger outlook1 kindling in the souls of all truly great leaders and teachers1 seers and sages of mankind a love and longing for the broadening of humanity which opened new avenues of progress and liberty4 ,moreover1 by its conception of man as the image of ,god and its teaching of righteousness as the true path of life1 ,israel's ,law established a new standard of human worth and put the imprint of ,jewish idealism upon the entire ,aryan civilization4 ,owing to these two opposing forces1 the one centripetal1 the other centrifugal1 ,judaism tended now inward1 away from world-culture1 now outward toward the learning and the thought of all nations2 and this makes it doubly difficult to obtain a true estimate of its character4 ,but1 after all1 these very currents and counter-currents at the different eras of history kept ,judaism in continuous tension and fluctuation1 preventing its stagnation by dogmatic formulas and its division by ecclesiastical dissensions4 8,both words are the words of the living ,god0 became the maxim of the contending schools47#i7 #d4 ,if we now ask what period we may fix as the beginning of ,judaism1 we must by no means single out the decisive moment when ,ezra the ,scribe established the new commonwealth of ,juda1 based upon the ,mosaic book of ,law1 and excluding the ,samaritans who claimed to be the heirs of ancient ,israel4 ,this important step was but the climax1 the fruitage of that religious spirit engendered by the ,judaism of the ,babylonian exile4 ,the ,captivity had become a refining furnace for the people1 making them cling with a zeal unknown before to the teachings of the prophets1 now offered by their disciples1 and to the laws1 as preserved by the priestly guilds2 so the religious treasures of the few became the common property of the many1 and were soon regarded as 8the inheritance of the whole congregation of ,jacob40 ,as a matter of fact1 ,ezra represents the culmination rather than the starting point of the great spiritual reawakening1 when he came from ,babylon with a complete ,code of ,law1 and promulgated it in the ,holy ,city to a worshipful congregation47#aj7 ,it was ,judaism1 winged with a new spirit1 which carried the great unknown seer of the ,exile to the very pinnacle of prophetic vision1 and made the ,psalmists ring forth from the harp of ,david the deepest soul-stirring notes of religious devotion and aspiration that ever moved the hearts of men4 ,moreover1 all the great truths of prophetic revelation1 of legislative and popular wisdom1 were then collected and focused1 creating a sacred literature which was to serve the whole community as the source of instruction1 consolation1 and edification4 ,the powerful and unique institutions of the ,synagogue1 intended for common instruction and devotion1 are altogether creations of the ,exile1 and replaced the former priestly ,torah by the ,torah for the people4 ,more wonderful still1 the priestly lore of ancient ,babylon was transformed by sublime monotheistic truths and utilized in the formation of a sacred literature2 it was placed before the history of the ,hebrew patriarchs1 to form1 as it were1 an introduction to the ,bible of humanity4 ,judaism1 then1 far from being the late product of the ,torah and tradition1 as it is often considered1 was actually the creator of the ,law4 ,transformed and unfolded in ,babylonia1 it created its own sacred literature and shaped it ever anew1 filling it always with its own spirit and with new thoughts4 ,it is by no means the petrifaction of the ,mosaic law and the prophetic teachings1 as we are so often told1 but a continuous process of unfolding and regeneration of its great religious truth4 #e4 ,true enough1 traditional or orthodox ,judaism does not share this view4 ,the idea of gradual development is precluded by its conception of divine revelation1 by its doctrine that both the oral and the written ,torah were given at ,sinai complete and unchangeable for all time4 ,it makes allowance only for special institutions begun either by the prophets1 by ,ezra and the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 his associates1 or by the masters of the ,law in succeeding centuries4 ,nevertheless1 tradition says that the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue themselves collected and partly completed the sacred books1 except the five books of ,moses1 and that the canon was made under the influence of the holy spirit4 ,this holy spirit remained in force also during the creative period of ,talmudism1 sanctioning innovations or alterations of many kinds47#aa7 ,modern critical and historical research has taught us to distinguish the products of different periods and stages of development in both the ,biblical and ,rabbinical sources1 and therefore compels us to reject the idea of a uniform origin of the ,law1 and also of an uninterrupted chain of tradition reaching back to ,moses on ,sinai4 ,therefore we must attach still more importance to the process of transformation which ,judaism had to undergo through the centuries47#ab7 ,judaism manifested its wondrous power of assimilation by renewing itself to meet the demands of the time1 first under the influence of the ancient civilizations1 ,babylonia and ,persia1 then of ,greece and ,rome1 finally of the ,occidental powers1 molding its religious truths and customs in ever new forms1 but all in consonance with its own genius4 ,it adopted the ,babylonian and ,persian views of the hereafter1 of the upper and the nether world with their angels and demons2 so later on it incorporated into its religious and legal system elements of ,greek and ,egyptian gnosticism1 ,greek philosophy1 and methods of jurisprudence from ,egypt1 ,babylon1 and ,rome4 ,in fact1 the various parties which arose during the second ,temple beside each other or successively--,sadducees and ,pharisees1 ,essenes and ,zealots--represent1 on closer observation1 the different stages in the process of assimilation which ,judaism had to undergo4 ,in like manner1 the ,hellenistic1 ,apocryphal and ,apocalyptic literature1 which was rejected and lost to sight by traditional ,judaism1 and which partly fills the gap between the ,bible and the ,talmudic writings1 casts a flood of light upon the development of the ,halakah and the ,haggadah4 ,just as the book of ,ezekiel1 which was almost excluded from the ,canon on account of its divergence from the ,mosaic ,law1 has been helpful in tracing the development of the ,priestly ,code17#ac7 so the ,sadduceean book of ,ben ,sira7#ad7 and the ,zealotic book of ,jubilees7#ae7--not to mention the various ,apocalyptic works--throw their searchlight upon pre-,talmudic ,judaism4 #f4 ,instead of representing ,judaism--as the ,christian theologians do under the guise of scientific methods--as a nomistic religion1 caring only for the external observance of the ,law1 it is necessary to distinguish two opposite fundamental tendencies2 the one expressing the spirit of legalistic nationalism1 the other that of ethical or prophetic universalism4 ,these two work by turn1 directing the general trend in the one or the other direction according to circumstances4 ,at one time the center and focus of ,israel's religion is the ,mosaic ,law1 with its sacrificial cult in charge of the priesthood of ,jerusalem's ,temple2 at another time it is the ,synagogue1 with its congregational devotion and public instruction1 its inspiring song of the ,psalmist and its prophetic consolation and hope confined to no narrow territory1 but opened wide for a listening world4 ,here it is the reign of the ,halakah holding fast to the form of tradition1 and there the free and fanciful ,haggadah1 with its appeal to the sentiments and views of the people4 ,here it is the spirit of ritualism1 bent on separating the ,jews from the influence of foreign elements1 and there again the spirit of rationalism1 eager to take part in general culture and in the progress of the outside world4 ,the liberal views of ,maimonides and ,gersonides concerning miracle and revelation1 ,god and immortality were scarcely shared by the majority of ,jews1 who1 no doubt1 sided rather with the mystics1 and found their mouthpiece in ,abraham ben ,david of ,posquieres1 the fierce opponent of ,maimonides4 ,an impartial ,jewish theology must therefore take cognizance of both sides2 it must include the mysticism of ,isaac ,luria and ,sabbathai ,horwitz as well as the rationalism of ,albo and ,leo da ,modena4 ,wherever is voiced a new doctrine or a new view of life and life's duty1 which yet bears the imprint of the ,jewish consciousness1 there the well-spring of divine inspiration is seen pouring forth its living waters4 #g4 ,even the latest interpretation of the ,law1 offered by a disciple who is recognized for true conscientiousness in religion1 was revealed to ,moses on ,sinai1 according to a ,rabbinical dictum47#af7 ,thus is exquisitely expressed the idea of a continuous development of ,israel's religious truth4 ,as a safeguard against arbitrary individualism1 there was the principle of loyalty and proper regard for tradition1 which is aptly termed by ,professor ,lazarus a 8historical continuity407#ag7 ,the ,midrashic statement is quite significant that other creeds founded on our ,bible can only adhere to the letter1 but the ,jewish religion possesses the key to the deeper meaning hidden and presented in the traditional interpretation of the ,scriptures47#ah7 ,that is1 for ,judaism ,holy ,scripture in its literal sense is not the final word of ,god2 the ,bible is rather a living spring of divine revelation1 to be kept ever fresh and flowing by the active force of the spirit4 ,to sum up3 ,judaism1 far from offering a system of beliefs and ceremonies fixed for all time1 is as multifarious and manifold in its aspects as is life itself4 ,it comprises all phases and characteristics of both a national and a world religion4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,essence of the ,religion of ,judaism #a4 ,we have seen how difficult it is to define ,judaism clearly and adequately1 including its manifold tendencies and institutions4 ,still it is necessary that we reach a full understanding of the essence of ,judaism as it manifested itself in all periods of its history17#ai7 and that we single out the fundamental idea which underlies its various forms of existence and its different movements1 both intellectual and spiritual4 ,there can be no disputing the fact that the central idea of ,judaism and its life purpose is the doctrine of the ,one ,only and ,holy ,god1 whose kingdom of truth1 justice and peace is to be universally established at the end of time4 ,this is the main teaching of ,scripture and the hope voiced in the liturgy2 while ,israel's mission to defend1 to unfold and to propagate this truth is a corollary of the doctrine itself and cannot be separated from it4 ,whether we regard it as ,law or a system of doctrine1 as religious truth or world-mission1 this belief pledged the little tribe of ,judah to a warfare of many thousands of years against the hordes of heathendom with all their idolatry and brutality1 their deification of man and their degradation of deity to human rank4 ,it betokened a battle for the pure idea of ,god and man1 which is not to end until the principle of divine holiness has done away with every form of life that tends to degrade and to disunite mankind1 and until ,israel's ,only ,one has become the unifying power and the highest ideal of all humanity4 #b4 ,of this great world-duty of ,israel only the few will ever become fully conscious4 ,as in the days of the prophets1 so in later periods1 only a 8small remnant0 was fully imbued with the lofty ideal4 ,in times of oppression the great multitude of the people persisted in a conscientious observance of the ,law and underwent suffering without a murmur4 ,yet in times of liberty and enlightenment this same majority often neglects to assimilate the new culture to its own superior spirit1 but instead eagerly assimilates itself to the surrounding world1 and thereby loses much of its intrinsic strength and self-respect4 ,the pendulum of thought and sentiment swings to and fro between the national and the universal ideals1 while only a few maturer minds have a clear vision of the goal as it is to be reached along both lines of development4 ,nevertheless1 ,judaism is in a true sense a religion of the people4 ,it is free from all priestly tutelage and hierarchical interference4 ,it has no ecclesiastical system of belief1 guarded and supervised by men invested with superior powers4 ,its teachers and leaders have always been men from among the people1 like the prophets of yore1 with no sacerdotal privilege or title2 in fact1 in his own household each father is the ,god-appointed teacher of his children47#bj7 #c4 ,neither is ,judaism the creation of a single person1 either prophet or a man with divine claims4 ,it points back to the patriarchs as its first source of revelation4 ,it speaks not of the ,god of ,moses1 of ,amos and ,isaiah1 but of the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 thereby declaring the ,jewish genius to be the creator of its own religious ideas4 ,it is therefore incorrect to speak of a 8,mosaic10 8,hebrew10 or 8,israelitish10 religion4 ,the name ,judaism alone expresses the preservation of the religious heritage of ,israel by the tribe of ,judah1 with a loyalty which was first displayed by ,judah himself in the patriarchal household1 and which became its characteristic virtue in the history of the various tribes4 ,likewise the rigid measures of ,ezra in expelling all foreign elements from the new commonwealth proved instrumental in impressing loyalty and piety upon ,jewish family life4 #d4 ,as it was bound up with the life of the ,jewish people1 ,judaism remained forever in close touch with the world4 ,therefore it appreciated adequately the boons of life1 and escaped being reduced to the shadowy form of 8otherworldliness407#ba7 ,it is a religion of life1 which it wishes to sanctify by duty rather than by laying stress on the hereafter4 ,it looks to the deed and the purity of the motive1 not to the empty creed and the blind belief4 ,nor is it a religion of redemption1 contemning this earthly life2 for ,judaism repudiates the assumption of a radical power of evil in man or in the world4 ,faith in the ultimate triumph of the good is essential to it4 ,in fact1 this perfect confidence in the final victory of truth and justice over all the powers of falsehood and wrong lent it both its wondrous intellectual force and its high idealism1 and adorned its adherents with the martyr's crown of thorns1 such as no other human brow has ever borne4 #e4 ,christianity and ,islam1 notwithstanding their alienation from ,judaism and frequent hostility1 are still daughter-religions4 ,in so far as they have sown the seeds of ,jewish truth over all the globe and have done their share in upbuilding the ,kingdom of ,god on earth1 they must be recognized as divinely appointed emissaries and agencies4 ,still ,judaism sets forth its doctrine of ,god's unity and of life's holiness in a far superior form than does ,christianity4 ,it neither permits the deity to be degraded into the sphere of the sensual and human1 nor does it base its morality upon a love bereft of the vital principle of justice4 ,against the rigid monotheism of ,islam1 which demands blind submission to the stern decrees of inexorable fate1 ,judaism on the other hand urges its belief in ,god's paternal love and mercy1 which educates all the children of men1 through trial and suffering1 for their high destiny4 #f4 ,judaism denies most emphatically the right of ,christianity or any other religion to arrogate to itself the title of 8the absolute religion0 or to claim to be 8the finest blossom and the ripest fruit of religious development40 ,as if any mortal man at any time or under any condition could say without presumption3 8,i am the ,truth0 or 8,no one cometh unto the ,father but by me407#bb7 8,when man was to proceed from the hands of his ,maker10 says the ,midrash1 8the ,holy ,one1 ,blessed be ,his name1 cast truth down to the earth1 saying1 #8,let truth spring forth from the earth1 and righteousness look down from heaven4' 07#bc7 ,the full unfolding of the religious and moral life of mankind is the work of countless generations yet to come1 and many divine heralds of truth and righteousness have yet to contribute their share4 ,in this work of untold ages1 ,judaism claims that it has achieved and is still achieving its full part as the prophetic world-religion4 ,its law of righteousness1 which takes for its scope the whole of human life1 in its political and social relations as well as its personal aspects1 forms the foundation of its ethics for all time2 while its hope for a future realization of the ,kingdom of ,god has actually become the aim of human history4 ,as a matter of fact1 when the true object of religion is the hallowing of life rather than the salvation of the soul1 there is little room left for sectarian exclusiveness1 or for a heaven for believers and a hell for unbelievers4 ,with this broad outlook upon life1 ,judaism lays claim1 not to perfection1 but to perfectibility2 it has supreme capacity for growing toward the highest ideals of mankind1 as beheld by the prophets in their ,messianic visions4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,jewish ,articles of ,faith #a4 ,in order to reach a clear opinion1 whether or not ,judaism has articles of faith in the sense of ,church dogmas1 a question so much discussed since the days of ,moses ,mendelssohn1 it seems necessary first to ascertain what faith in general means to the ,jew47#bd7 ,now the word used in ,jewish literature for faith is ,emunah1 from the root ,aman1 to be firm2 this denotes firm reliance upon ,god1 and likewise firm adherence to him1 hence both faith and faithfulness4 ,both ,scripture and the ,rabbis demanded confiding trust in ,god1 ,his messengers1 and ,his words1 not the formal acceptance of a prescribed belief47#be7 ,only when contact with the non-,jewish world emphasized the need for a clear expression of the belief in the unity of ,god1 such as was found in the ,shema17#bf7 and when the proselyte was expected to declare in some definite form the fundamentals of the faith he espoused1 was the importance of a concrete confession felt47#bg7 ,accordingly we find the beginnings of a formulated belief in the synagogal liturgy1 in the ,emeth we ,yatzib7#bh7 and the ,alenu17#bi7 while in the ,haggadah ,abraham is represented both as the exemplar of a hero of faith and as the type of a missionary1 wandering about to lead the heathen world towards the pure monotheistic faith47#cj7 ,while the ,jewish concept of faith underwent a certain transformation1 influenced by other systems of belief1 and the formulation of ,jewish doctrines appeared necessary1 particularly in opposition to the ,christian and ,mohammedan creeds1 still belief never became the essential part of religion1 conditioning salvation1 as in the ,church founded by ,paul4 ,for1 as pointed out above1 ,judaism lays all stress upon conduct1 not confession2 upon a hallowed life1 not a hollow creed4 #b4 ,there is no ,biblical nor ,rabbinical precept1 8,thou shalt believe60 ,jewish thinkers felt all the more the need to point out as fundamentals or roots of ,judaism those doctrines upon which it rests1 and from which it derives its vital force4 ,to the rabbis1 the 8root0 of faith is the recognition of a divine ,judge to whom we owe account for all our doings47#ca7 ,the recital of the ,shema1 which is called in the ,mishnah 8accepting the yoke of ,god's sovereignty10 and which is followed by the solemn affirmation1 8,true and firm belief is this for us07#cb7 7,emeth we ,yatzib or ,emeth we ,emunah71 is1 in fact1 the earliest form of the confession of faith47#cc7 ,in the course of time this confession of belief in the unity of ,god was no longer deemed sufficient to serve as basis for the whole structure of ,judaism2 so the various schools and authorities endeavored to work out in detail a series of fundamental doctrines4 #c4 ,the ,mishnah1 in ,sanhedrin1 ,x1 #a1 which seems to date back to the beginnings of ,pharisaism1 declares the following three to have no share in the world to come3 he who denies the resurrection of the dead2 he who says that the ,torah--both the written and the oral ,law--is not divinely revealed2 and the ,epicurean1 who does not believe in the moral government of the world47#cd7 ,we find here 7in reverse order1 owing to historical conditions71 the beliefs in ,revelation1 ,retribution1 and the ,hereafter singled out as the three fundamentals of ,rabbinical ,judaism4 ,rabbi ,hananel1 the great ,north ,african ,talmudist1 about the middle of the tenth century1 seems to have been under the influence of ,mohammedan and ,karaite doctrines1 when he speaks of four fundamentals of the faith3 ,god1 the prophets1 the future reward and punishment1 and the ,messiah47#ce7 #d4 ,the doctrine of the ,one and ,only ,god stands1 as a matter of course1 in the foreground4 ,philo of ,alexandria1 at the end of his treatise on ,creation1 singles out five principles which are bound up with it1 viz43 #a1 ,god's existence and ,his government of the world2 #b1 ,his unity2 #c1 the world as ,his creation2 #d1 the harmonious plan by which it was established2 and #e1 ,his ,providence4 ,josephus1 too1 in his apology for ,judaism written against ,apion17#cf7 emphasizes the belief in ,god's all-encompassing ,providence1 ,his incorporeality1 and ,his self-sufficiency as the ,creator of the universe4 ,the example of ,islam1 which had very early formulated a confession of faith of speculative character for daily recitation17#cg7 influenced first ,karaite and then ,rabbanite teachers to elaborate the ,jewish doctrine of ,one ,only ,god into a philosophic creed4 ,the ,karaites modeled their creed after the ,mohammedan pattern1 which gave them ten articles of faith2 of these the first three dwelt on3 #a1 creation out of nothing2 #b1 the existence of ,god1 the ,creator2 #c1 the unity and incorporeality of ,god47#ch7 ,abraham ben ,david 7,ibn ,daud7 of ,toledo sets forth in his 8,sublime ,faith0 six essentials of the ,jewish faith3 #a1 the existence2 #b1 the unity2 #c1 the incorporeality2 #d1 the omnipotence of ,god 7to this he subjoins the existence of angelic beings72 #e1 revelation and the immutability of the ,law2 and #f1 divine ,providence47#ci7 ,maimonides1 the greatest of all medieval thinkers1 propounded thirteen articles of faith1 which took the place of a creed in the ,synagogue for the following centuries1 as they were incorporated in the liturgy both in the form of a credo 7,ani ,maamin7 and in a poetic version4 ,his first five articles were3 #a1 the existence2 #b1 the unity2 #c1 the incorporeality2 #d1 the eternity of ,god2 and #e1 that ,he alone should be the object of worship2 to which we must add his #ajth1 divine ,providence47#dj7 ,others1 not satisfied with the purely metaphysical form of the ,maimonidean creed1 accentuated the doctrines of creation out of nothing and special ,providence47#da7 ,this speculative form of faith1 however1 has been most severely denounced by ,samuel ,david ,luzzatto 7#ahjj-ahfe7 as 8,atticism027#db7 that is1 the ,hellenistic or philosophic tendency to consider religion as a purely intellectual system1 instead of the great dynamic force for man's moral and spiritual elevation4 ,he holds that ,judaism1 as the faith transmitted to us from ,abraham1 our ancestor1 must be considered1 not as a mere speculative mode of reasoning1 but as a moral life force1 manifested in the practice of righteousness and brotherly love4 ,indeed1 this view is supported by modern ,biblical research1 which brings out as the salient point in ,biblical teaching the ethical character of the ,god taught by the prophets1 and shows that the essential truth of revelation is not to be found in a metaphysical but in an ethical monotheism4 ,at the same time1 the fact must not be overlooked that the ,jewish doctrine of ,god's unity was strengthened in the contest with the dualistic and trinitarian beliefs of other religions1 and that this unity gave ,jewish thought both lucidity and sublimity1 so that it has surpassed other faiths in intellectual power and in passion for truth4 ,the ,jewish conception of ,god thus makes truth1 as well as righteousness and love1 both a moral duty for man and a historical task comprising all humanity4 #e4 ,the second fundamental article of the ,jewish faith is divine revelation1 or1 as the ,mishnah expresses it1 the belief that the ,torah emanates from ,god 7min ha shamayim74 ,in the ,maimonidean thirteen articles1 this is divided into four3 his #fth1 belief in the prophets2 #g1 in the prophecy of ,moses as the greatest of all2 #h1 in the divine origin of the ,torah1 both the written and the oral ,law2 and #i1 its immutability4 ,the fundamental character of these1 however1 was contested by ,hisdai ,crescas and his disciples1 ,simon ,duran and ,joseph ,albo47#dc7 ,as a matter of fact1 they are based not so much upon ,rabbinical teaching as upon the prevailing views of ,mohammedan theology17#dd7 and were undoubtedly dictated by the desire to dispute the claims of ,christianity and ,islam that they represented a higher revelation4 ,our modern historical view1 however1 includes all human thought and belief2 it therefore rejects altogether the assumption of a supernatural origin of either the written or the oral ,torah1 and insists that the subject of prophecy1 revelation1 and inspiration in general be studied in the light of psychology and ethnology1 of general history and comparative religion4 #f4 ,the third fundamental article of the ,jewish faith is the belief in a moral government of the world1 which manifests itself in the reward of good and the punishment of evil1 either here or hereafter4 ,maimonides divides this into two articles1 which really belong together1 his #ajth1 ,god's knowledge of all human acts and motives1 and #aa1 reward and punishment4 ,the latter includes the hereafter and the last ,day of ,judgment1 which1 of course1 applies to all human beings4 #g4 ,closely connected with retribution is the belief in the resurrection of the dead1 which is last among the thirteen articles4 ,this belief1 which originally among the ,pharisees had a national and political character1 and was therefore connected especially with the ,holy ,land 7as will be seen in ,chapter ,,liv below71 received in the ,rabbinical schools more and more a universal form4 ,maimonides went so far as to follow the ,platonic view rather than that of the ,bible or the ,talmud1 and thus transformed it into a belief in the continuity of the soul after death4 ,in this form1 however1 it is actually a postulate1 or corollary1 of the belief in retribution4 #h4 ,the old hope for the national resurrection of ,israel took in the ,maimonidean system the form of a belief in the coming of the ,messiah 7article #ab71 to which1 in the commentary on the ,mishnah1 he gives the character of a belief in the restoration of the ,davidic dynasty4 ,joseph ,albo1 with others1 disputes strongly the fundamental character of this belief2 he shows the untenability of ,maimonides' position by referring to many ,talmudic passages1 and at the same time he casts polemical side glances upon the ,christian ,church1 which is really founded on ,messianism in the special form of its ,christology47#de7 ,jehuda ha ,levi1 in his ,cuzari1 substitutes for this as a fundamental doctrine the belief in the election of ,israel for its world-mission47#df7 ,it certainly redounds to the credit of the leaders of the modern ,reform movement that they took the election of ,israel rather than the ,messiah as their cardinal doctrine1 again bringing it home to the religious consciousness of the ,jew1 and placing it at the very center of their system4 ,in this way they reclaimed for the ,messianic hope the universal character which was originally given it by the great seer of the ,exile47#dg7 #i4 ,the thirteen articles of ,maimonides1 in setting forth a ,jewish ,credo1 formed a vigorous opposition to the ,christian and ,mohammedan creeds2 they therefore met almost universal acceptance among the ,jewish people1 and were given a place in the common prayerbook1 in spite of their deficiencies1 as shown by ,crescas and his school4 ,nevertheless1 we must admit that ,crescas shows the deeper insight into the nature of religion when he observes that the main fallacy of the ,maimonidean system lies in founding the ,jewish faith on speculative knowledge1 which is a matter of the intellect1 rather than love which flows from the heart1 and which alone leads to piety and goodness4 ,true love1 he says1 requires the belief neither in retribution nor in immortality4 ,moreover1 in striking contrast to the insistence of ,maimonides or the immutability of the ,mosaic ,law1 ,crescas maintains the possibility of its continuous progress in accordance with the intellectual and spiritual needs of the time1 or1 what amounts to the same thing1 the continuous perfectibility of the revealed ,law itself47#dh7 ,thus the criticism of ,crescas leads at once to a radically different theology than that of ,maimonides1 and one which appeals far more to our own religious thought4 #aj4 ,another doctrine of ,judaism1 which was greatly underrated by medieval scholars1 and which has been emphasized in modern times only in contrast to the ,christian theory of original sin1 is that man was created in the image of ,god4 ,judaism holds that the soul of man came forth pure from the hand of its ,maker1 endowed with freedom1 unsullied by any inherent evil or inherited sin4 ,thus man is1 through the exercise of his own free will1 capable of attaining to an ever higher degree his mental1 moral1 and spiritual powers in the course of history4 ,this is the ,biblical idea of ,god's spirit as immanent in man2 all prophetic truth is based upon it2 and though it was often obscured1 this theory was voiced by many of the masters of ,rabbinical lore1 such as ,r4 ,akiba and others47#di7 #aa4 ,every attempt to formulate the doctrines or articles of faith of ,judaism was made1 in order to guard the ,jewish faith from the intrusion of foreign beliefs1 never to impose disputed beliefs upon the ,jewish community itself4 ,many1 indeed1 challenged the fundamental character of the thirteen articles of ,maimonides4 ,albo reduced them to three1 viz43 the belief in ,god1 in revelation1 and retribution2 others1 with more arbitrariness than judgement1 singled out three1 five1 six1 or even more as principal doctrines27#ej7 while rigid conservatives1 such as ,isaac ,abravanel and ,david ben ,zimra1 altogether disapproved the attempt to formulate articles of faith4 ,the former maintained that every word in the ,torah is1 in fact1 a principle of faith1 and the latter7#ea7 pointed in the same way to the #fac commandments of the ,torah1 spoken of by ,r4 ,simlai the ,haggadist in the third century47#eb7 ,the present age of historical research imposes the same necessity of restatement or reformulation upon us4 ,we must do as ,maimonides did1--as ,jews have always done1--point out anew the really fundamental doctrines1 and discard those which have lost their holdup on the modern ,jew1 or which conflict directly with his religious consciousness4 ,if ,judaism is to retain its prominent position among the powers of thought1 and to be clearly understood by the modern world1 it must again reshape its religious truths in harmony with the dominant ideas of the age4 ,many attempts of this character have been made by modern rabbis and teachers1 most of them founded upon ,albo's three articles4 ,those who penetrated somewhat more deeply into the essence of ,judaism added a fourth article1 the belief in ,israel's priestly mission1 and at the same time1 instead of the belief in retribution1 included the doctrine of man's kinship with ,god1 or1 if one may coin the word1 his ,god-childship47#ec7 ,few1 however1 have succeeded in working out the entire content of the ,jewish faith from a modern viewpoint1 which must include historical1 critical1 and psychological research1 as well as the study of comparative religion4 #ab4 ,the following tripartite plan is that of the present attempt to present the doctrines of ,judaism systematically along the lines of historical development3 ,i4 ,,god a4 ,man's consciousness of ,god1 and divine revelation4 b4 ,god's spirituality1 ,his unity1 ,his holiness1 ,his perfection4 c4 ,his relation to the world3 ,creation and ,providence4 d4 ,his relation to man3 ,his justice1 ,his love and mercy4 ,,ii4 ,,man a4 ,man's ,god-childship2 his moral freedom and yearning for ,god4 b4 ,sin and repentance2 prayer and worship2 immortality1 reward and punishment4 c4 ,man and humanity3 the moral factors in history4 ,,iii4 ,,israel ,,and ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god a4 ,the priest-mission of ,israel1 its destiny as teacher and martyr among the nations1 and its ,messianic hope4 b4 ,the ,kingdom of ,god3 the nations and religions of the world in a divine plan of universal salvation4 c4 ,the ,synagogue and its institutions4 d4 ,the ethics of ,judaism and the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,,part ,i4 ,,god ,a4 ,god ,as ,he ,makes ,himself ,known ,to ,man ,chapter ,v4 ,man's ,consciousness of ,god and ,belief in ,god #a4 ,holy ,writ employs two terms for religion1 both of which lay stress upon its moral and spiritual nature3 ,yirath ,elohim--8fear of ,god0--and ,daath ,elohim--8knowledge or consciousness of ,god40 ,whatever the fear of ,god may have meant in the lower stages of primitive religion1 in the ,biblical and ,rabbinical conceptions it exercises a wholesome moral effect2 it stirs up the conscience and keeps man from wrongdoing4 ,where fear of ,god is lacking1 violence and vice are rife27#ed7 it keeps society in order and prompts the individual to walk in the path of duty4 ,hence it is called 8the beginning of wisdom407#ee7 ,the divine revelation of ,sinai accentuates as its main purpose 8to put the fear of ,god into the hearts of the people1 lest they sin407#ef7 #b4 ,god-consciousness1 or 8knowledge of ,god10 signifies an inner experience which impels man to practice the right and to shun evil1 the recognition of ,god as the moral power of life4 8,because there is no knowledge of ,god10 therefore do the people heap iniquity upon iniquity1 says ,hosea1 and he hopes to see the broken covenant with the ,lord renewed through faithfulness grounded on the consciousness of ,god47#eg7 ,jeremiah also insists upon 8the knowledge of ,god0 as a moral force1 and1 like ,hosea1 he anticipates the renewal of the broken covenant when 8the ,lord shall write ,his law upon the heart0 of the people1 and 8they shall all know ,him from the least of them unto the greatest of them407#eh7 ,wherever ,scripture speaks of 8knowledge of ,god107#ei7 it always means the moral and spiritual recognition of the ,deity as life's inmost power1 determining human conduct1 and by no means refers to mere intellectual perception of the truth of ,jewish monotheism1 which is to refute the diverse forms of polytheism4 ,this misconception of the term 8knowledge of ,god10 as used in the ,bible1 led the leading medieval thinkers of ,judaism1 especially the school of ,maimonides1 and even down to ,mendelssohn1 into the error of confusing religion and philosophy1 as if both resulted from pure reason4 ,it is man's moral nature rather than his intellectual capacity1 that leads him 8to know ,god and walk in ,his ways407#fj7 #c4 ,it is mainly through the conscience that man becomes conscious of ,god4 ,he sees himself1 a moral being1 guided by motives which lend a purpose to his acts and his omissions1 and thus feels that this purpose of his must somehow be in accord with a higher purpose1 that of a ,power who directs and controls the whole of life4 ,the more he sees purpose ruling individuals and nations1 the more will his ,god-consciousness grow into the conviction that there is but ,one and ,only ,god1 who in awful grandeur holds dominion over the world4 ,this is the developmental process of religious truth1 as it is unfolded by the prophets and as it underlies the historic framework of the ,bible4 ,in this light ,jewish monotheism appears as the ripe fruitage of religion in its universal as well as its primitive form of ,god-consciousness1 as the highest attainment of man in his eternal seeking after ,god4 ,polytheism1 on the other hand1 with its idolatrous and immoral practices1 appeared to the prophets and lawgivers of ,israel to be1 not a competing religion1 but simply a falling away from ,god4 ,they felt it to be a loss or eclipse of the genuine ,god-consciousness4 ,the object of revelation1 therefore1 is to lead back all mankind to the ,god whom it had deserted1 and to restore to all men their primal consciousness of ,god1 with its power of moral regeneration4 #d4 ,in the same degree as this ,god-consciousness grows stronger1 it crystallizes into belief in ,god1 and culminates in love of ,god4 ,as stated above17#fa7 in ,judaism belief--,emunah--never denotes the acceptance of a creed4 ,it is rather the confiding trust by which the frail mortal finds a firm hold on ,god amidst the uncertainties and anxieties of life1 the search for ,his shelter in distress1 the reliance on ,his ever-ready help when one's own powers fail4 ,the believer is like a little child who follows confidingly the guidance of his father1 and feels safe when near his arm4 ,in fact1 the double meaning of ,emunah1 faith and faithfulness1 suggests man's child-like faith in the paternal faithfulness of ,god4 ,the patriarch ,abraham is presented in both ,biblical and ,rabbinical writings as the pattern of such a faith17#fb7 and the ,jewish people likewise are characterized in the ,talmud as 8believers1 sons of believers407#fc7 ,the ,midrash extols such life-cheering faith as the power which inspires true heroism and deeds of valor47#fd7 #e4 ,the highest triumph of ,god-consciousness1 however1 is attained in love of ,god such as can renounce cheerfully all the boons of life and undergo the bitterest woe without a murmur4 ,the book of ,deuteronomy inculcates love of ,god as the beginning and the end of the ,law17#fe7 and the rabbis declare it to be the highest type of human perfection4 ,in commenting upon the verse1 8,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 with all thy soul1 and with all thy might10 they say3 8,love the ,law1 even when thy life is demanded as its price1 nay1 even with the last breath of thy body1 with a heart that has no room for dissent1 amid every visitation of destiny607#ff7 ,they point to the tragic martyrdom of ,r4 ,akiba as an example of such a love sealed by death4 ,in like manner they refer the expression1 8they that love ,thee107#fg7 to those who bear insults without resentment2 who hear themselves abused without retort2 who do good unselfishly1 without caring for recognition2 and who cheerfully suffer as a test of their fortitude and their love of ,god47#fh7 ,thus throughout all ,rabbinical literature love of ,god is regarded as the highest principle of religion and as the ideal of human perfection1 which was exemplified by ,job1 according to the oldest ,haggadah1 and1 according to the ,mishnah1 by ,abraham47#fi7 ,another interpretation of the verse cited from ,deuteronomy reads1 8,love ,god in such a manner that thy fellow-creatures may love ,him owing to thy deeds407#gj7 ,all these passages and many others7#ga7 show what a prominent place the principle of love occupied in ,judaism4 ,this is1 indeed1 best voiced in the ,song of ,songs37#gb7 8,for love is strong as death2 the flashes thereof are flashes of fire1 a very flame of the ,lord4 ,many waters cannot quench that love1 neither can the floods drown it40 ,it set the heart of the ,jew aglow during all the centuries1 prompting him to sacrifice his life and all that was dear to him for the glorification of his ,god1 to undergo for his faith a martyrdom without parallel in history4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,revelation1 ,prophecy1 and ,inspiration #a4 ,divine revelation signifies two different things3 first1 ,god's self-revelation1 which the ,rabbis called ,gilluy ,shekinah1 8the manifestation of the divine ,presence10 and1 second1 the revelation of ,his will1 for which they used the term ,torah min ha ,shamayim1 8the ,law as emanating from ,god407#gc7 ,the former appealed to the child-like belief of the ,biblical age1 which took no offense at anthropomorphic ideas1 such as the descent of ,god from heaven to earth1 ,his appearing to men in some visible form1 or any other miracle2 the latter appears to be more acceptable to those of more advanced religious views4 ,both conceptions1 however1 imply that the religious truth of revelation was communicated to man by a special act of ,god4 #b4 ,each creative act is a mystery beyond the reach of human observation4 ,in all fields of endeavor the flashing forth of genius impresses us as the work of a mysterious force1 which acts upon an elect individual or nation and brings it into close touch with the divine4 ,in the religious genius especially is this true2 for in him all the spiritual forces of the age seem to be energized and set into motion1 then to burst forth into a new religious consciousness1 which is to revolutionize religious thought and feeling4 ,in a child-like age when the emotional life and the imagination predominate1 and man's mind1 still receptive1 is overwhelmed by mighty visions1 the ,deity stirs the soul in some form perceptible to the senses4 ,thus the 8seer0 assumes a trance-like state where the ,ego1 the self-conscious personality1 is pushed into the background2 he becomes a passive instrument1 the mouthpiece of the ,deity2 from ,him he receives a message to the people1 and in his vision he beholds ,god who sends him4 ,this appearance of ,god upon the background of the soul1 which reflects ,him like a mirror1 is ,revelation47#gd7 #c4 ,the states of the soul when men see such visions of the ,deity predominate in the beginnings of all religions4 ,accordingly1 ,scripture ascribes such revelations to non-,israelites as well as to the patriarchs and prophets of ,israel1--to ,abimelek and ,laban1 ,balaam1 ,job1 and ,eliphaz47#ge7 ,therefore the ,jewish prophet is not distinguished from the rest by the capability to receive divine revelation1 but rather by the intrinsic nature of the revelation which he receives4 ,his vision comes from a moral ,god4 ,the ,jewish genius perceived ,god as the moral power of life1 whether in the form expressed by ,abraham1 ,moses1 ,elijah1 or by the literary prophets1 and all of these1 coming into touch with ,him1 were lifted into a higher sphere1 where they received a new truth1 hitherto hidden from man4 ,in speaking through them1 ,god appeared actually to have stepped into the sphere of human life as its moral ,ruler4 ,this self-revelation of ,god as the ,ruler of man in righteousness1 which must be viewed in the life of any prophet as a providential act1 forms the great historical sequence in the history of ,israel1 upon which rests the ,jewish religion47#gf7 #d4 ,the divine revelation in ,israel was by no means a single act1 but a process of development1 and its various stages correspond to the degrees of culture of the people4 ,for this reason the great prophets also depended largely upon dreams and visions1 at least in their consecration to the prophetic mission1 when one solemn act was necessary4 ,after that the message itself and its new moral content set the soul of the prophet astir4 ,not the vision or its imagery1 but the new truth itself seizes him with irresistible force1 so that he is carried away by the divine power and speaks as the mouthpiece of ,god1 using lofty poetic diction while in a state of ecstacy4 ,hence he speaks of ,god in the first person4 ,the highest stage of all is that where the prophet receives the divine truth in the form of pure thought and with complete self-consciousness4 ,therefore the ,scripture says of ,moses and of no other1 8,the ,lord spoke to ,moses face to face1 as a man speaks to another407#gg7 #e4 ,the story of the giving of the ,law on ,mount ,sinai is in reality the revelation of ,god to the people of ,israel as part of the great world-drama of history4 ,accordingly1 the chief emphasis is laid upon the miraculous element1 the descent of the ,lord to the mountain in fire and storm1 amid thunder and lightning1 while the ,ten ,words themselves were proclaimed by ,moses as ,god's herald47#gh7 ,as a matter of fact1 the first words of the narrative state its purpose1 the consecration of the ,jewish people at the outset of their history to be a nation of prophets and priests47#gi7 ,therefore the rabbis lay stress upon the acceptance of the ,law by the people in saying3 8,all that the ,lord sayeth we shall do and hearken407#hj7 ,from a larger point of view1 we see here the dramatized form of the truth of ,israel's election by divine ,providence for its historic religious mission4 #f4 ,the rabbis ascribed the gifts of prophecy to pagans as well as ,israelites at least as late as the erection of the ,tabernacle1 after which the ,divine ,presence dwelt there in the midst of ,israel47#ha7 ,they say that each of the ,jewish prophets was endowed with a peculiar spiritual power that corresponded with his character and his special training1 the highest1 of course1 being ,moses1 whom they called 8the father of the prophets407#hb7 ,the medieval ,jewish thinkers1 following the lead of ,mohammedan philosophers or theologians1 regard revelation quite differently1 as an inner process in the mind of the prophet4 ,according to their mystical or rationalistic viewpoint1 they describe it as the result of the divine spirit1 working upon the soul either from within or from without4 ,these two standpoints betray either the ,platonic or the ,aristotelian influence47#hc7 ,indeed1 the rabbis themselves showed traces of neo-,platonism when they described the ecstatic state of the prophets1 or when they spoke of the divine spirit speaking through the prophet as through a vocal instrument1 or when they made distinctions between seeing the ,deity 8in a bright mirror0 or 8through a dark glass407#hd7 ,the view most remote from the simple one of the ,bible is the rationalistic standpoint of ,maimonides1 who1 following altogether in the footsteps of the ,arabic neo-,aristotelians1 assumed that there were different degrees of prophecy1 depending upon the influence exerted upon the human intellect by the sphere of the ,highest ,intelligence4 ,he enumerates eleven such grades1 of which ,moses had the highest rank1 as he entered into direct communication with the supreme intellectual sphere4 ,still bolder is his explanation of the revelation on ,sinai4 ,he holds that the first two words were understood by the people directly as logical evidences of truth1 for they enunciated the philosophical doctrines of the existence and unity of ,god1 whereas the other words they understood only as sounds without meaning1 so that ,moses had to interpret them47#he7 ,in contrast to this amazing rationalism of ,maimonides is the view of ,jehuda ha ,levi1 who asserts that the gift of prophecy became the specific privilege of the descendants of ,abraham after their consecration as ,god's chosen people at ,sinai1 and that the holy soil of ,palestine was assigned to them as the habitation best adapted to its exercise47#hf7 ,the other attempt of some rationalistic thinkers of the ,middle ,ages to have a 8sound created for the purpose07#hg7 of uttering the words 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 rather than accepting the anthropomorphic ,deity1 merits no consideration whatever4 #g4 ,it is an indisputable fact of history that the ,jewish people1 on account of its peculiar religious bent1 was predestined to be the people of revelation4 ,its leading spirits1 its prophets and psalmists1 its law-givers and inspired writers differ from the seers1 singers1 and sages of other nations by their unique and profound insight into the moral nature of the ,deity4 ,in striking contrast is the progress of thought in ,greece1 where the awakening of the ethical consciousness caused a rupture between the culture of the philosophers and the popular religion1 and led to a final decay of the political and social life4 ,the prophets of ,israel1 however1 the typical men of genius of their people1 gradually brought about an advance of popular religion1 so that they could finally present as their highest ideal the ,god of the fathers1 and make the knowledge of ,his will the foundation of the law of holiness1 by which they desired to regulate the entire conduct of man4 ,thus1 religion was no longer confined by the limits of nationality1 but was transformed into a spiritual force for all mankind1 to lead through a revelation of the ,one and ,holy ,god toward the highest morality4 #h4 ,the development of thought brought the ,god-seeking spirits to the desire to know ,his will1 or1 in ,scriptural language1 ,his ways1 in order to attain holiness in their pursuit4 ,the natural consequence was the gradual receding of the power of imagination which had made the enraptured seer behold ,god ,himself in visions4 ,as the ,deity rose more and more above the realm of the visible1 the newly conceived truth was realized as coming to the sacred writer through the spirit of ,god or an angel4 ,inspiration took the place of revelation4 ,this1 however1 still implies a passive attitude of the soul carried away by the truth it receives from on high4 ,this supernatural element disappears gradually and passes over into sober1 self-conscious thought1 in which the writer no longer thinks of ,god as the ,ego speaking through him1 but as an outside ,power spoken of in the third person4 ,a still lower degree of inspiration is represented by those writings which lack altogether the divine afflatus1 and to which is ascribed a share of the holy spirit only through general consensus of opinion4 ,often this imprint of the divine is not found in them by the calm judgment of a later generation1 and the exact basis for the classification of such writings among the holy books is sometimes difficult to state4 ,we can only conclude that in the course of time they were regarded as holy by that very spirit which was embodied in the ,synagogue and its founders1 8the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue10 who in their work of canonizing the ,sacred ,scriptures were believed to have been under the influence of the holy spirit47#hh7 #i4 ,except for the five books of ,moses1 the idea of a mechanical inspiration of the ,bible is quite foreign to ,judaism4 ,not until the second ,christian century did the rabbis finally decide on such questions as the inspiration of certain books among the ,hagiographa or even among the ,prophets1 or whether certain books now excluded from the canon were not of equal rank with the canonical ones47#hi7 ,in fact1 the influence of the holy spirit was for some time ascribed1 not only to ,biblical writers1 but also to living masters of the law47#ij7 ,the fact is that divine influence cannot be measured by the yardstick or the calendar4 ,where it is felt1 it bursts forth as from a higher world1 creating for itself its proper organs and forms4 ,the rabbis portray ,god as saying to ,israel1 8,not ,i in ,my higher realm1 but you with your human needs fix the form1 the measure1 the time1 and the mode of expression for that which is divine407#ia7 #aj4 ,while ,christianity and ,islam1 its daughter-religions1 must admit the existence of a prior revelation1 ,judaism knows of none4 ,it claims its own prophetic truth as the revelation1 admits the title ,books of ,revelation 7,bible7 only for its own sacred writings1 and calls the ,jewish nation alone the ,people of ,revelation4 ,the ,church and the ,mosque achieved great things in propagating the truths of the ,sinaitic revelation among the nations1 but added to it no new truths of an essential nature4 ,indeed1 they rather obscured the doctrines of ,god's unity and holiness4 ,on the other hand1 the people of the ,sinaitic revelation looked to it with a view of ever revitalizing the dead letter1 thus evolving ever new rules of life and new ideas1 without ever placing new and old in opposition1 as was done by the founder of the ,church4 ,each generation was to take to heart the words of ,scripture as if they had come 8this very day0 out of the mouth of the ,lord47#ib7 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,torah--the ,divine ,instruction #a4 ,during the ,babylonian ,exile the prophetic word became the source of comfort and rejuvenation for the ,jewish people4 ,now in its place ,ezra the ,scribe made the ,book of the ,law of ,moses the pivot about which the entire life of the people was to revolve4 ,by regular readings from it to the assembled worshipers1 he made it the source of common instruction4 ,instead of the priestly ,law1 which was concerned only with the regulation of the ritual life1 the ,law became the people's book of instruction1 a ,torah for all alike17#ic7 while the prophetic books were made secondary and were employed by the preacher at the conclusion of the service as 8words of consolation407#id7 ,upon the ,pentateuch was built up the divine service of the ,synagogue as well as the whole system of communal life1 with both its law and ethics4 ,the prophets and other sacred books were looked upon only as means of 8opening up0 or illustrating the contents of the ,torah4 ,these other parts of the ,mikra 78the collection of books for public reading07 were declared to be inferior in holiness1 so that1 according to the ,rabbinical rule1 they were not even allowed to be put into the same scroll as the ,pentateuch47#ie7 ,moreover1 neither the number1 order1 nor the division of the ,biblical books was fixed4 ,the ,talmud gives #bd1 ,josephus only #bb47if7 ,tradition claims a completely divine origin only for the ,pentateuch or ,torah1 while the rabbis often point out the human element in the other two classes of the ,biblical collection47#ig7 #b4 ,the traditional belief in the divine origin of the ,torah includes not only every word1 but also the accepted interpretation of each letter1 for both written and oral law are ascribed to the revelation to ,moses on ,mt4 ,sinai1 to be transmitted thence from generation to generation4 ,whoever denies the divine origin of either the written or the oral law is declared to be an unbeliever who has no share in the world to come1 according to the ,tannaitic code1 and consequently according to ,maimonides7#ih7 also4 ,but here arises a question of vital importance3 ,what becomes of the ,torah as the divine foundation of ,judaism under the study of modern times8 ,even conservative investigators1 such as ,frankel1 ,graetz1 and ,isaac ,hirsch ,weiss1 not to mention such radicals as ,zunz and ,geiger1 admit the gradual progress and growth of this very system of law1 both oral and written4 ,and if different historical conditions have produced the development of the law itself1 we must assume a number of human authors in place of a single act of divine revelation47#ii7 #c4 ,but another question of equal importance confronts us here1 the meaning of ,torah4 ,originally1 no doubt1 ,torah signified the instruction given by the priests on ritual or juridical matters4 ,out of these decisions arose the written laws 7,toroth71 which the priesthood in the course of time collected into codes4 ,after a further process of development they appeared as the various books of ,moses1 which were finally united into the ,code or ,torah4 ,this ,torah was the foundation of the new ,judean commonwealth1 the 8heritage of the congregation of ,jacob407#ajj7 ,the priestly ,torah1 lightly regarded during the prophetic period1 was exalted by post-exilic ,judaism1 so that the ,sadducean priesthood and their successors1 the rabbis1 considered strict observance of the legal form to be the very essence of religion4 ,is this1 then1 the true nature of ,judaism8 ,is it really--as ,christian theologians have held ever since the days of ,paul1 the great antagonist of ,judaism--mere nomism1 a religion of law1 which demanded formal compliance with its statutes without regard to their inner value8 ,or shall we rather follow ,rabbi ,simlai1 the ,haggadist1 who first enumerated the #fac commandments of the ,torah 7mandatory and prohibitive71 considering that their one aim is the higher moral law1 in that they are all summed up by a few ethical principles1 which he finds in the #aeth ,psalm1 ,isaiah ,,xxxiii1 #ae2 ,micah ,,vi1 #h2 ,isaiah ,,lvi1 #a2 and ,amos ,v1 #d87aja7 #d4 ,all these questions have but one answer1 a reconciling one1 ,judaism has the two factors1 the priest with his regard for the law and the prophet with his ethical teaching2 and the ,jewish ,torah embodies both aspects1 law and doctrine4 ,these two elements became more and more correlated1 as the different parts of the ,pentateuch which embodied them were molded together into the one scroll of the ,law4 ,in fact1 the prophet ,jeremiah1 in denouncing the priesthood for its neglect of the principles of justice1 and rebuking scathingly the people for their wrongdoing1 pointed to the divine law of righteousness as the one which should be written upon the hearts of men47#ajb7 ,likewise1 in the book of ,deuteronomy1 which was the product of joint activity by prophet and priest1 the ,law was built upon the highest moral principle1 the love of ,god and man4 ,in a still larger sense the ,pentateuch as a whole contains priestly law and universal religion intertwined4 ,in it the eternal verities of the ,jewish faith1 ,god's omnipotence1 omniscience1 and moral government of the world1 are conveyed in the historical narratives as an introduction to the law4 #e4 ,thus the ,torah as the expression of ,judaism was never limited to a mere system of law4 ,at the outset it served as a book of instruction concerning ,god and the world and became ever richer as a source of knowledge and speculation1 because all knowledge from other sources was brought into relation with it through new modes of interpretation4 ,various systems of philosophy and theology were built upon it4 ,nay more1 the ,torah became divine ,wisdom itself17#ajc7 the architect of the ,creator1 the beginning and end of creation47#ajd7 ,while the term ,torah thus received an increasingly comprehensive meaning1 the rabbis1 as exponents of orthodox ,judaism1 came to consider the ,pentateuch as the only book of revelation1 every letter of which emanated directly from ,god4 ,the other books of the ,bible they regarded as due only to the indwelling of the holy spirit1 or to the presence of ,god1 the ,shekinah4 ,moreover1 they held that changes by the prophets and other sacred writers were anticipated1 in essentials1 in the ,torah itself1 and were therefore only its expansions and interpretations4 ,accordingly1 they are frequently quoted as parts of the ,torah or as 8words of tradition407#aje7 #f4 ,orthodox ,judaism1 then1 accepted as a fundamental doctrine the view that both the ,mosaic ,law and its ,rabbinical interpretation were given by ,god to ,moses on ,mt4 ,sinai4 ,this viewpoint is contradicted by all our knowledge and our whole mode of thinking1 and thus both our historical and religious consciousness constrain us to take the position of the prophets4 ,to them and to us the real ,torah is the unwritten moral law which underlies the precepts of both the written law and its oral interpretation4 ,from this point of view1 ,moses1 as the first of the prophets1 becomes the first mediator of the divine legislation1 and the original ,decalogue is seen to be the starting point of a long process of development1 from which grew the laws of righteousness and holiness that were to rule the life of ,israel and of mankind47#ajf7 #g4 ,the time of composition of the various parts of the ,pentateuch1 including the ,decalogue1 must be decided by independent critical and historical research4 ,it is sufficient for us to know that since the time of ,ezra the foundation of ,judaism has been the completed ,torah1 with its twofold aspect as law and as doctrine4 ,as law it contributed to the marvelous endurance and resistance of the ,jewish people1 inasmuch as it imbued them with the proud consciousness of possessing a law superior to that of other nations1 one which would endure as long as heaven and earth47#ajg7 ,furthermore1 it permeated ,judaism with a keen sense of duty and imprinted the ideal of holiness upon the whole of life4 ,at the same time it gave rise also to ritualistic piety1 which1 while tenaciously clinging to the traditional practice of the law1 fostered hair-splitting casuistry and caused the petrifaction of religion in the codified ,halakah4 ,as doctrine it impressed its ethical and humane idealism upon the people1 lifting them far above the narrow confines of nationality1 and making them a nation of thinkers4 ,hence their eagerness for their mission to impart the wisdom stored in their writings to all humanity as its highest boon and the very essence of divine wisdom4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,god's ,covenant #a4 ,judaism has one specific term for religion1 representing the moral relation between ,god and man1 namely1 ,berith1 covenant4 ,the covenant was concluded by ,god with the patriarchs and with ,israel by means of sacrificial blood1 according to the primitive custom by which tribes or individuals became 8blood brothers10 when they were both sprinkled with the sacrificial blood or both drank of it47#ajh7 ,the first covenant of ,god was made after the flood1 with ,noah as the representative of mankind2 it was intended to assure him and all coming generations of the perpetual maintenance of the natural order without interruption by flood1 and at the same time to demand of all mankind the observance of certain laws1 such as not to shed1 or eat1 blood4 ,here at the very beginning of history religion is taken as the universal basis of human morality1 so developing at the outset the fundamental principle of ,judaism that it rests upon a religion of humanity1 which it desires to establish in all purity4 ,as the universal idea of man forms thus its beginning1 so ,judaism will attain its final goal only in a divine covenant comprising all humanity4 ,both the rabbis and the ,hellenistic writers consider the covenant of ,noah with its so-called ,noahitic commandments as unwritten laws of humanity4 ,in fact1 they are referred to ,adam also1 so that religion appears in its essence as nothing else than a covenant of ,god with all mankind47#aji7 #b4 ,accordingly1 ,judaism is a special basis of relationship between ,god and ,israel4 ,far from superseding the universal covenant with ,noah1 or confining it to the ,jewish people1 this covenant aims to reclaim all members of the human family for the wider covenant from which they have relapsed4 ,god chose for this purpose ,abraham as the one who was faithful to ,his moral law1 and made a special covenant with him for all his descendants1 that they might foster justice and righteousness1 at first within the narrow sphere of the nation1 and then in ever-widening circles of humanity47#aaj7 ,yet the covenant with ,abraham was only the precursor of the covenant concluded with ,israel through ,moses on ,mt4 ,sinai1 by which the ,jewish people were consecrated to be the eternal guardians of the divine covenant with mankind1 until the time when it shall encompass all the nations47#aaa7 #c4 ,in this covenant of ,sinai1 referred to by the prophet ,elijah1 and afterward by many others1 the free moral relationship of man to ,god is brought out2 this forms the characteristic feature of a revealed religion in contradistinction to natural religion4 ,in paganism the ,deity formed an inseparable part of the nation itself2 but through the covenant ,god became a free moral power1 appealing for allegiance to the spiritual nature of man4 ,this idea of the covenant suggested to the prophet ,hosea the analogy with the conjugal relation17#aab7 a conception of love and loyalty which became typical of the tender relation of ,god to ,israel through the centuries4 ,in days of direst woe ,jeremiah and the book of ,deuteronomy invested this covenant with the character of indestructibility and inviolability47#aac7 ,god's covenant with ,israel is everlasting like that with the heaven and the earth2 it is ever to be renewed in the hearts of the people1 but never to be replaced by a new covenant4 ,upon this eternal renewal of the covenant with ,god rests the unique history of ,judaism1 its wondrous preservation and regeneration throughout the ages4 ,paul's doctrine of a new covenant to replace the old7#aad7 conflicts with the very idea of the covenant1 and even with the words of ,jeremiah4 #d4 ,the ,israelitish nation inherited from ,abraham1 according to the priestly ,code1 the rite of circumcision as a 8sign of the covenant107#aae7 but under the prophetic influence1 with its loathing of all sacrificial blood1 the ,sabbath was placed in the foreground as 8the sign between ,god and ,israel407#aaf7 ,in ancient ,israel and in the ,judean commonwealth the ,abrahamitic rite formed the initiation into the nationality for aliens and slaves1 by which they were made full-fledged ,jews4 ,with the dispersion of the ,jewish people over the globe1 and the influence of ,hellenism1 ,judaism created a propaganda in favor of a world-wide religion of 8,god-fearing0 men pledged to the observance of the ,noahitic or humanitarian laws4 ,rabbinism in ,palestine called such a one ,ger ,toshab--sojourner1 or semi-proselyte2 while the full proselyte who accepted the ,abrahamitic rite was called ,ger ,zedek1 or proselyte of righteousness47#aag7 ,not only the ,hellenistic writings1 but also the ,psalms1 the liturgy1 and the older ,rabbinical literature give evidence of such a propaganda17#aah7 but it may be traced back as far as ,deutero-,isaiah1 during the reign of ,cyrus4 ,his outlook toward a ,jewish religion which should be at the same time a religion of all the world1 is evident when he calls ,israel 8a mediator of the covenant between ,god and the nations10 a 8light to the peoples10--a regenerator of humanity47#aai7 #e4 ,this hope of a universal religion1 which rings through the ,psalms1 the ,wisdom books and the ,hellenistic literature1 was soon destined to grow faint4 ,the perils of ,judaism in its great struggles with the ,syrian and ,roman empires made for intense nationalism1 and the ,jewish covenant shared this tendency4 ,the early ,christian ,church1 the successor of the missionary activity of ,hellenistic ,judaism1 labored also at first for the ,noahitic covenant47#abj7 ,pauline ,christianity1 however1 with a view to tearing down the barrier between ,jew and ,gentile1 proclaimed a new covenant1 whose central idea is belief in the atoning power of the crucified son of ,god47#aba7 ,indeed1 one medieval ,rabbinical authority holds that we are to regard ,christians as semi-proselytes1 as they practically observe the ,noahitic laws of humanity47#abb7 #f4 ,progressive ,judaism of our own time has the great task of re-emphasizing ,israel's world-mission and of reclaiming for ,judaism its place as the priesthood of humanity4 ,it is to proclaim anew the prophetic idea of ,god's covenant with humanity1 whose force had been lost1 owing to inner and outer obstacles4 ,israel1 as the people of the covenant1 aims to unite all nations and classes of men in the divine covenant4 ,it must outlast all other religions in its certainty that ultimately there can be but the one religion1 uniting ,god and man by a single bond47#abc7 ,b4 ,the ,idea ,of ,god ,in ,judaism ,chapter ,,ix4 ,god and the ,gods #a4 ,judaism centers upon its sublime and simple conception of ,god4 ,this lifts it above all other religions and satisfies in unique measure the longing for truth and inner peace amidst the futility and incessant changes of earthly existence4 ,this very conception of ,god is in striking contrast to that of most other religions4 ,the ,god of ,judaism is not one god among many1 nor one of many powers of life1 but is the ,one and holy ,god beyond all comparison4 ,in ,him is concentrated all power and the essence of all things2 ,he is the ,author of all existence1 the ,ruler of life1 who lays down the laws by which man shall live4 ,as the prophet says to the heathen world3 8,the gods that have not made the heavens and the earth1 these shall perish from the earth and from under the heavens4444 ,not like these is the portion of ,jacob2 for ,he is the ,former of all things4444 ,the ,lord is the true ,god2 ,he is the living ,god and the everlasting ,king2 at ,his wrath the earth trembleth1 and the nations are not able to abide ,his indignation407#abd7 #b4 ,this lofty conception of the ,deity forms the essence of ,judaism and was its shield and buckler in its lifelong contest with the varying forms of heathenism4 ,from the very first the ,god of ,judaism declared war against them all1 whether at any special time the prevailing form was the worship of many gods1 or the worship of ,god in the shape of man1 the perversion of the purity of ,god by sensual concepts1 or the division of ,his unity into different parts or personalities4 ,the ,talmudic saying is most striking3 8,from ,sinai1 the ,mount of revelation of the only ,god1 there came forth ,sinah1 the hostility of the nations toward the ,jew as the banner-bearer of the pure idea of ,god407#abe7 ,just as day and night form a natural contrast1 divinely ordained1 so do the monotheism of ,israel and the polytheism of the nations constitute a spiritual contrast which can never be reconciled4 #c4 ,the pagan gods1 and to some extent the triune ,god of the ,christian ,church1 semi-pagan in origin also1 are the outcome of the human spirit's going astray in its search for ,god4 ,instead of leading man upwards to an ideal which will encompass all material and moral life and lift it to the highest stage of holiness1 paganism led to depravity and discord4 ,the unrelenting zeal displayed by prophet and law-giver against idolatry had its chief cause in the immoral and inhuman practices of the pagan nations--,canaan1 ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,babylon--in the worship of their deities47#abf7 ,the deification of the forces of nature brutalized the moral sense of the pagan world2 no vice seemed too horrible1 no sacrifice too atrocious for their cults4 ,baal1 or ,moloch1 the god of heaven1 demanded in times of distress the sacrifice of a son by the father4 ,astarte1 the goddess of fecundity1 required the 8hallowing0 of life's origin1 and this was done by the most terrible of sexual orgies4 ,such abominations exerted their seductive influence upon the shepherd tribes of ,israel in their new home in ,canaan1 and thus aroused the fiercest indignation of prophet and law-giver1 who hurled their vials of wrath against those shocking rites1 those lewd idols1 and those who 8whored after them407#abg7 ,if ,israel was to be trained to be the priest people of the ,only ,one in such an environment1 tolerance of such practices was out of the question4 ,thus in the ,sinaitic law ,god is spoken of as 8the jealous ,god07#abh7 who punishes unrelentingly every violation of ,his laws of purity and holiness4 #d4 ,the same sharp contrast of ,jewish ethical and spiritual monotheism remained also when it came in contact with the ,grco-,syrian and ,roman culture4 ,here1 too1 the myths and customs of the cult and the popular religion offended by their gross sensuality the chaste spirit of the ,jewish people4 ,indeed1 these were all the more dangerous to the purity of social life1 as they were garbed with the alluring beauty of art and philosophy47#abi7 ,the ,jew then felt all the more the imperative duty to draw a sharp line of demarcation between ,judaism with its chaste and imageless worship and the lascivious1 immoral life of paganism4 #e4 ,this wide gulf which yawned between ,israel's ,one and holy ,god and the divinities of the nations was not bridged over by the ,christian ,church when it appeared on the stage of history and obtained world-dominion4 ,for ,christianity in its turn succeeded by again dragging the ,deity into the world of the senses1 adopting the pagan myths of the birth and death of the gods1 and sanctioning image worship4 ,in this way it actually created a ,christian plurality of gods in place of the ,grco-,roman pantheon2 indeed1 it presented a divine family after the model of the ,egyptian and ,babylonian religions17#acj7 and thus pushed the ever-living ,god and ,father of mankind into the background4 ,this tendency has never been explained away1 even by the attempts of certain high-minded thinkers among the ,church fathers4 ,judaism1 however1 insists1 as ever1 upon the words of the ,decalogue which condemn all attempts to depict the ,deity in human or sensual form1 and through all its teachings there is echoed forth the voice of ,him who spoke through the seer of the ,exile3 8,i am the ,lord1 that is ,my name1 and ,my glory will ,i not give to another1 neither ,my praise to graven images407#aca7 #f4 ,when ,moses came to ,pharaoh saying1 8,thus speaketh ,,jhvh the ,god of ,israel1 send off ,my people that they may serve ,me10 ,pharaoh--so the ,midrash tells--took his list of deities to hand1 looked it over1 and said1 8,behold1 here are enumerated the gods of the nations1 but ,i cannot find thy ,god among them40 ,to this ,moses replied1 8,all the gods known and familiar to thee are mortal1 as thou art2 they die1 and their tomb is shown4 ,the ,god of ,israel has nothing in common with them4 ,he is the living1 true1 and eternal ,god who created heaven and earth2 no people can withstand ,his wrath407#acb7 ,this passage states strikingly the difference between the ,god of ,judaism and the gods of heathendom4 ,the latter are but deified powers of nature1 and being parts of the world1 themselves at one with nature1 they are subject to the power of time and fate4 ,israel's ,god is enthroned above the world as its moral and spiritual ,ruler1 the only ,being whom we can conceive as self-existent1 as indivisible as truth itself4 #g4 ,as long as the pagan conception prevailed1 by which the world was divided into many divine powers1 there could be no conception of the idea of a moral government of the universe1 of an all-encompassing purpose of life4 ,consequently the great thinkers and moralists of heathendom were forced to deny the deities1 before they could assert either the unity of the cosmos or a design in life4 ,on the other hand1 it was precisely this recognition of the moral nature of ,god1 as manifested both in human life and in the cosmic sphere1 which brought the ,jewish prophets and sages to their pure monotheism1 in which they will ultimately be met by the great thinkers of all lands and ages4 ,the unity of ,god brings harmony into the intellectual and moral world2 the division of the godhead into different powers or personalities leads to discord and spiritual bondage4 ,such is the lesson of history1 that in polytheism1 dualism1 or trinitarianism one of the powers must necessarily limit or obscure another4 ,in this manner the ,christian ,trinity led mankind in many ways to the lowering of the supreme standard of truth1 to an infringement on justice1 and to inhumanity to other creeds1 and therefore ,judaism could regard it only as a compromise with heathenism4 #h4 ,judaism assumed1 then1 toward paganism an attitude of rigid exclusion and opposition which could easily be taken for hostility4 ,this prevailed especially in the legal systems of the ,bible and the rabbis1 and was intended primarily to guard the monotheistic belief from pagan pollution and to keep it intact4 ,neither in the ,deuteronomic law nor in the late codes of ,maimonides and ,joseph ,caro is there any toleration for idolatrous practices1 for instruments of idol-worship1 or for idolaters47#acc7 ,this attitude gave the enemies of the ,jew sufficient occasion for speaking of the ,jewish ,god as hating the world1 as if only national conceit underlay the earnest rigor of ,jewish monotheism4 #i4 ,as a matter of fact1 since the time of the prophets ,judaism has had no national ,god in any exclusive sense4 ,while the ,law insists upon the exclusive worship of the one ,god of ,israel1 the narratives of the beginnings in the ,bible have a different tenor4 ,they take the lofty standpoint that the heathen world1 while worshiping its many divinities1 had merely lost sight of the true ,god after whom the heart ever longs and searches4 ,this implies that a kernel of true piety underlies all the error and delusion of paganism1 which1 rightly guided1 will lead back to the ,god from whom mankind had strayed4 ,the ,godhead1 divided into gods--as is hinted even in the ,biblical name1 ,elohim--must again become the one ,god of humanity4 ,thus the ,jew holds that all worship foreshadows the search for the true ,god1 and that all humanity shall at one time acknowledge ,him for whom they have so long been searching4 ,surely the ,psalms express1 not national narrowness1 but ardent love for humanity when they hail the ,god of ,israel1 the ,maker of heaven and earth1 as the world's great ,king1 and tell how ,he will judge the nations in justice1 while the gods of the nations will be rejected as 8vanities407#acd7 ,nor does the divine service of the ,jew bear the stamp of clannishness4 ,for more than two thousand years the central point in the ,synagogue liturgy every morning and evening has been the battle-cry1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one40 ,and so does the conclusion of every service1 the ,alenu1 the solemn prayer of adoration1 voice the grand hope of the ,jew for the future1 that the time may speedily come when 8before the kingdom of ,almighty all idolatry shall vanish1 and all the inhabitants of the earth perceive that unto ,him alone every knee must bend1 and all flesh recognize ,him alone as ,god and ,king407#ace7 ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,name of ,god #a4 ,primitive men attached much importance to names1 for to them the name of a thing indicated its nature1 and through the name one could obtain mastery over the thing or person named4 ,accordingly1 the name of ,god was considered to be the manifestation of ,his being2 by invoking it man could obtain some of ,his power2 and the place where that name was called became the seat of ,his presence4 ,therefore the name must be treated with the same reverential awe as the ,deity ,himself4 ,none dare approach the ,deity1 nor misuse the ,name4 ,the pious soul realized the nearness of the ,deity in hearing ,his name pronounced4 ,finally1 the different names of ,god reflect the different conceptions of ,him which were held in various periods47#acf7 #b4 ,the ,semites were not like the ,aryan nations1 who beheld the essence of their gods in the phenomena of nature such as light1 rain1 thunder1 and lightning1--and gave them corresponding names and titles4 ,the more intense religious emotionalism of the ,semites7#acg7 perceived the ,godhead rather as a power working from within1 and accordingly gave it such names as ,el 78the ,mighty ,one071 ,eloha or ,pahad 78the ,awful ,one071 or ,baal 78the ,master074 ,elohim1 the plural form of ,eloha1 denoted originally the godhead as divided into a number of gods or godly beings1 that is1 polytheism4 ,when it was applied to ,god1 however1 it was generally understood as a unity1 referring to one undivided ,godhead1 for ,scripture regarded monotheism as original with mankind4 ,while this view is contradicted by the science of comparative religion1 still the ideal conception of religion1 based on the universal consciousness of ,god1 postulates one ,god who is the aim of all human searching1 a fact which the term ,henotheism fails to recognize47#ach7 #c4 ,for the patriarchal age1 the preliminary stage in the development of the ,jewish ,god-idea1 ,scripture gives a special name for ,god1 ,el ,shaddai--8the ,almighty ,god40 ,this probably has a relation to ,shod1 8storm0 or 8havoc0 and 8destruction10 but was interpreted as supreme ,ruler over the celestial powers47#aci7 ,the name by which ,god revealed ,himself to ,moses and the prophets as the ,god of the covenant with ,israel is ,,jhvh 7,jahveh74 ,this name is inseparably connected with the religious development of ,judaism in all its loftiness and depth4 ,during the period of the ,second ,temple this name was declared too sacred for utterance1 except by the priests in certain parts of the service1 and for mysterious use by specially initiated saints4 ,instead1 ,adonai--8the ,lord0--was substituted for it in the ,biblical reading1 a usage which has continued for over two thousand years4 ,the meaning of the name in pre-,mosaic times may be inferred from the fiery storms which accompanied each theophany in the various ,scriptural passages1 as well as from the root havah1 which means 8throw down0 and 8overthrow407#adj7 ,to the prophets1 however1 the ,god of ,sinai1 enthroned amid clouds of storm and fire1 moving before ,his people in war and peace1 appeared rather as the ,god of the ,covenant1 without image or form1 unapproachable in ,his holiness4 ,as the original meaning of ,,jhvh had become unintelligible1 they interpreted the name as 8the ever present ,one10 in the sense of ,ehyeh asher ,ehyeh1 8,i shall be whatever 7or wherever7 ,i am to be02 that is1 8,i am ever ready to help40 ,thus spoke ,god to ,moses in revealing ,his name to him at the burning bush47#ada7 #d4 ,the prophetic genius penetrated more and more into the nature of ,god1 recognising ,him as the ,power who rules in justice1 mercy1 and holiness4 ,this process brought them to identify ,,jhvh1 the ,god of the covenant1 with the ,one and only ,god who overlooks all the world from his heavenly habitation1 and gives it plan and purpose4 ,at the same time1 all the prophets revert to the covenant on ,sinai in order to proclaim ,israel as the herald and witness of ,god among the nations4 ,in fact1 the ,god of the covenant proclaimed ,his universality at the very beginning1 in the introduction to the ,decalogue3 8,ye shall be ,mine own peculiar possession from among all peoples1 for all the earth is ,mine4 ,and ye shall be unto ,me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation407#adb7 ,in other words1--you have the special task of mediator among the nations1 all of which are under ,my dominion4 #e4 ,in the ,wisdom literature and the ,psalms the ,god of the covenant is subordinated to the universality of ,,jhvh as ,creator and ,ruler of the world4 ,in a number of the ,psalms and in some later writings the very name ,,jhvh was avoided probably on account of its particularistic tinge4 ,it was surrounded more and more with a certain mystery4 ,instead1 ,god as the 8,lord0 is impressed on the consciousness and adoration of men1 in all ,his sublimity and in absolute unity4 ,the 8,name0 continues its separate existence only in the mystic lore4 ,the name ,jehovah1 however1 has no place whatsoever in ,judaism4 ,it is due simply to a misreading of the vowel signs that refer to the word ,adonai1 and has been erroneously adopted in the ,christian literature since the beginning of the sixteenth century47#adc7 #f4 ,perhaps the most important process of spiritualization which the idea of ,god underwent in the minds of the ,jewish people was made when the name ,,jhvh as the proper name of the ,god of the covenant was given up and replaced by ,adonai--8the ,lord40 ,as long as the ,god of ,israel1 like other deities1 had ,his proper name1 he was practically one of them1 however superior in moral worth4 ,as soon as ,he became the ,lord1 that is1 the only real ,god over all the world1 a distinctive proper noun was out of place4 ,henceforth the name was invested with a mysterious and magic character4 ,it became ineffable1 at least to the people at large1 and its pronunciation sinful1 except by the priests in the liturgy4 ,in fact1 the law was interpreted so as directly to forbid this utterance47#add7 ,thus ,,jhvh is no longer the national ,god of ,israel4 ,the ,talmud guards against the very suspicion of a 8,judaized ,god0 by insisting that every benediction to ,him as 8,god the ,lord0 must add 8,king of the ,universe0 rather than the formula of the ,psalms1 8,god of ,israel407#ade7 #g4 ,the ,midrash makes a significant comment on the words of the ,shema3 8,why do the words1 #8the ,lord is our ,god' precede the words1 #8the ,lord is ,one'8 ,does not the particularism of the former conflict with the universalism of the latter sentence8 ,no4 ,the former expresses the idea that the ,lord is #8our ,god' just so far as ,his name is more intertwined with our history than with that of any other nation1 and that we have the greater obligation as ,his chosen people4 ,wherever ,scripture speaks of the ,god of ,israel1 it does not intend to limit ,him as the universal ,god1 but to emphasize ,israel's special duty as ,his priest-people407#adf7 #h4 ,likewise is the liturgical name 8,god of our fathers0 far from being a nationalistic limitation4 ,on the contrary1 the rabbis single out ,abraham as the missionary1 the herald of monotheism in its march to world-conquest4 ,for his use of the term1 8the ,god of heaven and the ,god of the earth07#adg7 they offer a characteristic explanation3 8,before ,abraham came1 the people worshiped only the ,god of heaven1 but ,abraham by winning them for his ,god brought ,him down and made ,him also the ,god of the earth407#adh7 #i4 ,reverence for the ,deity caused the ,jew to avoid not only the utterance of the holy ,name itself1 but even the common use of its substitute ,adonai4 ,therefore still other synonyms were introduced1 such as 8,master of the universe10 8the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he10 8the ,merciful ,one10 8the ,omnipotence0 7ha ,geburah717#adi7 8,king of the kings of kings0 7under ,persian influence--as the ,persian ruler called himself the ,king of ,kings727#aej7 and in ,hasidean circles it became customary to invoke ,god as 8our ,father0 and 8our ,father in heaven407#aea7 ,the rather strange appellations for ,god1 8,heaven07#aeb7 and 7dwelling7 8,place0 7ha ,makom7 seem to originate in certain formulas of the oath4 ,in the latter name the rabbis even found hints of ,god's omnipresence3 8,as space--,makom--encompasses all things1 so does ,god encompass the world instead of being encompassed by it407#aec7 #aj4 ,the rabbis early read a theological meaning into the two names ,,jhvh and ,elohim1 taking the former as the divine attribute of mercy and the latter as that of justice47#aed7 ,in general1 however1 the former name was explained etymologically as signifying eternity1 8,he who is1 who was1 and who shall be40 ,philo shows familiarity with the two attributes of justice and mercy1 but he and other ,alexandrian writers explained ,,jhvh and ,ehyeh metaphysically1 and accordingly called ,god1 8the ,one who is10 that is1 the ,source of all existence4 ,both conceptions still influence ,jewish exegesis and account for the term 8the ,eternal0 sometimes used for 8the ,lord40 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,existence of ,god #a4 ,for the religious consciousness1 ,god is not to be demonstrated by argument1 but is a fact of inner and outer experience4 ,whatever the origin and nature of the cosmos may be according to natural science1 the soul of man follows its natural bent1 as in the days of ,abraham1 to look through nature to the ,maker1 ,ordainer1 and ,ruler of all things1 who uses the manifold world of nature only as ,his workshop1 and who rules it in freedom as its sovereign ,master4 ,the entire cosmic life points to a ,supreme ,being from whom all existence must have arisen1 and without whom life and process would be impossible4 ,still even this mode of thought is influenced and determined by the prevalent monotheistic conceptions4 ,far more original and potent in man is the feeling of limitation and dependency4 ,this brings him to bow down before a higher ,power1 at first in fear and trembling1 but later in holy awe and reverence4 ,as soon as man attains self-consciousness and his will acquires purpose1 he encounters a will stronger than his own1 with which he often comes into conflict1 and before which he must frequently yield4 ,thus he becomes conscious of duty--of what he ought and ought not to do4 ,this is not1 like earlier limitations1 purely physical and working from without2 it is moral and operates from within4 ,it is the sense of duty1 or1 as we call it1 conscience1 the sense of right and wrong4 ,this awakened very early in the race1 and through it ,god's voice has been perceived ever since the days of ,adam and of ,cain47#aee7 #b4 ,according to ,scripture1 man in his natural state possesses the certainty of ,god's existence through such inner experience4 ,therefore the ,bible contains no command to believe in ,god1 nor any logical demonstration of ,his existence4 ,both the ,creation stories and those of the beginnings of mankind assume as undisputed the existence of ,god as the ,creator and ,judge of the world4 ,arguments appealing to reason were resorted to only in competition with idolatry1 as in ,deuteronomy1 ,jeremiah1 and ,deutero-,isaiah1 and subsequently by the ,haggadists in legends such as those about ,abraham4 ,nor does the ,bible consider any who deny the existence of ,god27#aef7 only much later1 in the ,talmud1 do we hear of those who 8deny the fundamental principle0 of the faith4 ,the doubt expressed in ,job1 ,koheleth1 and certain of the ,psalms1 concerns rather the justice of ,god than ,his existence4 ,true1 ,jeremiah and the ,psalms7#aeg7 mention some who say 8,there is no ,god10 but these are not atheists in our sense of the word2 they are the impious who deny the moral order of life by word or deed4 ,it is the villain 7,nabal71 not the 8fool0 who 8says in heart1 there is no ,god40 ,even the ,talmud does not mean the real atheist when speaking of 8the denier of the fundamental principle10 but the man who says1 8,there is neither a judgment nor a ,judge above and beyond407#aeh7 ,in other words1 the 8denier0 is the same as the ,epicurean 7,apicoros71 who refuses to recognize the moral government of the world47#aei7 #c4 ,after the downfall of the nation and ,temple1 the situation changed through the contemptuous question of the nations1 8,where is your ,god80 ,then the necessity became evident of proving that the ,ruler of nations still held dominion over the world1 and that ,his wondrous powers were shown more than ever before through the fact of ,israel's preservation in captivity4 ,this is the substance of the addresses of the great seer of the ,exile in chapters ,,xl to ,,lix of ,isaiah1 in which he exposes the gods of heathendom to everlasting scorn1 more than any other prophet before or afterward4 ,he declares these deities to be vanity and naught1 but proclaims the ,holy ,one of ,israel as the ,lord of the universe4 ,he hath 8meted out the heavens with the span10 and 8weighed the mountains in scales1 and the hills in a balance40 ,before ,him 8the nations are as a drop of the bucket10 and 8the inhabitants of the earth as grasshoppers40 8,he bringeth out the hosts of the stars by number1 and calleth them all by name10 8,he hath assigned to the generations of men their lot from the beginning1 and knoweth at the beginning what will be their end407#afj7 ,measured by such passages as these and such as ,psalms ,,viii1 ,,xxiv1 ,,xxxiii1 ,,civ1 and ,,cxxxix1 where ,god is felt as a living power1 all philosophical arguments about ,his existence seem to be strange fires on the altar of religion4 ,the believer can do without them1 and the unbeliever will hardly be convinced by them4 #d4 ,upon the contact of the ,jew with ,greek philosophy doubt arose in many minds1 and belief entered into conflict with reason4 ,but even then1 the defense of the faith was still carried on by reasoning along the lines of common sense47#afa7 ,thus the regularity of the sun1 moon1 and stars1--all worshiped by the pagans as deities--was considered a proof of ,god's omnipotence and rule of the universe1 a proof which the legend ascribes to ,abraham in his controversy with ,nimrod47#afb7 ,in like manner1 the apocryphal ,book of ,wisdom7#afc7 says that true wisdom1 as opposed to the folly of heathenism1 is 8to reason from the visible to the ,invisible ,one1 and from the cosmos1 the great work of art1 to the ,supreme ,artificer40 #e4 ,philo was the first who tried to refute the 8atheistic0 views of materialists and pantheists by adducing proofs of ,god's existence from nature and the human intellect4 ,in the former he pointed out order as evidence of the wisdom underlying the cosmos1 and in the latter the power of self-determination as shadowing forth a universal mind which determines the entire universe47#afd7 ,still1 with his mystical attitude1 ,philo realized that the chief knowledge of ,god is through intuition1 by the inner experience of the soul4 #f4 ,two proofs taken from nature owe their origin to ,greek philosophy4 ,anaxagoras and ,socrates1 from their theory of design in nature1 deduced that there is a universal intelligence working for higher aims and purposes4 ,this so-called teleological proof1 as worked out in detail by ,plato1 was the unfailing reliance of subsequent philosophers and theologians47#afe7 ,plato and ,aristotle1 moreover1 from the continuous motion of all matter1 inferred a prime cause1 an unmoved mover4 ,this is the so-called cosmological proof1 used by different schools in varying forms47#aff7 ,it occupies the foremost place in the systems of the ,arabic ,aristotelians1 and consequently is dominant among the ,jewish philosophers1 the ,christian scholastics1 and in the modern philosophic schools down to ,kant4 ,it is based upon the old principle of causality1 and therefore takes the mutability and relativity of all beings in the cosmos as evidence of a ,being that is immutable1 unconditioned1 and absolutely necessary1 causa sui1 the prime cause of all existence4 #g4 ,the ,mohammedan theologians added a new element to the discussion4 ,in their endeavor to prove that the world is the work of a ,creator1 they pointed as evidence to the multiformity and composite structure1 the contingency and dependency of the cosmos2 thus they concluded that it must have been created1 and that its ,creator must necessarily be the one1 absolute1 and all-determining cause4 ,this proof is used also by ,saadia and ,bahya ben ,joseph47#afg7 ,its weakness1 however1 was exposed by ,ibn ,sina and ,alfarabi among the ,mohammedans1 and later by ,abraham ibn ,daud and ,maimonides1 their ,jewish successors as ,aristotelians4 ,these proposed a substitute argument4 ,from the fact that the existence of all cosmic beings is merely possible1--that is1 they may exist and they may not exist1--these thinkers concluded that an absolutely necessary being must exist as the cause and condition of all things1 and this absolutely unconditioned yet all-conditioning being is ,god1 the ,one who is47#afh7 ,of course1 the ,god so deduced and inferred is a mere abstraction1 incapable of satisfying the emotional craving of the heart4 #h4 ,while the cosmological proof proceeds from the transitory and imperfect nature of the world1 the ontological proof1 first proposed by ,anselm of ,canterbury1 the ,christian scholastic of the ,,xi century1 and further elaborated by ,descartes and ,mendelssohn1 proceeds from the human intellect4 ,the mind conceives the idea of ,god as an absolutely perfect being1 and1 as there can be no perfection without existence1 the conclusion is that this idea must necessarily be objectively true4 ,then1 as the idea of ,god is innate in man1 ,god must necessarily exist1--and for proof of this they point to the ,scriptural verse1 8,the fool hath said in his heart1 there is no ,god10 and other similar passages4 ,in its improved form1 this argument uses the human concept of an infinitely perfect ,god as evidence1 or1 at least1 as postulate that such a ,being exists beyond the finite world of man47#afi7 ,another argument1 rather nave in character1 which was favored by the ,stoics and adopted by the ,church fathers1 is called de consensu gentium1 and endeavored to prove the reality of ,god's existence from the universality of ,his worship4 ,it speaks well for the sound reasoning of the ,jewish thinkers that they refused to follow the lead of the ,mohammedans in this respect1 and did not avail themselves of an argument which can be used just as easily in support of a plurality of gods47#agj7 #i4 ,all these so-called proofs were invalidated by ,immanuel ,kant1 the great philosopher of ,knigsberg1 whose critical inquiry into the human intellect showed that the entire sum of our knowledge of objects and also of the formulation of our ideas is based upon our limited mode of apperception1 while the reality or essence1 8the thing in itself10 will ever remain beyond our ken4 ,if this is true of physical objects1 it is all the more true of ,god1 whom we know through our minds alone and not at all through our five senses4 ,accordingly1 he shows that all the metaphysical arguments have no basis1 and that we can know ,god's existence only through ethics1 as a postulate of our moral nature4 ,the inner consciousness of our moral obligation1 or duty1 implies a moral order of life1 or moral law2 and this1 in turn1 postulates the existence of ,god1 the ,ruler of life1 who assigns to each of us his task and his destiny47#aga7 #aj4 ,it is true that ,god is felt and worshiped first as the supreme power in the world1 before man perceives ,him as the highest ideal of morality4 ,therefore man will never cease looking about him for vestiges of divinity and for proofs of his intuitive knowledge of ,god4 ,the wondrous order1 harmony1 and signs of design in nature1 as well as the impulse of the reason to search for the unity of all things1 corroborate this innate belief in ,god4 ,still more do the consciousness of duty in the individual--conscience--and the progress of history with its repeated vindication of right and defeat of wrong proclaim to the believer unmistakably that the ,god of justice reigns4 ,but no proof1 however convincing1 will ever bring back to the skeptic or unbeliever the ,god he has lost1 unless his pangs of anguish or the void within fill his desolate world anew with the vivifying thought of a living ,god4 #aa4 ,among all the ,jewish religious philosophers the highest rank must be accorded to ,jehudah ha ,levi1 the author of the ,cuzari17#agb7 who makes the historical fact of the divine revelation the foundation of the ,jewish religion and the chief testimony of the existence of ,god4 ,as a matter of fact1 reason alone will not lead to ,god1 except where religious intuition forms1 so to speak1 the ladder of heaven1 leading to the realm of the unknowable4 ,philosophy1 at best1 can only demonstrate the existence of a final ,cause1 or of a supreme ,intelligence working toward sublime purposes2 possibly also a moral government of the world1 in both the physical and the spiritual life4 ,religion alone1 founded upon divine revelation1 can teach man to find a ,god1 to whom he can appeal in trust in his moments of trouble or of woe1 and whose will he can see in the dictates of conscience and the destiny of nations4 ,reason must serve as a corrective for the contents of revelation1 scrutinizing and purifying1 deepening and spiritualizing ever anew the truths received through intuition1 but it can never be the final source of truth4 #ab4 ,the same method must apply also to modern thought and research1 which substituted historical methods for metaphysics in both the physical and intellectual world1 and which endeavors to trace the origin and growth of both objects and ideas in accordance with fixed laws4 ,the process of evolution1 our modern key with which to unlock the secrets of nature1 points most significantly to a ,supreme ,power and ,energy4 ,but this energy1 entering into the cosmic process at its outset1 causing its motion and its growth1 implies also an end1 and thus again we have the ,supreme ,intelligence reached through a new type of teleology47#agc7 ,but all these conceptions1 however they may be in harmony with the ,jewish belief in creation and revelation1 can at best supplement it1 but can certainly neither supplant nor be identified with it4 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,essence of ,god #a4 ,an exquisite ,oriental fable tells of a sage who had been meditating vainly for days and weeks on the question1 ,what is ,god8 ,one day1 walking along the seashore1 he saw some children busying themselves by digging holes in the sand and pouring into them water from the sea4 8,what are you doing there80 he asked them1 to which they replied1 8,we want to empty the sea of its water40 8,oh1 you little fools10 he exclaimed with a smile1 but suddenly his smile vanished in serious thought4 8,am ,i not as foolish as these children80 he said to himself4 8,how can ,i with my small brain hope to grasp the infinite nature of ,god80 ,all efforts of philosophy to define the essence of ,god are futile4 8,canst thou by searching find out ,god80 ,zophar asks of his friend ,job47#agd7 ,both ,philo and ,maimonides maintain that we can know of ,god only that ,he is2 we can never fathom ,his innermost being or know what ,he is4 ,both find this unknowability of ,god expressed in the words spoken to ,moses3 8,if ,i withdraw ,my hand1 thou shall see ,my back--that is1 the effects of ,god's power and wisdom--but ,my face--the real essence of ,god--thou shalt not see407#age7 #b4 ,still1 a divinity void of all essential qualities fails to satisfy the religious soul4 ,man demands to know what ,god is--at least1 what ,god is to him4 ,in the first word of the ,decalogue ,god speaks through ,his people ,israel to the religious consciousness of all men at all times1 beginning1 8,i am the ,lord1 thy ,god40 ,this word ,i lifts ,god at once above all beings and powers of the cosmos1 in fact1 above all other existence1 for it expresses ,his unique self-consciousness4 ,this attribute above all is possessed by no being in the world of nature1 and only by man1 who is the image of his ,maker4 ,according to the ,midrash1 all creation was hushed when the ,lord spoke on ,sinai1 8,i am the ,lord407#agf7 ,god is not merely the supreme ,being1 but also the supreme ,self-consciousness4 ,as man1 in spite of all his limitations and helplessness1 still towers high above all his fellow creatures by virtue of his free will and self-conscious action1 so ,god1 who knows no bounds to ,his wisdom and power1 surpasses all beings and forces of the universe1 for ,he rules over all as the one completely self-conscious ,mind and ,will4 ,in both the visible and invisible realms ,he manifests ,himself as the absolutely free ,personality1 moral and spiritual1 who allots to every thing its existence1 form1 and purpose4 ,for this reason ,scripture calls ,him 8the living ,god and everlasting ,king407#agg7 #c4 ,judaism1 accordingly1 teaches us to recognize ,god1 above all1 as revealing ,himself in self-conscious activity1 as determining all that happens by ,his absolutely free will1 and thus as showing man how to walk as a free moral agent4 ,in relation to the world1 ,his work or workshop1 ,he is the self-conscious ,master1 saying 8,i am that which ,i am02 in relation to man1 who is akin to ,him as a self-conscious rational and moral being1 ,he is the living ,fountain of all that knowledge and spirituality for which men long1 and in which alone they may find contentment and bliss4 ,thus the ,god of ,judaism1 the world's great ,i ,am1 forms a complete contrast1 not only to the lifeless powers of nature and destiny1 which were worshiped by the ancient pagans1 but also to the ,god of modern paganism1 a ,god divested of all personality and self-consciousness1 such as ,he is conceived of by the new school of ,christian theology1 with its pantheistic tendency4 ,i refer to the school of ,ritschl1 which strives to render the myth of the man-god philosophically intelligible by teaching that ,god reaches self-consciousness only in the perfect type of man1 that is1 ,christ1 while otherwise ,he is entirely immanent1 one with the world4 ,all the more forcibly does ,jewish monotheism insist upon its doctrine that ,god1 in ,his continual self-revelation1 is the supermundane and self-conscious ,ruler of both nature and history4 8,i am the ,lord1 that is ,my name1 and ,my glory will ,i not give to another10--so says the ,god of ,judaism47#agh7 #d4 ,the ,jewish ,god-idea1 of course1 had to go through many stages of development before it reached the concept of a transcendental and spiritual god4 ,it was necessary first that the ,decalogue and the ,book of the ,covenant prohibit most stringently polytheism and every form of idolatry1 and second that a strictly imageless worship impress the people with the idea that ,israel's ,god was both invisible and incorporeal47#agi7 ,yet a wide step still intervened from that stage to the complete recognition of ,god as a purely spiritual ,being1 lacking all qualities perceptible to the senses1 and not resembling man in either his inner or his outer nature4 ,centuries of gradual ripening of thought were still necessary for the growth of this conception4 ,this was rendered still more difficult by the ,scriptural references to ,god in ,his actions and ,his revelations1 and even in ,his motives1 after a human pattern4 ,israel's sages required centuries of effort to remove all anthropomorphic and anthropopathic notions of ,god1 and thus to elevate ,him to the highest realm of spirituality47#ahj7 #e4 ,in this process of development two points of view demand consideration4 ,we must not overlook the fact that the perfectly clear distinction which we make between the sensory and the spiritual does not appeal to the child-like mind1 which sees it rather as external4 ,what we call transcendent1 owing to our comprehension of the immeasurable universe1 was formerly conceived only as far remote in space or time4 ,thus ,god is spoken of in ,scripture as dwelling in heaven and looking down upon the inhabitants of the earth to judge them and to guide them47#aha7 ,according to ,deuteronomy1 ,god spoke from heaven to the people about ,mt4 ,sinai1 while ,exodus represents ,him as coming down to the mountain from ,his heavenly heights to proclaim the law amid thunder and lightning47#ahb7 ,the ,babylonian conception of heaven prevailed throughout the ,middle ,ages and influenced both the mystic lore about the heavenly throne and the philosophic cosmology of the ,aristotelians1 such as ,maimonides4 ,yet ,scripture offers also another view1 the concept of ,god as the ,one enthroned on high1 whom 8the heavens and the heaven's heavens cannot encompass407#ahc7 ,the fact is that language still lacked an expression for pure spirit1 and the intellect freed itself only gradually from the restrictions of primitive language to attain a purer conception of the divine4 ,thus we attain deeper insight into the spiritual nature of ,god when we read the inimitable words of the ,psalmist describing ,his omnipresence17#ahd7 or that other passage3 8,he that planted the ear1 shall ,he not hear8 ,he that formed the eye1 shall ,he not see8 ,he that chastiseth the nations1 shall ,he not correct1 even ,he that teaches man knowledge807#ahe7 ,the translators and interpreters of the ,bible felt the need of eliminating everything of a sensory nature from ,god and of avoiding anthropomorphism1 through the influence of ,greek philosophy4 ,this spiritualization of the ,god idea was taken up again by the philosophers of the ,spanish-,arabic period1 who combated the prevailing mysticism4 ,through them ,jewish monotheism emphasized its opposition to every human representation of ,god1 especially the ,god-,man of the ,christian ,church4 #f4 ,on the other hand1 we must bear in mind that we naturally ascribe to ,god a human personality1 whether we speak of ,him as the ,master-worker of the universe1 as the all-seeing and all-hearing ,judge1 or the compassionate and merciful ,father4 ,we cannot help attributing human qualities and emotions to ,him the moment we invest ,him with a moral and spiritual nature4 ,when we speak of ,his punitive justice1 ,his unfailing mercy1 or ,his all-wise providence1 we transfer to ,him1 imperceptibly1 our own righteous indignation at the sight of a wicked deed1 or our own compassion with the sufferer1 or even our own mode of deliberation and decision4 ,moreover1 the prophets and the ,torah1 in order to make ,god plain to the people1 described ,him in vivid images of human life1 with anger and jealousy as well as compassion and repentance1 and also with the organs and functions of the senses1--seeing1 hearing1 smelling1 speaking1 and walking4 #g4 ,the rabbis are all the more emphatic in their assertions that the ,torah merely intends to assist the simple-minded1 and that unseemly expressions concerning ,deity are due to the inadequacy of language1 and must not be taken literally47#ahf7 8,it is an act of boldness allowed only to the prophets to measure the ,creator by the standard of the creature10 says the ,haggadist1 and again1 8,god appeared to ,israel1 now as a heroic warrior1 now as a venerable sage imparting knowledge1 and again as a kind dispenser of bounties1 but always in a manner befitting the time and circumstance1 so as to satisfy the need of the human heart407#ahg7 ,this is strikingly illustrated in the following dialogue3 8,a heretic came to ,rabbi ,meir asking1 #8,how can you reconcile the passage which reads1 8,do ,i not fill heaven and earth1 says the ,lord10 with the one which relates that the ,lord appeared to ,moses between the cherubim of the ark of the covenant8' ,whereupon ,rabbi ,meir took two mirrors1 one large and the other small1 and placed them before the interrogator4 #8,look into this glass1' he said1 #8and into that4 ,does not your figure seem different in one than in the other8 ,how much more will the majesty of ,god1 who has neither figure nor form1 be reflected differently in the minds of men6 ,to one it will appear according to his narrow view of life1 and to the other in accordance with his larger mental horizon4' 07#ahh7 ,in like manner ,rabbi ,joshua ben ,hanania1 when asked sarcastically by the ,emperor ,hadrian to show him his ,god1 replied3 8,come and look at the sun which now shines in the full splendor of noonday6 ,behold1 thou art dazzled4 ,how1 then1 canst thou see without bewilderment the majesty of ,him from whom emanates both sun and stars807#ahi7 ,this rejoinder1 which was familiar to the ,greeks also1 is excelled by the one of ,rabban ,gamaliel ,,ii to a heathen who asked him 8,where does the ,god dwell to whom you daily pray80 8,tell me first10 he answered1 8where does your soul dwell1 which is so close to thee8 ,thou canst not tell4 ,how1 then1 can ,i inform thee concerning ,him who dwells in heaven1 and whose throne is separated from the earth by a journey of #cejj years80 8,then do we not do better to pray to gods who are near at hand1 and whom we can see with our eyes80 continued the heathen1 whereupon the sage struck home1 8,well1 you may see your gods1 but they neither see nor help you1 while our ,god1 ,himself unseen1 yet sees and protects us constantly407#aij7 ,the comparison of the invisible soul to ,god1 the invisible spirit of the universe1 is worked out further in the ,midrash to ,psalm ,,ciii4 #h4 ,from the foregoing it is clear that1 while ,judaism insists on the ,deity's transcending all finite and sensory limitations1 it never lost the sense of the close relationship between man and his ,maker4 ,notwithstanding ,christian theologians to the contrary1 the ,jewish ,god was never a mere abstraction47#aia7 ,the words1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 betoken the intimate relation between the redeemed and the heavenly ,redeemer1 and the song of triumph at the ,red ,sea1 8,this is my ,god1 ,i will extol ,him10 testifies--according to the ,midrash--that even the humblest of ,god's chosen people were filled with the feeling of ,his nearness47#aib7 ,in the same way the warm breath of union with ,god breathes through all the writings1 the prayers1 and the whole history of ,judaism4 8,for what great nation is there that hath ,god so nigh unto them as the ,lord our ,god is1 whenever we call upon ,him80 exclaims ,moses in ,deuteronomy1 and the rabbis1 commenting upon the plural form used here1 ,kerobim1 8nigh10 remark3 8,god is nigh to everyone in accordance with his special needs407#aic7 #i4 ,probably the rabbis were at their most profound mood in their saying1 8,god's greatness lies in ,his condescension1 as may be learned from the ,torah1 the ,prophets1 and the ,writings4 ,to quote only ,isaiah also3 #8,thus saith the ,high and ,lofty ,one1 ,i dwell in high and holy places1 with him that is of a contrite and humble spirit4'7#aid7 ,for this reason ,god selected as the place of ,his revelation the humble ,sinai and the lowly thornbush407#aie7 ,in fact1 the absence of any mediator in ,judaism necessitates the doctrine that ,god--with all ,his transcendent majesty--is at the same time 8an ever present helper in trouble107#aif7 and that ,his omnipotence includes care for the greatest and the smallest beings of creation47#aig7 #aj4 ,the doctrine that ,god is above and beyond the universe1 transcending all created things1 as well as time and space1 might lead logically to the view of the deist that ,he stands outside of the world1 and does not work from within4 ,but this inference has never been made even by the boldest of ,jewish thinkers4 ,the ,psalmist said1 8,who is like the ,lord our ,god1 that hath ,his seat on high1 that humbleth ,himself to behold what is in heaven and on earth807#aih7--words which express the deepest and the loftiest thought of ,judaism4 ,beside the all-encompassing ,deity no other divine power or personality can find a place4 ,god is in all2 ,he is over all2 ,he is both immanent and transcendent4 ,his creation was not merely setting into motion the wheels of the cosmic fabric1 after which ,he withdrew from the world4 ,the ,jew praises ,him for every scent and sight of nature or of human life1 for the beauty of the sea and the rainbow1 for every flash of lightning that illumines the darkened clouds and every peal of thunder that shakes the earth4 ,on every such occasion the ,jew utters praise to 8,him who daily renews the work of creation10 or 8,him who in everlasting faithfulness keepeth ,his covenant with mankind40 ,such is the teaching of the men of the ,great ,synagogue17#aii7 and the charge of the ,jewish ,god idea being a barren and abstract transcendentalism can be urged only by the blindness of bigotry47#bjj7 #aa4 ,the interweaving of the ideas of ,god's immanence and transcendency is shown especially in two poems embodied in the songs of the ,synagogue1 ,ibn ,gabirol's 8,crown of ,royalty0 and the 8,songs of ,unity0 for each day of the week1 composed by ,samuel ben ,kalonymos1 the father of ,judah the ,pious of ,regensburg4 ,here occur such sentences as these3 8,all is in ,god and ,god is in all02 8,sufficient unto ,himself and self-determining1 ,he is the ever-living and self-conscious ,mind1 the all-permeating1 all-impelling1 and all-accomplishing ,will02 8,the universe is the emanation of the plenitude of ,god1 each part the light of ,his infinite light1 flame of ,his eternal empyrean02 8,the universe is the garment1 the covering of ,god1 and ,he the all-penetrating ,soul407#bja7 ,all these ideas were borrowed from neo-,platonism1 and found a conspicuous place in ,ibn ,gabirol's philosophy1 later influencing the ,cabbalah4 ,similarly the appellation1 ,makom1 8,space10 is explained by both ,philo and the rabbis as denoting 8,him who encompasses the world1 but whom the world cannot encompass407#bjb7 ,an utterance such as this1 well-nigh pantheistic in tone1 leads directly to theories like those of ,spinoza or of ,david ,nieto1 the well-known ,london ,rabbi1 who was largely under ,spinozistic influence7#bjc7 and who still was in accord with ,jewish thought4 ,certainly1 as long as ,jewish monotheism conceives of ,god as self-conscious ,intellect and freely acting ,will1 it can easily accept the principle of divine immanence4 #ab4 ,we accept1 then1 the fact that man1 child-like1 invests ,god with human qualities1--a view advanced by ,abraham ben ,david of ,posquieres in opposition to ,maimonides47#bjd7 ,still1 the thinkers of ,judaism have ever labored to divest the ,deity of every vestige of sensuousness1 of likeness to man1 in fact1 of every limitation to action or to free will4 ,every conception which merges ,god into the world or identifies ,him with it and thus makes ,him subject to necessity1 is incompatible with the ,jewish idea of ,god1 which enthrones ,him above the universe as its free and sovereign ,master4 8,am ,i a ,god near at hand1 saith the ,lord1 and not a ,god afar off8 ,can any hide himself in secret places that ,i shall not see him8 saith the ,lord4 ,do ,i not fill heaven and earth807#bje7 8,to whom will you liken ,me1 that ,i should be equal807#bjf7 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the ,one and ,only ,god #a4 ,from the very beginning no ,jewish doctrine was so firmly proclaimed and so heroically defended as the belief in the ,one and ,only ,god4 ,this constitutes the essence and foundation of ,judaism4 ,however slowly the people learned that there could be no gods beside the ,one ,god1 and that consequently all the pagan deities were but 8naught and vanity10 the ,judaism of the ,torah starts with the proclamation of the ,only ,one1 and later ,judaism marches through the nations and ages of history with a never-silent protest against polytheism of every kind1 against every division of the ,godhead into parts1 powers1 or persons4 #b4 ,it is perfectly clear that divine pedagogy could not well have demanded of a people immature and untrained in religion1 like ,israel in the wilderness period1 the immediate belief in the only one ,god and in none else4 ,such a belief is the result of a long mental process2 it is attained only after centuries of severe struggle and crisis4 ,instead of this1 the ,decalogue of ,sinai demanded of the people that they worship only the ,god of the ,covenant who had delivered them from ,egypt to render them ,his people47#bjg7 ,but1 as they yielded more and more to the seductive worship of the gods of the ,canaanites and their other neighbors1 the law became more rigid in prohibiting such idolatrous practices1 and the prophets poured forth their unscathing wrath against the 8stiff-necked people0 and endeavored by unceasing warnings and threats to win them for the pure truth of monotheism47#bjh7 #c4 ,the ,god of ,sinai proclaims ,himself in the ,decalogue as a 8jealous ,god10 and not in vain4 ,he cannot tolerate other gods beside ,himself4 ,truth can make no concession to untruth1 nor enter into any compromise with it without self-surrender4 ,a pagan religion could well afford to admit foreign gods into its pantheon without offending the ruling deities of the land4 ,on the contrary1 their realm seemed rather to be enlarged by the addition4 ,it was also easy to blend the cults of deities originally distinct and unite many divinities under a composite name1 and by this process create a system of worship which would either comprise the gods of many lands or even merge them into one large family4 ,this was actually the state of the various pagan religions at the time of the decline of antiquity4 ,but such a procedure could never lead towards true monotheism4 ,it lacks the conception of an inner unity1 without which its followers could not grasp the true idea of ,god as the source and essence of all life1 both physical and spiritual4 ,only the ,one ,god of revelation made the world really one4 ,in ,him alone heaven and earth1 day and night1 growth and decay1 the weal and woe of individuals and nations1 appear as the work of an all-ruling ,power and ,wisdom1 so that all events in nature and history are seen as parts of one all-comprising plan47#bji7 #d4 ,it is perfectly true that a wide difference of view exists between the prohibition of polytheism and idolatry in the ,decalogue and the proclamation in ,deuteronomy of the unity of ,god1 and1 still more1 between the law of the ,pentateuch and the prophetic announcement of the day when ,israel's ,god 8shall be ,king of the whole earth1 and ,his name shall be ,one407#baj7 ,yet ,judaism is based precisely upon this higher view4 ,the very first pages of ,genesis1 the opening of the ,torah1 as well as the exilic portions of ,isaiah which form the culmination of the prophets1 and the ,psalms also1 prove sufficiently that at their time monotheism was an axiom of ,judaism4 ,in fact1 heathenism had become synonymous with both image-worship and belief in many gods beside the ,only ,one of ,israel1 and accordingly had lost all hold upon the ,jewish people4 ,the heathen gods were given a place in the celestial economy1 but only as subordinate rulers or as the guardian angels of the nations1 and always under the dominion of ,god on high47#baa7 #e4 ,later1 in the contest against ,grco-,egyptian paganism1 the doctrine of ,god's unity was emphasized in the ,alexandrian propaganda literature1 of which only a portion has been preserved for us4 ,here antagonism in the most forcible form is expressed against the delusive cults of paganism1 and exclusive worship claimed for 8the unseen1 yet all-seeing ,god1 the uncreated ,creator of the world407#bab7 ,the ,rabbinical ,haggadah contains but dim reminiscences of the extensive propaganda carried on previous to ,hillel1 the ,talmudic type of the propagandist4 ,moreover1 this period fostered free inquiry and philosophical discussion1 and therefore the doctrine of unity emerged more and more from simple belief to become a matter of reason4 ,the ,god of truth put to flight the gods of falsehood4 ,hence many gentiles espoused the cause of ,judaism1 becoming 8,god-fearing men407#bac7 #f4 ,in this connection it seems necessary to point out the difference between the ,god of the ,greek philosophers--,xenophanes and ,anaxagoras1 ,plato and ,aristotle--and the ,god of the ,bible4 ,in abandoning their own gods1 the ,greek philosophers reached a deistic view of the cosmos4 ,as their study of science showed them plan and order everywhere1 they concluded that the universe is governed by an all-encompassing ,intelligence1 a divine power entirely distinct from the capricious deities of the popular religion4 ,reflection led them to a complete rupture with their religious belief4 ,the ,biblical belief in ,god underwent a different process4 ,after ,god had once been conceived of1 ,he was held up as the ideal of morality1 including both righteousness and holiness4 ,then this doctrine was continuously elucidated and deepened1 until a stage was reached where a harmony could be established between the teachings of ,moses and the wisdom of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,to the noble thinkers of ,hellas truth was an object of supreme delight1 the highest privilege of the sage4 ,to the adherents of ,judaism truth became the holiest aim of life for the entire people1 for which all were taught to battle and to die1 as did the ,maccabean heroes and ,daniel and his associates1 their prototypes4 #g4 ,a deeper meaning was attached to the doctrine of ,god's unity under ,persian rule1 in contact with the religious system of ,zoroaster4 ,to the ,persians life was a continual conflict between the principles of good and of evil1 until the ultimate victory of good shall come4 ,this dualistic view of the world greatly excels all other heathen religious systems1 insofar as it assigns ethical purpose to the whole of life4 ,yet the great seer of the ,exile opposes this system in the name of the ,god of ,judaism1 speaking to ,cyrus1 the king of ,persia2 8,i am the ,lord and there is none else2 beside ,me there is no ,god4 ,i will gird thee1 though thou dost not know ,me1 in order that the people shall know from the rising of the sun and from the west that there is none beside ,me4 ,i form the light and create darkness2 ,i make peace and also create evil1 ,i am the ,lord that doeth these things407#bad7 ,this declaration of pure monotheism is incompatible with dualism in both the physical and the moral world2 it regards evil as being mere semblance without reality1 an opposing force which can be overcome and rendered a source of new strength for the victory of the good4 8,out of the mouth of the ,most ,high cometh there not the evil and the good807#bae7 #h4 ,the division of the world into rival realms of good and evil powers1 of angelic and demoniacal forces1 which originated in ancient ,chaldea and underlies the ,zoroastrian dualism1 finally took hold of ,judaism also4 ,still this was not carried to such an extent that ,satan1 the supreme ruler of the demon world1 was given a dominion equal to that of ,god1 or interfering with it1 so as to impair thereby the principle of monotheism1 as was done by the ,church later on4 ,as a matter of fact1 at the time of nascent ,christianity the leaders of the ,synagogue took rigid measures against those heretics 7,minim7 who believed in two divine powers17#baf7 because they recognized the grave danger of moral degeneracy in this ,gnostic dualism4 ,in the ,church it led first to the deification of ,christ 7i4e4 the ,messiah7 as the vanquisher of ,satan2 afterwards1 owing to a compromise with heathenism1 the ,trinity was adopted to correspond with the three-fold godhead1--father1 mother1 and son1--the place of the mother deity being taken by the ,holy ,ghost1 which was originally conceived as a female power 7the ,syrian ,ruha being of the feminine gender747#bag7 #i4 ,the churchmen have attempted often enough to harmonize the dualism or trinitarianism of ,christianity with the monotheism of the ,bible4 ,still ,judaism persists in considering such an infringement upon the belief in ,israel's one and only ,god as really a compromise with heathenism4 8,a ,jew is he who opposes every sort of polytheism10 says the ,talmud47#bah7 #aj4 ,the medieval ,jewish thinkers therefore made redoubled efforts to express with utmost clearness the doctrine of ,god's unity4 ,in this effort they received special encouragement from the example of the leaders of ,islam1 whose victorious march over the globe was a triumph for the one ,god of ,abraham over the triune ,god of ,christianity4 ,a great tide of intellectual progress arose1 lending to the faith of the ,mohammedans and subsequently also to that of the ,jews an impetus which lasted for centuries4 ,the new thought and keen research of that period had a lasting influence upon the whole development of western culture4 ,an alliance was effected between religion and philosophy1 particularly by the leading ,jewish minds1 which proved a liberating and stimulating force in all fields of scientific investigation4 ,thus the pure idea of monotheism became the basis for modern science and the entire modern world-view47#bai7 #aa4 ,the ,mohammedan thinkers devoted their attention chiefly to elucidating and spiritualizing the ,god idea1 beginning as early as the third century of ,islamism1 so to interpret the ,koran as to divest ,god of all anthropomorphic attributes and to stress ,his absolute unity1 uniqueness1 and the incomparability of ,his oneness4 ,soon they became familiar with neo-,platonic and afterward with ,aristotelian modes of speculation through the work of ,syrian and ,jewish translators4 ,with the help of these they built up a system of theology which influenced ,jewish thought also1 first in ,karaite and then in ,rabbanite circles47#bbj7 ,thus sprang up successively the philosophical systems of ,saadia1 ,jehuda ha ,levi1 ,ibn ,gabirol1 ,bahya1 ,ibn ,daud1 and ,maimonides4 ,the philosophical hymns and the articles of faith1 both of which found a place in the liturgy of the ,synagogue1 were the work of their followers4 ,the highest mode of adoring ,god seemed to be the elaboration of the idea of ,his unity to its logical conclusion1 which satisfied the philosophical mind1 though often remote from the understanding of the multitude4 ,for centuries the supreme effort of ,jewish thought was to remove ,him from the possibility of comparison with any other being1 and to abolish every conception which might impair ,his absolute and simple unity4 ,this mental activity filled the dwellings of ,israel with light1 even when the darkness of ignorance covered the lands of ,christendom1 dispelled only here and there by rays of knowledge emanating from ,jewish quarters47#bba7 #ab4 ,the proofs of the unity of ,god adduced by ,mohammedan and ,jewish thinkers were derived from the rational order1 design1 and unity of the cosmos1 and from the laws of the mind itself4 ,these aided in endowing ,judaism with a power of conviction which rendered futile the conversionist efforts of the ,church1 with its arguments and its threats4 ,israel's only ,one proved to be the ,god of truth1 high and holy to both the mind and the heart4 ,the ,jewish masters of thought rendered ,him the highest object of their speculation1 only to bow in awe before ,him who is beyond all human ken2 the ,jewish martyrs likewise cheerfully offered up their lives in ,his honor2 and thus all hearts echoed the battle-cry of the centuries1 8,hear ,o ,israel1 the ,lord our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one10 and all minds were illumined by the radiant hope1 8,the ,lord will be ,king of the earth2 on that day the ,lord shall be ,one1 and ,his name shall be ,one40 #ac4 ,under all conditions1 however1 the doctrine of unity remained free from outward compulsion and full of intrinsic vigor and freshness4 ,there was still room for differences of opinion1 such as whether ,god's life1 power1 wisdom1 and unity are attributes--distinct from ,his being1 and qualifying it1--or whether they are inherent in ,his nature1 comprising ,his very essence4 ,this controversy aimed to determine the conception of ,god1 either by ,aristotelian rationalism1 as represented by ,maimonides1 or by the positive religious assumptions of ,crescas and others4 ,this is ,maimonides' statement of the unity3 8,god is one2 that is1 ,he is unlike any other unit1 whether made one in point of numbers or species1 or by virtue of composition1 separation1 and simplification4 ,he is one in ,himself1 there being no multiplicity in ,him4 ,his unity is beyond all definition407#bbb7 ,ibn ,gabirol in his 8,crown of ,royalty0 puts the same thought into poetic form3 8,one art ,thou2 the wise wonder at the mystery of ,thy unity1 not knowing what it is4 ,one art ,thou2 not like the one of dimension or number1 as neither addition nor change1 neither attribute nor quality affects ,thy being4 ,thou art ,god1 who sustainest all beings by ,thy divinity1 who holdest all creatures in ,thy unity4 ,thou art ,god1 and there is no distinction between ,thy unity1 ,thy eternity1 and ,thy being4 ,all is mystery1 and however the names may differ1 they all tell that ,thou art but one407#bbc7 #ad4 ,side by side with this rationalistic trend1 ,judaism always contained a current of mysticism4 ,the mystics accepted literally the anthropomorphic pictures of the ,deity in the ,bible1 and did not care how much they might affect the spirituality and unity of ,god4 ,the philosophic schools had contended against the anthropomorphic views of the older mystics1 and thus had brought higher views of the ,godhead to dominance2 but when the rationalistic movement had spent its force1 the reaction came in the form of the ,cabbalah1 the secret lore which claimed to have been 8transmitted0 7according to the meaning of the word7 from a hoary past4 ,the older system of thought had stripped the ,deity of all reality and had robbed religion of all positiveness2 now1 in contrast1 the soul demanded a ,god of revelation through faith in whom might come exaltation and solace47#bbd7 ,nevertheless the ,maimonidean articles of faith were adopted into the liturgy because of their emphasis on the absolute unity and indivisibility of ,god1 by which they constituted a vigorous protest against the ,christian dogma4 ,judaism ever found its strength in ,god the only ,one1 and will find ,him ever anew a source of inspiration and rejuvenation4 ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,god's ,omnipotence and ,omniscience #a4 ,among all the emotions which underlie our ,god-consciousness the foremost is the realization of our own weakness and helplessness4 ,this makes us long for ,one mightier than ourselves1 for the ,almighty whose acts are beyond comparison4 ,the first attribute1 therefore1 with which we feeble mortals invest our ,deity is omnipotence4 ,thus the pagan ascribes supreme power over their different realms to his various deities4 ,hence the name for ,god among all the ,semites is ,el--8the ,powerful ,one407#bbe7 ,judaism claims for ,god absolute and unlimited power over all that is4 ,it declares ,him to be the source and essence of all strength1 the almighty ,creator and ,ruler of the universe4 ,all that exists is ,his creation2 all that occurs is ,his achievement4 ,he is frequently called by the rabbis ha ,geburah1 the ,omnipotence47#bbf7 #b4 ,the historical method of study seems to indicate that various cosmic potencies were worshiped in primitive life either singly or collectively under the name of ,elohim1 8divine powers10 or ,zibeoth ,elohim1 8hosts of divine powers40 ,with the acceptance of the idea of divine omnipotence1 these were united into a confederacy of divine forces under the dominion of the one ,god1 the 8,lord of ,hosts40 ,still these powers of heaven1 earth and the deep by no means at once surrendered their identity4 ,most of them became angels1 8messengers0 of the omnipotent ,god1 or 8spirits0 roaming in the realms where once they ruled1 while a few were relegated as monsters to the region of superstition4 ,the heathen deities1 which persisted for a while in popular belief1 were also placed with the angels as 8heavenly rulers0 of their respective lands or nations about the throne of the ,most ,high4 ,at all events1 ,israel's ,god was enthroned above them all as ,lord of the universe4 ,in fact1 the ,alexandrian translators and some of the rabbis actually explained in this sense the ,biblical names ,el ,shaddai and ,j4,h4,v4,h4 ,zebaoth47#bbg7 ,the medieval philosophers1 however1 took a backward step away from the ,biblical view when1 under the influence of ,neoplatonism1 they represented the angels and the spirits of the stars as intermediary forces47#bbh7 #c4 ,according to the ,bible1 both the ,creation and the order of the universe testify to divine omnipotence4 ,god called all things into existence by ,his almighty word1 unassisted by ,his heavenly messengers4 ,he alone stretched out the heavens1 set bounds to the sea1 and founded the earth on pillars that it be not moved2 none was with ,him to partake in the work4 ,this is the process of creation according to the first chapter of ,genesis and the fortieth chapter of ,isaiah4 ,so ,he appears throughout the ,scriptures as 8the ,doer of wonders10 8whose arm never waxes short0 to carry out ,his will4 8,he fainteth not1 neither is ,he weary40 ,his dominion extends over the sea and the storm1 over life and death1 over high and low4 ,intermediary forces participating in ,his work are never mentioned4 ,they are referred to only in the poetic description of creation in the book of ,job3 8,where wast thou when ,i laid the foundations of the earth8444 ,when the morning stars sang together1 and all the sons of ,god shouted for joy407#bbi7 ,proof of ,god's supreme power was found particularly in history1 either in ,his miraculous changing of the natural order1 or in ,his defeat of the mighty hostile armies which bade ,him defiance47#bcj7 ,often the heathen deities or the celestial powers are introduced as dramatic figures to testify to the triumph of the divine omnipotence1 as when the ,lord is said to 8execute judgment against the gods of ,egypt0 or when 8the stars in their courses fought against ,sisera407#bca7 #d4 ,god's power is limited only by ,his own volition4 8,he doeth what ,he willeth407#bcb7 ,in man the will and the power for a certain act are far apart1 and often directly conflicting4 ,not so with ,god1 for the very idea of ,god is perfection1 and ,his will implies necessarily the power to accomplish the desired end4 ,his will is determined only by such factors as ,his knowledge and ,his moral self-restraint4 #e4 ,therefore the idea of ,god's omnipotence must be coupled with that of ,his omniscience4 ,both ,his power and ,his knowledge are unlike man's in being without limitation4 ,when we repeat the ,biblical terms of an all-seeing1 all-hearing1 and all-knowing ,god1 we mean in the first instance that the limitation of space does not exist for ,him4 ,he beholds the extreme parts of the earth and observes all that happens under the heavens2 nothing is hidden from ,his sight4 ,he not only sees the deeds of men1 ,he also searches their thoughts4 ,looking into their hearts1 ,he knows the word1 ere it is upon the tongue4 ,looking into the future1 he knows every creature1 ere it enters existence4 8,the darkness and the light are alike to ,him40 ,with one glance ,he surveys all that is and all that happens47#bcc7 ,he is1 as the rabbis express it1 8the all-seeing ,eye and the all-hearing ,ear407#bcd7 ,in like manner the distinctions of time disappear before ,him4 ,the entire past is unrolled before ,his sight2 ,his book records all that men do or suffer1 even their tears27#bce7 and there is no forgetfulness with ,him4 ,the remotest future also is open before ,him1 for it is planned by ,him1 and in it ,he has allotted to each being its days and its steps47#bcf7 ,yea1 as ,he beholds events ere they transpire1 so ,he reveals the secrets of the future to ,his chosen ones1 in order to warn men of the judgments that threaten them47#bcg7 #f4 ,the idea of divine omniscience could ripen only gradually in the minds of the people4 ,the older and more child-like conception still remains in the stories of the ,deluge and the ,tower of ,babel1 where ,god descended from heaven to watch the doings of men1 and repented of what ,he had done47#bch7 ,obviously the idea of divine omniscience took hold of the people as a result of the admonitions of the prophets4 #g4 ,philosophical inquiry into the ideas of the divine omnipotence and omniscience1 however1 discloses many difficulties4 ,the ,biblical assertion that nothing is impossible to ,god will not stand the test as soon as we ask seriously whether ,god can make the untrue true1--as making two times two to equal five--or whether ,he can declare the wrong to be right4 ,obviously ,he cannot overturn the laws of mathematical truth or of moral truth1 without at the same time losing ,his nature as the ,source and ,essence of all truth4 ,nor can ,he abrogate the laws of nature1 which are really ,his own rules for ,his creation1 without detracting from both ,his omniscience and the immutability of ,his will4 ,this question will be discussed more fully in connection with miracles1 in chapter ,,xxvii4 ,together with the problem of the divine omniscience arises the difficulty of reconciling this with our freedom of will and our moral responsibility4 ,would not ,his foreknowledge of our actions in effect determine them8 ,this difficulty can only be solved by a proper conception of the freedom of the will1 and will be discussed in that connection in chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,altogether1 we must guard against applying our human type of knowledge to ,god4 ,man1 limited by space and time1 obtains his knowledge of things and events by his senses1 becoming aware of them separately as they exist either beside each other or in succession4 ,with ,god all knowledge is complete2 there is no growth of knowledge from yesterday to to-day1 no knowledge of only a part instead of the whole of the world4 ,his omniscience and omnipotence are bound up with ,his omnipresence and eternity4 8,for ,my thoughts are not your thoughts1 neither are your ways ,my ways1 saith the ,lord4 ,for as the heavens are higher than the earth1 so are ,my ways higher than your ways1 and ,my thoughts than your thoughts407#bci7 ,chapter ,,xv4 ,god's ,omnipresence and ,eternity #a4 ,as soon as man awakens to a higher consciousness of ,god1 he realizes the vast distance between his own finite being limited by space and time1 and the ,infinite ,being which rules everywhere and unceasingly in lofty grandeur and unlimited power4 ,his very sense of being hedged in by the bounds and imperfections of a finite existence makes him long for the infinite ,god1 unlimited in might1 and brings to him the feeling of awe before ,his greatness4 ,but this conception of ,god as the omnipresent and everlasting ,spirit1 as distinct from any created being1 is likewise the result of many stages of growing thought4 #b4 ,the primitive mind imagines ,god as dwelling in a lofty place1 whence ,he rules the earth beneath1 descending at times to take part in the affairs of men1 to tarry among them1 or to walk with them47#bdj7 ,the people adhered largely to this conception during the ,biblical period1 as they considered as the original seat of the ,deity1 first ,paradise1 later on ,sinai or ,zion1 and finally the far-off heavens4 ,it required prophetic vision to discern that 8the heavens and the heavens' heavens do not encompass ,god's majesty10 expressed also in poetic imagery that 8the heaven is ,my throne and the earth ,my footstool407#bda7 ,the classic form of this idea of the divine omnipresence is found in the oft-quoted passage from ,psalm ,,cxxxix47#bdb7 #c4 ,the dwelling places of ,god are to give way the moment ,his omnipresence is understood as penetrating the universe to such an extent that nothing escapes ,his glance nor lies without ,his dominion47#bdc7 ,they are then transformed into places where ,he had manifested ,his ,name1 ,his ,glory1 or ,his ,presence 78,countenance10 in the ,hebrew74 ,in this way certain emanations or powers of ,god were formed which could be located in a certain space without impairing the divine omnipresence4 ,these intermediary powers will be the theme of chapter ,,xxxii4 ,the following dialogue illustrates this stage of thought3 ,a heretic once said sarcastically to ,gamaliel ,,ii1 8,ye say that where ten persons assemble for worship1 there the divine majesty 7,shekinah7 descends upon them2 how many such majesties are there80 ,to which ,gamaliel replied3 8,does not the one orb of day send forth a million rays upon the earth8 ,and should not the majesty of ,god1 which is a million times brighter than the sun1 be reflected in every spot on earth807#bdd7 #d4 ,nevertheless a conception of pure spirit is very difficult to attain1 even in regard to ,god4 ,the thought of ,his omnipresence is usually interpreted by imagining some ethereal substance which expands infinitely1 as ,ibn ,ezra and ,saadia before him were inclined to do17#bde7 or by picturing ,him as a sort of all-encompassing ,space1 in accordance with the rabbis47#bdf7 ,the ,new ,testament writers and the ,church fathers likewise spoke of ,god as ,spirit1 but really had in mind1 for the most part1 an ethereal substance resembling light pervading cosmic space4 ,the often-expressed belief that man may see ,god after death rests upon this conception of ,god as a substance perceptible to the mind47#bdg7 ,a higher standpoint is taken by a thinker such as ,ibn ,gabirol1 who finds ,god's omnipresence in ,his all-pervading will and intellect47#bdh7 ,but this type of divine omnipresence is rather divine immanence4 ,the religious consciousness has a quite different picture of ,god1 a self-conscious ,personality1 ever near to man1 ever scanning his acts1 his thoughts1 and his motives4 ,here philosophy and religion part company4 ,the former must abstain from the assumption of a divine personality2 the latter cannot do without it4 ,the ,god of religion must partake of the knowledge and the feelings of ,his worshiper1 must know his every impulse and idea1 and must feel with him in his suffering and need4 ,god's omnipresence is in this sense a postulate of religion4 #e4 ,the second earthly and human limitation is that of time4 ,confined by space and time1 man casts his eyes upward toward a ,being who shall be infinite and eternal4 ,whatever time begets1 time swallows up again4 ,transitoriness is the fate of all things4 ,everything which enters existence must end at last4 8,also heaven and earth perish and wax old like a garment4 ,only ,god remains forever the same1 and ,his years have no end4 ,he is from everlasting to everlasting1 the first and the last40 ,so speak prophet and psalmist1 voicing a universal thought7#bdi72 and our liturgical poet sings3 8,the ,lord of all did reign supreme ,ere yet this world was made and formed2 ,when all was finished by ,his will1 ,then was ,his name as ,king proclaimed4 8,and should these forms no more exist1 ,he still will rule in majesty2 ,he was1 ,he is1 ,he shall remain1 ,his glory never shall decrease407#bej7 #f4 ,but the idea of ,god's eternity also presents certain difficulties to the thinking mind4 ,as ,creator and ,author of the universe1 ,god is the ,first ,cause1 without beginning or end1 the ,source of all existence2 as ,ruler and ,master of the world1 ,he maintains all things through all eternity2 though heaven and earth 8wax old like a garment10 ,he outlasts them all4 ,now1 if ,he is to manifest these powers from everlasting to everlasting1 ,he must ever remain the same4 ,consequently1 we must add immutability as a corollary of eternity1 if the latter is to mean anything4 ,it is not enough to state that ,god is without beginning and without end2 the essential part of the doctrine is ,his transcendence above the changes and conditions of time4 ,we mortals cannot really entertain a conception of eternity2 our nearest approach to it is an endless succession of periods of time1 a ceaseless procession of ages and eons following each other4 ,endless time is not at all the same as timelessness4 ,therefore eternity signifies transcendence above all existence in time2 its real meaning is supermundaneity47#bea7 #g4 ,this seems the best way to avoid the difficulty which seemed almost insuperable to the medieval thinkers1 how to reconcile a ,creation at a certain time and a ,creator for whom time does not exist4 ,in the effort to solve the difficulty1 they resorted to the ,platonic and ,aristotelian definition of time as the result of the motions of the heavenly bodies2 thus they declared that time was created simultaneously with the world4 ,this is impossible for the modern thinker1 who has learned from ,kant to regard time and space1 not as external realities1 but as human modes of apperception of objects4 ,so the contrast between the transient character of the world and the eternity of ,god becomes all the greater with the increasing realization of the vast gap between the material world and the divine spirit4 ,at this point arises a still greater difficulty4 ,the very idea of creation at a certain time becomes untenable in view of our knowledge of the natural process2 the universe itself1 it seems to us1 extends over an infinity of space and time4 ,indeed1 the modern view of evolution in place of creation has the grave danger of leading to pantheism1 to a conception of the cosmos which sees in ,god only an eternal energy 7or substance7 devoid of free volition and self-conscious action47#beb7 ,we can evade the difficulty only by assuming ,god's transcendence1 and this can be done in such a way as not to exclude ,his immanence1 or--what is the same thing--,his omnipresence4 #h4 ,both ,god's omnipresence and ,his eternity are intended only to raise ,him far above the world1 out of the confines of space and time1 to represent ,his sublime loftiness as the 8,rock of ,ages10 as holding worlds without number in 8,his eternal arms40 8,nothing can be hidden from ,him who has reared the entire universe and is familiar with every part of it1 however remote407#bec7 ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,god's ,holiness #a4 ,judaism recognizes two distinct types of divine attributes4 ,those which we have so far considered belong to the metaphysical group1 which chiefly engage the attention of the philosopher4 ,they represent ,god as a transcendental ,being who is ever beyond our comprehension1 because our finite intellect can never grasp the infinite ,spirit4 ,they are not descriptions1 but rather inferences from the works of the ,master of the world to the ,master himself4 ,but there are other divine attributes which we derive from our own moral nature1 and which invest our whole life with a higher moral character4 ,instead of arising from the external necessity which governs nature in its causes and effects1 these rest upon our assumption of inner freedom1 setting the aims for all that we achieve4 ,this moral nature is realized to some extent even by the savage1 when he trembles before his deity in pangs of conscience1 or endeavors to propitiate him by sacrifices4 ,still1 ,judaism alone fully realized the moral nature of the ,deity2 this was done by investing the term 8holiness0 with the idea of moral perfection1 so that ,god became the ideal and pattern of the loftiest morality4 8,be ye holy1 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy407#bed7--,this is the central and culminating idea of the ,jewish law47#bee7 #b4 ,holiness is the essence of all moral perfection2 it is purity unsullied by any breath of evil4 ,true holiness can be ascribed only to ,divinity1 above the realm of the flesh and the senses4 8,there is none holy but the ,lord1 for there is none beside ,thee10 says ,scripture47#bef7 ,whether man stands on a lower or higher level of culture1 he has in all his plans and aspirations some ideal of perfection to which he may never attain1 but which serves as the standard for his actions4 ,the best of his doings falls short of what he ought to do2 in his highest efforts he realizes the potentiality of better things4 ,this ideal of moral perfection works as the motive power of the will in setting for it a standard2 it establishes human freedom in place of nature's compulsion1 but such an ideal can emanate only from the moral power ruling life1 which we designate as the divine ,holiness4 #c4 ,scripture says of ,god that ,he 8walketh in holiness107#beg7 and accordingly morality in man is spoken of as 8walking in the ways of ,god407#beh7 8,walk before ,me and be perfect60 says ,god to ,abraham47#bei7 ,moses approached ,god with two petitions1--the one1 8,show me ,thy ways that ,i may know ,thee60 the other1 8,show me1 ,i pray ,thee1 ,thy glory60 ,in response to the latter ,god said1 8,no man can see ,me and live01 but the former petition was granted in that the ,lord revealed ,himself in ,his moral attributes47#bfj7 ,these alone can be understood and emulated by man2 in regard to the so-called metaphysical attributes ,god will ever remain beyond human comprehension and emulation4 #d4 ,in order to serve as vehicle for the expression of the highest moral perfection1 the ,biblical term for holiness1 ,kadosh1 had to undergo a long process of development1 obscuring its original meaning4 ,the history of this term gives us the deepest insight into the working of the ,jewish genius towards the full revelation of the ,god of holiness4 ,at first the word ,kadosh7#bfa7 seems to have denoted unapproachableness in the sense in which fire is unapproachable1 that is1 threatening and consuming4 ,this fiery nature was ascribed by primitive man to all divine beings4 ,hence the angels are termed 8the holy ones0 in ,scripture47#bfb7 ,according to both priestly practice and popular belief1 the man who approached one of these holy ones with hand or foot1 or even with his gaze1 was doomed to die47#bfc7 ,out of such crude conceptions evolved the idea of ,god's majesty as unapproachable in the sense of the sublime1 banishing everything profane from its presence1 and visiting with punishment every violation of its sanctity4 ,the old conception of the fiery appearance of the ,deity served especially as a figurative expression of the moral power of ,god1 which manifests itself as a 8consuming fire107#bfd7 exterminating evil1 and making man long for the good and the true1 for righteousness and love4 #e4 ,the divine attribute of holiness has accordingly a double meaning4 ,on the one hand1 it indicates spiritual loftiness transcending everything sensual1 which works as a purging power of indignation at evil1 rebuking injustice1 impurity and falsehood1 and punishing transgression until it is removed from the sight of ,god4 ,on the other hand1 it denotes the condescending mercy of ,god1 which1 having purged the soul of wrong1 wins it for the right1 and which endows man with the power of perfecting himself1 and thus leads him to the gradual building up of the kingdom of goodness and purity on earth4 ,this ethical conception of holiness1 which emanates from the moral nature of ,god1 revealed to the prophetic genius of ,israel1 must not be confused with the old ,semitic conception of priestly or ritual holiness4 ,ritual holiness is purely external1 and is transferable to persons and things1 to times and places1 according to their relation to the ,deity4 ,hence the various cults applied the term 8holy0 to the most abominable forms of idolatry and impure worship47#bfe7 ,the ,mosaic law condemned all these as violations of the holiness of ,israel's ,god1 but could not help sanctioning many ordinances and rites of priestly holiness which originated in ancient ,semitic usages4 ,hence the two conceptions of holiness1 the priestly or external and the prophetic or ethical1 became interwoven in the ,mosaic code to such an extent as to impair the standard of ethical holiness stressed by the prophets1 the unique and lofty possession of ,judaism4 ,hence the letter of the ,law caused a deplorable confusion of ideas1 which was utilized by the detractors of ,judaism4 ,the liberal movement of modern ,judaism1 in pointing to the prophetic ideals as the true basis of the ,jewish faith1 is at the same time dispelling this ancient confusion of the two conceptions of holiness4 #f4 ,the ,levitical holiness adheres outwardly to persons and things and consists in their separation or their reservation from common use4 ,in striking contrast to this1 the holiness which ,judaism attributes to ,god denotes the highest ethical purity1 unattainable to flesh and blood1 but designed for our emulation4 ,the contemplation of the divine holiness is to inspire man with fear of sin and to exert a healthful influence upon his conduct4 ,thus ,god became the hallowing power in ,judaism and its institutions1 truly the 8,holy ,one of ,israel0 according to the term of ,isaiah and his great exilic successor1 the so-called ,deutero-,isaiah47#bff7 ,thus ,his holiness invested ,his people with special sanctity and imposed upon it special obligations4 ,in the words of ,ezekiel1 ,god became the 8,sanctifier of ,israel407#bfg7 ,the rabbis penetrated deeply into the spirit of ,scripture1 at the same time that they adhered strictly to its letter4 ,while they clung tenaciously to the ritual holiness of the priestly codes1 they recognized the ideal of holiness which is so sharply opposed in every act and thought to the demoralizing cults of heathenism47#bfh7 #g4 ,accordingly1 holiness is not the metaphysical concept which ,jehuda ha ,levi considers it17#bfi7 but the principle and source of all ethics1 the spirit of absolute morality1 lending purpose and value to the whole of life4 ,as long as men do good or shun evil through fear of punishment or hope for reward1 whether in this life or the hereafter1 so long will ideal morality remain unattained1 and man cannot claim to stand upon the ground of divine holiness4 ,the holy ,god must penetrate and control all of life--such is the essence of ,judaism4 ,the true aim of human existence is not salvation of the soul1--a desire which is never quite free from selfishness1--but holiness emulating ,god1 striving to do good for the sake of the good without regard to recompense1 and to shun evil because it is evil1 aside from all consequences47#bgj7 #h4 ,the fact is that holiness is a religious term1 based upon divine revelation1 not a philosophical one resting upon speculative reasoning4 ,it is a postulate of our moral nature that all life is governed by a holy ,will to which we must submit willingly1 and which makes for the good4 ,how volition and compulsion are with ,god one and the same1 how the good exists in ,god without the bad1 or holiness and moral purpose without unholy or immoral elements1 how ,god can be exactly opposite to all we know of man1--this is a question which philosophy is unable to answer4 ,in fact1 holiness is best defined negatively1 as the 8negation of all that man from his own experience knows to be unholy40 ,these words of the ,danish philosopher ,rauwenhoff are made still clearer by the following observations3 8,the strength in the idea of holiness lies exactly in its negative character4 ,there is no comparison of higher or lesser degree possible between man's imperfections and ,god's perfect goodness4 ,instead1 there is an absolute contrast between mankind which1 even in its noblest types1 must wrestle with the power of evil1 and ,god1 in whom nothing can be imagined which would even suggest the possibility of any moral shortcoming or imperfection407#bga7 ,as the prophet says1 8,thou art too pure of eyes to look complacently upon evil107#bgb7 and according to the ,psalmist1 8,who shall ascend into the mountain of the ,lord1 and who shall stand in ,his holy place8 ,he that hath clean hands and a pure heart407#bgc7 #i4 ,the idea of holiness became the preminent feature of ,judaism1 so that the favorite name for ,god in ,rabbinical literature was 8the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he10 and the acme of all ceremonial and moral laws alike was found in 8the ,hallowing of ,his name407#bgd7 ,if the rabbis as followers of the ,priestly ,code were compelled to lay great stress upon ritual holiness1 they yet beheld in it the means of moral purification4 ,they never lost sight of the prophetic principle that moral purity is the object of all human life1 for 8the holy ,god is sanctified through righteousness407#bge7 ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,god's ,wrath and ,punishment #a4 ,scripture speaks frequently of the anger and zeal of ,god and of ,his avenging sword and judgment1 so as to give the impression that 8the ,old ,testament ,god is a ,god of wrath and vengeance40 ,as a matter of fact1 these attributes are merely emanations of ,his holiness1 the guide and incentive to moral action in man4 ,the burning fire of the divine holiness aims to awaken the dormant seeds of morality in the human soul and to ripen them into full growth4 ,whenever we to-day would speak of pangs of conscience1 of bitter remorse1 ,scripture uses figurative language and describes how ,god's wrath is kindled against the wrongdoing of the people1 and how fire blazes forth from ,his nostrils to consume them in ,his anger4 ,the nearer man stands to nature1 the more tempestuous are the outbursts of his passion1 and the more violent is the reaction of his repentance4 ,yet this very reaction impresses him as though wrought from outside or above by the offended ,deity4 ,thus the divine wrath becomes a means of moral education1 exactly as the parents' indignation at the child's offenses is part of his training in morality4 #b4 ,thus the first manifestation of ,god's holiness is ,his indignation at falsehood and violence1 ,his hatred of evil and wrongdoing4 ,the longer men persist in sin1 the more does ,he manifest ,himself as 8the angry ,god10 as a 8consuming fire0 which destroys evil with holy zeal47#bgf7 ,the husbandman cannot expect the good harvest until he has weeded out the tares from the field2 so ,god1 in educating man1 begins by purging the soul from all its evil inclinations1 and this zeal is all the more unsparing as the good is finally to triumph in ,his eternal plan of universal salvation4 ,we must bear in mind that ,judaism does not personify evil as a power hostile to ,god1 hence the whole problem is only one of purifying the human soul4 ,before the sun of ,god's grace and mercy is to shine1 bearing life and healing for all humanity1 ,his wrath and punitive justice must ever burst forth to cleanse the world of its sin4 ,for as long as evil continues unchecked1 so long cannot the divine holiness pour forth its all-forbearing goodness and love4 #c4 ,on this account the first revelation of ,god on ,sinai was as 8a jealous ,god1 who visiteth the sins of the fathers upon the children and the children's children until the third and fourth generation40 ,so the prophets1 from ,moses to ,malachi1 speak ever of ,god's anger1 which comes with the fury of nature's unchained forces1 to terrify and overwhelm all living beings47#bgg7 ,thus ,scripture considers all the great catastrophes of the hoary past1--flood1 earthquakes1 and the rain of fire and brimstone that destroys cities--as judgments of the divine anger on sinful generations4 ,wickedness in general causes ,his displeasure1 but ,his wrath is provoked especially by violations of the social order1 by desecrations of ,his sanctuary1 or attacks on ,his covenant1 and ,his anger is kindled for the poor and helpless1 when they are oppressed and deprived of their rights47#bgh7 #d4 ,thus the divine holiness was felt more and more as a moral force1 and that which appeared in pre-prophetic times to be an elemental power of the celestial ire became a refining flame1 purging men of dross as in a crucible4 8,i will not execute the fierceness of ,mine anger10 says the prophet1 8for ,i am ,god and not man1 the ,holy ,one in the midst of thee1 and ,i will not come in fury407#bgi7 ,so sings the ,psalmist1 8,his anger is but for a moment2 ,his favor for a life-time407#bhj7 ,in the same spirit the rabbis interpreted the verse of the ,decalogue1 8,the sin of the fathers is visited upon the children and children's children only if they continue to act as their fathers did1 and are themselves haters of ,god407#bha7 ,the fact is that ,israel in ,canaan had become addicted to all the vices of idolatry1 and if they were to be trained to moral purity and to loyalty to the ,god of the ,covenant1 they must be taught fear and awe before the flame of the divine wrath4 ,only after that could the prophet address himself to the conscience of the individual1 saying3 8,who among us shall dwell with the devouring fire8 ,who among us shall dwell with everlasting burnings8 ,he that walketh righteously1 and speaketh uprightly2 ,he that despiseth the gain of oppressions1 that shaketh his hands from holding of bribes1 ,that stoppeth his ears from hearing of blood1 and shutteth his eyes from looking upon evil2 ,he shall dwell on high2 his place of defense shall be the munitions of rocks2 ,his bread shall be given1 his water shall be sure4 ,thine eyes shall see the ,king in ,his beauty2 they shall behold a land stretching afar407#bhb7 ,here we behold the fiery element of the divine holiness partly depicted as a reality and partly spiritualized4 ,the last of the prophets compares the divine wrath to a melting furnace1 which on the ,day of ,judgment is to consume evildoers as stubble1 while to those who fear the ,lord ,he shall appear as the sun of righteousness with healing on its wings47#bhc7 #e4 ,the idea as expressed by the prophets1 then1 was that ,god's anger will visit the wicked1 and particularly the ungodly nations of heathendom1 and that ,he shall judge all creatures in fire47#bhd7 ,this was significantly altered under ,persian influence1 when the ,jew began to regard the world to come as promising to the righteous greater bliss than the present one4 ,then the day of divine wrath meant doom eternal for evil-doers1 who were to fall into the fiery depths of ,gehenna1 8their worm is never to die and their fire never to be quenched407#bhe7 ,this became the prevailing view of the rabbis1 of the ,apocalyptics and also of the ,new ,testament and the ,church literature47#bhf7 ,the ,jewish propaganda in the ,hellenistic literature1 however1 combined the fire of ,gehenna with the ,stoic1 or pagan1 view of a general world-conflagration1 and announced a general doomsday for the heathen world1 unless they be converted to the belief in ,israel's one and holy ,god1 and ceased violating the fundamental 7,noachian7 laws of humanity47#bhg7 #f4 ,a higher view of the punitive anger of ,god is taken by ,beruriah1 the noble wife of ,r4 ,meir17#bhh7--;if1 indeed1 the wife of the saintly ,abba ,helkiah did not precede her7#bhi7--;in suggesting a different reading of the ,biblical text1 as to make it offer the lesson3 8not the sinners shall perish from the earth1 but the sins40 ,from a more philosophical viewpoint both ,juda ha ,levi and ,maimonides hold that the anger which we ascribe to ,god is only the transference of the anger which we actually feel at the sight of evildoing4 ,similarly1 when we speak of the consuming fire of hell1 we depict the effect which the fear of ,god must have on our inner life1 until the time shall come when we shun evil as ungodly and love the good because it is both good and ,god-like47#bij7 ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,god's ,long-suffering and ,mercy #a4 ,in one of the little known apocryphal writings1 the ,testament of ,abraham1 a beautiful story is told of the patriarch4 ,shortly before his death1 the archangel ,michael drove him along the sky in the heavenly chariot4 ,looking down upon the earth1 he saw companies of thieves and murderers1 adulterers1 and other evil-doers pursuing their nefarious practices1 and in righteous indignation he cried out3 8,oh would to ,god that fire1 destruction1 and death should instantly befall these criminals60 ,no sooner had he spoken these words than the doom he pronounced came upon those wicked men4 ,but then spoke the ,lord ,god to the heavenly charioteer ,michael3 8,stop at once1 lest ,my righteous servant ,abraham in his just indignation bring death upon all ,my creatures1 because they are not as righteous as he4 ,he has not learned to restrain his anger407#bia7 ,thus1 indeed1 the wrath kindled at the sight of wrongdoing would consume the sinner at once1 were it not for another quality in ,god1 called in ,scripture long-suffering4 ,by this ,he restrains ,his anger and gives the sinner time to improve his ways4 ,though every wicked deed provokes ,him to immediate punishment1 yet ,he shows compassion upon the feeble mortal4 8,even in wrath ,he remembereth compassion407#bib7 8,he hath no delight in the death of the sinner1 but that he shall return from his ways and live407#bic7 ,the divine holiness does not merely overwhelm and consume2 its essential aim is the elevation of man1 the effort to endow him with a higher life4 #b4 ,it is perfectly true that a note of rigor and of profound earnestness runs through the pages of ,holy ,writ4 ,the prophets1 law-givers1 and psalmists speak incessantly of how guilt brings doom upon the lands and nations4 ,as the father who is solicitous of the honor of his household punishes unrelentingly every violation of morality within it1 so the ,holy ,one of ,israel watches zealously over ,his people's loyalty to ,his covenant4 ,his glorious name1 ,his holy majesty cannot be violated with immunity from ,his dreaded wrath4 ,there is nothing of the joyous abandon which was predominant in the ,greek nature and in the ,olympian gods4 ,the ideal of holiness was presented by the ,god of ,israel1 and all the doings of men appeared faulty beside it4 ,but its power of molding character is shown by ,judaism at this very point1 in that it does not stop at the condemnation of the sinner4 ,it holds forth the promise of ,god's forbearance to man in his shortcomings1 due to ,his compassion on the weakness of flesh and blood4 ,he waits for man1 erring and stumbling1 until by striving and struggling he shall attain a higher state of purity4 ,this is the bright1 uplifting side of the ,jewish idea of the divine holiness4 ,in this is the innermost nature of ,god disclosed4 ,in fear and awe of ,him who is enthroned on high1 8before whom even the angels are not pure10 man1 conscious of his sinfulness1 sinks trembling into the dust before the ,judge of the whole earth4 ,but the grace and mercy of the long-suffering ,ruler lift him up and imbue him with courage and strength to acquire a new life and new energy4 ,thus the oppressive burden of guilt is transformed into an uplifting power through the influence of the holy ,god4 #c4 ,the predominance in ,god of mildness and mercy over punitive anger is expressed most strikingly in the revelation to ,moses1 when he had entreated ,god to let him see ,his ways4 ,the people had provoked ,god's anger by their faithlessness in the worship of the golden calf1 and ,he had threatened to consume them1 when ,moses interceded in their behalf4 ,then the ,lord passed by him1 and proclaimed3 8,the ,lord1 the ,lord1 ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering and abundant in goodness and truth1 keeping mercy unto the thousandth generation1 forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin2 and that will by no means clear the guilty2 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and upon the children's children1 unto the third and unto the fourth generation407#bid7 ,such a passage shows clearly the progress in the knowledge of ,god's nature4 ,for ,abraham and the traditions of the patriarchs ,god was the righteous ,judge1 punishing the transgressors4 ,he is represented in the same way in the ,decalogue on ,sinai47#bie7 ,was this to be the final word8 ,was ,israel chosen by ,god as ,his covenant people1 only to encounter the full measure of ,his just but relentless anger and to be consumed at once for the violation of this covenant8 ,therefore ,moses wrestled with his ,god4 ,filled with compassionate love for his people1 he is willing to offer his life as their ransom4 ,and should ,god himself lack this fullness of love and pity1 of which even a human being is capable8 ,then1 as from a dark cloud1 there flashed suddenly upon him the light of a new revelation2 he became aware of the higher truth1 that above the austerity of ,god's avenging anger prevails the tender forgiveness of ,his mercy2 that beyond the consuming zeal of ,his punitive justice shines the sun-like splendor of ,his grace and love4 ,the rabbis find the expression of mercy especially in the name ,,jhvh 7i4e4 8the ,one who shall ever be07 which is significantly placed here at the head of the divine attributes4 ,indeed1 only ,he who is the same from everlasting to everlasting1 and to whom to-morrow is like yesterday1 can show forbearance to erring man1 because in whatsoever he has failed yesterday he may make good to-morrow4 #d4 ,like ,moses1 the master of the prophets1 so the prophet ,hosea also learned in hard spiritual struggle to know the divine attribute of mercy and lovingkindness4 ,his own wife had proved faithless1 and had broken the marital covenant2 still his love survived1 so that he granted her forgiveness when she was forsaken1 and took her back to his home4 ,then1 in his distress at the ,god-forsaken state of ,israel through her faithlessness1 he asked himself3 8,will ,god reject forever the nation which ,he espoused1 because it broke the covenant8 ,will not ,he also grant forgiveness and mercy80 ,the divine answer came to him out of the depths of his own compassionate soul4 ,upon the crown of ,god's majesty which ,amos had beheld all effulgent with justice and righteousness1 he placed the most precious gem1 reflecting the highest quality of ,god--,his gracious and all-forgiving love47#bif7 ,whether the priority in this great truth belongs to ,hosea or ,moses is a question for historical ,bible research to answer1 but it is of no consequence to ,jewish theology4 #e4 ,certainly ,scripture represents ,god too much after human fashion1 when it ascribes to him changes of mood from anger to compassion1 or speaks of ,his repentance47#big7 ,but we must bear in mind that the prophets obtained their insight into the ways of ,god by this very process of transferring their own experience to the ,deity4 ,and on the other hand1 we are told that 8,god is not a man that ,he should lie1 neither the son of man that ,he should repent407#bih7 ,all these anthropomorphic pictures of ,god were later avoided by the ancient ,biblical translators by means of paraphrase1 and by the philosophers by means of allegory47#bii7 #f4 ,according to the ,midrashic interpretation of the passage from the ,pentateuch quoted above1 ,moses desired to ascertain whether ,god ruled the world with ,his justice or with ,his mercy1 and the answer was3 8,behold1 ,i shall let ,my goodness pass before thee4 ,for ,i owe nothing to any of ,my creatures1 but ,my actions are prompted only by ,my grace and good will1 through which ,i give them all that they possess407#cjj7 ,according to ,judaism justice and mercy are intertwined in ,god's government of the world2 the former is the pillar of the cosmic structure1 and the latter the measuring line4 ,no mortal could stand before ,god1 were justice the only standard2 but we subsist on ,his mercy1 which lends us the boons of life without our meriting them4 ,that which is not good in us now is to become good through our effort toward the best4 ,god's grace underlies this possibility4 ,accordingly1 the divine holiness has two aspects1 the overwhelming wrath of ,his justice and the uplifting grace of ,his long-suffering4 ,without justice there could be no fear of ,god1 no moral earnestness2 without mercy only condemnation and perdition would remain4 ,as the rabbis tell us1 both justice and mercy had their share in the creation of man1 for in man both good and bad appear and struggle for supremacy4 ,all generations need the divine grace that they may have time and opportunity for improvement47#cja7 #g4 ,thus this conception of grace is far deeper and worthier of ,god than is that of ,paulinian ,christianity2 for grace in ,paul's sense is arbitrary in action and dependent upon the acceptance of a creed1 therefore the very reverse of impartial justice4 ,in ,judaism divine grace is not offered as a bait to make men believe1 but as an incentive to moral improvement4 ,the ,god of holiness1 who inflicts wounds upon the guilty soul by bitter remorse1 offers also healing through ,his compassion4 ,justice and mercy are not two separate powers or persons in the ,deity1 as with the doctrine of the ,church2 they are the two sides of the same divine power4 8,i am the ,lord before sin was committed1 and ,i am the ,lord after sin is committed0--so the rabbis explain the repetition of the name ,,jhvh in the revelation to ,moses47#cjb7 ,chapter ,,xix4 ,god's ,justice #a4 ,the unshakable faith of the ,jewish people was ever sustained by the consciousness that its ,god is a ,god of justice4 ,the conviction that ,he will not suffer wrong to go unpunished was read into all the stories of the hoary past4 ,the ,babylonian form of these legends in common with all ancient folk-lore ascribes human calamity to blind fate or to the caprice of the gods1 but the ,biblical narratives assume that evil does not befall men undeserved1 and therefore always ascribe ruin or death to human transgression4 ,so the ,jewish genius beheld in the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah a divine judgment upon the depraved inhabitants1 and derived from it a lesson for the household of ,abraham that they should 8keep the way of the ,lord to do righteousness and justice407#cjc7 ,the fundamental principle of ,judaism throughout the ages has been the teaching of the patriarch that 8the ,judge of all the earth cannot act unjustly107#cjd7 even though the varying events of history force the problem of justice upon the attention of ,jeremiah17#cje7 the ,psalmists17#cjf7 the author of the book of ,job17#cjg7 and the ,talmudical sages47#cjh7 8,righteousness and justice are the foundations of ,thy throne07#cji7--this is the sum and substance of the religious experience of ,israel4 ,at the same time man realizes how far from his grasp is the divine justice3 8,thy righteousness is like the mighty mountains2 ,thy judgments are like the great deep407#caj7 #b4 ,the ,master-builder of the moral world made justice the supporting pillar of the entire creation4 8,he is ,the ,rock1 ,his work is perfect1 for all ,his ways are just2 a ,god of faithfulness and without iniquity1 just and right is ,he407#caa7 ,there can be no moral world order without a retributive justice1 which leaves no infringement of right unpunished1 just as no social order can exist without laws to protect the weak and to enforce general respect4 ,the ,god of ,judaism rules over mankind as ,guardian and ,vindicator of justice2 no wrong escapes ,his scrutinizing gaze4 ,this fundamental doctrine invested history1 of both the individual and the nation1 with a moral significance beyond that of any other religious or ethical system4 ,whatever practice or sense of justice may exist among the rest of mankind1 it is at best a glimpse of that divine righteousness which leads us on and becomes a mighty force compelling us1 not only to avoid wrongdoing1 but to combat it with all the passion of an indignant soul and eradicate it wherever possible4 ,though in our daily experience justice may be sadly lacking1 we still cling to the moral axiom that ,god will lead the right to victory and will hurl iniquity into the abyss4 ,as the sages remark in the ,midrash3 8,how could short-sighted and short-lived man venture to assert1 #8,all ,his ways are just1' were it not for the divine revelation by which the eyes of ,moses were opened1 so that he could gaze into the very depths of life807#cab7 ,that is1 the idea of divine justice is revealed1 not in the world as it is1 but in the world as it should be1 the ideal cosmos which lives in the spirit4 #c4 ,it cannot be denied that justice is recognized as a binding force even by peoples on a low cultural plane1 and the ,deity is generally regarded as the guardian of justice1 exactly as in ,judaism4 ,this fact is shown by the use of the oath in connection with judicial procedure among many nations4 ,both ,roman jurisprudence and ,greek ethics declare justice to be the foundation of the social life4 ,nevertheless the ,jewish ideal of justice cannot be identified with that of the law and the courts4 ,the law is part of the social system of the ,state1 by which the relations of individuals are determined and upheld4 ,the maintenance of this social order1 of the status quo1 is considered justice by the law1 whatever injustice to individuals may result4 ,but the ,jewish idea of justice is not reactionary2 it owes to the prophets its position as the dominating principle of the world1 the peculiar essence of ,god1 and therefore the ultimate ideal of human life4 ,they fought for right with an insistence which vindicated its moral significance forever1 and in scathing words of indignation which still burn in the soul they denounced oppression wherever it appeared4 ,the crimes of the mighty against the weak1 they held1 could not be atoned for by the outward forms of piety4 ,right and justice are not simply matters for the ,state and the social order1 but belong to ,god1 who defends the cause of the helpless and the homeless1 8who executes the judgment of the fatherless and the widow10 8who regardeth not persons1 nor taketh bribes407#cac7 ,iniquity is hateful to ,him2 it cannot be covered up by pious acts1 nor be justified by good ends4 8,justice is ,god's407#cad7 ,thus every violation of justice1 whether from sordid self-seeking or from tender compassion1 is a violation of ,god's cause2 and every vindication of justice1 every strengthening of the power of right in society1 is a triumph of ,god4 #d4 ,accordingly1 the highest principle of ethics in ,judaism1 the cardinal point in the government of the world1 is not love1 but justice4 ,love has the tendency to undermine the right and to effeminize society4 ,justice1 on the other hand1 develops the moral capacity of every man2 it aims not merely to avoid wrong1 but to promote and develop the right for the sake of the perfect state of morality4 ,true justice cannot remain a passive onlooker when the right or liberty of any human being is curtailed1 but strains every effort to prevent violence and oppression4 ,it battles for the right1 until it has triumphed over every injustice4 ,this practical conception of right can be traced through all ,jewish literature and doctrine2 through the laws of ,moses1 to whom is ascribed the maxim3 8,let the right have its way1 though it bore holes through the rock017#cae7 through the flaming words of the prophets27#caf7 through the ,psalmists1 who spoke such words as these3 8,thou art not a ,god who hath pleasure in wickedness2 evil shall not sojourn with ,thee4 ,the arrogant shall not stand in ,thy sight2 ,thou hatest all workers of iniquity407#cag7 ,nor does justice stop with the prohibition of evil4 ,the very arm that strikes down the presumptuous transgressor turns to lift up the meek and endow him with strength4 ,justice becomes a positive power for the right2 it becomes ,zedakah1 righteousness or true benevolence1 and aims to readjust the inequalities of life by kindness and love4 ,it engenders that deeper sense of justice which claims the right of the weak to protection by the arm of the strong4 #e4 ,hence comes the truth of ,matthew ,arnold's striking summary of ,israel's ,law and ,prophets in his 8,literature and ,dogma10 as 8,the ,power1 not ourselves1 that maketh for righteousness40 ,still1 when we trace the development of this central thought in the soul of the ,jewish people1 we find that it arose from a peculiar mythological conception4 ,the ,god of ,sinai had manifested ,himself in the devastating elements of nature--fire1 storm1 and hail2 later1 the prophetic genius of ,israel saw ,him as a moral power who destroyed wickedness by these very phenomena in order that right should prevail4 ,at first the covenant-,god of ,israel hurls the plagues of heaven upon the hostile ,egyptians and ,canaanites1 the oppressors of ,his people4 ,afterward the great prophets speak of the ,day of ,,jhvh which would come at the end of days1 when ,god will execute ,his judgment upon the heathen nations by pouring forth all the terrors of nature upon them4 ,the natural forces of destruction are utilized by the ,ruler of heaven as means of moral purification4 8,for by fire will the ,lord contend407#cah7 ,in this process the sense of right became progressively refined1 so that ,god was made the ,defender of the cause of the oppressed1 and the holiest of duties became the protection of the forsaken and unfortunate4 ,justice and right were thus lifted out of the civil or forensic sphere into that of divine holiness1 and the struggle for the down-trodden became an imperative duty4 ,judaism finds its strength in the oft-repeated doctrine that the moral welfare of the world rests upon justice4 8,the ,king's strength is that he loveth justice10 says the ,psalmist1 and commenting upon this the ,midrash says1 8,not might1 but right forms the foundation of the world's peace407#cai7 #f4 ,social life1 therefore1 must be built upon the firm foundation of justice1 the full recognition of the rights of all individuals and all classes4 ,it can be based neither upon the formal administration of law nor upon the elastic principle of love1 which too often tolerates1 or even approves certain types of injustice4 ,judaism has been working through the centuries to realize the ideal of justice to all mankind2 therefore the ,jew has suffered and waited for the ultimate triumph of the ,god of justice4 ,god's kingdom of justice is to be established1 not in a world to come1 but in the world that now is1 in the life of men and nations4 ,as the ,german poet has it1 8,die ,weltgeschichte ist das ,weltgericht0 7the history of the world is the world's tribunal of justice74 #g4 ,the recognition of ,god as the righteous ,ruler implies a dominion of absolute justice which allows no wrongdoing to remain unpunished and no meritorious act to remain unrewarded4 ,the moral and intellectual maturity of the people1 however1 must determine how they conceive retribution in the divine judgment4 ,under the simple conditions of patriarchal life1 when common experience seemed to be in harmony with the demands of divine justice1 when the evil-doer seemed to meet his fate and the worthy man to enjoy his merited prosperity1 reward and punishment could well be expressed by the ,bible in terms of national prosperity and calamity4 ,the prophets1 impressed by the political and moral decline of their era1 announced for both ,israel and the other nations a day of judgment to come1 when ,god will manifest ,himself as the righteous ,ruler of the world4 ,in fact1 those great preachers of righteousness announced for all time the truth of a moral government of the world1 with terror for the malefactors and the assurance of peace and salvation for the righteous4 8,he will judge the world with righteousness1 and the peoples with equity0 becomes a song of joyous confidence and hope on the lips of the ,psalmist47#cbj7 ,this final triumph of justice does not depend1 as ,christian theologians assert1 on the mere outward conformity of ,israel to the law47#cba7 ,on the contrary1 it offers to the innocent sufferer the hope that 8his right shall break forth as light10 while 8the wicked shall be put to silence in darkness407#cbb7 ,we must admit1 indeed1 that the ,biblical idea of retribution still has too much of the earthly flavor1 and often lacks true spirituality4 ,the explanation of this lies in the desire of the expounders of ,judaism that this world should be regarded as the battle-ground between the good and the bad1 that the victory of the good is to be decided here1 and that the idea of justice should not assume the character of other-worldliness4 #h4 ,it is true that neither the prophets1 such as ,jeremiah1 nor the sages1 such as the authors of ,job and ,koheleth1 actually solved the great enigma which has baffled all nations and ages1 the adjustment of merit and destiny by divine righteousness4 ,yet even a doubter like ,job does not despair of his own sense of justice1 and wrestles with his ,god in the effort to obtain a deeper insight4 ,still the great mass of people are not satisfied with an unfulfilled yearning and seeking4 ,the various religions have gradually transferred the final adjustment of merit and destiny to the hereafter2 the rewards and punishments awaiting man after death have been depicted glaringly in colors taken from this earthly life4 ,it is not surprising that ,judaism was influenced by this almost universal view4 ,the mechanical form of the principle of justice demands that 8with the same measure one metes out1 it shall be meted out to him107#cbc7 and this could not be found either in human justice or in human destiny4 ,therefore the popular mind naturally turned to the world to come1 expecting there that just retribution which is lacking on earth4 ,only superior minds could ascend to that higher ethical conception where compensation is no longer expected1 but man seeks the good and happiness of others and finds therein his highest satisfaction4 ,as ,ben ,azzai expresses it1 8,the reward of virtue is virtue1 and the punishment of sin is sin407#cbd7 ,at this point justice merges into divine holiness4 #i4 ,the idea of divine justice exerted its uplifting force in one more way in ,judaism4 ,the recognition of ,god as the righteous ,judge of the world--,zidduk ha ,din7#cbe7--;is to bring consolation and endurance to the afflicted1 and to remove from their hearts the bitter sting of despair and doubt4 ,the rabbis called ,god 8the ,righteous ,one of the universe107#cbf7 as if to indicate that ,god himself is meant by the ,scriptural verse1 8,the righteous is an everlasting foundation of the world407#cbg7 ,far remote from ,judaism1 however1 is the doctrine that ,god would consign an otherwise righteous man to eternal doom1 because he belongs to another creed or another race than that of the ,jew4 ,wherever the heathens are spoken of as condemned at the last judgment1 the presumption based upon centuries of sad experience was that their lives were full of injustice and wickedness4 ,indeed1 milder teachers1 whose view became the accepted one1 maintained that truly righteous men are found among the heathen1 who have therefore as much claim upon eternal salvation as the pious ones of ,israel47#cbh7 ,chapter ,,xx4 ,god's ,love and ,compassion #a4 ,as justice forms the basis of human morality1 with kindness and benevolence as milder elements to mitigate its sternness1 so1 according to the ,jewish view1 mercy and love represent the milder side of ,god1 but by no means a higher attribute counteracting ,his justice4 ,love can supplement justice1 but cannot replace it4 ,the sages say37#cbi7 8,when the ,creator saw that man could not endure1 if measured by the standard of strict justice1 ,he joined ,his attribute of mercy to that of justice1 and created man by the combined principle of both40 ,the divine compassion with human frailty1 felt by both ,moses and ,hosea1 manifests itself in ,god's mercy4 ,were it not for the weakness of the flesh1 justice would have sufficed4 ,but the divine plan of salvation demands redeeming love which wins humanity step by step for higher moral ends4 ,the educational value of this love lies in the fact that it is a gift of grace1 bestowed on man by the fatherly love of ,god to ward off the severity of full retribution4 ,his pardon must conduce to a deeper moral earnestness47#ccj7 8,for with ,thee there is forgiveness that ,thou mayest be feared407#cca7 ,r4 ,akiba says3 8,the world is judged by the divine attribute of goodness407#ccb7 #b4 ,as a matter of course1 in the ,biblical view ,god's mercy was realized at first only with regard to ,israel and was afterward extended gradually to humanity at large4 ,the generation of the flood and the inhabitants of ,sodom perished on account of their guilt1 and only the righteous were saved4 ,this attitude holds throughout the ,bible until the late book of ,jonah1 with its lesson of ,god's forgiveness even for the heathen city of ,nineveh after due repentance4 ,in the later ,psalms the divine attributes of mercy are expanded and applied to all the creatures of ,god47#ccc7 ,according to the school of ,hillel1 whenever the good and evil actions of any man are found equal in the scales of justice1 ,god inclines the balances toward the side of mercy47#ccd7 ,nay more1 in the words of ,samuel1 the ,babylonian teacher1 ,god judges the nations by the noblest types they produce47#cce7 ,the ruling ,sadducean priesthood insisted on the rigid enforcement of the law4 ,the party of the pious1 the ,hasidim1 however1--according to the liturgy1 the apocryphal and the rabbinical literature1--appealed to the mercy of ,god in song and prayer1 acknowledging their failings in humility1 and made kindness and love their special objects in life4 ,therefore with their ascendancy the divine attributes of mercy and compassion were accentuated4 ,god himself1 we are told1 was heard praying3 8,oh that ,my attribute of mercy may prevail over ,my attribute of justice1 so that grace alone may be bestowed upon ,my children on earth407#ccf7 ,and the second word of the ,decalogue was so interpreted that ,god's mercy--which is said to extend 8to the thousandth generation0--is five hundred times as powerful as ,his punitive justice1--which is applied 8to the third and fourth generation407#ccg7 #c4 ,divine mercy shows itself in the law1 where compassion is enjoined on all suffering creatures4 ,profound sympathy with the oppressed is echoed in the ancient law of the poor who had to give up his garment as a pledge3 8,when he crieth unto ,me1 ,i shall hear1 for ,i am gracious407#cch7 ,in the old ,babylonian code1 might was the arbiter of right17#cci7 but the unique genius of the ,jew is shown in adapting this same legal material to its impulse of compassion4 ,the cry of the innocent sufferer1 of the forsaken and fatherless1 rises up to ,god's throne and secures there his right against the oppressor4 ,thus in the ,mosaic law and throughout ,jewish literature ,god calls himself 8the ,judge of the widow10 8the ,father of the fatherless107#cdj7 8a ,stronghold to the needy407#cda7 ,he calls the poor1 8,my people107#cdb7 and1 as the rabbis say1 ,he loves the persecuted1 not the persecutors47#cdc7 #d4 ,even to dumb beasts ,god extends ,his mercy4 ,this ,jewish tenderness is an inheritance from the shepherd life of the patriarchs1 who were eager to quench the thirst of the animals in their care before they thought of their own comfort47#cdd7 ,this sense of sympathy appears in the ,biblical precepts as to the overburdened beast17#cde7 the ox treading the corn17#cdf7 and the mother-beast or mother-bird with her young17#cdg7 as well as the ,talmudic rule first to feed the domestic animals and then sit down to the meal47#cdh7 ,this has remained a characteristic trait of ,judaism4 ,thus1 in connection with the verse of the ,psalm1 8,his tender mercies are over all ,his works107#cdi7 it is related of ,rabbi ,judah the ,saint1 the redactor of the ,mishnah1 that he was afflicted with pain for thirteen years1 and gave as reason that he once struck and kicked away a calf which had run to him moaning for protection2 he was finally relieved1 after he had taught his household to have pity even on the smallest of creatures47#cej7 ,in fact1 ,rabban ,gamaliel1 his grandfather1 had taught before him3 8,whosoever has compassion on his fellow-creatures1 on him ,god will have compassion407#cea7 ,the sages often interpret the phrase 8,to walk in the way of the ,lord0--that is1 8,as the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 is merciful1 so be ye also merciful407#ceb7 #e4 ,thus the rabbis came to regard love as the innermost part of ,god's being4 ,god loves mankind1 is the highest stage of consciousness of ,god1 but this can be attained only by the closest relation of the human soul to the ,most ,high1 after severe trials have softened and humanized the spirit4 ,it is not accidental that ,scripture speaks often of ,god's goodness1 mercy1 and grace1 but seldom mentions ,his love4 ,possibly the term ahabah was used at first for sensuous love and therefore was not employed for ,god so often as the more spiritual hesed1 which denotes kind and loyal affection47#cec7 ,however1 ,hosea used this term for his own love for his faithless wife1 and did not hesitate to apply it also to ,god's love for ,his faithless people1 which he terms 8a love of free will407#ced7 ,his example is followed by ,jeremiah1 most tender of the prophets1 who gave the classic expression to the everlasting love of ,god for ,israel1 ,his beloved son47#cee7 ,this divine love1 spiritually understood1 forms the chief topic of the ,deuteronomic addresses47#cef7 ,in this book ,god's love appears as that of a father for his son1 who lavishes gifts upon him1 but also chastises him for his own good47#ceg7 ,the mind opened more and more to regard the trials sent by ,god as means of ennobling the character17#ceh7 and the men of the ,talmudic period often speak of the afflictions of the saints as 8visitations of the divine love407#cei7 #f4 ,the sufferings of ,israel in particular were taken to be trials of the divine love47#cfj7 ,god's love for ,israel1 8,his first-born son107#cfa7 is not partial1 but from the outset aims to train him for his world mission4 ,the ,song of ,moses speaks of the love of the ,father for ,his son 8whom ,he found in the wilderness027#cfb7 and this is requited by the bridal love of ,israel with which the people 8went after ,god in the wilderness407#cfc7 ,it is this love of ,god1 according to ,akiba's interpretation of the ,song of ,songs1 which 8all the waters could not quench10 8a love as strong as death407#cfd7 ,this love raised up a nation of martyrs without parallel in history1 although the followers of the so-called ,religion of ,love fail to give it the credit it deserves and seem to regard it as a kind of hatred for the rest of mankind47#cfe7 ,whenever the paternal love of ,god is truly felt and understood it must include all classes and all souls of men who enter into the relation of children to ,god4 ,wherever emphasis is laid upon the special love for ,israel1 it is based upon the love with which the chosen people cling to the ,torah1 the word of ,god1 upon the devotion with which they surrender their lives in ,his cause47#cff7 #g4 ,still1 ,judaism does not proclaim love1 absolute and unrestricted1 as the divine principle of life4 ,that is left to the ,church1 whose history almost to this day records ever so many acts of lovelessness4 ,love is unworthy of ,god1 unless it is guided by justice4 ,love of good must be accompanied by hate of evil1 or else it lacks the educative power which alone makes it beneficial to man4 ,god's love manifests itself in human life as an educative power4 ,r4 ,akiba says that it extends to all created in ,god's image1 although the knowledge of it was vouchsafed to ,israel alone47#cfg7 ,this universal love of ,god is a doctrine of the apocryphal literature as well4 8,thou hast mercy upon all 444 for ,thou lovest all things that are1 and hatest nothing which ,thou hast made4444 ,but ,thou sparest all1 for they are ,thine1 ,o ,lord1 ,lover of souls10 says the ,book of ,wisdom27#cfh7 and when ,ezra the ,seer laments the calamity that has befallen the people1 ,god replies1 8,thinkest thou that thou lovest ,my creatures more than ,i807#cfi7 #h4 ,among the mystics divine love was declared to be the highest creative principle4 ,they referred the words of the ,song of ,songs1--8,the midst thereof is paved with love107#cgj7 to the innermost palace of heaven1 where stands the throne of ,god47#cga7 ,among the philosophers ,crescas considered love the active cosmic principle rather than intellect1 the principle of ,aristotle1 because it is love which is the impulse for creation47#cgb7 ,this conception of divine love received a peculiarly mystic color from ,juda ,abravanel1 a neo-,platonist of the sixteenth century1 known as ,leo ,hebraeus4 ,he says3 8,god's love must needs unfold ,his perfection and beauty1 and reveal itself in ,his creatures1 and love for these creatures must again elevate an imperfect world to ,his own perfection4 ,thus is engendered in man that yearning for love with which he endeavors to emulate the divine perfection407#cgc7 ,both ,crescas and ,leo ,hebraeus thus gave the keynote for ,spinoza's 8,intellectual love0 as the cosmic principle17#cgd7 and this has been echoed even in such works as ,schiller's dithyrambs on 8,love and ,friendship0 in his 8,philosophic ,letters407#cge7 ,still this neo-,platonic view has nothing in common with the theological conception of love4 ,in ,judaism ,god is conceived as a loving ,father1 who purposes to lead man to happiness and salvation4 ,in other words1 the divine love is an essentially moral attribute of ,god1 and not a metaphysical one4 #i4 ,if we wish to speak of a power that permeates the cosmos and turns the wheel of life1 it is far more correct to speak of ,god's creative goodness47#cgf7 ,according to ,scripture1 each day's creation bears the divine approval3 8,it is good407#cgg7 ,even the evil which man experiences serves a higher purpose1 and that purpose makes for the good4 ,misfortune and death1 sorrow and sin1 in the great economy of life are all turned into final good4 ,accordingly1 ,judaism recognizes this divine goodness not only in every enjoyment of nature's gifts and the favors of fortune1 but also in sad and trying experiences1 and for all of these it provides special formulas of benediction47#cgh7 ,the same divine goodness sends joy and grief1 even though shortsighted man fails to see the majestic ,sun of life which shines in unabated splendor above the clouds4 ,judaism was optimistic through all its experiences just because of this implicit faith in ,god's goodness4 ,such faith transforms each woe into a higher welfare1 each curse into actual blessing2 it leads men and nations from oppression to ever greater freedom1 from darkness to ever brighter light1 and from error to ever higher truth and righteousness4 ,divine love may have pity upon human weakness1 but it is divine goodness that inspires and quickens human energy4 ,after all1 love cannot be the dominant principle of life4 ,man cannot love all the time1 nor can he love all the world2 his sense of justice demands that he hate wickedness and falsehood4 ,we must apply the same criterion to ,god4 ,but1 on the other hand1 man can and should do good and be good continually and to all men1 even to the most unworthy4 ,therefore ,god becomes the pattern and ideal of an all-encompassing goodness1 which is never exhausted and never reaches an end4 ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,god's ,truth and ,faithfulness #a4 ,in the ,hebrew language truth and faithfulness are both derived from the same root2 aman1 8firmness10 is the root idea of emeth1 8truth10 and emunah1 8faithfulness40 ,man feels insecurity and uncertainty among the varying impressions and emotions which affect his will2 therefore he turns to the immovable ,rock of life1 calls on ,him as the ,guardian and ,witness of truth1 and feels confident that ,he will vindicate every promise made in ,his sight4 ,he is the ,god by whom men swear--,elohe amen27#cgi7 nay1 who swears by ,himself1 saying1 8,as true as that ,i live407#chj7 ,he is the supreme ,power of life1 8the ,god of faithfulness1 in whom there is no iniquity407#cha7 ,the heavens testify to ,his faithfulness2 ,he is the trustworthy ,god1 whose essence is truth47#chb7 #b4 ,here1 too1 as with other attributes1 the development of the idea may be traced step by step4 ,at first it refers to the ,god of the covenant with ,israel1 who made a covenant with the fathers and keeps it with the thousandth generation of their descendants4 ,he shows ,his mercy to those who love ,him and keep ,his commandments4 ,the idea of ,god's faithfulness to ,his covenant is thus extended gradually from the people to the cosmos1 and the heavens are called upon to witness to the faithfulness of ,god throughout the realm of life4 ,thus in both the ,psalms and the liturgy ,god is praised as the ,one who is faithful in ,his word as in ,his work47#chc7 #c4 ,from this conception of faithfulness arose two other ideas which exerted a powerful influence upon the whole spiritual and intellectual life of the ,jew4 ,the ,god of faithfulness created a people of faithfulness as ,his own1 and ,israel's ,god of truth awakened in the nation a passion for truth unrivaled by any other religious or philosophical system4 ,like a silver stream running through a valley1 the conviction runs through the sacred writings and the liturgy that the promise made of yore to the fathers will be fulfilled to the children4 ,as each past deliverance from distress was considered a verification of the divine faithfulness1 so each hope for the future was based upon the same attribute4 8,he keepeth ,his faith also to those who sleep in the dust40 ,these words of the second of the ,eighteen ,benedictions clearly indicate that even the belief in the hereafter rested upon the same fundamental belief4 ,on the other hand1 the same conception formed the keynote of the idea of the divine truthfulness4 ,the primitive age knew nothing of the laws of nature with which we have become familiar through modern science4 ,but the pious soul trusts the ,god of faithfulness1 certain that ,he who has created the heaven and the earth is true to ,his own word1 and will not allow them to sink back into chaos4 ,one witness to this is the rainbow1 which ,he has set up in the sky as a sign of ,his covenant47#chd7 ,the sea and the stars also have a boundary assigned to them which they cannot transgress47#che7 ,thus to the unsophisticated religious soul1 with no knowledge of natural science1 the world is carried by ,god's 8everlasting arms07#chf7 and ,his faithfulness becomes token and pledge of the immutability of ,his will4 #d4 ,at this point the intellect grasps an idea of intrinsic and indestructible truth1 which has its beginning and its end in ,god1 the ,only ,one4 8,the gods of the nations are all vanity and deceit1 the work of men2 ,israel's ,god is the ,god of truth1 the living ,god and everlasting ,king407#chg7 ,with this cry has ,judaism challenged the nations of the world since the ,babylonian exile4 ,its own adherents it charged to ponder upon the problems of life and the nature of ,god1 until ,he would appear before them as the very essence of truth1 and all heathenish survivals would vanish as mist4 ,god is truth1 and ,he desires naught but truth1 therefore hypocrisy is loathsome to him1 even in the service of religion4 ,with this underlying thought ,job1 the bold but honest doubter1 stands above his friends with their affected piety4 ,god is truth--this confession of faith1 recited each morning and evening by the ,jew1 gave his mind the power to soar into the highest realms of thought1 and inspired his soul to offer life and all it holds for his faith4 8,god is the everlasting truth1 the unchangeable ,being who ever remains the same amid the fluctuations and changes of all other things40 ,this is the fundamental principle upon which ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik and ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 the predecessors of ,maimonides1 reared their entire philosophical systems1 which were ,aristotelian and yet thoroughly ,jewish47#chh7 ,mystic lore1 always so fond of the letters of the alphabet and their hidden meanings1 noted that the letters of ,emeth--aleph1 mem and tav--are the first1 the middle1 and the last letters of the alphabet1 and therefore concluded that ,god made truth the beginning1 the center1 and the end of the world47#chi7 ,josephus also1 no doubt in accordance with the same tradition1 declares that ,god is 8the beginning1 the center1 and the end of all things407#cij7 ,a corresponding rabbinical saying is3 8,truth is the seal of ,god407#cia7 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,god's ,knowledge and ,wisdom #a4 ,the attempt to enumerate the attributes of ,god recalls the story related in the ,talmud7#cib7 of a disciple who stepped up to the reader's desk to offer prayer1 and began to address the ,deity with an endless list of attributes4 ,when his vocabulary was almost exhausted1 ,rabbi ,haninah interrupted him with the question1 8,hast thou now really finished telling the praise of ,god80 ,mortal man can never know what ,god really is4 ,as the poet-philosopher says3 8,could ,i ever know ,him1 ,i would be ,he407#cic7 ,but we want to ascertain what ,god is to us1 and for this very reason we cannot rest with the negative attitude of ,maimonides1 who relies on the ,psalmist's verse1 8,silence is praise to ,thee407#cid7 ,we must obtain as clear a conception of the ,deity as we possibly can with our limited powers4 ,to the divine attributes already mentioned we must add another which in a sense is the focus of them all4 ,this is the knowledge and wisdom of ,god1 the omniscience which renders ,him all-knowing and all-wise4 ,through this all the others come into self-consciousness4 ,we ascribe wisdom to the man who sets right aims for his actions and knows the means by which to attain them1 that is1 who can control his power and knowledge by his will and bend them to his purpose4 ,in the same manner we think of wisdom in view of the marvelous order1 design1 and unity which we see in the natural and the moral world4 ,but this wisdom must be all-encompassing1 comprising time and eternity1 directing all the forces and beings of the world toward the goal of ideal perfection47#cie7 ,it makes no difference where we find this lesson4 ,the ,book of ,proverbs singles out the tiny ant as an example of wondrous forethought27#cif7 the author of ,job dwells on the working together of the powers of earth and heaven to maintain the cosmic life27#cig7 modern science1 with its deeper insight into nature1 enables us to follow the interaction of the primal chemical and organic forces1 and to follow the course of evolution from star-dust and cell to the structure of the human eye or the thought-centers of the brain4 ,but in all these alike our conclusion must be that of the ,psalmist3 8,o ,lord1 how manifold are ,thy works1 in wisdom hast ,thou made them all407#cih7 #b4 ,accordingly1 if we are to speak in human terms1 we may consider ,god's wisdom the element which determines ,his various motive-powers1--omniscience1 omnipotence1 and goodness1--to tend toward the realization of ,his cosmic plan4 ,or we may call it the active intellect with which ,god works as ,creator1 ,ordainer1 and ,ruler of the universe4 ,the ,biblical account of creation presupposes this wisdom1 as it portrays a logical process1 working after a definite plan1 proceeding from simpler to more complex forms and culminating in man4 ,biblical history likewise is based upon the principle of a divinely prearranged plan1 which is especially striking in such stories as that of ,joseph47#cii7 #c4 ,at first the divine wisdom was supposed to rest in part on specially gifted persons1 such as ,joseph1 ,solomon1 and ,bezalel4 ,as ,scripture has it1 8,the ,lord giveth wisdom1 out of ,his mouth cometh knowledge and understanding407#djj7 ,later the obscure destiny of the nation appears as the design of an all-wise ,ruler to the great prophets and especially to ,isaiah1 the high-soaring eagle among the seers of ,israel47#dja7 ,with the progressive expansion of the world before them1 the seers and sages saw a sublime purpose in the history of the nations1 and felt more and more the supreme place of the divine wisdom as a manifestation of ,his greatness4 ,thus the great seer of the ,exile never tires of illumining the world-wide plan of the divine wisdom47#djb7 #d4 ,a new development ensued under ,babylonian and ,persian influence at the time when the monotheism of ,israel became definitely universal4 ,the divine wisdom1 creative and world-sustaining1 became the highest of the divine attributes and was partially hypostatized as an independent cosmic power4 ,in the twenty-eighth chapter of the ,book of ,job wisdom is depicted as a magic being1 far remote from all living beings of earth1 beyond the reach of the creatures of the lowest abyss1 who aided the ,creator with counsel and knowledge in measuring and weighing the foundations of the world4 ,the description seems to be based upon an ancient ,babylonian conception--which has parallels elsewhere--of a divine ,sybil dwelling beneath the ocean in 8the house of wisdom407#djc7 ,here1 however1 the mythological conception is transformed into a symbolic figure4 ,in the eighth chapter of ,proverbs the description of divine wisdom is more in accordance with ,jewish monotheism2 wisdom is 8the first of ,god's creatures10 8a master-workman0 who assisted ,him in founding heaven and earth1 a helpmate and playmate of ,god1 and at the same time the instructor of men and counselor of princes1 inviting all to share her precious gifts4 ,this conception is found also in the apocryphal literature1--in ,ben ,sira1 the book of ,enoch1 the ,apocalypse of ,baruch1 and the ,hellenistic ,book of ,wisdom47#djd7 ,from this period two different currents of thought appeared4 ,the one represented wisdom as an independent being distinct from ,god1 and this finally became merged1 under ,platonic influence1 into the views of neo-,platonism1 ,gnosticism1 and the ,christian dogma4 ,the other identified the divine wisdom with the ,torah1 and therefore it is the ,torah which served ,god as counselor and mediator at the ,creation and continues as counselor in the management of the world4 ,this view led back to strict monotheism1 so that the cosmology of the rabbis spoke alternately of the divine wisdom and the ,torah as the instruments of ,god at ,creation47#dje7 #e4 ,the ,jewish philosophers of the ,middle ,ages1 such as ,saadia1 ,gabirol1 and ,jehuda ha ,levi1 followed the ,mohammedan theologians in enumerating ,god's wisdom among the attributes constituting ,his essence1 together with ,his omnipotence1 ,his will1 and ,his creative energy4 ,but they would not take wisdom or any other attribute as a separate being1 with an existence outside of ,god1 which would either condition ,him or admit a division of ,his nature47#djf7 8,god himself is wisdom10 says ,jehuda ha ,levi1 referring to the words of ,job3 8,he is wise in heart407#djg7 ,and ,ibn ,gabirol sings in his 8,crown of ,royalty03 8,thou art wise1 and the wisdom of ,thy fount of life floweth from ,thee2 ,and compared with ,thy wisdom man is void of understanding2 ,thou art wise1 before anything began its existence2 ,and wisdom has from times of yore been ,thy fostered child2 ,thou art wise1 and out of ,thy wisdom didst ,thou create the world1 ,life the artificer that fashioneth whatsoever delighteth him407#djh7 ,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,god's ,condescension #a4 ,an attribute of great importance for the theological conception of ,god1 one upon which both ,biblical and rabbinical literature laid especial stress1 is ,his condescension and humility4 ,the ,psalmist says7#dji73 8,thy condescension hath made me great10 which is interpreted in the ,midrash that the ,deity stoops to man in order to lift him up to ,himself4 ,a familiar saying of ,r4 ,johanan is7#daj73 8,wherever ,scripture speaks of the greatness of ,god1 there mention is made also of ,his condescension4 ,so when the prophet begins1 #8,thus saith the ,high and ,lofty ,one that inhabiteth eternity1 whose name is ,holy3 ,i dwell in the high and holy place1' he adds the words1 #8,with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit4'7#daa7 ,or when the ,deuteronomist says3 #8,for the ,lord your ,god1 the great ,god1 the mighty and the awful1' he concludes1 #8,he doth execute justice for the fatherless and widow1 and loveth the stranger4'7#dab7 ,and again the ,psalmist3 #8,extol ,him that rideth upon the skies1 whose name is the ,lord1 a ,father of the fatherless and a ,judge of the widows4' 07#dac7 8,do you deem it unworthy of ,god that ,he should care for the smallest and most insignificant person or thing in the world's household80 asks ,mendelssohn in his ,morgenstunden4 8,it certainly does not detract from the dignity of a king to be seen fondling his child as a loving father10 and he quotes the verse of the ,psalm1 8,who is like unto the ,lord our ,god1 that is enthroned on high1 that looketh down low upon heaven and upon the earth407#dad7 #b4 ,this truth has a religious depth which no philosophy can set forth4 ,only the ,god of ,revelation is near to man in his frailty and need1 ready to hear his sighs1 answer his supplication1 count his tears1 and relieve his wants when his own power fails4 ,the philosopher must reject as futile every attempt to bring the incomprehensible essence of the ,deity within the compass of the human understanding4 ,the religious consciousness1 however1 demands that we accentuate precisely those attributes of ,god which bring ,him nearest to us4 ,if reason alone would have the decisive voice in this problem1 every manifestation of ,god to man and every reaching out of the soul to ,him in prayer would be idle fancy and self-deceit4 ,it is true that the ,biblical conception was simple and child-like enough1 representing ,god as descending from the heavens to the earth4 ,still ,judaism does not accept the cold and distant attitude of the philosopher2 it teaches that ,god as a spiritual power does condescend to man1 in order that man may realize his kinship with the ,most ,high and rise ever nearer to his ,creator4 ,the earth whereon man dwells and the human heart with its longing for heaven1 are not bereft of ,god4 ,wherever man seeks ,him1 there ,he is4 #c4 ,rabbinical ,judaism is very far from the attitude assigned to it by ,christian theologians17#dae7 of reducing the ,deity to an empty transcendental abstraction and loosening the bond which ties the soul to its ,maker4 ,on the contrary1 it maintains these very relations with a firmness which betokens its soundness and its profound psychological truth4 ,in this spirit a ,talmudic master interprets the ,deuteronomic verse3 8,for what great nation is there that hath ,god so nigh unto them1 as the ,lord our ,god is whensoever we call upon ,him807#daf7 saying that 8each will realize the nearness of ,god according to his own intellectual and emotional disposition1 and thus enter into communion with ,him40 ,according to another ,haggadist the verse of the ,psalm1 8,the voice of the ,lord resoundeth with power107#dag7 teaches how ,god reveals ,himself1 not with ,his own overwhelming might1 but according to each man's individual power and capacity4 ,the rabbis even make bold to assert that whenever ,israel suffers1 ,god suffers with him2 as it is written1 8,i will be with him in trouble407#dah7 #d4 ,as a matter of fact1 all the names which we apply to ,god in speech or in prayer1 even the most sublime and holy ones1 are derived from our own sensory experience and cannot be taken literally4 ,they are used only as vehicles to bring home to us the idea that ,god's nearness is our highest good4 ,even the material world1 which is perceptible to our senses1 must undergo a certain inner transformation before it can be termed science or philosophy1 and becomes the possession of the mind4 ,it requires still further exertions of the imagination to bring within our grasp the world of the spirit1 and above all the loftiest of all conceptions1 the very being of ,god4 ,yet it is just this ,being of all ,beings who draws us irresistibly toward ,himself1 whose nearness we perceive in the very depths of our intellectual and emotional life4 ,our 8soul thirsteth after ,god1 the living ,god10 and behold1 ,he is nigh1 ,he takes possession of us1 and we call ,him our ,god4 #e4 ,the ,haggadists expressed this intimate relation of ,god to man1 and specifically to ,israel1 by bold and often nave metaphors4 ,they ascribe to ,god special moments for wrath and for prayer1 a secret chamber where he weeps over the distress of ,israel1 a prayer-mantle 7tallith7 and phylacteries which ,he wears like any of the leaders of the community1 and even lustrations which ,he practices exactly like mortals47#dai7 ,but such fanciful and extravagant conceptions were never taken seriously by the rabbis1 and only partisan and prejudiced writers1 entirely lacking in a sense of humor1 could point to such passages to prove that a theology of the ,synagogue carried out a 8,judaization of ,god407#dbj7 ,c4 ,god ,in ,relation ,to ,the ,world ,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,the ,world and its ,master #a4 ,in using the term world or universe we include the totality of all beings at once1 and this suggests a stage of knowledge where polytheism is practically overcome4 ,among the ,greeks1 ,pythagoras is said to have been the first to perceive 8a beautiful order of things0 in the world1 and therefore to call it cosmos47#dba7 ,primitive man saw in the world innumerable forces continually struggling with each other for supremacy4 ,without an ordering mind no order1 as we conceive it1 can exist4 ,the old ,babylonian conception prevalent throughout antiquity divided the world into three realms1 the celestial1 terrestrial1 and the nether world1 each of which had its own type of inhabitants and its own ruling divinities4 ,yet these various divine powers were at war with each other1 and ultimately they1 too1 must submit to a blind fate which men and gods alike could read in the stars or other natural phenomena4 ,with the first words of the ,bible1 8,in the beginning ,god created the heavens and the earth10 ,judaism declared the world to be a unity and ,god its ,creator and ,master4 ,heathenism had always beheld in the world certain blind forces of nature1 working without plan or purpose and devoid of any moral aims4 ,but ,judaism sees in the world the work of a supreme ,intellect who fashioned it according to ,his will1 and who rules in freedom1 wisdom1 and goodness4 8,he spoke1 and it was2 ,he commanded1 and it stood407#dbb7 ,nature exists only by the will of ,god2 ,his creative fiat called it into existence1 and it ceases to be as soon as it has fulfilled ,his plan4 #b4 ,that which the scientist terms nature--the cosmic life in its eternal process of growth and reproduction--is declared by ,judaism to be ,god's creation4 ,ancient heathen conceptions deified nature1 indeed1 but they knew only a cosmogony1 that is1 a process of birth and growth of the world4 ,in this the gods participate with all other beings1 to sink back again at the close of the drama into fiery chaos1--the so-called 8twilight of the gods40 ,here the deity constitutes a part of the world1 or the world a part of the deity1 and philosophic speculation can at best blend the two into a pantheistic system which has no place for a self-conscious1 creative mind and will4 ,in fact1 the universe appears as an ever growing and unfolding deity1 and the deity as an ever growing and unfolding universe4 ,modern science more properly assumes a self-imposed limitation2 it searches for the laws underlying the action and interaction of natural forces and elements1 thus to explain in a mechanistic way the origin and development of all things1 but it leaves entirely outside of its domain the whole question of a first cause and a supreme creative mind4 ,it certainly can pass no opinion as to whether or not the entire work of creation was accomplished by the free act of a ,creator4 ,revelation alone can speak with unfaltering accents3 8,in the beginning ,god created heaven and earth40 ,however we may understand1 or imagine1 the beginning of the natural process1 the formation of matter and the inception of motion1 we see above the confines of space and time the everlasting ,god1 the absolutely free ,creator of all things4 #c4 ,no definite theological dogma can define the order and process of the genesis of the world2 this is rather a scientific than a religious question4 ,the ,biblical documents themselves differ widely on this point1 whether one compares the stories in the first two chapters of ,genesis1 or contrasts both of them with the poetical descriptions in ,job and the ,psalms47#dbc7 ,and these divergent accounts are still less to be reconciled with the results of natural science4 ,in the old ,babylonian cosmography1 on which the ,biblical view is based1 the earth1 shaped like a disk1 was suspended over the waters of the ocean1 while above it was the solid vault of heaven like a ceiling4 ,in this the stars were fixed like lamps to light the earth1 and hidden chambers to store up the rain4 ,the sciences of astronomy1 physics1 and geology have abolished these childlike conceptions as well as the story of a six-day creation1 where vegetation sprang from the earth even before the sun1 moon1 and stars appeared in the firmament4 ,the fact is that the ,biblical account is not intended to depreciate or supersede the facts established by natural science1 but solely to accentuate those religious truths which the latter disregards47#dbd7 ,these may be summed up in the following three doctrines3 #d4 ,first4 ,nature1 with all its immeasurable power and grandeur1 its wondrous beauty and harmony1 is not independent1 but is the work1 the workshop1 and the working force of the great ,master4 ,his spirit alone is the active power2 ,his will must be carried out4 ,it is true that we cannot conceive the universe otherwise than as infinite in time and space1 because both time and space are but human modes of apperception4 ,in fact1 we cannot think of a ,creator without a creation1 because any potentiality or capacity without execution would imply imperfection in ,god4 ,nevertheless we must conceive of ,god as the designing and creating intellect of the universe1 infinitely transcending its complex mechanism1 whose will is expressed involuntarily by each of the created beings4 ,he alone is the living ,god2 ,he has lent existence and infinite capacity to the beings of the world2 and they1 in achieving their appointed purpose1 according to the poet's metaphor1 8weave ,his living garment40 ,the ,psalmist also sings in the same key3 8,of old ,thou didst lay the foundations of the earth2 ,and the heavens are the work of ,thy hands2 ,they shall perish1 but ,thou shalt endure2 ,yea1 all of them shall wax old like a garment4 ,as a vesture shalt ,thou change them1 and they shall pass away2 ,but ,thou art the selfsame1 and ,thy years shall have no end407#dbe7 #e4 ,second4 ,the numberless beings and forces of the universe comprise a unity1 working according to one plan1 subserving a common purpose1 and pursuing in their development and interaction the aim which ,god's wisdom assigned them from the beginning4 ,however hostile the various elements may be toward each other1 however fierce the universal conflict1 8the struggle for existence10 still over all the discord prevails a higher concord1 and the struggle of nature's forces ends in harmony and peace4 8,he maketh peace in ,his high places407#dbf7 ,even the highest type of heathenism1 the ,persian1 divided the world into mutually hostile principles1 light and darkness1 good and evil4 ,but ,judaism proclaims ,god as the ,creator of both4 ,no force is left out of the universal plan2 each contributes its part to the whole4 ,consequently the very progress of natural science confirms more and more the principle of the divine ,unity4 ,the researches of science are ever tending toward the knowledge of universal laws of growth1 culminating in a scheme of universal evolution4 ,hence this supports and confirms ,jewish monotheism1 which knows no power of evil antagonistic to ,god4 #f4 ,third4 ,the world is good1 since goodness is its creator and its final aim4 ,true enough1 nature1 bent with 8tooth and claw0 upon annihilating one or another form of existence1 is quite indifferent to man's sense of compassion and justice4 ,yet in the wise1 though inscrutable plan of ,god she does but serve the good4 ,we see how the lower forms of life ever serve the higher1 how the mineral provides food for the vegetable1 while the animal derives its food from the vegetable world and from lower types of animals4 ,thus each becomes a means of vitality for a higher species4 ,so by the continuous upward striving of man the lower passions1 with their evil tendencies1 work more and more toward the triumph of the good4 ,man unfolds his ,god-likeness2 he strives to 8,move upward1 working out the beast1 ,and let the ape and tiger die40 #g4 ,the ,biblical story of ,creation expresses the perfect harmony between ,god's purpose and ,his work in the words1 8,and behold1 it was good0 spoken at the end of each day's ,creation1 and 8behold1 it was very good0 at the completion of the whole4 ,a world created by ,god must serve the highest good1 while1 on the contrary1 a world without ,god would prove to be 8the worst of all possible worlds10 as ,schopenhauer1 the philosopher of pessimism1 quite correctly concludes from his premises4 ,the world-view of ,judaism1 which regards the entire economy of life as the realization of the all-encompassing plan of an all-wise ,creator1 is accordingly an energizing optimism1 or1 more precisely1 meliorism4 ,this view is voiced by the rabbis in many significant utterances1 such as the maxim of ,r4 ,akiba1 8,whatsoever the ,merciful ,one does1 is for the good107#dbg7 or that of his teacher1 ,nahum of ,gimzo1 8,this1 too1 is for the good407#dbh7 ,his disciple1 ,r4 ,meir1 inferred from the ,biblical verse1 8,god saw all that ,he had made1 and behold1 it was very good10 that 8death1 too1 is good407#dbi7 ,others considered that suffering and even sin are included in this verse1 because every apparent evil is necessary that we may struggle and overcome it for the final victory of the good47#dcj7 ,as an ancient ,midrash says3 8,god is called a ,god of faith and faithfulness1 because it was ,his faith in the world that caused ,him to bring it into existence407#dca7 ,chapter ,,xxv4 ,creation ,as the ,act of ,god #a4 8,thus shall ye say unto them3 ,the gods that have not made the heavens and the earth1 these shall perish from the earth1 and from under the heavens4 ,he that hath made the earth by ,his power1 that hath established the world by ,his wisdom1 and hath stretched out the heavens by ,his understanding 444 the ,lord ,god is the true ,god407#dcb7 ,with this declaration of war against heathenism1 the prophet drew the line1 once for all1 between the uncreated1 transcendent ,god and the created1 perishable universe4 ,it is true that ,plato spoke of primordial and eternal matter and ,aristotle of an eternally rotating celestial sphere1 and that even ,biblical exegetes1 such as ,ibn ,ezra17#dcc7 inferred from the ,creation story the existence of primeval chaotic matter4 ,yet1 on the whole1 the ,jewish idea of ,god has demanded the assumption that even this primitive matter was created by ,god1 or1 as most thinkers have phrased it1 that ,god created the world out of nothing4 ,this doctrine was voiced as early as the ,maccabean period in the appeal made by the heroic mother to the youngest of her seven sons47#dcd7 ,in the same spirit ,r4 ,gamaliel ,,ii scornfully rejects the suggestion of a heretic that ,god used primeval substances already extant in creating the world47#dce7 #b4 ,of course1 thinking people will ever be confronted by the problem how a transcendental ,god could call into existence a world of matter1 creating it within the limits of space and time1 without ,himself becoming involved in the process4 ,it would seem that ,he must by the very act subject ,himself to the limitations and mutations of the universe4 ,hence some of the ancient ,jewish teachers came under the influence of ,babylonian and ,egyptian cosmogonies in their later ,hellenistic forms1 and resorted to the theory of intermediary forces4 ,some of these adopted the ,pythagorean conception of the mysterious power of letters and numbers1 which they communicated to the initiated as secret lore1 with the result that the suspicion of heresy rested largely upon 8those who knew10 the so-called ,gnostics4 ,the difficulty of assuming a creation at a fixed period of time was met in many different ways4 ,it is interesting to note that ,r4 ,abbahu of ,csarea in the fourth century offered the explanation3 8,god caused one world after another to enter into existence1 until ,he produced the one of which ,he said3 #8,behold1 this is good4' 07#dcf7 ,still this opinion seems to have been expressed by even earlier sages1 as it is adopted by ,origen1 a ,church father of the third century1 who admitted his great debt to ,jewish teachers47#dcg7 ,the medieval ,jewish philosophers evaded the difficulty by the ,aristotelian expedient of connecting the concept of time with the motion of the spheres4 ,thus time was created with the celestial world1 and timelessness remained an attribute of the uncreated ,god47#dch7 ,such attempts at harmonization prove the one point of importance to us1--which1 indeed1 was frankly stated by ,maimonides1--that we cannot accept literally the ,biblical account of the creation4 ,the modern world has been lifted bodily out of the ,babylonian and so-called ,ptolemaic world1 with its narrow horizon1 through the labors of such men as ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 ,newton1 ,lyall1 and ,darwin4 ,we live in a world immeasurable in terms of either space or time1 a world where evolution works through eons of time and an infinite number of stages4 ,such a world gives rise to concepts of the working of ,god in nature totally different from those of the seers and sages of former generations1 ideas of which those thinkers could not even dream4 ,to the mind of the modern scientist the entire cosmic life1 extending over countless millions of years1 forming starry worlds without end1 is moved by energy arising within4 ,it is a continuous flow of existence1 a process of formation and re-formation1 which can have no beginning and no end4 ,how is this evolutionist view to be reconciled with the belief in a divine act of creation8 ,this is the problem which modern theology has set itself1 perhaps the greatest which it must solve4 ,ultimately1 however1 the problem is no more difficult now than it was to the first man who pondered over the beginnings of life in the childhood of the world4 ,the same answer fits both modes of thought1 with only a different process of reasoning4 ,whether we count the world's creation by days or by millions of years1 the truth of the first verse of ,genesis remains3 8,in the beginning ,god created the heavens and the earth40 ,in our theories the whole complicated world-process is but the working out of simple laws4 ,this leads back as swiftly and far more surely than did the primitive cosmology to an omnipotent and omniscient creative ,power1 defining at the very outset the aim of the stupendous whole1 and carrying its comprehensive plan into reality1 step by step4 ,we who are the products of time cannot help applying the relation of time to the work of the ,creator2 time is so interwoven with our being that a modern evolutionist1 ,bergson1 considers it the fundamental element of reality4 ,thus it is natural that we should think of ,god as setting the first atoms and forces of the universe into motion somewhere and somehow1 at a given moment4 ,through this act1 we imagine1 the order prevailing through an infinitude of space and time was established for the great fabric of life4 ,to earlier thinkers such an act of a supermundane and immutable ,god appeared as a single act4 ,the idea of prime importance in all this is the free activity of the ,creator in contradistinction to the blind necessity of nature1 the underlying theory of all pagan or unreligious philosophy47#dci7 ,the world of ,god1 which is the world of morality1 and which leads to man1 the image of ,god1 must be based upon the free1 purposive creative act of ,god4 ,whether such an act was performed once for all or is everlastingly renewed1 is a quite secondary matter for religion1 however important it may be to philosophy1 or however fundamental to science4 ,in our daily morning prayers1 which refer to the daily awakening to a life seemingly new1 ,god is proclaimed as 8,he who reneweth daily the work of creation407#ddj7 ,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,the ,maintenance and ,government of the ,world #a4 ,for our religious consciousness the doctrine of divine maintenance and government of the world is far more important than that of creation4 ,it opposes the view of deism that ,god withdrew from ,his creation1 indifferent to the destiny of ,his creatures4 ,he is rather the ever-present ,mind and ,will in all the events of life4 ,the world which ,he created is maintained by ,him in its continuous activity1 the object of ,his incessant care4 #b4 ,scripture knows nothing of natural law1 but presents the changing phenomena of nature as special acts of ,god and considers the natural forces ,his messengers carrying out ,his will4 8,he opens the windows of heaven to let the rain descend upon the earth407#dda7 8,he leads out the hosts of the stars according to their number and calleth them by name407#ddb7 ,he makes the sun rise and set4 8,he says to the snow3 ,fall to the earth607#ddc7 and calls to the wind to blow and to the lightning to flash47#ddd7 ,he causes the produce of the earth and the drought which destroys them4 8,he opens the womb to make beasts and men bring forth their young20 8,he shuts up the womb to make them barren407#dde7 8,he also provides the food for all ,his creatures in due season1 even for the young ravens when they cry407#ddf7 ,his breath keeps all alive4 8,he withdraweth their breath1 and they perish1 and return to their dust4 ,he sendeth forth ,his spirit1 they are created2 ,he reneweth the face of the earth407#ddg7 ,we are told also that ,god assigns to each being its functions1 telling the earth to bring forth fruit17#ddh7 the sea not to trespass its boundary17#ddi7 the stars and the seas to maintain their order47#dej7 ,to each one ,he hath set a measure1 a law which they dare not transgress4 ,god's wisdom works in them2 they all are subject to ,his rule4 #c4 ,this conclusion betokens an obvious improvement upon the earlier and more childlike view4 ,it recognizes that there is an order in the universe and all under divine supervision4 ,thus ,jeremiah speaks of a covenant of ,god with heaven and earth1 and of the laws which they must obey17#dea7 and in ,genesis the rainbow is represented as a sign of the covenant of peace made by ,god with the whole earth47#deb7 ,as ,god 8maketh peace in the heavens above107#dec7 ,he establishes order in the world4 ,as the various powers of nature are invested with a degree of independence1 ,god's sovereignty manifests itself in the regularity with which they interact and coperate47#ded7 ,the lore of the mystics speaks even of an oath which ,god administered upon ,his holy ,name to the heavens and the stars1 the sea and the abyss1 that they should never break their designated bounds or disturb the whole order of creation47#dee7 #d4 ,further progress is noted in the liturgy1 in such expressions as that 8,god reneweth daily the work of creation10 or 8,he openeth every morning the gate of heaven to let the sun come out of its chambers in all its splendor0 and 8at eventide ,he maketh it return through the portals of the west40 ,again1 8,he reneweth ,his creative power in every phenomenon of nature and in every turn of the season20 8,he provideth every living being with its sustenance407#def7 ,indeed1 in the view of ,judaism the maintenance of the entire household of nature is one continuous act of ,god which can neither be interrupted nor limited in time4 ,god in ,his infinite wisdom works forever through the same laws which were in force at the beginning1 and which shall continue through all the realms of time and space4 ,we feeble mortals1 of course1 see but 8the hem of ,his garment0 and hear only 8a whisper of ,his voice40 ,still from the deeper promptings of our soul we learn that science does not touch the inmost essence of the world when it finds a law of necessity in the realm of nature4 ,the universe is maintained and governed by a moral order4 ,moral objects are attained by the forces of the elements1 8the messengers of ,god who fulfilled ,his word407#deg7 ,both the hosts of heaven and the creatures of the earth do ,his bidding2 their every act1 great or small1 is as ,he has ordered4 ,yet of them all man alone is made in ,god's image1 and can work self-consciously and freely for a moral purpose4 ,indeed1 as the rabbis express it1 he has been called as 8the co-worker with ,god in the work of creation407#deh7 #e4 ,the conception of a world-order also had to undergo a long development4 ,the theory of pagan antiquity1 echoed in both ,biblical and post-,biblical writings1 is that the world is definitely limited1 with both a beginning and an end4 ,as heaven and earth came into being1 so they will wax old and shrink like a garment1 while sun1 moon1 and stars will lose their brightness and fall back into the primal chaos47#dei7 ,the belief in a cataclysmic ending of the world is a logical corollary of the belief in the birth of the world4 ,in striking contrast1 the prophets hold forth the hope of a future regeneration of the world4 ,god will create 8a new heaven and a new earth0 where all things will arise in new strength and beauty47#dfj7 ,this hope1 as all eschatology1 was primarily related to the regeneration of the ,jewish people4 ,accordingly1 the rabbis speak of two worlds17#dfa7 this world and the world to come4 ,they consider the present life only a preliminary of the world to come1 in which the divine plan of creation is to be worked out for all humanity through the truths emanating from ,israel4 ,this whole conception rested upon a science now superseded1 the geocentric view of the universe1 which made the earth and especially man the final object of creation4 ,for us only a figurative meaning adheres to the two worlds of the medieval belief1 following each other after the lapse of a fixed period of time4 ,on the one hand1 we see one infinite fabric of life in this visible world with its millions of suns and planets1 among which our earth is only an insignificant speck in the sky4 ,with our limited understanding we endeavor to penetrate more and more into the eternal laws of this illimitable cosmos4 ,on the other hand1 we hold that there is a moral and spiritual world which comprises the divine ideals and eternal objects of life4 ,both are reflected in the mind of man1 who enters into the one by his intellect and into the other by his emotions of yearning and awe4 ,at the same time both are the manifestation of ,god1 the ,creator and ,ruler of all4 ,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,miracles and the ,cosmic ,order #a4 8,who is like unto ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 among the mighty8 ,who is like unto ,thee1 glorious in holiness1 ,fearful in praises1 doing wonders607#dfb7 ,thus sang ,israel at the ,red ,sea in words which are constantly rechoed in our liturgy4 ,nothing impresses the religious sense of man so much as unusual phenomena in nature1 which seem to interrupt the wonted course of events and thus to reveal the workings of a higher ,power4 ,a miracle--that is1 a thing 8wondered0 at1 because not understood--is always regarded by ,scripture as a 8sign07#dfc7 or 8proof07#dfd7 of the power of ,god1 to whom nothing is impossible4 ,the child-like mind of the past knew nothing of fixed or immutable laws of nature4 ,therefore the question is put in all simplicity3 8,is anything too hard for the ,lord807#dfe7 8,is the ,lord's hand waxed short807#dff7 8,or should ,he who created heaven and earth not be able to create something which never was before807#dfg7 ,should 8,he who maketh a man's mouth1 or makes him deaf1 dumb1 seeing or blind107#dfh7 not be able also to open the mouth of the dumb beast or the eyes of the blind8 ,should not ,he who killeth and giveth life have the power also to call the dead back to life1 if ,he sees fit8 ,should not ,he who openeth the womb for every birth1 be able to open it for her who is ninety years old8 ,or when a whole land is wicked1 to shut the wombs of all its inhabitants that they may remain barren8 ,again1 should not ,he who makes the sun come forth every morning from the gates of the ,east and enter each night the portals of the ,west1 not be able to change this order once1 and cause it to stand still in the midst of its course87#dfi7 ,so long as natural phenomena are considered to be separate acts of the divine will1 an unusual event is merely an extraordinary manifestation of this same power1 8the finger of ,god40 ,the people of ,biblical times never questioned whether a miracle happened or could happen4 ,their concern was to see it as the work of the arm of ,god either for ,his faithful ones or against ,his adversaries4 #b4 ,with the advance of thought1 miracles began to be regarded as interruptions of an established order of creation4 ,the question then arose1 why the all-knowing ,creator should allow deviations from ,his own laws4 ,as the future was present to ,him at the outset1 why did ,he not make provision in advance for such special cases as ,he foresaw8 ,this was exactly the remedy which the rabbis furnished4 ,they declared that at ,creation ,god provided for certain extraordinary events1 so that a latent force1 established for the purpose at the beginning of the world1 is responsible for incidents which appeared at the time to be true interferences with the world order4 ,thus ,god had made a special covenant1 as it were1 with the work of creation that at the appointed time the ,red ,sea should divide before ,israel2 that sun and moon should stand still at the bidding of ,joshua2 that fire should not consume the three youths1 ,hananel1 ,mishael1 and ,azariah2 that the sea-monster should spit forth ,jonah alive2 together with other so-called miracles47#dgj7 ,the same idea occasioned the other ,haggadic saying that shortly before the completion of the creation on the evening of the sixth day ,god placed certain miraculous forces in nature4 ,through them the earth opened to swallow ,korah and his band1 the rock in the wilderness gave water for the thirsty multitude1 and ,balaam's ass spoke like a human being2 through them also the rainbow appeared after the flood1 the manna rained from heaven1 ,aaron's rod burst forth with almond blossoms and fruit1 and other wondrous events happened in their proper time47#dga7 #c4 ,neither the rabbis nor the medieval ,jewish thinkers expressed any doubt of the credibility of the ,biblical miracles4 ,the latter1 indeed1 rationalized miracles as well as other things1 and considered some of them imaginary4 ,saadia accepts all the ,biblical miracles except the speaking serpent in ,paradise and the speaking ass of ,balaam1 considering these to be parables rather than actual occurrences47#dgb7 ,in general1 both ,jewish and ,mohammedan theologians assumed that special forces hidden in nature were utilized by the prophets and saints to testify to their divine mission4 ,these powers were attained by their lofty intellects1 which lifted them up to the sphere of the ,supreme ,intellect4 ,all medieval attempts to solve the problem of miracles were based upon this curious combination of ,aristotelian cosmology and ,mohammedan or ,jewish theology47#dgc7 ,true1 ,maimonides rejects a number of miracles as contrary to natural law1 and refers to the rabbinical saying that some of the miraculous events narrated in ,scripture were so only in appearance4 ,still he claims for ,moses1 as the ,mohammedans did for ,mohammed1 miraculous powers derived from the sphere of the ,supreme ,intellect4 ,in a lengthy chapter on miracles ,albo follows ,maimonides17#dgd7 while his teacher ,crescas considers the ,biblical miracles to be direct manifestations of the creative activity of ,god47#dge7 ,gersonides has really two opinions2 in his commentary he reduces all miracles to natural processes1 but in his philosophical work he adopts the view of ,maimonides47#dgf7 ,jehuda ha ,levi alone insisted on the miracles of the ,bible as historic evidence of the divine calling of the prophets47#dgg7 ,to all the rest1 the miracle is not performed by ,god but by the divinely endowed man4 ,god himself is no longer conceived of as changing the cosmic order4 ,both ,he and the world created by ,his will remain ever the same4 ,still1 according to this theory1 certain privileged men are endowed with special powers by the ,supreme ,intellect1 and by these they can perform miracles4 #d4 ,it is evident that in all this the problem of miracles is not solved1 nor even correctly stated4 ,both rabbinical literature and the ,bible abound with miracles about certain holy places and holy persons1 which they never venture to doubt4 ,but the rabbis were not miracle-workers like the ,essenes and their ,christian successors47#dgh7 ,on the contrary1 they sought to repress the popular credulity and hunger for the miraculous1 saying3 8,the present generation is not worthy to have miracles performed for them1 like the former ones207#dgi7 or 8,the providing of each living soul with its daily food1 or the recovery of men from a severe disease is as great a miracle as any of those told in ,scripture207#dhj7 or again1 8,of how small account is a person for whom the cosmic order must be disturbed607#dha7 ,thus when the wise men of ,rome asked the ,jewish sages3 8,if your ,god is omnipotent1 as you claim1 why does ,he not banish from the world the idols1 which are so loathsome to ,him80 they replied3 8,do you really desire ,god to destroy the sun1 moon1 and stars1 because fools worship them8 ,the world continues its regular course1 and idolaters will not go unpunished407#dhb7 #e4 ,in ,judaism neither ,biblical nor rabbinical miracles are to be accepted as proof of a doctrinal or practical teaching47#dhc7 ,the ,deuteronomic law expressly states that false prophets can perform miracles by which they mislead the multitude47#dhd7 ,we can therefore ascribe no intrinsic religious importance to miracles4 ,the fact is that miracles occur only among people who are ignorant of natural law and thus predisposed to accept marvels4 ,they are the products of human imagination and credulity4 ,they have only a subjective1 not an objective value4 ,they are psychological1 not physical facts4 ,the attitude of ,maimonides and ,albo toward ,biblical miracles is especially significant4 ,the former declares in his great ,code37#dhe7 8,israel's belief in ,moses and his law did not rest on miracles1 for miracles rather create doubt in the mind of the believer4 ,faith must rest on its intrinsic truth1 and this can never be subverted by miracles1 which may be of a deceitful nature40 ,albo devotes a lengthy chapter to developing this idea still further1 undoubtedly referring to the ,church2 he speaks of miracles wrought by both ,biblical and ,talmudic heroes1 such as ,onias the rain-maker1 ,nicodemus ben ,gorion1 ,hanina ben ,dosa1 and ,phinehas ben ,jair1 the popular saints47#dhf7 ,in modern times ,mendelssohn1 when challenged by the ,lutheran pastor ,lavater either to accept the ,christian faith or refute it1 attacked especially the basic ,christian faith in miracles4 ,he stated boldly that 8miracles prove nothing1 since every religion bases its claims on them and consequently the truth of one would disprove the convincing proof of the other407#dhg7 #f4 ,our entire modern mode of thinking demands the complete recognition of the empire of law throughout the universe1 manifesting the all-permeating will of ,god4 ,the whole cosmic order is one miracle4 ,no room is left for single or exceptional miracles4 ,only a primitive age could think of ,god as altering the order of nature which ,he had fixed1 so as to let iron float on water like wood to please one person here17#dhh7 or to stop sun1 star1 or sea in their courses in order to help or harm mankind there47#dhi7 ,it is more important for us to inquire into the law of the mind by which the fact itself may differ from the peculiar form given it by a narrator4 ,with our historical methods unknown to former ages1 we cannot accept any story of a miracle without seeking its intrinsic historical accuracy4 ,after all1 the miracle as narrated is but a human conception of what1 under ,god's guidance1 really happened4 ,accordingly1 we must leave the final interpretation of the ,biblical narratives to the individual1 to consider them as historical facts or as figurative presentations of religious ideas4 ,even now some people will prefer to believe that the ,ten ,commandments emanated from ,god ,himself in audible tones1 as medieval thinkers maintained47#dij7 ,some will adopt the old semi-rationalistic explanation that ,he created a voice for this special purpose4 ,others will hold it more worthy of ,god to communicate directly with man1 from spirit to spirit1 without the use of sensory means2 these will therefore take the ,biblical description as figurative or mythical4 ,in fact1 he who does not cling to the letter of the ,scripture will probably regard all the miracles as poetical views of divine ,providence1 as child-like imagery expressing the ancient view of the eternal goodness and wisdom of ,god4 ,to us also ,god is 8a ,doer of wonders10 but we experience ,his wonderworking powers in ourselves4 ,we see wonders in the acts of human freedom which rises superior to the blind forces of nature4 ,the true miracle consists in the divine power within man which aids him to accomplish all that is great and good4 ,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,providence and the ,moral ,government of the ,world #a4 ,none of the precious truths of ,judaism has become more indispensable than the belief in divine ,providence1 which we see about us in ever new and striking forms4 ,man would succumb from fear alone1 beholding the dangers about him on every side1 were he not sustained by a conviction that there is an all-wise ,power who rules the world for a sublime purpose4 ,we know that even in direst distress we are guided by a divine hand that directs everything finally toward the good4 ,wherever we are1 we are protected by ,god1 who watches over the destinies of man as 8does the eagle who hovers over her young and bears them aloft on her pinions40 ,each of us is assigned his place in the all-encompassing plan4 ,such knowledge and such faith as this comprise the greatest comfort and joy which the ,jewish religion offers4 ,both the narratives and the doctrines of ,scripture are filled with this idea of ,providence working in the history of individuals and nations47#dia7 #b4 ,providence implies first1 provision1 and second1 predestination in accordance with the divine plan for the government of the world4 ,as ,god's dominion over the visible world appears in the eternal order of the cosmos1 so in the moral world1 where action arises from freely chosen aims1 ,god is ,ruler of a moral government4 ,thus ,he directs all the acts of men toward the end which ,he has set4 ,judaism is most sharply contrasted with heathenism at this point4 ,heathenism either deifies nature or merges the deity into nature4 ,thus there is no place for a ,god who knows all things and provides for all in advance4 ,blind fate rules all the forces of life1 including the deities themselves4 ,therefore chance incidents in nature or the positions of the stars are taken as indications of destiny4 ,hence the belief in oracles and divination1 in the observation of flying arrows and floating clouds1 of the color and shape of the liver of sacrificial animals1 and other signs of heaven and earth which were to hint at the future47#dib7 ,on the other hand1 ,judaism sees in all things1 not the fortuitous dealings of a blind and relentless fate1 but the dispensations of a wise and benign ,providence4 ,it knows of no event which is not foreordained by ,god4 ,it sanctioned the decision by lot7#dic7 and the appeal to the oracle 7the ,urim and ,thummim77#did7 only temporarily1 during the ,biblical period4 ,but soon it recognized entirely the will of ,god as the ,ruler of destiny1 and the people accepted the belief that 8the days10 8the destinies10 and even 8the tears0 of man are all written in ,his 8book407#die7 ,thus they perceived ,god as 8,he who knows from the beginning what will be at the end407#dif7 ,the prophets1 ,his messengers1 could thus foretell ,his will4 ,they perceive ,him as the ,one who 8created the smith that brought forth the weapon for its work1 and created the master who uses it for destruction407#dig7 ,however the foe may rage1 he is but 8the scourge in the hand of ,god10 like 8the axe in the hand of him who fells the tree407#dih7 ,no device of men or nations can withstand ,his will1 for ,he turns all their doings to some good purpose and transforms every curse into a blessing47#dii7 #c4 ,naturally this truth was first accepted in limited form1 in the life of certain individuals4 ,the history of ,joseph and of ,king ,david were used as illustrations to show how ,god protects ,his own4 ,the experiences of the people confirmed this belief and expanded it to apply to the nation4 ,the wanderings of ,israel through the wilderness and its entrance to the promised land were regarded as ,god's work for ,his chosen people4 ,the prophets looked still further and saw the destinies of all nations1 entering the foreground of history one by one1 as the sign of divine ,providence1 so that finally the entire history of mankind became a great plan of divine salvation1 centered upon the truth intrusted to ,israel4 ,beside this conception of general ,providence ruling in history1 the idea of special ,providence arose in response to human longing4 ,the belief in ,providence developed to a full conception of care for the world at large and for each individual in his peculiar destiny1 a conviction that divine ,providence is concerned with the welfare of each individual1 and that the joyous or bitter lot of each man forms a link in the moral government of the world4 ,the first clear statement of this comes from the prophet ,jeremiah in his wrestling and sighing3 8,i know1 ,o ,lord1 that the way of man is not in himself1 it is not in man that walketh to direct his steps407#ejj7 ,special ,providence is discussed still more vividly and definitely in the book of ,job4 ,later on it becomes a specific ,pharisaic doctrine1 8,everything is foreseen407#eja7 8,no man suffers so much as the injury of a finger unless it has been decreed in heaven407#ejb7 ,a divine preordination decides a man's choice of his wife7#ejc7 and every other important step of his life4 #d4 ,this theory of predestination1 however1 presents a grave difficulty when we consider it in relation to man's morality with its implication of self-determination4 ,while this question of free will is treated fully in another connection17#ejd7 we may anticipate the thought at this point4 ,the ,jewish conception of divine predestination makes as much allowance as possible for the moral freedom of man4 ,this is shown in ,talmudic sayings1 such as 8,everything is within the power of ,god except the fear of ,god107#eje7 or 8,repentance1 prayer1 and charity avert the evil decree407#ejf7 ,thus ,maimonides expressly states in his ,code that the belief in predestination cannot be allowed to influence one's moral or religious character4 ,a man can decide by his own volition whether he shall become as just as ,moses or as wicked as ,jeroboam47#ejg7 #e4 ,the service of the ,new ,year brings out significantly the ,jewish harmonization between the ideas of ,god's foreknowledge and man's moral freedom4 ,this festival1 in the ,bible called the ,festival of the ,blowing of the ,shofar1 was transformed under ,babylonian influence into the ,day of ,divine ,judgment4 ,but it is still in marked contrast to the ,babylonian ,new ,year's ,day1 when the gods were supposed to go to the ,house of the ,tablets of ,destiny in the deep to hear the decisions of fate47#ejh7 ,the ,jewish sages taught that on this day ,god1 the ,judge of the world1 pronounces the destinies of men and nations according to their deserts4 ,they thus replaced the heathen idea of blind fate by that of eternal justice as the formative power of life4 ,then1 moved by a desire to mitigate the rigor of stern justice for the frail and failing mortal1 they included also ,god's long-suffering and mercy4 ,these attributes are thus supposed to intercede1 so that the final decision is left in suspense until the ,day of ,atonement1 the great day of pardon4 ,some ,tannaitic teachers7#eji7 find it more in accord with their view of ,god to say that ,he judges man every day1 and even every hour4 ,of course1 the philosophic mind can take this whole viewpoint in a figurative sense alone4 ,all the more must we recognize that this sublime religious thought of ,god liberates morality from the various limitations of the ancient pagan conception of ,deity and the more recent metaphysical view4 ,in place of these it asserts that there is a moral government of the world1 which must be imitated in the moral and religious consciousness of the individual4 #f4 ,the belief in a moral government of the world answers another question which the medieval ,jewish philosophers and their ,mohammedan predecessors endeavored to solve1 but without satisfying the religious sentiment1 the chief concern of theology4 ,some of them maintain that ,god's foreknowledge does not determine human deeds47#eaj7 ,maimonides and his school1 however1 say that it is impossible for us to comprehend the knowledge and power of ,god1 and that therefore such a question is outside the sphere of human knowledge4 8,know that1 just as ,god has made the elements of fire and air to rise upwards and water and earth to sink downward1 so has ,he made man a free1 self-determining being1 who acts of his own volition407#eaa7 ,the ,mohammedans would often give up human freedom rather than the omniscience and all-determining power of ,god2 but the ,jewish thinkers1 significantly1 with only the possible exception of ,crescas17#eab7 laid stress upon the divine nature which man attains through moral freedom1 even at the risk of limiting the omniscience of ,god4 #g4 ,the philosophers failed1 however1 to emphasize sufficiently a point of highest importance for religion1 ,god's paternal care for all ,his creatures4 ,indeed1 ,god ceases to be ,god1 if ,he has not included our every step in ,his plan of creation1 thus surrounding us with paternal love and tender care4 ,instead of the three blind fates of heathendom who spin and cut the threads of destiny without even knowing why1 the divine ,father himself sits at the loom of time and apportions the lot of men according to ,his own wisdom and goodness4 ,such a belief in divine ,providence is ingrained in the soul1 and reasoning alone will not suffice to attain it4 ,therefore even such great thinkers as ,maimonides and ,gersonides go astray as religious teachers when they follow ,aristotelian principles in this very intimate matter4 ,they assume a general ,providence aiming for the preservation of the species1 but include a special ,providence only so far as the recipient of it is endowed with reason and has thus approached the divine ,intellect4 ,a ,providence of this type1 the result of human reasoning1 is a mere illusion1 as the pious thinker1 ,hasdai ,crescas1 clearly shows47#eac7 ,for the man who prays to ,god in anxiety or distress this bears nothing but disappointment4 ,the ,aristotelian conception of the world has this great truth1 that there is no such thing as chance1 that everything is foreseen and provided by the divine wisdom4 ,but religion must hold that the individual is an object of care by ,god1 that 8not a sparrow falls into the net without ,god's will107#ead7 that 8every hair on the head of man is counted and cared for in the heavenly order107#eae7 and that the most insignificant thing serves its purpose under the guidance of an all-wise ,god4 ,we use figurative expressions for the divine care1 because we cannot grasp it entirely or literally4 #h4 ,the ,bible in the ,song of ,moses compares divine ,providence to the eagle spreading her protecting wings over her young and bearing them aloft1 or urging them to soar along47#eaf7 ,the rabbis elaborate this by referring to the twofold care which the eagle thus bestows1 as she watches over those who are still tender and helpless1 shielding them from the arrows below by bearing them on her wings1 but inspiring the maturer and stronger ones to fly by her side47#eag7 ,in the same way ,providence trains both individuals and generations for their allotted task4 ,a little child requires incessant care on the part of its mother1 until it has learned how to eat1 walk1 speak1 and to decide for itself1 but the wise parent gradually withdraws his guiding hand so that the growing child may learn self-reliance and self-respect4 ,the divine ,father trains man thus through the childhood of humanity4 ,but no sooner does the divine spirit in man awaken to self-consciousness than he is thrown on his own resources to become the master of his own destiny4 ,the divine power which1 in the earlier stages1 had worked for man1 now works with him and within him4 ,in the rabbinic phrase1 he is now ready to be a 8co-worker with ,god in the work of creation407#eah7 ,only at those grave moments when his own powers fail him1 he still feels in the humility of faith that his ancient ,god is still near1 8a very present help in trouble10 and that 8the ,guardian of ,israel neither slumbereth nor sleepeth407#eai7 ,philosophy cannot tolerate the removal of the dividing line between the transcendent ,god and finite man4 ,hence the relation of man's free will and divine foresight cannot be solved by any process of reasoning4 ,but when religion proclaims a moral government of the world1 then man1 with his moral and spiritual aims1 attains a place in ,creation akin to the ,creator4 ,of course1 so long as he is mentally a child and has no clear purpose1 ,providence acts for him as it does for the animal with its marvelous instinct4 ,through ,his chosen messengers ,god gives the people bread and water1 freedom and victory1 instruction and law4 ,the wondrous tales describing the divine protection of ,israel in its early life may strike us as out of harmony with the laws of nature1 but they are true portrayals of the experience of the people4 ,whatever happened for their good in those days had to be the work of ,god2 they had not yet wakened to the power hidden in their own soul4 ,their heroes felt themselves to be divine instruments1 roused by ,his spirit to perform mighty deeds or to behold prophetic visions4 ,it is ,god who battles through them4 ,it is ,god who speaks through them4 ,both their moral and spiritual guidance works from without and above4 ,at this stage of life autonomy is neither felt nor desired4 ,when man awakens to moral self-consciousness and maturity1 this inner change impresses him as an outer one2 the change in him is interpreted as a change in ,god4 ,he feels that ,god has withdrawn behind ,his eternal laws of nature and morality which work without direct interference1 and in his new sense of independence he thinks that he can dispense with the divine protection and forethought4 ,as if mortal man can ever dispense with that ,power which has endowed him with his capacity for worthy accomplishment6 ,thus in times of danger and distress man turns to ,god for help2 thus at every great turning point in the life of an individual or nation the idea of an all-wise ,providence imbues him with new hope and new security4 ,and in all these cases the great lesson of providential direction is typified in the history of ,israel as related in the ,bible4 #aj4 ,the idea of ,providence1 indeed1 belongs also to certain pagan philosophers1 who observed the great purposes of nature which the single creature and the species are both to serve4 ,the ,stoics in particular made a study of teleology1 the system of purposive ends in nature4 ,philo adopted much from them in his treatise on ,providence4 ,later the popular philosophic group among the ,mohammedans1 the so-called 8,brothers of ,purity10 based their doctrines of ,god and ,his relation to the world on a teleological view of nature4 ,in fact1 the ,jewish philosopher and moralist ,bahya ben ,pakudah has embodied many of their ideas in his 8,duties of the ,heart407#ebj7 ,jewish folklore--preserved in rabbinic literature--has also attempted a popular explanation of the obscure ways of ,providence1 in strange events of nature as well as the great enigmas of human destiny4 ,thus the flight of ,david from ,saul affords the lesson of the good purpose which may be served by so insignificant a thing as a spider1 or by so dreadful a state as insanity47#eba7 ,vast numbers of the ,jewish legends and fables deal with adversities which are turned into ultimate good by the working of an all-wise ,providence47#ebb7 ,chapter ,,xxix4 ,god and the ,existence of ,evil #a4 ,a leading objection to the belief in divine ,providence is the existence in this world of physical and moral evil4 ,all living creatures are exposed to the influence of evil1 according to their physical or moral constitutions and the peculiar conditions of their existence4 ,heathenism accounts for the powers of darkness1 pain and death by assuming the existence of forces hostile to the heavenly powers of light and life1 or of a primitive principle of evil1 the counterpart of the divine beings4 ,but to those who believe in an almighty and all-benign ,creator and ,ruler of the universe1 the question remains3 ,why do life and the love of life encounter so many hindrances8 ,why does ,god's world contain so much pain and bitterness1 so much passion and sin8 ,should not ,providence have averted such things8 ,the answer of ,judaism has already been stated here1 but we need further elaboration of the theme that there is no evil before ,god1 since a good purpose is served even by that which appears bad4 ,in the life of the human body pleasure and pain1 the impetus to life and its restraint and inhibition form a necessary contrast1 making for health2 so1 in the moral order of the universe1 each being who battles with evil receives new strength for the unfolding of the good4 ,the principle of holiness1 which culminates in ,israel's holy ,god1 transforms and ennobles every evil4 ,as the ,midrash explains1 referring to ,deut4 ,,xi1 #bf3 8,if thou but seest that both good and evil are placed in thy hand1 no evil will come to thee from above1 since thou knowest how to turn it into good407#ebc7 #b4 ,the conception of evil passed through a development parallel with that of the related conceptions which we have just reviewed4 ,at first every misfortune was considered to be inflicted by divine wrath as a punishment for human misdeeds4 ,nations and individuals were thought to suffer for some special moral cause2 through suffering they were punished for past wrong1 warned against its repetition in the future1 and urged to repentance and improvement of their conduct4 ,even death1 the fate of all living creatures1 was regarded as a punishment which the first pair of human beings brought upon all their descendants through their transgression of the divine command4 ,the ,talmudic sages clung to the view of the ,paradise legend in the ,bible1 when they held that every death is due to some sin committed by the individual47#ebd7 ,this view1 which was shared by paganism1 was accompanied by a higher conception1 gradually growing in the thinking mind4 ,as a father does not punish his child in anger1 but in order to improve his conduct1 so ,god chastens man in order to purify his moral nature4 ,good fortune tends to harden the heart2 adversity often softens and sweetens it4 ,in the crucible of suffering the gold of the human soul is purified from the dross4 ,the evil strokes of destiny come upon the righteous1 not because he deserves them1 but because his divine ,friend is raising him to still higher tests of virtue4 ,this standpoint1 never reached even by the pious sufferer ,job1 is attained by rabbinic ,judaism when it calls the visitations of the righteous 8trials of the divine love407#ebe7 ,thus evil1 both physical and spiritual1 receives its true valuation in the divine economy4 ,evil exists only to be overcome by the good4 ,in ,his paternal goodness ,god uses it to educate ,his children for a place in ,his kingdom4 #c4 ,according to the direct words of ,scripture good and evil1 light and darkness1 emanate alike from the ,creator4 ,this is accentuated by the great seer of the ,exile17#ebf7 who protests against the ,persian belief in a creative principle of good and a destructive principle of evil4 ,the rabbis1 however1 ascribe the origin of evil to man2 they take as a negation rather than a question the verse in ,lam4 ,,iii1 #ch3 8,do not evil and good come out of the mouth of the ,most ,high80 ,thus they refer this to the words of ,deuteronomy1 8,behold1 ,i have set before you this day life and good1 death and evil2 choose thou life607#ebg7 ,such medieval thinkers as ,abraham ,ibn ,daud and ,maimonides did not ascribe to evil any reality at all47#ebh7 ,evil to them is the negation of good1 just as darkness is the negation of light1 or poverty of riches4 ,as evil exists only for man1 man can overcome it by himself4 ,before ,god it has no essential existence4 ,unfortunately1 such metaphysics does not equip man with strength and courage to cope with either pain or sin4 ,the same lack is evident in that modern form of pseudo-science which poses as a religion1 ,christian ,science1 which has made propaganda so widely among both ,jews and non-,jews4 ,christian ,science declares pain1 sickness1 and all evil to be merely the 8error of mortal mind10 which can all be dispelled by faith2 such a view neither strengthens the soul for its real struggles nor convinces the mind by an appeal to facts47#ebi7 #d4 ,frail mortals as we are1 we need the help of the living ,god4 ,thus only can we overcome physical evil1 knowing that ,he bears with us1 feels with us1 and transforms it finally into good4 ,we need it also to overcome moral evil1 in the consciousness that ,he has compassion upon the repentant sinner and gives him courage to follow the right path4 ,the modern philosophers of pessimism had the correct feeling in adopting the ,hindu conception1 and emphasizing the pain and misery of existence1 repeating ,job's ancient plaint over the hard destiny of mankind4 ,the shallow optimism of the age would rather conceal the dark side of life and indulge in outbursts of self-sufficiency4 ,yet if we measure it only by a physical yardstick1 life cannot be called a boon4 ,against shallow optimism we have the testimony of every thorn and sting1 every poisonous breath and every destructive element in nature's household1 as well as all vice and evil in the world of man4 ,the world does not appear good1 unless we measure it by the ideal of divine holiness4 ,if ,god is the ,father watching over the welfare of every mortal1 all things are good1 because all serve a good purpose in ,his eternal plan4 ,every hindrance or pressure engenders new power2 every sting acts as a spur to higher things4 ,short-sighted and short-lived as is man1 he forgets too easily that in the sight of ,god 8a thousand years are as a single day10 world-epochs like 8watches in the night10 and that the mills of divine justice grind on1 8slowly but exceeding small40 ,but one belief illumines the darkness of destiny1 and that is that ,god stands ever at the helm1 steering through every storm and tempest toward ,his sublime goal4 ,in the moral striving of man we can but realize that our every victory contributes toward the majestic work of ,god47#ecj7 ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,god and the ,angels #a4 ,judaism insists with unrelenting severity on the absolute unity and incomparability of ,god1 so that no other being can be placed beside ,him4 ,consequently1 every mention of divine beings 7,elohim or ,b'ne ,elohim7 in either the ,bible or post-,biblical literature refers to subordinate beings only4 ,these spirits constitute the celestial court for the ,king of the ,world47#eca7 ,all the forces of the universe are ,his servants1 fulfilling ,his commands4 ,hence both the ,hebrew and ,greek terms for angel1 ,malak and angelos1 mean 8messenger40 ,these beings derive their existence from ,god2 some of them are merely temporary1 so that without ,him they dissolve into nothing4 ,although ,scripture uses the terms1 8,god of gods0 and 8,king of kings10 still we cannot attribute any independent existence to subordinate divine beings4 ,in fact1 ,maimonides in his sixth article of faith holds that worship of such beings is prohibited as idolatry by the second commandment47#ecb7 ,thus the unity of ,god lifts ,him above comparison with any other divine being4 ,this is most emphatically expressed in ,deuteronomy3 8,know this day1 and lay it to thy heart1 that the ,lord ,he is ,god in heaven above1 and upon the earth beneath2 there is none else107#ecc7 and 8,see now that ,i1 even ,i1 am ,he1 and there is no god with ,me2 ,i kill and make alive2 ,i have wounded and ,i heal1 and there is none that can deliver out of ,my hand407#ecd7 ,the same attitude is found in ,isaiah3 8,i am the ,lord that maketh all things1 that stretched forth the heavens alone1 that spread abroad the earth by ,myself0 8,i am the ,lord and there is none else2 beside ,me there is no god407#ece7 ,such conceptions allow no place for angels or spirits4 #b4 ,it was certainly not easy for prophet1 lawgiver1 or sage to dispel the popular belief in divine beings or powers1 which primitive ,judaism shared with other ancient faiths4 ,no sharp line was drawn at first between ,god and ,his accompanying angels1 as we may infer from the story of the angels who appeared to ,abraham1 and the similar incidents of ,hagar and ,jacob47#ecf7 ,the varying application of the term ,elohim to ,god and to the angels or gods is proof enough of the priority of polytheism1 even in ,judaism4 ,the trees or springs1 formerly seats of the ancient deities1 spirits1 or demons1 were now the places for the appearance of angels1 shorn of their independence1 looking like fiery or shining human beings4 ,popular belief1 however1 perpetuated mythological elements1 ascribing to the angels higher wisdom and sometimes sensuality as well4 ,such a case is the fragment preserved in ,genesis telling of the union of sons of ,god to the daughters of men1 causing the generation of giants47#ecg7 ,obviously the old ,babylonian 8mountain of the gods10 with its food for the gods1 became in the ,paradise legend the garden of ,eden1 the seat of ,god27#ech7 and the ,psalmist still speaks of the 8angels' food10 which appeared as manna in the wilderness47#eci7 ,on the whole1 the sacred writers were most eager to allot to the angels a very subordinate position in the divine household4 ,they figure usually as hosts of beings1 numbered by myriads1 wrapped in light or in fleeting clouds4 ,they surround the throne or chariot of ,god2 they comprise ,his heavenly court or council2 they sing ,his praise and obey ,his call4 ,scripture is quite silent about the creation of these angelic beings1 as on most purely speculative questions4 ,at the very beginning of the world ,god consults them when ,he is to create man after the image of the celestial beings4 ,for this is the original meaning of ,elohim in ,gen4 ,i1 #bf and #bg and ,v1 #a3 8,let us make man in our image1 after our likeness02 8,and ,god created man in his own image1 in the image of godly beings ,he created him40 ,this view is echoed in ,psalm ,,viii1 verse #f3 8,thou hast made him a little lower than godly beings40 ,in ,job ,,xxxviii1 #g1 both the morning stars and the sons of ,god1 or angels1 8shout together in joy0 when the ,lord laid the foundations of the earth47#edj7 #c4 ,in ,biblical times--which does not include the book of ,daniel1 a work of the ,maccabean time--the angels and demons were not invested with proper names or special functions4 ,the ,biblical system does not even distinguish clearly between good and evil spirits4 ,the goat-like demons of the field popularly worshiped were merely survivals of pagan superstitions47#eda7 ,in general the angels carry out good or evil designs according to their commands from the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,they are sent forth to destroy ,sodom1 to save ,lot1 and to bring ,abraham the good tidings of the birth of a son47#edb7 ,on one occasion the host of spirits protect the people of ,god2 on another they annihilate hostile powers by pestilence and plagues47#edc7 ,at one time a multitude appear1 led by a celestial chieftain2 at another a single angel performs the miracle4 ,in any case the destroying angel is not a demon1 but a messenger of the divine will4 ,originally some of these primitive forces were dreaded or worshiped by the people1 but all have been transformed into members of the celestial court and called to bear witness to the dominion of the ,omnipotent4 #d4 ,the belief in angels served two functions in the development of monotheism4 ,on the one hand1 it was a stage in the concentration of the divine forces1 beginning with polytheism1 continuing through belief in angels1 and culminating in the one and only ,god of heaven and earth4 ,on the other hand1 certain sensuous elements in the vision of ,god by the seers had to be removed in the spiritualization of ,god1 and it was found easiest to transform these into separate beings1 related to ,deity himself4 ,thus the fiery appearance of ,god to the eye or the voice which was manifested to the ear were often personified as angels of ,god4 ,this very process made possible the purification of the ,god idea1 as the sublime essence of the ,deity was divested of physical and temporal elements1 and ,god was conceived more and more as a moral and spiritual personality4 ,hence in ,biblical passages the names of ,god and of the angel frequently alternate47#edd7 ,the latter is only a representative of the divine personality--in ,scriptural terms1 the presence or 8face0 of ,god4 ,therefore the voice of the angel is to be obeyed as that of ,god himself1 because ,his name is present in ,his representative4 ,a similar meaning became attached later on to the term ,shekinah1 the 8majesty0 of ,god as beheld in the cloud of fire4 ,this was spoken of in place of ,god that ,he might not be lowered into the earthly sphere4 ,for further discussion of this subject1 see chapter ,,xxxii1 8,god and ,intermediary ,powers40 ,in fact1 we note that the post-exilic prophets all received their revelations1 not from ,god1 but through a special angel47#ede7 ,they no longer believed that ,god might be seen or heard by human powers1 and therefore their visions had to be translated into rational thoughts by a mediating angel4 #e4 ,persian influence gave ,jewish angelology and demonology a different character4 ,the two realms of the ,persian system included vast hosts of beneficent spirits under ,ahura-,mazda 7,ormuzd7 and of demons under the dominion of ,angro-mainyus 7,ahriman74 ,so in ,judaism also different orders of angels arose1 headed by archangels who bore special names4 ,the number seven was adopted from the ,persians1 while both names and order were often changed4 ,all of them1 however1 were allotted special functions in the divine household4 ,the pagan deities and primitive spirits which still persisted in popular superstition were given a new lease of life4 ,each force of nature was given a guardian spirit1 just as in nature-worship2 angels were appointed over fire1 water1 each herb1 each fountain1 and every separate function of life4 ,a patron angel was assigned to each of the seventy nations of the world mentioned in the genealogy of ,noah47#edf7 ,thus the celestial court grew in number and in splendor4 ,a beginning was made with the heavenly chariot-throne of ,ezekiel1 borne aloft by the four holy living creatures 7the hayoth71 surrounded by the fiery ,cherubim1 the winged ,seraphim1 and the many-eyed ,ofanim 7wheels747#edg7 ,this was elaborated by the addition of rows of surrounding angels1 called 8angels of service10 headed by the seven archangels4 ,of these the chief was ,michael1 the patron-saint of ,israel1 and the next ,gabriel1 who is sometimes even placed first4 ,raphael and ,uriel are regularly mentioned1 the other three rarely1 and not always by the same names4 ,the ,irin of ,daniel--known as 8the ,watchers10 but more precisely 8the ever-watchful ,ones0--are another of the ten classes of angels included4 ,below these are myriads of inferior angels who serve them4 ,their classification by rank was a favorite theme of the secret lore of the ,essenes1 partly preserved for us in the apocalyptic literature and the liturgy4 ,the ,essenic saints endeavored to acquire miraculous powers through using the names of certain angels1 and thus exorcising the evil spirits4 ,this secret lore seems to be patterned after the ,zoroastrian or ,mazdean system4 ,it is noteworthy that the most prominent angelic figure is ,metatron1 the charioteer of the ,merkabah or chariot-throne on high1 which is merely another form of ,mithras1 the ,persian god of light1 who acts as charioteer for ,ahura ,mazda47#edh7 ,two other angels are mentioned as standing behind the heavenly throne1 ,akathriel1 8the crown-bearer of ,god10 and ,sandalphon1 8the twin brother0 ,synadelphon4 #f4 ,a striking contrast exists between the simple habitation in the sky depicted in the prophetic and ,mosaic books1 and the splendor of the heavenly spheres according to the rabbinical writings4 ,the ,oriental courts lent all their grandeur to the majestic throne of ,god1 on which ,he was exalted above all earthly things4 ,the immense space between was filled in by innumerable gradations of beings leading up to ,him4 ,there was no longer a question how far these other beings shared the nature of ,god2 ,his dominion was absolute4 ,still a new question1 not known to the ,bible1 arose1 as to when the angelic world was created and out of what primordial element4 ,at first a logical answer was given1 that the angels emanated from the element of fire4 ,later the schoolmen1 trying to dispose of the angels as possible peers or rivals of the eternal ,god1 ascribed their creation to the second day1 when the heaven was made as a vault over the earth1 or to the fifth day1 when the winged creatures arose47#edi7 ,on the whole1 the rabbis denied every claim of the angels to an independent or an eternal existence4 ,just because they firmly believed in the existence of angels and even saw them from time to time1 they felt bound to declare their secondary rank4 ,only the archangels were made from an eternal substance1 while the others were continually being created anew out of the breath of ,god or from the 8river of fire0 which flowed around ,his throne4 ,thus even the realm of celestial spirits was merged into the stream of universal life which comes and goes1 while ,god was left alone in matchless sovereignty1 above all the fluctuations of time4 ,on the other hand1 the rabbis opposed the ,essenic idea of assigning to the angels an intermediary task between ,god and man1 and deprecated as a pagan custom the worship or invocation of angels4 8,address your prayer to the ,master of life and not to ,his servants2 ,he will hear you in every trouble10 says ,r4 ,judan47#eej7 ,some of the teachers even declared that any godly son of ,israel excels the angels in power4 ,it is certainly significant1 as ,david ,neumark has pointed out1 that the ,mishnah eliminates every reference to the angels47#eea7 #g4 ,in spite of this1 none of the medieval ,jewish philosophers doubted the existence of angels47#eeb7 ,indeed1 there was no reason for them to do so1 as they had managed to insert them into their philosophic systems as intermediary beings leading up to the ,supreme ,intelligence4 ,all that was necessary was to identify the angels of the ,bible with the 8ideas0 of ,plato or the 8rulers of the spheres10 the 8separate intelligences0 of ,aristotle4 ,by this one step the existence of angels as cosmic powers was proved to be a logical necessity4 ,the ten rulers of the spheres even corresponded with the ten orders of angels in the cosmography of the ,jewish1 ,mohammedan1 and ,christian schoolmen4 ,the only difference between the ,aristotelian and the rabbinical views was that the former held the cosmic powers to be eternal2 the latter1 that they were created4 ,in both ,biblical and rabbinical literature the angels are usually conceived of as purely spiritual powers superior to man4 ,maimonides1 however1 following his rationalistic method1 declared them to be simply products of the imagination1 the hypostases of figurative expressions which were not meant to be taken literally4 ,to him every force and element of nature is an angel or messenger of ,god4 ,in this way the entire angelology of the ,bible1 including even ,ezekiel's vision of the heavenly chariot 7the ,merkabah71 in becoming a part of the ,maimonidean system turns into natural philosophy pure and simple47#eec7 ,of course1 ,saadia1 ,jehuda ha ,levi1 and ,gabirol do not share this rationalistic view4 ,to them the angels are either cosmic powers of an ethereal substance1 endowed with everlasting life1 or living beings created by ,god for special purposes47#eed7 ,the later ,cabbalistic lore extended the realm of the celestial spirits still more1 creating new names of angels for its mystical system and its magical practices4 ,yet in this magic it subordinated the angels to man4 ,in fact1 it followed ,saadia largely in this1 making man the center and pinnacle of the work of creation1 in fact1 the very mirror of the ,creator47#eee7 #h4 ,for our modern viewpoint the existence of angels is a question of psychology rather than of theology4 ,the old ,babylonian world has vanished1 with its heaven as the dwelling place of ,god1 its earth for man1 and its nether world for the shades and demons4 ,the world in which we live knows no above or beneath1 no heaven or hell1 no host of good and evil spirits moving about to help or hurt man4 ,it sees matter and energy working everywhere after the same immutable laws through an infinitude of space and time1 a universe ever evolving new orbs of light1 engendering and transforming worlds without number and without end4 ,there is no place in infinite space for a heaven or for a celestial throne4 ,a world of law and of process does not need a living ladder to lead from the earth below to ,god on high4 ,though the stars be peopled with souls superior to ours1 still they cannot stand nearer to ,god than does man with his freedom1 his moral striving1 his visions of the highest and the best4 ,through man's spiritual nature ,god1 too1 is recognized as a ,spirit2 through man's moral consciousness ,god is conceived of as the ,ruler of a moral world2 but this same process at once does away with the need for any other spirits or divine powers beside ,him4 ,god alone has become the object of human longing4 ,man feels akin to ,his ,god who is ever near2 he learns to know ,him ever better4 ,he can dispense with the angelic hosts4 ,as they return to the fiery stream of poetic imagination whence they emerged1 nebulous figures of a glorious world that has vanished1 man rises above angel and ,seraph by his own power to the dignity of a servant1 nay1 a child of ,god4 ,indeed1 as the rabbis said1 the prophets1 sages1 and seers are the true messengers of ,god1 the angels who do ,his service47#eef7 ,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,satan and the ,spirits of ,evil #a4 ,the great advantage of ,judaism over other religious systems lies in its unified view of life1 which it regards as a continuous conflict between good and evil influences within man4 ,as man succeeds in overcoming evil and achieving good1 he asserts his own moral personality4 ,outside of man ,judaism sees no real contrast between good and evil1 since both have emanated from ,god1 the ,spirit of goodness4 ,judaism recognizes no primal power of evil plotting against ,god and defying ,him1 such as that of the ,persian dualism4 ,nor does ,judaism espouse the dualism of spirit and matter1 identifying matter with evil1 from which the soul strives to free itself while confined in the prison house of the body4 ,such a conception is taught by ,plato1 probably under ,oriental influence1 and is shared by the ,hindu and ,christian ascetics who torture themselves in order to suppress bodily desire in their quest of a higher existence4 ,the ,jewish conception of the unity of ,god necessitates the unity of the world1 which leaves no place for a cosmic principle of evil4 ,in this ,judaism dissents from modern philosophers also1 such as ,john ,stuart ,mill and even ,kant1 who speak of a radical evil in nature4 ,no power of evil can exist in independence of ,god47#eeg7 ,as the ,psalmist says3 8,his kingdom ruleth over all4 ,bless the ,lord1 ye angels of ,his1 ye mighty in strength that fulfill ,his word1 hearkening unto the voice of ,his word407#eeh7 ,this increased the difficulty of the problem of the origin of evil4 ,the answer given by the general ,jewish consciousness1 expressed by both ,biblical and rabbinical writers1 is that evil comes from the free will of man1 who is endowed with the power of rebelling against the will of ,god4 ,this idea is symbolized in the story of the fall of man4 ,the serpent1 or tempter1 represents the evil inclination which arises in man with his first consciousness of freedom4 ,so in ,jewish belief ,satan1 the ,adversary1 is only an allegorical figure1 representing the evil of the world1 both physical and moral4 ,he was sent by ,god to test man for his own good1 to develop him morally4 ,he is 8the spirit that ever wills evil1 but achieves the good10 and therefore in the book of ,job he actually comes before ,god's throne as one of the angels47#eei7 #b4 ,in tracing the belief in demons we must draw a sharp distinction between popular views and systematic doctrine47#efj7 ,during the ,biblical era the people believed in goat-like spirits roaming the fields and woods1 the deserts and ravines1 whom they called ,seirim--hairy demons1 or satyrs1--and to whom they sacrificed in fear and trembling47#efa7 ,as ,ibn ,ezra ingeniously pointed out in his commentary1 ,azazel was originally a desert demon dwelling in the ravines near ,jerusalem1 to whom a scapegoat was offered at the opening of the year1 a rite preserved in the ,day of ,atonement cult of the ,mosaic ,code47#efb7 ,in fact1 in ancient ,babylon1 ,syria1 and ,palestine diseases and accidents were universally ascribed to evil spirits of the wilderness or the nether world4 ,the ,bible occasionally mentions these evil spirits as punitive angels sent by ,god4 ,in the more popular view1 which is reflected by apocryphal and rabbinical literature1 and which was influenced by both the ,babylonian and ,persian religions1 they appear in increasing numbers and with specific names4 ,each disease had its peculiar demon4 ,desolate places1 cemeteries1 and the darkness of night were all peopled by superstition with hosts of demons 7,shedim71 at whose head was ,azazel1 ,samael2 ,beelzebub1 the ,philistine god of flies and of illness27#efc7 ,belial1 king of the nether world27#efd7 or the ,persian ,ashma ,deva 7,evil ,spirit71 under the ,hebrew name of ,ashmodai or ,shemachzai47#efe7 ,the queen of the demons was ,lilith or ,iggereth bath ,mahlath1 8the dancer on the housetops407#eff7 ,the ,essenes seem to have made special studies of both demonology and angelology1 believing that they could invoke the good spirits and conjure the evil ones1 thus curing various diseases1 which they ascribed to possession by demons4 ,while these exorcisms are not so common in the ,talmud as they are in the ,new ,testament1 there remain many indications that such practices were followed by ,jewish saints and believed by the people4 ,often the rabbis seem to have considered them the work of 8unclean spirits10 which they endeavored to overcome with the 8spirit of holiness10 and particularly by the study of the ,torah47#efg7 #c4 ,this answers implicitly the question of the origin of demons4 ,obviously the belief in malevolent spirits is incompatible with the existence of an all-benign and all-wise ,creator4 ,accordingly1 two alternative explanations are offered in the rabbinical and apocalyptic writings4 ,according to one1 the demons are half angelic and half animal beings1 sharing intelligence and flight with the angels1 sensuality with beasts and with men4 ,their double nature is ascribed to incompleteness1 because they were created last of all beings1 and their creation was interrupted by the coming of the ,sabbath1 putting an end to all creation47#efh7 ,according to the other view they are the offspring of the 8fallen angels10 issuing from the union of the angels with the daughters of men as described in ,gen4 ,,vi1 #a f4 ,these spread the virus of impurity over all the earth1 causing carnal desire and every kind of lewdness4 ,the whole world of demons is regarded as alienated from ,god by the rebellion of the heavenly hosts1 as if the fall of man by sin had its prototype in the celestial sphere47#efi7 ,a rabbinical legend1 which corresponds with a ,persian myth1 ascribes the origin of demons to the intercourse of ,adam with ,lilith1 the night spirit47#egj7 ,on the other hand1 the archangel ,samael is said to have cast lascivious glances at the beauty of ,eve1 and then to have turned into ,satan the ,tempter47#ega7 ,the ,jewish systems of both angelology and demonology1 first worked out in the apocalyptic literature1 were further elaborated by the ,cabbalah4 ,angelology found a conspicuous place in the liturgy in connection with the ,kedushah ,benediction and likewise in the liturgy and the theology of the ,church47#egb7 ,on the other hand the belief in evil spirits and in ,satan1 the ,evil ,one1 remained rather a matter of popular credulity and never became a positive doctrine of the ,synagogue4 ,true1 the liturgy contained morning prayers which asked ,god for protection against the ,evil ,one1 and formulas invoking the angels to shield one during the night from evil spirits47#egc7 ,but the arch-fiend was never invested with power over the soul1 depriving man of his perfect freedom and divine sovereignty1 as in the ,christian ,church4 #d4 ,in the formation of the idea of the arch-fiend1 ,satan1 we can observe the interworking of several elements4 ,the name ,satan in no way indicates a demon4 ,it denotes simply the adversary1 the one who offers hindrances4 ,the name was thus applied to the accuser at court47#egd7 ,in ,zechariah and in ,job7#ege7 ,satan appears at the throne of ,god as the prosecutor1 roaming about the earth to espy the transgressions of men1 seeking to lure them to their destruction4 ,in the ,books of ,chronicles7#egf7 ,satan has become a proper name1 meaning the ,seducer4 ,the ,serpent in the ,paradise story is more completely a demon1 although the legend intends rather to account for man's morality1 his distinction between good and evil4 ,satan was then identified with the serpent1 who was called by the rabbis ,nahash ha ,kadmoni1 8the primeval ,serpent10 after the analogy of the serpent-like form of ,ahriman4 ,thus ,satan in the person of the serpent became the embodiment of evil1 the prime cause of sin and death47#egg7 ,possibly a part in this process was played by the ,babylonian figure of ,tihamat1 the dragon of chaos 7,tehom in the ,hebrew71 with whom the god ,marduk wrestled for dominion over the world1 and who has parallels in the ,biblical ,rahab and similar mythological figures4 ,we must not overlook such rabbinical legends as the one about how the poisonous breath of the serpent infected the whole human race1 except ,israel who has been saved by the law at ,sinai47#egh7 ,occasionally we hear that the ,evil ,spirit 7,yezer ha ,ra7 will be slain by ,god7#egi7 or by the ,messiah47#ehj7 ,these ,haggadic sayings1 however1 were never accepted as normative for religious belief4 ,on the contrary1 they were always in dispute1 and many a ,talmudic teacher minimized the fiendish character of ,satan1 who became a stimulus to moral betterment through the trials he imposes47#eha7 ,philo1 allegorizing the legends1 turns the evil angels of the ,bible into wicked men47#ehb7 #e4 ,as to demons in general1 the ,talmudists never doubted their existence1 but endeavored to minimize their importance4 ,they changed the demon ,azazel into a geographical term by transposing the letters47#ehc7 ,they explained 8the sons of ,god who came to the daughters of men to give birth to the giants of old0 as aristocratic ,sethites who intermarried with low-class families of the ,cainites47#ehd7 ,as to the rest1 the entire belief in demons and ghosts was too deeply rooted in the folk mind to be counteracted by the rabbis4 ,even lucid thinkers of the ,middle ,ages were caught by these baneful superstitions1 including ,jehuda ha ,levi1 ,crescas1 and ,nahmanides1 the mystic47#ehe7 ,only a small group fought against this offshoot of fear and superstition1 among them ,saadia1 ,maimonides and his school1 ,ibn ,ezra1 ,gersonides1 and ,juda ,ibn ,balag4 ,to ,maimonides the demons mentioned in ,mishnah and ,talmud are only figurative expressions for physical plagues4 ,he considers the belief in demons equivalent to a belief in pagan deities4 8,many pious ,israelites10 he says17#ehf7 8believe in the reality of demons and witches1 thinking that they should not be made the object of worship and regard1 for the reason that the ,torah has prohibited it4 ,but they fail to see that the ,law commands us to banish all these things from sight1 because they are but falsehood and deceit1 as is the whole idolatry with which they are intrinsically connected40 #f4 ,this sound view was disseminated by the rationalistic school in its contest with the ,cabbalah1 and has exerted a wholesome influence upon modern ,judaism4 ,thus ,satan is rejected by ,jewish doctrine1 while ,luther and ,calvin1 the ,reformers of the ,christian ,church1 still believed in him4 ,milton's 8,paradise ,lost0 placed him in the very foreground of ,christian belief1 and the leaders of the ,protestant ,churches1 up to the present1 accord him a prominent place in their scheme of salvation1 as the opponent and counterpart of ,god4 ,in his work on ,christian dogmatics1 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss observes acutely3 8,the whole 7,christian7 idea of the ,messiah and his kingdom must necessarily have as its counterpart a kingdom of demons with a personal ruler at its head2 without this it is no more possible than the north pole of the magnet would be without a south pole4 ,if ,christ has come to destroy the works of the ,devil1 there would be no need for him to come1 unless there were a ,devil4 ,on the other hand1 if the ,devil is to be considered merely the personification of evil1 then a ,christ who would be only the personification of the ideal1 but not a real personality1 would suffice equally407#ehg7 ,at present ,christian theologians and even philosophers have recourse to ,platonic and ,buddhist ideas1 that evil is implanted in the world from which humanity must free itself1 and they thus present ,christianity as the religion of redemption par excellence47#ehh7 ,over against this1 ,judaism still maintains that there is no radical or primitive evil in the world4 ,no power exists which is intrinsically hostile to ,god1 and from which man must be redeemed4 ,according to the ,jewish conception1 the goodness and glory of ,god fill both heaven and earth1 while holiness penetrates all of life1 bringing matter and flesh within the realm of the divine4 ,evil is but the contrast of good1 as shade is but the contrast of light4 ,evil can be overcome by each individual1 as he realizes his own solemn duty and the divine will4 ,its only existence is in the field of morality1 where it is a test of man's freedom and power4 ,evil is within man1 and against it he is to wage the battles of life1 until his victory signalizes the triumph of the divine in his own nature47#ehi7 ,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,god and the ,intermediary ,powers #a4 ,in addition to the angels who carried out ,god's will in the universe1 the ,biblical and post-,biblical literature recognizes other divine powers which mediate between ,him and the world of man4 ,the more a seer or thinker became conscious of the spirituality and transcendency of ,god1 the more he felt the gulf between the infinite ,spirit and the world of the senses4 ,in order to bridge this gap1 the ,deity was replaced by one of ,his manifestations which could appear and act in a world circumscribed by space and time47#eij7 ,as we found in prophecy the direct revelation of ,god giving way to a mediating angel1 so either 8the ,glory0 or 8the ,name0 of ,,jhvh takes the place of ,god himself4 ,that is1 instead of ,god's own being1 ,his reflected radiance or the power invested in ,his name descends from on high4 ,the rabbis kept the direct revelation of ,god for the hallowed past or the desired future1 but at the same time they needed a suitable term for the presence of ,god2 they therefore coined the word ,shekinah--8the divine ,condescension0 or 8,presence0--to be used instead of the ,deity himself4 ,thus the verse of the ,psalm37#eia7 8,god standeth in the congregation of ,god10 is translated by the ,targum1 8,the divine ,presence 7,shekinah7 resteth upon the congregation of the godly40 ,instead of the conclusion of the speech to ,moses1 8,let them make ,me a sanctuary1 that ,i may dwell among them107#eib7 the ,targum has1 8,and ,i shall let ,my ,presence 7,shekinah7 dwell among them40 ,thus in the view of the rabbis ,shekinah represents the visible part of the divine majesty1 which descends from heaven to earth1 and on the radiance of which are fed the spiritual beings1 both angels and the souls of the saints47#eic7 ,god himself was wrapped in light1 whose brilliancy no living being1 however lofty1 could endure2 but the ,shekinah or reflection of the divine glory might be beheld by the elect either in their lifetime or in the hereafter4 ,in this way the rabbis solved many contradictory passages of ,scripture1 some of which speak of ,god as invisible1 while others describe man as beholding ,him47#eid7 #b4 ,just as the references to ,god's appearing to man suggested luminous powers mediating the vision of ,god1 so the passages which represent ,god as speaking suggest powers mediating the voice4 ,hence arose the conception of the divine ,word1 invested with divine powers both physical and spiritual4 ,the first act of ,god in the ,bible is that ,he spoke1 and by this word the world came into being4 ,the ,word was thus conceived of as the first created being1 an intermediary power between the ,spirit of the world and the created world order4 ,the word of ,god1 important in the cosmic order1 is still more so in the moral and spiritual worlds4 ,the ,word is at times a synonym of divine revelation to the men of the early generations or to ,israel1 the bearer of the ,law4 ,hence the older ,haggadah places beside the ,shekinah the divine ,word 7,hebrew1 ,maamar2 ,aramaic1 ,memra2 ,greek1 ,logos7 as the intermediary force of revelation4 ,contact with the ,platonic and ,stoic philosophies led gradually to a new development which appears in ,philo4 ,the ,word or ,logos becomes 8the first-created ,son of ,god10 having a personality independent from ,god2 in fact he is a kind of vice regent of ,god himself4 ,from this it was but a short step toward considering him a partner and peer of the ,almighty1 as was done by the ,church with its doctrine that the ,word became flesh in ,christ1 the son of ,god47#eie7 ,in view of this the rabbinical schools gave up the idea of the personified ,word1 replacing it with the ,torah or the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the older term was retained only in liturgical formulas1 such as3 8,who created the heavens by ,his ,word10 or1 8,who by ,his ,word created the twilight and by ,wisdom openeth the gates of heaven407#eif7 #c4 ,as has been shown above17#eig7 ,wisdom is described in the ,bible as the first of all created beings1 the assistant and counselor of ,god in the work of creation4 ,then we see that ,ben ,sira identifies ,wisdom with the ,torah47#eih7 ,thus the ,torah1 too1 was raised to a cosmic power1 the sum and substance of all wisdom4 ,in fact1 the ,torah1 like the ,logos of ,plato1 was regarded as comprising the ideas or prototypes of all things as in a universal plan4 ,the ,torah is the divine pattern for the world4 ,in such a connection ,torah is far from meaning the ,law1 as ,weber asserts47#eii7 ,it means rather the heavenly book of instruction which contains all the wisdom of the ages1 and which ,god himself used as guide at the ,creation4 ,god is depicted as an architect with ,his plan drafted before ,he began the erection of the edifice1--a conception which avoids all danger of deifying the ,logos4 #d4 ,several other conceptions1 however1 do not belong at all to the intermediary powers1 where ,weber places them47#fjj7 ,this applies to ,metatron 7identical with the ,persian ,mithras717#fja7 whom the mystic lore calls the charioteer of the heavenly throne-chariot1 represented by the rabbis as the highest of the angels1 leader of the heavenly hosts1 and vice-regent of ,god4 ,that no cosmic power was ascribed to him is proved by the very fact of his identification with ,enoch1 whom the pre-,talmudic ,haggadah describes as taken up into heaven and changed into an angel of the highest rank1 standing near ,god's throne47#fjb7 #e4 ,the only real mediator between ,god and man is the ,spirit of ,god1 which is mentioned in connection with both the creation and divine revelation4 ,in the first chapter of ,genesis the ,spirit of ,god is described as hovering over the gloom of chaos like the mother bird over the egg1 ready to hatch out the nascent world47#fjc7 ,god breathed ,his spirit into the body of man1 to make him also god-like47#fjd7 ,the prophet likewise is inspired by the spirit of ,god to see visions and to hear the divine message47#fje7 ,thus the spirit of ,god has two aspects2 it is the cosmic principle which imbues primal matter with life2 it is a link between the soul of man and ,god on high4 ,the view of ,ezekiel was but one step from this1 to conceive the spirit as a personal being1 and place him beside ,god as an angel4 ,the prophets and psalmists1 feeling the spirit of ,god upon them1 considered it an emanation of the ,deity4 ,still1 a profounder insight soon disapproved the severance of the ,spirit of ,god from ,god himself1 as if ,he were not altogether spirit4 ,therefore the accepted term came to be the ,holy ,spirit47#fjf7 ,in this form1 however1 his personality became more distinct and his separate existence more defined4 ,henceforth he is the messenger of ,god1 performing miracles or causing them1 speaking in the place of ,god1 or defending ,his people ,israel4 ,nay1 more1 the ,holy ,spirit is supposed to have dictated the words of ,scripture to the sacred writers1 and to have inspired the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue in collecting the sacred writings into a canon47#fjg7 ,moreover1 the workings of the ,holy ,spirit continued long after the completion of the ,biblical canon4 ,all the chief institutions of the ,synagogue originally claimed that they were prompted by the ,holy ,spirit1 resting upon the leaders of the community4 ,this claim was basic to the authority of tradition and the continuity of the authority of ,jewish lore4 ,it seems1 however1 that certain abuses were caused by miracle-workers who disseminated false doctrines under the alleged inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,therefore the rabbis restricted such claims to ancient times and insisted more strongly than ever upon the preservation of the traditional lore4 ,for a time a substitute was found in the ,bath ,kol 78,echo0 or 8,whisper of a heavenly voice071 but this also was soon discredited by the schools47#fjh7 ,obviously the rabbis desired to avert the deification of either the ,holy ,spirit or the ,word4 ,sound common sense was their norm for interpreting the truth of the divine revelation4 ,in other words1 they relied on ,god alone as the living force in the development of ,judaism4 #f4 ,but some sort of mediation was ascribed to several other spiritual forces4 ,first1 the ,name of ,god often takes the place of ,god himself47#fji7 ,when the name of the ,deity was called over some hallowed spot1 the worshipers felt that the presence of ,god also was bound up with the sacred place47#faj7 8,my name is in him10 says ,god of the angel whom ,he sends to lead the people47#faa7 ,the invocation of the name was believed to have an actual influence upon the ,deity4 ,furthermore1 since ,god is frequently represented as swearing by ,his own name17#fab7 this ineffable name was invested with magic powers1 as if ,god himself dwelt therein47#fac7 ,thus it came to be used as a talisman by the popular saints47#fad7 ,indeed1 ,god is described as conjuring the depths of the abyss by ,his holy name1 lest they overflow their boundaries47#fae7 ,moreover1 the ,name1 like the ,word1 or ,logos1 was regarded as a creative power1 so that we are told that before the world was created there were only ,god and ,his holy ,name47#faf7 ,owing to the introduction of ,adonai 7the ,lord7 for ,,jhvh1 the pronunciation of the ,name fell into oblivion and the ,name itself became a mystery2 therefore its cosmic element also was lost and it dropped into the sphere of mystic and philosophical speculation4 #g4 ,another attribute of ,god which received some attention1 owing to the frequent mention of the omnipotence of ,god in the ,bible1 was ha ,geburah 7the ,power74 ,a familiar rabbinic expression is3 8,we have heard from the mouth of the ,power10 that is1 from the divine omnipotence47#fag7 ,two fundamental principles were early perceived in the moral order of the world3 the punitive justice and compassion of ,god4 ,these were taken as the meanings of the two most common ,biblical names of ,god1 ,,jhvh and ,elohim4 ,elohim1 being occasionally used in dispensing justice17#fah7 was thought to signify ,god in ,his capacity as ,judge of the whole earth1 and hence as the divine ,justice4 ,,jhvh1 on the other hand1 meant the divine mercy1 as it was used in the revelation of the long-suffering and merciful ,god to ,moses after the sin of ,israel before the golden calf47#fai7 ,thus both the rabbis and ,philo7#fbj7 often speak of these two attributes1 justice and mercy1 as though they constituted independent beings1 deliberating with ,god as to what ,he should do4 ,the ,midrash tells in a parable how before the creation of man1 ,justice1 ,mercy1 ,truth1 and ,peace were called in by ,god as ,his counselors to deliberate whether or no man should be created47#fba7 #h4 ,one ,haggadah concludes from the passage about ,creation in ,proverbs1 that there are three creative powers1 ,wisdom1 ,understanding1 and ,knowledge47#fbb7 ,another derives from ,scripture seven creative principles3 ,knowledge1 ,understanding1 ,might1 ,grace and ,mercy1 ,justice and ,rebuke27#fbc7 and seven attributes which do service before ,god's throne3 ,wisdom1 ,judgment and ,justice1 ,grace and ,mercy1 ,truth and ,peace47#fbd7 ,by combining these lists of three and seven this was finally enlarged to ten1 which became the basis for the entire mystic lore4 ,thus the ,babylonian master ,rab enumerates ten creative principles3 ,wisdom1 ,understanding1 and ,knowledge1 ,might and ,power1 ,rebuke1 ,justice and ,righteousness1 ,love and ,mercy47#fbe7 ,it is hard to say whether the ten attributes of the ,haggadah are at all connected with the ten ,sefiroth 7cosmic forces or circles7 of the ,cabbalah4 ,these last are hardly the creation of pure monotheism1 but rather emanations from the infinite1 conceived after the pattern of heathen ideas47#fbf7 #i4 ,the assumption of all these intermediaries aimed chiefly to spiritualize the conception of ,god and to elevate ,him above all child-like1 anthropomorphic views1 so that ,he becomes a free ,mind ruling the whole universe4 ,at the same time1 it became natural to ascribe material substance to these intermediaries4 ,as they filled the chasm between the supermundane ,deity and the world of the senses1 they had to share the nature of both matter and mind4 ,hence the ,shekinah and the ,holy ,spirit are described by both the rabbis and the medieval philosophers as a fine1 luminous1 or ethereal substance47#fbg7 ,the entire ancient and medieval systems were modeled after the idea of a ladder leading up1 step by step1 from the lowest to the highest sphere2 ,god1 the ,most ,high1 being at the same time above the highest rung of the ladder and yet also a part of the whole4 #aj4 ,our modern system of thought holds the relation of ,god to nature and man to be quite different from all this4 ,to our mind ,god is the only moral and spiritual power of life4 ,he is mirrored in the moral and spiritual as well as intellectual nature of man1 and therefore is near to the human conscience1 owing to the divine forces within man himself4 ,not the world without1 but the world within leads us to ,god and tells us what ,god is4 ,hence we need no intermediary beings1 and they all evaporate before our mental horizon like mist1 pictures of the imagination without objective reality4 ,ibn ,ezra says in the introduction to his commentary on the ,bible that the human reason is the true intermediating angel between ,god and man1 and we hold this to be true of both the intellect and the conscience4 ,for the theologian and the student of religion to-day the center of gravity of religion is to be sought in psychology and anthropology4 ,in all his upward striving1 his craving and yearning for the highest and the best1 in his loftiest aspirations and ideals1 man1 like ,isaiah the prophet1 can behold only the hem of ,god's garment2 he seeks ,god above him1 because he feels ,him within himself4 ,he must pass1 however1 through the various stages of growth1 until his self-knowledge leads to the knowledge of the ,god before whom he kneels in awe4 ,then finally he feels ,him as his ,father1 his ,educator in the school of life1 the ,master of the universal plan in which the individual also has a place in building up the divine kingdom of truth1 justice1 and holiness on earth4 ,for centuries he groped for ,god1 until he received a ,book to serve as 8a lamp to his feet and a light to his path10 to interpret to him his longing and his craving4 ,israel's ,book of ,books must ever be re-read and re-interpreted by ,israel1 the keeper of the book1 through ages yet to come4 ,well may we say3 the mediator between ,god and the world is man1 the son of ,god2 the mediator between ,god and humanity is ,israel1 the people of ,god4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,man ,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,man's ,place in ,creation #a4 ,the doctrine concerning man is inseparably connected with that about ,god4 ,heathenism formed its deities after the image of man2 they were merely human beings of a larger growth4 ,judaism1 on the contrary1 asserts that ,god is beyond comparison with mankind2 ,he is a purely spiritual being without form or image1 and therefore utterly unlike man4 ,on the other hand1 man has a divine nature1 as he was made in the image of ,god1 fashioned after ,his likeness4 ,the highest and deepest in man1 his mental1 moral1 and spiritual life1 is the reflection of the divine nature implanted within him1 a force capable of ever greater development toward perfection4 ,this unique distinction among all creatures gives man the highest place in all creation4 #b4 ,the superiority of the human race is expressed differently in various passages in ,scripture4 ,according to the first chapter of ,genesis the whole work of creation finds its culmination in man1 whose making is introduced by a solemn appeal of ,god to the hosts of heaven3 8,let us make man in our image1 after our likeness407#fbh7 ,this declaration proclaimed that man was the completion and the climax of the physical creation1 as well as the beginning of a new order of creation1 a world of moral aims and purposes1 of self-perfection and self-control4 ,in the world of man all life is placed at the service of a higher ideal1 after the divine pattern4 ,the second chapter of ,genesis depicts man's creation differently4 ,here he appears as the first of created beings1 leading a life of perfect innocence in the garden of divine bliss4 ,before him ,god brings all the newly created beings that he may give them a name and a purpose4 ,but the ,serpent enters ,paradise as tempter1 casting the seed of discord into the hearts of the man and the woman4 ,as they prove too feeble to resist temptation1 they can no longer remain in the heavenly garden in their former happy state4 ,only the memory of ,paradise remains1 a golden dream to cast hope over the life of struggle and labor into which they enter4 ,the idea of the legend is that man's proper place is not among beings of the earth1 but he can reach his lofty destiny only by arduous struggle with the world of the senses and a constant striving toward the divine4 ,the same idea is expressed more directly in the eighth ,psalm3 8,what is man1 that ,thou art mindful of him8 ,and the son of man1 that ,thou thinkest of him8 ,yet ,thou hast made him but little lower than the godly beings 7,elohim7 ,and hast crowned him with glory and honor4 ,thou madest him to have dominion over the works of ,thy hands2 ,thou hast put all things under his feet40 #c4 ,according to the ,haggadists17#fbi7 before the fall man excelled even the angels in appearance and wisdom1 so that they were ready to prostrate themselves before him4 ,only when ,god caused a deep sleep to fall upon man1 they recognized his frailty and kinship with other beings of the earth4 ,the idea expressed in this legend resembles the one implied in the legend of ,paradise1 viz4 man has a twofold nature4 ,with his heavenly spirit he can soar freely to the highest realm of thought1 above the station of the angels2 yet his earthly frame holds him ever near the dust4 ,it is this very contrast that constitutes his greatness1 for it makes him a citizen of two worlds1 one perishable1 the other eternal4 ,he is the highest result of ,creation1 the pride of the ,creator47#fcj7 ,thus he was appointed ,god's vice-regent on earth by the words spoken to the first man and woman3 8,be fruitful1 and multiply1 and replenish the earth1 and subdue it2 and have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over every living thing that creepeth upon the earth407#fca7 ,the rabbis add a striking comment upon the word ,r'du1 which is used here for 8have dominion0 but which may also mean1 8go down40 ,they say3 8,the choice is left in man's own hand4 ,if you maintain your heaven-born dignity1 you will have dominion over all things2 if not1 you will descend to the level of the brute creation407#fcb7 #d4 ,an ancient ,mishnah derives a significant lesson from the story of the creation of man7#fcc73 8,both the vegetable and animal worlds were created in multitudes4 ,man alone was created as a single individual in order that he may realize that he constitutes a world in himself1 and carries within him the true value of life4 ,hence each human being is entitled to say3 #8,the whole world was created for my sake4' ,he who saves a single human life is as one who saves a whole world1 and he who destroys a single human life is as one who destroys a whole world40 #e4 ,while it is man's spiritual side which is the image of ,god1 yet he derives all his powers and faculties from earthly life1 just as a tree draws its strength from the soil in which it is rooted4 ,judaism does not consider the soul the exclusive seat of the divine1 as opposed to the body4 ,in fact1 ,judaism admits no complete dualism of spirit and matter1 however striking some aspects of their contrast may be4 ,the whole human personality is divine1 just so far as it asserts its freedom and molds its motives toward a divine end4 ,in recognition of this fact ,hillel claimed reverence for the human body as well as mind1 comparing it to the homage rendered to the statue of a king1 for man is made in the image of ,god1 the ,king of all the world47#fcd7 ,thus the ,greek idea that man is a microcosm1 a world in miniature1 reflecting the cosmos on a smaller scale1 was expressed in the ,tannaitic schools as well47#fce7 ,the stamp of divinity is borne by man in his entire heaven-aspiring nature1 as he strives to elevate the very realm of the senses into the sphere of morality and holiness4 #f4 ,in this respect the ,jewish view parts from that of ,plato and the ,hindu philosophers4 ,these divide man into a pure celestial soul and an impure earthly body and hold that the physical life is tainted by sin1 while the spirit is divine only in so far as it frees itself from its prison house of flesh4 ,judaism1 on the other hand1 emphasizes the unified character of man1 by which he can bend all his faculties and functions to a godlike mastery over the material world4 ,this appears first in his upright posture and heavenward glance1 which proclaim him master over the whole animal world cowering before him in lowly dread4 ,his whole bodily structure corresponds to this1 with its constant growth1 its wondrous symmetry1 and the unique flexibility of the hands1 with which he can perform ever new and greater achievements4 ,above all1 we see the nobility of man in his high forehead and receding jaw1 which contrast so strikingly with the structure of most animals and even with many of the lower races4 ,indeed1 primitive man could scarcely imagine a nobler pattern by which to model his deity than the figure of a man4 #g4 ,in fact1 the ,biblical verse1 8,god created man after the image of the divine beings0 7elohim71 was originally taken literally1 in the sense that angels posed as models for the creation of man47#fcf7 ,the phrase was referred to the spiritual1 god-like nature of man only when the difference between material and spiritual things became better understood1 and man obtained a clearer knowledge of himself4 ,man grew to feel that his craving for the perfect1 whether in the field of truth and right1 or of beauty1 is the force which lifts him1 in spite of all his limitations1 into the realm of the divine4 ,his soaring imagination and ceaseless longing for perfection disclose before his eyes a partial vista of the infinite4 ,the human spirit carries mortal man above the confines of time and space into those boundless realms where ,god resides in lonely majesty47#fcg7 ,man did not emanate perfect from the hand of the ,creator1 but ready for an ever greater perfection4 ,being the last of all created beings1 as the ,midrash says1 he can be put to shame by the smallest insect1 which is prior to him4 ,yet before the beginning of creation a light shone upon his spirit that has illumined his achievements through untold generations47#fch7 #h4 ,the resemblance of man to ,god is attributed also to his free will and self-consciousness1 by which he claims moral dignity and mastery over all things47#fci7 ,still1 all these superior qualities which we call human are not ready-made endowments1 free gifts bestowed by ,god2 they are simply potentialities which may be gradually developed4 ,man must strive to attain the place destined for him in the scheme of creation by the exertion of his own will and the unfolding of the powers that lie within him4 ,the impulse toward self-perfection1 which is constantly stimulated by the desire to overcome obstacles and to extend one's power1 knowledge1 and possessions1 forms the kernel of the divine in man4 ,this is the 8spirit in man1 and the breath of the ,almighty1 that giveth them understanding407#fdj7 ,thus the teaching of modern science1 of the gradual ascent of man through all the stages of animal life1 does not impair the lofty position in creation which ,judaism has assigned him4 ,plant and animal are what they have always been1 children of the earth2 man with his heaven-aspiring soul is the image of his ,creator1 a child of ,god4 ,giver of name and purpose to all things about him1 he ranks above the angels2 he 8marches on while all the rest stand still407#fda7 ,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,the ,dual ,nature of ,man #a4 ,according to ,jewish doctrines1 man is formed by a union of two natures3 the flesh1 which he shares with all the animals1 and the spirit1 which renders him a child of ,god4 ,the former is rooted in the earth and is earthward bent2 the latter is a 8breath from ,god0 and strives to unfold the divine in man until he attains the divine image4 ,this discord brings a tremendous internal conflict1 leading from one historic stage to another1 achieving ever higher things1 intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual1 until at last the whole earth is to be a divine kingdom1 the dwelling-place of truth1 goodness1 and holiness4 #b4 ,according to the ,biblical view man consists of flesh 7basar7 and spirit 7ruah74 ,the term flesh is used impartially of all animals1 hence the ,biblical term 8all flesh07#fdb7 includes both man and beast4 ,the body becomes a living being by being penetrated with the 8breath of life0 7ruah hayim71 at whose departure the living body turns at once into a lifeless clod4 ,this breath of life is possessed by the animal as well as by man1 as both of them breathe the air4 ,hence in ancient tongues 8breath0 and 8soul0 are used as synonyms1 as the ,hebrew nefesh and neshamah1 the ,latin anima and spiritus1 the ,greek pneuma and psyche4 ,a different primitive belief connected the soul with the blood1 noting that man or beast dies when the hot life-blood flows out of the body1 so that we read in the ,bible1 8the blood is the soul407#fdc7 ,in this the soul is identified with the life1 while the word ruah1 denoting the moving force of the air1 is used more in the sense of spirit or soul as distinct from the body4 ,thus both man and beast possess a soul1 nefesh4 ,the soul of man is merely distinguished by its richer endowment1 its manifold faculties by which it is enabled to move forward to higher things4 ,thus the animal soul is bound for all time to its destined place1 while the divine spirit in man makes him a free creative personality1 self-conscious and god-like4 ,for this reason the creation of man forms a special act in the account in ,genesis4 ,both the plant and animal worlds rose at ,god's bidding from the soil of mother earth1 and the soul of the animal is limited in origin and goal by the earthly sphere4 ,the creation of man inaugurates a new world4 ,god is described as forming the body of man from the dust of the earth and then breathing ,his spirit into the lifeless frame1 endowing it with both life and personality4 ,the whole man1 both body and soul1 has thus the potentiality of a higher and nobler life4 #c4 ,accordingly ,scripture does not have a thorough-going dualism1 of a carnal nature which is sinful and a spiritual nature which is pure4 ,we are not told that man is composed of an impure earthly body and a pure heavenly soul1 but instead that the whole of man is permeated by the spirit of ,god4 ,both body and soul are endowed with the power of continuous self-improvement4 ,in order to see the great superiority of the ,jewish view over the heathen one1 we need only study the old ,babylonian legend preserved by ,berosus4 ,in this the deity made man by mixing earth with some of its own life-blood1 thus endowing the human soul with higher powers4 ,in the ,bible the difference between man and beast does not lie in the blood1 although the blood is still thought to be the life4 ,the distinction of man is in the spirit1 ruah1 which emanates from ,god and penetrates both body and soul1 lifting the whole man into a higher realm and making him a free moral personality4 ,still the ,bible makes no clear distinction between the three terms1 nefesh1 neshamah1 and ruah47#fdd7 ,philo first distinguished between three different substances of the soul1 but his theory was the ,platonic one1 for which he simply used the three ,biblical names47#fde7 ,the ,jewish philosophers of the ,middle ,ages1 beginning with ,saadia1 took the same attitude1 even though they realized more or less that the division of the soul into three substances has no ,scriptural warrant47#fdf7 ,in rabbinical literature this division is scarcely known1 and there is little mention of either the animal soul1 nefesh1 or the vital spark1 ruah4 ,instead the word neshamah is used for the human psyche as the higher spiritual substance1 and the contrast to it is not the ,biblical basar1 flesh1 but the ,aramaic guph1 body47#fdg7 ,this bears a trace of ,persian dualism1 with its strong contrast between the earthly body and the heavenly soul4 #d4 ,in fact1 rabbinical ,judaism does not recognize any relationship between the soul of the animal and that of man1 but claims that man has a special type of existence4 ,the ,midrash tells7#fdh7 that ,god formed ,adam's body so as to reach from earth to heaven1 and then caused the soul to enter it4 ,in the same way ,god implants the soul into the embryo before its birth and while in the womb4 ,before this the soul had a bird-like existence in an immense celestial cage 7guph columbarium71 and when it leaves the body in death1 it again takes its flight toward heaven4 ,there its conduct on earth will reap a reward in the garden of eternal bliss or a punishment in the infernal regions4 ,the belief in the prexistence of the soul was shared by the rabbis with the apocryphal authors and ,philo47#fdi7 ,however1 rabbinical ,judaism never followed ,philo so far in the footsteps of ,plato as to consider the body or the flesh the source of impurity and sin1 or 8the prison house of the soul40 ,this view is fundamental in the ,paulinian system of other-worldliness4 ,for the rabbis the sensuous desire of the body 7yezer7 is a tendency toward sin1 but never a compulsion4 ,the weakness of the flesh may cause a straying from the right path1 but man can turn the desires of the flesh into the service of the good4 ,he can always assert his divine power of freedom by opposing the evil inclination 7yezer ha ra7 with the good inclination 7yezer ha tob7 to overcome it47#fej7 ,in fact1 the rabbis are so far from acknowledging the existence of a compulsion of evil in the flesh1 that they point to the history of great men as proof that the highest characters have the mightiest passions in their souls1 and that their greatness consists in the will by which they have learned to control themselves47#fea7 #e4 ,in the light of modern science the whole theory separating body and soul falls to the ground1 and the one connecting man more closely with the animal world is revived4 ,in this connection we think of the idea which medieval thinkers adopted from ,plato and ,aristotle1 that there is a substance of souls--nefesh hahiyonith--which forms the basic life-force of men and animals4 ,physiology and psychology reveal the interaction and dependence of body and soul in the lowest forms of animal life as well as in the higher forms1 including man4 ,the beginnings of the human mind must be sought once for all in the animal1 just as the origin of the animal reaches back into the plant world4 ,indeed1 ,aristotle anticipates the discoveries of modern science1 placing the vegetative and animal souls beside the spirit of man4 ,thus motion and sensibility form the lower boundary-line of the animal kingdom1 and self-consciousness and self-determination are the criteria of humanity4 ,yet this very self-conscious freedom which forms man's personality1 his ego1 lifts him into a realm of free action under higher motives1 transcending nature's law of necessity1 and therefore not falling within the domain of natural science4 ,dust-born man1 notwithstanding his earthly limitations1 in spite of his kinship to mollusk and mammal1 enters the realm of the divine spirit4 ,in the ,midrash the rabbis remark that man shares the nature of both animals and angels47#feb7 ,admitting this1 we feel that he is tied neither to heaven nor to the earth1 but free to lift himself above all creatures or sink below them all4 #f4 ,endowed with this dual nature1 man stands in the very center of the universe1 and ,god esteems him 8equal in value to the entire creation10 as ,rabbi ,nehemiah says of a single human soul47#fec7 ,rabbi ,akiba stresses the image of ,god in humanity when he says3 8,beloved is man1 for he is created in ,god's image1 and it was a special token of love that he became conscious of it4 ,beloved is ,israel1 for they are called the children of ,god1 and it was a special token of love that they became conscious of it407#fed7 ,the ,midrash compares man to ,god in exquisite manner3 8,just as ,god permeates the world and carries it1 unseen yet seeing all1 enthroned within as the ,only ,one1 the ,perfect1 and the ,pure1 yet never to be reached or found out2 so the soul penetrates and carries the body1 as the one pure and luminous being which sees and holds all things1 while itself unseen and unreached407#fee7 ,the conception of the soul is here divested of every sensory attribute1 and portrayed as a divine force within the body4 ,this conception1 which was accepted by the medieval philosophers1 is thoroughly consistent with our view of the world4 ,the soul it is which mirrors both the material and spiritual worlds and holds them in mutual relation through its own power4 ,it is at the same time swayed upward and downward by its various cravings1 heavenly and earthly1 and this very tension constitutes the dual nature of the human soul4 ,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,the ,origin and ,destiny of ,man #a4 ,of all created beings man alone possesses the power of self-determination2 he assigns his destiny to himself4 ,while he endeavors to find the object of all other things and even of his own existence in the world1 he finds his own purpose within himself4 ,star and stone1 plant and beast fulfill their purpose in the whole plan of creation by their existence and varied natures1 and are accordingly called 8good0 as they are4 ,man1 however1 realizes that he must accomplish his purpose by his manner of life and the voluntary exertion of his own powers4 ,he is 8good0 only as far as he fulfills his destiny on earth4 ,he is not good by mere existence1 but by his conduct4 ,not what he is1 but what he ought to be gives value to his being4 ,he is good or bad according to the direction of his will and acts by the imperative3 8,i ought0 or 8,i ought not10 which comes to him in his conscience1 the voice of ,god calling to his soul4 #b4 ,the problem of human destiny is answered by ,judaism with the idea that ,god is the ideal and pattern of all morality4 ,the answer given1 then1 is 8,to walk in the ways of ,god1 to be righteous and just10 as ,he is47#fef7 ,the prophet ,micah expressed it in the familiar words3 8,it has been told thee1 ,o man1 what is good1 and what the ,lord doth require of thee3 ,only to do justly1 and to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with thy ,god407#feg7 ,accordingly the ,bible considers men of the older generations the prototypes of moral conduct1 8righteous men who walked with ,god40 ,such men were ,enoch1 ,noah1 and above all ,abraham1 to whom ,god said3 8,i am ,god ,almighty2 walk before ,me1 and be thou whole-hearted4 ,and ,i will make ,my covenant between thee and ,me407#feh7 ,the rabbis singled out ,abraham as the type of a perfect man on account of his love of righteousness and peace2 contrasting him with ,adam who sinned1 they beheld him as 8the great man among the heroes of the ancient times40 ,they even considered him the type of true humanity1 in whom the object of creation was attained47#fei7 #c4 ,this moral consciousness1 however1 which tells man to walk in the ways of ,god and be perfect1 is also the source of shame and remorse4 ,with such an ideal man must feel constantly that he falls short1 that he is not what he ought to be4 ,only the little child1 who knows nothing as yet of good and evil1 can preserve the joy of life unmarred4 ,similarly1 primitive man1 being ignorant of guilt1 could pass his days without care or fear4 ,but as soon as he becomes conscious of guilt1 discord enters his soul1 and he feels as if he had been driven from the presence of ,god4 ,this feeling is allegorized in the ,paradise legend4 ,the garden of bliss1 half earthly1 half heavenly1 which is elsewhere called the 8mountain of ,god107#ffj7 a place of wondrous trees1 beasts1 and precious stones1 whence the four great rivers flow1 is the abode of divine beings4 ,the first man and woman could dwell in it only so long as they lived in harmony with ,god and ,his commandments4 ,as soon as the tempter in the shape of the serpent called forth a discord between the divine will and human desire1 man could no longer enjoy celestial bliss1 but must begin the dreary earthly life1 with its burdens and trials4 #d4 ,this story of the fall of the first man is an allegorical description of the state of childlike innocence which man must leave behind in order to attain true strength of character4 ,it is based upon a view common to all antiquity of a descent of the race2 that is3 first came the golden age1 when man led a life of ease and pleasure in company with the gods2 then an age of silver1 another of brass1 and finally the iron age1 with its toil and bitter woe4 ,thus did evil deeds and wild passions increase among men4 ,this view fails utterly to recognize the value of labor as a civilizing force making for progress1 and it contradicts the modern historical view4 ,the prophets of ,israel placed the golden age at the end1 not the beginning of history1 so that the purpose of mankind was to establish a heavenly kingdom upon the earth4 ,in fact1 the fall of man is not referred to anywhere in ,scripture and never became a doctrine1 or belief1 of ,judaism4 ,on the contrary1 the ,hellenistic expounders of the ,bible take it for granted that the story is an allegory1 and the book of ,proverbs understands the tree of life symbolically1 in the verse3 8,she 7the ,torah7 is a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her407#ffa7 #e4 ,still the rabbis in ,talmud and ,midrash accepted the legend in good faith as historical7#ffb7 and took it literally as did the great ,english poet3 8,the fruit ,of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste ,brought death into the world1 and all our woe1 ,with loss of ,eden40 ,in fact1 they even followed the ,persian dualism with its evil principle1 the primeval serpent1 or the ,babylonian legend of the sea-monster ,tiamat1 and regarded the serpent in ,paradise as a demon4 ,he was identified with ,satan1 the arch-fiend1 and later with evil in general1 the yezer ha ra47#ffc7 ,thus the belief arose that the poisonous breath of the serpent infected all generations1 causing death even of the sinless47#ffd7 ,the apocrypha also held that the envy of ,satan brought death into the world47#ffe7 ,this prepared for the dismal church doctrine of original sin1 the basis of ,paul's teachings1 which demanded a blood atonement for curse-laden humanity1 and found it after the pagan pattern in the vicarious sacrifice of a dying god47#fff7 ,against such perversion of the simple ,paradise story the sound common sense of the ,jewish people rebelled4 ,while the early ,talmudists occasionally mention the poisoning of the human race by the serpent1 they find an antidote for the ,jewish people in the covenant with ,abraham or that of ,sinai47#ffg7 ,one cannot1 however1 discern the least indication of belief in original sin1 either as inherent in the human race or inherited by them4 ,nor does the liturgy express any such idea1 especially for the ,day of ,penitence1 when it would certainly be mentioned if the conception found any place in ,jewish doctrine4 ,on the contrary1 the prevailing thought of ,judaism is that of ,deuteronomy and ,ezekiel17#ffh7 that 8,each man dies by his own sin10 that every soul must bear only the consequences of his own deeds4 ,the rabbis even state that no man dies unless he has brought it upon himself by his own sin1 and mention especially certain exceptions to this rule1 such as the four saintly men who died without sin17#ffi7 or certain children whose death was due to the sin of their parents47#fgj7 ,they could never admit that the whole human race was so corrupted by the sin of the first man that it is still in a state of sinfulness4 #f4 ,of course1 the rabbinical schools took literally the ,biblical story of the fall of man and laid the chief blame upon woman1 who fell a prey to the wiles of the serpent4 ,this is done even by ,ben ,sira1 who says3 8,with woman came the beginning of sin1 and through her we all must die407#fga7 ,so the ,talmud says that due to woman1 man1 the crown1 light1 and life of creation1 lost his purity1 his luster1 and his immortality47#fgb7 ,the ,biblical verse1 8,they did eat1 and the eyes of them both were opened10 is interpreted by ,rabbi ,johanan ben ,zakkai and ,rabbi ,akiba as 8,they saw the dire consequences of their sin upon all coming generations407#fgc7 ,the fall of man is treated most elaborately in the same spirit in the two apocalyptic books written after the destruction of the ,second ,temple1 the ,apocalypse of ,baruch and the ,,iv ,book of ,esdras47#fgd7 ,the incompatibility of divine love with the sufferings of man and of the ,jewish people on account of the sin of the first man is solved by an appeal to the final ,day of ,judgment1 and the striking remark is added that1 after all1 8each is his own ,adam and is held responsible for his own sin40 ,we cannot deny that these two books contain much that is near the ,paulinian view of original sin4 ,it seems1 however1 that the ,jewish teachers were put on their guard by the emphasis of this pessimistic dogma by the nascent ,church1 and did their best to give a different aspect to the story of the first sin4 ,thus they say3 8,if ,adam had but shown repentance1 and done penance after he committed his sin1 he would have been spared the death penalty407#fge7 ,moreover1 they actually represent ,adam and ,eve as patterns of repentant sinners1 who underwent severe penance and thus obtained the promise of divine mercy and also of final resurrection47#fgf7 ,instead of transmitting the heritage of sin to coming generations1 the first man is for them an example of repentance4 ,so do the ,haggadists tell us quite characteristically that ,god merely wanted to test the first man by an insignificant command1 so that the first representative of the human race should show whether he was worthy to enter eternal life in his mortal garb1 as did ,enoch and ,elijah4 ,as he could not stand the test1 he forfeited the marks of divine rank1 his celestial radiance1 his gigantic size1 and his power to overcome death47#fgg7 ,obviously the ,biblical story was embellished with material from the ,persian legend of the fall of ,yima or ,djemshid1 the first man1 from superhuman greatness because of his sin17#fgh7 but it was always related frankly as a legend1 and could never influence the ,jewish conception of the fall of man4 #g4 ,judaism rejects completely the belief in hereditary sin and the corruption of the flesh4 ,the ,biblical verse1 8,god made man upright2 but they have sought out many inventions107#fgi7 is explained in the ,midrash3 8,upright and just as is ,god1 ,he made man after ,his likeness in order that he might strive after righteousness1 and unfold ever more his god-like nature1 but men in their dissensions have marred the divine image407#fhj7 ,with reference to another verse in ,ecclesiastes37#fha7 8,the dust returneth unto the earth as it was1 and the spirit returneth unto ,god who gave it10 the rabbis teach 8,pure as the soul is when entering upon its earthly career1 so can man return it to his ,maker407#fhb7 ,therefore the pious ,jew begins his daily prayers with the words3 8,my ,god1 the soul which ,thou hast given me is pure407#fhc7 ,the life-long battle with sin begins only at the age when sensual desire1 8the evil inclination10 awakens in youth2 then the state of primitive innocence makes way for the sterner contest for manly virtue and strength of character4 #h4 ,in fact1 the whole ,paradise story could never be made the basis for a dogma4 ,the historicity of the serpent is denied by ,saadia27#fhd7 the rabbis transfer ,paradise with the tree of life to heaven as a reward for the future27#fhe7 and both ,nahmanides the mystic and ,maimonides the philosopher give it an allegorical meaning47#fhf7 ,on the other hand1 the ,haggadic teachers perceived the simple truth that a life of indolence in ,paradise would incapacitate man for his cultural task1 and that the toils and struggles inflicted on man as a curse are in reality a blessing4 ,therefore they laid special stress on the ,biblical statement3 8,he put man into the garden of ,eden to dress it and to keep it407#fhg7 ,the following parable is especially suggestive3 8,when ,adam heard the stern sentence passed3 #8,thou shalt eat the herb of the field1' he burst into tears1 and said3 #8,am ,i and my ass to eat out of the same manger8' ,then came another sentence from ,god to reassure him1 #8,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread1' and forthwith he became aware that man shall attain a higher dignity by dint of labor407#fhh7 ,indeed1 labor transforms the wilderness into a garden and the earth into a habitation worthy of the son of ,god4 ,the 8book of the generations of man0 which begins with ,adam is accordingly not the history of man's descent1 but of his continuous ascent1 of ever higher achievements and aspirations2 it is not a record of the fall of man1 but of his rise from age to age4 ,according to the ,midrash7#fhi7 ,god opened before ,adam the book with the deeds and names of the leading spirits of all the coming generations1 showing him the latent powers of the human intellect and soul4 ,the phrase1 8the fall of man10 can mean1 in fact1 only the inner experience of the individual1 who does fall from his original idea of purity and divine nobility into transgression and sin4 ,it cannot refer to mankind as a whole1 for the human race has never experienced a fall1 nor is it affected by original or hereditary sin4 ,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,god's ,spirit in ,man #a4 ,man is placed in an animal world of dull feelings1 of blind and crude cravings4 ,yet his clear understanding1 his self-conscious will and his aspirations forward and upward lead him into a higher world where he obtains insight into the order and unity of all things4 ,by the spirit of ,god he is able to understand material things and grasp them in their relations2 thus he can apply all his knowledge and creative imagination to construct a world of ideals4 ,but this world1 in all its truth1 beauty and goodness1 is still limited and finite1 a feeble shadow of the infinite world of ,god4 ,as the ,bible says3 8,the spirit of man is the lamp of the ,lord1 searching all the inward parts407#fij7 8,it is a spirit in man1 and the breath of the ,almighty1 that giveth them understanding407#fia7 #b4 ,according to the ,biblical conception1 the spirit of ,god endows men with all their differing capacities2 it gives to one man wisdom by which he penetrates into the causes of existence and orders facts into a scientific system2 to another the seeing eye by which he captures the secret of beauty and creates works of art2 and to a third the genius to perceive the ways of ,god1 the laws of virtue1 that he may become a teacher of ethical truth4 ,in other words1 the spirit of ,god is 8the spirit of wisdom and understanding1 the spirit of counsel and might1 the spirit of knowledge and the fear of the ,lord407#fib7 ,it works upon the scientific interest of the investigator1 the imagination of the artist and poet1 the ethical and social sense of the prophet1 teacher1 statesman1 and lawgiver4 ,thus their high and holy vision of the divine is brought home to the people and implanted within them under the inspiration of ,god4 ,in commenting upon the ,biblical verse1 8,wisdom and might are ,his 444 ,he giveth wisdom to the wise1 and knowledge to them that know understanding107#fic7 the sages wisely remark1 8,god carefully selects those who possess wisdom for ,his gift of wisdom40 ,even as a musical instrument must be attuned for the finer notes that it may have a clear1 resonant tone1 so the human soul must be made especially susceptible to the gifts of the spirit in order to be capable of unfolding them4 ,thus the ,talmud records an interesting dialogue on this very passage between a ,roman matron familiar with the ,scripture1 and ,rabbi ,jose ben ,halafta4 ,she asked sarcastically1 8,would it not have been more generous of your ,god to have given wisdom to those that are unwise than to those that already possess it80 ,thereupon the ,jewish master replied1 8,if you were to lend a precious ornament1 would you not lend it to one who was able to make use of it8 ,so ,god gives the treasure of wisdom to the wise1 who know how to appreciate and develop it1 not to the unwise1 who do not know its value407#fid7 #c4 ,thus the diverse gifts of the divine spirit are distributed differently among the various classes and tribes of men1 according to their capacity and the corresponding task which is assigned them by ,providence4 ,the divine spark is set aglow in each human soul1 sometimes feebly1 sometimes brightly1 but it blazes high only in the privileged personality or group4 ,the mutual relationship between ,god and man is recognized by the ,synagogue in the ,eighteen ,benedictions1 where the one directly following the three praises of ,god is devoted to wisdom and knowledge3 8,thou favorest man with knowledge1 and teachest mortals understanding4 ,so favor us with knowledge1 understanding1 and discernment from ,thee4 ,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 gracious ,giver of knowledge407#fie7 ,this petition1 remarks ,jehuda ha ,levi17#fif7 deserves its position as first among these prayers1 because wisdom brings us nearer to ,god4 ,it is also noteworthy that the ,synagogue prescribes a special benediction at the sight of a renowned sage1 even if he is not a ,jew1 reading1 8,praised be ,he who has imparted of ,his wisdom to flesh and blood407#fig7 #d4 ,maimonides holds that in the same degree as a man studies the works of ,god in nature1 he will be filled with longing for direct knowledge of ,god and true love of ,him47#fih7 8,not only religion1 but also the sciences emanate from ,god1 both being the outcome of the wisdom which ,god imparts to all nations10--thus wrote a sixteenth-century rabbi1 ,loewe ben ,bezalel of ,prague1 known usually as 8the eminent ,rabbi ,loewe407#fii7 ,the men of the ,talmud also accord the palm in certain types of knowledge to heathen sages1 and did not hesitate to ascribe to some heathens the highest knowledge of ,god in their time47#gjj7 ,as a mystic of the thirteenth century1 ,isaac ben ,latif1 says3 8,that faith is the most perfect which perceives truth most fully1 since ,god is the source of all truth407#gja7 ,of the two heads of the ,babylonian academies1 ,rab and ,samuel1 one asserted that ,moses through his prophetic genius reached forty-nine of the fifty degrees of the divine understanding 7as the fiftieth is reserved for ,god alone71 while the other claimed the same distinction for ,king ,solomon as the result of his wisdom47#gjb7 #e4 ,thus the spirit of ,god creates in man both consciously and unconsciously a world of ideas1 which proves him a being of a higher order in creation4 ,this impulse may work actively1 searching1 investigating1 and creating1 or passively as an instrument of a higher power4 ,at first it is a dim1 uncertain groping of the spirit2 then the mind acquires greater lucidity by which it illumines the dark world2 and1 as one question calls for the other and one thought suggests another1 the world of ideas opens up as a well-connected whole4 ,thus man creates by slow steps his languages1 the arts and sciences1 ethics1 law and all the religions with their varying practices and doctrines4 ,at times this spirit bursts forth with greater vehemence in great men1 geniuses who lift the race with one stroke to a higher level4 ,such men may say1 in the words of ,david1 the holy singer3 8,the spirit of the ,lord spoke by me1 and ,his word was upon my tongue407#gjc7 ,they may repeat the experience of ,eliphaz the friend of ,job3 8,now a word was secretly brought to me1 ,and mine ear received a whisper thereof4 ,in thoughts from the visions of the night1 ,when deep sleep falleth on men1 ,fear came upon me1 and trembling1 ,and all my bones were made to shake4 ,then a spirit passed before my face1 ,that made the hair of my flesh to stand up4 ,it stood still1 but ,i could not discern the appearance thereof2 ,a form was before mine eyes2 ,i heard a still voice407#gjd7 ,in such manner men of former ages received a religious revelation1 a divine message4 #f4 ,the divine spirit always selects as its instruments individuals with special endowments4 ,still1 insight into history shows that these men must needs have grown from the very heart of their own people and their own age1 in order that they might hold a lofty position among them and command attention for their message4 ,however far the people or the age may be from the man chosen by ,god1 the multitude must feel at least that the divine spirit speaks through him1 or works within him4 ,or1 if not his own time1 then a later generation must respond to his message1 lest it be lost entirely to the world4 ,the rabbis1 who knew nothing of laws of development for the human mind1 assumed that the first man1 made by ,god ,himself1 must have known every branch of knowledge and skill1 that the spirit of ,god must have been most vigorous in him47#gje7 ,they therefore believed in a primeval revelation1 coeval with the first man4 ,our age1 with its tremendous emphasis on the historical view1 sees the divine spirit manifested most clearly in the very development and growth of all life1 social1 intellectual1 moral and spiritual1 proceeding steadily toward the highest of all goals4 ,with this emphasis1 however1 on process1 we must lay stress equally on the origin1 on the divine impulse or initiative in this historical development1 the spirit which gives direction and value to the whole4 ,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,free ,will and ,moral ,responsibility #a4 ,judaism has ever emphasized the freedom of the will as one of its chief doctrines4 ,the dignity and greatness of man depends largely upon his freedom1 his power of self-determination4 ,he differs from the lower animals in his independence of instinct as the dictator of his actions4 ,he acts from free choice and conscious design1 and is able to change his mind at any moment1 at any new evidence or even through whim4 ,he is therefore responsible for his every act or omission1 even for his every intention4 ,this alone renders him a moral being1 a child of ,god2 thus the moral sense rests upon freedom of the will47#gjf7 #b4 ,the idea of moral freedom is expressed as early as the first pages of the ,bible1 in the words which ,god spoke to ,cain while he was planning the murder of his brother ,abel3 8,whether or not1 thou offerest an acceptable gift10 7,new ,bible translation3 8,if thou doest well1 shall it not be lifted up8 and if thou doest not well107 8sin coucheth at the door2 and unto thee is its desire1 but thou mayest rule over it407#gjg7 ,here1 without any reference to the sin of ,adam in the first generation1 the man of the second generation is told that he is free to choose between good and evil1 that he alone is responsible before ,god for what he does or omits to do4 ,this certainly indicates that the moral freedom of man is not impaired by hereditary sin1 or by any evil power outside of man himself4 ,this principle is established in the words of ,moses spoken in the name of ,god3 8,i have set before thee life and death1 the blessing and the curse2 therefore choose life1 that thou mayest live1 thou and thy seed407#gjh7 ,in like manner ,jeremiah proclaims in ,god's name3 8,behold ,i set before you the way of life and the way of death407#gji7 #c4 ,from these passages and many similar ones the sages derived their oft-repeated idea that man stands ever at the parting of the ways1 to choose either the good or the evil path47#gaj7 ,thus the words spoken by ,god to the angels when ,adam and ,eve were to be expelled from ,paradise3 8,behold1 the man is become as one of us1 to know good and evil10 are interpreted by ,r4 ,akiba3 8,he was given the choice to go the way of life or the way of death1 but he chose the way of death by eating of the forbidden fruit407#gaa7 ,r4 ,akiba emphasizes the principle of the freedom of the will again in the terse saying3 8,all things are foreseen 7by ,god71 but free will is granted 7to man7407#gab7 #d4 ,at the first encounter of ,judaism with those philosophical schools of ,hellas which denied the freedom of the human will1 the ,jewish teachers insisted strongly on this principle4 ,the first reference is found in ,ben ,sira1 who refutes the arguments of the ,determinists that ,god could make man sin1 and then goes on3 8,god created man at the beginning1 endowing him with the power of self-determination1 saying to him3 ,if thou but willest1 thou canst observe ,my commandments2 to practice faithfulness is a matter of free will4444 ,as when fire and water are put before thee1 so that thou mayest reach forth thy hand to that which thou desirest1 so are life and death placed before man1 and whatever he chooses of his own desire will be given to him407#gac7 ,the ,book of ,enoch voices this truth also in the forceful sentences3 8,sin has not been sent upon the earth 7from above71 but men have produced it out of themselves2 therefore they who commit sin are condemned407#gad7 ,we read similar sentiments in the ,psalms of ,solomon1 a ,pharisean work of the first pre-,christian century37#gae7 8,our actions are the outcome of the free choice and power of our own soul2 to practice justice or injustice lies in the work of our own hands40 ,the ,apocalypse of ,ezra is especially instructive in the great stress which it lays on freedom1 in connection with its chief theme1 the sinfulness of the children of ,adam4 8,this is the condition of the contest which man who is born on earth must wage1 that1 if he be conquered by the evil inclination1 he must suffer that of which thou hast spoken 7the tortures of hell71 but if he be victorious1 he shall receive 7the reward7 which ,i 7the angel7 have mentioned4 ,for this is the way whereof ,moses spoke when he lived1 saying unto the people1 #8,choose life1 that thou mayest live6'444 ,for all who knew ,me not in life when they received ,my benefits1 who despised ,my law when they yet had freedom1 and did not heed the door of repentance while it was still open before them1 but disregarded it1 after death they shall come to know it607#gaf7 #e4 ,hellenistic ,judaism also1 particularly ,philo17#gag7 considered the truly divine in man to be his free will1 which distinguishes him from the beast4 ,yet ,hellenistic naturalism could not grasp the fact that man's power to do evil in opposition to ,god1 the ,source of the good1 is the greatest reminder of his moral responsibility4 ,josephus likewise mentions frequently as a characteristic teaching of the ,pharisees that man's free will determines his acts without any compulsion of destiny47#gah7 ,only we must not accept too easily the words of this ,jewish historian1 who wrote for his ,roman masters and1 therefore1 represented the ,jewish parties as so many philosophical schools after the ,greek pattern4 ,the ,pharisean doctrine is presented most tersely in the ,talmudic maxim3 8,everything is in the hands of ,god except the fear of ,god407#gai7 ,like the quotation from ,r4 ,akiba above1 this contains the great truth that man's destiny is determined by ,providence1 but his character depends upon his own free decision4 ,this idea recurs frequently in such ,talmudic sayings as these3 8,the wicked are in the power of their desires2 the righteous have their desires in their own power207#gbj7 8,the eye1 the ear1 and the nostrils are not in man's power1 but the mouth1 the hand1 and the feet are407#gba7 ,that is1 the impressions we receive from the world without us come involuntarily1 but our acts1 our steps1 and our words arise from our own volition4 #f4 ,a deeper insight into the problem of free will is offered in two other ,talmudic sayings2 the one is3 8,whosoever desires to pollute himself with sin will find all the gates open before him1 and whosoever desires to attain the highest purity will find all the forces of goodness ready to help him407#gbb7 ,the other reads3 8,it can be proved by the ,torah1 the ,prophets1 and the other sacred writings that man is led along the road which he wishes to follow407#gbc7 ,as a matter of fact1 no person is absolutely free1 for innumerable influences affect his decisions1 consciously and unconsciously4 ,for this reason many thinkers1 both ancient and modern1 consider freedom a delusion and hold to determinism1 the doctrine that man acts always under the compulsion of external and internal forces4 ,in opposition to this theory is one incontestable fact1 our own inner sense of freedom which tells us at every step that we have acted1 and at every decision that we have decided4 ,man can maintain his own power of self-determination against all influences from without and within2 his will is the final arbiter over every impulse and every pressure4 ,moreover1 as we penetrate more deeply into the working of the mind1 we see that a long series of our own voluntary acts has occasioned much that we consider external1 that the very pressure of the past on our thoughts1 feelings and habits1 which leaves so little weight for the decision of the moment1 is really only our past will influencing our present will4 ,that is1 the will may determine itself1 but it does not do so arbitrarily2 its action is along the lines of its own character4 ,we have the power to receive the influence of either the noble or the ignoble series of impressions1 and thus to yield either to the lofty or the low impulses of the soul4 ,in this way the rabbis interpret various expressions of ,scripture which would seem to limit man's freedom1 as where ,god induces man to good or evil acts1 or hardens the heart of ,pharaoh so that he will not let the ,israelites go1 until the plagues had been fulfilled upon him and his people47#gbd7 ,they understand in such an instance that a man's heart has a prevailing inclination toward right or wrong1 the expression of his character1 and that ,god encouraged this inclination along the evil course2 thus the freedom of the human will was kept intact4 #g4 ,the doctrine of man's free will presents another difficulty from the side of divine omniscience4 ,for if ,god knows in advance what is to happen1 then man's acts are determined by this very foreknowledge2 he is no longer free1 and his moral responsibility becomes an idle dream4 ,in order to escape this dilemma1 the ,mohammedan theologians were compelled to limit either the divine omniscience or human freedom1 and most of them resorted to the latter method4 ,it is characteristic of ,judaism that its great thinkers1 from ,saadia to ,maimonides and ,gersonides17#gbe7 dared not alter the doctrine of man's free will and moral responsibility1 but even preferred to limit the divine omniscience4 ,hisdai ,crescas is the only one to restrict human freedom in favor of the foreknowledge of ,god47#gbf7 #h4 ,the insistence of ,judaism on unrestricted freedom of will for each individual entirely excludes hereditary sin4 ,this is shown in the traditional explanation of the verse of the ,decalogue3 8,visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate ,me407#gbg7 ,according to the rabbis the words 8of them that hate ,me0 do not refer to the fathers1 according to the plain meaning of the passage1 but to the children and children's children4 ,these are to be punished only when they hate ,god and follow the evil example of their fathers47#gbh7 ,despite example and hereditary disposition1 the descendants of evildoers can lead a virtuous life1 and their punishment comes only when they fail to resist the evil influences of their parental household4 ,to illustrate the ,biblical words1 8,who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean807#gbi7 the rabbis single out ,abraham1 the son of ,terah1 ,hezekiah1 the son of ,ahaz1 and ,josiah1 the son of ,manasseh47#gcj7 ,man1 being made in ,god's image1 determines his own character by his own free choice2 by his will he can raise or lower himself in the scale of being4 #i4 ,the fundamental character of the doctrine of free will for ,judaism is shown by ,maimonides1 who devotes a special chapter of his ,code to it17#gca7 and calls it the pillar of ,israel's faith and morality1 since through it alone man manifests his god-like sovereignty4 ,for should his freedom be limited by any kind of predestination1 he would be deprived of his moral responsibility1 which constitutes his real greatness4 ,in endeavoring to reconcile ,god's omnipotence and omniscience with man's freedom1 ,maimonides says that ,god wants man to erect a kingdom of morality without interference from above2 moreover1 ,god's knowledge is different in kind from that of man1 and thus is not an infringement upon man's freedom1 as the human type of knowledge would be4 ,however1 ,abraham ben ,david of ,posquieres blames ,maimonides for proposing questions which he could not answer satisfactorily in the ,code1 which is intended for non-philosophical readers4 ,the fact is that this is only another of the problems insoluble to human reasoning2 the freedom of the will must remain for all time a postulate of moral responsibility1 and therefore of religion4 ,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,meaning of ,sin #a4 ,sin is a religious conception4 ,it does not signify a breach of law or morality1 or of popular custom and sacred usage1 but an offense against ,god1 provoking ,his punishment4 ,as long as the deity is merely dreaded as an external power1 not adored as a moral power ruling life from within for a holy purpose1 sin1 too1 is considered a purely formal offense4 ,the deity demands to be worshiped by certain rites and may be propitiated by other formal acts47#gcb7 ,for ,judaism1 however1 sin is a straying from the path of ,god1 an offense against the divine order of holiness4 ,thus it signifies an abuse of the freedom granted man as his most precious boon4 ,therefore sin has a twofold character2 formally it is an offense against the majesty of ,god1 whose laws are broken2 essentially it is a severance of the soul's inner relations to ,god1 an estrangement from ,him4 #b4 ,scripture has three different terms for sin1 which do not differ greatly in point of language1 but indicate three stages of thought4 ,first is het or hataah1 which connotes any straying from the right path1 whether caused by levity1 carelessness1 or design1 and may even include wrongs committed unwittingly1 shegagah4 ,second is avon1 a crookedness or perversion of the straight order of the law4 ,third is pesha1 a wicked act committed presumptuously in defiance of ,god and ,his law4 ,as a matter of course1 the conception of sin was deepened by degrees1 as the prophets1 psalmists and moralists grew to think of ,god as the pattern of the highest moral perfection1 as the ,holy ,one before whom an evil act or thought cannot abide4 ,the rabbis usually employed the term aberah1 that is1 a transgression of a divine commandment4 ,in contrast to this they used mitzwah1 a divine command1 which denotes also the whole range of duty1 including the desire and intention of the human soul4 ,from this point of view every evil design or impulse1 every thought and act contrary to ,god's law1 becomes a sin4 #c4 ,sin arises from the weakness of the flesh1 the desire of the heart1 and accordingly in the first instance from an error of judgment4 ,the ,bible frequently speaks of sin as 8folly407#gcc7 ,a rabbinical saying brings out this same idea3 8,no one sins unless the spirit of folly has entered into him to deceive him407#gcd7 ,a sinful imagination lures one to sin2 the repetition of the forbidden act lowers the barrier of the commandment1 until the trespass is hardened into 8callous0 and 8stubborn0 disregard1 and finally into 8reckless defiance0 and 8insolent godlessness40 ,such a process is graphically expressed by the various terms used in the ,bible4 ,according to the rabbinical figure1 8sin appears at first as thin as a spider's web1 but grows stronger and stronger1 until it becomes like a wagon-rope to bind a man40 ,or1 8sin comes at first as a passer-by to tarry for a moment1 then as a visitor to stay1 finally as the master of the house to claim possession40 ,therefore it is incumbent upon us to 8guard0 the heart1 and not 8to go astray following after our eyes and our heart407#gce7 #d4 ,according to the doctrine of ,judaism no one is sinful by nature4 ,no person sins by an inner compulsion4 ,but as man has a nature of flesh1 which is sensuous and selfish1 each person is inclined to sin and none is perfectly free from it4 8,who can say3 ,i have made my heart clean1 ,i am pure from any sin807#gcf7 ,this is the voice of the ,bible and of all human experience2 8,for there is not a righteous man upon earth1 that doeth good1 and sinneth not407#gcg7 ,the expression occurs repeatedly in ,job3 8,shall mortal man be just before ,god8 ,shall a man be pure before his ,maker807#gch7 ,even ,moses is represented in numerous passages as showing human foibles and failings47#gci7 ,in fact1 8the greater the personality1 the more severely will ,god call him to account for the smallest trespass1 for ,god desires to be #8sanctified' by ,his righteous ones407#gdj7 ,the ,midrash tells us that no one is to be called holy1 until death has put an end to his struggle with the ever-lurking tempter within1 and he lies in the earth with the victor's crown of peace upon his brow47#gda7 ,when we read the stern sentence3 8,behold1 ,he putteth no trust in ,his holy ones107#gdb7 the rabbis refer us to the patriarchs1 each of whom had his faults47#gdc7 ,measured by the ,pattern of all holiness1 no human being is free from blemish4 #e4 ,in connection with the ,god-idea1 the conception of sin grew from crude beginnings to the higher meaning given it by ,judaism4 ,the ancient ,babylonians used the same terminology as the ,bible for sin and sin-offering1 but their view1 like that of other ,semites1 was far more external47#gdd7 ,if one was afflicted with disease or misfortune1 the inference was that he had neglected the ritual of some deity and must appease the angered one with a sacrificial offering4 ,any irregularity in the cult was an offense against the deity4 ,this became more moralized with the higher ,god-idea2 the god became the guardian of moral principles2 and the calamities1 even of the nation1 were then ascribed to the divine wrath on account of moral lapses4 ,the same process may be observed in the views of ancient ,israel4 ,here1 too1 during the dominance of the priestly view the gravest possible offense was one against the cult1 a culpable act entailing the death penalty--asham1 or 8doom0 of the offender4 ,we shudder at the thought that the least violation of the hierarchical rules for the sanctuary or even for the burning of incense should meet the penalty of death4 ,yet such is the plain statement of the ,mosaic law and such was the actual practice of the people47#gde7 ,the more the prophetic conception of the moral nature of the ,deity permeated the ,jewish religion1 the more the term sin came to mean an offense against the holiness of ,god1 the ,guardian of morality4 ,hence the great prophets upbraided the people for their moral1 not their ceremonial failings4 ,they attacked scathingly transgressions of the laws of righteousness and purity1 the true sins against ,god1 because these originate in dullness of heart1 unbridled passion1 and overbearing pride1 all so hateful to ,him4 ,the only ritual offenses emphasized as sins against ,god are idolatry1 violation of the name of ,god and of the ,sabbath1 for these express the sanctity of life47#gdf7 ,except for these points1 the prophets and psalmists insisted only on righteous conduct and integrity of soul1 and repudiated entirely the ritualism of the priesthood and the formalism of the cult47#gdg7 ,this view is anticipated by ,samuel1 the master of the prophetic schools1 when he says3 8,behold1 to obey is better than sacrifice1 ,and to hearken than the fat of rams4 ,for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft1 ,and stubbornness is as idolatry and teraphim407#gdh7 ,as soon as we realize that obedience to ,god's will means right conduct and purity of soul1 we see in sin the desecration of the divine image in man1 the violation of his heavenly patent of nobility4 #f4 ,sin1 then1 is in its essence unfaithfulness to ,god and to our own god-like nature4 ,we see this thought expressed in ,job37#gdi7 8,if thou hast sinned1 what doest thou against ,him8 ,and if thy transgressions be multiplied1 what doest thou unto ,him8 ,if thou be righteous1 what givest thou unto ,him8 ,or what receiveth ,he of thy hand8 ,thy wickedness concerneth a man as thou art2 ,and thy righteousness a son of man40 ,thus the source of sin is the human heart1 the origin of all our thinking and planning4 ,we know sin chiefly as consciousness of guilt4 ,man's conscience accuses him and compels him to confess1 8,against ,thee1 ,thee only1 have ,i sinned407#gej7 ,not only the deed itself1 but even more the will which caused it1 is condemned by conscience4 ,such self-accusation constantly proves anew that there is no place for original sin through the fall of ,adam4 8,i could have controlled my evil desire1 if ,i had but earnestly willed it10 said ,king ,david1 according to the ,talmud47#gea7 #g4 ,sin engenders a feeling of disunion with ,god through the consciousness of guilt which accompanies it4 ,it erects a 8wall of separation0 between man and his ,maker1 depriving him of peace and security47#geb7 ,guilt causes pain1 which overwhelms him1 until he has made atonement and obtained pardon before ,god4 ,this is no imaginary feeling1 easily overcome and capable of being suppressed by the sinner with impunity4 ,instead1 he must pay the full penalty for his sin1 lest it lead him to the very abyss of evil1 to physical and moral death4 ,sin in the individual becomes a sense of self-condemnation1 the consciousness of the divine anger4 ,hence the ,hebrew term avon1 sin1 is often synonymous with punishment17#gec7 and asham1 guilt1 often signifies the atonement for the guilt1 and sometimes doom and perdition as a consequence of guilt47#ged7 ,undoubtedly this still contains a remnant of the old ,semitic idea that an awful divine visitation may come upon an entire household or community because of a criminal or sacrilegious act committed1 consciously or unconsciously1 by one of its members4 ,such a fate can be averted only by an atoning sacrifice4 ,this accords with the rather strange fact that the ,priestly ,code prescribes certain guilt offerings for sins committed unwittingly1 which are called asham47#gee7 #h4 ,but even these unintentional sins can be avoided by the constant exercise of caution1 so that their commission implies a certain degree of guilt1 which demands a measure of repentance4 ,thus the ,psalmist says3 8,who can discern errors8 ,clear ,thou me from hidden faults407#gef7 ,he thus implies that we feel responsible in a certain sense for all our sins1 including those which we commit unknowingly4 ,the rabbis dwell especially on the idea that we are never altogether free from sinful thoughts4 ,for this reason1 they tell us1 the two burnt offerings were brought to the altar each morning and evening1 to atone for the sinful thoughts of the people during the preceding day or night47#geg7 #i4 ,at any rate1 ,judaism recognizes no sin which does not arise from the individual conscience or moral personality4 ,the condemnation of a whole generation or race in consequence of the sin of a single individual is an essentially heathen idea1 which was overcome by ,judaism in the course of time through the prophetic teaching of the divine justice and man's moral responsibility4 ,this sentiment was voiced by ,moses and ,aaron after the rebellion of ,korah in the words3 8,o ,god1 the ,god of the spirits of all flesh1 shall one man sin1 and wilt ,thou be wroth with all the congregation807#geh7 ,in commenting upon this1 the ,midrash says3 8,a human king may make war upon a whole province1 because it contains rebels who have caused sedition1 and so the innocent must suffer together with the guilty2 but it does not behoove ,god1 the ,ruler of the spirits1 who looks into the hearts of men1 to punish the guiltless together with the guilty407#gei7 ,the ,christian view of universal guilt as a consequence of ,adam's sin1 the dogma of original sin1 is actually a relapse from the ,jewish stage to the heathen doctrine from which the ,jewish religion freed itself4 #aj4 ,according to the ,biblical view sin contaminates man1 so that he cannot stand in the presence of ,god4 ,the holiness of ,him who is 8of eyes too pure to behold evil07#gfj7 becomes to the sinner 8a devouring fire407#gfa7 ,even the lofty prophet ,isaiah realizes his own human limitations at the sublime vision of the ,god of holiness enthroned on high1 while the angelic choruses chant their thrice holy4 ,in humility and contrition he cries out3 8,woe is me1 for ,i am undone6 ,because ,i am a man of unclean lips1 and ,i dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips2 ,for mine eyes have seen the ,king1 the ,lord of hosts407#gfb7 ,the prophet must undergo atonement in order to be prepared for his high prophetic task4 ,one of the ,seraphs purges him of his sins by touching his lips with a live coal taken from the altar of ,god4 ,under the influence of ,persian dualism1 rabbinical ,judaism considers sin a pollution which puts man under the power of unclean spirits47#gfc7 ,in the later ,cabbalah this idea is elaborated until the world of sin is considered a cosmic power of impurity1 opposed to the realm of right1 working evil ever since the fall of ,adam47#gfd7 ,still1 however close this may come to the ,christian dogma1 it never becomes identical with it2 the recognition is always preserved of man's power to extricate himself from the realm of impurity and to elevate himself into the realm of purity by his own repentance4 ,sin never becomes a demoniacal power depriving man of his divine dignity of self-determination and condemning him to eternal damnation4 ,it ever remains merely a going astray from the right path1 a stumbling from which man may rise again to his heavenly height1 exerting his own powers as the son of ,god4 ,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,repentance ,or the ,return ,to ,god #a4 ,the brightest gem among the teachings of ,judaism is its doctrine of repentance or1 in its own characteristic term1 the return of the wayward sinner to ,god47#gfe7 ,man1 full of remorse at having fallen away from the divine ,fountainhead of purity1 conscious of deserving a sentence of condemnation from the eternal ,judge1 would be less happy than the unreasoning brute which cannot sin at all4 ,religion restores him by the power to rise from his shame and guilt1 to return to ,god in repentance1 as the penitent son returns to his father4 ,whether we regard sin as estrangement from ,god or as a disturbance of the divine order1 it has a detrimental effect on both body and soul1 and leads inevitably to death4 ,on this point the ,bible affords many historical illustrations and doctrinal teachings47#gff7 ,if man had no way to escape from sin1 then he would be the most unfortunate of creatures1 in spite of his god-like nature4 ,therefore the merciful ,god opens the gate of repentance for the sinner1 saying as through ,his prophets of old3 8,i have no pleasure in the death of the wicked1 but that the wicked turn from his way and live407#gfg7 #b4 ,the great value of the gift of divine grace1 by which the sinner may repent and return to ,god with a new spirit1 appears in the following rabbinical saying3 8,wisdom was asked1 #8,what shall be the sinner's punishment8' and answered1 #8,evil pursues sinners'27#gfh7 then ,prophecy was asked1 and answered1 #8,the soul that sinneth1 it shall die'27#gfi7 the ,torah1 or legal code1 was consulted1 and its answer was3 #8,he shall bring a sin-offering1 and the priest shall make atonement for him1 and he shall be forgiven4'7#ggj7 ,finally ,god ,himself was asked1 and ,he answered37#gga7 #8,good and upright is the ,lord2 therefore doth ,he instruct sinners in the way4' 07#ggb7 ,the ,jewish idea of atonement by the sinner's return to ,god excludes every kind of mediatorship4 ,neither the priesthood nor sacrifice is necessary to secure the divine grace2 man need only find the way to ,god by his own efforts4 8,seek ye ,me1 and live107#ggc7 says ,god to ,his erring children4 #c4 ,teshubah1 which means return1 is an idea peculiar to ,judaism1 created by the prophets of ,israel1 and arising directly from the simple ,jewish conception of sin4 ,since sin is a deviation from the path of salvation1 a 8straying0 into the road of perdition and death1 the erring can return with heart and soul1 end his ways1 and thus change his entire being4 ,this is not properly expressed by the term repentance1 which denotes only regret for the wrong1 but not the inner transformation4 ,nor is ,teshubah to be rendered by either penitence or penance4 ,the former indicates a sort of bodily self-castigation1 the latter some other kind of penalty undergone in order to expiate sin4 ,such external forms of asceticism were prescribed and practiced by many tribes and some of the historical religions4 ,the ,jewish prophets1 however1 opposed them bitterly1 demanding an inner change1 a transformation of soul1 renewing both heart and spirit4 8,let the wicked forsake his way1 ,and the man of iniquity his thoughts2 ,and let him return unto the ,lord1 and ,he will have compassion upon him1 ,and to our ,god1 for ,he will abundantly pardon407#ggd7 ,judaism considers sin merely moral aberration1 not utter corruption1 and believes in the capability of the very worst of sinners to improve his ways2 therefore it waits ever for his regeneration4 ,this is truly a return to ,god1 the restoration of the divine image which has been disfigured and corrupted by sin4 #d4 ,the doctrine of ,teshubah1 or the return of the sinner1 has a specially instructive history1 as this most precious and unique conception of ,judaism is little understood or appreciated by ,christian theologians4 ,often without intentional bias1 these are so under the influence of the ,paulinian dogma that they see no redemption for man corrupted by sin1 except by his belief in a superhuman act of atonement4 ,it is certainly significant that the legal code1 which is of priestly origin1 does not mention repentance or the sinner's return4 ,it prescribes various types of sin-offerings1 speaks of reparation for wrong inflicted1 of penalties for crime1 and of confession for sins1 but it does not state how the soul can be purged of sin1 so that man can regain his former state of purity4 ,this great gap is filled by the prophetic books and the ,psalms4 ,the book of ,deuteronomy alone1 written under prophetic influence1 alludes to repentance1 in connection with the time when ,israel would be taken captive from its land as punishment for its violation of the law4 ,there we read3 8,thou shalt return unto the ,lord thy ,god1 444 with all thy heart1 and all thy soul1 then the ,lord thy ,god will turn thy captivity1 and have compassion upon thee407#gge7 ,amos1 the prophet of stern justice1 has not yet reached the idea of averting the divine wrath by the return of the sinner47#ggf7 ,hosea1 the prophet of divine mercy and loving-kindness1 in his deep compassion for the unfaithful and backsliding people1 became the preacher of repentance as the condition for attaining the divine pardon4 8,return1 ,o ,israel1 unto the ,lord thy ,god2 ,for thou hast stumbled in thine iniquity4 ,take with you words 7of repentance71 ,and return unto the ,lord2 ,say unto ,him1 8,forgive all iniquity1 ,and accept that which is good2 ,so will we render for bullocks the offering of our lips4' 07#ggg7 ,the appeal of ,jeremiah is still more vigorous3 8,return1 thou backsliding ,israel1 saith the ,lord4444 ,only acknowledge thine iniquity1 that thou hast transgressed against the ,lord thy ,god4444 ,break up for you a fallow ground1 and sow not among thorns4444 ,o ,jerusalem1 wash thy heart from wickedness1 that thou mayest be saved2 ,how long shall thy baleful thoughts lodge within thee8444 ,return ye now every one from his evil way1 and amend your ways and your doings407#ggh7 ,ezekiel1 while emphasizing the guilt of the individual1 preached repentance still more insistently4 8,return ye1 and turn yourselves from all your transgressions2 so shall they not be a stumbling-block of iniquity to you4 ,cast away from you all your transgressions1 wherein ye have transgressed2 and make you a new heart and a new spirit2 for why will ye die1 ,o house of ,israel8 ,for ,i have no pleasure in the death of him that dieth1 saith the ,lord ,god2 wherefore turn yourselves1 and live407#ggi7 ,the same appeal recurs after the exile in the last prophets1 ,zechariah7#ghj7 and ,malachi47#gha7 ,the latter says3 8,return unto ,me1 and ,i shall return unto you40 ,likewise the penitential sermon written in a time of great distress1 which is ascribed to the prophet ,joel1 contains the appeal3 8,turn ye unto ,me with all your heart1 ,and with fasting1 and with weeping1 and with lamentation2 ,and rend your heart1 and not your garments1 ,and turn unto the ,lord your ,god2 ,for ,he is gracious and compassionate1 ,long-suffering1 and abundant in mercy1 ,and repenteth ,him of the evil407#ghb7 ,this prophetic view1 which demands contrition and craving for ,god instead of external modes of atonement1 is expressed in the penitential ,psalms as well17#ghc7 especially in ,psalm ,,li4 ,the idea is expanded further in the parable of the prophet ,jonah1 which conveys the lesson that even a heathen nation like the people of ,nineveh can avert the impending judgment of ,god by true repentance47#ghd7 ,from this point of view the whole conception took on a larger aspect1 and the entire history of mankind was seen in a new light4 ,the ,jewish sages realized that ,god punishes man only when the expected change of mind and heart fails to come47#ghe7 #e4 ,the ,jewish plan of divine salvation presents a striking contrast to that of the ,church1 for it is built upon the presumption that all sinners can find their way back to ,god and godliness1 if they but earnestly so desire4 ,even before ,god created the world1 ,he determined to offer man the possibility of ,teshubah1 so that1 in the midst of the continual struggle with the allurements of the senses1 the repentant sinner can ever change heart and mind and return to ,god47#ghf7 ,without such a possibility the world of man could not endure2 thus1 because no man can stand before the divine tribunal of stern justice1 the paternal arm of a merciful ,god is extended to receive the penitent4 ,this sublime truth is constantly reiterated in the ,talmud and in the liturgy1 especially of the great ,day of ,atonement47#ghg7 ,not only does ,god's long-suffering give the sinner time to repent2 ,his paternal love urges him to return4 ,thus the ,haggadists purposely represent almost all the sinners mentioned in the ,bible as models of sincere repentance4 ,first of all comes ,king ,david1 who is considered such a pattern of repentance1 as the author of the fifty-first ,psalm1 that he would not have been allowed to sin so grievously1 if he had not been providentially appointed as the shining example of the penitent's return to ,god47#ghh7 ,then there is ,king ,manasseh1 the most wicked among all the kings of ,judah and ,israel1 who had committed the most abominable sins of idolatrous worship4 ,referring to the story told of him in ,chronicles1 it is said that ,god responded to his tearful prayers and incessant supplications by opening a rift under ,his throne of mercy and receiving his petition for pardon4 ,thus all mankind might see that none can be so wicked that he will not find the door of repentance open1 if he but seek it sincerely and persistently47#ghi7 ,likewise ,adam and ,cain1 ,reuben and ,judah1 ,korah1 ,jeroboam1 ,ahab1 ,josiah1 and ,jechoniah are described in ,talmud1 ,midrash1 and the apocalyptic literature as penitent sinners who obtained at last the coveted pardon47#gij7 ,the optimistic spirit of ,judaism cannot tolerate the idea that mortal man is hopelessly lost under the burden of his sins1 or that he need ever lose faith in himself4 ,no one can sink so low that he cannot find his way back to his heavenly ,father by untiring self-discipline4 ,as the ,talmud says1 nothing can finally withstand the power of sincere repentance3 8,it reaches up to the very seat of ,god20 8upon it rests the welfare of the world407#gia7 #f4 ,the rabbis follow up the idea first announced in the book of ,jonah1 that the saving power of repentance applies to the heathen world as well4 ,thus they show how ,god constantly offered time and opportunity to the heathens for repentance4 ,for example1 when the generation of the flood1 the builders of the ,tower of ,babel1 and the people of ,sodom and ,gomorrah were to be punished1 ,god waited to give them time for ,repentance and improvement of their ways47#gib7 ,noah1 ,enoch1 and ,abraham are represented as monitors of their contemporaries1 warning them1 like the prophets1 to repent in time lest they meet their doom47#gic7 ,thus the whole ,hellenistic literature of propaganda1 especially the ,sibylline books1 echoes the warning and the hope that the heathen should repent of their grievous sins and return to ,god1 whom they had deserted in idolatry1 so that they might escape the impending doom of the last judgment day4 ,according to one ,haggadist17#gid7 even the ,messiah will appear first as a preacher of repentance1 admonishing the heathen nations to be converted to the true ,god and repent before ,him1 lest they fall into perdition4 ,indeed1 it is said that even ,pharaoh and the ,egyptians were warned and given time for repentance before their fate overtook them4 #g4 ,accordingly1 the principle of repentance is a universal human one1 and by no means exclusively national1 as the ,christian theologians represent it47#gie7 ,the sages thus describe ,adam as the type of the penitent sinner1 who is granted pardon by ,god4 ,the 8sign0 of ,cain also was to be a sign for all sinners1 assuring them they might all obtain forgiveness and salvation1 if they would but return to ,god47#gif7 ,in fact1 the prophetic appeal to ,israel for repentance1 vain at the time1 effected the regeneration of the people during the ,exile and gave rise to ,judaism and its institutions4 ,in the same way1 the appeal to the heathen world by the ,hellenistic propaganda and the ,essene preachers of repentance did not induce the nations at once to prepare for the coming of the ,messianic kingdom1 but finally led to the rise of the ,christian religion1 and1 through certain intermediaries1 of the ,mohammedan as well4 ,however1 the long-cherished hope for a universal conversion of the heathen world1 voiced in the preachments and the prayers of the 8pious ones10 gave way to a reaction4 ,the rise of antinomian sects in ,judaism occasioned the dropping of this pious hope1 and only certain individual conversions were dwelt on as shining exceptions47#gig7 ,the heathen world in general was not regarded as disposed to repent1 and so its ultimate fate was the doom of ,gehenna4 ,experience seemed to confirm the stern view1 which rabbinical interpretation could find in ,scripture also1 that 8,even at the very gate of the nether world wicked men shall not return407#gih7 ,the growing violence of the oppressors and the increasing number of the maligners of ,judaism darkened the hope for a universal conversion of humanity to the pure faith of ,israel and its law of righteousness4 ,on the contrary1 a certain satisfaction was felt by the ,jew in the thought that these enemies of ,judaism should not be allowed to repent and obtain salvation in the hereafter47#gii7 #h4 ,the idea of repentance was applied all the more intensely in ,jewish life1 and a still more prominent place was accorded it in ,jewish literature4 ,the rabbis have numberless sayings7#hjj7 in the ,talmud and also in the ,haggadic and ethical writings concerning the power and value of repentance4 ,in passages such as these we see how profoundly ,judaism dealt with the failings and shortcomings of man4 ,the term asa teshubah1 do repentance1 implies no mere external act of penitence1 as ,christian theologians often assert4 ,on the contrary1 the chief stress is always laid on the feeling of remorse and on the change of heart which contrition and self-accusation bring4 ,yet even these would not be sufficient to cast off the oppressive consciousness of guilt1 unless the contrite heart were reassured by ,god that ,he forgives the penitent son of man with paternal grace and love4 ,in other words1 religion demands a special means of atonement1 that is1 at-one-ment with ,god1 to restore the broken relation of man to his ,maker4 ,the true spiritual power of ,judaism appears in this1 that it gradually liberates the kernel of the atonement idea from its priestly shell4 ,the ,jew realizes1 as does the adherent of no other religion1 that even in sin he is a child of ,god and certain of ,his paternal love4 ,this is brought home especially on the ,day of ,atonement1 which will be treated in a later chapter4 #i4 ,at all events1 the blotting out of man's sins with their punishment remains ever an act of grace by ,god47#hja7 ,in compassion for man's frailty ,he has ordained repentance as the means of salvation1 and promised pardon to the penitent4 ,this truth is brought out in the liturgy for the ,day of ,atonement1 as well as in the ,apocalyptic ,prayer of ,manasseh4 ,at the same time1 ,judaism awards the palm of victory to him who has wrestled with sin and conquered it by his own will4 ,thus the rabbis boldly assert3 8,those who have sinned and repented rank higher in the world to come than the righteous who have never sinned10 which is paralleled in the ,new ,testament3 8,there is more joy in heaven over one sinner who repenteth than over ninety and nine righteous persons1 who need no repentance407#hjb7 ,no intermediary power from without secures the divine grace and pardon for the repentant sinner1 but his own inner transformation alone4 ,chapter ,,xl4 ,man1 the ,child of ,god #a4 ,the belief that ,god hears our prayers and pardons our sins rests upon the assumption of a mutual relation between man and ,god4 ,this belief is insusceptible of proof1 but rests entirely upon our religious feelings and is rooted purely in our emotional life4 ,we apply to the relation between man and ,god the finest feelings known in human life1 the devotion and love of parents for their children and the affection and trust the child entertains for its parents4 ,thus we are led to the conviction that earth-born man has a ,helper enthroned in the heavens above1 who hearkens when he implores ,him for aid4 ,in his innermost heart man feels that he has a special claim on the divine protection4 ,in the words of ,job17#hjc7 he knows that his ,redeemer liveth4 ,he need not perish in misery4 ,unlike the brute creation and the hosts of stars1 which know nothing of their ,maker1 man feels akin to the ,god who lives within him2 he is ,his image1 ,his child4 ,he cannot be deprived of ,his paternal love and favor4 ,this truly human emotion is nowhere expressed so clearly as in ,judaism4 8,ye are the children of the ,lord your ,god407#hjd7 8,have we not all one ,father8 ,hath not one ,god created us807#hje7 8,like as a father hath compassion on his children1 so hath the ,lord compassion upon them that fear ,him407#hjf7 #b4 ,still1 this simple idea of man's filial relation to ,god and ,god's paternal love for man did not begin in its beautiful final form4 ,for a long time the ,jew seems to have avoided the term 8,father0 for ,god1 because it was used by the heathen for their deities as physical progenitors1 and did not refer to the moral relation between the ,deity and mankind4 ,thus worshipers of wooden idols would1 according to ,scripture1 8say to a stock1 ,thou art my father407#hjg7 ,hosea was the first to call the people of ,israel 8children of the living ,god107#hjh7 if they would but improve their ways and enter into right relations with ,him4 ,jeremiah also hopes for the time when ,israel would invoke the ,lord1 saying1 8,thou art my ,father10 and in return ,god would prove a true father to him47#hji7 ,however1 ,scripture calls ,god a ,father only in referring to the people as a whole47#haj7 ,the 8pious ones0 established a closer relation between ,god and the individual by means of prayer1 so that through them the epithets1 8,father10 8,our ,father10 and 8,our ,father in heaven0 came into general use4 ,hence1 the liturgy frequently uses the invocation1 8,our ,father1 ,our ,king60 ,we owe to ,rabbi ,akiba the significant saying1 in opposition to the ,paulinian dogma1 8,blessed are ye1 ,o ,israelites6 ,before whom do you purify yourselves 7from your sins78 ,and who is it that purifies you8 ,your ,father in heaven407#haa7 ,previously ,rabbi ,eliezer ben ,hyrcanos dwelt on the moral degeneration of his age1 which betokened the end of time1 and exclaimed3 8,in whom1 then1 shall we find support8 ,in our ,father who is in heaven407#hab7 ,the appellative 8,father in heaven0 was the stereotyped term used by the 8pious ones0 during the century preceding and the one following the rise of ,christianity1 as a glance at the literature of the period indicates47#hac7 #c4 ,it is instructive to follow the history of this term4 ,in ,scripture ,god is represented as speaking to ,david1 8,i will be to him for a father1 and he shall be to ,me for a son107#had7 or 8,he shall call unto ,me3 ,thou art my ,father1 444 ,i also will appoint him first-born407#hae7 ,so in the apocryphal writings ,god speaks both to ,israel and to individual saints3 8,i shall be to them a ,father1 and they shall be ,my children407#haf7 ,elsewhere it is said of the righteous1 8,he calls ,god his ,father10 and 8he shall be counted among the sons of ,god407#hag7 ,we read concerning the ,messiah3 8,when all wrongdoing will be removed from the midst of the people1 he shall know that all are sons of ,god407#hah7 ,obviously only righteousness or personal merit entitles a man to be called a son of ,god4 ,in fact1 we are expressly told of ,onias1 the great ,essene saint1 that his intimate relation with ,god emboldened him to converse with the ,master of the ,universe as a son would speak with his father47#hai7 ,according to the ,mishnah the older generation of 8pious ones0 used to spend 8an hour in silent devotion before offering their daily prayer1 in order to concentrate heart and soul upon their communion with their ,father in heaven407#hbj7 ,thus it is said of congregational prayer that through it 8,israel lifts his eyes to his ,father in heaven407#hba7 ,in this way prayer took the place of the altar1 of which ,r4 ,johanan ben ,zakkai said that it established peace between ,israel and his ,father in heaven47#hbb7 ,afterwards the question was discussed by ,rabbi ,meir and ,rabbi ,jehuda whether even sin-laden ,israel had a right to be called 8children of ,god40 ,rabbi ,meir pointed to ,hosea as proof that the backsliders also remain 8children of the living ,god407#hbc7 #d4 ,in the ,hellenistic literature1 with its dominating idea of universal monotheism1 ,god is frequently invoked or spoken of as the ,father of mankind4 ,the implication is that each person who invokes ,god as ,father enters into filial relation with ,him4 ,thus what was first applied to ,israel in particular was now broadened to include mankind in general1 and consequently all men were considered 8children of the living ,god40 ,the words of ,god to ,pharaoh1 speaking of ,israel as ,his 8first-born son107#hbd7 were taken as proof that all the nations of the earth are sons of ,god and ,he the universal ,father4 ,israel is the first-born among the sons of ,god1 because his patriarchs1 prophets1 and psalmists first recognized ,him as the universal ,father and ,ruler4 ,from this point of view ,judaism declared love for fellow-men and regard for the dignity of humanity to be fundamental principles of ethics4 8,as ,god is kind and merciful toward ,his creation1 be thou also kind and merciful toward all fellow-creatures10 is the oft-repeated teaching of the rabbis47#hbe7 ,likewise1 8,whoever takes pity on his fellow-beings1 on him ,god in heaven will also take pity407#hbf7 ,love of humanity has so permeated the nature of the ,jew that the rabbis assert3 8,he who has pity on his fellow-men has the blood of ,abraham in his veins407#hbg7 ,this bold remark casts light upon the strange dictum3 8,ye ,israelites are called by the name of man1 but the heathen are not407#hbh7 ,the ,jewish teachers were so deeply impressed with man's inhumanity to man1 so common among the heathen nations1 and the immorality of the lives by which these desecrated ,god's image1 that they insisted that the laws of humanity alone make for divine dignity in man4 #e4 ,rabbi ,akiba probably referred to the ,paulinian dogma that ,jesus1 the crucified ,messiah1 is the only son of ,god1 in his well-known saying3 8,beloved is man1 for he is created in ,god's image1 and it was a special token of love that he became conscious of it4 ,beloved is ,israel1 for they are called the children of ,god1 and it was a special token of love that they became conscious of it407#hbi7 ,here he claims the glory of being a son of ,god for ,israel1 but not for all men4 ,still1 as soon as the likeness of man to ,god is taken in a spiritual sense1 then it is implied that all men have the same capacity for being a son of ,god which is claimed for ,israel4 ,this is unquestionably the view of ,judaism when it considers the ,torah as entrusted to ,israel to bring light and blessing to all the families of men4 ,rabbi ,meir1 the disciple of ,rabbi ,akiba1 said3 8,the ,scriptural words1 #8,the statutes and ordinances which man shall do and live thereby1' and similar expressions indicate that the final aim of ,judaism is not attained by the ,aaronide1 nor the ,levite1 nor even the ,israelite1 but by mankind407#hcj7 ,such a saying expresses clearly and emphatically that ,god's fatherly love extends to all men as ,his children4 #f4 ,according to the religious consciousness of modern ,israel man is made in ,god's image1 and is thus a child of ,god4 ,consequently ,jew and non-,jew1 saint and sinner have the same claim upon ,god's paternal love and mercy4 ,there is no distinction in favor of ,israel except as he lives a higher and more god-like life4 ,even those who have fallen away from ,god and have committed crime and sin remain ,god's children4 ,if they send up their penitent cry to the throne of ,god1 8,pardon us1 ,o ,father1 for we have sinned6 ,forgive us1 ,o ,king1 for we have done evil602 their prayer is heard by the heavenly ,father exactly like that of the pious son of ,israel4 ,chapter ,,xli4 ,prayer and ,sacrifice #a4 ,the gap between man and the sublime ,master of the universe is vast1 but not absolute4 ,the thoughts of ,god are high above our thoughts1 and the ways of ,god above our ways1 baffling our reason when we endeavor to solve the vexatious problems of destiny1 of merit and demerit1 of retribution and atonement4 ,yet religion offers a wondrous medium to bring the heart of man into close communion with ,him who is enthroned above the heavens1 one that overleaps all distances1 removes all barriers1 and blends all dissonances into one great harmony1 and that is--,prayer4 ,as the child must relieve itself of its troubles and sorrows upon the bosom of its mother or father in order to turn its pain into gladness1 so men at all times seek to approach the ,deity1 confiding to ,him all their fears and longings in order to obtain peace of heart4 ,prayer1 communion between the human soul and the ,creator1 is the glorious privilege enjoyed by man alone among all creatures1 as he alone is the child of ,god4 ,it voices the longing of the human heart for its ,father in heaven4 ,as the ,psalmist has it1 8,my soul thirsteth for ,god1 for the living ,god407#hca7 #b4 ,however1 both language1 the means of intercourse between man and man1 and prayer1 the means of intercourse between man and ,god1 show traces of a slow development lasting for thousands of years1 until the loftiest thoughts and sublimest emotions could be expressed4 ,the real efficacy of prayer could not be truly appreciated1 until the prophetic spirit triumphed over the priestly element in ,judaism4 ,in the history of speech the language of signs preceded that of sounds1 and images gradually ripened into abstract thoughts4 ,similarly1 primitive man approaches his ,god with many kinds of gifts and sacrificial rites to express his sentiments4 ,he acts out or depicts what he expects from the ,deity1 whether rain1 fertility of the soil1 or the extermination of his foes4 ,he shares with his ,god his food and drink1 to obtain ,his friendship and protection in time of trouble1 and sacrifices the dearest of his possessions to assuage ,his wrath or obtain ,his favor4 #c4 ,in the lowest stage of culture man needed no mediator in his intercourse with the ,deity1 who appeared to him in the phenomena of nature as well as in the fetish1 totem1 and the like4 ,but soon he rose to a higher stage of thought1 and the ,deity withdrew before him to the celestial heights1 filling him with awe and fear2 then rose a class of men who claimed the privilege to approach the ,deity and influence ,him by certain secret practices4 ,henceforth these acted as mediators between the mass of the people and the ,deity4 ,in the first place1 these were the magicians1 medicine-men1 and similar persons1 who were credited with the power to conjure up the hidden forces of nature1 considered either divine or demoniac4 ,after these arose the priests1 distinguished from the people by special dress and diet1 who established in the various tribes temples1 altars1 and cults1 under their own control4 ,then there were the saints1 pious penitents or ,nazarites1 who led an ascetic life secluded from the masses1 hoping thus to obtain higher powers over the will of the ,deity4 ,all these entertained more or less clearly the notion that they stood in closer relation to the ,deity than the common people1 whom they then excluded from the sanctuary and all access to the ,deity4 ,the ,mosaic cult1 in the so-called ,priestly ,code1 was founded upon this stage of religious life1 forming a hierarchical institution like those of other ancient nations4 ,it differed from them1 however1 in one essential point4 ,the prime element in the cult of other nations was magic1 consisting of oracle1 incantation and divination1 but this was entirely contrary to the principles of the ,jewish faith4 ,on the other hand1 all the rites and ceremonies handed down from remote antiquity were placed in the service of ,israel's holy ,god1 in order to train ,his people into the highest moral purity4 ,the patriarchs and prophets1 who are depicted in ,scripture as approaching ,god in prayer and hearing ,his voice in reply1 come under the category of saints or elect ones1 above the mass of the people4 #d4 ,foreign as the entire idea of sacrifice is to our mode of religious thought1 to antiquity it appeared as the only means of intercourse with the ,deity4 8,in every place offerings are presented unto ,my name1 even pure oblations107#hcb7 says the prophet ,malachi in the name of ,israel's ,god4 ,even from a higher point of view the underlying idea seems to be of a simple offering laid upon the altar4 ,such were the meal-offering 7minha727#hcc7 the burnt offering 7olah71 which sends its pillar of smoke up toward heaven1 symbolizing the idea of self-sacrifice2 while the various sin-offerings 7hattath or asham7 expressed the desire to propitiate an offended ,deity4 ,however1 since the sacrificial cult was always dominated by the priesthood in ,israel as well as other nations1 the lawgiver made no essential changes in the traditional practice and terminology4 ,thus it was left to the consciousness of the people to find a deeper spiritual meaning in the sacrifices instead of stating one directly4 ,the want was supplied only by the later ,haggadists who tried to create a symbolism of the sacrificial cult4 ,the laying on of hands by the individual who brought the offering1 seems to have been a genuine symbolic expression of self-surrender4 ,in the case of sin-offerings the ,mosaic cult added a higher meaning by ordering a preceding confession of sin4 ,here1 indeed1 the individual entered into personal communion with ,god through his prayer for pardon1 even though the priest performed the act of expiation for him4 #e4 ,the great prophets of ,israel alone recognized that the entire sacrificial system was out of harmony with the true spirit of ,judaism and led to all sorts of abuses1 above all to a misconception of the worship of ,god1 which requires the uplifting of the heart4 ,in impassioned language1 therefore1 they hurled words of scathing denunciation against the practice and principle of ritualism3 8,i hate1 ,i despise your feasts1 and ,i will take no delight in your solemn assemblies4 ,yea1 though ye offer ,me burnt-offerings and your meal-offerings1 ,i will not accept them2 ,neither will ,i regard the peace-offerings of your fat beasts4 ,take thou away from ,me the noise of thy songs2 and let ,me not hear the melody of thy psalteries4 ,but let justice well up as waters1 and righteousness as a mighty stream407#hcd7 ,thus speaks ,amos in the name of the ,lord4 ,and ,hosea3 8,for ,i desire mercy1 and not sacrifice1 and the knowledge of ,god rather than burnt-offerings407#hce7 ,isaiah spoke in a similar vein3 8,to what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto ,me8 saith the ,lord2 ,i am full of the burnt-offerings of rams1 and the fat of fed beasts2 and ,i delight not in the blood of bullocks1 or of lambs1 or of he-goats4444 ,bring me no more vain oblations2 it is an offering of abomination unto ,me2 new moon and sabbath1 the holding of convocations--,i cannot endure iniquity along with the solemn assembly4444 ,and when ye spread forth your hands1 ,i will hide ,mine eyes from you2 yea1 when ye make many prayers1 ,i will not hear2 your hands are full of blood4 ,wash you1 make you clean1 put away the evil of your doings ,from before ,mine eyes1 cease to do evil2 learn to do well2 seek justice1 relieve the oppressed1 judge the fatherless1 plead for the widow407#hcf7 ,most striking of all are the words of ,jeremiah1 spoken in the name of the ,lord of hosts1 the ,god of ,israel3 8,add your burnt-offerings unto your sacrifices1 and eat ye flesh4 ,for ,i spoke not unto your fathers1 nor commanded them in the day that ,i brought them out of the land of ,egypt1 concerning burnt-offerings and sacrifices1 but this thing ,i commanded them1 saying2 #8,hearken unto ,my voice1 and ,i will be your ,god1 and ye shall be ,my people2 and walk ye in all the way that ,i command you1 that it may be well with you4' 07#hcg7 #f4 ,however1 the mere rejection of the sacrificial cult was quite negative1 and did not satisfy the normal need for communion with ,god4 ,therefore the various codes established a sort of compromise between the prophetic ideal and the priestly practice1 in which the ideal was by no means supreme4 ,sometimes the prophetic spirit stirred the soul of inspired psalmists1 and their lips echoed forth again the divine revelation3 8,hear1 ,o ,my people1 and ,i will speak2 ,o ,israel1 and ,i will testify against thee3 ,god1 thy ,god1 am ,i4 ,i will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices2 and thy burnt-offerings are continually before ,me4 ,i will take no bullock out of thy house1 nor he-goats out of thy folds4 ,for every beast of the forest is ,mine1 and the cattle upon a thousand hills4444 ,do ,i eat the flesh of bulls1 or drink the blood of goats807#hch7 ,another psalmist says3 8,sacrifice and meal-offering thou hast no delight in2 ,mine ears hast ,thou opened2 burnt-offering and sin-offering hast ,thou not required407#hci7 ,still1 the sacrificial cult was too deeply rooted in the life of the people to be disturbed by the voice of the prophets or the words of a few psalmists4 ,it was connected with the ,temple1 and the ,temple was the center of the social life of the nation4 ,the few faint voices of protest went practically unheeded4 ,the priestly pomp of sacrifice could only be displaced by the more elevating and more spiritual devotion of the entire congregation in prayer1 and this process demanded a new environment1 and a group of men with entirely new ideas4 #g4 ,the need of a deeper devotion through prayer was not felt until the ,exile4 ,there altar and priesthood were no more1 but the words of the prophets and the songs of the ,levites remained to kindle the people's longing for ,god with a new zeal4 ,until then prayer was rare and for special occasions4 ,hannah's prayer at ,shiloh filled even the high priest with amazement47#hdj7 ,the prophets alone interceded in behalf of the people1 because the ordinary man was not considered sufficiently clean from sin to approach the ,deity in prayer4 ,but on foreign soil1 where sacrifices could not be offered to the ,god of ,israel1 the harp of ,david resounded with solemn songs expressing the national longing toward ,god4 ,the most touching psalms of penitence and thanksgiving date from the exile4 ,a select class of devout men1 called the godly or pious ones1 ,hasidim or ,anavim17#hda7 assembled by the rivers of ,babylon for regular prayer1 turning their faces toward ,jerusalem1 that the ,god of ,israel might answer them from ,his ancient seat47#hdb7 ,thus the great seer of the exile voiced the hope for 8a house of prayer for all peoples0 to stand in the very place where the sacrifices were offered to ,god47#hdc7 ,the congregation of ,hasidim elaborated a liturgy under the ,persian influence1 in which prayer was the chief element1 and the secondary part1 the instruction from the ,torah and the monitions of the prophets4 ,the ,synagogue1 the house of meeting for the people1 spread all over the world1 and by its light of truth and glow of fervor it soon eclipsed the ,temple1 with all its worldly pomp4 ,in fact1 the priesthood of the ,temple were finally compelled to make concessions to the lay movement of the ,hasidim4 ,they added a prayer service1 morning and evening1 to the daily sacrifices1 and opened the ,hall of ,hewn ,stones1 the meeting place of the ,high ,court of ,justice1 as a ,synagogue in charge of the priests47#hdd7 #h4 ,in this manner the ancient sacrificial cult1 thus long monopolized by the priesthood1 was gradually superseded by congregational prayer which was no longer confined to a certain time or class1 and justly called by the rabbis 8a service of the heart407#hde7 ,moreover1 the ,temple itself lost much of its hold upon the hearts of the people1 owing to the more spiritual character of the ,synagogue4 ,thus the torch of the ,roman soldiery which turned the ,temple into a heap of ashes broke only the national bond1 but left the religious bond of the ,synagogue unbroken4 ,true1 the hope for the restoration of the ,temple with the priestly sacrifices was not relinquished1 and officially the daily prayers were considered only a 8temporary substitute0 for the divinely ordained sacrificial cult47#hdf7 ,nevertheless1 the deeper religious consciousness of the people felt that the celestial gate of divine mercy opens only to prayer1 which emanates from the innermost depths of the soul4 ,accordingly1 some of the ,haggadists try to prove from ,scripture that prayer ranks above sacrifice17#hdg7 while others even identify worship with prayer47#hdh7 ,they represent ,god as appearing to ,moses in the guise of one who leads the congregation in prayer1 ,his face covered by the prayer-shawl 7tallith71 in order to teach man for all time the mode and power of prayer47#hdi7 ,still these remain isolated expressions of an underlying sentiment2 on the whole1 the rabbis regarded the ,mosaic legislation1 with its emphasis on sacrifice1 far too highly to accord prayer any but a secondary place1 either accompanying sacrifice or as its substitute47#hej7 #i4 ,through many centuries1 then1 the belief in the divine origin of the sacrificial cult remained1 even though it could no longer be carried out4 ,the liturgy contained prayers for the speedy restoration of the ,temple and the sacrifices1 which were preserved by tradition1 and nowhere was even an echo heard of the bold words of ,jeremiah denying the divine character of the sacrifices17#hea7 even though the idea of the restoration of the old cult must have been repugnant to thinkers4 ,the sages of former ages could only resort to a compromise or an allegorical interpretation4 ,it is noteworthy that the ,haggadist ,rabbi ,levi considered the sacrifices a concession of ,god to the people1 who were disposed to idolatry1 in order to win them gradually for the pure monotheistic ideal47#heb7 ,this view was adopted by the ,church ,fathers1 and later by ,maimonides and other medieval thinkers4 ,on the other hand1 an allegorical meaning was assigned to the sacrifices by ,philo and ,jehuda ha ,levi1 as well as by ,samson ,raphael ,hirsch in modern times47#hec7 ,reform ,judaism1 recognizing the results of ,biblical research and the law of religious progress1 adopted the prophetic view of the sacrifices4 ,accordingly1 the sacrificial cult of the ,mosaic code has no validity for the liberal movement1 and all reference to it has been eliminated from the reform liturgy4 ,in this1 however1 the connection with the past was by no means severed4 ,the main part of the service remains the same1 although much of the character and many of the details have been changed47#hed7 ,only the allusions to the ,temple worship and the sacrifices were eliminated1 and the entire form of the service was made more solemn and inspiring 8by combining ancient time-honored formulas with modern prayers and meditations in the vernacular and in the spirit of the age40 ,the morning and evening services retained their places1 while the additional festal service 7mussaf7 was abrogated1 because it stood for the additional festal sacrifice4 ,as to the voluntary element in the old sacrificial system1 the peace1 sin1 and thank-offerings1 this is replaced in the reform ritual1 as in the traditional practice1 by private devotions for special occasions1 to be selected by the individual4 ,the traditional ,jewish prayer has certainly a wondrous force4 ,it remains a source of inspiration from which the religious consciousness will ever draw new strength and vitality4 ,it echoes the voice of ,israel singing the song of redemption by the ,red ,sea3 8,this is ,my ,god1 and ,i will glorify ,him2 ,my father's ,god1 and ,i will exalt ,him407#hee7 ,consequently our liturgy must ever respond to a double demand2 it must throb with the spirit of continuity with our great past1 to make us feel one with our fathers of yore2 and it must express clearly and fully our own views and needs1 our convictions and our hopes4 ,chapter ,,xlii4 ,the ,nature and ,purpose of ,prayer #a4 ,prayer is the expression of man's longing and yearning for ,god in times of dire need and of overflowing joy1 an outflow of the emotions of the soul in its dependence on ,god1 the ever-present ,helper1 the eternal ,source of its existence4 ,springing from the deepest necessity of human weakness1 the expression of a momentary wish1 prayer is felt to be the proud prerogative of man as the child of ,god1 and at last it becomes adoration of the ,most ,high1 whose wisdom and whose paternal love and goodness inspire man with confidence and love4 #b4 ,every prayer is offered on the presumption that it will be heard by ,god on high4 8,o ,thou that hearest prayer1 unto ,thee doth all flesh come10 sings the ,psalmist47#hef7 ,no doubt of the efficacy of prayer can arise in the devout spirit4 ,there can be only the question whether1 and how far1 the ,deity can allow its decrees to be influenced by human wishes4 ,childlike faith anticipates divine interference in the natural order at any time1 because it has not yet attained the conception of a moral order in the universe and1 therefore1 expects from prayer also miraculous effects on life4 ,as the ,deity can suddenly send or withhold rain or drought1 barrenness or birth1 life or death1 so the inference is that the man of ,god can do the same with his prayer4 ,this is the point of view of the ,biblical and ,talmudic periods1 as well as of the entire ancient world4 ,it seems almost childish to our religious consciousness when1 according to ,talmudic tradition1 the high priest petitioned ,god in the ,sanctuary on the ,day of ,atonement for a year rich in rain and blessed with sunshine and with dew1 and at the same time expressed the entreaty that the prayers of travelers for dry or cool weather should find no hearing47#heg7 ,that the prayers of the pious may alter ,god's decree is not doubted for a moment by the rabbis2 only they insist that ,god has taken into account beforehand the efficacy of this prayer in deciding the fate of the pious1 in order that they may petition for that which ,he actually plans to do4 8,god longs for the prayer of the pious02 for that reason1 they say1 the ,mothers of ,israel were afflicted with barrenness1 until the prayers of the ,patriarchs had accomplished the transformation in their constitutions47#heh7 ,on the other hand1 the rabbis warn against excessive pondering over prayer and its efficacy1 as through it that childlike faith would be weakened1 which is the basis of all prayer47#hei7 #c4 ,according to the rabbinic viewpoint1 prayer has the power to reverse every heavenly decree1 inasmuch as it appeals from the punitive justice of ,god1 which has decided thus1 to ,his attributes of grace and mercy1 which can at any time effect a change4 ,when the prophet ,isaiah came to ,king ,hezekiah with the message3 8,set thine house in order1 for thou shalt die10 he replied1 8,finish thy message and go2 ,i have received the tradition from my royal ancestor ,david that1 even when the sword already touches the neck1 man shall not desist from an appeal to the divine mercy407#hfj7 ,nay more1 the rabbis believed that ,god ,himself prays1 saying1 8,oh1 that ,my mercy shall prevail over ,my justice607#hfa7 ,only after the divine judgment has been executed prayer becomes vain4 ,in general1 the entire ,talmudic period ascribed miraculous power to prayer1 especially the prayers of the pious1 like the popular saint ,onias or ,hanina ben ,dosa47#hfb7 ,in many such cases the invocation of ,god was combined with the use of the sacred name1 the tetragrammaton1 to which magical powers were ascribed47#hfc7 #d4 ,the two attributes of ,god1 ,justice and ,mercy1 correspond to the double nature of mankind1 as the sinful man1 who deserves punishment1 is called to account by the former1 while the righteous man may appeal to the latter4 ,accordingly1 the efficacy of prayer could be so explained that1 before it can influence the decision of ,god1 it demands the reformation of man4 ,while the unregenerate man meets an evil destiny1 the reformed man has become a different being1 and hence instead of justice mercy will control his fate4 ,albo pleads for this view of prayer1 when he cites the ,talmudic incident about ,r4 ,meir4 ,it is said that ,r4 ,meir interceded for the people of ,mimla1 who all seemed to have been doomed to die on attaining manhood because they inherited the curse of the priestly family of ,eli47#hfd7 ,but he also recommended to them that they should devote their lives to worthy deeds1 as it is said in the ,proverbs37#hfe7 8,the hoary head is a crown of glory1 it is found in the way of righteousness407#hff7 ,other thinkers ascribe to prayer the power to change the fate determined by the stars1 because it exalts man into a higher sphere of godliness1 exactly like the spirit of prophecy4 ,of course1 this conception is connected with the belief in astrology1 which swayed even clear thinkers like ,ibn ,ezra47#hfg7 #e4 ,according to our modern thinking there can be no question of any influence upon a ,deity exalted above time and space1 omniscient1 unchangeable in will and action1 by the prayer of mortals4 ,prayer can exert power only over the relation of man to ,god1 not over ,god ,himself4 ,this indicates the nature and purpose of prayer4 ,man often feels lonely and forlorn in a world which overpowers him1 to which he feels superior1 and yet which he cannot master4 ,therefore he longs for that unseen ,spirit of the universe1 with whom alone he feels himself akin1 and in whom alone he finds peace and bliss amid life's struggle and unrest4 ,this longing is both expressed and satisfied in prayer4 ,following the natural impulse of his soul1 man must pour out before his ,god all his desires and sighs1 all the emotions of grief and delight which sway his heart1 in order that he may find rest1 like a child at its mother's bosom4 ,therefore the childlike mind believes that ,god can be induced to come down from ,his heavenly heights to offer help1 and that ,he can be moved and influenced in human fashion4 ,the truth is that every genuine prayer lifts man up toward ,god1 satisfies the desire for ,his hallowing presence1 unlocks the heavenly gate of mercy and bliss1 and bestows upon man the beatific and liberating sense of being a child of ,god4 ,the intellect may question the effect of prayer upon the physical1 mental1 or social constitution of man1 or may declare prayer to be pious self-deception4 ,the religious spirit experiences in prayer the soaring up of the soul toward union with ,god in consecrated moments of our mortal pilgrimage4 ,this is no deception4 ,the man who prays receives from the ,godhead1 toward whom he fervently lifts himself1 the power to defy fate1 to conquer sin1 misery1 and death4 8,the ,lord is nigh to all them that call upon ,him1 to all that call upon ,him in truth407#hfh7 #f4 ,to pray1 then1 is to look up to ,god and to pour out before ,him one's wishes1 thoughts1 sorrows1 and joys4 ,certainly the ,all-knowing does not require to be told by us what we desire or what we need4 8,for there is not a word in my tongue1 but lo1 ,o ,lord1 ,thou knowest it altogether407#hfi7 ,but we mortals merely aspire toward ,him who bears the world on ,his eternal arms1 to express in ,his presence our agony and our jubilation1 because we are certain of ,his paternal sympathy4 ,when we praise and extol ,him for the happiness and the many pleasures which ,he has granted us1 ,he becomes the ,partaker and ,protector of our fortune1 just as ,he is our sympathetic ,helper when we cry out to ,him under the burden of sin or grief1 in the anxiety of danger or of guilt4 ,every genuine prayer realizes deeply the truth of the words1 8,cast thy burden upon the ,lord1 and ,he will sustain thee407#hgj7 #g4 ,self-expression before ,god in prayer has thus a double effect2 it strengthens faith in ,god's love and kindness1 as well as in ,his all-wise and all-bountiful prescience4 ,but it also chastens the desires and feelings of man1 teaching him to banish from his heart all thoughts of self-seeking and sin1 and to raise himself toward the purity and the freedom of the divine will and demand4 ,the essence of every prayer of supplication is that one should be in unison with the divine will1 to sum up all the wishes of the heart in the one phrase1 8,do that which is good in ,thine own eyes1 ,o ,lord407#hga7 ,on the other hand1 only the prayer which avoids impure thoughts and motives can venture to approach a holy ,god1 as the sages infer from the words of ,job1 8,there is no violence in my hands1 and my prayer is pure407#hgb7 #h4 ,every prayer1 teach the sages1 should begin with the praise of ,god's greatness1 wisdom1 and goodness1 in order that man should learn submission and implicit confidence before he proffers his requests47#hgc7 ,while looking up to the divine ,ideal of holiness and perfection1 he will strive to emulate ,him1 and seek to grow ever nearer to the holy and the perfect4 ,but only when he prays with and for others1 that is1 in public worship1 will he realize that he is a member of a greater whole1 for then he prays only for that which advances the welfare of all4 8,he who prays with the community10 say the rabbis1 8will have his prayer granted407#hgd7 ,another saying of theirs is that he who prays should have his face directed to the sanctuary1 and when he stands on its sacred precincts1 he should turn his face toward the ,holy of ,holies47#hge7 ,by this they meant that the attitude of the suppliant should ever be toward the highest1 making the soul soar up to the ,highest and ,holiest in reverent awe and adoration1 transforming the worshiper into a new character1 pure from all dross4 #i4 ,therefore prayer offered with the community upon the sanctified ground of the house of ,god exerts a specially powerful influence upon the individual4 ,in the silent chamber the oppressed spirit may find calm and composure in prayer2 but the pure atmosphere of heavenly freedom and bliss is attained with overwhelming might only by the united worship of hundreds of devout adorers1 which rings out like the roaring of majestic billows3 8,the ,lord is in ,his holy temple2 let all the earth keep silence before ,him407#hgf7 ,the familiar strains from days of yore touch the deep1 long-silent chords of the heart1 and awaken dormant sentiments and repressed thoughts1 endowing the soul with new wings1 to lift itself up toward ,god1 the ,father1 from whom it had felt itself alienated4 ,in the ardor of communal worship the traditional words of the prayer-book obtain invigorating power2 the heart is newly strengthened2 the covenant with heaven sealed anew4 ,to such communal prayer1 which springs from the heart1 the rabbis refer the ,biblical words1 8to serve ,him with the whole heart407#hgg7 ,the synagogal worship exerts an ennobling influence upon the spirit of the individual as well as that of the community4 ,for after all the main object is that the soul which aspires toward ,god may learn to find ,god4 8,seek ye the ,lord while ,he may be found2 call ye upon ,him while ,he is near407#hgh7 ,no man is so poor as he who calls in agony3 8,o ,god60 and to whom neither the heaven above nor the heart within answers1 8,behold1 ,god is here40 ,nor is any man so rich with all his possessions as he who realizes1 like the ,psalmist1 that 8the nearness of ,god is the true good10 and imbued with this thought exclaims1 8,whom have ,i in heaven but ,thee8 ,and beside ,thee ,i desire none upon earth407#hgi7 ,chapter ,,xliii4 ,death and the ,future ,life #a4 ,the vision of man is directed upwards and forwards2 he will not resign himself to decay in the dust like the beast4 ,as he bears in his breast the consciousness of a higher divine world1 he is equally confident of his own continuity after death4 ,he cannot and will not believe that with the giving up of his last living breath his being would become dust like that of the animal2 or that his soul1 which has hitherto accomplished and planned so much1 should now suddenly cease altogether to exist4 ,the longing for a future life1 however expressed1 has filled him and buoyed him up since the very beginning of history4 ,even the most primitive tribe does not allow its dead to lie and rot like the carcasses of the beast1 but lays them to rest in the grave with all their possessions1 in the expectation that somewhere and somehow1 under1 over or beyond the earth1 they will continue their lives1 even in a better form than before4 ,this longing for immortality implanted in the human soul is so represented in the legend of ,paradise that the tree whose fruit bestowed upon the celestial beings the gift of eternal life--like the ,greek ambrosia1 8the food of the gods0--was originally intended for mankind also in the divine 8,garden of ,bliss40 ,but after man fell through sin1 all access to it was denied him1 in order that he might not stretch out his hand for it and thereby attain that immortality which was vouchsafed only to divine beings47#hhj7 ,according to his original destiny1 therefore1 man should live forever2 and1 just as legend allows those divinely elected1 like ,enoch and ,elijah17#hha7 to ascend to heaven alive1 so at a later period prophecy predicts a time when ,god will annihilate death forever47#hhb7 ,accordingly1 through the power of his divine soul man possesses a claim to immortality1 to eternal life with ,god1 the 8,fountain of life40 #b4 ,it was just this keen longing for an energetic life on earth1 this mighty yearning to 8walk before ,god in the land of the living107#hhc7 which made it more difficult for ,judaism to brighten the 8valley of the shadow of death0 and to elevate the vague notion of a shadowy existence in the hereafter into a special religious teaching4 ,until long after the ,exile the ,jewish people shared the view of the entire ancient world1--both the ,semitic nations1 such as the ,babylonians and ,phnicians1 and the ,aryans1 such as the ,greeks and ,romans1--that the dead continue to exist in the shadowy realm of the nether world 7,sheol71 the land of no return 7,beliyaal717#hhd7 of eternal silence 7,dumah71 and oblivion 7,neshiyah717#hhe7 a dull1 ghostly existence without clear consciousness and without any awakening to a better life4 ,we must1 however1 not overlook the fact that even in these most primitive conceptions a certain imperishability is ascribed to man as marking his superiority over the animal world1 which is altogether abandoned to decay4 ,hence the belief in the existence of the shades1 the ,refaim in ,sheol47#hhf7 ,but throughout the ,biblical period no ethical idea yet permeated this conception1 and no attempt was made to transform the nether world into a place of divine judgment1 of recompense for the good and evil deeds accomplished on earth17#hhg7 as did the ,babylonians and ,egyptians4 ,both the prophets and the ,mosaic code persist in applying their promises and threats1 in fact1 their entire view of retribution1 to this world1 nor do they indicate by a single word the belief in a judgment or a weighing of actions in the world to come4 #c4 ,whether the ,mosaic-prophetic writings be regarded from the standpoint of traditional faith or of historical criticism1 the limitation of their teaching and exhortation to the present life can be considered narrowness only by biased expounders of the 8,old ,testament40 ,the ,israelitish lawgiver could not have been altogether ignorant of the ,egyptian or the ,babylonian conceptions of the future world4 ,obviously ,israel's prophets and lawgivers deliberately avoided giving any definite expression to the common belief in a future life after death1 especially as the ,canaanitish magicians and necromancers used this popular belief to carry on their superstitious practices1 so dangerous to all moral progress47#hhh7 ,the great task which prophetic ,judaism set itself was to place the entire life of men and nations in the service of the ,god of justice and holiness2 there was thus no motive to extend the dominion of ,,jhvh1 the ,god of life1 to the underworld1 the playground of the forces of fear and superstition4 ,as late as the author of the book of ,job and of the earlier ,psalms1 ,sheol was known as the despot of the nether world with its demoniacal forms1 as the 8king of terrors0 who extends his scepter over the dead47#hhi7 ,only gradually does the thought find expression in the ,psalms that the ,omnipotent ,ruler of heaven could also rescue the soul out of the power of ,sheol17#hij7 and that ,his omnipresence included likewise the nether world47#hia7 ,in this trustful spirit the ,hasidic ,psalmist expressed the hope3 8,thou wilt not abandon my soul to ,sheol1 neither wilt ,thou suffer ,thy godly one to see the pit4 ,thou makest me to know the path of life2 in ,thy presence is fulness of joy2 in ,thy right hand bliss forevermore407#hib7 #d4 ,biblical ,judaism evinced such a powerful impetus toward a complete and blissful life with ,god1 that the center and purpose of existence could not be transferred to the hereafter1 as in other systems of belief1 but was found in the desire to work out the life here on earth to its fullest possible development4 ,virtue and wisdom1 righteousness and piety1 signify and secure true life2 vice and folly1 iniquity and sin1 lead to death and annihilation4 ,this is the ever recurring burden of the popular as well as of the prophetic and priestly wisdom of ,israel47#hic7 ,in the song of thanks of ,king ,hezekiah after his recovery1 the ,jewish soul expresses itself1 when he says37#hid7 8,i said1 ,i shall not see the ,lord1 even the ,lord in the land of the living4444 ,but ,thou hast delivered my soul from the pit of corruption4 ,for the nether world cannot praise ,thee2 death cannot celebrate ,thee4 ,the living1 the living1 he shall praise ,thee1 as ,i do this day4 ,the father to the children shall make known ,thy truth40 ,therefore the author of the seventy-third ,psalm1 ennobled by trials1 finds sufficient comfort and happiness in the presence of ,god that he can spurn all earthly treasures47#hie7 ,job1 too1 in his affliction longed for death as release from all earthly pain and sorrow1 but not to bring him a state of rest and peace like the ,nirvana of the ,indian beggar-monk1 or an outlook into a better world to come4 ,such an awakening to a new life seems to him unthinkable1--although many commentators have often endeavored to read such a hope into certain of his expressions47#hif7 ,instead1 his belief in ,god as the ,ruler of the infinite world1 with ,his lofty moral purpose far outreaching all human wisdom1 lent him courage and power for further effort and persistent striving on earth4 ,since to this suffering hero1 impelled to deeds by his own energy1 life is a continuous battle1 a hereafter as a 8world of reward and punishment0 can hardly solve the great enigma of human existence in a satisfactory manner for him4 ,the wise ones--says a ,talmudic maxim--find rest neither in this world nor in the world to come1 but 8they shall ascend from strength to strength1 until they appear before ,god on ,zion407#hig7 #e4 ,in the course of time1 however1 the question of existence after death demanded more and more a satisfactory answer4 ,under the severe political and social oppression that came upon the ,jewish people1 the pious ones failed to see a just equation of man's doings and his destiny in this life4 ,the bitter disappointment which they experienced made them look to the ,god of justice for a future1 when virtue would receive its due reward and vice its befitting punishment4 ,the community of the pious especially awaited in vain the realization of the great messianic hope with which the prophetic words of comfort had filled their hearts4 ,they had willingly offered up their lives for the truth of ,judaism1 and the ,god of faithfulness could not deceive them4 ,surely the shadowy realm of the nether world could not be the end of all4 ,so the voice of promise came to them from the book of ,isaiah1 where these encouraging and comforting words were inserted by a later hand3 8,thy dead shall live2 thy 7,my7 dead bodies shall arise4 ,awake and sing1 ye that dwell in the dust1 for ,thy dew is as the dew of herbs1 and the earth shall cast forth the shades407#hih7 ,even before this time the ,god of ,israel had been praised as 8,he who killeth and maketh alive1 who bringeth down to ,sheol1 and bringeth up407#hii7 ,so was also the miraculous power of restoring the dead to life ascribed to the prophets47#ijj7 ,furthermore1 the vision of the prophet ,ezekiel concerning the dry bones which arose to new life1 in which he beheld the divine revelation of the approaching event of the restoration of the ,jewish nation17#ija7 shows how familiar the idea of resurrection must have been to the people4 ,hence the minds of the ,jewish people were sufficiently prepared to adopt the ,persian belief in the resurrection of the dead4 #f4 ,this1 however1 led to a tremendous process of transformation in ,judaism with a wide chasm between ,mosaism and ,rabbinism1 or1 more accurately1 between the ,sadducees1 who adhered to the letter of the law1 and the ,pharisees1 who embodied the progressive spirit of the people4 ,on the one hand1 ,jesus ben ,sira1 who at the close of his book speaks with great admiration of the high-priest ,simon the ,just as his contemporary1 knew as yet nothing of a future life1 and like ,koheleth saw the end of all human existence in the dismal realm of the nether world4 ,yet at the same time1 the ,hasidim or pious ones and their successors1 the ,pharisees1 were developing after the ,persian pattern the thought of a divine judgment day after death1 when the just were to awaken to eternal life1 and the evil-doers to shame and everlasting contempt47#ijb7 ,this advanced moral view1 frequently overlooked1 transformed the ancient ,semitic ,sheol from the realm of shades to a place of punishment for sinners1 and thus invested it with an ethical purpose47#ijc7 ,after this the various ,biblical names for the nether world became the various divisions of hell47#ijd7 ,indeed1 the ,psalmists and the ,proverbs had announced to the wicked their destruction in ,sheol1 and on the other hand held out for the godly the hope of deliverance from ,sheol and a beatific sight of ,god in the land of the living4 ,thus the transition was prepared for the new world-conception4 ,all the promises and threats of the law and the prophets1 when they did not receive fulfillment in this world1 appeared now to point forward to the world to come4 ,moreover1 the ,pharisees in their disputes with the ,sadducees made use of every reference1 however slight1 to the future life1--even of such passages as those which speak of the ,patriarchs as receiving the promise of possessing the ,holy ,land1 as if they were still alive1--as proofs of the continued life of the dead1 or of their resurrection47#ije7 ,thus it came about that the leading authorities of rabbinic ,judaism were in the position to declare in the ,mishnah3 8,he who says that the belief in the resurrection of the dead is not founded on the ,torah 7and therefore does not accept it7 shall have no share in the world to come407#ijf7 #g4 ,the founders of the liturgy of the ,synagogue1 in opposition to the ,sadducees1 formulated therefore the belief in resurrection in the second of the 8,eighteen 7or ,seven7 ,benedictions0 of the daily prayer in the following words3 8,thou1 ,o ,lord1 art mighty forever4 ,thou revivest the dead4 ,thou art mighty to save4 ,thou sustainest the living with loving-kindness1 revivest the dead with great mercy1 supportest the falling1 healest the sick1 loosest the bound1 and keepest ,thy faith to them that sleep in the dust4 7,this refers to the ,patriarchs1 to whom ,god has promised the land of the future47 ,who is like unto ,thee1 ,o ,lord of mighty acts1 and who resembleth ,thee1 ,o ,king1 who killest and bringest to life1 and causest salvation to spring forth8 ,yea1 faithful art ,thou to revive the dead4 ,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 who revivest the dead40 ,in this prayer dating from the age of the ,maccabees7#ijg7 the ,jewish consciousness of two thousand years found a twofold hope1--the national and the universally human4 ,the national hope1 which combined the belief in the restoration of the kingdom of ,david and of the sacrificial cult with the resurrection of the dead in the ,holy ,land1 can be understood only in connection with a historic view of ,israel's place in the world1 and is treated in the third part of this book4 ,the purely human hope for the continuity or the renewal of life rests on two fundamental problems which must be examined more closely in the next two chapters4 ,the one belongs to the province of psychology and considers the question3 ,what is the eternal divine element in man8 ,the other goes more deeply into the religious and moral nature of man and considers the question3 ,where and how does divine retribution--reward or punishment--take place in human life8 ,to both of these questions our modern view1 with its special aim toward a unified grasp of the totality of life1 requires a special answer4 ,this can be neither that of rabbinic ,judaism1 which rests upon ,persian dualism1 nor that of medieval philosophy1 which was under the ,platonic-,aristotelian influence4 ,chapter ,,xliv4 ,the ,immortal ,soul of ,man #a4 ,the idea of immortality has been found in ,scripture in a rather obscure and probably corrupt passage17#ijh7 8,in the way of righteousness is life1 and in the pathway thereof there is no death40 ,in the same spirit ,aquila1 the ,bible translator1 who belonged to the school of ,r4 ,eliezer and ,r4 ,joshua1 renders the equally obscure passage from the ,psalms17#iji7 8,he will lead us to immortality10 reading al maveth1 the ,al with ,alef1 for al muth1 the ,al with ,ayin4 ,there is more solid foundation for the view that the verse1 8,god created man in ,his own image0 implies that there is an imperishable divine essence in man4 ,in fact1 that which distinguishes man from the animal as well as from the rest of creation1 both the starry worlds above and the manifold forms of life on earth about him1 is his self-conscious personality1 his ego1 through which he feels himself akin with ,god1 the great world-ruling ,i ,am4 ,this self-conscious part of man1 which lends to his every manifestation its value and purpose1 can no more disappear into nothingness than can ,god1 who called into existence this world with all its phenomena1 who set it in motion and directs it4 ,whatever thought the crudest of men may have of his ego1 his self17#iaj7 or however the most learned scholar may explain the marvelous action and interaction of physical and psychical or spiritual forces which culminates in his own self-conscious personality1 it appears certain that this ego cannot cease to be with the cessation of the bodily functions4 ,there is in us something divine1 immortal1 and the only question is wherein it may be found4 #b4 ,the creation of man which is described in the ,bible in the words1 8,god formed man of the dust of the ground1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life1 and man became a living soul07#iaa7 corresponds to the child-like conceptions of a primitive people4 ,on the other hand1 ,scripture speaks of death in parallel terms1 8,the dust returneth to the earth as it was1 and the spirit 7,ruah1 the life-giving breath7 returneth unto ,god who gave it407#iab7 ,the conception that the soul enters into man as the breath of life and leaves him at his death1 flying toward heaven like a bird17#iac7 is quite as ancient and as universal as the other1 that the soul descends into the nether world as a shadowy image of the body1 there to continue a dull existence4 ,the two are related to one another1 and in the ,bible1 as well as in the literature of other peoples1 they have given rise to diverse definitions of the soul4 ,this was the point of departure for the development of the conception of immortality in one or the other direction1 according to whether the body was considered a part of the personality which somehow survives after death1 or only the spiritual substance of the soul was thought to live on in celestial regions as something divine4 ,the former led to the theory of the resurrection of the body and its reunion with the soul2 the latter to the belief in a future life for the soul1 after it had been separated or released from the body4 #c4 ,when once the soul was felt to be a 8lamp of the ,lord10 filling the body with light when man is awake17#iad7 it was easy to imagine that the soul had escaped and temporarily returned to ,god in sleep4 ,this induced the teachers of the ,synagogue to prescribe a morning prayer of thanks which reads1 8,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,god1 who restorest the souls unto dead bodies407#iae7 ,the conception underlying this prayer throws light upon the entire belief in resurrection4 ,death to the pious is only a prolonged sleep4 ,on that account the prophet in the passage from ,isaiah already referred to1 as well as the ,hasidic author of the ,book of ,daniel17#iaf7 could express the hope that 8those who sleep in the dust shall awake40 ,as at every awakening from sleep in the morning1 so at the great awakening in the future1 the souls which have departed in death shall return again to their bodies4 ,these bodies could then hardly be conceived of as subject to decomposition1 and the picture in ,ezekiel's vision of resurrection7#iag7 had to be accepted as fact4 ,still ,r4 ,simeon b4 ,yohai in the especially instructive thirty-fourth chapter of ,pirke de ,r4 ,eliezer assumes the complete disintegration of the body1 in order to render the miracle of resurrection so much the greater4 ,later still arose the legend of an indestructible bone of the spinal column1 called ,luz1 which was to form the nucleus for the revival of the whole body47#iah7 ,the name ,luz1 which denotes an almond tree and is the name given in the ,bible to a city also17#iai7 seemed to point to a connection with two legends1 a fabulous city into which death could not enter17#ibj7 and the tree of resurrection in the ,osiris cycle47#iba7 #d4 ,still1 no clear1 consistent view of the soul prevailed as yet in the rabbinic age4 ,the popular belief1 influenced by ,persian notions1 was that the soul lingers near the body for a certain time after it has relinquished it1 either from three to seven days or for an entire year47#ibb7 ,furthermore it was said that after death the souls hovered between heaven and earth in the form of ghosts1 able to overhear the secrets of the future decreed above and to betray them to human beings below4 ,in fact1 the rabbis of the ,talmud1 especially the ,hasidim1 never hesitated to accept these ghost stories47#ibc7 ,some sages of the ,talmudic period taught that the souls of the righteous ascend to heaven1 there to dwell under the throne of the divine majesty1 awaiting the time of the renewal of the world1 while the souls of the godless hovered over the horizon of the earth as restless demoniacal spirits1 finally to succumb to the fate of annihilation1 after they had been cast down into the fiery pit of ,gehenna or ,sheol47#ibd7 ,of course1 this view1 which prevails in both the ,talmud and the ,new ,testament1 according to which the souls of the wicked are to be consumed in the fire of ,gehenna1 is inconsistent with the conception of the purely spiritual nature of the soul4 ,nevertheless at this same epoch we find the higher idea expressed that the soul is an invisible1 god-like essence1 pervading the body as a spiritual force and differing from it in nature in much the same way as ,god is differentiated from the world47#ibe7 8,thou wishest to know where ,god dwells1 who is as high as are the heavens above the earth2 tell me then where dwells thy soul1 which is so near10 replied ,r4 ,gamaliel to a heathen47#ibf7 ,the prevailing view of the schools is that ,god implants the soul in the embryo while in the mother's womb1 together with all the spiritual potentialities which make it human4 ,in fact1 ,r4 ,simlai1 the third-century ,haggadist1 advances the ,platonic conception of the prexistence of the soul1 as a being of the highest intelligence1 which sees before birth all things throughout the world1 but forgets all at birth1 so that all subsequent learning is only a recollection47#ibg7 ,in ,hellenistic ,judaism especially the doctrine seems to have been general of the prexistence of the soul1 or of the creation of all human souls simultaneously with the creation of the world47#ibh7 ,of course1 the soul which emanates from a higher world must be eternal4 #e4 ,the first clear idea of the nature of the soul came with the philosophically trained thinkers1 who were dependent either on ,plato1 main founder of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul1 or on ,aristotle1 who ascribes immortality only to the creative spirit of ,god1 the supreme ,intelligence as a cosmic power4 ,the nearest approach to ,plato was ,philo17#ibi7 who saw in the three ,biblical names for the soul1 nefesh1 ruah1 and neshama1 the three souls of the ,platonic system1--the sensuous soul1 which has its seat in the abdomen2 the courageous or emotional soul1 situated in the breast2 and the intellectual soul1 which dwells in the brain and contains the imperishable divine nature4 ,this last is kept in its physical environment as in a prison or a grave1 and ever yearns for liberation and reunion with ,god4 ,the soul of the righteous enters the world of angels after death2 that of the wicked the world of demons4 ,saadia1 who was under the influence of ,aristotle interpreted from the neo-,platonic viewpoint1 did not share the ,platonic dualism of matter and spirit1 nor did he divide the soul into three parts1 seated in various parts of the human body4 ,he finds the soul to be a spiritual substance created simultaneously with the body1 and uniting the three forces of the soul distinguished in ,scripture into one inseparable whole1 the seat of which is in the heart1--wherefore soul and heart are often synonymous in the ,bible4 ,this indivisible substance possesses a luminous nature like that of the spheres1 but is simpler1 finer1 and purer than they1 and endowed with the power of thought4 ,it was created by ,god out of the primal ether from which ,he made the angels1 simultaneously with the body and within it4 ,by this union it was qualified to display that moral activity prescribed for it in the divine teaching1 the neglect of which would defile and tarnish it4 ,according to ,saadia some kind of material substance adheres to the soul as well as to the angels1 and on that account he does not hesitate to accept the ,talmudic expressions about the abode of the soul after death1 or the last judgment which is to take place as soon as the appointed number of souls shall have made their entrance into their earthly bodies1 when the souls of the righteous will have their angelic nature recognized1 and those of the wicked will have their lower character revealed4 ,however1 ,saadia combats with so much greater fervor the ,hindu teaching of metempsychosis1 which had been adopted by ,plato and ,pythagoras47#icj7 ,bahya connects his theory with the three souls of ,plato1 and likewise ascribes to the soul an ethereal essence47#ica7 ,he holds that its destiny is to raise itself to the order of the angels through self-purification1 and finally to return to ,god as the divine ,source of light4 ,to this end the intellectual soul1 which has its being from the primal light1 must overcome the lower sensuous soul which leads to sin4 #f4 ,the conception that the soul is a substance derived from the luminous primal matter1 like the heavenly spheres and the angels1 was now persistently retained by the ,jewish thinkers1 who explained thereby its immortality4 ,in adopting the ,aristotelian theory that the soul is the form-principle of the body1 the ,platonic doctrine of its preexistence was gradually relinquished1 and its existence ascribed to a creative act of ,god at the birth of the child or at its conception4 ,but ,jehuda ha-,levi1 the most pious of all the philosophers1 emphasized vigorously the indivisibility of the soul1 its incorporeality and its reality apart from the condition of the body1 and--in opposition to the ,aristotelian free-thinkers1 who expected the human soul to be absorbed into the divine soul1 the active intellect1--he declared the immortality of the individual a fundamental article of faith47#icb7 ,now some of the ,jewish thinkers1 following ,jehuda ha ,levi1 ,ibn ,daud1 and others1 though ,aristotelians1 shrank from the logical conclusion of denying all individuality to the soul1 and attributed to it rather a process of purification1 which ends with the elevation of the soul-essence to angelic rank and thus guarantees its immortality4 ,not so ,maimonides1 who accepted with inexorable earnestness the ,aristotelian idea of form as the perfection of matter4 ,the essence of the human soul is1 for him1 that force or potentiality which qualifies it for the highest development of the intellect1 and is alone capable of grasping the divine4 ,yet it can acquire a part in the creative ,world-spirit only in the same degree as it unfolds this potentiality to share the divine intellect1 whose seat is the highest sphere of the universe4 ,by dint of this acquired intelligence it can live on as an independent intellect1 in the image of ,god1 and thus attain beatitude in the contemplation of ,divinity47#icc7 #g4 ,naturally the view of ,maimonides1 that a certain measure of immortality is granted only to the wise1--though they must be morally perfect as well1--aroused great opposition4 ,hasdai ,crescas proves its untenableness by asking1 8,why shall the wise alone share in immortality8 ,furthermore1 how can something that came into existence in the course of human life suddenly acquire eternal duration8 ,or how can there be any bliss in the knowledge of ,god where there is no personality1 no self-conscious ego to enjoy it80 ,therefore ,crescas ascribed to the soul an indestructible spiritual essence whose perfection is attained1 not by mere intellect or knowledge1 but by love of ,god manifested in a religious and moral life1 and which is thereby made to share in eternal bliss47#icd7 #h4 ,all these various thinkers find the future life either expressed or suggested in the ,scriptures as a truth based upon reason4 ,this is especially the conception of ,abraham ibn ,daud1 who1 contrary to his ,aristotelian successor ,maimonides1 sees in self-consciousness1 by which the soul differentiates itself from the body as a personality1 the proof that it cannot be subject to dissolution with the body47#ice7 ,besides the philosophic doctrine of the immortality of the soul1 however1 the traditional belief in the resurrection of the body demanded some consideration on the part of these philosophers4 ,saadia defends the latter with all his might1 endeavoring to reconcile the two as best he can47#icf7 ,all the rest leave us in doubt whether resurrection is to be understood literally or symbolically4 ,maimonides especially involves himself in difficulties1 inasmuch as in his commentary on the ,mishna he considers the resurrection of the dead an unalterable article of faith1 whereas in his ,code7#icg7 and in the ,moreh he speaks only of immortality2 and again before the end of his life he wrote1 obviously in self-defense1 a work which seems to favor bodily resurrection1 yet without clarifying his conceptions at any time47#ich7 ,the belief in resurrection had taken too deep a root in the ,jewish consciousness and had been too firmly established through the liturgy of the ,synagogue for any philosopher to touch it without injuring the very foundations of faith4 ,moreover1 beside external caution a certain inner need seems to have impelled toward the acceptance of resurrection4 ,as soon as one thinks of the soul as existing or continuing to live in an incorporeal state1 one is involuntarily led toward the belief in the soul's prexistence or even in the possibility of metempsychosis4 ,thus it seemed more reasonable to believe in a new formation of the human body together with a new creation of the world4 ,therewith came the disposition to assign to the soul in the future world a body of finer substance1 like that assumed by the mystic ,nahmanides17#ici7 in order to assure to the new humanity a wondrous duration of life like that of ,elijah4 #i4 ,while the popular philosopher ,albo rightly declares that the nature of the soul is as far beyond all human understanding as is the nature of ,god17#idj7 the mystics sought all the more to penetrate its secrets4 ,the ,cabbalah also divides the soul into three different substances according to the three ,biblical names1 assigning their origins to the three different spheres of the universe1 and reiterating the ,platonic theory of the preexistence of the soul and its future transmigration4 ,this division into three parts provided scope for all types of theories concerning the soul in its sensuous1 its moral1 and its intellectual nature4 ,fundamentally the ,cabbalah considered the soul an emanation from the divine intellect with a luminous character just like the philosophers4 ,but in the ,platonic view of the ascending order of creation1 which forms the basis of the ,cabbalah1 this mundane life is an abyss of moral degradation1 so that the soul yearns toward the primal ,source of light1 finally to find freedom and bliss with ,god47#ida7 ,thus the later ,cabbalah returned to the teachings of ,philo1 the ,jewish ,plato1 for whom death was only the stripping off of the earthly frame in order to enter the pure and luminous world of ,god4 #aj4 ,with ,moses ,mendelssohn1 who in his ,phdon tried to translate ,plato's proof of immortality into modern terms1 a new attitude toward the nature and destiny of the soul arose in ,judaism among both the philosophers and the educated laity4 ,mendelssohn not only endeavored to prove the immortality of the soul through its indivisibility and incorporeality1 as all the neo-,platonists and ,jewish philosophers had done before him2 he also attempted to show from the harmonious plan which pervades and controls all of ,god's creation1 that the soul may enter a sphere of existence greater in extent and content than the little span of earthly life which it relinquishes4 ,the progress of the soul toward its highest unfolding1 unsatisfied in this life1 demands a future growth in the direction of god-like perfection47#idb7 ,at this point the philosopher enters the province of faith1 and thus furnishes for all time the cardinal point of the belief in immortality4 ,the divine spirit in man1 which is evinced in the self-conscious1 morally active personality1 bears within itself the proof and promise of its future life4 ,moreover1 this corresponds with the belief in ,god as ,one who rules the world for the eternal purposes and aims of perfection1 who cannot deceive the hope of the human heart for a continued living and striving onward and forward1 without thereby impairing ,his own perfection4 ,for we all close our lives without having attained the goal of moral and spiritual perfection toward which we strive2 and therefore our very nature demands a world where we may reach the higher degree of perfection for which we long4 ,in this sense we may interpret the ,psalmist's verse3 8,i shall be satisfied1 when ,i awake1 with 7beholding7 ,thy likeness407#idc7 ,that is3 our spirit1 when no longer bound to the earth1 shall behold the divine glory1--a vision which transcends our powers of thought4 #aa4 ,in the light of modern investigation1 body and soul are seen to be indissolubly bound together by a reciprocal relation which either benefits or impedes them both4 ,wherein the spiritual bond exists that renders both the physical organs with their muscular and nervous systems and the magnetic or electric currents which set them in motion subservient to the will of the intellect2 what the mind actually is1 into whose deepest recesses science is casting its search-light to illumine its processes1--these are problems which will probably remain ever incapable of solution by human knowledge1 and will therefore always afford new food for the imagination4 ,yet it is just in periods like ours1 when the belief in ,god is weakening1 that the human spirit is especially solicitous to guard itself against the thought of the complete annihilation of its god-like self-conscious personality4 ,this gives rise to the superstitious effort to spy out the soul by sensory means and to find ways of seeing or hearing the spirits of the dead1--a tendency which is as dangerous to the spiritual and moral welfare of humanity as was the ancient practice of necromancy47#idd7 ,it is therefore all the more important to base the belief in immortality solely on the ,god-likeness of the human soul1 which is the mirror of ,divinity4 ,just as one postulate of faith holds that ,god1 the ,creator of the world1 rules in accordance with a moral order1 so another is the immortality of the human soul1 which1 amidst yearning and groping1 beholds ,god4 ,the question where1 and how1 this self-same ego is to continue1 will be left for the power of the imagination to answer ever anew4 #ab4 ,certainly it is both comforting and convenient to imagine the dead who are laid to rest in the earth as being asleep and to await their reawakening4 ,as the fructifying rain awakens to a new life the seeds within the soil1 so that they rise from the depths arrayed in new raiment1 so1 when touched by the heavenly dew of life1 will those who linger in the grave arise to a new existence1 clad in new bodies4 ,this is the belief which inspired the pious founders of the synagogal liturgy even before the period of the ,maccabees1 when they expressed their praise of ,god's power in that ,he would send the fertilizing rain upon the vegetation of the earth1 and likewise in due time the revivifying dew upon the sleeping world of man4 ,both appeared to the sages of that age to be evidences of the same wonder-working power of ,god4 ,whoever1 therefore1 still sees ,god's greatness1 as they did1 revealed through miracles1 that is1 through interruptions of the natural order of life1 may cling to the traditional belief in resurrection1 so comforting in ancient times4 ,on the other hand1 he who recognizes the unchangeable will of an all-wise1 all-ruling ,god in the immutable laws of nature must find it impossible to praise ,god according to the traditional formula as the 8,reviver of the dead10 but will avail himself instead of the expression used in the ,union ,prayer ,book after the pattern of ,einhorn1 8,he who has implanted within us immortal life407#ide7 ,chapter ,,xlv4 ,divine ,retribution3 ,reward and ,punishment4 #a4 ,the feeling of equity is deeply rooted in human nature1 demanding reparation for every wanton wrong and yielding recognition to every benevolent act4 ,in fact1 upon this universal principle is based all justice and to a certain extent all morality4 ,judaism of every age compresses this demand of the religious and moral nature of man into the doctrine3 ,god rewards the good and punishes the evil4 ,this doctrine1 which is the eleventh of ,maimonides' articles of faith1 constitutes the underlying presumption of all the ,biblical narratives as well as of the prophetic threats and warnings and those of the ,mosaic law1 in so far as earthly success and prosperity were regarded as the rewards of ,god and earthly misfortune and misery as ,his punishments4 ,in the same degree1 however1 as experience contradicted this doctrine1 and as examples multiplied of wicked persons revelling in prosperity and innocent ones laboring under adversity and woe1 it became necessary to defer the divine retribution more and more to the future--at first to a future on earth and later to one in the world to come1 until finally it developed into a pure spiritual conception in full accord with a higher ethical view of life4 #b4 ,as long as in the primitive process of law the family or the clan was held responsible for the crime of the individual1 ancient ,israel also adhered to the idea that 8,god visits the sins of the fathers upon the third and fourth generation10 as ,jeremiah still did7#idf7 in full accord with the second commandment4 ,it was in a far later stage that the rabbis interpreted the words 8of those who hate ,me0 in the sense of individual responsibility47#idg7 ,only in accordance with the ,deuteronomic law which says3 8,the fathers shall not be put to death for the children1 neither shall the children be put to death for the fathers2 every man shall be put to death for his own sin107#idh7 did the religious consciousness rebel against the thought that a later generation should suffer for the sins of its ancestors1 and hence the popular adage arose1 8,the fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and the teeth of the children are set on edge407#idi7 ,it is the prophet ,ezekiel who refutes once and for all the idea of a guilt transmitted to children and consequently of hereditary sin and punishment1 insisting on the doctrine that personal responsibility alone determines divine retribution47#iej7 ,but here a new element affects divine retribution4 ,god's long-suffering and mercy do not desire the immediate punishment1 the death of the sinner4 ,he should be given time to return to a better mode of life47#iea7 ,but the great enigma of human destiny1 which vexes the author of the seventy-third ,psalm and that of the book of ,job1 still presses for a better solution4 ,it is true that the popular belief and popular legends which are preserved in post-,biblical writings as well1 insisted on a justice which requites 8measure for measure407#ieb7 ,still insight into actual life does not confirm the teaching of the popular philosophy that the 8righteous will be requited in the earth0 and that 8evil pursueth sinners407#iec7 ,the unshakeable belief in the justice of ,god had to find another solution for life's antinomies1 and was forced to reach out for another world in which the divine righteousness would find its complete realization4 #c4 ,biblical ,judaism with few exceptions recognized only the present world and the subterranean world of shadows1 a view preserved in its essentials by ,ben ,sira and the ,sadducees1 who were subsequently declared heretics4 ,in contrast to them ,pharisaic or ,rabbinic ,judaism teaches a resurrection after death for a life of eternal bliss or eternal torment1 according as the divine judgment finds one righteous and another wicked4 ,we may leave aside the consideration that the first impulse toward a ,jewish belief in resurrection came from the non-fulfillment of the national hope1 wherefore it was always bound up with the soil of the ,holy ,land1 as will be seen in ,chapter ,,liv4 ,the fact remains that the divine judgment to follow upon resurrection was consistently regarded as a great world-judgment1 which was to decide the future lot of all men and spirits4 ,it must be noted also that the apocalyptic and midrashic literature often identifies the pious with the ,god-fearing ,israelites as those who shall arise to eternal life1 while the wicked are identified with the idolatrous heathen1 who are condemned to eternal death1 or1 as it is frequently expressed1 to a second death47#ied7 #d4 ,exactly as the old ,persian ,mazdaism expected the resurrection of all1 both good and bad1 the believers in ,ahura ,mazda as well as the rest of humanity1 so the apocalyptic writers prior to the ,talmudic period describe resurrection as universal3 8,in those days the earth will give back those who have been entrusted to her1 and the nether-world will release that which it has received10 according to ,enoch ,,li1 #a4 ,similarly fourth ,esdras remarks3 8,and after seven days of silence for all creatures1 the new order of the world shall be raised up1 and mortality itself shall perish2 and the earth shall restore those that are asleep in her2 and so shall the dust give back those that dwell in silence2 and the chambers shall deliver those souls that were committed unto them4 ,the ,most ,high shall appear on the throne of judgment1 and shall say3 ,judgment only shall remain1 truth shall stand1 and faith shall wax strong4 ,the good deeds shall be of force1 and wicked deeds shall no longer sleep4 ,the lake of torment shall be revealed1 and opposite to it the place of joy2 the furnace of ,gehinnom will be visible1 and opposite to it the bliss of ,paradise4 ,then the ,most ,high will speak to the heathen nations1 who have awakened3 behold now ,him whom ye have denied1 whom ye have not served1 whose command ye have abhorred4 ,gaze now here and there1--here bliss and rest1 there fire and torment407#iee7 ,the rabbinic form of the doctrine of resurrection is quite unambiguous3 8,those born into the world are destined to die2 the dead1 to live again2 and those who enter the world to come1 to be judged407#ief7 ,and wherever the rabbinic or apocalyptic literature mentions the share of the pious1 or of ,israel1 in eternal life1 this implies that1 while these enter the world to come1 the evil-doers or idolaters shall enter hell for eternal death2 the understanding being that there is a universal resurrection for the world-judgment4 #e4 ,the whole system of eschatology in connection with resurrection arose undoubtedly from the ,persian doctrine1 according to which death together with all that is evil and unclean is created by ,ahriman1 the evil principle1 and will suffer annihilation with him1 as soon as the good principle1 ,ahura ,mazda1 has achieved the final victory4 ,then ,soshiosh 8the ,savior10 the descendant of ,zoroaster1 will begin his kingdom of eternal life for the righteous1 coincident with the awakening of the dead47#ieg7 ,pharisaic ,judaism1 however1 gave the hope of resurrection a deeper moral and religious meaning4 ,the proofs1 or rather analogies from nature1 of the seeds springing from the earth in a new form1 of men awakening from sleep in the morning1 or of the original creation1 are shared by the rabbis and the ,new ,testament writers with the ,persians4 ,on the other hand1 proofs based on the prophetic hope for the future are purely national4 ,so also are those proofs based on the ,biblical passage that the ,god of the fathers had sworn to the ,patriarchs to give them the ,promised ,land47#ieh7 ,likewise the reference to the wondrous resurrections related in the history of ,elijah and ,elisha offers no proof of a universal resurrection4 ,a striking point and one which deepens the idea of retribution is the simile of the ,lame and the ,blind7#iei7 employed by ,jehuda ha ,nasi in a dialogue with the ,emperor ,antoninus4 ,the latter had said that at the last judgment both soul and body might deny all guilt4 ,the body may say3 8,the soul alone has sinned1 for since it has parted from me1 ,i have lain motionless as a stone40 ,and the soul1 on its part1 may reply3 8,it must be the body that sinned1 for since ,i have parted from it ,i soar about in the air free as a bird40 ,to this ,jehuda ha ,nasi answered3 8,a king once possessed a garden with splendid fig-trees1 and appointed as watchmen in it a blind man and a lame man4 ,then the lame man spoke to the blind man1 #8,i see fine figs up there2 take me upon your shoulders1 and ,i shall pick them1 and we can enjoy them together4' ,they did so1 and when the king entered the garden1 the figs were gone4 ,but when they were held to account for it1 the lame man said1 #8,how could ,i have taken them1 since ,i cannot walk8' ,and the blind man said1 #8,and ,i cannot see4' ,then the king had the lame man placed upon the shoulders of the blind man and judged them both together4 ,in like manner will ,god treat the body and the soul1 as it is said37#ifj7 #8,he calleth to the heavens above--that is1 the heavenly element1 the soul--and to the earth beneath--the earthly body--and places them together before ,his throne of judgment4' 0 #f4 ,it cannot be denied that the idea that the soul and body1 having committed good or evil deeds together in this life1 should receive in common their reward or punishment in the world to come1 satisfied the ,jewish sense of justice better than the conception developed by ,hellenistic ,judaism 7after the ,platonic and1 in the last resort1 the ,egyptian view7 that the soul alone should partake of eternal bliss or torment4 ,nevertheless the philosophically trained ,jewish thinkers of ,alexandria could not bring themselves to accept a bodily resurrection1 and therefore emphasized so much more strongly the great day of judgment and the reward and punishment of the soul in the world to come4 ,still we find much inconsistency among various authors1 sometimes even in the same work1 in the conception of future bliss for the good and torture for the wicked4 ,these varied according to the more sensuous or more spiritual view taken of the soul and the celestial world1 and according to the literal or figurative interpretation of the ,biblical allusions to 8fire10 8worms10 and the like in the punishment of evil-doers1 and of the delights awaiting the righteous in the future47#ifa7 ,on this point free play was allowed to the imagination of the people and the fancy of the ,haggadists4 ,still1 throughout1 the solemn thought found its echo that mortal man must give account to the inexorable ,judge of the living and the dead for the life just completed1 in order to be ushered1 according to his deserts1 into the portals of the celestial ,paradise or of hell47#ifb7 ,this led to the view that this whole mundane life is but like a wayfarers' inn for the life to come1 or the vestibule of the palace 7more precisely the 8banquet-hall07 of the future47#ifc7 #g4 ,a further development of the principle of justice in application to future retribution led not merely to such a depiction of the tortures of hell and the delights of heaven that the maxim3 8measure for measure10 so often deviated from in this life1 could find complete realization in the world to come4 ,an intermediate stage also was devised for those whose merit or guilt would enroll them neither among the righteous for eternal bliss1 nor among the wicked for eternal punishment4 ,while the stern teachers of the school of ,shammai insisted that these mediocre ones must undergo a twelve-month process of purification in the fires of ,gehenna1 the milder school of ,hillel maintained that the divine mercy would grant them admission into ,paradise even without the fires of purgatory7#ifd71 either through the merit of the patriarchs7#ife7 or owing to the deserts of a son who has been trained to reverence for ,god1 as is indicated by the legend concerning the ,kaddish prayer47#iff7 ,in any case1 the teaching of ,hillel concerning the all-sufficing mercy of ,god swept aside the old hopeless conception that eternal suffering in hell awaits the average man1 which was adhered to by the ,christian church in connection with its dogma of the atoning blood of ,christ4 ,likewise1 in the dispute of schools as to whether or not the bliss of eternal life would be accorded also to the righteous among the heathen1 the more humane view of ,joshua ben ,hananiah prevailed over the gloomier one of the ,shammaite ,eliezer ben ,hyrcanos1 and therefore the doctrine became generally accepted1 8,the righteous of all nations shall have a share in the world to come407#ifg7 #h4 ,the apocalyptic writers1 who largely influenced the ,new ,testament1 and also the ,haggadists refer with fond interest to the banquet of the pious in the world to come1 where they would be served with heavenly manna as bread1 with wine preserved from the days of the creation1 and with the flesh of the ,leviathan or the fruit of the ,tree of ,life47#ifh7 ,on the other hand they elaborated the tortures of the evil-doers in hell which are to afford a pleasing sight to the pious in heaven1 just as the torments of the sinners are aggravated by the sight of the righteous enjoying all delights47#ifi7 ,but at the same time we meet with a more refined and spiritual conception of future reward and punishment among the disciples of ,r4 ,jehuda ha ,nasi1 in the ,babylonian ,rab1 and the ,palestinian ,r4 ,johanan and his pupil ,simeon ben ,lakish4 8,in the future world10 says ,rab1 8there are no sensual enjoyments nor passions1 but the righteous sit at the table of ,god with wreaths upon their heads 7like the ,greek sages at a symposium671 feeding on the radiance of the divine majesty1 as did the chosen ones of ,israel on the heights of ,sinai407#igj7 ,r4 ,johanan teaches1 8,all the promises held forth in ,scripture in definite form as reward for the future1 refer to the ,messianic era1 whereas in regard to the bliss awaiting the pious in the world to come1 the words of ,isaiah hold good3 #8,no eye hath seen it1 ,o ,god1 beside ,thee4' 07#iga7 ,simeon ben ,lakish even went so far as to say1 8,there is neither hell nor paradise4 ,instead1 ,god sends out the sun in its full strength from its encasement1 and the wicked are consumed by its heat1 while the pious find delight and healing in its beams407#igb7 ,however1 the popular imagination demanded more perceptible pictures of heaven and hell1 if fear of punishment was to deter men from sin1 and hope of reward to lead them to virtue4 ,the description of the modes of reward and punishment for the future in the ,koran is the outcome of mingled ,persian and ,jewish popular conceptions1 and its crass sensuousness exerted in turn a decisive influence upon the entire ,gaonic period17#igc7 leaving its mark upon even so clear a thinker as ,saadia4 ,not only does he admit into his philosophic work all the crude and conflicting descriptions of the future world1 but he also argues for the eternity of the punishments of hell and of the delights of heaven as logical necessities1 because only such could sufficiently deter or allure mankind1 and a righteous ,god must certainly carry out ,his threats and promises47#igd7 #i4 ,the entire ,jewish philosophy or theology of the ,middle ,ages remained under the influence of the traditional belief in resurrection4 ,even ,maimonides1 whose purely spiritual conception of the soul and of salvation is utterly irreconcilable with the belief in bodily resurrection1 and who accordingly dwells instead1 in both his ,moreh and his ,code1 on the future world of spirits1 with explicit emphasis on their incorporeality1 did not have the courage to break altogether with the traditional belief in resurrection4 ,in his apologetic treatise on resurrection he even attempts to present it as a miraculous act of ,god beyond the grasp of the intellect4 ,he omits1 however1 to specify what purpose this miracle may serve1 since in the ,maimonidean system reward and punishment would be administered in the world of spirits in a much purer and more satisfactory manner47#ige7 ,the same standpoint is taken also by ,jehuda ha ,levi as well as by ,crescas and ,albo47#igf7 ,if then resurrection be a miracle1 it falls outside the scope of philosophic speculation and becomes a matter of faith2 accordingly the mystics from ,nahmanides down to ,manasseh ben ,israel associated with it the grossest conceptions47#igg7 #aj4 ,the actual view of ,maimonides concerning future retribution is expressed clearly and unambiguously in both his early product1 the commentary on the ,mishna1 and in the ripest fruit of his life work1 the ,mishneh ,torah1 where he says 8,not immortality1 but the power to win eternal life through the knowledge and the love of ,god is implanted in the human soul4 ,if it has the ability to free itself from the bondage of the senses and by means of the knowledge of ,god to lift itself to the highest morality and the purest thinking1 then it has attained divine bliss1 true immortality1 and it enters the realm of the eternal ,spirit together with the angels4 ,if it sinks into the sensuousness of earthly existence1 then it is cut off from eternal life2 it suffers annihilation like the beast4 ,in reality this life eternal is not the future1 but is already potentially present and invariably at hand in the spirit of man himself1 with its constant striving toward the highest4 ,when the rabbis speak of paradise and hell1 describing vividly the delights of the one and the torments of the other1 these are only metaphors for the agony of sin and the happiness of virtue4 ,true piety serves ,god neither from fear of punishment nor from desire for reward1 as servants obey their master1 but from pure love of ,god and truth4 ,thus the saying of ,ben ,azai is verified1 #8,the reward of a good deed is the good deed itself4'7#igh7 ,only children need bribes and threats to be trained to morality4 ,thus religion trains mankind4 ,the people who cannot penetrate into the kernel need the shell1 the external means of threats and promises407#igi7 ,these splendid words of the great thinker require supplementing or modification in only one direction1 and that has been afforded by the keenest critic among ,jewish philosophers1 ,hasdai ,crescas4 ,too deeply enmeshed in the ,aristotelian system1 ,maimonides found the happiness and immortality of man solely in the acquired intellectual power which becomes part of the divine intellect1 and the mere knowledge of ,god is to him tantamount to the blissful enjoyment of the pious in the radiance of ,god's majesty4 ,consequently those who strive and soar heavenward through their moral conduct and noble aspirations1 without at the same time being thinkers1 receive no reward4 ,against this ,aristotelian one-sidedness ,crescas emphasizes ,god's love and goodness for which the righteous yearn1 and in whose pursuit man finds perfection and happiness4 ,not for the sake of attaining bliss shall we love ,god and practice virtue and truth1 but to love ,god and practice virtue is itself true bliss4 ,this is the nearness of ,god referred to by the ,psalmist and declared to be man's highest good47#ihj7 ,there is no need of any other reward than this1 and there is no greater punishment than to be deprived of this boon forever47#iha7 #aa4 ,in the face of these two great thinkers1 to whom ,spinoza owes the fundamental ideas of his ethics17#ihb7 the question considered by ,albo1 whether the eternal duration of the tortures of hell is reconcilable with the divine mercy17#ihc7 a question which still plays an important rle in ,christian theology1 and which was probably suggested to ,albo through his disputations with representatives of the ,church1--is for us superfluous and superseded4 ,our modern conceptions of time and space admit neither a place or a world-period for the reward and punishment of souls1 nor the intolerable conception of eternal joy without useful action and eternal agony without any moral purpose4 ,modern man knows that he bears heaven and hell within his own bosom4 ,indeed1 so much more difficult is the life of duty which knows of no other reward than happiness through harmony with ,god1 the ,father of the immortal soul1 and of no other punishment than the soul's distress at its inner discord with the primal ,source and the divine ,ideal of all morality4 ,all the more powerfully is modern man controlled by the thought that the universe permits no stagnation1 no barren enjoyment or barren suffering1 but that every death marks the transition to a higher goal for greater accomplishment4 ,this yearning of the soul finds expression in the ,talmudic maxim1 8,the righteous find rest neither in this world1 nor in the world to come1 as it is said1 #8,they go from strength to strength1 until they appear before ,god on ,zion4' 07#ihd7 ,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,the ,individual and the ,race #a4 ,in every system of belief the object of divine care and guidance is the individual4 ,his soul and his conscience raise him up1 especially according to the ,jewish doctrine1 to the divine image1 to ,godchildship4 ,his freedom and moral responsibility are the patent of nobility for his divine nature2 his ego1 controlling external forces and carrying out its own designs1 vouches for his immortality4 ,nevertheless the spirit of the ,biblical language indicates rightly that the individual is only a son of man1--ben adam1--that is1 a segment or member of the human race1 but not the perfect typical exemplification of the whole of mankind4 ,from the social organism he receives what he is1 what he has1 and what he ought to do1 both his nature and his destiny2 and only in association with the community and under the guidance of the highest ideal of humanity can he attain true perfection4 ,only mankind as a whole1 in its coperation1 as it extends over the vast expanse of the earth1 and in its succession which reaches through the centuries of the world's history1 can bring to full development the divine image in man1 his moral and religious nature with all its varied potentialities4 ,it is man collectively who in the first chapter of ,genesis receives the command to subject the earth with all its creatures to his cultural purposes47#ihe7 ,in whatever stage of culture we meet man1 his modes of thought and speech1 his customs and moral views1 even his spiritual faculties are the result of a long historic process of development1 the product of an extremely complicated past1 as well as the basis of a future which expands in all directions4 ,the ancients expressed this in their suggestive way1 remarking in connection with the verse of the ,psalm1 8,thine eyes did see mine unformed substance1 and in ,thy book they were all written107#ihf7 that at the creation of the first man ,god recorded the succession of races with their sages1 seers and leaders until the end of time47#ihg7 ,and when the ,haggadists say that in creating man ,god took dust from every part of the world1 so that he would be everywhere at home17#ihh7 again they were thinking of mankind4 ,similarly in the passage from the ,psalms1 8,thou hast hemmed me in behind and before10 they explain that ,god made the first man with two faces1 one looking forward and the other backward1 that is1 with a ,janus head2 and thus they regard man in his relation to the past and the future1 in his historic continuity47#ihi7 ,as both physically and spiritually he is the heir of innumerable ancestors who have transmitted to him with their blood all their idiosyncrasies and capacities in a peculiar combination1 so will he transmit both consciously and unconsciously the inherited possessions of mankind to future generations for continued growth or for degeneration4 ,he forms but a link in the great chain of history1 whose goal is the perfected ideal of humanity1 the completed idea of man4 ,this was the underlying thought of ,ben ,azzai in his dispute with ,r4 ,akiba1 who held that the principal maxim of ,jewish teaching is 8,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself40 ,in opposition to this ,ben ,azzai presented as the most important lesson of the ,bible the verse which says1 8,this is the book of the generations of man2 in the day that ,god created man1 in the likeness of ,god made ,he him407#iij7 ,the godlikeness of man develops more and more through the evolution of the human race4 ,this is the basic force for all human love and all human worth4 #b4 ,this social bond existing between the individual and the race imposes upon him in accordance with his occupation certain duties in the same degree as it confers benefits4 ,ben ,zoma1 a colleague of ,ben ,azzai1 expressed this as follows3 ,when he saw great crowds of people together1 he exclaimed1 8,praised be ,thou who hast created all these to serve me40 ,in explanation of this blessing he said1 8,how hard the first man in his loneliness must have toiled1 until he could eat a morsel of bread or wear a garment1 but ,i find everything prepared4 ,the various workmen1 from the farmer to the miller and the baker1 from the weaver to the tailor1 all labor for me4 ,can ,i then be ungrateful and be oblivious of my duty807#iia7 ,in the same sense he interprets the last verse in ,koheleth1 8,this is the end of the matter2 fear ,god and keep ,his commandments1 for this is the whole duty of man40 ,that is to say1 all mankind toils for him who does so4 ,thus does human life rest upon a reciprocal relation1 upon mutual duty47#iib7 #c4 ,man is a social being who must strike root in many spheres of life in order that the variegated blossoms and fruits of his spiritual and emotional nature may sprout forth4 ,the more richly the communal life is specialized into professions and occupations1 the more does the province of the individual expand1 and the more difficult it is for him to attain perfection on all sides4 ,according to his faculties and predisposition he must always develop one or the other side of human endeavor and pursue now the beautiful1 now the good1 now the true and now the useful1 if as the image of ,god he is to emulate the ,ideal of all existence1 the ,pattern of all creation4 ,consequently he may reflect some radiance of the divine glory in his character and achievements1 whether as moral hero1 as sage and thinker1 as statesman and battler for freedom1 as artist1 or as the discoverer of new forces and new worlds2 and yet the full splendor of ,god's greatness is mirrored only by mankind as a whole through its ceaseless common action and interaction4 ,therefore ,judaism deprecates every attempt to present a single individual1 be he ever so noble or wise1 as the ideal of all human perfection1 as a perfect man1 free from fault or blemish4 8,there is none holy as the ,lord1 for there is none beside ,thee10 says ,scripture47#iic7 ,instead of extolling any single mortal as the type or ideal of perfection1 our sages rather say with reference to the lofty characters of the ,bible3 8,there is no generation which cannot show a man with the love for righteousness of an ,abraham1 or the nobility of spirit of a ,moses1 or the love for truth of a ,samuel407#iid7 ,that is to say1 every age creates its own heroes1 who reflect the majesty of ,god in their own way4 #d4 ,as man is the keystone of all creation1 so he is called upon to take his full share in the progress of the race4 8,he who formed the earth created it not a waste2 ,he formed it to be inhabited10 says the prophet47#iie7 ,true humanity has its seat1 not in the life of the recluse1 but in the family circle1 amid mutual love and loyalty between husband and wife1 between parents and children4 ,the sages1 with their keen insight into the spirit of the ,scripture1 point to the fact that it is man and wife together who first receive the name of 8man10 because only the mutual helpfulness and influence1 the care and toil for one another draw forth the treasures of the soul1 and create relations which warrant permanency and give promise of a future47#iif7 #e4 ,still the family circle itself is only a segment of the nation1 which creates speech and custom1 and assigns to each person his share in the common activity of the various classes of men4 ,only within the social bond of the nation or tribe is the interdependence of all brought home to the consciousness of the individual1 together with all the common moral obligations and religious yearnings4 ,through the few elect ones of the nation or tribe1 ,god's voice is heard as to what is right in both custom and law1 and through them the individual is roused to a sense of duty4 ,it is society which enables the human mind to triumph over physical necessity by ever new discoveries of tools and means of life1 thus to attain freedom and prosperity1 and1 through meditation over the continually expanding realm of ,god's world1 to build up the various systems of science and of art4 #f4 ,but the single nation also is too dependent upon the conditions of its historic past1 of its land and its racial characteristics1 to bring the divine image to its full development in a perfect man4 ,humanity as a whole comes to its own1 to true self-consciousness1 only through the reciprocal contact of race with race1 through the coperation of the various circles and classes of life which extend beyond the narrow limits of nationality and have in view common interests and aims1 whether in the pursuit of truth1 in the achievement of good1 or in the creation of the useful and the beautiful4 ,only when the various nations and groups of men learn to regard themselves as members of one great family1 will the life of the individual find its true value in relation to the idea and the ideal of humanity4 ,then only will the unity and harmony of the entire cosmic life find its reflection in the blending of the factors and forces of human society4 #g4 ,judaism has evolved the idea of the unity of mankind as a corollary of its ethical monotheism4 ,therefore the ,bible begins the history of the world with the creation of ,adam and ,eve1 the one human pair4 ,the covenant which ,god concluded after the flood with ,noah1 the father of the new mankind1 has its corresponding goal at the end of time in the divine covenant which is to include all tribes of men in one great brotherhood2 and so also the dispersion of man through the confusion of tongues at the building of the ,tower of ,babel has its counterpart in the rallying of all nations at the end of time for the worship of the ,one and ,only ,god in a pure tongue and a united spirit on ,zion's heights47#iig7 ,whatever the civilizations of ,greece and ,rome and the ,stoic philosophy have achieved for the idea of humanity1 ,judaism has offered in its prophetic hope for a ,messianic future the guiding idea for the progress of man in history1 thus giving him the impulse to ceaseless efforts toward the highest of all aims for the realization of which all nations and classes1 all systems of faith and thought1 must labor together for millenniums to come4 ,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,the ,moral ,elements of ,civilization #a4 ,because ,judaism sees the attainment of human perfection only when the divine in man has reached complete development through the unimpeded activity of all his spiritual1 moral1 and social forces1 it insists upon the full recognition of all branches of human society as instruments of man's elevation1 either individually or collectively4 ,it deprecates the idea that any force or faculty of human life be regarded as unholy and therefore be suppressed4 ,it thus rejects on principle monastic renunciation and isolation1 pointing to the ,scriptural verse1 8,he who formed the earth created it not a waste2 ,he formed it to be inhabited47#iih70 #b4 ,accordingly ,judaism regards the establishment of family life through marriage as a duty obligatory on mankind1 and sees in the entrance into the marital relation an act of life's supreme consecration4 ,in contrast to the celibacy sanctioned by the ,church and approved by the rabbis only under certain conditions1 and exceptionally for their holy exercises by the ,essenes1 the ,tannaite ,r4 ,eliezer pronounces the man who through bachelorhood shirks the duty of rearing children to be guilty of murder against the human race4 ,another calls him a despoiler of the divine image4 ,another rabbi says that such a one renounces his privilege of true humanity1 in so far as only in the married state can happiness1 blessing1 and peace be attained47#iii7 ,it is significant as to the spirit of ,judaism that1 while other religions regard the celibacy of the priests and saints as signs of highest sanctity1 the ,jewish law expressly commands that the high priest shall not be allowed to observe the solemn rites of the ,day of ,atonement if unmarried47#ajjj7 ,love for the wife1 the keeper and guardian of the home1 must attune his heart to tenderness and sympathy1 if he is to plead for the people before the ,holy ,god4 ,he can make intercession for the household of ,israel only if he himself has founded a family1 in which are practiced faithfulness and modesty1 love and regard for the life-companion1 all the domestic virtues inherited from the past4 #c4 ,another moral factor for human development is industry1 which secures to the individual his independence and his dignity when he engages in creative labor after the divine pattern1 and which rewards him with comfort and the joy of life4 ,this also is so highly valued by ,judaism that industrial activity1 which unlocks from the earth ever new treasures to enrich human life1 is enjoined upon all1 even those pursuing more spiritual vocations4 8,seest thou a man diligent in his business8 ,he shall stand before kings407#ajja7 8,when thou eatest the labor of thy hands1 happy art thou and it shall be well with thee407#ajjb7 ,in commenting on this last verse1 the sages say3 8,this means that thou wilt be doubly blessed2 happy art thou in this world1 and it shall be well with thee in the world to come407#ajjc7 ,again they say1 8,no labor1 however humble1 is dishonoring107#ajjd7 also3 8,idleness1 even amid great wealth1 leads to the wasting of the intellect407#ajje7 ,moreover it is said1 8,whoever neglects to train his son to a trade1 rears him to become a robber407#ajjf7 ,true1 there were some among the pious who themselves abstained from participation in industry1 and therefore proclaimed1 in the same tenor as the ,sermon on the ,mount1 8,behold the beasts of the field and the birds of heaven1 they sow not and reap not1 and their heavenly ,father cares for them407#ajjg7 ,but these formed an exception1 while the majority of ,jewish teachers extolled the real blessing of labor and its efficacy in ennobling heart and spirit47#ajjh7 #d4 ,neither does ,judaism begrudge man the joy of life which is the fruit of industry1 nor rob it of its moral value4 ,on the contrary1 that ascetic spirit which encourages self-mortification and rigid renunciation of all pleasure is declared sinful47#ajji7 ,instead1 we are told that in the world to come man shall have to give account for every enjoyment offered him in this life1 whether he used it gratefully or rejected it in ingratitude47#ajaj7 ,abstinence is declared to be praiseworthy only in curbing wild desires and passions4 ,for the rest1 true piety lies in the consecration of every gift of ,god1 every pleasure of life which ,he has offered1 and using it in ,his service1 so that the seal of holiness shall be imprinted even upon the satisfaction of the most sensuous desires4 #e4 ,judaism1 then1 lays special emphasis upon sociability as advancing all that is good and noble in man4 ,the life of the recluse1 according to its teaching1 is of little use to the world at large and hence of no moral value4 ,only in association with one's fellow-men does life find incentive and opportunity for worthy work4 8,either a life among friends or death0 is a ,talmudic proverb47#ajaa7 ,unselfish friendship like that of ,david and ,jonathan is lauded and pointed out for imitation47#ajab7 ,through it man learns to step beyond the narrow boundaries of his ego1 and in caring for others he will purify and exalt his own soul1 until at last its love will include all mankind4 #f4 8,iron sharpeneth iron2 so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend10 says the book of ,proverbs17#ajac7 and the sages derive from this verse the doctrine that learning does not thrive in solitude47#ajad7 ,a single log does not nourish the flame2 to keep up the fire one must throw in one piece of wood after the other4 ,this applies also to learning2 it lacks in vigor1 if it is not communicated to others4 ,wisdom calls to her votaries on the highways1 in order that the stream of knowledge may overflow for many4 ,for both the culture of the intellect and the ennobling of the soul it is necessary that man should step out of the narrow limits of self and come into touch with a larger world4 ,only in devotion to his fellows is man made to realize his own godlike nature4 ,in the same measure as he honors ,god's image in others1 in foe as well as in friend1 in the most lowly servant as well in the most noble master1 man increases his own dignity4 ,this is the fundamental thought of morality as expressed in ,job1 especially in the beautiful thirty-first chapter1 and as embodied in ,abraham17#ajae7 and later reflected in various ,talmudic sayings about the dignity of man47#ajaf7 ,everywhere man's relation to society becomes a test of his own worth4 ,the idea of interdependence and reciprocal duty among all members of the human family forms the outstanding characteristic of ,jewish ethics4 ,for it is far more concerned in the welfare of society than in that of the individual1 and demands that those endowed with fortune should care for the unfortunate1 the strong for the weak1 and those blessed with vision for the blind4 ,as ,god ,himself is ,father to the fatherless1 ,judge of the widows1 and ,protector of the oppressed1 so should man be4 8,works of benevolence form the beginning and the end of the ,torah10 points out ,r4 ,simlai47#ajag7 #g4 ,it is in the life of the nation that the individual first realizes that he is only a part of a greater whole4 ,the nation to which he belongs is the mother who nourishes him with her spirit1 teaches him to speak and to think1 and equips him with all the means to take part in the achievements and tasks of humanity4 ,in fact1 the ,state1 which guarantees to all its citizens safety1 order and opportunity under the law1 and which arranges the relations of the various groups and classes of society that they may advance one another and thus promote the welfare and progress of all1 is human society in miniature4 ,here the citizen first learns obedience to the law which is binding upon all alike1 then respect and reverence for the authority embodied in the guardians of the law who administer justice 8which is ,god's10 and hence also loyalty and devotion to the whole1 together with reciprocal obligation and helpfulness among the separate members and classes of society4 ,the words of ,jeremiah to his exiled brethren1 8,seek ye the peace of the city whither ,i have caused you to be carried away captive1 and pray unto the ,lord for it1 for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace107#ajah7 became the guiding maxim of ,jewry when torn from its native soil4 ,it impressed upon them1 once for all1 the deeply rooted virtues of loyalty and love for the country in which they dwelt4 ,to pray for the welfare of the ,state and its ruler1 under whose dominion all citizens were protected1 and so in modern times for its legislative and administrative authorities1 has become a sacred duty of the ,jewish religious community4 ,to sacrifice one's life willingly1 if need be1 for the welfare of the country in which he lived1 was a demand of loyalty which the ,jew has never disregarded4 8,the law of the ,state is as the law of ,god07#ajai7 taught ,samuel the ,babylonian1 and another sage of ,babylon said1 8,the government on earth is to be regarded as an image of ,god's government in heaven407#ajbj7 #h4 ,but1 after all1 the community of the ,state or the nation is too confined in its cultural work by its special interests and particular tasks ever to reach the universal ideal of man1 that is1 a perfected humanity4 ,where the interests of one ,state or nation come into conflict with those of another1 far too often the result is enmity and murderous warfare4 ,therefore there must be a higher power to quench the brands of war whenever they flare up1 to cultivate every motive leading toward peace and harmony among nations1 to impel men toward a higher righteousness and to obviate all conflict of interests1 because in place of selfishness it implants in the heart the self-forgetfulness of love4 ,religion is the power which trains peoples as well as individuals toward the conception of one humanity1 in the same measure as it points to the one and only ,god1 ,ruler over all the contending motives of men1 the ,source and ,shield of all righteousness1 truth1 and love1 the ,father of mankind as the only foundation upon which the grand edifice of human civilization must ultimately rest4 ,thus it teaches us to regard the common life and endeavor of peoples and societies as one household of divine goodness4 ,every system of belief1 every religious denomination which transcends the limits of the national consciousness with a view to the broader conception of mankind1 and binds the national groups and interests into a higher unity to include and influence all the depths and heights of the human spirit1 paves the way toward the attainment of the mighty goal4 ,in the same sense the united efforts of the various classes and societies or ,states for the common advance of culture1 prosperity1 national welfare and international commerce1 as well as of science and art1 tend unceasingly toward that full realization of the idea of humanity which constitutes the brotherhood of man4 #i4 ,not yet has any religious body1 however great and remarkable its accomplishments may have been1 nor any of the religious1 scientific1 or national organizations1 much as they have achieved1 performed the sublime task which the prophets of ,israel foretold as the goal of history4 ,each one has drawn to itself only a portion of mankind1 and promised it success or redemption and bliss1 while the rest have been excluded and denied both temporal and eternal happiness4 ,each one has singled out one side of human nature in order to link to it the entire absolute truth1 but at the same time has underestimated or cast aside all other sides of human life1 and thereby blocked the road to complete truth1 which can never be presented in final form1 nor ever be the exclusive possession of one portion of humanity4 ,judaism1 which is neither a religious nor a national system solely1 but aims to be a covenant with ,god uniting all peoples1 lays claim to no exclusive truth1 and makes its appeal to no single group of mankind4 ,the ,messianic hope1 which aims to unite all races and classes of men into a bond of brotherhood1 has become an impelling force in the history of the world1 and both ,christianity and ,islam1 in so far as they owe their existence to this hope and to the adoption of ,jewish teachings1 constitute parts of the history of ,judaism4 ,between these world-religions with their wide domains of civilization stands the little ,jewish people as a cosmopolitan element4 ,it points to an ideal future1 with a humanity truly united in ,god1 when1 through ceaseless progress in the pursuit of ever more perfect ideals1 truth1 justice1 and peace will triumph1--to the realization of the kingdom of ,god4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,israel ,,and ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god ,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,the ,election of ,israel #a4 ,the central point of ,jewish theology and the key to an understanding of the nature of ,judaism is the doctrine1 8,god chose ,israel as ,his people40 ,the election of ,israel as the chosen people of ,god1 or1 what amounts to the same1 as the nation whose special task and historic mission it is to be the bearer of the most lofty truths of religion among mankind1 forms the basis and the chief condition of revelation4 ,before ,god proclaimed the ,ten ,words of the ,covenant on ,sinai1 ,he addressed the people through ,his chosen messenger1 ,moses1 saying3 8,ye have seen what ,i did unto the ,egyptians1 and how ,i bore you on eagles' wings1 and brought you unto ,myself4 ,now therefore1 if ye will hearken unto ,my voice1 indeed1 and keep ,my covenant1 then ye shall be ,mine own treasure from among all peoples1 for all the earth is ,mine2 and ye shall be unto ,me a kingdom of priests1 and a holy nation407#ajba7 #b4 ,the fact of ,israel's election by ,god as ,his peculiar nation is repeated in ,deuteronomy1 with the special declaration that ,god had found delight in them as the smallest of the peoples1 on account of the love and the faith ,he had sworn to the ,patriarchs47#ajbb7 ,it is accentuated in the ,synagogal liturgy1 especially in the prayer for holy days which begins with the words3 8,thou hast chosen us from all peoples2 ,thou hast loved us and found pleasure in us and hast exalted us above all tongues2 ,thou hast sanctified us by ,thy commandments and brought us near unto ,thy service1 ,o ,king1 and hast called us by ,thy great and holy name407#ajbc7 ,inasmuch as the election of ,israel is connected with the deliverance of the people from ,egypt1 the whole relation of the ,jewish nation to its ,god assumes from the outset an essentially different character from that of other nations to their deities4 ,the ,god of ,israel is not inseparably connected with ,his people by mere natural bonds1 as is the case with every other ancient divinity4 ,he is not a national ,god in the ordinary sense4 ,he has chosen ,israel freely of ,his own accord4 8,when ,israel was a child1 then ,i loved him1 and out of ,egypt ,i called ,my son10 says ,god through ,hosea17#ajbd7 and thus prefers to call ,himself 8thy ,god from the land of ,egypt40 ,this election from love is echoed also in ,jeremiah1 who said1 8,israel is the ,lord's hallowed portion1 ,his first-fruits of the increase407#ajbe7 ,the moral relation between ,god and ,israel is most clearly characterized1 however1 by ,amos1 in the words3 8,you only have ,i known of all the families of the earth2 therefore ,i will visit upon you all your iniquities407#ajbf7 ,here is stated in explicit terms that the ,god of history selected ,israel as an instrument for ,his plan of salvation1 in the expectation that he would remain faithful to ,his will4 #c4 ,the real purpose of the election and mission of ,israel was announced by the great prophet of the ,exile when he called ,israel the 8servant of the ,lord10 who has been formed from his mother's bosom and delivered from every other bondage1 in order that he may declare the praise of ,god among the peoples1 and be a harbinger of light and a bond of union among the nations1 the witness of ,god1 the proclaimer of ,his truth and righteousness throughout the world47#ajbg7 ,the entire history of ,israel as far back as the ,patriarchs was reconstructed in this light1 and we find the election of ,abraham also similarly described in the ,psalms7#ajbh7 and in the liturgy4 ,indeed1 in every morning prayer for the past two thousand years the ,jewish people have offered thanks to ,god for the divine teaching that has been intrusted to their care1 and praised ,him 8who has chosen ,israel in love407#ajbi7 #d4 ,the belief in the election of ,israel rests on the conviction that the ,jewish people has a certain superiority over other peoples in being especially qualified to be the messenger and champion of religious truth4 ,in one sense this prerogative takes into account every people which has contributed something unique to any department of human power or knowledge1 and therein has served others as pattern and guide4 ,from the broader standpoint1 all great historic peoples appear as though appointed by divine providence for their special cultural tasks1 in which others can at most emulate them without achieving their greatness4 ,yet we cannot speak in quite the same way of the election of the ,greeks or ,romans or of the nations of remote antiquity for mastery in art and science1 or for skill in jurisprudence and statecraft4 ,the fact is that these nations were never fully conscious that they had a historic or providential destiny to influence mankind in this special direction4 ,israel alone was self-conscious1 realizing its task as harbinger and defender of its religious truth as soon as it had entered into its possession4 ,its election1 therefore1 does not imply presumption1 but rather a grave duty and responsibility4 ,as the great seer of the ,captivity had already declared1 to be the servant of the ,lord is to undergo the destiny of suffering1 to be 8the man of sorrow10 from whose bruises comes healing unto all mankind47#ajcj7 #e4 ,accordingly the election of ,israel cannot be regarded as a single divine act1 concluded at one moment of revelation1 or even during the ,biblical period4 ,it must instead be considered a divine call persisting through all ages and encompassing all lands1 a continuous activity of the spirit which has ever summoned for itself new heralds and heroes to testify to truth1 justice1 and sublime faith1 with an unparalleled scorn for death1 and to work for their dissemination by words and deeds and by their whole life4 ,judaism differs from all other religions in that it is neither the creation of one great moral teacher and preacher of truth1 nor seeks to typify the moral and spiritual sublimity which it aims to develop in a single person1 who is then lifted up into the realm of the superhuman4 ,judaism counts its prophets1 its sages1 and its martyrs by generations2 it is still demonstrating its power to reshape and regenerate religion as a vital force4 ,moreover1 ,judaism does not separate religion from life1 so as to regard only a segment of the common life and the national existence as holy4 ,the entire people1 the entire life1 must bear the stamp of holiness and be filled with priestly consecration4 ,whether this lofty aim can ever be completely attained is a question not to be decided by short-sighted humanity1 but only by ,god1 the ,ruler of history4 ,it is sufficient that the life of the individual as well as that of the people should aspire toward this ideal4 #f4 ,of course1 the election of ,israel presupposes an inner calling1 a special capacity of soul and tendency of intellect which fit it for the divine task4 ,the people which has given mankind its greatest prophets and psalmists1 its boldest thinkers and its noblest martyrs1 which has brought to fruition the three great world-religions1 the ,church1 the ,mosque1 and--mother of them both--the ,synagogue1 must be the religious people par excellence4 ,it must have within itself enough of the heavenly spark of truth and of the impetus of the religious genius as to be able and eager1 whenever and wherever the opportunity is favorable1 to direct the spiritual flight of humanity toward the highest and holiest4 ,in fact1 the soul of the ,jewish people reveals a peculiar mingling of characteristics1 a union of contrasts1 which makes it especially fit for its providential mission in history4 ,together with the marked individuality of each person we find a common spirit highly sensitive to every encroachment4 ,here there is a tenacious adherence to what is old and traditional1 and there an eager assimilation of what is new and strange4 ,on the one hand1 a materialistic self-interest2 on the other1 an idealism soaring to the stars47#ajca7 ,the sages of the ,tannaitic period already remarked that ,israel has been intrusted with the law which it is to defend and to disseminate1 just because it is the boldest and most obstinate of nations47#ajcb7 ,on the other hand1 the three special characteristics of the ,jewish people according to the ,talmud are its chastity and purity of life1 its benevolence and its active love for humanity47#ajcc7 ,a heathen scoffer calls ,israel 8a people of generous impulses which promised at ,sinai to do what ,god would command1 even before it had hearkened to the commandments407#ajcd7 8,gentle and shy as a dove1 it is also willing like the dove to stretch out its neck for the sacrifice1 for love of its heavenly ,father10 says the ,haggadist47#ajce7 ,and yet ,r4 ,johanan remarks that ,israel1 called to be the bearer of light to the world1 must be pressed like the olive before it will yield its precious oil47#ajcf7 ,every individual in ,israel possesses the requisite qualities for a holy priest-people1 according to a ,midrash of the ,tannaitic period1 and hence we read in ,deuteronomy1 8,the ,lord hath chosen thee to be ,his own treasure out of all peoples that are upon the face of the earth407#ajcg7 #g4 ,all these and similar sayings disprove completely the idea that the election of ,israel was an arbitrary act of ,god4 ,it is due rather to hereditary virtues and to tendencies of mind and spirit which equip ,israel for his calling4 ,to this must be added the important fact that ,god educated the people for its task through the ,law1 which was to make it conscious of its priestly sanctity and keep it ever active in mind and heart4 ,the election of ,israel is emphasized in ,deuteronomy especially in connection with the prohibition of marriage with idolaters and with the prohibition of unclean animals1 which also originated in the priestly laws47#ajch7 ,the underlying idea is that the mission of ,israel to battle for the ,most ,high imperatively demands separation from the heathen peoples1 and on the other hand1 that its priestly calling necessitates an especial abstinence4 ,and as has the law in its development and realization for thousands of years1 so has also ,god's wise guidance trained ,israel in the course of history so as to render him at times the unyielding preserver and defender and at other times the bold champion and protagonist of the highest truth and justice1 according as the outlook and the mental horizon of the period were narrow or broad4 #h4 ,it is true that the thought of ,israel's calling and mission in world-history first became clear when its prophets and sages attained a view of great world-movements from the lofty watch-tower of the centuries1 so that they could take cognizance of the varying relations of ,judaism to the civilized peoples around4 ,the summons of the ,jewish people to be heralds of truth and workers for peace is first mentioned in ,isaiah and ,micah17#ajci7 while only in the great movement of nations under ,cyrus did the seer of the ,exile recognize the peculiar mission of ,israel in the history of the world4 ,if in gloomy periods the outlook became dark1 still the hope for the fulfillment of this mission was never entirely lost4 ,in fact1 the contact of the ,jewish people with ,greek culture after ,alexander the ,great gave new power and fresh impetus to the conception of ,israel's mission17#ajdj7 as the rich ,hellenistic literature and the vision of ,daniel in chapter ,,vii testify4 ,in fact1 ,abraham1 the ancestor of the ,jewish people1 became for the earliest ,haggadists a wandering missionary and a great preacher of the unity of ,god1 and his picture was the pattern for both ,paul and ,mohammed47#ajda7 ,the election of ,israel is clearly and unequivocally expressed by ,rabbi ,eleazar ben ,pedath in the words1 8,god sent ,israel among the heathen nations that they may win a rich harvest of proselytes1 for1 as ,god said through ,hosea1 #8,i will sow her unto ,me in the land1' so ,he wishes from this seed to reap a bountiful and world-wide harvest407#ajdb7 #i4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 when the historical viewpoint and the idea of human progress were both lacking1 the belief in the mission of ,israel was confined to the ,messianic hope4 ,both ,jehuda ha ,levi and ,maimonides1 however1 regard ,christianity and ,islam as preparatory steps for the ,messiah1 who is to unify the world through the knowledge of ,god47#ajdc7 8,the work of the ,messiah is the fruit1 of which ,israel will be universally acknowledged as the root10 says the ,jewish sage in the ,cuzari4 ,therefore he rightly accepts the election of ,israel as a fundamental doctrine of belief4 ,modern times1 however1 with their awakened historical sense and their idea of progress1 have again placed in the foreground the belief in the election and mission of ,israel4 ,the founders of reform ,judaism have cast this ancient doctrine in a new form4 ,on the one hand1 they have reinterpreted the ,messianic hope in the prophetic spirit1 as the realization of the highest ideals of a united humanity4 ,on the other1 they have rejected the entire theory that ,israel was exiled from his ancient land because of his sins1 and that he is eventually to return there and to restore the sacrificial cult in the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,therefore the whole view concerning ,israel's future had to undergo a transformation47#ajdd7 ,the historic mission of ,israel as priest of humanity and champion of truth assumed a higher meaning1 and his peculiar position in history and in the ,law necessarily received a different interpretation from that of ,talmudic ,judaism or that of the ,church4 ,as individuals1 indeed1 many ,jews have taken part in the achievements and efforts of all civilized peoples2 the ,jewish people as such has accomplished great things in only one field1 the field of religion4 ,the following chapters will consider more closely how ,judaism has taken up and carried out this sacred mission4 ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,the ,kingdom of ,god and the ,mission of ,israel #a4 ,the hope of ,judaism for the future is comprised in the phrase1 8the kingdom of ,god10--malkuth shaddai or malkuth ,shamayim1--which means the sovereign rule of ,god4 ,from ancient times the liturgy of the ,synagogue concludes regularly with the solemn ,alenu1 in which ,god is addressed as the 8,king of kings of kings0--king of kings being the ,persian title for the ruler of the whole ,empire--and directly after this the hope is expressed that 8we may speedily behold the glory of ,thy might1 when ,thou wilt remove the abominations from the earth1 and the idols will be utterly cut off2 when the world will be perfected under the kingdom of the ,almighty1 and all the children of flesh will call upon ,thy name2 when ,thou wilt turn unto ,thyself all the wicked of the earth4 ,let all the inhabitants of the earth perceive and know that unto ,thee every knee must bend1 and every tongue give homage4 ,let them all accept the yoke of ,thy kingdom1 and do ,thou reign over them speedily1 and forever and ever407#ajde7 ,at the close of the ,torah lesson in the house of learning the assembly regularly recited the blessing1 8,praised be ,thy name6 ,may ,thy kingdom soon come60--afterwards known as the ,kaddish17#ajdf7 and rechoed in the so-called 8,lord's ,prayer0 of the ,church4 ,the words of the prophet1 8,the ,lord shall be ,king over all the earth2 in that day shall the ,lord be ,one1 and ,his name ,one107#ajdg7 voiced for all ages this ideal of the future1 and thus gave a goal and a purpose to the history of the world and at the same time centered it in ,israel1 the chosen people of ,god4 #b4 ,the establishment of the kingdom of the ,one and ,only ,god throughput the entire world constitutes the divine plan of salvation toward which1 according to ,jewish teaching1 the efforts of all the ages are tending4 ,this 8,kingdom of ,god0 is not1 however1 a kingdom of heaven in the world to come1 which men are to enter only after death1 and then only if redeemed from sin by accepting the belief in a supernatural ,savior as their ,messiah1 as is taught by the ,church4 ,judaism points to ,god's ,kingdom on earth as the goal and hope of mankind1 to a world in which all men and nations shall turn away from idolatry and wickedness1 falsehood and violence1 and become united in their recognition of the sovereignty of ,god1 the ,holy ,one1 as proclaimed by ,israel1 ,his servant and herald1 the ,messiah of the nations4 ,it is not the hope of bliss in a future life 7which is the leading motive of ,christianity71 but the building up of the divine kingdom of truth1 justice1 and peace among men by ,israel's teaching and practice47#ajdh7 ,in this sense ,god speaks through the mouth of the prophet1 8,i will also give thee for a light of the nations1 that ,my salvation may be unto the end of the earth407#ajdi7 8,all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our ,god407#ajej7 8,the remnant of ,jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples1 as dew from the ,lord1 as showers upon the grass407#ajea7 #c4 ,clearly1 the idea of a world-kingdom of ,god arose only as the result of the gradual development of the ,jewish ,god-consciousness4 ,it was necessary at first that the prophetic idea of ,god's kingship1 the theocracy in ,israel1 should triumph over the monarchical view and absorb it4 ,the patriarchal life of the shepherd was certainly not favorable to a monarchical rule4 8,i will not rule over you1 neither shall my son rule over you1 the ,lord shall rule over you10 said ,gideon in refusing the title of king which the people had offered him47#ajeb7 ,according to one tradition ,samuel blamed the people for desiring a king and thereby rejecting the divine kingship47#ajec7 8,i give thee a king in ,mine anger10 says ,god through ,hosea47#ajed7 ,the more the monarchy1 with its exclusively worldly and materialistic aims1 came into conflict with the demands of the prophets and their religious truth1 the higher rose the prophetic hope for the dawning of a day when ,god alone would rule in absolute sovereignty over the entire world4 ,now1 in the kingdom of the ,ten ,tribes1 with its frequently changing dynasties1 the old patriarchal conception was dominant1 while in the kingdom of ,judah1 which remained loyal to the house of ,david1 the monarchical idea developed4 ,isaiah1 living in ,jerusalem and favorably disposed towards the monarchy1 prophesied that a shoot from the house of ,david1 endowed with marvelous spiritual powers1 should come forth1 occupying the throne in the place of ,god1 and through his victories would plant righteousness and the knowledge of ,god everywhere upon earth1 and establish throughout the world a wonderful reign of peace47#ajee7 ,upon this royal 8shoot0 of ,david7#ajef7 rested the ,messianic hope during the ,exile1 and amidst the disappointments of the time this vision became all the more idealized4 ,in contrast to this the great prophet of the ,exile announced the establishment of the absolute dominion of ,god as the true 8,king of ,israel07#ajeg7 over all the earth by the nucleus of ,israel1 8the servant of ,god10 who would become conscious of his great historic mission in the world and be willing to offer his very life in its cause4 ,in all this the prophet makes no reference to the royal house of ,david1 but makes bold to confer the title of the 8anointed of ,god0--that is1 ,messiah--upon ,cyrus1 the king of ,persia1 as the one who was to usher in the new era47#ajeh7 ,subsequently these two divergent hopes for the future run parallel in the ,psalms and the liturgy as well as in the apocryphal and rabbinic literature4 #d4 ,while the ,messianic aspirations as such bore rather a political and national character in ,judaism 7as will be explained in ,chapter ,,liii71 yet the religious hope for a universal kingdom of ,god took root even more deeply in the heart of the ,jewish people4 ,it created the conception of ,israel's mission and also the literature and activity of the ,hellenistic propaganda1 and it gave a new impetus to the making of proselytes among the heathen1 to which both ,christianity and ,islam owe their existence4 ,the words of ,isaiah1 repeated later by ,habakkuk1 8,the earth will be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea107#ajei7 became now an article of faith4 ,while in earlier times the rule of ,israel's ,god1 ,,jhvh1 was attached to ,zion1 from whose holy mount ,he ruled as invisible ,king17#ajfj7 later on we find ,zechariah proclaiming ,him who was enthroned in heaven as having dominion over the entire earth17#ajfa7 and the ,psalter summons all nations to acknowledge1 adore1 and extol ,him as ,king of the world47#ajfb7 ,nay1 at the very time when ,judah lay humbled to the ground1 the prophet exclaimed1 8,who would not fear ,thee1 ,o ,king of the nations8 for it befitteth ,thee2 forasmuch as among all the wise men of the nations1 and in all their royalty there is none like unto ,thee407#ajfc7 ,israel's great hope for the future is expressed most completely and in most sublime language in the ,new ,year liturgy3 8,o ,lord our ,god1 impose ,thine awe upon all ,thy works1 and let ,thy dread be upon all that ,thou hast created1 that they may all form one single band to do ,thy will with a perfect heart4444 ,our ,god and ,god of our fathers1 reveal ,thyself in ,thy splendor as ,king over all the inhabitants of the world1 that every handiwork of ,thine may know that ,thou hast made it1 and every creature may acknowledge that ,thou hast created it1 and whatsoever hath breath in its nostrils may say3 the ,lord ,god of ,israel is ,king1 and ,his dominion ruleth over all407#ajfd7 #e4 ,in the earlier period1 then1 the rule of ,,jhvh seems to have been confined to ,israel as the people of ,his covenant4 ,during the ,second ,temple ,jerusalem was called the 8city of the great ,king07#ajfe7 and the constitution was considered by ,josephus to have been a theocracy1 that is1 a government by ,god47#ajff7 ,indeed1 the entire ,mosaic code has as its main purpose to make ,israel a 8kingdom of priests10 over which ,,jhvh1 the ,god of the covenant1 was alone to rule as ,king4 ,the chief object of the strict nationalists1 in opposition to the cosmopolitanism of the ,hellenists1 was that this government of ,god1 in its intimate association with the ,holy ,land and the ,holy ,people1 should be maintained unchanged for all the future4 ,thus the book of ,daniel predicts the speedy downfall of the fourth world-kingdom and the establishment of the kingdom of ,god through ,israel1 8the people of the saints of the ,most ,high2 their kingdom is an everlasting kingdom407#ajfg7 ,naturally1 such a purely nationalistic conception of the rulership of ,god does not admit the thought of a mission or its corollary1 the conversion of the heathen47#ajfh7 ,these appear among the liberal school of ,hillel in their opposition to the more rigorous ,shammaites and the party of the ,zealots47#ajfi7 ,it is1 therefore1 quite consistent that the modern nationalists should again dispute the mission of ,israel4 #f4 ,as soon as ,jewish monotheism had once been conceived by the ,jewish mind as the universal truth1 the idea of the mission of ,israel as a bearer of light and a witness of ,god for the nations1 as enunciated by ,deutero-,isaiah1 became ever more firmly established4 ,many ,psalms exhort the people to make known the wondrous doings of ,god among the nations1 so that the heathen world might at last acknowledge the ,one and ,only ,god47#ajgj7 ,nay1 ,israel is even called ,god's anointed and prophet17#ajga7 and in one ,psalm we find ,zion1 the city of ,god1 elevated to be the religious metropolis of the world47#ajgb7 ,the book of ,jonah is simply a refutation of the narrow nationalistic conception of ,judaism2 it holds forth the hope of the conversion of the heathen to the true knowledge of ,god4 ,in the same spirit ,ruth the ,moabitess became the type of the heathen who are eager to 8take refuge under the wings of ,god's majesty407#ajgc7 ,the author of the book of ,job no longer knows of a national ,god2 to him ,god is the highest ideal of morality as it lives and grows in the human heart4 ,the wisdom literature also teaches a ,god of humanity4 ,under ,his wings ,shem and ,japheth1 the teaching of the ,jew and the wisdom of the ,greek1 can join hands2 the religious truth of the one and the philosophic truth of the other may harmoniously blend4 #g4 ,thus a new impulse was given to ,jewish proselytism in ,alexandria1 and the earlier history of ,israel1 especially the pre-,israelite epoch with its simple human types1 was read in a new light4 ,enoch7#ajgd7 and ,noah7#ajge7 became preachers of penitence1 heralds of the pure monotheism from which the heathen world had departed4 ,abraham especially1 the progenitor of ,israel1 was looked upon as a prototype of the wandering missionary people1 converting the heathen47#ajgf7 ,wherever he journeyed1 his teaching and his example of true benevolence won souls for the ,lord proclaimed by him as the 8,god of the heaven and the earth407#ajgg7 ,in this sense of missionary activity were now interpreted the words1 8,be thou a blessing 444 and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed407#ajgh7 ,this was no longer understood in the original sense1 that ,abraham by his prosperity should be an example of a blessed man1 to be pointed out in blessing others2 the words were given the higher meaning that ,abraham with his descendants should become a source of blessing for mankind through his teachings and his conduct1 so that all the families of men should attain blessing and salvation by following his doctrine and example4 ,thus the idea of the ,jewish mission was connected with ,abraham1 the 8father of a multitude of nations107#ajgi7 and this was later on adopted by ,paul and ,mohammed in establishing the ,church and the ,mosque4 #h4 ,in contradistinction1 then1 to the political concept of the kingdom of ,god1 which ,ezekiel still hoped to see established by the exercise of external power17#ajhj7 the idea assumed now a purely spiritual meaning4 ,this kingdom of ,god is accepted by the pious ,jew every morning through his confession of the divine ,unity in the ,shema4 ,abraham had anticipated this1 say the rabbis1 when he swore by the ,god of heaven and earth1 and so also had ,israel in accepting the ,torah at ,sinai and at the ,red ,sea47#ajha7 ,in fact1 the kingdom of ,god began1 we are told1 with the first man1 since1 when he adored ,god freely as ,king of the world1 every living creature acknowledged ,him also4 ,but only when ,israel as a people proclaimed ,god's dominion at the ,red ,sea1 was the throne of ,god and ,his kingdom on earth established for eternity47#ajhb7 ,and when ,ezekiel says3 8,with a mighty hand will ,i be ,king over you10 they explain this to mean that the people chosen as the servant of ,god will be continually constrained anew by the prophets to recognize ,his kingdom47#ajhc7 ,yea1 the closing words of the ,song at the ,red ,sea1 8,the ,lord shall reign for ever and ever0 were taken to imply that all the nations would in the end recognize only ,israel's ,one ,god as ,king of the world47#ajhd7 ,as a matter of fact1 the rabbinical view is that every proselyte1 in 8taking upon himself the yoke of the sovereignty of ,god10 enters that divine ,kingdom which at the end of time will embrace all men and nations47#ajhe7 ,in the book of ,tobit and the ,sibylline ,oracles also we find this universalistic conception of the ,messianic age expressed47#ajhf7 #i4 ,accordingly1 proselytism found open and solemn recognition both before and after the time of the ,maccabees1 as we see in the ,psalms1--especially those which speak of proselytes in the term1 8they that fear the ,lord107#ajhg7 and also in the ancient synagogal liturgy1 where the 8proselytes of righteousness0 are especially mentioned47#ajhh7 ,the school of ,hillel followed precisely this course4 ,matters changed1 however1 under the ,roman dominion1 which was contrasted to the dominion of ,god especially from the time of ,herod1 when the belief became current that 8only when the one is destroyed1 will the other arise407#ajhi7 ,particularly after the ,christian ,church had become identified with ,rome1 all missionary endeavors by the ,jews were considered dangerous and were therefore discouraged as much as possible4 ,in their place arose the hope for a miraculous intervention of ,god4 ,in ,hellenistic circles the ,messiah was believed to be the future founder of the kingdom of ,god17#ajij7 which assumed more and more of an other-worldly nature1 such as the ,church developed for it later on4 #aj4 ,the more the harsh oppression of the times forced the ,jew to isolate himself and to spend his life in studying and practicing the law1--which was tantamount to 8placing himself under the kingdom of ,god107#ajia7 the more he lost sight of his sublime mission for the world at large4 ,only individual thinkers1 such as ,jehuda ha ,levi and ,maimonides1 kept a vision of the world-mission of ,israel1 when they called ,jesus and ,mohammed1 as founders of ,christianity and ,islam1 messengers of ,god to the idolatrous nations1 divinely appointed to bring them nearer to ,israel's truth17#ajib7 or when they pointed forward to the time when all peoples will recognize in the truth their common mother and in ,god the ,father of all mankind47#ajic7 ,a most instructive ,midrash on ,zechariah ,,ix1 #i gives the keynote of this belief4 8,at that time ,god as the ,king of ,zion will speak to the righteous of all times1 and say to them1 #8,dear as the words of ,my teaching are to ,me1 yet have ye erred in that ye have followed only ,my ,torah1 and have not waited for ,my world-kingdom4 ,i swear to you that ,i shall remember for good him who has waited for ,my kingdom1 as it is said1 ,wait ye for ,me until the day that ,i rise up as a witness4' 07#ajid7 ,on the other hand1 it was owing to the sad consequences of the missionary endeavors of the ,church that the idea of the mission of ,judaism was given a different direction4 ,not conversion1 but conviction by teaching and example1 is the historic task of ,judaism1 whose maxim is expressed in the verse of ,zechariah1 8,not by might1 nor by power1 but by ,my spirit1 saith the ,lord of hosts407#ajie7 ,it is not the creed1 but the deed1 which tells4 ,not the confession1 but conduct1 with the moral principles which govern it1 counts4 ,such a view is implied in the well-known teaching of ,joshua ben ,hananiah1 8,the righteous of all nations will have a share in the world of eternal bliss407#ajif7 ,judaism does not deny salvation to those professing other religions1 which would tend to undermine the foundation of their spiritual life4 ,standing upon the high watchtower of time1 it rather strives ever to clarify and strengthen the universal longing for truth and righteousness which lies at the heart of all religion1 and is thus to become a bond of union1 an all-illuminating light for the world4 ,to quote the beautiful words of ,leopold ,stein in his ,schrift des ,lebens37#ajig7 8,judaism1 while recognizing the historic justification of all systems of thought and faith1 does not cherish the ambition to become the ,church ,universal in the usual sense of the term1 but aims rather to be the focus1 or mirror1 of religious unity for all the rest4 #8,the people from of old1' as the prophet called them1 are to accompany mankind in its progress through the ages and the continents1 until it reaches the goal of the kingdom of ,god on earth1 the #8new heaven and new earth' of the prophetic vision407#ajih7 ,the thought of the ,jewish mission is most adequately expressed in the ,neilah service of the ,union ,prayer ,book1 based upon the ,einhorn ,prayerbook1 which reads as follows37#ajii7 8,endow us1 our ,guardian1 with strength and patience for our holy mission4 ,grant that all the children of ,thy people may recognize the goal of our changeful career1 so that they may exemplify by their zeal and love for mankind the truth of ,israel's watchword3 ,one humanity on earth1 even as there is but ,one ,god in heaven4 ,enlighten all that call themselves by ,thy name with the knowledge that the sanctuary of wood and stone1 which erst crowned ,zion's hill1 was but a gate through which ,israel should step out into the world1 to reconcile all mankind unto ,thee60 ,chapter ,l4 ,the ,priest-people and its ,law of ,holiness #a4 ,the checkered1 stormy1 and yet triumphant march of the ,jewish people through the ages remains the great enigma of history for all those who do not believe in a divine plan of salvation to be consummated through ,israel4 ,the idea of ,israel's mission alone throws light on its law and its destiny4 ,even before ,god had revealed to the people at ,mt4 ,sinai the ,ten ,commandments1 the foundation of all religion and morality1 and there concluded with them a covenant for all time1 ,he spoke3 8,ye shall be unto ,me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation10 thus consecrating them to be a priest-people among the nations1 and enjoining them to a life of especial holiness4 ,possessing as a heritage from the ,patriarchs the germ of a higher religious consciousness1 in distinction from all other peoples1 they were to make the cultivation1 development1 and promotion of the highest religious truth their life-task1 and thus to become the people of ,god4 ,at first they were to establish in the ,holy ,land a theocratic government1 a ,state in which ,god alone was the ,ruler1 while they lived in priestly isolation from all the nations around4 ,thus they prepared themselves for the time when1 scattered over all the earth1 they might again work as the priest-people through the ages for the upbuilding of the universal kingdom of ,god4 ,this was ,israel's destiny from the very first1 as expressed by the great seer of the ,exile when he beheld ,israel wandering forth among the nations1 8,ye shall be named the priests of the ,lord2 men shall call you the ministers of our ,god407#aajj7 #b4 ,among all religions the priest is considered especially holy as the mediator between ,god and man1 and in his appearance as well as in his mode of life he must observe special forms of purity and holiness4 ,he alone may approach the ,godhead1 ascertain its will1 and administer the sacrificial cult in the sanctuary4 ,he must represent the ,divinity in its relation to the people1 embody it in his outward life1 enjoy nothing which it abhors1 and touch nothing which could render him impure4 ,these priestly rules exist among all the nations of antiquity in striking similarity1 and indicate a common origin in the prehistoric period1 during which the entire cult developed through a priestly caste1 beginning with simple1 primitive conceptions and transmitted in ever more elaborate form from father to son4 ,it goes without saying that the priests of the original ,hebrew race1 which migrated from ,babylonia1 retained the ancient customs and rules4 ,they must also have adopted many other things from neighboring peoples4 ,during the entire period of the first temple1 the priests--despite all prophetic warnings--preferred the heathen cult with its vainglorious pomp to the simple worship of the patriarchal times4 ,as everywhere else1 the priesthood of ,israel1 and later of ,juda as well1 thought only of its own interests1 of the retention of its ancient prerogatives1 unmindful of the higher calling to which it had been chosen1 to serve the ,god of truth and justice1 to exemplify true holiness1 to stand for moral rather than ceremonial purity4 ,yet the sacerdotal institutions were indispensable so long as the people required a sanctuary where the ,deity should dwell1 and where the sacrificial cult should be administered4 ,every trespass by a layman on the sanctuary reserved for the priests was considered sacrilege and called for divine punishment4 ,it was thus necessary to deepen the popular notion of holiness and of the reverence due the sanctuary1 before these could be elevated into the realm of spirituality and morality4 ,the priesthood had to be won for the service of the loftier religious ideas1 so that it might gradually educate the people in general for its sublime priestly mission4 ,this conception underlies both the ,mosaic law and its rabbinical interpretation4 #c4 ,through ,biblical and post-,biblical literature and history there runs a twofold tendency1 one anti-sacerdotal1--emanating from the prophets and later the ,hasideans or ,pharisees1--the other a mediating tendency1 favorable to the priesthood4 ,the ritualistic piety of the priests was bitterly assailed by the prophets as being subversive of all morality1 and later on the ,sadducean hierarchy also constituted a threat to the moral and spiritual welfare of the people4 ,before even the revelation at ,sinai was to take place1 we read that warning was given to the priests 8not to break through0 and stand above the people47#aaja7 ,on the other hand1 the law demands of the ,aaronites a peculiar degree of holiness1 since 8they offer the bread of their ,god upon the altar407#aajb7 ,their blood must be kept pure by the avoidance of improper marriages4 ,everything unclean or polluting must be kept far from them47#aajc7 ,the law1 following a tradition which probably arose in ancient ,babylon1 prescribed minutely their mode of admission into the divine service1 their vestments and their conditions of life1 the ritual of sacrifice and of purity2 and every violation of these laws1 every trespass by a layman1 was declared to be punishable with death47#aajd7 ,the sanctuary contains no room for the nation of priests2 no layman durst venture to cross its threshold4 ,even in the legal system of the rabbis the ancient rights and privileges of the priesthood1 dating from the time when they possessed no property1 remained inviolate1 and their precedence in everything was undisputed47#aaje7 ,the glaring contrast between the idea of a universal priesthood of the people and the institution of the ,aaronites is explained by a deeper insight into history4 ,the success of the reformation under ,josiah on the basis of the ,deuteronomic code rested in the last analysis on the fact that the priests of the house of ,zadok at ,jerusalem were placed in the service of the higher prophetic teaching by being rendered the guardians1 executors1 and later1 in conjunction with the ,levites1 the teachers of the ,law1 as it was presented in the book of the law of ,moses1 soon afterward completed4 ,the priesthood1 deprived of everything that might remind one of the former idolatry and heathenish practices1 was1 in its purer and holier character1 to lead the priest-people to true moral holiness through its connection with the sanctuary and its ancient cult4 ,still the impulse for the moral rebirth of the nation1 for the establishment of a priest-people1 did not emanate from the ,temple priesthood1 nor even from the sacred soil of ,palestine2 but from the ,synagogue1 which began in the ,exile1 under the influence of the prophetic word and the ,levitical song1 in the form of public worship by the congregation of the pious4 ,here arose a generation of godly men1 a class of singularly devout ones1 living in priestly holiness1 who consecrated their lives to the practice of the law1 and whom the exile seer had designated as the true ,israel1 the servant of the ,lord1 and these formed the nucleus of the renewed ,israel4 #d4 ,that which the prophet ,ezekiel had attempted in his proposed constitution7#aajf7 was accomplished in a far more thorough manner by the ,holiness ,code1 which emanated from his school and became the central portion of the ,mosaic books1 and by the so-called ,priestly ,code1 which followed later4 ,the object was to bring about the sanctification of the entire people upon the holy soil of the national land1 through institutions embodying the ideal of the holiness of ,god in the life and cult of the people4 ,circumcision1 idealized by the prophetic author of ,deuteronomy17#aajg7 was to be made the sign of the covenant to mark as holy the progeny of ,abraham27#aajh7 strict laws of marriage were to put an end to all heathenish unchastity2 the ,sabbath rest was to consecrate the labors of the week1 the ,sabbatical month and year the produce of the soil47#aaji7 ,the prohibition of unclean foods1 heretofore reserved1 as among other nations1 for the priests and other consecrated persons1 was now applied to the whole community in order that ,israel should learn 8to set itself apart from all other nations as a holy people407#aaaj7 ,even their apparel was to proclaim the priestly holiness of the people by a blue fringe at the border of the garments47#aaaa7 ,whereas from the time of ,ezra to ,simon the ,just priestly rulers endeavored to promote the work of educating the people for holiness1 the pious men from among the people made still greater efforts to assert the claim of holiness for the entire ,jewish people as a priest-nation47#aaab7 ,the repasts of these pious fellowships should be in no way inferior in sanctity to those of the priests in the ,temple4 ,new ceremonies of sanctification were to open and close the ,sabbaths and festivals4 ,symbols of priestly consecration should adorn forehead and arm in the form of the phylacteries 7tefillin71 and should be placed at the entrance of every house in the so-called mezuzzah4 8,god has given unto all an heritage 7the ,torah71 the kingdom1 the priesthood1 and the sanctuary07#aaac7--this became the leitmotif for the ,pharisaic school1 who constantly enlarged the domain of piety so that it should include the whole of life4 ,whoever did not belong to this circle of the pious was regarded with scorn as one of the lower class 7am ha-aretz74 #e4 ,the chief effort of the pious1 the founders of the ,judaism of the ,synagogue1 was to keep the ,jewish people from the demoralizing influences of pagan nature-worship1 represented first by ,semitic and later by ,greek culture4 ,the leaders of the ,pharisees 8built a fence about the law07#aaad7 extending the prohibition of mingling with the heathen nations so as also to prohibit eating with them and participating in their feasts and social gatherings1--not for the preservation of the ,jewish race merely1 as ,christian theologians maintain1 but for the sake of keeping its inner life intact and pure47#aaae7 8,god surrounded us with brazen walls1 hedged us in with laws of purity in regard to food and drink and physical contact1 yea1 even to that which we see and hear1 in order that we should be pure in body and soul1 free from absurd beliefs1 not polluted by contact with others or through association with the wicked2 for most of the peoples defile themselves with their sexual practices1 and whole lands pride themselves upon it4 ,but we hold ourselves aloof from all this0--so spoke ,eleazar the priest to ,king ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 according to the ,letter of ,aristeas1 thus giving expression to the sentiment most deeply rooted in the souls of the pious of that period47#aaaf7 ,they strove to build up a nation of whom the ,tannaim could say1 8,whoever possesses no sense of shame and chastity1 of him it is certain that his ancestors did not stand at ,sinai407#aaag7 ,naturally enough1 the ,greek and ,roman people took offense at this aloofness and separation from every contact with the outer world1 and explained it as due to a spirit of hostility to mankind4 ,even up to the present it has been the lot of ,jewry and ,judaism to be misunderstood by the world at large1 to be the object of either its hate or its pity4 ,the world disregards the magnificence of the plan by which an entire people were to be reared as a priest-nation1 as citizens of a kingdom of ,god1 among whom1 in the course of centuries1 the seed of prophetic truth was to germinate and sprout forth for the salvation of humanity4 ,if1 in complete contrast to heathen immorality1 the ,jew in his life1 his thinking1 and his will was governed by the strictest moral discipline2 if1 in spite of the most cruel persecutions and the most insidious temptations1 the ,jewish people remained steadfast to its pure belief in ,god and its traditional standards of chastity1 exhibiting a loyalty which amazed the nations and the religious sects about1 but was neither understood nor followed by them1 this was mainly due to the hallowing influences of the priestly laws4 ,they steeled the people for the fulfillment of their duty and shielded them against all hostile powers both within and without4 ,the very burden of the law1 so bitterly denounced by ,christianity since the time of ,paul1 lent ,judaism its dignity at all times1 protecting it from the assaults of the tempter2 and that which seemed to the outsider a heavy load was to the ,jew a source of pride in the consciousness of his divine election47#aaah7 #f4 ,but most significant in the character and development of ,judaism is the fact that all the leading ideas and motives which emanated from the priesthood of the ,jewish people were concentrated in one single focus1 the hallowing of the name of ,god4 ,two terms expressed this idea in both a negative and a positive form1 the warning against 8,hillul ha ,shem0--profanation of the name of ,god--and the duty of 8,kiddush ha ,shem0--sanctification of ,god's name4 ,these exerted a marvelous power in curbing the passions and self-indulgence of the ,jew and in spurring him on to the greatest possible self-sacrifice and to an unparalleled willingness to undergo suffering and martyrdom for the cause4 ,these terms are derived from the ,biblical verse1 8,ye shall not profane ,my holy name1 but ,i will be hallowed among the children of ,israel2 ,i am the ,lord who halloweth you407#aaai7 ,this verse forms the concluding sentence of the precepts for the ,aaronitic priesthood and warns them as the guardians of the sanctuary to do nothing which might in the popular estimation degrade them or the divine cause intrusted to them4 ,when1 however1 during the ,maccabean wars1 the little band of the pious proved themselves to be the true priesthood in their ,opposition to the faithless ,aaronites1 offering their very lives as a sacrifice for the preservation of the true faith in ,god1 the ,scriptural word received a new and higher meaning4 ,it came to signify the obligation of the entire priest-people to consecrate the name of ,god by the sacrifice of their lives1 and also their duty to guard against its profanation by any offensive act4 ,in connection with this ,scriptural passage the sages represent ,god as saying1 8,i have brought you out of ,egypt only on the condition that you are ready to sacrifice your lives1 if need be1 to consecrate ,my name407#aabj7 ,from that period it became a duty and even a law of ,judaism1 as ,maimonides shows in his ,code1 for each person in life and in death to bear witness to ,his ,god47#aaba7 8,ye are ,my witnesses1 saith the ,lord1 and ,i am ,god07#aabb7--;and witnesses being in the ,greek version martyrs1 the word afterward received the meaning of 8blood-witnesses40--,this passage of the prophet is commented on by ,simeon ben ,johai1 one of the great teachers who suffered under ,hadrian's persecution1 in the following words1 8,if ye become ,my witnesses1 then am ,i your ,lord1 ,god of the world2 but if ye do not witness to ,me1 ,i cease to be1 as it were1 the ,lord1 ,god of all the world407#aabc7 ,that is to say1 it is the martyrdom of the pious which glorifies ,god's name before all the world4 ,or1 as ,felix ,perles says so beautifully1 8,as every good and noble man must ever bear in mind that the dignity of humanity is intrusted to his hand1 so should each earnest adherent of the ,jewish faith remember that the glory of ,god is intrusted to his care407#aabd7 ,the ,jewish people has fulfilled this priestly task through a martyrdom of over two thousand years and has scornfully resisted every demand to abandon its faith in ,god1 not consenting to do so even in appearance4 ,surely historians or philosophers who can ridicule or commiserate such resistance betray a hatred which blinds their sense of justice4 ,as a matter of fact1 it was the consciousness of the ,jewish people of its priestly mission that has made it a pattern of loyalty for all time4 #g4 ,moreover1 the fear of profaning the divine name became the highest incentive to1 and safeguard of the morality of the ,jew4 ,every misdeed toward a non-,jew is considered by the teachers of ,judaism a double sin1 yea1 sometimes1 an unpardonable one1 because it gives a false impression of the moral standard of ,judaism and infringes upon the honor of ,god as well as that of man4 ,the disciples of ,rabbi ,simeon ben ,shetach once bought an ass for him from an ,arab1 and to their joy found a precious stone in its collar4 8,did the seller know of this gem80 asked the master4 ,on being answered in the negative1 he called out angrily1 8,do you consider me a barbarian8 ,return the ,arab his precious stone immediately60 ,and when the heathen received it back1 he cried out1 8,praised be the ,god of ,simeon ben ,shetach607#aabe7 ,thus the conscientious ,jew honors his ,god by his conduct1 says the ,talmud1 referring to this and many similar examples4 ,such lessons of the ,jew's responsibility for the recognition of the high moral purity of his religion have ever constituted a high barrier against immoral acts4 ,the words1 8,be ye holy1 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy0 form significantly the introduction to the chapter on the love of man1 the nineteenth chapter of ,leviticus1 placed at the very center of the entire ,priestly ,code4 8,your self-sanctification sanctifies ,me1 as it were10 says ,god to ,israel1 according to the interpretation of this verse by the sages47#aabf7 ,in contrast to heathendom1 which deifies nature with its appeal to the senses1 ,judaism teaches that holiness is a moral quality1 as it means the curbing of the senses4 ,and in order to prevent ,israel1 the bearer of this ideal of holiness1 from sinking into the mire of heathen wantonness and lust1 the separation of the ,jew from the heathen world1 whether in his domestic or social life1 was a necessity and became the rule and maxim of his life for that period4 ,all the many prohibitions and commands had for their object the purification of the people in order to render the highest moral purity a hereditary virtue among them1 according to the rabbis47#aabg7 #h4 ,it is true that the accumulation of 8law upon law1 prohibition upon prohibition0 by the rabbis had eventually the same injurious effect which it had exerted upon the priests in the ,temple4 ,the formal law1 8the precepts learned by rote10 became the important factor1 while their purpose was lost to sight4 ,the shell smothered the kernel1 and blind obedience to the letter of the law came to be regarded as true piety4 ,it cannot be denied that adherence to the mere form1 which was transmitted from the ,temple practice to the legalism of the ,pharisees and the later rabbinic schools with their casuistry1 impaired and tarnished the lofty prophetic ideal of holiness4 ,it almost seems as if the clarion notes of such sublime passages as that of the ,psalmist1 8,who shall ascend into the mountain of the ,lord1 ,and who shall stand in ,his holy place8 ,he that hath clean hands and a pure heart2 ,who hath not taken ,my name in vain1 and hath not sworn deceitfully107#aabh7 no longer found its full resonance in the heart of ,judaism4 ,in the practice of external acts of piety religion became petrified and the spirit took flight4 ,that which is of secondary importance became of primary consideration4 ,this is the fundamental error into which the practice and the development of the ,law in ,judaism lapsed1 and to which no careful observer can or dares close his eyes4 ,undoubtedly the ,law1 as it embraced the whole of life in its power1 sharpened the ,jewish sense of duty1 and served the ,jew as an iron wall of defense against temptations1 aberrations1 and enticements of the centuries4 ,as soon as the modern ,jew1 however1 undertook to free himself from the tutelage of a blind acceptance of authority and inquired after the purpose of all the restrictions which the ,law laid upon him1 his ancient loyalty to the same collapsed and the pillars of ,judaism seemed to be shaken4 ,then the leaders of ,reform1 imbued with the prophetic spirit1 felt it to be their imperative duty to search out the fundamental ideas of the priestly law of holiness1 and1 accordingly1 they learned how to separate the kernel from the shell4 ,in opposition to the orthodox tendency to worship the letter1 they insisted on the fact that ,israel's separation from the world--which it is ultimately to win for the divine truth--cannot itself be its end and aim1 and that blind obedience to the law does not constitute true piety4 ,only the fundamental idea1 that ,israel as the 8first-born0 among the nations has been elected as a priest-people1 must remain our imperishable truth1 a truth to which the centuries of history bear witness by showing that it has given its life-blood as a ransom for humanity1 and is ever bringing new sacrifices for its cause4 ,only because it has kept itself distinct as a priest-people among the nations could it carry out its great task in history2 and only if it remains conscious of its priestly calling and therefore maintains itself as the people of ,god1 can it fulfill its mission4 ,not until the end of time1 when all of ,god's children will have entered the kingdom of ,god1 may ,israel1 the high-priest among the nations1 renounce his priesthood4 ,chapter ,,li4 ,israel1 the ,people of the ,law1 and its ,world ,mission #a4 ,judaism differs from all the ancient religions chiefly in its intrusting its truth to the whole people instead of a special priesthood4 ,the law which 8,moses commanded us is an inheritance of the ,congregation of ,jacob107#aabi7 is the ,scriptural lesson impressed upon every ,jew in early childhood4 ,as soon as the ,torah passed from the care of the priests into that of the whole nation1 the people of the book became the priest-nation1 and set forth to conquer the world by its religious truth4 ,this aim was expressed by all the prophets beginning with ,moses1 who said3 8,would that all the ,lord's people were prophets1 that the ,lord would put ,his spirit upon them407#aacj7 ,the prophetic ideal was that 8they shall all know ,me 7,god71 from the least of them unto the greatest of them107#aaca7 and that 8all thy 7,zion's7 children shall be taught of the ,lord407#aacb7 ,after the people came to realize that the ,law was 8their wisdom and understanding in the sight of the peoples107#aacc7 they soon felt the hope that one day 8the isles shall wait for ,his teaching107#aacd7 and confidently expected the time when 8many peoples shall go and say1 ,come ye1 and let us go up to the mountain of the ,lord1 to the house of the ,god of ,jacob2 and ,he will teach us of ,his ways1 and we will walk in ,his paths1 for out of ,zion shall go forth the law1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem407#aace7 ,once liberated from the dominance of the priesthood1 religion became the instrument of universal instruction1 the factor of general spiritual and moral advancement4 ,in addition it endowed humanity with an educational ideal1 destined to regenerate its moral life far more deeply than ,greek culture could ever do4 ,the object was to elevate all classes of the people by the living word of ,god1 by the reading and expounding of the ,scripture for the dissemination of its truth among the masses4 #b4 ,those who define ,judaism as a religion of law completely misunderstand its nature and its historic forces4 ,this is done by all those ,christian theologians who endeavor to prove the extraordinary assertion of the apostle ,paul that the ,jewish people was providentially destined to produce the ,old ,testament law and become enmeshed in it1 like the silkworm in its cocoon1 finally to dry up and perish1 leaving its prophetic truth for the ,church4 ,this fateful misconception of ,judaism is based upon a false interpretation of the word ,torah1 which denotes moral and spiritual instruction as often as law1 and thus includes all kinds of religious teaching and knowledge together with its primary meaning1 the written and the oral codes47#aacf7 ,in fact1 in post-,biblical times it comprised the entire religion1 as subject of both instruction and scientific investigation4 ,true1 law is fundamental in ,jewish history2 ,israel accepted the divine covenant on the basis of the ,sinaitic code2 the reforms of ,king ,josiah were founded on the ,deuteronomic law27#aacg7 and the restoration of the ,judean commonwealth was based upon the completed ,mosaic code brought from ,babylon by ,ezra the ,scribe47#aach7 ,this book of law1 with its further development and interpretation1 remained the normative factor for ,judaism for all time4 ,still1 from the very beginning the ,law of the covenant contained a certain element which distinguished it from all the priestly and political codes of antiquity4 ,beside the traditional juridical and ritualistic statutes1 which betray a ,babylonian origin1 it contains laws and doctrines of kindness toward the poor and helpless1 the enemy and the slave1 even toward the dumb beast1 in striking contrast to the spirit of cruelty and violence in the ,babylonian law47#aaci7 ,in the name of the all-seeing1 all-ruling ,god it appeals to the sympathy of man4 ,these exhortations to tenderness increase in later codes of law under the prophetic influence1 until finally the rabbis extended them as far as possible4 ,they held that every negligence which leads to the loss of life or property by the neighbor1 every neglect of a domestic animal1 even every act of deceit by which one attempts to 8steal0 the good opinion of one's fellow-men1 is a violation of the law47#aadj7 ,hence ,rabbi ,simlai1 the ,haggadist1 said that from beginning to end the ,law is but a system of teachings of human love17#aada7 while another sage tried to prove from the books of ,moses that ,god implanted mercy1 modesty1 and benevolence in the souls of ,israel as hereditary virtues47#aadb7 ,in the same spirit ,rabbi ,meir described the law of ,israel as the law of humanity1 supporting his statement by a number of biblical passages47#aadc7 #c4 ,but1 as light by its very nature illumines its surroundings1 so the ,torah in the possession of the ,jewish people was certain to become the light of mankind4 ,first of all1 the book of ,law itself insists that the father shall teach the word of ,god to his children1 using many signs and ceremonies that they may meditate on the works of ,god and walk in the path of virtue1 and that the divine commands should be 8in the mouth and in the heart of all to do them407#aadd7 ,it was made incumbent upon the high priest or king to read the ,law at least once every seven years to the whole people assembled in the holy city for the autumnal festival1--men1 women1 children1 and the sojourners in the gates1--so that it should become their common property47#aade7 ,this precept probably gave rise to the triennial and later the annual system of ,torah reading on the ,sabbath4 ,but in addition to the book of ,law the prophetic words of consolation were read to the people1 a custom which originated in the ,babylonian exile1 and was continued under the name of ,haftarah 78dismissal0 of the congregation747#aadf7 ,the seer of the exile refers to these prophetic words of comfort which were offered to the people on the ,sabbath as well as other feasts and fasts3 8,attend unto ,me1 ,o ,my people1 and give ear unto ,me1 ,o ,my nation1 for instruction 7,torah7 shall go forth from ,me1 and ,my right on a sudden for a light of the people4444 ,hearken unto ,me1 ye that know righteousness1 the people in whose heart is ,my law2 fear ye not the taunt of men1 neither be ye dismayed at their revilings4 ,for the moth shall eat them up like a garment1 and the worm shall eat them like wool2 but ,my favor shall be forever1 and ,my salvation unto all generations407#aadg7 ,moved by such stirring ideals1 ,synagogues arose in ,jewish settlements all over the globe1 and the book of the ,law1 in its vernacular versions1 ,greek and ,aramaic1 together with the words of the prophets1 became the general source of instruction4 ,in the words of the ,psalms1 it became 8the testimony of the ,lord1 making wise the simple10 8rejoicing the heart10 8enlightening the eyes10 8more to be desired than gold407#aadh7 ,nay more1 the study of the ,law became the duty of every man1 and he who failed to live up to the precepts of the devotees of the ,law1 the ,pharisean fellowships1 was scorned as belonging to the lower class1 am haaretz4 ,every morning the pious ,jew1 first thanking ,god for the light of day1 followed this up by thanking ,him for the ,torah1 which illumines the path of life4 8,the welfare of society rests upon the study of the ,law1 divine service and organized charity10 was a saying of ,simon the ,just1 a high priest of the beginning of the third pre-,christian century47#aadi7 ,thus learning and teaching became leading occupations for the ,jew1 and the two main departments of ,jewish literature1 correspondingly1 are ,torah and ,talmud1 that is1 the written ,law and its exposition4 ,indeed1 the highest title which the rabbis could find for ,moses was simply 8,moses our ,teacher40 ,nay1 ,god ,himself was frequently represented as a venerable ,master1 teaching the ,law in awful majesty47#aaej7 #d4 ,later under the successive influence of ,babylonian and ,greek culture1 the wisdom literature was added to the ,prophets and the ,psalms1 giving to the whole ,torah a universal scope1 like that claimed for ,greek philosophy4 ,the ,jewish love of learning led to an ever greater longing for truth by adding the wisdom of other cultured nations to its own store of knowledge4 ,this motive for universalism became all the stronger1 as the faith became more centered in the sublime conception of ,god as ,master of all the world4 ,as the ,god of ,israel appeared the primal source of all truth1 so the revealed word of ,god was considered the very embodiment of divine wisdom47#aaea7 ,in fact1 the men of hoary antiquity described in the opening chapters of ,genesis were actually credited with being the instructors of the ,greeks and other nations47#aaeb7 ,we read a strange story by a pupil of ,aristotle that the great sage admired a ,jew1 whom he happened to meet1 as both wise and pious1 so that the little ,jewish nation was often considered1 like the wise men of ,india1 to be a sect of philosophers47#aaec7 ,indeed1 ,judaism became a matter of curiosity to the pagan world on account of the ,synagogue1 which attracted them as a unique center of religious devotion and instruction1 and especially because of the ,bible1 which was read and expounded in its ,greek garb from ,sabbath to ,sabbath4 ,the ,jewish people raised themselves to be a nation of thinkers1 and largely through association with ,greek thought4 ,for example1 in the ,greek translation of the ,scriptures all anthropomorphic expressions are avoided4 ,as the personal name of ,israel's ,god of the covenant1 99,,jhvh991 was replaced by the name ,adonai1 8the ,lord107#aaed7 the universality of the ,jewish ,god became still more evident4 ,thus the pagan world could find ,god in the ,scriptures to be the living ,god who dwells in the heart and is sought by all mankind4 ,the ,jew became the herald of the ,one ,god of the universe1 his ,bible a book of universal instruction4 ,many of the heathen1 without merging themselves into the community of the covenant people and without accepting all its particularistic customs1 rallied around its central standard as simple theists1 8worshipers of ,god10 or 8they who fear the ,lord10 according to the terminology of the ,psalms47#aaee7 #e4 ,an old rabbinical legend1 which is reflected in the ,new ,testament miracle of ,pentecost1 relates that the ,ten ,words of ,sinai were uttered in seventy tongues of fire to reach the known seventy nations of the earth47#aaef7 ,we are told that when the people entered ,canaan1 the words of the ,law were engraved in seventy languages on the stones of the altar at ,mount ,ebal47#aaeg7 ,that is1 the law of ,sinai was intended to provide the foundation for all human society4 ,one ,haggadist even asserts that the heathen nations all refused to accept the ,law1 and if ,israel also had rejected it1 the world would have returned to chaos47#aaeh7 ,israel was1 so to speak1 forced by divine ,providence to accept the ,law on behalf of the entire race4 ,hillel1 under the ,romanized reign of ,herod1 was fully conscious of this world-mission when he said3 8,love your fellow creatures and lead them to the study of the ,law407#aaei7 #f4 ,the outlook for the ,jewish people1 however1 became darker and darker through its struggle with ,rome4 ,the fanatical ,zealots entirely opposed the spreading of the knowledge of the ,torah among those who did not belong to the household of ,israel47#aafj7 ,then the ,church sent forth her missionaries to convert the pagan world by constant concessions to its polytheistic views and practices4 ,the seed sown by ,hellenistic ,judaism yielded a rich harvest for the ,church1 even though it was won at the sacrifice of pure ,jewish monotheism4 ,the ,ten ,words of ,sinai1 the ,mosaic laws of marriage1 the poor laws1 and other ,biblical statutes became the cornerstone of civilization1 but in a different guise2 the heritage of ,judaism was transplanted to the ,christian and ,mohammedan world in a new garb and under a new name4 ,henceforth the ,jew1 dispersed1 isolated1 and afflicted1 had to struggle to preserve his faith in its pristine purity4 ,the very danger besetting the study of the ,law during the ,hadrianic persecutions1 which followed the ,bar ,kochba revolt1 increased his zeal and courage4 8,devoid of the ,torah1 our vital element1 we are surely threatened with death10 said ,rabbi ,akiba1 applying to himself the fable of the fox and the fishes1 as he defied the ,roman edict47#aafa7 ,the fear lest the ,torah should be forgotten1 stimulated the teachers and their disciples ever anew to its pursuit4 ,the ,torah was regarded as the bond and pledge of ,god's nearness2 hence the many rabbinical sayings concerning its value in the eyes of ,god1 which are frequently couched in poetic and extravagant language47#aafb7 ,the underlying idea of them all is that ,israel could dispense with its ,state and its ,temple1 but not with its storehouse of divine truth1 from which it constantly derives new life and new youth4 #g4 ,one important question1 however1 remains1 which must be answered3 ,has the ,jewish people1 shut up for centuries by the ramparts of ,talmudic ,judaism1 actually renounced its world mission8 ,in transmitting part of its inheritance to its two daughter-religions1 has ,judaism lost its claim to be a world-religion8 ,the ,congregation of ,israel1 according to the ,midrash1 answers this question in the words of the ,shulamite in the ,song of ,songs3 8,i sleep1 but my heart waketh407#aafc7 ,during the sad period of the ,middle ,ages1 ,judaism in its relation to the outer world slept a long winter-sleep1 now in one land and now in another1 but its inner life always manifested a splendid activity of mind and soul1 exerting a mighty influence upon the history of the world4 ,it was declared dead by the ruling ,church1 and yet it constantly filled her with alarm by the truths it uttered4 ,the ,jewish people was given over to destruction and persecution a thousand times1 but all the floods of hatred and violence could not quench its flame4 ,its marvelous endurance constituted the strongest possible protest against the creed of the ,church1 which claimed to possess an exclusive truth and the only means of salvation4 ,to suffer and die as martyrs by thousands and tens of thousands1 at the stake and under the torture of bloodthirsty mobs1 testifying to the ,one ,only ,god of ,israel and humanity1 was1 to say the least1 as heroic a mission as to convert the heathen4 ,indeed1 the ,jew1 in reciting the ,shema each morning in the house of ,god1 renewed daily his zeal and faith1 by which he was encouraged to sacrifice himself for his sacred heritage4 #h4 ,but the cultivation of the ,torah1 obligatory upon every ,jew1 effected more even than the preservation of monotheism4 ,alongside of the ,church1 which did its best to suppress free thought1 ,islam provided a culture which encouraged study and investigation1 and this brought the leading spirits in ,judaism to a profounder grasp of their own literary treasures4 ,bold truth-seekers arose under the ,mohammedan sway who had the courage to break the chains of belief in the letter of the ,scripture1 and to claim the right of the human reason to give an opinion on the highest questions of religion4 ,the leading authorities of the ,synagogue followed a different course from that of the ,church1 which had brought the ,deity into the sphere of the senses1 divided the one ,god into three persons1 and induced the people to worship the image of ,mary and her ,god-child rather than ,god the ,father4 ,they insisted on the absolute unity and spirituality of ,god1 eliminated all the human attributes ascribed to ,him in ,scripture1 and strove to attain the loftiest and purest possible conception of ,his being4 ,it took a mighty effort for the people of the ,law to rexamine the entire mass of tradition in order to harmonize philosophy and religion1 and invest the divine revelation with the highest spiritual character4 ,this mental activity exerted a great influence upon the whole course of thought of subsequent centuries and even upon modern philosophy4 ,again ,israel became conscious of his mission of light4 ,jewish thinkers1 often combining rabbi1 physician1 and astronomer in one person1 carried the torch of science and free investigation1 directly or indirectly1 into the cell of many a ,christian monk1 rousing the dull spirit of the ,middle ,ages and bringing new intellectual nurture to the ,church1 else she might have starved in her mental poverty4 ,the ,jews of ,spain became the teachers of ,christian ,europe4 ,the forerunners of the ,protestant ,reformation sat at the feet of ,jewish masters4 ,jewish students of the ,hebrew language1 scientifically trained1 opened up the simple meaning of the ,scriptural word1 so long hidden by traditional interpretation4 ,the ,lutheran and the ,english translations of the ,bible were due to their efforts1 and thus also the rise of ,protestantism1 which inaugurated the modern era4 ,yet this intellectual revival1 this wonderful activity of various thinkers among medieval ,jewry1 required a soil susceptible to such seeds1 an atmosphere favorable to this intense search for truth4 ,this existed only in the ,jewish people1 since the universal study of the ,torah brought it about that 8all the children of ,israel had light in their dwellings0 even while dense darkness covered the nations of the medieval world4 #i4 ,we must not underrate the cultural mission of the ,jewish people1 with its striking contrast to the ,new ,testament point of view1 which created monasteries and the celibate ideal1 and thus discouraged industry1 commerce1 and scientific inquiry4 ,dispersed as they were1 the ,jewish people cultivated both commerce and science1 and thus for centuries were the real bearers of culture1 the intermediaries between ,east and ,west4 ,while the ,church divided mankind into heirs of heaven and hell1 thus sowing discord and hatred1 the little group of ,jews maintained their ideal of an undivided humanity4 ,but even their industrial and commercial activity had more than a mere economic significance4 ,forced upon the ,jew by external pressure1 it was favored by ,jewish teaching as a means of promoting spiritual life4 ,not poverty and beggary1 but wealth begotten by honest toil has the sanction of ,judaism in accordance with the saying 8,where there is no flour for bread1 there can be no support for the study of the ,torah407#aafd7 ,moreover1 the rabbis interpreted the verse1 8,rejoice1 ,o ,zebulun1 in thy going out1 and thou1 ,issachar1 in thy tents107#aafe7 as meaning that ,zebulun1 the seafarer1 shared the profit of his commerce with ,issachar1 who taught the law in the tents of the ,torah1 that he1 in turn1 might share his brother's spiritual reward4 ,indeed1 the ,jew used his gains won by trade in the service of the promotion of learning1 and thus his entire industry assumed a higher character4 ,our modern civilization1 with its higher values of life1 owes much to the cultural activity of the medieval ,jew1 which many leaders of the ruling ,church still ignore completely4 ,it is true that the hard struggle for their very existence kept the people unconscious of their cultural mission1 and only now that they have attained the higher historical point of view can they exclaim with ,joseph their ancestor3 8,as for you1 ye meant evil against me2 but ,god meant it for good1 to bring it to pass1 as it is this day1 to save much people alive407#aaff7 ,the fact is that ,jewish commerce has been an important cosmopolitan factor in the past1 and is still working1 to a certain extent1 in the same direction47#aafg7 #aj4 ,new and great tasks have been assigned by divine ,providence to the ,jew of modern times1 who is a full citizen in the cultural1 social1 and political life of the various nations4 ,these tasks are most holy to him as ,jew1 the bearer of a great mission to the world1 which is embodied in his heritage1 the ,torah4 ,however splendid may have been his achievements in the fields of industry and commerce1 of literature and art1 his own peculiar possession is the ,torah alone1 the religious truth for which he fought and suffered all these centuries past2 this must forever remain the central thought1 the aim of all his striving47#aafh7 ,every achievement of the ,jewish people1 every attainment in power1 knowledge1 or skill1 must lead toward the completion of the divine kingdom of truth and justice2 that for which the ,jew laid the foundation at the beginning of his history is still leading forward the entire social life of man to render it a divine household of love and peace4 ,in order that it may carry out the world mission mapped out by its great seers of yore1 the ,jewish people must guard against absorption by the multitude of nations as much as against isolation from them4 ,it must preserve its identity without going back into a separation rooted in self-adulation and clannishness4 ,instead1 the great goal of ,israel will be reached only by patient endurance and perseverance1 confidently awaiting the fulfillment in ,god's own time of the glorious prophecy that all the nations shall be led up to the mountain of the ,lord by the priest-people1 there to worship ,god in truth and righteousness4 ,the ,law is to go forth from ,zion and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem1 as a spiritual1 not a geographical center4 ,this vision forms the highest pinnacle of human aspiration1 rising higher and higher before the mind1 as man ascends from one stage of culture to another1 striving ever for perfection1 for the sublimest ideal of life4 ,this is characteristically expressed by the ,midrash1 which refers to the ,messianic vision3 8,and it shall come to pass in the end of days1 that the mountain of the ,lord's house shall be established as the top of the mountains1 and shall be exalted above the hills407#aafi7 8,one great mountain of the earth will be piled upon the other1 and ,mount ,zion will be placed upon the top as the culminating point of all human ascents40 ,taken in a figurative sense1 in which alone the saying is acceptable1 this means that all the heights of the various ideals will finally merge into the loftiest of all ideals1 when ,israel's one holy ,god will be acknowledged as the ,one for whom all hearts yearn1 whom all minds seek as the ,ideal of all ideals4 ,chapter ,,lii4 ,israel1 the ,servant of the ,lord1 ,martyr and ,messiah ,of the ,nations #a4 8,if there are ranks in suffering1 ,israel takes precedence4 ,if the duration of sorrows and the patience with which they are borne1 ennoble1 the ,jews are among the aristocracy of every land4 ,if a literature is called rich which contains a few classic tragedies1 what shall we say to a national tragedy lasting for fifteen hundred years1 in which the poets and the actors are also the heroes80 ,with these classic words ,leopold ,zunz introduces the history of sufferings which have occasioned the hundreds of plaintive and penitential songs of the ,synagogue described in his book1 ,die ,synagogale ,poesie des ,mittelalters4 ,they are the cries of a nation of martyrs1 resounding through the whole ,jewish liturgy1 and appearing already in many of the ,psalms3 8,thou hast given us like sheep to be eaten2 and hast scattered us among the nations4 ,thou makest us a taunt to our neighbors1 a scorn and a derision to them that are round about us4 ,all this is come upon us1 yet have we not forgotten ,thee1 neither have we been false to ,thy covenant3 ,nay1 for ,thy sake are we killed all the day2 we are accounted as sheep for the slaughter4 ,awake1 why sleepest ,thou1 ,o ,lord8 ,arouse ,thyself1 cast not off forever4 ,wherefore hidest ,thou ,thy face1 and forgettest our affliction and our oppression807#aagj7 ,thus the congregation of ,israel laments2 and what is the answer of ,heaven8 #b4 ,the ,bible contains two answers3 the first by ,ezekiel1 priest and prophet2 the other by the great unknown seer of the ,exile whose words of comfort are given in the latter part of ,isaiah4 ,ezekiel gave a stern and direct answer3 8,the nations shall know that the house of ,israel went into captivity because of their iniquity1 because they broke faith with ,me1 and ,i hid ,my face from them2 so ,i gave them into the hand of their adversaries1 and they fell all of them by the sword4 ,according to their uncleanness and according to their transgressions did ,i unto them2 and ,i hid ,my face from them4 ,therefore thus saith the ,lord ,god3 ,now will ,i bring back the captivity of ,jacob1 and have compassion upon the whole house of ,israel2 and ,i will be jealous for ,my holy name4 ,and they shall bear their shame1 and all their breach of faith which they committed against ,me407#aaga7 ,these words are echoed in the harrowing admonitory chapter of ,leviticus1 which1 however1 closes with words of comfort3 8,and they shall confess their iniquity 444 if then perchance their uncircumcised heart be humbled1 and they then be paid the punishment of their iniquity2 then will ,i remember ,my covenant with ,jacob1 and also ,my covenant with ,isaac1 and also ,my covenant with ,abraham will ,i remember2 and ,i will remember the land407#aagb7 ,this view of divine justice as external and punitive was basic to the ,synagogue liturgy and the entire rabbinic system4 ,the priestly idea of atonement1 that sin could be wiped out by sacrifice1 made a profound impression1 not only upon individual sinners1 but also upon the nation4 ,hence it was applied especially to the people in exile when they could not bring sacrifices to their ,god4 ,still1 one means of atonement remained1 the exile itself1 which could lead the people to repentance and finally to ,god's forgiveness47#aagc7 ,thus the people retained a hope of return from their captivity4 ,they were assured by their prophetic monitors that the faithful community of the ,lord would again be received in favor by the ,god of faithfulness4 ,they even built their hope upon the portions of the ,law1 which was read to assembled worshipers that they might know and observe it on their return to the land of their fathers4 ,israel could say with the ,psalmist3 8,unless ,thy law had been my delight1 ,i should then have perished in mine affliction407#aagd7 ,according to a ,palestinian ,haggadist1 8,israel would never have persevered so long1 had not the ,torah1 the marriage contract of ,israel with its ,god1 pledged to it a glorious future on the holy soil407#aage7 ,wait patiently for ,god's mercy1 which in ,his own time will rebuild ,israel's ,state and ,temple6--this is the keynote of all the prayers and songs of the ,synagogue4 #c4 ,but the great seer of the exile1 whose anonymity lends still greater impressiveness to his words of comfort1 stood on a higher historical plane than that of ,ezekiel the priest4 ,he witnessed the transformation of the entire political world of his time through the victory of ,cyrus the ,mede over the ,babylonian empire1 and thus was able to attain a profounder grasp of the destiny of his own nation4 ,hence he was not satisfied with the view of ,ezekiel4 ,the latter had applied the popular saying1 8,the fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and the children's teeth are set on edge107#aagf7 to refute the belief that an individual was punished for the sins of his fathers2 but he failed to extend this doctrine to the whole nation4 ,whatever sins were committed by the generation who were exiled1 their children ought not to suffer for them 8in double measure407#aagg7 ,moreover1 the realm of love has a higher law than atonement through retribution4 ,love brings its sacrifice without asking why4 ,by willing sacrifice of self it serves its higher purpose4 ,he who struggles and suffers silently for the good and true is ,god's servant1 who cannot perish4 ,he attains a higher glory1 transcending the fate of mortality4 ,this is the new revelation that came to the seer1 as he pondered on the destiny of ,israel in exile1 illumining for him that dark enigma of his people's tragic history4 ,the problem of suffering1 especially that of the servant of ,god1 or the pious1 occupied the ,jewish mind ever since the days of ,jeremiah and especially during the exile4 ,the author of the book of ,job elaborated this into a great theodicy1 speaking of ,job also as the 8servant of the ,lord407#aagh7 ,whatever pattern our exilic seer employed1 beside the chapters about the ,servant of the ,lord17#aagi7 whatever tragic fate of some great contemporary the plaintive song in the fifty-second and fifty-third chapters referred to 7some point to ,jeremiah1 others to ,zerubabel717#aahj7 or whether the poet had in mind only the tragic fate of ,israel1 as many modern exegetes think2 in any case he conceived the unique and pathetic picture of ,israel as the suffering ,servant of the ,lord1 who is at last to be exalted37#aaha7 8,behold1 ,my servant shall prosper1 he shall be exalted and lifted up1 and shall be very high4 ,according as many were appalled at thee--so marred was his visage unlike that of a man1 and his form unlike that of the sons of men--so shall he startle many nations2 kings shall shut their mouths because of him2 for that which had not been told them they shall see1 and that which they had not heard shall they perceive4 ,who would have believed our report8 ,and to whom hath the arm of the ,lord been revealed8 ,for he shot up right forth as a sapling1 and as a root out of a dry ground2 he had no form nor comeliness1 that we should look upon him1 nor beauty that we should delight in him4 ,he was despised and forsaken of men1 a man of pains1 and acquainted with disease1 and as one from whom men hide their face2 he was despised1 and we esteemed him not4 ,surely our diseases he did bear1 and our pains he carried2 whereas we did esteem him stricken1 smitten of ,god and afflicted4 ,but he was wounded because of our transgressions1 he was crushed because of our iniquities2 the chastisement of our welfare was upon him1 and with his stripes we were healed4 ,all we1 like sheep1 did go astray1 we turned every one to his own way2 and the ,lord hath made to light on him the iniquity of us all4 ,he was oppressed1 though he humbled himself1 and opened not his mouth2 as a lamb that is led to the slaughter1 and as a sheep that before her shearers is dumb2 yea1 he opened not his mouth4 ,by oppression and judgment he was taken away1 and with his generation who did reason8 ,for he was cut off out of the land of the living1 for the transgression of my people to whom the stroke was due4 ,and they made his grave with the wicked1 and with the rich his tomb2 although he had done no violence1 neither was any deceit in his mouth4 ,yet it pleased the ,lord to crush him by disease2 to see if his soul would offer itself in restitution1 that he might see his seed1 prolong his days1 and that the purpose of the ,lord might prosper by his hand4 ,of the travail of his soul he shall see to the full1 even ,my servant1 who by his knowledge did justify the ,righteous ,one to the many1 and their iniquities he did bear4 ,therefore will ,i divide him a portion among the great1 and he shall divide his soul with the mighty2 because he bared his soul unto death1 and was numbered with the transgressors2 yet he bore the sin of many1 and made intercession for the transgressors40 #d4 ,whatever be the historical background of this great elegy1 our seer uses it to portray ,israel as the tragic hero of the world's history4 ,his prophetic genius possessed a unique insight into the character and destiny of his people1 seeing ,israel as a man of woe and grief1 chosen by ,providence to undergo unheard-of trials for a great cause1 by which1 at the last1 he is to be exalted4 ,bent and disfigured by his burden of misery and shame1 shunned and abhorred as one laden with sin1 he suffers for no guilt of his own4 ,he is called to testify to his ,god among all the peoples1 and is thus the ,servant of the ,lord1 the atoning sacrifice for the sins of mankind1 from whose bruises healing is to come to all the nations1--an inimitable picture of a self-sacrificing hero1 whose death means life to the world and glory to ,god1 and who will at last live forever with the ,lord whom he has served so steadfastly4 ,our seer mentions in earlier passages the ,servant of the ,lord who 8gave his back to the smiters1 and his cheeks to them that plucked off the hair2 and hid not his face from shame and spitting407#aahb7 ,yet 8he shall set his face like a flint10 so that 8he shall not fail nor be crushed1 till he have set the right in the earth2 and the isles shall wait for his teaching407#aahc7 ,still more directly1 he says3 8,and ,he said unto ,me1 #8,thou art ,my servant1 ,israel1 in whom ,i will be glorified4' 444 ,it is too light a thing that thou shouldest be ,my servant to raise up the tribes of ,jacob and to restore the offspring of ,israel2 ,i will also give thee for a light of the nations1 that ,my salvation may be unto the end of the earth4 ,thus saith the ,lord1 the ,redeemer of ,israel1 his ,holy ,one1 to him who is despised of men1 to him who is abhorred of nations1 to a servant of rulers3 kings shall see and arise1 princes1 and they shall prostrate themselves2 because of the ,lord that is faithful1 even the ,holy ,one of ,israel1 who hath chosen thee407#aahd7 #e4 ,it was1 however1 no easy matter for men reared in the old view to reach the lofty conception of a suffering hero4 ,even the dramatic figure of ,job seemed to lack the right solution4 ,job protests his guiltlessness1 defies the dark power of fate1 and even challenges divine justice1 but ,god himself announces at the end that no man can grasp the essence of ,his plan for the world4 ,a later and more nave writer1 who added the conclusion of the book1 reversed ,job's destiny and compensated him by a double share of what he had lost in both wealth and family47#aahe7 ,as if the great problem of suffering could be solved by such external means6 ,neither would the problem of the great tragedy of ,israel1 the martyr-priest of the centuries1 the ,job of the nations1 ever find its solution in a national restoration4 ,a mere political rebirth could never compensate for the thousandfold death and untold woe of the ,jew for his ,god and his faith6 ,but the people at large could not grasp such a conception as is that of ,deutero-,isaiah's of the mission of ,israel to be the suffering servant of the ,lord1 the witness of ,god--which is 8martyr0 in the ,greek version1--the redeemer of the nations4 ,they were eager to return to ,palestine1 to rebuild ,state and ,temple under the leadership of the heir to the throne of ,david4 ,but when their hope had failed that ,zerubbabel would prove to be the 8shoot of ,jesse107#aahf7 the prophetic elegy was referred to the ,messiah1 and the belief gained ground that he would have to suffer before he would triumph47#aahg7 ,thus many a pseudo-,messiah fell a victim to the tyranny of ,rome in both ,juda and ,samaria1--for the ,samaritans also hoped for a ,messiah1 a redeemer of the type of ,moses47#aahh7 ,finally a belief arose that there would be two ,messiahs1 one of the house of ,joseph1 that is1 the tribe of ,ephraim1 who would fall before the sword of the enemy17#aahi7 and the other of the house of ,david1 who was to conquer the heathen nations and establish his throne forever47#aaij7 ,the ,church referred the pathetic figure of the man of sorrow to her crucified ,messiah or ,christ4 ,yet he who was to be a world-savior bore through his followers damnation to his own kinsmen1 and thus was rendered the chief cause of the persecution of the martyr-race of ,israel4 #f4 ,we learn1 however1 from ,origen1 a ,church father of the third century1 that ,jewish scholars1 in a controversy with him1 expressed the view that the ,servant of the ,lord refers to the ,jewish people1 which1 dispersed among the nations and universally despised1 would finally obtain the ascendancy over them1 so that many of the heathen would espouse the ,jewish faith47#aaia7 ,most of the medieval ,jewish exegetes1 including ,rashi1 who usually follows the traditional view1 refer the chapter likewise to the ,jewish people4 ,as a matter of fact1 the earlier chapters which speak of the ,servant of the ,lord can have no other meaning1 while many points in the description of the suffering hero1 especially the reference to his seed after his death1 do not fit the ,nazarene at all4 ,hence all independent ,christian scholars to-day have abandoned the tradition of the ,church1 and admit that ,israel alone is declared by the prophet to be the one singled out by ,god to atone for the sins of the nations1 to arouse all humanity to a deeper spiritual vision1 and finally to triumph over all the heathen world47#aaib7 #g4 ,thus the strange history of the martyr people is put in the right light and the great tragedy of ,israel explained4 ,israel is the champion of the ,lord1 chosen to battle and suffer for the supreme values of mankind1 for freedom and justice1 truth and humanity2 the man of woe and grief1 whose blood is to fertilize the soil with the seeds of righteousness and love for mankind4 ,from the days of ,pharaoh to the present day1 every oppressor of the ,jews has become the means of bringing greater liberty to a wider circle2 for the ,god of ,israel1 the ,hater of bondage1 has been appealed to in behalf of freedom in the old world and the new4 ,every hardship that made life unbearable to the ,jew became a road to humanity's triumph over barbarism4 ,all the injustice and malice which hurled their bitter shafts against ,israel1 the ,pariah of the nations1 led ultimately to the greater victory of right and love4 ,so all the dark waves of hatred and fanaticism that beat against the ,jewish people served only to impress the truth of monotheism1 coupled with sincere love of ,god and man1 more deeply upon all hearts and to consign hypocrisy and falsehood to eternal contempt4 ,such is the belief confidently held by the people of ,god1 and ever confirmed anew by the history of the ages4 8,he is near that justifieth me2 who will contend with me8 let us stand up together2 who is mine adversary8 let him come near to me4 ,behold1 the ,lord ,god will help me2 who is he that shall condemn me807#aaic7 ,thus speaks the ,servant of the ,lord1 certain that he will finally triumph1 because he defends ,god's cause1 and is bound indissolubly to ,him47#aaid7 ,indeed1 ,god says of him3 8,surely1 he that toucheth you toucheth the apple of ,mine 7his7 eye407#aaie7 #h4 ,the great importance which the rabbis attached to ,israel's martyrdom is shown by the following remarks in connection with the laws of sacrifice3 8,behold1 how the ,torah selects for the sacrificial altar only such animals as belong to the pursued1 not the pursuers3 the ox which is pursued by the lion2 the lamb which is pursued by the wolf2 the goat which is pursued by the panther1 but none of those which feed on prey4 ,in like manner ,god chose for ,his own the persecuted ones3 ,abel1 who was persecuted by his brother ,cain2 ,noah1 who was derided by the generation of the flood2 ,abraham1 who had to flee before the tyrant ,nimrod2 and ,isaac1 ,jacob1 and ,joseph1 who met with unkindness from their own brothers4 ,in the same way ,god has chosen ,israel from among the seventy nations1 as the lamb hunted1 as it were1 by seventy wolves1 that it should bear ,his law to mankind407#aaif7 ,this idea is expressed also in the ,haggadic saying3 8,those shall be privileged to see the majesty of ,god in full splendor who meet humiliation1 but do not humiliate others2 who bear insult1 but do not inflict it on others2 and who endure a life of martyrdom in pure love of ,god407#aaig7 ,indeed1 the medieval ,jew accepted his sad lot in this spirit of resignation4 ,but the modern ,jew is in a different situation4 ,in the mighty effort of our age for higher truth1 broader love and larger justice1 he beholds the nearing of the prophetic goal of a united humanity1 based on the belief in ,god1 the ,king and ,father of all4 ,accordingly1 modern ,judaism proclaims more insistently than ever that the ,jewish people is the ,servant of the ,lord1 the suffering ,messiah of the nations1 who offered his life as an atoning sacrifice for humanity and furnished his blood as the cement with which to build the divine kingdom of truth and justice4 ,indeed1 the cosmopolitan spirit of the ,jew is the one element needed for the universality of culture4 ,on the other hand1 the world at large is to-day learning more and more to regard the superb loyalty of the ,jew to his ancestral faith with greater fairness and admiration and to accord larger appreciation to him and his religion4 ,once the flood of hatred1 dissension1 and prejudice that brought such untold havoc shall have disappeared from the earth2 once religion emerges from the nebulous atmosphere of other-worldliness1 and directs its longing for ,god toward a life of godliness on earth in the spirit of the ancient prophets1 then the historic mission of the ,jew will also be better understood4 ,israel1 the hunted dove1 which found no resting-place for the sole of its foot during the flood of sin and persecution1 will then appear with the olive-branch of peace for all humanity1 to open the hearts of men that all may enter the covenant with the universal ,father4 ,then1 and not till then1 will the shame of those thousands of years be rolled away1 when the world will recognize that not a ,jew1 but the ,jew has been the suffering ,messiah1 and that he was sent forth to be the savior of the nations4 ,chapter ,,liii4 ,the ,messianic ,hope #a4 ,recent investigators have brought to light many a vision of an era of heavenly bliss brought about by some powerful ruler1 voiced in hoary antiquity by seer or singer in addressing the royal masters of ,babylon or ,egypt47#aaih7 ,but no word in the entire vocabulary of ancient poetry or prose can so touch the deeper chords of the heart1 and so voice the highest hopes of mankind1 as does the name ,messiah 78,god's anointed074 ,from a simple title for any of the kings of ,israel1 it grew in meaning until it comprised the highest hopes of the nation4 ,the ,jewish vision of the future was not the twilight of the gods1 which meant the end of the world with its deities1 but the dawn of a new world1 bright with the knowledge of ,god and blessed by the brotherhood of man4 ,this1 the ,messianic ideal1 is the creation of the prophetic genius of ,israel1 and in turn it influenced man's conception of ,god1 lifting ,him out of the national bounds1 and making ,him the ,god of humanity1 ,ruler of history4 ,israel's ,messianic hope has become the motive power of civilization4 ,in the time of deepest national humiliation it gave the prophets their power to surmount the present and soar to heights of vision2 through it the ,jewish people attained their strength to resist oppression1 buoyed up by perfect confidence and sublime hope4 ,at the same time its magic luster captivated the non-,jewish nations1 spurring them on to mighty deeds4 ,thus it has actually conquered the whole world of man4 ,with every step in culture it points forward to higher aims1 still unattained2 it promises to lead mankind1 united in ,god1 the ,only ,one1 to truth and justice1 righteousness and love4 ,as the banner of ,israel1 the ,messiah of the nations1 it is destined to become the lode-star of all nations and all religions4 ,this is the kernel of the ,jewish doctrine concerning the ,messiah4 #b4 ,this ,messianic hope1 on closer analysis1 reveals two elements1 both of prophetic origin3 one national1 the other religious and universal4 ,the latter is the logical outcome of the monotheism of the great exilic seer1 who based his stirring pictures of the glorious future of ,israel upon the all-encompassing knowledge of ,god possessed by the ,chosen ,people4 ,the classic expression of this hope appears in ,isaiah ,,ii1 #a-d1 and ,micah ,,iv1 #a-ad3 8,and it shall come to pass in the end of days1 that the mountain of the ,lord's house shall be established as the top of the mountains1 and shall be exalted above the hills2 and all nations shall flow unto it4 ,and many peoples shall go and say3 #8,come ye and let us go up to the mountain of the ,lord1 to the house of the ,god of ,jacob2 and ,he will teach us of ,his ways1 and we will walk in ,his paths1' for out of ,zion shall go forth the law1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem4 ,and ,he shall judge between the nations1 and shall decide for many peoples2 and they shall beat their swords into ploughshares1 and their spears into pruning-hooks2 nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more40 ,we note1 indeed1 that no reference to the ,messiah or a king of the house of ,david appears either in this passage or any of the prophecies of ,deutero-,isaiah4 ,justice and peace for all humanity are expected through the reign of ,god alone4 ,the specific ,messianic character of this prophecy took shape only in its association with the older national hope1 voiced by the prophet ,isaiah4 #c4 ,the real ,messianic hope involved the restablishment of the throne of ,david1 and was expressed most perfectly in the words of ,isaiah3 8,and there shall come forth a shoot out of the stock of ,jesse1 and a twig shall grow forth out of his roots4 ,and the spirit of the ,lord shall rest upon him1 the spirit of wisdom and understanding1 the spirit of counsel and might1 the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the ,lord4 ,and his delight shall be in the fear of the ,lord2 and he shall not judge after the sight of his eyes1 neither decide after the hearing of his ears2 but with righteousness shall he judge the poor1 and decide with equity for the meek of the land2 and he shall smite the land with the rod of his mouth1 and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked4 ,and righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins1 and faithfulness the girdle of his reins4 ,and the wolf shall dwell with the lamb1 and the leopard shall lie down with the kid2 and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together2 and a little child shall lead them4444 ,they shall not hurt nor destroy in all ,my holy mountain2 for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea407#aaii7 ,this pattern of the ideal ruler may have been modeled after some ancient ,babylonian formula for the adoration of kings1 as has been asserted of late2 and the same may be true of the mystic titles given by ,isaiah to the royal heir3 8,wonderful counselor1 divine hero1 father of spoil1 prince of peace407#abjj7 ,when the little kingdom of ,juda fell1 the prospect of a realization of the great prophetic vision seemed gone forever4 ,therefore the exiles in ,babylon fastened their hopes so much more firmly on the 8,shoot10 particularly on ,zerubabel 78the seed born in ,babylon071 the object of the fondest hopes of the later prophets47#abja7 ,when he1 too1 disappointed their expectations1 probably due to ,persian interference1 they transferred the advent of the ,messiah more and more into the realm of miracle1 and popular fancy dwelt fondly on his appearance as ,god's champion against the hosts of heathendom 7,gog and ,magog747#abjb7 #d4 ,the conception of the priest-prophet ,ezekiel is very significant in this connection2 for him the kingdom of ,israel's ,god could only be established by the restoration of the throne of ,david1 the servant of the ,lord1 and by the utter destruction of the hosts of heathendom1 who were hostile to both ,god and ,israel4 ,in accordance with this hope the author of the second ,psalm presents a dramatic picture of the ,messiah triumphing over the heathen nations1 a picture which became typical for all the future4 8,why are the nations in an uproar8 ,and why do the peoples mutter in vain8 ,the kings of the earth stand up1 and the rulers take counsel together against the ,lord1 and against ,his anointed3 #8,let us break their bands asunder1 and cast away their cords from us4' ,he that sitteth in heaven laugheth1 the ,lord hath them in derision4 ,then will ,he speak unto them in ,his wrath1 and affright them in ,his sore displeasure3 #8,truly it is ,i that have established ,my king upon ,zion1 ,my holy mountain4' ,i will tell of the decree3 ,the ,lord said unto me3 #8,thou art ,my son1 this day have ,i begotten thee4 ,ask of ,me1 and ,i will give the nations for thine inheritance1 and the ends of the earth for thy possession4 ,thou shalt break them with a rod of iron2 thou shalt dash them in pieces like a potter's vessel4' 0 ,henceforth the conception of the ,messiah alternated between ,isaiah's prince of peace and the world-conqueror of the ,psalmist47#abjc7 ,the name ,messiah does not occur in ,scripture in the absolute form1 but always occurs in the construct with ,,jhvh or a pronoun1 signifying 8the ,anointed of the ,lord40 ,accordingly1 it expresses the relation of the ,anointed to ,god1 his sovereign1 in striking contrast to the heathen kings who themselves claimed adoration as gods4 ,the very name ,messiah excludes the possibility of deification4 ,the term ,messiah was used with the article only in much later times1 ha ,meshiah1 or in the ,aramaic1 ,meshiha1 from which we derive the name1 ,messiah4 #e4 ,in the course of time1 however1 as the people waited in vain for a redeemer1 the expected ,messiah was lifted more and more into the realm of the ideal4 ,the belief took hold especially in the inner circle of the pious 7,hasidim7 that the ,messiah was hidden somewhere1 protected by ,god1 to appear miraculously after having vanquished the hostile powers4 ,the ,essenes1 the representatives of the secret lore1 developed this conception in the ,apocalyptic writings1 thus giving the ,messiah a certain cosmic or supernatural character4 ,they probably modeled their thoughts upon the ,zoroastrian system1 where ,soshiosh1 the world savior1 would appear in the last millennium as the messenger of ,ormuzd to destroy forever the kingdom of evil and establish the dominion of the good47#abjd7 ,thus1 when ,isaiah says of the ,messiah that 8by the breath of his mouth he shall slay the wicked10 this is referred to the principle of evil1 ,satan or ,belial1 who was sometimes actually identified with the ,persian ,ahriman47#abje7 ,moreover1 after the ,persian system1 the whole process of history was divided into six millenniums of strife between the principle of good and evil1 represented by the ,torah and the ungodliness of the world1 and a seventh millennium1 the kingdom of ,god or the ,messianic age4 ,the dates of these were calculated upon the basis of the book of ,daniel1 with its four world-kingdoms and mysterious numbers47#abjf7 #f4 ,the ,biblical passages which refer to 8the end of days0 were also connected with the advent of the ,messianic age1 and the so-called eschatological writings speak of fixed periods following one another4 ,in accordance with certain prophetic hints1 they expected first the 8birth-throes07#abjg7 or 8vestiges0 of the ,messianic age1 a great physical and moral crisis with the turmoil of nature1 plagues1 and moral degeneracy4 ,before the ,messiah would suddenly appear from his hiding place1 the prophet ,elijah was to return from heaven1 whither he had ascended in a fiery chariot4 ,but1 while he had lived in implacable wrath against idolaters1 he was now to come as a messenger of peace1 reconciling the hearts of ,israel with ,god and with one another1 preparing the way to repentance1 and thus to the redemption and reunion of ,israel47#abjh7 ,the next stage is the gathering together of ,israel from all corners of the earth to the holy land under the leadership of the ,messiah1 summoned by the blast of the heavenly trumpet47#abji7 ,then begins that gigantic warfare on the holy soil between the hosts of ,israel and the vast forces of heathendom led by the half-mystic powers of ,gog and ,magog1 a conflict which1 according to ,ezekiel1 is to last for seven years and to end with the annihilation of the powers of evil4 ,before the real ,messiah1 the son of ,david1 appears in victory1 another ,messiah of the tribe of ,ephraim is to fall in battle1 according to a belief dating from the second century and possibly connected with the ,bar ,kochba war47#abaj7 ,in another tradition1 probably older1 the true ,messiah himself is to suffer and die47#abaa7 ,at all events1 he must destroy ,rome1 the fourth world-kingdom4 ,but he is also to slay the arch-fiend ,ahriman1 afterwards known as ,armillus4 ,moreover1 he will redeem the dead from ,sheol1 as he possesses the key to open all the graves of the holy land1 and thus all the sons of ,israel will partake in the glory of his kingdom4 ,then at last the city of ,jerusalem will arise in splendor1 built of gold and precious stones1 the marvel of the world1 and in its midst the ,temple1 a structure of surpassing magnificence4 ,the holy vessels of the tabernacle1 hidden for ages in the wilderness1 will appear1 and the nations will offer the wealth of the whole earth as their tribute to the ,messiah4 ,all will practice righteousness and piety1 and will be rewarded by bliss and numerous posterity47#abab7 ,opinions differ widely as to the duration of the ,messianic age4 ,they range from forty to four hundred years1 and again from three generations to a full millennium47#abac7 ,this difference is partly caused by the distinction between the national hope1 with the temporary welfare of the people of ,israel1 and the religious hope concerning the divine kingdom1 which is to last forever4 ,a very late rabbinic belief holds that the ,messiah will be able to give a new law and even to abrogate ,mosaic prohibitions47#abad7 #g4 ,at any rate1 no complete system of eschatology existed during the ,talmudic age1 as the views of the various apocalyptic writers were influenced by the changing events of the time and the new environments1 with their constant influence upon popular belief4 ,a certain uniformity1 indeed1 existed in the fundamental ideas4 ,the ,messianic hope in its national character includes always the reunion of all ,israel under a victorious ruler of the house of ,david1 who shall destroy all hostile powers and bring an era of supreme prosperity and happiness as well as of peace and good-will among men4 ,the ,haggadists indulged also in dreams of the marvelous fertility of the soil of ,palestine in the ,messianic time17#abae7 and of the resurrection of the dead in the holy land4 ,but in ,judaism such views could never become dogmas1 as they did in the ,church1 even though they were common in both the older and younger ,haggadah4 ,these national expectations were expressed in the liturgy by the ,eighteen ,benedictions1 composed by the founders of the ,synagogue1 the so-called ,men of the ,great ,synagogue2 here the prayers for 8the gathering of the dispersed0 and the 8destruction of the kingdom of ,insolence0 precede those for the 8rebuilding of ,jerusalem and the restoration of the throne of ,david40 ,but the mystic speculations on the origin1 activity1 and sojourn of the ,messiah1 which were a favorite theme of the apocalyptic writers and the ,haggadists during the pre-,christian and the first ,christian centuries1 gave way to a more sober mode of thought1 in the disappointment that followed the collapse of the great ,messianic movements4 ,on the one hand1 the ,church deified its ,messiah and thus relapsed into paganism2 on the other1 ,bar ,kochba1 8the son of the star10 whom the leading ,jewish masters of the law actually considered the ,messiah who would free them from ,rome1 proved to be a 8star of ill-luck0 to the ,jewish people47#abaf7 8,like one who wanders in the dark night1 now and then kindling a light to brighten up his path1 only to have it again and again extinguished by the wind1 until at last he resolves to wait patiently for the break of day when he will no longer require a light10 so were the people of ,israel with their would-be deliverers1 who appeared from time to time to delude their hopes1 until they exclaimed at last3 8,in ,thy light alone1 ,o ,lord1 we behold light407#abag7 ,samuel the ,babylonian1 of the third century1 in opposition to the ,messianic visionaries of his time1 declared3 8,the ,messianic age differs from the present in nothing except that ,israel will throw off the yoke of the nations and regain its political independence407#abah7 ,another sage said3 8,may the curse of heaven fall upon those who calculate the date of the advent of the ,messiah and thus create political and social unrest among the people607#abai7 ,a third declared3 8,the ,messiah will appear when nobody expects him407#abbj7 ,most remarkable of all is the bold utterance of ,rabbi ,hillel of the fourth century1 a lineal descendant of the great master ,hillel and the originator of the present ,jewish calendar system4 ,in all likelihood many of his contemporaries were busy calculating the advent of the ,messianic time according to the number of ,jubilees in the world-eras1 whereupon he said3 8,israel need not await the advent of the ,messiah1 as ,isaiah's prophecy was fulfilled by the appearance of ,king ,hezekiah407#abba7 #h4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages1 when the political or national hopes rose high1 we find various ,messianic movements in both ,east and ,west revived by religious aspirations4 ,but ,maimonides1 the great rationalist1 in his commentary on the ,mishnah and in his ,code1 formulated a ,messianic belief which was quite free from mystical and supernatural elements4 ,his twelfth article of faith declares that 8the ,jew1 unless he wishes to forfeit his claim to eternal life by denial of his faith1 must1 in acceptance of the teachings of ,moses and the prophets down to ,malachi1 believe that the ,messiah will issue forth from the house of ,david in the person of a descendant of ,solomon1 the only legitimate king2 and he shall far excel all rulers in history by his reign1 glorious in justice and peace4 ,neither impatience nor deceptive calculation of the time of the advent of the ,messiah should shatter this belief4 ,still1 notwithstanding the majesty and wisdom of the ,messiah1 he must be regarded as a mortal being like any other and only as the restorer of the ,davidic dynasty4 ,he will die and leave a son as his successor1 who will in his turn die and leave the throne to his heir4 ,nor will there be any material change in the order of things in the whole system of nature and human life2 accordingly ,isaiah's picture of the living together of lamb and wolf cannot be taken literally1 nor any of the ,haggadic sayings with reference to the ,messianic time4 ,we are only to believe in the coming of ,elijah as a messenger of peace and the forerunner of the ,messiah1 and also in the great decisive battle with the hosts of heathendom embodied in ,gog and ,magog1 through whose defeat the dominion of the ,messiah will be permanently established40 8,the ,messianic kingdom itself10 continues ,maimonides with reference to the utterance of ,samuel quoted above1 8is to bring the ,jewish nation its political independence1 but not the subjection of all the heathen nations1 nor merely material prosperity and sensual pleasure1 but an era of general affluence and peace1 enabling the ,jewish people to devote their lives without care or anxiety to the study of the ,torah and universal wisdom1 so that by their teachings they may lead all mankind to the knowledge of ,god and make them also share in the eternal bliss of the world to come407#abbb7 #i4 ,against this rationalized hope for the ,messiah1 which merges the national expectation into the universal hope for the kingdom of ,god1 strong objections were raised by ,abraham ben ,david of ,posquieres1 the mystic1 a fierce opponent of ,maimonides1 who referred to various ,biblical and ,talmudical passages in contradiction to this view47#abbc7 ,on the other hand1 ,joseph ,albo1 the popular philosopher1 who was trained by his public debates against the representatives of the ,church1 emphasized especially the rational character of the ,jewish theology1 and declared that the ,messianic hope cannot be counted among the fundamental doctrines of ,judaism1 or else ,rabbi ,hillel could never have rejected it so boldly47#abbd7 ,on this point we must consider the fine observation of ,rashi that ,hillel denied only a personal ,messiah1 but not the coming of a ,messianic age1 assuming that ,god himself will redeem ,israel and be acknowledged everywhere as ,ruler of the world4 ,as a matter of fact1 too much difference of opinion existed among the ,tanaim and ,amoraim on the personality of the ,messiah and the duration of his reign to admit of a definite article of faith on the question4 ,the expected ,messiah1 the heir of the ,davidic throne1 naturally embodied the national hope of the ,jewish people in their dispersion1 when all looked to ,palestine as their land and to ,jerusalem as their political center and rallying point in days to come4 ,traditional ,judaism1 awaiting the restoration of the ,mosaic sacrificial cult as the condition for the return of the ,shekinah to ,zion1 was bound to persist in its belief in a personal ,messiah who would restore the ,temple and its service4 #aj4 ,a complete change in the religious aspiration of the ,jew was brought about by the transformation of his political status and hopes in the nineteenth century4 ,the new era witnessed his admission in many lands to full citizenship on an equality with his fellow-citizens of other faiths4 ,he was no longer distinguished from them in his manner of speech and dress1 nor in his mode of education and thought2 he therefore necessarily identified himself completely with the nation whose language and literature had nurtured his mind1 and whose political and social destinies he shared with true patriotic fervor4 ,he stood apart from the rest only by virtue of his religion1 the great spiritual heritage of his hoary past4 ,consequently the hope voiced in the ,synagogal liturgy for a return to ,palestine1 the formation of a ,jewish ,state under a king of the house of ,david1 and the restoration of the sacrificial cult1 no longer expressed the views of the ,jew in ,western civilization4 ,the prayer for the rebuilding of ,jerusalem and the restoration of the ,temple with its priestly cult could no longer voice his religious hope4 ,thus the leaders of ,reform ,judaism in the middle of the nineteenth century declared themselves unanimously opposed to retaining the belief in a personal ,messiah and the political restoration of ,israel1 either in doctrine or in their liturgy47#abbe7 ,they accentuated all the more strongly ,israel's hope for a ,messianic age1 a time of universal knowledge of ,god and love of man1 so intimately interwoven with the religious mission of the ,jewish people4 ,harking back to the suffering ,servant of the ,lord in ,deutero-,isaiah1 they transferred the title of ,messiah to the ,jewish nation4 ,reform ,judaism has thus accepted the belief that ,israel1 the suffering ,messiah of the centuries1 shall at the end of days become the triumphant ,messiah of the nations47#abbf7 #aa4 ,this view taken by reform ,judaism is the logical outcome of the political and social emancipation of the ,jew in western ,europe and ,america4 ,naturally1 it had no appeal to the ,jew in the ,eastern lands1 where he was kept apart by mental training1 social habits and the discrimination of the law1 so that he regarded himself as a member of a different nationality in every sense4 ,palestine remained the object of his hope and longing in both his social and religious life4 ,when modern ideas of life began to transform the religious views and habits in many a quarter1 and terrible persecutions again aroused the longing of the unfortunate sufferers for a return to the land of their fathers1 the term ,zionism was coined1 and the movement rapidly spread4 ,it expressed the purely national aims of the ,jewish people1 disregarding the religious aspirations always heretofore connected with the ,messianic hope4 ,this term has since become the watchword of all those who hope for a political restoration of the ,jewish people on ,palestinian soil1 as well as of others whose longings are of a more cultural nature4 ,both regard the ,jewish people as a nation like any other1 denying to it the specific character of a priest-people and a holy nation with a religious mission for humanity1 which has been assigned to it at the very beginning of its history and has served to preserve it through the centuries4 ,on this account ,zionism1 whether political or cultural1 can have no place in ,jewish theology4 ,quite different is the attitude of religious ,zionism which emphasizes the ancient hopes and longings for the restoration of the ,jewish ,temple and ,state in connection with the nationalistic movement4 #ab4 ,political ,zionism owes its origin to the wave of ,anti-,semitism which rose as a counter-movement to the emancipation of the ,jew1 that alienated many of the household of ,israel from their religion4 ,thus it has the merit of awakening many ,jews upon whom the ancestral faith had lost its hold to a sense of love and loyalty to the ,jewish past4 ,in many it has aroused a laudable zeal for the study of ,jewish history and literature1 which should bring them a deeper insight into1 and closer identification with1 the historic character of ,israel1 the suffering ,messiah of the nations1 and thus in time transform the national ,jew into a religious ,jew4 ,the study of ,israel's mighty past will1 it is hoped1 bring to them the conviction that the power1 the hope and the refuge of ,israel is in its ,god1 and not in any territorial possession4 ,we require a regeneration1 not of the nation1 but of the faith of ,israel1 which is its soul4 ,chapter ,,liv4 ,resurrection1 a ,national ,hope #a4 ,the ,jewish belief in resurrection is intimately bound up with the hope for the restoration of the ,israelitish nation on its own soil1 and consequently rather national2 indeed1 originally purely local and territorial47#abbg7 ,true1 the rabbis justified their belief in resurrection by such ,scriptural verses as3 8,i kill and ,i make alive07#abbh7 and 8,the ,lord killeth1 and maketh alive2 ,he bringeth down to the grave1 and bringeth up407#abbi7 ,founded on such passages1 the belief would have to include all men1 and could be confined neither to the ,jewish people nor to the land of ,judea4 ,however1 we find no trace of such a belief in the entire ,bible save for two late post-exilic passages7#abcj7 which are in fact apocalyptic1 being based upon earlier prophecies1 and themselves1 in turn1 basic to the later dogma of the ,pharisees4 #b4 ,the picture of a resurrection was first drawn by the prophet ,hosea1 who applied it to ,israel4 ,in his distress over the destiny of his people he says3 8,come1 and let us return unto the ,lord2 for ,he hath torn1 and ,he will heal us1 ,he hath smitten1 and ,he will bind us up4 ,after two days will ,he revive us1 on the third day ,he will raise us up1 that we may live in ,his presence407#abca7 ,ezekiel's vision of the dry bones which rose to a new life under the mighty sway of the spirit of ,god17#abcb7 gave more definite shape to the picture1 although in the form of allegory4 ,as the prophet himself says1 he aimed to describe the resurrection of ,judah and ,israel from their grave of exile4 ,the obscure ,messianic prophecy in ,isaiah1 chapters ,,xxiv to ,,xxvii1 strikes a new note4 ,first the author deals with the terrible slaughter which ,god will inflict upon the heathen1 after which 8,he will swallow up death forever2 and the ,lord ,god will wipe away tears from off all faces2 and the reproach of ,his people will ,he take away from off all the earth407#abcc7 ,finally1 when the oppressors of ,israel are completely annihilated1 exclaims the seer3 8,thy dead shall live1 thy dead bodies shall arise--awake and sing1 ye that dwell in the dust--for thy dew is a fructifying dew1 and the earth shall bring to life the shades407#abcd7 ,daniel speaks in a similar vein3 8,and many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake1 some to everlasting life1 and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence407#abce7 #c4 ,in this hope for resurrection at the end of days the leading thought is that the prophecies which have been unfulfilled during the lifetime of the pious1 and particularly the martyrs1 shall be realized in the world to come47#abcf7 ,in the oldest apocalyptic writings this life of the future is still conceived as earthly bliss1 inasmuch as the writers think only of the ,messianic time of national glory1 depicted in such glowing colors by the prophets4 ,unbounded richness of the soil and numerous offspring1 abundant treasures brought by remote nations and their rulers1 peace and happiness far and wide--such are the characteristics of the ,messianic age4 ,in order that the dead may share in all this1 it is to be preceded by the resurrection and the great ,day of ,judgment in the valley of ,jehoshaphat or ,gehinnom 7,gehenna71 where the righteous are to be singled out to participate in the realm of the ,messiah47#abcg7 ,as a national prospect the ,messianic hope was based upon the passage in ,deutero-,isaiah3 8,thy people also shall be all righteous1 they shall inherit the land forever407#abch7 ,consequently an ancient ,mishnah taught that 8,all ,israel shall have a share in the world to come407#abci7 ,in fact1 the term 8inherit the land0 was used as late as the ,mishnah to express the idea of sharing in the future life2 so also in the ,new ,testament1 where the resurrection was expected before the coming of the kingdom of the ,messiah47#abdj7 #d4 ,the logical assumption was1 accordingly1 that only the dead of the holy land should enjoy the resurrection4 ,the prophetic verses were cited3 8,i will set glory in the land of the living107#abda7 and 8,he that giveth breath to the people upon it1 and spirit to them that walk therein107#abdb7 and were interpreted in the sense that ,god would restore the breath of life only to those buried in the holy land47#abdc7 ,likewise the verse of the ,psalmist1 8,i shall walk before the ,lord in the land of the living10 was referred to ,palestine1 as the land where the dead shall awaken to a new life47#abdd7 ,hence the rabbis held the strange belief that when the great heavenly trumpet is sounded to summon all the tribes of ,israel from the ends of the earth to the holy land17#abde7 those who have been buried outside of ,palestine must pass through cavities under the earth1 until they reach the soil where the miracle of the resurrection will be performed47#abdf7 ,it has1 therefore1 become a custom of the pious among the ,orthodox to this very day1 in case they could not bury the dead in ,palestine1 to put dust of the holy land beneath their head1 that they might arise wherever they were buried4 #e4 ,we may take it for granted that this nave conception of the resurrection could not be permanent1 and so was modified to include a double resurrection3 the first1 national1 to usher in the ,messianic kingdom1 and the other1 universal1 to usher in the everlasting life of the future4 ,the former offered scant room for the heathen world1 at best only for those who had actually joined the ranks of ,judaism2 the latter1 however1 included the last judgment for all souls and thus opened the way for the salvation of the righteous among the nations as well as the people of ,israel4 ,at this point the conception of resurrection led to higher and more spiritual ideas1 as has been shown in ,chapter ,,xliii4 #f4 ,however1 the belief in the resurrection of the body1 though expressed in the ancient liturgy1 is in such utter contradiction to our entire attitude toward both science and religion1 that it may be considered obsolete for the modern ,jew4 ,orthodoxy1 which clings to it in formal loyalty to tradition1 regards it as a miracle which ,god will perform in the future1 exactly like the many ,biblical miracles which defy reason4 #g4 ,the ,zionist movement has given many ,jews a new attitude toward the national resurrection of ,israel4 ,the nationalists expect the ,jewish nation to awaken from a sleep of eighteen hundred years to new greatness in its ancient home1 not as a religious1 but as a political body1 and in renouncing all allegiance to the priestly mission of ,israel and its ancestral faith they are as remote from genuine ,orthodoxy as from ,reform ,judaism4 ,they assert that the soul of the ,jewish people requires a national body rooted in its ancient soil in order that it may fulfill its appointed task among the nations2 they even go so far as to declare all the achievements brought about by the assimilation of the culture of the surrounding nations to be a deterioration of the genuine character of the ,jewish nation4 ,the fact is that1 as in nature there is nowhere a resurrection of the dead but an ever renewed regeneration of life1 so is the history of the ,jew and of ,judaism a continuous process of regeneration manifested at every great turning-point of history1 when the ideas and cultural elements of a new civilization exert their powerful influence on life and thought4 ,there never was1 nor will be an exclusively ,jewish culture4 ,it is the wondrous power of assimilation of the ,jew which ever created and fashioned his culture anew4 ,that which constitutes the peculiarity of the ,jew and his life force is his religion fostered through the ages1 preserved amidst the most antagonistic influences and hostile environments1 and ever rejuvenated by its unique universalistic spirit when revived by contact with kindred movements4 ,to maintain and propagate this1 his religion in all lands and amidst all civilizations1 is the task assigned to him by ,providence1 until ,god's ,kingdom has been established all over the globe4 ,chapter ,,lv4 ,israel and the ,heathen ,nations #a4 ,as there is but one ,creator and ,ruler of the universe1 so there is before ,him but one humanity4 ,all the nations are under ,his guidance1 while ,israel1 ,his chosen people1 points to the kingdom of ,god which is to embrace them all4 ,israel was called the 8first-born son0 of ,god7#abdg7 at the very moment of his election1 implying that all the sons of men are ,his children4 ,all of them are links in the divine plan of salvation4 ,in the same sense ,god spoke through ,isaiah3 8,blessed be ,egypt1 ,my people1 and ,assyria the work of ,my hands1 and ,israel ,mine inheritance407#abdh7 ,as the first page of ,scripture assigns a common origin to them all in the first man1 so1 the prophets tell us1 at the end of time they shall all be filled with longing for the one ,god and form with ,israel one community on earth1 a great brotherhood of man serving the common ,father above47#abdi7 ,still1 the actual world began1 not with the unity1 but with the wide diversity and dispersion of mankind4 ,the idea of the unity of man came as a corollary to the kindred conception of the unity of ,god1 after a long historical process4 ,just as the creation of the world opens with the separation of light from darkness1 so the process of the spiritual and moral development of mankind begins1 according to the divine plan of salvation1 with the separation of ,israel from the heathen nations47#abej7 ,the sharper the contrast became between the spiritual ,god of ,israel and the crude sensual gods of heathendom1 the wider grew the chasm between ,judaism and heathenism1 between ,israel and the nations4 ,as light is opposed to darkness1 so ,israel's truth stood opposed to the idolatry of the nations1 until ,christianity and ,islam1 its daughter-religions1 arose between the two extremes4 ,henceforth ,israel waits with still more confidence for the age whose dawning will bring the full knowledge of ,god to all mankind1 leading the world from the night of error and discord to the noon-day brightness of truth and unity1 when a universal monotheism will make all humanity one4 #b4 ,nothing was more remote from ancient ,israel than the hatred of the stranger or hostility to other nations1 so often attributed to it47#abea7 ,in the time of the patriarchs and under the monarchy1 the ,hebrews fostered a spirit of friendly intercourse with their neighbors1 which was often confirmed by peaceful alliances47#abeb7 ,of course1 during war time the spirit of hostility had full sway1 particularly as ancient warfare imposed a relentless ban upon both booty and human life among the vanquished4 ,but even then the kings of ,israel were called compassionate also toward their enemies when compared with other rulers47#abec7 ,indeed1 the code of ,israel is distinguished from all other codes of antiquity by mildness and tender compassion4 ,on the other hand1 the ,god of justice1 revealed through ,amos1 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,habakkuk1 punishes ,israel and the nations impartially on account of their moral transgressions47#abed7 ,he avenges acts of treachery1 even when committed against pagan tyrants4 8,shall not the ,judge of all the earth do justly807#abee7 ,such is the recurrent thought that governs ,israel1 demanding the same standard of judgment for ,israelite and stranger4 #c4 ,the simple sense of justice inherent in the ,jewish people admits so little difference between our own ,god-consciousness and that of others1 that ,scripture represents the ,philistine ,king ,abimelech as receiving a warning from ,abraham's ,god 99,,jhvh9947#abef7 ,as the ,bible holds up ,job1 the ,bedouin ,sheik1 as the pattern of a blameless servant of ,god and true lover of mankind17#abeg7 so the ,talmud cites the ,philistine ,dama ben ,nethina as an example of filial piety47#abeh7 ,altogether1 the merits of the heathen receive their full measure of appreciation throughout ,jewish literature17#abei7 even though a narrow dissenting view occurs now and then47#abfj7 #d4 ,still from the very beginning a tendency to relentless harshness existed in one direction1 when the pure worship of ,israel's one and only ,god was endangered4 ,the early ,book of the ,covenant forbade every alliance with idolatrous nations17#abfa7 and the ,deuteronomic ,code made this more stringent by prohibiting intermarriage and even the toleration of idolaters in the land1 lest they seduce the people of ,god to turn away from ,him47#abfb7 ,the ,pharisean leaders1 the founders of ,rabbinism1 went still further by placing an interdict upon eating with the heathen or using food and wine prepared by them1 thus aiming at a complete separation from the non-,jewish world47#abfc7 ,the contrast between ,judaism and heathenism was further heightened by the view of the prophets and psalmists1 showing that the great nations were the very embodiment of idolatrous iniquity1 murderous violence and sexual impurity1 a world of arrogance and pride1 defying ,god and doomed to perdition1 because they opposed the kingdom of ,god proclaimed by ,israel47#abfd7 ,henceforth the term 8the nations0 7goyim7 was taken by the religious as meaning the wicked ones1 who would not be able to stand the divine judgment in the future life1 but would go down to ,sheol1 or ,gehenna1 to fall a prey to everlasting corruption1 to the fire that is never quenched47#abfe7 #e4 ,yet such a wholesale condemnation could not long be maintained2 it was too strongly contradicted in principle by the prophets and ,psalmists1 and quite as much by the apocalyptic writers and ,haggadists of later times4 ,the book of ,jonah testifies that ,israel's ,god sent ,his prophet to the heathen of ,nineveh to exhort them to repentance1 that they might obtain forgiveness and salvation like repentant ,israel47#abff7 ,heathenism is doomed to perish1 not the heathen2 they are to acknowledge the heavenly ,judge in their very punishments and return to ,him4 ,such is the conclusion of all the exhortations of the prophets predicting punishment to the nations4 ,moreover1 those heathen who escape the doom of the world-powers are to proclaim the mighty deeds of the ,lord to the utmost lands4 ,nay1 according to the grand vision of the exilic seer1 among the many nations that shall assemble at the end of days to worship the ,lord in ,zion1 select ones will be admitted to the priesthood with the sons of ,aaron47#abfg7 ,the name ,hadrak1 understood as 8he who bringeth back10 suggested itself to the rabbis as a title of the ,messiah1 the converter of the heathen nations47#abfh7 ,so in both the ,talmud and the ,sibylline books7#abfi7 ,noah is represented as a preacher of repentance to the nations before the flood1 and accordingly the latter book adjures the ,hellenic world to repent of their sinful lives before they would be overwhelmed by the flood of fire at the great judgment day4 ,in the same spirit the ,haggadists tell that ,god sent ,balaam1 ,job1 and other pious men as prophets of the heathen to teach them the way of repentance47#abgj7 ,and the rabbis actually say that1 if the heathen nations had not refused the ,torah when the ,lord offered it to them at ,sinai1 it would have been the common property of all mankind47#abga7 #f4 ,the leading minds of ,judaism felt only pity for the blind obstinacy of the great mass of heathen1 who worshiped the creatures instead of the ,creator1 or the stars of heaven instead of ,him who is enthroned above the skies4 ,they regarded heathenism either as evidence of spiritual want and weakness1 or as the result of destiny4 ,indeed1 the words of the ,deuteronomist sound like an echo of ,babylonian fatalism when he asserts that ,god himself assigned to the nations the worship of the stars as their inheritance47#abgb7 ,later the opinion gained ground that the heathen deities were real demons1 holding dominion over the nations and leading them astray47#abgc7 ,the exilic seer attacked idolatry most vigorously as folly and falsehood1 and thus the note of derision and irony is struck by ,deutero-,isaiah1 the ,psalms1 and in many of the propaganda writings of the ,hellenistic age1 in their references to heathenism4 ,on the other hand1 it is very significant that the ,palestinian sages and their successors condemned heathenism as a moral plague1 conducing to depravity1 lewdness1 and bloodshed4 ,they regarded the powers of the world1 especially ,edom 7,rome71 as being under the dominion of the ,evil ,one1 and therefore doomed to perish in the flames of ,gehenna4 ,as they rejected the ,ten ,commandments out of love for bloodshed1 lust1 and robbery1 so1 according to the ,haggadists1 they will be unable to withstand the last judgment and will suffer eternal punishment4 ,since their one desire was to enjoy the life of this world1 their lot in the future will be ,gehenna2 while the gates of the ,garden of ,eden will be open for ,israel1 the people oppressed and sorely tried1 yet ever faithful to the covenant of ,abraham47#abgd7 ,of course1 this view implied both comfort and vengeance1 but we must not forget that the harsh statements contained in the ,talmud owe their origin to bitter distress and cannot be considered ,jewish doctrines1 as unfriendly critics frequently do47#abge7 #g4 ,as has been shown above1 the dominant view of the ,synagogue is that eternal salvation belongs to the righteous among the nations as well as those of ,israel4 ,in this sense1 ,psalm ,,ix1 #ah1 is understood to the effect that 8all those heathens who have forgotten ,god will go down to the nether world407#abgf7 ,one of the sages expresses a still broader view3 8,when judging the nations1 ,god determines their standard by their best representatives407#abgg7 ,many rabbis held the belief that circumcision secured for the ,jew a place in 8,abraham's bosom0 while the uncircumcised are consigned to ,gehenna1 thus assigning to circumcision a corresponding place to that of baptism in the ,christian ,church4 ,this belief seems to be based upon a passage in ,ezekiel1 where the prophet speaks of the arelim1 or 8uncircumcised10 as dwelling in the nether world47#abgh7 ,but a number of passages in the ,talmud1 especially in the ,tosefta17#abgi7 show that circumcision was not believed to have the power to save a sinner from ,gehenna1 ,on the other hand1 we have the great teaching of ,r4 ,johanan ben ,zakkai in opposing his disciple ,eliezer ben ,hyrcanus1 telling that the sacrifices which atoned for the sins of ,israel are paralleled by deeds of benevolence1 which can atone for the sins of the heathen47#abhj7 ,both the ,talmud and ,philo state that the seventy bullocks which were offered up during the seven days of the ,feast of ,tabernacles were brought by ,israel as sacrifices for the seventy nations of the world47#abha7 #h4 ,where no cause existed to fear the influence of idolatry1 friendly relations with non-,jews were always recommended and cultivated4 ,a non-,jew who devotes his life to the study and practice of the law1 said ,rabbi ,meir1 is equal to the high priest2 for ,scripture says3 8,the laws which1 if a man do1 he shall live by them10 implying that pure humanity is the one essential required by ,god47#abhb7 ,indeed1 ,rabbi ,meir enjoyed a close friendship with nomaos of ,gadara17#abhc7 a heathen philosopher spoken of admiringly in ,talmudic sources and placed on a par with ,balaam as noble representatives of heathendom4 ,obviously this good opinion was held1 because both spoke favorably of ,judaism1 whose 8synagogues and schoolhouses formed the strongest bulwark against the attacks of ,jew-haters40 ,other friendships which were described in popular legends and held up as examples for emulation are those between ,jehuda ha ,nasi and the ,emperor ,antoninus 7,severus77#abhd7 and that of ,samuel of ,babylonia with ,ablat1 a ,persian sage47#abhe7 #i4 ,the ,mosaic and ,talmudic law prescribed quite different treatment for those heathen who persisted in idolatrous practices and refused to observe the laws of humanity1 called the seven ,noahitic laws1 as will be explained more fully in the next chapter4 ,no toleration could be granted them within the ancient jurisdiction2 8,thou shall show them no mercy0 was the phrase of the law for the seven tribes of ,canaan1 and this was applied to all idolaters47#abhf7 ,hence ,maimonides lays down the rule in his ,code that 8wherever and whenever the ,mosaic law is in force1 the people must be compelled to abjure heathenism and accept the seven laws of ,noah in the name of ,god1 or else they are doomed to die407#abhg7 ,on the other hand1 in the very same ,code1 ,maimonides writes in the spirit of ,rabbi ,meir3 8,not only the ,jewish tribe is sanctified by the highest degree of human holiness1 but every human being1 without difference of birth1 in whom is the spirit of love and the power of knowledge to devote his life exclusively to the service of ,god and the dissemination of ,his knowledge1 and who1 walking uprightly before ,him1 has cast off the yoke of the many earthly desires pursued by the rest of men4 ,god is his portion and his eternal inheritance1 and ,god will provide for his needs1 as ,he did for the priest and the ,levite of yore407#abhh7 #aj4 ,to be sure1 a statement of this nature presents a different judgment of heathenism from that of the ancient national law4 ,but the historical and comparative study of religions has caused us to entertain altogether different views of the various heathen religions1 both those representing primitive stages of childlike imagination and superstition1 and those more developed faiths which inculcate genuine ideals of a more or less lofty character4 ,certainly the laws of ,deuteronomy1 written when the nation had dwindled down to the little kingdom of ,juda1 and those further expounded in the ,mishnah enjoining the most rigorous intolerance toward every vestige of paganism1 had only a theoretical value for the powerless ,jewish nation2 while both the ,church and the rulers of ,islam were largely guided by them in practical measures4 ,the higher view of ,judaism was expressed by the last of the prophets3 8 #8,for from the rising of the sun even unto the going down of the same ,my name is great among the nations2 and in every place offerings are presented unto ,my name1 even pure oblations1 for ,my name is great among the nations1' saith the ,lord of hosts407#abhi7 ,the fact is that heathenism seeks the ,god whom ,israel by its revelation has found4 ,in this spirit both ,philo and ,josephus took the ,scriptural passage1 8,thou shalt not curse ,god10 taking the ,hebrew ,elohim in the plural sense1 8the gods02 thus they said a ,jew must not offend the religious sense of the heathen by scorn or ridicule1 however careful he must be to avoid the imitation of their practices and superstitions47#abij7 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,code of ,law aimed to separate ,israel and the nations in order to avoid the crude worship of idols1 animals and stars practiced by the heathen of antiquity4 ,it was not framed for masters like ,socrates1 ,buddha1 and ,confucius1 with their lofty moral views and their claims upon humanity4 ,the ,god who revealed himself to ,abraham1 ,job1 ,enoch1 and ,balaam1 as well as to ,moses and ,isaiah1 spoke to them also1 and the wise ones of ,israel have ever hearkened to their inspiring lessons4 ,their words are echoed in ,jewish literature together with ,solomon's words of wisdom4 ,plato1 ,plotinus1 and ,aristotle received the most friendly hospitality from the rabbinic philosophers and mystic writers of ,jewry1 and so ,buddhist sayings and views penetrated into ,jewish ethics and popular teachings4 ,both the ,jew and his literature are cosmopolitan1 and ,judaism never withholds its appreciation of the merits of the heathen world47#abia7 #aa4 ,we must especially emphasize one claim of the ,jewish people above other nations which the rabbis call zekuth aboth1 8the merit of the fathers10 and which we may term 8hereditary virtue40 ,the election of ,israel1 in spite of its own lack of merit1 is declared in ,deuteronomy and elsewhere to be due to the merit of the fathers1 with whom ,god concluded ,his covenant in love47#abib7 ,the promise is often repeated that ,god will ever remember ,his covenant with the fathers and not let the people perish1 even though their sins were great2 therefore the rabbis assumed that the patriarchs had accumulated a store of merit by their virtues which would redound before ,god to the benefit of their descendants1 supplementing their own weaknesses47#abic7 ,this merit or righteousness of the fathers formed a prominent part of the hope and prayer1 nay1 of the whole theological system of the ,jewish people4 ,they regarded the patriarchs and all the great leaders of the past as patterns of loyalty and love for ,god1 so that1 according to the ,midrash1 ,israel might say in the words of the ,shulamite3 8,black am ,i0 considering my own merit1 8but comely0 when considering the merit of the fathers47#abid7 ,whether this store of merit would ever be exhausted is a matter of controversy among the rabbis4 ,some referred to ,god's own words that ,he will ever remember ,his covenant with the fathers2 others pointed to the verse in ,deutero-,isaiah3 8,for the mountains may depart1 and the hills be removed2 but ,my kindness shall not depart from thee1 neither shall ,my covenant of peace be removed10 which they interpreted symbolically to mean3 when the merit of the patriarchs and matriarchs of ,israel is exhausted1 ,god's mercy and compassion for ,israel will be there never to depart47#abie7 ,translated into our own mode of thinking1 this merit of the fathers claimed for ,israel signifies the unique treasure of a spiritual inheritance which belongs to the ,jew4 ,this inheritance of thousands of years provides such rare examples and such high inspiration that it incites to the highest virtue1 the firmest loyalty1 and the greatest love for truth and justice4 ,judaism1 knowing no such thing as original sin1 points with pride instead to hereditary virtue1 deriving an inexhaustible source of blessing from its historical continuity of four thousand years4 ,chapter ,,lvi4 ,the ,stranger and the ,proselyte #a4 ,among all the laws of the ,mosaic ,code1 that which has no parallel in any other ancient code is the one enjoining justice1 kindness and love toward the stranger4 ,the ,book of the ,covenant teaches3 8,and a stranger shall thou not wrong1 neither shalt thou oppress him2 for ye were strangers in the land of ,egypt107#abif7 and 8,a stranger shalt thou not oppress2 for ye know the heart of a stranger1 seeing ye were strangers in the land of ,egypt40 ,the ,deuteronomic writer lays special stress on the fact that ,israel's ,god1 8who regardeth not persons nor taketh bribes1 doth execute justice for the fatherless and the widow1 and loveth the stranger1 in giving him food and raiment40 ,he then concludes3 8,love ye therefore the stranger2 for ye were strangers in the land of ,egypt407#abig7 ,the ,priestly ,code goes still further1 granting the stranger the same legal protection as the native47#abih7 #b4 ,we would1 however1 misunderstand the spirit of all antiquity1 including ancient ,israel1 if we consider this as an expression of universal love for mankind and the recognition of every human being as fellow-man and brother4 ,throughout antiquity and during the semi-civilized ,middle ,ages1 a stranger was an enemy unless he became a guest4 ,if he sought protection at the family hearth or 7in the ,orient7 under the tent of a ,sheik1 he thereby entered into a tutelary relation with both the clan or tribe and its deity4 ,after entering into such a relation1 temporary or permanent1 he became1 in the term which the ,mosaic law uses in common with the general ,semitic custom1 a ,ger or ,toshab1 8sojourner0 or 8settler10 entitled to full protection47#abii7 ,this relation of dependency on the community is occasionally expressed by the term3 8thy stranger that is within thy gates407#acjj7 ,such protection implied1 in turn1 that the ,ger or proteg owed an obligation to the tribe or community which shielded him4 ,he stood under the protection of the tribal god1 frequently assumed his name1 and thus dared not violate the law of the land or of its deity1 lest he forfeit his claim to protection4 #c4 ,in accordance with this1 the oft-repeated ,mosaic command for benevolence toward the stranger1 which placed him on the same footing with the needy and helpless1 imposed certain religious obligations upon him4 ,he was enjoined1 like the ,israelite1 not to violate the sanctity of the ,sabbath by labor1 nor to provoke ,god's anger by idolatrous practices1 and1 according to the ,priestly ,code1 to avoid the eating of blood and the contracting of incestuous marriages as well as the transgression of the laws for ,passover and the ,day of ,atonement4 ,naturally1 in criminal cases such as blasphemy he was subject to the death-penalty just like the native47#acja7 ,still1 the ,ger was not admitted as a citizen1 and in the ,mosaic system of law he was always a tolerated or protected alien1 unless he underwent went the rite of circumcision and thus joined the ,israelitish community47#acjb7 #d4 ,with the transformation of the ,israelitish ,state into the ,jewish community--in other words1 with the change of the people from a political to a religious status1--this relation to the non-,jew underwent a decided change4 ,as the contrast to the heathen became more marked1 the ,ger assumed a new position4 ,as he pledged himself to abandon all vestiges of idolatry and to conform to certain principles of the ,jewish law1 he entered into closer relations with the people4 ,accordingly1 he adopted certain parts of the ,mosaic code or the entire law1 and thus became either a partial or a complete member of the religious community of ,israel4 ,in either case he was regarded as a follower of the ,god of the ,covenant4 ,in spite of the exclusive spirit which was dominant in the period following ,ezra1 two forces favored the extending of the boundaries of ,judaism beyond the confines of the nation4 ,on the one hand1 the ,babylonian ,exile had visualized and partially realized the prophecy of ,jeremiah3 8,unto ,thee shall the nations come from the ends of the earth1 and shall say3 #8,our fathers have inherited naught but lies1 vanity and things wherein there is no profit4' 07#acjc7 ,for example1 ,zechariah announced a time when 8many peoples and mighty nations shall come to seek the ,lord of ,hosts in ,jerusalem and to entreat the favor of the ,lord10 and 8,ten men shall take hold1 out of all the languages of nations1 shall even take hold of the skirt of him that is a ,jew1 saying1 #8,we will go with you1 for we have heard that ,god is with you4' 07#acjd7 ,another prophet said at the time of the overthrow of ,babylon3 8,for the ,lord will have compassion on ,jacob1 and will yet choose ,israel1 and set them in their own land1 and the stranger 7,ger1 or proselyte7 shall join himself with them1 and they shall cleave to the house of ,jacob407#acje7 ,the ,psalmists especially refer to the heathen who shall join ,israel17#acjf7 so that ,ger now becomes the regular term for proselyte47#acjg7 ,in addition to this inward religious desire we must consider the social and political impulse4 ,the handful of ,judans who had returned from ,babylonia were so surrounded by heathen tribes that1 while the ,samaritans had attracted the less desirable groups1 they were glad to welcome the influx of such as promised to become true worshipers of ,god4 ,the chief problem was how to provide a legal form for these to 8come over10 proselyte being the ,greek term for 8him who comes over40 ,by such a form they could enter the community while accepting certain religious obligations4 ,in fact1 such obligations had been stated before in the ,priestly ,code1 which admitted into the political community as 8sojourners0 or 8indwellers0 those who pledged themselves to abstain from idolatry1 blasphemy1 incest1 the eating of blood or of flesh from living animals1 and from all violence against human life and property4 ,they were debarred only from marriage into the religious community1 8the congregation of the ,lord40 ,henceforth ,ger and ,ger ,toshab became juridical terms1 the social and legal designation of those proselytes who had abjured heathenism and joined the monotheistic ranks of ,judaism as 8worshipers of ,god40 #e4 ,thus the first great step in the progress of ,judaism from a national system of law to a universal religion was made in ,juda4 ,the next step was to recognize the idea of the revelation of ,god to the 8god-fearing men0 of the primeval ages1 as described in the ,mosaic books1 and thus to open the gates of the national religion for heathen who had become 8,god-fearing men0 or 8worshipers of the ,lord40 ,thus the ,psalms1 after enumerating the customary two or three classes1 8the house of ,israel10 8of ,aaron10 and 8of ,levi10 often add the 8,god-fearing0 proselyte47#acjh7 ,the ,synagogue was especially attractive to the heathen who sought religious truth because of its elevating devotion and its public instruction in the ,scripture1 translated into ,greek1 the language of the cultured world4 ,this sponsored a new system for propagating the ,jewish faith4 ,the so-called ,propaganda literature of ,alexandria laid its chief stress upon the ethical laws of ,judaism1 not seeking to submit the non-,jew to the observance of the entire ,mosaic law or to subject him to the rite of circumcision4 ,the ,jewish merchants1 coming into contact with non-,jews in their travels on land and sea1 endeavored especially to present their religious tenets in terms of a broad1 universal religion4 ,as a universal faith forms the background of the entire ,wisdom literature1 particularly the book of ,job1 a simple monotheism could be founded upon a divine revelation to mankind in general1 corresponding to the one to ,noah and his sons after the flood4 ,the laws connected with this covenant1 called the ,noahitic laws1 were general humanitarian precepts4 ,we find these enumerated in the ,talmud as six1 seven1 and occasionally ten4 ,sometimes we read of thirty such laws to be accepted by the heathen1 probably founded upon the nineteenth chapter of ,leviticus1 at one time central in ,jewish ethics47#acji7 ,at any rate1 the observance of the so-called ,noahitic laws was demanded of all worshipers of the one ,god of ,israel4 ,strange to say1 however1 this extensive propaganda of the ,alexandrian ,jews during the two or three pre-,christian centuries left few traces in the history and literature of ,palestinian ,judaism4 ,two reasons seem at hand2 the growth of the ,paulinian ,church1 which absorbed the missionary activity of the ,synagogue1 and the effort of ,talmudic ,judaism to obliterate the old missionary tradition4 ,to judge from occasional references in ,josephus and the ,new ,testament1 as well as many inscriptions all over the lands of the ,mediterranean17#acaj7 the number of heathen converts to the ,synagogue was very large and caused attacks on ,judaism in both ,rome and ,alexandria4 ,josephus tells us that ,jews and proselytes in all lands sent sacrificial gifts to ,jerusalem in such abundance as to excite the avarice of the ,romans47#acaa7 ,the ,midrash preserves a highly interesting passage which casts light on the earlier significance of the winning of heathen converts1 reading as follows3 8,when it is said in ,zephaniah ,,ii1 #e3 #8,woe to the inhabitants of the sea-coast1 the nation of ,kerethites'2 this means that the inhabitants of the various pagan lands would be doomed to undergo ,kareth1 #8perdition1' save for the one ,god-fearing proselyte1 who is won over to ,judaism each year and set up to save the heathen world407#acab7 ,in other words1 the merit of the one proselyte whose conversion awakens the hope for the winning of the entire heathen world to pure monotheism1 is an atoning power for all4 ,such was the teaching of the ,pharisees1 whom the gospel of ,matthew brands as hypocrites because of their zeal in making proselytes4 #f4 ,this kind of proselytism was encouraged only by ,alexandrian or ,hellenistic ,judaism4 ,in ,palestine1 however1 the social system of the nation was quite unfavorable to the simple 8,god-worshiper10 who remained merely a tolerated alien1 even though protected1 and never really entered the national body4 ,legally he was termed ,ger ,toshab1 8settler10 which meant semi-proselyte4 ,the type of this class was ,naaman1 the ,syrian general who was instructed by ,elijah to bathe in the ,jordan to cure his leprosy1 and then became a worshiper of the ,god of ,israel47#acac7 ,similarly1 whatever the real origin of the proselyte's bath may have been1 a baptismal bath was prescribed for the proselyte to wash off the stain of idolatry47#acad7 ,he was regarded as one who had 8fled from his former master0 7in heaven7 to find refuge with the only ,god27#acae7 therefore he was legally entitled to shelter1 support1 and religious instruction from the authorities47#acaf7 ,certain places were assigned where he was to receive protection and provision for his needs1 but he was not allowed to settle in ,jerusalem1 where only full proselytes were received as citizens47#acag7 ,according to ,philo1 special hospices were fitted out for the reception of semi-proselytes47#acah7 #g4 ,in order to enjoy full citizenship and equal rights1 the proselyte had to undergo both the baptismal bath and the rite of circumcision1 thus accepting all the laws of the ,mosaic ,code equally with the ,israelite born4 ,beside this1 he had to bring a special proselyte's sacrifice as a testimony to his belief in the ,god of ,israel4 ,in distinction from the ,ger ,toshab1 or semi-proselyte1 he was then called ,ger ha ,zedek or ,ger ,zedek4 ,this name1 usually translated as 8proselyte of righteousness10 obviously possesses a deeper historical meaning4 ,the ,psalmist voices a pure ethical monotheism in his query3 8,o ,lord1 who shall be a guest 7,ger1 sojourner7 in thy tent80 which he answers3 8,he that walketh uprightly and worketh righteousness and speaketh truth in his heart407#acai7 ,but the legal view of the priestly authorities was that only the man who offers a 8sacrifice of righteousness0 and pledges himself to observe all the laws binding upon ,israel might become a 8guest0 in the ,temple on ,zion1 an adopted citizen of ,jerusalem1 the 8city of righteousness407#acbj7 ,in illustration of this view a striking interpretation to a ,deuteronomic verse is preserved3 8,they shall call people unto the mountain1 there shall they offer sacrifices of righteousness3 that is1 the heathen nations with their kings who come to ,jerusalem for commerce with the ,jewish people shall be so fascinated by its pure monotheistic worship and its simple diet1 that they will espouse the ,jewish faith and bring sacrifices to the ,god of ,israel as proselytes407#acba7 ,the prominence of the full proselyte in the early ,synagogue appears in the ancient benediction for the righteous leaders and ,hasidim1 the ,soferim and ,synedrion1 the ruling authorities of the ,jewish nation1 where special mention is made of 8the ,proselytes of 7the7 ,righteousness407#acbb7 ,these full proselytes pushed aside the half-proselytes1 so that1 while both are mentioned in the earlier classification1 only the latter are considered by the later ,haggadah47#acbc7 ,with the dissolution of the ,jewish ,state no juridical basis remained for the ,ger ,toshab1 the 8protected stranger40 ,r4 ,simeon ben ,eleazar expressed this in the statement3 8,with the cessation of the ,jubilee year there was no longer any place for the ,ger ,toshab in ,juda407#acbd7 ,we read in ,josephus that no proselytes were accepted in his time unless they submitted to the ,abrahamitic rite and became full proselytes47#acbe7 ,however1 as ,josephus tells us1 a strong desire to espouse the ,jewish faith existed among the pagan women of neighboring countries1 especially of ,syria47#acbf7 ,the same situation existed in ,rome according to the rabbinical sources1 ,josephus1 ,roman writers1 and many tomb inscriptions47#acbg7 ,conspicuous among these proselytes was ,queen ,helen of ,adiabene1 who won lasting fame by her generous gifts to the ,jewish people in time of famine and to the ,temple at ,jerusalem2 her son ,menobaz1 at the advice of a ,jewish teacher1 underwent the rite of circumcision in order to rise from a mere ,god-worshiper to a full proselyte47#acbh7 ,the ,midrash7#acbi7 enumerates nine heathen women of the ,bible who became ,god-worshipers3 ,hagar2 ,asenath1 the wife of ,joseph1 whose conversion is described in a little known but very instructive ,apocryphal book by that name27#accj7 ,zipporah1 the wife of ,moses2 ,shifra and ,puah1 the ,egyptian midwives27#acca7 ,pharaoh's daughter1 the foster-mother of ,moses1 whom the rabbis identified with ,bithia 7,bath ,yah1 8,daughter of the ,lord0727#accb7 ,rahab1 whom the ,midrash represents as the wife of ,joshua and ancestress of many prophets27#accc7 ,ruth and ,jael4 ,philo adds ,tamar1 the daughter-in-law of ,judah1 as a type of a proselyte47#accd7 #h4 ,beside the term ,ger1 with its derivatives1 which gave legal standing to the proselyte1 the religious genius of ,judaism found another term which illustrated far better the idea of conversion to ,judaism4 ,the words of ,boaz to ,ruth3 8,be thy reward complete from the ,lord thy ,god of ,israel1 under whose wings thou art come to take refuge107#acce7 were applied by the ,pharisean leaders to all who joined the faith as ,ruth did4 ,so it became a technical term for converts to ,judaism1 8to come1 or be brought1 under the wings of the divine majesty0 7,shekinah747#accf7 ,philo frequently expresses the idea that the proselyte who renounces heathenism and places himself under the protection of ,israel's ,god1 stands in filial relation to ,him exactly like the born ,israelite47#accg7 ,therefore ,hillel devoted his life to missionary activity1 endeavoring 8to bring the soul of many a heathen under the wings of the ,shekinah40 ,but in this he was merely following the rabbinic ideal of ,abraham17#acch7 and of ,jethro1 of whom the ,midrash says3 8,after having been won to the monotheistic faith by ,moses1 he returned to his land to bring his countrymen1 the ,kenites1 under the wings of the ,shekinah407#acci7 ,the proselyte's bath in living water was to constitute a rebirth of the former heathen1 poetically expressed in the ,halakic rule3 8,a convert is like a newborn creature407#acdj7 ,the ,paulinian idea that baptism creates a new ,adam in place of the old is but an adaptation of the ,pharisaic view4 ,some ancient teachers therefore declared the proselyte's bath more important than circumcision1 since it forms the sole initiatory rite for female proselytes1 as it was with the wives of the patriarchs47#acda7 #i4 ,the school of ,hillel followed in the footsteps of ,hellenistic ,judaism in accentuating the ethical element in the law27#acdb7 so naturally it encouraged proselytism as well4 ,the ,midrash preserves the following ,mishnah1 handed down by ,simeon ben ,gamaliel1 but not contained in our ,mishnaic ,code3 8,if a ,ger desires to espouse the ,jewish faith1 we extend to him the hand of welcome in order to bring him under the wings of the ,shekinah407#acdc7 ,both the ,midrash and the early ,church literature reveal traces of a ,jewish treatise on proselytes1 containing rules for admission into the two grades1 which was written in the spirit of the ,hellenistic propaganda1 but was afterward rewritten and adopted by the ,christian ,church4 ,the school of ,shammai in its rigorous legalism opposed proselytism in general1 and its chief representative1 ,eliezer ben ,hyrcanos1 distrusted proselytes altogether47#acdd7 ,on the other hand1 the followers of ,hillel were decidedly in favor of converting the heathen and were probably responsible for many ,haggadic passages extolling the proselytes4 ,thus the verse of ,deutero-,isaiah3 8,one shall say1 #8,i am the ,lord's1' and another shall call himself by the name of ,jacob2 and another shall subscribe with his hand unto the ,lord1 and surname himself by the name of ,israel0 is peculiarly applied in the ,midrash4 ,the first half1 we are told1 denotes two classes of ,israelites1 those who are without blemish1 and those who have sinned and repented2 the second half includes the two classes of proselytes1 those who have become full ,jews 7,gere ha ,zedek7 and those who are merely worshippers of ,god 7,yir'e ,shamayim74 ,a later ,haggadic version characteristically omits the last1 recognizing only the full converts 7,gere ,emeth7 as proselytes47#acde7 ,the following parable in the spirit of the ,essenes illustrates their viewpoint4 ,in commenting upon the verse from the ,psalms3 8,the ,lord keepeth the strangers10 the story is told3 ,a king possessed a flock of sheep and goats and noted that a deer joined them1 accompanying them to their pasture and returning with them4 ,so he said to the herdsmen3 8,take good care of this deer of mine which has left the free and broad desert to go in and out with my flock1 and do not let it suffer hunger or thirst40 ,likewise ,god takes special delight in the proselytes who leave their own nation1 giving up their fellowship with the great multitude in order to worship ,him as the ,one and ,only ,god1 together with the little people of ,israel47#acdf7 ,similarly the ,biblical verse concerning wisdom3 8,i love them that love me1 and those that seek me earnestly shall find me07#acdg7 is referred to the proselytes1 8who give up their entire past from pure love of ,god1 and place their lives under the sheltering wings of the divine majesty40 ,all these ,midrashic passages and many others are but feeble echoes of the conceptions of the ,hellenistic propaganda1 which were so ably set forth by ,philo and the ,book of ,asenath4 ,indeed1 ,judaism must have exerted a powerful influence upon the cultured world of ,hellas and ,rome in those days1 as is evidenced both in the ,hellenistic writings of the ,jew and in the ,greek and ,roman writers themselves4 ,their very defamation of ,judaism unwittingly gives testimony to the danger to which ,judaism exposed the pagan conception of life1 and to the hold it took upon many of the heathen47#acdh7 #aj4 ,the reaction against this missionary movement took place in ,judea4 ,the enforced conversion of the ,idumeans to ,judaism by ,john ,hyrcanus benefited neither the nation nor the faith of the ,jew1 and turned the school of ,shammai1 which belonged to the party of the ,zealots1 entirely against the whole system of proselytism4 ,on the whole1 bitter experience taught the ,jews distrust of conversions due to fear1 such as those of the ,samaritans who feared the lions that killed the inhabitants1 or to political and social advantage1 like those under ,david and ,solomon1 or in the days of ,mordecai and ,esther1 or still later under ,john ,hyrcanus47#acdi7 ,instead1 all stress was laid upon religious conviction and loyalty to the law4 ,in fact1 ,josephus mentions many proselytes who in his time fell away from ,judaism17#acej7 who may perhaps have been converts to ,christianity4 ,the later ,halakah1 fixed under the influence of the ,hadrianic persecution and quoted in the ,talmud as ,baraitha1 prescribes the following mode of admission for the time after the destruction of the ,temple1 omitting significantly much that was used in the preceding period37#acea7 8,if a person desires to join ,judaism as a proselyte1 let him first learn of the sad lot of the ,jewish people and their martyrdom1 so as to be dissuaded from joining4 ,if1 however1 he persists in his intention1 let him be instructed in a number of laws1 both prohibitory and mandatory1 easy and hard to observe1 and be informed also as to the punishment for their disobedience and the reward for fulfillment4 ,after he has then declared his willingness to accept the belief in ,god and to adhere to ,his law1 he must submit to the rite of circumcision in the presence of two members of the ,pharisean community1 take the baptismal bath1 and is then fully admitted into the ,jewish fold40 ,it is instructive to compare this ,halakic rule with the manual for proselytes preserved by the ,church under the name of 8,the ,two ,ways10 but in a revised form47#aceb7 ,the mode of admission in the ,halakah seems modeled superficially after the more elaborate one of the earlier code1 where the ,shema as the ,jewish creed and the ,ten ,commandments1 possibly with the addition of the eighteenth and nineteenth chapters of ,leviticus and the twenty-seventh chapter of ,deuteronomy1 seem to have formed the basis for the instruction and the solemn oath of the proselyte4 #aa4 ,as long as the ,jewish people possessed a flourishing world-wide commerce1 unhampered by the power of the ,church1 they were still joined by numerous proselytes in the various lands and enjoyed general confidence4 ,indeed1 many prominent members of the ,roman nobility became zealous adherents of ,judaism1 such as ,aquilas1 the translator of the ,bible1 and ,clemens ,flavius1 the senator of the ,imperial house17#acec7 and many prominent ,jewish masters were said to be descendants of illustrious proselytes47#aced7 ,all this changed as soon as the ,christian ,church girded herself with 8the sword of ,esau40 ,from that time on proselytism became a peril and a source of evil to the ,jew4 ,the sages no longer took pride in the prophetic promise that 8the stranger will join himself to ,israel10 nor did they find in the words 8and they shall cleave to the house of ,jacob0 an allusion to the prediction that some of these proselytes would be added 8to the priesthood of the ,lord10 as some earlier teachers had interpreted the passage47#acee7 ,r4 ,helbo of the fourth century1 on the contrary1 explained that proselytes have become a plague like 8leprosy0 for the house of ,jacob1 taking the ,hebrew nispehu as an allusion to the word ,sappahat1 8leprosy407#acef7 ,henceforth all attempts at proselytism were deprecated and discouraged1 while uncircumcised proselytes1--probably meaning the persecuting ,christians--were relegated to ,gehinnom47#aceg7 #ab4 ,this view was not shared by all contemporaries1 however4 ,r4 ,abbahu of ,csarea1 who had many an interesting and bitter dispute with his ,christian fellow-citizens17#aceh7 was broad-minded enough to declare the proselytes to be genuine worshipers of ,god47#acei7 ,joshua ben ,hanania encouraged the proselyte ,aquilas and prognosticated great success for proselytes in general as teachers of both the ,haggada and ,halakah4 ,so other ,haggadists urged special love and compassion for the half-proselyte17#acfj7 and entertained a special hope of the ,messianic age that many heathen should turn to ,god in sincerity of heart47#acfa7 ,at all events1 it was considered a great sin to reproach a convert with his idolatrous past47#acfb7 ,indeed1 the phrase1 8they that fear the ,lord10 used so often in the ,psalms1 is referred by the ,haggadists to the proselytes2 true1 the chief stress is laid upon the full proselytes1 the ,gere ,zedek1 but a foremost place in the world to come is still reserved for ,god-worshipers like the ,emperor ,antoninus47#acfc7 ,thus ,psalm ,,cxxviii1 which speaks of the 8,god-fearing man10 was applied to the proselyte1 to whom were therefore promised temporal bliss and eternal salvation1 rejoicing in the ,law1 in deeds of love and bounteous blessing from ,zion47#acfd7 ,while the ,halakah remained antagonistic to proselytism on account of its narrow adherence to the spirit of the ,priestly ,code1 the ,haggadah exhibits a broader view4 ,resonant with the spirit of prophecy1 it beckons to all men to come and seek shelter under the wings of the one and only ,god1 in order to disseminate light and love all over the world4 #ac4 ,modern ,judaism1 quickened anew with the spirit of the ancient seers of ,israel1 cannot remain bound by a later and altogether too rigid ,halakah4 ,at the very beginning of the ,talmudic period stands ,hillel1 the liberal sage and master of the law1 who1 like ,abraham of old1 extended the hand of fellowship to all who wished to know ,god and ,his law2 he actually pushed aside the national bounds to make way for a faith of love for ,god and the fellow man4 ,for this is the significance of his answer to the ,roman scoffer who wanted to hear the law expounded while he was standing on one foot3 8,whatever is hateful to thee1 do not do to thy fellow man6 ,that is the law2 all the rest is only commentary407#acfe7 ,thus the leaders of progressive ,judaism also have stepped out of the dark prison walls of the ,talmudic ,ghetto and reasserted the humanitarian principles of the founders of the ,synagogue1 who welcomed the proselytes into ,israel and introduced special blessings for them into the liturgy4 ,they declare again1 with the author of ,psalm ,,lxxxvii1 that ,zion1 the 8city of ,god10 should be1 not a national center of ,israel1 but the metropolis of humanity1 because ,judaism is destined to be a universal religion47#acff7 ,not that ,judaism is to follow the proselytizing methods of the ,church1 which aims to capture souls by wholesale conversion without due regard for the attitude or conviction of the individual4 ,but we can no longer afford to shut the gate to those who wish to enter1 impelled by conviction or other motives having a religious bearing1 even though they do not conform to the ,talmudic law47#acfg7 ,this attitude guided the leaders of ,american ,reform ,judaism at the rabbinical conference under the presidency of ,isaac ,m4 ,wise1 when they considered the admission of proselytes at the present time4 ,in their decision they followed the maxim of the prophet of yore3 8,open the gates 7of ,judaism7 that a righteous nation may enter that keepeth the faith407#acfh7 #ad4 ,it is interesting to observe how ,philo of ,alexandria contrasts those who join the ,jewish faith with those who have become apostates4 ,the former1 he says1 become at once prudent1 temperate1 modest1 gentle1 kind1 human1 reverential1 just1 magnanimous1 lovers of truth1 and superior to the temptations of wealth and pleasure1 whereas the latter are intemperate1 unchaste1 unjust1 irreverent1 low-minded1 quarrelsome1 accustomed to falsehood and perjury1 and ready to sell their freedom for sensual pleasures of all kinds47#acfi7 ,in the times of ,hellenic culture apostasy made its appearance among the upper classes of the ,jews4 ,as the higher-minded among the heathen world were drawn towards the sublime monotheistic faith of the ,jew1 so the pleasure-seeking and worldly-minded among the ,jews were attracted by the allurements of ,greek culture to become faithless to the ,god of ,israel1 break away from the law1 and violate the covenant4 ,especially under ,syrian rule1 apostasy became a real danger to the ,jewish community1 and many measures had to be decided upon to avert it4 ,the desertion of the ancestral faith was looked upon as rebellion and treason against ,god and ,israel47#acgj7 ,with the rise of the ,christian ,church to power and influence the number of apostates increased1 and with it also the danger to the small community of the ,jews in the various lands4 ,in the same measure as the ,church made a meritorious practice of the conversion of the ,jews1 whether by persuasive means or by force and persecution1 the authorities of ,judaism had to provide the ,jew with spiritual weapons of self-defense in the shape of polemical and apologetic writings17#acga7 and to warn him against too close a contact with the apostate1 which was too often fraught with peril for the whole community4 ,as a number of these apostates became actual maligners of the ,jews under the ,roman empire1 a special malediction against sectarians1 the so-called ,birkat ha-,minim1 was inserted in the ,eighteen ,benedictions under the direction of ,gamaliel ,,ii47#acgb7 8,those who have emanated from my own midst hurt me most10 says the ,synagogue1 referring to herself the words of the ,sulamite in the ,song of ,songs47#acgc7 ,while every other offender from among the ,jewish people is declared to be 8brother10 notwithstanding his sin17#acgd7 the apostate was declared to be one from whom no free-will offering was to be accepted17#acge7 and to whom the gates of repentance and the gates of salvation are forever closed47#acgf7 ,the feeling of bitterness against him grew in intensity1 as throughout ,jewish history he often played the despicable rle of an accuser of his former coreligionists and betrayer of their faith4 ,the modern ,jew also1 though he sympathizes with every liberal movement among men and respects every honest opinion1 however radically different from his own1 cannot but behold in the attitude of him who deserts the small yet heroic band of defenders of his ancient faith and joins the great and powerful majority around him1 a disloyalty and weakness of character unworthy of a son of ,abraham1 the faithful4 ,since the beginning of the new era in the time of ,mendelssohn1 apostasy has made great inroads upon the numerical and intellectual strength of ,judaism1 especially among the upper classes4 ,it is no longer1 however1 of an aggressive character1 but rather a result of the lack of ,jewish self-respect and religious sentiment1 against which measures tending to a revival of the ,jewish spirit are being taken more and more4 ,the ,jews are called by the rabbis 8the faithful sons of the faithful40 ,the apostate must be made to feel that he is of a lower type1 since he has become a deserter from the army of the battlers for the ,lord1 the ,only ,one ,god of ,israel4 ,chapter ,,lvii4 ,christianity and ,mohammedanism1 the ,daughter-,religions ,of ,judaism #a4 8,it shall come to pass on that day that living waters shall go out from ,jerusalem2 half of them toward the eastern sea and half of them toward the western sea4444 ,and the ,lord shall be ,king over all the earth2 in that day shall the ,lord be ,one1 and ,his name one407#acgg7 ,these prophetic words of ,zechariah may be applied to the two great world-religions which emanated from ,judaism and won fully half of the human race1 as it exists at present1 for the ,god of ,abraham4 ,though they have incorporated many non-,jewish elements in their systems1 they have spread the fundamental truths of the ,jewish faith and ,jewish ethics to every part of the earth4 ,christianity in the ,west and ,islam in the ,east have aided in leading mankind ever nearer to the pure monotheistic truth4 ,consciously or unconsciously1 both found their guiding motive in the ,messianic hope of the prophets of ,israel and based their moral systems on the ethics of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,the leading spirits of ,judaism recognized this1 declaring both the ,christian and ,mohammedan religions to be agencies of ,divine ,providence1 intrusted with the historical mission of coperating in the building up of the ,messianic ,kingdom1 thus preparing for the ultimate triumph of pure monotheism in the hearts and lives of all men and nations of the world4 ,these views1 voiced by ,jehuda ha ,levi1 ,maimonides1 and ,nahmanides17#acgh7 were reiterated by many enlightened rabbis of later times4 ,these point out that both the ,christian and ,mohammedan nations believe in the same ,god and ,his revelation to man1 in the unity of the human race1 and in the future life2 that they have spread the knowledge of ,god by a sacred literature based upon our ,scripture2 that they have retained the divine commandments essentially as they are phrased in our ,decalogue2 and have practically taught men to fulfill the ,noahitic laws of humanity47#acgi7 ,on account of the last fact the medieval ,jewish authorities considered ,christians to be half-proselytes17#achj7 while the ,mohammedans1 being pure monotheists1 were always still closer to ,judaism4 #b4 ,in general1 however1 rabbinic ,judaism was not in a position to judge ,christianity impartially1 as it never learned to know primitive ,christianity as presented in the ,new ,testament4 ,we see no indication in either the oldest ,talmudic sources or ,josephus that the movement made any more impression in ,galilee or ,jerusalem than the other ,messianic agitations of the time4 ,all that we learn concerning ,jesus from the rabbis of the second century and later is that magic arts were practiced by him and his disciples who exorcised by his name2 and1 still worse1 that the sect named after him was suspected of moral aberrations like a few ,gnostic sects1 known by the collective name of ,minim1 8sectarians407#acha7 ,as a matter of fact1 the early ,church was chiefly recruited from the ,essenes and distinguished itself little from the rest of the ,synagogue4 ,its members1 who are called ,judo-,christians1 continued to observe the ,jewish law and changed their attitude to it only gradually47#achb7 ,matters took a different turn under the influence of ,paul1 the apostle to the heathen1 who emphasized the antinomian spirit2 the ,judo-,christian sects were then pushed aside1 hostility to ,judaism became prominent1 and the ,church strove more and more for a rapprochement with ,rome47#achc7 ,then the rabbis awoke to the serious danger to ,judaism from these heretics1 ,minim1 when after the tragic downfall of the ,jewish nation they grew to world-power as allies of the ,roman ,empire4 ,thus ,isaac ,nappaha1 a ,haggadist of the fourth century1 declared3 8,the turning point for the advent of the ,messiah1 the son of ,david1 will not come until the whole 7,roman7 ,empire has been converted to ,christianity 7,minuth7407#achd7 ,this is supplemented by the ,babylonian ,rabbah1 who plays with a ,biblical phrase1 saying3 8,not until the whole 7,roman7 world has turned to the ,son 7of ,god7407#ache7 ,henceforth ,christian ,rome was termed ,edom1 like pagan ,rome from the days of ,herod the ,idumean4 ,in fact1 her imperial edicts showed the fratricidal hatred of ,esau1 with hardly a trace of the professed religion of love4 ,no wonder the ,haggadists identified ,rome with the ,biblical 8,boar of the forest10 and waited impatiently for the time when she would have to give up her rule as the fourth world-empire to the people of ,god1 ushering in the ,messianic era47#achf7 #c4 ,meanwhile the relapse of ,christianity from monotheism became more steady and more apparent4 ,the ,one ,god of the ,jew was pushed into the background by the 8,son of ,man02 and the ,virgin-,mother with her divine child became adored like the ,queen of ,heaven of pagan times1 showing similarity especially to ,isis1 the ,egyptian mother-goddess1 with ,horus1 the young son-god1 on her lap4 ,the pagan deities of the various lands were transformed into saints of the ,church and worshiped by means of images1 in order to win the pagan masses for the ,christian faith4 ,the original pure and absolute monotheism and the stern conception of holiness were thus turned into their very opposites by the hierarchy and monasticism of the ,church4 ,how1 then1 could the ,jewish people recognize the crucified ,christ as one of their own8 ,one whose preaching seemed to bring them only damnation and death instead of salvation and life1 even while speaking in the name of ,israel's ,god after the manner of the prophets of yore8 ,how could they see in the strange doctrines of the ,church any resemblance to their own system of faith1 especially as the very doctrines which repelled them were those most emphasized by ,christianity8 ,maimonides considered the adherents of the ,roman ,church to be idolaters17#achg7 a view which was modified by the ,jewish authorities in the ,west1 as they became better acquainted with ,christian doctrines47#achh7 #d4 ,the world-empire of the ,church was subsequently divided between ,rome1 which the ,jewish writers called ,edom17#achi7 and ,byzantium1 which they named ,yavan1 but neither showed any real advance in religious views and ideals4 ,on the contrary1 they both persecuted with fire and sword the little people who were faithful to their ancient monotheism1 and suppressed what remained of learning and science4 ,as the ,church had the great task of disciplining wild and semi-barbarous races1 there was little room left for learning or for high ideals4 ,at this time a rigorous avenger of the persecuted spirit of pure monotheism arose among the sons of ,ishmael in the desert of ,arabia in the person of ,mohammed1 a camel-driver of ,mecca1 a man of mighty passions and void of learning1 but imbued with the fire of the ancient prophets of ,israel4 ,he felt summoned by ,allah1 the ,god of ,abraham1 to wage war against the idolatry of his nation and restore the pure faith of antiquity4 ,he kindled a flame in the hearts of his countrymen which did not cease1 until they had proclaimed the unity of ,god throughout the ,orient1 had put to flight the trinitarian dogma of the ,church in both ,asia and ,africa1 and extended their domain as far as the ,spanish peninsula4 ,he offered the ,jews inducements to recognize him as the last1 8the seal10 of the prophets1 by promising to adopt some of their religious practices2 but when they refused1 he showed himself fanatical and revengeful1 a genuine son of the ,bedouins1 unrelenting in his wrath and ending his career as a cruel1 sensuous despot of the true ,oriental type4 ,nevertheless1 he created a religion which led to a remarkable advancement of intellectual and spiritual culture1 and in which ,judaism found a valuable incentive to similar endeavors4 ,thus ,ishmael proved a better heir to ,abraham than was ,esau1 the hostile brother of ,jacob47#acij7 #e4 ,the important1 yet delicate question1 which of the three religions is the best1 the ,mohammedan1 ,christian or ,jewish1 was answered most cleverly by ,lessing in his ,nathan the ,wise1 by adapting the parable of the three rings1 taken from ,boccaccio4 ,his conclusion is that the best religion is the one which induces men best to promote the welfare of their fellow men47#acia7 ,but the question itself is much older2 it was discussed at the court of the ,kaliphs in ,bagdad as early as the tenth century1 where the adherents of every religion there represented expressed their opinions in all candor4 ,for centuries it was the subject of philosophical and comparative investigations47#acib7 ,among these1 the most thorough and profound is the ,cuzari by the ,jewish philosopher and poet1 ,jehuda ha ,levi4 ,but the parable of the three rings also has been traced through ,jewish and ,christian collections of tales dating back to the thirteenth century1 and seems to be originally the work of a ,jewish author4 ,standing between the two powerful faiths with their appeal to the temporal arm1 the ,jew had to resort to his wit as almost his only resource for escape4 ,two ,jewish works have preserved earlier forms of the parable4 ,in ,ibn ,verga's collection of histories of the fifteenth century1 it is related that 8,don ,pedro the ,elder1 ,king of ,aragon 7#aaif-abac71 asked ,ephraim ,sancho1 a ,jewish sage1 which of the two religions1 the ,jewish or ,christian1 was the better one4 ,after three days' deliberation1 the sage told the king a story of two sons who had each received a precious stone from their father1 a jeweler1 when he went on a journey4 ,the sons then went to a stranger1 threatening him with violence1 unless he would decide which of the jewels was the more valuable4 ,the king1 believing the story to be a fact1 protested against the action of the two sons1 whereupon the ,jew explained3 ,esau and ,jacob are the two sons who have each received a jewel from their heavenly ,father4 ,instead of asking me which jewel is the more precious1 ask ,god1 the heavenly ,jeweler4 ,he knows the difference1 and can tell the two apart407#acic7 ,an older and probably more original form of the parable was discovered by ,steinschneider in a work by ,abraham ,abulafia of the thirteenth century1 running as follows3 8,a father intended to bequeath a precious jewel to his only son1 but was exasperated by his ingratitude1 and therefore buried it4 ,his servants1 however1 knowing of the treasure1 took it and claimed to have received it from the father4 ,in the course of time they became so arrogant that the son repented of his conduct1 whereupon the father gave him the jewel as his rightful possession40 ,the story ends by stating that ,israel is the son and the ,moslem and ,christian the servants4 ,beside this witty solution of a delicate problem1 some ,mohammedans made attempts very early1 doubtless on account of discussions with learned ,jews1 to prove the justification of the three religions from the ,jewish ,scriptures themselves4 ,thus they referred the verse speaking of the revelation of ,god on ,sinai1 ,mount ,seir1 and ,mount ,paran7#acid7 to the religious teachings of ,moses1 ,jesus1 and ,mohammed4 ,naturally1 the ,jewish exegetes and philosophers objected vigorously to such an interpretation4 #f4 ,the question which religion is the best1 has been most satisfactorily answered for ,judaism by ,r4 ,joshua ben ,hanania1 who said that 8the righteous of the heathen have also a share in the world to come407#acie7 ,the question which religion is true1 has been1 alas1 too long arbitrated by the sword1 and will be decided peacefully only when the whole earth will be full of the knowledge of ,god4 ,our own age1 however1 has begun to examine the title to existence of every religion from the broad standpoint of history and ethnology1 assigning to each its proper rank4 ,in this large purview even the crude beliefs of savages are shown to be of value1 and the various heathen religions are seen to have a historical task of their own4 ,each of them has to some extent awakened the dormant divine spark in man2 one has aided in the growth of the ideal of the beautiful in art1 another in the rise of the ideal of the true in philosophy and science2 a third in the cultivation of the ideal of the good and in stimulating sympathy and love so as to ennoble men and nations4 ,thus after a careful examination of the historical documents of the ,christian and ,mohammedan religions1 it is possible to state clearly their great historic mission and their achievements in the whole domain of civilization4 ,the ,jewish religion1 as the mother who gave birth to both1 must deliver the verdict1 how far they still contribute to the upbuilding of ,god's kingdom on earth4 ,in fulfilling their appointed mission1 each has given rise to valuable and peculiar institutions1 and each has fallen short of the ,messianic ideal as visualized by our great prophets of old4 ,only an impartial judgment can say which one has reached the higher stage of civilization4 #g4 ,christianity's origin from ,judaism is proved by its religious documents as well as by its very name1 which is derived from the ,greek for the title ,messiah 7,christos71 bestowed on the ,nazarene by his followers4 ,still the name ,christianity arose in ,antioch among non-,jews who scarcely knew its meaning4 ,all the sources of the ,new ,testament1 however much they conflict in details1 agree that the movement of ,christianity began with the appearance of ,john the ,baptist1 a popular ,essene saint4 ,he rallied the multitude at the shore of the ,jordan1 preparing them for the approaching end of the ,roman world-kingdom with the proclamation1 8,wash yourselves clean from your sins60 that is1 8,take the baptismal bath of repentance1 for the kingdom of heaven is nigh407#acif7 ,he conferred the baptismal bath of repentance upon ,jesus of ,nazareth and the first apostles47#acig7 ,jesus took up this message when ,john was imprisoned and finally killed by ,herod ,antipas on account of his preachment against him47#acih7 ,the life of ,jesus is wrapt in legends which may be reduced to the following historical elements37#acii7 ,the young ,nazarene was of an altogether different temperament from that of ,john the ,baptist1 the stern1 ,elijah-like preacher in the wilderness27#adjj7 he manifested as preacher and as a healer of the sick a profound love for1 and tender sympathy with suffering humanity1 a trait especially fostered among the ,essenes4 ,this drew him toward that class of people who were shunned as unclean by the uncompromising leaders of the ,pharisees1 and also by the rigid brotherhoods of the ,essenes1 whose chief object was to attain the highest degree of holiness by a life of asceticism4 ,his simple countrymen1 the fishers and shepherds of ,galilee1 on hearing his wise and humane teachings and seeing his miraculous cures1 considered him a prophet and a conqueror of the hosts of demons1 the workers of disease4 ,in contrast to the learned ,pharisees1 he felt it to be his calling to bring the good tidings of salvation to the poor and outcast1 to 8seek the lost sheep of the house of ,israel0 and win them for ,god4 ,he soon found himself surrounded by a multitude of followers1 who1 on a ,passover pilgrimage to ,jerusalem1 induced him to announce himself as the expected ,messiah4 ,he attracted the people in ,jerusalem by his vehement attacks upon the ,sadducean hierarchy1 which he threatened with the wrath of heaven for its abuses1 and also by his denunciations of the self-sufficient ,pharisean doctors of the law4 ,soon the crisis came when he openly declared war against the avarice of the priests1 who owned the markets where the sacrificial fowl for the ,temple were sold1 overthrowing the tables of the money-changers1 and declaring the ,temple to have become 8a den of robbers407#adja7 ,the hierarchical council delivered him to ,pontius ,pilatus1 the ,roman prefect1 as an aspirant to the royal title of ,messiah1 which in the eyes of the ,romans meant a revolutionary leader4 ,the ,roman soldiers crucified him and mocked him1 calling him1 8,jesus1 the king of the ,jews407#adjb7 ,the fate of crucifixion1 however1 did not end the career of ,jesus1 as it had that of many other claimants to the ,messiahship in those turbulent times4 ,his personality had impressed itself so deeply upon his followers that they could not admit that he had gone from them forever4 ,they awaited his resurrection and return in all the heavenly glory of the 8,son of ,man10 and saw him in their ecstatic visions1 attending their love-feasts17#adjc7 or walking about on the lake of ,nazareth while they were fishing from their boats1 or hovering at the summit of the mountains47#adjd7 ,this was but the starting point of that remarkable religious movement which grew first among the lower classes in northern ,palestine and ,syria17#adje7 then gradually throughout the entire ,roman ,empire1 shaking the whole of heathendom until all its deities gave way to the ,god of ,israel1 the divine ,father of the crucified ,messiah4 ,the ,jewish tidings of salvation for the poor and lowly offered by the ,nazarene became the death-knell to the proud might of paganism4 #h4 ,but the ways of ,providence are as inscrutable as they are wonderful4 ,the poor and lowly members of the early ,christian ,churches1 with their leaders1 called 8apostles0 or 8messengers0 of the community1--elected originally to carry out works of charity and love17#adjf7--would never have been able to conquer the great world1 if they had persisted in the ,essene traditions4 ,they owed their success to the large ,hellenistic groups who joined them at an early period and introduced the ,greek language as their medium of expression4 ,henceforth the propaganda activity of the ,alexandrian ,jews was adopted by the young ,church1 which likewise took up all the works of wisdom and ethics written in ,greek for the instruction of the proselytes and the young1 scarcely known to the ,palestinian schools4 ,the ,essene baptism for repentance was replaced by baptism for conversion or initiation into the new faith1 while the neophyte to be prepared for this rite was for a long time instructed mainly in the doctrines of the ,jewish faith47#adjg7 ,subsequently collections of wise sayings and moral teachings ascribed to the ,nazarene and handed down in the ,aramaic vernacular1 orally or in writing1 were translated into ,greek4 ,these together with the manuals for proselytes were the original ,church teachings4 ,the ,greek language paved the way for the ,church to enter the great pagan world1 exactly as the ,greek translation of the ,bible in ,alexandria brought the teachings of ,judaism to the knowledge of the outside world4 ,at first the same obstacle confronted the early ,church which had prevented the ,synagogue from becoming a world conqueror1 namely1 the rite of circumcision1 which was required for full membership4 ,without this1 baptized converts were only half-proselytes and could not be fully assimilated4 ,this classification was still upheld by the ,apostolic ,convention1 which met under the presidency of ,james the ,elder47#adjh7 ,the time was ripe for a bold and radical innovation1 and at this psychological moment arose a man of great zeal and unbridled energy as well as of a creative genius and a mystical imagination1--,saul of ,tarsus1 known by his ,roman name ,paulus47#adji7 ,he had been sent by the authorities at ,jerusalem to pursue the adherents of the new sect1 but when he had come as far as ,damascus in ,syria1 he suddenly turned from a persecutor into the most ardent promoter of the nascent ,church1 impelled by a strange hallucination4 ,paul was a carpet weaver by trade1 born and reared in ,tarsus1 a seaport of ,asia ,minor1 where he seems to have had a ,greek training and to have imbibed ,gnostic or semi-pagan ideas beside his ,biblical knowledge4 ,in this ecstatic vision on his journey he beheld the figure of ,jesus1 8the crucified ,christ10 whose adherents he was pursuing1 yet whom he had never seen in the flesh1 appearing as a heavenly being whom ,paul identified as the heavenly ,adam1 the archetypal 8godlike0 man4 ,upon this strange vision he constructed a theological system far more pagan than ,jewish in type1 according to which man was corrupt through the sin of the first couple1 and the death of ,jesus on the cross was to be the atoning sacrifice offered by ,god himself1 who gave ,his own son as a ransom for the sins of humanity4 ,this doctrine he used as a lever with which1 at one bold stroke1 he was to unhinge the ,mosaic law and make the infant ,church a world-religion4 ,through baptism in the name of the ,christ1 the old sin-laden ,adam was to be cast off and the new heavenly ,adam1 in the image of ,christ1 put on instead4 ,the new covenant of ,god's atoning love was to replace the old covenant of ,sinai1 to abolish forever the old covenant based upon the ,jewish law1 and to set mankind free from all law1 8which begets sin and works wrath40 ,in ,christ1 8who is the end of the law10 the sinfulness of the flesh should be overcome and the gates of salvation be opened to a world redeemed from both death and sin47#adaj7 ,the one essential for salvation was to accept the mystery concerning the birth and death of ,christ1 after the manner of the heathen mystery-religions1 and to employ as sacramental symbols of the mystery the rites of baptism and communion with ,christ4 #i4 ,this system of ,paul1 however1 demanded a high price of its votaries4 ,acceptance of the belief meant the surrender of reason and free thinking4 ,this breach in pure monotheism opened the door for the whole heathen mythology and the worship of the heathen deities in a new form4 ,but the saddest result was the dualism of the system2 the kingdom of ,god predicted by the prophets and sages of ,israel for all humanity was transferred to the hereafter1 and this life with all its healthy aspirations was considered sinful and in the hands of ,satan4 ,the cross1 originally a sign of life17#adaa7 became from this time and through the ,middle ,ages a sign of death1 casting a shadow of sin upon the ,christian world and a shadow of terror upon the ,jew4 ,the greatest harm of all1 however1 was done to ,judaism itself4 ,paul made a caricature of the ,law1 which he declared to be a rigid1 external system1 not elevating life1 but only inciting to transgression and engendering curse4 ,he even aroused a feeling of hatred toward the ,law1 which grew in intensity1 until it became a source of untold cruelty for many centuries4 ,this spirit permeated the ,gospels more and more in their successive appearance1 even finding its way into the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,in the simple form given in the ,gospel of ,luke this was a teaching of love and tenderness2 in ,matthew1 ,jesus is represented as offering a new dispensation to replace the revelation of ,sinai47#adab7 ,here the ,mosaic law is presented as a system of commandments demanding austere adherence to the letter with no regard to the inner life1 whereas1 on the other hand1 the actual teachings of the ,nazarene were animated by love and sympathy1 emanating from the ethical spirit of the ,law4 ,yet the very words of ,jesus in this same sermon disavow every hint of antinomianism3 8,verily ,i say unto you1 till heaven and earth pass1 one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the ,law till all be fulfilled407#adac7 ,as a matter of fact1 the very teachings of love and inwardness which are embodied in both the ,sermon on the ,mount and the epistles of ,paul were largely adopted from the ,pharisean schools and ,hasidean works as well as from the ,alexandrian ,propaganda literature and the ,proselyte ,manuals preserved by the ,church4 ,in fact1 part of this criticism was voiced by the ,pharisees1 as they attacked the ,sadducean insistence upon the letter of the ,law4 ,the ,pharisean spirit of progress applied new methods of interpretation to the ,mosaic ,code and especially to the ,decalogue1 deriving from them a higher conception of ,god and godliness1 breaking the fetters of the letter1 and working mainly for the holiness of the inner life and the endeavor to spread happiness about47#adad7 ,taking no heed of the actual achievements of the ,synagogue1 the ,paulinian ,church rose triumphantly to power after the downfall of the ,jewish ,state and impregnated the ,christian world with hostility to ,judaism and the ,jew1 which lasts to this very day1 thus turning the gospel of love into a source of religious hatred4 #aj4 ,nevertheless it cannot be denied that ,paulinian ,christianity1 while growing into a world-conquering ,church1 achieved the dissemination of the ,sinaitic doctrines as neither ,judaism nor the ,judo-,christian sect could ever have done4 ,the missionary zeal of the apostle to the heathen caused a fermentation and dissolution in the entire neo-,jewish world1 which will not end until all pagan elements are eliminated4 ,eventually the whole of civilization will accept1 through a purified ,christianity1 the ,fatherhood of ,god1 the only ,ruler of the world1 and the brotherhood of all men as ,his children4 ,then1 in place of an unsound overemphasis on the principle of love1 justice will be the foundation of society2 in place of a pessimistic other-worldliness1 the optimistic hope for a kingdom of ,god on earth will constitute the spiritual and ethical ideal of humanity4 ,we must not be blind to the fact that only her alliance with ,rome1 her holding in one hand the sword of ,esau and in the other the ,scriptures of the house of ,jacob1 made the ,church able to train the crude heathen nations for a life of duty and love1 for the willing subordination to a higher power1 and caused them to banish vice and cruelty from their deep hold on social and domestic life4 ,only the powerful ,church was able to develop the ancient ,jewish institutions of charity and redeeming love into magnificent systems of beneficence1 which have led civilization forward toward ideals which it will take centuries to realize4 ,nor must we overlook the mission of the ,church in the realm of art1 a mission which ,judaism could never have undertaken4 ,the stern conception of a spiritual ,god who tolerated no visible representation of ,his being made impossible the development of plastic art among the ,jews4 ,the semi-pagan image worship of the ,christian ,church1 the representation of ,god and the saints in pictorial form1 favored ecclesiastical art1 until it broadened in the ,renaissance into the various arts of modern times4 ,similarly1 the predominance of mysticism over reason1 of the emotions over the intellect in the ,church1 gave rise to its wonderful creation of music1 endowing the soul with new powers to soar aloft to undreamed-of heights of emotion1 to be carried along as upon ,seraph's wings to realms where human language falters and grows faint4 ,beyond dispute ,christianity deserves great credit for having among all religions opened wide the flood gates of the soul by cultivating the emotions through works of art and the development of music1 thereby enriching human life in all directions4 #aa4 ,islam1 the other daughter of ,judaism1 for its part1 fostered the intellectual side of humanity1 so contemptuously neglected by the ,church4 ,the cultivation of philosophy and science was the historical task assigned to the ,mohammedan religion4 ,from the sources of information we have about the life and revelation of ,mohammed1 we learn that the origin of the belief in ,allah1 the ,god of ,abraham1 goes back to an earlier period when ,jewish tribes settled in south ,arabia4 ,among these ,jews were traders1 goldsmiths1 famous warriors1 and knights endowed with the gift of song1 who disseminated ,jewish legends concerning ,biblical heroes47#adae7 ,amid hallucinations and mighty emotional outbursts this belief in ,allah took root in the fiery soul of ,mohammed1 who thus received sublime conceptions of the one ,god and ,his creation1 and of the world's ,judge and ,his future ,day of ,judgment4 ,the sight of idolatry1 cruelty1 and vice among his countrymen filled him with boundless indignation1 so that he began his career as a ,god-sent preacher of repentance1 modeling his life after the great prophets of yore4 ,with drastic threats of the last ,judgment he tried to force the idolaters to return to ,allah in true repentance4 ,but few of his hearers believed in his prophetic mission1 and the leading men of the city of ,mecca1 who derived a large income from the heathen sanctuary there1 opposed him with fierce and violent measures4 ,thus he was forced to flee to the ,jewish colony of ,yathrib1 afterwards called ,medina1 8the city0 of the prophet4 ,he hoped for recognition there1 especially after he had made certain concessions1 such as turning the face toward ,jerusalem in prayer1 and keeping the ,day of ,atonement on the tenth of ,tishri4 ,in addition1 he emphasized the unity of ,god in the strongest possible manner1 and opposed every encroachment upon it by the belief in additional powers or persons1 attacking the ,christians on the one hand and his ,arabian countrymen on the other1 with the sarcastic phrase3 8,verily1 ,god has neither a son1 nor has ,he any daughter40 ,in spite of all these facts1 the ,jews could not be brought to recognize the uneducated son of the desert as a prophet4 ,therefore his proffered friendship was turned to deadly hatred and passionate revenge4 ,his whole nature underwent a great change2 his former enthusiasm and prophetic zeal were replaced by calculation and worldly desire1 so that the preacher of repentance of ,mecca became at the last a lover of bloodshed1 robbery and lust4 ,instead of ,jerusalem he chose ,mecca with its heathen traditions as the center of his religious system and aimed chiefly to win the ,arabian tribes for his divine revelation4 ,thus the entire ,arabian nation1 full of youthful energy1 burning with the impulse of great deeds1 bore the faith of the ,one ,god to the world by the sword4 ,like ,israel of old1 it stepped forth from the desert with a divine revelation contained in a holy book4 ,it conquered first the ,christian lands of the ,east1 which under the ,trinitarian dogma had lapsed from pure monotheism1 then the northern coast of ,africa1 and it finally unfurled the green flag of ,islam over the lands of the ,west to free them from the fanatical ,church4 ,henceforth war was waged for centuries between the ,one ,god of ,abraham and the triune ,god of the ,church in both ,spain and ,palestine4 ,then might the genius of history ask3 8,watchman1 what of the night8 ,watchman1 what of the night80 ,and again the words are heard1 as from on high3 8,the morning cometh1 and also the night40 ,the final victory is yet to come4 #ab4 ,it cannot be denied that the ,mohammedan monotheism has a certain harshness and bluntness4 ,it cannot win the heart by the mildness of heaven or the recognition of man's individuality4 ,islam1 as the name denotes1 demands blind submission to the will of ,god1 and it has led to a fatalism which paralyzes the sense of freedom1 and to a fanaticism which treats every other faith with contempt4 ,islam has remained a national religion1 which has never attained the outlook upon the whole of humanity1 so characteristic of the prophets of ,israel4 ,its view of the hereafter is crude and sensuous1 while its picture of the ,day of ,judgment bears no trace of the divine mercy4 ,on the other hand1 we must recognize that the reverence of the ,koran lent the 8,men of the ,book10 the representatives of culture1 greater dignity1 and provided a mighty incentive to study and inquiry4 ,damascus and ,bagdad became under the ,caliphs centers of learning1 of philosophical study and scientific investigation1 uniting ,nestorian1 ,jew1 and ,mohammedan in the great efforts towards general enlightenment4 ,the consequence was that ,greek science and philosophy1 banished by the ,church1 were revived by the ,mohammedan rulers and again cultivated1 so that ,judaism also felt their fructifying power4 ,our modern ,christian civilization1 so-called by ,christian historians1 is largely the fruit of the rich intellectual seeds sown by ,mohammedans and ,jews1 after the works of ancient ,greeks had been translated into ,syrian1 ,arabic1 and ,hebrew by a group of ,syrian ,unitarians 7the ,nestorians7 assisted by ,jewish scholars47#adaf7 ,as for instance the ,hohenstaufen ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii1 the friend of ,jewish and other liberal thinkers1 was much more of an investigator than a believer1 so did the spirit of investigation derived from ,islam and ,judaism pervade ,christendom1 and create the great intellectual movements which finally undermined its creeds and shattered its solidarity into contending sects4 ,return to the ,bible and the ,god of the ,bible1 to a ,sabbath devoted to instruction in the word of ,god1 and to the recognition of human freedom and the sanctity of the family--this was the watchword of the ,reformation4 ,return to the right of free thought and free conscience1 which implies the pure worship of ,god as ,he lives in the heart1 is now the watchword of those who endeavor to reform the ,protestant ,church4 ,that is1 both are moved by a desire to return to the principles and ideals set forth by ,israel's prophets of old4 #ac4 ,both the ,church1 ,protestant and ,catholic1 and the ,mosque have a ,providential mission which they must fulfill through the ages of history1 until all the heathen have learned to worship ,god as the spirit of holiness in man1 instead of seeking ,him in the blind forces of nature or of destiny4 ,true1 the ,mohammedan religion is predisposed to sensuality and still awaits the process of purification to become completely spiritualized2 yet indications are not lacking that a process of reform is approaching to bring out the gold of pure monotheism and cast off the dross of ,oriental voluptuousness and superstition4 ,we must remember that during the dark night of medieval ignorance and barbarism ,islam carried throughout all lands the torch of philosophy and scientific investigation and of the pure faith in ,god4 ,even to-day it accomplishes far more for the advancement of life in the east of ,asia and the south of ,africa than did the ,russian ,church with her gross superstition and idolatry1 or even some branches of ,protestantism1 with their deification of a human being4 ,between ,church and ,mosque1 hated and despised by both1 stood and still stands the ,synagogue1 proudly conscious of its divine mission4 ,it feels itself the banner-bearer of a truth which brooks no compromise1 of a justice which insists on the rights of all men4 ,it offers the world a religion of peace and love1 admitting no division or discord among mankind1 waiting for the day when the ,god of ,sinai shall rear high ,his throne in the hearts of all men and nations4 ,to-day the ,synagogue1 rejuvenated by the influences of modern culture1 looks with ever greater confidence to a speedy realization of its ,messianic hope for all humanity4 ,hitherto ,judaism was restrained by its two daughter-religions from pursuing its former missionary activity4 ,it was forced to employ all its energy in the single effort for self-preservation4 ,but in the striking contrasts of our age1 when the enlightened spirit of humanity struggles so bitterly with the forces of barbarism and brutality1 we may well see the approaching dawn of a new era4 ,that glorious day1 we feel1 will witness the ultimate triumph of justice and truth1 and out of the day which is 8neither day nor night0 will bring forth the time when 8the ,lord shall be ,king over all the earth1 the ,lord shall be ,one and ,his name ,one407#adag7 ,this will be an auspicious time for ,israel to arise with renewed prophetic vigor as the bearer of a world-uniting faith1 as the triumphant ,messiah of the nations4 ,through ,israel the monotheistic faiths of the world may find a union so that1 in fulfillment of the ancient prophecy17#adah7 its ,sabbath may be a world-,sabbath and its ,atonement ,day a feast of at-one-ment and reconciliation for all mankind4 8,he that believeth shall not make haste407#adai7 ,yet just because of this universalistic ,messianic hope of ,judaism it is still imperative1 as it has been throughout the past1 that the ,jewish people must continue its separateness as 8a ,kingdom of priests and a holy nation10 and for the sake of its world-mission avoid intermarrying with members of other sects1 unless they espouse the ,jewish faith47#adbj7 ,israel's particularism1 says ,professor ,lazarus17#adba7 has its universalism as motive and aim4 ,chapter ,,lviii4 ,the ,synagogue and its ,institutions #a4 ,every religion1 as soon as it attains any degree of self-consciousness1 aims to present a convincing form of truth to the individual and to win adherents in increasing numbers4 ,nevertheless the maintenance of a religion does not rest upon its doctrines1 which must differ according to the intellectual capacity of the people and the prevailing views of each age4 ,its stability is based upon those forms and institutions which lend it a peculiar character1 and which express1 symbolically or otherwise1 definite ideas1 religious1 ethical1 and historical4 ,for this reason many exponents of ,judaism would entirely discard the idea of a systematic theology1 and insist on the observance of the ceremonial laws as the one essential4 ,in following tradition in this manner1 they forget that the forms of religious practice have undergone many changes in the course of time4 ,in fact1 the vitality of ,judaism lies in its unique capacity for development4 ,its ever youthful mind has constantly created new forms to express the ideas of the time1 or has invested old ones with new meanings47#adbb7 #b4 ,the greatest and1 indeed1 the unique creation of ,judaism is the ,synagogue1 which started it on its world-mission and made the ,torah the common property of the entire people4 ,devised in the ,exile as a substitute for the ,temple1 it soon eclipsed it as a religious force and a rallying point for the whole people1 appealing through the prayers and ,scriptural lessons to the congregation as a whole4 ,the ,synagogue was limited to no one locality1 like the ,temple1 but raised its banner wherever ,jews settled throughout the globe4 ,it was thus able to spread the truths of ,judaism to the remotest parts of the earth1 and to invest the ,sabbath and festivals with deeper meaning by utilizing them for the instruction and elevation of the people4 ,what did it matter1 if the ,temple fell a prey to the flame for a second time1 or if the whole sacrificial cult of the priesthood with all its pomp were to cease forever8 ,the soul of ,judaism lived indestructibly in the house of prayer and learning4 ,in the ,synagogue was fanned the holy flame which kindled the heart with love of ,god and fellow-men2 here were offered sacrifices more pleasing to ,god than the blood and fat of beasts1 sacrifices of love and charity47#adbc7 #c4 ,the ,synagogue has its peculiar institutions and ceremonies1 but no sacraments like those of the ,church4 ,its institutions1 such as the festivals1 aim to preserve the historic memory of the people2 its ceremonies1 called 8signs0 or 8testimonies0 in the ,scripture1 are to sanctify the life of the nation1 the family1 or the individual4 ,neither possesses a sacramental power1 as does baptism or communion in the ,church1 in giving salvation1 or imparting something of the nature of the ,deity1 or making one a member of the religious community4 ,the ,jew is a member of the ,jewish community by his birth1 which imposes upon him the obligations of the covenant which ,god made with ,israel at ,mount ,sinai4 ,judaism is a religious heritage intrusted to a nation of priests1 and is not acquired by any rite of consecration or confession of faith4 ,such a form of consecration and confession is required only in the case of proselytes47#adbd7 ,it is superfluous to state that ,confirmation does not bestow the character of ,jew upon the young1 any more than the former rite of ,bar ,mizwah did upon the young ,israelite who was called up to the reading from the ,law in his thirteenth year as a form of initiation into ,jewish life47#adbe7 #d4 ,the rite of circumcision is enjoined upon the father in the ,mosaic ,code as a 8sign0 of the covenant with ,abraham1 to be performed on every son on the eighth day after birth47#adbf7 ,therefore it is held in high esteem1 and the father terms the act in his benediction 8admission into the covenant of ,abraham027#adbg7 but in spite of this it is not a sacrament and does not determine membership in the ,jewish community4 ,the operation was not to be performed by a person of sacred calling such as priest or rabbi1 but in ancient ,biblical times was performed by women17#adbh7 and in the ,talmudic period by the surgeon47#adbi7 ,in fact1 if no ,jewish surgeon was at hand1 some ,talmudic authorities held that a non-,jewish surgeon could perform it4 ,moreover1 where hygienic reasons forced the omission of the rite1 the man was still a ,jew47#adcj7 ,the rite itself underwent a change2 it was performed with stone knives in ,biblical times1 just as in ,egypt and even to-day in ,arabia and ,syria47#adca7 ,it became a mark of distinction for the people during the ,exile47#adcb7 ,but the act was invested with special religious sanctity during the ,syrian persecution1 when many ,jewish youths 8violated the covenant0 in order to appear uncircumcised when they appeared in the arena with the heathen47#adcc7 ,at this time new methods were introduced to guard the 8seal0 of the covenant17#adcd7 while pious mothers faced martyrdom willingly to preserve the rite of ,abraham among their children4 ,later on the rabbis even declared circumcision to be a safeguard against the pit of ,gehenna7#adce7 and made ,elijah the guardian of the covenant47#adcf7 ,the rite may be traced back to primitive life1 when the operation was usually performed at the time of puberty and as a preliminary to marriage17#adcg7 but in ,jewish life it assumed a religious meaning and became endeared to the people as the consecration of the child as the future head of a family4 ,the idea underlying the institution 7as ,zunz correctly calls it77#adch7 is the sanctification of the ,jewish household as represented by its male members4 ,the member of a people that is to be holy unto ,god must bear the seal of the covenant on his flesh2 as a potential father of another generation1 the sign he bore had a deeper meaning for the future of the people47#adci7 ,the rationalistic view that the ,mosaic law is merely hygienic1 although found as early as ,philo1 is quite erroneous47#addj7 #e4 ,the same rationalist view7#adda7 is often applied to the dietary laws of the ,mosaic ,code1 but without any justification from the ,biblical point of view4 ,these laws prohibit as unclean various species of animals1 or such as have fallen dead or as the prey of wild beasts1 or certain portions like blood and suet47#addb7 ,the ,holiness ,code states its reason for these prohibitions very emphatically3 8,i am the ,lord your ,god1 who have set you apart from the peoples4 ,ye shall therefore separate between the clean beast and the unclean1 and between the unclean fowl and the clean2 and ye shall not make your souls detestable by beast1 or by fowl1 or by any thing wherewith the ground teemeth1 which ,i have set apart for you to hold unclean4 ,and ye shall be holy unto ,me2 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy1 and have set you apart from the peoples1 that ye should be ,mine407#addc7 ,the ,deuteronomic ,code gives the same reason for the prohibition of the unclean beasts3 8,for thou art a holy people unto the ,lord thy ,god40 ,it seems that these prohibitions of 8unclean0 foods were intended originally for the priesthood and other holy men1 as appears in ,ezekiel and elsewhere47#addd7 ,as a matter of fact1 the same class of animals from which the ,israelites were commanded to abstain were also forbidden to the priests or saints of ,india1 ,persia1 ,mesopotamia1 and partly of ,egypt47#adde7 ,the natural conclusion is that the ,mosaic law intended these rules as a practical expression of its general principle that ,israel was to be 8a kingdom of priests and a holy nation407#addf7 ,in other words1 ,israel was to fill the usual place of the priest among the nations of the ancient world1 a priest-people observing the priestly laws of sanctification4 ,whatever the origin of these customs may have been1 whether they were tabu laws in connection with totemism or some other primitive view1 the ,priestly ,code itself admits their lack of an ,israelitish origin by recognizing that they were known to ,noah47#addg7 ,they were simply adopted by the law-giver of ,israel to make the whole people feel their priestly calling4 ,in later times the dietary laws1 especially abstinence from the flesh of swine1 became a mark of distinction which separated the ,jew from his heathen surroundings2 and they became a symbol of ,jewish loyalty in the ,syrian persecutions when pious ,jews faced martyrdom for them as willingly as for the refusal to adore the ,syrian idols47#addh7 ,in fact1 ,pharisaism adopted the principle of separation from the heathen in every matter pertaining to diet1 and this spirit of separatism was strengthened by the scorn of the ,greeks and ,romans and afterward by the antinomian spirit of ,christianity4 ,while ,hellenistic writers1 eager to find a universal meaning in these laws1 assigned certain physical or psychic reasons for them17#addi7 the rabbis of the ,talmud insisted that they were given solely for the moral purification of ,israel4 ,thus they were to be observed as tests of ,israel's submission to the divine will and not because of personal distaste4 ,in their own words1 8,we must overcome all desire for the sake of our ,father in heaven02 and 8,only to those who wrestle with temptation does the kingdom of ,god come407#adej7 ,in the course of time these prohibitions were steadily extended1 until they encircled the whole life of the ,jew1 forming an insurmountable wall which secluded him from his non-,jewish environment4 ,finally1 separation from the world came to be regarded as an end in itself47#adea7 ,now1 it cannot be denied that these laws actually disciplined the medieval ,jew1 so that during centuries of wild dissipation he practiced sobriety and moderation2 as ,maimonides says17#adeb7 they served as lessons in self-mastery1 in curbing carnal desire1 and keeping him clean in soul as well as body4 ,the question remains whether they still fulfill their real object of consecrating ,israel to its priestly mission among the nations4 ,certainly the priestly character of these laws is no longer understood1 and the great majority of the ,jewish people who live among the various nations have long discarded them4 ,orthodox ,judaism1 which follows tradition without inquiring into the purpose of the laws1 is entirely consistent in maintaining the importance of every item of the traditional ,jewish life4 ,reform ,judaism has a different view1 as it sees in the humanitarianism of the present a mode of realizing the ,messianic hope of ,israel4 ,therefore it cannot afford to encourage the separation of the ,jew from his environment in any way except through the maintenance of his religion1 and cannot encourage the dietary laws as a means of separatism4 ,its great problem is to find other methods to inculcate the spirit of holiness in the modern ,jew1 to render him conscious of his priestly mission1 while he lives in unison and fellowship with all his fellow-citizens47#adec7 #f4 ,the tendency to distinguish the ,jew from his non-,jewish neighbor in the course of time found expression in the laws for wearing phylacteries 7tefillin7 on his forehead and arm1 a special sign on the doorpost of his house 7mezuzzah7 and fringes 7zizith7 on the four corners of his shawl 7tallith747#aded7 ,as a matter of fact1 the original ,biblical passages had no such meaning1 but acquired it through rabbinical interpretation4 ,the ,mosaic law said3 8,and thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand1 and they shall be for frontlets between thine eyes4 ,and thou shalt write them upon the doorposts of thy house and upon thy gates40 ,this refers clearly to the words of ,god1 admonishing the people to keep them in mind1 as the preceding verse indicates4 ,likewise1 the precept regarding the fringes upon the four-cornered garment emphasizes rather the blue thread in the fringes1 which is to help the people remember the commandments of the ,lord1 that they may not go astray1 8following after the promptings of their own hearts and eyes40 ,as the name phylacteries shows1 these were originally talismans or amulets4 ,true1 the law as stated in ,deuteronomy may be taken symbolically27#adee7 but the corresponding passage in ,exodus1 which is traditionally referred to the phylacteries1 indicates its origin by its close relation to the ,passover sacrifice4 ,the blood of this was1 no doubt1 put originally on the arm and forehead17#adef7 which is still done by the ,samaritans7#adeg7 and has striking parallels in the practice of the ,fellahin in ,palestine and ,syria47#adeh7 ,originally the sacrificial blood was supposed to ward off evil spirits from men1 beasts and houses or tents1 and gradually this pagan custom was transformed into a religious precept to consecrate the body1 life1 and home of the ,jew4 ,in more ancient times the phylacteries were worn by pious men and women all day and not merely during the time of prayer1 and seem to have served both as a religious symbol and an amulet4 ,this was certainly the case with the mezuzzah on the doorpost and probably with the blue thread at the corners of the tallith47#adei7 ,as both phylacteries and tallith came into use at the divine service in connection with the recital of the ,shema and the chapter on the zizith1 the symbols assumed a higher meaning4 ,arrayed in his vestments1 the pious ,jew offered daily allegiance to his ,maker1 feeling that he was thereby protected from evil within and without2 similarly1 the sacred sign upon the door both consecrated and protected his home4 ,even with this conception the talismanic character was never quite forgotten4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages these ceremonies were observed as divine commandments2 and tradition having seemingly fixed them for all time1 the ,jew took great pride in the fact that he was 8distinguished0 in many ways1 and especially in his forms of worship47#adfj7 ,of course1 they distinguished him far more when these ceremonies were practiced for the entire day4 ,since the modern era has brought the ,jew nearer to his neighbors and he has opened the ,synagogue to invite the non-,jewish world to hear its teachings1 these practices have lost their hold upon the people1 becoming meaningless forms4 ,the wearing of these sacred symbols while at prayer seems superfluous as a means of 8turning men's hearts away from frivolous and sinful thoughts407#adfa7 #g4 ,the most important institution of the ,synagogue1 and the one most fraught with blessing for all mankind1 is the ,sabbath4 ,although its name and existence point to a ,babylonian origin17#adfb7 it is still the peculiar creation of the ,jewish genius and a chief pillar of the ,jewish religion4 ,as a day of rest crowning the daily labor of the week1 it testifies to the ,creator of the universe who made all that is in accordance with ,his divine plan of perfection4 ,the underlying idea expressed in ,scripture is that the ,sabbath is a divine institution4 ,as ,god himself worked out ,his design for the world in absolute freedom and rested with delight at its completion1 so man is to follow ,his example1 working during six days of the week and then enjoying the rest of the ,sabbath with a mind elated by higher thoughts4 ,moreover1 the day of rest observed by ,israel should recall his redemption from the slavery and continual labor of ,egypt4 ,thereby every creature made in ,god's image1 the slave and stranger as well as the born ,israelite1 is given the heavenly boon of freedom and recreation to hallow the labor of the week4 ,there are thus two explanations given for the ,sabbath1 one in the ,decalogue of ,exodus1 the ,holiness ,code and ,priestly ,code17#adfc7 the other in the ,decalogue of ,deuteronomy and the ,book of the ,covenant47#adfd7 ,these two views1 in turn1 gave rise to different conceptions of the ,sabbath laws4 ,many ancient teachers laid chief stress on the letter of the law which bids men cease from labor4 ,others1 who penetrated farther into the spirit of ,deuteronomy and the ,covenant ,code1 emphasized the human need for relaxation and refreshment of soul4 ,the older school1 especially the ,sadducees1 demanded absolute cessation of labor on pain of death for any work1 however insignificant1 and even for the moving from one place to another4 ,they thought of the ,sabbath as a sign of the covenant between ,god and ,israel1 and hence held that it should be observed as punctiliously as possible47#adfe7 ,in the same measure as the ,pharisees1 with their program of religious democracy and common sense1 obtained the upper hand1 the ,biblical strictness of the ,sabbath law was modified4 ,the term labor was defined by analogy with the work done for the tabernacle1 and so restricted as to make the death penalty much more limited47#adff7 ,moreover1 the ,pharisees held that the ,sabbath was made for man1 not man for the ,sabbath27#adfg7 so1 although they adhered strictly to the prohibition of labor1 the ,sabbath received at their hands more of the other element1 and became a day for the elevation of the soul1 8a day of delight0 for the spirit47#adfh7 ,the whole man1 body and soul alike1 should enjoy ,god's gifts more fully on this day2 he should cast off care and sanctify the day by praise offered to ,god at the family table4 ,at a very early period in ,israel the ,sabbath was distinguished by the words of instruction and comfort offered by the prophets to the people who consulted them on the day of rest47#adfi7 ,during the ,exile and afterward the people assembled on the ,sabbath to hear the word of ,god read from the ,torah and the prophets and to join in prayer and song1 which soon became a permanent institution47#adgj7 ,thus the ,sabbath elevated and educated the ,jewish people1 and afterward transferred its blessings also to the ,christian and ,mohammedan world4 ,especially during the ,middle ,ages the ,sabbath became an oasis1 a refreshing spring of water for the ,jew4 ,all through the week he was a ,pariah in the outside world1 but the ,sabbath brought him bliss in his home and spiritual power in his ,synagogue and school4 ,cheerfully he bore the yoke of statutes and ordinances that grew ever heavier under the rabbinical amplification2 for he hailed the ,sabbath as the 8queen0 that raised him from a hated wanderer to a prince in his own domain47#adga7 ,modern life has worked great changes in the ,jewish observance of the ,sabbath4 ,caught up in the whirl of commercial and industrial competition1 the ,jew1 like ,ixion in the fable1 is bound to his wheel of business1 and enjoys neither rest for his body nor elevation for his soul on ,god's holy day4 ,true1 the ,synagogue still preserves the sanctity of the ancient ,sabbath1 however small may be the attendance at the divine service1 and in many pious homes the family still rallies around the festive table1 lighted by the ,sabbath lamp and decorated by the symbolic cup of wine4 ,but for the majority of ,western ,jews the ,sabbath has lost its pristine sanctity and splendor1 to the great detriment of ,jewish religious life4 ,therefore many now ask3 8,is it sufficient to have a vicarious observance of the historical ,sabbath1 the #8sign between ,god and ,israel1' by an hour or two in the ,synagogue1 but without rest for the entire day8 ,or shall the civic day of rest1 though ,christian in origin and character1 take the place of the ,jewish ,sabbath with its sacred traditions1 so that possibly at last it may become the ,sabbath day predicted by the seer upon which #8all flesh shall come to worship before the ,lord'807#adgb7 ,in the halcyon days of the reform movement in ,germany this view was often expressed when the radical reformers celebrated the civic day of rest as the ,jewish ,sabbath1 not in the spirit of dissension1 but for the sake of giving ,judaism a larger scope and a wider outlook4 ,in ,america1 too1 the idea of transferring the ,sabbath to ,sunday was broached by some leading ,reform rabbis and met with hearty support on the part of their congregations4 ,since then a more conservative view has taken hold of most of the liberal elements of ,jewry also in ,america4 ,while divine service on ,sundays has been introduced with decided success in many cities and eminent preachers bring the message of ,judaism home to thousands that would otherwise remain strangers to the house of ,god and to the influence of religion1 the conviction has become well established that the continuity with our great past must be upheld1 and the general feeling is that the historical ,sabbath should under no condition be entirely given up4 ,it is inseparably connected with the election of ,israel as a priest-people1 while the ,christian 8,lord's ,day0 represents views and tendencies opposed to those of ,judaism1 whether considered in its original meaning or in that given it by the ,church47#adgc7 ,the ,jew may properly use the civic day of rest in common with his ,christian fellow-citizen for religious devotion and instruction for young and old2 it will supplement his neglected ,sabbath service1 until conditions have changed4 ,perhaps the ,jew in ,mohammedan countries may even at some time observe ,friday as is done by the ,mosque1 and accordingly consecrate this day in common with his fellow-citizens4 ,still1 between the ,sabbath observed by the ,church and the one of the ,mosque stands the ,jewish ,sabbath in solemn grandeur and patriarchal dignity1 waiting with ,israel1 its keeper and ally1 for the day when all humanity will worship the one holy ,god of ,abraham1 and when our ancient ,sabbath may truly become the ,sabbath of the world4 #h4 ,in all lands time was originally regulated by the movements of the moon1 which are within the observation of all4 ,the alternation of its increase and decrease divided the month into two parts1 which were then subdivided into four4 ,therefore the original month among both the ,babylonians and the ,hebrews consisted of four weeks of seven days each1 the last day of each week being the ,sabbath1 the 8day of standstill10 and two days of the new moon47#adgd7 ,both the new moon and full moon were special days of celebration17#adge7 and later two other ,sabbath days were added between them to correspond to the four phases of the moon4 ,still later the week was detached altogether from the moon and made a fixed period of seven days1 solemnly ended by the ,sabbath4 ,thus ,judaism raised the ,sabbath above all dependence on nature and into the realm of holiness4 ,the ,jewish ,sabbath became the witness to ,god1 the ,creator ruling above nature in absolute freedom47#adgf7 ,still the ancient festival of the new moon was preserved as an observance in the ,temple1 and it afterward survived only in the liturgy of the ,synagogue4 ,while ancient ,israel had observed the ,new ,moon as a day of rest even more sacred than the ,sabbath17#adgg7 the ,priestly ,code placed it among the festivals only as a day of sacrifice1 but as neither a day of rest nor of popular celebration47#adgh7 ,beside the recital of the ,hallel ,psalms and the ,mussaf 78additional07 prayer in the ,synagogue no religious significance was attached to it in the daily life of the people4 ,still the fact that the ,jewish calendar was regulated by the moon1 while that of other nations depended on the solar year1 led the rabbis to compare the unique history of ,israel to the course of the moon4 ,as the moon changes continually1 waxing and waning but ever renewing itself after each decline1 so ,israel renews itself after every fall2 while the proud nations of the world1 which count their year by the course of the sun1 rise and set1 as it does1 with no hope of renewal47#adgi7 ,at the same time1 assurance was found in the prophetic words that 8the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun and the light of the sun shall be sevenfold as the light of the seven days0 and 8thy 7,israel's7 sun shall no more go down1 neither shall thy moon withdraw itself1 for the ,lord shall be thine everlasting light407#adhj7 #i4 ,the various ,jewish festivals1 like the ,sabbath1 were detached from their original relation to nature and turned into historical memorials1 eloquent testimonies to the great works of ,god and of ,israel's power of rejuvenation4 ,the ,passover was originally the spring festival of the shepherds when they hallowed the thresholds17#adha7 but was later identified with the agricultural ,feast of ,unleavened ,bread in ,palestine1 and at an early period was further transformed into a festival of redemption4 ,the former rites of consecration of tent and herd were taken as symbols of the wondrous deliverance of the ,hebrews from the ,egyptian yoke4 ,the sacrifice of the 8passing over the threshold10 with the sprinkling of the blood on the doorposts and lintels of each house1 observed each spring exactly as is still done among the semi-pagan inhabitants of ,syria and ,arabia1 was reinterpreted4 ,according to the ,mosaic code it indicated the wondrous passing of the angel of death over the thresholds of the ,israelites in ,egypt1 while he entered the homes of the ,egyptians to slay the first-born and avenge the wrongs of ,israel47#adhb7 ,likewise the cakes of bread without leaven 7the ,mazzoth7 baked for the festival were taken as reminders of the hasty exodus of the fathers from the land of oppression4 ,thus the spring festival became a memorial of the springtime of liberty for the nation and at the same time a consecration of the ,jewish home to the covenant ,god of ,israel4 ,god was to enter the ,jewish home as ,he did in ,egypt1 as the ,redeemer and ,protector of ,israel4 ,young and old listened with perennial interest to the story of the deliverance1 offering praise for the wonders of the past and voicing their confidence in the future redemption from oppression and woe4 ,however burdensome the ,passover minuti1 especially in regard to the prohibition of leaven1 became to the ,jewish household1 the predominant feature was always an exuberance of joy4 ,in the darkest days of medievalism the synagogue and home resounded with song and thanksgiving1 and the young imbibed the joy and comfort of their elders through the beautiful symbols of the feast and the richly adorned tale of the deliverance 7the ,haggadah74 ,the ,passover feast with its 8night of divine watching0 endowed the ,jew ever anew with endurance during the dark night of medieval tyranny1 and with faith in 8the ,keeper of ,israel who slumbereth not nor sleepeth407#adhc7 ,moreover1 as the springtide of nature fills each creature with joy and hope1 so ,israel's feast of redemption promises the great day of liberty to those who still chafe under the yoke of oppression4 ,the modern ,jew is beginning to see in the reawakening of his religious and social life in western lands the token of the future liberation of all mankind47#adhd7 ,the ,passover feast brings him the clear and hopeful message of freedom for humanity from all bondage of body and of spirit4 #aj4 ,the ,feast of ,weeks or ,festival of the ,first ,fruits in ,biblical times was merely a farmer's holiday at the end of the seven weeks of harvest4 ,at the beginning of the harvest parched grains of barley were offered1 while at its end two loaves of the new wheat flour were brought as a thank-offering for the new crop47#adhe7 ,rabbinical ,judaism1 however1 transformed it into a historical feast by making it the memorial day of the giving of the ,ten ,words on ,mount ,sinai4 ,it was thus given a universal significance1 as the ,midrash has it1 8turning the ,feast of the ,first ,fruits into a festival commemorating the ripening of the first fruits of the spiritual harvest for the people of the covenant407#adhf7 ,henceforth the ,ten ,words were to be solemnly read to the congregation on that day1 and the pledge of loyalty made by the fathers thereby renewed each year by ,israel's faithful sons4 ,the leaders of ,reform ,judaism surrounded the day with new charm by the introduction of the confirmation ceremony17#adhg7 thus rendering it a feast of consecration of the ,jewish youth to the ancient covenant1 of yearly renewal of loyalty by the rising generation to the ancestral faith4 #aa4 ,the main festival in ,biblical times was the ,feast of ,sukkoth1 or ,tabernacles1 the great harvest festival of autumn1 when the people flocked to the central sanctuary in solemn procession1 carrying palms and other plants4 ,hence this was called the ,hag or ,pilgrimage ,feast47#adhh7 ,in the post-exilic ,priestly ,code this festival also was made historical1 and the name ,feast of ,sukkoth 7which denoted originally ,feast of ,pilgrimage ,tents7 was connected with the exodus from ,egypt1 when the town of ,sukkoth 7possibly named from the tents of their encampment7 was made the rallying point of the fugitive ,hebrews at their departure from ,egypt4 ,the commentators no longer understood this connection1 and traced the name to the tents erected by the people in their wanderings through the wilderness47#adhi7 ,it seems that from very ancient times popular rites were performed at this feast1 which took a specially solemn form in the holding of a procession from the pool of ,shiloah at the foot of the ,temple mount to the altar in the ,temple1 to offer there a libation of water1 which was a sort of symbolic prayer for rain for the opening year4 ,obviously1 it is this feast which is referred to in the last chapter of ,zechariah1 while this outburst of popular joy found a deep response among the pious leaders of the people and is echoed in the liturgy of the medieval ,synagogue47#adij7 ,the ,halakic rules concerning the tabernacle and the four plans for it tended to obscure the real significance of the festival27#adia7 yet in the synagogue and the home it retained its original character as a 8season of gladness40 ,the joyous gratitude to ,god for ,his protection of ,israel during the forty years of wanderings through the wilderness expanded into thanksgiving for ,his guidance throughout the forty centuries of ,israel's pilgrimage through all lands and ages4 ,this joy culminated on the last day in the ,feast of ,rejoicing in the ,law1 when the annual cycle of readings from the ,pentateuch was completed in the ,synagogue amid overflowing pride in the possession of ,god's law by ,israel47#adib7 ,the rabbis gave ,sukkoth a universal significance by taking the seventy bullocks prescribed for the seven days as offerings for the salvation of the seventy nations of the world1 while the one bullock offered on the last day suggested the uniqueness of ,israel as ,god's peculiar people47#adic7 #ab4 ,the highest point of religious devotion in the synagogue is reached on the ,new ,year's day and the ,day of ,atonement preceding the ,feast of ,sukkoth4 ,these are first mentioned in the ,priestly ,code and were undoubtedly instituted after the time of ,ezra27#adid7 they were then brought into closer connection by the ,pharisees and permeated with lofty ideas which struck the deepest chords of the human heart and voiced the sublimest truths of religion for all time to come4 ,the ,new ,year's ,day on the first of ,tishri appears in the ,mosaic ,code simply as the memorial 8,day of the ,blowing of the ,trumpet10 because of the increased number of trumpet blasts to usher in the seventh or ,sabbatical month with its great pilgrim feast4 ,under ,babylonian influence1 however1 it received a new name and meaning4 ,the ,babylonian ,new ,year was looked upon as a heavenly day of destiny when the fates of all beings on earth and in heaven were foretold for the whole year from the tables of destiny4 ,the leaders of ,jewish thought also adopted the first day of the holy month of ,tishri as a day of divine judgment1 when ,god allots to each man his destiny for the year according to his record of good and evil deeds in the book of life47#adie7 ,accordingly1 the stirring notes of the ,shofar were to strike the hearts of the people with fear1 that they might repent of their sins and improve their ways during the new year4 ,as fixed by tradition1 the liturgy contained three blasts of the ,shofar to proclaim three great ideas of ,judaism37#adif7 the recognition of ,god as ,king of the world2 as ,judge1 remembering the actions and thoughts of men and nations for their reward and punishment2 and as the ,ruler of history1 who revealed ,himself to ,israel in the trumpet-blasts of ,sinai and will gather all men and nations by the trumpet-blasts of the ,judgment ,day at the end of time4 ,the main purpose of the ,new ,year was to render it a day of renewal of the heart1 so that man might put himself in harmony with the great ,judge on high and receive life anew from ,his hand1 while he fills his spirit with new and better resolves for the future4 ,judaism does not place the day of judgment after death1 when repentance is beyond reach and the sinner can only await damnation1 as is done by ,christianity after the apocalyptic views adopted from the ,parsees4 ,the ,jewish judgment day occurs at the beginning of every year1 a day of self-examination and improvement of men before ,god4 ,on this day--in the orthodox ,synagogue on the second day of the ,new ,year--the chapter is read from the ,torah describing ,abraham's great act of faith on ,mount ,moriah1 the heroic pattern of ,jewish martyrdom1 and stirring prayers1 litanies1 and songs prepare the worshiper for the 8great day0 of the year1 the ,day of ,atonement1 which is to come on the tenth day of ,tishri1 the last of the ten ,days of ,repentance4 #ac4 ,the ,day of ,atonement figures in the ,mosaic ,code as the day when the high priest in the ,temple performed the important function of expiation for the sanctuary1 the priesthood1 and the people4 ,the mass of the people were to observe the day from evening to evening as a ,sabbath and a fast day to obtain pardon for their sins before ,god47#adig7 ,a very primitive rite which survived for this day was the selection of two goats1 one of which was to be sent to ,azazel1 the demon of the wilderness1 to bear away the sins of the people1 while the other was to be offered to the ,lord as a sacrifice4 ,we learn from the ,mishnaic sources that the sending forth of the scapegoat was accompanied by strange practices betraying intense popular interest1 and its arrival at the bottom of the wild ravine1 where ,azazel was supposed to dwell1 was announced by signals from station to station1 until they reached the ,temple mount1 and the news of it was then received with wild bursts of joy by the people4 ,the young men and maidens assembled on the heights of ,jerusalem1 like the men at the pilgrimage feast at ,shiloh1 and held1 as it were1 nuptial dances47#adih7 ,the day was one of communion with ,god for the high-priest alone2 he confessed his sins and those of the people and implored forgiveness1 and it was actually believed that he beheld the ,majesty of ,god on that day when he entered the ,holy of ,holies with the incense shrouding his face47#adii7 ,in contrast to this priestly monopoly of service with its external and archaic forms of expiation1 the founders of the ,synagogue invested the ,day of ,atonement with a higher meaning in accord with the spirit of the prophets of old1 the doctrine of ,god's mercy and paternal love4 ,atonement could no longer be obtained by the priest with the sacrificial blood1 the incense1 or the scapegoat2 it must come through the repentance of the sinner1 leading him back from the path of error to the way of ,god4 ,as the high-priest in the ,temple1 so now every son of ,israel was to spend the day in the house of prayer1 confessing his sins before ,god with a contrite heart1 awaiting with awe the realization of ,god's promise to ,moses3 8,i have pardoned according to thy word407#aejj7 ,indeed1 a forward step in the history of religion is represented in the interpretation of the verse3 8,for on this day he--that is1 the high-priest--shall make atonement for you to cleanse you10 which was now understood to refer to ,god3 8,he shall make atonement for you through this day407#aeja7 ,therefore ,r4 ,akiba could exclaim proudly1 as he thought of the ,paulinian doctrine of vicarious atonement3 8,happy are ye ,israelites6 ,before whom do you cleanse yourselves from sin1 and who cleanses you8 ,your ,father in heaven607#aejb7 ,no mediator was needed between man and his heavenly ,father from the moment that each individual learned to approach ,god in true humility on the ,day of ,atonement1 imploring ,his pardon for sin and promising to amend his ways4 ,with profound intuition the rabbis attributed ,god's pardon to the petition of ,moses1 saying that ,he revealed ,himself in ,his attribute of mercy on the very tenth of ,tishri1 foreshadowing for all time the divine forgiveness of sin on the ,day of ,atonement47#aejc7 ,as the ,mishnah expressly states1 even the ,day of ,atonement cannot bring forgiveness so long as injustice cleaves to one's hand or evil speech to the lips and no attempt is made to repair the injury and appease one's fellow-man47#aejd7 ,where justice is lacking1 divine love cannot exert its saving power4 ,god's mercy and long-suffering cannot remove sin1 unless the root of evil is removed from the heart and every wrong redressed in sincere repentance4 ,the spirit of ,god is invoked on these great days at the year's commencement only that the penitent soul may thus receive strength to improve its ways1 that good conduct in the future may atone for the errors of the past4 ,surely no religion in the world can equal the sublime teachings of the ,new ,year's day and the ,day of ,atonement1 first filling the heart of mortal man with awe before the ,judge of the world and then cheering it with the assurance of ,god's paternal love being ever ready to extend mercy to ,his repentant children4 ,while the other festivals of the year are specifically ,jewish in historic associations and meaning1 these two days on the threshold of each new year are universally human1 and the chief prayers for this day are of a universal character1 appealing to every human heart4 ,indeed1 it is characteristic that both the concluding service for the day1 the ,neilah1 and the ,scriptural reading of the ,minhah ,service1 selected from the book of ,jonah1 tell that ,god's all-forgiving mercy extends to the non-,jewish world as well as to the ,jew47#aeje7 #ad4 ,altogether1 the ,synagogue gave to the annual cycle of the ,jewish life a beautiful rhythm in its alternation of joy and sorrow1 lending a higher solemnity to general experience4 ,all the festivals mentioned above were preceded by a series of ,sabbaths to prepare the congregation for the coming of the sad or the joyful season with its historical reminiscences4 ,so the memorial day of the destruction of ,jerusalem1 the ninth of ,ab1 had three weeks previously to herald in a day commemorating the siege of ,jerusalem1 the seventeenth of ,tammuz2 but it had also seven ,sabbath days to follow1 which afforded words of consolation and hope of a more glorious future for the mourning nation47#aejf7 ,of course1 the brighter days of the present era have greatly modified the lugubrious character of these eventful days of the past1 even in those circles where the hope for the restoration of the ,jewish nation and ,temple is still expressed in prayer4 ,at the same time1 the commemoration of the destruction of ,state and ,temple1 the great turning-point in the history of the ,jew1 ought to be given a prominent place in the ,reform ,synagogue as well1 though celebrated in the spirit of progressive ,judaism4 ,the feast of ,hanukkah with its lights and song1 jubilant with the ,maccabean victory in the battle for ,israel's faith1 still resounds in the ,jewish home and the house of ,god with the prophetic watchword3 8,not by might1 nor by power1 but by ,my spirit1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts407#aejg7 ,the mirthful feast of ,purim1 with its half-serious1 half-jovial use of the scroll of ,esther and its popular rejoicing1 assumed in the course of time a more earnest character1 because the plot of ,haman and the rescue of the ,jews became typical in ,jewish history4 ,therefore the story of ,amalek1 the arch-foe of ,israel1 is read in the ,synagogue on the preceding ,sabbath as a reminder of the constant battle which ,israel must wage for its supreme religious task47#aejh7 #ae4 ,through the entire history of ,judaism since the ,exile1 the ,synagogue brought its religious truth home to the people each ,sabbath and holy day through the reading and expounding of the ,torah and the prophets4 ,these words of consolation and admonition struck a deep chord in the hearts of the people1 so that learning was the coveted prize of all and ignorance of the law became a mark of inferiority4 ,beside these stated occasions1 all times of joy or sadness such as weddings and funerals were given some attention in the ,synagogue1 as linking the individual to the communal life1 and linking his personal joy and sorrow with the past sadness and future glory of ,jerusalem1 as if they but mirrored the greater events of the people4 ,thus the whole life was to be placed in the service of the social body1 and could not be torn asunder or divided into things holy and things profane4 ,religion must send forth its rays like the sun1 illumining and warming all of man's deeds and thoughts4 #af4 ,the weakness of the ,synagogue was its ,orientalism4 ,amid all the changes of time and environment1 it remained separated from the surrounding world to such an extent that it could no longer exert an influence to win outsiders for its great truths4 ,until recently the ,hebrew language was retained for the entire liturgy1 although it had become unintelligible to the majority of the ,jews in western lands1 and even though the rabbis had declared in ,talmudic times that the verse3 8,hear ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one0 indicates that the words should be spoken in a language which can be heard and understood by the people47#aeji7 ,the ,torah likewise was1 and in the ancient ,synagogue is still read exclusively in the ,hebrew original1 in spite of the fact that the original reading under ,ezra was accompanied by a translation and interpretation in the ,aramaic vernacular4 ,thus only could the ,torah become 8the heritage of the whole congregation of ,jacob10 which fact gave rise to both the ,aramaic and ,greek translations of the ,bible which carried the truths of ,judaism to the wider circle of the world4 ,these plain facts were ignored through the centuries to the detriment of the ,jewish faith1 and this neglect1 in turn1 engendered a false conception of ,judaism1 making it seem ever more exclusive and narrow4 ,instead of becoming 8our wisdom and understanding before all the nations107#aeaj7 knowledge of the ,torah dwindled to a possession of the few1 while the ceremonial laws1 observed by the many1 were performed without any understanding of their origin or purpose4 ,but in the last century under the banner of ,reform ,judaism many of these points were altered4 ,the vernacular was introduced into the ,synagogue1 so that the modern ,jew might pray in the same tongue in which he feels and thinks1 thus turning the prayers from mechanical recitations into true offerings of the soul1 and bringing the ,scriptural readings nearer to the consciousness of the congregation4 ,likewise the reintroduction of the sermon in the vernacular as part of the divine service for ,sabbath and holy days became the vehicle to awaken religious sentiments in the hearts of the people1 and thereby to revive the spirit of the ancient prophets and ,haggadists47#aeaa7 #ag4 ,this ,orientalism is especially marked in the attitude of the older ,synagogue to women4 ,true enough1 woman was honored as the mistress of the home4 ,she kindled the ,sabbath light1 provided for the joy and comfort of domestic life1 especially on the holy days1 observed strictly the laws of diet and purity1 and awakened the spirit of piety in her children4 ,still she was excluded from the regular divine service in the ,synagogue4 ,she did not count as a member of the religious community1 which consisted exclusively of men4 ,she had to sit in the gallery behind a trellis during the service and could not even join the men in saying grace at table4 ,a few rare women were privileged to study ,hebrew1 such as the daughter of ,rashi1 but as a rule woman's education was neglected as if 8she had no claim on any other wisdom than the distaff407#aeab7 ,more and more ,judaism lost sight of its noble types of women in antiquity2 it forgot the ,biblical heroines such as ,miriam and ,deborah1 ,hannah and ,hulda1 and ,talmudic ones such as ,beruria the wife of ,rabbi ,meir4 ,such women as these might have repeated the words3 8,hath the ,lord indeed spoken only through ,moses8 ,hath ,he not also spoken through us807#aeac7 ,aside from the sphere of religion1 in which woman always manifests a splendid wealth of sentiment1 she was held in subjection by ,oriental laws in both marital and social relations17#aead7 and her natural vocation as religious teacher of the children in the home failed to receive full recognition also4 ,the first attempt to liberate the ,jewish woman from the yoke of ,orientalism was made in the eleventh century by ,rabbi ,gershon ben ,jehudah of ,mayence1 at that time the leading rabbi of ,germany4 ,under the influence of ,occidental ideas he secured equal rights for men and women in marriage47#aeae7 ,but only in our own time were full rights accorded her in the ,synagogue1 owing to the reform movement in ,germany and ,austria4 ,as a matter of fact1 the confirmation of children of both sexes1 which was gradually introduced in many conservative congregations also1 was the virtual recognition of woman as the equal of man in ,synagogue and school47#aeaf7 ,finally1 upon the initiative of ,isaac ,m4 ,wise1 then ,rabbi in ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 family pews were introduced in the ,american ,synagogue and woman was seated beside her husband1 son1 father1 and brother as their equal4 ,with her greater emotional powers she is able to lend a new solemnity and dignity to the religious and educational efforts of the ,synagogue1 wherever she is admitted as a full participant in the service4 #ah4 ,another shortcoming of the ,synagogue and of ,rabbinical ,judaism in general was its formalism4 ,too much stress was laid upon the perfunctory 8discharge of duty10 the outward performance of the letter of the law1 and not enough upon the spiritual basis of the ,jewish religion4 ,the form obscured the spirit1 even though it never quite succeeded in throttling it4 ,this formalism of the ignorant1 but observant multitude was censured as early as the eleventh century by ,bahya ben ,joseph ibn ,pakudah in his 8,duties of the ,heart10 a philosophical work in which he emphatically urges the need of inwardness for the ,jewish faith47#aeag7 ,later the mystics of ,germany and ,palestine1 while strong supporters of the law1 opposed the one-sidedness of legalism and intellectualism1 and endeavored to instill elements of deeper devotion into the ,jewish soul through the introduction of their secret lore1 ,cabbalah1 or 8esoteric tradition407#aeah7 ,their offering1 however1 was anything but beneficial to the soul of ,judaism4 ,a mysticism which attempts to fathom the unfathomable depth of the divine accords but ill with the teaching of ,judaism1 which says3 8,the secret things belong unto the ,lord our ,god1 but the things that are revealed belong unto us and to our children forever1 that we may do all the words of this law407#aeai7 ,the ,cabbalah was but the reaction to the excessive rationalism of the ,spanish-,arabic period4 ,as the ultimate source of religion is not reason but the heart1 so the cultivation of the intellect at the expense of the emotions can be only harmful to the faith4 ,the legalism and casuistry of the ,talmud and the ,codes appealed too much to the intellect1 disregarding the deeper emotional sources of religion and morality2 on the other hand1 the mysticism of the ,cabbalists overemphasized the emotional element1 and eliminated much of the rational basis of ,judaism4 ,true religion grasps the whole of man and shows ,god's world as a harmonious whole1 reflecting in both mind and heart the greatness and majesty of ,god on high4 ,in order to open the flood-gates of the soul and render religion again the deepest and strongest force of life1 the ,synagogue must revitalize its time-honored institutions and ceremonies4 ,thus only will they become real powers of the ,jewish spirit1 testimonies to the living ,god1 witnessing to the truth of the ,biblical words3 8,for this commandment which ,i command thee this day1 it is not too hard for thee1 neither is it too far off4 ,it is not in heaven1 that thou shouldest say1 #8,who shall go up for us to heaven and bring it unto us1 and make us to hear it1 that we may do it8' ,neither is it beyond the sea1 that thou shouldest say1 #8,who shall go over the sea for us and bring it unto us1 and make us to hear it1 that we may do it8' ,but the word is very nigh unto thee1 in thy mouth and in thy heart1 that thou mayest do it407#aebj7 #ai4 ,the ,synagogue need no longer restrict itself to the ancient forms of worship in its appeal to the ,jewish soul4 ,it must point to the loftiest ideals for the future of all humanity1 if it is to be true to its prophetic spirit of yore4 8,my house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples10 exclaimed the seer of the exile47#aeba7 8,hear ,o ,israel1 the ,lord our ,god1 the ,lord is one0 must be echoed in all lands and languages1 by all ,god-seeking minds and hearts1 to realize the prophetic vision3 8,and the ,lord shall be ,king over all the earth2 in that day the ,lord shall be ,one1 and ,his name ,one407#aebb7 ,just as there is but one truth1 one justice1 and one love1 however differently the various races and classes of men may conceive them1 so ,israel shall uphold ,god1 the only ,one1 as the bond of unity for all men1 despite their diversity of ideas and cultures1 and ,his truth will be the beacon-light for all humanity4 ,as the ,psalms1 prophets1 and the opening chapters of the ,pentateuch speak a language appealing to the common sense of mankind1 so the divine worship of the ,synagogue must again strike the deeper chords of humanity1 in its weal and woe1 its hope and fear1 its aspirations and ideals4 ,therefore it is not enough that the institutions and ceremonies of the ,synagogue are testimonies to the great past of ,israel4 ,they must also become eloquent heralds and monitors of the glorious future1 when all mankind will have learned the lessons of the ,jewish festivals1 the ideals of liberty1 law1 and peace1 the thoughts of the divine judgment and the divine mercy4 ,they must help also to bring about the time when the ideal of social justice1 which the ,mosaic ,code holds forth for the ,israelitish nation1 will have become the motive-power and incentive to the restablishment of human society upon new foundations4 ,jehudah ha ,levi1 the lofty poet of medieval ,jewry17#aebc7 speaks of ,israel as the 8heart of humanity10 because it has supplied the spiritual and moral life-blood of the civilized world4 ,israel provides continually the rejuvenating influence of society4 ,israel's history is the history of the world in miniature4 ,as the ,midrash says17#aebd7 the confession of ,god's unity imposes upon us the obligation to lead all ,god's children to love ,him with heart and soul and might1 thus working toward the time when 8the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the ,lord as the waters cover the sea407#aebe7 ,all the social1 political1 and intellectual movements of our restless1 heaven-storming age1 notwithstanding temporary lapses into barbarism and hatred1 point unerringly to the final goal1 the unity of all human and cosmic life under the supreme leadership of ,god on high4 ,in the midst of all these movements of the day stands the ,jew1 ,god's witness from of old1 yet vigorous and youthful still1 surveying the experiences of the past and voicing the hope of the future1 exclaiming in the words of his traditional prayers3 8,happy are we2 how goodly is our portion6 how pleasant our lot6 how beautiful our inheritance607#aebf7 ,our faith is the faith of the coming humanity2 our hope of ,zion is the kingdom of ,god1 which will include all the ideals of mankind4 ,chapter ,,lix4 ,the ,ethics of ,judaism and the ,kingdom of ,god #a4 ,the soul of the ,jewish religion is its ethics4 ,its ,god is the ,fountainhead and ,ideal of morality4 ,at the beginning of the summary of the ethical laws in the ,mosaic ,code stands the verse3 8,ye shall be holy1 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy407#aebg7 ,this provides the ,jew with the loftiest possible motive for perfection and at the same time the greatest incentive to an ever higher conception of life and life's purpose4 ,accordingly1 the kingdom of ,god for whose coming the ,jew longs from the beginning until the end of the year17#aebh7 does not rest in a world beyond the grave1 but 7in consonance with the ideal of ,israel's sages and prophets7 in a complete moral order on earth1 the reign of truth1 righteousness and holiness among all men and nations4 ,jewish ethics1 then1 derives its sanction from ,god1 the ,author and ,master of life1 and sees its purpose in the hallowing of all life1 individual and social4 ,its motive is the splendid conception that man1 with his finite ends1 is linked to the infinite ,god with ,his infinite ends2 or1 as the rabbis express it1 8,man is a co-worker with ,god in the work of creation407#aebi7 #b4 ,both the term ethics 7from the ,greek ethos7 and morality 7from the ,latin mores7 are derived from custom or habit4 ,in distinction to this1 the ,hebrew ,scripture points to ,god's will as perceived in the human conscience as the source of all morality4 ,those ethical systems which dispense with religion fail to take due cognizance of the voice of duty which says to each man3 8,thou shalt0 or 8,thou shalt not60 ,duty distinguishes man from all other creatures4 ,however low man may be in the scale of freedom1 he is moved to action by an impulse from within1 not by a compulsion from without4 ,of course1 morality must travel a long road from the primitive code1 which does not extend beyond the near kinsmen1 to the ideal of civilized man which encompasses the world4 ,still man's steps are always directed by some rule of duty4 ,the voice of conscience1 heard clearly or dimly1 is not1 as is so often asserted1 the product1 but the original guiding factor of human society4 ,the divine inner power of morality has made man1 not man morality4 ,morality and religion1 inseparably united in the ,decalogue of ,sinai1 will attain their perfection together in the kingdom of ,god upon the ,zion heights of humanity4 #c4 ,ethical elements1 greater or smaller1 enter into all religions and codes of law of the various nations4 ,ancient ,egypt1 ,persia and ,india even connected ethical principle and the future of the soul so closely1 that certain ethical laws were to determine one's fate in heaven or hell4 ,this led to the idea that this life is but the preparatory stage to the great hereafter4 ,but antiquity also witnessed more or less successful attempts to emancipate ethics from religion4 ,when the old beliefs no longer satisfied the thinking mind and no longer kept men from corruption1 various philosophers attempted to provide general principles of morality as substitutes for the departed deities4 ,confucius built up in ,china a system of common-sense ethics based upon the communal life1 but without any religious ideals2 this satisfied the commonplace attitude of that country1 but could not pass beyond the confines of the far ,east4 ,a semi-religious ascetic system was offered at about the same time by ,gautama ,buddha of ,india1 a prince garbed as a mendicant friar1 who preached the gospel of love and charity for all fellow creatures4 ,his leading maxims were blind resignation and self-effacement in the presence of the ills1 suffering and death which rule the entire domain of life4 ,all existence was evil to him1 with its pleasure1 passion and desire1 its thought and feeling2 his aim was a state of apathy and listlessness1 ,nirvana2 while sympathy and compassion for fellow creatures were to offer some relief to a life of delusion and despair4 ,the ,hindu conception of the unbearable woe of the world corresponded more or less with the hot climate1 which renders the people indolent and apathetic4 ,in striking contrast to this was the vigorous manhood of the ethical systems developed on the healthy soil of ,greece1 under the azure canopy of a sky that fills the soul with beauty and joy4 ,life should be valued for the happiness it offers to the individual or to society4 ,the good should be loved for its beauty1 the just admired for its nobility4 ,greek ethics was thus both aristocratic and utilitarian2 it took no heed of the toiling slave1 the suffering poor1 or the unprotected stranger4 ,both the ,buddhist and the ,hellenic systems lacked the energizing force and motive of the highest purpose of life1 because both have left out of their purview the great ,ruler who summons man to his duty1 saying3 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god2 thou shalt and thou shalt not60 #d4 ,between the two extremes1 the ,hellenic self-expansion and the ,buddhist self-extinction1 ,jewish ethics labors for self-elevation under the uplifting power of a holy ,god4 ,the term which ,scripture uses for moral conduct is1 very significantly1 8to walk in the ways of ,god40 ,the rabbis explain this as follows3 8,as ,god is merciful and gracious1 so be thou merciful and gracious4 ,as ,god is called righteous1 so be thou righteous4 ,as ,god is holy1 so do thou strive to be holy407#aecj7 ,another of their maxims is3 8,how can mortal man walk after ,god1 who is an all-consuming fire8 ,what ,scripture means is that man should emulate ,god4 ,as ,he clothes the naked1 nurses the sick1 comforts the sorrowing1 and buries the dead1 so should man407#aeca7 ,in other words1 human life must take its pattern from the divine goodness and holiness4 #e4 ,obviously1 ,jewish ethics had to go through the same long process of development as the ,jewish religion itself4 ,a very high stage is represented by that disinterested goodness taught by ,antigonus of ,soko in the second pre-,christian century and by ben ,azzai in the second century of the present era1 which no longer anticipates reward or punishment1 but does good for its own sake and shuns evil because it is evil47#aecb7 ,as long as the law tolerated slavery1 polygamy1 and blood vengeance1 and man's personality was not recognized on principle as being made in the image of ,god1 the practical morality of the ,hebrews could not rise above that of other nations1 except in so far as the shepherd's compassion for the beast occasioned sympathy also for the fellow-man4 ,after all1 ,jewish ethics became the ethics of humanity because of the ,god-conception of the prophets1--the righteous1 merciful1 and holy ,god1 the ,god 8who executeth the judgment of the fatherless and the widow1 and loveth the stranger in giving him food and raiment407#aecc7 ,the conception of ,jewish ethics as human ethics is voiced in the familiar verse3 8,it hath been told thee1 ,o man1 what is good and what the ,lord doth require of thee3 only to do justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with thy ,god407#aecd7 ,the all-ruling and all-seeing ,god of the ,psalmist made men feel that only such a one can stand in ,his holy place 8who hath clean hands and a pure heart1 who hath not lifted up his soul unto falsehood1 nor sworn deceitfully407#aece7 ,after law-giver1 prophet1 and psalmist came the wise1 who gave ethics a more practical and popular character in the wisdom literature1 and then came the ,hasidim or ,essenes1 who1 while seeking the highest piety or saintliness as life's aim1 deepened and spiritualized their ethical ideals4 ,some of these considered the essential principles of morality to be love of ,god and of the fellow-man27#aecf7 while rabbinical ethics in general laid great stress on motive as determining the value of the deed4 ,the words1 8,thou shalt fear the ,lord thy ,god10 so often repeated in the law1 are taken to mean3 ,fear ,him who looks into the heart1 judging motives and intentions47#aecg7 #f4 ,as the ,mosaic ,code presented the ceremonial and moral laws together as divine1 so the rabbinical schools treated them all as divine commandments without any distinction4 ,hence the ,mishnah and the ,talmud fail to give ethics the prominent place it occupies in the prophetic and wisdom literature of the ,bible and did not even make an attempt to formulate a system of ethics4 ,the ethical rules in the 8,sayings of the ,fathers0 and similar later collections make no pretentions to being general or systematic4 ,the ethical teachings became conspicuous only through contact with the ,hellenic world in the propaganda literature1 with its aim to win the ,gentile world to ,judaism4 ,thus at an early period handbooks on ethics were written and circulated in the ,greek language1 some of which were afterward appropriated by the ,christian ,church4 ,this entire movement is summed up in the well-known answer of ,hillel to the heathen who desired to join the ,jewish faith3 8,what is hateful to thee1 do thou not unto thy fellow man2 this is the law1 and all the rest is merely commentary407#aech7 ,on the whole1 rabbinical ,judaism elaborated no ethical system before the ,middle ,ages4 ,then1 under ,mohammedan influence1 the ,aristotelian and ,neo-,platonic philosophies in vogue gave rise to certain ethical works more or less in accord with their philosophic or mystic prototypes4 ,in addition1 ethical treatises were often written in the form of wills and of popular admonitions1 which were sometimes broad and human1 at other times stern and ascetic4 ,one thought1 however1 prevailed through the ages3 as life emanates from the ,god of holiness1 so it must ever serve ,his holy purposes and benefit all ,his earthly children4 8,all the laws given by ,god to ,israel have only the purification and ennobling of the life of men for their object10 say the rabbis47#aeci7 #g4 ,perhaps the best summary of ,jewish ethics was presented by ,hillel in the famous three words3 8,if ,i am not for myself1 who will be for me8 ,but if ,i am for myself alone1 what am ,i8 ,and if not now1 when then807#aedj7 ,we find here three spheres of duty3 toward one's self1 toward others1 and toward the life before us4 ,in contrast to purely altruistic or socialistic ethics1 ,jewish morality accentuated the value of the individual even apart from the social organism4 ,man is a child of ,god1 a4 self-conscious personality1 who is to unfold and improve the powers implanted by his divine ,maker1 in both body and soul1 laboring in this way toward the purpose for which he was created4 ,man was created single1 says one of the sages in the ,mishnah17#aeda7 that he might know that he forms a world for himself1 and the whole creation must aid him in unfolding the divine image within himself4 ,accordingly1 self-preservation1 self-improvement and self-perfection are duties of every man4 ,this implies first the care for the human body as the temple which enshrines the divine spirit4 ,in the eyes of ,judaism1 to neglect or enfeeble the body1 the instrument of the soul1 is altogether sinful4 ,as the ,sabbath law demands physical rest and recreation after the week's work1 so the ,jewish religion in general trains men to enjoy the gifts of ,god2 and the rabbis declare that their rejection 7except for disciplinary reasons7 is ingratitude for which man must give an account at the last ,judgment ,day47#aedb7 ,the ,pharisean teacher who opposed the ,essenic custom of fasting and declared it sinful1 unless it be for special purposes1 would have deprecated even more strongly the ascetic ,christian or ,hindoo saint who castigated his body as the seat of sin47#aedc7 ,as ,hillel remarked3 8,see what care is bestowed upon the statue of the emperor to keep it clean and bright2 ought we not1 likewise1 keep ,god's image1 our body1 clean and free from every blemish807#aedd7 ,in regard to our moral and spiritual selves the rabbinical maxim is3 8,beautify thyself first1 and then beautify others407#aede7 ,only as we first ennoble ourselves can we then contribute to the elevation of the world about us4 ,our industry promotes the welfare of the community as well as of ourselves2 our idleness harms others as well as ourselves47#aedf7 ,upon self-respect rest our honor and our character4 ,virtue also is the result of self-control and self-conquest47#aedg7 8,there shall be no strange ,god in thee40 ,this ,psalm verse is taken by the rabbis to mean that no anger and passion nor any evil desire or overbearing pride shall obtain their mastery over thee47#aedh7 ,man asserts himself in braving temptation and trial1 in overcoming sin and grief4 ,greater still is the hero who1 in complete self-mastery1 can sacrifice himself in a great cause4 ,martyrdom for the sake of ,god1 which the rabbis call sanctification of the name of ,god17#aedi7 is really the assertion of the divine life in the midst of death4 ,but desertion of life from selfish motives through suicide is all the more despicable4 ,he who sells his human birthright to escape pain or disgrace1 though greatly to be pitied1 has forfeited his claim and his share in the world to come47#aeej7 ,not only our life is to be maintained amid all trials as a sacred trust1 but also our rights1 our freedom1 and our individuality1 for we must not allow our personality to become the slave or tool of others4 ,job1 who battled for his own convictions against the false assumption of his friends1 was at last praised and rewarded by ,god47#aeea7 ,the ,biblical verse3 8,for they are ,my servants whom ,i brought forth out of the land of ,egypt1 they shall not be sold as slaves10 is explained by the rabbis3 8,my servants1 but not servants to servants10 and is thus applicable to spiritual slavery as well47#aeeb7 #h4 ,therefore the ,jewish conception of duty to our fellow-men is by no means comprised in love or benevolence4 ,long before ,hillel1 other ,jewish sages gave the so-called ,golden ,rule3 8,love thy neighbor as thyself10 a negative form3 8,what is hateful to thee do not do unto thy fellow men407#aeec7 ,taken in the positive form1 the command cannot be literally carried out4 ,we cannot love the stranger as we love ourselves or our kin2 still less can we love our enemy1 as is demanded by the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,according to the ,hebrew ,scriptures7#aeed7 we can and should treat our enemy magnanimously and forgive him1 but we cannot truly love him1 unless he turns from an enemy to a friend4 ,the real meaning given by the rabbis to the command1 8,love thy neighbor as thyself0 is3 8,put thyself in his place and act accordingly4 ,as thou dost not desire to be robbed of thy property or good name or to be injured or insulted1 so do not these things unto thy fellow man407#aeee7 ,they then take the closing words1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 as an oath by ,god3 8,i am the ,lord1 the ,creator of thy fellow man as well as of thee2 therefore1 if thou showest love to him1 ,i shall surely reward thee1 and if not1 ,i am the ,judge ready to punish thee407#aeef7 ,love of all fellow-men is1 in fact1 taught by both ,hillel7#aeeg7 and ,philo47#aeeh7 ,love and helpful sympathy are implied also by the verse from ,deuteronomy3 8,he 7the ,lord7 loveth the stranger in giving him bread and raiment4 ,love ye therefore the stranger407#aeei7 ,all members of the human household are dependent on each other for kindness and good will1 whether we are rich or poor1 high or lowly1 in life or in death2 so do we owe love and kindness to all men alike4 #i4 ,however1 love as a principle of action is not sufficiently firm to fashion human conduct or rule society4 ,it is too much swayed by impulse and emotion and is often too partial4 ,love without justice leads to abuse and wrong1 as we see in the history of the ,church1 which began with the principle of love1 but often failed to heed the admonitions of justice4 ,therefore justice is the all-inclusive principle of human conduct in the eyes of ,judaism4 ,justice is impartial by its very nature4 ,it must right every wrong and vindicate the cause of the oppressed4 8,when ,thy judgments are in the earth1 the inhabitants of the world will learn righteousness10 said the prophet17#aefj7 describing the just man as he 8that walketh righteously and speaketh uprightly1 that despiseth the gain of oppressions1 that shaketh his hands from holding of bribes1 that stoppeth his ear from hearing of blood1 and shutteth his eyes from looking on evil407#aefa7 ,justice is the requisite not only in action1 but also in disposition17#aefb7 implying honesty in intention as in deed1 uprightness in speech and mien1 perfect rectitude1 neither taking advantage of ignorance nor abusing confidence47#aefc7 ,it is sinful to acquire wealth by betting or gambling17#aefd7 or by cornering food-supplies to raise the market price47#aefe7 ,the rabbis derive from ,scripture the thought that1 just as 8your balances and weights1 your ephah and hin0 must be just1 so should your yea and nay47#aeff7 ,the verse1 8,justice1 justice shalt them follow107#aefg7 is explained thus in a ,midrash which is quoted by ,bahya ben ,asher of the thirteenth century3 8,justice1 whether to your profit or loss1 whether in word or in action1 whether to ,jew or non-,jew407#aefh7 ,this category of justice covers also regard for the honor of our fellow-men1 lest we harm it by the tongue of the back-biter17#aefi7 by the ear that listens to calumny17#aegj7 or by suspicion cast upon the innocent47#aega7 8,god in ,his law takes especial care of the honor of our fellow-men10 say the rabbis1 and 8he who publicly puts his fellow man to shame forfeits his share in the world to come407#aegb7 #aj4 ,but the ,jewish conception of justice is broader than mere abstention from hurting our fellow-men4 ,justice is a positive conception4 ,righteousness 7,zedakah7 includes also charity and philanthropy4 ,it asserts the claim of the poor upon the rich1 of the helpless upon him who possesses the means to help4 8,he who prevents the poor from reaping the corners of the field or the gleanings of the harvest1 or in any way withholds that which has been assigned them by the law of ,moses1 is a robber10 says the ,mishnah1 8for it is written3 #8,remove not the old landmark1 and enter not into the field of the fatherless4' 07#aegc7 ,jewish ethics holds that charity is not a gift of condescending love1 but a duty4 ,it is incumbent upon the fortunate to rescue the unfortunate1 since all that we possess is only lent to us by ,god1 the ,owner of the world1 with the charge that we provide for the needy who are under ,his special protection4 ,those who refuse to give the poor their share abuse the divine trust4 8,if thou lendest money to ,my people1 to the poor with thee107#aegd7 says ,scripture1 and the rabbis comment on this to the effect that 8the poor are called ,god's people2 do not forget that the turn of fortune which made you rich and them poor may turn1 and that you may then be in need407#aege7 ,nor is it sufficient merely to give to him who is poor2 we are bidden to uphold him when his powers fail47#aegf7 ,this is the very principle of ethics of the ,mosaic law1 the principle for which the great prophets fought with all the vigor and vehemence of the divine spirit--social justice4 ,the cry3 8,woe unto them that join house to house1 that lay field to field1 till there be no room107#aegg7 the condemnation of those 8that swallow the needy and destroy the poor of the land107#aegh7 the curse hurled at him who withholdeth corn17#aegi7 laid the foundations of a higher justice1 which is not satisfied with mitigating the misery of the unfortunate by acts of charity1 but insists on a readjustment of the social conditions which create poverty4 ,this spirit created the poor laws of the ,mosaic ,code1 which were partially adopted by both ,christians and ,mohammedans4 ,it dictated the ,mosaic institutions of the seventh year of release and the ,jubilee year for the restoration of fields and houses1 to prevent the tyranny of wealth from becoming a permanent source of oppression4 ,while these were scarcely ever put into practice1 they remained as a protest and an appeal4 ,their aim and permanent influence tended toward relations between the upper and lower classes1 which would insure the latter some degree of independence and dignity4 ,in fact1 the foundations laid by the ,hebrew ,scripture underlie all our great modern efforts to turn the forces of charity so as to check the sources of evil in our social organism4 ,modern philanthropy1 taking its clue from the old ,hebrew ideal1 aims not to alleviate but to cure1 and to stimulate the natural good in society1 material1 moral and intellectual1 that it may overcome the evil4 ,we are recognizing more and more the principle of mutual responsibility and interdependence of men and classes4 ,yet this very principle1 modern as it seems1 was recognized by the ,jewish sages1 as we see in the remarkable passage where the rabbis comment on the law concerning the case of a slain body found in the field1 with the murderer unknown4 ,the ,bible commands that in such a case the elders of the city should kill a heifer1 wash their hands over it1 and say3 8,our hands have not shed this blood1 neither have our eyes seen it407#aehj7 ,the rabbis then ask3 8,how could the elders of a city ever be suspected of the crime of murder80 and their reply is3 8,even if they only failed to provide the poor in their charge with the necessary food1 and he became a highway robber and murderer2 or if they left him without the necessary protection1 and he fell a victim to murderers1 they are held responsible for the crime before the higher court of ,god407#aeha7 ,that is1 according to our station we are all responsible for the social conditions which create poverty and crime1 and it is our duty to establish such relations between the individual and the community as will remove the causes of all the evils of society4 #aa4 ,this1 in a way1 anticipates the third maxim of ,hillel3 8,if not now1 when then80 ,judaism cannot accept the ,new ,testament spirit of other-worldliness1 which prompted the teaching3 8,take no thought for your life1 what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink1 nor yet for your body what ye shall put on10 or 8,resist not evil407#aehb7 ,such a view disregards the values and duties of domestic1 civic1 and industrial life1 and creates an inseparable gulf between sacred and profane1 between religion and culture4 ,in contrast to this1 ,jewish ethics sets the highest value upon all things that make man more of a human being and increase his power of doing good4 ,to ,judaism marriage and home life are regarded as the normal conditions of human welfare and sane morality1 while celibacy is considered abnormal47#aehc7 ,labor establishes the dignity of man17#aehd7 while wealth is a source of blessing1 a stewardship in the service of society47#aehe7 ,in opposition to the practice fostered by the ,essenes and afterwards adopted by the early ,church1 of devoting one's whole fortune to charity1 the rabbis decreed that one should not give over one fifth of one's possessions47#aehf7 ,as has well been said1 ,judaism teaches a 8robust morality407#aehg7 ,it regards life as a continual battle for ,god and right against every sort of injustice17#aehh7 for truth against every kind of falsehood4 ,at the same time it fosters also the gentler virtues of meekness17#aehi7 kindness to animals17#aeij7 peaceableness and modesty47#aeia7 #ab4 ,jewish ethics excels all other ethical systems1 especially in its insistence on purity and holiness4 ,not only is any unchaste look1 thought1 or act condemned1 exactly as in the ,sermon on the ,mount17#aeib7 as approaching adultery17#aeic7 but all profanity of act or speech is declared to be an unpardonable offense against the majesty of ,god47#aeid7 ,modesty in demeanor and dress was both preached and practiced by the ,jews throughout the ,middle ,ages1 while in non-,jewish circles coarseness and lewdness prevailed among high and low1 in minstrel song and monastic life4 8,the ,lord thy ,god walketh in the midst of thy camp 444 therefore shall thy camp be holy1 that ,he see no unseemly thing in thee1 and turn away from thee407#aeie7 ,these ,biblical words created among the ,essenes 7the ,zenuim7 and later among the entire ,jewish people a spirit of chastity and modesty which made the ,jewish home of old a model of purity and sanctity4 ,the great problem for modern ,israel1 amid our present allurements of luxury and pleasure1 is to restore the home to its pristine glory as a sanctuary of ,god1 a training school for virtue1 so that its influence may extend over the whole of life4 #ac4 ,thus ,jewish ethics derives its sanction from the idea of a ,god of holiness4 ,but it never made life austere1 depriving it of joy1 or begrudging man his cheerfulness and laughter4 ,on the contrary1 the ,sabbath and many of the holy days are seasons of joy1 for gladness should bring the spirit of ,god near to man47#aeif7 ,moreover1 the ,talmud holds that we should encourage every means of promoting cheer among men4 ,this is illustrated by one of the popular legends of the prophet ,elijah1 who told the saintly ,rabbi ,beroka1 who prided himself upon his austerity1 that his companions in ,paradise were to be two jesters1 because they cheered the depressed and increased the joy in the world47#aeig7 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,jewish ideal of holiness is all-inclusive4 ,it aims to hallow every pursuit and endeavor1 all social relations and activities1 insisting only on a pure motive and disinterested service4 ,as the ,ruler of life is the source of all morality1 so all of life should be made holy with duty4 ,man becomes a child of ,god through his responsibility1 instead of remaining a mere product of the social forces about him or of claiming self-sufficient sovereignty and refusing to acknowledge a higher ,will4 ,jewish ethics is autonomous1 because it insists on the divine spirit in man47#aeih7 ,as we follow the divine ,pattern of holiness1 all that we have and are1 body and soul1 weal and woe1 wealth and want1 pain and pleasure1 life and death1 become stepping-stones on the road to holiness and godliness4 ,life is like a ladder on which man can rise from round to round1 to come ever nearer to ,god on high who beckons him toward ever higher ideals and achievements4 ,man and humanity are thus given the potentiality of infinite progress in every direction4 ,science and art1 industry and commerce1 literature and law1 every pursuit of man comes within the scope of religion and ethics4 ,for ,god's kingdom of truth1 righteousness and peace1 as beheld by ,israel's seers of old1 will be fully established on earth only when all the forces of material1 intellectual1 and social life have been unfolded1 when all the prophetic ideals1 the visions and aspirations of all the seers of humanity have been realized1 and the ,zion heights of human perfection have at last been attained4 8,the wise have no rest1 neither in this world nor in the world to come1 for it is said3 #8they go from strength to strength1 until they appear before ,god on ,zion4' 07#aeii7 ,,list ,,of ,,abbreviations ,a4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,aboth di ,rabbi ,nathan ,a4 ,t4 ,altes ,testament ,ab4 ,z4 ,aboda ,zarah ,ag4 ,agada ,ann4 ,annotations ,ant4 ,antiquities 7of ,josephus7 ,ap4 ,apionem1 contra ,apoc4 ,apocalyptic ,arak4 ,arakin ,art4 ,article ,b4 ,babli 7,babylonian7 b4 ben ,b4 ,b4 ,baba ,bathra ,b4 ,h4 ,beth ha ,midrash ,b4 ,k4 ,baba ,kamma ,b4 ,m4 ,baba ,metzia ,beitr4 ,beitraege ,ber4 ,berakoth ,bibl4 ,bible or ,biblical ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r4 ,central ,conference of ,american ,rabbis ,cant4 ,canticles ,chron4 ,chronicles ,ch4 ,chapter ,comm4 ,commentary1 -ies ,comp4 ,compare ,cor4 ,corinthians1 ,epistle to ,dan4 ,daniel ,deut4 ,deuteronomy ,dict4 ,dictionary ,eccl4 ,ecclesiastes ,enc4 ,encyclopedia 7a7 ,brit4 ,britannia 7b7 ,r4 a4 ,eth4444 of ,religion and ,ethics ,ep4 ,epistle ,eph4 ,ephesians1 ,epistle to ,ethnol4 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same place2 libro citato1 the same book 7for the usual o4 c4 opere citato74 ,lam4 ,lamentations ,lev4 ,leviticus ,m4 ,k4 ,moed ,katan ,macc4 ,maccabees1 ,book of ,maim4 ,maimonides ,mak4 ,makkoth ,mal4 ,malachi ,mas4 ,masseketh ,meg4 ,megillah ,mek4 ,mekiltha ,men4 ,menahoth ,mid4 ,midrash ,mtschr4 ,monatsschrift fuer ,geschichte und ,wissenschaft des ,judenthums ,mitth4 ,mittheilungen ,nachgel-,schr4 ,nachgelassene ,schriften ,neh4 ,nehemiah ,nid4 ,niddah ,numb4 ,numbers ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,pirke di ,rabbi ,eliezer ,pars4 ,parsisch ,pes4 ,pesahim1 -ee ,pes4 ,r4 ,pesikta ,rabbathi ,pesik4 ,pesikta di ,rab ,kahana ,phil4 ,philosophy or ,philosophical ,prov4 ,proverbs ,prot4 ,protestantisch ,ps4 ,psalms ,psych4 ,psychologisch ,quel4 ,quellen ,r4 ,rabbah1 also ,rabbi1 ,rabban ,r4 h4 ,sh4 ,rosh ha ,shanah ,r4 ,w4 ,b4 ,real-,woerterbuch ref4 referring or reference ,rel4 ,religion ,s4 ,o4 ,seder ,olam s4 v4 sub verbo ,sam4 ,samuel ,sanh4 ,sanhedrin ,sh4 ,a4 ,shulhan ,aruk ,shab4 ,shabuoth 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,otherworldliness1 #abd1 #ceb1 #cie1 #ddj1 #dhi ,pain1 #agf ,palestine1 #c1 #ch1 #cce1 #cid ,pantheism1 #hj ,paradise legend1 #agg1 #bjg1 #bai1 #bgh ,parseeism ,see ,persian ,particularism1 #ddf ,passover1 #dfa f4 ,patriotism1 #cbj ,paul and ,paulinian dogma1 #be1 #ej f41 #aaf1 #ba1 #bei1 #cee1 #dag1 #dbh1 #dcg1 #ddj ,peace1 #cgi1 #dia ,pentecost miracle1 #cei ,perles1 ,f41 #cej ,persian1 #he1 #adj1 #ahd-aia1 #bhc ff41 #cjj f4 ,personality of ,god ,see ,god ,pessimism1 #aej1 #dci f4 ,pharaoh1 #ee ,pharisaic and ,pharisees1 #ab1 #bj1 #ahi1 #bcc f41 #bhc f41 #cjb1 #cdd f41 #dac1 #dah1 #dci1 #deg ,philanthropy1 #dhf f4 ,philippson1 ,ludwig1 #afe1 #baj1 #ddd1 #ddf ,philipson1 ,david1 #bfi1 #big1 #chi1 #ddf1 #deh ,philo1 #ba1 #fg1 #gb1 #hj1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aid1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bad f41 #bcc f41 #bfh1 #bij1 #bid1 #cea1 #dje1 #dac1 #dbc1 #dci1 #deb1 #deg1 #dhe ,philosophy1 ,greek1 #ff ,hindoo1 #bji ,jewish1 #b ,philosophy of religion1 #gj ,phineas ben ,yair1 #afc1 #afe ,phylacteries ,see ,tefillin ,plato1 #hd1 #bji f41 #bae1 #dje ,platonism1 #ada1 #bhe1 #bhi f4 ,ploss1 ,h41 #ddi f4 ,porter1 ,f4 ,ch41 #bae ,prayer1 #bfa-bgg ,predetermination1 #bcb ,prexistence of the ,soul1 #bhi ,priest1 #cdc f4 ,priest code1 #bfc1 #cea ,priest1 ,high1 #cag1 #dff ,priesthood of ,israel ,see ,israel ,profanation of name ,see ,hillul ha ,shem ,propaganda1 #ea1 #dab-dai ,prophecy1 #ce1 #ch ,prophetic books1 #db ,proselyte1 #ccf f41 #daa-dbc ,protestantism1 #cfc ,providence1 #afg-age ,psalmist1 #aj1 #ac1 #fj1 #bfe1 #bii1 #cji1dhj ,psychology1 #ahg1 #bjd ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 #cdg ,punishment1 ,divine ,see ,retribution ,purgatory1 #cjd ,purim1 #dgj ,purity1 #adf1 #aec1 #bia1 #dij ,pythagoras1 #adf1 #bia ,rab-,abba ,areka1 #bjc1 #cje f4 ,rabba1 #dbh ,rabbinism1 #bhc ,radin1 ,m41 #daf ,rashi1 #cab1 #chh ,rationalism1 #ac1 #ch1 #hi1 #dej1 #dgd ,rauwenhoff1 ,l4 ,w4 ,e41 #b1 #fe1 #aja1 #ajf ,redemption1 ,religion of1 #ag1 #aie ,reform ,judaism1 #bfi1 #ccj1 #cdj1 #chi ,reform liturgy1 #bfi1 #big1 #cdj1 #chi1 #dfi ,reformation1 #cfc1 #ddd ,reizenstein1 ,r41 #caj ,religion1 ,absolute1 #ai ,religion's unifying power1 #ae1 #cae1 #cba1 #dia ,repentance1 #bdf1 #beg ,responsibility1 #bcc f41 #bdf1 #bee1 #ccg1 #dhh-dia ,resurrection1 #bhb-bhe1 #bib1 #big f41 #cib1 #cif ,retribution1 #ajg-aaa1 #bih ,revelation1 #bc1 #cd1 #da1 #adg ,reward and punishment ,see ,retribution ,rhode1 ,e41 #bij ,ritschl1 ,a4 ,b41 #gd ,ritualism1 #ac ,roman church1 #dbh f4 ,rome1 #dja ,rosenau1 ,wm41 #ddg ,rosin1 ,d41 #cj ,ruth1 #ccf1 #dag ,saadia1 #fh1 #ig1 #afb1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bbd1 #bcf1 #bgd1 #bij1 #cjg ,sabbath1 #ej1 #cdf1 #dee-dfj ,sachs1 ,m41 #hj1 #hi1 #ada ,sacrament1 #ddh ,sacrifice1 #bfa-bgj ,sadduceeism and ,sadducees1 #ab f41 #abg1 #bhd1 #cjj1 #dcd1 #dci1 #def ,salvation1 #e1 #bj1 #beh1 #djb ,samaritans1 #ac1 #cgc1 #dbj1 #ded ,samuel1 #bda ,samuel of ,nehardea1 #abg1 #cbj1 #chf1 #djc1 #dbj ,sanctification of the name1 #dhd ,satan1 #hf1 #ahi-aie1 #cjj ,schechter1 ,s41 #c1 #f1 #ac1 #ai1 #bg1 #gf1 #gh1 #ade1 #bjh1 #bbc1 #bci1 #bfc1 #bge1 #cbc1 #cdh1 #dee1 #deh ,scheyer1 ,s41 #bad1 #bib ,schiller1 ,fr41 #acb ,schlesinger1 ,w4 and ,l41 #ai ,schmiedl1 #cg1 #ij ff41 #aee f41 #aig ff41 #cic ,schreiber1 ,e41 #bg ,schreiner1 ,m41 #ai1 #gh1 #ajc1 #dca ,schuerer1 ,e41 #aei1 #daj1 #dac1 #daf1 #ddh ,schulman1 ,s41 #cfd1 #dde ,science1 ,modern1 #abh1 #aci1 #adg f41 #bae ,scripture1 #aa1 #dj1 #dc ,seeberg1 ,a41 #dab1 #dcf ,sefiroth1 ,ten1 #bjc ,self-conquest1 #dhc ,self-elevation versus self-extinction1 #dgi ,seligman1 ,c41 #ga1 #aee1 #agi ,semikah1 #ab ,semites and ,semitic1 #fh1 #ajd1 #cdg ,sermon on the ,mount1 #dch ,serpent1 #aic1 #bba f4 ,servant of the ,lord1 #cbd1 #cfg-cge ,seventy languages1 #cei ,seventy nations1 #djc1 #dfd ,shabuoth--,feast of the ,weeks1 #dfb ,shaddai1 #ei ,shammai and ,shammaite1 #bce1 #cce1 #dah f4 ,shekinah1 #df1 #ig1 #ahc1 #aig1 #bjd ,shema1 #bj1 #eg1 #fa1 #dbf ,sheol1 #bgi f4 ,see also ,nether world ,siegfried1 ,c41 #hj f41 #bjc ,simeon ben ,eleazar1 #daf ,simeon ben ,gamaliel1 #dah ,simeon ben ,lakish1 #cjf ,simeon ben ,shetach1 #cej ,simeon ben ,yohai1 #afc1 #cdi ,simhat ,torah1 #dfd ,simlai1 ,r41 #bg1 #bhg1 #cai1 #cef ,simon the ,just1 #cde1 #ceg ,sin1 #bca-cde ,sin1 ,original1 #bba-bbc1 #bdd ,sinai1 #ec1 #fj ,slavery1 #db1 #adf ,smith1 ,w4 ,r41 #eh1 #dji ,sociability1 #cah ,social justice1 #dhg ,society1 #cah f4 ,socrates1 #cg1 #dje ,solomon ben ,adret1 #dbf ,soul1 #bd1 #bab f41 #bhf f4 ,spiegel1 ,f41 #fc ,spinoza1 ,b41 #hj1 #aca1 #cji ,spirit of ,god ,see ,god ,spirit1 ,holy1 #aa ,spirituality of ,god ,see ,god ,spitta1 ,f41 #dcd ,stade1 ,b41 #db ,stanley1 ,a4 ,p41 #ded ,state1 ,duty to the1 #cai ,stave1 ,e41 #cjb ,stein1 ,l41 #cdj1 #chi ,steinschneider1 ,m41 #bgc1 #dcj f4 ,steinthal1 ,h41 #adf ,stoics1 #aaj1 #aih1 #cae ,stranger1 #djh-daa ,strauss1 ,d4 ,f41 #ai1 #fg f41 #gd1 #hc f41 #if f41 #aja f41 #aai1 #aec f41 #aie ,suffering1 #acj ,suffering1 ,israel's ,see ,martyrdom ,suicide1 #dhd ,sukkoth festival1 #dfc ,sunday1 #dea f41 #dei ,symbolum ,apostolicum1 #e ,synagogal liturgy and worship1 #bgg1 #bhd1 #bhh1 #chi1 #ead ,synagogue1 #ddg1 #dge ,synagogue1 ,men of the ,great1 #dj1 #gi1 #bja ,tabernacles1 ,feast of ,see ,sukkoth ,tab1 #cgc ,tallith1 #ded ,tamar1 #dag ,tefillin1 #cdf1 #dec f4 ,teleological proof ,see ,god's existence ,temple1 ,destruction of ,see ,ab1 ,ninth of ,teshubah ,see ,repentance ,theism1 #h ,theocracy1 #cdb ,theology1 #a-f ,theology1 ,christian1 #e-f1 #cdb ,theology1 ,mohammedan ,see ,mohammedan ,this-worldliness1 ,jewish1 #ag1 #abd1 #dgg ,tihamat1 #aic1 #bbj ,time1 #ii ,torah1 #aa1 #bc1 #db-dg1 #aii1 #ced ff4 ,torah1 ,reading from the1 #dgj ,toy1 ,c4 ,h41 #dhj ,tradition1 #ab1 #ad1 #dc1 #df ,transcendentalism1 #adc ,trinity ,see ,christian trinity ,trumbull1 ,h4 ,clay1 #dfa ,truth1 #acf ,truthfulness of ,god ,see ,god ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 #bhf1 #ddi ,unifying power1 #ae ,unity of ,god1 #hb-ij of man1 #cba1 #cci f4 of the cosmos1 #adi ,univeralism1 #h1 #ac1 #dh1 #ea1 #cif1 #dde ,universe1 #adf ,values of life1 #dhi ,vernacular1 #ceg ,virtue1 ,hereditary1 #cbh1 #djf1 #dhi ,vision1 ,prophetic ,see ,prophecy ,water libation1 #dfd ,weber1 ,f41 #de1 #fa1 #gh1 #hf1 #aag1 #abc1 #abf1 #adc1 #ade1 #bbc1 #bdf1 #beb1 #cfa ,weiss1 ,isaac ,hirsch1 #dc1 #ed ,wells1 ,h4 ,g41 #ga ,white1 ,andrew ,d41 #ddc ,will1 ,freedom of1 #ach f41 #aii ,windelband-,tufts1 #fg ff41 #bij ,windishman1 ,fr41 #cje ,wisdom1 #de1 #adj ,wisdom of ,god ,see ,god ,wisdom1 ,book of1 #ff ,wisdom literature1 #fj ,wise1 ,isaac ,m41 #dbc1 #dgc ,woman1 #bbb1 #dgb f4 ,world1 ,infinitude of1 #aed1 #aei ,moral government of1 #aga f4 ,order of1 #aeg ,worlds1 ,two1 #aei ,wrath of ,god ,see ,god ,wuensche1 ,a41 #dcj1 #dci ,xenophanes1 #hd ,yavan1 #dbd ,yethro1 #dag ,yezer ha ra and ha tob1 #aic1 #bae1 #bbc1 #bci ,zealot1 #ab1 #ccd1 #cfj ,zebulon and ,issachar1 #cfd ,zechariah1 #bdi1 #ccd1 #daj1 #dfd ,zedakah1 #aba1 #dhf ,zekuth ,aboth1 #djf ,zeller1 ,e41 #caj ,zerubbabel1 #ccj1 #cgj1 #chj ,zidduk ha ,din1 #abe ,zimmels1 #aca ,zimmern1 ,h41 #ajc1 #agj ,zionism1 #cij1 #cie ,zizith1 #ded ,zoroastrianism ,see ,persian ,zunz1 ,leopold1 #da1 #dc1 #cfg1 #dej1 #dga ,the following pages contain advertisements of a few of the ,macmillan books on kindred subjects4 ,zionism and the ,jewish ,future ,,by ,,various ,,writers ,,edited ,,by ,,harry ,,sacher ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4jj 8,this volume should be read by ,zionists so that they should become more familiar with what even some of them know more or less imperfectly4 ,it should be carefully perused by non- and anti-,zionists so that they may become informed with a subject which many of them are inclined to censure without any knowledge of that which they are censuring40--,b'na ,b'rith ,messenger4 8 #8,zionism and the ,jewish ,future' is one of the most illuminating of all the serious-minded books of the year4 ,if we belonged to the ,hebrew race we would first master all that is said about ,palestine and the movement to restore it to a living place among the ,nations4 ,next1 we would go to the ,great ,jewish ,encyclopedia1 and look up everything connected with the subject1--also the fifteen or more writers who have made this book4 ,lastly1 if we agreed with the movement1 we would get in line at once4 ,note in especial the bibliography of the whole matter 7,appendix #d74 8,zionism looks #8forward1 not backward1' and the vast hope behind it is one that will help the non-,jewish world as much as the children of ,abraham4 ,may ,israel yet have a ,hebrew ,university in ,jerusalem4 ,they are right--these idealists4 ,palestine #8is essentially the land of religious influences and spiritual association1' and also of #8political and geographical importance4' ,the problems in all this are fairly met and fully discussed in this book1 which ,dr4 ,h4 ,sacher edits4 8,and how is the ,gentile to approach the subject8 ,with a perfectly open mind on all its economic1 historical and religious questions4 ,if taken up in this way the book grows on one2 it presents wholly reasonable aspirations which all right-minded people can endorse and will desire to aid as far as practicable4 ,to have a #8perfectly open mind' is to take up the problems of these earnest people who discuss #8,zionism' as our friends1 our neighbors1 our fellow-workers4 ,don't be #8tolerant' or patronizing towards ,jew or ,gentile1 ,american1 ,european1 ,asiatic1 ,african or ,islander4 ,we are #8all of one blood4' 8,one of the best of ,californian novelists1 who has enjoyed the book1 writes as follows3 8 #8,it is an excellent round-up and exposition of all the vagrant--and vague--theories and history of the subject4 ,it makes the evolution and logical being of the question perfectly clear4 ,whereas in most ,jewish minds ,zionism means a belief in ,palestine as the native soil of all ,jews and the refuge for the oppressed1 the motive here expressed is that by drawing the ,jewish soul to its ancient ,fatherland1 it will create a spiritual center for all ,jewry4' 0--,daily ,fresno ,republican4 ,the ,macmillan ,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york 99,jewish ,philanthropy99 ,an ,exposition ,of ,principles ,and ,methods ,of ,jewish ,social ,service ,in ,the ,united ,states ,,by ,,boris ,d4 ,,bogen1 ,,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #b4jj ,this book is an attempt to meet the demand on the part of those who are engaged in or are interested in ,jewish social service1 for a statement of the principles evolved through the experience of the last two decades in various philanthropic efforts of the ,jews of this country4 ,it is primarily a compilation of the different ideas expressed by the leaders of the movements1 as well as a presentation of the actual practical experiences that were met in the different lines of philanthropic activity4 ,as the first attempt in this direction the work will render a great service in clarifying the indefinite views in vogue at present among ,jewish ,social workers4 ,contents ,,introduction--,the ,extent and ,scope of ,jewish ,philanthropy4 ,dependency ,among ,jews4 ,charity ,among ,jews4 ,national ,organizations4 ,methods of ,fund ,raising for ,jewish ,philanthropic ,agencies4 ,transients4 ,the ,immigration ,problem4 ,distribution4 ,the ,back to the ,soil ,movement4 ,resident-,dependents4 ,dependent ,women and ,children4 ,insufficiency of ,income4 ,standards of ,relief4 ,education and ,social ,organizations4 ,the ,education of ,immigrants4 ,jewish ,settlements and ,neighborhood ,work4 ,organization and ,administration4 ,volunteer ,service4 ,administration4 ,the ,federation and the ,synagogue4 ,bibliography4 ,index4 ,the ,macmillan ,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york 99,a ,history of ,mediaeval ,jewish ,philosophy99 ,,by ,,isaac ,,husik ,assistant ,professor of ,philosophy in the ,university of ,pennsylvania ,cloth1 octavo1 l #deb pages1 #c4jj ,the first complete history of medival ,jewish rationalistic philosophy for both the student and the general reader which has as yet been written in any modern tongue4 ,the story is told simply and interestingly4 ,dr4 ,husik is gifted with the faculty of clear insight and he has succeeded in grasping and in exhibiting in a very readable manner the essential nature of the various problems treated and the gist of the solutions offered by the different ,jewish philosophers discussed4 ,the author has not attempted to read into the medival thinkers modern ideas which were foreign to them4 ,he has endeavored to interpret their ideas from their own point of view as determined by their history and environment1 and the literary sources1 religious and philosophical1 under the influence of which they came4 ,it is an objective and not too critical exposition of ,jewish rationalistic thought in the middle ages4 ,in the words of an eminent reviewer1 8,to have compressed a comprehensive discussion of five centuries of earnest and productive thought upon the greatest of themes into a book of less than four hundred and fifty pages is an achievement upon which any author may be congratulated4 ,to have done the work so well and in particular to have expressed profound reflections upon abstruse problems in a style so limpid1 so fluent1 so readily understood is to have placed all who are interested in thought and thinkers under great obligation4 ,that an ,american-,jewish scholar should have produced a pioneer work that must1 for a long time to come1 be the authority in its field is a subject of felicitation to all who have at heart the perpetuation of ,jewish learning in ,america40 ,the ,macmillan ,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,studies in ,judaism ,,by ,,rabbi ,,solomon ,,schechter1 ,,litt4,d4 ,the author is ,president of the ,jewish ,theological ,seminary of ,america since #aijb2 formerly ,reader in ,talmudic1 ,cambridge ,university1 and ,professor of ,hebrew1 ,university ,college of ,london1 #ahih-aijb4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cff pages1 #a4ej 8,the book is1 to our mind1 the best on this subject ever written4 ,the author condenses a literature of several thousand pages into #efd pages1 and presents to us his history in a splendid ,english and splendid order4 ,this work deserves the highest appreciation1 and without the slightest hesitation do we recommend it to the public at large1 and more especially to our co-religionists in this country40 --,jewish ,tribune4 ,contents ,,introduction4 #a4 ,,the ,,chassidim4 #b4 ,,nachman ,,krochmal ,,and ,,the 8,,perplexities ,,of ,,the ,,time40 #c4 ,,rabbi ,,elijah ,,wilna1 ,,gaon4 #d4 ,,nachmanides4 #e4 ,a ,,jewish ,,boswell4 #f4 ,,the ,,dogmas ,,of ,,judaism4 #g4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,jewish ,,tradition4 #h4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,divine ,,retribution ,,in ,,rabbinical ,,literature4 #i4 ,,the ,,law ,,and ,,recent ,,criticism4 #aj4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,collection ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,museum4 #aa4 ,,titles ,,of ,,jewish ,,books4 #ab4 ,,the ,,child ,,in ,,jewish ,,literature4 #ac4 ,,woman ,,in ,,temple ,,and ,,synagogue4 #ad4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,jewish ,,community ,,in ,,europe4 ,,notes4 ,,index4 ,the ,macmillan ,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,,footnotes #a ,compare ,heinrici ,theologische ,encyclopaedie1 p4 #d2 ,enc4 ,brit4 art4 ,theology4 #b ,heinrici1 l4 c41 p4 #ad f41 #bab2 ,hagenbach-,kautsch3 ,encyc4 d4 theolog4 ,wiss41 p4 #bh-cj2 ,rauwenhoff3 ,religionsphilosophie1 ,einl41 xiii2 ,margolis3 8,the ,theological ,aspect of ,reformed ,judaism10 in ,yearbook of ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r41 #aijc1 p4 #ahh-aib4 ,lauterbach1 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,theology4 #c ,see1 however1 ,geiger3 ,nachgel4 ,schriften1 ,,ii1 #c-h2 also ,margolis1 l4 c41 p4 #aib-aif4 #d ,a fine beginning in this direction has been made by ,professor ,schechter in ,some ,aspects of ,rabbinic ,theology1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 #e ,see ,joel3 8,d4 ,mosaismus u4 d4 ,heidenthum10 in ,jahrb4 f4 ,jued4 ,gesch4 und ,lit41 #aijd1 p4 #gj-gc4 #f ,see ,schaff-,herzog's ,encycl41 art4 ,apostles' ,creed and ,symbol4 #g ,see ,schechter3 ,studies in ,judaism1 ,intr41 ,,xxi-,,xxii2 p4 #adg1 #aih f42 ,foster3 ,the ,finality of the ,christian ,religion1 ,chicago1 #aijf2 ,friedr4 ,delitzsch3 ,zur ,weiterentwicklung der ,religion1 #aijh2 and comp4 ,orelli3 ,religionsgeschichte1 #bgf f41 and ,dorner3 ,beitr4 z4 ,weitrentwicklung d4 christl4 ,religion1 #agc4 #h ,for the origin of the name ,judaism1 see ,esther ,,viii1 #ag4 ,compare ,yahduth1 ,esther ,rabbah ,,iii1 #g2 ,,ii ,macc4 ,,ii1 #ba2 ,,viii1 #a1 #ad1 #ch2 ,graetz3 ,g4 d4 ,j41 ,,ii1 #agd f42 ,jost3 ,g4d4 ,jud41 ,i1 #a-ab2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,judaism4 ,regarding the unfairness of ,christian authors in their estimate of ,judaism1 see ,schechter1 l4 c41 #bcb-bea2 ,m4 ,schreiner3 ,d4 juengst4 ,urtheile u4 d4 ,judenthum1 p4 #dh-eh4 ,dubnow1 ,asher ,ginsberg and the rest of the nationalists underrate the religious power of the ,jew's soul1 which forms the essence of his character and the motive power of all his aspirations and hopes1 as well as of all his achievements in history4 #i ,erub4 #ac b4 #aj ,neh4 ,,viii1 #a-ah2 ,ez4 ,,vii1 #ab-bh4 #aa ,see ,m4 ,bloch3 ,tekanot1 and art4 ,tekanot ,j4 ,e4 ,regarding inspiration see ,j4 ,e42 ,sanh1 #ii a2 ,meg4 #g a2 ,maim43 ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #de2 comp4 ,yerush4 ,ab4 ,zar41 ,i1 #dj2 ,horay4 ,,iii1 #dh c2 ,levit4 ,r4 ,,vi1 #a2 ,,ix1 #i2 and ,yoma #i b4 ,the laying on of hands for ordination 7,semikah7 implied originally the imparting of the holy spirit1 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,authority4 #ab ,see ,geiger1 ,j4 ,z41 ,i1 p4 #g4 #ac ,aboth d4 ,r4 ,nathan1 ,i2 ,shab4 #cj b with reference to ,ezek4 ,,xliii-,,xliv4 #ad ,see ,geiger3 ,z4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 ,,xii1 #ecf2 ,schechter1 ,wisdom of ,ben ,sira1 p4 #ce4 #ae ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,jubilees1 ,book of4 ,very instructive in this connection is a comparative study of the ,falashas1 the ,samaritans1 especially the ,dosithean sect1 and the still problematical sect discovered through the document found by ,schechter1 edited by him under the title ,fragments of a ,zadokite ,sect4 #af ,see ,yer4 ,hag41 ,i1 #gf1 and elsewhere4 #ag ,ethics of ,judaism1 ,i1 #h-aj2 ,geiger3 ,j4 ,z41 ,,ix1 #bfc4 #ah ,see ,pesik4 ,r41 ,v1 p4 #adf2 ,midr4 ,tanhuma1 ed4 ,buber1 ,wayera #f and ,ki ,thissa1 #ag4 ,comp4 the legend of ,moses and ,akiba1 ,men4 #bi b4 #ai ,comp4 ,geiger3 ,nachgel4 ,schr41 ,,ii1 #cg-da2 also his ,jud4 u4 s4 ,gesch41 ,i1 #bj-ce2 ,beck3 ,d4 ,wesen d4 ,judenthums2 ,eschelbacher3 ,d4 ,judenthum u4 d4 ,wesen d4 ,christenthums2 ,schreiner1 l4 c41 #bf-cd4 #bj ,deut4 ,,vi1 #g2 ,,xi1 #ai4 #ba ,see ,geiger3 ,nachgel4 ,schr41 ,,ii1 #cg f4 #bb ,john ,,xiv1 #f4 ,comp4 ,dorner1 l4 c41 #agc2 and his ,grundprobleme d4 ,religionsphilosophie2 ,orelli3 ,religionsgeschichte1 #bgf f4 #bc ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #e4 #bd ,see ,schechter3 ,studies1 #adg-aha and notes #cea f42 ,mendelssohn3 ,ges4 ,schr41 ,,iii1 #cba4 ,comp4 ,schlesinger3 ,buch ,ikkarim1 #fcj-fcb2 ,bousset3 ,religion d4 ,judenthums1 #agj f41 #age1 and thereto ,perles3 ,bousset1 #aab f42 ,martin ,schreiner3 l4 c41 #ce f42 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,faith and ,articles of ,faith 7,e4 ,g4 ,hirsch72 ,felsenthal1 ,margolis1 and ,kohler1 in ,y4 ,b4 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r41 #ahig1 p4 #ed2 #aijc1 p4 #ahh-aic2 #aije1 p4 #hc2 ,neumark3 art4 ,ikkarim in ,ozar ha ,yahduth2 ,d4 ,fr4 ,strauss3 ,d4 christl4 ,glaubenslehre1 ,i1 #be4 #be ,see ,gen4 ,,xv1 #f2 ,mek4 to ,ex4 ,,xiv2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,faith4 #bf ,deut4 ,,vi1 #a-f2 ,,xi1 #ac-ba2 ,num4 ,,xv1 #cg-da4 #bg ,see ,bousset1 ,,ii1 #bbd f4 ,the term ,pistis faith1 assumes a new meaning in ,hellenistic ,literature4 #bh ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,emeth we ,yatzib4 #bi ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,alenu4 #cj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,abraham in ,apocryphical and ,rabbinical ,lit4 #ca ,sifra ,behukothai1 ,,iii1 #f2 ,sanh4 #ch b2 ,targ4 ,y4 to ,gen4 ,,iv1 #h4 #cb ,ber4 ,,ii1 #b2 see ,kohler3 ,monatsschrift1 #ahhc1 p4 #dde4 #cc ,kohler1 l4 c4 #cd ,the ,mishnaic ,apicoros corresponded to the ,greek1 ,epicoureios1 and was no longer understood by the ,talmudists2 see ,schechter3 ,studies in ,judaism1 ,i1 #aeg4 ,it is defined by ,josephus3 ,antiquities1 ,x1 #aa1 #g3 8,the ,epicureans 444 are in a state of error1 who cast ,providence out of life1 and do not believe that ,god takes care of the affairs of the world1 nor that the universe is governed by a ,being which outlives all things in everlasting self-sufficiency and bliss1 but declare it to be self-sustaining and void of a ruler and protector 444 like a ship without a helmsman and like a chariot without a driver40 ,comp4 also ,oppenheim in ,monatsschr41 #ahfd1 p4 #adi4 #ce ,see ,rappaport2 8,biography of ,r4 ,hananel10 in ,bikkure ha ,ittim1 #ahdb4 #cf ,contra ,apionem1 ,,ii1 #bb4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,mueller3 ,josephus' ,schrift gegen ,apion1 #caa-cac4 #cg ,see ,alfred v4 ,kremer3 ,gesch4 d4 herrsch4 ,ideen d4 ,islam1 #ci-da2 ,goldziher1 ,d4 ,m4 ,l4 ,z41 ,,xliv1 p4 #afh f42 ,,xli1 p4 #gb f41 which passages cast much light upon the ,jewish ,ani ,maamin4 #ch ,see ,jost3 ,gesch4 d4 ,jud41 ,,ii1 #ccj f42 ,frankl3 art4 ,karaites in ,ersch und ,gruber's ,encyclopaedie2 ,loew3 ,juedische ,dogmen1 ,ges4 s4 ,i1 #aed2 ,schechter1 l4 c4 #ci ,j4 ,guttman3 ,d4 ,religionsphil1 v4 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud2 ,david ,kaufmann1 ,gesch4 d4 ,attributenlehre2 ,neumark3 ,gesch4 d4 juedisch4 ,phil4 vols4 ,i and ,,ii4 #dj ,maimonides3 ,commentary on ,mishnah1 ,sanh41 ,x1 #a2 ,schechter1 l4 c41 #afc2 ,holzer3 ,gesch4 d4 ,dogmenlehre1 ,berlin1 #aija4 #da ,see ,loew1 l4 c41 #aef2 ,schechter1 l4 c1 #afe4 #db ,see ,p4 ,bloch3 8,luzzatto als ,religionsphilosoph0 in ,samuel ,david ,luzzatto1 p4 #di-ga4 ,comp4 ,hochmuth3 ,gotteskenntniss und ,gottesverehrung1 ,einleitung4 #dc ,see ,schechter1 l4 c41 #afg and the notes4 #dd ,see ,horowitz3 ,d4 ,psychologie u4 d4 jued4 ,religionsphilosophie1 #ahhc4 #de ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,albo by ,e4 ,g4 ,hirsch1 and the bibliography there4 #df ,see ,schechter1 l4 c41 p4 #afb4 #dg ,isa4 ,,xlix1 #i1 and elsewhere4 #dh ,see ,schechter1 l4 c41 p4 #afi4 #di ,aboth1 ,,iii1 #a2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #e4 #ej ,see ,schechter1 l4 c4 #ea ,see ,loew1 l4 c41 #aeg1 and his 8,mafteah10 p4 #cca2 ,schechter1 l4 c4 #eb ,makk4 #bc b4 #ec ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,catechism by ,e4 ,schreiber4 #ed ,gen4 ,,xx1 #aa4 #ee ,ps4 ,,cxi1 #aj2 ,prov4 ,,ix1 #aj2 ,job ,,xxviii1 #bh4 #ef ,ex4 ,,xx1 #bj4 #eg ,hos4 ,,iv1 #a1 #f2 ,,ii4 #c2 ,,xiii1 #d-e4 #eh ,jer4 ,,ix1 #bc2 ,,xxii1 #af2 ,,xxxi1 #cb-cc4 #ei ,deut4 ,,iv1 #ci2 ,,vii1 #i4 #fj ,knowledge as intellect is brought out as early as the ,book of ,wisdom1 ,,xiii1 #a2 see especially ,maimonides3 ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,i1 #a-c2 ,moreh1 ,i1 #ci2 ,,iii1 #bh4 ,in opposition1 see ,rosin3 ,ethik des ,maimonides1 #aja2 ,luzzatto and ,hochmuth1 l4 c42 also ,dillmann3 ,h4 ,b4 d4 alttestamentl4 ,theol41 #bjd f4 #fa ,ch4 ,,iv4 #fb ,gen4 ,,xv1 #f2 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,abraham4 #fc ,shab4 #ig a4 #fd ,mek4 ,beshallak #f1 p4 #da ab4 #fe ,deut4 ,,vi1 #e2 ,x1 #ab2 ,,xi1 #a2 ,,xiii1 #bb2 ,,xxx1 #f1 #af1 #bj4 #ff ,sifre to ,deut4 ,,vi1 #e4 #fg ,judges ,v1 #ca4 #fh ,shab4 #hh b4 #fi ,see ,testament of ,job1 and notes by ,kohler1 in ,semitic ,studies in ,memory of ,alexander ,kohut1 #bga1 and ,sota1 ,v1 #e4 #gj ,sifre1 l4 c4 #ga ,see ,yoma1 #hf a2 ,t4 d4 ,el4 ,r41 ,,xxiv2 ,maimonides1 ,h4 ,teshubah1 ,x2 ,crescas3 ,or ,adonai1 ,i1 #c4 ,comp4 ,testaments ,twelve ,patriarchs1 ,simeon #c1 #d2 ,issachar1 #e2 ,philo3 ,quod omnis probus liber1 #ab and elsewhere4 #gb ,song of ,songs ,,vii1 #f1 #g4 #gc ,see ,sifre ,deut4 ,,xxvi1 #h2 ,sanh4 ,x1 #a2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,revelation2 ,dillmann1 #fa f42 ,geiger1 ,d4 ,jud4 u4 s4 ,gesch4 ,i1 #cd f4 #gd ,see ,deut4 ,,xiii1 #b-f1 where prophet forms a parallel to dreamer of dreams4 ,god appears in a dream to ,abraham 7,gen4 ,,xv1 #a1 #ab71 to ,abimelek 7,gen4 ,,xx1 #c1 #f71 to ,jacob 7,,xxviii1 #ab2 ,,xxxi1 #aa2 ,,xlvi1 #b71 to ,laban 7,,xxxi1 #bd71 to ,balaam 7,num4 ,,xxiv1 #c71 and to ,eliphaz 7,job ,,iv1 #c-f74 ,dream-like visions open the prophetic career of ,moses 7,exod4 ,,iii1 #c-f71 ,samuel 7,i ,sam4 ,,iii1 #a1 #ae1 #ba71 ,isaiah 7,is4 ,,vi1 #a f471 ,jeremiah 7,jer4 ,i1 #aa f471 ,ezekiel 7,ezek4 ,i1 #d71 and others4 ,revelation in the ,bible is ,mahazeh1 hazon1 and hizayon1 8vision0--whence hozeh1 8seer02 or mareh1 8sight10 whence roeh1 8seer40 ,see also ,geiger3 ,urschrift1 #cdj2 #cij4 ,prophecy without dream or vision is claimed for ,moses 7,num4 ,,xii1 #f-h2 ,exod4 ,,xxx1 #aa2 ,deut4 ,,xxxiv1 #aj2 see ,maimonides3 ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #dc-dg2 ,albo1 ,ikkarim1 ,,iii1 #h74 ,the revelation on ,sinai is described as 8the great vision10 or mareh3 ,exod4 ,,iii1 #c2 ,,xxiv1 #ag2 compare ,deut4 ,,iv1 #aa-,v1 #bc1 according to which only a 8voice0 is heard4 ,instead of ,god the later prophets see an angel1 as ,zach4 ,i1 #h1 #aa2 ,,ii1 #b f4 ,compare ,yebam4 #di b1 as to the difference between ,isaiah1 who saw ,god in a vision1 and ,moses1 who saw ,him 8in a shining mirror40 ,he will appear in the latter way to the righteous in the future world1 ,suc4 #de b2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,i1 #ad2 ,i ,cor4 ,,xiii1 #ab4 #ge ,see ,gen4 ,,xx1 #f2 ,,xxxi1 #bi2 ,num4 ,,xxiv2 ,job ,,iv1 #af f42 ,,xxxviii1 #a4 #gf ,the ,hebrew word for prophecy is passive1--nibba' or hithnabbe'1 8to be made to speak10 or 8to bubble forth10--the ,deity being the active power1 while the prophet is ,his mouthpiece4 #gg ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #aa2 ,deut4 ,,xxxiv1 #aj4 #gh ,ex4 ,,xix1 #ai2 ,,xx1 #ai4 #gi ,ex4 ,,xix1 #a-h4 #hj ,shab4 #hh a after ,ex4 ,,xxiv1 #g4 #ha ,seder ,olam ,r41 ,i and ,,xxi2 ,lev4 ,rab4 ,i1 #ab-ad2 ,b4 ,b4 #ae b4 #hb ,hag4 #ac b2 ,sanh4 #hi a2 ,lev4 ,r4 l4 c4 #hc ,see ,schmiedl3 ,stud4 u4 jued4-arabische ,religionsphilosophie1 #aia-aib2 ,s4 ,horowitz3 ,d4 ,prophetologie i4 d4 jued4 ,religionsphilosophie2 ,sandler3 ,d4 ,problem d4 ,prophetie i4 d4 jued4 ,religionsphilosophie2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,prophets and ,prophecy2 ,emunoth ,,iii1 #d2 ,cuzari1 ,i1 #ie2 ,,ii1 #aj-ab2 ,emunah ,ramah1 ,,ii1 #e1 #a2 ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #cb-dh2 ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,,vii2 ,or ,adonai1 ,,ii1 #d1 #a2 ,ikkarim1 ,,iii1 #h-ab1 #ag2 ,nachmanides to ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #b2 ,abravanel to ,gen4 ,,xxi1 #bg2 ,comp4 ,husik1 ,hist4 ,med4 ,jew4 ,phil41 ,index s4 v4 ,prophecy2 ,enc4 ,rel4 ,ethics1 art4 ,philosophy and ,prophecy4 #hd ,horowitz1 l4 c4 p4 #aa-af2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xvii1 #f2 ,lev4 ,r1 l4 c2 ,sanh4 #ag b2 ,philo3 ,de ,decalog41 #ba2 de ,migratione ,abrahami1 #g2 comp4 ,i ,corinth4 ,,xiii1 #ab4 #he ,moreh1 l4 c4 #hf ,cuzari1 l4 c4 #hg ,kol ,nibra3 ,moreh1 ,i1 #fe2 ,emunoth1 ,,ii1 #h2 ,cuzari1 ,i1 #hi4 #hh ,according to the rabbis1 the working of the holy spirit ceased with ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,malachi1 who1 with ,ezra1 were included also among the 8,men of the ,great ,synagogue40 ,see ,tos4 ,sota ,,xiii1 #b2 ,seder ,olam ,r4 ,,xxx2 ,sanh4 #aa a4 ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,synagogue1 ,men of the ,great2 ,holy ,spirit2 ,inspiration4 ,comp4 ,b4 ,b4 #ad b1 #ae a2 ,yoma #i b2 ,meg4 #c a1 #g a2 ,i ,macc4 ,,iv1 #df2 ,ps4 ,,lxxiv1 #i2 ,josephus1 ,con4 ,apion41 ,i1 #h2 ,philo3 ,vita ,mosis1 ,,ii1 #g2 ,aristeas1 #cje-cjg4 ,as to the difference between the spirit of prophecy and the holy spirit1 see ,cuzari1 ,,iii1 #cb-ce2 ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #ce-cg4 ,the ,essenes claimed the holy spirit for their apocryphal writings2 see ,,iv ,esdras ,,xiv1 #ch2 ,book of ,wisdom ,,vii1 #bg4 #hi ,on the disputes concerning canonical books1 see ,yadayim ,,iii1 #e2 ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n41 ,i1 ed4 ,schechter1 #b-c2 ,shab4 #cj b2 ,meg4 #g a4 ,comp4 ,b4 ,k4 #ib b1 where ,ben ,sira is quoted as one of the ,hagiographa4 #ij ,see ,tos4 ,pes4 ,i1 #bg2 ,,iv1 #b2 ,sota ,,xiii1 #c2 ,yer4 ,horay4 ,,iii1 #dh c2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #g4 #ia ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #bg a2 ,mak4 #bb b4 #ib ,sifre ,deut4 ,,vi1 #d4 #ic ,on the term ,torah see ,smend3 ,lehrb4 d4 alttest4 ,religionsgesch42 ,stade3 ,bibl4 ,theol4 d4 ,alt4 ,test41 ,index s4 v4 ,torah2 ,w4 ,j4 ,beecher3 ,jour4 ,bibl4 ,lit41 #aije1 #a-af2 8,thora a ,word ,study in the ,old ,testament40 ,for ,torah as ,law1 see ,neh4 ,,viii1 #a2 ,joshua ,i1 #g1 and throughout the ,pentateuch2 as moral instruction1 see ,hos4 ,,iv1 #f2 ,,viii1 #a2 ,is4 ,i1 #aj2 ,v1 #bd2 ,,xxx1 #i2 ,,li1 #d2 ,mic4 ,,iv1 #b2 ,jer4 ,,xxxvi1 #d f42 ,,xxxi1 #cb2 ,ps4 ,,xvi1 #h2 ,prov4 ,,vi1 #bb2 ,,vii1 #b2 ,guedeman3 ,quell4 z4 ,g4 d4 ,unterrichts1 at the beginning2 ,claude ,montefiore3 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahib1 p4 #dfe f4 #id ,nehematha1 which means the ,messianic hope2 see ,kohut3 ,aruch ,v1 #cbh and ,appendix #ei4 #ie ,see ,b4 ,b4 #ac b2 ,meg4 ,,iii1 #a2 ,,iv1 #d2 comp4 ,ned4 #bb b2 ,taan4 #i a2 ,shab4 #ajd a2 ,sifra ,behukothai at end2 ,eccl4 ,r4 ,i1 #aj2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxxviii1 #f4 ,zunz3 ,gottesd4 ,vortr41 #df f41 and art4 ,canon and ,bible in the various encyclopedias4 ,as to ,torah for the whole ,bible1 see ,mek4 ,shira ,i2 ,sanh4 #cg a1 #ia b2 ,ab4 ,zar4 #ag a2 ,m4 ,k4 #e a2 comp4 ,i ,cor4 ,,xiv1 #ba2 ,john ,x1 #cd2 ,,xii1 #cd2 ,,xv1 #be4 ,for ,torah as ,nomos1 or ,law1 see ,,ii ,macc4 ,,xv1 #i4 #if ,bousset1 l4 c41 #abh-abi4 #ig ,on the divine origin of the ,torah1 see ,sanh4 #ii a2 ,sifra ,kedoshim #h2 ,behar ,i2 ,behukothay #h4 ,regarding the meaning of metammin eth ha yadayim in the sense of taboo for the holy writings1 see ,geiger3 ,urschrift1 p4 #adf4 #ih ,sanh4 #ii a2 ,maim4 ,h4 ,teshubah ,,iii1 #h4 #ii ,comp4 ,kohler3 ,hebrew ,union ,college ,annual1 #aijd1 8,the ,four ,ells of the ,halakah40 #ajj ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #d4 #aja ,mak4 #bc b4 #ajb ,jerem4 ,,xxxi1 #cb4 #ajc ,comp4 ,schechter1 ,aspects1 p4 #abj-acf1 and see ,ben ,sira1 ,,xxiv1 #h-bc2 ,,xvii1 #aa2 ,baruch ,,iii1 #ch f42 ,apoc4 ,baruch ,,xxxviii1 #d2 ,,xliv1 #af2 ,,iv ,esdras ,,viii1 #ab2 ,,ix1 #cg2 ,philo3 ,vita ,mosis1 ,,ii1 #c1 #i2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,i2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,iii4 #ajd ,this apotheosis of the ,torah is put in a wrong light by ,weber1 ,juedische ,theologie1 #aeg f41 #aig1 but is stated better in ,bousset1 l4 c41 #acf-adb4 #aje ,dibre ,kabbalah1 ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #g a1 #ai a2 ,yer4 ,halla ,i1 #eg b2 see ,levy1 ,w4 ,b41 s4 v4 ,kabbalah4 #ajf ,the personality of ,moses was at first exalted to almost superhuman height2 see ,ben ,sira1 ,,xlv1 #b2 ,assumptio ,mosis1 ,i1 #ad2 ,,xi1 #af2 ,philo3 ,vita ,mosis1 ,,iii1 #ci2 ,josephus3 ,antiquities1 ,,iv1 #cb b2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #adj f4 ,in contrast to the ,church view of ,jesus the rabbis later emphasized the human frailties of ,moses3 8,never did divine majesty descend to the habitations of mortal man1 nor did ever a mortal man such as ,moses and ,elijah ascend to heaven1 the dwelling-place of ,god10 taught ,rabbi ,jose 7,suk4 #e a74 #ajg ,see ,deut4 ,,iv1 #f-h2 ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #cd-ce2 ,philo3 ,vita ,mosis1 ,,ii1 #ad2 ,josephus3 ,apion1 ,,ii1 #bgg4 #ajh ,see ,herodotus1 ,,iii1 #h2 ,,iv1 #gj2 ,jer4 ,,xxiv1 #ah2 ,h4 ,clay ,trumbull3 ,the ,blood ,covenant1 ,new ,york1 #ahhe2 ,kraetschmar3 ,d4 ,bundervorstellung i4 ,a4 ,test41 #ahif2 ,j4 ,e4 and ,encyl4 of ,rel4 and ,ethics1 art4 ,covenant4 #aji ,see ,gen4 ,,ix1 #a-ag2 ,tos4 ,ab4 ,zar4 ,,viii1 #d2 ,san4 #ef a2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xvi1 ,,xxiv2 ,jubilees ,,vi1 #aj f42 ,bernays3 ,ges4 ,abh4 ,i1 #beb f41 #bgb f42 ,,ii1 #ga-hj4 #aaj ,gen4 ,,xv1 #ah2 ,,xvii1 #b f42 ,,xviii1 #ai2 ,lev4 ,,xxvi1 #db2 ,jubilees ,i1 #ea4 #aaa ,ex4 ,,xix1 #e2 ,,xxiv1 #f-h2 ,,xxxiv1 #bh2 ,deut4 ,,iv-,v1 ,,xxviii1 ,,xxix2 ,comp4 ,i ,kings ,,xix1 #aj1 #ad2 ,jer4 ,,xi2 ,,xxxi2 ,,xxxiv1 #ac2 ,ezek4 ,,xvi-,,xvii4 #aab ,hos4 ,,ii1 #ah-bj4 #aac ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #cj-cb1 #cd-ce2 ,,xxxiii1 #be2 ,deut4 ,,xxix1 #ad4 #aad ,see ,ep4 ,hebrews ,,viii1 #h f42 ,gal4 ,,iii1 #ae2 ,i ,cor4 ,,xi1 #be2 ,matt4 ,,xxiv1 #ba1 and parallels4 #aae ,gen4 ,,xvii1 #aa4 #aaf ,ex4 ,,xxxi1 #ac-ag2 comp4 ,deut4 ,x1 #af2 ,josh4 ,v1 #i2 ,isa4 ,,lvi1 #d-f4 ,see ,mek4 to ,ex4 ,,xix1 #e1 the controversy between ,r4 ,eliezer and ,r4 ,akiba1 whether the ,sabbath or circumcision was the essential sign of the covenant4 #aag ,ker4 #i a2 ,yeb4 #de-dh and see ,chapter ,,lvi below4 #aah ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #bh f42 ,,cxv1 #aa2 ,,cxviii1 #d2 ,is4 ,,lvi1 #f4 #aai ,isaiah ,,xlix1 #f-h4 #abj ,acts ,,xv1 #bj1 #bi4 #aba ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,saul of ,tarsus2 ,enc4 ,rel4 ,eth4 art4 ,paul4 #abb ,isaac ben ,shesheth3 ,responsa1 #aai4 ,comp1 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,christianity4 #abc ,see further1 ,chapter ,,xlix4 #abd ,jer4 ,x1 #aa2 #af and #aj4 #abe ,shab4 #hi b4 #abf ,lev4 ,,xviii1 #b1 #bg f42 ,num4 ,,xxv1 #c-h2 ,hos4 ,,iv1 #aj2 ,v1 #d4 #abg ,num4 ,,xv1 #ci2 ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #bd2 ,deut4 ,,xx1 #ah2 ,sanh4 ,,xii1 #e2 ,x1 #d-f2 ,ab4 ,zar4 ,,ii-,,iv2 ,sanh4 #ajf a3 8,israel's ,god hates lewdness40 #abh ,ex4 ,,xx1 #e2 ,deut4 ,,iv1 #bd2 ,,vi1 #ae4 #abi ,see ,philo3 ,de ,humanitate2 ,doellinger3 ,heidenthum u4 ,judenthum1 #fhb1 #gjj f42 ,i4 ,h4 ,weiss3 ,dor ,dor we ,doreshav1 ,,ii1 #ai f4 #acj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,christianity4 #aca ,isa4 ,,xlii1 #h4 ,scripture always emphasizes the contrast between ,israel's ,god and the heathen gods4 ,see ,ex4 ,,xii1 #ab2 ,,xv1 #aa2 ,,xviii1 #aa2 ,deut4 ,x1 #ag2 also in the prophets1 ,isa4 ,,xl2 ,,xliv1 #i2 ,jer4 ,x2 and the ,psalms1 ,,xcvi1 ,,cxv1 ,,cxxxv4 ,absolute monotheism was a slow growth from this basis4 #acb ,see ,ex4 ,r4 ,v1 #ah4 #acc ,deut4 ,,vii2 ,,xvii1 #b f42 ,,xx1 #af2 ,maimonides3 ,h4 ,akkum1 ,,ii-,,vii2 ,melakim1 ,,vi1 #d2 ,yoreh ,deah1 ,,cxii-,,xlviii4 #acd ,ps4 ,,xcvi-,,xcix4 #ace ,see ,singer's ,prayerbook1 p1 #gf-gg1 and ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,alenu4 #acf ,see ,cheyne's ,dict4 ,bibl4 art4 ,name and ,names with ,bibliography2 ,jacob3 ,im ,namen ,gottes2 ,heitmueller1 ,im ,namen ,jesu1 #aijc1 p4 #bd-be4 ,the ,name for the ,lord occurs ,lev1 ,,xxiv1 #aa1 #af2 ,deut4 ,,xxviii1 #eh2 ,geiger1 ,urschrift1 #bfa f4 #acg ,see ,baudissin1 ,stud4 z4 ,sem4 ,religionsgesch41 ,i1 #dg2 #agg2 ,robinson ,smith3 ,religion of the ,semites2 ,max ,mueller1 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 ,i1 #ccf-cgd4 #ach ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,god4 ,comp4 also ,encycl4 of ,religion and ,ethics1 art4 ,god4 ,primitive and ,biblical2 ,name of ,god1 ,jewish4 #aci ,gen4 ,,xvii1 #aa2 ,ex4 ,,vi1 #c1 and commentators2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xlvi4 ,the ,book of ,job1 where the name ,shaddai is constantly used1 refers to the patriarchal age4 #adj ,ex4 ,,iii1 #ad1 and commentators1 espec4 ,dillmann4 ,comp4 art4 ,jahweh in ,prot4 ,realencyc4 and ,cheyne's ,dict4 ,bible1 art4 ,names1 #aji ff41 where different etymologies are given4 #ada ,ex4 ,,iii1 #ad4 #adb ,ex4 ,,xix1 #e1 #f4 #adc ,see ,prot4 ,enc41 art4 ,jahveh1 p1 #ecj f4 #add ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,adonai2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ceb f4 #ade ,ber4 #dj b4 ,on the alleged 8,judaisirung des ,gottesbegriffs10 see ,weber1 l4 c41 #adh-aeh4 #adf ,sifre to ,deut4 ,,vi1 #d4 #adg ,gen4 ,,xxiv1 #c4 #adh ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxiv1 #c4 #adi ,shab4 #hg a1 #hi b2 ,mek4 ,yithro ,,iv4 #aej ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,alenu4 #aea ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,abba and ,names of ,god2 ,weber1 l4 c1 #adh f42 ,bousset1 ,,ii1 #cef-cfa2 ,schechter3 ,aspects1 ,,ii1 #ba-bh4 #aeb ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,heaven2 ,levy1 ,w4 ,b43 8,shamayim40 #aec ,see ,pes4 ,x1 #e2 ,ber4 #af b2 ,ab4 ,zar4 #dj b2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxviii1 #i1 referring to ,gen4 ,,xxviii1 #aa and ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #ba2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xxxv2 ,pes4 ,rab4 #ajd a2 comp4 ,,lxx1 ,ex4 ,,xxiv1 #aj2 see also ,siegfried3 ,philo1 p4 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bag2 ,schechter1 l4 c41 #bf1 #cd4 ,the passage in ,mekilta on ,ex4 ,,xvii1 #g1 which refers ,makom to the ,sanhedrin 7after ,deut4 ,,xvii1 #h71 seems originally to have been a marginal note belonging to ,ex4 ,,xxi1 #ac1 where ,makom is the equivalent of ,makam1 a place of refuge1 and put here at the wrong place by an error2--,against ,schechter1 l4 c41 #bg note #a1 ,bousset 7p4 #eia7 thinks that ha ,makom for ,god is ,persian1 where both space and time were deified4 ,see ,spiegel3 ,eranisches ,alterthum1 ,,ii1 #ae f4 #aed ,see ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #ae2 ,,xxx1 #c2 ,targum to ,psalm ,,lvi1 #aa2 comp4 ,philo1 ,i1 #dif2 ,siegfried1 l4 c41 #bjc1 #bac4 #aee ,metaphysical proofs for ,god's existence have been outlawed since ,kant4 ,god is the postulate of man's moral consciousness4 ,see ,rauwenhoff1 l4 c41 #bcf-ceg4 #aef ,see art4 ,atheism1 in ,j4 ,e4 and in ,enc4 ,reli4 and ,ethics1 ,,ii1 #ah f4 #aeg ,jer4 ,v1 #ab2 ,psalm ,x1 #d2 ,,xiv1 #a2 ,,liii1 #a4 #aeh ,b4 ,b4 #af b2 ,targ4 to ,gen4 ,,iv1 #h4 #aei ,see above1 ,chapter ,,iv1 #c4 #afj ,isa4 ,,xl1 #ab-bf2 ,,xlvi1 #aj4 #afa ,see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #bie-bih4 #afb ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,abraham4 #afc ,ch4 ,,xiii4 #afd ,philo3 ,de ,somniis1 ,i1 #dc1 #dd2 ,zeller3 ,d4 ,philosophie d4 ,griechen1 ,,iii1 #b1 #cjg f42 ,drummond3 ,philo ,judus1 ,,ii1 #d-e4 #afe ,see ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss3 ,christl4 ,glaubenslehre1 ,i1 #cfd-cii2 ,windelband3 ,hist4 of ,phil41 transl4 by ,j4 ,h4 ,tufts1 #b;d ed41 #aiad1 p4 #ed1 #ih1 #abh1 #cbg4 #aff ,see ,windelband-,tufts1 l4 c41 #ade1 #bib4 #afg ,see ,strauss1 l4 c42 ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #b-c1 #eh2 ,d4 ,theologie d4 ,bachya1 p4 #bbb f42 ,husik3 ,hist4 ,jew4 ,phil41 p4 #cb ff41 #hi ff4 #afh ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 p4 #cda f41 #dca f42 ,husik1 l4 c41 #bah f41 #bed f4 #afi ,see ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c42 ,windelband-,tufts1 p4 #bib1 #cic4 #agj ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #cge1 #cid2 ,windelband-,tufts1 l4 c41 #dej4 #aga ,see ,windelband-,tufts1 l4 c41 #edi-eej4 #agb ,see ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 p4 #bbc f41 and1 opposed to him1 ,neumark3 ,jehuda ,halevi's ,philosophy1 ,cincinnati1 #aiji4 ,see also ,husik1 l4 c41 #aeg ff4 #agc ,compare ,c4 ,seligman3 ,judenth4 u4 moderne ,anschauung4 ,the philosophy of ,bergson1 which eliminates design and purpose from the cosmos and places ,deity itself into the process as the vital urgent of it all1 and thus sees ,god forever in the making1 is pantheistic and un-,jewish1 and therefore cannot be considered in a theology of ,judaism4 ,this does not exclude our accepting minor elements of his system1 which contains suggestive hints4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells' ,god the ,invisible ,king 7,macmillan1 #aiag7 is likewise a ,god in the making1 man-made1 not the ,maker and ,ruler of man4 #agd ,job ,,xi1 #g4 #age ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #bc2 ,maim42 ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,i1 #h1 #aj2 ,moreh1 ,i1 #ba a2 ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #dca2 ,philo3 ,mutatio ,nom41 #b2 ,vita ,mosis1 ,i1 #bh2 ,leg4 ,all41 ,i1 #bi1 and elsewhere4 ,see ,j4 ,drummond3 ,philo ,judus1 ,,ii1 #ah-bd4 #agf ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxix1 at the close4 #agg ,jer4 ,x1 #aj4 #agh ,isaiah ,,xliv1 #f4 #agi ,comp4 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bbf-bce2 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 ,i1 #ebe-eec4 #ahj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,anthropomorphism and ,anthropopathism4 ,comp4 ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #a-cj4 #aha ,ps4 ,,xxxiii1 #ac-ad4 #ahb ,deut4 ,,iv1 #cf2 ,ex4 ,,xix1 #bj4 ,comp4 ,gen4 ,,xi1 #e4 #ahc ,isa4 ,,xlvi1 #a4 #ahd ,ps4 ,,cxxxix1 #g-aj4 #ahe ,ps4 ,,xciv1 #i4 #ahf ,see ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,nathan ,,ii2 ,bacher3 ,d4 ,exegetische ,terminologie1 ,i1 #h2 ,schechter1 l4 c41 #ce4 #ahg ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxvii2 ,mek4 ,ex4 ,,xv2 ,pes4 d4 ,r4 ,k4 #aji b2 ,tanh4 to ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #af2 ,schechter1 l4 c41 #dc f4 #ahh ,gen4 ,r4 ,,iv1 #c2 comp1 ,pes4 d4 ,r4 ,k4 #b b2 ,schechter1 l4 c41 #bi f4 #ahi ,hul4 #ei1 #fj2 ,sanh4 #ci a2 ,philo3 ,de ,abrahamo1 #af4 #aij ,mid4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #a2 ,sanh4 #ci a4 #aia ,see ,weber1 l4 c41 #adi f41 #aeg2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #cjb1 #cac2 von ,hartman3 ,das religioese ,bewusstsein4 ,against this ,schreiner1 l4 c41 #di-eh1 and ,schechter1 ,aspects #cc f4 #aib ,mek4 and ,tanh4 to ,ex4 ,,xv1 #aa4 #aic ,deut4 ,,iv1 #g2 ,yer4 ,ber4 ,,ix1 #ac a4 #aid ,isa4 ,,lvii1 #ae4 ,see also ,deut4 ,x1 #ag-ah2 ,ps4 ,,lxxxvi1 #e-f4 ,comp4 ,r4 ,johanan1 ,meg1 #ca a4 #aie ,ex4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #i2 ,mid4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,lxviii1 #g4 #aif ,ps4 ,,xlvi1 #b4 #aig ,ab4 ,zar4 #c b4 #aih ,ps4 ,,cxiii1 #e1 #f4 #aii ,ber4 #fj b4 ,singer's ,prayerbook1 #bia4 #bjj ,on pantheism in ,judaism see ,seligman1 l4 c4 #bja ,see ,sachs3 ,d4 religioese ,poesie d4 ,juden4 in ,spanien1 #bbe-bbh2 ,kaufmann3 ,stud u4 ,solomon ,ibn ,gabirol4 #bjb ,see ,siegfried3 ,philo1 #aii-bjc1 #bib2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxviii1 #aj2 comp4 ,geiger3 ,zeitschr41 ,,xi1 #bah2 ,hamburger3 ,r4 ,w4 ,b41 ,,ii1 #ihf4 #bjc ,see ,graetz3 ,g4 d4 ,j41 ,x1 #cai4 #bjd ,see ,maimonides3 ,h4 ,teshubah1 ,,iii1 #g and ,r4 ,a4 ,b4 ,d41 notes4 #bje ,jer4 ,,xxiii1 #bc4 #bjf ,isa4 ,,xl1 #be4 #bjg ,lev4 ,,xix1 #d2 ,,xxvi1 #a2 ,isaiah ,,ii1 #h1 #aa2 ,psalm ,,xcvi1 #e4 #bjh ,comp4 ,ex4 ,,xx1 #c2 ,,xxii1 #ai2 ,,xxiii1 #ac2 with ,deut4 ,,vi1 #d2 ,,iv1 #ce1 #ci2 ,,xxxii1 #ci2 ,isaiah ,,xl to ,,xlviii4 #bji ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bce-bda2 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #djb-djh2 ,a4 ,b4 ,davidson3 ,theology of ,o4 ,t41 p4 #aje2 #adi f4 #baj ,zach4 ,,xiv1 #i4 #baa ,deut4 ,,iv1 #ai2 ,jer4 ,x1 #b4 #bab ,bousset1 l4 c41 #bba f41 #cdh4 #bac ,see ,chapter ,,lvi1 below4 #bad ,isa4 ,,xlv1 #e-g4 #bae ,lam4 ,,iii1 #ch4 #baf ,shethe ,reshuyoth1 see ,hag4 #ae a2 ,deut4 ,r4 ,i4 #aj2 ,eccl4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #ab2 ,weber1 l4 c41 #aeb2 ,joel1 ,blicke in d4 ,religionsgesch41 ,,ii1 #aeg4 #bag ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #dji-eja2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,christianity4 #bah ,meg4 #ac a4 #bai ,comp4 ,lange3 ,gesch4 d4 ,materialismus1 ,i1 #adi-aeh4 #bbj ,alfred v4 ,kremer1 l4 c41 #i-cc2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,arabic and ,arabic-,jewish ,philosophy4 #bba ,see ,draper's ,conflict between ,religion and ,science4 #bbb ,maim43 ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,i1 #g4 #bbc ,sachs1 l4 c41 #c4 #bbd ,see ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #bci-beh4 #bbe ,see ,hebrew ,dictionary1 ,el2 comp4 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #baj1 #bdd4 #bbf ,see ,levy1 ,w4 ,b43 ,geburah4 #bbg ,see ,septuagint to ,job ,v1 #ag2 ,,viii1 #c1 and ,,ii ,sam4 ,v1 #aj2 ,,vii1 #h1 and ,ber4 #ca b4 #bbh ,see ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #fg ff4 ,david ,neumark thinks that both the prophet ,jeremiah and the ,mishnah knew and rejected the belief in angels4 ,see his article ,ikkarim in ,ozar ,ha ,yahduth4 #bbi ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #ad2 ,num4 ,,xi1 #ac2 ,is4 ,,xl1 #ab2 ,jer4 ,v1 #bb2 ,x1 #ab2 ,,xxvii1 #e2 ,,xxxii1 #ag2 ,zach4 ,,viii1 #f2 ,job ,,xxxviii1 #g2 ,,xlii1 #a4 #bcj ,deut4 ,,iii4 #bd2 ,,xi1 #c2 ,,xxvi1 #h2 ,,xxix1 #b2 ,jer4 ,x1 #f2 ,ps4 ,,lxv1 #g2 ,,lxvi1 #g2 ,,lxiv-,,lxxviii2 ,i ,chron4 ,,xxix1 #aa1 #ab4 #bca ,ex4 ,,xii1 #ab2 ,judges ,v1 #aj4 #bcb ,daniel ,,iv1 #ce4 #bcc ,ps4 ,,xi1 #d2 ,,xxxiii1 #ac f42 ,,cxxxix2 ,jer4 ,,xi1 #bj2 ,,xvii1 #aj2 ,job ,,xii1 #ac2 ,dan4 ,,ii1 #bj f4 #bcd ,aboth ,,ii1 #a4 #bce ,mal4 ,,iii1 #af2 ,ps4 ,,lvi1 #i4 #bcf ,see ,new ,year liturgy1 ,singer's ,prayerbook1 #bdi4 #bcg ,amos ,,iii1 #g42 ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #ag4 #bch ,gen4 ,,vi1 #e2 ,,xi1 #e2 ,,xviii1 #ba4 #bci ,isa4 ,,lv1 #h1 #i4 #bdj ,gen4 ,,iv1 #af2 ,,xi1 #e2 ,,xviii1 #ba2 ,,xxviii1 #af2 ,deut4 ,,xxvi1 #ae2 ,micah ,i1 #c2 see ,strauss1 l4 c41 ,i1 #edh f4 #bda ,i ,kings ,,viii1 #bg2 ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #a4 #bdb ,see above1 ,chapter ,,xii1 #e4 #bdc ,comp4 ,amos ,,ix1 #b2 ,jer4 ,,xxiii1 #bd4 #bdd ,sanh4 #ci a4 #bde ,comp4 ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #gj and #ga1 notes #acj1 #aca2 ,strauss1 l4 c41 ,i1 #eea4 #bdf ,makom1 see above1 ,chapter ,x1 #h-i2 ,schechter1 ,aspects1 #bf f4 #bdg ,luk4 #de b2 comp4 ,i ,corinth4 ,,xiii1 #ab1 based on ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #bh2 ,ps4 ,,xvii1 #ae4 #bdh ,see ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #ajj f4 #bdi ,isa4 ,,xlviii1 #ab2 ,ps4 ,,xc1 #b f42 ,,cii1 #bf1 #bg4 ,on the process of development of the idea of eternity1 see ,neumark1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #gg4 #bej ,adon ,olam1 ,singer's ,prayerbook1 p4 #c4 #bea ,see ,strauss1 l4 c41 #efb1 #fea2 ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #cjf f42 ,drummond3 ,philo1 ,,ii1 #df4 #beb ,see ,chapter ,,xxv below4 #bec ,tanh4 ,naso ed4 ,buber1 #h2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ix1 #i with reference to ,jer4 ,,xxiii1 #bd4 #bed ,lev4 ,,xix1 #a4 #bee ,comp4 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #beb f42 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #eic f42 ,rauwenhoff1 l4 c41 #dih-eje2 ,lazarus3 ,ethics of ,judaism1 ,chapters ,,iv-,v4 #bef ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #ba4 #beg ,ps4 ,,lxxvii1 #ad4 #beh ,deut4 ,x1 #ab2 ,,xi1 #bb1 and elsewhere4 #bei ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #ai4 #bfj ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #ac-bc4 #bfa ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,holiness4 ,the ,assyrian ,kuddisu denotes 8bright10 8pure10 according to ,zimmern in ,religion und ,sprache1 ,k4 ,a4 ,t41 #c;d ed41 #fjc4 #bfb ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #c2 ,job ,v1 #a2 ,,vi1 #aj2 ,,xv1 #ae2 ,ps4 ,,lxxxix1 #f1 #h4 #bfc ,ex4 ,,xix1 #ba f42 ,,xxiv1 #ag2 ,i ,sam4 ,,vi1 #bj2 ,josh4 ,,xxiv1 #ai2 ,isa4 ,,iv1 #c2 ,,vi1 #c1 #ac2 ,x1 #ag2 ,,xxxi1 #i2 ,,xxxiii1 #ad2 ,hab4 ,i1 #ac4 #bfd ,deut4 ,,iv1 #bd2 ,ex4 ,,xxiv1 #ag4 #bfe ,comp4 the name ,kadesh and ,kedesha for the hierodules consecrated to ,astarte4 ,see ,deut4 ,,xxiii1 #ah2 ,i ,kings ,,xiv1 #bd2 ,,xv1 #ab2 ,hosea ,,iv1 #ad4 ,comp4 ,zimmern1 l4 c41 p4 #dbc4 #bff ,isa4 ,i1 #d2 ,v1 #ab2 ,x1 #bj2 ,,xii1 #f2 ,,xli1 #ad2 ,,xliii1 #c f42 ,,xlv1 #aa2 and elsewhere4 #bfg ,ezek4 ,,xx1 #ab2 ,,xxxvii1 #bh2 ,ex4 ,,xxxi1 #ac1 and elsewhere4 #bfh ,see ,sifra and ,rabba to ,lev4 ,,xix1 #b4 #bfi ,cusari ,,iv1 #c2 ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #afb f4 #bgj ,aboth1 ,i1 #c4 #bga ,rauwenhoff1 l4 c41 #ejd4 #bgb ,hab4 ,i1 #ac4 #bgc ,psalm ,,xxiv1 #d-e4 #bgd ,l4 ,lazarus3 ,z4 ,characteristik d4 juedisch4 ,ethik1 #dj-de2 ,m4 ,lazarus3 ,ethics of ,judaism1 p4 #ahd4 #bge ,isa4 ,v1 #af4 #bgf ,comp4 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #beh f42 ,j4 ,e41 art4 8,anger40 #bgg ,ex4 ,,xx1 #e2 ,isa4 ,,xxx1 #bg f42 ,nahum ,i1 #e f4 #bgh ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #bc2 ,num4 ,,xvii1 #aj f42 ,,xxv1 #c2 ,deut4 ,,xxix1 #ai2 ,,xxxii1 #ba2 ,isa4 ,,ix1 #af4 #bgi ,hosea ,,xi1 #i4 #bhj ,psalm ,,xxx4 #bha ,targum to ,ex4 ,,xx1 #c2 ,sanh4 #bg b4 #bhb ,isa4 ,,xxxiii1 #ad-ag4 #bhc ,mal4 ,,iii1 #b1 #ai f4 #bhd ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #ce2 comp4 ,sifre1 #cbe2 ,geiger3 ,urschrift1 #bdg1 regarding ,samaritan text4 ,zeph4 ,i1 #ae2 ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #ae-af4 #bhe ,isa4 ,,xvli1 #bd4 #bhf ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 8,gehenna02 ,mid4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxvi1 #aa1 and ,,lxxix2 ,ned4 #cb a2 ,taan4 #i b2 ,yer4 ,taan4 ,,ii1 #fe b2 ,ab4 ,zar4 #d a and b2 #ah b2 ,ber4 #g a2 ,shab4 #aah a2 ,sanh4 #aaj b2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,vi1 #i2 ,,xxvi1 #aa1 et al42 comp4 ,romans ,,ii1 #e2 ,eph4 ,v1 #f2 ,i ,thess4 ,i1 #aj4 #bhg ,sibyll4 ,,ii1 #agj1 #bhe2 ,,iii1 #eda1 #eef f41 #fgb-fig1 #gfj1 #haj2 ,enoch ,,xci1 #g-i4 #bhh ,ber4 #aj a2 ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,civ1 #ce4 #bhi ,tan4 #bc b4 #bij ,cusari ,,iv1 #e2 ,moreh ,i1 #cf1 and ,commentary to ,sanh4 ,x1 ,i4 #bia ,testament of ,abraham1 ,a1 ,x4 #bib ,hab4 ,,iii1 #b4 #bic ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #bc1 #cb2 ,,xxxiii1 #aa4 #bid ,ex4 ,,xxxii-,,xxxiv1 #g4 ,comp4 ,num4 ,,xiv1 #ah4 #bie ,gen4 ,,xix1 #a-bh2 ,ex4 ,,xx1 #e-f4 #bif ,hosea ,i-,,iii2 ,,xi1 #a-i2 ,,xiv1 #e4 ,comp4 ,micah ,,xiii1 #ah2 ,jer4 ,,iii1 #h-ab2 ,isa4 ,,liv1 #f-h2 ,,lvii1 #af f42 ,joel ,,ii1 #ac2 ,jonah ,,iv1 #b1 #aj f42 ,lam4 ,,iii1 #ca2 ,ps4 ,,lxxviii1 #ch et al4 ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bfc f42 ,davidson ,theology of ,o4 ,t41 #acb f4 #big ,gen4 ,,vi1 #f2 ,i ,sam4 ,,xv1 #aa2 ,jer4 ,,xviii1 #g-aj2 ,joel ,,ii1 #ad2 ,jonah ,,iii1 #aj2 ,,iv1 #b4 #bih ,num4 ,,xxiii1 #ai2 ,i ,sam4 ,,xv1 #bi2 see ,targum and commentaries4 #bii ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,anthropomorphism and ,allegorical ,interpretation4 #cjj ,tanh4 ,waethhanan1 ed4 ,buber1 #c4 #cja ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #d-e4 ,see ,morris ,joseph3 ,judaism as ,creed and ,life1 p4 #ei1 #ij-ie4 #cjb ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #ag b2 compare1 ,j4 ,davidson1 #acd2 ,koeberle3 ,suende und ,gnade1 #aije1 p4 #fbe1 #fcd f42 but p4 #feh1 #fad1 are misleading2 ,weber1 l4 c41 #aed1 #bfj1 #cjc f41 altogether misrepresents the ,jewish doctrine of grace4 #cjc ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #ai4 #cjd ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #be4 #cje ,jer4 ,,xii1 #a4 #cjf ,ps4 ,,lxxiii1 #ab4 #cjg ,job ,x1 #bb f4 #cjh ,yer4 ,hag4 ,,ii1 #a2 ,elisha ben ,abuyah4 #cji ,ps4 ,,lxxxix1 #ae4 #caj ,ps4 ,,xxxvi1 #g2 see ,davidson1 l4 c41 #adc f42 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,justice2 ,hamburger3 ,realencyclopaedie1 art4 ,gerechtigkeit2 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bgj f42 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #eif-fjd4 ,bousset1 #dcg f41 is misleading4 #caa ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #d4 #cab ,tanh41 ,jithro #e4 #cac ,deut4 ,x1 #ag-ah4 #cad ,deut4 ,i1 #ag4 #cae ,yeb4 #ib a2 ,yer4 ,sanh4 ,i1 #ah b4 #caf ,amos ,v1 #bd2 ,isa4 ,i1 #ag1 #bh2 ,,xxviii1 #ag2 ,,liv1 #ad4 #cag ,ps4 ,v1 #e-f4 #cah ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #af4 #cai ,ps4 ,,xcix1 #d2 ,tanh4 ,mishpatim #a4 #cbj ,ps4 ,,xcvi1 #ac2 ,,xcviii1 #i4 #cba ,see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ceg-cff2 ,weber1 l4 c41 #bei-bgi1 and comp4 ,suk4 #cj a1 where it is stated1 referring to ,isa4 ,,lxi1 #h1 that 8good deeds can never justify evil acts40 #cbb ,hosea ,,vi1 #f2 ,ps4 ,,xxxvii1 #f2 ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #i4 #cbc ,sota ,i1 #g-h2 ,tos4 ,sota ,,iii2 ,mek4 ,shirah #d2 ,b4 ,wisdom ,,xv1 #c2 ,,xix1 #ag ,jubilees ,,iv1 #c1 elsewhere1 comp4 ,math4 ,,vii1 #b1 and parallels4 #cbd ,aboth ,,iv1 #b4 #cbe ,see ,levy1 ,w4 ,b43 ,zidduk2 comp4 ,ex4 ,,ix1 #bg2 ,lam4 ,i1 #ah2 ,neh4 ,,ix1 #cc4 #cbf ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xlix1 #ai2 ,yoma #cg a4 #cbg ,prov4 ,x1 #be4 #cbh ,see ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b2 ,sanh4 #aje a2 ,yalkut ,isaiah #bif2 ,crescas3 ,or ,adonai1 ,,iii1 #dd4 #cbi ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #d-e2 ,,xii1 #ae2 ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxxix1 #b2 comp4 ,ben ,sira1 ,,xviii1 #aa2 ,testaments of ,,xii ,patr43 ,zebulon #i2 ,ap4 ,baruch ,,xlviii1 #ad2 ,,iv ,esdras ,,viii1 #ca2 ,psalms of ,solomon ,,ix1 #g2 ,prayer of ,manasseh1 #h1 #ac4 #ccj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 8,love40 ,both ,weber1 l4 c41 #eg f4 and ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ddc f4 show ,christian bias4 #cca ,ps4 ,,cxxx1 #d4 #ccb ,aboth ,,iii1 #ai2 comp4 ,b4 ,wisdom ,,xi1 #bc1 #bf2 ,,xii1 #af1 #ah2 ,ben ,sira1 ,,ii1 #ah4 #ccc ,ps4 ,,cxliv1 #h-i2 comp4 ,ben ,sira1 ,,xviii1 #ac4 #ccd ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #c4 #cce ,yer4 ,r4 h4 ,sh4 ,i1 #eg a4 #ccf ,ber4 #g a4 #ccg ,tos4 ,sota ,,iv1 #a1 with reference to ,ex4 ,,xx1 #e-f4 ,the plural1 laalafim1 is taken to mean two thousand4 #cch ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #bf2 comp4 #ba1 #bc4 #cci ,see ,harper3 ,code of ,hammurabi1 #aijj2 ,oettli3 ,d4 ,gesetz ,hammurabis und d4 ,thora ,israels1 #aijc2 ,cohn3 ,d4 ,gesetz ,hammurabis1 ,zrich1 #aijc2 ,grimm3 ,d4 ,gesetz ,chammurabis und ,moses1 ,cologne1 #aijc4 ,also ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,hebrew and ,babylonian ,traditions1 p4 #bee-cai4 #cdj ,deut4 ,x1 #ah2 ,ps4 ,,lxxiii4 #cda ,isa4 ,,xxv1 #d4 #cdb ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #bd4 #cdc ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxvii1 #e2 ,eccles4 ,r4 to ,,iii1 #ae4 #cdd ,gen4 ,,xxiv1 #ai4 #cde ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #e4 #cdf ,deut4 ,,xxv1 #d4 #cdg ,lev4 ,,xx1 #bh2 ,deut4 ,,xxii1 #f4 #cdh ,git4 #fb a1 with reference to ,deut4 ,,xi1 #ae4 #cdi ,ps4 ,,cxlv1 #i4 #cej ,b4 ,m4 #he a2 ,yer4 ,kil4 ,,ix1 #d4 #cea ,tos4 ,b4 ,k4 ,,ix1 #cj2 ,sifre1 ,deut4 #if4 #ceb ,sifre1 ,deut4 #di2 ,shab4 #acc b2 comp4 ,philo3 ,de ,humanitate4 #cec ,see ,concordance to ahabah and hesed4 ,note especially ,hos4 ,,vi1 #f4 #ced ,hos4 ,,iii1 #a2 ,,xi1 #a1 #d2 ,,xiv1 #e4 #cee ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #b1 #ai4 #cef ,deut4 ,,vii1 #h2 ,x1 #ae4 #ceg ,deut4 ,,viii1 #e2 see ,sifre1 ,deut4 #cb4 #ceh ,prov4 ,,iii1 #ac4 #cei ,ber4 #e a2 ,sifre1 l4 c42 ,mek4 ,yithro #aj4 #cfj ,see ,mek4 and ,sifre1 l4 c4 #cfa ,ex4 ,,iv1 #bb4 #cfb ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #f1 #aj f4 #cfc ,jer4 ,,ii1 #b4 #cfd ,song of ,songs1 ,r4 to ,,iii1 #g4 ,comp4 ,davidson1 l4 c41 #bce-bhg4 #cfe ,see ,schreiner1 l4 c41 #ajc-aab2 ,perles3 ,bousset1 #eh f4 #cff ,pesik1 #af-ag2 ,mek4 ,yithro #f1 at end4 #cfg ,aboth ,,iii1 #ad4 #cfh ,,xi1 #bc-bf4 #cfi ,,iv ,esdra ,,viii1 #dg4 #cgj ,,iii1 #aj4 #cga ,zohar ,i1 #dd b2 ,,ii1 #ig a4 #cgb ,see ,or ,adonai1 ,i1 #c1 #e1 and ,joel3 ,crescas #cf-cg4 #cgc ,dialoghi di ,amore2 see ,zimmels3 ,leo ,hebraeus1 #ahhf4 #cgd ,ethics ,v1 proposition ,,xxxv4 #cge 8,the ,theosophy of ,julius03 8,god40 #cgf ,middath tobah4 #cgg ,gen4 ,i1 #d1 #aj1 #ab1 #ah1 #ba1 #bc1 #ca4 #cgh ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ix1 #e1 #i2 ,ber4 #fj a2 ,yer4 ,ber4 ,,ix1 #ac c-#ad b2 ,taan4 #ba a4 #cgi ,isa4 ,,lxv1 #af4 #chj ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #dj4 #cha ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #d4 #chb ,num4 ,,xxiii1 #ai2 ,isa4 ,,xl1 #h2 ,jer4 ,x1 #aj2 ,ps4 ,,xxxi1 #f2 comp4 ,dillmann1 l4 c4 #bfi f4 #chc ,ps4 ,,xxxvi1 #f2 ,,lxxxix1 #c1 #ch2 ,,cxlvi1 #f2 ,benediction at seeing the rainbow1 ,singer's ,prayerbook1 p4 #bia4 #chd ,gen4 ,,ix1 #aa4 #che ,ps4 ,,civ1 #i2 ,job ,,xxxviii1 #aa2 ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #cd4 #chf ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #bg4 #chg ,jer4 ,x1 #aj1 #ae4 #chh ,emuna ,rama #ed4 ,see ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #ccc f41 #ceb f42 comp4 ,guttmann3 ,religionsphilosophie des ,ibn ,daud1 #acf f42 ,albo ,,ii1 #bg1 at the end2 ,maimonides3 ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,i1 #c-d2 ,hillel of ,verona refers even to ,aristotle's 8,metaphysics40 ,see ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #ccd1 note2 ,neumark1 l4 c41 and ,husik41 l4 c4 passim4 #chi ,see ,yer4 ,sanh4 ,i1 #ah a4 #cij ,contra ,apionem1 ,,ii1 #bb2 compare ,j4 ,e41 art4 8,alpha and ,omega40 #cia ,see ,yer4 ,sanh4 ,i1 #ah a4 #cib ,ber4 #cc b4 #cic ,jedayah ha ,penini4 #cid ,ps4 ,,lxv1 #b4 #cie ,jer4 ,x1 #ab2 ,amos ,,iv1 #ac2 ,job ,,xxxviii-,,xxxix4 #cif ,prov4 ,,vi1 #f4 #cig ,job ,,xxxviii-,,xxxix4 #cih ,ps4 ,,civ1 #bd4 #cii ,gen4 ,l1 #bj2 see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bhj2 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #ege f42 ,hamburger1 l4 c41 art4 8,weisheit ,gottes02 ,a4 ,b4 ,davidson1 l4 c41 #ahj-ahb4 #djj ,gen4 ,,xli1 #ch2 ,i ,kings ,,iii1 #ab2 ,ex4 ,,xxxv1 #ca2 ,prov4 ,,ii1 #f4 #dja ,isa4 ,,xxv1 #a2 ,,xxvii1 #bi4 #djb ,isa4 ,,xl-,,lv4 #djc ,prov4 ,,ix1 #a4 ,comp4 ,a4 ,jeremias3 ,d4 ,a4 ,test4 i4 ,l4 d4 i4 alt4 ,orients1 #e1 #hj1 #ccf1 #cfg4 #djd ,ben ,sira ,,xxiv1 #c-f1 #ad1 #ba2 ,enoch ,,xlii1 #a-b2 ,slavonic ,enoch ,,xxx1 #h2 ,baruch ,,iii1 #i-;,,iv1 #d2 comp4 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ccg f42 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,wisdom2 ,bentwich3 ,philo1 pp4 #ada-adg4 #dje ,targ4 ,ver4 to ,gen4 ,i1 #a4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,i4 #b1 #e4 ,see ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #abg-acg4 #djf ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #af1 #ajg1 #aac1 #afc1 #cbe1 #dah4 #djg ,job ,,ix1 #d2 ,cuzari1 ,,ii1 #b4 #djh ,sachs1 cl1 #f1 #bbg4 #dji ,ps4 ,,xviii1 #cf4 #daj ,meg4 #ce a4 #daa ,isa4 ,,lvii1 #ae4 #dab ,deut4 ,x1 #ag-ah4 #dac ,ps4 ,,lxviii1 #e-f4 #dad ,ps4 ,,cxiii1 #e-f4 #dae ,weber1 l4 c41 #aed4 #daf ,deut4 ,,iv1 #g2 ,yer4 ,ber4 ,,ix1 #ai a1 where the plural1 ,kerobim1 suggests the idea1 8all kinds of nearness40 #dag ,ps4 ,,xxix1 #d2 ,tanh4 ,yithro1 ed4 ,buber1 #ag4 #dah ,ps4 ,,xci1 #ae2 ,isa4 ,,lxiii1 #i2 ,sifre ,num4 #hd4 #dai ,ber4 #f a2 #g a2 ,r4 ha ,sh4 #ag b2 ,hag4 #e b2 ,sanh4 #ci a4 ,comp4 ,schechter1 ,aspects1 p4 #ba-ej4 #dbj ,weber1 l4 c41 #aeg-afj4 #dba ,plutarch3 8,de placitis philosophiae10 ,,ii1 #a2 comp4 for the entire chapter ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bhd-bie2 ,smend3 #a4 c41 #ded f42 ,h4 ,steinthal3 8,die ,idee der ,schpfung0 in ,j4 ,b4 z4 ,jued4 ,gesch4 u4 ,lit41 ,,ii1 #ci-dd4 #dbb ,ps4 ,,xxxiii1 #i4 #dbc ,job ,,xxxviii2 ,ps4 ,,civ4 #dbd ,comp4 ,albo ,i1 #ab1 and ,schlesinger's ,notes1 #fbe4 #dbe ,ps4 ,,cii1 #be-bg4 #dbf ,job ,,xxv1 #b4 #dbg ,ber4 #fj b4 #dbh ,gam su le tobah1 an allusion to his own name4 ,taan4 #ba b4 #dbi ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ix1 #e4 #dcj ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ix1 #i-aj4 #dca ,sifre ,deut4 #cjg4 #dcb ,jer4 ,x1 #aa-ab and #aj4 #dcc ,see his commentary to ,gen4 ,i1 #a2 comp4 ,neumark1 l4 c41 ,i1 #gj1 #ga1 #hj f41 #hg1 #dab1 #dci1 #eae2 ,husik1 l4 c41 p4 #aij2 ,d4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #fai-ffj4 #dcd ,,ii ,macc4 ,,vii1 #bh4 #dce ,gen4 ,r4 ,i1 #ab2 ,x4 #c2 ,hag4 ,,ii b-#ac a2 ,slavonic ,enoch1 ,,xxv2 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,cosmogony and ,creation2 ,enc4 ,rel4 and ,eth41 #aea ff41 #afg f4 #dcf ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ix1 #a4 #dcg ,see ,strauss1 l4 c41 #fde f4 #dch ,see ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #ia-abh2 ,kaufmann1 l4 c41 #bhj f41 #cjf1 #chg f4 #dci ,see ,c4 ,seligman1 ,judenthum und ,moderne ,weltanchauung4 #ddj ,the first benediction before the ,shema4 #dda ,gen4 ,,vii1 #aa2 ,,viii1 #b4 #ddb ,isa4 ,,xl1 #bf4 #ddc ,job ,,xxxvi1 #f4 #ddd ,job ,,xxxviii1 #be4 #dde ,gen4 ,,xx1 #ag-ah2 ,,xxx1 #bb4 #ddf ,ps4 ,,cxlvii1 #h-i4 #ddg ,ps4 ,,civ1 #bg-cj4 #ddh ,gen4 ,i1 #aa4 #ddi ,ps4 ,,civ1 #h4 #dej ,gen4 ,,viii1 #bb2 ,job ,,xxxviii1 #cc4 #dea ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #ci2 ,,xxxiii1 #be4 #deb ,gen4 ,,ix1 #ab f4 #dec ,job ,,xxv1 #b4 #ded ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #bie f42 ,d4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 #fbi-fdc4 #dee ,enoch ,,lxix1 #ae-be2 ,prayer of ,manasseh1 #c2 ,suk4 #ec a b2 ,hag4 #ab a4 #def ,see ,singer's ,prayerbook1 #cg1 #if1 #bij1 #bib4 #deg ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #bj4 #deh ,shab4 #aai b4 #dei ,ps4 ,,cii1 #bg2 ,isa4 ,,xxxiv1 #d4 #dfj ,isa4 ,,lxv1 #ag4 #dfa ,see ,j4 ,e4 and ,enc4 of ,rel4 and ,eth41 art4 8,eschatology02 ,schuerer1 ,g4 ,v4 ,i4 ,,ii1 #ede4 #dfb ,ex4 ,,xv1 #aa4 #dfc ,oth1 sign for miracle1 ,ex4 ,,iv1 #h1 #ag1 and elsewhere4 #dfd ,mopheth1 ,ex4 ,,vii1 #c1 and elsewhere4 #dfe ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #ad4 #dff ,num4 ,,xi1 #bc4 #dfg ,ex4 ,,xxxiv1 #aj2 ,num4 ,,xvi1 #cj4 #dfh ,ex4 ,,iv1 #aa4 #dfi ,josh4 ,x1 #ab-ad4 ,see ,joel3 8,d4 ,mosaismus u4 d4 ,wunder10 in ,jb4 d4 ,jued4 ,gesch4 u4 ,lit41 #aijd1 p4 #ff-id4 #dgj ,mek4 ,beshallah #c2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,v1 #d4 #dga ,aboth ,v1 #f2 comp4 ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n41 ed4 ,schechter1 #ie2 ,mek4 ,beshallah1 #e2 ,sifre ,debarim1 #cee2 ,pes4 #ed a2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,eli41 ,,xix2 ,targ4 ,y4 to ,num4 ,,xxii1 #bh1 where a different list of ten wondrous things is given4 #dgb ,emunoth we ,deoth ,,ii1 #dd1 #fh4 ,comp4 ,ibn ,ezra to ,gen4 ,,iii1 #a1 and ,num4 ,,xxii1 #bh4 #dgc ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #be1 #ce1 #cg2 ,,iii1 #bd2 ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,,vii1 #g2 ,,viii1 #a-c4 ,comp4 ,joel3 ,moses ,maimonides1 p4 #gg4 #dgd ,ikkarim1 ,i1 #ah4 #dge ,or ,adonai1 ,,iii1 #e2 comp4 ,joel3 ,don ,chasdai ,crescas1 p4 #gj4 #dgf ,milhamoth ,adonai1 last chapters2 comp4 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,levi ben ,gershom4 #dgg ,cuzari1 ,,ii1 #ed4 #dgh ,the ,anshe maaseh1 mentioned together with the ,hasidim in ,suk4 ,v1 #d1 and ,sot4 ,,ix1 #ae1 are wonderworkers1 of whom ,haninah ben ,dosa1 the last1 is singled out4 ,the same epithet was given to ,simeon ben ,yochai in ,aramaic1 ,iskan1 see ,lev4 ,rabba ,,xxii1 #b1 and to ,r4 ,assi1 eod4 ,,xix1 #a1--where it means1 worker in nature's realm4 ,thus ,nahum of ,gimzo is called 8trained in the skill to perform miracles0--,taan4 #ba a2 ,phinehas ben ,jair was also a wonderworker--,hul4 #g a4 ,the whole portion regarding rain-miracles seems to be taken from a work on the miracles of saints4 #dgi ,taan1 #ah b4 #dhj ,pes4 #aah a2 ,ned4 #da a4 #dha ,shab4 #ec b4 #dhb ,ab4 ,za4 ,,iv1 #g2 comp4 ,ber4 #d a1 #bj a2 ,sanh4 #ig b4 #dhc ,b4 ,m4 #ei b4 #dhd ,deut4 ,,xiii1 #b-f4 #dhe ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,,viii1 #a-e4 #dhf ,ikkarim1 ,i1 #ah4 #dhg ,mendelssohn3 ,g4 ,sch41 ,,iii1 #fe1 #abj f41 #cbj f4 #dhh ,,ii ,kings ,,vi1 #f4 #dhi ,joshua ,x1 #ac4 #dij ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #cc4 #dia ,the ,hebrew term ,hashgaha--,providence--is derived from ,ps4 ,,xxxiii1 #ad1 hishgiah1 8,he observes40 ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,providence2 ,davidson1 l4 c41 #agh-ahb2 ,hamburger1 ,r4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,ii1 art4 ,bestimmung2 ,rauwenhoff1 l4 c41 #ech f42 ,ludwig ,philippson3 8,israel4 ,religionsl410 ,,ii1 #ih f42 ,formstecher3 8,religion des ,geistes10 #aad-aai4 #dib ,jer4 ,x1 #b4 ,see art4 ,divination1 in ,j4 ,e42 ,dict4 ,bible2 ,enc4 ,r4 and ,eth4 #dic ,see ,lev4 ,,xvi1 #h f42 ,num4 ,,xxvi1 #ef2 ,josh4 ,,xviii-,,xix2 ,prov4 ,,xviii1 #ah4 #did ,ex4 ,,xviii1 #cj2 ,i ,sam4 see ,,lxx2 ,,xiv1 #da4 #die ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #cb2 ,ps4 ,,lvi1 #i2 ,,cxxxix1 #af2 comp41 however1 the ,babylonian 8tables of destinies40 #dif ,isa4 ,,xl1 #ba2 ,,xli1 #d1 #bb f42 ,amos ,,iii1 #g4 #dig ,isa4 ,,liv1 #af4 #dih ,isa4 ,x1 #e1 #ae4 #dii ,isa4 ,,viii4 #aa2 ,ps4 ,,ii1 #b f42 ,deut4 ,,xxiii1 #f4 #ejj ,jer4 ,x1 #cc4 #eja ,aboth ,,iii1 #ae4 #ejb ,hul4 #g a4 #ejc ,gen4 ,,xxiv1 #ej2 ,m4 ,k4 #ah b4 #ejd ,ch4 ,,xxxiv4 #eje ,ber4 #cc b4 #ejf ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #ag b2 ,new ,year's liturgy4 #ejg ,h4 ,teshubah1 ,v1 #a-b4 #ejh ,see1 on the ,zagmuk festival1 ,zimmern1 ,k4 ,a4 ,t41 p4 #ead f4 #eji ,tos4 ,r4 h4 ,sh1 ,i1 #ac2 ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #af a4 #eaj ,saadia3 ,emunoth1 ,,iv1 #g2 ,bahya3 ,hoboth ha ,lebaboth1 ,,iii1 #h2 ,,iv1 #c4 #eaa ,h4 ,teshubah ,v2 ,moreh1 ,i1 #bc2 ,,iii1 #af-ai2 comp4 ,cuzari1 ,v1 #bj-ba2 ,albo3 ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #a-aa2 ,gersonides3 ,milhamoth1 ,,iii1 #b2 ,,vi1 #a-ah2 ,isaac ben ,shesheth3 ,responsa1 #aai2 ,lipman ,heller to ,aboth ,,iii1 #ae4 ,see ,joel3 ,levi ben ,gerson1 p4 #ef4 #eab ,see ,or ,adonai1 ,,ii1 #c2 comp4 ,joel3 ,hasdai ,crescas1 #da-di1 #ed-ee2 ,neumark3 8,crescas and ,spinoza10 in ,y4 ,b4 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r41 #aijh1 vol4 ,,xviii1 p4 #bgg-cai4 #eac ,or ,adonai1 ,,iii1 #bd4 #ead ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxxix1 #af2 comp4 ,matt4 ,x1 #bi4 #eae ,b4 ,b4 #af a2 comp4 ,matt4 ,x1 #cj2 ,luke ,,xii1 #g4 #eaf ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #aa4 #eag ,mek4 ,yithro #b2 ,sifre ad loc4 #eah ,shab4 #aai b4 #eai ,ps4 ,,xlvi1 #b2 ,,cxxi1 #d4 #ebj ,see ,david ,kaufmann3 8,theol4 d4 ,b4 b4 ,pakudah10 p4 #bdj4 #eba ,mid4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,xxxiv2 ,l4 ,ginzberg1 ,legends of the ,jews1 ,,iv1 #hi-ij2 ,alphabet of ,ben ,sira4 #ebb ,comp4 ,maasehhbuch2 ,tendlau3 ,sagen d4 jued4 ,vorzeit4 #ebc ,see ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ix1 #e1 #aj1 #aa2 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #cji-cah2 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #cdc-chd4 #ebd ,shab4 #ee a4 #ebe ,ber4 #e a1 after ,deut4 ,,viii1 #e2 ,prov4 ,,iii1 #ab4 #ebf ,isa4 ,,xlv1 #g4 #ebg ,deut4 ,,xi1 #bg2 see the ,midrash ad loc4 #ebh ,emunah ,ramah1 ed4 ,weil1 #ic f42 ,moreh1 ,,iii1 #aj4 #ebi ,see ,m4 ,lefkovitz1 8,the ,attitude of ,judaism to ,christian ,science10 in ,y4 ,b4 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r4 ,,xxii1 #cjj-cah4 #ecj ,see ,morris ,joseph1 l4 c41 p4 #ajh1 #abg ff42 ,c4 ,seligman1 l4 c41 #ej-fh4 #eca ,gen4 ,,vi1 #b2 ,job ,i1 #f2 ,,ii1 #a2 ,,xxxiii1 #g2 ,gen4 ,,xxxii1 #bi2 ,,xxxiii1 #aj2 ,jud4 ,,xiii1 #bb2 ,ps4 ,,viii1 #f4 #ecb ,comp4 ,mek4 ,yithro #g through #aj2 ,hul4 #dj2 ,tos4 ,hul4 ,,ii1 #ah2 ,ab4 ,z4 #db b2 ,maimonides to ,sanh4 ,x2 ,targ4 ,y4 to ,ex4 ,,xx1 #c4 #ecc ,deut4 ,,iv1 #ci4 #ecd ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #ci4 #ece ,isa4 ,,xliv1 #bd2 ,,xl1 #e4 #ecf ,gen4 ,,xviii and ,,xvii1 #aa1 #ac4 #ecg ,gen4 ,,vi1 #a f4 #ech ,comp4 ,ezek4 ,,xxviii1 #ac f4 #eci ,ps4 ,,lxxviii1 #be4 #edj ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #cah-ccc2 ,davidson1 l4 c41 #bhi-cjj2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,angelology2 ,enc4 ,rel4 and ,eth4 ,,iv1 #eid-fja1 art4 ,demons4 #eda ,lev4 ,,xvii1 #g2 ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #ag2 ,isa4 ,,xxxiv1 #ad4 #edb ,gen4 ,,xviii4 #edc ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #bj2 ,,ii ,sam4 ,,xxiv1 #af2 ,,ii ,kings ,,xix1 #ce et al4 ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,angelology4 #edd ,ex4 ,,iii1 #b-d2 ,,xxiii1 #bj-ba2 ,isa4 ,,lxiii1 #i4 #ede ,zech4 ,i1 #i f42 ,,ii1 #a f4 #edf ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,angelology4 #edg ,ezek4 ,i1 #d-bd2 ,x1 #a-bb2 ,isa4 ,,vi1 #b2 ,dan4 ,,iv1 #aj f42 ,,vii1 #i f42 ,,viii1 #af f42 ,x1 #ac f2 ,enoch ,,xv1 #a f41 and elsewhere4 #edh ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,merkabah1 though still doubted by ,bousset1 l4 c41 p4 #djf4 ,for ,akathriel see ,ber4 #g and ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,sandalfon4 #edi ,jubilees ,,ii1 #b2 ,slav4 ,enoch4 ,,xxix1 #c2 ,i1 #c2 ,gen4 ,r1 ,,iii1 #aa4 #eej ,yer4 ,ber4 ,,ix2 ,sanh4 #ic a2 ,hul4 #ia b2 ,ned4 #cb a2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 ,,xxi2 ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #ah2 ,,civ1 #a4 #eea ,neumark1 l4 c4 #eeb ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #fi-hg4 #eec ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,,ii1 #d-i2 ,moreh1 ,i1 #dc2 ,,ii1 #c-g1 #da2 ,,iii1 #ac2 ,husik1 l4 c41 #cjc f4 #eed ,emunoth1 ,,iv1 #a2 ,,vi1 #b2 ,hoboth ha ,lebaboth1 ,i1 #f2 ,cuzari1 ,,iv1 #c2 ,emunah ,ramah1 ,,iv1 #b2 ,,vi1 #a2 ,ikkarim1 ,,ii1 #bh1 #ca4 #eee ,zohar1 ,,iii1 #fh2 ,joel3 ,religionsphilosophie des ,zohar1 #bgh f4 #eef ,ned4 #bj b2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #ag-ah2 ,ibn ,ezra3 ,introduction to his commentary on the ,pentateuch4 #eeg ,compare ,gen4 ,r4 to ,gen4 ,i1 #ca4 #eeh ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #ai-bj4 #eei ,job ,i1 #f4 #efj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,demonology2 ,satan2 ,belial2 ,enc4 ,rel4 and ,eth41 art4 ,demons and ,spirits1 ,jewish2 ,davidson1 l4 c41 #cjj-cjf2 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #ccd-cdj2 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #a-ah4 #efa ,lev4 ,,xvii1 #g2 ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #ag2 ,isa4 ,,xiii1 #ba2 ,,xxxiv1 #ad4 #efb ,lev4 ,,xvi1 #h2 see ,ibn ,ezra2 ,j4 ,e4 and ,enc4 ,rel4 and ,eth41 art4 ,azazel4 #efc ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,beelzebub4 #efd ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,belial4 #efe ,enoch ,,vi1 #g2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,ashmodai2 ,levy3 ,w4 ,b41 ,shemachzai4 #eff ,levy3 ,w4 ,b41 ,lilith2 ,iggereth4 #efg ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,demonology4 #efh ,aboth ,v1 #f2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el41 ,,xix2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,vii1 #g4 #efi ,enoch ,,vii2 ,yalkut ,gen4 #dd1 #dg4 #egj ,erubin1 #ah b4 #ega ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el41 ,,xiii2 ,yalkut ,gen4 #be4 #egb ,see ,abrahams' ,ann4 to ,singers' ,prayerb4 ,,xliv f4 and for the ,church1 ,enc4 ,rel1 and ,eth41 ,demons and ,spirits1 ,christian4 #egc ,abrahams1 l4 c41 p4 #g1 #aif2 ,,xx1 ,,ccxv4 #egd ,ps4 ,,cix1 #f4 #ege ,zech4 ,,iii1 #a2 ,job ,i1 #f4 #egf ,i ,chron4 ,,xxi1 #a4 #egg ,see ,b4 ,wisdom ,,ii1 #bd2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el41 ,,xiii4 #egh ,shab4 #adf a2 ,yeb4 #ajc b2 ,ab4 ,zar4 #bb b4 #egi ,suk4 #eb a4 #ehj ,targ4 to ,isa4 ,,xi1 #d4 #eha ,b4 ,b4 #af a4 #ehb ,de ,gigantibus1 #b-d4 #ehc ,sifra ,lev4 ,,xvi1 #h2 ,yoma1 #fg b4 #ehd ,see the ,ethiopic 8,adam and ,eve02 ,c4 ,bezold1 ,die ,schalzhochle1 p4 #ah2 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxvi4 #ehe ,see ,d4 ,cassel3 ,cuzari1 p4 #djb note4 #ehf ,moreh ,,iii1 #bi-cg1 #df2 ,ibn ,ezra to ,job ,i1 #f2 comp4 ,finkelscherer3 ,maimunis' ,stellung zum ,aberglauben1 #ahid1 p4 #dj-ea4 #ehg ,christliche ,glaubenslehre1 ,,ii1 #ah4 #ehh ,euken1 ,d4 ,wahrheitsgehalt d4 ,religion1 p4 #chd1 #djb2 ,bousset1 ,wesen d4 ,rel41 p4 #bci4 #ehi ,see ,h4 ,cohen3 ,ethik des reinen ,willens1 #bhb f41 #cda f41 #dbh f41 #eic3 8,eine ,macht des ,boesen gibt es nur im ,mythos40 8,dieser ,mythos fuehrt folgerichtig sum mythologischen ,gottmenschen40 ,m4 ,joel1 in his article1 8,der ,mosaismus und das ,heidenthum10 in ,j4 ,b4 j4 ,gesch4 u4 ,lit1 #aijd1 p4 #di-ff1 ascribes the belief in demons to ,greek influence4 ,he holds that the prophetic teaching of ,god's unity was the best bulwark against demonology and mysticism4 #eij ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #cda-cea2 ,weber1 l4 c41 #agg-aij2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ccf1 #cdf2 ,davidson1 l4 c1 #cf-ch1 #aae-abi2 ,schechter1 ,aspects1 p4 #ba-de2 ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #ce-dh2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,holy ,spirit2 ,logos2 ,memra2 ,metatron2 ,name of ,god2 ,shekinah2 ,enc4 ,rel4 and ,eth41 ,i1 #cjh-cab4 #eia ,ps4 ,,lxxxii1 #a4 #eib ,ex4 ,,xxv1 #h4 #eic ,ber4 #ag a4 #eid ,see ,ber41 l4 c41 ,rab's reference to ,ex4 ,,xxiv1 #aa4 #eie ,john ,i1 #a-f4 #eif ,singer's ,prayerbook1 p4 #if1 #bib4 #eig ,ch4 ,,xxii4 ,see ,prov4 ,,viii1 #bb4 #eih ,,xxiv1 #i f4 #eii ,weber1 l4 c41 #aig f4 #fjj ,l4 c41 #agh f4 #fja ,see ,kohut3 ,jued1 ,angelologie1 #cf-ch2 ,schorr3 ,he ,halutz1 ,,viii1 #c2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,merkabah4 #fjb ,see ,targ4 ,yer4 to ,gen4 ,v1 #bd2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,metatron4 ,comp4 ,eth4 ,enoch ,,lxx1 #a1 and ,slav4 ,enoch ,,iii-,,xxiv4 #fjc ,gen4 ,i1 #b4 #fjd ,gen4 ,,ii1 #g2 ,,vi1 #c2 ,job ,,xxxii1 #h4 #fje ,num4 ,,xi1 #ag f42 ,,xxiv1 #b2 ,,xxvii1 #ah2 ,ex4 ,,xxviii1 #c2 ,,xxxi1 #c f42 ,isa4 ,,xi1 #b2 ,,lxi1 #a2 ,ezek4 ,i1 #ab1 #bj4 #fjf ,isa4 ,,lxiii1 #aj2 ,ps4 ,,li1 #ac4 #fjg ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,holy ,spirit4 #fjh ,see ,j4 ,e4 art41 ,bath ,kol4 #fji ,see ,tos4 ,sota ,,xiii1 #b2 ,,xxlv1 #aa2 compare ,levy3 ,w4 ,b41 ,shem2 ,geiger3 ,urschrift1 #bgc f4 #faj ,deut4 ,,xii1 #e1 #aa2 ,,ii ,sam4 ,,xii1 #bh2 ,neh4 ,i1 #i2 ,jer4 ,,vii1 #ab1 #ad4 #faa ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #ba4 #fab ,jer4 ,,xliv1 #bf2 ,isa4 ,,xlv1 #bc4 #fac ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,xxxviii1 #h2 ,,xci1 #h4 #fad ,taan4 ,,iii1 #h4 #fae ,prayer of ,manasses1 #c4 #faf ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,iii4 #fag ,see ,levy3 ,w4 ,b41 ,geburah4 #fah ,ex4 ,,xxi1 #f4 #fai ,ex4 ,,xxxiv1 #e f4 #fbj ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #h2 ,targ4 ,ps4 ,,lvi1 #aa1 and see ,siegfried3 ,philo1 #bac f4 #fba ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #e1 after ,ps4 ,,lxxxv1 #aa-ab4 #fbb ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,iii2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,l1 #a1 ref4 to ,prov4 ,,iii1 #ai-bj4 #fbc ,a4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,xxxvii1 ref4 to ,prov4 ,,iii1 #ai f42 ,ps4 ,,lxv1 #g2 ,,lxxxv1 #ba-bb2 ,job ,,xxvii1 #aa4 #fbd ,ref4 to ,hosea ,,ii1 #ba-bb4 #fbe ,hag4 #ab a4 #fbf ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,sefiroth1 the ,ten2 ,yezirah1 ,sefer4 #fbg ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,shekinah2 ,cuzari1 ,,ii1 #d2 ,,iv1 #c4 #fbh ,gen4 ,i1 #bf1 and the commentaries4 #fbi ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #i4 #fcj ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xiv1 #a4 #fca ,gen4 ,i1 #bh4 #fcb ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #ab2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el41 ,,xi4 #fcc ,sanh4 ,,iv1 #e1 correctly preserved in the ,yerushalmi1 and the addition in the ,babli1 ,me ,yisrael1 ought not to have been inserted by ,schechter1 ,ab4 d4 ,r4,n41 p4 #ij4 #fcd ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxxiv1 #c4 #fce ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,xxxi4 #fcf ,see ,jubilees ,,xv1 #bg2 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #g-i2 ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n41 ed4 ,schechter1 p4 #aec4 #fcg ,see ,jellinek3 ,bezelem ,elohim2 ,philippson1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #eh-gb2 ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #cbe4 ,the words of ,plato 7,state1 ,x1 #fac1 and ,thetetos1 #agf71 8,man should strive for ,god-likeness through virtue1 and be holy1 righteous and wise like the ,deity10 may have influenced the ethical interpretation of the ,biblical term4 #fch ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #a4 #fci ,see ,gen4 ,i1 #bf2 ,comm4 of ,rashi1 ,saadia1 ,ibn ,ezra1 ,nahmanides1 and ,ob4 ,sforno4 #fdj ,job ,,xxxii1 #h4 #fda ,zach4 ,,iii1 #g2 see comm4 #fdb ,gen4 ,,vi1 #ab1 #ai4 #fdc ,gen4 ,,ix1 #ba2 ,lev4 ,,xvii1 #aa1 #ad4 #fdd ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #cee-cfa2 ,davidson1 l4 c41 #ahb-bjc2 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xiv1 #aa1 where these three terms are given1 and also yehidah1 ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #ba2 ,,xxxv1 #ag1 and hayah1 ,ps4 ,,xcliii1 #c2 ,job ,,xxxiii1 #a4 #fde ,de ,leg4 ,alleg4 ,,iii1 #ch4 #fdf ,see ,horovitz3 ,d4 ,psychologie ,saadias2 ,scheyer3 ,d4 psycholog4 ,system d4 ,maimonides2 ,cassel's ,cuzari1 p4 #chb-djj2 ,husik1 l4 c41 ,,ix1 #da2 and see also ,index3 ,soul4 #fdg ,sanh4 #ia a1 b2 ,nid4 #cj b-#ca b2 ,sifre ,deut4 #cjf1 ref4 to ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #a2 ,lev4 ,,iv1 #e-h4 #fdh ,ab4 ,z4 #e a2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #a4 #fdi ,b4 ,wisdom1 ,,viii1 #bj2 ,slav4 ,enoch ,,xxiii1 #e2 ,philo ,i1 #ae1 #cb2 ,,ii1 #cef2 comp4 ,bousset1 l4 c41 p4 #ejh f4 #fej ,gen4 ,,vi1 #e2 ,,viii1 #ba2 ,b4 ,sira ,,xv1 #ad2 ,,xvii1 #ca2 ,,xxi1 #aa2 ,ber4 #e a2 ,kid4 #cj b2 ,suk4 #eb a1 b2 ,shab4 #aeb b2 ,eccl4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #g2 comp4 ,f4 ,ch4 ,porter3 8,the ,yezer ha ,ra0 in ,biblical and ,semitic ,studies1 #ic-aef2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #dfb f4 #fea ,suk4 #eb a1 b4 #feb ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #aa4 #fec ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,xxxi4 #fed ,aboth ,,iii1 #ah4 #fee ,ber4 #aj a2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #d-e4 #fef ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #ai2 ,deut4 ,,viii1 #f2 ,x1 #ab2 ,,xxxii1 #d4 #feg ,micah ,,vi1 #h4 #feh ,gen4 ,v4 #bb2 ,,vi1 #i2 ,,xvii1 #a-b4 #fei ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #h2 ,,xiv1 #f1 ref4 to ,josh4 ,,xiv1 #ae4 #ffj ,ezek4 ,,xxviii1 #ad4 #ffa ,prov4 ,,iii1 #ah4 #ffb ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xvi1 #aj2 ,shab4 #ee b4 #ffc ,b4 ,b4 #ae a4 #ffd ,shab4 #adf a2 ,yeb4 #ajc b2 ,ab4 ,zar4 #bb b2 ,shab4 #ee b4 #ffe ,b4 ,wisdom1 ,,ii1 #bd4 #fff ,romans ,v1 #ab f4 #ffg ,shab4 #adf a4 #ffh ,deut4 ,,xxiv1 #af2 ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #d4 #ffi ,shab4 #ee a1 b4 #fgj ,shab4 #cb b4 #fga ,b4 ,sira ,,xxv1 #bd4 #fgb ,yer4 ,shab4 ,,ii1 #e b4 #fgc ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xix1 #aj1 ref4 to ,gen4 ,,iii1 #f-g4 #fgd ,apoc4 ,baruch ,,xxiii1 #d2 ,,xlviii1 #db f42 ,,lvi1 #f2 and especially ,,liv1 #ad-ai2 ,,iv ,esdras ,,iii1 #g2 ,,vii1 #aa1 #aah4 #fge ,pesik4 #afj b2 ,num4 ,r4 ,,xiii1 #e4 #fgf ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el41 ,,xx2 comp4 ,adam and ,eve1 ,i2 ,erub4 #ah b4 #fgg ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #e2 ,,xix1 #aa2 ,,xxi1 #d f42 comp4 ,shab4 #ee b4 #fgh ,see ,windishman3 ,zoroastrische ,studien1 p4 #bg f4 #fgi ,eccl4 ,,vii1 #bi4 #fhj ,tanh4 ,yelamdenu to ,gen4 ,,iii1 #bb4 #fha ,eccl4 ,,xii1 #g4 #fhb ,shab4 #aeb b4 #fhc ,ber4 #hj a4 ,the rabbis did not have the belief that the body is morally impure and therefore the seat of the yezer ha ra1 as is stated by ,weber1 l4 c41 #bbh f4 ,see ,potter1 l4 c41 #ih-ajg2 ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #bdb-bib4 ,it is wrong also to explain ,ps4 ,,li1 #g1 8,behold ,i was brought forth in iniquity1 and in sin did my mother conceive me10 as inherited sinfulness1 as ,delitzsch and other ,christian commentators have done1 following ,ibn ,ezra1 who refers this to ,eve1 the mother of all men4 ,the correct interpretation is given by ,r4 ,ahha in ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xiv1 #e2 8,every sexual act is the work of sensuality1 the ,yezer ha ra40 ,comp4 ,yoma #fi b4 ,needless to say that ,hosea ,,vi1 #g2 ,isa4 ,,xliii1 #cg2 ,job ,,xxxi1 #cc do not refer to the sin of ,adam4 #fhd ,see ,ibn ,ezra to ,gen4 ,,iii1 #a4 #fhe ,see ,taan4 #aj a2 ,ber4 #cd b2 ,d4 comp4 ,enoch ,,xxix-,,xxxii2 ,seder ,gan ,eden1 in ,jellinek1 ,beth ha ,midrash1 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 #fhf ,moreh1 ,,ii1 #cj2 ,nahmanides to ,gen4 ,,iii1 #a4 #fhg ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xvi1 #h1 ref4 to ,gen4 ,,ii1 #ae4 #fhh ,pes4 #aaa a2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xx1 #bd4 #fhi ,seder ,olam at the close2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxiv1 #b4 #fij ,prov4 ,,xx1 #bg4 #fia ,job ,,xxxii1 #h4 #fib ,isa4 ,,xi1 #b4 #fic ,dan4 ,,ii1 #bj-ba4 #fid ,tanh4 ,miketz #i2 comp4 ,tanh4 ,yelamdenu ,wayakhel1 where the story is told differently4 #fie ,singer's ,prayerbook1 p4 #df4 #fif ,cuzari ,,iii1 #ai4 #fig ,ber4 #eh a2 ,singer's ,prayerb41 p4 #bia4 #fih ,yesode ha ,torah1 ,,ii1 #b4 #fii ,nethibot ,olam1 ,,xiv4 #gjj ,pes4 #id b4 #gja ,shaare ,shamayim1 ,,iv1 #c4 #gjb ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #ba b4 #gjc ,,ii ,sam4 ,,xxiii1 #b4 #gjd ,job ,,iv1 #ab-af4 #gje ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxiv1 #g2 comp4 ,jubilees ,,iii1 #ab4 #gjf ,see ,dillmann1 l4 c41 #cja f41 #cge2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,freedom of ,will4 #gjg ,gen4 ,,iv1 #g4 #gjh ,deut4 ,,xxx1 #ae-ai4 #gji ,jer4 ,,xxi1 #h4 #gaj ,see ,sifre ,deut4 #ec-ed2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,didache4 #gaa ,gen4 ,,iii1 #bb2 ,mek4 ,beshallah #f2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxi4 #e2 ,mid4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xxxvi1 #c2 ,,lviii1 #b4 #gab ,aboth ,,iii1 #ae1 but see ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #bhe1 note #d4 #gac ,ben ,sira ,,xv1 #aa-bj4 #gad ,enoch ,,xcviii1 #d4 #gae ,,ix1 #g4 #gaf ,,iv ,ezra ,,vii1 #abg-abi2 ,,ix1 #aj-aa4 #gag ,quod deus immutabilis1 #aj1 ,i1 #bgi2 ,di confusione linguarum1 #ce1 ,i1 #dcb2 ,quod deterius potiori insid4 #gah ,josephus1 ,j4 ,w41 ,,ii1 #h1 #ad2 ,ant4 ,,xviii1 ,i1 #c4 #gai ,ber4 #cc b4 #gbj ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxvii1 #g4 ,comp4 ,p4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xv4 #gba ,tanh4 ,toledoth1 ed4 ,buber1 #ba4 #gbb ,shab4 #ajd a2 ,yoma #ch b-#ci a2 ,yer4 ,kid4 ,i1 #fg d4 #gbc ,mak4 #aj b2 ref4 to ,ex4 ,,xxi1 #ab2 ,num4 ,,xxii1 #ab2 ,isa4 ,,xlviii1 #ag2 ,prov4 ,,iii1 #cd4 #gbd ,ex4 ,,iv1 #ba2 ,,vii1 #c1 and elsewhere2 see the ,jewish commentaries to these passages4 ,comp4 ,pes4 #afe a2 ,num4 ,r4 ,,xv1 #af4 ,see ,schechter1 ,aspects1 #bhi-bib4 #gbe ,saadia3 ,emunoth1 ,,iii1 #aed2 ,,iv1 #g f42 ,bahya3 ,hoboth haleboboth1 ,,iii1 #h2 ,cuzari1 ,v1 #bj2 ,moreh ,i1 #bc2 ,,iii1 #af2 ,h4 ,teshuba1 ,v2 ,gersonides3 ,milhamoth1 ,,iii1 #ajf2 ,albo3 ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #e-aj2 see ,cassel notes1 ,cuzari1 p4 #dad4 #gbf ,or ,adonai ,,ii1 #d2 comp4 ,bloch3 ,willensfreiheit des ,hisdai ,crescas2 ,neumark3 ,crescas and ,spinoza1 ,y4 ,b4 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r4 #aijh4 #gbg ,ex4 ,,xx1 #e4 #gbh ,sanh4 #bg b4 #gbi ,job ,,xiv1 #d4 #gcj ,pesik4 #bi b4 #gca ,h4 ,teshubah1 ,v4 #gcb ,see ,morgenstern1 8,the ,doctrine of ,sin in the ,babylonian ,religion10 in ,mitth4 ,vorderas4 ,gesellsch4 #aije4 #gcc ,gen4 ,,vi1 #c2 ,ps4 ,,lxxviii1 #ci4 #gcd ,sota #c a4 #gce ,suk4 #eb a1 b4 ,comp4 ,schechter1 8,the ,evil ,yezer1 ,source of ,rebellion and ,victory over the ,evil ,yezer10 l4 c41 #bdb-bib4 #gcf ,prov4 ,,xx1 #i4 #gcg ,eccl4 ,,vii1 #bj4 #gch ,job ,,iv1 #ag2 ,,xv1 #ad f2 ,,xxv1 #e4 #gci ,num4 ,,xx1 #ab2 ,,xxvii1 #ad4 #gdj ,yeb4 #aba b4 #gda ,mid4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xvi1 #b4 #gdb ,job ,,xv1 #ae4 #gdc ,midr4 ,teh4 eodem4 #gdd ,morgenstern1 l4 c4 #gde ,ex4 ,,xxx1 #cc1 #ch2 ,lev4 ,x1 #b2 ,,xvi1 #a-b2 ,num4 ,,xvii1 #bh2 ,,xviii1 #g4 #gdf ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #f f42 ,,xx1 #ac f42 ,isa4 ,,lvi1 #b f4 #gdg ,hos4 ,,vi1 #f2 ,mic4 ,,vi1 #h2 ,isa4 ,i1 #aa f4 #gdh ,i ,sam4 ,,xv1 #bb-bc4 #gdi ,job ,,xxxv1 #f-h4 #gej ,ps4 ,,li1 #f4 #gea ,sanh4 #ajg a4 #geb ,isa4 ,,lix1 #b4 #gec ,gen4 ,,iv1 #ac2 ,,xv1 #af2 ,,xix1 #ae2 ,ps4 ,,xl1 #ac4 #ged ,gen4 ,,xxvi1 #aj2 ,,xlii1 #ba2 ,ps4 ,,xxxiv1 #bb4 #gee ,lev4 ,,iv1 #ac f42 ,num4 ,v1 #f4 #gef ,ps4 ,,xix1 #ac4 #geg ,num4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #ai4 #geh ,num4 ,,xvi1 #bb4 #gei ,tanh4 ,korah1 ed4 ,buber1 #ai4 #gfj ,habak4 ,i1 #ac4 #gfa ,isa4 ,,xxxiii1 #ad4 #gfb ,isa4 ,,vi1 #e-g4 #gfc ,pes4 #de b2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxiii1 #i4 #gfd ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,cabala2 ,abelson1 ,jewish ,mysticism1 p4 #abg f41 #aga f4 #gfe ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,repentance2 ,claude ,montefiore3 8,rabbinical ,conceptions of ,repentance10 in ,j4 ,q4 ,r41 ,jan4 #aijd2 ,schechter1 ,aspects1 #cac-cdc4 ,the works of ,weber 7p4 #bfa f471 ,bousset 7p4 #ddf f471 and ,davidson 7l4 c41 #cbg-cch7 do not do justice to the ,jewish teachings4 #gff ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #d2 ,ps4 ,,xxxiv1 #ba2 ,prov4 ,,xiv1 #ab4 #gfg ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #cb2 ,,xxxiii1 #aa4 #gfh ,prov4 ,,xiii1 #ba4 #gfi ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #d4 #ggj ,lev4 ,i1 #d2 ,,iv1 #bf-ca4 #gga ,ps4 ,,xxv1 #h4 #ggb ,yer4 ,mak4 ,,ii1 #cg d2 ,pesik4 #aeh b4 ,see ,schechter1 l4 c41 p4 #bid1 note #a4 #ggc ,amos ,v1 #d4 #ggd ,isa4 ,,lv1 #g4 #gge ,deut4 ,,iv1 #cj2 ,,xxx1 #b-c4 #ggf ,amos ,,iv1 #f f4 #ggg ,hos4 ,,vi1 #a2 ,,xiv1 #b f4 #ggh ,jer4 ,,iii1 #ab-ac2 ,,iv1 #c2 #ad2 ,,xviii1 #aa4 #ggi ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #a-cb4 #ghj ,zech4 ,i1 #c4 #gha ,mal4 ,,iii1 #g4 #ghb ,joel ,,ii1 #ab-ac4 #ghc ,see ,ps4 ,,xxxii1 #a f4 #ghd ,jonah ,,iii-,,iv4 #ghe ,the ,hebrew teshubah is translated in ,greek metanoia1 meaning a change of mind4 #ghf ,pes4 #aai a2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xliii4 #ghg ,pes4 #ed a2 ,gen1 ,r4 ,i1 #e2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,iii2 ,singer's ,prayerb4 #bfg f4 #ghh ,shab4 #ef a2 ,ab4 ,z4 #d b-#e a2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xl1 #c2 ,,li1 #ac4 #ghi ,ter4 ,sanh4 ,x1 #gh c2 ,sanh4 #ajc a2 ,pes4 #afb2 ,prayer of ,manasseh4 #gij ,pesik4 #afj a-#afb2 ,shab4 #ef a1 b2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xi1 #f2 ,,xxii1 #ab-ac2 ,,xxxviii1 #i2 ,,xlix1 #f2 ,p4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xx2 ,,xliii2 ,num4 ,r4 ,,xviii1 #f2 ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,i1 #cb2 ,sanh4 #ajb b4 #gia ,yoma #hf a1 b2 ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xlix4 #gib ,mek4 ,shira #e2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #f2 ,,xxx1 #d2 ,,xxxii1 #aj2 ,,xxxviii1 #ad2 ,,lxxxiv1 #ah2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #a2 ,num4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #ac2 ,b4 ,wisdom ,,xi1 #bc2 ,,xii1 #aj1 #ai4 #gic ,sanh4 #ajh2 ,sibyllines1 ,i1 #abe-aih4 #gid ,cant4 ,r4 ,,vii1 #e1 ref4 to the name ,hadrach1 ,zech4 ,,ix1 #a4 #gie ,weber1 l4 c41 #bfa f42 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ddf f42 comp4 ,perles3 ,bousset4 #gif ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxii1 #bg2 comp4 ,sanh #ajg b4 #gig ,mek4 ,yithro ,i4 #gih ,erub4 #ai a4 #gii ,mid4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,i1 #ba f42 ,,ix1 #ac1 #ae2 ,,xi1 #e4 #hjj ,see ,maimonides1 ,bahya1 and others on ,teshubah2 comp4 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,repentance2 ,tobit ,,xiii1 #f2 ,,xiv1 #f2 ,philo ,,ii1 #dce4 #hja ,see ,schechter1 l4 c41 #cbc f4 #hjb ,sanh4 #ii a1 ,luke ,,xv1 #g4 ,the third ,gospel more than the others preserved the original ,jewish doctrines of the ,church4 #hjc ,job ,,xix1 #be4 ,the ,hebrew ,goel signifies kinsman as well as redeemer and avenger1 implying blood-relationship4 ,in ,job it means vindicator4 #hjd ,deut4 ,,xiv1 #a4 #hje ,mal4 ,,ii1 #aj4 #hjf ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #ac4 #hjg ,jer4 ,,ii1 #bg4 #hjh ,hosea ,,ii1 #a4 #hji ,see ,jer4 ,,iii1 #d4 #haj ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #i2 ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #g2 ,isa4 ,,lxiii1 #af2 ,,lxiv1 #g2 ,mal4 ,i1 #d2 ,i ,chron4 ,,xxix1 #aj4 #haa ,yoma ,,viii1 #i4 #hab ,sota ,,ix1 #ae4 #hac ,see next paragraph1 and the art4 ,abba in ,j4 ,e4 #had ,,ii ,sam4 ,,vii1 #ad4 #hae ,ps4 ,,lxxxix1 #bg-bh4 #haf ,jubilees ,i1 #bd4 #hag ,wisdom ,,ii1 #af2 ,v1 #e4 #hah ,psalms of ,solomon ,,xvii1 #bg4 #hai ,taan4 ,,iii1 #h4 #hbj ,ber4 ,v1 #a4 #hba ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,cxxi1 #a4 #hbb ,mek4 ,yithro #aa4 #hbc ,sifre ,deut4 #if2 ,hosea ,i1 #aj4 #hbd ,ex4 ,,iv1 #bb4 #hbe ,sifre ,deut4 #di4 #hbf ,sifre ,deut4 #if4 #hbg ,beza #cb b4 #hbh ,yeb4 #fa a4 #hbi ,aboth ,,iii1 #ac1 quoted above1 ,chap4 ,,xxxiv1 par4 #f4 #hcj ,sifra ,ahare #ac1 p4 #hf4 #hca ,ps4 ,,xlii1 #c4 #hcb ,mal4 ,i1 #aa4 #hcc ,with its azkarah1 the flame of incense rising in 8pyramidal0 form1 generally translated 8memorial10 or 8memorial-part40 ,lev4 ,,ii1 #i1 #af4 ,for sacrifice as means of atonement see ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #bie-cja4 #hcd ,amos ,v1 #ba-bd4 #hce ,hosea ,,vi1 #f4 #hcf ,isa4 ,i1 #aa-ah4 #hcg ,jer4 ,,vii1 #ba-bc4 #hch ,ps4 ,l1 #g-ac4 #hci ,ps4 ,,xl1 #g4 #hdj ,i ,sam4 ,i1 #ac-ad4 #hda ,often mentioned in the ,psalms1 under such terms as 8the congregation of the righteous10 8the holy ones10 8the devout ones10 etc4 #hdb ,see ,i ,kings ,,viii1 #dh2 ,dan4 ,,vi1 #aa4 #hdc ,isa4 ,,lvi1 #g4 #hdd ,tamid ,v1 #a2 comp4 ,kohler3 ,monatsschr41 #ahic1 p4 #dda4 #hde ,sifre ,deut4 #da3 8,what is meant by1 #8,to serve ,him with all your heart8' this is prayer40 #hdf ,ber4 #bf a4 #hdg ,ber4 #cb b2 ,midr4 to ,sam4 ,i1 #g4 #hdh ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xvi4 #hdi ,r4 ha ,sh4 #ag b4 #hej ,meg4 #ca b2 ,yer4 ,taan4 ,,iv1 #fh c4 ,but compare ,isaac ,aboab3 ,menorath ha ,maor1 ,,iii1 #c a2 ,bahya ben ,asher3 ,kad ha ,kemah1 art4 ,tefillah4 #hea ,jer4 ,,vi1 #bb4 #heb ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxii1 #e4 #hec ,cuzari1 ,,ii1 #be1 see note by ,cassel2 ,moreh1 ,,iii1 #cb2 comp4 ,midrash ,tadshe #ab2 ,i1 #agg f42 comp4 ,hebrews ,,ix-,x2 ,barnabas1 ,i1 #be4 ,s4 ,r4 ,hirsch in ,horeb p4 #fci f4 #hed ,see ,philipson3 ,the ,reform ,movement in ,judaism for the various views and debates on sacrifice and prayer4 ,i4 ,elbogen3 ,d4 jued4 ,gottesdienst i4 s4 geschichtl4 ,entwicklung1 p4 #cgd f41 #dce f41 is written in a more conservative spirit and unfavorable to ,american ,reform ,judaism4 ,comp4 for the traditional liturgy3 ,dembitz3 ,jewish ,services in the ,synagogue and ,home1 especially on the ,prayerbook1 p4 #bcc-bdf1 and for ,america1 #dig-dii4 #hee ,ex4 ,,xv1 #b4 #hef ,ps4 ,,lxv1 #c4 ,see ,wm4 ,james3 ,varieties of ,rel4 ,experience1 #dfc-dgg2 ,foster3 ,function of ,religion1 #ahc-ahe2 ,abelson3 ,jewish ,mysticism1 p4 #ae and elsewhere4 #heg ,yoma #ec b4 #heh ,yeb4 #fd a2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #f4 #hei ,ber4 #ee a4 #hfj ,ber4 #aj a4 #hfa ,ber4 #g a4 #hfb ,taan4 ,,iii1 #h2 ,ber4 ,v1 #f2 ,babl4 #cd b2 ,yer4 #i d4 #hfc ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xxii1 p4 #aad b2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xci1 #h2 see ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #aef2 #db4 #hfd ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #ca4 #hfe ,prov4 ,,xvi1 #cb4 #hff ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lix1 #a2 ,yeb4 #aje a1 where ,r4 ,johanan ben ,zakkai is mentioned instead of ,r4 ,meir2 ,albo3 ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #ah4 #hfg ,see ,steinschneider3 ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 #abf ff4 #hfh ,ps4 ,,cxlv1 #ah4 #hfi ,ps4 ,,cxxxix1 #d4 #hgj ,ps4 ,,lv1 #bc4 #hga ,ber4 #bi b2 ,tos4 ,ber4 ,,iii1 #g2 comp4 ,albo3 ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #bd4 #hgb ,job ,,xvi1 #ag2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxii1 #d2 comp4 ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #bbh4 #hgc ,ab4 ,z4 #gf4 #hgd ,ber4 #h a4 #hge ,ber4 #cj a4 #hgf ,hab4 ,,ii1 #bj4 #hgg ,sifre ,deut4 #da4 #hgh ,isa4 ,,lv1 #f4 #hgi ,ps4 ,,lxxiii1 #be1 #bh4 #hhj ,gen4 ,,iii1 #bb4 #hha ,gen4 ,v1 #bd2 ,,ii ,kings ,,ii1 #a4 #hhb ,isa41 ,,xxv1 #h4 #hhc ,isa4 ,,xxxviii1 #aa2 ,ps4 ,,cxvi1 #i4 #hhd ,ps4 ,,xviii1 #e1 and ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,belial4 #hhe ,ps4 ,,cxv1 #ag2 ,,lxxxviii1 #ac4 #hhf ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #ad1 #ai2 ,ps4 ,,lxxxviii1 #aa2 ,prov4 ,,ix1 #ah2 ,job ,,xxvi1 #e4 #hhg ,ps4 ,,xlix1 #ae4 #hhh ,see ,isa4 ,,viii1 #ai2 ,,xxviii1 #ae1 #ah2 ,i ,sam4 ,,xxix1 #g-ad4 #hhi ,job ,,xviii1 #ad2 ,ps4 ,,xlix1 #ae4 #hij ,ps4 ,,xlix1 #af2 ,job ,,xiv1 #ac4 #hia ,ps4 ,,cxxxix1 #h4 #hib ,ps4 ,,xvi1 #aj-aa2 ,hosea ,,xiii is a late emendation of the text4 #hic ,deut4 ,,xxx1 #ai2 ,jer4 ,,xxi1 #h2 ,ezek4 ,,xx1 #aa2 ,lev4 ,,xviii1 #e2 ,ps4 ,,xxxiv1 #c2 ,prov4 ,,iii1 #bb2 ,v1 #e f4 #hid ,isa4 ,,xxxviii1 #aj-bj4 #hie ,ps4 ,,lxxiii1 #be-bh4 #hif ,job ,,xix1 #be f41 challenges ,god to be his vindicator on earth or on his tomb1 testifying to his righteousness4 ,resurrection is denied directly3 ,,vii1 #h-ba2 ,,xiv1 #ab-bb4 ,the whole argument of the book excludes the thought4 #hig ,ber4 #fd a1 with ref4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxxiv1 #d4 #hih ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #ai4 ,read1 8thy dead instead of ,my dead40 ,the translation given here differs from the new translation4 #hii ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #f4 #ijj ,,ii ,kings ,,iv1 #bj-cg4 #ija ,ezek4 ,,xxxvii1 #a-ad4 #ijb ,dan4 ,,xii1 #b1 and comp4 ,,ii ,macc4 ,,vii1 #i-cf2 ,,xii1 #dc1 and the ,apocalyptic books such as ,enoch1 ,test4 ,twelve ,patriarchs1 ,jubilees1 ,psalms of ,solomon1 ,,iv ,ezra and ,baruch ,apocalypse1 whereas ,i ,macc41 ,judith and ,tobit1 belonging to the ,sadducean circles1 never allude to the future life4 #ijc ,passages like ,ps4 ,,ix1 #ah2 ,,xi1 #f2 ,,xlix1 #ae1 comp4 with ,isa4 ,,xxxiii1 #ad2 ,,lxv1 #bd2 ,mal4 ,,iii1 #ai1 lent themselves especially to this conception of ,sheol as a fiery place of punishment identified afterwards with ,gehinnom4 ,jer4 ,,vii1 #ca f42 ,,xix1 #f4 ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,gehenna1 and ,r4 ,h4 ,charles1 ,hebrew1 ,jewish and ,christian ,eschatology1 #b;d1 #aiac1 p4 #ge f41 #acb1 #afj f41 #bib f4 #ijd ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xi1 #e-f2 ,erub4 #ai a4 #ije ,sanh4 #ij b2 comp4 ,matt4 ,,xxii1 #cb4 #ijf ,sanh4 ,x1 #a2 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,resurrection1 and ,neumark1 art4 ,ikkarim in l4 c4 #ijg ,see ,singer's ,prayerb41 #dd f41 and ,abrahams' ,notes1 ,,lix4 #ijh ,prov4 ,,xii1 #bh1 comp4 ,,lxx1 and see ,kittel3 ,bibl4 ,hebr41 note4 #iji ,ps4 ,,xlviii1 #ae2 see ,kittel1 note2 ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,psalms and note by ,buber2 ,yer4 ,meg4 ,,ii1 #gc b2 ,m4 ,k4 #hc b2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xi1 #i4 #iaj ,see ,tylor3 ,primitive ,culture1 ,index1 s4 v4 ,soul4 #iaa ,gen4 ,,ii1 #g4 #iab ,eccl4 ,,xii1 #g4 #iac ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,birds as ,souls4 #iad ,prov4 ,,xx1 #bg4 #iae ,ber4 #fj b2 ,singer's ,prayerb41 #e4 #iaf ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #ai2 ,dan4 ,,xii1 #b4 #iag ,ezek4 ,,xxxvii1 #a f4 #iah ,eccl4 ,r4 ,,xii1 #e3 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,luz4 #iai ,judg4 ,i1 #bf4 #ibj ,sota #df b4 #iba ,brugsch3 ,religion u4 ,mythologie d4 alt4 ,aegypten1 p4 #fah1 #fcd4 #ibb ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xxxiv4 #ibc ,ber4 #ah b4 #ibd ,shab4 #aeb b4 #ibe ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,ciii1 #a4 #ibf ,sanh4 #ci b4 #ibg ,nid4 #cj b4 #ibh ,b4 ,wisd4 ,,viii1 #ai2 ,slav4 ,enoch ,,xxii1 #d1 comp1 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #cac f4 #ibi ,philo3 ,leg4 ,all4 ,,iii1 #ch2 ,migrat4 ,abrah4 #ab2 ,de ,concupiscentia1 #b2 ,de ,fortitudine1 #c2 ,drummond3 ,philo1 ,i1 #cah f42 ,bentwich3 ,philo1 #agh1 #aha2 ,windleband-,tufts on ,plato1 #abc f41 on ,philo1 #bca1 comp4 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ejh2 ,rhode3 ,psyche1 #eeg f4 #icj ,emunoth1 ,ch4 ,,vi2 ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #ace f42 ,neumark1 l4 c41 ,i1 #ecf f42 ,husik1 l4 c41 #cgf4 #ica ,neumark1 l4 c41 #die2 ,husik1 l4 c41 #ajh f42 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,bahya4 #icb ,cuzari1 ,v1 #ab4 ,see ,cassel1 notes2 ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #ada2 ,neumark1 l4 c41 #efa2 ,husik1 l4 c41 #agi f4 #icc ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #adi2 ,neumark1 l4 c41 #ecf f41 #eea1 #eeh1 #egc1 #ehf2 ,husik1 l4 c41 #bha f4 ,comp4 ,scheyer3 d4 ,psychol4 ,syst4 d4 ,maim42 ,simon1 ,aspects of the ,hebrew ,genius1 #ge-gh1 #hf4 #icd ,or ,adonai1 ,,ii1 #f2 ,joel3 8,crescas02 ,husik1 l4 c41 #djj4 #ice ,emunah ,ramah1 #ci2 ,husik1 l4 c41 #bei b4 #icf ,emunoth1 ,,vii4 #icg ,h4 ,teshubah1 ,,viii1 #b4 #ich ,maamar ,tehiyyath ha ,metim1 see ,schmiedl1 l4 c41 #agb4 #ici ,in ,schaar ha ,gemul4 #idj ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #ce4 #ida ,zohar1 ,i1 #if b2 ,yalk4 ,reubeni to ,deut4 ,,xix1 #b2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,cabala4 #idb ,see ,kayserling3 ,moses ,mendelssohn1 #adh ff4 #idc ,ps4 ,,xvii1 #ae4 #idd ,see ,j4 ,jastrow3 ,fact and ,fable in ,psychology4 #ide ,singer's ,prayerb41 #de4 ,the ,rabb4 ,conf4 of ,philadelphia in #ahfi passed the resolution3 8,the belief in the ,resurrection of the ,body has no religious foundation 7in ,judaism71 and the doctrine of ,immortality refers to the after-existence of the ,soul only10 ,comp4 ,d4 ,philipson3 l4 c41 p4 #dhi and #dib4 #idf ,jer4 ,,xxxii1 #ah4 #idg ,targ4 to ,ex4 ,,xx1 #e2 ,sanh4 #bg b4 #idh ,deut4 ,,xxiv1 #af4 #idi ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #b4 #iej ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #bj4 #iea ,,xviii1 #bc1 #cb4 #ieb ,ex4 ,,xviii1 #aa2 ,,xxi1 #bc-be2 ,sota ,i1 #g-i2 ,tos4 ,sota ,,iii-,,iv2 ,sanh4 #ij a2 ,b4 ,wisdom ,,xvi-,,xix2 ,jubilees ,,iv1 #ca2 ,,ii ,macc4 ,v1 #aj2 ,,xv1 #cb4 #iec ,prov4 ,,xi1 #ca2 ,,xiii1 #ba4 #ied ,see especially ,sanh4 #ij b-#ib b1 ref4 to ,ex4 ,,vi1 #d2 ,deut4 ,,xi1 #i2 ,,iv1 #e2 ,,xxxi1 #af2 ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #ai2 ,dan4 ,,xii1 #ac2 ,ps4 ,,lxxii1 #af2 also ,ex4 ,,xv1 #a2 ,josh4 ,,viii1 #cj2 and ,song of ,songs1 ,,vii1 #aj4 ,on the ,second ,death see ,targ4 to ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #f2 ,isa4 ,,xiv1 #ai2 ,,lxv1 #f2 ,jer4 ,,li1 #ci2 and ,revelation ,,xx1 #f1 #ad2 ,,xxi1 #h4 #iee ,,iv ,ezra ,,vii1 #ca f42 comp4 ,baruch ,apoc4 #db ff42 ,adam et ,eva1 #db2 ,,ii ,sibyll41 #bbj-bcf2 ,,iv ,sibyll41 #ahj f4 #ief ,aboth ,,iv1 #bb4 #ieg ,see ,stave1 ,ueb4 d4 ,einfluss d4 ,parsismus a4 d4 ,judenth41 #ade ff42 ,boecklen3 ,d4 ,verwandtschaft d4 jued1 christl4 u4 d4 pars4 ,eschatologie2 ,schorr3 ,he ,haluz1 ,,vii-,,viii4 #ieh ,sanb4 #ia a1 b2 ,matt4 ,,xxii1 #ca f4 #iei ,the parable is found in an ,apocryphon ascribed to the prophet ,ezekiel1 see ,epiphanius ,haeres1 ,,lxiv1 ed4 ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #fhc f4 and ascribed to ,r4 ,ishmael1 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,iv1 #e2 in ,sanh4 #ia a1 b it is given in a dialogue with ,antonius2 in ,tanh4 ,wayithro1 ed4 ,buber1 #ab1 it is anonymous4 #ifj ,ps4 ,l1 #d4 #ifa ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #bd2 see ,yalkut2 ,bousset1 #cjh-cba2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,eschatology4 #ifb ,aboth ,,iii1 #a1 #ai1 #bj2 ,ber4 #bh b4 #ifc ,aboth ,,iv1 #ba4 #ifd ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #c2 ,r4 ,h4 #af b2 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,purgatory4 #ife ,see ,testament of ,abraham ,,xiv2 comp4 ,kohler in ,j4 ,q4 ,r4 ,,vii1 #ehg4 #iff ,t4 d4 b4 ,el4 ,zuta ,,xvii1 ed4 ,friedman1 p4 #bc4 ,see note1 ,kalla ,r4 ,,ii41 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,kaddish1 but comp4 ,,iv ,ezra ,,vii1 #ajb-aae4 #ifg ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b2 ,sanh4 #aje a2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,ix1 #ah3 8,the wicked shall return to ,sheol1 all the nations that forget ,god10 ,r4 ,joshua taking the last sense as restrictive and ,r4 ,eliezer as a generalization4 #ifh ,for the banquet of the pious see ,aboth4 ,,iii1 #af2 ,shab4 #aec a2 ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xli2 comp4 ,luke ,,xiii1 #bh2 ,,xxii1 #cj1 and parallels4 ,the idea rests on ,isa4 ,,lxv1 #ac1 which is taken literally1 and ,ps4 ,,xxiii1 #e2 see ,midr4 ,teh41 ad loc4 ,for the ,leviathan and ,behemoth see ,job ,,xl1 #ae-cj2 ,b4 ,b4 #gd b-#ge a2 ,enoch ,,lx1 #g f42 ,,iv ,ezra ,,vi1 #eb2 ,baruch ,apoc4 ,,xxix1 #d2 ,targ4 ,ps4 ,,civ1 #bf2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xiii1 #c4 ,for the giant bird ,ziz see ,ps4 ,l1 #dj-da2 ,targ4 and ,midr4 ,teh41 ad loc42 ,tanh4 ,beshallah1 ed4 ,buber1 #bd2 ,jellinek1 ,b4 ,h4 ,,iii1 #gf1 #hj4 ,for the heavenly manna ,ps4 ,,lxxviii1 #bd2 ,joma #ge b2 ,hag4 #ab b2 ,tanh4 ,beshallah1 ed4 ,buber1 #ba2 ,sibyll4 ,prmium #hg2 ,,ii1 #cah2 ,,iii1 #gdf2 ,,iv ,ezra ,,ix1 #ai4 ,for the wine see ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxv1 #aj2 ,ber4 #cd b2 ,sanh4 #ii a2 ,matt4 ,,xxvi1 #bi2 comp4 also ,num4 ,r4 ,,xiii1 #c for other fruits of ,paradise4 ,for the ,persian origin of these ideas see ,bundahish1 ,,xix1 #ac2 ,,xxx1 #be4 ,the ,behemoth corresponds with the primeval ox ,hadhayos1 whose flesh produces the sap of immortality2 the giant fish and bird with ,bundahish1 ,,xviii1 #e-h2 ,,xix1 #af-ai2 the wine corresponds with the ,parsee ,hom3 ,bundahish1 ,,xxx1 #be4 ,see ,windishman3 ,zoroastr4 ,stud41 #ib f41 #beb f41 and ,boeklen1 l4 c41 p4 #fh4 #ifi ,shab4 #aec a1 with ref4 to ,isa4 ,,lxv1 #ac-ad2 ,,lxvi1 #bd2 ,,iv ,ezra ,,vii1 #hc1 #ic4 #igj ,ber4 #ag a4 #iga ,ber4 #cd b2 with ref4 to ,isa41 ,,lxiv1 #c4 #igb ,ab4 ,zar4 #cf with ref4 to ,mal4 ,,iii1 #ai-bb4 #igc ,see ,jellinek1 ,b4 ,h4 ,i1 ,,ii and ,,iii1 the ,treatise on ,gehinnom and ,gan ,eden4 #igd ,emunoth ,,vii1 ,,ix1 and comp4 ,j4 ,guttman2 ,religionsphil4 des ,saadia1 #bjh f41 #bdi f4 #ige ,see ,joel1 ,religionsphil4 d4 ,mose b4 ,maimon41 p4 #dj4 #igf ,cuzari1 ,i1 #ae2 ,v1 #ad2 ,or ,adonai ,,iii1 #d1 #b4 ,see ,joel3 ,crescas1 p4 #gd f42 ,albo3 ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #bi-da4 #igg ,nahmanides1 l4 c41 last chapter2 ,manasse b4 ,israel in ,nishmat ,chayim4 #igh ,aboth4 ,,iv1 #b4 #igi ,com4 to ,sanh4 ,,xi and ,h4 ,teshubah1 ,,viii4 #ihj ,ps4 ,,lxxiii1 #bh4 #iha ,or ,adonai1 ,,ii1 #ee2 ,,vi1 #a2 comp4 ,joel1 l4 c41 #ef-fb2 comp4 ,bahya3 ,hoboth1 ,halebaboth1 ,shaar ,bitahon4 #ihb ,see ,joel3 ,z4 ,gen4 d4 ,lehre ,spinoza1 p4 #fd4 #ihc ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #ce-ch4 #ihd ,ber4 #fd a1 with ref4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxxiv1 #h2 see also ,midr4 ,teh4 ad loc4 #ihe ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,adam1 and ,jellinek3 ,bezelem ,elohim1 ,sermon ,,iv4 ,the term humanity arose among the ,stoics4 ,see ,reizenstein3 ,wesen u4 ,werden d4 ,humanitt2 comp4 ,schmidt1 ,ethik d4 ,griechen1 ,,ii1 #cbd1 #dgg2 and ,zeller1 ,griech4 ,philo4 ,,iii1 #a1 #bhg1 #bii4 ,for the rabbinical ,berioth for humanity see ,b4 ,sira1 ,,xvi1 #af4 #ihf ,ps4 ,,cxxxix1 #af4 #ihg ,midr4 ,teh41 ad loc42 ,pesik4 ,r4 ,,xxiii2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxiv1 #b2 ,sanh4 #ch b after ,seder ,olam at the close4 #ihh ,gen4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #a4 #ihi ,eodem2 ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,cxxxix1 #e2 ,ber4 #fa a4 #iij ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxiv1 #h4 #iia ,tos4 ,ber4 ,,vii1 #b2 ,ber4 #eh a4 #iib ,ber4 #f b2 ,shab4 #cj b2 see ,rashi 7against ,bacher3 ,ag4 ,tann41 ,i1 #dcb74 #iic ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #b4 #iid ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lvi1 #i4 #iie ,isa4 ,,lxv1 #ah2 see ,yeb4 #fb a4 #iif ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xvii1 #b4 #iig ,for the term ,aguddah ,ahath in the ,new ,year and ,atonement ,day ,prayer1 ,singer's ,prayerbook1 p4 #bci1 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxxxviii1 #f1 and ,,xxxix1 #c4 #iih ,isa4 ,,xlv1 #ah4 #iii ,yeb4 #fb a1 b #ajjj ,yoma ,i1 #a4 #ajja ,prov4 ,,xxii1 #bi4 #ajjb ,ps4 ,,cxxviii1 #b4 #ajjc ,ber4 #h a4 #ajjd ,ned4 #di b4 #ajje ,keth4 ,v1 #e1 #ei b4 #ajjf ,kid4 #bi a2 comp4 ,r4 ,simeon b4 ,yohai1 ,mek4 ,beshallah1 #ef4 #ajjg ,kid4 #hb a4 #ajjh ,abot4 ,i1 #aj2 ,,ii1 #b2 ,b4 ,b4 #aa a4 #ajji ,taan4 #aa a4 #ajaj ,yer4 ,kid4 ,,iv at the close4 #ajaa ,taan4 #bc a4 #ajab ,abot4 ,v1 #ai4 #ajac ,prov4 ,,xxvii1 #ag4 #ajad ,taan4 #g a4 #ajae ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,abraham4 #ajaf ,abot4 ,,iv1 #a2 ,b4 ,k4 #gi b2 ,ber4 #ai b4 #ajag ,sota #ad a4 #ajah ,jer4 ,,xxix1 #g2 comp4 ,abot4 ,,iii1 #b4 #ajai ,b4 ,k4 #aac a and elsewhere4 #ajbj ,ber4 #eh a4 #ajba ,ex4 ,,xix1 #d-e4 #ajbb ,deut4 ,,vii1 #f-h2 ,x1 #ae2 ,,xiv1 #b4 ,comp4 ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #eg ff4 #ajbc ,see ,singer's ,prayerbook1 #bbf f4 #ajbd ,hos4 ,,xi1 #a2 ,,xii1 #aj2 ,,xiii1 #d4 #ajbe ,jer4 ,,ii1 #c4 #ajbf ,amos ,,iii1 #b4 #ajbg ,isa4 ,,xli1 #h f42 ,,xlii1 #f2 ,,xliii1 #aj2 ,,xlix1 #h4 #ajbh ,,cv1 #g f41 comp4 ,neh4 ,,ix1 #g4 #ajbi ,singer's ,prayerb41 p4 #dj4 #ajcj ,isa4 ,,lii1 #c-,,liii1 #ab4 #ajca ,meg4 #af a4 #ajcb ,beza #be b4 #ajcc ,yeb4 #gi a4 #ajcd ,shab4 #hh a4 #ajce ,cant4 ,r4 ,,iv1 #b2 ,tanh4 ,tezaveh #a4 #ajcf ,menah4 #ec b with ref4 to ,jer4 ,,xi1 #af4 #ajcg ,sifre to ,deut4 ,,xiv1 #b4 #ajch ,deut4 ,,vii1 #f2 ,,xiv1 #b4 #ajci ,isa4 ,,ii1 #c2 ,micah ,,iv1 #b--passages considered by modern critics to be of exilic origin4 #ajdj ,see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #fj-ii4 #ajda ,gen4 ,r4 to ,gen4 ,,xii1 #d1 and see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,abraham4 #ajdb ,pes4 #hg b4 with ref4 to ,hosea ,,ii1 #be4 #ajdc ,cuzari ,,iv1 #bc2 ,maim4 ,h4 ,melakim ,,xi1 #d4 #ajdd ,see ,geiger3 ,zeitschr4 #ahfh1 p4 #ah ff42 #ahfi1 #ee ff4 #ajde ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,alenu2 ,singer's ,prayerb41 #gf f4 #ajdf ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,kaddish4 #ajdg ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #i4 #ajdh ,see ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #hi f41 #ic f4 #ajdi ,isa4 ,,xlix1 #f4 #ajej ,isa4 ,,lii1 #aj #ajea ,micah ,v1 #f4 #ajeb ,judg4 ,,viii1 #bc4 #ajec ,i ,sam4 ,,viii1 #g2 ,,xii1 #ab1 #ag f4 #ajed ,hos4 ,,xiii1 #aa4 #ajee ,isa4 ,,ix1 #e2 ,,xi1 #a-aj4 #ajef ,isa4 ,,iv1 #b2 ,jer4 ,,xxiii1 #e2 ,,xxxii1 #ae2 and ,zech4 ,,iii1 #h2 ,,vi1 #ab4 ,here ,zerubbabel is referred to4 #ajeg ,isa4 ,,xli1 #ba2 ,,xliii1 #ae2 ,,xliv1 #f4 ,comp4 ,,xliii1 #bb4 #ajeh ,isa4 ,,xlv1 #a4 #ajei ,isa4 ,,xi1 #i2 ,hab4 ,,ii1 #ad4 #ajfj ,isa4 ,,vi1 #e2 ,,xxiv1 #bc4 ,comp4 ,jer4 ,,xlvi1 #ah2 ,,xlviii1 #ae4 #ajfa ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #i2 ,mal4 ,i1 #ad4 #ajfb ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #bi2 ,,xciii1 #a2 ,,xcv1 #ii4 #ajfc ,jer4 ,x1 #g4 ,this chapter is post-exilic2 comp4 ,jer4 ,,xlvi1 #ah2 ,,xlviii1 #ae and ,i ,chron4 ,,xxix1 #aa4 #ajfd ,singer's ,prayerb41 #bci4 #ajfe ,ps4 ,,xlviii1 #c4 #ajff ,cont4 ,apion1 ,,ii1 #af1 #g4 #ajfg ,dan4 ,,vii1 #bg4 #ajfh ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,zealots4 #ajfi ,shab4 #ca a4 #ajgj ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #bh2 ,,lxvii1 #c2 ,,lxxxvi1 #aj2 ,,cxvii1 #a4 #ajga ,ps4 ,,cv1 #ae4 #ajgb ,ps4 ,,lxxxvii1 #e4 ,see ,commentaries and ,,lxx4 #ajgc ,ruth ,,ii1 #ab4 ,comp4 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #h4 #ajgd ,see both ,enoch books and ,b4 ,sira ,,xliv1 #af4 #ajge ,sibyll4 ,i1 #abh-agj2 ,sanh4 #ajh a4 #ajgf ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxxix1 #ba4 #ajgg ,sifre ,deut4 #cac1 with ref4 to ,gen4 ,,xxiv1 #c4 #ajgh ,see ,dillmann's ,comm4 to ,gen4 ,,xii1 #b2 ,,xxii1 #ah2 and ,kuenen3 ,the ,prophets and ,prophecy1 #cgc1 #deg4 #ajgi ,gen4 ,,xvii1 #e4 #ajhj ,ezek4 ,,xx1 #cc4 #ajha ,sifre1 l4 c4 #ajhb ,p4 ,d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xi2 ,mek4 ,yithro #f2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #d4 #ajhc ,sifra ,behukkothai ,,viii with ref4 to ,ezek4 ,,xx1 #cc2 ,sanh4 #aje a4 #ajhd ,mek4 ,beshallah ,x1 p4 #eb4 #ajhe ,tanh4 ,lek leka #f4 #ajhf ,tobit ,,xiii1 #a-aa2 ,sibyll4 ,,iii1 #dg1 #gf b4 #ajhg ,ps4 ,,cxvii2 ,,cxviii1 #d4 ,see chapter ,,lvi4 #ajhh ,singer's ,prayerb41 #dh4 #ajhi ,mek4 ,amalek at close2 ,cant4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #bh2 ,,iv ,ezra ,,vi1 #i-aj4 #ajij ,b4 ,wisdom ,v1 #af2 ,sibyll4 ,,iii1 #gf b4 #ajia ,sifra ,kedoshim at close2 ,sifre ,deut4 #cbc4 #ajib ,cuzari ,,iv1 #bc2 ,maim4 ,h4 ,melakim ,,xi1 #d4 #ajic ,maim43 ,commentary to ,eduyoth at close4 #ajid ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xxxiv1 p4 #aeh ref4 to ,zeph4 ,,iii1 #h4 ,see ,friedman's note4 #ajie ,zech4 ,,iv1 #f4 #ajif ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b4 #ajig ,p4 #cgd-cgh4 #ajih ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #bb4 #ajii ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ccb4 #aajj ,isa4 ,,lxi1 #f4 #aaja ,ex4 ,,xix1 #bb f4 #aajb ,lev4 ,,xxi1 #f2 ,,xxii1 #b4 #aajc ,lev4 ,,viii1 #b1 #h4 #aajd ,num4 ,,xviii1 #g4 #aaje ,m4 ,k4 #bh b4 #aajf ,ezek4 ,,xl-,,xlviii4 #aajg ,deut4 ,x1 #af4 ,comp4 ,jer4 ,,ix1 #bd4 #aajh ,gen4 ,,xvii1 #i4 #aaji ,lev4 ,,xxv1 #a-bd4 #aaaj ,deut4 ,,xiv1 #b-aa2 ,lev4 ,,xi4 ,comp4 ,ezek4 ,,xliv1 #ca1 and ,judg4 ,,xiii1 #d4 #aaaa ,num4 ,,xv1 #dj4 #aaab ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,pharisees4 #aaac ,,ii ,macc4 ,,ii1 #ag4 #aaad ,aboth4 ,i1 #a4 #aaae ,see ,perles3 ,bousset1 #fh1 #hi4 #aaaf ,aristeas #aci-aeb4 #aaag ,ned4 #bj a4 #aaah ,see ,schechter1 ,studies1 ,i1 #bcc ff4 ,i4 ,abrahams in ,j4 ,q4 ,r4 ,,xi1 #fb2 b ff41 and ,claude ,montefiore1 ,j4 ,q4 ,r4 ,,xiii1 #afa-bag4 #aaai ,lev4 ,,xxii1 #cb4 #aabj ,sifra ,emor4 ,,ix4 #aaba ,yesode ha ,torah ,v4 ,comp4 ,lazarus3 ,ethics1 #bi1 #ahd4 #aabb ,isa4 ,,xliii1 #ab4 #aabc ,pesik4 #ajb b4 #aabd ,perles1 l4 c41 #fh f4 #aabe ,yer4 ,b4 ,m4 ,,ii1 #h c4 #aabf ,sifra ,kedoshim #a4 #aabg ,mak4 #bc b4 #aabh ,ps4 ,,xxiv1 #c-d2 ,,xv1 #a-e4 #aabi ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #d4 #aacj ,num4 ,,xi1 #bi4 #aaca ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #cd4 #aacb ,isa4 ,,liv1 #ac4 #aacc ,deut4 ,,iv1 #f4 #aacd ,isa4 ,,xlii1 #d4 #aace ,isa4 ,,ii1 #c2 ,micah ,,iv1 #b4 #aacf ,see ,guedemann3 ,das ,judenthum1 #fg f42 ,jued4 ,apologetik1 #ab;b2 ,schechter3 ,studies1 ,i1 #bcc f41 and ,aspects1 ,i1 #aaf f4 #aacg ,,ii ,kings ,,xxii1 #h f4 #aach ,neh4 ,,viii-,x4 #aaci ,see ,gunkel3 ,israel u4 ,babylonien2 ,jeremias3 ,moses u4 ,hammurabi2 ,h4 ,grimme3 ,d4 ,gesetz ,chammurabi's u4 ,moses'2 ,george ,cohen3 ,d4 ,gesetze ,hammurabi's2 ,d4 ,m4 ,mueller3 ,d4 ,gesetz ,hammurabi's u4 d4 mosaische ,gesetzgebung4 #aadj ,see ,chapter ,,lix4 #aada ,sota #ad a4 #aadb ,yer4 ,kid4 ,,iv1 #a2 #fe c4 #aadc ,sifra ,ahare ,moth #ac4 #aadd ,deut4 ,,vi1 #g2 ,,xi1 #ai2 ,,xxx1 #ad2 ,ex4 ,,xiii1 #i4 #aade ,deut4 ,,xxxi1 #ab4 #aadf ,see ,elbogen3 ,d4 ,jued4 ,gottesdienst1 #agd f4 #aadg ,isa4 ,,li1 #d1 #g-h4 #aadh ,ps4 ,,xix1 #g-aj4 #aadi ,aboth ,i1 #b4 #aaej ,mek4 ,beshallah #de b1 note by ,friedman2 ,yalkut ,yithro #bhf4 #aaea ,b4 ,sira ,,xxiv1 #h-aj2 comp4 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #acf f4 #aaeb ,see ,josephus3 ,cont4 ,apion4 ,,ii1 #cf f41 #ci2 ,aristobulus in ,eusebius3 ,prep4 ,ev4 ,,xiii1 #aba1 #dac2 ,cuzari1 ,i1 #fc f42 ,,ii1 #ff2 comp4 ,cassel1 l4 c4 ad loc4 #aaec ,josephus1 l4 c41 ,i1 #bb2 ,gutschmidt3 ,kleine ,schriften1 ,,iv1 #egh2 ,th4 ,reinach3 ,textes ,relatifs au ,judaism1 #aa-ac4 #aaed ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,adonai4 #aaee ,ps4 ,,cxv1 #aa2 ,,cxviii1 #d2 comp4 ,bernays3 ,ges4 ,abh41 ,,ii1 #ga2 ,schuerer1 l4 c41 ,,iii1 #abd f4 #aaef ,shab4 #hh b42 ,ex4 ,r4 ,v1 #i2 ,tanh4 ,shemoth1 ed4 ,buber1 #bb2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,lxviii1 #f2 ,acts ,,ii1 #f2 ,spitta3 ,apostelgeschichte1 #bg1 referring to ,philo ,,ii1 #bie4 #aaeg ,sifre ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #b2 ,,xxvii1 #h2 ,sota #ce b4 #aaeh ,shab41 #hh a1 b4 #aaei ,aboth ,i1 #ab4 #aafj ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,zealots4 #aafa ,ber4 #fa b4 #aafb ,weber1 l4 c41 #df-ef2 he fails completely to grasp this spirit4 #aafc ,song of ,songs1 ,v1 #b4 #aafd ,aboth4 ,,iii1 #ba4 #aafe ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #ah4 ,see ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xcix1 #aa4 #aaff ,gen4 ,l1 #bj4 #aafg ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 8,commerce02 ,american ,encyclopedia1 art4 ,jewish ,commerce2 ,publ4 ,am4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,x1 #dg2 ,schulman in ,judaean ,addresses1 ,,ii1 #gg ff41 and ,lecky3 ,rationalism in ,europe1 ,,ii1 #bgb4 #aafh ,see ,saadia3 ,emunoth1 ,,iii1 #ag1 quoted by ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #aje4 #aafi ,isa4 ,,ii1 #b2 ,micah ,,iv1 #a2 see ,pesik #add b2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xxxvi1 #f2 ,,lxxxvii1 #c4 #aagj ,ps4 ,,xliv1 #ab-be4 #aaga ,ezek4 ,,xxxix1 #bc-bf4 #aagb ,lev4 ,,xxvi1 #dj-db4 #aagc ,i ,kings ,,viii1 #dg-ej4 #aagd ,ps4 ,,cxix1 #ib4 #aage ,pesik4 #aci b4 #aagf ,ezek4 ,,xviii1 #b4 #aagg ,isa4 ,,xl1 #b4 #aagh ,job ,i1 #h2 ,,ii1 #c2 ,,xlii1 #g1 #h4 #aagi ,isa4 ,,xlii1 #a f42 ,,xlix1 #a2 ,l1 #d2 ,,lii1 #ac-,,liii1 #ab4 #aahj ,see ,ibn ,ezra1 quoting ,saadia2 ,ewald and ,giesebrecht1 commentaries2 ,sellin3 ,serubabel1 #if f41 #add f42 also ,davidson1 l4 c41 p4 #cef-cih4 #aaha ,isa4 ,,lii1 #ac-,,liii1 #ab4 ,in ,,liii1 #i1 we should read 8the evil-doers0 instead of 8the rich0 by a slight amendment of the text4 #aahb ,isa4 ,l1 #f4 #aahc ,isa4 ,,xlii1 #d4 #aahd ,isa4 ,,xlix1 #a-f4 #aahe ,job ,,xlii1 #aj-ag4 #aahf ,the disappointment is especially voiced in ,ps4 ,,lxxx1 #af f42 ,,lxxix1 #dj-df4 #aahg ,see ,targum and ,abravanel to ,isa4 ,,lii1 #ac2 comp4 ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xxxvi-,,xxxvii2 ,sanh4 #ih b4 #aahh ,he is called ,taeb 8,moses redivivus10 after ,deut4 ,,xviii1 #ah4 ,merk1 ,e4 ,samarit4 ,fragment ueb4 d4 ,taeb4 ,see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #beh2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,samaritans4 #aahi ,suk4 #eb a2 ,jellinek3 ,b4 ,h4 ,,iii1 #ada f2 ,schuerer1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #ece4 #aaij ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,messiah4 #aaia ,contra ,celsum ,i1 #aee4 #aaib ,see commentaries of ,cheyne1 ,duhm1 ,giesebrecht1 and others4 #aaic ,isa4 ,l1 #h-i4 #aaid ,comp4 ,pesik4 #aca b2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #g4 #aaie ,zech4 ,,ii1 #ab4 ,see ,geiger3 ,urschrift1 #cbd1 as to the ,soferic ,emendation4 #aaif ,pesik4 #gf a2 ,eccl4 ,r4 ,,iii1 #ai2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxvii1 #e4 #aaig ,yoma #bc a1 referring to ,jud4 ,v1 #ca4 #aaih ,see ,gressmann3 ,urspr4 d4 israel4 u4 jued4 ,eschatologie1--an instructive work1 but full of unsubstantiated assertions1 thus failing to do justice to the creative genius of the ,jewish prophets4 #aaii ,isa4 ,,xi1 #a-h4 #abjj ,isa4 ,,ix1 #e2 the note in the new ,jewish translation takes the words in a different sense4 #abja ,jer4 ,,xxiii1 #e2 ,,xxxiii1 #ae2 ,zech4 ,,iii1 #h2 ,,vi1 #ab2 see ,sellin4 l4 c4 ,compare ,ps4 ,,lxxx1 #af f42 ,,lxxxiv1 #aj2 ,,lxxxix1 #ci1 #eb2 ,,cxxx1 #aj2 see ,ewald's commentary4 #abjb ,ezek4 ,,xxxviii-,,xxxix2 ,sibyll4 ,,iii1 #ffc2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,gog u4 ,magog2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #bca f4 #abjc ,for the prince of peace1 see1 for example1 ,zech4 ,,ix1 #i4 #abjd ,see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #bee-bfa4 #abje ,see ,targum to ,isa4 ,,xi1 #d1 where the older ,mss4 read ,arimalyus1 later on corrupted into ,armillus4 ,see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #ehi4 #abjf ,dan4 ,,ii2 ,,vii2 ,,ix2 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,eschatology4 #abjg ,sota ,,ix1 #ae2 ,enoch ,,xcix1 #d2 ,c1 #a2 ,matt4 ,,xxiv1 #h2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #bhf4 #abjh ,mal4 ,,iii1 #bc2 ,b4 ,sira ,,xlviii1 #aj f42 ,sibyll4 ,,ii1 #ahg4 #abji ,isa4 ,,xxvii1 #ac2 ,b4 ,sira ,,xxxvi1 #ac2 ,tobit ,,xiii1 #ac2 ,enoch ,,xc1 #cb2 ,,ii ,macc4 ,,ii1 #ah2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #bga4 #abaj ,see ,chap4 ,,lii4 #abaa ,,iv ,ezra ,,viii1 #bh4 #abab ,sanh4 #if f42 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,eschatology2 ,bousset1 l4 c4 #abac ,sanh4 #ig a1 b1 #ii4 #abad ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,cxlvi1 #d2 see ,buber's note4 #abae ,ket4 #aaa-aab2 comp4 ,irenus3 ,adver4 ,haeres4 ,v1 #cb4 #abaf ,see ,ekah4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #b2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,bar ,kokba4 #abag ,pesik4 #add a1 b4 #abah ,ber4 #cd b4 #abai ,sanh4 #ig b4 #abbj ,sanh4 #ig a4 #abba ,sanh4 #ih b4 #abbb ,commentary to ,san4 ,x2 ,yad1 ,h4 ,melakim1 ,,xi-,,xii2 ,h4 ,teshubah ,,viii-,,ix4 #abbc ,notes of ,r4 ,a4 ,b4 ,d4 to ,maimuni4 #abbd ,ikkarim1 ,,iv1 #db4 #abbe ,see ,philipson3 ,the ,reform ,movement in ,judaism1 #bdf f4 #abbf ,see ,einhorn3 ,sinai ,i1 #acc2 ,leopold ,stein3 ,schrift des ,lebens1 #cbj1 #ccf4 ,for the term ,messiah comp4 ,ps4 ,,lv1 #ae2 ,hab4 ,,iii1 #ac2 also ,ps4 ,,xxviii1 #h2 ,,lxxxiv1 #aj2 ,,lxxxix1 #ci1 #eb4 #abbg ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,resurrection4 #abbh ,deut4 ,,xxxii1 #ci2 see ,sifre ad loc4 #abbi ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #f2 see ,midr4 ,sh'muel1 ad loc4 #abcj ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #ai2 ,dan4 ,,xii1 #b4 #abca ,hosea ,,vi1 #a-b2 comp4 ,,xiii1 #ad4 #abcb ,ezek4 ,,xxxvii1 #a-ad4 #abcc ,isa4 ,,xxv1 #h4 #abcd ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #ai4 ,instead of 8my dead bodies0 in the new ,bible translation1 read 8thy dead10 and instead of 8light0 translate oroth1 after ,,ii ,kings ,,iv1 #ci1 8herb10 which means 8dew of revival02 the last is also a rabbinic term4 #abce ,dan4 ,,xii1 #b4 #abcf ,see ,,ii ,macc4 ,,vii1 #i-cf2 ,,xii1 #dc2 ,,xiv1 #df2 ,sibyll4 ,,ii1 #dg2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xvii1 #ac4 #abcg ,see ,joel ,,iv1 #b2 ,erub4 #ai a1 ref4 to ,isa4 ,,xxxi41 #i2 ,enoch ,,xxviii1 #a4 #abch ,isa4 ,,lx1 #ba4 #abci ,sanh4 ,x1 #a4 #abdj ,kid4 ,i1 #aj2 ,matt4 ,v1 #e1 ref4 to ,ps4 ,,xxxvii1 #aa2 ,enoch ,v1 #g4 #abda ,ezek4 ,,xxvi1 #bj4 #abdb ,isa4 ,,xlii1 #e4 #abdc ,keth4 #aaa a4 #abdd ,ps4 ,,cxvi1 #i2 ,yer4 ,keth4 ,,xii1 #ce b2 ,pesik4 ,r1 ,i1 #b b4 #abde ,ber4 #ae b2 ,alphabet d4 ,r4 ,akiba in ,jellinek1 ,b4 ,h4 ,,iii1 #ca2 ,targum ,yer4 to ,ex4 ,,xx1 #ae2 ,i ,cor4 ,,xv1 #eb4 #abdf ,keth4 l4 c4 #abdg ,ex4 ,,iv1 #bb4 #abdh ,isa4 ,,xix1 #be4 #abdi ,isa4 ,,xlii1 #d2 ,,xlv1 #bc2 ,,li1 #e2 ,zeph4 ,,iii1 #i2 ,zech4 ,,viii1 #bb2 ,,xiv1 #i4 #abej ,lev4 ,,xx1 #bf2 ,deut4 ,,xx1 #af-ah2 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #d2 ,,iii1 #aj4 #abea ,weber4 l4 c41 #eg-gi4 #abeb ,gen4 ,,xiv1 #ac2 ,,xxi1 #cb4 #abec ,i ,kings ,,xx1 #ca4 #abed ,amos ,i-,,ii2 ,isa4 ,,xxix-,,xxxiii2 ,jer4 ,,xxv f42 ,hab4 ,i4 #abee ,gen4 ,,xviii1 #be4 #abef ,gen4 ,,xx1 #c4 #abeg ,job ,,xxxi4 #abeh ,kid4 #ca a4 #abei ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b2 ,b4 ,b4 #aj b4 #abfj ,see ,lazarus3 ,ethics1 #di and appendix4 #abfa ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #cb4 #abfb ,deut4 ,,vii1 #b2 ,,xx1 #af f4 #abfc ,shab4 #bg b2 ,jubil4 ,,xxii1 #af4 #abfd ,isa4 ,,lx1 #ab2 ,,lxiii1 #f2 ,,lxvi1 #ad f42 ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #b f42 ,joel ,,iv1 #i-ai2 ,jer4 ,x1 #be2 ,ps4 ,,ix1 #af1 #ah1 #bj2 ,x1 #ag4 #abfe ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b4 #abff ,jonah ,,iii-,,iv4 #abfg ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #ai-ba4 #abfh ,zech4 ,,ix1 #a2 ,cant4 ,r4 ,,vii1 #aj4 #abfi ,sanh4 #ajh a2 ,sibyll4 ,i1 #abi f4 #abgj ,b4 ,b4 #ae b2 ,seder ,olam ,r4 ,,xxi4 #abga ,mek4 ,yithro ,v2 ,ab4 ,z4 #b b-#c a4 #abgb ,deut4 ,,iv1 #ai2 ,,xxix1 #be2 ,jer4 ,x1 #af2 ,b4 ,sira ,,xviii1 #ag2 comp4 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #cej4 #abgc ,jubil4 ,,xi1 #c-e2 ,,xix1 #bj2 ,enoch ,,xv2 ,,xix2 ,,xcix1 #g2 see ,bousset1 l4 c41 #cej-cea4 #abgd ,yeb4 #ih a1 ref4 to ,ezek4 ,,xxiii1 #bj2 ,ab4 ,z41 l4 c4 ,in this sense we must take the ,talmudic passage3 8,israel are really men1 not the heathen10 ,yeb4 #fa a2 ,b4 ,m4 #aad b2 ,b4 ,b4 #af b2 whereas the passage1 ,lev4 ,,xviii1 #e1 8which man doth to live thereby10 is declared to include all who observe the laws of humanity1 ,sifra eodem2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,i1 #a-b4 #abge ,lazarus1 l4 c41 #di4 #abgf ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b4 #abgg ,yer4 ,r4 ,sh4 ,i1 #eg a4 #abgh ,ezek4 ,,xxviii1 #aj2 ,,xxxi1 #ah2 ,,xxxii1 #ai-cb4 ,possibly the prophet in speaking of arelim had in mind the ,babylonian ,arallu1 8the nether-world02 see ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xix1 #e2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xl2 ,,viii1 #g2 ,tanh4 ,lek ,leka1 ed4 ,buber1 #bg4 #abgi ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #d-e2 ,rosh ha ,shana1 #ag a4 #abhj ,b4 ,b4 #aj b2 ,a4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,iv4 #abha ,suk4 #ee b2 ,pesik4 #aic b2 ,philo2 ,vita ,mosis1 #b f2 ,de ,special2 ,i1 #c2 ,,ii1 #ajd1 #bbg4 #bch4 #abhb ,sifra1 ,ahare ,moth #ac4 #abhc ,gen4 ,r4 ,l2 ,,lxv1 #af2 ,ruth ,r4 ,i1 #h2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 nomaos4 #abhd ,j4 ,e4 art4 ,antoninus in the ,talmud2 ,kraus3 ,antoninus4 #abhe ,ab4 ,z4 #cj a4 #abhf ,deut4 ,,vii1 #c2 ,sanh4 #eg a-#ei b4 #abhg ,h4 ,melakim ,,viii1 #i-aj4 #abhh ,h4 ,shemitta we ,yobel ,,xiii1 #ac4 #abhi ,mal4 ,i4 #aa4 #abij ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #bf2 ,philo ,,ii1 #aff2 ,josephus3 ,ant41 ,,iv1 #h1 #aj2 ,con4 ,apio41 ,,ii1 #cd2 comp4 ,kohler3 8,the ,halakic ,portions in ,josephus' ,antiquities10 in ,h4 ,u4 ,c4 ,monthly ,,iii1 #aag4 #abia ,see ,meg4 #af a2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,aristotle2 ,neumark1 l4 c41 ,index3 ,aristoteles1 ,plato1 ,plotin2 comp4 ,bahya3 ,hoboth ha ,lebaboth1 and other medieval philosophic works4 #abib ,deut4 ,,iv1 #cg4 #abic ,ex4 ,,xxxiii1 #ab2 ,lev4 ,,xxvi1 #db2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xliv1 #g-h2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxxvi1 #b-e4 #abid ,cant4 ,r4 ,i1 #e4 #abie ,isa4 ,,liv1 #aj2 ,shab4 #ee a2 comp4 ,s4 ,hirsch3 8,the ,doctrine of ,original ,virtue0 in ,jew4 ,lit4 ,annual1 #aije2 ,schechter1 l4 c41 #agj f4 #abif ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #bj2 ,,xxiii1 #i4 #abig ,deut4 ,x1 #ah-ai4 #abih ,lev4 ,,xiv1 #bb4 #abii ,gen4 ,,xxiii1 #d2 ,lev4 ,,xx1 #ce4 ,on the term ,ger see ,w4 ,r4 ,smith3 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #ge ff42 ,bertholet3 ,die ,stellung d4 ,israeliten und ,juden zu den ,fremden1 #bh1 #agh2 ,schuerer1 l4 c41 ,,iii1 #aej-ahh2 ,encyc4 ,biblica1 art4 ,stranger and ,sojourner2 ,cheyne1 ,bampton ,lectures1 #ahhi1 p4 #dbi4 ,commerce between the ,phoenicians and ,greeks was protected by the ,greek god of the stranger 7,zeus ,xenios72 see ,ihering3 ,d4 ,gastfreundschaft im ,alterthum1 ,deutsche ,rundschau1 #ahhg1 showing how the ,phoenicians developed the ,ger idea in the direction of international commerce1 just as the ,jews developed it toward international religion2 ,m4 ,j4 ,kohler3 8,right of ,asylum0 in ,am4 ,law ,review1 ,,li1 p4 #cha4 #acjj ,ex4 ,,xx1 #aj4 #acja ,lev4 ,,xvi1 #bi2 ,,xvii1 #h-ae2 ,,xviii1 #bf2 ,,xxiv1 #af-bi4 #acjb ,ex4 ,,xii1 #dh2 see ,yeb41 #df a-#dg b2 ,mas4 ,gerim ,i-,,iii4 ,the opinion of ,bertholet and ,schuerer concerning the semi-proselyte or ,ger ,toshab is contradicted by both the ,book of ,jubilees and the ,talmudic sources1 as will be shown below4 #acjc ,jer4 ,,xvi1 #ai4 #acjd ,zech4 ,,viii1 #ba-bc4 #acje ,isa4 ,,xiv1 #a4 #acjf ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #cj2 ,,lxvii1 #c2 ,,lxviii1 #cj f2 ,,lxxxvii1 #d f4 #acjg ,,ii4 ,chron4 ,,ii1 #af2 ,,xxx1 #be4 #acjh ,ps4 ,,cxv1 #aa2 ,,cxviii1 #d2 ,,cxxxv1 #bj2 comp4 ,,lxvii1 #h2 ,,cii1 #af2 ,job ,i1 #a2 ,tobit ,,lxiv1 #f2 ,sibyll4 ,,iii1 #egb1 #gef2 ,acts ,x1 #b2 ,,xxi1 #ac2 ,v1 #bf f42 ,,xvi1 #dd2 ,,xvii1 #d2 ,,xviii1 #g2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #bi2 ,lev4 ,,iii1 #b2 ,mek4 to ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #bj2 see ,bernays3 ,ges4 ,abh41 ,,ii1 #gd4 #acji ,tos4 ,ab4 ,z4 ,,ix1 #d2 ,sanh4 #ef b-#eg2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxxiv1 #g2 ,jubil4 ,,vii1 #bj f42 ,sibyll4 ,,iii1 #ch1 #gfb4 ,for the thirty commandments1 see ,yer4 ,ab4 ,z4 ,,ii1 #dj c2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,ii4 #e2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xcviii1 #i2 ,j4 ,q4 ,r41 #ahid1 p4 #bei4 ,comp4 also ,pseudo-,phocylides in ,bernays' ,ges4 ,abh41 ,i1 #bia ff42 ,seeberg3 ,d4 beiden ,wege u4 d4 ,aposteldecret1 p4 #be4 ,klein3 ,der aelteste christl4 ,katechismus2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,commandments4 #acaj ,see ,schuerer1 l4 c41 #afe1 #age2 ,harnack1 ,d4 ,mission u4 ,ausbreitung d4 ,christentums1 chapter ,i4 #acaa ,ant4 ,,xvi1 #g4 #acab ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxviii1 #e2 ,cant4 ,r4 ,i1 #d2 see ,matt4 ,,xxiii1 #ae2 ,jellinek1 ,b4 ,h4 ,,vi1 ,introd41 p4 ,,xlvi4 #acac ,,ii ,kings ,c1 #a-ae2 see ,,lxx to verse #ad2 ,sanh #if b4 #acad ,see ,sota1 #ab b2 ,sibyll4 ,,iv1 #afd2 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #e2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,baptism and ,birth1 ,new2 ,enc4 ,religion and ,ethics1 art4 ,baptism1 ,jewish4 #acae ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,asenath1 and the passages quoted there4 #acaf ,sifre and ,targum to ,deut4 ,,xxiii1 #af-ai4 #acag ,tos4 ,negaim ,,vi1 #b2 ,mas4 ,gerim ,,iii4 #acah ,philo1 ,de ,monarchia1 ,i1 #g4 #acai ,ps1 ,,xv1 #a-b2 see ,cheyne's ,commentary4 #acbj ,the article ha ,zedek seems to point to ,jerusalem1 called 8the city0 or 8dwelling place of righteousness0 7,zedek74 ,see ,isa4 ,i1 #ba2 ,jer4 ,,xxxi1 #bc2 ,l1 #g4 ,comp4 8,gates of righteousness0 7,zedek7 for the ,temple gates1 in ,ps4 ,,cxviii1 #ai1 and the ancient legendary hero of ,jerusalem1 ,malki-,zedek1 ,gen4 ,,xiv1 #ah2 ,josephus1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,vi1 #aj2 ,epis4 ,heb4 ,,vii1 #aj2 and ,adoni ,zedek1 first king of ,jerusalem1 ,josh4 ,x1 #c4 #acba ,sifre and ,targum to ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #ai4 #acbb ,singer's ,prayerb4 p4 #dh4 #acbc ,see ,mek4 ,mishpatim ,,xviii2 comp4 ,a4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,xxxvi ref4 to ,isa4 ,,xliv1 #e4 #acbd ,arak4 #bi a4 #acbe ,vita #be4 #acbf ,j4 ,w4 ,,ii1 #bj1 #b4 #acbg ,josephus3 ,ant4 ,,xiii1 #i1 #a2 #aa1 #c2 ,,xviii1 #c1 #e2 ,,xx1 #h1 #aa2 ,mek4 ,bo ,,xv3 ,beluria 7,fulvia or ,valeria72 ,schuerer1 ,,iii1 #agf2 ,gemeindeverf4 v4 ,juden in ,rome2 ,graetz3 ,d4 juedisch1 ,proselyten im ,roemerreich2 ,radin3 ,jews among ,greeks and ,romans1 p4 #chi4 ,see also ,crooks3 ,the ,jewish ,rate in ,ancient and ,roman ,history4 #acbh ,josephus3 ,ant4 ,,xx1 #b-d2 ,yoma ,,iii1 #aj2 ,yoma #cg a42 ,suk4 #b b2 ,b4 ,b4 #aa a2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xlvi1 #h4 #acbi ,midrash ,tadshe in ,jellinek3 ,b4 ,h4 ,,iii1 #aaa2 ,epstein3 ,jued4 ,alierthumskunde1 ,,xliii4 #accj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,asenath4 #acca ,comp4 ,sifre ,num4 #agh4 #accb ,i ,chron4 ,,iv1 #ah2 ,meg4 #ac a4 #accc ,meg4 #ae b4 #accd ,philo3 ,de ,nobilitate1 #f2 ,,ii1 #ddc4 #acce ,ruth ,,ii1 #ab4 #accf ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n41 ed4 ,schechter1 #ec f42 ,shab4 #ca a2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,ii1 #h4 #accg ,see ,bertholet1 l4 c41 #bhe-bhg4 #acch ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n41 l4 c4 #acci ,mek4 to ,ex4 ,,xviii1 #bg4 #acdj ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xxxix1 #ad2 ,yeb4 #bb a2 comp4 ,pes4 ,,viii1 #h4 #acda ,yeb4 #df a2 comp4 ,josephus3 ,ant4 ,,xx1 #b-d4 #acdb ,shab4 #ca a4 #acdc ,lev1 ,r4 ,,ii1 #h4 #acdd ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxx1 #e2 ,b4 ,m4 #ei b4 #acde ,mekilta1 l4 c42 comp4 ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,xxxvi1 ed4 ,schechter1 #ajg4 #acdf ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,cxlvi1 #i2 ,num4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #b4 #acdg ,prov4 ,,viii1 #ag2 ,num4 ,r41 l4 c4 #acdh ,schuerer1 l4 c41 ,,iii1 #d2 ,radin1 l4 c4 #acdi ,yeb4 #bd b2 ,yer4 ,kid41 ,,iv1 #fe b4 #acej ,apion1 ,,ii1 #aj1 #c4 #acea ,yeb4 #dg a2 comp4 ,mas4 ,gerim ,i4 #aceb ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,didache and ,klein1 l4 c4 #acec ,git4 #ef b2 ,ab4 ,z4 #aj b2 on ,clemens see ,graetz3 ,h4 ,j4 ,,ii1 #chg-chi2 but see literature in ,schuerer1 l4 c41 ,,iii1 #afi4 #aced ,git4 #ef b-#eg4 #acee ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xix1 #d2 comp4 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,lxxxvii1 #d1 ref4 to ,i ,sam4 ,,ii1 #cf and ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #b2 comp4 ,bacher3 ,agada d4 ,palest4 ,amorder41 ,,iii1 #de1 #cfc4 #acef ,yeb4 #dg b2 #aji b2 ,kid4 #gj b1 ref4 ,isa4 ,,xiv to ,lev4 ,,xiv1 #ef4 #aceg ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xix1 #e4 #aceh ,see ,bacher1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #aae-aah4 #acei ,num4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #a4 #acfj ,gen4 ,r4 ,,lxx1 #e4 #acfa ,ab4 ,z4 #c b4 #acfb ,b4 ,m4 #ei b4 #acfc ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps4 ,,xxii1 #cd2 here also a later ,haggadist removes the reference to the half-proselytes4 ,see ,buber1 l4 c42 ,yer4 ,meg4 ,i1 #gb b4 #acfd ,num4 ,r4 ,,viii1 #aj4 #acfe ,shab4 #ca a4 #acff ,see com4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxxvii1 and ,,lxx version4 #acfg ,yearb4 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r41 #ahia1 #ahib1 #ahie4 #acfh ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #b4 #acfi ,philo1 ,de ,penitentia1 #b4 #acgj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,apostasy and ,apostates4 #acga ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,apologetic and ,polemical ,literature4 #acgb ,ber4 #bh a2 ,singer's ,prayerb4 #dh4 #acgc ,cant4 ,r4 ,i4 #f4 #acgd ,deut4 ,,xxv1 #c and ,sifre ad loc42 ,sanh4 #dd a4 #acge ,sifra ,wayikra #b4 #acgf ,sifre ,num4 #aab2 ,r4 ,h41 #ag a2 ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #e4 #acgg ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #h-i4 #acgh ,cusari1 ,,iv1 #bc2 ,maim43 ,h4 ,melakim ,,xi1 #da2 ,responsa1 #eh2 ,nahmanides3 ,derashah1 ed4 ,jellinek1 #e2 see ,rashi and ,tosafot to ,ab4 ,z4 #b a1 #eg b2 ,sanh4 #fc b4 #acgi ,solomon ben ,adret2 ,responsa1 #cjb2 ,yore ,deah ,,cxlviii1 #ab2 ,jacob ,emden1 ,comm4 to ,abot4 ,v1 #ag2 comp4 ,chwolson3 ,d4 ,blutanklage1 #fd-gi4 #achj ,isaac ben ,sheshet's ,responsa1 #aai4 #acha ,yer4 ,shab4 ,,xiv1 #ad d2 ,ab4 ,z4 ,,ii1 #dj d2 ,sota1 #dg a2 ,sanh4 #ajc a2 ,eccl4 ,r4 ,i1 #bd-be4 #achb ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,christianity2 ,ebionites2 ,minim2 and comp4 the various ,church ,histories4 #achc ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,saul of ,tarsus4 #achd ,sanh4 #ig a4 #ache ,lev4 ,,xiii1 #ac3 ,kullo happak laben1 instead of laban4 #achf ,ab4 d4 ,r4 ,n4 ,,xxxiv2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xiii1 #d ref4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxx1 #ad2 ,midr4 ,teh4 ,ps41 l4 c4 #achg ,h4 ,akkum ,,ix1 #d4 #achh ,tosaf4 ,sanh4 #fc b2 ,isserles ,sh4 ,ar4 ,orah ,hayim1 #aef2 comp4 ,j4 ,e4 art4 ,sanhedrin1 ,napoleonic4 #achi ,edom1 the name for ,rome since the time of the ,idumean ,herod1 became the name for the ,church of ,rome1 while ,yavan ,greek was the name given to the ,greek ,church4 #acij ,on ,ishmael and ,edom see ,steinschneider3 ,polemisch4 u4 ,apologet4 ,literatur1 #bef-bgc2 on ,mohammed1 eodem1 #cjb-chh4 #acia ,see ,wuensche3 8,urspr4 d4 ,parabel v4 d4 drei ,ringen0 in ,lessing-,mendelssohn ,gedenkbuch1 ,leipzig1 #ahgi2 comp4 ,steinschneider1 l4 c41 #cg1 #cag1 #cai2 ,hebr4 ,bibliogr4 ,,iv1 #gi2 ,,xii1 #ba2 ,dunlop-,liebrecht3 ,gesch4 d4 ,prosadichtung1 p4 #bba1 note to #bid f4 #acib ,see ,schreiner3 ,d4 juengst4 ,urteile u4 d4 ,judenth41 #c-e4 #acic ,shebet ,yehudah1 ed4 ,wiener1 p4 #ajg4 ,see ,steinschneider3 ,heb4 ,bibl41 l4 c4 #acid ,deut4 ,,xxxiii1 #b2 see ,steinschneider3 8,pol4 u4 ,apol4 ,lit410 #cag f4 #acie ,tos4 ,sanh4 ,,xiii1 #b2 ,sanh4 #aje a2 ,maimonides3 ,h4 ,teshubah ,,iii1 #e4 #acif ,matt4 ,,iii1 #b2 ,luke ,,iii1 #c2 ,josephus3 ,ant4 ,,xviii1 #e1 #b2 see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,john the ,baptist4 ,perhaps ,john was identical with ,hanan1 8the hidden one10 a popular saint called 8father0 by the people1 and believed to be a descendant of ,moses1 a grandson of ,onias the rainmaker1 and a rain-invoking saint himself4 ,see ,taan4 #bc b2 ,tanh4 ,waera1 ed4 ,buber1 ,,ii1 #cg4 #acig ,matt4 ,,iii1 #cc2 ,mark ,i1 #g2 ,luke ,,iii1 #ba2 ,john ,i1 #bi-dj4 #acih ,matt4 ,,iv1 #ab2 ,,xiv1 #aj4 #acii ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,christianity2 ,jesus2 ,new ,testament2 ,simon ,kaifa4 ,among the ,gospels1 that of ,luke has the oldest records1 rather than ,mark4 ,see also ,spitta3 ,d4 ,synoptische ,grundschrift4 #adjj ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,john the ,baptist4 #adja ,matt4 ,,xxi1 #ab1 and parallels2 comp4 ,yer4 ,taan4 ,,iv1 #h2 ,tos4 ,menah4 ,,xiii1 #ba4 #adjb ,matt4 ,,xxvii1 #cg-db1 and parallels4 #adjc ,john ,,xx2 the latter part of the ,gospel of ,john belonged originally to ,matthew4 #adjd ,matt4 ,,xiv1 #bd f42 ,,xvii1 #a2 see ,wellhausen3 ,comm4 #adje ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,ebionites4 #adjf ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,apostles4 #adjg ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,didache and ,didascalia2 ,klein1 l4 c4 #adjh ,acts ,,xv1 #e-bi2 comp4 ,r4 ,seeberg3 ,das ,aposteldecret2 ,didache u4 d4 ,urchristenheit4 #adji ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,saul of ,tarsus4 #adaj ,paul's opposition to the law includes the moral law1 and even the ,decalogue4 ,see ,romans ,,vii-,,viii2 ,x1 #d2 ,,xiv2 ,i ,cor4 ,,vi1 #a-c1 #ae2 ,,vii1 #ca2 ,,viii2 ,,ii ,cor4 ,,iii1 #c4 #adaa ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,cross4 #adab ,luke ,,vi1 #bj-di2 comp4 with ,matt4 ,v-,,vii2 ,,xxiii1 #ae-cf4 ,see ,claude ,montefiore1 ,the ,synoptic ,gospels1 ,i and ,,ii2 ,g4 ,friedlander1 ,jewish ,sources of the ,sermon on the ,mount2 ,kohler3 8,d4 ,naechstenliebe im ,judenth410 ,judaica1 ,berlin1 #aiab4 #adac ,matt4 ,v1 #ag-ah4 #adad ,see ,j4 ,e41 and ,enc4 ,rel4 and ,ethics1 art4 ,pharisees2 ,lauterbach1 8,the ,sad4 and ,phar410 in ,stud4 in ,jew4 ,lit41 ,berlin1 #aiac2 ,herford3 ,pharisaism2 ,wuensche3 ,neue ,beitr4 z4 ,erluterung d4 ,evangelien4 #adae ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,mohammed2 ,islam2 and the works of ,muir1 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,hirschfeld2 of ,geiger1 ,weil1 ,sprenger1 von ,kremer1 ,noeldeke1 ,grimme1 ,dozy1 and above all ,goldziher1 on the ,koran1 ,mohammed and ,islam2 also ,enc4 ,religion and ,ethics1 ,,viii1 #hga-ijg4 #adaf ,see ,draper1 ,conflict of ,religion with ,science2 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe2 ,lecky1 ,history of ,rationalism2 ,andrew ,d4 ,white3 ,warfare between ,religion and ,science2 ,krauskopf3 ,jews and ,moors in ,spain4 #adag ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #f-i4 #adah ,isa4 ,,lxvi1 #bj4 #adai ,isa4 ,,xxviii1 #af4 #adbj ,ex4 ,,xix1 #f2 ,num4 ,,xxiii1 #i2 ,deut4 ,,vii1 #b-f2 ,isa4 ,,lxi1 #f2 #i2 ,maim4 ,h4 ,issure ,biah ,,xii1 #a2 ,sh4 ,a4 ,eben ha ,ezer ,,xvi1 #a2 ,einhorn in ,jewish ,times #ahgf1 against ,sam4 ,hirsch2 ,samuel ,schulman in ,y4 ,b4 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,r4 #aiji1 comp4 ,d4 ,philipson1 l4 c4 ,index s4 v4 ,intermarriage2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,intermarriage2 also ,mielziner3 ,the ,jewish ,law of ,marriage and ,divorce1 p4 #de-ed1 where the opinions of ,l4 ,philippson1 ,geiger1 ,aub1 ,einhorn and ,i4 ,m4 ,wise are quoted4 #adba ,lazarus1 l4 c41 #aei4 #adbb ,see ,kohler3 8,origin a4 ,function of ,ceremonies in ,judaism10 in ,y4 ,b4 ,c4 ,c4 of ,am4 ,r41 #aijg4 ,rosenau3 ,jewish ,ceremonies1 ,institutions a4 ,customs1 #aiab4 #adbc ,see art4 ,synagogue1 in various encyclopedias2 ,enelow3 ,the ,synagogue in ,modern ,life2 ,schuerer1 l4 c41 ,,ii1 #dbi2 ,bousset1 l4 c41 #aig ff4 #adbd ,see ,chapter ,,lvi above2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,proselyte4 #adbe ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,bar ,mizwah and ,confirmation4 #adbf ,gen4 ,,xvii1 #aj-ad4 #adbg ,singer's ,prayerb41 p4 #cje4 #adbh ,ex4 ,,iv1 #be2 see commentaries2 ,ebers3 gypten1 ,b4 ,m4 ,i1 #ahc4 #adbi ,josephus3 ,ant4 ,,xx1 #b1d2 ,shab4 #acj b1 #acc b1 #aef a2 ,men4 #db a2 ,ab4 ,z4 #bf b2 comp4 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xlvi1 #i4 #adcj ,ab4 ,z4 #bg a4 #adca ,ex4 ,,iv1 #be2 ,josh4 ,v1 #b2 comp4 ,tylor3 ,early ,history of ,mankind1 #bag-bbb2 ,j4 ,e4 and ,encyc4 of ,rel4 and ,ethics1 art4 ,circumcision2 ,ploss3 ,knabenbeschneidung1 p4 #aa4 #adcb ,gen4 ,,xvii1 #aj-ad2 comp4 ,deut4 ,x1 #af2 ,jer4 ,,ix1 #be2 ,claude ,montefiore3 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #bbi1 #ccg4 #adcc ,i ,macc4 ,i1 #ae1 #dh1 #fj2 ,josephus3 ,ant4 ,,xii1 #e1 #a2 ,aboth ,,iii1 #aa2 ,tos4 ,shab4 ,,xv1 #i2 ,yer4 ,peah ,i1 #af b2 ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xlvi1 #i2 ,jubil4 ,,xv1 #bf f4 #adcd ,yer4 ,shab4 ,,xix1 #f2 ,yeb4 #ga b4 #adce ,gen4 ,r4 ,,xlviii1 #g2 ,tanh4 ,lek ,leka1 ed4 ,buber1 #bg2 ,singer's ,prayerb41 #cjd1 after ,tos4 ,ber4 ,,vi1 #ab1 #ac2 ,shab4 #acg b4 #adcf ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xix4 #adcg ,ploss3 ,geschicht4 u4 ,ethnol4 ue4 ,knabenbeschneidung1 #ahdd2 ,encyc4 ,rel4 and ,ethics1 art4 ,circumcision4 #adch ,zunz3 ,ges4 ,schr4 ,,ii1 #aig2 comp4 ,rabbin ,gutachlen ue4 d4 ,beschneidung1 #ahdd2 ,frankel3 ,zeitsch41 #ahdd1 p4 #ff-fg4 #adci ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,circumcision2 ,sam4 ,cohn3 ,gesch4 d4 ,beschneidung b4 d4 ,juden 7,hebrew71 ,cracaw1 #aijc1 for the extensive literature4 #addj ,philo ,,ii1 #baj2 ,josephus3 ,con4 ,apion4 ,,ii1 #ac2 ,saadia3 ,emunoth1 ,,iii1 #aj2 ,maimonides3 ,moreh1 ,,iii1 #di2 ,michaelis3 ,mosaisches ,recht1 ,,iv1 #ahd-ahf4 #adda ,maimonides1 l4 c41 ,,iii1 #dh2 ,samuel ben ,meir to ,lev4 ,,xi1 #c2 ,michaelis1 l4 c41 ,,iv1 #bjb4 #addb ,lev4 ,,xi2 ,deut4 ,,xiv1 #c-ba2 ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #cj2 ,lev4 ,,vii1 #bc2 ,,xvii1 #i f42 see ,kalisch's3 commentary to ,lev4 vol4 ,,ii1 #b-ahi2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,dietary ,laws4 #addc ,lev4 ,,xx1 #bd-bf1 which belongs to ,lev4 ,,xi1 #a-dg2 comp4 ,deut4 ,,xiv1 #c-ba4 #addd ,see ,ezek4 ,,xliv1 #ca2 ,,iv1 #ad2 ,jud4 ,,xiii1 #g1 #ad4 ,the law in ,ex4 ,,xxii1 #cj1 8,ye shall be holy men unto ,me1 therefore ye shall not eat any flesh that is torn of beasts in the field10 seems to have been originally only for priests and other holy men4 #adde ,see ,laws of ,manu1 ,v1 #g2 #aa-bj in ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,,xxv1 #aga f42 comp4 ,,ii1 #fd2 ,,xiv1 #ch-dh2 #gd2 #ahd2 ,bundahish1 ,,xiv2 ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 ,v1 #dg2 ,chwolson3 ,die ,szabier1 ,,ii1 #g2 #ajb2 ,porphyrius3 ,de ,abstinentia1 ,,iv1 #g2 ,sommer1 ,bibl4 ,abh4 #bga-cbb2 ,j4 ,e41 l4 c41 #eii4 #addf ,ex4 ,,xix1 #f4 #addg ,gen4 ,,vii1 #b1 #h4 #addh ,,ii ,macc4 ,,vi1 #ah2 ,,vii1 #da4 #addi ,aristeas1 #add-agj4 #adej ,sifra to ,lev4 ,,xx1 #bf2 ,tanh4 to ,lev4 ,,xi1 #b4 #adea ,shab4 #ag b2 ,ab4 ,z4 #cf b1 #ch a1 #h a2 ,sanh4 #ajd a2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xxix4 #adeb ,moreh1 ,,iii1 #be2 see also ,morris ,joseph1 l4 c41 #ahj-ahi4 #adec ,for the orthodox view1 see ,s4 ,r4 ,hirsch3 ,horeb1 ,chap4 ,,lxviii2 ,m4 ,friedlander3 ,the ,jewish ,religion1 #bcg2 for the reform1 ,einhorn3 ,sinai1 #ahei2 ,kohler3 ,jewish ,times1 #ahgb2 ,geiger3 ,ges4 ,schr4 ,i1 #bec f4 #aded ,deut4 ,,vi1 #h-i2 ,,xi1 #ah-bj2 ,num4 ,,xv1 #ch-ci4 #adee ,comp4 ,prov4 ,,iii1 #c2 ,samuel ben ,meir to ,ex4 ,,xiii1 #i4 #adef ,ex4 ,,xiii1 #i and commentaries4 #adeg ,stanley3 ,hist4 of the ,jewish ,church1 ,i1 #efa2 ,peterman3 ,reisen im ,orient1 ,i1 #bcg4 #adeh ,curtiss3 ,ursemitische ,religion1 ,chap4 ,,xx-,,xxi2 ,kohler3 ,monatsschrift1 #ahic1 p4 #dde1 note4 #adei ,ber4 #f a1 #ad b1 #bc a1 b2 ,tos4 ,ber4 ,,vii1 #be2 ,midr4 ,teh4 to ,ps4 ,,vi1 #a2 ,yer4 ,peah ,i1 #ae d2 ,targum ,song of ,songs1 ,,viii1 #c2 ,pes4 ,,iii b2 ,schorr3 ,he,halutz1 ,,vii1 #ef-eg2 ,baentsch3 ,comm4 to ,num4 ,,xv1 #cg2 also ,schuerer1 ,g4 ,v4 ,,ii1 #dhc-dhf4 #adfj ,cant4 ,r4 ,,iii1 #aa2 ,sifre ,deut4 #dc2 ,m4 ,k4 #af b4 #adfa ,kohler1 l4 c43 comp4 ,schechter3 ,studies1 ,i1 #bdi2 ,morris ,joseph1 l4 c41 p4 #agh1 where he quotes ,maimonides ,h4 ,tefillin ,,iv1 #be4 #adfb ,see art4 ,sabbath in various encyclopedias and the ,babel-,bibel controversies2 ,zimmern and ,schrader3 ,k4 ,a4 ,t41 ,,ii1 #eib f42 ,jastrow3 ,american ,journal of ,theology1 #ahih1 p4 #cae-ceb4 #adfc ,ex4 ,,xx1 #h-aa2 ,,xvi1 #bc-bi2 ,,xxxv1 #b-c2 ,,xxxi1 #ac2 comp4 ,jer4 ,,xviii1 #ba-bg2 ,neh4 ,,xiii1 #ae-ah4 #adfd ,deut4 ,v1 #ab-ae2 ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #ab2 ,,xxxiv1 #ba2 comp4 ,isa4 ,,lviii1 #ac4 #adfe ,see ,jubilees ,,ii1 #bc-cj2 ,l1 #f2 ,geiger1 ,zeitsch41 #ahfh1 #aaf2 ,nachgel4 ,schr41 ,,iii1 #bhf f42 ,v1 #adb f42 ,schechter3 ,document of a ,jewish ,sect1 ,i2 ,,xxv2 ,,xlviii-,l2 ,halevi3 ,the ,commandments of the ,sabbath for the ,falashas1 #aijb2 ,harkavy ,l4 ,k41 ,,ii1 #fi f41 for the ,karaites4 #adff ,shab4 ,,vii1 #b1 #gj a2 ,mek4 ,wayakhel4 #adfg ,mek4 ,ki ,thisla ,i1 comp4 ,mark ,,ii4 #b f4 #adfh ,isa4 ,,lviii2 ,shab4 #aah a1 b2 ,mek4 ,yithro ,,vii2 ,pes1 ,r4 ,,xxiii1 p4 #aba4 #adfi ,,ii ,kings ,,iv1 #bc4 #adgj ,philo ,,ii1 #acg1 #aff1 #bha1 #fca4 #adga ,see ,schechter3 ,studies1 ,i1 #bdi f42 ,morris ,joseph1 l4 c41 #bjb-bad4 #adgb ,see ,david ,philipson3 ,reform ,movement in ,judaism1 #bge-cjb1 #ejc-ejh2 ,e4 ,g4 ,hirsch in ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,sabbath2 ,sabbath and ,sunday4 #adgc ,see ,schaff-,herzog ,encyc41 art4 ,sunday4 #adgd ,see ,i ,sam4 ,,xx1 #e-bg1 where the two new-moon days are spoken of as approaching1 proving the use of the ,babylonian month of four weeks of seven days each1 and two new-moon days4 #adge ,,ii ,kings ,,iv1 #bc2 ,prov4 ,,vii1 #bj2 comp4 ,ps4 ,,lxxxi1 #d1 ,kese4 #adgf ,ex4 ,,xx1 #aa2 ,gen4 ,,ii1 #b-c4 #adgg ,,ii ,kings ,,iv1 #bc2 ,isa4 ,i1 #ac2 ,,lxvi1 #bc4 #adgh ,num4 ,,xxviii1 #aa f4 #adgi ,mek4 ,bo ,i2 ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xv2 ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,li2 ,sanh4 #db a2 ,singer's ,prayerb41 #bib4 #adhj ,isa4 ,,xxx1 #bf2 ,,lx1 #bj4 #adha ,ex4 ,,xii1 #aa-bg2 ,deut1 ,,xvi1 #a2 see the commentaries1 also ,clay ,trumbull3 ,the ,threshold ,covenant2 ,curtiss1 l4 c4 #adhb ,in ,deut4 the ,passover sacrifice was the first-born of the flock1 see ,deut4 ,,xvi1 #b1 comp4 with ,ex4 ,,xiii1 #b-af1 and the celebration took place on the night of the new moon4 ,the ,priestly ,code observed it on the full moon1 with a lamb instead of the first-born sheep or cattle4 ,ex4 ,,xii1 #c f42 ,lev1 ,,xxiii1 #e 7the ,holiness ,code72 ,josh4 ,v1 #aj4 #adhc ,about the watch-night1 see ,jubilees ,,xlviii1 #e2 ,pesah4 #aji b4 #adhd ,see ,einhorn's ,prayerbook1 #dhe2 ,holdheim3 ,prediglen1 #ahec1 ,,ii1 #ahi1 referring to ,jer4 ,,xxiii1 #g-h2 ,tos4 ,ber4 ,i1 #ab2 ,ber4 #ab b4 #adhe ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #af2 ,,xxxiv1 #bb2 ,deut4 ,,xvi1 #i2 ,lev4 ,,xxiii1 #aj-ag4 #adhf ,ex4 ,r4 ,,xxxi1 #ag1 with reference to ,ex4 ,,xix1 #a2 ,jubilees ,,vi1 #ag-ba4 #adhg ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,confirmation4 #adhh ,deut4 ,,xvi1 #ac2 ,lev4 ,,xxiii1 #cd-dc2 comp4 ,i ,kings ,,viii1 #fe2 ,ezek4 ,,xlv1 #bc2 ,r4 h4 ,sh4 ,i1 #b4 #adhi ,see ,ex4 ,,xii1 #cg2 ,,xiii1 #bj2 ,num4 ,,xxxiii1 #e1 and comp4 ,mek4 ,bo #ad2 ,sifra ,emor ,,xvii4 #adij ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #af-ai2 comp4 ,is4 ,,xii1 #c2 ,suk4 ,v1 #a-d2 ,tos4 ,suk4 ,,iv1 #a-i2 ,piyut to the ,sukkoth festival4 #adia ,suk4 ,i-,,iv2 ,talmud and ,codes4 #adib ,ibn ,yarchi3 ,manhig1 ,h4 ,suk4 #ec-fj2 ,t4 ,o4 ,ch4 ,,dclxix2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,simhath ,torah4 #adic ,pesik4 #aic b2 ,suk4 #ee b2 ,philo3 ,de ,victimis1 ,i1 #b1 ,,ii1 #bch-bci4 #adid ,lev4 ,,xxiii1 #bd-cb2 comp4 ,neh4 ,,viii1 #a-ah4 #adie ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,new ,year's ,day2 ,life1 ,book of4 #adif ,r4 h4 ,sh4 ,,iv1 #f-g2 ,tos4 ,r4 h4 ,sh4 ,,iv1 #d-i2 ,r4 h4 ,sh4 #bg a2 ,singer's ,prayerb41 #bdg-bed1 and ,abrahams ,ann4 ,,cxcv1 #aaa f42 and ,union ,prayer ,book1 ,,ii1 #gj-ge4 #adig ,lev4 ,,xvi1 #b-cd2 comp4 ,ezek4 ,,xlv1 #ah-bj4 #adih ,yoma ,,vi2 ,kalish's commentary to ,lev4 ,,xvi2 ,taan4 ,,iv1 #h2 comp4 ,jud4 ,,xxi1 #ba2 see ,morgenstern in ,journal ,oriental ,soc41 #aiag1 and ,j4,q4,r4 #aiag1 p4 #id4 #adii ,yoma ,,iv-,,vi2 comp4 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxi1 #aa2 ,v1 #a4 #aejj ,num4 ,,xiv1 #bj2 ,,xv1 #bf4 #aeja ,lev4 ,,xvi1 #cj2 ,sifra ,ahare ,,vi2 ,yoma #cj b2 ,yer4 ,yoma ,v1 #db c4 #aejb ,yoma ,,viii1 #i4 #aejc ,p4 d4 ,r4 ,el4 ,,xlvi2 ,taan4 #cj b2 ,b4 ,b4 #aba a2 ,s4 ,olam ,r4 ,,vi2 ,t4 d4 ,el4 ,zutta ,,iv2 ,ex4 ,r4 ,,li1 #d4 ,jubilees ,,xxxiv1 #ah-ai connects the ,day of ,atonement with the repentance of ,joseph's brethren4 #aejd ,yoma1 l4 c4 #aeje ,comp4 above1 ,chapter ,,xxxix4 #aejf ,josephus ,j4 ,w4 ,,vi1 #d1 #e2 ,meg4 ,taan4 ,v2 ,taan4 ,,iv1 #d2 ,taan4 #ab a1 #bi ab4 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,ab1 ,ninth of2 see also ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xxvi-,,xxxiii2 ,pesik4 #aaj b-#adh a4 #aejg ,zech4 ,,iv1 #f2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,hanukka2 ,maccabees4 #aejh ,meg4 ,,iv1 #e2 #ah a1 #ba b2 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,purim2 ,esther2 ,sifre to ,deut4 #bif4 #aeji ,ber4 #ac a4 #aeaj ,deut4 ,,iv1 #f4 #aeaa ,see ,zunz3 ,gottesdienstliche ,vortraege4 #aeab ,yoma #ff b2 comp4 ,r4 ,eliezer's other dictum1 ,sota ,,iii1 #d4 #aeac ,num4 ,,xii1 #b4 #aead ,see ,geiger's ,zeitschr41 #ahcf1 #a f41 #ced2 #ahci1 #ccc f4 #aeae ,graetz1 ,h4 ,j4 ,,iii1 #bdd f42 ,l4 ,loew3 ,ges4 ,sch4 ,,iii1 #eg4 #aeaf ,see ,landsberg in ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,confirmation2 ,l4 ,loew3 ,lebensalter1 #ag4 #aeag ,see his ,introduction4 #aeah ,comp4 ,schechter3 ,studies1 ,,ii1 #adh f41 #bjb f4 #aeai ,deut4 ,,xxix1 #bh4 #aebj ,deut4 ,,xxx1 #aa-ad4 #aeba ,isa4 ,,lvi1 #g4 #aebb ,zech4 ,,xiv1 #i4 #aebc ,cuzari1 ,i1 #ajc2 ,,ii1 #ab4 #aebd ,sifre to ,deut4 ,,vi1 #e4 #aebe ,hab4 ,,ii1 #ad4 #aebf ,singer's ,prayerb41 #h4 #aebg ,lev4 ,,xix1 #b2 comp4 on the whole ,e4 ,g4 ,hirsch in ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,ethics4 #aebh ,see ,alenu in ,singer's ,prayerb41 #fg f42 ,union ,prayerbook1 ,i1 #dh1 #ajd f4 #aebi ,shab4 #aai b4 #aecj ,deut4 ,,xi1 #bb2 ,sifre ,deut4 #di4 #aeca ,deut4 ,,xiii1 #e2 ,sota #ad a2 see ,schechter3 ,aspects1 #bjj-bjc4 #aecb ,aboth4 ,i1 #c2 ,,iv1 #b2 ,e4 ,g4 ,hirsch in ,j4 ,e41 art ,ethics4 ,see ,toy3 ,judaism and ,christianity1 p4 #bfj4 #aecc ,deut4 ,x1 #ai4 #aecd ,micah ,,vi1 #h4 #aece ,ps4 ,,xxiv1 #c-d4 #aecf ,see ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,essenes1 ,hasidim and ,test4 ,twelve ,patriarchs3 ,iss4 ,v1 #b2 ,,vii1 #f2 ,dan4 ,v1 #c4 #aecg ,lev4 ,,xix1 #ad1 #cb2 ,sifra ad loc4 ,b4 ,m4 #eh b4 #aech ,shab4 #ca a2 comp4 ,j4 ,e41 art4 ,didache and ,klein1 l4 c4 #aeci ,tanh4 ,shemini1 ed4 ,buber1 #ab2 comp4 ,lauterbach1 ,ethics of ,halakah1 p4 #ab4 #aedj ,aboth4 ,i1 #ad4 #aeda ,sanh4 ,,iv1 #e4 #aedb ,yer4 ,kid4 ,,iv1 #ff d4 #aedc ,taan4 #bb b2 ,ned4 #aj a4 #aedd ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxxiv1 #c1 ref4 to ,prov4 ,,xi1 #ag4 #aede ,sanh4 #ah a1 #ai a4 #aedf ,keth4 ,v1 #e4 #aedg ,prov4 ,,xvi1 #cb2 ,shab4 #aje b2 ,ned4 #bb b2 ,sota #d b2 ,ber4 #dc b4 #aedh ,ps4 ,,lxxxi1 #aj4 #aedi ,see above1 chapter ,l1 par4 #f4 #aeej ,semakot ,,ii2 ,r4 ,eleazar in ,b4 ,k4 #ia b with reference to ,gen4 ,,ix1 #e4 ,prof4 ,lauterbach referred me to ,shebet ,mussar1 ,,xx1 obviously a quotation from some lost ,midrash4 #aeea ,job ,,xlii1 #g4 #aeeb ,lev4 ,,xxv1 #db1 #ee2 ,tos4 ,b4 ,k4 ,,vii1 #e2 ,kid4 #bb d4 #aeec ,targ4 to ,lev4 ,,xix1 #ah2 ,tobit ,,iv1 #ae2 ,philo ,,ii1 #bcf4 #aeed ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #d-e2 ,prov4 ,,xxiv1 #ag2 ,,xxv1 #ba4 #aeee ,ab4 d ,r4 ,n41 ed4 ,schechter1 #ec1 #fj4 #aeef ,eodem1 #fd4 #aeeg ,aboth4 ,i1 #ab4 #aeeh ,philo ,,ii1 #bhd f4 #aeei ,deut4 ,x1 #ah-ai4 #aefj ,isa4 ,,xxvi1 #i4 #aefa ,isa4 ,,xxxiii1 #ae4 #aefb ,sifra ,behar ,,iv2 ,b4 ,m4 #eh b4 #aefc ,tos4 ,b4 ,k4 ,,vii1 #h2 ,b4 ,m4 ,,iii1 #bg2 ,b4 ,b4 #hh a-#ij b2 ,makk4 #bd a4 #aefd ,sanh4 #bd b4 #aefe ,b4 ,b4 #ij b4 #aeff ,lev4 ,,xix1 #cf2 ,b4 ,m4 #di a4 #aefg ,deut4 ,,xvi1 #bj4 #aefh ,kad ha ,kemah1 s4 v4 ,gezelah4 #aefi ,ps4 ,,xv1 #c4 #aegj ,pes4 #aah a4 #aega ,shab4 #ig a2 ,yoma #ai b4 #aegb ,mek4 ,mishpatim #hb2 ,b4 ,k4 #gi b2 ,b4 ,m4 #eh b-#ei a2 ,lauterbach l4 c4 #bj-ba4 #aegc ,peah ,v1 #f2 ,prov4 ,,xxiii1 #aj4 #aegd ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #bd4 #aege ,tanh4 ,mishpatim4 ed4 ,buber1 #h4 #aegf ,lev4 ,,xxv1 #ce2 ,sifra ad loc4 #aegg ,isa4 ,v1 #h4 #aegh ,amos ,,viii1 #d4 #aegi ,prov4 ,,xi1 #bf4 #aehj ,deut4 ,,xxi1 #a-h4 #aeha ,sifre ad loc42 ,sota ,,ix1 #g4 #aehb ,matt4 ,,vi1 #be-bh1 ,v1 #ci2 comp4 ,cor4 ,,vi1 #f-g4 #aehc ,yeb4 #fb a1 #fc a4 #aehd ,prov4 ,,xxii1 #bi2 ,ned4 #di b4 #aehe ,ber4 #h a1 ref4 to ,ps4 ,,cxxviii1 #b4 #aehf ,keth4 #ej a4 #aehg ,morris ,joseph in ,religious ,systems of the ,world1 #ahib1 p4 #gja4 #aehh ,deut4 ,i1 #ag2 see ,schmiedl3 ,d4 ,lehre v4 ,kampf um's ,recht1 #ahge4 #aehi ,ps4 ,,xxxvii1 #aa2 ,shab4 #hh b4 #aeij ,ex4 ,,xxiii1 #e2 ,deut4 ,,xxv1 #d2 ,prov4 ,,xii1 #aj2 ,git4 #fb a4 #aeia ,aboth4 ,i1 #ab2 ,,iv1 #d1 #ab2 ,taan4 #bj b4 #aeib ,matt4 ,v4 #ag-cj4 #aeic ,job ,,xxxi1 #a2 ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xxiv2 ,lev4 ,r4 ,,xxiii1 #ab2 ,ber4 #ab b2 ,nid4 #ac a4 #aeid ,shab4 #cc a1 referring to ,isa4 ,,ix1 #ag2 ,ben ,sira ,,xxiii1 #ac2 ,test4 ,twelve ,patriarchs1 passim4 #aeie ,deut4 ,,xxiii1 #ad4 #aeif ,deut4 ,,xvi1 #aa2 #ad f42 ,shab4 #aah a2 ,pes4 ,r4 ,,xxiii2 ,meg4 #af b2 ,shab4 #cj b2 ,ber4 #ca a2 comp4 ,m4 ,lazarus1 l4 c41 #bed-bfa4 #aeig ,taan4 #bb a4 #aeih ,see ,lazarus1 l4 c41 #ii4 #aeii ,ber4 #fd a1 refer4 to ,ps4 ,,lxxxiv1 #h2 comp4 ,lazarus1 l4 c41 p4 #bhj4