,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,law ,,! ,,addresses ,,conta9$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,book ,,7 ,,deliv]$ ,,9 ,,! ,,william ,l4 ,,/orrs ,,lecture ,,s]ies1 #aiba1 ,,be=e ,,! ,,law ,,s*ool ,,( ,,yale ,,univ]sity1 ,,new ,,hav51 ,,connecticut ,an ,introduction to ! ,philosophy ( ,law ,,by ,,roscoe ,,p\nd ,,new ,,hav53 ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,london3 ,,humphrey ,,mil=d ,,ox=d ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,copyright1 #aibb1 ,,by ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica ,fir/ ,publi%$1 ,may1 #aibb4 ,second ,pr9t+1 ,decemb]1 #aibd4 ,?ird ,pr9t+1 ,may1 #aibe4 ,f\r? ,pr9t+1 ,april1 #aicj4 ,,to ,,joseph ,,h5ry ,,beale ,,9 ,,grateful ,,ackn[l$gm5t ,,( ,,_m ,,obligations ,! pres5t volume is ! second "w publi%$ "u ! impr9t ( ! ,yale ,univ]sity ,press 9 memory ( ,ar?ur ,p4 ,mc,kinstry1 :o di$ 9 ,new ,york ,city1 ,july #ba1 #aiba4 ,born 9 ,w9nebago ,city1 ,m9nesota1 on ,decemb] #bb1 #ahha1 he 0 graduat$ f ,yale ,college 9 #aije1 & 9 #aijg receiv$ ! degree ( ,,ll4,b4 magna cum laude f ! ,yale ,law ,s*ool1 graduat+ at ! head ( 8 class4 ,?r\gh\t 8 c>e] at ,yale he 0 not$ bo? = 8 s*ol>%ip & = 8 active int]e/ 9 debat+1 :i* won = him fir/ ! presid5cy ( ! ,fre%man ,union & subsequ5tly ! presid5cy ( ! ,yale ,union4 ,he 0 also ,class ,orator 9 #aije1 & vice-presid5t ( ! ,yale ,*apt] ( ,phi ,beta ,kappa4 ,foll[+ 8 graduation f ! ,s*ool ( ,law he ent]$ ^u ! practice ( 8 pr(ession 9 ,new ,york ,city & e>ly met ) ! success anticipat$ = him by 8 fri5ds1--8 firm1 ( :i* he 0 ! s5ior memb]1 be+ recogniz$ at ! "t ( 8 dea? z among ! mo/ prom95t ( ! y\ng] firms 9 ! city4 ,he 0 c\nsel = ! ,po/-,graduate ,hospital ( ,new ,york1 ! ,hecks*] ,f\ndation = ,*ildr51 ( :i* he 0 also a tru/ee1 & f #aiab to #aiad s]v$ z associate c\nsel to ! ,ag5cy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ,am]ican & ,briti% ,claims ,arbitration4 ,by 8 untimely dea? ! b> ( ! ,city ( ,new ,york lo/ a lawy] out/&+ = 8 ability1 common s5se1 consci5ti\sness1 & high s5se ( ju/ice2 & ,yale ,univ]sity lo/ an alumnus ( :om %e 0 pr\d1 :o gave freely ( 8 "t & ?\ght to 8 class ( #aije1 to ! developm5t ( ! ,yale ,s*ool ( ,law1 & to ! upbuild+ ( ! ,yale ,univ]sity ,press1 :i* he s]v$ z c\nsel4 ,preface ,?is book is a writt5 v]sion ( lectures deliv]$ be=e ! ,law ,s*ool ( ,yale ,univ]sity z ,/orrs ,lectures 9 ! s*ool ye> #aiba-aibb4 ,a metaphysician :o _h writt5 on ! secret ( ,hegel 0 congratulat$ ^u 8 success 9 keep+ ! secret4 ,"o :o essays an introduction to ! philosophy ( law may easily a*ieve a l success4 ,8 he>]s are n unlikely to f9d t he has pres5t$ n "o subject b two1 presuppos+ a k ( "o & giv+ !m b scant acqua9tance ) ! o!r4 ,if he is a philosoph]1 he is n unlikely to h tri$ a highly organiz$ philosophical app>atus ^u ^? fragm5ts ( law t lie ^u ! surface ( ! legal ord]1 or ^u ! law z se5 ?r\gh ! spectacles ( "s juri/ :o _h int]pret$ x 9 t]ms ( a :olly diff]5t philosophical sy/em4 ,look+ at ! li/ ( au?orities reli$ ^u 9 ,sp5c]'s ,ju/ice1 & not+ t 8 hi/orical legal data 7 tak5 f ,ma9e's ,anci5t ,law & ?us came %ap$ by ! political-ideali/ic int]pretation ( ! ,engli% hi/orical s*ool1 x is n difficult to p]ceive :y positivi/ & ,hegelian came to ! same juri/ic results by radically diff]5t me?ods4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if he is a lawy]1 he w v likely h be5 able to d no m ?an attempt none too intellig5tly to "w ) ! complicat$ & delicate eng9es ( o!rs ^u ! t\ghe/ & mo/ resi/ant ( legal mat]ials4 ,until "s ,anglo-,am]ican juri/ arises ) ! univ]sal equipm5t ( ,josef ,kohl] ! results ( common-law incursions into philosophy w resemble ! ef=t ( ! editorial writ] :o wrote ^u ,*9ese ,metaphysics aft] read+ 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica "u ,*9a & ,metaphysics & comb9+ 8 in=mation4 ,yet su* incursions !re mu/ be4 ,philosophy has be5 a p[]ful in/rum5t 9 ! legal armory & ! times are ripe = re/or+ x to its old place !re94 ,at lea/ "o may %[ :at philosophy has done = "s ( ! *ief problems ( ! sci5ce ( law1 :at /&s be=e u to be done 9 "s ( ! m conspicu\s problems ( t sci5ce today 9 :i* philosophy may help u1 & h[ x is possible to look at ^? problems philosophically )\t treat+ !m 9 t]ms ( ! eighte5?-c5tury natural law or ! n9ete5?-c5tury metaphysical jurisprud5ce :i* /& = philosophy 9 ! g5]al und]/&+ ( lawy]s4 ,,roscoe ,,p\nd4 ,h>v>d ,law ,s*ool1 ,octob] #be1 #aiba4 ,cont5ts ,i4 ,! ,function ( ,legal ,philosophy #ae ,,ii4 ,! ,end ( ,law #ei ,,iii4 ,! ,application ( ,law #ajj ,,iv4 ,liability #add ,v4 ,prop]ty #aia ,,vi4 ,contract #bcf ,bibliography #bhe ,index #cji ,i ,! ,function ( ,legal ,philosophy ,= tw5ty-f\r hundr$ ye>s--f ! ,greek ?9k]s ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 :o ask$ :e!r "r 0 "r by nature or only by enactm5t & conv5tion1 to ! social philosoph]s ( today1 :o seek ! ends1 ! e?ical basis & ! endur+ pr9ciples ( social control--! philosophy ( law has tak5 a lead+ rle 9 all /udy ( human in/itutions4 ,! p]5nial /ruggle ( ,am]ican adm9i/rative law ) n9ete5?-c5tury con/itutional =mulations ( ,ari/otle's ?reefold classification ( gov]nm5tal p[]1 ! /one wall ( natural rights aga9/ :i* attempts to put an end to private w> 9 indu/rial disputes ?us f> h da%$ 9 va91 & ! notion ( a logically d]ivable sup]-con/itution1 ( :i* actual writt5 con/itutions are fa9t & imp]fect reflections1 :i* has be5 a clog ^u social legislation = a g5]ation1 be> daily witness h[ ?or\ghly ! philosophical legal ?9k+ ( ! pa/ is a =ce 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice ( ! pres5t4 ,inde$1 ! ev]yday "w ( ! c\rts 0 nev] m completely %ap$ by ab/ract philosophical ideas ?an 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury :5 lawy]s affect$ to despise philosophy & juri/s believ$ !y _h set up a self-suffici5t sci5ce ( law :i* /ood 9 no ne$ ( any philosophical app>atus4 ,9 all /ages ( :at may be describ$ fairly z legal developm5t1 philosophy has be5 a useful s]vant4 ,b 9 "s x has be5 a tyrann\s s]vant1 & 9 all b =m a ma/]4 ,x has be5 us$ to break d[n ! au?ority ( outworn tradition1 to b5d au?oritatively impos$ rules t admitt$ ( no *ange to new uses :i* *ang$ pr(\ndly _! practical effect1 to br+ new elem5ts into ! law f )\t & make new bodies ( law f ^! new mat]ials1 to organize & sy/ematize exi/+ legal mat]ials & to =tify e/abli%$ rules & in/itutions :5 p]iods ( gr[? 7 succe$$ by p]iods ( /ability & ( m]ely =mal recon/ruction4 ,su* h be5 its actual a*ievem5ts4 ,yet all ! :ile its pr(ess$ aim has be5 mu* m ambiti\s4 ,x has s\ght to give u a complete & f9al picture ( social control4 ,x has s\ght to lay d[n a moral & legal & political *>t = all "t4 ,x has _h fai? t x c\ld f9d ! ev]la/+1 un*angeable legal reality 9 :i* we might re/1 & c\ld enable u to e/abli% a p]fect law by :i* human relations might be ord]$ =ev] )\t unc]ta9ty & fre$ f ne$ ( *ange4 ,nor may we sc(f at ?is ambiti\s aim & ?is l(ty fai?4 ,!y h be5 n ! lea/ factors 9 ! p[] ( legal philosophy to d ! less ambiti\s ?+s :i* 9 _! aggregate are ! bone & s9ew ( legal a*ievem5t4 ,= ! attempt at ! l>g] program has l$ philosophy ( law incid5tally to d ! ?+s t 7 imm$iately & practically s]viceable1 & ! do+ ( ^! latt]1 z x 7 sub specie aet]nitatis1 has giv5 endur+ wor? to :at seem$ b by-products ( philosophical inquiry4 ,two ne$s h det]m9$ philosophical ?9k+ ab\t law4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! p>am\nt social int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security1 :i* z an int]e/ 9 peace & ord] dictat$ ! v beg9n+s ( law1 has l$ m5 to seek "s fix$ basis ( a c]ta9 ord]+ ( human action :i* %\ld re/ra9 magi/]ial z well z individual wilfulness & assure a firm & /able social ord]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pressure ( less imm$iate social int]e/s1 & ! ne$ ( reconcil+ !m ) ! exig5cies ( ! g5]al security1 & ( mak+ cont9ual new compromises because ( cont9ual *anges 9 society1 has call$ ev] = readju/m5t at lea/ ( ! details ( ! social ord]4 ,x has call$ cont9ually = ov]haul+ ( legal precepts & = refitt+ ( !m to unexpect$ situations4 ,& ?is has l$ m5 to seek pr9ciples ( legal developm5t by :i* to escape f au?oritative rules :i* !y fe>$ or did n "k h[ to reject1 b c\ld no long] apply to advantage4 ,^! pr9ciples ( *ange & gr[?1 h[ev]1 might easily prove inimical to ! g5]al security1 & x 0 important to reconcile or unify !m ) ! idea ( a fix$ basis ( ! legal ord]4 ,?us ! philosoph] has s\ght to con/ruct !ories ( law & !ories ( lawmak+ & has s\ght to unify !m by "s ultimate solv+ idea equal to ! task ( yield+ a p]fect law :i* %\ld /& fa/ =ev]4 ,f ! "t :5 lawgiv]s gave ov] ! attempt to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security by belief t p>ticul> bodies ( human law _h be5 div9ely dictat$ or div9ely reveal$ or div9ely sanction$1 !y h _h to wre/le ) ! problem ( prov+ to mank9d t ! law 0 some?+ fix$ & settl$1 ^: au?ority 0 beyond "q1 :ile at ! same "t enabl+ x to make con/ant readju/m5ts & occasional radical *anges "u ! pressure ( inf9ite & v>iable human desires4 ,! philosoph] has work$ ^u ?is problem ) ! mat]ials ( ! actual legal sy/ems ( ! "t & place1 or ) ! legal mat]ials ( ! pa/ ^u :i* 8 g5]ation _h built4 ,h5ce 9 clos] view philosophies ( law h be5 attempts to give a rational acc\nt ( ! law ( ! "t & place1 or attempts to =mulate a g5]al !ory ( ! legal ord] to meet ! ne$s ( "s giv5 p]iod ( legal developm5t1 or attempts to /ate ! results ( ! two =m] attempts univ]sally & to make !m all-suffici5t = law ev]y:]e & = all "t4 ,hi/orians ( ! philosophy ( law h fix$ _! eyes *iefly on ! ?ird4 ,b ?is is ! lea/ valuable "p ( legal philosophy4 ,if we look at ! philosophies ( ! pa/ ) our eyes ^u ! law ( ! "t & place & ! exig5cies ( ! /age ( legal developm5t 9 :i* !y 7 =mulat$1 we %all be able to appreciate !m m ju/ly1 & s f> z ! law ( ! "t & place or ! /age ( legal developm5t 0 simil> to or diff]5t f ! pres5t to utilize !m = ! purposes ( today4 ,we "k ,greek law f ! beg9n+s ( a legal ord] z pictur$ 9 ! ,hom]ic poems to ! develop$ comm]cial in/itutions ( ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod4 ,9 its fir/ /age ! k+s decide p>ticul> causes by div9e inspiration4 ,9 a second /age ! cu/om>y c\rse ( decision has become a tradition possess$ by an olig>*y4 ,lat]1 popul> dem& = publication results 9 a body ( enactm5t4 ,at fir/ enactm5ts are no m ?an decl>atory4 ,b x 0 an easy /ep f publication ( e/abli%$ cu/om to publication ( *anges z if !y 7 e/abli%$ cu/om & ?us to consci\s & av[$ *anges & int5tional new rules ?r\gh legislation4 ,! law ( ,a!ns 9 ! fif? & f\r? c5turies ,b4 ,c4 0 a codifi$ tradition ek$ out by legislation & individualiz$ 9 its application ?r\gh adm9i/ration ( ju/ice by l>ge popul> assemblies4 ,?us 9 spite ( =mal r$uction to writ+ x pres]v$ ! fluidity ( primitive law & 0 able to af=d a philosophy = ,roman law 9 its /age ( equity & natural law--ano!r p]iod ( legal fluidity4 ,! developm5t ( a /rict law out ( codifi$ primitive mat]ials1 :i* 9 ,rome happily prec$$ ! /age ( equity & natural law1 did n take place 9 ! ,greek city4 ,h5ce ! rules ( law 7 appli$ ) an individualiz$ equity t rem9ds u ( ! ,fr5* droit c\tumi]--a mode ( application :i*1 ) all its good po9ts1 mu/ be prec$$ by a body ( /rict law1 well work$ out & well und]/ood1 if its results are to be compatible ) ! g5]al security 9 a complex social ord]4 ,9 ,a!ns ( ! classical p]iod ! ^w ,greek3 nmos1 mean+ bo? cu/om & enact$ law z well z law 9 g5]al1 reflect$ ! unc]ta9ty ) respect to =m & ! want ( uni=mity 9 application1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( primitive law1 & invit$ ?\ght z to ! reality beh9d su* confusion4 ,we may und]/& ! mat]ials ^u :i* ,greek philosoph]s 7 work+ if we look at an exhortation address$ by ,demo/h5es to an ,a!nian jury4 ,m5 ought to obey ! law1 he said1 = f\r reasons3 because laws 7 prescrib$ by ,god1 because !y 7 a tradition taught by wise m5 :o knew ! good old cu/oms1 because !y 7 d$uctions f an et]nal & immutable moral code & because !y 7 agreem5ts ( m5 ) ea* o!r b9d+ !m because ( a moral duty to keep _! promises4 ,x 0 n long s9ce t m5 _h ?\ght ( legal precepts z div9ely reveal$1 nor 0 x long s9ce t law _h be5 a tradition ( old cu/oms ( decision4 ,philosoph]s 7 seek+ a bett] basis = !m 9 et]nal pr9ciples ( "r4 ,9 ! meantime 9 political !ory1 at lea/1 _m ( !m 7 ! agreem5ts ( ,a!nian citiz5s z to h[ !y %\ld conduct !mselves 9 ! inevitable cla%es ( int]e/s 9 ev]yday life4 ,:at 0 ne$$ above all 0 "s !ory ( ! au?ority ( law :i* %\ld impose bonds ( reason ^u ^? :o enact$1 ^u ^? :o appli$ & ^u ^? :o 7 subject to law 9 su* an amorph\s legal ord]4 ,a sure basis ( au?ority re/+ ^u some?+ m /able ?an human w & ! p[] ( ^? :o gov]n to impose _! w = ! "t be+ 0 requir$ also = ! problem ( social control 9 ! ,greek city-/ate4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security & ! security ( social in/itutions amid a /rife ( factions 9 a society organiz$ on ! basis ( k9%ip & aga9/ ! wilfulness ( ma/]ful individuals boa/+ desc5t f gods1 9 ord] to p]suade or co]ce bo? ! ari/ocracy & ! mass ( ! l[ born to ma9ta9 9 ord]ly fa%ion ! social /atus quo1 x w\ld n d to tell !m t law 0 a gift ( ,god1 nor t :at (f5d$ ! ari/ocrat z a radical bit ( popul> legislation enact$ at ! in/ance ( a demagogue 0 yet to be obey$ because x _h be5 s taught by wise m5 :o knew ! good old cu/oms1 nor t ,demos *af+ "u "s item ( a class-possess$ tradition 0 b\nd by x z some?+ to :i* all citiz5s _h agre$4 ,! exig5cies ( ! social ord] call$ = a di/9ction betwe5 ,greek3 nmos & ,greek3 t nomizm5a--betwe5 law & rules ( law4 ,! ,m9os1 :i* if n actually a dialogue ( ,plato's seems cle>ly ,platonic & v close to ,plato 9 "t1 is tak5 up ) ?is di/9ction & gives u a clue to ! juri/ic problems ( ! "t4 ,ano!r example may be se5 9 ,ari/otle's well-kn[n discussion 9 ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics4 ,x is significant t ,greek ?9k]s always c\ple cu/om & enactm5t2 ?+s :i* today we contra/4 ,^! 7 ! =mal bases ( legal au?ority4 ,s ,ari/otle consid]s1 n natural law & positive law1 b :at is j 9 itself--j by nature or j 9 its idea--& :at d]ives its sole title to be j f conv5tion or enactm5t4 ,! latt]1 he says1 c be j only ) respect to ^? ?+s :i* by nature are indiff]5t4 ,?us :5 a newly recon/itut$ city took a liv+ ,sp>tan g5]al = its eponymus1 no "o 0 b\nd by nature to sacrifice to ,brasidas z to an ance/or1 b he 0 b\nd by enactm5t & aft] all ! matt] 0 "o ( conv5tion1 :i*1 9 a society fram$ on ! model ( an organiz$ k9dr$1 requir$ t ! citiz5s h a common h]oic ance/or1 & 0 morally indiff]5t4 ,! di/9ction 0 h&$ d[n to mod]n legal sci5ce by ,?omas ,aqu9as1 0 embodi$ 9 ,anglo-,am]ican legal ?\ght by ,black/one1 & has become /aple4 ,b x is q out ( its sett+ z a doctr9e ( mala prohibita & mala 9 se4 ,an example ( ! di/9ction betwe5 law & rules ( law has become ! basis ( an arbitr>y l9e betwe5 ! traditionally anti-social1 p5aliz$ by ! common law1 & rec5tly p5aliz$ infr+em5ts ( newly or p>tially recogniz$ social int]e/s4 ,al?\gh ! discrim9ation betwe5 :at is j & "r by nature & :at is j because ( cu/om or enactm5t has _h a long & fruitful hi/ory 9 philosophical jurisprud5ce & is /ill a =ce 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ,i suspect t ! p]man5t contribution ( ,greek philosophy ( law is to be f\nd r 9 ! di/9ction betwe5 law & rules ( law1 :i* lies beh9d x & has significance = all /ages ( legal developm5t4 ,roman lawy]s came 9 contact ) philosophy 9 ! transition f ! /rict law to ! /age ( equity & natural law1 & ! contact _h mu* to d ) enabl+ !m to make ! transition4 ,f a purely legal /&po9t ,greek law 0 9 ! /age ( primitive law4 ,law & morals 7 /ill l>gely undiff]5tiat$4 ,h5ce ,greek philosophical ?9k+ ( a /age ( undiff]5tiat$ law & morals l5t itself to ! id5tification ( ! legal & ! moral 9 juri/ic ?9k+ :i* 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! classical ,roman law4 ,b ! /rict law obvi\sly 0 indiff]5t to morals & 9 _m vital po9ts 0 q at v>iance ) ! moral ideas ( ! "t4 ,! ,greek di/9ction ( j by nature & j by conv5tion or enactm5t 0 sugge/$ at once by su* a situation4 ,moreov] ! =ms ( law at ! end ( ! ,republic & at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,empire invit$ a !ory ( law z some?+ composite1 made up ( m ?an "o type ( precept & re/+ imm$iately on m ?an "o basis ( au?ority4 ,cic]o enum]ates sev5 =ms ( law4 ,?ree ( ^! are n he>d ( !reaft] 9 ,roman juri/ic writ+4 ,evid5tly already 9 ,cic]o's "t !y belong$ to ! pa/ & _h ceas$ to be effective =ms ( ! actual law4 ,! f\r rema9+1 namely1 /atutes1 resolutions ( ! s5ate1 edicts ( ! magi/rates1 & ! au?ority ( ^? le>n$ 9 ! law1 come to ?ree--legislation1 adm9i/rative edicts1 & juri/ic reason+ on ! basis ( ! legal tradition4 ,& ^! correspond to ! ?ree elem5ts :i* made up ! law4 ,fir/1 !re 0 ! ius ciuile3 ! ,twelve ,tables1 subsequ5t legislation1 int]pretation ( bo?1 & ! traditional law ( ! city4 ,second1 !re 0 ! mass ( rules1 9 =m l>gely proc$ural1 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 ! edicts4 ,! gr[+ po9t ( ! law _h be5 "h & to "s ext5t gr[? 0 /ill go+ on ?r\gh ?is means4 ,inde$ ?is "p ( ! law rea*$ its f9al =m "u ,hadrian4 ,?ird1 !re 7 ! writ+s ( ! jurisconsults4 ,! gr[+ po9t ( ! law _h begun to be "h & ?is 0 ! mo/ important =m ( law 9 ! classical p]iod f ,augu/us to ! ?ird c5tury4 ,?is "p ( ! law got its f9al =m 9 ! ,dige/ ( ,ju/9ian4 ,( ! ?ree elem5ts1 ! fir/ 0 ?\ght ( orig9ally z decl>$ & publi%$ cu/om4 ,lat] x 0 ?\ght ( z re/+ on ! au?ority ( ! /ate4 ,x 0 obvi\sly local & peculi> to ,rome4 ,9 =m x re/$ on ! legislative p[] ( ! ,roman p1 supplem5t$ by a m]e int]pretation ( ! legislative comm& ) only ! au?ority ( cu/om>y acceptance4 ,9 ,greek phrase x re/$ on conv5tion & enactm5t4 ,! second purport$ to be ! rules obs]v$ by civiliz$ peoples1 & on po9ts ( comm]cial law may well h be5 an approximation !reto4 ,ap>t f ?is1 h[ev]1 accord+ to anci5t ideas ( p]sonal law1 ! rules :i* obta9$ among civiliz$ peoples 7 em95tly a prop] law to apply betwe5 citiz5 & non-citiz54 ,9 ,greek phrase x 0 law by conv5tion4 ,! basis ( ! ?ird 0 simply reason4 ,! jurisconsult _h no legislative p[] & no imp]ium4 ,! au?ority ( 8 responsum1 z soon z law ceas$ to be a class tradition1 0 to be f\nd 9 its intr9sic reasonabl5ess2 9 ! appeal :i* x made to ! reason & s5se ( ju/ice ( ! iudex4 ,9 ,greek phrase1 if x 0 law1 x 0 law by nature4 ,z ! rise ( pr(essional lawy]s1 ! %ift+ ( ! gr[+ po9t ( law to juri/ic writ+ & ! transition f ! law ( a city to a law ( ! _w call$ = a legal sci5ce1 !re 0 ne$ ( a !ory ( :at law 0 t c\ld give a rational acc\nt ( ! ?reefold body ( rules 9 po9t ( orig9 & au?ority1 :i* 7 actually 9 op]ation1 & w\ld at ! same "t enable ! juri/s to %ape ! exi/+ body ( legal precepts by reason s z to make x possible = !m to s]ve z law = ! :ole _w4 ,! p]5nial problem ( pres]v+ /ability & admitt+ ( *ange 0 pres5t$ 9 an acute =m4 ,above all ! p]iod f ,augu/us to ! second qu>t] ( ! ?ird c5tury 0 "o ( gr[?4 ,b x 0 revolution>y only if we comp>e ! law at ! end ( ! p]iod ) ! law ( ! g5]ation be=e ,cic]o4 ,! jurisconsults 7 practical lawy]s & ! p>am\nt int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security 0 ev] be=e _! eyes4 ,:ile z an ideal !y id5tifi$ law ) morals1 !y did n cease to obs]ve ! /rict law :]e x 0 applicable nor to develop its precepts by analogy accord+ to ! kn[n traditional te*nique :5 new phases ( old que/ions came be=e !m4 ,h5ce :at to ! ,greeks 0 a di/9ction betwe5 "r by nature & "r by conv5tion or enactm5t became to !m a di/9ction betwe5 law by nature & law by cu/om or legislation4 ,! ,lat9 equival5t ( ,greek3 to dikaion 7! "r or ! j7 became _! ^w = law4 ,!y said ius :]e ,cic]o said lex4 ,& ?is conv5i5t ambiguity1 l5d+ itself to id5tification ( :at ought to be & :at is1 gave a sci5tific f\ndation = ! belief ( ! jurisconsults t :5 & :]e !y 7 n b\nd by positive law !y _h b to exp\nd ! reason & ju/ice ( ! ?+ 9 ord] to lay d[n ! law4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t nature did n mean to antiquity :at x means to u :o are "u ! influ5ce ( ! idea ( evolution4 ,to ! ,greek1 x has be5 said1 ! natural apple 0 n ! wild "o f :i* our cultivat$ apple has be5 gr[n1 b r ! gold5 apple ( ! ,hesp]ides4 ,! natural object 0 t :i* express$ mo/ completely ! idea ( ! ?+4 ,x 0 ! p]fect object4 ,h5ce ! natural law 0 t :i* express$ p]fectly ! idea ( law & a rule ( natural law 0 "o :i* express$ p]fectly ! idea ( law appli$ to ! subject 9 "q2 ! "o :i* gave to t subject its p]fect developm5t4 ,= legal purposes reality 0 to be f\nd 9 ?is ideal1 p]fect1 natural law1 & its organ 0 juri/ic reason4 ,legislation & ! edict1 s f> z !y _h any m ?an a positive f\ndation ( political au?ority1 7 b imp]fect & ephem]al copies ( ?is jural reality4 ,?us ! juri/s came to ! doctr9e ( ! ratio legis1 ! pr9ciple ( natural law beh9d ! legal rule1 :i* has be5 s fruitful bo? ( practical good & ( !oretical confusion 9 int]pretation4 ,?us also !y came to ! doctr9e ( reason+ f ! analogy ( all legal rules1 :e!r traditional or legislative1 s9ce all1 s f> z !y _h jural reality1 _h x because & to ! ext5t t !y embodi$ or realiz$ a pr9ciple ( natural law4 ,natural law 0 a philosophical !ory = a p]iod ( gr[?4 ,x arose to meet ! exig5cies ( ! /age ( equity & natural law1 "o ( ! great creative p]iods ( legal hi/ory4 ,yet1 z we h se51 ev5 ! mo/ rapid gr[? does n p]mit ! lawy] to ignore ! dem& = /ability4 ,! !ory ( natural law 0 work$ out z a means ( gr[?1 z a means ( mak+ a law ( ! _w on ! basis ( ! old /rict law ( ! ,roman city4 ,b x 0 work$ out also z a means ( direct+ & organiz+ ! gr[? ( law s z to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security4 ,x 0 ! task ( ! juri/s to build & %ape ! law on ! basis ( ! old local mat]ials s z to make x an in/rum5t = satisfy+ ! wants ( a :ole _w :ile at ! same "t insur+ uni=mity & pr$icability4 ,!y did ?is by apply+ a new b kn[n te*nique to ! old mat]ials4 ,! te*nique 0 "o ( legal reason2 b x 0 a legal reason id5tifi$ ) natural reason & work$ out & appli$ "u ! influ5ce ( a philosophical ideal4 ,! conception ( natural law z some?+ ( :i* all positive law 0 b decl>atory1 z some?+ by :i* actual rules 7 to be measur$1 to :i* s f> z possible !y 7 to be made to con=m1 by :i* new rules 7 to be fram$ & by :i* old rules 7 to be ext5d$ or re/rict$ 9 _! application1 0 a p[]ful in/rum5t 9 ! h&s ( ! juri/s & enabl$ !m to proce$ 9 _! task ( legal con/ruction ) assur$ confid5ce4 ,b ! juri/ic empiricism by :i* ! ius ciuile 0 made into a law ( ! _w ne$$ some?+ m ?an a !oretical inc5tive4 ,x 0 a process ( analogical developm5t by ext5sion "h & re/riction !re1 ( g5]alization1 fir/ 9 ! =m ( maxims & lat] by lay+ d[n broad pr9ciples1 & ( cauti\s /rik+ out ( new pa?s1 giv+ !m c\rse & direction by trial & error4 ,x 0 a process v l t by :i* ,anglo-,am]ican judicial empiricism has be5 able to make a law ( ! _w on ! basis ( ! legal precepts ( sev5te5?-c5tury ,engl&4 ,su* a process requir$ some?+ to give direction to juri/ic reason+1 to give def9ite cont5t to ! ideal1 to provide a reasonably def9$ *annel = juri/ic ?\ght4 ,?is ne$ 0 met by ! philosophical !ory ( ! nature ( ?+s & ( ! law ( nature z con=mity !reto4 ,9 practice juri/-made & judge-made law h be5 mold$ consci\sly1 or unconsci\sly1 by ideas z to :at law is =2 by !ories z to ! end ( law4 ,9 ! beg9n+s ( law m5 _h no m ambiti\s conception ?an a peaceable ord]+ ( society at any co/4 ,b ! ,greeks soon got a bett] conception ( an ord]ly & peaceable ma9ta9+ ( ! social /atus quo4 ,:5 ! !ory ( natural law is appli$ to t conception1 we get ! notion ( an ideal =m ( ! social /atus quo--a =m :i* expresses its nature1 a p]fect =m ( ! social organization ( a giv5 civilization--z t :i* ! legal ord] is to fur!r & ma9ta94 ,?us judge & juri/ obta9 a guide :i* has s]v$ !m well ev] s9ce4 ,!y are to measure all situations by an idealiz$ =m ( ! social ord] ( ! "t & place & are s to %ape ! law z to make x ma9ta9 & fur!r ?is ideal ( ! social /atus quo4 ,we %all meet ?is idea 9 v>i\s =ms ?r\gh\t ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! philosophy ( law4 ,x con/itutes ! p]man5t contribution ( ,rome to legal philosophy4 ,z soon z sci5tific legal developm5t beg9s 9 ! ,middle ,ages ! law once m comes 9 contact ) philosophy ?r\gh ! /udy ( bo? 9 ! univ]sities4 ,:at 0 ! ne$ ( ! "t :i* philosophy 0 call$ ^u to satisfy8 ,foll[+ an era ( an>*y & disunion & viol5ce m5 desir$ ord] & organization & peace4 ,!y call$ = a philosophy t w\ld bol/] up au?ority & rationalize _! desire to impose a legal yoke ^u society4 ,! p]iod 0 "o ( transition f ! primitive law ( ! ,g]manic peoples to a /rict law1 ?r\gh reception ( ,roman law z au?oritative legislation or ?r\gh compilation ( ! ,g]manic cu/om>y law m or less aft] ! ,roman model1 z 9 ! nor? ( ,france1 or ?r\gh decl>ation ( ! cu/om>y law 9 report$ decisions ( /rong c5tral c\rts1 z 9 ,engl&4 ,?us x soon became a p]iod ( /rict law4 ,s*ola/ic philosophy1 ) its reliance ^u dialectic developm5t ( au?oritatively giv5 premises1 its fai? 9 =mal logic & its c5tral problem ( putt+ reason z a f\ndation "u au?ority1 respond$ exactly to ^! dem&s4 ,x is no misnom] to /yle ! comm5tators or po/-glossators ( ! f\rte5? & fifte5? c5turies ! s*ola/ic juri/s4 ,= x 0 9 l>ge "p ! philosophy t met ! ne$s ( ! "t s completely :i* enabl$ !m to put ! ,roman law ( ,ju/9ian 9 a =m to be receiv$ & adm9i/]$ 9 ! ,europe ( n9e c5turies lat]4 ,:ile !y made ! gloss into law 9 place ( ! text & made _m ?+s ov]1 z !y _h to be made ov] if !y 7 to fit a :olly diff]5t social ord]1 ! me?od ( dialectical developm5t ( absolute & unque/ion$ premises made x appe> t no?+ _h be5 done b to develop ! logical implications ( an au?oritative text4 ,m5 c\ld receive ! law ( ,b>tolus s long z !y believ$ x b ! logical unfold+ ( ! pre-exi/+ cont5t ( ! b9d+ legislation ( ,ju/9ian4 ,x is int]e/+ to note 9 ,=tescue an application ( ?is to ! rules ( ! common law 9 its /age ( /rict law4 ,he assumes t ^! rules are ! pr9ciples ( :i* he reads 9 ! comm5tators on ,ari/otle & t !y may be comp>$ to ! axioms ( ! geometrician4 ,! "t _h n yet come to call rules or pr9ciples or axioms 9 "q4 ,! ne$ 0 to rationalize m5's desire to be gov]n$ by fix$ rules & to reconcile1 9 appe>ance at lea/1 ! *ange & gr[? :i* are inevitable 9 all law ) ! ne$ m5 felt ( hav+ a fix$1 un*angeable1 au?oritative rule4 ,! s*ola/ic philosophy did notable s]vice 9 ^! respects &1 ,i v5ture to ?9k1 left z a p]man5t contribution to legal sci5ce ! me?od ( insur+ c]ta9ty by logical developm5t ( ! cont5t ( au?oritatively def9$ conceptions4 ,on ! breakd[n ( ! feudal social organization1 ! rise ( comm]ce & ! era ( discov]y1 colonization & exploitation ( ! natural res\rces ( new cont95ts1 toge!r ) ! rise ( nations 9 place ( loose cong]ies ( vassal-held t]ritories1 call$ = a national law unifi$ )9 ! national doma94 ,/>key propos$ codification to ,h5ry ,,viii & ,dum\l9 urg$ h>moniz+ & unify+ ( ,fr5* cu/om>y law ) ev5tual codification4 ,! ,prote/ant juri/-!ologians ( ! sixte5? c5tury f\nd a philosophical basis = satisfy+ ^! desires ( ! "t 9 ! div9ely orda9$ /ate & 9 a natural law divorc$ f !ology & re/+ solely ^u reason1 reflect+ ! b\ndless fai? 9 reason :i* came 9 ) ! ,r5aissance4 ,?us ea* national juri/ might "w out 8 own int]pretation ( natural law by d9t ( 8 own reason1 z ea* ,*ri/ian might int]pret ! ^w ( ,god = himself z 8 own reason & consci5ce %[$ ! way4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,ca?olic juri/s ( ! ,c\nt]-,re=mation f\nd a philosophical basis = satisfy+ ^! same desires 9 a conception ( natural law z a sy/em ( limitations on human action express+ ! nature ( man1 t is1 ! ideal ( man z a rational creature1 & ( positive law z an ideal sy/em express+ ! nature ( a unifi$ /ate4 ,= ! mom5t ^! ideas 7 put at ! s]vice ( a gr[+ royal au?ority & bore fruit 9 ! ,byzant9e !ory ( sov]eignty :i* became classical 9 public law4 ,9 private law !y soon took q ano!r turn4 ,= a new p]iod ( gr[?1 dem&$ by ! expansion ( society & ! break+ ov] ! bonds ( au?ority1 0 at h& to make new & :olly diff]5t dem&s ^u philosophy4 ,glossators & comm5tators _h made or %ap$ ! law out ( ,roman mat]ials = a /atic1 locally self-suffici5t1 o!r-worldly society1 rev]+ au?ority because au?ority _h sav$ x f :at x fe>$1 reg>d+ *iefly ! security ( social in/itutions & neglig5t ( ! individual life because 9 its polity ! individual liv$ 8 highe/ life 9 ! life ( ano!r ^: greatness 0 ! greatness ( ^? :o s]v$ him4 ,9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies juri/s 7 requir$ to make or %ape a law out ( ^! m$ievaliz$ ,roman mat]ials to satisfy ! wants ( an active & %ift+1 locally int]dep5d5t1 ?is-worldly society1 impati5t ( au?ority because au?ority /ood 9 ! way ( :at x desir$1 & jeal\sly individuali/1 s9ce x took free individual self-ass]tion to be ! highe/ good4 ,9 ,engl& ! /rict law made = feudal ,engl& out ( ,g]manic mat]ials1 sometimes sup]ficially ,romaniz$1 0 likewise to be made ov] to d ! "w ( adm9i/]+ ju/ice to a new _w4 ,a p]iod ( legal developm5t result$ :i* is /rik+ly analog\s to ! classical p]iod ( ,roman law4 ,once m philosophy took ! helm4 ,once m !re 0 an infusion into law ( ideas f )\t ! law4 ,once m law & morals 7 id5tifi$ 9 juri/ic ?9k+4 ,once m m5 held z a liv+ t5et t all positive law 0 decl>atory ( natural law & got its real au?ority f ! rules ( natural law :i* x decl>$4 ,once m juridical idealism l$ ! juri/ to survey e corn] ( ! actual law1 measur+ its rules by reason & %ap+1 ext5d+1 re/rict+ or build+ anew 9 ord] t ! actual legal edifice might be a fai?ful copy ( ! ideal4 ,b ! !ory ( natural law1 devis$ = a society organiz$ on ! basis ( k9%ip & develop$ = a society organiz$ on ! basis ( relations1 did n suffice = a society :i* conceiv$ ( itself z an aggregate ( individuals & 0 reorganiz+ on ! basis ( competitive self-ass]tion4 ,aga9 ! conv5i5t ambiguity ( ius1 :i* c\ld mean n only "r & law b a "r1 0 press$ into s]vice & ius naturale gave u natural rights4 ,! ultimate ?+ 0 n natural law z be=e1 n m]ely pr9ciples ( et]nal validity1 b natural rights1 c]ta9 qualities inh]5t 9 man & demon/rat$ by reason1 :i* natural law exi/s to secure & to :i* positive law ought to give effect4 ,lat] ^! natural rights came to be ! bane ( juri/ic ?9k+4 ,yet !y a*iev$ great ?+s 9 _! day4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ?is !ory juri/s work$ out a s*eme ( legal rights t effectively secures almo/ ! :ole field ( individual int]e/s ( p]sonality & individual int]e/s ( sub/ance4 ,x put a sci5tific f\ndation "u ! m$ieval s*eme ( ! claims & duties involv$ 9 ! relation ( k+ to t5ants 9 *ief1 out ( :i* ! judges _h develop$ ! immemorial rights ( ,engli%m51 & enabl$ ! common-law rights ( ,engli%m5 to become ! natural rights ( man1 intr5*$ z su* 9 our bills ( rights4 ,?us x s]v$ z a ne$$ *eck ^u ! exub]ance ( gr[? /imulat$ by ! !ory ( natural law4 ,x kept a c]ta9 ne$$ rigidity 9 a "t :5 law ?reat5$ to become :olly fluid4 ,& ?is /eady+ influ5ce 0 /r5g!n$ f ano!r qu>t]4 ,! ,roman jurisconsult 0 tea*]1 philosoph] & practition] 9 "o4 ,z a lawy] he _h ! exig5cies ( ! g5]al security ev] be=e him 9 t he felt ! imp]ative ne$ ( be+ able to advise ) assurance :at tribunals w\ld d on a giv5 /ate ( facts4 ,! sev5te5?- & eighte5?-c5tury juri/s 7 *iefly tea*]s & philosoph]s4 ,happily !y _h be5 tra9$ to accept ! ,roman law z some?+ ( p>am\nt au?ority & s 7 able to give natural law a cont5t by assum+ its id5tity ) an ideal =m ( ! law :i* !y knew & 9 :i* !y _h be5 tra9$4 ,z ! ,roman jurisconsult built 9 ! image ( ! old law ( ! city1 !y built on idealiz$ ,roman l9es4 ,if ,roman law c\ld no long] claim to be embodi$ au?ority1 !y assum$ t1 correct$ 9 its details by a juri/ic-philosophical critique1 x 0 embodi$ reason4 ,bo? ( ^! ideas1 natural rights & an ideal =m ( ! actual law ( ! "t & place z ! jural ord] ( nature1 7 h&$ d[n to & put to new uses 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,9 ! gr[+ law ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies !y 7 b guides to lead gr[? into def9ite *annels & insure cont9uity & p]man5ce 9 ! developm5t ( rules & doctr9es4 ,:e!r natural rights 7 conceiv$ z qualities ( ! natural man or z d$uctions f a compact :i* express$ ! nature ( man1 ! po9t 01 n t ! juri/ %\ld keep 8 h&s (f le/ by devis+ "s new precept or 9 re%ap+ "s old doctr9e he infr+e a fundam5tal "r1 b t he %\ld use 8 h& freely & skilfully to %ape rules & doctr9es & in/itutions t !y might be in/rum5ts ( a*iev+ ! ideal ( human exi/5ce 9 a /ate ( nature4 ,= ! /ate ( nature1 let u rememb]1 0 a /ate :i* express$ ! ideal ( man z a rational creature4 ,if a reaction f ! =mal ov]-ref9em5t ( ! eighte5? c5tury came to id5tify ?is ) a primitive simplicity1 9 juri/ic h&s x 0 ! simplicity ( a rational ideal 9 place ( ! cumbr\s complexity ( legal sy/ems :i* _h become fix$ 9 _! ideas 9 ! /age ( ! /rict law4 ,?us ,po?i]1 discuss+ ! ,roman categories ( contract & reject+ !m = ! natural pr9ciple t man1 z a moral creature1 %\ld keep 8 engagem5ts1 decl>es t ! complex & arbitr>y sy/em ( ,roman law1 made up ( successive additions at diff]5t times to a n>r[ primitive /ock ( legally en=ceable promises1 is n adh]$ to because x is remote f simplicity4 ,aga9 ! ideal =m ( ! actual law1 :i* gave cont5t to natural law1 0 n an ideal =m ( hi/orically f\nd pr9ciples1 con/ra9+ developm5t = all "t )9 hi/orically fix$ b\nds1 z 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b an ideal =m ( ! ratio legis--( ! reason beh9d ! rule or doctr9e or in/itution :]eby x express$ ! nature ( ! rational human be+ guid$ only by reason & consci5ce 9 8 relations ) simil> be+s simil>ly guid$4 ,attempts to fix ! immutable "p ( law1 to lay out legal *>ts = all "t1 belong to ! transition to ! maturity ( law4 ,! eighte5?-c5tury projects = codification & ! era ( codification on ! ,cont95t1 9 :i* ! results ( two c5turies ( gr[? 7 put 9 sy/ematic =m to s]ve z ! basis ( a juri/ic new />t1 9 =m re/$ ^u ! !ory ( natural law4 ,by a %e] ef=t ( reason ! juri/ c\ld "w out a complete sy/em ( d$uctions f ! nature ( man & =mulate !m 9 a p]fect code4 ,g to1 let him d s6 ,?is 0 n ! mode ( ?\ght ( a p]iod ( gr[? b r ( "o :5 gr[? _h be5 a*iev$ & ! philosophical !ory ( a law ( nature 0 call$ ^u = a new k9d ( s]vice4 ,at ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury ,"l ,k5yon _h det]m9$ t ,mansfield's innovations 7 n to g on4 ,inde$ "s ( !m 7 to be undone4 ,equity 0 soon to be sy/ematiz$ by ,"l ,eldon & to become almo/ z fix$ & settl$ z ! law itself4 ,! absorption ( ! law m]*ant 0 complete 9 its ma9 l9es al?\gh 9 details x w5t on = two decades4 ,moreov] ! legislative re=m movem5t :i* foll[$ only c>ri$ into detail ! ideas :i* _h come into ! law 9 ! two prec$+ c5turies4 ,= a "t ! law 0 assimilat+ :at _h be5 tak5 up dur+ ! p]iod ( gr[? & ! task ( ! juri/ 0 "o ( ord]+1 h>moniz+ & sy/ematiz+ r ?an ( creat+4 ,likewise law _h be5 codify+ on ! ,cont95t4 ,d[n to ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! codes1 :atev] _! date1 9 reality speak f ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ) few exceptions are all b copies ( ! ,fr5* code ( #ahjd4 ,:]e !re 7 no codes1 ! hegemony ( ! hi/orical s*ool l$ to a movem5t back to ! law ( ,ju/9ian :i* w\ld h undone mu* ( ! progress ( ! la/ c5turies4 ,! en]gies ( juri/s 7 turn$ = a "t to analysis1 classification & sy/em z _! sole task4 ,:]e codes obta9$1 analytical developm5t & dogmatic exposition ( ! text1 z a complete & f9al /atem5t ( ! law1 0 to occupy juri/s exclusively = ! next hundr$ ye>s4 ,we may well ?9k ( ?is "t1 z x ?\ght ( itself1 z a p]iod ( maturity ( law4 ,! law 0 tak5 to be complete & self-suffici5t1 )\t ant9omies & )\t gaps1 want+ only arrangem5t1 logical developm5t ( ! implications ( its sev]al rules & conceptions1 & sy/ematic exposition ( its sev]al p>ts4 ,legislation might be ne$$ on occasion 9 ord] to get rid ( ar*aisms :i* _h surviv$ ! purgation ( ! two prior c5turies4 ,= ! re/1 hi/ory & analysis1 br++ out ! idea beh9d ! c\rse ( developm5t ( legal doctr9es & unfold+ _! logical consequ5ces1 7 all ! app>atus :i* ! juri/ requir$4 ,he soon affect$ to ignore philosophy & (t5 relegat$ x to ! sci5ce ( legislation1 :]e )9 n>r[ limits x might /ill be possible to ?9k ( creat+4 ,yet ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 no m able to get on )\t philosophy ( law ?an 7 its pr$ecessors4 ,9 place ( "o univ]sally recogniz$ philosophical me?od we f9d f\r well-m>k$ types4 ,b !y all come to ! same f9al results1 are m>k$ by ! same _s & put ! same %ackles ^u juri/ic activity4 ,!y are all modes ( rationaliz+ ! juri/ic desires ( ! "t1 gr[+ out ( ! pressure ( ! int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security by way ( reaction f a p]iod ( gr[? & 9 ! security ( acquisitions & security ( transactions 9 a "t ( economic expansion & indu/rial ent]prise4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s9ce ! natural law ( ! eighte5?-c5tury publici/s _h become classical1 we reli$ l>gely ^u an ,am]ican v>iant ( natural law4 ,x 0 n t natural law express$ ! nature ( man4 ,r x express$ ! nature ( gov]nm5t4 ,"o =m ( ?is v>iant 0 due to our doctr9e t ! common law ( ,engl& 0 9 =ce only s f> z applicable to our conditions & our in/itutions4 ,! attempt to put ?is doctr9e philosophically reg>ds an ideal =m ( ! receiv$ common law z natural law & takes natural law to be a body ( d$uctions f or implications ( ,am]ican in/itutions or ! nature ( our polity4 ,b ye/]day ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( "o ( our /ates laid d[n dogmatically t primog5iture 9 e/ates tail 7:i* by ! way is /ill possible 9 "o ( ! olde/ ( ! orig9al /ates7 c\ld n co-exi/ ) ! axioms ( ! con/itution :i* gu>antees to ea* /ate a republican =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,m g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! ,am]ican v>iant ( natural law grew out ( an attempt at philosophical /atem5t ( ! p[] ( our c\rts ) respect to uncon/itutional legislation4 ,! con/itution 0 decl>atory ( pr9ciples ( natural con/itutional law :i* 7 to be d$uc$ f ! nature ( free gov]nm5t4 ,h5ce con/itutional que/ions 7 always only 9 t]ms que/ions ( con/itutional int]pretation4 ,!y 7 que/ions ( ! mean+ ( ! docum5t1 z su*1 only 9 =m4 ,9 sub/ance !y 7 que/ions ( a g5]al con/itutional law :i* transc5d$ ! text2 ( :e!r ! enactm5t be=e ! c\rt con=m$ to pr9ciples ( natural law runn+ back ( all con/itutions & inh]5t 9 ! v idea ( a gov]nm5t ( limit$ p[]s set up by a free p4 ,n[ t c\rts ) few exceptions h giv5 ov] ?is mode ( ?9k+ & ! highe/ c\rt 9 ! l& has come to apply ! limitations ( ! fif? & f\rte5? am5dm5ts z legal /&>ds1 !re are "s :o say t we no long] h a con/itutional law4 ,= h[ c !re be law unless z a body ( rules decl>+ a natural law :i* is above all human enactm5t8 ,! int]pretation ( a writt5 in/rum5t1 no matt] by :om enact$1 may be gov]n$ by law1 inde$1 b c yield no law4 ,su* ideas die h>d4 ,9 ! language ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 our c\rts s\ght to make our positive law1 & 9 p>ticul> our legislation1 express ! nature ( ,am]ican political in/itutions2 !y s\ght s to %ape x & re/ra9 x z to make x give effect to an ideal ( our polity4 ,lat] 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury natural law z a d$uction f ,am]ican in/itutions or f free gov]nm5t gave way to a metaphysical-hi/orical !ory work$ out 9 ,cont95tal ,europe4 ,natural rights 7 d$uctions f a fundam5tal metaphysically demon/rable datum ( individual free w1 & natural law 0 an ideal critique ( positive law :]eby to secure ^! rights 9 _! integrity4 ,hi/ory %[$ u ! idea ( individual lib]ty realiz+ itself 9 legal in/itutions & rules & doctr9es2 jurisprud5ce develop$ ?is idea into its logical consequ5ces & gave u a critique ( law :]eby we might be deliv]$ f futile attempts to set up legal precepts beyond ! necess>y m9imum = insur+ ! h>moni\s co-exi/5ce ( ! individual & 8 fell[s4 ,?is mode ( ?\ght 0 well suit$ to a conception ( law z /&+ betwe5 ! ab/ract individual & society & protect+ ! natural rights ( ! =m] aga9/ ! latt]1 :i* ,am]ican law _h d]iv$ f ! sev5te5?-c5tury conte/s 9 ,engl& betwe5 c\rts & cr[n4 ,x 0 easy to g5]alize ?is z a conte/ betwe5 ! individual & society1 & x became m easy to d s :5 ! common-law rights ( ,engli%m5 secur$ by common-law c\rts aga9/ ! cr[n _h become ! natural rights ( man secur$ to individual m5 z aga9/ ! /ate by ! bills ( rights4 ,o!rs 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica turn$ to a utilit>ian-analytical !ory4 ,! legislator 0 to be guid$ by a pr9ciple ( utility4 ,t :i* made = ! greate/ total ( individual happ9ess 0 to be ! lawmak]'s /&>d4 ,! juri/ 0 to f9d univ]sal pr9ciples by analysis ( ! actual law4 ,he _h no?+ to d ) creative activity4 ,8 "w 0 to be t ( ord]ly logical developm5t ( ! pr9ciples rea*$ by analysis ( :at he f\nd already giv5 9 ! law & improvem5t ( ! =m ( ! law by sy/em & logical reconciliation ( details4 ,z x 0 assum$ t ! maximum ( ab/ract individual free self-ass]tion 0 ! maximum ( human happ9ess1 9 ! result ! legislator 0 to be busi$ ) =mal improvem5t ( ! law & r5d]+ x1 z ,b5?am put x1 m cognoscible1 :ile ! juri/ 0 ex]cis+ a l re/rict$ function s f> z he c\ld "w ) mat]ials af=d$ exclusively by ! law itself4 ,n unnaturally metaphysical & hi/orical & analytical juri/s1 at ! end ( ! c5tury1 7 q will+ to say t _! sev]al me?ods 7 n exclusive b 7 complem5t>y4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! la/ c5tury a positivi/ sociological ?9k+ t5d$ to sup]s$e ! metaphysical-hi/orical & ! utilit>ian-analytical4 ,all ph5om5a 7 det]m9$ by inexorable natural laws to be discov]$ by obs]vation4 ,moral & social & h5ce legal ph5om5a 7 gov]n$ by laws z completely beyond ! p[] ( consci\s human control z ! movem5ts ( ! planets4 ,we might discov] ^! laws by obs]vation ( social ph5om5a & might le>n to submit to !m intellig5tly in/ead ( ra%ly or ignorantly defy+ !m4 ,b we c\ld hope to d no m4 ,except z he c\ld le>n to plot "s "p ( ! inevitable curve ( legal developm5t & save u f futile fly+s 9 ! face ( ! laws by :i* legal evolution 0 inevitably gov]n$1 ! juri/ 0 p[]less4 ,_m comb9$ ?is mode ( ?\ght ) or graft$ x on ! metaphysical-hi/orical !ory & f\ght valiantly aga9/ ! social legislation ( ! la/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury & ! fir/ decade ( ! pres5t c5tury ) ?is re9=c$ juri/ic pessimism z a base4 ,sup]ficially x appe>$ t ! ,greek idea ( ! naturally j1 :i* 9 its ,roman =m ( natural law & its eighte5?-c5tury =m ( natural rights _h made = a creative legal sci5ce z long z su* a sci5ce _h exi/$1 _h at l5g? exhau/$ its possibilities4 ,today1 h[ev]1 we he> ( a revival ( natural law4 ,philosophy ( law is rais+ its head ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,we are ask$ to measure rules & doctr9es & in/itutions & to guide ! application ( law by ref]5ce to ! end ( law & to ?9k ( !m 9 t]ms ( social utility4 ,we are invit$ to subsume que/ions ( law & ( ! application ( law "u ! social ideal ( ! "t & place4 ,we are call$ ^u to =mulate ! jural po/ulates ( ! civilization ( ! "t & place & to measure law & ! application ( law !reby 9 ord] t law may fur!r civilization & t ! legal mat]ials h&$ d[n ) ! civilization ( ! pa/ may be made an in/rum5t ( ma9ta9+ & fur!r+ ! civilization ( ! pres5t4 ,we are told t obs]vation %[s u social int]dep5d5ce ?r\gh simil>ity ( int]e/ & ?r\gh division ( labor z ! c5tral fact 9 human exi/5ce & are told to measure law & ! application ( law functionally by ! ext5t to :i* !y fur!r or int]f]e ) ?is int]dep5d5ce4 ,= ! era ( legal self-suffici5cy is pa/4 ,! "w ( assimilat+ :at _h be5 receiv$ into ! law f )\t dur+ ! p]iod ( equity & natural law has be5 done4 ,! possibilities ( analytical & hi/orical developm5t ( ! classical mat]ials h be5 sub/antially exhau/$4 ,:ile juri/s h be5 at ^! tasks1 a new social ord] has be5 build+ :i* makes new dem&s & presses ^u ! legal ord] ) a multitude ( unsatisfi$ desires4 ,once m we mu/ build r ?an m]ely improve2 we mu/ create r ?an m]ely ord] & sy/ematize & logically reconcile details4 ,"o has b to comp>e ! law ( today on su* subjects z torts1 or public utilities or adm9i/rative law ) ! law ( a g5]ation ago to see t we are 9 a new /age ( transition2 to see t ! juri/ic pessimism ( ! imm$iate pa/1 :i* arose to save u f tak+ 9 m f )\t :ile :at _h be5 tak5 already rema9$ undige/$1 w s]ve no long]2 & to see t ! juri/ ( tomorr[ w /& 9 ne$ ( "s new philosophical !ory ( law1 w call = "s new philosophical conception ( ! end ( law & at ! same "t w want "s new /eady+ philosophical conception to safegu>d ! g5]al security1 9 ord] to make ! law :i* we h& d[n to him a*ieve ju/ice 9 8 "t & place4 ,,ii ,! ,end ( ,law ,mak+ or f9d+ law1 call x :i* y w1 presupposes a m5tal picture ( :at "o is do+ & ( :y he is do+ x4 ,h5ce ! nature ( law has be5 ! *ief battlegr\nd ( jurisprud5ce s9ce ! ,greek philosoph]s began to argue z to ! basis ( ! law's au?ority4 ,b ! end ( law has be5 debat$ m 9 politics ?an 9 jurisprud5ce4 ,9 ! /age ( equity & natural law ! prevail+ !ory ( ! nature ( law seem$ to answ] ! "q z to its end4 ,9 ! maturity ( law ! law 0 ?\ght ( z some?+ self-suffici5t1 to be judg$ by an ideal =m ( itself1 & z some?+ :i* c\ld n be made1 or1 if x c\ld be made1 0 to be made sp>+ly4 ,! idea ( natural rights seem$ to expla9 incid5tally :at law 0 = & to %[ t !re ought to be z little ( x z possible1 s9ce x 0 a re/ra9t ^u lib]ty & ev5 ! lea/ ( su* re/ra9t dem&$ affirmative ju/ification4 ,?us1 ap>t f m]e sy/ematic & =mal improvem5t1 ! !ory ( lawmak+ 9 ! maturity ( law 0 negative4 ,x told u *iefly h[ we %\ld n legislate & ^u :at subjects we %\ld refra9 f lawmak+4 ,hav+ no positive !ory ( creative lawmak+1 ! la/ c5tury 0 little consci\s ( requir+ or hold+ a !ory z to ! end ( law4 ,b 9 fact x held su* a !ory & held x /rongly4 ,z ideas ( :at law is = are s l>gely implicit 9 ideas ( :at law is1 a brief survey ( ideas ( ! nature ( law f ?is /&po9t w be useful4 ,no less ?an twelve conceptions ( :at law is may be di/+ui%$4 ,fir/1 we may put ! idea ( a div9ely orda9$ rule or set ( rules = human action1 z = example1 ! ,mosaic law1 or ,hammurapi's code1 h&$ him ready-made by ! sun god1 or ,manu1 dictat$ to ! sages by ,manu's son ,bhrigu 9 ,manu's pres5ce & by 8 direction4 ,second1 !re is an idea ( law z a tradition ( ! old cu/oms :i* h prov$ acceptable to ! gods & h5ce po9t ! way 9 :i* man may walk ) safety4 ,= primitive man1 surr\nd$ by :at seem v5geful & caprici\s p[]s ( nature1 is 9 cont9ual fe> ( giv+ (f5ce to ^! p[]s & ?us br++ d[n _! wra? ^u himself & 8 fell[s4 ,! g5]al security requires t m5 d only ^? ?+s & d !m only 9 ! way :i* long cu/om has %[n at lea/ n displeas+ to ! gods4 ,law is ! traditional or record$ body ( precepts 9 :i* t cu/om is pres]v$ & express$4 ,:5ev] we f9d a body ( primitive law possess$ z a class tradition by a political olig>*y x is likely to be ?\ght ( 9 ?is way j z a body ( l tradition 9 ! cu/ody ( a prie/hood is c]ta9 to be ?\ght ( z div9ely reveal$4 ,a ?ird & closely relat$ idea conceives ( law z ! record$ wisdom ( ! wise m5 ( old :o _h le>n$ ! safe c\rse or ! div9ely approv$ c\rse = human conduct4 ,:5 a traditional cu/om ( decision & cu/om ( action has be5 r$uc$ to writ+ 9 a primitive code x is likely to be ?\ght ( 9 ?is way1 & ,demo/h5es 9 ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 c\ld describe ! law ( ,a!ns 9 ^! t]ms4 ,f\r?1 law may be conceiv$ z a philosophically discov]$ sy/em ( pr9ciples :i* express ! nature ( ?+s1 to :i*1 !re=e1 man ought to con=m 8 conduct4 ,su* 0 ! idea ( ! ,roman jurisconsult1 graft$1 x is true1 on ! second & ?ird ideas & on a political !ory ( law z ! comm& ( ! ,roman p1 b reconcil$ ) !m by conceiv+ ( tradition & record$ wisdom & comm& ( ! p z m]e decl>ations or reflections ( ! philosophically asc]ta9$ pr9ciples1 to be measur$ & %ap$ & int]pret$ & ek$ out !reby4 ,9 ! h&s ( philosoph]s ! =ego+ conception (t5 takes ano!r =m s t1 fif?1 law is look$ ^u z a body ( asc]ta9m5ts & decl>ations ( an et]nal & immutable moral code4 ,six?1 !re is an idea ( law z a body ( agreem5ts ( m5 9 politically organiz$ society z to _! relations ) ea* o!r4 ,?is is a democratic v]sion ( ! id5tification ( law ) rules ( law & h5ce ) ! enactm5ts & decrees ( ! city-/ate :i* is discuss$ 9 ! ,platonic ,m9os4 ,n unnaturally ,demo/h5es sugge/s x to an ,a!nian jury4 ,v likely 9 su* a !ory a philosophical idea w\ld support ! political idea & ! inh]5t moral obligation ( a promise w\ld be invok$ to %[ :y m5 %\ld keep ! agreem5ts made 9 _! popul> assemblies4 ,sev5?1 law has be5 ?\ght ( z a reflection ( ! div9e reason gov]n+ ! univ]se2 a reflection ( t "p :i* det]m9es ! ought address$ by t reason to human be+s z moral entities1 9 di/9ction f ! mu/ :i* x addresses to ! re/ ( creation4 ,su* 0 ! conception ( ,?omas ,aqu9as1 :i* _h great curr5cy d[n to ! sev5te5? c5tury & has _h mu* influ5ce ev] s9ce4 ,eigh?1 law has be5 conceiv$ z a body ( comm&s ( ! sov]eign au?ority 9 a politically organiz$ society z to h[ m5 %\ld conduct !mselves !re91 re/+ ultimately on :atev] basis 0 held to be beh9d ! au?ority ( t sov]eign4 ,s ?\ght ! ,roman juri/s ( ! ,republic & ( ! classical p]iod ) respect to positive law4 ,& z ! emp]or _h ! sov]eignty ( ! ,roman p devolv$ ^u him1 ! ,in/itutes ( ,ju/9ian c\ld lay d[n t ! w ( ! emp]or _h ! =ce ( a law4 ,su* a mode ( ?\ght 0 cong5ial to ! lawy]s :o 7 active 9 support ( royal au?ority 9 ! c5traliz+ ,fr5* mon>*y ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies & ?r\gh !m pass$ into public law4 ,x seem$ to fit ! circum/ances ( p>liam5t>y supremacy 9 ,engl& aft] #afhh1 & became ! or?odox ,engli% juri/ic !ory4 ,also x c\ld be made to fit a political !ory ( popul> sov]eignty 9 :i* ! p 7 ?\ght ( z succe$+ to ! sov]eignty ( p>liam5t at ! ,am]ican ,revolution or ( ! ,fr5* k+ at ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,a n9? idea ( law takes x to be a sy/em ( precepts discov]$ by human exp]i5ce :]eby ! individual human w may realize ! mo/ complete fre$om possible consi/5tly ) ! l fre$om ( w ( o!rs4 ,?is idea1 held 9 "o =m or ano!r by ! hi/orical s*ool1 divid$ ! allegiance ( juri/s ) ! !ory ( law z comm& ( ! sov]eign dur+ almo/ ! :ole ( ! pa/ c5tury4 ,x assum$ t ! human exp]i5ce by :i* legal pr9ciples 7 discov]$ 0 det]m9$ 9 "s inevitable way4 ,x 0 n a matt] ( consci\s human endeavor4 ,! process 0 det]m9$ by ! unfold+ ( an idea ( "r & ju/ice or an idea ( lib]ty :i* 0 realiz+ itself 9 human adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 or by ! op]ation ( biological or psy*ological laws or ( race *>act]s1 ^: necess>y result 0 ! sy/em ( law ( ! "t & p 9 "q4 ,aga91 t5?1 m5 h ?\ght ( law z a sy/em ( pr9ciples1 discov]$ philosophically & develop$ 9 detail by juri/ic writ+ & judicial decision1 :]eby ! ext]nal life ( man is measur$ by reason1 or 9 ano!r phase1 :]eby ! w ( ! individual 9 action is h>moniz$ ) ^? ( 8 fell[ m54 ,?is mode ( ?\ght appe>$ 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury aft] ! natural-law !ory 9 ! =m 9 :i* x _h prevail$ = two c5turies _h be5 ab&on$ & philosophy 0 call$ ^u to provide a critique = sy/ematic arrangem5t & developm5t ( details4 ,elev5?1 law has be5 ?\ght ( z a body or sy/em ( rules impos$ on m5 9 society by ! dom9ant class = ! "t be+ 9 fur!rance1 consci\s or unconsci\s1 ( its own int]e/4 ,?is economic int]pretation ( law takes _m =ms4 ,9 an ideali/ic =m x ?9ks ( ! inevitable unfold+ ( an economic idea4 ,9 a me*anical sociological =m x ?9ks ( class /ruggle or a /ruggle = exi/5ce 9 t]ms ( economics1 & ( law z ! result ( ! op]ation ( =ces or laws involv$ 9 or det]m9+ su* /ruggles4 ,9 a positivi/-analytical =m x ?9ks ( law z ! comm& ( ! sov]eign1 b ( t comm& z det]m9$ 9 its economic cont5t by ! w ( ! dom9ant social class1 det]m9$ 9 turn by its own int]e/4 ,all ( ^! =ms belong to transition f ! /ability ( ! maturity ( law to a new p]iod ( gr[?4 ,:5 ! idea ( ! self-suffici5cy ( law gives way & m5 seek to relate jurisprud5ce to ! o!r social sci5ces1 ! relation to economics *all5ges att5tion at once4 ,moreov] 9 a "t ( copi\s legislation ! enact$ rule is easily tak5 z ! type ( legal precept & an attempt to frame a !ory ( legislative lawmak+ is tak5 to give an acc\nt ( all law4 ,f9ally1 twelf?1 !re is an idea ( law z made up ( ! dictates ( economic or social laws ) respect to ! conduct ( m5 9 society1 discov]$ by obs]vation1 express$ 9 precepts work$ out ?r\gh human exp]i5ce ( :at w\ld "w & :at n 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,?is type ( !ory likewise belongs to ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :5 m5 _h begun to look = physical or biological bases1 discov]able by obs]vation1 9 place ( metaphysical bases1 discov]able by philosophical reflection4 ,ano!r =m f9ds "s ultimate social fact by obs]vation & develops ! logical implications ( t fact mu* aft] ! mann] ( ! metaphysical juri/4 ,?is aga9 results f ! t5d5cy 9 rec5t ye>s to unify ! social sci5ces & consequ5t att5tion to sociological !ories4 ,digression is wor? :ile 9 ord] to note t ea* ( ! =ego+ !ories ( law 0 9 ! fir/ in/ance an attempt at a rational explanation ( ! law ( ! "t & place or ( "s /rik+ elem5t !re94 ,?us1 :5 ! law has be5 gr[+ ?r\gh juri/ic activity1 a philosophical !ory ( law1 z decl>atory ( philosophically asc]ta9able pr9ciples1 has obta9$4 ,:5 & :]e ! gr[+ po9t ( law has be5 9 legislation1 a political !ory ( law z ! comm& ( ! sov]eign has prevail$4 ,:5 ! law has be5 assimilat+ ! results ( a prior p]iod ( gr[?1 a hi/orical !ory ( law z some?+ f\nd by exp]i5ce1 or a metaphysical !ory ( law z an idea ( "r or ( lib]ty realiz+ 9 social & legal developm5t1 has t5d$ to be dom9ant4 ,= juri/s & philosoph]s d n make ^! !ories z simple matt]s ( logic by inexorable developm5t ( philosophical fundam5tals4 ,hav+ some?+ to expla9 or to exp\nd1 !y endeavor to und]/& x & to /ate x rationally & 9 s do+ "w out a !ory ( :at x is4 ,! !ory necess>ily reflects ! in/itution :i* x 0 devis$ to rationalize1 ev5 ?\gh /at$ univ]sally4 ,x is an attempt to /ate ! law1 or ! legal in/itution ( ! "t & place 9 univ]sal t]ms4 ,its real utility is likely to be 9 its enabl+ u to und]/& t body ( law or t in/itution & to p]ceive :at ! m5 ( ! "t 7 seek+ to d ) !m or to make ( !m4 ,accord+ly analysis ( ^! !ories is "o way ( gett+ at ! ends = :i* m5 h be5 /riv+ ?r\gh ! legal ord]4 ,:at common elem5ts may we f9d 9 ! =ego+ twelve pictures ( :at law is8 ,= "o ?+1 ea* %[s u a picture ( "s ultimate basis1 beyond rea* ( ! individual human w1 t /&s fa/ 9 ! :irl ( *ange ( :i* life is made up4 ,?is /eadfa/ ultimate basis may be ?\ght ( z ! div9e pleasure or w or reason1 reveal$ imm$iately or m$iately ?r\gh a div9ely orda9$ immutable moral code4 ,x may be put 9 ! =m ( "s ultimate metaphysical datum :i* is s giv5 u t we may re/ 9 x =ev]4 ,x may be portray$ z c]ta9 ultimate laws :i* inexorably det]m9e ! ph5om5a ( human conduct4 ,or x may be describ$ 9 t]ms ( "s au?oritative w = ! "t & place1 to :i* ! wills ( o!rs are subject$1 t w d]iv+ its au?ority ultimately & absolutely 9 "s "o ( ! prec$+ =ms1 s t :at x does is by & l>ge 9 no wise a matt] ( *ance4 ,?is fix$ & /able />t+ po9t is usually ! feature ^u :i* ! *ief emphasis is plac$4 ,next we %all f9d 9 all !ories ( ! nature ( law a picture ( a det]m9ate & me*anically absolute mode ( proce$+ f ! fix$ & absolute />t+ po9t4 ,! details may come f ?is />t+ po9t ?r\gh div9e revelation or a settl$ au?oritative tradition or record1 or an inevitable & infallible philosophical or logical me?od1 or an au?oritative political ma*9]y1 or a sci5tific sy/em ( obs]vation1 or hi/orically v]ifiable ideas :i* are logically demon/rable to be implications ( ! fundam5tal metaphysically giv5 datum4 ,?ird1 we %all see 9 ^! !ories a picture ( a sy/em ( ord]+ human conduct & adju/+ human relations re/+ ^u ! ultimate basis & d]iv$ !refrom by ! absolute process4 ,9 o!r words1 !y all picture1 n m]ely an ord]+ ( human conduct & adju/m5t ( human relations1 :i* we h actually giv51 b some?+ m :i* we %\ld l to h1 namely1 a do+ ( ^! ?+s 9 a fix$1 absolutely pr$et]m9$ way1 exclud+ all m]ely individual feel+s or desires ( ^? by :om ! ord]+ & adju/m5t are c>ri$ out4 ,?us 9 ^! subconsci\s pictur+s ( ! end ( law x seems to be conceiv$ z exi/+ to satisfy a p>am\nt social want ( g5]al security4 ,c]ta9ly ! n9ete5?-c5tury juri/ _h ?is conception4 ,b is ?is because ! function ( law is limit$ to satisfaction ( t "o want1 or is x because t want has be5 mo/ conspicu\s among ^? :i* m5 h s\ght to satisfy ?r\gh law1 & because ! ord]+ ( human conduct by ! =ce ( politically organiz$ society has be5 adapt$ *iefly to satisfy+ t "o want 9 ! social ord] ( ! pa/8 ,if we turn to ! ideas :i* h obta9$ 9 consci\s ?9k+ ab\t ! end ( law1 we may recognize ?ree :i* h held ! gr\nd successively 9 legal hi/ory & a f\r? :i* is beg9n+ to ass]t itself4 ,! fir/ & simple/ idea is t law exi/s 9 ord] to keep ! peace 9 a giv5 society2 to keep ! peace at all ev5ts & at any price4 ,?is is ! conception ( :at may be call$ ! /age ( primitive law4 ,x puts satisfaction ( ! social want ( g5]al security1 /at$ 9 its l[e/ t]ms1 z ! purpose ( ! legal ord]4 ,s f> z ! law goes1 o!r individual or social wants are ignor$ or are sacrific$ to ?is "o4 ,accord+ly ! law is made up ( t>iffs ( exact compositions = e detail$ injury in/ead ( pr9ciples ( exact rep>ation1 ( devices to induce or co]ce submission ( controv]sies to adjudication in/ead ( sanctions1 ( regulation ( self-help & self-r$ress in/ead ( a g5]al prohibition !re(1 & ( me*anical modes ( trial :i* at any rate d n admit ( argum5t in/ead ( rational modes ( trial involv+ debate & h5ce dispute & s t5d+ to defeat ! purpose ( ! legal ord]4 ,9 a society organiz$ on ! basis ( k9%ip1 9 :i* ! great] numb] ( social wants 7 tak5 c>e ( by ! k9-organizations1 !re are two s\rces ( friction3 ! cla% ( k9-int]e/s1 lead+ to controv]sies ( "o k9dr$ ) ano!r1 & ! k9less man1 = :om no k9-organization is responsible1 :o also has no k9-organization to /& beh9d him 9 ass]t+ 8 claims4 ,peace betwe5 k9dr$s & peace betwe5 clansm5 & ! gr[+ mass ( non-g5tile population is ! unsatisfi$ social want to :i* politically organiz$ society mu/ address itself4 ,! sy/em ( organiz$ k9dr$s gradually breaks d[n4 ,gr\ps ( k9sm5 cease to be ! fundam5tal social units4 ,k9-organization is replac$ by political organization z ! prim>y ag5cy ( social control4 ,! legal unit comes to be ! free citiz5 or ! free man4 ,9 ?is transition regulation ( self-r$ress & prev5tion ( private w> among ^? :o h no /rong clan-organizations to control !m or respond = !m are dem&$ by ! g5]al security4 ,! means ( satisfy+ ^! social wants are f\nd 9 a legal ord] conceiv$ solely 9 t]ms ( keep+ ! peace4 ,greek philosoph]s came to conceive ( ! g5]al security 9 broad] t]ms & to ?9k ( ! end ( ! legal ord] z pres]vation ( ! social /atus quo4 ,!y came to ?9k ( ma9ta9+ ! g5]al security m$iately ?r\gh ! security ( social in/itutions4 ,!y ?\ght ( law z a device to keep ea* man 9 8 appo9t$ groove 9 society & ?us prev5t friction ) 8 fell[s4 ,! virtue on :i* !y insi/$ 0 sophrosyne1 kn[+ ! limits :i* nature fixes = human conduct & keep+ )9 !m4 ,! vice :i* !y d5\nc$ 0 hybris1 wilful bondbreak+--wilful transgression ( ! socially appo9t$ b\nds4 ,?is mode ( ?9k+ foll[s ! sub/itution ( ! city-/ate political organization ( society = ! k9-organization4 ,! organiz$ k9dr$s 7 /ill p[]ful4 ,an ari/ocracy ( ! k9-organiz$ & k9-consci\s1 on ! "o h&1 & a mass ( ^? :o _h lo/ or sev]$ _! ties ( k9%ip1 or _h come f )\t1 on ! o!r h&1 7 9 cont9ual /ruggle = social & political ma/]y4 ,also ! politically ambiti\s individual & ! ma/]ful ari/ocrat 7 cont9ually ?reat5+ ! none too /able political organization ?r\gh :i* ! g5]al security got a prec>i\s protection4 ,! *ief social want1 :i* no o!r social in/itution c\ld satisfy1 0 ! security ( social in/itutions g5]ally4 ,9 ! =m ( ma9t5ance ( ! social /atus quo ?is became ! ,greek & !nce ! ,roman & m$ieval conception ( ! end ( law4 ,transition f ! idea ( law z a device to keep ! peace to ! idea ( law z a device to ma9ta9 ! social /atus quo may be se5 9 ! proposition ( ,h]aclitus1 t m5 %\ld fight = _! laws z = ! walls ( _! city4 ,9 ,plato ! idea ( ma9ta9+ ! social ord] ?r\gh ! law is fully develop$4 ,! actual social ord] 0 by no means :at x %\ld be4 ,m5 7 to be reclassifi$ & ev]yone assign$ to ! class = :i* he 0 be/ fitt$4 ,b :5 ! classification & ! assignm5t _h be5 made ! law 0 to keep him !re4 ,x 0 n a device to set him free t he might f9d 8 own level by free competition ) 8 fell[s & free exp]im5t ) 8 natural p[]s4 ,x 0 a device to prev5t su* di/urbances ( ! social ord] by hold+ ea* individual to 8 appo9t$ place4 ,z ,plato puts x1 ! %oemak] is to be only a %oemak] & n a pilot also2 ! f>m] is to be only a f>m] & n a judge z well2 ! soldi] is to be only a soldi] & n a man ( bus9ess besides2 & if a univ]sal g5ius :o ?r\gh wisdom c be ev]y?+ & d ev]y?+ comes to ! ideal city-/ate1 he is to be requir$ to move on4 ,ari/otle puts ! same idea 9 ano!r way1 ass]t+ t ju/ice is a condition 9 :i* ea* keeps )9 8 appo9t$ sph]e2 t we fir/ take acc\nt ( relations ( inequality1 treat+ individuals accord+ to _! wor?1 & !n second>ily ( relations ( equality 9 ! classes into :i* _! wor? requires !m to be assign$4 ,:5 ,/4 ,paul exhort$ wives to obey _! husb&s1 & s]vants to obey _! ma/]s1 & ?us ev]yone to ex]t himself to d 8 duty 9 ! class :]e ! social ord] _h put him1 he express$ ?is ,greek conception ( ! end ( law4 ,roman lawy]s made ! ,greek philosophical conception into a juri/ic !ory4 ,= ! fam\s ?ree precepts to :i* ! law is r$uc$ 9 ,ju/9ian's ,in/itutes come to ?is3 ,ev]yone is to live honorably2 he is to pres]ve moral wor? 9 8 own p]son by con=m+ to ! conv5tions ( ! social ord]4 ,ev]yone is to respect ! p]sonality ( o!rs2 he is n to int]f]e ) ^? int]e/s & p[]s ( action1 conc$$ to o!rs by ! social ord]1 :i* make up _! legal p]sonality4 ,ev]yone is to r5d] to ev]yone else 8 own2 he is to respect ! acquir$ rights ( o!rs4 ,! social sy/em has def9$ c]ta9 ?+s z belong+ to ea* individual4 ,ju/ice is def9$ 9 ! ,in/itutes z ! set & con/ant purpose ( giv+ him ^! ?+s4 ,x consi/s 9 r5d]+ !m to him & 9 n int]f]+ ) 8 hav+ & us+ !m )9 ! def9$ limits4 ,?is is a legal developm5t ( ! ,greek idea ( h>moni\sly ma9ta9+ ! social /atus quo4 ,! lat] ea/]n empire c>ri$ x to ! extreme4 ,/ability 0 to be secur$ by rigidly keep+ ev]yone to 8 trade or call+ & 8 desc5dants 7 to foll[ him !re94 ,?us ! h>mony ( society & ! social ord] w\ld n be di/urb$ by individual ambition4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages ! primitive idea ( law z design$ only to keep ! peace came back ) ,g]manic law4 ,b ! /udy ( ,roman law pres5tly taught ! ,roman v]sion ( ! ,greek conception & ! legal ord] 0 ?\ght ( once m z an ord]ly ma9t5ance ( ! social /atus quo4 ,?is conception answ]$ to ! ne$s ( m$ieval society1 9 :i* m5 _h f\nd relief f an>*y & viol5ce 9 relations ( s]vice & protection & a social organization :i* classifi$ m5 9 t]ms ( su* relations & requir$ !m to be held to _! functions z s det]m9$4 ,:]e ! ,greeks ?\ght ( a /ation>y society correct$ f "t to "t ) ref]5ce to its nature or ideal1 ! ,middle ,ages ?\ght ( a /ation>y society re/+ ^u au?ority & det]m9$ by cu/om or tradition4 ,to ea*1 law 0 a sy/em ( precepts exi/+ to ma9ta9 ?is /ation>y society z x 04 ,9 ! feudal social ord] reciprocal duties involv$ 9 relations e/abli%$ by tradition & tak5 to re/ on au?ority 7 ! significant legal in/itutions4 ,) ! gradual dis9tegration ( ?is ord] & ! gr[+ importance ( ! individual 9 a society engag$ 9 discov]y1 colonization & trade1 to secure ! claims ( individuals to ass]t !mselves freely 9 ! new fields ( human activity :i* 7 op5+ on e side became a m press+ social want ?an to ma9ta9 ! social in/itutions by :i* ! sy/em ( reciprocal duties 0 en=c$ & ! relations involv+ ^? duties 7 pres]v$4 ,m5 did n s mu* desire t o!rs p]=m = !m ! duties ow+ 9 "s relation1 z t o!rs keep h&s (f :ile !y a*iev$ :at !y might = !mselves 9 a _w t cont9ually af=d$ new opportunities to ! active & ! d>+4 ,! dem& 0 no long] t m5 be kept 9 _! appo9t$ grooves4 ,friction & wa/e 7 appreh5d$1 n f m5 gett+ out ( ^! grooves1 b f attempts to hold !m !re by means devis$ to meet ! ne$s ( a diff]5t social ord] :]eby !y 7 made to *afe "u arbitr>y re/ra9t & _! p[]s 7 n utiliz$ 9 ! discov]y & exploitation ( ! res\rces ( nature1 to :i* human p[]s 7 to be devot$ 9 ! succe$+ c5turies4 ,accord+ly ! end ( law comes to be conceiv$ z a mak+ possible ( ! maximum ( individual free self-ass]tion4 ,transition to ! new] way ( ?9k+ may be se5 9 ! ,spani% juri/-!ologians ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,_! juri/ic !ory 0 "o ( natural limits ( activity 9 ! relations ( individuals ) ea* o!r1 t is1 ( limits to human action :i* express$ ! rational ideal ( man z a moral creature & 7 impos$ ^u m5 by reason4 ,?is !ory diff]s significantly f ! idea ( antiquity1 al?\gh x goes by ! old "n4 ,! ,greeks ?\ght ( a sy/em ( limit+ m5's activities 9 ord] t ea* might be kept 9 ! place = :i* he 0 be/ fitt$ by nature--! place 9 :i* he might realize an ideal =m ( 8 capacities--& ?us to pres]ve ! social ord] z x /&s or z x %all /& aft] a re>rangem5t4 ,! sixte5?-c5tury juri/s ( ! ,c\nt]-,re=mation held t m5's activities 7 naturally limit$1 & h5ce t positive law might & %\ld limit !m 9 ! int]e/ ( o!r m5's activities1 because all m5 h fre$om ( w & ability to direct !mselves to consci\s ends4 ,:]e ,ari/otle ?\ght ( inequalities aris+ f ! diff]5t wor? ( individual m5 & _! diff]5t capacities = ! ?+s :i* ! social ord] call$ =1 ^! juri/s ?\ght ( a natural 7i4e41 ideal7 equality1 involv$ 9 ! l fre$om ( w & ! l p[] ( consci\s employm5t ( "o's faculties inh]5t 9 all m54 ,h5ce law did n exi/ to ma9ta9 ! social /atus quo ) all its arbitr>y re/ra9ts on ! w & on employm5t ( individual p[]s2 x exi/$ r to ma9ta9 ! natural equality :i* (t5 0 ?reat5$ or impair$ by ! traditional re/rictions on individual activity4 ,s9ce ?is natural equality 0 conceiv$ positively z an ideal equality 9 opportunity to d ?+s1 x c\ld easily pass into a conception ( free individual self-ass]tion z ! ?+ s\ght1 & ( ! legal ord] z exi/+ to make possible ! maximum !re( 9 a _w ab\nd+ 9 undiscov]$ res\rces1 undevelop$ l&s & unh>ness$ natural =ces4 ,! latt] idea took =m 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury & prevail$ = two c5turies !reaft]1 culm9at+ 9 ! juri/ic ?\ght ( ! la/ g5]ation4 ,law z a secur+ ( natural equality became law z a secur+ ( natural rights4 ,! nature ( man 0 express$ by c]ta9 qualities possess$ by him z a moral1 rational creature4 ,! limitations on human activity1 ( :i* ! ,spani% juri/-!ologians _h writt51 got _! w>rant f ! inh]5t moral qualities ( m5 :i* made x "r = !m to h c]ta9 ?+s & d c]ta9 ?+s4 ,^! 7 _! natural rights & ! law exi/$ simply to protect & give effect to ^! rights4 ,!re 0 to be no re/ra9t = any o!r purpose4 ,except z !y 7 to be compell$ to respect ! rights ( o!rs1 :i* ! natural man or ideal man w\ld d )\t compulsion z a matt] ( reason1 m5 7 to be left free4 ,9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ?is mode ( ?\ght takes a metaphysical turn4 ,! ultimate ?+ = juri/ic purposes is ! individual consci\sness4 ,! social problem is to reconcile conflict+ free wills ( consci\s individuals indep5d5tly ass]t+ _! wills 9 ! v>y+ activities ( life4 ,! natural equality becomes an equality 9 fre$om ( w4 ,kant rationaliz$ ! law 9 ^! t]ms z a sy/em ( pr9ciples or univ]sal rules1 to be appli$ to human action1 :]eby ! free w ( ! actor may co-exi/ along ) ! free w ( ev]yone else4 ,hegel rationaliz$ ! law 9 ^! t]ms z a sy/em ( pr9ciples :]e9 & :]eby ! idea ( lib]ty 0 realiz+ 9 human exp]i5ce4 ,b5?am rationaliz$ x z a body ( rules1 laid d[n & en=c$ by ! /ate's au?ority1 :]eby ! maximum ( happ9ess1 conceiv$ 9 t]ms ( free self-ass]tion1 0 secur$ to ea* individual4 ,its end 0 to make possible ! maximum ( free individual action consi/5t ) g5]al free individual action4 ,sp5c] rationaliz$ x z a body ( rules1 =mulat+ ! gov]nm5t ( ! liv+ by ! dead1 :]eby m5 s\ght to promote ! lib]ty ( ea* limit$ only by ! l lib]ty ( all4 ,9 any ( ^! ways ( putt+ x1 ! end ( law is to secure ! greate/ possible g5]al individual self-ass]tion2 to let m5 d freely ev]y?+ !y may consi/5tly ) a l free do+ ( ev]y?+ !y may by _! fell[ m54 ,?is is inde$ a philosophy ( law = discov]]s & coloniz]s & pione]s & trad]s & entrepr5eurs & capta9s ( indu/ry4 ,until ! _w became cr[d$1 x s]v$ well to elim9ate friction & to promote ! wide/ discov]y & utilization ( ! natural res\rces ( human exi/5ce4 ,look+ back at ! hi/ory ( ?is conception1 :i* has gov]n$ !ories ( ! end ( law = m ?an two hundr$ ye>s1 we may note t x has be5 put to ?ree uses4 ,x has be5 us$ z a means ( cle>+ away ! re/ra9ts ^u free economic activity :i* accumulat$ dur+ ! ,middle ,ages z incid5ts ( ! sy/em ( relational duties & z expressions ( ! idea ( hold+ m5 to _! place 9 a /atic social ord]4 ,?is negative side play$ an important "p 9 ! ,engli% legislative re=m movem5t 9 ! la/ c5tury4 ,! ,engli% utilit>ians insi/$ ^u removal ( all re/rictions ^u individual free action beyond ^? necess>y = secur+ l fre$om on ! "p ( o!rs4 ,?is1 !y said1 0 ! end ( legislation4 ,aga9 x has be5 us$ z a con/ructive idea1 z 9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 :5 a comm]cial law :i* gave effect to :at m5 did z !y will$ x1 :i* look$ at int5tion & n at =m1 :i* int]pret$ ! g5]al security 9 t]ms ( ! security ( transactions & s\ght to effectuate ! w ( individuals to br+ ab\t legal results1 0 develop$ out ( ,roman law & ! cu/om ( m]*ants ?r\gh juri/ic !ories ( natural law4 ,f9ally x 0 us$ z a /abiliz+ idea1 z 9 ! latt] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :5 m5 prov$ t law 0 an evil1 ev5 if a necess>y evil1 t !re %\ld be z little law made z possible1 s9ce all law involv$ re/ra9t ^u free ex]tion ( ! w1 & h5ce t juri/ & legislator %\ld be cont5t to leave ?+s legal z !y are & all[ ! individual to "w out 9 fre$om 8 own happ9ess or mis]y on t basis4 ,:5 ?is la/ /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! idea ( law z exi/+ to promote or p]mit ! maximum ( free individual self-ass]tion _h be5 rea*$1 ! juri/ic possibilities ( ! conception _h be5 exhau/$4 ,!re 7 no m cont95ts to discov]4 ,natural res\rces _h be5 discov]$ & exploit$ & ! ne$ 0 = cons]vation ( :at rema9$ available4 ,! =ces ( nature _h be5 h>ness$ to human use4 ,indu/rial developm5t _h rea*$ l>ge proportions1 & organization & division ( labor 9 our economic ord] _h gone s f> t anyone :o w\ld c\ld no long] g =? freely & d any?+ :i* a re/less imag9ation & d>+ ambition sugge/$ to him z a means ( ga94 ,al?\gh lawy]s w5t on repeat+ ! old =mula1 ! law began to move 9 ano!r direction4 ,! fre$om ( ! own] ( prop]ty to d ^u x :atev] he lik$1 s he did n ov]/ep 8 limits or endang] ! public heal? or safety1 began to be re/rict$4 ,nay1 ! law began to make m5 act affirmatively ^u _! prop]ty 9 fa%ions :i* x dictat$1 :]e ! g5]al heal? 0 endang]$ by non-action4 ,! p[] to make contracts began to be limit$ :]e indu/rial conditions made ab/ract fre$om ( contract defeat r ?an advance full individual human life4 ,! p[] ( ! own] to dispose freely ( 8 prop]ty began to be limit$ 9 ord] to safegu>d ! security ( ! social in/itutions ( m>riage & ! family4 ,fre$om ( appropriat+ res nullius & ( us+ res communes came to be abridg$ 9 ord] to cons]ve ! natural res\rces ( society4 ,fre$om ( engag+ 9 lawful call+s came to be re/rict$1 & an elaborate process ( education & exam9ation to be impos$ ^u ^? :o w\ld engage 9 !m1 le/ !re be injury to ! public heal?1 safety or morals4 ,a regime 9 :i* anyone might freely set up a corporation to engage 9 a public s]vice1 or freely compete 9 su* s]vice1 0 sup]s$$ by "o ( legal exemption ( exi/+ public utilities f de/ructive competition4 ,9 a cr[d$ _w1 ^: res\rces _h be5 exploit$1 a sy/em ( promot+ ! maximum ( individual self-ass]tion _h come to produce m friction ?an x reliev$ & to fur!r r ?an to elim9ate wa/e4 ,at ! end ( ! la/ & ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 a new way ( ?9k+ grew up4 ,juri/s began to ?9k 9 t]ms ( human wants or desires r ?an ( human wills4 ,!y began to ?9k t :at !y _h to d 0 n simply to equalize or h>monize wills1 b1 if n to equalize1 at lea/ to h>monize ! satisfaction ( wants4 ,!y began to weigh or balance & reconcile claims or wants or desires1 z =m]ly !y _h balanc$ or reconcil$ wills4 ,!y began to ?9k ( ! end ( law n z a maximum ( self-ass]tion1 b z a maximum satisfaction ( wants4 ,h5ce = a "t !y ?\ght ( ! problem ( e?ics1 ( jurisprud5ce1 & ( politics z *iefly "o ( valu+2 z a problem ( f9d+ crit]ia ( ! relative value ( int]e/s4 ,9 jurisprud5ce & politics !y saw t we mu/ add practical problems ( ! possibility ( mak+ int]e/s effective ?r\gh gov]nm5tal action1 judicial or adm9i/rative4 ,b ! fir/ "q 0 "o ( ! wants to be recogniz$--( ! int]e/s to be recogniz$ & secur$4 ,hav+ inv5tori$ ! wants or claims or int]e/s :i* are ass]t+ & = :i* legal security is s\ght1 we 7 to value !m1 select ^? to be recogniz$1 det]m9e ! limits )9 :i* !y 7 to be giv5 effect 9 view ( o!r recogniz$ int]e/s1 & asc]ta9 h[ f> we might give !m effect by law 9 view ( ! inh]5t limitations ^u effective legal action4 ,?is mode ( ?9k+ may be se51 conceal$ "u diff]5t t]m9ologies1 9 m ?an "o type ( juri/ 9 ! la/ ?ree decades4 ,?ree elem5ts contribut$ to %ift ! basis ( !ories z to ! end ( law f wills to wants1 f a reconcil+ or h>moniz+ ( wills to a reconcil+ or h>moniz+ ( wants4 ,! mo/ important "p 0 play$ by psy*ology :i* und]m9$ ! f\ndation ( ! metaphysical w-philosophy ( law4 ,?r\gh ! movem5t = unification ( ! social sci5ces1 economics also play$ an important "p1 especially indirectly ?r\gh ! attempts at economic int]pretation ( legal hi/ory1 re9=c+ psy*ology by %[+ ! ext5t to :i* law _h be5 %ap$ by ! pressure ( economic wants4 ,also ! diff]5tiation ( society1 involv$ 9 indu/rial organization1 0 no mean factor1 :5 classes came to exi/ 9 :i* claims to a m9imum human exi/5ce1 "u ! /&>ds ( ! giv5 civilization1 became m press+ ?an claims to self-ass]tion4 ,att5tion 0 turn$ f ! nature ( law to its purpose1 & a functional attitude1 a t5d5cy to measure legal rules & doctr9es & in/itutions by ! ext5t to :i* !y fur!r or a*ieve ! ends = :i* law exi/s1 began to replace ! old] me?od ( judg+ law by crit]ia drawn f itself4 ,9 ?is respect ! ?\ght ( ! pres5t is m l t ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies ?an t ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,fr5* writ]s h describ$ ?is ph5om5on z a revival ( juridical idealism4 ,b 9 tru? ! social utilit>ianism ( today & ! natural-law philosophy ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies h only ?is 9 common3 ,ea* has its att5tion fix$ ^u ph5om5a ( gr[?2 ea* seeks to direct & fur!r consci\s improvem5t ( ! law4 ,9 its e>li] =m social-utilit>ianism1 9 common ) all n9ete5?-c5tury philosophies ( law1 0 too absolute4 ,its teleological !ory 0 to %[ u :at actually & necess>ily took place 9 lawmak+ r ?an :at we 7 seek+ to br+ ab\t4 ,its s]vice to ! philosophy ( law 0 9 compell+ u to give ov] ! ambigu\s t]m "r & to di/+ui% betwe5 ! claims or wants or dem&s1 exi/+ indep5d5tly ( law1 ! legally recogniz$ or delimit$ claims or wants or dem&s1 & ! legal in/itutions1 :i* broadly g by ! "n ( legal rights1 :]eby ! claims :5 recogniz$ & delimit$ are secur$4 ,also x fir/ made cle> h[ mu* ! task ( ! lawmak] is "o ( compromise4 ,to ! law-(-nature s*ool1 lawmak+ 0 b an absolute developm5t ( absolute pr9ciples4 ,a complete logical developm5t ( ! cont5t implicit 9 ea* natural "r w\ld give a body ( law adequate to e "t & place4 ,x is true an idea ( compromise did lurk beh9d ! !ory ( ! metaphysical juri/s 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b !y s\ght an absolute h>moniz+ r ?an a work+ compromise = ! "t & place4 ,conflict+ individual wills 7 to be reconcil$ absolutely by a =mula :i* _h ultimate & univ]sal au?ority4 ,:5 we ?9k ( law z exi/+ to secure social int]e/s1 s f> z !y may be secur$ ?r\gh an ord]+ ( m5 & ( human relations ?r\gh ! ma*9]y ( organiz$ political society1 x becomes app>5t t we may rea* a practicable sy/em ( compromises ( conflict+ human desires "h & n[1 by means ( a m5tal picture ( giv+ effect to z mu* z we c1 )\t believ+ t we h a p]fect solution = all "t & = e place4 ,z ! ,neo-,kantians put x1 we may =mulate ! social ideal ( ! "t & place & try juri/ic problems !reby )\t believ+ ourselves compet5t to lay out a social & political & legal *>t = all "t4 ,z ! ,neo-,hegelians put x1 we may discov] & =mulate ! jural po/ulates ( ! civilization ( ! "t & place )\t assum+ t ^? po/ulates are a complete & f9al picture ( ultimate law1 by :i* x mu/ be measur$ = all "t4 ,social utilit>ianism has /ood 9 ne$ ( correction bo? f psy*ology & f sociology4 ,x mu/ be recogniz$ t lawmak+ & adjudication are n 9 fact det]m9$ precisely by a weigh+ ( int]e/s4 ,9 practice ! pressure ( wants1 dem&s1 desires1 w w>p ! actual compromises made by ! legal sy/em ?is way or t4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security we endeavor 9 e way to m9imize ?is w>p+4 ,b "o ne$s only to look bel[ ! surface ( ! law any:]e at any "t to see x go+ on1 ev5 if cov]$ up by me*anical devices to make ! process appe> an absolute "o & ! result a pr$et]m9$ "o4 ,we may n expect t ! compromises made & en=c$ by ! legal ord] w always & infallibly give effect to any picture we may make ( ! nature or ends ( ! process ( mak+ & en=c+ !m4 ,yet !re w be less ( ?is subconsci\s w>p+ if we h a cle> picture be=e u ( :at we are seek+ to d & to :at end1 & if we build 9 ! image !re( s f> z we consci\sly build & %ape ! law4 ,difficulties arise *iefly 9 connection ) crit]ia ( value4 ,if we say t int]e/s are to be catalogu$ or inv5tori$1 t !y are !n to be valu$1 t ^? :i* are f\nd to be ( requisite value are to be recogniz$ legally & giv5 effect )9 limits det]m9$ by ! valuation1 s f> z inh]5t difficulties 9 effective legal secur+ ( int]e/s w p]mit1 ! "q arises at once1 ,h[ %all we d ?is "w ( valu+8 ,philosoph]s h devot$ mu* +5uity to ! discov]y ( "s me?od ( gett+ at ! intr9sic importance ( v>i\s int]e/s1 s t an absolute =mula may be rea*$ 9 accordance :]e) x may be assur$ t ! weighti] int]e/s intr9sically %all prevail4 ,b ,i am skeptical z to ! possibility ( an absolute judgm5t4 ,we are confront$ at ?is po9t by a fundam5tal "q ( social & political philosophy4 ,i d n believe ! juri/ has to d m ?an recognize ! problem & p]ceive t x is pres5t$ to him z "o ( secur+ all social int]e/s s f> z he may1 ( ma9ta9+ a balance or h>mony among !m t is compatible ) ! secur+ ( all ( !m4 ,! la/ c5tury pref]r$ ! g5]al security4 ,! pres5t c5tury has %[n _m signs ( pref]r+ ! individual moral & social life4 ,i d\bt :e!r su* pref]5ces c ma9ta9 !mselves4 ,social utilit>ians w\ld say1 weigh ! sev]al int]e/s 9 t]ms ( ! end ( law4 ,b h we any giv5 to u absolutely8 ,is ! end ( law any?+ less ?an to d :atev] may be a*iev$ !reby to satisfy human desires8 ,are ! limits any o!r ?an ^? impos$ by ! tools ) :i* we "w1 :]eby we may lose m ?an we ga91 if we attempt to apply !m 9 c]ta9 situations8 ,if s1 !re is always a possibility ( improv$ tools4 ,! ,greek philosoph] :o said t ! only possible subjects ( lawsuit 7 insult1 injury & homicide1 0 z dogmatic z ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :o conceiv$ ( sanit>y laws & h\s+ laws 9 our l>ge cities z q outside ! doma9 ( ! legal ord]4 ,bett] legal ma*9]y ext5ds ! field ( legal effectiv5ess z bett] ma*9]y has ext5d$ ! field ( indu/rial effectiv5ess4 ,i d n mean t ! law %\ld int]f]e z ( c\rse 9 e human relation & 9 e situation :]e "s "o *ances to ?9k a social want may be satisfi$ !reby4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n abundantly h[ futile legal ma*9]y may be 9 its attempts to secure c]ta9 k9ds ( int]e/s4 ,:at ,i d say is1 t if 9 any field ( human conduct or 9 any human relation ! law1 ) su* ma*9]y z x has1 may satisfy a social want )\t a disproportionate sacrifice ( o!r claims1 !re is no et]nal limitation inh]5t 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 !re are no b\nds impos$ at creation1 to /& 9 ! way ( its do+ s4 ,let u apply "s ( ! o!r !ories :i* are n[ curr5t4 ,! ,neo-,hegelians say3 ,try ! claims 9 t]ms ( civilization1 9 t]ms ( ! developm5t ( human p[]s to ! mo/ ( :i* !y are capable--! mo/ complete human ma/]y ( nature1 bo? human nature & ext]nal nature4 ,! ,neo-,kantians say3 ,try !m 9 t]ms ( a community ( free-will+ m5 z ! social ideal4 ,duguit says3 ,try !m 9 t]ms ( social int]dep5d5ce & social function4 ,d !y promote or d !y imp$e social int]dep5d5ce ?r\gh simil>ity ( int]e/ & division ( labor8 ,9 ^! =mulas d we really get away f ! problem ( a balance compatible ) ma9ta9+ all ! int]e/s1 ) respond+ to all ! wants & claims1 :i* are involv$ 9 civiliz$ social exi/5ce8 ,= ! purpose ( und]/&+ ! law ( today ,i am cont5t ) a picture ( satisfy+ z mu* ( ! :ole body ( human wants z we may ) ! lea/ sacrifice4 ,i am cont5t to ?9k ( law z a social in/itution to satisfy social wants--! claims & dem&s involv$ 9 ! exi/5ce ( civiliz$ society--by giv+ effect to z mu* z we may ) ! lea/ sacrifice1 s f> z su* wants may be satisfi$ or su* claims giv5 effect by an ord]+ ( human conduct ?r\gh politically organiz$ society4 ,= pres5t purposes ,i am cont5t to see 9 legal hi/ory ! record ( a cont9ually wid] recogniz+ & satisfy+ ( human wants or claims or desires ?r\gh social control2 a m embrac+ & m effective secur+ ( social int]e/s2 a cont9ually m complete & effective elim9ation ( wa/e & preclud+ ( friction 9 human enjoym5t ( ! goods ( exi/5ce--9 %ort1 a cont9ually m efficaci\s social eng9e]+4 ,,iii ,! ,application ( ,law ,?ree /eps are involv$ 9 ! adjudication ( a controv]sy accord+ to law3 7#a7 ,f9d+ ! law1 asc]ta9+ :i* ( ! _m rules 9 ! legal sy/em is to be appli$1 or1 if none is applicable1 rea*+ a rule = ! cause 7:i* may or may n /& z a rule = subsequ5t cases7 on ! basis ( giv5 mat]ials 9 "s way :i* ! legal sy/em po9ts out2 7#b7 int]pret+ ! rule s *os5 or asc]ta9$1 t is1 det]m9+ its mean+ z x 0 fram$ & ) respect to its int5d$ scope2 7#c7 apply+ to ! cause 9 h& ! rule s f\nd & int]pret$4 ,9 ! pa/ ^! h be5 confus$ "u ! "n ( int]pretation4 ,x 0 assum$ t ! function ( ! judge consi/$ simply 9 int]pret+ an au?oritatively giv5 rule ( :olly extra-judicial orig9 by an exact process ( d$uc+ its logically impli$ cont5t & 9 me*anically apply+ ! rule s giv5 & int]pret$4 ,?is assumption has its orig9 9 ! /age ( ! /rict law 9 ! attempt to escape f ! ov]detail on ! "o h&1 & ! vague s5t5ti\sness on ! o!r h&1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( primitive law4 ,= ! mo/ "p primitive law is made up ( simple1 precise1 detail$ rules = def9ite n>r[ly def9$ situations4 ,x has no g5]al pr9ciples4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>d a sci5ce ( law is ! mak+ ( di/9ctions betwe5 :at comes )9 & :at does n come )9 ! legal mean+ ( a rule4 ,b a body ( primitive law also (t5 conta9s a c]ta9 numb] ( s5t5ti\s legal prov]bs1 put 9 /rik+ =m s z to /ick 9 ! memory1 b vague 9 _! cont5t4 ,! /rict law by means ( a conception ( results obta9$ inevitably f fix$ rules & undeviat+ rem$ial proce$+s seeks relief f ! unc]ta9ty inh]5t 9 ! f9d+ ( a l>g] cont5t = ov]detail$ special rules ?r\gh diff]5tiation ( cases & ! application ( legal prov]bial say+s ?r\gh ! equity ( ! tribunal4 ,x conceives ( application ( law z involv+ no?+ b a me*anical fitt+ ( ! case ) ! /rait-jacket ( rule or rem$y4 ,! inevitable adju/m5ts & ext5d+s & limitations1 :i* an attempt to adm9i/] ju/ice 9 ?is way mu/ involve1 are cov]$ up by a fiction ( int]pretation 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security4 ,philosophical rationaliz+ ( ! attempt to avoid ! ov]p]sonal adm9i/ration ( ju/ice incid5t to ! p>tial rev]sion to ju/ice )\t law 9 ! /age ( equity & natural law1 re9=c$ ! assumption t judicial application ( law 0 a me*anical process & 0 b a phase ( int]pretation4 ,9 ! eighte5? c5tury x 0 giv5 sci5tific =m 9 ! !ory ( sep>ation ( p[]s4 ,! legislative organ made laws4 ,! executive adm9i/]$ !m4 ,! judici>y appli$ !m to ! decision ( controv]sies4 ,x 0 admitt$ 9 ,anglo-,am]ican legal ?9k+ t c\rts mu/ int]pret 9 ord] to apply4 ,b ! int]pretation 0 tak5 n to be 9 any wise a lawmak+ & ! application 0 tak5 n to involve any adm9i/rative elem5t & to be :olly me*anical4 ,on ! ,cont95t int]pretation s z to make a b9d+ rule = future cases 0 deem$ to belong only to ! legislator4 ,! maturity ( law 0 n will+ to admit t judge or juri/ c\ld make any?+4 ,x 0 n ! lea/ s]vice ( ! analytical jurisprud5ce ( ! la/ c5tury to %[ t ! great] "p ( :at goes by ! "n ( int]pretation 9 ?is way ( ?9k+ is really a lawmak+ process1 a supply+ ( new law :]e no rule or no suffici5t rule is at h&4 ,! fact is1 says ,gray mo/ truly1 t ! difficulties ( s-call$ int]pretation arise :5 ! legislature has _h no mean+ at all2 :5 ! "q :i* is rais$ on ! /atute nev] occurr$ to x2 :5 :at ! judges h to d is1 n to det]m9e :at ! legislature did mean on a po9t :i* 0 pres5t to its m9d1 b to guess :at x w\ld h int5d$ on a po9t n pres5t to its m9d _h ! po9t be5 pres5t4 ,! attempt to ma9ta9 ! sep>ation ( p[]s by con/itutional prohibitions has po9t$ to ! same lesson f ano!r side4 ,lawmak+1 adm9i/ration & adjudication _c be rigidly f5c$ (f "o f ! o!r & turn$ ov] ea* to a sep>ate ag5cy z its exclusive field4 ,!re is r a division ( labor z to typical cases & a practical or hi/orical apportionm5t ( ! re/4 ,f9d+ ! law may consi/ m]ely 9 lay+ hold ( a prescrib$ text ( a code or /atute4 ,9 t ev5t ! tribunal mu/ proce$ to det]m9e ! mean+ ( ! rule & to apply x4 ,b _m cases are n s simple4 ,m ?an "o text is at h& :i* might apply2 m ?an "o rule is pot5tially applicable1 & ! p>ties are cont5d+ :i* %all be made ! basis ( a decision4 ,9 t ev5t ! sev]al rules mu/ be int]pret$ 9 ord] t intellig5t selection may be made4 ,(t5 ! g5u9e int]pretation ( ! exi/+ rules %[s t none is adequate to cov] ! case & t :at is 9 effect1 if n 9 !ory1 a new "o mu/ be suppli$4 ,attempts to =eclose ?is process by m9ute1 detail$ legislation h fail$ signally1 z1 = example1 9 ! ov]gr[n code ( civil proc$ure 9 ,new ,york4 ,provid+ ( a rule by :i* to decide ! cause is a necess>y elem5t 9 ! det]m9ation ( a l>ge proportion ( ! causes t come be=e our high] tribunals1 & x is (t5 because a rule mu/ be provid$ t ! p>ties are n cont5t to abide ! decision ( ! c\rt ( fir/ in/ance4 ,cases call+ = g5u9e int]pretation are relatively few & simple4 ,moreov] g5u9e int]pretation & lawmak+ "u ! guise ( int]pretation run into "o ano!r4 ,9 o!r words1 ! judicial function & ! legislative function run into "o ano!r4 ,x is ! function ( ! legislative organ to make laws4 ,b f ! nature ( ! case x _c make laws s complete & all-embrac+ t ! judicial organ w n be oblig$ to ex]cise a c]ta9 lawmak+ function also4 ,! latt] w rightly consid] ?is a subord9ate function4 ,x w take x to be "o ( supplem5t+1 develop+ & %ap+ giv5 mat]ials by means ( a giv5 te*nique4 ,none ! less x is a necess>y "p ( judicial p[]4 ,pu%$ to ! extreme t reg>ds all judicial lawmak+ z uncon/itutional usurpation1 our political !ory1 a philosophical classification made ov] by imp]fect g5]alization f ! ,briti% con/itution z x 0 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 has s]v$ m]ely to intr5* 9 ! pr(essional m9d ! dogma ( ! hi/orical s*ool1 t legislative lawmak+ is a subord9ate function & exi/s only to supplem5t ! traditional elem5t ( ! legal sy/em "h & !re & to set ! judicial or juri/ic tradition n[ & !n 9 ! "r pa? z to "s p>ticul> item :]e x _h gone a/ray4 ,9 ,anglo-,am]ican law we d n ?9k ( analogical developm5t ( ! traditional mat]ials ( ! legal sy/em z int]pretation4 ,9 ,roman-law c\ntries1 :]e ! law is made up ( codes supplem5t$ & expla9$ by ! codifi$ ,roman law ( ,ju/9ian & mod]n usage on ! basis !re(1 :i* /&s z ! common law1 x seems cle> en\gh t analogical application :e!r ( a section ( ! code or ( a text ( ! ,roman law is ess5tially ! same process4 ,bo? are call$ int]pretation4 ,z our common law is n 9 ! =m ( au?oritative texts1 ! nature ( ! process t goes on :5 a lead+ case is appli$ by analogy1 or limit$ 9 its application1 or di/+ui%$1 is conceal$4 ,x does n seem on ! surface to be ! same process z :5 a text ( ! ,dige/ is s appli$ or limit$ or di/+ui%$4 ,h5ce x has be5 easy = u to assume t c\rts did no m ?an g5u9ely int]pret legislative texts & d$uce ! logical cont5t ( au?oritatively e/abli%$ traditional pr9ciples4 ,x has be5 easy to accept a political !ory1 proce$+ on ! dogma ( sep>ation ( p[]s1 & to lay d[n t c\rts only int]pret & apply1 t all mak+ ( law mu/ come f ! legislature1 t c\rts mu/ take ! law z !y f9d x1 z if !y c\ld always f9d x ready-made = e case4 ,x has be5 easy also to accept a juri/ic !ory t law _c be made2 t x may only be f\nd1 & t ! process ( f9d+ x is a matt] purely ( obs]vation & logic1 involv+ no creative elem5t4 ,if we really believ$ ?is pi\s fiction1 x w\ld argue little fai? 9 ! logical p[]s ( ! b5* 9 view ( ! div]sity ( judicially ass]t$ doctr9es on ! same po9t :i* s frequ5tly exi/ 9 our case law & ! widely diff]5t op9ions ( our be/ judges ) respect to !m4 ,z int]pretation is difficult1 :5 x is difficult1 j because ! legislature _h no actual int5t to asc]ta91 s ! f9d+ ( ! common law on a new po9t is difficult because !re is no rule ( law to f9d4 ,! judicial & ! legislative functions run toge!r also 9 judicial asc]ta9m5t ( ! common law by analogical application ( decid$ cases4 ,z int]pretation on ! "o side runs into lawmak+ & s ! judicial function runs into ! legislative function1 on ! o!r side int]pretation runs into application & s ! judicial function runs into ! adm9i/rative or executive4 ,typically judicial treatm5t ( a controv]sy is a measur+ ( x by a rule 9 ord] to rea* a univ]sal solution = a class ( causes ( :i* ! cause 9 h& is b an example4 ,typically adm9i/rative treatm5t ( a situation is a disposition ( x z a unique occurr5ce1 an individualization :]eby effect is giv5 to its special r ?an to its g5]al features4 ,b adm9i/ration _c ignore ! univ]sal aspects ( situations )\t endang]+ ! g5]al security4 ,nor may judicial decision ignore _! special aspects & exclude all individualization 9 application )\t sacrific+ ! social int]e/ 9 ! individual life ?r\gh mak+ ju/ice too wood5 & me*anical4 ,! idea t !re is no adm9i/rative elem5t 9 ! judicial decision ( causes & t judicial application ( law %\ld be a purely me*anical process goes back to ,ari/otle's ,politics4 ,writ+ be=e a /rict law _h develop$1 9 :at may be call$ ! highe/ po9t ( developm5t ( primitive law1 :5 ! p]sonal "* & feel+s = ! "t be+ ( k+s or magi/rates or dica/s play$ s l>ge a "p 9 ! actual work+s ( legal ju/ice1 ,ari/otle s\ght relief ?r\gh a di/9ction betwe5 ! adm9i/rative & ! judicial4 ,he conceiv$ t discretion 0 an adm9i/rative attribute4 ,9 adm9i/ration reg>d 0 to be _h to times & m5 & special circum/ances4 ,! executive 0 to use a wise discretion 9 adju/+ ! ma*9]y ( gov]nm5t to actual situations z !y arose4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he conceiv$ t a c\rt %\ld h no discretion4 ,to him ! judicial (fice 0 a ,procru/ean "o ( fitt+ ea* case to ! legal b$1 if necess>y by a surgical op]ation4 ,su* a conception met ! ne$s ( ! /rict law4 ,9 a /age ( legal maturity x 0 suit$ to ! ,byzant9e !ory ( law z ! w ( ! emp]or & ( ! judge z ! emp]or's delegate to apply & give effect to t w4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages x _h a suffici5t basis 9 au?ority & 9 ! ne$s ( a p]iod ( /rict law4 ,lat] x fitt$ well into ! ,byzant9e !ory ( lawmak+ :i* ,fr5* publici/s adopt$ & made curr5t 9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x seem$ to be requir$ by our con/itutional provisions = a sep>ation ( p[]s4 ,b 9 practice x has brok5 d[n no less completely ?an ! analog\s idea ( entire sep>ation ( ! judicial f ! lawmak+ function4 ,almo/ all ( ! problems ( jurisprud5ce come d[n to a fundam5tal "o ( rule & discretion1 ( adm9i/ration ( ju/ice by law & adm9i/ration ( ju/ice by ! m or less tra9$ intuition ( exp]i5c$ magi/rates4 ,controv]sies z to ! nature ( law1 :e!r ! traditional elem5t or ! imp]ative elem5t ( legal sy/ems is ! typical law1 controv]sies z to ! nature ( lawmak+1 :e!r ! law is f\nd by judicial empiricism or made by consci\s legislation1 & controv]sies z to ! bases ( law's au?ority1 :e!r 9 reason & sci5ce on ! "o h& or 9 comm& & sov]eign w on ! o!r h&1 get _! significance f _! be>+ ^u ?is "q4 ,controv]sies z to ! relation ( law & morals1 z to ! di/9ction ( law & equity1 z to ! prov9ce ( ! c\rt & ( ! jury1 z to fix$ rule or wide judicial p[] 9 proc$ure1 & z to judicial s5t5ce & adm9i/rative individualization 9 punitive ju/ice are b =ms ( ?is fundam5tal problem4 ,?is is n ! place to discuss t problem4 ,suffice x to say t bo? are necess>y elem5ts 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice & t in/ead ( elim9at+ ei!r1 we mu/ p>tition ! field betwe5 !m4 ,b x has be5 assum$ t "o or ! o!r mu/ gov]n exclusively1 & !re has be5 a cont9ual movem5t 9 legal hi/ory back & =? betwe5 wide discretion & /rict detail$ rule1 betwe5 ju/ice )\t law1 z x 71 & ju/ice accord+ to law4 ,! p[] ( ! magi/rate has be5 a lib]aliz+ ag5cy 9 p]iods ( gr[?4 ,9 ! /age ( equity & natural law1 a /age ( infusion ( moral ideas f )\t into ! law1 ! p[] ( ! magi/rate to give legal =ce to 8 purely moral ideas 0 a *ief in/rum5t4 ,today we rely l>gely ^u adm9i/rative bo>ds & commissions to give legal =ce to ideas :i* ! law ignores4 ,on ! o!r h& rule & =m ) no m>g9 ( application h be5 ! ma9 reliance ( p]iods ( /ability4 ,! /rict law s\ght to leave no?+ to ! judge beyond see+ :e!r ! lett] _h be5 compli$ )4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury abhorr$ judicial discretion & s\ght to exclude ! adm9i/rative elem5t f ! doma9 ( judicial ju/ice4 ,yet a c]ta9 field ( ju/ice )\t law always rema9$ & by "o device or ano!r ! balance ( ! suppos$ly exclud$ adm9i/rative elem5t 0 pres]v$4 ,9 ! /rict law individualization 0 to be exclud$ by h>d & fa/ me*anical proc$ure4 ,9 practice ?is proc$ure 0 correct$ & ! balance betwe5 rule & discretion1 betwe5 ! legal & ! adm9i/rative1 0 re/or$ by fictions & by an executive disp5s+ p[]4 ,roman equity has its orig9 9 ! imp]ium ( ! praetor--8 royal p[] to disp5se ) ! /rict law 9 p>ticul> situations4 ,also ,engli% equity has its orig9 9 ! royal p[] ( discretion>y application ( law & disp5s+ ) law 9 p>ticul> cases1 misuse ( :i* z a political in/itution 0 "o ( ! causes ( ! d[nfall ( ! ,/u>ts4 ,?us we get a ?ird ag5cy = re/or+ ! balance 9 ! =m ( sy/ematic int]position ( praetor or *ancellor on equitable gr\nds1 lead+ to a sy/em ( equity4 ,c>ri$ too f> 9 ! /age ( equity & natural law1 ov]developm5t ( ! adm9i/rative elem5t br+s ab\t a reaction & 9 ! maturity ( law individualization is pu%$ to ! wall once m4 ,yet ?is elim9ation ( ! adm9i/rative takes place m 9 !ory & 9 appe>ance ?an 9 reality4 ,= ju/ice comes to be adm9i/]$ 9 l>ge measure ?r\gh ! application ( legal /&>ds :i* admit ( a wide m>g9 = ! facts ( p>ticul> cases1 & ! application ( ^! /&>ds is committ$ to laym5 or to ! discretion ( ! tribunal4 ,moreov] a c]ta9 judicial individualization goes on4 ,p>tly ?is takes ! =m ( a m>g9 ( discretion>y application ( equitable rem$ies1 h&$ d[n f ! /age ( equity & natural law4 ,p>tly x takes ! =m ( asc]ta9m5t ( ! facts ) ref]5ce to ! legal result desir$ 9 view ( ! legal rule or ( *oice betwe5 compet+ rules 9 effect cov]+ ! same gr\nd1 al?\gh nom9ally = di/9ct situations4 ,9 o!r words1 a m subtle fiction does = ! maturity ( law :at is done = ! /rict law by its relatively crude proc$ural fictions4 ,( ^! five ag5cies = pres]v+ ! adm9i/rative elem5t 9 judicial ju/ice1 9 p]iods :5 legal !ory excludes x1 two call = special consid]ation4 ,x is usual to describe law z an aggregate ( rules4 ,b unless ! ^w rule is us$ 9 s wide a s5se z to be mislead+1 su* a def9ition1 fram$ ) ref]5ce to codes or by juri/s ^: eyes 7 fix$ ^u ! law ( prop]ty1 gives an inadequate picture ( ! manifold compon5ts ( a mod]n legal sy/em4 ,rules1 t is1 def9ite1 detail$ provisions = def9ite1 detail$ /ates ( fact1 are ! ma9 reliance ( ! beg9n+s ( law4 ,9 ! maturity ( law !y are employ$ *iefly 9 situations :]e !re is exceptional ne$ ( c]ta9ty 9 ord] to uphold ! economic ord]4 ,) ! adv5t ( legal writ+ & juri/ic !ory 9 ! transition f ! /rict law to equity & natural law1 a second elem5t develops & becomes a controll+ factor 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,9 place ( detail$ rules precisely det]m9+ :at %all take place ^u a precisely detail$ /ate ( facts1 reliance is _h ^u g5]al premises = judicial & juri/ic reason+4 ,^! legal pr9ciples1 z we call !m1 are made use ( to supply new rules1 to int]pret old ones1 to meet new situations1 to measure ! scope & application ( rules & /&>ds & to reconcile !m :5 !y conflict or ov]lap4 ,lat]1 :5 juri/ic /udy seeks to put ! mat]ials ( ! law 9 ord]1 a ?ird elem5t develops1 :i* may be call$ legal conceptions4 ,^! are m or less exactly def9$ types1 to :i* we ref] cases or by :i* we classify !m1 s t :5 a /ate ( facts is classifi$ we may attribute !reto ! legal consequ5ces atta*+ to ! type4 ,all ( ^! admit ( me*anical or rigidly logical application4 ,a f\r? elem5t1 h[ev]1 :i* plays a great "p 9 ! ev]yday adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 is ( q ano!r "*4 ,legal /&>ds ( conduct appe> fir/ 9 ,roman equity4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ( transactions or relations involv+ good fai?1 ! =mula 0 made to read t ! def5dant 0 to be condemn$ to t :i* 9 good fai? he ought to give or d = or r5d] to ! pla9tiff4 ,?us ! judge _h a m>g9 ( discretion to det]m9e :at good fai? call$ = & 9 ,cic]o's "t ! greate/ lawy] ( ! day ?\ght ^! actiones bonae fidei requir$ a /rong judge because ( ! dang]\s p[] :i* !y all[$ him4 ,f ?is proc$ural device1 ,roman lawy]s work$ out c]ta9 /&>ds or measures ( conduct1 su* z :at an upright & dilig5t head ( a family w\ld d1 or ! way 9 :i* a prud5t & dilig5t husb&man w\ld use 8 l&4 ,9 simil> fa%ion ,engli% equity work$ out a /&>d ( fair conduct on ! "p ( a fiduci>y4 ,lat] ! ,anglo-,am]ican law ( torts work$ out1 z a measure = ^? :o are pursu+ "s affirmative c\rse ( conduct1 ! /&>d ( :at a reasonable1 prud5t man w\ld d "u ! circum/ances4 ,also ! law ( public utilities work$ out /&>ds ( reasonable s]vice1 reasonable facilities1 reasonable incid5ts ( ! s]vice & ! l4 ,9 all ^! cases ! rule is t ! conduct ( "o :o acts mu/ come up to ! requirem5ts ( ! /&>d4 ,yet ! significant ?+ is n ! fix$ rule b ! m>g9 ( discretion involv$ 9 ! /&>d & its reg>d = ! circum/ances ( ! individual case4 ,= ?ree *>act]i/ics may be se5 9 legal /&>ds3 7#a7 ,!y all involve a c]ta9 moral judgm5t ^u conduct4 ,x is to be fair1 or consci5ti\s1 or reasonable1 or prud5t1 or dilig5t4 7#b7 ,!y d n call = exact legal k exactly appli$1 b = common s5se ab\t common ?+s or tra9$ intuition ab\t ?+s outside ( ev]yone's exp]i5ce4 7#c7 ,!y are n =mulat$ absolutely & giv5 an exact cont5t1 ei!r by legislation or by judicial decision1 b are relative to times & places & circum/ances & are to be appli$ ) ref]5ce to ! facts ( ! case 9 h&4 ,!y recognize t )9 ! b\nds fix$ ea* case is to a c]ta9 ext5t unique4 ,9 ! reaction f equity & natural law1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ^! /&>ds 7 di/ru/$4 ,"l ,camd5's say+ t ! discretion ( a judge 0 ! law ( tyrants1 t x 0 diff]5t 9 diff]5t m51 0 casual & dep5d5t ^u temp]am5t1 has 9 x ! :ole _s ( ! maturity ( law4 ,am]ican /ate c\rts s\ght to turn ! pr9ciples by :i* ! *ancellors 7 wont to ex]cise _! discretion into h>d & fa/ rules ( jurisdiction4 ,!y s\ght to r$uce ! /&>d ( reasonable c>e to a set ( h>d & fa/ rules4 ,if "o cross$ a railroad1 he mu/ /op1 look & li/54 ,x 0 neglig5ce p] se to get on or (f a mov+ c>1 to h "p ( ! body protrud+ f a railroad c>1 & ! l4 ,also !y s\ght to put ! duties ( public utilities 9 ! =m ( def9ite rules ) a detail$1 au?oritatively fix$ cont5t4 ,all ^! attempts to d away ) ! m>g9 ( application involv$ 9 legal /&>ds broke d[n4 ,! *ief result 0 a reaction 9 ! c\rse ( :i* _m /ates turn$ ov] all que/ions ( neglig5ce to juries1 free ev5 f effective advice f ! b5*1 :ile _m o!r jurisdictions h be5 turn+ ov] subject aft] subject to adm9i/rative bo>ds & commissions to be dealt ) = a season )\t law4 ,9 any ev5t1 :e!r ! /&>d ( due c>e 9 an action = neglig5ce is apply+ by a jury1 or ! /&>d ( reasonable facilities = transportation is apply+ by a public s]vice commission1 ! process is "o ( judg+ ( ! quality ( a bit ( conduct "u its special circum/ances & ) ref]5ce to ideas ( fairness ent]ta9$ by ! layman or ! ideas ( :at is reasonable ent]ta9$ by ! m or less exp]t commission]4 ,common s5se1 exp]i5ce & intuition are reli$ ^u1 n te*nical rule & scrupul\sly me*anical application4 ,we are famili> ) judicial individualization 9 ! adm9i/ration ( equitable rem$ies4 ,ano!r =m1 namely1 individualization ?r\gh latitude ( application "u ! guise ( *oice or asc]ta9m5t ( a rule1 is conceal$ by ! fiction ( ! logical complet5ess ( ! legal sy/em & ! me*anical1 logical infallibility ( ! logical process :]eby ! pr$et]m9$ rules implicit 9 ! giv5 legal mat]ials are d$uc$ & appli$4 ,to a l>ge & app>5tly gr[+ ext5t ! practice ( our application ( law has be5 t jurors or c\rts1 z ! case may be1 take ! rules ( law z a g5]al guide1 det]m9e :at ! equities ( ! cause dem&1 & contrive to f9d a v]dict or r5d] a judgm5t accord+ly1 wr5*+ ! law no m ?an is necess>y4 ,_m c\rts today are suspect$ ( asc]ta9+ :at ! equities ( a controv]sy require1 & !n rak+ up adjudicat$ cases to ju/ify ! result desir$4 ,(t5 =mulas are conv5i5tly ela/ic s t !y may or may n apply4 ,(t5 rules ( contr>y t5or ov]lap1 leav+ a conv5i5t no-man's-l& :]e9 cases may be decid$ ei!r way accord+ to :i* rule ! c\rt *ooses 9 ord] to rea* a result arriv$ at on o!r gr\nds4 ,occasionally a judge is f\nd :o ackn[l$ges frankly t he looks *iefly at ! e?ical situation betwe5 ! p>ties & does n all[ ! law to int]f]e !re) beyond :at is inevitable4 ,?us we h 9 fact a crude equitable application1 a crude individualization1 ?r\gh\t ! field ( judicial adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,x is assum$ by c\rts m widely ?an we suspect1 or at lea/1 m widely ?an we l to ackn[l$ge4 ,o/5sibly !re is no su* p[]4 ,b :5 "o looks b5ea? ! surface ( ! law reports1 ! process reveals itself "u ! "n ( implication or 9 ! guise ( two l9es ( decisions ( ! same tribunal ^u ! same po9t f :i* x may *oose at w1 or 9 ! =m ( :at h be5 t]m$ s(t spots 9 ! law--spots :]e ! l9es are s drawn by ! adjudicat$ cases t ! c\rt may g ei!r way z ! e?ical exig5cies ( ! special circum/ances ( ! case 9 h& may require1 ) no app>5t transgression ( :at purport to be h>d & fa/ rules4 ,su* has be5 ! result ( attempts to exclude ! adm9i/rative elem5t 9 adjudication4 ,9 !ory !re is no su* ?+ except ) respect to equitable rem$ies1 :]e x exi/s = hi/orical reasons4 ,9 practice !re is a great deal ( x1 & t 9 a =m :i* is unhappily de/ructive ( c]ta9ty & uni=mity4 ,necess>y z x is1 ! me?od by :i* we atta9 a ne$$ individualization is injuri\s to respect = law4 ,if ! c\rts d n respect ! law1 :o w8 ,!re is no exclusive cause ( ! curr5t ,am]ican attitude t[>d ! law4 ,b judicial evasion & w>p+ ( ! law1 9 ord] to secure 9 practice a fre$om ( judicial action n conc$$ 9 !ory1 is c]ta9ly "o cause4 ,we ne$ a !ory :i* recognizes ! adm9i/rative elem5t z a legitimate "p ( ! judicial function & insi/s t individualization 9 ! application ( legal precepts is no less important ?an ! cont5ts ( ^? precepts !mselves4 ,?ree !ories ( application ( law obta9 9 ! legal sci5ce ( today4 ,! !ory :i* has ! l>ge/ foll[+ among practition]s & 9 dogmatic exposition ( ! law is analytical4 ,x assumes a complete body ( law ) no gaps & no ant9omies1 giv5 au?ority by ! /ate at "o /roke & s to be treat$ z if e item 0 ( ! same date z e o!r4 ,if ! law is 9 ! =m ( a code1 its adh]5ts apply ! canons ( g5u9e int]pretation & ask :at ! sev]al code provisions mean z !y /&1 look$ at logically r ?an hi/orically4 ,!y endeavor to f9d ! pre-appo9t$ code pigeonhole = ea* concrete case1 to put ! case 9 h& into x by a purely logical process & to =mulate ! result 9 a judgm5t4 ,if ! law is 9 ! =m ( a body ( report$ decisions1 !y assume t ^? decisions may be treat$ z if all r5d]$ at ! same "t & z conta9+ implicitly :atev] is necess>y to ! decision ( future causes :i* !y d n express4 ,!y may def9e conceptions or !y may decl>e pr9ciples4 ,! logically pr$et]m9$ decision is conta9$ 9 ! conception to :i* ! facts are ref]r$ or involv$ 9 ! pr9ciple )9 ^: scope ! facts fall4 ,a purely logical process1 exactly analog\s to g5u9e int]pretation ( a legislative rule1 w yield ! appropriate conception f giv5 premises or discov] ! appropriate pr9ciple f among ^? :i* sup]ficially appe> to apply4 ,application is m]ely =mulation 9 a judgm5t ( ! result obta9$ by analysis ( ! case & logical developm5t ( ! premises conta9$ 9 ! report$ decisions4 ,among tea*]s a hi/orical !ory has ! l>g] foll[+4 ,if ! law is 9 ! =m ( a code1 ! code provisions are assum$ to be 9 ! ma9 decl>atory ( ! law z x previ\sly exi/$2 ! code is reg>d$ z a cont9uation & developm5t ( pre-exi/+ law4 ,all exposition ( ! code & ( any provision !re( mu/ beg9 by an elaborate inquiry into ! pre-exi/+ law & ! hi/ory & developm5t ( ! compet+ juri/ic !ories among :i* ! fram]s ( ! code _h to *oose4 ,if ! law is 9 ! =m ( a body ( report$ decisions1 ! lat] decisions are reg>d$ z b decl>+ & illu/rat+ ! pr9ciples to be f\nd by hi/orical /udy ( ! old] ones2 z develop+ legal conceptions & pr9ciples to be f\nd by hi/orical /udy ( ! old] law4 ,h5ce all exposition mu/ beg9 ) an elaborate hi/orical inquiry 9 :i* ! idea t has be5 unfold+ 9 ! c\rse ( judicial decision is reveal$ & ! l9es are disclos$ along :i* legal developm5t mu/ move4 ,b :5 ! cont5t ( ! applicable legal precept is discov]$ 9 ^! ways1 ! me?od ( apply+ x 9 no way diff]s f t :i* obta9s "u ! analytical !ory4 ,! process ( application is assum$ to be a purely logical "o4 ,d ! facts come )9 or fail to come )9 ! legal precept8 ,?is is ! sole "q = ! judge4 ,:5 by hi/orical inve/igation he has f\nd out :at ! rule is1 he has only to fit x to j & unju/ alike4 ,analytical & hi/orical !ories ( application ( law ?us seek to exclude ! adm9i/rative elem5t :olly & _! adh]5ts resort to fictions to cov] up ! judicial individualization :i* none ! less obta9s 9 practice or else ignore x1 say+ t x is b a result ( ! imp]fect con/itution ( tribunals or ( ! ignorance or slo? ( ^? :o sit !re94 ,! latt] explanation is no m satisfy+ ?an ! fictions1 & a new !ory has sprung up ( late 9 ,cont95tal ,europe :i* may be und]/ood be/ by call+ x ! equitable !ory1 s9ce ! me?ods ( ! ,engli% ,*ancellor _h mu* to d ) sugge/+ x4 ,to ! adh]5ts ( ?is !ory ! ess5tial ?+ is a reasonable & j solution ( ! individual controv]sy4 ,!y conceive ( ! legal precept1 :e!r legislative or traditional1 z a guide to ! judge1 lead+ him t[>d ! j result4 ,b !y insi/ t )9 wide limits he %\ld be free to deal ) ! individual case s z to meet ! dem&s ( ju/ice betwe5 ! p>ties & accord ) ! reason & moral s5se ( ord9>y m54 ,!y insi/ t application ( law is n a purely me*anical process4 ,!y cont5d t x involves n logic only b moral judgm5ts z to p>ticul> situations & c\rses ( conduct 9 view ( ! special circum/ances :i* are nev] exactly alike4 ,!y insi/ t su* judgm5ts involve intuitions bas$ ^u exp]i5ce & are n to be express$ 9 def9itely =mulat$ rules4 ,!y argue t ! cause is n to be fitt$ to ! rule b ! rule to ! cause4 ,mu* t has be5 writt5 by advocates ( ! equitable !ory ( application ( law is extravagant4 ,z usually happ5s1 9 reaction f !ories go+ too f> 9 "o direction ?is !ory has gone too f> 9 ! o!r4 ,! la/ c5tury w\ld h elim9at$ individualization ( application4 ,n[1 z 9 ! sixte5?- & sev5te5?-c5tury reaction f ! /rict law1 come ^? :o w\ld h no?+ else2 :o w\ld turn ov] ! :ole field ( judicial ju/ice to adm9i/rative me?ods4 ,if we mu/ *oose1 if judicial adm9i/ration ( ju/ice mu/ ( necessity be :olly me*anical or else :olly adm9i/rative1 x 0 a s\nd in/9ct ( lawy]s 9 ! maturity ( law t l$ !m to pref] ! =m]4 ,only a sa9t1 su* z ,l\is ,,ix "u ! oak at ,v9c5nes1 may be tru/$ ) ! wide p[]s ( a judge re/ra9$ only by a desire = j results 9 ea* case to be rea*$ by tak+ ! law = a g5]al guide4 ,& ,/4 ,l\is did n h ! cr[d$ cal5d>s t confront ! mod]n judge4 ,b are we requir$ to *oose8 ,may we n le>n some?+ f ! futility ( all ef=ts to adm9i/] ju/ice exclusively by ei!r me?od8 ,may we n f9d ! prop] field ( ea* by exam9+ ! means ?r\gh :i* 9 fact we a*ieve an individualization :i* we d5y 9 !ory1 & consid]+ ! cases 9 :i* ^? means op]ate mo/ p]si/5tly & ! actual adm9i/ration ( ju/ice mo/ ob/9ately refuses to become z me*anical 9 practice z we expect x to be 9 !ory8 ,9 ,anglo-,am]ican law today !re are no less ?an sev5 ag5cies = individualiz+ ! application ( law4 ,we a*ieve an individualization 9 practice3 7#a7 ?r\gh ! discretion ( c\rts 9 ! application ( equitable rem$ies2 7#b7 ?r\gh legal /&>ds appli$ to conduct g5]ally :5 injury results & also to c]ta9 relations & call+s2 7#c7 ?r\gh ! p[] ( juries to r5d] g5]al v]dicts2 7#d7 ?r\gh latitude ( judicial application involv$ 9 f9d+ ! law2 7#e7 ?r\gh devices = adju/+ p5al treatm5t to ! individual (f5d]2 7#f7 ?r\gh in=mal me?ods ( judicial adm9i/ration 9 petty c\rts1 & 7#g7 ?r\gh adm9i/rative tribunals4 ,! second & f\r? h be5 consid]$4 ,let u look = a mom5t at ! o!rs4 ,discretion 9 ! ex]cise ( equitable rem$ies is an outgr[? ( ! purely p]sonal int]v5tion 9 extraord9>y cases on gr\nds t appeal$ to ! consci5ce ( ! *ancellor 9 :i* equity jurisdiction has its orig94 ,some?+ ( ! orig9al flavor ( equitable int]position rema9s 9 ! doctr9e ( p]sonal b> to relief1 & 9 ! e?ical quality ( "s ( ! maxims :i* ann\nce policies to be pursu$ 9 ! ex]cise ( ! *ancellor's p[]s4 ,b x 0 possible = ! n9ete5? c5tury to reconcile :at rema9$ ( ! *ancellor's discretion ) its mode ( ?9k+4 ,:]e ! pla9tiff's "r 0 legal b ! legal rem$y 0 n adequate to secure him 9 :at ! legal "r entitl$ him to claim1 equity gave a concurr5t rem$y supplem5t+ ! /rict law4 ,z ! rem$y 9 equity 0 supplem5t>y & concurr5t1 9 case ! *ancellor 9 8 discretion kept 8 h&s (f1 z he w\ld if he felt t he c\ld n br+ ab\t an equitable result1 ! law w\ld /ill op]ate4 ,! pla9tiff's "r 0 9 no wise at ! m]cy ( anyone's discretion4 ,he m]ely lo/ an extraord9>y & supplem5t>y rem$y & 0 left to ! ord9>y c\rse ( ! law4 ,su* 0 ! or?odox view ( ! relation ( law & equity4 ,equity did n alt] a jot or tittle ( ! law4 ,x 0 a rem$ial sy/em alongside ( ! law1 tak+ ! law = grant$ & giv+ legal rights great] efficacy 9 c]ta9 situations4 ,b take ! case ( a h>d b>ga91 :]e ! *ancellor 9 8 discretion may d5y specific p]=mance4 ,9 ,engl& & 9 sev]al /ates ! damages at law d n include ! value ( ! b>ga9 :]e ! contract is = ! sale ( l&4 ,h5ce unless specific p]=mance is grant$1 ! pla9tiff's legal "r is defeat$4 ,x is notori\s t b>ga9s appeal diff]5tly to diff]5t *ancellors 9 ?is respect4 ,9 ! h&s ( "s ! doctr9e z to h>d b>ga9s has a t5d5cy to become wood51 z x 74 ,!re is a h>d & fa/ rule t c]ta9 b>ga9s are h>d & t equity w n en=ce !m4 ,9 /ates :]e ! value ( ! b>ga9 may be recov]$ at law1 x may well be sometimes t ! b>ga9 might z well be en=c$ 9 equity1 if x is n to be cancell$4 ,b ! *ancellor is n unlikely to wa% 8 h&s ( a h>d case1 say+ t ! c\rt ( law is m call\s2 let t c\rt act1 al?\gh t c\rt is ! same judge ) ano!r docket be=e him4 ,9 o!r h&s1 ! doctr9e t5ds to become ultro-e?ical & to impair ! security ( transactions4 ,9 o!r words1 ! m>g9 ( discretion 9 application ( equitable rem$ies t5ds on ! "o h& to disappe> ?r\gh cry/allization ( ! pr9ciples gov]n+ its ex]cise into rigid rules1 or on ! o!r h&1 to become ov]p]sonal & unc]ta9 & caprici\s4 ,yet z "o reads ! reports att5tively he _c d\bt t 9 action x is an important eng9e ( ju/ice2 t x is a ne$$ safety valve 9 ! work+ ( our legal sy/em4 ,at common law ! *ief reliance = individualiz+ ! application ( law is ! p[] ( juries to r5d] g5]al v]dicts1 ! p[] to f9d ! facts 9 su* a way z to compel a diff]5t result f t :i* ! legal rule /rictly appli$ w\ld require4 ,9 appe>ance !re has be5 no individualization4 ,! judgm5t foll[s necess>ily & me*anically f ! facts ^u ! record4 ,b ! facts f\nd 7 f\nd 9 ord] to rea* ! result & are by no means necess>ily ! facts ( ! actual case4 ,probably ?is p[] alone made ! common law ( ma/] & s]vant tol]able 9 ! la/ g5]ation4 ,yet ex]cise ( ?is p[]1 ) respect to :i*1 z ,"l ,coke express$ x1 ! jurors are *ancellors1 has made ! jury an unsatisfactory tribunal 9 _m classes ( cases4 ,x is l>gely responsible = ! practice ( repeat$ new trials :i* makes ! jury a mo/ exp5sive tribunal4 ,! crude individualization a*iev$ by juries1 influ5c$ by emotional appeals1 prejudice & ! peculi> p]sonal ideas ( individual jurors1 involves q z mu* inju/ice at "o extreme z me*anical application ( law by judges at ! o!r extreme4 ,inde$ ! un*eck$ discretion ( juries1 :i* legislation has br\ght ab\t 9 "s jurisdictions1 is worse ?an ! hobbl$ c\rt & rigid me*anical application ( law f :i* x is a reaction4 ,our adm9i/ration ( punitive ju/ice is full ( devices = individualiz+ ! application ( crim9al law4 ,our complicat$ ma*9]y ( prosecution involves a great s]ies ( mitigat+ ag5cies :]eby individual (f5d]s may be sp>$ or dealt ) l5i5tly4 ,beg9n+ at ! bottom !re is ! discretion ( ! police z to :o & :at %all be br\ght to ! judicial mill4 ,next are ! wide p[]s ( our prosecut+ (fic]s :o may ignore (f5ces or (f5d]s1 may dismiss proce$+s 9 _! e>li] /ages1 may pres5t !m to gr& juries 9 su* a way t no indictm5t results1 or may ent] a nolle prosequi aft] indictm5t4 ,ev5 if ! public prosecutor desires to prosecute1 ! gr& jury may ignore ! *>ge4 ,if ! cause comes to trial1 ! petit jury may ex]cise a disp5s+ p[] by means ( a g5]al v]dict4 ,next comes judicial discretion z to s5t5ce1 or 9 "s jurisdictions1 assessm5t ( puni%m5t by ! discretion ( ! trial jury4 ,^u ^! are sup]pos$ adm9i/rative p>ole or probation & executive p[] to p>don4 ,! lawy]-politician :o practices 9 ! crim9al c\rts kn[s well h[ to "w ^u ?is complicat$ ma*9]y s z to enable ! pr(essional crim9al to escape z well z ^? or ev5 in/ead ( ^? = :om ^! devices 7 int5d$4 ,!y h be5 develop$ to obviate ! unhappy results ( a !ory :i* w\ld h made ! puni%m5t me*anically fit ! crime in/ead ( adju/+ ! p5al treatm5t to ! crim9al4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 ! attempt to exclude ! adm9i/rative elem5t has br\ght ab\t back-h&$ means ( individualization :i* g beyond ! ne$s ( ! situation & defeat ! purposes ( ! law4 ,ev5 m /rik+ is ! recrudesc5ce ( p]sonal gov]nm5t1 by way ( reaction f an extreme ( gov]nm5t ( laws & n ( m51 :i* is involv$ 9 ! sett+ up ( adm9i/rative tribunals on e h& & = e purpose4 ,! regulation ( public utilities1 apportionm5t ( ! use ( ! wat] ( runn+ /reams among diff]5t appropriators1 workm5's comp5sation1 ! actual duration & nature ( puni%m5t = crime1 admission to & practice ( pr(essions & ev5 ( trades1 ! p[] to ent] or to rema9 9 ! c\ntry1 bank+1 insurance1 unfair competition & re/ra9t ( trade1 ! en=cem5t ( factory laws1 ( pure food laws1 ( h\s+ laws & ( laws z to protection f fire & ! relation ( pr9cipal & ag5t1 z betwe5 f>m]s & commission m]*ants1 are b "s ( ! subjects :i* ! liv+ law1 ! law 9 action1 is leav+ to executive ju/ice 9 adm9i/rative tribunals4 ,to "s ext5t ?is is requir$ by ! increas+ complexity ( ! social ord] & ! m9ute division ( labor :i* x involves4 ,yet ?is complexity & ?is division ( labor develop$ = g5]ations 9 :i* ! common-law jeal\sy ( adm9i/ration 0 dom9ant4 ,*iefly our revival ( executive ju/ice 9 ! pres5t c5tury is "o ( ^? rev]sions to ju/ice )\t law :i* are p]5nial 9 legal hi/ory4 ,z 9 ! case ( l rev]sions 9 ! pa/ x is ! =]unn] ( gr[?4 ,x is ! fir/ =m ( reaction f ! ov]rigid application ( law 9 a p]iod ( /ability4 ,a bad adju/m5t betwe5 law & adm9i/ration & cumbr\s1 ineffective & unbus9esslike legal proc$ure1 involv+ wa/e ( "t & money 9 ! m]e etiquette ( ju/ice1 are do+ 9 our "t :at l conditions did 9 ,engli% law 9 ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,if we look back at ! means ( individualiz+ ! application ( law :i* h develop$ 9 our legal sy/em1 x w be se5 t almo/ )\t exception !y h to d ) cases involv+ ! moral quality ( individual conduct or ( ! conduct ( ent]prises1 z di/+ui%$ f matt]s ( prop]ty & ( comm]cial law4 ,equity uses its p[]s ( individualiz+ to ! be/ advantage 9 connection ) ! conduct ( ^? 9 :om tru/ & confid5ce h be5 repos$4 ,legal /&>ds are us$ *iefly 9 ! law ( torts1 9 ! law ( public utilities & 9 ! law z to fiduci>y relations4 ,jury lawlessness is an ag5cy ( ju/ice *iefly 9 connection ) ! moral quality ( conduct :]e ! special circum/ances exclude t intellig5ce )\t passion :i*1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 *>act]izes ! law4 ,x is significant t 9 ,engl& today ! civil jury is sub/antially conf9$ to cases ( defamation1 malici\s prosecution1 assault & batt]y & brea* ( promise ( m>riage4 ,judicial individualization ?r\gh *oice ( a rule is mo/ noticeable 9 ! law ( torts1 9 ! law ( dome/ic relations & 9 pass+ ^u ! conduct ( ent]prises4 ,! elaborate sy/em ( individualization 9 crim9al proc$ure has to d :olly ) individual human conduct4 ,! in=mal me?ods ( petty c\rts are meant = tribunals :i* pass ^u conduct 9 ! cr[d & hurry ( our l>ge cities4 ,! adm9i/rative tribunals1 :i* are sett+ up on e h&1 are mo/ call$ = & prove mo/ effective z means ( regulat+ ! conduct ( ent]prises4 ,a l conclusion is sugge/$ :5 we look into ! relat$ controv]sy z to ! respective prov9ces ( common law & ( legislation4 ,inh]itance & succession1 def9ition ( int]e/s 9 prop]ty & ! conveyance !re(1 matt]s ( comm]cial law & ! creation1 incid5ts & transf] ( obligations h prov$ a fruitful field = legislation4 ,9 ^! cases ! social int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security is ! controll+ elem5t4 ,b :]e ! que/ions are n ( int]e/s ( sub/ance b ( ! weigh+ ( human conduct & pass+ ^u its moral aspects1 legislation has accompli%$ little4 ,no codification ( ! law ( torts has done m ?an provide a few significantly broad g5]alizations4 ,on ! o!r h&1 succession to prop]ty is ev]y:]e a matt] ( /atute law & comm]cial law is codifi$ or codify+ ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,moreov] ! common law insi/s ^u its doctr9e ( />e decisis *iefly 9 ! two cases ( prop]ty & comm]cial law4 ,:]e legislation is effective1 !re also me*anical application is effective & desirable4 ,:]e legislation is ineffective1 ! same difficulties t prev5t its satisfactory op]ation require u to leave a wide m>g9 ( discretion 9 application1 z 9 ! /&>d ( ! reasonable man 9 our law ( neglig5ce & ! /&>d ( ! upright & dilig5t head ( a family appli$ by ! ,roman law1 & especially by ! mod]n ,roman law1 to s _m que/ions ( fault1 :]e ! "q is really "o ( good fai?4 ,all attempts to cut d[n ?is m>g9 h prov$ futile4 ,may we n conclude t 9 ! "p ( ! law :i* has to d imm$iately ) conduct complete ju/ice is n to be atta9$ by ! me*anical application ( fix$ rules8 ,is x n cle> t 9 ?is "p ( ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice ! tra9$ intuition & discipl9$ judgm5t ( ! judge mu/ be our assurance t causes w be decid$ on pr9ciples ( reason & n accord+ to ! *ance dictates ( caprice1 & t a due balance w be ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! g5]al security & ! individual human life8 ,philosophically ! apportionm5t ( ! field betwe5 rule & discretion :i* is sugge/$ by ! use ( rules & ( /&>ds respectively 9 mod]n law has its basis 9 ! respective fields ( intellig5ce & intuition4 ,b]gson tells u t ! =m] is m adapt$ to ! inorganic1 ! latt] m to life4 ,likewise rules1 :]e we proce$ me*anically1 are m adapt$ to prop]ty & to bus9ess transactions1 & /&>ds2 :]e we proce$ ^u intuitions1 are m adapt$ to human conduct & to ! conduct ( ent]prises4 ,accord+ to him1 intellig5ce is *>act]iz$ by its p[] ( grasp+ ! g5]al elem5t 9 a situation & relat+ x to pa/ situations1 & ?is p[] involves loss ( t p]fect ma/]y ( a special situation 9 :i* in/9ct rules4 ,9 ! law ( prop]ty & 9 ! law ( comm]cial transactions x is precisely ?is g5]al elem5t & its relation to pa/ situations t is decisive4 ,! rule1 me*anically appli$1 works by repetition & precludes individuality 9 results1 :i* w\ld ?reat5 ! security ( acquisitions & ! security ( transactions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! h&made1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ma*9e-made product1 ! specializ$ skill ( ! workman gives u some?+ inf9itely m subtle ?an c be express$ 9 rules4 ,9 law "s situations call = ! product ( h&s1 n ( ma*9es1 = !y involve n repetition1 :]e ! g5]al elem5ts are significant1 b unique ev5ts1 9 :i* ! special circum/ances are significant4 ,e promissory note is l e o!r4 ,e fee simple is l e o!r4 ,e di/ribution ( assets repeats ! conditions t h recurr$ s9ce ! ,/atute ( ,di/ributions4 ,b no two cases ( neglig5ce h be5 alike or ev] w be alike4 ,:]e ! call is = individuality 9 ! product ( ! legal mill1 we resort to /&>ds4 ,& ! sacrifice ( c]ta9ty 9 s do+ is m app>5t ?an actual4 ,= ! c]ta9ty atta9$ by me*anical application ( fix$ rules to human conduct has always be5 illusory4 ,,iv ,liability ,a sy/emati/ :o w\ld fit ! liv+ body ( ! law to 8 logical analytical s*eme mu/ proce$ aft] ! mann] ( ,procru/es4 ,inde$1 ?is is true ( all sci5ce4 ,9 life ph5om5a are unique4 ,! biologi/ ( today sometimes d\bts :e!r !re are species & disclaims high] gr\ps z m ?an conv5i5ces ( /udy4 ,divid+ l9es1 said a great ,am]ican naturali/1 d n occur 9 nature except z accid5ts4 ,organization & sy/em are logical con/ructions ( ! exp\nd] r ?an 9 ! ext]nal _w exp\nd$4 ,!y are ! means :]eby we make our exp]i5ce ( t _w intelligible & available4 ,x is ) no illusion1 !re=e1 t ,i am lead+ y to a juri/ic ultima ,?ule t ,i essay a bit ( sy/ematic legal sci5ce on a philosophical basis4 ,ev5 if x nev] atta9s a f9al sy/em 9 :i* ! law %all /& fa/ =ev]1 ! cont9ual juri/ic se>* = ! m inclusive ord]1 ! cont9ual juri/ic /ruggle = a simpl] sy/em t w bett] ord] & bett] reconcile ! ph5om5a ( ! actual adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 is no va9 que/4 ,attempts to und]/& & to exp\nd legal ph5om5a lead to g5]alizations :i* pr(\ndly affect ^? ph5om5a1 & criticism ( ^? g5]alizations1 9 ! light ( ! ph5om5a !y seek to expla9 & to :i* !y give rise1 enables u to replace !m or modify !m or supplem5t !m & ?us to keep ! law a gr[+ in/rum5t = a*iev+ exp&+ human desires4 ,"o ( ! /ock que/ions ( ! sci5ce ( law is ! nature & sy/em & philosophical basis ( situations 9 :i* "o may exact f ano!r t he give or d or furni% some?+ 7to use ! ,roman =mula7 = ! advantage ( ! =m]4 ,! classical ,roman lawy]1 ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( natural law1 spoke ( a bond or relation ( "r & law betwe5 !m :]eby ! "o might ju/ly & legally exact & ! o!r 0 b\nd 9 ju/ice & law to p]=m4 ,9 mod]n times1 ?9k+1 :e!r he kn[s x or n1 9 t]ms ( natural rights & by d]ivation ( legal rights1 ! analytical juri/ speaks ( rights 9 p]sonam4 ,! ,anglo-,am]ican lawy]1 ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( proc$ure1 speaks ( contracts & torts1 us+ ! =m] t]m 9 a wide s5se4 ,if press$1 he may ref] c]ta9 en=ceable claims to exact & duties ( answ]+ to ! exaction to a ,romani/ category ( quasi-contract1 satisfi$ to say quasi because on analysis !y d n comport ) 8 !ory ( contract1 & to say contract because proc$urally !y are en=c$ ex contractu4 ,press$ fur!r1 he may be will+ to add quasi tort = cases ( common-law liability )\t fault & workm5's comp5sation--quasi because !re is no fault1 tort because proc$urally ! liability is giv5 effect ex delicto4 ,b cases ( duties en=ceable ei!r ex contractu or ex delicto at ! option ( ! plead] & cases :]e ! mo/ a/ute plead] is h>d pu%$ to *oose h driv5 u to seek some?+ bett]4 ,obligation1 ! ,roman t]m1 mean+ ! relation ( ! p>ties to :at ! analytical juri/s h call$ a "r 9 p]sonam is an exotic 9 our law 9 t s5se4 ,moreov] ! relation is n ! significant ?+ = sy/ematic purposes1 z is %[n by civilian t5d5cies 9 ! phrases active obligation & passive obligation to ext5d ! t]m f ! relation to ! capacity or claim to exact & duty to answ] to ! exaction4 ,! phrase "r 9 p]sonam & its co-phrase "r 9 rem are s mislead+ 9 _! implications1 z any tea*] soon le>ns1 t we may leave !m to ! textbooks ( analytical jurisprud5ce4 ,9 ?is lecture1 ,i %all use ! simple ^w liability = ! situation :]eby "o may exact legally & ! o!r is legally subject$ to ! exaction4 ,us+ ! ^w 9 t s5se1 ,i %all inquire into ! philosophical basis ( liability & ! sy/em ( ! law on t subject z relat$ to t basis4 ,yell[plu% said ( spell+ t e g5tleman 0 entitl$ to 8 own4 ,we h no au?oritative in/itutional book ( ,anglo-,am]ican law1 enact$ by sov]eign au?ority1 & h5ce e tea*] ( law is entitl$ to 8 own t]m9ology4 ,s f> z ! beg9n+s ( law _h !ories1 ! fir/ !ory ( liability 0 9 t]ms ( a duty to buy (f ! v5geance ( him to :om an injury _h be5 done :e!r by oneself or by some?+ 9 "o's p[]4 ,! idea is put /rik+ly 9 ! ,anglo-,saxon legal prov]b1 ,buy spe> f side or be> x1 t is1 buy (f ! feud or fight x out4 ,"o :o does an injury or /&s betwe5 an injur$ p]son & 8 v5geance1 by protect+ a k9sman1 a *ild or a dome/ic animal t has wr\ght an injury1 mu/ comp\nd = ! injury or be> ! v5geance ( ! injur$4 ,z ! social int]e/ 9 peace & ord]--! g5]al security 9 its l[e/ t]ms--comes to be secur$ m effectively by regulation & ultimate putt+ d[n ( ! feud z a rem$y1 paym5t ( composition becomes a duty r ?an a privilege1 or 9 ! case ( injuries by p]sons or ?+s 9 "o's p[] a duty alt]native to a duty ( surr5d]+ ! (f5d+ *ild or animal4 ,! next /ep is to measure ! composition n 9 t]ms ( ! v5geance to be b\ght (f b 9 t]ms ( ! injury4 ,a f9al /ep is to put x 9 t]ms ( rep>ation4 ,^! /eps are tak5 halt+ly & m]ge into "o ano!r1 s t we may he> ( a p5alty ( rep>ation4 ,b ! result is to turn composition = v5geance into rep>ation = injury4 ,?us recov]y ( a sum ( money by way ( p5alty = a delict is ! hi/orical />t+ po9t ( liability4 ,"o's neighbor :om "o _h injur$ or :o _h be5 injur$ by ^? :om "o h>bor$ 0 n ! only p]sonality t might desire v5geance 9 a primitive society4 ,"o might affront ! gods1 & by "o's impiety 9 s do+ might imp]il ! g5]al security1 s9ce ! ang]$ gods 7 n unlikely to hit out indiscrim9ately & to ca/ pe/il5ce or hurl lightn+ ^u j & unju/ alike 9 ! community :i* h>bor$ ! impi\s wrongdo]4 ,h5ce if1 9 mak+ a promise1 "o call$ ! gods to witness x 0 ne$ful t politically organiz$ society1 tak+ ov] a field ( social control ex]cis$ by ! prie/hood1 give a legal rem$y to ! promisee le/ he invoke ! aid ( ! gods & jeop>dize ! g5]al security4 ,aga9 9 mak+ a promise "o might call ! p or ! neighborhood to witness & might affront !m by call+ !m to witness 9 va94 ,"h1 too1 ! peace 0 ?reat5$ & politically organiz$ society might give a rem$y to ! promisee1 le/ he invoke ! help ( 8 fell[ citiz5s or 8 neighbors4 ,a common case might be "o :]e a composition 0 promis$ 9 ?is way = an injury n includ$ 9 ! detail$ t>iff ( compositions t is ! /aple ( anci5t codes4 ,ano!r common case 0 :]e "o :o held ano!r's prop]ty = "s tempor>y purpose promis$ to return x4 ,su* a case is l5d+2 = be=e ! days ( co9$ money1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 l5d+ a horse to g to ! next t[n & l5d+ t5 %eep to enable ! borr[] to pay a composition is n p]ceptible4 ,?us ano!r />t+ po9t ( liability is recov]y ( a ?+ c]ta91 or :at 0 orig9ally ! same1 a sum c]ta91 promis$ 9 su* wise z to endang] ! g5]al security if ! promise is n c>ri$ out4 ,9 ,roman law1 ! condiction1 :i* is ! type ( actions 9 p]sonam1 & ?us ! />t+ po9t hi/orically ( rights 9 p]sonam & ( !ories ( obligation1 0 at fir/ a recov]y ( a ?+ c]ta9 or a sum c]ta9 due ^u a promise ( ?is sort4 ,9 juri/ic t]ms1 ! c5tral idea ( ! beg9n+s ( liability is duty to make composition = or o!rwise av]t wra? aris+ f ! affront$ dignity ( "s p]sonality desir\s ( v5geance1 :e!r an injur$ individual1 a god or a politically organiz$ society4 ,greek law & ,roman law give ! "n ( insult to legally cognizable injury to p]sonality4 ,insult to a neighbor by injury to him or to "o ( 8 h\sehold1 insult to ! gods by impi\s brea* ( ! promise !y _h witness$1 insult to ! p by wanton disreg>d ( ! und]tak+ solemnly made 9 _! pres5ce1 ?reat5$ ! peace & ord] ( society & call$ = legal rem$y4 ,lawy]s beg9 to g5]alize & to frame consci\s !ories 9 ! lat] "p ( ! /age ( ! /rict law4 ,at fir/ ^! !ories are analytical r ?an philosophical4 ,! attempt is to frame g5]al =mulas by :i* ! rigid rules ( ! /rict law may be reconcil$ :]e !y ov]lap or conflict or may be di/+ui%$ 9 _! application :]e su* ov]lapp+ or conflict ?reat5s4 ,by ?is "t1 ! crude beg9n+s ( liability 9 a duty to comp\nd = insult or affront to man or gods or p1 le/ !y be mov$ to v5geance1 has develop$ into liability to answ] = injuries caus$ by oneself or done by ^? p]sons or ^? ?+s 9 "o's p[]1 & liability = c]ta9 promises made 9 solemn =m4 ,?us ! basis ( liability has become tw(old4 ,x re/s on ! "o h& ^u duty to repair injury4 ,x re/s on ! o!r h& ^u duty to c>ry out =mal und]tak+s4 ,x is en\gh = ?is /age ( legal developm5t t all cases ( liability may be ref]r$ to ^! two types & t useful di/9ctions may be rea*$ !refrom4 ,consid]ation ( :y "o %\ld be held to repair injury1 & :y he %\ld be held to =mal und]tak+s1 belongs to a lat] /age4 ,juri/ic !ory1 beg9n+ 9 ! transition f ! /rict law to ! /age ( equity or natural law1 becomes a =ce 9 ! latt] /age4 ,z ! relations ) :i* ! law mu/ deal become m num]\s & ! situations call+ = legal treatm5t become m complicat$1 x is no long] possible to h a simple1 def9ite1 detail$ rule = e sort ( case t c come be=e a tribunal1 nor a fix$1 absolute =m = e legal transaction4 ,h5ce1 "u ! lead]%ip ( philosophical juri/s1 m5 turn to logical developm5t ( ! nature or ideal =m ( situations & to e?ical ideas ( :at good fai? or good consci5ce dem&s 9 p>ticul> relations or transactions4 ,! /rict law1 rely+ on rule & =m1 took no acc\nt ( int5tion z su*4 ,! words took effect q indep5d5tly ( ! ?\ght beh9d !m4 ,b z lawy]s began to reflect & to tea* some?+ m ?an a class or pr(essional tradition1 z !y began to be influ5c$ by philosophy to give ov] purely me*anical me?ods & to measure ?+s by reason r ?an by arbitr>y w1 emphasis %ift$ f =m to sub/ance2 f ! lett] to ! _s & int5t4 ,! /atute 0 ?\ght ( z b ! lawmak]'s =mulation ( a pr9ciple ( natural law4 ,x 0 n ! u]ba t 7 efficaci\s1 z 9 ! /rict law1 :i* _h inh]it$ ! primitive fai? 9 ! p[] ( words & ?\ght ( ! legal =mula z if x 7 a =mula ( incantation possess+ inh]5t magical =ce4 ,x 0 ! ratio iuris1 :i* transc5d$ words & =mulas4 ,s also ! traditional rule 0 n a magic =mula discov]$ by our fa!rs4 ,x 0 a cu/om>y expression ( a pr9ciple ( natural law4 ,likewise ! =mal transaction 0 n a bit ( private magic employ$ to conjure up legal liability4 ,x 0 ! clo?+ 9 legally recogniz$ ve/m5ts ( an int5tion to d :at reason & good fai? dem& 9 a giv5 situation4 ,:5 =m & int5tion concurr$ ! promisor mu/ answ] = :at he und]took4 ,:5 ! =m us$ did n express or w5t beyond ! int5tion or 0 ! product ( an app>5t b n a real int5tion1 ! promisee 0 n to be enri*$ unju/ly at ! promisor's exp5se on ! sole basis ( ! =m4 ,moreov] ! duty 0 to be "o ( do+ :at good fai? dem&$1 n "o ( do+ lit]ally & exactly :at ! lett] ( ! und]tak+ call$ =4 ,& al?\gh !re 0 no express und]tak+1 !re might be duties impli$ 9 ! relation or situation or transaction1 view$ z "o ( good fai?1 & "o might be held to a /&>d ( action because an upright & dilig5t man1 :o 0 8 own ma/]1 w\ld s act4 ,su* is ! mode ( ?9k+ 9 ! classical p]iod ( ! ,roman law & x is closely p>allel$ by an indep5d5t developm5t ( juri/ic ?\ght 9 ! rise ( equity & ! absorption ( ! law m]*ant 9 our law4 ,x 0 easy to fit ! two categories1 delict & =mal und]tak+1 :i* _h come d[n f ! /rict law1 into ! new mode ( ?\ght4 ,! typical delict requir$ dolus--int5tional aggression ^u ! p]sonality or ! sub/ance ( ano!r4 ,inde$ ,aquilian culpa1 9 :i* ! fault did n ext5d to int5tional aggression1 is a juri/ic equitable developm5t4 ,h5ce :5 ! legal 0 id5tifi$ ) ! moral1 & su* id5tification is a prime *>act]i/ic ( ?is /age1 ! significant ?+ 9 delict seem$ to be ! moral duty to repair an injury caus$ by wilful aggression4 ,! legal precept 0 ali5um non la$]e4 ,also ! duty to p]=m an int5tional und]tak+ seem$ to re/ on ! inh]5t moral quality ( a promise t made x intr9sically b9d+ on an upright man4 ,! legal precept 0 suum cuique tribu]e4 ,?us liability seem$ to fl[ f int5tional action--:e!r 9 ! =m ( aggression or 9 ! =m ( agreem5t4 ,! natural s\rces ( liability 7 delict & contract4 ,ev]y?+ else 0 assimilat$ to "o or ! o!r ( !m4 ,liability )\t fault 0 quasi-delictal4 ,liability impos$ by good fai? to prev5t unju/ enri*m5t 0 quasi-contractual4 ,! c5tral idea _h become "o ( ! dem&s ( good fai? 9 view ( int5tional action4 ,9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! conception ( liability z re/+ on int5tion 0 put 9 metaphysical r ?an e?ical =m4 ,law 0 a realization ( ! idea ( lib]ty1 & exi/$ to br+ ab\t ! wide/ possible individual lib]ty4 ,lib]ty 0 ! free w 9 action4 ,h5ce x 0 ! bus9ess ( ! legal ord] to give ! wide/ effect to ! decl>$ w & to impose no duties except 9 ord] to effectuate ! w or to reconcile ! w ( "o ) ! w ( o!rs by a univ]sal law4 ,:at _h be5 a positive1 creative !ory ( develop+ liability on ! basis ( int5tion1 became a negative1 re/ra9+1 "o might say prun+1 !ory ( no liability except on ! basis ( int5tion4 ,liability c\ld fl[ only f culpable conduct or f assum$ duties4 ,! ab/ract individual w 0 ! c5tral po9t 9 ! !ory ( liability4 ,if "o 0 n actually culpable & yet e/abli%$ legal precepts :i* 7 n to be d5i$ held him answ]able1 x 0 because he 0 deem$ culpable1 ! hi/orical legal liability be+ ! pro( ( culpability4 ,if he _h n actually assum$ a duty1 & yet e/abli%$ legal precepts :i* 7 n to be d5i$ held him to answ] = x1 ?is mu/ be because he _h assum$ "s relation or pr(ess$ "s call+ 9 :i* an und]tak+ to t effect 0 impli$ or _h p>ticipat$ 9 "s situation 9 :i* x 0 impli$1--! implication be+ a d$uction f ! liability4 ,! bases ( liability 7 culpable conduct & legal transaction1 & ^! came d[n to an ultimate basis 9 w4 ,! fundam5tal conception 9 legal liability 0 ! conception ( an act--( a manife/ation ( ! w 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,roman law & ,engli% law beg9 ) a set ( :at might be call$ nom9ate delicts or nom9ate torts4 ,9 ,roman law !re 7 furtum 7conv]sion71 rap9a 7=cible conv]sion7 & iniuria 7wilful aggression ^u p]sonality74 ,all ^! involv$ dolus1 i4e4 int5tional aggression4 ,! lex ,aquilia add$ damnum iniuria datum 7wrongful injury to prop]ty74 ,lat] !re 7 add$ :at might be call$ ! equitable delicts ( dolus 7fraud7 & metus 7duress74 ,"h also !re 0 wilful aggression1 & ! delict ( dolus gets its "n f ! int5tional mislead+ t *>act]izes x 9 ,roman law z x does deceit 9 ,engli% law4 ,9 damnum iniuria datum1 a wid] conception ( fault1 z di/+ui%$ f int5tional aggression1 grew up by juri/ic developm5t1 & ,aquilian culpa1 t is1 a fault caus+ injury to prop]ty & !re=e actionable on ! analogy ( ! lex ,aquilia1 furni%$ ! model = ! mod]n law4 ,all ^! may be fitt$ to ! w !ory & mod]n sy/ematic writ]s regul>ly d s4 ,b noxal liability = injury done by a *ild or slave or dome/ic animal did n fit x1 nor did ! liability ( a ma/] ( a %ip1 an innkeep] or a /able keep] to respond )\t reg>d to fault4 ,liability = injury done by *ild or slave or dome/ic animal 0 en=c$ 9 a noxal action on ! analogy ( ! action :i* lay = ! same injury if done by ! def5dant 9 p]son4 ,h5ce proc$urally x seem$ liability = a delict involv+ int5tional aggression1 & x 0 possible to say t !re 0 fault 9 n re/ra9+ ! ag5cy t did ! injury1 al?\gh no fault _h to be %[n nor c\ld abs5ce ( fault be %[n z a def5ce4 ,!re 0 fault because !re 0 liability1 = all liability grew out ( fault4 ,su* tread+s on ! tail ( its own argum5t are v common 9 legal reason+4 ,likewise 9 ! case ( ! absolute liability ( ! ma/] ( a %ip1 ! innkeep] & ! /able keep]1 ! in/itutional writ]s c\ld say t !y 7 at fault 9 n hav+ prop] s]vants1 al?\gh "h also fault ne$ n be e/abli%$ by pro( nor c\ld want ( fault be made a def5ce4 ,z proc$urally ^! liabilities arose 9 actions on ! facts ( p>ticul> cases1 ! juri/s at fir/ lump$ !m ) _m o!r =ms ( liability1 :i* 7 n 9 fact dep5d5t on int5tion & 7 en=c$ 9 actions 9 factum1 z obligations aris+ f ! special facts ( cases 7obligationes ex u>iis caus>um figuris74 ,lat] !y 7 call$ quasi-delictual obligations & !y are s designat$ 9 ! f\rfold classification ( ! ,in/itutes4 ,buckl& has rem>k$ t 9 almo/ all ( ! liabilities includ$ "u quasi-delict 9 ! ,in/itutes !re is liability at "o's p]il = ! act ( ano!r1 especially = "o's s]vant1 z 9 ! noxal actions1 ! actio de deiectis et diffusis 7= ?+s ?r[n or p\r$ f build+s ^u a way7 & ! actio de recepto aga9/ an innkeep]4 ,9 o!r words1 9 ^! cases "o 0 held )\t reg>d to fault = injuries incid5tal to ! conduct ( c]ta9 ent]prises or call+s & = failure to re/ra9 pot5tially injuri\s ag5cies :i* "o ma9ta9$4 ,mod]n law has giv5 up bo? ! nom9ate delicts & quasi-delict1 z ?+s ( any significance4 ,! ,fr5* civil code made ! idea ( ,aquilian culpa into a g5]al !ory ( delictal liability1 say+1 ,e act ( man :i* causes damage to ano!r obliges him ?r\gh ^: fault x happ5$ to make rep>ation4 ,9 o!r words1 liability is to be bas$ on an act1 & x mu/ be a culpable act4 ,act1 culpability1 causation1 damage1 7 ! elem5ts4 ,?is simple !ory ( liability = culpable causation ( damage 0 accept$ univ]sally by civilians until late 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury & is /ill or?odox4 ,tak5 up by text writ]s on torts 9 ! la/ half ( t c5tury1 x _h mu* influ5ce 9 ,anglo-,am]ican law4 ,b along ) ?is g5]alization ! ,fr5* code pres]v$ a liability )\t fault1 develop$ out ( ! noxal actions1 :]eby p>5ts & tea*]s may be held = injuries by m9ors "u _! *>ge1 ma/]s = injuries by _! appr5tices1 employ]s = injuries by employees & ^? 9 *>ge ( animals = injuries by su* animals4 ,also x provid$ an absolute liability = injury by a res ru9osa1 develop$ out ( ! ,roman cautio damni infecti4 ,9 ! case ( p>5ts1 tea*]s & ma/]s ( appr5tices1 !re is only a presumption ( fault4 ,!y may escape by %[+ affirmatively t !y 7 )\t fault & t :at happ5$ c\ld n h be5 prev5t$ by dilig5ce on _! "p4 ,9 ! case ( employ]s no excuse is admitt$4 ,! liability is absolute4 ,9 ! case ( animals1 fault ( ! victim1 inevitable accid5t & vis maior may be %[n affirmatively by way ( def5ce4 ,9 ! case ( a res ru9osa !re is no presumption ( fault4 ,b if ! /ructure fell or did injury because ( a defect ( con/ruction or want ( repair1 ! own] is liable absolutely & may n %[ t he _h no notice ( ! defect & no reason to suspect x1 or t x 0 n 9 8 p[] to prev5t ! /ructure f fall+4 ,?us x w be se5 t ,fr5* law came v ne> to a logically consi/5t s*eme ( liability = fault1 & civil liability = fault only1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole delictal field4 ,employ]'s liability rema9$ absolute1 & liability = animals b little %ort ( absolute4 ,= ! re/ !re 0 9 c]ta9 cases an imposition ( ! burd5 ( pro( t !re _h be5 no fault1 leav+ ! ultimate liability to re/ ^u a presum$ fault1 if want ( fault 0 n e/abli%$4 ,none ! less ?is1 ! mo/ ?or\ghgo+ attempt to make delictal liability fl[ exclusively f culpability--to make x a coroll>y ( fault & ( fault only--fell %ort ( complete atta9m5t ( its aim4 ,rec5t ,fr5* au?ors d n hesitate to say t ! attempt mu/ be giv5 ov] & t a new !ory ( civil delictal liability mu/ be work$ out4 ,mean:ile ! same movem5t away f ! simple !ory ( delictal liability = culpable causation ( damage _h tak5 place else:]e on ! ,cont95t4 ,b9d+ _h subject$ ! culpa-pr9zip to ?or\gh analysis1 & foll[+ him x _h come to be reject$ g5]ally by rec5t ,g]man & ,swiss juri/s4 ,9 ! common law1 z has be5 said1 we beg9 likewise ) a set ( nom9ate torts--assault1 batt]y1 imprisonm5t1 trespass on l&s1 trespass on *attels1 conv]sion1 deceit1 malici\s prosecution1 sl&] & libel--develop$ proc$urally ?r\gh ! action ( trespass & ! action ( trespass on ! case4 ,all ( ^!1 except trespass on l&s1 trespass ^u possession ( *attels & conv]sion1 are cases ( int5tional injury4 ,trespass on l&s1 trespass on *attels & conv]sion involve m ?an ! g5]al security & mu/ be consid]$ 9 connection ) ideas ( prop]ty4 ,! social int]e/ 9 security ( acquisitions dem&s t we be able to rely on o!rs keep+ (f ( our l&s & n mole/+ our *attels2 t !y f9d out = !mselves & at _! own risk :]e !y are or ) ^: *attels !y are m$dl+4 ,b ev5 "h !re mu/ be an act4 ,if !re is no act1 !re is no liability4 ,to ^! nom9ate torts1 ea* ) its own special rules1 com+ d[n f ! /rict law1 we add$ a new gr\nd ( liability1 namely1 neglig5ce1 go+ on a pr9ciple1 n ( duty to answ] = aggression1 b ( duty to answ] = injuries result+ f fall+ %ort ( a legal /&>d ( conduct gov]n+ affirmative c\rses ( action4 ,"s1 inde$1 s\ght to give u a tort ( neglig5ce z a nom9ate tort4 ,b x 0 soon recogniz$ t 9 neglig5ce we h a pr9ciple ( liability dep5d5t ^u a /&>d1 n a tort to be rang$ alongside ( assault or imprisonm5t4 ,lat]1 ) ! rise ( doctr9es z to injury to advantage\s relations & ! failure ( neglig5ce to acc\nt = all un9t5d$ h>ms ( :i* ! law actually 0 tak+ note1 we develop$ an indef9ite numb] ( innom9ate torts4 ,today ) ! obsolesc5ce ( proc$ural difficulties1 !re is no reason :y we %\ld n g5]alize1 z ! civil law did at ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury2 & su* a g5]alization 0 attempt$ 9 ! la/ ?ird ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x became or?odox common law t liability 0 a coroll>y ( fault4 ,s f> z e/abli%$ common-law rules impos$ a liability )\t fault1 !y 7 said to be hi/orical exceptions1 & "s ( our c\rts1 "u ! influ5ce ( ?is !ory1 7 will+ to g a long way 9 abrogat+ !m4 ,liability1 )\t reg>d to fault1 = ! acts ( s]vants & employees 0 reconcil$ ) ?is !ory by ! fiction ( repres5tation1 expos$ long ago by ,mr4 ,ju/ice ,holmes & lat] by ,dr4 ,baty4 ,f9ally x came to be ?\ght t no liability )\t fault 0 n m]ely common law b 0 natural law & t any legislative imposition ( su* liability 0 arbitr>y & unreasonable 9 itself & h5ce uncon/itutional4 ,on t !ory1 ! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals held workm5's comp5sation uncon/itutional1 & a m9ority ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates rec5tly ann\nc$ ! same proposition4 ,because ( its implications = con/itutional law1 9 view ( ! increas+ frequ5cy ( legislation impos+ responsibility at "o's p]il 9 c]ta9 ent]prises1 9 ! case ( c]ta9 dang]\s ag5cies & 9 situations :]e x is felt t ! loss %\ld be borne by all ( u r ?an by ! luckless individual :o *ances to be hurt1 ! basis ( tort liability has become a "q ( mom5t beyond ! imm$iate law ( torts4 ,x is a practical "q ( ! fir/ importance1 z well z a !oretical "q ( int]e/1 :e!r we are to g5]alize our :ole sy/em ( tort liability by means ( "o pr9ciple ( liability = fault & = fault only1 z ! ,fr5* s\ght to d & z we lat] s\ght to d l>gely "u _! influ5ce1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 are to admit ano!r s\rce ( delictal liability alongside ( fault1 z ! ,fr5* law does 9 fact & is com+ to d 9 !ory1 & z our law has always done 9 fact4 ,= 9 our law z x /&s "o may p]ceive readily ?ree types ( delictual liability3 7#a7 ,liability = int5tional h>m1 7#b7 liability = un9t5tional culpable h>m1 7#c7 liability 9 c]ta9 cases = un9t5d$ non-culpable h>m4 ,! fir/ two comport ) ! doctr9e ( no liability )\t fault4 ,! ?ird _c be fitt$ !reto4 ,we mu/ ei!r br& cases ( ! ?ird type z hi/orical anomalies1 ( :i* we are gradually to rid ourselves1 or else revise our notions ( tort liability4 ,let u rememb] t ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 well advanc$ be=e we und]/ood ! subject ( neglig5ce & t be=e we _h conv9c$ ourselves t no liability )\t fault 0 or?odox common law1 ! highe/ c\rt ( ,engl& _h giv5 absolute liability a new field by ! decision 9 ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*]4 ,we are n que/ion+ a long-e/abli%$ dogma 9 ,anglo-,am]ican adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 !re=e1 :5 we ask :e!r ! or?odox !ory ( ! la/ g5]ation is adequate z an analytical /atem5t ( ! law t is1 or z a philosophical !ory ( ! law t ought to be4 ,my own belief is t x is nei!r4 ,suppose t in/ead ( beg9n+ ) ! individual free w we beg9 ) ! wants or claims involv$ 9 civiliz$ society--z x has be5 put1 ) ! jural po/ulates ( civiliz$ society4 ,"o su* po/ulate1 ,i ?9k we %\ld agree1 is t 9 civiliz$ society m5 mu/ be able to assume t o!rs w d !m no int5d$ injury--t o!rs w commit no int5tional aggressions ^u !m4 ,! savage mu/ move /eal?ily1 avoid ! sky-l9e & g arm$4 ,! civiliz$ man assumes t no "o w attack him & s moves among 8 fell[ m5 op5ly & un>m$1 go+ ab\t 8 bus9ess 9 a m9ute division ( labor4 ,o!rwise !re c\ld be no division ( labor beyond ! diff]5tiation ( m5 ( fight+ age1 z we see x 9 a primitive society4 ,?is po/ulate is at ! f\ndation ( civiliz$ society4 ,ev]y:]e dolus is fir/ dealt )4 ,! sy/em ( nom9ate delicts or nom9ate torts1 bo? 9 ,roman law & 9 our law1 proce$s on ?is po/ulate4 ,is x n ano!r su* po/ulate t 9 civiliz$ society m5 mu/ be able to assume t _! fell[ m51 :5 !y act affirmatively1 w d s ) due c>e1 t is ) ! c>e :i* ! ord9>y und]/&+ & moral s5se ( ! community exacts1 ) respect to consequ5ces t may reasonably be anticipat$8 ,su* a po/ulate is ! basis ( delictal culpa1 us+ culpa 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 & ( our doctr9e ( neglig5ce4 ,9 ,roman law & at "o "t 9 our law attempts 7 made to develop ?is po/ulate contractually4 ,if 9 a transaction involv+ good fai?--t is an in=mal legal transaction--"o's conduct fell %ort ( action to :i* ! o!r p>ty 0 ju/ifi$ by ! und]/&+ ( upright m5 9 expect+ him to adh]e1 !re 0 contractual culpa2 !re 0 a violation ( a promise impli$ 9 ! transaction & consequ5t liability4 ,we borr[$ some?+ ( ?is mode ( ?\ght f ! ,romans 9 our law ( bailm5ts & h5ce ?9k indiff]5tly 9 t]ms ( tort or contract 9 t connection1 al?\gh hi/orically our action = su* cases is delictal4 ,9 o!r connections also our law = a "t s\ght to develop ?is po/ulate contractually by means ( an impli$ und]tak+ to use skill = :i* "o mu/ answ] if 8 skill fell %ort ( t :i* ! legal /&>d ( affirmative conduct call$ = "u ! circum/ances4 ,also 9 ! ,ye> ,books an und]tak+ impli$ 9 c]ta9 relations or call+s to use ! skill or dilig5ce :i* ! relation or call+ dem&$ is (t5 made ! basis ( liability4 ,b "h ! basis ( liability mu/ be f\nd 9 a relation4 ,! fiction ( an und]tak+ to use ! skill or dilig5ce involv$ 9 a relation or call+ is a juri/ic way ( say+ t "o :o deals ) ano!r 9 su* a relation or ) ano!r :o pr(esses su* a call+ is ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ ! skill & dilig5ce ord9>ily involv$ !re91 s t ! law holds ^? 9 ! relation or engag$ 9 ! call+ to t /&>d 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security4 ,9 o!r words ano!r1 ?\gh closely relat$1 po/ulate ( civiliz$ society is involv$4 ,x is wor? a mom5t's digression to sugge/ t su* ?+s %[ h[ little ! hi/orical categories ( delict & contract repres5t any ess5tial or inh]5t ne$ ( legal ?9k+4 ,au/9 ?\ght t ! di/9ction ( obligations 7or ( duties correspond+ to rights aga9/ p]sons specifically det]m9$7 into obligations :i* arise f contracts1 obligations :i* arise f injuries1 & obligations :i* arise f incid5ts :i* are nei!r contracts nor injuries1 0 a necess>y di/9ction1 )\t :i* a sy/em ( law evolv$ 9 a ref9$ community c\ld n be conceiv$4 ,?is necess>y sy/ematic s*eme1 :i* mu/ be a con/itu5t "p ( any imag9able develop$ legal sy/em1 is b ! ,roman division into obligations ex contractu1 obligations ex delicto & obligations ex u>iis caus>um figuris1 9 :i* ! ?ird category is obvi\sly a cat*-all4 ,9 try+ to fit our law into ?is necess>y s*eme1 we f9d ?ree types ( cases mu/ g 9 ! ?ird3 7a7 ,duties or liabilities atta*$ by law to a relation1 7b7 duties impos$ by law to prev5t unju/ enri*m5t1 7c7 duties involv$ 9 an (fice or call+4 ,9 ! ?ird ( ^! our ,anglo-,am]ican proc$ure all[s recov]y ei!r ex delicto or ex contractu4 ,9 ! second our law sometimes goes on a prop]ty !ory ( con/ructive tru/4 ,9 ! fir/ duties are sometimes sanction$ affirmatively by conf]r+ legal p[]s or negatively by legal non-re/ra9t ( natural p[]s1 z 9 ! law ( dome/ic relations1 :]e ! wife has a p[] to pl$ge ! husb&'s cr$it = necess>ies & ! law does n int]f]e ) ! p>5t's adm9i/]+ reasonable correction to ! *ild4 ,are we to say t ^! dogmatic dep>tures ( our law f ! ,roman s*eme are inconceivable or t because ( !m our law is n matur$ or 0 n evolv$ 9 a ref9$ community8 ,or are we to say t ,au/9 d]iv$ 8 sy/ematic ideas1 n f sci5tific /udy ( ,engli% law1 b f sci5tific /udy ( ,roman law 9 a ,g]man univ]sity8 ,are we to say t we _c imag9e coh]5tly a sy/em ( law :i* en=ces w>ranties indiff]5tly ex contractu or ex delicto z our law does1 or :i* goes fur!r & applies ! contract measure ( damage ex delicto z does ! law ( ,massa*usetts8 ,b en\gh ( ?is4 ,:at we h "h is n any necess>y di/9ction4 ,x is r :at ,au/9 calls a p]vad+ notion1 to be f\nd g5]ally 9 ! sy/ematic ideas ( develop$ legal sy/ems by d]ivation f ! ,roman books4 ,roman law may h a contractual conception ( obligation ex delicto--?9k+ ( ! delict z giv+ rise to a debt--& ! common law a delictual conception ( liability ^u contract--?9k+ 9 t]ms ( recov]y ( damages = ! wrong ( break+ a promise--)\t mu* diff]5ce 9 ! ultimate results4 ,! fundam5tal ?+s are n tort & contract b ju/ifiable assumptions z to ! mode 9 :i* "o's fell[ m5 w act 9 civiliz$ society 9 _m diff]5t situations ( :i* aggression & und]tak+ are b two common types4 ,return+ to our second po/ulate ( due c>e 9 affirmative c\rses ( conduct1 we may note t 9 ! society ( today x is no less fundam5tal ?an ! po/ulate ( no int5tional aggression4 ,aggression is ! *ief if n ! only =m ( anti-social conduct 9 a primitive society4 ,inde$1 a ,greek writ] on law & politics ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 knew ( no o!r subject ( legal precepts4 ,b ) ! developm5t ( ma*9]y & consequ5t increase 9 human p[]s ( action1 ! g5]al security comes to be ?reat5$ q z mu* by ! way 9 :i* "o does ?+s z by :at he does4 ,c>elessness becomes a m frequ5t & m s]i\s s\rce ( dang] to ! g5]al security ?an aggression4 ,h5ce a set ( nom9ate delicts requir+ dolus is supplem5t$ by a !ory ( culpa4 ,h5ce a set ( nom9ate torts1 *>act]iz$ by int5tional aggression1 is supplem5t$ by liability = neglig5ce1 & ! latt] becomes ! m important s\rce ( legal liability 9 practice4 ,mu/ we n recognize also a ?ird po/ulate1 namely1 t m5 mu/ be able to assume t o!rs1 :o keep ?+s or ma9ta9 conditions or employ ag5cies t are likely to get out ( h& or escape & d damage1 w re/ra9 !m or keep !m )9 prop] b\nds8 ,j z we may n g effectively ab\t our sev]al bus9esses 9 a society dep5d5t on a m9ute division ( labor if we mu/ con/antly be on gu>d aga9/ ! aggressions or ! want ( =e?\ght ( our neighbor1 s our complex social ord] bas$ on division ( labor may n function effectively if ea* ( u mu/ /ay 8 activities ?r\gh fe> ( ! break+ loose or gett+ out ( h& ( some?+ :i* 8 neighbor h>bors or ma9ta9s4 ,!re is dang] to ! g5]al security n only 9 :at m5 d & ! way 9 :i* !y d x1 b also 9 :at !y fail to d 9 n re/ra9+ ?+s !y ma9ta9 or ag5cies !y employ :i* may d injury if n kept /rictly 9 h&4 ,! g5]al security is ?reat5$ by wilful aggression1 by affirmative action )\t due reg>d = o!rs 9 ! mode ( conduct+ x1 & by h>bor+ & ma9ta9+ ?+s & employ+ ag5cies likely to escape or to g out ( b\nds & d damage4 ,look$ at 9 ?is way1 ! ultimate basis ( delictal liability is ! social int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security4 ,?is int]e/ is ?reat5$ or infr+$ 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7 ,int5tional aggression1 7#b7 neglig5t action1 7#c7 failure to re/ra9 pot5tially dang]\s ?+s :i* "o ma9ta9s or pot5tially dang]\s ag5cies :i* "o employs4 ,accord+ly ^! ?ree are ! imm$iate bases ( delictal liability4 ,controv]sial cases ( liability )\t fault involve ! ?ird po/ulate4 ,sy/ematic writ]s h f\nd no difficulty 9 reconcil+ ! law ( neglig5ce ) ! w !ory ( liability & ! doctr9e ( no liability )\t fault4 ,yet !y mu/ use ! t]m fault 9 a /ra9$ s5se 9 ord] to fit our law ( neglig5ce ) its objective /&>d ( due c>e1 or ! ,roman cases ( liability = culpa judg$ by ! ab/ract /&>d1 into any !ory ( moral blamewor?9ess4 ,! doctr9e ( liability = fault & = fault only has its roots 9 ! /age ( equity & natural law1 :5 ! moral & ! legal are id5tifi$1 & means t "o %all respond = injuries due to morally blamewor?y conduct ^u 8 "p4 ,z ,ames puts x1 ! unmoral /&>d ( act+ at "o's p]il is replac$ by ! "q1 ,0 ! act blamewor?y8 ,b is an act blamewor?y because ! actor has a sl[ reaction "t or 0 born impulsive or is naturally timid or is easily rattl$ & h5ce 9 an em]g5cy does n come up to ! /&>d ( :at a reasonably prud5t man w\ld d 9 su* an em]g5cy1 z appli$ ex po/ facto by twelve av]age m5 9 ! jury box8 ,if our use ( culpable "h 7 n1 z x 71 ,pickwickian1 we %\ld all[ ! def5dant 9 su* cases to %[ :at sort ( man nature _h made him & to call = individualization ) respect to 8 "* & temp]am5t z well z ) respect to ! circum/ances "u :i* he act$4 ,z ! ,romani/ w\ld say1 we %\ld apply a concrete /&>d ( culpa4 ,b :at ! law is really reg>d+ is n 8 culpable ex]cise ( 8 w b ! dang] to ! g5]al security if he & 8 fell[s act affirmatively )\t com+ up to ! /&>d impos$ to ma9ta9 t security4 ,if he acts1 he mu/ measure up to t /&>d at 8 p]il ( answ]+ = injuri\s consequ5ces4 ,:5ev] a case ( neglig5ce calls = %>p application ( ! objective /&>d1 fault is z mu* a dogmatic fiction z is repres5tation 9 ! liability ( ! ma/] = ! torts ( 8 s]vant4 ,9 ea* case ! exig5cies ( ! w !ory lead u to cov] up a liability irrespective ( fault1 impos$ to ma9ta9 ! g5]al security1 by a conclusive imputation ( fault to "o :o may be morally blameless4 ,?is is no less true ( cases :]e we speak ( neglig5ce p] se4 ,reconciliation ( common-law absolute liabilities = ! gett+ out ( h& ( ?+s likely to escape & d damage ) ! doctr9e ( no liability )\t fault has be5 s\ght by means ( a fiction ( neglig5ce1 by pron\nc+ !m disappe>+ hi/orical anomalies1 by an economic int]pretation t reg>ds !m z results ( class int]e/ di/ort+ ! law1 & by a !ory ( res ipsa loquitur4 ,black/one resort$ to ! fir/ ( ^!4 ,a man is answ]able1 he said1 = n only 8 own trespass b = t ( 8 cattle also2 = if by 8 neglig5t keep+ !y /ray ^u ! l& ( ano!r 444 ?is is a trespass = :i* ! own] mu/ answ] 9 damages4 ,b note t ! neglig5ce "h is a dogmatic fiction4 ,no pro( ( neglig5ce is requir$ ( ! pla9tiff1 nor may ! def5dant %[ t !re 0 9 fact no neglig5ce4 ,! neglig5ce is e/abli%$ by ! liability1 n ! liability by ! neglig5ce4 ,9 ! la/ c5tury x 0 usual to ref] to absolute liability = trespass+ animals1 = injuries by wild animals & = injuries by dome/ic animals1 kn[n to be vici\s1 z disappe>+ rudim5ts ( ! old liability to make composition4 ,! common ,am]ican doctr9e z to cattle runn+ at l>ge ^u uncultivat$ l&s seem$ to confirm ?is4 ,yet "o ne$ b look b5ea? ! surface to see t ! ,engli% rule 0 reject$ = a "t 9 ,am]ica1 n because x 0 9 conflict ) a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( no liability )\t fault1 b because x presuppos$ a settl$ community1 :]e x 0 contr>y to ! g5]al security to turn cattle out to graze1 :]eas 9 pione] ,am]ican communities ( ! pa/ vacant l&s :i* 7 own$ & ^? :i* 7 n own$ c\ld n be di/+ui%$ & ! graz+ res\rces ( ! community 7 (t5 its mo/ important res\rces4 ,! common-law rule1 )\t reg>d to its basis1 0 = a "t inapplicable to local conditions4 ,x is significant t z ! conditions t made ! rule inapplicable h come to an end ! rule has g5]ally re-e/abli%$ itself4 ,9 ,engl& x is 9 full vigor s t ! own] ( trespass+ animals is held = disease communicat$ by !m al?\gh he _h no k or reason to suppose !y 7 diseas$4 ,a rule t c re-e/abli% itself & ext5d its scope 9 ?is way is n moribund4 ,x mu/ h beh9d x "s basis 9 ! secur+ ( social int]e/s4 ,nor h ! attempts ( "s ,am]ican c\rts to n>r[ common-law liability = injuries by kn[n vici\s animals to cases ( neglig5t keep+ made mu* headway4 ,! weight ( ,am]ican au?ority rema9s ) ! common-law rule & 9 ,engl& ! ,c\rt ( ,appeal has c>ri$ ! rule out to ! ext5t ( hold+ ! own] not)/&+ ! animal 0 turn$ loose by ! wrongful act ( an int]m$dl+ ?ird p]son4 ,nor h ! pr$ictions t ! doctr9e ( ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] w\ld disappe> f ! law ?r\gh ! c\rts' smo!r+ x ) exceptions--pr$ictions commonly made at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury--be5 v]ifi$ 9 ! ev5t4 ,9 #aiad ! ,engli% c\rts refus$ to limit ! doctr9e to adjac5t free-hold]s & !y h s9ce ext5d$ x to new situations4 ,moreov] 9 ,am]ica1 :]e we _h be5 told x 0 decisively reject$1 x has be5 appli$ 9 ! pa/ decade by m ?an "o c\rt4 ,! lead+ ,am]ican cases t pr(ess to reject ! doctr9e did n involve x nor did !y involve ! po/ulate ( civiliz$ society on :i*1 z ,i ?9k1 x is bas$4 ,also ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals ( ,new ,york1 ! lead+ expon5t ( no liability )\t fault1 _h !ret(ore impos$ a liability )\t reg>d to neglig5ce 9 ! case ( bla/+4 ,an +5i\s explanation ( ! doctr9e ( ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] by means ( ! economic int]pretation ( legal hi/ory dem&s m notice4 ,we are told t ! ,engli% c\rts 7 mann$ by l&[n]s or by judges drawn f ! l&-own+ class2 t ! doctr9e ( ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] is a doctr9e = l&[n]s & s 0 n accept$ by artisans 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,b consid] :i* /ates appli$ ! rule & :i* reject$ x4 ,x 0 appli$ 9 ,massa*usetts 9 #ahgb1 9 ,m9nesota 9 #ahgb1 9 ,ohio 9 #ahif1 9 ,we/ ,virg9ia 9 #aiaa1 9 ,miss\ri 9 #aiac1 9 ,texas 9 #aiaf4 ,x 0 reject$ by ,new ,hamp%ire 9 #ahgc1 by ,new ,york 9 #ahgc1 by ,new ,j]sey 9 #ahgf1 by ,p5nsylvania 9 #ahhf1 by ,cali=nia 9 #ahie1 by ,k5tucky 9 #aijc1 by ,indiana 9 #aiaa4 ,is ,new ,york a community ( artisans b ,massa*usetts a community ( l&[n]s8 ,did ! ,unit$ ,/ates beg9 to *ange f a c\ntry ( artisans to "o ( l&[n]s ab\t ! ye> #aiaj s t a drift t[>d ! doctr9e began at t "t aft] a /eady rejection ( x betwe5 #ahgc & #ahif8 ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] 0 decid$ 9 #ahfg & is connect$ ) ! movem5t ,dicey calls collectivism1 :i*1 he says1 began 9 #ahfe4 ,x is a reaction f ! notion ( liability m]ely z a coroll>y ( culpability4 ,x re/ra9s ! use ( l& 9 ! int]e/ ( ! g5]al security4 ,if ?is view is well tak51 if x 0 an attempt to take acc\nt ( ! social int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security 9 a cr[d$ c\ntry1 ?is may expla9 ! reluctance ) :i* x 0 receiv$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates at fir/1 :]e pione] ideas1 appropriate to a less cr[d$ agricultural c\ntry1 l+]$ at lea/ to ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,9 ! actual ,am]ican decisions1 "s foll[ ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] z an au?oritative /atem5t ( ! common law4 ,o!r cases g r on ! pr9ciple t liability fl[s f culpability4 ,agricultural /ates & indu/rial /ates alike divide along ^! doctr9al l9es4 ,massa*usetts & ,p5nsylvania1 bo? indu/rial /ates1 are on opposite sides4 ,s are ,texas & ,k5tucky1 :i* are agricultural /ates4 ,massa*usetts & ,new ,j]sey1 ea* ) an appo9tive b5*1 are on opposite sides1 & s are ,ohio & ,new ,york1 ea* ) an elective b5*4 ,9 tru? ! ,massa*usetts c\rt foll[$ au?ority4 ,9 ,new ,hamp%ire ,*ief ,ju/ice ,doe 0 n will+ to g on m]e au?ority & decid$ on ! g5]al pr9ciple t liability mu/ fl[ f fault4 ,ano!r view is t ! doctr9e ( ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] is a crude attempt1 :5 neglig5ce & ! doctr9e ( res ipsa loquitur 7 none too well und]/ood1 to apply ! pr9ciple ( ! latt] doctr9e1 & t ^? doctr9es w suffice to rea* ! actual result4 ,no d\bt res ipsa loquitur gives a possible mode ( treat+ cases :]e "o ma9ta9s some?+ likely to get out ( h& & d injury4 ,= f\r possible solutions may be f\nd = su* cases4 ,"o is absolute liability1 z 9 ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*]4 ,ano!r is to put ! burd5 ( pro( ( due c>e on ! def5dant1 z ,fr5* law does 9 "s cases & z is done by "s ,am]ican decisions & "s /atutes 9 case ( fires set by locomotives4 ,a ?ird is to apply ! doctr9e ( res ipsa loquitur4 ,a f\r? w\ld be to require ! pla9tiff to prove neglig5ce1 z is done by ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ,new ,j]sey :]e a kn[n vici\s animal breaks loose4 ,t ! f\r?1 :i* is ! solution requir$ by ! !ory ( no liability )\t fault1 has f\nd b two c\rts to uphold x1 & t only 9 ! case ( vici\s dome/ic animals1 is sugge/ive4 ,res ipsa loquitur may easily run into a dogmatic fiction1 & mu/ d s1 if made to a*ieve ! result ( ! doctr9e ( ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*]1 :i* does n p]mit ! def5dant to g =w>d ) pro(1 %ort ( vis maior or ! unanticipat$ unlawful act ( a ?ird p]son beyond def5dant's control4 ,! vitality & p]si/5ce ( ! doctr9e aga9/ !oretical assault = m ?an a g5]ation %[ t x is m ?an a hi/orical anomaly or a dogmatic blund]4 ,ano!r type ( common-law liability )\t fault1 ! s-call$ liability ( ! c>ri] z an insur] & ! liability ( ! innkeep]1 is relational & dep5ds ^u a diff]5t po/ulate4 ,n9ete5?-c5tury c\rts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates endeavor$ to hold d[n ! =m]1 re/rict+ x because ( its inconsi/5cy ) ! doctr9e ( liability z a coroll>y ( fault4 ,b x has prov$ to h abundant vitality1 has be5 ext5d$ by legislation 9 "s /ates to c>ri]s ( pass5g]s & has be5 upheld by rec5t legislation ev]y:]e4 ,two o!r types ( liability1 contractual & relational1 mu/ receive brief notice4 ,! =m] has long done valiant s]vice = ! w !ory4 ,n only liability aris+ f legal transactions b liability atta*$ to an (fice or call+1 liability atta*$ to relations & liability to re/itution 9 case ( unju/ enri*m5t h be5 ref]r$ to express or impli$ und]tak+ & h5ce to ! w ( ! p]son held4 ,b b5ea? ! surface ! s-call$ contract by e/oppel1 ! cases ( acceptance ( a wrongly transmitt$ (f]1 ! doctr9e t a public utility has no g5]al p[] ( contract z to facilities or rates except to liquidate ! t]ms ( its relational duties 9 c]ta9 d\btful cases1 & cases ( imposition ( duties on husb& or wife aft] m>riage by *ange ( law1 h caus$ p]si/5t & recurr+ difficulties & call ev]y:]e = a revision ( our ideas4 ,also ! objective !ory ( contract has und]m9$ ! v citadel ( ! w !ory4 ,may we n ref] ^! ph5om5a1 n to ! w ( ! p]son b\nd1 b to ano!r po/ulate ( civiliz$ society & its coroll>ies8 ,may we n say t 9 civiliz$ society m5 mu/ be able to assume t ^? ) :om !y deal 9 ! g5]al int]c\rse ( society w act 9 good fai?8 ,if s1 f\r coroll>ies w s]ve z ! bases ( f\r types ( liability4 ,= x w foll[ t !y mu/ be able to assume 7a7 t _! fell[ m5 w make good reasonable expectations creat$ by _! promises or o!r conduct1 7b7 t !y w c>ry out _! und]tak+s accord+ to ! expectation :i* ! moral s5tim5t ( ! community atta*es !reto1 7c7 t !y w conduct !mselves ) zeal & fidelity 9 relations1 (fices & call+s1 & 7d7 t !y w re/ore 9 specie or by equival5t :at comes to !m by mi/ake or unanticipat$ situation :]eby !y receive :at !y c\ld n h expect$ reasonably to receive "u su* circum/ances4 ,?us we come back to ! idea ( good fai?1 ! idea ( ! classical ,roman juri/s & ( ! philosophical juri/s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 out ( :i* ! w !ory 0 b a metaphysical developm5t4 ,only we give x a basis 9 social philosophy :]e !y s\ght a basis 9 !ories ( ! nature ( transactions or ( ! nature ( man z a moral creature4 ,look+ back ov] ! :ole subject1 %all we n expla9 m ph5om5a & expla9 !m bett] by say+ t ! law en=ces ! reasonable expectations aris+ out ( conduct1 relations & situations1 in/ead ( t x proce$s ^u will$ action & will$ action only1 en=c+ ! will$ consequ5ces ( decl>$ int5tion1 en=c+ rep>ation = will$ aggression & en=c+ rep>ation = culpable c>ry+ on ( will$ conduct8 ,if we expla9 m & expla9 x m completely by say+ t ! ultimate ?+ 9 ! !ory ( liability is ju/ifiable reliance "u ! conditions ( civiliz$ society ?an by say+ t x is free w1 we %all h done all t we may hope to d by any !ory4 ,v ,prop]ty ,economic life ( ! individual 9 society1 z we "k x1 involves f\r claims4 ,"o is a claim to ! control ( c]ta9 corporeal ?+s1 ! natural m$ia on :i* human exi/5ce dep5ds4 ,ano!r is a claim to fre$om ( indu/ry & contract z an individual asset1 ap>t f free ex]cise ( "o's p[]s z a phase ( p]sonality1 s9ce 9 a highly organiz$ society ! g5]al exi/5ce may dep5d to a l>ge ext5t ^u individual labor 9 specializ$ occupations1 & ! p[] to labor freely at "o's *os5 occupation may be "o's *ief asset4 ,?ird1 !re is a claim to promis$ advantages1 to promis$ p]=mances ( pecuni>y value by o!rs1 s9ce 9 a complex economic organization ) m9ute division ( labor & ent]prises ext5d+ ov] long p]iods1 cr$it m & m replaces corporeal weal? z ! m$ium ( ex*ange & ag5cy ( comm]cial activity4 ,f\r?1 !re is a claim to be secur$ aga9/ int]f]5ce by outsid]s ) economically advantage\s relations ) o!rs1 :e!r contractual1 social1 bus9ess1 (ficial or dome/ic4 ,= n only d v>i\s relations :i* h an economic value involve claims aga9/ ! o!r p>ty to ! relation1 :i* "o may dem& t ! law secure1 b !y also involve claims aga9/ ! _w at l>ge t ^! advantage\s relations1 :i* =m an important "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! individual1 %all n be int]f]$ )4 ,legal recognition ( ^! individual claims1 legal delimitation & secur+ ( individual int]e/s ( sub/ance is at ! f\ndation ( our economic organization ( society4 ,9 civiliz$ society m5 mu/ be able to assume t !y may control1 = purposes b5eficial to !mselves1 :at !y h discov]$ & appropriat$ to _! own use1 :at !y h creat$ by _! own labor & :at !y h acquir$ "u ! exi/+ social & economic ord]4 ,?is is a jural po/ulate ( civiliz$ society z we "k x4 ,! law ( prop]ty 9 ! wide/ s5se1 includ+ incorporeal prop]ty & ! gr[+ doctr9es z to protection ( economically advantage\s relations1 gives effect to ! social want or dem& =mulat$ 9 ?is po/ulate4 ,s also does ! law ( contract 9 an economic ord] bas$ ^u cr$it4 ,a social int]e/ 9 ! security ( acquisitions & a social int]e/ 9 ! security ( transactions are ! =ms ( ! int]e/ 9 ! g5]al security :i* give ! law mo/ to d4 ,! g5]al safety1 peace & ord] & ! g5]al heal? are secur$ = ! mo/ "p by police & adm9i/rative ag5cies4 ,prop]ty & contract1 security ( acquisitions & security ( transactions are ! doma9 9 :i* law is mo/ effective & is *iefly invok$4 ,h5ce prop]ty & contract are ! two subjects ab\t :i* philosophy ( law has _h ! mo/ to say4 ,9 ! law ( liability1 bo? = injuries & = und]tak+s1 philosophical !ories h _h mu* influ5ce 9 %ap+ ! actual law4 ,if !y h gr[n out ( attempts to und]/& & expla9 exi/+ legal precepts1 yet !y h furni%$ a critique by :i* to judge ^? precepts1 to %ape !m = ! future & to build new ones out ( !m or ^u !m4 ,?is is mu* less true ( philosophical !ories ( prop]ty4 ,_! rle has n be5 critical or creative b explanatory4 ,!y h n %[n h[ to build b h s\ght to satisfy m5 ) :at !y _h built already4 ,exam9ation ( ^! !ories is an illum9at+ /udy ( h[ philosophical !ories ( law gr[ out ( ! facts ( "t & place z explanations !re( & !n are giv5 univ]sal application z necess>ily explanatory or det]m9ative ( social & legal ph5om5a = all "t & 9 e place4 ,x has be5 said t ! philosophy ( law seeks ! p]man5t or endur+ elem5t 9 ! law ( ! "t & place4 ,x w\ld be q z true to say t x seeks to f9d 9 ! law ( ! "t & place a p]man5t or endur+ picture ( univ]sal law4 ,x has be5 said t ! individual 9 civiliz$ society claims to control & to apply to 8 purposes :at he discov]s & r$uces to 8 p[]1 :at he creates by 8 labor1 physical or m5tal1 & :at he acquires "u ! prevail+ social1 economic or legal sy/em by ex*ange1 pur*ase1 gift or succession4 ,! fir/ & second ( ^! h always be5 spok5 ( z giv+ a natural title to prop]ty4 ,?us ! ,romans spoke ( !m z modes ( natural acquisition by occupation or by specification 7mak+ a species1 i4e41 creation74 ,inde$1 tak+ possession ( :at "o discov]s is s 9 accord ) a fundam5tal human in/9ct t discov]y & occupation h /ood 9 ! books ev] s9ce sub/antially z ! ,romans /at$ !m4 ,a /rik+ example ( ! ext5t to :i* ?is doctr9e responds to deep-seat$ human t5d5cies is af=d$ by ! cu/oms z to discov]y ( m9]al on ! public doma9 ^u :i* ,am]ican m9+ law is f\nd$ & ! cu/oms ( ! old :ale-fi%]y z to fa/-fi% & loose-fi% :i* 7 recogniz$ & giv5 effect by ! c\rts4 ,b !re is a difficulty 9 ! case ( creation or specification 9 t except :]e ! creation is m5tal only mat]ials mu/ be us$1 & ! mat]ials or tools employ$ may be ano!r's4 ,h5ce ,grotius r$uc$ creation by labor to occupation1 s9ce if "o made f :at he discov]$1 ! mat]ials 7 8 by occupation1 & if n1 ! title ( o!rs to ! mat]ials 0 decisive4 ,?is controv]sy z to ! respective claims ( him :o creates by labor & him :o furni%es ! mat]ials goes back to ! ,roman juri/s ( ! classical p]iod4 ,! ,proculians aw>d$ ! ?+ made to ! mak] because z su* x _h n exi/$ previ\sly4 ,! ,sab9ians aw>d$ x to ! own] ( ! mat]ials because )\t mat]ials ! new ?+ c\ld n h be5 made4 ,9 ! maturity ( ,roman law a compromise 0 made1 & v>i\s compromises h obta9$ ev] s9ce4 ,9 mod]n times1 h[ev]1 ! claim ( him :o creates has be5 urg$ by a long l9e ( writ]s beg9n+ ) ,locke & culm9at+ 9 ! sociali/s4 ,! ,romans spoke ( :at "o acquir$ "u ! prevail+ social1 economic or legal sy/em z held by civil acquisition & conceiv$ t ! pr9ciple suum cuique tribu]e secur$ ! ?+ s acquir$ z be+ "o's own4 ,roman juri/s recogniz$ t c]ta9 ?+s 7 n subject to acquisition 9 any ( ! =ego+ ways4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! ,/oic idea ( naturalis ratio !y conceiv$ t mo/ ?+s 7 de/9$ by nature to be controll$ by man4 ,su* control express$ _! natural purpose4 ,"s ?+s1 h[ev]1 7 n de/9$ to be controll$ by individuals4 ,individual control w\ld run c\nt] to _! natural purpose4 ,h5ce !y c\ld n be ! subjects ( private own]%ip4 ,su* ?+s 7 call$ res extra comm]cium4 ,!y might be exclud$ f ! possibility ( individual own]%ip 9 any ( ?ree ways4 ,x might be t f _! nature !y c\ld only be us$1 n own$1 & f _! nature !y 7 adapt$ to g5]al use4 ,^! 7 res communes4 ,or x might be t !y 7 made = or f _! nature !y 7 adapt$ to public use1 t is use = public purposes by public function>ies or by ! political community4 ,^! 7 res publicae4 ,aga9 x might be because !y _h be5 devot$ to religi\s purposes or consecrat$ by religi\s acts inconsi/5t ) private own]%ip4 ,su* ?+s 7 res sanctae1 res sacrae & res religiosae4 ,9 mod]n law1 z a result ( ! m$ieval confusion ( ! p[] ( ! sov]eign to regulate ! use ( ?+s 7imp]ium7 ) own]%ip 7dom9ium7 & ( ! idea ( ! corporate p]sonality ( ! /ate1 we h made ! second category into prop]ty ( public corporations4 ,& ?is has requir$ mod]n sy/ematic writ]s to di/+ui% betwe5 ^? ?+s :i* _c be own$ at all1 su* z human be+s1 ?+s :i* may be own$ by public corporations b may n be transf]r$1 & ?+s :i* are own$ by public corporations 9 full dom9ion4 ,we are also t5d+ to limit ! idea ( discov]y & occupation by mak+ res nullius 7e4g41 wild game7 into res publicae & to ju/ify a m /r+5t regulation ( individual use ( res communes 7e4g41 ( ! use ( runn+ wat] = irrigation or = p[]7 by decl>+ t !y are ! prop]ty ( ! /ate or are own$ by ! /ate 9 tru/ = ! p4 ,x %\ld be said1 h[ev]1 t :ile 9 =m our c\rts & legislatures seem ?us to h r$uc$ ev]y?+ b ! air & ! high seas to own]%ip1 9 fact ! s-call$ /ate own]%ip ( res communes & res nullius is only a sort ( gu>dian%ip = social purposes4 ,x is imp]ium1 n dom9ium4 ,! /ate z a corporation does n own a riv] z x owns ! furniture 9 ! /ate h\se4 ,x does n own wild game z x owns ! ca% 9 ! vaults ( ! treasury4 ,:at is meant is t cons]vation ( important social res\rces requires regulation ( ! use ( res communes to elim9ate friction & prev5t wa/e1 & requires limitation ( ! times :51 places :]e & p]sons by :om res nullius may be acquir$ 9 ord] to prev5t _! ext]m9ation4 ,our mod]n way ( putt+ x is only an incid5t ( ! n9ete5?-c5tury dogma t ev]y?+ mu/ be own$4 ,x is n h>d to see h[ ! ,romans came to ! di/9ction t has obta9$ 9 ! books ev] s9ce4 ,"s ?+s 7 "p ( ! ,roman's familia1 7 us$ by him ^u ! public doma9 :i* he occupi$ or 7 trad$ by him to ^? ) :om he _h legal p[] ( comm]cial int]c\rse4 ,he acquir$ !m by discov]y1 by capture 9 w>1 by labor 9 agriculture or z an artisan1 by comm]cial transactions or by inh]itance4 ,= ^! ?+s private actions lay4 ,o!r ?+s 7 no "p ( 8 or ( anyone's h\sehold4 ,!y 7 us$ = political or milit>y or religi\s purposes or1 l riv]s1 7 put to use by ev]yone )\t be+ consum$ !reby4 ,z to ^!1 ! magi/]ial r ?an ! judicial p[] _h to be invok$4 ,!y 7 protect$ or use ( !m 0 regulat$ & secur$ by int]dicts4 ,"o c\ld n acquire !m s z to ma9ta9 a private action = !m4 ,?us "s ?+s c\ld be acquir$ & convey$ & "s c\ld n4 ,9 ord] to be valid1 h[ev]1 accord+ to juri/ic !ory ! di/9ction mu/ lie 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 & x 0 g5]aliz$ accord+ly4 ,9 a "t :5 l>ge unoccupi$ areas 7 op5 to settlem5t & abundant natural res\rces 7 wait+ to be discov]$ & develop$1 a !ory ( acquisition by discov]y & appropriation ( res nullius1 res]v+ a few ?+s z res extra comm]cium1 did n involve s]i\s difficulty4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 a cr[d$ _w1 ! !ory ( res extra comm]cium comes to seem inconsi/5t ) private prop]ty & ! !ory ( discov]y & occupation to involve wa/e ( social res\rces4 ,z to ! latt]1 we may comp>e ! law ( m9+ & ( wat] rights on ! public doma91 :i* develop$ along l9es ( discov]y & r$uction to possession "u ! conditions ( #ahdi & ! f$]al legislation ( #ahff & #ahgb1 ) rec5t legislation proce$+ on ideas ( cons]vation ( natural res\rces4 ,! =m] requires m consid]ation4 ,= ! argum5t t excludes "s ?+s f private own]%ip may seem to apply m & m to l& & ev5 to movables4 ,?us ,h]b]t ,sp5c] says1 9 expla9+ res communes3 ,if "o individual int]f]es ) ! relations ( ano!r to ! natural m$ia ^u :i* ! latt]'s life dep5ds1 he infr+es ! l lib]ties ( o!rs by :i* 8 own are measur$4 ,b if ?is is true ( air & ( light & ( runn+ wat]1 m5 w insi/ ^u inquir+ :y x is n true ( l&1 ( articles ( food1 ( tools & implem5ts1 ( capital & ev51 x may be1 ( ! luxuries ^u :i* a truly human life dep5ds4 ,accord+ly1 h[ to give a rational acc\nt ( ! s-call$ natural "r ( prop]ty & h[ to fix ! natural limits ( t "r became vex$ que/ions ( philosophical jurisprud5ce4 ,antiquity 0 cont5t to ma9ta9 ! economic & social /atus quo or at lea/ to idealize x & ma9ta9 x 9 an ideal =m4 ,! ,middle ,ages 7 cont5t to accept suum cuique tribu]e z conclusive4 ,x 0 en\gh t acquisition ( l& & movables & private own]%ip ( !m 7 "p ( ! exi/+ social sy/em4 ,^u ! d[nfall ( au?ority1 sev5te5?-& eighte5?-c5tury juri/s s\ght to put natural reason beh9d private prop]ty z beh9d all o!r in/itutions4 ,:5 ,kant _h und]m9$ ?is f\ndation1 ! n9ete5?-c5tury philosophical juri/s s\ght to d$uce prop]ty f a fundam5tal metaphysical datum2 ! hi/orical juri/s s\ght to record ! unfold+ ( ! idea ( private prop]ty 9 human exp]i5ce1 ?us %[+ ! univ]sal idea2 ! utilit>ian demon/rat$ private prop]ty by 8 fundam5tal te/ & ! positivi/ e/abli%$ its validity & necessity by obs]vation ( human in/itutions & _! evolution4 ,9 o!r words1 "h z else:]e1 :5 eighte5?-c5tury natural law broke d[n1 juri/s s\ght to put new f\ndations "u ! old /ructure ( natural rights1 j z natural rights _h be5 put z a new f\ndation to support in/itutions :i* !ret(ore _h f\nd a suffici5t basis 9 au?ority4 ,!ories by :i* m5 h s\ght to give a rational acc\nt ( private prop]ty z a social & legal in/itution may be arrang$ conv5i5tly 9 six pr9cipal gr\ps1 ea* includ+ _m =ms4 ,^! gr\ps may be call$3 7#a7 ,natural-law !ories1 7#b7 metaphysical !ories1 7#c7 hi/orical !ories1 7#d7 positive !ories1 7#e7 psy*ological !ories & 7#f7 sociological !ories4 ,( ! natural-law !ories1 "s proce$ on a conception ( pr9ciples ( natural reason d]iv$ f ! nature ( ?+s1 "s on conceptions ( human nature4 ,! =m] cont9ue ! ideas ( ! ,roman lawy]s4 ,!y />t ) a def9ite pr9ciple f\nd z ! explanation ( a concrete case & make x a univ]sal f\ndation = a g5]al law ( prop]ty4 ,z x has be5 put1 !y f9d a po/ulate ( prop]ty & d]ive prop]ty !refrom by d$uction4 ,su* !ories usually />t ei!r f ! idea ( occupation or f ! idea ( creation ?r\gh labor4 ,!ories purport+ to be bas$ on human nature are ( ?ree =ms4 ,"s proce$ on a conception ( natural rights1 tak5 to be qualities ( human nature rea*$ by reason+ z to ! nature ( ! ab/ract man4 ,o!rs proce$ ^u ! basis ( a social contract express+ or gu>antee+ ! rights d]iv$ by reason f ! nature ( man 9 ! ab/ract4 ,9 rec5t ?9k+ a ?ird =m has aris5 :i* may be call$ an economic natural law4 ,9 ?is =m ( !ory1 a g5]al f\ndation = prop]ty is d]iv$ f ! economic nature ( man or f ! nature ( man z an economic entity4 ,^! are mod]n !ories ( natural law on an economic in/ead ( an e?ical basis4 ,grotius & ,puf5dorf may be tak5 z types ( ! old] natural-law !ories ( prop]ty4 ,accord+ to ,grotius1 all ?+s orig9ally 7 res nullius4 ,b m5 9 society came to a division ( ?+s by agreem5t4 ,?+s n s divid$ 7 aft]w>d discov]$ by individuals & r$uc$ to possession4 ,?us ?+s came to be subject$ to individual control4 ,a complete p[] ( disposition 0 d$uc$ f ?is individual control1 z some?+ logically impli$ !re91 & ?is p[] ( disposition furni%$ ! basis = acquisition f o!rs ^: titles re/$ directly or indirectly ^u ! natural f\ndation ( ! orig9al division by agreem5t or ( subsequ5t discov]y & occupation4 ,moreov]1 x c\ld be argu$ t ! control ( an own]1 9 ord] to be complete1 mu/ include n only ! p[] to give int] vivos b also ! p[] to provide = devolution aft] dea? z a sort ( po/pon$ gift4 ,?us a complete sy/em ( natural rights ( prop]ty 0 made to re/ m$iately or imm$iately ^u a po/ulat$ orig9al division by agreem5t or a subsequ5t discov]y & occupation4 ,?is !ory %\ld be consid]$ 9 ! light ( ! facts ( ! subject on :i* ,grotius wrote & ( ! "t :5 he wrote4 ,he wrote on int]national law 9 ! p]iod ( expansion & colonization at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,8 discussion ( ! philosophical f\ndation ( prop]ty 0 meant z a prelim9>y to consid]ation ( ! title ( /ates to _! t]ritorial doma94 ,z ?+s 71 ! t]ritories ( /ates _h come d[n 9 "p f ! pa/4 ,! titles re/$ on a sort ( r\gh adju/m5t among ! invad]s ( ! ,roman empire4 ,!y c\ld be idealiz$ z ! result ( a division by agreem5t & ( successions to1 or acquisitions f1 ^? :o p>ticipat$ !re94 ,ano!r "p repres5t$ new natural titles bas$ on discov]y & occupation 9 ! new _w4 ,?us a ,romaniz$1 idealiz$ s*eme ( ! titles by :i* ,european /ates ( ! sev5te5? c5tury held _! t]ritories becomes a univ]sal !ory ( prop]ty4 ,puf5dorf re/s 8 :ole !ory ^u an orig9al pact4 ,he argues t !re 0 9 ! beg9n+ a negative community4 ,t is1 all ?+s 7 orig9ally res communes4 ,no "o own$ !m4 ,!y 7 subject to use by all4 ,?is is call$ a negative community to di/+ui% x f affirmative own]%ip by co-own]s4 ,he decl>es t m5 aboli%$ ! negative community by mutual agreem5t & ?us e/abli%$ private own]%ip4 ,ei!r by ! t]ms ( ?is pact or by a necess>y implication :at 0 n occupi$ !n & !re 0 subject to acquisition by discov]y & occupation1 & d]ivative acquisition ( titles proce$+ f ! abolition ( ! negative community 0 conceiv$ to be a fur!r necess>y implication4 ,9 ,anglo-,am]ican law1 ! ju/ification ( prop]ty on a natural pr9ciple ( occupation ( own]less ?+s got curr5cy ?r\gh ,black/one4 ,z betwe5 ,locke on ! "o side & ,grotius & ,puf5dorf on ! o!r1 ,black/one 0 n will+ to commit himself to ! ne$ ( assum+ an orig9al pact4 ,app>5tly he held t a pr9ciple ( acquisition by a tempor>y p[] ( control co-ext5sive ) possession express$ ! nature ( man 9 primitive times & t aft]w>ds1 ) ! gr[? ( civilization1 ! nature ( man 9 a civiliz$ society 0 express$ by a pr9ciple ( complete p]man5t control ( :at _h be5 occupi$ exclusively1 includ+ z a necess>y incid5t ( su* control ! ius dispon5di4 ,ma9e has po9t$ out t ?is di/9ction betwe5 an e>li] & a lat] /age 9 ! natural "r ( prop]ty grew out ( desire to br+ ! !ory into accord ) ,scriptural acc\nts ( ! ,patri>*s & _! relations to ! l& graz$ by _! flocks4 ,9 ei!r ev5t ! ultimate basis is tak5 to be ! nature ( man z a rational creature1 express$ 9 a natural pr9ciple ( control ( ?+s ?r\gh occupation or 9 an orig9al contract provid+ = su* own]%ip4 ,) ! revival ( natural law 9 rec5t ye>s a new phase ( ! ju/ification ( prop]ty ^u ! basis ( human nature has aris54 ,?is 0 sugge/$ fir/ by economi/s :o d$uc$ prop]ty f ! economic nature ( man z a necessity ( ! economic life ( ! individual 9 society4 ,usually x is c\pl$ ) a psy*ological !ory on ! "o side & a social-utilit>ian !ory on ! o!r side4 ,9 ! h&s ( writ]s on philosophy ( law x has (t5 tak5 on a metaphysical color4 ,f ano!r /&po9t1 :at are ess5tially natural-law !ories h be5 advocat$ by sociali/s1 ei!r d$uc+ a natural "r ( ! labor] to ! :ole produce ( 8 labor f a natural pr9ciple ( creation or c>ry+ out ! idea ( natural qualities ( ! individual human be+ to ! po9t ( d5y+ all private prop]ty z a natural in/itution & d$uc+ a g5]al regime ( res communes or res publicae4 ,metaphysical !ories ( prop]ty are "p ( ! g5]al movem5t t replac$ sev5te5?-& eighte5?-c5tury !ories ( natural rights1 f\nd$ on ! nature ( ! ab/ract man or on an assum$ compact1 by metaphysical !ories4 ,!y beg9 ) ,kant4 ,he fir/ sets himself to ju/ify ! ab/ract idea ( a law ( prop]ty--! idea ( a sy/em ( ext]nal meum & tuum4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e else1 he beg9s ) ! inviolability ( ! individual human p]sonality4 ,a ?+ is rightfully m9e1 he says1 :5 ,i am s connect$ ) x t anyone :o uses x )\t my cons5t does me an injury4 ,b to ju/ify ! law ( prop]ty we mu/ g beyond cases ( possession :]e !re is an actual physical relation to ! object & int]f]5ce !re) is an aggression ^u p]sonality4 ,! ?+ c only be m9e = ! purposes ( a legal sy/em ( meum & tuum :]e ,i w be wrong$ by ano!r's use ( x :5 x is n actually 9 my possession4 ,?is raises 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! "q ,h[ is a m]ely juridical or rational z di/+ui%$ f a purely physical possession possible8 ,he answ]s ! "q by a metaphysical v]sion ( ! occupation !ory ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,conc$+ t ! idea ( a primitive community ( ?+s is a fiction1 ! idea ( a logically orig9al community ( ! soil & ( ! ?+s ^u x1 he says1 has objective reality & practical juridical reality4 ,o!rwise m]e objects ( ! ex]cise ( ! w1 exempt$ !refrom by op]ation ( law1 w\ld be rais$ to ! dignity ( free-will+ subjects1 al?\gh !y h no subjective claim to be respect$4 ,?us ! fir/ possessor f\nds ^u a common innate "r ( tak+ possession1 & to di/urb him is a wrong4 ,! fir/ tak+ ( possession has a title ( "r beh9d x 9 ! pr9ciple ( ! orig9al common claim to possession4 ,x results t ?is tak] obta9s a control realiz$ by ! und]/&+ & indep5d5t ( relations ( space1 & he or ^? :o d]ive f him may possess a p>cel ( l& al?\gh remote f x physically4 ,su* a possession is only possible 9 a /ate ( civil society4 ,9 civil society1 a decl>ation by ^w or act t an ext]nal ?+ is m9e & mak+ x an object ( ! ex]cise ( my w is a juridical act4 ,x involves a decl>ation t o!rs are "u a duty ( ab/a9+ f ! use ( ! object4 ,x also involves an admission t ,i am b\nd 9 turn t[>d all o!rs ) respect to ! objects !y h made ext]nally !irs4 ,= we are br\ght to ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ju/ice t requires ea* to regulate 8 conduct by a univ]sal rule t w give l effect to ! w ( o!rs4 ,?is is gu>ante$ by ! legal ord] 9 civil society & gives u ! regime ( ext]nal m9e & ?9e4 ,hav+ ?us work$ out a !ory ( meum & tuum z legal in/itutions1 ,kant turns to a !ory ( acquisition1 di/+ui%+ an orig9al & prim>y f a d]iv$ acquisition4 ,no?+ is orig9ally m9e )\t a juridical act4 ,! elem5ts ( ?is legal transaction ( orig9al acquisition are ?ree3 7#a7 ,preh5sion ( an object :i* belongs to no "o2 7#b7 an act ( ! free w int]dict+ all o!rs f us+ x z !irs2 7#c7 appropriation z a p]man5t acquisition1 receiv+ a lawmak+ =ce f ! pr9ciple ( reconcil+ wills accord+ to a univ]sal law1 :]eby all o!rs are oblig$ to respect & act 9 con=mity to ! w ( ! appropriator ) respect to ! ?+ appropriat$4 ,kant !n proce$s to "w out a !ory ( d]ivative acquisition by transf] or ali5ation1 by deliv]y or by contract1 z a legal giv+ effect to ! individual w by univ]sal rules1 n incompatible ) a l efficacy 9 action ( all o!r wills4 ,?is metaphysical v]sion ( ! ,roman !ory ( occupation is evid5tly ! l9k betwe5 ! eighte5? c5tury & ,savigny's aphorism t all prop]ty is f\nd$ 9 adv]se possession rip5$ by prescription4 ,:5 ,kant's !ory is exam9$ x w be f\nd to conta9 bo? ! idea ( occupation & ! idea ( compact4 ,occupation has become a legal transaction involv+ a unilat]al pact n to di/urb o!rs 9 respect ( _! occupation ( o!r ?+s4 ,b ! pact does n d]ive its efficacy f ! inh]5t moral =ce ( a promise z su* or ! nature ( man z a moral creature :i* holds him to promises4 ,its efficacy is n f\nd 9 qualities ( promises or ( m51 b 9 a pr9ciple ( reconcil+ wills by a univ]sal law1 s9ce t pr9ciple requires "o :o decl>es 8 w z to object ,a to respect ! decl>ation ( 8 neighbor's w z to object ,b4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! idea ( creation is significantly abs5t4 ,writ+ at ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 9 view ( ! ideas ( ,r\sseau1 :o held t ! man :o fir/ laid out a plot ( gr\nd & said1 ,?is is m9e1 %\ld h be5 lyn*$1 & ( ! int]f]+s ) ve/$ rights 9 ,revolution>y ,france1 ,kant 0 n ?9k+ h[ ^? :o _h n might claim a great] %>e 9 :at !y produc$ b h[ ^? :o _h might claim to hold :at !y _h4 ,hegel develops ! metaphysical !ory fur!r by gett+ rid ( ! idea ( occupation & treat+ prop]ty z a realization ( ! idea ( lib]ty4 ,prop]ty1 he says1 makes objective my p]sonal1 individual w4 ,9 ord] to rea* ! complete lib]ty involv$ 9 ! idea ( lib]ty1 "o mu/ give 8 lib]ty an ext]nal sph]e4 ,h5ce a p]son has a "r to direct 8 w ^u an ext]nal object & an object on :i* x is s direct$ becomes 84 ,x is n an end 9 itself2 x gets its :ole rational significance f 8 w4 ,?us :5 "o appropriates a ?+1 fundam5tally he manife/s ! maje/y ( 8 w by demon/rat+ t ext]nal objects t h no wills are n self-suffici5t & are n ends 9 !mselves4 ,x foll[s t ! dem& = equality 9 ! division ( ! soil & 9 o!r =ms ( weal? is sup]ficial4 ,=1 he argues1 diff]5ces ( weal? are due to accid5ts ( ext]nal nature t give to :at ,a has impress$ ) 8 w great] value ?an to :at ,b has impress$ ) 81 & to ! inf9ite div]sity ( individual m9d & "* t leads ,a to atta* 8 w to ?is & ,b to atta* 8 w to t4 ,m5 are equal z p]sons4 ,) respect to ! pr9ciple ( possession !y /& alike4 ,ev]yone mu/ h prop]ty ( "s sort 9 ord] to be free4 ,beyond ?is1 among p]sons diff]5tly end[$ inequality mu/ result & equality w\ld be wrong4 ,n9ete5?-c5tury metaphysical !ories ( prop]ty c>ry out ^! ideas or develop ?is me?od4 ,& x is to be not$ t !y are all op5 to attack f ! /&po9t ( ! !ory ( res extra comm]cium4 ,?us ,hegel's !ory comes to ?is3 ,p]sonality involves ex]cise ( ! w ) respect to ?+s4 ,:5 "o has ex]cis$ 8 w ) respect to a ?+ & s has acquir$ a p[] ( control ov] x1 o!r wills are exclud$ f ?is ?+ & are to be direct$ t[>d objects ) :i* o!r p]sonalities h n be5 s id5tifi$4 ,s long z !re are vacant l&s to occupy1 undevelop$ regions await+ ! pione]1 unexploit$ natural res\rces await+ ! prospector--9 %ort1 s long z !re are en\gh physical objects 9 rea*1 if "o may s put x1 to g r\nd--?is w\ld be consi/5t ) ! n9ete5?-c5tury !ory ( ju/ice4 ,b :51 z at ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! _w becomes cr[d$ & its natural res\rces h be5 appropriat$ & exploit$1 s t !re is a defect 9 mat]ial nature :]eby su* ex]cise ( ! w by "s leaves no objects ^u :i* ! wills ( o!rs may be ex]t$1 or a defici5cy su* z to prev5t any sub/antial ex]tion ( ! w1 x is difficult to see h[ ,hegel's argum5t may be reconcil$ ) ! argum5t put beh9d ! conception ( res extra comm]cium4 ,mill]1 a ,scot* ,hegelian1 seeks to meet ?is difficulty4 ,he says t beyond :at is ne$$ = ! natural exi/5ce & developm5t ( ! p]son1 prop]ty c only be held z a tru/ = ! /ate4 ,9 mod]n times1 h[ev]1 a p]iodical r$i/ribution1 z 9 antiquity1 is economically inadmissible4 ,yet if anyone's hold+s 7 to exce$ ! b\nds ( reason1 ! legislature w\ld und\bt$ly int]f]e on behalf ( society & prev5t ! wrong :i* w\ld be done by c>icatur+ an ab/ract "r4 ,9 view ( our bills ( rights1 an ,am]ican ,hegelian c\ld n invoke ! deus ex ma*9a ( an ,act ( ,p>liam5t s conv5i5tly4 ,p]haps he w\ld fall back on graduat$ taxation & inh]itance taxes4 ,b does n ,mill] :5 h>d press$ resort to some?+ v l social-utilit>ianism8 ,lorim] connects ! metaphysical !ory ) !ories re/+ on human nature4 ,to beg9 )1 he d$uces ! :ole sy/em ( prop]ty f a fundam5tal proposition t ! "r to be & to cont9ue to be implies a "r to ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,accord+ly he says t ! idea ( prop]ty is insep>ably connect$ n only ) ! life ( man b ) organic exi/5ce 9 g5]al2 t life conf]s rights to its ex]cise correspond+ 9 ext5t to ! p[]s ( :i* x consi/s4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ?is is appli$ 9 expla9+ ! basis ( ! pres5t propriet>y sy/em 9 all its details resort mu/ be _h to a type ( artificial reason+ simil> to t employ$ by ! juri/s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies4 ,! ab/ract idea ( own]%ip is n ! only ?+ ! legal philosoph] has to consid]4 ,moreov] ! reason+ by :i* t application is made may n be reconcil$ ) ! argum5ts by :i* ! doctr9e ( res extra comm]cium is reg>d$ also z a bit ( natural law4 ,al?\gh x purports to be :olly diff]5t1 ! positive !ory ( ! basis ( prop]ty is ess5tially ! same z ! metaphysical4 ,?us ,sp5c]'s !ory is a d$uction f a fundam5tal law ( equal fre$om v]ifi$ by obs]vation ( ! facts ( primitive society4 ,b ! law ( equal fre$om suppos$ to be asc]ta9$ by obs]vation1 9 ! same way 9 :i* physical or *emical laws are asc]ta9$1 is 9 fact1 z has (t5 be5 po9t$ out1 ,kant's =mula ( ju/ice4 ,& ! v]ification ( d$uctions f ?is law by obs]vation ( ! facts ( primitive civilization is n ess5tially diff]5t f ! v]ification ( ! d$uctions f ! metaphysical fundam5tal law c>ri$ on by ! hi/orical juri/s4 ,! metaphysical juri/ rea*$ a pr9ciple metaphysically & d$uc$ prop]ty !refrom4 ,! hi/orical juri/ !reupon v]ifi$ ! d$uction by %[+ ! same pr9ciple z ! idea realiz+ itself 9 legal hi/ory4 ,9 ! h&s ( ! positivi/s ! same pr9ciple is rea*$ by obs]vation1 ! same d$uction is made !refrom1 & ! d$uction is v]ifi$ by f9d+ ! in/itution lat5t 9 primitive society & unfold+ ) ! developm5t ( civilization4 ,! mo/ notable diff]5ce is t ! metaphysical & hi/orical juri/s rely *iefly on primitive occupation ( own]less ?+s1 :ile ! positivi/s h be5 incl9$ to lay /ress ^u creation ( new ?+s by labor4 ,9 any ev5t1 lay+ aside ! v]ification = ! mom5t1 ! d$uction z made by ,sp5c] involves ! same difficulties z ^? involv$ 9 ! metaphysical d$uction4 ,moreov]1 l ! metaphysical d$uction1 x acc\nts = an ab/ract idea ( private prop]ty r ?an = ! regime t actually exi/s4 ,inequalities are assum$ to be due to great] /r5g?1 great] +5uity or great] application ( ^? :o h acquir$ m ?an _! fell[s4 ,h5ce1 z ! end ( law is tak5 to be ! br++ ab\t ( a maximum ( individual free self-ass]tion1 any int]f]5ce ) "o's hold+ ! fruits ( 8 great] /r5g? or great] +5uity or great] application1 & 8 result+ great] activity 9 creative or acquisitive self-ass]tion1 w\ld contrav5e ! v purpose ( ! legal ord]4 ,x w be not$ also t ?is !ory1 l all t _h gone be=e1 assumes a complete ius dispon5di z impli$ 9 ! v notion ( prop]ty4 ,b does n ?is also require demon/ration8 ,is ! ius dispon5di impli$ 9 ! idea :i* !y demon/rate or is x only an incid5t ( ! in/itution !y are seek+ to expla9 by ! demon/ration8 ,hi/orical juri/s h ma9ta9$ _! !ory on ! basis ( two propositions3 7#a7 ,! conception ( private prop]ty1 l ! conception ( individual p]sonality1 has _h sl[ b /eady developm5t f ! beg9n+s ( law2 7#b7 individual own]%ip has gr[n out ( gr\p rights j z individual int]e/s ( p]sonality h be5 dis5tangl$ gradually f gr\p int]e/s4 ,let u look at ea* ( ^! propositions 9 "s detail4 ,if we exam9e ! law ( prop]ty analytically1 we may see ?ree grades or /ages 9 ! p[] or capacity :i* m5 h ( influ5c+ ! acts ( o!rs ) respect to corporeal objects4 ,"o is a m]e condition ( fact1 a m]e physical hold+ ( or physical control ov] ! ?+ )\t any o!r elem5t :atev]4 ,! ,roman juri/s call$ ?is natural possession4 ,we call x cu/ody4 ,writ]s on analytical jurisprud5ce reg>d x z an elem5t ( possession4 ,b ?is natural possession is some?+ t may exi/ indep5d5tly ( law or ( ! /ate1 z 9 ! s-call$ p$is possessio ( ,am]ican m9+ law1 :]e1 be=e law or /ate au?ority _h be5 ext5d$ to ! public doma9 9 ! m9+ c\ntry1 ! m9]s recogniz$ ! claim ( "o :o 0 actually digg+ to dig )\t mole/ation at t spot4 ,! m]e hav+ ( an object 9 "o's actual grasp gives an advantage4 ,b x may be only an advantage dep5d+ on "o's /r5g? or on recognition ( & respect = 8 p]sonality by 8 fell[ m54 ,x is n a legal advantage except z ! law protects p]sonality4 ,x is ! physical p]son ( ! "o 9 natural possession :i* is secur$1 n 8 relation to ! ?+ held4 ,analytically ! next grade or /age is :at ! ,romani/ calls juri/ic possession z di/+ui%$ f natural possession4 ,?is is a legal developm5t ( ! extra-legal idea ( cu/ody4 ,:]e cu/ody or ! ability to reproduce a condition ( cu/ody is c\pl$ ) ! m5tal elem5t ( int5tion to hold = "o's own purposes1 ! legal ord] conf]s on "o :o s holds a capacity protect$ & ma9ta9$ by law s to hold1 & a claim to h ! ?+ re/or$ to 8 imm$iate physical control %\ld he be depriv$ ( x4 ,z ! ,romani/ puts x1 9 ! case ( natural possession ! law secures ! relation ( ! physical p]son to ! object2 9 juri/ic possession ! law secures ! relation ( ! w to ! object4 ,9 ! highe/ grade ( propriet>y relation1 own]%ip1 ! law goes mu* fur!r & secures to m5 ! exclusive or ultimate enjoym5t or control ( objects f> beyond _! capacity ei!r to hold 9 cu/ody or to possess--t is1 beyond :at !y c\ld hold by physical =ce & beyond :at !y c\ld actually hold ev5 by ! help ( ! /ate4 ,natural possession is a conception ( pure fact 9 no degree dep5d5t ^u law4 ,! legally significant ?+ is ! int]e/ ( ! natural possessor 9 8 p]sonality4 ,possession or juri/ic possession is a conception ( fact & law1 exi/+ z a pure relation ( fact1 indep5d5t ( legal orig91 b protect$ & ma9ta9$ by law )\t reg>d to int]f]5ce ) p]sonality4 ,own]%ip is a purely legal conception hav+ its orig9 9 & dep5d+ on ! law4 ,9 g5]al ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! law ( prop]ty foll[s ! l9e ?us indicat$ by analysis4 ,9 ! mo/ primitive social control only natural possession is recogniz$ & int]f]5ce ) natural possession is n di/+ui%$ f int]f]5ce ) ! p]son or injury to ! honor ( ! "o ^: physical contact ) ! physical object is m$dl$ )4 ,9 ! e>li] legal social control ! all-important ?+ is seis91 or possession4 ,?is is a juri/ic possession1 a conception bo? ( fact & ( law4 ,su* in/itutions z torti\s conveyance by ! p]son seis$ 9 ! common law are num]\s 9 an e>ly /age ( legal developm5t4 ,!y %[ t prim>ily ! law protect$ ! relation to an object ( "o :o _h possession ( x4 ,inde$ ! idea ( dom9ium1 or own]%ip z we n[ und]/& x1 0 fir/ work$ out ?or\ghly 9 ,roman law1 & o!r sy/ems got _! idea ( x1 z di/+ui%$ f seis91 f ! ,roman books4 ,recognition ( individual int]e/s ( sub/ance1 or 9 o!r words individual prop]ty1 has develop$ out ( recognition ( gr\p int]e/s1 j z recognition ( individual int]e/s ( p]sonality has evolv$ gradually f :at 9 ! fir/ in/ance 0 a recognition ( gr\p int]e/s4 ,! /atem5t :i* us$ to be f\nd 9 ! books t all prop]ty orig9ally 0 own$ 9 common means no?+ m ?an ?is3 ,:5 int]e/s ( sub/ance are fir/ secur$ !y are int]e/s ( gr\ps ( k9dr$ because 9 tribally organiz$ society gr\ps ( k9dr$ are ! legal units4 ,social control secures ^! gr\ps 9 ! occupation ( ?+s :i* !y h r$uc$ to _! possession4 ,9 ?is s5se ! fir/ prop]ty is gr\p prop]ty r ?an individual prop]ty4 ,yet x mu/ be not$ t :]ev] we f9d a secur+ ( gr\p int]e/s1 ! gr\p 9 occupation is secur$ aga9/ int]f]5ce ( o!r gr\ps ) t occupation4 ,two ideas gradually op]at$ to break up ^! gr\p int]e/s & br+ ab\t recognition ( individual int]e/s4 ,"o ( ^! is ! p>tition ( h\seholds4 ,! o!r is ! idea ( :at 9 ! ,h9du law is call$ self-acquir$ prop]ty4 ,9 primitive or ar*aic society z h\seholds gr[ unwieldy !re is a p>tition :i* involves p>tition ( prop]ty z well z ( ! h\sehold4 ,inde$ 9 ,h9du law p>tition is ?\ght ( z p>tition ( ! h\sehold prim>ily & z p>tition ( prop]ty only incid5tally4 ,also 9 ,roman law ! old action = p>tition is call$ ! action = p>tition+ ! h\sehold4 ,?us1 at fir/1 p>tition is a splitt+ up ( an ov]gr[n h\sehold into small] h\seholds4 ,pres5tly1 h[ev]1 x t5ds to become a division ( a h\sehold among individuals4 ,?us 9 ,roman law on ! dea? ( ! head ( a h\sehold ea* ( 8 sons 9 8 p[] at 8 dea? became a pat] familias & c\ld br+ a proce$+ to p>tition ! inh]itance al?\gh he might be ! sole memb] ( ! h\sehold ( :i* he 0 ! head4 ,9 ?is way individual own]%ip became ! normal condition in/ead ( h\sehold own]%ip4 ,9 ,h9du law h\sehold own]%ip is /ill reg>d$ z ! normal condition4 ,b ) *anges 9 society & ! rise ( comm]cial & indu/rial activity1 a *ange has be5 tak+ place rapidly :i* is mak+ individual own]%ip ! normal type 9 fact1 if n 9 legal !ory4 ,self-acquir$ prop]ty1 ! second dis9tegrat+ ag5cy1 may be se5 9 ,h9du law & also 9 ,roman law4 ,9 ,h9du law all prop]ty is normally & prima facie h\sehold prop]ty4 ,! burd5 is ^u anyone :o claims to be ! individual own] ( any?+4 ,b an exceptional class ( prop]ty is recogniz$ :i* is call$ self-acquir$ prop]ty4 ,su* prop]ty might be acquir$ by valor1 t is1 by leav+ ! h\sehold & go+ into milit>y s]vice & ?us e>n+ or acquir+ by way ( booty1 or by le>n+1 t is1 by )draw+ f ! h\sehold & devot+ oneself to /udy & ?us acquir+ ?r\gh ! gifts ( ! pi\s or ! ex]cise ( k4 ,a ?ird =m 0 recogniz$ lat]1 namely1 prop]ty acquir$ ?r\gh ! use ( self-acquir$ prop]ty4 ,9 ! same way 9 ,roman law ! son 9 ! h\sehold1 ev5 if ( full age1 normally _h no prop]ty4 ,legally all prop]ty acquir$ by any memb] ( ! h\sehold 0 ! prop]ty ( ! head ( ! h\sehold z ! legal symbol & repres5tative !re(4 ,lat] ! head ( ! h\sehold ceases to be ?\ght ( z symboliz+ ! h\sehold & ! prop]ty 0 reg>d$ legally z 8 individual prop]ty4 ,b ,roman law recogniz$ c]ta9 k9ds ( prop]ty :i* sons 9 ! h\sehold might hold z _! own4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 prop]ty e>n$ or acquir$ by ! son 9 milit>y s]vice4 ,lat] prop]ty e>n$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! /ate 0 add$4 ,f9ally x came to be law t prop]ty acquir$ o!rwise ?an ?r\gh use ( ! patrimony ( ! h\sehold might be held by ! son individually ?\gh he rema9$ legally "u ! p[] ( ! head4 ,9 ! two ways j expla9$1 ?r\gh p>tition & ?r\gh ! idea ( self-acquir$ prop]ty1 individual int]e/s 9 prop]ty came to be recogniz$ ?r\gh\t ! law4 ,except = ! in/itution ( community prop]ty betwe5 husb& & wife 9 civil-law c\ntries1 or z x is call$ ! matrimonial prop]ty regime1 !re is practically no?+ left ( ! old sy/em ( recogniz$ gr\p int]e/s4 ,& ev5 ?is remnant ( h\sehold gr\p own]%ip is dissolv+4 ,all legally recogniz$ int]e/s ( sub/ance 9 develop$ legal sy/ems are normally individual int]e/s4 ,to ! hi/orical juri/ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ?is fact1 c\pl$ ) ! developm5t ( own]%ip out ( possession1 s]v$ to %[ u ! idea :i* 0 realiz+ 9 human exp]i5ce ( ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice & to confirm ! position rea*$ by ! metaphysical juri/s4 ,individual private prop]ty 0 a coroll>y ( lib]ty & h5ce law 0 n ?9kable )\t x4 ,ev5 if we d n adopt ! metaphysical "p ( ?is argum5t & if we give ov] ! ideali/ic-political int]pretation ( legal hi/ory :i* x involves1 !re is mu* :i* is attractive 9 ! !ory ( ! hi/orical juri/s ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,yet z we look at c]ta9 movem5ts 9 ! law !re are ?+s to give u pause4 ,= "o ?+1 ! rise & gr[? ( ideas ( negotiability1 ! developm5t ( ! maxim possession vaut titre 9 ,cont95tal law1 & ! cutt+ d[n 9 o!r ways ( ! sph]e ( recognition ( ! int]e/ ( ! own] 9 view ( ! exig5cies ( ! social int]e/ 9 ! security ( transactions1 sugge/s t ! t5d5cy involv$ 9 ! fir/ ( ! two propositions reli$ on by ! hi/orical s*ool has pass$ its m]idian4 ,! ,roman doctr9e t no "o may transf] a great] title ?an he has is cont9ually giv+ way be=e ! dem& = secur+ ( bus9ess transactions _h 9 good fai?4 ,& 9 ,roman law 9 its maturity ! rules t re/rict$ acquisition by adv]se possession & enabl$ ! own] 9 _m cases to reclaim aft] any lapse ( "t 7 sup]s$$ by a decisive limitation ( actions :i* cut (f all claims4 ,! mod]n law 9 c\ntries :i* take _! law f ,rome has develop$ ?is decisive limitation4 ,likewise 9 our law ! ho/ility to ! /atute ( limitations1 s m>k$ 9 eighte5?-c5tury decisions1 has giv5 way to a policy ( uphold+ x4 ,moreov] ! rapid rise 9 rec5t times ( limitations ^u ! ius dispon5di1 ! imposition ( re/rictions 9 ord] to secure ! social int]e/ 9 ! cons]vation ( natural res\rces1 & ,engli% projects = cutt+ (f ! ius abut5di ( ! l&[n]1 c\ld be int]pret$ by ! n9ete5?-c5tury hi/orical juri/s only z m>k+ a retrograde developm5t4 ,:5 we add t ) ! increase 9 numb] & influ5ce ( gr\ps 9 ! highly organiz$ society ( today a t5d5cy is manife/ to recognize practically & 9 back-h&$ ways gr\p prop]ty 9 :at are n legal entities1 x becomes evid5t t ! segm5t ( exp]i5ce at :i* ! hi/orical juri/s 7 look+ 0 f> too %ort to ju/ify a dogmatic conclusion1 ev5 admitt+ ! validity ( _! me?od4 ,x rema9s to consid] "s tw5tie?-c5tury !ories4 ,^! h n be5 work$ out ) ! same elaboration & sy/ematic detail z ^? ( ! pa/1 & z yet "o may d no m ?an sket* !m4 ,an in/9ctive claim to control natural objects is an individual int]e/ ( :i* ! law mu/ take acc\nt4 ,?is in/9ct has be5 ! basis ( psy*ological !ories ( private prop]ty4 ,b ?us f> ^! !ories h be5 no m ?an indicat$4 ,!y might well be comb9$ ) ! hi/orical !ory1 putt+ a psy*ological basis 9 place ( ! n9ete5?-c5tury metaphysical f\ndation4 ,a social-psy*ological legal hi/ory might a*ieve mu* 9 ?is connection4 ,( sociological !ories1 "s are positivi/1 "s psy*ological & "s social-utilit>ian4 ,an excell5t example ( ! fir/ is ,duguit's d$uction f social int]dep5d5ce ?r\gh simil>ity ( int]e/ & ?r\gh division ( labor4 ,he has b sket*$ ?is !ory1 b 8 discussion conta9s _m valuable sugge/ions4 ,he %[s cle>ly en\gh t ! law ( prop]ty is becom+ socializ$4 ,b1 z he po9ts out1 ?is does n mean t prop]ty is becom+ collective4 ,x means t we are ceas+ to ?9k ( x 9 t]ms ( private "r & are ?9k+ ( x 9 t]ms ( social function4 ,if "o d\bts ?is he %\ld reflect on rec5t r5t legislation1 :i* 9 effect treats ! r5t+ ( h\ses z a bus9ess affect$ ) a public int]e/ 9 :i* reasonable rates mu/ be *>g$ z by a public utility4 ,also x means t cases ( legal application ( weal? to collective uses are becom+ cont9ually m num]\s4 ,he !n argues t ! law ( prop]ty answ]s to ! economic ne$ ( apply+ c]ta9 weal? to def9ite individual or collective uses & ! consequ5t ne$ t society gu>antee & protect t application4 ,h5ce1 he says1 society sanctions acts :i* con=m to ^? uses ( weal? :i* meet t economic ne$1 & re/ra9s acts ( contr>y t5d5cy4 ,?us prop]ty is a social in/itution bas$ ^u an economic ne$ 9 a society organiz$ ?r\gh division ( labor4 ,x w be se5 t ! results & ! attitude t[>d ! law ( prop]ty involv$ are mu* ! same z ^? :i* are rea*$ f ! social-utilit>ian /&po9t4 ,psy*ological sociological !ories h be5 advanc$ *iefly 9 ,italy4 ,!y seek ! f\ndation ( prop]ty 9 an in/9ct ( acquisitiv5ess1 consid]+ x a social developm5t or social in/itution on t basis4 ,social-utilit>ian !ories expla9 & ju/ify prop]ty z an in/itution :i* secures a maximum ( int]e/s or satisfies a maximum ( wants1 conceiv+ x to be a s\nd & wise bit ( social eng9e]+ :5 view$ ) ref]5ce to its results4 ,?is is ! me?od ( ,pr(essor ,ely's well-kn[n book on ,prop]ty & ,contract4 ,no "o has yet done s1 b ,i suspect "o might comb9e ?is mode ( ?\ght ) ! civilization int]pretation ( ! ,neo-,hegelians & argue t ! sy/em ( individual prop]ty1 on ! :ole1 conduces to ! ma9ta9+ & fur!r+ ( civilization--to ! developm5t ( human p[]s to ! mo/ ( :i* !y are capable--in/ead ( view+ x z a realization ( ! idea ( civilization z x unfolds 9 human exp]i5ce4 ,p]haps ! !ories ( ! imm$iate future w run along "s su* l9es4 ,= we h _h no exp]i5ce ( conduct+ civiliz$ society on any o!r basis1 & ! wa/e & friction involv$ 9 go+ to any o!r basis mu/ give u pause4 ,moreov]1 :atev] we d1 we mu/ take acc\nt ( ! in/9ct ( acquisitiv5ess & ( individual claims gr\nd$ !reon4 ,we may believe t ! law ( prop]ty is a wise bit ( social eng9e]+ 9 ! _w z we "k x1 & t we satisfy m human wants1 secure m int]e/s1 ) a sacrifice ( less !reby ?an by any?+ we are likely to devise--we may believe ?is )\t hold+ t private prop]ty is et]nally & absolutely necess>y & t human society may n expect 9 "s civilization1 :i* we _c =eca/1 to a*ieve some?+ diff]5t & some?+ bett]4 ,,vi ,contract ,weal?1 9 a comm]cial age1 is made up l>gely ( promises4 ,an important "p ( ev]yone's sub/ance consi/s ( advantages :i* o!rs h promis$ to provide = or to r5d] to him2 ( dem&s to h ! advantages promis$ :i* he may ass]t n aga9/ ! _w at l>ge b aga9/ p>ticul> individuals4 ,?us ! individual claims to h p]=mance ( advantage\s promises secur$ to him4 ,he claims ! satisfaction ( expectations creat$ by promises & agreem5ts4 ,if ?is claim is n secur$ friction & wa/e obvi\sly result1 & unless "s c\nt]vail+ int]e/ mu/ come into acc\nt :i* w\ld be sacrific$ 9 ! process1 x w\ld seem t ! individual int]e/ 9 promis$ advantages %\ld be secur$ to ! full ext5t ( :at has be5 assur$ to him by ! delib]ate promise ( ano!r4 ,let u put ?is 9 ano!r way4 ,9 a =m] lecture ,i sugge/$1 z a jural po/ulate ( civiliz$ society1 t 9 su* a society m5 mu/ be able to assume t ^? ) :om !y deal 9 ! g5]al int]c\rse ( ! society w act 9 good fai?1 & z a coroll>y mu/ be able to assume t ^? ) :om !y s deal w c>ry out _! und]tak+s accord+ to ! expectations :i* ! moral s5tim5t ( ! community atta*es !reto4 ,h5ce1 9 a comm]cial & indu/rial society1 a claim or want or dem& ( society t promises be kept & t und]tak+s be c>ri$ out 9 good fai?1 a social int]e/ 9 ! /ability ( promises z a social & economic in/itution1 becomes ( ! fir/ importance4 ,?is social int]e/ 9 ! security ( transactions1 z "o might call x1 requires t we secure ! individual int]e/ ( ! promisee1 t is1 8 claim or dem& to be assur$ 9 ! expectation creat$1 :i* has become "p ( 8 sub/ance4 ,9 civil-law c\ntries ! int]e/ ( ! promisee1 & ?us ! social int]e/ 9 ! security ( transactions1 is well secur$4 ,! traditional requirem5t ( a causa ciuilis1 a civil1 i4e41 legal1 reason = en=c+ a pact1 gave way be=e natural-law ideas 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,po?i] gave ov] ! contract categories ( ! ,roman law z be+ v remote f simplicity4 ,!n came ! rise ( ! w !ory ( legal transactions 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,fr5* law made int5tion ( gratuit\sly b5efit+ ano!r a causa4 ,! ,au/rian code ( #ahaa presum$ a causa1 requir+ a promisor to prove !re 0 none4 ,& ?is means t he mu/ prove ! promise 0 n a legal transaction--t !re 0 no int5tion to ent] into a b9d+ und]tak+4 ,9 ! result1 ab/ract promises1 z ! civilian calls !m1 came to be en=c$ equally ) ^? :i* came "u "s =mal ,roman category & ) ^? hav+ a sub/antial presupposition4 ,mod]n ,cont95tal law1 ap>t f c]ta9 requirem5ts ( pro(1 re/+ on ! same policy z our ,/atute ( ,frauds1 asks only1 ,did ! promisor int5d to create a b9d+ duty8 ,likewise 9 civil-law c\ntries ! en=c+ ma*9]y is mod]n & adequate4 ,! olde/ me?od ( en=cem5t 9 ,roman law 0 seizure ( ! p]son1 to co]ce satisfaction or hold ! promisor 9 bondage until 8 k9sm5 p]=m$ ! judgm5t4 ,lat] !re 0 a pecuni>y condemnation or1 z we %\ld say1 a money judgm5t 9 all cases1 en=c$ 9 ! classical law by univ]sal execution or1 z we %\ld say1 by involunt>y bankruptcy4 ,b along ) ?is rem$y specific relief grew up 9 ! actio arbitr>ia1 a clumsy device ( specific p]=mance on ! alt]native ( a heavy money condemnation1 :i* repeat$ itself 9 ,p5nsylvania be=e equity p[]s 7 giv5 ! c\rts1 & is sub/antially repeat+ 9 our f$]al c\rts 9 _! attempts to apply equitable relief to torts committ$ 9 =eign jurisdictions4 ,! civil law develop$1 or p]haps ! canon law develop$ & ! civil law took ov]1 an actio ad impl5dum or action to require p]=mance1 ) natural execution1 t is a do+ by ! c\rt or its (fic]s at ! exp5se ( ! def5dant1 ( t to :i* he is b\nd z asc]ta9$ by ! judgm5t4 ,9 g5]al 9 civil-law c\ntries today :at we call specific p]=mance is ! rule4 ,a money rep>ation = brea* ( contract is ! exceptional rem$y4 ,x is only :5 = "s reason specific relief is impracticable or inequitable1 z 9 contracts ( p]sonal s]vice1 t money relief is resort$ to4 ,9 c\ntries gov]n$ by ! common law we d n secure ?is int]e/ s completely nor s effectively4 ,= "o ?+ we d n recognize z legally en=ceable all int5tional promises int5d$ to be b9d+ ^u ! promisor4 ,_m te*nical rules z to consid]ation1 rules hav+ *iefly a hi/orical basis1 /& 9 ! way4 ,_m jurisdictions h aboli%$ private seals & h made no provision = =mal gratuit\s or ab/ract promises4 ,moreov]1 we d n give specific relief ord9>ily b only exceptionally :]e pecuni>y relief is consid]$ inadequate4 ,h5ce 9 ! great majority ( cases ! promisee _c compel p]=mance 9 specie4 ,if we look into ! reasons = ?is wide & effective en=cem5t ( promises 9 ! "o sy/em & n>r[] & less effective en=cem5t 9 ! o!r1 we come 9 bo? cases ^u a mixture ( hi/orical backgr\nd & philosophical reason+1 ea* influ5c+ ! o!r & nei!r gov]n+ ! subject completely4 ,philosophical !ories h aris5 to expla9 exi/+ rules & h be5 ! basis ( new rules & ( remak+ ( old ones4 ,b !y h be5 ! means also1 at times1 ( intr5*+ ! rules !y s\ght to expla9 & ( fa/5+ on ! law doctr9es ( :i* x 7 bett] rid4 ,n[h]e is ! reciprocal action ( legal rules & philosophical !ories m /rik+ly manife/ ?an 9 our law ( contractual liability4 ,law did n conc]n itself at fir/ ) agreem5ts or brea*es ( agreem5ts4 ,its function 0 to keep ! peace by regulat+ or prev5t+ private w> & ?is only requir$ x to deal ) p]sonal viol5ce & ) disputes ov] ! possession ( prop]ty4 ,i may rem9d y ( ! proposition ( ,hippodamus 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 t !re 7 b ?ree subjects ( lawsuits1 namely1 insult1 injury & homicide4 ,if a dispute ov] brea* ( an agreem5t l$ to an assault & a brea* ( ! peace1 tribunals might be call$ on to act4 ,b x 0 ! assault n ! brea* ( agreem5t ) :i* !y 7 conc]n$4 ,controv]sy z to possession ( prop]ty 0 a f]tile s\rce ( di/urbance ( ! peace & tribunals w\ld ent]ta9 an action to recov] possession4 ,agreem5ts to comp\nd = a wrong are p]haps ! e>lie/ type4 ,b ! law _h its eye ^u ! ne$ ( composition1 n ^u ! agreem5t4 ,no basis = a law ( contracts 0 to be f\nd 9 ! p[] ( ! tribunals ) respect to injuries al?\gh our law did make assumpsit out ( trespass on ! case4 ,on ! o!r h& recov]y ( prop]ty c\ld be us$ = ?is purpose4 ,h5ce ! fir/ legal1 z di/+ui%$ f religi\s1 contract 0 work$ out on ! analogy ( a real transaction4 ,be=e ?is1 h[ev]1 ano!r possibility _h develop$ 9 ! religi\sly sanction$ promise4 ,religion1 ! int]nal discipl9e ( ! organiz$ k9dr$1 & ! law ( ! /ate 7 ?ree co-ord9ate ag5cies ( social control 9 anci5t society4 ,nor 0 law = a long "t ! *ief ( ^! nor ! "o :i* cov]$ ! wide/ field4 ,if ! gods _h be5 call$ to witness or good fai? _h a religi\s sanction1 ! duty to keep a promise 0 a matt] = religion4 ,o!rwise ! m]e pact or agreem5t n )9 ! cognizance ( ! prie/s 0 b a matt] = self-help4 ,h9du law %[s ! idea ( religi\s duty to keep fai? 9 full vigor4 ,9 ! ,h9du sy/em ! relation betwe5 ! p>ties to a debt is n legal b religi\s & n[ t a law has gr[n up "u ,engli% influ5ce x is said t !re is a legal obligation because !re is a religi\s obligation4 ,a man is b\nd 9 law because & to ! ext5t t he is b\nd 9 religion & n o!rwise & no m4 ,to ! ,h9du lawy] a debt is n an obligation m]ely4 ,x is a s9 ! consequ5ces :]e( foll[ ! debtor into ano!r _w4 ,vrihaspati says3 ,he :o1 hav+ receiv$ a sum l5t or ! l does n return x to ! own]1 w be born h]eaft] 9 8 cr$itor's h\se a slave1 a s]vant1 a woman or a quadrup$4 ,n>ada says t :5 "o dies )\t hav+ paid 8 debt1 ! :ole m]it ( 8 devotions or ( 8 p]petual fire belongs to 8 cr$itors4 ,9 %ort ! debtor is look$ on z "o :o wrongfully )holds f ! cr$itor ! latt]'s prop]ty & h5ce z 9 "s sort a ?ief4 ,! legal idea1 s f> z !re is "o1 is n "o ( obligation b ( a prop]ty "r 9 ! cr$itor4 ,"o may suspect t religi\s obligation aris+ f ! det5tion ( prop]ty is a legal way ( putt+ x 9 a polity 9 :i* social control is prim>ily religi\s & religi\s precepts are turn+ into legal precepts4 ,at any rate ! ,h9dus c>ry ! idea ( religi\s obligation s f> t a desc5dant is b\nd to pay ! debts ( 8 ance/or 9 _m cases :e!r he receives any assets ( ! ance/or or n4 ,! liability ( ! son to pay ! fa!r's debt is held to arise f ! moral & religi\s duty ( rescu+ ! fa!r f ! p5alties atta*+ 9 a future /ate to non-paym5t ( debts4 ,accord+ly if ! debt is ( su* a k9d t no p5alties w\ld s atta*1 !re is no religi\s duty & h5ce no obligation impos$ ^u ! desc5dant4 ,roman law 9 its e>lie/ /age 0 n unlike ?is4 ,agreem5ts ( !mselves 7 n cognizable by ! tribunals4 ,x 0 no gr\nd = summon+ a def5dant be=e ! magi/rate t he _h made a promise & _h brok5 x4 ,agreem5ts 7 matt]s = religion or = k9 or guild discipl9e4 ,if "o _h call$ on ! gods to witness 8 promise or sworn to fulfil x1 he 0 liable to pontifical discipl9e4 ,! pres5ce ( an impi\s oa? break] 0 a social dang] & he might be devot$ to ! inf]nal gods4 ,z law replac$ religion z ! controll+ regulative ag5cy1 ! old religi\sly sanction$ promise becomes a =mal legal contract4 ,?us 9 ! /rict law we get =mal contracts ) _! hi/orical orig9 9 religi\s duty1 & =mal contracts ) _! hi/orical orig9 9 a legal duty creat$ by a real transaction ( surety%ip or conveyance1 p]haps by call+ ! p to witness s t !re is an affront to ! /ate if !y are call$ ^u 9 va94 ,:5 contact ) ,greek philosoph]s set ! ,roman juri/s to ?9k+ ab\t ! basis ( obligation1 !re 7 two sorts ( promises3 7#a7 ,=mal promises1 7a7 by /ipulation1 us+ ! sacram5tal ^w spondeo & ?us assum+ ! p\r+ out ( a libation t ! gods might take notice ( ! promise1 7b7 by public c]emony app>5tly symboliz+ a real transaction be=e ! :ole p1 7c7 ent]$ ^u ! h\sehold books ( acc\nt1 & 7#b7 m]e in=mal promises n recogniz$ by law4 ,! latt] dep5d$ :olly on ! good fai? ( ! mak] s9ce ! law _h put d[n self-help :i* =m]ly _h be5 available to ! promisee4 ,accord+ly ,roman juri/s di/+ui%$ civil obligations & natural obligations--^? recogniz$ & secur$ legally & ^? :i* prim>ily _h only a moral efficacy4 ,a nudum pactum or m]e agreem5t or m]e promise1 n clo!d ) legal efficacy because x did n come )9 any ( ! categories ( legal transactions sanction$ by ! ius ciuile1 creat$ only a natural obligation4 ,x 0 "r & j to adh]e to su* a pact1 b only contracts1 und]tak+s recogniz$ by law because ( _! =m or nature1 7 en=ceable4 ,) increas+ pressure ( ! social int]e/ 9 ! security ( transactions ?r\gh economic developm5t & comm]cial expansion1 ! natural-law philosophy sl[ly affect$ ?is simple s*eme ( =mal und]tak+s legally recogniz$ & en=ceable & in=mal und]tak+s ( only moral efficacy1 & br\ght ab\t ! complicat$ sy/em ( en=ceable und]tak+s 9 ! maturity ( ,roman law ) :i* y are famili>4 ,f\r features ( ?is movem5t are notewor?y4 ,9 ! fir/ place x l$ to a juri/ic !ory ( =mal contract :i* has affect$ our ideas ev] s9ce4 ,9 ! /rict law ! s\rce ( obligation 0 9 ! =m itself4 ,= 9 primitive ?9k+ =ms h an intr9sic efficacy4 ,x has (t5 be5 po9t$ out t ! fai? 9 legal =ms belongs to ! same ord] ( ?\ght z fai? 9 =ms ( incantation & t legal =ms are frequ5tly symbols to be class$ psy*ologically ) ! symbols ( magic4 ,! /age ( equity & natural law1 rely+ on reason r ?an on =m1 gov]n$ by philosophy in/ead ( by nave fai?1 look$ = ! sub/ance & f\nd x 9 a pact prec$+ & presuppos$ by ! =mal c]emony4 ,?us a =mal contract 0 a pact ) ! addition ( legal =m4 ,! pact 0 ! sub/ance ( ! transaction4 ,! =m 0 a causa ciuilis or legal reason = en=c+ ! pact4 ,b if ! =m 0 only a legal reason = en=c+ some?+ t got its natural efficacy 9 ano!r way1 x foll[$ t !re might well be o!r legal reasons = en=cem5t besides =m4 ,consequ5tly new categories ( contract 7 add$ to ! old =mal contracts & x is significant t :ile ! latt] 7 transactions /ricti iuris ! =m] 7 consid]$ transactions bonae fidei involv+ liability to :at good fai? dem&$ 9 view ( :at _h be5 done4 ,9 ! scope ( _! obligation ^! contracts respond$ exactly to ! po/ulate ( civiliz$ society t ^? ) :om we deal w act 9 good fai? & w c>ry out _! und]tak+s accord+ to ! expectations ( ! community4 ,on ! o!r h& ! old =mal contracts respond$ !reto 9 "p only s9ce _! obligation 0 "o to d exactly :at ! t]ms ( ! =m call$ =1 no m & no less4 ,:5 "o makes nexum1 said ! ,twelve ,tables1 z he says orally s be ! law4 ,new categories 7 add$ 9 successive /rata1 z x 71 & juri/ic sci5ce s\ght aft]w>d to r$uce !m to sy/em & logical consi/5cy4 ,?us real contracts1 cons5sual contracts & innom9ate contracts 7 add$4 ,b x is evid5t t _m ( ^! are juri/ic rationaliz+s ( :at _h be5 done = a long "t ?r\gh =mal transactions4 ,?us ! cons5sual contract ( sale ) its impli$ w>ranties rationalizes transf] by traditio ) /ipulations = ! price & = w>ranties4 ,! real contract ( depositum rationalizes fiducia cum amico4 ,! real contract ( mutuum rationalizes pecunia cr$ita4 ,b ! latt] 0 s ?or\ghly e/abli%$ z a =mal transaction t ! case ( a loan ( money1 analytically a real contract1 pres]v$ ! incid5ts ( ! /rict law4 ,moreov] c]ta9 pacts1 pacta adiecta1 pacta praetoria1 became actionable :i* d n fit into ! analytical s*eme ( ! ,in/itutes4 ,= example1 a causa or reason = en=c+ ^! pacts 0 f\nd 9 _! be+ incid5tal to some?+ else or 9 a pre-exi/+ natural obligation :i* !y und]took to satisfy4 ,!re /ill rema9$ natural obligations :i* _h n be5 giv5 legal efficacy z ! basis ( actions4 ,! m]e w ( ! p]son :o und]took or ! claim ( ! promisee 0 n a reason = en=c+4 ,yet 9 reason !y 7 morally b9d+ & ! legal & moral %\ld co9cide4 ,h5ce !y might be us$ def5sively or z ! basis ( a set-(f4 ,mean:ile ! =ms ( /ipulation & ( lit]al contract _h be5 r$uc$ to _! l[e/ t]ms by conceiv+ !m 9 t]ms ( sub/ance1 & tak+ orally express$ agreem5t to be ! sub/ance ( ! "o & writ+ to be ! sub/ance ( ! o!r4 ,! results h defi$ analysis al?\gh ! be/ t juri/ic +5uity c\ld d has be5 exp5d$ ^u !m = c5turies4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages primitive ideas came back = a "t ?r\gh ,g]manic law4 ,g5]al security 9 its l[e/ t]ms ( peace & ord] 0 ! press+ social int]e/4 ,!re 0 little comm]cial activity4 ,! civilization ( ! "t did n involve ! coroll>ies ( our jural po/ulate4 ,religi\sly sanction$ und]tak+s by promissory oa? & real transactions ( pl$ge ( p]son or prop]ty & ( ex*ange gave rise to a simple sy/em ( =mal und]tak+s4 ,out ( ^! came a !ory ( causa deb5di1 or reason = ow+ ! promis$ p]=mance1 :i* has _h a pr(\nd influ5ce ^u subsequ5t ?9k+4 ,! ,roman causa ciuilis 0 a legal reason = en=c+ a pact4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! ,g]manic idea causa becomes a reason = mak+ ! pact1 ! good reason = mak+ x furni%+ a suffici5t reason = en=c+ x4 ,= a "t x seem$ t ! *ur* might succe$ 9 e/abli%+ a jurisdiction ov] promises4 ,oa?s & v[s involv$ religi\s duties & might well be claim$ z ! prov9ce ( ! spiritual4 ,b ! moral obligation ( pacts1 b9d+ ! consci5ce ( a ,*ri/ian1 might also be cognizable by a zeal\s corrector ( ! conduct ( ! fai?ful = _! s\l's welf>e4 ,_h n ! p[] ( ! canon law brok5 d[n & ! law ( ! /ate develop$ rapidly 9 respect ( ! security ( transactions aft] ! sixte5? c5tury1 ! law ( contracts might h gr[n along religi\s in/ead ( along philosophical l9es1 & p]haps n to its advantage4 ,z x is1 "o ne$ b read ,doctor & ,/ud5t ) ! title de pactis ( ! ,corpus ,iuris ,canonici & casui/ writ+s z to ! moral efficacy ( promises be=e him1 to see t religion pav$ ! way = mu* t 0 done pres5tly 9 ! "n ( philosophy4 ,to ! juri/s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies no di/9ction betwe5 natural obligations & civil obligations 0 ma9ta9able s9ce all natural rights or obligations mu/ = ! v reason t !y 7 natural be legal also4 ,if x 0 morally obligatory t "o adh]e to a pact1 !n x mu/ be treat$ z a contract4 ,h[ev] mu* sy/ematiz$ analytically1 ! ,roman categories ( contract did n deal ) und]tak+s f ?is /&po9t4 ,:at ! juri/s desir$ 0 n analytical categories b a pr9ciple ^u :i* m5 7 to be held or n to be held ^u _! promises4 ,?us ! philosophy ( contract1 ! pr9ciples und]ly+ ! b9d+ =ce ( promises & agreem5ts1 became ! *ief problem ( philosophical jurisprud5ce ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 z int]e/s ( p]sonality 7 ! *ief subject ( discussion 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 & int]e/s ( sub/ance1 ! philosophy ( ! law ( prop]ty1 ! *ief subject ( discussion 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! decisive elem5t 9 sev5te5?-c5tury ?\ght z to contract 0 ! idea ( natural law2 ! idea ( d$uction f ! nature ( man z a moral creature & ( legal rules & legal in/itutions :i* express$ ?is ideal ( human nature4 ,b ! idea 0 put to "w ^u exi/+ mat]ials & ! result 0 a reciprocal influ5ce ( ! conception ( en=c+ promises z su* because morally b9d+1 on ! "o h&1 %ap$ to "s ext5t by canon law & casui/ discussions ( :at promises 7 b9d+ 9 consci5ce & :51 & ! ideas ( nudum pactum & causa deb5di on ! o!r h&4 ,roman law 0 assum$ to be embodi$ reason4 ,z ,d',aguesseau put x1 ,rome 0 rul+ by h] reason1 hav+ ceas$ to rule by h] au?ority4 ,h5ce all consid]ation ( ! subject />ts ) ! assumption t !re are morally nak$ agreem5ts :i* = t reason are to be nak$ legally4 ,:]e !re 0 an ex*ange ( promises !re 0 ! au?ority ( ,ju/9ian = en=cem5t 7synallagma7 & x 0 easy to f9d a reason 9 ! analogy ( ex*ange ( prop]ty4 ,:]e some?+ 0 ex*ang$ = a promise1 t some?+ 0 a causa deb5di4 ,b suppose !re 0 no ex*ange ( promises nor 0 any?+ ex*ang$ = ! promise4 ,!re 0 no?+ b a promise ass5t$ to4 ,9 ,roman law ?is w\ld h to take ! =m ( a /ipulation4 ,9 ! ,g]manic law x w\ld h requir$ an oa? or ! =m ( a real transaction ( pl$ge or ex*ange4 ,at common law x requir$ deliv]y ( a seal$ in/rum5t4 ,cle>ly !re 0 no moral efficacy inh]5t 9 ^! =ms4 ,:y %\ld ^! ab/ract promises be en=c$ & n o!rs8 ,%\ld e su* promise be en=c$ or %\ld none be en=c$ )\t some?+ 9 ! way ( ex*ange1 or %\ld su* promises be classifi$ = ! purpose ( en=cem5t1 & if s1 h[8 ,two !ories arose 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,"o may be call$ ! !ory ( an equival5t4 ,?is !ory is obvi\sly a rationalization ( ! ,g]manic causa deb5di influ5c$ by canon law & casui/ writ+s4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory an ab/ract promise1 no equival5t hav+ be5 giv5 = x1 is n naturally & h5ce is n legally b9d+4 ,?ree reasons h be5 giv5 = ?is :i* h figur$ 9 juri/ic discussion ( ! subject ev] s9ce4 ,x 0 said t "o :o tru/s ano!r :o makes a promise = no equival5t does s ra%ly4 ,he _c ask to be secur$ 9 su* an unf\nd$ expectation4 ,?is is too mu* 9 ! _s ( ! /rict law4 ,x d5ies any int]e/ except :]e ! law secures x4 ,x says t if ! law does n secure ! int]e/1 "o is a fool to rely on ! promise & s has no int]e/4 ,9 l mann] ! /rict law said t if "o gave 8 =mal und]tak+ ?r\gh fraud or mi/ake or co]cion1 he 0 a fool or a c[>d & 0 n to be help$4 ,b we _c prove ! int]e/ by ! law4 ,we mu/ measure ! law ) ref]5ce to ! int]e/4 ,aga9 x 0 said t if "o promises )\t equival5t he does s m f o/5tation ?an f real int5tion & s an equival5t %[s t he act$ f calculation & delib]ately4 ,x is only delib]ate promises t are morally b9d+1 = only su* promises are reli$ ^u by ! prud5t1 upright man 9 8 int]c\rse ) 8 neighbors4 ,if ?is reason is s\nd1 equival5t is only a mode ( prov+ delib]ation & ! real po9t %\ld be t ! promise 0 made delib]ately z some?+ by :i* ! mak] expect$ to be b\nd1 n t ! delib]ation 0 evid5c$ 9 a p>ticul> way by an equival5t4 ,a ?ird reason 0 t "o :o p>t$ ) an equival5t 9 ex*ange = or 9 reliance on a promise is injur$ 9 8 sub/ance if ! promise is n kept4 ,b if ?is is ! reason1 ! law %\ld simply require re/itution 9 case ( non-p]=mance4 ,if ! int]e/ involv$ is ! d$uction f sub/ance ?r\gh r5d]+ ! equival5t1 ! obligation %\ld be quasi ex contractu r ?an ex contractu4 ,our ,anglo-,am]ican law ( contracts 0 mu* influ5c$ by ?is !ory ( equival5ts4 ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury f\r types ( promise 7 legally en=ceable at common law3 7#a7 ,a =mal ackn[l$gm5t ( indebt$ness by bond "u seal1 (t5 condition$ ^u p]=mance ( a promise = :i* x 0 a security1 7#b7 a cov5ant or und]tak+ "u seal1 7#c7 ! real contract ( debt1 & 7#d7 a simple promise ^u consid]ation1 t is1 9 ex*ange = an act or = ano!r promise4 ,! fir/ conclusively ackn[l$g$ an equival5t1 9 ! second x c\ld be said t ! seal presuppos$ or impli$ "o1 9 ! ?ird ! obligation arose f ! det5tion ( some?+ by him to :om x _h be5 deliv]$1 & 9 ! f\r? ! act or c\nt]-promise 0 ! motive or consid]ation = ! promise & z a cause ( or reason = mak+ x 0 ! equival5t = :i* ! promisor *ose to assume ! und]tak+4 ,) "s aid f a dogmatic fiction 9 ! case ( cov5ants1 ! common law c\ld be adju/$ to ?is !ory reasonably well4 ,accord+ly z f> back z ,bacon we f9d consid]ation treat$ f ?is /&po9t 9 ! ,engli% books4 ,b x 0 nev] a satisfactory explanation4 ,if ! !ory 0 s\nd x ought n to matt] :e!r ! equival5t 0 r5d]$ be=e ! promise or aft] x or simultane\sly ) x4 ,inde$1 ,engli% equity 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury took subsequ5t action 9 reliance ^u a promise ( a gift to be a common-law consid]ation on ! basis :]e( ! promise 0 specifically en=ceable4 ,equity nev] :olly adopt$ ?is or any o!r !ory4 ,at lea/ aft] ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury equity 0 suppos$ to foll[ ! law z to :at 0 a contract4 ,b ! common law 0 n settl$ till ! n9ete5? c5tury & we f9d ! *ancellors us+ consid]ation frequ5tly to mean n equival5t b any reason = mak+ ! promise & ?us mak+ x synonym\s ) ! civilian's causa4 ,! s-call$ m]itori\s consid]ation1 consid]ation ( blood & ( love & affection1 & ! cases ( promises su/a9$ by moral obligation ( a debtor to secure 8 cr$itor1 ( a husb& to settle prop]ty on 8 wife & ( a p>5t to provide = a *ild1 %[ ! idea ( causa at "w 9 equity4 ,x is significant t ,doctor & ,/ud5t 0 (t5 cit$ 9 ^! connections4 ,! mo/ ?or\ghgo+ attempt to apply ! equival5t !ory to be f\nd 9 ! books is ,langdell's work+ out ( a sy/em ( ! s-call$ conditions impli$ 9 law or dep5d5t promises on t basis4 ,z an example ( vigor\s legal analysis x rivals ,au/94 ,b x did n succe$ 9 %ap+ ! law4 ,on ! ,cont95t ! second !ory1 ! !ory ( ! inh]5t moral =ce ( a promise made z su*1 came to prevail4 ,?is 0 ! !ory ( ,grotius4 ,x 0 g5]ally adopt$ by ,cont95tal writ]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury &1 z has be5 se51 x broke d[n ! ,roman categories & l$ to ! rule t a promise z su*1 int5d+ a legal transaction1 creat$ legal obligation4 ,at ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury ,"l ,mansfield came v ne> e/abli%+ x 9 our law by 8 doctr9e t no promise made z a bus9ess transaction c\ld be nudum pactum4 ,b he 0 too late4 ,gr[? /opp$ = a season & ! n9ete5? c5tury set itself to sy/ematize & h>monize :at x _h receiv$ r ?an to c>ry ! developm5t fur!r4 ,:5 ! natural-law f\ndation ( en=c+ promises crumbl$1 ! metaphysical juri/s s\ght to provide a new "o4 ,kant said t x 0 impossible to prove t "o ought to keep 8 promise1 consid]$ m]ely z a promise1 & d$uc$ contract f prop]ty z a =m ( conveyance or ali5ation ( "o's sub/ance involv$ 9 ! v idea ( individual rights4 ,s f> z consi/5t ) ab/ract fre$om ( w accord+ to a univ]sal law "o might ali5ate 8 s]vices z well z 8 prop]ty1 & an und]tak+ to p]=m some?+ 0 an ali5ation ( t sort4 ,?is view 0 g5]ally tak5 s t :ile ! sev5te5? c5tury s\ght to re/ rights ^u contract & ! eighte5? c5tury re/$ contract on ! inh]5t moral significance ( a promise1 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 mak+ ! philosophy ( prop]ty ! important ?+1 re/$ contract on prop]ty4 ,?ree ( ^! !ories are wor? a mom5t's notice4 ,fi*te says t ! duty ( p]=m+ an agreem5t arises :5 "o p>ty !reto beg9s to act "u x4 ,juri/ically ?is seems to be a rationalization ( ! ,roman innom9ate contract4 ,!re1 9 case a pact 0 p]=m$ on "o side1 he :o p]=m$ might claim re/itution quasi ex contractu or claim ! c\nt]-p]=mance ex contractu4 ,philosophically ! idea seems to be t ( ! equival5t !ory1 9 ! =m ) :i* we are famili> 9 ,anglo-,am]ican discussion ( ?is subject z ! injuri\s-reliance !ory4 ,accord+ to ! latt]1 unless ! promisee has p>t$ ) an equival5t or has begun to act 9 reliance ^u ! agreem5t1 he has no moral claim to fulfilm5t4 ,?is is n a !ory ( ! law z x is or z x ev] has be54 ,=mal contracts require no?+ ( ! sort4 ,x is true1 ,engli% equity1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! equival5t !ory1 did lay d[n 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury t a contract "u seal ) no common-law consid]ation beh9d x w\ld n be en=c$4 ,b t proposition 0 subject to _m exceptions :5 x 0 ann\nc$1 m h s9ce develop$ & m are develop+4 ,z ?+s are1 ! exceptions are ( m frequ5t application ?an ! rule itself4 ,nor is ,fi*te's !ory a /atem5t ( moral ideas ( 8 day or ( ours4 ,!n & n[ ! moral duty to keep ab/ract promises 0 & is recogniz$4 ,t a man's ^w %\ld be z good z 8 bond expresses ! moral s5tim5t ( civiliz$ society4 ,b ! philosoph] saw t ! law did n g s f> & 0 try+ to frame a rational explanation ( :y x fell %ort4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t ,fi*te is really try+ to %[ :y a promise may be reg>d$ z a "p ( "o's sub/ance & :y "o's claim to p]=mance may be treat$ z 8 prop]ty4 ,hegel also expla9s contract 9 t]ms ( prop]ty1 treat+ a promise z a disposition ( "o's sub/ance4 ,h5ce 9 8 view ! s-call$ ab/ract promise is a m]e subjective qualification ( "o's w :i* he is at lib]ty to *ange4 ,?is !ory & ! =ego+ assume ! ,roman law or ! old] law ( ,cont95tal ,europe1 & speak f ! reaction f natural law :i* 9 ,engl& at ! same "t 0 ov]rul+ ! lib]al doctr9es ( ,"l ,mansfield4 ,lat] metaphysical juri/s rely ^u ! idea ( p]sonality4 ,! ,romani/ ?9ks ( a legal transaction z a will+ ( "s *ange 9 a p]son's sph]e ( rights to :i* ! law1 c>ry+ out 8 w1 gives ! int5d$ effect4 ,if ! transaction is execut$1 revocation w\ld involve aggression ^u ! sub/ance ( ano!r4 ,if x is executory1 h[ev]1 :y %\ld ! decl>$ int5t t ! *ange take place 9 ! future be execut$ by law despite ! alt]$ w ( ! promisor8 ,"s say t ?is %\ld be done :]e !re is a jo9t w f :i* only jo9t action may rec$e4 ,:]e ! p>ties h come to an agreem5t1 :]e _! wills h be5 at "o1 ! law is to give effect to ?is jo9t w z a sort ( v9dication ( p]sonality4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ?is explanation assumes ! w !ory1 ! subjective !ory ( legal transactions4 ,if we />t f ! objective !ory x breaks d[n4 ,take = in/ance ! case ( an (f]1 :i* a reasonable man w\ld und]/& 9 a giv5 way1 accept$ by ! (f]ee 9 t und]/&+ :5 ! (f]] really meant some?+ else4 ,or take ! case ( an (f] wrongly transmitt$ by telegraph & accept$ 9 good fai? z x is transmitt$4 ,"h !re is no community ( w & yet ! law may well hold1 z we d 9 ,am]ica1 9 bo? cases1 t !re is a contract4 ,no metaphysical !ory has prevail$ to prev5t ! /eady m>* ( ! law & ( juri/ic ?\ght 9 ! direction ( an objective doctr9e ( legal transactions4 ,n[h]e1 inde$1 has ! d$uctive me?od brok5 d[n s completely z 9 ! attempt to d$uce pr9ciples ^u :i* contracts are to be en=c$4 ,lat] 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury m5 came to ?9k m ab\t fre$om ( contract ?an ab\t en=cem5t ( promises :5 made4 ,to ,sp5c] & ! me*anical positivi/s1 conceiv+ ( law negatively z a sy/em ( h&s (f :ile m5 d ?+s1 r ?an z a sy/em ( ord]+ to prev5t friction & wa/e s t !y may d ?+s1 ! important in/itution 0 a "r ( free ex*ange & free contract1 d$uc$ f ! law ( equal fre$om z a sort ( fre$om ( economic motion & locomotion4 ,ju/ice requir$ t ea* individual be at lib]ty to make free use ( 8 natural p[]s 9 b>ga9s & ex*anges & promises except z he int]f]$ ) l action on ! "p ( 8 fell[ m51 or ) "s o!r ( _! natural rights4 ,:e!r all su* transactions %\ld be en=c$ aga9/ him or only "s1 & if ! latt]1 :i*1 are que/ions belong+ to an affirmative r ?an to a negative sci5ce ( law4 ,hi/orical juri/s accept$ ! w !ory & h be5 its lead+ advocates 9 mod]n times4 ,!y saw t ! :ole c\rse ( legal hi/ory _h be5 "o ( wid] recognition & m effective en=cem5t ( promises4 ,^? :o accept$ ! e?ical ideali/ic int]pretation ( legal hi/ory c\ld see fre$om z an e?ical idea realiz+ itself 9 a l>g] fre$om ( self-ass]tion & self-det]m9ation ?r\gh promises & agreem5ts & a wid] giv+ effect to ! w s ass]t$ & det]m9$4 ,= ! mo/ "p !y wrote on ! ,cont95t :]e ! field ( legally en=ceable promises _h ceas$ to be b\nd$ by a n>r[ f5ce ( ,roman hi/orical categories4 ,?us !y _h no call to rationalize dogmas ( n en=c+ promises made z bus9ess transactions4 ,^? :o accept$ ! political int]pretation saw fre$om z a civil or political idea realiz+ itself 9 a progress f /atus to contract 9 :i* m5's duties & liabilities came m & m to fl[ f will$ action in/ead ( f ! accid5t ( social position recogniz$ by law4 ,! ,engli% hi/orical juri/s might well h ask$ h[ f> ,engli% rules z to consid]ation 7 consonant ) ! implications ( su* a !ory1 & :e!r !y mu/ n be expect$ to give way z ! idea unfold$ m completely 9 exp]i5ce ( popul> action & judicial decision4 ,b ! lead] ( ?is s*ool 0 n a common-law lawy] & ! ,am]ican hi/orical juri/s devot$ _! en]gies to devis+ a hi/orical-analytical !ory ( consid]ation r ?an to ! wid] "q ( :at promises %\ld be en=c$ & :y4 ,"h z 9 o!r places ! hi/orical juri/ & ! utilit>ian 7 9 agreem5t z to results al?\gh !y diff]$ widely z to ! mode ( rea*+ !m4 ,! =m] saw 9 contract a realization ( ! idea ( lib]ty4 ,! latt] saw 9 x a means ( promot+ t maximum ( individual free self-ass]tion :i* he took to be human happ9ess4 ,h5ce ! =m] call$ = fre$om ( contract & %\ld h call$ = wide g5]al en=cem5t ( promises4 ,! latt] held to a doctr9e ( un%ackl+ m5 & all[+ !m to act z freely z possible1 :i* involv$ ! complem5t>y position ( ext5d+ ! sph]e & en=c+ ! obligation ( contract4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! ways ( ?9k+ & ^? ( ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury is br\ght out if we comp>e ,black/one 7#agfe7 ) a dictum ( ,sir ,george ,jessel a c5tury lat] 7#ahge74 ,! =m] says t ! public is 9 no?+ s ess5tially int]e/$ z 9 secur+ to e individual 8 private rights4 ,! latt]1 discuss+ a "q ( :at agreem5ts are aga9/ public policy & !re=e un5=ceable1 says3 ,if !re is "o ?+ m ?an ano!r :i* public policy requires x is t m5 ( full age & compet5t und]/&+ %all h ! utmo/ lib]ty ( contract+ & t su* contracts %all be en=c$ by c\rts ( ju/ice4 ,b ! utilit>ians put ! emphasis ^u ! fir/1 ! negative1 r ?an ^u ! second1 ! affirmative1 "p ( ?is tw(old program4 ,?is is true also ( ! hi/orical juri/s & ( ! positivi/s4 ,! ,engli% trad] & entrepr5eur 0 n seek+ = legal in/rum5ts4 ,he c\ld "w passably ) ^? :i* ! law furni%$ if ! law w\ld b let him4 ,:at he s\ght 0 to be free f legal %ackles :i* _h come d[n f a society ( a diff]5t nature organiz$ on a diff]5t basis & ) o!r ends4 ,h5ce juri/ic ?\ght address$ itself to ?is = a season r ?an to ! doctr9e ( consid]ation & ! reason = non-en=cem5t ( delib]ate promises :]e n put 9 ! =m ( b>ga9s4 ,no "o ( ! f\r !ories ( en=c+ promises :i* are curr5t today is adequate to cov] ! :ole legal recognition & en=cem5t ( !m z ! law actually exi/s4 ,putt+ !m 9 ! ord] ( _! curr5cy1 we may call !m 7#a7 ! w !ory1 7#b7 ! b>ga9 !ory1 7#c7 ! equival5t !ory1 7#d7 ! injuri\s-reliance !ory4 ,t is1 promises are en=c$ z a giv+ effect to ! w ( ^? :o agree1 or to ! ext5t t !y are b>ga9s or p>ts ( b>ga9s1 or :]e an equival5t = !m has be5 r5d]$1 or :]e !y h be5 reli$ on by ! promisee to 8 injury1 accord+ to ! !ory *os54 ,! fir/ is ! prevail+ !ory among civilians4 ,b x mu/ give way be=e ! onw>d m>* ( ! objective !ory ( legal transactions & is already fight+ a re>-gu>d action4 ,9 our law x is impossible4 ,we d n give effect to promises on ! basis ( ! w ( ! promisor1 al?\gh our c\rts ( equity h %[n "s t5d5cy to move 9 t direction4 ,! attempt 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury to ,romanize our !ories ( liability involv$ a ,romaniz$ w-!ory ( contract4 ,b no "o :o looks b5ea? ! surface ( our law reports c d\bt t ! attempt has fail$ :olly4 ,we no long] seek solutions on e side ?r\gh a p$antic ,romaniz$ law ( bailm5ts & 9 ! law ( bailm5ts itself we are com+ to talk 9 common-law t]ms ( neglig5ce 9 view ( ! circum/ances & n 9 ,romani/ t]ms ( ! will$ /&>d ( dilig5ce & correspond+ degrees ( neglig5ce4 ,9 ,am]ica1 at lea/1 ! objective !ory ( contract is or?odox & ! lead] ( ,engli% analytical juri/s ( ! pres5t g5]ation has exp\nd$ x zeal\sly4 ,c\rts ( equity1 :i* inh]it modes ( ?\ght f ! "t :5 ! *ancellor se>*$ ! consci5ce ( a def5dant by an exam9ation "u oa?1 & believ$ he c\ld rea* subjective data t 7 beyond ! cognizance ( a jury1 are ! la/ /ronghold ( ! exotic subjective !ory 9 ! common law4 ,probably ! b>ga9 !ory is ! "o mo/ curr5t 9 common-law ?9k+4 ,x is a developm5t ( ! equival5t !ory4 ,x w n cov] =mal contracts b "u its influ5ce ! =mal contracts h be5 sl[ly giv+ way4 ,! seal imports a consid]ation4 ,legislation has aboli%$ x 9 _m jurisdictions & (t5 x does no m ?an e/abli% a b>ga9 prima facie1 subject to pro( t !re 0 9 fact no consid]ation4 ,c\rts ( equity require a common-law consid]ation1 at lea/ on ! face ( _! g5]al rule1 be=e !y w en=ce a seal$ contract4 ,also ! =mal contracts ( ! law m]*ant are subject to defeat by %[+ !re 0 no consid]ation1 except :5 9 ! h&s ( hold]s = value )\t notice4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 consid]ation is us$ 9 ! s5se ( equival5t1 to ! ext5t ( admitt+ a pa/ consid]ation1 & ! b>ga9 !ory1 appropriate to simple contracts1 is n ( entire application4 ,on ! o!r h& ! ext5t to :i* c\rts today are /ra9+ to get away f ! b>ga9 !ory & en=ce promises :i* are n b>ga9s & _c be /at$ z su* is significant4 ,subscription contracts1 gratuit\s promises aft]w>ds act$ on1 promises bas$ on moral obligations1 new promises :]e a debt has be5 b>r$ by limitation or bankruptcy or ! l1 ! tortur+ ( gifts into contracts by equity s z to en=ce pacta donationis specifically 9 spite ( ! rule t equity w n aid a volunte]1 ! en=cem5t ( gratuit\s decl>ations ( tru/1 specific en=cem5t ( options "u seal )\t consid]ation1 specific p]=mance by way ( re=mation 9 case ( security to a cr$itor or settlem5t on a wife or provision = a *ild1 volunt>y rel9qui%m5t ( a def5se by a surety & o!r cases ( waiv]1 release by m]e ackn[l$gm5t 9 "s /ates1 en=cem5t ( gifts by way ( re=mation aga9/ ! heir ( a donor1 m&ates :]e !re is no res1 & /ipulations ( p>ties & _! c\nsel z to ! conduct ( & proce$+s 9 litigation--all ^! make up a =midable catalogue ( exceptional or anomal\s cases ) :i* ! advocate ( ! b>ga9 !ory mu/ /ruggle4 ,:5 "o adds en=cem5t ( promises at suit ( ?ird-p>ty b5efici>ies1 :i* is mak+ headway ! _w ov]1 & en=cem5t ( promises :]e ! consid]ation moves f a ?ird p]son1 :i* has /rong advocates 9 ,am]ica & is likely to be us$ to meet ! exig5cies ( do+ bus9ess ?r\gh lett]s ( cr$it1 "o c b see t ,"l ,mansfield's proposition t no promise made z a bus9ess transaction c be nudum pactum is ne>] realization ?an we _h suppos$4 ,yet ! equival5t !ory & ! injuri\s-reliance !ory are ev5 less adequate to expla9 ! actual law4 ,! equival5t !ory mu/ wre/le at ! outset ) ! doctr9e t inadequacy ( consid]ation is immat]ial s t ! equival5cy is (t5 ,pickwickian4 ,hegel c\ld argue = x on ! basis ( ! ,roman laesio enormis4 ,b :5 a c\rt ( equity is will+ to uphold a sale ( prop]ty wor? #bj1jjj = #bjj1 ev5 a dogmatic fiction is /ra9$4 ,moreov] ! catalogue ( anomalies ) :i* ! b>ga9 !ory mu/ wre/le conta9s m ?an "o difficulty = ! adh]5t ( ei!r !ory4 ,/ipulations 9 ! c\rse ( litigation d n ne$ equival5ts nor d !y ne$ to be act$ on 9 ord] to be en=ceable4 ,a release by m]e ackn[l$gm5t1 :5 good at all1 ne$s no equival5t & ne$ n be act$ on4 ,waiv] by a surety ( ! def5se ( release by giv+ "t to ! pr9cipal ne$s no elem5t ( consid]ation nor ( e/oppel4 ,defectively execut$ securities1 settlem5ts & advancem5ts ne$ no equival5t & ne$ n be act$ on 9 ord] to be re=m$4 ,options "u seal are held op5 9 equity on ! basis ( ! seal alone4 ,a gratuit\sly decl>$ tru/ creates an obligation cognizable 9 equity )\t m4 ,9 tru? ! situation 9 our law is becom+ mu* ! same z t 9 ! maturity ( ,roman law & = ! same reason4 ,we h ?ree ma9 categories4 ,fir/1 !re are =mal contracts1 includ+ seal$ in/rum5ts1 recognizances1 & ! =mal contracts ( ! law m]*ant1 9 :i* latt] ! =m consi/s 9 ! use ( c]ta9 words1 requirem5ts z to sum c]ta91 paym5t at all ev5ts1 & c]ta9ty z to "t4 ,second1 !re are ! real contracts ( debt & bailm5t4 ,?ird1 !re are simple contracts1 )\t =m & ^u consid]ation4 ,! latt] is ! gr[+ category al?\gh ! =mal contracts ( ! law m]*ant h %[n "s p[] ( gr[? & ! bus9ess _w has be5 try+ to add !reto lett]s ( cr$it us+ ! =mal words confirm$ or irrevocable4 ,b ! category ( en=ceable simple promises defies sy/ematic treatm5t z ob/9ately z ! actionable pacts 9 ,roman law4 ,successive additions at diff]5t times 9 ! endeavor ( c\rts to hold m5 to _! und]tak+s1 9 view ( ! social int]e/ 9 ! security ( transactions & ! jural po/ulates ( ! civilization ( ! day1 proce$ on all mann] ( diff]5t !ories & diff]5t analogies & agree only 9 ! result--t a man's ^w 9 ! c\rse ( bus9ess %\ld be z good z 8 bond & t 8 fell[ m5 mu/ be able to rely on ! "o equally ) ! o!r if our economic ord] is to function effici5tly4 ,x is evid5t t _m c\rts consci\sly or subconsci\sly sympa?ize ) ,"l ,dun$9's feel+ t "o c h no lik+ = a doctr9e :i* enables a promisor to snap 8 f+]s at a promise delib]ately made1 fair 9 itself1 & 9 :i* ! p]son seek+ to en=ce x has a legitimate int]e/ accord+ to ! ord9>y und]/&+ ( upright m5 9 ! community4 ,x is significant t al?\gh we h be5 !oriz+ ab\t consid]ation = f\r c5turies1 our texts h n agre$ ^u a =mula ( consid]ation1 mu* less our c\rts ^u any consi/5t s*eme ( :at is consid]ation & :at is n4 ,x means "o ?+--we are n agre$ exactly :at--9 ! law ( simple contracts1 ano!r 9 ! law ( negotiable in/rum5ts1 ano!r 9 conveyanc+ "u ! ,/atute ( ,uses & /ill ano!r ?+--no "o kn[s exactly :at--9 _m cases 9 equity4 ,lett]s ( cr$it af=d a /rik+ illu/ration ( ! ill-adaptation ( our ,am]ican common law ( contract to ! ne$s ( mod]n bus9ess 9 an urban society ( highly complex economic organization4 ,well kn[n abroad & work$ out consi/5tly on g5]al !ories 9 ! comm]cial law ( ,cont95tal ,europe1 ^! in/rum5ts came into use 9 ?is c\ntry on a l>ge scale sudd5ly dur+ ! w>4 ,!re 0 no settl$ !ory ) respect to !m 9 our books & ! decisions w>rant$ f\r or five views lead+ to div]g5t results 9 matt]s ( vital mom5t to ! bus9ess man :o act$ on !m4 ,*>act]i/ically ! bus9ess _w set out to make ( !m =mal contracts ( ! law m]*ant by ! use ( c]ta9 di/9ctive words :i* gave ! in/rum5ts "* & made _! nature cle> to ^? :o inspect$ !m any:]e 9 ! _w4 ,b = a season our category ( m]cantile specialties _h ceas$ to admit ( gr[? & ! doctr9e ( consid]ation ) its unc]ta9 l9es /ood 9 ! way ( _m ?+s :i* ! exig5cies ( bus9ess call$ = & bus9ess m5 f\nd !mselves do+ 9 reliance on ea* o!r's bus9ess honor & ! bank]'s jeal\sy ( 8 bus9ess cr$it1 ) or )\t assi/ance f ! law4 ,c]ta9ly no "o w\ld say t su* a situation be>s witness to wise social eng9e]+ 9 an economically organiz$ society re/+ on cr$it4 ,two circum/ances op]ate to keep ! requirem5t ( consid]ation alive 9 our law ( simple contract4 ,"o is ! pr(essional feel+ t ! common law is ! legal ord] ( nature1 t its doctr9es 9 an idealiz$ =m are natural law & t its actual rules are decl>atory ( natural law4 ,?is mode ( ?9k+ is to be f\nd 9 all pr(essions & is a result ( habitual application ( ! rules ( an art until !y are tak5 = grant$4 ,9 law x is =tifi$ by ! !ory ( natural law :i* has gov]n$ 9 our elem5t>y books s9ce ,black/one1 0 taught to all lawy]s until ! pres5t c5tury1 & is assum$ 9 mu* ( our judicial decision4 ,lat] x 0 /r5g!n$ by ! !ories ( ! hi/orical s*ool :i* rul$ 9 our law s*ools 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury & taught u to ?9k t gr[? mu/ inevitably foll[ l9es :i* might be discov]$ 9 ! ,ye> ,books4 ,^! ?+s co-op]at$ ) ! temp] ( ! la/ c5tury & ! in/9ctive av]sion ( ! lawy] to *ange1 le/ 9 "s unp]ceiv$ way a door be op5$ to magi/]ial caprice or to ! p]sonal equation ( ! judge4 ,?us "s ?\ght ( consid]ation1 :atev] x 01 z inh]5t 9 ! v idea ( en=ceable promises4 ,o!rs assum$ t x 0 a hi/orically develop$ pr9ciple by :i* ! future evolution ( ! law ( contracts mu/ be gov]n$4 ,_m o!rs simply ?\ght t x 0 dang]\s to talk ( *ange4 ,& yet *ange has gone on rapidly1 if subconsci\sly1 until ! pres5t confus$ mass ( unsy/ematiz$ & unsy/ematizable rules has result$4 ,! second circum/ance op]at+ to keep alive ! requirem5t ( consid]ation is a m legitimate factor4 ,n[h]e c\ld psy*ology r5d] m s]vice to jurisprud5ce ?an 9 giv+ u a psy*ological !ory ( nuda pacta4 ,= !re is some?+ m ?an ! feti% ( a traditional ,lat9 phrase ) ! hallm>k ( ,roman legal sci5ce beh9d our reluctance to en=ce all delib]ate promises simply z su*4 ,x %\ld be comp>$ ) ! reluctance ( c\rts to apply ! ord9>y pr9ciple ( neglig5ce to neglig5t spee*1 ) ! doctr9e z to sell]'s talk1 ) ! limitations ^u liability = oral defamation & ) _m ?+s ( ! sort ?r\gh\t our law4 ,all ( ^! proce$ p>tly f ! attitude ( ! /rict law 9 :i* our legal in/itutions fir/ took %ape4 ,b !y h p]si/$ because ( a feel+ t talk is *eap1 t mu* ( :at m5 say is n to be tak5 at face value & t m w be sacrific$ ?an ga9$ if all oral spee* is tak5 s]i\sly & ! pr9ciples appli$ by ! law to o!r =ms ( conduct are appli$ rigor\sly !reto4 ,?is is :at 0 meant :5 ! writ]s on natural law said t promises (t5 proce$$ m f o/5tation ?an f a real int5tion to assume a b9d+ relation4 ,b ?is feel+ may be c>ri$ too f>4 ,und\bt$ly x has be5 c>ri$ too f> 9 ! analog\s cases above m5tion$4 ,! rule ( ,d]ry v4 ,peek goes mu* beyond :at is ne$$ to secure reasonable limits = human g>rul\sness4 ,! /&>d ( neglig5ce1 tak+ into acc\nt ! fact ( oral spee* & ! "* & circum/ances ( ! spee* 9 ! p>ticul> case1 w\ld amply secure individual free utt]ance4 ,s also ! doctr9e t "o might n rely on ano!r's oral repres5tation 9 ! c\rse ( a bus9ess transaction if he c\ld asc]ta9 ! facts by dilig5ce w5t mu* too f> & has _h to be re/rict$4 ,likewise we h _h to ext5d liability = oral defamation4 ,accord+ly because m5 are prone to ov]mu* talk x does n foll[ t promises made by bus9ess m5 9 bus9ess deal+s or by o!rs z bus9ess transactions are 9 any wise likely to proce$ f o/5tation or t we %\ld hesitate to make !m z b9d+ 9 law z !y are 9 bus9ess morals4 ,)\t accept+ ! w !ory1 may we n take a sugge/ion f x & en=ce ^? promises :i* a reasonable man 9 ! position ( ! promisee w\ld believe to h be5 made delib]ately ) int5t to assume a b9d+ relation8 ,! g5]al security is m easily & effectively gu>d$ aga9/ fraud by requirem5ts ( pro( aft] ! mann] ( ! ,/atute ( ,frauds ?an by requirem5ts ( consid]ation :i* is z easy to e/abli% by d\btful evid5ce z ! promise itself4 ,?is has be5 demon/rat$ abundantly by exp]i5ce ( suits 9 equity to en=ce oral contracts tak5 out ( ! ,/atute ( ,frauds by great h>d%ip & "p p]=mance4 ,reviv$ philosophical jurisprud5ce has its fir/ & p]haps its greate/ opportunity 9 ! ,anglo-,am]ican law ( contracts4 ,! con/antly increas+ li/ ( !oretical anomalies %[s t analysis & re/atem5t c avail u no long]4 ,inde$ ! lucid /atem5t ( ,willi/on b emphasizes ! inadequacy ( analysis ev5 :5 ek$ out by *oice f among compet+ views & analytical re/atem5ts ( judicial dogma 9 ! light ( results4 ,projects = re/atem5t ( ! law are 9 ! air4 ,b a re/atem5t ( :at has nev] be5 /at$ is an impossibility & z yet !re is no au?oritative /atem5t ( :at ! law ( consid]ation is4 ,no?+ c\ld be ga9$ by a /atem5t ( x ) all its imp]fections on its head & any consi/5t analytical /atem5t w\ld require ! undo+ ( mu* t ! judges h done quietly b5ea? ! surface = mak+ promises m widely en=ceable4 ,giv5 an attractive philosophical !ory ( en=cem5t ( promises1 our c\rts 9 a new p]iod ( gr[? w beg9 to %ape ! law !reby & judicial empiricism & legal reason w br+ ab\t a workable sy/em along new l9es4 ,! possibilities involv$ may be measur$ if we comp>e our old law ( torts ) its h>d & fa/ s]ies ( nom9ate wrongs1 its di/9ctions gr[+ out ( proc$ural requirem5ts ( trespass & trespass on ! case & its crude idea ( liability1 fl[+ solely f causation1 ) ! law ( torts at ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury aft] x _h be5 mold$ by ! !ory ( liability z a coroll>y ( fault4 ,ev5 if we mu/ disc>d ! conception t tort liability may fl[ only f fault1 ! g5]alization did a s]vice ( ! fir/ magnitude n only to legal !ory b to ! actual adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,no less s]vice w be r5d]$ by ! tw5tie?-c5tury philosophical !ory1 :atev] x is1 :i* puts ! jural po/ulate ( civiliz$ society 9 our day & place ) respect to good fai?1 & its coroll>y z to promises1 9 acceptable =m1 & furni%es juri/ & judge & lawmak] ) a logical critique1 a workable measure ( decision & an ideal ( :at ! law seeks to d1 :]eby to c>ry =w>d ! process ( enl>g+ ! doma9 ( legally en=ceable promises & ?us enl>g+ on ?is side ! doma9 ( legal satisfaction ( human claims4 ,bibliography ,,lecture ,i ,plato 7,b4 ,c4 #dbg-cdg71 ,republic4 ----1 ,laws4 ,translations 9 ,j[ett's ,plato4 ,! translation ( ! ,republic is publi%$ sep>ately4 ,pseudo-,plato1 ,m9os4 ,n[ g5]ally consid]$ n to be a g5u9e "w ( ,plato's & v>i\sly dat$ f z e>ly z c4 #ccg ,b4 ,c4 to z late z c4 #bej ,b4 ,c4 ,!re is a conv5i5t translation 9 ,bohn's ,libr>ies4 ,ari/otle 7,b4 ,c4 #chd-cbb71 ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics4 ,conv5i5t translation by ,br[ne 9 ,bohn's ,libr>ies4 ----1 ,politics4 ,translation by ,j[ett %\ld be us$4 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #ac-af 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #df-gg72 ,hild5br&1 ,ges*i*te und ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,/aatsphilosophie1 #a-aba4 ,cic]o 7,b4 ,c4 #ajf-dc71 ,de ,legibus4 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #ag-bj 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #gh-ib72 ,hild5br&1 ,ges*i*te und ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,/aatsphilosophie1 #aca-ace1 #adc-adg2 ,voigt1 ,das ,ius ,naturale1 aequum et bonum und ,ius ,g5tium d] ,rm]1 ,i1 #af1 #ce-da1 #dd-fd1 #hi-if4 ,?omas ,aqu9as 7#abbe or #abbg-abgd71 ,summa ,!ologiae4 ,conv5i5t translation ( ! p>ts relat+ to law 9 ,aqu9as ,e?icus4 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #ba-bc 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #ic-aaa74 ,old5dorp1 ,iuris naturalis g5tium et ciuilis ,greek3 eisagg 7#aeci74 ,hemm+ius 7,h5em+s57 ,de ,iure naturale apodictica me?odus 7#aefb74 ,w9ckl]1 ,pr9cipiorum iuris libri ,v 7#afae74 ,^! are collect$ conv5i5tly 9 ,kalt5born1 ,die ,vorluf] des ,hugo ,grotius4 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #bd 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #aab-aad72 ,h9ri*s1 ,ges*i*te d] ,re*ts- und ,/aatspr9cipi5 seit d] ,re=mation1 ,i1 #a-fj2 ,gi]ke1 ,johannes ,al?usius1 #b ed41 #ah-di1 #adb-afb1 #cba4 ,soto1 ,de ju/itia et iure 7#aehi74 ,su>ez1 ,de legibus ac deo legislatore 7#afai74 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,figgis1 ,/udies ( ,political ,?\ght f ,g]son to ,grotius1 ,lect4 ,v4 ,grotius1 ,de iure belli et pacis 7#afbe74 ,:ewell's edition ) an abridg$ translation is conv5i5t4 ,puf5dorf1 ,de jure naturae et g5tium 7#afgb74 ,k5net's translation 7#agjc7 may be f\nd 9 sev]al editions4 ,burlamaqui1 ,pr9cipes du droit naturel 7#agdg74 ,nug5t's translation is conv5i5t4 ,wolff1 ,in/itutiones juris naturae et g5tium 7#agej74 ,ru!r=?1 ,in/itutes ( ,natural ,law 7#aged-agef74 ,vattel1 ,le droit des g5s1 ,prlim9aires 7#ageh74 ,!re are _m translations ( ,vattel4 ,r\sseau1 ,contrat social 7#agfb74 ,toz]'s translation is conv5i5t4 ,black/one1 ,comm5t>ies on ! ,laws ( ,engl&1 ,introduction1 sect4 ,,ii 7#agfe74 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #be-bg1 #bi 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #aae-acd1 #ada-aef72 ,h9ri*s1 ,ges*i*te d] ,re*ts- und ,/aatspr9cipi5 seit d] ,re=mation1 ,i1 #fj-bgd1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 #a-cah2 ,korkunov1 ,g5]al ,!ory ( ,law1 transl4 by ,ha/+s1 #g2 ,*>mont1 ,la r5aissance du droit naturel1 #aj-dc4 ,hobbes1 ,levia?an 7#afea74 ,sp9oza1 ,e?ica 7#afgd74 ----1 ,tractatus !ologico-politicas 7#afgj74 ,elwes' translation ( ! two la/ 9 ,bohn's ,libr>ies mu/ be us$ ) caution4 ,b5?am1 ,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation 7#aghj74 ,a conv5i5t repr9t is publi%$ by ! ,cl>5don ,press4 ----1 ,!ory ( ,legislation4 7,orig9ally publi%$ 9 ,fr5*1 #ahbj74 ,translat$ by ,hildre? 7#ahfd71 & 9 _m editions4 ,mill1 ,on ,lib]ty 7#ahei74 ,c\rtney's edition 7#ahib7 is conv5i5t4 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,duff1 ,sp9oza's ,political & ,e?ical ,philosophy2 ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #bh 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #acd-ada72 ,dicey1 ,law & ,public ,op9ion 9 ,engl&1 ,lect4 #f2 ,albee1 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,utilit>ianism2 ,/eph51 ,! ,engli% ,utilit>ians2 ,sol>i1 ,l'idea individuale e l'idea sociale nel diritto privato1 #ca-cf4 ,kant1 ,metaphysis*e ,anfangsgrnde d] ,re*tslehre 7#b ed4 #agih74 ,translat$ by ,ha/ie z ,kant's ,philosophy ( ,law 7#ahhg74 ,fi*te1 ,grundlage des ,naturre*ts 7#agif1 new ed4 by ,m$icus1 #aijh74 ,translat$ by ,kroeg] z ,fi*te's ,sci5ce ( ,rights 7#ahhi74 ,hegel1 ,grundl9i5 d] ,philosophie des ,re*ts 7#ahba71 ed4 by ,gans 7#ahdj71 new ed4 by ,lasson 7#aiaa74 ,translat$ by ,dyde z ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,"r 7#ahif74 ,?is translation mu/ be us$ cauti\sly4 ,krause1 ,abriss des ,sy/emes d] ,philosophie des ,re*tes 7#ahbh74 ,ahr5s1 ,c\rs de droit naturel 7#ahcg1 #h ed4 #ahib74 ,tw5ty-f\r editions 9 sev5 languages4 ,! ,g]man #f? edition 7,naturre*t1 #ahgj-ahga7 conta9s important matt] n 9 ! ,fr5* editions4 ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation4 ,lectures deliv]$ 9 #ahgi-ahhj4 ,repr9t$ f 8 ,complete ,works 7#aiaa74 ,lorim]1 ,in/itutes ( ,law 7#b ed4 #ahhj74 ,lasson1 ,lehrbu* d] ,re*tsphilosophie 7#ahhb74 ,mill]1 ,lectures on ! ,philosophy ( ,law 7#ahhd74 ,boi/el1 ,c\rs de philosophie du droit 7#ahgj1 new ed4 #ahii74 ,h]kless1 ,lectures on ,jurisprud5ce 7#aija74 ,br[n1 ,! ,und]ly+ ,pr9ciples ( ,mod]n ,legislation 7#aiab74 ,m5tion may be made ( ,beaussire1 ,les pr9cipes du droit 7#ahhh72 ,beudant1 ,le droit individuel et l'tat 7#ahia72 ,c>le1 ,la vita del diritto 7#b ed4 #ahij72 ,dahn1 ,re*tsphilosophis*e ,/udi5 7#ahhc72 ,g9] y ,cald]on1 ,filos(ia del d]e*o 7#ahih72 ,h>ms1 ,begriff1 ,=m5 und ,grundlegung d] ,re*tsphilosophie 7#ahhi72 ,h5nebicq1 ,philosophie de droit et droit naturel 7#ahig72 ,h]b>t1 ,analytis*e ,beleu*tung des ,naturre*ts und d] ,moral 7#ahcf72 ,j\ffroy1 ,c\rs de droit naturel 7#e ed4 #ahgf72 ,kir*mann1 ,grundbegriffe des ,re*ts und d] ,moral 7#b ed4 #ahgc72 ,krause1 ,das ,sy/em d] ,re*tsphilosophie 7po/hum\s1 ed4 by ,rd]1 #ahgd72 ,miraglia1 ,filos(ia del diritto 7#c ed4 #aijc1 transl4 9 ,mod]n ,legal ,philosophy ,s]ies1 #aiab72 ,rd]1 ,grundzge des ,naturre*ts od] d] ,re*tsphilosophie 7#b ed4 #ahfj72 ,rosm9i1 ,filos(ia del diritto 7#b ed4 #ahfe72 ,ro!1 ,trait de droit naturel1 ?orique et appliqu 7#ahhd72 ,s*uppe1 ,grundzge d] ,e?ik und ,re*tsphilosophie 7#ahha72 ,/ahl1 ,philosophie des ,re*ts 7#e ed4 #ahgh72 ,tissot1 ,introduction hi/orique et philosophique l'tude du droit 7#ahge72 ,tr5del5burg1 ,naturre*t auf dem ,grunde d] ,e?ik 7#ahfh72 ,v>eilles-,sommires1 ,les pr9cipes fondam5taux du droit 7#ahhi72 ,wallas*ek1 ,/udi5 zur ,re*tsphilosophie 7#ahhi74 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,gray1 ,nature & ,s\rces ( ! ,law1 #g-i2 ,bryce1 ,/udies 9 ,hi/ory & ,jurisprud5ce1 ,essay #ab2 ,pollock1 ,essays 9 ,jurisprud5ce & ,e?ics1 #a-cj2 ,korkunov1 ,g5]al ,!ory ( ,law1 translat$ by ,ha/+s1 #d2 ,b]gbohm1 ,jurisprud5z und ,re*tsphilosophie1 #f-ae2 ,p\nd1 ,! ,scope & ,purpose ( ,sociological ,jurisprud5ce1 #bd ,h>v>d ,law ,rev41 #eja2 ,p\nd1 ! ,philosophy ( ,law 9 ,am]ica1 ,ar*iv fr ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,vii1 #bac1 #bhe4 ,jh]+1 ,d] ,zweck im ,re*t 7#ahgg-ahhc1 #d ed4 #aijd74 ,! fir/ volume is translat$ by ,husik "u ! title ,law z a ,means to an ,end 7#aiac74 ,jh]+1 ,s*]z und ,ern/ 9 die ,jurisprud5z 7#ahhd1 #i ed4 #aijd74 ,ref]5ce may be made to ! app5dices to ,jh]+1 ,law z a ,means to an ,end1 transl4 by ,husik2 ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #dc 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #cbg-cea72 ,korkunov1 ,g5]al ,!ory ( ,law1 translat$ by ,ha/+s1 #ac-ad2 ,tanon1 ,l'volution du droit et la consci5ce sociale 7#c ed4 #aiaa71 pt4 ,i1 *4 #c4 ,/amml]1 ,ueb] die ,me?ode d] ges*i*tli*5 ,re*t/heorie 7#ahhh74 ----1 ,wir?s*aft und ,re*t 7#ahif1 #b ed4 #aije74 ----1 ,die ,gesetzmssigkeit 9 ,re*tsordnung und ,volkswir?s*aft 7#aijb74 ----1 ,lehre von dem re*tig5 ,re*te 7#aijb74 ----1 ,sy/ematis*e ,!orie d] ,re*tswiss5s*aft 7#aiaa74 ----1 ,re*ts- und ,/aat/heori5 d] ,neuzeit 7#aiag74 ,del ,vec*io1 ,! ,=mal ,bases ( ,law1 translat$ by ,lisle 7#aiad74 ,a translation ( ,i presuppo/i filos(ici della nozione del diritto 7#aije71 ,il concetto del diritto 7#aijf1 repr9t$ #aiab71 ,il concetto della natura e il pr9cipio del diritto 7#aijh74 ,= critiques ( ,/amml]1 see ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ii1 #dh 7,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #cih-dbb72 ,kantor[icz1 ,zur ,lehre vom ri*tig5 ,re*t2 ,croce1 ,hi/orical ,mat]ialism & ! ,economics ( ,k>l ,m>x1 *4 #b2 ,g5y1 ,sci5ce et te*nique en droit priv positif1 ,,ii1 #abg-acj2 ,b9d]1 ,re*tsbegriff und ,re*tsidee 7#aiae72 ,b9d]1 ,kritis*e und metaphysis*e ,re*tsphilosophie1 ,ar*iv fr ,re*ts- und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie1 ,,ix1 #adb1 #bfg2 ,v9ograd(f1 ,common ,s5se 9 ,law1 *4 #i4 ,kohl]1 ,re*tsphilosophie und ,univ]salre*tsges*i*te1 9 ,holtz5dorff1 ,enzyklopdie d] ,re*tswiss5s*aft1 ,i 7#f ed4 #aijd1 #g ed4 #aiac74 7,n 9 prior editions47 ,kohl]1 ,lehrbu* d] ,re*tsphilosophie 7#aiji1 #b ed4 #aiag74 ,translat$ by ,albre*t z ,philosophy ( ,law 7#aiad74 ,kohl]1 ,mod]ne ,re*tsprobleme 7#aijg1 #b ed4 #aiac74 ,b]olzheim]1 ,sy/em d] ,re*ts-und ,wir?s*aftsphilosophie 7#aijd-aijg74 ,vol4 ,,ii1 hi/ory ( juri/ic ?\ght1 translat$ by ,ja/r[ 7some:at abridg$7 "u ! title ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies 7#aiab71 ,vol4 ,,iii1 g5]al sy/em ( legal & economic philosophy1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 philosophy ( int]e/s ( sub/ance1 ,vol4 ,v1 philosophy ( crim9al law1 are important = our purposes4 ,see also ,b]olzheim]1 ,re*tsphilosophis*e ,/udi5 7#aijc72 ,b>ill>i1 ,diritto e filos(ia 7#aiaj-aiab72 ,kohl]1 ,das ,re*t 7#aiji72 ,kohl]1 ,re*t und ,p]snli*keit 9 die ,kultur d] ,geg5w>t 7#aiad74 ,radbru*1 ,grundzge d] ,re*tsphilosophie 7#aiad74 ,miceli1 ,pr9cipii di filos(ia del diritto 7#aiad74 ,t\rt\lon1 ,pr9cipes philosophiques de l'hi/oire du droit 7#aijh-aibj74 ,demogue1 ,notions fondam5tales du droit priv 7#aiaa74 ,g5y1 ,m?ode d'int]prtation et s\rces en droit priv positif 7#ahii1 #b ed4 #aiai74 ,a book ( ! fir/ importance4 ----1 ,sci5ce et te*nique en droit priv positif 7#aiac74 ,duguit1 ,l'tat1 le droit objectif et la loi positive 7#aija74 ----1 ,le droit social1 le droit individuel et la trans=mation de l'tat 7#b ed4 #aiaa74 ----1 ,les trans=mations gnrales du droit priv 7#aiab74 ,translat$ 9 ,cont95tal ,legal ,hi/ory ,s]ies1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 *4 #c4 ----1 ,law & ! ,/ate 7#aiag74 ,ref]5ce may be made to ,mod]n ,fr5* ,legal ,philosophy 7#aiaf7 9 ! ,mod]n ,legal ,philosophy ,s]ies2 ,jung1 ,das ,problem des natrli*5 ,re*ts 7#aiab74 ,see also ,b\caud1 ,qu'e/-ce que le droit naturel 7#aijf72 ,*>mont1 ,la r5aissance du droit naturel 7#aiaj72 ,*>mont1 ,le droit et l'esprit democratique 7#aijh72 ,djuv>a1 ,le fondem5t du phnomne juridique 7#aiac72 ,fabreguettes1 ,la logique judiciaire et l'art de jug] 7#aiad72 ,l]oy1 ,la loi 7#aijh74 ,comp>e ,ca?re91 ,re*t1 ,naturre*t und ,positives ,re*t 7#aija74 ,see also ,coh51 ,jus naturale r$ivivum1 ,philosophical ,rev41 ,,xxv1 #gfa 7#aiaf74 ,sp5c]1 ,ju/ice 7#ahia74 ,see also ,anzilotti1 ,la filos(ia del diritto e la sociologia 7#aijg72 ,brugi1 ,introduzione enciclop$ica alle sci5ze giuridi*e e sociale 7#d ed4 #aijg1 #a ed4 #ahij72 ,cos5t9i1 ,filos(ia del diritto e sociologia 7#aije72 ,cos5t9i1 ,criticismo e positivismo nella filos(ia del diritto 7#aiab72 ,daguanno1 ,la g5esi e l'evoluzione del diritto civile 7#ahij72 ,eleu!rop\los1 ,re*tsphilosophie1 ,sociologie und ,politik 7#aijh72 ,fragapane1 ,obbietto e limiti della filos(ia del diritto 7#ahig72 ,levi1 ,il diritto naturale nella filos(ia di ,r4 ,ardigo 7#aijd72 ,n>di ,greco1 ,sociologia giuridica 7#aijf72 ,por*at1 ,sociologia e direito 7#aijb72 ,ratto1 ,sociologia e filos(ia del diritto 7#ahid72 ,vadale ,papale1 ,la filos(ia del diritto a base sociologica 7#ahhe72 ,v&] ,eyck51 ,m?ode positive de l'int]prtation juridique 7#aijg74 ,po/1 ,d] ,ursprung des ,re*ts 7#ahgf74 ----1 ,bau/e9e fr e9e allgeme9e ,re*tswiss5s*aft 7#ahhj74 ----1 ,die ,grundlag5 des ,re*ts und die ,grundzge se9] ,entwickelungsges*i*te 7#ahhd74 ,kuhl5beck1 ,natrli*e ,grundlag5 des ,re*ts 7#aije74 ,a discussion ( fundam5tal problems ( jurisprud5ce f ! ,d>w9ian /&po9t4 ,ri*>d1 ,orig9e de l'ide de droit 7#ahib74 ,vacc>o1 ,les bases sociologiques du droit et de l'tat 7#ahih74 ,translation ( ,le basi del diritto e dello /ato 7#ahic74 ,a !ory ( law z ! outcome ( class /ruggles4 ,= critiques ( ! =ego+1 see ,tanon1 ,l'volution du droit et la consci5ce sociale 7#c ed4 #aiaa72 ,t\rt\lon1 ,pr9cipes philosophiques de l'hi/oire du droit 7#aijh-aibj72 ,*>mont1 ,la r5aissance du droit naturel 7#aiaj74 ,t>de1 ,les trans=mations du droit 7#f ed4 #aiji74 ,fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahid4 ,vanni1 ,lezioni di filos(ia del diritto 7#c ed4 #aijh74 ,fir/ publi%$ 9 #aija-aijb4 ,see also ,bonucci1 ,l'ori5tazione psicologica dell' etica e della filos(ia del diritto 7#aijg72 ,bozi1 ,die ,weltans*auung d] ,jurisprud5z 7#aijg1 #b ed4 #aiaa72 ,bozi1 ,die ,s*ule d] ,jurisprud5z 7#aiaj72 ,cruet1 ,la vie du droit et l'impuissance des lois 7#aiad72 ,grass]ie1 ,pr9cipes sociologiques du droit civil 7#aijf72 ,jell9ek1 ,die soziale?is*e ,b$eutung von ,re*t1 ,unre*t und ,/rafe 7#b ed4 #aijh1 #a/ ed4 #ahgh72 ,lagorgette1 ,le fondem5t du droit 7#aijg72 ,miceli1 ,le fonti del diritto dal punto di vi/a psi*ico-sociale 7#aije72 ,miceli1 ,lezioni di filos(ia del diritto 7#aijh74 ,holmes1 ,! ,pa? ( ! ,law1 #aj ,h>v>d ,law ,review1 #dfg 7#ahig72 ,collect$ ,pap]s1 #afg-bjb4 ,ehrli*1 ,soziologie und ,jurisprud5z 7#aijc74 ,wurzel1 ,das juri/is*e ,d5k51 #ih-ajb 7#aijd74 ,translat$ 9 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,legal ,me?od 7,mod]n ,legal ,philosophy ,s]ies1 ,vol4 #i1 #dba-dbh74 ,gnaeus ,flavius 7,kantor[icz71 ,d] ,kampf um die ,re*tswiss5s*aft 7#aijf74 ,kantor[icz1 ,re*tswiss5s*aft und ,soziologie 7#aiaa74 ,kels51 ,ueb] ,gr5z5 zwis*5 juri/is*] und soziologis*] ,me?ode 7#aiaa74 ,brugeilles1 ,le droit et la sociologie 7#aiaj74 ,rol91 ,prolgomnes la sci5ce du droit 7#aiaa74 ,ehrli*1 ,er=s*ung des leb5d5 ,re*ts1 9 ,s*moll]'s ,jahrbu* fr ,gesetzgebung1 ,,xxv1 #aij 7#aiaa74 ----1 ,grundlegung d] ,soziologie des ,re*ts 7#aiac74 ----1 ,das leb5de ,re*t d] ,vlk] d] ,buk[9a 7#aiac74 ,page1 ,pr(essor ,ehrli*'s ,cz]n[itz ,sem9> ( ,liv+ ,law1 ,proce$+s ( ,f\rte5? ,annual ,meet+ ( ,association ( ,am]ican ,law ,s*ools1 #df 7#aiad74 ,cos5t9i1 ,filos(ia del diritto 7#aiad74 ,ehrli*1 ,die juri/is*e ,logik 7#aiah74 ,kornfeld1 ,allgeme9e ,re*tslehre und ,jurisprud5z 7#aibj74 ,see also ,cos5t9i1 ,la r=me de la lgislation civile 7#aiac7 7revis$ & augm5t$ translation ( ,la ri=ma della legislazione civile1 #aiaa72 ,kornfeld1 ,soziale ,ma*tv]hltnisse1 ,grundzge e9] allgeme95 ,lehre vom positiv5 ,re*te auf soziologis*] ,grundlage 7#aiaa72 ,levi1 ,la socit et l'ordre juridique 7#aiaa72 ,levi1 ,contributi ad una teoria filos(ica dell' ord9e giuridico 7#aiad74 ,,lecture ,,ii ,mill]1 ,! ,data ( ,jurisprud5ce1 *4 #f4 ,salmond1 ,jurisprud5ce1 #i4 ,pulszky1 ,!ory ( ,law & ,civil ,society1 #agc4 ,b5?am1 ,!ory ( ,legislation1 ,pr9ciples ( ! ,civil ,code1 pt4 ,i1 *4 #a-g4 ,holl&1 ,jurisprud5ce1 *4 #f4 ,kant1 ,philosophy ( ,law 7,ha/ie's translation7 #de-df4 ,sp5c]1 ,ju/ice1 *4 #e-f4 ,will\ghby1 ,social ,ju/ice1 *4 #b4 ,pauls51 ,e?ics 7,?illy's translation71 *4 #i4 ,g>eis1 ,vom ,begriff ,g]e*tigkeit4 ,demogue1 ,notions fondam5tales de droit priv1 #aai-ace4 ,pic>d1 ,le droit pur1 liv4 #i4 ,p\nd1 ,! ,end ( ,law z ,develop$ 9 ,legal ,rules & ,doctr9es1 #bg ,h>v>d ,law ,review1 #aie4 ,holmes1 ,common ,law1 ,lect4 #a4 ,po/1 ,e?nologis*e ,jurisprud5z1 ,,ii1 #eh-ei4 ,fehr1 ,hammurapi und das ,salis*e ,re*t1 #ace-ach4 ,ames1 ,law & ,morals1 #bb ,h>v>d ,law ,review1 #ig4 ,voigt1 ,das ,ius naturale1 aequum et bonum und ,ius ,g5tium d] ,rm]1 ,i1 #cba-cbc4 ,/eph51 ,lib]ty1 ,equality1 ,frat]nity1 #ahi-bee4 ,ma9e1 ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,in/itutions 7,am]ican ed471 #cih-djj4 ,rit*ie1 ,natural ,rights1 *4 #ab4 ,demogue1 ,notions fondam5tales de droit priv1 #fc-aaj1 #acf-adb4 ,jh]+1 ,s*]z und ,ern/ 9 die ,jurisprud5z 7#aj ed471 #djh-dbe4 ,p\nd1 ,lib]ty ( ,contract1 #ah ,yale ,law ,j\rnal1 #ded4 ----1 ,! ,end ( ,law z ,develop$ 9 ,juri/ic ,?\ght1 #bg ,h>v>d ,law ,review1 #fje1 #cj ,h>v>d ,law ,review1 #bja4 ,b]olzheim]1 ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #ag-bd4 ,figgis1 ,/udies ( ,political ,?\ght f ,g]son to ,grotius1 ,lect4 #f4 ,b]olzheim]1 ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #be-bg4 ,hobbes1 ,levia?an1 *4 #ae4 ,b]olzheim]1 ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #bi4 ,korkunov1 ,g5]al ,!ory ( ,law 7translat$ by ,ha/+s71 #g4 ,rit*ie1 ,natural ,rights1 *4 #c4 ,*>mont1 ,la r5aissance de droit naturel1 #aj-dc4 ,b]olzheim]1 ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #ce-cg4 ,korkunov1 ,g5]al ,!ory ( ,law 7translat$ by ,ha/+s71 #cbj-cbb4 ,gray1 ,nature & ,s\rces ( ! ,law1 #eh4 ,b]olzheim]1 ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #bh4 ,mill1 ,on ,lib]ty1 *4 #d4 ,dicey1 ,law & ,public ,op9ion 9 ,engl&1 ,lect4 #f4 ,b]olzheim]1 ,! ,_w's ,legal ,philosophies1 #dc-dh1 #eb4 ,/amml]1 ,wes5 des ,re*ts und d] ,re*tswiss5s*aft 79 ,sy/ematis*e ,re*tswiss5s*aft1 i-lix74 ,kohl]1 ,re*tsphilosophie und ,univ]salre*tsges*i*te1 #ac-af1 #cc-cd1 #ea4 ,,lecture ,,iii ,g5y1 ,m?ode d'int]prtation et s\rces en droit priv positif 7#b ed4 #aiai74 ,v&] ,eyck51 ,m?ode positive de l'int]prtation juridique 7#aijg74 ,mallieux1 ,l',exgse des codes 7#aijh74 ,ransson1 ,essai sur l'art de jug] 7#aiab74 ,see ,wigmore1 ,problems ( ,law1 #fe-aja2 ,p\nd1 ,! 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end ( law1 #ce1 #gd-gg conception ( ! nature ( law1 #ha conception ( ! g5]al security1 #gd on subjects ( litigation1 #ig1 #bda ,grotius1 #aif1 #bje-bjg1 #bfj ,hammurapi1 #fj ,h>d b>ga9s1 #acb ,hegel1 #hd1 #baf1 #bgd !ory ( contract1 #bfb !ory ( prop]ty1 #bad-baf ,h]aditus1 #gf ,h9du law1 #bbf-bbg1 #bdc-bde ,hippodamus1 #bda ,hi/orical application ( law1 #abe-abf ,hi/orical categories1 #agb ,hi/orical s*ool1 #bgi ,holmes1 ,mr4 ,ju/ice1 #aff ,h\sehold1 p>tition (1 #bbf-bbg ,husb& & wife1 #ahh matrimonial prop]ty regime1 #bbi ,hybris1 #gg ,idealism1 juridical1 #da-db1 #ia ,ideali/ic int]pretation1 #bff ,imp]ium1 #aii ,impli$ und]tak+s1 #aeh1 #aga ,individual free self-ass]tion1 #ed ,individualization1 #aaa1 #aac-aad by juries1 #acc-acd 9 crim9al proc$ure1 #ach 9 punitive ju/ice1 #acd-ace judicial1 #abj-aba moral elem5t 91 #acg ( p5al treatm5t1 #abi-acj ,individual life1 #if ,inh]itance1 #aci ,innkeep]1 liability (1 #ahf ,insult1 #aea ,int5tion1 #ahi z s\rce ( liability1 #aeg ,int]dep5d5ce1 #ef ,int]dicts1 #bjj ,int]e/s1 #hi-ij compromises (1 #id-ie delimitation (1 #aib giv+ effect to1 #ij gr\p1 #bbe h>mony (1 #if individual1 9 promis$ advantages1 #bcf intr9sic importance (1 #ie inv5tory (1 #ij ( sub/ance1 #aci1 #bcg recognition (1 #ij1 #aib secur+ ( #if1 #ig valu+ ( #hi1 #ie-ii weigh+ ( #hi1 #id ,int]pretation #ea-eb1 #ajj fiction ( #ajb-ajh g5u9e #aje1 #abd relation to law mak+ #aje ,jessel1 ,sir ,george #bfh ,judicial1 contra/$ ) adm9i/rative #ajh ,jural po/ulates #afi-agi1 #ahh1 #aib-aic1 #aic-aid1 #bcg1 #bdi1 #bhd ,juridical idealism #da-db1 #ia ,jurisconsults #cj1 #dc-dd ,jurisprud5ce1 problems ( #aaa ,juri/ic !ories1 nature ( #fi ,juri/s1 metaphysical #eb1 #fh se>* = ! m inclusive ord] #ade sev5te5? & eighte5?-c5tury #dc-dd ,juri/-!ologians #ci ,spani% #ha-hb1 #hc ,jury #abi1 #acc-acd lawlessness ( #ach ,jus #ca ,jus dispon5di #bba ,j1 !1 by nature or by conv5tion #be1 #bg1 #ca1 #ee ,ju/ice1 ,ari/otle on #be1 #gg def9ition ( 9 ! ,in/itutes #gg executive #acg idea ( #fe )\t law #ajb1 #aac ,ju/9ian1 ,in/itutes ( #gg-gh ,kant #hd1 #bjb1 #bai1 #bfj !ory ( contract #bfj-bfa !ory ( prop]ty #baj-bad ,k5yon1 ,"l #dg ,k9 organization #gd ,laesio enormis #bgd ,langdell1 ,c4 ,c4 #bei ,law1 adju/m5t ) adm9i/ration #acg & morals #bg1 #cj1 #da1 #aaa1 #aab application ( #ajj ff4 z an aggregate ( rules #aaj z a body ( agreem5ts #fc z a body ( comm&s #fd z a body ( div9ely orda9$ rules #fj z a keep+ ( ! peace #gb-gd z a reflection ( div9e reason #fc z a sy/em ( pr9ciples #fb1 #ff z cu/om #fa1 #fb z decl>atory ( economic or social laws #fg-fh z precepts discov]$ by exp]i5ce #fe z record$ traditional wisdom #fa z re/ra9t on lib]ty #fj z rules impos$ by dom9ant class #ff z /&+ betwe5 ! individual & society #ec z unfold+ an idea ( "r #fe basis ( au?ority ( #ai1 #bc-bd1 #bg1 #bh-bi1 #ch1 #fi-gb ,byzant9e !ory ( #aaj di/+ui%$ f rules ( law #bd elem5ts ( #aae-aaf end ( #ce-cf1 #ei ff4 effectiv5ess ( #aic f9d+ #ajj1 #ajd-aje =ms ( #bg-bh gov]nm5t ( #acf hi/orical !ory ( #fe1 #fh h[ f> made #ajg-ajh idea ( self-suffici5cy ( #ag1 #fg judge made #ce juri/ made #ce maturity ( #dh1 #ei1 #ajb m]*ant #aee1 #bga1 #bge nature ( #ei1 #ia1 #aaa nature ( !ories ( #fh-fi political !ory ( #fh re/atem5t ( ! #bhb sci5ce ( #aja s(t spots 9 ! #bhb !ories ( ! nature ( #fj-fh ,law mak+1 judicial #aje presuppositions ( #ei ,legal /&>ds #ea1 #aad1 #aaf-abj1 #abi1 #ada ,legal transactions #aec bonae fidei #bdh categories ( #bdg =mal #bdi /ricti iuris #bdh ,l5d+ #aej ,lett]s ( cr$it #bge1 #bgf-bgg ,lex #ca ,lex ,aquilia #aei ,liability1 absolute #agi act z basis ( #aeh1 #ahb analytical !ory ( #aeb-aec z coroll>y ( fault #afc-afd1 #aff1 #afh1 #aha1 #ahg1 #bhc-bhd basis ( delictal #agg delictal #afc1 #afg-afi elem5ts ( #afb-afc employ]'s #afc fault z basis ( #afj1 #afc-afd1 #afg = cattle go+ on vacant l&s #ahj-aha = injury by animal #afc1 #afd1 #ahj = injury by *ild #aei = injury by m9or #afb = injury by a res ru9osa #afb = injury by slave #aei = int5tional h>m #afh = neglig5ce #age1 #ahj = non-re/ra9t ( ag5cies #agf = tort1 basis ( #afg = tort1 common-law !ory ( #afh-afi = trespass+ cattle #ahj = un9t5d$ non-culpable h>m #afh = un9t5tional culpable h>m #afh = vici\s animals #ahb1 #ahf f culpability #ahd f legal transactions #ahg fundam5tals ( #agd hi/orical anomalies 9 #aff1 #agi1 #ahf 9 ,fr5* law #afa-afd int5tion z basis ( #aeg1 #afj ju/ifiable reliance z basis ( #ahi mean+ ( #adg natural s\rces ( #aef noxal #aei ( c>ri] #ahf ( innkeep] #aei1 #afj1 #ahf ( ma/] ( %ip #aei1 #afj ( /able keep] #aei1 #afj on impli$ t]ms ( transaction #agj philosophical !ories ( #aic-aid primitive gr\nds ( #adi-aea quasi-contractual #aef quasi-delictal #aef relational #ahf-ahh to make re/itution #ahg !ories ( #adh w-!ory ( #aeg1 #agg1 #agi1 #ahi )\t fault #aef1 #afb1 #aff1 #agg1 #agi ,lib]ty #hd-he idea ( #fe1 #bfg idea ( z s\rce ( liability #aeg law & #fj ,locke1 ,john #bjh ,lorim]1 ,james #bah ,l\is ,,ix #abh ,magi/rate1 p[] ( #aab ,ma9e1 ,sir ,h5ry #bjh ,mala prohibita #bf ,m&ate #bgb ,mansfield1 ,"l #dg1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bgc ,manu #fj ,maturity ( law #dh1 #ei1 #ajb ,maxims #cd ,metaphysical juri/s #ib ,metus #aei ,middle ,ages1 conception ( end ( law 9 #gh-hj idea ( law 9 #gg-ha juri/ic ne$ 9 #cf ,mill]1 ,w4 ,g4 #baf-bag ,m9+ cu/oms #aie law #bja1 #bbb ,m9os 7pseudo-,platonic dialogue7 #bd ,mosaic law #fj ,mutuum #bdi ,n>ada #bdd ,nationalism 9 law #ci ,natural1 mean+ ( 9 philosophy ( law #ca-cb ,natural law #be1 #ca1 #ce1 #dj1 #da1 #de-eb1 #ee1 #aed1 #aff1 #bji1 #bec1 #bgh1 #bhj ,am]ican v>iant ( #ej z a !ory ( gr[? #cc-cd z d$uc$ f a free gov]nm5t #eb z ideal critique #eb economic #bje !ory ( #db ,natural obligation #bej ,natural reason #bjb ,natural rights #ae1 #db-dc1 #ee1 #hc1 #ib-ic1 #adf1 #bjd1 #bje hi/orical-metaphysical !ory ( #eb !ories ( #dd-de to produce ( labor #bji ,nature1 mean+ ( 9 ,greek philosophy #ca-cb /ate ( #de ,necess>y di/9ctions #agb1 #agd ,negative community #bjg ,neglig5ce #aai-abj1 #afe1 #afh1 #agg1 #agi1 #bgj1 #bhj fiction ( #agi1 #ahj 9 speak+ #bhj1 #bha p] se #agi ,neo-,hegelians #id1 #ih ,neo-,kantians #ic1 #ih ,new ,york1 ,code ( ,civil ,proc$ure #aje ,nexum #bdi ,nomos1 mean+s ( #bb ,noxal liability #aei ,nudum pactum #bdf1 #bed1 #bgc1 #bhj ,oa?s & v[s #bea ,obligation1 civil #beb ex contractu #adf1 #agb ex delicto #adf1 #agb1 #agd ex u>iis caus>um figuris #af1 #agb mean+ ( #adg moral basis ( #bej natural #bej1 #beb-bec nature ( #ade oa?s z basis ( #bea-beb quasi ex contractu #beg religi\s #bdd w z basis ( #bej ,occupation #aif1 #baa z a legal transaction #bac-bad ,(fice or call+1 duties atta*$ to #agc ,options #bgb1 #bgd ,own]%ip1 analytical !ory ( #bbb-bbd developm5t ( ! idea ( #bba-bca dogma t ev]y?+ mu/ be own$ #aii ?+s exclud$ f #aii ,pacta donationis #bgb ,pacts #bdh1 #bej1 #bfa1 #bge ,p>tition #bbf-bbg1 #bbh ,"p p]=mance #bhb ,paul1 ,/4 #gg ,peculium #bbg-bbh ,pecunia cr$ita #bdi ,p$is possessio #bbb ,p5al treatm5t1 individualiz+ ( #abi-acj ,p5alty1 = delict #adi ( rep>ation #adi ,p]sonal gov]nm5t #ace-acf ,p]sonality #aia ,pessimism1 juri/ic #eg ,petty c\rts #acj1 #ach ,philosoph]s1 attempt to unify law & law mak+ #ai attempt to reconcile au?ority ) ne$ ( *ange #ai que/ = an ultimate solv+ idea #ai ,philosophical ?9k+1 a*ievem5ts ( 9 law #af-ah z a =ce 9 adm9i/ration ( ju/ice #af ne$s det]m9+ z to law #ah possibilities ( 9 law ( contracts #bhd ,plato #bd1 #gf ,pl$ge #bea ,political int]pretation #bff ,positivism #ed-ef ,possession #bcc-bcd ,po/-,glossators #cg ,po?i] #de ,primitive law #gb-gd fai? ( 9 v]bal =mulas #aed ,primog5iture #ej ,pr9ciples #cd1 #ec1 #aaf ,proc$ure #aaa ,proculians #aif ,promis$ advantages #aia ,promises1 ab/ract #bee1 #bfb1 #bfc an elem5t 9 weal? #bcf ex*ange ( #bed f o/5tation #bef1 #bhj1 #bha moral duty to keep #bfb philosophical !ory ( en=c+ #bhc simple #bge !ories ( en=c+ #bfi-bgf !ory ( inh]5t =ce ( #bei-bfj ,promissory oa? #aej-aea1 #bea ,prop]ty1 acquisition ( #aid-bjj1 #bjd analytical !ory ( #bba-bbd basis 9 creation #bji basis 9 division by agreem5t #bje basis 9 economic nature ( man #bje1 #bji community #bbi effectiv5ess ( law z to #aic ,grotius' !ory ( #bje-bjg ,hegel's !ory ( #bad-baf hi/orical developm5t ( law ( #bbd-bcb hi/orical !ory ( #bai1 #bba-bcb h\sehold #bbf-bbg1 #bbi inequalities 9 #bae1 #bba 9 natural m$ia ( life #bja-bjb jural po/ulates ( #aic1 #aid ,kant's !ory ( #baj-bad law ( #ada ,lorim]'s !ory ( #bah m$ieval !ory ( #bjb metaphysical !ories ( #baj-bah modes ( acquir+ #aid-bjb natural acquisition ( #aie natural-law !ories ( #bjd-baj natural limits ( "r ( #aie negative community 9 #bjg philosophical !ories ( #aid ff4 positive !ory ( #bai-bba psy*ological !ory ( #bji1 #bc1 #bcd re/rictions on appropriation ( #hh re/rictions on use & disposition ( #hg-hh self-acquir$ #bbg-bbh sev5te5?-c5tury !ory ( #bjb socialization ( #bcc social-utilit>ian !ory ( #bbe sociological !ories ( #bcb ,sp5c]'s !ory ( #bai !ories ( #bjb-bbe !ory ( 9 ,anglo-,am]ican law #bjh !ory ( 9 antiquity #bjb ?+s n subject to #aig titles to #aie-aig1 #baa tw5tie?-c5tury !ories ( #bcb ,prote/ant juri/-!ologians #ci ,psy*ology #ij1 #id1 #bgi-bhj ,publici/s1 ,fr5* #aaj ,public utilities #aag1 #acf exemption ( f competition #hh-hi p[] to contract #ahg ,puf5dorf #bjg-bjh ,punitive ju/ice #aaa individualization ( #acd-ace ,quasi-delict #afa1 #afb ,ratio legis1 doctr9e ( #cb1 #df ,reason1 excessive fai? 9 #ci1 #df-dg ,re=m movem5t1 legislative #dg1 #he ,relations #aga duties atta*$ to #agc economic value ( #aib int]f]5ce ) #aib legal protection ( #aic ,release #bgb1 #bgd ,religion #bdb ff4 ,rep>ation #adi ,repres5tation #agi ,res communes #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjg1 #baj extra comm]cium #aig1 #bja1 #baf1 #bag ipsa loquitur #ahj1 #ahe-ahf nullius #aii1 #bje publicae #aih1 #baj religipsae #aih ru9osa #afb-afc sacrae #aih sanctae #aih ,responsibility at "o's p]il #afg ,"r1 idea ( #fe natural & conv5tional #ae1 #be-bf1 #ca ,rights1 9 p]sonam #adf 9 rem #adg ,roman conception ( end ( law #gg-gh jurisconsults #cj1 #dc ,roman law #bf1 #cf1 #da1 #de1 #aje-ajf1 #ade1 #aea1 #aee1 #agj1 #agc-agd1 #aie1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bbe1 #bbh1 #bde-bej1 #bed1 #bge z basis ( m$ieval law #dj z basis ( law 9 ,,xvii & ,,xviii c5turies #da contribution ( to legal philosophy #cf ,r\sseau #bad ,rules #aae-aaf adapt$ to comm]cial transactions #ada adapt$ to prop]ty #ada & discretion #ada-adc application ( #adb z guides #aba me*anical application ( #adb-adc ,ryl&s v4 ,flet*] #afh1 #ahb-ahf ,sab9ians #aif ,sale #bdi ,satisfaction ( wants1 z an ideal #ih-ii ,savigny1 ,f4 ,c4 von #bac ,s*ola/ic philosophy #cf p]man5t contribution ( #ch ,seals #bdj1 #bga1 #bge contract "u seal #bee ,security ( transactions #aic1 #bcg ,seis9 #bbe ,self help #gc ,sell]'s talk #bhj ,sep>ation ( p[]s #ajb-ajc1 #ajg ,set (f #bej ,social contract #bjd ,social control #ii1 #bbe ,social eng9e]+ #ii ,social ideal #ef z a measure ( values #ih ,social int]dep5d5ce #bcb z a measure ( values #ih ,social int]e/s #ii 9 peace & ord] #adh 9 security ( transactions #bcg ,social laws #ed-ee ,social ord]1 feudal #gi-hj idealiz$ =m ( ! #ce /atic #he ,social sci5ces1 unification ( #ia ,social /atus quo1 z end ( law #ce-cf ,social utilit>ianism #ib-ih ,sociali/s #bji ,society1 ,greek conception ( #gi jural po/ulates ( civiliz$ #afi-agi k9-organiz$ #gc-gd m$ieval conception ( #gi ,sociology #id ,sophrosyne #gg ,sov]eignty1 ,byzant9e !ory ( #dj ,specification #aie ,specific p]=mance #aca-acb1 #bch-bdj ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t #hd1 #ig1 #bja1 #bfe 8 law ( equal fre$om #bai 8 !ory ( prop]ty #bai-bba ,_s & lett] #aed ,/&>ds1 legal #ea1 #aad1 #aaf-abj1 #abi1 #ada ,/>e decisis #adj ,/atus to contract #bff ,/atute ( ,frauds #bhb ,/atute ( ,uses #bgg ,/ipulation #bdf ( c\nsel #bgc1 #bgd ,/oics #aig ,/rict law #cc1 #aja1 #aab-aac1 #aec1 #aee1 #afe1 #bhj ,sub/ance1 int]e/s ( #aci1 #bbe ,sup] con/itution #ae1 #ea ,symbols #bdh ,teleology1 legal #ib ,!ories ( law1 elem5ts 9 #gj-ga ,?ird-p>ty b5efici>ies #bgc ,title1 by creation #aie by discov]y #aie by occupation #aif1 #baa natural #aie ,tort ( neglig5ce #aje ,torts #bhc developm5t ( liability = #afd-afg g5]alization ( liability = #afg law ( #aag1 #afg nom9ate #afd1 #afe1 #agj1 #age1 #bhc ,traditio #bdi ,tru/1 con/ructive #agc gratuit\s decl>ation ( #bgb1 #bgd ,twelve ,tables #bdi ,unju/ enri*m5t #agc1 #ahg ,utilit>ians #bfg1 #bfh ,utility #ec ,value1 crit]ia ( #hi1 #ie-ii ,vrihaspati #bdc ,waiv] #bgb1 #bgd ,wants1 z juri/ic />t+ po9t #hi-ij limitations on satisfaction ( #ig-ih satisfaction ( #hi-ij ,w>ranties #agd1 #bdi ,:ale fi%+ #aie ,w1 z basis ( liability #aeg1 #afi z basis ( obligation #bej z juri/ic />t+ po9t #hd1 #hi ,w !ory #ahi ( contract #bfd-bfe ,willi/on1 ,s4 #bhb ,wills1 h>moniz+ ( #hd1 #ij1 #ib-ic ,workman's comp5sation #afg ,,/orrs ,,lectures ,,publi%$ ,,by ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,! ,,re=m ,,( ,,legal ,,proc$ure4 ,by ,moorfield ,/orey4 ,,! ,,judici>y ,,& ,,! ,,p4 ,by ,fr$]ick ,n4 ,judson4 ,,conc]n+ ,,ju/ice4 ,by ,lucilius ,a4 ,em]y4 ,,woman',s ,,suffrage ,,by ,,con/itutional ,,am5dm5t4 ,by ,h5ry ,/4 ,george ,tuck]4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,judicial ,,process4 ,by ,b5jam9 ,n4 ,c>dozo4 ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,passages 9 italics are surr\nd$ by und]scores4 #b4 ,! orig9al text includes ,greek *>act]s4 ,= ?is text v]sion ^! lett]s h be5 replac$ ) translit]ations4 #c4 ,! foll[+ mispr9ts h be5 correct$3 pr$icability correct$ to pr$ictability 7page #cc7 ,ari/ole correct$ to ,ari/otle 7page #cac7 #d4 ,o!r ?an ! corrections li/$ above1 pr9t]'s inconsi/5cies 9 spell+1 punctuation1 & hyph5ation h be5 reta9$4