,,contributions ,,from    ,,the ,,museum
 ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology3     
,,paper #bc     ,,the ,,introduction    
,,of ,,self-,,registering               
,,meteorological ,,instruments          
,robert ,p4 ,multhauf     ,,the ,,first 
,,self-,,registering ,,instruments      
#ii    ,,self-,,registering ,,systems   
#aje    ,,conclusions                   
#aad     ,the ,introduction of          
,,self-,,registering ,,meteorological   
,,instruments  ,robert ,p4 ,multhauf    
,the development of self-registering    
meteorological instruments      began   
very shortly after that of scientific   
meteorological      observation itself4 
,yet it was not until the #ahfj's1 two  
centuries      after the beginning of   
scientific observation1 that the        
self-registering instrument became a    
factor in meteorology4       ,this time 
delay is attributable less to           
deficiencies in the      techniques of  
instrument-making than to deficiencies  
in the      organisation of meteorology 

itself4 ,the critical factor was the    
establishment in the #ahfj's of         
well-financed and competently           
directed meteorological observatories1  
most of which were created      as      
adjuncts to astronomical observatories4 
,,the ,,author3 ,robert ,p4 ,multhauf is
 head curator of the department      of 
science and technology in the ,united   
,states ,national ,museum1              
,smithsonian ,institution4   ,the       
flowering of science in the #agth       
century was accompanied by an           
efflorescence of instrument invention as
 luxurious as that of science itself4   
,although there were foreshadowing      
events1 this flowering seems to have    
owed much to ,galileo1 whose interest in
 the measurement of natural phenomena is
 well known1 and who is himself credited
 with the invention of the thermometer  
and the hydrostatic balance1 both of    
which he devised in connection with     
experimentation on specific scientific  
problems4 ,many1 if not most1 of the    

other ,italian instrument inventors of  
the early #agth century were his        
disciples4 ,benedetto ,castelli1 being  
interested in the effect of rainfall on 
the level of a lake1 constructed a rain 
gauge about #afbh4 ,santorio1 well known
 as a pioneer in the quantification of  
animal physiology1 is credited with     
observations1 about #afbf1 that led to  
the development of the hygrometer4      
,both of these contemporaries were      
interested in ,galileo's most famous    
invention1 the thermoscope--forerunner  
of the thermometer--which he developed  
about #aeig as a method of obtaining    
comparisons of temperature4 ,the utility
 of the instrument was immediately      
recognized by physicists 7not by        
chemists1 oddly enough71 and much       
ingenuity was expended on its perfection
 over a #ej-year period1 in northern    
,europe as well as in ,italy4 ,the      
conversion of this open1 air-expansion  
thermoscope into the modern thermometer 
was accomplished by the ,florentine     

,accademia del ,cimento about #affj4    
,galileo also inspired the barometer1   
through his speculations on the vacuum1 
which1 in #afdc1 led his disciple       
,torricelli to experiments proving the  
limitation to nature's horror of a      
vacuum4 ,torricelli's apparatus1 unlike 
,galileo's thermoscope1 represented the 
barometer in essentially its classical  
form4 ,in his earliest experiments1     
,torricelli observed that the air tended
 to become thicker and thinner2 as a    
consequence1 we find the barometer in   
use 7with the thermometer7 for          
meteorological observation as early as  
#afdi4a  ,the meetings of the ,accademia
 terminated in #affg1 but the           
#e-year-old ,royal ,society of ,london  
had already become as fruitful a source 
of new instruments1 largely through the 
abilities of its demonstrator1 ,robert  
,hooke1 whose task it was to entertain  
and instruct the members with           
experiments4 ,in the course of devising 
these experiments ,hooke became perhaps 

the most prolific instrument inventor of
 all time4 ,he seems to have invented   
the first wind pressure gauge1 as an aid
 to seamen1 and he improved the         
bathometer1 hygrometer1 hydrometer1 and 
barometer1 as well as instruments not   
directly involved in measurement such as
 the vacuum pump and sea-water sampling 
devices4 ,as in ,florence1 these        
instruments were immediately brought to 
bear on the observation of nature4  ,it 
does not appear1 however1 that we would 
be justified in concluding that the rise
 of scientific meteorology was inspired 
by the invention of instruments1 for    
meteorology had begun to free itself of 
the traditional weather-lore and        
demonology early in the #agth century4  
,the ,landgraf of ,hesse described some 
simultaneous weather observations1 made 
without instruments1 in #afcg4 ,francis 
,bacon's ,natural ,history of the ,wind1
 considered the first special work of   
this kind to attain general circulation1
 appeared in #afbb4b ,it seems likely   

that the rise of scientific meteorology 
was an aspect of the general            
rationalization of nature study which   
occurred at this time1 and that the     
initial impetus for such progress was   
gained not from the invention of        
instruments but from the need of        
navigators for wind data at a time when 
long voyages out of sight of land were  
becoming commonplace4  ,illustration3   
,figure #a4--;,a set of typical         
,smithsonian meteorological instruments 
as recommended in instructions to       
observers issued by the ,institution in 
the #ahej's4 ,top 7from left73          
maximum-minimum thermometer of          
,professor ,phillips1 dry-bulb and      
wet-bulb thermometers1 and mercurial    
barometer by ,green of ,new ,york4      
,lower left3 rain gauge4 ,the wet-bulb  
thermometer1 although typical1 is       
actually a later instrument4 ,the rain  
gauge is a replica4 7,smithsonian photo 
#dfgdj47  ,it should be noted in this   
connection that the two most important  

instruments1 the thermometer and        
barometer1 were in no way inspired by an
 interest in meteorology4 ,but the      
observation made early in the history of
 the barometer that the atmospheric     
pressure varied in some relationship to 
visible changes in the weather soon     
brought that instrument into use as a   
weather glass4 ,in particular1 winds    
were attributed to disturbances of      
barometric equilibrium1 and             
wind-barometric studies were made by    
,evangelista ,torricelli1 ,edm          
,mariotte1 and ,edmund ,halley1 the     
latter publishing the first             
meteorological chart4 ,in #afgh-afgi    
,gottfried ,leibniz endeavored to       
encourage observations to test the      
capacity of the barometer for           
foretelling the weather4#c  ,other      
questions of a quasi-meteorological     
nature interested the scientists of this
 period1 and brought other instruments  
into use4 ,observations of rainfall and 
evaporation were made in pursuit of the 

ancient question of the sources of      
terrestrial water1 the maintenance of   
the levels of seas1 etc4 ,physicians    
brought instruments to bear on the      
question of the relationship between    
weather and the incidence of disease4   
,the interrelationship between these    
various meteorological enterprises was  
not long in becoming apparent4 ,soon    
after its founding in #afeg the         
,florentine academy undertook1 through  
the distribution of thermometers1       
barometers1 hygrometers1 and rain       
gauges1 the establishment of an         
international network of meteorological 
observation stations1 a network which   
did not survive the demise of the       
,accademia itself ten years later4  ,not
 for over a century was the first       
thoroughgoing attempt made at systematic
 observation4 ,there was a              
meteorological section in the ,academy  
of ,sciences at ,mannheim from #agfc1   
and subsequently a separate society for 
meteorology4 ,in #aghc1 the ,academy    

published observations from #ci         
stations1 those from the central station
 comprising data from the hygrometer1   
wind vane 7but not anemometer71 rain    
gauge1 evaporimeter1 and apparatus for  
geomagnetism and atmospheric            
electricity1 as well as data from the   
thermometer and barometer4 ,the         
,mannheim system was also short-lived1  
being terminated by the ,napoleonic     
invasion1 but systems of comparable     
scope were attempted throughout ,europe 
and ,america during the next generation4
  ,in the ,united ,states the office of 
the ,surgeon ,general1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army1   
began the first systematic observation  
in #ahai1 using only the thermometer and
 wind vane1 to which were added the     
barometer and hygrometer in #ahdj-ahda  
and the wind force anemometer1 rain     
gauge1 and wet bulb thermometer in      
#ahdc4 ,state weather observation       
systems meanwhile had been inaugurated  
in ,new ,york 7#ahbe71 ,pennsylvania    
7#ahcf71 and ,ohio 7#ahdb74d  ,nearly   

#bjj years of observation had not1      
however1 noticeably improved the        
weather1 and the naive faith in the     
power of instruments to reveal its      
mysteries1 which had possessed many an  
early meteorologist1 no longer charmed  
the scientist of the early #aith        
century4 ,in the first published report 
of the ,british ,association for the    
,advancement of ,science in #ahcc1 ,j4  
,d4 ,forbes called for a reorganization 
of procedures3       ,in the science of 
,astronomy1 for example1 as in that of  
,optics1 the      great general truths  
which emerge in the progress of         
discovery1      though depending for    
their establishment upon a multitude of 
independent facts and observations1     
possess sufficient unity to      connect
 in the mind the bearing of the whole2  
and the more      perfectly understood  
connexion of parts invites to further   
generalization4       ,very different is
 the position of an infant science like 
,meteorology4 ,the unity of the whole   

444 is not always kept in view1         
even as far as our present very limited 
general conceptions will      admit of3 
and as few persons have devoted their   
whole attention to      this science    
alone 444 no wonder that we find strewed
 over its      irregular and far-spread 
surface1 patches of cultivation upon    
spots      chosen without discrimination
 and treated on no common principle1    
which defy the improver to inclose1 and 
the surveyor to estimate      and       
connect them4 ,meteorological           
instruments have been for the most      
part treated like toys1 and much time   
and labor have been lost in      making 
and recording observations utterly      
useless for any      scientific purpose4
 ,even the numerous registers of a      
rather      superior class 444 hardly   
contain one jot of information ready for
      incorporation in a ,report on the 
progress of ,meteorology4444       ,the 
most general mistake probably consists  
in the idea that      ,meteorology1 as a

 science1 has no other object but an    
experimental      acquaintance with the 
condition of those variable elements    
which      from day to day constitute   
the general and vague result of the     
state of the weather at any given spot2 
not considering that 444      when      
grouped together with others of the same
 character1 they may      afford the    
most valuable aid to scientific         
generalization4#e  ,forbes goes on to   
call for a greater emphasis on theory1  
and the replacement of the many         
small-scale observatories with a few    
great ,registers to be adequately       
maintained by great ,societies or by the
 government4 ,he suggests that the time 
for pursuit of theory might be gained   
from the vague mechanical task to which 
at present they generally devote their  
time1 namely the search for great       
numerical accuracy1 to a superfluity of 
decimal places exceeding the compass of 
the instrument to verify4  ,from its    
founding the ,british ,association      

sponsored systematic observation at     
various places4 ,in #ahdb it initiated  
observations at the ,kew ,observatory1  
which has continued until today to be   
the premier meteorological observatory  
in the ,british ,empire4 ,the ,american 
scientist ,joseph ,henry observed the   
functioning of an observatory maintained
 by the ,british ,association at        
,plymouth in #ahcg1 and when he became  
,secretary of the new ,smithsonian      
,institution a few years later he made  
the furtherance of meteorology one of   
its first objectives4  ,the ,kew        
,observatory set a pattern for          
systematic observation in ,england as1  
from #ahee1 did the ,smithsonian        
,institution in the ,united ,states4    
,the instruments used differed little   
from those in use at ,mannheim over half
 a century earlier#f 7fig4 #a74 ,they   
were undoubtedly more accurate1 but this
 should not be overstressed4 ,forbes had
 noted in his report of #ahcb that some 
scientists were then calling for a      

return to ,torricelli1 for the          
construction of a temporary barometer on
 the site in preference to reliance on  
the then existing manufactured          
instruments4     ,the ,first            
,self-,registering ,instruments   ,from 
the middle of the #agth century         
meteorological observations were        
recorded in manuscript books known as   
registers1 many of which were published 
in the early scientific journals4 ,the  
most effective utilization of these     
observations was in the compilation of  
the history of particular storms1 but   
where a larger synthesis was concerned  
they tended1 as ,forbes has shown1 to   
show themselves unsystematic and        
non-comparable4 ,the principal problems 
of meteorological observation have been 
from the outset the construction of     
precisely comparable instruments and    
their use to produce comparable records4
 ,the former problem has been frequently
 discussed1 and perhaps1 as ,forbes     
suggests1 overemphasized4 ,it is the    

latter problem with which we are here   
concerned4  ,the idea of mechanizing the
 process of observation1 not yet        
accomplished in ,forbes' time1 had been 
put forward within a little over a      
decade of the first use of the          
thermometer and barometer in            
meteorology4 ,on ,december #i1 #affc1   
,christopher ,wren presented the ,royal 
,society with a design for a weather    
clock1 of which a drawing is extant4#g  
,this drawing 7fig4 #b7 shows an        
ordinary clock to which is attached a   
pencil-carrying rack1 geared to the hour
 pinion4 ,a discussion of the clock's   
reduction to practice began the         
involvement of ,robert ,hooke1 who was  
instructed in ,september #affd to make a
 pendulum clock applicable to the       
observing of the changes in the         
weather4#h ,this tribute to ,hooke's    
reputation--and to the versatility of   
the mechanic arts at this time--was     
slightly overoptimistic1 as #ae years   
ensued before the clock made its        

appearance4  ,illustration3 ,figure     
#b4--;,a contemporary drawing of ,wren's
 weather clock4 7,photo courtesy ,royal 
,society of ,london47  ,references to   
this clock are frequent in the records  
of the ,royal ,society--being mainly    
periodic injunctions to ,hooke to get on
 with the work--until its completion in 
,may #afgi4 ,the description which      
,hooke was asked to supply was          
subsequently found among his papers and 
printed by ,william ,derham as          
follows3#i       ,the weather-clock     
consists of two parts2 first1 that which
      measures the time1 which is a     
strong and large pendulum-clock1        
which moves a week1 with once winding   
up1 and is sufficient to turn      a    
cylinder 7upon which the paper is       
rolled7 twice round in a day1      and  
also to lift a hammer for striking the  
punches1 once every      quarter of an  
hour4       ,secondly1 of several       
instruments for measuring the degrees of
      alteration1 in the several things1

 to be observed4 ,the first is1      the
 barometer1 which moves the first punch1
 an inch and half1      serving to shew 
the difference between the greatest and 
the least      pressure of the air4 ,the
 second is1 the thermometer1 which moves
      the punch that shews the          
differences between the greatest heat in
      summer1 and the least in winter4  
,the third is1 the hygroscope1          
moving the punch1 which shews the       
difference between the moistest      and
 driest airs4 ,the fourth is1 the       
rain-bucket1 serving to shew      the   
quantity of rain that falls2 this hath  
two parts or punches2      the first1 to
 shew what part of the bucket is fill'd1
 when there      falls not enough to    
make it empty itself2 the second1 to    
shew how      many full buckets have    
been emptied4 ,the fifth is the wind    
vane2      this hath also two parts2 the
 first to shew the strength of the      
wind1 which is observed by the number of
 revolutions in the      vane-mill1 and 

marked by three punches2 the first marks
 every      #aj1jjj revolutions1 the    
second every #a1jjj1 and the third every
      #ajj3 ,the second1 to shew the    
quarters of the wind1 this hath four    
punches2 the first with one point1      
marking the ,north quarters1 viz4       
,n43 ,n4 by ,e43 ,n4 by ,w43 ,,nne43    
,,nnw43 ,,ne4 by ,n4 and ,n4,w4 by ,n43 
,,ne4      and ,n4,w4 ,the second hath  
two points1 marking the ,east and its   
quarters4 ,the third hath three points1 
marking the ,south and its              
quarters4 ,the fourth hath four points1 
marking the ,west and its      quarters4
 ,some of these punches give one mark1  
every #ajj      revolutions of the      
vane-mill4       ,the stations or places
 of the first four punches are marked on
 a      scrowl of paper1 by the         
clock-hammer1 falling every quarter of  
an      hour4 ,the punches1 belonging to
 the fifth1 are marked on the said      
scrowl1 by the revolutions of the vane1 
which are accounted by a      small     

numerator1 standing at the top of the   
clock-case1 which is      moved by the  
vane-mill4  ,what1 exactly1 were the    
instruments applied by ,hooke to his    
weather clock8 ,it is not always easy   
even to guess1 because it appears that  
,wren was actually the first to contrive
 such a device and seems to have        
developed nearly as many instruments as 
,hooke4 ,it might be supposed that      
,hooke would have adapted to the weather
 clock his wheel-barometer1 introduced  
in #affg1 but it also appears that ,wren
 had described 7and perhaps built7 a    
balance barometer before #affg4aj ,as to
 the thermometer1 we have no evidence of
 original work by ,hooke1 but we do have
 a description of ,wren's               
self-registering thermometer1 a         
circular1 mercury-filled tube in which  
changes in temperature move the whole   
instrument1 like a wheel on its axis4#aa
  ,the hygroscope 7hygrometer7 probably 
existed in more versions than any other 
instrument1 although we know nothing of 

any versions by ,wren4 ,hooke may have  
used his own oat-beard instrument4#ab   
,derham follows his description of the  
clock--which has been quoted above--with
 a detailed description of a            
tipping-bucket rain gauge invented by   
,hooke and used with the clock4 ,he also
 notes that in #afgj ,hooke had         
described two other types of rain gauge 
in which a bucket was counterbalanced in
 one case by a string of bullets and in 
another by an immersed weight4 ,but here
 again1 ,sprat records the invention of 
a tipping-bucket gauge by ,wren before  
#affg4  ,hooke has been generally       
regarded as the first inventor of an    
anemometer1 in #affb4ac ,but this       
invention was a pressure-plate          
gauge--that is1 a metal plate held with 
its face against the wind--whereas the  
gauge used with the weather clock is    
clearly a windmill type1 of which type  
this may be the first4 ,wren also had an
 anemometer1 but we have no description 
of it4 ,hooke's account does not refer  

to other instruments which the weather  
clock is supposed to have had1 according
 to a description quoted by ,gunther1   
which concludes the enumeration of the  
elements recorded with sunshine1 etc4#ad
 ,one can only wish for further         
information on the mechanism by which   
the punches--or in ,wren's clock1 the   
pencils--were moved4 ,but it is apparent
 that ,hooke's clock was actually used  
for some time4  ,illustration3 ,figure  
#c4--;,dolland's atmospheric recorder3  
#a1 siphon and float barometer2 #b1     
balance 787 thermometer2 #c1 hygrometer2
 #d1 electrometer2 #e1 float rain gauge2
 #f1 float evaporimeter2 #g1            
suspended-weight wind force indicator2  
#h1 wind direction indicator2 #i1 clock2
 #aj1 receivers for rain gauge and      
evaporimeter4 7,from ,official 444      
,catalogue of the ,great ,exhibition1   
#ahea1 ,london1 #ahea1 pt4 #b74  ,the   
#agth century was not entirely          
unprepared for the idea of such a       
self-registering instrument4 ,water     

clocks and other devices in which       
natural forces governed a pointer were  
known in antiquity1 as were counters of 
the type of the odometer4 ,a water clock
 described in ,italy in #aebd was       
essentially an inversion of one of      
,hooke's rain gauges1 that in which a   
bucket was balanced against a string of 
bullets4#ae ,the mechanical clock also  
had a considerable history in the #agth 
century1 and had long since been applied
 to the operations of figures through   
cams1 as was almost certainly the case  
with the punches in ,hooke's clock4     
,still1 the combination of an           
instrument-actuated pointer with a      
clock-actuated time-scale and a means of
 obtaining a permanent record represent 
a group of innovations which certainly  
ranks among the greatest in the history 
of instrumentation4 ,it appears that we 
owe these innovations to ,wren and      
,hooke4  ,hooke's clock contributed     
nothing to the systematization of       
meteorological observation1 and the last

 record of it appears to have been a    
note on its re-fitting in #afij4 ,its   
complexity is sufficient reason for its 
ephemeral history1 but complexity in    
machine design was the fashion of the   
time and ,hooke may have intended no    
more than a mechanistic tour de force4  
,on the other hand1 he may have         
recognized the desideratum to which     
later meteorologists frequently         
returned--the need for simultaneous     
observations of several instruments on  
the same register4 ,in any case1 no     
instrument so comprehensive seems to    
have been attempted again until the     
middle of the #aith century1 when       
,george ,dolland exhibited one at the   
,great ,exhibition in ,london 7see fig4 
#c74 ,the weather elements recorded by  
,dolland's instrument were the same as  
those recorded by ,hooke's1 except that 
atmospheric electricity 7unknown in     
,hooke's time7 was recorded and sunshine
 was not recorded4 ,striking hammers    
were used by ,dolland for some of the   

instruments and ever pointed pencils for
 the others4 ,dolland's barometer was a 
wheel instrument controlling a hammer4  
,his thermometric element consisted of  
#ab balanced mercury thermometers4 ,its 
mode of operation is not clear1 but it  
probably was similar to that of the     
thermometer developed by ,karl ,kreil in
 ,prague about the same time 7fig4 #d74 
,dolland's wind force indicator         
consisted of a pressure plate           
counterbalanced by a string of suspended
 weights4 ,altogether1 it is not clear  
that ,dolland's instrument was superior 
to ,hooke's1 or that its career was     
longer4#af  ,the #aga years between     
these two instruments were not lacking  
in inventiveness in this field1 but even
 though inventors set the more modest   
aim of a self-recording instrument for a
 single piece of meteorological data1   
their brain children were uniformly     
still-born4 ,then1 during the period    
#ahdj-ahej1 we see the appearance of a  
series of self-registering instruments  

which were actually used1 which were    
widely adopted by observatories1 and    
which were superseded by superior       
instruments rather than abandoned4 ,this
 development was undoubtedly a          
consequence of the establishment at that
 time of permanent observatories under  
competent scientific direction4  ,long  
experience had demonstrated to the      
meteorologists of the #ahdj's that the  
principal obstacle to the success of    
self-registering instruments was        
friction4 ,forbes had indicated that the
 most urgent need was for automatic     
registration of wind data1 as the       
erratic fluctuation of the wind demanded
 more frequent observation than any     
manual system could accomplish4 ,two of 
the ,british ,association's observers   
produced separate recording instruments 
for wind direction and force in the late
 #ahcj's1 a prompt response which       
suggests that it was not the idea which 
was lacking4 ,one of these              
instruments--designed by ,william       

,whewell--contained gearing1 the        
friction of which vitiated its utility  
as it had that of a number of           
predecessors4 ,the other1 designed by   
,a4 ,follet ,osler1 was free of gearing2
 it separately recorded wind pressure   
and direction on a sheet of paper moved 
laterally by clockwork4 ,the pressure   
element was a spring-loaded pressure    
plate carried around by the vane to face
 the wind4 ,both this plate and the vane
 itself were made to move pencils       
through linkages of chains and          
pulleys4#ag ,osler's anemometer 7fig4   
#e7 deserves to be called the first     
successful self-registering             
meteorological instrument2 it was       
standard equipment in ,british          
observatories until the latter part of  
the #aith century when it was replaced  
by the cup-anemometer of ,robinson4     
,illustration3 ,figure #d4--,kreil's    
balance thermometer1 #ahdc4 7,from ,karl
 ,kreil1 ,magnetische und               
meteorologische ,beobachtungen zu ,prag1

 ,prague1 #ahdc1 vol4 #c1 fig4 #a47     
,illustration3 ,figure #e4--,osler's    
self-registering pressure plate         
anemometer1 #ahcg4 ,the instrument is   
shown with a tipping-bucket rain gauge4 
7,from ,abbe1 op4 cit4 footnote #ag47   
,self-recording barometers and          
thermometers were more vulnerable to the
 influence of friction than were wind   
instruments1 but fortunately pressure   
and temperature were also less subject  
to sudden fluctuation1 and so           
self-registration was less necessary4   
,nevertheless1 two events occurred in   
the #ahdj's which led to the development
 of self-registering instruments4 ,one  
event was the development of the        
geomagnetic observatory1 which used the 
magnetometer1 an instrument as delicate 
as the barometer and thermometer1 and   
7as it then seemed71 as subject to      
fluctuation as the wind vane4 ,the other
 event was the development of           
photography1 making possible a recording
 method free of friction4 ,in #ahde     

,francis ,ronalds at ,kew ,observatory  
and ,charles ,brooke at ,greenwich      
undertook to develop apparatus to       
register the magnetometer1 electrometer1
 thermometer1 and barometer by          
photography4#ah ,this was six years     
after ,daguerre's discovery of the      
photographic process4 ,the magnetometers
 of both investigators were put into use
 in #ahdg1 and the barometers and       
thermometers shortly after4 ,they were  
based on the deflection--by a mirror in 
the case of the magnetometer and        
electrometer and by the mercury in the  
barometer and thermometer--of a beam of 
light directed against a photographic   
plate4 ,brooke exhibited his instruments
 at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahej1 and
 they subsequently became items of      
commerce and standard appurtenances of  
the major observatory until nearly the  
end of the century 7fig4 #f74 ,their    
advantages in accuracy were finally     
insufficient to offset the inconvenience
 to which a photographic instrument was 

subject4  ,before #ahej the ,british    
observatories at ,kew and ,greenwich    
7the latter an astronomical observatory 
with auxiliary meteorological activity7 
had self-registering apparatus in use   
for most of the elements observed4      
,self-,registering ,systems   ,in #ahgj 
the ,signal ,corps1 ,u4,s4 ,army1 took  
on the burden of official meteorology in
 the ,united ,states as the result of a 
joint resolution of the ,congress and in
 accordance with ,joseph ,henry's dictum
 that the ,smithsonian ,institution     
should not become the permanent agency  
for such scientific work once its       
permanency had been decided upon4       
,smithsonian meteorology had not        
involved self-recording instruments1 and
 neither did that of the ,signal ,corps 
at the outset because of the expense of 
the apparatus1 and because nothing of   
that kind was at that time manufactured 
in this country4#ai  ,but almost        
immediately after #ahgj the ,signal     
,corps undertook an evidently           

well-financed program for the           
introduction of self-registration4      
,complete outfits were purchased1       
representing ,wild's system1 the ,kew   
system as made by ,beckley1 ,hipp's     
system 7fig4 #h71 ,secci's meteorograph 
7figs4 #i1 #aj71 ,draper's system1 and  
,hough's printing barograph and         
thermograph4 ,of these only the ,kew    
system1 the photographic system already 
mentioned1 could have been obtained     
before #ahfg4  ,illustration3    ,scale 
about #a-afth4    ,,barograph1 ,,or     
,,self-,,recording ,,mercurial          
,,barometer1 #fh4  ,figure              
#f4--,photographic registering mercurial
 barometer1 typical commercial version4 
7,from ,j4 ,j4 ,hicks1 ,catalogue of 444
 ,meteorological ,instruments1 ,london1 
n4d41 about #ahgj47  ,like ,kew1 ,daniel
 ,draper's observatory in ,central      
,park1 ,new ,york ,city1 was established
 primarily for meteorological           
observation4#bj ,draper was one of the  
sons of the prominent scientist ,j4 ,w4 

,draper4 ,hipp was an instrument-maker  
of ,neuchtel who specialized in         
precision clocks4#ba ,the others after  
whom these systems were named were      
directors of astronomical observatories1
 which were1 at this time1 the most     
active centers of meteorological        
observation4 ,wild was at the ,bern     
,observatory1#bb ,secci at the ,papal   
,observatory1 ,rome1#bc and ,george     
,hough at the ,dudley ,observatory1     
,albany1 ,new ,york4#bd ,while the      
,signal ,corps seems to have acquired   
all of the principal systems1 some      
interesting instruments were developed  
at still other observatories1 notably by
 ,kreil at the astronomical observatory 
in ,prague4#be ,the principal impetus   
for this full-scale mechanization of    
observation undoubtedly came from the   
directors of astronomical observatories4
  ,thus within little more than the     
decade of the #ahfj's were developed    
five new systems of meteorological      
self-registry that were sufficiently    

well thought of to be adopted or copied 
by observatories outside their places of
 origin4 ,wild and ,draper tell us that 
it was decided when their respective    
observatories were established--in #ahfj
 and #ahfh--that all instruments should 
be self-registering4 ,each was obliged  
to design his own1 being dissatisfied   
with the photographic registers         
commercially available4 ,the development
 of these systems would therefore appear
 to have been due1 in part1 to the      
general spread of a conviction that     
satisfactory instruments were           
attainable4  ,illustration3  ,a1 is the 
,vane4  ,b1 is the ,perpendicular       
,shaft4  ,c1 is a ,horizontal ,circular 
,plate of light material attached to the
 shaft4  ,e and ,f1 two ,rollers        
communicating motion to the ,apron ,e ,f
 from left to right4  #a1 #b1 #c1 c41   
are minute ,cards1 placed upon the      
,apron4  ,g1 is a ,clock that regulates 
the motion of the ,roller ,e1 and       
consequently that of the apron and      

cards4  ,d1 is a small weight to relieve
 the ,clock4  ,n1 ,,ne1 ,e1 c41 are     
paper boxes placed upon the circular    
plate1 to receive the cards1 as they    
fall from the apron at ,e4  ,figure     
#g4--;,in #ahch the pioneer ,american   
meteorologist ,james ,h4 ,coffin        
7#ahjf-ahgc7 devised a self-registering 
wind direction indicator2 in #ahdi he   
improved it as shown here4 ,the band1   
moved by clockwork1 carries cards marked
 with the day and hour4 ,in ,coffin's   
earlier instrument1 a part of which is  
now in the ,smithsonian ,institution1   
the vane carried a funnel for sand1     
which ran into a circular row of        
bottles4 7,from ,proceedings of the     
,american ,association for the          
,advancement of ,science1 #ahdi1 vol4   
#b1 p4 #chh47  ,this confidence was     
warranted1 for the decade of the #ahej's
 had seen the appearance of major       
innovations in the basic                
instruments--thermometer1 barometer1 and
 wind velocity indicator--that made     

available instruments more adaptable to 
self-registration4 ,it also saw the     
development of a new method of          
electrical registration derived from the
 telegraph4 ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone   
initiated this small revolution in #ahdc
 when he reported to the ,british       
,association that he had constructed an 
electromagnetic meteorological register 
which records the indications of the    
barometer1 thermometer and the          
psychrometer meaning wet-bulb           
thermometer every half hour 444 and     
prints the results on a sheet of paper  
in figures1 running a week unattended4  
,the working of this register involved  
the insertion of a conductor in the     
tubes to make a circuit1 the            
thermometers having open tops4#bf ,this 
was ten years after the development of  
the electromagnetic relay and six years 
after ,wheatstone's introduction of his 
own telegraph4  ,wheatstone's instrument
 left a very ephemeral record in the    
meteorological literature1 and appears  

to have been defective or out of fashion
 with its time1 which was concerned with
 the introduction of photographic       
instruments4 ,wheatstone's work was     
rediscovered1 along with that of several
 other much earlier inventors1 by the   
determined observatory directors of the 
#ahfj's4  ,of the five systems developed
 at that time1 four used electromagnetic
 registration1 only ,draper adhering to 
a mechanical system 7see fig4 #aa74 ,for
 temperature measurement ,secci and     
,hough used ,wheatstone's electrical    
system with a mercurial thermometer     
7fig4 #ab71 but the other four utilized 
a physical principle which had been     
proposed periodically for at least a    
century--the unequal thermal expansion  
of a bimetallic strip4 ,this principle  
had been utilized by watchmakers for a  
quite different purpose--the temperature
 compensation of the watch pendulum--but
 its possibilities as a thermometer had 
been known long before the mid-#aith    
century4#bg  ,illustration3 ,figure     

#h4--;,hipp's registering aneroid       
barometer1 with a telegraphic printer4  
7,,usnm #cadedd2 ,smithsonian photo     
#dfgdj-;,d47  ,for the measurement of   
pressure1 ,secci1 ,wild1 and ,draper    
adopted1 or rediscovered1 the balance   
barometer devised by ,wren in the #agth 
century4 ,in this type of instrument    
7see figs4 #ac1 #ae7 either the tube or 
the reservoir of the barometer is       
attached to one arm of a balance1 the   
equilibrium of which is disturbed by the
 movement of the mercury in the         
instrument4#bh  ,illustration3 ,figure  
#i4--;,front and rear views of ,secci's 
meteorograph1 #ahfg4 7,from ,lacroix1   
op4 cit4 footnote #bb47  ,hough's       
barometer was an adaptation of the      
electrical contact thermometer4 ,the    
movement of the mercury over a certain  
minute distance within the tube served  
as a switch to energize an electrical   
recording system4 ,hipp1 who was perhaps
 the latest of this group1 first applied
 the aneroid barometer 7fig4 #h7 to     

self-registration4 ,the idea of the     
aneroid--an air-tight bellows against   
which the atmospheric pressure would    
act--had been advanced by ,leibniz in   
the #agth century and had been the      
subject of a few abortive experiments in
 the #ahth century4 ,not until #ahdh was
 an instrument produced that was        
acceptable to users of the barometer4#bi
  ,as a wind velocity instrument all six
 systems used the cup-anemometer        
developed by ,robinson in #ahdf1 an     
instrument whose chief virtue was the   
care which its inventor had taken to    
work out the relationship between its   
movement and the actual velocity of the 
wind4#cj ,beckley and ,draper caused it 
to move a pencil through gearing2 the   
others used with it electromagnetic     
counters actuated by rotating contacts4 
,illustration3 ,figure #aj4--;,chart    
from ,secci's meteorograph4 7,from      
,lacroix1 op4 cit4 footnote #bb47  ,as  
has been indicated1 the ,signal ,corps  
used all six systems1 a panoply of      

gadgetry which must have been wondrous  
to behold4 ,its ,secci meteorograph1    
which had attracted much attention at   
,paris1 was estimated to have cost      
#ae1jjj francs4 ,abbe reported in #ahid 
that the instruments were long kept in  
the apparatus room as a fascinating show
 to visitors and a stimulation to the   
staff in the invention of other         
instruments4#ca  ,illustration3 ,figure 
#aa4--;,draper's mechanical registering 
barometer1 as used in the ,lick         
,observatory4 7,photo courtesy ,lick    
,observatory47  ,illustration3 ,figure  
#ab4--;,hough's electromechanical       
registering barometer1 about #ahga4     
,illustration3 ,figure #ac4--;,fuess'   
balance barometer after ,samuel         
,morland1 #ahhj4 ,wren probably was the 
originator of this type of instrument4  
7,from ,loewenherz1 op4 cit4 footnote   
#bh47  ,illustration3 ,figure           
#ad4--,marvin's mechanical registering  
barometer1 #aije4 ,this instrument was  
formerly in the ,u4,s4 ,weather ,bureau4

 7,,usnm #cafejj2 ,smithsonian photo    
#dfgdj-;,e47  ,illustration3 ,figure    
#ae4--,steelyard barometer as shown in  
,charles ,hutton's ,mathematical and    
,philosophical ,dictionary 7,london1    
#agif1 vol4 #a1 p4 #ahh74 ,hutton makes 
no reference to the originator of this  
instrument2 he attributes the ,diagonal 
7or inclined7 barometer to ,samuel      
,morland4  ,from #ahge the question was 
no longer one of the introduction of    
self-registering instruments to major   
observatories but their complete        
mechanization and the extension of      
registration to substations4 ,having    
accepted self-registration1             
meteorologists turned their attention to
 the simplification of instruments4 ,in 
#aijd ,charles ,marvin1 of what is now  
the ,u4,s4 ,weather ,bureau1 brought the
 self-registering barometer into        
something of a full circle by producing 
an instrument 7fig4 #ad7 that was       
nothing more than ,hooke's wheel        
barometer directly adapted to           

recording4#cb ,but this process of      
simplification had been accomplished at 
a stroke1 about #ahhj1 with the         
introduction by the ,parisian           
instrument-maker ,jules ,richard of a   
self-registering barometer and a        
thermometer combining the simplest form 
of instrument with the simplest form of 
registration 7see fig4 #af74 ,this      
innovation1 which fixed the form of the 
conventional registering instrument     
until the advent of the radiosonde1     
seems to have stemmed from a source     
quite outside meteorology--the          
technology of the steam gauge4          
,richard's thermometric element was the 
curved metal tube of elliptical         
cross-section that ,bourdon had         
developed several decades earlier as a  
steam gauge4 ,pressure within such a    
tube causes it to straighten1 and thus  
to move a pointer attached to one end4  
,bourdon had opened it to the steam     
source4 ,richard filled it with alcohol1
 closed it1 and found that the expansion

 of the alcohol on heating caused a     
similar straightening4 ,his barometric  
element was a type of aneroid1 which    
,hipp had already used but which        
,richard may have also adopted from a   
type of steam gauge4 ,for a recording   
mechanism1 ,richard was able to use a   
simple direct lever connection1 as the  
forces involved in his instruments1     
being concentrated1 were not greatly    
hampered by friction4#cc ,by #aijj these
 simple and inexpensive instruments had 
relegated to the scrap pile1            
unfortunately literally1 the elegant    
products of the mass attack of          
observatory directors in the #ahfj's on 
the problem of the self-registering     
thermometer and barometer4#cd           
,conclusions   ,in view of the rarity of
 special studies on the history of      
meteorological instruments1 it is       
impossible to claim that this brief     
review has neglected no important       
instruments1 and conclusions as to the  
lineage of the late #aith century       

instruments can only be tentatively     
drawn4 ,the conclusion is inescapable1  
however1 that the majority of the       
instruments upon which the              
self-registering systems of the late    
#aith century were based had been       
proposed and1 in most cases1 actually   
constructed in the #agth century4 ,it is
 also evident that in the #agth century 
at least one attempt was made at a      
system as comprehensive as any          
accomplished in the #aith century4      
,illustration3 ,figure #af4--,richard's 
registering aneroid barometer1 an       
instrument used at the ,u4,s4 ,weather  
,bureau about #ahhh4 ,the ,richard      
registering thermometer is similar1 the 
aneroid being replaced by an            
alcohol-filled ,bourdon tube4 7,,usnm   
#bebiha2 ,smithsonian photo #dfgdj-;,c47
  ,to attribute the success of          
self-registering instruments in the late
 #aith century to the unquestionable    
improvements in the techniques of the   
instrument-maker is to beg the question1

 for it is by no means clear that the   
techniques of the #agth-century         
instrument-maker were unequal to the    
task4 ,it should also be noted that the 
photographic and electromagnetic systems
 of the #aith century seem to have been 
something of an interlude1 for some of  
the latest and most durable 7all of     
,draper's and ,richard's instruments and
 ,marvin's barograph7 were purely       
mechanical instruments1 as had been     
those of ,hooke and ,wren4 ,if we       
conclude that the #aith-century         
instruments were more accurate1 we      
should also recall ,forbes' comments    
upon the question of instrumental       
accuracy4  ,what1 then1 was the         
essential difference between the #agth  
and #aith centuries that made possible  
the development of the self-registering 
observatory8 ,it would appear to have   
been a difference of degree--the        
maturation in the #aith century of      
certain features of the #agth4 ,the most
 important of these features were the   

spread throughout the western world of  
the spirit that had animated the        
scientific societies of ,florence and   
,london1 the continued popularity of the
 astronomical observatory as an object  
of the philanthropy of an affluent      
society1 and the continued existence of 
the nonspecialized scientist4 ,under    
these circumstances such                
nonmeteorologists as ,wheatstone1       
,henry1 ,hough1 ,wild1 and ,secci had   
the temerity to range over the whole of 
the not yet compartmented branches of   
science and technology1 fully confident 
that they were capable of finding       
thereby a solution to any problem       
important enough to warrant their       
attention4     ,,footnotes3   #a ,on    
early meteorological instruments see ,a4
 ,wolf1 ,a ,history of ,science1        
,technology and ,philosophy in the      
,sixteenth and ,seventeenth ,centuries1 
,new ,york1 #aice1 and ,e4 ,gerland and 
,f4 ,traumller1 ,geschichte der         
physikalischen ,experimentierkunst1     

,leipzig1 #ahii4 ,on the recognition of 
the meteorological significance of the  
barometer by ,torricelli and its        
meteorological use in #afdi see ,k4     
,schneider-,carius1 ,wetterkunde        
,wetterforschung1 ,freiburg and ,munich1
 #aiee1 pp4 #fb1 #ga4  #b ,bacon's book 
emphasizes direct and indirect          
experiments1 and calls for the          
systematization of observation1 but it  
does not mention instruments4 ,it is    
reprinted in ,basil ,montagu's ,the     
,works of ,francis ,bacon1 ,lord        
,chancellor of ,england1 ,london1 #ahbe1
 vols4 #aj and #ad4  #c ,wolf1 op4 cit4 
7footnote #a71 pp4 #cab1 #caf-cbj4 ,the 
interest of the ,royal ,society in the  
barometer seems to have been initiated  
by ,descartes' theory that the          
instrument's variation was caused by the
 pressure of the moon4  #d ,on early    
meteorology in the ,united ,states see  
the report of ,joseph ,henry in ,report 
of the ,commissioner of ,patents1       
,agriculture1 for the ,year #ahee1      

#ahef1 p4 #ceg;ff42 also1 ,army         
,meteorological ,register for ,twelve   
,years1 #ahdc-ahed1 #ahee1 introduction4
  #e ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes1 ,report upon the  
,recent ,progress and ,present ,state of
 ,meteorology1 ,report of the ,first and
 ,second ,meetings of the ,british      
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 #ahca and #ahcb1 #ahcc1 pp4   
#aif-aig4  #f ,on the instruments used  
at ,mannheim see ,gerland and           
,traumller1 op4 cit4 footnote #a1 p4    
#cdi;ff4 ,the ,princeton physicist      
,arnold ,guyot prepared a set of        
instructions for observers that was     
published in ,tenth ,annual ,report 444 
of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahef1
 p4 #bae;ff4 ,it appears from the       
,annual ,report of the ,british         
,association for the ,advance of        
,science in the #ahcj's that the        
instruments used in ,england were nearly
 the same as those later adopted by the 
,smithsonian1 although ,british         
observatories were beginning to         

experiment with the self-registering    
anemometer at that time4 ,a typical set 
of the ,smithsonian instruments is shown
 in figure #a4  #g ,h4 ,alan ,lloyd1    
,horology and ,meteorology1 ,journal    
,suisse d',horlogerie1                  
,november-,december1 #aiec1 nos4 #aa1   
#ab1 p4 #cgb1 fig4 #a4  #h ,r4 ,t4      
,gunther1 ,early ,science in ,oxford1   
vol4 #f1 ,the ,life and ,work of ,robert
 ,hooke1 pt4 #a1 ,oxford1 #aicj1 p4     
#aif4 ,in #afgj1 ,hooke's proposed clock
 was referred to as such a one1 as ,dr4 
,wren had formerly contrived 7,gunther1 
p4 #cfe74  #i ,william ,derham1         
,philosophical ,experiments and         
,observations of 444 ,dr4 ,robert       
,hooke1 ,london1 #agbf1 pp4 #da-db      
7reprinted in ,gunther1 op4 cit4        
footnote #h1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #eai-ebj74    
,this description1 dated ,december #e1  
#afgh1 predates the ,royal ,society's   
request for a description 7,gunther1 op4
 cit4 footnote #h1 p4 #fef7 by four     
months1 but the ,society no longer has  

any description of the clock4 ,as to the
 actual completion of the clock1 the    
president of the ,society visited ,mr4  
,hooke's turret to see it in ,january of
 #afgh_/gi but it was not reported ready
 to be shown until the following ,may   
7,gunther1 pp4 #ejf1 #eah74  #aj ,wren's
 clock and its wind vane and anemometer1
 thermometer1 barometer1 and rain gauge 
are described by ,t4 ,sprat1 ,the       
,history of the ,royal ,society4441     
,london1 #affg1 pp4 #cab-cac4 ,on the   
balance-barometer1 see also footnote    
#bh1 below1 and figure #d4  #aa ,since  
the above was written1 additional       
information on this clock has been      
published by ,h4 ,e4 ,hoff and ,l4 ,a4  
,geddes1 ,graphic ,recording before     
,carl ,ludwig3 ,an ,historical ,summary1
 ,archives ,internationales d',histoire 
des ,sciences1 #aiei1 vol4 #ab1 pp4     
#a-be4 ,hoff and ,geddes call attention 
to a report on the clock by ,monconys1  
who saw the instrument in #affc and     
published a brief description and crude 

sketch 7,balthasar ,monconys1 ,les      
,voyages de ,balthasar de ,monconys2    
,documents pour l',histoire de la       
,science1 avec une ,introduction par ,m4
 ,charles ,henry1 ,paris1 #ahhg74       
,monconys says that the thermometer     
causes a tablet to rise and fall while a
 pencil bears against it4 ,the          
instrument shown in his sketch resembles
 a ,galilean thermoscope4  #ab ,hooke's 
oat-beard hygrometer was described in   
#affg1 but ,torricelli seems to have    
invented the same thing in #afdf1       
according to ,e4 ,gerland1 ,historical  
,sketch of ,instrumental ,meteorology1  
in ,report of the ,international        
,meteorological ,congress ,held at      
,chicago1 ,ill41 ,august #ba-bd1 #ahic1 
,o4 ,l4 ,fassig1 ed41 ,u4,s4 ,weather   
,bureau ,bulletin ,no4 #aa1 pt4 #c1     
#ahif1 pp4 #fhg-fii4  #ac ,but a ,dutch 
patent was awarded to one ,william      
,douglas in #afbg for the determination 
of wind pressure 7,g4 ,doorman1 ,patents
 for ,inventions in the ,netherlands    

during the #afth1 #agth and #ahth       
,centuries1 ,the ,hague1 #aidb1 p4      
#abg71 and ,leonardo da ,vinci left a   
sketch of both a wind pressure meter and
 a hygrometer 7,codex ,atlanticus1 #bdi 
va and #h vb74  #ad ,gunther1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #h71 pp4 #dcc1 #ejb4  #ae     
,battista della ,valle1 ,vallo ,libro   
,continente ,appertiniente ad           
,capitanii1 ,retenere and ,fortificare  
una ,citta4441 ,venetia1 #aebc 7reported
 under the date #aebd in ,g4 ,h4        
,baillie1 ,clocks and ,watches1 an      
,historical ,bibliography1 ,london1     
#aiea74  #af ,dolland's instrument1     
called an atmospheric recorder1 is      
described in the ,official1 ,descriptive
 and ,illustrated ,catalogue to the     
,great ,exhibition1 #ahea1 ,london1     
#ahea1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #dad-dae4 ,as the    
,george ,dolland who joined the famous  
,dolland firm in #ahjd would have been  
about #hj years of age in #ahej1 the    
,george ,dolland who exhibited this     
instrument may have been a younger      

relative4  #ag ,the ,osler anemometer   
and most of the other self-registering  
instruments mentioned in this paper are 
described and illustrated in ,c4 ,abbe1 
,treatise on ,meteorological ,apparatus 
and ,methods1 ,annual ,report of the    
,chief ,signal ,officer for #ahhg1      
,washington1 #ahhh4 ,the use of the     
,osler instrument at the ,british       
,association's observatory at ,plymouth 
is mentioned in the ,association's      
annual reports from #ahch4 ,there were a
 number of earlier self-registering     
anemometers1 but no evidence of their   
extended use4 ,see ,j4 ,k4 ,laughton1   
,historical ,sketch of ,anemometry and  
,anemometers1 ,quarterly ,journal of the
 ,royal ,meteorological ,society1 #ahhb1
 vol4 #h1 pp4 #afa-ahh4  #ah ,on        
,ronalds' work see reports of the       
,british ,association for the           
,advancement of ,science1 from #ahdf to 
#ahej4 ,on ,brooke's work see           
,philosophical ,transactions of the     
,royal ,society of ,london1 #ahdg1 vol4 

#acg1 pp4 #ei-fh4  #ai ,c4 ,abbe1 ,the  
,meteorological ,work of the ,u4,s4     
,signal ,service1 #ahgj to #ahga1 in    
,fassig1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ab71 pt4   
#b1 #ahie1 p4 #bfc4  #bj ,annual ,report
 of the ,director of the ,meteorological
 ,observatory1 ,central ,park1 ,new     
,york1 #ahga1 p4 #a;ff4  #ba            
,oesterreichische ,gesellschaft fr      
,meteorologie1 ,zeitschrift1 #ahga1 vol4
 #f1 pp4 #ajd1 #aag4  #bb ,p4 ,h4 ,carl1
 ,repertorium fr physikalische ,technik1
 ,munich1 #ahfg1 p4 #afb;ff4  #bc ,e4   
,lacroix1 tudes sur l',exposition de    
#ahfg1 ,paris1 #ahfg1 vol4 #b1 p4       
#cac;ff4 ,see also1 ,reports of the     
,u4,s4 ,commissioners to the ,paris     
,universal ,exposition1 #ahfg1 vol4 #c1 
,washington1 #ahgj1 p4 #egj;ff4  #bd    
,annals of the ,dudley ,observatory1    
#ahga1 vol4 #b1 p4 vii ff4  #be ,karl   
,kreil1 ,entwurf eines meteorologischen 
,beobachtungs-,systems fr die           
sterreichische ,monarchie1 ,vienna1     
#ahej4  #bf ,report of the #acth        

,meeting of the ,british ,association   
for the ,advancement of ,science1 #ahdc1
 #ahdd1 p4 xi ff4 ,i have found no other
 reference to this instrument4          
,considerable attention was given to the
 thermometer1 however1 for ,wheatstone  
proposed to send it aloft in a balloon  
for the measurement of temperatures at  
high altitudes4 ,a small clock caused a 
vertical rack to ascend and descend once
 in six minutes4 ,the rack carried a    
platinum wire which moved within the    
thermometer over #bh degrees4 ,from a   
galvanic battery and a galvanometer on  
the ground two insulated copper wires   
were to extend to the balloon1 one      
connected to the mercury and the other  
to the clock frame4 ,the deflection of  
the galvanometer was to be timed with a 
second clock on the ground4 7,professor 
,wheatstone1 ,report on the             
,electro-,magnetic ,meteorological      
,register1 ,mechanics' ,magazine1       
,london1 #ahdc1 vol4 #ci1 p4 #bjd74  #bg
 ,in #affb ,hooke had proposed the use  

of a bimetallic pendulum for the        
temperature compensation of clocks4     
,thermometers on this principle were    
described to the ,royal ,society in     
#agdh and in #agfj 7,philosophical      
,transactions of the ,royal ,society of 
,london1 #agdh1 vol4 #de1 p4 #abh2      
#agfj1 vol4 #ea1 p4 #hbc74 ,some systems
 used a bimetallic thermometer in the   
sun and a mercurial instrument in the   
shade4  #bh ,this instrument has been   
persistently associated with ,sir       
,samuel ,morland 7#afbe-afie74 ,for     
example1 ,a4 ,sprung of the ,deutsche   
,seewarte described his own             
balance-barometer as a ,wagebarograph   
nach ,samuel ,morland 7in ,l4           
,loewenherz1 ,bericht ber die           
wissenschaftlichen ,instrumente auf der 
,berliner ,gewerbeausstellung im ,jahre 
#ahgi1 ,berlin1 #ahhj1 p4 #bcj;ff74     
,sprat 7op4 cit4 footnote #aj1 p4 #cac7 
reported that ,wren had proposed        
balances to shew the weight of the air  
by their spontaneous inclination4 ,this 

must1 therefore1 be ,wren's invention1  
unless he got it from ,morland1 who does
 not seem to have published anything    
about the barometer but only to have    
described some ideas to a friend4 ,but  
,morland's was probably the inclined and
 not the balance barometer4 7,see under 
barometer in ,charles ,hutton1          
,mathematical and ,philosophical        
,dictionary1 ,london1 #agif1 vol4 #a2   
also ,j4 ,k4 ,fischer1 ,physikalisches  
,wrterbuch1 ,gttingen1 #agih74  #bi     
,leibniz1 in several letters--beginning 
with one to ,denys ,papin on ,june #ba1 
#afig--proposed the making of a         
barometer on the model of a bellows4 ,of
 subsequent versions of such a          
barometer1 that of ,vidi 7described by  
,poggendorff1 ,annalen der ,physik und  
,chemie1 #ahdh1 ,band #gc1 p4 #fbj7 is  
generally regarded as the first         
practical aneroid 7see also ,gerland and
 ,traumller1 op4 cit4 footnote #a1 pp4  
#bci1 #cbc74  #cj ,t4 ,r4 ,robinson1    
,modification of ,dr4 ,whewell's        

,anemometer for ,measuring the ,velocity
 of the ,wind1 ,report of the #afth     
,meeting of the ,british ,association   
for the ,advancement of ,science1 #ahdf1
 #ahdg1 pt4 #b1 p4 #aaa4  #ca ,abbe1 op4
 cit4 7footnote #ai71 pp4 #bfc-bfd4  #cb
 ,because of its superior accuracy to   
the aneroid barograph1 ,marvin's        
barometer was in use through the        
#aidj's4 ,see ,r4 ,n4 ,covert1          
,meteorological ,instruments and        
,apparatus ,employed by the ,united     
,states ,weather ,bureau1 ,journal of   
the ,optical ,society of ,america1      
#aibe1 vol4 #aj1 p4 #cbb4  #cc ,both of 
,richard's instruments 7described in    
,bulletin ,mensuel de la ,socit         
d',encouragement pour l',industrie      
,nationale1 ,november #ahhb1 ser4 #c1   
vol4 #i1 pp4 #eca-edc7 were in use at   
,kew by #ahhe and at the ,u4,s4 ,weather
 ,bureau by #ahhh4 ,the firm of ,richard
 ,freres claimed in #ahhi to have made  
#g1jjj registering instruments1 of which
 the majority were probably thermographs

 and barographs4 ,at that time1         
certainly no other maker had made more  
than a small fraction of this number of 
self-registering instruments4 ,the      
origin of ,richard's thermograph seems  
to have been the elastic manometer      
described by ,e4 ,bourdon in #ahea      
7,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement
 pour l',industrie ,nationale1 #ahea1   
no4 #efb1 p4 #aig74 ,while attempting to
 restore a flattened still-pipe1        
,bourdon had discovered the property of 
tubes to change shape under fluid       
pressure4 ,the instrument he developed  
in consequence became the standard steam
 pressure gauge4  #cd ,a few of these   
instruments1 such as the ,marvin        
barograph1 survived for some time       
because of their superior accuracy4     
,even as museum pieces1 only a few exist
 today4     ,u4,s4 ,,government         
,,printing ,,office1 #aifa4  ,for sale  
by the ,superintendent of ,documents1   
,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1   
,washington #be1 ,d4,c4 - ,price #be    

cents     ,transcriber's ,note3   ,minor
 errors in punctuation have been        
corrected without note4 ,the following  
typographical errors in the original    
have been corrected3  ,p4 #aaj3 'a      
panopoly of gadgetry'3 corrected to     
panoply ,p4 #aac1 caption to ,figure    
#ac3 ',feuss'3 corrected to ,fuess      
,footnote #bh3 ',gewerbeaustellung'3    
corrected to ,gewerbeausstellung        
,footnote #bh3 ',physikalisches         
,worterbuch'3 corrected to ,wrterbuch   
,footnote #bi3 'see also ,gerland and   
,tramuller'3 corrected to ,traumller