,a ,treatise on ,relics ,by ,john ,calvin ,translated from the ,french ,original ,with ,an ,introductory ,dissertation ,on the ,miraculous ,images1 as ,well as ,other ,superstitions1 of the ,roman ,catholic and ,russo-,greek ,churches4 ,by the ,late ,count ,valerian ,krasinski1 ,author of 8,the ,religious ,history of the ,slavonic ,nations10 etc4 ,second ,edition4 ,edinburgh3 ,johnstone1 ,hunter ,co4 #ahgj ,,contents ,preface4 ,preface ,to ,the ,second ,edition4 ,introductory ,dissertation4 ,chapter ,i4 ,origin ,of ,the ,worship ,of ,relics ,and ,images ,in ,the ,christian ,church4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,compromise ,of ,the ,church ,with ,paganism4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,position ,of ,the ,first ,christian ,emperors ,towards ,paganism1 ,and ,their ,policy ,in ,this ,respect4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,infection ,of ,the ,christian ,church ,by ,pagan ,ideas ,and ,practices ,during ,the ,fourth ,and ,fifth ,centuries4 ,chapter ,v4 ,reaction ,against ,the ,worship ,of ,images ,and ,other ,superstitious ,practices ,by ,the ,iconoclast ,emperors ,of ,the ,east4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,origin ,and ,development ,of ,the ,pious ,legends1 ,or ,lives ,of ,saints1 ,during ,the ,middle ,ages4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,analysis ,of ,the ,pagan ,rites ,and ,practices ,which ,have ,been ,retained ,by ,the ,roman ,catholic ,as ,well ,as ,the ,grco-,russian ,church4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,image-,worship ,and ,other ,superstitious ,practices ,of ,the ,graeco-,russian ,church4 ,calvin's ,treatise ,on ,relics1 ,with ,notes ,by ,the ,translator4 ,postscript4 ,list ,of ,works ,published ,by ,johnstone1 ,hunter1 ,co41 ,edinburgh4 ,footnotes ,,preface4 ,the ,treatise on ,relics by the great ,reformer of ,geneva is not so generally known as it deserves1 though at the time of its publication it enjoyed a considerable popularity47#a7 ,the probable reason of this is3 the absurdity of the relics described in the ,treatise has since the ,reformation gradually become so obvious1 that their exhibitors make as little noise as possible about their miraculous wares1 whose virtues are no longer believed except by the most ignorant part of the population of countries wherein the education of the inferior classes is neglected4 ,and1 indeed1 not only ,protestants1 but many enlightened ,roman ,catholics believed that all the miracles of relics1 images1 and other superstitions with which ,christianity were infected during the times of medival ignorance would be soon1 by the progress of knowledge1 consigned for ever to the oblivion of the dark ages1 and only recorded in the history of the aberrations of the human mind1 together with the superstitions of ancient ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome4 ,unfortunately these hopes have not been realised1 and are still remaining amongst the pia desideria4 ,the ,roman ,catholic reaction1 which commenced about half a century ago by works of a philosophical nature1 adapted to the wants of the most intellectual classes of society1 has1 emboldened by success1 gradually assumed a more and more material tendency1 and at length has begun to manifest itself by such results as the exhibition of the holy coat at ,treves1 which produced a great noise over all ,germany17#b7 the apparition of the ,virgin at ,la ,salette1 the winking ,madonna of ,rimini1 and1 what is perhaps more important than all1 the solemn installation of the relics of ,st ,theodosia at ,amiens2 whilst works of a description similar to the ,life of ,st ,francis of ,assisi1 by ,m4 ,chavin de ,malan1 and the ,lives of the ,english ,saints1 which ,i have mentioned on pp4 #aac and #aae of my ,introduction are produced by writers of considerable talent and learning4 ,these are significant facts1 and prove1 at all events1 that in spite of the progress of intellect and knowledge1 which is the boast of our century1 we seem to be fast returning to a state of things similar to the time when ,calvin wrote his ,treatise4 ,i therefore believe that its reproduction in a new ,english translation will not be out of date4 ,on the other side1 the politico-religious system of aggression followed by ,russia has now taken such a rapid development1 that the dangers which threaten the liberties and civilization of ,europe from that quarter have become more imminent than those which may be apprehended from the ,roman ,catholic reaction4 ,fortunately ,england and ,france have taken up arms against the impious crusade proclaimed by the ,imperial ,pope of ,russia4 ,i think that the term impious1 which ,i am advisedly using on this occasion1 is by no means exaggerated2 because1 how can we otherwise designate the proceedings adopted by the ,czar for exciting the religious fanaticism of the ,russians1 as1 for instance1 the letter of the ,archbishop of ,georgia1 addressed to that of ,moscow1 and published in the official ,gazette of ,st ,petersburg1 stating1 on the authority of the ,russian ,general1 ,prince ,bagration ,mukhranski1 that during an engagement between the ,russians and the ,turks1 which recently took place in ,asia1 the ,blessed ,virgin appeared in the air and frightened the ,turks to such a degree that they took to flight67#c7 ,i have developed this subject in the last chapter of my ,introduction1 in order to show my readers the religious condition of the ,russian people1 because ,i think that without it a knowledge of the policy now followed by their ,government cannot be well understood1 or its consequences fully appreciated4 ,,edinburgh1 ,may #ahed4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,the valuable ,dissertation which forms such a fitting commentary upon ,john ,calvin's ,treatise on ,relics1 was written by the late lamented author on the eve of the ,crimean ,war1 in #ahed4 ,it has been out of print for several years1 but in these days of ,popish assumption and claims to ,infallibility1 it has been thought that a new edition would prove acceptable1 and be found useful in directing attention to the mummeries and absurdities engrafted on the ,true ,christian ,faith1 by the false and corrupt ,church of ,rome4 ,,edinburgh1 ,january #ahgj4 ,,introductory ,,dissertation4 ,chapter ,i4 ,origin ,of ,the ,worship ,of ,relics ,and ,images ,in ,the ,christian ,church4 ,hero-worship is innate to human nature1 and it is founded on some of our noblest feelings1--gratitude1 love1 and admiration4--but which1 like all other feelings1 when uncontrolled by principle and reason1 may easily degenerate into the wildest exaggerations1 and lead to most dangerous consequences4 ,it was by such an exaggeration of these noble feelings that ,paganism filled the ,olympus with gods and demigods1--elevating to this rank men who have often deserved the gratitude of their fellow-creatures1 by some signal services rendered to the community1 or their admiration1 by having performed some deeds which required a more than usual degree of mental and physical powers4 ,the same cause obtained for the ,christian martyrs the gratitude and admiration of their fellow-,christians1 and finally converted them into a kind of demigods4 ,this was more particularly the case when the church began to be corrupted by her compromise with ,paganism1 which having been baptized without being converted1 rapidly introduced into the ,christian church1 not only many of its rites and ceremonies1 but even its polytheism1 with this difference1 that the divinities of ,greece and ,rome were replaced by ,christian saints1 many of whom received the offices of their ,pagan predecessors47#d7 ,the church in the beginning tolerated these abuses1 as a temporary evil1 but was afterwards unable to remove them2 and they became so strong1 particularly during the prevailing ignorance of the middle ages1 that the church ended by legalising1 through her decrees1 that at which she did nothing but wink at first4 ,i shall endeavour to give my readers a rapid sketch of the rise1 progress1 and final establishment of the ,pagan practices which not only continue to prevail in the ,western as well as in the ,eastern church1 but have been of late1 notwithstanding the boasted progress of intellect in our days1 manifested in as bold as successful a manner4 ,nothing1 indeed1 can be more deserving of our admiration than the conduct of the ,christian martyrs1 who cheerfully submitted to an ignominious death1 inflicted by the most atrocious torments1 rather than deny their faith even by the mere performance of an apparently insignificant rite of ,paganism4 ,their persecutors were often affected by seeing examples of an heroic fortitude1 such as they admired in a ,scvola or a ,regulus1 displayed not only by men1 but by women1 and even children1 and became converted to a faith which could inspire its confessors with such a devotion to its tenets4 ,it has been justly said that the blood of the martyrs was the glory and the seed of the church1 because the constancy of her confessors has1 perhaps1 given her more converts than the eloquence and learning of her doctors4 ,it was1 therefore1 very natural that the memory of those noble champions of ,christianity should be held in great veneration by their brethren in the faith4 ,the bodies of the martyrs1 or their remnants1 were always1 whenever it was possible1 purchased from their judges or executioners1 and decently buried by the ,christians4 ,the day on which the martyr had suffered was generally marked in the registers of his church1 in order to commemorate this glorious event on its anniversaries4 ,these commemorations usually consisted in the eulogy of the martyr1 delivered in an assembly of the church1 for the edification of the faithful1 the strengthening of the weak1 and the stimulating of the lukewarm1 by setting before them the noble example of the above-mentioned martyr4 ,it was very natural that the objects of the commemoration received on such an occasion the greatest praises1 not unfrequently expressed in the most exaggerated terms1 but there was no question about invoking the aid or intercession of the confessors whose example was thus held out for the imitation of the church4 ,we know from the ,acts that neither ,st ,stephen1 the first ,christian martyr1 nor ,st ,james1 who was killed by ,herod1 were invoked in any manner by the apostolic church1 because1 had this been the case1 the inspired writer of this first record of the ancient church would not have omitted such an important circumstance1 having mentioned facts of much lesser consequence4 ,had such a practice been in conformity with the apostolic doctrine1 it would have certainly been brought forward in the epistles of ,st ,paul1 or in those of other apostles4 ,there is also sufficient evidence that the fathers of the primitive church knew nothing of the invocation1 or any other kind of worship rendered to departed saints4 ,the limits of this essay allow me not to adduce evidences of this fact1 which may be abundantly drawn from the writings of those fathers1 and ,i shall content myself with the following few but conclusive instances of this kind4 ,st ,clement1 bishop of ,rome1 who is supposed to have been instituted by ,st ,paul1 and to be the same of whom he speaks in his ,epistle to the ,philippians iv4 #c1 addressed a letter to the ,corinthians on account of certain dissensions by which their church was disturbed4 ,he recommends to them1 with great praises1 the ,epistles of ,st ,paul1 who had suffered martyrdom under ,nero1 but he does not say a word about invoking the aid or intercession of the martyr1 who was the founder of their church1 and which would have been most suitable on that occasion1 if such a practice had already been admitted by the ,christians of his time4 ,on the contrary1 he prays ,god for them1 8because it is ,he who gives to the soul that invokes ,him1 faith1 grace1 peace1 patience1 and wisdom40 ,st ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna1 who lived in the second century1 addressed a letter to the ,philippians1 but he says nothing in it to recommend the invocation of ,st ,paul1 who was the founder of their church1 and as such would have been considered as its patron saint1 had the worship of the saints been at that time already introduced amongst the ,christians4 ,the most important and positive proof that the primitive ,christians1 not only did not pay any adoration to the martyrs1 but decidedly rejected it1 is the epistle which was issued by the church of ,smyrna after the martyrdom of its bishop1 whom ,i have just mentioned4 ,it states that the ,pagans had1 at the instigation of the ,jews1 closely watched the ,christians1 imagining that they would endeavour to carry away the ashes of ,polycarp in order to worship him after his death1 because these idolaters knew not that the ,christians cannot abandon ,jesus ,christ1 or worship any one else4 8,we worship10 says the same document1 8,jesus ,christ1 who is the ,son of ,god2 but with regard to the martyrs1 the disciples of ,christ and imitators of his virtues1 we love them1 as they deserve it1 on account of the unconquerable love which they had for their ,master and ,king2 and would to ,god that we should become their disciples and partakers of their zeal40 ,i could multiply proofs of this kind without end1 but ,i shall only observe1 that even in the fourth century the orthodox ,christians considered the worship of every created being as idolatry1 because the opponents of the ,arians1 who considered ,jesus ,christ as created and not co-essential with ,god the ,father1 employed the following argument to combat this dogma3--8,if you consider ,jesus ,christ a created being1 you commit idolatry by worshipping him40 ,admiration is1 however1 akin to adoration1 and it was no wonder that those whose memory was constantly praised1 and frequently in the most exaggerated terms1 gradually began to be considered as something more than simple mortals1 and treated accordingly4 ,it was also very natural that various objects which had belonged to the martyrs were carefully preserved as interesting mementoes1 since it is continually done with persons who have acquired some kind of celebrity1 and that this should be the case with their bodies1 which have often been embalmed4 ,it is1 however1 impossible1 as ,calvin has justly observed17#e7 to preserve such objects without honouring them in a certain manner1 and this must soon degenerate into adoration4 ,this was the origin of the worship of relics1 which went on increasing in the same ratio as the purity of ,christian doctrines was giving way to the superstitions of ,paganism4 ,the worship of images is intimately connected with that of the saints4 ,they were rejected by the primitive ,christians2 but ,st ,irenus1 who lived in the second century1 relates that there was a sect of heretics1 the ,carpocratians1 who worshipped1 in the manner of ,pagans1 different images representing ,jesus ,christ1 ,st ,paul1 and others4 ,the ,gnostics had also images2 but the church rejected their use in a positive manner1 and a ,christian writer of the third century1 ,minutius ,felix1 says that 8the ,pagans reproached the ,christians for having neither temples nor simulachres20 and ,i could quote many other evidences that the primitive ,christians entertained a great horror against every kind of images1 considering them as the work of demons4 ,it appears1 however1 that the use of pictures was creeping into the church already in the third century1 because the council of ,elvira in ,spain1 held in #cje1 especially forbids to have any picture in the ,christian churches4 ,these pictures were generally representations of some events1 either of the ,new or of the ,old ,testament1 and their object was to instruct the common and illiterate people in sacred history1 whilst others were emblems1 representing some ideas connected with the doctrines of ,christianity4 ,it was certainly a powerful means of producing an impression upon the senses and the imagination of the vulgar1 who believe without reasoning1 and admit without reflection2 it was also the most easy way of converting rude and ignorant nations1 because1 looking constantly on the representations of some fact1 people usually end by believing it4 ,this iconographic teaching was1 therefore1 recommended by the rulers of the church1 as being useful to the ignorant1 who had only the understanding of eyes1 and could not read writings47#f7 ,such a practice was1 however1 fraught with the greatest danger1 as experience has but too much proved4 ,it was replacing intellect by sight47#g7 ,instead of elevating man towards ,god1 it was bringing down the ,deity to the level of his finite intellect1 and it could not but powerfully contribute to the rapid spread of a pagan anthropomorphism in the church4 ,there was also another cause which seems to have greatly contributed to the propagation of the abovementioned anthropomorphism amongst the ,christians1 namely1 the contemplative life of the hermits1 particularly of those who inhabited the burning deserts of ,egypt4 ,it has been observed of these monks1 by ,zimmerman1 in his celebrated work on ,solitude1 that 8men of extraordinary characters1 and actuated by strange and uncommon passions1 have shrunk from the pleasures of the world into joyless gloom and desolation4 ,in savage and dreary deserts they have lived a solitary and destitute life1 subjecting themselves to voluntary self-denials and mortifications almost incredible2 sometimes exposed in nakedness to the chilling blasts of the winter cold1 or the scorching breath of summer's heat1 till their brains1 distempered by the joint operation of tortured senses and overstrained imagination1 swarmed with the wildest and most frantic visions407#h7 ,the same writer relates1 on the authority of ,sulpicius ,severus1 that an individual had been roving about ,mount ,sinai nearly during fifty years1 entirely naked1 and avoiding all intercourse with men4 ,once1 however1 being inquired about the motives of his strange conduct1 he answered1 that1 8enjoying as he did the society of seraphim and cherubim1 he felt aversion to intercourse with men407#i7 ,many of these enthusiasts imagined1 in their hallucinations1 they had a direct intercourse with ,god himself1 who1 as well as the subordinate spirits1 appeared to them in a human shape4 ,the monks of ,egypt were1 indeed1 the most zealous defenders of the corporeality of ,god4 ,they violently hated ,origines for his maintaining that ,he was spiritual4 ,theophilus1 bishop of ,alexandria1 opposed this error2 but the monks assembled in great force1 with the intention of murdering him2 and he escaped this danger by addressing them in the words which ,jacob used to ,esau1 8,i have seen thy face1 as though ,i had seen the face of ,god40--7,gen4 xxxiii #aj47 ,this compliment1 which could be interpreted as an acknowledgment of a corporeal ,god1 appeased the wrath of the monks1 but they compelled ,theophilus to anathematise the writings of ,origines4 ,the following anecdote is characteristic of the strong tendency of human nature towards anthropomorphism4 ,an old monk1 called ,serapion1 having been convinced by the arguments of a friend that it was an error to believe ,god corporeal1 exclaimed1 weeping1 8,alas1 my ,god was taken from me1 and ,i do not know whom ,i am now worshipping607#aj7 ,i shall have1 in the course of this essay1 opportunities to show that the monks have always been the most zealous and efficient promoters of image-worship4 ,the following rapid sketch of the introduction of image-worship into the ,christian church1 and of its consequences1 has been drawn by a ,french living writer1 whose religious views ,i do not share1 but whose profound erudition1 fairness1 and sincerity1 are deserving of the greatest praise3-- 8,the aversion of the first ,christians to the images1 inspired by the ,pagan simulachres1 made room1 during the centuries which followed the period of the persecutions1 to a feeling of an entirely different kind1 and the images gradually gained their favour4 ,reappearing at the end of the fourth and during the course of the fifth centuries1 simply as emblems1 they soon became images1 in the true acceptation of this word2 and the respect which was entertained by the ,christians for the persons and ideas represented by those images1 was afterwards converted into a real worship4 ,representations of the sufferings which the ,christians had endured for the sake of their religion1 were at first exhibited to the people in order to stimulate by such a sight the faith of the masses1 always lukewarm and indifferent4 ,with regard to the images of divine persons of entirely immaterial beings1 it must be remarked1 that they did not originate from the most spiritualised and pure doctrines of the ,christian society1 but were rejected by the severe orthodoxy of the primitive church4 ,these simulachres appear to have been spread at first by the ,gnostics1--i4e41 by those ,christian sects which adopted the most of the beliefs of ,persia and ,india4 ,thus it was a ,christianity which was not purified by its contact with the school of ,plato1--a ,christianity which entirely rejected the ,mosaic tradition1 in order to attach itself to the most strange and attractive myths of ,persia and ,india1--that gave birth to the images4 ,and it was a return to the spiritualism of the first ages1 and a revival of the spirit of aversion to what has a tendency of lowering ,divinity to the narrow proportions of a human creature1 that produced war against those images4 ,but the manners and the beliefs had been changed4 ,whole nations had received ,christianity1 when it was already escorted by that idolatrous train of carved and painted images4 ,only those populations amongst whom the ancient traditions were preserved could favour this reaction4 ,the clergy were1 moreover1 interested in maintaining one of their most powerful means of teaching4 ,the long and persevering efforts of the ,iconoclasts proved therefore ineffective2 and the ,waldenses were not more fortunate4 ,wickliffe1 the ,hussites1 and ,carlostad1 attacked the images2 but it was reserved only to the ,calvinists to establish in some parts of ,europe the triumph of the ideas of the ,iconoclasts4 ,the shock was terrible4 ,the ,religionists frequently committed acts of a fanatical and senseless vandalism2 and art had many losses to deplore4 ,but the idolatrous tendency was struck at its very root2 and ,catholicism itself found1 after the struggle1 more purity and idealism in its own worship47#aa7 ,the ,reformed perceived afterwards the exaggeration of their principles2 and though they continued to defend the entrance of their temples to the simulachres1 condemned by ,god on ,mount ,sinai1 they spared those which had been bequeathed by the less severe and more material faith of their fathers407#ab7 ,the principal cause of the corruption of the ,christian church1 by the introduction of the ,pagan ideas and practices alluded to above1 was1 however1 chiefly the lamentable policy of compromise with ,paganism which that church adopted soon after her sudden triumph by the conversion of ,constantine4 ,the object of this policy was to lead into her pale the ,pagans as rapidly as possible2 and1 therefore1 instead of making them enter by the strait gate1 she widened it in such a manner1 that the rush of ,paganism had almost driven ,christianity out of her pale4 ,the example of the emperors1 who1 professing ,christianity1 were1 or considered themselves to be1 obliged1 by the necessities of their position1 to act on some occasions as ,pagans1 may have been not without influence on the church4 ,i shall endeavour to develop this important subject in the following chapters2 and1 in order to remove every suspicion of partiality1 ,i shall do it almost entirely on the authority of an eminent ,roman ,catholic writer of our day4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,compromise ,of ,the ,church ,with ,paganism4 ,i have described1 in the preceding chapter1 the causes which made ,christian worship gradually to deviate from its primitive purity1 and to assume a character more adapted to the ideas of the heathen population1--numbers of whom were continually joining the church4 ,it was1 particularly since the time of ,constantine1 because its festivals1 becoming every day more numerous1 and its sanctuaries more solemn1 spacious1 and adorned with greater splendour1--its ceremonies more complicated1--its emblems more diversified1--offered to the ,pagans an ample compensation for the artistic pomp of their ancient worship4 8,the frankincense10 says an eminent ,roman ,catholic writer of our time1 8the flowers1 the golden and silver vessels1 the lamps1 the crowns1 the luminaries1 the linen1 the silk1 the chaunts1 the processions1 the festivals1 recurring at certain fixed days1 passed from the vanquished altars to the triumphant one4 ,paganism tried to borrow from ,christianity its dogmas and its morals2 ,christianity took from ,paganism its ornaments407#ac7 ,christianity would have become triumphant without these transformations4 ,it would have done it later than it did1 but its triumph would have been of a different kind from that which it has obtained by the assistance of these auxiliaries4 8,christianity10 says the author quoted above1 8retrograded2 but it was this which made its force40 ,it would be more correct to say1 that it advanced its external progress at the expence of its purity2 it gained thus the favour of the crowd1 but it was by other means that it obtained the approbation of the cultivated minds47#ad7 ,the church made a compromise with ,paganism in order to convert more easily its adherents1--forgetting the precepts of the apostle1 to beware of philosophy and vain traditions1 7,col4 ii4 #h17 as well as to refuse profane and old wives' fables1 7#a ,tim4 iv4 #g47 ,and it cannot be doubted that ,st ,paul knew well that a toleration of these things would have rapidly extended the new churches1 had the quantity of the converts been more important than the quality of their belief and morals4 ,this subject has been amply developed by one of the most distinguished ,french writers of our day1 who1 belonging himself to the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 seeks to justify her conduct in this respect1 though he admits with the greatest sincerity that she had introduced into her polity a large share of ,pagan elements4 ,i shall give my readers this curious piece of special pleading in favour of the line of policy which the church had followed on that occasion1 as it forms a precious document1 proving1 in an unanswerable manner1 the extent of ,pagan rites and ideas contained in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 particularly as it proceeds1 not from an opponent of that church1 but from a dutiful son of hers4 ,the work from which ,i am making this extract is1 moreover1 considered as one of the master-pieces of modern ,french literature1 and it was crowned by one of the most learned bodies of ,europe--the ,academie des ,inscriptions et des ,belles ,lettres of ,paris47#ae7 8,the fundamental idea of ,christianity10 says our author1 8was a new1 powerful idea1 and independent of all those by which it had been preceded4 ,however1 the men by whom the ,christian system was extended and developed1 having been formed in the school of ,paganism1 could not resist the desire of connecting it with the former systems4 ,st ,justin1 ,st ,clement 7of ,alexandria71 ,athenagoras1 ,tatian1 ,origenes1 ,synesius1 c41 considered ,pagan philosophy as a preparation to ,christianity4 ,it was1 indeed1 making a large concession to the spirit of the ancient times2 but they believed that they could conceal its inconveniences by maintaining in all its purity the form of ,christian worship1 and rejecting with disdain the usages and ceremonies of polytheism4 ,when ,christianity became the dominant religion1 its doctors perceived that they would be compelled to give way equally in respect to the external form of worship1 and that they would not be sufficiently strong to constrain the multitude of ,pagans1 who were embracing ,christianity with a kind of enthusiasm as unreasoning as it was of little duration1 to forget a system of acts1 ceremonies1 and festivals1 which had such an immense power over their ideas and manners4 ,the church admitted1 therefore1 into her discipline1 many usages evidently pagan4 ,she undoubtedly has endeavoured to purify them1 but she never could obliterate the impression of their original stamp4 8,this new spirit of ,christianity--this eclectism1 which extended even to material things--has in modern times given rise to passionate discussions2 these borrowings from the old religion were condemned1 as having been suggested to the ,christians of the fourth and fifth centuries by the remnants of that old love of idolatry which was lurking at the bottom of their hearts4 ,it was easy for the modern reformers to condemn1 by an unjust blame1 the leaders of the church2 they should1 however1 have acknowledged1 that the principal interest of ,christianity was to wrest from error the greatest number of its partisans1 and that it was impossible to attain this object without providing for the obstinate adherents of the false gods an easy passage from the temple to the church4 ,if we consider that1 notwithstanding all these concessions1 the ruin of ,paganism was accomplished only by degrees and imperceptibly1--that during more than two centuries it was necessary to combat1 over the whole of ,europe1 an error which1 although continually overthrown1 was incessantly rising again1--we shall understand that the conciliatory spirit of the leaders of the church was true wisdom4 8,st ,john ,chrysostom says1 that the devil1 having perceived that he could gain nothing with the ,christians by pushing them in a direct way into idolatry1 adopted for the purpose an indirect one47#af7 ,if the devil1 that is to say1 the pagan spirit1 was changing its plan of attack1 the church was also obliged to modify her system of defence1 and not to affect an inflexibility which would have kept from her a great number of people whose irresolute conscience was fluctuating between falsehood and truth4 8,already1 at the beginning of the fifth century1 some haughty spirits1 ,christians who were making a display of the rigidity of their virtues1 and who were raising an outcry against the profanation of holy things1 began to preach a pretended reform2 they were recalling the ,christians to the apostolic doctrine2 they demanded what they were calling a true ,christianity4 ,vigilantius1 a ,spanish priest1 sustained on this subject an animated contest with ,st ,jerome4 ,he opposed the worship of the saints and the custom of placing candles on their sepulchres2 he condemned1 as a source of scandal1 the vigils in the basilics of the martyrs17#ag7 and many other usages1 which were1 it is true1 derived from the ancient worship4 ,we may judge by the warmth with which ,st ,jerome refuted the doctrines of this heresiarch of the importance which he attached to those usages47#ah7 ,he foresaw that the mission of the ,christian doctrine would be to adapt itself to the manners of all times1 and to oppose them only when they would tend towards depravity4 ,far from desiring to deprive the ,romans of certain ceremonial practices which were dear to them1 and whose influence had nothing dangerous to the ,christian dogmas1 he openly took their part1 and his conduct was approved by the whole church4 8,if ,st ,jerome and ,st ,augustinus had shared the opinions of ,vigilantius1 would they have had the necessary power successfully to oppose the introduction of pagan usages into the ceremonies of the ,christian church8 ,i don't believe that they would4 ,after the fall of ,rome1 whole populations passed under the standards of ,christianity1 but they did it with their baggage of senseless beliefs and superstitious practices4 ,the church could not repulse this crowd of self-styled ,christians1 and still less summon them immediately to abandon all their ancient errors2 she therefore made concessions to circumstances1 concessions which were not entirely voluntary4 ,they may be considered as calculations full of wisdom on the part of the leaders of the church1 as well as the consequence of that kind of irruption which was made at the beginning of the fifth century into the ,christian society by populations1 who1 notwithstanding their abjuration1 were ,pagans by their manners1 their tastes1 their prejudices1 and their ignorance47#ai7 8,let us now calculate the extent of these concessions1 and examine whether it was right to say that they injured the purity of the ,christian dogmas4 8,the ,romans had derived from their religion an excessive love of public festivals4 ,they were unable to conceive a worship without the pompous apparel of ceremonies4 ,they considered the long processions1 the harmonious chaunts1 the splendour of dresses1 the light of tapers1 the perfume of frankincense1 as the essential part of religion4 ,christianity1 far from opposing a disposition which required only to be directed with more wisdom1 adopted a part of the ceremonial system of the ancient worship4 ,it changed the object of its ceremonies1 it cleansed them from their old impurities1 but it preserved the days upon which many of them were celebrated1 and the multitude found thus in the new religion1 as much as in the old one1 the means of satisfying its dominant passion47#bj7 8,the neophytes felt for the pagan temples an involuntary respect4 ,they could not pass at once from veneration to a contempt for the monuments of their ancestors' piety2 and in ascending the steps of the church1 they were casting a longing look on those temples which a short time before had been resplendent with magnificence1 but were now deserted4 ,christianity understood the power of this feeling1 and desired to appropriate it to its own service2 it consented1 therefore1 to establish the solemnities of its worship in the edifices which it had disdained for a long time47#ba7 ,its care not to offend pagan habits was such1 that it often respected even the pagan names of those edifices47#bb7 ,in short1 its policy1 which1 since the times of ,constantine1 was always to facilitate the conversion of the ,pagans1 assumed1 after the fall of ,rome1 a more decided character1 and the system of useful concessions became general in all the churches of ,europe2 and it cannot be doubted that its results have been favourable to the propagation of ,christian ideas47#bc7 8,there is1 moreover1 a peculiar cause to which the rapid decline of the pagan doctrines in the west must be ascribed1 and ,i shall endeavour to place this powerful cause in its true light1 carefully avoiding mixing up with a subject of this importance all considerations foreign to the object of my researches4 8,nestorius1 patriarch of ,constantinople1 after having defended a long time the true faith1 strayed from it on a subject which proved a stumbling-stone to so many theologians--,i mean1 the nature of ,jesus ,christ4 ,nestorius distinguished in the ,son of ,god two natures1 a divine and a human one2 and he maintained that the ,virgin ,mary was not the mother of ,god 771 but the mother of the man 774 ,this doctrine1 which was a new and bolder form given to ,arianism1 spread in the two empires1 and gained a great number of partisans amongst the monasteries of ,egypt4 ,many monks could not almost suffer that ,jesus ,christ should be acknowledged as ,god1 and considered him only as an instrument of the ,divinity1 or a vessel which bore it 774 8,the celebrated ,st ,cyrillus1 bishop of ,alexandria1 wrote an epistle to those monks1 in order to call them back to respect for the traditions established in the church1 if not by the apostles--who1 in speaking of the holy virgin1 never made use of the expression1 mother of ,god--at least by the fathers who succeeded them4 ,the quarrel became general and violent2 the ,christians came to blows everywhere4 ,nestorius seemingly wished to draw back1 being frightened by the storm which he had himself raised4 #8,i have found1' said he1 #8the church a prey to dissensions4 ,some call the holy virgin the mother of ,god2 others only the mother of a man4 ,in order to reunite them1 ,i have called her the mother of ,christ4 ,remain1 therefore1 at peace about this question1 and be convinced that my sentiments on the true faith are always the same4' ,but his obstinacy and the ardour of his partisans did not allow him to go beyond this false retraction4 ,the necessity of a general council was felt1 and the ,emperor ,theodosius ,,ii4 ordered in #dca its convocation at ,ephesus4 ,on the #bast ,june #dca1 two hundred bishops condemned ,nestorius1 and declared that the ,virgin ,mary should be honoured as the mother of ,god4 ,this decision was accepted1 notwithstanding some vain protestations1 by the universal church4 ,the fathers of the council of ,ephesus had no thought of introducing into the church a new dogma or worship4 ,the ,virgin ,mary had always been considered by them as the mother of ,god1 and they made now a solemn declaration of this belief1 in order to reply to the attack of ,nestorius1 and to remove every incertitude about a dogma which had not hitherto been opposed4 ,but these great assemblies of ,christians1 notwithstanding the particular motive of their meeting1 were always produced by some general necessity which was felt by the ,christian society1 and the results of their decrees went often beyond the provisions of those by whom they were framed4 8,though ,i am far from believing that it is allowable to weigh in the scales of human reason the dogmas of ,christianity1 ,i do not think that it is prohibited to examine which of these dogmas has been the most instrumental in detaching the ,pagans from their errors4 8,we have several times penetrated1 in the course of our researches1 into the conscience of the leaders of ,paganism1 and we have always found that it was entirely under the influence of political views and interests4 ,these interests1 which so powerfully acted upon the politician's mind1 had but a feeble hold upon that of the inhabitants of the country4 ,and1 indeed1 what interest could the agriculturists1 the artisans1 and the proletarians1 have in maintaining the integrity of the ,roman constitution1 or in preserving the rights of the senate1 as well as the privileges1 honours1 and riches of the aristocracy8 ,being destined1 as they were under any religion whatever1 for a life of labour and privation1 they might choose between ,christianity and ,paganism1 without having their choice actuated by any personal interest4 ,it is therefore necessary to seek for another cause of that obstinate attachment which the lower classes of the town and country population showed for the practices of a worship whose existence was for a century reduced to such a miserable state4 8,i shall not dwell on what has been said about the tyranny of habit1 which is always more severe wherever minds are less enlightened4 ,i shall indicate another cause of the obstinacy of the ,pagans1 which was founded at least upon an operation of the mind--upon a judgment--and was1 consequently1 more deserving of fixing the attention of the church than that respect of custom against which the weapons of reason are powerless4 8,the ,christian dogmas1 penetrating into a soul corrupted and weakened by idolatry1 must have1 in the first moment1 filled it with a kind of terror4 ,and1 indeed1 how was it possible that the ,pagans1 accustomed as they were to their profligate gods and goddesses1 should not have trembled when they heard for the first time the voice of ,god1 the just but inexorable rewarder of good and evil8 ,should not a solemn and grave worship1 whose ceremonies were a constant and direct excitation to the practice of every virtue1 appear an intolerable yoke to men who were accustomed to find in their sacred rites a legitimate occasion to indulge in every kind of debauchery8 ,the fear of submitting their lives to the rule of a too rigid morality1 and to bow their heads before a ,god whose greatness terrified them1 kept for many years a multitude of ,pagans from the church4 8,if it has entered the designs of ,providence to temper the severe dogmas of ,christianity by the consecration of some mild1 tender1 and consoling ideas1 and by the same adapted to the fragile human nature1 it is evident that1 whatever may have been their aim1 they must have assisted in detaching the last ,pagans from their errors4 ,the worship of ,mary1 the mother of ,god1 seems to have been the means which ,providence has employed for completing ,christianity47#bd7 8,after the council of ,ephesus the churches of the ,east and of the ,west offered the worship of the faithful to the ,virgin ,mary1 who had victoriously issued from a violent attack4 ,the nations were as if dazzled by the image of this divine mother1 who united in her person the two most tender feelings of nature1 the pudicity of the virgin and the love of the mother2 an emblem of mildness1 of resignation1 and of all that is sublime in virtue2 one who weeps with the afflicted1 intercedes for the guilty1 and never appears otherwise than as the messenger of pardon or of assistance4 ,they accepted this new worship with an enthusiasm sometimes too great1 because with many ,christians it became the whole ,christianity4 ,the ,pagans did not even try to defend their altars against the progress of the worship of the mother of ,god2 they opened to ,mary the temples which they kept closed to ,jesus ,christ1 and confessed their defeat47#be7 ,it is true1 that they often mixed with the worship of ,mary those pagan ideas1 those vain practices1 those ridiculous superstitions1 from which they seemed unable to detach themselves2 but the church rejoiced1 nevertheless1 at their entering into her pale1 because she well knew that it would be easy to her to purge of its alloy1 with the help of time1 a worship whose essence was purity itself47#bf7 ,thus1 some prudent concessions1 temporarily made to the pagan manners and the worship of ,mary1 were two elements of force which the church employed in order to conquer the resistance of the last ,pagans1--a resistance which was feeble enough in ,italy1 but violent beyond the ,alps407#bg7 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,position ,of ,the ,first ,christian ,emperors ,towards ,paganism1 ,and ,their ,policy ,in ,this ,respect4 ,i have given in the preceding chapter a description1 traced by one of the most learned ,roman ,catholic writers of our day1 of the compromise between ,christianity and ,paganism1 by which the church has endeavoured to establish her dominion over the adherents of the latter4 ,i shall now try to give a rapid sketch of the circumstances which undoubtedly have influenced the church1 to a considerable degree1 in the adoption of a line of policy which1 though it certainly has much contributed to the extension of her external dominion1 has introduced into her pale those very errors and superstitions which it was her mission to destroy1 and to deliver mankind from their baneful influence4 ,there is a widely-spread but erroneous opinion1 that the conversion of ,constantine was followed by an immediate destruction of ,paganism in the ,roman empire4 ,this opinion originated from the incorrect statements of some ecclesiastical writers2 but historical criticism has proved1 beyond every doubt1 that1 even a century after the conversion of that monarch1 ,paganism was by no means extinct1 and counted many adherents1 even amongst the highest classes of ,roman society4 ,when ,constantine proclaimed his conversion to the religion of the ,cross1 its adherents formed but a minority of the population of the ,roman empire47#bh7 ,the deficiency of their numbers was1 however1 compensated by their moral advantages2 for they were united by the worship of the one true ,god1 and ardently devoted to a religion which they had voluntarily embraced1 and for which they had suffered so much4 ,the ,pagans were1 on the contrary1 disunited1 and in a great measure indifferent to a religion whose doctrines were derided by the more enlightened of them1 though1 considering it as a political institution necessary for the maintenance of the empire1 they often displayed great zeal in its defence4 ,the ,christians of that time may be compared to the ,greeks when they combated the ,persians on the field of ,marathon and at ,thermopyl2 but1 alas6 their victory under ,constantine proved as fatal to the purity of their religion as that of the ,greeks under ,alexander to their political and military virtues4 ,both of them became corrupted by adopting the ideas and manners of their conquered adversaries4 ,some writers have suspected that the conversion of ,constantine was more due to political than religious motives2 but though great and many were the faults of that monarch1 his sincerity in embracing the ,christian religion cannot be doubted1 because it was a step more contrary than favourable to his political interests4 ,the ,christians formed1 as ,i have said above1 only a minority of the population of the empire1 and particularly so in its western provinces4 ,there was not a single ,christian in the ,roman senate2 and the aristocracy of ,rome1 whose privileges and interests were intimately connected with the religious institutions of the empire1 were most zealous in their defence4 ,the municipal bodies of the principal cities were also blindly devoted to the national religion1 whose existence was considered by many as inseparable from that of the empire itself2 and these bodies were generally the chief promoters of those terrible persecutions to which the ,christians had been so many times subjected4 ,the ,pagan clergy1 rich1 powerful1 and numerous1 were ever zealous in exciting public hatred against the ,christians2 and the legions were chiefly commanded by those officers who had united with ,galerius in compelling ,diocletian to persecute the ,christians4 ,the capital of the empire was the particular stronghold of the ancient creed4 8,rome10 says ,beugnot1 in the work from which ,i have so largely drawn1 8was the cradle and the focus of the national belief4 ,many traditions1 elevated to the rank of dogmas1 were born within her pale1 and impressed upon her a religious character1 which still was vividly shining in the times of ,constantine4 ,the ,pagans of the west considered ,rome as the sacred city1 the sanctuary of their hopes1 the point towards which all their thoughts were to be directed2 and the ,greeks1 in their usual exaggeration1 acknowledged in her1 not a part of the earth1 but of heaven40--7,libanii ,epistol1 epist4 #ajhc1 p4 #haf47 8,the aristocracy1 endowed with its many sacerdotal dignities1 and dragging in its train a crowd of clients and freedmen1 to whom it imparted its passions and its attachment to the error1 furnished1 by the help of its immense riches1 the means of subsistence to a greedy1 turbulent1 and superstitious populace1 amongst whom it could easily maintain the most odious prejudices against ,christianity4 ,the hope of acquiring a name1 a fortune1 or simply to take a part in the public distributions1 attracted to that city from the provinces all those who had no condition1 or1 what is still worse1 those who were dissatisfied with theirs4 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,africa1 and ,gallia sent to ,rome the elite of their children1 in order to be instructed in a school1 the principal merit of whose professors was1 an envious hatred of every new idea1 and who had acquired a melancholy reputation during the persecutions of the ,christians4 ,the standard of ,paganism was waving in full liberty on the walls of the ,capitol4 ,public and private sacrifices1 sacred games1 and the consultation of the augurs1 were prevailing to the utmost in that sink of all the superstitions47#bi7 ,the name of ,christ was cursed1 and the speedy ruin of his worshippers announced1 in every part of that place1 whilst the glory of the gods was celebrated1 and their assistance invoked4 ,how cruel must have been the situation of the ,christians1 left in the midst of that city1 where1 at every step1 a temple1 an altar1 a statue1 and horrible blasphemies were revealing to them the ever active power of the ,lie6 ,they dared not either to found churches1 to open schools1 or even publicly to reply to what was spoken against them1 at the theatres1 at the forum1 or at the baths3 so that they seemed to exist at ,rome only in order to give a greater eclat to the dominion of idolatry40--7,vol4 i41 p4 #ge47 ,it was no wonder that such a religious disposition of ,rome had placed it in a continual and strenuous opposition to ,constantine1 and his ,christian successors2 and this circumstance may be considered as an additional motive which induced ,constantine to transfer the capital of the empire from ,rome to ,byzantium1 though this measure may have been chiefly brought about by political considerations4 ,in removing his residence to a more central point of the empire1 he at the same time drew nearer to the eastern provinces1 where ,christianity had many devoted adherents4 ,constantinople became the capital of the ,christian party1 whence it gradually developed its sway over the other parts of the empire1 but the ,pagans maintained meanwhile their ground at ,rome1 in such a manner1 that it seems to have been uninhabitable to the ,christian emperors2 because we see even those of them who ruled the western provinces fixing their residence either at ,milan or ,ravenna1 and visiting only on some occasions the city of the ,csars1 which had become1 since the foundation of ,constantinople1 the fortified camp of ,paganism47#cj7 ,constantine proclaimed full religious liberty to all his subjects4 ,this measure1 dictated by a sound policy1 and in perfect harmony with the true spirit of his new religion1 was not1 however1 sufficient to relieve him from the difficulties of his personal position1 as he united in his person two characters diametrically opposed one to another4 ,being a ,christian1 he was at the same time1 as the emperor of ,rome1 the head and the representant1 not only of its political1 but also of its religious institutions4 ,this circumstance forced him into a double line of policy1 which ,i shall describe in the words of ,m4 ,beugnot3-- 8,there were in ,constantine1 so to say1 two persons1--the ,christian and the emperor4 ,if that monarch had not been endowed with a rare intellect1 he would have1 by confounding these two characters1 raised in his way obstacles which he could not overcome4 ,as a ,christian1 he showed everywhere his contempt for the vain superstitions of the ancient worship1 and his enthusiasm for the new ideas4 ,he conferred with the bishops2 he assisted standing at their long homilies2 he presided at the councils2 he deeply meditated the mysteries of ,christianity2 and he struggled against the heresiarchs with the ardour of a ,christian soldier and the grief of a profoundly convinced soul4 ,as emperor1 he submitted to the necessities of a difficult position1 and conformed1 in all grave matters1 to the manners and beliefs which he did not feel sufficiently strong openly to shock4 ,on endowing the purple1 he became the heir of that long series of emperors who had all remained faithful to the worship of the father-land2 and he wrapt himself1 so to say1 in the ancient traditions and recollections of pagan ,rome2 for it was an inheritance which he could not renounce1 without danger to himself as well as to the empire4 8,when we observe some actions of ,constantine1 evidently tinged with ,paganism1 we must consider less their external form than the relation in which they stood towards the constitution of ,rome1 which that emperor had no desire to destroy4 ,we shall then become convinced that his conduct was the result of necessity1 and not that of a crooked policy4 ,as an individual1 he was free2 as an emperor1 he was a slave2 and his greatest merit1 according to our opinion1 was to have soundly judged the embarrassments of this situation4 ,animated as he was with a lively zeal for the truths of ,christianity1 it was very natural that he should employ the imperial power in order to break down all the obstacles to its progress4 ,but this would have involved him in an open war with a nation1 the majority of whom were composed of ,pagans2 and it is very likely that he would have succumbed in such a contest4 ,he understood this2 and it prevented him giving way to the entreaties1 and even complaints1 of over-zealous ,christians40--,vol4 i41 p4 #hh4 ,constantine was1 notwithstanding his conversion to ,christianity1 the supreme pontiff of pagan ,rome4 ,the title of this dignity was given him on the public monuments1 and he performed its functions on several occasions2 as1 for instance1 in #cba1 several years after his conversion1 he wrote to ,maximus1 prefect of ,rome1 as follows3-- 8,if our palace or any public monument shall be struck by lightning1 the auguries are to be consulted1 according to the ancient rites 7retento more veteris observanti71 in order to know what this event indicates2 and the accounts of these proceedings are immediately to be sent to us4 ,private individuals may make similar consultations1 provided they abstain from secret sacrifices1 which are particularly prohibited4 ,with regard to the accounts stating that the amphitheatre was recently struck by lightning1 and which thou hast sent to ,heraclianus the tribune1 and master of offices1 know that they must be delivered to us40 ,this is undoubtedly a very strange document for a ,christian monarch1 who officially commands to consult the ,pagan oracles1 and1 as its concluding words seem to imply1 is anxious to maintain1 on similar occasions1 his rights as the supreme pontiff of ,paganism4 ,it was also in his quality of supreme pontiff that ,constantine instituted1 soon after his accession1 the ,francic games1 for the commemoration of his victory over the ,franks1 and which were celebrated1 during a considerable time1 on the #ahth of the kalends of ,august2 and1 in #cba1 the ,sarmatic games1 on the occasion of his victory over the ,sarmatians1 and celebrated on the #fth of the same month4 ,these games were real ,pagan ceremonies1 and reprobated on this account by the ,christian writers of that time47#ca7 ,i could quote other instances of a similar kind2 but ,i shall conclude this subject by observing1 that a medal has been preserved1 upon which ,constantine is represented in the dress of the supreme pontiff1--i4e41 with a veil covering his head4 ,constantine was1 indeed1 very anxious not to offend the ,pagan party4 ,in #cai he published a very severe law against the soothsayers2 expressing1 however1 that this prohibition did not extend to the public consultations of the ,haruspices1 according to the established rites4 ,and a short time afterwards he proclaimed another law on the same subject1 in which he still more explicitly declares that he does not interfere with the rites of the ,pagan worship47#cb7 ,it must be observed1 that the ,romans1 as well as the ,greeks1 had two kinds of divination3 the public1 which were considered as legitimate2 and the secret1 which were generally forbidden4 ,this last had been prohibited by some former emperors2 and the laws of the ,twelve ,tables declared them punishable with death4 ,constantine seems to have been very anxious that his intention on this subject should not be mistaken2 and he published in #cba an edict1 by which he positively allows the practice of a certain kind of magic1 by the following remarkable expressions3-- 8,it is right to repress and to punish1 by laws justly severe1 those who practise1 or try to practise1 the magical arts1 and seek to seduce pure souls into profligacy2 but those who employ this art in order to find remedies against diseases1 or who1 in the country1 make use of it in order to prevent the snow1 the wind1 and the hail from destroying the crops1 must not be prosecuted4 ,neither the welfare nor the reputation of any one are endangered by acts whose object is to insure to men the benefits of the divinity and the fruits of their labour40--,codex ,theodosianus1 lib4 ix41 f4 #af1 apud ,beugnot4 ,this was1 undoubtedly1 a very large concession to the superstitions of ,paganism made by a ,christian monarch1 and from which he was1 perhaps1 himself not entirely free4 ,it is well known that ,constantine1 after his public declaration of ,christianity1 introduced the labarum17#cc7 as a sign of the dominion of the new faith2 but it was generally placed on his coins in the hands of the winged statue of the ,pagan goddess of ,victory4 ,besides these coins of ,constantine1 there are many others of the same monarch1 having inscriptions in honour of ,jupiter1 ,mars1 and other ,pagan divinities4 ,the ,pagan aristocracy of ,rome seem to have been resolved to ignore the fact that the head of the empire had become a ,christian1 and to consider him1 in spite of himself1 as one of their own4 ,thus1 after his death1 the senate placed him1 according to the usual custom1 among the gods2 and a calendar has been preserved where the festivals in honour of this strange divinity are indicated4 ,the name of ,divus is given to him on several coins2 and1 what is very odd1 this ,pagan god is represented on the above-mentioned medals holding in his hand the ,christian sign of the labarum4 ,we thus see that ,constantine1 instead of persecuting the adherents of the national ,paganism1 was following a policy of compromise between the two characters united in his person1 that of a ,christian and of a ,roman emperor4 ,this did not1 however1 prevent him from heaping favours of every kind upon the ,christian church1--favours which proved to her much more injurious than all the persecutions of the former emperors4 ,and1 indeed1 the ,christians1 who had nobly stood the test of adversity1 were not proof against the more dangerous trial of a sudden and unexpected prosperity4 ,the first favour granted by ,constantine to the ,christians1 and which he did even before his public confession of their faith1 was the extension to their clergy of the exemption from various municipal charges enjoyed by the ,pagan priests1 on account of their being obliged to give at their expense certain public games4 ,the ,christian clergy were thus placed in a more favourable position than the ,pagan priests1 because1 though admitted to equal immunities1 they were not subjected to the same charges2 and thus1 for the first time1 a bribe was offered for conversion to a religion which had hitherto generally exposed its disciples to persecution4 8,numbers of people1 actuated less by conviction than by the hope of a reward1 were crowding from all parts to the churches1 and the first favour granted to the ,christians introduced amongst them guilty passions1 to which they had hitherto remained strangers1 and whose action was so rapid and so melancholy4 ,the complaints of the municipal bodies1 and the disorder which it was producing in the provincial administration1 induced ,constantine to put some restrictions on a favour which1 being granted perhaps somewhat inconsiderately1 did more harm than good to the interests of the ,christian religion40--,beugnot1 vol4 i41 p4 #gh4 ,constantine increased his favours to the ,christians after he had publicly embraced their faith4 8,the ecclesiastical historians10 says the author whom ,i have just quoted1 8enumerate with a feeling of pride the proofs of his generosity4 ,they say1 that the revenues of the empire were employed to erect everywhere magnificent churches1 and to enrich the bishops4 ,they cannot be1 on this occasion1 accused of exaggeration4 ,constantine introduced amongst the ,christians a taste for riches and luxury2 and the disappearance of their frugal and simple manners1 which had been the glory of the church during the three preceding centuries1 may be dated from his reign40--,ibid41 p4 #hg4 ,the ecclesiastical historian ,eusebius1 a great admirer of ,constantine1 whose personal friend he was1 admits himself1 that the favours shown by that monarch to the church have not been always conducive to her purity4 ,in short1 the sudden triumph of the church under ,constantine was one of the principal causes of her corruption1 and the beginning of that compromise with ,paganism1 described in the preceding chapter4 ,paganism1 though weakened through its abandonment by the head of the state1 was by no means broken down at the time of ,constantine's death4 ,many of its zealous adherents were occupying the principal dignities of the state1 as well as the most important civil and military offices2 but its chief stronghold was ,rome1 where its partisans were so powerful1 that the unfortunate dissensions which divided the ,christians were publicly exposed to ridicule in the theatres of that city4 ,the ,arian writer ,philostorgus says that ,constantine was worshipped after his death1 not as a saint1 but as a god1 by the orthodox ,christians1 who offered sacrifices to the statue of that monarch placed upon a column of porphyry1 and addressed prayers to him as to ,god himself4 ,it is impossible to ascertain whether examples of such mad extravagance had ever taken place amongst ,christians or not2 but the ,western church has not bestowed upon his memory the honours of saintship1 though she has been generally very lavish of them47#cd7 ,thus the first ,christian emperor was canonised only by the ,pagans4 ,the sons of ,constantine followed the religious policy of their father2 and the facility with which his nephew1 ,julian the ,apostate1 had restored ,paganism to the rank of the dominant religion1 twenty-four years after his death1 proves how strong its party was even at that time4 ,julian's reign of eighteen months was too short to produce any considerable effect upon the religious parties into which the ,roman empire was then divided4 ,after his death1 the imperial crown was offered by the army to ,sallust1 a ,pagan general1 who having refused it on account of his great age1 it was bestowed upon ,jovian1 a ,christian1 who reigned only three months4 ,the legions elected1 after ,jovian's death1 ,valentinian1 who1 though a sincere ,christian1 strictly maintained the religious liberty of his subjects2 and the same policy was followed by his brother and colleague ,valens1 who governed the eastern part of the empire1 and was an ,arian4 ,valentinian's son and successor1 ,gratian1 though educated by the celebrated poet ,ausonius1 who adhered to the ancient worship1 was a zealous ,christian4 ,he published1 immediately after his accession1 an edict allowing perfect religious liberty to all his subjects1 with the exception of the ,manicheans and some other sects4 ,he granted several new privileges to ,christians1 but he continued to conform for some time to the duties inherited from his ,pagan predecessors1 of which the most remarkable instance was1 that he caused his father to be placed amongst the gods1 according to the general custom followed at the death of the ,roman emperors47#ce7 ,though greatly enfeebled by the continual advance of ,christianity1 ,paganism was still the established religion of the state4 ,its rites were still observed with their wonted solemnity1 and its power was still so great at ,rome1 that a vestal virgin was executed in that city for the breach of her vow of chastity1 subsequently to the reign of ,gratian4 ,these circumstances induced1 probably1 the above-mentioned emperor to respect the religious institutions of ,rome during the first years of his reign1 but 7#chb71 acting under the advice of ,st ,ambrose1 he confiscated the property belonging to the ,pagan temples1 and the incomes of which served for the maintenance of priests and the celebration of sacrifices4 ,he abolished1 at the same time1 all the privileges and immunities of the ,pagan priests1 and ordered the altar and statue of the goddess of ,victory to be removed from the hall of the senate1 the presence of which gave to that assembly1 though it already contained many ,christian members1 the character of a ,pagan institution4 ,the senate sent a deputation to ,gallia1 where ,gratian was at that time1 in order to remonstrate against these measures1 and to present to him1 at the same time1 the insignia of the supreme pontificate of ,rome1 which none of his ,christian predecessors had yet refused4 ,but ,gratian rejected these emblems of ,paganism1 saying that it was not meet for a ,christian to accept them4 ,this would have been probably followed by other more decided measures1 had he not perished a short time afterwards in a rebellion4 ,theodosius the ,great1 whom ,gratian had associated with him1 adopted a decidedly hostile policy towards ,paganism1 and proclaimed a series of laws against it4 ,thus1 in #cha1 he ordered that those ,christians who returned to ,paganism should forfeit the right of making wills2 but as these apostasies continued1 he ordered1 in #chc1 that the apostates should not inherit any kind of property1 either left by will or descended by natural order of succession1 unless it were left by their parents or a brother4 ,in #che he proclaimed the penalty of death against all those who should inquire into futurity by consulting the entrails of the victims1 or try to obtain the same object by execrable and magic consultations1 which evidently referred to those secret divinations that had been prohibited by ,constantine1 as well as his ,pagan predecessors4 ,in the course of the year #cia1 he published a series of edicts1 prohibiting under pain of death every immolation1 and all other acts of idolatry under that of confiscation of the houses or lands where they had been performed4 ,theodosius died in #cie1 but had his life been prolonged1 he would probably have developed still farther his policy against ,paganism1 which was greatly weakened in the course of his reign4 ,many ,pagan temples1 particularly in the ,eastern provinces1 were destroyed during his reign by the ,christians1 acting without the orders of the emperor1 but not punished by him for these acts of violence4 ,he did not1 however1 constrain the ,pagans to embrace ,christianity2 and1 notwithstanding that he proclaimed several laws against their worship1 he employed many of them even in the highest offices of the state47#cf7 ,notwithstanding the severe laws published by ,theodosius against idolatry1 ,rome still contained a great number of pagan temples1 and the polytheist party continued to be strong in the senate1 as well as in the army1 which is evident from the two following facts4 ,when ,alaric elected in #dji ,attalus emperor of ,rome1 the new monarch distributed the first dignities of the state to ,pagans1 and restored the public solemnities of the ancient worship1 in order to maintain himself on the throne by the support of the ,pagan party2 which proves that1 though a century had already elapsed since the conversion of ,constantine1 this party was not yet considered quite insignificant4 ,about the same time1 ,honorius having proclaimed a law which excluded from the offices of the imperial palace all those who did not profess his religion1 was obliged to revoke it1 because it gave offence to the ,pagan officers of the army4 ,arcadius1 who succeeded ,theodosius on the throne of the ,eastern empire1 proclaimed1 immediately after his accession in #cih1 that he would strictly enforce the laws of his father against ,paganism1 and he issued in the following year new and more severe ordinances of the same kind4 ,the blow which may be said to have overturned ,paganism in the ,roman empire did not1 however1 come from its ,christian monarchs1 but from the same hand which destroyed its ancient capital1 and inflicted upon the ,western empire a mortal wound which it did not survive many years4 ,the ,goths1 whom the energy and wise policy of ,theodosius had maintained in their allegiance to the empire1 being offended by ,arcadius1 revolted1 and invaded his dominions under ,alaric1 in #cif4 ,they ravaged the provinces situated between the ,adriatic and the ,black ,seas1 and penetrated into ,greece1 where ,paganism1 notwithstanding all the enactments of ,theodosius1 was still prevailing to a very great extent4 ,the principal cities of ,greece were devastated by the ,goths1 who1 recently converted to ,arianism1 and having no taste for arts1 destroyed all the temples1 statues1 and other pagan monuments1 with which they met4 ,athens escaped the fury of the invaders1 but the celebrated temple of ,eleusis1 whose mysteries continued in full vigour in spite of all the laws which had been published against polytheism1 was destroyed1 whilst its priests either perished or fled4 ,this catastrophe was so much felt by the adherents of the ancient worship in ,greece1 that many of them are said to have committed suicide from grief4 8,since the defeat of ,cheronea1 and the capture of ,corinth1 the ,greek nationality had never experienced a severer blow than the destruction of its temples and of its gods by ,alaric10 says an eminent ,german writer of our day47#cg7 ,it was1 indeed1 a mortal blow to a religion which maintained its sway by acting upon the senses and the imagination1 as well as upon the feelings of national pride or vanity1 because it destroyed all the means by which such feelings were produced4 ,alaric and his ,goths seem to have been destined by ,providence to precipitate the fall of ,paganism at ,rome1 as well as in ,greece1 because the capture and sack of the eternal city by these barbarians1 in #daj1 accelerated the ruin of its ancient worship more than all the laws proclaimed against it by the ,christian emperors4 ,the particulars of this terrible catastrophe have been amply described by ,gibbon1 and ,i shall only observe1 that though ,christians had suffered on that occasion as much as ,pagans1 the worship of the latter was struck at the very root of its existence by the complete ruin of the ,roman aristocracy1 who1 although frequently indifferent about the tenets of the national polytheism1 supported it with all their influence as a political institution1 which could not be abolished without injuring the most vital interests of their order47#ch7 ,the decline of ,paganism from that time was very rapid4 ,it is true that we have sufficient historical evidence to show that pagan temples were still to be found at ,rome after its sack by the ,goths1 and that many ,pagans were employed1 in the ,western as well as in the ,eastern empires1 in some of the most important offices of the state2 but their number was fast disappearing1 and the exercise of their religion was generally confined to the domestic hearth1 to the worship of the ,lares and ,penates4 ,it seems to have been particularly prevalent amongst the rustic population of the provinces1 and it was not entirely extinct in ,italy even at the beginning of the sixth century2 because the ,goth1 ,theodoric the ,great1 who reigned over that country from #dic to #ebf1 published an edict forbidding1 under pain of death1 to sacrifice according to the ,pagan rites1 as well as other superstitious practices remaining from the ancient polytheism4 ,i have given this sketch of the state of ,paganism after the conversion of ,constantine1 and of the policy which was followed towards it by the first ,christian emperors1 because it seems to explain1 at least to a certain degree1 the manner in which ,christianity was rapidly corrupted in the fourth and fifth centuries by the ,pagan ideas and practices which ,i shall endeavour to trace in my next chapter4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,infection ,of ,the ,christian ,church ,by ,pagan ,ideas ,and ,practices ,during ,the ,fourth ,and ,fifth ,centuries4 ,i have said that the council of ,elvira1 in ,spain1 held in #cje1 prohibited the use of images in the churches4 ,other canons of the same council show that even then ,christians were but too prone to relapse into the practices and customs of ,paganism2 because they enact very severe ecclesiastical penances against those ,christians who took part in the rites and festivals of the ,pagan worship47#ci7 ,if such enactments were required to maintain the purity of ,christian doctrine1 at a time when its converts1 instead of expecting any worldly advantages1 were often exposed to severe persecution1 and consequently had no other motives for embracing it than a mere conviction of its truth1 how much more was this purity endangered when conversion to ,christianity led to the favour of the sovereign1 and when the church1 instead of severely repressing the idolatrous propensities of her children1 endeavoured to facilitate as much as possible the entrance of the ,pagans into her pale6 ,let me add1 that the mixture of ,christianity with ,paganism in various public acts of the first ,christian emperors1 which ,i have described in the preceding chapter1 could not but contribute to the general confusion of ideas amongst those ,christians whom the church was continually receiving into her pale1 with all their pagan notions4 ,i have described1 in the second chapter of this essay1 the policy of compromise adopted by the church after the conversion of ,constantine4 ,i shall now describe the consequences of this policy1 by giving a sketch of the ,christian society which it produced1 and which has been drawn1 on the authority of ecclesiastical writers1 by the same author whose description and defence of that policy ,i have given in the above-mentioned chapter4 8,towards the beginning of the fifth century1 the propagation of ,christianity amongst the upper classes of ,roman society met still with many obstacles2 but the influential persons who had broken with the error1 remained at least faithful to their new creed1 and did not scandalise society by their apostasy4 ,the senatorial families which had embraced ,christianity gave1 at ,rome1 the unfortunately too rare example of piety and of all the ,christian virtues2 the case was different with the converts belonging to the lower1 and even the middle classes of ,roman society4 ,the corruption of manners had made rapid progress amongst them during the last fifty years of the fourth century2 and things arrived at such a pass1 that the choice of a religion was considered by the people as an act of the greatest indifference4 ,the new religion was embraced from interest1 from curiosity1 or by fashion1 and afterwards abandoned on the first occasion4 ,it was1 in fact1 not indifference1 because indifference induces people to remain in the religion in which they were born2 it was a complete atheism1 a revolting depravity1 an openly-expressed contempt of all that is most sacred4 ,how many times the church1 which struggled1 but in vain1 against the progress of the evil1 had occasion to lament the too easy recruits whom she was making amongst the inferior ranks of society67#dj7 ,people disgracefully ignorant1 without honour1 without a shadow of piety1 polluted by their presence the assemblies of the faithful4 ,they are those whom the fathers of the church designated by the name of the mali ,christiani--ficti ,christiani1 and against whom their eloquent voices were often resounding4 ,the heretics1 the promoters of troubles and seditions1 always counted upon those men1 who seemed to enter the church only in order to disturb her by their turbulent spirit1 or who consented to remain in the true faith only on condition of introducing into the usages of ,christian worship1 a crowd of superstitions whose influence was felt but too long27#da7 whilst the slightest sign of ,paganism was sufficient to call back to it those servants of all the parties4 8,it was then1 unfortunately1 a too common thing to see men who made a profession of passing1 without any difficulty1 from one religion to another1 as many times as it was required by their interests4 ,the principle of that inconceivable corruption in the bosom of a religion which was not yet completely developed1 dated from a period anterior to that which we are describing47#db7 ,the councils and the emperors had struggled in vain against apostasy1 which the multitude of heresies1 and the vices of the times1 had placed amongst legitimate actions4 8,theodosius began in #cha to punish the apostates by depriving them of the right to make wills4 ,in #chc1 he modified this law in respect to the apostate catechumens2 but the general principle maintained all the apostates absque jure ,romano4 ,valentinian ,,ii4 followed the example of his colleague1 and applied the before-mentioned dispositions to those ,christians who became ,jews or ,manicheans4 ,we know1 from a law of #cia1 that the nobility was infected by the general spirit of the age1 because ,valentinian enacted1 by this law1 that those nobles who became apostates were to be degraded in such a manner that they should not count even in vulgi ignobilis parte4 ,in #cif1 ,arcadius deprived again of the right to make wills those ,christians qui se idolorum superstitione impia maculaverint47#dc7 ,the political authorities1 therefore1 cannot be accused of having remained indifferent to the progress of the evil4 ,we must now show how little power the laws had in a time like that which we are describing4 8,one day1 ,st ,augustinus presented to the assembly of the ,christians of ,hippona1 a man who was to become celebrated amongst renegades2 born a ,pagan1 he embraced ,christianity1 but returned again to the idols1 and exercised the lucrative profession of an astrologer2 he now demanded to be readmitted into the church1 that is to say1 to change for the third time his religion4 ,st ,augustinus addressed1 on that occasion1 the above-mentioned assembly in the following manner3-- 8 #8,this former ,christian1 terrified by the power of ,god1 is now repenting4 ,in the days of his faithfulness1 he was enticed by the enemy1 and became an astrologer2 seduced and deceived himself1 he was seducing and deceiving others2 he uttered many lies against ,god1 who gave men the power to do good1 and to do no evil2 he said that it was not the will of men which made men adulterers1 but ,venus2 that it was ,mars who rendered people murderers2 that justice was not inspired by ,god1 but by ,jupiter2 and he added to it many other sacrileges4 ,how much money he has swindled from self-styled ,christians6 ,how many people have purchased the lie from him6 ,but now1 if we are to believe him1 he hates the error1 he laments the loss of many souls2 and feeling himself caught by the demon1 he returns toward ,god full of repentance4 ,let us believe1 brethren1 that it is fear which produces this change4 ,what shall we say8 perhaps we must not rejoice so much at the conversion of this pagan astrologer1 because once being converted1 he may seek to obtain the clerical office2 he is penitent1 brethren1 and asks only for mercy4 ,i recommend him to your hearts1 and to your eyes4 ,let your hearts love him1 but let your eyes watch him4 ,mark him well2 and wherever you shall meet him1 show him to those of your brethren who are not present here4 ,this will be an act of mercy1 because we must fear that his seductive soul should change again1 and recommence to do mischief4 ,watch him2 know what he says1 and where he goes1 in order that your testimony may confirm us in the opinion that he is really converted4 ,he was perishing1 but now he is found again4 ,he has brought with him the books which have burnt him1 in order to throw them into the fire2 he wishes to be refreshed by the flames which shall consume them4 ,you must know1 brethren1 that he had knocked at the door of the church before ,easter1 but that the profession which he had followed1 rendering him suspected of lies and fraud1 he was kept back1 but shortly afterwards received4 ,we are afraid of leaving him exposed to new temptations4 ,pray to ,christ for him4' 8,socrates7#dd7 speaks of a sophist of ,constantinople1 called ,ecebolus1 who conformed with a marvellous facility to all the changes of fortune which ,christianity was undergoing4 ,during the reign of ,constantine1 he affected the greatest zeal for the new belief2 but when ,julian became emperor1 he resumed his ancient devotion to the gods of ,paganism4 ,after the death of that monarch1 he gave great publicity to his repentance1 and prostrated himself before the churches1 crying to the ,christians1 #8,tread me under your feet1 as the salt which has lost its savour6' ,socrates adds3--#8,ecebolus remained what he has always been1--i4e41 a fickle and inconstant man4' ,st ,augustinus could certainly say the same of his astrologer4 ,is it not surprising to find apostasy still prevalent at a time when no sensible man could believe in the restoration of the ancient worship8 ,the appearance of ,julian must have upset many a mind1 shaken many a conscience1 and given to the triumph of ,christianity the character of a transitory event4 ,but1 at the end of the fourth century1 it was impossible to abandon the church and return to the idols1 except by a feeling which could not but excite profound pity4 ,i therefore understand why ,st ,augustinus had consented to plead with the ,christians in favour of a wretch already charged with three apostasies3 he wished1 above all1 to take from him the name of a ,pagan1 being convinced that whoever consented no longer to sacrifice to the false gods would finally belong to the true religion4 ,a neophyte1 restrained by the leaven of all the pagan passions1 might remain more or less time on the threshold of the church1 but sooner or later he was sure to cross it47#de7 ,the leaders of the church considered it always a favourable presumption when a citizen consented to call himself no longer a ,pagan4 ,this first victory appeared to them a sure presage of a true conversion2 and they recommended to the ,christians that they should not apply the dangerous epithet of ,pagan to those of their brethren who had failed1 but simply to call them sinners4 ,they endeavoured1 in short1 to make them forget ,paganism2 and in order to attain this object1 they even forbade to pronounce its name47#df7 8,the ancient worship was not only obstructing the development of ,christianity by covert and insidious attacks1 but it was also vitiating the discipline of the church1 because its sway upon the manners of the converts was something more like a real tyranny than the natural remnant of its former influence4 ,it is1 indeed1 surprising with what facility it introduced into the sanctuary of the true ,god its superstitious spirit1 its relaxed morals1 and its love of disorder4 ,how little the church was then1--i4e41 seventy years after the conversion of ,constantine1--resembling what she ought to have been1 or what she became afterwards67#dg7 ,st ,jerome had intended1 towards the end of his life1 to write an ecclesiastical history2 but it was in order to show that the church1 under the ,christian emperors1 went on continually declining4 ,divitiis major1 virtutibus minor 7,greater in wealth1 smaller in virtue71 was the severe sentence which ,st ,jerome must have pronounced with regret1 but the justice of which is proved by all the historical documents of that period4 ,this illustrious leader of ,christianity1 whose mind was more inclined to enthusiasm than dejection1 frequently lost all energy1 by reflecting on the deplorable condition of the church1 declaring that he felt no longer any power to write4 ,a sufficient number of historians have represented in vivid colours the excessive luxury of the bishops during that time1 as well as the greediness1 the ignorance1 and the misconduct of the clergy2 ,i shall therefore choose from this melancholy picture only those parts which refer to the history of ,paganism4 8,all the arts of divination remained still in the highest favour amongst ,christians1 even when the grave men of the ,pagan party had been1 for a long time1 showing for these practices of idolatry either a conventional respect or an open contempt47#dh7 ,they swore by the false gods1--they observed the fifth day1 dedicated to ,jupiter1--and they took a part in the sacred games1 feasts1 and festivals of the ,pagans4 ,christian ceremonies did not preserve almost any thing of their ancient majesty4 ,it was not a rare occurrence to hear pagan hymns chanted at ,christian solemnities1 or to see ,christians dancing before their churches1 according to the custom of ,paganism4 ,there was no more decency observed in the interior of those churches3 people went there to speak about business1 or to amuse themselves2 the noise was so great1 and the bursts of laughter so loud1 that it was impossible to hear the reading of the ,scriptures2 the congregation quarrelled1 fought1 and sometimes interfered with the officiating priest1 pressing him to end1 or compelling him to sing1 according to their taste4 ,st ,augustinus was therefore warranted in calling this so powerful influence of the ancient worship a persecution of the demon1 more covert and insidious than that which the primitive church had suffered4 8,all these scandalous facts are attested by the bishop of ,hippona 7,st ,augustinus7 and by that of ,milan 7,st ,ambrose72 it is therefore impossible to doubt their authenticity4 ,it may1 however1 be said1 that such a state of corruption was local1 and peculiar to the churches of ,africa and ,milan2 ,i must therefore produce new evidence1 in order to show that the calamitous effect of the pagan manners was felt in all the provinces4 8,st ,gaudentius1 bishop of ,brescia1 a contemporary of ,st ,augustinus1 vigorously combated idolatry in his diocese2 and the following is an extract from one of his sermons3-- 8 #8,you neophytes1 who have been called to the feast of this salutary and mystical ,easter1 look how you preserve your souls from those aliments which have been defiled by the superstition of the ,pagans4 ,it is not enough for a true ,christian to reject the poisoned food of the demons2 he must also fly from all the abominations of the ,pagans1--from all the frauds of the idolaters1 as from venom ejected by the serpent of the devil4 ,idolatry is composed of poisonings1 of enchantments1 ligatures1 presages1 augurs1 sorceries1 as well as of all kinds of vain observances1 and1 moreover1 of the festival called ,parentales2 by means of which idolatry is reanimating error2 and indeed men1 giving way to their gluttony1 began to eat the viands which had been prepared for the dead2 afterwards they were not afraid of celebrating in their honour sacrilegious sacrifices1--although it is difficult to believe that a duty towards their dead is discharged by those who1 with a hand shaking from the effects of drunkenness1 place tables on sepulchres1 and say1 with an unintelligible voice1 ,the spirit is thirsty47#di7 ,i beseech you1 take heed of these things1 in case ,god should deliver to the flames of hell his contemners and enemies1 who have refused to wear his yoke4' 8,who may wonder that such ,christians allowed the pagan idols1 temples1 and altars to remain1 and to be honoured on their estates1 as is attested by the same bishop8 ,st ,augustinus1 whom ,i am not tired of quoting1 because no other doctor of that time expressed so vividly the true ,christian ideas1 lamented this monstrous worship1 which was neither ,paganism nor ,christianity4 #8,many a man1' says he1 #8who enters the church a ,christian1 leaves it a ,pagan1' ,however1 far from despairing1 he wrote to the virgin ,felicia1 #8,i advise thee not to be affected too much by these offences2 they were predicted1 in order that1 when they should come1 we might remember that they had been announced1 and consequently not be hurt by them4' ,but the ,pagans1 for whom this premature corruption of ,christianity was not a predicted thing1 rejoiced in contemplating the extent of its progress2 they would not believe the duration of a worship which had so rapidly arrived at the period of its decline1 and they were repeating in their delusion this celebrated saying1 #8,christians are only for awhile2 they will afterwards perish1 and the idols will return4' 0--,beugnot1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ig1 et seq4 ,this melancholy picture of ,christian society1 at the beginning of the fifth century1 drawn by ,m4 ,beugnot1 on the authority of the ecclesiastical writers1 is1 indeed1 as gloomy as that of ,roman society in general1 which had been so graphically described about the same time by the pagan author ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 and reproduced by ,gibbon4 ,it was very natural that such a corrupted soil should produce the rankest growth of superstition1 and rapidly bring about that melancholy reaction which was not inaptly styled by ,gibbon1 8the revival of polytheism in the ,christian church40 ,this wretched state of things was1 as ,i have said before1 chiefly due to that policy of compromise by which the leaders of the church sought to get as many ,pagans as possible into her pale1 and who consequently were baptised without being converted4 ,this compromise with ,paganism was often carried to great extremes2 and the history of the conversion of ,florence1 which ,i have extracted from ,m4 ,beugnot's work1 gives one of the most striking instances of those unprincipled proceedings3--8,florence paid particular honours to the god ,mars4 ,it was not without regret that it abandoned the worship of this divinity4 ,the time of its conversion had been assigned to the second or the third century1 but the vagueness of this date deprives it of all authority4 ,yet1 whatever may have been the century in which the conversion of ,florence took place1 it could not be a subject of edification and joy to the ,christians4 ,the traditions of that city predicted to it great calamities if the statue of ,mars was either sullied1 or put into a place unworthy of it4 ,the ,florentines stipulated1 therefore1 on accepting the new religion1 that ,mars should be respected4 ,his statue was consequently neither broken nor sullied1 but it was carefully taken from his temple1 and placed on a pedestal near the river1 which flows through the city4 ,many years after this1 the new ,christians feared and invoked that god who was dethroned only by halves4 ,when almost all the pagan temples had fallen either by the stroke of time1 or under the blows of the ,christians1 the heathen palladium of ,florence stood still erect on the banks of the ,arno2 and1 according to one of the most enlightened historians that ,italy has produced during the middle ages 7,g4 ,villani1 lib4 i41 cap4 #fj71 the demon who had remained in the statue realised1 in the thirteenth century1 the old prediction of the ,etruscans47#ej7 ,compromises of the kind which took place at ,florence became very common during the fifth century1 and when1 at a later period1 ,christianity wished to annul them1 it met with great obstacles40--7,,beugnot1 vol4 i41 p4 #bhf47 ,the ,jews had been brought up in the knowledge of the true ,god1 and their faith could not but be strengthened by the miracles with which their exodus from ,egypt was accompanied1 and yet a short absence of ,moses from their camp was sufficient to make them call for gods that would go before them1 and to induce them to worship an image evidently borrowed from the idolatry of those very ,egyptians by whom they had been so much oppressed4 ,it was1 therefore1 no wonder that society1 educated for many centuries under the influence of ,paganism1 were continually returning to their ancient rites1 superstitions1 and manners1 though under a new name1 and in a modified form4 ,if we consider further1 that such a man as ,aaron had not sufficient strength to resist the senseless demands of the multitude1 and even consented to mould an object for their idolatry1 how could the leaders of the church oppose the pressure of ,paganism1 which they had incautiously admitted into her pale1 and which1 under the assumed name of ,christianity1 was establishing its dominion over the church8 ,there was no inspired prophet amongst the ,christians of that time1 to restore the purity of their faith in the same manner as ,moses did amongst the ,jews1 after his return from ,mount ,sinai4 ,the ,christian church was therefore left for centuries under the oppression of pagan superstitions1 from which1 as yet1 only a small portion of her has been emancipated1 though ,i firmly believe that she will be one day entirely restored to her pristine purity4 ,this hope1 however1 is not founded upon the mere advance of human intellect1 because1 in spite of its boasted progress1 it seems now to be powerless against the daily growing reaction of the above-mentioned superstitions1 even in places whence they apparently had been banished for ever1 but because ,christianity is of a divine and not human origin4 ,there was no lack of opposition to this universal corruption of the church on the part of several true ,christians1 and there were undoubtedly many more instances of this noble conduct than those which have reached us1 but the records of them were probably either lost in the lapse of ages1 or destroyed by their opponents4 ,i have already mentioned the prohibition of the use of images in the churches by the council of ,elvira in #cje4 ,the council of ,laodicea1 held about #cfc1 declared1 in its seventy-fifth canon1 8,that ,christians ought not to abandon the church1 and retire elsewhere in order to invoke angels1 and form private assemblies1 because it is prohibited4 ,if1 therefore1 any one is attached to this secret idolatry1 let him be anathema1 because he has left our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and has become an idolater40 ,it is therefore evident that this superstition1 expressly prohibited by ,st ,paul1 ,col4 ii4 #ah1 was then secretly practised in some private assemblies1 though it was afterwards introduced into the ,western as well as the ,eastern church4 ,the council of ,carthage1 held towards the end of the fourth century1 condemned the abuse of the honours which were paid to the memory of the martyrs by the ,christians of ,africa1 and ordered the bishops to repress them1 if the thing might be done1 but if it could not be done on account of the popular emotions1 to warn at least the people4 ,this proves how weak the bishops felt their authority to be against the prevailing superstitions amongst their flocks1 and that they preferred suffering the latter to risking the former4 ,there were1 however1 ,christians who opposed1 in a bold and uncompromising manner1 the pagan errors and abuses which had infected the church4 ,st ,epiphanius1 archbishop of ,salamis1 in the fourth century1 celebrated for his learning1 and whose virtues ,st ,jerome extols in the most glowing terms1 explicitly condemned the worship of created beings1 8because10 he observed1 8the devil was creeping into men's minds under the pretence of devotion and justice1 and1 consecrating human nature by divine honours1 presented to their eyes various fine images1 in order to separate the mind from the one ,god by an infamous adultery4 ,therefore1 though those who are worshipped are dead1 people adore their images1 which never had any life in them40 ,he further remarked1 8that there was not a prophet who would have suffered a man or a woman to be worshipped2 that neither the prophet ,elias1 nor ,st ,john the beloved disciple of the ,lord1 nor ,st ,thecla 7who had received the most extravagant praises from the fathers71 were ever worshipped2 and that1 consequently1 the virgin was neither to be invoked nor worshipped40 8,the old superstition10 says he1 8shall not have such power over us as to oblige us to abandon the living ,god1 and worship his creature407#ea7 ,the same ,st ,epiphanius relates1 in a letter addressed to ,john1 bishop of ,jerusalem1 that having arrived during a journey at a village called ,anablatta1 he found in its church a veil suspended over the door1 with a figure representing ,christ or some saint4 ,he was so indignant at this sight that he immediately tore the veil to pieces1 and advised the wardens of that church to employ it as a shroud to bury a dead body4 ,as the people of the place complained that the veil of their church was destroyed1 without giving them in its place another1 ,epiphanius sent them one2 but he exhorted in his letter the above-mentioned bishop of ,jerusalem1 in whose diocese ,anablatta was situated1 to order the priests of that place not to suspend any more such veils in the church of ,christ1 because they are contrary to our religion4 ,the authenticity of this letter1 which bears such strong evidence against the use of images in churches1 was rejected by ,bellarmine and the ecclesiastical historian ,baronius1 but it has been admitted by ,petau and some of the ablest writers of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,it was translated into ,latin by ,st ,jerome1 and is found in all the collections of his works4 ,the most celebrated opponent of the abuses with which the church had been already infected at that time was ,vigilantius4 ,his writings have not been preserved1 and we know his opinions only from their refutation by ,st ,jerome1 and from which we may conclude that this reformer of the fifth century maintained the same doctrines which were afterwards defended by the ,waldensians1 ,wycliffe1 the ,hussites1 and which are now professed by the ,protestant ,christians4 ,he was born at ,calagorris in ,gallia2 he became a priest at ,barcelona1 and contracted in that place an intimate friendship with ,st ,paulinus1 afterwards bishop of ,nola4 ,vigilantius went to ,italy in order to see this friend of his1 and having an intention to visit ,palestine and ,egypt1 took from him an introduction to ,st ,jerome4 ,they became great friends with ,st ,jerome1 who was much pleased with the marks of approbation shown by ,vigilantius during a sermon which he preached4 ,he also acknowledges that he1 as well as several others1 would have died from starvation1 if ,vigilantius had not assisted them with his own and his friends' money2 and he says1 in his answer to ,paulinus1 8,you will learn from the mouth of the holy priest1 ,vigilantius1 with what affection ,i have received him40 ,this affection disappeared1 however1 as soon as ,jerome learned that ,vigilantius had accused him in ,egypt of being too partial to ,origenes1 and the holy priest became an impertinent1 whose silly speeches he had observed during their first interview4 ,he made use of several injurious expressions in speaking of the former object of his admiration1 and which do not well accord with the gravity of his character1 as1 for instance1 calling him often ,dormitantius instead of ,vigilantius4 ,his indignation knew no bounds when he heard1 in #djd1 that ,vigilantius1 who was then in ,gallia1 had attacked several practices which had crept into the church1 and he dictated in one single night a vehement answer to the opinions of ,vigilantius1 who1 according to this writer1 taught as follows3-- ,that the honours paid to the rotten bones and dust of the saints and martyrs1 by adoring1 kissing1 wrapping them in silver1 and enclosing them in vessels of gold1 placing them in churches1 and lighting wax candles before them1 was idolatry4 ,that the celibacy of the clergy was heresy1 and their vows of chastity a seminary of lewdness4 ,that to pray for the dead1 or desire their prayers1 was superstition1 and that we can pray one for another only as long as we are alive4 ,that the souls of the departed apostles and martyrs were at rest in some particular place1 and could not leave it1 in order to be present in various places1 for hearing the prayers addressed to them4 ,that the sepulchres of the martyrs should not be venerated2 that vigils held in churches should be abolished1 with the exception of that at ,easter2 that to enter monastic life was to become useless to society1 c4 c4 ,the answer of ,jerome to the above-mentioned opinions of ,vigilantius is a curious mixture of violence and casuistry4 ,he declared his quondam friend and holy priest1 ,vigilantius1 a greater monster than all those which nature had ever produced1 the ,centaurs1 the ,behemoths1 the ,syrens1 the triple-bodied ,gerion of ,spain2 that he was a most detestable heretic1 venting foul blasphemies against the relics of the martyrs1 who were working miracles everyday4 8,go10 says he to ,vigilantius1 8into the churches of those martyrs1 and thou shalt be cleansed from the evil spirit by which thou art now possessed1 and feel thyself burning1 not by those wax candles which offend thee1 but by invisible flames1 which will force that demon who talks within thee to confess that he is the same as that who had personated1 perhaps a ,mercury1 a ,bacchus1 or some other of the heathen gods1 amongst their followers10 c4 ,he is unable1 however1 to produce any other argument in support of the worship of relics than the example of those who had practised it4 8,was it wrong10 he exclaims1 8of the bishops of ,rome to celebrate divine service on the graves containing the bones of ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul1 which1 according to ,vigilantius1 were nothing better than dust8 ,the ,emperor ,constantius must then have committed a sacrilege by translating the holy relics of ,andrew1 ,luke1 and ,timothy1 to ,constantinople2 the ,emperor ,arcadius must be then also considered sacrilegious1 as he has translated the bones of the blessed ,samuel from ,judea to ,thrace2 then all those bishops who consented to preserve mere dust in vessels of gold or wrapt in silk1 were not only sacrilegious1 but were fools2 and1 finally1 that all these people must have been fools who went out to meet these relics1 and received them with as much joy as if they were the prophet himself alive1 because the procession which carried them was attended by crowds of people from ,palestine to ,chalcedon1 singing the praises of ,christ1 whose servant ,samuel was40 ,there is no abuse in the world which cannot be justified1 if the example of persons occupying a high station or that of great numbers is sufficient for it4 ,the advocates of the adoration of relics in our own days may defend it by the fact that about half a million of people went in #ahde to worship the holy coat of ,treves1 and that still more recently great honours were paid to the relics of ,st ,theodosia at ,amiens1 by a number of distinguished persons1--bishops1 archbishops1 and even cardinals4 ,the autos da f of the ,spanish and ,portuguese inquisitions could not be wrong1 since kings1 queens1 and the most eminent persons of the state1 approved them by their presence4 ,idolatry cannot be an error1 since so many monarchs1 statesmen1 and learned men1 had conformed to its rites2 whilst1 on the other side1 the same reason may be pleaded for the penal laws of ,ireland1 and other enactments against the ,roman ,catholics1 because they were established and maintained by so many parliaments4 ,jerome maintained that it was a calumny of ,vigilantius to say that the ,christians burnt candles in daylight1 though he admitted that it was done by some men and women in order to honour the martyrs4 ,he did not approve of it1 because their zeal was without knowledge2 but he thought that on account of their good intention1 they would be rewarded according to their faith1 like the woman who had anointed the feet of our ,lord4 ,he also tried to justify the use of candles by those passages of the ,scriptures where an allusion was made to lamps and lights2 as1 for instance1 the parable of the virgins1 the expression of the ,psalm cxix4 #aje1 8,thy word is a lamp unto my feet1 and a light unto my path40 ,the rest of the arguments which ,st ,jerome employs in refuting what he calls the errors and heresies of ,vigilantius are of a similar nature to those which have been given above2 and it is really astonishing to see that a man like this celebrated father1 who is generally considered as one of the great luminaries of the church1 not only by ,roman ,catholics1 but also by some ,protestants1 could descend to such miserable shifts1 and indulge in such violent language as he did1 in his answer to ,vigilantius1 which bears a strong mark of having been dictated more by his personal feelings against his former friend and benefactor1 than by a conviction of the justice of the cause which he was defending on that occasion4 ,it is1 however1 evident from the other writings of the same father of the church1 that his imagination was much more powerful than his reasoning faculties1 and that he had entirely forgotten the precept of ,st ,paul1 to 8refuse profane and old wives' fables0--7#a ,timothy iv4 #g7--;because no one has ever indulged in more absurd fables than this good father did1 in his lives of ,st ,hilarion and ,st ,paul1 two celebrated monks1 and of which the following is a fair specimen3-- 8,a ,christian citizen of ,majuma1 called ,italicus1 kept horses for racing1 but was continually beaten by his rival1 a pagan ducumvir of ,gaza1 who1 by using certain charms and diabolical incantations1 contrived always to damp the spirits of the ,christian's horses1 and to give vigour to his own4 ,italicus applied1 therefore1 for help to ,st ,hilarion1 who1 thinking that it was improper to make prayers for such a frivolous object1 advised ,italicus to sell his horses1 and to give their price to the poor1 for the salvation of his soul4 ,italicus represented1 however1 that he was discharging against his inclination the duties of a public office1 and that as a ,christian could not resort to magical means1 he addressed himself to a servant of ,god1 particularly as it was important to defeat the inhabitants of ,gaza1 who were known as enemies of ,christ1 and that it was not so much for his own interests as for those of the church that he wished to overcome his rival4 ,hilarion1 convinced by these reasons1 filled with water an earthen vessel1 from which he usually drank1 and delivered it to ,italicus1 who sprinkled with the water his horses1 his chariots and charioteers1 his stables1 and even the barriers of the racing ground4 ,the whole city was in a great excitement1 the idolaters deriding the ,christians1 who loudly expressed their confidence of victory4 ,the signal being given1 the ,christian's horses flew with an extreme rapidity1 and left those of his rival far behind4 ,this miracle produced a very great effect upon the spectators1 and many persons1 including the beaten party1 became converts to ,christianity40 ,the above-mentioned work is filled with fables still more extravagant than the one which ,i have related1 and which entirely throw into the shade the celebrated tales of ,munchausen4 ,jerome complained that many people1 whom1 in his ,christian meekness1 he calls ,scyllean dogs1 were laughing at the stories related in those works1 and which he begins by invoking the assistance of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,was it then a wonder that a ,christianity1 defended by such wretched superstitions1 was frequently abandoned by individuals1 who1 comparing the ,christian legends of the kind quoted above with the fictions of ,pagan mythology1 preferred the latter as being more poetical8 and1 indeed1 we have instances of the ridicule which the ,pagans attempted to throw upon ,christianity1 by comparing its saints with their own gods and demigods4 ,i must1 however1 return once more to ,vigilantius47#eb7 ,the ,roman ,catholic historian of the church1 ,baronius1 who calls him 8a horned beast1 a fool1 and furious1 who had reached the last degree of folly and fury10 c41 c41 maintains that his heresy was solemnly condemned by the ,pope ,innocent ,i41 whom the bishops of ,gallia had addressed on this subject4 ,he also says that the same heresy produced terrible consequences2 because two years after ,vigilantius had spread his doctrines1 the ,vandals and other barbarians invaded ,gallia1 and destroyed all his adherents4 ,admitting even with ,baronius that ,vigilantius was a damnable heretic1 it cannot be denied that this learned historian had a very strange notion of divine justice1 because the barbarians alluded to above destroyed a great number of churches and relics1 as well as those who prayed at their shrines1 whilst ,vigilantius died quietly1 and1 notwithstanding the assertion of ,baronius1 never was excluded from the communion of the church1 or even condemned by her legal authorities4 ,we know from ,vigilantius' opponents that his opinions were approved by many1 and there can be no doubt that there was1 not only in his days1 but long after him1 a good number of witnesses for the truth1 who opposed the rapid spread of ,pagan ideas and practices in the church4 ,thus1 at the end of the sixth century1 ,serenus1 bishop of ,marseilles1 removed all the images from his church1 because the people worshipped them4 ,this produced a great discontent amongst many people of his diocese1 who appealed to ,pope ,gregory ,i4 in favour of the images4 ,the ,pope advised a middle course1 i4e41 that the images should remain in the church1 but that it should not be allowed to worship them4 ,serenus1 however1 who well knew that the one infallibly led to the other1 refused to comply with the papal injunctions1 upon which ,gregory wrote to him again1 saying that he praised his zeal in not suffering the worship of any thing that was made by the hand of man2 but that images should not be destroyed1 because pictures were used in churches to teach the ignorant by sight what they could not read in books1 c47#ec7 ,we therefore see that at the end of the sixth century1 the celebrated ,pope ,gregory ,i41 surnamed the ,great1 considered the worship of images as an abuse to be prohibited1 but which was afterwards legalised by his successors1 and an opposition to it declared heresy4 ,i could produce other evidences to show that the worship of images was condemned by many bishops and priests of the period which ,i have described1 though they approved their use as a means of teaching the illiterate1 or tolerated them as an unavoidable evil4 ,the limits of this essay allow me not1 however1 to extend my researches on this subject1 and ,i shall endeavour to give in the next chapter a rapid sketch of the violent reaction against the worship of images in the east by the iconoclast emperors1 and of the more moderate1 but no less decided1 opposition to the same practice in the west by ,charlemagne4 ,chapter ,v4 ,reaction ,against ,the ,worship ,of ,images ,and ,other ,superstitious ,practices ,by ,the ,iconoclast ,emperors ,of ,the ,east4 ,the worship of images1 as well as other ,pagan practices1 introduced into the church during the fourth and fifth centuries1 were prevailing in the east as much as in the west2 and ,i have mentioned1 p4 #i1 that the monks1 particularly those of ,egypt1 had greatly contributed to the introduction of anthropomorphism into the ,christian church4 ,a great blow to image-worship was given in the east by the rise and rapid progress of ,mahometanism1 whose followers1 considering it as idolatry1 destroyed many objects to which certain miraculous virtues had been ascribed1 and they constantly taunted the ,christians with their belief in such superstitions4 ,the ,jews addressed the same reproaches to the ,christians2 8yet10 as ,gibbon has justly observed1 8their servitude might curb their zeal and depreciate their authority2 but the triumphant ,mussulman1 who reigned at ,damascus1 and threatened ,constantinople1 cast into the scale of reproach the accumulated weight of truth and victory407#ed7 ,and1 indeed1 there could not be a stronger argument against the efficacy of images than the rapid conquest by the ,mahometans of many ,christian cities which relied upon a miraculous defence by some images preserved in their churches4 ,this circumstance could not but produce1 in the minds of many thinking ,christians1 a conviction of the absurdity of image-worship1 and the spread of such opinions must have been promoted by congregations who had preserved the purity of primitive worship1 and of whom it appears that there were several still extant in the eighth century1 as well as by the influence of ,armenia1 a country with which the eastern empire had frequent intercourse of a political and commercial nature1 and whose church rejected at that time the worship of images4 ,this party wanted only a leader and favourable circumstances in order publicly to assert their condemnation of the prevailing practice1 which they considered as sinful idolatry4 ,the accession of ,leo ,,iii41 the ,isaurian1 in #gag1 who1 from an inferior condition1 rose by his talents and military prowess to the imperial throne1 gave to that party what they required1 for he shared their opinions1 and was a man of great energy and ability4 ,the troubles of the state1 which the valour and political wisdom of ,leo saved from impending ruin1 occupied too much the first years of that emperor's reign to allow him to undertake a reform of the church4 ,but in #gbg he assembled a council of senators and bishops1 and decided1 with their consent1 that all the images should be removed in the churches from the sanctuary and the altar1 to a height where they might be seen1 but not worshipped1 by the congregation47#ee7 ,it was1 however1 impossible to follow long this middle course1 as the adherents of the images contrived to worship them in spite of their elevation1 while their opponents taxed the emperor with want of zeal1 holding out to him the example of the ,jewish monarch1 who had caused the brazen serpent to be broken4 ,leo therefore ordered all kinds of images to be destroyed2 and though his edict met with some opposition17#ef7 it was put into execution throughout the whole empire1 with the exception of the ,italian provinces1 which1 instigated by ,pope ,gregory ,,ii41 a zealous defender of images1 revolted against the emperor1 and resisted all his efforts to regain his dominion over them4 ,this monarch died in #gda1 after a not inglorious reign of twenty-four years1 and was succeeded on the throne by his son ,constantine ,,viii41 surnamed ,copronymus4 ,all the information which we possess about this monarch1 as well as the other iconoclast emperors1 is derived from historians violently opposed to their religious views4 ,these writers represent ,constantine ,,viii4 as one of the greatest monsters that ever disgraced humanity1 stained by every imaginable vice2 and having exhausted all the usual terms of opprobrium1 they invent some such ridiculous expressions as a 8leopard generated by a lion1 an aspic born from the seeds of a serpent1 a flying dragon10 c42 but they do not adduce in confirmation of these epithets any of those criminal acts which have disgraced the reigns of many ,byzantine emperors1 whose piety is extolled by the same writers4 ,we know1 moreover1 by the evidence of those very historians who have bespattered with all those opprobrious terms the memory of ,constantine1 that he was a brave and skilful leader1 who defeated the ,arabs1 the most formidable enemies of the empire1 and restored several of its lost provinces1 and that the country was prosperous under his reign of thirty-four years--#gda to #gge4 ,the beginning of ,constantine's reign was disturbed by his own brother-in-law1 ,artabasdes1 who1 supported by the adherents of the images1 competed for the imperial throne1 but was defeated1 and his party crushed4 ,constantine1 desiring to abolish the abuse1 which he regarded as idolatry1 by a solemn decision of the church declared1 in #gec1 his intention to convoke for this object a general council2 and in order that the question at issue should be thoroughly sifted1 he enjoined all the bishops of the empire to assemble local synods1 and to examine the subject1 previously to its being debated by the general council4 ,this council1 composed of three hundred and thirty-eight bishops1 met at ,constantinople in #ged1 and1 after having deliberated for six months1 decided that1 conformably to ,holy ,writ and the testimony of the fathers1 all images were to be removed from the churches1 and whoever would dare to make an image1 in order to place it in a church1 to worship it1 or to keep it concealed in his house1 was1 if a clerk1 to be deposed1 if a layman1 to be anathematised4 ,the council added1 that those who adhered to the images were to be punished by the imperial authorities as enemies of the doctrine of the fathers1 and breakers of the law of ,god4 ,this decision was pronounced by the assembled bishops unanimously1 and without a single dissentient voice1 which had never been the case before4 ,this assembly took the title of the ,seventh ,ecumenical ,council1 and the emperor ordered its decision to be put into execution throughout all his dominions4 ,the images were removed from the churches1 and those which were painted on the walls covered with whitewash4 ,the principal opposition to the imperial order was offered by the monks1 who were always the chief promoters of image-worship2 and ,constantine is accused of having repressed this opposition with a violence common to that barbarous age4 ,he is said to have entertained the greatest hatred against these monks1 calling them idolaters1 and their dresses the dress of darkness--an opinion with which many persons will be found to chime1 ,i think1 even in our own time4 ,constantine died in #gge1 and was followed on the throne by his son1 ,leo ,,iv41 who inherited the religious views of his father2 whilst his wife1 ,irene1 a beautiful and talented1 but ambitious and unprincipled woman1 was a secret worshipper of images4 ,leo1 who was of a weak constitution1 died after a reign of five years1 appointing ,irene the guardian of his minor son ,constantine1 who was then ten years old4 ,irene governed the empire with great ability1 but was too fond of power to surrender it to her son at his coming of age1 and he tried to obtain by force what was due to him by right4 ,the party of ,irene proved1 however1 the stronger2 and young ,constantine was taken prisoner1 and his mother caused him to be deprived of sight4 ,irene's orders were executed in such an atrocious manner1 that the unfortunate prince died in consequence47#eg7 ,irene governed the empire with great splendour1 but her first object was to restore the worship of images2 and the machinations by which she accomplished this object have been so well related by ,gibbon1 that ,i cannot do better than copy his account of them3-- 8,under the reign of ,constantine ,,viii41 the union of the civil and ecclesiastical power had overthrown the tree1 without extirpating the root of superstition4 ,the idols1 for such they were now held1 were secretly cherished by the order and the sex most prone to devotion2 and the fond alliance of the monks and females obtained a final victory over the reason and authority of man4 ,leo ,,iv4 maintained with less rigour the religion of his father and grandfather1 but his wife1 the fair and ambitious ,irene1 had imbibed the zeal of the ,athenians17#eh7 the heirs of the idolatry rather than philosophy of their ancestors4 ,during the life of her husband1 these sentiments were inflamed by danger and dissimulation1 and she could only labour to protect and promote some favourite monks1 whom she drew from their caverns1 and seated on the metropolitan thrones of the east4 ,but as soon as she reigned in her own name1 and in that of her son1 ,irene more seriously undertook the ruin of the iconoclasts1 and the first step of her future persecution was a general edict for liberty of conscience4 ,in the restoration of the monks1 a thousand images were exposed to the public veneration2 a thousand legends were invented of their sufferings and miracles4 ,by the opportunities of death and removal1 the episcopal seats were judiciously filled2 the most eager competitors for celestial or earthly favour anticipated and flattered the judgment of their sovereign2 and the promotion of her secretary ,tarasius gave ,irene the patriarch of ,constantinople1 and the command of the ,oriental church4 ,but the decrees of a general council could only be repealed by a similar assembly2 the iconoclasts1 whom she convened1 were bold in possession1 and averse to debate2 and the feeble voice of the bishops was re-echoed by the more formidable clamour of the soldiers and the people of ,constantinople4 ,the delay and intrigues of a year1 the separation of the disaffected troops1 and the choice of ,nice for a second orthodox synod1 removed these obstacles2 and the episcopal conscience was again1 after the ,greek fashion1 in the hands of the prince40--,gibbon's ,roman ,empire1 chap4 xlix4 ,this council1 held in #ghf1 restored the worship of images by the unanimous sentence of three hundred and fifty bishops4 ,the acts of this synod have been preserved1 and they are stated by ,gibbon to be 8a curious monument of superstition and ignorance1 of falsehood and folly40 ,i am afraid that there is but too much truth in this severe judgment of ,gibbon2 and the following passage relating to the same council1 which ,i have extracted1 not from ,gibbon1 or any writer of the school to which he belonged1 but from the celebrated ,roman ,catholic historian of the church1 ,abb ,fleury1 will enable the reader to form his own judgment on this subject4 ,after describing the confession of faith signed by that council1 which declared that the images of the saints are to be worshipped1 because they remind us of those whom they represent1 and make us participators in their merits1 he says3-- 8,the last passages showed that ,god was making miracles by means of images2 and in order to confirm it1 a discourse1 ascribed to ,st ,athanasius1 was read4 ,it contained the account of a pretended miracle1 which happened at ,beryt1 with an image of ,christ1 which1 having been pierced by the ,jews1 emitted blood1 which healed many sick persons4 ,the fathers of the council were so much moved by this account that they shed tears4 ,it is1 however1 certain1 that this discourse is not by ,st ,athanasius1 and it is even very doubtful whether the story which it contains is true4 ,thus it appears that amongst all the bishops present at this council1 there was not a single one versed in the science of criticism1 because many other false documents were produced in that assembly4 ,this proves nothing against the decision of the council1 because it is sufficiently supported by true documents4 ,it only proves the ignorance of the times1 as well as the necessity of knowing history1 chronology1 the difference of manners and styles1 in order to discern real documents from spurious ones407#ei7 ,thus1 according to the authority of one of the most eminent writers of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 the second ,council of ,nice1 the first synod which has given an explicit and solemn sanction to one of the most important tenets of the ,western and the ,eastern churches1 was composed of such ignorant and silly prelates1 that an absurd fable1 contained in a forged paper1 could sway their minds and hearts in such a manner as to make them shed tears of emotion1 and that there was not a single individual amongst these venerable fathers sufficiently informed to be able to discover a fabrication so gross that it did not escape the attention of scholars who lived many centuries afterwards4 ,irene rigorously enforced the decrees of this council against the opponents of images2 and that woman1 guilty of the death of her own son1 and suspected of that of her husband1 is extolled by ecclesiastical writers as a most pious princess4 ,a contemporary ,greek writer1 and a zealous defender of image-worship1 the monk ,theodore ,studites1 places her above ,moses1 and says that 8she had delivered the people from the ,egyptian bondage of impiety20 and the historian of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 ,baronius1 justifies her conduct by the following argument3 that the hands of the fathers were raised by a just command of ,god against their children1 who followed strange gods1 and that ,moses had ordered them to consecrate themselves to the ,lord1 even every man upon his son1 and upon his brother1 ,exod4 xxxii4 #bi1 so that it was a high degree of piety to be cruel to one's own son2 consequently ,irene deserved on this account the first crown of paradise2 and that if she had committed the murder of her son from motives of ambition1 she would be worse than ,agrippina1 mother of ,nero2 but if she did it through zeal for religion1 as it appears by the encomium which she had received from very holy men who lived at that time1 she deserves to be praised for her piety4 ,irene's piety1 shown by the restoration of images1 and the persecution of their opponents1 was indeed so much appreciated by the church1 that she received a place amongst the saints of the ,greek calendar4 ,she was1 however1 less fortunate in her worldly affairs2 because she was deposed in #hjb by ,nicephorus1 who occupied the imperial throne1 and exiled to ,lesbos1 where she died in great poverty4 ,he did not abolish the images1 nor allow the persecution of their opponents2 and the ecclesiastical writers represent him1 on account of this liberal policy1 as a perfect monster4 ,nicephorus perished in a battle against the ,bulgarians in #haa1 and his successor ,michael1 who persecuted the iconoclasts1 unable to maintain himself on the throne1 retired into a convent1 after a reign of about two years1 and the imperial crown was assumed by ,leo ,v41 a native of ,armenia1 and one of the most eminent leaders of the army1 which elevated him to this dignity4 ,though all that we know about ,leo ,v4 is derived from authors zealously opposed to his religious views1 yet1 notwithstanding all their odium theologicum1 they are obliged to admit that he was gallant in the field1 and just and careful in the administration of civil affairs4 ,being the native of a country whose church still resisted the introduction of images1 he was naturally adverse to their worship1 and the manner in which he abolished it in his empire deserves a particular notice2 because1 though related by his enemies1 it proves that he was a sincere scriptural ,christian4 ,according to their relation1 ,leo believed that the victories obtained by the barbarians1 and other calamities to which the empire was exposed1 were a visitation of ,god in punishment of the worship of images2 that he demanded that a precept for adoring the images should be shown to him in the gospels1 and as the thing was impossible1 he rejected them as idols condemned by the ,word of ,god4 ,they also say1 that the attention of ,leo being once drawn to this passage of the prophet ,isaiah1 8,to whom then will you liken ,god8 or what likeness will you compare unto him8 ,the workman melteth a graven image1 and the goldsmith spreadeth it over with gold and casteth silver chains10 7xl4 #ah1 #ai17 this circumstance irritated him more than any thing else against the images4 ,he communicated his sentiments to the patriarch1 and requested him either to remove the images1 or to show a reason why they were worshipped1 since the ,scriptures did not order it4 ,the patriarch1 who was an adherent of the images1 tried to elude this demand by various sophisms1 which1 not having satisfied the emperor1 he ordered divines of both parties to assemble in his palace1 and represented to them that ,moses1 who had received the law1 written with the hand of ,god1 condemned1 in the most explicit terms1 those who adored the works of men's hands2 that it was idolatry to worship them1 and great folly to attempt to confine the ,infinite in a picture of the size of an ell4 ,it is said that the defenders of the images refused to speak for the three following reasons3--#a4 ,that the canons prohibited to doubt what had been determined by the second ,council of ,nice2 #b4 ,that the clergy could not deliberate upon such matters in the imperial palace1 but in a church2 and1 #c4 ,that the emperor was not a competent judge on this occasion1 because he was resolved to abolish the images4 ,the emperor deposed the patriarch1 who defended the images1 replacing him by another who shared his own sentiments1 and convened a council1 which1 with the exception of a few of its members1 decided for the abolition of the images4 ,the emperor ordered their removal1 and sent several of their defenders into exile2 he soon1 however1 allowed them to return1 and only some few of the most zealous of them died in exile4 ,the most celebrated of these sufferers was ,theodore ,studites2 and as he has obtained on this account the honour of saintship1 his opinions on the nature of images deserve a particular notice4 ,he maintained that as the shadow cannot be separated from the body1 as the rays of the sun are inseparable from that planet1 so the images are inseparable from the subjects which they represent4 ,he pretended that an image of ,christ should be treated as if it were ,christ himself1 saying1 8,the image is nothing else than ,christ himself1 except the difference of their essence2 therefore1 the worship of the image is the worship of ,jesus ,christ40 ,he considered those who were removing images as 8destroyers of the incarnation of ,christ1 because he does not exist if he cannot be painted4 ,we renounce ,christ if we reject his image2 and refuse to worship him1 if we refuse to adore his image407#fj7 ,this defence of image-worship is1 ,i think1 a faithful exposition of the anthropomorphistic ideas1 which1 as ,i have mentioned before1 p4 #i1 had been chiefly generated by the morbid imagination of the ,egyptian monks1 and were supported by that numerous class1 which formed the most zealous and efficient defenders of the images4 ,leo ,v4 was murdered in a church in #hbj2 and ,michael ,,ii41 surnamed the ,stammerer1 whom the conspirators placed on the throne1 did not allow the images to be restored1 though he was moderate in his religious views4 ,he recalled the defenders of the images from exile1 and seemed to steer a middle course between the enemies and the defenders of images1 though he shared the opinions of the former4 ,he was succeeded in #hbi by his son1 ,theophilus1--a most decided opponent of images1--and whose valour and love of justice are acknowledged by his religious adversaries4 ,he died in #hda1 leaving a minor son1 ,michael ,,iii41 under the regency of his wife1 ,theodora4 ,this princess1 whose personal character was irreproachable1 governed the empire during thirteen years1 with considerable wisdom2 but being an adherent of images1 she restored their worship17#fa7 which has since that time continued in the ,greek ,church in perhaps even a more exaggerated form than in the ,roman ,catholic one1 and which can be without any impropriety called iconolatry1 since idolatry may be perhaps considered as an expression too strong for ears polite4 ,the struggle between the iconoclasts and the iconolaters1 of which ,i have given a mere outline1 but which agitated the ,eastern empire for nearly a century and a half1 ending in the complete triumph of the latter1 deserves the particular attention of all thinking ,protestants2 because it is virtually the same contest that has been waged for more than three centuries between ,protestantism and ,rome17#fb7 and which seems now to assume a new phasis4 ,i do not think that the ignorance of those times may be considered as the principal cause of the triumph of the iconolatric party1 and that the spread of knowledge in our own day is a sufficient safeguard against the recurrence of a similar contingency4 ,there was in the eighth and ninth centuries a considerable amount of learning at ,constantinople1 where the treasures of classical literature1 many of which have since been lost1 were preserved and studied47#fc7 ,the ,greeks of that time1 though no doubt greatly inferior to the modern ,europeans in physical science1 were not so in metaphysics and letters1 whilst the gospel could be read by all the educated classes in its original tongue1 which was the official1 literary1 and ecclesiastical language of the ,eastern empire4 ,the ,byzantine art was1 moreover1 very inferior to that of modern ,europe1 and could not produce1 except on some coarse and rustic intellects1 that bewitching effect1 which the works of great modern painters and sculptors often produce upon many refined and imaginative minds4 ,it has been justly remarked1 by an accomplished writer of our day1 that 8the all-emancipating press is occasionally neutralised by the soul-subduing miracles of art407#fd7 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church perfectly understands this soul-subduing power of art1 and the following is the exposition of her views on this subject by one of her own writers1 whom ,i have already quoted on a similar subject1 p4 #ea4 8,that pictures and images in churches are particularly serviceable in informing the minds of the humbler classes1 and for such a purpose possess a superiority over words themselves1 is certain4 8,segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem1 ,quam qu sunt oculis subjecta fldelibus et qu ,ipse sibi tradit spectator40 --,horace de ,arte ,poetica1 v4 #ahj4 8,what's through the ear conveyed will never find ,its way with so much quickness to the mind1 ,as that1 when faithful eyes are messengers1 ,unto himself the fixed spectator bears40 8,the remark of a heathen poet is corroborated by the observations of the most celebrated amongst ancient and modern ,christian writers4 ,so persuaded was ,st ,paulinus of ,nola1 fourteen hundred years ago1 of the efficacy possessed by paintings for conveying useful lessons of instruction1 that he adorned with a variety of sacred subjects the walls of a church which he erected1 and dedicated to ,god in honour of ,st ,felix4 8,prudentius assures us how much his devotion was enkindled1 as he gazed upon the sufferings of martyrs1 so feelingly depicted around their tombs and in their churches4 ,on his way to ,rome1 about the year #dje1 the poet paid a visit to the shrine of ,st ,cassianus1 at ,forum ,cornelii1 the modern ,imola1 where the body of that ,christian hero reposed1 under a splendid altar1 over which were represented1 in an expressive picture1 all the sufferings of his cruel martyrdom47#fe7 ,so moved was ,prudentius1 that he threw himself upon the pavement1 kissed the altar with religious reverence1 and numbering up with many a tear those wounds that sin had inflicted upon his soul1 concluded by exhorting every one to unite with himself in intrusting their petitions for the divine clemency to the solicitude of the holy martyr ,cassianus1 who will not only hear our request1 but will afford us the benefit of his patronage407#ff7 ,the anecdote of ,prudentius evidently proves that what originally had been intended for the instruction of the people1 may very easily become an object of their adoration4 ,if a man of a superior education1 like ,prudentius17#fg7 could be carried away by his feelings in such a manner as to address his prayers to a dead man1 how much greater must be the effect of images upon less cultivated minds6 and ,i have related1 p4 #hh1 on the authority of the great ,roman ,catholic historian1 ,fleury1 that the fathers of the second ,council of ,nice1 who1 according to the same authority1 were a very ignorant set1 shed tears at the sight of an image represented in an absurd and fictitious story4 ,such are the effects produced in teaching religion by means of images4 ,there can be no doubt about the truth of the observations contained in the lines of ,horace1 which the author of 8,hierurgia0 quotes in defence of images2 but these observations refer to the theatre1 and it appears to me that the application of purely scenic precepts to the house of ,god is something very like converting divine service into a comedy4 ,the limits of this essay allow me not to discuss the chances of an iconolatric reaction in our days4 ,i shall only observe1 that in several countries where the iconoclasts of the ,reformation had gained a predominant position1 they were entirely crushed by the iconolatric reaction1 and that a fond alliance of females and monks1 supported by the ruling powers of the state1 achieved in these parts as great a victory as that which it obtained in the east under ,irene and ,theodora1 not only over the reason of man1 but even over the authority of the ,word of ,god2 and ,i believe that the only human means of preventing similar contingencies are free institutions1 which allow the fullest liberty of discussion in regard to all religious opinions4 ,i have said before1 p4 #hb1 that the ,pope opposed the abolition of images proclaimed by the ,emperor ,leo ,,iii41 and that this opposition was shared by the imperial provinces of ,italy1 which revolted on that occasion against their sovereign1 and separated from the ,byzantine empire4 ,it was therefore natural that the second ,council of ,nice1 which restored the worship of images1 should obtain the approbation of ,pope ,hadrian ,i42 but his desire to impose the enactments of that council upon the churches of the ,west met with a decided opposition on the part of ,charlemagne4 ,this great monarch1 who is so celebrated by his efforts to convert the ,pagan ,saxons1 prosecuted with all the barbarity of his age1 and whom the church has placed amongst her saints1 was so offended by the enactments of the second ,council of ,nice in favour of the worship of images1 that he composed1 or what is more probable1 ordered to be composed in his name1 a book against that worship1 and sent it to ,pope ,hadrian ,i41 as an exposition of his own sentiments1 as well as of those of his bishops1 on the subject in question4 ,this work1 though written in violent language1 contains many very rational views about images1 and unanswerable arguments against all kinds of adoration offered to them4 ,the substance of this celebrated protest is as follows3-- ,charlemagne says1 that there is no harm in having images in a church1 provided they are not worshipped2 and that the ,greeks had fallen into two extremes1 one of which was to destroy the images1 as had been ordained by the ,council of ,constantinople1 under ,constantine ,copronymus1 and the other to worship them1 as was decided by the second ,council of ,nice under ,irene4 ,he censures much more severely this latter extreme than the former1 because those who destroyed images had merely acted with levity and ignorance1 whilst it was a wicked and profane action to worship them4 ,he compared the first to such as mix water with wine1 and the others to those who infuse a deadly poison into it2 in short1 there could be no comparison between the two cases4 ,he marks1 with great precision1 the different kinds of worship offered to the images1 rejecting all of them4 ,the second ,council of ,nice decided that this worship should consist of kisses and genuflexions1 as well as of burning incense and wax candles before them4 ,all these practices are condemned by ,charlemagne1 as so many acts of worship offered to a created being4 ,he addresses the defenders of the worship of images in the following manner3-- 8,you who establish the purity of your faith upon images1 go1 if you like1 and fall upon your knees and burn incense before them2 but with regard to ourselves we shall seek the precepts of ,god in his ,holy ,writ4 ,light luminaries before your pictures1 whilst we shall read the ,scriptures4 ,venerate1 if you like1 colours2 but we shall worship divine mysteries4 ,enjoy the agreeable sight of your pictures2 but we shall find our delight in the ,word of ,god4 ,seek after figures which cannot either see1 or hear1 or taste2 but we shall diligently seek after the law of ,god1 which is irreprehensible40 ,he further says3--8,i see images which have such inscriptions1 as for instance ,st ,paul1 and ,i ask1 therefore1 those who are involved in this great error1 why they do call images holy 7sanctus71 and why they do not say1 conformably to the tradition of the fathers1 that these are images of the saints8 ,let them say in what consists the sanctity of the images8 ,is it in the wood which had been brought from a forest in order to make them8 ,is it in the colours with which they are painted1 and which are often composed of impure substances8 ,is it in the wax1 which gets dirty80 ,he taunts the worshippers of images1 pointing out an abuse which even now is as inevitable as it was then4 8,if10 says he1 8two pictures perfectly alike1 but of which one is meant for the ,virgin and the other for ,venus1 are presented to you1 you will inquire which of them is the image of the ,virgin and which is that of ,venus1 because you cannot distinguish them4 ,the painter will call one of these pictures the image of the ,virgin1 and it will be immediately put up in a high place1 honoured1 and kissed2 whilst the other1 representing ,venus1 will be thrown away with horror4 ,these two pictures are1 however1 made by the same hand1 with the same brush1 with the same colours2 they have the same features1 and the whole difference between them lies in their inscriptions4 ,why is the one received and the other rejected8 ,it is not on account of the sanctity which one of them has1 and the other has not2 it is1 then1 on account of its inscription2 and yet certain letters attached to a picture cannot give it a sanctity which it otherwise had not40 ,this work was published for the first time in #aedi1 by ,tillet1 ,roman ,catholic bishop of ,meaux in ,france1 though under an assumed name1 and it has been reprinted several times4 ,its authenticity1 which had been at first impugned by some ,roman ,catholic writers1 was finally established beyond every dispute1 and acknowledged by the most eminent writers of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 such as ,mabillon1 ,sirmond1 c4 ,it is a very remarkable production1 for it most positively rejects every kind of worship offered to images1 without making any difference between ,latria and ,dulia1 and ,i think that its republication might be of considerable service at the present time47#fh7 ,the ,pope sent a long letter in answer to the protest of ,charlemagne1 which did not1 however1 satisfy that monarch1 because he convened in #gid a council at ,frankfort1 at which he presided himself4 ,this synod1 composed of three hundred bishops of ,france1 ,germany1 and ,spain1 and at which two legates of the ,pope were present1 condemned the enactment of the second ,council of ,nice respecting the worship of images4 ,this decree of the ,council of ,frankfort is very important1 because it not only condemned the worship of images1 but it virtually rejected the infallibility of the ,popes1 as well as of the ,general ,councils1 since it condemned what they had established4 ,the opposition to the worship of images continued amongst the ,western churches for some time after the death of ,charlemagne4 ,thus an assembly of the ,french clergy1 held at ,paris in #hbe1 condemned the decree of the second ,council of ,nice as decidedly as it was done by the work of ,charlemagne and the ,council of ,frankfort4 ,claudius1 bishop of ,turin1 who lived about that time1 opposed the worship of images1 which he removed from his churches1 calling those idolaters who adhered to this practice2 he also condemned the adoration of relics1 of the figure of the cross1 c42 and he was not inaptly called1 on this account1 by the ,jesuit historian ,maimbourg1 the first ,protestant minister4 ,there are other traces of a similar opposition during the ninth century1 but it seems to have entirely disappeared in the tenth1 and it was again renewed by the ,albigenses in the eleventh century4 ,their history1 however1 is foreign to the object of the present essay2 and ,i shall endeavour to give in my next chapter a short sketch of the legends of the saints1 composed during the middle ages4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,origin ,and ,development ,of ,the ,pious ,legends1 ,or ,lives ,of ,saints1 ,during ,the ,middle ,ages4 ,a collection of the lives of the saints of the ,roman ,catholic calendar has been accomplished by the ,jesuits1 and is well known as that of the ,bollandists1 from the name of its first originator ,bollandus4 ,it extends to fifty-three huge folios1 though it has reached only to the middle of ,october17#fi7 each day having a number of saints assigned to it for commemoration4 ,it contains1 among a mass of the greatest absurdities1 a good deal of valuable information relating to the history of the middle ages1 particularly in respect to the customs and prevailing ideas of that period4 ,a great1 if not the greatest part of the saints whose lives are described in that collection have never existed1 except in the imagination of their biographers2 and the best proof of this is that the learned ,benedictine monk1 ,dom ,ruinart1 an intimate friend and collaborator of the celebrated ,mabillon1 has reduced the acts of martyrs1 whom he considers as true1 to one moderate quarto1 though the same work contains a refutation of the ,protestant ,dodwell1 who maintained that the number of the primitive martyrs had been greatly exaggerated by their historians47#gj7 ,the ,christian church was already1 at an early period of her existence1 disturbed by a great number of forgeries1 relating to the history and doctrine of our ,lord and his disciples27#ga7 but the spirit in which they were written1 so contrary to that of the true ,gospel1 and the gross absurdities which they contain1 were convincing proofs of the apocryphal character of those writings1 which1 consequently1 were rejected as such from the canon of ,scripture4 ,if the church could not escape such abuses at a time when she was not yet infected by ,pagan ideas and practices1 she became still more exposed to them after the abovementioned corruptions1 and when1 as has already been said1 p4 #bj1 the ,christian society was invaded by whole populations1 who1 notwithstanding their abjuration of heathenism1 were ,pagans in their manners1 their tastes1 their prejudices1 and their ignorance4 ,there were1 moreover1 very great difficulties in obtaining authentic information about the lives of the martyrs4 ,i have said1 p4 #c1 that their memory was usually preserved in the churches to which they had belonged4 ,this was1 however1 entirely a local affair1 and though the report of such events had undoubtedly circulated amongst other ,christian congregations1 there was no general register of martyrs preserved by the whole church1 which had no central point of union4 ,the means of communication between various places were1 moreover1 at that time very imperfect1 and this difficulty was increased by the persecutions to which the primitive churches were often exposed4 ,these persecutions dispersed many churches1 destroying their registers and other documents belonging to them1 whilst even a much greater number of them experienced a similar calamity from the barbarian nations who successively invaded the ,roman empire4 ,the accounts of the sufferings and death of the martyrs rest1 therefore1 with the exception of some comparatively few well-authenticated cases1 upon the authority of vague and uncertain traditions4 ,these traditions were generally collected and put in writing only centuries after the time when the event to which they relate had1 or is supposed to have taken place4 ,it was therefore no wonder that the subjects of many such accounts are purely imaginary4 ,the nature of the generality of these legends1 or lives of martyrs and other saints1 may be judged of best from the following opinion expressed on this subject by a ,roman ,catholic clergyman of unsuspected orthodoxy3-- 8,what shall ,i say of those saints of whose life we don't know either the beginning or the progress1--of those saints to whom so many praises are given1 though nobody knows anything about their end8 ,who may pray to them to intercede for him1 when it is impossible to know what degree of credit they enjoy with ,god8 ,we shall be obliged1 indeed1 to consider the most part of the acts of martyrs1 which are now produced with so much confidence1 as so many fables1 and reject them as nothing better than romances4 ,it is true that their lives are written1 like that of ,st ,ovidius1 ,st ,felicissimus1 and ,st ,victor6 ,but1 ,o ,god6 what lives6 what libels6 lives deserving a place in the ,index of the ,prohibited ,books1 since they are filled with falsehoods1 vain conjectures1 or1 to say the least1 are ascribing to unknown and apocryphal saints the true acts of the most illustrious martyrs4 ,such things cannot but bring about a great confusion in the history of the church1 not to say in religion itself4 ,it is in this manner that the actions of ,st ,felicissimus1 who is generally believed to have been a deacon to ,st ,sixtus1 are ascribed to a new ,felicissimus2 and the virtues of ,st ,victor of ,milan are now given to a new ,victor1 who has been recently brought to ,paris4 ,as regards the life of ,st ,ovidius1 is there anything in it more than words and words8 and can we find in it anything solid8 ,this little book speaks of a leaden plate upon which the senatorial dignity and the year of this saint's martyrdom are inscribed4 ,why is not this inscription given8 ,why is not at least the precise date of his martyrdom named8 ,it is said that ,st ,ovidius suffered towards the end of the second century2 is this the manner of fixing the year of his death8 ,no1 no2 the ancients did not mark the time in such a manner2 they did not take an uncertain century for the certain epoch of a year4 ,i am much afraid that this inscription is by no means so authentic as people wish to persuade us4 ,but there was found in his grave a little glass vessel2 a palm is engraved upon his sepulchre2 and his skull has the appearance of being pierced with a lance4 ,well1 these marks may prove that ,st ,ovidius was a martyr2 but are they sufficient to establish the truth of his life1 such as it has been published807#gb7 ,i would1 however1 observe1 that many writers of the lives of saints1 without excepting those who are considered legitimate1 have rendered themselves guilty of something worse than the plagiarism of which the learned ,mabillon complains in the passage given above4 ,they may be accused of having blasphemously parodied the ,scriptures1 and particularly the ,gospels1 by ascribing many of the miracles recorded in the ,bible to the subjects of their biographies4 ,m4 ,maury1 the ,french savant whom ,i have already quoted 7p4 #aa71 has traced a great number of miracles ascribed to various saints1 which are nothing but imitations of this kind4 ,this sacrilegious plagiarism is not confined to the middle ages1 but has been practised in modern times1 as is evident from the two following miracles ascribed to the celebrated ,jesuit saint1 ,francis ,xavier1 who died in #aeeb4 ,it is said that during his residence in ,japan a woman of his acquaintance lost her daughter1 after having sought in vain during her illness for ,st ,francis1 who was absent on some journey4 ,at his return the bereaved mother fell at his feet1 and said1 weeping1 like ,martha to our ,saviour1 8,lord1 if thou hadst been here1 my daughter had not died10--7,john xi4 #ba47 ,the saint1 moved by the entreaties of the mother1 ordered her to open the grave of her daughter1 and restored her to life4 ,another time the same saint said to a father whose daughter had died1 in the same manner as ,jesus ,christ said to the centurion whose servant was sick1 8,go thy way2 thy daughter is healed407#gc7 ,had these miracles been performed in our part of the world1 they would have converted crowds of ,protestants1 and thus greatly advanced the principal object of the order to which ,st ,francis ,xavier belonged2 but the air of ,europe seems to have been unfavourable for such wonderful experiments1 since the good saint was obliged to betake himself to ,japan in order successfully to perform them4 ,it is true that the legend writers make no attempt at concealing these imitations1 but1 on the contrary1 insist upon the likeness of the miracles performed by their saint to those of our ,saviour1 as a proof of the high degree of sanctity attained by the former4 ,no saint1 however1 of the ,roman ,catholic or ,grco-,russian calendar had so many miracles ascribed to him1 particularly of the kind mentioned above1 as ,st ,francis of ,assisi1 the celebrated founder of the mendicant monks1 and who1 considering the immense influence which his disciples have exercised on the ,catholic world1 was perhaps one of the most extraordinary characters which the middle ages produced4 ,it has been frequently observed1 that genius is akin to madness1 and that the partition by which the two are separated is so thin that it occasionally becomes quite imperceptible4 ,such a condition of the human mind has perhaps never been exemplified in a more striking manner than by the life of this famous saint1 which presents a strange mixture of the noblest acts of charity and self-devotion1 the wildest freaks of a madman1 and of genial conceptions worthy of the most eminent statesman and philosopher4 ,the best proof of his genius is the great influence which the order instituted by him has exercised during several centuries in many countries1 and which even now has not yet lost its vitality4 ,it must also be admitted1 that neither ,st ,francis nor his disciples can be charged with any of those atrocities by which the life of his contemporary ,st ,dominic1 of bloody memory1 the founder of the inquisition1 and the preacher of the crusade against the ,albigenses1 as well as the annals of his order1 are stained4 ,neither can it be denied that ,francis1 as well as his followers1 have on many occasions mitigated the barbarity of their age4 ,his immense popularity is1 however1 as ,i think1 chiefly due to the circumstance that his order1 principally destined to act upon the lower classes1 was recruited from the most numerous and most ignorant part of the population2 and is it necessary to observe that the less men are educated1 the more they are prone to credulity and exaggeration8 ,much learning was not required for the admission to this democratic order1 and its ranks were increased by the creation of a class whose members remained in the world1 binding themselves only to the observation of some devotional practices and moral precepts4 ,all this contributed to spread the order of ,st ,francis1 to which both sexes are admitted1 with a marvellous rapidity over many countries2 at the same time its members were extolling the virtues and supposed miracles of their founder in the most exaggerated and often ludicrous manner1 of which the following anecdote may serve as a specimen3--,a ,franciscan monk1 who was one day preaching about the merits of the founder of his order1 began his sermon in the following manner3 8,where shall ,i place the great ,st ,francis8 ,amongst the saints8 ,this is not enough for his merits4 ,amongst the angels8 no1 'tis not enough4 ,amongst the archangels8 'tis not enough4 ,amongst the seraphims8 'tis not enough4 ,amongst the cherubims8 'tis not enough40 ,he was1 however1 on a sudden released1 by one of his hearers1 from his perplexity about a proper location for his saint1 who1 rising from his seat1 said1 8,reverend father1 as ,i see that you cannot find for ,st ,francis a proper place in heaven1 ,i shall give up to him mine on this bench20 which having said1 he left the church4 ,the story does not say whether this good monk was satisfied with the place so unexpectedly offered to his saint1 or where he would have stopped without this timely interruption2 but we know1 from many other cases1 that ,st ,francis was compared by his disciples to our ,saviour4 ,thus1 in a work published by the ,father ,bartholomeus of ,pisa1 and entitled 8,the ,golden ,book of the ,conformities of the ,life of ,st ,francis with that of ,jesus ,christ107#gd7 the author maintains that the birth of ,st ,francis was announced by prophets2 that he had twelve disciples1 one of whom1 called ,john ,capella1 was rejected by him1 like ,judas ,iscariot by our ,lord2 that he had been tempted by the devil1 but without success2 that he was transfigured2 that he had suffered the same passion as our ,saviour1 though he never was subject to any persecution or ill-usage1 but died quietly1 in #abah1 amidst his devoted admirers4 ,other writers pushed even farther the blasphemous comparison1 boasting that ,st ,francis had performed many more miracles than our ,lord1 because ,christ changed water into wine but once1 whilst ,st ,francis did it thrice2 and that instead of the few miraculous cures mentioned in the ,gospels1 ,st ,francis and his disciples had opened the eyes of more than a thousand blind1 cured more than a thousand lame1 and restored to life more than a thousand dead4 ,the greatest miracle1 however1 that has ever been wrought by ,st ,francis has taken place in our own days1 and its authenticity admits of no doubt whatever4 ,it is a life of this famous saint1 published by ,m4 ,chavin de ,malan2 and my readers may form an adequate idea of its contents by the following extract from an admirable article in the 8,edinburgh ,review0 for ,july #ahdg3--8,though amongst the most passionate and uncompromising devotees of the ,church of ,rome1 ,m4 ,chavin de ,malan also is in one sense a ,protestant4 ,he protests against any exercise of human reason in examining any dogma which that church inculcates1 or any fact which she alleges4 ,the most merciless of her cruelties affect him with no indignation1 the silliest of her prodigies with no shame1 the basest of her superstitions with no contempt4 ,her veriest dotage is venerable in his eyes4 ,even the atrocities of ,innocent ,,iii4 seem to this all-extolling eulogist but to augment the triumph and the glories of his reign4 ,if the soul of the confessor of ,simon de ,montfort1 retaining all the passions and all the prejudices of that era1 should transmigrate into a doctor of the ,sorbonne1 conversant with the arts and literature of our own times1 the result might be the production of such an ecclesiastical history as that of which we have here a specimen1--elaborate in research1 glowing in style1 vivid in portraiture1 utterly reckless and indiscriminate in belief1 extravagant up to the very verge of idolatry in applause1 and familiar far beyond the verge of indecorum with the most awful topics and objects of the ,christian faith40--7,pp4 #a1 #b477ge7 ,now1 ,i ask my reader whether the publication of such a work1 in the year of grace #ahde1 at ,paris1 is not a perfect miracle1 and undoubtedly much more genuine than all those which it describes8 ,we live indeed in an age of wonders1 physical as well as moral1 and neither of them have escaped the all-powerful influence of the great moving spring of our time1 and the principal cause of its rapid advance1--i4e41 competition4 ,england1 which is foremost in many1 and not behind in any1 inventions and discoveries of the day1 has maintained her rank1 and even perhaps gone ahead1 in the production of such moral miracles as that of which ,i have given a specimen above4 ,and1 indeed1 the lives of the ,english saints1 published in the years #ahdd and #ahde1 in the capital of this ,protestant country1 may fearlessly challenge a comparison with the work of ,m4 ,chavin de ,malan4 ,they are1 moreover1 ascribed to a clergyman of the ,church of ,england1 who1 though he has since gone over to ,rome1 was at that time receiving the wages of the ,protestant ,establishment of this country as one of its servants and defenders47#gf7 ,the few following extracts from this curious work will enable my readers to judge whether ,i have over-estimated the capabilities of this work for a successful competition with its ,french rival3-- 8,many of these 7legends7 are so well fitted to illustrate certain principles which should be borne in mind in considering medival miracles1 that they deserve some attention4 ,not that any thing here said is intended to prove that the stories of miracles1 said to be wrought in the middle ages1 are true4 ,men will always believe or disbelieve their truth1 in proportion as they are disposed to admit or reject the antecedent probability of the existence of a perpetual church1 endowed with unfailing divine powers4 ,and the reason of this is plain4 ,ecclesiastical miracles presuppose ,catholic faith1 just as ,scripture miracles1 and ,scripture itself1 presuppose the existence of ,god4 ,men1 therefore1 who disbelieve the faith1 will of course disbelieve the story of the miracles1 which1 if it is not appealed to as a proof of the faith1 at least takes it for granted4 ,for instance1 the real reason for rejecting the account of the vision which appeared to ,st ,waltheof in the holy ,eucharist1 must be disbelief of the ,catholic doctrine407#gg7 ,the miracle alluded to above1 and which cannot be rejected without disbelief in the ,catholic doctrine1 is as follows3--8,on ,christmas-day1 when the convent was celebrating the nativity of our ,lord1 as the friar was elevating the host1 in the blessed sacrifice of the mass1 he saw in his hand a child fairer than the children of men1 having on his head a crown of gold studded with jewels4 ,his eyes beamed with light1 and his face was more radiant than the whitest snow2 and so ineffably sweet was his countenance1 that the friar kissed the feet and the hands of the heavenly child4 ,after this the divine vision disappeared1 and ,waltheof found in his hands the consecrated water407#gh7 ,the whole collection is full of similar stories1 some of which are really outrageous2 as1 for instance1 that which it relates about ,st ,augustine1 the great apostle of ,england4 ,this saint was1 during his peregrinations about the country1 received with great honours in the north of ,england2 8but10 says the work in question1 8very different from this are the accounts of his travels in ,dorsetshire4 ,while there1 we hear of his having come to one village1 where he was received with every species of insult4 ,the wretched people1 not content with heaping abusive words upon the holy visitors1 assailed them with missiles1 in which work1 the place being probably a sea-port1 the sellers of fish are related to have been peculiarly active4 ,hands1 too1 were laid upon the archbishop and his company4 ,finding all efforts useless1 the godly company shook the dust from their feet1 and withdrew4 ,the inhabitants are said to have suffered the penalty of their impieties1 even to distant generations4 ,all the children born from that time bore and transmitted the traces of their parents' sins in the shape of a loathsome deformity407#gi7 ,the writer who relates this story had not the courage or the honesty of ,m4 ,chavin de ,malan to tell that the insult offered to the holy visitors consisted in attaching tails of fish to their robes1 and that the loathsome deformity1 with which the children of the perpetrators of that insult were born during many generations1 was a tail4 ,absurd as this monkish story is1 it is nevertheless characteristic of the spirit of the sacerdotal pride and vindictiveness which would punish a silly joke1 by which the dignity of the priestly order was offended1 with a heavy calamity1 entailed upon the innocent descendants of its perpetrators through many generations2 and yet the fables of this modern mythology cannot be1 according to our author1 rejected without disbelief of the ,catholic doctrine4 ,this is not1 however1 his personal opinion2 and he has only asserted1 in a more decisive manner than it has been done for a considerable time1 a principle which the ,roman ,catholic ,church cannot disavow1 though it may place her in an embarrassing position2 and as an illustration of this1 ,i shall give the following anecdote3-- ,under the reign of ,frederic ,,ii41 a ,prussian soldier stole a costly ornament from an image of the ,virgin1 which enjoyed a great reputation for its miraculous powers4 ,the theft being discovered1 the culprit pleaded in his defence that1 having addressed a fervent prayer to the above-mentioned image for help in his poverty1 it gave him this ornament to relieve him from his distress4 ,this affair was reported to the king1 who1 being much amused by the soldier's device1 required the ,roman ,catholic bishop in whose diocese this theft was committed to give a positive opinion whether the image in question could work miracles of this kind or not8 ,the bishop could not1 without showing disbelief in the ,catholic doctrine1 deny the possibility of the miracle1 and was therefore obliged to give an affirmative reply4 ,the king1 therefore1 pardoned the soldier1 on condition of never accepting presents from this or any other image or saint whatever4 ,the author of this essay1 though a firm believer in the existence of ,god and the truth of the ,scriptures1 has not the advantage of being inspired with faith in the ,catholic doctrine2 he therefore will continue his researches in the same manner as before4 ,many legends originated from misunderstanding the emblematic character of some pictures4 ,thus the celebrated ,spanish lady saint and authoress1 ,st ,theresa1 was1 on account of her eloquent and impassioned effusions of love addressed to the ,deity1 painted by a ,spanish artist having her heart pierced with an arrow1 in allusion to the words of the ,psalmist1 8,for thine arrows stick fast in me10 c4--7,ps4 xxxviii4 #b47 ,she died quietly in her convent towards the end of the sixteenth century1 and though the particulars of her life and death are generally known1 there were some legend writers who related that she died a martyr1 pierced by an arrow4 ,if such confusion of ideas could happen in a time when literature and science had made considerable progress1 and when the art of printing was already universally known1 how much more frequently such things must have occurred during the prevailing ignorance of the middle ages6 ,and1 indeed1 there are many wild legends which have originated from a similar source1 and of which the most celebrated is that of ,st ,denis1 which has been also related of other saints4 ,this martyr1 supposed to have been beheaded1 was represented holding his head in his hand1 as an emblem of the manner of his death4 ,the writer of his legend took this emblem for the representation of a real fact1 and loosening the reins of his imagination1 related that the saint1 after having been beheaded1 took up his head1 kissed it1 and walked away with it47#hj7 ,it is a general tendency of a gross and unenlightened mind to materialise the most abstract and spiritual ideas1 and then what is simply an allegory becomes with him a reality4 ,it was this tendency which1 during the medival ignorance1 gave often a literal sense to what is only typical1 and it was carried so far that even the parables of our ,lord were constructed into real stories4 ,thus1 ,lazarus was a poor saint who lived in great want1 and was made after his death the patron of beggars and lepers4 ,the parable of the prodigal son has furnished materials for many a legend2 and to crown all these pious parodies1 a monk has shown to the well-known ,eastern traveller ,hasselquist1 the very spot upon which the good ,samaritan assisted the wounded man1 who had been left unheeded by the priest and the ,levite4 ,future rewards and punishments1 heaven and hell1 were also represented in a grossly material manner1 that gave rise to many absurd legends1 generally invented with the object of supporting the pretensions of the church1 to have the power of sending at pleasure the souls of the departed to either of these places47#ha7 ,i have already spoken of the effects which the solitary and ascetic life of the early monks produced upon their imagination4 ,the same thing took place amongst the recluses of the convents1 but particularly nunneries4 8,the imaginations of women10 says a celebrated author whom ,i have already quoted1 8as their feelings are more keen and exquisite1 are more susceptible and ungovernable than those of men2 more obnoxious to the injurious influence of solitude2 more easily won upon by the arts of delusion1 and inflamed by the contagion of the passions40 ,hence we may account for the rapidity with which in orphan houses1 cloisters1 and other institutions1 where numbers of the sex are intimately connected with each other1 the sickness1 humour1 habits1 of one1 if conspicuous and distinguished1 become those of all4 ,i remember to have read in a medical writer of considerable merit1 that in a ,french convent of nuns1 of more than common magnitude1 one of the sisters was seized with a strange impulse to mew like a cat1 in which singular propensity she was shortly imitated by several other sisters1 and finally1 without a solitary exception1 by the whole convent1 who all joined at regular periods in a general mew that lasted several hours4 ,the neighbourhood heard1 with more astonishment than edification1 the daily return of this celestial symphony1 which was silenced1 after many ineffectual measures1 by terrifying the modesty of the sex with the menace1 that1 on any future repetition of their concert1 a body of soldiers1 pretended to be stationed at the gates of the monastery1 would be called in to inflict upon them a discipline at once shameful and severe4 8,among all the epidemic fancies of the sex ,i have found upon record1 none equals that related by ,cardan to have displayed itself in the fifteenth century1--which forcibly illustrates what has been remarked of the intuitive contagion by which fantastic affection is propagated among women4 ,a nun in a certain ,german convent was urged by an unaccountable impulse to bite all her companions2 and her strange caprice gradually spread to others1 till the whole body was infected by the same fury4 ,nor did the evil confine itself within these limits3 the report of this strange mania travelled from one province to another1 and every where conveyed with it the infectious folly1 from cloister to cloister1 through the ,german empire2 from thence extending itself on each side to ,holland and ,italy1 the nuns at length worried one another from ,rome to ,amsterdam4 8,numberless instances might be quoted to demonstrate the force with which the strangest and most wild propensities fasten themselves on the imagination1 and conquer and tyrannise over the will1 when the soul is debarred from a free intercourse with its species1 and left too uninterruptedly to its own unbridled musings4 ,but those which we have related may be sufficient to show the danger into which he runs who delivers himself unconditionally to the custody of solitude1 and does not arm himself against its faithless hospitality4 ,shut up in a barren and monotonous leisure1 without studies to occupy curiosity1 without objects to amuse the senses1 or to interest and to attract the affections to any thing human1 fancy will escape into the worlds of chimerical existence1 there to seek amusement and exercise4 ,how fondly does it then embrace and cherish angelical visions1 or infernal phantoms1 prodigies1 or miracles6 or should its reveries take another direction1 with what increasing eagerness and confidence do its hopes hunt after the delusions of alchemy1 the fictions of philosophy1 and the delirium of metaphysics6 ,in cases where the mind is less capacious1 and its stores less copious1 it will attach itself to some absurd notion1 the child of its languid and exhausted powers2 and bestowing its fondest confidence on this darling of its dotage1 will abandon reason and outrage common sense407#hb7 ,i have given this lengthened extract from ,zimmerman1 because ,i think it satisfactorily explains those mystic visions as well as infernal phantoms1 with which the medival legends and chronicles1 generally composed by monks1 abound1 and which are often unjustly ascribed to fraud and wilful deception4 ,medical science1 as well as all the branches of natural philosophy1 being then in a very imperfect condition1 such phenomena as those of nuns mewing like cats or biting like dogs1 which are mentioned by ,zimmerman1 were not explained as nervous diseases1 but ascribed to the possession of evil spirits2 and ,i frankly confess that ,i am by no means sure1 that if cases like those mentioned above were to happen in our enlightened age1 there would not be found many good folks ascribing them to a similar agency4 ,it must be also remembered that1 if notwithstanding the extreme rapidity and regularity of communications in our own time1 reports of various events are often exaggerated and even completely altered in passing from one place to another2 how much more must it have been the case during the time of such defective communication as existed previous to the invention of printing and the introduction of the post6 ,it was therefore no wonder if occurrences of such an extraordinary nature as those alluded to were immensely magnified by report1 and if it had1 at least in many places1 converted the mewing and biting nuns into as many cats and dogs4 ,it is1 moreover1 now generally admitted that what is called mesmerism1 but whose real nature science has not yet explained1 was known and practised during the middle ages1 as well as in remote antiquity1 and that many thaumaturgic operations1 described by the medival legends1 as well as by ancient writers1 were produced by means of this still mysterious agency4 ,i have dwelt perhaps too long on this subject1 because ,i am afraid that the observations relating to it are not confined to a distant period1 but may become but too often applicable to our own times4 ,and1 indeed1 when we reflect on the rapid increase of convents and nunneries1 particularly in this country1 and that notwithstanding the present state of civilization these establishments must be filled chiefly by individuals whose imaginations are stronger than their reasoning powers1 there can be little doubt that they may again become the stage of those extraordinary manifestations1 the cause of which had been too exclusively ascribed to medival darkness4 ,it cannot be doubted1 that designing individuals of both sexes1 possessed of superior talents and knowledge1 but particularly endowed with a strong will1 may exercise not only an undue influence1 but even an absolute power over the inmates of the above-mentioned monastic establishments2 and that a skilful application of mesmerism may efficiently promote such unlawful ends4 ,many local superstitious remains of ,paganism1--as1 for instance1 miraculous powers ascribed to certain wells1 stones1 caverns1--stories about various kinds of fairies1 c4--have furnished ample materials to the medival legend writers1 who arranged them according to their own views4 ,they generally retained the miraculous part of the story1 frequently embellishing it by their own additions1 but substituting the agency of the ,christian saint1 the hero of their tale1 for that of the ,pagan deity1 to whom it had originally been ascribed4 ,it was thus that the localities considered by the ,pagans as possessed of some supernatural properties1 and resorted to by them on this account1 were converted into places of ,christian pilgrimages1 with the only difference that the ,pagan genius loci was baptised with the name of a ,christian saint1 whose existence can often be no more proved than that of his heathen predecessor4 ,many hagiographers seem to have indulged their humour as much as their fancy in composing these legends1 which appears from such ludicrous stories as1 for instance1 that of ,st ,fechin1 whose piety was so fervent that when he was bathing in cold water it became almost boiling hot4 ,this warm-hearted or hot-headed saint is said to have belonged to the ,emerald isle1 though1 considering that his ardent piety was so very much like a manifestation of the perfervidum ,scotorum ingenium1 in a somewhat exaggerated form1 ,i am much inclined to believe him a native of the north country4 ,there are many instances of such humorous miracles1 but ,i shall quote only that of ,laurenthios1 a famous ,greek saint1 and worker of miracles4 ,having one day some business with the ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 he was kept waiting in the prelate's ante-chamber1 and feeling very warm he wanted to take off his cloak4 ,but as there was not any piece of furniture in the room1 nor even a peg on its walls1 ,st ,laurenthios1 embarrassed what to do with his cloak1 threw it upon a ray of the sun1 which was entering the room through a hole in the shutter1 and which immediately acquired the firmness of a rope1 so that the saint's cloak remained hanging upon it4 ,it must not1 however1 be believed that the hot sun and fervid imagination of ,greece were absolutely requisite for the performance of such wonderful tricks2 for we have sufficient legendary evidence to prove that they were successfully reproduced under the less brilliant sky of ,germany and ,france1 because ,st ,goar of ,treves suspended his cap1 and ,st ,aicadrus1 abbot of ,jumieges1 his gloves upon the same piece of furniture that had been used by ,st ,laurenthios to hang his cloak1 though probably1 considering that the sun is not so powerful in those countries as it is at ,constantinople1 the western saints did not venture to try its rays with such a heavy load1 as had been successfully done by their eastern colleague4 ,some miracles were invented in order to inculcate implicit obedience to the ecclesiastical authorities1 which is considered by the ,roman ,catholic ,church as one of1 if not the most important virtue to be practised by her children4 ,thus it is related that when the ,spanish ,dominican monk1 ,st ,vincent ,ferrerius1 celebrated for the great number of his miracles1 was one day walking along a street in ,barcelona1 a mason1 falling from a high roof1 called for his assistance4 ,the saint answered that he could not perform a miracle without the permission of his superior1 but that he would go and ask for it4 ,the mason remained1 therefore1 suspended in the air until ,st ,vincent1 returning with the permission1 got him safely down on the ground4 ,it must be admitted1 that many saints1 whose lives are disfigured by absurd stories of their miracles1 were men of great piety1 adorned with the noblest virtues1 and who gave proofs of the most exalted charity and self-devotion4 ,unfortunately the honours of saintship have been often bestowed upon such sanguinary monsters as ,st ,dominic1 whose shrine would be the most appropriately placed in a temple where human sacrifices are offered1 or upon madmen who have outraged every feeling of humanity4 ,thus it is related that ,st ,alexius left his home on the day of his wedding1 and1 having exchanged his clothes for the rags of a beggar1 adopted his mode of life4 ,after some time1 when his appearance had become so wretched that he could no longer be recognised by his friends1 he returned to his parental house1 asking for shelter4 ,he obtained a place under the staircase1 and lived there by alms for seventeen years1 continually witnessing the distress and lamentations of his wife1 mother1 and aged father about his loss1 and was recognised only after his death by a book of prayers which had been given him by his mother4 ,and it was for this unfeeling and even cruel treatment of his own family that he was canonised6 ,it is supposed1 however1 that all this story is but a fiction1 and1 for the sake of humanity1 ,i sincerely hope that it is so4 ,the limits of this essay allow me not farther to extend my researches about the legends of medival saints1 and their miracles2 and ,i shall try to give in my next chapter a short analysis of several practices which the ,roman ,catholic as well as the ,grco-,russian ,church have retained from ,paganism4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,analysis ,of ,the ,pagan ,rites ,and ,practices ,which ,have ,been ,retained ,by ,the ,roman ,catholic ,as ,well ,as ,the ,grco-,russian ,church4 ,i have given 7p4 #ad7 the opinion of an eminent ,roman ,catholic modern author 7,chateaubriand7 about the introduction of ,pagan usages into the ,christian worship1 and a long extract 7pp4 #af-bh7 from another no less distinguished ,roman ,catholic writer of our day1 describing the cause of this corruption4 ,the ,roman ,catholic writers of this country do not1 however1 treat this subject with the same sincerity as the illustrious author of the 8,genie du ,christianisme10 and the learned ,french ,academician from whose work ,i have so largely drawn2 but they try hard to deny that many usages of their church bear the stamp of ,paganism47#hc7 ,this is particularly the case with the author of 8,hierurgia10 a work which ,i have already quoted1 and which may be considered as the fairest expression of what the ,roman ,catholic ,church teaches on the subject in question4 ,thus the use of images in churches is represented as being authorised by ,scripture1 by the following curious arguments3-- 8,the practice of employing images as ornaments and memorials to decorate the temple of the ,lord is in a most especial manner approved by the ,word of ,god himself4 ,moses was commanded to place two cherubim upon the ark1 and to set up a brazen figure of the fiery serpent1 that those of the murmuring ,israelites who had been bitten might recover from the poison of their wounds by looking on the image4 ,in the description of ,solomon's temple1 we read of that prince1 not only that he made in the oracle two cherubim of olive tree1 of ten cubits in height1 but that #8all the walls of the temple round about he carved with divers figures and carvings4' 8,in the first book of ,paralipomenon 7,chronicles7 we observe that when ,david imposed his injunction upon ,solomon to realise his intention of building a house to the ,lord1 he delivered to him a description of the porch and temple1 and concluded by thus assuring him3 #8,all these things came to me written by the hand of the ,lord1 that ,i may understand the works of the pattern4' 8,the isolated fact that images were not only directed by the ,almighty ,god to be placed in the ,mosaic tabernacle1 and in the more sumptuous temple of ,jerusalem1 but that he himself exhibited the pattern of them1 will be alone sufficient to authorise the practice of the ,catholic ,church in regard to a similar observance40--7,hierurgia1 p4 #cga47 ,all this may be briefly answered4 ,there was no representation of the ,jewish patriarchs or saints either in the tabernacle or in the temple of ,solomon1 as is the case with the ,christian saints in the ,roman ,catholic and ,grco-,russian ,churches2 and the brazen serpent1 to which the author alludes1 was broken into pieces by order of ,king ,hezekiah as soon as the ,israelites began to worship it4 ,the author tries to prove1 with considerable learning and ingenuity1 that the primitive ,christians ornamented their churches with images1 and ,i have already given1 p4 #ea1 his explanation of the ,council of ,elvira2 but his assertions are completely disproved by every direct evidence which we have about the places of worship of those ,christians4 ,i have already quoted1 p4 #g1 the testimony of ,minutius ,felix1 that the ,christians had no kind of simulachres in their temples1 as well as the indignation of ,st ,epiphanius at an attempt to introduce them into the churches1 p4 #fh1 and for which there would have been no occasion if it had been an established custom4 ,the most important part of his defence of the use of images is1 however1 the paragraph entitled1 8,no virtue resident in images themselves10 containing what follows3-- 8,not only are ,catholics not exposed to such dangers 7i4e41 idolatry71 but they are expressly prohibited by the church 7,concilium ,tridentinum1 sess4 xxv47 to believe that there is any divinity or virtue resident in images for which they should be reverenced1 or that any thing is to be asked of them1 or any confidence placed in them1 but that the honour given should be referred to those whom they represent2 and so particular are their religious instructors in impressing this truth upon the minds of their congregations1 that if a ,catholic child1 who had learned its first catechism1 were asked if it were permitted to pray to images1 the child would answer1 #8,no1 by no means2 for they have no life nor sense to help us2' and the pastor who discovered any one rendering any portion of the respect which belongs to ,god alone to a crucifix or to a picture1 would have no hesitation in breaking the one and tearing the other into shreds1 and throwing the fragments into the flames1 in imitation of ,ezechias1 who broke the brazen serpent on account of the superstitious reverence which the ,israelites manifested towards it40--7,hierurgia1 p4 #chb47 ,it is perfectly true that the ,council of ,trent has declared that the images of ,christ1 of the virgin1 and of other saints1 are to be honoured and venerated1 not because it is believed that there is any divinity or virtue inherent in them1 or that any thing is to be asked of them1 or any confidence placed in images1 as had been done by ,pagans1 who put their trust in idols 7,psalm cxxxv4 #ae-ah71 but that 8the honour given should be referred to those whom they represent1 so that by the images which we kiss1 before which we uncover our heads1 or prostrate ourselves 7procumbimus71 we worship ,christ and the saints whose likeness those images represent407#hd7 ,but if there is 8no divinity or virtue resident in images10 as is declared by the ,council of ,trent1 what is to become of all those miraculous images which are the subject of pilgrimage in so many ,roman ,catholic countries1 and the existence of whose miraculous powers has been solemnly acknowledged by the highest ecclesiastical authorities8 ,i shall not attempt to enumerate those miraculous images1 because their number is legion1 but ,i shall only ask the rev4 doctor whether he considers the image of the virgin of ,loretto1 which is the object of so many pilgrimages1 and to which so many miracles are ascribed1 as having some virtue resident in it or not8 and would he break it in pieces on account of the miraculous powers ascribed to it8 ,is he prepared to act in such a manner with the celebrated ,bambino7#he7 of ,rome8 and are the miraculous powers ascribed to it1 as well as to the virgin of ,loretto1 and other images of this kind1 a reality or an imposture8 and1 finally1 what will he do with the winking ,madonna of ,rimini1 which has lately made so much noise1 and which1 instead of being broken to pieces or torn to shreds by the priests or the bishop of the place1 has been approved by ecclesiastical authority8 ,i can assure the rev4 doctor1 that by breaking into pieces the miraculous images1 carved as well as painted1 he will break down many barriers which now separate the ,protestant ,christians from those who belong to his own church4 ,i am1 however1 afraid that he will find many difficulties in attempting such a thing2 and ,i must remind him1 that in quoting the above-mentioned canon of the ,council of ,trent1 he forgot an essential part of it1 which greatly modifies the declaration that there is no divinity or virtue resident in images1 saying1 8,that the holy synod ordains that no one be allowed to place1 or cause to be placed1 any unusual image7#hf7 in any place or church1 howsoever exempted1 except that the image be approved by the bishop3 also1 that no new miracles are to be acknowledged or new relics recognised1 unless the said bishop has taken cognizance and approved thereof1 who1 as soon as he has obtained certain information in regard to these matters1 shall1 after having taken the advice of theologians and of other pious men1 act therein as he shall judge to be consonant with truth and piety40--7,sess4 xxviii41 c47 ,the real meaning of the above-mentioned canon of the ,council of ,trent is therefore1 ,i think1 that there is no divinity or virtue resident in the images which are not authorised by the bishop to work miracles1 and that unlicensed images are not allowed to have any such divinity or virtue in them1 but that such unusual carved or painted images1 as those which ,i have mentioned above1 having obtained the required authorization1 may work as many miracles as they please1 or as their worshippers will believe4 ,it has been observed by a writer1 who certainly cannot be accused of violent opinions1 the learned and pious ,melancthon1 8that it was impious and idolatrous to address statues or bones1 and to suppose that either the ,divinity or the saints were attached to a certain place or to a certain statue more than to other places2 and that there was no difference between the prayers which are addressed to the ,virgin of ,aix la ,chapelle1 or to that of ,ratisbon1 and the ,pagan invocations of the ,ephesian ,diana1 or the ,platean ,juno1 or any other statue407#hg7 ,to these observations ,i shall only add those of ,m4 ,beugnot1 which ,i have given p4 #bg1 on the marvellous facility with which the worship of the virgin1 established by the ,council of ,ephesus1 #dca1 has superseded that of the ,pagan deities in many countries4 ,there is scarcely any ceremony in the ,western as well as in the ,eastern church1 the origin of which cannot be traced to the ,pagan worship4 ,i shall limit my observations on this subject to the three following objects1 which constitute the most important elements in the divine service performed in those churches1 namely1--#a4 ,the consecrated water2 #b4 ,lamps and candles2 and1 #c4 ,incense2 giving the ,roman ,catholic explanation of their origin1 as well as that which ,i believe to be true4 ,with regard to the consecrated water1 it is described by the author of 8,hierurgia0 in the following manner3-- 8,the ordinance of ,almighty ,god1 promulgated by the lips of ,moses1 concerning the water of separation1 and the mode of sprinkling it1 are minutely noticed in the nineteenth chapter of the book of ,numbers4 ,in the book of ,exodus1 we read that the ,lord issued the following declarations to ,moses3--#8,thou shalt make a brazen laver1 with its foot1 to wash in2 and thou shalt set it between the tabernacle of the testimony and the altar4 ,and the water being put into it1 ,aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and feet in it when they are going into the tabernacle of the testimony1 and when they are to come to the altar to offer incense on it to the ,lord4'--7,exod4 xxx4 #ah-bj47 8,that it was a practice with the ,jews1 not only peculiar to the members of the priesthood1 but observed amongst the people1 for each individual to wash his hands before he presumed to pray1 is a well-attested fact4 ,the church adopted this as well as several other ,jewish ceremonies1 which she engrafted on her ritual2 and ,st ,paul apparently borrows from such ablution the metaphor which he employs while thus admonishing his disciple ,timothy3--#8,i will that men pray in every place1 lifting up pure hands4'--7#a ,timothy ii4 #h47 ,that in the early ages the faithful used to wash their hands at the threshold of the church before they entered1 is expressly mentioned by a number of writers40 ,as to the use of holy water being of apostolic origin1 he says3-- 8,the introduction of holy or blessed water must be referred to the times of the apostles4 ,that it was the custom1 in the very first ages of the church1 not only to deposit vessels of water at the entrance of those places where the ,christians assembled for the celebration of divine worship1 but also to have vases containing water mingled with salt1 both of which had been separated from common use1 and blessed by the prayers and invocations of the priest1 is certain4 ,a particular mention of it is made in the constitution of the apostles2 and the pontiff ,alexander1 the first of that name1 but the sixth in succession from ,st ,peter1 whose chair he mounted in the year #aji1 issued a decree by which the use of holy water was permitted to the faithful in their houses40--7,hierurgia1 pp4 #dfa-dfc47 ,it is rather a strange thing for ,christians to imitate the religious rites of the ,jews1 whose ceremonial law1--8which stood only in meats and drinks1 and divers washings1 and carnal ordinances1 imposed on them until the time of reformation0 7,heb4 ix4 #aj71--was abolished by the ,new ,testament4 ,however1 if this is to be done1 why is not the holy water adopted by the ,roman ,catholic ,church prepared in the same manner1 and used for the same object1 as the ,jewish water of separation1 described in ,numbers xix41 but1 on the contrary1 composed in the same manner1 and employed for the same purpose1 as the lustral water of the ,pagans8 ,the fact is1 that it has been borrowed from the ,pagan worship and not from the ,jewish ceremonial law1 the truth of which is honestly acknowledged by the ,jesuit ,la ,cerda1 who1 in a note on the following passage of ,virgil1-- 8,idem ter socios pura circumtulit unda1 ,spargens rore levi1 et ramo felicis oliv1 ,lustravitque viros0 --neid1 lib4 vi4 #bbi-- says1 8,hence was derived the custom of the holy church to provide purifying or holy water at the entrance of their churches407#hh7 ,the same custom was observed in the ,pagan temples1 at the entrance of which there was a vase containing the holy or lustral water1 for the people to sprinkle themselves with1 just as is now done at the entrance of the ,roman ,catholic churches4 ,the author of 8,hierurgia0 mentions1 as quoted above1 that ,pope ,alexander ,i4 authorised1 in the beginning of the second century1 the use of holy water2 and yet ,justin ,martyr1 who wrote about that time1 says 8that it was invented by demons1 in imitation of the true baptism signified by the prophets1 that their votaries might also have their pretended purification by water407#hi7 ,and the ,emperor ,julian1 in order to vex the ,christians1 caused the victuals in the markets to be sprinkled with holy water1 with the intention of either starving them or compelling them to eat what they considered as impure47#ij7 ,to these evidences of the abomination in which the primitive ,christians held the ,pagan rite of sprinkling with holy water1 ,i may add the following anecdote1 characteristic of the intensity of this feeling3-- ,when ,julian the ,apostate was one day going to sacrifice in the temple of ,fortune1 accompanied by the usual train of the emperors1 the ,pagan priests1 standing on both sides of the temple gate1 sprinkled those who were entering it with the lustral or holy water in order to purify them according to the rites of their worship4 ,a ,christian tribune1 or superior officer of the imperial guards 7scutarii71 who1 being on duty1 preceded the monarch1 received some drops of this holy water on his chlamys or coat1 which made him so indignant1 that1 notwithstanding the presence of the emperor1 he struck the priest who had thus sprinkled him1 exclaiming that he did not purify but pollute him4 ,julian ordered the arrest of the officer who had thus insulted the rites of his religion1 giving him the choice either to sacrifice to the gods or to leave the army4 ,the bold ,christian chose the latter1 but was soon restored to his rank on account of his great military talents1 and raised1 after the death of ,julian and the short reign of ,jovian1 to the imperial throne as ,valentinian ,i47#ia7 ,this monarch was1 however1 by no means a bigot2 on the contrary1 we have the unsuspected testimony of the contemporary ,pagan writer ,ammianus ,marcellinus that he maintained a strict impartiality between the ,christians and ,pagans1 and did not trouble any one on account of his religion4 ,he even regulated and confirmed1 by a law in #cia1 the privileges of the ,pagan clergy in a more favourable manner than had been done by many of his predecessors2 and yet this monarch1 who treated his ,pagan subjects with such an extreme liberality1 committed1 when a private individual1 an act of violence against their worship which exposed him to considerable danger4 ,this1 ,i think1 is a strong proof of the horror which the ,christians felt for a rite which constitutes now an indispensable part of the service in the ,western as well as in the ,eastern churches1 and is most profusely used by them4 ,with regard to the candles and lamps1 which form a no less important and indispensable part of the worship adopted by the above-mentioned churches1 the author of 8,hierurgia0 defends their use in the following manner3-- ,after having described the candlesticks employed in the ,jewish temple1 he says3--8,but without referring to the ceremonial of the ,jewish temple1 we have an authority for the employment of light in the functions of religion presented to us in the ,apocalypse4 ,in the first chapter of that mystic book1 ,st ,john particularly mentions the golden candlesticks which he beheld in his prophetic vision in the isle of ,patmos4 ,by commentators on the sacred ,scripture1 it is generally supposed that the ,evangelist1 in his book of the ,apocalypse1 adopted the imagery with which he represents his mystic revelations from the ceremonial observed in his days by the church for offering up the mass1 or eucharistic sacrifice of the ,lamb of ,god1 ,christ ,jesus4 8,that the use of lights was adopted by the church1 especially at the celebration of the sacred mysteries1 as early as the times of the apostles1 may likewise1 with much probability1 be inferred from that passage in their ,acts which records the preaching and miracles of ,st ,paul at ,troas3--#8,and on the first day of the week1 when we were assembled to break bread1 ,paul discoursed with them1 being to depart on the morrow1 and he continued his speech until midnight4 ,and there were a great number of lamps in the upper chamber where we were assembled4'--7,acts xx4 #g1 #h47 ,that the many lamps1 so particularly noticed in this passage1 were not suspended merely for the purpose of illuminating1 during the night-time1 this upper chamber1 in which the faithful had assembled on the first day of the week to break bread1 but also to increase the solemnity of that function and betoken a spiritual joy1 may be lawfully inferred from every thing we know about the manners of the ancient ,jews1 from whom the church borrowed the use of lights in celebrating her various rites and festivals40--7,hierurgia1 p4 #cgb47 ,it is really difficult seriously to answer such extraordinary suppositions as that the seven candlesticks1 expressly mentioned as types of the seven churches1 should be an allusion to the physical lights used in the worship of those churches1 and not to the moral and spiritual light which they were spreading amongst ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,such an explanation appears to me nothing better than that tendency to materialise the most abstract and spiritual ideas to which ,i have alluded above1 p4 #abf4 ,with regard to the passage in the ,acts xx4 #g1 #h1 which says that there were a great number of lamps in the upper chamber where ,st ,paul was preaching1 ,i think that this circumstance might have been considered as a religious rite if the apostle had been preaching at noon2 but as it is expressly said that he did it at night1 nothing can be more simple than the lighting of the upper chamber with lamps4 ,it was also very natural that there should be many of them1 because as ,st ,paul was undoubtedly often referring to the ,scriptures1 his hearers1 or at least many of them1 being either real ,jews or ,hellenists1 must have been continually looking to copies of the ,bible in order to verify his quotation4 ,it was1 therefore1 necessary to have the room well lighted1 and consequently to employ many lamps4 ,it is1 indeed1 curious to see to what far-fetched suppositions a writer of so much learning and ingenuity as ,dr ,rock is obliged to recur1 in order to defend a purely ,pagan rite which has been adopted by his church1 giving the simplest and clearest things a non-natural sense1 similar to that which some ,romanising clergymen have been giving to the precepts of a church which they were betraying whilst in her service and pay4 ,the same author maintains that lights were employed from primitive times at divine service1 saying3-- 8,the custom of employing lights1 in the earlier ages of the church1 during the celebration of the eucharist2 and other religious offices1 is authenticated by those venerable records of primitive discipline which are usually denominated ,apostolic ,canons40--7,hierurgia1 p4 #cic47 ,now1 what is the authenticity of these canons8 ,the author himself gives us the best answer to it1 saying3-- 8,though these canons be apocryphal1 and by consequence not genuine1 inasmuch as they were neither committed to writing by the apostles themselves1 nor penned by ,st ,clement1 to whom some authors have attributed them2 still1 however1 this does not prevent them from being true and authentic1 since they embody the traditions descended from the apostles and the apostolic fathers1 and bear a faithful testimony that the discipline which prevailed during the first and second centuries was established by the apostles40--7,p4 #cid47 ,i shall not enter into a discussion about the value of evidence furnished by a work which is acknowledged to be apocryphal1 and not to have been written by those to whom its defenders had ascribed its authorship27#ib7 but ,i shall only remark1 that one of the most eminent fathers of the church1 the learned ,lactantius1 who flourished in the fourth century1 and consequently long after the time when the ,apostolic ,canons are supposed to have been composed1 takes a very different view from them in regard to this practice1 because he positively says1 in attacking the use of lights by the ,pagans1 they light up candles to ,god as if he lived in the dark1 and do they not deserve to pass for madmen who offer lamps to the ,author and ,giver of light87#ic7 ,and is it probable that he could approve of a practice in the ,christian church which he condemns in the ,pagan8 ,and1 indeed1 can there be any thing more heathenish than the custom of burning lights before images or relics1 which is nothing else than sacrifices which the ,pagans offered to their idols8 ,i have described above1 p4 #gd1 the manner in which ,st ,jerome defended the use of lights in the churches against ,vigilantius4 ,this defence of ,st ,jerome is adduced by our author in a rather extraordinary manner4 8,it happens not unfrequently that those very calumnies which have been propagated1 and the attacks which were so furiously directed by the enemies of our holy faith in ancient times1 against certain practices of discipline then followed by the church1 are the most triumphant testimonies which can be adduced at the present day1 both to establish the venerable origin of such observances1 and to warrant a continuation of them4 ,in the present instance1 the remark is strikingly observable2 for the strictures which ,vigilantius passed in the fourth age1 on the use of lights in churches1 as well as on the shrines of the martyrs1 and the energetic refutation of ,st ,jerome of the charge of superstition preferred against such a pious usage by that apostate1 may be noticed as an irrefragable argument1 in the nineteenth century1 to establish the remote antiquity of this religious custom4 ,after mentioning as a fact of public notoriety1 and in a manner which defied contradiction1 that the ,christians1 at the time when he was actually writing1 which was about the year #cgf17id7 were accustomed to illumine their churches during mid-day with a profusion of wax tapers1 ,vigilantius proceeds to turn such a devotion into ridicule4 ,but he met with a learned and victorious opponent1 who1 while he vindicated this practice of the church against the objection of her enemy1 took occasion to assign those reasons which induced her to adopt it4 ,that holy father observes3--#8,throughout all the churches of the ,east1 whenever the ,gospel is to be recited1 they bring forth lights1 though it be at noon-day2 not certainly to shine among darkness1 but to manifest some sign of joy1 that under the type of corporeal light may be indicated that light of which we read in the ,psalms1 8,thy word is a lamp to my feet1 and a light to my path40 ' 0--7,hierurgia1 p4 #bih47 ,now1 ,i would observe to the learned doctor1 that ,st ,jerome1 in answering ,vigilantius1 maintained1 as ,i have shown above1 p4 #gd1 that it was calumny to say that the ,christians burnt candles in the daylight1 and that it was done only by some people1 whose zeal was without knowledge4 ,consequently1 the church which has adopted this practice shows1 according to the authority of that 8holy and learned father10 that her zeal is without knowledge4 ,with regard to the argument in support of the abovementioned practices given by ,st ,jerome1 and reproduced by our author1 that the ,eastern churches make use of lights1 ,i admit that it is unanswerable1 because it is an undoubted fact that the ,grco-,russian ,church makes an immense consumption of wax candles1 chiefly burnt before the images1 and it remains for me only to congratulate the advocates of this practice on the support which they derive from such an imperative authority as that of the ,grco-,russian ,church4 ,it remains for me now only to say a few words about the incense1 which forms a constituent part of the service of the ,roman ,catholic and ,grco-,russian ,churches1 as much as the holy water and lights1 and which is defended by the author of 8,hierurgia0 in the following manner4 ,after having described the use of incense in the ,jewish temples1 he says-- 8,it was from this religious custom of employing incense in the ancient temple1 that the royal prophet drew that beautiful simile of his1 when he petitioned that his prayers might ascend before the ,lord like incense4 ,it was while #8all the multitude were praying without at the hour of incense1 that there appeared to ,zachary an angel of the ,lord1 standing at the right of the altar of incense1'--7,luke i4 #aj1 #aa74 ,that the oriental nations attached a meaning not only of personal reverence1 but also of religious homage to an offering of incense1 is demonstrable from the instance of the magi1 who1 having fallen down to adore the newborn ,jesus1 and recognise his divinity1 presented him with gold1 and myrrh1 and frankincense4 ,that he might be more intelligible to those who read his book of the ,apocalypse1 it is very probable that ,st ,john adapted his language to the ceremonial of the liturgy then followed by the ,christians in celebrating the eucharistic sacrifice1 at the period the evangelist was committing to writing his mysterious revelations4 ,in depicting1 therefore1 the scene which took place in the sanctuary of heaven1 where he was given to behold in vision the mystic sacrifice of the ,lamb1 we are warranted to suppose that he borrowed the imagery1 and selected several of his expressions1 from the ritual then actually in use1 and has in consequence bequeathed to us an outline of the ceremonial which the church employed in the apostolic ages of offering up the unbloody sacrifice of the same divine ,lamb of ,god1 ,christ ,jesus1 in her sanctuary upon earth4 ,now1 ,st ,john particularly notices how the #8angel came and stood before the altar1 having a golden censer2 and there was given him much incense1 that he should offer of the prayers of all the saints upon the golden altar which is before the throne of ,god2 and the smoke of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before ,god1 from the hand of the angel4'--,apocal4 viii4 #c-e40--7;,hierurgia1 p4 #eah47 ,to this explanation of the use of incense in the churches1 ,i may answer by the same observation which ,i have made1 p4 #add1 on a similar defence of the use of lights1 namely1 that it is a strange materialization of spiritual ideas by embodying into a tangible shape what is simply typical1 and which is not warranted by any direct evidence4 ,such far-fetched and fanciful conjectures cannot be refuted by serious arguments2 but as regards the ,jewish origin of the use of incense1 as well as of many other ceremonies common to the ,roman ,catholic and ,greek ,churches1 ,i shall give the observation of the celebrated ,dr ,middleton1 on an answer made by a ,roman ,catholic to his well-known ,letter from ,rome1 and who1 defending the ceremonies of his ,church in nearly the same manner as the author of 8,hierurgia10 says1 8,that ,dr ,middleton was mistaken in thinking every ceremony used by the heathens to be heathenish1 since the greatest part of them were borrowed from the worship of the true ,god1 in imitation of which the devil affected to have his temples1 altars1 priests1 and sacrifices1 and all other things which were used in the true worship40 ,this he applied to the case of incense1 lamps1 holy water1 and processions1 adding1 8that if ,middleton had been as well read in the ,scriptures as he seemed to be in the heathen poets1 he would have found the use of all these in the temple of ,god1 and that by ,god's appointment40 8,i shall not dispute with him10 says ,middleton1 8about the origin of these rites1 whether they were first instituted by ,moses1 or were of prior use and antiquity amongst the ,egyptians4 ,the ,scriptures favour the last1 which our ,spenser strongly asserts1 and their ,calmet and ,huetius allow2 but should we grant him all that he can infer from his argument1 what will he gain by it8 ,were not all those beggarly elements wiped away by the spiritual worship of the ,gospel8 ,were they not all annulled1 on account of their weakness and unprofitableness1 by the more perfect revelation of ,jesus ,christ8--7,gal4 iv4 #i2 ,heb4 vii4 #ah47 ,if1 then1 ,i should acknowledge my mistake1 and recall my words1 and instead of ,pagan1 call them ,jewish ceremonies1 would not the use of ,jewish rites be abominable still in a ,christian church1 where they are expressly abolished and prohibited by ,god himself8 8,but to pursue his argument a little farther4 ,while the ,mosaic worship subsisted by divine appointment in ,jerusalem1 the devil likewise1 as he tells us1 had temples and ceremonies of the same kind1 in order to draw votaries to his idolatrous worship1 which1 after the abolition of the ,jewish service1 was carried on still with great pomp and splendour1 and above all places1 in ,rome1 the principal seat of his worldly empire4 ,now1 it is certain that in the early times of the ,gospel1 the ,christians of ,rome were celebrated for their zealous adherence to the faith of ,christ1 as it was delivered to them by the apostles1 pure from every mixture either of ,jewish or heathenish superstition1 till1 after a succession of ages1 as they began gradually to deviate from that apostolic simplicity1 they introduced at different times into the church the particular ceremonies in question4 ,whence1 then1 can we think it probable that they should borrow them from the ,jewish or the ,pagan ritual8 ,from a temple remote1 despised and demolished by the ,romans themselves1 or from temples and altars perpetually in their view1 and subsisting in their streets1 in which their ancestors and fellow-citizens have constantly worshipped87#ie7 ,the question can hardly admit any dispute2 the humour of the people1 as well as the interest of a corrupted priesthood1 would invite them to adopt such rites as were native to the soil1 and found upon the place1 and which long experience had shown to be useful to the acquisition both of wealth and power4 ,thus1 by the most candid construction of this author's reasoning1 we must necessarily call their ceremonies ,jewish1 or by pushing it to its full length1 shall be obliged to call them devilish4 8,he observes that ,i begin my charge with the use of incense as the most notorious proof of their ,paganism1 and like an artful rhetorician1 place my strongest argument in the front4 ,yet he knows ,i have assigned a different reason for offering that the first2 because it is the first thing that strikes the sense1 and surprises a stranger upon his entrance into their churches4 ,but it shall be my strongest proof1 if he will have it so1 since he has brought nothing1 ,i am sure1 to weaken the force of it4 ,he tells us that there was an altar of incense in the temple of ,jerusalem1 and is surprised1 therefore1 how ,i can call it heathenish2 yet it is evident1 from the nature of that institution1 that it was never designed to be perpetual1 and that during its continuance1 ,god would have never approved any other altar1 either in ,jerusalem or any where else4 ,but let him answer directly to this plain question3 ,was there ever a temple in the world1 not strictly heathenish1 in which there were several altars1 all smoking with incense1 within our view1 and at one and the same time8 ,it is certain that he must answer in the negative2 yet it is as certain that there were many such temples in ,pagan ,rome1 and are as many in ,christian ,rome2 and since there never was an example of it1 but what was ,paganish1 before the time of ,popery1 how is it possible that it could be derived to them from any other source8 or when we see so exact a resemblance in the copy1 how can there be any doubt about the original8 8,what he alleges1 therefore1 in favour of incense is nothing to the purpose3 #8,that it was used in the ,jewish1 and is of great antiquity in the ,christian churches1 and that it is mentioned with honour in the ,scriptures1' which frequently compare it to prayer1 and speak of its sweet odours ascending up to ,god1 c41 which figurative expressions1 he says1 #8would never have been borrowed by sacred penmen from heathenish superstition2' as if such allusions were less proper1 or the thing itself less sweet1 for its being applied to the purposes of idolatry1 as it constantly was in the time of the same penmen1 and1 according to their own accounts1 on the altars of ,baal1 and the other heathen idols3 and when ,jeremiah rebukes the people of ,judah for burning incense to the queen of heaven 7,jer4 xliv4 #ag71 one can hardly help imagining that he is prophetically pointing out the worship paid now to the virgin1 to whom they actually burn incense at this day under that very title47#if7 8,but if it be a just ground for retaining a practice in the ,christian church1 because it was enjoined to the ,jews1 what will our ,catholic say for those usages which were actually prohibited to the ,jews1 and never practised by any but by the heathens and papists8 ,all the ,egyptian priests1 as ,herodotus informs us1 had their heads shaved1 and kept continually bald47#ig7 ,thus the ,emperor ,commodus1 that he might be admitted into that order1 got himself shaved1 and carried the god ,anubis in procession4 ,and it was on this account1 most probably1 that the ,jewish priests were commanded not to shave their heads1 nor to make any baldness upon them4--7,lev4 xxi4 #e2 ,ezek4 xliv4 #bj74 ,yet this ,pagan rasure1 or tonsure1 as they choose to call it1 on the crown of the head1 has long been the distinguishing mark of the ,romish priesthood4 ,it was on the same account1 we may imagine1 that the ,jewish priests were forbidden to make any cuttings in their flesh 7,lev4 xix4 #bh1 xxi4 #e71 since that was likewise the common practice of certain priests and devotees among the heathens1 in order to acquire the fame of a more exalted sanctity4 ,yet the same discipline1 as ,i have shown in my ,letter17#ih7 is constantly practised at ,rome in some of their solemn seasons and processions1 in imitation of these ,pagan enthusiasts1 as if they searched the ,scriptures to learn1 not so much what was enjoined by true religion1 as what had been useful at any time in a false one1 to delude the multitude1 and support an imposture40--7,middleton's ,miscellaneous ,works1 vol4 v41 p4 #aa1 et seq47 ,the same author justly observes1 that 8under the ,pagan emperors the use of incense for any purpose of religion was thought so contrary to the obligations of ,christianity1 that in their persecutions1 the very method of trying and converting a ,christian was by requiring him only to throw the least grain of it into the censer or on the altar40 8,under the ,christian emperors1 on the other hand1 it was looked upon as a rite so peculiarly heathenish1 that the very places or houses where it could be proved to have been done1 were1 by a law of ,theodosius1 confiscated to the government407#ii7--7;,ibid41 p4 #ie47 ,i shall conclude this essay by a short sketch of the superstitious practices prevailing in the ,grco-,russian ,church1 which will be the subject of my next and last chapter4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,image-,worship ,and ,other ,superstitious ,practices ,of ,the ,graeco-,russian ,church4 ,the ,grco-,russian ,church is perhaps the most important element of the politico-religious complications in which ,europe is at present involved4 ,it is1 moreover1 not a fortuitous cause of these complications1 but has been growing during centuries1 until it has reached its present magnitude1 though its action upon ,turkey may have been prematurely brought into play by accidental circumstances4 ,it comprehends within its pale about #ej1jjj1jjj of souls1 whilst it exercises an immense influence upon #ac1jjj1jjj of ,turkish1 and a considerable one upon more than #c1jjj1jjj of ,austrian subjects1 professing the tenets of that church1 though governed by separate hierarchies4 ,to this number must be added the population of the kingdom of ,greece1 amounting to about #a1jjj1jjj3 so that the whole of the followers of the ,eastern ,church may be computed in round numbers at #ff1jjj1jjj or #fg1jjj1jjj of souls47#ajj7 ,the ,russian ,church differs from other ,greek churches1 not in her tenets1 but in her government4 ,from the establishment of ,christianity in ,russia1 towards the end of the tenth century1 to the capture of ,constantinople by the ,turks in #adec1 the ,russian ,church was governed by a metropolitan1 consecrated by the ,patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,after this event1 the metropolitans were consecrated by the ,russian bishops till #aehh1 when a patriarch of ,russia was instituted by that of ,constantinople1 who had arrived at ,moscow1 in order to obtain pecuniary assistance for his church4 ,the patriarch enjoyed considerable influence1 which modified in some respects the despotic authority of the ,czar4 ,it was ,peter the ,great who abolished this dignity in #agjb1 after the death of the ,patriarch ,adrian1 and declared himself the head of the ,russian ,church4 ,he introduced several regulations to restrict the power of the clergy1 and to improve their education4 ,it appears that the violent reforms by which that monarch tried to introduce the civilization of western ,europe amongst his subjects1 had produced an intellectual movement in their church1 but which1 not squaring with the views of the imperial reformer1 was violently suppressed by him4 ,thus1 in #agac1 a physician called ,demetrius ,tveritinoff1 and some other persons1 began to attack the worship of images1 and to explain the sacrament of communion in the same sense as has been done by ,calvin4 ,these reformers were anathematised by the order of the ,czar1 and one of them was executed in #agad47aja7 ,next year1 #agae1 a ,russian priest1 called ,thomas1 probably a disciple of the above-mentioned reformers1 began publicly to inveigh against the worship of saints and other practices of his church1 and went even so far as to break the images placed in the churches4 ,he was burnt alive1 and nothing more was heard afterwards of such reformers4 ,the ,russian clergy regained their influence under the reign of the ,empress ,elizabeth1 #agdb-fb1 a weak-minded1 bigoted woman1 who was continually making pilgrimages to the shrines of various ,russian saints and miraculous images1 displaying on those occasions such a splendour and such munificence to the objects of her devotion1 that the finances of her state were injured by it47#ajb7 ,elizabeth's nephew and successor1 ,peter ,,iii41 ,duke of ,holstein1 who1 for the sake of the throne1 had passed from the ,lutheran communion to the ,greek ,church1 entertained the greatest contempt for his new religion4 ,this half-crazy1 unfortunate prince1 instead of trying to reform the ,russian ,church by promoting a superior information amongst her clergy1 offended the religious prejudices of his subjects by an open disregard of the ordinances of that church1 and his projects of violent reforms4 ,he not only did away with all the fasts at his court1 but he wished to abolish them throughout all his empire1 to remove the images and candles from the churches1 and1 finally1 that the clergy should shave their beards and dress like the ,lutheran pastors4 ,he also confiscated the landed property of the church4 ,catherine ,,ii41 who observed with the greatest diligence those religious rites which her husband treated with such contempt1 and who greatly owed to this conduct her elevation to the throne1 confirmed1 however1 the confiscation of the church estates1 assigning salaries to the clergy and convents who had been supported by that property4 ,she made use of the influence of the ,grco-,russian ,church for the promotion of her political schemes in ,poland and in ,turkey2 yet1 as her religious opinions were those of the school of ,voltaire and ,diderot1 which believed that ,christianity would soon cease to have any hold upon the human mind1 she seems not to have been fully aware of that immense increase of power at home and influence abroad which a skilful action upon the religious feelings of the followers of that church may give to the ,russian monarchs4 ,this policy has been formed into a complete system by the present ,emperor1 and it was in consequence of it that several millions of the inhabitants of the ancient ,polish provinces1 who belonged to the ,greek ,united ,church1 i4e41 who had acknowledged the supremacy of the ,pope by accepting the union concluded at ,florence in #adch1 were forced to give up that union1 and to pass from the spiritual dominion of the ,pope to that of the ,czar4 ,this wholesale conversion was necessarily accompanied with a good deal of persecution4 ,those clergymen who had refused to adopt the imperial ukase for their rule of conscience were banished to ,siberia1 and many other acts of oppression were committed on that occasion1 but of which only the case of the nuns of ,minsk has produced a sensation in western ,europe4 ,the same system of religious centralization has also been applied to the ,protestant peasantry of the ,baltic provinces1 many of whom were seduced by various means to join the ,russian ,church2 and this policy continues to be vigorously prosecuted in the same quarter1 as may be seen by the following extract from the ,berlin ,gazette of ,voss1 reprinted in the ,allgemeine ,zeitung of the #abth ,march of this year1 #ahed3-- 8,emissaries travelling about the country succeeded by every kind of cunning1 and by holding out prospects of gain and other advantages1 to convert people from ,lutheranism to the ,greek ,church4 ,all the children1 under seventeen years must follow the religion of their father as soon as he has entered the orthodox church4 ,whoever has received the anointment7#ajc7 can no longer return to his former creed1 and those who would try to persuade him to do it would be severely punished4 ,it is even forbidden to the ,protestant clergy to warn their congregations from going over to the ,greek ,church by drawing their attention to the difference which exists between the two religions4 ,a great number of ,greek churches have been built in the ,baltic provinces1 and already1 in #ahde1 it was ordered that the converts to the ,greek ,church should be admitted into every town2 that those peasants who would leave their places of residence in order to join a ,greek congregation should be allowed by their landowners to do so27#ajd7 and1 finally1 that the landowners and ,protestant clergymen who would oppose in any way the conversion to the ,greek ,church of their peasantry and congregations1 should be visited with severe penalties4 ,these penalties1 directed against those who would attempt to induce any one1 either by speeches or writings1 to pass from the ,greek ,church to any other communion1 have been specified in a new criminal code4 ,they prescribe for certain cases of such a proselytism corporal chastisement1 the knout1 and transportation to ,siberia40 ,it is also well known that the ,protestant missionaries1 who had been labouring in various parts of the ,russian empire for the conversion of ,mahometans and heathens1 have been prohibited from continuing their pious exertions4 ,and yet1 strange to say1 there is a not uninfluential party in ,prussia1 which1 pretending to be zealously ,protestant1 supports with all its might the politico-religious policy of ,russia1 and is as hostile to ,protestant ,england as it is favourable to the power which is persecuting ,protestantism in its dominions4 ,on the other hand1 it is curious to observe in this country some persons of that ,high ,church party which affects to repudiate the name of ,protestant1 and with whom churchianity seems to have more weight than ,christianity1 showing an inclination to unite with the ,grco-,russian ,church2 and ,i have seen a pamphlet1 ascribed to a clergyman of the ,scotch ,episcopal ,church1 positively recommending such a union1 and containing the formulary of a petition to be addressed by the ,episcopalians of ,great ,britain to the most holy ,synod of ,st ,petersburg1 praying for admission into the communion of its church4 ,i would1 however1 observe to these exaggerated ,anglo-catholics1 who chiefly object to the ecclesiastical establishment of ,england on account of its being a ,state ,church1 that the ,russian ,church is still more so1 and that the most holy synod which administers that church1 though composed of prelates and other clergymen1 can do nothing without the assent of its lay member1 the imperial procurator1 and that a colonel of hussars was lately intrusted with this important function4 ,the ,greek ,church being opposed to ,rome1 some ,protestants sought to conclude a union with her in the sixteenth century2 and the ,lutheran divines of ,tubingen had for this purpose a correspondence with the ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 between the years #aege and #aeha1 but which did not lead to any result1 as the ,patriarch insisted upon their simply joining his church4 ,the ,protestants of ,poland attempted in #aeii a union with the ,greek ,church of their country1 and the delegates of both parties met for this purpose at ,vilna2 their object was1 however1 frustrated by the same cause which rendered nugatory the efforts that had been made by the divines of ,tubingen for this purpose1 the ,greek ,church insisting upon their entire submission to her authority4 ,it is true that some learned ecclesiastics of the ,grco-,russian ,church are supposed to entertain ,protestant opinions1 but this is entirely personal1 and has no influence whatever on the systematic policy of their ,church1 which hates ,rome as a rival1 but ,protestantism as a revolutionary principle4 ,one of the ablest and most zealous defenders of the ,roman ,catholic ,church in our times1 and whom a long residence in ,russia had made thoroughly acquainted with her church1 ,count ,joseph ,demaistre1 is of opinion that this church must finally give way to the influence of ,protestantism27#aje7 and ,i think that this might be really the case if the ,russian ,church enjoyed perfect liberty of discussion1 which she is very far at present from possessing4 ,i believe1 however1 that such a contingency is very possible with those ,eastern churches that are not under the dominion of ,russia1 if they were once entirely liberated from ,russian influence and brought into contact with ,protestant learning4 ,such a revolution would be most dangerous1 not only to the external influence of ,russia1 but even to her despotism at home1 because a ,protestant movement amongst the ,greek churches of ,turkey would sever every connection between them and ,russia1 and very likely extend to the last-named country4 ,it is therefore most probable1 as has been observed by the celebrated explorer of ,nineveh1 ,layard1 that the movement alluded to above1 which has recently begun to spread amongst the ,armenian churches of ,turkey1 was not without influence on the mission of ,prince ,menschikoff and its consequences4 ,i have said above that the mutual position of the ,grco-,russian and ,roman ,catholic ,churches towards one another is that of two rivals4 ,the dogmatic difference between them turns upon some abstruse tenets1 which are generally little understood by the great mass of their followers1 whilst the essential ground of divergence1 the real question at issue1 is1 whether the headship of the church is to be vested in the ,pope1 in the ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 or in the ,czar4 ,the ,pope has allowed that portion of the ,greek ,church which submitted to his supremacy at the council of ,florence in #adch1 to retain its ritual and discipline1 with some insignificant modifications4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church considers the ,grco-,russian one in about the same light as she is regarded herself by that of ,england4 ,she acknowledges her to be a church1 though a schismatic one1 whose sacraments and ordination are valid1 so that a ,greek or ,russian priest becomes1 on signing the union of ,florence1 a clergyman of the ,roman ,catholic ,church exactly as is the case in the ,anglican ,church with a ,roman ,catholic priest who renounces the pope4 ,the ,grco-,russian ,church does not1 however1 return the compliment to the ,roman ,catholic one1 any more than the ,catholic does it to that of ,england2 because a ,roman ,catholic priest who enters the ,grco-,russian ,church not only loses his sacerdotal character1 just as is the case with an ,anglican clergyman who goes over to the communion of ,rome1 but he must be even baptised anew1 as is done with ,christians of every denomination who join that church1 whether ,jews or ,gentiles4 ,the system of reaction which the ,roman ,catholic ,church has been pursuing for many years1 with a consistency1 perseverance1 and zeal worthy of a better cause1 and not without considerable success1 has created just alarm in the minds of many friends of religious and civil liberty4 ,this feeling is but too well warranted by the open hostility which the promoters of that reaction1 having thrown away the mask of liberalism1 are manifesting to the above-mentioned liberties4 ,i shall1 moreover1 add1 that the political complications in which ,europe is now involved may be taken advantage of by the reactionary party in order to advance its schemes1 whilst the public attention1 particularly of this country1 will be absorbed by the events of the present war2 and therefore ,i think that all true ,protestants should1 instead of relaxing1 increase their vigilance1 in respect to the movements of the ecclesiastical reactionists4 ,but the dangers which threaten from that quarter are1 at least in this country1 of a purely moral character1 though they are doing much mischief in families1 and may throw some obstruction into the legislative action of the government4 ,they must therefore be combated with moral and intellectual means1--with spiritual1 and not carnal weapons1--and they may be completely annihilated by a vigorous and skilful application of such means4 ,the ,pope of ,rome1 though claiming a spiritual authority over many countries1 cannot maintain himself in his own temporal dominion without the assistance of foreign powers1 and is obliged to court the favour of secular potentates1 instead of commanding them1 as had been done by his predecessors4 ,the case is quite different with the ,imperial ,pope of ,russia1 who commands a million of bayonets1 and whose authority is supported1 not by canon1 but by cannon law1 and not by bulls1 but by bullets4 ,the material force which he has at his disposal is immensely strengthened by his spiritual authority over the ignorant masses of the ,russian population1 upon whose religious feelings he may act with great facility1 because his orders to the clergy are as blindly obeyed as his commands to the army2 and it is with the object of extending and consolidating this authority over all his subjects without exception that those measures of persecution and seduction against the ,roman ,catholics and ,protestants1 which ,i have mentioned above1 have been adopted4 ,the probable consequence of this religious centralization1 and the condition of the church whose exclusive dominion it is sought to establish in ,russia1 have been sketched in the following graphic manner by an accomplished ,german writer1 who1 having resided many years in ,russia1 and being thoroughly acquainted with the language of that country1 may be considered as one of the most competent judges on this subject3-- 8,he who1 with attentive ear and eye1 travels through the wide empire of the ,czar1 surrounding three parts of the world with its snares1 and then traces the sum of his contemplations1 will tremble in thought at the destiny which the ,colossus of nations has yet to fulfil4 ,he who doubts of the impending fulfilment of this destiny knows not history1 and knows not ,russia4 8,however different in origin and interest the strangely mixed hordes may be which constitute this giant realm1 there exists one mighty bond which holds them all together1--the ,byzantine ,church4 ,whoever remains out of it will soon be forced into it2 and ere the coming century begins1 all the inhabitants of ,russia will be of one faith4 8,already that great net1 whose meshes the ,neva and the ,volga1 the ,don and the ,dnieper1 the ,kyros and ,araxes1 form1 inclose a preponderating ,christian population1 in whose midst the scattered ,islamitish race1 the descendants of the ,golden ,horde1 are lost like drops in the ocean4 ,what a marvellous disposition of things1 that the ,russian empire1 whose governing principle is the diametrically opposite of the ,christian law1 should be the very one to make of ,christianity the corner1 the keystone of its might6 ,and a no less marvellous disposition of things is it that the ,czar1 in whatever direction he stretches his far-grasping arms1 should find ,christian points of support whereon to knit the threads of fate for the followers of ,islam1 artfully scattered by him--that he should find ,armenians at the foot of ,ararat1 and ,georgians at the foot of ,caucasus6 8,but of what kind is this ,christianity1 that masses together so many millions of human beings into one great whole1 and uses them as moving springs to the manifestations of a power that will sooner or later give the old world a new transformation8 8,follow me for a moment into the ,russian motherland1 and throw a flying glance at the religious state of things prevailing there4 8,see that poor soldier1 who1 tired and hungry from his long march1 is just performing his sacred exercises1 ere he takes his meal and seeks repose4 8,he draws a little image of the virgin from his pocket1 spits on it1 and wipes it with his coat sleeve3 then he sets it down on the ground1 kneels before it1 and crosses himself1 and kisses it in pious devotion4 8,or enter with me on a ,sunday one of the gloomy image-adorned ,russian churches4 ,if the dress of those present is not already sufficient to indicate their difference of station1 you may readily distinguish them by the manner in which each person makes the sign of the cross4 ,consider first that man of rank1 as he stands before a miracle-working image of a ,kazanshian mother of ,god1 bows slightly before it1 and crosses himself notably4 ,translated into our vernacular the language of this personage's face would run in something like the following strain3--#8,i know that all this is a pious farce1 but one must give no offence to the people1 else all respect would be lost4 ,would the people continue to toil for us1 if they were to lose their trust in the assurances we cause to be made to them of the joys of heaven8' 8,now look at that caftan-clad fat merchant1 as1 with crafty glance and confident step1 he makes up to the priest to get his soul freed from the trafficking sins of the past week4 8,he knows the priest1 and is sure that a good piece of money will meet with a good reception from him2 that is why he goes so carelessly1 in the consciousness of being able to settle in the lump the whole of his sinful account2 and when the absolution is over1 he takes his position in front of the miraculous image1 and makes so prodigious a sign of the cross1 that before this act all the remaining scruples of his soul must vanish away4 8,consider1 in fine1 that poor countryman1 who steals in humbly at the door1 and gazes slyly round him in the incense-beclouded spaces4 ,the pomp and the splendour are too much for the poor fellow4 8 #8,god1' he thinks1 #8but what a gracious lord the ,emperor is1 that he causes such fine churches to be built for us poor devils6 ,god bless the ,emperor6' ,and then he slips timidly up to some image where the golden ground and the dark colours form the most glaring contrast1 and throws himself down before it1 and crosses the floor with his forehead1 so that his long hair falls right over his face1 and thus he wearies himself with prostrations and enormous crossings1 until he can do no more for exhaustion4 ,for the poorer the man in ,russia1 the larger the cross he signs and wears407#ajf7 ,this description of the religious state of the ,russian people1 given by a writer who is not very partial to their country1 may be perhaps suspected of exaggeration1 or considered as being too much of a caricature2 ,i shall therefore give my readers the observations which have been made on the same subject by another ,german author1 ,baron ,haxthausen1 a great admirer of ,russia1 who travelled over that country in #ahdc1 under the patronage of the ,emperor1 in order to study the state of its agriculture and industry1 as well as the social condition of the working-classes4 8,a foreigner is struck10 says the ,baron1 8by the deep devotion and the strict observance of the ordinances and customs of the church shown by ,russians of rank and superior education4 ,i had already1 at ,moscow1 an opportunity of seeing it4 ,prince ,t41 a young1 elegant ,muscovite dandy1 conducted me about the churches of the ,kremlin1 and almost in every one of them he knelt down before some particularly venerated object1--as the coffin of a saint1 the image of a ,madonna1--and touched the ground with his forehead1 and devoutly kissed the object in question4 ,i observed the same thing at ,yaroslaf4 ,madame ,bariatynski 7the wife of the governor7 and another lady conducted me about the churches of that city1 and as soon as we entered one of them1 both these ladies approached an image of the ,virgin1 fell down before it1 without any regard to their dresses1 touched with their foreheads the ground1 and kissed the image1 making signs of the cross2 and these were ladies belonging to the highest society1 and of the most refined manners4 ,madame ,bariatynski had been a lady of the court1 and the ornament of the first drawing-rooms of ,st ,petersburg4 ,her mind is uncommonly cultivated1 and she has a thorough knowledge of ,french and ,german literature2 and1 indeed1 when we were walking to see these churches1 along the banks of the ,volga1 she discussed1 in an animated and ingenious manner1 the matchless beauty of ,goethe's songs1 and recited from memory his ,fisherman4 ,even in the strictest ,roman ,catholic countries1 as1 for instance1 ,bavaria1 ,belgium1 ,rome1 ,munster1 such public demonstrations of piety are not to be met1 except in some exceedingly rare cases1 with women1 but never with men4 ,the educated classes have in this respect separated from the lower ones4 ,even people who are very devout consider such excessive manifestations of piety as not quite decent1 nay1 though they dare not confess it1 they are in some measure ashamed of them4 ,in ,russia the case is different4 ,there are perhaps as many freethinkers1 and even atheists1 as in western ,europe1 but even they submit1 at least in public1 and when they are in their own country1 unconditionally1 and almost involuntarily1 to the customs of their church4 ,in this respect1 no difference whatever may be observed between the highest and the commonest ,russian2 the unity of the national church and of the national worship predominates everywhere407#ajg7 ,it is almost superfluous to observe that a church which has such a hold on the national mind of ,russia must be a powerful engine in the hands of her ,imperial ,pope1 whose political authority is thus immensely strengthened by the influence of religion4 ,but ,i think it will be1 perhaps1 not uninteresting to my readers to compare this baptised idolatry of the modern ,russians with that which had been practised by their unbaptised ancestors about a thousand years ago1 and the following account of which is given by ,ibn ,foslan1 an ,arabian traveller of the tenth century1 who saw ,russian merchants in the country of the ,bulgars1 a ,mahometan nation who lived on the banks of the ,volga1 and the ruins of whose capital may be seen not far from the town of ,kazan3-- 8,as soon as their 7,russian7 vessels arrive at the anchoring place1 every one of them goes on shore1 taking with him bread1 meat1 milk1 onions1 and intoxicating liquors1 and repairs to a high wooden post1 which has the likeness of a human face carved upon it1 standing surrounded with small statues of a similar description1 and some high ones erected behind it4 ,he prostrates himself before this wooden figure1 and says1 #8,o ,lord1 ,i have arrived from a distant country2 ,i have brought with me so and so many girls17#ajh7 so and so many sable skins2' and when he has enumerated all his merchandise1 he lays before the idol the things which he has brought with him1 and continues his prayer1 saying1 #8,here is a present which ,i have brought thee1 and ,i wish thou wouldst send me a customer who has plenty of gold and silver1 who will not bargain with me1 but purchase all that ,i have to sell at my own price4' ,when his commerce does not prosper1 he brings new presents to the idol1 and when he meets with some new difficulties he makes gifts also to the small statues1 but when he is successful he offers oxen and sheep407#aji7 ,kissing constitutes the principal part of the ,russian worship of images and relics1 and is most liberally bestowed on those objects of adoration1 whilst ,i believe that the ,roman ,catholic ,madonnas maintain a more dignified state1 and do not allow such familiarities to their worshippers1 unless on some particular occasions or to some privileged persons4 ,the ,emperor himself sets the example of this pious osculation1 a striking instance of which occurred in the summer of last year1 #ahec1 under circumstances which deserve a particular notice4 ,i have said above1 p4 #afa1 that several millions of the followers of the ,greek ,united ,church had been forced by the present emperor to transfer their spiritual allegiance from the ,pope to himself4 ,several of their churches contain miraculous images of the ,virgin1 of more or less repute1 and which were obliged to share the fate of their worshippers1 and to become schismatics as much as the latter4 ,their vested rights have not been1 however1 injured in any way by this revolution1 because they continue to be worshipped1 and to work miracles as they did before1 or1 what is the same thing1 they are fully authorised to do so4 ,the ,russian government followed on this occasion its usual line of policy1 which is to promote those who have joined it1 forsaking their former party2 and thus one of the most distinguished of these miracle-working converts1 the ,madonna of ,pochayoff1 a little town in ,wolhynia1 was transferred from her provincial station to ,warsaw1 and placed there in a newly built ,russian cathedral1 probably with the object of inducing the ,roman ,catholic inhabitants of that capital to imitate an example set to them in such a high quarter1 and to acknowledge the spiritual authority of the ,czar as much as they are obliged to submit to his temporal dominion4 ,when the emperor was going last year to ,olmutz1 in order to persuade the ,austrian court to support his policy in ,turkey1 he passed through ,warsaw1 and repairing1 immediately after his arrival in that city1 to the ,russian cathedral1 kissed the above-mentioned miraculous image of the ,madonna of ,pochayoff with such fervour that it produced quite a sensation upon all those who were present1 and was noticed in the newspapers as a proof of the autocrat's piety4 ,yet whether this ,madonna1 notwithstanding her outward conversion to the ,grco-,russian ,church1 remains a ,romanist at heart1 or whether1 for some other reason1 she could or would not support the views of her imperial worshipper1 the result of the ,czar's voyage to ,olmutz proved that the caresses which he had bestowed upon the ,madonna in question were love's labours lost4 ,it may be also observed1 that the emperor himself seems not to have been quite sure of the effects of his pious addresses to the now schismatic ,madonna of ,pochayoff1 because it is well known that this man1 who1 as ,i have said above1 p4 #afa1 had torn from the spiritual authority of the ,pope1 by a violent persecution1 many millions of souls1 knelt during his visit to ,olmutz1 with all the marks of deep devotion1 at a ,roman ,catholic high mass2 whilst the ,prince of ,prussia1 who was also present on that occasion1 stood by without taking a hypocritical part in a worship which was contrary to his religion4 ,this image-kissing propensity of the ,russians was the cause of a tragical event during the plague at ,moscow in #agga4 ,it usually happens during a public calamity that rumours of a wild and absurd nature are circulated amongst the ignorant part of the population1 and it was thus that1 when the pestilence was raging in the above-mentioned capital1 a report was spread that an image of the ,virgin1 placed at the entrance of a church1 had the power of preventing infection4 ,thousands of people repaired to the miraculous image1 and endless processions were wending along the streets towards the same object of adoration1 which was overloaded with rich offerings by its worshippers1 and adorned with costly jewels4 ,as was to be expected1 this superstitious practice1 instead of preventing the infection1 powerfully contributed to its increase2 because the kisses which the crowd lavishly bestowed on the miraculous image could not but propagate the disease4 ,the ,archbishop of ,moscow1 ,ambrose1 an enlightened prelate1 in order to stop this mischief1 removed the image from the place where it had been exposed into the interior of the church2 but this wise measure produced a violent riot1 and an infuriated mob rushed into the sanctuary and murdered the venerable old man at the foot of the altar1 where he was officiating1 dressed in his pontificals4 ,it is probably the same image of which ,bodenstedt1 whose account of the ,russian ,church ,i have quoted above1 p4 #afi1 relates the following anecdote4 ,after having spoken of the usurpations of ,russia beyond the ,caucasus1 under pretence of protecting the ,christian population of those parts1 he says3-- 8,the ,russian policy1 which conceals its grasping claws under the cloak of religion1 may be not inaptly compared to a lady well known at ,moscow1 who1 to the great edification of the bystanders1 kissed the miraculous ,madonna1 situated close to the ,kremlin1 with so much fervour1 that the most costly diamond of the jewels with which this image is covered remained in her mouth40 ,and he adds1 in a note1 8,the thing was afterwards discovered1 and the writer of this was himself present when this lady1 the wife of a ,russian general1 was obliged publicly to crave the forgiveness of the image for this act of desecration4 ,it is said that when this noble lady was judicially examined about this affair1 she pleaded in her defence that having loved and worshipped the image in question devoutly during many years1 she believed herself entitled to a little souvenir from the ,madonna407#aaj7 ,the ,russian lady of rank seems not to have been so ingenious as the ,prussian soldier1 whose story ,i have related on p4 #aah4 ,and it must be remarked that the ,russian images expose their worshippers to the temptations of mammon much more than the ,roman ,catholic ones2 because1 whilst the latter are often valuable as objects of art1 the former have usually silver or golden garments1 often set with precious stones1 which entirely cover the painting except the face1 generally by no means a model of beauty4 ,the gifts which the ,russians bestow on their images are immense1 and the most celebrated place for the accumulation of such treasures is the convent of ,troitza1 or ,trinity1 situated about fifty ,english miles from ,moscow1 and considered as a kind of national sanctuary of ,russia47#aaa7 ,baron ,haxthausen1 whom ,i have quoted on p4 #agc1 says that the value of sacred vases and ornaments accumulated in that place surpasses all that may be seen of this kind any where else1 without even excepting ,rome and ,loretto2 and he thinks that the quantity of pearls contained in those ornaments is perhaps greater than is to be found in the whole of ,europe47#aab7 ,the grave of ,st ,sergius1 the founder of that convent in the fourteenth century1 is adorned with gold and precious stones1 and the silver canopy over it is said to weigh #abjj pounds4 ,the most remarkable object contained in that convent is1 however1 the image of that saint which accompanied ,peter the ,great during all his campaigns1 and on which are inscribed the names of all the battles and stormings of towns at which it had been present4 ,i do not know whether this image had a part in other expeditions of the ,russian army1 but ,i have read this year in the newspapers that when a division of grenadiers was passing through ,moscow1 on their way to ,turkey1 the ,archbishop of that capital addressed them1 firing their zeal for the religious war in which they were going to take part1 and after having blessed them with the image of ,st ,sergius1 the same to which ,i alluded above1 gave it them as a companion of their expedition4 ,the allied troops must therefore be prepared to encounter that bellicose saint somewhere on the ,danube1 unless he has been ordered to the shores of the ,baltic for the defence of the capital4 ,the custom of taking with them images considered as miraculous1 during a campaign1 was followed by the generals of the ,greek empire on many occasions4 ,thus it is related by a ,byzantine writer17#aac7 that in #eij ,philippicus1 a general of the ,emperor ,mauritius1 when going to engage the ,persians in battle1 took an image which was not made by the hands of man1 and carried it about the ranks of his army1 in order to purify his soldiers1 and that he gained1 after this ceremony1 a complete victory4 ,it must1 however1 be remarked that when ,philippicus was replaced by another general1 called ,priscus1 the latter1 relying too much on the protection of the image which was not made by the hands of man1 diminished the rations of the soldiers1 and gave them other causes of offence2 they revolted1 and when ,priscus1 in order to subdue the riot1 paraded the image in question1 the mutineers threw stones at it4 ,i don't know exactly how this business ended1 but it is said that the ,greek generals usually liked to have an image of the kind alluded to1 in order to appease their troops in cases of mutiny and discontent2 and ,i believe that1 considering the gross ignorance and superstition of the ,russian soldiers1 the image of ,st ,sergius may do good service in similar cases1 and for which these soldiers have but too many reasons4 ,the ,greek emperors also sometimes provided with miraculous images the ambassadors who were sent on important missions4 ,i don't know whether the ,russian diplomacy1 which has performed so many wonders1 has ever had recourse to the assistance of such images1 or to that of any supernatural agency4 ,the miraculous images of the ,grco-,russian ,church are generally considered as not made by the hands of man1 whilst those of the ,roman ,catholic ,church are usually believed to be painted by ,st ,luke4 ,the most celebrated ,madonnas of ,russia1 as those of ,kazan1 ,korennaya1 ,akhtyrka1 c41 are believed to have dropt from heaven1 in the same manner as the ,diana of ,ephesus1 and other ,greek idols of repute4 ,they are called yavlenneeye icony1 i4e41 revealed images1 and their number is considerable1 though all of them do not enjoy an equal reputation for miraculous powers4 ,the number of images of various descriptions is1 ,i think1 much greater in ,russia than in any other country1 and they are called by the common people1 not images1 icony1 but gods1 boghi2 and many of their worshippers are so ignorant1 that they take every kind of picture or engraving for the boghi1 and devoutly cross themselves before them4 ,a ,german officer of engineers1 in the ,russian service1 related to the author that he had a ,russian servant1 a young lad of a very devout disposition1 who pasted every engraving which he could lay hold on1 upon the wall over his bed1 in order to address his prayers to them4 ,this officer once missed some plates1 containing mathematical figures1 which had dropt from a book of geometry1 and he found afterwards that his pious servant1 having picked them up1 gave them a place in his pantheon4 ,if this strange divinity had been found amongst the objects worshipped by that poor lad by some very profound foreign traveller1 unacquainted with the ,russian people1 it is more than probable that he would have taken it for a mystical object of adoration1 and written a learned dissertation to explain its emblematic sense4 ,every household in ,russia has its own little sanctuary1 consisting of one or more images1 ornamented according to the means of the owner1 and placed in a corner opposite to the principal door4 ,every one who enters the room makes a sign of the cross1 bowing to these penates1 the place under whose shrine is considered as the seat of honour1 reserved at meals for the father of the family1 or the most respected guest4 ,the ,russians are great exclusives in respect to their images1 and every believer has at least one of them stuck on the wall near his sleeping place1 for his especial use and comfort2 whilst people who are continually moving about1 as carriers1 pedlars1 soldiers1 c41 have their pocket divinities with them2 and the description of the devotional exercises of a ,russian soldier1 given on p4 #aga1 is by no means a caricature4 ,this exclusiveness was much greater before the reforms introduced by the ,patriarch ,nicon in the seventeenth century than it is at present47#aad7 ,contemporary travellers relate that people brought into the churches their own images1 trying to get for them on the walls of the church the place which they considered the best2 and thus it often happened that these images1 being placed opposite to the altar1 people in praying to them turned their backs to the officiating priest1 which generally produced great confusion1 and disturbed the performance of divine service4 ,there was a very great competition amongst those people in ornamenting their images as showily as possible2 and as the sanctity of an image was increased1 according to the opinion of those baptised idolaters1 in proportion to the richness of its ornaments1 it often happened that a poor man1 who could not afford to trim up smartly his own image1 addressed his prayers to that of his richer neighbour4 ,such an adoration1 however1 was considered as contraband2 and when the lawful owner of the image caught one of those pious interlopers1 he not only sharply rebuked him1 but frequently gave him a sound thrashing1 saying that he did not go to the expense of decorating his image that another should obtain its favours47#aae7 ,scandalous scenes of this description have been abolished in the established church by the reforms of the ,patriarch ,nicon1 alluded to above1 but something very like it may still be witnessed in the churches of the ,raskolniks1 who have separated from the established church on account of those reforms4 ,these people often bring their own images to the churches to pray before them1 and it frequently happens amongst the boys who worship in this way1 that some of them1 perceiving that their neighbour has a finer image than their own1 they steal it from him1 substituting that which belongs to them4 ,this produces quarrels and fighting amongst these boys1 who reproach one another1 saying1 ,you ,so-and-so1 you have stolen my fine image which cost my father two roubles1 and left me this wretched one1 which is not worth fifty copecs1 i4e41 half a rouble4 ,these scenes would be ludicrous if they were not positively blasphemous1 because these images are called on such occasions1 as is always done1 by the name of gods1 boghi4 ,it has been observed by some travellers in ,russia that the image-dealers of that country do not sell their wares1 but1 by a kind of legal fiction1 exchange them for a certain sum1 and that consequently they are disposed of at a fixed price4 ,this is1 however1 not the case1 and the image-dealers of ,russia make no exception to the other merchants of that country1 who generally ask for their goods the treble of their value1 and a reasonable price can only be obtained by hard bargaining4 ,only consecrated images1 i4e41 those which have been sprinkled by a priest with holy water1 cannot be1 ,i think1 made an object of traffic4 ,the orthodox ,russians have no less veneration for fine churches than for splendidly adorned images1 and the well-known ,german dramatic writer ,kotzebue gives in the relation of his forced voyage to ,siberia17#aaf7 under the ,emperor ,paul1 a characteristic trait of this disposition4 ,the titulary counsellor7#aag7 ,shchekatikhin1 who conducted him to the place of his exile1 ,kurghan1 in the south of ,siberia1 showed a great reverence to all the churches which they passed by4 ,whenever they passed a fine church constructed of solid masonry1 he doffed his cap and crossed himself most fervently1 whilst he treated very cavalierly all those which were built of wood1 making a hardly perceptible sign of the cross in their honour4 ,this national propensity to treat respectfully the great and disdainfully the little1 of which ,m4 ,shchekatikhin's piety was such a characteristic exemplification1 has been1 in its application to churches1 described by the great admirer of ,russia1 ,baron ,haxthausen1 whose account of the devotional practices observed by the upper classes of that country ,i have given above1 p4 #agc1 in the following manner3-- 8,we saw1 in most part of the villages on our road1 fine new churches built of stone or brick2 but in one of them1 called ,novaya1 ,i saw for the first time an old wooden church1 built of logs1 and covered with boards and shingles1 such as they generally had been every where in ,russia4 ,these wooden churches continually disappear1 being replaced by those constructed of masonry4 ,the ,russian peasantry consider it a particular honour to have in their village a church of stone or brick4 ,to leave a village with a church of stone in order to settle in a place which has but a wooden one1 is considered as a degradation1 and the inhabitants of the former would hardly intermarry with those of the latter4 ,the villages which have only a wooden church1 therefore1 do all that they can in order to rise to an equal grade with those who have one of stone or brick4 ,this shows how the pride of rank pervades the mind of the ,russians in every form of life1 and in every class of the population4 ,in cases of this kind1 no promotion but only a sum of money is required in order to obtain the desired rank4 ,it may be purchased by constructing a church of stone or brick4 ,such a church costs ten1 twenty1 or thirty thousand silver roubles 7six roubles equal to one pound72 but nothing is more easy than to get this sum4 ,a dozen of stout fellows disperse in various directions1 to collect by begging the sum required for the construction of the projected church1 which is done without any expense1 as the collectors are hospitably received in every house4 ,as soon as the necessary sum is obtained1 the village petitions the government for a plan and for an architect1 because the plan of every such church must be approved at ,st ,petersburg4 ,thus1 in a few years1 a fine church is built1 constructed in the modern style1 and the rank of the village rises in its own and in its neighbours' opinion4 8,such things cannot be done in ,western ,europe1 partly because an active religious feeling amongst the people disappears more and more17#aah7 and partly on account of the great fluctuation of their ideas1 and want of stability in their opinions4 ,with the ,russian it is quite otherwise4 ,this nation has no political ideas3 but two sentiments pervade its whole being--a common feeling of nationality1 and a fervent attachment to the national church4 ,whenever these two feelings take hold of the ,russian's mind1 he is ready willingly to sacrifice without a moment's hesitation his life and property407#aai7 ,it is these two national feelings that the ,emperor ,nicholas is now trying to excite to the utmost pitch1 and there can be little doubt that if he succeeds in his object there will be a hard struggle between barbarity and civilization1 though the final triumph of the latter1 to the advantage not only of the victors1 but also of the vanquished1 cannot be doubted for a moment4 ,i must1 however1 return to ,baron ,haxthausen1 who continues his account of the ,russian village churches1 saying1-- 8,it must not be forgotten1 in order to understand how such large collections for a church of some obscure village1 and made for the most part amongst the peasants1 are obtained1 that giving is as much in the ,russian character as taking4 ,nowhere property hangs upon such loose threads and changes hands with such rapidity as in ,russia4 ,to-day rich1 to-morrow poor4 ,people earn and squander away almost simultaneously2 they cheat and are cheated2 they steal with one hand1 and give away with the other4 ,the common ,russian sets not his heart on any kind of property2 he loses with perfect equanimity what he had just earned1 in the hope of getting it again to-morrow4 8,the ,russian is1 moreover1 naturally good-hearted1 charitable1 and liberal4 ,a shopkeeper who had perhaps just cheated his neighbour of the value of #bj copecs1 without feeling any qualms of conscience on the subject1 will give one moment after it a rouble for the construction of a church in some village to which he is a perfect stranger407#abj7 ,thus1 what ,cicero said of ,catiline1 ,sui profusus alieni cupiens1 is applicable1 not only to individuals1 but also to nations1 whose actions are swayed by feeling without being regulated by principle4 ,it is almost superfluous to observe that a nation thus disposed1 and with whom superstitious practices have a greater weight than religious principles1 may be easily precipitated into the most violent and dangerous courses1 which to accomplish seems now to be the object of the ,emperor of ,russia4 ,the ,grco-,russian ,church has an immense number of relics of saints1 to which all that ,calvin has said of those of the ,roman ,catholic ,church is applicable4 ,i have given1 in a note to his treatise on this subject1 an account of ,st ,anthony's relics in ,russia1 as a counterpart to those which the same saint possesses in western ,europe4 ,there are1 indeed1 many relics to the exclusive possession of which both these churches lay an equal claim1 each of them representing her own as the only genuine1 and that of her rival as a spurious one4 ,the most celebrated of these disputed relics is the holy coat of ,treves1 and that of ,moscow4 ,it is well known what a noise the former of these produced in #ahdd1 when an immense number of pilgrims came to worship it2 and it is pretended that it had been found by the ,empress ,helena1 with the true cross1 and presented by her to the town of ,treves4 ,the coat of ,moscow was given as a present to the ,czar by a ,shah of ,persia1 and its genuineness was established by a ,russian archbishop1 who asserted that1 when he passed through ,georgia on his return from ,jerusalem1 he saw in a church of that country a golden box placed upon a column1 and which1 as it was told to him1 contained the coat without a seam of our ,lord4 ,this statement was corroborated by an eastern monk1 then at ,moscow1 who related that it was generally believed in ,palestine1 that when the soldiers cast lots for the possession of that coat1 it fell to the part of one of them1 who1 being a native of ,georgia1 took it with him to his native land4 ,these statements were sufficient to establish the authenticity of the relic1 which consequently was licensed to work miracles and worked them47#aba7 ,the most celebrated collection of relics in ,russia is found in the town of ,kioff1 on the ,dnieper1 and where the bodies of many hundreds of saints are deposited in a kind of crypt called ,piechary1 i4e41 caverns4 ,the chronicles relate that the digging of this sacred cavern was commenced in the eleventh century by two monks called ,anthony and ,theodosius1 who had come from the ,mount ,athos1 for their own and their disciples' abode4 ,it was gradually extended1 but the living established themselves afterwards in a convent above ground1 leaving to the dead the part under it4 ,this statement is considered to be authentic1 but the numerous bodies of the saints with which the long subterranean galleries of that cavern are filled1 have never been satisfactorily accounted for4 ,it is the opinion of many1 that the nature of the soil is so dry1 that1 absorbing all the moisture1 it keeps the dead bodies which are deposited there in a more or less perfect state of preservation2 and it is said that an enlightened archbishop of ,kioff proved it by a successful experiment1 putting into that place the bodies of two women1 who had been confined as prisoners in a nunnery for their many vices4 ,be it as it may1 ,kioff is the resort of an immense number of pilgrims1 who arrive from all parts of ,russia1 to worship the bodies of the saints1 and the riches accumulated by their pious donations at that place are only second to those of ,troitza 7p4 #aha74 ,the shrines of ,jerusalem1 which attract crowds of pilgrims from all parts of the ,christian world1 had been for a long time a subject of dispute between the ,latins and the ,greeks1 and it is well known that the politico-religious complications in which ,europe is at present involved have arisen from the claims of ,russia relating to those shrines4 ,it will1 therefore1 ,i think1 be not uninteresting to my readers to see the devout manner in which these shrines are worshipped by the pilgrims of the ,grco-,russian ,church2 and ,i subjoin the two following accounts of this subject1 written at an interval of a century and a half1 in order that my readers may be able to judge for themselves whether the progress of civilization during this period has had much influence on the pilgrims alluded to above4 ,the first of these accounts is an extract from the diary of an ,english clergyman1 the ,rev4 ,henry ,maundrell1 a ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford1 and chaplain to the ,english factory at ,aleppo1 who visited ,jerusalem in the year #afig3-- 8,saturday1 ,april #c;d4--,we went about mid-day to see the function of the holy fire4 ,this is a ceremony kept by the ,greeks and ,armenians1 upon a persuasion that every ,easter ,eve there is a miraculous flame descends from heaven into the ,holy ,sepulchre1 and kindles all the lamps and candles there1 as the sacrifice was burnt at the prayer of ,elijah4--7#a ,kings xviii47 8,coming to the church of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 we found it crowded with a numerous and distracted mob1 making a hideous clamour1 very unfit for that sacred place1 and better becoming bacchanals than ,christians4 ,getting1 with some struggle1 through this crowd1 we went up into the gallery1 on that side of the church next the ,latin convent1 whence we could discern all that passed in this religious frenzy4 8,they began their disorders by running round the ,holy ,sepulchre with all their might and swiftness1 crying out as they went1 #8,huia6' which signifies #8,this is he1' or1 #8,this is it1' an expression by which they assert the verity of the ,christian religion4 ,after they had by their vertiginous circulations and clamours turned their heads1 and inflamed their madness1 they began to act the most antic tricks and postures1 in a thousand shapes of distraction4 ,sometimes they dragged one another along the floor1 all around the sepulchre2 sometimes they set one man upright on another's shoulders1 and in this posture marched round2 sometimes they turned men with their heels upwards1 and hurried them about in such an indecent manner as to expose their nudities2 sometimes they tumbled round the sepulchre1 after the manner of tumblers on the stage4 ,in a word1 nothing can be imagined more rude or extravagant than what was acted upon this occasion4 8,in this tumultuous frantic humour they continued from twelve to four of the clock1 the reason of which delay was because of a suit that was then in debate before the cadi betwixt the ,greeks and ,armenians1 the former endeavouring to exclude the latter from having any share in this miracle4 ,both parties having expended 7as ,i was informed7 five thousand dollars between them in this foolish controversy1 the cadi at last gave sentence that they should enter the ,holy ,sepulchre together1 as had been usual at former times4 ,sentence being thus given1 at four of the clock both nations went on with their ceremony4 ,the ,greeks first set out in a procession round the ,holy ,sepulchre1 and immediately at their heels followed the ,armenians4 ,in this order they compassed the ,holy ,sepulchre thrice1 having produced all their gallantry of standards1 streamers1 crucifixes1 and embroidered habits on this occasion4 8,toward the end of this procession1 there was a pigeon came fluttering into the cupola over the sepulchre1 at the sight of which there was a greater shout and clamour than before4 ,this bird1 the ,latins told us1 was purposely let fly by the ,greeks to deceive the people into an opinion that it was a visible descent of the ,holy ,ghost4 8,the procession being over1 the suffragan of the ,greek patriarch 7he being himself at ,constantinople71 and the principal ,armenian bishop1 approached to the door of the sepulchre1 and cutting the string with which it was fastened and sealed1 entered in1 shutting the door after them1 all the candles and lamps within having been before extinguished in the presence of the ,turks and other witnesses4 ,the exclamations were doubled as the miracle drew nearer its accomplishment1 and the people pressed with such vehemence towards the door of the ,sepulchre1 that it was not in the power of the ,turks set to guard it with the severest checks to keep them off4 ,the cause of their pressing in this manner is the great desire they have to light their candles at the holy flame1 as soon as it is first brought out of the ,sepulchre1 it being esteemed the most sacred and pure1 as coming immediately from heaven4 8,the two miracle-mongers had not been above a minute in the ,holy ,sepulchre when the glimmering of the holy fire was seen1 or imagined to appear1 through some chinks of the door1 and certainly ,bedlam itself never saw such an unruly transport as was produced in the mob at this sight4 ,immediately after came out the two priests1 with blazing torches in their hands1 which they held up at the door of the ,sepulchre1 while the people thronged about with inexpressible ardour1 every one striving to obtain a part of the first and purest flame4 ,the ,turks in the meantime1 with huge clubs1 laid on them without mercy2 but all this could not repel them1 the excess of their transport making them insensible of pain4 ,those that got the fire applied it immediately to their beards1 faces1 and bosoms1 pretending that it would not burn like an earthly flame2 but ,i plainly saw none of them could endure this experiment long enough to make good that pretension4 8,so many hands being employed1 you may be sure it could not be long before innumerable tapers were lighted4 ,the whole church1 galleries and every place1 seemed instantly to be in a flame1 and with this illumination the ceremony ended4 8,it must be owned that those two within the sepulchre performed their part with great quickness and dexterity2 but the behaviour of the rabble without very much discredited the miracle4 ,the ,latins take a great deal of pains to expose this ceremony as a most shameful imposture1 and a scandal to the ,christian religion1 perhaps out of envy that others should be masters of so gainful a business2 but the ,greeks and ,armenians pin their faith upon it1 and make their pilgrimages chiefly upon this motive2 and it is the deplorable unhappiness of their priests1 that having acted the cheat so long already1 they are forced now to stand to it1 for fear of endangering the apostasy of their people4 8,going out of the church after the event was over1 we saw several people gathered about the stone of unction1 who1 having got a good store of candles lighted with the holy fire1 were employed in daubing pieces of linen with the wicks of them and the melting wax1 which pieces of linen were designed for winding sheets2 and it is the opinion of these poor people that if they can but have the happiness to be buried in a shroud smutted with this celestial fire1 it will certainly secure them from the flames of hell40--7,p4 #abg1 et seq41 eighth edition1 #ahaj47 ,many people may1 however1 believe that scenes of such an outrageous description as that witnessed by ,maundrell might have happened in his time1 viz41 #afig1 but that their repetition is quite impossible in our own enlightened age4 ,the following account of the same scenes by ,mr ,calman1 whose veracity is attested by a high authority1 and who had an opportunity of seeing it only a few years ago1 which has been reproduced in a little1 and now particularly interesting book1 8,the ,shrines of the ,holy ,land107#abb7 may enable my readers to judge of the influence which the boasted march of intellect has produced on the ,grco-,russian pilgrims1 who assemble every ,easter at ,jerusalem4 8,to notice all that was passing10 says ,mr ,calman1 8within the church of the ,holy ,sepulchre during the space of twenty-four hours1 would be next to impossible1 because it was one continuation of shameless madness and rioting1 which would have been a disgrace to ,greenwich and ,smithfield4 ,only suppose for a moment the mighty edifice crowded to excess with fanatic pilgrims of all the ,eastern ,churches1 who1 instead of lifting pure hands to ,god1 without wrath and quarrelling1 are led1 by the petty jealousy about precedency which they should maintain in the order of their processions1 into tumults and fighting1 which can only be quelled by the scourge and whip of the followers of the false prophet4 8,suppose1 farther1 those thousands of devotees running from one extreme to the other1 from the extreme of savage irritation to that of savage enjoyment1 of mutual revellings and feastings1 like ,israel of old1 who1 when they made the golden calf1 were eating and drinking1 and rising to play4 ,suppose troops of men stripped half naked1 to facilitate their actions1 running1 trotting1 jumping1 galloping to and fro1 the breadth and length of the church1 walking on their hands with their feet aloft in the air1 mounting on one another's shoulders1 some in a riding and some in a standing position1 and by the slightest push are all sent to the ground in one confused heap1 which made one fear for their safety4 8,suppose1 farther1 many of the pilgrims dressed in fur caps1 like the ,polish ,jews1 whom they feigned to represent1 and whom the mob met with all manner of insult1 hurrying them through the church as criminals who had been condemned1 amid loud execrations and shouts of laughter1 which indicated that ,israel is still a derision amongst these heathens1 by whom they are still counted as sheep for the slaughter4 8,about two o'clock on ,saturday afternoon1 the preparations for the miraculous fire commenced4 ,the multitude1 who had been hitherto in a state of frenzy and madness1 became a little more quiet1 but it proved a quiet that precedes a thunderstorm4 ,bishops and priests1 in full canonicals1 then issued forth from their respective quarters1 with flags and banners1 crucifixes and crosses1 lighted candles and smoking censers1 to join or rather to lead a procession1 which moved thrice round the church1 invoking every picture1 altar1 and relic in their way to aid them in obtaining the miraculous fire4 8,the procession then returned to the place from whence it started1 and two grey-headed bishops1 the one of the ,greek and the other of the ,armenian ,church1 were hurled by the soldiers through the crowd1 into the apartment which communicated with that of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 where they locked themselves in2 there the marvellous fire was to make its first appearance1 and from thence issue through the small circular windows and the door1 for the use of the multitude4 ,the eyes of all--men1 women1 and children--were now directed towards the ,holy ,sepulchre with an anxious expression1 awaiting the issue of their expectation4 ,the mixed multitude1 each in his or her own language1 were pouring forth their clamorous prayers to the ,virgin and the saints to intercede for them on behalf of the object for which they were assembled1 and the same were tenfold increased by the fanatic gestures and the waving of the garments by the priests of their respective communions1 who were interested in the holy fire1 and who were watching by the above-mentioned door and circular windows1 with torches in their hands1 ready to receive the virgin flame of the heavenly fire1 and carry it to their flocks4 8,in about twenty minutes from the time the bishops locked themselves in the apartment of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 the miraculous fire made its appearance through the door and the two small windows1 as expected4 ,the priests were the first who lighted their torches1 and they set out on a gallop in the direction of their lay brethren2 but some of these errandless and profitless messengers had the misfortune to be knocked down by the crowd1 and had their firebrands wrested out of their hands1 but some were more fortunate1 and safely reached their destination1 around whom the people flocked like bees1 to have their candles lighted4 ,others1 however1 were not satisfied at having the holy fire second hand1 but rushed furiously towards the ,holy ,sepulchre1 regardless of their own safety1 and that of those who obstructed their way1 though it has frequently happened that persons have been trampled to death on such occasions4 8,those who were in the galleries let down their candles by cords1 and drew them up when they had succeeded in their purpose4 ,in a few minutes thousands of flames were ascending1 the smoke and the heat of which rendered the church like the bottomless pit4 ,to satisfy themselves1 as well as to convince the ,latins1 the pilgrims1 women as well as men1 shamefully exposed their bare bosoms to the action of the flame of their lighted candles1 to make their adversaries believe the miraculous fire differs from an ordinary one in being perfectly harmless4 8,the two bishops1 who a little while before locked themselves in the apartment of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 now sallied forth out of it4 ,when the whole multitude had their candles lighted1 the bishops were caught by the crowd1 lifted upon their shoulders1 and carried to their chapels1 amidst loud and triumphant acclamations4 ,they soon1 however1 reappeared at the head of a similar procession to the one before1 as a pretended thank-offering to the ,almighty for the miraculous fire vouchsafed40--7,p4 #aba1 et seq47 ,it appears1 by comparing these two narratives of one and the same thing1 though separated by a distance of a hundred and fifty years1 that the only difference which will be found between them is1 that in the time of ,maundrell1 #afig1 the miraculous fire was produced in about one minute's time1 whilst the performance of the same trick required twenty when it was observed by ,mr ,calman4 ,and1 indeed1 it has been justly observed by both these writers1 that the exhibitors of the miraculous fire1 having continued so long to practise this imposture1 cannot leave it off without ruining their authority and influence over those whom they have thus been cheating for many centuries4 ,this circumstance has been most pointedly expressed by the author of the work from which ,i have extracted ,mr ,calman's description of this pious1 or rather impious1 fraud1 and who says3-- 8,had it been an occasional miracle1 as time had rolled on1 and truth had more and more illuminated the human mind1 the practice might have been gradually discontinued4 ,as the priests had grown more honest1 and the people more enlightened1 they might have mutually consigned these pious frauds to the oblivion of the darker ages2 and if the blush of shame had risen up at the memories of the past1 the world would have respected them the more for their honesty of purpose4 8,but an annual miracle1 always of the same specific kind1 exhibited on the same spot1 and at the same hour1--an annual miracle1--at what point of time should this be discontinued8 and1 if discontinued1 would it not be manifest either that heaven had forsaken its favourites1 or that all the past had been delusion and imposture80--7,pp4 #abg1 #abh47 ,and it is the authority of a church supported by such impious and shameful impostures as this miraculous fire that a number of ,anglicans1 including several dignitaries of the church1 are anxious of preserving against ,protestant encroachments1 and protest against the existence of the ,protestant bishopric of ,jerusalem1 for fear that it might injure the faith of the pilgrims1 and put an end to such sacred juggleries as the one described above1 which outrivals the most superstitious practices of ancient or modern ,paganism6 ,and it is for the predominance of this same church that the autocrat of ,russia has now plunged ,europe into a war which may prove one of the bloodiest that modern times have witnessed1 and proclaimed a ,grco-,russian crusade against the ,ottoman ,porte and its ,christian allies6 ,this last-named circumstance may1 ,i think1 render it not uninteresting to my readers to know the manner in which this question is viewed by ,russians of elevated rank and superior education4 ,i would therefore recommend to their attention a little pamphlet7#abc7 recently published in ,english by an accomplished ,russian1 who had studied at the ,university of ,edinburgh1 and had enjoyed friendly intercourse with the most eminent characters of that learned body1 leaving with all those who had known him a most favourable impression of his personal character and talents4 ,his opinions1 therefore1 are not those of an ignorant fanatic1 or a hireling of the ,government1 but must be considered as an expression of those entertained by the upper classes of ,russian society4 ,he compares in this pamphlet the position of ,russia towards the followers of the ,eastern ,church in ,turkey1 to that of ,england towards the ,protestants of other countries1 saying3-- 8,you translate the ,bible into all living languages1 not excluding the ,turkish idiom1 and you distribute the holy volumes to the shopkeeper of ,constantinople1 and to the shepherd who tends his camels amidst the ruins of ,ephesus4 ,we are not as laborious propagators of the faith2 but yet we would fain intercede in favour of the ,turk when your copy of the ,bible has converted him to the ,christian faith1 and who1 by the law of the land1 must have his head cut off for this transgression4 ,mark that the obligation is much more binding on us than it is on you1 and not the less binding from the job having been begun by yourselves4 ,the ,turks are spread amongst the ,greeks and surrounded by them4 ,there are ten thousand chances to one1 that if the ,moslem be converted at all1 it is to that creed of which the church stands in his immediate eye1 and that creed is ours4 ,but1 strange to say1 it is because of that very chance that we are to be prohibited from meddling in the matter4 ,with the ,french and with the ,english the case is far different4 ,they1 indeed1 we are told1 claim the right of protection only over thousands2 but you claim that same right over millions1 and1 therefore1 you shall not have it4 ,the question you may1 however1 say1 is not fairly put1 for should a ,turk be converted1 and on the point of losing his head1 we are ready to interpose with our authority1 even though it be to the ,greek ,church that he should have turned4 ,well6 but place yourselves for a moment in our situation4 ,are we to leave to you the work which has been done in our vineyard1 and not stand up for those who have embraced the cross1 merely because there are millions in that realm who embrace it8 ,the case stands equally the same with regard to the far greater number of human beings who are born and have grown up in the profession of our faith4 ,without attempting to prove that they are exposed to constant cruelty and oppression1 a fact which has been strenuously denied without the denial having ever been proved1 it is abundantly known1 and an indisputable fact1 that the ,greeks are in a state of continual bondage1 deprived of the dearest rights of men1 condemned1 in a religious point of view1 to a state of thraldom such as exists in no other part of the world1 inasmuch as the supreme head of their church is installed in his dignity1 maintained in the same1 or deposed by a sovereign professing a faith hostile to his own4 ,is such a state of things to be tolerated by those who are its victims8 and is not this in itself a hardship greater than any other that can be imagined8 ,the ,english have given us1 in a period1 it is true1 of greater zeal for their faith1 an example of active sympathy manifested by them towards their brothers in belief1 subjects of a neighbouring and powerful sovereign4 ,the case was not as urgent as the one to which ,i compare it1 inasmuch as the ,huguenots of ,france were not the subjects of a ,mussulman sovereign4 ,but this1 perhaps1 will be brought home as an argument against me1 for such is the hatred of sects proceeding from the same faith1 that ,england would1 perhaps1 have borne more meekly the hardships endured by the ,calvinistic brethren1 if they had been subjected thereunto by a ,soliman1 and not by him who styled himself the most ,christian king of ,france4 ,however this may be1 it is said at present that1 whether oppressed or no1 the ,greeks never solicited our intervention4 ,to this it may be answered1 that the whole difficulty would have been solved by the very fact of the solicitation1 for had they had the courage and the means to send a similar and unanimous message to the ,emperor of ,russia1 they would have had the strength and unanimity required themselves to strike the blow1 and make all intervention useless4 ,the fact of their having not risen as a man in their own cause1 is a sufficient explanation for their want of boldness in soliciting their deliverance at the hands of a foreign state4 ,but laying aside the question of the subjects of the ,ottoman empire professing the ,greek faith1 to speak of the much more vital interest of the faith itself1 professed as it is by ourselves1 let it be permitted to me to submit to your candid decision1 if the work of defending that faith does not belong pre-eminently to us1 and neither to the ,english nor the ,french4 ,we tolerate in the whole extent of our empire both the ,roman ,catholic and the ,lutheran communions of faith2 we have millions of subjects professing both creeds2 we build churches for them4 ,long before the ,roman ,catholics were emancipated in ,england1 the posts of the highest honour1 of the greatest confidence1 and of the largest perquisites in the army1 the senate1 and the supreme council of the empire1 were opened indiscriminately by us to men professing the ,greek1 ,roman1 or ,lutheran creeds4 ,is it because of our tolerance with respect to sects not our own1 that we are condemned to be indifferent to the hardships of those of our own faith8 ,are we not only to allow your church to stand unmolested within our own realm1 but also to allow our own church to fall in ruins within the limits of a neighbouring state8 ,if so1 you condemn our toleration1 you call it indifference and disbelief40--7,p4 #i1 et seq47 ,it is perfectly true that there are in ,russia several millions of ,protestants and ,roman ,catholics1 and that many of the highest offices1 civil as well as military1 are occupied by them2 for it is well known that the most efficient servants of the ,russian government are chiefly foreigners1 either by birth or extraction4 ,this tolerance1 however1 is always getting more and more restricted2 and ,i have alluded above1 on pp4 #afa-afc1 to the persecution of the ,greeks united with ,rome1 as well as the systematical proselytism by force and fraud amongst the ,protestants of the ,baltic provinces4 ,the author says that a ,mahometan who becomes a convert to ,christianity must lose his head by the laws of ,turkey1 but he does not tell us what fate awaits a follower of the ,greek ,church in ,russia who would become a ,roman ,catholic or a ,protestant4 ,m4 de ,custine relates1 in his well-known work on ,russia17#abd7 that a ,russian gentleman1 who enjoyed a high social position at ,moscow1 published a work1 which the censor allowed in an unaccountable manner to pass1 maintaining that the influence of the ,roman ,catholic ,church is much more favourable to the progress of civilization than that of the ,grco-,russian one1 and that the social condition of ,russia would have been much more advanced by the former than it has been by the latter4 ,this work produced a great sensation1 and the punishment of the author of such a blasphemy was loudly demanded by the orthodox ,russians4 ,this affair being submitted to the ,emperor1 he declared that the author was insane1 and ordered to treat him accordingly4 ,the unfortunate individual consequently was put into a madhouse1 and though perfectly sane1 was subjected to the most rigorous treatment as a lunatic1 so that he nearly became in reality what he was officially declared to be1 and it was only after several years of this moral and physical torture that he was permitted to have a little more liberty1 though still retained in confinement4 ,i do not know what has become of this unfortunate man1 but the truth of this nameless act of tyranny has been fully admitted by ,mr ,gretsch1 who wrote1 by the order of the ,russian ,government1 an answer to the work of ,custine4 ,he says that the individual in question1 a ,mr ,chadayeff1 having committed an action which the laws of ,russia punish with great severity1 the ,emperor ,nicholas1 desiring to save the culprit from the penalty which he had incurred1 ordered1 by an act of mercy1 to treat him simply as a madman4 ,now1 ,i think that the penalty of physical death1 inflicted by the ,turkish law on the converts from ,mahometanism to ,christianity1 may be considered as humane1 if compared to the murder of soul and intellect by the slow process of a moral and physical torture1 to which a man has been subjected in ,russia for his religious opinions2 and if such an atrocious punishment was inflicted by an act of imperial mercy1 as a mitigation of the severity of the law1 what would it have been if the letter of that law had been fulfilled8 8,ferrea jura1 insanumque forum40 ,if1 according to the opinion of the ,russian writer1 his countrymen have a right of interfering in behalf of the followers of their church in ,turkey1 on account of the community of their faith1 the same right is possessed by ,great ,britain and other ,protestant ,states1 as well as by ,france and other ,roman ,catholic powers1 to interfere in behalf of their brethren in the faith who are oppressed by ,russia4 ,with regard to the observation of the same author1 8that the ,greeks are in a continual state of bondage1 deprived of the dearest rights of men1 condemned1 in a religious point of view1 to a state of thraldom such as exists in no other part of the world1 inasmuch as the supreme head of their church is installed in his dignity1 maintained in the same1 or deposed1 by a sovereign professing a faith hostile to his own10 ,i must remark that he has forgotten1 in saying that such a state of thraldom exists not in any other part of the world1 to add1 except in ,russia1 because all the ,roman ,catholic bishops and other dignitaries of their church1 as well as the ,protestant superintendents1 presidents of consistories1 c41 8are installed in their dignity1 maintained in the same1 or deposed1 by a sovereign professing a faith hostile to their own40 ,and his question1 8,is such a state of things to be tolerated by its victims8 and is it not in itself a hardship greater than any other that can be imagined80 is as much applicable to the ,protestants and ,roman ,catholics of ,russia as it is to the ,christians of ,turkey4 ,the 8,russian1 ,quondam ,civis ,bibliothec ,edinensis10 carries his zeal for the orthodox ,greek ,church so far as to recommend its adoption to the ,english3-- 8,do you not see every day1 in your own country1 the encroaching action of the ,see of ,rome8 ,and here ,i cannot refrain from exclaiming1 how strange it is to see every day converts in crowds passing from the ,protestant to the ,roman faith1 and not pausing for a moment to reflect if they have not a smaller space to cross1 and a safer haven to come to in the bosom of the ,grco-,catholic ,church1 the same as that of ,rome1 minus the anti-apostolic double procession of the ,holy ,ghost1 minus an infallible pope1 minus the sale of indulgences1 and last1 though not least1 minus the arbitrary exclusion of the blood of ,christ from the holy communion given to laymen6 ,is it not strange1 that on the moment of abjuring your reformations1 you should fly into the arms of a church which has introduced reformations of its own1 and not appeal to that one church which professes with evident truth to have admitted no changes at all1 and kept intact the purity of her tradition8 ,but1 again1 this is no theological disquisition4 ,witnessing1 however1 as ,i said above1 in your own kingdom1 the daily increasing influence of the ,roman ,see1 you can surely understand how legitimately jealous we must be of the same influence extending within the precincts of our sheepfold4 ,and1 therefore1 not only is our faith to be preserved unmolested1 but the saving deed is to be done by us1 and not through the agency of ,english and ,french ambassadors or fleets1 to be achieved in the name of the faith we profess in common with our ,greek brethren1 and by no means stipulated in the name of universal freedom of thought4 ,i think ,i have said enough to prove the vital and cordial interest which ,russia cannot but take in the cause of her own church1 and of those who profess it in ,turkey1 and the paramount necessity she is under of making that cause her own40--7,p4 #ab1 et seq47 ,if the ,russian author is so anxious to convert the ,british ,protestants to the ,grco-,russian1 or1 as he calls her1 8,grco-,catholic0 ,church1 he may translate her controversial works into ,english1 and build places of worship where image-kissing1 prostration1 incense1 and holy water1 may be exhibited for the edification of the ,british heretics1 ad libitum4 ,nobody will interfere with their ceremonies1 not even with their preachings against ,protestantism1 because its disciples in ,great ,britain are satisfied with defending their religion by spiritual weapons1 and do not resort to material arms1 except in repressing either public or private acts of violence4 ,as regards the dogmatic pre-eminence of his church over that of ,rome1--her rejection of the 8anti-apostolic double procession of the ,holy ,ghost10--which has been1 ,i think1 retained by the ,english ,church1 c41 ,i leave this subject to the decision of theologians1 but shall only observe that the worship of images1 relics1 and other pagan practices1 which ,i have described in this chapter1 do not prove much in favour of the purity of her tradition4 ,i would also ask whether it is in accordance with this tradition that the ,russian clergy1 notwithstanding all their claims to apostolic succession1 are governed by the ,czar1 who sometimes delegates for this purpose a colonel of hussars17#abe7 which office1 ,i believe1 was never known1 even in the most militant of churches8 ,it has been1 indeed1 well said by the ,marquis de ,custine1 that the ,russian clergy are but an army wearing regimentals somewhat different from the dress of the regular troops of the empire4 ,the papas and their bishops are under the direction of the emperor1 a regiment of clerks1 and that is all47#abf7 ,it is in order to extend the advantages of this military organization to the ,christians of ,turkey that ,russia1 according to the opinion of our author1 8is under the paramount necessity of making their cause her own40 ,all that ,i say is1 that she felt the same necessity of making the cause of the ,greeks and ,protestants of ,poland her own1 and that she ended by making the same thing with their country4 ,the politico-religious complications into which ,europe has now been thrown by the ambition of ,russia have induced me particularly to dwell upon the means which the church of that country offers for the promotion of the political schemes of its rulers4 ,with regard to the superstitious practices borrowed from ,paganism1 and peculiar to that church1 the most remarkable is1 perhaps1 that heathen custom called parentales1 mentioned before1 p4 #fb1 and which may be found in different parts of ,russia4 ,people assemble on ,monday1 after the ,easter week1 in churchyards1 where they eat and drink to great excess1 in commemoration of their deceased relatives4 ,there are many other similar practices1 as1 for instance1 that of providing the dead body with a kind of passport or written testimony of his religious conduct1 c41 probably imported with the ,christian religion by the ,greek ,church1 because at the time of the conversion of ,russia1 this church had already introduced painted though not carved7#abg7 images1 to which allusion has been made on p4 #ab of this ,essay4 ,,calvin',s ,,treatise ,,on ,,relics1 ,,with ,,notes ,,by ,,the ,,translator4 ,st ,augustinus complains1 in his work entitled 8,the ,labour of ,monks10 that certain people were1 even in his time1 exercising a dishonest trade1 hawking about relics of martyrs1 and he adds the following significant words1 8should they really be relics of martyrs10 from which we may infer1 that even then abuses and deceits were practised1 by making simple folks believe that bones1 picked up any where1 were bones of saints4 ,since the origin of this abuse is so ancient1 there can be no doubt that it has greatly increased during a long interval of years1 particularly as the world has been much corrupted since that age1 and has continued to deteriorate until it has arrived at its present condition4 ,now1 the origin and root of this evil has been1 that1 instead of discerning ,jesus ,christ in his ,word1 his ,sacraments1 and his ,spiritual ,graces1 the world has1 according to its custom1 amused itself with his clothes1 shirts1 and sheets1 leaving thus the principal to follow the accessory4 ,it did the same thing with the apostles1 martyrs1 and other saints1 and1 instead of observing their lives in order to imitate their examples1 it directed all its attention to the preservation and admiration of their bones1 shirts1 sashes1 caps1 and other similar trash4 ,i know well that there is a certain appearance of real devotion and zeal in the allegation1 that the relics of ,jesus ,christ are preserved on account of the honour which is rendered to him1 and in order the better to preserve his memory4 ,but it is necessary to consider what ,st ,paul says1 that every service of ,god invented by man1 whatever appearance of wisdom it may have1 is nothing better than vanity and foolishness1 if it has no other foundation than our own devising4 ,moreover1 it is necessary to set the profit derived from it against the dangers with which it is fraught1 and it will thus be found that1 to have relics is a useless and frivolous thing1 which will most probably gradually lead towards idolatry1 because they cannot be handled and looked upon without being honoured1 and in doing this men will very soon render them the honour which is due to ,jesus ,christ4 ,in short1 the desire for relics is never without superstition1 and what is worse1 it is usually the parent of idolatry4 ,every one admits that the reason why our ,lord concealed the body of ,moses1 was that the people of ,israel should not be guilty of worshipping it4 ,now1 we may conclude that the act to be avoided with regard to the body of ,moses must be equally shunned with regard to the bodies of all other saints1 and for the same reason--because it is sin4 ,but let us leave the saints1 and consider what ,st ,paul says of ,jesus ,christ himself1 for he protests that he knew him not according to the flesh1 but only after his resurrection1 signifying by these words1 that all that is carnal in ,jesus ,christ must be forgotten and put aside1 and that we should employ and direct our whole affections to seek and possess him according to the spirit4 ,consequently the pretence that it is a good thing to have some memorials either of himself or of the saints1 to stimulate our piety1 is nothing but a cloak for indulging our foolish cravings which have no reasonable foundation2 and should even this reason appear insufficient1 it is openly repugnant to what the ,holy ,ghost has declared by the mouth of ,st ,paul1 and what can be said more8 ,it is of no use to discuss the point whether it is right or wrong to have relics merely to keep them as precious objects1 without worshipping them1 because experience proves that this is never the case4 ,it is true that ,st ,ambrose1 in speaking of ,helena1 the mother of the ,emperor ,constantine the ,great1 who sought with great trouble and expense for the cross of our ,lord1 says that she did not worship the wood1 but the ,lord who was suspended upon it4 ,but it is a very rare thing1 that a heart disposed to value any relics whatever should not become to a certain degree polluted by some superstition4 ,i admit that people do not arrive at once at open idolatry1 but they gradually advance from one abuse to another until they fall into this extremity1 and1 indeed1 those who call themselves ,christians have1 in this respect1 idolatrised as much as ,pagans ever did4 ,they have prostrated themselves1 and knelt before relics1 just as if they were worshipping ,god2 they have burnt candles before them in sign of homage2 they have placed their confidence in them1 and have prayed to them1 as if the virtue and the grace of ,god had entered into them4 ,now1 if idolatry be nothing else than the transfer elsewhere of the honour which is due to ,god1 can it be denied that this is idolatry8 ,this cannot be excused by pretending that it was only the improper zeal of some idiots or foolish women1 for it was a general custom approved by those who had the government of the church1 and who had even placed the bones of the dead and other relics on the high altar1 in the greatest and most prominent places1 in order that they should be worshipped with more certainty4 ,it is thus that the foolish fancy which people had at first for collecting relics1 ended in this open abomination1--they not only turned from ,god1 in order to amuse themselves with vain and corruptible things1 but even went on to the execrable sacrilege of worshipping dead and insensible creatures1 instead of the one living ,god4 ,now1 as one evil never comes alone but is always followed by another1 it thus happened that where people were seeking for relics1 either of ,jesus ,christ or the saints1 they became so blind that whatever name was imposed upon any rubbish presented to them1 they received it without any examination or judgment2 thus the bones of an ass or dog1 which any hawker gave out to be the bones of a martyr1 were devoutly received without any difficulty4 ,this was the case with all of them1 as will be shown hereafter4 ,for my own part1 ,i have no doubt that this has been a great punishment inflicted by ,god4 ,because1 as the world was craving after relics1 and turning them to a wicked and superstitious use1 it was very likely that ,god would permit one lie to follow another2 for this is the way in which he punishes the dishonour done to his name1 when the glory due to him is transferred elsewhere4 ,indeed1 the only reason why there are so many false and imaginary relics is1 that ,god has permitted the world to be doubly deceived and fallen1 since it has so loved deceit and lies4 ,the first ,christians left the bodies of the saints in their graves1 obeying the universal sentence1 that all flesh is dust1 and ,,to ,,dust ,,it ,,must ,,return1 and did not attempt their resurrection before the appointed time by raising them in pomp and state4 ,this example has not been followed by their successors2 on the contrary1 the bodies of the faithful1 in opposition to the command of ,god1 have been disinterred in order to be glorified1 when they ought to have remained in their places of repose awaiting the last judgment4 ,they were worshipped2 every kind of honour was shown to them1 and people put their trust in such things4 ,and what was the consequence of all this8 ,the devil1 perceiving man's folly1 was not satisfied with having led the world into one deception1 but added to it another1 by giving the name of relics of saints to the most profane things4 ,and ,god punished the credulous by depriving them of all power of reasoning rightly1 so that they accepted without inquiry all that was presented to them1 making no distinction between white or black4 ,it is not my intention now to discuss the abominable abuse of the relics of our ,lord1 as well as of the saints1 at this present time1 in the most part of ,christendom4 ,this subject alone would require a separate volume2 for it is a well-known fact that the most part of the relics which are displayed every where are false1 and have been put forward by impostors who have most impudently deceived the poor world4 ,i have merely mentioned this subject1 to give people an opportunity of thinking it over1 and of being upon their guard4 ,it happens sometimes that we carelessly approve of a thing without taking the necessary time to examine what it really is1 and we are thus deceived for want of warning2 but when we are warned1 we begin to think1 and become quite astonished at our believing so easily such an improbability4 ,this is precisely what has taken place with the subject in question4 ,people were told1 8,this is the body of such a saint2 these are his shoes1 those are his stockings20 and they believed it to be so1 for want of timely caution4 ,but when ,i shall have clearly proved the fraud which has been committed1 all those who have sense and reason will open their eyes and begin to reflect upon what has never before entered their thoughts4 ,the limits of my little volume forbid me from entering but upon a small part of what ,i would wish to perform1 for it would be necessary to ascertain the relics possessed by every place in order to compare them with each other4 ,it would then be seen that every apostle had more than four bodies17#abh7 and each saint at least two or three1 and so on4 ,in short1 if all the relics were collected into one heap1 the only astonishment would be that such a silly and clumsy imposition could have blinded the whole earth4 ,as every1 even the smallest ,catholic church has a heap of bones and other small rubbish1 what would it be if all those things which are contained in two or three thousand bishoprics1 twenty or thirty thousand abbeys1 more than forty thousand convents1 and so many parish churches and chapels1 were collected into one mass87#abi7 ,the best thing would be not merely to name1 but to visit them4 ,in this town 7,geneva7 there was formerly1 it is said1 an arm of ,st ,anthony2 it was kissed and worshipped as long as it remained in its shrine2 but when it was turned out and examined1 it was found to be the bone of a stag4 ,there was on the high altar the brain of ,st ,peter2 so long as it rested in its shrine1 nobody ever doubted its genuineness1 for it would have been blasphemy to do so2 but when it was subjected to a close inspection1 it proved to be a piece of pumice-stone4 ,i could quote many instances of this kind2 but these will be sufficient to give an idea of the quantity of precious rubbish there would have been found if a thorough and universal investigation of all the relics of ,europe had ever taken place4 ,many of those who look at relics close their eyes from superstition1 so that in regarding these they see nothing2 that is to say1 they dare not properly gaze at and consider what they properly may be4 ,thus many who boast of having seen the whole body of ,st ,claude1 or of any other saint1 have never had the courage to raise their eyes and to ascertain what it really was4 ,the same thing may be said of the head of ,mary ,magdalene1 which is shown near ,marseilles1 with eyes of paste or wax4 ,it is valued as much as if it were ,god himself who had descended from heaven2 but if it were examined1 the imposition would be clearly detected47#acj7 ,it would be desirable to have an accurate knowledge of all the trifles which in different places are taken for relics1 or at least a register of them1 in order to show how many of them are false2 but since it is impossible to obtain this1 ,i should like to have at least an inventory of relics contained in ten or twelve such towns as ,paris1 ,toulouse1 ,poitiers1 ,rheims1 c4 ,if ,i had nothing more than this1 it would form a very curious collection4 ,indeed1 it is a wish ,i am constantly entertaining to get such a precious repertory4 ,however1 as this is too difficult1 ,i thought it would be as well to publish the following little warning1 to awaken those who are asleep1 and to make them consider what may be the state of the entire church if there is so much to condemn in a very small portion of it2--,i mean1 when people find so much deception in the relics ,i shall name1 and which are far from being the thousandth part of those that are exhibited in various parts of the world1 what must they think of the remainder8 moreover1 if those which had been considered as the most authentic proved to be fraudulent inventions1 what can be thought of the more doubtful ones8 ,would to ,god that ,christian princes thought a little on this subject6 for it is their duty not to allow their subjects to be deceived1 not only by false doctrine1 but also by such manifest impositions4 ,they will indeed incur a heavy responsibility for allowing ,god to be thus mocked when they could prevent it4 ,i hope1 however1 that this little treatise will be of general service1 by inducing people to think on the subject2 for1 if we could have the register of all the relics that are to be found in the world1 men would clearly see how much they had been blinded1 and what darkness and folly overspread the earth4 ,let us begin with ,jesus ,christ1 about whose blood there have been fierce disputations2 for many maintained that he had no blood except of a miraculous kind2 nevertheless the natural blood is exhibited in more than a hundred places4 ,they show at ,rochelle a few drops of it1 which1 as they say1 was collected by ,nicodemus in his glove4 ,in some places they have phials full of it1 as1 for instance1 at ,mantua and elsewhere2 in other parts they have cups filled with it1 as in the ,church of ,st ,eustache at ,rome4 ,they did not rest satisfied with simple blood2 it was considered necessary to have it mixed with water as it flowed out of his side when pierced on the cross4 ,this is preserved in the ,church of ,st ,john of the ,lateran at ,rome4 ,now1 ,i appeal to the judgment of every one whether it is not an evident lie to maintain that the blood of ,jesus ,christ was found1 after a lapse of seven or eight hundred years1 to be distributed over the whole world1 especially as the ancient church makes no mention of it8 ,then come the things which have touched the body of our ,lord4 ,firstly1 the manger in which he was placed at his birth is shown in the ,church of ,madonna ,maggiore at ,rome4 ,in ,st ,paul's ,church there are preserved the swaddling clothes in which he was wrapped1 though there are pieces of these clothes at ,salvatierra in ,spain4 ,his cradle is also at ,rome1 as well as the shirt his mother made for him4 ,at the ,church of ,st ,james1 in the same city1 is shown the altar upon which he was placed at his presentation in the temple1 as if there had been many altars1 according to the fashion of the ,popish churches1 where any number of them may be erected4 ,this is what they show relating to the time of ,christ's childhood4 ,it is1 indeed1 not worth while seriously to discuss whence they obtained all this trash1 so long a time after the death of ,jesus ,christ4 ,that man must be of little mind who cannot see the folly of it4 ,there is no mention of these things in the ,gospels1 and they were never heard of in the times of the apostles4 ,about fifty years after the death of ,jesus ,christ1 ,jerusalem was destroyed4 ,many ancient doctors have written since1 mentioning fully the occurrences of their time1 even to the cross and nails found by ,helena1 but these absurdities are not alluded to4 ,but what is more1 these things were not brought forward at ,rome during the days of ,st ,gregory1 as may be seen from his writings2 whilst after his death ,rome was several times taken1 pillaged1 and almost destroyed4 ,now1 what other conclusion can be drawn from these considerations but that all these were inventions for deceiving silly folks8 ,this has even been confessed by some monks and priests1 who call them pious frauds1 i4e41 honest deceits for exciting the devotion of the people4 ,after these come the relics belonging to the period from the childhood to the death of ,jesus ,christ1 such as the water pots in which ,christ changed water into wine at the marriage feast of ,cana in ,galilee4 ,one would naturally inquire how they were preserved for so long a time8 for it is necessary to bear in mind that they were not discovered until eight hundred or a thousand years after the performance of the miracle4 ,i cannot tell all the places where these water pots are shown2 ,i only know that they can be seen at ,pisa1 ,ravenna1 ,cluny1 ,antwerp1 and ,salvatierra in ,spain47#aca7 ,at ,orleans they have even the wine which was obtained by that miracle1 and once a-year the priests there give to those who bring offerings a small spoonful1 saying that they shall taste of the very wine made by our ,lord at the marriage feast1 and its quantity never decreases1 the cup being always refilled4 ,i do not know of what date are his shoes1 which are preserved in a place at ,rome called ,sancta ,sanctorum1 or whether he had worn them in his childhood or manhood2 but this is of little moment1 for what ,i have already mentioned sufficiently shows the gross imposition of producing now the shoes of ,jesus ,christ1 which were not possessed by the apostles in their time4 ,now1 let us proceed to the last supper which ,christ had with his apostles4 ,the table is at ,st ,john of the ,lateran at ,rome2 some bread made for that occasion at ,salvatierra in ,spain2 and the knife with which the paschal lamb was carved is at ,trves4 ,now1 it is necessary to observe that ,christ made that supper in a borrowed room1 and on going from thence he left the table1 which was not removed by the apostles4 ,jerusalem was soon afterwards destroyed4 ,how1 then1 could the table be found after a lapse of eight hundred years8 ,moreover1 in the early ages tables were made of quite a different shape to those of our days1 for people then took their repasts in a lying1 not in a sitting posture--a circumstance expressly mentioned in the ,gospels4 ,the deceit is therefore quite manifest1 without more being added to prove it4 ,the cup in which ,christ gave the sacrament of his blood to the apostles is shown at ,notre ,dame de l',isle1 near ,lyons2 and there is another in a convent of ,augustine monks in the ,albigois2--which is the true one8 ,charles ,sigonius1 a celebrated historian of our times1 says1 in his fourth book on ,italy1 that ,baldwin1 second king of ,jerusalem1 captured in #aaja1 with the assistance of the ,genoese1 the town of ,cesarea in ,syria1 and amongst the spoils taken by his allies was a vessel or cup of emerald1 which was considered to have been made use of by ,jesus ,christ at his last supper4 8,therefore10--these are his own words1--8this cup is even now devoutly preserved in the town of ,genoa40 ,according to this account1 our ,lord must have had a splendid service on that occasion2 for there would be as little propriety in drinking from such a costly vessel without having the rest of the service of a similar description1 as there is in some ,popish pictures where the ,virgin ,mary is represented as a woman with her hair hanging over her shoulders1 dressed in a gown of cloth of gold1 and riding on a donkey which ,joseph leads by the halter4 ,we recommend our readers to consider well the ,gospel texts relating to this subject4 ,the case of the dish upon which the paschal lamb was placed is still worse1 for it is to be found at ,rome1 at ,genoa1 and at ,arles4 ,if these holy relics be genuine1 the customs of that time must have been quite different from ours1 because1 instead of changing viands as we now do1 the dishes were changed for the same food6 ,the same may be said of the towel with which ,jesus ,christ wiped the feet of the apostles1 after having washed them2 there is one at ,rome at the ,lateran1 one at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and one at ,st ,corneille of ,compiegne1 with the print of the foot of ,judas4 ,some of these must be false4 ,but we will leave the contending parties to fight out their own battles1 until one of them shall establish the reality of his case4 ,it appears to me1 however1 that trying to make people believe that a towel which ,jesus ,christ had left in the place where it was used1 had in several hundred years afterwards found its way into ,germany and ,italy1 is nothing better than a gross imposture4 ,i nearly forgot to mention the bread with which five thousand persons were miraculously fed in the desert1 and of which a bit is shown at ,rome1 and another piece at ,salvatierra in ,spain4 ,the ,scripture says that a portion of manna was preserved in remembrance of ,god having miraculously fed his people in the desert2 but the ,gospel does not say a word respecting the preservation of the fragments of the five loaves for a similar purpose2 the subject is not mentioned in any ancient history1 nor does any ecclesiastical writer speak of it4 ,it is therefore very easily perceived that the above-mentioned pieces of bread are of modern manufacture4 ,the principal relics of our ,lord are1 however1 those relating to his passion and death4 ,and the first of them is the cross4 ,i know that it is considered to be a certain fact that it was found by ,helena1 the mother of the ,emperor ,constantine2 and ,i know also that some ancient doctors have written about the manner in which the discovery was certified that it was the true cross upon which our ,lord had suffered4 ,i think1 however1 that it was a foolish curiosity1 and a silly and inconsiderate devotion1 which prompted ,helena to seek for that cross4 ,but let us take for granted that it was a laudable act1 and that our ,lord had declared by a miracle that it was the real cross1 and let us consider only the state of the case in our own time4 ,it is maintained undoubtingly that the cross found by ,helena is still at ,jerusalem1 though this is contradicted by ecclesiastical history1 which relates that ,helena took a piece of it1 and sent it to her son the emperor1 who set it upon a column of porphyry1 in the centre of a public place or square1 whilst the other portion of it was enclosed by her in a silver case1 and intrusted to the keeping of the ,bishop of ,jerusalem2 consequently1 either the before-mentioned statement or this historical record must be false4 ,now let us consider how many relics of the true cross there are in the world4 ,an account of those merely with which ,i am acquainted would fill a whole volume1 for there is not a church1 from a cathedral to the most miserable abbey or parish church1 that does not contain a piece4 ,large splinters of it are preserved in various places1 as for instance in the ,holy ,chapel at ,paris1 whilst at ,rome they show a crucifix of considerable size made entirely1 they say1 from this wood4 ,in short1 if we were to collect all these pieces of the true cross exhibited in various parts1 they would form a whole ship's cargo4 ,the ,gospel testifies that the cross could be borne by one single individual2 how glaring1 then1 is the audacity now to pretend to display more relics of wood than three hundred men could carry6 ,as an explanation of this1 they have invented the tale1 that whatever quantity of wood may be cut off this true cross1 its size never decreases4 ,this is1 however1 such a clumsy and silly imposture1 that the most superstitious may see through it4 ,the most absurd stories are also told respecting the manner in which various pieces of the cross were conveyed to the places where they are now shown2 thus1 for instance1 we are informed that they were brought by angels1 or had fallen from heaven4 ,by these means they seduce ignorant people into idolatry1 for they are not satisfied with deceiving the credulous1 by affirming that pieces of common wood are portions of the true cross1 but they pretend that it should be worshipped1 which is a diabolical doctrine1 expressly reproved by ,st ,ambrose as a ,pagan superstition4 ,after the cross comes the inscription1 8,jesus of ,nazareth1 ,king of the ,jews10 which was placed upon it by order of ,pilate4 ,the town of ,toulouse claims the possession of this relic1 but this is contradicted by ,rome1 where it is shown in the ,church of the ,holy ,cross4 ,if these relics were properly examined1 it would be seen that the claims of both parties are equally absurd4 ,there is a still greater contradiction concerning the nails of the cross4 ,i shall name those with which ,i am acquainted1 and ,i think even a child could see how the devil has been mocking the world by depriving it of the power of discernment on this point4 ,if the ancient writers1 such as the ecclesiastical historian ,theodorite1 tell the truth 7,historia ,tripartita1 lib4 ii471 ,helena caused one of the nails to be set in the helmet of her son ,constantine1 and two others in the bridle of his horse4 ,st ,ambrose1 however1 relates this differently1 saying that one of the nails was set in the crown of ,constantine1 a second was converted into a bridle-bit for his horse1 and the third was retained by ,helena4 ,thus we see that twelve hundred years ago there was a difference of opinion on this subject1 and how can we tell what has become of the nails since that time8 ,now1 they boast at ,milan that they possess the nail which was in ,constantine's bridle2 this claim is1 however1 opposed by the town of ,carpentras4 ,st ,ambrose does not say that the nail was attached to the bridle1 but that the bit was made from it1--a circumstance which does not agree with the claims of ,milan or ,carpentras4 ,there is1 moreover1 one nail in the ,church of ,st ,helena at ,rome1 and another in that of the ,holy ,cross in the same city2 there is a nail at ,sienna1 and another at ,venice4 ,germany possesses two1 at ,cologne and ,trves4 ,in ,france there is one in the ,holy ,chapel at ,paris1 another in the same city at the church of the ,carmelites1 a third is at ,st ,denis1 a fourth at ,bruges1 a fifth at the abbey of ,tenaille in the ,saintonge1 a sixth at ,draguignau1 the whole number making fourteen shown in different towns and countries47#acb7 ,each place exhibiting these nails produces certain proofs to establish the genuineness of its relic1 but all these claims may be placed on a par as equally absurd4 ,then follows the iron spear with which our ,saviour's side was pierced4 ,it could be but one1 and yet by some extraordinary process it seems to have been multiplied into four2 for there is one at ,rome1 one at the ,holy ,chapel at ,paris1 one at the abbey of ,tenaille in ,saintonge1 and one at ,selve1 near ,bourdeaux4 ,with regard to the crown of thorns1 one must believe that the slips of which it was plaited had been planted1 and had produced an abundant growth1 for otherwise it is impossible to understand how it could have increased so much4 ,a third part of this crown is preserved at the ,holy ,chapel at ,paris1 three thorns at the ,church of the ,holy ,cross1 and a number of them at ,st ,eustache in the same city2 there are a good many of the thorns at ,sienna1 one at ,vicenza1 four at ,bourges1 three at ,besanon1 three at ,port ,royal1 and ,i do not know how many at ,salvatierra in ,spain1 two at ,st ,james of ,compostella1 three at ,albi1 and one at least in the following places3--,toulouse1 ,macon1 ,charroux in ,poitiers2 at ,cleri1 ,st ,flour1 ,st ,maximim in ,provence1 in the abbey of ,la ,salle at ,st ,martin of ,noyon1 c47#acc7 ,it must be observed1 that the early church has made no mention of this crown1 consequently the root that produced all these relics must have grown a long time after the passion of our ,lord4 ,with regard to the coat1 woven throughout without a seam1 for which the soldiers at the cross cast lots1 there is one to be seen at ,argenteuil near ,paris1 and another at ,trves in ,germany4 ,it is now time to treat of the 8sudary10 about which relic they have displayed their folly even more than in the affair of the holy coat2 for besides the sudary of ,veronica1 which is shown in the ,church of ,st ,peter at ,rome1 it is the boast of several towns that they each possess one1 as for instance ,carcassone1 ,nice1 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,trves1 ,besanon1 without reckoning the fragments to be seen in various places47#acd7 ,now1 ,i ask whether those persons were not bereft of their senses who could take long pilgrimages1 at much expense and fatigue1 in order to see sheets1 of the reality of which there were no reasons to believe1 but many to doubt2 for whoever admitted the reality of one of these sudaries shown in so many places1 must have considered the rest as wicked impostures set up to deceive the public by the pretence that they were each the real sheet in which ,christ's body had been wrapped4 ,but it is not only that the exhibitors of this one and the same relic give each other mutually the lie1 they are 7what is far more important7 positively contradicted by the ,gospel4 ,the evangelists who speak of all the women who followed our ,lord to the place of crucifixion1 make not the least mention of that ,veronica who wiped his face with a kerchief4 ,it was in truth a most marvellous and remarkable event1 worthy of being recorded1 that the face of ,jesus ,christ was then miraculously imprinted upon the cloth1 a much more important thing to mention than the mere circumstance that certain women had followed ,jesus ,christ to the place of crucifixion without meeting with any miracle2 and1 indeed1 had such a miracle taken place1 we might consider the evangelists wanting in judgment in not relating the most important facts4 ,the same observations are applicable to the tale of the sheet in which the body of our ,lord was wrapped4 ,how is it possible that those sacred historians1 who carefully related all the miracles that took place at ,christ's death1 should have omitted to mention one so remarkable as the likeness of the body of our ,lord remaining on its wrapping sheet8 ,this fact undoubtedly deserved to be recorded4 ,st ,john1 in his ,gospel1 relates even how ,st ,peter1 having entered the sepulchre1 saw the linen clothes lying on one side1 and the napkin that was about his head on the other2 but he does not say that there was a miraculous impression of our ,lord's figure upon these clothes1 and it is not to be imagined that he would have omitted to mention such a work of ,god if there had been any thing of this kind4 ,another point to be observed is1 that the evangelists do not mention that either of the disciples or the faithful women who came to the sepulchre had removed the clothes in question1 but1 on the contrary1 their account seems to imply that they were left there4 ,now1 the sepulchre was guarded by soldiers1 and consequently the clothes were in their power4 ,is it possible that they would have permitted the disciples to take them away as relics1 since these very men had been bribed by the ,pharisees to perjure themselves by saying that the disciples had stolen the body of our ,lord8 ,i shall conclude with a convincing proof of the audacity of the ,papists4 ,wherever the holy sudary is exhibited1 they show a large sheet with the full-length likeness of a human body on it4 ,now1 ,st ,john's ,gospel1 chapter nineteenth1 says that ,christ was buried according to the manner of the ,jews2 and what was their custom8 ,this may be known by their present custom on such occasions1 as well as from their books1 which describe the ancient ceremony of interment1 which was to wrap the body in a sheet1 to the shoulders1 and to cover the head with a separate cloth4 ,this is precisely how the evangelist described it1 saying1 that ,st ,peter saw on one side the clothes with which the body had been wrapped1 and on the other the napkin from about his head4 ,in short1 either ,st ,john is a liar1 or all those who boast of possessing the holy sudary are convicted of falsehood and deceit47#ace7 ,in the ,church of ,st ,john of the ,lateran at ,rome1 they show the reed which the soldiers1 mocking ,christ in the house of ,pilate1 placed in his hand1 and with which they afterwards smote him on the head4 ,in the ,church of the ,holy ,cross at ,rome they show the sponge which was filled with vinegar1 and given him to drink during his passion4 ,now1 ,i would ask1 how were these things obtained8 ,they must have been formerly in the hands of infidels4 ,could they have delivered them up to the apostles to be made relics of8 or did they preserve them themselves for future times8 ,what a sacrilege to make use of the name of ,jesus ,christ in order to invent such absurd fables6 ,and what can we think of the pieces of silver received by ,judas for betraying our ,saviour8 ,the ,gospel says that he returned this money to the chief priests1 who bought with it the potter's field for a burial-place for strangers4 ,by what means were these pieces of silver obtained from the seller of that field8 ,it would be too absurd to maintain that this was done by the disciples of ,jesus ,christ2 and if we are told that they were found a long time afterwards1 it will be still less probable1 as this money must have passed through many hands4 ,it is therefore necessary to prove1 that either the person who sold his field did so for the purpose of obtaining the silver pieces in order to make relics of them2 or that he afterwards sold them to the faithful4 ,nothing of this kind has ever been mentioned by the primitive church47#acf7 ,to the same class of impositions belong the steps of ,pilate's tribunal1 which are exhibited in the ,church of ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 as well as the column to which ,christ was fastened during the flagellation1 shown in the ,church of ,st ,prasedo in the same city1 besides two other pillars1 round which he was conducted on his way to ,calvary4 ,from whence these columns were taken it is impossible to conjecture4 ,i only know that the ,gospel1 in relating that ,jesus ,christ was scourged1 does not mention that he was fastened to a column or post4 ,it really appears as if these impostors had no other aim than to promulgate the most fallacious statements1 and1 indeed1 they carried this to such a degree of extravagance1 that they were not ashamed to make a relic of the tail of the ass upon which our ,lord entered into ,jerusalem1 which they show at ,genoa47#acg7 ,one really cannot tell which is most wonderful1--the folly and credulity of those who devoutly receive such mockeries1 or the boldness of those who put them forth4 ,it may be said that it is not likely all these relics should be preserved without some sort of correct history being kept of them4 ,to this ,i reply that such evident falsehoods can never bear the slightest resemblance to truth1 how much soever their claims may be supported by the names of ,constantine1 ,louis ,,ix41 or of some popes2 for they will never be able to prove that ,christ was crucified with fourteen nails1 or that a whole hedge was used to plait his crown of thorns1--that the iron of the spear with which his side was pierced had given birth to three other similar pieces of iron1--that his coat was multiplied threefold1--and that from his single sudarium a number of others have issued1 or that ,jesus ,christ was buried in a manner different from that described in the ,gospels4 ,now1 if ,i were to show a piece of lead1 saying1 8,this piece of gold was given me by a certain prince10 ,i should be considered a madman1 and my words would not transmute the lead into gold4 ,thus it is precisely when people say1 8,this thing was sent over by ,godfrey de ,bouillon after his conquest of ,judea40 ,our reason shows us that this is an evident lie4 ,are we then to be so much imposed upon by words as to resist the evidence of our senses8 ,moreover1 in order to show how much reliance may be placed on the statements which are given about these relics1 we must remark that those considered the principal and most authentic at ,rome have been1 according to those accounts1 brought thither by ,vespasian and ,titus4 ,now1 this is such a clumsy fabrication1--they might just as well tell us that the ,turks went to ,jerusalem in order to carry off the true cross to ,constantinople6 ,vespasian conquered and ravaged a part of ,judea before he was elected emperor1 and his son ,titus completed that conquest by the capture and destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,they were both ,pagans1 and had no more regard for ,christ than if he had never existed on earth4 ,consequently to maintain that ,vespasian and ,titus carried off the above-mentioned relics to ,rome1 is even a more flagrant falsehood than the stories about ,godfrey of ,bouillon and ,st ,louis4 ,moreover1 it is well known that the times of ,st ,louis were very superstitious4 ,that monarch would have accepted as a relic1 and worshipped1 any thing that was represented to him as having belonged to the ,holy ,virgin2 and1 indeed1 ,king ,louis and other crusaders sacrificed their bodies and their goods1 as well as a great portion of their country's substance1 merely to bring back with them heaps of foolish trifles1 having been taught to consider them as the most precious jewels of the world4 ,it must be here mentioned1 that in ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 and other eastern countries1 people show1 with full assurance1 counterpart old rubbish1 which those poor idolaters imagine they possess in their own country4 ,how are we to judge between the two contending parties8 ,one party says that these relics were brought from the ,east2 but the ,christians now inhabiting those lands maintain that the same relics are still in their possession1 and they laugh at our pretensions4 ,how can it be decided betwixt right and wrong without an inquiry1 which will never take place8 ,methinks the best plan is to let the dispute rest as it is1 without caring for either side of the question4 ,the last relics pertaining to ,jesus ,christ are those which relate to the time after his resurrection1--as1 for instance1 a piece of broiled fish which ,st ,peter presented to him on the sea-shore4 ,this fish must have been strongly spiced1 and prepared in some extraordinary manner1 to be preserved for so long a period4 ,but1 seriously1 is it likely that the apostles would have made a relic of a portion of the fish which they had prepared for their dinner8 ,indeed1 ,i think that whoever will not perceive this to be an open mockery of ,god1 deserves not to be reasoned with4 ,there is also the miraculous blood which has flowed from several hosts1--as1 for instance1 in the ,churches of ,st ,jean-en-,greve at ,paris1 at ,st ,jean d',angeli at ,dijon1 and in many other places4 ,they show even the penknife with which the host at ,paris was pierced by a ,jew1 and which the poor ,parisians hold in as much reverence as the host itself4 ,for this they were well blamed by a ,roman ,catholic priest1 who declared them to be worse than the ,jews1 for worshipping the knife with which the precious body of ,christ was pierced4 ,i think we may apply this observation to the nails1 the spear1 and the thorns2 and consequently those who worship those instruments used at our ,lord's crucifixion are more wicked than the ,jews who employed them for that purpose4 ,there are many other relics belonging to this period of our ,lord's history1 but it would be tedious to enumerate them all4 ,we shall therefore pass them over1 and say a few words respecting his images1--not the common ones made by painters and carvers1 but those considered as actual relics1 and held in particular veneration4 ,some of these images are believed to have been made in a miraculous manner1 like those shown at ,rome in the ,church of the blessed ,virgin1 in ,portici1 at ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 at ,lucca1 and other places1 and which they pretend were painted by angels4 ,i think it would be ridiculous to undertake a serious refutation of these absurdities1 the profession of angels not being that of painters1 and our ,lord ,jesus ,christ desired to be known and remembered otherwise than by carnal images4 ,eusebius1 it is true1 relates1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1 that our ,lord sent the likeness of his face to ,king ,abgarus27#ach7 but the authenticity of this account has no better proof than that of a fairy tale2 yet1 supposing it were true1 how came this likeness to be found at ,rome 7out of ,abgarus' possession71 where people boast to have it now8 ,eusebius does not mention where it was in his time1 but he merely relates the story as having happened a long time before he wrote2 we must therefore suppose that this image reappeared after a lapse of many centuries1 and came from ,edessa to ,rome4 ,they have forged not only images of ,christ's body1 but also copies of the cross4 ,thus they pretend at ,brescia to have the identical cross which appeared to the ,emperor ,constantine4 ,this claim is1 however1 stoutly opposed by the town of ,constance1 whose inhabitants maintain that the above-mentioned cross is preserved in their town1 and not at ,brescia4 ,but let us leave the contending parties to settle this point between themselves1 though it would be easy enough to show the absurdity of their pretensions1 because the cross which1 according to some writers1 appeared to ,constantine1 was not a material cross1 but simply a vision4 ,there are several carved images1 as well as paintings1 of ,jesus ,christ to which many miracles are attributed4 ,thus the beard grows on the crucifixes of ,salvatierra and ,orange1 and other images are said to shed tears4 ,these things are too absurd for serious refutation1 and yet the deluded world is so infatuated that the majority put as much faith in these as in the ,gospels4 ,the ,blessed ,virgin4--,the belief that the body of the ,virgin was not interred on earth1 but was taken to heaven1 has deprived them of all pretext for manufacturing any relics of her remains1 which otherwise might have been sufficiently abundant to fill a whole churchyard27#aci7 yet in order to have at least something belonging to her1 they sought to indemnify themselves for the absence of other relics with the possession of her hair and her milk4 ,the hair is shown in several churches at ,rome1 and at ,salvatierra in ,spain1 at ,maon1 ,st ,flour1 ,cluny1 ,nevers1 and in many other towns4 ,with regard to the milk1 there is not perhaps a town1 a convent1 or nunnery1 where it is not shown in large or small quantities4 ,indeed1 had the ,virgin been a wet-nurse her whole life1 or a dairy1 she could not have produced more than is shown as hers in various parts47#adj7 ,how they obtained all this milk they do not say1 and it is superfluous here to remark that there is no foundation in the ,gospels for these foolish and blasphemous extravagances4 ,the ,virgin's wardrobe has produced an abundant store of relics4 ,there is a shirt of hers at ,chartres1 which has been fully celebrated as an idol1 and there is another at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,i do not know how these things could have been obtained1 for it is certain that the ,apostles and first ,christians were not such triflers as to amuse themselves in this way4 ,it is1 however1 sufficient for us to consider the shape of these articles of dress1 in order clearly to see the impudence of their exhibitors4 ,the shirt at ,aix-la-,chapelle is a long clerical surplice1 shown hanging to a pole1 and if the ,blessed ,virgin had been a giantess1 she would still have felt much inconvenience in wearing so large a garment4 ,in the same church they preserve the shoes of ,st ,joseph1 which could only fit the foot of a little child or a dwarf4 ,the proverb says that liars need good memories1 so as not to contradict their own sayings4 ,this rule was not followed out at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 otherwise care would have been taken to maintain a better proportion of size between the shoes of the husband and the shirt of the wife4 ,and yet these relics1 so devoid of all appearance of truth1 are devoutly kissed and venerated by crowds6 ,i know of only two of her head-dresses2 one is at the abbey of ,st ,maximian at ,treves1 and the other is at ,lisio in ,italy4 ,they may be considered quite as genuine as the ,virgin's girdle at ,prato and at ,montserrat1 as her slipper at ,st ,jaqueme1 and as her shoe at ,st ,flour4 ,now1 those who are at all conversant with this subject well know that it was not the custom of the primitive church to collect shoes and stockings1 c41 for relics1 and also that for five hundred years after the death of the ,virgin ,mary there was never any talk of such things4 ,it really seems as if these well-known facts would be sufficient to prove the absurdity of all these relics of the ,virgin2 but her worshippers1 not merely satisfied with the articles ,i have just enumerated1 endeavour to ascribe to her a love of dress and finery4 ,a comb of hers is shown in the church of ,st ,martin at ,rome1 and another in that of ,st ,jean-le-,grand at ,besanon1 besides others that may be shown elsewhere4 ,now1 if this be not a mockery of the ,virgin1 ,i do not know what that word implies4 ,they have not forgotten her wedding-ring1 which is shown at ,perusa4 ,as it is now the custom for a husband to present his bride with a ring at the marriage ceremony1 they imagined it to be so in the time of the ,virgin1 and in her country1 consequently1 they show a splendid ring as the one used at her wedding1 forgetting the state of poverty in which she lived4 ,rome possesses four of her gowns1 in the churches of ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 ,st ,barbara1 ,st ,maria supra ,minervam1 and ,st ,blasius2 whilst at ,salvatierra they boast of having fragments of a gown belonging to her4 ,i have forgotten the names of other towns where similar relics are shown47#ada7 ,it is sufficient to examine the materials of these vestments in order to see the falsehood of their claims1 for their exhibitors give to the ,virgin the same sort of robes with which they dress up her images4 ,it remains now to speak of her images--not of the common ones1 of which there are so many everywhere1 but of those which are distinguished from the rest by some particular claims4 ,thus at ,rome there are four1 which they pretend were painted by ,st ,luke the evangelist4 ,the principal one is in the church of ,st ,augustine1 which they say ,st ,luke had painted for his own use2 he always carried it about his person1 and it was buried with him4 ,now1 is it not a downright blasphemy to turn thus a holy evangelist into a perfect idolater8 ,and what reason had they for believing that ,st ,luke was a painter8 ,st ,paul calls him a physician4 ,i do not know from whence they obtained this notion2 but supposing it was so1 is it possible to admit that he would have painted the ,virgin for the same purpose as the ,pagans did a ,jupiter1 a ,venus1 or any other idol8 ,it was not the custom of the primitive ,christians to have images1 and it only became so a long while afterwards1 when the ,church was corrupted by superstition4 ,moreover1 the whole world is filled with representations of the ,blessed ,virgin1 which are said to have been painted by the same evangelist47#adb7 ,i shall not say any thing about ,st ,joseph1 whose shoes at ,aix-la-,chapelle ,i have already mentioned1 and whose other similar relics are preserved in many places47#adc7 ,,st ,,michael4 ,it may be supposed that ,i am joking when ,i speak of the relics of an angel1 considering how absurd and ridiculous it is to do so1 yet1 although the hypocrites certainly know this well1 they have made use of the name of ,st ,michael to delude the ignorant and foolish2 for they show at ,carcassone his falchion1 which looks like a child's dagger1 and his shield1 which is no larger than the knob of a bridle4 ,is it possible for man or woman to exist who can believe such mockery87#add7 ,it is indeed a blasphemy1 under a garb of devotion1 against ,god and his angels4 ,the exhibitors of the above-mentioned relics endeavour to support their imposture by the testimony of ,scripture that the archangel ,michael combated with ,satan2 but if he was conquered by the sword1 it would at least have been one of a different size and calibre than the toy to which ,i have alluded4 ,people must1 however1 be very silly to believe that the war waged by angels and the faithful against the devil is a carnal encounter1 fought with material weapons4 ,but as ,i said before1 at the commencement of this treatise1 the world has rightly deserved to be led astray into such absurdities1 for having lusted after idols1 and worshipped them instead of the living ,god4 ,,st ,,john ,,the ,,baptist4 ,proceeding in due order1 we must now treat of ,st ,john the ,baptist1 who1 according to the evangelical history--i4e41 ,god's ,word of ,truth--was1 after being beheaded1 buried by his disciples4 ,theodoret1 the eminent chronicler of the ,church1 relates that his grave was at ,sebaste1 a town in ,syria1 and that some time after his burial the grave was opened by the ,pagans1 who burnt his bones and scattered their ashes in the air4 ,eusebius adds1 however1 that some men from ,jerusalem1 who were present on the occasion1 secretly took a little of these ashes and carried them to ,antioch1 where they were buried in a wall by ,athanasius4 ,with regard to his head1 ,sosomen1 another chronicler1 relates that it was carried to ,constantinople by the ,emperor ,theodosius2 therefore1 according to these ancient historians1 the whole body of ,john the ,baptist was burnt with the exception of his head1 and the ashes were all lost excepting the small portion secretly taken away by the hermits of ,jerusalem4 ,now1 let us see what remains of the head are extant4 ,the face is shown at ,amiens1 and the mask which is there exhibited has a mark above the eye1 caused1 they say1 by the thrust of a knife1 made by ,herodias4 ,amiens' claim to this relic is1 however1 disputed by the inhabitants of ,st ,john d',angeli1 who show another face of ,st ,john4 ,with regard to the rest of the head1 its top1 from the forehead to the back part1 was at ,rhodes1 and ,i suppose must now be at ,malta1 at least the knights boast that the ,turks had restored it to them4 ,the back of the head is at ,st ,john's ,church at ,nemours1 the brains at ,nogent le ,rotrou1 a part of the head is at ,st ,jean ,maximin1 a jaw is at ,besanon1 a portion of a jaw is at ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 and a part of the ear at ,st ,flour in ,auvergne4 ,all this does not prevent ,salvatierra from possessing the forehead and hair2 at ,noyon they have a lock of the hair1 which is considered to be very authentic1 as well as that at ,lucca1 and many other places4 ,yet in order to complete this collection1 we must go to the monastery of ,st ,sylvester at ,rome1 where the whole and real head of ,st ,john the ,baptist will be shown to us4 ,poets tell us a legend about a king of ,spain who had three heads2 if our manufacturers of relics could say the same of ,st ,john the ,baptist1 it would greatly assist their lies2 but as such a fable does not exist1 how are they to get out of this dilemma87#ade7 ,i shall not press them too hard by inquiring how could this head be so divided and distributed1 or how have they procured it from ,constantinople8 ,i shall merely observe1 that either ,st ,john must have been a miracle1 or that those who possess so many parts of his head are a set of the most audacious cheats4 ,what is more than this1 they boast at ,sienna of possessing an arm of that saint1 which is contrary1 as we have already said1 to the statements of all the ancient historians2 and yet this fraud is not only suffered1 but even approved of1 for in the kingdom of ,antichrist nothing is too bad which can serve to keep people in a state of superstition4 ,another fable has been invented respecting ,st ,john the ,baptist4 ,when his body was burnt1 they say that the finger with which he had pointed out our ,lord ,jesus ,christ had remained whole and uninjured by the fire4 ,now this story may easily be refuted by the ancient historians1 because ,eusebius and ,theodoret distinctly state that the body had already become a skeleton when the ,pagans burnt it2 and they certainly would not have omitted the relation of such a miracle in their histories if there had been any foundation for it1 having been but too eager to narrate such events even as are quite frivolous4 ,but supposing that this miracle had really taken place1 let us seek where this finger is now to be found4 ,there is one at ,besanon in the ,church of ,st ,john the ,great1 a second at ,toulouse1 a third at ,lyons1 a fourth at ,florence1 and a fifth at ,st ,jean des ,aventures1 near ,maon4 ,now ,i request my readers to examine this subject1 and to judge for themselves whether they can believe1 that whilst ,st ,john's finger1 which1 according to their own tradition1 is the only remainder of his body1 is at ,florence1 five other fingers can be found in sundry other places1 or1 in short1 that six are one1 and one is six4 ,i speak1 however1 only of those that have come to my knowledge2 but ,i make no doubt1 if a careful inquiry were made1 that one might discover half a dozen more of ,st ,john's fingers1 and many pieces of his head1 besides those ,i have enumerated47#adf7 ,there are many relics of another kind shown as having belonged to ,st ,john the ,baptist2 as1 for instance1 one of his shoes is preserved in the ,church of the ,carthusians at ,paris4 ,it was stolen about twelve years ago2 but it was very soon replaced by that sort of miracle never likely to cease so long as there are shoemakers in the world4 ,at ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 at ,rome1 they boast of having his haircloth mentioned in the ,gospels4 ,the ,gospel speaks of his raiment of camel's hair1 but they endeavour to convert it into a horse-hair garment47#adg7 ,they have also at the same church the altar before which he prayed in the desert1 as if altars were in those days erected on every occasion and in every place4 ,i wonder1 indeed1 that they have not ascribed to him the saying of the mass4 ,at ,avignon they show the sword with which he was beheaded1 and at ,aix-la-,chapelle the sheet which was spread under him at that time4 ,is it not absurd to suppose that the executioner would spread a sheet under one whom he was about to kill8 ,but admitting that this should be the case1 how have they obtained these two objects8 ,is it likely that the man who put him to death1 whether a soldier or executioner1 should have given away his sword and the sheet we have mentioned1 in order to be converted into relics8 ,,st ,,peter ,,and ,,st ,,paul4 ,it is now time to speak of the apostles1 and ,i shall begin with ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul4 ,their bodies are at ,rome2 one part of them in the church of ,st ,peter1 and the other in that of ,st ,paul4 ,we are told that ,st ,sylvester weighed their bodies in order to divide them into equal parts4 ,both their heads are preserved also at ,rome in ,st ,john of the ,lateran4 ,besides the two bodies we have just mentioned1 many of their bones are to be found elsewhere1 as at ,poitiers they have ,st ,peter's jaw and beard4 ,at ,treves there are several bones of the two apostles4 ,at ,argenton in ,berri they have ,st ,paul's shoulder1 and in almost every church dedicated to these apostles there will be found some of their relics4 ,at the commencement of this treatise ,i mentioned that ,st ,peter's brains1 which were shown in this town 7,geneva71 were found on examination to be a piece of pumice stone1 and ,i have no doubt that many of the bones considered to belong to these two apostles would turn out to be the bones of some animal4 ,at ,salvatierra they have ,st ,peter's slipper4 ,i do not know what shape it is1 or of what material it is made2 but ,i conclude it to be similar to the slippers of the same apostle shown at ,poitiers1 and which are made of satin embroidered with gold4 ,it would seem as if they had made him thus smart after his death as a compensation for the poverty which he suffered during his lifetime4 ,their bishops look now so showy in their pontificals1 that no doubt it would be thought derogatory to the apostles' dignity if they were not dressed out in the same style4 ,they take1 therefore1 figures which they gild and ornament all over1 and name them as ,st ,peter or ,st ,paul1 forgetting that it is well known what was the condition of these apostles whilst in this life1 and that they wore the raiments of the poor4 ,they show also at ,rome ,st ,peter's episcopal chair and his chasuble1 as if the bishops of that age had thrones to sit upon4 ,the bishops then were engaged in teaching1 consoling1 and exhorting their flocks both in public and private1 setting them an example of true humility1 but not teaching them to set up idols1 as is done by those of our day4 ,with regard to his chasuble1 ,i must say that it was not then the custom to put on disguises1 for farces were not at that time performed in the churches as they are now4 ,thus1 to prove that ,st ,peter had a chasuble1 it is necessary to show in the first place that he had played the mountebank1 as the priests do now whenever they intend to serve ,god4 ,it is1 however1 no wonder that they have given him a chasuble since they have assigned an altar to him1 there being no more truthful foundation for the one than for the other4 ,it is well known what kind of mass was said at that time4 ,the apostles simply celebrated the ,lord's ,supper1 and this requires no altar2 but as to the celebration of the mass1 it was then not heard of1 nor was it practised for a long time afterwards47#adh7 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that those who invented all these relics never expected contradiction1 or they would not have devised such audacious falsehoods4 ,the authenticity of ,st ,peter's altar at ,rome 7which ,i have just mentioned7 is denied by ,pisa1 that town pretending to possess the real one4 ,the least objectionable of ,st ,peter's relics is undoubtedly his staff1 it being most probable that he had made use of one during his travels1 but unfortunately there are two of them at ,cologne and ,treves1 each town claiming exclusive possession of the identical one47#adi7 ,,the ,,other ,,apostles4 ,we shall speak of the rest of the apostles together1 in order to get quicker over the matter1 and we will relate1 in the first place1 where their whole bodies are to be found1 that our readers1 by comparison1 may be able to form their own opinions on the subject4 ,all know that the town of ,toulouse boasts of possessing the bodies of six1 namely1 ,st ,james the ,major 7brother of ,st ,john71 ,st ,andrew1 ,st ,james the ,minor1 ,st ,philip1 ,st ,simeon1 and ,st ,jude4 ,at ,padua they have the body of ,st ,matthias1 at ,salerno that of ,st ,matthew1 at ,orconna that of ,st ,thomas1 in the kingdom of ,naples that of ,st ,bartholomew4 ,now1 let us reckon up those apostles who possess two or three bodies4 ,st ,andrew has a duplicate at ,amalfi1 ,st ,philip and ,st ,james the ,minor both have duplicates at ,rome1 ad sanctos ,apostolos1 ,st ,simeon and ,st ,jude the same in ,st ,peter's ,church4 ,st ,bartholomew enjoys an equal privilege at ,rome1 in the church bearing his name4 ,here we have enumerated six of them1 each provided with two bodies1 and ,st ,bartholomew has an additional skin into the bargain1 which is shown at ,pisa47#aej7 ,st ,matthew1 however1 outrivals them all1 for besides the body at ,padua1 which we have before mentioned1 he has another at ,rome in the church of ,st ,maria ,maggiore1 a third at ,treves1 and an additional arm at ,rome47#aea7 ,it is true that the bits and scraps of ,st ,andrew's body1 scattered in various places1 counterbalance1 in some measure1 the superiority of ,st ,matthias2 for he has at ,rome1 in ,st ,peter's ,church1 a head1 and a shoulder in that of ,st ,chrysostom1 an arm at ,st ,esprit1 a rib at ,st ,eustache1 ,i do not know how many bones at ,st ,blaise1 and a foot at ,aix in ,provence4 ,now1 as ,st ,bartholomew has left his skin at ,pisa1 so he has left there a hand2 at ,treves he has also some bones1 of which ,i forget the number2 at ,frejus a finger1 and at ,rome there are other of his bones2 so that1 after all1 he is not the poorest of the apostles1 others not having such a number of relics4 ,st ,matthew and ,st ,thomas are the poorest of all4 ,the first has only1 besides his body at ,salerno1 which we have mentioned1 some bones at ,treves1 an arm in the church of ,st ,maria at ,rome1 and in that of ,st ,nicolas his head2 though it may be that other of his relics may have escaped my knowledge1 which would be no wonder1 for who is not confused with this ocean of impostures87#aeb7 ,as they pretend1 in their tales1 that the body of ,st ,john the ,evangelist disappeared immediately after it was deposited in the grave1 so they cannot produce any of his bones1 and they therefore sought for a compensation amongst his clothing1 c4 ,thus they show at ,bologna the cup from which he was forced to drink poison by order of the ,emperor ,domitian4 ,probably owing to some wonderful process of alchemy1 the same cup exists also in the church of ,st ,john of the ,lateran at ,rome4 ,they have also his coat1 and the chain with which he was bound when brought from ,ephesus to ,rome1 as well as the oratory at which he used to pray when in prison47#aec7 ,,st ,,anna4 ,we must now hurry on1 or we shall never quit this labyrinth4 ,we will1 therefore1 only briefly mention the relics of those saints who were our ,lord's contemporaries1 and then proceed to those of the martyrs1 c41 leaving our readers to form their own conclusions from these brief sketches4 ,st ,anne1 the mother of the ,blessed ,virgin1 has a whole body at ,apt in ,provence1 and another at ,notre ,dame de l',isle at ,lyons4 ,she has a head at ,treves also1 a second at ,duren near ,cologne1 and a third at a town called after her name in ,thuringhia4 ,i shall not speak of her other relics shown in more than a hundred different places4 ,i remember that ,i myself kissed one of her relics1 kept at the abbey of ,orcamps near ,noyon1 on the occasion of a grand festival held in its honour4 ,,lazarus1 ,,mary ,,magdalene1 ,,etc4 ,lazarus has1 to my knowledge1 three bodies1 at ,marseilles1 ,autun1 and ,avalon4 ,a protracted lawsuit took place between the two last-named towns concerning the validity of their respective claims to the possession of the real body of this saint4 ,yet after an immense expense1 both parties may be said to have gained their suit1 for neither forfeited its title to ownership4 ,with regard to ,mary ,magdalene1 she owns but two bodies1 one at ,auxerre1 and another of very great celebrity1 with its head detached1 at ,st ,maximin1 in ,provence4 ,of their numerous relics scattered over the world ,i shall not speak4 ,i would merely inquire whether ,lazarus and his sisters ever went to preach in ,france2 for those who have read the accounts given by ancient historians of those times cannot fail to be convinced of the folly of this fable47#aed7 ,,st ,,longinus1 ,,and ,,the ,,three ,,wise ,,men1 ,,or ,,kings4 ,the individual who pierced the side of our ,lord on the cross has been canonised under the name of ,st ,longinus1 and after having thus baptized him1 they have bestowed upon him two bodies1 one of which is at ,mantua1 and the other at ,notre ,dame de l',isle at ,lyons47#aee7 ,the same has been done with the wise men who came to worship our ,lord at the nativity4 ,in the first place they settled their number1 telling us that there were three4 ,now the ,gospel does not mention how many were present1 and some eminent ecclesiastical writers have maintained their number to have been fourteen1 as mentioned for instance in that imperfect commentary on ,st ,matthew which is ascribed to ,chrysostom4 ,moreover1 the ,gospel calls them wise men1 but they have elevated them to the dignity of kings1 without bestowing on them1 however1 either kingdoms or subjects4 ,finally1 they have been baptized under the names of ,balthazar1 ,melchior1 and ,gaspar4 ,now1 supposing we concede to them these fables1 frivolous as they are1 it is certain that the wise men returned to the east1 for the ,gospel informs us of this1 and we may conclude that they died in their native land1 there being no reason for thinking otherwise4 ,now1 who transferred their bodies to the west1 for the purpose of preserving them as relics8 ,it would be quite ridiculous1 however1 for me to attempt seriously to refute such a palpable imposture4 ,let ,cologne and ,milan1 both of which towns pretend to possess relics of these wise men1 or kings1 decide this question between themselves47#aef7 ,,st ,,dionysius4 ,st ,dionysius is considered to be one of the most celebrated of ancient martyrs1 as a disciple of the apostles1 and as the ,evangelist of ,france4 ,occupying such high rank1 it is therefore very natural that his relics should be so liberally dispersed2 his whole bodies are1 however1 only preserved at the ,abbey of ,st ,dnis in ,france1 and at ,ratisbon in ,germany4 ,about a century ago ,ratisbon instituted a lawsuit at ,rome to prove that the body in its possession was truly that of the saint1 and the justice of the claim was established by a decision of the ,papal ,court1 delivered in the presence of the ,french ,ambassador4 ,and yet1 any one so bold as to dare to assert at ,st ,dnis that theirs was not the real body would run the risk of being stoned for blasphemy2 whilst those who oppose the claim of ,ratisbon are considered as heretics1 rebellious to the decision of the ,holy ,see47#aeg7 ,,st ,,stephen4 ,the whole body of ,st ,stephen is at ,rome1 his head is at ,arles1 and his bones are in more than three hundred places2 and the ,papists1 as if to show themselves to be the partisans of those who murdered him1 have canonized the stones with which he was killed4 ,it may be asked how these stones were obtained1 but to my mind this would be a foolish question1 as stones may be picked up anywhere1 without incurring any trouble or expense in their transport4 ,these stones are shown at ,florence1 at the convent of the ,augustine monks at ,arles1 and at ,vigan in ,languedoc1 c4 ,whoever will close his eyes and allow his understanding to be set aside1 may believe that these are the identical stones with which ,st ,stephen suffered martyrdom1 but whoever will exert his reason a little cannot but laugh at this imposition4 ,the ,carmelite monks of ,poitiers discovered some of these stones only fourteen years ago1 to which they ascribed the virtue of assisting women in the pains of travail2 but the ,dominican monks1 from whom a rib of ,st ,margarita which possessed the same virtue had been stolen1 were very indignant1 and raised a great outcry at the deception practised by the ,carmelites1 but the latter gained the body by firmly maintaining their rights4 ,,the ,,holy ,,innocents4 ,it was not at first my intention to mention the ,holy ,innocents1 for if ,i were to enumerate a whole army of their relics1 it might always be said to me in reply that history is not contradicted by that1 as their number has never been mentioned to us4 ,i shall not dwell1 therefore1 upon their multitude1 merely observing that they are to be found in every part of the world4 ,i would ask1 however1 how it came to pass that their graves were discovered so long after their massacre1 since they were not considered as saints when their murder by ,herod took place8 ,and then1 how were these numerous bodies conveyed to the many places where they are now to be seen8 ,to these questions but one answer can be given--8,all this occurred five or six hundred years after their death40 ,how can any but idiots believe such things8 ,but supposing even that some of their bodies had really been discovered1 how came so large a number of them to be transported to ,france1 ,italy1 and ,germany1 and to be distributed amongst so many towns situated so far apart8 ,this can only be a wholesale deception4 ,,st ,,gervasius ,,and ,,st ,,protasius4 ,the sepulchres of these two saints were discovered at ,milan in the time of ,st ,ambrose1 as testified by him4 ,this fact is confirmed also by the evidence of ,st ,jerome1 ,st ,augustine1 and several others2 consequently ,milan maintains its possession of the real bodies of these saints4 ,nevertheless1 they are likewise to be seen at ,brissach in ,germany1 and in the ,church of ,st ,peter at ,besanon1 besides an immense number of different parts of their bodies scattered throughout the land1 so that each of them must have had at least four bodies4 ,,st ,,sebastian4 ,this saint1 from the wonderful power his remains possessed of curing the plague1 was put into requisition and more sought after than many of his brother saints1 and no doubt this popularity was the cause of his body being quadrupled4 ,one body is in the church of ,st ,lawrence at ,rome2 a second is at ,soissons2 the third at ,piligny1 near ,nantes1 and the fourth at his birth-place1 near ,narbonne4 ,besides these1 he has two heads at ,st ,peter's at ,rome1 and at the ,dominican church at ,toulouse4 ,the heads are1 however1 empty1 if we are to believe the ,franciscan monks of ,angers1 as they pretend to possess the saint's brains4 ,the ,dominicans of ,angers possess one of his arms1 another is at ,st ,sternin1 at ,toulouse1 a third at ,case ,dieu in ,auvergne1 and a fourth at ,montbrisson4 ,we will pass over the small fragments of his body1 which may be seen in so many churches4 ,they did not rest satisfied with this multiplication of his body and separate limbs1 but they converted into relics the arrows with which he was killed4 ,one of these is shown at ,lambesc in ,provence1 another is in the ,augustine convent at ,poitiers1 and there are many others in different towns4 ,,st ,,anthony4 ,a similar reason has bestowed on ,st ,anthony the advantage of multiplication of his remains1 he being considered as an irrascible saint1 burning up all those who incur his displeasure2 and this belief caused him to be dreaded and reverenced4 ,fear creating devotion1 and producing also a universal desire to possess his relics1 on account of the profits and advantages to be derived therefrom1 ,arles therefore had a long and severe contest with ,vienne 7in ,france7 respecting the validity of the bodies of this saint possessed by each of these towns4 ,the issue was the same as in other similar disputes1 i4e41 matters remained in the same state of confusion as before2 for if the truth had been established1 both parties would have lost their cause4 ,besides these two bodies1 ,st ,anthony has a knee in the ,church of the ,augustines at ,albi1 and several other limbs at ,bourg1 ,maon1 ,ouroux1 ,chalons1 ,besanon1 c4 ,such are the advantages of being an object of dread and fear1 otherwise this saint might possibly have been permitted to remain quietly in his grave47#aeh7 ,,st ,,petronilla--,,st ,,helena--,,st ,,ursula--,,and ,,the ,,eleven ,,thousand ,,virgins4 ,i must not forget to mention ,st ,petronilla1 ,st ,peter's daughter1 who has a whole body at ,rome1 in the church dedicated to her father1 besides other relics in that of ,st ,barbara4 ,this does not1 however1 prevent her from owning another body in the ,dominican convent at ,mans1 which is greatly venerated for the virtue it possesses of curing fevers4 ,st ,helena has not been so liberally provided for4 ,besides her body at ,venice1 she has but an extra head in the ,church of ,st ,gereon at ,cologne47#aei7 ,st ,ursula beats her hollow in this respect2 for she has a whole body at ,st ,jean d',angely1 and a head into the bargain at ,cologne1 besides three separate limbs1 and various fragments at ,mans1 ,tours1 and ,bergerat4 ,the companions of this saint are called the eleven thousand virgins1 and although this is a respectable number1 yet it is still too small1 considering that the remains of these virgins are to be seen everywhere2 for besides there being about one hundred cart-loads of their bones at ,cologne1 there is hardly a town where one or more churches have not some relics of these numerous saints47#afj7 ,if ,i was to enumerate all the minor saints ,i should enter a labyrinth without possibility of egress4 ,i shall1 therefore1 rest satisfied with giving a few examples1 leaving my readers to judge from these of the rest4 ,for instance1 there are two churches at ,poitiers1 one attached to the convent of ,selle1 and the other dedicated to the saint in question1 between which a great dispute has been going on as to the possession of the real body of ,st ,hilarion4 ,the lawsuit upon this point has been suspended for an indefinite time1 and meanwhile the idolaters worship two bodies of one and the same individual4 ,st ,honoratus has a body at ,arles1 and another at the island of ,lerins1 near ,antibes4 ,st ,giles has a body at ,toulouse1 and a second in a town bearing his name in ,languedoc4 ,i could quote an infinite number of similar cases4 ,i think that the exhibitors of these relics should at least have made some arrangement amongst themselves the better to conceal their barefaced impostures4 ,something of this sort was managed between the canons of ,trves and those of ,lige about ,st ,lambert's head4 ,they compounded1 for a sum of money1 not to show publicly the head in their possession1 in order to avoid the natural surprise of the public at the same relic being seen in two different towns situated so near to each other4 ,but1 as ,i have already remarked at the commencement of this treatise1 the inventors of these frauds never imagined any one could be found bold enough to speak out and expose their deceptions4 ,it may be asked1 how it came to pass that these manufacturers of relics1 having collected and forged without any reason all that their imaginations could fancy in any way1 could have omitted subjects pertaining to the ,old ,testament8 ,the only reply ,i can give to this query is1 that they looked with contempt on those subjects1 from which they did not anticipate any considerable gain4 ,still they have not entirely despised them1 for they pretend to have the bones of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 in the church of ,st ,maria supra ,minervam1 at ,rome4 ,they also boast of possessing1 at ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 the ark of alliance1 with ,aaron's rod1 though the same rod is also at the ,holy ,chapel in ,paris1 whilst some pieces of it are preserved at ,salvatierra4 ,moreover1 at ,bordeaux they maintain that ,st ,martial's rod1 which is exhibited in the church of ,st ,severin1 is no other than that of ,aaron4 ,it seems1 indeed1 that they would wish with this rod to perform another miracle2 formerly it was turned into a serpent1 whereas now they would convert it into three different rods6 ,it is very likely that they may have other relics of objects mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 but the few we have here alluded to show that they have treated them much in the same style as those belonging to ,christian times4 ,i now beg to remind my readers of what ,i mentioned at the beginning of this work1 that ,i have had no commissioners for visiting the numerous churches of the different countries enumerated by me1 nor must my description be taken for a register or inventory of all that can be discovered respecting relics4 ,i have mentioned about half-a-dozen towns in ,germany1 but three in ,spain ,i think1 about fifteen in ,italy1 and between thirty and forty in ,france1 and even of these few examples ,i have not related all that ,i might concerning them4 ,now1 let us only imagine what a mass might be raised out of all the relics which are to be seen in ,christendom1 if they were collected and arranged together in proper order4 ,i speak1 however1 only of those countries which we know and frequent2 for it is most important to observe that all the relics belonging to ,christ and the apostles which are displayed in the west are also to be seen in ,greece1 ,asia1 and all other countries where ,christian ,churches are in existence4 ,now1 what are we to say when the ,eastern ,christians assert their claims8 ,if we contradict them1 alleging on our part that the body of such a saint was brought to ,europe by merchants1 that of another by monks1 that of a third by a bishop1 that a part of the crown of thorns was sent to a king of ,france by an emperor of ,constantinople1 and another part was carried off in time of war1 and so on of every object of the kind1 they would shake their heads1 and laugh at us6 ,how are such differences to be settled8 ,in every doubtful case we can only judge by conjecture1 and1 in following this out1 the adherents of the ,eastern ,churches are sure of success1 because their claims are more probable than those of their opponents4 ,it is indeed a difficult point for the defenders of relics to settle4 ,finally1 ,i beseech and exhort1 in the name of ,god1 all my readers to listen to the truth now clearly displayed before them1 and to believe that1 by ,god's especial providence1 those who have endeavoured thus to lead mankind astray have been rendered so blind and careless as to neglect a proper concealment of their deceptions1 but that1 like ,midianites having their eyes put out1 they run one against another1 for we all know that they quarrel amongst themselves1 and mutually injure each other4 ,whoever is not wilfully prejudiced against all reason must certainly be convinced that the worship of relics1 whether true or false1 is an abominable idolatry2 yet should not this even be the case with him1 he must nevertheless perceive the evident imposture1 and whatever may have been his former devotion to relics1 he must lose all courage in kissing such objects1 and become entirely disgusted with them4 ,i repeat what ,i said at the commencement of this treatise1 that it would be most important to abolish from amongst us ,christians this pagan superstition of canonising relics1 either of ,christ or of his saints1 in order to make idols of them2 for this is a defilement and an impurity which should never be suffered in the ,church4 ,we have already proved that it is so by arguments1 and also from the evidence of ,scripture4 ,let those who are not yet satisfied look to the practices of the ancient fathers1 and conform to their examples4 ,there are many holy patriarchs1 many prophets1 many holy kings1 and other saints mentioned in the ,old ,testament4 ,god ordained at that time the observance of more ceremonies than are needed now4 ,even funerals were performed then with more display than at present1 in order to represent symbolically the glorious resurrection1 especially as it had not then been so clearly revealed by the ,word of ,god as it is to ourselves4 ,do we ever read in that book that these saints were taken from their sepulchres as idols8 ,was ,abraham1 the father of the faithful1 ever thus raised8 ,was ,sarah ever removed from her grave8 ,were they not left in peace1 with the remains of all other saints8 ,but what is more conclusive1 was not the body of ,moses concealed by ,god's will1 in such a manner that it never has been or can be discovered8 ,has not the devil contended concerning it with the angels1 as ,st ,jude says8 ,now1 what was our ,lord's reason for removing that body from the sight of men1 and why should the devil desire to have it exhibited to them8 ,it is generally admitted that ,god wished to put away from his people of ,israel all temptation to commit idolatry1 and that ,satan desired its introduction amongst them4 ,it may be said1 however1 that the ,israelites were inclined to superstition4 ,i ask1 how stands the case now with ourselves8 ,is there not1 without comparison1 more perversity in this respect amongst ,christians than there ever was amongst the ,jews of old8 ,let us call to mind the practice of the early church4 ,it is true that the first ,christians were always anxious to get possession of the bodies of the martyrs1 lest they might be devoured by beasts or birds of prey1 and decently to bury them1 as we read was the case with the bodies of ,st ,john the ,baptist and ,st ,stephen4 ,this solicitude was shown1 however1 in order to inter them in their graves1 and there to leave them until the day of the resurrection2 but they did not expose these remains to the sight of men for their adoration4 ,the unfortunate custom of canonising saints was not introduced into the ,church until it had become perverted and profaned1 partly by the folly and cupidity of its prelates and pastors1 and partly because they were unable to restrain this innovation1 as people were seeking to deceive themselves by giving their hearts to puerile follies1 instead of to the true worship of ,god4 ,if we wish1 in a direct manner1 to correct this abuse1 it is necessary to abolish entirely what has been so badly commenced and established against all reason4 ,but if it is impossible to arrive at once at such a clear comprehension of this abuse1 let people at least have their eyes opened to discern what the relics are which are presented for their adoration4 ,this is indeed no difficulty for those who will only exercise their reason1 for amongst the numerous evident impostures we have here mentioned1 where may we find one real relic of which we may feel certain that it is such as is represented8 ,moreover1 all those that ,i have enumerated are nothing comparatively to the remainder yet untold by me4 ,even whilst this treatise is in the press1 ,i have been informed of many relics not mentioned in it2 and if a general visitation of all existing relics were possible1 a hundredfold more discoveries would be made4 ,i remember when ,i was a little boy what took place in our parish4 ,on the festival day of ,st ,stephen1 the images of the tyrants who stoned him 7for they are thus called by the common people7 were adorned as much as that of the saint himself4 ,many women1 seeing these tyrants thus decked out1 mistook them for the saint's companions1 and offered the homage of candles to each of them4 ,mistakes of this kind must frequently happen to the worshippers of relics1 for there is such confusion amongst them that it is quite impossible to worship the bones of a martyr without danger of rendering such honours by mistake to the bones of some brigand or thief1 or even to those of a horse1 a dog1 or a donkey4 ,and it is equally impossible to adore the ring1 the comb1 the girdle of the ,virgin ,mary1 without the risk of adoring instead objects which may have belonged to some abandoned person4 ,now1 those who fall into this error must do so willingly1 as no one can from henceforth plead ignorance on the subject as their excuse47#afa7 ,,postscript4 ,the following extract from the ,ecclesiastical ,gazette of ,vienna has been reproduced in an ,extraordinary ,supplement of the ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 of ,augsburg1 for the #aath ,may #ahed4 ,i subjoin a translation of it in a postscript1 as an additional evidence of the persecution to which the ,greek ,church united with ,rome has been subjected in ,russia1 and which ,i mentioned on page #afa of this work3-- 8,spies appointed for this especial purpose transmitted1 in their reports to the ,government1 lists of such individuals as were suspected to be ,catholics at heart2 and if all the exaggerated accounts which had been made of the ,spanish ,inquisition were true1 they would be thrown into the shade by the proceedings that were adopted against the above-mentioned individuals4 ,and indeed it is an averred fact1 that many of them fell a victim to starvation1 blows1 and other cruel treatment4 ,the ,catholic inhabitants of ,worodzkow were forced with stripes1 by the ,governor and his satellites1 to sign a voluntary petition1 expressing their ardent wish to be received into the pale of the orthodox ,russian ,church4 ,the names of those who could not write were signed by others1 and whoever showed the slightest manifestation of his desire to remain a ,catholic1 after having performed this voluntary act1 was treated as one guilty of high treason4 ,the same proceedings as at ,worodzkow were adopted in a hundred other places1 whose voluntary petitions were obtained with bloody stripes of the knout4 ,the unfortunate petitioners were1 in order to perform this operation1 dragged from their homes1 sometimes to a distance of #ah or #bj versts 7#a- verst to an ,english mile71 and those who steadfastly refused to sign were treated by the ,russian papas with the utmost cruelty and indignity4 ,they were put into irons1 barred up in cold prisons without any fire1 starved1 thrown into large tubs filled with an icy and stinking water1 and most mercilessly beaten1 so that many1 in order to escape from such torments1 signed the voluntary petition1 with hearts as bleeding as their bodies4 ,many succumbed under these fearful persecutions1 which were not much inferior to that which the ,christians had suffered under the reign of ,diocletian4 ,the ,papa ,stratanovich extorted the signatures made by the feverishly agitated hands of the clerical victims1 whilst his lay associate1 ,waimainich ,zokalinski1 performed the same charitable office to other unfortunate individuals4 ,some of these miserable persons were reduced by starvation and every kind of ill-treatment to such a condition1 that they were almost unconscious of what they did in signing the voluntary petitions for the reception into the pale of the ,russian ,church1 all of which were obtained by more or less similar means4 8,it appears from a great mass of documentary evidence1 containing the names of localities and persons1 that the proselytism of #ahda was carried out in the following manner3--,military authorities1 and ,russian papas or priests1 visited ,catholic villages1 and having called together the ,catholic peasantry and landowners of the neighbourhood1 declared that they must join the ,russian ,church1 throwing into prison those who resisted the summons4 ,in the most part of cases1 a petition for this object was signed by some hired wretches in the name of all the community1 of whom many often knew nothing about this business1 but when they behaved as ,catholics1 they were punished1 as guilty of high treason40 ,the ,allgemeine ,zeitung states1 in giving this extract from the ,ecclesiastical ,gazette of ,vienna1 that this periodical contains many well-authenticated cases of religious persecution against the ,roman ,catholics of ,russia2 and ,i have little doubt that if the ,protestants of ,western ,europe had taken as much pains to ascertain and denounce the persecution of their brethren in the ,baltic provinces of ,russia1 which ,i have mentioned on p4 #afb1 as is done1 be it said to their great honour1 by the ,roman ,catholics1 they would find many acts of persecution directed against the above-mentioned ,protestants1 as flagrant as those which have just been described4 ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,published ,,by ,,johnstone1 ,,hunter1 ,,co41 ,,edinburgh4 ,,magazines3-- 99,the ,christian ,treasury992 ,containing ,contributions from ,ministers and ,members of various ,evangelical ,denominations4 ,edited by ,,horatius ,,bonar1 ,d4,d4 ,super royal #hvo4 ,monthly ,parts1 #j #j #f4 ,weekly ,numbers1 #j #j #a4 99,the ,children's ,hour992 ,a ,monthly ,magazine for our ,young ,folks4 ,edited by ,m4 ,h41 ,author of 8,rosa ,lindesay10 etc4 ,crown #hvo4 ,beautifully ,illustrated1 #j #j #c4 99,the ,reformed ,presbyterian ,magazine992 ,containing ,home and ,missionary ,intelligence relating to the ,reformed ,presbyterian ,church in ,scotland4 ,demy #hvo4 ,monthly1 #j #j #d4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,sixpenny ,,series4 ,super royal #cbmo1 cloth limp4 ,illustrated4 #a4 ,,jeanie ,,hay1 ,,the ,,cheerful ,,giver4 ,and other ,tales4 #b4 ,,lily ,,ramsay2 ,,or ,,handsome ,,is ,,who ,,handsome ,,does4 ,and other ,tales4 #c4 ,,archie ,,douglas2 ,,or1 ,,where ,,there',s ,a ,,will ,,there',s ,a ,,way4 ,and other4 #d4 ,,minnie ,,and ,,letty2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,expected ,,arrival4 ,and other ,tales4 #e4 ,,ned ,,fairlie ,,and ,,his ,,rich ,,uncle4 ,and other ,tales4 #f4 ,,mr ,,granville',s ,,journey4 ,and other ,tales4 #g4 ,,jamie ,,wilson',s ,,adventures4 ,and other ,tales4 #h4 ,,the ,,two ,,friends4 ,and other ,tales4 #i4 ,,the ,,turnip ,,lantern4 ,and other ,tales4 #aj4 ,,john ,,butler2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,blind ,,man',s ,,dog4 ,and other ,tales4 #aa4 ,,christfried',s ,,first ,,journey4 ,and other ,tales4 #ab4 ,,katie ,,watson1 ,,the ,,contented ,,lacemaker4 ,and other ,tales4 #ac4 ,,biddy1 ,,the ,,maid ,,of ,,all ,,work4 #ad4 ,,maggie ,,morris3 ,a ,,tale ,,of ,,the ,,devonshire ,,moor4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,shilling ,,packets ,,of ,,reward ,,books4 ,super ,royal #cbmo1 in ,illuminated ,covers4 #a4 ,,short ,,tales ,,to ,,explain ,,homely ,,proverbs4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,a ,series of ,twelve ,penny ,books4 ,illustrated4 #b4 ,,short ,,stories ,,to ,,explain ,,bible ,,texts4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,a ,series of ,twelve ,penny ,books4 ,illustrated4 #c4 ,,wise ,,sayings1 ,,and ,,stories ,,to ,,explain ,,them4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,a ,series of ,twelve ,penny ,books4 ,illustrated4 #d4 ,,little ,,tales ,,for ,,little ,,people4 ,a ,series of ,six ,twopenny ,books4 ,illustrated4 99,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,one ,,shilling ,,series499 ,super royal #cbmo1 extra cloth1 bevelled boards1 ,illustrated4 #a4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,red ,,velvet ,,bible4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #b4 ,,alice ,,lowther2 ,,or1 ,,grandmamma',s ,,story ,,about ,,her ,,little ,,red ,,bible4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,c4 #c4 ,,nothing ,,to ,,do2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,a ,,life4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #d4 ,,alfred ,,and ,,the ,,little ,,dove4 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,a4 ,krummacher1 ,d4,d4 ,and ,,the ,,young ,,savoyard4 ,by ,ernest ,hold4 #e4 ,,mary ,m',,neill2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,word ,,remembered4 ,a ,tale of ,humble ,life4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,c4 #f4 ,,henry ,,morgan2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,sower ,,and ,,the ,,seed4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #g4 ,,witless ,,willie1 ,,the ,,idiot ,,boy4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,matheson10 etc4 #h4 ,,mary ,,mansfield2 ,,or1 ,,no ,,time ,,to ,,be ,a ,,christian4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #i4 ,,frank ,,fielding2 ,,or1 ,,debts ,,and ,,difficulties4 ,by ,agnes ,veitch4 #aj4 ,,tales ,,for 8,,the ,,children',s ,,hour40 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,c4 #aa4 ,,the ,,little ,,captain3 a ,tale of the ,sea4 ,by ,mrs ,george ,cupples4 #ab4 ,,gottfried ,,of ,,the ,,iron ,,hand3 a ,tale of ,german ,chivalry4 #ac4 ,,arthur ,,fortescue2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,schoolboy ,,hero4 ,by ,robert ,hope ,moncrieff4 #ad4 ,,the ,,sangreal2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,hidden ,,treasure4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #ae4 ,,cockerill ,,the ,,conjurer2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,brave ,,boy ,,of ,,hameln4 #af4 ,,jottings ,,from ,,the ,,diary ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #ag4 ,,down ,,among ,,the ,,water ,,weeds4 ,by ,mona ,b4 ,bickerstaffe4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,eighteenpence ,,series4 ,super royal #cbmo1 extra cloth1 richly gilt sides and edges1 ,illustrated4 #a4 ,,short ,,tales ,,to ,,explain ,,homely ,,proverbs4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #b4 ,,short ,,stories ,,to ,,explain ,,bible ,,texts4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #c4 ,,alfred ,,and ,,the ,,little ,,dove4 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,a4 ,krummacher1 ,d4,d4 ,and ,,witless ,,willie1 ,,the ,,idiot ,,boy4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,matheson10 etc4 #d4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,red ,,velvet ,,bible3 and ,,henry ,,morgan2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,sower ,,and ,,the ,,seed4 ,by ,m4 ,h41 ,editor of 8,the ,children's ,hour40 #e4 ,,arthur ,,fortescue2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,schoolboy ,,hero4 ,by ,robert ,hope ,moncrieff4 ,and ,,frank ,,fielding2 ,,or1 ,,debts ,,and ,,difficulties4 ,by ,agnes ,veitch4 #f4 ,,mary ,m',,neill2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,word ,,remembered4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,c4 ,and other ,tales4 #g4 ,,alice ,,lowther2 ,,or1 ,,grandmamma',s ,,story ,,about ,,her ,,little ,,red ,,bible4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,c4 ,and other ,tales4 #h4 ,,nothing ,,to ,,do2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,a ,,life3 and ,,mary ,,mansfield2 ,,or1 ,,no ,,time ,,to ,,be ,a ,,christian4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #i4 ,,bill ,,marlin',s ,,tales ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,by ,mrs ,george ,cupples4 #aj4 ,,gottfried ,,of ,,the ,,iron ,,hand4 ,and other ,tales4 #aa4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,kirk3 a ,sketch of ,scottish ,church ,history4 ,by ,robert ,naismith4 #ab4 ,,the ,,hidden ,,treasure4 ,and other ,tales4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 #ac4 ,,little ,,tales ,,for ,,little ,,people4 ,by ,various ,authors4 #ad4 ,,wise ,,sayings1 ,,and ,,stories ,,to ,,explain ,,them4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 99,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,half-,,crown ,,series499 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 handsomely bound in cloth4 #a4 ,,rosa ,,lindesay1 ,,the ,,light ,,of ,,kilmain4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,illustrated4 #b4 ,,newlyn ,,house1 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,davenports4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,w4 ,illustrated4 #c4 ,,alice ,,thorne2 ,,or1 ,a ,,sister',s ,,work4 ,illustrated4 #d4 ,,labourers ,,in ,,the ,,vineyard4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,illustrated4 #e4 ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,king4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,illustrated4 #f4 ,,little ,,harry',s ,,troubles4 ,by the ,author of ,gottfried4 ,illustrated4 #g4 ,,sunday ,,school ,,photographs4 ,by the ,rev4 ,alfred ,taylor1 ,bristol1 ,pennsylvania4 #h4 ,,waymarks ,,for ,,the ,,guiding ,,of ,,little ,,feet4 ,by the ,rey4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #i4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,circle2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,relations1 ,,responsibilities1 ,,and ,,duties ,,of ,,home ,,life4 ,by the ,rev4 ,john ,thomson4 ,illustrated4 #aj4 ,,select ,,christian ,,biographies4 ,by the ,rev4 ,james ,gardner1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,illustrated4 #aa4 ,,ocean ,,lays4 ,selected by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,longmuir1 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustrated4 #ab4 ,,wilberforce',s ,,practical ,,view ,,of ,,christianity4 ,complete ,edition4 #ac4 ,,communion ,,services1 ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,presbyterian ,,form4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #ad4 ,,attitudes ,,and ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,divine ,,redeemer4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #ae4 ,,the ,,redeemer ,,and ,,the ,,redemption4 ,by the ,rev4 ,alex4 ,s4 ,patterson1 ,d4,d4 #af4 ,a ,,pastor',s ,,legacy4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #ag4 ,,james ,,nisbet2 ,a ,,study ,,for ,,young ,,men4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #ah4 ,,noble ,,rivers1 ,,and ,,stories ,,concerning ,,them4 ,by ,anna ,j4 ,buckland4 ,illustrated4 99,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,three ,,shilling ,,series499 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 richly gilt sides and edges4 #a4 ,,miss ,,matty2 ,,or1 ,,our ,,youngest ,,passenger4 ,and other ,tales4 ,illustrated4 #b4 ,,horace ,,hazelwood2 ,,or1 ,,little ,,things4 ,and other ,tales4 ,illustrated4 #c4 ,,rosa ,,lindesay1 ,,the ,,light ,,of ,,kilmain4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,illustrated4 #d4 ,,newlyn ,,house1 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,davenports4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,w4 ,illustrated4 #e4 ,,alice ,,thorne2 ,,or1 ,a ,,sister',s ,,work4 ,illustrated4 #f4 ,,labourers ,,in ,,the ,,vineyard4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,illustrated4 #g4 ,,little ,,harry',s ,,troubles4 ,by the ,author of 8,gottfried40 ,illustrated4 #h4 ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,king4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,illustrated4 #i4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,circle2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,relations1 ,,responsibilities1 ,,and ,,duties ,,of ,,home ,,life4 ,by the ,rev4 ,john ,thomson4 ,illustrated4 #aj4 ,,sunday ,,school ,,photographs4 ,by the ,rev4 ,alfred ,taylor1 ,bristol4 #aa4 ,,waymarks ,,for ,,the ,,guiding ,,of ,,little ,,feet4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #ab4 ,,select ,,christian ,,biographies4 ,by the ,rev4 ,james ,gardner1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,illustrated4 #ac4 ,,cardiphonia2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,utterance ,,of ,,the ,,heart4 ,in a ,series of ,letters4 ,by ,john ,newton4 ,a ,new ,edition1 bevelled boards1 cut edges4 #ad4 ,,found ,,afloat4 ,by ,mrs ,george ,cupples4 ,and other ,tales4 ,illustrated4 #ae4 ,,james ,,nisbet2 ,a ,,study ,,for ,,young ,,men4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wallace4 #af4 ,,the ,,white ,,roe ,,of ,,glenmere4 ,by ,mona ,b4 ,bickerstaffe4 ,and other ,tales4 ,illustrated4 #ag4 ,,noble ,,rivers1 ,,and ,,stories ,,concerning ,,them4 ,by ,anna ,j4 ,buckland4 ,illustrated4 99,j4 ,h4 ,,co4',s ,,five ,,shilling ,,series499 ,bound in cloth1 bevelled boards1 richly gilt sides and edges4 #a4 ,,the ,,children',s ,,hour ,,annual4 ,first ,series4 #fef pp4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 ,illustrated4 #b4 ,,the ,,children',s ,,hour ,,annual4 ,second ,series4 #fdj pp4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 ,illustrated4 #c4 ,,sketches ,,of ,,scripture ,,characters4 ,by the ,rev4 ,andrew ,thomson1 ,d4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 ,illustrated4 #d4 ,,stars ,,of ,,earth2 ,,or1 ,,wild ,,flowers ,,of ,,the ,,months4 ,by ,leigh ,page4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with ,original ,illustrations by the ,author4 #e4 ,,elijah2 ,,the ,,desert ,,prophet3 ,a ,biography4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,t4 ,howat4 ,crown #hvo4 ,illustrated4 ,afflicted's ,refuge 7,the72 or1 ,prayers adapted to various ,circumstances of ,distress4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #j #b #f4 ,alfred and the ,little ,dove4 ,by ,f4 ,a4 ,krummacher1 ,d4,d4 ,and the ,young ,savoyard4 ,by ,ernest ,hold4 ,translated from the ,german by a ,lady4 ,royal #cbmo1 cloth4 ,illustrated1 #j #a #j4 ,alice ,lowther2 or1 ,grandmamma's ,story about her ,little ,red ,bible4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,c41 ,author of 8,mary ,m',neill10 etc4 ,royal #cbmo1 cloth1 ,illustrated1 #j #a #j4 ,alice ,thorne2 or1 ,a ,sister's ,work4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 ,illustrated1 #j #b #f4----;,extra cloth1 gilt edges1 #j #c #j4 ,archie ,douglas2 or1 ,where there's a ,will there's a ,way4 ,and other ,tales4 ,super ,royal #cbmo1 cloth1 ,illustrated1 #j #j #f4 ,arthur ,fortescue2 or1 ,the ,schoolboy ,hero4 ,by ,robert ,hope ,moncrieff4 ,royal #cbmo1 cloth1 ,illustrated1 #j #a #j4 ,authorised ,standards of the ,free ,church of ,scotland3 ,being the ,westminster ,confession of ,faith and other ,documents4 ,published by ,authority of the ,general ,assembly4 ,demy #abmo1 cloth limp1 #j #a #c4----;,cloth boards1 #j #a #f4----,superior ,edition1 ,printed on ,superfine ,paper1 extra cloth1 bevelled boards1 antique1 #j #b #f4----;,full calf1 lettered1 antique #j #e #j4 ,biddy1 the ,maid of ,all ,work4 ,super ,royal #cbmo1 cloth1 ,illustrated1 #j #j #f4 ,bill ,marlin's ,tales of the ,sea4 ,by ,mrs ,george ,cupples4 ,super royal #cbmo1 extra cloth1 gilt edges1 ,illustrated1 #j #a #f4 ,brodie 7,rev4 ,james1 ,a4,m47 ,the ,antiquity and ,nature of ,man3 ,a ,reply to ,sir ,charles ,lyell's ,recent ,work4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #j #b #f4 ----,papers ,offered for ,discussion at the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,dundee4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 boards1 #j #a #j4 ,the ,rational ,creation3 ,an ,inquiry into the ,nature and ,classification of ,rational ,creatures1 and the ,government which ,god exercises over them4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #j #e #j4 ,an ,inquiry into the ,apocalypse1 with an ,endeavour to ascertain our present ,position on the ,chart of ,time4 ,royal #hvo1 sewed #j #b #j4 ,brodie 7,rev4 ,james1 ,a4,m47 ,memoir of ,annie ,m',donald ,christie1 a ,self-taught ,cottager4 ,demy #ahmo1 cloth1 #j #a #f4 ,buckland 7,anna ,j47 ,noble ,rivers1 and ,stories concerning ,them4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 with ,illustrations1 #j #b #f4----;,extra cloth1 gilt edges1 #j #c #j4 ,burns 7,rev4 ,george1 ,d4,d47 ,prayers for the ,use of ,sabbath ,schools4 #ahmo1 sewed1 #j #j #d4 ,catechisms-- ,,the ,,assembly',s ,,shorter ,,catechism2 with ,references to the ,scripture ,proofs4 ,demy #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #j-4 ,,the ,,assembly',s ,,shorter ,,catechism2 with 7,italicised7 ,proofs from ,scripture at full length2 also with ,additional ,scripture ,references1 selected from ,boston1 ,fisher1 ,m4 ,henry1 ,paterson1 ,vincent1 and others4 ,demy #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,,the ,,assembly',s ,,larger ,,catechism2 with 7,italicised7 ,proofs from ,scripture at full length4 ,demy #abmo1 sewed1 #j #j #f4 ,,catechism ,,of ,,the ,,evidences ,,of ,,revealed ,,religion1 with a few ,preliminary ,questions on ,natural ,religion4 ,by ,william ,ferrie1 ,d4,d41 ,kilconquhar4 #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #d4 ,,catechism ,,on ,,baptism3 in which are considered its ,nature1 its ,subjects1 and the ,obligations resulting from it4 ,by the late ,henry ,grey1 ,d4,d41 ,edinburgh4 #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #f4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,first ,,catechism4 #dhmo1 stitched1 #j #j #j-4 ,,short ,,catechism ,,for ,,young ,,children4 ,by the ,rev4 ,john ,brown1 ,haddington4 #cbmo1 stitched1 #j #j #j-4 ,,plain ,,catechism ,,for ,,children4 ,by the ,rev4 ,matthew ,henry4 #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,,fifty ,,questions ,,concerning ,,the ,,leading ,,doctrines ,,and ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,gospel2 with ,scripture ,answers and ,parallel ,texts4 ,for the use of ,sabbath ,schools4 #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,,form ,,of ,,examination ,,before ,,the ,,communion4 ,approved by the ,general ,assembly of the ,kirk of ,scotland 7#aeib71 and appointed to be read in ,families and ,schools2 with ,proofs from ,scripture 7commonly known as 8,craig's ,catechism074 ,with a ,recommendatory ,note by the ,rev4 ,dr ,candlish1 ,rev4 ,alexander ,moody ,stuart1 and ,rev4 ,dr ,horatius ,bonar4 #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,,the ,,mother',s ,,catechism2 being a ,preparatory ,help for the ,young and ,ignorant1 to their easier understanding ,the ,assembly's ,shorter ,catechism4 ,by the ,rev4 ,john ,willison1 ,dundee4 #cbmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,,watts' 7,,dr ,,isaac7 ,,juvenile ,,historical ,,catechisms ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testaments2 with ,numerous ,scripture ,references1 and a ,selection of ,hymns4 ,demy #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,a ,,scripture ,,catechism1 ,historical and ,doctrinal1 for the use ,of ,schools and ,families4 ,by ,john ,whitecross1 ,author of 8,anecdotes on the ,shorter ,catechism10 etc4 #ahmo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,christian ,,doctrine ,,and ,,duties2 being the ,westminster ,assembly's ,shorter ,catechism1 without the ,questions1 with ,marginal ,references4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 stitched1 #j #j #a4 ,children of the ,great ,king 7,the73 ,a ,story of the ,crimean ,war4 ,by ,m4 ,h41 ,editor of 8,the ,children's ,hour40 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 with ,illustrations1 #j #b #f4----;,cloth extra1 gilt edges1 #j #c #j4 ,children's ,hour 7,the7 ,annual4 ,first ,series4 #fef pp41 and upwards of #ej ,illustrations4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 gilt edges1 #j #e #j4 ----,second ,series4 #fdj pp41 and upwards of #gj ,illustrations4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 gilt edges1 #j #e #j4 ,children's ,hour 7,the7 ,series of ,gift ,books4 #a4 ,,miss ,,matty2 ,,or1 ,,our ,,youngest ,,passenger4 ,and other ,tales4 #b4 ,,horace ,,hazelwood4 ,and other ,tales4 #c4 ,,found ,,afloat4 ,and other ,tales4 #d4 ,,the ,,white ,,roe ,,of ,,glenmere4 ,and other ,tales4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 gilt sides and edges1 ,illustrated--each #j #c #j4 ,christfried's ,first ,journey4 ,and other ,tales4 ,super royal #cbmo1 cloth1 ,illustrated1 #j #j #f4 ,christian ,treasury 7,the7 ,volumes #ahde to #ahfj4 #af ,volumes1 royal #hvo1 cloth--each #j #e #j4 ,a complete ,set will be forwarded to any part of the country1 carriage paid1 on receipt of #c1 #cs4 ----,volumes #ahfa1 #ahfb1 #ahfc1 #ahfd1 #ahfe1 and #ahff4 ,super royal #hvo1 cloth1 green and gold--each #j #f #f4 ,cockerill the ,conjurer2 or1 ,the ,brave ,boy of ,hameln4 ,by the ,author of 8,little ,harry's ,troubles40 ,super royal #cbmo1 cloth1 bevelled boards1 ,illustrated1 #j #a #j4 ,confession of ,faith 7,the7 agreed upon at the ,assembly of ,divines at ,westminster4 ,complete ,edition1 with the ,italics of the elegant ,quarto ,edition of #afeh restored4 7,authorised ,edition47 ,demy #abmo1 cloth limp1 #j #a #j4 ----,cloth boards1 #j #a #c4----,superior ,edition1 ,printed on ,superfine ,paper1 extra cloth1 bevelled boards1 antique1 #j #b #f4----;,full calf1 lettered1 antique1 #j #e #j4 ,dill 7,edward ,marcus1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d47 ,the ,mystery ,solved3 or1 ,ireland's ,miseries3 ,their ,grand ,cause and ,cure4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #j #b #f4 ----,the ,gathering ,storm2 or1 ,britain's ,romeward ,career3 ,a ,warning and ,appeal to ,british ,protestants4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #j #a #j4 ,,footnotes #a ,an ,english translation of this ,treatise was published under the following title3--8,a very profitable ,treatise1 declarynge what great profit might come to all ,christendom yf there were a regester made of all the saincts' bodies and other reliques which are as well in ,italy as in ,france1 ,dutchland1 ,spaine1 and other kingdoms and conntreys4 ,translated out of the ,french into ,english by ,j4 ,wythers1 ,london1 #aefa40 #afmo4 ,i have made my translation from the ,french original1 reprinted at ,paris in #ahbb4 #b ,it is well known that more than half a million of pilgrims went to worship the holy coat of ,treves in #ahdd1 and that many wonderful stories about the cures effected by that relic were related4 ,several of these stories are not altogether without foundation1 because there are many cases where imagination affects the human body in such a powerful manner as to cause or cure various diseases4 ,it was therefore to be expected that individuals suffering from such diseases should be at least temporarily relieved from their ailings by a strong belief in the miraculous powers of the relic4 ,cases of this kind are always noticed1 whilst all those of ineffectual pilgrimage are never mentioned4 #c ,a translation of this letter was published in the ,allgemeine ,zeitung of ,augsburg4 #d ,thus ,st ,anthony of ,padua restores1 like ,mercury1 stolen property2 ,st ,hubert1 like ,diana1 is the patron of sportsmen2 ,st ,cosmas1 like ,esculapius1 that of physicians1 c4 ,in fact1 almost every profession and trade1 as well as every place1 have their especial patron saint1 who1 like the tutelary divinity of the ,pagans1 receives particular honours from his or her protgs4 #e ,in his ,treatise given below4 #f 8,quod legentibus ,scriptum1 hoc et idiotis1 prstat pictura1 quia in ipsa ignorantes vident quid sequi debeant1 in ipsas legunt qui litteras nesciunt10 says ,st ,gregory4--,maury1 ,essai sur les ,legendes1 c41 p4 #ajd4 #g 8,quoniam talis memoria qu imaginibus fovetur1 non venit es cordis amore1 sed ex visionis necessitate40--,opus illustrissimi ,caroli magni contra ,synodum pro adorandis imaginibus1 p4 #dhj1 7in #ah--aedi71--;a work of which ,i shall have an opportunity more amply to speak4 #h ,see his chapter on the 8,ill ,effects of ,solitude on the ,imagination0--,english translation4 #i ,ibid4 #aj 8,fleury ,histoire ,eccles410 lib4 xxi4 chap4 #ae4 #aa ,the author of this sketch says himself1 in a note1 8,yet this idolatry is far from having entirely disappeared4 ,pilgrimages1 and a devotion to certain images1 but particularly to that of the ,virgin1 are still continuing10 c4 ,this was said in #ahdc4 ,i wonder what he will say now1 when this idolatry is reappearing1 even in those parts of ,europe where the ,calvinists had1 according to his expression1 struck at its very root4 #ab 8,essai sur les ,legendes ,pieuses du ,moyen ,age10 par ,alfred ,maury1 pp4 #aaa1 et seq4 #ac 8,chateaubriand ,etudes ,historiques10 vol4 ii4 p4 #aja4 #ad 8,histoire de la ,destruction du ,paganisme dans l',empire d',orient10 par ,m4 ,chastel1 ,paris1 #ahej1 p4 #cdb et seq4 #ae 8,histoire de la ,destruction du ,paganisme en ,occident10 par ,a4 ,beugnot1 ,member of the ,french ,institute1 ,paris1 #ahce1 #hvo1 #b vols4 #af ,translator's ,note4--,was not the introduction of pagan rites into the church the indirect way to idolatry alluded to in the text8 #ag ,author's ,note4--,the festivals of the martyrs was a very large concession made to the old manners1 because all that took place daring those days was not very edifying4 #ah ,translator's ,note4--,i shall give in its proper place a more ample account of ,vigilantius4 #ai ,author's ,note4--,these compromises were temporary1 and the church revoked them as soon as she believed that she could do it without inconvenience4 ,she struggled hard against the calends of ,january1 after having for a considerable time suffered these festivities2 and when she saw that she could not succeed in abolishing them1 she decided to transport the beginning of the year from the first of ,january to ,easter1 in order to break the ,pagan customs4 #bj ,author's ,note4--8,the ,saturnalia1 and several other festivals1 were celebrated on the calends of ,january2 ,christmas was fixed at the same epoch4 ,the ,lupercalia1 a pretended festival of purification1 took place during the calends of ,february2 the ,christian purification 7,candlemas7 was celebrated on the #b;d of ,february4 ,the festival of ,augustus1 celebrated on the calends of ,august1 was replaced by that of ,st ,peter in vinculis1 established on the #ast of that month4 ,the inhabitants of the country1 ever anxious about the safety of their crops1 obstinately retained the celebration of the ,ambarvalia2 ,st ,mamert established in the middle of the fifth century the ,rogations1 which in their form differ very little from the ,ambarvalia4 ,on comparing the ,christian calendar with the ,pagan one1 it is impossible not to be struck by the great concordance between the two4 ,now1 can we consider this concordance as the effect of chance8 ,it is principally in the usages peculiar only to some churches that we may trace the spirit of concessions with which ,christianity was animated during the first centuries of its establishment4 ,thus1 at ,catania1 where the ,pagans were celebrating the festival of ,ceres after harvest1 the church of that place consented to delay to that time the festival of the ,visitation1 which is celebrated everywhere else on the #b;d ,july40--,f4 ,aprile ,cronologia ,universale di ,sicilia1 p4 #fja4 ,i would recommend to those who wish to study this subject the work of ,marangoni1 a very interesting work1 though its author 7whose object was to convince the ,protestants who attacked the discipline of the ,roman ,catholic ,church on account of these concessions7 tried to break the evident connection which exists between certain ,christian and ,pagan festivals4 #ba ,author's ,note4--8,there are at ,rome even now several churches which had formerly been pagan temples1 and thirty-nine of them have been built on the foundations of such temples40--,marangoni1 pp4 #bcf-bfh4 ,there is no country in ,europe where similar examples are not found4 ,it is necessary to remark1 that all these transformations began at the end of the fifth century4 #bb ,author's ,note4--,at ,rome four churches have pagan names1 viz3--,s4 ,maria ,sopra ,minerva1 ,s4 ,maria ,aventina1 ,st ,lorenzo in ,matuta1 and ,st ,stefano del ,cacco4 ,at ,sienna1 the temple of ,quirinus became the church of ,st ,quiricus4 #bc ,translator's ,note4--,and still more to their corruption4 #bd ,translator's ,note4--,christ has said1 8,come unto me1 all ye that labour and are heavy laden1 and ,i will give you rest4 ,take my yoke upon you1 and learn of me2 for ,i am meek and lowly in heart2 and ye shall find rest unto your souls4 ,for my yoke is easy1 and my burden is light40--,matt4 xi4 #bh-cj4 ,i would ask the learned author1 whether these words of our ,saviour are not sufficiently mild1 tender1 and consoling1 and whether there was any necessity to consecrate some new ideas in order to temper their severity8 #be ,author's ,note4--,amongst a multitude of proofs ,i shall choose only one1 in order to show with what facility the worship of ,mary swept away in its progress the remnants of ,paganism which were still covering ,europe3--,notwithstanding the preaching of ,st ,hilarion1 ,sicily had remained faithful to the ancient worship4 ,after the council of ,ephesus1 we see eight of the finest ,pagan temples of that island becoming in a very short time churches dedicated to the ,virgin4 ,these temples were1 #a4 of ,minerva1 at ,syracuse2 #b4 of ,venus and ,saturn1 at ,messina2 #c4 of ,venus ,erigone1 on the ,mount ,eryx1 believed to have been built by ,eneas2 #d4 of ,phalaris1 at ,agrigent2 #e4 of ,vulcan1 near ,mount ,etna2 #f4 the ,pantheon1 at ,catania2 #g4 of ,ceres1 in the same town2 #h4 the ,sepulchre of ,stesichorus4--,v4 ,aprile ,cronologia ,universale di ,sicilia4 ,similar facts may be found in the ecclesiastical annals of every country4 #bf ,translator's ,note4--,the time when the church is to accomplish this purification has1 alas6 not yet arrived4 #bg ,beugnot1 vol4 ii41 book xii41 chap4 #a1 pp4 #bfa-bgb4 #bh ,the opinions of different writers on the number of ,christians in the ,roman empire at the time of ,constantine's conversion greatly varies4 ,the valuation of ,staudlin 78,universal ,geshichte der ,christlichen ,kirche10 p4 #da1 #ahcc7 at half of its population1 and even that of ,matter 78,histoire de l',eglise10 t4 i4 p4 #abj71 who reduces it to the fifth1 are generally considered as exaggerated4 ,gibbon thinks that it was the twentieth part of the above-mentioned population2 and the learned ,french academician4 ,la ,bastie 78,memoires de l',academie des ,inscripter10 c47 believes that it was the twelfth4 ,this last valuation is approved by ,chastel 78,histoire de la ,destruction du ,paganisme en ,orient10 #ahej1 p4 #cf7 as an average number1 though it was much larger in the ,east than in the ,west4 ,the celebrated passage of ,tertullian's 8,apology10 in the second century1 where he represents the number of ,christians in the ,roman empire to be so great1 that it would have become a desert if they had retired from it1 is considered by ,beugnot 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ahh7 as the most exaggerated hyperbole which has ever been used by an orator4 #bi ,translator's ,note4--,expression of ,st ,jerome1 ,op4 iv4 p4 #bff4 ,it would be curious to know what this father of the church would have said of the present ,rome4 #cj ,beugnot1 vol4 i41 p4 #hf4 #ca 8,ludorum celebrationes1 deoram festa sunt40--,lactantius1 ,institutiones ,divin41 vi41 #bj1 apud ,beugnot4 #cb 8,adite aras publicas adque delubra1 et consuetudinis vestr celebrate solemnia3 nec enim prohibemus preterit usurpationis officia libera luce tractari40 #cc ,the labarum was a cross1 with the monogram of ,christ4 #cd ,the ,grco-,russian church has1 however1 given him a place in her calendar on the #bast ,may1 but only in common with his mother ,helena4 ,this was done only a considerable time after his death4 #ce ,beugnot1 upon the authority of ,ausonius1 vol4 i41 p4 #cba4 #cf ,thus ,symmachus1 one of the leaders of the old aristocracy of ,rome1 celebrated for his learning1 virtues1 and staunch adherence to the national polytheism1 was invested by ,theodosius with the dignity of a consul of ,rome2 the well known ,greek orator1 ,libanius1 was created prefect of the imperial palace2 and ,themistius1 who had been invested with the highest honours under the preceding reigns1 was created by ,theodosius prefect of ,constantinople1 received in the senate1 and entrusted for some time with the education of ,arcadius4 ,these distinguished polytheists never made a secret of their religious opinions1 but publicly declared them on several occasions4 ,many of ,theodosius' generals were avowed ,pagans1 but enjoyed no less his confidence and favour4 #cg ,fallmerayer1 8,geschichte der ,morea10 vol4 i41 p4 #acf4 #ch ,vide supra1 pp4 #cj-cb4 #ci ,i think that it will not be uninteresting to my readers to know how the ,roman ,catholic ,church explains this prohibition1 and which may be best seen from the following piece of ingenious casuistry1 by one of her ablest defenders in this country3--8,canon xxxvi4 of the ,provincial ,council held in #cje1 at ,eliberis1 in ,spain1 immediately refutes the error of ,bingham4 7,bingham maintained the same opinion on the images which is expressed in the text47 ,the pastors of the ,spanish church beheld the grievous persecution that ,diocletian had commenced to wage against the ,christian faith1 which had for a lengthened period enjoyed comparative repose1 under the forbearing reign of ,constantius ,csar1 father of ,constantine the ,great4 ,they assembled to concert precautionary measures1 and amongst other things1 they determined that1 in the provinces under their immediate jurisdiction1 there should be no fixed and immovable picture monuments1 such as fresco paintings or mosaics1 no images of ,christ whom they adored1 nor of the saints whom they venerated1 on the walls of the churches which had been erected and ornamented during the long interval of peace which the ,christians had enjoyed4 #8,placuit1' says the council1 #8picturas in ecclesia esse non debere1 ne quod colitur et adoratur1 in parietibus depingatur1' 7,con4 ,elib41 apud ,labbeum1 tom i4 p4 #igb47 ,this economy was prudent and adapted to the exigency of the period4 ,the figures of ,christ and of his saints were thus protected from the ribaldry and insults of the ,pagans4 ,but this well-timed prohibition demonstrates1 that the use of pictures and images had already been introduced into the ,spanish church40--,hierurgia1 or ,transubstantiation1 ,invocation of ,saints1 ,relics1 c41 expounded by ,d4 ,rock1 ,d4,d41 second edition1 p4 #cgd1 note4 ,there can be no doubt that the enactment in question proves that images were used at that time amongst the ,spanish ,christians1 as a law prohibiting some particular crimes or offences shows that they were taking place at the time when it was promulgated2 but the opinion that the above-mentioned enactment was not a prohibition of images1 but a precautionary measure in their favour1 must be supported either by the other canons of the same council1 which contain nothing confirmatory of this opinion1 or by the authority of some contemporary writer1 and is without such evidence quite untenable1 and nothing better than a mere sophism1 ,i have given this explanation of the ,council of ,elvira by a ,roman ,catholic writer as a fair specimen of the manner in which all other practices of their church1 derived from ,paganism1 are defended4 #dj ,translator's ,note4--,and yet the same writer has defended this manner of recruiting the church4--,vid4 supra1 p4 #ag4 #da ,translator's ,note4--,and yet this system of concession has been called by the same author true wisdom4--,vid4 supra1 p4 #ah4 #db ,translator's ,note4--,it dated from the time when the ,christian church began to make a compromise with ,paganism4 #dc ,who would defile themselves by the impious superstition of the idols4 #dd ,an ecclesiastical writer of the fifth century4 #de ,translator's ,note4--,importing usually into the ,christian church that leaven of ,paganism which is mentioned in the text4 #df ,translator's ,note4--,retaining meanwhile1 however1 the thing itself4 #dg ,translator's ,note4--,it is a great pity that the author leaves us in the dark about the time when this great improvement in the ,roman ,catholic ,church to which he alludes took place4 #dh ,st ,augustinus relates1 in the fourth book of his ,confessions1 chap1 iii41 that he was diverted from the idea of studying astrology by a pagan physician1 who made him understand all the falsehood and ridicule of that science4 #di ,a similar custom is still prevalent is ,russia4 ,vide infra1 8,on the ,superstitions of her ,church40 #ej ,author's ,note4--,in #abae1 ,buondelmonte was murdered by the ,amidei at the foot of the statue of ,mars4 ,this murder produced at ,florence a civil war1 which1 gradually spreading over all ,italy1 gave birth to the factions of the ,guelphs and ,ghibelines4 #ea ,basnage1 8,histoire de l',eglise10 p4 #aagd4 #eb ,an interesting account of ,vigilantius was published by the ,rev4 ,dr ,gilly1 the well-known friend of the ,waldensians4 #ec ,vide supra1 p4 #h4 #ed ,gibbon's 8,roman ,empire10 chap4 xlix4 #ee ,the ,greeks and ,russians worship their images chiefly by kissing them1 and it was probably on this account that it was ordered to raise them to a height where they could not be reached by the lips of their votaries1 because this means could not prevent them from bowing to them4 #ef ,it is related that the women were the most zealous in defending the images1 and that an officer of the emperor1 who was demolishing a statue of ,christ placed at the entrance of the imperial palace1 was murdered by them4 #eg ,gibbon and some other writers think that ,constantine survived for some time the loss of his eyes1 but ,i have followed in the text the general opinion on this event4 #eh ,irene was a native of ,athens4 #ei ,vol4 ix4 p4 #dbi1 et seq4 #fj ,extracts from the works of this celebrated monk1 and his life1 apud ,basnage ,histoire de l',eglise1 p4 #acge4 #fa ,theodora1 on being appointed by her husband regent during the minority of her son1 was obliged to swear that she would not restore the idols4 ,the ,jesuit ,maimbourg1 who wrote a history of the iconoclasts1 maintains that1 in restoring the worship of images1 she did not commit a perjury1 because she swore that she would not restore the idols1 but not images1 which are not idols4 #fb ,i may add1 as well as the ,russo-,greek ,church1 which1 as ,i shall have an opportunity to show afterwards1 is no less opposed to ,protestantism than her rival1 the ,church of ,rome4 #fc ,thus1 for instance1 the well-known work of the celebrated patriarch ,photius1 written in the ninth century1 contains extracts from and notices of many works which have never reached us4 #fd 8,edinburgh ,review10 ,july1 #ahda1 p4 #ag4 #fe ,according to the author of 8,hierurgia10 ,cassianus suffered martyrdom under the reign of ,julian the ,apostate2 we know1 however1 from history1 that no persecution of ,christians had taken place under that emperor4 ,cassianus' body is still preserved at ,imola1 but according to ,collin de ,plancy he has besides a head at ,toulouse4 #ff 8,hierurgia10 by ,d4 ,rock1 ,d4,d41 second edition1 p4 #cgg1 et seq4 #fg ,prudentius was known as a man of great learning1 and had filled some important offices of the state4 #fh ,the title of this book is--8,opus illustrissimi ,caroli ,magni1 nutu ,dei1 ,regis ,francorum1 ,gallias1 ,germaniam1 ,italiamque sive harum finitimas provincias1 ,domino opitulante1 regentis1 contra ,synodum qu in partibus ,greci1 pro adorandis imaginibus1 stolide sive arroganter gesta est40 #fi ,i think that it has recently been completed at ,brussels4 #gj ,the title of ,ruinart's work is--8,acta primorum ,martyrum sincera et selecta ex libris1 cum editis1 tum manuscriptis1 collecta eruta vel emendata40 #dto1 ,paris #afhg1 and several editions afterwards4 #ga ,the most important of these ,apocrypha of the ,new ,testament1 some of which have reached us1 whilst we know the others from the writings of the fathers1 are the ,gospels according to ,st ,peter1 to ,st ,thomas1 to ,st ,matthias1 the ,revelations of ,st ,peter1 the ,epistle of ,st ,barnabas1 the ,acts of ,st ,john1 of ,st ,andrew1 and other apostles4 #gb ,mabillon on the ,unknown ,saints1 p4 #aj4 ,apud ,basnage1 p4 #ajdg4 #gc 8,vie de ,st ,franois ,xavier10 par le ,pere ,bouhours1 #agaf4 ,apud ,maury1 p4 #bb4 #gd 8,liber ,aureus ,inscriptus1 ,liber ,conformitatum ,vit ,beati ac ,seraphici ,patris ,francisci1 ad ,vitam ,jesu ,christi ,domini ,nostri40 ,it went through several editions4 #ge ,the title of this curious work is 8,histoire de ,st ,franois d',assise1 par ,emile ,chavin de ,malan40 ,paris3 #ahde4 #gf 8,edinburgh ,review10 ,april #ahdg1 p4 #bie4 #gg ,history of ,st ,waltheof1 p4 #b in the #eth vol4 of the collection4 #gh ,ibid41 p4 #bd4 #gi ,life of ,st ,augustine of ,canterbury1 ,apostle of the ,english1 p4 #bcg1 in the #ast volume of the ,english ,saints1 mentioned above4 #hj ,there is a ,german story which is evidently a parody of this legend4 ,it says that an individual who was passionately fond of playing at nine-pins committed a crime for which he was sentenced to be beheaded4 ,he requested1 as a favour which was usually granted to culprits before their execution1 to indulge once more in his favourite game4 ,this demand being conceded1 he began to play with such ardour that he entirely forgot his impending execution4 ,the executioner1 who was present1 got tired of waiting for the culprit1 and seizing a moment when he stretched his neck picking up a ball from the ground1 cut off his head4 ,the culprit was1 however1 so keen in the pursuit of his game1 that he seized his own head1 and having made with it a successful throw1 exclaimed1 8,haven't ,i got all the nine80 #ha ,an old ,german ballad gives a fair specimen of the ideas which people entertained of the joys of heaven4 ,it says1 amongst other things3--8,wine costs not a penny in the cellar of heaven2 angels bake bread and cracknels at the desire of every one2 vegetables of every kind abundantly grow in the garden of heaven2 pease and carrots grow without being planted2 asparagus is as thick as a man's leg1 and artichokes as big as a head4 ,when it is a lent day1 the fishes arrive in shoals1 and ,st ,peter comes with his net to catch them1 in order to regale you4 ,st ,martha is the cook and ,st ,urban the butler40--,see ,maury1 p4 #hh4 #hb ,zimmerman's 8,solitude ,considered with respect to its ,dangerous ,influence upon the ,mind and ,heart40 ,english translation4 ,ed4 #agih1 p4 #ajb1 et seq4 #hc ,vide supra1 p4 #ag4 #hd 8,mandat sancta synodus omnibus episcopis et caeteris1 ut juxta catholicae et apostolicae ecclesiae usum1 a primaevis ,christianae religionis temporibus receptum1 de legitimo imaginum usu fideles diligenter instruunt1 docentes eos1 imaginis ,christi et ,deiparae ,virginis1 et aliorum sanctorum1 in templis praesertim habendas et retinendas1 eisque debitum honorem et venerationem impertiendam2 non quod credatur inesse aliqua in divinitas1 vel virtus1 propter quam sint colendae2 vel quod ab iis aliquod sit petendum2 vel quod fiducia in imaginibus sit figenda1 veluti olim fiebat a gentibus1 quae in idolis 7,psalm cxxxv47 spem suam collocabant3 sed quoniam honos1 qui eis exhibetur1 refertur ad prototypae1 quae illae representant1 ita ut per imagines1 quae osculamur1 et coram quibus caput aperimus et procumbimus1 ,christum adoremus2 et sanctos quorum illae similitudinem gerunt veneremur40--,sessio xxv4 de ,invocatione ,sanc4 et ,sacr4 ,imag4 #he ,the following description of this little idol is given by a well-known ,french writer of last century3--8,this morning1 when ,i was quietly walking along a street towards the capitol1 ,i met with a carriage1 in which sat two ,franciscan monks1 holding on their knee something which ,i was unable to distinguish4 ,every body was stopping and bowing in a most respectful manner4 ,i inquired to whom were these salutations directed8 #8,to the ,bambino1' ,i was answered1 #8whom these good fathers are carrying to a prelate1 who is very ill1 and whom the physicians have given up4' ,it was then explained to me what this ,bambino is4 ,it is a little statue1 meant for ,jesus1 made of wood1 and richly attired4 ,the convent which has the good fortune of being its owner has no other patrimony4 ,as soon as any body is seriously ill1 the ,bambino is sent for1 in a carriage1 because he never walks on foot4 ,two monks take him and place him near the bed of the patient1 in whose house they remain1 living at his expense1 until he dies or recovers4 8,the ,bambino is always driving about2 people sometimes fight at the gate of the convent in order to get him4 ,he is particularly busy during the summer1 and his charges are then higher1 in proportion to the competition and the heat1 which ,i think is quite right40--,dupaty1 ,lettres sur l',italie1 let4 xlviii4 ,the ,bambino continues to maintain his credit2 and ,i have read not long ago in the newspapers1 that an ,english lady of rank1 who had joined the communion of ,rome1 was performing the duties of his dry nurse on a festival of her adopted church4 #hf ,insolitam imaginem4 ,i have made use in the text of the ,english ,roman ,catholic translation of the canons of the ,council of ,trent1 by the ,rev4 ,mr ,waterworth4 #hg 8,omnia hc impia sunt et cultus idolorum1 alloqui ipsas statuas aut ossa1 aut fingere ,deum aut sanctos magis in uno loco1 seu ad hanc statuam alligatos esse quam ad alia loca4 ,nihil differunt invocationes qu fiunt ad ,mariam ,aquensem seu ,ratisbonensem ab invocationibus ethnicis1 qu flebant ad ,dianam ,ephesiam1 aut ad ,junonem ,platensem1 aut ad alias statuas40--,respon4 ad ,articul4 ,bavaric1 art4 #ag1 p4 #cha4 #hh ,middleton's 8,miscellaneous ,works10 vol4 v41 p4 #if1 edition of #agee4 #hi ,ibid41 p4 #ig4 #ij ,hospinian1 8,de ,origine ,templ410 lib4 ii4 cap4 #bc2 apud ,middleton1 loco citato4 #ia ,beugnot1 vol4 i4 p4 #bca1 on the authority of ,sosomenes4 #ib ,there are some ,protestant writers who attach great value to the apostolic canons1 as1 for instance1 ,dr ,beveridge1 ,bishop of ,st ,asaph1 who wrote a defence of them4 #ic 8,institutiones ,christian10 lib4 vi41 cap4 #b2 apud1 8,hospinian de ,origine ,templorum10 lib4 ii41 cap4 #aj4 #id ,this date is a mistake1 and ,i would have taken it for a misprint if the author had not said before1 that 8,vigilantius attacked the practices of the church in the fourth age40 ,i have1 in speaking of this subject1 p4 #ga1 followed the authority of the great historian of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 ,fleury1 who says that ,jerome answered ,vigilantius in #djd4 #ie ,vid4 supra1 p4 #ad1 et seq41 the opinions of ,chateaubriand and ,beugnot on the same subject4 #if ,the appellation of regina clorum1 queen of heaven1 is frequently given to the blessed ,virgin in ,roman ,catholic litanies and hymns addressed to her4 ,the queen of heaven mentioned by ,jeremiah is supposed to be the same as ,astarte1 or the ,syrian ,venus4 #ig ,herodot41 lib4 ii41 p4 #cf1-- 8,qui grege linigero circumdatus et grege calvo1 ,plangentis populi currit derisor ,anubis40 ,juvenal1 vi4 #ecb4 #ih ,he describes in it the well-known ,roman ,catholic practice of flagellation or self-whipping1 which has been1 and is still1 done by the priests and votaries of several ,pagan deities4 #ii 8,namque omnia loca quae thuris constiterit vapore fumasse1 si tamen ea fuisse in jure thurificantium probabitur1 fisco nostro adsocianda censemus10 c4--,vid4 also supra1 p4 #dh4 #ajj ,i give these numbers on the authority of the ,almanac de ,gotha4 #aja ,the facts of this curious affair have never been published1 but they are preserved in the ecclesiastical archives of ,moscow1 and a copy of them in the ecclesiastical academy of ,st ,petersburgh4--,strahl's ,beytrge zur ,russischen ,kirchengeschichte1 p4 #bci4 #ajb ,hermann ,geschichte von ,russland1 #ahec1 vol4 v41 p4 #hi4 #ajc ,anointment with oil makes a part of the ,greek ritual of baptism4 #ajd ,these regulations may appear strange in a country like this1 but in ,russia all the population is divided into various classes1 and nobody can pass from one of them into another without the authorization of the ,government2 as1 for instance1 if a peasant or agriculturist wishes to become a burgher by settling in a town4 ,the peasantry in the ,baltic provinces were emancipated under the reign of the ,emperor ,alexander1 but the landowners still maintain a certain authority over them4 #aje ,the ,pope1 book iv41 chap4 #a4 #ajf ,bodenstedt's ,morning ,land2 or1 ,thousand and ,one ,days in the ,east4 ,second ,series1 vol4 i41 p4 #fa1 et seq41 a work which is particularly interesting at the present time4 #ajg ,studien ber ,russland1 vol4 i41 p4 #aja4 #ajh ,the ,russians of that time were known as slave dealers1 according to ,benjamin of ,tudela1 a ,jewish traveller of the same period4 #aji ,travels of ,ibn ,foslan1 ,german translation1 by ,frhn1 p4 #g4 #aaj 8,die ,vlker des ,kaukasus10 p4 #bhd4 #aaa ,it owned before the confiscation of the church estates more than a hundred thousand male serfs4 #aab ,studien ber ,russland1 vol4 i4 p4 #hg4 #aac ,simocatta1 apud ,basnage1 p4 #accb4 #aad ,this reform1 accomplished in the reign of ,alexius1 father of ,peter the ,great1 consisted chiefly in the correction of the text of the ,slavonic ,scriptures and liturgical books1 which had been greatly disfigured by the ignorance of successive copyists1 and in the prohibition of some superstitious practices1 which had usurped an important part in the divine service of the ,russian ,church4 ,these wise reforms produced1 however1 a violent opposition1 and several millions separated from the established church1 and are known1 though divided into many sects1 under the general appellation of ,raskolniks1 i4e41 schismatics1 whilst they call themselves ,starovertzi1 or those of the old faith1 and designate the established church by the name of the ,niconian heresy4 #aae ,leveque1 ,histoire de ,russie revue1 par ,malte ,brun et ,depping1 tom4 iv4 p4 #aca4 #aaf ,the title of this book is 8,das ,merk wrdige ,jahr ,meines ,lebens0--8,the ,memorable ,year of my ,life40 ,it has been1 ,i believe1 translated into ,english4 #aag ,a civil grade equal to that of a captain in the army4 #aah ,the author observes in a note that1 in former times1 a petty ecclesiastical prince1 the ,archbishop of ,cologne1 could conceive and partly execute the gigantic plan of the ,cologne minster1 and that in the present time1 though the whole of ,germany had undertaken to build the remainder of it1 her people would have abandoned this project long ago1 if it were not supported by the kings4 ,he ought1 however1 ,i think1 to confine his remarks to ,germany1 because there are certainly more places of worship built by voluntary contributions in ,england than in ,russia4 #aai ,studien ber ,russland1 vol4 i4 p4 #ia4 #abj ,studien ber ,russland1 vol4 i4 p4 #ic4 #aba ,leveque1 ,histoire de ,russie1 vol4 iv41 p4 #acc4 #abb ,london3 ,longman ,co4 #ahed4 #abc ,the title of this curious production is1 8,an ,appeal on the ,eastern ,question to the ,senatus ,academicus of the ,royal ,college of ,edinburgh4 ,by a ,russian1 ,quondam ,civis ,bibliothec ,edinensis40 ,edinburgh3 ,thomas ,c4 ,jack1 #ib ,princes ,street4 ,london3 ,hamilton1 ,adams1 ,co4 #ahed4 #abd ,letter xxxvi41 at the end4 #abe ,vide supra1 p4 #ahd4 #abf 8,custine's ,russia10 letter xxxvi4 ,the same opinion is expressed by ,baron ,haxthausen1 whom ,i have quoted above1 and who says1 8,the sons of the papas and other young men acquire in the seminaries and ecclesiastical academies a certain degree of theological learning1 after which they indue the monacal dress1 and are inscribed on the rolls of some convent1 without however remaining in it4 ,they enter the offices of bishops and archbishops to perform their personal as well as clerical service4 ,their position becomes then exactly the same as that of the military aides-de-camp of the ,generals1 and of the civil ones of ministers1 and it is from amongst them that bishops1 archimandrites1 abbots1 c41 are chosen4 ,it is a career like every other service in ,russia4 ,several of these ecclesiastics may have chosen their calling from a real devotion2 the most part of them are1 however1 driven into it by an immeasurable ambition1 selfishness1 speculation1 and vanity1 the curse of the upper classes of ,russia40--7,studien ber ,russland1 vol4 i41 p4 #hi47 ,it must be remarked that all the dignities of the ,greek church are reserved for the monastic or regular clergy1 whilst the secular 7who cannot take orders without being married7 do not rise above the station of a parish priest4 ,this last-named function1 which gives no prospects of promotion1 is generally left to such theological students as are not fit for any thing better1 and1 with some few honourable exceptions1 they are generally an ignorant and drunken set1 treated with very little respect by the upper classes4 ,the following anecdote1 characteristic of the moral and intellectual condition of that class of the ,russian clergy1 was related to the author by a friend who had resided for some time in ,russia4 ,a landowner of the government of ,kazan1 ,mr ,bakhmetieff1 who was very fond of the pleasures of the table in the old style1 was in the habit of inviting to his revels the priests of the neighbourhood4 ,once1 when his clerical guests had got so drunk as to lose all consciousness1 their host1 who was less overpowered by the effect of drink1 determined to play them a practical joke1 by daubing their beards with melted wax4 ,the distress of these poor fellows1 on awaking from their sleep1 at this strange unction of their beards1 was very great1 because it was impossible to get rid of the wax without greatly injuring that hirsute appendage1 upon which so much of their personal respectability rests4 ,they became the laughing-stock of their congregations1 and the story made a great noise over all the country4 #abg ,the ,greek ,church admits no carved images1 as being prohibited by the second commandment4 #abh ,they have considerably more1 as will be shown presently4 #abi ,every altar in a ,roman ,catholic church must contain some relic4 #acj ,it is said to have been made of pasteboard4 #aca ,there are1 besides the five water pots mentioned by ,calvin1 thirteen others1 at ,st ,nicolo of the ,lido at ,venice1 at ,moscow1 at ,bologne1 at ,tongres1 at ,cologne1 at ,beauvaia1 at the abbey of ,port ,royal at ,paris1 and at ,orleans1 though the ,gospel mentions but six4 ,the materials of which they are made are very dissimilar to each other1 and so are their respective measures1 whilst those mentioned in the ,gospel seem to have been all of the same size4 #acb ,there are1 besides these1 thirteen more1 unknown probably to ,calvin2 but it would be too tedious to enumerate where they may be seen4 #acc ,if a diligent inquiry were instituted after these relics in particular1 four times as many as are here enumerated might be found in other parts4 #acd ,i have employed the term ,sudary1 which has been adopted by ,webster1 from the ,latin word sudarium1 to designate the relic in question4 #ace ,it appears that a kerchief with the likeness of the face of ,jesus ,christ imprinted on it1 and covered with blood and sweat1 was kept in a church at ,rome in the eleventh century1 for it is mentioned in the brief of ,pope ,sergius ,,iv41 dated #ajaa4 ,we do not know what tales respecting this relic were related at that time1 but it appears that copies of it called ,veronies1 i4e41 a corruption of verum icon1 8the true image10 were sold2 and no doubt this appellation gave rise to the legend of ,sancta ,veronica who wiped the face of ,christ with her kerchief as he was going to ,calvary4 ,there are many versions of this legend1 as for instance that it was this woman whom ,christ had cured of the bloody issue1 whilst again it is maintained that she was no less a person than ,berenice1 niece to ,king ,herod4 ,it is also related that after the dispersion of the apostles1 ,st ,veronica went in company with ,mary ,magdalene1 ,martha1 and ,lazarus1 to ,marseilles1 where she wrought many miracles with her kerchief4 ,the ,emperor ,tiberius heard of these miracles1 and having fallen ill1 he summoned ,veronica to ,rome4 ,she cured him in a moment1 and was rewarded with great honours and rich presents4 ,the remainder of her life was spent at ,rome in company with ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul1 and she bequeathed the miraculous kerchief to ,pope ,st ,clement4 ,it must1 however1 be observed1 that this legend has not obtained the official approbation of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 though ,st ,veronica is acknowledged and has a place in the calendar for the #bast of ,february2 and it is said she suffered martyrdom in ,france4 ,with regard to the large sudaries or sheets upon which the whole body of ,jesus ,christ is impressed1 and the absurdity of which ,calvin has so clearly exposed1 the most celebrated of these is that at ,turin4 ,its history is curious1 inasmuch as it shows that the efforts of enlightened and pious prelates to prevent idolatrous practices invading their churches proved unavailing against that general tendency to worship visible objects1 so strongly implanted in corrupt human nature1 that even in this enlightened age we are continually witnessing such manifestation of its revival as may be compared only to that of the dark period of the middle ages4 ,the most striking instances undoubtedly are those of the holy coat of ,treves1 and the relics of ,st ,theodosia1 which have been recently installed at ,amiens1 with great pomp1 and in the presence of the most eminent prelates of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 who seem now to be as anxious to promote this kind of fetishism1 as some of their predecessors were formerly to repress the same abuse4 ,but let us return to our immediate subject--the holy sudarium of ,turin4 ,it is a long linen sheet1 upon which is painted in a reddish colour a double likeness of a human body1 i4e41 as seen from before and from behind1 quite naked with the exception of a broad scarf encircling the loins4 ,it is pretended that this relic was saved by a ,christian at the taking of ,jerusalem by ,titus1 and it was preserved for many centuries by the faithful4 ,in #fdj it was brought back to ,palestine1 from whence it was transferred to ,europe by the ,crusaders4 ,it was taken by a ,french knight named ,geoffroi de ,charny1 who presented it to the collegiate church of a place called ,lir1 which belonged to him1 and which is situated about three leagues from the town of ,troyes1 in ,champagne2 the donor declaring1 on that occasion1 that this holy sheet was taken by him from the infidels1 and that it had delivered him in a miraculous manner from a prison dungeon into which he had been cast by the ,english4 ,the canons of that church1 seeing at once the great profits to be derived from such a relic1 lost no time in exhibiting it1 and their church was soon crowded with devotees4 ,the bishop of ,troyes1 ,henri de ,poitiers1 finding however no proofs of the authenticity of this relic1 prohibited it to be shown as an object of worship1 and it remained unheeded for twenty-four years4 ,the sons of ,geoffroi de ,charny1 about the year #achh1 obtained permission from the ,papal legate to restore this relic of their father's to the church of ,lir1 and the canon exposed it in front of the pulpit1 surrounding it with lighted tapers1 but the bishop of ,troyes1 ,peter d',arcy1 prohibited this exhibition under pain of excommunication4 ,they afterwards obtained from the king1 ,charles ,,vi41 an authorization to worship the holy sudarium in the church of ,lir4 ,the bishop upon this repaired to court1 and represented to the king that the worship of the pretended sheet of ,jesus ,christ was nothing less than downright idolatry1 and he argued so effectually that ,charles revoked the permission by an edict of the #bast ,august #achi4 ,geoffroi de ,charny's sons then appealed to ,pope ,clemens ,,vii41 who was residing at ,avignon1 and he granted permission for the holy sudarium to be exhibited4 ,the bishop of ,troyes sent a memorial to the ,pope1 explaining the importance attached to this so-called holy relic4 ,clemens did not1 however1 prohibit the sudarium to be shown1 but he forbade its being exhibited as the real sudary of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the canons of ,lir1 therefore1 put aside their sudary1 but it reappeared in other places1 and after being shown about in various churches and convents it remained at ,chambery in #adcb1 where nobody dared to impugn its reality4 ,from that time its fame increased1 and ,francis ,i41 king of ,france1 went a pilgrimage on foot1 the whole way from ,lyons to ,chambery1 in order to worship this linen cloth4 ,in #aegh ,st ,charles ,borromeo having announced his intention of going on foot to ,chambery to adore the holy sudary1 the ,duke of ,savoy1 wishing to spare this high-born saint the trouble of so long a pilgrimage1 commanded the relic to be brought to ,turin1 where it has since remained1 and where the miracles performed by it and the solemn worship paid to it1 may be considered as a proof that its authenticity is no longer doubted4 ,there are about six holy sudaries preserved in other churches1 besides the pieces shown elsewhere4 #acf ,calvin1 speaking of the silver pieces for which ,judas betrayed our ,lord1 does not say where they are shown4 ,two of them are preserved in the ,church of the ,annunciation at ,florence1 one in the ,church of ,st ,john of the ,lateran1 and another in that of the ,holy ,cross at ,rome4 ,there is one piece at the ,church of the ,visitandine ,convent at ,aix in ,provence besides many other places where they are displayed4--,collin de ,plancy1 ,dictionaire des ,reliques4 #acg ,the whole skeleton of the animal is preserved at ,vicenza1 enclosed in an artificial figure of an ass4 #ach ,eusebius relates1 that ,abgarus1 king of ,edessa1 having heard of ,christ's teaching and miracles1 sent an embassy to acknowledge our ,lord's divinity1 and to invite him to his kingdom1 in order to cure ,abgarus of a complaint of long standing2 upon which ,christ sent him the likeness mentioned in the text4 ,now1 it is impossible for one moment to admit1 that1 if such an important fact had any truthful foundation1 it would have been left unrecorded by the apostles4 #aci ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church maintains that the ,blessed ,virgin was carried to heaven by angels1 and it commemorates this event by the festival of the ,assumption on the #aeth ,august4 ,this belief was unknown to the primitive church2 for1 according to a ,roman ,catholic writer of undoubted orthodoxy1 the ,empress ,pulcheria1 in the fifth century1 requested the ,bishop of ,jerusalem1 ,juvenal1 to allow her to have the body of the ,virgin1 in order to display it for the public adoration of the faithful at ,constantinople4--7,tillerant's 8,memoires ,ecclesiastiques407--,there are many other proofs that1 even at that time1 when many idolatrous practices had begun to corrupt the church1 the ,virgin's body was generally believed to be in earth1 and not in heaven4 #adj ,vials filled with such milk were shown in several churches at ,rome1 at ,venice in the church of ,st ,mark1 at ,aix in ,provence1 in the church of the ,celestins at ,avignon1 in that of ,st ,anthony at ,padua1 c4 c41 and many absurd stories are related about the miracles performed with these relics4 #ada ,there are about twenty gowns of the ,blessed ,virgin exhibited in various places4 ,many of them are of costly textures1 which1 if true1 would prove that she had an expensive wardrobe4 #adb ,the number of miraculous images of the ,virgin in countries following the tenets of the ,roman ,catholic and ,greek ,churches is legion1 and a separate volume would be required if we were to give even an abridged account of them4 #adc 8,the most celebrated relic of ,st ,joseph is his #8han1' i4e41 the sound or groan which issues from the chest of a man when he makes an effort1 and which ,st ,joseph emitted when he was splitting a log of wood4 ,it was preserved in a bottle at a place called ,concaiverny1 near ,blois1 in ,france40--,d',aubigne's ,confessions de ,sancy1 chap4 ii4 apud ,colin de ,plancy4 #add ,it is said that as late as #aghd1 at ,mount ,st ,michael in ,bretagne1 a ,swiss was vending feathers from the archangel ,michael's wings1 and that he found purchasers for his wares4 #ade ,this multiplication of ,st ,john's head reminds one of an anecdote related by ,miss ,pardoe in her 8,city of the ,magyar40 ,a museum of curiosities was kept in the chateau of ,prince ,grassalkovich in ,hungary1 and it was usually shown to strangers by the parish priest of that place4 ,this worthy man was once conducting a traveller over the collection1 and showed him amongst other curiosities two skulls1 of large and small size1 saying of the first1 8,this is the skull of the celebrated rebel ,ragotzi20 and of the second1 8,that is the skull of the same ,ragotzi when he was a boy60 #adf ,calvin has not rendered full justice to the relics of ,john the ,baptist exhibited in various places4 ,he only mentions the different parts of his head and the fingers2 and the quantity altogether shown implies no doubt that the head was one of no ordinary dimensions4 ,he evidently was not aware that there are about a dozen whole heads of ,st ,john the ,baptist1 which are or were exhibited in different towns4 ,the most remarkable of them was undoubtedly that one which the notorious ,pope ,john ,,xxiii41 who was deposed for his vices by the ,council of ,constance1 had sold to the ,venetians for the sum of fifty thousand ducats2 but as the people of ,rome would not allow such a precious relic to quit their city1 the bargain was rescinded4 ,the head was afterwards destroyed at the capture and pillage of ,rome by the troops of ,charles ,v4 in #aebg4 ,there are1 besides1 many other parts of ,st ,john's body preserved as relics4 ,a part of his shoulder was pretended to have been sent by the ,emperor ,heraclius to ,king ,dagobert ,i42 and an entire shoulder was given to ,philip ,augustus by the ,emperor of ,greece4 ,another shoulder was at ,longpont1 in the diocese of ,soissons2 and there was one at ,lieissies in the ,hainault4 ,a leg of the saint was shown at ,st ,jean d',abbeville1 another at ,venice1 and a third at ,toledo2 whilst the ,abbey of ,joienval1 in the diocese of ,chartres1 boasted of possessing twenty-two of his bones4 ,several of his arms and hands were shown elsewhere1 besides fingers and other parts of his body2 but their enumeration would be too tedious here4 #adg ,calvin here alludes to the haircloth worn by the monks of some orders1 and other ,roman ,catholic devotees1 instead of the ordinary shirt4 #adh ,there is a ,french edition of the ,new ,testament1 published1 ,i think1 at ,louvaine1 in which the #acth chapter of ,acts1 #b;d verse1 is thus translated3 8,etquand ils disotent la messe10--8,and when they were saying mass40 #adi ,the relics of ,peter and ,paul became at an early period the objects of veneration to the ,christians of ,rome4 ,gregory the ,great relates that such terrible miracles took place at the sepulchres that people approached them in fear and trembling1 and he adds that those who ventured to touch them were visibly punished4 ,the ,emperor ,justinian1 desiring some relics of these two apostles1 some filings from their prison chains1 and sheets that had been consecrated by having been laid over their bodies1 were sent to him2 but some time afterwards these relics were touched and handled without persons suffering any visible punishment for so doing4 ,their heads were transferred to the church of ,st ,john of ,lateran1 and their bodies were divided and placed in the churches of ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul in the ,ostian ,road4 ,we have seen in the text that different parts of their bodies are shown in many places1 and the celebrated ,d',aubign relates that ,france had possessed formerly the entire bodies of ,peter and ,paul before the ,huguenots burnt and destroyed a great number of the relics in that country4 #aej ,this relic is considered a very efficient remedy for cutaneous disorders4 #aea ,calvin was evidently in haste to get over his task1 as he intimated to us at the commencement of this chapter4 ,he has made very great omissions4 ,in the first place1 he appears to have forgotten the body of ,st ,james the ,major at ,compostella in ,spain1 one of the most celebrated places of pilgrimage of the ,western ,church4 ,according to the legend1 this apostle went to ,spain to preach ,christianity and then returned to ,jerusalem1 where he was beheaded by ,herod4--7,acts xii47 ,his body was afterwards removed by his disciples to ,spain4 ,this is1 therefore1 his second body4 ,he has a third at ,verona1 and a fourth at ,toulouse1 besides several heads elsewhere4 ,the other apostles have also more bodies than are mentioned in the text1 but the limits of this work forbid enumeration4 #aeb ,st ,matthew is not so poor in relics as ,calvin supposed1 for we could quote several whole bodies1 as well as members1 with which he was not acquainted4 #aec ,an oratory is a small chapel or cabinet1 adorned with images of saints1 c41 and used by the ,roman ,catholics for private devotions4 ,the absurdity of ascribing to ,john the ,evangelist the possession of such an oratory is too palpable a falsehood to require any comment4 #aed ,according to the well-known ,jesuit writer ,ribadeneira1 the ,jews seized ,lazarus1 ,mary ,magdalene1 ,martha1 ,marcella1 ,maximin1 ,celidonius 7supposed to have been the man born blind1 who was restored to sight by ,jesus ,christ71 and ,joseph of ,arimathea1 and placing them on board a vessel without helm1 oars1 or sails1 launched it forth into the sea4 ,by a miracle the vessel reached ,marseilles1 where ,lazarus was appointed the first bishop of that town4 ,maximin became bishop of ,aix1 ,joseph of ,arimathea went to ,england1 ,martha entered a convent1 and ,mary1 after preaching in various parts of ,provence for some time1 retired into the desert of ,st ,beaume1 to weep and lament over her sins4--,flower of ,saints1 ,july #bb4 #aee ,the legends say that the soldier1 whom they name ,longinus1 was struck with blindness immediately after piercing ,jesus ,christ's side4 ,he perceived the enormity of his crime1 recognised the divinity of our ,lord1 and having rubbed his eyes with the blood which was on his lance1 he recovered his sight1 and finally became a monk in ,cappadocia4 ,it is true that neither the ,gospels nor the early ecclesiastical writers mention anything respecting ,st ,longinus1 but ,ribadeneira and other narrators of legends speak much of him4 ,the reader may possibly object to the tale of his becoming a monk1 since in those days there were none2 but that difficulty merely requires the addition of another miracle4 #aef ,calvin is wrong here4 ,milan only assumes to have possession of the graves of the wise men1 not their bodies1 which were removed to ,cologne at the capture of ,milan in #aafb1 by ,frederick ,barbarossa4 #aeg ,vid4 supra1 p4 #abj4 #aeh ,st ,anthony is venerated1 or rather worshipped1 by the ,eastern as well as the ,western ,church1 and he seems to have bestowed his favours upon each with the utmost impartiality1 for a body of his is shown at ,novgorod1 in ,russia1 where a church1 with a convent attached to it1 is dedicated to him4 ,the legend concerning ,st ,anthony's arrival at ,novgorod is curious4 ,it is said that this saint1 whilst at ,rome1 was commanded by an angel1 in a dream1 to go and convert the inhabitants of ,novgorod4 ,in obedience to this angelic injunction1 ,st ,anthony embarked on a millstone1 and floated on this extraordinary craft down the ,tiber1 passed over the ,mediterranean1 ,atlantic1 and ,baltic seas1 and arrived safely at the river ,wolchow1 upon which stream ,novgorod is situated1 having accomplished the whole voyage in four days--a marvellous speed indeed1 and which completely shames all the wonders of modern steam navigation6 ,the date assigned to this wonderful voyage happens to be that of a few centuries after ,st ,anthony's death1 but we suppose this too must be considered as another miracle4 #aei ,calvin is much mistaken about ,helena1 who was better provided for than he imagined4 ,besides the body mentioned in the text1 she has one in the ,church of ,ara ,cli1 at ,rome4 ,there was one also at ,constantinople1 in the ,church of the ,twelve ,apostles1 and another at ,hauteville1 near ,epernay1 in ,champagne4 #afj ,the legend tells us that an ,english chief1 after conquering and taking possession of ,lower ,brittany1 returned to his native land in search of wives for his army and himself4 ,he married ,ursula1 an ,english princess1 and took eleven thousand maidens as brides for his companions in arms4 ,ursula1 whilst journeying with this bridal train to join her husband1 was driven by a storm into the mouth of the ,rhine1 and arrived at ,cologne4 ,there they were beset by a party of ,huns1 who murdered them all4 ,their bodies were discovered at ,cologne in the #afth century1 and the remains of ,st ,ursula1 which at first were mixed with those of her companions1 were pointed out1 by a miracle1 for the special veneration of the faithful4 ,several of these virgins have relics in various parts of ,europe1 and they are distinguished by proper names1 as1 for instance1 ,st ,ottilla1 ,st ,fleurina1 c4 c44 ,the origin of this absurd legend is ascribed by some antiquarians to the following inscription found upon a tomb3--8,st ,ursula et ,,xi4 ,m4 ,v410 i4e41 et #aa martyres virgines1 which1 through ignorance or wilful deceit1 has been converted into millia virgines--#aa1jjj virgins4 ,other savans believe that the inscription meant 8,st ,ursula et ,undecimilla1 martyres virgines10 and that ,undecimilla1 which was the proper name of a virgin martyr1 was mistaken by some ignorant copyist for an abbreviation of undecim millia1 #aa1jjj4 #afa ,it must be remarked that many relics described in this ,treatise were destroyed during the religious wars1 but particularly by the ,french ,revolution4 ,i recommend to those who have an interest in this subject the observations made on it in ,sir ,george ,sinclair's ,letters1 p4 #hh1 et seq4