file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #cbcib-;h4htm or #cbcib-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#cbcib_/pg#cbcib-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#cb cib_/cbcib-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,american ,libraries4 ,see http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/notes onagricultu#jj;bevarich ,,notes ,,on ,,agriculture ,,in ,,cyprus ,,and ,,its ,,products by ,w4 ,,bevan ,director of ,agriculture1 ,cyprus #aiai ,all ,rights ,reserved ,,contents ,,introduction #a ,i4 ,,general #c ,geographical ,features1 #c2 ,climate and ,rainfall1 #d2 ,administration1 #e2 ,weights1 ,measures and ,currency1 #e ,,ii4 ,,agricultural ,,conditions #f ,general1 #f2 ,land ,tenure and ,labour1 #f2 ,tithes and ,taxation1 #g2 ,credit and ,agricultural ,societies1 #h2 ,irrigation1 #h2 ,agricultural ,implements1 #aj2 ,the ,agricultural ,department1 #ab2 ,fungoid ,diseases and ,insect ,pests1 #ad ,,iii4 ,,live ,,stock #af ,cattle1 #af2 ,sheep1 #ag2 ,goats1 #ah2 ,pigs1 #ai2 ,camels1 #bj2 ,horses1 #bj2 ,donkeys1 #bj2 ,jennets and ,mules1 #ba2 ,poultry1 #bb2 ,preserved ,meats1 etc41 #bc ,,iv4 ,,dairy ,,produce #bc ,milk1 #bc2 ,cheese1 #bd2 ,butter1 #bg2 ,xynogala or ,yaourti1 #bg2 ,trachanas1 #bh2 ,kaimaki or ,tsippa1 #bh ,v4 ,,crops ,,and ,,other ,,produce ,,of ,,the ,,land #bh ,,cereals #bh ,wheat1 #ca2 ,barley1 #cb2 ,oats1 #cd2 ,rye1 #ce2 ,maize 7,indian ,corn71 #ce2 ,dari or ,millet 7,sorghum vulgare71 #ce ,,fruits #ce ,vines and ,wines1 #cf2 ,citrus fruits1 #dc2 ,fig 7,ficus ,carica71 #dd2 ,cherries1 #de2 ,banana1 #df2 ,azarol ,hawthorn1 #df2 ,melons1 #dg2 ,date ,palm1 #dg ,,nuts #dh ,hazelnuts and ,cobnuts or ,filberts1 #dh2 ,walnuts1 #di2 ,almonds1 #di2 ,spanish ,chestnut1 #ej2 ,pistacia spp41 #ej ,,vegetables #eb ,beans and ,peas1 #ec2 ,potatoes1 #ee2 ,kolakas 7,colocasia antiquorum71 #ef2 ,onions1 #ef ,,fodders ,,and ,,feeding ,,stuffs #eg ,carob ,tree1 #eg2 ,lucerne 7,medicago sativa71 #fa2 ,vetch 7,vicia ,ervilia71 #fb2 ,chickling ,vetch 7,lathyrus sativus71 #fb2 ,vetch 7,vicia sativa71 #fb2 ,tares 7,vicia tenuifolia var4 stenophylla71 #fc2 ,milk ,vetch 7,astragalus71 #fc2 ,moha1 ,sulla 7,hedysarum71 #fc2 ,teosinte 7,reana luxurians71 #fd2 ,sudan-grass1 #fd2 ,teff-grass 7,eragrostis abyssinica71 #fd2 ,mangold ,wurzel1 #fd2 ,prickly ,pear 7,opuntia71 #fe ,,spices #fe ,coriander ,seed1 #fe2 ,aniseed1 #ff2 ,white ,cumin ,seed1 #ff2 ,black ,cumin ,seed1 #fg ,,essential ,,oils ,,and ,,perfumes #fg ,origanum ,oil1 #fg2 ,marjoram ,oil1 #fi2 ,laurel ,oil1 #fi2 ,otto of ,roses1 #fi2 ,acacia ,farnesiana1 #gj ,,oils ,,and ,,oil ,,seeds #ga ,olives1 #ga2 ,sesame ,seed1 #gd2 ,ground ,nut1 ,peanut or ,monkey ,nut 7,arachis hypoga71 #ge12 ,castor-oil ,seed1 #gf ,,fibres #gg ,cotton1 #gg2 ,flax and ,linseed1 #hb2 ,wool1 #hc2 ,hemp1 #hd2 ,silk1 #he2 ,mulberry1 #ia2 ,agaves and ,aloes1 #ia2 ,broom ,corn1 #ib ,,tobacco #ib ,,tanning ,,materials ,,and ,,dye-,,stuffs #if ,sumach1 #ig2 ,valonea1 #ih2 ,acacia ,barks1 #ih2 ,madder1 #ii ,,drugs ,,and ,,other ,,products #ii ,liquorice ,root1 #ii2 ,pyrethrum1 #ajj2 ,squill1 #aja2 ,colocynth1 #aja2 ,asphodel1 #ajb ,,vi4 ,,minor ,,agricultural ,,industries #ajb ,bee-keeping1 #ajb2 ,basket-making1 #ajd2 ,fruit and ,vegetable ,preserving1 #ajd ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,cyprus1 ,,showing ,,distribution ,,of ,,crops ,,and ,,forests #b ,,plate ,i4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,ploughing ,,on ,a ,,mountain-,,side ,,with ,,native ,,plough #aj ,i4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,newly-,,prepared ,,beds ,,in ,,experimental ,,gardens #aj ,,ii4 ,,agricultural ,,implements #ab ,,iii4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,native ,,bull #af ,,iii4 #b4 ,,native ,,ram #af ,,iv4 #a4 ,,cyprus ,,pony #bj ,,iv4 #b4 ,,cyprus ,,donkeys #bj ,v4 #a4 ,,carting ,,corn #bi ,v4 #b4 ,,threshing ,,corn ,,with ,,native ,,threshing ,,board #bi ,,vi4 ,,pruned ,,olive-,,trees ,,at ,,metochi ,,of ,,kykos #gb ,,vii4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,cypriot ,,earthenware ,,beehives #ajc ,,vii4 #b4 ,,shipping ,,fruit ,,at ,,larnaca #ajc ,,notes ,,on ,,agriculture ,,in ,,cyprus ,,and ,,its ,,products#a ,,by ,w4 ,,bevan ,director of ,agriculture1 ,cyprus ,the intention of these notes is to make available to those interested in the agriculture of ,cyprus some of the information scattered in various reports1 leaflets and correspondence not readily accessible to the general public4 ,it has long been a matter of regret to the writer that the valuable stores of information collected with so much care and ability by the late ,mr4 ,panayiotis ,gennadius1 formerly ,director of ,agriculture in ,cyprus1 through having been published in ,greek only1 have remained beyond the reach of many who might otherwise have derived benefit from a study of his works4 ,his writings on the general agriculture of the ,near ,east are voluminous and comprehensive1 and show an intimate knowledge of the subject as well as of the practices and customs of agriculturists in these regions4 ,the results of his labours are mainly embodied in his ,helleniki ,georgia and his ,phytologikon ,lexicon1 both of which are works of recognised authority4 ,during his eight years 7#ahif-aijc7 spent in ,cyprus ,mr4 ,gennadius devoted himself specially to a study of the agricultural conditions and needs of the ,island1 and the notes and reports made by him have been1 to a large extent1 taken as the basis of the present ,notes4 ,during the sixteen years since he left the ,island many changes have taken place1 and the more receptive and enlightened attitude of the rising generation of farmers has helped to bring about various improvements1 and a greater readiness has been shown to adopt modern methods4 ,in compiling the present ,notes ,i have drawn freely from the articles which have appeared for many years in the ,cyprus ,agricultural ,journal 7formerly ,cyprus ,journal71 the official publication of the ,agricultural ,department1 and which ,i have edited2 ,i have also taken advantage of the very admirable and reliable information contained in the ,handbook of ,cyprus1 edited by ,messrs4 ,lukach and ,jardine4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,map ,of ,,cyprus ,,showing ,,distribution ,,of ,,crops ,,forests ,i am greatly indebted to the willing assistance of ,mr4 ,procopios ,symeonides1 ,inspector of ,agriculture1 whose thorough acquaintance with local conditions and usages has enabled him to contribute much useful and informative material4 ,i have also to offer my acknowledgments to ,messrs4 ,m4 ,g4 ,dervishian1 ,c4 ,pelaghias1 ,z4 ,solomides1 ,g4 ,frangos1 ,a4 ,klokaris1 ,a4 ,panaretos and others who have kindly supplied me with data of various kinds4 ,it will scarcely be necessary to add that little more than a summary of the agricultural practice and resources of the ,island has here been attempted1 and in no sense does it pretend to be anything more4 ,the aim has been to give the reader a general idea of what ,cypriot agriculture is and1 to some extent1 what it is capable of doing4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,reprinted from the ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 #aiai4 ,i4 ,,general ,geographical ,features ,the ,island of ,cyprus is situated in the innermost basin of the ,mediterranean ,sea2 about #dj miles distant from the ,asia ,minor coast on the north1 and about #fj miles from ,syria on the east1 and #bch miles from ,port ,said to the south4 ,it is the third largest island in the ,mediterranean1 ranking next to ,sicily and ,sardinia4 ,the larger part of the ,island is in the form of an irregular parallelogram1 #ajj miles long and from #cj to #fj miles broad2 while on the north the eastern extremity runs out beyond this into a peninsula #dj miles long by #e to #f miles broad4 ,the total area is #c1ehd sq4 miles4 ,the main topographical features are the northern and southern mountain ranges running east and west and enclosing the great plain of the ,messaoria4 ,the mountains of the northern range are of an altitude ranging from #b1jjj ft4 to over #c1jjj ft41 the highest point being ,buffavento1 #c1ace ft42 those of the southern range are more lofty and culminate in ,mt4 ,olympus1 #f1djf ft4 above sea-level4 ,the rivers are nearly all mountain torrents1 and are dry from about ,july to ,november or ,december4 ,the area of cultivated land is approximately #a1bjj1jjj acres1 and that of the uncultivated land #a1jic1gfj acres1 of which about #dej1jjj are forest land and #cbj1jjj are susceptible of cultivation4 ,the ,messaoria plain is the great corn-growing area4 ,climate and ,rainfall ,there are considerable extremes of temperature in the plains4 ,in summer it is very hot and dry with temperature ranging during ,june to ,september from #hj to #aaj ,fahr41 while in winter slight frosts not infrequently occur4 ,the climate is more equable1 but also more humid1 along the coasts4 ,in the plains there is1 during the greater part of the year1 a marked variation between the day and night temperatures4 ,official records show that for a period of thirty-two years up to #aiae the average rainfall for hill and plain for the whole ,island approximated to #bj inches4 ,up to #aijb records were kept only in the six district towns1 but since then there have been some fifty recording stations4 ,the mean rainfall during the winter months for the twelve years ended #aiad was #ah4ee inches4 ,that for the whole year during the latter period was #ba4ah inches4 ,the incidence of rainfall1 apart from its volume1 is of importance4 ,it is on the rainfall of the six winter months1 ,october to ,march1 that the prosperity of the ,island depends1 and any shortage during this period cannot be balanced by heavier summer rains1 which are more liable to cause harm than good1 by damaging the corn lying on the threshing-floors and by causing sudden floods4 ,much importance attaches to the rains in ,march1 without which the grain crop1 however ample the earlier rains may have been1 will not be satisfactory1 as described in a maxim which ,i have attempted to render in ,english4 ,if twice in ,march it chance to rain1 ,in ,april once1 a shower in ,may1 ,in weight in gold of man and wain1 ,the farmer's crops are sure to pay4 ,if roads are dry at ,christmas time1 ,but ,epiphany finds both mud and slime1 ,and at ,carnival they still hold many a pool1 ,the farmer finds his barns quite full4 ,administration ,the ,island is administered by a ,high ,commissioner4 ,there is an ,executive ,council and a ,legislative ,council consisting of six official members and twelve elected members1 of whom three are elected by the ,moslem and nine by the non-,moslem inhabitants4 ,the ,island is divided into six districts1 in each of which the ,executive ,government is represented by a ,commissioner4 ,weights1 ,measures and ,currency ,nearly everything except corn1 wine1 oil1 carobs1 cotton and wool is sold by the oke4 ,an oke1 dry measure1 equals #djj drams1 or #b-d_/e lb4 ,the liquid oke is reckoned as equivalent to a quart4 ,grain is measured by the kil1 regarded as equal to a bushel4 ,wool1 cotton and oil are sold by the litre of #b-d_/e okes1 but commonly reckoned as #b-a_/b okes4 ,carobs are sold by the ,aleppo cantar of #ahj okes4 ,this cantar is further divided into #ajj litres of #a oke and #cbj drams each4 ,wine is sold by the kartos #d okes1 the kouza #h okes1 and the gomari #abh okes4 #a kil of wheat weighs #bj to #bb okes4 #a kil of barley weighs #ad to #ah okes4 #a kil of oats weighs #ac to #ad okes4 #a kil of vetches weighs #bc to #bd okes4 #a sack of straw weighs about #dj okes4 #a camel-load of straw weighs about #bjj okes1 consisting of #b sacks1 each weighing about #ajj okes4 ,measures of ,length ,metron or metre4 ,yarda or yard4 ,pic #b ft4 or two-thirds of a yard4 ,inch ,english measure4 ,the land measure is the donum 7called by the villagers scala71 but it is very uncertain1 and varies in different parts of the ,island4 ,as recognised by law1 #a donum1 called tappoo donum1 equals #fj pics #dj yards square #a1fjj square yards1 or #ad1djj sq4 ft42 #c4jbe of these donums go to the acre4 ,there is also a farmer's1 or reshper donum1 which is commonly used by agriculturists and is equal to about #a-a_/b ,government donums4 ,for general purposes a legal donum is about one-third and a ,cypriot farmer's donum about one-half of an acre4 ,stremma is also a synonym for the farmer's donum1 or scala1 although its actual measure is very much less4 ,currency #a #bj shillings or #ahj copper piastres4 #a shilling #i copper piastres4 #a cp4 7copper piastre7 #dj paras4 ,,ii4 ,,agricultural ,,conditions ,general ,agriculture is the main industry of the ,island1 which is favourably situated for the markets of ,egypt1 ,syria and ,asia ,minor1 although the former is practically the only buyer of its perishable produce4 ,during recent years the ,cypriot agriculturist has come to realise more and more the value of the ,egyptian market and a considerable trade with that country has grown up4 ,land ,tenure and ,labour ,the small farmer mostly cultivates his own land1 whereas the large landowner rarely does4 ,the metayer1 or metairie1 system is fairly common1 and has much to recommend it when honourably carried out by both parties1 but it is open to very serious abuse4 ,under this system the one party1 or contractor1 gives the seed and often lends the cattle4 ,a valuation of the latter is made at the time of entering into the agreement1 and a re-valuation is made on termination1 any depreciation being made good by the other party1 or metayer4 ,the latter finds the necessary labour and feeds the animals and pays an agreed rate for their hire4 ,the crops1 after deduction of ,government tithe1 are usually divided equally between both parties1 but the conditions vary according to circumstances and the nature of the crops grown4 ,if cultivated land be given to the partner1 such land must be returned to the contractor in the same state of cultivation as received1 or the contractor1 at his option1 may claim the return of the seed his partner received with it4 ,there are also a considerable number of leaseholders paying a fixed rent4 ,the monasteries are the largest landowners1 and both cultivate their own land and let out portions to the monks or to private farmers4 ,much land is also held by the ,church1 and this is frequently let out on a yearly lease1 with the result that it is badly farmed and speedily worked out4 ,the country is rather sparsely populated by about #bge1jjj inhabitants1 and although the cultivators are laborious when working for themselves and when free from the hands of the usurers1 they are still very backward in their methods and appliances4 ,a less conservative attitude has of late been observed1 and a greater readiness has been manifested in seeking and following the advice of the ,agricultural ,department4 ,there is a great amount of indebtedness among the peasantry and usurious practices abound4 ,this undoubtedly checks progress1 as few of the smaller farmers are free agents4 ,the matter has lately been the subject of a special ,commission appointed by ,government4 ,laws have this year 7#aiai7 been passed by the ,legislative ,council dealing with usury and indebtedness4 ,tithes and ,taxation ,the tithe1 which forms the principal source of ,government revenue1 is one-tenth of the produce of the land on wheat1 barley1 oats1 vetches1 rye and favetta1 measured on the threshing-floors and delivered in kind at the ,government ,grain ,stores4 ,certain allowances are made to the tithe-payers for transport4 ,in the case of carobs1 which are also subject to this tax1 the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the ,custom ,house at the rate of #i cp4 7#as47 per cantar from the districts of ,nicosia1 ,larnaca and ,limassol1 and #h cp4 per cantar from the other three districts4 ,there are certain export dues1 in lieu of tithe1 payable on the following commodities3 ,aniseed #cc cp41 cotton #ee cp41 linseed #ah cp41 mavrokokko 7black cummin7 #g cp41 and raisins #aj cp4 per #ajj okes2 silk cocoons #f-c_/d cp41 wound silk #ah cp41 silk manufactured by other than hand looms #ah cp4 per oke4 ,an annual tax is levied of #c-c_/d cp4 per head on every sheep and of #e cp4 per head on every goat one year old and upwards1 and of #d-a_/b cp4 per head on every pig over three months old4 ,credit and ,agricultural ,societies ,the spirit of co-operation has hitherto been singularly lacking1 but there are signs that a change is in progress and that1 with proper guidance1 the cultivators will ere long come to realise the advantages of combined effort in the production and distribution of their crops4 ,the establishment of village co-operative ,credit ,societies has long been advocated1 but although a law was passed in #aiac for this purpose1 there has so far been little practical outcome4 ,co-operation in its full modern significance is not yet understood2 but one or two little village co-operative banks have nevertheless been started and show encouraging results4 ,there are also a few small village agricultural societies springing up1 which1 if properly conducted1 may prove the pioneers of a general movement in this direction4 ,the existence of such societies would greatly facilitate the work of the ,agricultural ,department1 which would be able to influence and assist farmers through their societies1 whereas now it is often not possible to reach them individually4 ,irrigation ,the most common method of raising water is by means of primitive water-wheels or alakatia1 often described as ,persian wheels and resembling the sakia of ,egypt4 ,by these the water is carried in earthenware cups attached to the rim of a large vertical wooden wheel fixed in the mouth of a well and made to revolve by a mule or donkey by means of a horizontal wheel and beam1 or by modern air-motor4 ,myrtle branches are mostly employed for attaching the cups to the wheels1 as these are pliable and resist the action of water4 ,these alakatia were formerly made entirely of wood1 but in the nineties1 iron ones 7noria7 were introduced from ,greece1 and these have become fairly general1 and are gradually supplanting the older types4 ,they have the advantage of being more durable and lighter to work4 ,good iron wheel wells are now locally made4 ,water-wheels of this description cannot be used for raising water from a depth of more than ten fathoms below the surface of the ground4 ,of late years a large number of air-motors of ,canadian pattern have been introduced and are found satisfactory4 ,there is abundant evidence in the remains of old disused ,venetian wells and cisterns that in pre-,turkish times1 when the country was far more densely populated than at present1 a larger quantity of underground water was utilised than now4 ,abundant subterranean water for agricultural and gardening purposes is to be found in almost all the coast lands as well as in many parts of the interior4 ,such waters are either brought to the surface along subterranean channels or by means of wells1 and1 for the most part1 have their origin in the mountain ranges1 specially in the southern range1 which is the rainy region of the ,island4 ,artesian well-boring experiments have been made in recent years in different parts of the ,island1 but without substantial results4 ,in the ,famagusta district large reservoirs were constructed several years ago for impounding the surplus water of the rivers of ,pedias and ,ialias1 but these have only been very partially successful as the water is mostly lost before it reaches them4 ,a satisfactory solution of the water problem is of supreme importance to the ,island4 ,there are large fertile areas which every year remain fallow1 but which1 if capable of irrigation1 would grow excellent cotton and other summer crops1 thus providing a better system of rotation4 ,vegetable growing and fruit culture could then also be very greatly extended4 ,agricultural ,implements ,ploughs4--,the old wooden plough of the ,east is still the common plough of the country 7see ,plate ,i1 fig4 #a74 ,efforts were made from #aj to #ae years ago to introduce iron ploughs by selling them through the ,agricultural ,department at half the cost price and even less4 ,high-water mark was reached in #aijh when #ajb of these ploughs were so sold4 ,these were much approved of1 and the further sale was then left in the hands of merchants4 ,the demand at once fell off and since then only a few have been introduced4 ,for a year or two a certain number of iron ploughs of ,russian make were imported and sold through the ,jewish settlement at ,margo4 ,there is now a considerable demand which it may be possible to satisfy when normal conditions are resumed4 ,there is some prejudice against ,english-made ploughs on the score of weight1 as they are mostly heavier than those of ,french1 ,russian1 ,greek and ,american make4 ,harrow4--,the native harrow1 saraclo1 is a wooden beam about #aj ft4 long by #ab to #ah in4 broad and #c in4 thick1 on which the labourer stands as it is drawn over the newly sown land4 ,it is ineffective inasmuch as it does not break the clods1 but merely presses them into the ground4 ,iron-toothed harrows and spring-toothed harrows have been lent by the ,department for demonstration purposes to different persons1 and these1 particularly the second kind1 have found favour and are likely to be in demand for covering the sown seed4 ,the usual method is to cover the seed with the native plough1 but the ,european harrow is seen to do the work more effectively and with a great economy of time4 ,among the more common agricultural tools of native pattern are the following 7see ,plate ,,ii73 ,tsappa 7hoe74--,the wider tool1 #e in4 to #f in41 is mostly for garden use2 the narrow tsappa1 about #c in4 wide1 is for field work4 ,skalistiri4--,a kind of small tsappa1 #b in4 wide1 having two prongs #d in4 to #e in4 long at the opposite end4 ,it is mostly used for hoeing vegetables4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a4--,ploughing on a ,mountain-side with ,native ,plough4 ,fig4 #b4--,newly-prepared ,beds in ,experimental ,gardens4 ,xinari 7axe or hatchet74--,one end of the implement is a sort of hoe1 and the other end is shaped like a mattock4 ,used for cleaning off weeds1 shrubs1 etc41 from the fields2 also for cutting or splitting wood4 ,kouspos4--,these are of two kinds4 ,the larger is used like a tsappa1 but in stony or rocky places2 the smaller is the tool used by well-sinkers4 ,it can be conveniently handled in a confined space4 ,karetta or ,cart4--,this has almost entirely superseded the old ,cypriot type of cart1 but the latter may yet be seen very occasionally in the ,karpas and possibly in the ,paphos district4 ,it is still in use in some parts of ,anatolia4 ,in its construction no iron nails are needed4 ,doukani4--,the common threshing-board 7see under ,cereals1 p4 #bi74 ,this is the primitive implement handed down from classic times and generally seen throughout the ,east 7see ,plate ,v1 fig4 #b74 ,thernatchin4--,a wooden shovel used for winnowing grain4 ,it is deeply serrated1 or divided1 into #e or #f triangular-shaped teeth4 ,arvalin4--,a corn sieve4 ,a goat's or sheep's skin1 perforated with holes1 is stretched across a round wooden frame1 #ab in4 to #ah in4 in diameter4 ,instead of a skin1 leather thongs or gut are stretched1 crosswise on the frame4 ,perforated tin is now sometimes employed4 ,these sieves are used for cleaning grain after winnowing4 ,arkon4--,another kind of sieve1 similar to the above1 but with smaller holes for sifting fine seeds1 dust1 etc4 ,mostly made of skin1 but now tin is being used4 ,patourin4--,a similar sieve1 used for still finer work4 ,skala4--,an iron dibber1 fitted with two wooden handles1 used for planting vine cuttings4 ,some advance has been made of late in cleaning the land1 but foul land is pretty general4 ,squills1 thistles1 thorny bushes1 and so forth abound2 these are mostly deeply rooted1 drought-resistant plants1 and the labour required for uprooting them is not forthcoming4 ,there are a fair number of reaping machines now in use1 but little care is bestowed on them1 and when slightly out of order they are often put aside as useless4 ,more enlightened ideas are now prevailing1 and the abundant crops of the last few years have created a strong desire for more reapers and also for threshing machines1 of which there are at present barely half a dozen in the ,island4 ,the ,agricultural ,department ,the ,agricultural ,department was established on a small scale in #ahif1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,p4 ,gennadius4 ,it continued much on its original lines until #aiab1 when its establishment was enlarged1 and the ,government ,farm and the ,veterinary ,branch were attached to the ,department1 and again in #aiad it underwent a further slight extension which was necessarily checked by the war4 ,there is now a staff of inspectors1 district overseers and agricultural demonstrators who are occupied in continually travelling in the country1 advising and giving practical assistance to cultivators1 lecturing on village wine-making1 poultry-keeping1 bee-keeping1 on the action to be taken against various pests and so forth4 ,there are some eight ,government ,nursery ,gardens in the districts from which large numbers of trees1 plants and seeds are issued4 ,a system of ,model ,orchards and ,vineyards1 newly started1 is giving satisfactory results4 ,these are intended to assist those engaged in the production of fruit and vegetables1 for which an unlimited market is close at hand in ,egypt4 ,seventy ,school ,gardens are in existence throughout the ,island under the guidance and control of the ,department4 ,by their means many young fruit trees and other plants and seeds are annually distributed at low rates1 better methods of cultivation and new kinds of vegetable and fodder plants are being made known1 and the village boys are being taught something about the work on which they will later depend for their livelihood4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,agricultural ,implements4 #a1 ,arvalin for barley and oats4 #b1 ,arvalin for wheat and vetches4 #c1 ,shovel for winnowing4 #d1 ,thernatchin4 #e1 ,arkon4 #f1 ,patourin4 #g1 ,tsappa1 narrow1 for field use4 #h1 ,tsappa1 wide1 for garden use4 #i1 ,xinari4 #aj1 ,kouspos4 #aa1 ,skalistiri4 ,an ,agricultural ,school for the sons of farmers was opened at ,nicosia in #aiac under the direction of the ,agricultural ,department4 ,some twenty to twenty-five lads between sixteen and twenty years of age1 both ,greeks and ,moslems1 receive a two-year course of instruction with a view to fitting them to cultivate their own properties later4 ,a few of the more promising students have been retained as student-labourers in the ,department1 after the termination of their school course1 and of these again a few have been given minor appointments in the ,department4 ,a scheme for training young ,cypriots abroad1 which was in abeyance during the war1 makes it possible to give the more capable of these some further training in ,europe in the higher branches of agriculture4 ,it is hoped1 by this means1 to form a group of native experts from among whom the technical staff of the ,department can be recruited4 ,the ,government ,farm1 ,athalassa1 though somewhat ill-placed for purposes of education and demonstration1 has done good work in improving the live stock of the country1 as evidenced at the ,animal ,shows held every year4 ,periodical auction sales of ,athalassa stock take place in the different districts4 ,during the three years #aiae-ah1 there were reared at the ,farm and distributed #da cattle1 #bfd sheep1 #h donkeys1 #ccb pigs and #b mules1 besides a considerable head of poultry4 ,the total value of the live and dead stock was estimated on ,march #ca1 #aiah1 at #c1abh4 ,for breeding purposes there were #f stallion horses1 #h jack donkeys1 #h bulls and #g boars in #aiag-ah stationed either at ,athalassa or at the stud stables which have been established in the districts4 ,some #cj cast army mares have been obtained free of cost from the ,remount ,department1 ,egypt1 and have been lent out on contract to farmers for mule breeding4 ,during #aiag-ah the ,farm produced #afi cheeses and #a1jcf-a_/b lb4 of butter4 ,in the winter of #aiag-ah some #cad donums of land were under cultivation1 the chief crops being barley1 oats1 wheat and gavetta 7,lathyrus sativus74 ,the ,veterinary ,establishment provides for #a ,veterinary ,surgeon1 #b ,stock ,inspectors and #a ,veterinary ,compounder4 ,there is a good deal of endemic contagious disease among the flocks and herds of the ,island1 mainly anthrax and goat- and sheep-pox1 and the ,veterinary staff is kept busy4 ,cattle plague is unknown in the ,island4 ,cattle breeding should become a paying industry when once the lesson of proper feeding and management has been learnt 7hitherto sadly neglected by the ,cypriot farmer71 since ,egypt provides a ready and remunerative market4 ,perhaps no work is of more importance than that of combating the numerous insect and other pests which every year cause heavy loss to the agricultural community4 ,the addition of an ,entomological ,laboratory and the appointment of an ,entomologist have enabled the ,department to afford relief to many cultivators1 and a small but active entomological staff are constantly engaged on various pest campaigns4 ,the ,department possesses a small but well-equipped ,chemical ,laboratory under the charge of an ,agricultural ,chemist4 ,in the absence of any law1 the ,department has1 in the interests of importers and agriculturists alike1 offered its services for analysing and reporting upon samples1 sealing bags and giving advice as to the use of the different types1 and this action has been readily availed of4 ,this in itself1 however1 is not enough to check malpractices or safeguard the cultivators4 ,for the last four years the ,department has had trial plots in which new varieties of cereals and fodder plants have been experimentally grown 7see ,plate ,i1 fig4 #b74 ,the seed has been obtained from ,england1 ,south ,africa1 ,india and ,australia1 but so far none of the varieties have been found in any marked degree superior to the native kinds4 ,one or two varieties introduced two years ago are promising1 and when fully acclimatised may be worth the attention of farmers4 ,experimental sowings are often made in the villages when it is desired to bring any particular crop to the notice of the agricultural classes4 ,the ,cyprus ,agricultural ,journal1 published quarterly in ,english1 ,greek and ,turkish1 is the official organ of the ,agricultural ,department4 ,fungoid ,diseases and ,insect ,pests ,the ,cypriot agriculturist has to contend against the attacks of many species of insects and a number of fungoid pests4 ,little could be done to bring these under control until1 in #aiad1 an ,entomological ,branch of the ,agricultural ,department was established4 ,much valuable research and descriptive work had been carried out by ,mr4 ,gennadius1 but no organised field work could be undertaken until the last three or four years4 ,a detailed description of the numerous pests cannot here be given1 but the more important ones are enumerated below4 ,happily ,cyprus is one of the few ,mediterranean countries which has not been invaded by ,phylloxera4 ,cereals4--cophora temperatella 7,limassol district only71 smut and rust1 hessian fly 7occasionally71 grain weevils 7,calandra granaria71 grain moth 7,sitotroga cerealella74 ,carobs4--,cecidomyia ceratoni1 scale 7,aspidiotus ceratoni7 ,myelois ceratoni1 borer 7,cossus liniperda71 ,oidium ceratoni4 ,olives4--,capnodium1 scale 7,lecanium ole and ,aspidiotus ole71 aphis 7,psylla ole71 olive fly 7,dacus sp471 ,tinea oleela and various borers4 ,citrus and other ,fruit ,trees4--,gummosis 7,citrus and all stone fruits72 scale 7all72 ermin moth 7apples1 pears and plums72 downy plant louse1 ,schizoneura lanigera 7apples72 aphides 7almond1 peach1 plum and apricot72 ,tingis pyri 7pears and apples72 codlin moth1 ,carpocapsa pomonella 7apples1 pears1 quinces and walnuts72 peach leaf curl1 ,exoascus deformans 7peaches72 black aphis 7peaches72 ,mediterranean fruit fly1 ,ceratitis capitata 7all72 mites1 ,acarus sp4 7all72 various borers1 thrips1 and barkbeetle 7,scolytids74 ,vines4--,oidium ,tuckeri1 ,peronospora1 anthracnose1 ,cladosporium1 root rot1 ,zygna ampelophaga1 thrips1 ,cochylis1 ,lita solanella4 ,vegetables4--,peronospora infestans 7potatoes71 ,cladosporium1 ,altica1 aphides1 mole crickets4 ,much damage is done to carobs by the large rat1 ,mus ,alexandrinus4 ,the large fruit-eating bat is a great pest4 ,hornets attack all kinds of fruits and cause much loss4 ,the chief cotton enemies are the cotton boll worm 7,earias insulana71 aphides and ,capnodium4 ,locusts are no longer the formidable plague they were in the eighties4 ,they are limited almost to the ,famagusta district1 where they annually breed and do a certain amount of damage to early cotton and to vegetable crops4 ,if not vigilantly kept under control they would quickly multiply and become a serious danger4 ,,iii4 ,,live ,,stock ,cattle ,the cattle of the country have been bred1 until the last two or three years1 exclusively for draught purposes4 ,cattle breeding as a business is unknown4 ,farmers1 as a rule1 aim only at raising a calf or two every year in order to maintain one or more yokes of oxen4 ,some of the draught animals are very fine 7see ,plate ,,iii1 fig4 #a1 and ,plate ,v1 fig4 #a74 ,these belong mostly to the monasteries2 one animal exhibited at a recent show measured over #ag hands4 ,the race is presumably the result of many crossings with imported breeds1 but has acquired a definite type4 ,the cows are in colour and conformation not unlike ,jerseys1 but larger and without the udder development of that breed4 ,the oxen have mostly a more or less pronounced hump1 possibly acquired through many generations of progenitors used exclusively for draught purposes4 ,in some of the best bulls this hump is particularly marked4 ,in #aiab some ,devon bulls and cows were imported and a herd of this breed was started at the ,government ,farm1 ,athalassa4 ,an impetus was thus given to breeding dairy cows1 and a number of half- and three-quarter-bred cows are now to be found1 which command high prices for milking purposes4 ,the ,devon bulls1 however1 have never come into favour among farmers for raising draught cattle4 ,there was a fair export of cattle to ,egypt before the war1 a good proportion of the animals being consigned to the ,serum ,institute1 ,cairo1 as ,cyprus cattle1 alone among the cattle in this part of the ,levant1 have so far been free from plague4 ,the number of horned cattle in #aiag is officially given as #dh1gfa4 ,the exports for the five years preceding the war were3 ,year4 ,number4 ,value4 #aiji #b1ceg #aa1cad #aiaj #d1bdj #bj1bah #aiaa #i1ffd #dd1hga #aiab #e1gea #cd1cjc #aiac #c1jag #bj1aaj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a4--,native ,bull4 ,fig4 #b4--,native ,ram4 ,there can be no question that if more attention were paid to growing fodder crops1 cattle breeding could be greatly increased1 and a good trade with ,egypt might be done4 ,the establishment of the ,athalassa ,stock ,farm has had a most useful influence on the improvement of the live stock of the ,island4 ,beef has only lately become an article of food for the country people1 and is still so only on a small scale4 ,the townspeople1 having become ,europeanised to a greater degree than formerly1 are now becoming beef consumers1 and the high price of beef has had a stimulating effect upon breeding for the butchers4 ,before the ,british occupation the killing of an ox for eating purposes was considered by many villagers an act of sacrilege4 ,sheep ,sheep rearing is an important industry in ,cyprus4 ,the sheep are of the fat-tailed species and are allied1 though superior to1 the ,afrikander sheep4 ,the total number of sheep in the ,island in #aiag was #bee1aej4 ,they feed almost entirely by grazing1 and wander1 under the charge of shepherds1 over considerable areas in search of food1 frequently in company with goats4 ,they are valued chiefly for their milk and meat2 their wool1 though of moderate quality1 is small in quantity4 7,see also under ,dairy ,produce1 p4 #bc47 ,large numbers of sheep are killed annually for local consumption1 and there is a regular export to ,egypt1 as shown by the following pre-war figures3 ,year4 ,number4 ,value4 #aijd #ac1ibc #aj1edd #aije #h1haf #g1egb #aijf #e1dbg #e1dgj #aijg #b1hei #b1fii #aijh #hdi #hce #aiji #igf #gaf #aiaj #c1ije #c1jfd #aiaa #ah1adc #ab1caa #aiab #ag1faa #ac1gca #aiac #g1ibj #f1gbd ,sheep-folding is practically unknown1 and no crops are specially grown as food for sheep4 ,occasionally they may get a little rovi 7vetch71 rovi straw1 lentil straw1 favetta1 pea-haulm or 7in the hills7 mavrachero 7tares74 ,they suffer in years of drought1 but on the whole thrive wonderfully well on very scanty pasturage4 ,good work has been done of late years in the improvement of ,cyprus sheep at the ,government ,athalassa ,farm1 and ewes and rams from the farm flock are much sought after by sheep-owners1 many of whom are making efforts to ameliorate the breed4 ,the question of providing suitable forage also is not being lost sight of4 ,goats ,the goat has been a cause of much controversy for many years and a source of discord between farmer and shepherd4 ,owing to the absence of farm boundaries the herds of goats 7and sheep7 continually trespass on the cultivated areas1 and the shepherds are at little pains to restrain them when there is a chance of the animals getting a good meal4 ,large sums in the aggregate are paid by way of fines and damages1 but the shepherds evidently find that even so it is profitable to continue such practices4 ,in consequence of the serious harm done every year in the ,state forests by these animals1 a law ,for the gradual exclusion of goats from the ,island was passed in #aiac and came into operation on ,august #a that year4 ,as the subjoined table shows1 the number of goats has decreased1 but it is doubtful how far this is due to the law1 and how far to the losses from goat-pox1 which is very prevalent1 and to the shipments for military purposes during the war3 ,year4 ,head4 #ahhj #baj1gcf #ahij #bcg1dge #aijj #bdc1cig #aiaj #bgf1gid #aiac 7when the law was passed7 #bdb1ebd #aiah #aia1jag ,the goat is in many respects well suited to the ,island1 and provides the villager with milk1 cheese1 meat1 boots and manure4 ,the animals cost very little to keep--even apart from their depredations--and thrive1 especially in the hills1 under conditions unsuited to sheep and cattle4 ,they are1 however1 great enemies to agriculture and forestry1 and if they are to be preserved in the ,island1 it is essential that both they and the shepherds be brought under strict control4 ,in ,cyprus most of the goats have very short hair1 which cannot be shorn4 ,from this fact1 and from the external shape of the animal1 one may infer that it is either a variety of the ,anatolian breed modified by local influences1 or a hybrid of the ,numidic and ,anatolian breeds 7see ,plate ,,iii1 fig4 #b74 ,the ,anatolian goat has long and more or less thick hair1 especially on the shoulders1 sides and thighs1 which1 clipped in the spring1 yields a not insignificant income for the goat-breeder 7,gennadius74 ,the ,cyprus goat gives on an average #aej drams of milk per day during a period of say #aej days1 or say1 #ej to #fj okes per annum4 ,a good proportion have kids twice a year1 and many give birth to twins4 ,the price of a goat varies considerably in different districts1 and before the war was from about #hs4 to #bjs4 or #bes4 ,pigs ,the ,paphos district and the ,karpas end of the ,famagusta district are specially given to pig raising2 but this animal is to be found fairly well distributed all over the ,island4 ,the native pig is of inferior quality1 but a noticeable improvement1 not only in pig breeding but in pig rearing1 has resulted from the introduction by ,government of the ,large ,black breed from ,england in #aijg4 ,this breed has become well established at the ,government ,farm1 ,athalassa1 and the progeny is now well spread over the ,island4 ,the improvement resulting from crossing with ,government stock has been so unmistakable that there is now great competition for them at all auction sales and high prices are given4 ,this increase in outlay on the part of farmers has led to greater care in the feeding and management4 ,they find that well-bred pigs come more quickly to maturity1 and that it pays to feed them well and not leave them to forage for themselves as formerly4 ,excellent pork and bacon are now procurable during the winter1 and it may be hoped that pig breeding in ,cyprus has a good future before it4 ,the number of pigs counted in the spring of #aiad was #ch1hej1 the third highest number on record4 ,since then1 owing to the prohibition of export1 breeding has been checked and the number declined1 but now it appears to be again on the upward grade4 ,before the war there was an average annual export of about #b1jjj animals2 but there is now a better local market than formerly4 ,camels ,camels are still used to a fair extent1 and the breed is good1 but owing to the improvement in the roads and increased facilities for more rapid transport1 these animals are less in demand than formerly4 ,horses ,the native breed of horse is best seen in the ,paphos pony1 which though small1 about #ac hands1 is remarkably strong and hardy 7see ,plate ,,iv1 fig4 #a74 ,it is said that some eighty years or so ago the breed was improved by the introduction of two ,arab stallions from ,turkey4 ,a useful stamp of pony mare is also to be found in the ,karpas4 ,a marked improvement in the quality of the local horses took place from the importation1 some years ago1 of ,english pony stallions2 and more recently a further advance has resulted from the addition to the ,government stud of the two famous ,english thoroughbred stallions ,tmraire1 by ,greyleg out of ,tereska by ,isonomy out of ,violetta by ,hermit1 and ,huckle-my-buff1 by ,isinglass out of ,snip by ,donovan out of ,isabel 7dam of ,st4 ,frusquin74 ,donkeys ,the ,cyprian donkey at its best is a fine animal 7see ,plate ,,iv1 fig4 #b74 ,it is the common beast of burden of the villager1 and is capable of carrying a load of from #afj to #bbd lb4 ,a large number of donkey stallions have been exported to ,india1 ,uganda1 ,south ,africa1 ,syria and ,egypt from time to time1 and the local breed has no doubt suffered owing to the best jacks having left the country4 ,although the villagers depend so much upon these animals1 very little care is taken by them1 either in the matter of breeding1 feeding or proper management4 ,the animals are mostly worked far too early1 and underfed1 and the majority are consequently undersized and of poor quality4 ,where good jacks are used1 the progeny is generally satisfactory1 and at shows and fairs some fine specimens are usually brought in4 ,owing to the increasing demand for jennets1 the village breeder is inclined to put his she-donkey to a pony stallion rather than to a jack-donkey4 ,the donkey mares range from #ac to #ac4b hands1 with girth measurement of #eh in4 to #fj in4 and shank #f-a_/b in4 ,they have great room1 and are well shaped with a straight back and good quarters4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4--;,cyprus ,pony4 ,fig4 #b4--;,cyprus ,donkeys4 ,it has been recommended that every encouragement should be given to the production of good donkeys1 from which the best mares could be selected for mating with suitable pony stallions1 such as the ,exmoor and ,welsh cob1 for the breeding of jennets2 and at the same time an improvement in the jacks would naturally follow4 ,jennets and ,mules ,owing to the excellence of the ,cyprus donkeys and the poor class of ,cyprus horses1 the superiority of the 'jennet' 7the result of mating the pony stallion with the donkey mare7 is very patent over the 'mule' 7the product of the donkey jack and the pony mare74 ,the jennet of from #ac4a hands to #ad4a is doubtless the most paying animal that the ,cyprus villager or landowner can produce1 and its excellence for army or general pack purposes cannot be surpassed in any country in the world4 ,therefore1 in my opinion1 it is to this class of animal that the most encouragement in breeding should be given4 ,to maintain the excellence of the ,cyprus jennet every help should be given to the breeding of big donkeys1 so that the plentiful supply of donkey mares of from #ab4c to #ac4c hands is available for mating with suitable imported pony stallions1 which should be placed by the ,government at the breeders' disposal4#b ,both jennets and mules1 indiscriminately called mularia1 are largely used for transport purposes throughout the ,island1 and perform practically all the carting work of the country1 but1 as explained1 the jennet is regarded as greatly the superior animal4 ,poultry ,the ordinary barn-door fowl is met with in ,cyprus1 as everywhere else4 ,the local breed is a mixture of all the various races which have been imported by private persons for many years past4 ,the most general types met with resemble the ,leghorn and ,ancona breeds4 ,the ,island1 owing to its climate and its corn production1 is admirably suited to the poultry industry1 and a sure and profitable market in ,egypt can always be relied on4 ,something has been done of late years by the introduction of ,wyandottes1 ,langshans and ,orpingtons which have been bred by the ,agricultural ,department4 ,proper poultry management among the villagers is practically unknown1 and until regulations can be made enforceable by law for the control of poultry diseases and for the disposal of diseased carcases1 poultry keepers will continue to suffer heavy losses and the industry will not prosper4#c ,lectures on poultry-keeping have been instituted in the districts by the ,agricultural ,department1 and it is hoped that these may arouse some interest and lead to improvement4 ,given the necessary guidance and control1 the industry should have a good future before it4 ,turkeys are very plentiful and1 except in the hills1 are seen in nearly every village4 ,there are three varieties--the bronze1 by far the most general1 the white1 and a dark brown kind which is not common4 ,ducks and geese do well at ,kythrea1 but elsewhere are little seen4 ,at this village1 however1 they are largely bred4 ,pigeons also are fairly abundant1 and as they mostly feed on a neighbour's corn1 they are considered profitable birds to keep4 ,preserved ,meats1 etc4 ,a good deal of meat and fat is pickled1 dried and smoked for consumption by the native population4 ,hams and sausages are much eaten1 the latter especially in the ,karpas4 ,among the various kinds of preserved meats may be specially mentioned that known as apokti4 ,this is the salted and dried flesh of the he-goat1 which1 when cooked1 is much appreciated by the villagers4 ,the meat is sometimes minced1 and after the addition of ground origanum leaves and spearmint1 is placed in jars and slowly cooked4 ,it is said that from #c1jjj to #e1jjj he-goats are annually slaughtered for making apokti4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #b3 ,report by ,captain ,goodchild1 ,remount ,department1 ,e4,e4,f41 when visiting ,cyprus in #aiaf and #aiag to purchase mules and donkeys for army purposes4 ,footnote #c3 ,legislation in this direction has been effected during the session of the ,legislative ,council just ended4 7,law ,no4 ,,vii of #aiai47 ,,iv4 ,,dairy ,,produce ,milk ,sheep and goats' milk is principally used for cheese and butter making4 ,fresh milk of any kind is not much consumed by the native population1 although within the last few years the more well-to-do townspeople have taken to drinking cows' milk1 when obtainable1 and it is in growing demand in some country parts for invalids when prescribed by the local doctor4 ,the flavour of sheep and goats' milk is a good deal affected by the herbage or shrubs on which they feed1 and thus varies according to locality4 ,a characteristic odour is imparted1 for instance1 by the alnifolia oak 7,quercus alnifolia7 and the cistus1 which are common in many parts of the ,island1 and the cheese and butter produced from such milk are in better demand in the local markets4 ,the places in which this quality of milk is chiefly produced are the ,paphos ,district1 the neighbourhood of ,kykko and ,troditissa in the ,trodos mountains1 and ,akanthou to the north-east of the ,island4 ,a considerable impetus has been given to the production and consumption of fresh cows' milk by the establishment of a herd of ,devon dairy cows at the ,government ,farm1 ,athalassa4 ,cows of ,athalassa strain fetch high prices1 as much as #hj having been given recently for a cow and several others have changed hands at #ej to #fj4 ,cheese ,the ,cypriot is a great cheese eater4 ,the most popular and commonly made cheese in ,cyprus is that known as ,halloumi2 the next in order being the ,paphos and ,akanthou cheeses1 and then1 in imitation of the ,greek cheeses1 the ,agrafa1 ,kefalotyri and ,kaskaval1 all of which are of a hard kind1 while there is a small production of the ,greek soft cheeses ,fetta and ,telems4 ,there are no statistics as to production2 the export figures in recent years as given in the official trade returns are as follows3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 #aijd #e1fjf #h1jdj #aije #d1gje #g1bde #aijf #b1eaa #d1bch #aijg #b1bjj #d1eei #aijh #b1ghf #e1hbd #aiji #b1cfg #d1ibg #aiaj #c1cde #f1efd #aiaa #c1fdg #f1fbd #aiab #c1cce #g1bjc #aiac #c1fii #i1bfh #aiad #d1ehb #aj1acb ,halloumi4--,this cheese1 though rather insipid1 is very popular1 and forms a large part of the dietary of every household4 ,it is easy to make1 needs no special appliances1 and is almost entirely made by the shepherds themselves4 ,it is made either from sheep's milk only1 or1 in the hills where goats are numerous1 from sheep and goats' milk mixed1 or in some places from goats' milk only2 especially is this so in the mountains where sheep are not found4 ,the two kinds of cheese1 i4e4 that made from sheep's milk and that from goats' milk1 are easily distinguished1 as the former is rather soft and crumbly1 while the other is hard and separates out into flakes4 ,this cheese as it comes from the mould is in the form of a slab called kefali4 ,this is then divided into four or more pieces4 ,there are two kinds of halloumi3 one called mona 7single71 the other dipla 7double74 ,the latter is most in demand4 ,it differs from the first in being finished off by being well hand-pressed1 and then doubled or folded over1 salt and spearmint being sprinkled between the fold4 ,myzithra1 or1 as it is more commonly called1 anari1 is a soft cheese produced by boiling the whey1 whereby all albuminoid substances not previously coagulated are now coagulated and rise to the surface together with any pieces of curd still remaining in the whey4 ,a good quantity of fat is also enclosed in the coagulated mass1 which is placed in rush moulds or in cloths and pressed so as to squeeze out the whey4 ,anari thus made is specially known as bastard1 and is an excellent soft cheese1 very popular among the ,european residents as well as among the native inhabitants4 ,a rather finer anari with slightly different flavour is made by adding #e to #aj per cent4 of pure milk4 ,this added milk is known as prosgalo4 ,both kinds are dried in the sun4 ,from anari is made a kind of fat used as cooking butter1 by crushing and rubbing it between the hands in warm water4 ,a thin paste is thus formed from which a fat separates1 which rises to the surface1 and is then collected4 ,paphos and ,akanthou ,cheeses4--,these are prepared in much the same way as halloumi1 but are made in smaller1 barrel-shaped moulds1 and are steeped longer in the whey1 which produces a rind and renders them tougher and less liable to crack4 ,they are well rubbed with salt4 ,their characteristic flavour is doubtless due to some extent to the milk of those districts1 as explained above4 ,owing to their small size they become very hard4 ,kefalotyri4--,the best cheeses of this type are made with sheep's milk1 which is coagulated at its natural temperature immediately after milking4 ,rennet is added so as to produce coagulation within an hour4 ,the cheeses are placed in moulds1 pressed and salted4 ,they are turned and salted every day for a week2 and this continues for two or three weeks1 until the cheeses cannot absorb more salt4 ,fetta4--,the process for making this cheese is much the same as for ,paphos cheeses1 but differs in regard to temperature4 ,it is placed in bags and hung up1 or left in cheese cloths on the table to drain4 ,it is made up in #ajj or #bjj dram pieces1 and turned and lightly salted for three days2 then placed in barrels filled with brine4 ,this cheese ripens in a few days4 ,it is soft1 and has a sharp1 pungent flavour4 ,it is the first to come on the market4 ,it is not consumed in ,cyprus1 but made entirely for the ,egyptian market1 where it is much liked4 ,being soft1 it does not keep well1 and should always be kept covered in brine4 ,for these reasons it is exported in small barrels of a gross weight of #dj to #ej okes4 ,if care is taken in this respect1 if all leaky barrels are kept refilled and cool storage provided1 it may be preserved for a year2 but these conditions are rarely fulfilled in ,cyprus4 ,telems4--,this is another soft cheese1 prepared in a similar manner to fetta1 but it is cut into square blocks and placed not in barrels or vats1 but in tins which1 when completely filled with cheese and brine1 are soldered down4 ,this cheese is also made entirely for the ,egyptian market4 ,kaskaval or ,kaskavalli4--,this is mostly made by cheese-makers who come over from ,greece or ,turkey during the cheese-making season4 ,the curd1 after the whey is drained off1 is called phlongos1 and it is almost always bought from the shepherds1 each shepherd preparing it in his own way4 ,it is transported in baskets1 sometimes a good distance1 to the cheese factory1 or kassaria1 and these drawbacks1 added to lack of cleanliness1 are the cause of much cheese of inferior quality being produced which has no keeping properties and must be quickly consumed4 ,having reached a pasty condition1 the cheese is placed in reed or willow baskets and immersed in either boiling whey or clean water and stirred until the whole mass is transformed into kossimari2 it is then cut into pieces weighing one or two okes1 and moulded by hand into a globular form1 leaving one slight depression called the omphalos or navel4 ,if not properly stored1 this cheese soon dries and becomes rancid or tasteless4 ,agrafa ,cheese4--,this is made entirely from sheep's milk4 ,coagulation should be completed in #be to #cj minutes4 ,the cheese remains #bj hours in the press4 ,salting lasts from #dj to #fj days1 and the cheeses ripen in four months4 ,if well stored1 the cheese may keep for two years4 ,butter ,butter making is carried on to only a limited extent in ,cyprus1 and with two or three exceptions is in the hands of shepherds1 who use a primitive conical-shaped churn1 something after the ,danish pattern4 ,churning consists in beating up the contents of the churn with a stick1 to the end of which is fixed a round wooden disc #f to #aj in4 in diameter1 not unlike a piston in its action4 ,sheep's milk is mostly used and1 with a modern churn1 this will yield #i to #ab per cent4 of fresh butter4 ,goats' milk gives about #e to #f per cent4 ,about half the above quantities may be obtained with the older1 native churn4 ,in the ,near ,east 7,greece1 ,turkey1 etc47 fresh butter is not used in cooking1 as almost all cooked food is fried and butter containing the least water and casein cannot serve the purpose4 ,the pure fat must therefore be extracted4 ,two methods are applied4 ,the best is that of plunging the tins containing the fresh butter into hot water which heats the butter and sends the fat to the surface4 ,it is then collected and slightly salted4 ,this has a good flavour and keeps well4 ,the second method is to place the fresh butter1 or the residue from the former process1 into tin pans and boil until the water is evaporated1 when the albuminoids solidify at the bottom of the pans4 ,the fat which is then on the surface is ladled out4 ,this is inferior in quality1 and has a disagreeable smell imparted by the albuminoids which come in contact with the hot pan4 ,xynogala or ,yaourti ,the former is the ,greek1 the latter the ,turkish name for this preparation of sour milk4 ,unlike fresh butter1 it forms1 in season1 part of the diet of almost every ,cypriot household4 ,it is now made in ,england and sold as ,bulgarian milk or yaourti4 ,it is in the form of clotted cream1 but if placed in a bag of fine cloth and if the whey is left to drain off1 it forms a thick paste1 and has an excellent creamy flavour1 and is eaten in both cases either alone or1 like ,devonshire cream1 with stewed fruits1 etc4 ,trachanas ,this is another favourite milk preparation1 being a mixture of yaourti and ground wheat made into a thick paste4 ,this is sun-dried and makes an excellent soup4 ,kaimaki or ,tsippa ,this much resembles ,devonshire clotted cream4 ,it is the natural cream formed after boiling the milk overnight and setting it in shallow pans to cool4 ,if the boiled milk is poured into the pans from a height1 so as to make a foam1 a better result is obtained4 ,v4 ,,crops ,,and ,,other ,,produce ,,of ,,the ,,land ,,cereals ,the ,messaoria plain is the principal corn-producing area of the island4 ,wheat1 barley and oats are the chief cereals grown1 and they are sown more or less throughout the whole of ,cyprus1 nearly up to the summit of ,trodos1 to an altitude of about #d1ejj ft4 ,indian corn has been cultivated for ten years or so1 and is becoming more general both for green food and for seed1 and rye has begun to make its appearance during the last few years4 ,dari is becoming more known4 ,the preparation of the land for cereals is as follows3 ,about the middle of ,january1 when the land is soaked with rain1 the fallow field 7,greek3 neasma or ,greek3 neatos7 is broken up1 and in some cases sown with a green fallow1 and in ,march or ,april it is cross ploughed 7,greek3 dibolo74 ,if the autumn rains are early1 the field is ploughed for a third time 7,greek3 anakomma71 after which the crop is sown2 but if the rains are late1 the sowing is done on fields which have been cross ploughed only4 ,as a rule sowing begins after the autumn rains1 and may go on until ,january4 ,but if rain does not come before the end of ,october1 many sow before the rain2 and in many places farmers sow regularly before1 i4e4 without waiting for the autumn rains4 ,this sowing is called ,greek3 xerobola4 ,lands flooded by a river or other running water are called ,greek3 potima 7,handbook of ,cyprus1 p4 #aed74 ,the sowing is done broadcast2 the drill is not used4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,fig4 #a4--;,carting ,corn4 ,fig4 #b4--,threshing ,corn with ,native ,threshing ,board4 ,often1 owing to want of sufficient hands and shortness of time or other reasons1 land which has been fallowed is sown without being first ploughed up4 ,this is called ,greek3 eis to prospon1 i4e4 on the surface1 or face of the field4 ,again1 a field which has had a corn crop is sown the next autumn without ploughing2 and this is locally called on the stubble4 ,it is not uncommon for the same land to be sown year after year with a corn crop1 with no rotation4 ,this is especially the case with the deep soils in the plains1 known as kambos1 as contrasted with the shallow1 rocky soils called trachonas4 ,at the time of harvest numbers of labourers1 men and women1 usually arrive from ,anatolia and ,syria and find employment in the fields4 ,the threshing-floors are practically identical with those of ,biblical times4 ,they are frequently paved with flag-stones1 but as often as not are merely levelled pieces of ground4 ,on these the sheaves are opened and spread out for the threshing4 ,the threshing-board 7,greek3 doukani or ,greek3 doukanais7 is that referred to by ,virgil as tribulum 7,georg4 ,bk4 #a7 and is merely a stout board1 studded on the underside with sharp flint stones 7see ,plate ,v1 fig4 #b74 ,this is drawn round and round over the spread-out sheaves by mules1 donkeys or oxen1 and affords a pastime to old and young during the summer months4 ,during the process the grain is separated from the straw1 and the latter is bruised and partly shredded1 and it is the rooted belief of the ,cypriot farmer that only in that condition will it be relished by and benefit the animals which feed on it4 ,the straw is then gradually cleared away and the grain is winnowed by being thrown up in the wind with wooden shovels4 ,the grain is then heaped up and left until measured by the tithe official4 ,with the grain is also collected the sweepings of the threshing-floor1 and the percentage of the foreign substances mixed with the grain varies from #e to #ae per cent4 ,there are a few winnowing machines and it is hoped that they will come into more general use as soon as they can be imported4 ,at ,athalassa all cereal crops are reaped and threshed by machinery4 ,a good many reaping machines were imported by the ,agricultural ,department some years ago for resale to the farmers1 and there is a very fair demand4 ,this procedure has not been permitted for some years1 and the work fell into the hands of an ,english merchant who has succeeded in placing a few machines every year4 ,the country is ready to employ these and other agricultural machines1 but the farmers need guidance in the choice of a machine and are reluctant to place orders through native merchants1 who may not know the best types to supply and whose profits they fear to be exorbitant4 ,if they could procure these through the medium of the ,agricultural ,department they would be encouraged to make considerable purchases4 ,the loss of grain on the aloni alone may be gauged by the current opinion that each pair of oxen consumes1 while threshing1 one kil of grain per day4 ,much damage is often caused by hot westerly winds at the time when the grain is just forming4 ,in the absence of any law to prevent the adulteration of cereals1 dishonest practices are very frequent4 ,a common method of adulteration is to mix with the grain the joints of the straw which are cut during the process of threshing and separated when winnowing4 ,these are often sprayed with water in order to increase both bulk and weight4 ,the moisture is absorbed by the grain1 which thereby swells and is made to look bigger4 ,under the ,seed ,corn ,law of #ahih the ,government make advances of seed wheat1 barley1 oats and vetches to cultivators under an agreement to repay in kind after harvest a quantity of grain equivalent to the amount of seed so advanced1 together with an addition of one-fourth of the quantity so advanced1 by way of interest4 ,this benefit is very generally availed of by smaller cultivators4 ,it has not1 however1 been found possible for ,government to keep separately the various kinds and qualities of tithe corn1 from which these advances are made1 and farmers frequently complain that the seed1 so issued promiscuously1 is unsuitable to the land1 aspect1 or special conditions on individual farms4 ,weevilled grain also is a source of trouble1 and farmers obtaining such seed advances must be prepared to run risk of failure from this cause4 ,it is a well-known fact that cultivators often sell their seed corn so advanced them1 in order to buy some other corn known to them as more suited to their land1 and they are often justified1 perhaps1 in so doing4 ,the issues are made by ,district ,commissioners to selected applicants who are believed to be unable to buy seed for cash4 ,the average annual issues1 for the last five years1 have been3 wheat1 #ch1jac kils2 barley1 #ca1dgi kils4 ,wheat ,in ancient times1 when the population numbered about #a1ajj1jjj1 the ,island was said to be self-supporting in the matter of wheat4 ,taking the annual consumption of wheat per head of population at #h bushels 7,gennadius's ,report on the ,agriculture of ,cyprus1 ,part ,i1 p4 #h7 and after making an allowance for seed1 the annual production would then have been about #aj1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,from ,british ,consular ,reports it appears that in #ahfc the average produce was reckoned at #fdj1jjj bushels4 ,the average annual production of wheat for the ten years ended #aiac1 as shown in ,blue ,book ,returns1 was #b1bib1hbg kils4 ,for later years the figures are3 ,year4 ,kils4 #aiad #a1ibd1ccf #aiae #a1gfa1eja #aiaf #a1ebd1dhd #aiag #a1ghb1hjj #aiah #b1dbd1egj ,wheat is sown at the rate of #a kil per donum4 ,the average yield per donum is #f to #aj kils1 and varies between #c to #d kils on dry land in a poor year1 to #af to #bj on the best lands in a good year4 ,when rains are very late and spring weather is unfavourable1 a farmer often fails to recover even the seed4 ,much might be done to increase the yield by better methods of husbandry1 by the use of improved implements for cultivating and reaping1 and by the use of threshing machines4 ,an immense quantity of grain is consumed by birds 7larks1 sparrows1 doves1 etc471 which at times literally strip the fields and continue their depredations on the threshing-floors4 ,wheat is sown from ,october to ,december2 a field which has had a winter crop is pastured after the harvest until ,january2 in ,january and ,february it is broken up and cross ploughed and sown immediately after with a spring or summer crop4 ,the crop is cut about ,may-,june4 ,it is cut with a sickle 7,greek3 drepani71 tied into sheaves1 and carried on donkeys or small carts to the threshing-floors4 ,the sickle is larger than the ,european one1 and is often provided with bells 7koudounia or sousounaria7 to frighten the snakes1 and the handles are ornamented with leather tassels4 ,several varieties of wheat are grown in the ,island1 mostly of the hard kinds1 these being preferred by millers4 ,the following ,english varieties have been imported and tried during the last four years3 ,improved ,treasure1 ,white ,stand ,up1 and ,improved ,red ,fife4 ,the two former failed1 being too late in maturing2 the latter is still under trial1 but it is not very attractive1 being a late variety1 and it gives a smaller yield than the native kinds4 ,the same remarks apply to several wheats obtained from ,india and ,south ,africa and which are still under trial4 ,barley ,this crop is sown about the same time as wheat1 if anything slightly earlier2 and it is ready for the sickle three or four weeks before wheat4 ,when the straw is short the plant is uprooted1 not cut4 ,it is sown at the rate of #a to #a-a_/b kils to the donum1 and may be expected to yield from #aj to #ae kils2 but #cj kils is not uncommon in the plains1 and even much larger yields have been recorded from time to time4 ,there are three native varieties1 viz4 the common #d-row1 the ordinary #f-row and the ,paphos #f-row barley1 also grown around ,davlos in the north-east of the ,island4 ,the last-named is heavier than the two former kinds4 ,little success has attended the introduction by the ,agricultural ,department of ,prize ,prolific1 ,gold ,thorpe and ,chevalier1 which have been experimentally grown for the last three years4 ,they mature late and have not resisted severe drought4 ,their yield is small compared with native barleys1 although this may improve when they are fully acclimatised4 ,barley is the staple food for all kinds of animals1 pigs and poultry in ,cyprus1 and it is often used for bread-making in years of wheat shortage4 ,the tithe is mainly exported to ,england1 where it has a good name for malting purposes1 especially that produced in the ,paphos district4 ,it has failed to attain the place it deserves on the ,english market owing to the high percentage of dirt1 etc41 it mostly contains4 ,a sample of ,cyprus barley examined at the ,imperial ,institute in #aiad proved to be of good malting quality1 and similar material if marketed in commercial quantities would be readily saleable in the ,united ,kingdom 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xii4 #aiad1 p4 #eeb74 ,a sample of naked or skinless barley from ,cyprus has also been reported on by the ,imperial ,institute4 ,this type of barley cannot be employed for malting for ordinary brewing purposes1 but it was considered that the ,cyprus material might be used by distillers 7who only require a partially malted barley71 and in any case the sample would rank as a good class feeding barley 7ibid4 vol4 xiv1 #aiaf1 p4 #aei74 ,the average annual production of barley1 as shown by the ,blue ,book returns1 for the ten years ended #aiac was #b1ddi1bhe kils4 ,for later years the figures are3 ,year4 ,kils4 #aiad #a1ieg1idd #aiae #a1iab1caf #aiaf #a1iec1fbh #aiag #b1ejh1hhj #aiah #c1jhj1gaj ,these figures should be contrasted with ,british consular estimated average in the sixties of #ifj1jjj bushels4 ,oats ,in ,cyprus1 oats are used on a far smaller scale than barley as food for cattle1 and they are unknown1 except to a few townsfolk1 as a food for human beings4 ,the cultivation of this crop is restricted1 partly because it ripens late and needs late rains1 and partly because it sheds its ripe grain too quickly for the ordinary easy-going farmer1 who frequently finds his next year's crop smothered with self-sown oats4 ,it is also commonly held that the crop exhausts the soil4 ,there are two native varieties1 both white4 ,the one is grown much more than the other1 called anoyira1 which1 although incomparably superior1 is little cultivated outside the ,limassol district4 ,the seed is sown at the rate of #b to #b-a_/b kils to the donum1 and a yield of from #bj to #cj kils is obtained4 ,the average annual production for the ten years ended #aiac1 as shown by ,blue ,book returns1 was #cid1fie kils4 ,for later years the figures are3 ,year4 ,kils4 #aiad #djd1iag #aiae #cgh1gbd #aiaf #ddf1dfi #aiag #cjf1jaj #aiah #cac1bfj ,besides ,black ,tartar1 which has been regularly grown at ,athalassa for several years1 the ,agricultural ,department has introduced of late years ,black ,cluster1 ,white ,cluster and ,supreme4 ,all these ripen late and need late rains1 and they have not given any promise of success4 ,a black variety imported from ,greece some years ago has proved much superior to the two native varieties1 but its cultivation is still limited4 ,reports on oats from ,cyprus and on oat1 straw and kyko oat plant 7,avena sativa var4 obtusata7 are given in the ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute 7vol4 xv4 #aiag1 pp4 #cjh-aj74 ,rye ,rye has only lately been introduced by the ,agricultural ,department1 but already its cultivation1 though very small1 is extending4 ,the dark colour of the rye loaf creates some prejudice against it1 but its value in cases of diabetes1 a common complaint in ,cyprus1 is greatly in its favour4 ,the seed is sown and cultivated here in the same manner as wheat1 but at the same time or even earlier than barley4 ,it is harvested by being cut and is threshed on the threshing-floor4 ,the straw is fed to animals1 but when threshing machines become more general the long straw will become available for other purposes than cattle food1 e4g4 in the manufacture of the native saddles 7stratura71 native straw trays and native straw hats4 ,rye is also grown for green food1 in the same way as barley grass4 ,maize 7,indian ,corn7 ,this crop was first introduced by the ,agricultural ,department in #aijb4 ,its cultivation is governed by the water-supply4 ,it is grown mostly for green food1 and is met with very generally throughout the ,island1 being sown among the growing crops1 e4g4 louvi1 sesame1 cotton1 etc41 as a wind-break or to afford shade4 ,there was a good demand for the grain for grinding during the war and the meal is found to be a useful ingredient in the ordinary loaf4 ,the stems and leaves provide a welcome change of food for cattle when exhausted from threshing and during the dry season of the year4 ,at the ,government ,farm at ,athalassa the stems and leaves are made into ensilage4 ,dari or ,millet 7,sorghum vulgare7 ,this crop is little grown1 and is mostly found in the ,messaria and also at ,paleochori1 almost exclusively in places irrigated by river floods4 ,the grain is used for making flour and the fresh stalks are fed to cattle4 ,,fruits ,cyprus produces a considerable variety of fruits1 the chief ones exported being raisins1 pomegranates1 oranges and lemons1 and grapes4 ,there is a considerable and expanding export trade in the fruits enumerated1 as shown by ,blue ,book returns as under3 ,year4 4 #aijd #bi1gjf #aije #bi1bfe #aijf #da1gaf #aijg #cf1jji #aijh #ce1jbg #aiji #bi1hij #aiaj #eb1bfg #aiaa #eg1cic #aiab #ei1hhg #aiac #fi1jig ,the pomegranate of ,famagusta is famous1 and the annual export of this fruit alone during the five years ended #aiac averaged #ad1fhb4 ,among the mountain villages apples1 pears1 and plums are extensively grown2 the latter specially being in good demand in ,egypt4 ,apricots and kaisha trees are grown generally throughout the ,island1 and their fruits are particularly good and plentiful4 ,the last-named is a delicious variety with a delicate flavour and externally somewhat resembles the nectarine4 ,peaches are mostly grafted on almond stocks1 as these are hardy and good drought-resisters1 but there are a fair number of ,european varieties4 ,almond trees abound in all parts and do extremely well if properly cultivated4 ,other fairly common fruit trees are the quince and loquat1 or ,japanese medlar4 ,for several years choice kinds of fruit trees have been imported from ,england1 and many thousands of trees of different kinds throughout the ,island have been grafted and are now beginning to produce fruit of excellent quality4 ,good work has been done by the ,perapedhi ,wine ,association1 whose garden has been a centre for the dissemination of choice grafts4 ,unhappily the village growers have been very reluctant to apply proper cultivation or to carry out advice in treating their trees1 which have become the hosts of all kinds of diseases and insect pests4 ,a better spirit is now being shown in this direction4 ,vines and ,wines ,writing in #ahif1 ,gennadius described the industry and perseverance of the peasants1 who with most imperfect implements1 by breaking up the hard rock and building up the scanty soil1 formed vineyards on the steep mountain sides1 and often up to their very summits4 ,these vineyards1 he says1 having been mostly planted in haste in the happy days of the demand for wines 7when ,french vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera71 were formed by the personal labour of the peasant eked out by the help of loans4 ,since then the wine trade has passed through critical times and prices have often been greatly depreciated4 ,the small vine-growers1 who are also for the most part wine-producers1 fell on evil times and became heavily indebted4 ,they have remained so until the last year or two1 when1 owing to the large demand and the high prices of wines in ,egypt1 they have been able to free themselves4 ,gennadius regarded the cultivation of the vine in ,cyprus as indisputably unprofitable1 and was in favour of checking its extension1 and even advocated the imposition of a special tax on new plantations4 ,at the time he wrote there was an overproduction1 and the value of wine had greatly fallen1 and the revenue which ,cypriot wine-makers could gain therefrom would hardly suffice to cover the expenses of its transport to the market1 the annual interest on their debts1 and the taxes they had to meet4 ,the village-made wine is usually clarified by means of gypsum4 ,it is carried down from the mountain villages in goat-skins 7askos or ashia7 on pack animals1 and then sold to the ,limassol merchants1 who ship the greater part to ,egypt4 ,the production of wine as carried out in ,cyprus leaves much to be desired4 ,m4 ,mouillefert1 who visited ,cyprus in #ahib to report on the wine industry1 says3 ,the vintage is often gathered too late4 ,insufficient care is given to the picking of the grapes and diseased1 rotten1 mildewy or unripe grapes are often used which detract from the quality of the wine4 ,the grapes are trodden and the fermentation takes place in jars and chatties of porous earth1 of a capacity of #b or #c hectolitres1 which are tarred inside to counteract their porosity4 ,the houses in which the fermentation takes place are of almost the same temperature as the surrounding air1 with the result that in the warmer parts of the ,island fermentation at first is generally rapid or disturbed1 and the temperature of the must becomes excessive4 ,in the colder parts1 on the contrary1 the opposite takes place and the resulting wine is rough and sharp4 ,the use of gypsum as a preservative is unfortunately very common4 ,the tarring of the goat-skins and jars imparts a flavour which is very unsuited to the ,european taste4 ,m4 ,mouillefert made the following recommendations3 ,tarred jars for fermentation should be replaced by wooden vats1 or1 in the warmer parts of the ,island1 by tuns similar to those used throughout the ,south of ,france and in ,algeria4 ,presses less primitive than those in use should be employed since these leave in the lees a very large quantity of wine4 ,the wine when drawn off from the lees should be kept in tuns or in small wooden casks4 ,in short1 he says1 to speak quite plainly1 no good wine destined for ordinary consumption can be obtained with jars4 ,some twenty years ago an ,english ,wine ,company was established at ,perapedhi and1 until the war1 carried on a successful trade and produced some good wines manufactured on modern lines4 ,the factory was well equipped with up-to-date plant1 and its wine of port type was especially popular4 ,it was throughout the greater part of this time owned by the firm of ,w4 ,h4 ,chaplin ,co41 ,london1 but since the war it has been closed down4 ,the excellent brandy of ,messrs4 ,hadji ,pavlo ,co4 has found for some time a steady market in ,england1 and there are other well-equipped wine and spirit factories at ,limassol1 notably those of the ,limassol ,wine ,spirit ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,mr4 ,m4 ,michaelides and of ,mr4 ,n4 ,joannides4 ,the firm of ,messrs4 ,hadji ,pavlo ,co4 has carried out since #ahgb the manufacture of spirits1 and for twenty-five years they have been engaged in producing their ,zanatzin brand of wines4 ,their ,v4,o4 cognac and three-star brandy are both excellent4 ,various liqueurs1 made from local products1 aniseed1 kernels of apricots and other stone fruit1 etc41 are made by this and other firms1 and sold under the name ,zucki4 ,the principal wines1 spirits1 liqueurs and other alcoholic liquors produced are3 ,the ordinary black wine of the country1 or krasi4 ,the ordinary white wine of the country1 or asprokrasi4 ,commandaria4 ,brandy4 ,first and second quality sold in barrels2 one-star1 two-star1 three-star and ,v4,o4 sold in bottles4 ,mastic1 sold in four qualities2 ,zucki1 sold in two qualities4 ,rum and ,amer ,pigon4 ,alcohol4 #ie ,c4 and #cf ,c4 ,various spirits1 liqueurs and syrups3 whisky1 vermuth1 amathus1 banana1 mentha1 mandarini1 triantaphyllo1 kitro1 pergamotto1 vanilla1 violetta1 anana1 benedictine4 ,eau de ,cologne4 ,commandaria is one of the oldest and most famous sweet dessert wines4 ,it is held indeed to have been the nectar of the gods4 ,in the time of the ,knights ,templar it acquired great fame4 ,existing stocks are annually added to1 the original vintage having in some cases a great age1 so much so that1 through evaporation1 the wine becomes a syrup or pulp1 which imparts a bouquet to the fresh commandaria which is added to it4 ,in making commandaria the grapes are left on the vines until overripe and1 after picking1 are spread out in the sun for further evaporation1 when they undergo the usual process of wine-making4 ,in this way a sweet wine1 rich in sugar and alcohol1 and having a characteristic flavour1 is produced4 ,a limited quantity only is made every year1 and of this a certain quantity is exported and fetches a high price1 as a speciality1 in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,a red mastic is made at the ,kykko ,monastery which has acquired local fame4 ,the situation at the present time is generally improved1 and although ,cyprus wines can never form more than an insignificant proportion of the world's supply1 and could not create any special market without considerable change of system and large expenditure in advertising1 they may yet1 by simple improved methods1 by means of co-operative storage and the application of sound elementary principles1 be able to secure a more recognised position and a remunerative1 though perhaps limited1 demand1 at any rate for some of the special brands4 ,for the benefit of village producers practical lectures1 with the help of special apparatus1 are now being given in the wine villages during the vintage season1 by officials of the ,agricultural ,department4 ,the export of wines 7including commandaria7 and spirits during the ten years ended #aiac were of a total value of #cac1ibj and #ee1cfd respectively4 ,the lowest and highest figures were #bj1bgd in #aiji and #eb1cea in #aiaa for wines and #c1iia in #aijf and #h1ahg in #aiac for spirits4 ,for the last four years the exports have been3 ,year4 ,wines 7including ,spirits4 ,commandaria74 #aiad #bi1dje #d1cif #aiae #ch1aeh #e1dca #aiaf #hj1afe #f1hfe #aiag #gh1dea #bb1agc ,there is an export duty on wine at the rate of #h paras per gallon1 on all spirit of #bj paras per gallon and on all vinegar of #e paras per gallon4 ,some seventeen varieties of ,vitis vinifera have for a long time been grown in ,cyprus2 the most largely cultivated being the following3 ,mavro 7black74 ,the commonest variety1 medium-sized bunch1 with dark1 large1 oval-shaped grapes4 ,xinisteri 7white74 ,common variety1 with medium-sized bunch1 white roundish grapes1 thin skin4 ,these are suited to a rich moist soil4 ,voophthalmo 7ox-eye74 ,equally common variety4 ,rather small bunch1 with black1 round and rather small grapes4 ,suited to a dry1 calcareous soil4 ,the ,muscat comes next1 being mostly grown at ,omodhos4 ,it is the common early muscatel of the ,east4 ,the remaining kinds are locally known as ,bastardico 7bastard71 ,maratheftico or ,kraseti1 ,morokanali or ,spourta 7flabby-berried71 ,promari or ,glycopromo 7early or early-sweet71 ,xantho1 ,axanthi or ,phinikoto1 ,kouphorrhovo or ,katin-parmak1 ,verico1 ,sultana1 ,razaki1 ,corinthiaki 7currant71 ,malaga 7,alexandria ,muscatel71 ,rhodities4 ,of these1 several are only to be found here and there in private gardens4 ,five years ago several thousand ,sultana vines were imported by the ,agricultural ,department from ,crete1 and these have now become fairly well distributed over the ,island and the produce is beginning to appear in the market4 ,these dried sultanas in #aiah sold for as much as #ds4 per oke4 ,three years ago the following varieties of table vines were imported from ,england by the ,agricultural ,department3 ,black ,hamburg ,alicante or ,black ,tokay ,canon ,hall ,muscat ,lady ,hastings ,royal ,muscadine ,muscat of ,alexandria ,these are now being acclimatised1 and it is hoped gradually to distribute a large number of grafts4 ,vine cultivation covers an area of about #adj1jjj donums and is in the hands of some #ae1gjj vine growers4 ,owing to defects of planting the vines of ,cyprus do not in most cases begin to bear fruit before the third or fourth year1 while1 if modern methods were adopted1 they would bear fruit in their second year and attain their full growth in their fourth year4 ,what is known as the willow-head system of pruning has been very general1 with consequently poor results4 ,better methods have long been inculcated and are now being more and more adopted4 ,manuring is but rarely practised and ploughing is confined to lightly turning the surface soil with a wooden plough1 and this not every year4 ,on the higher slopes of the mountains terracing is common and necessary4 ,grape mildew 7,oidium ,tuckeri7 is prevalent in nearly all the vine areas4 ,other diseases and pests of the vine met with are anthracnose1 pourridi1 ,septosporium ,fuckelii1 cuscute1 ,cochylis1 ,zygna ampelophaga and ,pyralis4 ,happily the stringent regulations which for many years have been in force prohibiting the importation of any kind of living plant have resulted in keeping the ,cypriot vineyards free from the scourge of phylloxera4 ,sulphuring has become more general of late years4 ,the ,government has done much to bring this about1 and for fifteen years or more has imported sufficient sulphur from ,sicily1 which has been placed in the hands of village store-keepers and sold at a fixed price by the ,agricultural ,department4 ,this has never more than exceeded the bare cost and more often has been issued at half cost and in times of distress even gratis4 ,the vine-owners have been stimulated by the recent high prices for wines to expend more time and money on this operation4 ,the ignorant prejudice against the effectiveness of sulphur as a cure for grape mildew has to a great extent died out4 ,false ideas of economy alone prevent its general use4 ,fresh grapes are largely consumed locally1 and considerable quantities are exported to ,egypt1 as shown by the following table3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 #aijd #ab1jbe #a1hed #aije #h1fjg #a1bjh #aijf #i1efc #a1dhg #aijg #g1cii #a1afa #aijh #f1hjg #a1cca #aiji #g1jgh #a1jid #aiaj #g1ehh #a1baf #aiaa #aa1eig #a1hfe #aiab #ab1efe #b1jbh #aiac #aj1cjc #a1dhg ,the average annual export of raisins for the ten years ended #aiac was #ed1jjg cwts4 valued at #bd1aij4 ,the lowest price was #es4 #d;cp4 per cwt4 in #aiji and the highest #aas4 #d-a_/b;cp4 in #aiaa4 ,during the war the exports have been3 #aiad1 #af1cie cwts41 #g1dai2 #aiae1 #ed1ahi cwts41 #cd1dfg2 #aiaf1 #cd1cfa cwts41 #ch1ahh2 and #aiag1 #gj1fbd cwts41 #ij1jdj4 ,the annual prices in these years were respectively #is41 #abs4 #f-a_/b;cp41 #bbs4 #b;cp4 and #bes4 #d-a_/b;cp4 per cwt4 ,up to #aije1 inclusive1 by far the greatest quantity of raisins had been shipped every year to ,austria2 ,rumania1 ,turkey and ,egypt coming next in order4 ,since that date ,rumania has easily taken the first place1 being followed at a distance by ,austria1 ,turkey and ,egypt4 ,since the war the bulk has been shipped for military requirements and to ,france1 ,egypt1 ,malta and ,england for eating and for use in confectionery1 and the industry has grown4 ,a marked improvement has taken place in the preparation of the raisins2 and specially qualified officials of the ,agricultural ,department every year give practical instruction on this subject in the vine villages4 ,citrus ,fruits ,oranges and lemons are very extensively grown in ,cyprus1 whilst mandarines1 citrons 7kitria7 and sweet limes 7glykolemonia7 are also found in every part of the ,island4 ,in addition1 the shaddock 7phrappa7 and the bergamot orange are cultivated in the ,island4 ,the best and most common variety of the sweet orange is the oval 7sometimes round7 ,jaffa1 grown everywhere1 but specially at ,famagusta1 where there are numerous orange groves4 ,another variety of good quality is grown at ,lefka4 ,the trees of both varieties produce large1 firm1 thick-fleshed fruit4 ,bitter oranges are largely grown from seed for stock on which the better kinds are grafted4 ,many thousands of these1 and also of the grafted plants1 are annually issued from the ,government ,nurseries4 ,much loss has been sustained from time to time through disease1 and in #ahii whole orange groves at ,famagusta1 ,lefka and ,kythrea were uprooted or cut right back4 ,with the expansion of the ,agricultural ,department and a small qualified staff it has become possible to bring these diseases somewhat under control1 and the orange and lemon production has much increased1 though gummosis and scale disease still play much havoc4 ,in the ,varosha orange groves the trees are grown in light1 sandy soil1 which is banked up round the trunk4 ,they are irrigated by means of the native alakati1 or noria1 or more often by air-motors1 which in this locality are much in vogue4 ,the two most common causes of failure are the persistent planting of trees too close together and over-watering4 ,growers turn a deaf ear to all advice aimed at changing these two bad habits4 ,the native agriculturist is convinced1 beyond the reach of argument1 that the greater the number of trees on a given area the greater will be the profit4 ,in a land where water is so precious the deep-rooted opinion is held that the more water a plant receives the better it will thrive1 and too frequent irrigation accounts to a large extent for the widespread damage caused by gummosis4 ,until lately pruning was scarcely practised at all4 ,thanks to a system of model orchards lately instituted by the ,agricultural ,department1 better methods are at last being introduced1 and fruit-growers are able to model their practice upon the work carried out on the specimen trees1 alongside their own1 reserved by the ,department for such demonstrations4 ,lemons are largely consumed by natives with their food4 ,the produce is of large size1 thick-skinned and juicy4 ,until some twelve years or so ago the fruit was largely sold on the trees for shipment to ,russia and ,rumania1 but those markets failed1 owing to the prevalence in ,cyprus of scale disease and partly to loss through rotting in transport4 ,the export of oranges and lemons has of late years been confined almost entirely to ,egypt4 ,fig 7,ficus ,carica7 ,this tree thrives everywhere1 and is particularly cultivated at ,livadhia and ,lefkara 7,larnaca district71 in ,paphos and at the ,tylliria1 where the small1 sweet1 white variety1 locally called antelounika1 is grown4 ,there are but few true ,smyrna figs1 but this variety is being multiplied by cuttings and also by grafting4 ,other good kinds are the sarilop and bardajik1 of which there are a few private specimens only1 and the vardika which is more or less common1 particularly at ,morphou4 ,the ,lefkara figs somewhat resemble those of ,tylliria and1 like the latter1 mature naturally2 they are considered very good and are divided into two varieties1 the malantzana and the kourtziatika4 ,the figs of ,ktema in ,paphos are the common violet-coloured variety1 but are larger1 and are mostly ripened artificially4 ,cyprus figs are only of moderate quality1 though doubtless susceptible of improvement4 ,they resist drought and generally yield good crops every year4 ,the native dried fig is much eaten1 and is also used as an adulterant of1 if not a substitute for1 coffee1 and makes a good beverage1 like the well-known ,austrian feigen caf4 ,dried figs are also made into a paste and mixed with flour to make fig pies 7sykopit74 ,the method of oiling1 that is1 smearing with oil the orifice on the top of the fig while still unripe1 is applied to those varieties which ripen slowly4 ,it is these varieties which are especially grown in ,cyprus4 ,the fruit so treated is rather tasteless and insipid1 but as it comes early to market it fetches a good price4 ,the reason for hastening the ripening process by oiling is that the fruit may become ready for picking before sparrows and hornets get it1 as they would otherwise do at that season4 ,the later crop is more or less immune from their attacks1 as ripe corn is then abundant in the field or on the threshing-floor4 ,figs first appear on the market in ,may4 ,this early fruit is called magiles 7possibly from ,maios-gilia ,may production74 ,the fruit is produced on the wood of the preceding year1 from a bud which has remained dormant4 ,the next crop appears about mid-,july1 and then the fruit is called by its proper name syka4 ,cherries ,the principal and almost the only cherry-growing village in the ,island is ,pedoulas1 in the ,marathassa valley4 ,this village is about #c1fjj ft4 above the sea-level4 ,the trees at that village do remarkably well1 and they bring in a good revenue4 ,they are mostly wild trees which have been grafted2 but there are also a small number which have been raised from imported ,malaheb seed4 ,from time to time good kinds of young grafted cherry trees have been imported from ,england by the ,agricultural ,department and grafts from these have been freely supplied to the village4 ,there are two native varieties1 one 7kerasi7 which is almost exclusively grown at ,pedoulas1 the other 7vysino7 which is found fairly well distributed over the ,island4 ,the former is pale yellow and pink1 the latter is slightly smaller and less sweet and of a darkish-red colour1 and is used mostly in making jam and preserves1 while the kerasi is more for table purposes4 ,more grafted trees are now coming into bearing and ,white-hearts are now sold in the bazaar at about #ab cps4 per oke4 ,black-hearts are also beginning to make an appearance4 ,efforts are being made to introduce the cherry tree to other hill villages1 and there seems no reason why its cultivation should not become general in the higher parts of the ,island4 ,this fruit travels well and a fine market awaits it in ,egypt4 ,owing to the prohibition of fruit exports during the war1 a small industry has grown up for drying the kerasi4 ,banana ,the local name of the banana is ,sykiton ,adam 7,adam's fig71 from the belief that ,adam made an apron of the leaves4 ,there is some hope that the cultivation of this delicious fruit may become more taken up in ,cyprus than has hitherto been thought possible4 ,paphos has for several years had the reputation of possessing fruit-yielding trees of good quality4 ,offshoots from some of these have been transplanted to ,larnaca1 and there are now several gardens in which a fair quantity of fruit ripens each year4 ,at ,kyrenia and ,lapithos there are also a good number of trees4 ,the fruit is of a different variety from that of ,paphos and ,larnaca1 the shape being longitudinally angular1 whereas the latter kind is longitudinally round and larger4 ,five years ago the ,agricultural ,department obtained some special varieties from ,zanzibar4 ,these are now beginning to yield fruit1 and offshoots are being distributed in the ,island4 ,azarol ,hawthorn ,this hawthorn 7,cratgus ,azarolus71 known locally as mosphilia1 grows wild scattered about over the country4 ,the fruit makes an excellent jelly4 ,the tree is an excellent stock on which to graft the pear tree4 ,in the higher regions another species1 ,c4 monogyna1 is found4 ,melons ,the western end of the ,messaoria plain is noted for its water-melons and sweet-melons4 ,these are grown in postania1 a corruption of the ,persian word bustan1 a garden4 ,they are cultivated only on irrigable land4 ,at ,asha1 where1 perhaps1 the best fruits are grown1 the land is flooded by the river and no later watering1 as a rule1 takes place4 ,through a well-grounded fear of theft1 the grower and his family live in their postania during the season of marketing4 ,reed shelters are erected1 and the rolled-up beds and bedding with their white coverlets present a strange appearance4 ,there is always a big local demand and a good yield is generally obtained from these postania4 ,high prices are paid for suitable melonland4 ,the local names for the water-melons are karpousia or paticha1 and for the sweet-melons piponia or tamboures4 ,the cultivation of this fruit is general throughout the ,island4 ,date ,palm ,this tree grows promiscuously throughout the plains1 produced mostly by accidental seeding4 ,very little actual sowing takes place4 ,the best groves are round about ,nicosia4 ,the trunk-wood1 being very hard and fibrous1 is used in the construction of the old type of waterwheel 7alakati7 and for beams in houses4 ,it is also utilised as fuel in ,turkish baths as it burns slowly and gives out great heat4 ,palm leaves are in demand for making various native baskets1 specially the zimpilia for holding seed when sowing broadcast4 ,hats are made from them in a few villages4 ,the native varieties of date palm are not of high quality4 ,they are3 ,baltchik1 the fruit of which ripens on the tree2 ,phountouk 7hazelnut72 ,kourmouzou 7red72 and ,saraih 7yellow74 ,the last three are artificially ripened when picked1 by spraying them with a mixture of syrup and vinegar4 ,the ,baltchik produces fruits suitable for fresh consumption4 ,the ,phountouk is somewhat inferior4 ,the other two have large fruits which are specially suited for preserving4 ,two years ago the ,agricultural ,department imported from ,sudan the following varieties3 ,condeila1 ,bertamouta and ,barakawi4 ,they suffered much on the journey and it is doubtful if more than two or three specimens will survive4 ,as a rule dates ripen well in ,cyprus2 gathering takes place from ,october to ,december4 ,the clusters must generally be covered with sacking to protect them from birds4 ,,nuts ,hazelnuts and ,cobnuts or ,filberts ,these nuts are collectively known in commerce as small nuts4 ,they are all1 however1 the produce of a species of ,corylus1 the different kinds being distinguished by trade names according to their country of origin 7see an article on ,sources of ,supply of ,hazelnuts in ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xiv4 #aiaf1 pp4 #bfa-g74 ,in ,cyprus these are grown almost exclusively around a well-defined group of villages of the ,pitsillia1 notably ,alona1 ,palchori1 ,askas1 ,platanistassa1 ,phterikoudi1 ,livadhia1 ,agros1 ,alithinou1 ,saranti1 ,polystipos4 ,in this locality the plantations are thickly grown and good yields are obtained4 ,it is doubtful whether there are other parts of the ,island equally well suited to this tree4 ,hazelnuts1 besides their use for dessert purposes and in the preparation of various nut foods1 are employed largely as a cheap substitute for almonds1 and in years when the latter are scarce1 hazelnuts are in especially good demand4 ,the ,cyprus nuts are outwardly of good size and appearance and are very attractive in the ,english market1 but unfortunately they are usually picked before reaching full maturity1 and consequently the kernels are frequently small and soon become rancid4 ,being gathered when unripe they lose greatly in weight1 which means loss of money to the exporters4 ,the flavour is also impaired by premature picking and on this account ,cyprus nuts compare unfavourably in this respect with those from ,spain1 and ,trebizond and other parts on the ,black ,sea1 with which they have to compete4 ,if growers would pay more attention to this point1 ,cyprus hazelnuts would1 owing to their size1 hold a much better place than they do in the ,english market4 ,the export of hazelnuts is not separately recorded1 but the annual average production is stated to be approximately #abj1jjj okes4 ,walnuts ,some fine specimens of walnut trees are to be seen in the ,marathassa valley and in the neighbourhood of ,palochori1 and near mountain streams in several places among the slopes of the hills4 ,these yield excellent fruit and are profitable to their owners1 but unfortunately many trees have succumbed to the attacks of the ,codlin moth4 ,special action has been taken during the last two years to deal with this pest4 ,there has been a marked increase of late in the planting of young walnut trees4 ,almonds ,the cultivation of this tree has greatly extended of late4 ,its drought-resisting properties enable it to withstand the climate of the plains and on the level slopes of both ranges it grows well4 ,there are several large plantations1 notably at ,psevdhas1 ,larnaca district1 where the famous ,jordan variety is found1 and as the tree seems indifferent to soil1 and thrives particularly well on the limestone which is so general throughout the ,island1 it may be hoped that it will be greatly multiplied4 ,both the soft- and the hard-shelled varieties are grown4 ,much good work has lately been done in ,school ,gardens1 under expert advice1 in germinating the seed in damp sand4 ,the villagers1 finding the seedlings already to hand for planting1 have been induced to plant them out4 ,almonds are used as stocks on which to graft peaches1 kaishas1 apricots and plums 7mirabelles74 ,spanish ,chestnut ,some years ago good numbers of the edible chestnut were raised at ,pedoulas by the ,agricultural ,department and distributed to villagers for growing in the hills4 ,it is feared that the greater part of these trees1 through want of attention1 unsuitability of soil or climate1 lack of moisture1 and especially damage by goats1 have been lost1 but some remain and well-grown young trees may be found in certain localities and in moderate numbers among the mountains4 ,as soon as adequate protection from goats can be given1 this tree might be well worth more extensive cultivation4 ,it prospers well when properly cared for1 but will not thrive in soils containing more than about #c per cent4 of lime or at an elevation below about #a1jjj ft4 ,the tree has been propagated almost entirely from seed1 which must be as fresh as possible4 ,no doubt one reason for the lack of interest hitherto shown in this tree by villagers is that it does not begin to fruit1 as a rule1 until about its twentieth year4 ,pistacia ,several species of ,pistacia occur in ,cyprus1 and although they yield products of different kinds1 it will be convenient to deal with them together in the present section4 ,the pistachio nut 7,pistacia vera71 locally called ,aleppo pistachio1 is a native of ,persia and ,arabia and it was thought1 until a few years ago1 that it would not thrive in ,cyprus4 ,that is1 however1 a fallacy1 which is rather confirmed by the fact that the ,p4 ,terebinthus and the ,p4 ,lentiscus are indigenous to the ,island4 ,it is considered that the best method of cultivation is to bud ,p4 vera on ,p4 ,terebinthus4 ,though they grow more slowly1 these budded trees are more robust and better resist drought1 cold and moisture4 ,the trees should yield fruit in five years from the time of grafting4 ,a fair number of these trees have now been distributed from the ,government ,nursery ,gardens4 ,this tree provides the pistachio nuts which are now imported from ,syria and ,chios4 ,male trees do not usually flower at the same time as female2 consequently there has been difficulty in getting fruit with seeds1 and recourse must in that case be had to artificial fertilisation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,palestine or turpentine tree 7,p4 palstina71 local name trmithos1 grows in certain parts of the ,island1 but is seen at its best in the ,paphos district1 especially in and around the town of ,ktima4 ,the fruit is eaten fresh or salted and dried4 ,it yields #aj to #ae per cent4 of edible oil which has a certain local demand4 ,a medium-sized tree may produce up to #fj to #hj okes of fruit4 ,after crushing and expression1 the residue together with the seed is found to be a good food for pigs4 ,a small consignment of both the dried and salted fruit and of the residue was sold in ,egypt in #aiaf and realised #e to #f cp4 per oke for the former1 and #cs4 to #ds4 per kil for the latter4 ,by making incisions in the trunks of both the male and the female trees a gum or turpentine known as ,paphos tar is obtained1 which fetches as much as #hs4 to #ajs4 per oke4 ,it is used locally for chewing4 ,this is one of the largest trees in the ,island and is of handsome shape4 ,it is deciduous and some fine specimens are met with4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pistacia ,lentiscus1 locally known as shinia1 or shinia bush1 abounds all along the coasts of the ,island4 ,from the seeds of this shrub an oil is expressed which is used for culinary purposes1 particularly for frying fish4 ,the oil is also in good local demand for soap making1 and a very fair soap is produced1 especially at ,akanthou1 in which the oil is the chief ingredient4 ,the leaves of this shrub are largely used for tanning purposes and were at one time regularly exported to ,england1 though in small quantities4 ,the principal market for shinia leaves is ,palermo4 ,they are employed to no small extent for the adulteration of sumach1 for which ,palermo is also the leading market4 ,shinia leaves were also in demand at ,lyons as a dyeing material for silk stuffs4 ,there are also a few specimens of a variety of ,p4 ,lentiscus 7mastic tree7 from which in the ,island of ,chios the famous ,chios mastic is obtained by incisions made in the trunks of the male stocks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the terebinth tree 7,p4 ,terebinthus71 locally called tremithia1 is a bush very widely grown throughout the higher regions4 ,it is used as a stock on which to graft ,p4 vera4 ,the berries are used for extraction of oil which has a value for culinary purposes4 ,they are also made into a cake called tremithopites4 ,the berries are much smaller than those of the ,p4 palstina4 ,,vegetables ,the cultivation of vegetables has considerably extended of late4 ,good market gardens have existed in and around the principal towns for many years1 but more attention is now being paid to this industry in the villages1 wherever water is available1 and a considerable amount of skill is shown in production4 ,among the best and most generally grown vegetables are spinach1 cauliflowers1 cabbages1 egg-plants1 lady's fingers1 leeks1 artichokes1 broad beans 7also grown as a field crop71 radishes1 celery1 beet-root1 pumpkins1 marrows1 cucumbers1 lettuces1 tomatoes1 lentils1 kohl-rabi 7kouloumbra71 kidney beans 7phasoulia71 peas1 kolokas1 onions and potatoes4 ,there is a considerable demand in ,egypt for fresh vegetables1 and to meet this the land around the ports of ,famagusta1 ,larnaca and ,limassol has been for some years specially devoted to their cultivation4 ,in the mountain valleys a continuous series of small vegetable gardens may be seen flanking the sides of the river-banks4 ,the exports of vegetables to ,egypt in recent years are given in the following table3 ,beans and ,other ,year4 ,onions4 ,peas4 ,vegetables4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #aiji #f1ffd #a1gbi #di #aiaj #c1hjg #heh #fj #aiaa #e1eab #b1cdf #abb #aiab #c1fei #b1ehc #ace #aiac #b1hed #a1fgj #cb ,beans and ,peas ,beans are grown for market mainly at ,marathassa and ,pitsillia and generally in the higher regions1 but only to a small extent in the plains4 ,before the war there was a comparatively large importation of beans from ,anatolia4 ,this having stopped1 local prices rose and stimulated production in the ,island4 ,the ,cypriot is a lover of dried vegetables1 and there might well be an extension in the cultivation of beans1 similar to that which has lately taken place in the case of green peas4 ,except in one or two places1 these were not sown by the villagers until about four years ago1 but so valuable have they been found1 especially in recent years of scarcity and high cost of other foodstuffs1 that now whole districts are being devoted to their cultivation4 ,the ,french or kidney bean 7,phaseolus vulgaris7 is locally known under the general term louvia4 ,this name is applied both to ,phaseolus vulgaris and to ,dolichos melanophthalmus 7,vigna ,catjang var4 sinensis74 ,to distinguish the two kinds the ,cypriot describes the ,p4 vulgaris as louvia gliastra 7i4e4 lustrous1 owing to its shiny appearance71 or louvia peratica 7i4e4 foreign71 as ,d4 melanophthalmus was introduced and had become acclimatised some time before4 ,gennadius1 however1 describes the louvia peratica as ,dolichos ,lablab or lablab bean4 ,both the dwarf 7koutsoulia7 and the climbing 7makrya or anarichomena7 varieties of ,p4 vulgaris are grown4 ,there are two white kinds1 the large 7adra7 and the small 7psintra74 ,beans of various colours are grown here and there1 and one spotted variety 7patsaloudhia7 merits greater attention than it receives at present1 both on account of its greater productiveness and for its excellent flavour4 ,two of these are stringless1 but a drawback to them is that they discolour the water in which they are boiled4 ,there are several newly imported kinds which are privately grown1 and these are gradually coming into the local markets4 ,the lubia or cow-pea 7,dolichos melanophthalmus ,vigna ,catjang var4 sinensis71 being a good drought-resister1 is grown more or less throughout the ,island4 ,it is frequently sown in mixed crop with cotton1 sesame1 ,indian corn1 etc4 ,two kinds are cultivated--the larger1 lubia melissomatia 7having the eye like a bee71 and the smaller1 lubia mavromatoudhia 7dark-eyed74 ,the dried pods of ,phaseolus and ,dolichos are fed to animals and are also used for stuffing mattresses4 ,the broad bean 7,vicia ,faba7 has been grown for some years on irrigated land in the plains1 where it takes a recognised place in the rotation4 ,its cultivation is now spreading to the higher parts4 ,the soy bean was introduced a few years ago by the ,agricultural ,department1 but has failed hitherto to attract attention4 ,villagers find it requires different cooking from what they are accustomed to1 and local dealers are not yet prepared to deal in it4 ,it has been found resistant to disease1 and further efforts are being made to bring it into popular favour4 ,the ,ochrus vetch 7,lathyrus ,ochrus71 locally known as louvana1 is a fairly common spring crop1 being grown for the sake of the seed which provides a favourite ,cypriot dish4 ,the leaves are also used as a salad4 ,this crop is sown in the plains in ,january1 but in the ,karpas and some other parts it is sown in the autumn4 ,chick-peas 7,cicer arietinum71 locally called revithia1 grow well and are cultivated to a moderate extent4 ,samples examined at the ,imperial ,institute proved to be of normal composition4 ,two firms of produce brokers in ,london stated that if quantities of about #e tons at a time could be delivered in ,england in as good a condition as the sample they could be sold for human consumption and would be worth 7#aiag7 #bj to #bd per ton c4i4f41 ,united ,kingdom ports4 ,if of inferior quality to the sample they would be fit only for cattle food and fetch considerably less 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cjg74 ,chick-peas when roasted are locally called koudames and are eaten in the same way as ground-nuts1 which they much resemble in flavour4 ,they are little1 if at all1 used in ,cyprus as a cattle food4 ,potatoes ,the potato-growing industry in ,cyprus has developed considerably in recent years1 as will be seen from the subjoined table of exports3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 #aiji #ab1ehf #c1aje #aiaj #ad1ihc #c1hci #aiaa #cf1bga #h1dgb #aiab #de1ccf #aj1cdh #aiac #ca1caj #g1jjc #aiad #ed1bjc #aa1gda #aiae #hb1cjd #bh1eac #aiaf #acf1jbg #gd1fcb #aiag #bbd1dec #aja1abj ,these figures1 however1 are a very inadequate indication of the actual increase of production1 inasmuch as the local consumption of this vegetable before the war was confined almost entirely to the well-to-do residents in the towns1 whereas now it is rapidly becoming a staple food of the people4 ,this unascertainable but large local consumption must be added to the latest export returns in order to arrive at an estimate of present production4 ,the most favoured variety was at first1 and with many growers still is1 what is known as the ,french potato1 the original seed having been brought from ,france4 ,irish potatoes 7locally called pittakoura7 have now largely displaced these1 partly1 no doubt1 on account of the greater facility of obtaining the latter seed during the war4 ,a native variety of potato1 believed to have been imported by ,syrian ,arabs in the sixteenth century1 is still grown on a small scale in the ,marathassa valley4 ,this potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste4 ,great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of cultivation1 and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart4 ,the practice formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow4 ,these were covered over by the return plough2 every third furrow was sown4 ,the ,egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have greatly stimulated production4 ,the good prices obtained have led1 particularly in the ,famagusta district and in what are called the red earth villages1 to much activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and distribution1 and in the use of chemical manures4 ,the custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for planting in the higher parts of the ,island4 ,the produce therefrom is exchanged with growers in the plains1 who send up their plain-grown tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills4 ,merchants often stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an agreed1 and generally a fairly high1 figure4 ,in this manner degeneration of the seed has been retarded2 but owing to the difficulty of obtaining seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has taken place4 ,only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year1 but in the plains two crops are obtained4 ,the one is planted in ,january and is dug in ,may-,june2 the other is planted in ,july and dug in ,november4 ,it is found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat1 and heavy losses occur from rot1 whether the tubers remain in the ground or if they are dug and stored2 and it is a question whether1 when these losses are taken into account1 the summer crop is really profitable4 ,the average yield is sometimes put at #b1jjj okes per donum1 but #a1fjj okes1 or #b tons1 is probably a more accurate figure4 ,kolokas 7,colocasia antiquorum7 ,this is a favourite food of the villager1 but can only be grown where there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water4 ,it is an exhausting crop4 ,the root only is eaten4 ,it is sown in ,march-,april and dug about ,october-,november4 ,onions ,these are generally grown1 especially in the ,paphos district2 ,famagusta and ,limassol following in the order named4 ,the ,paphos onions are supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities4 ,both round 7strongyla7 and long varieties 7tolmalikia7 are grown2 the latter have less fleshy scales than the former4 ,onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in livadhia1 or low-lying lands which retain their moisture1 no irrigation being needed4 ,they are propagated by means of konari or bulblets4 ,lapithos in the ,kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and supplying them to the whole ,island1 although onions are grown for market only on a limited scale in that area4 ,the method is to plant out the full-grown onions 7locally called mammes7 and leave them to ripen their seed4 ,the seed is sown in ,february-,march1 at the rate of #bj-be okes per donum1 from which some #c1jjj okes of konari are raised4 ,these are then sold for planting out in ,october-,november-,december at the rate of #dj-ej okes per donum4 ,onions are grown either in rows or broadcast4 ,the native variety has the outer scales of a reddish colour1 but these have largely given way to superior imported kinds4 ,,fodders ,,and ,,feeding ,,stuffs ,carob ,tree ,the carob 7,ceratonia siliqua7 is indigenous in ,syria1 and probably also in the northern countries of ,africa1 whence it presumably spread to certain parts of ,asia ,minor1 to ,greece1 the ,greek ,islands and ,southern ,italy4 ,at the time of ,christ1 and for some centuries later1 this tree was known to the ,greeks by the name of keronia or keratea1 being the ,greek for horns1 and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed resemblance to goats' horns4 ,it is also known in different parts of ,cyprus under the following names2 teratsia 7a corruption of keratea71 xylokeratea1 kountouroudia1 koutsoupia and charoupia4 ,the last named is of ,arabic origin 7kharroub7 and the same root of the word is common all over ,europe4 ,moreover1 the fruit varies slightly according to locality1 and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it distinctive local names2 thus in ,kyrenia ,district we have templiotik and kyrionitik1 in the ,karpas there is the sarakine 7introduced by ,saracens87 and elsewhere the vaklitik and kombot4 ,this bean or pod1 which when ripe is of a chocolate colour1 contains from #f to #aj hard seeds1 embedded in a sweet1 pithy1 honey-like substance which imparts the flavour so much appreciated by animals4 ,the carob tree belongs to the natural order ,leguminos1 sub-order ,caesalpin1 and is the only species of the genus ,ceratonia4 ,it is an evergreen1 long-lived tree1 growing to a height of #cj ft4 and sometimes even to #ej and #fj ft4 ,it thrives in most kinds of soil1 especially in porous1 marly and even volcanic soils1 but not in marshy lands4 ,owing to its long tap root it resists drought well1 and is to be found growing well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of ,cyprus4 ,it is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up to about the same altitude4 ,a succession of flowers is produced from ,july to ,september or ,october1 and in favourable years up to ,december and even later1 and in ,july-,august the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit4 ,the collection of the latter commences about mid-,august1 the exact date being annually fixed separately in each district by the ,commissioner4 ,this is done in order to prevent the fruit from being stolen4 ,recent investigations made by the ,agricultural ,department go to prove that the fruit-producing carob tree of ,cyprus is really hermaphrodite1 though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is not finally settled4 ,the others are true male trees4 ,the hermaphrodite carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing trees of the ,island are cleistogamous 7i4e4 self-fertilised before the calyx opens7 and short-stamened4 ,there are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior to the ordinary so-called wild tree4 ,these bear fruit which is straight and short but more or less marketable1 and these are known as kountoura 7short7 or apostoliki1 as though sent by chance or by ,providence4 ,the word apostoliki is applied in ,cyprus to other kinds of trees or fruit showing similar phenomena4 ,there are several millions of these trees in the ,state forests1 and yet more privately owned4 ,it frequently happens that1 owing to the wide powers of testamentary disposition1 a single tree passes by inheritance to several heirs4 ,many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the ,government gardens and issued at a trifling charge4 ,the common method of propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots1 and when the plant is from #ah in4 to #b ft4 high it is ready for transplanting4 ,the seed1 which is very hard1 is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of cold water4 ,the water is then brought to the boil4 ,on arriving at boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the seed left to steep for twenty-four hours4 ,owing to the long tap root1 sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory1 as the plants1 which certainly make better growth than in pots1 do not transplant well4 ,the foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in properly prepared holes4 ,little watering is needed if the holes are deep and the soil kept friable4 ,a top mulch is useful to conserve the moisture4 ,transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve months old and about #ab in4 high1 after that it is precarious4 ,grafting may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft1 either before or after transplanting4 ,the tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests4 ,scale 7,aspidiotus ceratoni7 is very common2 but the greatest damage of late years has been caused by the fly ,cecidomyia ceratoni1 which lays its eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit1 and the grub feeds on the bean1 causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value4 ,this stunted condition is locally known as brachycarpia and has been the subject of careful scientific study and practical treatment by the ,agricultural ,department during the last few years4 ,very satisfactory results have been recorded from the campaigns1 which have so far been limited to the ,kyrenia ,district1 and these have justified the extension of compulsory treatment to other infected areas4 ,this and other pests1 such as ,myelois ceratoni1 ,cossus liniperda 7a lepidopterous boring insect71 a species of ,mycetiasis1 and a small hymenopterous fly which has lately appeared and is now under investigation1 have1 no doubt1 checked production4 ,the attacks of ,cecidomyia1 when serious1 reduce the yield by #hj per cent4 or over1 and normally may lessen it by #dj to #ej per cent4 ,much damage is also caused by rats 7,mus alexandrinus71 which gnaw the bark of the branches1 causing them to dry up4 ,their destruction is encouraged by ,government by the payment of #a cp4 per tail4 ,carob gathering commences about mid-,august and lasts for about a month4 ,the beans are knocked down with long sticks1 put into sacks and brought into store1 or heaped up in the open air1 where they often remain for several weeks4 ,this is a safe procedure1 as there is little rainfall at that season1 and what might fall would not harm the beans1 which would quickly dry again4 ,it is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees1 but assuming that the trees were planted #cj ft4 apart1 and there were #af medium-sized trees to the donum1 the yield would average somewhere about #a1bfj okes to the donum4 ,the yield varies from year to year1 a good year generally being followed by a moderate year4 ,the fruit may be destroyed by frost in ,january and ,february1 knocked off by hail-stones in ,march and ,april or scorched by hot winds in ,may or ,june4 ,a full-sized1 well-cultivated tree can give up to #gbj okes4 ,taking good and bad years1 the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is #es4 ,carobs are sold by the ,aleppo cantar of #ahj okes1 and the normal price may be put at from #acs4 to #ags4 per cantar delivered into store4 ,carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the ,customs ,house4 ,the following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years ending #aiac-ad3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,tons4 #aijd-je #ca1hhg #ajd1cja #aije-jf #bf1ahg #he1aje #aijf-jg #dd1ife #aeg1deb #aijg-jh #db1cha #aea1faj #aijh-ji #eg1jaj #ahh1hda #aiji-aj #dd1jei #aeg1igb #aiaj-aa #cg1dhe #ade1eij #aiaa-ab #ea1cei #ahb1hhc #aiab-ac #fc1feh #bea1gej #aiac-ad #dd1ihi #agi1jbg ,the falling-off in #aiac-ad was mainly due to the losses caused by the fly ,cecidomyia ceratoni4 ,the fruit of the carob is exported mostly to ,england1 but also to ,france and ,egypt1 and more recently1 before the war1 to ,germany4 ,gaudry mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to ,russia1 ,sardinia and ,austria4 ,some is used1 in ,egypt and the ,levant especially1 as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and sherbets4 ,its chief use in ,western ,europe is as food for animals1 bovine and equine1 for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal or cattle cakes4 ,it is also said to be employed in the manufacture of chocolate and spirit1 and there is a demand for the seed for use in the manufacture of certain gums4 ,the juice of the bean1 carob honey1 locally called mavromelos1 teratsomelo or betmezi1 is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes4 ,from the carob honey is also made the sweetmeat pastelli4 ,at one time carobs were used in ,cyprus for fattening mules and other animals1 but1 unfortunately1 this practice died out4 ,efforts are now being made to revive it1 and the advantages of this local product are again becoming recognised4 ,the carob contains some #ej per cent4 of saccharine matter and the interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the bean might not become a new source of sugar production4 ,lucerne 7,medicago sativa7 ,this plant was introduced about eighteen years ago1 but in spite of its undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil1 the ,cypriot farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it4 ,every effort has been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed4 ,irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield1 but there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage4 ,its value for cattle food is generally recognised1 and now that greater attention is being given to dairy cattle1 lucerne would seem to have an assured future4 ,vetch 7,vicia ,ervilia7 ,this plant1 known locally as rovi1 is undoubtedly the most widely grown of the fodder crops4 ,being a leguminous plant1 it has a restorative action on the soil1 although the average ,cypriot farmer still considers it to be exhaustive4 ,in the plains sowing begins in ,january1 whereas in the ,pitsillia1 and even in the ,morphou1 ,solea and ,tylliria districts which are only at the foothills1 it is sown in ,october-,november1 i4e4 before the cereals4 ,rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen throughout the ,east4 ,it is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening1 and is therefore fed specially in winter4 ,it is sometimes given unthreshed with the straw4 ,it is harvested in ,may1 when it is uprooted1 made into little bundles1 which are stacked together in small heaps in the field1 until they turn yellow1 when they are removed to the native threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner4 ,the dry stems1 etc41 are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep4 ,the average yield is very little1 from #b to #d or #e kils per donum4 ,it is subject to tithe4 ,chickling ,vetch 7,lathyrus sativus7 ,the chickling vetch1 known locally as favetta or chavetta1 has come rather more into prominence of late years1 displacing the vetch 7,vicia ,ervilia7 to some extent1 as it gives a heavier yield4 ,it is subject to tithe4 ,vetch 7,vicia sativa7 ,this crop1 called locally vicos1 was introduced from ,crete in #aiac and has been found excellently suited to this country4 ,it is most useful in any rotation1 and has to some extent supplanted rovi 7,vicia ,ervilia7 as it gives a larger yield4 ,it is a most nutritious cattle food1 for which purpose it is grown4 ,when crushed and mixed with chopped straw it is readily eaten by cattle and sheep4 ,the plant seeds itself very freely4 ,it is sown about ,november-,december and is ready for harvesting in about ,april4 ,seed is sown at the rate of #e to #f okes per donum and the yield is normally from #h to #ab kils per donum4 ,it is a good drought-resister and needs no irrigation1 and being a leguminous plant should be cut and not pulled up1 as the roots left in the soil serve to increase the amount of nitrogenous salts4 ,being a vetch it is subject to tithe4 ,tares 7,vicia tenuifolia var4 stenophylla7 ,this plant1 locally called mavracheron or phakacheron1 grows wild in the ,pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as well as uncultivated lands4 ,it is of value in those remote localities where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure1 as it provides a wholesome fodder for cattle4 ,the villagers have now taken to cultivating the plant4 ,it is cut before the seeds are fully matured to prevent loss of seed through shedding4 ,the seeds and chaff are mixed together when fed to cattle4 ,milk ,vetch 7,astragalus7 ,this plant1 locally called arkokoutsia1 grows wild in some abundance among the hills4 ,when it appears above ground it is readily eaten by animals1 especially sheep2 but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven4 ,as the plant hardens the animals do not touch it1 except when fully ripe1 and then it is greedily eaten4 ,as soon as it blossoms1 but before the fruit is set1 the plant is gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap4 ,when1 after a few months1 it is quite dry1 and at a time when other foods are scarce1 it forms an important part of an animal's ration4 ,the plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds1 and these1 after being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity1 are given to pigs1 and are considered a nourishing and palatable food4 ,moha1 ,sulla 7,hedysarum7 ,these have been tried for some years with success and are gradually becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers4 ,teosinte 7,reana luxurians7 ,this grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the ,new ,world has enriched the ,old4 ,it is a native of ,guatemala and is also largely grown in ,australia4 ,seed was first imported into ,cyprus by the ,agricultural ,department in #ahig1 and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the ,government gardens with marked success4 ,it is sown in ,march-,april in the same manner as ,indian corn1 to which it is allied4 ,if irrigated1 three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer1 yielding #be to #cj tons of green food per scala4 ,it is greedily eaten by cattle4 ,some plants grown by the ,department attained a height of #aa ft4 #c in4 and of others which were left to ripen their seed1 one had #ic stems and weighed #bf okes1 though the leaves had begun to shrivel and had lost weight4 ,this plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some of the more progressive farms4 ,sudan-grass ,seed of this fodder grass was imported in #aiae and very satisfactory crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental plots4 ,the grass seems well suited to ,cyprus and gives a useful yield even when unirrigated4 ,occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop4 ,trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms4 ,teff-grass 7,eragrostis abyssinica7 ,this has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known4 ,mangold ,wurzel ,this crop has been grown for several years at the ,government ,farm1 ,athalassa1 where it has done well and forms an important part of the cows' rations4 ,it has been grown successfully on a small scale in some of the ,nursery ,gardens4 ,as irrigation1 deep ploughing1 thorough cultivation of the soil and special cultural operations are needed1 this crop cannot be generally recommended to farmers1 but it is being grown by a few progressive stock owners under ,departmental advice4 ,the wild beet 7,beta vulgaris7 is a native of the seacoasts of ,south-eastern ,europe1 and the garden beet-root is much grown in ,cyprus in certain localities1 so1 if carefully cultivated1 mangold wurzel1 which is a variety of ,b4 vulgaris1 might also do well in many parts and be of great advantage to stock owners4 ,prickly ,pear 7,opuntia7 ,the prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in ,cyprus4 ,the fruit is eaten to some extent by villagers1 but no attempt has yet been made to use the stems as food for animals4 ,in ,sicily very large quantities are so utilised1 and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in ,cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised4 ,successful experiments have been made by the ,agricultural ,department in mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and permanence to ordinary whitewash4 ,there has been an occasional export of the fruit to ,egypt for consumption by ,arabs4 ,,spices ,coriander ,seed ,coriander seed is the product of ,coriandrum sativum1 ,linn41 an annual herb belonging to the natural order ,umbellifer4 ,the seed1 or more strictly fruit1 of the plant is employed in confectionery in making bonbons1 in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for disguising the taste of medicines4 ,in ,cyprus it is commonly used as a flavouring in cooking4 ,a sample sent to the ,imperial ,institute in #aiag was examined as a source of volatile oil1 and the residue remaining after distillation was analysed as a feeding-stuff4 ,on steam distillation the ground seed yielded #j4dh per cent4 of an almost colourless volatile oil with the characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander4 ,this yield is below that furnished by ,russian and ,german coriander1 but is about equal to that obtained from ,morocco seed4 ,the results of the examination indicate that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value1 and it would be quite suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue1 i4e4 as a cattle food4 ,a sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in ,london1 who reported that they were very stalky1 but that their value would be from #ejs4 to #fjs4 per cwt4 7,january #aiag7 as compared with #ajs4 to #aes4 per cwt4 before the war4 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cja74 ,aniseed ,aniseed1 the fruit of an umbelliferous herb 7,pimpinella ,anisum1 ,linn471 is grown on a comparatively small scale in ,cyprus1 the exports in recent years varying from #a1jjj to #b1jjj cwts4 per annum4 ,in #aiag1 #a1jae cwts41 valued at #c1afd1 were exported1 all of which went to ,egypt4 ,seed sent for examination to the ,imperial ,institute was reported to consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from extraneous matter4 ,a sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in ,london1 who stated that at that time 7,january #aiag7 stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted1 and the prices therefore much inflated1 small stocks of ,spanish aniseed having changed hands in ,london at #aajs4 per cwt4 ,such price could not be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market4 ,the value of the ,cyprus sample before the war would have been about #bgs4 #f;d4 per cwt4 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cjj74 ,white ,cumin ,seed ,white cumin is also an umbelliferous herb 7,cuminum ,cyminum1 ,linn472 an account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in the ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xi4 #aiac1 pp4 #aca-acf4 ,a sample of the seed sent to the ,imperial ,institute was submitted to brokers in ,london1 who stated that it was rather small and stalky1 but that it would probably be worth between #gjs4 and #hjs4 per cwt4 7,january #aiag71 although they were of opinion that its pre-war value would not have been much over #bjs4 per cwt4 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cjb74 ,black ,cumin ,seed ,these seeds1 sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds1 are the product of ,nigella sativa1 ,linn4 7,nat4 ,ord4 ,ranunculace74 ,the plant is an annual1 native to the ,mediterranean region1 and the seeds1 which are used in the ,east for flavouring curries1 etc41 and in ,egypt as comfits on cakes1 have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly acrid taste4 ,there is a small export of black cumin seed from ,cyprus4 ,there is1 however1 but little demand for this seed 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cjd74 ,,essential ,,oils ,,and ,,perfumes ,origanum ,oil ,different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of the plant from which the ,cyprus origanum oil is produced4 ,an interesting series of articles on this subject by ,e4 ,m4 ,holmes appears in the ,perfumery and ,essential ,oil ,record1 #aiac1 from which it would seem that this oil is derived from ,origanum majoranoides1 ,wild42 while ,dr4 ,stapf1 of ,kew1 regards the plant as ,o4 dubium1 ,boiss4 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xi4 #aiac1 p4 #ej74 ,other varieties growing wild in ,cyprus are ,o4 ,onites1 ,o4 hirtum1 both of which are locally called rigani1 ,o4 ,bevani 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cje7 and ,o4 majorana4 ,in its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a small perennial shrub1 but1 if cultivated1 its size may be doubled or even trebled4 ,the first crop1 consisting of shoots and flowers1 may give from #cjj to #ejj okes per donum2 in subsequent years up to #a1jjj-a1ejj okes per donum4 ,the latter quantity would produce #dj to #fj okes of origanum oil1 which is largely used in ,england for perfuming soap and other purposes4 ,for twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under ,government control4 ,the industry was started in #ahii and1 though not large1 has steadily grown4 ,it has been found that the ,cyprus origanum oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol 7over #hj per cent471 a powerful antiseptic1 and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic thyme-like odour4 ,frequent analyses have shown that the ,cyprus origanum oil is remarkably constant in character4 ,this oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on exposure to light and air1 which renders it unsuitable for use in light-coloured soaps1 but a method has been worked out at the ,imperial ,institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain practically colourless for long periods4 ,a report furnished by the ,imperial ,institute 7,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 iv4 #aijf1 p4 #bii71 after giving a detailed description of the oil1 states3 ,the foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in ,cyprus4 ,it should1 however1 be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is somewhat limited1 and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in ,france and ,spain1 and with the 'origanum oil' produced in ,smyrna1 and that consequently a sudden increase in production in ,cyprus might lead to a considerable fall in price4 ,the ,cyprus oil has1 however1 the advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent carvacrol1 and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent1 as revealed by the analyses made at the ,imperial ,institute1 that the comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates4 ,it would be advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple method from this material1 as this probably would fetch an enhanced price1 and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is unsuitable4 ,until #aiaj the distillation was made by the ,department1 but since then it has been undertaken by private contract1 permission being given to collect the wild plant from the forest4 ,the annual production is now about #b1gej lb41 and the price has steadily risen from about #cs4 per lb4 to #hs4 #f;d4 per lb4 at the present time4 ,but whereas the cost of transport to ,london before the war was #h per ton1 it has risen to the prohibitive rate of #bjj per ton1 and the #aiag oil still remains in store at ,alexandria4 ,the supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under consideration4 ,the following table shows the exports of origanum oil in recent years3 ,year4 ,quantity4 lb4 #aijb #b1jib #aijc ,no distillation #aijd #b1daj #aije #a1dfc #aijf #b1bjj #aijg #a1gde #aijh #b1jea #aiji #a1ecjd #aiaj #b1hdb #aiaa #b1bgf #aiab #b1bcj #aiac #b1dee #aiad #c1ggf #aiae #c1gji #aiaf #b1gef #aiag #b1fif #aiah #b1jff ,marjoram ,oil ,this is not yet a regular product1 but samples of locally produced oil have been examined at the ,imperial ,institute and pronounced to be superior to ,european marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet fennel oil 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xi4 #aiac1 p4 #ej74 ,it is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of ,kyrenia and ,paphos1 and which has been referred by ,dr4 ,stapf to ,o4 majoranoides1 ,wild41 and by ,mr4 ,holmes to ,o4 ,maru1 ,linn4 ,the market is1 however1 restricted4 ,laurel ,oil ,samples of oil distilled from the leaves of ,laurus nobilis which were examined at the ,imperial ,institute were found to have an aroma inferior to that of the oils usually met with in commerce 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xi4 #aiac1 p4 #dcj74 ,the demand for the oil is said to be small4 ,otto of ,roses ,this has been prepared since #ahig in a very small way with native stills at the village of ,milikouri1 where the ,damask rose is abundant4 ,the cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages4 ,the closing of the market for ,bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has given an impetus to the industry in ,cyprus4 ,the ,agricultural ,department has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at ,milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation4 ,a report from the ,director1 ,imperial ,institute1 upon samples of the #aiag distillation states that the constants of the ,cyprus oil agree closely with those recorded for ,bulgarian otto of roses4 ,it was found that the odour of the ,cyprus oil was fairly good1 but rather weak4 ,the otto sold at #gjs4 per ounce1 less #b-a_/b per cent41 which in view of the very small quantity must be considered satisfactory4 ,at the time of sale ,french otto was quoted at #ghs4 to #hes4 per ounce4 ,acacia ,farnesiana ,this tree is but sparsely represented in ,cyprus1 but wherever found it is vigorous and healthy4 ,it belongs to the ,mimosa tribe of the order ,leguminos and1 as other species are common in the ,island and thrive remarkably well1 there would seem no reason why this species also should not become more general4 ,it is known elsewhere under different names2 that of sweet briar 7in ,barbados7 on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of its flowers1 and stinking cossie 7in ,antigua7 owing to the highly disagreeable smell of its wood4 ,the word cossie may be a corruption of acacia4 ,its flowers are largely used in perfumery1 and the annual crop of the flowers of this plant in ,france is stated to be worth thousands of francs1 and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from them4 ,the pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin1 while from the cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose4 ,the wood makes good charcoal4 ,it is locally known as skouroupathos or skouroupathia1 and is closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer1 but which1 owing to its deep-rooted system1 the natives do not trouble to eradicate4 ,it is also allied to ,prosopis juliflora or algaroba tree1 of which there are a few specimens in the ,island4 ,,oils ,,and ,,oil ,,seeds ,olives ,the olive tree grows wild in ,cyprus1 but the wild fruit is small and bitter and yields an inferior oil4 ,the cultivated trees are those which have been grafted4 ,owing to the stringent regulations which have prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad1 it has not been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties4 ,these regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by the ,agricultural ,department under special restrictions1 and now that the war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts4 ,this tree thrives well1 almost all over the ,island1 up to an altitude of about #b1cjj ft41 and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met with1 which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit4 ,cyprus olives are divided into two classes1 locally known as 7a7 adrouppes or drouppes1 which are eaten in the green or black stage1 and 7b7 ladoelies1 which are suitable both for eating and for oil extraction4 ,of the former1 or adrouppes1 one kind is rather large1 with rough skin1 having a rough1 big stone1 the other is longer but of less diameter1 and has a very thin1 smooth skin and the stone is smooth1 curved and smaller4 ,the latter has a better taste and resembles the well-known ,greek olive of ,calamata4 ,both these adrouppes are prepared for the table while still green1 and are known as kolymbates1 or sometimes they are called tsakkistes1 owing to the stone being slightly crushed in the process of preparation4 ,the ladoelies are of two distinct varieties1 the larger of which is mostly regarded as an edible olive1 and contains a less percentage of oil1 while the other1 or smaller kind1 is richer in oil contents1 and is mainly used for oil production1 though it is sometimes eaten4 ,a few imported varieties1 including one or two specimens of ,spanish and ,greek olive trees1 are to be found here and there in private gardens4 ,if the land were manured and ploughed the trees would1 especially on the chalky soils1 yield abundant fruit and oil of excellent quality4 ,unfortunately this is not done1 and it has been found very difficult to induce the peasants to adopt any kind of cultivation4 ,they plough the land only when they intend to sow corn or other crops between the trees1 a procedure which tends to lessen the productiveness of the trees4 ,the system of irrigation applied is also very defective4 ,irrigation1 while improving the quality and quantity of edible olives1 is not desirable in the case of press olives4 ,as to pruning1 ,cypriots would have none of it until within the last five years4 ,by dint of patient and constant persuasion1 some few of the larger owners were induced to let their trees be pruned by a staff of pruners under the direction of the ,agricultural ,department 7see ,plate ,,vi74 ,much ridicule--and at times threats--was hurled at both the pruners and the tree owners1 who were assured by the villagers that for their folly they would undoubtedly lose their trees4 ,the results belied all these fears1 and now within the space of some four to five years the practice of pruning has become fairly general1 and a good number of villagers have qualified themselves as expert pruners and are kept regularly employed by private persons4 ,as a consequence of this a great amelioration is noticeable in the olive trees in many parts and the yield and quality of olives have been improved4 ,the method of gathering olives by beating1 however1 continues4 ,the fruit so knocked to the ground becomes dirty and bruised1 and quickly ferments1 when stored1 to the detriment of the oil4 ,this mode of gathering by beating damages the young twigs and branches1 whose bearing capacity the following year is thus impaired4 ,little care is taken in selecting the olives for oil4 ,not only are they dirty and bruised1 but unripe or diseased fruit1 as well as overripe fruit that has fallen from the tree1 is collected together indiscriminately4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,pruned ,olive-trees at ,metochi of ,kykos4 ,the usual practice is to spread out the olives as received1 and unsalted1 on the mud roofs of houses in order to give off a part of their water before grinding4 ,the procedure is then as follows3 ,they are first of all taken to the crusher or grinding mill4 ,this consists not of two stones1 as in ,greece1 but of one stone1 drawn by pony1 mule or donkey4 ,for the first quality of oil the olive stones should not be broken1 but generally speaking1 insufficient care is paid to this and the stones are1 for the most part1 crushed4 ,the crushed olives 7zimari1 paste7 are then removed to the press1 which is worked by hand1 with one exception of an hydraulic press at ,akanthou4 ,at this village1 where the best olive oil is produced1 the olives are brought direct from the trees to the mill1 whereas elsewhere the practice is to leave them in a heap to ferment and they often become foul and covered with dust and dirt4 ,in pressing with wooden presses1 the zimari or crushed olives are placed in round bags made of plaited rushes4 ,seven to ten of these are placed one on top of another in the press and the oil obtained is virgin oil 7huile vierge74 ,the bags are then removed and squeezed so as to change the position of the contents4 ,they are then replaced in the press and hot water is poured into each bag4 ,the oil obtained is of second quality4 ,a third pressing is sometimes given4 ,the yield is calculated at the rate of #a oke of oil to #d okes of olives4 ,in the ,paphos district is produced a black oil with a very distinct flavour4 ,this is due to the custom of boiling the olives before grinding4 ,the demand for this inferior oil is confined to that district4 ,in former days it was usual for the mills and presses to be worked in the open4 ,this is now rarely the case1 but may still be occasionally seen in parts of the ,paphos district and elsewhere4 ,whether outdoors or indoors these mills and presses are soon allowed to become very unclean1 and the rancid flavour which clings to the wood is quickly imparted to the oil1 which possesses1 for any but ,cypriots1 a strong and unpleasant smell and flavour4 ,there is a considerable residue or waste1 which1 if it could be utilised1 would go far to meet the deficiency in the requirements for local consumption4 ,there are a few good iron presses now in use4 ,their superiority is generally recognised and1 no doubt1 now that the war is over1 they will be imported in greater numbers4 ,small inexpensive1 cottage filters have been designed by the ,agricultural ,department and these are being adopted1 though very gradually4 ,the oil so filtered is greatly superior1 but having acquired a more delicate flavour1 it is not so much appreciated by the native consumers4 ,large numbers of young wild olive trees are issued on permit from the ,state forests for private cultivation and many thousands of two- and three-year-old plants raised in the ,government ,nurseries are also distributed every year4 ,with the gradual improvement in cultivation and in the preparation of the oil1 the production should increase enormously4 ,the local production of olive oil is insufficient for the requirements of the ,island1 but there is no reason why1 in the course of time1 when the large number of trees newly planted and annually on the increase1 come into bearing1 a valuable export trade should not result4 ,the figures of production1 given in the table below1 are strikingly fluctuating1 and indicate the irregularity of the annual yield and the marked variation in price3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 #aijd #d1bid #f1dfg #aije #e1bia #h1ejd #aijf #g1hde #ab1fjb #aijg #h1iha #af1ibb #aijh #ghh #a1dei #aiji #c1hea #h1hfd #aiaj #g1eej #ag1bcb #aiaa #fjh #a1dae #aiab #dh #hh #aiac #iaa #b1jeb #aiad #b1aig #d1hcg #aiae #f1jjc #ae1adf #aiaf #d1iff #af1jce #aiag #bij #a1bbe ,sesame ,seed ,the annual production in ,cyprus of sesame seed 7,sesamum indicum7 is said to be about #aie1jjj okes4 ,it is one of the recognised summer crops in the plains1 and is frequently sown together in the same field with cotton1 maize1 etc41 and in the vine villages it is sown in the newly planted vineyards1 where it does well4 ,in such cases the preparation of the soil is done on the same lines as for cotton1 maize1 vines1 etc4 ,the seed is used mainly for the extraction of the oil1 which is largely employed in cooking1 and it is also used in the preparation of sweetmeats2 it is added sometimes as a condiment in bread-making4 ,there is a small export1 principally through ,egypt4 ,the percentage of oil extracted varies according to the locality where the seed has been produced4 ,of the local product1 that from ,paphos gives the highest yield1 viz4 #cj to #ce per cent42 but this is inferior to the ,egyptian product1 which is to some extent imported and yields #dj to #de per cent4 of oil1 this being probably due to the thinner skin4 ,the crop is uncertain4 ,the plant is readily affected by the hot west wind 7,greek3 libas7 which not infrequently blows during its period of growth4 ,the development of the seed is thereby checked and it remains thin and small 7,greek3 psalios71 and naturally the oil yield is diminished4 ,ground ,nut1 ,peanut or ,monkey ,nut 7,arachis hypoga7 ,this nut is fairly popular among all classes and is imported through ,egypt in moderate quantities4 ,there is no reason why in certain localities this plant should not be grown successfully1 more especially in the light sandy soils around ,varosha and at ,syrianochori4 ,efforts have been made to induce cultivators to grow this crop1 but so far it has not commended itself4 ,it calls for something a little out of the ordinary in the way of cultivation1 as the plants mature their fruits under the soil2 the profit to be derived from the crop is uncertain1 and is thought1 though without sufficient proof1 to compare unfavourably with rival crops4 ,growers have been somewhat deterred by the ease with which the fruit can be stolen4 ,as this is hidden under the soil1 a theft is not at once detected4 ,these drawbacks probably explain its restricted cultivation4 ,should oil-extracting machinery be introduced1 these nuts might well be grown for their oil1 both for culinary purposes and for use in soap-making4 ,the residuum1 after extraction of the oil1 and the haulm are nutritious cattle foods4 ,the importation of these nuts was recently prohibited except in a roasted condition1 owing to the risk of their introducing plant pests when in the raw1 earth-encrusted condition4 ,this has tended to check importation1 and may perhaps give an impetus to local production4 ,ground nuts can be grown1 of course1 only where irrigation is possible4 ,the quantity of ground nuts imported in #aiag was #a1ecb cwts41 valued at #b1ddh4 ,previous to that year they were not separately enumerated4 ,castor-oil ,seed ,the castor-oil plant 7,ricinus communis7 is only grown to a small extent1 but the tree usually thrives well and its cultivation might be extended with advantage4 ,according to ,gennadius1 ,dioscorides claimed that it used to be called ,seseli of ,cyprus1 from which the inference may be drawn that the plant has long been among the flora of the ,island1 where it is now known as a perennial4 ,it grows very freely from seed and rapidly attains a height of #ae or #af ft42 but it quickly dies back after a slight frost1 though it recovers again the following year4 ,it appears to do well in most soils1 but thrives best in light loam with moderate moisture4 ,owing to the demand for the oil1 one or two plantations have lately been made by the ,agricultural ,department4 ,the varieties locally grown include plants producing large1 medium and small-sized seed4 ,trial cultivations are being made to ascertain their relative values4 ,it is found that a heavier yield of better quality is usually obtained where the plant is treated as an annual and not as a perennial4 ,four samples of castor seed examined at the ,imperial ,institute were found to contain normal amounts of oil1 and similar seed would be readily saleable in the ,united ,kingdom if offered in commercial quantities 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xvii4 #aiai1 p4 #dib74 ,,fibres ,cotton ,during the time of the ,venetian occupation 7#adhi-aegj7 ,cyprus exported annually from seven to fifteen million pounds of raw cotton4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the ,english ,levant ,company sent large quantities from ,cyprus to ,england4 ,when the scarcity of cotton occasioned by the ,american ,civil ,war gave a stimulus to its growth ,cyprus took part in meeting the demand1 and in #ahff over #b1jjj1jjj lb4 were exported4 ,since then the production has declined4 ,in former times1 then1 the production of ,cyprus cotton must have been very large1 as cotton manufactures in the ,island were1 as in most cotton-producing countries in the ,east at that period1 both considerable and of choice quality4 ,cyprus was always distinguished for its cotton spinning4 ,gennadius suggests that the ,karpas1 which is one of the centres of the ,cyprus cotton manufacture1 derived its name from the ancient karpasos1 a fine cotton cloth which came from ,india4 ,there is an old ,hebrew word karpas found in the ,old ,testament1 and derived from the ,sanscrit karpasa1 cotton1 or karpasum1 cotton cloth4 ,during the ,turkish ,administration cotton cultivation declined1 owing to the destruction of aqueducts1 ,venetian wells1 etc41 and to the practice of taxing the cotton crop in the field before it was picked--a cause of considerable delay and detriment to the crop4 ,careless cultivation and consequent deterioration of the fibre as well as the general fall in value contributed to the decay of the industry4 ,taxing the crop in the field was abandoned in #ahij1 and a tithe was levied on exported cotton only 7,handbook of ,cyprus74 ,the species of cotton principally cultivated in the ,island is ,gossypium herbaceum4 ,american ,new ,orleans seed was introduced some twenty years or so ago1 and this has now largely displaced the original native kind2 in fact the native kind has almost entirely disappeared1 and what little is grown is mostly used for stuffing the native bed-quilt or paploma4 ,cotton grown without irrigation is known as dry cotton4 ,it is grown chiefly in the ,messaorian plain and in the ,karpas2 it is harsh to the touch and short in staple1 but of satisfactory colour4 ,wet cotton is grown on irrigated land2 it is usually of larger staple and of finer quality than the dry cotton and commands a higher price4 ,this is grown mainly round about ,kythrea1 ,nisou1 ,dali1 ,lapithos and in the ,solea valley4 ,native cotton is always grown dry2 the ordinary ,american variety is grown both wet and dry4 ,the ,karpas cotton1 which is dry grown1 is inferior not only on account of its shorter staple1 but on account of the method of picking4 ,in some places of ,messaoria1 at ,dali1 ,nisou1 etc41 the dry and sometimes the wet cotton is picked in the morning before the dew has quite evaporated1 and it is picked direct from the growing plant4 ,but the most general practice is for the villagers to cut the bolls early in the morning before the dew is evaporated 7,greek3 porn71 transport them to the houses and then remove the lint at their leisure4 ,in this way the bolls are more or less crushed and the lint when removed contains a mixture of husk1 leaves1 etc4 ,in the case of native and other varieties the lint of which adheres to the boll1 the husks1 leaves1 etc41 are removed from the bolls in the following way3 ,the bolls are spread out on mats to dry in the sun2 when sufficiently dry the bolls are put in a rotary sieve made of reeds and sticks1 similar in make to the ordinary reed baskets of the country4 ,each end of the sieve is closed1 but it has an opening in the middle1 about #a by #a-a_/b to #b ft41 which is closed by a small reed mat4 ,the sieve is about #e to #f ft4 long and #b to #b-a_/b ft4 in diameter4 ,the bolls are dropped into the sieve through the opening and it is then revolved by hand by means of an axle which passes through it longitudinally4 ,by this means most of the crushed husks and leaves fall through the interstices of the sieve4 ,the native seed is usually grown on dry lands as it withstands drought4 ,the wet cotton is mostly of the ,american variety4 ,professor ,wyndham ,dunstan1 ,f4,r4,s41 in his ,report on the ,agricultural ,resources of ,cyprus 7#aije71 referred to the successful trials made with ,sea ,island1 ,peterkin1 ,truitt's ,big ,boll1 ,culpepper ,big ,boll1 and ,allen's ,long ,staple4 ,since then other varieties have been tried by the ,agricultural ,department1 and while ,allen's and ,truitt's have continued to do well1 good results have been obtained from ,triumph and ,durango1 both of which are early kinds and are therefore very suitable to the ,island4 ,a report by the ,imperial ,institute on samples of ,allen's ,improved1 ,mebane's ,early ,triumph and ,sakellaridis cottons grown experimentally in ,cyprus in #aiae will be found in the ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute 7vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #bih74 ,owing to fear of locusts1 late sowing 7about ,may-,june7 became rather general4 ,this is a dangerous practice as the bolls ripen late and much cotton is spoilt by the early autumn rains4 ,it is mostly sown broadcast or in trenches2 on irrigated land it is mostly sown in the ridges1 but the older practice of sowing broadcast still1 unfortunately1 continues4 ,dry cotton is usually sown either on land which can be irrigated by a river when in flood1 or in livadhia or low-lying lands which retain their moisture a long time4 ,in the former case the seed is sown about ,march-,april1 while the soil is still damp from rain water or from river overflow4 ,it is generally expected that when the young plants are fairly established a second irrigation from flood-water may occur4 ,in the livadhia the seed is sown later4 ,wet cotton is watered about every fortnight4 ,the crop begins to be collected in mid-,september and continues up till the end of ,october4 ,dry cotton is rarely manured2 wet cotton occasionally4 ,the use of chemical manures is coming into practice4 ,there are several ginning machines in the ,island1 but baling by hydraulic presses is done almost exclusively at ,larnaca4 ,in the ,island the cotton seed is used for sowing and for feeding cattle4 ,the exports of cotton seed have been3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 #aiji #b1gjh #gfi #aiaj #c1jff #igj #aiaa #c1bde #hcj #aiab #ae1hgd #d1ece #aiac #ac1icc #c1gej ,the exports represent about three-fourths of the total production4 ,there should be a good opening for machinery for extracting the oil4 ,the cotton is locally graded into 7#a7 best1 7#b7 medium1 and 7#c7 poor1 all being ,american varieties4 ,the first quality is the wet or irrigated cotton4 ,the second quality is grown mostly in the ,messaoria plain and at ,dali1 ,nisou1 ,potamia1 ,kythrea1 where it is partly irrigated by river floods4 ,the third quality is dry and comes principally from the ,karpas4 ,on the ,marseilles market the second quality has a value #c to #d per cent41 and the third quality #h to #aj per cent4 less than the first quality4 ,the first quality ranks in price at ,marseilles on about a level with ,american cotton4 ,for some ten years ,greece has taken the leading place as an importer4 ,before the war1 ,cyprus cotton went chiefly to ,marseilles and ,greece1 some also to ,trieste4 ,only a very insignificant quantity goes to ,england4 ,the freight to ,marseilles was about #bes4 per ton1 to ,trieste about #aes4 per ton1 while to ,england it averaged #ejs4 per ton4 ,the market prices at ,marseilles and ,trieste were approximately the same1 but at ,marseilles they were subject to a discount of #a-a_/b per cent41 whereas at ,trieste a discount of #c to #d per cent4 was made4 ,the ,trieste market1 being small1 was subject to sudden fluctuations and was therefore risky and less favoured by ,cypriot exporters4 ,for several reasons the ,liverpool market has not been so attractive as that of ,marseilles4 ,at ,liverpool and ,manchester quantities of not less than1 say1 #ajj bales are preferred1 whereas ,marseilles would take smaller consignments of #bj or #dj bales4 ,uniformity of type is required by ,manchester spinners1 whereas the ,french factories are more ready to handle different types1 including the shorter staples4 ,cyprus merchants make no distinction as regards the varieties of cotton1 whether ,orleans1 ,sea ,island or other kinds1 and indeed they are scarcely competent to do so1 as this requires special knowledge and experience4 ,they buy in small quantities from many peasant growers and mix the produce in order to make up a fair consignment4 ,in normal times there was always the further difficulty of obtaining direct transport to ,england1 whereas to ,marseilles1 ,trieste and also to ,greece the opportunities were more frequent4 ,since the war ,greece has become much the largest buyer4 ,owing to shortage of cotton on the ,greek market this commodity was purchased from ,cyprus rather than from ,liverpool1 as the freight was lower and war risks much less2 apart from the almost impossibility of obtaining tonnage4 ,it was the practice before the war for ,cypriot merchants to sell c4i4f4 ,pirus1 but they could not continue this under recent conditions and now sell f4o4b4 ,cyprus1 and this practice is likely to continue4 ,this f4o4b4 ,cyprus price has lately been about the same as would ordinarily be obtained for c4i4f4 ,liverpool4 ,greece has many small filatures willing to take consignments of even #aj bales1 and the shipment direct or via ,alexandria is easier4 ,a ,cyprus bale weighs about #aej okes4 ,the following figures1 showing average annual exports of raw cotton at various pre-war periods1 indicate the course of the cultivation3 ,period4 ,average ,quantity4 ,average ,value4 ,cwts4 #ahhj-hi 4 4 4 #fh1daj #adg1fhc #ahij-ii 4 4 4 #eg1bia #ia1hab #aijj-ji 4 4 4 #da1aba #ib1ici #aiaj-ag 4 4 4 #fh1chd #bac1bge ,prices have varied1 as is shown by the values of the following record years3 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,average price4 ,cwts4 #ahhe 7highest export on record7 #ad1bgf #bi1efg #b #a #e #ahhf 7#bnd ditto7 4 4 4 #ac1hhg #bf1ece #a #af #aa #aiab 7#crd ditto7 4 4 4 #ac1hjh #dj1jhe #b #ah #j #aiac 7#dth ditto7 4 4 4 #ac1ddd #dj1fic #c #j #f #ahhd 7#eth ditto7 4 4 4 #ab1bbg #bf1hgd #b #c #a ,in #aiag there were #ac1fhe donums under cotton cultivation4 ,it is usual in some parts of the ,island1 especially in the ,kyrenia district1 to leave the crop in the ground for two or three years4 ,this method of cropping is locally known as palia or old4 ,it is found profitable to leave the cotton plants two or three years on irrigated land4 ,the second-year crop usually gives the heaviest yield4 ,the average yield of unginned cotton on irrigated land is about #abj okes 7#c cwts47 per scala2 but as much as #bej okes can be obtained4 ,wet cotton1 best quality1 yields #a oke of lint from #c okes of unginned cotton1 and dry cotton yields about #a oke of lint from #c-a_/c okes of unginned cotton4 ,there is much land well suited to cotton which for lack of water cannot be utilised4 ,if artesian water could be found1 there would be a very considerable extension of this cultivation4 ,there is a well-equipped little cotton factory at ,famagusta1 and excellent cotton fabrics are made1 especially in ,nicosia neighbourhood1 ,lapithos and ,karavas1 ,lefkonico and ,gypsos and in the ,karpas4 ,these are known under the names of alaja and dimita4 ,they are mostly of good patterns1 the material is strong and wears well1 and is being largely used1 not only by the peasantry1 but also for making men's suits and ladies' skirts and cloths4 ,an interesting article on the ,cyprus ,cotton ,industry is to be found in the ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 iii4 #aije1 pp4 #cbg-ccd4 ,flax and ,linseed ,the cultivation of flax 7,linum usitatissimum71 which began to develop some twenty years ago1 has declined during the last ten years or so4 ,the reasons for this are that it is considered to exhaust the soil1 the later handling of the crop for fibre is troublesome and the market is liable to rather violent fluctuations4 ,it grows well in the ,messaoria plain1 and when chemical manures are more generally used it may come more into favour4 ,attempts have been made to improve the quality by the introduction of ,riga flax seed1 but so far without success4 ,there is a small export of linseed1 but owing to the primitive methods of winnowing and cleaning it does not fetch the best price4 ,the quality of the cleaned seed is excellent4 ,knowledge and care are needed in picking the crop at exactly the right time4 ,the imperfect methods of general cultivation prevent the uniform ripening of the seed1 and this means an uneven and unsatisfactory sample4 ,defective screening accounts for the presence in excess of foreign substances1 weed seeds1 etc4 ,these difficulties are capable of remedy1 and it may reasonably be hoped that when once overcome the cultivation will be extended4 ,in ,cyprus the cultivation is the same whether intended for seed or fibre1 and consequently the latter is of an inferior quality1 as is indicated in a report on ,cyprus flax published in the ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute 7vol4 vi4 #aijh1 p4 #d74 ,seed is sown in ,november-,december at the rate of #ag to #bb okes per donum4 ,retting is done by steeping in the large stone irrigation tanks which are a feature on most farms4 ,in the ,messaoria1 about ,ano and ,kato ,zodia1 where flax is commonly grown1 the plant is retted in the river ,ovgos1 which retains sufficient water usually until ,august4 ,the yield per donum varies from #ajj to #cjj okes of seed1 #hj to #ajj okes of fibre and #ej to #gj okes of tow4 ,wool ,the exports of wool for the three last pre-war years were as follows3 ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 #aiaa 4 4 4 4 #e1ece #ac1deb #aiab 4 4 4 4 #d1fbg #aa1cfb #aiac 4 4 4 4 #d1gjg #ab1aha ,this went chiefly to ,france1 and next1 though in much smaller quantities1 to ,italy4 ,the wool is of moderate quality2 this is partly due to the breed of sheep and partly to the conditions under which they are kept4 ,attempts have been made by the ,agricultural ,department to impress on the native breeders the necessity of keeping the sheep well fed1 and experiments have been carried out at the ,athalassa ,experimental ,farm for the purpose of demonstrating the advantages of careful rearing4 ,two fleeces from the ,athalassa ,farm were sent to the ,imperial ,institute in ,may #aiab1 for examination and commercial valuation4 ,one was the fleece of a yearling ram4 ,this was clean1 fairly soft and almost white4 ,the other was the fleece of a yearling ewe4 ,this was clean1 slightly harsh and almost white1 but was slightly coarser than that of the ram4 ,these fleeces were considered by a firm of ,london brokers as an excellent class of carpet wool and likely to meet always with a ready sale in the ,london market 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 x4 #aiab1 p4 #ecg74 ,a similar opinion was expressed immediately before the war 7,july #aiad7 by a ,london firm to whom two bales of ,cyprus wool had been sent1 of which a part had been purchased in the bazaar and washed and trimmed by the ,department and part came from the ,athalassa 7,government7 flock4 ,it was considered as an ideal wool for carpet making or for blankets1 but deficient in lustre for braids4 ,the actual yield per sheep1 viz4 #c to #c-a_/b lb41 compares unfavourably with that of ,lincolns1 which they most closely resemble4 ,this is due partly to breed1 but largely also to the conditions under which the sheep are kept 7see p4 #ag74 ,hemp ,the cultivation of hemp 7,cannabis sativa7 is practically confined to the southern part of the ,paphos district1 and there only in places where the water-supply is ample4 ,the plant is grown only for fibre1 which is exclusively used for rope-making1 which is carried out by hand by the villagers round about ,ktima4 ,it would be of advantage to have a rope-making machine at work at a spot centrally situated in the area of production4 ,a simple hand-worked machine is now being experimentally used and will1 it is believed1 turn out a better class of rope4 ,the plant grows well on fertile and irrigated lands4 ,farmyard manure1 and specially sheep manure1 are generally applied1 and chemical fertilisers are now also coming into use4 ,harvesting takes place when the plants begin to turn pale4 ,the plants are uprooted1 not cut1 and are made up into sheaves tied together at the butt end only4 ,the bundles are not more than #b-a_/b spans round1 and of equal size4 ,when first uprooted the sheaves are placed flat on the field in rows to dry and in such zig-zag fashion that the top end of one sheaf is always made to rest on the butt end of another1 and thus does not come into contact with the ground3 this ensures the circulation of air and hastens the drying process4 ,the sheaves are taken later to the threshing-floors1 where they are stood upright until they are dry4 ,the seed is separated by beating4 ,the sheaves are exposed to the sun until the leaves are shed1 and when the stems are entirely dry the bundles are tied up at both ends and are taken to the retting-place1 which is usually the common stone tank or cistern of the country4 ,there they are steeped in water for six to nine days4 ,the bundles are generally covered by about one foot of water4 ,on the sixth day the fibre is tested4 ,if it separates easily the bundles are removed1 if not they remain for another two or three days4 ,this requires much care and experience1 as the quality depends largely upon effective retting4 ,then they are taken out of the water and sun-dried1 being piled up into pointed shooks1 left hollow in the centre4 ,the fibre is separated by means of a wooden implement locally called melidjia4 ,this consists of a wooden trough placed on two legs which are fixed in the ground4 ,a wedge-shaped piece of wood which is hinged to the trough at one end is used as the beater4 ,the hemp stalks1 after the butts are cut off1 are placed in the trough and the beater worked up and down so as to split the stalks and lay bare the fibre4 ,the average production of fibre per scala is #fj to #hj okes1 but where conditions are all favourable it may reach #afj to #bjj okes and the seed yield may be anything from #hj to #bjj okes per scala4 ,silk ,the silkworm 7,bombyx mori7 finds in ,cyprus a climate exceptionally favourable to its development1 and ,cyprus silks have been famous for their quality throughout the middle ages and as far back as the sixth century ,a4,d41 when ,greek monks first introduced silkworms from ,china4 ,in the fateful year #ahde1 when the disease pebrine nearly destroyed the silk industry of ,europe1 the anxious search for healthy silkworm eggs that then ensued led ,arabs from ,syria to visit ,cyprus and buy large quantities of silk cocoons from which they raised and exported the eggs4 ,at that time1 therefore1 it is evident that ,cypriot moths were well thought of4 ,pebrine soon reached ,cyprus and almost brought the ,island breed to an end4 ,thanks1 however1 to the ,pasteur system1 whereby pebrine and other silkworm diseases have been brought under complete control1 the industry both here and elsewhere was not only saved but has been considerably developed4 ,writing in #ahif ,mr4 ,p4 ,gennadius1 late ,director of ,agriculture1 ,cyprus1 stated that the local production of silkworm eggs was so small that it could not be taken into consideration1 and from the figures then given the total average annual production at that time is estimated to have been #ce1jjj okes of dry cocoons4 ,this represented an average yield of only #c-a_/b okes of dry cocoons1 equal to #ae-a_/b kilograms of fresh cocoons1 per ounce of silkworm eggs4 ,this compared very unfavourably with the average annual production of fresh cocoons in ,france and ,italy at that time1 which was #ce kilograms and #cj kilograms respectively per ounce of silkworm eggs4 ,moreover1 this ratio had been1 up to that period1 on a descending scale4 ,in a report published in #ahig ,mr4 ,gennadius attributed this unsatisfactory state of things to the following causes3 #a4 ,the importation of cheap silkworm eggs of inferior quality2 the average price paid by merchants was #b to #b-a_/b francs per ounce1 while the price in ,france ranged from #i to #ab francs4 #b4 ,the action of merchants who imported larger quantities of eggs than they could properly dispose of4 #c4 ,the ignorance and folly of rearers who undertook to rear far more worms than they could properly educate1 having regard to space1 leaves and labour4 ,in #aijh the ,department of ,agriculture set to work1 with some success1 to improve the methods of rearing up to that time in vogue1 and during the six years ending #aiac 7inclusive7 the average annual quantity of eggs hatched out was #ab1cai oz41 the average annual export of dry cocoons was #de1eea okes1 and the average annual estimated local consumption #d1ddi okes1 making a total annual production of #ej1jjj okes1 as against #ce1jjj okes in #ahif4 ,the former total represents an average yield of about #d okes of dry cocoons1 equal to about #ah kilograms of fresh cocoons per ounce of seed1 and marks a slight improvement upon the ratio of eighteen years previously4 ,since #aiad this branch of work has received a larger share of attention from the ,department4 ,five sericultural stations have been established1 regulations have been issued1 inspections by qualified persons have been systematically made1 practical advice has been given to rearers in the matter of cleanliness1 disinfection and so forth1 the granting of licences to egg-raisers has been put on a better footing and the whole industry has been brought more under observation and control4 ,numerous suggestions have been made from time to time for insuring that only a good quality of egg shall be imported4 ,as an effective--perhaps the most effective--means to this end1 the ,department of ,agriculture has set itself to improve the production of local eggs and thus indirectly discourage their importation3 holders of licences to raise eggs are required to pass periodical examinations2 several have in consequence had their licences cancelled1 new licensees have been added1 and many unlicensed persons have been prosecuted and convicted for illegally raising eggs4 ,the common method of hatching practised by villagers1 by placing the eggs tied in cloth with a little cotton-wool in their beds or by carrying them on their persons1 still prevails1 but it is gradually yielding to a better system of incubation4 ,the ,department has designed a simple1 inexpensive hatching-box1 and these are now being used with good results4 ,until about three years ago probably #be per cent4 of the local rearers were producing their own seed without any microscopical examination at all4 ,bad feeding1 bad ventilation1 ill-adapted premises were general4 ,as a consequence pebrine and flacherie played such havoc that many people were beginning to abandon silkworm rearing and uproot their mulberry trees4 ,the expansion and increased resources of the ,agricultural ,department happily came just in time to check this backward move4 ,silk reeling is unfortunately done in the most primitive manner with wooden appliances and hot water by village hand labour4 ,the locally reeled silk is used only for ,island consumption and the great bulk of cocoons is exported in the raw state1 mostly to ,lyons and ,milan4 ,the burden of freight on this bulky cargo is naturally a heavy handicap and the local silkworm rearers have consequently to be content with very low and inadequate prices for their cocoons4 ,during the reeling process #bj to #be per cent4 of the silk is lost1 and a further loss is incurred during weaving owing to the numerous knots having to be cut away and the silk threads rejoined4 ,a considerable loss is said to take place in selling cocoons in the ,european markets4 ,the cocoons on arrival at ,marseilles are subjected to official tests and sold according to the reports made by the official testers4 ,it is of advantage to the buyers that the report should be made as unfavourable as possible as the price is lowered proportionately1 and it is felt that the cocoons exported are thus placed too much at the mercy of the testing officials4 ,these ,cyprus cocoons are reeled in ,france and ,italy and the silk is largely sold to ,england4 ,it would be to the mutual benefit of ,england and ,cyprus if a direct demand for ,cyprus reeled silk could be created and modern reeling plant introduced into the ,island4 ,a large sum of money1 now annually paid for freight1 would thus be saved to the ,cypriot producers1 which would stimulate the local industry and tend to increase greatly the annual production and improve the local weaving of silk stuffs1 an industry which has already gained considerable fame and at which the ,cypriot women are adepts4 ,as the following table shows1 the amount of raw silk exported is a negligible quantity1 but a fairly large quantity is locally reeled and is used in making the silk stuffs which are so much sought after in the local bazaars3 ,export of cocoons4 ,export of ,export of raw silk cocoons waste4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,year4,okes4,country4,okes4,country4,oke s4,country4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aiji #da1jac ,france #b1abj ,france #f ,turkey #aiaj #dd1eej #a1aje #bei #aeg ,egypt #aiaa #eg1dbb #b1gjd #bdf ,turkey #gj ,egypt #aiab #dc1aif #b1ega #ij ,turkey #gj ,turkey #c ,greece #aiac #dh1hhd #b1ejb ,france #aah ,turkey ,efforts have been made by the ,agricultural ,department to improve the ,cypriot race of silkworms4 ,two races of white colour1 the ,japanese and the ,baghdad1 have been separately crossed with the yellow race of ,baghdad4 ,these crossings began in #aiab-ac and have been continued up to the present4 ,the objects aimed at are to establish a new ,cypriot race 7a7 giving good cocoons of a fine structure and larger in size than the ,french variety and yielding a maximum quantity of silk2 7b7 producing cocoons of a uniform colour and in demand in the ,european market and 7c7 with these characteristics constant4 ,the results obtained so far are promising1 but uniformity of colour has not yet been attained1 though it is hoped that1 by careful selection1 this will become more fixed every year4 ,it may here be mentioned that the famous ,french cream-coloured race took seventy-five years to become fully established owing to the widespread damage caused by pebrine and1 to a lesser extent1 by flacherie4 ,it has been observed that silkworm eggs locally produced by qualified licensees are decidedly more immune to disease and less affected by adverse atmospheric conditions than imported seed4 ,the local conditions of sericulture in ,cyprus have undergone a change of late years4 ,formerly ,nicosia and ,famagusta were the districts where this industry was chiefly carried on2 but latterly whole mulberry groves have been uprooted and replaced by fruit trees which are considered to be more profitable4 ,this was the inevitable result of the ignorant methods under which the silkworm-rearing industry was conducted and the use of bad seed permitted1 whereby disease was spread and annual loss incurred4 ,it is hoped that the industry is now again on the upward grade4 ,one indication of this is that whereas a few years ago #a1jjj to #a1hjj cocoons went to an oke1 now the figure may be put at #ejj to #a1jjj4 ,again1 the waste due to excess of floss is much less than formerly1 and if only reeling by machinery can be introduced a very much better return will result to the cocoon producer4 ,in the ,karpas and in and around ,nicosia a bi-voltine race is reared4 ,the results are poor1 but the two rearings are made because in these localities there is an ample supply of leaves4 ,from this race are produced small cocoons locally called ,confetti4 ,they are only used for local silk manufacture4 ,an inferior silk called ,koukoularika is made from the cocoons of the ordinary or univoltine race1 both those which have been stoved and those which have been badly stained when the moths emerged4 ,these cocoons1 which1 during the process of boiling in lye1 have been bleached1 are turned inside-out and the excrement of the larva removed4 ,the silk is then spun by hand with the atrachtos4 ,these cocoons are mostly from laggard worms and of inferior quality4 ,the silk industry has suffered greatly from unscrupulous dealing on the part of the dealers in eggs4 ,it is a common custom for these persons to sell imported seed at #bs4 and even less per ounce1 although the law requires all such seed to be accompanied by a ,consular certificate and affidavit showing that the price paid was not less than #ds4 per ounce1 exclusive of freight1 carriage or insurance4 ,secret discounts1 presumably1 render this practice possible4 ,the dealer does not ask for payment in cash1 but requires it in kind at the rate of #a oke in every #d okes of cocoons raised4 ,if #bh okes of cocoons are obtained from #a ounce of seed the dealer would get #g okes1 valued at say #bs4 #f;d4 per oke #ags4 #f;d4 for each ounce of seed4 ,the dealer mostly gives a cash advance of #ajs4 or #a with the seed1 stipulating that the crop is to be sold exclusively to him1 the price being left open4 ,the unfortunate producer is therefore in his toils4 ,the establishment of small ,sericultural ,societies would do much1 both to encourage and cheapen the cost of growing mulberry trees and assist the industry4 ,a few such societies have lately been formed4 ,mulberry ,this tree 7,morus alba7 is grown extensively for silkworm feeding and is mostly found in those parts of the ,island in which the silk industry is centred1 viz4 in the ,marathassa valley and in the ,karpas1 fairly generally in and around ,nicosia1 ,kyrenia and in the southern parts of the ,paphos district4 ,little care is given to its cultivation4 ,for the most part1 in all the older plantations1 the trees are set too close together4 ,this is less noticeable in the newer plantations4 ,pruning1 where given1 is defective and so is the method of gathering the leaves4 ,the usual method is to cut off1 every year1 the shoots with the leaves on them1 from about one foot above the main branches4 ,two reasons are given for this by villagers4 7#a7 ,it is quicker and easier to cut off these shoots than to pick off the leaves while still on the tree4 ,the shoots are brought into the magnanerie and there placed upright in water and the leaves can then be removed more conveniently and at leisure4 ,in this way the leaves remain fresh two days4 7#b7 ,by cutting these shoots in the spring1 i4e4 during the silkworm-rearing season1 which begins in early ,april1 fresh shoots are formed which bear leaves in late summer and autumn4 ,the latter afford very welcome green food for cattle and sheep4 ,these leaves are stripped direct from the growing tree4 ,the effect of this second gathering is prejudicial to the tree1 which is thereby exhausted4 ,the leaves produced the following spring are fleshy and watery and in the uncertain weather of spring are apt to induce flacherie4 ,agaves and ,aloes ,agave americana1 ,a4 rigida var4 sisalana1 ,furcra gigantea1 ,aloe ciliata and ,a4 frutescens all grow well and1 if properly cultivated and handled1 might be worth more attention than they at present receive4 ,in #aiac a ,cypriot from ,german ,east ,africa who had been engaged in the production of ,sisal hemp there was struck by the few excellent plants he found growing in ,cyprus1 and1 had sufficient suitable land been then obtainable1 with transport facilities1 was desirous of undertaking cultivation on a commercial basis4 ,samples of fibre prepared from the leaves of the abovementioned plants were reported on by the ,imperial ,institute in #aiab1 but as the leaves had been retted1 and not scraped or scutched1 their value was depreciated1 and this was estimated at from #ad to #ah per ton with best ,mexican ,sisal hemp at #be per ton4 ,the outlay for fencing against wandering flocks of goats and for decorticating machinery and other expenses would deter the ordinary cultivator from planting1 and this could only be profitably undertaken if ample capital were forthcoming4 ,broom ,corn ,until the end of last century all brooms of ,european type were imported4 ,seed of broom corn 7,sorghum vulgare71 known locally as tchihri or skoupa1 was then introduced1 and gradually the cultivation has extended and a good number of brooms of very fair quality are now locally made4 ,the process of broom-making is very simple and the high price of the imported article during the war has led to a marked extension of the industry4 ,the plant grows well1 especially on irrigated land4 ,the seed provides a good food for chickens and the stalks and leaves can be used as fodder4 ,it is a profitable crop1 especially when the cultivator makes and sells the brooms himself1 and is principally grown in the ,karpas and at ,athienou4 ,,tobacco ,in ,turkish times tobacco was grown in several parts of the ,island1 though not to any large extent4 ,for centuries it was produced in many districts of the ,island1 and particularly in the ,karpas1 near ,kilani1 ,omodhos and ,paphos1 but from the time it became an article of monopoly its production was subjected to rigorous restrictions1 and its cultivation has been entirely abandoned4 7,reports1 pt4 ii4 7#ahif71 ,p4 ,gennadius74 ,the quantity grown before the occupation appears to have been very fluctuating and to have averaged about #ef1jjj lb4 annually1 and the ,government revenue1 according to ,british ,consular reports1 would not have been more than #cjj to #djj per annum4 ,the ,rgie was introduced in #ahgd1 but owing to the hampering restrictions the industry had been pretty well crushed out by the time of ,british occupation in #ahgh4 ,meanwhile the revenue from tobacco1 imported mainly from ,volo and ,salonica1 increased greatly4 ,the monopoly ceased at the ,british occupation1 but the regulations and imposts remained4 ,those responsible for controlling the industry1 collecting dues1 and checking illicit consumption had a troublesome task1 while on the other hand the cultivator became averse to engaging in a cultivation which was hedged round with so many restrictions and formalities4 ,these exist at the present time and may here be quoted3 ,the grower has to notify the ,customs authorities of his intention to sow1 giving the locality and area4 ,before picking he must again notify the ,customs1 so that a ,customs officer may be present at the picking and weigh the freshly picked leaves4 ,after storing1 but before delivering the tobacco to the factory1 the ,customs officer must again weigh the now dry leaves4 ,the excise duties leviable are3 ,tobacco leaf1 #d-a_/b;cp4 per oke1 payable on transfer of leaf from grower to wholesale dealer4 ,tobacco manufactured in ,cyprus1 whether made into cigarettes or otherwise1 in addition to the import duty or transport duty1 pays a banderolle duty of #cs4 #f-a_/b;cp4 per oke4 ,these regulations are a relic of the ,turkish times1 as in those days the ,state received a definite due called ,city ,toll by charging the tobacco cutters and tobacco sellers with a trade tax4 ,they appear to have been administered with more laxity in ,turkish than in post-occupation times1 and it is said that the abandonment of tobacco cultivation was mainly due to the severity with which these rather vexatious and irritating regulations were enforced4 ,for many years the tobacco imported by local cigarette manufacturers came almost entirely from ,macedonia4 ,this tobacco was of very superior quality and cheap1 and locally grown tobacco could not compete with it4 ,of late years the price of ,macedonian tobacco has risen considerably and the manufacturers have therefore been induced to import ,thessalian tobacco instead1 which is not of so fine a flavour and approximates more closely to ,cyprus produce4 ,cypriot smokers have thus had their palates prepared for the flavour of the locally grown tobacco4 ,about the year #aiab1 when ,houry's ,cyprus ,tobacco ,association1 ,ltd41 was formed1 a revival in the industry set in4 ,this has since received considerable impetus from the war1 which1 temporarily1 has thrust ,macedonian tobacco out of the market4 ,the primary object of the ,association was to manufacture tobacco and cigarettes from ,cyprus-grown tobacco1 although foreign tobacco could also be used4 ,tobacco then began to be regularly grown by the ,association at a ,chiftlik near ,limassol and elsewhere1 and cigarettes made therefrom have had a fair local sale4 ,the arrival of well-to-do refugees from ,latakia and other parts of ,syria1 skilled in tobacco cultivation1 led to great extension of this crop4 ,a large part of the produce was at first converted into ,latakia tobacco4 ,owing possibly to the lack of care and skill on the part of native labour1 partly perhaps to the unsuitability of the herbs and brushwood used in the fuming1 the market was not found sufficiently encouraging and the ,latakia1 for which at best there is a very restricted market1 has almost ceased to be produced4 ,tobacco for cigarettes1 however1 continues to be grown on a fairly large scale1 but in order that land suitable for corn and other foodstuffs should not be sacrificed to tobacco1 the cultivation of the latter is permitted only by special licence4 ,in #aiaf and #aiag the industry fell almost entirely into the hands of the richer refugees1 who were expert growers1 and they contracted with the small farmers and peasants4 ,a number of speculative growers1 professional men1 merchants1 etc41 were tempted by the prevailing high prices to embark in the industry1 but the licensing system has tended to throw it more into the hands of the bona-fide farmers1 who are allowed only to cultivate small areas which can be looked after mainly by their own families4 ,in #aiaf the total production was #hi1jfe okes1 and the estimated yield for #aiag is #dhg1fgd okes4 ,the ,agricultural ,department has for some five years carried out experimental growings in various districts1 and samples of tobacco so grown have been submitted to the ,imperial ,institute 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xiii4 #aiae1 pp4 #edg-eej74 ,the two best samples reported on were grown in the ,nicosia plain4 ,they were said to conform with the ,turkish tobacco as regards size of leaf1 but contained too much moisture for the ,english market4 ,the tobacco was found to smoke rather hot and was only mildly aromatic1 but it was believed that these defects would probably disappear with more experience in the curing4 ,the samples referred to were incompletely cured1 having been submitted quickly in order to roughly ascertain their quality4 ,the report on the whole was moderately encouraging1 and it is hoped that later samples which have been better cured will be found superior4 ,the tobacco grown in ,cyprus is mostly of the ,samsoun1 ,trebizond1 ,kavalla and ,hassan ,keff varieties4 ,the normal importation of tobacco into ,cyprus is about #ahj1jjj okes1 which produces an import duty of #d1ejj a year1 at the rate of #d-a_/b;cp4 per oke4 ,the average amount paid for banderolles on tobacco when issued from factories for consumption is about #cj1jjj a year1 which at the rate of #cs4 #f-a_/b;cp4 per oke equals a banderolle duty on #afa1jjj okes2 the difference of about #bj1jjj okes would be cigarettes exported on which no banderolle duty is paid4 ,if1 then1 no tobacco were grown and none imported the ,government would lose #ce1jjj revenue annually4 ,it would appear to be immaterial from a revenue point of view whether tobacco were imported or grown in the ,island1 since the imposts are the same1 viz4 on imports #d-a_/b;cp4 per oke import duty and #cs4 #f-a_/b;cp4 per oke banderolle duty2 on locally grown tobacco #d-a_/b;cp4 per oke transport duty and #cs4 #f-a_/b;cp4 per oke banderolle duty4 ,there is1 however1 this difference1 that the money leaves the ,island when the tobacco is imported and remains and fructifies when it is locally grown4 ,tobacco cultivation is in many ways well suited to this ,island1 as a great part of its cultivation as well as the gathering may be done by women and children4 ,it need not therefore make any serious demand upon man labour1 which is already insufficient1 and much of the work can be performed by those who are unfit for heavy field work4 ,it is a summer crop1 which is greatly in its favour1 the quality when grown dry being much finer than when irrigated4 ,its introduction broadens the basis of cultivation1 provides a revenue from land that would otherwise lie fallow and is a useful element in any system of rotation4 ,as it calls for careful preparation and thorough cultivation of the soil it has a great educative influence on a people prone to slovenly1 primitive husbandry1 and corn crops following tobacco have frequently given a larger1 more uniform yield4 ,at the same time it is an open question whether the crop can be grown and the leaf cured by the ,cypriot farmer to produce a tobacco which1 under normal conditions1 will successfully compete in quality and price with the ,macedonian tobacco4 ,,tanning ,,materials ,,and ,,dye-,,stuffs ,tanneries are fairly numerous and large quantities of skins are tanned and sold to native boot-makers4 ,before the war1 goat- and sheep-skins and ox-hides were practically the only kinds handled1 the two former being mainly used for the uppers of boots4 ,the top-boots worn by villagers are nearly all made from goat-skin1 locally called totmaria4 ,since the war pig-skins and dog-skins have been also used4 ,camel-skins are often employed for making soles4 ,pine bark and sumach are the native tanning substances chiefly used in the local tanneries4 ,the pine is one of the commonest forest trees of the ,island4 ,shinia leaves 7,pistacia ,lentiscus7 are also used 7see p4 #ea74 ,sumach ,the ,sicilian1 elm-leaved or tanner's sumach 7,rhus ,coriaria7 is a shrub which grows wild throughout a large part of the ,island1 being principally found among the vineyards on the slopes of the southern range of hills4 ,the leaves are largely used in the leather tanning industry1 and a considerable export might have been established to the ,united ,kingdom had it not been for dissatisfaction caused by the excessive presence of impurities1 such as lentisc leaves and dust1 which were usually found in the consignments sent4 ,one sample was sent by the ,agricultural ,department to the ,imperial ,institute in #aiji4 ,this was found to consist wholly of sumach and no lentisc or other leaves1 and gave on examination the following results3 ,moisture1 #aj4a2 ash1 #i4h2 tannin 7by hide-power method71 #bf4i2 extractive matter 7non-tannin71 #af4g per cent4 ,the report showed that the leaves produced a good leather1 similar in texture and colour to that obtained with ,sicilian sumach1 and was considered likely to fetch about the same price as a medium quality of ,sicilian sumach1 which contains from #be to #cj per cent4 of tannin 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 x4 #aiab1 p4 #de74 ,two further samples were sent in #aiaf4 ,the first sample consisted of a finely-ground yellowish-green powder1 containing a quantity of sand1 small stones and iron dust4 ,the second sample consisted of a coarsely-ground1 yellowish-green powder1 containing a quantity of pinkish unground twigs1 sand and small stones1 together with some iron dust4 ,the results of examination were as follows3 ,,no4 #a4 ,,no4 #b4 ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,moisture #i4c #i4b ,insoluble matters #ec4f #eg4h ,extractive matters 7non-tannin7 #ad4f #ac4j ,tannin #bb4e #bj4j ,ash #h4e #ab4c ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,tintometer readings--,red #j4g #a4b ,yellow #b4a #b4e ,both samples were low in tannin1 compared with the ,sicilian percentage of #be to #cj4 ,sample ,no4 #a was valued at #ac1 and ,no4 #b at #ab1 per ton1 with ,sicilian sumach at #ae per ton2 the lower value being due to the lower tannin contents1 owing to the presence of sand1 dirt1 etc4 ,it may be assumed that if more care in preparing clean samples were taken1 ,cyprus sumach would greatly improve its market value4 ,valonea ,there are a few well-grown specimens of valonea oak 7,quercus gilops7 to be seen1 but being a slow grower and as it takes many years to reach the stage when it yields a profit1 it does not commend itself to the ,cypriot tree planter4 ,it prefers deep soil and requires artificial irrigation or a greater rainfall than we have in ,cyprus4 ,it has been tried at ,salamis and failed1 and also at ,machaera with the same result4 ,it has been grown also on ,trodos1 but after six years' growth attained a height of only #a foot4 ,only an insignificant quantity of ,valonea cups are locally produced4 ,these come from the ,paphos district and are said to be rather poor in tannin4 ,the bulk comes from ,anatolia4 ,the pre-war price for the latter was #es4 per cantar of #dd okes1 that for the locally grown was #bj paras per oke on the spot1 transport charges bringing up the price to about #a copper piastre per oke delivered4 ,acacia ,barks ,acacia pycnantha has been grown in ,cyprus1 but does not acclimatise well1 and neither the soil nor climate seems favourable4 ,a4 mollissima also has not shown any very successful growth4 ,a4 cyanophylla and ,a4 longifolia1 on the other hand1 thrive excellently4 ,they are great drought-resisters and grow on almost any soil4 ,they have been very extensively grown by the ,forest ,department in every district for fuel and along the coast upon sand dunes4 ,they have not been utilised so far for the extraction of tanning1 except experimentally4 ,samples of the barks of the two last-named species were found on examination at the ,imperial ,institute to be too poor in tannin to be worth exporting1 but they should be quite suitable for use in ,cyprus 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xi4 #aiac1 pp4 #dab-dad74 ,madder ,in former years1 and within the period of the ,british occupation1 the cultivation of madder 7,rubia tinctorum7 was fairly flourishing in ,cyprus4 ,the old madder grounds can still be distinguished1 and are mostly to be seen near ,morphou1 ,ayia ,irini1 ,sotira1 ,ayios ,serghios1 ,famagusta and ,larnaca4 ,these madder grounds were excavations made in order to expose the soil lying beneath #aj to #cj ft4 of drift-sand2 and they form1 as it were1 a series of tanks along the shore4 ,the red dye obtained from the dried and ground madder roots constituted at one time one of the most valued of dye-stuffs1 and was in special demand for military uniforms2 but this has been entirely superseded by artificial coal-tar derivatives and1 as ,gennadius says3 ,the happy days of the cultivation of this plant are past1 never to return4 ,it is propagated mostly by root cuttings4 ,the leaf begins to dry at about the sixth month4 ,there is no further growth above ground1 but the roots continue to increase and shoot downwards till moisture affects them4 ,when they get too wet1 they become black or rot4 ,in ,cyprus this rotting would often begin after about eighteen months1 while in superior soils the roots would continue to improve during thirty-six months1 and they would be known in the trade as eighteen months and thirty-six months roots4 ,in ,famagusta district they remain mostly eighteen months1 while at ,morphou they would continue fully thirty-six months1 during the whole of which time the surface ground should be kept free of weeds4 ,after the root is lifted it is generally dried2 if packed before quite dry1 it ferments and deteriorates4 ,two and a half tons of dried roots would be produced from an acre of good ground1 and the madder grounds used to fetch a very high price4 ,,drugs ,,and ,,other ,,products ,liquorice ,root ,the liquorice plant 7,glycyrrhiza glabra1 ,linn47 grows mainly in the ,famagusta and ,kyrenia districts1 and the roots are collected and exported from time to time4 ,two samples were reported upon in #aiag by the ,imperial ,institute 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cab7 and the following opinions of two ,london firms of brokers were elicited4 7a7 ,one firm described the ,lapithos 7,kyrenia district7 roots as medium to bold unpeeled roots of good flavour1 fairly well cleaned and very well dried2 and valued them at from #ejs4 to #ees4 per cwt4 ex wharf1 ,london 7,february #aiag74 ,the firm described the ,famagusta roots as thinner than the ,lapithos sample and not so well freed from smooth valueless pieces1 but mentioned that they had apparently been washed4 ,they valued these roots at #ejs4 per cwt4 ex wharf1 ,london 7,february #aiag74 ,the firm added that both samples were exceptionally dry1 and that it seemed doubtful if the material in the bulk would be as dry4 7b7 ,a second firm considered the roots to be rather mixed1 inferior quality1 and worth at that time about #des4 per cwt4 in ,london 7,february #aiag74 ,pyrethrum ,pyrethrum 7,chrysanthemum7 cinerarifolium grows well from seed and is an attractive garden plant with pretty1 marguerite-like flowers4 ,these yield the pyrethrum of commerce so largely used as an insecticide1 and which is said to form the chief ingredients in various flea powders4 ,these flowers1 when dried and ground to dust1 are employed for this purpose by the natives4 ,the original pyrethrum powder came from plants growing in ,dalmatia4 ,the plant was introduced into the ,cyprus ,government ,gardens some twenty years ago and has since spread more or less throughout the ,island4 ,it is perennial and drought-resistant1 and will also stand several degrees of frost and seems indifferent to soil1 provided it is not too damp4 ,the seed is sown in ,september and the seedlings are transplanted in ,april or ,may1 but it multiplies itself readily by suckers4 ,the flowers1 which are about three times the size of the ,chamomile 7,matricaria ,chamomilla71 which they closely resemble1 are gathered as soon as they are fully open1 and are then dried in a well-ventilated room4 ,they are usually sold in bales of #ej to #ajj kilogrammes4 ,one donum may produce about #ajj okes of flowers annually4 ,squill ,bulbs of the local squill were submitted in #aiag to ,kew and provisionally identified as ,urginea ,scilla4 ,like the asphodel1 this root is found everywhere4 ,if sliced and placed about the house they are said to drive away mice4 ,it was intended by the ,agricultural ,department to make an attempt to find a market for these roots1 in the hope that if they could obtain a small payment for them farmers might be induced to collect them off their lands1 but the project had to be abandoned for the time owing to the war4 ,there is a small demand for these roots1 if sliced and dried1 in ,europe for medicinal purposes4 ,squill bulbs from ,cyprus were examined at the ,imperial ,institute in #aiaf 7see ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute1 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #caa74 ,the samples1 which were submitted to a firm of drug manufacturers1 were objected to on account of their dark colour1 and were valued at about #f;d4 per lb4 as against a pre-war value of #c;d4 per lb4 ,according to the report by the ,imperial ,institute there are two varieties of ,urginea ,scilla1 white and red1 the scales of the former being yellowish-white and those of the latter having a reddish tint1 and there are also many intermediate forms4 ,though the red and the white varieties have been stated to possess equal medicinal value1 the white variety is preferred in ,england4 ,in making stone irrigation channels which are lined with a coating of lime and sand or earth1 local masons sometimes rub over this lining with a sliced squill which has been dipped in oil4 ,it is found that this tends to harden and glaze the lining and prevent it from cracking4 ,colocynth or ,bitter ,apple ,the colocynth 7,citrullus ,colocynthis71 locally called pikrankoura or petrankoura1 grows wild in some parts of the plains4 ,the round yellowish-green fruit1 about the size of an orange or small melon1 ripens in ,july to ,september and1 after being gathered1 is skinned and dried in the sun4 ,it is used by druggists as a purgative4 ,until about ten years ago it was cultivated on a small scale and an annual export of about #djj in value took place1 chiefly to ,england and ,austria4 ,it was then in demand1 it is said1 as an adulterant of quinine4 ,the fruit is locally thought to be a remedy for rheumatism4 ,for this purpose the fruits are picked and put in a saucepan and covered with olive oil4 ,after cooking for six hours the pulp or ointment is rubbed into the affected part4 ,the ,european demand having ceased1 the plant is now only found in a wild state4 ,asphodel ,the asphodel 7,asphodelus ramosus71 locally known as spourdellos or spourtoulla1 is a troublesome and abundant weed in many parts of the ,island1 up to an altitude of about #d1jjj ft4 ,the peasant farmer rarely attempts to remove it1 though it occupies a large proportion of his land to the detriment of the crops4 ,in the hills the villagers dry the bulbs and feed them to their sheep1 cattle and donkeys4 ,a paste is also made from the roots which is used by boot-makers to stick the leathers together4 ,to make this paste the roots are dried in the oven and ground1 and then mixed with ground vetches or maize and made into the gum or paste locally known as tsirichi4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #d3 ,a quantity of stored plant was destroyed by fire1 reducing the output4 ,,vi4 ,,minor ,,agricultural ,,industries ,bee-keeping ,although ,cyprus bees are world-famed1 bee-keeping in the ,island is still in its infancy4 ,the native hive is generally an earthenware cylinder or pipe about #b ft4 #f in4 long and #i in4 in diameter 7see ,plate ,,vii1 fig4 #a74 ,hives are also made of a mixture of earth and chopped straw1 similar to native mud-bricks4 ,these hives are also cylindrical1 about #ah in4 long and #aj to #ab in4 in diameter with a #c-;in4 thickness of wall4 ,these are cooler in summer and warmer in winter1 and produce stronger colonies than the earthenware ones4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #a4--;,cypriot ,earthenware ,beehives4 ,fig4 #b4--,shipping ,fruit at ,larnaca4 ,of late years the ,agricultural ,department has introduced modern hives with movable frames1 and had it not been for the high cost of timber since the war1 the number of these would have increased rapidly4 ,the difficulty is to get the local carpenters to construct them properly and with finish4 ,practical hive construction is taught at the ,agricultural ,school4 ,cyprian bees are1 par excellence1 the yellow race of the world4 ,they are of uniform colour1 size and character1 slightly smaller than the ,italians and the blacks4 ,they have great power of flight1 are very prolific and vigorous and good honey-gatherers4 ,they are by many considered vicious and ill-tempered4 ,this is possibly due to the constant war they have to wage against hornets1 which in this country are a real plague and frequently exterminate whole colonies and sometimes whole apiaries4 ,various devices are employed for the protection of bees in or near the hives4 ,a good number of ,cyprian queen bees have been imported into ,europe and ,america1 and are very highly regarded wherever they have been established4 ,in the eighties ,cyprian queens were sold in the ,united ,states of ,america at #b each4 ,this high price checked the importation and the crossing of ,cyprians with ,italians and blacks took place1 the hybrid offspring being sold by dealers as ,cyprians4 ,these1 however1 did not possess the best characteristics of ,cyprians1 and for a time they brought about a reaction in favour of other breeds4 ,cyprus possesses excellent honey-producing plants in the eucalyptus trees1 orange groves1 throumbia or wild thyme1 and other aromatic plants4 ,in the neighbourhood of orange groves a competent bee-keeper can obtain an average of #ej lb4 of honey per colony2 although unfortunately the ordinary village bee-keeper gets little more than #f to #aj lb4 ,locally produced beeswax is of fine quality with delicious aroma and of a bright yellow colour1 said to be superior to that imported from ,asia ,minor and ,egypt4 ,the industry is susceptible of considerable development and1 when brought under more complete control1 should be capable of establishing a good export trade of honey and possibly of beeswax4 ,basket-making ,basket-making is a considerable industry1 as all fruit and much other produce is transported in baskets mostly designed for the backs of donkeys or mules4 ,the export trade of fruit and vegetables creates a constant demand 7see ,plate ,,vii1 fig4 #b74 ,the bulk of these baskets are made of reeds 7,arundo7 which grow luxuriantly by the side of water channels or wherever moist soil is found4 ,this material is not an ideal one for the purpose1 as the baskets are easily crushed and lose shape1 to the detriment of the contents4 ,the reeds are therefore often stiffened by the introduction of an occasional breadth of some other material1 e4g4 shinia 7,pistacia ,lentiscus71 tremithia or myrtle4 ,all these are much used in basket-making1 though the latter is heavy4 ,there is a native willow 7,salix alba7 and also the weeping willow 7,s4 babylonica74 ,these have not been used until recently when1 by the efforts of the ,agricultural ,department1 a number of these trees have been pollarded and the new shoots have been found quite satisfactory for the purpose4 ,six years ago a number of osier cuttings were imported from ,england1 but unfortunately they have not succeeded so far owing to a succession of dry years4 ,the surviving plants were this autumn removed to a more suitable site1 but after suffering from drought they have now been almost destroyed by heavy floods4 ,in order to encourage the manufacture of better baskets for the fruit trade between ,cyprus and ,egypt the ,agricultural ,department provides practical instruction in basket-making1 and a qualified teacher pays occasional visits to basket-making villages and demonstrates the work and teaches improved patterns to the villagers and school boys4 ,fruit and ,vegetable ,preserving ,there is little doubt that the establishment of small factories for canning or bottling fruits and vegetables would be a profitable undertaking4 ,owing to the suddenness with which1 in the heat of summer1 the fruits ripen in ,cyprus1 and the consequent glut that often ensues1 market prices fall to a point at which it does not pay to pick and handle4 ,transport difficulties also make it precarious1 in the case of soft fruits1 to attempt a sale outside the immediate place of production4 ,increased cultivation is thus discouraged4 ,in growing fruits or vegetables for canning or bottling a man is independent of market fluctuations1 whereas at present both producers and consumers are in the hands of the local shopkeepers1 who have the former entirely at their mercy4 ,the ,egyptian fruit and vegetable trade is very well worth cultivating1 but until better measures can be enforced in the matter of transport by sea as well as land1 shippers run the risk of heavy losses1 which1 no doubt1 recoil upon the unlucky producers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,specimens of most of the products referred to in these notes may be seen in the ,cyprus ,court in the ,public ,exhibition ,galleries of the ,imperial ,institute4 ,printed by ,hazell1 ,watson ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury1 ,england4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,in the original1 illustrations were marked as 'facing page4' ,that has not been reproduced in this e-book4