,the ,fundamental ,principles ,of ,old and ,new ,world ,civilizations ,a ,comparative ,research ,based on a ,study of the ,ancient ,mexican ,religious1 ,sociological1 and ,calendrical ,systems4 ,by ,zelia ,nuttall ,honorary ,special ,assistant of the ,peabody ,museum2 ,fellow of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science2 ,member of the ,philosophical ,society1 ,philadelphia2 ,honorary ,member of the ,archaeological ,association1 ,univ4 of ,pennsylvania2 ,corresponding ,member of the ,antiquarian and ,numismatic ,society of ,philadelphia2 of the ,anthropological ,society of ,washington2 of the ,societ ,italiana d',antropologia2 of the ,socit de ,gographie de ,genve2 of the ,sociedad ,cientifico 8,antonio ,alzate10 ,mexico2 and of the ,socit des ,amricanistes de ,paris4 ,archaeological and ,ethnological ,papers ,of ,the ,peabody ,museum ,harvard ,university ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,peabody ,museum of ,american ,archaeology and ,ethnology4 ,march1 #aija4 ,,contents ,editorial ,note4 ,author's ,preface4 ,the ,fundamental ,principles ,of ,old ,and ,new ,world ,civilizations4 ,appendix ,i4 ,comparative ,table of some ,quechua1 ,nahuatl and ,maya ,words4 ,appendix ,,ii4 ,a ,prayer-meeting of the ,star-worshippers4 ,appendix ,,iii4 ,comparative ,lists of ,words4 ,index4 ,note4 ,footnotes ,,editorial ,,note4 ,the author of this volume explains in her preface how she came to be led beyond her special field of research into a comparative study of the early civilizations of the ,old ,world2 and how she traced the origin of the swastika1 in ,mexico1 to an astronomical source and1 in all countries alike1 found its use as a sacred symbol accompanied by evidences of a certain phase of culture based on pole-star worship1 and the recognition of the fixed laws of nature1 which found expression in the ideal of celestial kingdoms or states organized on a set numerical plan and regulated by the apparent revolutions of circumpolar constellations4 ,the results of the author's researches seem to justify her summary of conclusions2 but she distinctly states that she does not wish to propound any theory4 ,she invites further study and discussion by ,orientalists and ,americanists before drawing final conclusions from the facts she has gathered4 ,the publication of this paper will open anew the consideration of pre-,columbian visits to the ,new ,world1 shown1 as many have believed1 by identities too many and too close to be considered as mere resemblances or as the natural results of independent intellectual development4 ,the illustrations are nearly all from drawings by the author4 ,the analytical ,index has been prepared by ,miss ,mead4 ,it will be seen1 by the numbering at the bottom of each page1 that it was at first intended to include this paper in ,volume ,i of the ,archaeological and ,ethnological ,papers of the ,museum2 but the addition of the text relating to the ,old ,world made too bulky a volume1 and it is therefore issued as ,volume ,,ii of the series4 ,to ,mrs4 ,nuttall for the gift of her work1 the results of years of research1 and to the several generous friends who have provided the means for publishing this volume1 the editor expresses his gratitude in behalf of the ,museum4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,putnam1 ,curator of the ,peabody ,museum4 ,harvard ,university1 ,march #a1 #aija4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,in ,february1 #ahih1 while engaged upon the translation and commentary of the anonymous ,hispano ,mexican ,,ms4 of the ,biblioteca ,nazionale ,centrale ,library1 of ,florence1 my interest was suddenly and unexpectedly diverted from my self-imposed task by the circumstances described in the opening pages of the present publication4 ,laying my work aside1 as ,i then supposed1 for a few days only1 ,i seized the new thread of investigation with a keen and enthusiastic interest1 little knowing that it1 in turn1 was not only to hold me fast for nearly three years1 but was to lead me out of my original field of research1 into distant1 and to me1 hitherto untrodden realms1 in close pursuit of facts relating to the oldest forms of religion1 social organization1 and symbolism4 ,the first portion of the present publication was planned as a short monograph of forty-one pages1 treating of the origin of the native swastika or cross symbols1 and was written in ,july1 #ahih1 its outcome being the unforeseen conclusion that the cosmical conceptions of the ancient ,mexicans were identical with those of the ,zuis4 ,i next traced the same fundamental set of ideas in ,yucatan1 ,central ,america and ,peru and formed the wish to add this investigation to the preceding4 ,the result has been the portion of the work extending from page #da1 paragraph #b1 to page #bhd1 which was printed in #ahii4 ,having once launched into a course of comparative research1 the deep interest ,i have always taken in the question of ,asiatic contact led me to carry my investigation of the same subject into ,china4 ,it then seemed impossible not to extend researches from ,eastern to ,western ,asia1 and from ,asia ,minor to ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome and ,western ,europe4 ,it is in this unpremeditated way that the scope of the present investigation enlarged itself of its own accord1 for the simple reason that the most interesting and precious facts fell into my way as ,i advanced and all ,i had to do was to pick them up and add them to my collection of evidence4 ,one serious disadvantage1 arising from the circumstance that the present investigation has been in press for nearly three years1 is my inability to make any alteration1 amendment1 or addition1 in the earlier portions1 which stand as written at different times4 ,it is a matter of regret to me that ,i was not acquainted with ,o',neil's 8,night of the ,gods0 and ,hewitt's 8,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric ,times10 at an earlier stage of my investigation1 as through them my publication would have been enriched by many valuable additions which ,i could have incorporated in the body of my work without unduly sacrificing its unity of form4 ,in the line of ,maya investigation notable advances have been made since ,i wrote 7on page #bba71 about the 8septenary set of signs0 described by ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay in #ahhf1 and about the inscription on the tablet of the ,temple of the ,cross at ,palenque 7pp4 #bcg-ci74 ,since that time an important publication on the ,tablet of the ,cross1 to which ,i should have liked to refer1 has been issued by the much esteemed ,nestor of ,maya investigations1 ,herr ,geheimrath ,dr4 ,frstemann4 ,my attention has also been drawn by the best versed of ,american students of the ,maya ,codices1 ,mr4 ,charles ,p4 ,bowditch1 to the fact that ,mr4 ,maudslay now recognizes the general recurrence of an eighth sign in combination with the septenary group1 causing this to consist of an initial glyph1 followed by seven instead of six signs4 ,referring the reader to pp4 #bba and #bbb1 ,i point out that the employment of an initial glyph1 representing the synopsis of a whole1 followed by seven signs1 appears even more strongly to corroborate my view that the inhabitants of ,copan were acquainted with the septenary1 cosmical division ,i have traced4 ,my fellow archaeologists will understand the disadvantage of issuing an investigation partly written a few years previously1 and will realize that1 had ,i1 at the outset1 been in possession of all the facts ,i have since learned1 the present work would have been very differently planned and executed4 ,on the other hand1 as it partakes somewhat of the nature of a log-book1 the reader is able to follow closely my blundering course1 and will recognize and appreciate some of its perils and difficulties4 ,it being1 unfortunately1 impossible to re-write the book4 ,i shall have to be resigned to incur some criticism and blame for omissions1 which could have been averted4 ,i shall1 however1 be content if my prolonged study of ancient ,mexican archaeology and the present research open out new lines of investigation1 and conclusively prove that primitive cross-symbols and the swastika are universally accompanied by vestiges of a certain set of cosmical conceptions and schemes of organization1 which can be traced back to an original pole-star worship4 ,i can but think that the material ,i have collected will also lead to a recognition that the rle of the ,phnicians1 as intermediaries of ancient civilization1 was greater than has been supposed1 and that it is imperative that future research be devoted to a fresh study and examination of those indications which appear to show that ,america must have been intermittently colonized by the intermediation of ,mediterranean seafarers4 ,to me the most interesting result of the present investigation is the fact that1 having once started on an unpremeditated course of study1 ,i found an unsuspected wealth of material and finally attained one main1 totally undreamed-of conclusion1 concerning the law governing the evolution of religion and civilization4 ,this leads me to think that1 as ,i groped in darkness1 searching for light1 ,i unwittingly struck the true key-note of that great universal theme which humanity1 with a growing perception of existing1 universal harmony1 has ever been striving to seize and incorporate into their lives4 ,the fact that many of the transcriptions of the original harmony have been and are discordant1 and that they temporarily obscure1 instead of rendering1 its sublime grandeur1 unity and noble simplicity1 appears as the inevitable result of the mental activity1 ingenuity and creative imagination to which mankind also owes its intellectual and spiritual progress4 ,in conclusion ,i regret my inability to express adequately my grateful appreciation of the unfailing loyalty of those true friends1 in particular ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam1 who1 trusting in the earnestness of my purpose and endeavor1 have constantly encouraged and cheered me as they patiently awaited the long-delayed completion of my work4 ,z4 ,n4 ,,cambridge1 ,,mass41 ,,december #ca1 #aijj4 ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principles ,,of ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,world ,,civilizations4 ,one evening1 in ,february1 #ahih1 ,i left my desk and1 stepping to the window1 looked out at ,polaris and the circumpolar region of the sky1 with a newly awakened and eager interest4 ,for thirteen years ,i had been studying and collecting material with the hope of obtaining some understanding of the calendar1 religion and cosmogony of the ancient ,mexicans1 but had hitherto purposely refrained from formulating or expressing any conclusions on the latter subjects having felt unable to extract a clear and satisfactory understanding of the native beliefs from the chaotic mass of accumulated data under which they lay like the ruin of an ancient temple4 ,though frequently discouraged1 ,i had1 however1 never ceased to pursue my research and to note carefully the slightest indication or suggestion which might prove of ultimate value4 ,becoming utterly absorbed in the collection of such notes1 ,i found no time to publish anything during the past four years1 though realizing1 with regret1 that those interested in my work might be disappointed at my delay in issuing the papers announced1 in #ahid1 as speedily forthcoming4 ,slowly but steadily1 however1 ,i was gaining ground4 ,various excursions along new lines of research increased my experience and1 in crossing and re-crossing the field of ancient ,mexico1 ,i frequently had occasion to observe certain familiar landmarks1 from a new point of view1 and illuminated by rays of fresh light proceeding from recently acquired sources4 ,it was remarkable how often facts1 which had seemed so hopelessly complicated1 finally appeared to be quite simple and comprehensible4 ,this was noticeably the case with the ,aztec deities which1 for years1 had seemed to me as numberless4 ,after closely studying their respective symbols1 attributes and names1 during several consecutive months1 and subjecting them to a final minute analysis1 ,i found that their number dwindled in a remarkable way and also verified the truth of the statement made by the anonymous author of the ,biblioteca ,nazionale manuscript which ,i was editing1 that the ,mexicans painted one and the same god under a different aspect 8with different colours10 according to the various names they gave him in each instance4 ,it was particularly interesting to find that1 in assuming that certain names designated different native deities1 the early ,spanish writers had committed a mistake as great as though someone1 reading the litany of the ,virgin in a ,catholic prayer-book1 for the first time1 inferred that it was a series of invocations addressed to distinct divinities1 amongst whom figured the 8morning star10 a 8mirror of justice10 and a 8mystical rose10 etc4 ,an examination of the texts of several native prayers preserved1 established that the ,mexicans addressed their prayers to a supreme ,creator and ruler1 whom they termed 8invisible1 incomprehensible and impalpable10 and revered as 8the father and mother of all40 ,some of their so-called idols were1 after all1 either attempts to represent in objective form1 the attributes of the divine power1 the forces of nature1 the elements1 etc41 or rebus figures4 ,as these 8gods0 or 8idols0 are enumerated farther on and are exhaustively treated in my commentary of the ,biblioteca ,nazionale manuscript1 now in press1 it suffices for my present purpose merely to mention here that the most mysterious figure of ,mexican cosmogony1 ,tezcatlipoca1 whose symbolical name literally means 8shining mirror10 proved to be identical with ,mictlantecuhtli1 the lord of the underworld1 whose title may also be interpreted as 8the ruler or regent of the ,north10 since ,mictlampa is the name of this cardinal point4 ,the ,codex ,fuenleal 7,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,mexico1 tomo ,,ii1 p4 #hh7 preserves an important myth relating how ,tezcatlipoca1 after having been the sun1 was cast down from this supreme position by ,huitzilopochtli1 8descended to the water10 but had arisen again in the shape of an ocelot1 and transformed himself into the constellation of ,ursa ,major4 ,according to ,sahagun the native name of this star-group was ,citlal-,colotl or 8star scorpion40 ,reference to ,nahuatl dictionaries revealed that this insect had doubtlessly been named colotl on account of its habit of recurving its tail when enraged4 ,the ,nahuatl verb coloa means1 to bend over or twist something1 the adjective coltic is applied to something bent over or recurved4 ,the noun colotli1 which is almost identical with colotl1 means 8the cross-beams1 the mounting1 branch or handle of a cross0 78armadura de manga de cruz40 ,see ,molina's dictionary74 ,the above facts show that the idea underlying the name for ,ursa ,major is primarily that of 8something bent over or recurved40 ,it is obvious that the form of the constellation answers to this description4 ,it is1 moreover1 extremely significant to find1 in the ,maya language also1 a certain resemblance between the words for scorpion and for a cross4 ,this1 in ,maya1 is zin-che and that for a scorpion is zin-au4 ,the above data justify the induction that the native conception of a cross was connected with the idea of its arms being bent over or recurved1 as in the ,mexican calendar-swastika4 ,it is important to find the scorpion figured as one of several symbols of ,mictlantecuhtli1 the lord of the ,north1 in his sculptured effigy preserved at the ,national ,museum of ,mexico 7fig4 #ai74 ,it is more significant that the verb coloa1 besides meaning 8to bend over or twist something10 also expressed the action 8of describing or performing a circle by walking around something40 ,now this is precisely what ,tezcatlipoca 7the ,ursa ,major7 is represented as doing on page #gg of the ,b4,n4 manuscript1 since he figures there1 surrounded by a circle of footsteps4 ,i could but note that this fact showed that the name of ,colotl1 applied to the constellation1 was not incompatible with its identification with ,tezcatlipoca4 ,once my attention had been drawn to the action of walking1 performed by this god1 ,i naturally considered1 with fresh interest1 the peculiar fact that he is usually represented with one foot only4 ,the circumstances under which he had been deprived of this member are set forth in several of the ,codices wherein we see that1 after he 8descended to the water10 he had an encounter with an alligator1 who had viciously bitten off his foot and carried it away4 7,see ,fjrvary ,codex1 pp4 #c and #gd4 ,vatican1 ,,ii1 p4 #gd47 ,pictures representing ,tezcatlipoca1 after this event1 display the broken end of the tibia exposed and the transverse section of the bone forming a ring1 usually painted either white or red4 ,special pains seem to have been taken to accentuate the hollowness of the bone ring1 since its centre is usually painted blue1 the symbolical color of air1 and conventionalized puffs of breath or air are shown as issuing from it 7fig4 #a74 ,in some cases1 as on the sculptured monolith called 8the ,stone of ,tizoc10 these symbols of breath1 issuing from the broken tibia1 are figured in such a way that modern writers1 ignoring what they were meant to represent1 were led to identify them as some animal's tail attached to the foot of the deity4 ,the hollow circle and puffs of air1 constantly associated with the god1 frequently figure as his ear ornament when his broken tibia is concealed 7fig4 #b1 no4 #c74 ,besides certain fanciful interpretations which have been given to this symbol1 it has been explained as being a hieroglyph conveying the name ,tezcatlipoca1 and consisting of an obsidian mirrortezcatl1 and smokepoctli4 ,a possible objection to this assertion might be that in ,mexican pictography1 the mirror is invariably represented as jet-black1 in a white or red frame4 ,in the ,codex ,telleriano ,remensis1 a combination of symbols 7of water1 fire and a serpent7 are figured as issuing from the base of the bone 7fig4 #a1 nos4 #e1 #f74 ,having taken particular pains to collect all representations of the footless god1 ,i was specially interested in one 7,fjrvary1 p4 #a7 in which he is figured as standing on the cross-shaped symbol ollin1 the accepted meaning of which is ,four ,movements4 ,the most remarkable and puzzling picture ,i found1 however1 is that 7fig4 #a1 no4 #b7 in which the jaws of a tecpatl1 the symbol of the ,north1 are represented as holding one of ,tezcatlipoca's ankles in a tight grip and practically fastening him thus to the centre of a diagonal cross4 ,in this and other pictures 7,codex ,fjrvary1 #da1 #dc and #if7 it is obvious that the artists had endeavored to convey the idea of a person permanently attached to one spot by one foot4 ,the only form of locomotion possible to him would be to describe a circle by hobbling on one foot around the other1 which would serve as an axis or pivot4 ,the association of this peculiarity with the symbols of the ,north impressed me deeply and involuntarily caused me to think of a title bestowed in the ,codex ,fuenleal upon the supreme divinity1 namely1 8,the ,wheel of the ,winds20 as well as of an expression employed by ,tezozomoc 7,cronica1 p4 #egd74 ,referring to the constellations revered by the natives1 he mentions 8the ,north and its wheel40 ,illustration4 ,figure #a ,realizing that some definite and important meaning must underlie the remarkable representations of ,tezcatlipoca1 ,i resorted to all possible means to gain an understanding of them4 ,referring to ,nahuatl dictionaries1 ,i found a variety of synonymous names for a person who limped or was lame or maimed4 ,amongst them was ,popoztequi from poztequi1 the verb1 8to break a leg40 ,other names were xopuztequi1 xotemol and ,icxipuztequi 7icxitlfoot74 ,the latter name happened to be familiar to me1 for the commentator of the ,vatican ,codex1 ,padre ,rios1 gives it as the name of a god and translates it as 8the lame devil40 ,he records it immediately after ,mictlantecuhtli1 the lord of the ,north1 and designates it as the name of one of the four principal and primitive gods of the ,mexicans4 ,the commentator of the ,telleriano-,remensis ,codex1 moreover1 records that these four gods were 8said to have been stars and had fallen from the heavens4 ,at the present time there are stars in the firmament named after them0 7,kingsborough1 vol4 v1 pp4 #acb and #afb74 ,other synonymous terms for lame persons were icxinecuiltic and xonecuiltic4 ,tzimpuztequi1 on the other hand1 besides meaning lame1 also signified something crooked1 bent or incurvated4 ,the second name furnished me with an important clue1 for ,sahagun distinctly records that the native name for the constellation ,ursa ,minor was ,xonecuilli and that it was figured as an ,s 7,historia1 #a4 ,,vii1 cap4 #c74 ,besides1 the ,academia ,,ms4 of his monumental work contains the native drawing of this star-group reproduced as fig4 #af1 no4 #a4 ,he also states that ,s-shaped loaves of bread named xonecuilli were made at a certain festival in honor of this constellation1 while the ,b4,n4 ,,ms4 records that a peculiar recurved weapon1 figured in the hands of deities1 was named xonequitl 7fig4 #af1 nos4 #b and #c74 ,the above data furnished me with indisputable evidence of the existence1 in ancient ,mexico1 of a species of star cult connected with the circumpolar constellations and with ,tezcatlipoca1 the lord of the ,north1 the central figure of the native cosmogony4 ,it was puzzling to find this god connected not only with the ,ursa ,major but also with ,ursa ,minor1 but an indication suggesting a possible explanation or reconciliation of these apparent inconsistencies is furnished by the descriptions of the strange ritual performance1 which was annually repeated at the festival ,tlacaxipehualiztli and was evidently the dramatization of a sacred myth4 ,as an illustration and a description of this rite are contained in the ,b4,n4 ,,ms4 and the subject is fully treated in my commentary1 ,i shall but allude here to its salient features4 ,it represented a mortal combat between a prisoner1 attached by a short piece of cord to the centre of a large circular stone1 and five warriors1 who fought him singly4 ,the fifth1 who was masked as an ocelot and always obtained victory in the unequal contest1 fought with his left hand1 being 8left-handed10 a peculiarity ascribed to ,huitzilopochtli4 ,it was he who subsequently wore the skin of the flayed victim1 an action which obviously symbolized a metamorphosis4 ,one point is obvious3 this drama exhibits the victor as a warrior who was able to circumscribe the stone freely and was masked as an ocelot--,tezcatlipoca--the ,ursa ,major1 but was endowed1 at the same time1 with the left-handedness identified with ,huitzilopochtli4 ,this mythical personage vanquishes and actually wears the skin of the man attached to the stone2 becomes his embodiment1 in point of fact1 and obtains the supremacy for which he had fought so desperately4 ,in the light shed by the ,codex ,fuenleal1 before cited1 it was easy to see that the entire performance dramatized the mythical combat between ,tezcatlipoca and ,huitzilopochtli for the position of the ruling power1 in the heavens--the sun4 ,at the same time it was decidedly puzzling to find celestial supremacy personified by a man1 firmly fastened to one spot1 the centre of a stone circle4 ,it was impossible not to perceive the identity of thought underlying the representation of this prisoner and the pictures of ,tezcatlipoca1 the one-footed or lame god--,xonecuilli the ,ursa ,minor4 ,it was moreover of extreme interest to note the existence of traditional records1 preserved in the native myths1 of changes in the relative positions of celestial bodies and of the ,ursa ,major in particular4 ,whilst dwelling upon the striking analogy existing between the representations of ,tezcatlipoca held fast by the symbol of the ,north and the prisoner attached to what is described either as 8a temalacatl1 stone whorl0 or 8an image of the sun10 my gaze fell on a small model of the calendar-stone of ,mexico1 hanging above my desk1 and rested on the symbol ,ollin in its centre4 ,the learned director of the ,national ,museum of ,mexico1 ,seor ,troncoso 7,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 vol4 ,,ii71 had expressed his view that this symbol was an actual figurative representation of the annual apparent movements of the sun1 and recorded its positions at the solstitial and equinoctial periods4 ,i had1 moreover1 submitted a drawing of this same figure to the eminent ,english astronomer1 ,prof4 ,norman ,lockyer1 and he had corroborated this view and established its correctness4 ,on the other hand1 ,i had long noted that the ,ollin was usually figured with an eye1 the symbol for star1 in its centre 7fig4 #b1 nos4 #a1 #c71 and had also paid particular attention to the fact that the ,mexicans had conceived the ideas of two suns1 a young day sun and an ancient night or black sun4 ,in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 on the mantas worn at their respective festivals1 the day sun is depicted in a somewhat fanciful manner1 in blue and red on a white field4 ,the black sun is1 however1 represented in classical style1 so to speak1 as on the sculptured calendar-stone1 with four larger and four smaller ,v-shaped rays issuing from it4 ,in this connection it is well to recall here that the ,mexicans had no specific name for the sun1 beyond ,tonatiuh1 which merely means 8that which sheds light0 and could equally apply to the stars4 ,in the picture-writings the image of the sun was employed to convey the word ,teotl4 ,but we find that this word1 assumed to be equivalent to their 8,dios0 by the ,spaniards1 was also a reverential title bestowed upon chieftains and superiors and was constantly employed in the composition of words to signify something divine1 supremely beautiful1 etc4 ,whilst ,i was pondering on the possibility that the symbol ,ollin might have represented the movements of the luminaries of night as well as the orb of day1 my attention became fixed upon the four numerals in each of the ends of the symbol and ,i was struck by a certain resemblance between their positions and those of the four stars which form the body of the bear in the constellation of ,ursa ,major4 ,it was then that it occurred to me1 as mentioned in the opening sentence of this introduction1 to look at the familiar constellations1 with a view to verifying the resemblance noted above4 ,as my gaze sought 8the pointers0 in ,ursa ,major1 and then mechanically turned to ,polaris1 ,i thought of some passages ,i had recently re-read1 in ,professor ,lockyer's ,dawn of ,astronomy1 realizing that his observations1 dealing with the latitude #bf 7taking ,thebes as representing ,egypt71 could equally apply to ,mexico as this country stretches from latitude #ae to #ca4 ,illustration4 ,figure #b 8,the moment primitive man began to observe anything1 he must have taken note of the stars1 and as soon as he began to talk about them he must have started by defining1 in some way or other1 the particular star he meant4444 ,observers would first consider the brightest stars and separate them from the dimmer ones2 they would then discuss the stars which never set 7the circumpolar constellations7 and separate them from those which did rise and set4 ,then they would naturally1 in a northern clime1 choose out the constellation of the ,great ,bear or ,orion1 and for small groups1 the ,pleiades 7op4 cit4 p4 #acb74444 ,a few years' observation would have appeared to demonstrate the absolute changelessness of the places of the rising and setting of the same stars4 ,it is true that this result would have been found to be erroneous when a long period of time had elapsed and when observation became more accurate1 but for hundreds of years the stars would certainly appear to represent fixity1 while the movements of the sun1 moon and planets would seem to be bound by no law 444 would appear erratic1 so long as the order of their movements was not known40 ,the reflection that ,ursa ,major was probably the first constellation which made any deep impression upon the mind of prehistoric man in ,america1 as elsewhere1 lent an additional interest to the star-group1 as ,i concentrated my mind upon its form and endeavored to imagine it in four equidistant positions1 corresponding to the numerals in the symbol ,ollin of the calendar-stone of ,mexico 7fig4 #b1 no4 #b74 ,i succeeded in obtaining1 in succession1 mental images of the constellation in four opposite positions4 ,this effort led to an unforeseen result which surprised me4 ,in a flash of mental vision ,i perceived a quadrupled image of the entire constellation1 standing out in scintillating brilliancy from the intense darkness of the wintry sky 7fig4 #c1 no4 #c74 ,at the same moment ,i saw that it bore the semblance of a symmetrical swastika of giant proportions4 ,this fact1 so unexpectedly realized1 gave rise to such an absorbing train of new ideas and interpretations of the data ,i had accumulated1 that ,i left my window1 on that memorable night1 with a growing perception of the deep and powerful influence the prolonged observation of ,polaris and the circumpolar constellations would naturally have exerted upon the mind of primitive man4 ,deeply impressed with the striking resemblance between the composite image of ,polaris1 ,ursa ,major1 and certain forms of the swastika1 ,i started on a fresh line of investigation1 and devoted myself to the study of primitive astronomy and its influence upon the intellectual development of mankind in general and the ,american races in particular4 ,after having worked1 during thirteen years1 without any preconceived ideas about the ancient ,mexican civilization and without formulating any general conclusion concerning it1 ,i saw all the knowledge ,i had slowly acquired fall into rank and file and organize itself into a simple and harmonious whole4 ,illustration4 ,figure #c ,realizing this ,i perceived how1 with the origin of the swastika1 ,i had found the origin of the set of primeval ideas which had governed the human race from its infancy and which1 in ,mexican and ,central ,american civilizations1 ultimately developed into their ingenious system of government and social organization4 ,illustration4 ,plate ,i4 ,chart of the ,polar ,constellations4 ,i3 ,just ,after ,sunset4 ,,ii3 ,midnight4 ,,iii3 ,just ,before ,sunrise4 ,illustration4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,various ,forms of the ,swastika4 ,illustration4 ,figure #d ,the sequel to the above episode was that1 with the aid of my movable star-chart1 ,i made the following notes of the apparent positions of the circumpolar constellations at the times of sunrise1 midnight and sunset1 choosing the periods of the solstices and equinoxes in order to obtain an exact division of the year 7pl4 ,i74 ,whilst studying these ,i realized that the midnight position was the only stable one1 since the actual visibility of the constellations before dawn and after dusk would be subject to considerable variation1 according to seasons1 latitudes and atmospherical conditions4 ,having noted these positions1 ,i next combined them separately1 obtaining the remarkable results given in fig4 #d4 ,the combined midnight positions of the ,ursa ,major or ,minor1 at the four divisions of the year1 yielded symmetrical swastikas1 the forms of which were identical with the different types of swastika or cross-symbols 7the normal1 ogee and volute1 etc471 which have come down to us from remote antiquity and are reproduced here for comparison 7pl4 ,,ii1 a-f74 ,reflection showed me that such composite pictures of the ,ursa constellations constituted an exact record of their annual rotation1 and afforded a perfect sign for the period of a year4 ,i moreover perceived how the association of rotatory motion with the advance of time1 and its division into fixed periods or cycles1 would be the natural outcome of the recognition of the annual rotation of the star-groups4 ,the ,calendar-,swastika1 or cross of ancient ,mexico 7pl4 ,,ii1 g7 constitutes an absolute proof of the native association of the cross-symbol with the ideas of rotatory motion and the progress of time1 and furnishes an indication that1 in an analogous manner1 the swastika may have been primarily and generally employed by primitive races1 as a sign for a year or cycle4 ,a close scrutiny of the respective forms of the crosses yielded by ,urs ,major and ,minor shows that the normal swastika and suavastika may be explained as the separate representations of the two constellations--the angular break in the outline of ,ursa ,major suggesting the direction of the bend to the right of the arms of the normal swastika1 whilst the form of ,ursa ,minor obviously suggests the bend to the left which is characteristic of the suavastika4 ,illustration4 ,figure #e ,my growing conviction that the ,bear constellations had furnished the archetype of the different forms of swastika and cross-symbols1 found subsequent support when ,i referred to the map showing the geographical distribution of the ancient symbol published by ,prof4 ,thomas ,wilson in his valuable and comprehensive monograph on the subject17#a7 to which ,i am indebted for much information and several illustrations 7pl4 ,,ii1 a-f1 etc474 ,the map1 reproduced here 7fig4 #e71 proves that1 with two exceptions1 which can be attributed to a migration southward1 the employment of the swastika has been confined to the northern hemisphere1 i4 e41 precisely to that portion of our globe from which the circumpolar constellations are visible4 ,illustration4 ,figure #f4 ,star-,map1 ,representing ,the ,precessional ,movement ,of ,the ,celestial ,pole ,from ,the ,year #djjj ,b4,c4 ,to ,the ,year #bjjj ,a4,d4 7,from ,piazzi ,smyth47 ,the interesting possibility of being able to determine1 approximately1 the date in the world's history when the swastika began to be employed as a symbol1 next occurred to me4 ,piazzi ,smyth's star-map1 discussed and reproduced in ,professor ,lockyer's work already cited 7fig4 #f71 illustrates the changes of direction of the earth's axis in space1 which gives rise to what is called the precession of the equinoxes and has a cycle of something like #be1jjj or #bf1jjj years4 ,reference to this star-map 7fig4 #f7 proved that the observations1 leading to the adoption of the swastika as a symbol1 could not possibly have been made until after ,ursa ,major had become circumpolar1 about #d1jjj ,b4,c4 ,at that period1 when ,draconis was the pole-star1 the circle described about it by ,ursa ,major was considerably closer than it is at present4 ,the accompanying illustrations 7fig4 #g71 subject to correction1 demonstrate the relative distance of the constellation about #b1ggj ,b4,c41 #a1hjj ,b4,c41 and #b1jjj ,a4,d41 and show how much more strikingly impressive the polar region of the heavens was in remote antiquity4 ,illustration4 ,figure #g4 ,let us now briefly review some of the ideas which would naturally suggest themselves to the mind of the primitive observer1 after he had recognized the apparent immovability of the polar-star1 concentrated his attention upon this feature1 and contrasted it with the varying motions of all other celestial bodies in general and with the rotation of the circumpolar star-groups in particular4 ,this recognition would lead to his gradually learning to utilize ,polaris as a means of ascertaining direction4 ,his appreciation of valuable guidance rendered in perilous wanderings would develop feelings of trust1 dependence and gratitude towards the one changeless star which permanently rendered valuable services and under whose guidance difficult and essential nocturnal expeditions could be safely undertaken4 ,superiority and1 eventually1 extensive supernatural power would more and more be attributed to it1 as knowledge was gained of the laws of motion from which it alone seemed to be exempt4 ,this exemption would cause it to be viewed as superior to all other heavenly bodies and even to the sun1 and it is easy to see how this idea1 becoming predominant1 might cause the cult of the pole-star to disestablish an organized sun-cult amongst some tribes4 ,historical evidence1 to which ,i shall revert more fully proves1 indeed1 that a native ,american ruler and reformer actually employed the following reasoning in order to convert his council and people from the worship of the sun to that of a superior divinity which could have been no other but ,polaris3 8,it is not possible that the sun should be the ,god who created all things1 for if so he would sometimes rest and light up the whole world from one spot4 ,thus it cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who directs him and this truly is the true ,creator40 ,these words shed a whole flood of light upon primitive religious ideas at an early stage of development4 ,they prove that the association of repose and immovability with the supreme power signified a radical change of thought1 based upon prolonged astronomical observation1 and indicated intellectual advancement4 ,attempts to render the new idea objective1 to express it and impress it upon the multitude1 would naturally end in the production of images of the supernatural power1 representing or typifying immovability1 changelessness1 strength combined with absolute repose4 ,it is thus rendered evident what a deep significance may be embodied in the rudest images of supernatural beings in attitudes of repose1 since a prolonged course of astronomical observation and reasoning may have preceded their production4 ,simultaneously with the recognition of ,polaris as an immutable centre of axial energy1 the rotatory movement of ,ursa ,major must have excited interest and observation4 ,it was inevitable that star-gazers should gradually recognize a constant agreement between certain positions of ,ursa ,major and ,cassiopeia after dusk for instance1 and the annual recurrence of rain1 verdure and bountiful food-supplies4 ,the members of a tribe who1 more observant than others1 had learned to associate certain positions of these constellations with the seasons and1 as a consequence1 were able to decide when expeditions to distant localities1 in quest of game or fruit1 might be successfully undertaken1 would naturally assume leadership and command obedience and respect4 ,the sense of responsibility1 superiority and1 possibly1 rivalry would act upon such individuals as a powerful incentive to further observation and thought and it is evident that1 as their mental faculties expanded and one generation transmitted its store of accumulated knowledge to the next1 a regular caste of astronomer-leaders would develop1 with a tendency to conceal the secrets of their power from the ignorant majority4 ,a broken line1 carved on a rock by one of these primitive observers1 would have constituted a valuable secret note of the position of ,ursa ,major on a memorable occasion and would be looked upon as a mystic or magical sign by the uninitiated4 ,a series of such inscriptions might represent the store of astronomical knowledge accumulated by several generations of observers1 and it is interesting to recognize that such astronomical records as these were probably the first which men were impelled to perpetuate in a lasting form2 since it was absolutely necessary that they should be permanently available for reference at prolonged intervals of time4 ,what is more1 the mere fact of being obliged to refer to these inscriptions would cause the astronomers to reside permanently in one locality4 ,the habit of consulting the prophet or oracle before undertaking important steps1 involving the welfare of the tribe1 would gradually cause the rocks or cavern in which he resided to be invested with a certain sacredness4 ,it is thus evident that the first men1 who rudely scratched the outline of ,ursa ,major or ,minor on a rock1 took what was probably one of the most momentous steps in the history of the human race1 and it is easy to see how a variety of combinations of circumstances would have led many men1 in widely-separated localities and at different periods of the world's history1 to perform precisely the same action4 ,in some cases1 under favorable surroundings1 the rudimentary attempt would mark the starting point for a long line of patient observation and study1 which would inevitably lead to the creation of centres of intellectual growth1 to the association of the different positions of the constellation with the seasons and culminate in the habitual employment of a swastika as the sign for a year1 or cycle of time47#b7 ,the idea of rotation1 associated with calendar signs and periods1 finds its most striking and convincing exemplification in the following description of the ancient ,mexican game 8of those who fly10 translated from ,clavigero 7op4 et ed4 cit4 p4 #bcf74 ,this performance1 which furnished a diversion to the ,spaniards after the ,conquest1 had evidently been1 originally1 connected with religious ideas4 8,the ,indians selected a tall1 stout and straight tree1 and1 lopping off its branches1 planted it firmly in the centre of the great square0 7which was always situated in the centre of the city and had four roads leading to it from the four quarters74 8,on the summit they placed a large cylinder of wood1 the shape of which was compared by the ,spaniards to that of a mortar4 ,four strong ropes hung from this and supported a square frame composed of four wooden beams4 ,four other ropes were fastened by one end to the pole itself and wound around it thirteen times4 ,their loose ends were passed through holes in the middle of each beam and hung from these4 ,four ,indians1 masked as eagles or other birds1 ascended the pole singly1 by means of certain loops of cord1 and mounting on the cylinder they performed in this perilous position a few dance-like movements4 ,each man then attached himself to the loose end of one of the hanging ropes1 and then1 with a violent jerk and at the same moment1 the four men cast themselves into space from their positions on the beams4 ,this simultaneous movement caused the frame and cylinder to revolve and uncoil the ropes to which the men were fastened and these descended to the ground after performing a series of widening circles in the air4 ,meanwhile a fifth individual1 who had mounted the wooden cylinder after the others1 stood on this as it revolved1 beating a small drum with one hand1 whilst he held a banner aloft with the other40 ,whilst it is obvious that this peculiar and dangerous performance clearly symbolized axial rotation1 typified by the revolving pivot and the four men in arial motion1 its full meaning and intention are only made clear by the following explanation recorded by ,clavigero4 8,the essential point in this game was to calculate so exactly the height of the pole and the length of the ropes1 that the men should describe precisely thirteen circles each before reaching the ground1 so as to represent the cycle 7of #dac7eb years40 ,this passage constitutes absolute proof that the ,mexican ,calendar system was intimately associated with axial rotation and ideas such as could only have been derived from observation of ,polaris and of the circumpolar constellations4 ,the game itself was a beautiful and well-conceived illustration of the flight of time1 typified by the arial circles performed by the men masked as birds1 and of its methodical division into fixed periods4 ,leaving the subject of the calendar for the present we must revert to my tables recording the apparent annual and nocturnal axial rotation of the circumpolar constellations4 ,whilst studying these the reflection naturally arose1 that the people who observed ,ursa ,major must have paid equal attention to ,cassiopeia and noticed that these constellations ever occupied opposite positions to each other as they circled around the pole4 ,dwelling on the fact that in ancient ,mexico ,ursa ,major was associated with an ocelot1 ,i remembered the many representations in which an ocelot is represented as confronting an eagle1 usually in mortal combat4 ,mexican war-chiefs were classed into two equally honorable grades1 designated as the 8ocelots and the quauhtlis1 i4 e41 eagles40 ,the constellation of ,cassiopeia presents to me1 a marked resemblance to the image of a bird with outspread wings1 whose head is turned toward ,polaris4 ,the fact that when this star-group seems to be above1 ,ursa ,major seems to be below1 and vice versa1 would obviously suggest the idea of an eternal combat between two adversaries who alternately succumbed and resuscitated4 ,it was interesting on reasoning further1 to note that once the above idea had taken root it must have been impossible not to associate in course of time1 the quadruped and the bird with the elements to which they seemed to pertain1 and gradually to conceive the idea of an everlasting antagonism between the powers of the sky and of the earth1 or light and darkness1 and other opposites which suggested themselves naturally1 or were artificially created1 by the fertile mind of man4 ,in this connection it should be observed that the mythical adversary of ,tezcatlipoca1 the ocelot1 designated as ,ursa ,major1 is ,huitzilopochtli1 whose idol1 in the ,great ,temple of ,mexico1 represented him masked as a hummingbird 7see ,atlas ,duran74 ,the special reason why this bird became associated with the god is explained by the following passage in ,gomara 7,histoire gnrale des ,indes4 ,paris1 #aehd1 chap4 #if1 p4 #aij73 8,this bird died1 or rather fell asleep in the month of ,october and remained attached by its feet to a twig4 ,it awakened again in ,april when the flowers blossomed4 ,for this reason1 in the language of the country it is named ,huitzitzilin1 the resuscitated40 ,we therefore see that whilst it is stated in the myth that the ocelot arose again after having been cast down from the sky by ,huitzilopochtli1 the very name of the latter betokened that the bird-god had also only just 8resuscitated0 from a presumably similar defeat4 ,illustration4 ,figure #h4 ,as one and the same object may suggest several resemblances at the same time or consecutively1 and thus give rise to a group of associations around a single figure1 ,i venture to point out that the zigzag form of ,cassiopeia may well have been compared to forked lightning and caused the idea of lightning and thunder to become indissolubly connected with the conception of a great celestial bird4 ,again there is the possibility that the same star-group may have more strikingly suggested1 to other people1 the idea of the winding body of a serpent describing a perpetual circle around a central star4 ,in ,mexico1 as elsewhere1 we find the serpent closely associated with the idea of time4 ,it is represented as encircling the calendar wheel published by ,clavigero 7fig4 #h74 ,four loops1 formed of its body1 mark the four divisions of the year4 ,twin serpents1 whose heads and tails almost meet1 are sculptured around the famous calendar-stone of ,mexico4 ,four serpents whose bent bodies form a large swastika and whose heads are directed towards a central figure1 are represented in the ,codex ,borgia in association with calendar-signs 7fig4 #i1 cf4 ,fjrvary1 p4 #bd74 ,i shall have occasion to refer in detail to ,mexican serpent-symbolism further on4 ,meanwhile ,i would submit the interesting results obtained on combining the positions apparently assumed by the circumpolar constellations during a single night4 ,the tables exhibit four composite groups representing the positions at the solstitial and equinoctial periods 7fig4 #aj74 ,illustration4 ,figure #i4 ,illustration4 ,figure #aj4 ,the night of the winter solstice1 the longest of the year1 yielded alone a symmetrical figure4 ,it resembled the well-known triskelion1 the companion-symbol of the swastika 7figs4 #aj and #aa74 ,just as this had proved to be the most natural of year symbols1 so the triskelion revealed itself as a natural sign of the winter solstice1 the period recognized and celebrated by most inhabitants of the northern hemisphere as the turning-point of the year4 ,in a climate like that of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 however1 where the year divided itself naturally into a dry and a rainy season1 it is evident that the winter solstice would be less observed and that the ardently-desired recurrence of the rainy season1 after a long and trying period of drought1 should be regarded as the annual event of utmost importance4 ,indeed1 if carefully looked into1 the entire religious cult of these people seems to express but one great struggling cry to the ,god of ,nature for life-giving rain1 and a hymn of thanksgiving for the annual1 precious1 but uncertain gift of water4 ,illustration4 ,figure #aa4 ,to these supplicants the winter solstice betokened little or nothing and it is not surprising to find no proofs of the employment of the triskelion as a sacred symbol in ancient ,mexico4 ,on the other hand1 it has been traced by ,mr4 ,willoughby on pottery from ,arkansas1 and in ,scandinavia1 where the circumpolar constellations have doubtlessly been observed from remote times1 and the winter solstice has ever been hailed as the herald of coming spring1 the triskelion is often found associated with the swastika4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ab4 ,i am indebted to ,prof4 ,thomas ,wilson's work already cited for the two following illustrations of objects exhibiting this association4 ,the first is a spearhead found in ,brandenburg1 ,germany 7fig4 #ab74 ,the second is a bronze brooch from ,scandinavia1 to which ,i shall presently revert 7fig4 #ac74 ,it exhibits1 besides the triskelion1 swastika and circle1 the ,s-shaped figure which was1 as ,i shall show further on1 the sign actually employed by the ancient ,mexicans and ,mayas as the image of the constellation ,ursa ,minor1 whose outline it indeed effectually reproduces4 ,before referring to the ,mexican and ,maya representations of the star-group1 ,i would next demonstrate that the sacred numbers of ,mexico1 and of other countries situated in the northern hemisphere1 coincide exactly with the number of stars in the circumpolar constellations themselves and in simple combinations of the same4 ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor each contains seven stars1 and the number seven is the most widely-spread sacred number4 ,ancient traditions record that the race inhabiting ,mexico consisted of seven tribes who traced their separate origins to seven caves1 situated in the north4 ,in memory of these1 at the time of the ,conquest1 there were seven places of sacrifice in the city of ,mexico4 ,i shall recur to the number seven further on1 in discussing the native social organization1 and now direct attention to the five stars of ,cassiopeia and to the fact that the combination of the stars in this constellation with ,polaris and ,ursa ,major yields the number thirteen4 ,this result is specially interesting since the entire ,calendar-system of ,mexico and ,yucatan is based on the combination of the numerals #acgbj1 the latter again being #de4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ac4 ,on the other hand the same number1 #ac1 is also obtained by the combination of the ,urs star-groups with ,polaris4 ,the number #e is constantly yielded by ,cassiopeia and the four-fold repetitions of the groups supply the suggestion of the number #d4 ,the combination of ,ursa ,minor and ,cassiopeia yields #ab4 ,the accompanying figure exhibits swastikas composed of ,ursa ,minor accompanied by ,ursa ,major and ,cassiopeia separated and combined 7fig4 #ad74 ,i next direct attention to the peculiar difference in the numerical values of the ,urs swastikas4 ,in the first1 the central star1 surrounded by four repetitions of the seven-star constellation1 yielded a total of twenty-nine stars--#dx#ei4 ,further combinations will be seen by a glance at the ,ursa ,major swastika 7fig4 #d74 ,the analysis of the ,ursa ,minor swastika is not so simple and occasions a certain perplexity4 ,when ,i had first combined the four positions of this constellation1 ,i had1 naturally1 and without further thought1 figured ,polaris but once1 as the fixed centre1 whereas ,i had repeated the other stars of the compact group four times4 ,it was not until ,i began to count the stars in the swastika that ,i realized how ,i had1 unconsciously1 made one central star stand for four1 and thus deprived the composite group of the numerical value of three stars4 ,on the other hand1 if ,i repeated the entire constellation four times1 ,i obtained a swastika with four repetitions of ,polaris in the middle4 ,in this way1 however1 ,polaris became displaced1 and the idea of a fixed centre was entirely lost4 ,a third possible method of composing the swastika was to allow one central star for each cross-arm4 ,but this gave two central stars1 each of which would represent two stars4 ,unless enclosed in a circle and considered as a central group by themselves1 the four and the two repetitions of ,polaris could not convey the idea of a pivot or fixed centre4 ,the three respective numerical values obtained from these experimental combinations were #dfabe1 #dgbh1 and finally #bac or #dfbbf4 ,in each swastika the central star forcibly stood for and represented two or four 7fig4 #ae74 ,illustration4 ,figure #ad4 ,in the triskelions the same perplexity arose3 if ,polaris was repeated1 the idea of a fixed centre was lost 7fig4 #ae72 if figured singly1 it nevertheless necessarily and inevitably stood as an embodiment of three stars4 ,reasoning from my own experience1 ,i could but perceive1 in the foregoing facts1 a fruitful and constant source of mental suggestions1 the natural outcome of which would be the association of the central star with an enhanced numerical value1 and a familiarity with the idea of one star being an embodiment of two1 three or four4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ae4 ,as the evolution of religious thought and symbolism progressed1 this idea would obviously lead to the conception of a single being uniting several natures in his person4 ,in this connection it is certainly extremely interesting to find the serpent associated with the ,calendar in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 its ,nahuatl name being homonymous for twin1 i4 e4 two1 and the ,maya for serpent1 can or cam1 being homonymous for the number four4 ,the serpent was1 therefore1 in both countries the most suggestive and appropriate symbol which could possibly have been employed in pictography1 to convey the idea of dual or quadruple natures embodied in a single figure47#c7 ,added to this the circumstance that1 to the native mind1 the serpent1 upon merely shedding its skin1 lived again1 we can understand why the ancient ,mexicans not only employed it as a symbol of an eternal renewal or continuation of time and of life1 but also combined it with the idea of fecundity and reproductiveness4 ,in ,yucatan where the ,maya for serpent1 can1 is almost homonymous with caansky or heaven and the adjective caanlilcelestial1 divine1 the idea of a divine or celestial serpent would naturally suggest itself4 ,it is therefore not surprising to find1 in both countries1 the name of serpent bestowed as a title upon a supreme1 celestial embodiment of the forces of nature and its image employed to express this association in objective form4 ,in ,yucatan one of the surnames of ,itzamn1 the supreme divinity1 was ,canil1 a name clearly related to caanlildivine and canserpent4 ,in ,mexico the duality and generative force implied by the word 8coatl0 are clearly recognizable in the native invocations addressed to 8,our lord ,quetzalcoatl the ,creator and ,maker or ,former1 who dwells in heaven and is the lord of the earth ,tlaltecuhtli2 who is our celestial father and mother1 great lord and great lady1 whose title is ,ome-,tecuhtli literally1 two-lordtwin lord and ,ome-,cihuatl literally1 two-ladytwin lady0 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 chaps4 #be1 #cb and #cd74 ,the following data will suffice to render it quite clear that the ,mexicans and ,mayas employed the serpent as an expressive symbol merely1 signifying the generative force of the ,creator to whom alone they rendered homage4 ,it is no less an authority than ,friar ,bartholomew de las ,casas who maintained that 8in many parts of the ,american ,continent1 the natives had a particular knowledge of the true ,god2 they believed that ,he created the ,universe and was its ,lord and governed it4 ,and it was to ,him they addressed their sacrifices1 their cult and homage1 in their necessities4440 7,historia ,apologetica1 chap4 #aba74 ,friar ,bartholomew specially adds that this was the case in ,mexico according to the authority of ,spanish missionaries and no one can doubt that this was the case when they read that in the native invocations1 preserved by ,sahagun1 the supreme divinity is described as 8invisible and intangible1 like the air1 like the darkness of night10 or as the 8lord who is always present in all places1 who is as impenetrable as an abyss1 who is named the wind air or breath and the night40 8,all things obey him1 the order of the universe depends upon his will--he is the creator1 sustainer1 the omnipotent and omniscient40 ,he is termed 8the father and mother of all10 8the great god and the great goddess10 8our lord and protector who is most powerful and most humane10--8our lord in whose power it is to bestow all contentment1 sweetness1 happiness1 wealth and prosperity1 because thou alone art the lord of all things40 ,one prayer concludes thus3 8,live and reign forever in all peace and repose thou who art our lord1 our shelter1 our comfort1 who art most kind1 most bountiful1 invisible and impalpable60 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 on the rhetoric1 moral philosophy and theology of the ,mexicans1 chaps4 #a-dj74 ,it is related that1 in gratitude for the birth of a son1 the ruler of ,texcoco1 ,nezahual-coyotl erected a temple to the ,unknown ,god4444 ,it consisted of nine stories1 to symbolize the nine heavens4 ,the exterior of the tenth1 which formed the top of the nine other stories1 was painted black with stars4 ,its interior was encrusted with gold1 precious stones and feathers and held 8the said god1 who was unknown1 unseen1 shapeless and formless0 7,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historia ,chichimeca ed4 ,chavero1 p4 #bbg2 see also p4 #bdd74 ,a passage in ,sahagun 7book ,,vi1 chap4 ,,vii7 states that 8the invisible and imageless god of the ,chichimecs was named ,yoalli-ehecatl literally1 night-air or wind1 which means the invisible and impalpable god 444 by whose virtue all live1 who directs by merely exerting his wisdom and will40 ,in the ,codex ,fuenleal 7chap4 #a7 the remarkable title of 8wheel of the winds,yahualliehecatl10 is recorded as 8another name for ,quetzalcoatl40 ,this undeniably proves that the ,mexicans not only figured the ,deity by the image of a serpent but also thought of him as a wheel which obviously symbolized centrical force1 rotation1 lordship over the four quarters1 i4 e41 universal rulership4 ,illustration4 ,figure #af4 ,returning from these ideas of later development to the primitive source of their suggestion1 let us now examine the native picture of ,xonecuilli1 ,ursa ,minor1 preserved in the unpublished ,academia ,,ms4 of ,sahagun's ,historia1 in ,madrid 7fig4 #af1 no4 #a74 ,it is an exact representation of the star-group4 ,the fact that the seven stars are figured of the same size in accurate relation to each other1 either proves that the eyesight of the native astronomers was extremely keen and their atmosphere remarkably clear1 or that possibly1 the minor stars of the group were more brilliant in ancient times1 than they are now4 ,astronomers tell us1 for instance1 that as late as the seventeenth century the star in the body of ,ursa ,major nearest to the tail1 was as bright as the others1 while it is now of the fourth magnitude only4 ,it must be admitted that the shape of the constellation resembles an ,s4 ,an ,,ss sign is mentioned by ,sahagun 7,historia1 book ,,viii1 chap4 #h7 as occurring frequently1 as a symbolical design on native textile fabrics4 ,it figures as such1 in the black garments of the female consort of ,mictlantecuhtli in the ,vienna ,codex1 pp4 #bc and #cc4 ,he denounces it as suspect and hints that it was intimately connected with the ancient religion4 ,s-shaped sacred cakes1 called ,xonecuilli1 were made during the feast of ,macuilxochitlfive flowers1 and are figured 7fig4 #af1 no4 #b7 in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 7p4 #fi7 with a four-cornered cross-shaped cake of a peculiar form 7fig4 #bj1 ,,iii71 which is found associated with five dots or circles in the ,codices and also with the ,tecpatl-symbol of the ,north 7fig4 #bj1 ,i and ,,ii74 ,a recurved staff1 which is held in the hand of a deity in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 is designated in the text as a xonoquitl 7fig4 #af1 no4 #c74 ,amongst the insignia of the 8gods10 sent as presents by ,montezuma to ,corts upon his landing at ,vera ,cruz1 were three such recurved 8sceptres10 the descriptions of which ,i have collated and translated in my paper on the ,atlatl or ,spear-thrower of the ,ancient ,mexicans 7,peabody ,museum ,papers1 vol4 #a1 no4 #c1 ,cambridge1 #ahia1 p4 #bb74 ,in this work ,i presented my reasons for concluding that these recurved sceptres were ceremonial forms of the atlatl4 ,i now perceive that they were endowed with deeper significance and meaning4 ,the ,nahuatl text of ,sahagun's ,laurentian ,,ms4 of the ,historia de la ,conquista 7lib4 ,,xii1 chap4 ,,iv7 records the name of one of these staffs as 8hecaxonecuilli10 literally 8the curved or bent over1 air or wind10 and describes it as made of 8bent or curved wood1 inlaid with stars formed of white jadechalchihuite40 ,this passage authorizes the conclusion that four representations in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 of black recurved sceptres1 exhibiting a series of white dots1 are also heca-xonoquitl1 inlaid with stars1 and that all of these are none other but conventional representations of the constellation ,xonecuilli1 the ,ursa ,minor4 ,in each case the deity1 carrying the star-image1 also displays the ecacozcatl the 8jewel of the wind10 the well-known symbol of the wind-god4 ,in one of these pictures 7p4 #ej7 he not only bears in his hand the star-image1 but also exhibits a star-group on his head-dress1 consisting of a central-star1 on a dark ground1 surrounded by a blue ring4 ,attached to this against a dark ground1 six other stars are depicted1 making seven in all4 ,in connection with this star-group it is interesting to note that the hieroglyph1 designated by ,fra ,diego de ,landa as 8the character with which the ,mayas began their count of days or calendar and named ,hun-,imix10 furnishes a case of an identical though inverted group 7,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 ed4 ,b4 de ,bourbourg1 p4 #bcg74 ,enclosed in a black ring1 the glyph displays1 above1 a large black dot with six smaller ones grouped in a semicircle about it1 and below1 four perpendicular bars4 ,subject to correction1 ,i am inclined to interpret this glyph as a hieratic sign for the constellation ,ursa ,minor and its four movements1 and to consider it as furnishing a valuable proof of the origin of the ,maya ,calendar4 ,the seemingly inappropriate procedure of figuring shining stars by black dots actually furnishes the strongest proof that a star group is thus represented2 for1 in the ,maya language1 8ek0 is a homonym for star and black1 and a black spot was1 in consequence1 the most expressive sign for a star4 ,this fact affords a valuable explanation of the reason why the ocelot1 whose skin is spotted with black1 was employed as the figure of the nocturnal sky1 and clearly proves that the ,mexicans adopted this symbol and its meaning from the ,mayas4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ag4 ,we will now revert to the ,s-shaped sign4 ,its association with images of star is further exemplified in ,mexican ,codices4 ,it occurs on the wall of a temple1 in combination with symbols for stars and the ,north-,mictlan1 which consist in this case1 of skulls and cross-bones 7fig4 #ag1 ,,ii74 ,in the ,dresden ,codex1 of ,maya origin1 there is an extremely important page on which the ,s-sign occurs in connection with twin deities1 besides rain and cross symbols 7fig4 #ag1 ,i74 ,a careful examination of the group shows that one of the seated figures is accompanied by a downpour of water 7painted blue in the original71 besides the ,s-symbol which is also repeated above the head of his companion4 ,higher up1 on the same page1 the ,s occurs again in a group of glyphs alongside of twin-seated figures4 ,these1 as well as the single-seated form beneath them1 have an eye or a large black spot surmounted by dots instead of a head 7,vocabulaire de l'criture hiratique de ,yucatan1 p4 #ch74 ,monsieur ,lon de ,rosny has identified this figure1 which also occurs in the ,codex ,troano1 as the image of the supreme divinity of the ,mayas1 of whom more anon1 one of whose titles was ,kin-ich-ahau1 literally ,sun-eye lord4 ,a similar sign consisting of the lower half of a human body seated1 with a large eye on its knees is repeated several times in the ,borgian ,codex4 ,this form is also figured as seated in a temple1 without the eye-star1 but three stars are on the roof and the ,s-sign is on the lower wall of the building 7,borgian ,codex1 p4 #af74 ,the above facts demonstrate that1 in both ,,mss4 derived from different sources1 the same association of ideas is expressed47#d7 ,the ,s sign appears in connection with twin- or single-seated forms1 surmounted by a symbol for star4 ,it is unnecessary for me to lay further stress upon the obvious facts3 that the only celestial body which could possibly have been associated with a seated form1 suggesting repose1 was ,polaris4 ,it is1 moreover1 only by assuming that the sign of the seated star represents the stationary pole-star that its combination in the ,codices with the ,s-sign--,xonecuilli--,ursa ,minor1 can be understood4 ,i likewise draw attention to the possibility that the ,s1 or single representation of the constellation1 may well have been employed as a sign for the summer solstice1 since1 in some localities1 during the shortest night of the year1 ,ursa ,minor may have been visible in one position only4 ,assuming that the triskelion was the sign for the winter solstice we should thus have natural signs for the two nights marking the turning-points of light and darkness in the year4 ,reverting to fig4 #ag1 ,i1 from the ,codex ,dresdenis1 ,i draw attention that it furnishes definite proof that the ,mayas associated the idea of the immovable seated star with twin deities and that they connected the ,s-symbol with cross and rain symbols4 ,a striking combination of the latter symbols is represented under the principal seated figures4 ,it consists of a diagonal cross traversed perpendicularly by a band of blue water4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ah4 ,further ,maya cross-symbols should be cursorily examined here1 viz3 fig4 #ah1 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,vi1 ,,vii and ,,viii4 ,they will be found to consist of variations of two fundamental types1 often figured alongside of each other and enclosed in a square1 or circle4 ,one type consists of two diagonally crossed bars1 plain or representing cross bones 7,i74 ,a rectilinear cross with interlaced circle 7,,ii7 is also found4 ,the other type exhibits a small cross1 square1 circle or dot in the centre of the square with a circle in each corner4 ,in some cases these are united by a series of dots to the central circle and thus form a diagonal cross 7,,vi and ,,viii7 which is sometimes figured as contained in a flower with four petals1 such as is also found in ,mexican symbolism4 ,the diagonal1 dotted cross is frequently combined with four pairs of black bars1 placed in the middle of each side of the square1 pointing towards the centre4 ,similar pairs of black bars are figured in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 7p4 #c7 on the manta of ,mictlantecuhtli1 with stars1 around one of his symbols1 a spider4 ,they likewise recur on two of several sacrificial papers on p4 #fi1 amongst which one exhibits a diagonal cross1 another the ,s-sign1 while others display realistic drawings of stars with six or eight points4 ,the pairs of bars figure in the hieroglyph designated by ,maya scholars as the sign for ,kin1 the sun1 which may be seen in the centre of large diagonal cross-symbols in fig4 #ah1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 from the ,dresden ,codex3 ,the cross1 of fig4 #ah1 ,,vii1 is composed of two bones and two arrowpoints1 a particularly interesting combination considering that in the ,maya a bone is bak1 an arrow is kab-cheil and the name given to the gods of the four quarters 8the sustainers of the world10 is ,bakab4 ,it cannot be denied that the phonetic elements of this name occur in the words for bones and arrows which form the cross1 symbolic of the four quarters4 ,in fig4 #ah1 ,,viii1 the cross may be composed of four bones1 but of this ,i am not certain4 ,in both cases1 however1 the crosses rest on a curious double and parti-colored symbol and are associated with serpent signs1 in which the open jaws and teeth are prominent features4 ,it is noteworthy that while 8can0 or 8cam0 is the ,maya for serpent1 the word 8camach0 means jaw4 ,the figure consisting of the upper jaw only of a serpent1 in the left hand corner of the band above1 fig4 #ah1 ,,viii1 proves1 therefore1 to be a cursive phonetic sign for serpent4 ,the parti-colored symbol combined with the cross obviously signifies a duality1 such as light and darkness1 the ,above and the ,below and a series of dualities--possibly the two divisions of the year1 the dry and rainy seasons4 ,in ,mexico we are authorized by documentary evidence1 to give a wider and deeper interpretation to the symbol of duality1 for it can be absolutely proven that the ,mexican philosophers divided the heavens into two imaginary portions1 and respectively identified these with the male and female principles4 ,in ,nahuatl the ,west was designated as ,cihuatlampa1 8the place or part of the women40 ,the souls of the women who had earned immortality were supposed to dwell there1 whilst the souls of the men resided in the ,east4 ,in the appendix to book ,,iii of ,sahagun's ,historia1 it is described how1 according to the native belief1 the souls of the male warriors hailed the daily appearance of the sun above the eastern horizon1 and escorted it to ,nepantla1 the zenith4 ,here the souls of the women awaited it and assumed the duty of escorting the sun to the western horizon1 the symbol for which was callithe house4 ,the above passage indicates that the native philosophers imagined across the middle of the sky a line of demarcation1 separating the portions of the heaven respectively allotted to the male and female souls4 ,for four years after death these souls retained their human form1 and then1 after passing through nine successive heavens1 entered into the celestial paradise where they assumed the forms of different kinds of butterflies and humming-birds4 ,the names of these are enumerated in the ,nahuatl text of ,sahagun's ,laurentian ,,ms4 7book ,,iii747#e7 ,the symbolism of the humming-bird has already been explained by a passage cited from ,gomara's ,historia4 ,in this connection it is extremely interesting to find the humming-bird represented in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 as sucking honey from a flower1 which is attached by a cord1 covered with bird's down1 to a bone1 the symbol of death4 ,this peculiar but expressive group of symbols figures only on the head-dresses of deities wearing certain other symbols1 amongst which we find the ,eca-cozcatl and ,eca-xonequilli the image of ,ursa ,minor1 already described4 ,the merest indication of the association of a circumpolar constellation with the idea of death 7disappearance7 and resurrection 7re-appearance7 is of special interest1 since the ancient ,mexicans located the ,underworld1 the 8place of the dead10 in the ,north4 ,reflection showed1 however1 that such an association could only have suggested itself to the minds of star-observers living in southern latitudes1 approximate to the equator1 or in localities where the northern horizon was more or less shut off from view by intervening mountains4 ,in such places ,polaris would appear comparatively close to the boundary-line of the northern sky so that the ,ursa constellations and ,cassiopeia would be invisible to the local astronomers at midnight during that period of the year when one or the other of the star-groups seemingly stretched between ,polaris and the northern horizon4 ,a glance at plate ,i shows that1 at the present time1 it is about the period of the autumnal equinox that ,ursa ,minor would be invisible at midnight1 in such localities1 while ,ursa ,major would gradually disappear from view towards midnight1 during a certain number of nights1 according to latitude and locality1 between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice whilst ,cassiopeia would seem to hover above the horizon4 ,the total or partial alternate periodical disappearance of the two most familiar star-groups in the extreme ,north and their re-appearance after sometimes regular intervals of time could but have made a profound impression upon primitive astronomers and thinkers4 ,whilst the mere periodical reversal of the positions of ,cassiopeia and ,ursa ,major suggested alternate victory and defeat1 the actual though brief and partial disappearance of either star-group must have appeared to be a descent into an under-ground space1 associated with darkness and death1 followed by a resurrection4 ,in his ,cronica1 ,tezozomoc records1 besides ,mictlan 7the land of the dead71 another name for the underworld1 ,opochcal-ocan1 literally1 the place of the house to the left4 ,this appellation can only be understood when it is realized that1 in a sufficiently southern latitude1 an observer1 watching the setting of a circumpolar constellation below the horizon1 would always see it disappear to his left and subsequently rise to his right4 ,it is evident that in time this fact would give rise to the association of the left with the underworld1 the lower region1 and the right with the region above4 ,the native idea of a dwelling in the underworld is further demonstrated by the bestowal of the symbol callihouse1 upon the western horizon below which all heavenly bodies were seen to disappear4 ,a definite connection between the ,west and one half of the ,north being thus established1 it would naturally result that a corresponding union of the ,south and ,east would be thought of in time1 and that these quarters would become associated with the rising of celestial bodies1 i4 e41 with light1 the ,above1 while the opposite quarters became identified with their setting1 i4 e41 with darkness1 the ,below4 ,pausing to review the foregoing conclusions1 which ,i have shown to be the natural and inevitable result of simple but prolonged astronomical studies1 observation and plain reasoning1 we see that they led to a conception of the ,cosmos as divided into seven parts1 i4 e41 the fixed ,centre1 the pivot1 primarily suggested by ,polaris who was regarded as the creative1 generative and ruling power of the universe2 the ,four ,quarters1 seemingly ruled by the central force and associated with the elements2 the ,above and the ,below1 suggested by the rising and setting of celestial bodies and associated with light and darkness1 sky and earth1 etc41 etc4 ,many of my readers will doubtless recognize at once that the above organization of the ,cosmos into the ,centre or ,middle1 the ,above and the ,below1 and the ,four ,quarters1 is precisely that which the ,zui priests taught ,mr4 ,frank ,cushing1 when they initiated him into their secret beliefs4 ,other explorers have recorded the same conception amongst different native ,american tribes and with these proofs that this set of ideas is still held on our ,continent at the present time1 ,i point out the fact that the ,maya figures 7fig4 #ah1 ,,vii and ,,viii1 from the ,dresden ,codex7 become perfectly intelligible only when interpreted as representing the ,centre1 the ,four ,quarters1 the ,above and the ,below1 the latter figured by the dark and light halves of the dual sign4 ,furthermore1 ,i can demonstrate that this fundamental set of elementary1 abstract ideas1 furnishing the first principles of organization1 is plainly visible under the surface of the ancient ,mexican civilization and can be traced not only in ,yucatan and ,central ,america1 but also in ,peru4 ,in these countries1 as ,i shall show1 it assumed an absolute dominion over the minds of the native sages1 directly suggesting the forms of government and social organization existing at the time of the ,conquest and faintly surviving to the present day4 ,it entirely controlled the development of aboriginal religious cult and philosophical speculations and pervaded not only the native architecture and decorative art1 but also all superstitious rites and ceremonies1 and entered into the very games and pastimes of the people4 ,the following table presents the bare outline of the scheme of organization exposed in the preceding text4 ,in making it ,i have1 after due consideration1 definitely adopted the assignment of the ,mexican symbols and colors to the cardinal points given by ,friar ,duran in the ,calendar-swastika contained in his atlas and reproduced 7pl4 ,,ii1 g74 ,each of these is ,north2 ,west2 ,south2 then ,east4 ,symbols3 ,tecpatl1 ,flint2 ,calli1 ,house2 ,acatl1 ,cane2 ,tochtli1 ,rabbit4 ,colors3 ,red2 ,yellow2 ,blue2 ,green4 ,elements3 ,fire2 ,earth2 ,air2 ,water4 ,warmth2 ,darkness2 ,breath2 ,rain4 ,together1 ,north and ,west are ,the ,below1 the 8female0 region4 ,,tezcatlipoca,,mictlantecuhtli4 ,south and ,east are ,the ,above1 the 8male0 region1 ,,huitzilopochtli4 ,combined1 they are ,the ,centre4 ,the dual1 generative1 ruling and directive ,force4 ,,quetzalcoatl4 ,the ,divine ,twin4 ,before proceeding to examine more closely the great edifice of human thought which was reared1 in the course of centuries1 on the ground plan designated above1 we must retrace our steps and consider what a deep impression the gradual realization of the changes in the relative positions of ,polaris and certain familiar star-groups must have produced upon those who were the first to realize them4 ,transporting ourselves back to the gray dawn of civilization1 let us endeavor to understand the position of the native priest astronomers who1 having received and transmitted a set of religious and cosmical ideas1 based on the assumption of the absolute and eternal immutability of the centre of the heaven1 ,polaris1 gradually became aware that it also was subject to change1 evidently obeyed an unseen higher power and that the ancient order of things1 recorded by their predecessors1 had actually passed away4 ,it is obvious that1 in all centres of astronomical observation and intellectual culture1 a complete revolution of fundamental doctrine or thought must have taken place4 ,a period of painful misgivings and doubt must have been passed through1 during which an earnest and anxious observation of all celestial bodies must have seemed imperative and obligatory4 ,under such circumstances astronomy must have made great strides and astronomical observation become the foremost and highest duty of the intellectual leaders of the native races4 ,pyramids and temples would be built for the purpose of verifying and recording the positions of sun1 moon1 planets and stars1 and the orientation of these buildings would be carefully planned accordingly4 ,before obtaining glimpses of the great evolution of religious thought which progressed on our ,continent in olden times1 it is well to realize1 by means of ,piazzi ,smyth's map 7fig4 #f7 that the world ceased to possess a brilliantly conspicuous1 absolutely immovable pole-star for a prolonged period of time1 stretching somewhere between #ejj ,b4,c4 and #abjj ,a4,d4 ,the ancient native chronicles record that under 8divine0 leadership great migrations of tribes took place within this period1 the purpose of which was to find a locality which fulfilled certain ardently-desired conditions connected with religious cult4 ,from various centres of civilization in ,mexico and ,central ,america we also hear different accounts of how1 at different times1 small bands of earnest men1 under a leader of superior intelligence1 bent on a peaceable but unexplained errand1 arrived from distant regions and departed for an unknown goal1 after delaying just long enough to teach social organization and impart a higher civilization to the tribes encountered on their passage4 ,these preserved the memory of the title of the leader1 in their different languages and he became the culture-hero of their tribe4 ,the fact that1 in each case1 these sages taught the ignorant tribes the division of time and instituted the calendar1 proves that they were skilled in astronomy4 ,from a sentence uttered by ,montezuma to the native astronomers whom he termed 8the ,sons of the ,night10 we learn that it was their custom 8to climb mountains0 so as 8to study the stars40 ,when one considers the full import of the problems which had to be faced by these ancient sages1 who earnestly endeavored to account for the great changes which had taken place in the heavens1 within the memory of man1 it seems natural to suppose that many an expedition was undertaken for the purpose of acquiring further astronomical knowledge1 of finding1 perhaps1 the immovable star which had been revered in past ages by the ancestors of the native race4 ,the cult of ,polaris may well have made such expeditions assume the aspect of an imperative religious duty and sacred pilgrimage4 ,as all expeditions across ,mexico and ,central ,america would necessarily be limited by the oceans and be fruitless as far as ,polaris was concerned1 it is obvious that the line of exploration which would be ultimately adopted1 would run from south to north and vice versa4 ,a small band of enthusiasts1 setting forth under the leadership of some of the most advanced thinkers of the time1 would undoubtedly have been prepared to devote their entire lives to the object in view4 ,as long as a single member of such an expedition existed1 he would be a powerful and active agent in spreading the fundamental set of ideas derived from the observation of ,polaris4 ,in lapse of time1 by transmission1 its influence might travel to a region too remote perhaps for direct contact to have taken place4 ,if ,i have indulged in the foregoing line of conjecture and surmise1 it is because it is my purpose also to demonstrate1 by absolute proof1 that the dominion of the above set of ideas extended over ,yucatan1 ,honduras1 ,guatemala and even reached ,peru1 where its influence is distinctly visible4 ,it also extended far to the north in prehistoric times1 for certain carved shell-gorgets which have been found in prehistoric graves in ,illinois1 ,missouri and ,tennessee exhibit emblems which have definite meanings in the ,maya language1 spoken in ,yucatan4 ,in order to maintain this assertion ,i must make a slight digression from the main subject and revert to the myth already cited1 recording the casting down from heaven of ,tezcatlipoca who arose and ascended again in the form of an ocelot4 ,there are interesting native pictures of this combat and the fall of the ocelot in the ,vatican ,codex ,,ii1 p4 #cd1 the ,fjrvary ,codex1 p4 #ef1 and others equally important1 representing the fall or descent of an eagle from the sky1 to which ,i shall revert4 ,it is moreover recorded by ,mendieta 7p4 #hb7 that ,tezcatlipoca likewise descended or let himself down from the sky by a spider's thread1 and in the ,bodleian ,,ms4 7p4 #ab7 there are two curious pictures one of an ocelot and a cobweb1 the other of an ocelot1 descending head foremost from stars4 ,the same incident is also pictured in the ,vienna ,codex 7p4 #i7 where the ocelot1 attached by the tail1 is connected by a cord with star-emblems4 ,there are two facts of special interest in regard to the above descent of ,tezcatlipoca by a spider's thread4 ,the first is that the title ,tzontemoc8he who descends head foremost0 is recorded in the ,codex ,fuenleal immediately after the name ,mictlantecuhtli4 ,the second is that the spider is figured on the manta of ,mictlantecuhtli in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 and is sculptured in the centre1 above his forehead1 in his sculptured image1 identified as such by ,seor ,sanchez 7,anales del ,museo ,nacional ,,iii1 p4 #bii7 and reproduced here 7fig4 #ai74 ,it represents 8the lord of the ,north or ,underworld0 descending1 head foremost1 with a tecpatl or flint knife issuing from his mouth and with outspread limbs1 the outlines of which are almost lost under the multitude of symbols which are grouped around him4 ,these symbols are carefully analyzed in my commentary on the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 in which ,i also describe other known carved representations of the same conception and point out analogous pictures in the ,maya ,codices4 ,the position of the limbs of the descending figure is best understood by a glance at fig4 #bj1 ,,ii1 from the ,dresden ,codex4 ,it represents a bar with cross symbols from which a human body is descending4 ,the feet rest on dual symbols1 about which more could be written than the scope of the present paper allows4 ,a tecpatl or flint knife1 attached to the body by a double bow with ends1 may be seen between the dual symbols1 and its presence is of utmost importance since it proves that the ,mayas also associated the flint with the same figure4 ,instead of a head the body exhibits a sort of equidistant cross with four circles4 ,strange to say1 the only analogous cross-figures ,i have been able to find in all the ,codices are those reproduced in fig4 #bj1 ,i1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv4 ,the latter exhibits a curious1 conventionalized flower growing on the top of a pyramid4 ,its stem and leaves are painted brown and are spotted1 resembling the skin of an ocelot4 ,as there is a ,mexican flower1 the ,tigridia1 of which the native name was ocelo-xochitl1 it may be that it is this which is thus represented4 ,fig4 #bj1 ,,iii1 from the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 figures as a sacred cake1 alongside of the ,s-shaped xonecuilli breads which were made in honor of ,ursa ,minor at a certain feast4 ,finally1 fig4 #bj1 ,i1 represents a certain kind of ceremonial staff which is inserted between the two peaks of a mountain--a favorite method employed by the native scribes1 to convey the idea that the object figured was in the exact centre4 ,this kind of staff occurs frequently in certain ,codices1 sometimes being carried by a high priest4 ,it invariably exhibits a flower-like figure with five circles and is surmounted by a tecpatl or flint knife4 ,without pausing to discuss the subject fully ,i merely point out here that1 collectively1 these symbols explain each other and convey the idea of the ,centre and the ,four ,quarters evidently associated with the tecpatl1 the symbol of the north1 and the ocelot and xonecuilli,ursa ,minor4 ,it is particularly interesting to note that the outspread human body is made to serve as a sort of cross-symbol4 ,a careful study of the conventional representation of the face of 8the lord of the ,north10 in fig4 #ai1 gives the impression that it was also used to convey the idea of duality1 or the union of two in one4 ,the upper half of the face exhibits a numeral on either cheek under the eyes1 seeming to convey the idea of dualities4 ,the two circular ear ornaments1 united by a band above the head1 and the two nostrils united in one nose1 seem to convey the idea of the union of the dualities1 whilst the lower half of the face1 which is rendered strikingly different to the upper1 by being in higher relief and marked with perpendicular lines1 exhibits a mouth from which a flint knife1 with symbolical eye and fangs carved on it1 is hanging like a tongue4 ,i have already shown that the flint knife was regarded as the sacred producer of the 8vital spark40 ,i may add here that ,i have also found1 in the ,codices1 tecpatl-symbols on which the curved symbol of air or breath was figured4 ,to my idea the sculptured face is meant to symbolize the dual creator1 the dispenser of the spark and breath of life1 whilst the human skull on his back betokens that he is also the giver of death4 ,though unable to enter fully into the subject here1 ,i would nevertheless state that ,i can produce further data to prove that the human face was frequently employed for a symbolical purpose by the native ,american races who were evidently entirely under the dominion of the idea of duality1 of the ,above and ,below and the life-producing union of both4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ai4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bj4 ,the question why the spider1 named 8tocatl0 in ,nahuatl1 should have been adopted as the chief symbol of ,mictlantecuhtli1 occupied me much until ,i found the clue to its significance in the ,maya language4 ,in this the word for ,north is ,aman and the name for 8the spider whose bite is mortal10 is ,am4 ,this striking fact may be interpreted as a positive proof that the spider-symbol1 employed by the ,mexicans1 must have originated in ,yucatan1 from the mere homonymy of two ,maya words4 ,on the other hand shell-gorgets exhibiting the effigy of a spider1 and obviously intended to be worn with its head turned downwards1 have not only been found in ,illinois but also in ,tennessee and ,missouri4 ,on the gorgets from the latter ,states a cross is carved on the body of the spider 7fig4 #bb1 a74 ,as certain spiders exhibit cross-markings1 it is1 of course1 possible that it was chosen as a cross-symbol for this reason only1 in some localities1 just as the butterfly was evidently adopted in ,mexico1 as an apt image of the ,centre and the ,four ,quarters on account of its shape and its possession of four wings4 ,the conventionalized figure of a butterfly1 with a star on its body and four balls1 painted with the colors of the quarters1 was a sacred symbol which is minutely described by ,sahagun and is figured on a manta in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 ,a glance at its reproduction 7fig4 #ba1 no4 #ac7 shows how the form of the insect has been conventionalized so as to resemble the ollin 7no4 #ab7 and other ,mexican cross-symbols 7nos4 #b1 #d1 #aa1 #ad etc474 ,the eye or star in its centre1 like that in the ollin1 and circle 7no4 #d71 signify ,polaris2 the conventionalized head and antenn are obviously made to convey the idea of 8two in one10 of the ,above and ,below united in the ,centre4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ba4 ,i venture to suggest that the dragon-fly was employed as a cross-symbol in an analogous manner1 on the ,algonquin garment preserved at the ,riksmuseum1 ,stockholm1 and described by ,dr4 ,hjalmar ,stolpe in his admirable study on ,american art 7,amerikansk ,ornamentik1 ,stockholm1 #ahif1 p4 #cj74 ,as ,i shall revert to it later on1 ,i now draw special attention to the circumstance that instead of the cross1 on a spider-gorget from ,tennessee1 there is a round hole which1 when the shell-disc is held aloft1 lets a ray of light shine through and furnishes an apt presentation of a star4 ,this and the cross furnish analogies to the ,mexican and ,maya symbols of ,polaris which are too obvious to need to be emphasized4 ,nor do these gorgets alone furnish an undeniable indication that an identical symbolism extended from ,yucatan to ,illinois4 ,other gorgets1 also figured in ,mr4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,holmes' monograph 8,art in ,shell10 several of which are in the ,peabody ,museum1 from the stone graves in ,tennessee1 exhibit variously carved representations of a serpent4 ,in all specimens the identical idea is carried out3 the eye of the serpent forms the centre of the design on the disc and four circles on the body of the reptile1 or four solid bars1 interrupting a hollow line encircling the central motif1 emphasized a division of the disc into four equal parts4 ,the idea of the ,serpent in repose1 the ,centre and the ,four ,quarters is thoroughly carried out and the true meaning of the design is only appreciated by the light of the ,maya and ,mexican symbolism which has already been so fully discussed4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bb4 ,the third ,tennessee gorget reproduced here 7fig4 #bb1 c71 from ,mr4 ,holmes' work1 exhibits a combination of numerals which is particularly interesting if confronted with the sacred numbers of the ,mexicans and ,mayas4 ,from a central circle three curved lines issue in a fashion resembling those on fig4 #ba1 no4 #b1 but the fact that the circular band exhibits seven double circles and the outer edge is divided into thirteen parts1 is of special moment4 ,still another design1 on a shell-gorget from ,tennessee1 not only exhibits the peculiarity1 pointed out by ,mr4 ,holmes1 of a square with loops1 resembling certain figures in ,mexican ,codices1 but also other significant details which ,i shall point out 7fig4 #bb1 b74 ,the cross in the centre occupies the centre of a star with eight rays and the four birds' heads at the sides of the square illustrate rotation from right to left4 ,i am inclined to view in this gorget an emblem of ,polaris with ,cassiopeia in rotation around it1 figured as a bird1 but whether this is the case or not it must be conceded that it is indeed remarkable to find a set of symbols1 consisting of the spider1 the cross1 the serpent and the bird1 carved on prehistoric gorgets found in the ,united ,states whilst the deep meaning of these identical symbols is furnished by ,maya and ,mexican records4 ,i venture to remark here that no more expressive and appropriate ornament than these shell-gorgets could have been designed1 or worn by the ancient ,maya or ,mexican priests1 prophets and leaders who1 in a remote past1 had guided themselves by the light of ,polaris and instituted its cult as the basis of their native religion4 ,on realizing the above-mentioned identity of symbolism1 it is impossible not to conclude that the prehistoric race which inhabited certain parts of the ,united ,states was under the dominion of the same ideas as were the ,mexicans and ,mayas4 ,the indications point1 in fact1 to the probability that the origin of the employment of the spider-symbol originated in ,yucatan1 and if this be admitted then there is no reason to deny the possibility that the serpent-symbol came from there also1 since the ,maya language suggests an affinity between the serpent1 can1 and the skycaan1 and the numeral #d;can4 ,i refrain1 for the present1 from expressing any final conclusion on this subject1 which will doubtless afford ample food for reflection and argument to all interested in the important problem as to where the cradle of ancient ,american civilization was situated4 ,but these symbolic gorgets go far towards substantiating ,professor ,putnam's oft-expressed conclusions that the ancient peoples of the central and southern portions of the ,united ,states were1 to a certain extent1 offshoots of the ancient ,mexicans4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bc4 ,before abandoning the subject of native symbolism and star-emblems ,i should like to present1 as a curiosity1 with an appeal to specialists to enlighten me as to the astronomical knowledge of the ,eskimos1 an ,eskimo drawing from ,professor ,wilson's instructive and useful monograph4 ,it is said to represent a 8flock of birds10 but so closely resembles ,cassiopeia and ,polaris that ,i am tempted to view it as an indication that the ,eskimos may also have associated the idea of a celestial bird1 or birds1 wheeling around a central point1 with the constellation and the pole-star 7fig4 #bc74 ,having once ventured so far afield1 ,i cannot refrain from presenting here an interesting set of aboriginal star-symbols1 reproduced from ,professor ,wilson's comprehensive work 7fig4 #bd71 each composed of a cross combined1 with a single exception1 with a circle4 ,i draw attention to the striking resemblance of some of these signs to those painted on the finely decorated pottery found on the hacienda of ,don ,jos ,luna1 in ,nicaragua1 and described by ,j4 ,f4 ,brandsford1 ,m4,d4 7,archaeological ,researches in ,nicaragua1 ,smithsonian ,inst41 #ahha1 p4 #cj1 ,b71 and suggest that1 in both localities1 the symbol may be a rudimentary swastika1 and represent ,polaris and circumpolar rotation4 ,illustration4 ,plate ,,iii4 #a4 ,shell gorget1 ,missouri4 #b1 #e-ad4 ,pottery vessels1 ,arkansas4 #c1 #d1 #ae-ag1 #ai-bh4 ,pottery vessels1 ,missouri4 #ah4 ,pottery vessel1 ,kentucky4 #f4 ,national ,museum4 #c1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 #bd1 #be4 ,st4 ,louis ,academy4 ,all others ,peabody ,museum4 ,willoughby1 8,pottery from the ,mississippi ,valley40 ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 ,january-,march1 #ahig4 ,in conclusion ,i refer the reader to ,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,willoughby's valuable and most interesting 8,analysis of the decorations upon pottery from the ,mississippi ,valley0 7,journal ,amer4 ,folk-lore1 vol4 ,x1 #ahig71 in which he figures the remarkable specimens preserved in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,cambridge1 the designs on which1 as he states1 8are mostly of symbolic origin and have been in use among various tribes within the historic period from the ,great ,lakes to ,mexico40 ,with the kind permission of the editor of the ,journal1 ,i reproduce some of ,mr4 ,willoughby's illustrations on ,plate ,,iii4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bd4 ,crosses ,and ,circles ,representing ,star ,symbols1 ,arizona4 ,returning to consider the probable result of the gradual diffusion of star-cult owing to natural causes and of the consequent divergence from the idea of the ,centre1 which had so deeply influenced the minds of primitive men during many centuries1 with earnest1 and extended astronomical observation1 keeping pace with the development of the idea of the ,above and ,below1 it is obvious that the utmost attention would be next given to the conspicuous star groups and planets which are visible at certain times and then seem to have departed or descended into the under world4 ,any one who has read the interesting communications by ,herr ,richard ,andree 7,globus4 bd4 ,,lxiv1 nr4 #bb71 ,on the relation of the ,pleiades to the beginning of the year amongst primitive people1 followed by a note by ,herr ,karl von den ,steinen on the same subject1 will realize that widely-separated tribes of men1 by dint of simple observation1 knew the exact length of the periodical appearance and disappearance of this star group and regulated their year accordingly4 ,herr ,andree cites1 for instance1 that 8in the ,society islands1 the year was divided into two portions1 the first of which was named ,matari-i-iniathe ,pleiades above4 ,it began and lasted during the time when these constellations were visible close to the horizon after sunset4 ,the second period1 named ,matarii-i-rarothe ,pleiades below1 began and lasted for the time during which the star-group was invisible after sunset0 7,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dai1 ,london #ahbi74 ,that the ancient ,mexicans had likewise observed the ,pleiades and been deeply impressed by them is proven by the well-known fact that the ceremony of the kindling of the sacred fire1 which betokened the commencement of a new cycle1 was performed 8when the ,pleiades attained the zenith at midnight precisely40 ,in my complete monograph in the ancient ,mexican calendar-system it will be my endeavor to present all the data ,i have collected concerning the degree of elementary astronomical knowledge attained by the native astronomers4 ,i shall1 therefore1 content myself with pointing out here that besides the foregoing testimony about the ,pleiades1 the native name for which was the miecthe many1 or the tianquiztlithe marketplace1 there are records proving that the cult of the planet ,venus was a firmly established feature of the native religion at the time of the ,conquest4 ,sahagun records that the ,nahuatl names for this planet were citlalpul or hueycitlallin both signifying 8the great star40 8,in the great temple of ,mexico an edifice named ilhuicatitlan literally1 the land of the sky consisted of a great1 high column1 on which the morning star was painted4444 ,captives were sacrificed in front of this column annually1 at the period when the star re-appeared0 7op4 cit4 appendix to book ,,ii74 ,with regard to the connection of the ,pleiades with the beginning of the ,mexican cycle1 it is interesting to note ,herr ,andree's statements that the most intimate connection of the star-group with the thoughts of primitive people1 would naturally take place in such localities where its periodical movements coincided with the changes of season1 wind and weather which affected agriculture4 ,a survey of the data presented by ,herr ,andree shows that the cult of the ,pleiades attained its greatest development amongst tribes inhabiting a southerly latitude4 ,it was in ,south ,america1 indeed1 that the ,peruvians1 alongside of their highly developed sun-cult1 rendered homage and offered sacrifices to the ,pleiades4 ,in ,mexico1 the cult of the ,pleiades appears as intimately associated with that of the sun and to have assumed importance only in historical and comparatively recent times1 probably when the periodicity of the sun's movements had been taught or recognized and the sign ollin1 which is an exact presentation of the annual course of the sun1 had been invented and adopted as a symbol4 ,i have already pointed out that this sign occurs on the calendar-stone1 for instance1 which has a human face in its centre1 bearing two numerals on the forehead and obviously symbolizing the union of two in one4 ,in other instances the centre displays the eye1 or star symbol and conveys the suggestion that the 8four movements0 of the circumpolar constellations were thereby symbolized4 ,it may be that1 in ancient ,mexico1 the two symbols1 respectively referring to the movements of the sun and of the circumpolar star-groups1 were emblematic of the two different cults or religions which existed alongside of each other4 ,the first1 the cult of the ,above1 of the ,blue ,sky1 was directed towards the sun and the planets and stars intimately associated with sunrise and sunset1 amongst them the ,pleiades4 ,the cult of the ,below1 of the ,nocturnal ,heaven1 was directed towards the moon1 ,polaris and the circumpolar constellations--also to the stars and planets during the period of their disappearance and possibly in the same way to the enigmatical 8,black ,sun10 figured in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 which may have been the sun during its nightly stay in the ,house of the ,underworld1 whose door was in the west4 ,in order to obtain an idea of the immense proportions ultimately assumed by these two diverging cults and the enormous influence they exerted upon the entire native civilization1 it will be necessary to examine the form of the social organization in ,montezuma's time4 ,in order to comprehend this1 however1 it is first necessary to study carefully the myths relating to its origin4 ,torquemada 7lib4 ,,vi1 chap4 #da7 cites the authority of ,friar ,andreas de ,olmos for the following native account of the creation of man1 which was differently recounted to him in each province4 ,he states that the majority of the natives1 however1 agreed that 8there was in heaven a god named #8,shining ,star' 7,citlal-,tonac7 and a goddess named #8,she of the starry skirt' 7,citlal-,cue71 who gave birth to a flint knife 7,tecpatl74 ,their other children1 startled at this1 cast the flint down from the sky4 ,it fell to earth at the place named #8,seven caves' and #8produced #a1fjj gods and goddesses1' 0 a figure of speech which evidently expressed the idea that1 in coming in forcible contact with the soil the flint gave forth sparks innumerable which conveyed vitality to numberless beings4 ,it is evidently the same idea of 8life sparks0 being called into existence by the union of heaven and earth which underlies the ,texcocan version of the creation of man recorded as follows by ,torquemada 7op4 et loc4 cit474 8,the sun 444 shot an arrow towards the land of ,acolma near the boundary of ,texcoco4 ,this made a hole in the ground whence issued the first man44440 ,illustration4 ,figure #be4 ,the illustrated version of the above myths1 given in the ,vatican ,codex ,i1 designates the celestial progenitor of human life as ,quetzalcoatl1 also named ,tonaca-,tecuhtlithe lord of our subsistence1 ,chicome-xochitl8,seven roses or flowers0 and ,citlalla-,tonalla8,the ,milky ,way10 literally1 ,the shining stars4 ,the dual divinity is figured 7fig4 #be1 no4 #d7 as two persons with the shaft of an arrow over each of their heads and with the symbol ,tecpatlflint1 between them as the issue of their union4 ,in the ,borgian ,codex 7fig4 #be1 no4 #a71 a barbed arrowpoint1 instead of the ,tecpatl1 figures between the celestial parents4 ,their union is symbolized by a covering1 the shape of which1 in further representations 7fig4 #be1 nos4 #c and #e7 in the same ,,ms41 offers resemblance to the tau-shaped windows which are such a common feature in ,maya and also in ,pueblo architecture 7fig4 #be1 no4 #b;b74 ,the preceding data1 which could be amplified1 seem to show that the natives associated the tau-shape not merely with the idea of the ,male and ,female principles1 but also with the ,above and the ,below1 or ,heaven 7air and water7 and ,earth 7earth and fire74 ,i shall have occasion1 further on1 to refer again to the symbolism of the native tau4 ,the above illustrations1 however1 definitely prove that the flint knife and the arrow 7with a flint point1 presumably71 were indiscriminately designated as the medium by means of which the spark of life was created and imparted to earth-born beings4 ,it will be proved further that1 at the period of the ,conquest1 the arrow was revered as an image of life-producing force in ,yucatan and ,mexico4 ,the flint knife cased in wrappings was called 8the son0 of ,cihuacoatl1 the earth-mother1 and was regarded as her special symbol4 ,it is significant1 therefore1 to find that it was the emblem of office of one of the two high priests1 who alone employed it1 as a sacrificial knife1 in performing his awful duty of immolating human victims4 ,the fact that the cane-shaft of an arrow figures above the head of the celestial couple in the ,vatican ,codex is particularly interesting because the name ,ome-,acatl,two-,cane1 is given as the name of a divinity by ,sahagun 7book ,i1 chap4 #ae7 and that the ceremony of kindling the ,new ,fire1 at the commencement of a cycle of years was also associated with the calendar sign ,ome-,acatl 7,sahagun1 book ,,vii1 chap4 #aj74 ,at a certain festival images of ,omacatl were manufactured and carried by the devout to their houses in order to receive from them 8blessings and multiplication of possessions0 7,sahagun1 book ,,ii1 chap4 #ai74 ,i draw attention to the fact that life is supposed to have proceeded from the union of stellar divinities1 that the ,tecpatl and flint are the well-known symbols for the ,north and ,fire and that the ,vatican commentator identifies the celestial parent as 8,seven-,flowers40 ,what is more1 ,duran 7vol4 ,i1 pp4 #h and #i7 relates that the native race was organized into seven separate tribes and that these 8claimed to have come out of #8seven caves' 7,chicom-oztoc7 which were situated in ,teo-,culhuacan or ,aztlan #8a land of which all men know that it is in the ,north4' 0 ,now ,teo-,culhuacan is composed of the word ,teotl1 which designated the stars1 the sun1 the gods and1 by extension1 something divine or celestial4 ,culhua 7cf4 ,coloa7 means something bent over or recurved1 or the action of describing a circle by moving around something1 and can means 8the place of0 in ,nahuatl4 ,this locality is represented in the picture-writings by a strange and impossible mountain with a recurved summit 7fig4 #bf1 no4 #a74 ,aztlan literally means 8the land of whiteness1 brightness1 light40 ,in ,duran's ,atlas the seven caves are represented as containing men and women--the progenitors of the seven tribes4 ,the order in which these are described1 in the ,mexican myth1 as having issued from the caves1 is instructive and sheds light upon the provenance and purpose of the tradition4 ,it represents the ,mexicans as the superior predestined race who remained in their cave the 8longest1 by divine command10 their 8god having promised them this land40 ,the tradition relates that six tribes reached and settled down in the central plateau of ,mexico1 #cjb years before the ,aztecs arrived1 under the leadership of ,huitzilopochtli an oracular divinity1 whose commandments were transmitted to the people by four priests 7,duran1 chap4 ,,ii74 ,in my opinion it is impossible to study the above and supplementary data without realizing that the native race assigned its origin to a dual star-divinity1 associated with the ,tecpatl1 the symbol for the ,north and for ,fire4 ,the peculiarity that the divinity is designated as ,seven-flowers1 and that there were seven tribes1 indicates that the native idea was that each tribe came from one of the seven stars in ,ursa ,major or ,minor4 ,the ,aztecs seem to have claimed for themselves the descent from the superior star1 the central one1 and to have thus justified or supported their ultimate establishment of a central government which ruled over the other six tribes4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bf4 ,the assumption that the native race claimed descent from the ,ursa ,major or ,minor constellation is further supported by the fact that the shape of the mythical recurved mountain and the name ,aztlanland of light or brightness are simultaneously explained1 as well as the number of caves and tribes4 ,it does not seem to be a mere coincidence that in two totally different ,codices 7the ,selden ,,ms4 p4 #g1 ,kingsborough1 vol4 #a1 and the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 p4 #gj7 a sacred dance is represented as executed by seven individuals who move around a central seated personage4 ,in the latter ,,ms4 the seated figure wears a head-dress surmounted by flint knives and his face is painted red the color assigned to the ,north4 ,moreover the dance is taking place before an image of ,mictlan-,tecuhtli1 the lord of the ,north1 whose raiment is strewn with cross-symbols4 ,referring to other native dances we find that the most sacred of all dances was performed at the festival of the god of fire by priests only1 who1 smeared with black paint to typify darkness and night1 carried two torches in each hand and first sat1 then slowly moved1 in a circle1 around the 8divine brazier10 and finally cast their torches into it 7,duran ,,ii1 p4 #agd74 ,this1 probably the most ancient of sacred dances1 must have been extremely impressive and significative to those who witnessed it1 at night-time1 from the base of the pyramid and heard the distant solemn chant of the dancers4 ,to watchers from afar1 the fire and the lighted torches revolving around must have seemed like a great central star with other stars wheeling about it4 ,further on1 it will be shown that the earliest form under which the ,deity was revered was that of fire and the foregoing description fully explains why it was first chosen as the most fitting image of the central immovable star4 ,it has already been shown that1 in the popular game of 8the flyers10 a high pole surmounted by one man served as the pivot for the circumvolation of the four performers1 who 8acted0 the 8flight of time40 ,the idea of an extended rule1 proceeding from a central dual force1 was1 however1 carried out on a grand scale in the most solemn of all public dances named the ,mitotiliztli4 ,duran 7,,ii1 p4 #he7 states that as many as 8#h1fjj persons danced in a wheel in the courtyard of the ,great ,temple1 which had four doorways1 facing the cardinal points and opening out on to the four principal high roads leading to the capital4 ,the doorways were respectively named after the four principal gods and were spoken of as #8the doorway of such and such a god4' 0 ,clavigero1 to whose work 7,historia1 ed4 ,mora1 ,mexico1 #ahdd1 p4 #bcd7 ,i refer the reader for further details1 describes the dances at the time of the ,conquest as having been most beautiful1 and relates that the natives were exercised in these1 from their childhood1 by the priests4 ,this authority also relates that the ,mitotiliztli was performed by hundreds of dancers at certain solemn festivals1 in the great central square of the city or in the courtyard of the temple1 and gives the following description3 ,the centre of the space was occupied by two individuals 7designated elsewhere as high priests7 who beat measure on sacred drums of two kinds4 ,one1 the large huehuetl1 emitted an extremely loud1 deep tone1 which could be heard for miles and was usually employed in the temples as a means of summoning to worship1 etc4 ,the second1 the teponaztle1 was a small portable wooden drum which was usually worn suspended from the neck by the leader in warfare and emitted the shrill piercing note he employed as a signal4 ,the chieftains 7each of which personified a god7 surrounded the two musicians1 forming several concentric circles1 close to each other4 ,at a certain distance from the outer one of these1 the persons of an inferior class were placed in circles and these were separated by another interval of space1 from the outermost circles1 composed of young men and boys4 ,the illustration given by ,clavigero records the order and disposition of this sacred dance1 which represented a kind of wheel1 the centre of which was occupied by the instruments and their players4 ,the spokes of the wheel were as many as there were chieftains in the innermost circle4 ,all moved in a circle while dancing and strictly adhered to their respective positions4 ,those who were nearest the centre1 the chieftains and elders1 moved slowly1 with gravity1 having a smaller circle to perform4 ,the dancers forming the outer circles were1 however1 forced to move with extreme rapidity1 so as to preserve the straight line radiating from the centre and headed by the chieftains4 ,the measure of the dance and of the chorus chanted by the participants was beaten by the drums and the musicians asserted their absolute control of the great moving wheel of human beings1 by alternately quickening or slackening the measure4 ,the perfect harmony of the dance1 which successive sets of dancers kept going for eight or more hours1 was only disturbed occasionally by certain individuals who pushed their way through the lines of dancers and amused these by indulging in all sorts of buffoonery4 ,no one1 on reading the above description of the most ancient and sacred of native dances can fail to recognize that it was an actual representation of axial rotation and that no more effective method of rendering the apparent differences in the degrees of velocity in the movements of the circumpolar and equatorial stars1 could possibly have been devised4 ,the fact that this dance was a most solemn and sacred rite1 whose performance was obligatory to the entire population1 indicates that it constituted an act of general obedience and homage and a public acknowledgment of the absolute dominion of a central dual1 ruling power4 ,it is particularly interesting that1 in this dance1 the latter is represented by two individuals who respectively employ the sacred drum of the priesthood1 and that used by war chieftains only 7the one instrument emitting a low and the other a high tone72 for the culture hero of the ,tzendals1 ,votan1 who1 with the aid of his followers1 taught this tribe the civil laws of government and the religious ceremonials1 was entitled 8the ,master of the sacred ,drum40 7,see ,brinton1 ,american ,hero-,myths1 p4 #bad47 ,reverting to the organization of the native race into seven tribes and the wandering of the seventh and principal division1 under the leadership of ,huitzilopochtli3 according to ,tezozomoc 7,cronica1 p4 #bc71 ,huitzilopochtli was accompanied by 8a woman who was called his sister and was carried by four men4 ,she was a powerful sorceress1 possessed the power of assuming the shape of an eagle1 had made herself greatly feared and caused herself to be adored as a goddess40 ,indignant at her arrogance the priests counselled a course which was adopted by the ,mexicans4 ,the woman and her family were left behind at ,malinalco where they settled and populated a town1 whilst the other portion of the tribe1 under strictly masculine rule1 advanced towards ,tula where they established themselves4 8,this was the second division which had taken place1 amongst the ,mexicans or ,aztecs 444 and when they reached ,tula they found their number greatly diminished40 ,this same incident is related with greater detail by ,torquemada 7vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,ii7 from which we learn what a great animosity was felt against the woman4 ,on one occasion1 which ,i shall not pause to describe1 two war chiefs menaced her4 ,the 8talk0 she gave them in return is so remarkable that it deserves to be quoted in full2 for it affords a deep insight into the native mode of expression1 teaches us the titles of the woman and shows that her position was undoubtedly one of powerful authority4 8,i am ,quilaztli1 your sister and of your tribe 444 you know this and yet you think that the dispute or difference you have with me is like an ordinary one1 such as you might wage with any ordinary base woman1 who possessed little spirit or courage4 ,if you indulge in this thought you are deceiving yourselves1 for ,i am valiant and manly and my titles will oblige you to acknowledge this4 ,for besides the ordinary name of ,quilaztli1 by which you know me1 ,i also possess four titles1 by which ,i know myself3 the first of these is ,cihuacoatlthe ,woman-serpent 7or twin72 the second is ,quauh-,cihuatlthe ,eagle-woman2 the third is ,yao-,cihuatlthe ,woman-warrior and the fourth is ,tzitzimi-,cihuatl1 the ,woman of the ,underworld4 ,from the properties or qualities conveyed by these titles you can appreciate who ,i am2 what power ,i yield and what harm ,i can do you and if you want to test the truth of this1 here is my challenge60 8,the two brave captains1 undaunted by the arrogant words by which she attempted to terrify them1 responded3 ',if you are as valiant as you describe yourself to be1 we are not less so2 but you are a woman and it is not meet that it should be said of us that we took up arms against women2' and without speaking further they left her1 much affronted that a woman should challenge and defy them4 ,and they kept silence about this occurrence so that their people should not know of it40 ,seor ,alfredo ,chavero 7appendix1 p4 #abe1 to ,duran's ,historia1 ,mexico1 #ahhj71 commenting upon this passage1 says3 8,it is impossible to doubt that this tradition refers to an important event in the history of the ,aztec tribe4444 ,i think it contains the record of a religious struggle40 ,the full significance of the narrative will become clear1 ,i think1 when the following points are dwelt upon4 ,one thing is certain3 here is a historical personage1 a woman1 who was termed the sister of ,huitzilopochtli1 who evidently exerted a high authority and whose titles were actually the names of the highest female divinity4 ,sahagun 7book ,,vi1 chap4 #cg7 states that ,quilaztli1 a goddess1 the same as ,cihuacoatl1 was the mother of all and was also named ,tonant-zin8our mother40 ,what is more significant still is that1 in all historical records antedating the ,conquest1 a man bearing the feminine title of ,cihuacoatlserpent woman1 is distinctly and repeatedly mentioned as the coadjutor of the ,mexican ruler4 ,mr4 ,ad4 ,bandelier1 in his careful study 8,on the social organization and mode of government of the ,ancient ,mexicans0 7,twelfth ,annual ,report of the ,peabody ,museum of ,am4 ,arch1 and ,ethn41 ,cambridge1 #ahgi7 to which ,i refer the reader1 discusses the relative positions of ,montezuma and the ,cihuacoatl and states3 8there is no doubt about their equality of rank though their duties were somewhat different0 7p4 #ffe74 ,this equality is illustrated by the records that both rulers shared the same privileges regarding dress4 ,thus they alone wore sandals and the ,cihuacoatl is termed 8the second or double of the king1 his coadjutor0 7,duran1 chap4 ,,xxxii1 p4 #bee and ,tezozomoc1 chap4 ,,xl1 p4 #ff74 ,the latter author1 however1 gives the full 8sacred title0 as ,tlil-,potonqui ,cihuacoatl1 literally1 8the black-powdered woman-serpent0 and we thus learn that1 whilst ,montezuma's garments were habitually blue like ,huitzilopochtli1 his coadjutor1 like ,tezcatlipoca1 was associated with black4 ,it is well known that some of the ,mexican priests always smeared their bodies with black1 which was therefore their special mark4 ,to my idea the foregoing data1 with circumstantial evidence too diffuse to be conveniently produced1 clearly indicate that at one time1 in the early history of the ,aztec race1 it had been governed jointly by a male and a female ruler on a footing of perfect equality1 the one being the living representative of the ,above or masculine elements and the other personifying the ,below or feminine elements4 ,the fact that ,cihuacoatl is named 8the sister0 of ,huitzilopochtli shows that the female ruler was not necessarily his wife1 although she was his coadjutor in her own right4 ,both rulers were respectively served by four persons presumably of their respective sex4 ,besides these ,duran 7chap4 #c7 records that 8there were also other seven teotlslords1 who were much reverenced on account of the seven caves out of which the seven tribes had come40 ,we thus perceive that at one time the chief authority was vested in a man and a woman1 his sister1 who enjoyed a perfect equality4 ,four persons administered the government of each ruler and each of the seven tribes had 8its honoured representative40 ,for how long this organization had existed it is impossible to tell4 ,dissension arose and division supervened1 but to the time of the ,conquest the identical form of government was in force with the remarkable difference that the title and office of the ,cihuacoatl1 originally held by a woman1 were held by a man1 whom ,i do not hesitate to identify as one of the two 8supreme pontiffs10 whose emblem of office was the flint knife1 the offspring of ,cihuacoatl1 the earth-mother4 ,historical evidence shows that this alteration had not been made without bloodshed and renewed difficulties4 ,thus it is related that1 long after the ,mexicans had separated from the sister of ,huitzilopochtli and her adherents1 they were induced to 8ask the daughter of the ruler of ,culhuacan to become the ,queen of the ,mexicans and mother of their god4 ,she conformed with their request but was subsequently killed by her subjects1 who flayed her body and dressed a youth in her skin a figure of native speech which symbolized his assumption of her office4 ,under this form she was revered as a goddess1 was named our grandmother and #8the mother of the god1' etc40 ,these and the following details1 taken from well-known authentic native sources1 are attractively rendered in the 8,newe ,welt und ,amerikanische ,historien0 7,johann ,ludwig ,gottfriedt4 ,frankfurt-a4-,m41 #afac1 pp4 #ed and #ee74 ,again1 after the ,mexicans had been settled at ,tenochtitlan for some time1 they desired to make an alliance with the ,king of ,culhuacan and therefore 8chose to nominate1 as their ruler1 ,acamapichtli1 who was the son of a ,mexican chieftain by a daughter of the ,culhuacan ruler0 and evidently lived with the latter4 ,for it is related that1 on giving his consent1 the king of ,culhuacan stated that if only a woman 7of his family7 had been nominated he would have refused 7to trust her to the ,mexicans74 ,the farewell words he addressed to ,acamapichtli are worthy of quotation3 8,go my son1 serve thy god1 be his representative4 ,rule the creatures of the god by whom we live2 the god of day1 of the night and of the winds4 ,go and be the lord of the water and land owned by the ,mexicans40 ,as it is subsequently stated that ,acamapichtli and his queen were received at ,tenochtitlan with great honors1 it would seem as though the ,mexicans who1 from some deeply-rooted religious idea1 considered it essential to have a female ruler of the line of the king of ,culhuacan1 obtained their desire only by accepting a male member of her family as a protection and safeguard for her sacred person4 ,it may be that for the reasons of safety and preservation the female ruler1 who was the living representative of the ,cihuacoatl1 gradually retired into absolute seclusion whilst a man of her kin assumed1 in public1 her title and prerogatives4 ,unless it is assumed that this was the case1 it seems impossible to explain why ,acamapichtli is designated in the ,codex ,mendoza 7,kingsborough1 vol4 ,i1 pl4 ,,ii7 as having begun to rule in the year ,i ,tecpatl or flint 7approximately corresponding to ,a4,d4 #acfd7 with the title of 8,woman-serpent0,cihuacoatl4 ,from this date the title seems always to have been borne by a man4 ,when human sacrifices had become a prominent feature of the native cult and it became a duty of the ,cihuacoatl to perform the bloody rite1 it is obvious that it became impossible for a woman to fill the position4 ,we obtain1 however1 glimpses of the shadowy form of an invisible and venerable female ruler who is at the head of the 8,house of ,women10 watches over the welfare of the women of the tribe and officiates as a priestess1 with her assistants1 at births1 baptisms and marriages4 ,in order to account for the obscurity which surrounds her1 it should be noticed that the mere fact that the ideas of darkness and seclusion became indelibly associated with the female sex1 would naturally and inevitably cause women to be housed up1 veiled and condemned to comparative inaction and immobility4 ,a primitive stage in the growth of the above idea is shown in the case of the ,huaxtecas1 the women of which tribe wore abundant covering whilst the men1 on religious principle1 wore none4 ,a careful study of the conditions surrounding the ,cihuacoatl or high priest shows that he also conformed to the exigencies of his position when he acted as the representative of the hidden forces of ,nature1 of the female principle4 ,he and the entire priesthood smeared their bodies with black1 cultivated long hair1 and wore1 during the performance of certain religious ceremonies1 a wide and long garment reaching to the ground4 ,it is noticeable that the designs on the garments of the priests1 in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 are invariably executed in red and yellow1 the symbolical colors of the north and west1 combined with black the symbol of the union of both1 the ,below4 ,in this connection it is noteworthy that in ,mexican pictography the faces of women are usually painted yellow--the color of the ,westthe female region4 ,the association of darkness1 concealment and secrecy1 with the female principle1 is exemplified by the fact that a building in the enclosure of the ,great ,temple of ,mexico1 named the 8house of darkness10 was dedicated to the earth-mother,cihuacoatl 7,sahagun1 appendix to book ,,ii74 ,other temples of hers are described as being cave-like1 underground1 dark1 with a single low entrance1 the door of which was sometimes sculptured in the form of the great open jaws of a serpent4 ,only priests were allowed to penetrate into these mysterious chambers where sacred and secret rites were performed and a sacred fire was also kept burning in an adjoining chamber4 ,evidence1 which ,i shall produce further on1 establishes that the high-priest ,cihuacoatl dwelt1 at times1 in a house named 8place of darkness0 and annually sacrificed a human victim in honor of the lord of the underworld1 in an edifice called 8the navel of the earth40 ,the religious cult of one-half of the ,mexican hierarchy was distinctly nocturnal4 ,the chief duties of certain priests were astronomical observation and the supervision of the sacred fire1 which was kept perpetually burning on the summit of each temple-crowned pyramid1 in what was termed 8the sacred or divine brazier0 of sculptured stone4 ,two priests jointly watched by night and day and received and transmitted to the flames the incense offerings of the devout4 ,the temple fires were extinguished only at the expiration of a cycle of fifty-two years and were then rekindled by the high priest at midnight precisely1 with impressive solemnity4 ,in ancient ,mexico1 it should however be observed1 although the logical association of women with the hidden forces of nature1 the underworld and the ,below1 had exerted a certain influence over her practical existence1 it had not yet given rise to the idea of her inferiority as compared to man1 the associate of the ,heaven1 the ,above1 the visible and active forces of nature4 ,the native sages did not identify her so intimately with the earth as to deny her the possession of a soul--the celestial spark4 ,on the other hand it is curious to note that the ,nahuatl word for wife is ,cihua-tlan-tli and for husband is ,te-o-quichtli4 ,is it possible that the particle tlan in the first and ,teo in the second may have contributed to strengthen the association of the woman with earthtlalli 7tlanland of7 and the man with ,teotl1 the sun1 something divine and celestial8 ,in course of time it doubtlessly would have transpired1 in ,mexico as elsewhere1 that the set of primitive ideas which1 during untold centuries1 imposed upon women seclusion1 obscurity and inactivity and thus hindered her development of strength of body and mind1 would have directly induced an inferiority4 ,this has been subsequently proclaimed1 as we know1 in many countries1 as a direct proof of her lower nature and of her affinity with the element earth4 ,the assumed and actual inferiority of woman may therefore be regarded as the logical1 inevitable but artificial result of primordial classification and association4 ,suggested by the same natural phenomena which were visible to all inhabitants of the same latitudes1 these ideas occurred to all people at a certain stage of their development and exerted a dominating influence over the subsequent growth of their intelligence4 ,it is but now1 that1 unconsciously1 mankind is beginning to emerge from the leading strings of its infancy1 which became an iron bondage to its prolonged childhood4 ,in ,mexico1 at the period of the ,conquest1 the absolute equality of the male and female principles was theoretically maintained4 ,at the same time it is possible to discern certain agencies at work which were tending to connect the ,below1 the female principle1 with harm and evil4 ,from time immemorial it had been the custom of the ,chichimecs1 who1 according to ,sahagun 7book ,,xii1 chap4 #ab1 par4 #e71 inhabited an extremely poor and barren region of ,mexico1 to sacrifice the first animal killed in a hunting expedition and to offer it to 8the ,sun whom they called father and to the earth their mother40 ,they severed its head and raised this as though offering it to the sun4 ,they then tilled the earth where the blood had been spilt and left the animal which had been sacrificed1 on the spot 7,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historia ,chichimeca chap4 ,,vi and ,relaciones p4 #cce74 ,this passage1 establishing the cultivation of the soil where the blood had been spilt1 sheds a flood of light on the origin of the offerings of human blood and the sacrifices of human life1 which were such a prominent and hideous feature of the ,aztec religion4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 instead of the blood being spilt directly upon the earth1 to insure and increase the fruitfulness of the soil1 a human being was stretched across a conical stone which became thus the image of the earth-mother1 his heart was extracted and offered to the sun1 the ,above1 and his blood was then smeared on the mouth of certain idols representing the ,below4 ,in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 an interesting illustration and account are given of an idol of the earth-mother who is figured as standing on a pedestal adorned with skulls and cross-bones with outstretched tongue which signified1 8that she always had great thirst for human blood0 and 8never refused sacrifices offered to her40 ,two priests are likewise pictured in the act of offering bowls containing human blood to the idol and a third1 mounted on a ladder1 is pouring the contents of another bowl over its head4 ,it is obvious how the constant associations of the earth-mother with sanguinary sacrifices and bloodthirstiness would1 in time1 give rise to the idea of a hostile1 maleficent power1 linked with darkness and devouring fire1 who1 under the aspect of the serpent-woman1 waged an eternal warfare on the human race and clamored for victims and bloody sacrifices4 ,the natural sequence to the above associations is that in ancient ,mexico the powers exerting fatal influence upon the human race are all represented as female1 viz43 the ,cihuacoatl or woman-serpent1 the ,ciuapipiltin and the ,tzit-zime1 etc4 ,these and various other personifications of the female principle are described in detail in my notes and commentary to the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 ,after considering the foregoing data it seems impossible not to conclude that it must have taken centuries of time for the idea of duality1 or of the ,above and ,below to have taken such a deep hold upon the native mind and to have produced such a growth of symbolism and association in so many ramifications of thought4 ,let us endeavor to obtain a further insight into the native mode of thought by carefully studying some significant details concerning the social organization of the ,mexicans from the time of ,acamapichtli to that of ,montezuma and the influences it had been subjected to gradually4 ,this1 the first ruler1 unquestionably ruled as the ,cihuacoatl1 a name which means either ,woman-serpent or ,female-twin4 ,this fact in itself testifies to an epoch-making change in the organization of the ,mexican government1 in the making of which a concession was made to a previously existing order of things1 by the retention of the female title by a male ruler4 ,having carefully studied the question for many years1 ,i have long considered it proven that when the ,mexicans settled in the valley of ,mexico they came under a series of influences emanating from an ancient and highly cultured centre of civilization situated in the south1 which had followed1 during untold centuries1 the same lines of primitive thought which have been stated4 ,this question of contact and influence from an older civilization is so important and the material ,i have collected on the subject is so extensive and complex1 that it cannot be adequately treated here4 ,further on ,i shall discuss at length certain historical data throwing light on ancient contact and influences4 ,meanwhile ,i may as well state here that1 having carefully weighed all testimony1 ,i accept as amply proven and well supported1 the testimony of ,las ,casas1 ,torquemada1 ,mendieta and others1 who record that the ,mexican culture-hero ,quetzalcoatl was an actual person who had come to ,mexico from ,yucatan twice and had finally returned thither1 leaving a small colony of his vassals behind him whose influence upon the religious and social organization and symbolism of the tribes1 inhabiting the central plateau1 can be plainly discerned4 ,montezuma himself1 in his famous speech to ,corts1 which the latter carefully reported to the ,emperor ,charles ,v1 states that3 8we the ,mexican rulers were brought here by a lord1 whose vassals all of our predecessors were1 and who returned from here to his native land4 ,he afterwards came here again1 after a long time1 during which many of his followers who had remained1 had married native women of this land1 raised large families and founded towns in which they dwelt4 ,he wished to take them away from here with him1 but they did not want to go1 nor would they receive or adopt him as their ruler1 and so he departed4 ,hut we have always thought that his descendants would surely come to subjugate this country and claim us as their vassals44440 7,historia de ,nueva ,espaa4 ,hernan ,corts1 ed4 ,lorenzana1 p4 #ha2 see also p4 #if74 ,i do not see how it is possible to construe such plain1 unadorned statements of simple1 common-place facts into the assumption that ,montezuma was recounting a mythical account of the disappearance of the ,light-god from the sky1 as upheld by some modern writers1 who interpret the whole episode as a sun-myth or legend4 ,i have already shown that the meaning of the ocelot-skin and the spider1 employed as symbols by the ,mexicans1 is apparent only when studied by means of the ,maya language of ,yucatan1 the land whence the culture-hero is said to have come by the foregoing authorities4 ,i will add here that in the ,maya chronicles1 it is stated that the culture-hero had ruled in ,chichen-,itza1 the first part of which name1 ,chichen1 means red4 ,in ,mexican records it is described that he departed by water from the ,mexican coast and travelled directly east1 bound for ,tlapallan--a name which means red-land4 ,i draw attention to the fact that any one sailing from the mouth of the ,panuco river1 for instance1 in a straight line towards the east1 would inevitably land on the coast of ,yucatan1 not far from the modern ,merida and the ancient ruins of ,chichen-,itza4 ,i shall also produce evidence1 further on1 to show that the meaning of the much-discussed name of the culture-hero's home1 ,tullan1 is also furnished by the ,maya language4 ,from more than one source1 we learn1 moreover1 that there were several ,tullans on the ,american continent4 ,the conception of ,twin-brothers as the personification of the ,above and ,below had been adopted in ,yucatan and it is to the influence emanating from that source that ,i attribute the movement made in ,mexico1 to substitute male twin-rulers in the place of the man and woman1 who had previously and jointly ruled the ancient ,mexicans4 ,let us now analyze the ,maya title ,kukulcan1 of which ,quetzalcoatl is the ,mexican equivalent4 ,as already stated1 the word can means serpent and the numeral #d and is almost homonymous with the word for sky or heavencaan4 ,the image of a serpent1 therefore1 directly suggested and expressed the idea of something quadruple incorporated in one celestial being and appropriately symbolized the divine ruler of the four quarters4 ,in the word ,kukulcan the noun can is qualified by the prefix kukul4 ,in the compiled ,maya dictionary published by ,brasseur de ,bourbourg 7appendix to de ,landa's ,relacion7 the adjective ku or kul is given as 8divine or holy40 ,kukulcan may therefore be analyzed as 8the divine serpent0 or the 8,divine ,four40 ,when ,maya sculptors or scribes began to represent this symbol of the divinity they must have searched for some object1 easy to depict1 the sound of whose name resembled that of ku or kul4 ,the ,maya adjective 8feathered0 being kukum1 the artists evidently devised the plan of representing1 as an effigy of the divinity1 a serpent decorated with feathers and to this simple attempt at representing the 8divine serpent0 in sculpture or pictography is due1 in my opinion1 the origin of the 8feathered serpent0 effigies found in ,yucatan and ,mexico1 which have so puzzled archaeologists4 ,of ,kukulcan1 the culture-hero of the ,mayas1 it is recounted that he had been one of four brothers who originally ruled at ,chichen-,itza1 over four tribes4 8,these brothers chose no wives but lived chastely and ruled righteously1 until1 at a certain time1 one died or departed and two began to act unjustly and were put to death4 ,the one remaining was ,kukulcan4 ,he appeased the strife which his brothers' acts had aroused1 directed the minds of the people to the arts of peace and caused to be built various edifices4 ,after he had completed his work at ,chichen-,itza he founded the great city of ,mayapan1 destined to be the capital of the confederacy of the ,mayas40 7,see ,brinton1 ,hero-myths1 p4 #afb47 ,friar ,diego de ,landa relates that the current opinion amongst the ,indians of ,yucatan was that this ruler had gone to ,mexico where1 after his return 7departure87 he was named ,cezalcouatl and revered as one of their gods 7,relacion1 ed4 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 p4 #cf74 ,before analyzing the ,nahuatl rendering of ,kukulcan's name ,i would point out the noteworthy coincidence that1 during his reign at ,chichen-,itza and ,mayapan1 he practically united in his person and assumed the offices formerly fulfilled by four rulers1 of which he had been only one4 ,i would1 moreover1 draw attention to the remarkable1 sculptured columns which support the main portal of the main pyramid-temple called ,el ,castillo at ,chichen-,itza4 ,these represent gigantic feathered serpents and are figured on pl4 ,,xiv of ,mr4 ,wm4 ,holmes' most instructive and useful 8,archaeological ,studies10 ,part ,i1 8,monuments of ,yucatan40 ,the feathers carved on the massive columns are evidently the precious tail feathers of the quetzal1 which have the peculiarity of exhibiting1 according to the way the light falls upon them1 blue1 red1 yellow and green colors--precisely those assigned to the four quarters by the ,mexicans and for all we know to the contrary1 by the ,mayas4 ,whether this feather was chosen for this peculiarity or for its beauty only1 as that with which to deck the effigy of the divinity1 can1 of course1 only be conjectured4 ,in ,mexico numberless effigies of feathered serpents exist4 ,the resemblance of the sound of the ,nahuatl words3 featherihuitl1 and heaven or skyilhui-atl1 should be recorded here as a possible reason for the association of feathers with the serpent and as a means of conveying the idea of its divinity4 ,it should also be noted that quetzal1 the name of the most precious feathers the natives possessed1 resembles in sound1 the second part of the ,nahuatl words for flametle-cueal-lotl1 or for 8tongue of fire0tle-cueal-nenepilli4 ,that the feathered serpent was an image of the divinity is finally proven1 ,i think1 by the following passage from ,sahagun which establishes that the earliest form1 under which the divinity was revered by the ,mexicans1 was that of fire3 8,of all the gods the most ancient one is the ,god of ,fire1 who dwells in the midst of flowers1 in an abode surrounded by four walls and is covered with shining feathers like wings0 7op4 cit4 book ,,vi1 chap4 ,,iv74 ,it is thus shown that whilst the word ihuitlfeather suggested something divine1 the word quetzal1 besides being the name of a particular kind of feather1 conveyed the idea of something resplendent or shining like fire4 ,the name for serpent1 coatl1 signified twin2 thus there is a profound analogy between the ,maya and ,mexican symbol1 pointing1 however1 to the ,yucatan form as the most ancient4 ,let us see how the name ,quetzal-coatl occurs in ,mexico4 ,it is given as the name of the 8supreme god whose substance was as invisible and intangible as air10 but who was also revered as the god of fire4 ,the constant reference to air in connection with the supreme divinity caused him to be also adored as the god of air and of the four winds4 ,on the other hand1 the divine title of ,quetzal-coatl was carried by the culture-hero whose personality has been discussed and who was a ,yucatec ruler and high priest4 ,sahagun 7op4 cit4 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,ix7 informs us that 8,quequet-zalcoa10 the plural form of the word ,quetzalcoatl1 was employed to designate 8the high priests 7elsewhere designated as the #8supreme pontiffs'7 who were the successors of ,quetzalcoatl40 ,he also states that 8the high priest of the temple was the representative of the god ,quetzalcoatl0 7book ,i1 chap4 #e74 8,the priest who was most perfect in his conduct and in wisdom was elected to be high priest and assumed the name of ,quetzalcoatl4444 ,there were two such high priests equal in rank and honours4444 ,one of these1 the ,quetzalcoatl ,totec ,tlamacazqui1 was in the service of ,huitzilopochtli40 ,without pausing here to analyze this title since it will be discussed in detail in another publication ,i will only repeat that1 after years of careful research1 ,i have obtained the certainty that the foregoing title and office were those held by ,montezuma at the time of the ,conquest4 ,what is more1 ,i can produce ample evidence to prove that he was the living personification of ,huitzilopochtli one of the 8divine twins0 and of the ,above4 ,he was not the first ,mexican ruler who had filled this exalted rle1 for it is recorded that ,axayacatl1 one of ,acamapichtli's successors1 had represented1 in life1 8our god ,huitzilopochtli40 ,after his death his effigy 8was first covered with a fine robe representing ,huitzilopochtli2 over this was hung the dress of ,tlaloc 444 the next garment was that of ,youalahua the lord of the wheel and the fourth was that of ,quetzalcoatl0 7,duran1 vol4 ,i1 chap4 #ci1 pp4 #cjd and #cjf74 ,let us now see how ,montezuma's personification of ,huitzilopochtli was carried out by his life and his surroundings4 ,according to ,bernal ,diaz1 an eye-witness1 when the great ,montezuma came forth in state to meet ,corts1 he was conveyed on a sumptuous litter1 being thus raised above the earth47#f7 ,when he descended from this and walked1 the golden soles of his sandals prevented his feet from coming into direct contact with the ground2 he was supported1 i4 e4 partially held up1 by his four principal lords1 and a baldachin adorned with light greenish-blue feathers1 gold1 pearls and jade representing the xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl8the verdant or blue sky0 7which was1 by the way1 a title of ,huitzilopochtli71 was carried over his head4 ,other lords preceded him1 8sweeping the ground and spreading blankets upon it so that he should not tread upon the earth4 ,all of these lords did not dare to think of raising their eyes to look at his face--only the four lords1 his cousins1 who supported him1 possessed this privilege0 7,bernal ,diaz1 ,historia ,verdadera de la ,conquista4 ,madrid1 #afcb1 p4 #fe74 ,a feature1 the origin of which can be directly traced back to the association of the star-god1 ,polaris1 with repose and immovability1 was that ,montezuma1 like his predecessors1 was the only person privileged to sit on state occasions1 on a throne or raised seat with a high back and rest whilst all other individuals stood or moved about him4 ,from several sources we know that ,montezuma habitually wore blue or white attire1 which sometimes was of open network4 ,he employed gold1 precious blue and green feathers1 turquoise1 pearls and emeralds for his personal ornaments4 ,his diadem with a high point in front1 was incrusted with turquoise or was made of burnished gold4 ,he sometimes wore a crown made of featherwork1 with a bird's head of gold above his forehead4 ,his emblem was the sun1 the orb of day1 and he presided over its cult which had developed itself simultaneously with the cult of the ,above1 a feature of which was the offering of 8birds1 butterflies and flowers40 ,sometimes he wore1 8attached to his sandals1 small wings1 named tzi-coyolli1 resembling the wing of a bird4 ,these produced a sound like that of tiny gold bells when he walked0 7,tezozomoc1 ,cronica1 p4 #eid74 ,it must be admitted1 on reading the foregoing descriptions gleaned from ,sahagun's ,historia1 that it would be impossible to carry out1 more perfectly and completely1 the idea that ,montezuma was the earthly representative of the ,upper regions1 the blue heaven4 ,by pushing symbolism so far that he actually wore wings on his feet and avoided contact with the ground1 it is not surprising that ,montezuma's adversaries1 amongst neighboring tribes1 should accuse him of exacting divine honors for his own person4 ,at the same time there is no doubt that his own subjects revered him merely as a temporary representative and mouth-piece of the impersonal dual divinity4 ,this idea is clearly conveyed by some native harangues1 to which ,i refer the reader1 and from which ,i extract the following passages3 ,after his election1 the ruler is solemnly addressed by one of the chief lords who says to him3 8,oh6 our humane1 pious and beloved lord1 who deserves to be more highly esteemed than all precious stones and feathers1 you are here present because our sovereign god has placed thee above us as our lord4444 ,you possess the seat and throne which was given to your predecessors by our lord god0 444 8you are the image of our lord god and represent his person4 ,he reposes in you and he employs you like a flute through which he speaks and he hears with your ears4444 ,oh1 lord king6 ,god sees what the persons do who rule over his domains and when they err in their office he laughs at them1 but in silence1 for he is god1 and is omnipotent and can mock at whom he will4 ,for he holds all of us in the palm of his hand and rocks us about1 and we are like balls or round globes in his hands and we go rolling from one side to the other and make him laugh1 and he serves himself of us as we go moving about on the palm of his hand60 8,although thou art our neighbour and friend and son and brother1 we are no more thy equals1 nor do we consider you as a man1 for now you have the person1 the image1 the conversation and the communion of our lord god4 ,he speaks inside of you and instructs you and lets himself be heard through your mouth--his tongue is your tongue1 and your face is his face 444 he has adorned you with his authority and has given you fangs and claws so that you should be feared and reverenced 4440 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 chap4 #aj74 ,the foregoing figure of speech in which fangs and claws are alluded to as symbols of fear-inspiring power affords as valuable an insight into the native modes of thought and expression as do the similes employed in the following address to the newly-elected ruler by the spokesman of his vassals4 8,oh lord6 may you live many years to fill your office prosperously2 submit your shoulders to the very heavy and troublesome load2 extend your wings and breast as a shelter to your subjects whom you have to carry as a load4 ,oh1 lord6 let your town and vassals enter under your shadow1 for you are unto them like the tree named puchotl or aueuetl1 which casts a great circle or wheel of shade1 under which many are gathered in shelter0 7op4 cit4 book ,,vi1 chap4 ,,ii74 ,the admonition also addressed to the ruler1 8,never to laugh and joke again as he had done previously to his election1 and to assume the heart of an old1 grave and severe man10 explains the true significance of the name of ,montezuma or ,mo-tecuh-zoma2 which was an honorific title literally meaning1 8our angry or wrathy looking lord40 ,whilst the above data establish beyond a doubt that the ,mexican ,quetzalcoatl was regarded as the visible representative of the celestial ruler of the universe and that divine honors were voluntarily accorded to him1 it is interesting to read ,montezuma's explanation to ,corts concerning this question4 ,the latter writes3 8seated on a raised seat ,montezuma discoursed as follows3 444 #8,i know that you have been told by my enemies that ,i am1 or have made myself a god4'444 ,raising his robes he showed me his body saying3 #8,here you see that ,i am made of flesh and bone1 like yourself or like any one1 and that ,i am mortal and tangible4' ,grasping his arms and his body with his hands he continued3 #8see how they have like to you4' 0444 7,historia1 ,hernan ,corts1 ed4 ,lorenzana1 p4 #hb74 ,better than all dissertations1 the above words convey an idea of the naf simplicity of the man who uttered them4 ,referring the reader to ,mr4 ,ad4 ,bandelier's study1 8,on the social organization and mode of government of the ancient ,mexicans10 for further details concerning the duties respectively filled by ,montezuma and his coadjutor1 ,i shall only explain here the conclusion ,i have reached that the former was the high priest of the cult of the sun and heaven1 the visible ruler1 the war lord1 and the administrator of justice4 ,as stated in a native harangue3 8the supreme lord is like unto the heart of the population 444 he is aided by two senators in all concerning the administration of the government3 one of these was a #8pilli' and was named tlaca-tecuhtli2 the other was a warrior and was entitled tlacoch-tecuhtli4 ,two other chieftains aided the supreme lord in the militia3 one1 entitled tlaca-teccatl1 was a #8pilli' and warrior2 the other1 named tlacoch-calcatl1 was not a #8pilli4' ,such is the government or administration of the republic 444 and these four officers did not occupy these positions by inheritance but by election0 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 chap4 #bj74 ,the following account of the republic of ,tlaxcalla throws further light upon the form of government which prevailed throughout ,mexico and ,central ,america at the period of the ,conquest4 8,the ,captains of ,tlaxcalla1 each of whom had his just portion or number of soldiers 444 divided their soldiers into four ,battails1 the one to ,tepeticpac1 another to ,oco-telulco1 the third to ,tizatlan and the fourth to ,quiahuiztlan1 that is to say1 the men of the ,mountains1 the men of the ,limepits1 the men of the ,pinetrees1 and the ,watermen2 all these four sorts of men did make the body of the ,commonwealth of ,tlaxcallan1 and commanded both in ,peace and ,war 444 ,the ,general of all the whole army was called ,xico-tencatl1 who was of the ,limepits 444 the ,lieutenant ,general was ,maxix-catzin44440 7,a new survey of the ,west-,indies 444 ,thomas ,gage1 ,london1 #afee1 p4 #ca74 ,in ,mexico we find that the four executive officers were the chiefs or representatives of the four quarters of the ,city of ,mexico4 ,in each of these quarters there was a place where periodical offerings were made in reverence of one of the signs3 acatl1 tecpatl1 callii and tochtli1 which were the symbols of the cardinal-points1 the elements1 and served as day and year signs in the calendar 7,sahagun1 book ,,ii1 chap4 #bf74 ,an interesting indication that the entire dominion of ,mexico was also divided into four equal quarters1 the rule administration of which was attended to by four lords1 inhabiting towns situated within a comparatively short distance from the capital1 is furnished by ,bernal ,diaz 7op4 cit4 p4 #fe74 ,he relates that the four lords who supported ,montezuma when he walked in state to meet ,corts were the lords of ,texcoco1 ,iztapalapa1 ,tacuba and ,coyoacan4 ,these towns1 which were minor centres of government1 were respectively situated at unequal distances to the northeast1 southeast1 northwest and southwest of the capital4 ,these facts and the knowledge that 8all lords1 in life1 represented a god0 justify the inference that1 just as ,montezuma represented the central power of the ,above or ,heaven1 the four lords who accompanied him were the personified rulers of the four quarters1 associated with the elements4 ,in ancient ,mexico and ,maya records the gods of the four quarters1 also named 8the four principal and most ancient ,gods0 are designated as 8the sustainers of the ,heaven0 and it cannot be denied that1 on the solemn occasion described1 the four lords actually fulfilled the symbolical office of supporting ,montezuma1 the personification of the ,heaven4 ,this striking illustration is but one of a number ,i could cite in proof of the deeply ingrained mental habit of the native sages to introduce1 into every detail of their life1 the symbolism of the ,centre1 the ,above and ,below and the ,four ,quarters4 ,i shall but mention here that it can be proven how1 in their respective cities the lords of the cardinal points were central rulers who1 in turn1 directed the administration of the government by means of four dignitaries4 ,each of these was also the embodiment of a divine attribute or principle1 8,all noblemen did represent idols and carried the name of one0 7,acosta1 ,naturall and ,morall ,historie1 lib4 #e1 p4 #cdi74 ,each wore a special kind of symbolical costume and was the ruler or 8advocate10 as he is termed1 of a distinct class of people4 8,for to each kind or class of persons they gave a ,teotl ,god or ,lord as an advocate4 ,when a person died and was about to be buried1 they clothed him with the diverse ,insignia of the god to whom he belonged0 7,mendieta lib4 ,,ii1 chap4 #dj74 ,it being established that each of the four year-symbols1 acatl1 tecpatl1 calli and tochtli1 ruled four minor symbols1 it seems evident that1 just as the four lords of the cardinal-points would correspond to the above symbols1 each of the minor lords and the category of people they represented would also be associated with the minor symbols4 ,the obvious result of this classification would be the division of the entire population of the commonwealth into #debj categories of people1 grouped under twenty local and four central governments1 whose representatives in turn were under the rule of the supreme central dual powers4 ,having thus sketched1 in a brief and preliminary way1 the expansion of the idea of dividing all things into four parts1 the bud of which was the swastika1 let us examine the ,mexican application of the idea of duality1 pausing first to review the data relating to the ,cihuacoatl1 the personification of the ,earth1 the ,below and the coadjutor of ,montezuma4 ,nothing has been definitely recorded about his personality1 for he seems to have lived in absolute seclusion during the first occupation of ,mexico by the ,spaniards4 ,he is frequently alluded to1 however1 and ,corts1 ,herrera1 ,torquemada and others1 inform us that he had acted as ,montezuma's substitute and led the native troops against the ,spaniards4 ,it is interesting to find that after the ,conquest ,corts appointed him as governor of the ,city of ,mexico4 8,i gave him the charge of re-peopling the capital and in order to invest him with greater authority1 ,i reinstated him in the same position1 that of ,cihuacoatl1 which he had held in the time of ,montezuma0 7,carta ,cuarta1 ,veytia ,i1 p4 #aaj74 ,quite indirectly1 it is possible to learn what sort of military equipment had been adopted by the ,cihuacoatl when he acted as war-chief4 ,amongst certain presents1 which were sent by ,corts to ,charles ,v and are minutely described in vol4 ,,xii of the 8,documentas ineditas del ,archivio de ,indias10 p4 #cdg1 there are several suits of armor1 which could only have been appropriately worn by the 8woman serpent40 ,one suit consisted of a 8corselet with plates of gold and with woman's breasts0 and a skirt with blue bands4 ,another suit1 instead of the breasts1 exhibited a great wound in the chest1 like that of a person who had been sacrificed4 ,in another list 7by ,diego de ,soto1 p4 #cdi7 a shield is described 8which displayed a sacrificed man1 in gold1 with a gaping wound in his breast1 from which blood was streaming44440 ,it is obvious that the first of these suits of armor conveyed figuratively the name and the second the office of the ,cihuacoatl of whom ,duran speaks as follows3 8,he whose office it was to perform the rite of killing the victim was revered as the supreme pontiff and his name or title and pontifical robes varied according to the different periods of the year and the ceremonies which he had to perform4 ,on the present occasion his title was ,topiltzin1 one of the names of the great lord 444 7,quetzalcoatl7 and he appeared carrying a large flint knife in his hand 4440 7op4 cit41 chap4 ,,lxxxi74 ,the following passage shows definitely that ,montezuma's coadjutor1 his ,quetzalcoatl or divine twin1 had an equal share of divine honors accorded to him4 8,the head priest of the temple1 named ,quetzalcoatl1 never came out of the temple or entered into any house whatever1 because he was very venerable and very grave and was esteemed as a god4 ,he only went into the royal palace0 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 chap4 #ci74 ,the same authority designates the second 8divine twin0 as the ,tlalocan-tlamacazqui or1 ,tlalocan-tlenamacac and states that he served the ,tlalocan-tecuhtli4 ,before proceeding further1 let us pause and inquire into the reason why the name ,tlaloc1 which is formed of tlalliearth and is defined by ,duran1 for instance1 as meaning 8an underground passage or a great cave0 7op4 cit41 chap4 #hd71 should be the well-known title of the 8god of rain40 ,the explanation is to be found in the text of the ,vatican ,codex1 ,a4 ,kingsborough1 ,v1 p4 #aij4 ,this teaches us that the last syllable of the name ,tlaloc does not represent ocinside of1 but stands for octli1 the name of the native wine now known as pulque1 which is obtained from the agave plant4 ,tlaloc thus meant 8earth-wine0 and 8by this metaphor they wanted to express that just as the fumes of wine make mankind gay and happy1 so the earth when saturated with water1 is gay and fresh and produces its fruits and cereals40 ,by the light of this explanation we see that the titles conferred upon ,montezuma's coadjutor were literally 8the priest or lord1 or dealer-of-fire in the place of the earth-wine40 8,the clouds1 rain1 thunder and lightning were attributed to the lord ,tlaloc who had many tlalocs and priests under him1 who cultivated all foods necessary for the body1 such as maize1 beans1 etc41 and sent the rains so that the earth should give birth to all of its products4 ,during their festival in springtime the priests went through the streets dancing and singing and carrying a shoot of green maize in one hand and a pot with a handle in the other4 ,in this way they went asking for the ceremonial boiled maize and all fanners gave them some0 444 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 chap4 #e74 ,the above and many scattered allusions throw light upon the group of ideas associated with the ,cihuacoatl and clearly indicate what were his duties4 ,to him devolved the care of the earth and his one thought was to secure abundance of rain and of crops4 ,in order to ensure the proper cultivation of the ground1 he had1 under him1 innumerable agents1 who strictly superintended the cultivation of all food-plants1 the irrigation of barren lauds1 etc4 ,these agents1 who also resorted to ceremonial usages in order to bring rain or avert hail-storms and other disasters1 were collectively named 8the #djj pulque or octli-gods0--an appellation which developed into tochtli-gods1 when the rabbit 7tochtli7 had become the pictograph habitually employed to convey the sound of the word octli1 and had been adopted as the symbol of the earth and of prolific reproduction in connection with this4 ,the latter idea is born out of the female title1 that of the earth-mother1 who 8always brought forth twins40 ,the ,cihuacoatl thus stands out as the representative of the bountiful mother-earth and as the lord of agriculture1 one of whose duties was the careful collection1 storage and distribution of all food products4 ,he presided over the cult of the fertility of the earth1 of the nocturnal heaven1 of the stars and moon1 which were associated with the female principle and with growth in general4 ,the following record proves that amongst his other duties he offered sacrifices to the invisible hidden powers of darkness and earth4 8,during the night1 in the feast ,tititl1 the high priest named ,tlillan tlenamacac the dealer with fire in the land of darknesstlilliblack1 evidently a title analogous to that of ,tlill-potonqui-cihuacoatl1 given by ,tezozomoc1 in ,cronica1 chap4 #cc1 sacrificed a victim in honour of the god of the ,underworld0 7,sahagun1 book ,,ii1 appendix74 ,in this1 as on similar occasions1 he was assisted by four priests who succeeded him in rank4 ,mr4 ,bandelier has already recognized that judicial sentences were ultimately referred to the 8woman-serpent10 who pronounced the 8final sentence1 which admitted of no appeal40 ,there are more reasons than can conveniently be presented here1 proving that in ,mexico1 as in ,guatemala1 the priest of the ,below1 the personification of ,tezcatli-poca,shining ,mirror1 employed an actual mirror made of polished obsidian1 as an aid in pronouncing final judgment on criminals4 ,the ,cakchiquel procedure is described by ,fuentes of ,guzman1 who is quoted by ,dr4 ,otto ,stoll in his most instructive and valuable work on the ,ethnology of the ,indian ,tribes of ,guatemala 7,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 band ,i1 supplement ,i1 #ahhh73 8,a road leads from the ancient city of ,guatemala to a hill figured with a large tree growing from it2 on its top there is a flat circular cement floor1 enclosed by a low wall4 ,in the centre is a pedestal1 polished and shining like glass4 ,no one knows of what substance it is made4 ,this was the tribunal or court of the ,cakchiquel ,indians1 where public trials were held and where the sentences were executed4 ,the judges sat in a circle on the low wall4 ,after the sentence had been pronounced1 it had to be confirmed or vetoed by another authority4 ,three messengers1 acting as deputies of the council1 went to a deep ravine situated to the north of the palace1 where1 in a sort of hermitage or prayer-house1 there was the oracle of the devil1 which was a black1 transparent stone1 like glass1 but more costly than ordinary obsidian4 ,in this stone the devil revealed to the messengers1 the sentence to be executed4 ,if it agreed with the judgment pronounced1 this was immediately executed upon the central pedestal of the hill of justice on which the criminal was also tortured1 at times40 ,if nothing was seen in the mirror1 and it gave no sign1 the prisoner was pronounced free4 ,this oracle was also consulted before wars were undertaken 444 8,during the first years of the ,spanish occupation1 when the bishop ,marroquin heard about this stone1 he had it cut out and consecrated it as an altar1 which is still in use in the convent of ,san ,francisco in the capital4 ,it is a precious stone of great beauty and is half a vara long40 ,a picture in the ,vatican ,codex ,b 7p4 #dh7 represents a temple1 on the summit of which a large obsidian mirror is standing on its edge4 ,inside the doorway there are many small black spots1 which obviously represent small mirrors and convey the idea that the interior walls were incrusted with such4 ,these illustrations would prove that sacred edifices were associated with obsidian mirrors even if ,sahagun did not mention1 as he does 7book ,,ii1 appendix71 no less than three sacred edifices in the great temple of ,mexico1 which were associated with obsidian mirrors4 ,it is1 moreover1 stated by ,duran that 8in ,mexico the image of the god ,tezcatlipoca was a stone1 which was very shining and black1 like jet4 ,it was of the same stone of which the natives make razors and knives10 i4 e41 obsidian 7,duran ,,ii1 p4 #ih74 ,what is more1 ,bernal ,diaz relates that the image of ,tezcatlipoca1 which he saw beside the idol of ,huitzilopochtli in the hall of the great temple of ,mexico1 had shining eyes which were made of the native mirrorstezcatl4 8,in connection with the shining eyes0 of the god it is interesting to note that when1 as ,duran states1 he was represented under another form1 his idol 8carried in its hand a sort of fan made of precious feathers4 ,these surmounted a circular gold disc which was very brilliant and polished like a mirror4 ,this meant that1 in this mirror1 he saw all that went on in the world4 ,in the native language they named it #8itlachiayan1' which means1 that in which he looks or sees0 7,duran1 op4 cit41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ii74 ,sahagun mentions an analogous sceptre which consisted of 8a gold disc pierced in the centre1 and surmounted by two balls1 the upper and smaller of which supported a pointed object4 ,this sceptre was called tlachieloni1 which means #8that through which one looks or observes2' because with it one covered or hid one's face and looked through the hole in the middle of the gold plate40 ,this kind of sceptre is not exclusively associated with ,tezcatlipoca in the native picture writings1 for it figures in the hand of ,chalchiuhtlycue 8the sister0 of ,tlaloc and of ,omacatl whose attributes1 the reeds and chalchiuite or jade beads1 prove him to be also associated with the water4 ,on the other hand the same sceptre is also assigned by ,sahagun to the god of fire4 ,a clue to the truth and significance of this emblematic sceptre is furnished by the fact that1 in order to express the divine title ,tlachiuale1 meaning 8the ,maker or ,lord of all creatures or of young life10 the native scribes were naturally obliged to employ the verb tlachiato look or see1 in order to convey its sound4 ,it is obvious that they cleverly agreed to express this verb by picturing some object which could be or was looked through4 ,they therefore adopted a sceptre with a hollow disc1 as an emblem1 which was carried by the living representative of certain divinities1 whose entire costume was in reality a sort of rebus1 and in the case of ,tlaloc1 the lord of earthwine and fertility and the ,tlachiuale or 8,creator of young life10 par excellence1 they once and for all designated his title by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings1 accentuating thereby the action of seeing or looking4 ,but this probably conveyed even more than the above title1 for there is a ,nahuatl noun tlachiuhtli1 which means1 8something made or formed or engendered10 or 8earth which is ploughed and sown40 ,then there is the verb tlachipaua which means1 8the smile of dawn1 the break of day1 the clearing up of the weather10 also the purification and cleansing1 all of which were supposed to be under the dominion of the rain-god and of his living representatives on earth1 the rain-priests4 ,the seemingly conflicting fact that the tlachieloni sceptre was also assigned to the god of fire is explained by the existence of the verb tiachinoato burn up the fields or forests1 and of the noun tlachi-noliztlithe act of burning up or scorching the fields or forests1 and finally1 metaphorically1 tlachinoli-teuotlwar or battledestruction4 ,it is only when we thus realize all the natives could express by the image of an eye1 looking through a circle1 that we begin to grasp its full meaning when employed as a symbol in their picture writings4 ,as to the obsidian mirror1 which undoubtedly was the symbol of ,tezcatlipoca and1 consequently1 must have pertained to his representative1 the priest of the ,night1 we find that it played a most prominent rle in the cult he presided over4 ,in the first case it appears as though it was resorted to in ,mexico as in the conquered province of ,guatemala1 as the oracle which rendered final judgment4 ,a series of illustrations1 etc41 to be published in my final work on the ,calendar ,system1 will prove satisfactorily that the ,mexican astronomers extensively employed black obsidian mirrors as an aid to astronomical observations1 by means of reflection4 ,besides mirrors on the summits of temples and mountains1 certain square columns1 placed on an elevation and faced with a broad band of polished obsidian1 are pictured in some ,codices4 ,it is obvious that the latter in particular1 if carefully oriented1 would have served as an admirable means of registering the periodical return of planets1 stars or constellations to certain positions2 they would then be reflected on the polished surface1 as in a frame4 ,in certain ,codices the double1 tau-shaped courtyard or enclosure surrounded by a high wall with battlements1 which was employed in the daytime for the national game of ball1 figures in combination with obsidian mirrors4 ,i draw attention to the fact that the name of these courtyards was tlach-tli1 which literally means the looking placethe observatory and that1 amongst the edifices of the great temple1 a tezca-tlachtliobsidian-mirror-observator y1 is described4 ,i shall demonstrate more fully1 on another occasion1 that the chief purpose of these enclosures was to serve as astronomical observatories4 ,dr4 ,brinton1 ,seor ,troncoso and other authorities have already observed that the game of ball itself was intended to represent the idea of the perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies4 7,see ,american ,hero-myths1 p4 #aai47 ,returning to rexamine the divine title ,tezcatlipoca we see that1 when interpreted as 8the lord of the shining obsidian mirror10 it was the most appropriate title of the lord of the ,nocturnal ,heaven1 which myriads of mirrors reflected each night1 throughout the land4 ,it is easy to see how the habit of referring to the ,temple ,minor1 in order to ascertain the positions of the stars1 would naturally lead to its being consulted more extensively as an oracle later on4 ,we thus clearly perceive how the lord of the ,night1 whose priests called themselves 8the sons of the ,night10 became intimately associated with divination and how the idea of a definite connection between the movements of the stars or human destinies would1 in the lapse of centuries1 make a deep and indelible impression upon the minds of men4 ,if the obsidian mirror was the symbol1 par excellence1 of ,mexican star cult1 there are evidences that the small mirror of polished pyrites was that of the sun-cult4 ,the latter seems to have been employed1 in some way or other1 for the concentration of the rays of the sun required for the lighting of the sacred fire1 at noon1 on the days of the vernal equinox and summer solstice4 ,as in ,peru1 this duty devolved upon the high priest of the ,above or the ,son of the ,sun1 a title which undoubtedly pertained also to the ,mexican ruler1 though not employed so ostentatiously as in ,peru4 ,a keen emulation1 which may almost be termed an intense rivalry1 seems to have existed between the two cults1 which ,sahagun even goes so far as to designate as two religions4 ,from a chapter of his ,historia we even learn that the entire population of ,mexico was divided into two halves who respectively belonged to one or the other religion1 a fact which naturally affected the position of the two classes of people and had created the native ideas1 of an upper and a lower class or caste which will be further discussed4 ,sahagun's informants explained to him that1 when a child was born1 its parents1 according to their class1 registered it at one of the two educational establishments for the young and took vows to have it educated there as soon as it attained a suitable age4 ,the lower class took their offspring to the ,telpuchcalli1 where they were dedicated to the service of the community and to warfare1 i4 e41 the ruling class4 8,the #8,lords1 chieftains or elders1' offered their sons to the ,calmecac to be educated for the priesthood40 ,it being impossible to present here in full the data showing how certain primitive conceptions had developed further and how some human occupations had become associated with the ,above and others with the ,below1 ,i will but point out the important fact that the city of ,mexico1 divided into four quarters1 each of which had five subdivisions 7calpullis71 actually consisted of two distinct parts4 ,one of these was ,mexico proper1 where the ,great ,temple stood and where ,montezuma and the lords resided2 the other was ,tlatelolco1 where the lower classes dwelt and the merchant class prevailed4 ,after a certain revolt the inhabitants of this portion of the city were1 we are told1 8degraded to the rank of women0 7see ,bandelier1 op4 et loc4 cit474 ,from this it would seem evident that their affairs or lawsuits were settled in the official house named the ,cihua-tecpaneca1 whilst the affairs of the nobility1 residing in ,mexico proper1 were disposed of in the ,tlaca-tecpaneca 7see ,duran1 chap4 #c74 ,knowledge of the prevalence of the division of the population into two parts is gained through a passage of ,ixtl-ilxo-chitl's ,historia 7chap4 ,,xxxv1 p4 #bda73 8,to ,quetzalmemalitzin was given the lordship of ,teotihuacan 444 with the title of ,captain-general of the dominion of the noblemen4 ,all affairs or lawsuits of the lords and the nobility belonging to the towns of the provinces situated in the plain1 were to be attended to and settled in his town4 ,the same title was bestowed upon ,quechaltecpantzin of ,otompan1 with the difference that he was the captain-general of the commoners and attended to the affairs and claims of the commoners and populace of the provinces in the plains40 ,a further detail concerning the position of the ancient capital of ,mexico should not be omitted1 for it is described as follows by the ,english friar ,thomas ,gage1 who visited it in #afbe3 8,the situation of this city is much like that of ,venice1 but only differs in this1 that ,venice is built upon the sea-water1 and ,mexico upon a lake1 which seeming one is indeed two2 one part whereof is standing water1 the other ebbeth and floweth according to the wind that bloweth4 ,that part which standeth is wholesome1 good and sweet1 and yieldeth store of small fish4 ,that part which ebbeth and floweth is a saltish bitter and pestiferous water1 yielding no kind of fish1 small or great0 7p4 #dc74 ,added to other data1 this detail seems to indicate that the geographical position of the capital had been chosen with utmost care and profound thought1 so that1 built on a dual island on a dual lake1 it should be in itself an image or illustration of the ideas of organization which ,i have shown to have dominated the entire native civilization4 ,if it be admitted1 as ,i think is evident1 that the site of the capital was chosen and mapped out in accordance with these ideas1 then we undoubtedly have1 in ancient ,mexico1 not only one of the most remarkable 8,holy ,cities0 ever built by mankind1 but also the most convincing proof of the great antiquity and high development of the civilization under whose influence one of the greatest capitals of ancient ,america was founded4 ,it is impossible to read the following descriptions without recognizing that the identical fundamental ideas had undoubtedly determined the native topography of capitals situated in other parts of the continent4 ,beginning with ,guatemala1 which formed a part of ancient ,mexico1 ,i refer to the plan of the ancient capital and its description by ,fuentes of ,guzman1 published by ,dr4 ,otto ,stoll in his work already cited3 8,a deep ditch1 running from north to south1 divided the town into two portions4 ,one of these1 situated to the east1 was inhabited by the nobility2 whilst the commoners 7,macehuales7 lived in the western division40 ,i pause here to call attention to the intentional coincidence that the association of the east with the ,above1 and the west with the ,below1 is exemplified here1 topographically4 ,the plan shows that the eastern half contained1 in its centre1 a great1 oblong enclosure1 surrounded by a high wall4 ,a wall1 running from east to west1 divided this enclosure into two distinct courtyards with wide separate entrances from the west4 ,the northern courtyard1 designated as the 8,place of the ,palace10 contains several buildings4 ,the southern one1 named the 8,place of the ,temple10 contains an edifice on a terraced mound and several others4 ,it is noticeable that1 in the exact middle of the central wall1 there is a seemingly double1 unfortunately indistinguishable object1 or building1 which marks the exact middle of the entire dual enclosure4 ,it is particularly interesting that the ,east ,city is divided into two portions by a wall running from the southeast angle of the wall of the ,temple courtyard to the outer wall of the city4 ,the southern half1 in which the 8,tribunal or hill of justice is to be seen1 is designated as containing the houses of the ,ahauas or heads of the ,calpuls40 ,the northern half1 containing many houses1 lacks designation4 ,the ,west city is likewise divided into two distinct portions by a broad street1 enclosed by a hill wall and conducting from the western and only entrance to the city directly to the ,place of the ,temple4 ,a deep trench or ditch encloses the entire city1 whilst nine watch-towers1 on small hills1 are placed at equal distances around it4 ,if this precious document clearly reveals the ground plan on which the native capitals were built1 in accordance with the dominant idea1 the following native map shows that the ancient dominion of ,yucatan1 for instance1 was figured as an integral whole with form of a flat disc divided into four quarters1 ,ho1 the modern ,merida1 in its centre4 ,this map1 copied from the native ,codex ,chumazel1 has been published by ,seor ,crescencio ,carillo of ,ancona in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dc1 as showing the territorial division of ,yucatan before the ,conquest 7fig4 #bg74 ,according to ,herrera and ,diego de ,landa1 the unity of the dominion was destroyed about two centuries before the ,conquest by the destruction of the capital1 ,mayapan4 ,the land then remained divided amongst many independent chiefs or ,bacabs4 ,seor ,carillo renders the ,maya descriptive text written under the map1 as follows3 8,here is ,mani4 ,the beginning of the land1 or its entrance1 is ,campeche4 ,the extremity of the wing of the land is ,calkini2 the 7chun7 place where the wing grows or begins1 is ,izamal4 ,the half of the wing is ,zaci2 the tip of the wing is ,cumkal4 ,the head of the land is the city1 the capital ,ho40 ,illustration4 ,figure #bg4 ,the foregoing text shows that1 notwithstanding the circular shape in which it is figured1 the dominion was evidently thought of as in the form of a bird1 the head of which was the capital4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bh4 ,this figure of speech seems to have been prevalent in ,mexico also and to be conveyed by the representation1 in the ,vienna ,codex1 of a double tau-shape to which the head1 wings and claw1 and tail of a quetzal are attached 7fig4 #bh1 no4 #h74 ,as ,i shall have occasion to demonstrate further on1 the double tau signifies the ,above and the ,below and their union forming an integral whole4 ,the following ,nahuatl terms explain by themselves the symbolism of the bird-figure3 cuitlapillithe tail of an animal or bird1 atlapallithe wings of a bird1 or the leaves of a tree1 cuitlapalli atlapallivassals1 the populace or lower classes1 the laborers4 ,these words furnish irrefutable evidence that the lower class was familiarly known in ,mexico as 8the wings and the tail0 of the commonwealth or state1 or the leaves 8on the trees0 of the tribe4 ,sahagun states1 on the other hand1 that the ,mexicans employed the metaphor of 8a bird with wings and a tail0 to designate a lord1 governor or ruler4 ,he also records that the terms hair1 nails1 a thorn1 a spine1 beard and eyelashes1 were used to signify 8someone who was noble1 generous or of the lineage of the lords40 ,such metaphors as these may well cause us to despair at arriving at a complete understanding of the native imagery and symbolism4 ,the symbolism of the bird's claw yet remains to be looked into4 ,the ,nahuatl for the same is xo-maxaltic1 xo-tzayanqui or cho-cholli4 ,in one of the ancient ,mexican harangues1 previously quoted1 it is said of the supreme ruler that he had been given 8fangs and nails0 in order to inspire fear and reverence4 ,scattered evidence and the fact that in the ,codex ,mendoza the decorated claws of an eagle1 for instance1 appear as a military device on the shields of certain war chiefs1 seem to indicate that the warriors were spoken of1 metaphorically1 as 8the claws or nails0 of the state4 ,the following passage finally proves that the tlachtli or courtyard the shape of which was a double tau1 as in fig4 #bh1 no4 #h1 was regarded by the ,mexicans as an image of the state itself4 ,in another native harangue it was said of the newly-elected ruler3 8,he is now placed or put into the ,tlachtli1 he has been invested with the leathern gloves1 so that he can govern and throw back the ball to the one who throws it to him in the game4 ,for the business of governing very much resembles this game and the game of dice0 7,sahagun1 book ,,vi1 chap4 xiii74 ,the latter game alluded to1 the patolli1 was played on a mat in the shape of a cross1 marked off with divisions1 with stone markers1 the moves of which were decided by the numbers obtained on casting the dice1 which consisted of beans with marks on them4 ,it is interesting to find that the word pat-olli seems to be connected with the verb pat-cayotiato be substituted in the place of another1 or to succeed another in office or dignity4 ,the above comparison of the game to the business of governing indicates that a feature of the government was a methodical succession or rotation in office or dignity1 a point to which ,i draw special attention1 as ,i shall refer to it later4 ,the evidence that the ,mexicans regarded the form of the courtyard1 named tlachtli1 as that of the state itself is noteworthy4 ,on the other hand1 the native map contained in the ,codex ,mendoza1 p4 #a1 shows us that they figured their territory as a square1 surrounded by water and divided into four equal parts by diagonal cross-streams or canals4 ,as in the ,maya map the centre of this is occupied by the well-known hieroglyph or rebus of ,te-noch-ti-tlan1 the ancient capital1 which consisted of ,mexico and ,tlatelolco4 ,in three of the four triangular divisions1 two chieftains are figured1 whilst in one there are four1 the complete number of chieftains thus being ten4 ,the incontrovertible evidence that the dominion of the ,mexicans1 as well as that of the ,mayas1 was figured and regarded as an integral whole has seemed to me to be of extreme importance1 because it points to a fresh interpretation of the much-discussed meaning of the name ,tullan1 8the glorious centre of culture where the high priest ,quetzalcoatl1 had dwelt and whence he had been driven by the wiles of his enemies4 ,it is a place that we hear of in the oldest myths and legends of many and different races4 ,not only the ,aztecs1 but the ,mayas of ,yucatan and the ,kiches and ,cakchiquels of ,guatemala1 bewailed in woful songs1 the loss of that beautiful land and counted its destruction as the common starting-point in their annals4444 ,according to the ancient ,cakchiquel legends1 however1 444 #8there were four ,tullans1 as the ancient men have told us4' ,the most venerable traditions of the ,maya race claimed for them a migration from ,tullan in ,zuyva40444 8,when it happened to me10 says ,friar ,duran1 8to ask a ,mexican ,indian who cut this pass through the mountains or who opened that spring of water or who built that old ruin8 the answer was3 ,the ,tultecs1 the disciples of ,papa10 i4 e41 ,quetzalcoatl4 7,see ,brinton1 ,american ,hero-,myths1 p4 #hh47 ,considering that the identity of ,tullan has not yet been satisfactorily established1 that several ,tullans are said to have existed and that a small town1 about a dozen leagues to the northeast of ,mexico1 is named ,tullan-tzincolittle ,tullan1 ,i should like to direct the attention of ,americanists to the following ,maya words3 ,tul-umfortification1 edifice1 wall and enclosure4 ,tula-cal1 ,tuliz1 adjectiveswhole1 entire1 undivided1 integral4 ,tul-ul1 adjectivegeneral1 universal4 ,tul-tic1 verbto belong1 to correspond to something4 ,tulall around or full4 ,tulin composition1 to have abundance4 ,tulnahto be too full1 to overflow1 to proceed1 to issue1 abound1 high-tide4 ,tulaanpast participle of tul4 ,i am of opinion that1 after carefully examining the foregoing words and their meanings1 we must admit that an intelligible and satisfactory derivation and signification of the much-discussed ,tula of the ,mexicans1 which has been vainly sought in the ,nahuatl language1 are obtained if we connect it with the ,maya words for fortress1 or stronghold1 an enclosed place1 an integral whole1 an overflowing source of abundance and plenty4 ,if we do this1 then the problematic term ,tolteca1 given by ,mexicans to the superior people from whom they had derived their culture and knowledge1 means nothing more than such persons who had belonged 7,maya verb tultic7 or were members of a highly cultured commonwealth or ancient centre of civilization1 such as had flourished during countless centuries1 in ,yucatan and the present ,chiapas1 ,honduras and ,guatemala4 ,reserving this subject for future1 more detailed1 discussion1 ,i point out that the name ,ho1 given to the capital1 which is designated in the map as the 8head of the land10 is obviously derived from the ,maya hol1 hool1 or hoot1 which means not only head but also chieftain4 ,the circumstance that a single word1 ,ho1 conveyed the triple meaning of a capital1 a chieftain and a head1 is particularly noteworthy1 as it affords not only important clues to native symbolism1 which ,i shall trace later on1 but also shows that the presence of the syllable ,ho or ,o1 in certain native names of localities1 may possibly indicate that it was a capital1 the residence of a chieftain4 ,further light is shed upon the following native association of ideas when the following words are studied4 ,the ancient ,maya name for a pyramid or artificial mound was ho-m and the pyramidal elevations on which temples or palaces were built were designated as ho-mul or o-mul 7see ,vocabulary1 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg74 ,the title ,holpop was moreover that of the 8chieftain of the mat10 whose prerogative it was to sit on a mat and to beat the sacred drum during the public dances or ritual performances 7,cogolludo74 ,the ancient word for vase1 vessel or cup in general was ho-och1 whilst o-och meant food or maintenance 7,arte de la lengua ,maya1 ,fray ,beltram de ,santa ,rosa1 ed4 ,espinosa1 ,merida1 #ahei74 ,if the foregoing data be summarized we find that the word ho1 the ancient name of the head of the land1 which is figured in its centre1 is not only homonymous with capital and chieftain1 but also with pyramid1 vase or receptacle and maintenance1 and finally with the numeral #e1 also 8ho40 ,we shall see that the identical ideas were similarly associated in ancient ,mexico4 ,referring once more to the ancient map of ,yucatan and to the peculiarity that the head of the figurative bird1 the capital1 ,ho1 is supposed to occupy the centre of the state1 ,i point out nos4 #a and #e 7fig4 #bh7 from the ,bodleian and ,selden ,,mss4 as somewhat analogous representations of a central capital or chief1 and nos4 #c and #f as possibly being images of a territorial subdivision of the state1 resembling a spider's web4 ,in an unpublished ,mexican ,,ms41 which has been recently brought to light1 the middle of the concentric circles is painted blue and suggests the idea of a system of distribution or irrigation1 proceeding from a central supply of water and radiating in all directions4 ,an accentuation of centrality is brought into relief in fig4 #bh1 no4 #f1 where the spider's web is placed in the middle1 between the two peaks of a mountain4 ,in no4 #b a small quadruple sign1 which frequently occurs in the ,vienna ,codex1 always painted in the colors of the four quarters and united by a cross-band across the centre 7no4 #d74 also figures between two peaks1 above two feet1 the significance of which ,i do not venture to determine4 ,a remarkable circular disc resembling the ,maya map1 and also divided into four parts by cross lines1 but exhibiting footsteps denoting rotation1 is represented in the entrance of a temple1 in the ,vienna ,codex 7fig4 #bh1 no4 #g74 ,these figures will be referred to again further on4 ,let us now bestow attention upon the names of the ,mexican capital and first note that the edifice of the ,great ,temple1 in which the ,cihuacoatl performed an annual ceremony already mentioned1 was called tlal-xic-co1 literally 8in the navel of the earth or land0 7from tlalliearth1 land or country1 xictlinavel and coin7 7,sahagun1 book ,,ii1 appendix74 ,besides this edifice there was1 in the middle of the lagoon of ,chalco1 an island1 which1 to this day1 bears the name of ,xicoin the navel or centre4 ,this indicates the curious circumstance that the edifice and island had apparently been regarded as forming 8ideal centres10 and shows that the name of ,mexico itself may have been associated with the same conception being1 as it was1 the central seat of government4 ,gomara states that 8the city was divided into two halves or parts1 one named ,tlal-telolcosmall island 7literally1 #8in the earth-mound'7 and the other named ,mexico1 which means #8something which flows1' 0 7,histoire ,gnralle des ,indes1 ,paris1 #afcd1 chap4 #ch74 ,the ,nahuatl word alluded to can be no other than the verb memeya which1 according to ,molina1 signifies 8water1 or something liquid which issues or flows in many directions40 ,i have already pointed out that the ,maya words to express water which rises and overflows1 high tide and1 by extension1 abundance and plenty1 are tul1 tulnah and1 finally1 tulaan1 past participle of tul4 ,if the particle 8me0 conveyed the above idea1 its combination with xico would cause the name ,mexico to be replete with significance and to mean 8the figurative centre whence all maintenance proceeded and flowed in all directions1 throughout the land40 ,the ,borgian ,codex furnishes representations of identical meaning4 ,on page #d a human body1 the centre of which forms a large red disc1 is stretched across the double tau-shaped tlachtli which obviously represents the four quarters1 being painted with their four symbolic colors4 ,it is particularly noteworthy that the limbs of the central figure are represented as wearing the green skin of a lizard1 while its face is enclosed in the open jaws of the reptile4 ,it should also be noted here that whilst the ,nahuatl names are cuetz-palin and topitzin1 the ,maya term for lizard is mech or ix-mech4 ,on the same page a similar1 but smaller1 figure is depicted on a background representing the nocturnal heaven4 ,on the following page the figure of a dead woman is stretched on a red disc whilst a priest is drilling the fire-stick into a circular symbol1 with four balls1 which is the well-known symbol for chalchiuitljade4 ,as the name of the female water goddess is ,chalchiutlycue1 this detail is significant and will be referred to later on4 ,it is noteworthy that on both pages #e and #f the performance of the above rite is accompanied by the image of the goddess of the earth and underworld1 represented with a death's head1 and with her hair strewn with stars4 ,her body is that of a green lizard1 and she carries ears and blossoms of maize and holds a blue garment on which the chalchihuitl symbol figures4 ,in connection with representatives of the human form outstretched in sacrifice1 on whose body the rite of kindling the sacred fire or of extracting the heart is being performed1 it seems evident that1 under the dominion of the fundamental ideas ,i have been discussing1 the native sages regarded and utilized the human form as an image of the ,middle and ,four ,quarters4 ,it is well known that the number #bj was termed 8one count0 and connected with the number of fingers and toes1 distributed equally on his four extremities4 ,the human victim thus formed a living swastika or cross and became not only the consecrated image of the supreme1 creative1 central divinity who controlled the ,four ,quarters1 but also an image of the central government with its supreme ruler2 whilst the four chiefs of the ,quarters were symbolized by the four limbs4 ,each of these terminated in a symbolized group consisting of a hand1 maitl1 with a thumb 7touey mapilli or vei mapilli1 literally1 the great finger1 or our great finger7 and four fingers 7mapilli72 or of a great toe1 touei xopil or topec-xopil 7literally1 our great toe1 or our lord toe7 and of four toesxopilli4 ,illustration4 ,figure #bi4 ,the above association of ideas was doubtlessly accentuated by the fact that the word pilli means a nobleman1 a chieftain2 thence he terms pilconetlthe son of a nobleman and pilhuahe who has sons 7pil in this case meaning son and huapossessor of74 ,this latter fact could have been very aptly conveyed in the picture-writings by employing fingers to express the sound 8pilli40 ,the number of sons a chieftain had could thus be easily expressed by his exhibiting a corresponding number of fingers4 ,i shall revert to this possibility presently1 and now referring to fig4 #bi1 no4 #b1 direct attention to the obvious intention to express the idea that the fire produced was distributed to the four quarters by means of the figures1 painted in symbolical colors1 three of which are visible4 ,another picture in the same ,codex represents four similar figures springing towards the cardinal points from a source or fountain of water1 whilst a priest above a triangular cloak7#g7 holds a pair of weapons 787 in his hands 7fig4 #bi1 no4 #a74 ,if carefully studied1 these groups seem to corroborate the derivation of the name ,mexico1 given above4 ,what is more1 the first group affords an explanation of the meaning and purpose of three strange recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels1 which have been respectively found in ,mexico1 ,tlaxcala and ,chichen-,itza and are now preserved at the ,national ,museum in ,mexico4 ,they furnish the most convincing proof that an identical cult and symbolism had existed in these widely-separated localities4 ,the conclusion ,i have previously expressed1 that an actual connection had been established between ,chichen-,itza and ,mexico by the ,maya high priest ,kukulcan1 or ,quetzalcoatl1 is thus corroborated by undeniable evidence1 which will be supplemented later on4 ,the three monoliths have been described and illustrated in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,mexico1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bgj1 by the late ,seor ,jesus ,sanchez1 and are here reproduced4 ,the statue exhumed at ,chichen-,itza by ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon 7pl4 ,,iv1 fig4 #a7 closely resembles that found at ,tlaxcalla in ,mexico 7pl4 ,,iii1 fig4 #b74 ,dr4 ,brinton1 who erroneously describes the ,chichen-,itza statue as representing 8a sleeping god10 points out the extremely important fact that there was a divinity worshipped in ,yucatan called ,cum-ahau1 8the lord of the vase10 who is designated in a ,,ms4 dictionary as 8,lucifer 7the lord of the underworld7 the principal native divinity40 ,he adds there is good ground to suppose that this lord of the vase 444 was the god of fertility common to the ,maya and ,mexican cult 7,hero-,myths1 p4 #afe74 ,considering that the great market-place in the capital was actually the centre to which the entire product of the land was periodically carried from its remotest confines1 was there classified1 exchanged or distributed far and wide1 the comparison to a central flowing source of maintenance was most appropriate4 ,that some particular spot in or near the city should have gradually assumed importance and sanctity as marking the exact centre of the metropolis1 i4 e41 of the integral whole of the ,mexican 8empire0 is but natural and it is not surprising to find that solemn rites were performed on this spot4 ,in one of the chronicles to which ,i shall revert1 it is stated that the ,new ,fire was at times kindled on the prostrate body of a slave1 and this curious statement is corroborated by a picture in the ,borgian ,codex1 showing a priest producing fire from a circular vessel placed on the body of a victim beneath whom a face enclosed in the open jaws of a reptile1 is visible 7fig4 #bi74 ,illustration4 ,plate ,,iv4 ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon1 to whom much credit is due for its discovery1 identified the ,chichen-,itza statue1 for reasons not fully explained1 as a portrait of ,chac-,mool1 or ,lord ,tiger1 and relates that it was found at a depth of eight metres1 not far from the base of the ,great ,pyramid ,temple4 ,a statue of a standing tiger1 with a human head and a shallow depression in its back1 was also found near the same spot4 ,i have seen other sculptured figures of human beings holding a vase1 as at the hacienda near ,xochicalco1 ,mexico1 and of tigers1 with circular depressions on their backs1 and hope to be able to reproduce their photographs on another occasion4 ,the most elaborately sculptured recumbent statue is undoubtedly that which was found in or near the city of ,mexico 7pl4 ,,iv1 fig4 #c74 ,the under surface of its base 7pl4 ,,iv1 fig4 #e7 is entirely covered with zigzag water lines and representations of roots of plants1 figured as in the ,codices2 shells1 one kind of which is the well-known symbol of parturition1 and frogs which are intimately associated with water symbolism4 ,on the hair of the statue a flower-like ornament is carved 7pl4 ,,iv1 fig4 #d7 in connection with which it should be noted that the ,nahuatl for flower is xochitl1 pronounced hoochitl1 resembling the ,maya hoochvase4 ,the small groups of five dots forming a border around the circular vessel are noteworthy1 as they are likewise sculptured on the calendar-stone4 ,the characteristic scrolls about the eyes of the figure show that it personates tlaloc1 or earth-wine4 ,the fertility of the earth1 caused by rain1 is symbolized by the wreath of ears of corn and reeds 7,nahuatl1 tollin7 which is sculptured around the base of this1 one of the most remarkable of ancient ,american monuments4 ,seor ,sanchez cites ,torquemada 7,monarquia ,indiana1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eb7 as the only authority who mentions a recumbent image or idol and relates that1 8in the city of ,tula1 there was preserved in the great temple1 an image of ,quetzalcoatl 444 he was figured as lying down1 as though going to sleep4444 ,out of reverence the image was covered with mantles or cloths4444 ,they said that when sterile women made offerings or sacrifices to the god ,quetzalcoatl1 he immediately caused them to become pregnant44440 ,he was the god of the ,winds which he sent to sweep or clear the way for the tlaloques8the earth-wine0 gods4 ,seor ,sanchez also quotes ,gama1 who1 basing himself upon ,torquemada's authority1 maintains that ,tezcatzon-catl1 the principal rain or octli-god1 was figured as lying in an intoxicated condition1 holding a vase of pulque in his hands4 ,to the above data ,i add the description by ,bernal ,diaz1 of a 8figure in sculpture0 he saw on the summit of the great temple of ,mexico3 8,it was half man and half lizard 7lagarto71 was encrusted with precious stones and one-half of it was covered with cloths4 ,they said that half of it was full of all the kinds of seeds that were produced in the entire land1 and told me that it was the god of sown land1 of seeds and fruits4 ,i do not remember his name44440 7,historia ,verdadera1 p4 #ga74 ,it may be as well to note1 that the ,nahuatl names for lizard1 cuetz-palin and topitzin1 approximately convey the sound of the first syllables of the name of the culture-hero ,quetzalcoatl1 and of the title 8topiltzin0 bestowed upon him4 ,it must1 of course1 remain a matter of conjecture whether the lizard was possibly employed in the above case as a pictograph1 to express the sound of its name4 ,one thing seems certain1 that the ,tula image of ,quetzalcoatl1 to which divinity barren women directed their invocations1 and the statue described by ,bernal ,diaz as that 8of the god of seeds1 fruits and cultivated land10 were undoubtedly analogous to the sculptured recumbent figure found in ,mexico1 and exhibiting the symbols of ,tlaloc1 or earth-wine1 of maize1 and of parturition4 ,bernal ,diaz further relates that the said image was kept on the uppermost terrace of the ,great ,temple1 in one of five 8concavities surrounded by barbacans or low walls the wood-work of which was very richly carved0 7op4 et loc4 cit474 ,the inference to be drawn from the foregoing data is that the ,mexicans and the ,mayas habitually kept1 on the summit of their principal temple1 in their centres of government1 a statue holding a circular vessel and figuratively representing the 8navel or centre of the land40 ,the group of ideas already traced in the ,maya hocapital1 hompyramid1 ho-ochvessel1 o-ochmaintenance1 ho#e1 thus proves to be completely carried out1 for1 on this consecrated spot1 which emblematized the source whence all life proceeded1 sacred emblematic rites were performed1 the purpose of which was to typify the union1 in the centre1 of the four elements requisite for the productiveness of the earth4 ,illustration4 ,figure #cj4 ,the ground plan of the ,caracol or ,round ,temple of ,chichen-,itza1 which was built1 according to tradition1 by the high priest ,quetzalcoatl1 carries out the idea of the middle and of the four quarters in so obvious a manner that it may safely be assumed that it represented the supposed centre of a dominion 7fig4 #cj74 ,referring the reader to the interesting description of this remarkable edifice in ,mr4 ,william ,holmes' valuable work already cited1 ,i note that round temples1 dedicated to ,quetzalcoatl1 are recorded to have also existed in ,mexico4 ,it seems probable that1 at certain festivals1 the living representatives of the ,above and ,below performed certain sacred rites on the summit of one of these circular edifices4 ,it is obvious that such rites could only have been fitly performed by the coperation of both twin rulers or ,quequetzalcoas1 each of whom personified two elements4 ,the appropriate season for such rites would be that when the necessity of insuring a successful harvest would seem most urgent4 ,it is a recorded fact that the most solemn festivals of the year were held between the vernal equinox1 on which date the ritual year began1 and the fall of the first rain which usually occurs about the middle of ,may4 ,it is extremely significant that at this precise period the festival toxcatl took place 7cf4 ,maya thoaxol or thoxoldistribution1 giving each one a little1 and o-ochfood or maintenance7 during which ,tezcatlipoca and ,huitzilopochtli were jointly honored4 ,during this festival the 8sacred dough10 named tzoalli1 was a prominent feature of the ritual and it was undoubtedly associated with the idea of the life-giving union of the four elements1 the ,above and ,below1 or the male and female principles4 ,it can1 moreover1 be directly connected with the recumbent statues representing the centre2 for1 whilst ,bernal ,diaz recorded that the statue on the summit of the ,great ,temple held a collection of all the seeds of the land1 ,corts1 in his descriptive letter1 gives us an important detail which evidently applied to the identical statue4 ,he relates that 8the bodies of the idols are made of a dough consisting of all the kinds of seeds and vegetables that these people ate4 ,these are ground1 mixed with each other and then moistened with the blood of the hearts of human victims 4440 7op4 cit4 p4 #aje74 ,sahagun relates that an image of the earth goddess1 under the title of ,seven-serpents or twins1 was made of this sacred dough and that offerings of all kinds of maize1 beans1 etc41 were made before it 8because she is the author and giver of all these things which sustain the life of the people0 7book ,,ii1 #d74 ,it is well known that the dough images were broken into small pieces and these were distributed to the priests and people1 who partook of the substance after having prepared themselves by fasting1 for the sacred rite4 ,i draw attention to the fact that the above sacred substance is but the natural outcome of the primitive notion already mentioned1 which led the hunters to spill blood upon the earth1 to obtain its increased fruitfulness4 ,an insight having been thus obtained of the origin of blood sacrifices in ancient ,america1 it is possible to understand the meaning of certain representations showing the performance of ritual blood-offerings4 ,on the well-known bas-relief preserved in the ,national ,museum of ,mexico1 and illustrated in the ,anales 7vol4 ,i1 p4 #fc71 the two historical rulers of ancient ,mexico1 who figure as ,quequetzalcoas1 or divine twins1 in exactly the same costume1 are sculptured with blood flowing from their shins and in the act of piercing their ears with a sharp bone instrument4 ,two streams of blood descend from these and meet before falling into the open jaws figured beneath an altar1 on which two conventionalized flowers appear4 ,the two rows of teethtlantli1 convey the sound of the affix tlanland of1 or tlalliearth4 ,but the most remarkable and striking instance of the group of ideas we have been studying is found on p4 #fb of the ,borgian ,codex4 ,on a background formed by a pool of water1 there is a group which represents the 8earth-mother0 lying on a band of lizard-skin1 with two maize plants issuing from her body and growing into a large two-branched tree1 in the centre of which is a flint-knife or tecpatl4 ,a bird stands on its summit and its branches terminate in maize plants4 ,its growth is being furthered by the two streams of blood which proceed from two human figures1 standing at each side of the tree4 ,one is painted black and evidently represents the ,lord of the ,below2 the other is painted blue-green and represents the ,lord of the ,above4 ,the blood-sacrifice they are jointly offering is that mentioned in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 as performed in order to obtain generation4 ,unquestionably this symbolical group would have been equally intelligible to ,mayas or ,mexicans1 since the ideas it expressed were held in common by both people4 ,before proceeding further it is necessary to state that after the native philosophers had1 for an indefinite period of time1 been satisfied with the artificial division of all things into four quarters1 corresponding to the cardinal points and elements1 the idea of the ,above and ,below gradually grew in importance1 whilst prolonged thought and observation disclosed that the above classification demanded revision4 ,on carefully investigating the attributes of the principal ancient ,mexican deities or personifications of the elements we see that the native thinkers had found themselves obliged to make a distinction between the different forms of each element1 having realized1 for instance1 that water not only fell to earth from the heaven1 but also issued from the depths of the earth in the form of springs or fountains1 and formed rivers and lakes4 ,the final conclusions they reached in this instance are best explained by the fact that the name of the god ,tlaloc means earth-wine or rain only1 and that his sister 8,chalchiuhtlycue0 appears as the personification of wells1 springs1 rivers and lakes4 ,it is evident that the classification of the ocean or sea must have given rise to much serious thought4 ,we know how the problem was solved by the fact that the ,nahuatl name for the ocean is 8ilhuica-atl0heaven-water4 ,accordingly1 the rain and the ocean pertained to the heaven1 the ,above and male principle1 whilst the wells1 springs1 rivers1 etc41 belonged to the earth1 the ,below1 the female principle4 ,as in this case1 so it was with the other elements1 each of which was finally personified by a male deity and his female counterpart1 which1 in some cases1 tended to represent its distinctive and beneficent properties4 ,as these deities are separately treated in my commentary of the 8,lyfe of the ,indians0 and lack of space forbids my discussing them here1 ,i shall but mention that the ultimate native systematization of the elements1 each of which was thought of as an attribute only of supreme and central divinity1 corresponds exactly to that held by the ,zuis of to-day and set forth in the following account given by ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing and quoted in ,dr4 ,brinton's 8,native ,calendar of ,central ,america and ,mexico0 7p4 #h74 ,in quoting it ,i draw special attention to the numerical divisions given1 as this is absolutely essential for the understanding of the statements ,i shall make1 further on1 concerning the origin of the native ,calendar-systems4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ca4 8,in the ceremonies of the ,zuis the complete terrestrial sphere is symbolized by pointing or blowing the smoke to the four cardinal points1 to the zenith and nadir1 the individual himself making the seventh number4 ,when the celestial is also symbolized1 only the six directions are added to this seven1 because the individual remains the same1 so that the number typifying the universe1 terrestrial and celestial1 becomes #ac4 ,when1 on the other hand1 in their ceremonies1 the rite requires the officiant to typify the supra- and intra-terrestrial spheres1 that is1 the upper and lower worlds the ,above and the ,below1 the same number #ac results1 as it is held that in each the sun stands for the individual1 being in turn the day sun and night sun1 the light and dark sun1 but ever the same and therefore counts but once40 ,after having gained this knowledge of native speculative philosophy1 let us penetrate still further into their modes of thinking by studying1 first of all1 a series of symbols of the earth-mother taken from one of the most valuable of ,mexican ,,mss41 the ,vienna ,codex 7fig4 #ca74 ,in these the idea of the vase1 bowl or receptacle and of the serpent predominates4 ,it is instructive of native thought to find the vase represented as containing a child 7no4 #a71 an agave plant 7no4 #g71 a fire1 denoting warmth 7no4 #c71 a flower 7no4 #ab71 and a bunch of hair1 the numerical symbol for multiplicitythe number #djj 7no4 #e74 ,in no4 #b1 the hollow between two recurved peaks conveys the idea of a central vase2 a band with eyes rests upon the peaks and denotes the heaven4 ,no4 #d shows a double vase1 enclosed in a similar representation of the nocturnal heaven--the idea to be conveyed being evidently that of a receptacle hidden in darkness4 ,no4 #i displays an open jaw1 two claws1 a human heart and a stream of blood issuing from it4 ,nos4 #aj and #aa present different shapes of the serpent's jaw1 the symbol of the earth4 ,the double-headed serpent forming a vase containing a flower 7no4 #ab7 is particularly interesting because the flowerxoch-itl in ,nahuatl1 seems to suggest an intentional likeness to the ,maya word for 8vase1 vessel or cup in general10 ho-och 7,arte de la lengua ,maya1 ,fray ,pedro ,beltran de ,santa ,rosa1 ed4 ,espinosa1 ,mrida1 #ahei7 as well as hoch or o-och8food and maintenance40 ,the symbolical vase-like opening in the core of the agave plant1 7no4 #h7 is such as is made to this day1 in order to collect the juice1 which1 when fermented1 constitutes the sacred wine of the ancient ,mexicans1 octli1 now better known as pulque47#h7 ,as will be shown the ,mexicans considered this as 8the drink of life40 ,its use was rigidly regulated and supervised by the 8octli-lords0 or 8rain-priests0 who distributed it at certain dances1 in order to induce a state of mild intoxication amongst the participants4 ,as in the case of the ,zuis and ,tarahumari ,indians of the present day1 referred to by ,w ,j ,mc,gee1 in his valuable and instructive article on 8,the beginning of ,marriage0 7the ,american ,anthropologist1 vol4 ,,ix1 no4 #aa1 p4 #cga71 8certain ceremonials typifying the fecundity of the earth and of the leading people thereof0 were performed by the ancient ,mexicans4 ,these public ceremonials had also been 8apparently developed to the end that the tribes and peoples might be encouraged to increase and multiply and possess the fecund earth40 ,they took place at the period of the year when the heaven and earth were also supposed to unite1 i4 e41 at the beginning of the rainy season4 ,during this the ordinary out-door occupations of the agriculturist and hunter were forcibly interrupted and the regular and periodical transportations of produce and tribute to the capital became impossible1 owing to torrential rain1 swollen rivers and impassable roads4 ,this period of enforced shelter and confinement indoors seems to have become the definite mating season of the aborigines4 ,at the same time the union of the sexes had obviously assumed a sort of consecration since it was intimately associated with the cosmical1 philosophical and religious ideas and coincided with what was regarded as the annual union of the elements or of the ,above and ,below1 the heaven and earth4 ,at that period of its history1 when the ,aztec race was jointly governed by a priest1 personifying the heaven and a priestess1 8his wife and sister10 who personified the earth1 some form of sacred marriage rite must have been annually performed4 ,the consecrated character of their union must have naturally caused their offspring to be regarded as of a holy and almost divine origin4 ,it is easy to realize1 therefore1 how1 in ancient ,mexico1 the artificial idea of 8superior birth0 came into existence1 how a family or caste of rulers gradually developed1 the members of which were entitled 8teotl0divine1 whilst the men were regarded as 8the sons of ,heaven0 and the women 8the daughters of ,earth40 ,it is obvious from this that the periodical union of the sexes1 accompanied as it was1 by sacred dances and the distribution of sacred wine1 must have gradually assumed a semi-religious character1 whilst the ritual nuptials of the 8divine0 rulers1 typifying1 as it obviously did1 the grand and impressive phenomenon of the rainy season1 must have caused this marriage to assume the character of a hallowed rite and surrounded it with the most elevated and intense religious sentiments of which the native mind was capable4 ,after this recognition of the diverging influences which guided the development of primitive marriage institutions1 we will return to the rain-priests or 8octli-lords10 of whom it is repeatedly stated that there were four hundred1 a number corresponding to an assignment of #ajj or #ebj to each of the four provinces or divisions of the commonwealth4 ,their emblem was the sacred vase or receptacle and in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians0 this will be seen figured on their mantas and shields 7no4 #f;a74 ,a small gold plate1 of the same shape1 is represented as worn by these 8lords10 attached to the nose 7no4 #f;b72 and1 in the same ,,ms41 the symbolical ornament is also carried by the 8sister of ,tlaloc40 ,it was evidently worn1 like similar ornaments in other countries1 hanging from the septum of the nose1 and seems to have indicated a consecration of the breath as the substance of life4 ,as an inference1 merely based on an insight gained into the native modes of thought1 ,i suggest that the explanation for the adoption of this ornament may have been the religious idea that the breath of life1 dividing itself as it issues through the nostrils and uniting when inhaled1 appeared to the native thinkers as a marvellous illustration of unity and duality1 both ideas having constantly been present in their minds4 ,illustration4 ,figure #cb4 ,in the ,vienna ,codex there is a remarkable picture of the earth-vase resting on a slab with five divisions4 ,a profusion of puffs or breaths of air or vapor issue from it and1 branching off in two directions1 form what is like the conventional tree of life1 also met with in ,maya bas-reliefs and documents4 ,at the extremities of the branches which turn downwards1 a serpent's eye is visible and a forked-tongue issues above the middle 7fig4 #cb1 no4 #a74 ,the intention to express an exuberant vitality and growth issuing from the symbolical vase in the centre of the earth1 seems obvious4 ,this idea is still more clearly conveyed1 however1 in two symbolic pictures on pp4 #ba and #bi of the ,codex ,borgia1 which are reproduced as nos4 #a and #d in fig4 #a of this publication4 ,the first represents the vase overflowing with water and containing a flint-knife1 the generator of the vital spark4 ,the central group is surrounded by water and by sun-rays and obviously symbolizes the union of air1 light and water1 constituting the ,above1 with the flint the emblem of the earth-mother and of ,tezcatlipoca1 the lord of the ,under-world4 ,fig4 #a1 no4 #d1 represents the vase overflowing with a liquid1 which is designated as being the sacred octli or earth-wine by the presence of the rabbit1 which expresses the sound of its nametochtli4 ,this rebus is surrounded by the nocturnal heaven strewn with stars and the reference to the union of rain or earth-wine with earth and darkness is evident4 ,it has been generally assumed that these images of the vase1 containing the rabbit or flint-knife1 represented the moon4 ,as the latter was intimately associated with the cult of night1 of the earth-mother and ideas of growth1 it is not impossible that by an extension of symbolism1 this was the case1 but only in the same way as the sun was the emblem of the cult of the ,above4 ,on the other hand the native drawings of the moon in ,sahagun's ,academia ,,ms4 represent it as a crescent with a human profile on the inner side1 and in a specimen preserved at the ,trocadro ,museum1 ,paris1 it is similarly carved in rock crystal4 ,before proceeding to investigate the symbol further1 ,i would point out the general resemblance of the vase1 especially as a conventionalized serpent's jaw1 to the 8horse-shoe0 shape of the problematical stone 8yokes0 which have been so thoroughly studied by ,dr4 ,hermann ,strebel of ,hamburg 7,studien ueber ,steinjoche aus ,mexico and ,mittel-,amerika4 ,internationales ,archiv1 bd4 ,,iii1 #ahij74 ,mr4 ,francis ,parry has advanced a view concerning the meaning of these curious 8sacred stones407#i7 ,this is somewhat corroborated1 as will be shown1 by my recent studies1 which seem to indicate pretty clearly that these symbolical objects pertained to the cult of the earth-mother4 ,a fact of unquestionable importance1 cited by ,mr4 ,parry1 is the certified existence and use1 amongst southern ,californian ,indians of the present day1 of a rudely worked stone of the same shape1 in a native religious rite4 ,the owner of one of these stones1 ,mr4 ,horatio ,rust1 a pioneer resident of ,pasadena1 southern ,california1 exhibited it in the ,anthropological ,section of the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 at ,chicago1 #ahic1 and informed me how he had observed that1 occasionally1 a native assembly took place at a certain spot on a mountain side1 during which invocations and offerings were made4 ,he ascertained that the ceremony on one occasion was the equivalent of the puberty-dances of similar ,california tribes4 ,having visited and examined the spot after one of these celebrations1 in which six young girls1 decorated with garlands of flowers1 were the chief participants1 he found the 8sacred stone10 concealed and surrounded by offerings of corn1 meal and pieces of money4 ,the version published by ,mr4 ,parry is slightly different to this account1 which was given me by ,mr4 ,rust himself4 ,in order fully to appreciate the close analogy between the ,californian ceremonial offering of maize and meal to the emblematic stone and the ancient ,mexican ritual offerings of seeds to an idol1 holding a bowl or vase1 it is necessary to read the following data4 ,at the same time ,i would like to mention here that amongst the ,hupa ,indians of ,california1 who have been termed 8the ,romans of ,northern ,california by reason of their valour and far reaching dominions10 we find that 8flakes or knives of obsidian or jasper1 sometimes measuring #ae inches or more in length1 are employed for sacred purposes and are carried aloft in the hand in certain ceremonial dances1 wrapped with skin or cloth4 ,such knives are esteemed so sacred that the ,indians would on no account part with them1 and ,mr4 ,stephen ,powers found that they could not be purchased at any price407#aj7 ,it is scarcely necessary to recall here that the flint-knife was a well-known ancient ,mexican emblem1 nor to point out the importance of the conclusion that two well-defined symbols which played an important rle in the ,mexican and ,mayan cult of the ,below and of the ,earth-mother1 are actually found in use amongst ,californian ,indians at the present day4 ,a whole flood of light is thrown upon native symbolism1 however1 by the information obtained from the ,zui ,indians by ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,cushing4 ,the following passage1 from their ,creation myth1 affords the most positive confirmation of the foregoing conclusion1 that the bowl or vase was the native emblem of the earth-mother4 ,the ,zui speaker said3 8,is not the bowl the emblem of the ,earth1 our ,mother8 ,for from her we draw both food and drink1 just as the babe draws nourishment from the breast of its mother4 ,and round1 as is the rim of the bowl1 so is the horizon444407#aa7 ,interesting as this explanation of the native symbolism undoubtedly is1 it becomes most important when its full significance is realized and we recognize that originally earthenware bowls themselves were looked upon as sacred emblems formed indeed out of the material of the earth itself4 ,this fact places the invention and manufacture of earthen vessels in an entirely new light and enables us to conjecture and understand why1 quite apart from their utility1 so much care and decoration were lavished upon them and why1 indeed1 they were constantly buried with the dead4 ,they obviously served as sacred emblems of the earth-mother1 to whose care the dead body was confided1 and originally the intention probably was to propitiate her by the beauty of the sacred vessels1 which1 to be symbolical of her bounty1 necessarily contained food and drink4 ,without pausing to discuss how easily this custom would have gradually given birth to the belief that the food and drink thus offered were intended for the use of the dead body itself1 or its soul1 ,i would point out that1 in the absence of clay vessels1 a stone1 rough or worked1 would have also served as an appropriate emblem of the earth-mother1 being as it were1 of her own substance4 ,it is well known that in ancient ,mexico this custom prevailed4 ,there we also find that the bowl- or vase-shaped grave was employed1 with a deeply religious and symbolical meaning4 ,this is clearly revealed by a native drawing in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 representing a native burial4 ,the deceased1 represented by his skull only1 has been placed in a deep hole1 figured as a large inverted horse-shoe1 painted brown and covered with small 8horse-shoe0 marks4 ,the same religious symbolism which led to the adoption of a definite form of sepulchre1 typifying the element earth1 would evidently account for the adoption for burial purposes1 of large clay vessels into which the remains of the dead were placed4 ,in some localities these clay burial urns were1 as we know1 made large enough to contain the dead body itself4 ,the difficulty of manufacturing these would naturally have led to the general adoption of cremation1 simply as a means of reducing the remains so that they could repose in the sacred image of the earth4 ,cremation would1 moreover1 be a rite full of meaning since1 to the native mind1 earth was inseparable from its twin element fire1 and both together constituted the 8,below40 ,it is significant to find1 however1 that the ashes of ,montezuma's predecessors had not been finally consigned to the earth4 ,in strict accordance with their association with the ,heaven and ,above1 their remains were never allowed to come in contact with the earth1 but were usually preserved inside of a hollow wooden effigy of the deceased1 which was dressed in his insignia and placed in a high tower1 built for the express purpose4 ,corts states that there were 8forty very high towers0 in the enclosure of the ,great ,temple of ,mexico and that 8all of these were sepulchres of the lords0 7,historia de ,nueva-,espaa1 ed4 ,lorenzana1 pp4 #aje and #ajf74 ,whilst it is evident that the remains of all lords and priests of heaven should thus be assigned a place of rest high above the earth1 it is equally intelligible that the bodies of the lords and priests of the ,below and all women should be consigned to the interior of the earth and by preference in caves4 ,the ,codex ,fjrvary contains an interesting picture of the tied-up body of a woman1 recognizable as such from the head-dress and her instrument of labor1 the metlatl1 on which the maize is ground4 ,the mummy rests inside of a flat effigy of a serpent's head1 which seems to be carved in wood or stone and closely resembles fig4 #ca1 no4 #aa4 ,it is worth considering whether the carved stone-yokes may not have served in connection with the funeral rites of the consorts of rulers or high priestesses or priests of the ,below4 ,if investigations of the vase or earth symbols are extended to countries lying south of ,mexico1 traces of the existence of an analogous cult are observable4 ,there undoubtedly exists a striking resemblance between the form of the characteristic and peculiar stone 8seats0 which have been found in such numbers in ,ecuador1 to the vase1 fig4 #ca1 no4 #c1 for instance4 ,the employment of these symbolical stones as a consecrated central altar or1 possibly1 as the throne of the living representative of the earth-mother1 would have harmonized with the native ideas which have been traced on the preceding pages4 ,it was also extremely interesting to me to find the identical symbol in the ,maya day-sign ,caban1 which has been identified by ,dr4 ,schellhas and ,geheimrath ,frstemann as a symbol of the earth and is figured on p4 #ii of ,dr4 ,brinton's ,primer of ,mayan ,hieroglyphics4 ,in the sign ,caban1 the horse-shoe mark is accompanied by a series of dots which seem to indicate liquid trickling from the receptacle and permeating the soil1 an idea which is strictly analogous to the much more elaborate ,mexican images of the vase full of rain or 8earth-wine10 fig4 #a1 nos4 #a and #d1 which1 in cursive form1 was employed as the emblem of the pulque1 or octli lords1 the priests of the earth4 ,it is strikingly significant to find that in the ,maya ,codices the drops issuing from the horse-shoe are sometimes figured as trickling into the mouths of 8divinities0 whose faces also exhibit images of the sacred vase1 analogous to that of the ,mexican 8octli-lords40 ,these ,maya divinities have been designated by ,dr4 ,schellhas as god ,l1 whose face is painted black and under whose eye a vase is painted1 a peculiarity termed by ,maya authorities 8an ornamented eye0 and which may be seen in fig4 #cc1 iv2 7#b7 as god ,m1 8a second black god10 whose eye is likewise enclosed in a vase and whose hieroglyph is a vase on a black ground2 and 7#c7 as god ,c1 of whom ,i shall subsequently speak in detail4 7,see ,brinton's ,primer1 pp4 #abb and #abd47 ,in the case of god ,l1 the two horse-shoe marks from which drops are falling into the mouth of the god1 are surmounted by the glyph imix1 to which ,i shall revert4 ,illustration4 ,figure #cc4 ,the horse-shoe mark with drops likewise occurs in the design resembling the akbal glyph1 which has been interpreted as connected with akabnight4 ,it also occurs1 in ,maya ,codices1 on bands exhibiting cross-symbols1 sometimes in an inverted position and hanging from above and sometimes standing on two of the three mounds which are a feature of these interesting glyphs4 ,postponing a detailed discussion of these1 ,i will but emphasize here that1 in the ,maya ,codices the vase1 cursively drawn as a 8horse-shoe0 mark1 is proved to be intimately connected with the ideas of liquid falling from above1 and constituting the drink of divinities and symbols associated with the sacred vase1 night and darkness1 all attributes of the ,below4 ,we shall next demonstrate that it was alternately placed1 on the ,maya ,caban glyph1 with a curious sign consisting of a pea-shaped black dot1 to which a curved and wavy line is attached4 ,this is always figured as issuing from above the dot1 then extending downwards and half around it and terminating in a descending1 undulating line4 ,i submit the following to the consideration of ,maya specialists3 ,it seems to me that this sign presents an extremely realistic drawing of the seed of a monocotyledonous plant1 such as the maize or ,indian corn1 in its first stage of germination1 when the radicle1 having issued from the apex1 turns downwards in characteristic fashion and penetrates into the earth4 ,besides the realism of the native drawing there can be no doubt that the image of a sprouting maize-seed is the most expressive and appropriate accompaniment to the symbol of fertilizing rain1 on an earth-symbol1 and ,i am unable to understand how ,drs4 ,cyrus ,thomas1 ,seler1 ,schellhas and ,brinton could have overlooked the realism in this image of a sprouting seed1 and concluded that it was a portrayal of 8fermented liquor trickling downward10 a 8nose-ornament10 or a 8twisted lock of hair10 8a cork-screw curl40 ,the latter interpretation was made by ,dr4 ,schellhas because he found the sign in connection with female figures in the ,codices1 which undoubtedly is a fact of extreme interest1 as it furnishes a valuable proof that the ,mayas associated the earth with the female principle4 ,dr4 ,schellhas1 however1 records his observation that the sign caban occurs as a symbol of fruit-bearing earth1 in the ,codex ,troano1 as it is figured with leaves of maize 7p4 #cc7 or with climbing plants issuing from it and winding themselves around a pole 7p4 #cb74 ,geheimrath ,frstemann connects the day-name caban with 8cab0 to which ,perez1 in his dictionary1 attaches the meaning of 8earth1 world and soil0 7,die ,tages gtter der ,mayas4 ,globus1 vol4 ,,lxxiii1 no4 #i7 and adds that the hieroglyph decidedly designates the earth4 ,at the same time he interprets what ,i regard as the maize-grain and its radicle1 as possibly representing a bird in its flight upwards1 and he merely describes the accompanying inverted horse-shoe with dots1 without attaching any positive meaning to it4 ,it must be added that ,dr4 ,frstemann himself states that he is not satisfied with his own interpretation of these two symbols1 the first of which1 the seed and radicle1 likewise occurs in the day-sign cib1 to which ,i shall recur4 ,if any doubt remains as to the signification of the day-sign cab1 ,i think it will be dispelled when it is shown that the name cab1 or caban is obviously related to the adjective1 adverb and preposition cabal or cablil1 which signifies low1 below1 on the earth1 in1 beneath and under4 ,the frequent association of the cab glyph with the image of a bee1 as in the ,codex ,troano1 is partially explained by the fact that the ,maya word for honey is cab1 for honey-bee is yikil-cab4 ,it affords at all events1 an instance1 in ,maya hieroglyphic writing1 of a method of duplicating the sound of a word analogous to that which ,i detected in ,mexican pictography1 and named complementary signs in my communication on the subject1 published as an appendix to my essay on ,ancient ,mexican ,shields 7,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 ,leyden1 #ahib74 ,on the other hand the day name and sign cib1 on which the sprouting grain is also figured1 seems to be related to the verb cibahto will1 to occur1 to happen1 to take place4 ,the allusion contained in both glyphs is obviously the same and signifies1 in the first place1 the hidden process of germination which takes place under the surface of the soil1 and is associated with the idea of the female principle in ,nature4 ,the seed and radicle1 horse-shoe and rain-drops1 are also distinguishable on a vessel on page #ce of the ,dresden ,codex and on a small three-legged vase1 which is figured by ,doctor ,brinton 7,primer1 #aah7 as the day sign ch'en4 ,this vase is surmounted by two in-curving projections and offers a close analogy to a sacred vase with superstructure 7fig4 #cc1 ,,ii7 from which projects a peculiar open and double receptacle1 into which a priest is sowing small seeds4 ,the interior of this bowl is represented as hollow1 and containing what ,i shall show further on to be a native symbol for ,earth3 three little mounds4 ,on another bowl1 in front of this one1 a bird is sitting and presumably hatching4 ,in another portion of the same ,,ms4 a similar bowl is figured containing three seed fruits and capsules1 resembling pomegranates or poppy-heads 7fig4 #cc1 ,,iii74 ,the tree next to which the first two symbolical bowls are placed deserves to be carefully studied1 for the trunk is crowned by four stems bearing single leaves and is encircled by a serpent1 can1 the homonym for the numeral fourkan4 ,a fringed mantle and a scroll hang from the coils of the serpent's body1 two footsteps are painted on the scroll and1 pointing downwards1 express 8descent10 as do also the falling drops of liquid on the stems of the tree which grows from a peculiar glyph with subdivisions1 which has points of resemblance with the glyph under the footless divinity 7fig4 #cc1 ,i74 ,an obsidian mirror1 with cross bars1 is painted in front of the latter1 which displays the same descending footsteps on its mantle4 ,the head and eyes of a snail1 the symbol of parturition1 are above its face and a wreath of flowers crowns its head4 ,tedious as such a minute analysis may seem1 it is nevertheless necessary1 in order to gain a perception of the extent to which symbolism was practised in the picture writings found in the ,maya ,,mss41 accompanied by the cursive calculiform glyphs4 ,it seems that1 in no4 ,,ii1 we have a presentation of the ,maya 8tree of life10 and that scrolls1 on which descending footsteps are depicted1 are intended to convey the meaning that life is descending from ,above into the egg and seeds by virtue or decree of the celestial power4 ,it should be noted here that the phenomenon of a living bird issuing from the hard and inanimate egg-shell had made as deep an impression upon the ancient philosophers in ,mexico as elsewhere1 and that the power 8to form the chicken in the shell0 was deemed one of the most marvellous attributes of 8the divine ,moulder or ,former10 as is further set forth in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians40 ,the foregoing illustrations establish1 at all events1 that the ,mayas1 like the ,mexicans1 associated the sacred vase with seeds and germination4 ,the vase1 illustrated by ,doctor ,brinton1 exhibits the seed and radicle2 and this is also found on the symbol for earth1 which1 in the ,cortesian ,codex1 is associated with the image of a serpent1 possibly the equivalent of the ,mexican ,cihuacoatl1 or female serpent4 ,if1 after mustering this close array of analogies1 we next examine the glyph cib1 we find that it exhibits the seed and radicle in the centre of a square1 three sides of which are decorated with what ,doctor ,brinton has termed the 8pottery decoration78740 ,this consists of short lines1 such as are employed in ,mexican pictography1 in the well-known sign for tlalli1 or land1 which is usually surrounded on three sides by a fringe1 presumably symbolizing plants and grass1 a 8fringe0 of vegetation and verdure4 ,in the glyph cib1 already referred to1 ,i am inclined to see but a cursive rendering of the same idea1 with the seed and radicle in the centre and the fringed border barely indicated by a few short lines4 ,the same border is found repeated on three sides of the head of a frequently recurring personage whom ,doctor ,schellhas designates as 8,god ,c1 of the ,ornamented face40 ,in his extremely valuable work1 ,die ,gttergestalten der ,mayahandschriften1 this careful investigator records the various combinations in which this ,god ,c occurs in the ,codices and impartially weighs the possibilities of its meaning4 ,geheimrath ,frstemann has made the important observation that the figure of ,god ,c occurs in combination with the day-sign1 chuen1 of the ,maya calendar1 which coincides with the ,mexican day-sign azomatlimonkey4 ,i am unable to agree with my venerable friend in identifying ,god ,c1 with ,polaris4 ,as ,doctor ,schellhas rightly observes1 the fact that ,god ,c is found in combination with the signs of all the four quarters disproves an identification with ,polaris4 ,what is more1 ,god ,c is frequently represented as receiving in his mouth drops of liquid falling from a cursive vase placed above his head--a detail which clearly connects him with earth and the 8earth-wine40 ,in the ,mexican ,,mss4 we find the monkey intimately connected with the octli or earth-wine gods as1 for instance1 in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians40 ,i therefore reserve a more detailed discussion of this subject for my notes on this ,,ms4 and return to the glyphs caban and kan or can4 ,just as it has been shown that the first may signify cabalthe ,below1 so it is evident that the second is connected with the preposition and adverb canal1 signifying 8above1 on top of1 on high40 ,dr4 ,brinton sees in the kan symbol a presentation of a polished stone1 or shell pendant1 or bead1 and cites the ,maya dictionary of ,motul which gives kan as the name for 8beads or stones which served the ,indians as money and neck ornaments40 ,in connection with this important statement ,i revert to the carved shell-gorgets which have been found in the mounds and ancient graves in the ,mississippi valley and exhibit ,maya influence4 ,the greater number of these exhibit a carved serpent 7which in ,maya is kan7 in their centres and this fact affords a clue to the possible origin of the ,maya name for a neck ornament given in the ,motul dictionary4 ,it is undeniable that all evidence unites in proving that the ancient peoples of the ,mississippi valley were in traffic1 if not more intimately connected1 with a ,maya-speaking people and came under the influence of the ideas and symbolism current in ,yucatan4 ,returning to the employment of the glyph kan in ,maya ,codices1 for more reasons than ,i am able to enumerate here1 ,i conclude it served as an indicative of the ,above or ,heaven4 ,it is a curious fact that the ,maya word for cord is kaan1 whilst the name for sky is caan4 ,i cannot but think1 therefore1 that a carved pendant with a serpent effigya kan1 worn on a cordkaan1 must have been associated by the ,mayas with the ,heaven or skycaan1 and that this linguistic coincidence must have been a strong factor in the development of the symbolism attached to the glyph can or kan4 ,an interesting fact1 which ,i shall demonstrate by a large series of illustration from native ,codices in a chapter of my forthcoming work on the ancient ,calendar ,system1 will show that in their hieratic writings1 the ancient ,mexican scribes represented the nocturnal heaven or sky as a circle composed of a cord1 to which stars were attached1 whilst the centre of the circle exhibited one or four stars4 ,in my opinion the origin and explanation of the association of the cord with stars are clearly traceable to the above mentioned fact that in the ,maya tongue the word for cord1 kaan1 closely resembles the sound of the word caansky4 ,the presence of the cord in the ,mexican symbols is1 therefore1 another indication of their ,maya origin4 ,a proof that the ,mayas also employed the cord as a symbol of the sky1 or heaven1 is furnished by the much-discussed lentil-shaped stone altar found at ,copan1 a small outline of which is represented in fig4 #ba1 no4 #a4 ,in order fully to understand the meaning expressed by this stone1 it is necessary to bear in mind how indissolubly the idea of something circular was associated by the ,mayas and ,mexicans with their conception of the vault of heaven resting on the horizon1 and of the ,above1 consisting of the two fluid elements1 air and water4 ,it is scarcely necessary to refer again here to more than one authority for the statement that the temples of the air 7of the ,above7 were circular1 and the reason given by the natives for this was that 8just as the air circulates around the vault of the heaven1 so its temple had to be of a round shape407#ab7 ,as a contrast to this conception1 the influence of which is also obvious in the form of the round temples and towers of the ruined cities of ,central ,america1 ,i would cite the allusions to the solid earth contained in the sacred books of the ,mayas1 the ,popol ,vuh1 as being 8the quadrated earth1 four-cornered1 four-sided1 four-bordered40 ,these data establish the important fact1 to which ,i shall recur1 that the native philosophers associated the ,above1 composed of air and water1 with the rounded1 and the ,below1 composed of fire and water1 with the angular form4 ,the ,copan stone altar exhibits the circular form and is surrounded by a sculptured cord which conveys the sound of its name kaan or caanheaven4 ,on it a cup-shaped depressionho-och1 marks the sacred centre of the heaven1 the counterpart to the terrestrial bowl whence all life-giving force proceeded4 ,two curved lines diverge from this and divide the vaulted circle into two parts4 ,the curve in the lines may be interpreted as conveying motion or rotation whilst the division of the sky may have been intended to signify the eastern or male and the western or female portion of the heaven1 the whole being an abstract image of central rulership and of a dual principle incorporating the four elements4 ,it is obvious that the meaning intended to be conveyed might also include the duality of the ,heaven or ,above1 composed of the union of the elements air and water4 ,by painting the stone in two or four colors either of these meanings could have been expressed4 ,in either case it will be recognized1 however1 that much as ,dr4 ,ernest ,hamy's deductions concerning this altar have been criticised1 the learned director of the ,trocadro ,museum1 ,paris1 was undoubtedly right in recognizing that the stone is a cosmical symbol1 intended to convey the idea of a two-fold division and analogous to the ,chinese tae-keih which it resembles1 with the difference that the ,copan sign is more complex exhibiting1 as it does1 a central bowl-shaped depression4 ,a glimpse at the other symbols in fig4 #ba will show that the identical idea is expressed in the ,mexican signs exhibiting a central circle1 usually accompanied by a four-fold division4 ,an analogous attempt to express the same native idea is recognizable in the peculiar mushroom-shaped stone figures1 represented by a number of examples at the ,central ,american exposition recently held at ,guatemala17#ac7 and recently described by the distinguished geologist and ethnologist1 ,dr4 ,carl ,sapper4 ,the specimens had been collected in ,san ,salvador and ,guatemala and 8resemble great stone mushrooms0 inasmuch as each consists of three well-defined parts1 a square pedestal from the midst of which rises an almost cylindrical 8stem0 supporting a large circular solid top1 flat underneath and rounded above4 ,the cylindrical support is carved in the rough semblance of a human form1 which1 in some instances1 has rays issuing from its head4 ,an acquaintance with the fundamental ideas of native cosmogony enables us to recognize that the square stone base typifies the solid part of the universe1 the ,below1 whilst the vaulted circle above typifies the heaven1 the ,above4 ,the figure standing between both is evidently an image of a central lord and ruler1 and the entire image is in accord with the native mode of thought as set forth in ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing's report already cited and in the symbols which have been figured4 ,after reading ,mr4 ,cushing's account of the native ,american philosophy1 preserved to the present day by the ,zuis1 it is impossible not to realize how clearly the mushroom-images materialize the identical ideas which constitute1 indeed1 the keynote of native thought and can be traced in each centre of ancient ,american civilization4 ,i am inclined to think that these stone images were1 originally1 painted with the colors assigned to the four quarters1 which would render the symbolism more apparent4 ,the existence of these images in a restricted area of territory1 seems1 moreover1 to indicate that they had been invented there1 possibly under the influence of a religious and political creed with particular reference to the union1 in a single individual1 of the power and attributes of the ,above and ,below--an idea which strongly contrasts with ,mexico and ,yucatan1 where the idea of duality prevailed to such an extent that1 by creating two distinct religions and governments1 it ultimately led to the disintegration of the greatest of native empires and its fall1 from which it was only rallying at the time of the ,conquest4 ,it is also possible that the ,guatemala images are the expression of the reversion to a more ancient form of philosophy or government when it had been realized that dual government led to dissensions and disintegration4 ,at all events the rude mushroom figures testify that the conception of a single celestial or terrestrial ruler of the ,above and the ,below filled the minds of their makers at a time1 the exact date of which it would be of utmost importance to determine1 if this were only possible4 ,it is also interesting to note the curious analogy presented by these figures to the well-known statement by ,confucius that1 8the sage is united to ,heaven and ,earth so as to form a triad1 consisting of ,heaven1 ,earth and ,man40 ,the association of the round form and of the peak with the ,above and of the square and bowl with the ,below can be also detected in the form of native ,american architecture1 as exemplified1 for instance1 by the contrasting shapes of two temples figured on page #ge1 of the ,borgian ,codex 7fig4 #cd7 which were obviously dedicated to the two prevailing cults4 ,one of these is surmounted by a tau-shaped thatched roof with a flat top and turned-down ends4 ,the dedication of this temple to ,night or star-cult is conveyed in this case1 by the sign for star on a black ground inserted in the roof47#ad7 ,illustration4 ,figure #cd4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ce4 ,the opposite temple exhibits a roof which rests on a black architrave and offers a general resemblance to an inverted tau4 ,it rises in a tapering form and ends in a cone-shaped ornament4 ,the existence and significance of these two forms of temple-roofs might escape notice did the same not recur in two high caps or mitres figured in the ,vienna ,codex and obviously intended for the respective use of the ,lords of the ,above and of the ,below at a religious ceremonial 7fig4 #ce74 ,the first of these ends in a high peak1 the extremity of which is represented as capped with snow1 in the same conventional manner employed in figuring snow-mountains4 ,an extremely significant feature of this cap is its exhibition of a curved and rounded pattern only on its border4 ,the second mitre ends in a horizontal line2 it exhibits an angular pattern and two flaps hang down from it1 which1 as they naturally concealed the ears of the wearer1 seem to have been symbolical of something hidden1 and1 perhaps1 of silence and secrecy4 ,a third mitre is figured on the same page1 which seems to unite the characteristics of both forms and is surmounted by a young maize-shoot1 proceeding from a vase4 ,illustration4 ,figure #cf4 ,the association of the ,above with a peak or point is further illustrated by a well-known peaked diadem always painted blue which was the symbol of the visible ruler 7fig4 #cf1 no4 #e74 ,a peak also occurs on military shields accompanied by four bars 7fig4 #cf1 no4 #c7 and presents an analogy to no4 #d from the 8,lyfe of the ,indians40 ,the latter is given as the symbol of a sacred festival which ,i have demonstrated in a previous publication to have coincided with the vernal equinox47#ae7 ,for further reasons which ,i shall present in my calendar monograph1 ,i infer that we have in this drawing a most valuable image of the gnomon and dial employed by the ,sun priests for the observation of the equinoxes and solstices4 ,the human victim who was attached to the centre of the circular stone during the same festival is usually represented with the same cone or point and eight appendages on his head 7fig4 #cf1 no4 #b74 ,owing to the circumstance that this peaked head-dress1 or cone1 was sometimes employed by the scribes for its phonetic value1 as in fig4 #cf1 no4 #a1 from the ,codex ,mendoza1 in which instance it is figured on a mountain and is usually painted blue1 we know positively that its name was ,yope or ,yopi--a valuable point since a temple and a sort of monastery in the courtyard of the ,great ,temple of ,mexico were both named ,yopico 7,sahagun74 ,at the same time it should be noted that the ,maya name for 8a mitre10 the symbol of a divine ruler1 is ,yop-at4 ,in the ,mexican ollin-signs a cone or ascending point is usually placed above and opposite to a symbol consisting of a ring or loop4 ,these evidently signify the ,above and ,below1 and in this connection it is worth noticing that archaeologists have long puzzled over the curious forms of the two kinds of prehistoric stone objects which have most frequently been found in the island of ,porto ,rico4 ,the first of these consists of an elongated stone1 the centre of which rises in the shape of a cone1 whilst the ends are respectively carved in the rough semblance of a head and of feet4 ,the second form1 which has frequently been found in caves1 consists of a large stone ring1 and is popularly termed 8a stone collar40 ,i am inclined to regard the latter as being analogous to the 8stone yokes0 of ancient ,mexico and to infer that the aborigines of ,porto ,rico practised a form of the same cult4 ,it should be borne in mind that the high conical stone1 on which the human victims were sacrificed1 was a salient feature in an ancient ,mexican temple and that its form must have had some symbolical meaning4 ,the foregoing data indicate that it probably was emblematic of the ,above and ,centre and was therefore regarded as the fitting place of sacrifice to the ,sun and ,heaven1 whilst offerings to the ,earth were most appropriately made in circular openings recalling the rim of the bowl and the round line of the horizon4 ,it will be seen further on that the cone recurs in native architecture and that its use as a symbol1 in the course of time1 culminated in the pyramid4 ,illustration4 ,figure #cg4 ,let us return to it in its rudimentary stage1 as a perpendicular line arising from a medium level1 forming an inverted tau4 ,the widespread employment amongst ,american peoples of the inverted and upright tau-shape as emblems of the ,above and ,below is abundantly proven and doubtlessly arose as naturally as 8the ,chinese characters ,shang,above1 employed as a symbol for ,heaven1 and ,lea,below or ,beneath1 employed as a symbol for ,earth4 ,these are formed1 in the one case1 by placing a man 7represented by a vertical line7 above the medium level 7represented by a horizontal line7 and in the other below it0 7,encyclopedia ,britannica1 art4 ,china7 fig4 #cg4 ,another equally graphic presentation of the analogous thought is furnished by the familiar ,egyptian sign which exhibits a loop or something rounded and hollow above and a perpendicular line beneath the medium level4 ,it is well known that the tau occurs in ,scandinavia and is popularly named ,thor's hammer 7fig4 #ch74 ,merely as a curious analogy ,i point out that in fig4 #be1 no4 #b1 from the ,vienna ,codex1 we have an ,american instance of a tau-shaped object held in the hand in a ceremonial rite4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ch4 ,the late and lamented ,baron ,gustav ,nordenskjld observed that the entrances to the ruined estufas of the ancient cliff-dwellers of ,colorado were in the shape of an upright tau and it is well known that this is also the case amongst the ,pueblo ,indians of the present day4 ,by means of a photograph taken by ,dr4 ,a4 ,warburg of ,berlin1 whilst witnessing the ,humis-katshina dance of the ,moqui ,indians at ,oraibi1 in ,may1 #ahif1 ,i am able to affirm that the native dancers wear masks and high head-ornaments1 partly of wood1 on which reversed and upright tau-symbols are painted1 the first in a light and the second in a dark color4 ,as the name of the ceremonial dance was explained to ,dr4 ,warburg as signifying 8helping the sprouting or growing maize10 and celebrated the advent of the rainy season1 it is obvious that the two forms of tau which were displayed in alternate order on the heads of the dancers in the procession symbolized the juxtaposition of the ,above and ,below1 of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,in the ruined temples of ,central ,america1 windows in the shape of upright and reversed taus also occur4 ,the following series of architectural openings 7fig4 #ci7 are copied from ,mr4 ,alfred ,p4 ,maudslay's invaluable and splendid work1 which has not1 as yet1 met with the recognition it so richly deserves47#af7 ,they display besides the tau-shape 7g and h7 other forms1 the symbolism of which has been discussed4 ,there are cross-shaped 7e71 square1 round and oval windows 7d1 j1 b and i71 the square obviously symbolical of the ,earth and the round of the ,heaven4 ,besides these there are openings in the form of a truncated cone 7a and c7 and others ending in a narrow point 7k74 ,a striking form which recalls the ,moorish arch and is shown in f1 may1 perhaps1 be looked upon as an attempt to express the idea of a union of the ,above and ,below4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ci4 ,in connection with these architectural features it is interesting to study their names in the native languages4 ,the ,nahuatl names for windows are singularly expressive of their uses3 tlachialoyanthe watching place or look-out2 puchquiauatlthe smoke opening2 tlanexillotla word which literally means light and splendor1 and to which the following words are related3 tlanextia1 verbto shine1 shed light and radiance2 tlanextillasomething revealed1 made manifest1 found or discovered1 newly invented or formed 7brought to light72 tlanexcayotiliztlifigure1 signification or example2 tlanexcayotillisomething figured or significative4 ,the meaning of the ,maya name for window1 ciznebna1 is not clear1 whilst that for door1 chi1 is the same as for mouth1 opening or entrance4 ,at the same time it is evident that1 as in ,mexico and elsewhere1 the window openings in the ,maya temples must have been associated with the idea of light1 and the symbolical forms given to these besides their positions lead to the inference that they were actually regarded as mystic framed images1 so to speak1 of the supreme1 invisible deity1 through which1 the light of day and the darkness of night alternately revealed themselves to those inside the sacred buildings4 ,a careful study of the positions and orientations of these openings may yet prove that they also served for astronomical observation4 ,the walls being usually pierced above reach1 nothing but the sky could have been watched through them4 ,but besides these1 the interiors of ,maya ruins contain interesting examples of mural openings and recesses which seem to have been carefully planned so that they should appear dark even in daytime and1 in more than one case1 these display the form of the upright tau1 the symbol of darkness and the ,below47#ag7 ,illustration4 ,figure #dj4 ,it does not seem to have been generally recognized that the alternate contraposition of upright and reversed taus produces the best known and most widely spread primitive border-design1 usually known as the ,greek fret 7fig4 #dj1 no4 #f74 ,a plain demonstration of this is1 oddly enough1 visible on the two side-projections of the ,scandinavian brooch 7fig4 #ac7 all symbols on which1 ,i venture to assert1 would have been perfectly intelligible and full of meaning to an ancient ,mexican4 ,the evolution of the fret1 on the ,american continent1 can be studied on the beautiful wooden clubs from ,brazil and ,british ,guiana1 figured in ,dr4 ,hjalmar ,stolpes' valuable work already referred to4 ,as striking instances his fig4 #h1 pl4 #a1 figs4 #c;a and #c;c1 pl4 ,,xiii1 and figs4 #a;a and #a;b1 pl4 ,v1 should be examined4 ,the latter instance is extremely instructive as it not only exhibits single taus of two forms1 but the same in different positions1 as well as two double-headed figures joined in one1 which illustrate the native association already discussed1 of duality and of the curved lines as the opposite of the rectangular and both respectively figuring the ,above and ,below4 ,it is impossible to study the decorations on these ,south ,american clubs without becoming convinced that their makers shared the same ideas as the ancient ,mexicans4 ,they offer1 indeed1 a whole set of variations on the native theme and idea of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,two instances 7fig4 #e;a1 pl4 ,,ix1 and #f;a1 pl4 ,,xi7 in which the union of two figures produces a third1 or a single one produces two1 elucidate the meaning sometimes expressed by the designs4 ,in the round or spiral forms1 which are most frequently accompanied by a zigzag border1 ,i am inclined to see a presentation of air and water1 corresponding to the ,mexican symbols of the ,above4 ,as lack of space forbids my making here a more extended comparison of the native symbols1 ,i shall but point out how the tau1 in juxtaposition and contraposition painted in two colors1 produces fig4 #dj1 no4 #c4 ,the picture from the ,codex ,mendoza of a native tlachtli1 the form of which is represented by two taus in contraposition1 is partly painted black4 ,the same division of a single tau into two parts1 colored differently1 transforms no4 #c into no4 #d and shows that a single tau could have been employed cursively to symbolize union4 #b and #g are but variants of #c and #d4 ,if1 instead of angles1 curved lines be given to the taus1 the first half of fig4 #e is the result4 ,when spaces between the incurving hooks and the border are filled out with color1 the familiar design on the second half of #e results4 ,with exception of the latter1 the ,south ,american clubs exhibit each of the above forms1 as well as no4 #h4 ,it will be shown later that these also occur in ancient ,peru4 ,the foregoing examples of the employment of taus in upright and reversed positions is1 however1 by no means exhaustive4 ,fig4 #da teaches that the familiar checker-board or tartan design1 symbolically employed in ancient ,mexico1 was the simple result of taus in contraposition1 the square spaces thus found being alternately filled with black and brown or gray4 ,the symbolism of this design only becomes evident when all the combinations in which it occurs have been carefully studied4 ,it is represented in the ,codices in the doorways and arches of certain sacred edifices which are shown to be estufas or temaz-calli by further illustrations which ,i could not reproduce here1 but which exhibit even the steam escaping from the building and other unmistakable features4 ,illustration4 ,figure #da4 ,sahagun has recorded how these semi-sacred edifices were specially consecrated to the 8,mother of the gods and of us all1 whose curative and life-giving power was exerted in the temazcalli1 also named xochicalli1 the place where she sees secret things1 rectifies what has been deranged in human bodies1 fructifies young and tender things1 444 and where she aids and cures44440 ,it was customary for pregnant women to resort to these baths under the care of the medicine-woman who exhorted her patient on entering1 with the words3 8,enter into it1 my daughter1 enter into the bosom of our ,mother whose name is ,yoalticitl 444 warm thyself in the bath1 which is the house of flowers of our god 4440 7,historia1 book ,,vi1 chap4 ,,xxvii74 ,the ,vienna ,codex contains1 besides pictures of temples 7fig4 #da1 a and b71 two instances which elucidate the meaning of the design2 c of the same figure displays the conventional symbol for land1 fringed on three sides4 ,enclosed in this and seen1 in profile1 is a stratum of checker-board design1 above which is a sheet of water2 d displays a conventionally drawn mountain1 inside of which is the symbolical vase filled with the design4 ,from this steam or smoke ascends through the soil of the mountain1 and forces its way through the surface1 above which we see two recurved puffs of smoke and a young blossoming maize shoot1 conventionally drawn1 such as may be seen worn by priestesses1 as a symbolical head decoration1 on page #aa of the ,vienna ,codex4 ,the seated figure of a priest is represented as sheltering its growth with his outspread mantle4 ,on his back he displays a symbol1 composed of two rolls united by a crossband1 which is met with in ,maya and ,mexican ,codices4 ,in the latter the four projecting ends are usually painted with the colors of the four quarters4 ,as these are figured as united into a single sign1 it seems evident that this symbolized a union of the four elements deemed necessary for the production of life by the ancient native philosophers4 ,the foregoing illustrations1 to which more could be added1 clearly establish that the checkered design was associated with the symbols of earth1 heat and water4 ,it obviously expressed the idea embodied in the ,nahuatl word xotlacthe heated earth2 literally1 glowing embers1 also budding and opening flowers4 ,it was emblematic of the fall of the rain or earth-wine upon the heated soil4 ,in the temazcalli the same life-producing union of the elements took place and aided human growth and health4 ,it would seem as though the appellation xoch-i-calli1 bestowed upon the sweat-house by the native medicine-woman1 expressed the same train of thought4 ,moreover1 it is noteworthy1 that the sound of the first part of this name and of xo-tlac recurs in the ,maya word for vase in general1 ho-och4 ,the checker-board design would naturally have been employed in connection with the festivals1 associated with esoteric rites1 which were held in celebration of the union of the ,heaven and ,earth at the commencement of the rainy season4 ,it would1 naturally1 therefore1 have been used as a decoration on the drinking vessels employed in the distribution of fermented drinks for vivifying and curative purposes4 ,it is met with on ,peruvian drinking bowls1 as proven by several examples in the ,royal ,ethnographical ,museum in ,berlin1 for instance4 ,it is curious to note as an interesting analogy that the same checkered design frequently adorns the ancient ,egyptian drinking bowls represented in the hieroglyphic writings4 ,i have also observed it in some ancient ,greek drinking vessels1 preserved at the ,imperial ,hermitage ,museum at ,st4 ,petersburg1 where it decorated the bowl itself or the garments of ,bacchantes figured thereupon4 ,it is also met with in ancient ,peruvian textile fabrics1 in black and white1 as on one figure vase in the ,berlin ,museum1 and1 needless to remark1 it is a ,scotch clan tartan4 ,its adoption as the basis for chess-boards of ancient ,egypt seems to indicate that there it also signified the ,above and ,below and that the game was thought of as an exemplification of the eternal contest between the powers of ,heaven and ,earth1 light and darkness1 etc4 ,we look to specialists for information as to the origin1 meaning and employment in ,egypt and ,greece of this primitive and almost universal design4 ,illustration4 ,figure #db4 ,in ancient ,mexico and possibly ,peru1 it obviously pertained to a set of ideas which1 in some communities1 might easily have degenerated and led to the institution of rites and ideas such as were prevalent in the ,maya colony which had established itself at the mouth of the ,panuco river1 on the coast of ,mexico1 north of ,vera ,cruz1 and from which the ,huaxtecans of the present day descend4 ,it is interesting to note that the name of the capital founded by the colonists1 who seem to have emigrated owing to well-founded religious persecution1 was ,tuch-pan1 a word which signifies in the ,maya tongue 8the umbilicus10 qualified by pan1 meaning 8that which is above or excels10 etc41 but which was expressed in ,nahuatl picture-writings by a rabbittochtli and a bannerpantli4 ,the opposite of the checkered or xotlac design1 was the native water and air pattern which has been pointed out as encircling the mitre of the ,lord of the ,above or ,heaven4 ,it likewise figures in native pictures on the mantles of some of ,montezuma's predecessors4 ,the history of its origin and development is best learned from the following native illustrations4 ,fig4 #db1 nos4 #a and #b1 represents sea-waves1 the ,maya name for which1 by the way1 is kukul-yaam1 which admits of the interpretation 8divine-water0 or1 if we connect kukul with the ,mexican coliuhqui1 8twisted or bent water40 ,a representation of water1 as figured on a mantle in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 conveys the idea of water moved by the action of the wind1 the blank curve reminding one also of the curves so often associated by native artists with serpents' heads1 and with the wind and rain-gods4 ,the well-known symbol of the air-god is accompanied1 as already shown 7fig4 #bf71 by an ornament which forms a solid frame for a hollow curve constituting an air-image4 ,in the following image an analogous ear ornament is figured and it is surrounded by puffs of air or wind1 conventionally drawn 7fig4 #dc74 ,illustration4 ,figure #dc4 ,whilst the foregoing illustrations amply prove that the natives associated the curved and rounded form with water as moved by air1 it must be noticed that in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 as well as in ,brazil and ,guiana1 plain water was figured by a series of parallel zigzag or undulated lines4 ,for these reasons ,i infer that the symbolical design1 representing actual waves1 always expressed the union of air and water1 and was therefore emblematic of the cult of the upper elements1 or the ,above4 ,it is unfortunate that1 in ,mexico1 no vestiges remain of the circular temples which were particularly dedicated to ,quetzalcoatlthe divine twin or lord of the twin upper elementsair and water4 ,doubtlessly they were appropriately decorated with horizontal bands exhibiting the sacred design4 ,the ruined condition of ,central ,american round temples scarcely justifies the hope that such a verification can be made4 ,at the same time the round temple on a square base1 with its peculiar ground plan1 was1 of itself1 an image of the ,above and of central rule extending to the four quarters 7fig4 #cj1 p4 #ig74 ,that the air and water design was actually employed in ,america as a frieze on sacred edifices is proven1 however1 by more than one illustration in the ,vienna ,codex and other native ,,mss4 7fig4 #ce1 c74 ,we also see the design decorating the painted drinking bowls named xicalli which were employed in the distribution of the sacred pulque or octli at certain religious festivals4 ,as the ,mexican name given to the design itself is xical-coliuhqui1 it seems as though it was most popularly known as the 8twisted or winding pattern0 of the sacred drinking vessels4 ,having originated1 as ,i have shown1 from the simplest observation of the action of air upon a surface of water1 it is but natural that the same design should have independently originated in several localities4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 worth mentioning here that the dome of one of the most beautiful of ancient ,greek remains1 the choragic monument of ,lysicrates1 or lantern of ,demosthenes at ,athens1 is surrounded by a band or fascia1 cut into the water design4 ,it is evident that1 seen against the sky1 this graphically represented the curling waves of water 8on summer seas10 and this was evidently the most primitive method of employing this form of symbolical decoration which is more familiar when executed in solid masonry stucco1 as a frieze4 ,the identical process of development may be observed in ,mexican architecture4 ,in the ,vienna and other native ,codices1 countless temples are depicted as surmounted with fasci cut into rectangular designs in such a manner that the blank space left between each solid projection figures its inverted image in the air 7fig4 #ce1 a-d74 ,in these open fasci an intention to symbolize the solid or ,earth1 and the fluid or ,heaven1 is discernible1 whilst the step-like projections seem to express or convey the idea of ascent and descent1 perhaps the ascent of human supplication and the descent of the much-prayed-for rain4 ,from the other examples of temple decorations 7fig4 #ce1 f and h7 it is evident that1 in solid friezes1 a light and a dark color were employed in the same designs1 to convey the same idea4 ,evidence proving that the emblems on the roofs of the temples were replete with meaning is furnished by several representations of roofs1 on which rows of upstretched hands or of human hearts are depicted4 ,my horror at these seemingly ghastly emblems vanished as soon as ,i ascertained their actual meaning from a passage in ,sahagun's ,historia4 ,describing a certain sacred dance he records that 8on the white garments of the girls who took part in it1 hands and hearts were painted1 signifying that they lifted their hearts and hands to heaven1 praying for rain40 ,not only does this explain the symbolism of the hands on the temples but also the native custom observed1 by modern pilgrims in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 of painting uplifted hands on the outer walls of sanctuaries as an act of piety and devotion4 ,illustration4 ,figure #dd4 ,the hideous necklaces of alternate hands and hearts which encircle the neck of a great monolithic idol in the city of ,mexico and of an image in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians0 are thus also proven to be the touching though uncouth and child-like expression of a devout prayer4 ,having gained this insight into the deep significance of native emblems it is interesting to study the peculiar breast-ornament which is the emblem of ,xiuhtecuhtli1 literally 8the azure lord10 or the lord of the year or of fire and of the ,cihuacoatl or woman-serpent4 ,it consists of an oblong plaque1 the narrow ends of which are cut out so as to simulate two air pyramids with steps4 ,the name of this symbolical ornament is recorded by ,sahagun as xiuh-tetelli1 literally the turquoise or grass-green pyramid4 ,it is invariably painted blue and displays a round plate of burnished gold in its centre4 ,for more reasons than ,i can pause to relate here1 it can be shown that the plaque probably symbolized the ,above1 the blue sky1 water and air1 whilst the gold plate was an image of the central divinity4 ,the sides of the square stool on which the god is seated are also cut out so as to convey the idea that he is resting above terraced air-pyramids 7fig4 #dd74 ,his shield is surrounded by a cord and contains a cross-symbol with lines conveying the idea of rotation and four circles4 ,the banner above the shield named pantli conveys the sound of the word panabove1 whilst his conical ear-ornament symbolizes the ,centre and ,above4 ,these details are noteworthy because ,i am about to point out the striking analogy between a ,zui idol or fetish and the ancient ,mexican pictures of the lord of fire and the lord of the north or the underworld,tezcatlipoca4 ,this ,zui idol was sent to the ,royal ,ethnographical ,museum at ,berlin as part of a representative collection by ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing and has been figured and described in the publications of the ,museum1 with notes by ,dr4 ,e4 ,seler47#ah7 ,it represents the ,zui god tchialtopa whose attributes are stone knives1 who is the patron of the secret society1 8,small fire0 and who is identified with a great star4 ,his fetish represents him as standing on the centre of a cross1 formed of four beams placed vertically and perforated with step-like perforations4 ,the ends are cut out like those of ,xiuhtecuhtli's blue emblem4 ,two parallel bars1 the upper one of which is painted blue1 the color of heaven1 and the lower painted green1 the color of the earth1 convey the ever-present native idea of the ,above and ,below4 ,the arms of the cross are painted red with yellow ends which1 according to ,mr4 ,cushing1 represent the light emanating1 in four directions1 from the star4 ,the arms are distinctly associated with the cardinal points and each supports the effigies of a mountain lion and a bird--typifying1 evidently1 as in ,mexico1 the ,above and ,below4 ,this cross1 with the figure standing on its centre1 is suspended from above and1 during a certain ceremony1 it is set into rapid gyratory motion1 from left to right by the officiating high priest4 ,it is impossible not to see1 in this fetish1 a swastika in substantial form and in actual rotation2 whilst the figure of the god1 decorated with stone knives1 moves as on a pivot in the centre1 presenting exactly the same idea as in the ,mexican image of the god held in the centre of a cross-symbol by the jaws of a tecpatl or flint knife4 ,it is unnecessary to mention again here that the only star in the heaven1 which could possibly have been regarded as a centre of rotation1 is ,polaris2 but ,i should like to draw attention to the fact that bunches of feathers are attached to the extremities of the cross-beams and to the summit of the terraced head-dress of the fetish and recall the circumstance that1 amongst the ,mexicans and ,mayas1 the names for feather were almost identical with those for heaven or something celestial and divine4 ,as the ,zui god is said to be standing on his red star 7an mo-ytchun thlana7 and figures as a centre of rotation1 ,i look upon this fetish as affording most striking confirmation of my conclusions concerning the origin of the swastika and cross symbols4 ,if it is certain that1 at the present day1 the ,zuis associate this star-god with ,sirius and their cross symbol with the morning star1 then it is quite obvious that they have lost the original meaning of the rotating-star fetish1 which could never have been suggested by either of these or1 indeed1 by any other heavenly body but ,polaris4 ,i regret that space does not permit me to consider here1 more fully1 other close analogies between ancient ,mexican and modern ,zui religious ceremonies1 etc41 besides those which have been so well described by ,dr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes4 ,i cannot omit to note here for further reference that the national war gods of the ,zuis are the twin-brothers ,ahaiiuta1 the elder1 whose altars were situated to the right or south and west of ,zui1 and ,matsailma1 the younger1 whose altars stood to the left or north and east of the village4 ,the secret society of the warriors and priests of the bow dedicated their cult to these brothers1 whose counterparts we have already studied in ,mexico and ,yucatan4 ,returning to the primitive designs which expressed the union of the ,above and ,below1 ,i point out an interesting example from the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 which likewise symbolizes the four quarters1 and their subdivision and their relation to the whole 7fig4 #cb1 no4 #c74 ,a somewhat analogous design1 from ,peru1 presents an outline resembling a swastika 7fig4 #dj1 no4 #i7 which1 when filled in with alternate colors1 yields fig4 #dj1 no4 #a1 in which the idea of the ,above and ,below preponderates4 ,another example of an analogous employment of a light and dark color is furnished by a shield in the ,codex ,mendoza1 shown in fig4 #a1 no4 #a1 alongside of an interesting image which gives us an insight into the depths of meaning contained in the dualistic native designs4 ,it consists of a disk1 one-half of which represents the starry heaven and the other the sun1 resting on a parti-colored support 7no4 #h74 ,it is evident that day and night are thus symbolized1 and it is reasonable to infer that in some centres of thought especially the ideas of light and darkness should have become associated with the two different forms of cult the followers of which would be respectively designated as the children of light and the children of darkness4 ,by means of a light and a dark color numberless variations of the one theme were indeed obtained4 ,in the native ,codices1 in textile fabrics and on pottery1 there are also numerous examples of an extremely simple design consisting of a single zigzag line running between two parallel lines and dividing the intervening space into two fields1 the lower of which is filled out with black and the other with some light color4 ,the dark upright and light inverted peaks were evidently employed as familiar and favorite emblems of earth and heaven4 ,illustration4 ,figure #de4 ,i am inclined to see in the serrated summit of the remarkable edifice1 known as the ,house of ,doves at ,uxmal1 a rendering of the same symbolism on a gigantic scale 7fig4 #de74 ,it cannot but be recognized1 moreover1 that a high edifice presenting a regular series of cones1 and extending from east to west1 would have afforded an excellent means of registering the varying positions of heavenly bodies4 ,to observers looking towards it from the north or south1 at judiciously chosen distances1 the entire span of the sky would have seemed divided into eight equal parts1 seen as inverted air pyramids between nine sections which rise in steps and terminate in points1 each gable being perforated with thirty window-like openings1 arranged in seven horizontal rows4 ,the purpose of these gable-like piles has been a riddle to the archaeologists1 who have visited ,uxmal4 ,dr4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,holmes1 from whose valuable works ,i cite the above descriptions1 expresses his wonder at 8the great building1 bearing upon its roof a colossal masonry comb1 built at an enormous expenditure of time and labor 444 which seemed to have been built exclusively for the purpose of embellishing the building and holding aloft its sculptured ornaments0 7,ancient cities of ,mexico1 pl4 ,i1 p4 #ie74 ,i venture to maintain that this remarkable edifice not only afforded facilities for astronomical observation but constituted in itself a great prayer for rain wrought in stone and addressed to the ,lord of ,heaven by a devout people4 ,in corroboration of this inference1 besides the foregoing data1 ,i point out that to this day the ,pueblo ,indians associate the step pyramid form with beneficent rain and even give this shape to the edges of the sacred bowls which are carried in the ceremonial dances by the 8rain-makers40 ,according to ,mr4 ,cushing the ,zuis compare the rim of such bowls to the line of the 8horizon1 terraced with mountains1 whence rise the clouds40 ,he was likewise informed that the terrace form represents 8the ancient sacred place of the spaces10 an expression which1 though somewhat vague1 seems to corroborate my view of the ,uxmal building4 ,the ,zui statement that the terrace form figured mountains leads to the subject of so-called 8mountain worship40 ,in ancient ,mexico1 at the approach of the rainy season1 religious ceremonies are performed in honor of the mountains which were looked upon as active agents in the production of rain1 because they attracted and gathered the clouds around their summits4 ,the tops of mountains were thus regarded as the sacred place where the sky and heaven met and produced the showers which vivified the earth4 ,pilgrimages and offerings to mountain summits formed a part of the duties of the ,mexican priesthood1 but in the cities the pyramid temple served as a convenient substitute for the mountain4 ,the close association of the terrace form with rain and water symbolism is certainly exemplified in the ,mexican design on a temple roof 7fig4 #ce1 e74 ,the most remarkable application of the dualistic designs is1 however1 met with in ,peru where1 according to ,wiener1 the irrigation canals which carried water to the maize fields were laid out so as to form pattern bands like fig4 #dj1 nos4 #d and #g1 for instance4 ,it is evident that this system of irrigation must have been an extremely effective and practical one1 but that it had been probably adopted from superstitious motives as an illustration of the vivifying union of the celestial shower with the seed-laden soil4 ,the assumption that the ancient ,peruvians shared the same ideas as the ,mexicans and ,mayas will be found justified by the following data4 ,it is now my intention to give a brief and bare outline sketch of the ,peruvian civilization1 by means of a series of quotations from the best authorities47#ai7 ,incomplete though this must necessarily be1 it will1 nevertheless1 establish1 beyond a doubt1 that the founders of the great ,inca empire were under the dominion of the same set of ideas which ,i have been tracing throughout the ,american continent4 ,the lucid records of the ,peruvian chronicles and the purity with which the system had been maintained by the ,incas1 enable us to recognize and appreciate its manifold perfections as a mode of primitive government4 ,the best authorities agree that the inhabitants of the country1 now known as ,peru1 lived in barbarism until civilization was introduced amongst them by the ,incas4 ,one tradition designates an island in the ,titicaca lake1 another ,tiahuanaco1 as the place where1 8after the deluge10 a man or deity appeared1 divided the land into four parts and distributed these to four brothers1 amongst whom was ,manco ,capac1 to whom was assigned the province to the north4 ,each brother had a sister who was also his wife4 ,manco ,capac and his sister and wife ,mama-,ocllo or1 according to other authorities1 the third ,inca ,lloque ,yupanqui and his consort1 founded ,cuzco1 also given as ,kosko or ,kuska1 a name which1 according to ,garcilaso de la ,vega signifies 8navel of the earth0 and was bestowed 8because the newly-founded capital was to be the centre and point of all40 ,the city was divided into two parts3 ,hanan ,cuzcothe ,above1 which was ruled over by the ,inca1 and ,hurin ,cuzcothe ,below1 which was governed by his wife and sister1 who bore the honorific title of ,coyaqueen and ,mamanchicour mother4 ,the inhabitants consequently became separated into two categories3 the upper lineage and the lower lineage1 ,hanan-ayllu and ,hurin-ayllo4 ,at the same time this division was not made so 8that those of one-half should have an advantage over the other 444 the command was that only one difference and acknowledgment of superiority was to be conceded to the inhabitants of the upper town4 ,they were to be respected and looked upon as the first born and elder brothers1 whilst the dwellers in the lower town were to be regarded as younger or second brothers4 ,they were to rank as the right arm and the left arm in all offices or places where precedence was necessary4 ,the same division was subsequently carried out in all the towns1 great or small1 throughout the country1 their inhabitants being constantly classed into upper and lower lineages or classes40 ,the empire itself was named ,tauantin-suyu1 signifying the four in one1 or the empire1 which was divided into four provinces3 ,anti-suyu,east2 ,cunti-suyu,west1 on the road to which were two famous brooks of water named the silver serpents1 ,collquemachachuay2 ,chincha-suyu,north2 ,colla-suyu,south4 ,it is recorded that the ,coya or queen went to the ,colla-suyu or ,south and taught the women the art of weaving1 of planting maize and of preparing it for food4 ,in connection with the name of female rule,coya1 and the ,south,colla-suyu it is interesting to note that the name for granary was ,coll-cana4 ,padre ,arriaga 7quoted by ,rivero and ,tschudi1 p4 #afc7 describes a remarkable monument which shows that the ,west was also associated with the female ruler4 8,the monolithic statue magnificently sculptured and placed on a sepulchral eminence near ,hilavi represented two monstrous figures standing back to back4 ,one1 representing a man1 faced to the ,east2 the other1 with a woman's face1 looked towards the ,west47#bj7 ,serpents were represented as crawling up the figures and these stood on other reptiles resembling frogs4 ,in front of each of these idols there was a square slab of stone which seemed to have served as an altar40 ,with the dual division of the population the seeds of dissension were sown in ,peru as elsewhere4 ,at a certain festival the youths of the upper lineage encountered those of the lower lineage in trials of strength and prowess1 which sometimes resulted in violence4 ,a certain feeling of rivalry and opposition must have been thus fostered4 ,two forms of cult prevailed3 the ,inca lords and warriors were associated with the cult of the ,above of which the emblems were golden images of the ,creator and of the ,sun1 8the lord of day10 to whose power rain and thunder were attributed4 ,the silver huaca or image of the moon1 called ,quilla in ,quechua and ,pacsa in the ,colla dialect1 was in the figure of a woman and was kept under the charge of women1 the reason for this being 8that the moon was a woman40 ,during the festival ,situa1 one day was dedicated to the ,creator1 the ,sun and ,thunder and another to 8the ,moon and ,earth1 when the accustomed sacrifices and prayers were offered up40 ,we thus clearly distinguish a cult of the ,heaven and ,day presided over by the ,inca and a cult of ,earth and ,night1 whose high priestess was the ,coya4 ,she1 moreover1 had charge of the embalmed bodies of her predecessors1 which were regarded as sacred and were solemnly carried forth in certain festivals1 whilst the bodies of the defunct ,incas were guarded by their successor4 ,the emblems of both cults were1 however1 preserved in a single ,great ,temple1 whose principal doorway looked to the north1 a fact of special importance in connection with what follows4 ,all authorities1 indeed1 designate the north as the quarter whence the foreign culture-heroes came to ,peru4 8,the ,incas had a knowledge of the ,creator from the first10 but it was not until the time of the ,inca ,yupanqui that the ignorant sun-worship of the primitive inhabitants of the country was superseded by a firmly established new and superior religion4 8,inca ,yupanqui appears to have been the first to order and settle ceremonies and religions4 ,he it was who established the twelve months of the year1 giving a name to each and ordaining the ceremonies that were to be observed in each4 ,for although his ancestors used months and years counted by the quippus1 yet they were never previously regulated until the time of this ,lord4 ,he was of such clear understanding that he reflected upon the respect and reverence shown by his ancestors to the ,sun who worshipped it as a ,god4 ,he observed that it never had any rest and that it daily journeyed round the earth2 and he said to those of his council that it was not possible that the ,sun could be the ,god who created all things1 for if he was he would not permit a small cloud to obscure his splendour2 and that if he was creator of all things he would sometimes rest and light up the whole world from one spot4 ,thus it cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who directs him and this is the ,pacha-,yachachi1 the ,creator1 literally1 the ,teacher of the ,world40 ,his predecessors had ordered an oval plate of fine gold which was to serve as an image of the ,creator of heaven and earth1 and1 in order to convey this meaning it was placed between images of the sun and moon2 a proof that the latter were employed as symbols of heaven and earth4 ,inca ,yupanqui1 however1 also caused a statue of the ,creator to be made of fine gold and of the size of a boy of ten years of age in order to convey the idea of his eternal youth4 8,it was in the shape of a man standing up1 the right arm raised and the hand almost closed1 the fingers and thumb raised as one who was giving an order40 ,the second gold statue he had made1 a personification of the sun 8which was dressed like the ,inca and wore all his insignia10 shows he claimed to be and constituted himself as the visible representative and ,lord of the ,above4 ,the silver female statue of the ,moon doubtlessly exhibited1 in the same manner1 the insignia of the ,coya4 ,inca ,yupanqui also ordered the houses and temple of ,quisuar-cancha to be built and1 at this spot1 ,sir ,clements ,markham observed an ancient wall1 with serpents carved upon it4 ,the name signifies1 literally1 8the place of the ,quisuar tree10 and will be again referred to further on4 ,without pausing to discuss the subject at length let us examine further the scheme of government1 etc41 introduced by the ,incas1 the most striking feature of which was the systematical classification of the people1 their assignment to specified dwelling places and the distribution of labor according to prescription4 ,the key to the entire gigantic system was the conception of a central immutable supreme power which directed all visible and invisible manifestations and which sent forth and re-absorbed all energy4 ,in ,cuzco and in the ,inca ,empire we have a minutely described instance of the application1 to terrestrial government1 of the laws of fixed order1 harmony1 periodicity and rotation learned by earnest and patient observers of the northern heaven1 during countless centuries of time4 ,the centre of ,cuzco consisted of a great square whence four roads radiated to the cardinal points4 ,in the centre of this stood a gold vase from which a fountain flowed4 ,the ,spaniards also found in ,cuzco a large1 beautifully-polished stone-cross which evidently symbolized1 as in ,mexico1 the four quarters and must have been appropriately placed in the square4 ,garcilaso de la ,vega states that the capital formed an actual image of the whole empire1 8for it was divided into four quarters and an extremely ancient law rendered it obligatory that representatives of each province and of each class of population should reside there in homes1 the location of which precisely corresponded to the geographical position of their respective provinces4 ,each lineage was thus represented and occupied separate dwellings1 assigned to them by the governors of the quarters4 ,all persons were obliged to adhere to the customs of their forefathers and also wear the costumes of their ayllus or tribes 7,cieza de ,leon1 ,cronica chap4 ,,xciii74 ,for the ,incas had decreed that the dresses worn by the members of each tribe should be different1 so that the people might be distinguished from each other as1 down to that time1 there had been no means of knowing to what locality or tribe an ,indian belonged40444 ,in order to avoid confusion the modes of wearing the hair were rigidly prescribed and the bands worn on the head by the vassals had to be black or of a single color only4 ,the higher in rank a person was the more his costume resembled that of the ,inca1 without1 however1 approaching it in length and richness4 8,thus1 even in an assemblage of #ajj1jjj persons it was easy to recognize individuals of each tribe and of each rank by the signs they wore on their heads40444 8,it was obligatory that each should permanently live in the province he belonged to4 ,each province1 each tribe and1 in many parts each village1 had its own language which was different from that of its neighbors4 ,those who understood each other by speaking the same language considered themselves as related to each other and were friends and confederates4444 ,the ,incas employed a private language of their own which none but members of the royal lineage presumed or dared to learn40 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 who claimed royal descent1 stated that unfortunately no records remained to enable one to form an idea of what the ,inca language was like4 ,the autocratic1 though peaceable way in which the novel scheme of government was imposed upon the inhabitants of ,peru by the foreign chieftains is best proven by the following passages from the ,rites and ,laws of the ,incas 7p4 #gg7 and ,garcilaso de la ,vega 7pp4 #i and #aj74 8,with a view that each tribe should be clearly distinguishable and after assigning a different costume to each they were ordered to choose their respective pacariscas1 a word meaning1 literally1 their birth and origin4 ,they were told to choose for themselves whence they were descended and whence they came1 and as the ,indians were generally very dull and stupid1 some chose to assign their origin to a lake1 others to a spring1 others a rock1 others a hill or ravine4 ,but every lineage chose some object for its pacarisca4 ,some tribes subsequently adored eagles because they boasted to have descended from them 444 others adored fountains1 rivers1 the earth1 which they call ,mother1 or air1 fire1 444 snow-mountains1 maize1 the sea1 named mother-sea40 ,according to ,garcilaso de la ,vega 8the ,peruvian tribes subsequently invented an infinity of fables concerning the origin of their different ancestors4444 ,an ,indian does not consider himself honorable unless he can trace his descent from a river1 fountain1 lake or the sea1 or from some wild beast like the bear1 puma1 ocelot1 eagle1 etc40 ,an example of a certain amount of vain-glory was indeed set by the diplomatic ,inca himself who claimed1 for himself and lineage1 descent from the ,sun and reserved burnished gold ornaments for his particular use4 ,his successors subsequently built a temple of the ,sun at ,cuzco and set up its image made of gold and precious stones4 ,around this1 the royal 8pacarisca10 they placed the mummies of all the dead ,incas4 ,in another room there was an image of 8the moon1 with a woman's face10 and about it were the mummies of the royal women4 ,from this we learn that the latter assigned their origin to the moon and that it was their pacarisca or huaca4 ,as an illustration of the way in which creation-myths are sometimes evolved from actual occurrences1 it is interesting to study another account of the mode in which tribal regulations were introduced into ,peru4 ,owing1 most probably1 to the fact that one of the titles given to the ,creator was 8the ,teacher10 we find ,molina attributing to the ,creator himself the establishment of the tribal system and the assignment of totems and different costumes to each group or family4 ,if we read his account and1 with ,garcilaso de la ,vega and others1 attribute to the ,incas the introduction of civilization into ,peru1 we recognize the practical good sense with which they accomplished the rather difficult task of obliging each tribe to wear a different costume4 8,in ,tiahuanaco 444 he made one of each nation of clay and painted these with the dresses that each one was to wear4 ,those who were to wear their hair1 with hair2 and those who were to be shorn1 with hair cut 444 when he had finished making the nations and painting the said figures of clay1 he gave life and soul to each one1 as well man as woman 444 each nation then went to the place to which he ordered it to go40 ,i confess that1 until ,i studied the above record in full1 ,i had very vague ideas about the huacas or 8idols0 of the ,peruvians4 ,but when ,i found it stated1 further on1 that 8each tribe wore the dress with which their huaca is invested10 ,i began to realize what huacas might originally have been4 ,it would seem that on assigning a different costume and distinctive name to each tribe1 the founder of the new colony gave each chief as a model1 a different clay doll1 painted with the distinctive marks he and his people were to adopt4 ,this figure would naturally have been kept for reference and treated as something sacred4 ,on certain official occasions it would be produced as a means of identification or proof that the prescribed costumes had been strictly adhered to4 ,to this practical and sensible plan the origin of the so-called tribal and household idols of the ,peruvians and of the ,mexicans can doubtlessly be assigned4 ,invented as an aid in the establishment of tribal-names and dress-regulations and intimately connected with the entire system of government1 these huacas gradually became the representative of the ancestor of the clan1 its 8canting0 arms and its sacred palladium4 ,we are told that after the tribes had chosen their various ancestors or origins1 such as caves1 hills1 fountains1 etc41 they settled in the land and multiplied4 ,then1 on account of having 8issued or descended from stated localities1 the people made huacas and places of worship of these1 in memory of the origin of their lineage4444 ,the huacas they use are in different shapes4444 ,some say the first of their lineages were turned into falcons1 condors and other animals or birds0 7,molina ed4 ,hakluyt1 p4 #e74 ,a certain form of ancestor-cult was thus evolved in a natural manner4 8,idolatrous rites increased and people devoted themselves to the worship of huacas 444 each village had its huaca4 ,the cult assumed such proportions under ,ccapac ,yupanqui that he exclaimed3 #8,how many false gods are there in the land1 to my sorrow and the misfortune of my vassals6 ,when shall we see these evils remedied8' 0 ,at the same time we find that clay or wooden figures continued to be employed evidently as a method of keeping an accurate register of the population4 ,in the capital1 one building held duplicates of all the huacas throughout the land4 ,when a new province was conquered the ,inca carried its principal huaca to ,cuzco4 ,one or more living representatives of the conquered tribe1 wearing its characteristic dress1 were obliged to reside in the capital4 ,in ancient ,mexico these 8living images of the gods0 are one of the most striking features of the native civilization and have been persistently misunderstood1 especially by modern authorities4 ,as these 8living gods0 are specially treated in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 ,i shall merely point out here that small clay portraits or effigies of persons were made in ,mexico at certain stages of an individual's life and also after his death4 ,these seem to have been employed for statistical purposes4 ,in ,mexico and ,peru large numbers of small images were preserved in each household and were under the charge of its chief or 8older brother10 who was obliged to guard and render account of them4 ,of course the ,spanish conquerors took it for granted that all of these were idols and1 in their ignorance1 destroyed them unmercifully4 ,once the native system of tribal organization is understood1 it becomes evident that an accurate register of all members of a tribe was of utmost importance4 ,by means of a group of more or less skillfully-modelled figures or heads the size of a family could be ascertained at a glance by the government recorder4 ,in the light of this recognition it seems more than probable that the immense numbers of small clay heads of various kinds1 found in the 8street of the dead0 at the base of the great pyramids of ,teotihuacan1 and elsewhere1 indicate that1 in these localities1 a periodical and official registration of deaths was carefully carried on4 ,this assumption is fully corroborated by the conclusions ,i reached1 in #ahhf1 after making a minute study of a large number of terra-cotta heads7#ba7 and ascertaining that numbers of them were portraits of dead persons4 ,the above inference is1 moreover1 confirmed by the name of ,teotihuacan1 which means1 literally1 8the place of the lords or masters of the teotle40 ,the term teotl was given to the head of a tribe1 who constituted the living image of the tribal ancestor4 ,when he died he himself became one of the tribal ancestors and all dead lords were termed teotle4 ,the foregoing data enlighten us as to the practical value of a sternly enforced system of division and differentiation for the control of the population1 and of clay images of persons for statistical purposes4 ,we have seen that1 during many centuries1 the energy of the rulers was directed towards making groups of people as distinct and different from each other as possible4 ,they were rigidly kept apart and1 in all assemblages1 they occupied separate positions1 in a fixed order of relation to each other4 8,all the people of ,cuzco came out according to their tribes and lineages 444 and assembling in the great square 444 sat down on their benches1 each man according to the rank he held1 the ,hanan-,cuzco on one side and the ,hurin-,cuzco on the other0 7,molina ed4 ,hakluyt1 p4 #bf74 ,beside this dual division of the entire population1 under the separate rulerships of the ,inca and ,coya1 who were linked together1 however1 in a sacred and indissoluble union and respectively represented ,heaven and ,earth1 let us study the executive administration of the religious and civil governments4 ,two sets1 each consisting of four rulers1 next in rank to the ,inca and ,coya1 are described3 ,each quarter or ,suyu was ruled over by a 8viceroy10 or 8,inca governor10 entitled tucuyricoc8he who sees all10 or ,capac4 ,in the days of the ,inca ,huayna ,capac the names of the four 8viceroys0 are recorded as having been ,capac,achachic1 ,capac,larico1 ,capac,yochi1 ,capac,hualcaya4 ,these were obviously members of the ,inca family and next in rank to the ,inca1 who presided as supreme pontiff over the religious government4 ,the civil and tribal administration was executed by four ,curacas1 each of which had charge of #aj1jjj persons belonging to the ayllustribes or lineages4 ,the titles of these four ,curacas are recorded as3 ,hunu-,camayu or ,camayoc1 ,huaronca-,camayu or ,camayoc1 ,pachaca-,camayu or ,camayoc1 ,chunca-,camayu or ,camayoc4 ,as their titles show1 they were the chief accountants or recorders of statistics1 which were recorded by means of the quippus4 ,under them1 in regular order there were officers1 who respectively had charge of #ejj1 #ajj1 #ej or #aj individuals4 ,in the latter instance it is expressly stated that it was always one man out of the ten who governed and rendered account of the remaining nine4 ,the four chief recorders dwelt in ,cuzco but 8left it every year and returned in ,february to make their report 444 bringing with them the tribute of the whole empire4 ,they also reported upon the administration every year recording the births and deaths that had occurred among men and flocks1 the yield of crops and all other details1 with great minuteness0 7,polo de ,ondegardo74 ,from the recorded details of organization we learn that the governmental scheme introduced by the ,incas was based on the assumption that the standard population of the empire should number #dj1jjj individuals under the civil rulership of #d recorders1 #dj first-grade officers1 #djj second-grade officers1 #d1jjj third-grade officers--each of the last being responsible for nine individuals besides himself4 ,it is noteworthy that the three grades of officers correspond to the threefold division of the entire produce of the land1 between the ,inca1 the ,huaca and the ,ayllu1 equivalent to the religious government1 the civil government and the people--to the ,above1 ,below and ,middle4 ,the minimal division of people into groups of ten of which one was the governmental representative corresponds1 moreover1 to the classification into the following ten categories1 according to their ages3 #a4 ,mosoc-aparic3 baby1 8newly begun10 8just born40 #b4 ,saya-huarma3 child1 8standing boy10 age #b-f4 #c ,macta-puric3 8child that can walk10 age #f-h4 #d4 ,itanta-requisic3 8bread-receiver10 boy about #h4 #e4 ,pucllac-huarma3 8playing boy10 age #h-af4 #f4 ,cuca-pallac3 8,coca pickers10 age #af-bj4 #g4 ,yma-huayna3 8as a youth10 light service1 age #bj-be4 #h4 ,puric3 8able-bodied10 tribute and service1 age #be-ej4 #i4 ,chaupi-rucca3 elderly1 light service1 age #ej-fj4 #aj4 ,puuc-rucca3 dotage1 no work1 #fj upwards47#bb7 ,although for statistical purposes1 exact registers of each of these groups were annually made by the recorders1 it is evident that the purics or 8able-bodied0 men constituted the most important portion of the population4 ,they naturally fell into two groups consisting of the nobility and commoners1 but scattered evidence amply provides that they were strictly classified according to the special service or tribute they rendered to the government4 ,the best produce of each province was brought to ,cuzco4 ,the inhabitants of each region were specially trained to render certain services or to excel in particular industries--by this means each tribe gradually became identified with its special industry or aptitude4 ,the necessity that the supply of their produce should be constant and regular1 must have necessitated the permanent maintenance of a fixed number of workers at each branch of industry1 a fact which would give rise to rigid laws controlling the liberty of the individual1 forcing children to adopt their parents' avocations and forbidding intermarriages between persons of different provinces4 ,as scattered mention is made of the following general classification of the male population1 ,i venture to note them as follows1 provisionally3 ,nobility3 ,commoners4 #a4 lords3 shepherds 7of lamas71 #b4 priests3 hunters1 #c4 warriors3 farmers1 #d4 civil governors3 artificers4 ,the female population was doubtlessly subdivided in an analogous manner1 for it is expressly recorded that all marriageable girls were kept in four different houses4 ,those of the first class1 qualified as 8the white virgins10 were dedicated to the service of the ,creator1 the ,sun and the ,inca2 the second were given in marriage to the nobility2 the third class married the ,curacas or civil governors1 and the last were qualified as 8black10 and pertained to the lower classes4 ,caste division was never lost sight of--indeed one ,inca went so far as to order that all the people of the ,below 8should flatten the heads of their children1 so that they should be long and sloping from the front40 ,thus they should ever be distinguishable from the nobility and 8yield them obedience40 ,although it is not expressly stated1 it may be inferred from actual specimens of skulls which have been found that1 in some localities1 in order to differentiate the two classes still more1 members of the nobility strove to mould the heads of their children in a high peak1 so that they too should perpetually bear the mark of their rank4 ,whether such a procedure would exert a correspondingly elevating or abasing influence upon the intellectual development of the two classes is a problem for anthropologists4 ,a very simple explanation of the reason why artificial deformation of the skull was ever adopted1 is obtainable when the all-powerful dominion of a certain set of ideas is recognized4 ,many other customs1 still in practice amongst ,american tribes1 are likewise explained by the arbitrary division of population into classes and categories4 ,the ,peruvian custom of bestowing one name upon a child when it was one year old and another when it attained maturity is the direct outcome of the classification of individuals by age4 ,the ceremonial observances which accompanied the bestowal of these names were accompanied by a change of costume which constituted the official enrolment or advancement into another class4 ,the existence of further systematic class-distinctions is proven by the description of the picturesque ceremony performed in the month of ,august at ,cuzco and called 8the driving out of sickness40 ,in the centre of the great square around the urn of gold which typified the 8central fountain0 7precisely the idea expressed by the name of ,mexico71 four hundred warriors assembled4 ,one hundred1 representing one of the four ayllus1 faced towards each cardinal point and subsequently ran at full speed in its direction1 crying 8,go forth all evils60 ,we have now traced the idea of the ,above and ,below1 ,centre and ,four ,quarters in ,ancient ,peru4 ,it remains to be noted that the capital itself1 which was to be the image of the whole empire1 was primarily divided into two halves and four quarters1 and subdivided into #dcab wards the names of which doubtlessly corresponded with that of their inhabitants4 ,when the sacred centre of the capital is added to these it is clear that the ,city of ,cuzco was subdivided into as many parts as there were directions in space1 i4 e4 #ac4 ,it exemplified1 therefore1 an association of #bajbj categories of people classified according to ages1 with thirteen directions in space1 and a general subdivision of all classes into four parts4 ,the ,inca with the four ,capacs and the ,coya with the four ,camayocs formed two groups of five each1 which could well have been represented by a large central figure surrounded by four smaller ones of equal size4 ,by coloring these with red1 yellow1 black and white1 their assignment to the cardinal point could have been expressed4 ,the central figure could be painted in four colors1 for only the ,inca and his lineage could wear many-colored garments1 these being indicative that they represented the centre or union of the four quarters4 ,two important features of the system remain to be discussed3 ,we have studied the minute and methodical classification of the entire population into distinct groups without touching upon the practical reasons why this was done4 ,we have analyzed the great machinery of the ,inca dominion as it lies broken and motionless4 ,but endow the giant wheel with motion1 introduce systematical rotation into its every part1 regulate the occupations of the people by a fixed series of work-days and holidays4 ,send them forth to their work and collect the products of their labor at set intervals1 institute a calendar1 and you will have set the machinery of state in motion and realized how the classification of individuals according to rank1 ages1 and occupations was absolutely necessary in order to obtain a successful and harmonious result4 ,it has already been shown that the institution of the calendar and establishment of twelve festival periods of thirty days each1 in a year1 succeeded the division of the people into groups and their assignment to fixed places of abode4 8,they commenced to count the year in the middle of ,may1 a few days more or less1 on the first day of the ,moon 444 in this month they held the festivals of the ,sun0 7,molina ed4 ,hakluyt1 p4 #af74 ,i direct particular attention to the fact that it was the new ,may moon which controlled the beginning of the religious calendar1 although the ,incas observed the equinoxes and solstices and the cult of the ,sun was under their special care4 ,the twelve divisions of the year accord with the twelve wards of ,cuzco surrounding the central enclosure which was always the place where the festivals were held and the people congregated4 ,i have as yet found no account of the lesser divisions of time in ,peru1 but note that the period of thirty days consisted of six periods of five days each1 a subdivision which would obviously accord with native habits of thought if associated with the six terrestrial directions in space and if a reunion of people and collection of produce from four quarters took place on every fifth day in the capital4 ,in my special work on the ,calendar systems of ancient ,america ,i shall be able to discuss more fully their intimate indissoluble relation to the regulation of labor and control of the food supply absolutely requisite for the great capital4 ,the idea of rotation was carried out in a ceremony described by ,molina4 ,when the ,december moon was full1 after having ploughed their fields during twelve days1 8all persons returned to ,cuzco 444 the people went to a house called moro-uco1 near the houses of the ,sun and took out a very long cable which was kept there1 woven in four colors1 black1 white1 red and yellow1 at the end of which was a stout ball of red wool4 ,everyone took hold of it1 the men on one side1 the women on the other1 performing the sacred dance called yaquayra4 ,when they came to the square 444 they went round and round until they were in the shape of a spiral shell4 ,then they dropped the cable on the ground and left it coiled up like a snake4 ,the people returned to their places and those who had charge of the cable took it back to its house40 ,an extremely important instance of the application of the spiral is preserved in an illustration in the ,account of the ,antiquities of ,peru by the native chronicler ,salcamayhua 7ed4 ,hakluyt1 p4 #aji74 ,he relates that the ,inca ,huayna-,capac1 when he reached the town of ,tumipampa1 8ordered water to be brought from a river by boring through a mountain1 and making the channel enter the city by curves in this way30 ,illustration4 ,figure #df4 ,the illustration1 reproduced here 7fig4 #df71 exhibits an extremely ingenious mode of irrigation which divided the country surrounding the town into nine zones of land lying between currents of water4 ,these are cut through by an exit canal which1 at the same time1 presumably supplied a direct water-way for traffic to and from the town4 ,the association of the spiral form with irrigation would not1 perhaps1 seem as important and significant did we not know that the ancient ,peruvians1 as proven by ,wiener1 habitually laid out the irrigation canals in their maize-fields so as to form regular designs1 some of which resembled those illustrated on fig4 #dj1 nos4 #b1 #d1 #f1 #g1 which have been shown to signify the union of the ,above and ,below1 or ,heaven and ,earth4 ,in the ,peruvian irrigation canals the water supplied the light lines and the earth the dark1 and when the small canals were full and were observed in certain lights1 they must have resembled light blue or white patterns running through the dark earth4 ,that their inventors and makers actually associated them with profound meaning and laid them from superstitious as well as practical motives is obvious2 for1 in ,peru1 as in ,mexico1 we find the periodical union of the ,heaven and ,earth1 of rain and earth celebrated with ceremonial drinking of chicha1 specially brewed for this period which seems to have been the regularly appointed time for juvenile match-making1 by order of the ,inca4 8,when the ,inca gave women as wives they were received because it was the command of the ,inca 444 because of this it was considered that she was taken until death and she was received on this understanding and never deserted0 7,molina74 8,when the ,inca ,rocca married his sister1 six thousand people were married on the next day0 7,montesinos74 ,in the festival called ,ccapac ,raymi1 maidens who had attained womanhood offered bowls of fermented chicha to the youths who had just been admitted to the ranks of the warriors4 8,during this festival the ,priests of the ,sun and of the ,creator brought a quantity of fuel1 tied together in handfuls1 and dressed as a man and a woman 444 they were offered to the ,creator1 the ,sun and the ,inca and were burnt in their clothes together with a sheep0 7,molina74 ,towards the end of the same month 7,november71 feasts were celebrated for the flocks of the huacas1 that they might multiply2 for which sacrifices were made throughout the kingdom4 ,ultimately 8public solemn sacrifices were made to the ,creator1 the ,sun1 the ,thunder and the ,moon for all nations1 that they might prosper and multiply0 7,molina74 ,a few weeks later1 an exemption from ceremonial bondage1 for three months1 commenced4 ,throughout ,january1 ,february and ,march no religious festival took place at ,cuzco--the farmers attended to their land and the people were left at liberty to pursue their various avocations uninterruptedly 7,molina ed4 ,hakluyt1 pp4 #ea and #eb74 ,i have already shown that the same exemption from ceremonial bondage during ninety to one hundred days of the year was customary in ,mexico2 and1 in my note on the ,ancient ,mexican ,calendar ,system1 communicated to the ,congress of ,americanists at ,stockholm in #ahid 7p4 #af71 ,i explained the reasons which had led me to infer that 8the religious festivals were concentrated in the ritual years of #bfj days10 which indeed forms a unit1 consisting of a complete set of combinations of the numbers #ac and #bj4 ,in ,dr4 ,franz ,boas' admirable monograph on the ,social ,organization and secret societies of the ,kwakiutl ,indians 7,washington1 #ahig1 p4 #dah71 it is shown that at the present day the clan system is only in force during one division of the year4 8,at the beginning of the winter ceremonial the social system is completely changed4 ,the period when the class system is in force is called b-xus4 ,the period of the winter ceremonial is designated as #8the secrets1' #8making the heart good1' also #8brought down from ,above4' ,the ,indians express this alternating of seasons by saying that in summer the b-xus is on top1 the secrets below1 and vice versa in winter4 ,during this time the place of the clans is taken by a number of secret societies3 the spirits who had appeared to mythical ancestors give new names to the men to whom they appear1 but these names are only in use during the time when the spirits dwell amongst the ,indians1 i4 e41 in the winter40 ,therefore from the moment when the spirits are supposed to be present1 all the summer names are dropped and the members of the nobility take their winter names4 ,the winter ceremonial societies are arranged in two principal groups2 these are subdivided into #bajbj groups according to age and sex4 ,dr4 ,boas distinguishes 8three classes of tribal names and of clan names1 viz41 such as are collective forms of the names of the ancestors1 names taken from the region inhabited by the tribe or clan and names of honour4444 ,each clan derives its origin from a mythical ancestor 444 the present system of tribes and clans is of recent growth 444 their numbers have undergone considerable changes in historical times40 ,a careful study of the material presented by ,dr4 ,boas shows1 however1 that the ground-plans of the entire social fabric reared by the ,kwakiutl ,indians closely resembles that on which the stately ,maya1 ,mexican and ,peruvian civilizations were reared4 ,returning to ,peru1 it is particularly noteworthy that the above mentioned solemn sacrifices to the ,creator1 the ,sun and ,thunder1 and ,moon and ,earth1 held in ,november1 were thus offered to them jointly in one consecrated place1 whereas1 at other seasons1 the cult was performed separately and on different days1 before the emblems of the ,above and ,below4 ,notwithstanding the moderation and tolerance which seem to have been characteristic of the ,inca government1 and the apparent equality and accord of the two cults1 the heads of which were the ,inca and ,coya1 we find evidences of discord in the historical records4 ,the ,inca empire had scarcely been established for more than a few centuries7#bc7 when we discern signs of a serious rebellion under the leadership of the ,chuchi-capac1 the chief of the ,southern province or ,colla-suyu1 pertaining to the ,below4 ,from the taunts he uttered in the presence of the ,inca on a festive occasion and which have been recorded verbally by ,salcamayhua1 it is clear that the chief of the ,collas asserted that he 7and the people of his province7 actually practised sun-cult although 8his throne was of silver20 that is to say1 notwithstanding the fact that moon-cult pertained to the quarter to which he was assigned1 namely1 to the ,below4 ,he justifies his departure from moon-cult by taunting the ,inca that he1 in turn1 did not adhere strictly to sun-cult but worshipped the impersonal ,creator4 ,this struggle between the ancient native sun-cult and star-cult and this religious dissension1 the reason for which is apparent1 initiated the long period of internal strife and warfare which ultimately made the ,spanish ,conquest such an easy matter4 ,during the course of these wars the ,peruvian ,inca1 on one occasion1 avenged himself for a supposed insult by having drums made of the skins of some of the enemies' messengers and by sending back others of these 8dressed as women10 that is to say degraded from their positions as warriors or noblemen to the ranks of the commoners4 ,a similar degradation1 inflicted upon the ,tlatelolcan rebels by the ,mexicans has already been mentioned and can only be fully understood when the class-system is recognized4 ,from this and analogous instances it is evident that1 admirable as the scheme of government seems to have been as a means of laying the foundations of civilization1 and of teaching primitive people agriculture1 stability1 law and order1 yet the very features which rendered it so efficient at first became1 eventually1 the cause of its gradual disintegration1 as soon as a certain degree of culture prosperity was attained by the community4 ,one mode of avoiding the evils of over-population and of ridding the capital of its restless1 and enterprising or troublesome members1 was the system of ,mitimaes or colonists4 ,this merits particular attention1 because it formed an integral part of the marvellous and widespread scheme of organization we have been studying1 and therefore helps to an understanding of the customary means by which civilization was spread in past ages throughout the ,american continent4 ,as the population of ,cuzco increased and greater food supplies were found necessary1 the ,incas extended their dominions by a series of conquests4 8,as soon as they had made themselves lords of a province they left ,mitimaes or settlers there1 who caused the natives to live in communities0 and established a small centre of local government on the pattern of ,cuzco4 ,mitimaes or colonists were also sent1 from different provinces1 to live on the frontiers1 bordering on hostile countries1 so as to aid in defending them against the enemies4 ,the establishment of colonies in distant districts was therefore a tried and familiar custom of those who possessed the wonderful governmental plan we have been studying4 ,i have shown that the greater the prosperity of a civilized community organized on this plan1 the more imperative the necessity of founding new colonies would sometimes become4 ,the urgent need of greater food supplies would lead to the sending out of expeditions for the purpose of surveying the surrounding country and ascertaining the quality of its produce4 ,in his ,,ms4 ,noticia1 ,padre ,oliva speaks of an exploring party which was sent out by the ancestor of the ,incas with the injunction to return in a year4 ,after a few years had passed and none of the party returned1 a second expedition was sent out in search of the first and this led to the final establishment of the ,inca dominion in a promising region4 ,sahagun recounts how a ,maya colony was established at ,panuco2 ,montezuma himself related to ,corts that he and his lineage were descendants of colonists from distant parts2 traditions of culture-heroes who established civilization amongst them abound amongst ,central ,american tribes2 finally1 ,peru is shown to have been civilized by rulers who carried out1 systematically1 a ready-made plan in a comparatively short time4 ,whence did all these culture-heroes emanate1 carrying the identical method and system into widely separated districts and establishing centres of civilization in the richest and most fertile parts of the ,american ,continent8 ,documentary evidence certainly justifies the inference that the civilization of ,peru itself was due to just such a deliberately executed plan of colonization1 which gradually extended southwards and ultimately took root and flourished in the most favorably situated locality4 ,leonce ,angrand1 who cites ,acosta1 ,montesinos1 ,garcia1 ,boturini1 ,valera1 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 ,gomara1 ,balboa1 ,paz ,soldan1 d',orbigny1 ,zarate1 ,cieza de ,leon1 ,torquemada1 ,herrera1 ,velasco1 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 ,gibbon1 ,stevenson1 ,castelnau1 ,desjardins1 ,villavicencio1 ,roman and others1 unites their testimony in the following sentence3 8,it is therefore solely towards the ,north1 in the elevated mountainous region1 that researches should be directed in order to ascertain the origin of the ,peruvian civilization4 ,as soon as this is done innumerable proofs appear of the residence1 in extremely ancient times1 of people who can scarcely belong to other races than those who founded ,cuzco and ,tiahuanaco4 ,it is therefore1 from the ,north that these hardy pioneers of humanity came1 from distant civilizations1 and it is certainly by going northwards that one must look for traces of one or the other current of civilization4 ,the inexhaustible force of expansion of the ,inca ,empire extended to the ,north as well as in other directions40 ,angrand also mentions a line 8of prehistoric ruins which extend northwards from ,peru and display the essentially characteristic outlines of the ,mexican ,teocallis or temples407#bd7 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 citing ,padre ,blas ,valera1 goes so far as to state that the race1 which introduced human sacrifices and ritualistic cannibalism into ,peru1 8had come from the region of ,mexico1 peopled the regions of ,panama and the ,isthmus of ,darien and all those great mountains which extend between ,peru and the new kingdom of ,granada0 7the present ,nicaragua747#be7 ,according to ,padre ,anello ,oliva1 whose manuscript notes on ,peru are preserved in the ,british ,museum ,library1 the immediate ancestors of the ,incas were colonists who came from unknown parts either by land or by sea1 and settled at ,caracas 7,atlantic coast71 whence they gradually spread southwards4 ,as his authority for this statement1 he cites original manuscripts which had been placed in his hands by a ,spanish missionary of high standing4 ,among these was a relation by a ,quipucamayoc or 8accountant by means of quippus10 named ,catari1 who had been a chronicler of the ,incas4 ,his forefathers had occupied the same post and had handed down the above record as having been related to them by their predecessors4 ,this account does not disagree with that of ,salcamayhua who states that 8all the nations of the empire had come from beyond ,potosi1 in four or five armies1 arrayed for war and settled in the districts as they advanced40 ,whatever opinions may be held of the relative reliability of the ,spanish chroniclers one thing is certain3 that not one ventures the statement that the ,inca civilization was gradually evolved by the native race of ,peru and that all agree in assigning its introduction to an alien race of rulers who came from the ,north1 and gradually united the scattered indigenous tribes together under a central government4 ,americanists will doubtless agree with me in stating that1 until the past history1 antiquities and languages of all tribes inhabiting ,south and ,central ,america have been exhaustively studied1 no absolutely satisfactory conclusion can be formed as to when and how civilization was carried to ,peru4 ,on the other hand1 even in the present preliminary stage of investigation1 there are certain undeniable facts which1 if brought to notice at this early date1 may prove of inestimable value in directing future research4 ,one of these facts will doubtless appear to many as strange and inexplicable but as noteworthy as it appears to me4 ,in ,cristoval de ,molina's account of the fables and rites of the ,incas7#bf7 already cited1 a fable is related concerning the ,inca ,yupanqui1 the ,conqueror1 who extended the domain of the ,peruvian empire and instituted the worship of a creator who1 unlike the sun1 could rest and light up the world from one spot4 8,they say that1 before he succeeded to rulership1 he went one day to visit his father ,uiracocha ,inca1 who was at ,sacsahuana1 five leagues from ,cuzco4 ,as he came up to a fountain called ,susur-puquio1 he saw a piece of crystal fall into it1 within which he beheld the figure of an ,indian in the following shape3 8,out of the back of his head there issued three very brilliant rays like those of the ,sun4 ,serpents were twined around his arms1 and on his head there was the llautu or royal fringe worn across the forehead of the ,inca4 ,his ears were bored and he wore the same earpieces as the ,inca1 besides being dressed like him4 ,the head of a lion came out from between his legs and on his shoulders was another lion whose legs appeared to join over the shoulders of the man4 ,a sort of serpent also twined over the shoulders4 8,on seeing this figure the ,inca ,yupanqui fled1 but the figure of the apparition called him by his name from within the fountain saying1 #8,come hither1 my son1 and fear not1 for ,i am the ,sun1 thy father4 ,thou shalt conquer many nations3 therefore be careful to pay great reverence to me and remember me in thy sacrifices4' ,the apparition then vanished1 while the piece of crystal remained4 ,the ,inca took care of it and they say that he afterwards saw everything he wanted in it4 ,as soon as he was ,lord he ordered a statue of the ,sun to be made as nearly as possible resembling the figure he had seen in the crystal4 ,he gave orders to the heads of the provinces in all the lands he had conquered1 that they should make grand temples1 richly endowed1 and he commanded all his subjects to adore and reverence the new ,deity1 as they had heretofore worshipped the ,creator4444 ,it is related that all his conquests were made in the name of the ,sun1 his ,father1 and of the ,creator4 ,this ,inca also commanded all the nations they conquered to hold their huacas in great veneration44440 ,it is a startling but undeniable fact that one of the beautiful bas-reliefs found at ,santa ,lucia ,cozumalhuapa near the western coast of ,guatemala1 about #a1bjj miles to the north of the latitude of ,cuzco1 answers in a most striking manner to the description given of ,inca ,yupanqui's vision47#bg7 ,amongst the thirteen sculptured slabs discovered at ,santa ,lucia1 there are six entire slabs and the fragment of another which are of almost uniform size and may be ranked among the finest examples of aboriginal art which have as yet been found on the ,american ,continent4 ,they represent seven different renderings of the same theme4 ,on each slab an individual wearing elaborate insignia is represented as standing with one arm raised and his head thrown back in the act of gazing upwards towards a celestial figure which seems to be descending towards him4 ,the arms and heads of these nobly conceived figures are visible1 but in each case the faces seem to issue from a highly ornate symbol1 which is different in each one1 just as the insignia of each individual also varies in detail4 ,at the same time it is obvious that the seven slabs commemorate as it were an identical circumstance1--the apparition of the same divinity to seven different individuals1 six of which are represented with the sign of speech coming forth from their mouths in precisely the same manner4 ,the general resemblance1 notwithstanding the distinct individuality of each bas-relief1 suggests that they commemorate the visions seen under similar circumstances by seven distinct personages of the same rank and position4 ,involuntarily one thinks of the period of enforced fast and vigil which marks the attainment of manhood and is still obligatory amongst ,north ,american tribes1 amongst whom it only ends when they have entered into communion with their totemic ancestor4 ,i am inclined to view these commemorative tablets as commemorating an analogous rite and perpetuating the visions of successive members of one ruling family1 or clan4 ,the divinity1 invariably associated with serpent symbols1 seems to be ,quetzalcoatl1 the divine twin or serpent1 exhibiting in some cases the emblem of the ,sun1 but evidently revealing itself to each personage under a slightly different form4 ,illustration4 ,figure #dg4 ,the accompanying drawing 7fig4 #dg7 of one of the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs1 reproduced from ,dr4 ,habel's work1 will suffice to establish its resemblance to ,padre ,oliva's description of the apparition seen by the youthful ,inca ,yupanqui4 ,after a careful comparison of the text to the sculptured bas-relief1 it must be admitted that a more graphic and impressive illustration of the episode can scarcely be imagined4 ,its lower portion displays a youthful figure1 looking upwards and exhibiting a necklace1 the circular ear-pieces and royal fringe or llautu of the ,incas4 ,from his shoulders hangs the skin of a puma or lion with its head downwards4 ,molina relates that lion-skins with the heads were specially prepared for the ceremonial when youths were admitted into the ranks of knighthood1 the last rite of which was the piercing of their ears and the enlargement of the orifice made47#bh7 ,the youth wears a singular head-dress1 or diadem1 consisting of what appears to be an eye with conventionally drawn upper lid1 surmounted by three pointed rays1 behind which some long wavy feathers are visible47#bi7 ,the celestial apparition to which the youthful figure is looking up1 likewise exhibits the same necklace1 pieces1 and royal fringe of the ,incas4 ,indistinctly though some of the details are given1 it seems as though intertwined serpents encircled its head and possibly its neck4 ,the head of the vision is surmounted by an enlarged rendering of the conventionally drawn eyelid and three pointed rays which form the diadem of the youthful knight4 ,the face of the vision occupies1 however1 the place of the eye on the diadem4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that in the ,nahuatl language1 which1 as 7op4 et loc4 cit47 proven by ,buschmann1 was spoken in ,guatemala where the bas-relief was found1 the word ixtli designates face1 whilst ixtololotli signifies eye4 ,situated between the right elbow of the celestial figure and the diadem of the youth1 there is a diminutive reproduction of the eye1 eyelid and three rays1 with the addition that what appear like two 7or three87 drops of water or two eyes descend from it towards a square symbol which resembles the ,mexican sign for tlalliearth1 whilst the eye symbol is closely analogous to a well-known ,mexican sign which has been interpreted as a star1 and has1 but not as yet satisfactorily1 been identified with the planet ,venus4 ,without pausing to study this sign as it appears in ancient ,mexico ,i point out that the position and mode of representation of the upper figure in the bas-relief sufficiently show that it is an image of a celestial being or vision in the act of receiving the supplication of a youth who is wearing divine insignia4 ,there being a possibility that some of these accessories may be somewhat indistinct in the original bas-relief now preserved at the ,royal ,ethnographical ,museum at ,berlin1 ,i do not venture to draw special attention to the possibility of further points of resemblance between the ,peruvian tradition and this ,guatemalan sculpture4 ,at the same time ,i shall not omit allusion to the wavy figure winding upwards from the waist of the supplicant1 which recurs in four out of the seven slabs4 ,it may yet prove to answer to the description of 8a sort of serpent10 which is recorded as twining over the shoulders of the vision who was 8dressed like the ,inca40 ,the lion's head which appears in the drawing to cover the left hand of the supplicant and the fact that his left foot only1 in some cases1 wears a sandal1 are important and interesting features to which ,i shall revert further on4 ,without attempting to offer any explanation of the truly remarkable fact that a bas-relief exhumed in ,guatemala should so strikingly agree with a description preserved in a ,peruvian tradition1 ,i shall merely point out a second similar though much less remarkable case of agreement4 ,padre ,oliva records two instances in which a 8royal eagle0 figures in connection with members of the ,inca dynasty4 ,one of these relates to the ancestors of ,manco ,capac1 the reputed founder of ,cuzco4 ,his great-grandmother1 being abandoned by her husband1 attempted to sacrifice her young son to ,pachacamac4 ,a royal eagle descended1 carried him away in his talons and set him down in an island off the ,pacific coast1 named ,guayan1 8because it was covered with willows40 ,oliva explains this tradition as a fanciful way of recording the fact that the youth's life was probably endangered1 and that he had fled and taken refuge on an island4 ,at the age of twenty-one he made his way back to the continent on a raft1 but was seized by hostile people4 ,his life was1 however1 saved by the daughter of a chieftain who returned with him to the island4 ,her name is given as ,ciguar1 a word strangely like the ,nahuatl ,cihuatlwoman4 ,she bore him a son who was named ,atau 7cf4 ,ahau and ,ahua,maya and ,mexican words for lord or chief71 who was1 in time1 the father of ,manco ,capac1 the reputed founder of civilization in ,peru4 ,when the latter was a child 8an eagle approached him and never left him40 ,in view of these traditions it is interesting to note that1 on two of the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs figured by ,habel and reproduced by ,mr4 ,hermann ,strebel in pl4 ,,ii1 fig4 #ac1 of his extremely useful and comprehensive monograph on the bas-reliefs of ,santa ,lucia1 an eagle is represented in connection with a figure wearing divine insignia4 ,on one of the seven analogous slabs representing a personage addressing a supplication to a celestial apparition1 a large eagle or vulture is actually sculptured behind the supplicant1 being1 as it were1 his individual totem 7,strebel1 ,pl4 ,,ii1 fig4 #e74 ,a drawing of a part of another slab 7,strebel1 ,pl4 ,,ii1 fig4 #ac7 displays an eagle or vulture holding in his beak the body of a bearded personage who wears a neck ornament and circular ear pieces1 and from whose head two serpents hang4 ,this last detail associates him with the celestial figure which usually displays knotted serpents on or above its head1 suggesting its connection with ,quetzalcoatl1 the divine title of the ,supreme ,being and also of the supreme rulers of the ,mexicans4 ,it is curious to find in ,peru a tradition recording that1 when 8the ,pachacuti ,inca ,yupanqui undertook the conquest of the ,antisuyus with #ajj1jjj men1 their ,huaca sent forth fire and stopped the passage with a fierce serpent which destroyed many people4 ,the ,inca raised his eyes to heaven and prayed for help with great sorrow1 and a furious eagle descended1 and seizing the head of the serpent raised it on high1 and then hurled it to the ground4 ,in memory of this miracle the ,inca ordered a snake to be carved in stone on the wall of a terrace in this province1 which was called ,aucapirca40 ,when divested of all fanciful details1 the foregoing ,peruvian traditions seem to show that the eagle was the totem of one or more of the ,incas and that the serpent was the totem of a tribe which was conquered by the ,incas4 ,it is likewise recorded by ,padre ,oliva that the ,inca named ,mayta ,capac ,amaru ordered his shield to be painted with weapons and a serpent,amaru1 8because he had killed one in the ,andes and therefore took it for his surname40 ,it is impossible for any ,mexicanist to read the foregoing texts without recalling that1 in the ,city of ,mexico1 there is an unexplained bas-relief which was put up by the ,spaniards after the ,conquest but evidently figures a native tradition4 ,it represents an eagle bearing in his talons a personage1 wearing a diadem1 beneath whom is a group of native weapons47#cj7 ,the arms of ,mexico representing an eagle holding a serpent in its talons and resting on a cactus1 is too well known to require comment and recalls the ,peruvian tradition of the eagle of the ,incas conquering the serpent-totem of a hostile people4 ,striking as these undeniable resemblances undoubtedly are1 they would not1 by themselves1 justify the immediate conclusion that an actual direct connection existed between the ,peruvian traditions and the ,guatemalan and ,mexican bas-reliefs which almost seem to illustrate the same or analogous incidents4 ,at the same time they prove that1 besides their scheme of government1 the ,incas had certain myths or traditions in common with the civilized tribes inhabiting ,central ,america4 ,it is well to bear in mind that the situations of ,cuzco in ,peru and ,santa ,lucia in ,guatemala are both adjacent to the ,pacific coast with an intervening distance of about #bg- degrees of latitude4 ,but #ae degrees1 however1 lie between the northern boundary of modern ,peru and the southern boundary of ,nicaragua where1 as proven by ,buschmann1 innumerable names of localities in the ,nahuatl language testify to its ancient occupation by a ,nahuatl-speaking race4 ,it is noteworthy that this eminent philologist observed how the name employed to designate the bamboo bed of the ,cacique ,agateite1 in ,nicaragua1 8barbacoa10 was the same as that of the wooden bed or litter used by the ,inca in ,peru 7op4 cit4 p4 #gef74 ,buschmann likewise identified the word galpongreat hall or house4 ,he also expressed the opinion that 8the ,quechua word pampa resembles the ,mexican amilpampa ehecatlthe south wind1 but the ,mexican is formed by the affixes pan and pa and the ,quechua substantive means an even1 open plain4 ,at the same time this meaning and form could be derived from the ,mexican affixes0 7,buschmann1 ,ueber ,aztekische ,ortsnamen ,,iii1 #g1 p4 #fbg74 ,following this precedent ,i have ventured to search for further resemblances between ,nahuatl and ,quechua words1 and one of the remarkable results ,i obtained was the discovery that the well-known ,quechua name for colonists,mitimaes1 the meaning of which1 in ,quechua1 is not forthcoming1 seems to be connected in sound and meaning with the ,nahuatl ,ce-mitimesons of one mother 7,molina's dictionary74 ,it is superfluous to point out how appropriate this designation would have been for the colonists who invariably founded fresh centres of civilization on the plan of the central metropolis4 ,a brief comparative table1 the result of an investigation which lays no claim to be more than a rudimentary attempt1 is published as an appendix to this paper1 with the hope that it may stimulate philologists to supersede it by exhaustive studies of the subject4 ,a careful examination of the table tends to prove that certain ,nahuatl1 ,quechua and ,maya words had a common origin and shows that a closer connection existed between the ,nahuatl and ,quechua languages than between ,nahuatl and ,maya or the ,quechua and ,maya4 ,i shall have occasion to refer to several of the words ,i have tabulated4 ,at present ,i would draw attention to an analogy which bears directly on the subject of this paper and is of utmost interest and importance4 ,if carefully studied it will be seen that the title 8,pacha ,yachachic10 applied in ,peru to the ,creator1 proves to be allied in sound and meaning to the ,mexican title ,yaca-tecuhtli1 8the lord who guides or governs40 ,according to ,sahagun1 this was 8the god of the traders or traveller-merchants40 ,he had five divine brothers and one sister1 each of which was separately worshipped by some travellers1 whilst others1 on their safe return from distant and dangerous expeditions1 offered sacrifices to the whole group collectively4 ,i leave it to each reader to make his own inference as to whether this celestial 8traveller's guide0 with his six brethren can have been other than ,polaris and ,ursa ,minor4 ,the difference in the magnitudes of this constellation would naturally give rise to the idea of a group composed of individuals of different ages and sizes2 the 8little sister0 probably being the smaller of the four intermediate stars of the constellation and suggesting tales of adventures relating to the mythical sister of six brothers4 ,it is superfluous to emphasize how natural it would have been to offer a thanksgiving to the 8traveller's star0 on returning from a distant voyage1 but ,i will point out that for coast navigation between ,guatemala and ,nicaragua and ,peru1 the adoption of ,polaris as a guide was and is a matter of course4 ,it is well to bear in mind that we are dealing here with navigation north and south1 along a sheltered coast1 for a distance not exceeding that of the coast-line between ,gibraltar and ,hamburg4 ,an instructive example of primitive navigation1 under analogous circumstances1 has been communicated to me1 from personal observation1 by ,commander ,barber of the ,united ,states ,navy4 ,native traders1 who navigate north and south in small crafts along the coast between ,ceylon and ,karashee1 still use1 at the present day1 an extremely primitive method of estimating latitude1 which is entirely based upon observations of the pole-star4 ,their contrivance consists of a piece of wood four inches square1 through which a hole is bored and a piece of cord1 with knots at intervals1 is passed4 ,the square is held at arm's length and the end of the cord is held to the point of the navigator's nose in a horizontal line1 the height being so adjusted that the pole-star is observed in contact with the upper edge of the piece of wood4 ,there are as many knots in the cords as there are ports habitually visited1 and according to the length of the cord required for the observation of ,polaris in the said position1 the mariner knows to which port he is opposite4 ,according to ,sir ,clements ,b4 ,markham17#ca7 the original inhabitants of the ,peruvian coast fished in boats made of inflated sealskins4 ,it is well known that the coast-tribes of ,mexico and ,central ,america employed boats of various kinds and some of great size4 ,the ,mexican tradition relates that the culture hero ,quetzalcoatl departed in a craft he had constructed and which is designated as a coatlapechtlicoacoatlserpent or twin1 tlapechtliraft4 ,it is open to conjecture whether this construction1 8in which he sat himself as in a boat10 may be regarded as a sort of double or twin raft1 or a boat made of serpent or seal 787 skin4 ,in order to form any opinion1 the name for seal in the ,nahuatl and other languages spoken by the coast tribes should first be ascertained and compared with the native names for serpent4 ,the ,maya colonists who founded the colony on the ,mexican coast1 and are known as the ,huaxtecans1 are described as having transported themselves thither by boats from ,yucatan4 ,in the native ,codices and in the sculptured bas-relief at ,chichen-,itza1 there are1 moreover1 illustrations of navigation by boats4 ,as dependent upon ,polaris as their ,east ,indian colleagues of to-day1 it is but natural that the ancient ,mexican traders by land or sea expressed their gratitude by offerings to ,polaris and ,ursa ,minor4 ,let us now return to ,peru and examine whether there is any proof that the 8,teacher or ,guide of the ,world10 the ,supreme ,being of the ,incas1 was identical with the 8,lord who guides0 revered by the ,mexican navigators4 ,i have already demonstrated that in ancient ,america the native scheme of religion and government was but the natural outcome of certain ideas suggested by the observation of ,polaris and the circumpolar constellations4 ,i have likewise quoted the remarkable qualification of a supreme divinity made by ,inca ,yupanqui1 who raised a temple in ,cuzco to the ,creator who1 superior to the sun1 could rest and light the world from one spot4 ,it is an extremely important and significant fact that the principal doorway of this temple opened to the north17#cb7 and that the 8true ,creator0 is alluded to as an invisible power1 the knowledge of which was transmitted by the ,incas from father to son4 ,thus ,salcamayhua records that on one occasion the young ,inca ,ccapac ,yupanqui exclaimed 8,i now feel that there is another ,creator of all things than that worshipped in the ,andes1 as my father ,mayta ,ccapas ,inca has indeed told me407#cc7 ,considering that in the latitude of ,cuzco1 situated as it is #ad below the equator1 ,polaris is invisible1 the conditions thus recorded as existing in ,peru are exactly those which might be expected to exist if a religion founded on pole-star worship had been carried southward to a region in which the star itself was invisible4 ,the orientation of the temple would designate the north as the sacred region and the star-god would become an invisible power whose very existence would have become traditional and necessarily be accepted on faith by native-born ,peruvians and converted sun- and moon-worshippers4 ,it is a remarkable fact that a descendant of the ,incas has furnished us with actual proof that the ,supreme ,creator revered at ,cuzco was not only associated with a star1 but also with the figure of a cross1 each branch of which terminated in a star4 ,we are indebted to the native chronicler ,salcamayhua for some extremely curious drawings1 which are reproduced here from his account of the ,antiquities of ,peru47#cd7 ,in treating of the primitive astronomy in ,america in my special paper on the native calendar1 ,i shall refer to these in greater detail4 ,for my present purpose it suffices to designate the following figures4 ,salcamayhua records that the founder of the ,peruvian ,empire1 ,manco ,capac1 ordered the smiths to make a flat plate of fine gold1 of oval shape1 which was set up as an image of the ,creator 7op4 cit4 p4 #gf74 ,the ,inca ,mayta ,ccapac1 8who despised all created things1 including the sun and moon10 and 8ordered his people to pay no honour to them10 caused the plate to be renewed which his 8great grandfather had put up1 fixing it afresh in the place where it had been before4 ,he rebuilt the #8house of gold' and they say that he caused things to be placed round the plate1 which ,i have shown1 that it may be seen what these heathens thought40 ,the central figure on this plate consists of the oval image of the ,creator1 fig4 #dh1 c4 ,close to its right are images designated by the text as representing the sun and morning star4 ,to the left are the moon and the evening star4 ,above the oval and touching it1 is a group of five stars forming a cross1 with one star in the centre4 ,below it is a cross figure formed by lines uniting four stars4 ,in this case1 instead of being in the middle1 the fifth star is attached to the lower edge of the oval1 which is designated as 8the image of ,uiracocha ,pacha-,yachachic1 the teacher of the ,world40 ,outside of the plate is what appears to be an attempt to explain more clearly the relative positions of the group of five stars to the oval plate 7fig4 #dh1 a74 ,it represents the oval and one star in the centre of a cross formed by four stars4 ,the question naturally suggests itself whether the group of five stars forming a cross may not represent the ,southern ,cross1 popularly called the pole-star of the south and which consists of four principal stars1 one of which is of the first and two of the second magnitude4 ,this possibility opens out a new field of inquiry1 and calls for the statement of the following facts1 which ,i quote from ,amede ,guillemin's ,handbook of ,popular ,astronomy1 edited by ,j4 ,norman ,lockyer and revised by ,richard ,a4 ,proctor47#ce7 ,illustration4 ,figure #dh4 8,in our enumeration of the circumpolar constellations of the ,south1 we have said nothing of the stars situated at the ,pole itself4 ,the reason is simple2 there are none deserving mention1 and with the exception of one star in ,hydr1 none approach the third magnitude4 ,there is not then1 in the southern sky1 any star analogous to ,polaris in the northern heavens40 ,m4 ,guillemin proceeds to explain1 however1 that this poverty of the polar regions is singularly compensated for by the stars of the equatorial zone4 ,it seems more than probable that primitive astronomers or their descendants1 who had been reared in a knowledge of the northern ,polaris and of the periodical motion of the circumpolar constellations1 should continue their observations in whatever latitude they found themselves4 ,it seems possible that they may have observed the ,southern ,cross and recognized its closeness to the pivot or centre of rotation2 but from personal experience and observation ,i can vouch for the fact that this constellation could never have produced upon primitive man the powerful impression caused by ,ursa ,major and ,cassiopeia revolving around ,polaris4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to conclude to what extent the ancient ,peruvians revered the ,southern ,cross4 ,it suffices for the present to establish the incontrovertible facts that the image of the motionless ,creator1 set up by the ,incas1 was associated with stars and with the cross and that the door of the ,cuzco ,temple1 where this image was kept1 faced the north1 the direction whence1 according to native traditions1 the culture-heroes had come to ,peru4 ,the following data furnish further important proof that certain peculiar ideas1 symbols and metaphors were held in common by the civilizations of ,peru1 ,central ,america and ,mexico4 ,returning to the bas-relief 7fig4 #dg71 ,i recur to an interesting feature1 which ,i have already pointed out1 namely1 that the left arm of the personage terminates in a tiger's or puma's head4 ,in connection with this peculiarity it is interesting to note that the native historian ,ixtlilxochitl cites his illustrious ancestor and namesake1 the ,ome ,tochtli ,ixtlilxochitl of ,texcoco1 as addressing his young son ,nezalhualcoyotl as 8my dearly beloved son1 tiger's arm407#cf7 ,as the young prince is referred to in the same chapter as 8the boy ,acolmiztli tiger's arm ,nezalhualcoyotl10 it is obvious that the metaphor constituted a title preceding the actual name4 ,it was ,nezalhual-coyotl who instituted the worship of ,tloquenahuaque1 the true ,creator1 and discountenanced human sacrifices4 ,if the other analogous ,santa ,lucia slabs be also examined it will be seen that although the positions of the bodies and arms vary1 and the form of the head is different in each instance1 it is invariably the left arm that terminates in the individual emblem4 ,this sort of consecration of the left hand seems particularly significant for the following reason3 ,padre ,anello ,oliva records that the ,inca ,yupanqui1 the founder of ,cuzco and the same whose vision agrees so strangely with the bas-relief1 was surnamed ,lloquethe left-handed17#cg7 and was noted for having visited the whole empire three times4 ,his reign was long and prosperous1 and he left a record as a conqueror and builder4 ,he likewise sent his son ,mayta-,capac to visit the whole empire1 accompanied by sages and councillors4 ,i recall here it was ,yupanqui who proclaimed to the sun-worshippers of ,peru1 the existence and superiority of an immutable ,creator4 ,i have already shown how1 in ,peru1 it was a dictum that the upper division of the empire was to bear the same ideal relation to the lower as that of an elder brother to a younger or a right hand to the left4 ,it is1 therefore1 possible to infer that1 on ceremonial occasions when it is recorded that the ,hanan ,cuzco and ,hurin ,cuzco people were stationed at either side of the ,inca1 the ,hanan or chieftains constituting the nobility were to his right and the ,hurin people or lower class1 to his left4 ,it is truly remarkable that it is a passage in the ,annals of the ,cakchiquels1 the people now inhabiting the region of ,guatemala where the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs were found1 that contains the clearest statement regarding the division of a tribe into two classes and the relative positions assigned to each of these1 according to ceremonial usage4 ,the passage relates3 8,we1 the #ac divisions of warriors1 and the seven tribes 444 we came to the enclosure of ,tulan1 and coming1 gave our tribute4 ,the seven tribes were drawn up in order on the left of ,tulan4 ,on the right hand1 were arranged the warriors4 ,firstly1 the tribute was taken from the seven tribes1 next from the warriors407#ch7 ,buschmann has recorded the interesting fact that1 in ,nahuatl1 the right hand is designated as 8the good1 clever or wise0yec-maitl or mayectli1 also ma-imatca or ma-nematca 7from yectligood and imatito be clever or wise74 ,molina's dictionary furnishes us with the following ,nahuatl names for the left hand1 etc4 ,opoch maitl1 ,opuch maitl1 ,opuch maye3 left hand4 ,opochiuiav4 to do something with the left hand4 ,topuchcopa1 the left1 at the left hand1 or side4 ,in ,mexico the totemic lord of the chase was named ,opochtli4 ,the much-discussed name ,huitzil-opochtli is considered by some to signify 8the left-handed humming-bird40 ,the foregoing proves that in ,peru1 ,guatemala and ,mexico a caste-division was associated with left-handedness and that the expression 8left-handed0 was employed as an honorific or distinctive title4 ,it is obvious that before reaching the point when the left hand would be invested by a distinctive mark1 as in the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs1 the above ideas must have been prevalent for a very long time4 ,i have already pointed out that a striking similarity of ideas survives amongst the ,zui ,indians of to-day4 ,as to the native tiger's head 7puma or ocelot87 we find that it is the chief symbol of the central human figure on the great monolithic doorway of ,tiahuanaco1 ,peru1 a fact which testifies to a further community of thought4 ,this central figure exhibits two tigers' heads on each shoulder and six around its head1 disposed as rays and interspersed with what resemble drops of water4 ,the transverse ornament carved on the breast exhibits four divisions1 each of which terminates with a tiger's head4 ,four similar heads1 looking upwards1 are on the central decoration beneath the figure and the broad band at the base terminates in two large tigers' heads4 ,what is more1 on the fragment of a finely carved hollow stone object1 which is preserved at the ,british ,museum and was found at ,tiahuanaco by ,mr4 ,richard ,inwards1 there are the finest representations of the swastika which have as yet been found on the ,american ,continent1 and each of its branches terminates in a tiger's head1 resembling those sculptured on the monolithic doorway4 ,the fragment consists of the half of what seems to me to have been the top or handle of a staff or sceptre4 ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read of the ,british ,museum1 for a rubbing of the carved fragment and for the permission to reproduce it here 7fig4 #di74 ,the central swastika is angular and its form recalls that of the ,mexican ,calendar swastika 7fig4 #i74 ,at each side of it are portions of what originally were two rounded swastikas1 which also terminate in tigers' heads4 ,these and the size of the fragment seem to justify the inference that another square swastika was originally sculptured on the opposite side1 making two rounded and two square swastikas in all4 ,illustration4 ,figure #di4 ,it would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this fragment1 for it proves to us that in ,tiahuanaco1 the swastika was a sacred symbol4 ,its association with the puma or ocelot1 links it to the central figure on the monolithic doorway and1 possibly1 connects this with the ,mexican identification of the ocelot with the ,ursa ,major1 with 8the lord who walks around10 or the lord of the underworld1 ,tezcatlipoca4 ,the two forms of swastika seem to testify that1 in ,tiahuanaco also1 the idea of the ,above and ,below prevailed and that the angular form symbolized the subdivision of the earth and the rounded one that of the heavens4 ,the rows of personages sculptured on the doorway at each side of and facing the central figure seem to indicate that this commemorates an establishment of tribal organization4 ,the distribution of the sculptured figures is as follows3 #h figures#bd ,central #h figures #h figures#bd #fd #h figures #h figures#bd figure4 #h figures4 ,the figures on the upper row to the right and left1 making sixteen in all1 are all alike--so are the sixteen figures on the second and the sixteen on the third rows4 ,without attempting to describe all the insignia which characterize the figures on each of the three rows1 ,i refer the reader to the magnificent plates contained in ,drs4 ,stbel and ,uhle's monumental work on the ,ruins of ,tiahuanaco1 and merely note that each figure in the uppermost row exhibits a bird's head in front of its head-dress4 ,all figures in the second row are completely masked as condors4 ,in the third row a tiger's head decorates each head-dress4 ,it is curious to find that whilst the birds' and tigers' heads designate their wearers as heads or chieftains1 these emblems strikingly coincide with the classification of the highest ,mexican warriors into two divisions1 known as 8the ocelots and the eagles40 ,if attention is bestowed upon the number of emblems or figures and their distribution it will be seen1 in the first case1 that the central figure exhibits on his person twelve tigers' heads in all1 i4 e41 six on his head1 two on each arm and two on his breast-plate4 ,sixteen chieftains exhibit the same emblem and the carved fragment with the swastika appears to have originally exhibited sixteen tigers' heads1 distributed into homogeneous groups of four4 ,it cannot be denied that the forty-eight figures on the doorway are first divided into two groups of twenty-four by being placed to the right and left of the central figure4 ,each division of twenty-four is grouped as #ch1 which is also #fd1 and yielding a total of #abd or #dab figures4 ,curiously enough the number #ab coincides not only with the number of heads exhibited by the central figure1 but the entire bas-relief offers a certain agreement with the numerical divisions of ,cuzco which ,i have summarized as having been divided into two halves and four quarters and subdivided into #ab wards1 the names of which doubtlessly corresponded with those of their inhabitants4 ,personally ,i am inclined to consider that the purpose of the ,tiahuanaco bas-relief was to establish a certain tribal organization and impose certain distinctive insignia upon each tribe4 ,the inference that each sculptured figure was differentiated from the other by being painted in various colors is justified by ,molina's account1 already cited1 that 8in ,tiahuanaco the #8,creator' had his chief abode1 hence the superb edifices in that place1 on which edifices were painted many dresses of ,indians 444 thus each nation uses the dress with which they invest their huaca and they say that the first that was born in ,tiahuanaco was there turned into stones1 others say that the first of their lineages were turned into falcons1 condors and other animals and birds40 ,it is with deference1 however1 that ,i submit my conclusion and refer the question to the supreme authority of ,drs4 ,stbel and ,uhle and ,mr4 ,bandelier1 whose attainments and exhaustive researches in the region of ,tiahuanaco qualify them to utter a final judgment upon this interesting subject4 ,according to ,dr4 ,max ,uhle the civilization established at ,tiahuanaco antedates that of the ,incas4 ,it may yet be proven that whilst ,tiahuanaco was settled in remote times by colonists from the ,north1 the ,inca civilization was due to a later migration4 ,it certainly appears that1 in ,tiahuanaco and ,cuzco1 the identical fundamental scheme of government and organization prevailed4 ,i shall yet have occasion to point out that in ,mexico and ,yucatan and ,central ,america there are also monuments exhibiting multiples of #ab and #d and also #af chieftains4 ,meanwhile it is worth while to note here briefly1 some analogies to ,mexican and ,maya antiquities found in ,peru4 ,i am much indebted to ,sir ,clements ,d4 ,markham1 the ,president of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 for the kind permission to reproduce here a hasty drawing he made1 in #ahec1 of a gold plaque 7size #e-h_/aj inches7 found in ,cuzco 7fig4 #ej74 ,it was then in ,lima1 being the property of the ,president of ,peru1 ,general ,echerrique4 ,this curious relic exhibits the image of a monstrous face surrounded by a band with subdivisions containing various signs4 ,the plaque was looked upon by its owner as a ,calendar1 but ,sir ,clements ,markham1 after studying its subdivisions with a view of ascertaining their agreement with the twelve divisions of the ,peruvian year1 preferred to let his notes on the subject remain unpublished1 not having come to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject4 ,i am permitted1 however1 to state that ,sir ,clements ,markham specially noted the resemblance of a sign1 which is represented on the cheeks of the central figure and recurs four times on the encircling band1 to the well-known ,maya glyph ahauchief1 lord4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ej4 ,it is1 indeed1 a cursive representation of a human head and moreover resembles those figured on the garment of a gigantic red sandstone statue found at ,ak-,kapana and figured in ,stbel and ,uhle's ,tiahuanaco4 ,on this garment the heads alternate with squares and form a close design4 ,this resemblance between the conventional faces on this archaic statue and those on the gold plaque has made me attach more importance to the latter and at all events regard it as preserving ancient native symbolism4 ,in connection with these ,i wish to point out that the plaque itself offers a certain resemblance to well-known ,mexican calendars1 the centre of which usually exhibits a face which is surrounded by a band with day or month signs4 ,it is remarkable that above each eye there are four dots1 especially as the ,quechua word for eyenaui is homonymous with the ,nahuatl numeral fournahui1 and this is so constantly associated with an eye in the ,mexican sign ,nahui ollinfour movements 7cf4 fig4 #b74 ,as strange a coincidence as this is furnished by the mark on the forehead of the image1 not because the latter resembles the sect mark of the ,vishnu worshippers1 but because it offers a marked analogy to the ,mexican ,acatl sign which is frequently carved or painted as a cane standing in a square receptacle with recurved ends4 ,i am strongly tempted to interpret this symbol according to the native mode of thought1 as signifying the centre1 the union of the ,above and ,below and to regard the upper part of the face itself as a representation of the ,above1 the heaven1 with its two eyes 7the ,moon and ,sun71 whilst the lower part and teeth1 as in ,mexico1 signified the ,below1 the earth and underworld4 ,by means of the head on each cheek and the number four over each eye1 the dual and quadruple rulerships of the empire could well have been expressed4 ,postponing a more thorough study of the gold plaque1 ,i merely note here that it exhibits curious analogies not only to ,maya but also to ,mexican symbolism4 ,another instance of the same kind is furnished by a possibly modern but curious small silver pendant of unquestionably native workmanship4 ,it is preserved at the ,ethnographical ,museum at ,vienna and is figured in the ,report of the ,international ,congress of ,americanists which was held at ,berlin in #ahhh 7pl4 #a1 fig4 #d1 p4 #if74 ,reputed to be from ,cuzco1 it represents a figure of the sun surrounded by eight straight and intermediate undulating rays4 ,two serpents are figured beneath the sun2 their bodies extend across the pendant and their heads with open jaws almost meet in the centre4 ,a figure1 wearing a peculiar head-dress1 is kneeling in worship beneath the symbols1 which undoubtedly recall the ,mexican mode of representing two serpents meeting1 as on the ,calendar ,stone of ,mexico1 for instance4 ,as ,i am tracing analogies at present1 ,i should like to ask the reader to compare the symbols figured and designated by ,salcamayhua as that of the earth 7see his fig4 c1 pl4 ,,lxvi7 with the sacred vase from the ,maya ,,ms4 7his fig4 ,,ii1 pl4 ,,lix7 and the form of the ,peruvian symbol for the sea 7his fig4 e1 pl4 ,,lxvi7 with the peculiar ,mexican shell ornament 7fig4 #a1 no4 #aj74 ,insufficient though the above analogies may seem in themselves1 they are valuable in conjunction with the other data presented and strengthen the conclusion that the same symbolism prevailed in ,peru as in ,central ,america1 ,yucatan and ,mexico4 ,let us now rapidly journey northwards from ,peru to these countries and briefly record the traces of the existence of the same ideas and quadruplicate form of government which we may encounter en route4 ,in the elevated plains of ,bogota we find positive proof that the ,muyscas held the same ideas as their southern and northern neighbors4 ,their culture hero1 ,bochica or ,ida-can-zas1 was the personification of the ,above and of its symbol1 the ,sun1 whilst his wife was ,chia1 a name suspiciously like ,quilla1 the ,quechua for moon4 ,he was high-priest and ruler but counselled the ,muyscas to elect one of themselves1 a chief named ,hunc-,ahua1 to be their ,za-que or civil ruler4 ,ida-can-zas instituted the ,calendar and taught the ,muyscas to appoint four chiefs of tribes whose names or titles are recorded as ,gameza1 ,busbanca1 ,pesca and ,toca4 ,the institution of a dual government is indicated by the record that the high-priest dwelt at the sacred town ,aura-ca and the ,za-que at ,tunja4 ,it is extremely curious to notice that ,ida-can-zas1 in ,bogota1 did precisely what ,corts found it expedient to do after the ,conquest of ,mexico4 ,the latter assumed the supreme rulership over the nobility1 became the 8lord of ,heaven0 and instituted a native chieftain1 bearing a female title1 as his coadjutor1 the lord of the earth1 and the ruler of the people of the lower class4 ,it may be worth making the passing remark that the title of the ,muysca culture-hero contains the word 8can0 and thus recalls the ,maya ,kukulcan and that the title ,za-que offers a certain resemblance to the ,maya title ,chac1 whilst the name ,hunc-ahua seems strangely similar to ,hun-ahau which in ,maya would signify 8one lord40 ,it is for ,muysca scholars to enlighten us as to the derivation and meaning of the above titles and name4 ,regretting the lack of time and documents which have prevented me from obtaining further data ,i now return to ,guatemala and the vicinity of the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs4 ,referring to the introduction to their ,annals7#ci7 we learn that the ,cakchiquel tribe was but one of four allied nations1 each of which had its capital1 named ,tecpan1 as follows3 ,nations3 ,capitals4 ,cakchiquel3 ,tecpan ,quauhtemallan1 ,quiche3 ,utatlan1 ,tzutuhil3 ,atitlan1 ,akahal3 ,tezolotlan4 ,according to ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay's authoritative statement1 these nations were engaged in warfare against each other at the time of the ,conquest4 ,tezolotlan was termed the 8tierra de guerra0 the land of war1 and the precise locality of its tecpan or former capital has not been traced1 although it seems to have been close to ,rabinal or in the valley of that name4 ,it is well known that1 under the rulership of ,tizoc1 the ,mexicans extended their conquests into ,guatemala4 ,buschmann has1 moreover1 proven that the foregoing names of the capitals1 of what were at one time four provinces1 are pure ,nahuatl1 which fact establishes the existence of ,nahua supremacy in these regions4 ,it is curious to find that one of the ,santa ,lucia slabs seems to commemorate the existence of a central rulership and that of the four quarters4 ,it is reproduced in ,mr4 ,strebel's publication already cited and represents a central personage holding a head and a tecpatl1 whilst four lesser personages1 each carrying a head1 are figured as walking away in four opposed directions4 ,as1 according to native symbolism1 the head is the symbol for chieftain this slab seems to commemorate the establishment and at all events testifies to the existence in ,guatemala of the scheme of government now so familiar4 ,in their ,annals1 the ,cakchiquels record1 as ,i have already shown1 that they carried their tribute to 8the enclosure of ,tulan10 a designation which supports my inference1 previously maintained1 that ,tulan was derived from the ,maya tulum1a fortification1 an enclosed place or that which is entire1 whole1 etc41 and applied always to the metropolis of a state4 ,an ancient ,cakchiquel legend relates1 moreover1 that1 according to the 8ancient men10 there had been four ,tulans3 one in the east1 one in the north1 one in the west and one 8where the god dwells40 ,this would obviously have been situated towards the south in order to accord with the general scheme4 ,i cannot but think that this record testifies to the existence of an extremely ancient state which starting from one metropolis had gradually developed into four great ,tullans1 to one of which the four tecpans of ,guatemala pertained4 ,the fact that the ,spaniards found the four nations living close together1 with capitals or tecpans bearing ,nahuatl names and in constant warfare with each other1 seems to indicate the destruction of their own ancient metropolis or ,tullan by their ,mexican conquerors and the consequent disintegration of their former government47#dj7 ,the ,mendoza ,codex teaches us that when the ,mexicans conquered a land they first burnt and utterly destroyed the teocallis situated in the heart of its central capital4 ,they razed this to the ground1 and carried off to their own metropolis the totemic images of the rulers of the tribe4 ,the barbarous institution of human sacrifice1 which was only practised to a great extent by the ,mexicans when the necessity to obtain more plentiful food supplies for their rapidly increasing population forced them to become a nation of warriors and conquerors1 seems indeed to have been adopted as a fear-inspiring1 symbolical rite commemorating the conquest and destruction of an integral government4 ,the victim1 usually a chieftain taken prisoner in warfare and clad with his insignia and the raiment of his people1 was stretched on the stone of sacrifice and1 figuratively speaking1 represented his country and its four quarters4 ,the tearing out of his heart by the high-priest1 armed with the tecpatl1 the emblem of supreme authority1 signified the destruction of the independent life of his tribe as much as did the burning of the teocalli1 and of its capital4 ,it would seem as though the horrible custom of annually sacrificing one or more representatives of each conquered tribe1 had been adopted as a means of upholding the assumed authority1 inspiring awe and terror and impressing the realization of conquest and utter subjection4 ,it is known that sometimes a member of a conquered tribe voluntarily offered himself as a victim in order to release his people from their obligation1 and thus earned for himself immortality4 ,an insight into the native association of ideas is afforded by ,sahagun's note that the lord or chieftain was 8the heart of his ,pueblo10 which means town as well as population4 ,the death of the sacrificed chief1 therefore1 actually conveyed the idea of the destruction of the tribal government to his vanquished subjects4 ,it remains to be seen whether the subsequent partition of portions of his dead body amongst the priesthood and their ritual cannibalism did not signify the absorption of the conquered population into the communal life of their victors4 ,the preservation of the victim's skull on the ,tzompantli1 as a register of the conquest of a chieftain1 would also be the logical outcome of the native line of thought and symbolism4 ,at the risk of making a somewhat lengthy digression ,i will again refer here to a point ,i have already touched upon1 namely1 the ,mexican employment of the human figure as an allegorical image of their ,empire or ,state1 the idea being that the four limbs represented its four governmental and territorial divisions and that these were governed by the headthe lord of the ,above or heaven1 and the heartthe lord of the ,below or earth4 ,a careful study of the native ,codices has shown me that such was the native allegory which indeed can be further traced4 ,the territory of a state reproduced the organization of the human body with its four limbs1 each of these terminating in minor groups of five4 ,according to the same set of ideas the cursive image of a state could be conveyed by a main group of five dots1 situated in the centre of four minor similar groups4 ,cross-lines expressing the partition into four quarters would complete such a graphic and cursive presentation of the scheme and not only signify its territorial but also its governmental features4 ,it is noteworthy that1 in ,nahuatl as in the ,quechua1 the title for minor chief is homonymous with the word for fingers4 ,the ,nahuatl pilli is a title for a chieftain or lord and also signifies child and fingers or toes4 ,a finger is ma-pilli1 the prefix ma1 from maitlhand1 designating the fingers as the children of the hand4 ,the thumb is qualified by the prefix ueigreat4 ,having gained a recognition of the above facts it is not difficult to understand the meaning of certain sceptres in the form of an open hand which occur as symbols of authority borne by chieftains in the native ,codices47#da7 ,i know of one important instance1 indeed1 where an arm with an open hand is represented as standing upright in the centre of a circle divided into sections and zones 7similar to fig4 #bh1 nos4 #a1 #c1 #e1 and #f74 ,the above mentioned examples1 which ,i shall illustrate later1 have led me to infer that whilst the arm symbolized one of the four divisions of the ,state1 the hand symbolized its capital1 the thumb its central ruler and the fingers his four officers or pilli1 the rulers of the four quarters of the minor seat of government4 ,in another publication ,i shall produce illustrations showing that the foot was also employed as an emblem of rule and that ,mexico1 ,yucatan and ,central ,america furnish us with actual proofs that the hands and the feet respectively symbolized the upper and lower divisions of the ,state4 ,it is thus curious to compare the name for thumbuei-ma-pilli and the name ,uei-mac 7literally1 great hand7 which ,sahagun gives as that of the 8temporal0 coadjutor of the ,mexican culture-hero ,quetzalcoatl1 as well as the term1 our toetotecxopilli with the well-known title ,totecour chief or lord4 ,in ,yucatan the word for handkab is1 as ,i shall demonstrate further on1 actually incorporated in the title of the lords of the four quarters,bakab4 ,i am almost inclined to find a trace of a similar association in the ,quechua word for fingerspallca and the title palla bestowed upon noble women4 ,i have already mentioned in the preceding pages that the natural basis of the all-pervading native numerical division into #debj was the finger and toe count4 ,the following table exhibits the general custom to designate #bj as one man or one count47#db7 ,word for ,man4 ,word for #bj4 ,nahuatl4 tlacatl4 cem-pouallione count4 ,quich and uinayone man4 uinay ,cakchiquel ,tzendal4 hun-uinicone man4 hun-uinic ,maya4 uinic4 hun-kal ,in the latter case the affix kal seems to be derived from the same source as the verb kalto close up or fasten something1 and to signify something complete or finished4 ,at the same time the ,maya uinal is the ,maya name for the twenty calendar-signs1 and the same association is demonstrated as existing in ,mexico by the well-known picture in the ,vatican ,codex ,i 7p4 #ge71 which represents a man surrounded by the twenty ,mexican calendar-signs4 ,as ,i shall treat of the same subject more fully in another publication1 ,i shall but briefly touch upon the intimate connection there existed between these calendar-signs and the twenty classes into which the population was strictly divided4 ,it is known that an individual received the name of the day on which he was born and it is possible to prove that this determined his position in the commonwealth1 his class and his future occupation4 ,each child was formally registered by the priestly statisticians at birth1 and at about the age of six1 when his name was sometimes changed1 he entered one of the two educational establishments where he was brought up by the ,state1 under the absolute control of the priesthood and rulers4 ,it can be gleaned that one of the chief cares of the latter was to maintain the same average number of individuals in the distinct classes1 to which the various forms of labor were allotted and who became in time identified with these4 ,in order to keep the machinery of state in perfect adjustment1 individuals had sometimes to be transferred from the class into which they were born1 to another4 ,in some cases this seems to have been arbitrarily ordered by the authorities1 but the latter appear to have guided themselves by the position of the parents and to have established the custom that an individual might alternatively be transferred into the paternal or maternal class1 but not into any other4 ,as each class was1 moreover1 divided into an upper and lower one1 it was possible for each person to elevate himself from the lower to the higher by individual merit or to incur abasement1 for unworthy conduct1 and being1 as we have already seen1 8reduced to the official rank of women40 ,the direct outcome of such a form of organization was stringent laws governing marriage1 it being expedient that certain classes only should intermarry1 not only to avoid complications but also to ensure a certain degree of coperation conducive to the prosperity of the ,state4 ,in the tribal laws still existing amongst the native tribes of ,north ,america1 ,i see the logical survivals of an ancient scheme of organization4 ,after gaining the above recognition of some of the actual duties of the priest-rulers of ancient ,mexico1 it is possible to understand the meaning of the native sentence1 noted by ,sahagun1 that the native games of patolli and tlachtli constituted a practice in 8the art of government40 ,from this it is clear that the former1 played by two individuals with dice and markers upon a mat in the shape of a cross1 and symbolical of the ,four ,quarters1 was originally invented by the priest-rulers for an eminently practical purpose4 ,the mat being an image of the quadruple state and its subdivisions1 it was possible to make it serve as a register-board exhibiting the distribution of the population1 the number of individuals in each class and its death and birth rates4 ,we are informed that when parents1 according to the inflexible law1 carried their newborn child to the priest1 he consulted his books full of day-signs and foretold what its future was to be4 ,a proof that it was the positions of the stars which determined the season and furnished the means of fixing a date1 is furnished by the fact that the stars were also 8consulted0 and believed to exert an influence upon the destiny of the child4 ,the implicit faith in the predictions of the priests and in the absolute influence of the position of the heavenly bodies and the date of its birth upon the individual indicates that the parents were kept in ignorance as to the workings of the machinery of state and that the priesthood were reverenced for their power of prophecy4 ,the belief that they could personally exercise a favorable influence over the destiny of the child seems also to have been encouraged in the parents1 since an offering of gifts at the period of registration was customary4 ,after the ,conquest1 when the native government had been completely broken up1 and the enforced registration of birth and the prediction of the priest had utterly lost their original significance1 native parents still consulted the surviving members of the priest-rulers2 and these ancient statisticians1 in order to gain a livelihood1 continued to consult their books and uttered predictions as of yore1 although their power to control their fulfilment had vanished forever4 ,ancient ,mexico thus furnishes us with an interesting and instructive explanation of the origin of divinatory practices1 prognostication at birth1 etc4 ,it shows us that1 under the ancient form of established government1 the sign of the date of a child's birth actually did control his future destiny1 while it was unquestionably in the power of the priesthood1 not only to predict his future1 but also to exert a favorable or unfavorable influence upon it4 ,the above facts help us to understand the origin not only of divination1 propitiation and the belief in the influence of day-signs1 but also of the native games which became popular after the ,conquest1 when their original use and meaning had become obsolete4 ,deferring further discussion of this interesting matter ,i will but draw attention to ,mr4 ,stewart ,culin's important study of 8,american ,indian ,games107#dc7 which clearly establishes their 8interrelation0 and at the same time proves that they were based1 as first distinctly insisted upon by ,dr4 ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 on the central idea and that of the four quarters of the world4 ,mr4 ,culin has gone so far as to fix the place of origin of the 8platter or dice class of games which he has found recorded as existing among some #fa ,american tribes1 in the arid region of the southwestern ,united ,states and ,northern or ,central ,mexico10 and to conceive that 8in ancient ,mexico we find traces of its highest development40 ,i place the utmost value upon ,mr4 ,culin's painstaking and conscientious researches and regard them as strongly corroborating my views exposed in the preceding pages4 ,his identification of the pictured diagram in the ,fjrvary ,codex1 as the counting circuit of the ,four ,quarters1 with a presiding god in the middle1 as in ,zui1 does credit to his perspicacity4 ,i agree with him in considering that this chart could have been employed after the ,conquest for a game or for divination1 but trust that1 upon perusal of this paper1 he will admit that primarily the ,fjrvary diagram expressed the native scheme of government and the calendar1 which was no other than a means of ruling the classes by binding each of these to a special day and totemic sign4 ,each of the twenty classes or clans had its day1 known by a particular sign which was also its totemic mark4 ,as the day-signs recurred periodically1 the chief or head of each clan became its living representative1 assumed a totemistic costume and became the 8living image of the ancestral teotl10 or god of his people1 of whose activity he rendered account to the central government4 ,it is significant that the common native title for lords or chieftains was 8tlatoque10 literally1 8the speakers10 and that they were closely designated as the spokesmen of his people1 who habitually kept silence in his presence4 ,the fact that the names and signs of the days are identical with the totemic tribal distinctions imposed for governmental reasons1 is one which ,i shall proceed to demonstrate more fully4 ,meanwhile attention is now drawn to the chapter on the #g-;day period in ,dr4 ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton's 8,native ,calendar of ,central ,america and ,mexico10 in which he surmises that the tribal divisions of the ,cakchiquels 8were drawn from the numbers of the ,calendar40 ,according to the native records the institution of the ,calendar was simultaneous with that of tribal organization and a minute study of both features reveals that it could not have been otherwise4 ,from the dawn of their history the ,cakchiquels1 as ,i have already shown1 were divided into thirteen divisions of warriors 7,khob1 constituting the upper class7 and seven tribes 7,amag1 constituting the lower class74 ,a totem and a day being assigned to each division and tribe1 they were1 once and for all time1 placed in a definite position towards each other and towards the state1 and the order in which their chieftains were to sit in general council1 and to assume or perform certain duties1 was thus instituted4 ,the #bj-;day period thus constituted a 8complete count0 and synopsis of the 8thirteen divisions of warriors and seven tribes10 but it also fulfilled other not less important purposes4 ,the day-signs were so ordered that the first1 eleventh and sixteenth were major signs employed to designate the years1 and identified with the four quarters1 elements and their respective colors4 ,the #bj-;day period1 consisting as it also did of #d major signs and of #ddaf minor signs1 was as closely linked to the idea of the ,four ,quarters as it was to the ,above and ,below1 represented by the #acg division4 ,it is therefore evident that a simultaneous reckoning of periods consisting of #e1 #g1 #ac1 and #bj days was ingeniously combined4 ,i shall show in my special treatise how 8the lords of the ,night0 employed in their astronomical calendar1 #i-night and #i-moon periods for purposes of their own and how these also served to carry out certain ideas of organization1 controlling persons4 ,although it embodied the results of long-standing primitive astronomical observation and accorded with the seasons and movements of the celestial bodies1 the native ,calendar was primarily a governmental institution1 designed to control the actions of human beings and bring their communal life in accord with the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies4 ,in my ,note on the ,ancient ,mexican ,calendar ,system1 communicated to the ,international ,congress of ,americanists at ,stockholm1 in #ahid1 ,i stated certain historical and astronomical facts which showed that the ,new ,cycle1 which began in #aejg with the year ,acatl1 had commenced on ,march #adth three days after the vernal equinox and that this delay had obviously been intentional1 in order to wait for the new moon1 which fell on ,march #acth at #aa4dj ,a4 ,m41 and the planet ,venus1 8which was possibly visible both as morning and evening star between ,march #adth and #ahth40 ,the above facts1 which have remained unchallenged since their publication1 afford an insight into the astronomical attainments of the sun-priests and moon and star-priests and show an evident desire to begin a new era at a favorable time1 when there was a conjunction of the heavenly bodies4 ,thus the terms of office of the lords of the ,above and ,below were entered upon and the machinery of state set into motion1 in unison with striking celestial phenomena4 ,it is impossible not to realize how great must be the antiquity of a system which1 evolving from the rudimentary1 ceremonial division of a tribe into seven parts1 as a consequence of its primitive observation of the ,septentriones1 developed into a great and complex government dominated and pervaded by the abstract conceptions of the seven-fold divisions of the ,above1 ,below1 ,middle and ,four ,quarters4 ,deferring further comment ,i will proceed to demonstrate the practical value1 for governmental purposes1 of the classification of a community into twenty divisions with as many representative heads1 their localizations at given points of the compass1 and association with a calendar-sign and day1 and will only refer to what ,i have already published in my ,note on the ,calendar1 namely1 how1 by means of the combination of #ac numerals with the #bj signs1 a unit of #bfj days was obtained1 and how each sign was combined but once with the same number1 and a perfect system of rotation of periods1 regulating office1 labor1 etc41 was instituted4 ,it is not possible for me to enlarge here upon the features and merits of the system which ,i do not hesitate to term one of the most admirable and perfect achievements of the human intellect4 ,my present purpose is to lay stress upon the fact that1 in ,mexico1 the major calendar-signs were borne as titles by the rulers of the four quarters who presided in rotation over a year--the name of this and of their title being always in correspondence4 ,nezahualcoyotl1 the lord of ,tezcoco1 is recorded as possessing the title ,ome ,tochtli#b ,rabbit1 and would obviously have presided over the calendar periods of that name4 ,this inference is undoubtedly corroborated by ,nuez de la ,vega's following statement1 quoted by ,boturini37#dd7 8,instead of the ,mexican signs ,acatl1 ,tecpatl1 ,calli and ,tochtli1 the ,tzendals1 inhabiting ,chiapas1 employed in their ,calendar the names of four of their chieftains3 ,votan1 ,lambat1 ,been and ,chinax4444 ,they also figured a man named ,coslahuntax1 as seated in a chair44440 ,boturini remarks that this person should more correctly be named ,imos or ,max and was 8the head of the #bj lords who were the symbols of the #bj days of the ,calendar4 ,being the principal and initial sign1 ,coslahuntax represented in himself the period of thirteen days40 ,as ,dr4 ,brinton rightly notes7#de7 the name of the personage should be ,oxlaghun tax1 literally signifying 8the thirteen divisions or parts40 ,we thus see that1 whilst the names of the chiefs of the four quarters constituted the four major calendar-signs1 one supreme lord embodied the attributes or 8powers0 of the #ac divisions of warriors and principal division4 ,thus the #ac divisions seem to have been regarded as #ab plus an all-embracing #a4 ,nuez de la ,vega continues3 8,in the representations of their calendar they painted seven black persons1 corresponding to the seven days of their reckoning40 ,boturini adds3 these seven black men were no other than the principal priest-rulers of this nation4444 8,they held in great veneration the #8lord of the black men1' who was entitled ,yal-ahua40 ,boturini comments on this utterance and explains that the latter was no other than the high-priest4 ,i point out the evident identity of ,yal-ahua to the ,mexican ,yoal-tecuhtlithe lord of the ,night1 one of the titles given to ,polaris and to his earthly representative1 the high priest of the ,earth and nocturnal cult4 ,as already explained this personage bore in ,mexico the female title1 ,cihuacoatl,woman-serpent2 but we also find this name for the earth-mother alternating with ,chicome-coatlliterally1 seven serpents4 ,in ,beltran de la ,rosa's 8,arte ,maya0 we find the word 8,ahaucchapat10 translated as 8,serpent with seven heads0 and are thus led to infer that the ,mexicans and ,mayas had conceived the image of a 8serpent with seven heads0 as an allegory of the seven tribal divisions united in one body and bestowed this title to the representative of the ,earth-cult1 the high priest of the ,below4 ,it follows that1 just as the number #ac resolves itself into #aba1 so the mystic number #g proves to have been considered as #fa1 precisely what might be expected as the natural sequence of the derivation of the number from a circumpolar constellation1 consisting of seven stars1 one of which was ,polaris4 ,nuez de la ,vega and ,boturini's testimony teaches us that the ,tzendals were organized into twenty divisions and that thirteen of these were embodied in one chief1 while the seven others1 associated with black1 were personified by the high priest4 ,the information that one individual was thus believed to unite in his person the attributes of several classes and that the lords of the four quarters and each of the twenty divisions bore names which were also calendar-signs1 gain in value when it is realized that1 in the opinion of ,drs4 ,schellhas and ,brinton1 the invention of the native ,calendar system may probably be assigned to the ancient inhabitants of ,chiapas1 where the ,tzendals now dwell47#df7 ,in treating of the ruins of ,palenque situated in this region1 ,i shall again refer to the ,tzendals4 ,meanwhile1 let us examine the ,cakchiquel tradition about ,cucumatz1 the sorcerer chief of the ,quichs1 since it also treats of the #g-;day period4 ,we are told that he 8ascended to heaven for seven days and descended into the under world for seven days and then assumed1 in rotation1 four different animal forms during as many periods of seven days40 ,it is impossible not to recognize from this that1 like the ,zuis of to-day1 the ,quichs 8symbolized the terrestrial sphere by referring to the four cardinal points1 to the zenith and nadir1 the individual himself making the seventh number10 and that ,cucumatz1 who was evidently the high priest and head of the seven tribes1 assumed the totemistic attributes of each of these1 in rotation1 for periods of seven days each4 ,in this case we have an interesting and suggestive variant of the scheme and it suggests the possibility that1 possibly actuated by ambition1 ,cucumatz had grasped and united in his person the prerogatives of the chiefs or heads of each tribe4 ,on the other hand1 it may be that it was the original custom for the high priest to be a sort of animated calendar sign in unison with the separate chiefs of each tribe1 who represented1 in rotation1 the totemistic ancestors of their people4 ,having shown how the lords of the ,four ,quarters were indissolubly linked to the four major calendar-signs which also symbolized the elements1 let us examine the data establishing that the capital of each of the four provinces was named a tecpan4 ,from ,duran ,i have already quoted that in the ,mexican metropolis there were two tecpans or official houses in which the affairs of the government were attended to and councils held4 ,it is significant that one of these was named 8the tecpan of men0 and the other 8the tecpan of women40 ,whilst the metropolis1 the seat of the dual government1 thus had its two tecpans which were presided over by the two supreme rulers1 we have learned from other sources of the four tecpans in ,guatemala and that ,texcoco1 near the city of ,mexico1 was also termed a tecpan and that its ruler bore as a title one of the four major calendar-signs4 ,these facts explain his position and the reason why the 8lord of ,texcoco0 was one of four lords who supported ,montezuma when he met ,corts in full state4 ,a careful investigation of the derivation and true significance of the word tecpan yields interesting results4 ,cen-tecpan-tli means1 a count of twenty persons2 the verb tecpana signifies1 8to establish something in concerted order2 to establish order amongst people40 ,the verb tecpancapoa means1 to count something in regular order4 ,the ,maya verb tepalto govern or reign1 or to be 8one who mediates10 appears to be allied to the above ,nahuatl words and it is not unlikely that the employment of the flint-knife or tecpatl as an emblem of office had been suggested by the fact that its ,nahuatl name resembles1 in sound1 the above words formed with tecpan1 and also the ,maya verb tepal4 ,it thus constituted a bilingual rebus1 expressing the senseto govern1 to rule1 to regulate1 etc41 and1 employed as the symbol of the ,north and ,polaris1 it conveyed the idea that the latter was not only the producer of life but the regulator of the ,universe4 ,from the fact that a tecpan constituted a minor integral whole and comprised the rule over twenty classes of people1 we see that whilst the four provincial tecpans were in themselves miniature reproductions of the metropolis1 they but filled the same position in relation to this as the four limbs to the body of a man or quadruped4 ,a final proof of how completely this analogy was recognized by the native rulers is furnished by the ,maya titles which embody the word kabarm and hand4 ,it has already been mentioned in the preceding pages that the rulers of the four quarters were entitled ,ba-cab and that in the ,dresden ,codex an image of the four quarters was figured by four bones4 ,the word for bone being bac and for arm being kab1 it is obvious that the arm-bone or humerus would furnish a rebus1 expressing the title of the four ,bacabs--a conclusion which throws light upon the signification of the cross-bones of native pictography and also of the incised and decorated human arm and leg bones which have been found in ,mexico and ,yucatan4 ,at the same time the word kab also recurs in the title ,ah-,cuch-,cab which signifies 8the ruler or chief of a town or place10 ,cuchil being the name of the latter4 ,both of these words so closely resemble cuxabal and cuxtal1 the word for 8life10 that it is not impossible that the native mind often associated the town as a centre of life1 and thought of their chief as one whose symbol was a 8life-dispensing hand40 ,in order to grasp the full significance of the symbol of the hand in ,maya sculptured and written records it is necessary to bear these facts in mind4 ,in #ahie ,mr4 ,teobert ,maler unearthed in the centre of the public square at 8,el ,seibal10 ,guatemala1 a sculptured stela exhibiting the figures of a chieftain over whose head an open hand was carved4 ,it is impossible not to interpret this as a mark that the chieftain had once been the ruler of a town and that this1 in turn1 was one of four minor capitals belonging to a central metropolis4 ,a hand1 enclosed in quadrangular lines and represented on the garment of a chieftain1 was found by ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon at ,uxmal1 and ,i believe that this should be interpreted in the same manner4 ,in my essay on ,ancient ,mexican ,shields 7,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 band ,v1 #ahib7 ,i reproduced two interesting instances of the employment1 as the name-sign of a ruler in native pictography1 of a hand on the palm of which an eye is depicted4 ,the effigy of a hand1 the sacred ,kab-ul1 which was kept in a place in ,yucatan to which people from all quarters resorted regularly in great numbers1 resolves itself into the symbol of an ancient capital to which great high-roads led from the cardinal points4 ,but important as this capital may have been1 its connection with the hand-symbol proves that it was originally one of four minor centres and formed but a part of a greater whole4 ,it would correspond to the image1 in one of the native ,codices1 of a subdivided circle with an arm and hand standing in its middle1 and its ,bacab would undoubtedly have carried a sceptre in the shape of an open hand1 such as depicted in the ,codices as a staff of office4 ,while we thus find the human figure distinctly associated with the lords of the four quarters of the ,above we find the four lords of the ,below1 entitled ,chac1 symbolized by the quadruped figure of the native jaguarchacoh1 associated with the color redchac and with rain1 storms1 thunder and lightning1 all of which phenomena were1 singly and collectively1 termed ,chc4 ,if ever there has been an instance where language or the resemblance in sound of certain words has caused certain symbols to amalgamate with a name or title1 it is surely this1 and light is thereby thrown upon the development of symbolism and associations of thought amongst primitive people4 ,the ,chacs of ,yucatan were identical with the ,tlalocs1 the octli or rain lords of ,mexico1 whose function1 as votaries of earth-cult1 was the regulation of agriculture1 irrigation and the collection and distribution of all products of the soil4 ,it is interesting to trace that1 in other regions of ,yucatan1 presumably where no chacohs or jaguars existed1 the minor rulers of provinces seem to have been termed ocelots,balam1 a title found associated with ,maya rulership4 ,with the foregoing data in mind it is easy to grasp the meaning of the talon of a beast of prey1 employed as an emblem of rank or office in the native ,codices or bas-reliefs and to perceive that this was the symbol of a ,chac or ,balam1 one of the four lords of the earth or ,below1 just as the hand was that of the lords of the ,above4 ,the complete image of the dual ,state is thus shown to have consisted at one time of an ideal group consisting of a man with a beast of prey1 a jaguar or ocelot4 ,in ,mexico we have the man-bird and the man-ocelot respectively representing the rulers of the two great divisions of the ,state4 ,at ,chichen-,itza and elsewhere in ,yucatan sculptured figures of ocelots supporting circular vessels have been found and there are interesting instances of the combination of the human figure with ocelot,balam attributes4 ,one monolithic figure1 discovered at ,chichen-,itza by ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay1 and belonging to the category of the recumbent statues bearing circular vase-like receptacles1 already described1 exhibits a human head and form1 whilst the body is covered with a spotted skin4 ,in the sculptured image of ,mictlan-tecuhtli 7fig4 #ai7 a human head is accompanied by limbs of equal length-terminating in wild beasts' talons4 ,the positions of the limbs are better understood when compared with the following illustration1 to which ,i shall revert 7fig4 #ea74 ,meanwhile1 ,i shall merely remark that in both of these curious bas-reliefs we seem to have images of the quadruple terrestrial and celestial governments4 ,fig4 #ea1 which is a corrected drawing of one of those contained in ,leon y ,gama's 8,descripcion de las dos ,piedras10 furnishes an interesting example1 in accord with the image of ,mictlantecuhtli1 of the employment of the group of five as a symbol of the centre and four quarters1 and exhibits four limbs associated with four heads 7the quarters and their chiefs71 while the hands hold two other heads1 symbolical of the dual rulers of the ,state4 ,two facts which throw an interesting light upon the growth of native symbolism are worth mentioning here4 ,as a symbol on the head of ,mictlan-tecuhtli1 the lord of the ,north1 two representations of a centipede are distinguishable4 ,in ,nahuatl the name of this is 8centzonmaye10 literally1 four hundred hands4 ,it can thus be seen that the idea of one body with a multitude of hands had occurred to the native philosophers as a suitable allegory for their conception of a central celestial and terrestrial rule which guided the activity of innumerable appointed hands and dispensed1 through these1 not only life and favors but also death or chastisement4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ea4 ,before proceeding farther we must consider tree-symbolism in ancient ,america4 ,according to ,molina the ,inca ,yupanqui 7surnamed the left-handed7 ordered the temple of ,quisuar-cancha to be made3 quisuara tree1 the ,buddleia ,incana1 canchaplace of4 ,salcamayhua 7op4 cit41 p4 #gg71 who attributes the building of this temple to ,manco ,capac1 states that these two trees1 which were in the temple1 8typified his father and mother 444 and he ordered that they should be adorned with roots of gold and silver and with golden fruit4 ,hence they were called ,ccurichachac ,collquechachac ,tampu ,yracan1 which means that the two trees typified his parents1 that the ,incas proceeded from them like fruit from the trees1 and that the two trees were as the roots and stems of the ,incas4 ,all these things were executed to record their greatness40 ,this passage is of utmost value1 for it conveys to us not only that the ,incas kept a record of their male and female ancestry and respectively associated the male and female elements with gold and silver1 but also establishes the important point that the tree was employed as an emblem of the life and growth of a lineage or race4 ,this fact is particularly interesting if collated with the ,mexican tree-symbols4 ,in the ,fjrvary diagram 7fig4 #eb71 we find a different kind of tree and two totemic figures assigned to each quarter1 which indicates that the inhabitants of each of the four provinces were regarded as of a distinct race4 ,the top of each tree spreads itself into two branches and1 with one exception1 each of these bears three blossoms or leaves denoting1 it would seem1 the division of a tribe into #bcf parts4 ,illustration4 ,figure #eb4 ,copy of p4 #dd1 ,fjrvary ,codex4 ,the majority of tree-symbols1 however1 exhibit a quadruplicate division as in fig4 #ec1 nos4 #a1 #d and #g4 ,at the same time it is impossible not to recognize that each example renders in a graphic manner the organization of a tribe4 ,in nos4 #b and #h1 for instance1 we find that each of the four branches was again subdivided1 yielding eight subdivisions instead of four4 ,in no4 #c1 we have quadruple branches1 a pair of recurved spikes with buds and a central bud1 the idea of duality repeating itself in the trunk of the tree1 one-half of which above ground is white1 whilst the other below ground is dark4 ,the obvious allusion is to the ,above and ,below and this idea is further symbolized by the head of the coatlserpent or twin4 ,in this figure there is a hint of the existence of an idea ,i have found expressed in other cases1 namely1 that a mystic line of demarcation existed at the base of a tree1 which separated its upward from its downward growth4 ,this was the seat of the life of the tree1 which sent its trunk and crown heavenwards and its roots and rootlets earthwards4 ,the fact that the juice of the agave or maguey was collected from the core of the plant seems to be at the bottom of its adoption as the sacred and ceremonial 8drink of life10 which was1 subsequently1 carefully prepared and fermented4 ,the idea that a tree enclosed male and female elements seems to have been also a strong one and would1 in course of time1 doubtlessly have led to the conception of superhuman beings in human form1 dwelling in trees4 ,what is more1 the adoption by each tribe of a particular sort of tree1 a custom amply proven1 would naturally lead to a species of tree-cult or veneration which1 amongst the uninitiated1 might lead to a form of worship of the tree itself4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ec4 ,the ceremonial presentation of single leaves of the same kinds as those represented on the trees1 as in fig4 #ec1 no4 #f1 proves that underlying these picture-writings there is far more meaning than has heretofore been suspected or recognized4 ,it is not possible for me to present here all the material ,i have collected on this subject which will be set forth in a future monograph4 ,i will1 however1 direct attention to the peculiar treatment in fig4 #ec1 no4 #a1 of the tree trunk which is enlarged and forms a quadriform figure4 ,in no4 #d1 the trunk enlarges to the shape of a head2 in no4 #b the tree grows from a human head and two young shoots issue from each side of the trunk1 seemingly indicating a fresh growth in tribal life4 ,in no4 #e1 we have an example of a human figure lying at the base of a tree and a fifth leaf growing in the centre of the treetop4 ,directing attention to the evident care taken in representing an equal number of branches pointing upwards and downwards ,i would cite here an extremely interesting representation of a tree in the ,borgian ,codex4 ,in this case the trunk issues from a conventionally drawn heart1 figured in the centre of the symbol for sky or heaven4 ,as the ,nahuatl for heart is yul-lotl1 from the verb yulito live1 to resuscitate1 the idea is distinctly conveyed that the tree was that of lifeyuli and proceeded from the celestial centre of life1 ,polaris or the ,heart of ,heaven1 a native title for the ,supreme ,being47#dg7 ,in the ,telleriano-,remensis ,,ms41 a 8tree of ,paradise10 so termed in the text1 is figured1 and there are1 in other ,codices1 various examples of trees encircled with serpents1 where it is obvious that this combination was made in order to express1 phonetically1 that a celestial tree was intended1 the word kanserpent1 being made to express kaanheaven4 ,a celestial tree1 situated at the pole and bearing in some cases seven and in others five blossoms1 was frequently depicted and its symbolism is obvious4 ,in my commentary on the ,hispano-,mexican ,,ms4 8,the ,lyfe of the ,indians10 the 8,gods10 8,five ,flowers10 and 8,seven ,flowers10 will be treated in detail4 ,from ,sahagun and ,olmos we learn that the ,mexicans employed the image of a tree1 metaphorically1 to signify a lord1 governor1 progenitor1 first ancestor4 ,relations are designated as 8issuing from one trunk40 ,a branch is literally termed 8the arm of the tree10 kab-ch4 ,two kinds of trees1 the ,puchutl and ,aueuetl1 signified1 metaphorically1 8a father1 mother1 lord1 captain or governor who were1 or are1 like shade-giving1 sheltering trees0 7,olmos74 ,the above metaphors explain the frequent association of a head1 the symbol of a chief or lord1 with the tree symbols4 ,it is noteworthy that in ,nahuatl1 the name for headquaitl1 is singularly like quauitltree1 and also recalls the word for serpentcoatl1 facts which may have somewhat guided the choice and association of these symbols4 ,the native metaphors recorded by ,olmos1 moquauhtiaan honored person or lord who has vassals or dependents1 and atlapalliliterally1 leafa person of the lower class1 a worker1 initiate us still further into the meaning of the native symbolism and prove the antiquity of this1 since the designation of a chief as a tree and a vassal as a leaf was in current use4 ,the presentation of the tree issuing from a heartyul-lotl is moreover1 in perfect keeping with native thought1 since the chieftain or lord was entitled 8the heart1 or life of the town or population40 ,the meaning of the bird1 which is represented as perched on each of the four trees in the ,fjrvary diagram1 is likewise explained by the metaphors recorded by ,olmos who states that1 8a son or child or a much beloved lord or chieftain was compared to a beautiful and precious bird1 such as the ,quetzal1 the ,roseate ,spoonbill1 the ,blue-bird1 etc41 etc40 ,surmounting the tribal trees in the diagram1 the birds therefore typify the lords of the four provinces and this is corroborated by the fact that each different bird is figured again in the corner-loops in combination with the symbols of the cardinal points4 ,the association of the symbols for lord or chiefthe head1 and the precious bird with the tribal tree also explains the frequent representation1 in the native ,codices1 of one or two serpents entwined around the tree1 since the serpent was the symbol in ,mexico of the dual rulers or high-priests of the ,above and ,below4 ,there is ample proof1 which shall be presented in full in my monograph on this subject1 that the above metaphorical images were as intelligible to the ,mayas and other tribes1 as to the ,mexicans themselves1 for the identical metaphors and imagery were in widespread general use4 ,the following data will corroborate this statement4 ,a ,maya native drawing1 copied by ,cogolludo in #afdj from the ,,ms4 of the ,chilan ,balam or ,sacred ,book of ,man1 which relates the history of the ,mayas1 has been recently reproduced in ,dr4 ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton's ,primer of ,maya ,hieroglyphics1 p4 #dg4 ,it displays a rectangular stone slab like a table1 on the centre of which rests a circular bowl1 the symbol1 as ,i have shown1 of the earth and centre4 ,growing from this is a spreading tree4 ,it is a curious and undeniable fact that the ,maya name for table is mayac1 and that the dictionaries contain the words mayac-tun1 stone-table1 and mayac-ch1 wooden1 literally1 tree-table4 ,familiarity with the native modes of rebus-writing leads to the inference that this picture of a tree and table1 expressing the sounds mayac-ch1 actually signified the tree of the ,mayas and therefore figured in the book relating their history4 ,bishop ,landa records that the ,mayas believed in a beautiful celestial tree1 resembling the ceiba and named yax-ch1 literally1 green tree1 under whose shade they would repose in after-life4 ,abb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg surmises that this tree was the same as the beautiful shade tree which grows in ,yucatan and ,mexico and is named1 in the latter country1 tonacaz-quahuitaltree of our subsistence1 i4 e41 life4 ,a ,maya name for the 8tree of life10 ua-hom-ch1 next claims our attention47#dh7 ,a valuable old manuscript dictionary of the ,maya language1 quoted by ,dr4 ,brinton1 records that the word uah means 8a certain kind of life40 ,the word hom is an ancient term for an artificial elevation1 mound or pyramid1 hence homul1 the pyramid on which a temple was built4 ,combined with ch1 tree1 the word seems to signify 8the elevated or high tree of life10 the idea of the celestial tree 8on high10 being possibly intended4 ,in connection with this it is interesting to rexamine fig4 #bj1 ,,iv1 which represents a flat pyramid from which grows a four-petalled flower on a stalk with two leaves1 the symbolism of which is apparent4 ,i am inclined to connect another native name translated in the dictionaries by 8cross0zin-ch with zihilto be born1 to commence1 zihnaloriginal1 primitive1 and zianorigin1 generation1 ancestry1 and to interpret it 8the tree of ancestral or tribal life40 ,on the other hand1 there is the adjective zinilmighty1 great1 and the meaning of zin-ch may merely mean 8the mighty tree40 ,in treating of the 8cross tablet0 of ,palenque in the following pages1 reference will be made to ,dr4 ,brinton's identification of the 8cross0 as a tree and tree symbolism referred to again4 ,although unable to produce here all the data ,i have collected on the subject1 ,i think that the foregoing prove that the ,peruvians1 ,mexicans and ,mayas1 employed the four-branched tree as an image of the organization and growth of their communal life1 and utilized it in pictography as a means of recording changes of organization and statistics of increase or decrease of population4 ,the ,maya word for 8one generation of men10 uinay1 literally meaning 8one growth10 seems to reveal that each generation was popularly thought of as one growth of leaves on the tree of state--a simile which is worthy of note4 ,one more point remains to be considered in reference to the organization of the population into four parts1 each of which consisted of four minor parts and so on2 namely1 the employment of color as a means of differentiation4 ,in ,peru each person wore on the head a twisted cord1 of the color of its quarter1 whilst the ,inca alone wore these colors combined1 in the band which encircled his brow1 as a sign that1 in his person he united the rulership over the four provinces4 ,molina records the colors of these as red1 yellow1 white and black4 ,in the titles of the ,maya ,bacabs1 or lords of the provinces1 as given by ,landa1 the words for yellow1 red1 white and black1 are found to be incorporated and prove to be identical with the arrangement in ,peru4 ,in ,mexico1 on the other hand1 we find red1 yellow1 green and blue as the colors of the ,four ,quarters1 white and black being assigned to the ,above and ,below4 ,all colors combined are to be found united in symbols of the ,centre and it is known that the use of centzon-tilmatli and quachtlimantles of four hundred colorsmulticolored were supplied as tributes to the capital1 for the use of a privileged caste4 ,a somewhat similar arrangement to the ,mexican is that of the ,zuis at the present time4 ,according to ,mr4 ,cushing1 they assign yellow1 blue1 red and white to the cardinal points1 speckled and black to the ,abovezenith and ,belownadir1 and 8all colours to the ,middle or ,centre40 ,in ,peru1 ,mexico and ,yucatan ,i have found scattered notices proving that individuals habitually painted their bodies with their respective colors4 ,the ,mexican 8lords of the night0 smeared themselves with black4 ,a passage in ,sahagun 7book ,i1 chap4 ,v7 speaks of the whitening of the 8face1 arms1 hands and legs with #8tiatl' 0chalk1 as though this were a habit of the 8noblewomen40 ,in the ,codices some women are1 in fact1 represented with white faces1 whilst those of the majority are painted yellow and it is known that yellow ochre was employed in reality4 ,i have1 in preparation1 a brief1 illustrated monograph showing the various modes of painting the face represented in the native pictorial records4 ,in these1 men painted red are of frequent occurrence1 and it is known that the 8red man0 owed his appellation to the custom of using red pigment on his body4 ,let us now briefly consider some of the results which inevitably followed the establishment of two diverging cults which were the outcome of the primitive recognition of duality and the artificial association of sex with ,heaven and ,earth1 ,day and ,night1 etc4 ,on pp4 #fj-fb ,i have cited evidence showing that at one time in the past history of the ,aztecs1 serious differences arose between the male and female rulers1 and led to a separation of the tribe and the establishment of two distinct centres of government4 ,the native languages furnish strong indications that1 in ordinary tribal life1 the separation of the sexes must have been generally enforced from remote antiquity and that male and female communities existed in various portions of the continent4 ,it is well known that1 to this day1 the ,nahuatl tongue spoken by the men is different from that spoken by the women1 and that the same duality of language prevails among other ,american tribes4 ,when the male and female portions of the native states separated and founded separate capitals it is obvious that each would have still further cultivated a separate language and that the institution of two distinct cults would have accentuated their differences and given a fresh impetus to their development4 ,as will be shown1 the ,maya chronicles reveal that1 in ,yucatan1 the nocturnal cult of the female principle degenerated into such abominations that the incensed population actually rose in revolt1 murdered the high-priests and scattered their votaries4 ,it was obviously owing to a recognition of the degradation attendant upon the abuse of intoxicating drinks1 which had played such a rle in the cult of the earth-mother1 that such stern laws were enforced in ,mexico1 at the time of the ,conquest1 restricting and regulating the use of pulque4 ,this was distributed by the priests at certain festivals only4 ,these and other rigid measures evidently dictated by a spirit of reform1 as well as the close union of both cults1 seem to have efficiently maintained a certain equilibrium4 ,at the same time two different moral standards were thus inevitably evolved by the votaries of both cults and naturally profoundly affected the position of woman4 ,the dangers and evils attendant upon the earth-cult became irretrievably associated with the female sex and the votaries of ,heaven naturally came to regard woman as a source of temptation and degradation4 ,in ancient ,mexico and ,peru the celibacy of the sun-priests and of a certain number of noblewomen1 8the ,virgins of the ,sun10 was enforced2 thus1 whilst the position of woman was being lowered in one caste by an artificial set of ideas1 it was raised in the other by an equally fictitious association with the ,above1 which led1 however1 to her real elevation of mind and character and finally enforced a recognition of her individuality4 ,the consecration of her person1 which caused her to assume a position commanding universal homage1 relieved her from heavy labor but caused her to be guarded and protected4 ,she was thus condemned to a still greater seclusion1 the primary object of which was to remove her from possible contact with members of the lower earthly caste4 ,for1 whilst ceremonial usage even required that the male members of the upper caste should associate in certain symbolical rites with the chief women of the lower order1 it was a crime and a desecration for a man of the latter caste to approach a woman of the nobility4 ,these could only marry in their own caste or remain celibate and were kept aloof from all debasing influences1 inside of protecting walls4 ,reflection shows that such conditions would inevitably lead to the formation of a nobility whose ideal was celibacy and whose 8,virgins of the ,sun10 by virtue of their consecration1 ranked highest amongst the women of the 8celestial caste40 ,those who married did so in their own caste1 led a life of seclusion and always maintained a position of superiority over all women of the 8earthly caste40 ,the latter1 on the other hand1 had the prerogative of being the representatives of their caste1 since the cult of the earth-mother necessitated a female representative1 high-priestesses and also female chiefs in their own rights4 ,we know that1 in ancient ,mexico1 an independent gynocracy had been founded at one time4 ,from certain native manuscripts and monuments we have positive evidence that a number of independent female chieftains ruled over minor communities and represented them officially1 their rank and insignia being equal to that of the chiefs of male communities4 ,at the same time1 from the standpoint of the 8upper caste10 the position and moral code of these 8votaries of the earth10 were always viewed as inferior4 ,another factor also exerted a marked and growing influence upon the relative positions of the two classes of women4 ,the enforced seclusion of the noblewomen rendering out-door occupations or work impossible1 it became necessary to relegate such to members of the lower caste who gradually constituted a class of domestic slaves1 dedicated to the service of the nobility4 ,in ancient ,mexico1 as a punishment for various crimes1 such as murder1 theft1 etc41 an individual1 even of the upper class1 was reduced to slavery as a punishment for his crime4 ,the ranks of slaves were also recruited from prisoners of war4 ,on the other hand1 the laws regulating slavery were just and mild1 the children of slaves were born free and various modes of regaining freedom were afforded to those held in bondage as an expiation for crime4 ,the introduction of slaves necessitating1 as it did1 their classification with the lower class1 now associated servitude with the female division of the community1 and the idea arose that women and the lower class existed for the benefit of the male element of the state and a favored minority of consecrated women4 ,if slavery and bondage came to be regarded on the one hand as a just punishment for crime1 the idea of liberty shone as an incentive to good conduct4 ,an eloquent proof of the high estimate in which personal freedom was regarded by the ancient ,mexicans1 is furnished by the ,nahuatl word1 recorded by ,olmos1 for 8free man0xoxouhqui-yollotl1 literally1 8fresh or green heart40 ,this expression is of particular interest because it explains a strange mortuary custom which consisted in placing a piece of jade1 chal-chihuitl1 or precious green stone1 in the mouth of a noble person1 after death1 saying that it was 8his heart40 ,in the case of the lower class a stone of little value1 named texaxoctli1 was employed4 ,in ancient ,mexico1 therefore1 the presence of jade or any green stone1 in a grave1 proved that the body was that of a free member of the upper caste4 ,it is evident that the employment of this significant emblem was suggested by the ,nahuatl word for 8freeman10 and constituted a sort of rebus expressing this title or rank4 ,in the ,peabody ,museum there are several specimens of jade celts1 collected by ,dr4 ,earl ,flint in ,nicaragua1 which had been cut into two or more pieces4 ,professor ,putnam had the satisfaction of discovering that these pieces from different graves fitted together4 ,his inference that the stone must have been rare and highly prized1 probably from some motive connected with native ritual1 is fully supported by the explanation afforded by the existence of the ,nahuatl word4 ,it is evident that1 in order to provide a dead kinsman with the mark of his rank1 a living chief would gladly have divided his own celt of jade1 if1 for some reason or other1 no other green stone was forthcoming at the time of burial4 ,let us now rapidly enumerate a few facts which prove that not only burial customs but also social organization and numerical divisions were carried northward from the southern cradle of ancient ,american civilization4 ,i shall make two statements only1 hoping that competent authorities on ,north ,american tribal organization1 and amongst them1 my esteemed friend and colleague1 ,miss ,alice ,c4 ,fletcher1 will supply a number of authoritative reports on these matters4 ,referring to the writings of ,horatio ,hale1 whose comparatively recent loss will long be deeply felt by all students of aboriginal history and languages1 ,i quote the following sentences from his interesting pamphlet on 8,four ,huron ,wampum records10 published1 with notes and addenda by ,prof4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor of ,oxford1 in #ahig4 8,the surviving members of the ,huron nation1 even in its present broken1 dispersed and half extinct condition1 still retain the memory of their ancient claim to the headship of all the aboriginal tribes of ,america north of ,mexico4444 ,the ,hurons or ,wendat1 as they should be properly styled1 belonged to the important group or linguistic stock1 commonly known1 from its principal branch1 as the ,iroquoian family and which includes1 besides the ,huron and ,iroquois nations1 the ,attiwendaronks1 the ,eries1 ,andastes1 ,tuscaroras and ,cherokees1 all once independent and powerful nations40 7,i draw attention to the detail that these nations were seven in number47 ,gallatin1 in his 8,synopsis of the ,indian tribes10 notices the remarkable fact that while the 8,five ,nations0 or ,iroquois proper were found by ,champlain1 on his arrival in ,canada1 to be engaged in deadly warfare with all the ,algonquian tribes within their reach1 the ,hurons1 another ,iroquoian nation1 were the head and principal support of the ,algonquian confederacy4 ,in the 8,fall of ,hochelaga10 ,horatio ,hale sets forth the reasons which led to the division of the ,hurons and ,iroquois1 who had formerly dwelt together in friendly unison4 ,the latter1 retreating to the south and augmented by other refugees1 became the 8,five ,confederate ,nations40 ,the 8kingdom of ,hochelaga10 as ,cartier styles it1 comprised1 besides the fortified city of that name1 the important town of ,stadacon 7commonly known to its people as ,canada or 8the town07 and eight or nine other towns along the great river4 ,according to their tradition the name of their leader1 ,sut-staw-ra-tse1 had been kept up by descent for seven or eight hundred years4 8,towards the conclusion of a long and deadly warfare between the ,iroquois confederates and ,canada as well as the ,hurons a remarkable change had taken place in their character2 a change which recalls that which is believed to have been developed in the character of the ,spartans under the institutions of ,lycurgus1 and the similar change which is known to have appeared in the character of the ,arabians under the influence of ,mohammedan precepts4 ,a great reformer had arisen in the person of the ,onondaga chief1 ,hiawatha1 who1 imbued with an overmastering idea1 had inspired his people with a spirit of self-sacrifice1 which stopped at no obstacle in the determination of carrying into effect their teacher's sublime purpose4 ,this purpose was the establishment of universal peace4444 ,the ,tionontat or ,tobacco ,nation seem to have made an alliance with the ,huron nation4444 8,eight clans or gentes composed the ,huron people and were found in different proportions in all the tribes4 ,these clans1 called by the ,algonquians #8totems1' all bore the names of certain animals1 with which the ,indians held themselves to be mythologically connected--the bear1 wolf1 deer1 porcupine1 snake1 hawk1 large tortoise and small tortoise4 ,each clan was more numerous in some towns than in others1 as it was natural that near kindreds should cluster together4 8,the five ,iroquois nations also had eight clans4444 ,the ,iroquois league is spoken of in their ,book of ,rites as kanasta-tsi-koma1 #8the great framework' and the large1 bent frame-poles of their council-house1 the exact original shape of which is not known1 were named kan-asta40 ,an examination of the signs woven in the famous wampum belts of the ,hurons and ,iroquois reveals some curious facts4 ,one of these treaty belts1 described by ,horatio ,hale1 commemorates an alliance formed between four nations4 ,it exhibits four squares 7fig4 #ed1 a7 8which indicate1 in the ,indian hieroglyphic system1 either towns or tribes with their territory407#di7 ,this mode of representing a nation is of utmost interest1 not only because it coincides with the ,maya conception of 8the quadrated0 earth but because it also reveals that1 in ,north ,america1 the ,indians associated a tribal organization with a quadriform4 ,what is more1 an older belt1 which is unfortunately incomplete1 exhibits a central oval 7fig4 #ed1 b7 between a bird and a quadruped and three crosses with a circle uniting their branches4 ,the cross and circle1 being a native symbol for 8an integral state10 as definitely proven by the ,maya map1 justifies the suggestion that this symbol on the wampum belt may have had the significance of 8nation0 and central government4 ,it is remarkable that the ,iroquois central capital1 ,ho-che-laga1 can be analyzed in the ,maya tongue1 as meaning fiveho1 treech or hochvase 7symbol of centre7 whilst the terminal laga might possibly be a form of lacanbanner1 an object so frequently associated with names of towns in ,mexico1 where it yields the sound pan and means on or above something4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ed4 ,it will be interesting and important to learn what 8,hochelaga0 means in the ,iroquois language4 ,the resemblance between the ,maya and ,iroquois symbols for nation and tribal territory and of the names for capital might even be overlooked and treated as a coincidence merely1 if the ,iroquois name for the confederacy1 kan-asta-tsik-o-ma did not also begin with the word kan1 the ,maya for four and for serpent4 ,the same particle recurs in the ,iroquois name for the towncan-ada1 a word which1 in ,maya1 would describe a metropolis divided into four quarters4 ,the question naturally suggests itself whether the affix can1 frequently met with in ,mexico combined with names of localities1 was not of ,maya origin and expressed also a centre of quadruple government4 ,it occurs in the ,nahuatl name for metropolis to-tec-ua can and in ,teoti-hua can1 for instance4 ,the ,nahuatl scholars have rendered its meaning as 8place of40 ,mr4 ,hale tells us that1 amongst the 8,five ,nations10 the tradition exists that the confederacy was originally divided into 8seven tribes10 each of which was composed of #bdh gentes or clans4 ,another wampum belt he figures exhibits a heart between #bbd squares1 a symbol which would be interpreted by a ,mexican or ,maya as well as by a ,huron or ,iroquois1 as meaning 8four nations1 one heart10 the latter being as common a symbol for union of rule or government or for chieftain1 as a 8head40 ,combined with other testimony it seems impossible to evade the question whether in remote times the ,iroquois and ,hurons had not shared in some way or other the civilization of the ,mayas4 ,if so the ancient earthwork-builders of the ,ohio valley1 who are authoritatively regarded as of southern origin by ,professor ,putnam1 and whose art exhibits a strong resemblance to that of the ,mayas1 seem to constitute the missing link between the northeastern and the southeastern tribes4 ,it is curious to find that the terminal ch1 which occurs in the name ,quich and which signifies in ,maya1 tree1 and1 by extension1 tribe1 is preserved in the names of the ,nat-ch-z tribe still inhabiting the ,mississippi valley4 ,it is also present in ,coman-ch1 ,apa-che1 etc4 ,it is to be hoped that1 before long1 authorities who have made special studies of the above tribes will make searching comparisons of their languages1 social organization and symbolism with that of the ,mayas1 in particular1 it seeming evident that the coast communication along the gulf of ,mexico1 from ,yucatan to the mouth of the ,mississippi river1 was not only easy but was favored by sea-currents4 ,it is interesting to note that if we now proceed to the southwest of the ,united ,states and study the ,pueblo people1 we seem to find not only more distinctly marked affinities between their customs1 etc41 and those of the ,mexicans1 but also traces of similarity with certain ,maya symbols4 ,in several important publications ,dr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes has made the valuable observation that there are marked 8resemblances between a ceremony practised at the time of the ,conquest in the heart of ,mexico and one still kept up in ,arizona10 and states that these 8lead one to look for likenesses in symbolism1 especially that pertaining to the mythological ,snake among the two peoples40 ,he continues as follows3 8,from the speculative side it seems probable that there is an intimate resemblance between some of the ceremonials1 the symbolism and mythological systems of the ,indians of ,tusayan and those of the more cultured stocks of ,central ,america4444 ,the facts here recorded look as if the ,hopi practise a ceremonial form of worship with strong affinities to the ,nahuatl and ,maya4444 ,i have not yet seen enough evidence to convince me that the ,hopi derived their cult and ceremonials from the ,zuians or from any other single people4 ,it is probably composite4 ,i am not sure that portions of it were not brought up from the far south1 perhaps from the ,salado and ,gila by the ,bat-kin-ya-mh#8,water people1' whose legendary history is quite strong that they came from the south407#ej7 ,dr4 ,fewkes frankly states that he 8knows next to nothing of the symbolic characters of the ,mexican deities 4440 and quotes ,mr4 ,bandelier's opinion that 8there are traces or tracks of the same mythological system and symbolism amongst the ,indians of the southwestern ,united ,states and the aborigines of ,central ,america40 ,under the leadership of ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing let us now enter into the life and thoughts of the modern ,zuis4 ,after having traced certain ideas in ,mexico and ,peru1 it is possible to recognize them again when we find them in ,mr4 ,cushing's valuable work1 from which ,i shall quote somewhat at length1 referring the reader1 however1 to the original1 for a fuller realization of existing resemblances47#ea7 ,the ,zui creation-myth relates how the light of the ,sun-father and a foam-cap on the sea1 caused the ,earth-mother to give birth to twin-brothers1 ,uanam ,achi ,piah-koa1 8the ,beloved ,twain who descended40 ,the first was ,uanam ,ehkonathe beloved ,preceder1 the second ,uanam ,yaluna1 the beloved ,follower2 they were twin-brothers of light1 yet elder and younger1 the right and left1 like to question and answer in deciding and doing4444 ,the ,sun-father gave them the thunderbolts of the four quarters1 two apiece4444 ,on their cloud-shield1 even as a spider in her web descendeth1 they descended into the underworld 444 7p4 #cha74 ,pausing here for a moment1 we note the curious fact that in the ,zui name for the twins we find koa1 resembling the ,nahuatl coatltwin or serpent2 that the name of one brother ,ehk-ona recalls the ,mexican ec-atlair1 wind or breath1 and the ,maya ikair1 wind1 breath1 courage1 spirit4 ,the allotment of two quarters to each and the image of a spider employed to express their descent from heaven have counterparts in ,nahuatl lore4 ,the 8,twain0 444 guided men upwards to become the fathers of six kinds of men 7yellow or tawny1 grey1 red1 white1 mingled and black74444 ,the nation divided itself into the winter or ,macaw and the summer or ,raven people4444 8,the ,twain beloved gathered in council for the naming and selection of man groups and creature kinds1 spaces and things4 ,they determined that the creatures and things of summer and the southern space pertained to the southern people or children of the producing ,earth-mother2 and those of the winter and northern space to the winter people or children of the ,forcing or ,quickening ,sky-father40 ,it is impossible to do more than refer the reader to ,mr4 ,cushing's account of the origin of totem clans and creature-kinds which bears such an affinity to the ,peruvian1 and obviously arose for the same practical reason1 to serve as distinction marks for identification and classification4 8,at first 444 there were four bands of priest-keepers of the mysteries3 the ,shiwana-kwepriesthood of the priest-people2 ,sa'niah'-ya-kwepriesthood of the ,hunt2 ,ach-iahya-kwegreat ,knife people2 ,newe-kwekeepers of the magic medicines40 ,out of these four divisions 8all societies were formed1 both that of the ,middle and the twain for each of all six regions1 constituting the tabooed and sacred #ac40 ,in another passage account is given of the marriage of a brother and sister1 which produced twelve children1 the first of which1 ,hlamon1 was man and woman combined--the #ab thus constituting in reality #ac4 ,one of the most interesting portions of the ,zui narrative is one which elucidates the motive which led to the migration of peoples in ancient ,america4 ,we are told how generations of the forefathers of the ,zuis wandered about in search of the stable middle of the earth1 on which they wished to found their sacred city4 ,the tribe divided2 the winter-clan journeyed to the northeast and the summer-clan to the southwest1 a reunion of the people took place1 and a council was held for the determination of the true ,middle4444 ,according to a myth the ,sun-father requested the water-skate to determine the ,middle4 ,this mythical monster lifted himself up1 stretched out and then settled downward1 calling out3 8,where my heart and navel rest beneath them mark ye the spot and then build ye a town of the midmost1 for there shall be the midmost of the ,earth-mother1 even the navel4444 ,and when he descended squatting1 his belly rested over the plain and valley of ,zui and when he drew in his finger-legs1 lo6 there were the trail roads leading out and in like the stays of a spider's net1 into and forth from the place he had covered40 ,pausing to point out that fig4 #bh1 reproduced from ,mexican ,codices1 shows curious topographical drawings resembling a spider's net1 ,i will not recount the many disappointments of the wanderers1 who were evidently driven away from several places of settlement by earthquakes1 but will refer to the ,zui custom of 8annually testing the stability of the ,middle in middle time 444 when the sun reached the middle between winter and summer 444 a shell was laid by the sacred fire of the north4444 ,when during solemn chanting no trembling of the earth ensued1 the priests cast new fire and 444 dwelt happily feeling sure that their sacred things were resting in the stable middle of the world40 ,at the beginning of this paper ,i referred to the powerful hold that the realization of the fixity of the pole star would naturally have exerted upon the mind of primitive man1 and ,i can produce no more striking illustration of this and of my view that the idea of central government and organization had been suggested by ,polaris1 than this account of the earnest and prolonged search of these ancient people for the stable centre of the earth1 on which to found a permanent centre of terrestrial rule or the plan of the celestial government4 ,at the same time it seems to me that the longing for a stable and fixed residence would naturally have been most intense amongst people who had experienced terrible earthquakes and been driven out of their original abodes by their repeated destruction4 ,it is unnecessary to mention the well-known fact that whilst earthquakes prevail throughout ,north and ,central ,america1 the most impressive trace of catastrophes of the kind are connected with the gigantic volcanoes of ,central ,mexico and ,guatemala4 ,with a sympathetic insight into the disasters which seem to have driven the wandering tribes from one region to another and filled them with a passionate yearning for a centre of rest1 let us now learn from ,mr4 ,cushing how they planned their metropolis and organized themselves1 when they had found the long-looked-for goal1 in the ,zui valley and 8settling there1 built seven great cities therein4 8,all their subtribes and lesser tribes were distinctively related to and ruled from a central tribe and town through priest chiefs representatives of each of these1 sitting under supreme council or septuarchy of the #8,master priests of the house' in the central town itself1 much as were the divisions and cities of the great ,inca dominion in ,south ,america represented at and ruled from ,cuzco1 the central city and power of them all4 8,zui is divided1 not always clearly to the eye1 but very clearly in the estimation of the people themselves1 into seven parts1 corresponding not perhaps in arrangement topographically1 but in scheme to their subdivisions of the worlds or world-quarters of this world4 ,thus one division of the town is supposed to be related to the north and to be centred in its kiva or estufa which may or may not be at its centre2 another division represents the west1 another the south1 another the east2 yet another the upper world and another the lower world2 while a final division represents the middle or mother and synthetic combination of the all in the world4 8,by reference to the early ,spanish history of the pueblos1 it may be seen that when discovered the ,ashiwis or ,zuis were living in seven quite widely separated towns the celebrated seven cities of ,cibola and that this theoretic subdivision of the only one of these towns now remaining is in some manner a survival of the original subdivision of the tribes into seven into as many towns4 ,it is evident that in both cases1 however1 the arrangement was and is1 if we may call it such1 a mythic organization2 hence my use of the term of mytho-sociologic organization of the tribe4 ,at all events this is the key to their sociology as well as to their mythic conception of space and universe4 8444 ,there were nineteen clans1 grouped in threes1 to correspond to the mythic subdivision4 ,three to north1 west1 south1 east1 ,upper1 ,lower4 ,the single clan of ,macaw is midmost or of middle and also as the all containing and mother clan of the entire tribe1 for in it is #8the seed of the priesthood of houses' supposed to be preserved47#eb7 8,finally1 as produced from all the clans and as representative alike of all the clans and through a tribal septuarchy of all the regions and divisions of the midmost and1 finally1 as representative of all the cult societies above mentioned1 is the ,kaka or ,a'kk-kwe or ,mythic ,dance drama people or organization4 8,it may be seen of these mytho-sociologic organizations that they are a system within a system and that it contains systems within systems all founded on the classification according to the six-fold division of things and in turn the six-fold division of each of these divisions of things 444 ,the tribal division made up of the clans of the north take precedence ceremonially1 occupying the position of elder brother or the oldest ancestor4 ,the west is the younger brother to this and the south of the west1 the east of south1 etc4444 while the middle is supposed to be a representative being1 the heart and name of all of the brothers of the regions1 the first and last1 as well as elder and younger4 8,to such an extent indeed1 is this tendency to classify according to the number of the six regions with its seventh synthesis of them all 7the latter sometimes apparent1 sometimes non-appearing7 that not only are the subdivisions of the societies also again subdivided according to this arrangement1 but each clan is subdivided1 both according to the six-fold arrangement and according to the subsidiary relations of the six parts of its totem4444 8,in each clan is to be found a set of names1 called the names of childhood4 ,these names are more of titles than of cognomens4 ,they are determined upon by sociological divinistic modes and are bestowed in childhood as the #8verity names' or titles of the children to whom given4 ,but the body of names relating to any one totem1 for instance1 to one of the beast totems1 will not be the name of the totem-beast itself but will be the names of both of the totems and its various conditions and of the various parts of the totem or of its functions1 or of its attributes1 actual or mythical4 8,now these parts or functions1 or attributes of the parts or functions1 are subdivided also in a six-fold manner1 so that the name relating to one member of the totem1 for example1 like the right leg or arm of the animal thereof1 would correspond to the north and would be the first in honor in a clan 7not itself of the northern group72 then the name relating to another member1 say the left leg and its powers1 etc41 would pertain to the west and would be second in honor1 444 the right foot1 pertaining to the south1 would be third in honor1 444 the tail to the lower regions and be sixth in honor2 while the heart and navel and centre of the being would be first as well as last in honor4444 ,in addressing each other the word symbol for elder or younger is always used4 8,with such a system of arrangement as all this maybe seen to be1 with such a facile device for symbolizing the arrangement 7not only according to the number of regions1 and their subdivisions in their relative succession and the succession of their elements and seasons1 but also in the colors attributed to them7 and1 finally1 with such an arrangement of names1 correspondingly classified and of terms of relation significant of rank rather than of consanguineal connection1 mistake in the order of a ceremonial1 a procession or a council is simply impossible and the people employing these devices may be said to have written and to be writing their statutes and laws in all their daily relationship and utterances40 ,if this precious exposition of the ,zui social organization teaches us more about native method and system than all of the writings of the ,spanish chroniclers put together1 there is one important point which1 strangely enough1 is not touched upon1 namely1 the regulation of time4 ,all information concerning native astronomy1 and the subdivision of the years1 the festival periods and the names of days1 seems to have been withheld from ,mr4 ,cushing by the ,zui priesthood1 if we are to assume that they possess a calendar4 ,in ,mexico1 as ,i have already set forth1 the calendar system is bound up in the scheme of social organization and it is impossible to separate them4 ,i cannot but think that it must be the same with the ,zuis but that1 as in ancient ,mexico1 only the priesthood were acquainted with the existence of a systematic calendar1 and kept it a profound secret from the multitude1 although the entire communal life and activities of the people were guided accordingly by their rulers1 who had arranged a suitable time for all things1 at proper seasons4 ,having obtained through ,mr4 ,cushing invaluable material for the making of a composite image of the ancient ,american civilization let us now proceed to ,yucatan1 bearing in mind the native mode of thought and master-passion for systematization4 ,a careful perusal of ,cogolludo and ,landa's work affords such interesting glimpses into the past history of the inhabitants of the ,yucatan peninsula1 that they merit presentation in a separate publication4 ,suffice it for the present to refer more fully to a few leading facts which will be found to illustrate the development of the ancient civilization in the preceding pages4 ,the native opinion already cited was that a great chief or lord1 named ,kukulcan1 reigned at ,chichen-,itza1 ,yucatan1 whilst this was occupied by the ,itza tribe1 which was driven from it in about #bgj ,a4,d4 by the ,tutul-xius who were entitled 8holy men40 ,their name justifies ,brasseur de ,bourbourg's inference that the conquerors may have been a ,nahuatl tribe whose name was that of the much-prized blue-bird1 ,xiuh-tototl4 ,at the same time the fact that the ,maya word for supreme lord and ,master 7also applied to the divinity7 is ,ciu-mil seems to indicate that there may be a deeper origin and that the ,xiuh-tototl may have only been a rebus employed by the ,mexicans to convey the sound of a ,maya title1 possibly 8,kukul-,ciu10 if the above title 8holy men0 is to be regarded as a translation of ,tutul-xiu4 8,kukulcan had no wife or children and was venerated in ,yucatan as a god because he was a great republican1 as was shown by the order he instituted in ,yucatan after the death of the native rulers4 ,he went to ,mexico whence he returned4 ,he was there named ,quetzalcoatl and was venerated by the ,mexicans as one of their gods40 ,when he had entered into treaty with the native chiefs inhabiting the country1 they agreed to join him in founding and peopling a city which was named ,mayapan1 but was also known by the natives as ,ichpa1 meaning 8inside of the circles407#ec7 8,they proceeded1 indeed1 to build a circular walled enclosure with two entrances only4 ,in its centre1 the principal temple was erected and it was circular1 with four doors opening to the cardinal points1 like one which had been built by ,kukulcan at ,chichen-,itza4 ,the walled circle also contained other sacred edifices and houses intended to be inhabited by the lords only1 who divided up the entire land amongst themselves4 ,towns were assigned to each according to the antiquity of his lineage and personal distinction4 ,kukulcan lived in this town for some years with these lords and leaving them in amity and peace returned to ,mexico by the same way as on his visit1 lingering on the way in order to build a quadriform temple on an island off the coast40 ,i know of no more instructive account of aboriginal history than this simple native record preserved by ,landa1 which so clearly reveals amongst other details that the ,mexican culture-hero was an actual personage1 a ,maya high-priest who had been a ruler at ,chichen-,itza4 ,in this connection it is interesting to collate another chapter of ,landa's work in which he reports what the oldest ,indians narrated to him about ,chichen-,itza1 of which ,i give the following somewhat abbreviated translation3 ,three brothers came there in olden times from the west and having assembled together a large number of people1 ruled them for some years with much justice and peace47#ed7 ,they paid great honor to their god and built many beautiful edifices4444 ,they lived without wives in purity and virtue and as long as they did this they were esteemed and obeyed by all4 ,in course of time one of them possibly died1 but is said by the ,indians to have gone out of the country4 ,whatever may have been the cause of his absence the remaining rulers immediately began to show partiality and to institute such licentious and abominable customs that they were finally execrated by the people who rebelled and killed them1 and then disbanded and abandoned the capital1 8although this was most beautiful and was surrounded by fertile provinces407#ee7 ,the principal edifice at ,chichen-,itza was a pyramid temple which had four stairways facing the cardinal points4 ,it contained a circular temple which was named after the builder ,kukulcan and had four doorways opening to the four quarters of heaven4 ,if ,i have dwelt again upon ,kukulcan,quetzalcoatl1 it is because1 between the writers who interpret the records concerning him as a sun or star-myth and those who identify him as the abstract deity whose name he bore as a title only1 or as ,st4 ,thomas or a mythical ,norseman1 ancient ,america is being deprived of its most remarkable historical personage4 ,collated with the ,maya traditional records1 the ,mexican accounts agree and supply missing evidence4 ,whilst the ,mayas state that their ruler and legislator went to ,mexico and even record his ,mexican name1 ,montezuma informs ,corts that 8his ancestors had been conducted to ,mexico by a ruler1 ,quetzalcoatl1 whose vassals they were and who having established them in a colony returned to his native land4 ,later on he returned and wished them to leave with him but they chose to remain1 having married women of the country1 raised families and built towns4 ,nor would they institute him again as their lord1 so he went away again toward the east1 whence he had come40 ,it seems nearly proven that ,kukulcan was one of the three rulers who came to ,yucatan from the east4 ,the ,mexican tradition that he was driven into exile by his enemies1 the followers of ,tezcatlipoca1 the lord of the ,below1 appears to be corroborated by the ,maya record that1 after his restraining presence had been removed1 they committed such excesses that the indignant population arose and murdered their two rulers at ,chichen-,itza4 ,quetzalcoatl's continued efforts to assemble scattered tribes1 to organize them peacefully under central governments1 to found capitals and erect in the centre of these quadriform pyramids and circular temples1 prove how completely he was possessed by the idea of spreading the well-known scheme of civilization4 ,his very name in ,maya signified 8the divine ,four0 and this more profound signification was hidden under the image of the 8feathered serpent0 employed as a rebus to express the title of the supreme ,being and the high-priest1 his earthly representative4 ,the ,mexican records state that the culture-hero's white robes were covered with red crosses1 and that he set up cross-emblems4 ,evidence showing how completely this builder and founder of cities carried out the idea of the ,four ,quarters1 in the temples he erected in ,mexico1 is preserved by the record that for prayer1 penitence and fasting1 he prepared four rooms which he occupied in rotation4 ,these were respectively decorated in blue1 green1 red and yellow1 by means of precious stones1 feather-work and gold4 ,as these were the colors assigned to the ,four ,quarters their symbolism and meaning are obvious1 and it may be inferred that the same method of decorating the sides of buildings or doorways1 with these four colors1 may have been carried out in square sacred edifices oriented to the cardinal points4 ,it is curious to detect the quadruplicate idea in the title ,holcan given to certain war-chiefs4 ,this name signifies1 literally1 8the head of four10 but could be expressed by the rebus of a 8serpent's head10 which would obviously have been employed in pictography to express the title and rank4 ,the existence of the title 8,four-head10 or 8the head of four10 obviously relates to the rulership of the ,four ,quarters1 united in one person2 and in this connection the ,tiahuanaco swastika 7fig4 #dh71 terminating in four pumas' heads1 seems to gain in significance as the expressive symbol of a central ruler4 ,the recorded custom to cover the body of the ,mexican ruler with the raiment of the 8four principal gods10 proves the prevalence of analogous symbolism4 ,from the following data we gain an interesting view of the events which transpired in former times in the ,yucatan peninsula4 ,resuming ,landa's account we see that1 after ,kuculcan had departed for ,mexico1 the lords of ,mayapan decided to confer supreme rulership upon the ,cocomes1 this being the most ancient and the wealthiest lineage and its chief being distinguished for bravery4 ,they then decided that the inner circle should hold only the temples and houses for the lords and high-priest4 ,in connection with this it is well to insert here how ,landa states1 in another passage1 that there were 8twelve priests or lords at ,mayapan10 which with the high-priest constituted the sacred #ac4 8,outside the wall they built houses where each lord kept some servitors and where his people or vassals could resort when they came on business to the town4 ,each of these houses had its steward1 entitled ,caluac1 who bore a staff of office and he kept an account with the towns and with their local rulers4 ,the ,caluac always went to his lord's house1 saw what he required and obtained from the vassals all he needed in the way of provisions1 clothing1 etc40 7op4 cit41 pp4 #cd-dd74 ,the chronicle goes on to relate how the lords of the inner circle devoted their time to the affairs of government1 the regulation of the calendar and the study of writing1 medicine1 and the sciences47#ef7 ,it seems significant that1 throughout ,central ,america1 two ruined cities of about equal size are usually found in comparatively close proximity to each other1 and seemingly pertaining to the same culture4 ,thus we have ,quirigua1 in the valley of the ,motagua river1 and ,copan its sister-city1 situated at a distance of about twenty-five miles1 but nearly #a1hjj feet above it1 in the wooded hills4 ,between ,palenque and ,mench 7,lorillard ,city7 there are about fifty miles1 whilst ,tikal and ,ixkun are forty miles apart4 ,in ,yucatan1 as we have learned from ,bishop ,landa's 8,relacion10 there were ,mayapan and ,zilan1 and as the latter name also signified 8embroidery0 it looks as though it had been a noted centre of female industry4 ,then1 after a lapse of years1 8a large number of tribes1 with their lords1 came to ,yucatan from the south40 ,bishop ,landa conjectures that1 although his informants did not know this for certain1 8these tribes must have come from ,chiapas1 many words and the conjugation of some verbs being the same in ,yucatan as in ,chiapas where there existed great signs showing that ancient capitals had been devastated and abandoned10 possibly by earthquakes1 famine1 disease or warfare4 ,it has been surmised that the venerable ,bishop alluded1 in this sentence1 to the ruins of ,palenque in ,chiapas4 ,although not mentioned by ,cogolludo or ,lizana it is accepted that the new-comers were the ,tutul-xius4 ,according to an ancient ,maya chronicle1 8at a date corresponding to #dja ,a4,d41 the four ,tutul-xius had fled from the house of ,nonoual1 to the west of ,zuiva and came from the land of ,tulapan4 ,four eras passed before they reached the peninsula of ,yucatan named ,chac-noui-tan under their chieftain1 ,holon-,chan-,tepeuh10 a name which is equally intelligible in ,maya1 ,tzendal and ,nahuatl and means ,head-,serpent and 8lord of the mountain10 according to ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 who states that the latter was a sovereign title amongst the ,quichs4 ,landa relates that1 after wandering about ,yucatan for forty years 7possibly in search of the stable centre7 these tribes settled near ,mayapan1 subjected themselves to its laws and lived in peaceful friendship with the ,cocomes4 ,the new-comers brought with them the atlatl or spear-thrower which is minutely described but is evidently regarded as a weapon of the chase47#eg7 ,the chronicle goes on to narrate that the ,cocom governor1 having become ambitious for riches1 entered into a treaty with ,mexican warriors who were garrisoned at ,tabasco and ,xicalango by the ,mexican ruler and induced them to come to ,mayapan and to aid him in oppressing the native lords4 ,the latter and the ,tutul-xius rebelled against this action and1 having observed the ,mexicans and become experts in the art of using their bow and arrow1 lance1 hatchet1 shield and other defensive armor1 they 8ceased to admire and fear the ,mexicans and began to make little of them1 and in this condition they remained for some years40 ,a lapse of years passed and another ,cocom chief formed a fresh league with the ,tabasco people4 ,more ,mexican warriors came to ,mayapan and supported him in tyrannizing and making slaves of the lower class4 ,then the ,tutulxiu lords assembled and decided to murder the ,cocom ruler4 ,having done so they also killed all his sons with the exception of one who was absent2 burnt their houses and seized their plantations of cocoa and other fruits1 saying that these compensated for what had been stolen from them4 ,the differences which subsequently arose between the ,cocome and the ,xius people resulted in the final destruction and abandonment of ,mayapan after an occupation of more than five hundred years1 both tribes returning to their countries4 8,the lords who destroyed ,mayapan 7about #abj years before the ,conquest7 carried away with them their books of science4444 ,the son of the ,cocom lord1 who being absent had escaped death1 returned and gathered his relations and vassals together and founded a capital4444 ,many towns were built by them in the hills and many families descended from these ,cocomes4 ,these lords of ,mayapan did not revenge themselves upon the ,mexican warriors but generously exonerated them from blame because they were strangers and had been persuaded to come into the land by its former ruler4 ,they allowed them to remain unmolested in the country and to found a city on condition that they kept to themselves and married in their own tribe only4 ,these ,mexicans decided to settle in ,yucatan and peopled the province of ,can-ul which was assigned to them and they continued to live there until the second invasion of the ,spaniards40 ,at ,chichen-,itza1 situated at about twenty-three leagues from the ancient site of ,mayapan1 there exists substantial evidence of the existence of these ,aztec warriors1 with indications that they pertained to the ,mexican warrior-caste of the ocelots or tigers4 ,it is a recognized fact that the remarkable bas-reliefs1 which still cover the walls of the 8temple of the tigers0 at ,chichen-,itza1 are strikingly ,aztec in every detail4 ,the exact counterparts of the ,atlatls1 they hold1 are visible on the so-called 8,stone of ,tizoc0 in the city of ,mexico4 ,sculptured on the wall opposite the entrance of the temple there are about thirty-six war-chiefs grouped in three parallel rows of twelve each1 the majority of whom are apparently rendering some form of homage to a seated personage surrounded by rays1 while others are having an encounter with a monstrous serpent4 ,on the side walls and slanting roofs more warriors are figured1 many accompanied by a rebus or hieroglyph which evidently records1 in ,mexican style1 individual names4 ,the total number of sculptured warriors seems to have been about one hundred4 ,if each of these represented1 as may be supposed1 a 8count of men10 it is evident that a large force of ,aztec soldiers must have lived in ,yucatan at one time4 ,other interesting monuments at ,chichen-,itza deserve a passing mention4 ,mr4 ,teobert ,maler 7,yukatekische ,forschungen1 ,globus1 #ahie1 p4 #bhd7 relates that there are two pyramid-temples in the terraces of which the remains of great stone tables have been found4 ,he states that one of these tables was originally supported by two rows of seven sculptured caryatids and by a central row of plain columns with flat1 square tops4 ,traces of paint showed that the figures had been painted1 that a yellow-brown color had predominated1 but that all ornaments or accessories were either blue or green4 ,the caryatids exhibited a variety of costume and of size and each showed a marked individuality4 ,the second table standing in a larger temple1 was originally painted red and supported by twenty-four caryatid figures which resemble each other closely1 show no individuality and which seem to have been disposed in two rows of twelve each4 ,mr4 ,maler infers from this that1 being more highly conventionalized1 they were of a later date than the previous examples4 ,if it were not for the circumstance that both tables had the same number of supports their numeral #bd might pass unobserved4 ,as it is1 ,i shall recur to it on mentioning other monuments with figures yielding the same number and disposed1 in one case1 as #fd4 ,in connection with these stone tables ,i recall the fact that1 in the ,maya language1 they were called ,mayac-tun4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes 7op4 cit41 p4 #acd7 tells us that in one case the continuous table had been formed by a series of limestone tablets averaging three feet square and five or six inches thick1 each slab having been supported by two of the dwarfish figures which stand with both hands aloft1 giving a broad surface of support4 ,he ascertained that 8these slabs were wonderfully resonant and when struck lightly with a hammer or stone1 give out tones closely resembling those of a deeply resonant bell1 and the echoes awakened in the silent forest are exceedingly impressive40 ,mr4 ,holmes' account of these resonant stone tables is of particular value to me because it throws an interesting light upon the following ,maya words3 ,i have already stated that the native name for table is ,mayac1 and that a stone table is ,mayac-tun4 ,the word tun1 however1 not only signifies stone1 but also sound and noise4 ,from this it would seem that stone tables such as ,mr4 ,holmes describes were made expressly for the purpose of emitting sound and employed like the huehuetl or wooden drums of the ancient ,mexicans to summon the people to the temple and to guide the sacred dances4 ,the existence of the word tun-kul1 which is either 8stone-bowl0 or 8sound-bowl10 seems likewise to indicate that hollow stone vessels were used at one time as gongs4 ,at the present day the ,mayas name the small wooden drum of the ,mexicans a 8tunkul10 whereas its ,nahuatl name is 8te-ponaxtli10 the prefix of which1 curiously enough1 seems also to be connected with tetlstone4 ,a curious light is shed upon the possible use of some of the many stone vessels found in ,mexico and ,yucatan by the above linguistic evidence4 ,in conclusion ,i quote ,mr4 ,maler's authority for two points concerning ,chichen-,itza which are not generally known4 ,first1 that its name should be pronounced 8,tsitsen-itsa10 and1 second1 that he saw there no less than five recumbent statues1 holding circular vessels4 ,each of these figures exhibits the same form of breast-plate as the ,le ,plongeon example now at the ,national ,museum of ,mexico 7pl4 ,,iv1 fig4 #a74 ,mr4 ,maler states that it seems to have been the tribal mark of the ,cocomes1 the whilom rulers at ,chichen-,itza2 but it is interesting to note the general resemblance of this ornament to the blue plaque worn by the ,mexican 8,blue ,lord10 the ,lord of the ,year and of ,fire1 8,xiuhtecuhtli10 who is also usually represented with a ,xiuh-tototl or 8blue-bird0 on the front of his head-dress4 ,these facts seem to indicate that the characteristic breast-plate1 instead of being a mark of the ,cocomes1 may have been that of the ,tutul-,xius1 and that this title has some connection with that of ,xiuh-tecuhtli1 the ,mexican 8,lord of ,fire40 ,it has been already set forth in the preceding pages that the sacred fire was kindled in the stone vase held by the recumbent figures1 a fact indicating that the identical form of cult was practised in ,mexico and at ,chichen-,itza4 ,this identity is satisfactorily accounted for and explained if we accept the simple native records of the invitation extended to ,mexican warriors by a ,maya chieftain and their subsequent permanent residence in ,yucatan4 ,the limitations of my subject do not allow me to do more than mention two other important ruined cities of ,yucatan1 ,izamal and ,uxmal4 ,i will however note that1 judging from the illustrations ,i have seen1 ,uxmal seems to be the 8,serpent-city0 of ,america1 par excellence1 its buildings exhibiting the most elaborate and profuse employment of the serpent for symbolical decoration4 ,one inference from this might be that the serpent was the totemic animal of the ancient builders of this city4 ,the foregoing rapid review of the native chronicles of ,yucatan shows that even the foundation of ,mayapan was comparatively recent2 that the peninsula had1 in turn1 harbored powerful tribes who had drifted thence from the southwest and ,mexican warriors whose aid had been sought by consecutive rulers of ,chichen-,itza4 ,we see that ,yucatan was the meeting ground for ,maya- and ,nahuatl-speaking people and that the tendency was to leave the peninsula in search of a more favorable soil and climate as soon as opportunity was afforded4 ,since the cradle of the ,maya civilization is evidently not to be looked for in ,yucatan1 let us follow the clue afforded by the native traditions1 transport ourselves to some of the most important ruined cities of ,central ,america and endeavor to wrest from their monuments some knowledge of the social organization of their ancient inhabitants4 ,in order to institute this search under the most favorable circumstances1 ,i ventured to apply for guidance to ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay who has made a more thorough1 prolonged and extensive study and exploration of these ruined cities than any other person4 ,upon my request to formulate his opinion as to the respective antiquity and chief characteristics of the most noted sites1 this distinguished explorer has most kindly authorized me to publish the following note4 8,but for a brief note in ,nature 7#bhth ,april1 #ahib71 ,i have never classified the ruins or attempted to give proofs of differences in age of the monuments1 but roughly you may safely class them as follows3 ,i am inclined to look on the ,motagua river group as the oldest4 ,the ,yucatan group is certainly the youngest4 ,of course there are many other smaller differences between the groups and much overlapping4 ,whichever group may be the oldest the art is there already advanced and the decoration has taken forms which must have occupied many kinds of workers to conventionalize from natural objects40 #a4 ,on ,motagua ,river1 ,quirigua1 ,copan4 ,large monolithic stel and altars with figures and inscriptions carved on all four sides in rather high relief1 some groups pictographic4 ,no weapons of war portrayed in the sculpture4 #b4 ,on ,usumacinto ,river1 ,mench1 ,tinamit1 ,palenque1 ,ixkun4 ,stel are usually flat slabs carved with figures and inscriptions in low relief on one side only4 ,external ornament of the buildings usually moulded in stucco4 ,war-like weapons but very scarce4 #c4 ,tikal4 ,intermediate between ,nos4 #b and #d1 but somewhat different and distinct from either4 #d4 ,yucatan4 ,chichen-,itza1 ,uxmal1 etc4 ,stel very few in number and poorly carved4 ,inscriptions carved in stone are very scarce4 ,inscriptions were probably painted on the walls of the temples4 ,external ornament of buildings formed by a mosaic of cut stones somewhat resembling ,zapotec or ,aztec style4 ,every man portrayed as a warrior on the bas-reliefs4 ,by means of the magnificent set of casts which ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay has generously presented to the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 and with the aid of his monumental and splendidly illustrated work on the ,archaeology of ,central ,america1 which has been appearing as a part of the ,biologia ,centrali-,americana1 edited by ,messrs4 ,godman and ,salvin1 ,i have been able to verify the following facts which will be found to throw light on the purpose and meaning of some of the ancient monuments4 ,before examining the great1 elaborately carved stel which are characteristic of ,quirigua and ,copan1 let us search the native chronicles for some clue explanatory of the purpose for which they were erected4 ,bishop ,landa has transmitted to us some details about the destroyed metropolis of ,mayapan given to him by ,yucatec informants who stated that 8in the central square of that city there still were #g or #h stones1 about ten feet high1 rounded on one side and well sculptured1 which exhibit several rows of the native characters1 but were so worn that they had become illegible4 ,it is supposed1 however1 that they are the record of the foundation and destruction of that capital4 ,similar1 but higher monuments1 are at ,zilan1 a town on the coast4 ,interrogated as to the meaning of these monoliths the natives answered3 ,it had been or was customary to erect similar stones at intervals of #bj years which was the number by which they counted their eras40 ,bishop ,landa subsequently remarks that 8this statement is not consistent10 for1 according to this 8there should be many more such stones in existence1 and none exist in any other pueblo but ,mayapan and ,zilan407#eh7 ,disagreeing with the venerable ,bishop1 ,i find in the above statements the most valuable indications of the former existence of two centres of culture in ,yucatan4 ,there is a curious affinity between the name ,zilan 7pronounced ,dzilan7 and ,chilan given as 8the title of a priestly office which consisted of a juridistic astrology and divination10 by ,landa4 ,there may even be a connection between zilan and zianorigin1 commencement2 zihnaloriginal and primitive1 which may be worthy of consideration in association with the well-known statement1 quoted by ,dr4 ,brinton1 that 8the most venerable traditions of the ,maya race claimed for them a migration from ,tollan in ,zu-iva--thence we all came forth together1 there was the common parent of our race2 thence came we from amongst the ,yagui men1 whose god is ,yolcuatl ,quetzalcoatl40 ,dr4 ,brinton adds that 8this ,tollan is certainly none other than the abode of ,quetzalcoatl named in an ,aztec manuscript as #8,zivena ,uitzcatl4' 0 ,vague as any conjecture must necessarily be1 ,i cannot but deem it of utmost importance that systematic excavations be made1 some day1 at ,zilan1 for the purpose of bringing to light the stel referred to by the native informants of ,bishop ,landa4 ,according to ,brasseur de ,bourbourg 8,zilan1 situated at about #bj- leagues from ,merida belonged to the ,cheles people47#ei7 ,it is the seaport of ,izamal and contains the ruins of one of the greatest pyramids or artificial mounds 7omul7 in ,yucatan10 a fact which corroborates the view that it was an ancient important capital4 ,the northern coast of ,yucatan is extremely remarkable for it is divided from the ,gulf of ,mexico by a continuous strip of land between which and the mainland there is a narrow channel of water4 ,there are two openings only in this zone of land which afford a passage into the navigable channel4 ,one of these openings is situated almost opposite to ,zilan and is known as the ,boca de ,zilan4 ,at a short distance to the east there is a second such 8boca0 opposite to the mouth of the ,rio ,lagartos1 which is a large estuary and the only river on the northern coast of ,yucatan47#fj7 ,let us now transport ourselves1 mentally1 south of the peninsula to ,honduras and1 leaving the coast1 ascend the ,motagua valley to the ruins of ,quirigua and ,copan17#fa7 which have impressed ,mr4 ,maudslay as being of great antiquity4 ,before examining such of these monuments as seem to yield the testimony we are seeking1 let us again recall ,landa's record that the ,mayas erected stel as memorials of each #bj-year period4 ,to this statement should be added1 at full length1 ,cogolludo's record that 8the ,mayas employed eras of #bj years and lesser periods of #d years47#fb7 ,the first of these four years was assigned to the east and was named ,cuch-haab2 the second1 ,hiix1 to the west2 the third1 ,cavac1 to the south and the fourth ,muluc1 to the north1 and this served as a #8,dominical letter4' ,when five of these four-year periods had passed1 which form twenty years1 they called it a ,katun and placed one sculptured stone over another sculptured stone and fixed them with lime and sand mortar to the walls of their temples and houses of the priests407#fc7 ,the term katun is closely linked to the said employment of memorial stones1 for tun is the ,maya for stone and ka seems to stand for kal or kaal#bj4 ,the word hun-kaal#bj1 means literally1 8one complete count10 or 8a count which is closed10 since the verb kaal means to close1 shut1 or fasten something4 ,according to the above a katun literally means 8the #bj 7year7 stone20 but we know that1 by extension1 it designated the era itself as well as war and battle4 ,thus we find the verb katun-talto fight4 ,cogolludo continues3 8,in a town named ,tixuala-tun1 which signifies #8the place where they place one stone above another1' they say that they kept their archive1 containing records of all events4444 ,in current speech katun signified era and when a person wished to say he was sixty years of age1 he used the expression to have three eras of years or three stones4 ,for seventy they said three and a half stones or four less one-half stone4 ,from this it may be seen that they were not too barbarous1 for it is said that by this system they were able to keep such exact records that they not only certified an event but also the month and day on which it took place40 ,by referring to ,maya and ,spanish dictionaries we gain supplementary valuable information about native memorial stones4 ,we find the name amaytun given as that of 8a square stone on which the ancient ,indians used to carve the #bj years of the period ahau-katun1 because the four remaining years which completed the epoch1 were placed underneath1 so as to form a sort of pedestal which was called1 for this reason1 lath oc katun or chek oc katun4 ,by extension1 painted representations of the epoch were also named amaytun40 ,the dictionary further informs us that amayt was the name for the first twenty years of the ahau katun1 which were carved on the square stone and we see that amayt also means 8something square or with corners0 and is formed of amaycorner4 ,equipped with the foregoing knowledge of the sort of memorial it was customary for the ,mayas to erect1 let us now see whether the ruins of ,copan furnish any monuments which would answer to the description and purpose of 8amay-ts0 and 8ka-tuns40 ,referring the reader to parts ,i-,,iii of ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay's work already cited1 ,i draw special attention to the following stel and altars which are so admirably figured therein4 ,stela ,f1 which stands at the east side of the ,great ,plaza at ,copan and faces west1 is in a particularly bad state of preservation4 ,it exhibits a standing figure on one side whose head is surmounted by an indescribable combination of a mask1 a seated figure and much elaborate feather-work4 ,a noteworthy feature1 which recurs on other stel in ,copan and ,quirigua1 is an appendage which appears like an artificial beard attached to the chin of the personage4 ,at the sides of the stela serpents' heads alternate with diminutive grotesque figures4 ,on the back1 or east side of the stela1 two cords are represented which appear to have been brought over from the front and which are tied together so as to form five open loops1 in each of which1 as in a frame1 there is a group consisting of four calculiform glyphs4 ,the cord1 which is knotted together at the base of the stela1 appears to pass around it4 ,it is impossible not to recognize that this representation of twenty glyphs1 as divided into five groups of four1 exactly agrees with ,cogolludo's records that the ,mayas employed #bj-year and #d-year eras and that when five of the #d-year periods had passed they called it a ka-tun1 and made a carved memorial of it4 ,as ,landa tells us that they erected stel to commemorate the #bj-year period1 the inference to which the ,copan ,stela ,f leads us is that it is a katun and that the twenty glyphs carved on it are year-signs4 ,examination1 however1 shows that1 whereas the ,maya ,calendar had but four year-signs which would naturally be bound to repeat themselves in each group of four years1 no two glyphs on the ,stela ,f are alike4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that the glyphs are not the four calendar year-signs and reflection shows1 indeed1 that it would have been quite superfluous to carve these repeatedly on a stela4 ,as each year-sign was identified with a cardinal point and an element and was permanently associated with a particular color1 the mere employment of the latter would suffice to convey this association of ideas4 ,what is more1 the relative positions of the four glyphs composing each group would also indicate the four year-signs and thus the sculptor of the stela would have been at liberty to record by the shape of his glyphs any fact he chose to connect with each year of the era4 ,a curious linguistic fact must also be taken into consideration3 ,the ,maya name for the four year-signs was ,ah-cuch-haab and the title for a chief or ruler of a town was ,ah-cuch-cab4 ,the mere presence on the stela1 of the figure of the ruler1 would suffice to convey the certainty that the count of the four year-signs was understood to be present4 ,on ,stel ,f and ,m1 each of which displays twenty glyphs and one sculptured personage1 the latter is particularly characterized by being associated with head-dresses and emblems consisting of elaborate conventionalized plumed serpents' heads4 ,the inference naturally is that the serpent symbolism1 which recurs in some form or other on every stela effigy1 expresses or conveys that the rank and title of the personage were that of a ,kukul-can1 the high-priest ruler who impersonated the 8,divine ,four10 or of some lord,ahau1 who was also 8ruler of the four regions40 ,it must be recognized that a stone stela1 on which is sculptured the image of a lord and a count of #bj1 answers exactly to the memorial stone named ,ahau-ka-tun1 literally1 lord1 #bj stone1 and it is easy to see how the period or era of twenty-four years should come to be called by the name of the stone which commemorated it1 and each era to be differentiated by being designated by the personal name of the ruler who held office during its course4 ,the result would be practically the same as the allusion to a particular reign in a nation's history1 with the seeming difference that all ancient ,american rulers and their subordinates held fixed terms of office1 coinciding with the various periods of the calendar4 ,the inscriptions on the foregoing stel are made of glyphs of a uniform character4 ,other stel at ,copan display the interesting set of #fag signs which recur on so many ,central ,american monuments and strikingly coincide in number with the all-pervading division into six parts plus the middle and synopsis of all4 ,of this 8septenary set of signs10 six are uniform in size and character whilst the first is more elaborate and important in every respect and1 as ,i shall set forth by a series of illustrations in another publication1 actually does symbolize the union of the ,above and ,below4 ,it is to ,mr4 ,maudslay that we owe the recognition of the existence of this septenary set of glyphs1 which he announced as follows to the ,royal ,geographical ,society in #ahhf3 8,a number of ,central ,american inscriptions are headed by what ,i shall call an initial scroll 7the style of which is permanent throughout many variations7 and begin with the same formula1 usually extending through six squares of hieroglyphic writing1 the sixth square1 or sometimes the latter half of the sixth square1 being a human face1 usually in profile1 enclosed in a frame or cartouche0 7,proceedings1 p4 #ehc74 ,the septenary group occurs on ,stel ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,e1 ,i1 ,p4 ,it is curious to find that the initial sign is sometimes1 as on two sides of ,stela ,p1 followed not by #f glyphs only1 but by #dfbd glyphs4 ,on the east side of ,stela ,p1 it is succeeded by #bb glyphs and a carved design which seems to indicate the beginning or end of the count4 ,on ,stela ,i the initial is also followed by #dfbd glyphs1 and on ,stela ,a by #ab double 7#bd7 glyphs on side #a1 whilst side #b displays #ac and side #c1 #bacbf4 ,on ,stela ,b two sides exhibit #ac glyphs each and the back #b the initial4 ,on two sides of ,stela ,c the initial is followed by #bgad glyphs4 ,it cannot be denied that the foregoing stel collectively yield counts of #de1 #g1 #ac1 #bj and #bd1 which undoubtedly coincide with the well-known numerical organization and prove that this dominated the people who erected them4 ,the certainty that the ancient inhabitants of ,copan associated the idea of a central ruler with quadruple power is afforded by a remarkable bas-relief which ,mr4 ,maudslay has kindly allowed me to reproduce here 7fig4 #ee71 from a drawing made by ,miss ,annie ,hunter47#fd7 ,this carved slab1 the size of which is #e' by #d' #f1 was found in four pieces in the western court of the main structure of ,copan and according to ,mr4 ,maudslay's opinion1 8formed part of the exterior ornament of temple #aa or the slope on which it stood40 ,it undoubtedly claims a minute examination1 as it strikingly illustrates how the native ideas1 ,i have been setting forth in the preceding pages1 were originally suggested by the observation of ,polaris4 ,seated cross-legged1 and resting on the centre of the foliated swastika1 is the figure of a personage whose titles are clearly discernible4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ee4 ,he is designated as a ruler1 not only by his attitude of repose1 but by the fact that he wears a breast ornament in the form of a face or head 7of the sun7 and holds in his hand 7i4 e4 governs7 a vase or bowl 7see p4 #gb74 ,those show him to be the chief or head of all and the ,cum-ahau1 or lord of the sacred vase or bowl 7see p4 #ic74 ,as the latter contains what appears to be a variant of the glyph ik and the word ik signifies breath1 air and wind1 by extension life1 we realize that he is designated as the lord of breath and life4 ,the glyph which covers his face bears a native cross-symbol and this1 as well as the cruciform figure1 the centre of which he occupies1 conveys the idea of quadruplicate power4 ,the double and bent arms of the cross-symbol strikingly resemble the conventionalized puffs of breath or air which are so frequently depicted in ,mexican ,codices1 as issuing from the mouths of speakers4 ,almost identical representations of curved puffs are figured as issuing from open serpents' jaws in a bas-relief at ,palenque1 of which more anon4 ,mr4 ,maudslay has pointed out that on stel from ,copan and ,quirigua a profusion of analogous curved signs occurs also in connection with serpents' heads4 ,a special feature of the curved puffs of breath on the ,copan 8swastika10 as it has been named1 are small seed-like balls which are distributed in detached groups of threes along their inner and outer edges1 and are usually accompanied by what resembles the small calyx of a flower1 making four small objects in all4 ,these balls1 which also recur in the ,palenque symbol1 forcibly recall a passage of the ,zui creation myth recounted by ,mr4 ,cushing4 ,it relates that1 at a certain stage of the creation1 8the most perfect of all priests and fathers named ,yanuluha 444 brought up from the underworld1 the water of the inner ocean and the seeds of life production0 444 ,subsequently1 on a feathered staff he carried1 8appeared #d round things1 seeds of moving beings1 mere eggs they were2 two blue like the sky and two red like the flesh of the earth-mother40444 ,i cannot but think that these words from a purely native source explain the ,copan sculpture more correctly than any inference that could be made1 and authorize the explanation that the central figure represents the 8four times lord10 or 8lord of the four winds10 titles which were applied in ,mexico to ,quetzalcoatl and ,xiuhtecuhtli4 ,at the same time the bas-relief teaches us that 8the four winds0 had a deeper meaning than has been realized1 for it represents life-giving breath carrying with it the seeds of the four vital elements1 emanating from the central lord of life1 spreading to the four quarters and dividing itself so as to disseminate vitality throughout the universe4 ,the title ,kukulcanthe ,divine ,four1 also serpent1 proves to be even more expressive of this conception of a central divinity than the ,mexican ,divine ,twin1 or serpent4 ,i am therefore inclined to consider that it originated with a ,maya-speaking people1 to whom1 more graphically than to any one else1 this bas-relief would have served1 as a joint image of the star-god1 the heart of heaven1 named ,hura-kan2 of the terrestrial lord ,ah-cuch-cab1 the heart or life of the ,state2 of the ,state1 with its hun-kaal or one count of twenty subdivisions of people and its quadruple head and body and1 finally1 of the native cosmology4 ,the ,copan swastika enables us to come to another interesting conclusion4 ,it is a refined representation of the set of thoughts suggested by ,polaris1 the idea of a stable centre being graphically rendered4 ,movement in four directions is also symbolized4 ,as1 in the latitude of ,copan1 ,ursa ,minor is the only circumpolar constellation which could have been observed in four opposite positions1 it is obvious that ,ursa ,minor with ,polaris must have constituted the ,maya ,celestial ,heart or ,lifecuxabal4 ,the following points remain to be discussed in connection with the ,copan swastika4 #a4 ,to be complete and in keeping with native modes of representation it must have originally been painted with the symbolical colors of the ,four ,quarters4 #b4 ,it is on a wooden club from ,brazil or ,guiana that1 strange to say1 ,i find a cross symbol with bifurcated branches1 which most closely resembles the ,copan type4 ,directing the readers to the illustration of this club as fig4 #h1 pl4 ,,xv1 in ,dr4 ,stolpe's work already cited1 ,i would ask them to examine also his fig4 #g1 with a design expressing dual and quadruple divisions2 fig4 #i;b1 with circles containing cross lines2 #i;a1 with what resembles somewhat a ,maltese cross but also conveys duality2 fig4 #aa;b with a cross in a scalloped circle and a curious disc between four signs1 with a band of alternate black and white squares and its reverse #aa;a1 with triangles1 to which ,i shall revert2 and figs4 #aj;c and d1 each with a mound from which a tree is growing4 ,though tempted to refer to many other symbols ,i shall limit myself to pointing out that his fig4 #a1 pl4 ,,xiv1 exhibits a group of five circles in a circle which strikingly recall the ,mexican examples and the ,maya ho#e4 ,as each of the foregoing symbols is intelligible and belongs to a group of ideas which ,i have shown to have been general throughout ,america1 but to have necessarily originated in the northern hemisphere1 it seems pretty clear that they must have gradually found their way to ,brazil and ,guiana from the north by means of coast navigation and traffic4 #c4 ,concerning the bowl in the hand of the figure occupying the middle of the swastika a few remarks should be added to those already given on pp4 #gb and #ic4 ,formed of clay the bowl was an expressive symbol of the earth4 ,placed in elevated positions on the terraces of the temples1 and filled by the first annual showers which fell upon the parched earth1 the bowl of celestial water naturally became invested with peculiar sanctity1 and was gradually regarded as containing particular life-giving qualities4 ,one use to which bowls full of water were put1 in ancient ,mexico1 seems to explain further the ideas associated with them4 ,it is well known that bowls of water were used at night for divination purposes1 just as were black obsidian mirrors4 ,this seems to prove that the latter were a subsequent invention which was adopted because it permanently afforded a surface for purposes of reflection4 ,in the native ,maya chronicles the reflection of a star upon the trembling and moving surface of the water1 is given as the image of the ,creator and ,former1 the ,heart of ,heaven1 and it was believed that the divine essence of life was thus conveyed to earth by light shining on and into the waters4 ,it is well known that it was customary for the priests of the ,great ,temple of ,mexico to bathe at midnight after fasting1 in a sacred pool so deep that the water appeared to be black4 ,this artificially-produced peculiarity would have rendered its surface particularly useful for the observation and registration of the movements of stars by their reflections4 ,thomas ,gage quaintly tells us1 moreover1 that at the consecration of a certain idol 8made of all kinds of seeds that grow in the country 444 a certain vessell of water was blessed with many words and ceremonies1 and that water was preserved very religiously at the foot of the ,altar for to consecrate the ,king when he was crowned and also to blesse any ,captain ,generall1 when he should be elected for the ,warres1 with only giving him a draught of that water0 7op4 cit41 p4 #ec74 ,it is well known that infants also underwent a form of baptism4 ,the preceding and other evidence1 which is scarcely required1 enables us to realize the full significance which the symbol of a bowl surmounted by the glyph iklife1 breath1 soul1 was intended to express and convey4 ,the collection of rain-water in vessels1 exposed so as to receive the reflection of the one immovable star-god1 was doubtlessly employed as a test of the stability of the ,middle of the ,earth by many generations of priest-astronomers4 ,the sanctity attached to this water1 as having absorbed the divine essence of light and the attribution of life-giving properties to it1 was but the natural sequence of such star-observation4 ,as the title 8the lord of the vase or bowl0,cum-ahau1 indicates1 the supreme priest of ,heaven alone seems to have attended to all rites concerning the sacred bowl and the distribution of its celestial life-giving contents4 ,the symbolical decoration of many native bowls will be found to corroborate this view of their employment and of the virtue attributed to their contents4 ,by this time ,i trust that my readers will realize with me that1 at ,copan1 the native set of ideas had long taken deep root and flourished4 ,we have seen that the identical numerical divisions of time and tribes and the same symbolism prevailed as have been traced in ,peru1 ,guatemala1 ,mexico1 ,yucatan1 ,zui1 etc4 ,the following monuments will still further establish this kinship of thought4 ,copan contains two stone slabs which answer to the description of an amay-tun1 inasmuch as they are square and appear to be memorial stones4 ,let us see whether some clue to their purpose can be obtained from the carvings upon them4 ,on each of the four sides of altar ,k four personages are carved1 all seeming to be of equal rank4 ,of these #ddaf chieftains1 eight wear a breast ornament in the form of a double serpent1 whilst the remaining eight wear a somewhat plainer kind4 ,on the west side the two central figures face each other and two diminutive glyphs are carved in the space between them4 ,the most striking feature about the representation of these personages is1 that each of them is seated1 cross-legged1 on a different composite glyph2 some of these exhibit animal forms4 ,this is a fact of utmost importance1 for it definitely connects distinct personalities1 obviously chieftains with composite glyphs1 some composite parts of which are obviously totemic4 ,on the upper surface of this monolith there are #ffcf single glyphs1 which yield #i groups of #d4 ,if these #id be added to the #dd glyphs on which the chieftains are respectively seated1 we obtain #ac groups of #d1 equivalent to #eb4 ,it is superfluous to repeat that there are fifty-two years in the ,mexican cycle and that just as this square altar has #af figures carved around it1 the great monolithic ,stone of ,tizoc in the ,city of ,mexico has #af groups4 ,in the latter case each group is accompanied by the name of a tribe and its capital4 ,it looks very much as though the glyphs on which the chieftains on ,altar ,k are seated also express tribal names4 ,a careful study of the other square monolith at ,copan1 known as the ,alligator altar1 will enable us to form a better estimate of the probable meaning of glyphs1 employed as seats by chieftains4 ,the ,alligator altar takes its name from the sculptured animal which is stretched over its upper surface4 ,human figures are represented as connected with the different parts of the animal's body1 in a way which forcibly recalls ,mr4 ,cushing's explanation of how the various members of a tribe were associated with a part only of their totemic animal and bore the name of this part as their title of honor1 according to a strict order of precedence4 ,according to ,mr4 ,maudslay's description3 8,upon the upper surface of the monument are two apparently human figures seated upon the arms of the alligator4 ,both figures are much weather worn2 each has what appears to be a glyph in its hand1 which is outstretched toward the alligator's head4 ,between the alligator's arms and legs four human figures are seated in similar positions1 two on each side of the body4 ,these figures have large mask head-dresses and carry offerings in their hands4 ,there are two figures on the north side of the monument1 one on either side of the tail of the alligator2 each is seated on a glyph4 ,the figures are human1 but in place of a human head each figure is surmounted by a glyph4 ,each figure holds a glyph with the numeral ten attached to it in its outstretched hand40 ,since the above partial description of the altar was written1 ,mr4 ,maudslay has found that one of the above glyphs is 8,mol0 and the other 8,zip10 and has identified the glyph used as a head for each figure as the day-sign ,cabal4 ,this fact is of particular interest as the meaning of this sign seems to be connected with ,cabanthe ,below1 and the two figures with ,cabal heads are sculptured at each side of the alligator's tail which is the part of least honor1 not only according to ,zui etiquette1 but also according to ,mexican ideas1 the word for tail being employed1 metaphorically1 for vassals4 ,to this description ,i would add that a careful study of the cast of this monument in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and of the illustrations in ,mr4 ,maudslay's work reveals that1 of the four figures on the west side1 one only has a human head1 whilst two have human bodies with animal heads and one a semi-human face and the body of a bird4 ,of the four figures on the east side1 the first represents a man seated on a glyph1 the second a human body with an animal head and the third and fourth semi-animal1 bird and human figures4 ,amongst the recognizable animal forms represented1 we distinguish an ocelot1 an unmistakable alligator's head and the head of a monster with huge jaw and serrated teeth which strongly resembles the ,mexican sign ,cipactli1 a nondescript 8marine monster40 ,one detail is worthy of special notice3 the left hand of one of the figures on the east side terminates in a serpent's head1 in a fashion recalling that of the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs4 ,the following rsum will make the distribution of the figures and glyphs on the altar quite clear4 ,top3 outstretched alligator body1 whose legs and claws are sculptured over the corners of the altar4 ,on each shoulder #a figure with glyph#b4 ,on each knee #b figures#d1 making a total of #f figures on the top4 ,on east and west sides respectively1 #d figures2 on north side #b figures1 on the south side #d figures on composite glyphs#ad4 ,the total number of figures on top and sides is #bj1 each of which is intimately associated with a glyph4 ,under the snout of the alligator1 on the south side1 there are #bdh glyphs4 ,when carefully analyzed we ultimately find that the surface of the altar exhibits in the first case two chieftains of equal rank1 but respectively seated on the right and left forelegs of the tribal totem4 ,to my idea this demonstrates that the dual rulership1 such as existed elsewhere1 prevailed at ,copan1 and that two lords of the alligator tribe were entitled the right and left forelegs or 8arms0 of the animal totem4 ,it should be noted here that the ,maya name for alligator is chiuan or ain4 ,the dictionaries contain also the following names for the same or allied species3 ,sea-lizard1 alligator 7871 ixbaan2 lizard in generalix-mech1 or mech1 ix-be-bech1 ixzeluoh and ix-tulub4 ,obviously occupying positions of less honor there are #bbd chiefs of equal rank but seated1 respectively1 on the right and left hind legs of the totem4 ,these again are evidently equivalent to the four sub-rulers of ,mexico and ,yucatan1 the ,maya ,bacabs or ,chacs4 ,lastly1 the twenty different figures1 connected with particular glyphs1 are equivalent to the division of the tribe into as many portions1 minus the head4 ,the eight glyphs associated with this added to the twelve glyph-figures1 complete the numeric organization into twenty4 ,from this monument1 the sides of which were probably painted1 originally1 in four colors1 it would seem that the alligator clan1 ruled by two chiefs and four lesser rulers1 was organized into twelve divisions of people and eight classes of another kind4 ,a circular tablet at ,quirigua1 which ,i shall describe further on1 exhibits a subdivision into #bfabecbj4 ,it is not necessary to emphasize how remarkably the ,copan altar conforms to the ,zui method of clan-organization4 ,it suffices for my present purpose merely to establish the community of thought which existed throughout1 but which found its highest artistic expression and development in ,central ,america4 ,there are several other smaller carved monoliths1 one of which usually lies in front of a stela4 ,for this reason they have been popularly named 8altars10 just as the stel have been called 8idols40 ,the majority of these 8altars0 contradict this appellation by their utterly unsuitable shapes and profuse carvings on their upper1 often irregular1 rounded surfaces4 ,some of these monoliths consist of a monstrous head1 the shape of which is almost lost under an indescribable mass of ornamentation4 ,in some cases1 however1 they recall the semblance of the large glyphs on which chieftains are represented as seated on the carved sides of the square monoliths just described4 ,so strongly do some of these resemble certain forms1 that ,i venture to express my belief that1 on ceremonial occasions1 these carved heads may have served as the seats or stools of honor for chieftains of the rank of those portrayed on the bas-reliefs4 ,the ,maya word tem1 the plural form for which is tetem1 seems to be applicable to such totemistic carved stones4 ,it is translated as stone altar1 seat or bench 7cf4 ,nahuatl word te-tlstone74 ,other minor monoliths are carved with glyphs4 8,altar ,g10 illustrated in ,mr4 ,maudslay's work1 exhibits four glyphs only--an interesting number1 replete with significance to the native mind4 ,the number #bd occurs on ,altar ,r on which the glyphs are disposed as #bdhbhbd4 ,the number #bd recurs on the top of ,altar ,u1 where the glyphs are disposed in #c rows of #h each4 ,at the same time the back of this altar exhibits #eajej and its sides #bbd glyphs1 which may possibly constitute separate records4 ,in the majority of foregoing cases the glyphs are single and comparatively simple4 ,on ,altar ,s1 however1 we have double and quadruple glyphs1 the latter obviously being a highly developed cursive method of recording facts1 rendered possible by the minute classification of all things in the ,state into definite divisions with fixed relationships to each other4 ,having lingered so long in ,copan we can but glance at ,quirigua and note its most remarkable features4 ,this ruined city lies on ,motagua river1 #a1hjj feet below and at about a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles from ,copan4 ,it is now subjected to almost annual inundations from the river and its situation in marshy surroundings renders it extremely unhealthy4 ,it may have been partly on this account that the neighboring capital of ,copan was founded in an elevated and salubrious position4 ,an interesting fact has been pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,maudslay1 namely1 that the ground plan of both groups of ruins is almost exactly the same1 ,copan being only somewhat the larger of the two4 ,this identity proves that the same distinct scheme of orientation was carried out in both places and that importance was undoubtedly attached to the relative positions of the pyramid-temples1 courts and buildings47#fe7 ,a proof that two distinct castes of rulers existed and were respectively associated with the northern and southern regions of the capital is furnished by a circumstance communicated to me by ,mr4 ,maudslay4 ,in ,copan1 as well as at ,quirigua1 some of the individuals sculptured on the stel are beardless1 whilst others have beards which seem to be sometimes artificial4 ,these stel usually stood at the sides of the great courts1 and at the bases of the pyramid-temples4 ,mr4 ,maudslay has observed that in both places1 all of the bearded effigies are situated to the north of the beardless ones4 ,the first1 for instance1 occupy the northern and the second the southern side of a court2 their respective positions being clearly intentional since it recurs in both cases4 ,this circumstance furnishes additional proof that1 in these capitals as elsewhere1 the same great primary division into the ,above and ,below prevailed and shows that the representative rulers of these two castes respectively wore beards or none4 ,the beard1 as an insignia of rank1 occurs in several ,mexican ,,mss4 and careful observation shows that it is most frequently represented as worn by a high-priest1 usually painted black and sometimes wearing the skin of an ocelot4 ,it is found associated with advanced age and with red1 the color of the north1 a fact which coincides with the position assigned to bearded effigies at ,copan and ,quirigua4 ,in ,mexican ,codices the culture hero1 ,quetzalcoatl1 is figured with a beard1 and tradition records that this was his distinctive feature4 ,images of ,quetzalcoatlthe air-god1 represent him with a beard1 and the calendar-sign ,ehecatlwind1 is composed of an elongated mouth and chin to which a beard is attached4 ,several of the monuments at ,quirigua are the largest of the kind which have been found on the ,american continent4 ,stel ,e and ,f are twenty-two and twenty-five feet high respectively1 and both exhibit two human effigies standing back to back4 ,in point of fact1 with a few exceptions1 amongst which are female effigies1 the majority of stel at ,quirigua are double1 namely1 ,a1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,k1 in ,mr4 ,maudslay's work1 part ,,xi4 ,i cannot but regard this as a proof that in a peaceful1 flourishing and long-established state1 the dual form of government maintained itself successfully for an extended period of time4 ,on ,stela ,e is one of the most remarkable ancient ,american portrait-statues that has yet been discovered4 ,it portrays a man with noble and strongly marked features1 an aquiline nose and a narrow chin beard1 like a goatee4 ,the ,maya dictionaries supply us with the clue to the meaning attached to the beard in pictorial art4 ,the word for beard is meex and for 8bearded man10 ah-meex1 or ah-meexnal1 if the beard was long4 ,on the other hand1 ah-mek-tancal is the ,maya name for 8governor and ruler of people or of a town10 and ah-mektanpixan means high priest4 ,the first two syllables of these titles1 being identical with the word for a 8bearded man10 seem to explain the reason for the association of rank with a beard1 and vice versa4 ,added to preceding data it aids in forming the conclusion that the bearded personages on the stel were 8high-priests or rulers of people and of towns10 that the beard or goatee was the mark of supreme rank and that artificial ones were sometimes worn4 ,the beardless effigies1 on the other hand1 obviously represent individuals belonging to a different caste2 and the fact that stel exist at ,copan and ,quirigua on which two figures are carved1 back to back1 proves that the assignment of the effigies of the two types to separate sides of the courts was preceded by a time when a closer unity prevailed between the dual rulers4 ,the existence of stel with female figures proves that here1 as well as in ,mexico and ,peru1 there had been a period when 8the ,below and the cult of the ,earth-mother were presided over by a woman40 ,on each side of the great ,stela ,f is carved the initial followed by #ffcf glyphs1 which fact seems to indicate that six glyphs pertained to each of the six regions and recorded facts relating thereunto4 ,on the sides of ,stela ,f1 each initial is followed by #cd glyphs only1 the count being shorter than that of ,stela ,e by #bbd4 ,one side of ,stela ,c exhibits the initial followed by #bac glyphs grouped in parallel lines1 then a horizontal band with #d glyphs2 the other side the initial followed by #dfbd and a group of #d glyphs4 ,stela ,d is particularly remarkable on account of the six squares of pictorial glyphs which follow the 8,initial0 which1 in this case1 exhibits the head and body of a jaguar in its centre4 ,i refer to ,mr4 ,maudslay's interesting conclusion that these pictorial glyphs preceded1 in date1 the more cursive method of representing the initial series4 ,in consequence of this jaguar initial1 ,stela ,a becomes particularly noticeable1 because one of the personages upon it has a beard1 whilst the other is masked as an ocelot or jaguar4 ,a vivid sense of the actuality of the bond that existed between the ancient dwellers at ,copan and ,quirigua1 their totemic animals and symbolic coloring1 is obtained on reading ,mr4 ,maudslay's following description of the excavation of mound #d at ,copan 7,report ,proceedings ,geographical ,society1 #ahhf1 p4 #egh74444 8,the excavation was then continued 444 when more traces of human bones were found mixed with red powder and sand4444 ,continuing the excavation 444 a skeleton of a jaguar was found lying under a layer of charcoal 444 the teeth and part of the skeleton had been painted red4 ,at about #ajj yards to the south of this mound ,i shortly afterwards opened another 444 mound 444 and found a few small fragments of human bones1 two small stone axes and portions of another jaguar's skeleton and some dog's teeth1 showing that the interment of animals was not a matter of chance40 ,if we add this to the accumulation of evidence ,i have presented1 showing that in ,mexico and ,yucatan the ocelot was associated with the north1 the color red1 the underworld1 the nocturnal cult and with bearded priests1 we must admit that there is hope that1 some day1 we may be as familiar with the life and customs of the ancient ,americans as we are now with those of the ancient ,egyptians1 ,greeks and ,romans4 ,strange animal effigies in stone have been found at ,quirigua3 one 7,b7 somewhat resembles a dragon and exhibits complex glyphs2 another 7,g7 has been named an armadillo and has #bhaf glyphs carved on its lower and #bbjdj on its upper sides4 ,a circular slab deserves special mention3 in its centre is a seated figure4 ,forming a band around the edge1 to the right of the figure are #f glyphs and #f others are to his left#ab in all4 ,above him to his left are #e and to his left are #c glyphs4 ,this peculiar distribution of #bj glyphs is of peculiar interest4 ,the crowning glory of ,quirigua1 however1 is the gigantic block of stone1 completely covered with intricate carvings and glyphs1 which is known as the 8,great ,turtle10 and of which splendid casts1 made from ,mr4 ,maudslay's moulds1 are now exhibited in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 and in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york4 ,of the many features of this remarkable monument1 which can be studied in ,mr4 ,maudslay's forthcoming part ,,xi of the ,biologia ,centrali-,americana1 the seated figure1 occupying a prominent place and obviously representing the central ruler1 deserves special mention4 ,in his right hand he holds a peculiar sceptre similar to that held by the personage on ,stela ,e4 ,his left hand is concealed under a carved face1 a detail which recalls the ,santa ,lucia bas-reliefs4 ,palenque and its group of sister cities now claim our notice4 ,of the latter ,men-ch particularly arrests our attention on account of its name1 the second part of which means tree and by extension1 tribe4 ,the word men is of particular interest1 for it is not only the name of a dog in the ,maya ,calendar but signifies precisely the same as the ,mexican word toltecatl1 namely1 master-builder1 artificer or artisan1 an adept in manufacture4 ,the habitual form of employing the word would be ah-men1 meaning he who is a master builder1 etc42 while men-ah or men-yah signifies work or production of manual labor4 ,the first part of the ,nahuatl word aman-teca1 signifying artisan1 artificer1 seems to be a corrupt rendering of the ,maya ah-men4 ,that ,men-ch1 which is also known as ,lorillard ,city1 was a centre of the highest development of native-sculpture and art seems proven by the truly admirable and exquisitely fine workmanship of the bas-reliefs obtained there by ,mr4 ,maudslay1 and now exhibited at the ,british ,museum4 ,in execution and finish they undoubtedly surpass any specimens of ancient ,american art ,i have ever seen4 ,a search for the possible derivation of the word men leads to mehen1 the name for 8sons or nephews in the male line10 mehen-ob1 the descendants1 mehen-tzilaangenealogy and parentage 7a word which sheds some light on the meaning of the ancient capital ,tzilan in ,yucatan74 ,mehen is also employed as meaning something little1 small or minute4 ,from the above data it may be inferred that ,men-ch may have originally signified 8the tree or tribe of the sons or nephews in the male line10 and that these people may have so identified themselves with the arts of building and working in precious metals and stone1 etc41 that their title was used as a designation for these industries4 ,it is certainly remarkable that1 situated at an easy distance on the same river ,usumacinto1 there is the great ruined city of ,palenque7#ff7 7pronounced by the natives ,pa-lem-ke7 which seems also to have originally terminated in chtree or tribe and to be derived from palil1 pal or palalvassal1 servant1 subject1 also small child4 ,let us see how far the monuments of ,palenque justify and support this translation of its name4 ,referring the reader to ,mr4 ,maudslay's ,biologia1 and to ,mr4 ,holmes' ,archological ,studies1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 and other well-known works on the ruins of ,palenque1 ,i shall confine myself to a cursory examination of the four principal isolated pyramid-temples1 known1 respectively1 as the temples of the ,inscriptions1 of the ,sun1 of the ,cross and of the ,cross ,no4 #b4 ,although the orientation of these edifices is not accurate they may be roughly said to face the cardinal points as follows3-- ,the temple 8of the ,inscriptions0 faces the north1 that 8of the ,sun0 the east1 whilst the temple 8of the ,cross0 faces the south and that 8of ,cross #b10 the west4 ,dr4 ,brinton has already shown that the well-known symbol on the famous 8,tablet of the ,cross0 is not a cross1 but the conventional symbol for 8tree0 of the type ,i have illustrated in the preceding fig4 #ec4 ,as ,cross ,no4 #b unquestionably belongs to the same category1 it results that these two temples would be more correctly designated as 8of the ,tree0 and that they furnish us with an interesting parallel of the ,peruvian quisuar can-cha1 or 8place of the tree10 where the ,inca erected two trees which typified his father and mother and were 8as the root and stems of the ,incas40 ,the ,palenque 8trees10 moreover1 closely resemble those on the ,mexican ,fjrvary chart 7fig4 #eb7 inasmuch as1 in each case1 the tree is surmounted by a bird and is flanked by two human figures4 ,it has already been shown in the preceding pages that in ancient ,america the tree was generally employed as a symbol for tribe and that the ,maya word for treech occurs as an affix signifying tribe or people not only in ,qui-ch1 ,man-ch 7the latter a tribe inhabiting the region of ,mench and ,palenque7 etc41 but also in the names of tribes inhabiting the southern regions of ,north ,america4 ,assuming1 therefore1 upon convincing and substantial evidence which will be further corroborated1 that the 8,tablet of the ,cross0 represents a tree1 the symbol of tribal life1 the next step is to interpret the bird perched upon it and generally acknowledged to be a quetzal 7pronounced kay-tzal7 as the totem of the tribe1 which also probably expresses its name4 ,the tree is represented as associated with serpent symbolism and as growing from a vaseho-och placed on a monstrous headho-ol1 the idea conveyed being that it flourished in the centre or middle1 while the head signifies1 as has been shown1 the capital and also the chief4 ,on the vase is carved a symbol to which ,i draw special attention1 as it recurs on the right hand end of the carved band below the tree1 is met with in ,maya calculiform glyphs and is also frequently employed in ancient ,mexico4 ,it represents the corolla of a four-petalled flower which obviously symbolized the ,four-in-,one1 which permeated the native civilizations4 ,the word for 8flower0 being nic in ,maya and xochitl 7pronounced hoochitl7 in ,nahuatl1 it must be admitted that the symbol of a vase with a flower seems to afford an instance of a bilingual rebus1 as the ,maya hooch is identical in sound to the ,nahuatl xoch-itl4 ,even without this1 however1 the meaning of the tree and serpent1 the bird1 the vase1 the quadripartite flower1 and the head1 would have been generally and equally intelligible to native tribes1 being familiar symbols constantly employed in metaphorical speech4 ,mr4 ,maudslay has pointed out and illustrated in his work 7,biologia1 pl4 #ib1 pt4 ,x7 that the side branches of the 8cross0 simulate bearded serpents' heads1 whilst their recurved upper jaws are covered with what resemble buds of flowers1 seeds or beads4 ,the ,palenque 8cross0 is indeed characterized by being profusely decorated with 8bead or seed-like ornaments and appendages0 some of which resemble beads or seeds1 figured in some instances1 like those on the ,copan swastika1 the meaning of which seems supplied by the previously cited ,zui text4 ,it does not appear to be a mere matter of chance that the following ,maya words1 culled from the dictionaries1 are so closely connected3 yax-cha sort of ceiba tree1 the emblem of celestial life of the ,mayas2 yax-chumil and yax-pa-ibeadjectives primitive1 original2 adverb firstly1 at the beginning2 yaxil1 verbto make something new1 to commence1 begin2 yaxil-tunbead or pearl2 yax-mehen-tzileldest son4 ,according to this incontrovertible evidence we find that the sacred tree of life of the ,mayas was designated by the word yax1 signifying first1 original1 new1 etc42 that the same root enters into the composition of the word for eldest son and finally for 8bead40 ,the latter curious agreement is accentuated by the well-known fact that the ,mexicans employed in metaphorical speech the word cuzcatlbead made of some precious stone1 to designate 8father1 mother1 lord1 captain1 governor2 those who are like a sheltering tree to the people0 7,olmos1 cap4 ,,viii74 ,a term of particular endearment for a son was 8gold-bead0 7teocuitla-cuzcatl74 ,olmos moreover records no less than eight metaphorical designations for a 8,tree1 or first father1 origin of generation1 lord or governor10 and appellations for twenty-nine 8,relatives who issue from one stem or trunk40 ,collectively1 the evidence set forth in the preceding pages identifies the image on the famous 8,tablet of the ,cross10 as a symbolical representation of the 8,tree of ,life of the ,eldest ,sons10 chiefs or nobility of a tribe1 whose totemic bird was the quetzal47#fg7 ,before completing the description of this tablet1 the analogous representation of a tree on the 8,temple of the ,cross #b0 should be examined4 ,this is generally known as the foliated ,cross and like its counterpart it issues from a vase with a quadriform emblem1 and a monstrous head4 ,its branches are composed of conventionalized maize plants on which human heads and faces occupy the places of the corn-cobs whilst their hanging hair simulates the tassels of the ripe corn4 ,the maize-leaves are decorated with groups of seed-like beads amongst which distinct representations of maize seeds are discernible4 ,these form1 indeed1 the leading motif of the seed decorations and indicate that the 8appendages0 to the groups of seed-like beads on the ,copan swastika were but conventionalized maize-seeds4 ,the branches of the maize-tree are surmounted by a conventionally ornamented head from which hangs a necklace of beads with a medallion consisting of a face surrounded by a beaded frame4 ,above the head the totemic quetzal bird is repeated under almost precisely the same form but in a reversed position4 ,it is interesting to note that the ,maya name for maize is ixim1 which added to the chtree1 yields ixim-ch1 a word which actually occurs as the local name of the ancient capital of ,guatemala1 named 8,iximch-tecpan40 ,to this curious fact should be also added that 8ix0 is the prefix employed to designate the feminine gender and that ,ix-chel is 8the name of the ,maya goddess of medicine and of child-birth40 ,an extremely interesting composite symbol is carved under the feet of the personage standing next to the 8maize-tree10 to the right of the spectator4 ,it consists of the realistically carved large convolute sea-shell such as constituted the ,mexican symbol of parturition4 ,an almost grotesque human figure is represented as issuing from it and holding in its hand a maize plant which bends upwards and curves over the shell4 ,its leaves are drawn with maize-seeds on and amongst them1 in the same conventional way that has been noticed on the central tree1 and human heads again simulate the corn-cob4 ,an acquaintance with ,mexican and ,zui symbolism enables us to grasp the significance of this composite symbol which figuratively expresses the common birth and growth of the substance of plant and human life4 ,the personage who stands over this symbol1 facing the tree and the tail of the bird which surmounts it1 holds a curiously decorated emblem in his hand1 of which more anon4 ,a small twig bearing three terminal leaves issues from his head4 ,behind him are #d perpendicular columns with #ag glyphs in each2 whilst a detached series1 consisting of #ac smaller glyphs1 is carved in front and above him4 ,at the opposite side of the tree1 facing the almost unrecognizable head of the bird1 a personage stands on an elaborately carved monstrous head1 covered with a maize-plant4 ,he is wearing a necklace and medallion like that on the tree itself4 ,his head is surmounted by a high cap bearing a conventionalized flower-bud4 ,a belt in the form of a serpent with open jaws1 encircles his waist and he is holding aloft in his hands1 a miniature1 human1 seated figure with folded arms1 a bead necklace and an indescribable head-dress and masked face4 ,his attitude indicates that1 by offering this figure1 he is performing some rite4 ,on the other hand1 a conventionalized sign for water seems to be issuing from the bird's head and descending upon the figure whilst puffs of breath and seeds issuing from its beak seem to be directed towards the tiny effigy of a human being4 ,reverting now to the 8,tablet of the ,cross ,i10 we find precisely analogous figures at its sides1 only in reversed positions4 ,to the right of the spectator stands the priest with a tall hat surmounted by the flower-bud1 somewhat resembling a fleur-de-lis4 ,the small human figure he is offering is recumbent and is being held out so as to come in contact with the pendant issuing from the bird's head4 ,the figure on the opposite side1 with the head-dress and twig with three leaves1 is facing the central tree and holding a staff which1 in this case although combined with other emblems1 clearly appears to represent a young maize plant1 with its roots below1 and growing shoot with leaves above4 ,as on the other tablets there are columns of glyphs behind each figure1 whilst the personage holding the maize-plant is associated with a detached group1 in two portions1 consisting of #ajd glyphs1 and is standing on a large glyph associated with a numeral4 ,having thus cursorily brought out some special points observable on both 8,cross ,tablets10 let us now glance at the tablet in the 8,temple of the ,sun40 ,on this we again find columns of glyphs and a personage at each side of a central figure4 ,the same peculiarities and differences of costume are observable here as on the preceding tablets2 but each personage holds a small1 grotesque human figure with a long nose1 and each stands on the back of a human being1 that to the left of the spectator especially appearing to be a conquered enemy47#fh7 ,two over-burdened-looking seated figures1 one of which is clothed in a spotted ocelot's skin1 occupy the centre and support1 on their bowed shoulders1 a curious emblem terminating in open serpents' jaws4 ,the large head 7of a jaguar87 is in the centre and above this issue two puffs of breath with seeds1 forming a double recurved figure so identical in shape and detail to a single branch of the ,copan swastika that one might imagine it was carved by the same hand4 ,on this tablet1 instead of a tree1 the centre is occupied by a shield1 exhibiting a face and having tufts of feathers at its four rounded corners4 ,this rests on two crossed lances with decorated handles surmounted by large points4 ,in this connection it is interesting and important to note that1 in ancient ,mexico1 lands conquered and acquired in warfare were termed 8mil chimalli10 literally1 8field of the shield10 a metaphor which was also probably known to the ,mayas4 ,glancing next at the 8,temple of ,inscriptions10 the fourth of the large detached temples of ,palenque1 we find that its interior is characterized by the most extensive mural inscriptions found in ,america1 consisting entirely of hieroglyphics4 ,four exterior free pillars1 however1 8contain on their outer faces1 modelled in bold relief1 life-sized figures of women holding children in their arms0 7,holmes74 ,having brought out the particular point that1 in each of the four temples described1 adults are represented in the act of carrying or offering children or diminutive and strangely grotesque conventionalized effigies of human beings1 ,i would note that the only analogous grotesque figures with long noses1 ,i know of1 are those on the sceptres held in the hand by the seated personage on the 8,great ,turtle0 and by the individual carved on ,stela ,e at ,quirigua4 ,it is noteworthy that the left hand of the latter personage holds a shield displaying a face and recalling that carved on the tablet of the ,palenque 8,temple of the ,sun40 ,analogous grotesque figures also surround the personage carved on ,stela ,f at ,copan4 ,these facts indicate that the ,quirigua 8,great ,turtle10 the stel at ,quirigua and ,copan and the ,palenque tablets1 were erected by people sharing the same cult and ritual observance1 one feature of which was the carrying of diminutive human effigies1 with exaggerated and almost grotesque noses4 ,a clue to the significance of this rite is supplied by the text of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis 7,kingsborough1 vol4 ,v1 p4 #acd7 relating to the ,mexican #bj-;day period ,iz-calli1 the last of the year4 8,it was the feast of ,fire1 because at this season the trees became warmed and began to bud4 ,in it was celebrated the festival ,pil-quixtia1 meaning #8human life or nature which had always escaped destruction although the world itself had been destroyed several times4' 0 8,izcalli signifies as much as liveliness1 and in this #bj-;day period all mothers lifted their children by their heads and holding them aloft called out1 ,izcalli1 ,izcalli1 as though they said 'aviva'live1 live4444 ,this was the period of production 444 thanks were rendered to the nature which is the cause of the production4444 ,every four years they feasted for #h days in memory of the three times that the world was destroyed4 ,they name this #8four times ,lord1' because this escaped destruction1 although all was destroyed4 ,they designated the festival as that of #8renovation' and said that when it and the fast came to an end the bodies of men became like those of children4 ,therefore1 in order to figure or symbolize this festival1 adults led certain children by the hand1 in the sacred dance40 ,slightly incoherent though this text may be1 it furnishes a most valuable supplement to the descriptions of the same festival by other authorities4 ,as this is exhaustively treated in my forthcoming text to the 8,life of the ,indians 0 in which all available authorities are quoted and collated1 ,i shall confine myself here to some facts which bear a special relation to the subject of this paper4 ,in ,mexico another name for the festival period ,izcalli1 was ,xilomaniztlithe birth or sprouting of the young maize4 ,according to ,duran1 izcalli signified 8the creating or bringing up0 and in order to make the growth of children coincide with that of the young maize1 parents1 during this period1 stretched the limbs and every part of the bodies of all infants of tender age4 ,another observance which was held at this time was in anticipation of the ,new ,year and consisted in the raising and planting of high poles or wands with branches1 in the courtyards of the temples and in the streets4 ,these typified the new life2 8the budding and rejoicing of the trees40 ,another ,new ,year custom was that of carrying budding branches or young shoots of maize in the hand1 on a particular day named ,xiuh-,tzitzquilo1 literally1 8the taking of the year in one's hands40 ,the explanation of this metaphor is given by ,duran who states that 8the natives consider that the year1 with its months and days1 is like a branch with its twigs and leaves40 ,a passing mention must be moreover made of the two movable festivals celebrated by the ,mexicans1 in which they scattered broken egg-shells on the roads and streets as a rite of thanksgiving for 8the life bestowed upon the chicken in the shell0 by the divine power4 ,in the image of this festival contained in the 8,life of the ,indians10 the egg-shells are represented at the foot of a tree bearing seven blossoms2 the seated divinity in front of this wears a bird-mask and carries a staff with a heart in his hand4 ,these festivals were named respectively1 seven flowers and one flower4 ,briefly summarizing the foregoing data1 we find it proven that1 deeply impressed with the wonderful renewal of life in nature1 the ancient ,mexicans rendered periodical thanksgiving for this in its various forms4 ,the budding tree1 the young shoots of the maize1 all seedlings1 the broken egg-shells from which the young chickens had emerged1 were adopted as emblems of the renewal of life4 ,the child was likewise looked upon as the renewal of the human race and every four years a thanksgiving festival 8of renovation0 was solemnized in which children took a special part4 ,in my work on the ,calendar system ,i shall show how far this festival 8of new birth0 coincided with astronomical phenomena4 ,from ,landa we learn that in the ,maya months 8,chen or ,yax10 on a day designated by the priest1 a festival was celebrated named ,ocna3 8the renovation of the temple in honour of the ,chacs1 the gods of the maize-fields40 ,this was held each year 444 all idols and incense-burners were renewed and if necessary the building was rebuilt or renovated and1 8in commemoration of this1 an inscription in the native characters was fixed to the walls40 ,referring to other chapters of ,landa's work we find that1 as in ,mexico1 the ,yucatec children received a 8child's name0 at birth which was changed when1 having accomplished the third year1 they were 8reborn0 and received a new name1 i4 e4 the combined name of their father and mother4 ,on attaining puberty they obtained an individual name which they preserved during life-time4 ,a knowledge of the social organization of these people enables one to grasp the full importance and significance of these changes of name1 which were accompanied by ritual observances and betokened the enrolment of the children into their respective classes and sub-classes and a consequent reorganization of certain departments of the ,state4 ,it appears that in ancient times the ceremonial of the 8new birth10 or re-naming of the children1 took place every four years1 simultaneously with the thanksgiving feast for the 8continuation of the human race40 ,a careful analysis of native words and metaphors tends to show1 moreover1 that the children born within each four-year-period were collectively regarded as 8a fresh growth upon the tribal tree40 ,in ,mexico the word for leafatlapalli1 was employed as a metaphor for the lower class1 whilst in ,peru the male and female descendants of the ,incas were represented by gold and silver fruits upon the trees of their male and female ancestry4 ,the collection of such scattered scraps of testimony enables us to reconstruct the drift of native thought and realize that the registration of individuals was associated with the conception of a tribal tree bearing four branches and covered with blossoms1 fruits and leaves which faded and fell but were replaced by fresh growths4 ,we learn from ,duran that so careful a record was kept of the population1 by the ,mexican priesthood1 8that not even a newborn babe could escape detection40 ,the reason for this strict vigilance is clear1 for the welfare of the community and the harmonious working of the complex machinery of state depended upon the constant renewal of vacancies caused by deaths in each department of industry and government4 ,after this excursion into the realm of native thought let us now return to the ,palenque tablets1 placed in detached temples which approximately face the four cardinal points4 ,on the tablet of the 8,temple of the ,cross0 we have a tribal tree with symbols of the ,middle and of the ,four ,quarters and of duality4 ,a priest with a flower on his head presents a diminutive human figure to the totemic bird perched on the tree4 ,another1 with a leafy branch on his head-dress1 holds a conventional sceptre simulating a young growing shoot of maize4 ,behind each figure are rows of glyphs and in the upper corner to the left of the spectator is the septenary series headed by the initial-sign4 ,in the 8,temple of ,cross ,,ii0 we have a variant of the identical representation in which the maize plant and the sea shell are prominent4 ,if ,i may hazard a suggestion of the meaning of these two tablets1 ,i should say that they appear to be tribal registers most probably relating to the increase and decrease of the male and female population in all divisions and classes1 during a fixed period of time4 ,both seem to commemorate the 8renovation0 or 8new growth0 of the tribal tree in a mode which would have been as intelligible to a ,mexican1 for instance1 as to a ,maya4 ,the fact that the 8,temple of the ,sun0 and that of the 8,inscriptions0 obviously held analogous registers1 points to the alternative possibilities 7#a7 that each temple was destined to preserve the register of the population and social organization1 etc41 of one of the four quarters of the capital and state1 according to years2 7#b7 that the trees in the 8,cross temples0 figured the male and female lineages of the ruling caste1 whilst the tablet in the 8,temple of the ,sun0 recorded the numbers of conquered people reduced to slavery and the 8,temple of ,inscriptions0 preserved the register of female children or of vassals2 7#c7 that each of the four temples preserved a complete register of the entire state and had been erected consecutively at the conclusion or beginning of eras1 the difference observable in the central motif conveying the salient feature or event marking each special epoch and recording1 according to years1 the organization of the state during its course4 ,in the face of this possibility as well as the probability that each glyph was painted and implied a year1 it is interesting to note that1 including the initial glyph1 the 8,tablet of the ,cross0 exhibits #ajh glyphs on the side to the left and #abd on the side to the right of the spectatora total of #bcb2 the 8,tablet of the ,cross ,,ii0 exhibits #gf to the left and #hc to the right#aei2 and that in the 8,temple of the ,sun10 #gj to the left1 #aei to the right and #ab in the middle#bda4 ,the 8,temple of ,inscriptions0 exhibits the initial series 7see ,maudslay1 ,biologia1 pt4 ,x1 pl4 #hb7 and entire walls covered with glyphs1 some of which1 as on the tablets enumerated above1 are accompanied by numerals whilst others are not4 ,in a future publication ,i shall submit illustrations of these monuments with the ripened results of my investigations concerning them4 ,for my present purpose it suffices to have produced substantial proofs that the ancient dwellers in ,palenque employed the same metaphors1 the same cursive method of registration and held the same fundamental principles of organization that have been shown to underlie the civilizations of ,peru1 ,guatemala1 ,yucatan1 and ,mexico and still survive amongst the ,zuis and more northern tribes4 ,it is obvious that1 at ,palenque and the neighboring ,mench and ,ixkun1 an integral civilization1 based on these principles1 had existed for an incalculable length of time4 ,strangely enough it seems to form so close a link between ,maya and ,mexican culture that it almost seems justifiable to surmise that both ,maya and ,nahuatl languages were spoken in these ancient ruined cities4 ,proceeding mentally northwards we will not linger at the ruins of ,mitla1 the name of which seems to indicate that it had lain to the north of a great ancient centre of government1 since ,mictlan in ,nahuatl and ,mitnal in ,maya both designate the region of the underworld and the north4 ,reaching the ultimate stage of our mental exploration of the ,american ,continent we now transport ourselves to the ,valley of ,mexico and1 on the site of the ancient capital of ,montezuma and his coadjutor1 face the three great monolithic monuments which are popularly known as the ,calendar ,stone1 the ,stone of ,tizoc and ,huitzilopochtli4 ,in #ahhf1 at the ,buffalo ,meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,i presented a 8,preliminary ,note of an ,analysis of the ,mexican ,codices and ,graven ,inscriptions10 in which the opinion was advanced that the 8,calendar ,stone0 was identical with the 8circular elaborately carved tablets which1 according to ,padre ,duran1 were erected in each market-place in ancient ,mexico1 and were held in great veneration4 ,they were frequently consulted and by them the market-days were regulated40 8,all writers concur in stating that the market was held on each fifth day1 when all adults were obliged by law to resort to the appointed market-place4 ,the entire produce and manufacture of the state were brought there1 even from great distances1 severe penalties being incurred by those who bartered the products of agriculture or manual labor on the highway or elsewhere4 ,on the broad1 straight1 cemented roads which led from the four quarters to the heart of the capital1 #8resting places' for the wayfarers and carriers were provided at fixed intervals4 ,the enormous concourse of people1 the variety of produce exhibited in the market-places of ,montezuma's capital filled the conquerors with wonder and admiration4 ,from ,corts1 ,bernal ,diaz1 ,sahagun and others we learn that the market was a special charge of the supreme chief of ,mexico2 that appointed officers presided in state over it whilst others moved among the throng superintending the traffic4 ,standard measures were kept and rigorous punishment awaited those who sold by false measure or bartered stolen property40 ,after making the preceding statements ,i advanced the opinion 8that the periodical market-day was the most important regulator of the ,mexican social organization and that the monolith generally known as the ,calendar-stone was the ,market-stone of the ,city of ,mexico4 ,it bears the record of fixed market days2 and ,i venture to suggest that from these the formation of the ,mexican ,calendar system originated4 ,the stone shows the existence of communal property and of an equal division of general contributions into certain portions44440 ,i concluded the above communication with the statement3 8,before publishing my final results ,i shall submit them to a searching and prolonged investigation4 ,an examination of the originals of many of the ,codices reproduced in ,lord ,kingsborough's #8,mexican ,antiquities' will be necessary to determine important points and during the forthcoming year my line of researches will be in this direction40 ,in my youthful enthusiasm and inexperience ,i little foresaw1 when ,i wrote the above sentences1 that ,i should spend thirteen years in diligent research before ,i felt ready to express my ripened conclusions concerning the ,calendar-stone4 ,although the results ,i am about to submit are final they are necessarily incomplete1 their full presentation with adequate illustrations being included in my forthcoming special work on the ,social and ,calendaric system of ancient ,america4 ,for the present ,i have limited myself to the reproduction of the outline drawing of the monolith made by the late ,dionysio ,abadiano of ,mexico and published in his somewhat fanciful work on this subject47#fi7 ,no one1 however1 had studied the ,calendar-stone more carefully than he2 and1 besides being extremely accurate in outline1 his drawing has the merit of including the eight deep circular holes which were drilled at regular intervals outside of the worked border of the stone as well as the groups of smaller circular and shallow depressions which ,seor ,abadiano discovered on the outer unworked portion of the monolithic block4 ,without discussing here the question whether the eight drill holes were intended to support a species of gnomon1 as ,leon y ,gama first maintained1 or merely served for the guidance of those who carved this marvel of accurate workmanship and symmetrical design1 ,i shall merely point out that1 although the group of circular depressions in the block1 in the lower corner to the left of the spectator1 offers a certain resemblance to the form of the constellation of ,ursa ,major1 this may be merely the result of chance4 ,facing the problem of the meaning and purpose of the 8,calendar-stone10 after thirteen years of assiduous study1 ,i find that the interpretation ,i suggested in #ahhf1 is substantially strengthened and corroborated by freshly accumulated evidence4 ,the difference is that ,i now lay less stress upon the phonetic elements and values of the symbols1 although1 as ,i shall set forth in the special publication alluded to1 no study of the monument can be considered complete unless these be carefully analyzed and understood4 ,the one great stride in advance that ,i think ,i have made is the recognition that the monolith is an image of the ,great ,plan or ,scheme of ,organization which has been expounded in the preceding pages and which permeated every branch of native thought4 ,the monument represents the high-water mark reached in the evolution of a set of ideas1 which were suggested to primitive man by long-continued observation of the phenomena of ,nature and by the momentous recognition of the 8northern star1 ,of whose true-fixed1 and resting quality1 ,there is no fellow in the firmament4 ,the skies are painted with unnumber'd sparks1 ,they are all fire1 and every one doth shine2 ,but there's but one in all doth hold his place407#gj7 ,this inscribed tablet1 which constitutes one of the most important documents in the history of the human race1 is as clearly an image of the nocturnal heaven as it is of a vast terrestrial state which once existed in the valley of ,mexico1 and had been established as a reproduction upon earth of the harmonious order and fixed laws which apparently governed the heavens4 ,the monument exposes these laws1 the dominion of which probably extended throughout the ,american ,continent1 and still faintly survive in some existing aboriginal communities4 ,it not only sets forth the organization of state government and the subdivision of the people into classes bearing a fixed relation to each other1 but also serves as a chart of the territory of the ,state1 its capital and its four provinces1 and minor topographical divisions4 ,finally1 it reveals that the progress of time1 the succession of days1 years and epochs1 i4 e4 the ,calendar1 was conceived as a reproduction of the wheel of sinistral revolution described by the circumpolar constellations around ,polaris4 ,the ,septentriones served as an indicator1 composed of stars1 the motive power of which emanated from the central luminary4 ,this marked not only the march of time each night1 but also the progress of the season by the four contrapositions apparent in the course of a year1 if observed at a fixed hour of the night4 ,the twenty familiar day and year signs of the native calendar are carved on a band which encircles the central figure on the stone4 ,i am now in a position to prove satisfactorily that these signs were not merely calendaric and that they equally designated four principal and #ddaf minor groups of stars2 four chiefs and #ddaf minor tribal groups or divisions of men4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ef4 ,merely a few indications will suffice to prove how completely and unmistakably the symmetrical design on the monolith 7fig4 #ef7 expounds the great plan which had impressed itself so deeply and indelibly upon the minds of the native philosophers and influenced all their thoughts and speculations4 ,the head and face in the middle of the monument conveys the idea of duality1 being masked1 i4 e4 doubled-faced and bearing the number #b carved on its forehead4 ,it conveyed the conception of a divine power who ruled heaven and earth from a changeless and fixed centre in the heaven2 expressed the dual government of the earth by twin-rulers who dwelt in a central capital4 ,it typified light and the heaven itself with its two eyes2 the sun and moon and darkness and the earth by the mouth2 whilst the symbols for breath issuing from both nostrils and the tongue protruding from the mouth denoted the power of speech1 which was so indissolubly connected with the idea of chieftainship by the ,mexicans that a title for the chief was 8the ,speaker40 ,the central head likewise denoted a 8complete count0one man1 and was expressive of a great era of time1 embodying twenty epochs4 ,as a synopsis of the whole1 the following titles recorded in the chronicles would be applicable to the central ruler1 celestial or terrestrial3 the two lord1 the divine twin2 the two-lord and two lady2 the quadruple lord1 8,he who looks in four directions20 the lord of the thirteen powers2 the one lord1 i4 e4 embodying a complete count#bj2 the lord of five 7i4 e4 of the ,middle and ,four ,quarters72 of seven1 i4 e4 of the ,middle1 ,above1 ,below1 and ,four ,quarters2 of thirteen1 i4 e4 of the duplication or male and female or celestial and terrestrial divisions of the ,above1 ,below and ,four ,quarters plus the ,middle4 ,surrounding the central head are four square divisions arranged in two separate parts1 each of which includes what appears to be in one case the right1 and in the other the left1 conventionalized claw 7forepaw87 of an animal armed with hooked nails1 such as ,mictlantecuhtli1 the lord of the ,north1 is represented with4 ,the square compartments contain symbols of the four elements so disposed that air and water are appropriately associated with the hand to the right 7male region7 and fire and earth with the hand to the left side 7the female region7 of the central head4 ,but this is not all1 for another carefully devised relation between the elements likewise appears upon careful examination4 ,in the middle1 carved above the central face and between the symbols for air and fire1 is the conventionalized 8ray of the ,sun10 or pyramid which typifies 8that which ascends or is above0 the upper elements and the ,above4 ,as its opposite we find below1 situated between the symbols of earth and water1 a ring with a concentric circle representing the drop of water8that which descends40 ,as the ,moon was inseparably associated with water and the ,below1 it is doubtlessly included in the symbolism4 ,one more point which will receive due attention in my monograph remains to be briefly noticed4 ,as the symbol for aireast is situated to the right of the symbol for north1 and the earthwest is to its left1 it is clear that the central face is conceived as looking down from above upon the spectator4 ,it is only when the stone is considered as placed face downward that the symbols assume their proper positions as regards the cardinal points4 ,this reversal1 which is the natural result of the association of the east and south with the right hand of the middle personage1 suggests that the monolith may have been originally designed to be let into the flat or slanting ceiling of a building4 ,as a parallel instance ,i will state that1 some years ago1 ,seor ,troncoso pointed out to me a fact he had noticed1 namely1 that the relative positions of the cardinal points on the ,fjrvary chart were reversed and that it must have been intended to be looked at from underneath4 ,each of the element symbols is accompanied by four numerals placed in the angles of the squares1 with one exception1 where one numeral was obviously dislodged from its proper position by an encroaching emblematic ornament4 ,the positions of these numerals and of their square enclosures are what recalled to my mind the opposite positions assumed by ,ursa ,major in its annual rotation around the axis of the heaven4 ,just as the central face primarily represented ,polaris1 so these squares figured the four contrapositions of the great constellation4 ,the peculiar1 almost cross-shaped figure resulting from the union and association of the symbols of the ,centre1 and of the ,above1 ,below1 ,right1 ,left,four ,quarters1 is a well-known conventional sign1 generally known as a 8nahui-ollin40 ,the accepted translation of this name is 8four movements10 from olinia1 verbto move1 and no name could be more appropriate for a symbol which1 to my idea1 like the swastika1 actually represents the movement of the most conspicuous of septentrional constellations to four opposite places4 ,at the same time1 as the nahui-ollin on the stone encloses symbols of the four elements1 the union of which was believed by the native philosophers to be essential for the production and maintenance of life1 ,i was led to observe also the fact that the words for life and heart1 and the verbs to be alive1 to live1 to resuscitate1 etc41 are all derivatives from the root yuli1 or yoli1 which undoubtedly has a common origin with the verb oliniato move4 ,it therefore not only appears that1 to the native mind1 motion and life were indissolubly linked together1 but that the name nahui-ollin must have signified four-fold life as well as movement4 ,it likewise typified the four sides of the great pyramid which formed the nucleus of the capital and was crowned by two temples1 respectively occupied by symbolical images of the 8,divine ,twins40 ,it is impossible not to realize that1 in ancient ,mexico1 the pyramid constituted an image of the entire system4 ,each of its sides obviously pertained to one of the four regions and was probably painted with its symbolical color47#ga7 ,it seems safe to assume that the pyramid was originally erected by the coperation of people from the four quarters of the capital and state and was possibly added to at fixed intervals so that it represented not only the constitution of the commonwealth1 but testified to its age and growth4 ,the widely-prevalent primitive custom that each individual should add one or more stones to a heap of stones1 as an individual contribution1 may have been carried out in the building of pyramids1 the origin of which will be discussed further on4 ,although it is almost superfluous to do so1 as by this time the set of associated ideas must be familiar to the reader1 ,i shall briefly summarize some of the chief four-fold division or organization of which the nahui-ollin was the graphic symbol4 ,it represented3 #a4 ,the four elements or substances and kinds of life4 #b4 ,the four regions of the heaven1 each composed1 in turn1 of four sub-regions4 #c4 ,the four provinces of the state1 each containing four districts4 #d4 ,the four quarters of the capital1 each of which had four wards4 ,like the nahui-ollin the pyramid was an image or embodiment of the fundamental all-pervading principle4 ,both therefore equally expressed further meanings which ,i shall proceed to enumerate4 #e4 ,four stars and also four star-groups or planets which seem to have been associated with the cardinal points and are indicated by four discs exhibiting two concentric circles and four glyphs placed around them4 ,although at a disadvantage1 not being able to substantiate my statement here1 ,i shall mention that1 amongst the above1 the ,pleiades and the planets ,venus and ,jupiter doubtlessly figure1 the latter as two evening and two morning stars4 #f4 ,the human lords of the four regions who respectively governed the four divisions of the population1 who were classified as the ,fire1 ,air1 ,water and ,earth people1 the identical classification being applied in turn to each class and so on ad infinitum4 #g4 ,rotation or a movement encircling the four quarters imagined as 8quadruple motion40 ,this was not confined to the ,septentriones1 for the ancient ,mexican astronomers had recognized what they termed the 8four movements of the ,sun0--namely1 its apparent rising in the east and progress to the north2 and setting in the west and progress to the south4 ,according to ,leon y ,gama1 the first to describe the stone in #ahcb1 the central 8nahui ollin0 portrayed the 8four movements of the sun0 and recorded the solstices and equinoxes4 ,his opinion has since been shared by other writers1 amongst whom ,i cite ,seor ,troncoso4 ,according to ,sir ,norman ,lockyer1 moreover1 the symbol does correctly and appropriately figure the annual course of the sun4 ,it must be admitted that the invention of a figurative symbol which not only records the annual rotation of the circumpolar star-groups but also the annual apparent course of the sun is an achievement which has never been surpassed in primitive astronomy and merits admiration and recognition4 ,the record of the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies1 constitutes1 at the same time naturally a register of the four seasons4 #h4 ,simultaneously with the division of the year into four equal parts1 the ollin 7and pyramid7 typified the division of the #bj-;day period into four quarters as well as the four #ac year periods which constituted the epoch of fifty-two years4 ,as the ,calendar periods will be discussed in my monograph on the subject1 ,i shall only mention here a fact showing how completely the quadruplicate idea had influenced native speculation4 ,the ,mexicans believed that four great eras had passed since the creation of the world and designated these as the earth1 air1 fire and water eras4 ,they believed that1 although humanity had always escaped utter annihilation1 the world had been almost completely destroyed by three of the elements in succession at the end of three of these eras4 ,at the time of the ,conquest1 the ,mexicans supposed themselves to be living in a fourth age which was doomed to perish by fire4 #i4 ,according to the distinguished ,mexican scholar ,seor ,alfredo ,chavero1 the symbols in the nahui-ollin commemorated the four epochs of the world's history and ,i readily accept this as one of the many significations of the quadruplicate figure4 ,leaving the nahui-ollin for the present1 let us next consider the band1 with compartments1 which encloses it and exhibits the twenty symbols hitherto only known as calendaric signs1--four of which were year- as well as day-signs1 whilst sixteen were day-signs only4 ,their relative positions show that they were intended to be read from right to left4 ,a profusion of evidence1 however1 exists showing that individuals bore the day-names as personal appellations1 not only in ,mexico but also in ,central ,america4 ,amongst the ,quichs for instance1 members of the 8,royal house of ,cavek0 are designated in the ,popol ,vuh1 as three deer1 nine dog1 etc4 ,it thus follows that the twenty signs were not merely names of years and days1 but also designated the tribes and clans4 ,the element-symbols which marked every fifth day and the years and constitute the major signs1 likewise were the names of the four great divisions of the people1 and of their respective chieftains4 ,on the other hand the #ddaf minor signs1 applied not only to days but to the #ddaf clans4 ,at the same time the element names conveyed in a general way the occupation of each of the four divisions of people as well as their places of abode in reference to the capital4 ,accordingly1 the earth people would specially attend to agriculture1 mining1 the manufacture of pottery1 etc42 water people to irrigation1 the furnishing of drinks1 fishing1 etc42 the fire people to all occupations which had to do with fire3 the procuring of combustibles for fire and lighting1 cooking1 the working in metals1 etc4 ,as on the stone1 the sign callihouse is in juxtaposition to the symbol for air1 it may be inferred that the air people were the builders1 the masons1 the artificers1 the ,nahuatl name for which was 8toltecatl40 ,as the air symbol occupies the place of highest honor in reference to the central face1 namely1 above the right hand1 it is evident that the builders1 or 8toltecas10 were the caste which enjoyed the highest consideration4 ,their totem was the bird1 the inhabitant of the air4 ,the second rank in honor was held by the fire people placed to the left1 above4 ,their totem was the ocelot4 ,without going further into details for the present1 ,i merely point out that the identical division of the members of each community and association with the elements1 etc41 was carried out throughout the state4 ,this method clearly established the relation and also determined the geographical position of each class of people in reference to the whole4 ,the carved band on the ,calendar-stone1 with its twenty signs1 determined once and for all time the exact position to be taken up in all public assemblages1 in councils1 sacred dances1 and likewise controlled the exposition of the products of the land in the great market-place4 ,what is more3 each division of the people1 by reason of its indissoluble union to one element and one region1 also had its own season during which it led in ceremonial observances4 ,so skilfully was the lunar ceremonial or religious year devised that each sign1 without any distinction1 ruled a period of thirteen days4 ,at the same time the period fell into four divisions headed by the four principal or element signs4 ,in the solar or civil year1 each sign had its day1 but as the computation of years passed by1 each sign in due rotation ruled during one year4 ,it was only when each sign had had an equal rule that the cycle completed itself1 and1 in turn1 became a part of a greater cycle of time4 ,to realize the marvellous ingenuity with which the rotation of days and consequently the working of the entire machinery of state was carried on1 it is necessary to have before one's eyes1 a series of reconstructive tables1 such as ,i have prepared for my paper on the subject4 ,for the present1 however1 ,i trust that some idea of the harmonious organization of the state may have been conveyed to the reader4 ,one important feature remains for consideration4 ,as already mentioned1 one of the four annual midnight positions of the ,bear star-groups1 and presumably a 8royal star10 pertained to each cardinal-point and consequently to each of the four divisions of people4 ,to this statement1 which can be supported by substantial evidence1 ,i must add that each of the sixteen minor signs likewise designated constellations1 of which there were thus four in each region of the heaven4 ,the twenty familiar day-signs thus actually constituted also the native zodiac4 ,as the region to which each constellation pertains is clearly designated by the cardinal-point signs1 their identification is merely a matter of time4 ,since ten of the signs represent animals1 and these were the clan totems1 it is easy to realize how animal forms1 composed of stars1 came to be traced in the heavens4 ,deferring further discussion of the native zodiac ,i will but point out what an intimate relation was thus established and maintained between star-groups and human beings2 and how the periodical rotation and stations of the celestial bodies actually guided or1 at all events1 coincided with the periods of human activity in various branches4 ,i am not1 as yet1 prepared to formulate a final opinion on the meaning of the narrow band that surrounds the zodiacal belt1 which is at the same time the list of years and days and of tribes and clans1 but shall merely note that it exhibits four large and four lesser rays which designate the quarters and half-quarters of the whole4 ,a few words concerning the symbolism of these rays should find place here4 ,in ,nahuatl the ray was named 8tona-mitl10 literally 8the shining arrow10 8shaft of light40 ,ixtlilxochitl tells us that it was an ancient custom of his people on taking possession of new territory 8to shoot with utmost force four arrows1 in the directions of the four regions of the world407#gb7 ,this interesting passage shows us that the rays1 i4 e4 arrows of light1 carved on the stone1 conveyed the idea of possession of the four regions and four sub-regions by the central power4 ,returning to an examination of the concentric band to which the rays are attached3 ,it exhibits also #daj groups of five dots1 two of which groups are almost concealed by star-symbols on the recurved open jaws of the serpents' heads which meet at the bottom of the stone4 ,above this band and placed exactly between the larger and lesser rays are single compartments with five-dot groups4 ,it has been interesting to detect the reason why two five-dot groups were carved1 as ,i have already pointed out1 immediately under the central head4 ,they evidently supply the missing groups whose places are filled up by the recurved upper jaws of the serpents1 heads at the bottom of the monolith4 ,from the care taken to preserve a visible record of these two groups1 it is obvious that a special importance was attached to the recording of eight five-dot groups besides the forty in the band1 making a total of #dabdh groups1 or #ajbab to each quarter4 ,as the ,mexican name for market was macuil-tianquiztli1 literally the 8,five 7day7 market0 and the ,maya word for capital was homonymous with fiveho1 it is evident that these five dot groups would have conveyed the idea of 8market10 market-day and possibly market-town1 to a ,mexican4 ,to a ,maya-speaking people they would have appeared to express practically the same thought1 since all capitals1 large or small1 were market-places and absorbed and redistributed the product of quadruple provinces within the radius of its jurisdiction4 ,the inference that the five-dot groups may have served as a topographical register of the larger and minor capitals existing in each quarter of the state1 is substantiated by more evidence than can be produced here4 ,i have moreover found indications that this belt may have served as a sort of moon-calendar which was also an attempt at an adjustment of lunar to solar periods47#gc7 ,before1 however1 an estimate can be made of the full meaning of this belt formed by the two great serpents which encircle the entire monument1 more time and labor will have to be expended4 ,one point about the twin serpents is clear2 they are represented as springing from a square enclosing the symbol ,acatl accompanied by #ac which has been generally interpreted as a calendar date4 ,it seems to me to be more deeply significant than a mere date1 especially as it appears to designate the point of departure for the progressive movement of the two serpents whose open jaws enclose human heads in profile which together form one face4 ,the upper jaws end in two recurved appendages1 each exhibiting seven star symbols4 ,as these obviously typify night or darkness and the open jaws seem to threaten to absorb or engulf the ray of the sun pointing downwards1 it appears as though these typified a disappearance of light into the underworld of darkness and destruction4 ,the symbolical surroundings of the downward ray are in striking contrast to its opposite1 the upward ray1 which reaches to the #ac ,acatl sign and points to what appears to be the place of origin or birth of the twin serpents4 ,it certainly seems that this all-embracing and enfolding twin pair are designed to typify the dual forces of nature under a form which would also express quadruplication4 ,by what must be termed a stroke of genius the designer of the monolith chose to represent the forms of two serpents1 relying upon the fact that ,nahuatl-speaking people would see in each serpent 7coatl7 a twin 7coatl74 ,did he not also realize that to a ,maya each serpent 7can7 would mean #d 7can7 and that the pair would appear to embody or express the numerals #d and also #h8 ,it is noteworthy that each serpent is represented with one claw and that these two added to those contained in the central nahui-ollin complete the four-limbed figure which was essentially the image of a complete countthe state1 the nation1 the era1 etc4 ,in this monument1 as elsewhere1 it is possible to follow the development of the symbolism expressed by two heads which form but one1 twin-bodies which mean four and of four limbs which represent the digital count#bj4 ,under different aspects the same theme repeats itself again and again upon the stone1 which proves that the master minds who planned and wrought it destined it to be the image of a plan based on the idea of a central and yet all-embracing1 dual1 yet quadruple force or power4 ,the preceding rapid sketch ,i have given of the wide-reaching significance of this remarkable monument will1 ,i hope1 be found to amply support and corroborate the view ,i advanced in #ahhf1 when ,i pointed out that the 8,calendar-stone0 answered to the description given by ,duran1 of the 8circular elaborately carved tablets which were kept in each market-place and were held in great veneration40 ,i trust that it is now clear why it should have been frequently consulted and why the market-days were regulated according to the carved indications upon the surface4 ,engraved upon it were the ,great ,plan and its laws of organization and rotation4 ,it clearly determined1 once and for all1 the sequence of the days2 the relation of all classes of the population to each other and to the whole1 and set forth not only the place each group should occupy in the market-place1 but also the product or industry with which it was associated and the periods when its contributions to the commonwealth should be forthcoming in regular rotation4 ,the stone was therefore not only the tablet but the wheel of the law of the ,state and it can be conjectured that its full interpretation was more or less beyond the capacity of all but an initiated minority1 consisting of the elders1 chiefs and priests4 ,postponing for the present further discussion of this1 the most precious and remarkable monument which has ever been unearthed on the ,american ,continent1 let us briefly bestow attention upon the two other monoliths which may be said to be its companions and obviously belong to the same period and civilization4 ,in #ahhf1 in the preliminary note cited above1 ,i advanced the view that the first of these1 generally known as the 8,sacrificial stone10 was a 8law-stone of a similar nature to the ,calendar-stone which recorded1 however1 the periodical collection of certain tributes paid by subjugated tribes and others whose obligation it was to contribute to the commonwealth of ,mexico40 ,i pointed out that the 8frieze around the stone consists of groups1 placed at intervals1 of the flint-knives 7tecpatl7 with conventionally carved teeth 7tlantli7 giving in combination the word #8tecpatlantli4' ,this occurs in ,sahagun's ,historia1 as the name given to the #8lands of the tecpan or palace1' and in one of the native works ,i find designated the four channels into which the produce of these lands was diverted40 ,i likewise noted that 8the periods indicated on it differ from those on the ,calendar-stone10 which might more appropriately be designated as the ancient ,mexican wheel of the law or of the ,great ,universal ,plan4 ,thirteen years of painstaking research have only served to strengthen me in my interpretation of the 8,sacrificial-stone40 ,the frieze around it exhibits sixteen groups1 each consisting of the repeated representation of a warrior characterized by having one foot only4 ,in each case he is figured as seizing by the hair a different individual1 who bows his head and offers the weapon he holds in his right hand to his victor4 ,amongst the sixteen subjugated personages are two women and above each are hieroglyphs expressing the names of well-known localities1 some of which are mentioned in native chronicles as having been conquered in historical times by ,mexican rulers4 ,in my account of the ,plan of the ,ancient ,city of ,mexico1 ,i shall illustrate these hieroglyphs1 locate the places to which they refer and further discuss this monument4 ,meanwhile ,i shall but state that it undoubtedly belongs to the same category of monuments as the tablets in the 8,temple of the ,sun0 at ,palenque2 the bas-relief at ,ixkun and that in the house of the 8,tennis-court0 at ,chichen-,itza where warriors in a procession render homage to a seated personage1 by presenting their spear-throwers to him in precisely the same manner as shown on the ,mexican ,tribute-,stone4 ,the upper surface of this exhibits the same division into eight parts1 marked by four large and four smaller rays1 pointing to the quarters and half-quarters4 ,observation shows that of the sixteen localities four were assigned to each quarter and it is evident that the monument determined the time and the order in which the tribute for each was paid and collected at the capital4 ,the one-footed man again graphically symbolizes axial rotation and conveys the idea of a central ruler who in turn seizes and exerts control upon #dd tribal chiefs4 ,the monument establishes1 moreover1 the interesting fact that amongst the subjugated communities were two gynocracies1 represented by women who1 instead of spear-throwers1 present their weaving shuttle to the victor4 ,we shall next consider a monument whose uncouth and ugly form embodies a deep and nobly planned conception of the 8divine twin10 or 8divine ,four10 that so completely dominated the minds of the native philosophers4 ,let us now carefully examine the monolith now preserved in the ,national ,museum of ,mexico 7fig4 #eg74 ,leon y ,gama1 having observed that what appeared to be the foundation of the statue was carved and that massive projections existed under its so-called arms1 logically concluded that the original design had been to support the figure from the sides1 so that its base was lifted from the ground and the figure upon it exposed to view from underneath4 ,his inference is borne out by the carving on the base which belongs to the same category as the image of ,mictlan-tecuhtli1 and represents a semi-human body1 of quadriform shape soaring downward4 ,illustration4 ,figure #eg4 ,the centre 7fig4 #ea7 exhibits on a square the five-dot figure1 and the square1 in turn1 is enclosed in a circle2 the whole symbolism relating to the now well-worn theme of the centre and four quarters and the union of the earththe square and the heaventhe circle4 ,it clearly exhibits a skull attached to each limb1 typifying the four quarters or the clans and their chiefs1 whilst the hands hold the larger heads1 emblematic of supreme dual rulership4 ,it is interesting to find that the above carving1 under the feet of the sculptured figure1 embodies the entire meaning of the statue1 which is but a variation of the native philosophical theme of 8,divine ,twain0 or ,quetzalcoatl4 ,two serpents' heads surmount a semi-human body and meeting form the semblance of two single faces turned to the front and back of the statue4 ,by this ingenious device the unity1 yet duality of the divine twin is graphically rendered and one-half of each countenance is represented as belonging to each serpent4 ,these are thus shown to be indissolubly linked together1 yet distinct4 ,their single1 yet dual head has four eyes1 eight fangs and two forked tongues4 ,the figure and skirt composed of intertwined rattlesnakes1 constitute feminine attributes given to the symbolical figure of the 8twin-lord and twin-lady10 the 8father and mother of all40 ,instead of hands the arms terminate in serpents' heads and the huge feet in great claws4 ,between these1 in the front and at the back1 a rattlesnake's body and head appear4 ,the belt consists of a large snake whose head and tail hang down in front1 as the ends of a bow4 ,a skull is attached to the front and another to the back of the belt4 ,in the latter case it surmounts a fan-shaped1 curiously plaited ornamental appendage partly decorated with feathers4 ,forming a sort of necklace in front are four hands1 i4 e4 #debj and two conventionalized hearts4 ,at the back there are two hands and two hearts and an intricate knot which fastens the necklace1 the real meaning of which is far from what it may appear to be4 ,it probably signified the same as the painted hearts and hands on ceremonial garments of which ,sahagun tells us that 8they meant that the people who wore them lifted their hearts and hands to the ,creator to implore for rain and food40 ,at the same time1 the arrangement in front clearly reveals the sculptor's allusion to the head1 two hearts1 four hands and twenty fingers1 which symbolize these familiar numerical divisions4 ,an indication that this symbolical statue was probably designed and executed by the same master who made the circular stone of the ,great ,plan1 is furnished by the calendar sign #ac ,acatl1 which is carved under the skull at the back of the figure4 ,deferring an investigation of the significance of this date1 ,i shall now draw attention to what is to me the most interesting and important feature of the whole image4 ,the view of the top of the two heads1 as may be seen by the accompanying reproduction from a photograph 7fig4 #eh7 exhibits1 at their line of union1 a small square with diagonal cross-lines4 ,the position of this symbol which resembles the top view of a pyramid and forms1 as it were1 the apex of the statue1 every detail of which is deeply symbolical1 clearly reveals the sanctity and importance attached to this graphic image of the ,centre1 the union of four in one or vice versa1 the theme on which the native mind played numberless and endless variations4 ,a reflection1 again forced upon one in studying the monumental composite image of the dual and quadruple forces of nature1 is that it must have been as intelligible to a ,maya as to a ,mexican1 and conveyed the conception of ,kukulcan to the one and ,quetzalcoatl to the other4 ,several facts point1 however1 to the greater probability that the original conception of the monument must have arisen amongst ,maya-speaking people4 ,illustration4 ,figure #eh4 ,the divided square1 simulating a pyramid and so obviously a symbol of fourcan1 carved on the head of a serpentcan1 throws an interesting light upon the probable derivation of the affixcan1 which occurs in certain names of localities in ,mexico1 and in some cases distinctly stands for 8mountain40 ,it is a fact which has already been cited in ,seor ,antonio ,penafiel's useful work on the ,geographical names of ,mexico that1 in the pictographic hieroglyphs of localities the affix can signifies a town1 being synonymous with the tepec1 i4 e4 tepetl1 the ,nahuatl name for mountain or town4 ,one of many similar instances1 which could be produced1 is illustrated in his fig4 ,,xxiii1 #a1 where can obviously stands for the mountain which is represented as twisted or bent over 7colhua71 in the hieroglyph for ,colhuacan4 ,the hieroglyphs for the towns ,acayocan and ,tenayocan1 furnish a similar employment of the mountain to express the sound can4 ,the sense of the affix can1 meaning a town1 only becomes clear when we interpret it as the name of the artificial mountain with four sides1 the pyramid1 which was the symbol of fourthe ,maya can1 and was the emblem of a central capital4 ,this is convincingly proven by the ,codex ,mendoza for instance1 in which it is shown that the ,mexican mode of recording the conquest of a tribe was to paint their hieroglyphic name and a picture of the destruction of the pyramid temple which had stood in the centre of their capital4 ,in other words1 the conquered town ceased to be a centre of rule--its captive chieftain was taken to the capital1 where the horrible rite of sacrifice performed upon him and the tearing out of his heart likewise symbolized the destruction of the independent life of the tribe or integral whole he represented in his person4 ,it was thus brought home to the conquered people that they had ceased to exist as an independent body1 and the distribution of the chieftain's flesh to the ritualistic cannibals graphically symbolized its absorption into the great central state4 ,it is necessary to emphasize here that these horrible rites were of comparatively recent origin and had been invented by the ,mexicans for the purpose of intimidating their vassals1 after a prolonged period of wars and bloodshed1 which menaced the very existence of the integral state4 ,the presence in ,mexico of numerous names of towns1 ending in can1 seems to indicate the influence1 in ancient times1 of the ,maya-speaking civilization to which the origin of the pyramid must be assigned4 ,the association of the latter with the word can is strikingly illustrated in the name of ,teotihua-,can1 where stand the ruins of two of the largest and most imposing pyramids of ancient ,america4 ,the base of the larger of the two has been estimated at about #gjj feet square1 it being impossible to take an exact measurement owing to the mass of accumulated dbris which covers the lower part of the structure4 ,the base of the second pyramid measures about #dge feet square4 ,the sides of both pyramids rose at an angle of about #de degrees and were in each case interrupted by four terraces4 ,this double application of a quadruple division merits special attention1 as it produced besides the four great #dd lesser sections1 the sacred centre of the terraces1 which crowned each structure4 ,historical tradition relates that the larger pyramid1 known as the 8,enclosure of the ,sun 7,tonatiuh-,i-,tzacual710 originally bore on its summit a colossal image of the sun1 covered with plates of gold1 whilst the other1 the 8,enclosure of the ,moon0 exhibited a similar image1 covered with silver4 ,the distinguished and reliable historian ,orozco y ,berra quotes this tradition adding that the soldiers of ,corts despoiled the images of their precious metals and that the ,bishop ,zumarraga ordered a further destruction of all monuments at ,teotihuacan4 ,the tradition which records the existence of a silver and of a gold image1 cannot be dismissed as unfounded1 because it meets with a certain amount of corroboration by other data4 ,in the first case the so-called 8battered goddess10 a mutilated stone image1 which was found in the courtyard at the base of the 8,pyramid of the ,moon10 looks as though it may have been the very monument which was once plated with silver4 ,traces of concentric bands of ornamentation seem to indicate that its round face had originally occupied the centre of a sculptured disc1 in which case this must have had a diameter of about twelve feet4 ,in ,peru1 as already stated1 a silver image of the moon1 associated with the female sovereign1 was the complement to the golden effigy of the sun1 associated with the ,inca4 ,even if data had not already been produced which establishes the existence of two religious cults in ancient ,mexico1 the respective symbols of which were the sun and the moon1 the presence of two pyramids at ,teotihuacan would suggest the existence of a division of some sort4 ,the origin of these great and imposing structures is shrouded in mystery1 but it is generally conceded that they must have been built long before the comparatively modern inhabitants of the valley of ,mexico1 the wandering ,aztecs1 had taken up their abode in the midst of the salt lagoons4 ,the erection of two pyramids1 however1 proves that their builders had already practised the cult of the middle of heaven and earth1 or ,above and ,below1 and of the ,four ,quarters for so long a time1 that there had been a separation of religions and government into two almost independent parts1 each complete in itself4 ,in the light of the testimony produced it is safe to infer that for an indefinite time the rival cults developed side by side until dissension and consequent disintegration followed4 ,the ,mexican state was the outcome of a later effort to reorganize and rebuild an integral whole on the ancient plan1 the knowledge of which had been preserved and handed down4 ,as time went on it was inevitable that the same causes which had caused the more ancient and greater state to crumble away1 should be actively at work on the second4 ,it has already been shown that two religions existed in ,montezuma's time the respective embodiments of which were ,huitzilopochtli and ,tezcatlipoca4 ,it is an interesting fact1 related by ,bernal ,diaz1 that the idols of both stood together in one tower at the summit of the great temple and were alike1 8because they were brothers40 ,at the same time whilst ,tezcatlipoca's image was decorated with obsidian 7tezcatl7 ,huitzilopochtli's was encrusted with turquoises4 ,it is curious to note how closely the old soldier's description of these idols answers to that of the great dualistic statue which has been discussed in the preceding pages4 ,his account contains the following details3 8,in this hall were what resembled two altars with very richly ornamented or carved platforms on the top of the roof or ceiling4 ,on each altar was a statue1 as of a giant1 very tall in body and very stout4 ,the first1 which represented ,huitzilopochtli1 had a very wide1 deformed or monstrous face and forehead1 and terrifying eyes 444 around his neck were faces of ,indians and what were hearts4 ,these were of gold whilst the former were of silver inlaid with blue mosaic-work4 ,the entire body was covered with mosaic-work1 gold and beads and misshapen pearls1 all fastened to it with a kind of cement or glue4 ,encircling the body were what were like huge serpents made of gold and mosaic4444 ,the idol was of ,tezcatlipoca1 and its eyes were made of shining black stone obsidian called ,tezcat4 ,the statues were alike because they were said to be brothers4 ,tezcatlipoca was the lord of the ,underworld 444 and around his body were figures like small devils with tails like serpents407#gd7 ,but for the fact that ,bernal ,diaz mentions a plurality of faces in ,huitzilopochtli's necklace1 whereas our monument exhibits but one skull1 in front1 his description strikingly coincides with the monolith now existing4 ,considering that thirty years had elapsed before he wrote this description allowance must be made for this and other slight lapses4 ,on the other hand1 dual statues1 exactly alike1 but with differently colored ornamentation1 are precisely what we should expect to find on the summit of the great pyramid-temple of ,mexico4 ,with our present knowledge and comprehension of native symbolism1 moreover1 we see that two statues1 each of which figured twin-serpents1 would best express the native idea of the dual and quadruple principles and elements4 ,what is more1 two dual statues1 each surmounted by a square1 diagonally crossed1 like a pyramid1 would correspond1 in symbolism1 to the two great pyramids of ,teotihuacan and carry out1 on a small scale1 the idea of a dual government4 ,valuable and reliable evidence1 showing to what an extent the ,mexicans regarded their government as dual and quadruple1 can be gleaned from the records of the presents sent by ,montezuma to ,corts1 under the impression that the bearded ,spaniards were the descendants of the ancient founders of their civilization4 ,the native ruler sent the complete ceremonial dress of the four lords of the four regions denoting by that act of homage that he acknowledged ,corts as his equal1 i4 e4 the supreme central lord who united the four-fold power in his person4 8,he likewise sent him a large wheel of pure gold1 covered with designs and with the image of a monster in its centre40 ,its weight was estimated at #c1hjj 8pesas0 and it was considered 8the finest and best of all the presents40 ,it was accompanied by 8a large wheel of silver10 weighing forty-eight marcos4 ,by the light of our present knowledge it may be that both 8wheels0 were images of the ,great ,plan and that whilst the gold one set forth the constitution and organization of the ,upper division of the ,state and possibly conveyed the statistics of its members1 the silver wheel was a record of the ,lower division4 ,the gift of these tablets must have been intended as an act of subservience and an acknowledgment of ,corts as the lord of the ,above and ,below1 as well as of the ,four ,quarters4 ,the utter lack of understanding for the symbolism of these gifts on the part of the recipient1 can scarcely have escaped the notice of ,montezuma's messengers and must have sorely puzzled their unfortunate master4 ,the existence in ,mexico at the time of the ,conquest1 of a dual state1 suggests the possibility that1 in some way1 the pyramids of ,teotihuacan continued to be connected with the opposite and rival cults of the ,sun and the ,nocturnal ,heaven1 although their origin was shrouded in the past4 ,it is known that their site was venerated3 besides1 the name ,teotihuacan1 which ,orozco y ,berra translated as 8the place of the masters as keepers of the gods0 or 8the place where the gods were adored10 most probably really meant 8the divine four-sided mountains or pyramids0 or1 possibly1 8the sacred pyramids of the lords40 ,until an extensive1 carefully-planned and systematical exploration has been carried out at ,teotihuacan1 it is impossible to form any definite conclusions concerning its past history4 ,cherishing the hope that such an exploration may yet be made during my lifetime1 ,i shall merely make a few remarks concerning the ruins1 which ,i visited many years ago4 ,approaching them from the south one enters a broad straight road1 several miles in length and about #bej feet wide1 which is bordered at each side by a series of irregular mounds1 probably covering ruined structures4 ,this imposing road leads directly into the vast courtyard which stretches across the base of the great pyramid of the ,moon4 ,as the ,city of ,mexico lies to the south of ,teotihuacan it is significant to find that this road leads from that direction to a vast pyramid situated at the north1 which was1 according to the ancient ,mexicans1 the region of the ,underworld1 darkness and death4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find that the ancient native name which still clings to the roadway is 8the path of the dead40 ,the presence1 moreover1 of innumerable small clay heads which are1 undoubtedly1 portraits or effigies of persons represented as dead1 points to the alternative that ,teotihuacan may have been the necropolis of an ancient civilization or that it was1 even at the time of the ,conquest1 the place where a register of deaths was kept by the priest-rulers1 by means of small clay effigies4 ,considering the native idea1 it seems more than probable that all matters pertaining to the dead should be relegated to the northern region and the fact that the road from the south leads to a pyramid which tradition associates with the moon1 the symbol of the nocturnal cult of the 8,below10 lends color to these views4 ,there is a temptation to imagine that possibly after the adoption of two distinct cults of which the second pyramid seems to furnish incontrovertible proof1 a further divergence ensued resulting in the ultimate abandonment of the capital by the votaries of the ,sun1 the male principle and the ,above4 ,as the native civilizations were based on such a plan that dissension and disorganization inevitably led to utter downfall and ruin1 it is easy to see that a gynocracy and the cult of the earth and underworld should gradually become extinct4 ,at the zenith of its power1 however1 it may safely be inferred1 that ,teotihuacan was a great centre where astronomical observation and agriculture flourished1 these being the natural outcome of the cult of mother-earth and the nocturnal heaven4 ,whilst all conjecture must necessarily be hypothetical1 it is a comfort to reflect that1 locked in the ruins themselves1 lies guarded the past history of ,teotihuacan1 which was shrouded in a mist of uncertainty even at the time of the ,conquest4 ,the pyramids themselves1 however1 openly reveal the fact1 that their builders possessed a knowledge of the great plan1 and that1 at some time1 a single central pyramid not being sufficient1 two1 of unequal sizes1 arose to bear lasting testimony not only of past greatness1 but of long-forgotten rivalry and dissension4 ,finally1 there is one thing certain1 namely1 that the building of the pyramids at ,teotihuacan must have been preceded by an extremely long period during which the native ideas1 of which they were the expression and image1 had developed and taken definite shape4 ,if ,teotihuacan yields evidence of an advanced stage in the history of the intellectual development of the native race1 it also marks the beginning of the disintegration of the state of which it was the central capital4 ,on the other hand1 at ,cholula1 also situated in the high plateau of ,mexico1 to the east of its present capital stands1 in ruined solitary grandeur1 the largest pyramid on the ,american continent1 whose base is twice as large as that of the pyramid of ,cheops in ,egypt4 ,the name of the ancient capital of which it formed the nucleus was ,tullan ,cholollan ,tlachiuhaltepec47#ge7 ,boturini 7op4 cit4 p4 #aac7 cites an old native manuscript on which a picture of the pyramid of ,cholula was painted with the note that1 in ancient times1 it was named ,tultecatl ,chalchihuatl ,on ,azia ,ecatepec1 which he translates as 8the monument or precious jade stone of the ,toltecs1 which rears itself in the region of the air40 ,as eca-tepec literally means air-mountain1 ,boturini's translation may seem somewhat exaggerated2 on the other hand1 the ,spaniards1 who knew the ,nahuatl language best1 repeatedly state that its words were so replete with significance that it would sometimes require several ,spanish sentences to set forth the meaning of a single native word4 ,boturini1 who had exceptional opportunities for obtaining information1 adds to the above the following translation of a ,nahuatl inscription which had been written by the native scribe below the drawing which unfortunately is now lost4 8,nobles and ,lords3 ,here you have your documents1 the mirror of your past1 the history of your ancestors who1 out of fear for a deluge1 constructed this place of refuge or asylum for the possibility of the recurrence of such a calamity40 ,after citing the opinions of various authors concerning the origin of the pyramid1 ,orozco y ,berra concludes that 8there is no certainty about its age1 but instinctively it is supposed to be extremely ancient and to pertain to pre-historic times4 ,according to my judgment the people who constructed it belonged to the same civilization as the builders of ,teotihuacan and possibly were their contemporaries4 ,cholollan was also a venerated sanctuary1 in which the religious idea predominated0 7op4 cit4 p4 #cfc74 8,at the time of the ,conquest a temple stood on the summit of the pyramid and contained an image of ,quetzalcoatl 7the ,divine ,twain1 the ,creator1 the ,father and ,mother of all7 as well as an aerolite1 shaped like a frog which had fallen from heaven1 wrapped in a ball of flame40 ,in the ,vatican ,,ms4 of ,padre ,rios there is another version of the tradition that the pyramid had been erected by giants after a deluge1 which had destroyed everything1 444 and that before it was finished1 fire fell upon it causing the death of its builders and the abandonment of the work4 ,allusion has already been made1 in the preceding pages1 to the native traditions according to which1 8there had been three memorable epochs in the history of mankind1 which lasted for centuries and were abruptly terminated1 each time by a mighty convulsion of nature4 ,the majority of human beings perished in each of these1 but a remnant survived and thus the race was preserved40 ,the periodical festival of thanksgiving1 which was still observed at the time of the ,conquest by the native races1 abundantly testifies to the reality of their belief in these great catastrophes and the preservation of their ancestors from utter extermination4 ,it was doubtless in order to make their past history conform with the quadruple organization of all epochs of their native ,calendar that the native sages assigned their successive destructions to the separate agencies of fire1 water and air1 in the form of violent tempests and cyclones4 ,from descriptions contained in the ,mexican ,codex ,chimalpopoca and in the ,popol ,vuh1 the sacred book of the ,quichs1 it will be seen that the phenomena described are such as would naturally accompany a volcanic outbreak on a great scale4 ,considering that1 in ,mexico alone1 there are no less than nine monster volcanoes1 of which two are not yet extinct1 and that in ,guatemala1 in historical times1 whole cities have been destroyed by earthquakes and volcanic action1 it is not at all astonishing to find traditions of great catastrophes amongst the inhabitants of these regions4 ,no one can look upon the grand snow-clad peaks of the great volcanoes1 which surround the high central plateau of ,mexico1 without realizing that mighty upheavals and disturbances1 such as the world has seldom seen1 must have attended the formation of the huge craters next to which ,vesuvius seems but a hillock4 ,a volcanic outbreak amongst these elevated peaks1 which range from #ae1jjj to #ai1jjj feet above the sea-level1 would obviously be accompanied by great inundations caused by the melting of the masses of snow which crown their heights4 ,the valley of ,mexico in which the large lagoons lie1 as in a basin without an outlet1 and the plains which surround ,cholula and stretch to the base of the volcanoes must repeatedly have been the scene of ruin and desolation1 lasting for many centuries4 ,as the ,abb ,bourbourg justly remarks3 8,the majority of the edifices in the ,city of ,mexico are built of volcanic tufa1 said to have been formed by the small volcanoes which lie at the southeast of the valley of ,mexico4 ,at various periods of antiquity great masses of lava have descended into this valley1 in which one extensive ancient lava-field is now known as the #8,pedregal de ,san ,augustin4' 0 ,another great flow of lava has actually been traced from its apparent source1 the now extinct volcano of ,ajusco1 at the south of the valley of ,mexico1 to ,acapulco1 on the ,pacific coast4 ,the ,mexican chronicles describe as follows the destruction of the earth by fire3 8444 there came a rain of fire3 all that existed was burnt and a rain composed of sand-stone fell4 ,it is said that whilst the sand-stone we now see was being formed the tet-zontli i4 e4 volcanic tufa1 boiled with great noise4 ,then the red mountains also lifted themselves up 444 the sun consumed itself was darkened1 all houses were destroyed and all the lords or chiefs perished44440 ,the same author relates how1 after the repeated destruction by water1 obscurity reigned for twenty-five years4 ,this cataclysm is also described in the sacred book of the ,quichs as follows3 8,then 444 the waters became swollen by the mere will of the ,heart of ,heaven and there came a great inundation from above and descended upon the people 444 they were deluged and then a thick resinous substance fell from the sky4 ,the face of the earth was obscured and a dark rain commenced and fell during the day and during the night 444 there was great sound of fire overhead4 ,then the people ran pushing each other and filled with despair3 they endeavoured to mount upon the houses and these1 falling in1 threw them again to earth4 ,they wished to climb the trees1 but these swayed and cast the people from them2 they tried to enter caves1 but these shut themselves before them44440 ,it was after this universal ruin and destruction that1 according to native tradition1 the pyramid of ,cholula was erected1 as a place of refuge for the remnant of the native race which had escaped destruction and returned to the scene of desolation1 lured by the richness of the fertile soil1 just as the ,italian peasants return to their vineyards on ,vesuvius after each eruption4 ,all things considered there seems to be no ground for rejecting the native tradition which affirms that the great pyramid of ,cholula was erected as a place of refuge from inundations1 especially as no more plausible explanation of the origin of the pyramid can be imagined4 ,any primitive people1 inhabiting fertile plains which abounded in game and fish1 and food-plants1 but were exposed to frequent inundations1 could not fail to recognize the advantages of an elevated piece of ground as a place of safety4 ,it is easy to imagine the intermediate stages in the transition from this simple recognition to the final determination to build a compact1 high and spacious elevation1 within the reach of all inhabitants of a settlement1 on which these could not only find refuge from the dangers of floods and volcanic disturbances1 but also store their harvest1 and possibly some form of raft or boat which they might employ as a last means of escape4 ,irrefutable proof that the maize had been cultivated from remote antiquity in this region1 and had even become identified with it1 is furnished by the fact that the name of the small republic of ,tlaxcalla1 which lies in the neighboring foot-hills1 signifies bread1 and that its hieroglyphic sign consists of two hands holding a tortilla1 or maize-cake4 ,it is well known that botanists have not yet succeeded in identifying1 amongst the native grasses of ,america1 the ancestor of the cultivated maize-plant4 ,they assert1 however1 that the development of what is now the world's largest cereal1 from a wild native species1 must have required incalculable time4 ,it must be admitted that no factor could possibly have more speedily impressed upon primitive men the benefits of concerted action and of organization and communal life than the occasional recurrence of a great and imminent peril which was shared by all alike1 and for which there was but one visible means of escape4 ,it is equally clear that1 once a concerted and united undertaking had been determined upon1 some sort of plan and organization must have naturally evolved itself4 ,the mere building of such a gigantic structure as the pyramid of ,cholula1 which may well have absorbed the energies of several generations of men1 or1 at all events that of innumerable workmen1 could well have been an abiding and most powerful factor in establishing their social organization4 ,its erection must indeed have marked an epoch in the lives of the inhabitants of this region1 because1 during many years it created a bond of common interest which1 of itself1 might well have laid the foundation of a permanent communal life1 in which responsibility and labor were equally distributed4 ,the mere necessity to expend an equal amount of material and labor upon the building of each side of the pyramid1 would naturally lead to the formation of pathways traced by the feet of the carriers of earth and stone from different directions1 and ultimately to a division of the workers into four bands1 each associated with a different cardinal point4 ,practice would demand that each band should be under leadership1 and be divided into those who collected and carried material1 and those who placed it in position1 at each side of the pyramid4 ,the necessity for general supervision and directorship1 extending over the four bands of workers alike1 would1 of itself1 create central rulership upon which would devolve the duty of enforcing an equal division of labor1 which would create1 in turn1 some form of systematic routine and rotation4 ,it can thus be understood how1 by slow degrees1 each side of the pyramid would become permanently identified with a cardinal point2 and associated with a division of workmen under its leader and a fixed period of time4 ,it may likewise be seen how a separate caste would slowly develop itself1 consisting of the trained architects and builders1 the descendants of the first organizers of human labor1 and systematical rulers of men47#gf7 ,it may thus be seen how the realization of frequent danger1 the necessity to provide an escape and insure the safety of the race1 aided by experience1 might lead to the conception of a vast pyramid1 the mere building of which would create and establish the fundamental principles of organization and government4 ,the simultaneous development of the ideas suggested by ,polaris would inevitably lead to a comparison and association of the terrestrial centre of communal activity with the polar axis1 and to the conception of an earthly government in which human affairs were adjusted so as to be in seeming harmony with the movements of celestial bodies4 ,the blending of the conclusions attained by the astronomer-priests1 and the practical system adopted by the master builders1 could not fail ultimately to cause the pyramid to appear as the sacred visible sign or image of the single1 central power and quadruple government which extended its rule throughout heaven and earth4 ,i venture to point out that1 if carefully analyzed1 the pyramid seems to be but a later development of precisely the same ideas which are expressed by the swastika4 ,pausing now to review preceding data we find it demonstrated that the geographical position of ,tullan ,cholollan and its pyramid designates it as an ancient seat of civilization where the native scheme of organization may have evolved itself1 and the source whence the native traditions concerning successive destructive cataclysms and convulsions of nature may have spread4 ,what is more1 the peculiar conditions existing at ,tullan ,cholollan1 situated in the heart of a volcanic region1 would amply explain the traditional destruction and abandonment of the most ancient centre of native civilization and the spread throughout the continent of the identical scheme of government1 etc41 it being most natural that each band of fugitives1 on finding what appeared to be a favorably situated region1 should settle there and carry out the inherited plan of organization1 etc41 which would naturally become slightly modified under altered conditions4 ,fresh colonies on the pattern of the ruined metropolis and integral state would successively be founded far and wide and as examples of such ,i venture to designate ,tulantzinco1 literally the title ,tullan1 and possibly ,teotihuacan1 where the native civilization seems to have undergone its more advanced stages of evolution1 and to have risen in power1 developed divergent cults with separate languages 7the ,maya and the ,nahuatl7 and instituted the two religions and dual rulership which eventually led to dissension and the dissolution of the integral state at a period anterior to historical times4 ,the assumption that the most ancient centre of native civilization lay in a volcanic region affords a plausible explanation of how an inordinate value would naturally be placed on stability1 per se1 and the feelings of veneration for ,polaris and a passionate longing for a place of terrestrial and celestial rest would become strongly developed4 ,indeed1 it is only possible to understand the reason why various ,american tribes wandered about in ardent and earnest search for the stable middle of the earth1 when it is assumed that they must have been driven from their former place of residence by volcanic disturbances which made a firm piece of ground under foot seem to be the most desirable of all earthly benefits4 ,i venture to assert that this search and the ideal of stability would not have been suggested so forcibly to people who had never experienced a long succession of more or less terrible earthquakes4 ,although widely different opinions concerning the identification of the ancient ,tullan are held by ,american archologists they will all doubtlessly admit that at ,cholollan we have1 in the first case1 a locality to which the natives assign the name of ,tollan1 and a pyramid1 the largest on the ,american continent1 which testifies that1 in prehistoric times1 this place was inhabited for a prolonged period1 by a numerous and organized community4 ,the fertility of the surrounding plains now known as the ,campia de ,puebla and the ancient name of ,tlaxcalla yield evidence that1 from time immemorial1 this district was associated with maize cultivation4 ,the vicinity of the giant volcanoes of ,popocatepetl1 ,iztaccihuatl and ,orizaba7#gg7 sufficiently demonstrate that they must repeatedly have been the scene of violent disturbances which would fully account for the tradition of successive cataclysms which destroyed a vast state and almost annihilated the native race4 ,the foregoing unassailable facts undoubtedly justify the conclusion that the giant pyramid of ,cholula marks the site of the great and ancient ,tollan whose destruction was the theme of the plaintive native songs of lamentation even at the time of the ,spanish ,conquest4 ,that the natives have ever regarded ,cholula as a place of particular sanctity is shown by the following statement by ,fray ,geronimo ,roman y ,zamorra 7#aefi-aege7 7,republicas de ,indias1 ed4 ,suarez1 ,madrid1 #ahhh73 8,it was ,colola or ,cholola1 which was the ancient metropolis or head of all the native religion1 so much so that all the great chiefs or lords had their own chapels and dwelling houses there because they used to perform pilgrimages to its great temple this being the most revered in the land40 ,it is also reasonable to infer that the region of the high plateau and valley of ,mexico1 possibly before the formation of the great lagoons1 was the cradle of ancient ,american civilization1 where1 during countless centuries1 the native race literally and figuratively cultivated its own maize and simultaneously developed the set of ideas which formed the basis of its intellectual evolution4 ,in this connection it is interesting to reflect that1 as clearly shown by ceremonial usages which existed throughout our continent and survive to the present day amongst the ,pueblo ,indians1 it is to the fostering care1 forethought and labor of countless generations of women1 the 8,corn ,maidens and ,mothers10 that ,america owes the priceless legacy of a food-plant which has already sustained untold millions of lives4 ,thus1 whilst the ancient 8,daughters of the ,earth0 have given their country a gift which will last for all time1 the pyramids1 temples and cities1 reared by the 8,sons of ,heaven10 have fallen into ruin1 and the great edifice of human thought that they reared1 their complex social organization1 government and calendar now lie superseded under the dust of time4 ,at this point of investigation the question naturally arises1 ,whence came the founders of the native civilization1 who established themselves and peopled the central region of ,mexico and doubtlessly dwelt there for a prolonged period prior to the first of the traditional cataclysms which nearly proved destructive to their race8 ,it is obvious that1 before this interesting question can be satisfactorily discussed1 a minute analysis and investigation should be made of all other ancient civilizations of the world in which the swastika was employed as a sacred symbol4 ,a comparative research on such a scale could only be effectively carried out with the active coperation of orientalists1 archologists and philologists in all departments of research4 ,taking1 as an index1 the presence in old centres of civilization of the most ancient sacred symbol of the world1 the swastika1 the aim of the joint investigation should be to trace how far it was accompanied1 in each country1 by pole-star worship and the set of ideas1 symbols and words to which it is so indissolubly linked in ancient ,america and ,china4 ,by this means only can a final conclusion be reached as to whether this symbol spread over the earth from one original centre of civilization1 or whether it suggested itself to primitive observers of ,septentriones in various localities and at different times1 as the natural outcome of star-observation4 ,if the swastika and the septentrional set of ideas spread from one centre then we should expect to find them accompanied by traces of a common language4 ,i shall have contributed my share to the joint investigation when1 in addition to the preceding data1 ,i present the following list of ,maya and ,mexican names intimately associated with the native symbols and set of ideas4 ,in presenting them ,i once more draw attention to the resemblance of sound in words which obviously influenced the choice of certain symbols just as1 for instance1 loose-skinned oranges are now given as presents at ,new ,year in ,china1 because their native name has exactly the same sound as the word meaning 8good fortune40 ,the use1 especially on porcelain1 of the batfuh1 to signify 8happiness10 also fuh1 and of the sonorous stone 8,king0 to emblematize 8prosperity107#gh7 are other instances which shed much light upon the origin of primitive symbolism in ,china and elsewhere4 ,symbols ,and ,names ,connected ,with ,middle ,or ,centre4 ,maya4 ,ho1 or ,ti-hooname of ancient capital of ,yucatan4 ,ho-m1 or ho-mulartificial mound or pyramid4 ,ho-mtanilbelly4 ,ho-bnelentrails4 ,hofive1 symbolized by handkab1 also by five-dot group4 ,ci-homsacred tree1 the leaves of which were scattered in the temple court-yard at the baptism of children 7,landa74 ,ho-lhead 7symbol74 ,ho-ochvase in general4 ,cuxabelheart or life1 cf4 ah-cuch-cabheart of the state1 title of lord or chieftain4 ,nic1 or nic-tflower1 usually represented as consisting of five parts1 i4 e41 the centre and four petals4 ,temthe square altar4 ,names ,of ,symbols ,connected ,with ,four ,quarters1 ,above ,and ,below4 ,maya4 ,canfour1 serpent4 ,caansky1 cord4 ,canaliladj4 grandeur1 elevation4 ,canalon top of1 on2 also yellow4 ,canal-cun-zaalto exalt1 elevate1 aggrandize1 praise4 ,cananilnecessity1 need4 ,canaanadj4 necessary1 needed4 ,chtree4 ,zin-chcross1 literally tree of life or of power4 ,zin-ilpowerful1 cf4 zihnaloriginal1 primitive4 ,zihzabalcreation4 ,zianthe beginning1 origin1 generation4 ,zihilto commence1 or be born4 ,zinanscorpion1 symbol4 ,name ,and ,symbol ,of ,north4 ,maya4 ,amspider4 ,amanthe north4 ,star-,names4 ,maya4 ,ekstar1 black4 ,ek-chuahname of the patron divinity of travellers and traders1 i4 e41 the pole-star4 cf4 ,ikal1 native word adopted by ,spanish missionaries to denote 8a spirit40 ,i have already pointed out how a minute comparison of the equivalent ,mexican symbols and their names shows that the latter often seem to be mere translations from the ,maya and that the same identity of sound does not always exist between the ,nahuatl symbol1 its name and true significance4 ,on the other hand in the much-used ,mexican symbol for the centre and four quarters1 the flower1 pronounced ho-chitl1 but written xo-chitl1 the archaic ,maya syllable ho1 so intimately connected with the centre1 recurs4 ,it also appears in the name of the constellation ,ursa ,minor1 xo-necuilli1 in the word xoch-ayotltortoise1 employed as a symbol1 and in the name xolotlsomething double or dual1 sometimes employed as a synonym of coatltwin1 serpent4 ,the handmaitl was employed to express the numeral fivemacuilli4 ,it is particularly interesting to note that in order to express the word tlachi-ual-tepetl or 8artificial mound0 7the ,maya hom7 in ,nahuatl1 the scribes had to paint a mountain surmounted by an eye1 a symbol also employed to designate starsthe eyes of night4 ,the ,nahuatl for treequahuitl is almost homonymous with quaitlhead and both were employed as symbols of the centre4 ,the following ,nahuatl words claim special attention4 ,the first is teotl1 which was adopted as the equivalent of the ,greek ,theos by the ,spanish missionaries1 but which appears to have been originally used in the sense of a 8,divinity10 or 8divine lord10 and was also applied to all lords or rulers4 ,the second is the verb yoli or yoliniato live and yollotlheart4 ,a special interest attaches itself1 however1 to the noun yauatlcircle and the verb yaualoato go around in a circle many times1 because there is good ground for identifying1 as the ,ursa ,major1 the star-god mentioned as ,youal-tecuhtli by ,sahagun4 ,as youalli means night1 the title literally signifies 8the lord of the night10 while yaualtecuhtli would mean the lord of the circle or wheel1 the most appropriate name for ,ursa ,major4 ,the actual representation1 in the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 of the 8,lord of ,night10 within a wheel or circle composed of his own footsteps1 so strikingly corroborates this view1 that further comment appears unnecessary 7fig4 #ei74 ,illustration4 ,figure #ei4 ,in conclusion the exact meaning of the most important native symbols is here recapitulated so as to facilitate comparative research4 ,,the ,,swastika ,,or ,,cross the most ancient of primitive symbols was primarily a graphic representation of the annual rotation of the ,septentriones around ,polaris4 ,it thus constituted not only an image of the most impressive of celestial phenomena but also a year-symbol4 ,the most highly-developed forms of the swastika found in ,mexico are associated with calendar-signs4 ,in ,mexico and in the ,ohio ,valley it is linked with the serpent1 to the symbolism of which reference should be made4 ,in ,copan the cross symbol is associated with the image of a figure in repose1 occupying the ,middle1 and four puffs of breath or air1 laden with life-seeds1 emanating from this4 ,considering that the cross ultimately became the symbol of the union of the four elements or two principles of nature in one and that the production of life-producing rain was attributed to the union of heaven and earth1 it is evident why the ,cozumel cross was described to its ,spanish discoverers1 by the natives1 as a symbol of the 8rain-god40 ,,the ,,sacred ,,fire which was kept perpetually burning on the summit of the pyramid was the graphic and appropriate image of the central light of heaven that most naturally suggested itself to the native mind4 ,its origin was attributed to supernatural agency and it was under the special care of the priesthood4 ,a deeply symbolical meaning was obviously attached to the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire by means of the reed fire-drill which was held perpendicularly and inserted into a horizontally-placed piece of dry wood4 ,a noteworthy resemblance to a tau-shaped figure was thus formed1 which is interesting in connection with the fact that the ceremony of kindling the sacred fire was undoubtedly regarded by the ancient ,mexicans as emblematical of the productive and life-giving union of the dual principles of nature4 ,the acatl or reedstalk1 inserted into the vase-like symbol of the earth1 such as is carved on the centre of the upper edge of the calendar-stone1 is but another hieratic form of the same symbolism4 ,the annual re-distribution of the sacred fire to the entire population1 a fresh gift from heaven obtained by the mediation of the high-priest1 was particularly impressive and emphasized the idea of all fire and light and life proceeding from a common centre4 ,it is noticeable that the reed or acatl is also intimately associated with the east1 the masculine or life-giving region4 ,the ,maya name for tortoiseac1 is a curious homonym of the ,nahuatl word ac-atl4 ,,the ,,serpent emblematizes and expresses the sound of quadruple power in ,maya and duality in ,nahuatl4 ,it was employed as an image or embodiment in a single form of the two principles of nature or the four elements4 ,it was usually accompanied by the adjective heavenly or divine and symbolized reproduction1 being the union of the masculine or heavenly and feminine or earthly principles4 ,in this connection it should be noted that the numeral two in ,nahuatl is ome1 and in ,maya1 ca4 ,a native mode of expressing duality1 by means of two horn-like projections on the heads of allegorical personages1 is exemplified in fig4 #bi1 p4 #ib4 ,,the ,,tree was the emblem of life1 of hidden and visible growth which extended downward into the earth and upward into heaven and sent forth its four branches towards the cardinal points4 ,it typified tribal life because its various parts were identified with the different members of the community and1 metaphorically1 the lord was spoken of as the trunk or main stem2 the minor chiefs as branches and twigs2 the men or vassals as leaves2 the maidens as flowers1 and the women as fruit1 etc4 ,the name 8atlapalli0 was1 for instance1 the current ,nahuatl appellation for vassals4 ,as the conventionalized trees in the native picture-writings are usually figured with four equal branches they formed an appropriate image of the living state1 and of all directions in space4 ,the 8tree of life0 thus formed a swastika or cross and both symbols were indissolubly linked together4 ,the names of two trees1 considered particularly sacred by the ,mayas1 were the ci-hom and the yax-ch1 a sort of ceiba which was termed 8the tree of celestial life0 7,landa74 ,,the ,,human ,,face was an image of the duality and unity of nature4 ,the upper half of the face symbolized heaven with its two eyes1 the sun and moon4 ,the mouth and teeth1 the ,nahuatl name for whichtlan-tli was homonymous with the affix tlanland or earthtlalli1 emblematized earth1 darkness and the ,below4 ,the nose with its two nostrils emblematized inhalation and exhalation4 ,the sanctity attached to this mystic union of two streams of breath led to the consecration of the nose by the wearing of a symbolical ornament attached to it4 ,,the ,,human ,,form expressed 8a complete count0 and was employed as an image of the entire constitution1 and of the calendar system2 each part of the government administration and calendar sign being identified with one of the twenty digits1 four limbs1 body and head of the human form4 ,,the ,,quadruped usually the ocelot1 or puma1 was the symbol of the government of the ,below and nocturnal cult of the earth as opposed to ,,the ,,bird ,,or ,,eagle which typified the upper state and diurnal cult of ,heaven4 ,chiefs1 who united dual powers in their persons1 wore1 as an emblem1 the serpent1 or a combination of ocelot-skin and feather ornaments4 ,,the ,,hand expressed per se1 in ,maya1 the numeral hofive1 which was also the name of a state which invariably consisted of the central capital and four provinces4 ,as such it was carried as an emblem of power by the central ruler1 as may be seen in the native codices4 ,the thumb being regarded as the principal or ruling finger1 the chief lord was metaphorically spoken of as the thumb1 whilst the minor lords were entitled fingerspilli4 ,,the ,,pyramid ,,and ,,sacred ,,mountain was primarily an artificial elevation destined to be a place of refuge in times of inundation2 the pyramid ultimately symbolized3 7#a7 the sacred stable centre of the world and the ,four ,quarters2 7#b7 central power and its four manifestations or elements4 ,the great pyramid of the ancient ,city of ,mexico which was crowned by two chapels1 respectively containing symbolical images of the two principles of nature1 is a striking illustration of the employment of the pyramid to express the dual centre 7the ,above and ,below1 etc47 and the quadruple organization of all things which was expressed not only by the four sides of the structure but by its four superposed terraces4 ,the fact recorded by ,friar ,duran1 that the flight of steps which led to the summit of the pyramid on its eastern side consisted of #cfe steps1 and that the annual ceremony of ascending these1 performed by a consecrated individual1 8signified the course of the sun in a year10 indicates that the pyramid was also associated with the idea of the quadruplicate division of time which pervaded the entire calendar system4 ,it should also be borne in mind that in ancient ,mexico the summits of high mountains were regarded as sacred1 8because it was there that ,heaven and ,earth met and generated fructifying showers40 ,as religious cult developed1 the rites performed on the summit of the pyramid or artificial mound were for the purpose of evoking rain and the renewal of life upon earth1 and symbolized the union of heaven and earth4 ,to the native mind the pyramid thus represented the consecrated meeting-place of heaven and earth1 the ,above and ,below1 the masculine and feminine elements1 the 8divine twins10 as well as universal1 all-pervading1 quadruplicate organization4 ,the massive pyramid likewise typified1 in an impressive manner1 the main idea connected with the ,middle3 that of stability1 immutability1 quietude and repose1 combined with power4 ,in some localities a remarkable rock or massive block of stone was adopted as the mark of the sacred centre and became the altar on which offerings or sacrifices were made1 or the throne on which the terrestrial central ruler seated himself on ceremonial occasions and assumed an attitude of absolute repose4 ,it is interesting to collate the ,nahuatl words ,te-otl1 divinity or divine lord1 with te-tlstone and the ,maya te-mstone seat or altar1 of which many carved examples exist in the ruined ,central ,american cities1 and to observe that principal personages1 such as are represented on the carved altars and in the middle of the ,copan swastika1 are represented as seated cross-legged1 as though this attitude were specially indicative of repose on the stable centre of the four quarters4 ,as the natives usually squat or sit on their heels1 the cross-legged attitude is particularly noteworthy in connection with the omnipresent set of ideas4 ,,the ,,bowl ,,or ,,vase was the emblem of earth1 the receptacle of fructifying showers1 and of the terrestrial centre4 ,filled with rain-water1 on the surface of which the radiance of a star--the pole-star--reflected itself1 the bowl was supposed to typify the union of heaven and earth by means of the divine essence of light and life1 proceeding from the 8,heart of ,heaven40 ,,the ,,flower was another symbol of the earth and of the state and its divisions4 ,it occurs as a composite flower consisting of a yellow centre surrounded by multicolored petals4 ,the usual form is of a flower with four equal petals1 bearing a circle or dot in the centre and one on each petal1 the ,middle and ,four ,quarters being thus expressed4 ,a closing allusion should be briefly made to the native association of the square with the earth and the circle with the heaven and to the influence exerted by these ideas combined with those of light and darkness upon primitive architecture and symbolical ornamental designs4 ,pointing out that all of the above symbols are but variations on the fundamental theme of the 8,middle1 ,four ,quarters1 ,above and ,below10 ,i also emphasize the fact that1 in ancient ,america1 language powerfully influenced the choice of symbols1 as may be particularly seen in the case of the serpent1 the ,nahuatl and ,maya names for which are homonymous with duality and quadruplicity4 ,the origin and meaning of the ancient ,american symbols of the cross1 the serpent1 the tree1 etc41 are clearly apparent4 ,it remains to be seen how far this is the case in other countries where the identical symbols were or are employed1 and it is to my fellow archologists that ,i look for final authoritative statements on this important subject1 in their special lines of research4 ,meanwhile ,i shall present some facts which are accessible to the general reader and suffice for the purpose of my present investigation4 ,,china4 ,pole-star worship and determination of time by ,ursa ,major existed in ,china from remote antiquity4 ,the ,chinese name for the pole-star is ,teen-hwang-ta-tee1 literally the great imperial ruler of the ,heaven4 ,in ,china 8the pole-star1 round which the entire firmament appears to turn1 ought to be considered as the ,sovereign of the ,heavens1 and as the most venerated divinity0 7,g4 ,schlegel1 ,uranographie ,chinoise1 p4 #ebd74 ,the sacred central forbidden enclosure1 at ,peking1 contains a temple of the ,north ,star ,god4 ,in the description of the imperial worship held at the winter and summer solstices1 in ,james ,edkins' ,religion in ,china 7,london1 #ahgh1 p4 #bd7 it is stated3 8,on the second terrace of the east side1 the tablet of the ,sun is placed1 and also that of the ,great ,bear1 the five of the #bh constellations and one for all the other stars40 ,the following passage shows the origin of the ,chinese year3 #a4 8,the months and seasons are determined by the revolution of ,ursa ,major 7the ,chinese name for which is ,pek-tao the #8,seven ,directors'74 ,the tail of the constellation pointing to the east at nightfall announces the arrival of spring2 pointing to the south the arrival of summer2 pointing to the west the arrival of autumn and pointing to the north the arrival of winter4 ,this means of calculating the seasons becomes more intelligible when it is remembered that in ancient times the ,bear was much nearer the north pole than now and revolved around it like the hand of a clock0 7,prof4 ,rob4 ,k4 ,douglass1 ,china4 ,london1 #ahhg1 p4 #dah74 ,the ,chinese zodiac is represented with the pole-star and circumpolar constellations in the centre 7,astronomy of the ,chinese1 ,ancient ,china1 ,w4 ,h4 ,medhurst1 ,shanghae1 #ahdf74 #b4 ,the determination and designation of six directions in space4 ,in ,chinese the six ho or ki designate the limits of space1 the zenith1 nadir and four quarters 7,mayer's ,manual1 pp4 #cjf1 #cab and #cba74 8,the term ,liu-ho also applies to the six pairs of cyclical signs and means #8,universe1' that is1 ,heaven and ,earth being ,above and ,below and the ,four ,quarters407#gi7 ,the syllable ho also occurs in the following words which deserve to be collated with the ,maya list3 ,hriver1 hulake4 ,c-h-omaster1 cf4 ,maya holhead4 ,h-oresident1 cf4 ,maya hocapital4 ,sh-otree1 cf4 ,maya ci-homtree4 ,pih-sh-ocypress4 ,kwcountry1 cf4 mouth1 symbol for land or below4 ,kwmouth1 etc4 ,chowname of ancient metropolis4 #c4 ,the conception of the ,above and ,belowduality4 ,the zenith is naturally associated with heaven and the nadir with earth4 ,heaven is father and earth is mother4 ,heaven is figured by a circle and earth by a square4 8,the marriage of ,heaven and ,earth produces all things40 ,the association of heaven with the male and earth with the female principles is shown by 7#a7 the injunction3 8,thou shalt honor thy father as the heaven and thy mother as the earth40 7#b7 ,in ,pekin1 the ,emperor1 termed 8the ,son of ,heaven10 inhabits the 8,palace of ,heaven0 whilst the ,empress inhabits the 8,palace of ,earth's repose40 ,the sun is male and the 8,temple of the ,sun0 is situated to the east4 ,the moon is female and the 8,temple of the ,moon0 is situated to the west in the sacred enclosure at ,pekin4 ,the emblematic color of the heaven is naturally azure2 of the sun1 red2 of the earth1 yellow2 and of the moon1 white4 ,it is thus evident that the cult of heaven and earth is indissolubly linked to that of the ,yang and ,yin1 the male and the female principle1 and that in ,china the following chains of association concerning duality were formed3 ,zenith4 ,nadir4 ,above4 ,below4 ,tien,heaven4 ,tec,earth4 ,father4 ,mother4 ,yang4 ,yin4 ,color3 ,azure4 ,yellow4 ,emblem3 ,sun4 ,moon4 ,eastplace of ,west1 place of rising4 setting4 ,light4 ,darkness4 ,day4 ,night4 ,personification3 the ,the ,earth-,mother4 ,shang-ti ,emperor,above1 ,the ,the ,empress,below8 ,lord of ,heaven or ,universe4 ,earthly ,the ,empress8 or representative3 the ,sombre ,emperor8 ,light ,emperor4 ,an interesting addition to this dual list is the view of a modern ,chinaman1 that the ,yang and ,yin principles refer to positive and negative electricity6 7,legge74 ,a striking result of the association of woman with the nadir and earth is the fact that in ,thibet1 according to ,rockhill1 woman is designated as ,smanba or ,manba3 8low creature40 ,,the ,,middle ,,and ,,four ,,quarters4 ,it is well known that the ,chinese designate their empire as the 8,middle ,kingdom40 ,another native name for ,china is 8,chung-ho-a10 which ,i find translated as 8the ,flower of the ,middle40 ,the empire is likewise designated as 8the ,four ,seas0ssu-hai and 8the ,four ,mountains10 and it was actually divided by the emperor ,yaou or ,yo 7,b4,c4 #bceg7 into four provinces converging at the capital1 the central enclosure of which was considered as the centre of heaven and earth4 ,it is extremely significant that1 in this central enclosure there is a temple1 consecrated to the god of the north star,the ,imperial ,ruler of ,heaven1 whereas altars only are dedicated to the sun and moon respectively4 ,the existence in the central enclosure1 or the 8,carnation prohibited city10 of the ,temple of ,earth's ,repose1 reveals that the idea of stability was associated with this terrestrial centre4 ,the fact that the ,empress and the female portion of the ,imperial family resided in the 8,palace of ,earth's ,repose0 affords an explanation of the possible origin of deforming the feet of noble women1 this being a means of enforcing comparative repose upon them1 in keeping with the symbolism of their surroundings4 ,the most striking structure in this sacred enclosure is 8an artificial mound1 nearly one hundred and fifty feet high1 having five summits1 crowned with as many temples4 ,its height allows the spectator to overlook the whole city1 whilst1 too1 it is itself a conspicuous object from every direction40 ,this sacred mound or pyramid actually marks the centre of the empire4 ,from the surrounding walls of the sacred city four roads diverge towards the cardinal points1 dividing the capital into four quarters4 ,each province was ruled by an official and both province and ruler seem to have been anciently designated by the term ,mountain,yo or ,kan4 ,a superior official1 entitled the 8,president of the ,four ,mountains0 is mentioned as the counsellor of ,emperor ,yaou in the ,shu ,king4 ,one name for mountain is yo1 another is kan1 a word which resembles k'anwater and kwnearth1 which forms the name of the earth mother,kwan-yin4 ,without drawing any hasty conclusions1 ,i merely note the curious fact that the title 8the ,president of the ,four ,mountains10 must sometimes have been rendered as ,kan and as ,yo1 and that a variant the name of 8four seas0 may well have been 8four ho0 or lakes or rivers4 ,the title kan1 meaning mountain or eminence1 and the idea of four rivers flowing from a common centre or spring1 may well have developed themselves among ,chinese-speaking people4 ,it may be an odd coincidence only that the word kanmountain1 should be so intimately connected with the numeral four in the ,chinese title2 while it is a synonym for four in the ,maya1 it is also found employed in the honorific ,maya title ,kukul-kanthe divine ,kan1 and as a synonym for mountain in certain names of localities in the valley of ,mexico4 ,an interesting but little known fact is that the peak of the mighty ,kulkun mountain in ,china is designated as the 8,king of ,mountains1 the summit of the earth1 the supporter of heaven and the axis which touches the pole0 7,meyer's ,conversations-,lexikon74 ,i should much like to know whether the name kul-kun is a variant of kul-kan1 and literally signifies 8divine mountain40 ,in this case it would strangely resemble the ,maya ,kukulkan and the ,nahuatl ,cul-hua-can1 the name of the fabulous recurved mountain of ,aztec tradition4 ,feeling that ,i am here treading upon extremely dangerous ground ,i shall abandon further comparisons and conclusions to philologists and ,chinese scholars and merely conclude by stating the certain facts1 that in ,chinese and ,maya alike the syllable ho seems to be associated with the ,middle2 while can is connected with four-fold division4 ,i may perhaps venture to add that1 in ,chinese1 ,maya and ,nahuatl alike1 the particles te and ti seem closely connected with ,heaven2 while the ,chinese kwanearth1 offers a certain resemblance to the ,nahuatl affix tlan1 meaning land1 and kan1 sometimes used for mountain4 ,since the ,chow ,dynasty1 the empire was spoken of as having five instead of four mountains1 which leads to the inference that reference was thus made to the central metropolis also1 the most sacred feature of which was its central artificial mountain or pyramid4 ,it is obvious that the empire was governed from the central chief capital and from minor capitals situated in the four provinces and built on the pattern of ,peking4 ,in an extremely interesting and clever paper7#hj7 ,mr4 ,james ,wickersham has recently remarked that 8the arrangement of cities after the cardinal-points plan was the rule not only in ,america but in ,china0 and gives the following quotations3 8,mukden1 the metropolis and ancient capital of ,manchuria1 was a walled city like ,peking4 ,main streets ran across the city from gate to gate1 with narrow roads1 called ,hu-ting1 intersecting them4 ,the palace of the early ,manchu sovereigns occupies the centre0 7,the ,middle ,kingdom1 ,williams1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aib-aih74 ,the ,manchurian city of ,kirin is also divided into four quarters3 8,two great streets cross each other at right angles1 one of them running far out into the river on the west supported by piles40 ,peune1 another large city1 is similarly divided4 8,it consists of two main streets with the chief market place at their crossing4 ,this plan is the rule in the cities of northern ,china2 the large cities are walled and divided by cross streets emerging from the city gates at the cardinal points0 7,coxe's ,russia1 pp4 #caf-ag74 ,the relation of the central seat of government to its provinces is thus recorded in the ,canon of ,shun47#ha7 8,in five years there was one tour of inspection 7performed by the emperor7 and four appearances at court of the nobles4 ,they set forth a report of their government in words4 ,this was clearly tested by their works4 ,they received chariots and robes according to their services40 ,the order of rotation in which the emperor visited in one year the capital of each quarter1 returning after each absence to the metropolis1 is given as follows3 8,in the second month the tour was to the east4 ,in the fifth month 444 to the south4 ,in the eighth month 444 to the west4 ,in the eleventh month 444 to the north40 ,during the next year the nobles of the eastern province made their appearance at court1 and the south1 west and north provinces followed in turn1 it being noticeable that1 in each case1 the circle started at the east1 the place of rising4 ,the institution of the calendar by the ,emperor ,yaou is described at length in the ,shu ,king47#hb7 ,confucius said of this remarkable personage1 8,heaven alone is great1 but ,yaou is able to imitate ,heaven40 ,the ,emperor ,yaou 8444 harmonized the various states of the empire and the black-haired people1 oh6 how they were reformed by this cordial agreement4 ,he commanded ,he and ,ho 7officers superintending the calendar and astronomical instruments7 in reverent accordance with the motions of the expansive heavens1 to arrange by numbers and represent the revolutions of the sun and moon and stars with the lunar mansions and then respectfully communicate to the people the seasons adapted for labor4 ,he then separately directed ,he's younger brother to reside at ,yu-e 7the modern ,tang-chow in ,shan-tung71 called the ,orient ,valley1 where he might respectfully hail the rising sun1 adjust and arrange the eastern 7and vernal7 undertakings and notice the equalization of days and whether the star 7culminating at nightfall7 was the middle constellation of the bird1 in order to hit the centre of mid-spring2 he might also observe whether the people began to disperse abroad and whether birds and beasts were beginning to pair4 ,he commanded ,he's third brother to reside at the southern border 7the region of ,cochin-,china7 and adjust and arrange the southern or summer transformation and respectfully notice the extreme limit of the shadow when the days attain their utmost length and the star in the zenith that is denominated ,fire 7heart of ,scorpio1 culminated on eve of summer solstice71 in order to fix the exact period of mid-summer1 when the people disperse themselves more widely and the birds and beasts begin to moult and cast their skins4 ,he then distinctly commanded ,ho's youngest brother to dwell in the west1 at a place called the ,dark ,valley1 where he might respectfully attend the setting sun and equalize and adjust the western 7or autumnal7 completions1 notice the equalizations of the nights and see whether the culminating star was ,emptiness 7,beta in ,aquarius1 which culminated at autumnal equinox which was the period at the centre of the dark principle in nature7 in order to adjust the mid-autumn1 when the people would be more at ease and the birds and beasts would be sleek and plump4 ,he further directed ,ho's third brother to dwell at the northern region1 called the dismal city1 where he might properly examine the reiterations and alterations and see whether1 when the days were shortest1 the culminating star was ,pleiades 7this culminates in the evening at winter solstice1 which is the extreme of dark principle in nature and midnight seat of that principle7 in order to adjust midwinter1 when the people would remain at home and the birds and beasts get their down and hair4 ,thus careful was the sage in reverently observing heaven and labouring diligently for the people1 in order that his plans might not contradict the designs of heaven nor the government miss the proper season for human labour40 ,it is further said that 8the bright influence 7of ,yaou's qualities7 was felt through the four quarters 7of the land7 and reached to 7heaven7 above and 7earth7 beneath0 7,shu ,king1 book ,i1 p4 #cb74 ,legge cites ,pritchard's 7,savilian ,professor1 ,oxford ,university7 chart as a proof of the correctness of the chronology which places ,you in the #bdth century ,b4,c4 ,the precession of the equinoxes was not known in ,china until more than #b1ejj years after the time assigned to ,yaou4 ,pausing to renew the foregoing data1 it is with particular satisfaction that ,i point out how clearly they reveal the basis and origin of the 8,quadriform ,constitution0 and idea of central government4 ,in ,china the pole star is designated as the ,imperial ,ruler of ,heaven and a temple to the ,god of the ,north ,star stands in the sacred enclosure which marks the centre of the empire4 ,the opposite positions assumed by ,ursa ,major at nightfall divide the year into four quarters and this quadruplicate division caused by rotation1 assuming absolute dominion over the native mind1 is applied to heaven and earth and pervades every detail of civil and religious government1 as in ancient ,america4 ,forced to recognize that the primitive inhabitants of ,china and ,america derived their first principles of organization from the identical light-giving source1 a fact which also indicates a community of race and of place of origin1 let us now review some data which prove that the two civilizations must have been separated and isolated from each other at an extremely remote period of time4 ,certain conceptions1 common to all primitive people1 were shared by the ,chinese and ,mexicans1 one of these being the belief that the earth was flat and square4 ,the name for a year in ancient ,mexican was xiuitl1 literally1 grass1 and this was represented in the picture writings by a bunch of young blades of some sort of grass1 possibly maize-shoots4 8,the earliest written ,chinese character for a year represented a stalk of wheat4444 ,in the ancient work entitled the ,san ,fun1 part of which was probably written in the #bc;d century ,b4,c41 there is evidence that among some of the aboriginal tribes of ,china the year1 as among the ,egyptians and some of the people of ,india1 was divided into three periods1 known as the grass-springing1 tree-reigning and tree-decaying periods4 ,under the higher culture of the ,chinese these divisions disappeared and the twelve months became the recognized parts of the year0 7,douglas1 ,china1 pp4 #bfi and #caj74 ,amongst the ,mexican month-names there are also some which allude to such regularly recurring and impressive natural phenomena as the sprouting of trees and the appearance of verdure or springing of the maize1 etc4 ,an indication as to what was the most ancient and primitive method of rotation employed seems afforded by the ,chinese description how1 for governmental purposes1 the five-year period was adopted1 one year pertaining to the emperor or central ruler and the following four to the quarters of the empire4 ,an analogous employment of a quinary period as a means of obtaining a rotation of contribution from the four quarters of the empire to its metropolis1 identified with the first day1 is discernible in the ,mexican institution of the macuil-tianquiztli1 or five-day market1 by which means the entire year was divided into five-day groups4 ,a study of the ancient ,chinese calendar furnishes1 moreover1 an indication of the way in which the numeral #ab came to be recognized and adopted by primitive people4 ,it is obvious that the early astronomers1 having determined the length of the year by observing ,ursa ,major at nightfall1 recognized that1 during the period required for its annual complete revolution around the pole star1 there regularly appeared twelve new moons4 ,in ,china1 at a remote period1 a division of the year into 8months was adopted1 the early names of which have1 according to the author of the earliest ,chinese dictionary1 the ,urhye1 been lost40 8,the modern ,chinese year is lunar in its divisions1 though regulated by the sun in so far that ,new ,year's day is made to fall on the first new moon after the sun enters ,aquarius and varies between #bast ,january and #aith of ,february0 7,douglas1 op4 cit4 p4 #beh74 ,it would seem as though some fresh impulse1 or institution of moon-cult1 had influenced ,shun1 ,yaou's successor1 to reorganize the empire1 which had been simply divided into quarters1 and subdivide it into #dcab districts4 ,another interesting evolution of a numerical system1 the origin of which can be traced to the four positions and seven stars of ,ursa ,major1 is discernible in the ,chinese zodiac4 ,this1 the earliest division of the ecliptic in ,china1 consists of 8#bh lunar mansions1 which are grouped together in four classes of seven each1 assigned to the four quarters of heaven0 7,legge1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bd1 ,introduction to ,shu-,king74 ,it is to the observation of precisely the same impressive phenomena that the universal adoption of the numbers #ab1 #d and #g may safely be attributed4 ,the further division1 by ,emperor ,yu1 of the ,chinese ,empire into five domains or zones1 finds an interesting parallelism in ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,mr4 ,wickersham describes ,yu's division in the following concise manner3 8,the ,imperial domain extended five hundred le in every direction from the capital1 north1 south1 east and west1 and was therefore one thousand le square1 with its sides facing the cardinal points2 the domain of the ,nobles was an additional territory five hundred le broad on each of the four sides2 the ,peace-securing domain was then added1 beyond which came the domain of ,restraint1 and at the greatest extremity the ,wild domain4 ,by this arrangement1 the sacred center1 the capital where the #8,son of ,heaven' resided1 was completely surrounded by loyal officials and subjects2 the most loyal were nearest the center while at the farthest extremity were the wild and dangerous tribes and criminals undergoing the greater banishment4 ,by this square method of disposing of the population1 the quiet and orderly members of society were required to reside near the capital1 while the turbulent were placed toward the outer limits1 serving to free the center from turmoil and to act as a barrier to the inroads of outside barbarians40 ,among the ,zuis and ,mexicans the spider's web is met with as an image of the division of their territory into quarters1 half-quarters and concentric circles4 ,in ,peru a record exists of a system of irrigation by which means the territory surrounding the capital was divided into alternate zones of land and water4 ,mexico and ,central ,america furnish records too scattered to be compiled here1 showing that somewhat as in ,china1 the territory of the state was divided into the domains of the rulers1 the lords1 the people1 and the territory of war4 ,after having duly considered some salient points of fundamental agreement which are to be found underlying the widely different later growths of the ,chinese and ancient ,american systems1 let us now examine and analyze some of the most remarkable points of divergence4 ,the following tables1 placed in juxtaposition1 afford an opportunity of recognizing the striking and significant fact that1 whereas the ,mexicans and ,zuis classified air1 water1 fire and earth as 8elements10 the ,chinese ignored air and identified wood and metal as their fourth and fifth elements4 ,mexico4 ,zuni4 ,china4 ,north4 ,red1 ,fire4 ,yellow1 ,air4 ,black1 ,water4 ,west4 ,yellow1 ,earth4 ,blue1 ,water4 ,white1 ,metal4 ,south4 ,blue1 ,air4 ,red1 ,fire4 ,red1 ,fire4 ,east4 ,green1 ,water4 ,white1 ,earth4 ,blue1 ,wood4 ,middle4 ,many colors4 ,middle1 ,all ,yellow1 ,earth4 colors4 ,a deep-seated analogy may1 however1 be traced between the ,chinese assignment of 8wood0 to the ,middle and the ,maya-,mexican employment of the tree as a symbol of life proceeding from the centre1 stretching above and below and spreading its branches to the four quarters4 ,it remains to be seen how far the ,chinese assignment of 8wood0 to the ,middle approached the ,american tree-symbolism4 ,the marked differentiation in the assignment of colors to the cardinal points in the above comparative table leads to the conclusion that their choice had been arbitrary and was possibly influenced by local environment1 the possibility of obtaining certain pigments in given directions1 or by language1 the names of certain colors or elements resembling in sound those of the cardinal points1 etc47#hc7 ,after studying the above comparative lists it becomes clear that1 whilst the fundamental principle of the system was identical1 the mode of carrying it out was different in ,china and ,america1 a fact which indicates independence and isolation at the period when elements and colors1 etc41 were chosen and assigned to the directions in space4 ,an analogous instance of divergence is shown in the following assignment of parts of the body to the cardinal points3 ,,chinese4 ,north ,kidneys4 ,west ,lungs4 ,south ,heart4 ,east ,liver4 ,middle ,stomach4 ,zenith ---- ,nadir ---- ,although it differs in detail1 an analogous association of various parts of the body with the directions in space and the twenty calendar-signs1 may be seen in a ,mexican ,codex4 ,in this case1 however1 it is clear that the origin of this assignment was the natural association between the 8complete finger-and-toe counta complete man#bjwith the #bj or complete count of the day signs40 ,i have already produced evidences showing that the human figure was employed in primitive times to represent 8a complete count1 or #bj years40 ,when chieftains were elected for a term of twenty years and their names were given to their period of office1 the full-length portrait of the chief was sculptured on a stela and he thus represented1 primarily1 8a complete count10 an epoch 7see p4 #bba74 ,portraiture and accompanying inscriptions were obviously later developments1 but the primitive employment of the human form as a means of expressing a fixed number1 is one that claims consideration and will undoubtedly lead to a wider comprehension of the significance of the human form in aboriginal archaic sculpture4 ,the curious conventionalized representations of ,mictlantecuhtli1 in which the body and limbs almost simulate a swastika1 have already been discussed1 as well as the inference that they symbolized ,polaris and the four positions of ,ursa ,majorthe ,middle and ,four ,quarters4 ,the most striking confirmation of this inference is furnished by ,mr4 ,cushing's account that the ,zuis associated the directions in space with the imaginary form of a quadruped as follows3 ,,zuni4 ,north ,right fore foot4 ,west ,left fore foot4 ,south ,right hind leg4 ,east ,left hind leg4 ,middle ,heart4 ,zenith ,head4 ,nadir ,tail4 ,it is obvious from this that1 to a ,zui1 the ,state and its subdivisions appear under the allegorical form of a quadruped and ,i have traced the identical mode of thought in ,mexico and ,central ,america7#hd7 where1 owing to linguistic associations1 an ocelot is in some instances employed as a symbol for a ,state whilst in others the form of an eagle was adopted for the same purpose 7see ,appendix ,i74 ,to sum up3 in ancient ,america the human form was employed to represent quadripartite division and the complete finger-and-toe count#bj1 and as such became emblematic of the quadriform plan of universal application4 ,owing to a variety of circumstances and suggestions arising from language1 the figure of a quadrupedocelot was adopted as a symbol of the ,state by some tribes and the form of an eagle by others1 the inference being that the ocelot was identified with the cult of the earth and night and the eagle with the cult of heaven and day4 ,while the ocelot and eagle occur in the codices as representative of two distinct classes or divisions of the ,state1 there are some interesting and suggestive representations1 to which ,i shall revert1 of figures combining the form and claws of an ocelot with the wings and head of a bird1 evidently symbolical of a union of the ,above and ,below1 or ,heaven and ,earth4 ,having furnished the explanation that ancient ,america affords of the origin of the primitive employment of the human body1 the quadruped and bird in allegory and the assignment of their various parts to points in space1 it is to ,chinese scholars that ,i appeal for enlightenment as to the origin and development of the same idea in ,china4 ,to me one point of difference between the ,chinese and ,american list is very striking4 ,in ,america although the navel was also regarded as a symbol1 the heart1 associated with the ,middle1 had obviously been recognized as the centre or seat of life1 and the tearing out of the heart had become the salient feature in human sacrifices4 ,in ,china the stomach is assigned to the ,middle1 and death by disembowelling was customary4 ,an analysis of the ,chinese and ,mexican numerical systems likewise proves that their ultimate development was strikingly different1 although it is easy to recognize how both might have arisen from the same source4 ,thus whilst the ,mexican and ,central ,american calendar 7and social organization7 is based on the combination of #bj characters with #ac numerals1 the ,chinese 8took two sets of #ab and #aj characters respectively and combined them40 ,the outcome of the combination of #bj with #ac affords a marked contrast to that of #ab with #aj4 ,in the ,mexican calendar1 as ,i have shown1 there were fixed periods of #e days 7associated with the ,middle and ,four ,quarters7 and of #bj days1 the latter being 8one complete count0 of days1 based on the primitive finger-and-toe count4 ,in the ,mexican social organization there were #d principal and #af minor clans of people1 known by #bj signs4 ,each of these in turn was subdivided into #ac categories associated with the directions in space4 ,by mentioning a sign and a numeral1 up to #ac1 the exact subdivision of a clan was clearly designated while the direction of its residence1 as regards the capital1 was likewise conveyed4 ,a day was associated with each of these #bj clans and their respective #ac subdivisions1 and the unit of time produced by the combination of the #bj day-signs and #ac numerals was the period of #bfj days1 which held #dfe days and was approximately equivalent to nine lunations and to the period of human gestation4 ,the #bfj-;day period1 as will be more clearly shown in my monograph on the ,mexican ,calendar ,system1 constituted the religious year of the 8,sons or ,lords of ,night0 in their cult of the ,moon1 the ,nocturnal ,heaven1 ,earth and the ,female principle4 ,simultaneously with this lunar calendar1 in which each moon had a different name1 a civil or solar calendar was employed consisting of #cfe days1 divided into #ag periods of #bj and #a period of #be days4 ,these years bore the names of four different signs in rotation combined with #ac numerals47#he7 ,the cycles1 thus produced1 consisted of #daceb years1 #bj1 or a 8complete count0 of which1 produced the great cycle of #ajdj years4 ,totally different from this numerical system is that of the ,chinese1 who 8divided the year into #ab months of #bi and #cj days each and as these periods represent with sufficient exactness the lunar month1 it follows that the new moon falls on the #ast of every month and that on the #aeth the moon is at its full4 ,the month is thus associated with the moon and is called by the same name and written with the same hieroglyphic4444 ,the ,chinese also divide the year by seasons and recognize #h main divisions and #af subsidiary ones1 which correspond to the days on which the sun enters the #ast and #aeth degrees of a zodiacal sign 4440 7,douglas1 ,china1 p4 #bfi74 ,whilst it is customary in ,china for years to be designated at times by the ,neen-haou or title of an emperor and an event to be alluded to as having occurred in such or such a year of a certain ruler's reign1 the mode of computing years is by reckoning by sexagenary cycles4 ,according to native historians this system was introduced by the emperor ,hwang-te in the year #bfcg ,b4,c4 which was the first year of the first cycle1 and it has continued in use until the present day4 ,in this system a group of ten characters1 termed the 8celestial stems0 and associated with the male principle1 is combined with a group of twelve characters1 named the 8terrestrial branches0 and associated with the female principle4 ,an unbroken series of sixty-year cycles have thus been formed1 in the seventy-sixth of which the ,chinese are now living4 ,according to ,biot1 the calendar instituted by ,hwang-te was a day-count only1 and year-cycles were not in use until after the ,christian era1 having been introduced from ,india4 ,there are indications which will be more fully discussed further on1 showing that the primitive day-count consisted of the seven-day period1 each day being consecrated to one of the seven bright stars of ,ursa ,major1 called the 8,seven ,regulators40 ,it is well known that ,taouism was founded by ,laou-tsze1 who was a contemporary of ,confucius and thus 8lived in the sixth century before ,christ1 a hundred years later than ,buddha and a hundred years earlier than ,socrates4 ,a mystery hangs over ,laou-tsze's history 444 and there is the possibility that he was a foreigner1 or perhaps a member of an aboriginal frontier tribe0 7,legge74 ,the ,shoo-king1 the national book of history edited by ,confucius1 enables us to follow the development of the state religion and government1 the basis of which was ,heaven and its imperial ruler1 the pole-star4 ,the almost mythical emperor ,yaou1 whose reign began in ,b4,c4 #bceg1 8imitated ,heaven1 harmonized the various states of the empire and divided it into four quarters40 ,his successor1 ,shun1 extended its organization1 but it was ,y1 the third ruler1 in the thirteenth year of his reign 7,b4,c4 #aaba71 who1 acknowledging his ignorance of them 8went to inquire of ,k-tsze0 about 8the great plan of the #i classifications and the arrangement of the invariable principles40 ,it is also stated in the ,shoo-,king1 that it was 8,heaven who gave to ,y the great plan and the #i classifications1 so that the invariable principles were arranged1 consisting of the #e elements1 the #h regulations1 and the #e arrangers40 ,in ,china the day is divided into periods equivalent to #abj minutes#b hours4 8,in speaking of these periods1 however1 the practice which was originally introduced into ,china by the ,mongols1 of substituting for the twelve stems1 the names of the twelve animals which are supposed to be symbolical of them1 is commonly adopted4 ,thus the #ast period1 that between #aa ,p4 ,m4 and #a ,a4 ,m41 is known as the ,rat1 period #b as the ,ox1 #c ,tiger1 #d ,hare1 #e ,dragon1 #f ,serpent1 #g ,horse1 #h ,sheep1 #i ,monkey1 #aj ,cock1 #aa ,dog1 #ab ,boar4 ,the night is divided into five watches1 each of two hours duration44440 7,douglas1 ,china1 p4 #bif74 ,the ancient ,mexican priest-astronomers marked three divisions of the night by burning incense in honor of certain stars1 after dusk1 at midnight and at break of day4 ,the mention of the introduction into ,china of the ,mongolian hour-computation leads to a consideration of the origin of what is known as the ,chinese civilization4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to do more here than touch upon the various and opposite views held on this important question by leading ,european and ,chinese scholars4 ,on the one hand1 8the existence of the ,chinese civilization in the east of ,asia1 separated from early centres by the whole width of ,asia and intervening trackless deserts1 has seemed a problem to many students and led to the conclusion of its sporadic growth1 an idea which is fostered by ,chinese historians40 7,see ,douglas on ,chinese ,culture and ,civilization1 #ahij47 ,on the other hand1 it is maintained that the ,chinese entered ,china from ,tartary and were emigrants from ,babylonia who abandoned their country when ,nakhunte1 king of ,susiana1 conquered ,babylon in #bbie ,b4,c4 ,according to ,legge1 the ,chinese came through central ,asia about #bbjj ,b4,c4 and founded colonies on the banks of the ,yellow river and its tributaries4 ,these colonists founded a ,middle ,kingdom in ,china1 a federation of states with a chief supreme ruler1 on the pattern of ,babylonia4 ,they introduced the art of writing and established a calendar with a year of #cfj days and an intercalary month4 ,it is stated that the names of the five planets of the ,chinese1 besides the ,sun and ,moon1 were called by the same names as in ,babylon4 7,see ,edkins op4 cit41 also ,the old ,babylonian characters and their derivatives1 ,terrien de ,lacouperie1 ,babylonian and ,oriental ,record1 ,march1 #ahhh47 ,some authorities are inclined to consider ,chinese astronomy as derived from the ,chaldean2 whilst others have instituted comparisons between it and the ,hindoo system4 ,the results of the latter line of investigation are set forth by ,j4 ,f4 ,davis in the following passage of his work on the ,chinese 7,london1 #ahcf1 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #cjd73 8,a comparison between the ancient system of the ,chinese and of ,hindoo astronomy is rendered somewhat perplexing by the fact that1 while there are some points of resemblance there are others in which they essentially differ4 ,both of them have twenty-eight lunar mansions and a cycle of sixty years1 but a careful observation detects some important distinctions3 the ,hindoo cycle is a cycle of ,jupiter while that of the ,chinese is a solar cycle1 and the twenty-eight constellations of the ,hindoos are nearly all of them equal divisions of the great circle1 consisting of about #ac each1 while the ,chinese constellations are extremely unequal1 varying from #cj to less than #a4 ,the author's father1 in conjunction with ,sir ,william ,jones and ,messrs4 ,colebrook and ,bentley1 proved that the ,hindoo astronomy did not go farther than the calculation of eclipses and some other changes with the rules and tables for performing the same4 ,besides their lunar zodiac of twenty-eight mansions1 the ,hindoos 7unlike the ,chinese7 have the solar1 including twelve signs perfectly identical with ours1 and demonstrating1 in that respect1 a common origin40 ,as we know from ,herodotus1 the ,egyptians had a week of seven days and it is remarkable that the ,hindoos had anciently the same1 the planetary names being given to the days in exactly the same order as among ourselves1 except that ,friday was the first4 ,the ,chinese reckon five planets to the exclusion of the sun and moon1 but they give the name of one of their twenty-eight lunar mansions successively to each day of the year in a perpetual rotation1 without regard to the moon's changes2 so that the same four out of the twenty-eight invariably fall on our ,sundays and constitute1 as it were1 perpetual ,sunday letters4 ,a native ,chinese first remarked this odd fact to the author1 and on examination it proved perfectly correct4 ,to the above it may be well to add the following comparison between the ,chinese1 ,tibetan and ,indian systems3 8,the ,tibetans received astronomical science from ,india and ,china 444 the ,chinese taught them the science of divination4 ,both systems are based upon a unit of sixty years1 differing1 however1 in modes of denominating years4 ,in these cycles of sixty years1 when numbered according to the ,indian principle1 each year has a particular name2 but in the ,chinese method the names used in the ,chinese duodecimal cycle are used five times1 coupled with the five elements or their respective colors1 each of the latter introduced in the series twice in immediate succession0 7,schlagintweit1 ,buddhism in ,thibet1 p4 #bg74 ,according to ,humboldt1 8the ,tzihichen1 or public calculators of ,lhassa take pride in the fact that years of the same name only return about every two centuries4 ,they combine #ae signs3 five masculine1 five feminine and five neuter1 with twelve signs of the zodiac0 7,monuments des peuples de l',amrique ,i1 p4 #chf74 ,with regard to the ancient connection between ,china and ,india it is well to recall the well-known fact that ,buddhism did not enter ,china from ,india until the first century of the ,christian era and had a prolonged struggle for existence and influence in the country during several centuries4 ,the ,buddhist missionaries introduced the mode of calculating cycles of years into ,china1 according to ,biot1 who states that the primitive calendar of the ,chinese1 instituted by ,hwang-te1 the first king of the 8,flowery land10 was a day-count only4 ,let us briefly enumerate some bare facts bearing upon the age and development of the state1 religion and government of ancient ,china4 ,in #bfig ,b4,c4 ,hwang-te 7the ,babylonian87 erected a temple to the honor of ,shang-te1 the deity associated with the earliest traditions of the ,chinese race4 ,upon the authority of a ,chinaman of the present day it is stated that 8the word ,shang-te means supreme ruler2 but1 as it is not lawful to use this name lightly1 ,chinamen usually name the supreme ruler by his residence1 which is ,tienheaven0 7,edkins1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga74 ,an extremely instructive light is thrown upon the ,taouist conception of a supreme being or ruler1 by the following episode related by ,mr4 ,edkins in his 8,religion in ,china0 7p4 #aji74 8,i met in #ahgb on one occasion a schoolmaster from the neighborhood of ,chapoo4444 ,the inquiry was put to him1 ,who is the ,lord of heaven and earth8 ,he replied that he knew none but the pole-star1 called in the ,chinese language ,teen-hwang-ta-te1 the great imperial ruler of heaven4 ,it was stated to him that it was a matter very much to be regretted that he should hold such views as this of the ,supreme ,being40 ,in this connection and with special reference to the title ,tienheaven1 employed by the ,chinese in addressing the supreme ruler1 ,i must quote ,t4 de ,lacouperie's opinion that the ,akkadian name,din-gira and symbol for ,god1 the eight-pointed star1 was the origin of ,ti1 a ,chinese character with the same meaning and sound4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ball 7,the ,new ,akkadian ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archaeology7 explains the ,akkadian ,din-gira as composed of dito shine and giraheaven and that thus the ,accadian name for ,god is 8the shining one of heaven10 which explains why the ideogram is a star4 ,according to ,mr4 ,k4 ,douglas 7p4 #aga7 8,mr4 ,ball has practically demonstrated that the ,chinese and ,akkadian are the same tongue and that everywhere in ,china we are reminded of that great centre of civilization in ,babylonia40 ,an investigation of the ,taouist religion reveals that it consists chiefly of star-worship1 stars being deemed 8divine40 8,among the liturgical works used by the priests of ,taou1 one of the commonest consists of prayers to ,tow-moo1 a female divinity supposed to reside in the ,great ,bear4 ,a part of the same constellation is worshipped as a male spirit under the name of ,kwei-sing0 7,edkins74 ,a name closely resembling the latter in sound1 ,tseih-ching1 and meaning the 8,seven ,regulators0 is now applied to the ,sun1 ,moon1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter and ,saturn4 ,in ancient times1 however1 according to native authorities1 8this term was used to designate the seven bright stars of ,ursa ,major which subsequently1 by an astrological device1 were associated with the seven planets2 so1 that1 by metonymy1 the latter became the established meaning407#hf7 ,the association of the term 8,regulators0 with ,septentriones is particularly interesting because the seven-day period has been employed in ,china from time immemorial1 the seventh day being invariably marked by the ancient character mih1 which means 8quiet1 secret or silent40 ,in the modern ,chinese almanacs and astrological works 8the mih days are marked by the four constellations which correspond among the seven planets to the principal one among them1 the ,sun0 7cf4 ,wylie1 ,on the ,knowledge of a weekly ,sabbath in ,china1 op4 cit4 p4 #hf74 ,i am strongly tempted to refer the origin of the ,chinese mih or quiet day1 on which rest was generally observed1 to that remote period of time when1 to primitive observers1 one of the stars in ,ursa ,major would have appeared more closely associated with immovability and nearer the polar axis than its companions 7see pp4 #bj and #ba74 ,if we pause here to review the preceding data we are particularly struck at the unanimity of evidence establishing that even the most ancient form of civilization and religion was not indigenous to ,china1 but was carried there by colonists from distant parts1 presumably from ,babylonia4 ,the latter conclusion finds a strong support in the undeniable fact that during subsequent centuries a steady stream of emigration has carried colonists of different nationalities into the heart of ,china4 ,buddhism entered ,china from ,india in the first century of the ,christian era4 ,alexander ,wylie tells us that 8according to the testimony of one of the stone tablets in the synagogue at ,kai-fung foo1 the ,israelites first entered ,china during the ,han dynasty0 and we are further told in the letters of the ,jesuits that 8they came during the reign of ,ming-ti 7,a4,d4 #eh-ge7 from ,si-yih1 i4 e4 the western regions4 ,it appears by all that can be gathered from them that this western country is ,persia and that they came by ,khorasan and ,samarcand4 ,they have many ,persian words in their language and they long preserved a great intercourse with that country0 7,the ,israelites in ,china1 ,wylie's ,chinese ,researches1 ,shanghai1 #ahig74 ,some other interesting facts related by ,wylie deserve mention here4 ,in translating the name of ,jehovah into ,chinese1 the ,israelites in ,china1 to the present day1 say ,teen1 8just as the scholars of ,china do when they explain their term ,shang-te40 ,we thus observe a growing practice in western ,asia1 among the ,hebrews1 of designating ,jehovah as the ,god of ,heaven and sometimes as ,heaven4 ,in ,chinese history distinct mention is made of a foreign sect distinguished as the 8worshippers of ,heaven10 spoken of as existing in ,china at the beginning of the sixth century4 ,wylie has surmised that the ,hebrews were thus designated and remarks 8that this name1 as the designation of a foreign sect1 is the more remarkable inasmuch as the state ritual of ,china has designated the ,supreme by the name of ,heaven1 from the earliest times down to the present day40 ,it is a curious reflection that it may possibly have been due to a gross misconception of the ,hebrew religion on the part of the ,chinese and a supposed identity of worship that caused the ,israelites to be treated with such tolerance and hospitality in ,china that their colony situated in the heart of the country still exists to the present day4 ,it is1 in fact1 related of the ,dowager ,empress ,ling1 in the first half of the sixth century1 that she 8abolished the various corrupt systems of religious worship1 excepting that of the foreign tien-spirit40 ,a strange insight into the ,chinese view of the ,christian religion is likewise afforded by the following native documents cited by ,wylie3 8,now ,jesus1 the ,lord of ,heaven1 is worshipped by the ,europeans4 ,they say that this is the ancient religion of ,ta-tsin 7,syria740 ,the following remarkable passages occur on the famous ,nestorian tablet1 dated ,a4,d4 #gha1 which eulogizes the propagation of the 8,illustrious ,christian ,religion0 in ,china4 ,this tablet was discovered by the ,jesuit fathers in #afbe and1 after its authenticity had been violently assailed1 ,wylie's painstaking researches have now vindicated its genuineness47#hg7 ,the following extracts are from the preface engraved upon it and composed by ,king-tsing1 a priest of the ,syrian ,church3 8444 ,our eternal1 true lord ,god4444 ,he appointed the cross as the means of determining the four cardinal points1 he moved the original spirit and produced the two principles of nature2 the sombre void was changed and heaven and earth were opened out2 the sun and moon revolved and day and night commenced2 having perfected all inferior objects1 he then made the first man 444 the illustrious and honorable ,messiah1 veiling his true dignity1 appeared in the world as a man 444 a bright star announced the felicitous event of his birth 444 he fixed the extent of the eight boundaries4444 ,as a seal his disciples hold the cross1 whose influence is reflected in every direction uniting all without distinction4 ,as they strike the wood the fame of their benevolence is diffused abroad2 worshipping towards the east they hasten on the way to life and glory 444 they do not keep slaves1 but put noble and mean all on an equality2 they do not amass wealth but cast all their property into the common stock40 ,referring the matter to oriental scholars for further discussion ,i merely note here the astonishing fact that in ,china1 in the seventh century of our era1 the supreme ,god of the ,hebrews and ,christians was spoken of as the ,god of ,heaven1 or ,heaven1 that ,he is credited with having created the two principles of nature besides heaven and earth and instituted the cross as 8a means of determining the cardinal points40 ,it is likewise strange to find the 8,heen or ,toen foreigners0 credited in a sixteenth-century native cyclopdia1 with having introduced into ,china a system of astronomy denominated the 8,four ,heavens10 and obviously based on a quadruplicate division of the ,heaven similar to the division of the empire instituted by ,yaou 7,wylie1 ,israelites in ,china1 op4 cit4 p4 #ai74 ,the current ,chinese name for ,christians has been 8,cross-worshippers10 and it is odd to note that the ancient ,chinese seem to have regarded the symbolism of the ,christian cross as closely identical with that of their swastika1 and to have concluded that the foreign 8,heaven0 religion rested on the same basis as theirs4 ,referring the reader to ,wylie's valuable researches and ,edkins' ,religion in ,china for information concerning the establishment of colonies of ,manicheans1 ,mohammedans and of successive ,christian missions1 etc41 in ,china1 ,i shall but quote the following passage from ,marco ,polo's travels 7pp4 #afg and #afh7 because it shows how the doctrine of the quadruplicate division of all things1 celestial and terrestrial1 led to a broad tolerance of opinion in the famous ,tartar prince1 ,kubla ,khan1 who1 in #abfj1 at ,kanbalu,peking1 honored the ,christian festivals4 8,and he observed the same at the festivals of the ,saracens1 ,jews and idolaters4 ,upon being asked his motive for this conduct1 he said3 #8,there are four great ,prophets who are reverenced and worshipped by the different classes of mankind4 ,the ,christians regard ,jesus ,christ as their divinity2 the ,saracens1 ,mahomet2 the ,jews1 ,moses2 and the idolaters ,sagomombarkan 7,buddha7 the most eminent amongst their idols4 ,i do honor and show respect to all of the four1 and invoke to my aid whichever of them is in truth supreme in heaven4' 0 ,this attitude of mind and that of the ,chinese towards the ,christian ,cross can only be fully understood and appreciated when it is realized that their 8imperial ruler of ,heaven0 was the pole-star and that the ,ursa ,major described each year the sign of a cross in the heaven which ever impressed upon them quadruplicate division and differentiation and the union of four in one4 ,it is doubtlessly owing to the same reason that the ,chinaman of today finds it possible to believe in1 at once1 the three great national religions which exist in ,china4 ,edkins has explained that1 whereas 8,confucianism speaks to the moral nature1 ,taouism is materialistic and ,buddhism is metaphysical2 thus1 they are supplemental to each other and are able to co-exist without being mutually destructive0 7op4 cit4 p4 #fj74 ,somewhat apart from these three state religions and embodying the most ancient ideas and traditions of the race1 exists the elaborate and solemn 8,imperial worship10 the study of which ,edkins designates as 8specially interesting because it takes us back to the early history of the ,chinese people and introduces us to many striking points of comparison with the patriarchal religion of the ,old ,testament and with the worship of the kings of ,nineveh1 ,babylon and ,egypt40 ,the same authority states that 8the account given by ,herodotus of the religion of the ancient ,persians shows that it consisted in much the same usages as those now found in ,chinese ,imperial worship0 7op4 cit4 pp4 #f1 #bb1 #ah and #cj74 ,in the preceding pages it has been shown that the fundamental principles of the primitive religions of ,china and ,america were identical1 but that their subsequent stages of development or evolution were strikingly divergent4 ,the following study of certain details connected with the 8,imperial worship0 brings out a marked differentiation in the ,chinese and ,mexican cult of heaven and earth4 ,the altar of ,heaven at ,peking consists of three circular marble terraces1 the uppermost of which is paved with eighty-one stones arranged in circles4 ,it is on a round stone in the centre of these circles that the ,emperor kneels and is considered to occupy the centre of the earth4 ,in the worship of ,heaven1 offerings are made to the heavenly bodies1 the ,sun1 ,moon1 the ,pole-star1 ,great ,bear1 five planets and twenty-eight constellations4 ,the worship at the altar of ,earth consists of offerings to the mountains1 rivers and seas4 ,this arrangement is strikingly unlike that of the ancient ,mexicans1 who associated the sun only with the ,above1 the male principle and the blue heaven1 and worshipped the nocturnal heaven1 the moon and stars1 with the earth1 darkness and the female principle4 ,it is interesting to note the marked effect1 produced by the two different modes of classification1 upon the subsequent development of the state religions of ,china and ,mexico4 ,in the latter country where the contrast of light and darkness and of the duality of nature seems to have been most powerfully felt1 the gradual institution1 on a footing of equality of a diurnal masculine and nocturnal feminine cult or of a separate sun and moon worship1 led to the formation of two equally powerful castes of priest-astronomers who devised their respective calendars and cults and ultimately stood in open rivalry and antagonism towards each other1 as children of heaven and light3 sun worshippers2 and children of earth and darkness3 moon worshippers4 ,in ,china1 as the cult of earth was subordinate from the first and all heavenly bodies were included in the worship of ,heaven1 there was no opportunity for any rivalry to develop in the superior caste of astronomers who jointly ruled1 instituted their calendar and altered it under influences emanating from ,india4 ,heaven and ,earth were jointly worshipped at the same altar until ,a4,d4 #aeca1 when it was decreed that there should be separate altars and that the worship of ,earth should be separately conducted 7,edkins74 ,at the same time1 while the ,emperor acts as the high-priest of ,heaven1 we find associated with him1 from remote antiquity1 the ,empress1 the representative of the ,earth-mother4 ,the fact that the roll of ,chinese emperors records heavenly and earthly1 light and sombre1 emperors1 and that empresses have repeatedly occupied the throne1 seems to indicate that1 in remote antiquity1 a male and a female line of rulers1 personifying the dual principles of nature1 alternately assumed prominence in power4 ,this natural outgrowth of the cult of heaven and earth1 which has its parallel in ,mexico1 seems to afford an explanation of the usurpation and retention of power exercised by the present ,empress of ,china1 who is probably ruling in her own right1 as the representative of the earth or dark principle4 ,as such she is the exact equivalent to the ancient ,mexican ,cihua-coatl1 or 8,woman-serpent20 and modern ,china supplies us with an episode in the development of the fundamental set of ideas it holds in common with ancient ,america1 closely resembling the historical dissension which led in ancient ,mexico to a separation of the two cults and the establishment of two separate governments1 under their respective male and female rulers4 ,although the difference in primitive ,chinese and ,mexican definitions of heaven and earth worship is evidently accountable for this fact1 it is nevertheless interesting to note that it was in ,a4,d4 #aeca only that the ,chinese cult of heaven and earth separated and the process of disintegration began to be set into activity4 ,from an evolutionary point of view1 the imperial religion of ,china stands to-day at a far less advanced stage of development than the prehistoric ,mexican state religion4 ,this circumstance might be passed over without comment did it not strikingly coincide with the undeniable fact that the essentially inorganic and monosyllabic ,chinese language stands far lower in the scale of linguistic development than the incorporative and polysynthetic ,american languages1 the most perfected types of which are the ,maya and the beautiful and refined ,nahuatl which abounds in delicate metaphors and formulas of exquisite politeness1 indicative of the high degree of culture and antiquity of the native race4 ,if the preceding comparative study of the ,chinese and ancient ,mexican civilizations be briefly summarized1 the result is as follows3 ,both civilizations alike rest on a foundation of pole-star worship and the set of ideas which naturally proceed from this i4 e41 central impartial power extending in constant rotation to the four quarters1 figured by the swastika1 and the recognition of the all-pervading duality of nature4 ,these primitive concepts and their inevitable outgrowths1 which might naturally occur to human beings of the same grade of intellect in similar conditions and circumstances and be most powerfully impressed upon the mind of man in circumpolar latitudes beside a few resemblances in names1 which ,i shall proceed to point out1 are nearly all that the ,chinese and ancient ,mexicans may be safely said to have had in common4 ,at a date obviously anterior to #bcef ,b4,c41 when they were formulated1 the ,chinese had made definitions of heaven and earth and of the five elements which radically differ from those of the ancient ,mexicans and ,mayas4 ,the ,chinese numerical system or calendar1 though equally based on rotation1 and known to have been modified by contact with ,india1 is essentially different from the ,american4 ,when carefully compared it must be acknowledged that the ,mexican is by far the more complex and highly developed1 and the same may be said of the social organization1 which was controlled by the calendar4 ,a comparison between the ,chinese and ,american languages in general proves1 moreover1 that they differ not only in sound1 but in form and in grade of development1 the ,chinese being the lower in the scale4 ,to the above divergences we must add the fact that each people evolved distinct national customs and costumes1 foods and drinks1 industries1 arts and forms of architecture1 so markedly characteristic as to be clearly distinguishable4 ,in conclusion a few words about the swastika in ,china 7ouan74 ,its ,chinese name is wan1 which signifies 8ten thousand10 or 8all10 also 8many10 a great number4 ,at the time of the ,empress ,wu 7,a4,d4 #fhd-gjd7 the swastika in a circle signified 8the sun20 half a swastika in the circle 8the moon10 and the plain circle 8the star40 ,deferring comment ,i emphasize here the fact that the word wan resembles kwanequal earth or land1 and that it signifies an entity composed of ten thousand parts4 ,a proof that the wan was also associated with the idea of time is given by the modern use of the ,chinese swastika to signify 8long life10 8many years10 i4 e41 a complete life1 a complete cycle of years4 ,a prolonged study of the most ancient civilization of ,america1 which centred in ,mexico and ,central ,america and thence spread northward and southward1 has so deeply convinced me of its great antiquity1 isolation and prolonged period of independent evolution that1 when ,asiatic origin and influence are discussed1 ,i am tempted to take the national food-plant of ,america1 the maize1 and1 placing it beside the rice-plant of ,china1 invite comparisons to be made between them4 ,,japan4 ,it is a curious fact that1 although it is recognized that the junks which have been repeatedly driven by storms upon the ,pacific coast have generally been ,japanese1 no searching comparison between the culture of ancient ,america and that of ,japan has as yet been published2 although it is believed by many that it may have been to the occupants of the wrecked junks that the ,american race owed its civilization4 ,the curious idea seems to prevail among some writers1 that purely ,chinese influence was conveyed by ,japanese fishermen and sailors to the dwellers on ,american soil4 ,it does not seem to be sufficiently recognized that the differences between ,japanese and ,chinese civilizations are as great as that between their different languages and writings1 and that direct influence derived from ,japan1 for many centuries back would have left traces so characteristic as to be easily distinguished from the effects of direct influence from ,china4 ,in the third century of the ,christian era the ,japanese empire was founded on a plan derived from ,corea and soon became known to the ,chinese and dwellers on the main land as ,dschi-,poennkwo1 or ,zipanco1 the 8land of the east1 or of the rising sun40 ,the ,japanese themselves1 however1 regarded their empire as the 8great centre of the world10 i4 e4 a 8,middle ,kingdom40 ,the mythical birthplace of the ,japanese race and the cradle of its civilization is said to have been the island of the ,congealed ,drop1 which was formerly at the ,north ,pole1 but subsequently removed to its present position4 ,how this happened is not told47#hh7 ,the most superficial examination shows that the fundamental scheme of the ,japanese empire was the same as that of ,china and other ,asiatic countries4 ,its centre was the island ,hon-shiu1 ,hondo or ,nippon1 on which was situated the ancient ,fu or capital1 named ,yedo2 the modern ,tokio in the vicinity of ,fusiyama1 the sacred mountain and reputed centre of the world4 ,the entire land or ,han was originally divided into five provinces collectively named the ,go-kinai 7the word go like the ,maya ho1 signifying five71 the territorial divisions and presumably consisting of four quarters and the capital4 ,light is thrown upon the extent of this quinary organization by the fact that1 in ancient ,japan1 time was divided into five-day periods1 by official days of rest1 which fell on the #ast1 #fth1 #aath1 #afth1 #bast1 and #bfth days of each month4 ,the computation of time by cycles1 which will be treated further in a separate monograph1 also prevailed in ,japan1 as might be expected1 since this method was a main feature of the definite scheme on which the entire empire was founded4 ,in accord with this plan the population was divided into four classes1 consisting of the ,haiminthe people2 the warriors or ,samurai1 the ,kazoku1 literally the flower of families1 the nobility4 ,all members of the imperial family formed a fourth caste and above all stood the ,emperor1 the central ruler1 the divine descendant of the sun-goddess ,amaterasu4 ,evidences that an extension and fresh territorial division of the empire took place at one time seem preserved in the ancient ,japanese name for ,japan3 ,oya-shimathe eight islands4 ,it is likewise related that the ,japanese creators1 ,izanajo and ,izanami1 built1 in the centre of the world1 an octagonal palace around a central pillar1 the octagonal form having reference to the eight holy corners or points1 the 8,hak-kaku10 or the cardinal points and half cardinal points4 ,it is impossible to overlook the fact that by a similar method1 but by means of four larger and four smaller rays1 the field of the ,mexican calendar star is divided into eight equal portions4 ,it is a well-known fact that1 in #ahed1 ,japan was practically governed by two rulers3 the ,mikado or ,tenno1 of divine or 8heavenly0 descent1 who led so secluded an existence that he was becoming a shadowy and invisible ruler1 and the ,shogun1 the civil governor1 who had become the terrestrial ruler par excellence1 and whose power was in the ascendant4 ,this state of affairs affords a most interesting object lesson1 teaching how ancient empires gradually become divided and disintegrated under dual government and under the influence of rival cults4 ,the ancient state religion or 8,imperial worship0 of ,japan1 the ,shinto1 was becoming as obsolete as the worldly power of its high-priest the ,mikado1 next to the growing ascendancy of ,buddhism1 supported by the ,shogunate4 ,the original meaning of the ,shinto sacred symbols appears to be lost4 ,the mirror1 placed on the altar1 usually constituted the only visible sacred emblem4 ,another was the sword4 ,it is claimed that the swastika came into ,japan with ,buddhism1 but this is a point which demands a serious investigation of competent specialists4 ,the above data1 which are absurdly inadequate to the interest and importance of ,japan1 the seat of the most intellectual and progressive culture of ,asia1 are sufficient to show that in ,japan1 where the swastika is found1 the quadruplicate state organization and fundamental plan were also carried out4 ,my full purpose will only be fulfilled when the present deficient notes shall have stimulated the enquiry and research of students and ,japanese scholars and led to the publication of all traces extant of the most ancient scheme of organization1 government and calendar1 as compared with those of ancient ,america4 ,as it is maintained that the ,chinese and other eastern ,asiatic people did not originate1 but received their civilization from ,babylonia1 or another ancient centre1 situated in western ,asia1 it obviously becomes an imperative necessity to carry the present investigation across the ,asiatic continent into the heart of the ,euphratean valley4 ,,india4 ,being one of the ancient centres of civilization from which the ,chinese are said to have derived theirs1 ,india1 the country where the swastika abounds1 first arrests our attention4 ,in support of the assertion ,i have already advanced1 that the primitive symbol is always found accompanied by a set of ideas almost as ancient as itself1 ,i have pleasure in transcribing the following detached but instructive and suggestive extracts from my note-book4 ,the fair ,arya or ,aryans1 after about #b1jjj ,b4,c41 penetrated ,india from the northwest4 ,arya means 8those who command0 or 8the venerable40 ,the name ,hindu or ,sindu was given to the ,indian ,aryans4 ,our knowledge of ,hindu art begins in the third century ,b4,c4 and none of the present popular forms of ,hindu religion are presumed to be earlier than the ninth century ,a4,d4 8,it is well known that the ,brahman system and faith were not developed by the ,hindus till they had conquered the ,ganges1 ,western and ,southern ,india and there is no trace of this tradition or even of ,brahma as a deity in the ,vedas40444 8,the supreme god of antiquity was ,indra 444 next to and above whom was the mysterious god ,varuna1 the creator1 who gave eternal laws which god and men were obliged to follow4 ,he showed the stars their paths and gave each creature his qualities4444 ,he is the sun by day and the stars at night04444 ,from these statements the duality of the creator and his power over both light and darkness alike1 stand out clearly4 ,another form of the supreme being was the sun god ,surya1 who was also named ,savitri1 the generator1 ,pushanthe feeder and ,mithrathe light-god1 who is called the watcher and ruler of the world and was associated with the wheel1 which is termed 8the most ancient symbol of divine power and dominion407#hi7 8,in ,india the wheel was1 moreover1 connected with the title of a chakrayartin 7from chakraa wheel71 the title meaning a supreme ruler or universal monarch1 who ruled the four quarters of the world and on his coronation he had to drive his chariot or wheel to the four cardinal points to signify his conquest of them0 7,wm4 ,simpson1 ,quarterly statement of ,palestine ,expl4 ,fund1 #ahie1 p4 #hd74 ,it is significant that 8,mithra10 the god of the wheel1 who was1 as ,i shall show later on1 likewise associated with the serpent1 is represented with a chariot pulled by seven horses and thus to find the idea of centrifugal power1 combined with the numeral seven and the conception of central rulership extending to the four quarters4 ,while the above passages afford an interesting insight into the ancient significance and symbolism of the chariot1 the use of which1 with that of the throne was1 originally1 exclusively confined to the central supreme ruler1 they also furnish a curious parallelism to the ,chinese tours of inspection performed1 by the emperor1 to the four provinces in rotation4 ,the general application of the quadruplicate system is moreover shown by the fact that1 from time immemorial1 the population of ,india has been divided into four great castes1 and these are associated with distinctive colors1 the ,sanscrit word for color1 varna1 signifying also caste4 ,according to the native myth1 ,brahma created the ,brahmin or ruling caste from his mouth1 the warrior caste from his arms and hands1 the merchant and agricultural caste from his hips and the artisan or lowest caste from the soles of his feet4 ,the warrior caste was named ,kschatria2 the people the yellow1 or ,vaicya2 the original1 conquered inhabitants of ,india were named the black1 or ,sudra4 ,the ,brahman caste was above all these4 ,concerning the origin of the ,brahmans1 it is related that 8,manu was created 444 he1 in turn created ten great sages1 the ancestors of the ,brahmans4 ,these created seven other ,manus or spiritual princes1 the preservers of moral orders in the world0 7,goodyear74 ,pointing out that the seven ,manus evidently constituted a septarchy1 let us now study the ,brahmanistic conception of a supreme divinity4 ,from various authorities we learn that1 in later times 8the ,brahmans invented a new god1 the impersonal ,brahma1 who only appears in the youngest portion of the ,vedas40 ,he is described as 8the supreme ,one who alone exists really and absolutely10 and is represented with four heads and four arms1 the idea of four-fold power and rule being thus expressed4 ,the proof that1 at the same time1 the idea of duality existed1 is furnished by the invention of a female counterpart of ,brahma1 namely1 his consort ,sarawati and the later development of the rival religions which now exist side by side and divide the population of ,india into halves4 ,the cult of ,vishnu1 associated with the male principle1 though curiously blended with the principle of preservation1 is obviously a parallel form of the ,american and ,chinese cult of the ,above or ,heaven2 while that of ,siva1 or the female principle1 strongly mingled with the idea of destruction1 forms a parallel to the cult of the ,earth-mother and of darkness and the nocturnal heaven4 ,brahma was born of an egg and is also figured as springing from a lotus which1 in turn rises from the navel of ,vishnu or ,narayana1 8the ,spirit moving on the waters404447#ij7 ,in modern ,buddhism the identical fundamental ideas continue to exist in a slightly different form2 the six directions in space are known and elaborately worshipped4 ,the embodiment of central power is ,buddha1 seated cross-legged on a lotus flower4 ,according to ,birdwood1 cited by ,mr4 ,goodyear1 8,in the ,hindu cosmogony the world is likened to a lotus flower1 floating in the centre of a shallow circular vessel1 which has for its stalk an elephant and for its pedestal a tortoise4 ,the seven petals of the lotus flower represent the seven divisions of the world as known to the ancient ,hindus and the tabular torus 7,nelumbium speciosum7 which rises from their centre represents ,mount ,meru1 the ,hindu ,olympus40 ,in the statues of ,buddha1 thus associated with the centre of the world1 we have what may be termed the highest development of the idea of stability1 quietude and absolute repose which impressed itself upon the human mind by the observation of ,polaris4 ,the abstract conception of ,nirvana1 8the state in which all individuality and consciousness are lost1 and life and death1 good and evil1 and every other possible antithesis disappear in absolute unity10 appears to me to be the natural ultimate outgrowth of the primitive appreciation of stability and repose as the most desirable of conditions4 ,an ancient ,american priest-astronomer1 imbued with the native ideas1 would doubtlessly see in the modern figures of ,buddha a more perfect artistic rendition of the same conception which was expressed in the ,copan swastika4 ,he might remark that1 in the statues of ,buddha1 the human form is intended to convey the idea of quadruple organization and that in certain images the primitive symbols of the centre1 8the belly and navel10 are obviously emphasized4 ,in the fakirs1 who cultivate immobility1 he might see people who are under the absolute dominion of the ideal of stability and detect the origin of this suggestion from the fact that the swastika position of either arms or legs is a favorite one among ,hindoo fanatics1 just as1 out of devotion1 many persons have swastikas painted or tattooed upon their limbs4 ,it is interesting to note the peculiar result attained by the ,buddhists in their development of the twin idea of permanence1 i4 e4 immutability or immortality1 as shown in the following quotation3 8,there is a remarkable distinction between the ,buddhism of ,china and of ,tibet4 ,in regard to philosophy there is little or no difference1 but in ,tibet there is a hierarchy which exercises political power4 ,in ,china this could not be4 ,the ,grand ,lama and many other lamas in ,mongolia and ,tibet assume the title of #8,living ,buddha4' ,in him1 most of all1 ,buddha is incarnate1 as the people are taught to think4 ,he never dies4 ,when the body1 in which ,buddha is for the time incarnate1 ceases to perform its functions1 some infant is chosen by the priests1 who are intrusted with the duty of selecting1 to become the residence of ,buddha until1 in turn1 it grows up to manhood and dies4 ,no ,buddhist priest in ,china pretends to be a #8living ,buddha' or to have a right to the exercise of political power4 ,in ,tibet1 on the other hand1 the ,grand ,lama1 as chief of the #8living ,buddhas1' not only holds the place of the historical ,buddha long since dead1 acting as a sort of high-priest1 but he also exercises sovereignty over the country of ,tibet ruling the laity as well as the clergy and being only subordinate to the lord paramount1 the ,emperor of ,china0 7,edkins1 ,religion in ,china1 p4 #h74 8,the form of the ,buddhist temples exemplifies in a striking manner the relative positions of ,buddha and the gods4 ,four kings of the gods are represented in the vestibule4 ,their office is to guard the door by which entrance is obtained to the presence of ,buddha4444 ,the central position is that of ,buddha1 who is seated on the lotus flower in the attitude of a teacher44440 7,edkins74 ,in this attitude an ancient ,american high-priest would see the graphic representation of one of the titles of the star-god ,polaris1 8the teacher of the world40 ,the association of ,buddha with the north and with the number seven is curiously shown in the mythical account that 8when ,buddha was born a lotus blossomed where he touched the ground2 he stepped seven steps northward and a lotus marked each footfall40 ,distinct evidence of the ancient cult of ,polaris is yielded by the ,hindu marriage custom1 which ,i have found described thus in ,meyer's conversations ,lexikon3 8,in the evening the bride and bridegroom seat themselves on the hide of a red ox1 after making the usual offerings4444 ,then the bridegroom points out the pole-star to the bride and says3 #8the heaven is firm1 also the earth2 the universe is stedfast1 so mayest thou be stedfast in our family'44440 ,the symbolism of the act of sharing the ox-hide as a seat becomes apparent when it is realized that the name for cow or oxgo1 also signifies possessions and riches1 a conception which is traceable to a period when cattle constituted the chief and most valued possession of pastoral tribes4 ,the veneration accorded in ,india to the cow is well known and travellers have frequently described the sacred statue of a cow1 which is seven feet in height and stands next to the sacred well of the temple at ,benares4 ,in connection with the reference to the pole-star made by the ,hindu bridegroom1 it is noteworthy that the ,sanscrit for star is stri1 tara1 for stara2 ,hindu sitara1 tara and ,bengal stara and that variants of the same word constitute the name for star in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,gothic1 ,old and ,anglo ,saxon1 ,welsh1 ,icelandic1 ,swedish1 ,danish and ,basque1 in which language it appears as izarra1 recalling the ,hindu sitara and1 if ,i may venture to say so1 the ,nahuatl word for star1 citlallin4 ,the supreme veneration and importance accorded in ,india to the ,north1 from time immemorial1 are shown by passages of the book of ,manu1 which prescribe the severe penances which were to be performed by the ,brahmans who attained advanced age4 ,he 8is to inflict all sorts of tortures upon himself and when he falls ill in consequence1 he is to set out to walk to the northwest1 towards the holy mountain ,meru1 until his mortal frame breaks down and he unites himself with ,brahma40 ,it is likewise stated that when a ,brahman king grew old and ill he was obliged to abdicate in favor of his son and voluntarily seek death in battle or by starvation1 whilst wandering towards the holy mountain ,meru1 in the northwest4 ,i point out the curious parallelism of this custom1 which was carried out during countless centuries and determined a periodical migration towards the northwest of venerable sages1 presumably accompanied by faithful followers1 and the search for the stable centre of the world which caused the wanderings of ,american tribes under their chiefs4 ,according to various encyclopdias and general works of reference1 ,brahma is said to have made the world in two parts1 i4 e41 heaven and earth2 placed air between both and made the eight regions1 fire and the eternal waters4 ,the mythical mountain ,meru1 on the summit of which the supreme power is said to be enthroned in eternal majesty1 is the traditional paradise and is supposed to lie somewhere in the northwest of the ,himalayas4 ,it is situated in the centre of the seven zones in which the earth is divided1 thence its name ,meruthe ,middle4 ,the association of the central mountain with divinity and eternal stability is further shown by the statement that the sun1 moon and stars circled about it and that it supported the heaven4 ,as the natural complement to the above1 ,i can cite the following evidences of an all-pervading quadruplicate division and organization1 as set forth in an ancient manuscript which was brought from ,india by ,count ,angelo de ,gubernatis and exhibited in ,florence in #ahih1 by ,mr4 ,pull1 in an extremely instructive series of native maps of ,india3 #a4 ,in the oldest maps1 the empire of ,india was represented as a disk1 divided into a number of concentric zones1 in the centre of which arose the sacred mountain4 #b4 ,these representations were1 in several cases1 accompanied by representations of the swastika obviously representing quadruplicate territorial division4 ,on ,mount ,meru itself there were four lakes respectively filled with milk1 butter1 coagulated milk and sugar4 ,four great rivers flowed from the mountain towards the cardinal points1 namely1 the ,ganges1 issuing from the mouth of a cow1 the ,sita from the head of the elephant2 the ,bhadra from a tiger or lion and the ,chaksu from a horse4 ,according to ,buddhistic mythology1 the sacred mountain ,meru1 which constitutes the centre of the world1 is guarded by four hero 8kings of demons40 ,their names are as follows3 #a4 ,kubera or ,vaisrnana1 the god of wealth1 who lives in the north1 whose attributes are the lance and banner1 the rat which throws forth jewels from its mouth4 #b4 ,virdhaka1 who rules the south1 and whose attributes are the helmet in the form of an elephant's head1 and a long sword4 #c4 ,virpksha1 the guardian of the west3 attributes1 the jewel and the serpent4 #d ,dhrtarshtra1 the ruler of the east3 attribute1 the mandoline4 ,an interesting parallelism is brought out by a comparison between the ancient ,mexican mode of producing the sacred fire by means of a reed and a piece of wood and its symbolism of the mystic union of the two principles of nature1 to the origin of fire as told in the ,veda and the ceremonial mode employed in ,india to produce the sacred fire by means of the mystic arani and the pramantha4 ,the difference between the ancient ,american and ,indian apparatus should be noticed4 ,the two arani1 made of the wood of ,ficus religiosa1 were placed crosswise4 8,at their junction was a fossette or cup-like hole and there they placed a piece of wood upright1 in the form of a lance 7the pramantha71 violent rotation of which by means of whipping1 produced fire1 as did ,prometheus1 the bearer of fire in ,greece0 7,bournouf1 ,des ,sciences et ,religions and ,prof4 ,thomas ,wilson1 ,the ,swastika1 p4 #ggg74 ,a remarkable relation unquestionably exists between the two mystic arani1 which1 crossed1 form a four-branched cross from the centre of which fire is produced by rotation and the almost universal identification of ,polaris and ,ursa ,major1 as the central source of life1 power extending to four directions1 rotation and duality underlying quadruplicity4 ,in my opinion no more graphic presentation of the rotation of ,ursa ,major around ,polaris1 the central ruler of heaven1 could have been devised than the cross figure from the centre of which fire was perpetually obtained4 ,it is all the more significant1 therefore1 to find it stated that the ancient ,aryan light-god1 ,mithra1 was worshipped under the form of fire4 ,i point out that1 in a representation published by ,layard in his ,culte de ,mithra and reproduced here 7fig4 #gb1 #a7 from ,mr4 ,goodyear's work1 a man and a woman are represented as worshipping a star1 the scene so strongly recalling the portion of the ,hindu marriage ceremony where the pole-star is pointed out1 that an identity of scene suggests itself4 ,returning to the swastika3 its meaning in ,india appears to be forgotten2 but1 according to ,professor ,thomas ,wilson1 a follower of the ,jain religion expressed the opinion that 8the original idea was very high1 but later on some persons thought the swastika represented only the combination of the male and female principles0 7,thomas ,wilson1 ,on the ,swastika1 p4 #hjc74 ,to the ,hindu1 holding this view and also accustomed to associate the pole-star with the marriage rite1 there must exist a curious band of union and identity between ,polaris and the swastika1 both connected with the combination of the male and female principles4 ,to treat of the ,hindu calendar and division of time would be to transgress beyond the limits of the present investigation which has already assumed unforeseen dimensions4 ,as ,i shall discuss it in detail in my monograph on the ancient ,mexican ,calendar system1 it will suffice to recall here that ,humboldt pointed out the resemblance between the latter and the ,hindu system1 and that this has been further dwelt upon for instance in the article on the subject in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,in the same work of reference it is also stated that1 8according to the conclusions of ,delambre1 the ,hindoo knowledge of astronomy was greatly inferior to that of the ,greeks1 and it has been argued by ,laplace1 in opposition to the previous opinions of ,bailly1 that the ,indian astronomy is not of the highest antiquity1 but must have been imperfectly borrowed from the ,greeks40 ,i may as well state here1 however1 that1 in ,india as in ,mexico1 the divisions of time were in accordance with the general scheme1 and enabled human activity and labor to be controlled and carried out by means of rotation1 and with strict impartial law1 order and harmony4 ,pausing here and with a clear realization of probable omissions and deficiencies of material1 ,i venture to believe that the foregoing data suffice to establish beyond a doubt the point which is the main object of the present essay1 namely1 that in ,india the swastika is found accompanied by the primordial set of ideas which also form the basis of the ,chinese and ancient ,american civilizations4 ,the ,middle is1 moreover1 associated in ,india with the idea of immovability1 repose and centrifugal power and rule1 incorporated in the supreme divinity whose symbol is the wheel and who is represented as dual and quadruple in nature1 i4 e4 with four hands 7as two persons71 and with four heads 7four persons71 the six persons thus symbolized being united in the person of the seventh1 the synopsis of them all4 ,the seven-day period2 the seven zones of the earth2 the seven divine footsteps towards the north2 the seven councillors of the ,brahmin king1 etc41 all prove that1 whereas six directions in space were worshipped in ,india1 they were inseparable from the sacred seventh which united all of them4 ,the mythical sacred mountain ,meru1 the throne of the supreme eternal power1 constituted the fixed centre of the world and strikingly exemplified quadruplicate division and organization1 being associated with four lakes and four rivers2 four mythical animals and four guardians4 ,in consonance with this plan ,brahma was endowed with four heads and four hands2 the empire was divided into four quarters and seven zones1 and the population into four castes identified with four colors1 and governed by a king and seven councillors4 ,the wheel1 associated in the case of ,mithra with the serpent1 constituted the emblem of supreme dominion and rule which was connected with the idea of an extension to the four quarters4 ,the swastika was but another expression of the same idea and represented also an image of the universal scheme4 ,this sign and the pole-star were both associated1 in the native mind1 with the life-producing union of the male and female principles of nature and the sacred element fire1 under which form the supreme god was anciently worshipped4 ,the lotus flower symbolized the universe1 its unity and complexity2 the number of petals represented usually agreeing with the number of the cosmical divisions4 ,two points should further be briefly referred to3 ,the division of time into seven-day periods coincides with the septenary scheme of organization resting upon the seven directions in space4 ,the sacred soma tree1 the hom1 was an object of cult in ,india4 ,the custom of planting a ,bodhi tree wherever ,buddhist missionaries established their doctrine indicates its association with the idea of an established centre4 ,the employment of wooden sticks for the production of the sacred fire under which form the supreme central god was anciently worshipped1 also connected wood and the tree with the sacred ,centre4 ,deferring a discussion of the different and yet analogous way in which the fundamental set of ideas was worked out in ,america and ,india1 ,i shall but mention here how clearly1 in each case1 the ultimate results can be traced back to a common primitive and natural origin4 ,,mesopotamia4 ,let us now carry our research into that region whence civilization spread through western ,asia1 and is said to have been carried to ,egypt1 ,greece and ,rome4 ,it may be a surprise to many to learn that1 at the present day1 on the banks of the ,euphrates1 in ,mesopotamia1 pole-star worship1 pure and simple1 is openly professed by the ,mandates who are reputed to be the descendants of the famous ,magi of ancient ,chaldea1 and are termed ,sabba or ,sabans by the ,moslems4 ,it will be seen that these star-watchers have preserved intact an extremely ancient form of the archaic cult which contains the living germ of all primitive religions and represents an evolutionary stage which they must all have undergone4 ,it is to the kindness of a friend that ,i owe the knowledge of an article on a ,mandate ,new ,year festival which appeared in the 8,standard0 some years ago and which ,i reproduce in full as ,appendix ,,ii4 ,as might be expected1 the ,euphratean star-gazers1 like the ,chinese1 determined midnight by the position of the ,great ,bear4 ,it is interesting to find1 moreover1 that the spiritual head of the sect is entitled ,gan-zivro1 and is closely escorted by four young deacons1 named sh-kan-dos1 as well as by four prieststarmidos1 and four sub-deacons4 ,the circumstance that the consecrated group of officiants consists of #abaac individuals is particularly suggestive4 ,not less so are the employment of the tau-shaped cross and the sacrifice of a quadruped to the lord of the underworld and his companion 7the lord of the upper world874 ,the ceremonial immersion in the starlit river is a curious parallel to the midnight bathing in the sacred pool attached to the ancient ,mexican temple4 ,the formulas employed in addressing the pole-star deserve special consideration4 ,in the designation of the stable centre of heaven as 8the abode of the pious hereafter and the paradise of the elect10 the natural longings of the human race for stability1 i4 e4 safety and repose1 find an expression and in this we can detect the germ of thought whose extreme development1 in ,india1 produced the comparatively philosophical doctrine of ,nirvana4 ,the title of 8,primitive ,sun0 enlightens us as to the original use of the word sun and the supreme importance accorded by the ancient star-gazers to the 8,imperial ruler of heaven10 as the ,chinese term the pole-star4 ,this application of the word sun will be found particularly interesting to those who1 having found the swastika termed a 8sun-symbol10 have naturally been led to associate it with the diurnal sun1 although they found it difficult to understand its connection with the rotatory motion so clearly discernible in the form of the primitive symbol4 ,having ascertained that the ,mandate pole-star worship of the present day embodies the cult of the sacred centre and of dual principles 7one of which is designated as the lord of the underworld7 and is associated with quadruple organization and a form of cross1 let us now make a great stride backwards and note some details concerning ancient ,saban star-worship4 ,,arabia4 ,in remote antiquity1 star-worship prevailed throughout ,arabia and one of its great centres was the flourishing land of ,saba or ,sheba1 whose queen visited ,solomon at ,jerusalem4 ,the star-cult of the ,sabans is acknowledged to have resembled that of the ancient inhabitants of ,syria1 ,mesopotamia1 ,persia and ,india4 ,we are told that a certain sect amongst them 8believed in a great cycle of time in which certain epochs of the world's history recurred0--an idea akin to ancient ,mexican speculative philosophy4 ,it is also stated that one of the chief centres of ,sabism was the town of ,harran in ,mesopotamia and that1 although surrounded by ,christianity1 this ancient form of star-worship maintained itself here until the ,middle ,ages4 ,the possibility that the ,mandates of to-day may be the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of ,harran is naturally suggested by this historical fact4 ,a curious detail concerning monarchical succession in ,sheba has been preserved to us4 ,the king was kept in an enforced seclusion in his palace and incurred the penalty of death if he left it4 ,his office was not hereditary but fell to the first son who was born amongst the nobility1 after a king's accession to the throne4 ,in this custom1 a curious parallel of which is furnished by the ,thibetan mode of electing the 8living ,buddha10 some readers may be inclined to find an explanation for the massacre of the babes ordered by ,herod when he learned that the wise men of the ,east1 guided by a star1 had designated 8a young child0 as the future 8,king of the ,jews40 ,it is an interesting reflection that1 to many of his contemporaries1 the establishment of the 8,kingdom of ,heaven10 announced by the ,messiah1 may have appeared as a movement to revive the most ancient form of government and to reinstate ,jerusalem as the central metropolis of an empire1 the organization of which would have resembled the ,chinese and ancient ,american forms of 8,middle ,kingdoms10 or 8,celestial ,empires40 ,the ideal of many of these descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers may well have been the reversion to the primitive1 pure type of single central1 celestial and terrestrial rule which had been superseded in western ,asia by the pernicious growth of the utterly abasing and demoralizing separate cults of the dual principles of nature4 ,a curious remnant of the worship of the ,earth-mother and of the stable centre of the world1 recalling ancient ,american symbolism1 exists in ,arabia and merits a passing notice4 8,the great holy place of ,jiddah1 the principal landing place of the pilgrims to ,mecca1 on the eastern coast of the ,red sea1 is the singular tomb of #8our mother ,eve' surrounded by the principal cemetery4 ,the tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the body about #bjj paces long and #ae feet wide4 ,at the head is a small erection where gifts are deposited and rather more than half way down a whitewashed dome encloses a small1 dark chapel1 within which is the black stone known as el-surrahthe navel4 ,the grave of ,eve is mentioned by ,edrisi but1 except the black stone1 nothing bears any aspect of antiquity0 7,encycl4 ,brit41 article ,jiddah74 ,the fact that the ,arabian appellation for ,mecca is om-el-kora8the mother of cities0 deserves special attention4 ,exactly in the centre of the city is the mosque enclosing the kaaba1 a structure the only door of which opens to the north4 ,it contains the celebrated black sacred stone and a trough1 reputed to be of pure gold1 which conducts freshly fallen rain water to the interior of the building and pours it upon its floor of dark earth4 ,the following details are given in a recently published account by an anonymous visitor3 8,the ,moslems believe that the original ,kaaba was built in heaven two thousand years before the creation of the world and that1 at the command of the ,almighty1 angels walked around it in adoration4 ,furthermore1 they said that ,adam built the first ,kaaba on earth on its present site1 directly under the one in heaven4444 ,long before the time of ,mahomet1 the ,kaaba was a place of worship for the idolatrous ,arabs and in it they had no less than #cfj idols1 one for each day of the ,arabian year4 ,these were destroyed by ,mahomet44440 ,beside the pilgrimages to the ,kaaba pious ,mussulmans also visit the sacred granite mountains the 8,arafat where ,adam is supposed to have met ,eve after a long separation40 ,summarized1 the preceding facts clearly show that1 from a remote antiquity1 the ,arabians have preserved the conception of 7#a7 a divine1 celestial1 stable sanctuary around which 8angels0 walked in a circle4 7#b7 ,a terrestrial sanctuary built by man directly beneath the heavenly one and associated with the period of a year1 i4 e4 #cfj days4 7#c7 ,in the sacred terrestrial kaaba the mystic union of rain and earth is made to take place1 while 7#d7 ,mount ,arafat is connected with the traditional reunion of ,adam and ,eve4 ,it is unnecessary to point out the significant association of an annual count of days with the stable centre and its importance as an indication that the ancient ,arabian star-gazers originally associated the year period with circumpolar rotation4 ,the analogy between the ,arabian ideas concerning the dual principles of nature and those of other nations is also too marked to be easily overlooked4 ,nor need ,i emphasize how strikingly the imagery of the celestial kaaba suits ,polaris and the circumpolar constellations4 ,but ,i shall now proceed to point out that the word kaaba itself curiously resembles star-names which are given by ,mr4 ,robert ,brown in his recent valuable publication to which ,i shall revert1 namely1 the ,akkadian name for constellation in generalkakkab and the ,babylonian and ,assyrian name for the pole-star,kakkabu4 ,in this connection and upon ,professor ,sayce's authority ,i cite the significant fact that the word for north and for the empire and capital of northern ,babylonia was ,akkad1 and that we thus find in ,north ,babylonia a great centre of government the name of which contains the syllables ak-ka which recur in the appellations for north and for ,polaris4 ,the following star-names1 given by ,mr4 ,robert ,brown1 are of utmost interest considering that a star in ,draconis was the pole-star of #bagj ,b4,c4 and that in general the serpent was indissolubly connected with the pole-star4 8,the constellation ,drakon is ,phnician,kanaanite in origin and represented primarily the nkksch qodmun 7old serpent7the guardian of the stars 7golden apples7 which hang from the pole tree4 ,it is called the crooked serpentnakkasch in ,job ,,xxvi3#ac 4440 7op4 cit41 p4 #bi74 ,i further cite ,mr4 ,brown's authority for the fact that in ,phnicia ,a4,d41 #abjj1 the name for ,ursa ,major was ,dubkabir and for ,ursa ,minor1 ,dub4 ,before returning to the ,euphratean valley let us note some facts concerning the ancient religion of ,,persia4 ,the swastika is found in ,persia as well as a sacred mountain1 the ,elburl4 ,the supreme divinity was the invisible ,ahuramazda1 the 8creator of heaven and earth10 who was associated with 8eternal light0 and appears to be identical with the ancient ,aryan god of light1 ,mithra1 the watcher and ruler of the world1 who was worshipped under the form of fire4 ,mithra and ,ahuramazda alike are associated with six spirits named the ,amesha-zpenta1 who are said1 in the first case1 to be personifications of the sun1 moon1 fire1 earth1 water and air1 and in the second1 of certain qualities of the supreme power1 namely1 law1 power1 goodness1 piety1 health and immortality1 abstract conceptions which evidently pertain to a more advanced intellectual stage4 ,the septarchy thus formed by ,mithra and his ,amesha appears to assign the ,middle to him and to associate the sun with the day1 heaven1 light and the ,above1 the moon with the night and darkness and the ,below1 and the elements with the ,four ,quarters4 ,it is suggestive of four-fold rule and power to find1 on a bas-relief found at the ancient holy city ,pasargada1 the ,persian king ,cyrus represented with four wings and a diadem with two urus serpents like that of ,egyptian kings4 ,the most ancient ,persian monarch is said to have been ,haha-manis or ,akhamanis1 who was termed 8the king of ,anshan40 ,subsequent kings bore the title of ,hakhamanisija1 as for instance1 ,cyrus and ,darius ,i 7#ebj-dhf ,b4,c474 ,at the present day1 the title ,charkan is that employed to designate the ,shah1 whereas goda or khoda signifies lord1 master1 prince or ruler4 ,in a bas-relief published by ,spamer1 whose work of reference will be referred to again later on1 ,darius is represented as standing under the image of ,ahuramazda1 the supreme deity1 who1 like the ,assyrian god ,assur1 is figured as a king wearing the royal cap1 and issuing from the centre of a winged ring or circlet4 ,in ,persia the god holds another ring in his hand 7fig4 #ga1 #a74 ,it seems impossible to emphasize more strongly or express more clearly the idea that ,ahuramazda was the lord of the circle and of the ,above1 the wings being emblematic of air or heaven and of motion4 ,the signification of the symbolical representation of the supreme power and the adoption of fire by the founders of the ancient ,parsee religion as the most appropriate image of their highest god1 become clear when interpreted as the outcome of pole-star worship4 ,resisting the temptation to prolong the study of ancient ,persia1 let us now hasten to the reputed cradle of the civilization of ,western ,asia4 ,,babylonia ,,and ,,assyria4 8,the ,babylonians were from the first a nation of star gazers4444 ,the cuneiform character which denotes a god is the picture of a star0 7,sayce op4 cit474 8,the ,babylonian and ,assyrian-name for ,ursa ,minor was ,kakkabu2 the ,hebrew1 ,kokhbh2 and the ,euphratean1 ,kochab1 which means1 #8the star present1' a title which reminds us of its former supreme importance as the pole-star4444 ,in various ,babylonian tablets we meet a star-god called ,imina-bithe seven-fold one407#ia7 ,although ,mr4 ,brown has reached no definite conclusion as to the identity of this star-god1 ,i venture to maintain that the original 8seven-fold one0 could have been no other than ,ursa ,major and that this and 8the ever-present star0 are identical with what the ,chinese termed 8the ,imperial ,ruler of ,heaven0 and the 8,seven ,regulators40 ,the following passages furnish ample evidence of the suggestive influence that 8the seven-fold one0 exerted upon the minds of the ancient ,babylonian star-gazers4 8,the institution of the sabbath went back to the ,sumerian days of ,chaldea--the name itself is ,babylonian0 7,sayce1 op4 cit474 8,the seventh month 7,sept4-,oct47 in ,akkadian is named ,tul-kuthe holy altar4444 ,the seventh month of ,tasritutisri was also connected with the building of the tower of ,babel1 said to have been the special work of the #8,king of the ,holy ,mound1' ,sar-tuli-elli1 and its erection placed in the seventh month at the autumnal equinox4 ,it was a zikkurt with seven steps1 a circumstance connected with planetary 8 stellar symbolism4 ,this style of building is reduplicated in the oldest ,egyptian pyramids1 e4 g4 the pyramid of ,sakkrah1 which had seven steps like the ,babylonian towers4 ,this circumstance1 one amongst many such1 supplies a most interesting illustration of the fact that the ,egyptian civilization was mainly ,euphratean in origin0 7,robert ,brown1 op4 cit474 ,the following facts contained in ,prof4 ,morris ,jastrow's admirable hand book on the 8,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria10 further establish the pervading influence of the number seven4 8,the two most famous zikkurats of seven stages were those in ,babylon and ,borsippa1 opposite ,babylon4 ,the latter bears the significant name ,e-ur-imin-an-ki1 i4 e41 #8the house of seven divisions of heaven and earth4' ,two much older towers than those of ,babylon and ,borsippa bear names in which #8seven' is introduced4 ,one of these is the zikkurat to ,nin-girsu at ,lagash1 which ,gudea describes as #8the house of seven divisions of the world1' the other the tower at ,uruk1 which bore the name #8house of seven zones4' ,the reference in both cases is1 as ,jensen has shown1 to the seven concentric zones into which the earth was divided by the ,babylonians40 ,in a standard ,german book of reference 7,spamer's ,illustrierte ,weltgeschichte ,i ,theil1 ,alterthum1 ,i ,theil1 s4 #cga71 ,i find the statement that the zikkurat of the temple ,i-zidda at ,borsippa1 was called 8the temple of the seven lights of heaven and earth10 which seem to have been symbolized also by the seven-branched candlestick of the ,hebrews4 ,considering that other sacred symbols which were employed in ,solomon's temple are believed by ,professor ,jastrow to be 8imitations of ,babylonian models10 it seems justifiable to endeavor to trace to the same source the origin of the ,hebrew 8seven-branched candlestick10 to which ,i shall revert later on4 ,prof4 ,morris ,jastrow offers the suggestion that the name 8seven directions of heaven and earth0 may point to a conception of seven zones dividing the heavens as well as the earth1 and states that the 8seven divisions0 and 8seven zones0 are merely terms equivalent to universe4 ,he explains that the seven directions were interpreted by the ,babylonian theologians as a reference to the seven great celestial bodies1 the sun and moon1 ,ishtar1 ,marduk1 ,ninib1 ,nergal and ,nabu4 ,to each of these one story was supposed to be dedicated and the tower thus became a cosmological symbol4 ,moreover1 from ,herodotus' description of the seven concentric walls of ,ecbatana1 in which each wall was distinguished by a certain color1 the conclusion has been drawn that the same colors--white1 black1 scarlet1 blue1 orange1 silver and gold--were employed by the ,babylonians for the stages of their towers4 ,professor ,jastrow draws attention to the fact that the division of the earth into seven zones is a 8conception that we encounter in ,india and ,persia1 and that survives in the seven #8climates' into which the world was divided by ,greek and ,arabic geographers4 ,it seems clear that this interpretation of the number seven is older than the one that identified each story with one of the planets4 ,both interpretations have a scholastic aspect1 however1 and the very fact that there are two interpretations justifies the suspicion that neither furnishes the real explanation why the number seven was chosen 444 it is because seven was popularly sacred that the world was divided into seven zones and that the planets were fixed at seven1 not vice versa0 7p4 #fbj74 ,the preceding statements lead to the conclusion that1 among ,assyriologists there is no current1 generally-accepted view as to the origin of the 8sacred seven0 of the ,babylonians4 ,the following details concerning the zikkurat and the sanctuaries of ,babylon will be found to furnish evidence that their builders were imbued with the identical primitive set of ideas or seven-fold division of the cosmos that is now so familiar to the reader and is traceable to the observation of ,polaris and ,septentriones4 ,the astronomical association and cosmological symbolism of the zikkurat become more and more evident when all evidence concerning it is carefully sifted4 ,according to the cosmogony of the ,babylonians the earth was pictured as a huge mountain4 ,khar-sag-gal-kurkurathe mountain of all lands1 is a designation for the earth4 ,e-kurmountain house1 another name for the earth1 became one of the names for temple and1 by extension1 for the sacred precinct which enclosed the zikkurat and sacred edifices47#ib7 ,a plural formed of the word ,e-kur1,ekurrati1 was used for divinities1 and this association of the word mountain with the name for a god is particularly interesting when it is also remembered that the cuneiform character for god is a star and that therefore either a mountain1 or a star1 signified a god in ,babylonian and ,assyrian inscriptions4 ,bel1 the supreme star god of the ,babylonians1 whose name literally signifies merely 8lord or king10 and under the form ,ah-baal became current throughout ,asia ,minor1 was1 as ,professor ,jastrow states 7op4 cit4 p4 #dce71 actually identified with the polar star1 and sometimes addressed as the 8great mountain407#ic7 ,the famous temple1 the ,e-kur of ,babylonian history1 is described by ,herodotus1 ,strabo and other pagan authorities1 as consisting of seven stories and being surmounted by a sanctuary which was under the charge of a virgin priestess and contained a couch 7resting-place7 for the god47#id7 ,it is amply demonstrated1 moreover1 that the central zikkurat was regarded as the permanent resting and dwelling place of the lord or god1 par excellence1 and in this connection it is significant that among the names of sanctuaries enumerated by ,professor ,jastrow there occur such as 8the true or fixed house10 the house of the established seat1 the sacred dwelling1 the permanent dwelling1 etc4 ,the ,babylonian ideas connected with the supreme god and his temple are1 moreover1 sufficiently apparent in the prayers to ,marduk1 from which ,i extract the following detached passages3 8,marduk1 king of heaven and earth4444 ,look favorably upon the city1 ,o lord of rest6444 ,may the gods of heaven and earth speak to thee ,o lord of rest6444 ,a resting-place for the lord of ,e-sagila is thy house1 ,e-sagila1 the house of thy sovereignty1 is thy house44440 ,the sanctuary surmounting the zikkurat1 is also termed 8the high place par excellence1 or the lofty house1 the high edifice1 the tower of the great dwelling1 the great palace1 the house of the glorious mountain or god the house of him who gives the sceptre of the world2 also the house of light1 the house of great splendor1 the house without rival1 the gate of widespread splendor1 the light of ,shamash1 the heart of ,shamash1 the life of the world40 ,the idea that the 8mountain house0 or 8high place0 was the consecrated centre where the union of heaven and earth took place1 is apparent from the following names3 8the house of heavenly construction1 the heavenly house1 the house reaching to heaven1 the point of heaven and earth1 the link of heaven and earth1 the foundation stone of heaven and earth40 8,complementing10 as ,professor ,jastrow says1 8the cosmological associations that have been noted in connection with the zikkurat10 we find the inner room or sanctuary of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian temple named ,papakhu1 from the verb pakhuto close4 ,it was also known as the parakhu1 from parkuto shut off1 to lock4 8,gudea describes the papakhu as #8the dark chamber4' ,professor ,jastrow states that it was regarded as an imitation of a cosmical #8sacred chamber1' and from his book we learn that it was employed as an assembly room1 or council chamber by the priesthood4 ,it was indeed termed #8the assembly room' the #8place of fates1' #8the court of the world1' #8the house of oracle1' also as the #8sacred room where the gods assembled in solemn council' and #8the chamber of fates' where the chief god sits on ,new ,year's day and decides the fate of mankind for the ensuing year0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 p4 #dbc74 ,the ,babylonian and ,assyrian kings were the living representatives of the chief god and ,professor ,jastrow states that 8it was into the papakhu that the priests retired when they desired to obtain an oracle direct from the god4444 ,it is particularly interesting to collate the statements #8that the ,new ,year's day was the occasion of a symbolical marriage between a god and goddess1' and that #8the ,new ,year's festival came to be the season most appropriate for approaching the oracular chamber4' 0 ,it thus appears that the papakhu was the sacred and secret chamber where the ancient kings and their councillors united to confer upon the government of the nation and decreed the irrevocable laws which decided the fate of individuals4 8,the #8decision of fates' is1 in ,babylonian theology1 one of the chief functions of the gods4 ,it constitutes the mainspring of their power4 ,to decide fates is to control the arrangement of the universe--to establish order40 ,the 8tablets of fate0 are repeatedly mentioned in the ,assyrian epics where it is described how one god addressing another1 8gives him the tablets of fate1 hangs them on his breast and dismisses him10 with the words3 8thy command be invincible1 thy order authoritative0 7,jastrow1 pp4 #dbj and #dbd74 ,it is evident that these words were supposed to convey the power to establish order and issue irrevocable laws4 ,the temple of ,shamash 7who1 like ,marduk1 was evidently identical with ,bel71 situated in ,babylon1 was termed 8the house of the universal judge10 and it is extremely interesting to find this 8god07#ie7 represented on a stone tablet found at ,sippar1 as seated on a low throne in the sanctuary or papakkhu1 of the temple ,el-bab-bara1 while in front of him on an altar rests what ,professor ,jastrow describes as 8a wheel with radiant spokes40 ,a fine illustration of this tablet which bears an inscription by the king ,nabupaliddin 7#hgi-hee ,b4,c47 being published in ,spamer's standard work already cited1 ,i have been able to note the interesting fact that the 8wheel with radiant spokes0 exhibits four pointed rays1 directed outwards and forming a cruciform figure1 which1 by the way1 it is interesting to compare with the ,mexican ,calendar stone and its four rays4 ,each of the spaces between these pointed rays is filled by a group of wavy lines which appears to simulate some fluid flowing from the centre1 which is formed by a series of concentric circles4 ,the quadruplicate peculiar partition of the disk assumes special importance when it is realized that1 in the niche above the head of ,shamash1 a miniature production of the disk recurs between the familiar conventional images of the moon and a disk containing eight rays or spokes4 ,according to ,dr4 ,felix von ,luschan 7,mitth4 aus der vorderasiat4 ,abth4 der ,kgl4 ,museen1 ,heft ,,xi1 p4 #bd71 the inscription opens with the invocation to 8ilu ,sin1 ilu ,shamash u ilu ,ishtar10 a fact of double interest1 because ,ishtar is termed the 8twin-sister of ,shamash0 in an ,assyrian hymn1 and because the inscription obviously identifies the moon as the symbol of ,sin1 the four-spoked wheel as that of ,shamash and the eight-spoked wheel as that of ,ishtar4 ,as the king1 in his inscriptions expressly states that he has restored on the tablet the image of ,shamash according to an ancient model1 for the guidance of future artists1 it is evident that departures from the original cult of ,shamash had taken place in his time and that he was making an attempt to restablish it4 ,the extreme antiquity of the cult of ,shamash may1 indeed1 be inferred from the fact that about ,b4,c4 #ahej1 the king1 ,shamsi-ramann1 bore the god's name as a divine title4 ,about ,b4,c4 #acej1 moreover1 a temple was built to ,shamash in ,ashur4 ,i shall treat1 further on1 of the evidences showing that the cult of ,polaris gradually became a secret one known to the initiated only1 while popular worship was directed to the sun1 moon1 and morning and evening stars1 etc4 ,meanwhile the following passages from ,professor ,jastrow's hand-book will elucidate the ,babylonian ,assyrian cult of the ,four ,quarters4 8,the zikkurat was quadrangular in shape4 ,the orientation of the four corners towards the four cardinal points was approximate4 ,inasmuch as the rulers of ,babylon from a very early period call themselves #8king of the four regions1' it has been supposed that the quadrangular shape was chosen designedly40444 8,the title #8king of the four regions' was an old one that pertained to the kings of ,agade4444 ,the city of ,arbela1 at one time the seat of the cult of ,ishtar1 was named #8the four-god city4' 0 ,this name is particularly interesting when it is remembered that the ,babylonian and ,assyrian word for god and mountain was identical and that this identity may account for the ,chinese employment of the term 8four mountains10 to express also the four provinces and their chiefs4 ,professor ,jastrow informs us1 in a note1 that the name ,arbela is1 more precisely1 ,arba-ilu1 signifying 8city of the four-fold divinity0 or 8four-god0 city and invites comparison to the ,palestinian form ,kiryath-arba1 8four-city40 ,he suggests that this name may perhaps likewise signify a city of four gods1 but adds that it has commonly been explained as meaning four roads or four quarters 7op4 cit4 #bjc74 ,the ancient pagan authorities inform us that the ancient city of ,babylon was laid out in the form of a perfect square1 the sides of which were oriented to the cardinal points4 ,a massive wall enclosed the entire city and the river ,euphrates divided it into halves1 united by a bridge1 each half being again subdivided by the main street leading to the bridge4 ,a series of streets ran parallel to the river through the city and were crossed at right angles by others1 the result being that #fbe blocks or squares of building were thus formed4 ,there is positive evidence that the capital city of ,lagash or ,shir-pur-la was divided into four sections1 the separate names of which were ,girsu1 ,uru-alaga1 ,nin and ,gish-,galla or ,erim1 the reading of the latter name being doubtful4 ,the circumstance that each of these quarters had its 8divinity0 and was ruled by its earthly representative1 explains the term 8four-god city0 or 8four city0 found associated with other capitals of ,babylonia4 ,the existence of a central ruler who exercised supreme authority over the four quarters of the capital1 and by extension over the 8four provinces0 is amply proven by the title of the ,babylonian kings1 i4 e41 the 8king of the four regions40 ,an interesting oracle1 addressed to king ,esar-,haddon is found to contain the statement that 8,ashur has given him the four ends of the earth0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 #cde74 ,evidence that while the capital and entire state consisted of four quarters1 the whole was also divided theoretically and practically into halves1 is furnished by the significant fact that1 from remote antiquity1 the rulers of ,babylonia also bore the title of 8lord of ,akkad and ,sumer0,north and ,south1 this term being1 like that of 8,four ,regions10 a general designation for the whole of ,babylonia and the first being obviously analogous to the ,egyptian royal title3 8,king of upper and lower ,egypt40 ,i can but briefly indicate here some facts which prove that this ancient ,babylonian centre of civilization underwent precisely the same evolution as that ,i have traced in ,america and ,india4 ,assyriologists agree in stating that1 at the beginning of ,babylonian history1 about #d1jjj ,b4,c41 ,akkad and ,sumer1 or ,north and ,south ,babylonia1 already existed and were inhabited by two distinct races of people3 the non-,semitic ,sumerians and the ,semitic ,akkadians or later ,babylonians4 ,in later times we find the region embraced by the ,euphrates and ,tigris inhabited by descendants of both races and forming the ,babylonian empire in the south1 the ,assyrian empire to the northeast1 while in the northwestern part of ,mesopotamia1 was the seat of various empires that were alternately the rivals and subjects of either ,babylonia or ,assyria 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 #bf74 ,three distinct and rival cults are indeed found associated with these three centres of government1 and when examined by the light of our knowledge of a parallel process of evolution elsewhere1 their origin can be traced back to elementary pole-star heaven and earth worship1 and what is termed the establishment of the districts of ,anu1 ,bel and ,ea4 ,that at one period these separate cults peacefully existed alongside of each other is indicated by the joint worship of pairs and triads of divinities who were personifications of central powers1 of the upper and of the lower regions4 ,in order to demonstrate this statement ,i shall briefly cite some references to such divinities from ,professor ,jastrow's hand-book1 taking them in the order in which they are enumerated in the famous ,babylonian version of the creation of the world1 contained in the fragment known as the 8,creation epic0 which begins thus3 8,there was a time where ,above1 the heaven1 was not named4 ,below1 the earth1 bore no name4 ,apsu was there from the first1 the source of both 7i4 e41 heaven and earth74 ,and raging ,tiamat1 the mother of both 7i4 e41 heaven and earth740 ,apsu and ,tiamat are synonymous and are personifications of the watery deep or abyss4 8,apsu represents the male and ,tiamat the female principle of the primval universe 444 the embrace of ,apsu and ,tiamat became a symbol of #8sexual' union40 ,tiamat was popularly pictured as a huge serpent-like monster1 a fact of utmost interest when connected with the name ,nakkash1 i4 e41 crooked serpent1 bestowed upon the constellation ,draconis which contained the pole-star of #bagj ,b4,c4 ,abstaining from comment ,i merely establish here the interesting point that in ancient ,babylonia the serpent is found distinctly associated with ,polaris as well as with the dual creative principle4 ,the divine pairs ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu and ,anshar and ,kishar were then created4 ,by an arbitrary division of his name into ,an and shar1 the deity becomes the 8one that embraces all that is above40 ,the element ,an is the same that we have in ,anu and is the ideographic form for 8high0 and 8heaven40 ,ki is the ideographic form for earth and the natural consort to an all-embracing upper power is a power that 8embraces all that is below40 ,it is interesting thus to ascertain that on another tablet by the side of these personifications of heaven and earth are enumerated a series of names which certainly appear to be merely variations on the names or titles of the divine pairs4 ,lakhumu and ,lakhamu occur on the list1 and ,anshar and ,kishar recur as ,anshar-gal1 8great totality of what is on high10 and ,kishar-gal1 8great totality of what is below40 ,then there are ,en-shar and ,nin-shar1 8lord and mistress0 and a 8,father-,mother of ,anu10 titles which furnish an interesting comparison with the list printed on page #db of this investigation4 ,pagan authorities1 cited by ,professor ,jastrow1 relate that the first result of the union of ,apsu and ,tiamat was the production of 8strange monsters1 human beings with wings1 beings with two heads1 male and female1 hybrid formations1 half man1 half animal1 with horns of rams and horses' hoofs1 bulls with human faces1 dogs with four-fold bodies ending in fish tails40 ,seen in the light of the present investigation these accounts and the sculptured images of such monstrosities1 many of which have been preserved to the present day1 may be accounted for in a very simple and natural manner4 ,it is obvious that1 once the ,babylonian theologians had definitely adopted the theory and creed that the universe had been created by the union of the ,above and ,below1 ,male and ,female principle1 ,heaven and ,earth1 or ,upper and ,lower ,firmament1 the production of allegorical images personifying or symbolizing this union would inevitably follow in course of time4 ,the somewhat nave but expressive combination of the form of a quadruped or serpent with that of a bird1 and the adoption of winged bulls1 lions and serpents1 would have seemed a most appropriate rendering of the current idea of the dual1 creative power1 which might also be conveyed by two heads1 or two horns4 ,from ,professor ,jastrow's description of the case of a single monster1 with four bodies and with attributes of the elements earth and water1 we learn that not only the union of heaven and earth but also of earth and water was at times the task imposed upon the native artists by the fancy and imagination of minds dwelling upon the subject of the creative first cause4 ,postponing further discussion of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian symbolism of the ,middle1 ,above and ,below and ,four ,quarters or the 8seven directions of ,heaven and ,earth10 ,i shall now direct attention to the most famous triad of ,babylonian cosmology which figures at the end of the ,creation epic4 ,it consisted of ,anu1 ,ea and ,bel7#if7 and obviously personified the ,above and ,below and the link or central meeting place of these1 the earth named ,esharra1 8the house of fertility0 or ,e-kur 8the mountain house40 ,we learn from ,professor ,jastrow's handbook that whereas ,belthe polar star 7the secret god7 and ,nibirthe planet ,jupiter 7the later popular personification of ,bel7 were associated with the ,north1 ,ea was identified with the ,south 7p4 #dce74 ,elsewhere we are told that ,anu was identified with the ,north1 ,bel with the equator and ,ea with the ,south 7p4 #dfj71 a fact to which ,i shall again recur in treating of the territorial divisions of the state1 which corresponded to the three divisions of the universe1 the ,above1 ,middle and ,below4 ,the following detached statements concerning ,babylonian divinities drawn from ,professor ,jastrow's handbook1 show with what activity the fundamental set of ideas was developed by the native theologians and philosophers4 ,bel-arduk became the chief god of ,babylon1 the title 8,belu-rabu0 i4 e41 8great lord10 becoming identified with ,marduk4 ,as such he is termed 8the king of heaven and earth0 and the 8lord of the four regions40 ,his dwelling was on the sacred 8mountain-house10 the zikkurat1 and is represented 8with a crown with high horns1 a symbol of dual rulership4 ,as the supreme ruler1 life and death are in his hands and he guides the decrees of the deities of the ,above and ,below40 8,the first part of the name ,marduk is also used to designate the #8young bullock1' and it is possible that the god was pictured in this way40 ,it should be remembered here1 however1 that on page #hi ,professor ,jastrow tells us how ,nannarthe one who furnishes lightthe moon1 was invoked as 8the powerful bull of ,anu10 i4 e41 heaven4 ,in this connection it is interesting to learn that in ,canaan1 ,astarte1 the goddess of night1 was also worshipped under the form of a cow1 and that in ,phnicia she was sometimes figured with horns1 symbolizing the moon4 ,in ,assyria1 four horns1 denoting four-fold rulership1 usually encircle the high conical cap of sovereignty1 which also crowns the human heads of the winged bulls4 ,it may be permissible to point out here what an appropriate and expressive embodiment of symbolism the winged bull appears to be2 the form of the quadruped1 combined with wings1 clearly symbolizes a union of the ,above and ,below2 the control over both being expressed by the human head which completes the allegorical figure4 ,the high cap1 with which the head was crowned1 exhibits the form of a mound1 and combined or partly encircled by two or sometimes four horns1 obviously symbolizes dual or quadruple rulership4 ,it thus appears evident that the winged bull of ,assyria expressed1 almost as clearly as the seven-staged towers of ,babylon1 the 8seven directions of heaven and earth10 and was as appropriate an allegorical image of ,assur the god1 as of ,assur the state1 and of the royal power which conferred upon the supreme lords of ,babylonia and ,assyria the titles3 8lord of the holy mound10 8lord of ,akkad and ,sumer10 and 8lord of the four regions40 ,the idea that some of the ,assyrian kings actually embodied seven-fold power1 or ruled the 8seven divisions10 is further conveyed by curious groups of seven symbols1 accompanied by the numeral seven1 expressed by seven dots1 which occur above their portraits on tablets which will be described further on4 ,whilst analyzing the royal titles and insignia represented on the stel of ,assyrian kings1 ,i shall likewise show how these complete the foregoing evidence and indicate that in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 the seven-fold division was applied not only to the ,cosmos1 but to the territory of the ,state1 to its social organization1 to its calendar2 and that the seven-storied zikkurat1 the winged bulls1 etc41 and indeed1 the seven-branched candlestick1 were apparently designed as expressive of the general seven-fold scheme of organization4 ,let us now examine some data which shed light upon the various and curious phases of evolution undergone by the growing and diverging cults of ,heaven and ,earth in ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,going back to the dawn of astronomy in ,babylonia let us note some facts which show that1 as elsewhere1 in remotest antiquity the periodical disappearance and reappearance of the ,pleiades produced a deep impression upon the primitive star-gazers4 ,these phenomena marked natural divisions of the year and the constellation appeared to belong alternately to the visible or upper world and to the invisible or lower region4 ,a recognition that the ,pleaid was the constellation at that remote period when ,taurus led the year1 may be established by the common ,euphratean name by which it is said to have been designated3 ,kakkab-multhe constellation or star4 ,the ,akkadian and ,assyrian names which had probably also originally designated ,polaris signified that it and the ,hyades were the foundation stars or constellations4 ,in the ,ptolemy star charts1 the ,pleiades are designated by the name ,ki mah 7see ,robert ,brown1 op4 cit4 p4 #eg74 ,while it appears that whereas the ,pleiades long exerted its influence and1 with ,polaris and the circumpolar constellations1 regulated and marked the primitive year1 its cult was gradually superseded by that of morning and evening stars and of the sun and moon which became the emblems of the rapidly developing divergent cults of the diurnal and nocturnal heavens1 of light and darkness1 of the ,above and ,below47#ig7 ,in connection with the cult of the ,pleiades ,i draw attention to ,r4 ,g4 ,haliburton's interesting investigations on this particular subject1 and to his publication in the ,proceedings of the ,a4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahie1 on 8,dwarf survivals and traditions as to pigmy races10 which contains the following statements3 8,we find that the ,atlas dwarfs and the ,nanos predict the future by watching the reflection of the #8,seven ,stars' in a bowl4 ,the famous cup of ,nestor1 supposed to have been a divining cup1 had two groups of ,pleiades on its handle44440 ,on examining the archaic designs engraved in the centre of the fine collection of ,phnician and ,assyrian bronze bowls1 which were found in the ,s4 ,e4 ,palace1 ,nimroud1 and are exhibited at the ,british ,museum1 ,i recently ascertained that they appear to be mostly variations on the theme of the centre and four or seven-fold division1 some exhibiting a marked quadruplicate division1 others a seven-pointed star surrounded by seven smaller stars4 ,in one case a face is repeated four times1 in opposite positions1 on the central design which is surrounded by four large and four lesser conventionally drawn mountains4 ,the head-dress with lappets which encloses each face recalls the familiar ,egyptian form1 and on two bowls images of scarabs are engraved4 ,on one of these the beetle is drawn in such a way that its four legs1 two of which turn upwards and two downwards1 suggest the form of a swastika4 ,the peculiarities of these designs and the knowledge that star-worship prevailed in ,assyria and ,phnicia suggest the inference that the ,nimroud ,palace bowls were employed for the observation of the positions of certain stars which marked the seasons and regulated the calendar1 by means of which the priest-kings controlled the working of the system of state4 ,doubtlessly the constellations originally and principally observed besides ,polaris were the three great 8seven-fold ones10 i4 e4 the ,ursa ,major which marked the ,four ,quarters2 the ,pleiades which pertained to the ,above and ,below and marked the division of the year into halves1 and ,orion which also may well have appeared to be a composite image of the sacred1 equal ,four1 and the central triad composed of the ,above1 ,middle and ,below4 ,it is interesting to note that in the ,euphratean and other myths the antagonism between sun and moon1 etc41 coincides with traditions of actual warfare between their earthly representatives and that it is the record of a combat between the followers of light and of darkness that seems to have been thus preserved4 ,the ,babylonian ,creation epic teaches us that1 in remotest antiquity1 the association of light and life with the male1 and darkness and death with the female principle had become current4 ,a mighty war takes place between the female serpent ,tiamat1 associated with evil1 and the male god ,marduk1 the champion of the gods of the upper realm1 which ends in her overthrow4 ,it was then that ,marduk 8established the districts or cities of ,anu1 ,bel and ,ea10 identified with the ,north1 ,middle and ,south4 ,it is remarkable that this mythical establishment of three cities exactly coincides with the conclusions reached by recent investigators as to the existence during centuries1 of three rival states1 i4 e4 ,babylonia in the south and ,assyria in the northeast1 who1 during centuries1 were in continual warfare with each other and with a third disintegrated power inhabiting the northwest which was alternately rival or vassal4 ,this condition of affairs1 and the facts enumerated in ,professor ,jastrow's handbook1 chapter ,,ii1 are precisely what would naturally develop from the formation and adoption of three distinct cults and their ultimate separate establishment in as many centres of government4 ,the following data will suffice to reveal some of the curious results obtained by the logical working out of certain associations of ideas and these results are the more interesting and intelligible because they are analogous to those ,i have traced elsewhere4 ,one point deserves special note3 directly opposite views1 not only as to the relative supremacy of the ,middle1 ,above and ,below1 but also as to the relation of the sexes to the upper and lower worlds1 seem to have been held at different times and in different places2 and this particular division of opinion appears to have given rise to endless dissension1 strife and warfare1 to the separation of sectarians from the main state and the foundation of numberless minor centres of government on the old plan1 but with fresh forms of cult embodying a new artificial combination of ideas4 ,the shifting of supremacy from one 8god0 to another explains moreover the transference of the title 8,bel0,lord1 or ,chief of ,gods1 from the personification of one region to another4 8,in remotest antiquity we find ,en-lil designated as the #8lord of the lower world' and bearing the title ,bel4 ,en-lil represents the unification of the various forces whose seat or sphere of action is among the inhabited parts of the globe1 both on the surface and beneath1 for the term #8lower world' is here used in contrast to the upper or heavenly world4444 ,as #8lord of the lower world1' ,en-lil is contrasted to a god1 ,anu1 who presides over heavenly bodies4 ,the age of ,sargon 7#chjj ,b4,c471 in whose inscriptions ,en-lil already occurs1 is one of considerable culture and there can1 therefore1 be no objection against the assumption that at this early period a theological system should have been evolved which gave rise to beliefs in great powers whose dominion embraces the #8upper' and #8lower' worlds0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eb-ee74 ,a consort1 ,nin-lil1 a 8mistress of the lower world10 was assigned to ,en-lil and was known also as ,belit1 the feminine form of ,bel1 i4 e4 the lady par excellence4 ,she too had her temple at ,nippur1 the age of which goes back1 at least1 to the first dynasty of ,ur4 ,she was also known as ,nin-khar-sag1 the 8lady of the high or great mountain10 as the 8mother of the gods40 ,the assignment by ,sargon1 of the northern gates of his palace to ,bel1 who lays foundations1 and ,belit1 who brings fertility1 affords evidence that the goddess was the feminine form of ,polaris4 ,in ,assyria1 ,belit appears1 either as the wife of ,bel1 as the consort of ,ashur1 as the consort of ,ea1 or simply as a designation for ,ishtar1 i4 e4 8the goddess10 the 8mistress of countries1 or of mountains10 in which connection it is interesting to note that the ideographs for country and mountain are identical in ,assyrian4 ,if the attributes of the goddesses of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian pantheon be carefully examined1 they will be found to associate the female principle with fertility1 abundance and with water1 the source of plant life4 ,two divergent views appear to have influenced the artificial formation of personifications of the female principle in nature4 ,according to one the goddess is termed the 8lady of the deep1 the mistress of the place where the fish dwell0 7,sarpanitam-erua7 and in other cases is linked to the lower firmament to subterraneous regions1 to darkness1 death1 destructiveness and hence to evil1 thus representing the complement to the male personification of the upper realm of daylight and the preservative and beneficent life-giving principles4 ,the other tendency1 which almost appears as a reaction or protest against the previous view1 led to the ultimate adoption of an ideal goddess of the nocturnal heaven1 who was 8bountiful1 offspring-producing1 silvery bright0 and was in one instance addressed as 8the lady of shining waters10 of 8purification0 and of 8incantations40 ,in the period of ,hammurabi1 devotion went so far as to cause the goddess ,gula1 termed the 8bride of the earth10 to be invoked as the 8creator of mankind10 the 8great physician0 and 8life-giver0 and 8the one who leads the dead to a new life0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 p4 #age74 ,as an interesting outcome of an adjustment of both trains of thought stands ,ishtar-,belitthe lady par excellence and consequently1 the feminine personification of ,polaris1 the supreme goddess whom ,tiglath-pileser termed 8the first among the gods40 ,she is the mild and gracious mother of creation1 8loves the king and his priesthood10 but is also the mighty commanding goddess of war who clothes herself in fiery flame1 appears as a violent destroyer and sends down streams of fire upon her enemies4 8,the distinguishing position of both the ,babylonian and ,assyrian ,ishtar is her independent position4 ,though at times brought into close contact with ,ashur she is not regarded as the mere consort to any god--no mere reflection of a male deity1 but ruling in her own right on a perfect par with the great gods of the pantheon4 ,she is coequal in rank and splendor with ,ashur4 ,her name becomes synonymous for goddess as ,marduk becomes the synonym for god4 ,the female deities1 both foreign and native1 came to be regarded as so many forms of ,ishtar40 ,a curious fact connected with ,ishtar1 which proves that she had developed from an original divinity1 conceived as dual or bi-sexual1 is that among ,semites ,ishtar appears both as a male and female deity4 ,this seems to show that at a certain stage of thought ,ishtar was also a centralization of attributes1 a fact which undoubtedly explains the supreme position accorded to this divinity at one time as the feminine form of ,polaris4 ,the most striking illustration of this supremacy is furnished by the famous bas-relief figured by ,layard 78,ninive and its remains0 ,i1 #bch71 which represents ,ishtar1 the mother-goddess1 the female form of ,assur1 as seated on a throne which is borne on the back of a lion in the procession formed by the seven chief divinities of the ,assyrian pantheon1 six of whom are figured as bearded men standing on different animals4 ,on the fine stela of ,esarhaddon1 discovered by ,dr4 von ,luschan at ,sendschirli1 the goddess1 accompanied in this case by three standing gods1 is likewise represented as seated on a throne holding a large ring or circle in her left hand4 ,the fact that the 8,all-mother1 the female creator of mankind10 is represented as the only occupant of the throne1 reveals a distinct phase in the evolution of the ,babylonian state religion1 which curiously concurs with the supremacy of female sovereignty at ,babylon1 at the period of its greatest power under ,semiramis4 ,it may be safely assumed that it was at this time1 when the queen represented the goddess1 that the cult of the female principle of nature reached its highest development4 ,at ,nippur the clay images chiefly represent ,bel and ,belit either separately or in combination1 but figurines of ,ishtar have also been found1 in some cases representing her as nursing a child 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 p4 #fgd74 ,it is probable that the symbols of duality connected with ,ishtar had some reference to the mystic unity and duality of the mother and unborn child1 and suggested the installation of the goddess as the most appropriate personification of creative and life-giving central power47#ih7 ,it is as interesting to follow the complex train of thought which created an ,ishtar as it is to realize that curious fact that1 contrary to views held elsewhere1 it was the male principle that was at one time most distinctly associated with earth in ,babylonia-,assyria1 while femininity was linked to the nocturnal heaven4 ,it is probable that priesthood encouraged the popular adoption of ,bel1 the masculine ,polaris1 as an earth1 sun and morning-star god1 while his consort ,belit became a heaven1 moon and evening-star goddess4 ,doubtlessly at an early period the cult of ,polaris and the registration of circumpolar rotation was guarded in secrecy by the astronomer-priests4 ,tempting as it is to linger among the gods and goddesses of the ,babylonian-,assyrian pantheon and to follow the spread of their influence1 ,i shall limit myself to pointing out the change of government that accompanied the development and establishment of various divergent cults4 ,indications that1 as in ,china at the present day1 a combined heaven and earth cult was practised in ,babylonia-,assyria by male and female representatives of heaven and earth1 are furnished by various detached pieces of information gleaned from ,professor ,jastrow's work4 ,the priest-king was the 8child0 of ,bel1 and his living representative4 ,as such he bore the divine titles of supreme lord1 ruled the four regions of the earth1 and became the representative of earth4 ,pagan authorities state that a virgin priestess officiated at times in the sanctuary of ,bel and that there were three classes of priestesses devoted to the cult of ,ishtar4 ,they were called 8the sacred ones0 and carried out a mysterious ritual which had1 however1 originated 8from nave conceptions connected with the worship of the goddess of fertility40 ,the use of sacred water and of fermented intoxicating wine entered into the cult of the life-giving principle and ,babylonia ultimately becomes associated with 8,mystery0 and 8the golden cup full of abominations0 7,revelations ,,xvii74 ,large terra cotta vases or jars have been found at ,nippur and elsewhere1 standing in front of the altar1 and 8the depth at which they were found is an indication of the antiquity and stability of the forms of worship in ,babylonian temples4 ,it may be proper to recall that1 in the ,solomonic temple likewise1 there were a series of jars that stood near the great altar in the court0 7,jastrow1 p4 #fec74 ,one of the oldest sacred basins found in the ruins of a ,babylonian temple 8has a frieze of female figures in it1 holding in their outstretched hands flagons from which they pour water10 a fact which establishes the ritualistic association of female priestesses with water4 ,the later association of ,ishtar with the moon and with the evening star1 8the leader of the heavenly procession of stars10 naturally exerted an influence over the ceremonial rites performed by the high priestess or queen1 the living image of the goddess4 8,mythological associations appear to have played a part in identifying the planet ,venus with the goddess4444 ,a widely spread nature myth1 symbolizing the change of seasons1 represents ,ishtar the personification of fertility1 the great mother of all that manifests life1 as proceeding to the region of darkness and remaining there for some time4 ,the disappearance of the planet ,venus at certain seasons 444 and re-appearance 444 suggested the identification of this planet with ,ishtar40 ,the foregoing affords an explanation why ,ishtar should have become identified with the west and also naturally suggests the probability that the cult of ,ishtar gradually imposed upon its priestesses and its votaries of the female sex1 the ceremonial observance of periods of retirement and seclusion1 coinciding with the disappearance of the moon and evening star4 ,a critical examination of the accounts preserved of the ,phnician or ,canaanite religion reveals that it consisted of an idealistic development of the ,ishtar cult of ,assyria4 ,the fact that1 ultimately1 in ,phnicia1 the cult of the female ,astarte almost superseded that of the male ,baal and that their joint cult1 introduced into ,palestine1 seriously rivalled the monotheism of the ,israelites1 furnishes another indication that we have to deal here with the same marked divergence of cults which we have seen to result from a common basis in ancient ,america4 ,in studying the ,phnician conception of ,astarte as recorded by various authors1 one is struck by its comparative refinement and ideality although1 as in ancient ,america1 the cult of the female principle of nature was also accompanied by secret licentious ceremonials4 ,in the ,astarte cult of ,phnicia we have precisely what might be expected to have been evolved by the descendants of an ancient race of star-watchers who1 powerfully impressed by the antithesis of light and darkness and having become a nation of traders and seafarers1 naturally adopted the nocturnal heaven and guiding stars as their chief object of worship4 ,it does not seem improbable that it was to the less degrading association of the female principle with the nocturnal heaven7#ii7 that woman owed1 in lapse of time1 the higher position she was accorded in the countries directly influenced by the ,phnician civilization1 and notably in ,greece and ,rome4 ,in ,phnicia1 ,astarte-,ishtar became the goddess of love and marriage4 ,in ,babylonia-,assyria the high-priestess1 the living representative of the goddess1 who1 like the planet-goddess1 periodically retired into darkness and seclusion and led a shadowy existence1 appears to have originally shared equal honors with the 8lord of earth0 and to have delivered oracular utterances in subterraneous chambers4 ,throughout ,babylonia1 ,new ,year's ,day1 which coincided with the beginning of the rainy season1 was the occasion of 8the marriage of the god and the goddess0 par excellence1 a rite which symbolized the 8meeting of ,heaven and ,earth40 ,circumstantial evidence seems to prove1 moreover1 that1 as in ,peru1 the annual consecrated union of the male and female personification of heaven and earth was followed by the marriage of young persons throughout the land1 a custom which furnishes another indication of the original existence of an annual mating season for the human race4 ,as it was at this period also that the priesthood approached the papakhu1 the inner sanctuary1 also termed the 8assembly-room10 8chamber of the oracle0 and 8of fates10 and transmitted to the people the irrevocable decrees of ,marduk1 it seems as though these ancient rulers practised a similar 8abundance of lying and deceit for the advantage of the governed0 as that advocated by ,plato in his ,republic27#ajj7 exerted a stern control over the alliances formed and the number of marriages celebrated and endeavored to make these1 as far as possible1 sacred4 ,the mere record that the ,assyrian king ,ashurbanipal claims to be the offspring of a pair of divinities personifying heaven and earth1 appears to show that he was the offspring of the sacred divine union of the high priest and priestess1 i4 e4 of divine birth4 ,it is interesting to collate a few disconnected facts which appear to illustrate the natural and inevitable result of the institution of two cults ruled by separate representatives4 ,sin-,gashid1 of the dynasty of ,uruk1 mentions a temple built for the god and his consort1 as 8the seat of their joy40 ,at ,babylon1 the 8mother of great gods0 dwelt within the precincts of the temple on the east side of the ,euphrates known as ,esagila1 8the lofty house40 ,when the city of ,babylon extended as far as to include ,borsippa1 the temple known as ,ezida1 8the true house10 was built for ,marduk,bel4 ,at ,lagash the temple of the 8good lady0 and mother stood in one quarter known as the 8brilliant town0 while the temple of her consort stood in the other of the two most ancient quarters of the town4 ,the above facts acquire double significance when collated with the well-known fact that the palace of ,semiramis1 the great queen of ,babylon1 was built on the west bank of the ,euphrates1 opposite to the ancient palace of the king4 ,a bridge united these royal residences which were otherwise separated by the river4 ,under ,semiramis1 ,babylonia was a nation under a single female ruler and this usurpation of power by a woman1 accompanied as it was by the predominance of the originally nave cult which had unconsciously fostered and ministered to perversion and depravity1 preceded the decadence1 disintegration and ultimate downfall of the empire4 ,many centuries previous1 the instalment of a female sovereign preceded the ruin of another empire in what we may assume to have been precisely the same way4 ,professor ,sayce informs us that1 8about #chjj ,b4,c41 in northern ,babylonia and in the city of ,agad or ,akkad1 arose the empire of ,sargani-sarali,sargon1 and that ,sargon's son1 ,naram-,sin1 succeeded him in #cgej ,b4,c4 and continued the conquests of his grandfather4444 ,naram-,sin's son was ,bingam-sar-ali4 ,a queen1 ,ellat-gula1 seems to have sat upon the throne not much later1 and with her the dynasty may have come to an end4 ,at any rate the empire of ,akkad is heard of no more4 ,but it left behind it a profound impression in western ,asia1 whose art and culture became ,babylonian0 7op4 cit474 ,the process of disintegration1 which caused the ,babylonian empire to crumble away1 was doubtlessly hastened by its division into four regions1 each of which in latter times possessed its capital and became the centre of various independent forms of rival cults4 ,during many centuries ,babylonia was closely associated with the cult of ,marduk-,bel1 the 8lord of rest20 while ,shamash1 another form of the central supreme lord1 was the deity of ,larsa and ,sippar4 ,at one time ,ur became the headquarters for the cult of the moon-god ,sin or ,nannar4 ,as1 according to ,babylonian notions1 the sun does not properly belong to the heavens and plays an insignificant part in the calendrical system in comparison with the moon1 sun-worship proper does not seem to have existed in ,babylonia4 ,at the same time it would seem as though when the 8primitive sun0,polaris became the hidden1 secret god of the priest-astronomers1 who determined the seasons by ,ursa ,major1 the populace was taught to regard ,bel as the personification of the diurnal sun and of the herald of day1 the morning star4 ,when it is borne in mind how1 as the empire spread1 new cities were founded on the plan of the metropolis1 that each of these must therefore have been1 in turn1 governed by a pair of minor rulers1 and had its own minor zikkurat1 we can understand the various indications that exist showing how the ancient sacred capital of the state became the place of reunion for the minor 8gods10 who assembled there annually in the main sanctuary1 and the fact that each minor chief necessarily required his dwelling place and tribal council-chamber1 would account for the 8references to zikkurats 444 or special sanctuaries of some kind1 which were erected within the sacred precinct of the main capital 4440 7,jastrow1 p4 #fcg74 ,when it is realized that each zikkurat was an artificial 8mountain0 the description of ,babylon in ,revelations ,,xviii becomes clearly intelligible and is seen to apply to the seven-fold organization of the ancient empire which had become the centre of the debasing earth-worship ultimately identified with a female goddess4 8,and the woman which thou sawest is that great city which reigneth over the kings of the earth4444 ,i saw a woman sit upon a scarlet colored beast 444 having seven heads4444 ,the seven heads are seven mountains1 on which the woman sitteth 444 and there are seven kings04444 ,future investigation will doubtlessly furnish us with exact knowledge concerning the original relation of the governors of the 8four regions0 to the central ruler and of the 8seven divisions0 of the state to each other4 ,it would be desirable to establish whether each territorial division and tribe bore the name of its tribal ancestor and whether these names agree with those of the seven chief 8gods0 of the pantheon1 each of whom is associated with a celestial body1 a day of the seven-day period and1 as shown in the bas-relief already cited1 with a different animal4 ,i am strongly tempted to see in the latter traces of tribal totems and to connect the days of the week with the seven divisions of the population and some established form of rotation1 employed for the government of the state1 analogous to that ,i have found out in ,ancient ,mexico4 ,with regard to the regulation of the calendar by certain officials1 the following facts are important3 ,professor ,sayce tells us that1 8in ,assyria1 the high-priest was the equal of the king and the king himself was a priest and the adopted child of ,bel40 ,under him were a number of grades of officials and officers4 ,the land was divided into provinces whose 8governors were selected from the highest aristocracy and who alone had the privilege of sharing with the king the office of limmu or eponymous archon after whom the year was named40 ,this office1 which finds its analogy in ,china and ,central ,america1 is more clearly explained in the following passage3 8,the ,assyrians were endowed with a keen sense of history and had invented a system of reckoning time by means of certain officers called limmi1 who gave their names to the year0 7,sayce1 op4 cit4 p4 #bee74 ,venturing to make a general statement1 as a suggestion for future investigation1 ,i should say that the ultimate result of the institution of two cults which were bound to grow in opposite directions1 was the fall of the ,babylonian empire under the degrading growth of perversion and depravity1 linked to the cult of earth and night and bi-sexuality1 and the rise of the ,assyrian empire with a cult in which the ideas of light and darkness1 night and day preponderated over those of sex4 ,it may possibly have been as a reaction and protest against the prevailing rites of ,babylonia that influenced the ,assyrians in their adoption of two male rulers1 the high-priest and the king4 ,on the other hand1 there are indications showing that possibly1 in order to evade the ceremonial obligations of their position as the representative of the principle of fertility1 several 8goddesses0 or female rulers of ,babylonia transferred their seat of government1 or placed the reins of government into the hands of a king4 ,thus ,hammurabi tells us that he has restored the temple of the 8lady0 or 8great lady0 of ,hallabi1 a town near ,sippar and that she had conferred upon him supreme authority over the ,babylonian states1 then engaged in fighting with each other4 ,it is obvious that1 as soon as concealment and mystery increasingly surrounded the cult of the female principle1 and warfare became habitual1 the power and rle of the female ruler must have become more and more 8shadowy0 and finally dwindled to the utterance of sacred oracles in dark concealed places of retirement and safety4 ,ultimately the cult of ,ishtar appears to have become absolutely secret and hidden and shrouded in mystery and darkness4 ,its priestesses became the most famous oracle-givers of ,assyria who imparted 8divine knowledge concealed from men40 ,in the eighth century ,b4,c41 ,arbela became the centre of the cult of ,ishtar and 8developed a special school of theology marked by the attempt to accord a superior position to the goddess4 ,in a series of eight oracles addressed to ,esarhaddon six are given forth by women0 7,jastrow1 p4 #cdb74 ,inevitable as was the disintegration of the original state and religion1 continual efforts appear to have been made even in ,babylonia itself1 to check the growth of a debasing ritual and the constant increase of the gods and goddesses which were installed as the rulers of each new town that was founded on the plan of the metropolis4 ,professor ,jastrow tells us that 8whenever the kings in their inscriptions mention the regular sacrifices1 it is in almost all cases with reference to their re-institution of an old custom that had been allowed to fall into neglect 7owing to the political disturbances which always affected the temples7 and not as an innovation0 444 7op4 cit4 p4 #ffg74 ,the tablet of ,sippara1 on which the image of ,shamash is restored by the king on an ancient model1 has already been described and on it appears the four-spoked wheel1 the expressive symbol of a 8primitive ,sun40 ,the primeval conception of a single1 stable1 changeless and central celestial power was evidently adhered to in ancient ,babylonia by a small but faithful minority1 and the constant growth of debasing practices and the manufacture of symbolical images to which reverence was paid and which were ultimately worshipped1 awakened its constant disapproval and abhorrence4 ,at a remote period we find the adherents to a stern monotheism establishing the ,babylonian province of ,,canaan4 ,the following account of the ,hebrew religion1 translated from ,spamer's work 7p4 #big7 already cited1 will be found instructive3 8,originally there was no difference between the religion of the ,hebrews and that of the neighboring tribes4 ,the lord,baal of ,moab was named ,kamosh1 that of the ,hebrews ,yahwe4 ,yahwe was the national god1 above all the god of battle4444 ,altars made of earth or unhewn stone were erected for him on mountains1 hills or under green trees2 next to the altar stood either a stone column 7,masseba7 or a sacred tree 7,ashera74 ,in the temple the image of ,yahwe represented him in human form or1 as in ,dan or ,bethel1 in that of a bull4 ,next to ,yahwe were other gods3 first1 ,baal1 the supreme lord of the world1 who had a special temple in ,jerusalem2 secondly1 ,astarte1 to whom ,solomon built an altar near ,jerusalem4 8,solomon had also built altars to ,kamosh1 the god of the ,moabites1 to ,milkom1 the god of the ,ammonites and in his temple other gods beside ,yahwe were worshipped2 amongst them a demi-god and a serpent of brass 7,neshushtan7 which was abolished later on by ,hiskia4 ,all of these gods1 who were also worshipped by the neighbors of the enemies of ,israel1 became secondary to the tribal god to whom ,israel owed its greatness4 8,yahwe becomes the first and mightiest1 and is identified with ,el1 the supreme god of the ,semites1 whose individuality is vague4 ,on the other hand #8the ,baal1' the principal god of all neighboring people1 especially of the ,phnicians1 possesses a marked individuality which excludes his identification with other gods4 ,he is worshipped in separate centres of cult and becomes the rival of ,yahwe44440 ,the rivalry and the struggle for religious and political supremacy between the priests1 prophets and followers of ,yahwe1 the god of heaven1 and ,baal1 the lord of earth1 culminated in about ,b4,c4 #hcg1 when the temple of the latter was destroyed and his priesthood killed4 8,it was not until about #gej ,b4,c41 however1 that the national god ,yahwe became the acknowledged sole god of the universe next to whom all other gods were as mere phantoms4444 ,a remarkable transformation took place about this time in the conception of a divinity and of morality2 the moral precepts of religion were developed and clearly formulated and the ten commandments promulgated4 ,as time progressed the voices of prophets and priesthood became more and more loud in condemnation of the use of idols and symbols of divinity4 ,hosea especially denounced the cult of ,yahwe under the form of a bull2 ,jeremias went so far as to disapprove of the holy ark itself which stood in the temple of ,jerusalem4 8,later on1 when1 about ,b4,c4 #fba1 one of the most important events in the history of mankind had taken place and the book of the law1 the ,sepher ,hathora1 was discovered by the high priest in the temple of ,jerusalem1 during its restoration1 the ,hebrew religion was reformed1 reorganized and restablished on lines which favored the development of more refined and elevated religious teachings4 ,all idols and symbols were abolished4 ,naught could destroy1 however1 the deeply rooted idea that it was in ,jerusalem alone1 or ,mount ,sion1 that ,yahwe was to be worshipped4 ,this was the chosen site to which offerings and tithes were to be carried4 ,as the chosen people of ,yahwe1 ,israel was also to be a holy nation which was to distinguish itself by its superior religion and morality and1 in order to do so1 was to keep itself rigidly apart and aloof from other people4 8,thus this little nation cultivated and perfected the religious capabilities of the human race and laid the foundation for ,christianity and the ,islam40 ,jerusalem1 the ancient capital1 occupied almost the centre of ,canaan and was founded on ,mount ,zion1 the highest elevation in the district4 ,from time immemorial ,jerusalem has indeed contained a spot reputed to mark the centre of the world and a sacred stone is also venerated there to this day and is now associated1 in a curious way1 with the biblical account of ,jacob's dream of a ladder reaching from earth to heaven4 ,it was obviously as a result of their deeply ingrained ideal of central power that the ,israelites who migrated from ,ur1 the seat of moon-worship1 and wandered into ,palestine1 engaged in a long struggle which ended in their successful capture1 in #ajej ,b4,c41 of ,jerusalem1 the sacred city1 situated in the centre of the land4 ,the importance of this conquest to the ,israelites can only be rightly estimated when it is realized that1 during countless centuries1 this single branch of the ,semitic race had adhered to the cult of the central1 changeless1 ever-present and light-giving guiding star1 and gradually developed the higher conception of an invisible1 omnipotent and omniscient ,god4 ,it will be seen that1 while other branches of their race gradually developed separate cults of the dual principles of nature1 they had remained faithful to the primeval recognition of a single pole-star and1 rising to a loftier conception1 constituted themselves the champions of a pure monotheism1 disconnected from the cult of heaven and earth or sun and moon which1 associated with dual reproductive principles1 justly became the horror and abomination of the ,israelites4 ,it is interesting to recall the fact that1 about #ijh ,b4,c41 ,jezebel1 the wife of ,ahab and daughter of the king of ,tyre1 set up the cult of the dual principles of nature in ,israel and1 destroying the priests and prophets of ,jehovah1 built a temple to ,baal and ,astarte and appointed #dej priests and #ejj prophets to the respective service of these divinities4 ,this historical incident furnishes a striking instance of the united cult of the ,above and ,below in direct antagonism to that of the ,centre which had already developed into a definite and pure monotheism47#aja7 ,,assyria4 ,a study of the ,assyrian symbols of royalty1 which ,i recently had an opportunity of making at the ,british ,museum1 has led me to the conclusion that1 in ,assyria1 during many centuries1 a perfect equilibrium was maintained throughout the state which1 by a strict cordination of all its parts1 represented a harmonious entity4 ,an observation ,i have made1 which may be worth noting1 is that ,assyria seems to occupy1 in relation to ,babylonia1 somewhat the same position as ,peru to the more ancient and greater centres of culture in ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,in the latter the original ground-plan of the archaic civilization seems to be lost and hidden under the ruin and devastation caused by the growth of diverging cults4 ,in ,peru and ,assyria alike we seem to have examples of organizations starting afresh on the old plan or reversions to the primitive type of civil and religious government in which simplicity1 order1 balance and harmony were again restored and maintained4 ,if ,i may venture to hazard a general observation about the ancient civilizations of ,western ,asia ,i should say that1 whereas the primeval centre of primitive pole-star worship in ,babylonia had1 in course of time1 brought forth as its highest development the monotheism of the ,israelites1 and as its lowest the cults of ,ishtar and ,bel1 it also appears to have given birth to a reproduction of its former self1 to the ,assyrian empire1 in which the most ancient form of culture was preserved intact1 and in time spread its influence not only to other nations but also back to ,babylonia itself4 ,as in ,peru1 it appears to have been the policy of the kings of ,assyria1 who had before them the results of an opposite course pursued at ,babylonia1 to discountenance the manufacture of symbolical images and the establishment of minor centres of government1 the leading motive being to maintain the ideal of an absolute centralization of temporal and spiritual government and power4 ,it is the opinion of leading ,assyriologists that ,assyria was a colony founded by ,semitic ,babylonians and this conclusion is corroborated by the view ,i have advanced1 namely1 that1 as ,babylonia degenerated and abandoned the primeval ideas which nourished the germ of monotheism1 those who adhered to this ideal after prolonged struggles separated themselves from their ancient mother1 and founded new colonies1 the administration and religion of which they established according to their wider experience and more advanced intellectual and moral development4 ,a characteristic of ,assyria seems to have been the institution of two male rulers1 the high-priest and the king and the cult of the diurnal and nocturnal heaven1 of day and night4 ,as these features are in marked contrast to the ,babylonian male and female rulers and the cult of heaven and earth and the reproductive principles1 it would seem as though they had developed themselves from a prolonged cult of heaven alone by the inhabitants of ,northern ,babylonia1 or that they were the result of a reform led about by the abuses to which the ,babylonian cult had led4 ,a curious development worth mentioning1 even out of its chronological order1 was when the ,assyrian king ,esarhaddon placed his two sons as single rulers upon the thrones of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,it is known that these two brothers ruled in peace during twenty years and that then a great rebellion against the ,assyrian rule took place1 which ended in the conquest and destruction of ,babylonia and the death of its king1 whose half-brother1 the ,assyrian ruler ,asurbanipal1 thus became the sole ruler of ,assyria and ,babylonia4 ,professor ,jastrow tells us that1 8as compared with ,babylonia1 ,assyria was poor in the number of her temples4444 ,the ,assyrian rulers were much more concerned in rearing grand edifices for themselves4 ,while the gods were not neglected in ,assyria1 one hears much more of the magnificent palaces erected by the kings than of temples and shrines40 ,the above data suffice to show that the tendency of the ,assyrian monarchs was to indulge in self-glorification and to forget what some of his subjects never could3 that his position had originally been that of an earthly representative only of a higher central1 celestial power4 ,as among some branches of the ,semitic race1 the conception of a divinity became more and more elevated until it reached the ideal of the ,yahwe1 8the only true god who was jealous of other gods and could brook none beside him40 ,to these uncompromising adherents of pure monotheism the royal titles of the ,assyrian kings who styled themselves the rulers of the centre1 of the four quarters of the earth and of the heavens1 must indeed have appeared as a sacrilege4 ,the existence of such opposite views clearly explains the ultimate outbreak of hatred and war between monotheistic ,israel and ,juda and the ancient empires of ,western ,asia which shared1 with them1 a remote but common origin4 ,returning to ,assyria we find that this empire also1 as it extended its four-fold capital ,assur into four provinces and developed the cult of the high central power and the ,heaven and ,earth1 gradually prepared in turn its own downfall by an inevitable process of disintegration4 ,in time two great capitals grew up1 situated to the northeast and northwest of the ancient metropolis of ,assur1 the original seat of the 8kings of the four regions40 ,these capitals were ,ninive1 divided into four cities1 and ,arbela1 also a 8four-city40 ,the fact that the latter capital was the seat of ,ishtar worship1 further proves that1 at one time1 a definite separation of cults had also supervened in ,assyria and that ,assur and ,ninive may at one time have been respectively centres of ,polaris and sun worship4 ,it is well known that when about ,b4,c4 #fjf the great ,assyrian empire was destroyed1 it had four royal residences3 ,ninive1 ,dr-,sarrukn1 ,kalash and ,assur1 which were then burnt and levelled to the ground1 never to be rebuilt4 ,let us now examine the emblems of 8divine royalty0 exhibited on the famous portrait stel of ,assyrian kings preserved at the ,british ,museum which strikingly confirm the view ,i advanced that the four-spoked wheel of ,shamash on the ,sippara tablet was the ancient restored image of the 8primitive sun0 ,polaris and of circumpolar rotation4 ,the ,assyrian kings on the ,british ,museum stel are represented as wearing the cross1 between the signs for the moon and planet ,venus1 that occurs on the ,sippara tablet4 ,the four-spoked wheel thus explains itself as a 8wheel-cross0 and is found to have been employed in ,assyria alternately with the plain cross2 for the portrait statue of ,asurnasirpal 7about ,b4,c4 #hhj7 represents the king wearing a chain about his neck from which hangs a cross between the ,ishtar and moon emblems1 and next to a symbol representing the lightning bolt of ,ramman4 ,in the background1 next to the king's head1 five emblems are sculptured1 three of which are identical with those hanging from the chain1 i4 e4 the eight-rayed 8sun0 of ,ishtar1 the moon ,sin and the lightning bolt of ,ramman4 ,the fifth emblem consists of the royal conical cap with four horns and is represented separately to the right while the other four symbols form a compact group4 ,in the text ,assur1 ,ramman1 ,sin1 ,shamash and ,ishtar are invoked4 ,as the symbols of ,ishtar and ,sin can be identified by the ,sippara tablet1 and the winged disk unquestionably pertains to ,assur and the lightning bolt to ,ramman1 we find that the cap1 simulating the central 8holy mound0 with four horns1 must be the symbol of the remaining god ,shamash4 ,this inference appears to be corroborated by the circumstance that the seventh month was sacred to ,shamash and that it was in this month that the lord of the holy mound built the seven-staged tower of ,babylon4 ,these facts authorize us to formulate the conclusion that the four-spoked wheel of the ,sippara tablet1 the cross hanging to the king's chain and the four-horned cap which1 like the 8square altar with four horns10 simulated the 8holy mound10 were alike symbols of ,shamash1 the 8primitive ,sun40 ,on his portrait-stela king ,shamsi-,rammanu the younger 7,b4,c4 #hbe-hab71 the grandson of ,asurnasirpal1 wears the cross only1 hanging from his neck-chain and in the text invokes1 according to ,dr4 von ,luschan1 only ,nindar1 who has been proven to be ,shamash under another name or title4 ,nindar is identified in ,professor ,jastrow's hand-book with ,ninsia1 8a god of considerable importance1 imported perhaps from some ancient site of ,lagash0 444 who 8disappeared from the later pantheon40 444 7op4 cit4 pp4 #ij and #ia74 ,it is interesting to find that the king1 who like his ancient predecessor the ,patesi or religious chief ,shamsi-,ramman 7,b4,c4 #ahej7 bears the name of the god ,shamash1 wears as his only ornament the cross which so obviously expresses the royal title1 8lord of the four regions40 ,from ,professor ,jastrow 7p4 #ajg71 we learn that it was customary for the early rulers of ,babylon1 at the beginning or the close of their dedicatory inscriptions1 to parade a list of the divinities associated with the districts that they controlled4 ,gudea1 for instance1 enumerates eighteen deities1 and these may be taken as indicative of the territorial extent of ,gudea's jurisdiction4 ,this custom affords an interesting explanation of the sculptured emblems of divinities and the invocations of their names on the above stel and shows that ,asurnasirpal and his grandson ruled four districts from a fifth situated in the centre1 whose emblem was the mound with four horns or the cross1 both emblems of the royal 8lord of the four regions40 ,bearing this custom in mind1 we next note that1 on his stela at the ,british ,museum1 ,shalmaneser ,,ii1 the son of ,asurnasirpal1 invokes not only three different divinities1 but also one more than his father or son4 ,his invocation is to ,ashur1 ,shamash and ,ishtar and to the ,babylonian triad ,anu1 ,bel and ,ea4 ,the emblems of the first three divinities are the same as on the stel of his father and son1 i4 e4 the winged disk1 the mound-shaped1 horned cap and the eight-rayed star4 ,to ,anu1 ,bel and ,ea pertain the emblematic lightning bolt and moon which are clearly visible2 and a third1 almost effaced1 group which1 upon examination by ,mr4 ,pinches1 revealed the presence of six stars or circles4 ,dr4 von ,luschan infers that originally the group consisted of seven circles and was the same as that sculptured on the stel of ,sargon 7at ,berlin71 the bas-reliefs at ,nahr-el-,kelb and at ,bavian4 ,on each of these the circles are grouped in two horizontal rows of three circles while the seventh circle stands to the right1 in front and midway between both rows4 ,if we assume that the lightning bolt pertained to ,anu1 the upper1 and the moon1 the emblem of ,night1 to ,ea1 the lower firmament1 we find that the seven-fold group falls to the lot of ,bel and seems to coincide exactly with the recorded fact that the famous zikkurat of ,bel at ,babylon1 for instance1 consisted of seven stories2 and that it was known as 8the house of the seven divisions regions of the world10 and that ,babylon actually was at one time a seven-fold state1 with seven 8mountains0godsearthly rulers4 ,final1 positive proof that ,assyria1 under ,sargon ,,ii and ,esarhaddon1 like ancient ,babylon1 was organized into seven 8districts10 seems to be furnished by the seven symbols carved on their stel1 accompanied by the group of seven circles which obviously expresses the same as the cuneiform character in the inscribed invocation1 namely1 the word 8seven-fold-one0 or 8seven in one107#ajb7 which was obviously an appropriate designation for the empire as a whole1 consisting as it did of seven tribal districts1 associated with the seven directions in space to each of which was assigned a god1 a mountain house1 a color1 an animal1 a celestial body1 a day and a symbol4 ,an extremely suggestive juxtaposition of the numeral seven and a circle containing a group of five circles1 resembling a flower with four petals1 occurs on the ,bavian tablet already cited1 on which are also carved two emblems3 the moon and winged disk2 one compact detached group consisting of four altars 7three surrounded by horns and one surmounted by a ram's head7 and a second detached group consisting of a base into which four staffs or sceptres are inserted4 ,these recur on the fine ,sendschirli stela of ,esarhaddon about which a few words remain to be said4 ,it exhibits the numeral seventhe 8seven in one0 sign before the king1 accompanied by four divinities mounted on animals1 the first two being the god riding a double monster1 and the seated goddess1 both wearing the cone on the high royal cap4 ,carved close to the king's hand is the group of four staffs or sceptres1 inserted in a horizontal base1 which appear to be the emblems of his lordship over the four regions4 ,three of these are the same as on the ,bavian relief3 the first surmounted by a cone-shaped object7#ajc7 beneath which are two hanging ends of ribbons2 the second consisting of a plain single staff1 split so as to form two2 the third surmounted by two animal heads1 each with a single horn4 ,the fourth sceptre on ,esarhaddon's stela is like that represented as inserted into one of the altars on the ,bavian stela1 and terminates in a recurved ram's head4 ,the fourth in the ,bavian group of sceptres somewhat resembles the trident tripartite emblem which occurs on the ,sargon stela and the ,esarhaddon stela of ,nahr-el-,kelb 7figured by ,dr4 ,luschan1 op4 cit4 p4 #bj74 ,a fresh examination of the bas-relief of ,maltaya1 described by ,layard and already alluded to1 reveals a suggestive differentiation in the representations of the seven divinities in a row1 at each end of which1 facing the procession1 stands a king4 ,considering that in ,assyria there were governors1 the limmi1 who held offices of limited duration and gave their names to their years of office1 the query naturally suggests itself whether the two 8kings0 may not also have ruled for fixed periods of seven years1 each one of which bore the name of one of the seven divisions4 ,it being an accepted fact that the institution of the ,sabbath was of ,chaldean and ,babylonian origin1 it is permissible to assign to the same source the institution of the seven-year period described in ,leviticus ,,xxv3 8,but the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land4444 ,and thou shalt number seven ,sabbaths of years unto thee1 seven times seven years2 and the space of the seven sabbaths of years shall be unto thee forty-nine years4444 ,and ye shall hallow the fiftieth year04444 ,addressing to ,assyriologists an appeal for fuller knowledge concerning the ancient calendar periods of ,babylonia-,assyria1 ,i now revert to the ,maltaya bas-relief and point out that1 of the seven divinities1 the two principal ones1 a god and goddess1 wear a form of cap encircled by horns and surmounted by a cone4 ,one of these two deities is distinguished from all others by his larger size and by the fact that he stands on a double animal and heads the procession holding a recurved sceptre in his hand4 ,behind him follows the goddess ,ishtar1 holding a large ring in her right hand4 ,her throne1 as on the ,sendschirli stela1 exhibits a ring surmounting its high back1 to the side of which a group of four circles or disks are attached4 ,as several centres of ,ishtar cult1 already mentioned1 have been designated as fourfold cities it seems possible that the four disks alluded to this fact1 while the ring crowning the top of the throne1 and that she holds1 constitutes one of her emblems4444 ,however this may be1 both monuments exhibit kings associated with the number seven and ,ishtar1 the seated goddess1 associated with the number four2 facts which claim further investigation and may lead to interesting verifications of the numerical systems of the ,assyrians4 ,it should be mentioned here that the heads of the five remaining divinities1 on the ,maltaya bas-relief1 are surmounted by a wheel with spokes and that one holds a recurved sceptre1 like that of the first1 another bears the lightning bolt of ,ramman1 while three carry the same peculiar double symbol also held by ,shamash on the ,sippara tablet4 ,it consists of a large ring like that held by ,ishtar and a short staff possibly a fire-stick4 ,in each case the fingers of the right hand of the deity clasp the middle of the staff and the ring and the appearance of the combined rod and circle closely resembles the upper portion of the ,egyptian crux ansata4 ,professor von ,luschan has1 indeed1 expressed the opinion that the ring or circle 7of ,ishtar7 the rod and circle 7of ,shamash7 and the crux ansata must have analogous meanings1 a view ,i fully share and shall further support in dealing with the ,egyptian symbol4 ,the following data will be found to substantiate further the evidence produced concerning the seven-fold organization of ,babylonia-,assyria4 ,one of the finest bas-relief tablets at the ,british ,museum excavated by ,layard from the ruins of ,asurnasirpal's palace at ,nimroud represents in its centre the sacred conventionalized asheratree1 above which is the winged circle1 from the centre of which issues the half figure of the god ,assur 7cf4 fig4 #ga1 #a74 ,to its right stand two winged figures wearing the conical crown with four horns1 and necklaces from which hang its reproduction in miniature1 also the cross1 the symbol of ,ishtar and the moon4 ,to the left of the tree stand two personages1 wearing the high cap with a flat top1 central cone and hanging ends1 such as are frequently represented as worn by the kings4 ,the natural inference would be that the winged figures wearing the cap with horns represent high-priests and that a double hierarchy corresponding to the dual monarchy probably existed at one time1 the result being 8four lords10 two celestial and two terrestrial1 corresponding to the 8four regions10 two of which pertained to the ,above or the heaven and two to the ,below or earth4 ,a curious indication that at one time there were four separate rulers of the four regions is furnished by the cap with four horns and the altar whose four corners terminated in horns1 when they are connected with the passage in ,revelations ,,xvii1 which refers to ,babylonian symbolism and states3 8,and the ten horns that thou sawest are ten kings40 ,professor ,jastrow states that 8similar horns existed on the ,hebrew and ,phnician altars10 and that 8if we may believe ,herodotus1 the great altars at ,babylon were made of gold0 7p4 #feb74 ,doubtlessly1 ,assyrian texts contain a fund of information yet inaccessible to students1 concerning the constitution of the state and the modifications it may have undergone in course of time4 ,an exhaustive study of the symbols connected with ,assyrian kings at different dates1 in connection with the text relating his conquests and foundations of temples1 may yet reveal the occasional assumption or usurpation by a single individual of different degrees of power and1 possibly1 the ultimate separation and antagonism of hierarchy and monarchy4 ,the employment in ,assyria and ,babylonia of the tree1 as a sacred symbol1 should next be considered1 first1 in relation to the other symbols to which great religious importance was attached4 ,the significance of the zikkurat1 or seven-staged tower1 has already been discussed4 ,another feature was 8the great basin known as #8,apsu1' the name1 it will be recalled1 for #8the deep' i4 e4 the lower firmament4 ,the name indicates that it was a symbolical representation of the domain of ,ea4 ,the zikkurat itself being an attempt to reproduce the shape of the earth1 the representation of the #8apsu' would suggest itself as a natural accessory to the temple4 ,the zikkurat and the basin together would thus become the living symbols of the current cosmological conceptions4 ,the comparison with the great 'sea' that stood in the court of ,solomon's temple1 naturally suggests itself1 and there can be little doubt that the latter is an imitation of a ,babylonian model0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 #fec74 ,it is evident from the above that the adoption of the sacred basin as the symbol of ,ea would naturally be simultaneous with that of miniature 8basins0 and water bowls and jars1 employed for holding the sacred water used in the cult of the ,below4 ,reflection shows that1 in the zikkurat1 the seat of ,belthe image of the earth1 and in the 8,apsu0 the watery deep and lower firmament of ,ea1 we have the sacred emblems of two deities of the ,babylonian triad only4 ,the emblem of ,anu1 the ,heaven or upper firmament1 is missing and it is naturally in the cult of ,anshar,ashur that it must be sought for4 ,the following data will sufficiently show that it was the tree or pole and1 in all probability1 the fire-stick that were connected with the cult of ,an-shar8all that is above10 or 8on high40 ,the resemblance of the name ,ashur to the word for tree or pole1 the 8,ashera0 of the ,phnicians and ,hebrews1 suggests1 moreover1 the probability of their common origin4 ,an interesting question on which ,i have not1 as yet1 been able to obtain information1 relates to the mode of producing fire1 resorted to by the ,babylonian-,assyrians4 ,the element was1 of course1 associated with heaven1 and the fire-god under the name of ,gibil or ,nusku was termed the 8son of ,anu40 ,shamash himself also figures as a personification of fire and it seems probable that1 in the ,babylonian temples in the centre of the square altar1 a fire was originally kept perpetually burning as an image of ,polaris4 ,as great stress is laid upon the purifying effect of fire as on that of water in ,babylonian literature1 it is easy to trace the origin of the offering of burnt sacrifices to the idea that1 cast into the sacred fire1 they became purified and absorbed into its essence1 i4 e4 accepted by the sacred living image of the central star-god4 ,it seems extremely probable that the primitive employment of a fire-stick by the priesthood1 for the production of 8celestial fire10 may have played an important rle in causing the stick1 and thence the pole and tree1 to have become the adopted symbol of ,anu4 ,so little is known even about the origin of 8tree-worship0 itself in ancient ,babylonia-,assyria that ,professor ,jastrow advances the following statement 7p4 #fhi74 8,on the seal cylinders there is frequently represented a pole or a conventionalized form of a tree1 generally in connection with a design illustrating the worship of a deity4 ,this symbol is clearly a survival of some tree worship that was once popular4 ,the comparison with the ashera and pole worship among ,phnicians and ,hebrews is fully justified and is a proof of the great antiquity of the symbols which1 without becoming a formal part of the later cult1 retained in some measure a hold upon the popular mind4 8 #8,ashur' became the god of ,assyria as the rulers of the city of ,ashur grew in power 444 in the various changes of official residences that took place in the course of ,assyrian history 444 the god took part and his central seat of worship depended upon the place that the kings chose for their official residence 444 there was always one place--the official residence--which formed the central spot of worship4 ,there the god was supposed to dwell for the time being4 ,one factor1 perhaps1 that ought to be taken into consideration1 in accounting for this movable disposition of the god was that he was not symbolized exclusively by a statue4444 ,his chief symbol was a standard that could be carried from place to place4444 ,the standard consisted of a pole surrounded by a disk enclosed within two wings1 while above the disk stood the figure of a warrior in the act of shooting an arrow 7cf4 fig4 #fe1 #e74444 ,the standard 444 which was so made that it could be carried into the thick of the fray in order to assure the army of the god's presence7#ajd7 444 followed the camp everywhere and when the kings chose to fix upon a new place for their military encampment 444 the standard would repose in the place selected0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 p4 #aid74 ,to one who like myself has devoted years to the study of the symbolism of primitive people and is familiar with the ancient ,mexican image of the 8lord of the ,north0 standing in the centre of a horizontally-placed cross-figure1 and with the ,chichimecan custom1 on taking possession of new territory1 to shoot arrows towards the cardinal points1 the ,ashur standard suggests a single explanation1 namely1 that it was the symbol of celestial1 central rulership and that the god1 standing on a staff which could be turned and aiming his arrow towards the four directions in succession1 was an expressive image of ,polaris and ,septentriones4 ,further ideas associated with the tree by the ,babylonian-,assyrians are clear since ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor has so conclusively shown that certain bas-reliefs represent the act of artificially fertilizing the palm tree by scattering the male blossom from its cone-shaped bunch1 over the female palm4 ,in each case this rite is being performed by figures with human bodies and large wings1 i4 e4 high priests of heaven1 and it seems evident that it symbolized the mystic life-producing union of heaven and earth or of the male and female principles of nature which marked the ,babylonian-,assyrian ,new ,year's ,day4 ,given these associations of thought1 it is easy to see how the ,new ,year became the festival of ,new ,life and how the fertilized tree became the 8tree of life10 and its sculptured image a memorial of a new year1 possibly recording some record of the actual marriages which took place in the state on that day4 ,the decipherment and comparison of the inscriptions on such tablets1 by skilled ,assyriologists1 can alone enlighten us on this point1 but enough appears apparent to explain how the tree could have become associated in ,assyria not only with life1 but with the life and growth of the state4 ,moreover the tree or pole itself1 named ashera1 may well have appeared to some ,euphratean people1 to express the name ,ashur sufficiently clear to become its symbol and 8canting arms40 ,the adoption of the shaft or pole1 as a symbol of the ,celestial ,centre1 may easily be explained by the fact that1 stuck into the ground and watched from a certain position1 its upper end would seem to touch ,polaris and it thus supplied wandering star-observers with a point of fixity in space which1 being transportable1 facilitated the registration of circumpolar rotation4 ,during many centuries the image of the 8crooked serpent10 ,nakkasch1 the constellation which could be seen each night winding its way around the pole1 must have deeply impressed itself upon the minds of the primitive star gazers of the ,euphratean valley1 and conveyed suggestions of imagery1 one of which may have created the ,phnician caduceus4 ,at a later period when ,ursa ,major became circumpolar1 the 8seven lights of heaven0 became in turn associated with the stable centre and suggested1 in time1 the seven-branched candlestick of the ,hebrews which is to this day constructed with a central or principal holder1 associated with stability4 ,it is remarkable to note the same ancient fundamental association in the elevated and beautiful imagery employed by the descendant of ancient ,euphratean star-worshippers1 in ,revelation ,,iv1 in describing his vision3 8444 ,and1 behold1 a throne was set in heaven1 and one sat on the throne4444 ,and there were seven lamps of fire burning before the throne4444 ,and before the throne there was a sea of glass like unto crystal3 and in the midst of the throne and round about the throne were four beasts44440 ,the idea cited by ,mr4 ,robert ,brown1 of the sacred pole-tree with golden apples guarded by the constellation ,nakkasch1 has already been mentioned and to this ancient image should be added the celestial tree of life set in the midst of the garden of ,paradise1 whence 8went out a river to water the garden and from thence it was parted and became four heads40444 ,it is as easy to see how the standard of ,assur1 which always marked the central place of worship1 should have been evolved1 as it is to realize why the fire-stick1 rod or sceptre should have been adopted by monarchs as an emblem of central rulership1 and why1 finally1 each centre of government should have adopted some specific symbol which1 mounted on the staff1 became its tribal or national emblem4 ,it does not appear hazardous to designate as such the ornamented staffs already described1 which are represented on the bas-reliefs1 in groups of four1 a number agreeing with that of the 8four regions40 ,it has already been pointed out that a group of four sceptres1 corresponding to the royal title 8lord of four regions10 is carved close to the hand of ,esarhaddon on the fine ,sendschirli tablet at ,berlin4 ,in ,babylonia1 the local deity of ,girsu was entitled 8the lord of the true sceptre10 8the lord of the right-hand sceptre10 a name which implies that1 where dual rulership prevailed1 a distinction was made between right-hand and left-hand sceptres1 a point to which ,i shall revert later on in dealing with ,egypt4 ,in ,northern ,assyria when the cult of ,nabu superseded that of ,marduk1 his temple was named 8the house of the sceptre of the world0 and ,nebuchadnezzar declares that it is he 8who gives the sceptre of sovereignty to kings to rule over the land0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 #abi74 ,simultaneously with the staff1 the cross and wheel also became emblems of sovereignty4 ,it has already been shown that the cross and four-spoked wheel of ,shamash were synonymous signs4 ,it remains to be shown how the wheel was employed in ,babylonia and ,assyria as an emblem of royalty4 ,the representation of ,shamash at ,sippar exhibits his wheel resting1 in a perpendicular position1 on a table4 ,attached to the wheel are two cords which are held by a 8god0 and his consort1 who appear to be directing the course of the wheel4 ,we thus see that1 whereas the disk or wheel of ,assur1 the central god1 revolved on its own axis1 and was provided with wings1 signifying arial and celestial motion1 the wheel of ,shamash was associated with a 8lord and lady10 and the symbolism appears to express that they were the directors of the 8wheel of the law0 of terrestrial government4 ,it is well known that1 beside the throne1 the emblem of permanent repose1 the ,assyrian monarchs also used the chariot as a royal prerogative4 ,in the ,gilgamesh epic the goddess ,ishtar1 on conferring sovereignty upon ,gilgamesh1 says3 8,i will place thee on a chariot of lapis-lazuli and gold1 with wheels of gold44440 ,on studying the ,nimroud bas-reliefs in the ,british ,museum ,i noted the fact that the trappings of the horse driven by king ,asurnasirpal1 who is represented as standing in his two-wheeled chariot1 are decorated with crosses4 ,it is impossible not to recognize the affinity of the 8wheel of the law0 and the 8lord of the wheel0 of ,india with the ,assyrian symbols of ,polaris and of central rulership and to appreciate the nave ingenuity of the idea of making the driving of the chariot by the king represent his control of the rotating wheels of state and government of the four quarters from a stable centre47#aje7 ,as another example of the ,assyrian employment of the cross-symbol1 the bas-relief at the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford1 should be mentioned1 as it displays a winged bird-headed human figure1 whose garments are embroidered with crosses4 ,king ,asurnasirpal1 who is alternately figured on his throne or in his chariot1 is frequently represented as wearing on his garments and bracelets another familiar and expressive emblem of centralization and unity in diversity1 the composite flower or rosette4 ,the sacred ship or ark of the ,babylonian temple remains to be discussed4 ,diodorus ,seculus says that1 according to ,babylonian notions1 8the world is #8a boat turned upside down' and resting on the waters4 ,the appearance in outline of this image presented the three divisions of the universe3 the heavens,anu upheld by the serpent body of ,tiamat2 the earth1 the dwelling of ,bel-,marduk1 the #8chief of gods2' and the watery deep or #8,apsu' beneath1 the dwelling of ,ea0 7,jastrow74 ,this imagery authorizes the inference that the sacred ship or ark was associated with this conception of the earth as a boat resting on the line dividing the sky from the watery deep4 ,it can readily be seen how a maritime people would be inclined to fancy that the celestial bodies floated in the sky on invisible boats and that a single one among them was apparently resting on a stable rock or mountain around which other stars circled perpetually4 ,that an analogous train of thought should have caused the ultimate consecration of a tabernacle in the form of a ship1 to the central deity1 entitled 8the great mountain10 appears as inevitable as the idea that all life proceeded from this source4 ,professor ,jastrow tells us that the early significance of the custom of carrying the gods in consecrated ships became lost1 but that it survived in ,babylonia and ,egypt and that the ark of the ,hebrews appears1 similarly1 to have been originally a ship of some kind4 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge for the interesting information that each day1 in the temple of ,ptah at ,memphis1 an image of the god ,seker was dragged around the altar by the priests4 ,bringing the preceding tentative study of the ancient civilization of ,babylonia-,assyria to a close1 ,i venture to affirm that1 imperfect as it is1 it clearly establishes certain important points connected with the present investigation4 ,it demonstrates that a primitive pole-star worship existed and still exists in the ,euphratean valley1 accompanied by the employment of the swastika or cross-symbol and by the identical fundamental set of ideas which form the basis not only of other ,asiatic1 but also of the ,american civilizations4 ,the ,middle is associated with special sanctity1 fixity and supremacy of power and rule1 extending in rotation over the ,above and ,below and ,four ,quarters4 ,this seven-fold division of the universe extended throughout the entire organization of the state and gave rise to certain logical developments of thought and symbolism1 analogous to those which have been traced elsewhere4 ,postponing further comment1 investigation will next be transferred to the valley of the ,nile1 whose inhabitants1 at various periods of their history1 came closely into contact with the people of ,asia ,minor4 ,,egypt4 ,pausing at the entrance to a much explored domain with a fitting realization of being a novice and an intruder therein1 ,i find myself encouraged to advance by the frank admission recently made by one of the leading authorities in ,egyptology4 ,in his 8,notes for travellers in ,egypt10 ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 the ,assistant in the ,department of ,egyptian and ,assyrian antiquities1 of the ,british ,museum1 openly states that 8the religion of the ancient ,egyptians is one of the most difficult problems of ,egyptology and though a great deal has been written about it during the last few years and many difficulties have been satisfactorily explained1 there still remain unanswered a large number of questions connected with it4 ,in all religious texts the reader is always assumed to have a knowledge of the subject treated of by the writer1 and no definite statement is made on the subject concerning which very little1 comparatively1 is known by students of to-day0 7,the ,nile1 ,london1 #ahij1 p4 #ga74 ,after having traced1 as ,i have done1 throughout ancient ,america1 ,china1 ,india and ,babylonia-,assyria1 one and the same fundamental1 artificial scheme of state organization1 it was with keenest interest and a new sense of comprehension of the ancient ,egyptian civilization that ,i noted certain facts which ,i shall now proceed to present4 ,they will be found to show that ancient ,egypt supplies us with the instance of a civilization in which the fundamental set of ideas1 developed from primitive pole-star worship1 prevailed during thousands of years and had reached a high stage of evolution at a period anterior to about ,b4,c4 #djjj4 ,,territorial ,,divisions ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt4 ,according to ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 the ancient ,egyptians called their land ,bak or ,baket1 ,ta-,mera and ,khem or ,kamt1 also ,ta-,nehat1 8the land of the sycamore0 and the land of 8the eye of ,horus40 ,it was divided into two parts3 ,upper ,egypt1 ,ta-res or ,ta-kema8the southern land10 symbolized by the vulture2 and ,lower ,egypt1 ,ta-,meh1 ,mah-,ti or ,meh-,ta1 literally1 8,north-land10 symbolized by the serpent4 ,two great ancient cities or capitals were respectively known as ,annu ,meht1 8,annu of the ,north10 and ,annu ,qemat1 8,annu of the ,south40 ,the kings of ,egypt styled themselves ,suten-,net1 8,king of the ,north and ,south0 and ,nebtaui1 8lord of the two earths40 ,as such the king wore the double crown made up of the tesher or net1 the red crown of ,northern or ,lower ,egypt and the hetet or het1 the white crown of ,southern or ,upper ,egypt 7,the ,nile1 p4 #bg74 ,it will be shown further on that the high white and low red crowns were respectively worn by the king and the queen at a certain period of ,egyptian history4 ,it is well known that1 in numerous pictorial representations1 the ,egyptian men are painted with red1 but the women with white skins4 ,the above facts show that there existed a curious association of red with the north and the male sex1 and of white with the south and the female sex47#ajf7 ,it is a familiar fact that the ,egyptian hieroglyph and determinative sign for town1 city or village consisted of a circle with four divisions4 ,the usual form of this sign1 the phonetic value of which is nu or nut1 is shown as fig4 #fj1 #a1 a4 ,on a bas-relief preserved at the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford1 ,i noted the variant #a1 b4 ,it is interesting to collate these signs with the cross-symbols 7#b7 which express the sound of uu1 un1 and ur1 and to note that the sign for a capital in ,egypt contains a division into fourun or ur1 and that the latter word is actually the familiar name of the famous centre in ,babylonia where cities laid out in the form of a square and 8four-god cities0 existed1 and the kings were termed 8lords of the four regions0 and 8kings of ,sumer and ,akkad10 the two ancient divisions of the ,babylonian state4 ,it thus appears doubly significant that1 in ,egyptian1 the word ur signifies 8great1 great one0 and is also the name of a god1 which is expressed in hieroglyphic writing by the cross1 a mouth and a seated god1 the determinative for divinity4 ,what is more1 ur-uchiefs1 ur-tthe name of a crown and ur-tthose who rest1 all of which words show that the ,egyptian ur was associated with the idea of divinity1 greatness1 crowned chieftainship1 repose and the cross-symbol which is incorporated in nut1 the sign for capital or city4 ,the fact that the symbols for the two great divisions of ancient ,egypt1 the red crown of ,northern or ,lower ,egypt1 and the white crown of ,southern or ,upper ,egypt1 are found surmounting the sign nut 7#c71 sufficiently shows that this symbol also stood for an extended capital1 a state1 and that both 8lands0 constituted at one time separate units or reproductions of the identical plan4 ,returning to the ancient capitals known as the 8,annu of the ,north0 and the 8,annu of the ,south30 according to ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge the first occupied the site of ,heliopolis and was identical with the city of ,on mentioned in ,genesis 7,,xli3 #de74 ,the ,annu ,qemat was ,hermonthis1 the modern ,menth1 ,armant or ,erment1 situated on the west bank of the ,nile a little to the south of the ruins of ,thebes4 ,it is noteworthy that the name for ,thebes1 given in the cuneiform inscriptions and ,hebrew scriptures1 ,no 7,ezek4 ,,xxx3#d7 and ,no-am-on 7,nahum ,,iii3#h71 is in one case the simple inversion of ,on1 the ,hebrew name of ,heliopolis1 the ,northern ,annu1 while in the second instance the name of ,thebes incorporates both forms4 ,the allusion to the 8square of the city of ,edfu10 and to buildings laid out on a square ground-plan1 contained in inscriptions cited by ,brugsch17#ajg7 also furnishes an indication1 which can doubtless be multiplied1 that1 as in ,babylonia1 ,egyptian cities were sometimes built in the form of a square4 ,in ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 the square 7slightly elongated7 is employed to express the consonant p4 ,the sign appears to have been cryptic and to have constituted the symbol of the god ,ptah1 8,the ,opener10 considered as the most ancient of ,egyptian gods4 ,according to ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 8the sign is the picture of a door made up of a number of boards fastened together by three cross-pieces at the back1 and there can be no doubt that the word for door was connected with the verb pthto open1 and that it was pronounced something like ptah 7compare the ,hebrew pethah74 ,the sound of the first letter of ptah being p1 the phonetic value of the door became p0 7,first steps in ,egyptian1 p4 #e74 ,to the above ,i add the observation that the plain square or outline of the door1 without indications of boards and cross-pieces1 is usually employed in the published texts4 ,the association of the square1 representing a door with three cross-beams1 and expressing the sound ptah is particularly interesting when connected with the word for earth or landta1 and the method of expressing the word universetaui1 by the threefold repetition of the sign ta1 which resembles a cross-beam 7fig4 #fj1 #e74 ,an interesting association of the square with earth or land is seen in one of the signs for province or nomesept or hesp1 which consists of a series of squares1 evidently representing theoretical territorial divisions and possibly a system of canal-irrigation4 ,other suggestive signs for sep consist of a circle containing two strokes2 a circle enclosing four dots and a double circle 7fig4 #fj1 #d74 ,it is interesting to find an isosceles triangle employed1 with a slight addition1 to express the word taland1 as well as septprovince 7fig4 #fj1 #d and #e71 and to find on analyzing the circular sign for nutsky1 which is likewise the determinative for city1 that it contains four triangles4 ,these converge towards the centre1 as do the triangular sides of the square pyramid1 and thus the sign nut and the pyramid clearly appear to express a whole divided into four parts1 the square form being connected with earth and the circle with the sky4 ,illustration4 ,figure #fj4 ,a proof that the quadriform organization was extensively employed in ancient ,egypt1 is furnished by ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge's statement that each nome or province was divided into four parts1 and had its capital or 8nut40 ,the inference is that each nome constituted a miniature reproduction of the state and that the sign nut represented its theoretical plan4 ,on the other hand1 the fact that the triangle constitutes one sign for the nome itself1 indicates that1 originally1 the nome was identified as one of four divisions of the state only and that1 like ,babylon1 ,egypt must have been theoretically divided1 not only into two main divisions1 but also into four regions1 corresponding to the ,north,meh-ta1 literally ,north land4 ,west,amen-ta1 literally ,hidden land4 ,south,resu4 ,east,aba4 ,in the extracts from the ,pyramid texts published by ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge 7,pyramid of ,unas1 ,fifth dynasty71 the following invocation occurs3 8,o gods of the west1 ,o gods of the east1 ,o gods of the south1 ,o gods of the north1 four these1 who embrace the four quarters of the earth holy40 ,these four quarters are represented in hieroglyphics by the sign for landta1 repeated four times1 which thus express1 literally1 8the four lands0 or regions4 ,allusion is also made in the same inscription1 to the 8four fields of heaven407#ajh7 ,the four gods1 termed by ,egyptologists the 8genii of the dead10 were ,amset or ,mestha1 ,hapi1 ,tuaumutef and ,kebhsenuf1 and it was the custom to place the canopic vases representing them under the bier4 ,the canopic vases were1 however1 also supposed to be under the protection of four sky goddesses1 identified with the cardinal points1 whose names are usually given as ,isis1 ,nephthys1 ,neith and ,serk-t7874 ,a particularly interesting instance of the employment of the cross-symbol in connection with the four 8gods of the horizon10 as they are termed1 is to be found in the ,book of the ,dead1 published by ,lepsius and reproduced by ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge 7,dwellers on the ,nile1 p4 #aeh74 ,the four gods in mummy form1 stand in a line behind a table laden with offerings4 ,a large crux decussata 7,st4 ,andrew's cross7 is painted on the right shoulder of the foremost god1 a fact to which ,i shall revert and discuss further in dealing with the cross-symbol and swastika in ,egypt4 ,having traced quadruplicate territorial divisions and quaternions of gods1 let us next present proofs of an organization of the population into four 8races40 ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 referring to ,chabas and ,naville1 states that 8the ,egyptians of the later empire believed that ,ra-,harmachis1 attacked his foes1 who fled in all directions from before him4 ,those who came to the south became the ,cushites1 those who came to the north became the ,amu1 those who came to the west the ,libyans and those who came to the east the ,shasu1 and thus were the four races of mankind made0 7,the ,dwellers on the ,nile1 p4 #ec74 ,the fact that the ,sphinx has been designated as the image of ,ra-,harmachis i4 e4 ,heru-em-chut and of his human representative1 and that the distribution of people to the cardinal points and the origin of four races of men is assigned to him1 are particularly interesting and suggestive1 especially in connection with the familiar table of nations given by ,moses1 who says 8and the sons of ,ham1 ,cush and ,mizraim and ,phut and ,canaan0 7,gen4 ,x3#f74 ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge states that ,ham or ,kham is the same as ,khem and is the name ,kamt1 i4 e4 black1 by which the ,egyptians generally called their land4 ,i venture to point out that in the following passages the name ,ham seems to be more applicable to a deity such as ,amen-,ra or to his human representative a king1 than to ,egypt itself3 8,and smote all the firstborn in ,egypt and the chief of their strength in the tabernacles of ,ham0 and again 8,wondrous works in the land of ,ham40444 ,it is well known that ,mizraim1 the second name given above1 was employed by the ,hebrews as a designation for ,egypt4 ,the inhabitants of the region of ,cush are represented on ,egyptian monuments and we are told that 8at the outset they appear to have had a religion and speech akin to that of the ,egyptians4 ,we find ,phut most probably1 in the ,punt of the inscriptions1 the land 444 situated to the south of ,egypt on both sides of the ,red sea4 ,the fourth son of ,ham1 ,canaan1 is represented by the original inhabitants of ,canaan1 who were probably near relations of the ,egyptians0 7,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,dwellers on the ,nile1 p4 #eb74 ,while tradition and documentary evidence thus associates the four sons of ,ham with certain regions and cardinal points1 ,egyptian monuments exhibit representations of people of four different colors1 i4 e4 red1 yellow1 black and white4 8,the ancient ,egyptians 444 recognized four races of men4 ,they themselves belonged to the #8,rot' or red men2 the yellow men they called #8,namu'--it included the ,asiatic races2 the black men were called #8,nahsu1' and the white men #8,tam-hu4' ,the following figures 7fig4 #fa7 are copied from ,nott and ,gliddon's #8,types of ,mankind1' p4 #he1 and were taken by them from the great works of ,belzoni1 ,champollion and ,lepsius0 7,donelly1 ,atlantis1 p4 #aie74 ,pursuing our investigations of the territorial divisions of ,egypt1 we learn1 from ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge1 that collectively there were #db nomes in ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,this number is identical with that of the #db gods represented in the ,book of the ,dead as being with ,osiris in the hall of ,two ,truths where the dead were judged4 ,the #db 8judges of the dead0 are represented as seated figures1 with human or animal heads1 and are equally divided into two groups4 ,from the 8negative confession0 which the deceased makes to his judges1 we learn that each god was identified with a locality1 some amongst them being addressed as 8coming out from0 such important cities as ,heliopolis1 ,sais1 ,bubastis1 etc4 ,the inference ,i venture to make is that these #db judges were the gods of the #db nomes who1 with ,osiris1 the chief god and the 8,president10 formed the council of gods1 which judged and ordered the affairs of men4 ,illustration4 ,figure #fa4 ,the ,races ,of ,men ,according ,to ,the ,egyptians4 ,it is moreover natural to suppose that terrestrial administrations of justice must also have been executed by a supreme council of men1 composed of the king1 the living image of ,osiris1 and the chiefs of the #db nomes of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 who personified1 as elsewhere1 the totemic divinity of tribe or district4 ,postponing further discussion of the number #db1 associated with nomes and gods1 let us examine further data concerning the territorial organization of ancient ,egypt4 ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge tells us that1 8during the rule of the ,greeks 7,b4,c4 #cdb-ccb71 ,egypt was divided into three parts3 ,upper1 ,central and ,lower ,egypt4 ,central ,egypt consisted of seven nomes1 and was called ,heptanomis0 7,nile1 p4 #bh74 ,the seven-storied pyramid of ,skkarah and the employment of the signs expressing 8three regions0 and 8four regions or lands10 to signify the whole land or universe1 prove that1 long before ,greek rule1 the ancient ,egyptians1 like the ,babylonians1 employed the heptameredal system4 ,thus1 according to ,herodotus1 8,there are seven classes of ,egyptians1 and of these some are called priests1 others warriors1 others herdsmen1 others swineherds1 others tradesmen1 others interpreters and lastly pilots2 such are the classes of ,egyptians2 they take their names from the employments they exercise0 7,euterpe ,,ii1 #afd74 ,passages from ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie's ,history of ,egypt 7,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aef and #ahe7 afford1 moreover1 instances of the conquest of a heptarchic government by an ,egyptian king and the employment1 in about ,b4,c4 #aejj1 of the number seven1 as a mystic or sacred number1 in a letter from a ,syrian prince to the ,egyptian king4 ,in the record of the triumphal return of ,aa-kheperu-ra1 the seventh king of the eighteenth dynasty 7,b4,c4 #addi-adbc71 it is said3 8,his ,majesty returned in joy of heart to his father ,amen2 his own hand1 with his mace1 had struck down the seven chiefs1 which were of the territory of ,pakhsi 7near ,aleppo704444 8,six of these enemies were hanged in front of the walls of ,thebes2 the seventh probably the chief of chiefs1 was brought to ,nubin and was hanged on the wall of the town of ,napata1 to show forth for all time the victories of the king among all people of the negro land1 inasmuch as he had taken possession of the nations of the south and he had bound the nations of the north and the ends of the whole extent of the earth on which the sun rises and sets1 without finding any opposition1 according to the command of his father ,amen-ra of ,thebes40 ,a letter from a ,syrian prince to ,amenhotep ,,iii 7,b4,c4 #adad-acgi71 opens thus3 8,to the king1 my master1 my god1 my sun1 this is said3 ,yatibiri1 the servant1 the dust of thy feet1 at the feet of my king1 my master1 my god1 my sun1 seven times1 and seven times more1 ,i fall down47#aji70444 ,while the above data suffice to establish that more than a thousand years before ,greek rule was established in ,egypt its inhabitants were familiar with the seven-fold scheme of organization1 the following extremely interesting portion of ,brugsch's monumental work1 already cited1 indirectly teaches much concerning the divisions of the land of ,egypt4 ,the ancient ,egyptian astronomers regarded the nocturnal heaven as the exact counterpart of the land of ,egypt 7,i1 p4 #agf74 ,in the inscriptions1 the firmament is frequently considered geographically1 as a region comprising countries surrounded by seas and traversed by rivers and canals1 and covered with cities and houses and divided into nomes which corresponded to those of ,egypt1 excepting in point of number1 there being thirty-six celestial nomes4 ,according to the inscriptions and pictures in the royal tombs at ,thebes1 there was a celestial eastern sea 7uat-ura abti71 a western sea 7uat-ura amentti7 and a northern sea 7uat-ura mahtet or mehtat74 ,special mention is made of 8the waters0 and land of the 8northern place of light above the constellation of the ,great ,bear40 ,the lands of ,punet 7,punt871 ,uthenet1 ,kenemti and ,sa-nutart-mahti1 8the northern land of ,god0 are designated1 beside other names which correspond to the terrestrial geographical situation of outlying foreign countries known to the ,egyptians4 ,there was a celestial city1 8,anu or ,on10 whose eastern and western sides or places of light are frequently mentioned4 ,the mention of a single ,anu or ,on1 names which are found applied to the most ancient capitals of the land of ,egypt1 is particularly noteworthy4 ,it will be shown further on1 upon ,sir ,norman ,lockyer's authority1 that1 in the exact centre of the circular zodiac at ,denderah1 the jackal1 expressing the name ,anubis1 8is located at the pole of the equator and obviously represents the present ,little ,bear40 ,this and other data establish beyond a doubt that the celestial ,anu1 ,on or ,no1 was supposed to be situated in ,polaris and that the terrestrial capital was intended to be the counterpart of the apparent seat of central rule and government according to fixed laws and order of rotation4 ,the idea that1 after death1 the human soul lived again in the celestial sphere is shown in the following address to a departed spirit contained in the ,bulak papyrus cited by ,brugsch3 8,the images of the gods of the ,southern and ,northern countries appear to thee in the thirty-six nomes2 thou goest where they are as a perfect soul1 thou doest what pleases thee in the heaven1 thou art amongst the constellations of the thirty-six ,beka40 ,this word is rendered by ,brugsch as the 8,dekane0 in ,german and ,i have been unable to find its exact equivalent in ,english4 ,the ,dekanes are alluded to in an inscription from the ,ptolemaic period cited by ,brugsch 7op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #ace7 as follows3 8,they shine forth after the sun has set4 ,they run in a circle1 and continually release each other4 ,they become apparent at sunset at hours varying with the seasons40 ,the ,dekane constellations or stars were those which rose at the beginning of each decade or period of ten days1 which constituted the ,egyptian 8week40 ,there were thirty-six or #di of these in the ,egyptian year1 at the end of which an epact of five days was added1 each day being consecrated to one of the five chief gods4 ,deferring the discussion of the ,egyptian numerical calendaric system1 ,i merely point out here the obvious agreement between the number of celestial nomes #cf1 the number of decades in the year of #cfj days to which should be added the familiar fact that each day and decade had its special 8god40 ,laying stress upon the point that in ancient ,egypt we find thirty-six celestial1 geographical districts1 corresponding to the thirty-six decades of the year and to thirty-six gods1 ,i take pleasure in pointing out how clearly the following passages of ,sir ,norman ,lockyer's 8,dawn of ,astronomy0 show that the thirty-six gods had as many human representatives1 priests1 who performed certain religious rites and homage in the chief temple in a fixed order of rotation4 8,even at ,phil in late times1 in the temple of ,osiris1 there were #cfj bowls for sacrifices1 which were filled daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests4 ,at ,acanthus there was a perforated cask into which one of the #cfj priests poured water from the ,nile daily20 an enforced act of obedience recalling the punishment of the daughters of ,dana4 ,as ,sir ,norman ,lockyer justly remarks 8these temple ceremonials are an evidence of their antiquity and may be regarded as traditions preserved by the conservative priesthood40 ,i am inclined to regard the above mentioned acts of empty homage as survivals of conditions strictly analogous to those which existed in ancient ,america1 where each geographical district of the state was associated with a class of people under their representative1 and a day of the calendar on which obligations towards the central government1 such as the paying of tribute1 had to be performed in a fixed order of rotation1 corresponding to the annual circuit of the circumpolar constellations around the pole star4 ,during centuries the most remarkable of these1 ,ursa ,major1 like the hand of a great celestial dial1 moved by an unseen ruling power apparently located in ,polaris1 became visible after dusk and pointed towards the four quarters of heaven in succession1 at intervals of nine decades of days4 ,as in ,china and elsewhere at the present day1 its position was referred to as a guide in determining time1 during the night1 and the seasons2 and mankind became familiarized with the idea of a changeless inexorable law and order governing the universe and determining human periodical activities1 and thus directly influencing individual lives4 ,added to this the idea of a heavenly kingdom1 traversed by the celestial ,nile1 the ,milky ,way1 and in which each familiar locality in ,egypt had its counterpart1 it is easy to follow the spread of the belief that there was a close connection between the stars and their terrestrial counterparts and that they directly influenced the destinies of individuals1 each of which had its particular star in the sky4 ,the following portions of the decree inscribed ,b4,c4 #bch on the famous trilingual stela of ,canopus1 preserved at ,gizeh1 contain what appear to me to be distinct allusions to the ideal of a terrestrial kingdom1 laid out and governed in accordance with the system and fixed laws observed as existing in the heavens and governing the movements of celestial bodies4 ,the hieroglyphic text records the establishment of festivals 8in accord with the existing fundamental laws upon which the heavens the movements of heavenly bodies are established40444 ,the ,greek translation of this passage reads3 8according to the now existing order of the world universe0 and the demotic version is3 8in accordance with the scheme1 upon which the heaven is established 0 7,brugsch1 op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #ahj74 ,further facts concerning celestial and terrestrial territorial divisions remain to be examined and discussed4 ,a number of representations exist in which the figure of the sky-goddess1 ,nut1 appears as though stretched across the vault of heaven1 her feet resting on the earth in the east and the tips of her fingers touching the horizon in the west4 ,a study of certain texts cited by ,brugsch clearly shows that it was for very practical and sensible reasons that the ,egyptian astronomers had adopted the plan of an imaginary human form stretched across the nocturnal heaven1 as it enabled the position of constellations and stars to be definitely located4 ,lepsius has shown that1 in a series of inscriptions in the tombs of ,ramses ,,vi and ,ramses ,,ix1 the movements and positions of stars are given in connection with the parts of an imaginary human form in the sky4 ,it is thus said of a star that it was situated3 8in the middle of the breast1 in the right eye1 the left eye1 the right ear1 the left ear1 the right arm1 the left arm1 the left thigh40 ,brugsch 7op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #ahg7 quotes the opinion of ,lepsius that the parts alluded to in the above inscriptions1 referred to an imaginary male figure stretched across the firmament and viewed en face1 and publishes a theoretical reconstruction of this imaginary figure4 ,it recalls that of a ,buddha and suggests the idea that the ,egyptian schematical figure must have also been imagined as seated on the stable centre of the heaven4 ,egyptian astronomical texts1 which ,i shall cite further on1 appear to me to show distinctly that the lotus flower 7the name for flower being ankh7 was employed to express the sound ankh1 which means 8life0 and that it occurs in connection with other symbols of the pole-star god4 ,returning to the representations of ,nut stretched across the sky1 it should be noted that this employment of the human form belongs to the same category as the ,sphinx1 which appears to have been the terrestrial counterpart of the celestial schematical figure4 ,on the other hand1 the sign nut1 consisting of a circle with four divisions1 like the pyramid1 represents the successful attempt to express the same thought in abstract1 geometrical form1 such as would be intelligible to an initiated1 intellectual minority only4 ,it will be seen further on that ,i advance the view that the pyramid1 being a miniature reproduction of the scheme of the universe1 contained a sacred central chamber1 representing the sacred ,middle1 and that this was destined to be the 8house of eternal repose0 for the dead king1 the representative of the universal god4 ,as ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge tells us3 8,if the deceased succeeds in passing the ordeal of judgment after death satisfactorily1 he comes forth at once as a god 7there is no place of probation71 he becomes identified with ,osiris1 in whose shape his mummy is made0 7,the ,dwellers on the ,nile1 p4 #agg74 ,the following text1 from the inscription on an amulet found on the neck of the mummy of a young girl1 preserved at the ,berlin ,museum1 is explained in the official catalogue of the museum 7p4 #cdc71 as signifying that 8the mummy was supposed to lie in the centre of the whole world30 8,the sky is locked over the earth1 the earth is locked over the beyond and the beyond is locked over this strong mummy-case of the departed ,osiris-,hathor-tsen-usire44440 ,as the 8beyond0 in the inscription evidently signifies the 8underworld10 the idea that the mummy case1 resting on the earth1 was being pressed upon from beneath by the underworld1 and from above by the sky1 is clearly conveyed and is in keeping with the sign for universe1 already alluded to1 which represents three regions superposed4 ,the 8deification0 of the mummy1 which is named 8,osiris-,hathor10 is an interesting instance of the idea that the mummy became the image not only of the goddess ,hathor but also of the god ,osiris1 or ,ptah1 who is usually represented in the form of a mummy4 ,a remarkable instance of a king in a pyramid being actually worshipped and bearing the name of ,ptah1 added to his own1 is given by ,professor ,flinders ,petrie 7op4 cit4 ,,ii1 p4 #beg74 8444 ,the figure of the king ,teta1 entitled ,teta-mer-en-ptah1 is placed in a triangle1 which is suggestive of a pyramid 7as ,men-nefer is written with the same triangle on this naos74 ,rather than suppose a new king at this period1 we should see in this the worship of a pyramid king1 ,teta1 of the sixth dynasty44440 ,the association of ,ptah1 who is regarded as perhaps the oldest of all gods of ,egypt1 with the squareptah and the pyramid and the mummy1 is of extreme interest1 especially as ,egyptian texts contain references to 8a single god1 who becomes a quaternary of gods0 7,brugsch ,,ii1 #djh71 and we therefore see that the idea of ,four in ,one was a familiar one4 ,the personification of ,ptah usually consists of a mummy holding a sceptre1 expressing strength1 life and stability4 ,under the form of ,osiris he usually holds the curved sceptre denoting dominion1 beside the symbols for life1 rule and power1 and is entitled the 8lord of the holy land1 lord of eternity1 prince of everlasting1 the president of the gods1 and the head of the corridor of the tomb40 ,considering that in all pyramids hitherto explored1 the corridor of the tomb is directed towards ,polaris1 it appears obvious that the supreme god of 8life1 strength1 eternity1 rule and power10 was a personification of ,polaris1 the stability of which was navely expressed by the body in mummy form symbolizing the absolute repose and immobility of death1 combined with an animated face and the symbols of living1 active power4 ,as the divine land is expressly designated as the divine land of the north in astronomical texts and that this celestial region had its terrestrial counterpart1 it is naturally in ,lower ,egypt1 that the holy land of the north must be sought4 ,investigation speedily proves that the most ancient vestiges of civilization are situated in the neighborhood of ,memphis which1 under the kings of the fourth and the sixth dynasties1 reached its height of splendor4 ,it is in the land of the north1 ,meh-ta1 that the extremely ancient seven-storied pyramid of ,sakkrah lies1 and that there exists the area of about thirty kilometers in which eighty pyramids are concentrated1 and which constitutes the great burial ground of countless generations of ,egyptians of all periods4 ,a curious detail1 to which ,i shall refer again1 is the affinity in sound of the name for 8north land10 ,meh-ta1 and mitdeath or the dead1 and the undeniable resemblance of both words to the ,nahuatl1 ancient ,mexican mictlanthe ,north1 or underworld1 from mic-quiztlideath and tlanland 7cf4 ,egyptian taland74 ,in ,egypt1 as elsewhere1 the western horizon1 below which sun1 moon and stars disappeared1 was naturally regarded as the entrance to the region of the underworld4 ,the west being therefore designated amen-ta1 8the hidden or concealed land or region10 it is all the more significant to find the single entrance and exit corridor of each pyramid directed1 not towards the west1 the underworld1 but towards the stable centre of the northern region of the sky4 ,it would therefore seem as though the intention had been to establish a direct line of communication between the tomb chamber in the centre of the pyramid and the divine 8northern land of ,god10 the sacred mountain ,manu and the shining celestial city ,anu1 lying 8between the east and west10 i4 e4 in the ,middle1 where the supreme star-god dwelt in eternal repose4 ,an interesting proof that the longing of the souls of the dead tended towards the north is furnished by the common prayer-formula3 8may my soul 444 inhale the north-wind and drink from the stream40 ,before advancing further1 the following authoritative statements1 establishing the supremacy of pole-star cult in ancient ,egypt1 should be presented4 ,according to ,sir ,norman ,lockyer1 8,it seems extremely probable that the worship of circumpolar constellations went on in ,babylonia as well as in ,egypt in the earliest times we can get at0 7op4 cit4 p4 #cfc74 8,there can be no question that the chief ancient constellation in the ,north was the ,great ,bear or1 as it was then pictured1 the ,thigh 7,meskhet70 7p4 #baf74 8,in the exact centre of the circular zodiac of ,denderah we find the jackal ,anubis located at the pole of the equator3 it obviously represents the present ,little ,bear0 7p4 #cfb74 8,with regard to ,anubis1 it is quite certain that the seven stars in ,ursa ,minor make a very good jackal with pendent tail1 as generally represented by the ,egyptians and that they form the nearest compact constellation to the pole of the ecliptic44440 ,sir ,norman ,lockyer adds that he is informed by ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge that 8,an was an old name of the sun-god10 but also states1 in another page of his work that 8the worship of ,anubis1 as god of the dead or the night god 444 was supreme until the time of ,men-kau-ra1 the builder of the third pyramid of ,gizeh0 7,b4,c4 #cfcc1 ,brugsch2 ,b4,c4 #dajj1 ,mariette2 p4 #cfc74 ,pending the production of astronomical texts which amply demonstrate that ,an was a name of a god of the night sun1 ,polaris1 the following establishes that1 at ,annu or ,heliopolis1 in remotest antiquity and amongst the pyramid builders1 the cult of a northern star prevailed4 8,the first civilization as yet glimpsed1 so far as temple building goes1 in ,northern ,egypt1 represented by that at ,annu1 or ,heliopolis1 was a civilization which combined the cult of a northern star with a non-equinoctial solar worship04444 8,i know not whether the similarity in the words ,anu1 ,annu and ,an results merely from a coincidence1 but it is certainly singular that the most ancient temples in ,lower ,egypt 7,heliopolis and ,denderah7 should be called ,annu or ,an1 if there be no connection with the ,babylonian god ,anu0 7,lockyer1 op4 cit4 p4 #cba74 ,the well-known fact that the entrance passage to the earliest pyramid known1 that of ,medum1 and of all pyramids hitherto explored1 has not only been found on the north face of the structure but is also believed to have oriented towards 8,sut-anup10 the pole-star 7of the period of its construction71 unquestionably proves that the pyramid builders assigned a particular importance to the north4 ,referring the reader to ,sir ,norman ,lockyer's work for a mass of valuable and interesting information concerning the orientation of ,egyptian temples1 ,i merely quote the following statements which not only show that throughout ,lower ,egypt north-star worship existed1 but also establish the interesting and important fact that in ,upper ,egypt a totally different astronomical cult was carried out during an unknown length of time4 8,it is an important fact to bear in mind that in the ,north of ,egypt1 in early times1 the stellar temples were more particularly directed to the north1 while south of ,thebes1 so far as ,i know1 there is only one temple so directed0 7p4 #bbe74444 8,from the astronomical point of view 444 there are distinctly two series of temples and monuments in general1 7leaving out of consideration the great pyramid builders at ,gizeh7 absolutely dissimilar astronomically2 444 there are at least two sets of temple-builders1 one going up the river building temples to the north stars1 the other going down the river building temples to the south stars2 and the two streams practically met at ,thebes1 or at all events they were both very fully represented there either together or successively40 ,sir ,norman ,lockyer proceeds to say3 8,the double origin of the people thus suggested on astronomical grounds may be the reason of the name of #8double country1' used especially in the titles of kings1 of the employment of two crowns1 and finally of the supposed sovereignty of ,set over the north1 and of ,horus over the south divisions of the kingdom0 7op4 cit4 p4 #cde74 8,in short1 in ,lower ,egypt the temples are pointed to rising stars near the north point of the horizon1 or setting north of west4 ,in ,upper ,egypt we deal chiefly with temples directed to stars rising in the southeast1 or setting low in the southwest4 ,here again we are in presence of 444 distinct differences of astronomical thought44440 7p4 #cda74 8,with regard to the northern stars observed rising in high amplitudes1 we have found traces of their worship in times so remote that in all probability at ,annu and ,denderah ,urs ,majoris was used before it became circumpolar4 ,we deal almost certainly with #ejjj ,b4,c4444 ,new temples with nearly similar amplitudes 444 were built at later times 444 it may be suggested that the stellar observations made in them had ultimately to do with the determination of the hours of the night2 this seems probable1 for in ,nubia at present1 time at night is thus told40 8,it is possible that observations of these stars which are nearest the pole and move most slowly might have been made in such a way that1 at the beginning of the evening the particular position of ,draconis1 for instance1 might have been noted with regard to the pole-star2 and seeing that the ,egyptians thoroughly knew the length of the night and of the day in the different portions of the year1 they could at once1 the moment they had the starting-point afforded by the position of this star1 practically use the circle of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of celestial clock4 ,may not this really have been the clock with which they have been credited8 ,however long or short the night1 the star which was at first above the pole-star after it had got round so that it was on a level with it1 would have gone through a quarter of its revolution4 ,in low northern latitudes1 however1 the southern stars would serve better for this purpose1 since the circle of northern circumpolar stars would be much restricted4 ,hence there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring southern stars4 ,with regard both to high north and south stars1 then1 we may in both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the time at night4 ,so that the worship of ,set1 the determination of the time at night by means of the northern stars1 might have been little popular with those who at ,gebel ,barkal and elsewhere in the south had used the southern ones for the same purpose 4440 7p4 #cdd74 ,valuable and suggestive as these observations are1 ,i venture to point out that the following texts appear to indicate very clearly that1 as in ,china and ,mesopotamia1 in the present day1 the ancient ,egyptian high-priest and king on important public occasions simply utilized the conspicuous constellation of ,ursa ,major as a measurer of time4 ,in the account of the ceremonial used at the laying of the foundation of the temple at ,edf1 it is stated that the king's glance was directed to the ,ak or 8,middle0 and to ,meskhet,ursa ,major4 ,a part of the full translation of the inscription quoted from ,nissen by ,sir ,norman ,lockyer 7op4 cit41 pp4 #agf and #agi7 represents the king as speaking1 thus3 8,looking to the sky and recognizing the 'ak' of the ,bull's ,thigh constellation1 ,i establish the corners of the temple of ,her ,majesty40 ,it is further said 8,with his glance directed towards the #8ak' of the ,bull's ,thigh constellation he the king establishes the temple house of the mistress of ,denderak1 as took place there before40 ,having found out1 by referring to ,egyptian dictionaries1 that er-ak means 8in the middle10 and em-aka 8in the midst or middle10 while ,hak was a word employed for 8king10 ,i suggest that these meanings afford a different and much more simple explanation of the 8ak0 mentioned in the inscription than that given by ,sir ,norman ,lockyer and ,dmichen4 ,in dealing1 further on1 with the astronomical signs and names associated with the pole of the ecliptic1 ,i shall1 moreover1 point out that the bullka1 employed as an astronomical symbol of ,ursa ,major1 may have been adopted as a cryptic sign for ,polaris1 merely because its name contained the letters of the word akthe ,middle4 ,the recurrence of the same letters in ,hakking seems to explain also why the king of ,egypt was entitled 8the bull40 ,returning to the inscription relating to the ceremony of laying the foundation stone2 in other texts cited by ,sir ,norman ,lockyer we find the king saying3 8,i have grasped the wooden peg stake and the handle of the club2 ,i hold the rope with ,sesheta his female consort4 ,my glance follows the course of the stars2 my eye is on ,meskhet2 standing as divider of time by his measuring instrument0 7,duemichen's version7 or 8mine is the part of time of the number of the hour-clock 0 7,brugsch's version74 ,in another part the king says 8444 ,i let my glance enter the constellation of the ,thigh 7representing the divider of time at his measuring instrument70 7,duemichen's translation7 or 8the part of my time stands in the place of his hour-clock0 7,brugsch's translation74 ,sir ,norman ,lockyer notes that 8the word merech or merechet1 in which ,brugsch suspects hour or water-clock1 does not occur elsewhere40 ,whatever differences there may be in the ,brugsch and ,duemichen translations and the interpretations of the word ak1 the above texts establish that the ,egyptian king directed his glance to 8the ,middle0 and that the constellation ,meskhet,ursa ,major was connected with time-measurement and the establishment of the four quarters of the temple4 ,as ,i shall show further on1 the 8,sesheta10 mentioned in the text as performing the ceremony with the king1 appears to be not a 8mythical goddess10 as ,sir ,norman ,lockyer infers1 but the living 8divine queen10 and consort of the king4 ,she is represented with the insignia of ,isis1 whereas he wears the crown of ,osiris1 and ,i note that while she holds her stake in her left1 he holds his in his right hand4 ,deferring a discussion of the position of ,egyptian queens1 ,i point out here that1 in the interesting description of a foundation ceremonial1 preserved in an inscription relating to the rebuilding of a temple at ,abydos1 about ,b4,c4 #achj1 the ,sesheta1 entitled the 8mistress of the laying of the foundation stone10 seems to have been the chief actor1 since it is she who addresses the king1 as follows3 8,the hammer in my hand was of gold1 as ,i struck the peg with it1 and thou wast with me in thy capacity of ,harpedonapt 84 ,thy hand held the spade during the fixing of its the temple's four corners with accuracy by the four supports of heaven0 7,lockyer1 p4 #age74 ,the 8four supports of heaven0 referred to here are obviously 8the gods ,mestha1 ,hapi1 ,tuamautef and ,qebhsennuf10 who are recorded in the ,book of the ,dead 7chapter #ag7 as being 8those which find themselves behind the constellation of the ,thigh in the northern heaven40 ,in an inscription in the kings' graves at ,thebes mention is made of the 8four ,northern ,genii who are the four gods of #8the follower' obviously a circumpolar constellation0 7,lockyer1 p4 #adg74 ,they seem to be also identical with the 8four constellations ,akhemusek which are found in the northern heavens10 and the 8sailors or oarsmen in the bark of ,ra10 mentioned in the same and in many other inscriptions4 ,the four 8gods0 are represented with human bodies respectively surmounted by the head of a man1 an ape1 a jackal and a hawk and are identical with the 8genii of the dead10 represented on the canopic vases placed at the four corners of the bier4 ,in this connection attention is drawn to how clearly the symbolism of the mortuary customs becomes apparent when it is realized that the mummy1 the image of ,ptah-,osiris1 and of the pole-star god1 was laid to 8eternal rest0 in an imaginary 8sacred centre10 obtained by navely placing the effigies of the gods of the cardinal points1 the personifications of the 8four stars of the northern heaven10 at the corners of the bier4 ,the same dominant thought which underlies the popular use of the canopic vases clearly led to the building of the vast pyramids which constituted the sacred 8centres of the world0 par excellence1 the square base typifying the four regions and 8corners0 of the earth2 the triangular sides the four divisions of the sky1 which converge to a single ,middle1 associated with ,polaris1 the sacred pole or ak of the ,cosmos4 ,returning to the subject of the measurement of time by means of the circumpolar constellations1 it is instructive to find that the ,egyptian determinative sign for 8time0 consists of a central dot with a circle drawn around it and to note that the only celestial body that could be accurately figured as occupying the centre of a circle described around it is the primitive sun1 ,polaris4 ,the ,egyptian for 8time0 is rek1 an inversion of kerthe night1 the common sign for which is a band1 figuring the sky1 from the centre of which a star is suspended by a thread4 ,as the star is usually formed by two lines1 diagonally crossed1 at the end of the thread1 there is a strong temptation to see in the hanging single star an actual representation of a cross symbol4 ,it is particularly striking to find in ,brugsch's work1 that the determinative for time is actually represented1 in numerous cases1 as close to the single hanging star 7fig4 #fb1 #i74 ,i leave it to the reader to form his own conclusions whether this group represents ,polaris and the circuit of time measured by the circumpolar constellations1 or whether it merely represents1 as ,brugsch states1 the winter solstice1 i4 e4 the day sun in the nocturnal sky4 ,there exists a remarkable variant of the determinative of time1 which ,i shall discuss more fully further on4 ,instead of a mere dot1 a five-pointed star is distinctly figured in the centre of the circle 7fig4 #fb1 #ab74 ,this variant furnishes1 in my opinion1 convincing proof of the meaning of the determinative for time1 which also constituted the well-known sign for ,ragod1 and forms a part of the name of the supreme divinity of ,egypt1 ,amen1 or ,amon or ,amun ,ra1 the 8hidden or secret god10 whose name contradicts the current assumption that ,ra signifies the diurnal sun merely1 and that ,amen-,ra was a 8solar0 deity4 ,the following texts relating to the 8supreme true but hidden god0 amply demonstrate that the chief characteristic of his cult was that it was shrouded in secrecy and mystification4 ,others1 which ,i shall quote farther on1 allow us clearly to perceive that individuals were obliged to pass through a series of initiations into the meanings of cabalistic signs and symbols of the divinity before they attained the pure knowledge of the nature of the mysterious1 8hidden divinity40 ,on reading the texts of the famous 8,book of the ,dead0 it has frequently occurred to me that the negative confession and judgment of the soul of the departed may originally signify the actual confession and judgment of an applicant for initiation into the secrets of the priesthood and the astronomical and theological knowledge they so rigidly guarded from the ignorant multitude4 ,the highest knowledge and most profound secret they could impart was doubtlessly the acknowledgment and perception of the existence of a supreme power which governed the universe on a certain plan1 which the rulers of the land of ,egypt endeavored to apply to its organization and government in order to make it a celestial kingdom upon earth4 ,the rigidly-adhered-to policy of the ruling caste was1 however1 the shrouding and concealment of their store of knowledge from the uninitiated and the gradual admission of select individuals to the inner chambers of secrecy4 ,the following texts show that even the true name of the supreme divinity was wrapped in impenetrable mystery1 but the assumption that we are dealing with a pole-star god seems to enable us to penetrate the obscurity of the formul employed by the scribes to veil the true meaning of the texts4 ,beginning with the hymn published by ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge1 in his useful handbook1 8,the ,nile107#aaj7 we find ,amen-,ra addressed as 8,king1 ,one among the gods1 myriad are his names1 how many are they1 is not known 444 the lord of ,law1 whose shrine is hidden1 444 whose name is hidden from his children in his name ,amen40444 ,in the legend of ,ra and ,isis 7,x,xth dynasty7 he is designated as 8the god divine1 the creator of himself1 the creator of heaven1 earth1 breath of life1 fire1 gods1 men1 beasts1 cattle1 reptiles1 fowl of the air1 fish1 king of men and gods1 in form one1 to whom periods are as years1 many of names1 not known are they1 not know them the gods407#aaa7 ,the mysterious supreme god is further spoken of in the hymn as 444 8the lord of the urus crown1 exalted of the plumes2 the serpent ,mehen1 and the two uri are the 7ornaments7 of his face44440 ,mention is likewise made of his lordship over the ,sekti boat 7which sailed from the place of rising in the ,east7 and the ,atet boat 7which sailed to the place of setting in the ,west72 he is also addressed as the 8god ,khepera in his boat40 ,in many passages he is apparently identified with the sun1 8the eye of ,horus10 but is at the same time1 also addressed as ,ani1 the lord of the ,new ,moon festival and he is termed 8the lord of all the gods whose appearances are in the horizon40 ,his all-embracing nature is clearly conveyed by the passages terming him 8the maker and lord of things which are below and of things which are above20 8of the heaven and earth40 ,the above evidence suffices to show that1 on the one hand1 ,amen-,ra is constantly referred to as the 8,one god1 without a second1 the knowledge of whose nature is concealed from men and gods1 who reveals himself in innumerable forms2 who exerts hidden control and universal dominion and is associated with stability and power1 time and eternity40 ,on the other hand1 stress is laid on his dual nature3 ,amen-,ra is bi-sexual and self-creative2 alternately becomes light and darkness2 and the sun and moon are the eyes of his 8hidden face10 which1 literally translated1 yields ,amen-,hra4 ,in the hymn previously cited he is also termed the 8lord of the sky1 the establisher of all things1 444 the extender of foot-steps4444 ,one in his times as among the gods44440 ,he is apostrophized as 8the maker of the gods1 who hast stretched out the heavens and founded the earth10 8the chief who makest the earth like unto himself104444 8,president of the great cycle of the gods1 only one without his second 444 living in ,law every day4444 ,o ,form1 one1 creator of all things1 ,o one only1 maker of existences 444 he giveth the breath of life to 7the germ7 in the egg4444 ,hail to thee1 thou only one6444 ,he watches all people who sleep 444 all people adore thee4444 ,o thou 444 the untiring watcher1 ,amsu-amen lord of eternity1 the ,maker of ,law44440 ,another passage states3 8the aten 7disk7 is thy body0 7i4 e4 image or symbol74 ,in the legend of ,ra and ,isis1 quoted above1 the god is made to say of himself3 8,i am the maker of the hours1 the creator of days1 ,i am the opener of the festivals of the year4444 ,i am he who when he opens his eyes i4 e4 the sun and moon becometh light1 when he shutteth his two eyes1 becometh darkness40 ,brugsch tells us that ,ra1 whom he accepts as the day-sun1 was addressed as the master of double or two-fold force1 who illuminates the world with his two eyes and 8was symbolized by two lions40 ,further on ,i shall quote facts establishing that the king and queen of ,egypt were respectively named the right and left eye of ,amen-,ra1 were associated with sun and moon1 regarded as the personifications of ,osiris and ,isis1 and that these deities were represented in the form of urus serpents with human heads1 and that the two serpents were employed as symbols of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge informs us that ,amen-,ra was named 8bull 444 in thy name of #8,amen bull of his mother1' and that he was entitled #8lord of the thrones of the two lands2' #8king of the gods2' #8maker of mortals2' #8mighty law4' 0 ,in one of his forms he is represented as wearing horns 7an allusion to duality and the title of bull7 and feathers 7matmaatlaw7 and holding the emblems of stability1 power1 dominion and rule4 ,illustration4 ,figure #fb4 ,before demonstrating that the chief astronomical signs of the ,egyptian zodiac partake of the nature of a rebus and express the sound of the various attributes and titles and some of the 8myriad of names0 of the 8hidden god10 contained in the preceding texts1 ,i point out how clearly the conception of ,amen-,ra1 as shown in these hymns and invocations1 is consistent with a pole-star origin4 ,we have1 moreover1 the authoritative opinion of ,brugsch that 8the hieroglyph and name ,ra did not only refer to the day-sun1 but also designated certain brilliant stars10 which he presumes to be the planets 7op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #gi74 ,this identification of the name ,ra with stars involuntarily obliges one to recall the ,sanscrit tarastar while the ,chinese employment of a plain circle to designate 8star10 also finds its analogy4 ,let us now examine the hieroglyphic signs and symbols of ,ra and note how intelligible they become when the god is identified as ,polaris4 ,the following 7fig4 #fb7 are some of the modes in which the name ,ra is found expressed in texts published in ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge's 8,first steps in ,egyptian30 ,fig4 #fb1 #a4 ,by a dot in the centre of a circle1 the determinative of 8time40 #b4 ,by the latter accompanied by the image of a seated god and the numeral #a4 #c4 ,idem1 partly surrounded by a serpent in motion and accompanied by the numeral #a4 #d4 ,the serpent and circle on the head of a hawk-headed seated god4 ,to these are added for purposes of comparison #e4 ,the circle with two uri4 #f4 ,idem1 to which a single urus and a wing are attached4 #g4 ,idem1 with two uri and two wings4 #h4 ,idem1 with one wing4 #i4 ,idem1 accompanied by the numeral one and the sign for heaven1 to which a cross-shaped star is hanging4 #aj4 ,idem1 resting in the centre of the summit of a twin mountain4 #aa4 ,idem1 resting in the centre of a boat4 #ab4 ,idem1 with a central star instead of a dot constituting the word duat8lower hemisphere0 7,brugsch74 #ac4 ,the variant of this1 cited by ,brugsch4 #ad4 ,the disk containing a single eye4 ,my prolonged study of the ancient ,mexican picture-writings having given me the habit of regarding each primitive symbol as a possible rebus led me to look up the phonetic values of the symbols combined with the ,ra sign and to note that some of them were actually mentioned in connection with ,amen-,ra in the texts cited above1 namely3 the face1 the eye1 the egg1 the urus1 the disk1 the 8serpent ,mehen40 ,it was a surprise to find1 on simply referring to the glossaries1 that the name for urusara and that eyeari2 an eggar 7also sa1 se1 and suht72 facehra2 each word thus containing the name ,ragod1 in simple or inverted form 7see fig4 #fc1 #a-d74 ,the natural inference was that ,i had obtained an insight into the method devised by the ingenious ,egyptian priesthood1 to express1 in cryptic form1 the name of the 8hidden god40 ,illustration4 ,figure #fc4 ,further glimpses of light seemed obtained when ,i found that1 as written by ,german ,egyptologists1 the determinative for divinity1 the bannernutar1 notar1 netar1 or neter1 not only expressed the same sound as the word nut1 but also contained the letters 8r0 and 8a0 7#e74 ,the diskatun1 aton or aten might also be regarded as an anagram1 being the inverted form of nutar1 minus the last letter 7#f74 ,the names for wing 7#g7 being tun1 ton or ten1 the wing attached to the disk constituted a complementary sign1 duplicating the final syllable4 ,at the same time1 as a second name for wing was meh1 or mah 7cf4 mat and its synonym sufeather71 there seemed to be an explanation of the 8serpent mehen0 applied to ,amen-,ra and the possibility that it signified the 8winged serpent10 such as is frequently depicted in texts published by ,brugsch 7#h74 ,it was obvious that the urusara and the wing meh1 would form an ingenious anagram expressing1 by means of the signs1 a-meh-ra1 the name ,amen-,ra4 ,the constantly recurring form of the ,ra sign1 in which the serpent is represented as gliding around the circle1 enclosing the central point of fixity1 naturally suggests the inference that this variant must have been adopted at a time when the constellation ,draco1 the 8,old serpent10 or 8,nakkasch qodmun10 was circumpolar and was equally familiar1 under this name1 to the ,egyptian and ,euphratean astronomers4 ,this inference seems to be confirmed by the fact that1 in the hymn to ,amen-,ra1 cited above1 the name ,nak is given to 8the serpent with knives stuck in his back10 who1 according to the myth1 was the demon of night and the enemy of the sun-god1 the ruler of day4 ,the fact that1 in the temple of ,amen-,ra at ,thebes1 a service was recited daily for the destruction of the serpent ,nak by ,horus1 appears to indicate the growth of the idea of a combat between light and darkness and the dual forces of nature1 which would naturally tend to create the thought of an antagonism existing not only between the sexes1 but also between the two divisions of ,egypt and the separate cults of the nocturnal heaven 7,polaris and the moon7 and the diurnal heaven 7the sun74 ,in the list of festivals1 dating from the ,ptolemaic period and inscribed in the temple at ,edfu1 there are mentioned3 8the festival of the end or point of the triangle10 simultaneous with that of 8the serpent ,nai or ,na10 immediately followed by 8the festivals of the #8tena'aten81 and of the great serpent ,na10 and 8of the ,kenthe festival of darkness1 and of the red serpent ,na0 7,brugsch op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #ea74 ,commenting upon the above names ,i draw attention to the curious fact that in the above word ken1 we seem to have the inversion of nak1 the name of the 8night-serpent0 and that na is actually the inversion of the word an1 which signifies 8he who turns or winds himself around40 ,i shall show further on1 in astronomical texts1 that this name is actually identified with the pole4 ,when these facts are borne in mind the full import of the familiar ,egyptian symbol for eternitytet1 becomes clear4 ,it consists of the image of a mummy1 symbolizing fixity1 around which a great serpent is winding itself1 conveying the idea of circling motion 7fig4 #fc1 #i and #aj74 ,it is well known that this group symbolized eternitytet and the sign is always interpreted as expressing the sound tet4 ,if analyzed more closely1 however1 and interpreted as a rebus1 it appears to yield a fund of deeper meaning4 ,the serpent ,na furnishes the word ,anthe winder or he who moves around4 ,linked to one of the names for mummysah1 the group might be read as ,an-sah1 a name which invites comparison with ,anshar1 the ,assyrian pole-star god who was said to shoot arrows in all directions1 i4 e4 to turn around1 and the ,akkadian title for ,ursa ,major1 ,akannathe ,lord of ,heaven4 ,the second name for mummy1 given in ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge's ,nile1 is tut1 the exact word which signifies 8to engender10 which explains why images of the creator should have been made in mummy form4 ,the word tut directs attention to the name of the god ,tehuti,thoth1 8the ,measurer10 a name to be weighed in connection with the fact that time was measured by the circumpolar constellations4 ,it does not appear impossible that the word khatcorpse may also have been brought into use in the rebus and furnished an anagram or allusion to the ak or centre4 ,the other well-known symbol for eternity1 i4 e4 stability1 is the column tet1 representing a pillar usually consisting of four or five parts 7fig4 #fc1 #aa74 ,it appears hitherto to have escaped attention that the ,egyptian for hand being tet1 the hand1 employed as a rebus1 would actually express the name for eternity and may well have been employed as a secret sign for the divine centre1 eternal stability and the sacred number five1 consisting of the ,middle and the ,four ,quarters1 symbolized by the fingers and thumb 7fig4 #fc1 #ab74 ,to this must be added the interesting fact that1 in hieratic script1 the hand expressed the sound 8a0 which means 8power0 while aagreat1 aatgreat and mighty1 aamighty one4 ,to those initiated in the mysteries of hieroglyphic writing the hand thus clearly constituted a rebus1 expressing the eternal1 permanent1 stable1 great1 mighty power1 one yet double and fourfold1 the sacred five in one1 the ,middle and ,four ,quarters47#aab7 ,the following is a group of animal and other figures1 which are repeated1 with variations of form1 combination and position1 in the different zodiacs4 ,illustration4 ,figure #fd4 ,the principal and the phonetic values of their names are figured as follows3 the thighuart1 khepes or maskhet2 the bull1 ox or cowka1 ah1 aua2 the hawkbak1 designated as an1 kher or heu,horus2 the cynocephalus ape and phallusaaani and ka2 the lionmahes2 the jackal 7anubis7 uher or sabi2 the scorpiontart or serkhet2 the crocodilesebek1 also amsuk or emsuh1 and seta2 the vase or jarnu 7cf4 nut72 the female hippopotamustebt1 shown by ,dr4 ,gensler to have been associated with the name menatnurse1 she who nurses 7see ,brugsch ,i1 p4 #acj74 ,illustration4 ,plate ,v4 ,in the ,edfu zodiac1 the latter1 whose name furnishes an anagram of amenhidden1 is represented with the ,ra sign on her head and holds a cord to which the constellation of ,ursa ,major is attached4 ,this is figured1 with its seven stars1 as the thigh 7pl4 ,v1 #b71 with the head of a bull1 elements which furnish the phonetic values of uart1 khepes or maskhet and aua1 ka or ah1 to which should be added that the ,egyptian mode of saying 8a bull0ua en ka1 literally 8one of bull10 the female form being 8uat en ka0 7see ,wallis ,budge1 ,first steps in ,egyptian74 ,after having studied the hymns and invocations to ,amen-,ra we are aware1 not only that the 8hidden god0 is named 8the bull10 but that great stress is laid upon his being 8,one0ua1 yet doubleka4 ,it therefore appears very significant to find these words incorporated in the name for ,ursa ,majorthigh1 uart1 and this combined with bullua or ka which furnishes the anagram akmiddle4 ,what is more1 the second name for thigh being khepes1 this might form a rebus for the common name for 7#a7 luminary or star in generalkhebs or khabs1 literally1 lights1 lamps1 flames1 cf4 sebstar2 7#b7 kheperlife1 existence1 to come into existence1 cf4 khepdesuterus1 kher khepdthe navel1 khepeshpower4 ,the fact that one title of ,amen-,ra was ,kheperathe creator1 lends additional interest to the association of his secret sign1 the hippopotamus1 with the constellation ,ursa ,major1 which he apparently holds and guides and which emblematizes life1 i4 e4 motion--,the thighkhepes1 scarabkheper1 fish1 khepanen1 crocodileseta or sebek1 which1 inverted1 yields the word khebesstar1 and royal sicklekhepes1 thus appear to have been but different modes of expressing the same meaning and the title of ,khepera 7fig4 #fc1 #ac-af74 ,it can be readily understood why the scarab beetle1 which encloses its egg in a ball of mud and rolls this to a safe hatching place1 became the favorite secret sign for the 8hidden god10 since none but the initiated would see in the beetle1 holding the ball of earth enclosing its egg1 the actual rebus of ,khepera1 the creator1 expressed by the kheper2 and the circle or disk1 the sign of ,ra1 containing the germ of life4 ,returning to an examination of the signs for ,ursa ,major employed by the ,egyptian astronomer scribes1 we find1 beside the more elaborate form given by ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge 7pl4 ,v1 #c71 the variants 7#d and #e7 which constantly recur in the texts published by ,brugsch1 and which reveal that the thigh1 accompanied by a single star1 constituted the essential elements of the sign4 ,it is one of the curiosities of ,egyptian hieroglyphics that the image of a star may express either sebstar1 or the numeral fivetuau4 ,this being the case1 and the word for thigh being either khepes or uart1 it is obvious that the thigh and star yield more than one interpretation from the rebus point of view1 and may either be read as seb khepdes1 seb-uart or tuau-uart--in one case containing the divine title 8creator0 and in the second a play upon the name ua,one1 the favorite appellation given to ,amen-,ra4 ,the following star names contained in the ,brugsch texts1 and which have avowedly not been satisfactorily identified1 up to the present1 will speak for themselves and will be found to be comprehensible and appropriate only when identified with ,polaris3 ,seb-uatithe lone1 single1 only1 or sole star 7cf4 title 8,one0 given to ,amen-,ra72 ,seb-setathe hidden star1 in ,greek texts1 sebkhes1 sebkhe1 the sebses1 anagrams of khebs1 or khepdes 7cf4 8hidden0 god74 ,this star is found pictured in the astronomical texts by a turtle1 the name for which is seta1 sita1 sit or set2 in ,greek texts cit4 ,to me it seems clear that the turtle constituted a rebus sign for the 8hidden star0 and concealed god1 and ,i find that another ,egyptian word could have served equally well for the same purpose1 viz41 setathe vulture4 ,what is more1 the following names1 mentioned in the astronomical texts1 yield the sound of the first vowel of the words sebstar and setahidden1 and attention is drawn to the fact that1 as the goose and egg1 for instance1 were known under several names1 the secrecy of the true meaning of these sacred symbols was insured3 goosese1 ser1 sar1 seb1 smen1 apt1 aq2 eggse1 sa1 ser1 sar1 ar1 suht2 nestses2 pool of waterse2 heronsent4 ,a curious double similarity of sound exists between the name for turtle and one of the names for goose1 inasmuch as the turtleseta is also called aps1 and the goosese is named apt 7fig4 #fc1 #ag-ah74 ,another name for goose being aq or ak1 we find that its value as a rebus must have been supreme1 since it so perfectly expressed the word akmiddle4 ,a proof that its merits were duly appreciated by the ancient scribes1 is its constant and widespread employment in decorative art as a so-called 8solar symbol10 in association with the circle or disk and the swastika4 ,through its name se1 the goose-symbol likewise expressed the same meaning as the egg and the first syllable of setahidden2 perhaps also ne-se-rflame1 the synonym of khebsluminary or star 7,brugsch74 ,through its name ak1 the goose symbol became the synonym of all ak or ka words4 ,finally1 through its name apt1 it became related to the whole series of anagrams of ptah and the synonym of the pair of horns which express ap in hieratic script4 ,the association of the syllable ap with the bulluau and ka1 is proven by the name ,apis given to the living1 sacred bull1 under which form the supreme divinity was worshipped from earliest times1 at or before the building of the pyramids at ,memphis4 ,the explanation that1 just as sacred bull was merely a living rebus expressing by the sound of its names1 the words 8the one1 the double1 the middle of the central two-fold one10 or 8divine twain10 fully explains why1 in time1 the bull itself came to be chosen1 revered and worshipped as the living image of the 8hidden god40 ,the marks of the sacred calf ,apis1 described by ,herodotus1 appear to become intelligible1 when translated as follows and then analyzed3 8,it is black 7khem or kam7 and has a square 7ptah7 spot of white 7hetet7 on the forehead 7tehen74 ,on the back 7of the head7 7makha or at7 the figure of an eaglevulture 7seta74 ,in the tail 7peh87 double 7ka7 hairs 7anem74 ,on the tongue 7nes7 a beetle 7kheper740 ,feeling convinced that ,egyptologists could find further phonetic elements and hidden meaning in the above material1 it is with diffidence that ,i point out some of the meaning ,i am able to discern with the simple aid of 8,first steps in ,egyptian40 ,besides being the image of ,amen-,ra ,polaris1 the one and divine twain1 the black 7khem7 skin 7annu7 of the sacred bull appears to contain an allusion to ,egypt1 known as 8khem0 and its central capital ,annu1 besides that to the nocturnal heaven and its shining city4 ,the square ptah of whitehetet 7cf4 hetet1 and chutlight7 appears to symbolize the quadriform plan of the celestial and terrestrial kingdom and its position on the head 7tep7 between the two horns 7ap7 gains in significance when it is realized that1 in astronomical texts1 the square 7designated above as hetetwhite7 is as frequently pictured between a pair of horns as the pillartet1 that both square and pillar appear thus to have expressed the same soundtet1 which signifies eternity4 ,the bird of preyseta on the bull's back 7makha7 evidently signified the hiddenseta1 centre1 m-akh-a1 further significance being lent to the syllable akh by the fact that it also means 8to support10 and that 8the support of heaven0 was a divine title contained in the hieratic texts4 ,the double hairanem1 ka1 appears as another mode of expressing the 8hidden0 kadouble or akcentre4 ,the word for tongue 7nes7 being the reversal of sentwo1 the kheperlife1 on the tongue1 appears as an allusion to dual principles or powers of nature4 ,the giving forth and drawing in of breath by the living ,apis bull must doubtlessly have seemed1 to the ,egyptian priesthood1 emblematical of the giving and taking away of breath of life1 by the creator1 ,khepera1 over whose emblem1 on the tongue of the animal1 each breath necessarily passed4 ,an insight may thus be gained of the method by means of which primitive1 nave picture-writing could have become more ingenious and intricate until1 as actually stated in the hymns1 the name of the supreme divinity became 8hidden from his children in the name ,amen0 literallyhidden1 and a 8myriad of names1 how many are they is not known0 had been invented by the scribes1 to designate the ,king 7,hak71 8one among gods1 in form one1 the lord of eternity1 stability and law40 ,before making a cursory examination of the following lists of homonyms of the names for bullah1 uau and ka1 ,i must revert to astronomical pictures and signs and make some statements concerning the hawk-headed human form found represented in the zodiacs in close association with the image of ,ursa ,major1 the bull2 7see pl4 ,v1 #a1 from ,denderah74 ,the presence of the hawkbak in the centre of the polar region1 with the bull ka1 assumes significance in connection with the word akmiddle and the name for 8the middle of the heavens10 cited by ,sir ,norman ,lockyer2 i4 e41 kabal sami1 and all of these words are particularly interesting when it is remembered that the ,babylonian name for north was akkad1 the ,akkadian title for ,ursa ,major was ,akanna1 while ,ursa ,minor was named ,kakkabu in ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,the ,arabian kaaba is recalled here4 ,the inscriptions accompanying the zodiacs published by ,brugsch 7op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #abg7 designate this hawk-headed personage1 who1 in each case1 holds either a spear or a plain staff1 by the following names1 of which ,i give ,brugsch's translation1 followed by my own commentary4 ,anhe who turns or winds himself around4 ,in this connection ,i point out that the name ,na1 given to the serpent1 is the inversion of an4 ,kher-anhe who fights and turns or winds himself around4 ,as kher is likewise the word for ring or circle 7cf4 ,greek kirkos1 ,latin circus or circulus1 ,scand4 kring71 it is evident that the name ,kher-an admits of being interpreted as 8he who winds or turns around in a ring or circle10 kherthe fighter or combatant4 ,at the same time1 the word kher likewise signifies ring or circle2 moreover kernight and rektime4 ,therefore the name ,neb-kher1 cited by ,brugsch 7op4 cit4 ,i1 #agf71 as one of those given to the god of the city of ,at-,nebes1 besides signifying1 as he says1 the 8lord of strife or fighting10 clearly means 8the lord of the circle or ring40 ,this is undoubtedly one of the most appropriate of names for the god of the pole star and ,ursa ,major and is1 besides1 the ,egyptian equivalent for the ,hindu 8lord of the wheel10 the ,persian 8god of the ring10 and the ,mexican 8lord of the circle and of the night0,yaual or ,yohual-tecuhtli4 ,the other titles of the same god recorded by ,brugsch are 8the flame or light0,neser1 and 8the lord of life0,neb-ankh4 ,i merely point out here what ,i shall discuss more fully later on1 that1 in the ,egyptian ,an1 8he who turns himself around10 we have the counterpart1 not only of the ,assyrian ,an-shar 7fig4 #fe1 #e7 who shoots his darts in all directions1 but also of the 8,north god0 of the ancient ,mexicans1 who1 fully armed is held by one foot1 by the sign of the ,north1 to the centre of the cross1 the symbol of the ,four ,quarters1 and like the ,akkadian 8lord of heaven10 ,akanna1 is identified with ,ursa ,major4 ,i note1 moreover1 that1 whereas the common name for hawk is bak1 that employed by ,brugsch is hru 7cf4 inversion urthe ,egyptian name for cross symbol7 which is sometimes transcribed as hur1 her or heru1 hor or harand translated as ,horus or ,ra ,harmachis4 ,an interesting image of the hawk god is found in another inscription in the temple of ,denderah containing the group 7pl4 ,v1 #f7 consisting of a single star1 the bull and hawk1 transcribed by ,brugsch as 8,hru-,ka0 and translated as 8the bull 7of7 ,horus0 7op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #g74 ,another interesting case of the combination of the bull and hawk is the hawk with a bull's head also figured by ,brugsch1 and which is obviously a variant of 8hru-ka40 ,a curious instance which seems to contain a reversal of these syllables is the bull1 repeated in inverted positions1 with the cross-signur1 a group which might well have been employed as a rebus expressing the sound ur-ak-ka1 a combination which ,i shall discuss further on4 ,the identity of ,horus as a form of ,polaris is hinted at in the following inscription in the temple at ,denderah 7pl4 ,v1 #aj7 which ,brugsch translates3 8,ra ,horchuti 7hur-chuti7 the shining ,horus1 the ray of light in the night0 444 7op4 cit4 ,i1 p4 #af74 ,the 8god0 is figured in mummy form1 holding the sceptre tam 7cf4 matjustice1 truth7 and the sign ankh 7life71 with the head of a hawkbak or hru 7cf4 urfour1 and headtep or tepet1 also name for 8chief071 the head conveying idea of four-fold chieftainship1 surmounted by the hornsap and circle or diskra4 ,illustration4 ,figure #fe4 ,an extremely suggestive astronomical picture 7pl4 ,v1 #ac7 contains the combination of ,horus1 the ,an1 in the form of the human-headed hawk1 with a serpent ,na1 the boat 7uaa1 am or makhen7 and the circle enclosing a single star1 duat 7cf4 uaone74 ,the complete group thus conveys a wealth of hidden meaning which is perfectly intelligible when interpreted as pole-star symbolism4 ,the reader is now invited to take a preliminary look at the columns of signs included in figs4 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 some of which will be recognized as primitive pole-star symbols already discussed1 and which will respectively be found to contain homonyms of ua,one and uahipermanent2 ak and kabalcentre1 kadouble1 anhe who turns and ankhlife1 etc4 ,special attention is also drawn to the modes of expressing the syllable am by the homonyms boy or child1 boat and tree 7fig4 #fc1 #bj-bb74 ,different combinations of identical phonetic elements are found in the following groups which prove to be but different ingenious figures expressing the same sounds1 with more or less the same meanings3 pl4 ,v1 #ae1 represents the boat1 whose phonetic values are given above1 with a flowerankh1 the homonym of life1 containing the names an and na1 from which the urusara1 is rising4 ,later on the deeper symbolism of this and fig4 #ab1 pl4 ,v1 will be further discussed4 ,in the latter1 instead of the flower the boat contains the ara and a boyah or aah1 whose name is the homonym for great1 mighty1 powerful1 etc4 ,assuming that the boat expressed its particular name uaauaone1 we thus have a rendering of the appellation so constantly given to ,amen-,ra in the hymns and invocations3 8,one1 great1 powerful1 mighty god10 accompanied by a whole series of secondary meaning and symbolism4 ,in pl4 ,v1 #i1 the boat containing the bull or cow1 is accompanied by stars which reproduce ,ursa ,major exactly1 minus one star1 the head of the animal occupying the centre of the four stars forming the inverted square of 8the dipper40 ,in this case the boat seems to express its name makhen1 incorporating ak1 the name for the sacred centre of the sky1 which is repeated in the name kabull1 whose image1 like that of the boat1 conveys the allusion to uaone1 by their respective double names1 aua and uaa4 ,what appears to me to contain the most convincing proof of the identity of ,amen-,ra with ,polaris is #aa1 pl4 ,v1 which shows us a boat in which lies a mummy1 above which is a row of seven stars under an oval1 containing two eyes4 ,the oval ring is evidently the image of ,amen-,ra1 who united in his person the dual principles of nature symbolized by sun and moonhis 8two eyes40 ,the symbolism of the boat and mummy has already been sufficiently discussed to enable the reader to discern its association with the idea of oneness1 of stability and centrality4 ,further light is thrown upon the connection of the two eyes with the sacred centre by pl4 ,v1 #ad1 from the ,book of the ,dead1 where the chosen place of sepulchre for the dead person1 mentioned in the text1 is the temple pyramid1 the apex of which is rendered prominent by being painted black and suggestively occupies a central position between two eyes4 ,after the periods of ,greek rule in ,egypt1 the point of the pyramid must have been associated with the ,greek words1 akrahill-top and akupoint1 which recurs in the ,latin name acacia1 by which the thorny tree1 originally found in ,egypt1 is still known4 ,it can readily be seen how this tree would have been chosen as a symbol of the akmiddle and it is possible that its name may originally have been that also given to the olive treebak4 ,the inscription on the famous obelisks erected by queen ,hat-shepsut contains a special mention of the point of the obelisk1 as being made of precious material3 8two great obelisks of hard granite of the south1 the point of each is of electrum1 the tribute of the best quality of all countries0 7,flinders ,petrie1 ,history of ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hf74 ,the many variants of the constellation or star termed 8the divine triangle0 or 8the triangle of the god0 next claim attention4 ,an extremely interesting variant of this constellation represents a hawk-headed sphinx1 next to the triangle 7pl4 ,,vi1 #a72 #b-d represent the common form expressing the name ,sopedet4 ,as ,brugsch informs us1 the above name was changed at a more recent period into ,satit 7#f-h71 which he translates as 8she who shoots1 the archeress0 or 8she who causes the ,nile to rise40 ,in these cases the written name either contains an arrow 7#f71 the pyramid symbol for earth 7#g71 or a seated figure above whose head is a single star 7#h74 ,a rarer form of representing the same constellation is #i and #aj1 the group being transcribed by 8,satit ,hont ,khabsu0 which ,brugsch translates as 8,sothis1 the ,queen of the 444 stars40 ,from the feminine terminations employed in the text it is clear that it is a cow which figures here in the boat1 with a single star between its horns and it appears to me to be obvious that we have to deal here with the feminine form of ,polaris1 with ,auset,isis1 closely related to the ,assyrian 8goddess of battle10 ,ishtar1 the female counterpart of ,ausar,osiris1 the ,assyrian ,anshar1 or ,ashur1 the 8god of battle40 ,illustration4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,this view is confirmed by further astronomical pictures published by ,brugsch1 which appear to me not merely to signify the constellations ,orion and ,sirius as ,brugsch infers1 but to be hieroglyphs intended to be understood by the initiated only1 representing two or more of the forms under which ,amen-,ra was figured4 ,at ,edfu 7pl4 ,,vi1 #aa7 the boatau1 uaa1 and the mummysah form a fair rebus for ,ausar,osiris1 while the boat alongside of it contains the cow1 a form under which ,isis,hathor was worshipped in ,egypt during centuries4 ,at ,denderah 7#ab7 there is a cow in one boat,isis2 and a man in another who holds the sceptre tam1 emblematic of power1 and turns his head around1 an evident allusion to the action anhe who turns himself around1 or to sahone who turns away4 ,between both is the hawkbak or ,hur-chuti,horus1 standing on the sceptre named aut1 composed of the lotus flowerankh4 ,a variant of the same group 7#ac7 also symbolizing the 8,above1 ,below and ,middle10 and from ,denderah1 represents ,isis only in the celestial boat and ,osiris standing 7on earth7 holding1 beside the tam1 the whipnekhe khu1 emblematic of rule4 ,in #ad1 a female figure stands in the boat under the written name ,auset,isis and bears in her hand the ankh sign and the lotus flowerankh sceptre4 ,in the second boat the figure of a boy 7ahi7 turning 7an or sah7 his head1 holds up the ankh4 ,in #ae1 we seem to have an evidence of the ascendancy of ,isis worship1 for the boat contains not only the cow1 under the name satitshe who shoots1 or the archeress1 but also the standing figure of the goddess1 crowned by the disk or circle between two horns4 ,a striking proof that the knowledge of the true1 hidden meaning of the signs just discussed was regarded by those who possessed it as an evidence of an advanced stage of initiation in the mysteries of the priesthood1 is furnished by the following text1 which accompanies pl4 ,,vi1 #af3 ,in the ,book of the ,dead 7,leyden1 ,papyrus1 p4 #af71 in a chapter entitled3 8,chapter of the knowledge of the eastern spirits1 ro en rex biu abti10 the dead person utters the following words3 8,i know that eastern mountainous region of the heaven whose south is at the sea ,kharo and the north at the river of ,ro1 at the place where the day-god ,ra drives around amidst storm-winds4 ,i am a welcome comrade in the boat and ,i row without tiring in the bark of ,ra4 ,i know that tree of emerald green brandies amongst which ,ra shows himself when he goes over the layer of clouds of the god ,su4 ,i know that gate out of which ,ra issues4 ,i know the meadow of alo1 whose wall is of iron4444 ,i know the eastern spirits1 namely the god ,hur-,chuti1 the calf next to this god and the god of the morning10 the original text of the latter sentence being3 8au-a-rekh-ku-a biu abti ,hur-chuti pu behsu kher nutar pen nutar duaut pu0 7,brugsch1 op4 cit41 ,i1 p4 #gb74 ,the evasion and caution with which the speaker alludes to his knowledge of the meaning of the signs1 without betraying the latter1 sufficiently indicate the obligation of absolute secrecy which bound him1 and it may be inferred that several of the words he employed were intended to be misleading to an outsider just as the astronomical pictures1 exposed to public view1 were purposely made to seem to relate to the more familiar sun1 moon and constellations1 the mind being thus led away from the hidden but true star-god,polaris4 ,the circumstance that1 on the body of the young bull in the boat1 there are seven dots and above it a single star and that the hawk-headed seated deity behind it is crowned by the serpent circle or disk of ,amen-,ra1 sufficiently enlightens us as to the true1 veiled significance which represents different forms of the 8hidden god10 of the group4 ,a careful analysis of this and of the astronomical images suffices1 however1 to disclose the limited scope of the meaning of such groups1 each one being but a different rebus containing the same phonetic elements4 ,let us now briefly indicate what appear to have been the essential components which all images contain and a few of the myriad of ways by which they were expressed4 ,uahipermanent1 and ,ua,one4 ,represented by ,fig4 #ff4 #a4 ,an arrowau 7cf4 abauto fight71 an arma1 and the numerical oneua4 #b4 ,the cowah1 aua1 the latter name incorporating the adjective amighty1 powerful1 etc4 #c4 ,the thighuart4 #d4 ,the boatuaa4 #e4 ,the numeral fivetuau4 #f4 ,the throne1 seat or placeauset1 which constitutes the name ,auset,isis1 the consort of ,ausar,osiris4 #g4 ,the bowlau4 #h and #i4 ,two forms of sceptre or bent staffau1 uat1 also aam4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ff4 ,besides these signs1 well known as sacred symbols1 we find that the following names also contain the sacred title ,ua3 uatetgreenstone1 emerald1 autquadrupeds1 auheir1 also dog1 maaurays of light1 maulion1 also cat4 ,the reason why certain quadrupeds1 and particularly the cow1 lion1 and the cat1 should have become sacred animals in ,egypt1 seems to be satisfactorily explained by the fact that each constituted a rebus and could therefore be employed as an 8image0 of the ,one god4 ,it is obvious that locality would necessarily influence the choice of the sacred animal and that while one city might adopt the cow1 another would be obliged to adopt the cat1 etc1 as the living rebus4 ,the adoption of 8the heir10 or first-born of the sacramental union of king and queen1 as the living image of the deity1 throws an unexpected light on the reason why members of the royal line were treated with divine honors4 ,while persons1 animals and objects whose names contained the divine ,uaone1 would thus be chosen1 others containing the word ,ragod1 would also be adopted4 ,ragod4 ,of these ,i have already pointed out the urusara1 the eyeari1 facehra and eggar1 also se or sa and suht4 ,to these may also be added the date palm or datesben-ra2 grainnepra2 the vineaarer and grapesaarer1 each of which is to be found associated with sacred symbolism4 ,the veneration accorded in different localities to the pigre-ra and the horse1 may thus be accounted for1 especially as the name for the latter1 het-ra1 consists of hetlight or fair1 and ragod1 and the horse is actually found associated with the light-gods of antiquity and with so-called solar symbols and the swastika4 ,food for reflection is afforded by the ,egyptian name for mirror1 which literally signifies to see1 or the seermaa1 of the facehra1 but which furnishes1 as a rebus1 the word maatlaw1 which is usually expressed by the feathermat1 connected with hrai4 e4 ragod 7fig4 #ff1 #aj74 ,the employment of the mirror as an image of the god of law would thus naturally have been suggested by its name4 ,the presence of the eyeari 7cf4 ra7 in the centre of a mirror which is being worshipped1 also suggests that in ancient ,egypt the mirror was employed in the temple to hold the reflection of ,polaris,amen-,ra1 8the untiring watcher1 the lord of eternity and the maker of law0 7see fig4 #ff1 #aa74 ,it is obvious that the habitual employment1 by the astronomer priests1 of a mirror so placed in the sanctuary as to catch the reflection of the pole-star through an open doorway1 would lead to the discovery of the movements of the sun and the positions it assumes during the year4 ,the flashing of a beam of sunlight once a year1 at the period of the summer solstice1 upon the mirror which constantly reflected the pole-star1 would naturally suggest the idea of 8the union of the day-sun with the night-sun0 and seem particularly impressive as it was at this period that the ,nile began to rise4 ,in dealing with the religious festivals held at this period more will be said on this subject4 ,the word maatlaw1 besides being expressed by the feathermat1 could also have been indicated to those initiated in the mysteries of hieratic rebus-writing1 by the lionma hes2 the antelopema-het1 which also contains the sacred attribute lighthet1 the synonym of khu1 thus expresses the idea of the 8light of the law40 ,the musical instrument named mat may also have originally been1 like the tam sceptre1 a symbol of lawful power and conveyed an allusion to meht or mahtnorth4 ,to this series the word am should be added1 signifying child1 tree and boat1 each of which has already been treated of in connection with pole-star symbolism and ,amen-,ra 7fig4 #fc1 #bj-bb74 ,dualitykadouble2 and the ,middleak4 ,the name for bullka 7fig4 #fg1 #a7 incorporates1 as has already been shown1 not only duality and middle1 but also1 through its other names1 the idea of oneness and of power4 ,this appears to explain clearly why the bull was chosen as the image or rebus of ,polaris and ,ursa ,major1 which appear to have been regarded as a single combination of stars4 ,the fact that in the hymns ,amen-,ra is addressed as 8the bull10 constitutes a convincing corroboration of the identification of the 8hidden god0 with ,polaris4 ,a line of connection seems1 moreover1 to exist between the ,egyptian kabal samithe middle of heaven1 the image of a bull in the centre of the zodiacs1 and the bull of ,assyria1 under which image ,baal was worshipped4 ,hieratic signs1 expressing the word for middle and double appear to have been3 the mummy which1 although named sah or tut1 also signified khatcorpse 7#b7 and conveyed an allusion to mitdeath1 the homonym of metnorth4 ,a certain form of fish expressed the syllable kha 7#c74 ,a cone-shaped object named khaker appears to have served as a rebus for the middle and double as well as nightker and timerek 7#d74 ,in pl4 ,,vii1 #ab1 the khaker figures behind the seated image of a deity with the head of a ramser or sar1 holding the ankh in his hand1 the whole forming a rebus for ,ansar1 and containing much meaning besides4 ,kha-ut 7fig4 #fg1 #e7 is the name for the sacrificial offering laid on the utualtar1 which is shaped like the tau and symbolizes the above and below by its perpendicular and horizontal lines4 ,in the centre of this is the breadta 7the homonym of taearth1 cf4 neb-atfire71 which is remarkable on account of its division into four parts analogous to that of nutcity1 a feature which justifies the inference that the word for cakesen-nu made with honeybat or net1 is intended to be expressed here4 ,a jar stands at each side of the cake1 which is placed on edge so as to exhibit the sacred design upon it4 ,it is significant that1 if the jars contained winearp1 milkart1 the name of the liquid constituted an anagram of ra1 if perfumeanta was present1 this furnished the syllables an and taearth4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to surmise how far such resemblances of sounds influenced the choice of sacred offerings4 ,illustration4 ,figure #fg4 ,the kha 7fig4 #fg1 #f7;crown is particularly interesting as ,amen-,ra is addressed as 8crowned form10 the lord of the ureret crown1 444 beautiful of tiara1 exalted of the white crown 444 on whose brow the double crown of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt is established4 ,it appears1 therefore1 evident that the crownkha was but another mode of expressing kadouble4 ,at the same time it likewise conveyed the idea of akthe centre and the act of crowning a sovereign appears as vested with deep symbolical meaning when it is realized that1 according to the primitive modes of thought ,i have been tracing1 by enclosing the head of the king in a circlet he was constituted the hak1 regent or central chief1 the living image of ,ra1 whose sign was the star or dot in the circle or ring4 ,ka 7duality7 is commonly expressed by an uplifted pair of arms2 a variant being the whole figure of a man with raised arms 7#g and #h74 ,the fact that the name for phallus was also ka1 explains its employment as a sacred symbol1 recorded by ,herodotus1 which proves to what extremes the ancient rebus-writers went in their nave invention and multiplication of secret signs and modes of expressing the names and attributes of their 8hidden god40 ,the hatred and disgust conceived by the great reformer ,amenophis ,,iv1 against all that pertained to the cult of ,amen-,ra1 his destruction of all images devised by the priesthood and adoption of a pure image of the supreme divinity of a plain disk or circle1 with rays terminating in hands1 are readily understood in connection with the above4 ,returning to our list of akh words3 the akh or centre is figured by a man between two signs for heavenpet1 supporting the upper heaven with both hands2 the idea kadouble or dual1 being simultaneously expressed 7#i74 ,the hawkbak 7#aj7 constitutes so perfect a rebus or anagram of middleak and kabal1 as well as for khabstar1 that the reason why the hawk was chosen as an image or form of ,amen-,ra is as reasonably accounted for as the choice of the bull4 ,before supporting this assertion by a series of convincing proofs1 the following list must be studied3 ,anhe who turns himself around 7i4 e4 who performs a circuitthe circuiteer7 and ankhlife4 ,in the 8,first steps in ,egyptian0 ,i find the word 8an0 expressed by 7fig4 #fh1 #a7 a man in the act of turning around1 resembling the position of the male deity in the boat1 already discussed and represented in the astronomical texts 7fig4 #fh1 #b7 by an eye1 the form of which differs from that of the eyeari2 7#c7 by a fish1 also different in form from the fishkha1 and particularly interesting if compared to the fish khepanen1 figured in the kheper series1 which constitutes a rebus combining the titles kheperacreator and anthe circuiteer2 7#d7 by a stoneaner1 also by hairanem2 7#e7 by two arms spread outwards1 recalling the position of the front legs of quadrupeds2 7#f7 by a spear whose shaft is inserted in a double stand2 which sign recurs in the name of the city ,annu1 expressed by the anspear1 the vasenu and the nut determinative for city or capital 7#g74 ,it is extremely interesting to compare1 at this point1 the ,greek polusa pole or axis1 and poliscity or capital1 and to realize that1 in ,egypt and ,greece alike1 the names for capital are associated with the idea of centrifugal power and rule4 ,the signification of all the above 8an0 signs becomes intensified when it is realized that they conveyed also the first two letters of the word ankhlife1 which was usually expressed by the familiar symbol expressing the union of the dualities of nature 7#h74 ,illustration4 ,figure #fh4 ,amongst the many surprises received during the course of this investigation1 few have given me as much satisfaction and light1 as the observation of the fact that the ,egyptian name for flower1 ankh 7#i71 was the same as that for 8life40 ,the full significance of the lotus blossom as a symbol became clear to me1 and my attention having been called by a friend to ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,goodyear's admirable work 8,the ,grammar of the ,lotus10 ,london1 #ahia1 ,i was able to obtain from it the series of ,egyptian symbols which ,i now present and shall proceed to interpret according to the method set forth in the preceding pages4 ,the interesting observation was by ,mr4 ,goodyear that 8the ankh was the exact counterpart of the lotus as regards solar association0 and in his work1 on pl4 ,,lxv and elsewhere1 this close observer publishes several instances illustrating this view4 ,of these ,i reproduce but two1 which suffice1 feeling convinced that ,mr4 ,goodyear will be as interested as ,i was to hear that the ankh and lotus were homonyms of ankhlife4 ,this fact of itself fully explains why the lotus flower was employed by the ancient ,egyptians1 as ,mr4 ,goodyear states1 as the 8symbol of life1 immortality and of renaissance and resurrection and of fecundity40 ,illustration4 ,figure #fi4 ,in fig4 #fi1 #a1 two 7ka7 fishes 7khepanen or an7 hold the lotus1 ankh1 and thus constitute a sacred rebus1 the profound meaning of which can be surmised by studying the preceding pages4 ,in #b1 one 7ua7 fish holds the ankh instead of the lotus4 ,both signs obviously express precisely the same meaning with the difference that1 in one case duality is expressed by two fishes1 and in the other by the ankh symbol which emblematizes the union of nature's dualities4 ,fig4 #fi1 #c1 shows the bull1 carrying the circle of ,ra between its horns and wearing the ankh symbol hanging from its neck4 ,the lotus replaces this in #d1 where the circle is missing and one bull 7ua en ka7 expresses the mystic sacred words ua,one and kadouble or 8the divine ,twain40 ,it is evident that it is only when it is assumed that pole-star worship constituted the basis of the natural religion of the ancient ,egyptians that their sacred symbols become intelligible4 ,though a novice in ,egyptology and with extremely limited works of reference at hand1 which facts will1 ,i trust1 excuse faults and omissions1 ,i perceive so much that is clear and simple in the following series of ,egyptian sacred symbols1 culled from ,mr4 ,goodyear's work1 that ,i am tempted to submit my interpretation of their meaning1 thereby putting my view and method to a crucial test4 ,in pl4 ,,vii1 #b1 we have an interesting group uniting the boat1 the meaning of which has been discussed1 a seated figure on a square pedestal1 a column1 the upper portion of which is separate and simulates the bowl or cupau1 the dot and circle1 the sign of ,amen-,ra1 and a single flower4 ,as a rebus1 some of the words expressed are am1 uaa or makhenboat1 tetcolumn1 ,radot and circle1 also seated figure1 determinative of god,ra1 and ua en ankhone flower4 ,while the rebus supplies the words uaone1 uahipermanent1 ragod1 anthe circuiteer1 ankhlife1 teteternal1 it is only when identified as pole-star symbolism that the group becomes comprehensible4 ,pointing out that1 in the above1 we have a clear case of the flower in association with the ,ra sign and other symbols which have been discussed as pole-star signs1 let us next examine #a1 #c1 #d1 #f and #h1 in each of which one blossomua en ankh1 constitutes the emblem for the sacred ,middle1 and openly conveys the idea of the verb an1 to perform a circuit and ankhlife4 ,the fact that1 in #f1 the flower consists of five petals1 on four of which the genii of the four quarters stand1 sufficiently proves that the flower1 like the five-dot group1 constituted a symbol of the four quarters and centre1 the latter being figured as a pyramid-shaped petal4 ,interesting variants of this group are #e1 with the four genii standing on seven of the nine petals of the flower1 which is placed between two buds1 the idea of centrality being thus conveyed2 and #g where an inverted triangle replaces the flower and reveals some of the deeper meaning attached to this symbol4 ,in #a and #c the flower is surmounted by the hawk crowned with the ,ra sign which1 as has already been stated1 symbolizes circuition around a central point of fixity4 ,the names for hawkhak 7cf4 ak and cabalmiddle1 also hakking7 and her or hur 7cf4 hruupper1 the above1 and urfour,horus7 reveal its appropriate use as rebus and symbol of the central 8sun0 god4 ,in #h1 instead of the ,ra sign1 the hawk wears the peculiar double diadem with a circle at its base1 which is the particular attribute of the images of the ram-headed god ,amon who is represented in no4 #ab1 holding the ankh sign and accompanied by the kheper sign1 composed of a circle1 surmounted by a cone and supported by a pedestal4 ,it is well known that the ramser1 sart or sar1 was the form under which the supreme divinity was worshipped at ,thebes1 the real metropolis of the whole land of ,egypt1 during many centuries47#aac7 ,the name ,amon1 also given as ,ammon1 ,amoun1 ,hammon1 resembles ,amen closely enough to justify the identification of ,amon as a form of ,amen-,ra1 the concealed god4 ,illustration4 ,plate ,,vii4 ,in this connection it is noteworthy that the ramsar or sart conveys the same sound as the goosesar or sa1 the employment of which1 as a pole-star symbol1 will be discussed further on1 and that the king of ,egypt was termed 8the living ram 7of ,amon7 on earth0 and 8the engendering ram40 ,from ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy we learn that1 under the ,ptolemaic rule1 8it seems likely that among the strict prescriptions for all the solemn acts of the king1 it was directed that he should assume the insignia of the god ,amon1 his ram's horns1 fleece1 etc1 when visiting the queen0 7,history of ,egypt1 ,london1 #ahii74 ,under the ,ptolemaic dynasty1 the identification of ,amon with ,amen-,ra receives support from the magnificent monumental votive ram1 preserved at the ,berlin ,museum1 which was dedicated by king ,amenophis ,,iii1 which bears on his head1 the disk with the urus serpent1 the familiar sign of the 8hidden god407#aad7 ,while the diadem of ,amen-,ra sufficiently identifies the hawk on the lotus as a form of the 8hidden god10 the following extracts from ,mr4 ,goodyear's work will be found to confirm this and throw further light on the subject4 8,the hawk represented ,ra1 ,horus and all solar gods44440 ,a text at ,denderah says3 8,the sun which was from the beginning rises 7i4 e4 comes forth1 appears1 see ,brugsch for meaning of ,egyptian equivalent7 like a hawk from the midst of its lotus bud44440 ,at ,denderah the king makes offering of the lotus to the sun-god ,horus with the words3 8,i offer thee the flower which was in the beginning the glorious lily of the great water44440 ,in the boat of the dead the soul says1 8,i am a pure lotus 7i4 e4 life7 issue of the field of the sun40 ,the circumstance that1 in #d1 the flower is surmounted by a goose1 one name for which being aqak1 shows that1 like the hawk1 bak1 it may well have served as a rebus for akthe middle4 ,an instance of the direct association of the sacred goose with the four quarters is given in the bas-relief at ,medinet-,abu1 described by ,brugsch 7op4 cit4 ,,ii1 p4 #big74 ,this represents 8,ramses ,,iii 444 offering sacrifice to the god #8,khimti1' i4 e4 ,pan of ,panopolis1 the ,theban form of which was ,amon ,generator4444 ,a white bull 7the symbol of ,pan7 and four geese1 which are represented as flying towards the cardinal points1 constitute the sacrifice40 ,the striking association of the goose with the bull,apis1 the astronomical symbolism of which has been shown1 gains in significance when it is realized that another name for goose is apt and that this also constitutes an anagram of ptaptah1 one form of ,amen-,ra4 ,it is a curious fact that the third name for goose1 se or sa1 combined with ankhflower1 as in pl4 ,,vii1 #d1 furnishes the word ankh-sa1 which recalls the word ,an-sah obtained by the mummy and serpent rebus and the name of the god of ,assyria1 ,anshar4 ,in connection with the above ,egyptian rebus1 expressing the syllables ankh and sa1 it surprised me1 to find that the ,sanscrit name for goose is hangsa1 while in ancient ,hindu it is hamsa and in modern ,hindu hanassa4 ,it is well known that in ,hindu mythology the goose was 8the bird of ,brahma10 the 8supreme one who alone exists really and absolutely10 that the birth of ,brahma from the lotus is frequently represented in ,hindu religious art1 and that the lotus is the attribute of the 8sun-god0 ,surya1 termed the 8lord of the lotus1 father1 friend and king40 ,what is more1 the goose1 associated with 8solar0 symbolism1 i4 e4 with the circle and central dot1 with the swastika1 four-petalled flower and the wheel1 occurs on the oldest monuments of ,greek art2 on the prehistoric bronzes and pottery of ,italy 7where the sacred geese were kept on the ,capitoline at ,rome72 on the bronzes of ,hallstatt1 of ancient ,gaul and of prehistoric ,sweden4 ,pointing out that we thus obtain a whole chain of associations which link the syllables am and an to deities and pole-star symbolism1 ,i next present1 for reference1 the names for the bird given in ,webster's dictionary4 ,sanscrit1 hangsa2 ,latin1 anser1 for hanser2 ,german1 gans 7in ,germany1 according to ,pliny1 the small1 white geese were called ganzoe al4 gantoe lib4 ,x1 #bb72 ,greek1 khen2 ,danish1 gaas2 ,swedish1 gos2 ,welsh1 gwydd2 ,anglo-,saxon1 gos2 ,irish1 geadh2 ,icelandic1 gas2 ,slavonic1 gusj and gonsj4 ,noting that in the ,sanscrit1 ,latin1 ,greek and ,german alike1 the syllable an or en is present in the name for goose1 ,i return to the ,egyptian symbols which express the words an and ankh1 and1 bearing the 8birth of ,brahma from a lotus0 in mind1 refer again to the ,egyptian title ,neb-ankh1 8lord of life10 which1 as ,i point out1 also signified 8the lord of the lotus flower40 ,let us now briefly examine some ,egyptian texts relating to pl4 ,v1 #ab and #ae1 which represent the boat 7am and its synonyms7 and the flowerankh1 associated with the boy and the serpent4 ,in an astronomical text from ,edfu1 published by ,brugsch1 ,new ,year's day is mentioned in connection with the 8coming forth of the great lotus blossom in the form of a bud in its symbolical interpretation as the god ahi 7literally1 boy74444 ,the count of his rulership begins from the first day of his rising or birth44440 ,in another text it is said3 8,new ,year's day1 the sun 7,ra7 comes forth from a lotus flower in the great sea10 and there are numerous allusions in other inscriptions to 8the lotus blossom in the great waters1 from which the sun-child arises in radiance towards heaven40 ,the text accompanying 7pl4 ,v1 #ae71 where a serpent rises from the lotus in the boat1 states 8the sun1 uniter of the world1 in ,tentyra0the ,new ,year4 ,in another inscription it is said3 8thou risest like the sacred serpent1 as a living spirit1 in thy glorious form in the bark of the sunrise20 and this passage forms an interesting parallel to that already cited where the sun is said to rise 8like a hawk from the midst of its lotus bud40 ,pl4 ,,vii1 #ad1 exhibits a nine-petalled lotus growing from a pedestal and a head issuing from it4 ,as the name for head tep 7also tap or tpa1 and apt cf4 pta71 signifies chief1 or beginning1 we must accept this as another variant of the previous signs4 ,deferring the discussion of the so-called 8birth0 and cult of the diurnal sun1 as one form of ,amen-,ra1 let us now rapidly survey the following figures copied from ,mr4 ,goodyear's work4 ,pl4 ,,vii1 #i4 ,a circle encloses a group consisting of the five-petalled lotus between two buds and the hawk-headed sphinx1 which has already been met with in the astronomical texts and1 according to ,egyptologists1 represents ,horus1 the sun1 8who lights the world with two eyes0 and is addressed as 8a powerful lion10 8the master of double force407#aae7 ,i need scarcely recall here that the combination of a bird and quadruped would naturally symbolize air and earth1 the ,above and ,below and that the hawk-headed sphinx1 seated on four petals1 clearly expresses the idea of the 8lord of ,heaven and ,earth1 the father and mother of all1 the ruler of the ,four ,quarters and lord of the circle40 ,pl4 ,,vii1 #aj4 ,the plain circle or disk1 supported by two uplifted armska1 arising from 7akh7 the ankh sign1 is another ingenious mode of expressing the idea of the ,middle1 the circle1 duality and life4 ,no4 #ac constitutes as charming and ingenious a play upon the word ankhlife as can be imagined1 and a close examination reveals its subtle1 hidden and deep significance4 ,it exhibits1 in the first case1 the ankh sign combined with the flowerankh1 which might1 at a first glance1 be taken as an example of purely decorative art4 ,but the ever-present thought of the duality of nature manifests itself in the arrangement of the two flowers towards each other and enclosed in the open ring of the ankh sign1 and it is evident that the artist took pains to draw the central petal of the lower blossom in the form of a triangle1 below which an oblong square and a square may be distinguished4 ,after the foregoing attempt to show how1 even with my rudimentary and limited knowledge of their language1 the sacred symbols of the ,egyptians become intelligible and full of significance when studied as examples of pole-star symbolism and primitive rebus writing1 ,i draw attention to the limited number of syllables employed in the astronomical texts2 to the ingenuity displayed in expressing the same sound over and over again by means of different words possessing the same sound and to the fact ,i shall hereafter set forth1 that the syllables and rebus-figures employed are found indissolubly linked to pole-star and sacred symbolism4 ,referring a demonstration of these conclusions to the end of the present investigation1 ,i shall next discuss the forms which the cult of the dualities of nature seemingly assumed in ancient ,egypt4 ,as an introduction ,i present in fig4 #gj1 the copy of the upper portion of a funeral stela preserved at ,blk and published by ,perrot and ,chipiez 7gypten1 ,leipzig1 #ahhd74 ,it exhibits the head or face of ,hathor surmounting the tet column and supporting1 in turn1 the image of a small house or temple1 at each side of which is a peculiar projection recalling the circinate line issuing from the red crown of lower ,egypt 7see fig4 #gj1 #i1 #aj74 ,in another ,hathor stela1 figured in the same work 7pp4 #eaj and #ghj71 the same characteristic circinate projections recur4 ,the image of the house1 always represented with a single doorway1 is obviously a rebus of the name ,hathor1 explained by ,egyptologists as ,het-heru1 literally 8the house of ,horus40 8,athor or ,hathor of ,thebes1 identified with ,nut1 the sky 444 was the female power of nature and is often represented under the form of a cow1 444 as a woman with a cow's head1 with horns and the disk1 or wearing a head-dress in the shape of a vulture and above it the disk and horns40 ,in the familiar representation of the mask of ,hathor on columns1 the association with the cow is conveyed by large cow's earssetem1 projecting at each side of the facehra4 ,a feature generally present in the miniature doorway of the house1 is a single erect head of a urus1 bearing the disk or circle on its head and usually exhibiting a distinctly cross-shaped mark on its neck4 ,the latter peculiarity is clearly shown in fig4 #gj1 #a1 which exhibits moreover a seated divinity at each side of the doorway1 each bearing the throne or seat 7auset7 on its head1 and the ankh sign on its knee4 ,close examination reveals that one of these deities is ,ausar,osiris1 whose name is generally written by means of the throneauset1 and the eyeari1 with or without the determinative for god1 i4 e41 the seated figure 7fig4 #gj1 #a a and #a b74 ,opposite to ,osiris is ,auset,isis1 whose name is usually written as in fig4 #gj1 #a c1 where the auset1 the eggse1 and the seated image of a goddess bearing a bowlneb1 on her head1 may be distinguished4 ,illustration4 ,figure #gj4 ,an idea of the import of fig4 #gj1 #a1 seems gained when it is remembered that in ,egyptian the word housepi1 pir or per1 was associated with the title of ruler1 the name ,pharaoh being derived from peragreat house4 ,what is more1 the word housepir or pi1 is used in astronomical texts1 like the ,arabian beth1 in relation to stars1 it being said of a star that 8it ever comes forth from its house0appears 7,brugsch74 ,the permanent image of the disk and serpent1 a form of the ,ra sign1 in the doorway of the sculptured house1 would thus convey the idea of the eternal presence of ,amen-,ra1 the pole-star god4 ,the accentuation of the cross lines on the neck of the ara indicates1 moreover1 the intentional allusion to four-fold and two-fold force1 the latter being expressed by the eyes of the serpent4 ,the doorptah1 which is open1 expresses the name ,ptahthe ,opener1 well known as that of the 8father of the gods0 and a form of ,amen-,ra4 ,the positions assigned to ,osiris and ,isis1 at either side of the 8hidden god10 sufficiently shows that they were intended to represent separate incorporations of the male and female principles which were united in ,amen-,ra1 the 8divine ,twain40 ,the association of both deities with the throne1 the eternal seat of repose1 identifies both alike with ,polaris4 ,a monument in the ,berlin ,museum 7no4 #bfa7 which was found in the temple of ,isis at ,ben-naga1 in ,nubia1 and was a votive offering made by the ,ethiopian king ,netek-,amen and his consort ,amen-,tari1 contains the following formula1 translated by ,lepsius1 which associates ,isis with eternal enthronement4 8,thou remainest1 thou remainest1 on thy great throne1 ,o ,isis1 queen of ,au-ker1 like the sun 7,ra7 that lives in the horizon 444 and thou lettest thy son ,netek-,amen flourish on his throne44440 ,the fact ,i am about to demonstrate1 that the king and queen of ,egypt were the respective1 8the living images0 of ,osiris and ,isis1 proves that1 as in ancient ,peru and ,china1 the sovereigns1 who were at the same time high priest and priestess1 were considered as the sacred embodiments of the dual principles of nature4 ,as elsewhere also1 a chain of associations became attached to each of the dualities2 but in ,egypt1 as may be clearly discerned1 during the lapse of centuries great transformations of thought took place and alternately the male and female elements seem to have been associated with the cults of heaven and earth1 light and darkness1 sun or moon1 morning or evening stars1 the southeast and the northwest4 ,in the sacred writings the sun is usually termed 8the right eye0 and the moon 8the left eye0 of ,ra 7cf4 hrathe 7divine7 face74 ,brugsch points out that1 in certain inscriptions at ,denderah translated by ,mariette1 8the ,sothis star of ,hathor-,isis is designated as #8the right eye of ,ra' while the sun is termed the left eye40 ,brugsch states1 moreover1 that1 according to ,sextus ,empiricus1 8the ,egyptians compared the king to the #8right eye' or the sun2 while the queen was compared to the #8left eye' or the moon40 ,the two eyes1 often with the designation of 8right0 or 8left10 constitute a favorite decoration on funeral stel4 ,in some instances the image of the solar disk1 with one wing and one serpent only1 is figured as a substitute for the right eye 7op4 cit4 ,,ii1 #dcf1 see fig4 #fb1 #f74 ,the established fact that the eyes of ,ra were the equivalents of the uri usually accompanying the circle of ,ra1 the so-called 8solar disk10 is further explained by the following data4 ,it is well known that the two uri on the royal diadem denote sovereignty over ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,in the bas-relief published by ,brugsch1 the circle or ,ra-sign is represented with two uri1 which respectively wear the crowns of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt 7fig4 #gj1 #g74 ,the crowned uri recur in the emblems of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt published by ,mr4 ,goodyear1 the first accompanied by the lotus flower and the second by what ,egyptologists usually identify as the papyrus1 but which appears to be the ripened pod of the lotus 7fig4 #gj1 #i and #aj74 ,while the two uri thus emblematized the two divisions of the land of ,egypt they are found as distinctly associated with ,osiris and ,isis1 and their living images the king and queen1 or the high priest and high priestess of ,amen-,ra4 ,the ,berlin ,museum contains several representations of ,isis under the form of a serpent with a woman's head 7see official catalogue1 nos4 #ggdj1 #hgj and #bebi74 ,osiris is also represented as a serpent with the head of a bearded man4 ,a small shrine in the form of a temple1 and decorated with royal serpents1 is preserved at the ,berlin ,museum 7catalogue no4 #hafd7 and contains the effigies of two uri1 one of which1 to the left of the spectator1 exhibits the head of ,isis1 the second1 to the right1 the features of ,osiris4 ,between them stands the vase or bowl which was a constant feature of ,isis cult4 ,in connection with this monument it is interesting to examine an inscription published by ,brugsch 7,i1 p4 #ajh7 in which occur two serpents who are pouring liquid into a bowl placed between them and the divided halves of the sky-sign 7fig4 #gj1 #h74 ,the text connects this with the ,new ,year festival when the ,nile began to rise 8from its two sources0 and the 8union of heaven and earth0 took place1 which will be discussed later4 ,the following temporary list briefly presents a summary of the preceding data which is rendered more complete by the addition of the signs and emblems of the festivals1 when the 8conjunction of sun and moon took place10 figured by the picture of two persons united by their respective right and left hands 7fig4 #gj1 #e7 or by the tet column placed between two horns 7fig4 #gj1 #d74 ,as may be seen by numerous examples in ,brugsch 7vol4 ,,ii71 the great ,sed festival is figured by the image of the small sanctuary which existed on the flat roof of the great temple at ,denderah1 and resembled an open pavilion with four columns which is usually represented as containing two seats placed back to back 7fig4 #gj1 #b1 #c74 ,a small picture in ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge's ,nile exhibits the king and queen occupying such a double throne1 respectively1 wearing the insignia and crowns of ,osiris and ,isis and holding their sceptres1 as in the representations of the ceremony of laying the foundation of a temple1 in their right and left hands 7fig4 #gj1 #f74 ,the rsum of the preceding material produces the following list3 ,right eye of ,ra3 ,left eye of ,ra4 ,sun3 ,moon4 ,king3 ,queen4 ,osiris3 ,isis4 ,high priest3 ,high priestess4 ,right hand sceptre3 ,left hand sceptre4 ,north3 ,south4 ,red crown3 ,white crown4 ,the following data1 gleaned from the valuable works of ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce and the serial ,history of ,egypt1 written by ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy and ,j4 ,g4 ,milne1 furnish strong indications that1 in the remotest past1 the two divisions of the land of ,egypt were respectively governed by a male and female sovereign2 a proof that1 before the time of ,menes1 the ancient empire had become disintegrated1 and undergone a long period of intense strife and warfare4 ,we learn from ,professor ,sayce of the probability that 8the city of ,nek-hen was once the capital of the south and that the vulture1 the symbol of the south1 was also the emblem of ,nekheb1 the goddess of the great fortress1 the ruins of which lie opposite to ,nekhen on the eastern bank of the ,nile0 7,sayce1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aeb1 #aia74 ,while the capital and the emblem of southern or ,upper ,egypt are thus directly associated with a 8goddess10 further data show us that the ancient queens of ,egypt were termed 8god-women or goddesses40 ,when the ,new ,empire was founded 7#afjj-aajj ,b4,c47 with its capital at ,thebes1 ,king ,ahmes assumed the sovereignty of the whole of ,egypt1 but seems to have shared supreme authority with his consort ,ah-mes-nefreteredivine- or god-woman1 also termed 8the high priestess of ,amen40 ,from the honors accorded to her and to her son ,amen-hetep or ,amenophis ,i1 it must indeed be inferred that she possessed some inherited sovereign right to one of the ancient divisions of the empire4 ,during the period of the #bfth dynasty1 of ,sas1 we find ,upper ,egypt governed by a 8god-woman10 ,shep-en-upet1 who remained in power1 even after the land had been conquered by ,psammetichus ,i4 ,the latter obtained1 however1 that his daughter ,nitocris was adopted as the successor to the 8divine-woman0 ruler of ,thebes1 and she in turn adopted the daughter of ,psammetichus ,,ii 7,b4,c4 #eid-ehi71 whose name was ,anches-nefer-eb-re4 ,a tablet from the temple of ,karnak1 preserved at the ,berlin ,museum 7catalogue no4 #baab7 represents this female sovereign of ,thebes accompanied by her prime minister1 and standing in the presence of the gods ,amen and ,chon4 ,another remarkable monument at the ,berlin ,museum 7no4 #gigb7 figures the 8god-woman0 ,shep-en-upet1 under the form of a sphinx holding a vase1 and records that she had inherited the sovereignty of ,thebes from her aunt1 the consort of an ,ethiopian king4 ,an extremely interesting proof that the beard1 per se1 constituted an emblem of sovereignty1 is furnished by a beautiful portrait statue of the 8divine woman10 ,hat-shepset 7,berlin ,museum1 no4 #bbii74 ,she is figured as a sphinx and wears a beard suspended from her head-dress47#aaf7 ,the serpent decorates her diadem4 ,on other monuments this remarkable queen1 who built the temple of ,der-el-,bahari1 is figured with the crown of ,upper ,egypt 7cf4 no4 #bbgi1 ,berlin ,museum74 ,by good fortune the personal gold ornaments of a 8divine woman10 an ,ethiopian princess1 were discovered by ,ferlini in the pyramid of ,begerauie1 enclosed in a plain bronze vase4 ,these precious objects are now exhibited in the ,berlin ,museum1 where ,i have examined them and noted with interest that the central ornament of two finely worked1 broad gold bracelets1 is a female figure with the royal diadem and four outstretched arms1 to which wings are attached4 ,this furnishes us with an instance of a queen being represented with four wings1 in exactly the same manner as the ,assyrian king ,sargon1 on the seal from the time of ,sennacherib 7fig4 #fe1 #f71 namely1 as a 8ruler of the four quarters10 which indicates that she held the position of a 8central ruler40 ,as might be expected in the case of a queen who personified ,isis1 frequently represented under the form of a 8woman-serpent10 the urus is a favorite motif on other gold ornaments belonging to the ,ethiopian queen4 ,certain passages in ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie's ,history of ,egypt afford a curious insight into the prerogatives of ,egyptian queens as far back as about ,b4,c4 #bfhd4 ,the consort of ,usertesen ,,ii1 the fourth king of the twelfth dynasty was named ,nefert1of whom a grey granite statue is preserved at the ,ghizeh ,museum and represents her as seated on a throne4 ,on this are the titles 8,the hereditary princess1 the great favorite1 the greatly praised1 the beloved consort of the king1 the ruler of all women1 the king's daughter of his body1 ,nefert40 ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie adds3 8,the title ruler or princess of all women is peculiar1 and suggests that the queen had some prerogatives of government as regards the female half of the population40 ,the title in question reappears four centuries later in connection with ,nubkhas1 the queen of ,sebek,emsaup1 of the #acth dynasty and her stele in the ,louvre entitles her the 8great heiress1 the greatly favored1 the ruler of all women1 the great royal wife1 united to the crown ,nub-kha-s0 7op4 cit41 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #age and #bbe74 ,between ,b4,c4 #adbc-adad queen ,mutemua-arat appears as 8the goddess queen0 and 8great royal wife0 7,flinders ,petrie op4 cit41 ,,ii1 p4 #agd74 ,the consort of ,amenhotep ,,iii 7,b4,c4 #adad-acgi7 the celebrated ,tyi1 the daughter of ,yuaa and ,thuaa1 is entitled 8princess of both lands10 and 8chief heiress1 princess of all lands40 ,her successor ,nefertiti is called 8princess of south and north1 lady of both lands10 which titles1 as ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie comments1 8like the titles of ,tyi1 imply a hereditary right to rule ,egypt40 ,they undoubtedly place her on a footing of equality with the king1 which is1 however1 comprehensible when it is explained that she was the ruler of all women1 while he was the ruler of all men4 ,the position of the ,egyptian queen would thus prove to have been analogous to that of the ancient ,mexican ,quilaztli 7see pp4 #fa-fg74 ,the analogy is all the more striking when it is realized that the titles of the ,mexican chieftainess were3 8the ,woman warrior1 the ,woman of the ,underworld or ,below1 the ,woman serpent or female twin and the ,eagle woman10 while the emblem of the ,egyptian goddess-queen of the south was the vulture and she was the personification of ,isis1 represented under the form of a serpent1 the twin of the male serpent1 ,osiris4 ,illustration4 ,figure #ga4 ,much food for thought is furnished by a ,syrian relief sculpture from ,amrit 7published by ,spamer1 see fig4 #ga1 #b71 which exhibits a vulture or eagle with outstretched wings1 in juxtaposition to a winged disk which appears to combine features of the ,assyrian winged disk 7the bird's tail and two appendages1 see fig4 #ga1a7 with the two uri of the ,egyptian form 7fig4 #ga1 #c74 ,it is striking how clear the symbolism of the latter becomes when interpreted 7#a7 as the symbol of the hidden god and his male and female form1 ,osiris and ,isis1 accompanied by the wings symbolizing air and the idea that the deity was invisible and immaterial2 7#b7 as the symbol of ,egypt itself--an entity1 a complete circle1 divided into two parts1 under two rulers4 ,the pair of antelope horns above emphasize the fact that the twain were as a single pair4 ,the combined crowns of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 the latter exhibiting a serpent's head and the first1 what appears to be its tail1 constitute the symbol of joint rulership which1 in this case1 is accompanied by the feather1 the rebus expressing the words 8truth and justice40 ,while the ,syrian bas-relief conveys the idea of two separate kingdoms1 one conveying the idea of single rulership1 by the form of an eagle2 the other of dual rulership1 by the two uri1 each of which is crowned by a small disk2 the ,egyptian symbol distinctly conveys the idea of a close union of two distinct parts4 ,the historical fact that ,menes succeeded in uniting both lands under a single crown1 indicates clearly enough that the ancient empire had become disintegrated and that by marrying the female ruler of the south he had reinstated the dual government on its original primitive basis4 ,that1 during the period of separation and independence1 a powerful gynocracy had been formed seems more than probable4 ,just as evidences are met with in ancient ,mexico of the existence of female communities1 so the ,old ,world furnishes accounts1 deemed fabulous1 of powerful gynocracies4 ,thus we have heard of the ,amazons1 the fabulous race of women warriors who are supposed to have founded a powerful empire on the coast of the ,euxine4 ,a searching analysis of the texts translated by ,brugsch1 relating to the ceremonies performed at the ,new ,year and famous ,sed festivals1 as well as historical facts gleaned from the works of living authorities1 throw a light upon the position and sacred duties of the ,egyptian queens during many centuries4 ,the critical examination of a number of inscriptions1 translated by ,brugsch1 is found to show that the queen was the high priestess and living image of ,hathor-,isis and the personification of the female principle of nature1 associated in ,egypt with the nocturnal ,heaven and the ,above1 and their symbols1 the bird or vulture1 the cow1 the female serpent1 the moon1 the stars1 and in particular ,sirius-,sothis4 ,in remotest historical times the goddess-queen seems to have resided in her own capital1 a fortress4 ,the universal necessity to insure the safety of women and children in times of warfare may well have originally led to the assignment of a separate1 permanent place of residence1 to the female portion of the population4 ,the ,new ,year festival1 which coincided with the heliacal rising of ,sirius 7#bjth ,july1 ,jul4 ,cal47 and the overflow of the ,nile1 which suspended outdoor activity1 was generally celebrated throughout the land as the 8union of heaven and earth10 or the conjunction of 8the sun and the moon1 or ,sirius40 ,it was customary that1 at this period1 the queen1 personifying the ,sothis star1 should come forth from her retirement and1 surrounded by pomp and majesty1 meet the king in solemn state1 publicly occupy her place on the double throne1 and share in the performance of sacred religious rites4 ,it is easy to see that the idea underlying the entire ceremonial was the harmonizing of the actions of the sacred personifications of the dual principles of nature with the natural phenomena1 from which arose a strange confusion of ideas concerning the relationship between these consecrated individuals and the powers of nature1 which culminated in the artificial belief that they were divinely appointed mediators between humanity and the supreme power4 ,there are clear indications that the consecrated nuptials of king and queen marked the ,sed festival which was celebrated1 at the beginning of every fourth year1 at ,denderah4 ,brugsch tells us that the place on the roof of the ,hathor temple1 where the celebration of the ,sed festival took place1 is specially designated as 8the place of the first feast0 and in many cases this is shown to have been the small open temple1 whose roof is supported by four columns 7fig4 #gj1 #b and #c74 ,in one passage it is expressly stated that 8she1 ,isis-,sothis1 consorts with her father1 the sun1 at #8the place of the first feast1' 0 represented by a picture of the said temple 7fig4 #gj1 #f74 ,it is interesting to compare the following passage with the successive one1 as they exhibit different phases of religious cult4 8,in solemn procession statues of the god ,ra and of ,hathor-,isis 7,sothis-,sirius7 were carried up the stairs from the interior of the temple to its roof 7the tep-hat or head of the house7 where1 under the open sky or in the small open temple on the roof designated as ,hait at ,denderah1 the idols were unveiled at a given time44440 8,on the morn of the ,new ,year ,isis-,sothis #8beheld her father on the beautiful day of the birth of the disk' 7mas-aten7 or #8the birth of the sun' 7mas-ra740 ,it is described how 8the goddess was led upon the roof so that she might behold the rays of her father on his rising4444 ,she is sometimes addressed directly1 being told #8that thou shouldst see thy father on the day of the ,new ,year4' 0 ,in other texts allusion is made to the approach of ,sirius to the sun on ,new ,year's day3 8her rays join 7heter7 with those of the radiant god on that beautiful day of the birth of the sun's disk in the morning of ,new ,year's day30 or 8thou consortest with thy father ,ra in thy open temple1 thy beautiful face being turned towards the south20 and elsewhere1 8she comes on her beautiful festival of the ,new ,year1 to unite her greatness in heaven with that of her father2 the gods are festive and the goddesses are full of joy when the right eye 7,sirius7 unites itself with the left eye 7the sun74 ,she rests upon her throne in the place where the disk of the sun can be seen and the radiant one 7,isis-,sothis7 combines herself with the radiant one 7the sun740 ,on one of the columns of the roof-temple at ,denderah1 the following text is inscribed3 8,this temple of ,rekhit flourishes in possession of a lion 7mahes7 and of his daughter 444 of the ,horus of the east and of the goddess ,khont-abut4 ,they assume her heavenly form on ,new ,year's day and each one consorts with his neighbor40 ,preceding inscriptions are made more clear by the following detached passages translated by ,brugsch1 which merit careful study4 8,an inscription at ,abydos makes the goddess ,safkhet say to the king3 #8thou didst appear as king upon thy throne on the feast hib-seb2 like the god ,ra at the beginning of the year4' 0 8,the high-priest of ,ptah at ,memphis was charged with the celebration of the ,sed festival1 which was a general festival throughout the land40 8,the annual going of the ,hathor of ,denderah to ,edfu took place in the month ,epiphi40 8,the goddess ,hathor-,isis of ,denderah is frequently called the second female sun next to the sun's disk1 the many colored1 feathered goddess1 and is identified with ,isis-,sothis40 ,according to an extremely ancient belief it was the goddess ,hathor ,isis-,sothis who caused the inundation of the ,nile which1 according to the inscriptions1 coincided with the heliacal rising of ,sirius4 ,owing to this circumstance she is called1 8,isis the great1 the mother of god1 who causes the ,nile to overflow when she shines at the commencement of the year10 or 8the female sun who appears at the beginning of the year in the heaven as the divine ,sothis star1 the queen of the decan stars1 whose rays illuminate the earth like those of the sun which appears in the morning4 ,she is the mistress of the commencement of the year1 who draws the ,nile out of its source and thus confers life upon living human beings40 ,elsewhere she is termed 8the mistress of the commencement of the year1 who makes the ,nile rise at its period40 ,it is likewise said of her 8on her beautiful feast of beholding her father1 the heaven unites itself with the earth and the right eye unites itself with the left eye1 at the beginning of the year40 ,she is described as ,isis the great1 the mother of god1 the lady of ,adut in ,anet1 the mistress of the beginning of the year1 the monarch of the ,sema8 who appears on ,new ,year's day to usher in the new year4 7,she is7 the goddess ,ament 7the hidden one7 in ,thebes1 ,menat 7the nurse7 in ,heliopolis1 ,renpit 7i4 e4 the year7 in ,memphis1 the divine star ,sothis in ,elephantine1 the radiant one in ,apollinopolis magna1 etc4 ,in another passage ,hathor-,isis is spoken of as 8the goddess ,mehen-net of the light-god and his ,ar-hatef7she who acts as pilot7 in the boat sektet1 which eternally passes through the heaven over the head of her father40 ,on the north wall of the ,prondos of the ,denderah temple ,isis-,hathor is called 8,hathor1 the lady of ,anet2 ,isis herself2 the eye of ,ra2 the great one of ,tentyra2 the lady of heaven2 the queen of gods and goddesses2 the great ,mat 444 the female sun2 the first in ,tentyra2 the true one amongst gods2 the young2 the daughter of a young 444 8 the beauty who appears in heaven2 the truth which regulates the world at the prow of the bark of the sun2 the queen and mistress of awe2 the mistress of goddesses1 ,isis1 the great1 the mother of the god40 ,the following texts from ,brugsch are explicit enough3 8,the temple of ,tentyra is fitted up for a bride1 and is occupied by a bride40 8,the temple of ,tentyra is in bridal array and contains a bride on the beautiful festival of the birth of the sun40 8,the temple of ,tentyra is fitted up for a bridal and is in possession of a bride on her beautiful festival of the birth of the sun 7mas-ra740 ,the birth of a male or female ,horus1 of a young sun or moon1 is alluded to in other texts as the 8feast of the child in its cradle10 and coincided with ,new ,year's day4 ,according to ,brugsch1 the festival of the child in its sescradle1 nest1 or couch1 undoubtedly coincided with ,new ,year's day1 as is proven by the following inscription3 8,the bringing of the band of stuff to the great ,isis1 the mother of the god1 for the obtainment of a happy year4 ,receive1 receive happy years on the day of the night of the child in its cradle60444 ,it is usual to interpret the birth of the young child1 or sun of the ,new ,year as a mere allegory of the astronomical fact and it may have been thus in later times4 ,on the other hand1 historical data prove that the actual birth of a 8child10 the offspring of a royal sacramental marriage1 did take place in the temple and that children1 thus born1 afterwards became the rulers of ,egypt4 8,at ,luqsor1 444 a great temple was built by ,amenhotep ,,iii 7,b4,c4 #adad-acgi7 to #8his father ,amen1' with special reference to the divine conception of the king4444 ,his birth is the great subject of the temple 444 and his mother ,mut-em-ua is the prominent figure in those scenes1 pointing to her being important as queen-mother44440 ,of the later king ,hor-em-heb 7,b4,c4 #accb-acbh7 it is inscribed3 8,amen1 king of the gods1 dandled him 444 when he came forth from the womb he was enveloped in reverence1 the aspect of a god was upon him2 the arm was bowed to him as a child and great and small did obeisance before him 0 7,flinders ,petrie1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agg1 #aij and #bdh74 ,the small ,isis temple to the east of the great temple of ,hathor at ,denderah is specially designated as the lying-in chamber1 or sacred house of birth4 ,an inscription dating from the ,roman period1 on the outer eastern wall of this building reads3 8,life6 the female ,horus1 the youthful1 the daughter of a hak 7regent1 ,brugsch71 ,isis1 the great1 the mother of the ,ragod1 is born in ,tentyra in the #8night of the child in its cradle1' at the west side of the temple of ,hat-seses 7the great temple of ,hathor740 ,it is1 moreover1 stated that 8,horus1 in female form1 is the princess1 the powerful1 the heiress to the throne and the daughter of an heir to the throne40 ,in another inscription1 on the south wall of the small temple of ,isis1 the birth of ,isis is described thus3 8,on this beautiful day1 #8of the night of the child in its cradle1' on the great festival during which the world is re-adjusted1 or balanced 7sekhek en ta71 the bringing forth of ,isis takes place in the interior or centre of ,anet 7,tentyra7 by the goddess ,ap1 the great1 in the chamber of ,ap1 in the form of a dark red female person1 the ,khnum ankh1 the lovely4 ,her mother1 ,nut1 exclaimed at the sight of her3 behold1 7,as is7 ,i have become a mother4 ,thence the origin of the name ,isis4444 ,the south1 towards the place of rising of the sun's disk1 has been given over to her1 and the north1 towards4444 ,she is1 namely1 the mistress of both sides of ,egypt1 with her son ,horus and her brother ,osiris40 ,on the east side of the wall of the terrace at ,denderah a similar inscription reads3 8,uar-kher-ta is the name of this locality4 ,the name of the place of the cradle of ,isis is named ,adut1 which is the house where the #8accouchement' of ,nut1 the goddess of heaven1 takes place4 ,it is here that1 at the time of the #8night of the child in its cradle1' the god-mother is brought into the world1 in the form of a dark female1 named ,khnum-ankhet1 the lady of love and the queen of the gods and goddesses4 ,on seeing her1 her mother exclaimed3 ,as1 s i4 e4 lo1 or behold1 ,i have become a mother6 ,thence the origin of her name ,isis4444 ,she is the lady of the temple of ,egypt with her son ,horus and brother ,osiris1 now and forever into eternity40 ,the most instructive account of the festival which has come under my notice is the following1 contained in another inscription in the temple at ,denderah4 8,the fourth day1 supplementary to the year 7of #cfj days1 i4 e4 the #cfdth day7 is the beautiful day of the #8night of the child in its cradle' and is a great festival of preparation4 ,during the night preceding this day there takes place the procession of the goddess ,hathor and the divinities with her4 ,the circuit of her temple is made and all is duly fulfilled according to the custom4 ,upon this follows the return to their places 7chambers in the temple74 ,the golden one 7,nubet1 the ordinary appellation of ,hathor-,isis as the star ,sothis-,sirius1 ,brugsch7 rises1 shining1 above the brow of her progenitor1 and her mysterious 7literally1 full of secrets7 form is at the prow of the boat of the sun4 ,as soon as she reaches the k 7centre7 of her city in the presence of her ,nomos1 she beholds her dwelling with the most joyful feelings4 ,when she enters her house her body is full of delight4 ,when she has taken possession of her exalted dwelling1 surrounded by her fellow-gods1 who stand at each side of her1 her soul in her body is full of rejoicings4 ,when they join the rays of her father 7the sun god7 and are united to the radiance of his disk1 the city ,anet 7,tentyra7 is happy4 ,adoration is made in ,adut 7the lying-in chamber7 and ,pi-anet is in festive state1 when it beholds the great1 the powerful leader1 she who creates the festival in the holy city on that beautiful day of the ,new ,year40 ,elsewhere we read3 8,the city of ,anet is in a constant exaltation when the goddess ,isis is born in it 7in the small ,isis temple7 in the form of a dark red woman1 whose name is ,khnum-,ankhet1 the lady of love1 the queen of goddesses and women1 the bride4 ,it is beautiful to see the shining appearance of the ray of light in the heaven1 in the dusk1 at the time when she is born in this city4444 ,a flying beetle 787 is born in the sky in the primval city of ,tentyra at the period of #8the night of the child in its cradle4' ,the sun shines in the heaven at dusk when her birth has taken place4 ,gods and goddesses praise the name of her majesty44440 8,ra-,hur of ,apollinopolis magna1 god ,sam-ta1 comes forth1 or arises1 in the dawn 7akhekh7 when the birth takes place in #8the night of the child in its cradle1' on the great festival of the entire world 7or the entire land74 ,he shines for her majesty when she has brought forth 7the child74 ,her child is in the form of a beautiful boy1 who is the lord of ,tentyra4 ,the gods and goddesses came to her carrying the symbol of life 7the ankh7 and the sceptre of power 7the tam7 so as to fulfil their desire and her wish0 7p4 #ajc74 ,the following extract from a papyrus which belonged to a priest of ,amon1 named ,horsiesis of ,thebes1 of the time of ,augustus1 affords an extremely interesting insight of the mysterious ceremonial which had gradually developed4 ,it is evident that the text1 though apparently clear1 must have been intelligible to the initiated only1 who alone were able to understand the allusions to secret1 sacred rites and their symbolical meaning4 8,thou raisest thyself to heaven1 in the region of the city ,ka 444 thou goest with the king when he goes to ,thebes 444 thou seest the ,sktt bark on its arrival in the city of ,thebes and the two sisters united in ,pi-ubkt 444 thou seest the goddess ,hathor who becomes the mother of her own mother7#aag7 on the day 444 of the ,tx festival 444 thy name is called amongst those of the judges on the great ,hermopolis in the night of the festival of he who remains in the middle or centre of his city 444 thou seest the immovable ones united into a quatuor1 in form like a young bull 444 thou seest their wives united together in the form of the goddess ,anthat 444 thou visitest the caves of ,thebes when his majesty betakes himself to the zone of ,smu4444 ,the mistress of heaven comes to her house 444 thou receivest a cloak from his hand 444 the divine eye 444 thou watchest at night in the chamber of birth on the day of the lying in birth of the goddess ,mut4444,nut8 ,thou goest in with those who go in and comest out with those who come out like the great ,horus in his temple 444 thou seest in her domain787 mysterious actions performed by the ,pastophores4 ,no one sees1 no one hears 7of them7 444 thou hearest the voice of the singer in the temple1 in varied modulations 444 thou ascendest the stairway of the eternal circle of light1 thou seest the strong ram in its domain 444 thou seest 444 in his first form1 ,osiris1 in the house of purification40 7,brugsch1 op4 cit4 ,,ii1 pp4 #eah and #ebj74 ,a careful perusal of the preceding texts conveys an idea of the immense lapse of time it must have required for the state religion of ,egypt to have developed itself and crystallized into a complicated ritual1 the true significance of which1 doubtlessly1 gradually receded from view4 ,the nave primitive symbolization of the union of heaven and earth by the actual marriage of king and queen1 followed by general marriage festivities1 had naturally created1 in course of time1 a distinct privileged caste rendered 8divine0 by the circumstances attending their conception and birth4 ,once in existence the maintenance and insurance of the divine line of descent would naturally enforce the intermarriage of its members and the sequestration and guarded seclusion of the royal women and the virgin priestesses from whose ranks the destined mothers of the divine children were selected4 ,a more ancient form of symbolizing the union of heaven and earth seems to have been the cult of ,apis1 which1 according to ,maspero1 preceded the building of the pyramids and could scarcely have arisen before the adoption of the cow or bull1 ua1 as the rebus of ,polaris1 the ,oneua4 ,a survival of ,apis cult seems to be the allegorical sacred title 8bull0 7,osiris-,apis7 bestowed upon the king1 of 8cow0 upon the queen and 8calf0 upon their offspring1 the young ,horus4 ,in later times the king was entitled 8the ram0 and wore his fleece and horns on visiting the queen4 ,as a natural sequence1 the fruit of their union was spoken of as 8the lamb40 ,according to ,herodotus 7,,ii1 pp4 #bg-bi1 ,cary's translation71 8the sacred ,apis1 or ,epaphus is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving another offspring2 and the ,egyptians say that lightning descends upon the cow from heaven and that from thence it brings forth ,apis40 8,the ,egyptian magistrates said 444 the god in the form of ,apis manifested himself at distant intervals 444 and when this manifestation took place the ,egyptians immediately put on their richest apparel and kept festive holiday40 ,as stated by ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,apis worship was established at ,memphis by ,ka-kau1 the second king of the second dynasty ,b4,c4 #dajj4 ,the veneration accorded to the bull1 cow and calf1 as embodiments of the dual principles of nature1 in separate and in single form1 seems to have been accorded in other localities to different animal forms and to have been replaced1 in later times1 by triads1 composed of a god1 goddess and their offspring1 each great centre ultimately possessing their particular triad1 the living images of which were the high-priest1 high-priestess and their 8divine0 offspring4 ,it should be noted that a group consisting of #hanine gods1 high priests or prophets1 accompanied the triad1 the result being twelve 8deities0 in all1 of which onethe child1 was an embodiment of two principles and was the kathe divine twain4 ,the transition of ,apis worship from the animal to the human form was accomplished during the reign of the ,ptolemies 7,b4,c4 #cje-db7 when ,serapis or ,osiris-,apis was introduced into ,egypt and represented as a man with the head of a bull1 wearing a disk and urus4 ,long before this1 however1 androsphinxes and other combinations of the human and animal form had existed in ,egypt4 ,at ,thebes the divine triad was formed by ,amen-,ra1 ,mut-,hathor and ,chonsu2 at ,edfu and ,denderah we find ,osiris1 ,isis-,sothis-,hathor and ,horus4 ,on the other hand1 a curious inscription in the temple at ,denderah1 translated by ,brugsch 7,,ii1 p4 #eab71 actually describes ,amen-,ra as 8the great god in ,denderah1 who periodically rejuvenates himself and becomes a beautiful boy1 who is the concealed or hidden god1 whose name is hidden2 who is the ,horus with colored wings1 coming forth in the upper hemisphere of ,edfu1 the lord of the double heaven40 ,the inference one might be tempted to make from this and other texts is that1 at one period1 a human babe1 the fruit of a royal or sacerdotal union1 was born in the temple on what constituted ,new ,year's ,day and was secretly worshipped there during the ensuing year1 as the living image of ,amen-,ra1 the hidden god and 8divine twain40 ,i venture to point out that the adoption of the child as the image of the divinity was the logical sequence to the preceding employment of the bull as a rebus for the words uaone and katwain2 that the consecration of the human form must1 undoubtedly1 have given a strong impulse to statuary1 and that the sanctification of the child correspondingly exalted motherhood and lent a particular consecration to the marriage of its 8divine parents40 ,the following facts1 culled at random1 afford a limit of the transitions and further developments which took place in ,egypt in course of time4 ,before proceeding1 special mention must be made of one important point which throws a flood of light upon the extent of the development of separate cults of sun and moon and the institution of solar and lunar calendars which respectively governed the activities of the male and female populations4 ,as this matter will be fully treated in my calendar monograph ,i shall merely note here that ,brugsch cites texts proving the existence and simultaneous use of the two calendars1 and the supreme importance accorded to the new moon of the month ,epiphi on whose appearance the 8goddess ,isis-,hathor of ,denderah embarked on her sacred barge and proceeded up the river1 from her city to ,edfu 7,apollinopolis magna7 where she joined his majesty 4441 her father1 444 the incomparable sun-god ,ra1 the first of ,apollinopolis1 the golden disk1 whose children are numerous44440 ,it is further stated that the god and goddess became inseparable like sun and moon4 ,brugsch states that the appearance of the said new moon1 which was also associated with the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 would range from ,aug4 #ah to ,sept4 #af1 ,jul4 ,cal4 7see op4 cit4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bhb-a74 ,the appearance of the goddess was the signal for the opening of a season of general 8feasting and drinking1 rejoicing1 singing and dancing0 throughout the land1 to which the name ,tekhu is given in some texts4 ,this is translated by ,brugsch as 8the intoxication of gladness or joy20 it 8coincided with the highest level attained by the overflow of the ,nile10 and its modern survival is the annual 8marriage of the ,nile0 which takes place on the #bc;d of ,august4 ,it is curious to note how the original carrying out of primitive and nave rites by the queen and high-priestess gradually caused her presence to be regarded as essential for the 8drawing out of the ,nile from its source0 and her person to be surrounded with utmost veneration and sanctity4 ,as ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie states1 speaking of as far back as ,b4,c4 #achc-acfe3 8,the marriage to a royal high priestess of ,amen was1 of course1 purely a political necessity to legitimate the king's position40 8,it would seem that ,hor-em-heb was not married to ,nezem-mut until his accession1 when he legalized his position by becoming husband of the high-priestess of ,amen1 as in the arrangement of the later dynasties4 ,this marriage was an affair of politics solely1 considering the age of the parties2 ,horemheb was probably between fifty and sixty at the time and if the queen was the same as ,nefertiti's sister ,nezem-mut1 she must have been about the same age as ,horemheb0 7op4 cit4 pp4 #ahc1 #bej74 ,how long the female ,egyptian ruler maintained her sway may1 perhaps1 best be seen by the following texts describing the political homage paid to the living goddess of the ,egyptians under ,ptolemaic and ,roman rules4 ,one inscription clearly shows that1 at the time of ,ptolemy ,,ix1 ,euergetes ,,ii1 the living ,isis was acknowledged as the sole ruler of the land of the south by the king and his wife1 queen ,cleopatra ,,iii1 who jointly occupied the throne of northern ,egypt4 ,jointly the latter dedicated a beautiful hall to the goddess ,isis1 as a place in which to celebrate the ,tekhu feast and in which she might linger at this season 7,brugsch1 op4 cit4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhd74 ,i have found indications in other works that1 in other localities1 the goddess entered a secret chamber in the earth or pyramid or celebrated her sacred mysteries and festival on the sacred boat of the sun1 in the sacred sea or lake belonging to the temple4 ,in these cases it is obvious that the dominant idea was the performance of the sacred rites in the sacred centre or middle4 ,at a later period ,cleopatra ,,vii ascended the female throne at the age of seventeen and became high-priestess of ,amen1 the living image of ,isis4 ,it was understood that as soon as her brother ,ptolemy ,,xiv1 then aged twelve1 should come of age1 she was to marry him4 ,partly for political reasons1 akin to those which had caused king ,horemheb1 on his accession1 to marry the high priestess of ,amen1 ,julius ,csar and ,mark ,antony become in succession the consorts of ,cleopatra1 after whose death ,egypt became a ,roman province4 ,but the 8land of the south10 and traditional1 divine1 feminine rulership1 lingered on4 ,under the third prefect1 lius ,gallus1 ,candace1 queen of the ,ethiopians1 invades ,egypt at the head of her army4 ,she was defeated1 but the position of the high-priestess of ,amen1 the living ,isis1 continued to be such as to exact the homage and an act of propitiation from the ,roman ,emperor4 ,an inscription1 from the time of ,augustus1 records that a beautiful monument1 or 8house10 had been erected by the 8lord of the land1 the autocrator1 the son of the sun1 ,csar10 and was presented1 at the time of the ,isis festival1 to its possessor1 the great ,isis1 the mother of the god1 the mistress of the lying-in-house1 the splendid and mighty queen of ,phil1 the benevolent princess of ,abaton1 the daughter of the sun4 ,she is likewise named 8she who is great or whose greatness extends towards the four quarters0 and is designated as 8the royal wife of the majesty of ,osiris and the royal mother of ,horus1 the victorious bull10 i4 e4 the ka4 ,it is stated that 8she found the house of birth brilliantly adorned and well arranged in every way0 and she installed herself in its interior on a given day1 so as to bring forth her son in these surroundings4 ,one of the rewards promised to ,csar for the delicate attention and gift bestowed upon the goddess is 8eternal and permanent occupation of the throne of ,horus1 the first of the living ones40 ,according to the ,esne calendar a 8divine birth0 actually took place on a given date4 ,brugsch1 referring to ,plutarch and calendar texts1 shows that the commencement of the ,isis festival dated from the time when ,isis assumed a phylactery1 or amulet1 to indicate that she had conceived4 ,another inscription shows that ,tiberius ,claudius had caused the house to be renovated for 8the mighty goddess ,isis1 the life giving mistress of ,abaton1 the good ,hathor1 the queen of the land of ,nubia1 the divine mother of the golden 7,nub7 ,horus1 the benevolent sister of ,osiris1 the great protectress who guards his son40 ,as ,tiberius ,claudius1 in this text named himself her loving son1 it is obvious that the day had passed away when solely her own divine son ,horus would be the one legitimate and divine heir to the ,egyptian throne4 ,it is interesting to surmise what became of the children whose 8divine births0 continued to be celebrated as a sacred occurrence to which even a ,roman ,emperor yielded homage4 ,the natural sequence would have been that1 accompanied by a band of devoted followers1 the sons of the sun1 the young bulls1 i4 e4 the ka1 or divine twain1 and their sisters1 would seek distant lands in which jointly to establish new kingdoms on the ancient1 familiar plan4 ,collectively1 the preceding evidence has afforded a realization of some of the curious but natural results of the prolonged cult of the dual principles of nature in ,egypt1 the most remarkable being1 perhaps1 the creation of a distinct1 8divine0 caste of individuals1 from the nave adoption of marriage and birth as consecrated religious rites1 symbolical of the union of heaven and earth and the production of new life4 ,while at one time1 and in certain localities1 this mode of symbolism obviously took the upper hand and fostered the growth of the artificial idea of the 8divine rights of royalty10 there are evidences that1 simultaneously1 the union of the dual principles of nature was symbolized in one or more different archaic and primitive ways4 ,these appear to have been separately adopted in various centres of thought where the disastrous and debasing consequences of the association of the idea of sex with the cult of heaven and earth1 light and darkness1 etc41 were realized with disapproval4 ,we thus find that1 even at ,edfu1 the ceremonial rite of lighting new sacred fire by means of a wooden instrument and friction was performed on the great ,isis festival which was marked by the 8divine birth40 ,according to the calendar of ,canopus this fell on the first day of ,payni1 and a prescribed illumination of the temples and palace was kept up until the #cjth or last day of the month4 ,in the most ancient ,egyptian calendars the 8lighting of light0 at the same period is also recorded 7,brugsch1 op4 cit4 ,,ii1 p4 #dgj7 and1 according to ,herodotus1 the festival was named 8the lighting of lamps0 and was observed throughout all ,egypt4 ,he adds that 8a religious reason is given why this night is illuminated and so honored0 7,,ii1 #fa and #fb74 ,the influence of increasing astronomical knowledge likewise shows itself in the joint observation of the movements of sun1 moon and stars and the determination of the relative positions of the latter to the sun at the periods of the equinoxes and solstices4 ,without taking period or sequence into consideration for the present1 ,i merely note that we find evidence that1 at one time1 images of sun and moon1 of the right and left eyes of ,ra1 or statues of ,hathor-,isis and ,osiris1 replaced their living images in religious ceremonies4 ,sometimes the entire ritual seems to have consisted in the union of water1 the produce of heaven1 with seeds1 the produce of earth2 the ensuing germination and production of young shoots being deemed sacred and symbolical of the renewal of life4 ,the fact that statuettes of ,osiris have actually been found1 made of paste containing various seeds1 distinctly shows that1 like the ,babylonian ,baal1 the ,egyptian male divinity was identified with the earth4 ,another indication of this is furnished by the descriptions of the feast of ,pan1 which fell at the period of the spring equinox4 ,at this period the crop of dura1 which had been sown by the king in the sacred fields at ,denderah1 at the time of the 8,osiris mysteries10 immediately after the inundation had receded and 8the earth was laid bare10 became ripe4 ,the ceremony of cutting the first sheaf of dura was performed by the king1 with the silex sicklekhepes4 ,while ,osiris was thus directly associated with the produce of the earth there are also evidences that1 just as ,isis became identified with birth and life1 her consort became the lord of death and of the underworld4 ,mysterious rites and human sacrifices seem to have been instituted in his honor4 ,according to obscure myths ,osiris himself had been foully murdered1 his body cut into fourteen pieces and cast over the length and breadth of the land4 ,his head was supposed to be preserved at ,abydos1 the chief centre of his worship1 and shrines were erected over the other portions of his body4 ,it will be a matter for further research to investigate whether the 8mysteries of ,osiris0 did not include the dramatization of the death of ,osiris1 in which a human victim personified the god and was actually killed and dismembered4 ,it is1 perhaps1 worth noting here1 as an analogy1 how appropriately the ancient ,mexican annual sacrifice of a youth1 chosen among the most perfect1 might have answered as a rendition of the drama of ,osiris4 ,the body of the victim was divided and the pieces distributed to a fixed number of priests and chieftains1 who partook of them as sacred food4 ,the head was preserved in the ,great ,temple itself1 on the ,tzompantli1 and the large number of skulls seen there by the ,spaniards constituted a proof of the great antiquity of the custom4 ,the blood of the victim1 poured upon seeds1 seems to have been considered essential for bringing about the germination of the sacred shoots and typical of the union of the dual principles of nature and of life springing from death4 ,idols1 formed of seeds moistened with human blood1 were distributed to the participants in the ceremony4 ,according to some authors this sacred paste1 and not pieces of human flesh1 constituted the consecrated food1 eaten according to the prescribed ritual4 ,how far analogous rites were performed in ,egypt remains to be seen2 it is1 at all events1 certain that1 by slow degrees1 the cult of the dual principles of nature gave rise to the institution of strange unnatural rites1 the original nave meanings of which became obscured1 debased or lost4 ,while various localities of ,egypt1 notably ,thebes and ,abydos1 appear to have become the birthplace of curious aberrations of the human intellect1 there was one ancient and great centre of learning where monotheism and the knowledge of the fundamental scheme appear to have been preserved intact1 namely1 at ,heliopolis1 the ancient ,on or ,anu of the ,north1 named the 8,house of the ,sun0 by ,jeremiah and 8the ,eye or ,fountain of the ,sun0 by the ,arabs4 ,according to ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge1 8its ruins cover an area three miles square 444 the greatest and oldest ,egyptian ,college or ,university for the education of the priesthood and laity stood here4444 ,during the ,x,xth dynasty the temple of ,heliopolis was one of the largest and wealthiest of all ,egypt and its staff was numbered by thousands4 ,when ,cambyses visited ,egypt the glory of ,heliopolis was well on the wane and1 after the removal of the priesthood and sages of the temple to ,alexandria1 by ,ptolemy ,,ii 7,b4,c4 #bhf71 its downfall was well assured4 ,when ,strabo visited it 7,b4,c4 #bd7 the greater part of it was in ruins4444 ,heliopolis had a large population of ,jews and it will be remembered that ,joseph married the daughter of a priest of ,on 7,annu74444 ,macrobius says that the ,heliopolis of ,syria or ,baalbek1 was founded by a body of priests who left the ancient city of ,heliopolis of ,egypt0 7,the ,nile1 p4 #acb74 ,indirectly we learn the tenor of the doctrines and ideas held by the sages of ,heliopolis at one period by the remarkable attempt to reform the religion of ,egypt1 carried out by their pupil1 ,amenhotep ,,iv 7about ,b4,c4 #adej74 ,evidently realizing1 with his masters1 the extent to which the ancient fundamental religion had become obscured and debased by the multiplication of images of the deity1 and the institution of rival cults1 which were shrouded in mystery and darkness1 the young prince boldly made war against the priesthood of ,amen-,ra and the cult of a 8hidden god40 ,destroying the monstrous images which had originally been rebus figures only1 and represented the supreme deity in partly human and animal form1 he instituted the disk or circle as the simple and purer form under which the divinity was to be revered47#aah7 ,animated by the clear realization to what an extent the original communal or republican scheme of organization was being departed from by the artificial creation of a 8divine0 race of kings who claimed to be gods1 he caused himself and his queen to be portrayed as simple mortals1 and not as the deities ,osiris and ,isis4 ,choosing the sun as his emblem1 this champion of pure light and open truth fought the ,egyptian votaries of darkness4 ,he erased the word ,amenhidden1 from public monuments1 changed his own name from ,amenhotep to ,chu-en-,atenthe brilliance or glory of the disk and founded a city also named ,chu-aten1 which was to be the centre of a new and reformed state4 ,it seems evident that this was instituted on the familiar archaic plan and that the so-called 8heresy of ,amenhotep0 was but an attempt1 backed by the sages and philosophers of ,heliopolis1 to abolish the artificialities and abuses which had come into existence and destroyed the order of the state and the harmony of the primitive plan4 ,it is well known that gradually ,amenhotep's successors were obliged to yield to the hostility of the priesthood of the 8hidden god0 and that these1 in turn1 erased or defaced all images of the disk or aten within their reach4 ,ineffectual though the grand attempt had been to reorganize state and religion and restablish republican principles1 on the original plan1 the knowledge of the original scheme seems to have been preserved intact during the following centuries1 by the sages and philosophers of ,heliopolis1 by whom the primitive set of ideas seems to have been gradually developed into an abstract philosophical system4 ,reminding the reader that ,plato spent 8thirteen years in ,egypt1 in gaining an insight into the mysterious doctrines and priest-lore of the sacerdotal caste10 ,i also draw attention to the passage in his 8,timus10 in which ,critias makes the statement that when ,plato's ideal republic 444 was being discoursed upon1 he was reminded1 to his surprise1 of the account of a state given to the ,greek sage1 ,solon1 by the priests of ,sas1 and perceived how1 8in most respects1 the republic described coincided with ,solon's statements40 ,it is indeed striking how clearly we can recognize1 in ,plato's republic1 the underlying1 primitive1 universal scheme in this case1 highly developed1 elaborated1 transfigured and transformed into the philosophical ideal of a great intellect4 ,before demonstrating which of the main features of ,plato's cosmogony and ideal republic we have found actually carried out in practice1 let us briefly refer to the most ancient descriptions of the primitive government of ,greece1 preserved in the ,timus and ,critias1 where the conversations held1 by ,solon1 with the priests of ,sas are recorded4 ,solon 7about #eid ,b4,c47 on his arrival 7at ,sas7 8was very honorably received2 and especially1 on his inquiring about ancient affairs of those priests who possessed superior knowledge in such matters1 he perceived that neither himself nor any one of the ,greeks 7so to speak7 had any antiquarian knowledge at all4444 ,one of their extremely ancient priests said to ,solon3 #8you 7,greeks7 are all youths in intelligence1 for you hold no ancient opinions derived from remote tradition nor any system of discipline that can boast of a hoary old age4444 ,in this our country1 444 the most ancient things are said to be here preserved 444 and all the noble1 great or otherwise distinguished achievements1 performed either by ourselves1 by you or elsewhere1 of which we have heard the report1 all these have been engraved in our temples in very remote times and preserved to the present day4 ,the annals of our own city 7,sas7 have been preserved eight thousand years in our sacred writings 444 your state has a priority over ours of a thousand years4444 ,i will briefly describe the law and more illustrious actions of those states which have existed nine thousand years 444' 0 7,timus74 ,it is interesting at this point to recall also the familiar statements made by the priests of ,sas to ,solon1 concerning the immense antiquity of the human race and the 8multitude and variety of destructions which have been and will be undergone by the human race 444 after which nations become young again1 as at first1 knowing nothing of the events of ancient times0 7,timus1 ,v74 ,referring the reader to the original text ,i merely point out here that the priest of ,sas1 referring to the sacred writings themselves1 assigned to remotest antiquity the principle of distribution and arrangement on which the state had originally been founded and established4 ,in the ,critias the description of the ,athenian state1 which 8had been founded nine thousand0 years before1 contains the following particulars which will appear familiar to the reader4 8,to the gods was once locally allotted the whole earth4444 ,obtaining a country agreeable to them by just allotment1 they chose regions for their habitations4444 ,different gods received by lot different regions4444 ,hephaestus and ,athene1 a brother and sister1 both received one region as their common allotment 444 their temple was built on the ,acropolis 444 whose northern and southern slopes were respectively associated with separate winter and summer residences40 ,the population was divided into classes and each caste occupied a fixed place of residence4 8,the outer parts1 down the flanks 7of the ,acropolis7 were inhabited by craftsmen and husbandmen who tilled the neighboring land2 the warrior-classes lived separately1 by themselves1 in the more elevated parts around the temple of ,athene and ,hephaestus1 which they had formed1 as it were1 into the garden of a single dwelling by encircling it with one enclosure0 7,the ,critias1 ,,vi74 8444 ,on this site was a single fountain which furnished every part with abundant water44440 8,the #8guardians of the state' were the #8leaders' of the ,greeks and as to their number they paid special attention that they should always have the same number of men and women that might serve in war1 the whole being about twenty thousand40 ,in the description given1 in the ,critias1 of the state of ,atlantis1 the identical features recur1 but are more fully described4 ,in the centre of the island of ,atlantis stood a mountain1 surrounded by a plain1 which was ultimately made square4 ,the mountain was the residence of a pair of mythical lovers1 consisting of a god and of a mortal woman1 and became the birthplace of their offspring1 8a divine race of kings40 8,the god 444 with his divine power1 agreeably adorned the centre of the island1 causing two fountains of water to shoot upwards from beneath the earth1 one cold and the other hot1 and making every variety of food to spring abundantly from the earth40 ,the central hill1 from which thus proceeded all life and festivity1 was at first 8circularly enclosed1 the land and sea being formed into alternate zones1 greater and less1 two out of land and three out of sea1 from the centre of the island all equally distant40 ,the ten kings1 born of the 8divine union1 lived each in his own district and city1 and ruled supreme over his people4 ,the government and commonwealth in each case was1 by the injunction of the god1 according to the laws which were handed down4 ,the latter were inscribed on a column of orichalcum which was deposited in the centre of the island1 in the temple of the god1 where the ten kings originally assembled every fifth year4 ,a fire burned near the column and a bull was sacrificed at its base1 after which a sacred cup was filled with its blood and this was poured into the fire by way of purifying the column0 7,critias1 ,,vii-,,xvi74 ,the above mention of a column is of interest when it is realized that1 in historical times1 the laws of ,solon were actually inscribed on a square wooden pillar which was made to revolve or turn and was placed on the ,acropolis4 ,the presence of a revolving pillar on the ,acropolis1 the sacred centre of the ,athenian state1 is1 moreover1 curiously in keeping with the conception of axial energy set forth by ,plato and awakens the desire to learn from ,greek scholars what relationship1 if any1 there was between the ,sanscrit aksaaxle or axis1 the ,greek akra 7akrissummit1 akrosmost high1 supreme1 akrisiosmountain-top god7 and the ,egyptian akthe ,centre1 and haka king2 and whether the word poliscity was connected with polosthe pole-star1 an axis1 pivot or pole1 from poleinto turn1 and may be interpreted as the equivalent of the ,egyptian ,an and ,annu4 ,it would also be important to learn whether the name of the principal ancient god of ,greece1 ,apollo1 who was revered under the form of a column at ,delphi1 can also be connected with the verb polein or peleinto turn1 as well as the name ,polias i4 e4 the goddess protecting the city1 a surname for ,minerva 7,athene7 at ,athens1 where she was worshipped at one time as the protecting divinity of the ,acropolis4 ,the title ,poliuchus1 8protecting the city10 occurs as a surname of several divinities and particularly of ,minerva ,chalchioecus1 8of the brazen house10 at ,sparta and ,athens4 ,it is instructive likewise to compare the ,greek words for axisaxon1 and poliscity1 with ,helice1 the name for ,ursa ,major and for a town in ,arcadia1 with the ,egyptian ,annu1 ,an or ,on1 the names of capitals1 and the ,egyptian word anthat which turns around4 ,it will be for ,greek and ,egyptian scholars to enlighten us as to whether the ,egyptian an and the ,greek polis are synonyms2 in which connection ,i draw their attention to the following suggestive passage of the ,critias 7,,vii74444 8,yet before we narrate this we must briefly warn you not to be surprised at hearing ,hellenic names given to barbarians 444 and the cause of this you shall now hear4 ,solon made an investigation into the power of names and found that the early ,egyptians1 who committed these facts to writing1 transferred these names into their own language2 and he again1 receiving the meaning of each name1 introduced it by writing into our language40 ,while1 on one hand1 it is certain that the ,egyptian astronomer-priests associated the pole star with the words ,an1 ,anu1 ,anubis1 on the other1 the following passages from ,plato's works clearly demonstrate his views concerning axial rotation47#aai7 ,a fresh interest is undoubtedly added to ,plato's philosophy when it is regarded as the possible result of the thirteen years spent by him with the ,egyptian priesthood1 who may possibly have confided to him the entire sum of their ancient philosophy and accumulated store of knowledge1 and who certainly seem to have imposed upon him the reticence and obscurity noticeable in the ,republic1 the ,critias and the ,timus4 ,to those who have followed my investigation of the ancient state organization and cosmical conceptions of the ancient ,egyptians1 and noted the interpretation given to the pyramid and the fact that ,amenophis instituted the disk as the image of the ,supreme ,being1 the following detached extracts from ,plato's ,timus will appear familiar and full of fresh significance4 8,to discover the ,father and ,creator of this universe 7also called the heaven or the world7 or his work is indeed difficult2 and when discovered it is impossible to reveal him to mankind at large4444 ,the composing 7or framing7 ,artificer constituted the universe from entire elements of fire1 water1 air and earth and 444 considering that it would thus be a whole animal4444 ,he gave it also a figure becoming and allied to its nature2 and to the animal destined to comprehend all others within itself that figure as the most becoming which includes within itself every sort of figure whatever4 ,hence he fashioned it in the shape of a sphere1 perfectly round1 having its centre everywhere equally distant from the bounding extremities4444 ,he assigned to it a motion peculiar to itself 444 making the world to turn constantly on itself and on same point1 he gave it a circular motion 444 he assigned to it a motion peculiar to itself1 being that of all the seven kinds of motion4444 ,as for the soul1 he fixed it in the middle1 extended it throughout the whole and likewise surrounded it with its entire surface 444 and so1 causing a circle to revolve in a circle1 he established the world as one substantive1 solitary object4444 ,let the universe be called heaven or the world or by any other name it usually receives4444 ,the soul of this universe 444 being composed of three parts 444 being interwoven throughout from the middle to the very extremities of space and covering it even all around externally1 though at the same time herself revolving within herself1 originated the divine commencement of an unceasing and wise life throughout all time4444 ,time 444 was generated with the universe4444 ,time 444 an eternal image on the principles of numbers 444 the perfect number of time completes a perfect year 444 for this purpose 444 were formed such of the stars as moved circularly through the universe44440 ,while a careful study of ,plato's work will further elucidate his views concerning the quadruplicate nature of the universe1 of its comprehensive unity1 of axial rotation1 the generation of time and of the principle of numbers1 ,i point out that the following passage conveys the idea of applying the universal plan to the regulation of human thought3 8,this1 however1 we may assert1 that ,god invented and bestowed sight upon us for the express purpose1 that on surveying the circles of intelligence in the heavens1 we might properly employ those of our minds1 which1 though disturbed when compared with the others that are uniform1 are still allied to their circulation and that1 having thus learned and being naturally possessed of a correct reasoning faculty1 we might1 by imitating the uniform revolutions of divinity1 set right our own silly wanderings and blunders40 ,there are two portions of ,plato's cosmology to which ,i wish particularly to draw attention1 because of the striking examples that exist1 showing that the views therein expressed and suggestions given1 were independently carried into practice in ancient times1 in widely separated countries4 ,one is the suggestive attempt to figure the ,cosmos by geometrical images1 a method which had been carried out by the pyramid-builders and ,amenophis ,,iii and suggests an explanation for the origin and meaning of the geometrical decoration that prevailed at one period of antiquity4 ,the other is the association of time with the principles of numbers1 the most remarkable exemplifications of which are furnished by the ,egyptian1 ,hindu1 ,chinese1 ,mexican and ,maya cyclical systems1 founded upon the associations of divisions of time and numerals1 and even and uneven numbers with day-names1 etc4 ,having hastily noted some features of ,plato's ,cosmos let us next obtain an insight into the ideas associated with ,polaris and the ,septentriones by the ancient ,greeks and their neighbors1 before and after ,plato's time4 ,i gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,richard ,hinckley ,allen's 8,star-names and their meanings0 7,new ,york1 #ahii71 for the following valuable information and at the same time express my regret that his useful work was unknown to me when ,i wrote the preceding portion of my investigation47#abj7 8,ursa ,minor was not mentioned by ,homer or ,hesiod for1 according to ,strabo1 it was not admitted among the constellations of the ,greeks until about #fjj ,b4,c4 when ,thales1 inspired by its use in ,phnicia1 his probable birthplace1 suggested it to the ,greek mariners in place of its greater neighbor which till then had been their sailing guide4 ,thence its title ,phnice and ,ursa ,phnicia4 ,but it also shared1 with ,ursa ,major1 the titles ,septentrio1 ,aratos1 ,amaxa1 ,aganna and ,helice4 ,it also bore the #8early and universal title' ,kynosura or ,cynosura1 usually translated #8the ,dog's ,tail1' the origin of which is uncertain1 ,bournouf asserting that #8it is in no way associated with the ,greek word for dog4' ,cox identified the word with ,lycosura 7meaning tail or trail of light71 which recalls the city of that name in ,arcadia considered1 by ,pausanias1 the most ancient in the world1 having been founded by ,lycaon some time before the ,deluge of ,deucalion40 8,euclid said in his ,phainomena3 #8,a star is visible between the ,bears1 not changing its place1 but always revolving upon itself' 7cf4 ,plato's ,cosmos74 ,hipparchus1 that the pole was #8in a vacant spot forming a quadrangle with three other stars1' both writers calling this ,polos1 the ,polus of ,lucan1 ,ovid and other classical ,latins1 and ,euphratean observers had called their pole-star ,pl or ,bil4 ,but1 although other astronomical writers used these words for some individual star1 there is no certainty as to which was intended1 for it should be remembered that1 during many millenniums1 the polar point has gradually been approaching our pole-star which1 #bjjj years ago1 was far removed from it1 in ,hipparchus' time #ab #bd' away1 according to his own statement1 quoted by ,marinus of ,tyre and cited by ,ptolemy4 ,heraclitus1 the ,ionian philosopher of ,ephesus of about #ejj ,b4,c41 asserted that this constellation marked the boundary between the east and the west1 which it may be regarded as doing when on the horizon40 ,this statement is of extreme importance as it proves an orientation of the north by the pole-star and not by the solstitial position of the sun4 8,another name for it1 1 used for it or its quarter of the sky1 was from the ,greek1 as seen in ,plutarch's the #8fields' or #8spaces' into which the augurs divided the heavens1 the templa1 or regiones cli of the ,latins44440 8,in ,homer's ,iliad and ,odyssey the use of the seven stars of ,ursa ,major in ,greek navigation is clearly shown4 ,the constellation is entitled the ,beararctos1 described1 according to different translators1 as #8circling on high1' #8wheeling round1' or #8revolving around the axle of the sky4'7#aba7 ,homer used1 equally with ,arctos1 the name ,amaxathe wain or wagon1 to designate the seven stars4 ,aratos called the constellation the #8,wain-like ,bear2' and1 alluding to the title ,amaxa1 asserted that the word was from amatogether1 the ,amaxai thus circling together around the pole2 but no philologist accepts this and it might as well have come from axionaxle1 referring to the axis of the heavens4 ,in fact ,hewitt goes far back of ,aratos in his statement that the ,sanscrit god ,akshivan1 the ,driver of the ,axle 7aksha71 was adopted in ,greece as ,ixion1 whose well-known wheel was merely the circling course of this constellation4 ,anacreon mentioned it as a ,chariot as well as a ,bear2 and ,hesychius had it ,aganna1 an archaic word from agein1 #8to carry1' singularly like1 in orthography at least1 the ,akkadian title for the ,wain stars1 ,aganna or ,akanna1 the ,lord of ,heaven2 and ,aben ,ezra called it ,ajala1 the ,hebrew word for #8waggon4' ,the name ,helice from 1 the ,curved1 or ,spiral ,one1 apparently first used by ,aratos and ,apollonius ,rhodius1 became common as descriptive of its twisting around the pole1 444 ,sophocles having the same thought in his mention of #8the circling paths of the ,bear4' ,some1 however1 derived the name from the curved or twisted positions of the chief stars4444 ,helice was also the name of a city in ,arcadia1 the country so intimately connected with the ,bears1 whose inhabitants were called the ,bear race40 ,as far back as ,hesiod's time the constellation was associated in myth1 with the name ,kallisto1 8the beautiful10 which 8,la ,lande referred to the ,phnician ,kalitsah or ,chalitsa1 ,safety1 as its observation helped to a safe voyage4 ,another version of the ,grecian myth associated the constellation with ,artemis1 the ,roman ,diana i4 e4 the huntress1 cf4 ,ishtar and ,isis-,satit40 ,the apparent connection of the name ,artemis with ,themis8law and justice personified10 should be noted here4 ,the preceding statements establish that1 in ancient ,greece1 ,polaris was identified with the celestial ,polos and was described as a star1 not changing its place1 but always revolving on itself and it appears superfluous to point out how closely ,plato's ,cosmos agrees with the current astronomical theories4 ,the ,urs1 on the other hand1 were identified with the titles ,helice1 referring to axial rotation1 and with the names ,aganna 7,akanna7 ,arctos and ,amaxa1 which are identical in sound with the words we have found associated with ,polaris and the ,septentriones in the ancient ,egyptian texts4 ,deferring the demonstration that a number of the natural objects or animals represented in the ,egyptian rebus signs1 which were merely employed in hieratic script to express the syllables an1 am1 ar1 ak1 etc41 are to be found as actual names for ,polaris and the ,urs in different western ,asiatic and other countries1 ,i shall now briefly show that1 in remotest historical times1 the ,grecian states were established upon the model of an ideal republic such as is outlined in ,plato's works1 in accordance with current cosmological conceptions4 ,according to ancient tradition the aborigines of ,attica were first civilized under ,cecrops who is said to have come hither from ,sas1 ,egypt1 about #aejj ,b4,c4 ,turning to ,iwan ,mueller's monumental 8,alterthumswissenschaft0 7,,iv4 ,handbuch der ,griechische ,alterthmer71 let us examine the data he presents concerning the beginnings of ,athenian culture4 8,the historical inhabitants of ,attica belonged to the ,ionic race and claimed to be autochthonous4444 ,they were grouped into four tribes3 the ,geleontes1 ,argadeis1 ,aigikoreis and ,hopletes4 ,the existence of these four tribes is usually connected with a territorial division of ,attica into four parts and their names are supposed to have been derived from the location and occupation of each tribe4 ,the ,geleontthe shining ones1 are said to have formed the priest or warrior caste and to have lived in ,pedion4 ,the ,argadi were the agriculturists and were situated in the plain of ,thriasis4 ,the ,aigikori or goatherds were assigned to ,diakria4 ,authorities still disagree about the habitation of the ,hopletes1 #8the armed ones4' ,the interpretation of these names is still open to doubt4 ,an ancient tradition attributes to them an ,ionic derivation4444 ,on the other hand1 it is probable that when they emigrated to ,attica the tribe remained separate and became associated with their place of residence 444 at a later period the phratries were associated with localities4444 ,each of the four castes had its chieftain and an equality of rank seems to have been maintained4 ,in ancient times the citizens were divided into three classes3 the ,eupatrid or nobility2 the ,geomor or farmers2 and the ,demiurg or artisans1 merchants1 potters or fishermen1--in fact all who exercised some occupation4 8,the political unity of ,attica was centred in the plain of ,cephisos1 which was the kernel of the country4 ,in the lower part of the plain1 about a mile from the sea1 situated on a plateau1 and crowning a high rocky elevation1 lay the ancient fortress ,cekropia1 the residence of ,cecrops and ,erechtheus1 the mythical1 earth-born forefathers of the ,athenians4 ,at the foot of the fortress1 a lower town gradually grew up and spread itself towards the south4 ,this primitive ,athens originally formed only the nucleus of a small kingdom situated in the plains and surrounded by enemies4444 ,according to an ,attic tradition ,cecrops collected the inhabitants of ,attica into #ab 444 tribes1 states or communities4444 ,the names of several of these have been shown to have also been applied to capitals which were independent centres of government4 ,athens1 the centre of the state1 developed into a large city in which the nobility of the whole country resided and where many artisans also settled4 ,the majority of the citizens lived1 however1 in the surrounding country4444 ,the harvest festival1 held at ancient ,athens1 in honor of the goddess ,athene1 the patroness of agriculture1 was also a general feast for all inhabitants of ,attica 4440 7pp4 #ajd-ajh74 ,the foregoing suffices to establish that1 in remotest antiquity1 ,attica was divided into four territorial divisions1 with a central seat of government1 the capital1 which formed the fifth division4 ,the inhabitants of the four regions constituted four tribes1 each under its own chieftain4 ,each tribe became identified with a different occupation and ultimately constituted castes which remained associated with their place of residence4 ,simultaneously with this territorial distribution1 another classification of the population was evolved1 which divided it into three strata1 corresponding to the upper1 central and lower caste and thus yielded a total of seven great divisions of the state1 which thus reveals itself as having been a heptarchy and explains the constitution of the ,heptanomis1 which existed in ,central ,egypt under ,greek rule4 ,from the preceding material it appears that when ,solon divided the people into four classes1 he merely reinstated the most ancient form of state organization known in ,greece4 ,it would be interesting to learn how far the following offices had been previously known4 ,it is well known that ,solon instituted nine archons 7literally leaders71 which seem to have been the equivalents to the group of 8nine gods0 mentioned in ,egypt in association with the supreme god or goddess4 ,the characteristic feature of the archons appears to have been the fact that they were elected and that the first archon was surnamed ,eponymos and gave his name to the year2 the second archon1 entitled ,basileus1 was the king1 and the third1 ,polemarchas1 was a warrior4 ,the remaining six were collectively called ,thesmothetes1 administrators of right or justice4 ,under the above was the ,council of ,four ,hundred4 ,each of the four phyl fell into three parts or thirds1 producing a total of #ab1 a number corresponding to the organization of twelve tribes1 communities or states4 ,each of these was divided into #d ,naucrari1 under #dh captaincies4 ,the following extracts from ,iwan ,mller's work supply us with further details concerning the ,athenian government and show that variants of the same existed at different periods1 throughout ancient ,greece4 8,at ,athens1 in historical times1 the members of one tribe formed a corporation1 recognized a common ancestor1 observed a form of ancestral cult and kept a tribal register with the names of all newly born children 7p4 #bj74 ,the tribes formed corporations within the state1 and each had its own cult and chieftain4444 ,the ,doric nation consisted of three such tribes4444 ,in ,ephesus the citizens were divided into five #8gens' 7i4 e41 four quarters and centre74 ,it is certain that in ,athens1 ,cyrene1 and ,chios1 the phratries were communities with separate forms of cult1 who worshipped beside their tribal deities1 ,zeus ,phratrios and ,athena ,phratria 4440 7pp4 #bj and #ba74 8,in ,teos the towns inhabited by a #8gens' were divided into at least seven quarters4444 ,in ,tenos each gens was known as #8a tower1' and each individual bore the name of his tower and his gens40 ,pausing here for an instant1 ,i draw attention to the recurrence in ,greece of certain features of the ,great ,plan which must now be familiar to the reader3 the association of divisions of people with a 8tower10 an artificial 8high place0 or mountain1 the development and existence of separate forms of cult1 corresponding to tribal and territorial divisions2 the supreme cult of a male and female divinity1 corresponding to the traditions that the state was founded by two individuals and was governed by two rulers4 ,an illustration of this is furnished by ,sparta1 which 8was governed by two kings1 belonging to two different royal families 444 the origin of this custom is unknown 444 these kings usually were at enmity with each other44440 8,the population of ,sparta was primarily divided into five #8phyles1' identified with five local districts4 ,the names of the latter1 ,pitane1 ,mesoa1 ,limnai1 ,konoura and ,dyme1 were identical with those of the five ,comes or group of separate communities which had constituted the state of ,sparta at the time of ,thucydides40 ,it will be perceived that this organization corresponds to that of a capital and four provinces4 ,simultaneously the population was grouped into three main classes and twenty-seven phratries4 ,considering that in ancient times the belief prevailed1 and was shared by the ,spartans themselves1 that ,lycurgus had introduced his scheme of organization from ,crete1 it is interesting to learn that 8the ,cretans themselves claimed that their laws dated from a remote antiquity and had been communicated to ,minos and ,rhadamanthus by ,zeus himself40 ,in one of the most ancient portions of the ,odysseus1 ,idomeneus is represented as ruling in particular over cities situated in the middle of the island4 ,in historical times the central rulership or monarchy had been abolished and 8the state was ruled by ten chiefs of tribal divisions1 who bore in common the title ,cosmos and held office for the limit of one year40 ,although the most ancient accounts of the maritime supremacy of ,crete under its king ,minos1 the 8son of ,zeus10 are regarded as grossly exaggerated1 modern authorities agree that1 on account of its geographical position1 ,crete must undoubtedly have been an extremely important centre of maritime commerce1 during a prolonged period4 ,on this account1 and because the ,spartans acknowledged to have received their scheme of organization from ,crete1 ,i draw particular attention to the design on a coin from ,cnossus1 the most important capital of ,crete1 which recently arrested my attention4 ,it is preserved at the ,berlin ,museum and is reproduced in ,spamer's work1 already cited 7fig4 #gb1 #ad and #ae74 ,on the obverse1 it exhibits the fabulous ,minotaurus the monster1 half man and half bull1 who is stated to have ruled the island4 ,on the reverse1 is a geometrical figure1 representing a swastika1 in the centre of which is the five-dot group4 ,a similar coin also found on the site of ,cnossus1 and assigned to ,b4,c4 #gjj1 is preserved at the ,british ,museum4 ,its reverse exhibits also the five-dot group and the swastika1 between whose branches are four large dots or circles4 ,in the ,berlin ,museum specimen the latter are replaced by squares containing cross lines4 ,to any one familiar1 in the first case1 with the scheme of organization into five ,comes1 i4 e4 #da1 such as has been shown to have been adopted in ,sparta and elsewhere in ,greece1 the design on the reverse of both coins appears perfectly intelligible4 ,no geometrical or cursive sign could more clearly express the scheme or ground-plan upon which the most ancient form of government in ,greece has been shown to have also rested4 ,illustration4 ,figure #gb4 ,as to the image of the ,minotaurus on the obverse of the ,berlin coin3 to any one familiar with the widespread system of figuring the state under the form of a human being or of a quadruped1 and of symbolizing its ruler as its head1 the image appears intelligible as that of the quadruplicate state4 ,the circumstance that the head is that of a bull seems to indicate that1 like the ,egyptians1 the ,cretans applied the title 8bull0 to their king2 thence perhaps the fable that the island was at one time governed by the monster ,minotaurus who claimed as annual tribute1 from conquered tribes1 seven youths and maidens4 ,it is striking how perfectly the geometrical figures on the reverse of both coins1 which ,i hold to represent territorial divisions1 seem to form the complement to the image of the state represented in semi-human and semi-animal form4 ,interesting variants of the same design appear on two coins of the same period in the ,british ,museum collection4 ,one of these1 from ,syracuse1 exhibits a swastika1 in the centre of which is a human head--a sign which ,i should interpret as the image of a state and its single central ruler4 ,a coin from ,corinth displays a plain swastika only1 which suffices to indicate1 however1 that its state organization was on the familiar plan4 ,in connection with the swastika and five-dot group it is interesting to examine some ancient ,egyptian seals exhibiting crosses with four dots or strokes 7fig4 #gb1 #c-e71 and to compare these with ,rhodian specimens 7#aj-ac74 ,on vases found by ,schliemann on the site of ,troy 7#h and #i71 we find1 in one case a swastika and in the other a cross and four dots in a circle forming the nave4 ,it is interesting to compare the ,athenian nos4 #f and #g1 one being a swastika and the other a cross in a lozenge47#abb7 ,an extremely curious instance of an entire decoration of a building consisting of crosses and five-dot groups1 is furnished by the cenotaph erected by a late king in honor of ,midas1 king of ,phrygia 7fig4 #gb1 #b71 which1 curiously enough1 offers much resemblance to the geometrical style of stucco decorations of the ruins of ,mitla1 ,mexico47#abc7 ,the presence of the swastika on coins assigned to about ,b4,c4 #gjj and its use in ,greece1 where plain cross-symbols had previously been employed1 naturally leads to the inquiry as to the oldest-dated swastikas which have hitherto been found in ,greece and ,egypt4 ,in his important work on the subject already referred to1 ,prof4 ,thomas ,wilson 7op4 cit4 pp4 #hjf and #hcc71 cites the opinions of ,prof4 ,max ,mller and ,count ,goblet d',alviella as agreeing with that of ,waring1 who states that 8the swastika is sought for in vain in ,babylonia1 ,assyria and ,phnicia10 and 8had no foothold in ,egypt40 ,the same authority says that3 8the only sign approaching the fylfot in ,egyptian hieroglyphics 444 is not very similar to our fylfot 444 and forms one of the hieroglyphs of ,isis0 7,ceramic ,art in ,remote ,ages1 p4 #hb74 ,on the other hand1 ,professor ,goodyear says 7,grammar of the ,lotus1 p4 #cef73 8,the earliest dated swastikas1 hitherto found in ,egypt1 occur on the foreign ,cyprian and ,carian 8 pottery fragments of the time of the twelfth dynasty ,b4,c4 #bdff-bbff discovered by ,mr4 ,flinders ,petrie in #ahhi4 ,in the ,third ,memoir of the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund1 ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie published illustrations of ,greek vases showing unmistakable swastikas which1 though found at ,naukratis in ,egypt1 are not ,egyptian1 but ,greek40 ,the only other examples of the swastika in ,egypt cited by ,prof4 ,thomas ,wilson are those woven on ,coptic grave cloths made of linen and reproduced in 8,die ,grber- und ,textilfunde von ,achmim-,panopolis by ,r4 ,forrer40 ,these grave cloths pertained to the ,christian ,greeks who migrated from their country during the first centuries of our era and settled in ,upper ,egypt1 in ,coptos and the surrounding cities4 ,i am able to add another instance of the employment of the swastika in ,egypt1 which1 although of ,coptic origin1 attaches itself to ancient ,egypt4 ,i have already pointed out that1 in ,lepsius' ,book of the ,dead1 the foremost of the gods of the four quarters1 represented in mummy form1 exhibited a cross on his right shoulder4 ,during a recent visit to the ,berlin ,museum1 my attention was arrested by seeing a swastika painted in precisely the same position1 on the right shoulder of the stucco mummy case of a man1 from ,hermopolis1 dated from the second century after ,christ 7,catalogue ,no4 #aafdi74 ,this remarkable coincidence seems to furnish conclusive evidence that1 long before the introduction of ,greek culture and ,christian influence1 the plain cross was employed by the ancient ,egyptians in precisely the same way as1 subsequently1 the swastika by the ,copts4 ,to some of my readers the question will perhaps suggest itself whether some early ,christian sects and1 amongst them1 communities of ,greek ,copts1 did not interpret the mission of ,christ literally1 as an attempt to restablish an earthly 8kingdom of heaven0 on the ancient plan1 the knowledge of which had been preserved at ,heliopolis1 by the sages and philosophers of ,egypt and the large ,hebrew colony established there4 ,returning to the swastika3 ,from the account given by ,prof4 ,thomas ,wilson 7op4 cit41 #haj7 of ,schliemann's observations on the swastikas he discovered1 during his excavations on the site of ,troy1 we learn that1 whereas the swastika occurs on thousands of whorls found in the third1 fourth and fifth cities1 but few whorls were found in the first and second cities1 which were the deepest and oldest and none of these bore the swastika mark4 ,these observations1 added to the appearance of the swastika in ,egypt at a comparatively late period1 appear to prove that1 whereas the cross-symbol was known in remotest antiquity in ,asia ,minor and ,egypt and expressed the same meaning as the swastika1 i4 e4 ,polaris and circumpolar rotation and the quadruplicate organization of the ,cosmos suggested by these natural phenomena1 it was only the form or shape of the cross which underwent a change at a certain period4 ,the earliest-dated specimens of this new form1 given to a more ancient symbol1 occur on the pottery fragments found in ,egypt by ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie4 ,the presence of the swastika1 on the whorls found in the ruins of the third city built on the site of ,troy1 also indicates that its adoption occurred at a fixed date and marked a new departure4 ,referring back to page #ba1 where ,i show that the observations which led to the adoption of the swastika as a symbol could not possibly have been made until after ,ursa ,major had become circumpolar1 about ,b4,c4 #djjj1 ,i point out that the oldest swastikas which have hitherto been found corroborate this view1 since they are all posterior to the time when ,ursa ,major became circumpolar4 ,long anterior to its adoption1 however1 the primordial set of ideas1 suggested to the human mind by the observation of natural phenomena1 had reached an advanced stage of development1 and had been worked out1 applied to the regulation of human life and symbolized1 in various ways1 in widely separated countries4 ,it is impossible to conclude my comparative research1 which has been rewarded by a most unexpected wealth of material1 without enumerating a few facts connected with the earliest histories of ,rome1 ancient ,ireland1 ,britain1 ,wales and ,scandinavia4 ,these brief and doubtlessly imperfect rsums will have fulfilled their purpose if they stimulate inquiry and evoke authoritative statements by learned specialists4 ,,ancient ,,rome4 ,whether ,rome 8was founded by the common resolve of a ,latin confederacy or by the enterprise of an individual chief1 is beyond the reach even of conjecture4 ,the date fixed upon for the commencement of the city is1 of course1 perfectly valueless in its precision0 7,chambers' ,encyclopdia74 8,according to ,varro the city of ,rome was founded ,b4,c4 #gec1 but ,cato places the event four years later4444 ,the day of its foundation was the #bast of ,april1 which was sacred to the rural goddess ,pales4 ,there seems to be some uncertainty whether ,romulus gave his name to the city or derived his own from it1 but those who ascribe to the city a ,grecian origin 444 assert that ,romulus and ,roma are both derived from the ,greek word for #8strength4' ,the city1 we are assured1 had another name which the priests were forbidden to divulge2 but what that was it is now impossible to discover47#abd7 ,there is1 however1 some plausibility in the conjecture that it was ,pallanteum1 and from the great care with which the ,palladium1 or image of ,pallas1 was preserved1 it seems probable that the city was supposed to be under the care of that deity4 ,if this conjecture be correct1 the ,pelasgic origin of ,rome cannot be doubted1 for ,pallas was a ,pelasgic deity4444 8,the institution of the vestal virgins was older than the city itself and was regarded by the ,romans as the most sacred part of their religious system4 ,in the time of ,numa there were but four 444 their duty was to keep the sacred fire on the altar in the temple of ,vesta from being extinguished and to preserve a certain sacred pledge on which the very existence of ,rome was supposed to depend47#abe7 ,what this pledge was we have no means of discovering2 some supposed that it was the ,trojan ,palladium2 others1 some traditional mystery brought by the ,pelasgi from ,samothrace4 ,one fact is certain3 that the ,palatine is regarded as the oldest portion of the city and the original site and centre of the embryo mistress of the world and mother of cities1 the ,roma quadrata1 fragments of whose walls have been brought to light47#abf7 8,tradition relates that it was on the ,palatine that ,romulus marked out the ,pomrium1 a space around the walls of the city1 on which it was unlawful to erect buildings4444 ,the next ceremony was the consecration of the comitium1 or place of public assembly4 ,a vault was built under ground and filled with the firstlings of all the natural productions that sustain human life and with earth which each foreign settler had brought from his home4 ,this place was called ,mundus0 7,history of ,rome1 ,goldsmith's abridgment1 #bast edition1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,taylor1 p4 #ac74 ,this fact furnishes evidence that the sacred central cosmical vault over which a mound may have been formed by the earth contributed from different quarters1 was regarded as a synopsis of all1 and that sanctity was also attached to the central place of assembly where justice was administered at regular intervals1 weekly markets were held and religious rites were celebrated47#abg7 ,tradition relates that1 after the foundation of the central 8,mundus10 the founder of ,rome established the ,sabine town which occupied the ,quirinal and part of the ,capitoline hills4 8,the name of this town most probably was ,quirium 444 the two cities were united on terms of equality and the double-faced ,janus1 stamped on the earliest ,roman coins was probably a symbol of the double state40 ,it is significant to find not only that ,janus was sometimes depicted with four faces instead of two1 in which case he was called ,janus ,quadrifrontis1 but that references are also made to the female form of ,janus,jana1 the latter being identified with ,diana4 ,considering that it was from ,quirium that the ,roman youths obtained ,sabine wives by force1 which had been refused to their entreaties1 it would seem as though1 originally1 as elsewhere1 the men and women of the community resided separately and that stringent laws regulated their intercourse4 ,in other ancient communities it has been shown how the separation of the sexes created in time an upper and lower class1 and to the same origin may perhaps be assigned the most remarkable feature of the ,roman constitution1 i4 e4 the two-fold division of the people into patricians and plebeians4 ,while the foregoing statements throw light upon the ideas associated with the ,middle and show that ,rome was originally a dual state1 the following facts furnish indications of a quadruplicate division4 ,at an early period ,rome was laid out and enclosed in a square1 the population was divided into four tribes and mention is made of 8the state1 under ,servius ,tullius1 being an entity divided into four cities and twenty-six tribes 444 this being strictly a geographical division analogous to our parishes4 ,the division of the city into four tribes continued until the reign of ,augustus 7,b4,c4 #bi7444407abh7 ,the four chief religious corporations of ancient ,rome1 mentioned in the ,century ,dictionary1 evidently correspond to this fourfold division and it is specially stated of one of these corporations that it was represented and governed by a group consisting of seven 8septemvir epulones0 who formed a 8septemvirate40 ,the number of septemvirs corresponded to the 8seven hills0 which were enclosed by ,tullus ,hostilius1 and it is stated that there were seven places of worship in ancient ,rome4 ,it is interesting to find that between ,a4,d4 #aic and #baa1 ,septimius ,severus1 a native of an ancient ,punic colony in ,africa1 erected a ,septizonium 7an edifice consisting1 like the ,babylonian zikkurat1 of seven stories7 on the ,palatine1 where a large temple of ,apollo had previously been built47#abi7 ,although it is thus evident that1 at different periods1 seven-fold division was carried out in ancient ,rome1 it was not until after the reign of ,theodosius1 according to some authors1 that the seven-day period was imported from ,alexandria and the term 8septimana0 adopted in ,rome4 8,previously to this ,rome had counted her periods by eight days1 the eighth day itself being originally called ,nundin--a term later applied to the whole cycle0 7,chambers' ,encyclopdia74 ,noting that the period of eight 7#bd7 days accords with the quadruplicate system applied to the primitive state1 ,i draw attention to the numerical classification of the citizens of ,rome employed during centuries1 which so curiously agrees with the system carried out in ,peru at a widely sundered period 7see p4 #ada74 ,ten households formed a gens 7clan or family72 ten clans or one hundred households formed a curia or wardship2 and ten wardships1 or one hundred clans1 or one thousand households formed a populus1 civitas or community4 ,as it is stated that1 at one time1 ,rome consisted of four cities1 it is obvious that the above numbers1 quadrupled1 constituted the state which thus included forty wardships1 four hundred gentes and four thousand households4 ,as each gens possessed a chieftain1 endowed with paternal authority over its members1 there must1 at one time1 have been four hundred of these 8patricians10 whose number is thus found to correspond to the ,greek 8,council of #djj0 and curiously enough to the 8four hundred ,tochtli0 or governors of the ancient ,mexican commonwealth4 ,a noteworthy feature of the attempt to institute the ,decemvirate in ,rome 7#eth century ,b4,c47 was the arrangement that the ten chosen men exercised office in prescribed rotation for one day1 each ruling1 in consequence1 for thirty-six days in the year which1 like the ,egyptian1 then consisted of three hundred and sixty days and of an epact of five days4 ,the assignment of a day to each chieftain finds its parallel not only in ,assyria but also in ancient ,america 7see p4 #aha74 ,in connection with the ,roman communal organization1 attention is drawn to what appears to be a remarkable survival of an extremely ancient and natural mode of distinguishing the wardships4 ,it is well known that1 according to tradition1 the republic of ,siena1 ,italy1 was founded at a remote period 8by the sons of ,remus1 the twin brother of ,romulus40 ,the following facts prove that1 to this day1 certain features of its social organization exhibit an affinity to that of primitive ,rome4 8,siena1 from the earliest day1 has been divided into contrade or parishes4 ,each contrada has its special church1 generally of great antiquity1 and each contrada is named after some animal1 or natural object1 these names being symbolical of certain trades or customs4 ,there are now the wolf1 giraffe1 owl1 snail1 tower1 wave1 goose1 tortoise1 etc41 in all seventeen4 ,each has its colors1 heralds1 pages1 music1 flags2 all the medival paraphernalia of republican subdivision0 7,frances ,eliot1 ,diary of an idle woman in ,italy ,i1 p4 #ai74 ,the employment of the names of animals and natural objects as distinctive marks for a wardship offers a curious analogy to the ,american institution of tribal names and totems4 ,the circumstance that1 in remotest times1 the king of ,rome1 the acknowledged metropolis or mother city1 was accompanied1 on public occasions1 by twelve lictors or administrators of justice1 each carrying the axe tied in a bundle of rods1 shows that1 at one time1 the government was administered by thirteen individuals--a method we shall find again in ancient ,ireland and ,scandinavia4 ,the history of ,rome reveals that the different variants of governmental scheme adopted1 one after the other1 under influences emanating from ,greece and ,egypt1 were reared upon the familiar universal plan4 ,the most striking instance of this is1 however1 furnished by the details preserved of the groundwork on which ,constantine founded 7,a4,d4 #ccj7 the city he intended to be the capital of a universal empire1 and named the ,new or ,second ,rome4 ,historians relate that the peninsula of ,byzantium offered striking resemblances to the sites of ,carthage and ,rome4 ,the design of ,constantine embraced the entire peninsula with the seven hills upon it4 8,on foot1 with a lance in his hand1 professing to be under the guidance of divine inspiration1 the emperor directed the line which was traced as the boundary of the destined capital40 444 8,in imitation of ,rome at that period1 the city was divided into #bg;fourteen wards 7regiones74444 ,its centre was marked by a column 444 surmounted by a bronze colossus of ,apollo4 ,the church of ,s4 ,sophia1 built on the site of an ancient temple of ,wisdom1 was subsequently dedicated to 'the ,holy ,eternal ,wisdom' by ,justinian4 ,in the court called the ,forum ,augusteum1 one side of which was formed by the palace and the other by the church1 stood the ,milliarium ,aureum1 not1 as at ,rome1 a gilt marble pillar1 but a spacious edifice1 the centre from which all the roads of the empire were measured and on the walls of which the distances to all the chief places were inscribed4444 ,in the new reunited empire quadruple division was maintained1 the empire being divided into four parts1 each forming a prtorian prefecture under a prtorian prefect1 who1 being the lieutenant of the emperor1 ruled over the governors and people of the province with absolute power4 ,the four prefectures were subdivided into thirteen dioceses1 each governed by a vice-prefect named vicarius1 the total number of dioceses being fifty-two40 ,this system of numeration is of particular interest as it is not only identical with the system of a modern pack of cards1 the origin of which is unknown1 but is also the same as the ,mexican year cycle 7see p4 #big74 ,vestiges of sevenfold organization are traceable in the appointment by ,constantine1 of 8seven ministers of the palace0 who exercised 8sacred0 functions about the person of the emperor1 and the division of all ,gaul into seven provinces placed under the governorship of the ,vicar of the ,seven ,provinces4 ,in conclusion ,i venture to point out that the four-storied amphitheatre of ,vespasian 7,a4,d4 #ga71 the ,pantheon of ,agrippa 7,a4,d4 #bc7 and the ,mausoleum of ,hadrian 7,a4,d4 #ach7 appear to have a cosmical character1 the first having been planned to hold the entire population of ,rome1 around a central space in which1 originally1 the circling chariot simulated the circuit of the celestial 8plaustrum0 or 8carro0chariot1 the ,latin name given to ,ursa ,major4 ,while1 on public festivals1 the amphitheatre must have appeared as a synopsis of the whole empire and may also have been originally used for nocturnal1 religious or political assemblages1 the great ,pantheon enclosing the images of twelve deities1 may well have been a conscious attempt to represent the all-embracing ,cosmos of ,egyptian and ,greek philosophy1 the framed view of the heaven1 seen through the central opening in the dome1 being the symbol of the 8hidden and invisible god10 of the initiated4 ,to ,hadrian1 who visited ,egypt twice and was undoubtedly acquainted with the idea of ,plato's ,cosmos or ,theos1 the idea of building a great circular structure in the centre of which he would be laid to rest1 would naturally have suggested itself4 ,passing from a consideration of the buildings which1 with the pyramids1 appear to be among the grandest exponents of natural philosophy and religion ever reared by the hand of man1 and clearly appear to have been planned under the direct influence of ,egyptian and ,greek philosophy1 let us briefly glance at the mode in which the identical fundamental scheme was perpetuated among some northern peoples4 ,,ancient ,,ireland1 ,,britain ,,and ,,wales4 ,it is a remarkable fact that1 in ancient ,ireland1 we find distinct traces of a state1 founded on the same crystallized artificial system that has been found at the basis of the most ancient civilizations of the world4 8,there is really no authentic history of ,ireland before the introduction of ,christianity into the country1 but there are some genuine traditions which appear based upon truth1 because they accord with and explain the peculiar customs which were found to prevail in the island at the time of the ,english invasion4 ,these traditions declare1 that the original ,celtic inhabitants were subdued by an ,asiatic colony1 or at least by the descendants of some ,eastern people at a very remote period2 they aver that the conquerors were as inferior to the original inhabitants in numbers as they were superior in military discipline and the arts of social life2 they describe the conquest as a work of time and trouble and assert that1 after its completion1 an hereditary monarchy and hereditary aristocracy were for the first time established in ,ireland44440 8,at some unknown period ,ireland was divided into five kingdoms1 ,ulster1 ,leinster1 ,connaught1 ,munster and ,meath 444 the latter being the property of the paramount sovereign 4440 7,w4 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,history of ,ireland1 #ahcg74 ,john ,o',neil cites 8the very oldest ,irish books1 according to which two brothers1 the leaders of the ,milesian colonization1 divided ,ireland into ,northern and ,southern kingdom40 ,elsewhere he relates how a prince of the north had been united in marriage to the princess of the south and that 8the mythical ,niall-,navi-giallach of the nine treasures had had a ,northern king for father and a ,southern princess for mother40 ,besides this subdivision which strikingly recalls the ancient ,egyptian1 ,o',neil brings out the remarkable fact that definite positions in relation to each other and the cardinal points were assigned to the five ,irish kings and tells us that 8we have a fuller and later division when1 in the central hall1 the miodh-chuarta of ,tara1 the king of ,erinn sat in the centre1 with his face to the ,east1 the king of ,ulster being at his ,north1 the king of ,munster at his ,south1 while the king of ,leinster sat opposite to him and the king of ,connaught behind him0 7op4 cit4 ,i1 #dfc74 ,i refer the reader to his extremely interesting comparison 7,i1 p4 #cfi7 of ancient ,ireland being 8an ,irish instance of a ,chinese #8,middle ,kingdom1' 0 and to the data given in connection with the great hall of ,tara1 which was called ,meath or ,mid-court1 ,miodchuarta 7pronounced ,micrta71 and the ,northern hill of ,miodhchaoinn 7or ,midkena71 guarded by ,miodhchaoinn and his three sons1 the guardians of the hill being thus four in all4 ,o',neil also refers to 8the great idol or castrum of ,kilair 444 which was surrounded by twelve smaller ones and was called the stone and umbilicus of ,hibernia and1 as if placed in the midst and middle of the land1 #8medio et meditullio'44440 8,meath itself1 where this ,kilair navel stood1 was anciently the central one of the five divisions of ,ireland and is called ,media by ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 444 and connected with the words medi-tullium and medi-tullus40 ,the legend states that 8the castrum of ,kilair and the stones around it were transported by ,merlin to ,stonehenge and #8set up in the same order4' 07#acj7 8,at ,mag ,slecht was the chief idol of ,ireland1 called ,cenn ,craich 7,mound-chief7 covered with gold and silver1 and twelve other idols about it1 covered with brass0 7,o',neil1 p4 #bgc74 8,the five ,irish kingdoms were again subdivided into several principalities inhabited by distinct #8septs1' each ruled by its own carfinny or chieftain4 ,the obedience of these local rulers or toparchs to the provincial sovereign was regulated1 like his to the general monarch1 by the powers that he possessed for enforcing authority4444 ,the succession to every degree of sovereignty was regulated by the law of tanistry1 which limited heredity right to the family but not to the individual4444 ,each district was deemed the common property of the entire sept2 but the distribution of the several shares was entrusted to the toparch4444 ,the lower orders were divided into freemen and hetages1 or as they were called by the ,normans1 villanis4 ,the former had the privilege of choosing their tribe2 the latter were bound to the soil and transferred with it in any grant or deed of sale40 ,ruined groups of buildings1 consisting of seven sanctuaries or churches1 situated around a round1 high tower1 usually with four windows near the top1 opening to the cardinal points1 exist in various parts of ,ireland1 the ,seven ,churches in ,county ,wicklow being the most famous example4 ,the cosmical character of the round towers has been set forth by ,john ,o',neil1 to whose work ,i refer the reader4 ,according to my views the groups testify to the establishment1 at one time1 of several septarchies in ,ireland1 the geographical centres of which1 as in ,assyria and elsewhere1 were marked in this case by the cosmical round tower1 figuring the axis or spindle1 around which each sept built its council house1 for religious and political assemblies47#aca7 ,in connection with such it is interesting to read what ,csar says of the priests and judges of ,gaul1 which was organized into seven provinces1 as late as at the time of ,constantine3 8,these ,druids held a meeting at a certain time of the year in a consecrated place in the country of the ,carnutes modern ,chartres which country is considered to be in the centre of all ,gaul40 ,it is well known that anterior to the ,roman ,conquest there existed in ,britain a long-established1 seven-fold state1 governed by seven kings1 compared by ,john ,speed 7#afcj7 to seven crowned pillars4 ,the kingdom of ,mercia included the counties in the centre of the kingdom and is said to have been founded by ,crida or ,creoda4 ,the central and chief ruler of ,britain was styled ,bretwalda4 ,it is well known that ,stonehenge1 which is associated in folk-lore with the number seven1 is situated in the heart of the plain region of ,england and is supposed to have been the seat of central religion and government47#acb7 ,it is moreover acknowledged by ,knight that the ancient ,britons were a people who evidently had some great principle of association in their religion as in their industry4 ,the familiar fact1 that at one period the ancient ,kent1 ,cantium1 was governed by four kings1 also styled 8the four princes of ,cantii10 furnishes an indication that quadruplicate division was also known to the ancient ,britons4 ,a few instructive facts concerning ,welsh ,druidism may be appropriately cited here4 ,morien has pointed out that the ,druidic ,celi ,ced corresponds to ,amen-,ra1 the ,egyptian ,hidden ,sun4 ,according to ,welsh system the universe was born of ,celi-,ced1 a dual power1 ,celi being the masculine and ,ced the feminine principle4 ,ceridwen is termed the ,welsh ,isis1 and her name translated as 8the producing woman40 ,celi is invariably represented as hidden1 the three ,hus representing him in manifestation4 8,the three ,hus are3 ,hu cylch y ,cengantthe ,hu of the circle of infinitude2 ,hu cylch y ,sidyddthe ,hu of the circle of the zodiac and ,hu yn ,nghnawd,hu incarnate4 ,the latter was incarnate in the ,arch ,druid4 ,he1 standing in the middle of the ,gorsedd circle1 where the triple life lines met1 implied by his action that the three emanations which had their root in the dual ,ced-,celi1 focussed themselves in him4 ,he stood facing the east where the sun rises0 7cf4 the ceremonial position assumed by the king of ,erin in council and that of the ,roman augur on drawing his templum74 8,the name for the physical sun was ,huan1 translated as #8the abode of divinity4' 0 8,the ,druidic bards of ,n4 ,wales worshipped ,beli407#acc7 ,in ,welsh legend a god named ,peredur ,paladye ,hir 7of the long spear or pal7 is associated with his brother1 both sons of ,eliffer1 one of the thirteen princes of the north4 ,peredur is one of seven brothers2 there were seven profound mysteries of ,druidism1 i4 e4 seven divisions of the reverberations of the ,word1 emanating from ,ced1 and the seven ,tattaras or seven rays4 ,,scandinavia4 ,according to the ,icelandic historian ,snorri ,sturlesson1 whose opinion was the re-echo of ancient traditional beliefs1 ,odin and his eight sons and four companions1 twelve in all1 were earthly kings and priests of a sacerdotal caste1 who had emigrated from ,asia--perhaps from ,troy--and who conquered and ruled over various parts of ,scandinavia and ,northern ,germany where1 after their death1 they were regarded by the people as deities 7,chambers' ,encyclopdia74 ,o',neil states 8that ,odin was named ,mith-,odinn 7,mid-,odin87 by ,saxo ,grammaticus10 and quotes the following3 8,odinn died in his bed1 in ,sweden1 and when he was near his death he made himself be marked with the point of a spear and said he was going to ,godheim0 7,ingliga ,saga74 8,the twelve godes or diar or drotnar of ,odin were obviously cognate to our god as a name of a deity4 ,they 7or the priests who represented them7 directed sacrifices and judged the people1 and all the people served and obeyed them0 7,o',neil ,i1 p4 #gf74 ,a strange reality is given to ,odin and his twelve 8godes10 when it is realized that at ,mora1 near ,upsala1 ,sweden1 there exists the ancient stone throne on which the ancient kings of ,sweden were crowned and this central stone is surrounded by twelve lesser stones1 just as the ,irish 8,mound-chief0 was surrounded by twelve idols4 ,while the above facts suffice to indicate that1 in remotest antiquity1 the government of the state was vested in one supreme and twelve minor chiefs1 the following brief extracts from the ,eddas reveal the cosmical beliefs of the ,norsemen3 8,in the cold north existed ,niflheim in the middle of which was a well from which sprang twelve rivers4 ,in the south existed the warm ,muspelheim4 ,there was a contention between both of these worlds4444 ,the union of heat and cold produced ,oergelmer or ,chaos1 and the first human being1 ,ymir4 ,the revolving eye of the ,norse world-millstone was directly above ,oergelmer and through it the waters flowed to and from the great fountain of the ,universe waters40 ,ymir drew his nourishment from four streams of milk proceeding from the mythical cow ,aedhumla4 ,subsequently he was slain by three divine brothers who carried his body to the middle of ,ginnungagap1 and formed from it the earth and the heavens 444 of his skull they formed the heavens1 at each of the four corners of which stood a dwarf1 viz3 ,austri at the ,east1 ,vestri at the west1 ,northri at the north and ,suthri at the south4444 ,when heaven and earth were formed1 the chief gods or ,oesir1 of whom there were twelve1 met in the ,centre of the world and built ,midgardr or ,asgard1 the yard1 city or stronghold of the ,middle and of the ,asenthe gods4 ,it was situated on the ,himinbiorg1 or ,hill of ,heaven1 on the summit of which was the ash-tree1 ,yggdrasil1 whose branches spread over the whole world and tower over the heavens4 ,the following is from the prose ,edda3 8,then the sons of ,br built in the middle of the universe the city called ,asgard1 where dwell the gods and their kindred1 and from that abode work out so many wondrous things both on earth and in the heavens above it4 ,there is in that city a place called ,hlidskjalf1 and when ,odin is seated there upon his lofty throne1 he sees over the whole world40 ,in the ,eddas we find evidences that while ,odin or ,all-fader was the ruler of heaven1 his powerful son ,thor was 8the ruler of ,thrudheim and drove through the world in a chariot and became the supreme god40 ,the following facts1 taken from ,mr4 ,allen's 8,star-names10 established the association of ,thor with ,polaris and the ,urs4 8,in ancient times the northern nations termed ,ursa ,major #8the wagon of ,odin1 ,woden or ,wuotan1 the father of ,thor4'7#acd7 ,the ,danes1 ,swedes and ,icelanders also knew it as ,stori ,vagn1 the ,great ,wagon and as ,karl's ,vagn2 ,karl being ,thor1 their chief god of whom the old ,swedish ,rhyme ,chronicle of ,upsala says #8444 ,the god ,thor was the highest of them4 ,he sat naked as a child1 seven stars in his hand and ,charles' ,wain4' 0 ,the 8throne of ,thor0 or 8,smaller ,chariot10 was the name given to ,polaris 7,ursa ,minor7 by the early ,danes and ,icelanders and their descendants still call it the 8,litli ,vagn10 the little wagon4 ,the ,finns1 apparently alone among the northern nations of ,europe in this conception1 named ,ursa ,minor1 ,vh ,otawa1 the ,little ,bear4 ,they1 however1 termed ,polaris1 ,taehti1 8the star at the top of the heavenly mountain40 ,it is striking how clearly1 in ,scandinavia1 the ,middle is associated with a sacred mountain and tree1 the world axis1 a heavenly city1 an enthroned central god1 and with ,polaris1 ,ursa ,major and the idea of eternal circumpolar rotation expressed by the wain eternally wheeled around the throne of ,thor4 ,to any one imbued with the ideas set forth above1 the signification of the ,scandinavian1 ,druidic1 ,new ,year festival1 the name for which was 8the wheel0 7yule1 yeol1 yeul1 hjol1 hiugl1 hjul71 must clearly appear as the date on which the complete circuit of the ,urs around the pole1 was ceremonially registered4 ,it is obvious that this could best be expressed by a circle being drawn around the swastika or cross1 to which the fourth arm would be added1 completing thus the registration of the four seasons1 marked by the opposite positions assumed by the ,urs at nightfall4 ,it is well known that the wheel-cross1 swastika1 triskeles and ,s-figure constitute1 with the winding serpent and the tau1 named ,thor's hammer1 the main symbols of ancient ,scandinavia 7see fig4 #ac1 p4 #bi and fig4 #ch1 p4 #aai74 ,i venture to point out how obviously ,thor's hammer symbolizes the union of the ,above and ,below1 the heaven represented by the horizontal line resting on the perpendicular support1 symbolizing the sacred pole1 column1 mountain and tree intimately associated with ,polaris1 the world axis4 ,as a suggestion only1 ,i venture to point out how1 the old ,norse name for star being tjara and for treetar1 the rle of the tree in ,druidic cult would be fully accounted for1 the initiated only being aware that it was but a rebus symbol of the secret or hidden star-god ,polaris4 ,it can readily be seen how natural or artificial elevations and erected stones1 trees1 staffs or poles must have been used as means of determining the positions of the ,urs at the public celebration of the ,yule festival and that the ceremony of kindling of new fire was observed at the time when the 8wheel0 was supposed to begin its new annual revolution4 ,reflection clearly shows that pole-star worship must have taken a stronger hold upon the ancient inhabitants of ,scandinavia and their descendants1 the seafaring ,vikings1 than upon any other nation4 ,we are compelled to admit that the recognition that ,polaris formed the centre of axial rotation and the middle of the sky1 would have impressed itself most profoundly upon observers stationed in the latitude where winter darkness prevailed and the pole-star appeared to be nearly overhead4 ,under such conditions the association of the opposite positions of the ,septentriones with directions in space1 i4 e41 the cardinal points1 would be most striking4 ,what is more3 the re-appearance of the sun1 after the long darkness of a northern winter1 must have established the idea of a fixed relationship between certain positions of ,ursa ,major and the solstitial position of the sun4 ,it may indeed be said that the observation of the solstices and equinoxes was forced upon the inhabitants of the north as nowhere else on the globe and that it may perhaps be therefore designated as the birthplace of primitive astronomy4 ,the origin of the idea of an all-pervading duality and the chains of association which linked ,light and the ,sun to air and water1 and to the male element1 whilst ,darkness and the ,nocturnal ,heaven became connected with earth1 fire and woman1 are clearly accounted for in the circumpolar regions only1 where the year divides itself into a period of light in which independent and roaming out-door life was possible1 and a period of darkness during which family life1 in underground fire-lit dwellings1 was compulsory4 ,if fathomed1 the mind of the ,eskimo to-day may possibly reveal the germs of identical associations of ideas1 for it would seem as though existence in the polar regions would infallibly stamp them indelibly upon the consciousness of all living creatures1 until they unconsciously pervaded their entire being and even affected the structural organization of the human brain47#ace7 ,the tendency to believe that the human race must have spent its infancy near the pole and received there an intellectual stamp1 which could not have been conveyed to it so clearly in any other latitude1 is undoubtedly encouraged by the opinion of various authorities1 that 8all forms of life must have originated at the pole1 this having been the first habitable portion of our world40 ,this view is exhaustively treated in ,william ,fairfield ,warren's 8,paradise ,found1 the cradle of the human race at the ,north ,pole0 7,boston1 #ahhe71 to which ,i refer the reader and which contains much valuable data which ,i would have incorporated in the present investigation had ,i had earlier access to the volume4 ,it would seem as though ,warren's conclusions were in perfect accord with the conclusions arrived at by some leading palontologists1 geologists and botanists1 concerning the distribution of life on the globe4 ,these are conveniently summarized in the article on 8,distribution0 in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 from which the following detached excerpts are made for the benefit of the reader4 8,the general result arrived at is that the great northern continents represent the original seat of mammalian life and the regions of its highest development4444 ,the tertiary fauna of ,north ,america1 compared with that of ,europe1 exhibits proofs of a former communication between the two northern continents both in the ,north ,atlantic and ,north ,pacific1 but always1 probably1 in rather high latitudes4 ,this is indicated both by the groups which appear to have originated in one continent and then to have passed across to the other and also by the entire absence from ,america of many important groups which abounded in ,europe 7and vice versa7 indicating that the communication between the two hemispheres was always imperfect and of limited duration4444 ,on the other hand1 the marked continuity of the ,northern ,flora 7with only a gradual east and west change in the arctic regions1 but with an increased divergency southwards7 requires it to be treated as a whole1 although it has long been divided into that of the old and new world by the severance of ,north ,america from ,northern ,asia and by the barrier to an interchange of vegetation in the upheaval of the ,rocky ,mountain range4 ,the old and new world divisions of the flora which1 no doubt1 began to diverge from the mere influence of distance1 have now had that divergence immensely increased by isolation4444 ,large ,american genera 7of the intermediate flora7 have sent off offsets into ,eastern ,asia which1 gradually diminishing in number of species and sometimes slightly modifying their character1 have spread over the whole of ,asia and invaded almost every part of ,europe4444 ,with regard to the arctic alpine flora1 ,hooker found that1 estimating the whole arctic flora at #gfb species1 arctic ,east ,america possessed #cgi of which #bfi are common to ,scandinavia4 ,of the whole flora #faf species are found in arctic ,europe and of these #ehf are ,scandinavian and this leads ,hooker to the striking observation that #8the ,scandinavian flora is present in every latitude of the globe and is the only one that is so4' ,according to ,bentham1 ,scandinavia1 which would1 according to older rules1 have been termed the centre of creation for the arctic regions1 may now be termed the chief centre of preservation within the arctic circle owing1 perhaps1 to its more broken conformation and partly to that warmer climate 444 which was1 during the glacial period a means of preservation of some colder species which were everywhere expelled or destroyed4444 ,we may infer that1 towards the close of the ,tertiary epoch1 the continuous circumpolar land was covered with a vegetation also largely composed of identical plants1 but adapted to a warmer climate4 ,as the climate became less warm there would commence a migration southwards which would result in the modified descendants of these plants being now blended with the vegetation of central ,europe and the ,united ,states4 ,as the glacial period gradually advanced1 the tropical plants will have retreated from both sides towards the equator followed in the rear by the temperate productions and these by the arctic4 ,when the climate of the earth again ameliorated1 the migration took place in a reverse direction and in this way mountain ranges became the havens of refuge for the fragments of the original arctic flora which were exterminated on the lowlands4 ,an indication of the great antiquity of the arctic alpine flora is afforded by the fact of its absence in the comparatively modern volcanic mountains of ,france4444 ,if it be granted that the polar area was once occupied by the ,scandinavian flora and that the cold of the glacial epoch did drive this vegetation downwards 444 in arctic ,america 444 where there was a free southern extension and dilatation of land for the same ,scandinavian plants to occupy1 these would multiply enormously in individuals44440 ,the following remarkable results of recent botanical research will be found to be of profound interest to investigators and to support the foregoing conclusions4 ,amongst the many important discoveries of hitherto undescribed species of plants1 made by the distinguished botanists ,mr4 ,stephen ,sommier and ,dr4 ,emile ,levier during their expedition in the ,caucasus mountains1 in #ahij1 was that of a species of fungus named ,exobasidium discoideum ,ell41 which was found growing on the ,rhododendron flaro ,l4 ,this fungus was submitted to ,prof4 ,p4 ,magnus of ,berlin1 who pronounced it to be the identical ,exobasidium which has been found growing on the ,azalea viscosa ,l4 in ,new ,jersey1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,the following is the authoritative statement of ,prof4 ,p4 ,magnus which appears in ,messrs4 ,s4 ,sommier and ,e4 ,levier's ,enumeratorio plantarum caucas3 acta horti petropolitani1 vol4 ,,xvi4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahii4 8,the occurrence of the identical species of fungus on two closely related plants1 which respectively grow in the ,caucasus and in ,north ,america and are missing in intermediate countries1 deserves our deepest interest4444 ,these plants are relics of the ,tertiary period1 during which ,north ,america and ,europe still formed a continuous floral area4 ,while the plants1 on which the fungus grew1 differentiated into two closely related species1 in two at present widely separated but formerly connected radii of distribution1 the parasitical ,exobasidium remained outwardly unaltered4 ,this is exactly like the case of another fungus1 ,uromyces glycyrrhiz1 which ,i have described and explained in the #8,berichten der ,deutschen ,botanischen ,gesellschaft' 7,bd4 ,,vii1 #ahij1 ,s4 #cgg-chd74 ,exobasidium disc4 is also a parasitical fungus which has been growing on the parent form of ,rhododendron viscosum and ,rhododendron flavum ever since that period when ,north ,america and ,europe were continuous and possessed the same flora40 ,i am also indebted to ,professor ,magnus and to ,dr4 ,levier for the following names of closely allied species of plants which are found in ,america and ,asia only1 it being particularly noticeable that it is in ,asia ,minor and the ,caucasus mountains that the relatives of the ,american species are most frequently met with4 ,platanus occidentalis3 ,north ,america4 ,platanus orientalis3 ,asia ,minor4 ,liquidambar styraciflua3 ,north ,america4 ,liquidambar styraciflua3 ,asia4 ,rhododendron viscosum3 ,north ,america4 ,rhododendron flavum3 ,caucasus ,mts4 ,rhododendron maximum3 ,north ,america4 ,rhododendron ponticum3 ,causasus ,mts4 ,professor ,magnus has1 moreover1 recently pointed out that the fungus ,uropyxis1 which is a widespread ,american species and grows in ,mexico1 has a representative in ,manchuria4 ,in his monograph on ,uropyxis1 ,professor ,magnus enumerates further species of fungi which occur in ,america and ,asia only and are missing in other portions of the world 7,p4 ,magnus1 ,berichten der ,deutschen ,botanischen ,gesellschaft1 ,jahrgang #ahii4 ,band ,,xvii1 ,heft #c74 ,referring the reader to ,professor ,edward ,s4 ,morse's trite article1 ,was ,middle ,america peopled from ,asia8 7,appleton's ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,november1 #ahih71 ,i cite1 from this1 the following authoritative statements3 8,from the naturalist's standpoint the avenues have been quite as open for the circumpolar distribution of man as they have been for the circumpolar distribution of other animals and plants1 down to the minutest land snail and low fungus4 ,the ethnic resemblances supposed to exist between the peoples of the two sides of the ,pacific may be the result of an ancient distribution around the northern regions of the globe40 ,the very remarkable survival of certain plants and fungi1 dating from the ,tertiary period1 in two such widely sundered countries as ,asia ,minor and ,north ,america1 certainly finds a curious and striking parallel in the analogy of the cosmical ideas and social organization of ,babylonia and ,assyria with those of ,mexico4 ,what is more3 ,a cosmical scheme1 attributable to a prolonged observation of natural celestial phenomena1 such as could best have been carried on in circumpolar regions1 has been shown to be as widespread as the ,scandinavian flora which 8is present in every latitude and is the only one that is so40 ,many of my readers will doubtless be inclined to explain the identity of cosmical and religious conceptions1 social organization1 and architectural plans shown to have existed in the past between the inhabitants of both hemispheres1 as the result of independent evolution1 dating from the period when primitive man1 emerging from savagery1 was driven southward from circumpolar regions1 carrying with him a set of indelible impressions which1 under the influence of constant pole-star worship1 sooner or later developed and brought forth identical or analogous results4 ,those who hold this view may perhaps go so far as to consider the possibility that1 before drifting asunder1 the human race had already discovered1 for instance1 the art of fire-making and of working in stone1 had adopted the sign of the cross as a year-register1 and evolved an archaic form of social organization4 ,to many this view may furnish a satisfactory explanation of the universal spread of identical ideas and the differentiation of their subsequently independent evolution4 ,on the other hand1 another class of readers may prefer to think that1 while both hemispheres may have originally been populated by branches of the same race1 at an extremely low stage of intellectual development1 civilization and a plan of social organization may have developed and been formulated sooner in one locality than in another1 owing to more favorable conditions and thence have been spread to both continents by a race1 more intelligent and enterprising than others1 who became the intermediaries of ancient civilization4 ,the great problem of the origin of ,american peoples lies far beyond the scope of the present work and its final solution can only be obtained at some future day by the joint coperation of ,americanists and ,orientalists4 ,on the other hand certain incontrovertible facts which throw light upon the question of prehistoric contact have been coming under my observation during my prolonged course of study and the presentation of these may advance knowledge by acting as a stimulus to discussion1 inquiry and research by learned specialists4 ,for ready reference ,i submit the following tabulated record of the widely sundered countries in which are found1 applied to the governmental scheme1 the same cosmical divisions1 respectively consisting of four1 seven and thirteen parts1 the group being invariably associated with the idea of an all-embracing ,one1 constituting the ,four in ,one1 ,seven in ,one and ,thirteen in ,one4 ,it is superfluous to add that1 in each country enumerated1 the existence of more or less distinct traces of an ancient pole-star worship and the cult of the sacred ,middle1 the ,above and ,below and ,four ,quarters1 i4 e41 the four1 seven and thirteen directions in space1 have been recorded in the preceding pages4 ,important additional facts1 acquired by reference to ,hewitt's ,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric ,times1 to which my attention was directed by ,mr4 ,stansbury ,hagar1 and to other valuable works1 will be found included in the following summary4 ,it would be of utmost assistance to me in my future researches and ,i would regard it as a personal favor if specialists would draw my attention to any deficiencies they may detect1 and inform me of the latest results of their individual investigations bearing upon the subjects under consideration4 ,,india4 ,seven zones1 seven directions in space1 seven sages4 8,the conception of the confederated kingdom formed of six dependent and allied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in the centre40444 8,it is this conception which is worked out in the six kingdoms surrounding the central kingdom of ,jambudvipa1 into which they divided ,india4 ,this form of kingdom still survives in those which form the tributary states of ,chota ,nagpore1 for in all of these the central province is ruled by the king and those surrounding it by his subordinate chiefs 44407#acf7 7,hewitt1 ,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric ,times1 p4 #bef74 ,four lakes1 four rivers1 four cosmical divisions1 four guardians1 p4 #cbj4 8,in the ,gond #8,song of ,lingal1' it is related how1 ,lingal1 having been slain by the confederacy of six kingdoms surrounding seventh1 came to life again1 and with four new-born ,gonds1 founded a new race of ,gonds2 taught them to build houses and to grow millets4444 ,he divided the people into four tribes4444 ,with these he united the four tribes descended from the ,gonds he had brought down in his first avatar4444 ,these formed the eight united races of the tortoise-earth4444 ,lingal placed among them priests 444 who married the new-comers to the daughters of the previous immigrants4444 ,this 444 marks the first stage of the union of the ,kushikas and the ,maghadas1 the latter being the race who worshipped the mother-,maga as the sacred alligator 7,hewitt74 8,according to the ,mahbhrata the two races of ,kushikas and ,maghadas were united under one king4444 ,this land was called by ,hindu geographers ,saka-dvipa1 said in the ,mataya ,purana to be the land of the mountain whence ,indra gets the rain20 that is of the mountain called ,khar-sah-kurra1 ,ushidhan and ,savkanta4 8,this mountain stood as the meeting point of the two confederacies of the patriarchal tribes and the matriarchal races4444 ,each confederacy is formed by six kingdoms surrounding a seventh or ruling kingdom in the centre4444 ,this1 in the ,iranian federation1 is ,khavaniras or ,huaniratha and in ,india1 ,jambu-dvipa1 the land of the ,jambu tree40 ,hewitt publishes an interesting drawing 7reproduced as fig4 #gc1 c71 formed 8by the union of the four triangles representing the ,southeastern and ,northwestern races1 who all looked on the mother mountain of the ,east1 whence ,indra gets the rain1 as their national birthplace1 where they became united as the ,kushite race1 the confederation of civilized man4 ,it represents the ,greek cross and the double dorje or thunderbolt of ,vishnu and ,indra and also a map of the ,indian races1 as distributed at the time of the union4 ,it also forms1 with spaces left open for the parent rivers1 444 an octahedron or eight-sided figure 444 and the angles of the tribal angles form the swastika 444 the sign of the rain-god 4441 the great ,sar of the ,phnicians44440 ,referring the reader to ,hewitt's interesting discussion of this figure with which he associates the origin of the swastika1 ,i point out a fact he barely notices1 namely that the figure coincides with the description of ,mt4 ,meru1 associated with four lakes1 four rivers1 four mythical animals and four guardians 7p4 #cbj74 ,it is in connection with the cosmical ,middle ,mountain that the foundation of an earthly kingdom on the same plan becomes significant and the distribution of races figured by ,mr4 ,hewitt assumes utmost importance4 ,the representation of the four races by 8tribal triangles10 is of special interest when collated with the ,egyptian sign for city or state and the pyramid1 the building of which ,i have several times alluded to as an event facilitating1 symbolizing and commemorating the foundation of a quadruplicate state 7pp4 #bbj and #bba74 ,,arabia4 8,in the land of ,arabia1 of the irrigating and building ,minyans and star-worshipping ,sabans1 the land of the ,queen of ,sheba1 or the number seven 7sheba7 444 a fresh confederacy was formed1 to rival that of the ,kushite mountain of the ,east 4440 7,hewitt1 p4 #bia74 ,it is significant that among the ,sabans the seven-day period prevailed4 ,,assyria4 ,seven directions of heaven and earth1 seven territorial districts1 seven mountains1 seven kings1 seven-staged towers1 seven year and day periods1 etc41 pp4 #cbh1 #cdh and #ceh4 ,four-god cities1 square cities1 square four-storied towers1 four cities1 four regions or provinces1 four-fold power embodied in king wearing cross1 tetrarchies 7874 ,,egypt4 ,seven classes of people1 seven districts1 seven-day period1 pp4 #cjj and #cge47acg7 ,quadruplicate division of capital and state1 four fields of heaven1 p4 #cgb4 ,sacerdotal group consisting of #abaac individuals1 p4 #dcg4 ,division of the country1 at one time1 into twelve parts 7,ast74 ,,china4 ,seven ,manchurian tribes1 p4 #cjb4 ,four provinces1 four mountains1 four seas1 p4 #bhf2 four classes of seven each1 p4 #bib4 ,at the summit of the present administration in ,pekin1 ,four ,grand ,secretaries1 two of whom are ,manchus and two ,chinese47#ach7 ,twelve districts1 p4 #bib4 ,,ancient ,,japan4 ,the 8,seven divine generations10 each consisting of a god and goddess4 ,four classes of people1 #bdh holy quarters1 eight great islands4 ,imperial council of twelve divided into the higher council of five called ,golosew8,imperial ,old ,men0 and the lower council of seven members termed ,waka ,tosiyori8,junior ,old ,men0 7,chambers' ,encyclopdia74 ,the imperial council1 with the emperor1 thus constituted the sacred thirteen4 ,,persia4 ,seven divisions of ,cosmos1 seven regions1 seven spirits personifying celestial bodies and moral qualities4 ,ancient confederacy of ,iran consisted of six kingdoms grouped around the central royal province1 8situated under the pole-star10 and called ,kwan-iras or ,hvan-iratha1 ruled by ,susi-nag1 the original father-god of the model state identified with the pole-star1 ,draconis1 the serpent 7,hewitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #bec71 see also ,appendix ,,iii1 list ,,ii4 ,four-fold rule embodied in king1 p4 #cbe4 ,darius distributed ,persian empire into #debj satrapies1 each including a certain continuous territory 7,grote74 ,,greece4 ,tenos divided into seven quarters1 seven divisions of state47#aci7 ,four tribes17#adj7 four castes1 territorial division of ,attica into four parts1 institution of tetrarchies4 ,thessaly anciently divided into four tetrarchies4 ,institution 7between #fjj-efj ,b4,c47 of cycle or period1 marked by the four sacred ,olympic games1 one of which took place in one of four cities each year in rotation4 ,pisistratus added the quadrennial or greater ,panathena to the ancient annual and lesser ,panathena 7,grote1 ,history of ,greece1 vol4 #d74 ,twelve tribes formed by ,cecrops--represented by twelve chiefs1 ,cecropsthirteen4 ,it is most interesting to find this division adopted in ,plato's de ,legibus1 in which it is imagined that three elderly statesmen come together1 belonging respectively to ,athens1 ,crete and ,lacedmon1 to discuss the restablishment of the depopulated city of ,magnesia in ,crete4 ,aristotle has insinuated that the scheme proposed by ,plato was not original and had been actually realized at ,lacedmon4 ,mr4 ,george ,burger1 the able translator of ,bohn's edition of ,plato's ,works1 in his introduction to vol4 ,v1 remarks that1 if that were the case1 ,plato would never have wasted his time in writing two elaborate treatises on matters already well known1 when it would have been sufficient to point out 444 the institutions of ,lycurgus as the pattern1 if not of a faultless government1 at least of one1 that approached the nearest to perfection4 ,plato might have replied to the charge made by ,aristotle by saying that his notions were all the better for not being original1 for it was thus shown that1 as some of them were practicable1 since they had already been put into practice--the rest1 which were a reform rather of existing institutions than the construction of a code perfectly novel1 would be equally practicable if they were submitted to the same test4 ,in his ,protagoras1 ,plato distinctly states that in ,crete and ,lacedmon a most beautiful philosophy was to be found1 which had been handed down from ancient times4444 ,let us now examine the plan discussed by the three statesmen and submitted to them by the anonymous ,athenian who1 according to ,cicero1 ,plutarch and ,boeckh1 was ,plato himself4 ,in the case of 8the ,magnesians1 whom a god is again raising up and settling into a colony 444 a divine polity44440 ,plato says3 444 8,it is meet1 in the first place1 to build the city as much as possible in the middle of the country4444 ,after this to divide it into twelve parts7#ada7 and placing first the temple of ,hestia1 and ,zeus and ,athene1 to call it the ,acropolis and to throw around a circular enclosure and from it to cut the city and all the country into twelve parts4 ,but the twelve parts ought to be equalized 444 and the allotments to be five thousand and forty4444 ,after this to assign the twelve allotments to the twelve gods and to call them by their names and to consecrate to each the portion attained by lot and to call it a phyle2 and again to divide the twelve sections of the city in the same manner as they divided the rest of the country1 and that each should possess two habitations1 one near the centre and the other near the extremity1 and thus let the method end 444 7,b4 ,v1 ,c4 #ad74444 ,we ought1 in the first place1 to resume the number five thousand and forty because it had and has now convenient distributions1 both the whole number and that which was assigned to the wards1 which we laid down as the twelfth part of the whole1 being exactly four hundred and twenty4 ,and as the whole number has twelve divisions1 so also has that of the wards4 ,now it is meet to consider each division as a sacred gift of a deity through its following both the months and revolutions of the universe4 7,by this is meant1 says ,ast1 the twelve signs of the zodiac47 ,hence that which is inherent leads every state1 making them holy4444 ,some persons indeed have made a more correct distribution than others1 and with better fortune have dedicated the distribution to the gods4 ,but we now assert that the number five thousand and forty has been chosen most correctly1 as it has all divisions as far as twelve1 beginning from one1 except that by eleven2 444 let us distribute this number2 and dedicating to a god 444 each portion1 and giving the altars 444 let us institute monthly two meetings relating to sacrifices 444 twelve according to the divisions of the wards and twelve to that of the city 444 for the sake of every kind of intercourse40 ,it should be noted here that1 as in his ,republic1 ,plato provides his ideal state with female as well as male guardians1 and with priestesses as well as priests1 whose duty it was to fulfil sacerdotal functions4 ,special attention is drawn to this point1 as in practice1 it naturally signifies a dual government1 such as ,i have traced in ancient ,egypt1 ,babylonia-,assyria1 and also in ,mexico and ,peru4 8,as regards the number of 444 festivals 444 let there be three hundred and sixty-five 444 so that some one of the magistrates may always sacrifice 444 there are to be twelve festivals to the twelve gods from whom each tribe has its name 444 and twelve guardians of the law4444 ,there ought to be twelve hamlets1 one in the middle of each twelfth part1 and in each hamlet to be selected first1 a market place and temples 444 prepare all the rest of the country by it into thirteen parts for the handicraftsmen and to cause one portion of these to reside in the city by distributing this portion among the twelve parts of the whole city 444 to have other persons distributed out of the city1 in a circle around it40 ,the portions of ,plato's work dealing with the appointment of the governors and guardians of the state and their rotations in office and imposed tours of inspection1 are of such particular interest in connection with the present comparative research1 that ,i am impelled to quote them here4 8,let each 7of the twelve7 phyles furnish for the year five ,rural ,stewards 7in all sixty7 444 each of whom is to choose twelve young men 444 to the latter let there be allotted portions of the country during a month 444 so that all of them may have a practical knowledge of every part of the country4444 ,but let the governorship and guardianship continue to the guards and governors for two years1 and let those who first obtain by lot their respective portions1 the guard officers1 lead out1 changing the places of the country constantly by going to the place next in order towards the right in a circle1 and let the right be that which is in the east4 ,but as the years come around1 in the second year1 in order that the greatest portion of the guards may become acquainted with the country1 not only at one season of the year1 but that as many as possible may know thoroughly in addition to the country1 at the same time what occurs relatively to each spot in the country at each season1 let the officers lead them out again to the left1 constantly changing the place until they go through the second year4 ,in the third year it is meet to choose other rural stewards and guard officers as the five curators of the twelve young men4444 ,there were to be three city stewards1 dividing the twelve parts of the city into three 444 and five ,market-,stewards1 to be chosen from ten elected044447#adb7 ,it is deeply interesting to consider from the standpoint of comparative study the principal features of the perfected scheme proposed by ,plato1 in the fifth century ,b4 ,c1 for the establishment of an ideal colony1 which is designated as a 8divine polity0 or a 8holy land40 ,this is especially the case when we see that ,plato himself states that it is the conformity of the states to the inherent laws of nature1 that confers upon it divinity or holiness4 ,it seems impossible not to recognize that both ideal republics of ,plato were intended to be 8celestial kingdoms0 or 8kingdoms of heaven0 and that he expounded and doubtlessly perfected1 an ancient ideal which had been more or less successfully carried out in different countries during many centuries before his time4 ,having studied the proposed scheme for the foundation of a new colony of the ,greeks1 who proudly maintained that 8it was meet that the ,greeks should rule barbarians10 and pursued a regular system of colonization1 let us now obtain an idea of the mode in which ,greeks had previously founded colonies by reading the following passage from ,grote's ,history of ,greece1 vol4 ,,iv1 chap4 ,,xxvii3 8,under reign of ,psammetichus1 king of ,egypt1 about the middle of seventh century ,b4,c41 ,grecian mercenaries were first established in ,egypt and ,grecian traders admitted 444 into the ,nile47#adc7 ,the opening of this new market emboldened them to traverse the direct sea which separates ,krte from ,egypt--a dangerous voyage with vessels which rarely ventured to lose sight of land--and seems to have first made them acquainted with the neighboring coast of ,libya 444 hence arose the foundation of the important colony called ,kyrn0 444 about #fcj ,b4,c4 8,thra was the mother-city1 herself a colony from ,lacedmon 444 political dissension among its inhabitants 444 bad seasons1 distress and over-population led to the emigration that founded ,kyrn4444 ,the oekist ,battus was selected and consecrated to work of founding the colony4444 ,from the seven districts into which ,thra was divided1 emigrants were drafted for the colony1 one brother being singled out by lot from the different families4444 ,the band which accompanied ,battus was generally supplied with provisions for one year and was all conveyed in two pentekonters--armed ships with fifty rowers each4 ,thus humble was the start of the mighty ,kyrn4 ,after six years residence in one spot they abandoned it and were conducted to a better site by guides1 saying3 #8,here1 men of ,hellas1 is the place for you to dwell1 for here the sky is perforated4' 07#add7 ,the small force brought over by ,battus was enabled at first to fraternize with the indigenous ,libyans1--next1 reinforced by additional colonists and availing themselves of the power of native chiefs1 to overawe and subjugate them4444 8,the ,theran colonists seem to have married ,libyan wives1 whence ,herodotus describes the women of ,kyrn and ,barka as following1 even in his time1 religious observances indigenous and not ,hellenic4 ,even the descendants of the primitive oekist ,battus were semi-,libyan4444 ,we must bear in mind that the population of the ,grco-,libyan cities was not pure ,greek1 but more or less mixed1 like that of the colonies in ,italy1 ,sicily or ,ionia4444 ,isokrates praises the well-chosen site of the colony of ,kyrn because it was planted in the midst of indigenous natives apt for subjection and far distant from any formidable enemies4444 ,we are then to conceive the first ,theran colonists as established in their lofty fortified post ,kyrn1 in the centre of ,libyan ,perioeki1 till then strangers to walls1 to arts and perhaps even to cultivated land4444 ,to these rude men the ,therans communicated the elements of ,hellenism and civilization1 not without receiving themselves much that was non-,hellenic in return1 and perhaps the reactionary influence of the ,libyan element against the ,hellenic might have proved the stronger of the two had they not been reinforced by new-comers from ,greece4444 ,about #edc ,b4,c4 owing to discontent1 etc41 the regal prerogative of the ,battiad line was terminated and a republican government established2 the dispossessed prince retaining both the landed domains and various sacerdotal functions which had belonged to his predecessors40 ,,rome4 ,seven hills1 seven places of worship1 septemvirate1 seven ministers1 ,septizonium1 p4 #dfd4 ,roman quadrata1 ,janus quadrifrontis1 quadruplicate territorial division carried out4 ,palestine1 for instance1 divided into four tetrarchies under ,roman rule4 ,twelve gods1 twelve months1 etc4 ,new ,rome divided into four parts1 each consisting of thirteen prefectures i4 e4 fifty-two prefectures in all4 ,,gaul4 ,seven provinces4 ,,britain4 ,seven kingsheptarchy4 ,four kings of ,kenttetrarchy4 ,,ireland4 ,seven sanctuaries grouped around central tower4 ,four associates of king of ,erin4 ,group consisting of #abaac stone figures1 p4 #dfi4 ,,scandinavia4 ,four guardians of four quarters4 ,thor1 supreme divinity1 pole-star god1 seated and holding 8seven stars10 the symbol of seven-fold power1 in his hand4 ,group consisting of royal throne surrounded by #ab stones4 ,odin associated with twelve 8godes10 p4 #dgb4 ,,north ,,america4 ,huron confederacyseven tribes1 quadriform city1 #bdh gentes1 p4 #aih4 ,,zuni4 ,seven directions in space1 seven quarters of city1 seven tribes1 seven towns4 ,four bands of priests1 p4 #bja4 ,twelve1 i4 e41 thirteen priesthoods1 p4 #bja4 ,,mexico4 ,seven tribes issued from seven caves1 seven gods or chiefs1 p4 #fb4 ,four quarters of city1 represented by four chieftains1 four subrulers1 four divisions of army1 four year signs1 four tribes1 four tribal trees 7fig4 #eb71 four storied pyramids4 ,thirteen divisions or parts1 p4 #aha4 ,calendar and state organized into #daceb parts4 ,,yucatan4 ,title of ruler1 8the divine ,four10 four sub-rulers1 four royal brothers1 four-year periods1 p4 #bah1 four quarters1 p4 #bbc1 four year signs4 ,twelve i4 e4 thirteen priest-rulers of ,mayapan1 p4 #bji4 ,,guatemala4 ,seven tribes1 seven day period1 p4 #agi4 ,four nations1 four provinces1 four capitals1 four ,tullans1 pp4 #afd1 #aga4 ,thirteen divisions of warriors1 p4 #agi4 ,,peru4 ,empire named 8,four in one10 ,creator named 8,earth1 air1 fire and water in ,one10 four provinces1 four viceroys4 ,twelve i4 e4 thirteen wards in ,cuzco1 twelve divisions of year1 p4 #add4 ,before commenting upon the above summary1 and as its necessary complement1 a brief examination must be made of the various modes in which the phenomenon of celestial axial rotation figured in the rituals of primitive people4 ,,old ,,world4 ,the lighting of 8sacred fire10 by means of the wooden fire-drill and the wooden socket block1 appears as the most ancient and widespread ritualistic performance4 ,to begin with1 the reader is requested to read carefully the following detached extracts from ,hewitt's work3 8,in the ,rig-,veda the ,aryan invaders of ,lydia are called the ,tritsu1 #8the boring people1' who used the fire-drill2 also ,arna1 #8sons of ,arani1' the fire-drill1 whose sacred number is four04444 8,in ,india1 from time immemorial1 by a process like churning1 fire has been produced by the ,arani1 made of the ,ashvattha 7,ficus religiosa7 wood1 being twirled repeatedly round till the fire is lighted1 by a string fixed in the cross-bar at its top10 a method1 ,i may add1 which is a later development of the more primitive mode of twirling the fire-drill by hand4 8,the ,kushites 444 believed that life was generated by the union of heat with water 444 and that heat was1 in the astronomical myth1 engendered by the revolution of the ,great ,bear and the connection between it1 the vital heat and the creating water is shown in one of its ,akkadian names1 ,bel-a-sar-a1 which means #8the fire god who measures the water yoke' 7,r4 ,brown and ,sayce71 or1 in other words1 ,bel1 the distributor of the water allotted to the earth4 ,from this heavenly cistern and fire-drill1 in which marichi1 the fire-spark1 is hidden1 the water of life is distributed40 ,compare the preceding with the following statements3 8,according to the ,arab doctrine of the pole1 the seven stars of the ,great ,bear and the star ,canopus 8 formed the fire-drill40 ,according to ,hewitt 8444 ,it was the ,ashvins1 444 the twin brothers of day and night1 444 identified with the twin stars in ,gemini1 who twirled round the fire drill of the northern pole 444 or1 according to a later hymn1 drove through the seas with one of the wheels of their chariot in ,ursa ,major and one in heaven1--that is1 to drive around the pole40 ,a deeper comprehension seems to be afforded by this association of the ,ashvins with the axis1 of the significance of the two figures 7of a god and his consort7 who1 in the ,sippar tablet1 appear to be directing the wheel of ,shamash--the world-axis and symbol of quadruplicate terrestrial government 7see p4 #cfe74 ,reference should also be repeated here1 to ,al-kuth and ,al-fass1 the ,arabian names for ,polaris1 respectively signifying the axle and the hole of the axle1 also to the pole star of ,northern ,india--,grahadhara1--the 8pivot of heaven10 and to the significant fact that in ,egyptian hieratic script the word anthe ,akkadian and ,sumerian word for heaven1 and ,babylonian-,assyrian word for god1 is found rendered by a man 8turning around10 an action expressing the verb an4 ,it is interesting to collate these statements with the descriptions of ,dhruva 7see p4 #ddh1 note #a71 the personification of centrifugal power1 who1 as he turns1 causes the heaven to revolve around the fixed centre on which he stands1 resting on one foot only1 and to note how the two distinct ideas of central stability and rotation influenced the making of pagan divinities4 ,the idea of stability was perpetuated in the house-pole which sustained ,aman1 the roof of primitive dwellings in the column an1 which supported the temple roof and in time was transformed into a hermes1 or1 in ,egypt1 into a statue of ,amen-ra1 and in the mythical mountain of the ,north1 ,sama1 which supported the heaven 7,sama74 ,dhruva's turning round on one foot1 which implies the use of the other1 reappears in the ,hephaistos of ,greek mythology1 who was1 as ,hewitt tells us 7p4 #ejd71 8the fire-drill and its driver1 and was called ,amphi-,gueis1 or he who halts on both legs1 444 was cast from heaven by ,zeus1 and was the husband of the fire-socket1 the first form of the ,greek goddess ,aphrodite40 ,for information regarding the cult of the fire-socket1 the construction of the ,hindu fire-altars in the form of a woman1 representing 8mother-earth0 or 8the primval mother10 ,aditi1 ,i refer the reader to ,hewitt's work1 and also to p4 #cbc of the present publication1 where the description of the ,jiddah sanctuary proves the existence of the same ancient form of cult in ,arabia4 ,hewitt relates on page #agj that1 on the fire-altar1 the central fire called ,agni jatavedas is kindled when the officiating priest addresses in the words of ,rig-,veda ,,iii1 #bi1 #d3 8,we place thee1 ,o ,jatavedas1 in the place of ,ida 7the mountain daughter of ,manu7 in the navel 7nabha7 of the altar1 to carry our offerings40 ,in ,rig-,veda1 ,x1 #fa1 we are also told how ,nabha-,nedishtha 7that which is nearest to the navel7 was born from the union of celestial lightning flash with the earth1 and how1 on his birth1 he claimed to be the supreme god1 saying3 8,this1 our navel1 is the highest4 ,i am his son4444 ,i am the twice-born son of the law 7of nature744440 ,hewitt 7p4 #aga7 regards1 moreover1 the image of the goddess of the earth altar found by ,schliemann in the second city from the bottom of the six cities1 built one over another on the site of ,troy1 a counterpart of the ,hindu fire-altar4 ,it is significant that the ,trojan image exhibits a triangle surrounded by seven disks1 and containing the swastika1 which ,hewitt designates as 8the holy fire1 the sun of the revolving year10 a view curiously1 though indistinctly1 analogous and parallel to that ,i have formulated in the present research4 8,in the ,brahmanas the ,try-,ambika offering1 a very ancient form of the rain festival1 is described4444 ,its sanctity dated from the days of primeval theology1 for the offerings were made on a spot outside and to the north of the consecrated area1 and on one intersected by cross-roads1 and thus marked by the cross sacred to the rain-god1 which is said to be ,rudra's favorite haunts1 and the halting place of the ,agnis4444 ,hence the festival is dedicated to ,rud-ra1 the red 7rud7 god1 the father of the seven ,marut stars4444 ,he is called the red god from the spark of fire kindled by him in the fire socket when he was the fire-drill1 and from being reddened by the blood of the victim slain in his sacrifices when he was the sacrificial stake to which the annual victims1 whose blood fertilized the ground1 were bound1 and this name was continued to him when he became the red cloud of the thunderstorm which infused the soil of life into the earth by pouring on it the life-giving rain1 the blood of the creating god44440 ,in the ,rig-,veda the rain-god is termed ,ushana1 the 8lord of fire10 who is made to exclaim3 8,it is ,i who pour down rain for the good of creatures40 ,it was he who was also known as ,varuna1 the ,greek ,ourauos1 who 444 became the god of the dark night4444 ,the union in ,india of the patriarchal worshippers of the ,northern father-god1 with the matriarchal races of the south was followed by the miners1 metal-workers and artisans of the early bronze age1 who looked on fire and the life-giving heat as the author of life4 ,these were the people 7of ,finnic origin7 who employed the word ku for god1 in ,asia ,minor became the worshippers of the mother goddess ,magha1 the socket block from which fire was generated by the fire-drill1 and it was they1 8the ,sons of ,magha0 that became the ,maghi of ,persia and the ,maghadas of ,indian history4 ,in connection with the union of a northern patriarchal and a southern matriarchal race1 an astronomical myth deserves particular attention1 as it commemorates the combination of a feminine cult of the ,pleiades1 the 8spinning stars10 with a masculine cult of ,ursa ,major4 ,according to this myth1 related by ,hewitt1 the 8,spinners0,krittakas 7from krit1 to spin7 were 8the mother-stars of the earth10 who were married to the seven stars of the ,great 8,bear1 the father-stars of the ,north407#ade7 ,remarking how curiously the assignment of the north to the male and the south to the female element coincides with what has been noted in ,egypt1 ,i note here the interesting detail recorded by ,hewitt 7p4 #cgi7 that to this day the ,hindu bride and bridegroom respectively pay reverence to the ,pleiades and ,ursa ,major1 before worshipping the pole-star1 8the spotted bull10 on entering their house4 ,it would seem as though the fulfilment of this ritual might limit the ,hindu marriage season to some particular time of the year1 marked by the position of the ,pleiades2 in which connection it is interesting to remember that1 in ,mexico1 the culmination of the ,pleiades at midnight marked the ,new ,year festival1 when sacred fire was rekindled and the union of ,heaven and ,earth took place4 ,on pp4 #acj-acb of ,hewitt's work1 vol4 ,i1 the reader will find instructive data regarding ,pleiades festivals4 ,the preceding details appear to show that whereas a northern patriarchal race would naturally symbolize axial rotation by the fire-drill1 a southern matriarchal race would adopt the spindle for the same purpose4 ,such a ritualistic use of the spindle would undoubtedly afford a very simple explanation for the presence of cross-symbols and swastikas and other designs of religious significance upon the terra-cotta spinning whorls found in such quantities in ,troy1 for instance1 and the cited allusion on one of these1 to the pole-star god1 ,tur1 corroborates this view47#adf7 ,it is instructive to trace how1 amongst primitive agricultural races1 the art of spinning1 the employment of beasts of burden1 the invention of the oil-press which 8was used in ,asia ,minor as it has been used for time immemorial in ,india to extract the oil of the sesame seeds10 and of the wheel and cart1 influenced their respective adoption of symbols of axial rotation4 ,in turn1 these symbols suggested and created divergent forms of ritual and religious cult4 8,the ,turanians 444 when they had evolved the idea of the god of heaven as the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks symbolized it as the pole of the threshing floors around which the oxen were driven40 ,the reader is referred here to the passages from the ,bhagavata-purana quoted in the present work 7note #a1 p4 #ddh71 in which axial rotation is compared to 8oxen turning around their stakes10 to which must be added the ,vedic 8one-wheeled car to which one horse named seven was yoked0 7see p4 #deb1 note #a71 and the revolving wheel and the revolving measuring pole of the potter and builder castes1 which united formed the ,telis caste4 ,in the ,vaya ,purana1 8the seven ,maruts drive the stars which are bound to it by ties invisible to man1 round the pole4 ,they move round like the beam in the oil-press1 for its bottom is1 as it were1 standing still1 while its end moves round04444 ,in the ritual 8the ,sanscrit ,isha or the beam which turns this pole of heavenly oil-pressing mill1 is the husband and father40 ,a diverging view1 which developed and combined the ideas of fixity and circular motion with the kindling of the vital spark by the wooden fire-drill1 caused the living tree to become the emblem of the tribal father or mother4 ,the custom1 still in use among some primitive people1 of drilling for fire in the dry1 inflammable bark of dead trees of a particular species1 may have forcibly directed the choice of tribal trees4 ,at all events1 in ,india1 we find the mango or ,am tree1 which recurs in ,egyptian script 7see fig4 #fc1 #bb71 the fig-tree1 the udumbara1 the date-palm and other trees established as the parent trees of different tribes1 who made their respective house-poles and presumably their fire-drills and sockets1 from their wood4 ,the curious ritual of marrying men and women to their respective mother or father tribal trees1 before they are wedded to their respective husbands and wives is mentioned by ,hewitt on p4 #bcg1 etc4 ,this close bond between some special kind of tree and a tribe is a point which ,i particularly emphasize on account of its analogy to ancient ,mexican1 ,maya and ,peruvian tribal trees4 ,returning to a study of the pole and the beam of the oil-press we find that1 in ,essay ,,ii1 ,hewitt traces the ,greek myths of ,ixion and ,koronis to the ,hindu comparison of the heavens to a revolving oil-press and1 in the ritual of the ,vajapeya sacrifice1 refers the dawn of astronomy to the observation of the revolutions of the pole and the reckoning of the seven days of the week4444 8,ixion1 when raised to heaven1 was the rain-god1 who turned one wheel1 to which his hands and feet were fixed by ,hermes1 the fire-god1 continuously in the air1 and this is merely a mythic way of saying that he was the fire-drill1 made as the revolving pole to rotate perpetually1 and by being turned to every side in his winged course1 to produce life-giving heat1 the generator of rain4444 ,the ,greek ,ixion is the same word as the ,sanscrit ,akshivan1 the driver of the axle 7aksha74444 ,ixion is also1 according to ,bopp and ,pott1 connected with the root ik1 pouring water1 which appears in ichor1 #8the blood of the gods1' the water of life40 8,moreover1 the ,sanscrit aksha is a word of which the original is found in the ,gond akkha1 an axle4 ,in the summer festival of the agricultural ,gonds1 called ,akkhadi or ,akhtuj1 the worship of the cart axle or ,akkha takes place and is associated with ,nagur1 the rain snake4444 ,in the ,vajapeya sacrifice 444 the ,soma priest consecrates two cups of the sacred drink ,soma above the axle1 at the same time as the ,neskti priest consecrates two cups of ,sura below it4 ,in this ceremony we see a reminiscence of the days when the axle was the upright revolving pole pressing out the heavenly rain4444 ,it also shows us how it was that the axle became the sacred part of the ,soma cart 444 and the revolving pole became the axle of the car of time and of the cart of the agricultural ,gonds44440 ,it seems easy to trace from the rude one-wheeled cart1 the evolution of the two-wheeled chariot1 the prerogative of royalty in ,india and ,assyria1 employed simultaneously with the regal umbrella1 which1 when twirled1 symbolized celestial axial rotation and suggested the idea of a protective deity4 ,the transition from the 8one-wheeled car0 of the oldest ,veda1 to which 8one horse named seven was yoked0 to the chariot of ,apollo8,seven10 whose lyre1 with seven chords1 struck the divine heptachord of the ,pythagoreans1 and who drove seven horses1 coincides with that of the umbrella which1 in ,greece1 was borne at the period of the summer solstice in the ,skirophoria or 8festival of the umbrella10 in honor of ,athene4 ,it is particularly gratifying to me1 as it so forcibly substantiates the views ,i have been enlarging upon in this investigation1 to refer here to ,hewitt's quotations 7p4 #g1 vol4 ,,ii7 from the ,rig-,veda1 in which the wheeled chariot1 closely identified with the year1 is said to be drawn by the father-horse1 with seven names1 the seven days of the week1 etc4 ,hewitt likewise cites passages of the ,rig-,veda containing the conception of year wheels1 the varying number of whose spokes agree with different divisions of the year4 ,thus one year-wheel exhibits twelve spokes1 denoting months1 another five spokes denoting five seasons4 ,a chariot1 with seven wheels with six spokes1 is explained as meaning the seven days of the week and the six seasons of the southern year4 8,all living beings rest on the five-spoked wheel1 444 the horses draw the never-aging wheel through space1 whence the eye of the sun on which all life depends1 looks down4 ,the seventh of those born together they call #8that born alone'3 this is the self-created thirteenth or central month2 the six twinned months are said to be those begotten of the gods4 ,they are arranged in their order1 six on each side of the central month1 by the leader who dwells above40 ,a striking analogy to the ideas ,i detected1 as associated with central rulership1 in ancient ,america1 is set forth in ,hewitt's statement that1 it was to the one wheel year 8that the ,hindus likened their universal monarch1 the ,chakravarta or king1 who sits1 like the ,kushite monarch1 as the father of his subject tribes1 in the central province of his dominions1 and directs his satellites1 the rulers of the seasons1 who became the ruling stars of the frontier provinces--the ,nakshatra stars--to turn the wheel 7chakra7 of time in its yearly round0 7op4 cit4 p4 #ca1 vol4 ,,ii1 see also p4 #cad477adg7 ,the single wheel1 without any indication of an utilitarian employment1 is found directly associated with the pole-star in ,japan1 where1 as in ,china1 the use of the wheel has been known from earliest times4 ,it will be for ,scandinavian archaeologists to enlighten us as to the earliest traces of the use1 by northern races1 not only of the wheeled chariot1 familiar to those who named ,ursa ,major1 ,thor's wagon1 but also that of the mill-stone4 ,the employment of the latter in the description of the 8revolving world mill-stone through which the waters of the ,universe fountain flowed10 is a proof that the ,eddas were written by an agricultural people1 possessing advanced methods of grinding or of extracting oil or juice from food stuffs4 ,the association of the ,norse mill-stone with the distribution of liquid1 appearing to indicate that1 like the oil-press of ancient ,india1 the stone-mill of ,scandinavia had been employed to extract fluids1 challenges investigation as to the original home of the mill-stone and chariot of the ,eddas4 ,personally ,i am inclined to regard the term 8world mill-stone0 as a modernized transcription of the term 8axle10 and the whole as a rendering of the archaic idea that 8heat was engendered by the revolution of the ,great ,bear0 and that the axle of heaven was the distribution of vital heat and vivifying water4 ,i shall await enlightenment as to the relationship of the ,norse tree of the pole and ,thor1 with the creating fire-drill of ,tur1 the father-god2 and the connection of the ,norse 8mill-stone0 and fountain1 to the fire-socket and celestial cistern of the ,kushites1 said to be the 8sons of the ,finnic ,ku1 the begetter and rain-god10 who1 having migrated to ,india and united with other races1 founded a mighty confederacy1 the plan of which is figured in ,hewitt's work 7p4 #bbj71 by 8the union of four triangles1 representing the southeastern and northwestern races1 444 with spaces left open for the parent rivers10 which flow towards the cardinal points 7see figure #gc1 c74 ,if we now revert to the first stages of the mental evolution1 the outcome of which we have been reviewing1 we cannot but recognize the curious1 but perfectly natural chain of reasoning which led early man to explain natural phenomena in different ways by the results of his own immediate observation and experience4 ,he had discovered that the rotation of the fire-drill generated fire2 consequently the rotation of the circumpolar constellations must generate life-giving heat4 ,the churning or twirling of liquid in a vessel1 by means of the drill1 caused an overflow2 consequently the action of the fire-drill also caused an external flow of life-giving waters1 which1 after the invention of the oil or grape press1 was compared to the flow of precious oil or wine from the receptacle4 ,high mountains attracted lightning-clouds and when these collected around their summits whence rivers constantly flowed1 life-giving rain descended2 consequently the tops of cloud-capped mountains must reach to the axle of the heaven where fire1 heat and rain were being generated and distributed by the rotation of celestial bodies4 ,as ,polaris the axle1 pivot or fire socket1 was immovable it could most appropriately be figured by a wooden or stone socket1 from which fire and water flowed towards the four quarters4 ,such an image would also figure a year1 and1 by extension1 time1 since it marked the four annual positions of circumpolar star-groups4 ,the adoption of a stone socket as an image of the 8revolving heaven0 could thus have long antedated1 but have suggested the invention of the wheel1 which was at first a religious and then became a royal symbol4 ,i venture to express the view that the archaic image of ,shamash 7fig4 #gc1 a71 the homonym of ,heaven and the ,north1 which was 8an ancient model0 at the time of ,nabupaliddin 7#hgi-hee ,b4,c471 could only have been invented by a race of pole-star worshippers who had long been acquainted with the uses of the fire drill and the oil-press4 ,at the same time ,i point out how remarkably the combination of four rays and four streams in the image of ,shamash 7,shameheaven7 coincides with the explanation given by ,hewitt 7p4 #i1 vol4 ,,ii7 of the ,akkadian eight-rayed star of ,anu 7heaven71 which1 he asserts1 is formed by the superposition of the fire-cross and rain cross4 ,it is a most remarkable and undeniable fact that there is a striking analogy between the ,anu sign as explained by ,hewitt and the ,shamash image4 ,the eight-rayed or 8spoked wheel0 of ,ishtar1 which figures on the same tablet1 also gains significance for the same reason1 and particularly when collated with the hymn cited in note #a1 p4 #ddh1 in which she is clearly designated as the 8axis of the heavens10 i4 e4 the female ,polaris4 ,having indicated how the origin of the image of ,shamash can be traced to conceptions arising from the use of the fire-drill and some primitive mode of extracting oil or of preparing a highly valued drink from seeds and plants1 by centrifugal action1 invented by a primitive agricultural people1 ,i advance the suggestion that the celestial tree of the ,norsemen and ,semites1 associated with the fountain and the four rivers of life1 appears as a closely related symbol which1 however1 mainly expressed the idea of stability4 ,in the ,eddas the tree occurs as a complement to the world axle1 the first as the emblem of stability and of a central power which dispensed shade and life-giving fruits in all directions2 the second as the image of centrifugal power which caused the star-groups to assume opposite positions and which impartially distributed heat and water4 ,it is curious to note how readily from the fire-drill and beam of the oil press as a starting point1 not only all forms of tree and pole worship and the ,chinese assignment of element wood to the ,middle1 but also all symbols of centrifugal motion1 such as the axle1 the pivot and the wheel1 could have evolved on closely parallel lines4 ,let us now transport ourselves to a land where1 to this day1 the ,indian women grind maize on a flat stone1 by means of a pestle1 where the oil-press and the mill-stone1 the pole of the threshing-floor1 the potter's wheel and the cart wheel were unknown before the date of the ,spanish ,conquest and rotatory motion was associated with the fire-drill and spinning whorl only4 ,,new ,,world4 ,the ancient ,mexican name for the fire-drill mamalhuaztli1 and that for spinning-wheelmalacatl1 are both derived from the verb malacachoato whirl1 turn or drill4 ,at the time of the ,spanish invasion 7,a4,d4 #aeai7 the ,mexican priesthood lit the sacred fire of the altar by an extremely primitive method of employing the fire-drill3 by holding it tightly between the palms of both hands and rapidly rubbing them alternately forward and backward4 ,the ,codices contain numberless pictures representing a priest1 in the act of kindling fire by inserting the drill in a simple wooden beam1 usually exhibiting several small holes or sockets4 ,on the other hand the ,borgian ,codex1 which has recently been placed within general reach by the generosity of the ,duc de ,loubat1 shows us two elaborate representations of the great ceremony of kindling the holy fire in a large circular socket1 on the body of a woman which1 in all cases is combined with the image of an alligator 7see p4 #ia74 ,in another ,codex the alligator alone supports the socket4 ,the smaller of these representations is reproduced in fig4 #bi1 and on pp4 #ic-ig this image is discussed as well as the remarkable stone fire altars in human form1 of which one has been unearthed near the city of ,mexico1 while no less than six were found at ,chichen-,itza4 ,my informant on this point is ,mr4 ,alfred ,p4 ,maudslay1 who added that they seem to have been invariably placed at the bottom of the stairs leading up to the temple1 the faade of which is always supported by two great columns1 each sculptured in the form of a great serpent with open jaws1 the symbol which1 in the bas-reliefs at ,chichen-,itza and on the ,central ,american stel1 recurs on the head-dresses of the rulers termed 8,divine serpents10 or 8divine four in ,one40 ,postponing comment upon the curious analogy between the stone fire altars in human form1 of the ,mayas and ,mexicans1 with those of the ,maghadas of ,northern ,india1 who called themselves the ,sons of ,magha the socket-block whence fire was generated by the fire-drill1 or the mother ,maga1 the sacred alligator1 let us examine the fire-drill god of ancient ,mexico4 ,reference to fig4 #a reveals that it is impossible to see these ,mexican representations1 which ,i could supplement by others1 and not be struck by their agreement with the descriptions of the ,hindu pole-star god ,dhruva1 who stands on one foot1 of the lame ,hephaistos of ,greek mythology1 to which ,i would add that ,hewitt also mentions in his preface to vol4 ,,ii the ,norse ,vlunde1 the maimed1 one-legged turner of the pole2 the god called in the ,rig-,veda the ,aja ekapad1 or one-footed goat1 who watched the revolutions of the solar disk1 and the one-legged bird of ,russian mythology1 associated with a revolving house and fire-drill4 ,in the ,mexican ,codices the ,mexican ,tezcatlipoca1 held by one foot to the centre of the north1 describes a circle around this4 ,his foot evidently constitutes the fire-drill1 which1 inserted in the socket1 causes smoke1 also rain and a serpent to issue from it 7see #e and #f74 ,one figure1 representing one leg only in the fire-socket1 and a head1 exhibiting a small1 smoking fire-socket1 appears1 in the light of comparative research1 as a cursive method of representing the fire-drill god1 universally associated with ,ursa ,major4 ,it is remarkable that1 in one case water and in another smoke1 indicating fire1 issues from the socket of ,tezcatlipoca's fire-drill1 and that1 opposite to the picture in the ,borgian ,codex1 representing the kindling of fire on the fire-altar1 we have the image of a pool of water from which four figures spring toward the cardinal points 7see fig4 #bi74 ,it is only after recognizing that1 like the people of the ,old ,world1 the ,mexicans associated with the fire-drill and socket not only the distribution of fire and heat1 but also of water1 that we also fully grasp the symbolism of the symbol of the 8,black or ,night ,sun10 from the 8,life of the ,indians10 which is but one of many simple forms exhibiting main features which recur on the highly elaborated ,mexican stone of the ,great ,plan 7fig4 #gc;b74 ,when placed in juxtaposition the undoubted resemblance between the ,babylonian image of ,shamash and the ,mexican image1 as well as the deep-seated identity of these two quadruplicate symbols stands out clearly3 in the ,babylonian1 wavy lines emanating from the centre convey the idea of some fluid essence4 ,in the ,mexican1 instead of the wavy lines1 the conventional representation of a drop of water is depicted--the idea in both cases being obviously identical and agreeing with the primeval universal conception of heat or fire1 and water emanating from a common source1 and flowing to the cardinal points4 ,in both cases an axle or socket is represented1 and it is instructive to study the different ways in which the symbol recurs in the ,mexican ,codices4 ,illustration4 ,figure #gc4 ,referring back to fig4 #a1 #a1 reproduced from the ,codex ,borgia1 we see the axle with rays issuing from a circular band of water4 ,a receptacle filled with water occupies the centre and contains a tecpatl1 the symbol of the north1 the same associated with the fire-drill god in the next figure4 ,in fig4 #a1 #d1 the central fountain is surrounded1 as in many instances1 by stars which connect it with the nocturnal heaven1 and it contains a rabbittochtli1 the rebus figure employed to express the word octli1 by which the rain was designated as 8earth wine0 7see pp4 #ie and #ahe74 ,as ,i write1 ,i have before me a whole series of painted representations from the ,codices of what has heretofore been misinterpreted as images of the diurnal sun4 ,in some of these the open centre is painted blue or green1 in others it is filled by a heart from which flows1 in some cases1 a stream of blood1 the essence of life4 ,in several instances a tree with four main branches grows from the centre47#adh7 ,in one case the tree grows from a pool and holds in its branches the image of the axle1 in the centre of which1 as in the ,humboldt ,tablet preserved at the ,berlin ,museum1 a figure is seated4 ,the centres of others exhibit the head of a divinity painted red1 a single eye1 or the ollin4 ,all examples establish the fact that the ,mexican 8axle of the ,north0 represented fire and water emanating from a single source4 ,in notable examples1 where the axle is carved in stone1 the identical features are conventionally reproduced4 ,some exhibit a depression or deep hole in the centre4 ,this is the case in the remarkable example at the museum in ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 where the axle is carved on the top of a square altar1 the corners of which exhibit symbols of the four elements1 each accompanied by the numeral #d4 ,the centre of the figure exhibits a carved ollin1 in the middle of which a deep hole is situated4 ,an analogous but shallow depression occurs in the great circular monument1 the ,conquest ,stone of ,mexico 7see p4 #bei71 around which ,tezcatlipoca1 the one-footed fire-drill god1 is represented sixteen times1 each time in the act of receiving the enforced homage of the chief or chieftainess of a different locality4 ,the above monuments1 as well as a rudely-carved representation of the 8sun0 recently discovered and unearthed by ,dr4 ,ed4 ,seler1 lying on a substructure of stones in the centre of an open space1 presumably a market place1 definitely proves that the design was intended to be placed in a horizontal position4 ,this intention has already been noted in the case of the ,great ,cosmical ,stone of ,mexico 7fig4 #ef71 on which the rays and intermediate water drops recur1 and are represented as emanating from the central ,nahui ,ollin1 the ,four in ,one1 which encloses the masked face of the divine ,twain4 ,a question naturally suggests itself at this juncture3 ,how did the ancient ,mexicans1 who utilized the fire-drill in its most elementary form and as far as is known1 employed no means of extracting oil or juice or of grinding food-stuff by a centrifugal process17#adi7 come to employ as a sacred symbol1 the axle or 8mill-stone0 which1 in ,india1 had been adopted as an image of central rotation1 by people who constantly used the fire-drill and the oil-press8 ,the strongest proof that the idea of a circular disk was associated in ,mexico with terra-cotta spinning whorls only1 is the fact that1 in the native description of the ,great ,temple recorded by ,sahagun1 a circular stone monument1 employed in religious festivals1 which the ,spaniards described as a 8stone wheel10 is termed in the ,nahuatl text as a 8te-malacatl0 i4 e4 a 8stone whorl40 ,further evidence of the close association of such 8stone whorls0 with thread or cord1 the product of spinning1 is furnished by the way in the ritual1 that the victim was attached by one foot to the open centre of the 8stone whorl0 and circulated around the stone which lay motionless4 ,on the other hand1 the sculptured zone on the ,great ,cosmical stone1 enclosing the day signs placed in their fixed order of rotation1 and the sculptured frieze on the ,tribute ,stone1 furnish direct evidence that circular movement was associated with the cosmical axle1 or disk4 ,it is obvious that the distribution of water combined with fire from a common central source1 represented as a mill-stone1 could not have been suggested to the native mind by the use of the fire-drill and socket and the spinning whorl only4 ,therefore we are obliged to face the question whether the cosmical figure may not have been introduced1 as a religious symbol only1 by a race of civilizers who1 though acquainted not only with the oil press and chariot but also with the ,akkadian star of ,anu1 the combination of the rain and fire crosses1 and with the ,assyrian-,babylonian image of ,shamash 7an elaboration of the same idea71 but in the absence of beasts of burden and sesame seeds in ,mexico1 had no opportunity1 or did not consider it feasible or necessary1 to teach the use of the chariot1 oil-press or circular mill stone to the natives4 ,before forming any conclusions or conjectures on this point1 however1 a number of other questions must be investigated4 ,one fact1 however1 stands out quite clearly3 ,whereas in figure #gc1 b1 we have the rudimentary form of the quadruplicate symbol1 closely resembling that which was already ancient and almost obsolete in ,babylonia in the ninth century ,b4,c4 and pertained to a cult of ,shamash1 the ,north and ,heaven1 which had flourished in that country about #ahej ,b4,c41 the ,great ,cosmical ,stone of ,mexico represents the highly advanced development and elaboration of the identical cult1 as actually established there until the year #aeai of our era4 ,pausing here and looking back upon the foregoing summary of the universal spread of identical forms of social organization and of rituals suggested by the use of the fire-drill1 in association with a primitive pole-star cult1 there are a few distinct and unrelated points which claim special attention3 ,first of all1 the identity in the form of the fire-altar and the cult of the fire-socket1 among the ,maghas and ,nahushas of ,india and the ,mayas and ,nahuas of ,yucatan and ,mexico4 ,secondly1 the striking resemblance of plan and numerical scheme which unquestionably existed between the ideal 8divine polities10 recorded by ,plato1 and the states which actually existed1 of ancient ,peru and ,mexico4 ,it is impossible to read ,plato's scheme of an all-pervading division into #ab1 and his plan for the laying out of the capital and state and not to recognize the fact that1 in ,peru1 as set forth on pp4 #acc-adi of the present work1 these identical principles were actually carried out by the alien ,incas who1 in comparatively modern times1 collected the natives together and organized them into a settled community4 ,thirdly1 the undeniable fact that the numerical scheme of the ,maya and ,mexican ,calendar and state-organization is identical with that adopted by ,constantine1 in establishing ,new ,rome4 ,postponing a closer examination of these points until further on1 let us now continue our comparative review4 ,the universal spread of the identical scheme of organization1 vouched for by documentary evidence1 is further demonstrated by the results of archaeological and historical research and a comparative study of ancient symbolism4 ,thus it is impossible not to admit the striking and deep-seated analogy between the ,assyrian four-fold division of city and state1 the title 8lord of the four regions0 and the image of ,shamash1 the 8four-spoked wheel20 the ,indian1 ,egyptian and ,grecian philosophical conceptions of four elements1 culminating in ,plato's ,cosmos and ,theos 7an entity1 spherical in shape1 incorporating four elements7 and1 for instance1 the quadruplicate symbol carved in the centre of the ,mexican ,cosmical ,tablet1 which exhibits the symbols of the same four elements embodied in a single symbol1 representing the supreme power1 who is thus proven to have been conceived by the ,mexicans1 as well as by the ,peruvians1 as 8the ,air1 ,earth1 ,fire and ,water in ,one10 or the source of the four elements47#aej7 ,when it is likewise considered that the ,mexicans employed the divine title1 8four times lord10 that the ,maya title 8,kukulcan10 signifies the 8,divine ,four10 that the ancient map of ,mayapan proves that1 like the ,kushite confederacy1 and the kingdoms of ,assyria1 ,egypt and ,peru1 it was a 8,four provinces in ,one0 or a 8four-fold state10 the identity of the principles underlying the archaic civilizations of the ,old and ,new ,world becomes more and more apparent4 ,it likewise becomes evident that in each of these countries the significance and symbolism of the archaic cross-symbol and swastika must have been identical1 and that1 like the pyramid 7the form of which1 in the ancient ,greek alphabet1 is given to the letter delta which expresses1 numerically1 four1 a quatuor1 or #d1jjj7 and the square stone altar or column1 it figured the ,four in ,one1 the mystic ,five or the ,four and all-embracing ,one4 ,the following array of facts demonstrates further the universal association of archaic cross-symbolism with the conception of an all-embracing1 stable1 central power4 ,a striking demonstration of this is furnished by the diagonal cross1 employed as a ,chinese character1 to express the word wfive1 just as it is used1 in ,egyptian hieratic script1 to express the syllables uu1 un or ur 7see fig4 #fj74 ,sometimes1 in ,chinese1 a horizontal line is drawn above the cross and another beneath it1 and ,john ,chalmers informs us that1 according to the ,shoh ,wan1 this 8full form means the five elements between heaven and earth1 the upper line being heaven and the lower earth40 ,the sign thus obviously constituted an image of the ,cosmos1 the #eb;heaven and earth1 thus furnishing the familiar seven directions in space1 the chief and synopsis of which is the sacred ,centre4 ,the association1 in ancient ,america1 of the cross-shape with central stable power1 has already been discussed in the case of the ,copan swastika1 p4 #bbb4 ,at the time when ,i wrote about this and carved stel found at ,quirigua and ,copan1 ,i had not yet learned of the remarkable discovery made there1 by ,mr4 ,george ,byron ,gordon of the ,peabody ,museum ,honduras ,expedition1 which furnishes me with the most striking confirmation of the conclusion ,i expressed on p4 #bbj1 namely1 that the personages1 whose portraits are sculptured on the stel1 were high-priest rulers1 who bore the title 8,divine ,four10 and were 8rulers of the four regions40 ,referring the reader to ,mr4 ,gordon's report1 published in vol4 ,i1 no4 ,i1 of the ,peabody ,museum ,memoirs1 ,i merely note his verification that1 beneath several stel examined for this purpose1 there exist subterraneous vaults1 in the form of the so-called ,greek cross1 above the exact centre of which the stela stands1 its base being inserted in the stones forming the ceiling of the chamber4 ,in one case the length of the cruciform vault is over nine feet from eastern to western extremity1 the width of the branches being one foot and their depth two feet4 ,over thirty vessels of pottery were found in this1 amongst them large urns with covers4 ,it would appear from this that1 like the ,egyptians1 the ancient builders of ,copan performed certain ceremonial rites in connection with the construction of these artificially cosmical centres4 ,what seems quite clear is that the subterraneous vault constituted a sacred cosmical chamber and that the stel were memorial stones1 which probably represented the image of a lord1 and the record of his fixed term of office which formed a period or era of the native calendar 7see p4 #bba74 ,the stela which formed the stable1 visible centre of the hidden substructure may also have been employed as a gnomon during some period of time1 and in the monument the initiated must undoubtedly have recognized the underlying cosmical conceptions1 and regarded it as a highly developed form or variant of the archaic cross1 the primitive record of a year4 ,it is remarkable how closely analogous are the ,central ,american stel with their hidden cruciform vaults1 to the conception of the ,egyptian 8star of ,horus0 explained by ,hewitt as the meridian pole raised in the centre of a cross denoting the four quarters4 ,the most striking evidence of a close affinity between the ancient ,central ,american ah-men1 or master-masons1 who built cruciform windows in the walls of temples and designed the cruciform vaults under the stel at ,copan and ,quirigua1 and the amanteca or tolteca1 the master-architects and builders of ,mitla1 ,mexico1 is furnished by ,mr4 ,m4 ,h4 ,saville's recent excavation of three remarkable subterraneous1 cruciform chambers1 the largest of which is situated on the summit of a high hill near ,mitla4 ,the interior of the latter is elaborately decorated with geometrical designs1 like those on the exterior of the ,mitla palace4 ,the extreme length from east to west is #im4 #ga;cm41 from north to south #hm4 #ah;cm41 and its roof was composed of large flat stones4 ,the entrance to this and the other cruciform vaults is situated at the extremity of the western arm1 which in the case described was longer than the other arms4 ,the most remarkable example of such a cruciform crypt is1 however1 that situated beneath the palace of ,mitla1 which has been figured by ,dupaix in ,lord ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities1 vol4 ,,ix4 ,this vault is also built of the shape of a so-called 8,greek0 cross1 but in its centre stands a large circular stone column reaching from floor to ceiling4 ,it is impossible not to recognize the symbolism of this pillar situated in the centre of a structure1 the form of which symbolizes the ,four ,quarters and the fundamental identity of the column occupying the centre of the ,mitla chamber and the ,copan stel standing above the centre of the hidden cruciform vault4 ,details associated with the pillar which stood in the ,great ,temple of ,mexico 7p4 #ec71 and the 8pedestal0 erected on the hill of justice at ,guatemala 7p4 #gi7 definitely show that1 in ancient ,america1 the column was also associated with star-cult1 with the administration of justice and central celestial and terrestrial government4 ,investigation has shown that precisely the same ideas were associated with the circular1 square or octagonal columns of ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome and ,japan1 where they either constituted the images of the central supreme divinity1 formed the support for the statues of earthly 8divine0 rulers1 or marked the centres of the cosmos or state1 bearing inscriptions of the sacred laws as in ,athens1 or of the distances to all points of the empire1 viz4 the ,roman ,milliarum ,aureum4 ,it is remarkable to find that1 whereas in ancient ,byzantium the centre of the city had been marked by a column surmounted by a colossal statue of ,apollo1 a pillar or pole god1 ,constantine erected a 8spacious edifice1 from the centre of which all roads of the empire were measured40 ,considering that1 at the time when this edifice was built1 the ancient quadruplicate plan had been revised and the empire of ,new ,rome had been divided into four parts by ,constantine1 it seems reasonable to infer that the form of the great edifice which marked the territorial centre of the new empire bore the impress of the cruciform plan1 and that the shape of the cross should have been adopted throughout the empire1 in edifices marking central consecrated places4 ,how much of the true spirit of the ,christian ideal of universal brotherhood entered into the constitution of ,constantine's ,new ,rome it is impossible to conjecture4 ,niebuhr denies that ,constantine was a ,christian1 records that he was only baptized shortly before his death1 and states that the religion of ,constantine 8must have been a strange compound indeed1 something like the amulet recently discovered at ,rome1 which is an example of that curious mixture of ,judaism1 ,christianity and ,paganism which we so frequently meet with from about the beginning of the third century407#aea7 ,in an extremely interesting monograph 8,on the origin of the cruciform plan of the medival ,cathedral10 by the distinguished architect1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,m4 ,wheelwright1 published in the 8,transactions of the ,boston ,society of ,architects1 #ahia10 ,i find the significant fact that what is now the little church of ,s4 ,tiburce1 ,rome1 in the form of a ,greek cross1 was built at the time of ,constantine4 ,the same monograph teaches that 8de ,rossi discovered in the catacombs of ,rome two scholia of a plan called specifically triclinium1 of a date previous to ,diocletian and probably of the third century4 ,in such were celebrated1 by the presbyters1 the memorial feasts of martyrs1 the congregation assembling outside4 ,tombs of a positive cruciform plan are also found in the catacombs4 ,in the fifth or sixth century cruciform buildings became in the ,east1 and wherever ,byzantine influence was potent1 the recognized form for tombs1 mortuary chapels and buildings commemorative of holy places4 ,these types seem to have been given1 by ,byzantine architects1 special recognition of the purpose of their construction and to have appeared to them as monuments requiring a symbolical expression of plan1 while they evidently did not consider such symbolical expressions requisite in buildings planned for general congregations1 which1 although of types without distinct association with the ,christian faith1 were held1 for several centuries1 to be sufficiently well adapted to purposes of ,christian worship without material change from their ancient form that of the ,roman ,basilica40 ,referring the reader to ,mr4 ,wheelwright's monograph for interesting data concerning the ,byzantine influence discernible in the early types of ,christian churches of cruciform plan erected in northern ,italy and ,europe1 ,i merely note here that in ,st4 ,sophia1 founded by ,constantine1 and completed by ,justinian1 8the load of the dome is thrown on four great piers disposed at either corner of a square4 ,these great piers1 with the corresponding buttresses of the outer wall1 suggest a possible symbolical intent in the arrangement 444 otherwise the cruciform plan here suggested is expressed neither externally nor internally40 ,i venture to suggest that in ,st4 ,sophia1 8,holy ,eternal ,wisdom10 as in the case of the ,pantheon1 the dominant idea may have been the all-embracing unity1 but that1 as the number four was identified with 8wisdom and justice0 by the widespread ,pythagorean philosophy1 that number must have seemed1 to the initiated1 to pervade the entire structure4 ,in the case of the ,church of the ,nativity at ,bethlehem1 where it was ,justinian's intention to mark a sacred locality1 we find the cruciform plan clearly carried out4 8,the church of ,st4 ,simeon ,stylite at ,kelat ,seman ,syria1 built about ,a4,d4 #ejj1 is a most interesting example of a cruciform church1 marking a sacred spot and associated with a sacred column40 8,the church of the seventh century built at ,sichem1 over the well of the ,samaritan1 shows a distribution of plan similar to that of ,s4 ,simeon ,stylite1 the holy object being at the crossing4444 ,there are existing at ,st4 ,wandrille and at ,querqueville in ,normandy1 two 7cruciform7 triapsidal churches of a date prior to the ,norman conquest 444 a well preserved four-apsed tomb chapel exists at ,montmajour near ,arles1 built in #ajai2 the detail and plan of which point to a ,syrian prototype and resembles two buildings of an early date now existing in ,dalmatia40 ,the use of the cruciform type of church1 anterior to the great revival of purely ,christian religious architecture in the thirteenth century1 was confined to ,picardy and the ,rhenish provinces1 fine churches of this type being at ,cologne1 ,bonn1 ,marburg1 etc4 ,it is interesting to recall that the building of sacred structures is attributed to 8secret organizations of free or enfranchised operative masons which existed during the middle ages1 and possessed grades of officers and secret signs by which1 on coming to a strange place1 they could be recognized as real craftsmen and not impostors40 ,to this day1 in some parts of ,germany and ,bohemia1 the swastika is the sign or mark of the stone-mason's guild which has survived from the medival times4 ,in the organized bands of masons whose mark was the swastika and who introduced ,eastern cosmical symbolism into ,europe and gradually developed1 upon this basis1 a purely ,christian form of architecture1 we may perhaps see the descendants of those ancient builders who1 filled with the conception of the sacred ,central power1 the ,four ,quarters1 the ,above and ,below1 planned the square1 seven-stoned zikkurats of ,babylonia-,assyria1 the pyramids1 obelisks and sphinxes of ,egypt1 the columns and cruciform tombs and sanctuaries of ,greece1 ,asia ,minor and ,rome1 the cruciform temples and the topes of ,india and the domes of the ,pantheon and ,st4 ,sophia47#aeb7 ,it would appear that these ancient builders were also the designers and founders of cities and states4 ,it is1 for instance1 known that ,hippodamus1 the son of ,euryphon1 a ,milesian1 and by profession an architect1 gained celebrity in his own art by constructing the ,pirus at ,athens and by improving the method of distributing streets and planning cities 444 and also wrote a treatise concerning the best form of government4 ,a kinship of thought undoubtedly exists between the trained builders of cosmical structures in the ,old ,world and the ah-men1 the amantecas and toltecas of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 who also reared pyramids1 cruciform vaults1 circular temples1 with openings to the four quarters 7see fig4 #cj1 p4 #ig71 altars and pillars1 and in their temples wrought1 in stone1 endless variations of the great human theme3 the sacred central1 stable power1 the four quarters and elements1 and the heaven and earth with the dualities of ,nature1 and likewise instituted an artificial scheme of social organization1 a calendar and religious rites based on these same fundamental principles1 which can be traced back to primitive pole-star worship4 ,it has been of utmost interest to me1 as ,i was approaching the end of the present investigation1 to become acquainted with ,hewitt's work and his view that it was the seafaring ,turanians1 originally a northern race1 the worshippers of ,turthe pole1 who claimed descent from the seven stars of ,ngash1 the serpent,ursa ,major1 and1 from ,india1 extended their trade and carried their form of social organization and religious cult first to the ,euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to ,egypt and ,syria1 where they were known by the ,greeks as the ,phnicians4 ,the subjoined detached passages1 which open out new fields of inquiry1 not only appear to me to establish conclusively this view1 but certainly afford most interesting information concerning the ancient race of pole-star worshippers1 seafarers1 builders and handicraftsmen who1 according to ,hewitt 7p4 #be71 extended their emigrations not only to ,europe but also to ,america47#aec7 ,hewitt bases the latter assertion upon the identity be perceived 8between ,akkadian and ,american mythological traditions40 ,as the limit of the present inquiry excludes mythology1 ,i cannot discuss here the evidences of similarity produced by ,hewitt4 ,i must express regret1 however1 that he designates a tribe of ,pueblo ,indians 7the ,sias1 related to the ,zuis71 as 8,mexican0 7see vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdc1 etc471 a term which1 in this case1 is decidedly misleading4 ,his identification of the truly ,mexican1 8teo-cipactli0 as a 8fish-god0 is unfortunate1 as numberless conventionalized drawings in the ,codices prove that cipactli signifies alligator4 ,if the somewhat limited and vague evidence1 produced by ,mr4 ,hewitt1 appeared to justify his conclusion1 how much more must an identity of social organization and cult such as ,i have traced1 not only authorize but also render it imperative1 that the possibility of pre-,columbian contact should be thoroughly looked into4 ,disclaiming any desire to formulate hasty conclusions1 and merely for the sake of gaining information by looking squarely at facts1 ,i shall now rapidly enumerate some of these which undoubtedly appear to corroborate ,hewitt's further assertion that 8the ,mayas and ,nahuas of ,yucatan and ,mexico were emigrants of the ,magha and ,nahusha tribes1 who pertained to the race of navigators known by the ,greeks as the ,phnicians 444 and who continued in their new land1 ,america1 the worship of the rain god1 to whom1 as their fathers in central ,asia1 they dedicated the sign of the cross0 7,hewitt1 p4 #dib74 8,the ,maghas were the ,finnic long-haired race of star- and fire-worshippers who1 starting from ,phrygia1 as the ,takkas conquered northern ,india 444 who called themselves the sons of the ,northern pine tree1 called in ,phrygia1 as by the ,northern ,finns1 ,mathe mother2 also the sons of the mother-goddess ,magha1 the socket block whence fire was generated by the fire-drill2 who is also worshipped as the mother ,maga under the form of the alligator4 ,consequently the alligator was their totem40 ,in ,essay ,,viii ,hewitt states that these 8sons of the great witch-mother ,maga0 lived in ,magnesia1 whence they emigrated to ,thessaly and that theirs was the 8city of the ,magnetes0 referred to by ,plato as 8the mother of laws40 ,the word mag1 however1 meant great in ,akkadian1 hence according to ,hewitt the name ,makkhu1 the high priests or ,magi 7vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ed74 ,the ,maya and ,mexican fire altars and sockets and their association with the earth-mother and alligator in the native ,codices has been discussed4 ,the ,mexican day-sign cipactli figures an alligator and is associated with a female deity4 ,the alligator altar at ,copan1 is described on p4 #bbh4 ,were it not for limit of space additional testimony could be cited here1 proving that in ,mexico the alligator was associated with the mother of the race1 the fire-socket1 and was a tribal totem4 8,as the mother ,maga she is the maker or kneader1 the mother of the building and constructing races 444 they were the first builders of towns4444 ,they adored the god of the twirling or churning fire-drill4444 ,they employed the name ,ku1 ,ukko1 ,pukka and ,pukan to designate the rain and thunder god and star-god who guides the stars in their courses and rules the beginning of the year0 7,hewitt1 p #dch74 ,the ,finnic and ,esthonian 8,ukko is also called ,taivahan ,napanen1 meaning the navel of the heaven and this is called the place of the pole star1 the star at the top of the heavenly mountain0 7vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aee74 ,compare ,ku in ,maya list1 appendix ,,iii1 also ,tezcatli-poca or puca,mexican fire-drill god1 ,ursa ,major4 8,they worshipped ,nag or ,nagash1the serpent and fire-drill constellation of ,ursa ,major1 and consequently called themselves also the sons of ,nagathe ,nahushas4 ,they worshipped the ,pleiadesthe mother stars44440 ,the ,nahuas traced ancestry to seven stars of ,ursa ,major and began their religious year at the culmination of the ,pleiades at midnight4 8,the ,nagas united with the navigating ,shus or ,phnicians 444 the red men1 who worshipped the ruler of heaven4444 ,these ,shus 444 called in the ,north1 ,hus 444 were the ,sumerian trading races of the ,euphratean delta and ,western ,india1 who traced their descent to ,khu1 the mother bird of the ,akkadians1 ,egyptians and ,kushites4444 ,they reverenced the sacred #8shu' stone1 the begetter of fire and of life fostered by heat1444 designated as the precious stone1 the strong stone1 the snake stone1 the mountain stone4444 ,the pregnant mountain of the ,shu stone was to the ,akkadians the central point of the earth4 ,the people who are said in the ,rig-,veda to have first found fire by the help of ,matarishoan1 the fire-socket1 and to have brought it to men1 and are said to have placed it in the navel of the world 444 as the sacred ,shu stone40 ,it should be added here that the ,hittite sign for ,ishtar was a triangle enclosing a stone3 8the mountain enclosing the stone of life40 ,about #bgj ,a4,d4 the ,tutul-xius7cf4 ,kukul7 under a great chief or lord ,kukulcan reigned at ,chichen-,itza 444 7p4 #bjf74 ,in ,mexico the name for turquoise is xiuitl and the god of fire is named ,xiuh-tecuhtli4 ,jadeite is designated as chal-chiuitl and is associated with ,chalchiuitlycue1 the mother-goddess4 ,the spark-producing1 flint knifetecpatl is also employed as a symbol of generation4 8,their kings1 like those of ,egypt1 wore the urus serpent as a sign of royal authority and made this the emblem of kingly rank in countries so widely distant from one another as ,india and ,egypt44440 ,we learn from ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce 7,ancient ,empires of the ,east1 p4 #bjj71 that customs that had originated in a primitive period of ,semitic belief survived in ,phnician religion and that clear traces of totemism are found amongst the ,semites4 8,tribes were named each after its peculiar totem1 an animal1 plant or heavenly body4444 ,david1 for instance1 belonged to the serpent-family1 as is shown by the name of his ancestor ,nahshon1 and ,professor ,smith suggests that the brazen serpent found by ,hezekiah in the ,solomonic ,temple was the symbol of it4 ,we find ,david and the family of ,nahash1 #8or the serpent1' the king of ,ammon1 on friendly terms even after the deadly war between ,israel and ,ammon1 that had resulted in the conquest and decimation of the latter40 ,the name of the culture hero ,kukulcan or ,quetzalcoatl incorporates the word serpent in ,maya and ,nahuatl4 ,the conventionalized open serpent's jaw forms the usual head-dress of the lords sculptured on the ,central ,american stel and bas-reliefs4 ,the existence of totemism in ,america is too well known to require comment1 and the arbitrary method by which it was established by the ,incas of ,peru1 when they founded the new colony1 has been described4 8444 ,i have already shown that the snake-father of the snake races in ,greece and ,asia ,minor and of the matriarchal races in ,india was the snake ,echis1 or ,achis1 the holding snake1 the ,vritra1 or enclosing snake of the ,rig-,veda1 the cultivated land which girdled the ,temenos4 ,this was the ,sanscrit and ,egyptian snake ,ahi4444 ,but the ,naga snake was not the encircling snake1 but the offspring of the house-pole and in this form it was called by the ,jews the offspring or ,baal of the land4 ,but as the heavenly snake it was the old village snake transferred to heaven1 called the ,nag-ksetra1 or field of the ,nags1 and there it was the girdling air-god who encircled the cloud mothers1 the ,apsaras1 the daughters of the ,abyss1 the ,assyrian ,apsa1 and marked their boundaries as the village snake did those of the holy grove on earth4 ,but on earth the water-snake was the magical rain-pole1 called the god ,darka1 set up by the ,dravidian ,males in front of every house 4440 7p4 #aid74 8,they are the ,canaanites1 or dwellers in the low country1 and the ,hivites or the villagers of the ,bible and the race of ,achans of ,greece4 ,these are the sons of the ,achisthe serpent1 the having or holding snake1 the girdling snake of cultivated land which surrounded the ,temenos or inner shrine1 the holy grove of the gods0 7,hewitt1 p4 #age74 ,attention is drawn here to the twin serpents which enclose the ,mexican ,cosmical ,tablet 7fig4 #ef71 whose bodies may be seen to consist of a repetition of the conventional sign for tlalliland1 consisting of a fringed square4 ,each square in this case encloses a sign resembling that of firetletl and the numeral ten4 ,these girdling serpents1 whose heads unite1 being directly associated with land1 appear as the counterpart of the ,old ,world ,achis1 a curious fact when it is considered that they are represented as springing from the sign ,acatl 7see p4 #beg74 ,on the other hand1 the heavenly 8feathered serpent0 of ,mexico and ,yucatan is distinctly associated with the air and the circle2 its conception curiously coinciding with that of the 8girdling air-god0 mentioned by ,hewitt4 ,it is well known that the walls enclosing the court of the ,great ,temple of ,mexico1 were covered with sculptured serpents1 and at ,xochicalco1 ,mexico1 and in ,central ,american ruins 7,uxmal1 for instance71 great sculptured serpents surround the buildings4 ,it is remarkable that the sign ,acatl not only figures conspicuously on the ,great ,american ,tablet1 but also on the allegorical figure of the 8,divine ,serpent10 which may well represent the totemic divinity and ancestor of a snake tribe1 associated with the word ,acatl1 possibly conveying their name4 ,the undeniable association1 in ,mexico1 of the serpent with ,acatl1 curiously agrees with the name of the 8sons of ,achis1 the serpent0the ,achaians3 and deserves consideration4 ,in the ,genesis genealogy of the kings of ,edom1 the land of the red man1 the priest king of the ,hus or ,shus is mentioned 8444 his people had replaced the ,tur1 the stone pillar1 the ,egyptian obelisk by the temple1 the home and symbol of the creating god1 who had been the pillar of the house4444 ,but in their eyes the father-god was not the central pillar but the two door-posts and thence they called the temple gates ,babel or the gates of god4444 ,this gate was guarded by the holy twins4444 ,the doorposts1 and night and morning are invoked in the ,rig-,veda4444 ,the ,magas were the discoverers of magic1 mining1 metallurgy1 handicrafts--the pioneers of scientific research and the first organizers of a ritual of religious festivals40 ,twin pillars1 sculptured in the form of great serpents1 whose names signify twinship1 support the entrances to the ancient temples of ,yucatan1 ,central ,america1 and have been found on the site of the ,great ,temple of ,mexico4 ,the ,mexican and ,maya accounts of the culture hero ,quetzalcoatl-,kukulcan state that he and his followers were 8great necromancers0 and magicians and that they taught handicrafts1 metallurgy1 and instituted calendar1 social organization and ritual4 ,a personal1 close examination of a large number of old ,peruvian and ,mexican as well as ,coptic textile fabrics1 has convinced me moreover of their identity of technique4 8,the ,magas sacrificed dogs14444 ,they wore long hair14444 ,they made human sacrifices in order to obtain rain0 7,hewitt74 8,the ,phnician priests scourged themselves or gashed their arms and breasts to win divine favor4444 ,human sacrifices were made1 to ,moloch or ,milkom 444 the parent was required to offer his eldest or only son as a sacrifice and the victim's cries were drowned by the noise of drums and flutes0 7,sayce74 ,the human sacrifices of ,mexico are familiar to all4 ,the native dog and various kinds of birds were sacrificed4 ,the ,mexican priests1 named papas1 wore long hair1 practised asceticism1 gashed their breasts1 arms and legs and pierced their ears and tongues4 ,on the ,palenque bas-reliefs1 priests with long hair are sculptured4 ,the human sacrifices of ,mexico and those of ,egypt1 ,phnicia and ,assyria1 described by ,sayce and ,hewitt 7pp4 #bge and #cdh71 are closely alike4 ,see also ,hewitt's account of the blood brotherhood made between the sacrificer and the land on which the blood is poured 7p4 #aif71 and the ,chichimec blood sacrifice described in the present work1 p4 #ff4 ,the foregoing are a few noteworthy analogies which have impressed themselves upon me during the present course of investigation1 in addition to the many undeniable and unsuspected evidences ,i have found1 of an identity of star-cult1 ritual and social organization in ,old and ,new ,world civilizations4 ,it will be seen that the outcome of my researches corroborates the opinions differently expressed by a long line of eminent investigators1 who have been constantly discovering and pointing out undeniable similarities and identities between the civilizations of both hemispheres4 ,it seems to me that an accumulation of evidence now forces us to face and thoroughly investigate the possibility that1 from remote antiquity1 our continent and its inhabitants were known to the seafarers of the ,old ,world1 to whose agency the spread of similar forms of cult and civilization in the ,new ,world is to be assigned4 ,while those who uphold the autochthony of the native civilization may regard such identities as accidental1 those who are willing to admit the possibility that the ,phnicians1 the red men of antiquity1 whose land was ,syria1 navigating by the pole-star1 may have reached ,america1 will doubtlessly dwell upon the unquestionable fact that the most ancient traces of organized and settled communities actually exist along the coast swept by the equatorial currents4 ,a glance at an ordinary chart exhibiting the ocean currents and trade winds shows that vessels sailing southward from the ,canary ,islands and caught in the north ,african current1 might1 at a certain point1 enter the north equatorial current flowing towards the coast of ,america4 ,further southward still1 off the coast of ,guinea1 the current bearing this name meets the main equatorial current which sweeps along the coast of ,honduras and ,yucatan into the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,what is more1 ancient well-known tradition asserts that the culture-hero ,kukulcan-,quetzalcoatl1 with his followers1 came to ,mexico from the ,east 7via ,yucatan7 and told the natives of their distant home1 named ,tlapallan and ,huehue tlapallan which1 translated1 mean 8the red land0 and 8the great ancient red land40 ,native ,american tradition unquestionably and unanimously ascribes to single individuals of aged and venerable aspect1 or leaders of small bands of men and women of an alien race1 the peaceable introduction of a definite plan of civilization1 identical in its elements with that known to have existed in ,india1 ,egypt and ,babylonia-,assyria from time immemorial1 and said to have been spread to these countries by the ,phnicians4 ,native tradition1 therefore1 is seen unanimously to controvert the independent development of the cosmical schemes of government and most advanced forms of civilization which prevailed in ,america at the ,columbian period4 ,this1 of course1 in no wise excludes the existence of purely native people1 with a certain degree of civilization1 more rudimentary in form1 founded on impressive natural phenomena1 which the natives had always been in a position to observe for themselves4 ,in order to obtain an insight into conditions which might have determined and affected maritime intercourse with distant ,america1 let us now make a rapid survey of the history of the ancient civilizations of the ,old ,world4 ,this reveals1 in the first case1 the undeniable fact 7one of deepest significance in the light of the present investigation7 that the period of a general stirring of men's minds1 in countries where pole-star worship had prevailed from time immemorial1 exactly coincides with the period to which ,i alluded on p4 #dc1 during which there ceased to be a brilliantly conspicuous and perfectly immovable pole-star in the northern heavens4 ,from ,mr4 ,hinckley ,allen's work 7p4 #ded71 ,i have since learned that astronomers have closely determined this period1 and that ,miss ,clerke writes of this3 8,the entire millennium before the ,christian era may count for an interregnum as regards pole-stars4 ,alpha ,draconis had ceased to exercise that office2 and ,alruccabah had not yet assumed it40 ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce tells us that the ,phnician pilots steered by the pole-star in remotest antiquity1 and it is a matter of history that 8,pytheas of ,massilia1 the bold navigator 7died about #bhe ,b4,c471 showed the ,greeks that the pole-star was not at the pole itself40 ,previous to that date1 however1 the astronomer-priests must have noted the change in the heavens4 ,on descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers1 whose entire religion and civilization were based on the idea of fixity and rotation1 the unaccountable change in the order of the universe must indeed have produced a deep impression4 ,under such conditions it seems but natural that a great awakening of doubt and speculation should take place1 that worship should be transferred from stars known to be subject to change1 to the unseen1 incomprehensible but ever-present eternal power which ruled the universe4 ,let us examine some of the records of the great intellectual movement that swept at one time1 like a wave1 over the ancient centres of civilization4 ,the eighth1 seventh and sixth centuries before our era are marked by the growth of the ,ionian philosophy which1 as ,huxley tells us1 8was but one of many results of the stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the ,aryan-,semitic population of ,western ,asia4 ,the conditions of the general awakening were doubtless manifold1 but there is one which modern research has brought into great prominence4 ,this is the existence of extremely ancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the ,euphrates and the ,nile4444 ,the ,ionian intellectual movement is only one of the several sporadic indications of some powerful mental ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the gean and ,northern ,hindustan444407#aed7 ,professor ,schroeder's statement that1 8in the seventh century ,b4,c41 the idea of four1 i4 e4 five elements1 spread in ,india10 is particularly interesting in connection with the date assigned to the birth of the ,ionian intellectual movement4 ,of ,pythagoras it is related that1 like ,solon1 8he had visited ,egypt1 also ,phnicia and ,babylon1 then ,chaldean and independent1 and founded a brotherhood originally brought together by a religious influence1 with observances approaching to monastic peculiarity1 and working in a direction at once religious1 political and scientific40 ,according to the learned translator of ,cicero's first ,tusculan disputation7#aee7 8it is generally accepted that ,pherecydes of ,syros 7one of the ,cyclades islands in the gean sea7 was the teacher of ,pythagoras4 ,pherecydes1 who flourished about ,b4,c4 #edd is said to have derived his knowledge from the secret books of the ,phnicians and from travels of inquiry in ,egypt40 ,through ,philolaus 7see ,grote ,,iv1 p4 #cie1 note #b71 ,pythagorean science was made known to ,plato1 whose views are quoted on p4 #ddi4 ,grote states that1 about #cjj ,b4,c41 the ,pythagorean philosophy nearly died out4 ,it is a curious fact that this date coincides1 approximately1 with the destruction of ,tyre 7,tsar1 in ,phnician1the rock71 the last stronghold of the ,phnicians1 8which had defied ,assyrian1 ,babylonian and ,persian but at last fell10 according to ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 8in ,july1 ,b4,c4 #ccb1 before the ,greek conqueror ,alexander4 ,thirty thousand of its citizens were sold in slavery1 thousands of others massacred and crucified and the wealth of the richest and most luxurious city of the world became the prey of an exasperated army4 ,its trade was inherited by its neighbor ,sidon0 7op4 cit4 p4 #aid74 ,it is obvious that1 at this period1 bands of fugitives may well have taken refuge in traders' ships and sought safety in flight to distant regions1 where they might establish themselves and found colonies on the pattern of ,tyre or of ,carthage which1 in ancient times had also been founded by fugitives and been named 8the new city10 ,karthakhadasha 7,sayce74 ,while the great historical events which marked the fourth century ,b4,c4 seem to have arrested the spread of ,pythagorean philosophy1 we find that1 according to ,grote1 8in the time of ,cicero1 two centuries later1 the orientalizing tendency1 beginning to spread over the ,grecian and ,roman world1 caused it to be again revived1 with little or none of its scientific tendencies1 but with more than its primitive religious and imaginative fanaticism4444 ,it was taken up anew by the pagan world1 along with the disfigured doctrines of ,plato4 ,neo-,pythagorism1 passing gradually into ,neo-,platonism1 outlasted other more positive and masculine systems of pagan philosophy1 as the contemporary and revival of ,christianity0 7op4 cit4 ,,iv1 #cih74 ,neo-,platonism reached its height under its chief ,plotinus 7,a4,d4 #bje-bgj7 who sought to reconcile the ,platonic and ,aristotelian systems with ,oriental theosophy4 ,his pantheistic and eclectic school was the last product of the ,greek philosophy47#aef7 ,it is1 at all events1 remarkable1 that the date tradition assigns to the presence of ,kukulcan in ,yucatan and the foundation of the quadruplicate state of ,mayapan coincides with the dying out1 in ,europe1 of pagan philosophy1 one of the features of which had been the elaboration of ideal forms of government based on a numerical and cosmical scheme1 the elements of which had apparently been spread by the ,phnicians4 ,in ,copan and ,quirigua we find remnants of long-established1 peaceable communities revealing no trace of war-like weapons1 and the memorial stel of whose rulers stand above hidden cruciform vaults1 while carved personages are represented as seated in the centre of ornate crosses4 ,in ,yucatan1 through which land the foreign civilization seems to have reached the plateau of ,mexico1 there are significant traces of an ancient city1 named ,zilan1 situated on the ,atlantic coast2 proofs that buildings of cosmical forms were erected2 that the state of ,mayapan was laid out on the familiar cosmical plan2 that repeated migrations took place1 and that1 from time immemorial1 a calendar1 on the same numerical basis as that of ,mexico1 had been in use4 ,the great state of ,mayapan1 where a remarkable stone cross was found at ,cozumel by the ,spaniards1 is shown to have been figured as a circle within a circle1 the whole divided into four parts by cross-lines4 ,here1 as in ,chiapas and ,mexico1 all divisions of government1 population and time are organized on a numerical scheme representing the combination of #debj i4 e4 an entire finger and toe count1 8a whole man10 with the #ac directions in space4 ,the multiplication of #ac and #bj results in a unit of #bfj which1 as a cycle of time1 represents the complete set of all harmonious combinations of man the miniature image of the living state1 with the thirteen directions of space in the all-embracing ,cosmos1 composed of four primary elements4 ,in consonance with this we find the existence of #bj 7or #de7 lords1 whose names correspond to those of the #d chief and #af minor day-signs of the calendar1 and of a lord by election1 whose name signifies the thirteen divisions or parts1 and who constituted a microcosmos1 a ,four in ,one4 ,in regular rotation the #bj lords1 consisting of #d chief and #ddafminor rulers fulfilled duties towards the supreme representative who resided in the capital1 while they respectively lived in four provinces1 the population of which was subdivided into four tribes each of the #bj divisions of the state being again divided into #ac parts4 ,in a cosmical state like this in which each individual not only felt himself to be a unit and a microcosmos1 but also an indispensable part of a living organism1 under the form of which the state was symbolized1 its inhabitants1 leading lives regulated by a calendar based on the phenomenon of circumpolar rotation1 under a chief ruler entitled the 8,four in ,one10 assisted by four sub-rulers1 must indeed have felt that they 8lived1 moved and had their being0 in the ,teotl or ,theos1 imagined as the embodiment of the four elements4 ,in this connection it is interesting to learn that 8the animal0 itself1 of ,plato1 is considered by eminent authorities to have been the tetrad4 ,in ,zui1 where1 at the present day1 each individual feels himself identified with some part of the body of a quadruped1 his clan totem1 the conception of the state as 8a living animal10 is an actual reality4 ,their pueblo moreover represents a #fag1 or a 8seven in one10 the miniature counterpart of the far distant ,ooraon village of ,chota ,nagpore and of the ancient archaic kingdoms of ,india1 ,persia1 ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 etc4 ,anciently the ,zuis called themselves the ,ashiwi1 a name remarkably like that of the ,ashvins1 derived from the ,akkadian ashsix4 ,i revert again here to the following landmarks1 which may perhaps furnish a useful 8working hypothesis0 for future investigation4 ,in ,mexico the pyramids of ,cholula and of ,teotihuacan seem to render testimony of the1 possibly consecutive1 establishment of ideal states amongst tribes 8capable of subjection0 by ,toltecas1 or 8,master-,builders10 who1 according to their method1 used the building of a great structure1 requiring time and united labor1 as a means of organizing a new community or colony4 ,it may be that the period of their completion coincided with the establishment of the ,calendar system1 beginning with the number one4 ,in my ,preliminary ,note on the ,ancient ,mexican ,calendar ,system 7,stockholm #ahid71 ,i demonstrated how1 by reconstructing the ,calendar cycles1 it was possible to determine exactly when the native system was adopted4 ,according to my demonstration1 which has now stood unchallenged for six years1 a fresh year cycle began in #aejg ,a4,d41 with the year sign ,,ii ,acatl and the day #b cipactli4 ,for a cycle to be associated with the number two it is obvious that it must have been preceded by a cycle ruled by number one1 therefore it may be safely inferred that the cycle ,,ii ,acatl that commenced in #aejg followed a cyclical period of #dacebbjahdj years 7p4 #cb74 ,accordingly the date when the ,mexican system was instituted in the form which existed at the time of the ,conquest1 may be fixed as corresponding to the year #dfg of our era4 ,considering that the ,calendar system was1 however1 but one part of the machinery of government1 was inseparable from the organization of tribes1 classes and individuals1 and that its institution signified the foundation of a state1 it is remarkable to ascertain that1 but #acg years previously1 ,constantine1 in ,a4,d4 #ccj1 had instituted the empire of ,new ,rome1 on precisely the same numerical basis as that of the ,mexican ,calendar1 and divided it into #d parts or prefectures1 each subdivided into #ac1 yielding a total of #eb prefectures4 ,moreover1 as far back as the institution of the ,kleisthenean democracy1 the ,greeks had been familiar with an extremely intricate and close union of calendar and government system1 such as existed in ,babylonia-,assyria and1 as ,i have shown1 in ancient ,mexico4 ,it is certainly suggestive that the period of #acg years1 which elapsed between the establishment of ,new ,rome on a partly revived and partly amended or remodelled plan1 and the foundation of the great democracy of ancient ,mexico at the date inferred1 is unparalleled in the history of mankind for religious persecutions1 carried on in ,egypt1 ,greece and ,rome1 following upon three centuries marked by the growth and spread of ,christianity and the persecution of its followers1 the destruction of ,jerusalem and the persecution of the ,jews4 ,it was in ,a4,d4 #cgi that ,theodosius1 the ,greek1 proclaimed ,christianity the religion of his empire and instituted a relentless persecution of the ,arians and followers of the ancient ,egyptian religion4 ,under ,arcadius1 ,emperor of the ,east 7,a4,d4 #cie71 the ,anthromorphites1 who affirmed that ,god was of human form1 destroyed the greater number of their opponents4 ,under ,marcianus 7,a4,d4 #dea71 ,silco invaded ,egypt with his ,nubian followers and the ,council of ,chalcedon condemned the ,monophysite doctrine of ,eutyches4 ,later1 under ,justinian 7,a4,d4 #ebg71 the ,monophysites separated from the ,melchites and chose their own patriarch1 being afterwards called ,copts4 ,it is impossible to close one's eyes to the fact that1 during this period of persecution and massacre1 imminent peril of death must have forced many a band of the priests and followers of the ancient ,egyptian and other religions to seek safety in flight4 ,the events which took place in ,egypt between ,a4,d4 #cgi and #dea1 culminating in ,silco's invasion1 must unquestionably have been deeply felt by the descendants of the ancient ,phnician1 ,carthaginian and ,grecian exiles1 fugitives and mercenaries who1 during countless centuries1 had founded colonies along the ,libyan coast1 and pushed migration further westward along the coast line4 ,migrations from these regions would doubtless have resulted in the remarkable combination of archaic star1 fire-drill and socket worship found in ,yucatan and ,mexico1 existing alongside of a highly developed and perfected philosophical scheme of social organization identical1 in principle1 with that which1 in the ,old ,world1 constituted an ideal which was the result of centuries of experience and active intellectual life4 ,the present investigation1 in which ,i have collected more material than it has been possible to present in this publication1 brings out facts tending to show that1 originally1 both hemispheres were peopled from the ,north1 and that1 in antiquity1 at intervals1 an extremely limited intercourse was kept up between the ,old and ,new ,worlds4 ,the obvious fact that navigation must have been seriously impeded by the interregnum of ,polaris1 lasting for many centuries1 would explain a prolonged isolation of ,america anterior to the ,christian era4 ,whereas the equatorial currents facilitated the voyage to ,america1 the same favorable conditions did not accompany navigation in the same latitudes in a reverse direction1 and this suggests the probability that few who set out for 8the hidden land10 ever returned to the port whence they sailed4 ,investigation seems to reveal that influences1 emanating from the most ancient centres of ,old ,world civilization1 reached sundered regions of ,america at different times1 and that they could have been carried there by a seafaring and building race such as the ,minyans1 the ,magas1 the ,phnicians or their descendants4 ,if such were the case it would be reasonable to expect that1 in ,america1 traces of words associated with the archaic set of ideas would be found1 and the same method of writing4 ,let us now refer with prudent reservations as to the possibility of their being accidental1 to the striking resemblances which undoubtedly exist between certain names for ,god1 ,heaven1 ,north1 ,middle1 etc41 in the languages of the most ancient civilizations of the ,old ,world and the ,maya and ,nahuatl4 ,for convenient reference and without detailed comment1 these words are presented as ,appendix ,,iii4 ,too much importance must not1 of course1 be given to these linguistic analogies2 at the same time we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that these broken fragments of language1 traceable to ,india1 ,babylonia-,assyria1 ,egypt and ,greece1 are found1 in ,america1 clinging tenaciously to a set of cosmical ideas and a scheme of organization identical in both hemispheres4 ,it has been surprising to me1 for instance1 to learn1 by carefully collecting facts1 that whereas ,professor ,sayce tells us that the supreme god of the ,phnicians was named ,yeud or ,ekhad1 the supreme god of the ,mexican ,chichimecs 7literally1 ,red race7 was named ,youalli-,ehecatl1 which signifies1 literally1 night-air or wind4 ,i likewise ascertained that1 whereas the word yau or yu signifies the source or origin in ,chinese1 is linked to a character forming a cross and is homogeneous with ,yaou ,sing1 a star in ,ursa ,major1 described as 8revolving10 the ,mexican name for the pole-star god was ,yaual or ,yohual ,tecuhtli1 the lord of the circle or of the night4 ,again there is a remarkable similarity between the ,mexican yauallicircle and the verb yoli or yulito resuscitate or vivify2 the ,chinese uito turn around1 and the ,scandinavian yul1 yeul or yol wheel1 also the festival of the winter solstice1 when nature seemed to resuscitate4 ,whereas the significance of the above ,mexican1 ,chinese and ,scandinavian names1 is clear1 no meaning has1 to my knowledge1 been attached to the ,semitic name for the supreme god1 which1 as ,professor ,sayce informs us1 was pronounced ,yahu or ,yaho or ,yahve 7see ,appendix1 list ,i74 ,other striking resemblances are found between the names for handicraftsman and master-builder in widely distant countries4 ,thus1 in ,phrygia1 we have the ,daktuloi1 the builders who erected monuments decorated with cross-symbols arranged so as to form a geometrical design1 such as represented in fig4 #gb1 #b4 ,in ,oaxaca the ,toltecatlbuilders and handicraftsmen1 erected the walled temple and cruciform structures at ,mitla1 and decorated them with geometrical designs4 ,reliable authorities teach us that 8the ,hittites were the northern minyan or menyanmeasurers1 a building race0 7,hewitt72 that ,aha-,mena1 the first historical ruler of ,egypt1 was a builder2 that the name of ,amun1 the god of the ,ammonites1 signified 8the builder40 ,dictionaries reveal that1 in ,america1 ,maya-speaking people designated a master builder or handicraftsman as ah-men1 or menyah which1 in ,nahuatl1 became amanteca4 ,in ,yucatan the name for ,north was ,aman or ,xaman2 the building race of civilizers seems to have been associated with that region1 which the ,arabians named ,shamaliyy4 ,in the ,babylonian-,assyrian ,shamash1 the ,sanscrit ,brahman and the ,egyptian ,amen-ra1 we seem to have but different forms of the same word1 which recurs in the ,akkadian-,sumerian ,sama1 or anthe revolving heaven 7see ,appendix1 list74 ,it is to philologists that ,i refer the question whether the resemblances1 in sound and meaning1 of certain words ,i have found associated1 in widely sundered countries1 with the universal cosmical set of ideas1 are merely accidental or whether they furnish indication of a remote common origin or of contact at a later period4 ,it will interest me particularly to learn their opinion as to the oldest forms of the words2 and whether there is really no clue to the meaning of the ,hebrew ,yahu and the ,phnician ,yeud-,ekhad4 ,one is tempted to inquire whether the ,chichimecan ,youalli-,ehecatl was not the same and whether this and other analogies do not constitute evidence tending to establish that ,mexico was a ,phnician colony in which during centuries of isolation the archaic forms and meanings of ,phnician words were preserved4 ,it is my hope that these lists will be carefully examined and explained by competent authorities1 to whose judgment they are respectfully submitted4 ,whether they will be accounted for in one way or another1 these lists will be found to establish the existence of striking resemblances which1 by themselves1 might not carry weight1 but which unquestionably gain in significance when found in conjunction with cosmical conceptions1 social organization1 forms of architecture and cross-symbolism1 which appear universal4 ,a few words here concerning the undoubted general resemblances that exist between the ,chinese and ,japanese1 and ,central ,american methods of organization--resemblances which even extend to certain words directly traceable to ,western ,asiatic influence in the case of the ,eastern ,asiatic civilizations4 ,the existence of marked differences between the ,chinese and ,maya-,mexican numerical systems and determination of elements1 appears to exclude the possibility that dominating ,asiatic influences could have reached ,america via ,china and ,japan after the still existing1 crystallized forms of government and calendar had been established in the latter countries4 ,as far as ,i can judge1 the great antiquity attributed1 by ,chinese historians1 to the establishment of the governmental and cyclical schemes1 still in use1 appears extremely doubtful4 ,referring the question to ,sinologists1 ,i venture to ask whether it does not seem probable that the present ,chinese scheme dates from the lifetime of ,lao-tze1 in the sixth century ,b4,c41 a period marked1 as ,i have pointed out1 by the growth of ,ionian philosophy1 one feature of which was the invention of numerical schemes applied to 8divine polities0 and ideal forms of government4 ,future investigation may1 perhaps1 prove that 8the powerful mental ferment0 alluded to by ,huxley1 as spreading between the eighth and ninth centuries ,b4,c41 over the whole of the area comprised between the gean and ,north ,hindustan1 was caused by the growth and diffusion of plans of ideal states1 which would naturally suggest and lead to the formation of bands of enthusiasts1 who would set out in search of districts where they could carry out their principles and ideals4 ,personally1 ,i am strongly inclined to assign the origin of the ,chinese and the ,mexican schemes1 which are identical in principle1 to the same source1 and to believe that they were carried in opposite directions1 at different periods1 by seafarers and colonists1 animated by the same purpose4 ,favorably established in distant regions1 both grew and flourished during centuries1 constituting analogous examples of an immense1 submissive1 native population living under a highly perfected1 artificial1 numerical1 scheme of religious government1 preserved intact and enforced by a ruling caste1 who possessed superior knowledge and claimed divine descent4 ,it is1 of course1 to ,chinese and ,japanese scholars and to archaeologists1 some of whom constitute the able staff of the ,jesup ,expedition1 who are investigating the question of ,asiatic contact1 that ,i look for further information and enlightenment as to prehistoric contact between ,china and ,america47#aeg7 ,the foregoing investigation seems to have shown that in all countries alike1 at one period or other1 the cross-symbol or swastika expressed absolutely the same meaning4 ,primarily the record of a year1 which suggested the division of the heaven into four parts1 it had come to signify the establishment of communal life on a basis of fixed law1 order and harmony4 ,like the number four itself which1 in ,pythagorean philosophy1 is identified with wisdom and justice 8because it is the first square number1 the product of equals10 the cruciform symbols have been the emblems of justice1 equality and brotherhood4 ,from the dawn of human history1 the cross1 therefore1 appears to have expressed a plan as simple as it was noble and great1 which consisted in peaceably uniting men1 on principles of good-will1 peace1 equity1 equality and mutual help1 of instituting and organizing communal life1 and of regulating its activity in accord with the immutable laws which govern the movements of celestial bodies1 causing the circumpolar constellations to assume opposite positions1 forming the sign of the cross1 and marking seasons1 days and years1 all testifying to the existence of a single1 all-ruling1 all-pervading1 stable and eternal central power1 who thus controlled not only the heavens but1 by a human representative1 the earthly kingdom1 laid out on the celestial plan4 ,considering that no less an authority than ,st4 ,augustine has asserted 8that which is now called the ,christian religion existed among the ancients1 and in fact was with the human race from the beginning10 it is permissible to ask whether the above scheme does not strikingly substantiate his dictum1 afford a deep view under the surface of accumulated dogma and a perception of the mighty principle that has been at work from the beginning of all things and was understood by many at that time when 8the people that sat in darkness saw great light1 and to them which sat in the region and shadow of death light sprang up40444 8,from that time ,jesus began to preach and say1 #8,repent3 for the kingdom of heaven is at hand' 0 7,matthew ,,iv1 #af1 #ag74 ,adopting the cross as the emblem of his earthly mission he said3 8,if any man will come after me1 let him take up his cross and follow me40 ,by the words3 8,i bear in my body the mark of the ,lord ,jesus10 ,st4 ,paul designates the recognized 8mark0 to have been the quadruplicate cross of the ,saviour1 who charged his apostles to preach1 saying3 8the kingdom of heaven is at hand0 and promised them that 8ye which have followed me in the regeneration1 when the ,son of ,man shall sit in the throne of his glory1 ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones1 judging the twelve tribes of ,israel0 7,matthew ,,xix1 #bh74 ,the mother of ,zebedee's children came unto him asking that her sons might sit 8the one on thy right hand and the other on thy left1 in thy kingdom0 7,matthew ,,xx1 #bj74 ,repeatedly1 the ,teacher1 referring to children1 said 8of such is the kingdom of heaven10 or 8,except ye be converted and become as little children ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven40 ,st4 ,paul and his followers were designated as 8those that have turned the world upside down 444 doing contrary to the decrees of ,csar1 saying that there is another king1 one ,jesus0 7,acts ,,xvii1 #f and #g74 ,it is well known that the early ,christian church was persecuted because1 from the first1 it preached a total regeneration of human society and its restablishment of a basis of peace and good-will1 social equality1 absolute justice1 mutual aid1 respect and sympathy1 unselfish1 disinterested subservience of the individual to the interest of the community4 ,it was for the sublime principle of a religious democracy and the regeneration of human society that1 in an age of tyranny1 oppression and bloodshed1 the early ,christian martyrs laid down their lives4 ,the foundations of religious orders were as many attempts to realize the ,christian ideal1 and to this day the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 whose clergy and religious orders unquestionably afford a splendid living example of devotion to a common cause1 self-abnegation1 obedience and humility1 clings to the ideal of a state in which temporal power is wielded by a hierarchy raised to rulership from all ranks1 merely by virtue of personal1 moral and intellectual qualities4 ,throughout the ,christian church the ideal of religious democracy prevails4 ,each day it is prayed for in the words 8,thy kingdom come10 by those taught to look forward to the promise of the time when 8former things are passed away and a holy ,jerusalem shall descend out of heaven from ,god1 lying four-square1 with twelve gates1 and at the gates twelve angels and names written thereon which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of ,israel 444 and the wall of the city had twelve foundations and in them the names of the twelve apostles of the ,lamb14444 ,and ,i saw no temple therein1 for the ,lord ,god ,almighty and the ,lamb are the temple in it 444 but the throne of ,god and of the ,lamb shall be in it4444 ,and he showed me a pure river of water of life1 clear as crystal1 proceeding out of the throne of ,god and of the ,lamb4 ,in the midst of the street of it and on either side of the river was there a tree of life1 which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month 4440 7,revelation1 chaps4 ,,xxi and ,,xxii74 ,it appears significant1 in the light of the present investigation1 that the birth of ,christianity1 as well as the revival of pagan systems of philosophy1 embodying principles for the organization of religious brotherhoods and ideal democracies1 should coincide with the spread of the great tidings that a star had been seen by the ,magi1 or 8wise men of the ,east1 who came from the east to ,jerusalem40 ,occurring1 as it did1 after 8the interregnum as regards pole-stars10 during which nomadic tribes and seafarers had vainly sought the fixed star which had guided their forefathers1 the appearance of a brilliant pole-star must have seemed doubly significant and revived1 among pagan philosophers1 the ideal of an earthly kingdom ruled by ,heaven4 ,the advent1 at this time1 of the ,messiah who1 with his twelve disciples1 announced that the kingdom of heaven was nigh and taught that ,god was to be worshipped in the ,spirit only1 must indeed have appeared particularly impressive and well-timed4 ,faithfully clinging to the ideal of a regenerated religious democracy1 the early ,christian church maintained itself through centuries of persecution and is slowly advancing1 amidst almost overwhelming and innumerable difficulties1 towards its realization4 ,returning to ,mexico we find that its civilization at the time of the ,conquest was precisely what might be expected if a small body of men of superior wisdom and experience1 such as was possessed by a remnant of ,grco-,egyptian philosophers1 had embarked in ships manned by the descendants of ,phnician seafarers1 and found refuge in the 8land of the ,west10 amongst simple1 docile people1 existing in large numbers1 who1 treated 8as little children and instructed with love and gentleness1 willingly submitted themselves to the guidance of their teachers40 ,a single1 short-lived generation of these would have amply sufficed for the establishment of the governmental system and calendar1 the firm institution of a 8celestial kingdom10 and the spread of knowledge of the technique of various arts and industries deemed most useful to the natives4 ,on the other hand1 the foreign element1 whose aims were chiefly ideal1 could have left little or no impression upon the evolution of the native race1 its art and industry1 which doubtlessly followed its original independent line of development4 ,it is remarkable how the echo of great events in ,old ,world history seem to have reached the ,western hemisphere4 ,in the ,old ,world the eleventh and twelfth centuries were marked by a revival of religious enthusiasm1 by the ,crusades1 the persecution of infidels by the ,christian world and by a general stirring amongst oriental people1 the descendants of the ancient pole-star worshippers4 ,historical records and traditions accord in stating that in about the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era1 the civilizations of ,mexico1 ,yucatan and ,central ,america underwent a great period of warfare1 pestilence and famine1 leading to the disintegration of the great ancient centres1 to numberless migrations1 and to an assumption of dominion in ,mexico by a fierce warrior-race who increased the number of human sacrifices4 ,it seems significant that it is to this troublous period in the history of ancient ,america that the advent of the ,incas in ,peru is assigned by native tradition1 which also records the existence of more ancient centres of civilization situated around the ,titicaca lake4 ,the foundation of the ,inca empire is assigned to as late as about #abjj ,a4,d4 7see p4 #adh1 note #a71 and all who compare ,plato's scheme for the restablishment of the holy polity of the ,magnetes1 and the description of the ,peruvian 8,four in ,one0 state1 must admit that the latter constitutes the most perfect example known1 of a community based on those numerical principles which were considered most perfect by ,plato4 ,at a first glance one might be tempted to conclude that the foreign civilizers of ,peru1 the ,incas1 were acquainted with ,plato's twelve-fold scheme and deliberately established or restablished a 8divine polity0 accordingly1 naming it the 8,four in ,one0 and instituting the worship of a supreme divinity designated as 8,earth1 ,air1 ,fire and ,water in ,one10 in consonance with the cosmical theory said to have been first formulated by ,empedocles about ,b4,c4 #ddd1 and adopted by ,plato4 ,reflection shows1 however1 that no such conclusion is justifiable until competent authorities have thoroughly investigated and satisfactorily established how far the ideas of ,empedocles and ,plato were original and how far they incorporated older philosophical ideas1 such as were preserved by the ,egyptian priesthood or had been disseminated by the ,phnicians47#aeh7 ,nevertheless it is an undeniable fact that the ,inca colony constitutes a most valuable object-lesson of a 8cosmical state0 founded on precisely the numerical scheme and principles of organization advocated by ,plato4 ,reflection shows1 moreover1 that such a polity could only have been established and maintained itself during centuries1 in a land free from enemies and amongst docile people 8apt for subjection40 ,a significant result of a critical comparison of the celestial kingdoms of ,peru and ,mexico is the perception that1 in the former1 as in ,egypt1 a hereditary sovereignty was exercised by male and female sacerdotal rulers of a 8divine line of descent40 ,on the other hand we find1 in ,mexico1 a state of affairs in exact accordance with ,montezuma's account of the behavior of his predecessors towards the lord who had led them and presided over the foundation of the ,mexican empire4 ,during his absence they1 his vassals1 established democratical principles and when he returned1 having intermarried with women of the country and founded new cities1 they refused to recognize his authority and let him depart4 ,from ,montezuma himself we learn that1 although they thus emancipated themselves from their former lord1 they continued to regard themselves as dependent and owing allegiance to the mother-city whence they had come4 ,until the time of the ,conquest1 however1 they were governed by rulers whom they elected1 and who had risen in rank merely by virtue of their moral and intellectual distinction4 ,it is indeed deeply suggestive and impressive to realize that1 in antiquity as in modern times1 the ,american ,continent seems to have been sought1 as a place of refuge1 by men whose ideals have been state institutions founded on democratic principles4 ,the ancient polities of ,mexico and ,peru and1 what is more1 the archaic ,pueblos of to-day1 alike furnish examples of conditions1 such as undoubtedly existed in ,mediterranean countries in ancient times and inspired ,greek statesmen and philosophers to plan ideal polities1 and must have preceded the creation of the ,jewish and early ,christian spiritualized ideal of a ,new ,jerusalem1 pervaded throughout by the ,divine ,spirit4 ,in conclusion1 there are a few points which ,i recommend to the consideration of students4 ,different writers have1 as ,prescott summarizes1 with certainty discerned in the highest ,american civilizations1 a ,semitic or an ,egyptian or an ,asiatic origin4 ,this remarkable combination of features1 distinctively characteristic of the said civilizations1 actually existed amongst the ,phnicians who1 as ,professor ,sayce relates1 were allied to the ,semitic race1 were affected by contact with their cousins the ,arameans or ,syrians1 penetrated to the coast of ,india1 derived their art from ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 and later from ,assyria1 and 8knew how to combine together the elements it had received and to return them1 modified and improved1 to the countries from which they had been borrowed40 ,in the case of ,india and ,china it is an established and accepted truth that an active communication existed between these countries and ,asia ,minor1 which was carried on by a race of seafarers and colonists4 ,when it is realized that1 through them1 distant regions became known and accessible1 and that at one time in the history of ,greek philosophy1 for instance1 statesmen1 philosophers and mathematicians alike rivalled each other in planning ideal states1 based on the identical principle3 the harmonizing of human life with ,nature's laws2 it seems but rational to infer that1 at different times1 bands of enthusiasts1 adopting one numerical scheme in preference to another1 and led perhaps by its inventor or disciples1 set out in search of distant countries where they could undisturbedly establish 8celestial kingdoms0 according to their ideal plan4 ,to such an enterprise as this ,i venture to assign the establishment of the celestial kingdom of ,china1 drawing attention to ,biot's statement1 cited on p4 #bih1 that year cycles 7i4 e4 the sociological and chronological system since in use7 were introduced there from ,india1 after the ,christian era4 ,this being the case1 contrary to the claims of a much greater antiquity by ,chinese scholars1 the present form of the 8celestial kingdom0 appears to date from the arrival in ,china1 from ,persia1 of ,semitic emigrants1 during the first century of our era 7see p4 #cjc71 and to have undergone a certain re-modelling in the first half of the sixth century1 after the arrival of a band of ,syrian ,christians 7p4 #cjd74 ,pointing out that these dates would make it appear as though the cyclical systems of ,india and ,eastern ,asia had been formulated under the direct or indirect influence of ,greek philosophy1 ,i observe that the date of their introduction and establishment assigns them to approximately the same period which produced the numerical scheme adopted by ,constantine1 ,maya and ,mexican calendrical and chronological scheme4 ,at the period when ,constantine established ,new ,rome and instituted four divisions of the empire1 each divided into thirteen yielding a total of fifty-two prefectures1 there lived in ,byzantium a philosopher and rhetorician 7#cae-cij ,a4,d47 whose name was ,themistius and who filled the office of prefect of ,constantinople4 ,it is well known that the attempt thus to organize the empire proved fruitless and that the proclamation of ,christianity as the religion of his empire by ,theodosius ,i 7#cgi ,a4,d47 inaugurated a prolonged persecution of pagan religion and philosophy 7see p4 #ecj74 ,is it inadmissible to consider at least the possibility that1 disappointed and driven from their land1 some of those who clung to the ancient ideal1 and were acquainted with the perfected scheme of state organization instituted by ,constantine during the lifetime of ,themistius1 carried it at a later period1 to the 8hidden land0 of the ,west and established it there1 where it was preserved intact until the time of the ,spanish ,conquest8 ,is it by accident only that one of the names of the capital of ancient ,mexico1 as preserved in the writings of ,corts and ,bernal ,diaz is ,temistitan1 literally 8land of ,temis10 the ,nahuatl language not furnishing any meaning to the latter word8 ,can it be that1 just as the word ,teotl1 resembling ,theos1 is found on ,mexican soil1 employed with the same meaning as in ,greek1 the name ,temistitan means 8the land of established law1 order and justice0 dedicated to the ,greek ,themis1 just as ,new ,rome was dedicated to ,sofia,wisdom8 ,or did some sort of connection exist between the name of the ,mexican capital1 the system on which it was established and the philosopher ,themistius8 ,is it by chance merely that the state calendar of ,temistitan was based on #daceb divisions1 and that ,themistius of ,byzantium1 a member of that school of philosophy which had evolved numberless plans and numerical schemes for ideal states1 should have held one of the #daceb prefectures during ,constantine's reign8 ,in order to make the most rapid advance towards a solution of the great problem of the origin of ,american civilizations1 ,i venture to suggest that ,orientalists and ,americanists should combine and freshly study it from opposite points of view4 ,one side might be taken by those who incline to admit the possibility that a few ,phnician traders discovered the ,american continent in ancient times and that1 subsequently1 those to whom they imparted their discovery and their successors1 the daring ,greek navigators1 conveyed thither1 at intervals1 bands of refugees or enthusiasts who braved danger and death1 in the hope of reaching the blessed land where1 free from persecution1 they could found ideal democracies or divine polities4 ,besides studying and adding to the numberless similarities which have been cited by so many different authorities and to which ,i have added a modest contribution1 let them produce evidence showing the improbability that the identical forms of cult1 religion1 social organization1 calendar cycles and numerical schemes should have been independently evolved two or more times by distinct races4 ,on the other hand1 let those who hold the view that ,american civilization was purely autochthonous1 advance grounds for the supposition that it developed a school of philosophical speculation and that ,america produced its ,empedocles and its ,plato4 ,let them also formulate the psychical law which caused the ,american race to formulate the four elements1 recognized as such by the philosophers of ,india and ,greece1 and not the five of ,chinese philosophy2 and to evolve numerical schemes applied to social organization1 identical with those current in ,india1 ,western ,asia and the ,mediterranean countries1 but different from that employed in ,china and ,japan4 ,it will also be incumbent upon them not only to disprove ,american traditions1 which record the introduction of a higher civilization and plans of social organization by strangers1 but also to demonstrate that1 although in ancient times1 ,phnician traders carried on an active traffic with ,britain1 daring the perils of the ,bay of ,biscay1 they could not possibly have ventured across the southern ,atlantic1 even in the most favorable seasons4 ,it has remained a source of sincere regret to me that circumstances prevented my attending the ,orientalist ,congress which met at ,rome1 in ,october1 #ahii1 under the presidency of the illustrious ,count ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 to whom credit is due for having first suggested and planned that a section of the ,congress should devote itself to the discussion of prehistoric contact or connection between the ,old and ,new ,worlds4 ,with an apology for my non-attendance and consequent failure to aid in organizing the section and carrying out a plan which met with my enthusiastic approval1 ,i venture to submit the present investigation to the ,president and officers of the ,orientalist ,congress with the earnest hope that it may contain material and suggestions for fruitful discussions during the next ,congress held1 and that these may be carried on in a section devoted to the consideration of facts relating to prehistoric ,america and its relation to the ,old ,world4 ,,summary ,,and ,,conclusion4 ,in the preceding pages the view is advanced that the ancient cross-symbol or swastika was first used by man1 presumably in circumpolar regions1 as a record of the opposite positions assumed1 by circumpolar constellations1 in performing their nocturnal and annual circuit around ,polaris4 ,employed as a year sign in the first case1 the cross or swastika later became the symbol of the ,four ,quarters1 of quadruplicate division and of a stable central power whose rule extended in four directions and controlled the entire ,heaven4 ,at some remote period of antiquity man developed the idea of social organization and1 in ,india1 ancient ,egypt and ,babylonia-,assyria1 actual proofs exist that the earliest cities and states were divided into four quarters1 a division involving the distribution of the population into four tribes under a central chief4 ,wherever this division was carried out1 it represented an attempt to harmonize human society and the establishment of the ideal of a religious democracy1 founded on principles of law1 order1 justice1 peace and good will4 ,the pyramid1 a primitive form of which consisted of four stories1 and cruciform sacred structures1 may be regarded as monuments commemorating a cosmical and territorial organization into four parts4 ,the more extended conception of seven directions in space1 consisting of the ,above and ,below1 or ,heaven and ,earth1 the ,four ,quarters and the sacred ,middle1 the synopsis of all1 was also evolved4 ,in the confederations of ,india and ,iran1 and ,arabia1 in the seven-storied towers of ,babylonia1 and in the division of the ,egyptians into seven classes1 we find the earliest traces of a practical application of this numerical division4 ,the ancient historical records of ,egypt and ,greece reveal that1 in the earliest polities1 the population was divided into groups consisting of a fixed number of individuals1 officially represented by chieftains1 or officers of the state1 and that1 in consequence1 a state formed a unit1 constituted according to a mathematical scheme1 which was also applied to the regulation of time4 ,each officer of the state held office for a fixed term1 in a prescribed order of rotation4 ,the year was divided into a fixed number of seasons1 marked by the positions of a circumpolar constellation1 and this therefore appeared to regulate not only the cycle of time but the governmental rotation of office and the entire activity of the community4 ,starting from a common basis of quadruplicate division in different countries1 a great variety of constitutions of state was independently invented by statesmen and philosophers1 who devised cycles produced by different combinations of numbers and signs1 the object being to regulate time and communal life in imitation of the law1 order and harmony existing in the motion of the stars and under the guidance of a supreme ruler1 the earthly representative of ,polaris4 ,the origin of these ideas and governmental scheme1 in the ,old ,world1 is assigned by competent authorities to a northern race which had discovered the art of fire-making and evolved a religious cult and ritual suggested by it1 in association with pole-star worship4 ,their civilization is supposed to have been developed by contact with a southern race1 in ,phrygia1 and to have been carried at a remote period by their seafaring descendants to ,india1 ,asia ,minor1 ,egypt and beyond the pillars of ,hercules1 to ,european countries1 situated on the ,atlantic4 ,the present investigation brings into prominence the fact that1 just as the older ,andean art closely resembles that of the early ,mediterranean1 an observation first made by ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam17#aei7 so the fundamental principles1 numerical scheme and plan of the state founded by the foreign ,incas in ,peru1 resembled those formulated by ,plato in his description of an ideal state4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 on which the writer lays utmost stress1 that1 whereas there is a marked difference between the ,chinese and the ,mexican and ,peruvian divisions of the elements and numerical cycles1 the ,american systems exactly agree with those propounded by ,greek philosophers and said to have reached them from more ancient centres of culture1 presumably through the ,phnicians4 ,on the other hand1 there undoubtedly exist remarkable analogies between the ,chinese and ,hindu and ,mexican sociological1 chronological1 cyclical systems1 their principles being precisely the same4 ,these close analogies as well as the marked divergences which have been noted can only be satisfactorily accounted for by the assumption that each of these countries derived their civilization from the same source4 ,over and over again different writers have pointed out undeniable analogies and resemblances between the highest forms of ,american civilization and that of ,china1 ,india1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,mediterranean and ,western ,european countries4 ,at the same time modern research has shown that the seafarers1 whom we shall conveniently designate as the ,phnicians1 acted as the intermediaries of ancient ,old ,world civilization and formulated a culture which incorporated and formed a curious compound of elements drawn from different countries and people4 ,while investigation1 moreover1 reveals that the conquest of ,phnicia and intermittent periods of warfare and persecution directed against the religion and democratic principles of its people1 must have furnished the most powerful incentive for them to extend their voyages of discovery and seek distant lands where colonies might be established4 ,it is obvious that1 if safe places of refuge were found1 their existence would remain a secret and that1 in course of time1 a complete isolation of distant colonies would result4 ,considering that it would be premature to formulate a final conclusion on a subject which demands so much more investigation1 ,i merely observe here that1 as far as ,i can see1 the conditions which existed and survive amongst the aborigines of ,america would be fully accounted for by the assumption that they received certain elements of culture and civilization from ,mediterranean seafarers who1 at widely separated1 critical periods of ,old ,world history1 may have transported refugees and would-be colonists or founders of ideal republics and 8divine polities0 to different parts of the hidden or divine land of 8the ,west10 the existence of which was known by tradition to the ,egyptian priesthood4 ,under such circumstances it is apparent how the ,american ,continent could have become an isolated area of preservation where archaic and primitive forms of civilization1 religious cult1 symbolism and industries1 drawn at different epochs1 from various1 more or less important centres or from the outposts of ,old ,world culture1 would be handed down1 transformed through the active and increasing influence of the native elements4 ,the latter must always have been markedly predominant since it must be assumed1 if at all1 that the number of individuals who reached ,america1 and the subsequent duration of their lives1 must have been extremely limited4 ,what is more1 as ,montezuma related that the colonists1 from whom he descended1 married native women1 it is obvious that1 from the outset1 foreign and native influences were combined4 ,there was one main element1 however1 underlying both foreign and native civilizations1 which formed the basis of both1 united and made them as one1 namely1 the recognition of fixed immutable laws governing the universe1 attained1 by both races1 by long-continued observation of ,polaris and the 8,northern0 constellations4 ,to me the most precious result of the preceding investigation is the gradual recognition that the entire intellectual1 moral and religious evolution of mankind has been the result of the fixed laws which govern the universe4 ,from the time when our world began to revolve in space1 at intervals1 a luminous point of fixity in space has existed and an unknown force1 irresistible as that which controls the magnetic needle and gyrostat17#afj7 appears to have raised the mind of man from ignorance and darkness and guided his footsteps towards a higher scale of existence and a more elevated conception of a supreme central power4 ,from this1 amongst favored races1 the higher conception of an invisible supreme deity seems to have been gradually developed by the human mind1 as it rose in the scale of spiritual evolution4 ,to many1 the idea that it was the observation of the stars and the recognition of the fixity of ,polaris which first led man to realize the existence of immutable laws1 and of a supreme celestial power ruling the universe and to form the sacred sign of the cross1 will appear as the fulfilment of the text in ,genesis1 which expressly mentions as the first1 and therefore chief1 purpose for which the lights in the firmament were created1 that 8they should be for signs and portents1 for seasons1 for days and years 444 and for lights40 ,when we realize that all revolving spheres in space1 and the beings that may live upon them1 have been1 are1 or shall be subject to the same conditions as govern our tiny world1 forcing their intellectual evolution to proceed in parallel lines to ours1 we are compelled to recognize the existence of ,one ,great ,plan1 and to render reverent homage to the ,master-,architect of the ,universe4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,comparative ,,table ,,of ,,some ,,quechua1 ,,nahuatl ,,and ,,maya ,,words4 ,,quechua4 ,,nahuatl4 ,,maya4 hatungreat4 hueygreat4 paxname of pachatime1 pachtliname of festival in name of annual annual harvest which prayers harvest festival4 were offered to festival4 obtain abundant harvest4 yacu and atlwater4 haawater4 unuwater4 aakmoist4 aakallagoon4 yachhaacanal1 stream of water4 pihi-huyfirst pil-conetlinfant born4 son4 pillinobleman1 or son4 pilhuahe who has sons4 pillithe fingers4 allgood4 qualligood4 ycacha mala-cachoa1 frequentative4 verb1 to spin or ahuato spin or twist or turn weave4 something around ahua-ycachato continuously4 spin malacatlspindle4 continuously4 icpacto be on ticpacto lie the top of mouth upwards4 something high4 ticnuthe ticatlamidnight4 zenith4 coscathings cozcatlbeads1 that are alike1 strung precious necklace4 stones1 metaphorically used to designate one's children4 maqui or maitlhand4 kabhand4 makihand4 macpallipalm of tankabpalm of makip-pampapalm hand4 panaffix1 hand4 of hand4 meaning upon1 pampaname for above4 plain4 humihuasmall comitlearthen cumearthen vessel4 vessel4 vessel4 hoochvessel in general4 hunu and hunia hunone4 number1 a hunkinchilone4 division of men1 count#ajajj1jjj4 ten thousand 7,markham74 hunuall4 pallawoman of tlapalli-eztlinobility noble birth4 of blood or lineage 7metaphor74 pallcathe tlapallicolor or dye4 pal1 pa'al1 fingers1 or tlapaloloniworthy of palal1 branches of a being reverenced and palilchild1 boy1 tree saluted4 servant4 7,chinchaysuyo tlapaliuiable-bodied1 dialect47 marriageable young man4 atlapalliwing of a bird1 leaf of tree4 cuitlapilli1 atlapallimetaphor signifying the people and servants of the state1 literally the tail and wing of a bird4 ,it is quite obvious how this metaphor came to be employed4 ,the words for tail and wing respectively terminate with pilli the word designating nobleman1 the upper class1 and palli1 signifying the lower class1 women1 boys1 servants4 ,the head of the bird signified the chief and the two eyes and two halves of the beak conveyed the idea of duality1 or two in one4 ,there are indications that the right foot1 with its four claws1 symbolized the four chief rulers of the ,above and the left foot the four rulers of the ,below4 ,the control of the feet and entire body was1 of course1 assigned to the head4 ,it is only when the full metaphorical significance of the eagle1 as an emblem of the state1 is understood1 that the meaning of the eagle in the arms of ,mexico and the native bird symbolism begin to become apparent4 ,i have shown that in ,peru and ,yucatan the word for head was synonymous for chief4 ,it remains to be ascertained how far the same symbolism prevailed throughout the ,american ,continent and whether in other cases the words for bird1 wings1 tail and claws are homonymous or synonymous for the state and its divisions4 ,amongst the ,zuis the ,state and entire scheme of organization is associated with the imaginary form of a quadruped and in ,mexico there are indications that at one time the human form was regarded as an emblem of the ,state and its subdivisions4 ,this subject is referred to more fully in the text4 ,,quechua4 ,,nahuatl4 ,,maya4 ,uira-cochaname ,in the native of mythical harangues the personage and ,supreme ,being title of is referred to ,creator4 as being like an unfathomable abyss4 ixachicatlanabyss4 ixachigreat1 much4 cochcacoch-allpafallow cochito sleep4 cuchilplace or land1 8tierra tlacochcalli town4 de descanso03 literally house of ah-cuch-cabthe literally1 land rest1 burial chief or ruler that is towers4 of a town or resting4 place4 collana excellent1 principal1 sovereign1 first and best of each species4 collanan aylluroyal coyauacsomething line1 name used by the broad1 like a ,incas4 coyaprincess of spring of water or royal blood1 virgin1 a window7#afa7 queen4 hapichititle1 meaning tlapixquititle of pizmeasure1 the collector of some priests1 quantity4 produce1 he who collects literally1 he who pizilto or gathers in4 gathers in the measure4 harvest4 ,cf4 pixquitlharvest1 etc4 tianito sit down4 tiacauanbrave men1 tialtic tiyanaseat of honor strong warriors4 appurtenance1 such as were employed as tiyacapanfirst-born4 right of mark of chieftainship4 tiyacapanyotlthe possession4 huahua-tianamatrix4 right of tiya-chicuto be selling primogeniture and something in the public property4 square4 tiyachito offer tianquiztlimarket1 or place something in also place or the public square to be square where market sold or exchanged4 was held4 micuyfood4 tiamiquiztliact of buying or selling4 tiamictlimerchandise47#afb7 in-ti or in-tinthe sun4 tona-ti-uhthe sun1 kinthe sun4 literally1 that which shines4 mitimaesname for ce-mitimesons of one colonists4 mother4 taytafather4 tatlifather4 mamamother4 ta-tzinfather1 reverential huarmiwoman4 form4 nantlimother4 ,mama-ciuaconame of a nantzinreverential form4 female ruler of royal cihuatlwoman4 mamaverb1 blood1 mother of ,inca to rule4 ,rocca4 umaliterally1 the head1 ome1 literally two1 title hool1 ppool or title of priest4 ,ingua of head priest1 for pul1 head1 or ,incatitle of instance3 ome acatl1 ome chieftain1 ,peruvian ruler4 tochtli4 quaitlhead4 beginning4 in-quaitlthe head4 quaabbreviation for quaitl 7see ,sahagun1 book ,,ix1 chap4 ,,xxix1 par4 #f74 ,tonapaname of culture tonal pouhquediviner or hero who established soothsayer1 from verb ,inca civilization at tonalpoato divine by signs ,tiahuanaco1 erected or count festivals by large cross1 etc41 made ancient calendar 7,molina his way to the ocean and dictionary74 ,cf4 departed4 tonal-mitlray of sun2 literally1 sun's arrow1 from tona-tiuhsun4 ,cf4 tona-catzonthe ancient men1 or the ruins4 ticsifoundation4 icxitlfoot4 ticsikfounder4 icxinecuiltica lame tecci-muyu-pachathe person4 ,cf4 name of ,ursa entire world or ,major4 qua tecciztle universe4 literally3 8heads decorated with shell40disciples of ,quetzalcoatl 8who called themselves sons of the sun and toltecas40 ,cf4 ,ticitlmedicine man or woman1 astrologer or divines1 who employed the pearl-oyster shell tici-caxitl1 for divinatory purposes4 yoal-ticitltitle of earth-mother1 or ancestress of human race1 whose symbol was a sea-snailtecciztli4 ,pacha-,yachachictitle of pachoaverb1 to rule or amspider4 ,supreme ,being or ,creator govern others4 yacanato aman,north4 translated as guide others1 to govern a ah-menhe who pachaworld1 time4 town1 to lead the blind4 builds4 pacchaspider4 paccamachtiato teach ah-pakcahhe yachachicthe teacher cheerfully and with who founds a from yachato learn with patience4 amantecaskilled town and affix chi1 means to artisans4 peoples it4 teach1 like ru-rachito cause others to make something74 ,pachacamactitle of ,creator4 pa-chac-an or yaca-tecuhtli1 title of the bacabtitle of pa-cha-catitle of god of the travellers or the rulers of officer of the ,inca4 merchants1 literally the four ccapactitle of supreme meaning the lord who provinces or ruler2 ccapac apu1 male guides1 governs or leads4 quarters4 ruler2 ccapac ,the names of his five chactitle of ccoyafemale ruler4 brothers were four assistants ,chiconquiauitl1 ,xomocuitl1 of high priest4 ,nacxitl1 ,cochimetl1 ,yacapitzauac4 ,the sister who completed the group of seven1 was named ,chalmeca-ciuatl 7,sahagun1 op4 cit4 ,book ,i1 chap4 ,,xix74 ,this god and his six brethren1 to whom the merchants offered sacrifices when they had safely returned from their perilous and long expeditions1 doubtlessly were ,polaris and the ,ursa ,minor or ,major4 ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,a ,,prayer-,,meeting ,,of ,,the ,,star-,,worshippers4 ,sook-es-,shookh1 on the river ,euphrates1 in the ,mesopotamian villayet1 though an interesting spot1 is not an imposing or attractive place4 ,like most of the townlets in this part of ,asia ,minor1 it is just a straggling1 overgrown village1 a few one-storied plastered houses1 with flat roofs and narrow doorways1 dotted here and there1 a number of wattled and mud-daubed huts huddled irregularly about1 a mesjid1 of course1 a khan or caravanserai1 and one or two open spaces with the inevitable refuse and rubbish heaps1 where a bazar or market is held on ,fridays4 ,it looks1 however1 picturesque and peaceful enough1 as we ride into it1 in the deepening twilight of a late ,september evening4 ,the stars are beginning already to twinkle overhead1 but there is still sufficient light left to note the strange1 white-robed figures moving stealthily about in the semi-gloom down by the riverside4 ,clad in long snowy garments1 reaching nearly to the ground1 they pass to and fro near the edge of the water1 some wading into mid-stream1 while the sound of a strange salutation exchanged in a strange tongue1 ,sood ,havilakh1 strikes oddly upon the ear long accustomed to the ordinary salutation1 ,selam ,alekum1 of the ,arab-speaking ,moslemin4 ,paderha ,sutekh1 8their fathers were burned10 cries our ,persian ,charvadar and guide in disgust1 as he catches a glimpse of the white-robed figures1 thus delicately hinting that they are not followers of ,islam2 and a ,jew from ,hamadan who accompanies our party1 on his way to the tomb of ,ezekiel1 deliberately spits upon the ground and exclaims1 in pure ,hebrew1 ,obde kokhabim umazaloth1 8servants of the stars and planets40 ,and the ,hebrew is not wrong4 ,the forms gathering by the riverside in the twilight are those of 8,star-worshippers10 the last remnants of the famous magi of ancient ,chaldea1 and their followers1 the ,babylonian adorers of the host of heaven4 ,to the number of about four thousand in all1 they still survive in their ,mesopotamian native land1 principally along the banks of the ,euphrates river1 where they form small village communities4 ,they invariably keep their settlements somewhere near a stream1 for their religious rites and ceremonies are preceded by frequent bathings and ablutions1 and a rill of flowing water passing near or through their tabernacle or meeting-place is indispensable4 ,hence this edifice is always raised quite close to the river4 ,they call themselves ,mandaya1 ,mandates1 possessors of the 8word10 the 8living word10 keep strictly to their own customs and observances and language1 and never intermarry with ,moslems1 who call them ,sabba1 ,sabeans4 ,their dialect is a remnant of the later ,babylonian1 and resembles closely the idiom of the ,palestinian ,talmud1 and their liturgy is a compound of fragments of the ancient ,chaldean cosmogony with gnostic mysticism influenced by later superstitions4 ,they are a quiet and inoffensive people noted1 oddly enough1 for the quality of their dairy produce in the villages1 and for their skill as metal workers and goldsmiths in the towns where they reside4 ,their principal settlement is1 or was1 at ,mardin1 in the ,bagdad district2 but there has always been a small community of them at ,sook-es-,shookh1 on the banks of their favorite stream1 the ,euphrates4 ,it happens to be the festival of the ,star-worshippers celebrated on the last day of the year and known as the ,kanshio ,zahlo1 or day of renunciation4 ,this is the eve of the new year1 the great watch-night of the sect1 when the annual prayer-meeting is held and a solemn sacrifice made to ,avather ,ramo1 the ,judge of the under world1 and ,ptahiel1 his colleague2 and the white-robed figures we observe down by the riverside are those of members of the sect making the needful preparations for the prayer-meeting and its attendant ceremonies4 ,first1 they have to erect their ,mishkna1 their tabernacle or outdoor temple2 for the sect has1 strange to say1 no permanent house of worship or meeting-place1 but raise one previous to their festival and only just in time for the celebration4 ,and this is now what they are busy doing within a few yards of the water1 as we ride into the place4 ,the elders1 in charge of a shkando1 or deacon1 who directs them1 are gathering bundles of long reeds and wattles1 which they weave quickly and deftly into a sort of basket work4 ,an oblong space is marked out about sixteen feet long and twelve broad by stouter reeds1 which are driven firmly into the ground close together1 and then tied with strong cord4 ,to these the squares of woven reeds and wattles are securely attached1 forming the outer containing walls of the tabernacle4 ,the side walls run from north to south1 and are not more than seven feet high4 ,two windows1 or rather openings for windows1 are left east and west1 and space for a door is made on the southern side1 so that the priest when entering the edifice has the ,north ,star1 the great object of their adoration1 immediately facing him4 ,an altar of beaten earth is raised in the centre of the reed-encircled enclosure1 and the interstices of the walls well daubed with clay and soft earth1 which speedily hardens4 ,on one side of the altar is placed a little furnace of dark earthenware1 and on the other a little handmill1 such as is generally used in the ,east for grinding meal1 together with a small quantity of charcoal4 ,close to the southern wall1 a circular basin is now excavated in the ground1 about eight feet across1 and from the river a short canal or channel is dug leading to it4 ,into this the water flows from the stream1 and soon fills the little reservoir to the brim4 ,two tiny cabins or huts1 made also of reeds and wickerwork1 each just large enough to hold a single person1 are then roughly put together1 one by the side of the basin of water1 the other at the further extremity of the southern wall1 beyond the entrance4 ,the second of these cabins or huts is sacred to the ,ganzivro or high priest of the ,star-worshippers1 and no layman is ever allowed to even so much as touch the walls with his hands after it is built and placed in position4 ,the doorway and window openings of the edifice are now hung with white curtains2 and long before midnight1 the hour at which the prayer meeting commences1 the little ,mishkna1 or tabernacle open to the sky1 is finished and ready for the solemnity4 ,towards midnight the ,star-worshippers1 men and women1 come slowly down to the ,mishkna by the riverside4 ,each1 as he or she arrives1 enters the tiny wattled hut by the southern wall1 disrobes and bathes in the little circular reservoir1 the tarmido1 or priest1 standing by and pronouncing over each the formula1 8,eshmo d'ha1 ,eshmo d'manda ha madhkar elakh0 78,the name of the living one1 the name of the living word1 be remembered upon thee074 ,on emerging from the water1 each one robes himself or herself in the rasta1 that is1 the ceremonial white garments peculiar to the ,star-worshippers1 consisting of a sadro1 a long white shirt reaching to the ground2 a nassifo1 or stole1 round the neck falling to the knees2 a hiniamo1 or girdle of woollen material2 a gabooa1 square head-piece reaching to the eyebrows2 a shalooal1 or white overmantle and a kanzolo1 or turban1 wound round the gabooa head-piece1 of which one end is left hanging down over the shoulder4 ,peculiar sanctity attaches to the rasta1 for the garments composing it are those in which every ,star-worshipper is buried1 and in which he believes he will appear for judgment before ,avather in the nether world ,materotho4 ,each one1 as soon as he is thus attired1 crosses to the open space in front of the door of the tabernacle1 and seats himself upon the ground there1 saluting those present with the customary ,sood ,havilakh1 8,blessing be with thee10 and receiving in return the usual reply1 ,assootah d'ha havilakh1 8,blessing of the living one be with thee40 ,the numbers increase as the hour of the ceremonial comes nearer1 and by midnight there are some twenty rows of these white-robed figures1 men and women1 ranked in orderly array facing the ,mishkna1 and waiting in silent expectation the coming of the priests4 ,a couple of tarmidos1 lamp in hand1 guard the entry to the tabernacle1 and keep their eyes fixed upon the pointers of the ,great ,bear in the sky above4 ,as soon as these attain the position indicating midnight1 the priests give a signal by waving the lamps they hold1 and in a few moments the clergy of the sect march down in procession4 ,in front are four of the shkandos1 young deacons1 attired in the rasta1 with the addition of a silk cap1 or tagha1 under the turban1 to indicate their rank4 ,following these come four tarmidos1 ordained priests who have undergone the baptism of the dead4 ,each wears a gold ring on the little finger of the right hand1 and carries a tau-shaped cross of olive wood to show his standing4 ,behind the tarmidos comes the spiritual head of the sect1 the ,ganzivro1 a priest elected by his colleagues1 who has made complete renunciation of the world and is regarded as one dead and in the realms of the blessed4 ,he is escorted by four other deacons4 ,one holds aloft the large wooden tau-cross1 known as derashvod zivo1 that symbolizes his religious office2 a second bears the sacred scriptures of the ,star-worshippers1 the ,sidra ,rabba1 8the great ,order10 two-thirds of which form the liturgy of the living and one-third the ritual of the dead4 ,the third of the deacons carries two live pigeons in a cage1 and the last a measure of barley and of sesame seeds4 ,the procession marches through the ranks of the seated worshippers1 who bend and kiss the garments of the ,ganzivro as he passes near them4 ,the tarmidos1 guarding the entrance to the tabernacle1 draw back the hanging over the doorway and the priests file in1 the deacons and tarmidos to the right and left1 leaving the ,ganzivro standing alone in the centre1 in front of the earthen altar facing the ,north ,star1 ,polaris4 ,the sacred book1 ,sidra ,rabba1 is laid upon the altar folded back where the liturgy of the living is divided from the ritual of the dead4 ,the high priest takes one of the live pigeons handed to him by a shkando1 extends his hand towards the ,polar ,star upon which he fixes his eyes1 and lets the bird fly1 calling aloud1 ,bshmo d'ha rabba mshabbah zivo kadmaya ,elaha ,edmen ,nafshi ,eprah1 8,in the name of the living one1 blessed be the primitive light1 the ancient light1 the ,divinity self-created40 ,the words1 clearly enunciated within1 are distinctly heard by the worshippers without1 and with one accord the white-robed figures rise from their places and prostrate themselves upon the ground towards the ,north ,star1 on which they have silently been gazing4 ,noiselessly the worshippers resume their seated position on the ground outside4 ,within the ,mishkna1 or tabernacle1 the ,ganzivro steps on one side1 and his place is immediately taken by the senior priest1 a tarmido1 who opens the ,sidra ,rabba before him on the altar and begins to read the ,shomhotto1 8confession0 of the sect1 in a modulated chant1 his voice rising and falling as he reads1 and ever and anon terminating in a loud and swelling ,mshobbo havi eshmakhyo ,manda d'ha1 8,blessed be thy name1 ,o source of life10 which the congregants without take up and repeat with bowed heads1 their hands covering their eyes4 ,while the reading is in progress two other priests turn1 and prepare the ,peto elayat1 or high mystery1 as they term their ,communion4 ,one kindles a charcoal fire in the earthenware stove by the side of the altar1 and the other grinds small some of the barley brought by the deacon4 ,he then expresses some oil from the sesame seed1 and1 mixing the barley meal and oil1 prepares a mass of dough which he kneads and separates into small cakes1 the size of a two-shilling piece4 ,these are quickly thrust into or on the oven and baked1 the chanting of the liturgy of the ,shomhotto still proceeding with its steady sing-song and response1 ,mshobbo havi eshmakhyo1 from outside4 ,the fourth of the tarmidos now takes the pigeon left in the cage from the shkando1 or deacon1 standing near him1 and cuts its throat quickly with a very sharp knife1 taking care that no blood is lost4 ,the little cakes are then brought to him by his colleague1 and1 still holding the dying pigeon1 he strains its neck over them in such a way that four drops fall on each one so as to form the sacred tau1 or cross4 ,amid the continued reading of the liturgy1 the cakes are carried round to the worshippers outside by the two principal priests who prepared them1 who themselves pop them direct into the mouths of the members1 with the words ,rshimot bereshm d'ha1 8,marked be thou with the mark of the living one40 ,the four deacons inside the ,mishkna walk round to the rear of the altar and dig a little hole1 in which the body of the dead pigeon is then buried4 ,the chanting of the confession is now closed by the officiating tarmido1 and the high priest1 the ,ganzivro1 resuming his former place in front of the ,sacred ,book1 begins the recitation of the ,massakhto1 or 8renunciation0 of the dead1 ever directing his prayers towards the ,north ,star1 on which the gaze of the worshippers outside continues fixed throughout the whole of the ceremonial observances and prayers4 ,this star is the ,olma d'nhoora1 literally 8the world of light10 the primitive sun of the ,star-worshippers theogony1 the paradise of the elect1 and the abode of the pious hereafter4 ,for three hours the reading of the 8renunciation 0 by the high priest continues1 interrupted only1 ever and anon1 by the ,mshobbo havi eshmakhyo1 8,blessed be thy name10 of the participants seated outside1 until1 towards dawn1 a loud and ringing ,ano asborlakh ano asborli ya ,avather1 8,i mind me of thee1 mind thou of me ,o ,avather10 comes from the mouth of the priest1 and signalizes the termination of the prayers4 ,before the ,north ,star fades in the pale ashen grey of approaching dawn1 a sheep1 penned over night near the river1 is led into the tabernacle by one of the four shkandos for sacrifice to ,avather and his companion deity1 ,ptahiel4 ,it is a wether1 for the ,star-worshippers never kill ewes1 or eat their flesh when killed4 ,the animal is laid upon some reeds1 its head west and its tail east1 the ,ganzivro behind it facing the ,star4 ,he first pours water over his hands1 then over his feet1 the water being brought to him by a deacon4 ,one of the tarmidos takes up a position at his elbow and places his hand on the ,ganzivro's shoulder1 saying1 ,ana shaddakh1 8,i bear witness40 ,the high priest bends towards the ,north ,star1 draws a sharp knife from his left side1 and reciting the formula1 8,in the name of ,alaha1 ,ptahiel created thee1 ,hibel ,sivo permitted thee1 and it is ,i who slay thee10 cuts the sheep's throat from ear to ear1 and allows the blood to escape on to the matted reeds upon which the animal is stretched out4 ,the four deacons go outside1 wash their hands and feet1 then flay the sheep1 and cut it into as many portions as there are communicants outside4 ,the pieces are now distributed among the worshippers1 the priests leave the tabernacle in the same order as they came1 and with a parting benediction from the ,ganzivro1 ,assootad d'ha havilakh1 8,the benison of the living one attend thee10 the prayer-meeting terminates1 and the ,star-worshippers quietly return to their homes before the crimson sun has time to peep above the horizon47#afc7 ,,appendix ,,iii4 ,,comparative ,,lists ,,of ,,words4 ,i4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,yau or ,,yuthe source or origin1 the ,chinese character for which figures a square or circle divided into four by crossed horizontal and perpendicular lines1 the latter projecting above the square or circle47#afd7 ,,yaou and ,,yumythical emperors who instituted the celestial kingdom1 see p4 #bih4 ,,yaou ,,sing8,revolving ,star0 in ,ursa ,major4 ,china4 ,,ui or ,,hweiverb to turn around4 ,chinese4 ,,yul1 ,,yeul1 ,,yeolwheel 7,icelandic hjol1 ,o4 ,swedish hiugl1 ,swedish hjul74 ,,hveldisk1 orb4 ,iceland4 ,,wuotan,,odinsupreme divinity4 ,scandinavia4 ,,jovlasacred hearth fire of ,northern ,finns1 under guardianship of mother of family4 ,,jovis,roman supreme divinity1 associated with wheel4 ,,yahwe,hebrew name for ,god1 translated as 8heaven10 was pronounced ,yahu4 ,according to the ,masoretes must be read ,yeho 7,yhu74 ,the early ,gnostics wrote ,iao1 that is ,yaho 7,sayce74 ,the four consonants yhvh1 pronounced ,yahveh1 constituted the sacred ,tetragrammaton1 or four lettered name of the ,most ,high4 ,archbishop ,tenison says 7,idolat4 p4 #djd73 8,this name was no mystery among the ,greeks1 as is evident from the mention of the god ,ieuo in ,sanchoniathon2 ,jaho in ,st4 ,hiersm1 and the ,sibylline ,oracles2 ,jaoth or ,jaho in ,irenaeus2 of the ,hebrew ,god called ,jaoia by the ,gnostics2 of ,jaou in ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 of ,jao the first principle of the ,gnostic ,heaven in ,epiphanius2 the ,god of ,moses in ,diodorus ,siculus2 the god ,bacchus in the oracle of ,apollo ,clarius2 lastly1 as was said1 of the ,samaritan ,jabe1 in ,theodoret40 ,,yeud ,,ekhadname of supreme god of ,phnicians the ,red people 7,sayce74 ,,new ,,world4 ,,youalli-,,ehecatl1 literally1 night or circling-air or windsupreme god of the ,chichimecs 7see p4 #cc71 a ,mexican ruling tribe whose name signifies the red lineage or people4 ,,yahual-,,tecuhtli or ,,youal-,,tecuhtlithe ,lord of the circle or of the ,night1 i4 e4 ,north-star god1 supreme divinity4 ,mexico1 see p4 #bgi4 ,,yalahua,tzendal deity1 p4 #aha4 ,,yanauluha,zui deity1 p4 #bbc4 ,,io1 ,,iovana1 ,,iella1 ,,iocahunanames for god4 ,,huiousun4 ,,huioo or ,,huihomountain4 ,hati4 ,,yoli1 ,,yuliverb1 to live1 resuscitate1 vivify4 ,,ollin8motion40 ,nahuatl4 ,,yauallito walk in a circle many times4 ,nahuatl4 ,,youallinight4 ,nahuatl4 ,,hueegg4 ,maya4 ,,ii4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,shameheaven4 ,babylonian-,assyrian4 ,,samaheaven4 ,grco-,persian4 ,,sama or ,,shamanorth4 ,arabic 7,al ,kaukabal ,shamaliyystar of the ,north2 ,al ,kulbal ,shamaliyythe northern axle or spindle74 ,,amanverb to sustain4 ,akkadian4 ,,amaxaname for ,ursa ,majora chariot4 ,greek4 ,,samas or ,,shamash,babylonian-,assyrian god1 8the universal judge10 whose image was wheel with four rays 7see pp4 #cca and #cej71 cf4 ,ramman4 ,,baal-,,shamayunsupreme god4 ,phnicia4 ,,amasis,egyptian god4 ,,kamoshgod of ,moabites1 p4 #cej4 ,,ham or ,,khamname for northern ,egypt4 ,,amantinian ,illyrian tribe4 ,greece4 ,,br-,,ahmasupreme god4 ,india 7cf4 ,yama747#afe7 ,,br-,,ahmanaspriestly caste4 ,india4 ,,aryamanstar-god associated with ,mitra-,yaruna1 ,ursa ,major and number seven4 ,in ,zendavesta is associated with ,ashvino-ritual4 ,india4 ,,ama or ,,ameheaven4 ,japan4 ,,kamideity1 top1 above4 ,o-,,kamithe honorable government4 ,,yamamountain4 ,japan4 ,,yamatomain island of ,japan4 ,,ama-,,no-,,ma-,,hitotsu8,eye of ,heaven10 name for ,pole-star4 ,japan4 ,,ame-,,no-,,mi-,,naka-,,nushi-,,no-,,ka mi,deity-,master-of-the-,august-,centre- of-,heaven1 first ,japanese 8hidden0 god47#aff7 ,,ame-,,no-,,toko-,,tachi-,,no-,,kami,de ity-standing-eternally-in-heaven1 hidden god2 cf4 ,kuni-no-toko-tachi-no-kami,deity-standi ng-eternally-on-earth4 ,japan4 ,,amen-,,rahidden god4 ,egypt4 ,,aha-,,mena or ,,meneshistorical founder of kingdom8the ,constant ,one40 ,egypt2 cf4 menumonuments2 smento establish4 ,egyptian4 ,,miny1 ,,minyans or ,,min,,ansrace who traced descent from ,minosthe measurer 7,menmeasurer72 great agricultural and building race in ,india1 ,arabia and ,egypt4 ,measured time by circumpolar constellations2 became confederates of ,sabans2 conquered ,phrygia1 built ,mycen 7,hewitt74 ,,amunnational god of ,ammonites4 ,amun means the builder or architect and is1 like the name of ,egyptian god1 formed of amn1 to sustain4 ,he was the god of the meridian and of the central house-pole1 sustaining roof who1 in ,egypt1 became ,amen-ra 7,sayce and ,gesenius1 quoted by ,hewitt1 op4 cit474 ,the supreme god of the ,ammonites was ,ngash1 the constellation of ,ursa ,major 7,hewitt74 ,,new ,,world4 ,,aman or ,,xaman 7pron4 ,haman7north4 ,maya1 ,yucatan4 ,,ah-,,menmaster builder1 handicraftsman2 cf4 ,menah or ,menyahartificer1 artisan1 builder1 handicraftsman2 cf4 verb mento build1 found1 establish1 erect1 also menta'alto govern4 ,maya1 p4 #bcd4 ,,aman-,,tecaname used in ancient ,mexico to designate master-handicraftsmen1 synonym of ,tolteca4 ,,amautasname given in ,peru to the 8wise men0 who introduced civilization4 ,,iii4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,anheaven1 god4 ,babylonian ,assyrian 7p4 #cca74 ,,anaheaven4 ,sumerian1 ,akkadian17#afg7 cf4 ,akanna,ursa ,major1 ,akkadian1 see p4 #bce4 ,,an and ,,annunames of celestial and terrestrial sacred central cities4 ,egypt1 cf4 anpillar or that which turns around4 ,according to ,flinders ,petrie1 the an was an octagonal fluted column with a square tenon or top4 ,,manusacred mountain situated in ,n4 ,w4 ,egypt4 ,,kw-,,an-,,irassacred central cosmical division situated under pole-star1 around which the six kingdoms of ,iran were situated4 ,persia4 ,,canaanholy land1 whose capital was ,jerusalem4 ,,an-,,shanname of ancient ,persian empire4 ,,an-,,sharsupreme god4 ,assyria1 cf4 ,nannar1 pp4 #ccf and #ccg4 ,,an-,,sartranscription of ,osiris4 ,egypt1 cf4 ,anubis also ,anu and ,anath1 ,janus and ,jana4 ,z-,,anold ,doric form of ,zeus1 hence ,janus4 ,,shangheaven1 the ,above4 ,china4 ,,kanmountain1 also ,yo4 ,china4 ,,alkaidstar in ,ursa ,major1 also used for moon2 origin of ,spanish title ,alcalde4 ,,alkabirthe ,great4 ,early ,arabic4 ,,kasurnamed the ,great4 ,kushite father of life1 the hidden god who guards and distributes1 at the appointed seasons1 the life-giving rains 7,hewitt747#afh7 ,,katitle of ,egyptian king1 usually rendered by 8bull40 ,,khana prince4 ,tartary4 ,,khakanan emperor or sovereign4 ,persia4 ,,hanname for empire4 ,japan1 cf4 ken1 imperial domain4 ,,hanaflower or blossom4 ,japanese1 cf4 ankhflower1 ,egyptian and anthosflower1 ,greek4 ,,angli or ,,angriwariiwidely diffused1 great northern race1 mentioned by ,tacitus and ,ptolemy4 ,,new ,,world4 ,,ca-,,anheaven4 ,maya1 ,yucatan1 see pp4 #bgh and #bhh4 ,,canal,above4 ,maya1 ,yucatan4 ,,cantitle of culture-hero3 ,,kukul-,,canthe divine can1 homonym of canserpent4 ,maya1 ,yucatan4 ,,ziuva-,,caan,colony founded in ,yucatan1 by ,holon-chan-te,peuh4 ,,anahuac3 name of ,mexican empire1 usually loosely translated as awater1 nahuacby the water4 ,to this list should be added the following affixes or prefixes1 denoting1 in each case1 8place1 land or region of40 ,egyptian3 ta1 for instance meh-ta or mah-tanorth2 amen-tahidden region1 ,n4 ,w4 ,chinese3 kwanearth1 land4 ,persian3 ,kwan-iras or ,hvan-irasthe name for ,iran8land of ,iran08 ,japanese3 hanempire1 kendomain4 ,maya3 tan1 for instance ,aman-tan or ,xaman-tan,north4 ,nahuatl3 an1 tlan or can1 8land of1 also mountain40 ,zui3 wanplace of1 for instance ,halona-wan4 ,,iv4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,ak,middle4 ,egypt1 p4 #che4 ,,akannaliterally 8the ,lord of ,heaven10 title ,ursa ,major4 ,akkadian1 p4 #cid4 ,n-,,akkaschtitle of ,polaris 8the serpent40 ,phnicia 7p4 #cbe74 ,,nagasch1 ,,nahusha1 or the ,great ,nagthe great invisible god1 hidden in his ark of clouds1 who reveals himself to men as the ruler of time and the orderer of the regular sequence of the phenomena of nature1 and who churns1 in the mortar of the heavens1 the life-giving rains in which his divine spirit is infused4444 7,hewitt74 ,,naga1 ,,nagurthe rain snake1 at whose summer festival called ,akkhadi or ,akhtuj1 the ,gonds worship the cart axle or akkha in a ceremony which is a reminiscence of the days when the axle was the upright revolving pole pressing out the heavenly rain4 ,the ,naga snake was the offspring of the house pole2 the soul of life in the rain cloud2 the heavenly snake1 the great time-measurer and year god of the ,hindus 7,hewitt74 ,p-,,akuzenith4 ,akkadian1 cf4 ,papakhu1 central sacred cosmical chamber4 ,,akkadthe ,north1 name of country 7,b4,c4 #chjj74 ,babylonia-,assyria1 p4 #cdg4 ,k-,,akkabuthe star1 ,polaris4 ,babylonia-,assyria1 p4 #cbf4 ,,akris or ,,akrossummit1 point1 supreme1 most high2 cf4 okeye4 ,greek4 ,,akriosgod of summit1 title of supreme god4 ,greece4 ,,aka-,,tos1 ,,akaa ship4 ,greek4 ,,achaiisthe ,achaian land4 ,,achaiansin ,homer1 the name for ,greeks generally4 ,,akra,hindu village dancing and marriage ground1 where sacred tree is planted and sacrifices made to it in great ,naga festival 7,hewitt74 ,,aksaname of mosque at ,jerusalem4 ,,akshafarupoint1 summit4 ,persian4 ,,akal1 ,,akarangod1 eternal1 timeless4 ,zoroastrian1 name of god4 ,h-,,ak-,,hamanisijaancient royal title4 ,persia4 ,,hakking or regent1 royal title4 ,akkadian1 ,egyptian4 ,,akaca,sanscrit name for fifth element ther3 7,schroeder74 ,,agathonname given by ,pythagoreans to all-embracing soul of the universe4 ,,ak or ,,agverb aj1 to drive1 urge1 impel4 ,sanscrit4 ,,agnigod of central fire4 ,india4 ,,agastyastar father of ,dravidians4 ,india4 ,,chakrawheel4 ,sanscrit4 ,,chakrayartintitle1 supreme ruler4 ,sanscrit4 ,,akshaaxis or axle4 ,sanscrit4 ,,akshivan8the driver of the axle10 supreme ruler4 ,sanscrit4 ,,dakshathe ,north people1 also white1 blessed1 and the left4 ,sanscrit4 ,,takkasone of the most powerful and wealthy tribes of the ,punjab1 whose progeners founded the great city of ,taxila1 the ,hindu ,takkasila or rock of the ,takkas1 taken by ,alexander the ,great4 ,their name ,takkas or ,takshas means 8the makers or artificers10 which is connected with the ,akkadian tukstone4444 ,they call themselves the sons of the two ,nagas or horned snake1 ,takht-nag and ,basak-nag or 8the sons of the race of artificers0 444 as the sons of the all-mother ,maga the maker or kneader1 they called themselves the sons of the mother-mountain4444 7,hewitt74 ,,akhal1 ,,akhal-,,zikh1 ,,akhal-,,kalakinames of towns4 ,asia ,minor 7,o',neil1 p4 #fha74 ,,acasa or ,,acaseaxis or axle4 ,old ,norse4 ,,akka and ,,ukkonames given by ,finns to mother-earth and father-heavens 7,o',neil1 p4 #ch74 ,,naka,middle4 ,japan 7,o',neil1 p4 #ecf747afi7 ,,hak-,,kakueight holy corners or points2 also that which is revealed1 disclosed1 known1 come to light4 ,japanese dictionary4 ,,akaabove1 mountain1 cf4 ,,sakaascent4 ,japan4 ,,agataancient name for domain or department 7,chamberlain74 ,japan4 ,,hakkithe eight diagrams1 cf4 ,ya-he-koto-shiro-nu-shi-no-kami,deity-e ight-fold-thing-sign-master4 ,chamberlain op4 cit4 pp4 #hc and #aja4 ,,wake1 ,,waki1 ,,wakulord1 title4 ,japan4 ,,kagu,mount ,kagu in ,heaven4 ,japan4 ,,hakuwhite1 shining4 ,japan4 ,,hoku1 ,,ne-,,no-,,ho1 ,,kita1 ,,kita-,,no-,,ho,north4 ,japan4 ,cf4 ,khitarace mentioned in ,egyptian and ,biblical history1 and ,kitainame for ,china4 ,,hoku-,,sei1 ,,hoku-,,shin1 ,,hokkiyoku1 ,north ,star4 ,japan4 ,,new ,,world4 ,nahuatl4 ,,acachtothe first1 at first4 ,,yaquethat which has a point2 a point1 by extension a nose4 ,,yacanato govern a town or to guide4 ,,yaca-,,tecuhtli 7literally1 the governing or guiding lord7title of ,polaris1 cf4 ,pacha-,yachachic,peruvian ,creator1 p4 #aei4 ,,ton-,,aca-,,tecuhtlititle of ,creator4 ,,mal-,,acatlwheel1 spindle1 verb malacachoa1 to walk around in a circle4 ,,acatlcane1 staff4 ,,ce-,,acatl1 ,,ome-,,acatltitles of deities meaning ,one ,acatl1 ,two ,acatl4 #ac ,,acatlinscription on ,stone of ,great ,plan and on image of ,divine ,twain 7see p4 #bfa74 ,,acalliboat1 from atlwater1 callihouse4 ,maya4 ,,akabnight4 ,b-,,ak-,,cabin a circle1 around1 cf4 habyear4 ,,bacabtitle of four 8rulers of the year10 tetrarch4 ,,ak-,,bala vessel or pot4 ,c-,,acabtown1 village4 ,b-,,ak-,,licaround in a circle1 in the surroundings4 ,b-,,ak-,,tetogether4 ,b-,,ak-,,achall1 the whole4 ,b-,,akrock1 fortification1 enclosure1 also bone1 phallus1 foundation1 heron4 ,n-,,akthrone1 belly4 ,n-,,ak-,,licat the root1 on top of all4 ,l-,,ak-,,anstandard1 banner4 ,l-,,ak-,,ineast4 ,k-,,akfire4 ,p-,,ac-,,atsight4 ,z-,,akwhite cf4 ,iztacwhite4 ,nahuatl4 ,v4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,mad-,,hyias,middle4 ,sanscrit4 ,,maghavan,vedic name of ,indra4 ,,maththe fire-drill1 from math or manthto twirl or churn4 ,sanscrit47#agj7 ,,mathuraname of central sacred locality4 ,india 7see ,hewitt1 p4 #bad74 ,,magana,akkadian name for the ,sinaitic ,peninsula4 ,,maghadas,finnic race ruling ,northern ,india before the ,kushites4 ,,meruthe ,middle4 ,sanscrit1 p4 #cag4 ,,mahta or ,,mehtanorth4 ,egyptian1 cf4 mitdeath4 ,,med-,,dos1 ,,medos or ,,mesos,middle4 ,greek4 ,,med-,,ius,middle4 ,latin4 ,,med-,,on,middle4 ,old ,irish1 cf4 ,medi,tullium1 centre of state4 ,,mid-,,jis1 ,middle4 ,goth4 ,,miodhacha ,central ,power 7,joyce74 ,celtic4 ,,mitrathe god said1 in ,rig-,veda1 8to fix times of festivals40 ,was associated with ,varunanight and rain god 7,greek1 ,ouranos71 with the constellation of ,ursa ,major and the number seven4 ,the ,north was sacred to ,mitra-,varuna who 8maintain the invariable succession of the order of natural phenomena0 7see ,hewitt1 pp4 #add1 #daf and #dbj74 ,,milkomgod of ,ammonites whose supreme god was ,ursa ,major4 ,,media or ,,madgaancient kingdom whose inhabitants were allied to ,persians and shook off yoke of ,assyrian rule in #gjh ,b4,c4 ,,medumsite of most ancient pyramid known4 ,egypt4 ,,meccasacred capital4 ,arabia4 ,,my-,,cenaevery ancient city in ,n4 ,e4 of ,argolis1 built upon craggy height1 principal city of ,greece and capital of kingdom in ,agamemnon's time4 ,,methonemost ancient ,greek colony on ,thermaic gulf4 ,,mi-,,yau-,,ken3 8name under which the ,pole-star is worshipped in ,japan in the form of a ,buddha with a wheel1 the emblem of the revolving world1 resting on his folded hands407#aga7 cf4 ,chinese4 ,,mukdencapital of ,manchuria1 p4 #bhh1 cf4 ,mughs or ,maghadas1 ,finnic race ruling ,northern ,india before ,kushites1 and ,,manjhus8royal land0 set apart in ,ooraon villages4 ,,miokenname of town and mountain4 ,japan4 ,,miwasacred mountain shrine regarded with extraordinary reverence4 ,japan 7,chamberlain74 ,,miakoancient sacred capital of ,japan1 residence of ,,miko1 or ,,mikadoheavenly sovereign who1 like the ,chinese ,wong or ,wangking1 ruled the three powers1 heaven1 earth and man4 ,the ,chinese character1 consisting of three horizontal lines crossed by a perpendicular line expresses also the ,japanese ,miko which includes males and females and is used combined with ,nakamiddle i4 e41 ,middle sovereign 7,chamberlain74 ,,mihethreefold4 ,japanese4 ,,mid-,,kenacosmical central power and mountain4 ,old ,irish4 ,,mid-,,gardcosmical centre4 ,scandinavia4 ,,miodh-,,chuarta 7pron4 micorta7,meath1 centre of ,irish kingdom4 ,,merciamiddle kingdom of ,britain4 ,,har-,,moedcentral mountain4 ,isaiah ,,xiv4 ,,mishknaname of tabernacle of pole-star worshipping ,mandaites 7see ,appendix ,,ii74 ,,new ,,world4 ,,mexiconame of capital and by extension of state4 ,,mek-,,tan,maya name for empire1 literally3 8land of ,mek40 ,,mitnal or ,,metnalunderworld4 ,maya4 ,,mictlanname of region surrounding pyramids of ,teotihuacan4 ,,mitlaname of ruins in ,oaxaca1 ,mexico4 ,,mictlampanorth4 ,nahuatl4 cf4 miquiztlideath4 ,,mictlan-,,tecuhtlilord of the ,north1 or underworld4 ,mexican pole-star god4 ,,vi4 ,,old ,,world4 ,i-,,ku or ,i ,,kuuthe leader or prince1 ,polaris4 ,assyria4 ,,dil-,,gan-,i-,,kuthe messenger of light1 ,polaris4 ,akkadian4 ,,kuholy1 divine 7tul-ku1 the holy altar74 ,akkadian4 ,,kuword of ,finnic origin brought to ,india by ,northern settlers--used by them to denote ,father-god,ukku4 ,ukthe great ,kuplacer or begetter 7,hewitt1 p4 #adh74 ,,ku-,,shikasruling race of ,india1 of ,northern origin1 known as ,ashura-kushikas 7,hewitt74 ,,chuthe brilliance or light1 ,egyptian4 ,,chu-,,atenthe central capital founded by ,amenhotep4 ,,al-,,kutbthe axle1 ,polaris4 ,arabia4 ,,tul-,,kuthe holy altar4 ,akkadian4 ,,guthe urn4 ,akkadian4 ,,kul-,,kuncentral cosmical mountain4 ,china1 cf4 ,sar-tuli-elli1 king of the holy mound4 ,,kurumawheel1 ,japanese1 also mawaru1 from marawito turn1 revolve4 ,,new ,,world4 ,maya4 ,,kugod4 ,,kukulholy1 divine 7p4 #fi74 ,,kukulcanname of culture-hero4 ,,ku-,,lelnoble4 ,,ku-,,natemple4 ,,kukumfeather4 ,,kulchalice4 ,,chutbowl1 cf4 ,nahuatl cumitlbowl or jar4 ,,chu-,,mucthat which is in the middle or centre4 ,,chu-,,muccil,middle1 centre4 ,,chu-,,muc-,,akabmidnight4 ,,chu-,,niladj4 the principal4 ,,vii4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,citrabright1 shining4 ,sanscrit4 ,,tarastar4 ,sanscrit1 cf4 ,ragod4 ,egypt4 ,,sitarastar4 ,hindu4 ,,tjarastar4 ,old ,norse1 cf4 tartree4 ,,taraname of central city4 ,old ,irish4 ,,uttara,north4 ,sanscrit4 ,,ish-,,targoddess1 a hymn to whom1 in ,akkadian and ,assyrian1 begins thus3 8,thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest4 ,in the dwellings of the earth her name revolves0 7,prof4 ,sayce1 quoted by ,o',neil1 p4 #gae74 ,compare with ,egyptian ragod and note that the ,sanscrit uttara could have been expressed in ,egyptian hieratic script by the form of eyeuta and the sign for ra i4 e4 an eye within a circle 7see p4 #cij and fig4 #fb74 ,also compare the ,sanscrit and ,hindu citra and sitara with ,egyptian seb-seta 8the hidden star10 pictured by the turtle1 sit or cit1 etc4 7see p4 #cih74 ,,new ,,world4 ,,citlallinstar4 ,nahuatl4 ,,ix-,,tololotlieye1 employed in picture writing for star4 ,nahuatl1 see in centre of ,nahui-,ollin1 fig4 #b1 ,nos4 #a and #c4 ,,ixuathe birth of a plant1 the germination of seed1 cf4 cihuatlwoman4 ,nahuatl4 ,,ixtlithe face4 ,nahuatl4 ,,ichthe eye4 ,maya4 ,,iklife1 breath1 air1 wind cf4 ecatlbreath1 etc41 ,nahuatl1 and ekstar4 ,maya4 ,,kikcolomblood4 ,maya4 ,,xiconavel4 ,nahuatl4 ,,viii4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,teh-,,tehdesignation of the first star of the ,great ,bear1 given in star-list in ,papyrus of ,ani1 and the same as ,te-te1 the ,akkadian star-god of the two foundations 7,hewitt1 p4 #bfg74 ,,tethighly abraded form of timmenfoundation4 ,,temfoundation1 ,egyptian 7,o',neil72 foundation stone 7,brown74 ,akkadian4 ,,teteternity1 symbolized by stone pillar4 ,egypt4 ,a-,,tencircle or disk4 ,egypt4 ,,ua-,,tet,egyptian name for emerald4 ,,theos,greek name for god i4 e4 ,cosmos4 ,,theodescriptive of running wheel1 of anything circular which seems to run around into itself4 ,,theorssacred envoys1 who came for sacred festivals to ,olympia or ,delphi from different points4 ,,themislaw1 right1 agreed upon by common consent or prescription4 ,greece4 ,,themispersonified law1 order and justice1 cf4 ,artemis1 the goddess to whom the seven stars of the ,great ,bear were sacred 7,hewitt74 ,,temenospiece of land sacred to a god1 sacred precincts1 precincts of temple4 ,a-,,thenaname of ,grecian capital1 state and goddess1 signified 8,seven40 ,,tenos and ,,teosnames of ,greek states1 p4 #def4 ,,deothanvillage earth-god worshipped by ,brahmin priests 7,hewitt74 ,,teen or ,,tienheaven1 god1 the character for god being an upright pole or support1 a 8ti40 ,chinese1 see p4 #cja1 cf4 ,chinese character1 tien1 field1 representing a square divided by cross lines into four parts4 ,,new ,,world4 ,,tem1 ,,tetemstone altar1 foundation4 ,maya4 p4 #bbi4 ,,tetlstone4 ,nahuatl4 ,,teo-,,calli8house of god0 temple4 ,nahuatl4 ,,teotlname for god4 ,nahuatl4 ,,teotihuacansite of extensive ruins4 ,mexico4 ,,tenoch-,,ti-,,tlanname of capital of ,mexico4 ,,temistitananother ancient name for ,mexican capital4 ,,ix4 ,,old ,,world4 ,,ashnumber six4 ,akkadian4 ,,ashuratrading non-,aryan races1 the ,hittites1 worshippers of six gods1 six seasons1 of ,pleiades and of ,ashura ,mazda1 the ,zend god4 ,established system of grouping six provinces around central royal province where king resided4 ,,ashvinsstars which drove round the pole the constellations of ,ursa ,major and ,draco1 another name for ,ashura8 ,sons of horse 7ashva71 brought barley to ,india1 drank mead 7madhu72 instituted the ,ashva ,mdha1 or horse-sacrifice of the ,hindus1 also used by ,north ,germans ,ugro-,finns1 ,scythians and ,romans4 ,,ash1 ,,nak-,,kasch,draco1 ,euphratean name for ,polaris4 ,,massebastone pillar4 ,hebrew symbol1 see p4 #cej4 ,,asherahpole or tree1 worshipped by ,phnicians and ,hebrews equivalent of ,indian rain-pole4 ,,al-,,fassaxis1 ,arabian name for pole-star4 ,,phar-,,ash-,,ah1 ,,parr-,,asis,hebrew and ,phnician 8guiding star10 ,polaris4 ,,assurkingdom and god of ,assyria4 ,,asartranscription of ,osiris4 ,egypt 7,o',neil1 p4 #ei74 ,,asianame given by ,greeks to ,asia4 ,,askaniosancient name of ,phrygia4 ,,astartegoddess of heaven1 see p4 #cej4 ,,ass or ,,sir,scandinavian gods4 ,,assgardcentral1 divine dwelling4 ,scandinavia4 ,,um-,,ashireed shoot that sprouted when the earth1 young and like unto floating oil1 drifted about medusa-like4 ,japan4 7,records of ,ancient ,matters1 section ,i47 ,,umashi-,,ashi-,,kabi-,,hiko-,,ji-,,no- ,,kami8,pleasant-reed-shoot-elder-deity1 0 born from primval reed-shoot4 ,,ashi-,,hara-,,no-,,naka-,,tsu-,,kuni,l and in the ,middle of the ,reed plains1 common periphrastic designation of ,japan4 ,,new ,,world4 ,,aztlanthe original home of ,aztec race1 according to tradition4 ,,aztecname of dominant race4 ,mexico4 ,,ash-,,iwiother name for ,zui tribe 7,cushing1 see p4 #bjc74 ,x4 ,,old ,,world4 ,o1 ,,on or ,,noname of celestial and terrestrial capitals4 ,hebrew and ,egyptian4 ,,olymposthe breaker or organizer of time 7,hewitt1 p4 #ead74 ,,kolonha hill1 mound1 ,greek2 ,lat4 tumulus4 ,,colonosa demos of ,attica lying on and around hill sacred to ,poseidon4 ,,coloniaa colony1 the ,lat4 colonia4 ,,kolossosstatue in general1 i4 e4 column8 ,,om-,,el-,,koramother of cities4 ,arabian1 see p4 #cbc4 ,,omphalein ,greek mythology1 the fire socket1 wife of ,herakles1 the fire drill 7,hewitt74 ,,hodesignation for directions in space4 ,china1 see pp4 #bhe-bhh4 ,,hoacme1 taken to mean the best1 highest1 most showy part of anything4 ,japanese 7,chamberlain747#agb7 ,,hothe land's acme1 or a plain surrounded by mountains4 ,japan 7,motowori74 ,,homdate-palm-sacred tree4 ,babylonia-,assyria 7,sir ,geo4 ,birdwood74 ,,new ,,world4 ,,ho1 or ,,ti-,,hooancient capital of ,yucatan1 see p4 #bgg4 ,,hommound4 ,maya4 ,,homtamilbelly1 i4 e4 omphalos4 ,,index4 ,abadiano1 ,dionysio1 #bdf1 #bea4 ,above 7see 8,heaven or ,above074 ,academia ,manuscript1 #aa4 ,acamapichtli1 ,mexican ruler1 having title of 8,woman-serpent10 #fc1 #fg1 #ga4 ,acatl1 one of the four ,mexican year-symbols1 #gf1 #agj1 #agi1 #beg1 #bhj4 ,acolma1 #ee4 ,acosta1 #gf1 #aej4 ,agave or maguey1 juice of1 8drink of life10 #ahh4 ,ahau1 ,maya glyph1 chief1 lord1 #afi2 figured on gold plaque from ,cuzco1 #afi1 #bbj4 ,ahau-ka-tun1 #bd-year period1 #bai2 literally lord1 #bj stone1 compared with ,copan stel1 #bai1 #bba4 ,ah-cuch-cab1 ,maya name of ruler or chief of a town or place1 #ahd2 title of chief1 #bbj2 terrestrial lord1 #bbd4 ,ah-cuch-haab1 ,maya name for four year-signs1 #bbj4 ,air1 in ,mexico1 ,quetzalcoatl1 lord of1 #abf2 name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world1 #bec4 ,air and water design1 on sacred edifices in ancient ,america1 #abf2 union of1 #abf2 emblem of ,above1 #abf2 on drinking vessels1 #abg2 on dome of ancient ,greek monument1 #abg2 associated with the male region1 #bdi4 ,akbal1 ,maya glyph1 #ajh4 ,akkadthe ,north1 #ccd4 ,akkadians1 ,semitic race of ,assyria-,babylonia1 #ccd4 ,alexander of ,macedonia1 #ebg4 ,allen1 ,richard ,hinckley1 #ddh1 #dea1 #ebe4 ,alligator1 altar at ,copan1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bif2 totem of ,copan tribe1 #bbh2 symbol in codices1 #ejd1 #eah2 in ,india1 #eje1 #eai2 totem of ,mayas and ,mexicans1 #ebj4 ,altars at ,copan1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,amaterasu1 ,japanese sun-goddess1 #caa4 ,amaytun1 painted representation of the #bj and #bd-year epoch1 #bai1 #bbf4 ,amen-,ra1 the supreme dual god of the ,egyptians1 #chi1 #cij1 #cia4 ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #eaj1 #ede4 ,american ,folk-,lore ,society1 #eaj4 ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 #bcd4 ,american peoples1 #dgi-edh4 ,ammon1 #ebb4 ,ammonites1 #cea4 ,anacreon1 #dec4 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 #hf1 #ic1 #ih4 ,andastes1 #aif4 ,andean art1 compared with ,mediterranean1 #ede4 ,andree1 ,richard1 #eb1 #ec4 ,angrand1 ,leonce1 #aej1 #aea4 ,animal form1 as totem1 #aed2 associated with ,four ,quarters by ,zui1 #bie2 combined with bird1 symbol of union of ,above and ,below1 #bif2 summary of use in symbolism #bif2 in ,chinese calendar1 #bii1 in ,buddhist mythology1 #cah2 combined with human in ,babylonian symbolism1 #cce 7see ,human form74 ,anthromorphites1 #ecj4 ,apis1 sacred ,egyptian bull1 #cii2 cult of1 very ancient1 #dcg4 ,apollo1 worshipped in form of a column1 #ddg1 #eac4 ,arabia1 star worship1 axial rotation1 seven-day period1 etc41 #cbb1 #cbd1 #ddh1 #dhb1 #die1 #eef4 ,aratos1 #dec4 ,arcadius1 #ecj4 ,architecture1 ancient1 influenced by religious cults of ,heaven and ,earth1 #bhd2 ,byzantine1 #eae2 cruciform1 #eae2 symbolism of 7see ,windows1 ,cone1 ,tau1 ,pyramid1 ,color1 ,greek fret1 etc474 ,arctos1 #deb4 ,aristotle1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dhg4 ,arizona1 #eb1 #aii4 ,arriaga1 ,padre1 #acd4 ,arrowpoint1 barbed1 used instead of flint knife as symbol of life-producing force1 #ee1 #ef4 ,ashmolean ,museum at ,oxford1 #cff1 #cfi4 ,ashurbanipal1 ,assyrian king1 offspring of ,heaven and ,earth1 #cdf4 ,asia ,minor1 compared with ,north ,america in relation to tertiary plants and fungi1 #dgi4 ,asiatic contact1 #ecd1 #eda 7see ,pre-,columbian contact74 ,asiatic ,society of ,japan1 #efe1 #ege4 ,assyria1 star-cult1 #cbf2 numerical divisions1 etc41 #cbh2 cult of ,polaris1 #cce2 analogies with ,china and ,central ,america1 #cdi2 civilization more recent than that of ,babylonia1 #cec2 founded by ,semitic ,babylonians1 #ced2 rise of pure monotheism1 #cee2 stel with seven symbols1 seven circles1 etc41 #ceh2 ,pole-star worship1 seven-fold division1 ,four ,quarters1 etc41 #cfg2 summary1 #dhc4 ,astarte1 ,assyrian goddess figured as cow and as moon1 #ccg1 #cde1 #cej4 ,astronomy1 cast of astronomy-leaders1 #bb2 study of1 among native races1 #db2 basis of religion1 #dc2 knowledge of1 among ,eskimo1 #ej2 and other native peoples1 #ec2 ,mexican astronomers1 #hb2 among the ,zui1 #bje2 astronomer-priests of ,mexico #bgd2 in ,china1 #bhe2 ,chinese1 ,babylonian1 ,hindoo1 ,chaldean1 ,egyptian1 ,thibetan and ,indian1 #cjj1 #cja2 in ,chaldea1 #ccj2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #cbh1 #cch2 in ,egypt1 #cgf1 #chc2 ,egyptian zodiac signs1 illustrated1 #cie2 the time when there ceased to be a conspicuous pole star1 #ebe-ebf 7see ,polaris1 ,calendar1 etc474 ,atlantis1 ,island of1 #ddf4 ,atlatl or spear thrower1 #baa2 on temple of the ,tigers1 and on ,stone of ,tizoc1 #bab4 ,attiwendaronks1 #aif4 ,avila1 #acb4 ,axayacatl1 living representative of ,huitzilopochtli1 #ga4 ,axial rotation 7or wheel7 in ancient religion1 symbolism and government2 in ,maya name for ,ursa ,major1 #h-aj2 title of ,mexican supreme divinity1 8,wheel of the ,winds10 #aa1 #cc2 origin of idea was rotation of ,ursa ,major around ,polaris2 symbolized by swastika symbol1 #ah-bc2 imitated by ,mexican game1 8,those who fly10 #bd2 associated with ,mexican ,calendar system1 #be2 indicated by name ,teo-,culhuacan or ,aztlan1 #ef2 represented by ,mexican sacred dance1 #ei2 indicated in ,vienna ,codex by circle of footstep1 #ij2 in ,zui religious ceremony1 #abi2 in religious ceremony and irrigating canals of ,peru1 #ade1 #adf2 symbolized by ,nahuiollin on ,mexican ,calendar ,stone1 #bea-eb2 by one-footed man on ,mexican 8,sacrificial ,stone10 #bei2 in ancient plan of ,mexican government1 #bgc2 pictured divinity surrounded by circle of footsteps1 #bgi2 in plan of ancient ,chinese government1 #bhj-bia2 in calendar systems of ,china and ,mexico1 #bib2 symbolized by spider's web1 #bic2 in ,chinese calendar1 #cji2 the wheel in ,hindu religion1 #cac1 #cai2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cef1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cfg2 8,wheel of the law0 and 8lord of the wheel0 of ,india1 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #cid1 #djj1 #dja2 centrifugal power and rule indicated by names of capital cities in ,egypt and ,greece1 #dac2 revolving pillar on ,acropolis at ,athens1 #ddg2 in ,arabia1 #ddh2 in ,india1 #ddh2 in ,plato's cosmical conception1 #ddi2 in ,homer's works1 #deb2 in ,sophocles' work1 #dec2 in ancient ,greece1 polosa star revolving on itself1 #dec2 ,sanscrit god1 8the driver of the axle10 #dec2 ,greek 8,ixion's wheel10 #dec2 indicated by cross symbol and later by swastika1 #dfa2 wheel associated with ,jove on ,roman tombstone1 #dfd2 in ,scandinavia1 the wain wheeled around the throne of ,thor1 #dgc2 ,turanian god of heaventhe pole turned by the revolving days and weeks1 #dii2 symbols of1 in ,old and ,new ,world1 #did-edd2 summary1 #edd4 ,ayllu1 ,peruvian word for tribe or lineage1 #ada4 ,aztlan1 land of light1 #ef1 #eg4 ,baal1 ,assyrian god1 #cde2 worshipped under image of bull1 #daj4 ,babylonia1 ,chinese immigrants from1 #bii2 ,middle kingdom1 #bii2 astronomy1 #cjj2 star cult1 #cbf2 numerical divisions1 etc41 #cbh2 either a mountain or a star signified a god1 #cbi2 astronomical observations of great antiquity1 #cbi2 oriented to the ,four ,quarters1 #ccc2 decline of the empire1 #cdg2 female ruler1 #cdg2 described in ,revelations2 sevenfold organization1 #cdh2 seven-staged tower1 #cef2 sevenfold state1 #ceg2 altar of gold1 #cfa4 ,babylonia-,assyria1 the ,babylonia triad1 ,anu1 ,ea1 and ,bel1 signify the ,above1 ,middle and ,below1 #ccf2 compared with gods of ,china1 #ccf2 combined ,heaven and ,earth cult1 #cdd2 seven-fold organization1 #cfj2 seven-staged tower 7,zikkurat7 and the great basin 7,apsu7 symbolized cosmological conceptions2 tree or pole as sacred symbol2 fire-stick1 #cfa2 worship of ,polaris2 male and female principles in nature1 #cfc2 ,new ,year's festival1 #cfd2 summary and conclusions1 #cfg1 #edd4 ,bacab1 title of ,maya chief1 #hf2 title of rulers of ,four ,quarters1 #ahc4 ,bailly1 #cai4 ,balam1 ,maya word for ocelot2 title of four lords of ,below or ,earth2 same as chac1 #ahe4 ,balboa1 #aej4 ,ball1 ,c4 ,j41 #cjb4 ,bandelier1 ,ad4 ,f41 #fa1 #gd1 #gi1 #hd1 #afh1 #bjj4 ,baptism1 ,maya1 #bbe4 ,barber1 ,commander1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 #aei4 ,bartholomew de las ,casas1 ,friar1 #cb4 ,bat1 symbol of happiness1 #bgg4 ,bat-kin-ya-mh1 the ,water people1 #bjj4 ,bastian1 ,a41 #aec4 ,bead1 jade bead1 as symbol in ,mexico1 #ha2 8gold bead10 used as title2 symbolical among the ,mayas1 #bcg4 ,beard1 on stel at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bai1 #bcj2 on calendar sign2 on images of air-god1 #bca2 worn by representatives of ,above1 #bca2 not worn by representatives of ,below1 #bca2 in pictorial art1 #bcb2 on portrait-statue of ,stela ,e1 at ,quirigua1 #bcb2 bearded personages on stel were high-priests1 etc41 #bcb2 beardless effigies indicated different caste1 #bcb2 bearded ,spaniards regarded1 by ,mexicans1 descendants of founders of their civilization1 #bff2 emblem of sovereignty in ,egypt1 #dbf4 ,bee1 ,maya word forcab2 ,cab glyph1 #aaj4 ,beetle 7see ,scarab74 ,beltram de ,santa ,rosa1 ,fray1 #hi1 #aja4 ,benares1 temple of2 sacred cow1 #caf4 ,bentham1 #dgf4 ,bentley1 #cjj4 ,berichten der ,deutschen ,botanischen ,gesellschaft1 #dgh4 ,berlin ,museum1 #chj1 #dag1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #deg1 #dfj1 #ejg4 ,berra1 ,orozco y1 #bfd1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 7,biblioteca ,nationale ,,ms471 same as 8,lyfe of the ,indians40 ,biblioteca ,nazionale ,manuscript 7in press71 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ab1 #cd1 #cg1 #ci1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #ed1 #eg1 #fd1 #ff1 #ga1 #ii1 #ajb1 #aaa1 #aab1 #abe1 #abh1 #acj1 #ahi1 #bda1 #bgi1 #eje4 ,biot1 #bih1 #cja4 ,bird1 title of ,mexican war chief1 #be2 humming-bird in symbolism1 #ci2 with spider1 serpent and cross on shell gorget1 #di2 ,bird-god1 borne on litter1 #ga2 ancient ,yucatan in shape of bird1 #hf2 illustrated social organization in ,mexico1 #hg2 totem of ,incas1 #aeg2 on arms of ,mexico1 #aeg2 on sculptures at ,tiahuanaco1 #afg2 man-bird represented ruler of upper division of ,state in ,mexico1 #ahe2 typical of lords of four provinces in ,mexico1 #aij2 blue-bird1 ,mexican symbol1 #aij2 name of ,nahuatl tribe1 #bjf1 #bad2 three most powerful tribes of ,yucatan have bird names1 #bag2 on altar at ,copan1 #bbh2 in sculptures at ,palenque1 and in ,mexican ,fejervary chart1 #bce2 mask in ,mexican festival1 #bdb2 totem of the ,air people in ,mexico1 #bed2 recapitulation of meaning of symbol1 #bhb2 use of as symbol1 #bif2 vulture1 symbol of ,upper ,egypt1 #cfh4 ,birdwood1 ,geo41 #cad1 #ege4 ,blackfoot ,indians1 myth about ,ursa ,major1 #eaa4 ,black1 ,robert1 #ebf4 ,black ,sun1 in ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 #ed4 ,blood offerings1 meaning of1 #ih1 #ii1 #ddb4 ,boas1 ,franz1 #adg4 ,boat1 in sculptured bas-relief at ,chichen-,itza1 #afj2 in ,babylonian symbolism1 #cff2 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #djc2 ,egyptian1 ,grecian1 ,phnician in early times1 #dia4 ,bochica or ,ida-can-zas1 culture hero of the ,muyscas2 personification of the ,sun or ,above1 #aga4 ,bodleian ,,ms41 #dd1 #ij4 ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford1 #ejh4 ,boeckh1 #dhh4 ,bogota1 dual government1 calendar1 etc41 #aga4 ,bohn1 #dhf4 ,book of the ,dead1 #cgb1 #cgd1 #chf1 #chg1 #djd1 #djf4 ,book of ,manu1 #cag4 ,book of ,yu1 #bif4 ,bopp and ,pott1 #ejj4 ,boturini1 #aej1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,bourbourg1 ,b4 de1 #ce1 #fi1 #hi1 #aia1 #bjf1 #baa1 #baf1 #bag1 #bga4 ,bournouf1 #ddh1 #dea4 ,bovallius1 ,dr41 #bcj4 ,bowl or vase 7see ,vase74 ,brahmanism1 #cab1 #cac4 ,brandenburg1 spearhead from1 illustrating triskelion and swastika associated1 #bh4 ,brandsford1 ,j4 ,f41 #ej4 ,brazil1 wooden clubs with ,greek fret1 #aba2 symbolism1 etc41 compared with that of other ancient ,american civilizations1 #bbd4 ,breath1 puffs of1 conventionalized on ,copan slab1 #bbc2 on bas-relief at ,palenque1 #bbc2 at ,quirigua1 #bbc2 compared with ,zui symbolism1 #bbc2 in ,copan1 #bhj4 ,brinton1 ,d4 ,g41 #fj1 #fi1 #gb1 #hb1 #hh1 #ic1 #ajj1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #afd1 #aga1 #age1 #agh1 #aha1 #ahb1 #aia1 #aib1 #bag1 #bce4 ,britain1 ancient1 numerical divisions1 middle1 central ruler1 quadruple organization1 #dgj1 #dic4 ,british ,guiana1 wooden clubs with 8,greek fret10 #aba4 ,british ,museum1 #aea1 #aff1 #bcd1 #cec1 #cee1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cff1 #deg1 #dei4 ,brown1 ,robert1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cch1 #cfd4 ,brugsch1 #cgj1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #chb1 #che1 #chg1 #cij1 #cic1 #cie1 #cig1 #cih1 #cii1 #djj1 #dja1 #djb1 #djd1 #djf1 #djg1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbe1 #dbi1 #dca1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #dcf1 #dcg1 #dch1 #dci1 #ddj1 #dda1 #ddb4 ,buddhism1 #bid1 #bih1 #cja1 #cjf1 #caa1 #cad4 ,budge1 ,wallis1 #cfg1 #cfh1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cge1 #cgi1 #chb1 #chh1 #chi1 #cia1 #cid1 #cig1 #dbe1 #dcg1 #ddc4 ,bull1 winged bulls of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #ccf2 symbolism of1 #ccg2 ,yahwe1 national god of the ,hebrews1 represented as man or as bull1 #cej2 astronomical sign in ,egypt for ,ursa ,major1 and possibly of ,polaris1 #che2 linguistic reasons why king of ,egypt was entitled 8the bull10 #che2 title of ,egyptian supreme deity1 #chi2 cow1 bull or ox1 in ,egyptian zodiac signs1 #cie2 ,apis1 sacred bull of ,egypt1 #cii2 in inscription in temple of ,denderah1 #dja2 ,baal worshipped under image of1 #daj2 ,egyptian ka1 rebus1 signifying ,polaris and ,ursa ,major1 #daj2 title of ,amen-,ra1 #daj2 associated with the goose in symbolism1 #dah2 ,minotaurus1 ruler of ,crete1 #deg4 ,burger1 ,george1 #dhf4 ,burial urn1 emblem of earth mother1 #ajf4 ,buschmann1 ,dr41 #aec1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afe1 #agb4 ,butterfly used as symbol of immortal soul by ,mexicans1 #ci2 symbol of ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #dg4 ,byzantine architecture1 #eae4 ,cab1 ,maya day sign1 word for bee1 also earth1 #aji2 honey1 #aaj2 associated with female principle1 #aaj4 ,cabal1 day-sign1 on ,copan altar1 #bbg4 ,caban1 ,maya day-sign1 identical with symbol of earth1 #ajg2 figured with leaves of maize1 #aji2 the ,below1 #bbg4 ,csar1 called the ,son of the ,sun1 #ddj1 #dgj1 #ecg4 ,cakchiquel ,indians of ,guatemala1 #gi2 court of1 #gi2 obsidian mirror used as oracle1 #hj2 ,annals of1 #afd2 legend suggesting form of government1 #agb2 tribal division associated with calendar1 #agh1 #agi2 tradition in relation to #g-;day period1 #ahb4 ,calendar systems1 ,mexican1 #g2 suggested by ,polaris and circumpolar constellations1 #be2 ,maya1 origin of1 #ce2 ,mexican1 monograph on1 #ec2 origin of1 #ajj2 ancient ,peruvian1 #ade2 among the ,muyscas1 #aga2 connection between calendar signs and divisions of the people1 #age2 a governmental institution1 #agi2 invention of native system by ancient inhabitants of ,chiapas1 #ahb2 among the ,zui1 #bje2 kept profound secret by priesthood1 #bje2 ,maya1 #bbj2 fixed term of office for ancient ,american rulers1 #bba2 ,mexican1 originated from the fixed market-days1 #bde2 signs identified with different parts of human form1 #bhb2 instituted by the ,chinese emperor1 ,yaou1 #bhi1 #bib2 comparison of ,american and ,chinese1 #big1 #bih1 #bii1 #cji2 ,chaldean and ,hindoo1 #cjj2 ,japanese compared with ,mexican1 #caa2 ,hindu with ,mexican1 #cai2 ,assyrian and ,babylonian1 #ccg1 #cdh1 #cdi2 ancient ,egyptian1 #cgg1 #cgh2 lunar and solar1 #dci2 ,esne calendar1 #ddj2 ,canopus calendar1 #dda2 ,central ,american and ,mexican1 #ebh2 time when first adopted1 #ebi1 #ecj4 ,calendar-stone of ,mexico1 #ab2 night sun pictured on1 #ac2 symbol of five dots compared with same on recumbent stone figure1 #ie2 market-stone of the ,city of ,mexico1 regulated social organization1 #bde2 special work on1 by ,zelia ,nuttall1 #bdf2 image of 8,great ,plan0 or ,scheme of ,organization1 #bdg2 figured and described1 #bdh-beh2 regulated machinery of state1 #bed2 ,gama's1 ,valentine's and ,chavero's descriptions1 #bef2 based on observation of ,polaris1 #beg2 embodied the idea of a central1 dual and quadruple power1 etc41 #beh2 contains symbol of union of dual principles of nature1 #bhj4 ,calendar-swastika1 #i1 #ah1 #da 7see ,swastika74 ,california ,indians1 use today two symbols in use by ancient ,mexicans and ,mayas1 i4 e41 flint-knife and 8stone yoke10 #ajd1 #aje4 ,calli1 ,nahuatl for western horizonthe house1 #ch2 one of the four-year symbols1 #gf2 meaning1 the house1 #bec4 ,campia de ,puebla1 #bge4 ,can1 ,maya word for serpent1 #ch2 serpent and numeral four1 #ej1 #aaj1 #aab2 affix in names of towns1 ,iroquois1 ,maya and ,mexican1 #aih2 associated with pyramid as ,teotihua-,can1 #bfc2 in ,chinese and ,maya associated with fourfold division1 #bhh4 ,canaan1 account of ,hebrew religion1 #cej4 ,canada1 ,iroquois town1 #aig2 ,maya meaning of1 #aih4 ,candace1 queen of the ,ethiopians1 #ddj4 ,capital1 ,maya word for1 homonymous with fiveho1 #bef4 ,caracol1 or ,round ,temple1 of ,chichen-,itza1 built by ,quetzalcoatl1 representing ,middle and ,four ,quarters1 and centre of dominion1 #ig4 ,cardinal points1 assignment of colors and parts of human body1 #bic1 #bid2 associated with form of quadruped among the ,zui1 #bie 7see ,four ,quarters74 ,carillo1 ,crescencio1 #he1 #hf4 ,carthaginians1 having knowledge of an island in the ocean1 #edj4 ,cartier1 #aig4 ,cary's translation of ,herodotus1 #dcg4 ,caryatids1 at ,chichen-,itza1 #bab4 ,cassiopeia1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #bi1 #dj1 #di4 ,caste1 in ,peru1 #adc2 in ,mexico1 #bgc4 ,castelnau1 #aej4 ,cat1 sacred symbol in ,egypt1 #djh4 ,catari1 chronicler of the ,incas1 #aea4 ,celi-,ced1 the dual power1 from which the universe was born 7,druidic71 #dga4 ,centipede1 ,mexican symbol1 #ahf4 ,central ,america1 fundamental basis of government and civilization1 #ae2 symbolical form in architecture1 #aac1 #aai2 carved stone seats or altars1 #bhc 7see ,copan1 ,guatemala1 etc474 ,centre 7stable centre or middle71 in ancient government1 religion1 and symbolism3 ,polaris1 the centre of axial energy1 #bb1 #cj2 centre of the ,cosmos1 among ,zuis1 ,mayas1 ,mexicans and ,peruvians1 #da2 symbols of1 #df2 on shell gorgets1 #di2 divergence from idea1 #eb2 represented by recumbent stone figure1 #if2 among ,incas1 #acf1 #adb1 #add2 and ,four ,quarters represented on carved slab from ,santa ,lucia1 #agb2 in ancient ,american game1 #agh2 in ,fjrvary ,codex1 #agh2 in social organization1 #ahj2 on sculpture of ,lord of ,above1 #ahf2 colors associated with1 #aib2 among the ,zui1 #bjb2 in ,copan ,swastika1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbe2 on ,tablet of the ,cross at ,palenque1 #bcf1 #bdc2 union with ,four ,quarters in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bej1 #beh2 on ,mexican monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bfd2 symbolized by pyramid1 #bgc1 #bgd2 words and symbols connected with1 #bgg2 associated with swastika1 #bhj2 expressed by pyramid1 #bhb2 typified by cross-legged human figure1 #bhc2 expressed in flower symbol1 #bhd2 ,chinese 8,middle kingdom10 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bia1 #bid1 #bii2 in ,america1 symbolized by human heart and navel1 in ,china by stomach1 #bif2 in ,chinese religion1 #cjf2 ,japan called 8,centre of the ,earth10 #caj2 represented by statue of ,buddha1 #cad2 ,nirvana1 #cae2 in ,hindu religion1 #cag2 in religion of ,arabia1 #cbc1 #cbd2 of ,persia1 #cbe2 of ,babylonia1 #ccj1 #ccc2 ,jerusalem1 sacred spot marking the centre of the world1 #ceb2 in ,babylonia-,assyria #cfd2 in ,egypt1 #cgf1 #cgi1 #chj1 #cha1 #chd1 #che1 #chf1 #cid2 expressed by mummy-shaped object1 also by cone1 #daj2 by a crown1 #dab2 by a flower1 #dae2 in ,egyptian feast1 ,tekhu1 #dci2 in ancient government of ,crete1 #deg2 in ancient ,rome1 #dfc2 in ancient ,ireland1 ,britain and ,wales1 #dfh-dga2 in ,scandinavia1 #dgb2 in cross-symbolism1 #eaa2 in religious ideas of ,old and ,new ,world1 #eag1 #ece2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,century ,dictionary1 #deb1 #dfd4 ,cezalcouatl1 name for ,kukulcan1 #fi4 ,chaac ,mool or ,lord ,tiger1 name given by ,le ,plongeon to the recumbent figure bearing circular vessel1 found in ,chichen-,itza1 #ie 7see 8,recumbent stone figure074 ,chac 7,maya7 red color2 also rain1 storms1 thunder and ,lightning2 title of ,lord of ,below1 #ahe4 ,chac-noui-tan1 name for ,yucatan1 #baj4 ,chalchihuitljade1 #cd1 #ia2 jade beads1 #ha4 ,chalmers1 ,john1 #eaa4 ,chambers' ,encyclopdia1 #deb1 #dfb1 #dfc1 #dfe1 #dhd1 #efd4 ,chamberlain1 ,basil ,hall1 #efe1 #efh1 #ega1 #egd1 #ege4 ,chariot1 symbolism of1 #cac1 #ejj1 #eja4 ,chavero1 ,a41 #cc1 #fa1 #bec1 #bef4 ,ch1 ,maya word for tree2 in names of tribes1 #aii1 #bcd4 ,checker-board 7or tartan7 design1 formed by taus1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd4 ,ch'en1 ,maya day sign1 #aaj4 ,cheles1 one of the ,yucatan tribes1 #bag4 ,cherokees1 #aif4 ,chess board1 in ,egypt1 #abd4 ,chiapas1 the present home of the ,tzendals2 native calendar system1 #ahj1 #ahb2 migrations from1 #baj2 numerical divisions1 #ebh4 ,chichen-,itza1 culture-hero ruled in1 #fh1 #fi2 recumbent stone figure bearing circular vessel1 #ic1 #ahe1 #bad2 connection established with ,mexico by ,kukulcan 7,quetzalcoatl71 #ic2 ,caracol or ,round ,temple1 #ig2 bas-relief illustrating navigation by boats1 #afj2 tradition about settlement of1 #bjg2 evidence of ,aztec influence1 #bab2 classification of ruins1 #baf2 tablet in house of 8,tennis-court0 #bei4 ,chichimecs1 sacrifices by1 #ff4 ,chicome-coatl1 literally1 seven-serpents1 title of earth mother1 #aha4 ,china1 cosmical symbol compared with those of ,copan and ,mexico1 #aad2 symbols of ,above and ,below1 #aah2 sound of words1 in symbolism1 #bgf2 pole-star worship1 #bhd2 the emperor at ,pekin termed the ,son of ,heaven and the ,empress inhabits the palace of ,earth's repose2 ,yang and ,yin2 ,above and ,below1 etc41 #bhf2 reason of deformation of feet1 #bhg2 ,chow ,dynasty1 fourfold plan of cities1 linguistic affinities with ,mexicans and ,mayas1 8,quadriform constitution10 #bhh2 calendar system1 social and religious organization compared with that of ancient ,america1 #bia1 #bib1 #bic2 tables showing the agreement and divergence in ancient systems of ,china and ,america1 #bic2 assignment of colors and of parts of human body to cardinal points1 #bid2 comparative study of symbolism1 #bif2 social organization1 etc41 #big2 calendar and numerical system1 #big1 #bih2 origin of civilization1 #bii2 astronomical system1 #cjj1 #cja2 ,buddhism1 #cja1 #cjc1 #cae2 primitive calendar1 #cja2 ,taouism1 #cja2 ,chinese language said to be the same as ,akkadian1 #cjb2 civilization not indigenous1 emigration into1 #cjc2 ,dowager ,empress ,ling1 #cjd2 ,israelites1 #cjc-cjf2 ,christians1 #cjf2 fundamental principles of religion identical with that of ancient ,america1 but later1 divergent1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cjh1 #cji2 ,heaven and ,earth cult practised at the present time1 #cdd2 summary of numerical divisions1 #dhc2 use of wheel from earliest times1 #eja-ejb2 use of ,cross symbol with idea of central power1 #eaa2 resemblances and differences1 ,chinese and ,maya1 ,mexican1 #ecc1 #ecd2 doubt about extreme age of governmental scheme1 #ecc2 celestial kingdom dates from first century1 #eda1 #edb2 summary and conclusions1 #edf4 ,cholula1 contains largest pyramid in ,america1 #bfh2 built as place of refuge from inundations1 #bga1 #bgb2 place of sanctity1 #bge2 also called ,cholola or ,colola1 #bge2 marks site of great and ancient ,tollan1 #bge1 #bgf1 #ebi4 ,cholollan1 pyramid1 a venerated sanctuary1 #bfi2 tradition concerning1 #bgj2 native name is 8tollan10 #bge 7see ,tullan ,cholollan74 ,christianity1 in ,china1 #cje1 #cjf2 period of growth1 persecution of pagans1 #ecj1 #eca2 ,st4 ,augustine states that it has existed from the beginning1 #ecf1 #ecg1 #ech1 #eci1 #eda4 ,chuen1 ,maya day-sign1 #aab4 ,cib1 ,maya day-sign1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,cibola1 seven cities of1 #bjc4 ,cicero1 #dhh1 #ebf1 #ebg4 ,cieza de ,leon1 #acb1 #aej4 ,cihuacoatl1 the earth mother1 flint knife in wrappings1 symbol of1 #ee2 the ,woman serpent 7or twin71 #fj2 name of ,quilaztli1 #fj2 female ruler1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd2 ,mexican ruler1 #fg2 personification of ,earth1 #gf2 ,montezuma's substitute1 #gg2 duties of1 agents of1 #gh2 offered sacrifice to god of ,underworld1 #gi2 compared with serpent in ,maya ,codex1 #aaa2 emblem of1 #abh2 female title of lord of the night1 #aha4 ,cipactli1 ,mexican sign for a 8marine monster10 #bbh4 ,circle1 symbol of heaven1 #bfj2 influence on ancient architecture and symbolism1 #bhd2 with dot1 ,egyptian sign for time1 #chg4 ,circle or ring1 symbol of ,egyptian 8lord of the ring10 ,hindu 8lord of the wheel10 ,persian 8god of the ring10 and ,mexican 8lord of the circle10 #dja4 ,circle or disk1 ,egyptian symbol1 #djb1 #dab1 #ddd2 also in ,peru1 #ddd4 ,circumpolar constellations1 studied by primitive man1 #ae2 in relation to origin of swastika symbol1 #ae2 form triskelion on night of winter-solstice1 #bg2 relation to sacred numbers1 #bi2 associated with idea of death and resurrection1 #ci2 in relation to underworld1 #dj2 four movements of1 #ed2 in connection with cult of ,below1 #ed2 worship of in ,old ,world1 #chc-chg 7see ,pleiades1 ,ursa ,major1 ,ursa ,minor1 ,polaris74 ,circumpolar region1 probable birth-place of cult of ,polaris1 #dge2 place where human race probably spent its infancy1 #dge2 fauna and flora1 #dgf1 #dgh1 #dgi4 ,circumpolar rotation1 represented by swastika and star-symbols on pottery1 #ej-eb2 compared to rotation of fire-drill by early peoples1 #ejb 7see ,rotation or ,wheel74 ,clavigero1 #bd1 #be1 #eh4 ,claws 7or nails7 of the state1 title of warriors1 #hg2 in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bdi2 on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfa4 ,cliff dwellers1 tau as symbol1 #aai4 ,clubs 7wooden7 from ,south ,america and ,peru1 with symbolical designs1 #abb4 ,coatl 7serpent or twin7 in connection with tree symbolism1 #ahh2 compared with ,zui ,koatwin1 #bja4 ,cocomes1 ,maya tribe1 #bji1 #bad4 ,codices3 ,borgian1 #bg1 #cf1 #ee1 #ia1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajc1 #aaf1 #ahi1 #ejd1 #eje2 ,chimalpopoca1 #bgj2 ,chumazel1 #he2 ,cortesian1 #aaa2 ,dresden1 #ce1 #cg1 #ci1 #da1 #de1 #aaj1 #ahc2 ,fjrvary1 #i1 #aj1 #dd1 #ajg2 ,fuenleal1 #h1 #aj1 #ab1 #cc1 #dd2 ,mendoza1 #fc1 #hg1 #hh1 #aag1 #aah1 #abb1 #acj1 #agc1 #bfc2 ,telleriano-,remensis1 #aj1 #aa1 #bdj2 ,troano1 #hf1 #aji1 #aaj2 ,vatican1 #aa1 #dd1 #ee1 #ej1 #gh1 #hj2 ,vienna1 #cd1 #dd1 #hf1 #ij1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #aai1 #abc1 #abg4 ,cogolludo1 #hi1 #ahj1 #bjf1 #baj1 #bah4 ,colebrook and ,bentley1 #cjj4 ,colhuacan1 ,mexican local name1 #bfc4 ,color1 red in ,mexico1 associated with north1 #eg2 cult of ,earth1 #ahe2 title1 #aic2 blue1 associated with rulership and divinities1 #fa1 #fb1 #ia1 #bad2 black1 associated with ,tezcatlipoca and with ,quilaztli1 #fb2 yellow1 color of the west1 female region1 #fd2 meaning of1 #aad1 #aae2 on ,moki masks1 #aai2 in tau design1 #abb2 on ancient ,mexican temples and sculptures1 #abh2 in ,peruvian symbolism1 #acj2 in ,zui symbolism1 #acj2 in architecture at ,uxmal1 #aca2 used to denote social status by ,peruvians1 ,mayas1 ,mexicans and ,zuis1 #aib2 associated with four ,quarters and ,above and ,below1 #aib1 #bea2 used for face and body painting1 #aic2 ,huaxtecan mantle of five hundred colors1 #bjh2 painting of caryatids in ,chichen ,itza1 #bab2 symbolic at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bcc2 emblematic1 in ,china1 #bhf2 assigned to elements by ,mexicans1 ,zuis and ,chinese1 #bjj1 #bic2 assigned to cardinal points1 in ,china and ,america1 #bid2 in ,buddhist temple2 in ,quetzalcoatl's temples in ,mexico1 #bie2 in ,hindu caste1 #cac2 in ,babylonia1 #cbh2 in ,egypt1 red associated with the north and male sex1 and white with south and female sex1 #cfi1 #cgc1 #dbe4 ,colorado1 cliff dwellers1 #aai4 ,column1 sacred1 in great temple of ,mexico1 #ec2 on hill of justice in ,guatemala1 #gi2 stel at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bbj1 #bcj1 #eab2 laws inscribed on1 centre of island ,atlantis2 laws of ,solon inscribed on1 in centre of ,athenian state2 of ,apollo at ,delphi1 #ddg2 the cosmical round tower of ,ireland1 #dgj2 at ,mitla1 ,mexico1 #eac2 symbolism of1 in ,old and ,new ,world1 #eac1 #eag4 ,confucianism1 #aae1 #bhi1 #bih1 #cjf4 ,cone1 in ,mexican ollin-sign1 signified the ,above1 #aah2 used in native architecture2 culminated in pyramid1 #aah2 represented by shape of windows in ancient ruins1 #abj2 on summit of ,house of the ,doves at ,uxmal1 #aca4 ,conical stone1 on which human victims were sacrificed1 #aah4 ,congress of ,americanists1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,congress of ,orientalists1 #edd4 ,conquest ,stone of ,mexico1 8,sacrificial ,stone10 8,tribute ,stone10 #beh1 #ejg4 ,constantine1 #eji1 #eac1 #ead1 #eae1 #ecj2 his numerical scheme compared with same in ,india1 ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #edb1 #edc4 ,copan1 lentil-shaped stone altar1 from1 #aac2 carved stel1 #bae2 purpose of erection1 #baf2 study of the ruins1 #bai2 cult of ,polaris illustrated by carved slab in temple1 #aa1 #bbb2 numerical organization illustrated1 #bbb2 numerical divisions1 symbolism1 etc41 identical with those of ,peru1 ,guatemala1 ,mexico1 ,yucatan1 ,zui1 etc41 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bcc2 numerical divisions on altar conform with ,zui clan-organization1 #bbi2 bearded effigies1 #bca2 dual rulers1 #bcb2 totemic animals and symbolic colors1 #bcc2 excavation at ,mound1 #d1 #bcc2 same cult as that of ,palenque and ,quirigua1 #bdj2 carved stone seats or altars1 #bhc2 alligator altar1 #bie2 stel as memorial columns1 #eab1 #eac2 remnants of old civilization1 #ebh4 ,copan swastika1 compared with design on club from ,south ,america1 #bbd2 compared with tablet in 8,temple of the ,sun10 #bci 7see also ,swastika74 ,copts1 #ecj4 ,cord 7,maya kaan71 associated with ,maya word for ,heavencaan1 and with glyph1 can1 #aab2 meaning of carved gorget worn on a cord1 #aab2 sky represented as a circle composed of a cord to which stars were attached1 #aac2 on lentil-shaped stone altar at ,copan1 #aad2 on shield of ,mexican god1 #abh2 on ,copan stela1 #bai4 ,corinth1 coin with swastika1 #dei4 ,cortes1 #cd1 #fg1 #fh1 #gd1 #ge1 #gg1 #ig1 #ajg1 #aej1 #aga1 #ahc1 #bjh1 #bde1 #bfd1 #bff1 #edb4 ,cosmos1 four-fold and seven-fold divisions of1 in ,peru1 ,mexico1 ,yucatan1 ,zui1 #da1 #db2 in ,babylonia1 ,india1 ,persia1 etc41 #cbh2 in pagan philosophy1 #dhd1 note 7see separate headings2 also1 ,quadruple ,organization and ,numerical ,divisions74 ,cow1 venerated in ,india1 #caf2 ,canaan goddess1 ,astarte1 in form of1 #ccg2 ,egyptian god ,isis 7,hathor7 worshipped under form of1 #djf2 or bull1 cult of ,apis in ,egypt1 #dcg 7see ,bull74 ,cox1 #bhi1 #dea4 ,coya1 wife or sister of ,inca1 #acd4 ,cozumel cross1 called symbol of 8rain-god10 #bhj4 ,creation myths1 ancient ,mexican1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef2 ,zui1 #aje1 #bjj1 #bbc2 ,peruvian1 #ach2 ,hindu1 #cac-cah2 ,babylonian1 #ccd1 #cdj2 ,babylonian and ,hebrew evidently from same source1 #cec4 ,creator1 or 8,supreme ,being10 in ,mexico1 #h2 title 8wheel of the winds10 #aa2 ,polaris1 #bb2 worshipped by ancient ,americans1 #cb1 #cf2 earliest form of2 feathered serpent1 image of1 #gj2 the four elements regarded as attributes of1 #ii2 belief in1 represented by mushroom-shaped stone figure1 #aae2 ,inca knowledge of1 #ace1 #adi2 ,quechua title for2 ,mexican title for1 #aei2 in ,peru1 identified with ,mexican 8,lord who guides10 or ,polaris2 and associated with star and cross1 #afa2 image of at ,cuzco1 #afb2 worship of in ,texcoco1 #afc2 in ,peru1 #afd2 in ,tiahuanaco1 #afh2 native title1 8,heart of ,heaven01 #ahi2 in ,mexico represented by rebus of the feathered serpent1 #bji2 ,nahuatl title1 expressed by an eye and pyramid in picture-writing1 #bfi2 ,divine ,twain1 ,father and ,mother of all1 in ,mexico1 ,quetzalcoatl1 #bgj2 in ,china1 #cjb2 ,akkadian name for symbol1 an eight-pointed star1 #cjb1 #cjd2 among the ,hindu1 #cab2 ,brahmanistic conception of1 #cad2 in ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,babylonia1 #cbi1 #ccj2 among the ,hebrews,yahwe lord of ,heaven1 #cjd1 #cea1 #ceb2 in ancient ,egypt1 #cig1 #djc1 #dab1 #ddd2 in ,plato's ,timus1 #ddi2 the ,norse1 ,thor1 #dgc2 the source of the four elements1 #eaj2 comparison of names in ,old and ,new ,world1 #ecb2 summary1 #edh4 ,cremation1 significance of1 #ajf4 ,crete1 ,greek plan of organization came from1 description of symbols on coin #deg2 ancient philosophy of1 #dhf-dhh4 ,cross-bones1 origin of symbol1 #ahd4 ,cross-legged seated figures1 on ,central ,american stone seats or altars1 #bhc2 emblem of stable centre and ,four ,quarters1 #bhc4 ,cross-symbol1 ,maya and ,mexican1 figured and described1 #cg1 #ch1 #de1 #df1 #dg2 on shell gorget from ,tennessee1 #di1 #ej2 on pottery from ,mississippi ,valley1 #ea2 from ,arizona1 #eb2 on ,iroquois belt1 #aih2 in symbolical carving from ,brazil or ,guiana1 #bbd2 four-spoked wheel as cross symbol in ,assyria1 #cef2 emblem of sovereignty in ,babylonia-,assyria1 #cfe2 used as symbol at earlier period than swastika1 #dfa2 with idea of ,central power1 #eaa2 emblem of ,christian religion1 #ece1 #ecf2 summary1 #edd 7see ,swastika74 ,cross-tablets at ,palenque1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci4 ,cross-worshippers1 ,chinese name for ,christians1 #cje4 ,cruciform structures1 vaults under stel at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #eab2 at ,mitla1 ,mexico1 #eac2 at ,rome1 #ead2 buildings and churches of later period1 #eae2 at ,byzantium1 #eae2 in ,syria1 #eae2 in ,india1 #eaf2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,cruz1 ,alonzo de la1 #bcj4 ,cubas1 ,garcia1 #bah1 #bca4 ,culin1 ,stewart1 #agh4 ,cum-ahau1 name of divinity of ,yucatan1 #ic1 #bbb1 #bbf4 ,cup-shaped depression1 on stone altar at ,copan1 #aad4 ,cushing1 ,frank ,h41 #da1 #ii1 #aae1 #abi1 #acb1 #aib1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bbg1 #bie1 #eaa1 #egd4 ,cuzco1 8navel of the earth10 #acc2 plan of city1 ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #acf2 founded by ,manco ,capac1 #aef2 temple1 facing north and containing gold image of 8,creator10 #afc2 gold plaque from1 #afh2 symbolism analogous to ,mexican and ,maya1 #agj4 ,dahlgren1 ,e4 ,w41 #bcj4 ,d',alviella1 ,goblet1 #ai1 #dei4 ,dances1 sacred1 #eg2 description of ,mexican dance1 representing wheel or axial rotation1 #eh1 #ei2 of ,moki ,indian1 #aai2 at ,cuzco1 #ade2 ,sun pole dance of ,american ,indians1 #cac1 note4 ,davis1 ,j4 ,f41 #cjj4 ,day-sign1 ,maya and ,mexican1 #ge1 #ajg-aab2 influence of1 #agg2 totem of clan1 #agh1 #agi2 ,cabal1 on ,copan altar1 #bbg2 and year signs of native calendar1 #bdh2 in calendar-stone1 #bec2 names of1 used as personal and tribal names1 #bec4 ,death1 symbol of1 #ci4 ,deer1 mask of1 #afe4 ,deities1 ,aztec1 number of1 same god under several names1 #h4 ,demosthenes1 lantern of1 #abg4 ,denderah1 #djj4 ,dennis1 ,j4 ,s41 #dhc4 ,de,rossi1 #ead4 ,desjardins1 #aej4 ,destruction of the earth1 ,mexican traditions concerning1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,dhruva1 #die1 #dif4 ,diaz1 ,bernal1 #ga1 #gb1 #ge1 #gg1 #hj1 #if1 #ig1 #bde1 #bfe1 #edb4 ,din-gira1 ,akkadian name for ,god1 #cjb4 ,diocletian1 #ead4 ,divination1 in connection with use of mirrors1 #hc2 origin of #agg2 in ,china1 ,thibet and ,india1 #cja4 ,divine ,twin 7see ,duality74 ,documentos ineditos del ,archivio de ,indias1 #gg4 ,dog1 head of1 on sculptures from ,santa ,lucia1 #afe2 ,maya word formen1 #bcd4 ,donelly1 ,ignatius1 #cgd1 #eaf4 ,d',orbigny1 #aej4 ,douglas1 ,r4 ,k41 #bhe1 #bia1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjb4 ,draconis1 observation in ,egypt1 #chd4 ,dragon1 at ,quirigua1 #bcc4 ,dragon-fly1 employed as cross-symbol1 on ,algonquin garment1 #dh4 ,druids1 #dgj1 #dga4 ,drums1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #bac4 ,duality or 8,divine ,twin10 symbol of1 #ci2 conventional representation of1 #df2 idea of1 #dg2 dual stellar divinity1 #ef1 #eg2 represented in sacred dance1 #ei2 by male and female ruler1 #fb2 development of idea1 #fg2 twin brothers as rulers in ,yucatan1 #fh2 ,montezuma1 impersonation of1 #gc1 #gg1 #gh2 in ,peruvian symbolism1 #acd2 the 8,beloved ,twain0 of the ,zui1 #bjj2 ,quetzalcoatl and ,kukulcan1 #bbc2 dual ruler at ,copan1 #bbh2 in ,quirigua1 #bcb2 on ,palenque tablet1 #bde2 on ,mexican ,calendar ,stone1 #bdi2 in ,mexican sculpture1 #bea1 #bfj-bfb2 dual government at time of ,conquest1 #bff2 in ,china1 #bhe2 in ,hindu religion1 #cab2 in ,india1 #cad2 in ,babylonia-,assyria1 #cdb2 in ,egypt1 #chi1 #cig1 #cii1 #daj1 #dab1 #dae1 #dbc2 in ancient ,rome1 #dfc2 in ancient ,ireland1 #dfh2 in ,druidic traditions of ,wales1 #dga4 ,duemichen1 #che4 ,duran1 ,friar1 #bf1 #da1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #ga1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #hh1 #ahb1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bde1 #beh1 #bhb4 ,eagle 7quauhtli71 associated with ,cassiopeia2 title of ,mexican war chief1 #be1 #afg2 ,eagle-woman1 #fj2 among the ,incas1 #aef2 on bas-reliefs of ,santa ,lucia1 ,guatemala1 #aef1 #aeg2 totem of one or more of the ,incas1 #aeg2 on bas-relief in ,city of ,mexico1 #aeg2 in arms of ,mexico1 #aeg2 symbol of ,above among the ,zui1 #bjd2 symbol of state in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 #bie2 summary of use as symbol1 #bif4 ,earth1 or 8,the ,below10 in ancient religion and symbolism2 in ancient ,mexican and ,maya cosmos2 in secret beliefs of ,zui priests1 #da2 female region1 #db2 lord of1 #de2 cult of1 #ed2 associated with woman1 #fj-fee2 sacrifices to1 #ff2 ,cihuacoatl1 personification of1 #gf2 sacrifices to god of1 #gi2 in connection with human sacrifices1 #ia2 sacred rites1 #ig1 #ih2 in ,zui ceremonies1 #ajj2 in connection with cremation1 #ajf2 symbol of1 in use by ,california ,indians1 #ajf2 priestesses of1 buried in caves1 #ajg2 symbols of1 #aaj2 associated with image of serpent1 #aaa2 with angular form1 #aac2 composed of fire and water1 #aac2 on altar at ,copan1 #aad2 associated with square form and bowl1 #aae2 flat-topped mitre worn by lord of1 #aaf2 ,chinese symbol1 #aah2 sacrifices #aah2 tau upright1 emblem of1 #aah1 #aai2 cult of1 in ,peru1 #acj1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace1 #ada1 #adb2 idea prevailed in ,tiahuanaco1 #aff2 among the ,muyscas1 #aga2 in calendar1 #agi2 in social organization1 #ahj1 #aha2 associated with animal form1 #ahd1 #ahe2 color associated with1 #aib2 associated with female principle1 #aic2 votaries of1 #aie2 in ,zui social system1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd2 priests of1 represented without beards on sculptures at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bca1 #bcb2 moon symbol of cult1 #bfg2 cultivation of maize1 by daughter of1 #bgf2 symbolized by quadruped1 #bhb2 vase1 emblem of1 #bhc2 associated with square form1 and darkness2 influence on primitive architecture and symbolism1 #bhd2 flower used as symbol of1 #bhd2 in ,china1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #bij1 #cjg2 in ,hindu religion1 cult of ,siva1 #cad2 in ,persian religion1 #cbe2 in ,assyrian and ,babylonia cult1 #ccd1 #ccf1 #cch1 #cci2 cult combined with that of ,above practised in ,china at present time1 #cdd2 ,baal1 ,phnician god of ,earth1 #cea2 in ,egypt1 #cha2 symbolized in ,scandinavia by ,thor's hammer1 #dgd2 table of countries where traces of cult have been found1 #dhj2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,earth-mother1 represented by ,cihuacoatl1 #gi2 pictured in ,borgian ,codex1 #ih2 ,zui symbol of1 #ajj1 #bjj1 #bja 7see ,earth or the ,below1 also ,cihuacoatl74 ,earth-work builders of the ,ohio valley1 #ej1 #aii1 #bhj4 ,eddas1 written by agricultural people1 having knowledge of the fire-drill1 axial rotation1 etc41 #ejb1 #ejc4 ,egypt1 crux ansata1 #aai2 checker-board design2 basis of chess-board1 #abd2 civilization mainly ,euphratean1 #cbg2 explanations and illustrations of ,egyptian symbols1 #cfg-dfa2 color symbolism2 high development of pole-star worship2 territorial divisions1 #cfh2 ,four ,quarters2 hieroglyph for capital or city1 cross symbol with four divisions1 #cfi1 #cga2 pyramid1 and square form associated with earth1 and round with sky1 #cga2 numerical divisions1 #cge2 seven-fold organization1 centre1 ,polaris1 #cgf2 calendar1 #cgg1 #cgh2 sky-goddess ,nut1 #cgh2 lotus flower symbol1 #cgi2 ,polaris1 sphinx1 pyramid1 ,middle1 #cgi2 mummy1 ,polaris1 #chj1 #chc2 ,ursa ,major1 used as a measurer of time1 #chd2 bull1 used as astronomical sign of ,ursa ,major1 king entitled 8,the ,bull10 #che2 ,amen-,ra1 the supreme1 dual god2 king associated with sun1 and queen with moon1 #chi2 hawk-headed god1 ,an1 compared with ,assyrian1 ,greek and ,mexican gods of the circle or wheel1 #dja2 ,egyptian queen analogous in position to ,mexican ,quilaztli1 #dbh1 #dbi2 festival of ,tekhu1 #dci2 becomes a ,roman province1 #ddj2 cult of dual principles of nature1 #dda2 summary1 #dhc2 the sacred and tribal tree1 #dii2 the symbolical use of the column1 #eac2 ,aha-,mena1 first historical ruler1 was a builder1 #ecb2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,faber1 #eaf4 ,fauna and flora of the tertiary period1 in ,old and ,new ,world1 #dgf-dgi4 ,feather1 symbol of divinity 7,mexican and ,maya71 #fi1 #gj2 names signify something divine1 #abi2 ,egyptian symbol1 #cij1 #dji1 #daj4 ,feathered serpent1 origin of use as symbol1 #fi2 effigies of in ,mexico1 #gj2 used as rebus to express ,supreme ,being and his earthly representative1 #bjh 7see also ,serpent74 ,feet of ,chinese women1 deformation of1 #bhg4 ,fjrvary ,codex1 #agh1 #ahg1 #bce1 #bej4 ,ferlini1 #dbg4 ,fewkes1 ,j4 ,walter1 #acj1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,figueredo1 ,padre ,juan de1 #afd4 ,finger and toe count#bj3 #age1 #bie1 #bif1 #big4 ,fire1 sacred1 ,pleiades in connection with kindling1 #ec2 new1 kindling of1 #ef2 festival of god of1 #eg2 earliest form under which deity was worshipped1 #eh1 #fd1 #gj2 in ,peru1 #hc2 lighting of1 by means of mirror1 #hc2 god of1 associated with sceptre having gold disk1 #hg2 kindled on body of human victim1 #ia1 #ie2 lord of1 #abg1 #abh1 #bad2 feast of in ,mexico1 #bdj2 name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world1 #bec2 symbolical meaning of1 #bhj2 means of producing in ,mexico and ,india1 #cah2 in connection with cult of ,polaris1 #cai2 worship of in ,india1 #cbj1 #cba2 in ,parsee religion1 #cbf2 in ,babylonia-,assyria1 #cfb2 ceremonial rite1 in ancient ,egypt1 #ddb2 at ,new ,year festival in ,scandinavia1 #dgd2 7in ,old ,world7 sacred fire1 fire-drill1 fire-socket1 fire-altars1 lord of fire1 #did-ejd1 #eai1 #ebj1 #eba2 7in ,new ,world7 sacred fire1 fire-drill1 fire-socket1 fire-altar1 fire-drill god1 #ejd-eji2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,five elements in ,china1 #bic1 #cja1 #cji2 in ,india and in ,greece1 #dhd1 note4 ,five-day periods1 year divided into in ,mexico1 #bib2 in ,japan1 #caj4 ,five-dot groups1 idea of1 #bef2 on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfj2 on coin found in island of ,crete1 #deg2 on the cenotaph of king ,midas1 #dei4 ,fletcher1 ,alice ,c41 #aif1 #eaa4 ,flint1 ,earl1 #aie4 ,flint knife1 ,tecpatl1 in wrappings1 symbol of earth-mother1 used as sacrificial knife1 #ee1 #ef2 on head dress in ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 #eg2 in connection with emblematic vase1 #ajc2 sacred among the ,hupa ,indians of ,california1 #aje2 on sacrificial stone of ,mexico1 #beh2 emblem of generation1 #eba 7see ,tecpatl74 ,flood and destruction myths and traditions1 #hh1 #bdj1 #bec1 #bgj-bge 7see ,myths and ,traditions74 ,flower1 as symbol1 #aja2 four petals1 two leaves and stalk1 #aia2 on ,tablet of the ,cross1 #bcf2 symbol of ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #bgh2 recapitulation of meaning of1 #bhd2 lotus in ,hindu religion1 #cad2 or rosette1 in ,assyrian symbolism1 #cff2 seven petalled flower on ,phnician tablets1 #cie2 ,egyptian word forankh means also 8life10 #dac2 emblem of ,middle1 axial rotation and life1 #dac-dbj4 ,footsteps1 in circle1 indicating rotation1 #ij1 #bgi4 ,forrer1 ,r41 #dfj4 ,frstemann1 ,e41 #ajg1 #aji1 #aab4 ,four ,elements1 in ancient religion and symbolism3 union of1 in sacred rites1 #ig2 regarded as attributes of ,supreme ,divinity1 #ii2 ,mexican and ,zui beliefs and ceremonies1 #ii-ajb2 symbolized by calendar signs1 #ahb2 symbols of1 on ,mexican ,calendar ,stone1 #bdi-bea1 #bec1 #bed2 classification of among the ,mexicans1 ,zui1 and ,chinese1 #bic1 #bid2 ,creator1 in ,peru and ,mexico1 named ,earth1 air1 fire and water in ,one1 #did1 #eaj1 #ebi4 ,four ,quarters1 in ancient religion and symbolism3 #ch1 #da1 #df2 on shell gorgets1 #dh1 #di2 colors of1 represented on feathered serpent1 #gj2 represented in ,mexico by four executive officers1 #ge1 #gf2 ancient ,yucatan divided into1 #he1 #hf2 in ,vienna ,codex1 #ij1 #ia2 in ,borgian ,codex1 #ia2 represented in ,caracol or ,round ,temple of ,chichen ,itza1 #ig2 all things divided into1 for an indefinite period1 finally subdivided1 #ii2 figured as single sign1 #abd2 in plan of capital and form of government among ,incas1 #acf1 #add2 represented on carved slab from ,santa ,lucia1 #agb2 represented by four limbs of human figure1 #agd2 symbolized in ancient ,american games #agf1 #agh2 in ,fjrvary ,codex1 #agh2 represented by #bj-;day period1 #agi1 #ahj2 lords of1 among the ,quiches1 #ahb2 colors of1 #aib2 among ,zui1 #bja2 in pyramid temple at ,chichen ,itza1 #bjh2 idea of1 carried out by ,quetzalcoatl in the ,mexican temples1 #bji2 ruler of1 on ,copan stel1 #bbj2 meaning of symbol as used among the ,maya1 #bbc2 on ,copan swastika1 #bbd2 on ,palenque tablets1 #bdc2 in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bej2 designated by colors on monuments in ,mexico1 #bea2 symbolized on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfj2 cult of1 in ,mexico and ,peru1 #bfd2 ,cortes regarded as ,lord of1 #bff2 in connection with pyramid1 #bgc2 list of symbols connected with1 #bgh2 expressed by pyramid1 #bhb2 in flower symbol1 #bhd2 in ,chinese calendar system1 #bhe1 #bia2 associated with color and the elements1 #bic2 with parts of the body by ,chinese1 #bid2 with form of quadruped by ,zui1 #bie2 in ,china1 #bih2 in ,japan1 #caa2 in ,india1 #cac2 in ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccg1 #ceg2 in ,egypt1 #cfi1 #cgb1 #chf1 #cid1 #cie1 #dae2 in ancient ,ireland1 the five kings assigned one to the middle and the others to the cardinal points1 #dfh2 in ancient ,britain1 #dgj2 in ancient ,scandinavia1 #dgb2 table of countries in which traces of cult have been found1 #dhj-did2 in religious ideas of ,old and ,new ,world1 #eag1 #eci2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,gage1 ,thomas1 #ge1 #hd4 ,gallatin1 #aif4 ,gama1 ,leon y1 #if1 #ahf1 #bdf1 #beb1 #bef1 #bfj4 ,game of ball1 represented idea of perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies1 #hb2 of patolli1 description of1 #hg2 tlachtli and patolli in ,mexico1 #agf1 #agg1 #agh4 ,garcia1 #aej4 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #acb1 #acc4 ,gaul1 divided into seven provinces1 #dic4 ,gesenius1 #eah4 ,gensler1 ,dr41 #cie4 ,ghizeh ,museum1 #dbg4 ,gibbon1 #aej4 ,gilgamesh epic1 #cff4 ,gillies1 ,john1 #dhg4 ,globus1 #eb4 ,god ,c1 ,maya divinity1 #ajh1 #aaa2 not identical with ,polaris1 #aab4 ,god ,l1 ,maya divinity1 #ajh4 ,god ,m1 ,maya divinity1 #ajh4 ,godman1 ,f4 ,ducane1 #abj4 ,godman and ,salvin1 #baf4 ,gomara1 #bf1 #ci1 #ij1 #aej4 ,goodyear1 ,william ,h41 #cad1 #cie1 #dac1 #dad1 #dae1 #dah1 #dbj1 #dbd1 #dfj4 ,goose1 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #cih2 in ,egyptian1 ,sanscrit and ,hindu religious art1 #dah2 in the prehistoric art of ,greece1 ,italy1 ,hallstatt1 ,gaul1 ,sweden2 name for in different languages1 #dai4 ,gordon1 ,g4 ,b41 #eab4 ,gottfriedt1 ,j4 ,l41 #fc4 ,government 7see ,quadruple organization1 and ,social organization74 ,great ,plan1 stone of1 #ejf4 ,great temple of ,mexico1 #ec1 #hj2 recumbent stone figure on summit of1 #if2 contains forty high towers to hold effigies of lords of the ,above1 #ajg1 #bbe4 ,great ,turtle at ,quirigua1 #bcd1 #bdj4 ,greece1 use of checker-board design1 #abd2 primitive government of1 #dde2 ,athenian culture1 #ded-dei2 summary1 #dhd2 ,greek colonies in ,egypt1 #dia2 the symbolic use of the column1 #eac2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,greek fret1 evolution of1 on the ,american continent1 #aba2 formed by upright and reversed tau1 #aba4 ,griffis1 ,w4 ,e41 #caj4 ,grote1 #dhd1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dia1 #dib1 #ebg4 ,guatemala1 cult of ,polaris1 #dd2 ,cakchiquel ,indians1 #gi1 #aga2 obsidian mirror as oracle1 #hb2 ancient capital of1 divided into two and four parts1 #he2 ancient civilization in1 #hi2 mushroom-shaped stone figures from1 #aad2 sculptured slabs resembling image in ,inca fable1 #aec2 ,nahuatl language spoken in1 #aee2 caste division associated with left hand1 evidence that ,nahuatl was spoken in1 #afe2 ,nahuatl names of four provinces1 #agb2 stela with symbol of open hand1 #ahd2 numerical divisions1 social organization1 symbolism1 #bbf2 summary1 in table of countries1 #did4 ,gubernatis1 ,angelo de1 #cah1 #edd4 ,gudea1 #ceg4 ,guiana1 symbolism1 etc41 compared with that of other ancient ,american civilizations1 #bbd4 ,guillemin1 ,amede1 #afb1 #afc4 ,habel1 ,dr41 #aed1 #aef4 ,hagar1 ,stansbury1 #dhj1 #eaj4 ,hakluyt1 #adj1 #afa4 ,hale1 ,horatio1 #aif1 #aih4 ,haliburton1 ,r4 ,g41 #cci1 #dfi4 ,hammurabi1 #cdi4 ,hamy1 ,ernest1 #aad1 #agd4 ,hanan-ayllu1 upper lineage in ,peru1 #acc4 ,hanan ,cuzcothe ,above1 ruled by the ,inca1 #acc2 division of ,inca capital including those of upper class1 #adj1 #afd4 ,hathor-,isis1 ,egyptian goddess of whom the queen was the living image1 #dbi-dcg4 ,hawk god1 in ,egyptian zodiac1 #djj2 on inscriptions in temple of ,denderah1 #dja2 ,egyptian god ,horus represented with head of hawk1 #djb2 used as image of ,amen-,ra1 #dab4 ,heaven1 or 8the ,above10 in ancient religion and symbolism3 in conception of cosmos in ancient ,mexico1 in secret beliefs of ,zui priests1 associated with rising of celestial bodies1 #da2 male region1 #db1 #ed1 #fb1 #fe2 sacrifices to1 #ff2 ,montezuma living representative of1 #ga1 #gb2 in ,zui ceremonies1 #ajj2 symbolized as air1 light and water1 #ajc2 lords of1 buried in wooden effigies placed in high towers1 #ajg2 associated with rounded form2 temples were circular1 #aac2 on lentil-shaped altar at ,copan1 #aad2 in mushroom-shaped stone figures from ,san ,salvador and ,guatemala1 #aae2 peaked mitre worn by lord of1 #aaf2 represented in ,mexican ollin-sign by cone1 #aah2 symbolized by conical stone on which human victims were sacrificed1 #aah2 ,chinese emblem of1 #aah2 in ,moki ,indian dance1 #aai2 in ancient architecture1 #aai-aba2 on clubs from ,brazil and ,british ,guiana1 #aba2 in ,peru1 #acj-adf2 in ,tiahuanaco1 #aff2 in ,bogota1 #aga2 represented by human head1 #agd2 associated with human figure1 #ahd1 #ahe2 in ,mexican tree symbolism1 #ahh1 #ahi2 color associated with1 #aib2 priests represented with beards on sculptures at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bca2 in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bdi2 in 8,divine ,twin10 #bfj2 list of symbols connected with1 #bgh1 #bhb2 in ,china1 #bhd-bij1 #bih1 #bii1 #cja1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cdd2 ,hebrew ,jehovah called 8,god of ,heaven10 #cjd1 #cbc1 #cea2 in ,india1 #cad2 in ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 #ccd1 #ccf1 #cch1 #cci2 in ,egypt1 #dbi2 in ,scandinavia1 #dgd2 table of countries in which traces of cult have been found1 #dhj2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,heaven and ,earth1 union of3 symbolized by human face1 #df1 #dg2 expressed by cross-symbols1 #dh2 illustrated by double tau-shaped figure1 #hf2 in connection with ,toxcatl festival1 #ig2 in ancient architecture1 #abj2 in ancient symbolism #acj2 typified by shape of irrigating canals of ,peru1 #acb2 on ,copan stel1 #bba2 on summits of high mountains1 #bhc2 in ,china1 #bhf2 by figure of ocelot and eagle combined1 #bif2 in ,babylonia1 #ccj1 #ccd-cdf2 in ,egypt1 #dbe1 #dbi-dch4 ,hebrews1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cbg1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb1 #cfd4 ,heliopolis1 seat of learning and monotheism in ancient ,egypt1 #ddd4 ,heraclitus of ,ephesus1 #deb4 ,hercules1 twelve labors of1 #eaa4 ,herodotus1 #cjj1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #cfa1 #cge1 #cii1 #dab1 #dcg1 #ddb-dib4 ,herrera1 #gg1 #hf1 #acb4 ,hesiod1 #dec4 ,hewitt1 #dec1 #dhj-dhb1 #did-eji1 #eag-ebd1 #efe-ege4 ,hiawatha1 #aig4 ,hieroglyphs1 and symbols1 on stone monuments of ,central ,america1 #bah-bcc2 ,yucatan1 #bcd-bdd2 ,mexico1 #bde-bge4 ,hilavi1 #acd4 ,hipparchus1 #deb4 ,hippodamus1 #dhf1 #eaf4 ,historical ,exposition at ,madrid1 #bc4 ,ho1 ancient name for ,merida1 on ancient map from ,codex ,chumazel1 #hf1 #ij4 ,hochelaga1 kingdom of1 #aig2 ,iroquois central capital1 #aih4 ,holcan1 title given to war chiefs in ,mexico1 signifies literally the head of four1 #bji2 relates to rulership of ,four ,quarters1 #bji4 ,holmes1 ,w4 ,h41 #ci-dh1 #di1 #fi1 #ig1 #aca1 #bac1 #bce1 #bdj4 ,homer1 #dea1 #deb4 ,honduras1 ancient civilization in1 #hi1 #bah2 ,peabody ,museum ,expedition1 #eab 7see ,copan74 ,hopi1 ceremonial having affinities with the ,nahuatl and ,maya1 #bji4 ,horizon1 western1 ,nahuatl symbol forcalli1 the house1 #ch4 ,horse1 sacred animal in ,egypt1 #dji4 ,horse-shoe symbol1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,horus1 ,egyptian ,god identified with ,polaris1 #djb4 ,house of the ,doves at ,uxmal1 symbolism of1 #aca4 ,huaca1 tribal or household 8idol0 among the ,peruvians1 origin of1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj4 ,huaxtecans1 #fd1 #abe2 ,maya colony on ,mexican coast1 #afj1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,huitzilopochtli1 tradition concerning1 #ab2 represented as humming-bird1 #bf2 connected with ,above1 the male region1 #db2 the traditional leader of the ,aztecs1 #eg2 tradition concerning sister of1 #fj2 associated with blue color1 #fb2 represented by ,montezuma1 #ga2 title of1 8,heart of the ,heaven10 #gb2 companion idol to that of ,tezcatlipoca in great temple of ,mexico1 #hj2 monolith in ,mexico1 #bde2 statue of1 #bfe4 ,human arm1 symbol of one of the divisions of state in ,mexico1 #age4 ,human bones1 used as rebus1 #ahc2 reason of decoration1 #ahd4 ,human breath1 symbolism of1 #i1 #aj 7see also ,breath74 ,human face1 used symbolically1 #dg2 in centre of ollin sign1 #ed2 on sculpture at ,tiahuanaco1 #afi2 in ,mexican calendar1 #afi2 in ,central ,american sculptures1 #bba2 in ,copan sculpture1 #bbb2 in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bdh2 summary1 #bha4 ,human faces1 of silver and mosaic1 on necklace of statue1 #bfe4 ,human figure1 in sacrifice regarded as symbolic of ,middle and ,four ,quarters1 #ia2 in mushroom-shaped stone figure1 #aad2 in ,vienna ,codex1 #abc2 statue of man and woman1 symbolized duality in ,peru1 #acd2 ,inca gold image of ,creator and of the sun1 #ace2 image of the ,state in ,mexico1 #agd2 associated with ,four ,quarters of the ,above1 #ahd2 combined with animal figure1 symbol of dual ,state1 #ahe2 on ,copan stel1 #bai-bbg2 at ,quirigua1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd2 in sculpture at ,palenque1 and in ,mexican ,fjrvary chart1 #bce-bdj2 recapitulation of meaning of symbol2 image of constitution and calendar system2 calendar signs identified with1 #bhb2 seated cross-legged1 emblem of stable ,centre1 #bhc2 parts of1 assigned to cardinal points in ,china1 #bid2 in ,zui1 #bie2 significance of1 in sculpture1 #bie2 on stela1 represented the chief and his term of office1 #bie2 summary of its use as symbol1 #bif2 statue of ,buddha conveys idea of swastika1 also of ,centre1 #cae2 combined with animal in ,babylonian symbolism1 #cce2 winged1 bird-headed human figure on ,assyrian bas-relief1 #cff2 in ,egypt1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #djj1 #dcg1 #dch2 in the island of ,crete1 #deg1 #deh4 ,human fingers1 symbol of four officers1 #age4 ,human foot1 symbol of lower division of ,state1 #age4 ,human hand1 symbol of supplication1 #abg1 #bfa2 on carved slab from ,santa ,lucia1 #agb2 meaning of1 #agd2 wooden sceptre in form of1 #agd2 symbol of capital of ,state1 #age2 on garment of chieftain at ,uxmal2 on stela used as name-sign of ruler in ,mexico2 symbol of ancient capital in ,yucatan2 sceptre in shape of1 #ahd2 symbol of four lords of the ,above1 #ahe2 the idea of many hands guided by one head or central power1 #ahf2 symbol of lord or chief1 #aij2 expressed numeral five1 #bgi2 ,egyptian symbol of ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #cid4 ,human head1 on ,tablet of the ,cross1 #bcf2 as corn cobs on maize plant1 #bcg2 in serpents' jaws on calendar-stone1 #beg2 portraits or effigies of the dead1 #bgf2 used as symbol of ,centre1 #bgi2 on winged bull1 #ccg4 ,human heart1 symbol employed by ,mexicans1 ,mayas1 ,quiches1 and ,tzendals1 #ga2 extracted from human victim of sacrifice1 #ia2 emblem of supplication1 #abg2 in sacrifice1 #agc1 #bif2 between #d squares1 symbol for chieftain1 etc41 #aii2 on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfa2 of gold on necklace of idol1 #bfe4 ,human eye used as star symbol1 #bgi 7see ,eye symbol74 ,human mouth and teeth1 symbolized earth or ,below1 #bha4 ,human nose1 mystic union of two streams of breath1 consecrated by wearing symbolical nose ornament1 #bhb4 ,human sacrifice 7see ,sacrifice74 ,human skull1 artificial deformation of1 #adc4 ,human stomach1 in ,china symbol of ,centre2 death by disemboweling practised1 #bif4 ,human thumb1 symbol of central ruler1 #age4 ,humboldt1 #big1 #cja1 #cai4 ,humboldt ,tablet1 #ejf4 ,humis-katshina1 ,zui dance1 tau symbol used in1 #aai4 ,hunter1 ,annie1 #bbb4 ,hupa ,indians1 #aje4 ,hurin-ayllo1 lower lineage in ,peru1 #acc4 ,hurin ,cuzcothe ,below1 #acc2 division of the ,inca capital including the lower class1 #ada1 #afd4 ,huron ,indians1 #aif-aii1 #dic4 ,huxley1 #ebf1 #ecd4 ,hwang-te1 ,chinese emperor who introduced calendar system1 #bih1 #cja4 ,idols1 represented attributes of divine power1 etc41 #h2 tribal and household1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj4 ,ik1 ,maya glyph1 #bbe4 ,illinois1 cult of ,polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget1 #dd4 ,imix1 ,maya glyph1 #ajh4 ,incas of ,peru1 #acc2 cult of1 #acd2 ,great ,temple of1 #ace2 gold images of ,creator and of the sun1 #ace1 #acf2 form of government1 based on ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #acf2 ancestor worship1 #acg2 origin of1 #aea2 use of tree symbolism1 #ahf2 record of male and female ancestry1 #ahf2 gold associated with male element1 silver with female1 #ahg2 associated with golden effigy of sun1 #bfd2 advent into ,peru1 #eci2 summary and conclusions1 #edf 7see also ,peru74 ,india1 divisions of year1 #bia2 astronomical system1 #cjj2 swastika abounds in1 #cab2 ,mithra1 ,hindu god of the wheel1 #cac2 ,brahmans1 ,buddhists1 #cad2 marriage custom1 #caf2 numerical divisions1 #cag2 native maps of1 #cah2 ceremonial mode of producing fire1 #cah2 ,middle1 centrifugal power2 quadruple organization1 etc41 #cbj2 tree worship1 #cba2 worship of ,polaris1 8the pivot of the planets10 #ddh1 note2 summary1 #dhj2 ,pythagoras derived his philosophy from1 #dhd2 sacred fire1 fire drill1 fire altar1 #did2 marriage1 #dih2 the ,maghas and ,nahushas compared with the ,mayas of ,yucatan and the ,xahuas of ,mexico1 #eji2 the idea of five elements1 #ebf2 active intercourse with seafarers1 #eda2 cyclical system of1 assigned to same period as ,constantine's numerical scheme and the calendrical schemes of the ,mayas and ,mexicans1 #edb2 summary and conclusions1 #ead4 ,indra1 #cab4 ,initial scroll1 in ,central ,american inscriptions1 #bba1 #bcc4 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 #gi4 ,ireland1 numerical divisions2 quadruple organization2 dual ruler2 ,middle2 ,four ,quarters2 cosmical round tower2 ,seven ,churches2 great hall of ,tara 7midcourt71 #dfh-dgj2 summary1 in table of countries1 #dic4 ,iroquois1 social organization1 #aif2 wampum belts1 #aig2 numerical divisions1 #aih2 linguistic affinities with ,mayas1 #aih1 #aii4 ,irrigation1 in ancient ,peru1 #adf4 ,ishtar1 cult of1 #cdb-cej2 ring or circle1 symbol of1 #cei1 #cfj2 8axis of the heavens10 female ,polaris1 #ejc4 ,isis1 ,egyptian goddess worshipped under form of cow1 #djf2 in sculpture and symbolism1 #dba-dcd2 called daughter of the sun1 #ddj1 #dda4 ,isokrates1 #dib4 ,israelites1 #cde2 idea of central power2 star-cult developing into monotheism1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cee4 ,itza1 tribe who occupied ,chichen-,itza1 #bjf4 ,ixion's wheel1 #dec4 ,ixkun1 #baj1 #bae1 #bdd2 bas-relief at1 #bei4 ,ixtlilxochitl1 #cc1 #ff1 #hd1 #afc1 #bee4 ,izamal1 ruins of1 #bad1 #bag4 ,iz-calli1 ,mexican #bj-;day period1 #bdj2 festival of 8renovation10 #bda4 ,iztaccihuatl1 giant volcano1 #bge4 ,jade1 ,nahuatl word for1 chalchiuitl1 #cd1 #ha2 symbol of2 emblem of water goddess1 #ia2 placed with dead of upper class in ,mexico1 #aie2 jade celts from ,nicaragua1 #aif2 ancient name for pyramid of ,cholula1 8the monument or precious jade stone of the ,toltecs1 etc410 #bfi2 ,chinese word for1 significance of1 #efc1 note4 ,jaguar1 figure of1 represented four lords of the ,below1 #ahd1 #ahe2 skeleton of1 in ,mound #d at ,copan1 #bcc2 compared with ocelot1 #bcc2 on ,cross tablets at ,palenque1 #bci 7see ,ocelot1 ,puma1 ,quadruped and ,animal form74 ,janus1 double-faced1 probably symbol of double state in ,rome1 #dfc4 ,japan1 junks1 #cji2 organization founded on plan derived from ,corea2 8great ,centre of the ,earth20 tradition about ,north ,pole2 compared with ,china1 #caj2 ,buddhism1 #caa2 four divisions of population1 with ,emperor at head2 governed by two rulers1 celestial and terrestrial1 #caa2 swastika2 ,shinto religion1 #caa2 quadruple organization1 #caa1 #cab2 summary1 #dhc4 ,jastrow1 ,morris1 #cbg-cdd1 #cdh1 #cej1 #ced1 #ceg1 #cfa-cfg4 ,jensen1 #cbg4 ,jerusalem1 temples to ,baal and altar to ,astarte1 #cej-ceb2 destruction of1 #ecj4 ,jesup expedition to the ,north ,pacific1 #ecd4 ,jones1 ,sir ,william1 #cjj4 ,joyce1 #egj4 ,justinian1 #ecj4 ,kaan1 ,maya word for cord1 associated with caan1 ,heaven1 #aab4 ,kaka or ,akaka-kwe1 mythic dance drama people1 among the ,zui1 #bjd4 ,kannumeral four1 #aaj2 ,maya word for serpent1 #aab2 ,nahuatl word for serpent1 #ahi2 ,chinese word for mountain1 also for province or ruler1 #bhg4 ,kan-asta 7,iroquois7 frame poles of the council house1 #aig4 ,kanasta-tsi-koma 7,iroquois7 8the great framework20 name of ,iroquois league1 #aig4 ,katun1 period of twenty years marked by sculptured stone1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bba4 ,kingsborough1 #aa1 #eg1 #fb1 #gh1 #bdj1 #bdf4 ,kin 7,maya7sun1 #bag4 ,kin-ich-ahua1 one title of ,maya supreme divinity1 #cf4 ,kircher1 #dhe4 ,knight1 #dgj4 ,kukulcan1 ,maya title for ,mexican god ,quetzalcoatl1 #fh2 meaning of namedivine serpent1 #fh1 #fi2 represented by feathered serpent in ,yucatan and ,mexico1 #fi2 tradition concerning1 #fi2 ruler of ,chichen ,itza1 #fi2 assumed offices of four rulers1 #fi2 established connection between ,chichen ,itza and ,mexico1 #ic2 compared with culture hero of ,bogota1 #aga2 ,maya chief or lord1 journeyed to ,mexico and was there called1 ,quetzalcoatl1 #bjf2 actual person1 ,maya high priest1 ,mexican culture hero1 #bjg2 brought colony from ,yucatan to ,mexico1 #bjh2 name signified 8divine four10 #bjh2 title expressed by serpent on ,copan stel1 #bbj1 #bbc2 represented by monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfb4 ,kulkun1 mountain in ,china1 called king of mountains1 summit of the earth1 etc41 #bhg4 ,kushites1 myth regarding origin of life1 etc41 #die4 ,kwakiutl ,indians1 social organization and secret societies1 #adg2 compared with ,maya1 ,mexican and ,peruvian1 #adh4 ,lacedmon1 ancient philosophy of1 #dhg4 ,lacouperie1 ,t4 de1 #cjj1 #cjb4 ,land1 conventional symbol of1 #abc4 ,landa1 ,fra ,diego de1 #ce1 #fi1 #hf1 #aia1 #aib1 #bjf-bbj1 #bdb1 #bha4 ,language1 differed in male and female communities1 #aic2 influence on ancient ,american symbolism1 #bhd 7see ,linguistics74 ,laoutsze1 founder of ,taouism1 #bih1 #ecd4 ,laplace1 #cai4 ,las ,casas1 #fg4 ,layard1 #cfj4 ,lea1 ,chinese word for ,below1 #aah4 ,left-hand2 left-handed was attribute of ,mexican god1 #ab2 consecration of1 in ,mexico and ,peru1 #afc1 #afd2 honorific title1 #afe2 on ,copan altar1 #bbh4 ,legge1 #bhf1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bib1 #bif1 #bih1 #bii4 ,lenormant1 #eff4 ,leon1 ,cieza de1 #acf1 #aej4 ,le ,plongeon ,a41 #ic1 #ie1 #ahd1 #bad4 ,lepsius1 #cgi1 #dfj4 ,levier1 ,emile1 #dgg1 #dgh4 ,life of the ,indians 7same as ,hispano-,mexican ,,ms41 ,biblioteca ,nazionale ,,ms41 or ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms474 ,linguistics1 traces of words associated with archaic set of ideas in ,old and ,new ,world1 #eca2 comparative tables of words1 ,appendix ,i1 #edi2 and ,appendix ,,iii1 #efc4 ,lion1 sacred symbol in ,egypt1 #djh4 ,lizard1 skin of1 in connection with human sacrifice1 and with goddess of earth and underworld1 #ia1 #if1 #ih4 ,lizana1 #baj4 ,lloque ,yupanqui1 third ,inca1 #acc4 ,lockyer1 ,norman1 #ac1 #ad1 #bj1 #afb1 #beb1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cha1 #chb1 #chd1 #che1 #chf1 #djj4 ,lorenzana1 #fh4 ,lorillard ,city 7see ,mench71 #baj2 sculpture and art of1 #bcd4 ,lotus1 as symbol in ,egypt and ,india1 #cad1 #cbj1 #cgi1 #dac4 ,loubat1 ,duc de1 #bcj1 #ejd4 ,luna1 ,don ,jose1 #ej4 ,lunar year1 #bed4 ,lunar periods1 #bef4 ,lunar calendar in ,mexico1 #big2 in ,china1 #big1 #bih4 ,luschan1 ,felix von1 #ccb1 #cef1 #ceg4 ,lysicrates1 choragic monument of1 #abg4 ,lycurgus1 #deg1 #dhg4 ,maghadas of ,india1 #dig4 ,maghas of ,india compared with ,mayas1 #eji2 a ,finnic race1 #eai4 ,maghi of ,persia1 #dig4 ,magnus1 ,p41 #dgg1 #dgh4 ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p41 #dag4 ,maize1 ceremonial1 #gh2 symbol of goddess of ,earth1 #ia1 #ih2 used in ceremonial offerings by ,californian ,indians1 #aje2 on earth symbol in codices1 #aji1 #aag1 #abc2 on sculptures at ,palenque and ,copan1 #bcg1 #bci1 #bdc2 in ,mexican ,new ,year festivals1 #bda2 cultivation of1 in very early times1 #bgb1 #bge2 legacy of ,corn ,maidens and ,daughters of ,earth1 #bgf2 as year symbol1 #bia4 ,maler1 ,teobert1 #ahd1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad4 ,maltaya bas-relief1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,manco1 ,capac1 #acc2 founder of ,cuzco1 #aef1 #afa1 #ahf4 ,manch1 a tribe of ,mench and ,palenque1 #bce4 ,mandaite pole-star worship1 #cba1 #cbb1 #eef4 ,march1 ,h4 ,colley1 #bc1 #bd4 ,marcianus1 #ecj4 ,market stone of the ,city of ,mexico1 #bde 7see ,mexican ,calendar ,stone74 ,marinus1 #deb4 ,maritime intercourse between ,old and ,new ,world1 interrupted for many centuries by interregnum of ,polaris1 #eca2 equatorial currents favoring migrations to ,new ,world1 #ebd1 #ebe2 evidence of ,grco-,egyptian contact with ,mexico1 #ech 7see ,pre-,columbian contact74 ,markham1 ,clements ,b41 #acb1 #acf1 #adb1 #aeb1 #afj1 #afh1 #eaj4 ,marriage1 in ,mexico1 sacred rites in connection with1 #ajb2 laws governing1 #agf2 among the ,hindu1 #caf2 on ,new ,year's day in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #cca1 #cdf2 in ancient ,egypt1 #dda2 festivals1 in ,india and in ,mexico connected with worship of ,pleiades1 #dih 7see ,heaven and ,earth1 union of74 ,marroquin1 #hj4 ,maspero1 #dcg1 #eah4 ,master builders1 ah-men1 ,maya name for2 aman-teca1 ,mexican name for1 #bcd2 kinship between those of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 and the trained builders of cosmical structures in the ,old ,world1 #eag1 #ebi1 #ecb1 #ecc4 ,maudslay1 ,alfred ,p41 #abj1 #aba1 #agj1 #agb1 #bae1 #baf1 #bah1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bci1 #ejd4 ,mayapan1 capital of confederacy of ,mayas1 #fi2 ancient capital of ,yucatan1 #hf2 ,ho1 another name for1 #bjf2 ,ichpa1 another name for1 #bjf2 ancient chronicles1 #bji1 #baa2 ,cocomes1 people of1 #baa-baf4 ,mayer's ,manual1 #bhe4 ,mazahuas or deer people1 of ,guatemala1 #afe4 ,mc,gee1 ,w4 ,j41 #aja4 ,mecca1 8the mother of cities20 the grave of ,mother ,eve1 #cbc4 ,medhurst1 ,w4 ,h41 #bhe1 #bhi4 ,melchites1 #ecj4 ,memorial stones1 in ,copan1 #bai4 ,men1 name of dog in ,maya calendar2 means master-builder1 artisan1 etc41 #bcd4 ,mench1 ancient ruins of1 #bae2 8,lorillard ,city10 #bcd2 ancient civilization of1 #bdd4 ,mendieta1 #dd1 #fg1 #gf4 ,merida1 modern capital of ,yucatan1 #fh2 ancient name1 8,ho10 #he2 figured in ancient map1 #hf4 ,mesopotamia1 pole-star worship1 #cba1 #eeg2 quadruple organization1 stable ,centre1 #cbb2 seat of various empires1 #ccd4 ,mexican ,calendar ,stone 7see ,calendar ,stone of ,mexico74 ,mexican ,calendar system 7see ,calendar ,systems74 ,mexican ,,mss4 unpublished1 #ij4 ,mexican ,sacrificial ,stone 7see ,sacrificial stone74 ,mexico1 number of deities2 same god under several names1 #g2 idols1 #h2 worship of supreme ,creator1 #h2 calendar-swastika1 #i2 calendar-stone1 #ab1 #ac1 #ie1 #bde-beh1 #bhj2 system of government1 origin of1 #ae2 game1 symbolizing axial rotation1 #bd1 #be2 calendar system1 #be1 #ce1 #ec1 #ajj1 #ade1 #agf1 #agi1 #ahb1 #bba1 #bde1 #bhb1 #big1 #ebh1 #ebi1 #ecj2 ,great ,temple of1 #eh1 #hc1 #ij1 #if1 #ajg1 #bbe1 #ejg2 ,city of1 divided into four quarters1 #hc2 built on dual island in dual lake1 #hd2 ancient map of1 #hh2 ancient capital of1 divided into two halves1 #hi2 recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessel1 #ic2 tribal and household 8idols10 origin of1 #aci2 native arms of1 #aeg2 caste division associated with left hand1 #afe2 origin of human sacrifice1 #agc2 numerical divisions1 social organization1 symbolism1 etc41 identical with ,peru1 ,copan1 ,guatemala1 ,yucatan1 ,zui1 etc41 #bbf2 map of1 to be published1 #bcj1 #bca2 compared with other ancient cultures of ,america1 #bce-bdd2 sun cult and moon cult existing at same time1 #bfd2 dual government at time of ,conquest1 #bff2 cradle of ,american civilizations1 #bgf2 names of symbols translated from ,maya1 #bgh2 swastika symbol found associated with calendar signs1 #bhj2 spider's web as symbol of numerical divisions1 #bic2 summary1 in table of countries1 #did2 the sacred and tribal tree1 #dii2 lighting the sacred fire1 #ejd2 symbols and plan of government compared to those of ,old ,world1 #ejf-ebd2 numerical divisions on which the cosmical scheme was based1 #ebh2 date when calendar was instituted1 #ecj2 ruder forms of culture1 #eca2 civilization at time of ,conquest indicative of contact with ,old ,world1 #ech2 period of warfare1 pestilence1 etc41 #eci2 resemblance between name of capital 7,temistitan71 and of ,greek philosopher1 ,themistius1 #edc2 summary and conclusions1 #edf4 ,meyer's ,lexikon1 #bhh4 ,micmac ,indians1 myths about ,ursa ,major1 #eaj4 ,mictlampa1 ,nahuatl name for the ,north1 #h4 ,mictlan1 land of the dead1 #dj1 #bde4 ,mictlantecuhtli1 identical with ,tezcatlipoca1 #h2 lord of the ,north1 #i1 #aa2 symbols of1 #cg1 #db1 #dd1 #dg1 #eg1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #bdi1 #bfj1 #bie4 ,midas1 king of ,phrygia1 #dei4 ,migration1 from the north1 to ,south ,america1 #bbd2 caused by desire to find stable centre of the earth1 #bge2 in ,mexico and ,central ,america in twelfth century1 #eci 7see ,migration myths74 ,migration myths and traditions3 in connection with cult of ,polaris1 #dc2 ,peruvian1 ,mayan1 ,mexican1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea2 motive of1 explained by ,zui1 #bja1 #bjb2 ,kukulcan driven out of ,chichen ,itza and journeyed to ,mexico1 #bjf2 three brothers came from the ,west and settled in ,chichen ,itza1 #bjg2 into ,yucatan from the ,south1 #baj1 #baa2 the ,mayas came from ,tollan in ,zu-iva1 #bag2 the ,mexican culture hero came from the ,east1 8the ancient red land10 #ebe1 #ebh-ecj 7see ,myths and ,traditions74 ,mikado1 #caa4 ,mill-stone1 as symbol1 #did-eji4 ,milne1 ,j4 ,g41 #dbe4 ,minotaurus1 ruler of island of ,crete1 #deg4 ,mirror1 of obsidian1 #aj2 used as oracle among the ,cakchiquel ,indian of ,guatemala1 #hj2 in sacred edifices2 in great temple of ,mexico2 eyes of image of ,tezcatlipoca1 #hj2 symbol of ,tezcatlipoca2 oracle of judgment in ,mexico and ,guatemala2 aid to astronomical observations1 #hb2 of obsidian1 symbol of star-cult2 of polished pyrites1 symbol of sun-cult1 #hc2 in connection with symbolical tree and serpent1 #aaj2 bowl of water1 preceded use of1 #bbe2 in ,shinto symbolism1 #caa2 in ,egypt1 #dji4 ,mississippi valley1 cult of ,polaris1 #dd2 earth-work builders1 #ej2 early peoples of1 in contact with ,mayas1 #aab2 names of cities and tribes showing ,maya influence1 art resembling that of ,mayas1 #aii4 ,missouri1 cult of ,polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget1 #dd4 ,mit 7,egyptian7death1 or the dead1 #cha4 ,mithra1 ,aryan god of the wheel1 #cac4 ,mitimaes1 ,peruvian colonists1 #adi4 ,mitla1 #bdd2 recent excavations at1 #eac4 ,moabites1 #cea4 ,mohammedans1 #cje4 ,mol1 glyph on ,copan altar1 #bbg4 ,molina's dictionary1 #h1 #ic1 #acb1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada1 #ade1 #adf1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afe1 #afh1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aib1 #eec4 ,monarquia ,indiana1 #ie4 ,mongolia1 ,buddhists of1 #cae4 ,monkey,ozomatli1 ,mexican day-sign1 #aab4 ,monophysite doctrine of ,eutyches1 #ecj4 ,montagua river1 #bae1 #bcj4 ,montesinos1 #adf1 #aej4 ,montezuma1 #cd1 #dc1 #ed1 #fj1 #fa1 #fg-ge1 #hc1 #ajf1 #abe1 #aej1 #ahc1 #bjh1 #bca1 #bde1 #bfe1 #bff1 #edj1 #edg4 ,moon1 associated with cult of night1 ,earth ,mother1 the ,below1 #ajd2 in ,peruvian cult of the ,below1 #acd1 #ace1 #adh2 in ,bogota1 #aga2 astronomical attainments of priests of1 #ahj2 in ,mexican calendar stone1 #bej2 image in silver on pyramid at ,teotihuacan1 #bfd1 #bfg2 in ,china1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bib2 lunar calendar1 #big2 in religion of ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #ccb1 #cdd1 #cdg2 in ,egypt1 #chi1 #dbd1 #dch4 ,moqui ,indians1 tau symbol used by1 #aai4 ,morien1 #dga4 ,morse1 ,edward ,t41 #dgc1 #dgh4 ,mortillet1 ,gabriel de1 #ai4 ,mortuary customs in ,mexico1 placing jade with dead of upper class1 and texaxoctli with dead of lower class1 #aie2 carried northward from the south1 #aif2 body of ,mexican ruler covered with raiment of four principal gods1 #bji4 ,moslems1 #cbd4 ,motowori1 #ege4 ,motul1 dictionary of1 #aab4 ,mound1 symbol of ,earth1 #aaj2 in symbolic carving from ,brazil or ,guiana1 #bbd4 ,mound-builders 7see 8,earth-work ,builders074 ,mountain1 sacred 7see 8,pyramid or ,mountain074 ,mueller1 ,iwan1 #ded4 ,mller1 ,max1 #dei1 #dhd1 #efd4 ,muluc1 ,maya division of #d years assigned to the north1 #bah4 ,mummy1 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #chj1 #cid1 #djc1 #djd1 #daj4 ,museums3 ,american1 of ,new ,york1 #bcd2 ,berlin1 #chj1 #dag1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #deg1 #dfj1 #ejg2 ,bonn1 #dfd2 ,british1 #aea1 #aff1 #bcd1 #cec1 #cee-ceg1 #cff1 #deg1 #dei2 ,dresden1 #abi1 #aee2 ,ghizer1 #dbg2 ,national1 ,mexico1 #i1 #ac1 #hf1 #ic1 #ih1 #bef1 #bfj2 ,national1 ,washington1 #ai1 #ea2 ,new ,haven1 #ejg2 ,peabody1 #cd1 #dh1 #fa1 #aec1 note1 #aie1 #bah1 note1 #eab2 ,south ,kensington1 #baf1 #bbg1 #bcd1 #bci1 #cac2 ,stockholm1 #dh2 ,trocadero1 #ajd1 #agd1 note4 ,mushroom-shaped stone figures1 from ,san ,salvador and ,guatemala1 #aad2 represent native idea of ,above and ,below with central ruler of both1 #aad2 indicate belief in one supreme ruler1 #aae4 ,mussulman1 #cbd4 ,muyscas of ,bogota1 #aga4 ,myths and traditions3 ,creation myths 7see separate heading71 #ed1 #ee1 #ef1 #aje1 #ach1 #bjj1 #bbc1 #cac-cah1 #ccd1 #cdj1 #cec1 #die2 flood and destruction myths 7see separate heading71 #hh1 #bdj1 #bec1 #bgj-bge2 migration myths 7see separate heading71 #dc1 #adi1 #aej1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #baj1 #baa-bag1 #ebe-ecj2 star cult myths1--,mexican1 #aa1 #ab1 #be1 #bf2 ,american ,indian1 #eaa1 note2 ,turanian1 #eag1 #eah2 ,mexican1 life after death and relative position of man and woman1 #ch1 #ci2 ,tezcatlipoca cast down from ,heaven and arose as an ocelot1 #dd1 #de2 ,quilaztli1 8woman serpent10 #fj-fb2 ,maya1 culture hero1 ,kukulcan1 #fi2 suggesting worship of ,polaris1 #aei2 relating to #g-;day period among the ,cakchiquel ,indians of ,guatemala1 #ahb2 ,peruvian1 concerning the ,inca ,yupanqui who introduced the worship of the ,creator1 #aeb1 #aec2 relating to ancestors of ,manco ,capac and the 8royal eagle10 #aef2 concerning contest between serpent and eagle1 compared with similar ,mexican tradition1 #aei2 ,japanese1 concerning birthplace of ,japanese race1 #caj2 ,arabian1 ,moslem tradition about ,heavenly and earthly ,kaaba1 #cbd2 astronomical1 #dfe2 ,assyrian1 relating to planet ,venus and god ,ishtar1 #cdd2 ,greek1 about fire-drill1 #dif1 and ,ixion1 #ejj2 ,rig ,veda1 origin of fire1 #eba4 ,nahr-el-,kelb1 bas-reliefs at1 #ceg2 ,esarhaddon stela1 #cei4 ,nahuas of ,mexico compared with ,nahushas of ,india1 #eji1 #eai4 ,nahui-ollin1 ,mexican symbol1 8four movements10 #agj2 represents four movements of constellations1 #bej2 summary of the four-fold divisions of which it was a symbol1 #bea2 commemorated the four epochs of the world's history1 #bec2 common to the various ancient peoples of ,america1 #bef1 note 7see also ,ollin74 ,nakhunte1 king of ,susiana1 #bii4 ,naming of children in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #bdb4 ,navel1 name of cosmical centre where human victims were annually sacrificed by ,mexican priests8,navel of the ,earth10 #fd2 ,cuzco called 8,navel of the ,earth10 #acc2 symbol in ancient ,american art1 #bif2 in ,arabia1 #cbc2 in ,india1 8,navel of the heaven10 #ebj2 8,navel of the world10 #eba4 ,navigation1 primitive crafts and charts1 ,ceylon and ,karashee1 #aei1 #afj2 ,peruvian fishing boats of seal skin2 ,quetzalcoatl's twin raft of serpent or seal skin2 illustrations in native codices and sculptures1 #afj 7see also ,boat and ,maritime intercourse74 ,nebuchadnezzar1 #cfe4 ,necklace of hearts and hands1 on ,mexican idol1 indicative of supplication1 #abh4 ,neo-platonism1 #ebg4 ,nepantla1 the zenith1 #ch4 ,nest1 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #cih4 ,nestorian ,tablet1 #cjd4 ,new ,year's ,day1 in ancient ,mexico and ,central ,america1 #bdj-bdd2 in ,china1 #bib2 in ,mesopotamia1 #cba1 #eeg2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #cca1 #cdf2 in ancient ,egypt1 #dai1 #dbe-dcg2 in ,scandinavia1 #dgc4 ,nezahual coyotl1 ruler of ,texcoco who erected temple to 8,unknown ,god10 #cc1 #afc2 title1 ,ome ,tochtli#b rabbit1 #ahj4 ,nicaragua1 star-symbol on pottery from1 #ej2 ancient occupation by ,nahuatl-speaking race1 #aeh2 jade celts from1 #aie4 ,niebuhr1 #ead4 ,night1 priest of1 lord of1 #hb2 sons of1 #hc2 ,egyptian symbol of1 a star suspended by thread1 #chg4 ,nimroud bas-reliefs1 #cff4 ,nirvana1 in ,hindu religion1 #cae4 ,nordenskjld1 ,baron ,gustav1 #aai1 #bcj1 note4 ,norsemen1 ,eddas1 symbolism1 celestial tree1 #ejb1 #ejc4 ,north1 symbols of1 #aj2 sign of1 #ce2 underworld1 #ci2 in ,cosmos1 associated with ,tecpatlflint1 red1 fire1 warmth1 #db2 symbol of1 #ef1 #eg2 color of1 red1 #eg2 lord of1 #eg2 female region1 #fd2 symbol of1 in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bej2 region of the dead1 #bfg2 ,maya name and symbol of1 #bgh2 ,buddha associated with1 #caf2 veneration of1 in ,india1 #cag2 in ,egyptian pyramid symbolism1 #cha2 ,babylonian wordakkad1 #djj4 ,nose1 grotesque1 on sculptures at ,copan1 ,quirigua and ,palenque1 #bdj4 ,nose ornament1 religious idea associated with1 #ajc4 ,nott and ,gliddon1 races of men recognized by ancient ,egyptians1 #cgc4 ,numbers1 sacred1 #bi1 #cj 7see ,numerical divisions74 ,numerical divisions1 in sociological and calendrical systems3 in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 #bi1 #fb2 in ,peru1 #add1 #adg1 #afg2 in ,guatemala1 #afd1 #aga1 #agi2 represented by human figure1 #agd1 #age2 in ,mexican government1 #agi1 #aha2 carried northward from the south1 #aif2 in ,huron ,confederacy1 #aih2 among the ,zui1 #bja2 in ,yucatan1 #bji1 #bah1 #bbc2 at ,chichen ,itza1 #bab1 #bac2 in ,copan1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bbi2 in symbolic carving from ,south ,america1 #bbd2 in ,quirigua1 #bcb1 #bcc2 in ,mexican ,calendar stone1 #bdh1 #bef2 on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfa2 in ,china1 #bhf1 #bib1 #cjb2 ,mexican compared with ,chinese1 #big2 in ,japan1 #caj2 in ,india1 #cac1 #cbj2 in ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,assyria1 #cbh1 #cdh1 #ceh1 #cfj2 in ,egypt1 #cfh-cgf2 in cyclical systems of ,egyptians1 ,hindus1 ,chinese1 ,mexicans1 ,mayas and ,greeks1 #dej2 in ancient ,rome1 #dfd2 and ,greece1 #dhd2 in ancient ,ireland1 #dfh-dgj2 ,britain1 #dgj2 ,wales1 #dga2 ,scandinavia1 #dga1 #dgb2 table of countries in which used1 #dhj-did2 ,plato's 8divine polities0 compared with scheme of organization in ,mexico and ,peru1 #eji2 summary1 as shown in ,yucatan and ,mexico1 #ebh2 chief ruler called 8,four in ,one10 #ebi2 apparent survival in early ,christian religion1 #ecf-ech2 in ,plato's and ,inca's scheme of state1 #eci2 in ,constantine's plan1 and in ,maya and ,mexican calendars1 #edb1 #edc2 analogies and divergences1 ,american divisions agree with ,greek but differ from ,chinese1 #edf4 ,nutt1 ,david1 #dea4 ,nuttall1 ,zelia1 work on the ,atlatl1 #cd2 on the ,mexican ,calendar system1 #g1 #ec1 #bdd-bdg4 ,obsidian mirror 7see 8,mirror074 ,ocelot1 ,tezcatlipoca took shape of1 #h2 in ,mexican mythical drama1 #ab2 of nocturnal sky1 #ce2 in ,mexican codices1 #dd2 at ,tiahuanaco1 #aff2 title of one division of ,mexican warriors1 #afg2 man with beast 7ocelot or jaguar17 symbol of dual ,state in ,yucatan1 #ahe2 title of minor rulers in ,yucatan1 #ahe2 man-ocelot and man-bird1 represented rulers of two divisions of state in ,mexico1 #ahe2 or tiger1 warrior-caste of ,mexico1 #bab2 skin of1 worn by high-priest in ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bca1 #bcc2 totem of the ,fire people in ,mexico1 #bed2 symbolized cult of ,earth1 as opposed to bird1 symbol of cult of ,heaven1 #bhb2 symbol of ,state in ancient ,america1 #bie1 #bif 7see also ,jaguar1 ,puma and ,quadruped74 ,ocna1 a ,maya festival1 #bdb4 ,octli1 name of native wine1 #gh2 pulque1 #aja2 earth-wine1 indicated by figure of rabbit1 #ajc4 ,octli-gods1 agents of the ,cihuacoatl1 #gh2 rain gods1 #if2 rain-priests1 #aja2 priests of the earth1 emblem ofvase filled with rain or earth-wine1 #ajg2 monkey intimately connected with1 #aab4 ,odin1 ,scandinavian king and deity1 #dga2 ,norse 8ruler of ,heaven10 #dgc4 ,ohio valley1 ancient earth-work builders in contact with ancient ,mexicans1 #ej2 art resembles ,maya1 #aii2 swastika symbol associated with serpent symbol1 #bhj4 ,ojibway ,indians1 #eaa1 note4 ,oldenburg1 #dhd4 ,old ,world1 fire-drill1 fire altar1 sacred fire1 oil press1 millstone1 axial rotation1 etc41 #did-ejd2 civilizations compared with ,new ,world1 #ejd-fji1 #ebe2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,oliva1 ,padre ,anello1 #acb1 #aej1 #aed1 #aef1 #aeg1 #afd4 ,oliver1 ,g41 #dhd1 #dhe4 ,ollin1 in ,calendar-stone1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #ed 7see also ,nahuiollin74 ,olmos1 ,friar ,andreas de1 #ed1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aie4 ,olympic ,games1 marked cycle or period1 #dhe4 ,omacatl1 associated with water1 #ha4 ,omaha ,indians1 measured time by ,ursa ,major1 #eaa1 note4 ,ome ,tochtli ,ixtlilxochitl1 #afc4 ,ondegardo1 ,polo de1 #acb1 #ada1 #adh4 ,o',neil1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #dea1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dga1 #dgb1 #edg1 #efh1 #egj1 #egb1 #egd4 ,oriental ,congress1 #edd4 ,orientation1 #db2 of ,copan and ,quirigua the same1 #bcj2 of temples at ,palenque1 #bce2 diagonal1 in ,egypt and ,central ,america1 #cgb1 note2 ,egyptian pyramids faced the north1 and the pole-star1 #chb2 temples in ,lower ,egypt faced to the ,north2 in ,upper ,egypt to the ,south1 #chc4 ,origin of ,american civilizations1 #edc2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,orizaba1 giant volcano1 #bge2 ancient name1 ,citlal-tepetl,star ,mountain1 #bge1 note4 ,ozomatli1 monkey2 ,mexican day-sign1 #aab4 ,pacha-,yachachi1 ,inca name for ,creator1 #ace4 ,painting1 in connection with symbolism1 #aad2 of body and face in ,peru1 ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #aib1 #aic 7see ,color74 ,palenque1 ,palace ,house with tau-shaped recesses1 #aba1 note2 character of stel1 #bae2 study of monuments1 #bcd-bci2 same cult as ,quirigua and ,copan1 #bdj2 tablets1 tribal registers1 #bdc2 tablet1 in 8,temple of the ,sun10 likened to ,mexican ,sacrificial stone1 #bei4 ,palestine1 cult of ,astarte and ,baal1 and monotheism of the ,israelites1 #cde4 ,pan1 feast of1 #ddb4 ,pantheon1 #eae4 ,panuco1 ,maya colony established at1 #abe1 #bjg1 #bjh1 note4 ,papa1 name of ,mexican ,priest1 #ci4 ,papakhu1 name of inner sanctuary of ,babylonian and ,assyrian temple1 #ccj1 #cca4 ,papalotl1 butterfly1 #ci4 ,parry1 ,francis1 #ajd4 ,parsee religion1 worship of fire as outcome of pole-star worship1 #cbf4 ,parturition1 symbolized by shell1 #ie2 by snail1 #aaa4 ,path of the ,dead1 ancient road leading to ,pyramid of the ,moon1 #bfg4 ,patolli1 native ,mexican game1 #hg2 symbolized social organization1 #agf1 #agg4 ,paz ,solden1 #aej4 ,peabody ,museum1 #cd1 #dh1 #fa1 #aec1 note1 #aie4 ,peabody ,museum ,honduras ,expedition1 #bah1 note1 #eab4 ,pedregal de ,san ,augustin1 ancient lava-field in ,city of ,mexico1 #bga4 ,peking1 contains temple to ,north ,star ,god1 #bhd 7see ,china and ,polaris74 ,peatiel1 ,antonio1 #bfb4 ,perez1 #aji4 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 #dba4 ,perry1 ,john1 #edg4 ,persia1 ancient religion of2 swastika2 seven divisions of ,cosmos1 four-fold rule1 #cbe1 #dhd4 ,peru1 worship of ,pleiades1 #ec2 sacred fire1 #hc2 use of checker board design1 #abd2 light and dark colors used to designate the ,above and ,below1 #acj2 irrigating canals in symbolic form1 #acb1 #adf2 outline of civilization1 #acb2 stone monument typifying duality1 #acd2 knowledge of ,creator1 #ace2 form of government1 #acf1 #acg2 tribal and household 8idols10 #ach1 #aci1 #adj2 four rulers1 #ada2 classification of people1 #adb2 8white virgins10 title given to upper class maidens2 8black virgins10 lower class2 caste2 deformation of skulls1 #adc2 ceremony for driving out sickness1 #add2 ,above1 ,below1 ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #add2 ceremony illustrating rotation1 #ade2 religious festivals1 #adf1 #adg2 civilization from the north1 #aej2 prehistoric ruins1 #aea1 #aef2 ,inca fable1 #aeb2 compared with symbolism of sculptured slabs in ,guatemala1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef2 linguistic affinities between ,quechua and ,maya and ,nahuatl1 #aeh1 #aei2 ,polaris2 navigation1 #aei1 #afj2 worship of 8,creator0 7,polaris7 superseded sun and moon cults1 #afa1 #afd2 caste division associated with left hand1 #afe2 ruins of ,tiahuanaco1 #afe-afi2 symbols compared with those of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 #agj2 summary1 #did2 scheme of government compared with ,plato's 8divine polities01 #eji1 #eci2 summary and conclusions1 #edf4 ,petrie1 ,flinders1 #cge1 #chj1 #djd1 #dbe1 #dci1 #dfa1 #dhc1 #dia4 ,pheidon of ,corinth1 #dhf1 note4 ,pherecydes1 the ,phnician teacher of ,pythagoras1 #ebf4 ,philolaus1 #dhe1 #ebg4 ,phnicians1 cult of ,astarte1 #cde2 a northern race1 called ,turanians1 #eag2 navigators1 #eai2 worshipped serpent1 fire-drill and the ,pleiades2 called the 8red men10 #eba2 tradition indicates their migration to the ,new ,world1 #ebd1 #ebe1 #ebh-ece2 evidence of their influence1 #ech-eda2 allied to ,semitic race1 #edj1 note1 #eda1 #edc2 summary and conclusions1 #edf4 ,pig1 sacred animal in ,egypt1 #dji4 ,pigmy races1 traditions of1 #cci4 ,pillar1 worship of 7see ,column74 ,pilli1 ,mexican title1 #gd2 meaning 8fingers10 title of minor lords1 #bhb4 ,pilquixtia1 a ,mexican festival1 #bdj4 ,pinches1 ,mr41 #ceg4 ,plato1 #cdf1 #ddd-dea1 #dfg1 #dhf-dij1 #eji1 #ebg1 #ebi1 #eci1 #edf4 ,plato's 8,divine ,polities10 identical with scheme of government in ancient ,mexico and ,peru1 #eji1 #eci4 ,pleiades1 study of1 by primitive peoples1 #eb2 on ,society ,islands1 #eb2 in ,mexico1 #ec2 in southern ,america1 #ec1 #ed2 on ,mexican ,calendar-stone1 #beb2 in ,chinese calendar1 #bif2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #cch 7see ,polaris1 ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor72 worship of1 in ,india and ,mexico2 in connection with ,new ,year and marriage festivals1 #dih4 ,plotinus1 #ebg4 ,plutarch1 #dda1 #deb1 #dhh4 ,polar constellations1 chart of1 #af4 ,polar regions1 both hemispheres originally peopled from1 #eca4 ,polaris1 the author's observation of1 #g2 primitive man's study of1 #ad1 #ae2 ,draconis1 as pole-star2 apparent immovability2 means of determining direction2 supernatural power1 #ba2 worship of2 centre of axial energy1 #bb2 ,mexican ,calendar system suggested by1 #be2 numerical value of1 #cj1 #ca2 centre of cosmic system1 #dj1 #da2 changes in relative positions of1 #db2 ceased to be brilliant and immovable about #ejj ,b4,c4 to #abjj ,a4,d41 #dc2 cult of2 migrations from south to north1 #dc2 spread of cult in ,mexico1 ,yucatan1 ,honduras1 ,guatemala1 ,peru2 also1 in ,mississippi valley1 as indicated by carvings on shell gorgets1 #dd2 symbols of1 analogous to cross and star symbols on shell gorgets from ,tennessee1 #dh1 #di1 #ej2 suggestions of cult among the ,eskimo1 #ej2 represented by star symbols and swastika on pottery from ,arizona and ,nicaragua1 #ej2 in connection with cult of ,earth and ,night1 #ed2 represented by ,montezuma on his throne1 #gb2 not identical with ,god ,c1 #aab2 as centre of rotation in ,zui emblem1 #abi2 as a guide in navigation between ,guatemala1 ,nicaragua and ,peru1 #aei2 between ,ceylon and ,karachee1 #aei1 #afj2 cult superseded sun and moon cults in ,peru1 #afa2 invisible at ,cuzco2 ,inca worship of the invisible ,creator1 #afa2 ,yoal-tecuhtli1 ,mexican lord of the ,night2 title of ,polaris1 #aha2 producer of life and regulator of the universe2 tecpatl 7flint knife7 symbol of1 #ahc2 in connection with tree symbolism2 title1 8,heart ,of ,heaven10 #ahi2 among the ,zui1 #bjb2 at ,copan1 #bbb1 #bbd2 reflected in bowl of water,creator1 #bbe2 in ,shakespeare1 #bdg2 represented central face in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bej2 ,calendar-stone based on observation of1 #beg1 note2 in connection with pyramid1 #bgc1 #bgd2 in connection with swastika symbol1 #bgf2 ,maya name1 ,ek-chuah1 patron divinity of travellers and traders1 #bgh2 ,north ,star ,god1 temple to1 in ,pekin2 ,chinese name,teen-hwang-ta-tee1 literally the great imperial ruler of ,heaven1 #bhd-bhg1 #bia1 #bie2 in work of ,confucius1 #bih2 in ,chinese ,taouism1 #cja1 #cjb2 ,hebrew ,jehovah1 having same title1 8,god of ,heaven10 #cjd2 in ,india1 #caf1 #cah1 #cai2 in ,mesopotamia1 #cba2 in ,arabia1 #cbd2 linguistic affinity between name of ,polaris1 and word for capital and for north1 in ,babylonia1 #cbe2 ,phnician namethe serpent1 #cbe2 in ,persia1 #cbf2 in ,babylonia1 8lord or king01 8,great ,mountain10 #cbi2 cult of1 in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 #ccb-cci2 among the ,israelites1 #ceb2 in ,babylonia1 highest form developed into monotheism1 and lowest form into cult of ,ishtar and ,bel1 #cec2 represented in ,babylonian temples by a fire in centre of square altar1 #cfb1 #cfc2 ,euphratean star-worshippers1 #cfd2 high development of cult in ,egypt1 #cfh1 #cgf-chb2 ,egyptian mummy1 image of1 #chf2 ,egyptian names for1 #cih1 #dja-djc2 in ,egyptian religion and symbolism1 #djc1 #djd1 #dji1 #daj1 #dae1 #dba1 #dbc2 in ,india1 called the 8pivot of the planets10 #ddh1 note2 in ,arabia1 8the hole where the earth's axle found its bearing10 #ddh1 note2 in ancient ,greece1 #dej-dec2 ,greek ,polos1 a star revolving on itself1 #dec1 #ded2 indicated by cross symbol before the use of swastika1 #dfa2 called by early ,danes and ,icelanders1 8throne of ,thor0 or 8smaller ,chariot10 #dgc2 called by ,finns 8,taehtistar at the top of the heavenly mountain10 #dgc2 among the ancient ,scandinavians and their descendants the ,vikings1 #dgd2 circumpolar region1 probable birth-place of cult1 #dge2 table of countries in which traces of cult have been found1 #dhj2 associated with use of fire-drill in ,old and ,new ,world1 #did2 among ,hindus1 #dih2 ,greek ,ixion1 #ejj2 ,assyrian goddess ,ishtar called the 8axis of the heavens10 female ,polaris1 #ejc2 figured by wooden or stone socket from which fire and water flowed to the four quarters1 #ejc2 pole-star god of the ,hindus compared with fire-drill god of ,mexico1 #eje2 the ,mexican pole-star god compared with the ,hindu1 ,greek1 ,norse1 ,russian1 etc41 #eje2 ,old and ,new ,world1 #eag2 ,phnicians steered by1 from earliest times1 #ebc1 #ebe2 interval of time when the pole star ceased to be conspicuous1 #ebe2 maritime intercourse interrupted1 #eca2 reappearance of1 #ech2 summary and conclusions1 #edd2 ,mesopotamian prayer meeting of star-worshippers 7,appendix ,,ii71 #eeg4 ,popocatepetl1 volcano1 ,mexico1 #bge4 ,popol-,vuh1 sacred book of the ,quichs1 #gb1 note1 #aac1 #bgj4 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 #dgh4 ,porto ,rico1 stone objects from1 #aah2 cult of aborigines1 #aah4 ,powell1 ,j4 ,w41 #bhh1 note4 ,powers1 ,stephen1 #aje4 ,pre-,columbian contact indicated by same cosmical divisions and scheme of government in ,old and ,new ,world1 #dhj-ejd2 same symbolism1 etc41 #eji-edd2 traditions indicate1 #ebe1 #ebh1 #ebi1 #ecj2 question of contact between ,china and ,america1 #ecd2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,prescott1 #eda4 ,pritchard1 ,w4 ,t41 #bij4 ,proctor1 ,richard ,a41 #afb4 ,propitiation1 origin of1 #agg4 ,ptolemy1 #deb4 ,pueblo ,indians1 use of tau1 #aai2 associate step pyramid with rain1 #acb2 affinities with ,mexican and ,maya1 #aii2 corn maidens1 #bgf4 ,pull1 ,mr41 #cah4 ,pulque1 in connection with cult of earth-mother1 #aic 7see ,octli74 ,puma1 four heads terminating arms of swastika at ,tiahuanaco1 7see ,quadruped1 ,ocelot and ,jaguar74 ,putnam1 ,f4 ,w41 #ej1 #aif1 #aii1 #ede4 ,pyramid or sacred mountain3 culmination of symbolism of cone1 #aah2 in mountain worship1 #acb2 ,maya word for1 #aia2 ,lord of the ,mountain a sovereign title among the ,quich1 #baa2 origin and significance of1 #bea2 typified numerical divisions1 #beb2 on statue 8,divine ,twin10 #bfb2 origin attributed to the ,maya speaking people2 at ,teotihuacan1 #bfc2 interpretation of affix 8can0 in names of ,mexican and ,maya towns1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfh2 image of central1 dual and quadruple power1 #bfi1 note2 of ,cholula1 ancient name for1 means 8the monument or precious jade stone of the ,toltecs1 etc410 #bfi2 erected as place of refuge from inundations1 #bgb2 symbol of ,central power1 and quadruple organization1 #bgd2 same as expressed by swastika1 #bgd2 of ,cholula1 marks the site of great and ancient ,tollan1 #bge2 as symbol of ,centre in ,cosmos1 #bgg2 meaning of symbol1 #bhb1 #bhc2 in ,chinese symbolism and social organization1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #ccc2 in ,japan1 #caj2 in ,hindu religion1 #cag2 in ,babylonia1 #cbh2 star god called 8,great mountain10 #cbi2 identical with god in ,babylonia and in ,assyria1 #ccc2 ,hebrew god1 ,yahwe1 worshipped on ,mount ,sion1 #cea2 ,jerusalem founded on ,mount ,zion1 #ceb2 holy mound symbol of god ,shamash of ,assyria1 #cef2 central deity of ,babylonia called 8the great mountain10 #cfg2 in ,egypt expressed a whole divided into four parts1 #cga2 miniature of cosmos1 #cgi1 #chj2 seven-storied pyramid of ,sakkarah1 ,egypt1 #cha1 #chf2 of ,begerauie1 #dbg2 8holy mountain of ,god0 ,book of ,prophet ,ezekiel1 #ddi1 note2 the chief idol of ,ireland was called ,cenn ,craich 7mound-chief71 #dfi2 form of letter delta in ,greek ,alphabet1 #eaa2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,pyramid temple at ,chichen ,itza1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,pyrites1 mirror of1 used as symbol of sun-cult1 #hc4 ,pythagorean philosophy1 #dhd-dhh1 note1 #eae1 #ebf2 ,neo-,pythagorism1 #ebg4 ,quadruped1 meaning of use as symbol1 #bhb2 represented ,zui state and subdivisions1 #bie2 illustrated by ,alligator altar at ,copan and by 8,great ,turtle0 at ,quirigua1 also by tortoise in ,china1 #bif1 note 7see ,ocelot1 ,jaguar and ,puma74 ,quadruple organization1 in cosmos1 and scheme of government3 origin of idea1 #ae2 ,maya1 ,mexican1 and ,zui1 #da1 #db2 expressed in cross symbols1 #dg-ed2 ,mexico divided into four parts1 #hc2 at time of ,conquest1 #ge1 #gf2 in ancient map of ,yucatan1 #hf2 in ancient map of ,mexico1 #hh2 in ,inca empire1 #acf1 #add2 in ,guatemala1 #aga1 #agb2 in ,bogota1 #aga2 among the ,tzendals1 #ahj1 #aha2 ,quich1 #ahb2 in ,yucatan sculptures1 #ahe1 #ahf2 in tree symbolism1 #ahg1 #aib2 carried northward1 #aif2 in ,huron ,indian ,confederacy1 #aih2 among ,zui1 #bja2 in ,maya and ,mexican traditions1 #bjh1 #bji2 in ,yucatan1 #bah1 #bbc2 at ,copan1 #bbf1 #bbh2 at ,quirigua1 #bcb2 at ,palenque1 #bcf2 ,palenque1 ,peru1 ,guatemala1 ,yucatan1 ,mexico and ,zui compared1 #bdd2 regulated by ,calendar ,stone1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bed2 in connection with pyramid building1 #bgb1 #bgc-bhb2 in ,china1 #bhf1 #bia2 represented by human figure1 #bif2 ,china and ,mexico compared1 #big2 in ,japan1 #caj-cab2 in ,india1 #cac1 #cah1 #dha2 in ,mesopotamia1 #cba2 in ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,assyria1 #ccb-ccg1 #cce2 in ancient ,egypt1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cii2 in ,greece1 #ded2 indicated first by cross symbol and later by swastika1 #dfa2 in ancient ,rome1 #dfc2 in ancient ,ireland1 #dfh2 in ancient ,britain1 #dgj2 in ,scandinavia1 #dgb2 table of countries where traces are found1 #dhj-did2 comparative review1 #eji1 #eaj2 in cruciform structures at ,copan and ,mitla1 #eab1 #eac2 chief ruler called 8,four in ,one10 #ebi 7see also1 ,numerical ,divisions74 ,quauh-,cihuatlthe ,eagle woman1 ,mexican title1 #fj4 ,quetquetzalcoa1 plural of ,quetzalcoatl1 title of his successors1 #gj1 #ig1 #ih4 ,quetzal1 feathers of1 carved on feathered serpent1 #gj2 exhibiting colors of ,four ,quarters1 #gj2 used as ,mexican symbol of beloved chief or child1 #aij2 totem at ,palenque1 #bcf1 #bcg2 totem at ,copan1 #bcg2 7see also ,bird74 ,quetzalcoatl1 invocation to2 ,creator and maker1 twin lord and twin lady1 #cb2 8wheel of the winds10 #cc2 the divine twin1 centre of cosmos1 #db2 other names for2 myth concerning1 #ee2 an actual person who came from ,yucatan1 #fg2 ruled in ,chichen-,itza1 #fh2 ,maya title,kukulcan1 #fh2 in ,mexico supreme god1 also god of fire1 and of the four winds1 #gj2 successors to1 #ga2 was driven from ,tullan by enemies1 #hh2 established connection between ,chichen-,itza and ,mexico1 #ic2 recumbent figure of1 in temple of city of ,tula1 #ie2 sacrifices to1 #if2 god of the winds1 #if2 built ,caracol or ,round ,temple at ,chichen-,itza1 #ig2 ,round ,temples in ,mexico dedicated to1 #ig2 divine twin1 #abf2 on sculptured slabs from ,guatemala1 #aed1 #aeg2 his craft called 8serpent or twin raft10 #afj2 another name for ,maya lord1 ,kukulcan1 #bjf2 brought colony from ,yucatan to ,mexico1 #bjh2 important historical person1 #bjh2 ,tollan abode of1 #bag2 compared with figure on ,copan sculpture1 and with priest in ,zui creation myth1 #bbc2 figured with beard1 in ,mexican codices1 #bca2 monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfj1 #bfb2 image of1 in temple of ,cholollan1 #bgj2 temple at ,tula1 #bid4 ,quetzalcoatl ,totec ,tlamacazqui1 title of high priest in service of ,huitzilopochtli1 #ga2 also title of ,montezuma1 #ga4 ,quich1 ,supreme ,divinity of1 #ga1 note2 ,sacred book of1 #gb1 note2 totems1 #afd1 note2 numerical and social system1 illustrated by tradition1 #ahb2 compared with ,zui1 #ahb2 8,lord of the ,mountain0 title1 #baa2 affix in name1 ch1 ,maya word for tree1 #bce2 used day and year signs as personal and tribal names1 #bec2 traditions of destruction of earth1 #bgj4 ,quilaztli1 sister of ,huitzilopochtli1 myth concerning1 #fj2 the mother of all1 same as ,cihuacoatl1 #fa1 #fg2 compared with ,egyptian queen1 #dbh4 ,quirigua1 sister city to ,copan1 #baj2 ancient monuments1 #bae1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbc1 #bbi2 social organization same as that of ,copan1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcb2 totemic animals and symbolic colors1 #bcc2 8,great ,turtle10 #bcd1 #bdj1 #bif1 note2 stel as memorial stones of high priest rulers1 #eab2 remnants of old civilization1 #ebh4 ,ra1 ,egyptian word for ,god1 #dji4 ,rabbit 7tochtli71 #gh2 ,mexican calendar sign2 symbol of earth and reproduction1 used to represent sound of word1 octli1 #gh2 figure of1 indicates sacred octli or earth-wine1 #ajc2 in ,nahuatl picture writing1 #abe2 the rebus for earth-wine or rain1 #ejf4 ,rabinal1 #agb4 ,rain1 ,tlaloc1 god of1 #gh1 #ha2 figured with scrolls about the eyes1 #ie2 symbols1 #if2 lords1 four hundred in number1 sacred vase1 emblem of1 #ajb2 ,zui rain-makers1 #acb2 rites practised on summits of pyramids1 #bhc2 ancient festival described in the ,brahmanas1 #dif1 #dig2 symbolized by rabbit1 #ejf4 ,rattlesnakes1 on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfa4 ,raven1 or summer people among the ,zui1 #bja4 ,rawnsley1 #dia4 ,rays1 carved on ,calendar stone the idea of1 #bee4 ,read1 ,c4 ,h41 #aff4 ,recumbent stone statues1 #ic-if1 #ahe1 #bad4 ,recurved staff or sceptre1 #cd4 ,red land1 in name of ,mexican city ,tlapallan1 and of ,chichen 7,itza71 #fh2 8the great ancient red land0 in the ,east1 #ebe4 ,red man1 origin of title1 #aic2 title of the ,phnicians1 #eba2 in ,genesis1 #ebc2 ,chichimecs of ,mexico 7literally1 ,red race71 #ecb4 ,rig-,veda1 #did1 #dif1 #dig1 #dii1 #ejj1 #eje1 #eba1 #ebb4 ,riksmuseum of ,stockholm1 #dh4 ,ring or circle1 in ,persia1 #cbf 7see ,circle or ring74 ,rio ,lagartos1 #bag4 ,rios1 ,padre1 #aa1 #bfh1 #bgj4 ,rivero1 #acd2 and ,tschudi1 #aej4 ,roman1 #aej4 ,roman ,catholic ,church1 #ecg4 ,roman ,milliarum ,aureum1 #eac4 ,rome1 sacred fire1 ,roma ,quadrata1 #dfa2 duality1 middle1 quadruple government1 #dfc2 numerical divisions1 #dfd2 seven-storied tower1 #dfd2 seven-day period1 #dfe1 #dff1 #dfg2 summary1 in table of countries1 #dic2 ,constantine's plan of state-organization in ,new ,rome identical with the numerical scheme of the ,maya and ,mexican calendars1 #eji2 the symbolical use of the column1 #eac2 amulet1 #ead2 church built by ,constantine in form of ,greek ,cross1 #ead4 ,rosa1 ,beltran de la1 #aha4 ,rosny1 ,leon de1 #cf4 ,rotation 7see ,axial rotation74 ,round form1 associated with cult of ,heaven or the ,above in ,mexico1 ,central ,america2 among ,zuis1 #aac-aae2 in ancient architecture1 #aae2 associated with sky in ,egypt1 #cga4 ,round ,temples of ,chichen ,itza and ,mexico1 symbolism of1 #ig4 ,royal ,ethnographical ,museum of ,dresden1 #abi1 #aee4 ,rust1 ,horatio ,n41 #ajd4 ,saban star-worship1 #cbb4 ,sabbath1 derivation of name1 etc41 #cbg4 ,sacrifice1 human1 sacred rite1 in ,mexico1 #fc2 symbolism of1 in ,aztec religion1 #ff1 #gg2 human victim formed living swastika1 #ia1 #ib2 human blood used to moisten sacred dough1 #ih2 origin of blood sacrifices1 #ih2 to ,heaven and to ,earth1 #aah2 in ,peru1 #adg1 #adh1 #aea2 in ,mexico1 taking out heart of captive signified destroying life of conquered tribe1 #bfc2 in ,china1 #bif2 ,egyptian compared with ,mexican1 #ddb1 #ddc4 ,sacrificial-stone of ,mexico,tribute-stone1 or law-stone recording collection of tributes1 etc41 #beh1 #bei4 ,sahagun1 ,friar ,bernardino de1 #h1 #aa1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #dg1 #ec1 #ef1 #fa1 #ff1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge1 #gg-hc1 #ajd1 #aah1 #abc1 #abg1 #abh1 #aej1 #aei1 #agc1 #age1 #agf1 #ahi1 #aib1 #bde1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bgi1 #ejg1 #eec1 #eee4 ,st4 ,augustine1 #ecf4 ,sakkarah1 ,egyptian seven-storied pyramid1 #cha4 ,salado1 #bjj4 ,salcamayhua1 #acb1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea1 #afa1 #agj1 #ahf4 ,salcamayhua tablet1 #eaj1 note4 ,sanchez1 ,jesus1 #dd1 #ic1 #ie1 #if1 #aeg1 note4 ,san ,fun1 ancient ,chinese work1 #bia4 ,saniah-ya-kwe3 priesthood of the ,hunt1 among the ,zuis1 #bja4 ,san ,salvador1 mushroom-shaped stone figures from1 #aad4 ,santa ,lucia ,cozumalhuapa1 sculptured slabs at1 #aec1 #aed1 #afc1 #agb4 ,sapper1 ,carl1 #aad1 #agc4 ,satow and ,hawes' ,handbook of ,japan1 #egj4 ,saville1 ,m4 ,h41 #eac4 ,saxo ,grammaticus1 #dgb4 ,sayce1 ,a4 ,h41 #cbd1 #cbg1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #dbe1 #ddi1 #dha1 #dia1 #eah1 #eai1 #ebj1 #eba1 #ebd1 #ebe1 #ebg1 #ecb1 #edj1 #egb4 ,scandinavia1 triskelion associated with swastika1 #bh1 #bi2 ,greek fret1 #aba2 numerical divisions2 middle2 ,four ,quarters2 ,ursa ,major called 8,thor's ,wagon20 sacred mountain and tree2 axial rotation2 cult of ,polaris2 duality2 flora and fauna1 #dga-dgi2 summary1 in table of countries1 #dic2 use of wheel in early times1 also mill stone1 #ejb1 #ejc4 ,scarab1 meaning of emblem1 secret sign for 8hidden god10 #cig1 #cii4 ,sceptre1 with gold disk1 in ,mexico1 #hj1 #ha2 emblem of sovereignty in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 #cfe2 in ,egypt1 #dbe4 ,schellhas1 ,p41 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaa1 #ahb4 ,schlagintweit1 #bid1 #cja4 ,schlegel1 ,g41 #bhd4 ,schliemann1 ,h41 #dei1 #dfj1 #eah4 ,schroeder1 #ebf1 #efh4 ,schuchhardt1 #eah4 ,scorpion1 ,maya ,zin-an2 symbol of ,mictlantecuhtli1 #i4 ,scotland1 use of checker-board design1 #abd4 ,sed festival1 #dbe1 #dbi1 #dca4 ,selden ,,ms41 #eg1 #ij1 #ejh1 note4 ,seeds1 in symbolism of earth mother1 #aji2 in ,maya codices1 #aaa2 seeds of life1 ,zui1 ,mexican1 ,maya1 #bbc1 #bbe2 on ,tablet of the ,cross1 #bcf2 on ,copan swastika2 among ,zui1 #bcf2 conventionalized maize seeds1 #bcg2 idols formed of seeds in ,egypt and ,mexico1 #ddb1 #ddc4 ,seler1 ,e41 #aji1 #abi4 ,semiramis1 temple of1 #cdg4 ,semites1 #cej-ceb1 #eba2 name of ,supreme god,yahu or ,yaho or ,yahve1 #ecb2 allied to the ,phnicians1 #edj1 note1 #eda4 ,sendschirli tablet1 #cfe4 ,sepher ,hathora1 ,hebrew book of the law1 #cfa4 ,serpent1 in ancient religious symbolism3 associated with time1 #bf1 #bg2 ,nahuatl nametwin1 ,maya namefour1 #ca2 symbol of dual or quadruple nature1 #ca2 of eternal life and the ,creator1 #cb2 cursive sign for1 #ch2 on shell gorgets from ,mississippi valley1 #di1 #aab2 origin of symbol1 #ej2 divine ruler of four quarters1 #fh1 #fi2 feathers with 7see ,feathered serpent7 #gj1 #ga2 pertaining to earth-mother1 #ajj2 double-headed1 forming vase1 #aja2 in connection with tree of life1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #ahi2 with burial of woman1 #ajg2 with symbol of ,earth1 #aaa2 associated with air symbol1 #abf2 in ancient ,peruvian fable1 #aeb2 on sculptured slabs from ,guatemala1 #aed2 totem of tribe conquered by ,incas1 #aeg2 in arms of ,mexico1 #aeg2 on silver pendant from ,cuzco1 #agj2 with seven heads1 symbolical of ,mexican and ,maya seven tribal divisions1 #aha2 of dual ruler1 #aij2 mythological snake among the ,pueblo people1 #bjj2 symbol of ,below among the ,zui1 #bjd2 totemic animal of ,uxmal1 #bad2 at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bbh2 on 8,cross ,tablets0 at ,palenque1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bci2 on ,calendar-stone1 #bee2 on monolith 8,divine ,twin10 #bfa2 of gold and mosaic on statue of ,huitzilopochtli1 #bff2 meaning of symbol1 #bha2 in ,india1 #cac2 in ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,babylonia1 #cce2 worshipped in the temple of ,solomon1 #cea2 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #chi1 #cia1 #cic1 #dbd2 in ,old and ,new ,world1 #ebb-ebc4 ,serpent-woman1 #fj1 #fa1 #fe2 ,cihuacoatl1 ,mexican ruler1 #fg1 #gg1 #gi1 #aaa2 emblem of1 figured and described1 #abh4 ,seven1 sacred number1 #bi1 #ef 7see summary1 #dhj-did2 also ,numerical divisions74 ,shakespeare1 #bdg1 note4 ,shamash1 temple of1 in ,babylonia1 #cca2 antiquity of cult of1 #ccb2 symbols of1 #cef2 cross and four-spoked wheel of1 #cee1 #cfe1 #die2 image of1 made by a race of pole star worshippers1 #ejc2 compared with 8black or night sun0 on ,mexican ,calendar stone1 #ejf4 ,shang1 ,chinese word for ,above1 #aah4 ,shang-te1 ,chinese supreme ruler1 whose residence was 8,tien0,heaven1 #cja4 ,s-shape1 ,ursa ,minor figured as1 #aa2 bronze brooch from ,scandinavia1 #bi2 on native fabrics1 in ,vienna ,codex1 #cd2 in ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 #cd1 #ch2 in ,sahagun's ,historia1 #cd2 cakes in shape of1 #cd2 associated with star signs and the ,north1 #ce2 in ,mexican and ,maya codices1 #ce1 #cf2 sign of summer solstice1 #cf2 with cross and rain symbols1 #cg2 breads in shape of1 #df2 figure on ,phnician tablet1 #cie1 note4 ,shell gorgets1 representing winged human being1 #ci1 note2 in ,illinois1 ,missouri and ,tennessee1 showing cult of ,polaris1 #dd2 from ,tennessee1 #dh1 #di2 evidence of identical symbolism from ,yucatan to ,illinois1 #dh-eb1 #aab4 ,shell1 symbol of parturition1 #ie1 #bch4 ,shell pendant1 symbolism of1 #aab4 ,shinto religion1 #caa4 ,shiwana-kwe1 priesthood of the priest-people among the ,zui1 #bja4 ,shoo king1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bib1 #bie1 #bih1 #bii4 ,shogunate1 #caa4 ,shun1 ,chinese emperor succeeding ,yaou1 #bib1 #bih4 ,siculus1 ,diodorus1 #cbi1 note1 #edj1 note4 ,sidon1 #ebg4 ,siena1 ,italy1 founded by sons of ,remus1 affinities with ancient ,rome1 #dfe4 ,silco1 #ecj1 #eca4 ,simpson1 ,wm41 #cac4 ,sippara1 tablet of1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cej1 #cef1 #cfe1 #die1 #ejc1 #ejf4 ,situa1 ,peruvian festival when the cults of ,above and ,below were celebrated1 #acd4 ,siva1 cult of1 compared with cult of ,earth-mother1 #cad4 ,skull1 artificially deformed in ancient ,peru1 #adc4 ,sky-father among the ,zui1 #bja4 ,smith1 ,professor1 #ebb4 ,smyth1 ,piazzi1 star-map1 #cj1 #dc4 ,snail1 symbol of parturition1 #aaa4 ,social organization in ,mexico1 at time of ,montezuma1 myths relating to origin of1 #ed1 #fb-ge 7see ,quadruple organization and ,numerical divisions74 ,society ,islands1 study of ,pleiades in1 #eb4 ,solomon1 built altar to ,astarte in ,jerusalem1 #cej2 built altars to ,kamosh1 god of the ,moabites1 and to ,milkom1 god of the ,ammonites1 #cea4 ,solomon's temple1 #cbg1 #cdd1 #ebb4 ,solon1 #dde1 #ddg1 #ddh1 #dee1 #ebf4 ,solar or civil year1 divisions1 #bed4 ,solstice1 summer1 #cf2 winter1 #dj2 lighting sacred fires at time of1 #hc4 ,sommier1 ,stephen1 #dgg4 ,sophocles1 #dec4 ,south ,america1 symbolism of1 compared with that of ,mexico1 #abb1 #bbd 7see ,peru74 ,southern ,cross1 #afb4 ,south1 ,acatlcane1 blue1 ,mexican emblem and color of1 #db4 ,south ,kensington ,museum1 #baf1 #bbg1 #bcd1 #bci1 #cac4 ,spamer1 #ccb1 #dbh1 #deg4 ,spear-throwers1 on tablet at ,chichen ,itza1 and on ,mexican ,tribute ,stone1 #bei4 ,speed1 ,john1 #dgj4 ,sphinx1 ,egyptian1 #cgc1 #cgi4 ,spider1 a symbol of ,mictlantecuhtli1 #cg2 tradition about ,tezcatlipoca's descent from the sky by a spider's thread1 #dd2 in ,nahuatltocatl4 ,in ,mayaam2 symbol originated in ,yucatan1 #dg2 on shell-gorgets from ,illinois1 ,tennessee and ,missouri1 #dg1 #di2 in ancient ,,mss41 #ij1 #bjb2 in ,zui symbolism1 #bja2 ,maya symbol of the ,north1 #bgh2 web of1 use as symbol of numerical divisions1 #bic1 #ece1 note4 ,spindle1 as symbol of axial rotation1 in connection with cross symbols on terra cotta spinning whorls1 #dih4 ,spinning tops1 #edg1 note4 ,spinning whorls1 symbolic of rotary motion1 in ,troy1 #dih2 in ,mexico1 #ejd1 #ejh4 ,square form1 associated with ,earth in native ,american symbolism and architecture1 #aae1 #bfj1 #bhd2 in ,egypt1 #cga4 ,stadacon1 same as ,canada1 #aig4 ,stanley1 ,dean1 #ead1 note4 ,star symbol1 a black dot1 #ce2 an eye1 #cf1 note1 #ej1 #aaf1 #aee1 note1 #bfi1 #bgi2 suspended by thread1 symbol of night 7,egyptian71 #chg2 plain circle in ,chinese symbolism1 #cia2 expressed numeral five in ,egypt1 #cih 7see ,polaris74 ,star-cult 7see ,polaris74 ,star god1 in ,babylonia1 ,bel2 in ,asia ,minor1 ,ah-baal1 identified with pole-star1 #cbi 7see ,polaris74 ,star-map1 ,piazzi ,smyth's1 #bj4 ,star-names in ,maya1 #bgh4 ,stel1 purpose of erection1 marked periods of time1 #baf2 at ,copan and ,quirigua1 #bai-bdj2 correspond with ,ahua-ka-tun1 the #bj-year memorial stone1 #bba2 of ,assyrian kings1 having seven symbols1 seven circles1 etc41 #ccg-cfj2 ,esar-haddon of ,sendschirli1 #cdb1 #cei2 ,bavian1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cei2 of ,sargon1 #ceg1 #cei2 trilingual stela of ,canopus1 preserved at ,gizeh1 #cgh2 funeral stela at ,blk1 #dba2 at ,quirigua and ,copan memorial stones of high priest rulers1 with title 8,divine ,four02 built over hidden cruciform vaults1 compared with the ,egyptian 8star of ,horus10 #eab1 #eac4 ,stevenson1 #aej4 ,stolpe1 ,hjalmar1 #dh1 #aba1 #bbd4 ,stoll1 ,otto1 #gi1 #he1 #afd1 #agc4 ,stomach1 symbolized the ,centre or ,middle1 in ,china1 #bif4 ,stone1 rough or worked1 emblem of ,earth mother1 buried with the dead1 #ajf4 ,stone of ,tizoc1 compared with ,altar ,k of ,copan1 #bbf4 ,stone collar1 from ,porto ,rico1 analogous to stone yokes of ,mexico1 #aah4 ,stone figures1 recumbent1 bearing circular vessels1 #ic2 figured1 #id 7see ,recumbent stone figure74 ,stone knives1 flint knife in wrappings1 ,mexican and ,maya symbol of ,earth mother1 #ee1 #ef2 among ,california ,indians1 #aje4 ,stone monuments1 of ,peru 7,tiahuanaco71 #afd-afi2 ,central ,america1 #aed1 #bah-bcc2 ,yucatan1 #bcd-bdd2 ,mexico1 #bde-bge4 ,stone 8seats10 found in ,ecuador1 analogous to vase or earth symbols1 #ajg4 ,stone tiger with human head and depression in back1 found in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #ie4 ,stone tables1 at ,chichen ,itza1 #bab2 ,maya name for,mayac-tun1 #bac2 used as drums in sacred ceremonies1 #bac4 ,stone tablet at ,sippar1 #cca1 #ccb4 ,stone vessels1 found in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #bac4 ,stone 8yokes10 compared with symbolic vase2 pertained to cult of earth-mother2 in use among ,indians of ,southern ,california1 #ajd2 in connection with burial of priestesses of ,below1 #ajg4 ,strabo1 #cbi4 ,strebel1 ,hermann1 #ajd1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeg1 #afe1 #agb4 ,stbel1 ,a41 #afg1 #afi4 ,sturlesson1 ,snorri1 #dga4 ,sumerians1 inhabited the ,south,sumer1 #ccd4 ,summary1 of study of ancient ,american symbols1--cross1 serpent1 tree1 flower1 etc41 #bgi-bhd2 use of human and animal figure in symbolism1 #bif2 of countries in which are found the 8,quadruple ,organization10 pole-star worship1 etc41 #dhj-did2 and ,conclusions1 #edd-efb2 and tables of words used in the ,old and ,new ,world in connection with a certain culture based on pole star worship1 ,appendix ,i1 #edh2 and ,appendix ,,iii1 #efb4 ,sun cult1 ,nahuatl word for sun applies equally to the stars2 day sun and night sun2 ,ollin1 symbol of1 #ac2 superseded by star cult1 #bb2 associated with star-cult1 #ec1 #ed2 ,black ,sun in ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 myth concerning1 #ed1 #ee2 emblem of ,montezuma1 #gb2 ,montezuma1 high priest of1 #gd2 mirror of polished pyrites1 symbol of1 #hc2 rival of star-cult1 #hc2 sacrifices to1 in ,mexico1 #aag1 #aah2 in ,peru1 #acd2 superseded by belief in ,creator1 among the ,incas1 #ace2 temple of1 at ,cuzco1 #ach2 upper class maidens in ,peru1 dedicated to1 #adc1 #ade1 #adh1 #adi1 #agj2 among ,muyscas of ,bogota1 #aga2 astronomical attainments of priests of1 #ahj2 8,virgins of the ,sun0 and sun-priests in ,mexico and ,peru1 #aid2 ,sun-father of the ,zui1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjd1 note2 on ,copan sculpture1 #bbb2 in ,mexican calendar-stone1 #bdi2 four movements of1 #beb2 golden effigy of1 associated with ,incas in ,peru1 #bfd2 ,enclosure of1 name of pyramid at ,teotihua-,can1 #bfd1 #bfg2 tablet of the sun1 in ,china1 #bhe2 temple of1 #bhf2 altars1 #chg2 sun-goddess of ,japan1 #caa2 among the ,hindu1 #cab2 in religion of ,persia1 #cbe2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #ccb2 in ,egypt1 #chb2 king of ,egypt associated with1 #chi1 #dbd2 ,egyptian goddess ,hathor-,isis was called the female sun1 #dcb2 development of cult in ,egypt1 #dch2 ,csar called son of the sun1 #ddj4 ,supreme being 7see ,creator or ,supreme ,being74 ,sut-staw-ra-tse1 the leader of the 8,kingdom of ,hochelaga10 #aig4 ,swastika1 in ,mexican ,calendar1 #i1 #ah1 #da2 origin of symbol2 formed by positions of ,ursa ,major1 #ae1 #af1 #ah2 various forms of1 illustrated1 #ag1 #ai2 geographical distribution of1 #ai2 date when first used as symbol1 #bj1 #ba2 sign for a year or cycle of time1 #bc2 suggests axial rotation1 #bd1 note2 formed by four serpents in ,codex ,borgia1 #bg2 associated with triskelion1 on spearhead from ,brandenburg2 on bronze brooch from ,scandinavia1 #bh2 formed by combination of star groups1 #bi1 #cj2 suggested by star-symbol on pottery from ,nicaragua and ,arizona1 #ea1 #eb2 origin of the idea of dividing everything into four parts1 #gf2 represented by ,zui idol1 #abi2 rounded and square forms of1 at ,tiahuanaco1 #aff2 terminating in four puma heads1 symbol of central ruler1 #bji2 8,the ,copan ,swastika10 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd2 the pyramid1 a later development of same idea1 #bgd2 in different parts of the world1 accompanied with pole-star worship1 etc41 #bgf-bhj2 in ,mexico and ,ohio valley1 linked with serpent2 in ,copan1 with ,middle and ,four ,quarters1 #bhj2 ,christian cross compared with1 #cje2 use of symbol in ,china1 #cji2 in ,japan1 #caa2 meaning conveyed by figure of ,buddha #cae2 in ,egypt1 #dji2 on ,egyptian seal1 #dei2 on coin from island of ,crete1 #deg2 on coin from ,syracuse2 on coin from ,corinth2 on vases from ,troy1 #dei2 in ,greece1 #dei1 #dfj2 on ,cyprian and ,carian pottery2 on ,greek vases found at ,naukratis2 on ,coptic grave cloths2 on mummy case from ,hermopolis2 on whorls from ,troy1 #dfj2 date of its use as symbol1 #dfa2 later development of the cross symbol1 #dfa2 in ,scandinavia1 #dgd2 on image found in ,troy1 #dif2 identical in significance in ,old and ,new ,world1 #eaj2 symbolized 8,four in ,one10 and stable centre1 #eaa2 in some parts of ,germany and ,bohemia is still the sign of the stone-mason's guild1 #eaf2 or cross-symbol1 same meaning in all countries1 #ecd1 #ech2 summary and conclusions1 #edd4 ,sweat house1 ,nahuatl name of1 #abd4 ,symbolism1 in central ,united ,states identical with that of ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #dh1 #di1 #ej2 of ,mexico influenced by migration from ,yucatan1 #fg2 influenced by sound of word1 among the ,mayas and ,mexicans1 #aaj1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #bhd2 in ,china1 #bgg2 showing linguistic affinities between ,mayas1 and early peoples of the ,mississippi valley1 #aab2 same in ,peru1 ,central ,america1 ,yucatan and ,mexico1 #agj2 resemblances between ,pueblo people and ,mayas and ,mexicans1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bcf2 same in ,copan1 #bbf2 in ,palenque and ,quirigua1 #bdj2 on ,calendar stone explained1 #bdg2 symbols connected with ,middle1 etc41 #bgg2 with ,four ,quarters1 ,above and ,below1 #bgh2 names of ,mexican symbols often translations of ,maya name1 #bgh2 recapitulation of important native symbols1 #bgi-bhd2 year symbols in ,mexico and ,china1 #bia2 resemblances and differences1 ,chinese and ,american1 #bic-bif2 summary of use of human and animal figure1 #bif2 explanations and illustrations of ,egyptian symbols1 #cfg-dfa2 ,egyptian pyramid and mummy1 #cgi-cha2 of ancient ,scandinavia1 #dgd2 symbols denoting axial rotation1 #did2 in architecture 7see window1 tau1 pyramid1 ,greek fret1 round form1 square form1 color1 etc472 of human form 7see separate references under ,human72 for special symbols1 see separate references4 ,syracuse1 coins from1 swastika with human head in centre1 #dei4 ,tabasco1 #baa4 ,tablet1 containing ancient map of ,babylonia 7note following ,index74 ,talon1 of beast of prey1 symbol of four lords of ,below1 #ahe4 ,taouism1 #bih1 #cja1 #cjf4 ,tarahumari ,indians1 ceremonies typifying fecundity of earth1 etc41 compared with those of ancient ,mexicans1 #aja4 ,tartan design1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd4 ,tau1 double1 shape of courtyard1 #hb1 #hf1 #hg2 signified union of ,above and ,below2 inverted1 emblem of ,above2 upright emblem of the ,below1 #aah2 in ,american ceremonial rite2 among the cliff dwellers of ,colorado2 among the ,pueblo ,indians2 in ,scandinavia1 called ,thor's hammer2 in architecture of ,central ,america1 and ,palenque2 in dance of ,moqui ,indians2 different forms of1 figured and described1 #aai1 #abb2 in checker-board or tartan design1 #abc2 suggested by fire-drill1 #bhj2 tau-shaped cross in ,mesopotamia1 #cba2 tau-shaped altar in ,egypt1 #daa4 ,taylor1 ,e4 ,b41 #big1 note4 ,taylor1 ,w4 ,c41 #dfc1 #dfh1 #dhh1 note4 ,tecpan1 ,mexican council house2 meaning of word1 #ahc4 ,tecpatl1 symbol of the ,north1 #aj1 #cd2 flint knife1 #de1 #df2 sacred producer of vital spark1 #dg2 myth concerning1 #ed2 figured as offspring of dual divinity1 #ee2 symbol of ,fire1 #ef2 emblem of 8supreme pontiffs10 #fb2 one of the four year symbols1 #gf2 in ,borgian ,codex1 #ih2 on carved slab from ,santa ,lucia1 #agb2 possible origin of name1 which means 8to govern10 #ahc2 on ,sacrificial ,stone of ,mexico1 #beh4 ,teen-hwang-ta-tee1 ,chinese name for the pole-star1 #bhd1 #cjb4 ,temistitan1 ancient name for capital of ,mexico1 #edb4 ,temple of ,mexico1 #eh1 #hj1 #hc1 #ij1 #aah4 ,temples1 of the 8,tigers0 at ,chichen-,itza1 #bab2 8#aa10 at ,copan1 #bbb2 of 8the ,inscriptions0 at ,palenque1 #bce1 #bdj2 of 8the ,sun10 #bce1 #bci1 #bdj2 of 8,cross ,no4 #b10 #bce1 #bdc2 of ,ptah at ,memphis1 #cfg2 at ,abydos1 #chf4 ,tenayocan1 name of ,mexican town containing the affix 8,can10 #bfc4 ,tennessee1 cult of ,polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget1 #dd4 ,tenochtitlan1 #fc2 hieroglyph in centre of ancient ,maya and ,mexican maps1 #hh4 ,teo-,culhuacan1 from ,teotl1 stars1 sun1 gods1 something divine2 and ,culhua1 something recurved1 and can1 the place ofname for ,aztlan1 #ef4 ,teotihuacan1 pyramids of1 #adj1 #aii1 #bfc1 #bfd2 description of ruins1 registry of death by small clay heads1 #bfg2 ,pyramids show knowledge of 8,great ,plan20 great antiquity2 advanced stage of intellectual development1 #bfh2 same civilization as builders of ,pyramid of ,cholula1 #bfi2 two cults1 two languages 7,maya and ,nahuatl7 and dual rulership1 #bgd1 #ebi4 ,teotl1 represented by image of sun2 signifies something divine1 #ac1 #fe2 title of the upper class in ,mexico1 #ajb1 #adj2 meaning a divinity or divine lord and applied to all lords or rulers1 #bgi4 ,terra cotta heads and figures in ,mexico and ,peru1 #aci1 #adj4 ,terrace form1 rain symbol1 #acb4 ,tet1 ,egyptian symbol of eternity1 described and analyzed1 #cid4 ,texcoco1 #ee1 #afc1 #ahc4 ,texoxoctli1 stone placed with dead of lower class1 #aie4 ,tezcatl1 obsidian mirror1 #aj4 ,tezcatlipoca1 meaning of name2 identical with ,mictlantecuhtli1 #h2 surrounded by circle of footsteps2 myth concerning1 #i2 symbols of1 representations of2 fastened to symbol of the ,north1 #aj2 star-cult connected with1 #aa2 synonymous names1 #aa2 myth concerning1 #ab1 #bf1 #dd1 #de2 associated with the ,below1 the female region1 #db2 with black1 #fb2 title of1 means 8,heart of the ,earth10 #gb1 note2 8,shining ,mirror10 #gi2 image of1 beside the idol of ,huitzilopochtli1 in great temple of ,mexico1 #fj1 #hb1 #bfe2 lord of the ,nocturnal ,heaven1 #hb2 priests of1 called 8,sons of the ,night10 connected with divination1 #hc2 honored jointly with ,huitzilopochtli at ,toxcatl festival1 #ig2 flint knife1 emblem of1 #ajc2 compared with ,zui idol1 #abh1 #abi2 suggested by symbols at ,tiahuanaco1 #aff2 tradition1 #bjh2 fire-drill god1 #eje1 #ejg4 ,tezolotlan1 termed the land of war1 #agb4 ,tezozomoc1 #aa1 #dj1 #fj1 #fa1 #gi4 ,themistius of ,byzantium1 #edb4 ,theodosius1 #ecj4 ,theophrastus1 #eai4 ,thibet1 astronomical science1 #cja2 ,buddhist of1 #cae4 ,thomas1 ,cyrus1 #aji4 ,thor1 ,norse supreme god1 #dgc4 ,thor's hammer1 #aai4 ,thucydides1 #deg4 ,tiahuanaco1 place of first appearance of ,incas1 #acc2 monolithic doorway1 #afe2 swastika sacred symbol1 #aff2 ruins of1 #afg-afi1 #bji4 ,tiberius ,claudius1 #ddj4 ,tien 7,chinese71 ,heaven1 also ,supreme ruler1 #cja4 ,tiger1 in stone1 with human head and hollow depression in back1 found in ,yucatan and ,mexico1 #ie2 on sculpture from ,mitla1 #afc2 8,tiger's arm10 title of prince in ancient ,mexico1 #afc2 head1 symbol on monolithic doorway at ,tiahuanaco1 ,peru1 #afe2 heads1 at end of swastika2 on sculptured doorway1 #aff2 in headdress on sculptures1 #afg2 warrior caste of ,mexico2 temple of1 at ,chichen ,itza1 #bab 7see ,puma1 ,jaguar and ,quadruped74 ,tikal1 #baj2 classification of ruins1 #bae4 ,timus1 #dde4 ,time1 ,egyptian sign1 circle with dot1 #chg4 ,tinamit1 on ,usumacinto river1 #bae4 ,tionontat or ,tobacco ,nation1 #aig4 ,titicaca lake1 as place of first appearance of ,incas1 #acc1 #eci4 ,tititl1 name of ,mexican feast1 #gi4 ,tizoc1 stone of1 #i1 #agb1 #bab4 ,tlacaxipehualiztli1 ritual at festival of1 #ab4 ,tlachtli1 courtyard in shape of double tau1 #hg2 ancient ,mexican game1 #agf4 ,tlaloc1 title of god of rain1 #gh1 #ii2 designated by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings1 #ha4 ,tlatoque1 literally1 8,the speaker0 title of chief of clan1 #agh4 ,tlaxcalla1 republic of2 government of1 army of1 #ge2 recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels1 found in1 #ic2 small republic of ,mexico1 name signifies bread2 hieroglyphic sign is maize-cake1 #bgb4 ,tloquenahuaque1 title of 8,creator0 in texcoca1 #afc4 ,tochtli1 one of the four year symbols1 #gf2 rabbit1 #gh2 tochtli-gods1 agents of ,cihuacoatl1 #gh4 ,tollan1 abode of ,quetzalcoatl1 #bag2 native name for ,cholollan1 #bge4 ,toltecas1 representatives of high civilization of ancient ,yucatan1 #hi2 master-builders1 #bcd1 #bec1 #bed1 #ebi4 ,topiltzin1 title of supreme pontiff1 of ,quetzalcoatl or divine twin1 #gg1 #if4 ,torquemada1 #ed1 #ee1 #fj1 #fg1 #gg1 #ie1 #if1 #aej4 ,tortoise1 among the ,iroquois1 #aig2 in ,mexico1 #bgi2 ,maya word for ac1 #bha2 in ,chinese symbolism1 #bif4 ,totemism1 ,north ,american ,indian1 #aed1 #aig2 ,peruvian1 #aeg1 #bja2 ,quich1 #afd1 note2 ,zui1 #bja1 #bjd2 ,copan and ,zui1 #bbg2 and ,quirigua1 #bcc2 ,fire people of ,mexico1--the ocelot2 ,air people1--the bird1 #bed2 in relation to signs of zodiac and to the stars1 #bee2 in ,babylonia1 #cdh2 alligator totem in ,india and ,mexico1 #ebj2 among the ,semites1 #eba1 #ebb2 serpent totem among ,semites1 ,mayas1 ,nahuas1 and ,peruvians1 #ebb1 #ebc4 ,toxcatl festival1 ,tezcatlipoca and ,huitzilopochtli1 jointly honored1 #ig4 ,traditions 7see 8,myths and ,traditions074 ,tree symbolism1 tree of life in ,vienna ,codex1 #ajc2 in ,dresden ,codex1 #aaj2 in ancient ,america1 #ahf2 among the ,incas1 #ahf2 among the ,mexicans1 social organization represented by1 #ahg2 ,above and ,below1 #ahh2 serpent and ,polaris1 #ahi2 embodied male and female elements1 #ahh2 shape of human figure1 #ahi2 used to signify lord or governor1 also ancestor1 #ahi1 #aij2 sacred tree of the ,mayas1 #aia2 among ,peruvians1 ,mexicans and ,mayas1 image of social organization1 #aib2 in symbolic carving from ,brazil or ,guiana1 #bbd2 symbol of tribe in ,america1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bdb1 #bac1 #ejg1 note2 symbol of the year in ,mexico1 #bda2 ch1 ,maya word for tree1 zin-chcross1 literally tree of life or of power1 #bgh2 quahuitl1 ,nahuatl word for tree1 symbol of ,centre2 homonymous with quaitl1 meaning head1 #bgi2 recapitulation of meaning of symbol1 #bha2 compared with ,chinese symbol of 8wood10 #bid2 in ,buddhist religion1 #cba2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 on bas-relief at ,nimroud1 #cfj2 as sacred symbol1 #cfa2 tree worship1 by ,hebrews1 ,phnicians1 ,assyrians1 #cfb-cfd2 celestial tree of life in garden of ,paradise1 #cfe2 the ash-tree of the ,norsemen on the summit of the ,hill of ,heaven1 #dgb2 symbol of star-god1 ,polaris1 #dgd2 tribal trees in ,india1 ,egypt1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america and ,peru1 #dii2 the celestial tree of the ,norsemen and ,semites1 #ejc2 in ancient ,america1 #ejf1 #ejg4 ,tribute stone1 ,mexican 8,sacrificial0 stone1 #bei4 ,triskelion1 companion symbol to swastika2 formed by polar constellations at winter-solstice1 #bg2 not used in the ,south but with swastika in the ,north1 #bh2 on pottery from ,arkansas2 on spearhead from ,brandenburg2 on bronze brooch from ,scandinavia1 #bh2 formed by combination of star groups1 #cj2 sign of winter solstice1 #cg4 ,trocadero ,museum1 #ajd1 #agd1 note4 ,troncoso1 ,francisco del ,paso y1 #ac1 #hb1 #bej1 #beb4 ,troy1 vases from1 having swastika or cross symbol1 #dei4 ,troy1 spindle whorls with swastikas and allusion to pole-star god1 ,tur1 #dih4 ,tschudi1 #acd4 ,tuch-pan1 name of capital of ,maya colony1 #abe1 #bjg4 ,tula1 #fj2 city of1 #ie4 ,tulapan1 #baj4 ,tullan1 #agc2 name of culture hero's home1 #fh2 meaning of1 in ,maya language1 #fh2 identity not established2 beautiful land of the ,aztecs1 ,mayas1 ,kiches and ,cakchiquels2 ,cakchiquel legend regarding2 ,maya migration from1 #hh1 #bfh4 ,tullan ,cholollan1 ancient seat of civilization2 probable place where scheme of organization was evolved1 and where traditions of destruction of earth originated1 #bfh1 #bgd1 #bge4 ,turanian1 originally a northern race1 7see ,phnicians71 #eag4 ,turtle1 at ,quirigua1 #bcd2 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #cih4 ,tusayan1 ceremonies1 symbols and myths compared with those of ,central ,america1 #bjj4 ,tuscaroras1 #aif4 ,tutulxius1 #baa2 immigrants into ,yucatan1 tradition concerning1 #baj4 ,twin1 divine 7see ,dual ,divinity74 ,twin serpents1 on ,mexican ,calendar ,stone1 symbolizing dual forces of nature1 and quadruplication1 #beg2 on dual statues1 on summit of great ,temple of ,mexico1 #bff4 ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 #aif1 #cfc4 ,tyre1 destruction of1 by the ,greeks1 #ebg4 ,tzendals1 culture hero of1 #fj1 #ga1 #gb2 calendar signs1 #ahj2 social organization and numerical system1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,tzilan1 ancient capital in ,yucatan1 #bcd4 ,tzitzimi-,cihuatl1 name of ,quilaztli1 #fj4 ,uhle1 ,max1 #afg-afi4 ,upsala1 university of1 #bcj1 note4 ,urhye1 ,chinese dictionary1 #bib4 ,ursa ,major1 myths concerning1 #h1 #aa1 #ab2 meaning of name in ,nahuatl1 #h1 #i2 four positions of form swastika1 #ad-bb2 nearer to pole-star in remote antiquity1 #ba2 rotary motion1 #bb2 positions of1 scratched on rocks1 beginning of astronomical records1 #bc2 ,tezcatlipoca and ocelot associated with1 #bf2 in relation to sacred numbers1 #bi2 resembles s-shape1 #cd2 in relation to idea of ,above and ,below1 #dj2 ancient ,mexicans claimed descent from ,ursa ,major and ,minor1 #eg2 on calendar stone1 #bdf1 #bej2 identified as star-god1 8,youal-tecuhtli0 mentioned by ,sahagun1 #bgi2 among the ancient ,chinese1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bia1 #bih1 #cjb2 in ,hindu religion1 #cai2 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #ceh1 note2 in ,egypt1 #cgh1 #chb1 #chd1 #che1 #cig1 #djj1 #daj2 ,akkadian title1 ,akannathe ,lord of ,heaven1 #cid2 ,greek name for ,helice1 #ddg2 as sailing guide in ancient ,greece1 #dea1 #deb2 became circumpolar about ,b4,c4 #djjj1 time of adoption of swastika symbol1 #dfa4 ,ursa ,minor1 ,s-shaped figure sign of1 #aa1 #bi2 connected with ,tezcatlipoca1 #ab2 rotation of1 #ah2 suavastika formed by1 #ai2 in relation to sacred number1 #bi1 #cc2 represented by recurved sceptre1 #cd2 represented by ,maya glyph1 ,hun-,imix1 #ce2 in connection with ,polaris1 #cf2 in relation to idea of ,above and ,below1 #dj2 symbol of2 s-shaped breads made in honor of1 #df2 ancient ,mexicans claimed descent from ,ursa ,major and ,minor1 #eg2 in ,copan swastika1 #bbd2 in ,egypt1 #chb2 in ,babylonia-,assyria,kakkabu1 #djj2 in ancient ,greece as sailing guide1 #dea4 ,usumacinto river1 #bce4 ,uxmal1 ,house of the ,doves1 symbolism of1 #aca2 symbolic hand on garment of chieftain1 #ahd2 the serpent city of ,america1 #bad2 ruins in1 #baf4 ,valentini1 ,p4 ,j4 ,j41 #bef1 note4 ,valera1 ,padre ,blas1 #aea4 ,varuna1 name of supreme god in ,india1 #cab4 ,vase1 or ,bowl1 symbol of earth mother1 #ajj2 emblem of the rain priests or ,octli gods1 #ajb2 worn in nose as emblem2 meaning of1 #ajc2 containing rabbit or flint knife1 #ajd2 as conventionalized serpent jaw1 resembles horseshoe-shaped stone 8yoke10 #ajd2 considered sacred among ,zui ,indians1 #aje2 reason of vase decoration1 #aje1 #ajf2 grave made in shape of2 buried with dead to propitiate earth-mother2 used as burial urn1 #ajf2 stone 8seats0 indicate analogous cult of earth-mother south of ,mexico1 #ajg2 ,maya day-sign1 ,caban1 #ajg2 in ,maya codices1 #ajg1 #ajh2 figured as day sign1 ch'en1 #aaj2 associated with seeds and germination1 by ,mayas and ,mexicans1 #aaa2 in ,vienna ,codex1 #abc1 #abd2 sacred bowl among ,pueblo ,indians1 #acb2 in hand of ruler on ,copan sculpture1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbe2 bowl of water1 preceded use of obsidian mirror1 in divination1 #bbe2 ,maya supreme priest called 8,lord of the ,vase or bowl10 #bbf2 on ,tablet of the 8,cross #b10 at ,palenque1 #bcf2 recapitulation of meaning of symbol1 #bhc2 used for ,astronomical purposes among pigmy races1 and in ,phnicia1 ,assyria and ,egypt1 #cci2 large terra-cotta jars found at ,nippur1 and in temple of ,solomon1 #cdd2 canopic vases in ,egypt1 #cgb2 same idea embodied in pyramid1 #chf2 in zodiac signs1 #cie2 symbol of god ,amen-,ra1 #djh2 in cult of ,egyptian goddess1 ,isis1 #dbd4 ,vedas1 #cab1 #cad1 #deb1 note1 #did1 #dif1 #dig1 #dii1 #ejj1 #eje1 #eba1 #ebb4 ,vega1 ,garcilaso de la1 #acf1 #acg1 #aej1 #aea4 ,vega1 ,nuez de la1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,venice1 compared to ,mexico1 #hd4 ,venus1 temple of ,mexico dedicated to1 planet of1 #ec2 on ,calendar-stone1 #beb4 ,vikings1 cult of ,polaris1 #dgd4 ,villavicencio1 #aej4 ,virgins of the ,sun1 in ,mexico and ,peru1 #aid4 ,vishnu1 cult of1 #cad4 ,volcanoes1 as probable cause of traditions of destruction of earth1 #bgj-bge4 ,von ,herder1 #ddi1 note4 ,von ,luschan1 #cdb1 #ceh1 note1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,von ,schroeder1 ,l41 #dhd1 #deh1 note4 ,votan1 culture hero of the ,tzendals1 title 8the ,master of the ,sacred ,drum10 #fj1 #ga-gb1 note4 ,vulture1 totem of ,quich chieftain1 #afd2 in ,egyptian symbolism1 #cih1 #dbe1 #dbf4 ,wales1 ,druidic ,celi ,ced corresponds to ,egyptian ,amen-,ra2 dual power2 ,central ruler2 numeral seven in ,welsh legend1 #dga4 ,wampum belts1 ,iroquois1 #aig-aii4 ,wan1 ,chinese word for swastika1 #cji4 ,warburg1 ,a41 #aai4 ,waring1 #dei4 ,warren1 ,william ,f41 #dge1 #eff4 ,water1 sacred pool in temple of ,mexico1 #bbe2 in connection with star cult1 #bbf2 associated with fire-drill and socket in ,old and ,new ,world1 #eje4 ,water era1 one of the four eras of the world1 #bec4 ,water goddess1 called ,chalchiutlycue1 #ia4 ,water and air design1 encircling the mitre of the ,lord of the ,above2 on mantles of ,montezuma's predecessors1 #abe2 emblem of cult of ,above1 #abf4 ,weaving1 art of among the ,huaxtekans1 #bjg-bjh1 note4 ,west1 ,cihuatlampa 7in ,nahuatl7place of the women1 #ch2 in ,cosmos,callihouse1 yellow1 earth1 darkness1 #db2 door of the ,underworld1 #ed2 female region1 #fd4 ,webster's ,dictionary1 #dai4 ,wheat1 stalk of1 year symbol in ,china1 #bia4 ,wheel1 emblem of the ,deity and of rotation1 among ancient ,mexicans1 #cc2 represented by ,mexican dance1 #ei2 the four-spoked wheel of ,shamash in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #ccb1 #cef1 #cfe2 symbol of axial rotation and time in ,old ,world1 #ejj2 associated with pole-star in ,japan1 #eja2 use of1 known in ,japan and ,china from the earliest times1 #eja-ejb2 in ,scandinavia1 #ejb2 first religions and their royal symbol--possibly evolved from the stone fire socket1 #ejc 7see ,axial ,rotation74 ,wheelwright1 ,e4 ,m41 #ead1 #eae4 ,whitney1 ,j4 ,d41 #ddi note1 #deb1 note4 ,wickersham1 ,james1 #bhh1 #bib4 ,wiener1 #acb1 #adf4 ,williams1 #bhh4 ,wilson1 ,sir ,daniel1 #edj4 ,wilson1 ,thomas1 #ai1 #bc1 #bh1 #ej1 #cah1 #dei1 #dfj4 ,wind-god1 symbol of1 #cd4 ,windows1 symbolism of1 in ,mexico1 ,central ,america and elsewhere1 #abj1 #aba4 ,winged disk1 in ,assyria1 #cef1 #ceg4 ,winter solstice1 triskelion sign of1 #bg1 #bh4 ,woman1 origin of idea of inferiority1 #fe2 position of1 in ,peru and ,mexico1 #aid2 8,corn ,maidens0 and 8,mothers0 in ,america1 #bgf2 in ,china1 #bhf1 #bhg2 in ,babylonia-,assyria1 #cda2 in ,greece and ,rome1 #cde in ,egypt1 #dbf-dcf4 ,writing1 cursive and ikonomatic of the ,old ,world2 picture writing adopted by ,spanish missionaries to ,new ,world1 #ecd-ece1 note2 ,egyptian hieratic script1 #ece1 note2 numerical value of letters in ,greek alphabet2 ,maya calculiform hieroglyphs2 geometrical figures used by ,phnicians1 #ecf1 note4 ,wu1 ,chinese empress1 #cji4 ,wylie1 ,alexander1 #cjc1 #cce1 #dha1 note4 ,xicalango1 #baa4 ,xilomaniztli1 another name for the festival 8,izcalli20 meaning the birth or sprouting of the young maize1 #bda4 ,xiuhtecuhtli1 ,mexican lord of the year or of fire2 emblem of1 figured and described2 called the turquoise2 or grass-green pyramid1 #abi1 #bad1 #bbc4 ,xius1 tribe of ancient ,yucatan1 #baa4 ,xonecuilli1 native name for ,ursa ,minor 7see ,ursa ,minor74 ,xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl 7,nahuatl7the verdant or blue sky1 a title of ,huitzilo-pochtli1 #gb4 ,yang and ,yin1 in ,chinese religion2 belief of the modern ,chinese concerning1 #bhf4 ,yaou1 ,chinese emperor who divided ,china into four provinces1 #bih4 ,year symbols1 in ,mexican calendar1 acatl1 tecpatl1 calli and tochtli1 #gf2 glyphs on ,copan stela or katun1 #bbj2 ,maya name for,ah-cuch-haab1 #bbj2 in ,mexican ,calendar-stone1 #bec2 in ,mexico1 bunch of grass or maize shoots2 in ,china1 stalk of wheat1 #bia4 ,yoalticitl1 mother of the gods in ancient ,mexico1 #abc4 ,yop-at1 ,maya name for 8a mitre10 symbol of divine ruler1 #aah4 ,yope or yopi1 ,mexican peaked headdress or cone #aag4 ,yopico1 name given to temple and monastery in courtyard of ,great ,temple of ,mexico1 #aah4 ,youal-tecuhtli1 star-god mentioned by ,sahagun1 identified as ,ursa ,major1 #bgi2 name signifies1 8lord of the night10 also 8,lord of the circle or wheel10 #bgi4 ,yuoalahualord of the wheel1 #ga4 ,yu1 ,chinese emperor2 divisions of ,china1 #bib1 #bii4 ,yucatan1 cult of ,polaris1 #dd2 ,mexican culture-hero1 ,quetzalcoatl1 came from1 #fg2 social organization1 older than that of ,mexico1 #fg2 ,twin-brothers personifying the ,above and ,below1 #fh2 serpent symbol1 more ancient than in ,mexico1 #gj2 ancient map of1 #he-ij2 early peoples of1 in contact with those of ,mississippi valley1 #aab2 traditions about ,kukulcan's journey to ,mexico1 #bjf2 traditions of tribes who came from the south1 #baj-bad2 meeting ground of ,maya- and ,nahuatl-speaking people1 #bad2 not cradle of ,maya civilization1 #bad2 ancient monuments of1 #baf2 fourfold divisions1 #bah1 #did2 ,mayas compared with ,maghas of ,india1 #eji1 #eai2 ancient civilization1 #ebh2 ruder forms of culture alongside of the perfected social organization1 #eca2 period of warfare and pestilence1 #eci 7see ,chichen ,itza1 ,mayapan1 etc474 ,yupanqui1 founder of ,cuzco1 who introduced worship of the ,creator1 #ace1 #afa1 #ahf4 ,zamorra1 ,fray ,geronimo ,roman y1 #bge4 ,zarate1 #aej4 ,zeller1 ,edward1 #dhd4 ,zenith1 nepantla1 #ch4 ,zigzag or undulated lines1 symbol of water1 #abf4 ,zikkurats of ,babylonia1 seven-staged towers1 #cbg-cca2 oriented to the four cardinal points1 #ccb2 together with 8,great basin of ,apsu10 formed image of ,cosmos1 #cfa4 ,zilan1 ,maya centre of female industry #bjh1 note2 name signified 8embroidery10 #baj2 stone monoliths1 #baf2 ancient centre of culture in ,yucatan1 #bag4 ,zip1 glyph on ,copan altar1 #bbg4 ,zmigrodski1 #ai4 ,zodiac composed of twenty day-signs1 #bee2 in ,chinese calendar1 #bhe4 ,zumarraga1 ,bishop1 #bfd4 ,zui1 conception of ,cosmos1 ,above1 ,below1 ,centre and ,four ,quarters1 #da1 #ajj2 ceremonies typifying the fecundity of the earth1 etc41 #aja2 vase used as emblem of earth-mother1 #aje2 cult of ,above and ,below2 swastika symbol in use among2 cult of ,polaris2 ,zui idol compared with ,mexican lord of fire and lord of the under world1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj2 twin brothers1 war-gods1 compared with counterparts in ,mexico and ,yucatan1 #acj2 colors assigned to cardinal points1 #aib2 creation myth1 #bjj1 #bbc2 modern1 ceremonies1 symbols1 etc41 compared with those of ,mexico1 ,central ,america and ,peru1 #bjj2 ,sky-father and ,earth-mother2 ,macaw or winter people1 and ,raven or summer people1 #bja2 linguistic affinities with ,nahuatl and ,maya1 #bja2 myth about building the town at the stable middle of the earth1 #bjb2 social organization1 #bjc1 #bje2 symbol of seeds of life1 compared with ,mexico and ,maya1 #bbc2 numerical divisions1 social organization1 symbolism1 etc41 identical with that of ,mexico1 ,yucatan1 ,copan1 ,guatemala1 ,peru1 etc41 #bbf1 #dic2 spider's web as image of numerical divisions2 colors assigned to four elements1 compared with ,mexico and ,china1 #bic2 use of quadruped to symbolize cardinal points and divisions of state compared with similar symbolism in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 #bie2 the pueblo represents a 8seven in one10 a counterpart of archaic kingdoms in ,india1 ,persia1 ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 etc41 #ebi4 ,,note4 ,i am indebted to the eminent ,prof4 ,paul ,haupt1 of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 for drawing my attention to the existence of an extremely important and interesting ancient map of ,babylonia on an unfortunately broken and mutilated clay tablet also inscribed with cuneiform characters4 ,this tablet is reproduced in photogravure and illustrated by a pencil drawing on pp4 #ajj and #aja of the ,notes on 8the ,book of ,ezekiel0 7translated by ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,toy71 which forms ,part #ab of the monumental polychrome edition of the ,bible1 which is being edited by ,prof4 ,paul ,haupt1 with the assistance of ,dr4 ,horace ,howard ,furness4 ,although designated as a 8,babylonian map of the world0 it obviously represents ,babylonia as a ,middle ,kingdom1 traversed by the ,euphrates and containing ,babylon1 surrounded by other cities situated in the ,euphratean valley4 ,babylonia is enclosed in two large concentric circles representing the sea1 designated in a cuneiform inscription as the 8,bitter stream0 or 8,salt water river40 ,triangles extend beyond the outer circle1 recalling the four 8rays or spokes0 of the image of ,shamash 7fig4 #fe74 ,cuneiform characters1 in one of these triangular spaces1 designate it as an island4 ,professor ,toy states that 8there seem to have been originally seven of these triangles1 but most of them are broken away40 ,in point of fact only one of the triangles is whole1 and distinct traces of three others are preserved4 ,as the mutilated condition of the tablet forbids certainty as to the original number of triangles1 ,i venture to point out that it seems more likely that instead of seven there were originally six triangles around the central disc and that the map of ,babylonia constitutes an image of a confederated state1 like those of ,india and ,persia 7see pp4 #dhj and #dhd71 conceived as formed of 8six dependent and allied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in the centre40 ,referring the reader to p4 #cdh of this work where 8the seven kings0 of ,babylon are mentioned and seven-fold organization is discussed1 ,i merely state that the importance of the ,babylonian map can scarcely be overrated as a proof of the application in remote antiquity of the cosmical scheme to territorial divisions4 ,it will be for ,assyriologists to determine for us the relative ages of the ,sippara tablet 7p4 #ccb and fig4 #fe1 #a71 and the ,babylonian ,map tablet and to define their respective connections with the 8four regions0 and 8seven directions10 or with quadruplicate and seven-fold schemes of organization4 ,it is my hope that their researches will lead to definite knowledge as to the date when these cosmical schemes were employed in the ,euphratean valley4 ,in conclusion ,i draw attention to the two interesting wheel-shaped maps of the world also published in the 8,notes on ,ezekiel0 7p4 #aje71 and the remarkable diagram 7p4 #aig71 showing the allotment of the land of ,canaan according to ,ezekiel4 ,on p4 #bjd1 in the ,notes of ,chapter #dh of ,ezekiel1 there are valuable details concerning the geographical distribution of the tribes of ,israel1 and the position1 in the centre1 of the sacred reservation and the symmetrical arrangement of the gates of ,jerusalem1 which were associated with the cardinal points and tribal representatives4 ,z4 ,n4 ,,footnotes #a ,the ,swastika4 ,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum1 #ahid4 ,washington1 #ahif4 ,during the preparation of this paper ,i also consulted the following works1 from which some forms of swastika are likewise reproduced on pl4 ,,ii3 ,le signe de la ,croix avant le ,christianisme4 ,gabriel de ,mortillet4 ,paris1 #ahff4 ,zur ,geschichte der ,swastika4 ,zmigrodski1 ,braunschweig1 #ahij4 ,la migration des symboles4 ,comte ,goblet d',alviella4 ,paris1 #ahia4 #b ,i would insert here that it was only when the present investigation was almost completed1 that my attention was arrested by a reference in ,professor ,wilson's work1 already cited1 to a short article on the ,fylfot and the ,futhorc tir by ,h4 ,colley ,march1 ,m4,d4 ,having succeeded in obtaining a copy of the ,transactions of the ,lancashire and ,cheshire ,antiquarian ,society 7vol4 #d1 pp4 #a-ab1 #ahhf71 in which it appeared1 ,i had the extreme satisfaction of finding that a specialist working in another field and approaching the problem from another direction had come to two of the identical conclusions that ,i had reached in a totally different manner4 ,this fact constitutes1 in my opinion1 the most powerful support of the correctness of the views we hold in common after having formed1 expressed and worked them out in such a different way1 as can be verified by a comparison of our two works4 ,referring the reader to his valuable and suggestive communication to which ,i shall revert1 ,i shall merely mention here that ,dr4 ,march recognizes1 as ,i do1 that the 8essential suggestion of the swastika and fylfot is of axial rotation40 ,he attributes the original of the swastika to the nocturnal 7not as ,i do1 to the annual7 rotation of the ,ursa ,major around ,polaris1 and likewise refers to the fact that about four thousand years ago1 the circular sweep of the circumpolar constellations was far more striking than at present4 ,after meeting on this common ground our lines of investigation part company and go wide asunder1 nor am ,i able to follow some of ,dr4 ,march's conclusions such as1 for instance1 his opinion that the fylfot was a sign of a 8diurnal rotation0 suggested by 8the rising and setting of the sun and moon when the spectator looked at them with his back to the north40 ,on the other hand ,i am indebted to him for much valuable information relating to the rune or futhorc tir1 to which ,i shall refer later4 #c ,besides the word coatltwin1 the ,mexicans had another term to express some thing double1 in pairs4 ,a plant with two shoots was named xolotl4 ,double agave plants1 or maize when occasionally met with1 were regarded with superstition and named me-xolotl4 ,the pretty little parroquets1 popularly known as 8love-birds0 from their habit of constant association1 in pairs1 were named xolotl4 ,the circumstance that the term for birds'-down was also xolotl may explain why the down-feathers of eagles and other birds were employed and played a certain rle in ritual observances4 ,they expressed and conveyed the sound of a word which meant something double and could therefore be used to symbolize a variety of meanings relating to multiplication or propagation4 ,that the ,mexicans figuratively connected birds'-down with generation is proven by the well-known myth of the birth of ,huitzilopochtli from the union of a ball of birds'-down and a goddess named 8she with the petticoat of serpents0 7,sahagun1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,i74 ,tufts of birds'-down figure1 in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms41 on the shield of the female ancestress of the human race1 one of whose numerous titles was toci18our grandmother10 to express which the figure of a citli or hare was sometimes employed in pictography4 ,of her it was said1 that she bore only twins1 a figure of speech meaning great productiveness1 just as the female divinity is also termed 8the woman with #djj breasts0 7text to p4 #bi1 ,vatican ,codex1 ,kingsborough1 vols4 ,,ii and ,v74 ,in the text to the ,telleriano-,remensis ,codex 7,kingsborough1 vol4 ,i1 pl4 #bd71 we find ,xolotl1 a deity wearing the shell-symbol of ,quetzalcoatl1 directly named 8the god of twins40 #d ,the full meaning which may have been attached to the eye-symbol in both ,nahuatl and ,maya languages is set forth in the following notes which ,i give merely for the suggestion they convey of a deep meaning having been attached to the eye-symbol4 ,the ,nahuatl word for eye is ix-telolotli1 but in pictography it represented the phonetic value of ix only4 ,it may1 therefore1 have been employed as a cursive sign for faceixtli and the fact that it figures in the centre of the symbol ollin1 where a face sometimes occurs1 confirms this surmise4 ,in the ,maya language the word for eye is ich1 which is practically identical with the ,nahuatl ix1 and this enters into the composition of the following words1 the meanings of which are worth considering in connection with the fact that the eye is shown to have been employed to convey the meaning of star1 in both languages3 ,ix-machuneternal1 without beginning1 ix-mayamforever1 continuously1 without interruption4 ix-maxulperpetual1 without end4 ,the fact that each of these ,maya words exhibits the prefix ix and that an eye is employed to express this sound and stands for star1 is certainly interesting1 since it suggests that the natives associated the idea of eternity with the stars4 #e ,this native belief is beautifully illustrated by the two 8highly artistic shell-gorgets representing winged human beings10 which are described and figured by ,mr4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,holmes1 in ,part ,,ii of his instructive and extremely useful 8,archaeological ,studies among the ,ancient ,cities of ,mexico10 which ,i have received just as this paper is going to press4 ,i am much pleased at the possibility of drawing attention1 by means of a footnote1 to the interesting fact that in one gorget the human head is figured with butterfly wings1 whilst in the other it is accompanied by conventionalized feathers and a butterfly wing4 ,there can be no doubt that both gorgets are attempts to represent the resuscitated souls of departed warriors1 according to the native ideas concerning them4 ,it is nevertheless very remarkable to see actually that the ancient ,mexicans employed the butterfly as a symbol of an immortal soul and had also evolved the idea of a winged head1 analogous to that of a cherub1 to represent a blest spirit1 dwelling in celestial regions4 ,it is noticeable that the name of the ,mexican priests was papa1 which syllables are the first in the word papalotlbutterfly4 ,it may be that a distinction was made and that the souls of the dead priests were supposed to assume the shape of butterflies or moths1 whilst the warriors became celestial humming-birds4 #f ,in connection with ,montezuma's use of a litter it should be noticed that1 in the picture-writings1 only the culture-hero ,quetzalcoatl and the bird god ,huitzilopochtli are represented as seated on litters4 ,the two bars of ,quetzalcoatl's litter1 figured in ,duran's atlas 7,tratado #b1 cap4 #a a7 terminate at each end in a serpent's head4 ,the pair of twin serpents thus rendered1 evidently convey an allusion to his name1 which would be equally comprehensible in the ,maya or ,mexican languages4 ,in another portion of ,duran's ,atlas 7,trat4 #b1 chap4 #b71 ,huitzilopochtli is figured as seated on a litter masked as a bird1 and a finely-executed native picture of the bird-god1 being borne on a litter1 is in the ,b4 ,n4 ,,ms4 where he is named 8the precious lord0 and is represented with a sceptre in his hand surmounted by a heart4 ,this latter detail is of special interest1 since it indicates that the ,mexicans employed the heart with the same symbolical and metaphorical meaning as the ,maya-,quiches and ,tzentals4 ,the latter had named their culture-hero 8,votan08the ,heart0 7of the people74 7,brinton ,hero-myths1 p4 #bag47 ,in the ,popol-,vuh1 the sacred book of the ,quiches1 the supreme divinity is named 8the ,heart of the heaven1 whose name is ,hurakan40 ,he is also named the 8,heart of the ,earth10 a title whose equivalent in ,mexico,tepe-,yollotl1 was applied to ,tezcatlipoca and associated with the bodiless voice1 the echo1 which was supposed to proceed from the 8heart 7or life7 of the ,mountain40 ,the above data undoubtedly prove the important point that ,huitzilopochtli and ,tezcatlipoca were respectively entitled 8the ,heart of the ,heaven0 and 8the ,heart of the ,earth40 #g ,short triangular capes are worn to this day by the ,mexican women1 and are called quechquemitlshoulder capes4 ,it is curious to find in ,molina's dictionary1 the following3 tzimpitzauacsomething figured1 which is wide above and pointed below1 and tzimmanquisomething figured which is pointed above and wide below1 words which seem to indicate that they refer to triangles and that these had different meanings according to position4 #h ,the production of this drink was limited to the area in which the agave plant could be cultivated4 ,as set forth in my commentary on the 8,lyfe of the ,indians10 the natives employed many other kinds of fermented liquors1 made from different fruits and plants4 #i ,the sacred symbols and numbers of ,aboriginal ,america in ,ancient and ,modern times4 7,bulletin of the ,american ,geographical ,society1 no4 #b1 #ahid47 #aj ,tribes of ,california1 ,stephen ,powers4 ,contributions to ,north ,american ,ethnology4 ,washington1 #ahgg4 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #gi4 #aa ,fourth ,annual ,report ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #eah4 ,washington4 #ab ,republicas de ,indias1 ,fray ,jeronimo ,roman de ,zamorra #aefi-aege1 ed4 ,suarez4 ,madrid1 #ahih4 #ac ,pilz-foermige ,goetzenbilder aus ,guatemala und ,san ,salvador1 ,carl ,sapper1 ,globus4 band ,,lxxiii1 nr4 #bj4 #ad ,for other examples see ,borgian ,codex1 pp4 #b1 #e1 #fd1 #ff1 #gd4 #ae ,note on the ,ancient ,mexican ,calendar ,system4 ,stockholm1 #ahid4 #af ,biologia ,centrali-,americana4 ,archology1 edited by ,f4 ,ducane ,godman1 ,london4 #ag ,the most striking example of this is in the ,palace ,house1 at ,palenqne1 all wall-holes of which are tau-shaped4 ,an elaborate stucco ornamentation1 richly colored1 encloses two upright taus surrounded by raised borders4 ,one is a deep opening in the wall2 the other1 next to it1 is filled in and exhibits a horizontal line resting on a vertical one4 ,there can be no doubt that a profound symbolical meaning was expressed by the entire motif1 which has been admirably reproduced by ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay 7,biologia ,centrali-,americana1 ,archology1 part ,,vi1 pl4 #ah74 #ah ,verffentlichungen aus dem ,kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 ,,iv band1 ,i heft4 #ahie4 p4 #e4 #ai ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 ,comentarias ,reales1 ,lisbon1 #afji2 also translation by ,sir ,clements ,b4 ,markham1 issued by the ,hakluyt ,society4 ,rites and ,laws of the ,incas 7accounts by ,molina1 ,salcamayhua1 ,avila and ,ondegardo71 translated by ,sir ,clements ,b4 ,markham2 also ,cieza de ,leon1 ,herrera1 etc4 and ,,ms4 of ,padre ,anello ,oliva4 #bj ,attention is called to a curious error in the original text by ,arriaga1 quoted by ,rivero and ,tschudi4 ,arriaga states that the two statues stood back to back1 but he makes the woman look toward the 8poniente0 and the man to the 8occidente10 thus making both figures face the west4 ,as 8poniente0 is the current ,spanish phrase for the west1 it is evident that the author made a slip in the use of the classical term1 and intended to say that the man faced the 8oriente40 #ba ,the ,terra-cotta ,heads of ,teotihuacan1 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 ,baltimore1 #ahhf4 #bb ,for this valuable list ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,sir ,clements ,b4 ,markham1 the ,president of the ,royal ,geographical ,society of ,great ,britain1 who generously allowed me to study some of his ,,ms4 notes on ,ancient ,peru4 #bc 8,from what can be gathered and conjectured in considering the traditions of the present time1 it is not more than #cej to #djj years since the ,incas only possessed and ruled over the valley of ,cuzco as far as ,urcas1 a distance of six leagues and to the valley of ,yucay1 which is not more than #e leagues4444 ,the historical period cannot be placed further back than #djj years at the earliest0 7,polo de ,ondegardo #aeej-afjj74 #bd ,lettre sur les ,antiquits de ,tiahuanaco1 #ahff1 pp4 #i1 #ag1 #ai4 #be ,blas ,valera1 apud ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lisboa1 #afji1 lib4 ,i1 cap4 ,,xi1 pp4 #ac1 #ad2 lib4 ,,ii1 cap4 ,,vi1 p4 #db4 ,see also ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios4 ,madrid1 #agbi1 lib4 ,,iv1 cap4 ,,xv1 p4 #cac4 #bf ,narratives of the ,rites and laws of the ,incas1 translated by ,clements ,b4 ,markham1 ,c4 ,b41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ed4 ,hakluyt ,society1 pp4 #aj-ac4 #bg ,it is the merit of the late distinguished philologist ,dr4 ,buschmann1 in his invaluable work on ,aztec names of localities to have pointed out that although the ,cakchiquel language is now spoken at ,cozumalhuapa or ,cotzumalguapan1 its name is unquestionably ,nahuatl 7,cozamalo-apan74 ,ueber ,aztekische ,ortsnamen1 ,,vii1 p4 #cd4 ,the largest number of illustrations of the beautiful bas-reliefs found in the above locality have been published by ,m4 ,herman ,strebel of ,hamburg1 whose valuable publications and splendid collections of ancient ,mexican antiquities1 preserved at ,berlin and ,hamburg1 are well known4 ,die ,steinsculptures von ,santa ,lucia ,cozumalhuapa 7,guatemala7 in ,museum fur ,volkerkunde4 ,hamburg1 #ahid4 ,jahrbuch der ,hamburgischen ,wissenschaftlichen ,austallen1 ,,xi4 ,three of these remarkable bas-reliefs are figured in the valuable publication by ,geheimrath ,a4 ,bastian3 ,steinsculpturen aus ,guatemala1 ,berichte der ,kniglichen ,museen zu ,berlin1 #ahhb4 ,dr4 ,habel's drawings were published in #ahgh1 in the #bb;d vol4 of the ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge4 ,casts of these bas-reliefs are on exhibition in the ,peabody ,museum4 #bh 8,the skins of lions1 with the heads1 had been prepared1 with gold ear-pieces in the ears and golden teeth in place of the real teeth which had been pulled out4 ,in the paws were certain rings of gold4 ,those who were dressed or invested with these skins put on the head and neck of the lion so as to cover their own and the skin of the body of the lion hung from the shoulders40 op4 cit4 p4 #de4 ,the wearing of puma and ocelot skins by one of the two highest grades of warriors in ,mexico is too well known to need further mention here4 #bi ,in connection with the three points proceeding from the eye1 the ,mexican symbol for star1 ,i would draw attention to the fact that in the latitude of ,santa ,lucia only three equidistant positions of ,ursa ,major1 and1 possibly1 of ,ursa ,minor1 would be observable1 the constellations being below the northern horizon when lying between it and ,polaris4 ,the symbolical three points could have thus originated in the same way as the triskeles in other countries1 from observation of the identical phenomenon4 #cj ,this bas-relief is reproduced in vol4 ,,iii of the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 p4 #cjb1 and is discussed by ,seor ,sanchez4 #ca ,article ,peru1 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 #cb ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 ,the ,royal ,commentaries of the ,incas1 ,hakluyt ed4 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgj4 #cc ,rites and ,laws of the ,incas1 ed4 ,hakluyt1 p4 #hf4 #cd ,rites and ,laws of the ,incas1 ed4 ,hakluyt1 pp4 #gg1 #hd4 #ce ,the ,heavens 444 ,london4 ,richard ,bentley and ,son4 #ahhc4 pp4 #bhg-bhi4 #cf ,historia ,chichimeca1 chap4 ,,xix4 #cg ,in ,quechua the left hand was named lloque maqui and the right1 pana maqui4 ,in the ,chinchaysuyo dialect of ,quechua the left hand was hichoc maqui and the right1 allaucay maqui 7,vocabulario ,padre ,juan de ,figueredo74 #ch ,annals of the ,cakchiquels4 ,library of ,aboriginal ,literature1 vol4 ,,vi1 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 p4 #ga4 ,it is a striking coincidence which further excavations may however destroy1 that seven similar upright slabs were found at ,santa ,lucia1 six complete ones of which exhibit individuals whose left hands bear special marks4 ,what is more1 these figures are accompanied by animals which agree with a native chronicle quoted by ,dr4 ,otto ,stoll 7op4 cit4 p4 #f74 ,according to this some of the totems or marks of dignity worn by certain ,quich chieftains were representations of pumas1 ocelots and vultures4 ,it is1 perhaps1 permissible to advance the hypothesis that the personages on the slabs are representatives of the seven tribes and display their totemic devices4 ,i would add a couple of observations which seem to indicate that the language of the people who sculptured and set up the ,santa ,lucia slabs was ,nahuatl4 ,in the first case on the long slab1 figured by ,m4 ,herman ,strebel as ,no4 #aa1 a chieftain in a recumbent position is conferring with a personage masked as a deer4 ,the date is sculptured on this slab1 recalling the ,mexican method of figuring numerals and indicates that a historical event is being recorded4 ,the ,nahuatl word for deer is mazatl and we know that the ,mazahuas1 or 8deer-people0 is the name of a native tribe which inhabits to this day the coast region of ,guatemala4 ,a town named ,mazatenangothe capital or mother-city of the ,mazahuas lies between the lake of ,atitlan and the coast 7tenanmother of somebody2 tenamitlwalled city74 ,a small village named ,mazahuat also lies farther south and inland on the ,lempa river1 in ,san ,salvador4 ,on one of the upright slabs two sculptured heads resembling dogs' heads are enclosed in circles4 ,the ,nahuatl name for dog is itzcuintl2 and a town of the same name1 corrupted to ,escuintla1 lies between the latitude of ,amatitlan and the coast of ,guatemala1 at about the same distance inland as the town of ,maza-tenango4 ,as both places were within easy reach from ,santa ,lucia1 it seems possible that the slabs may refer to some conquest or agreement made with the 8deer and dog people40 ,at all events the agreement is worth noting as a hint for future research4 #ci ,ed4 ,brinton4 ,library of ,aboriginal literature1 p4 #ac4 #dj ,it is to the superior authority of my distinguished and highly esteemed colleagues ,drs4 ,otto ,stoll and ,carl ,sapper that ,i submit the above considerations4 ,it may be possible for the latter enthusiastic explorer and for ,dr4 ,gustavo ,eisen1 who is continuing his valuable researches in ,guatemala1 to determine the locality of the ancient ,tullan1 which should1 ,i imagine1 be sought for in a region where the land inhabited by the ,four ,nations would converge and at a point almost equidistant from the ,four ,tecpans4 #da ,in the ,mexican collection at the ,trocadero ,museum in ,paris1 there is a curious wooden sceptre in the form of a hand1 which has been figured by ,dr4 ,ernest ,hamy in his splendidly illustrated work on this ,museum4 #db ,see ,brinton4 ,the ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 p4 #di4 #dc ,bulletin of the ,museum of ,science and ,art1 ,university of ,pennsylvania1 no4 #c1 vol4 ,i4 #dd ,idea de una nueva historia general1 ,madrid1 #agdf1 p4 #aag4 #de ,native ,calendar1 p4 #ej4 #df ,vergleichende ,studien4 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 bd4 ,,iii1 #ahij1 and the ,native ,calendar1 p4 #ai4 #dg ,see ,molina's dictionary for further meanings of verb yuli1 which accounts for another form of primitive native symbolism4 #dh ,see ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton 7,american ,hero-myths1 p4 #aee7 who1 like other authorities1 has not recognized the difference between native cross-symbols1 denoting the four quarters celestial and terrestrial and the tree of tribal life4 #di ,dr4 ,hale states that these squares remind us of the similar ,chinese character which represents the word 8field0 7p4 #bda74 #ej ,a ,central ,american ceremony which suggests the snake dance of the ,tusayan villagers4 ,reprint from ,the ,american ,anthropologist1 vol4 ,,vi1 no4 #c1 ,july1 #ahic4 cf4 ,bandelier1 ,final ,report of ,investigations among the ,indians of the ,southwestern ,united ,states4 ,archaeol4 ,inst4 ,papers1 ,am4 series1 ,,iv1 pp4 #ehf-eia4 #ea ,thirteenth ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,washington1 #ahif4 #eb ,in abbreviated form ,i note here1 inviting special comparison with ,mexico1 that the ,zui ,upper world was symbolized by the sun1 eagle and turquoise2 the ,lower world by the rattlesnake1 water and toad4 #ec ,landa states that ,mayapan signified 8the banner of ,maya10 the latter being the name of the 8tongue of land0 on which the capital was situated4 ,this explanation is1 however1 scarcely satisfactory1 for pantli is ,nahuatl4 ,if the entire word be regarded as ,nahuatl1 we obtain 8the banner of the hand40 ,as another ,maya name for the capital was ,ho and this means five it seems possible that this numeral and sound were actually expressed by an open hand and that the ,nahuatl name thus arose4 #ed ,as throughout ,america four brothers are always found associated1 in consequence of the general spread of the quadruple organization1 the fact that three rulers only are mentioned here and that three powerful tribes were found in possession of ,yucatan1 indicates that these must have separated themselves from their original ,state4 ,the subsequent reduction of their number to two shows further dissension4 #ee ,it seems reasonable to refer to this date the expulsion of the ,maya tribe1 the ,huaxtekans1 who founded their colony at ,panuco1 named their capital ,tuch-pan and carried with them their execrable practices and ideas4 ,at the same time they possessed and handed down such a proficiency in the art of weaving that at the time of ,montezuma the most beautiful textile fabrics1 furnished to him as tribute1 were the ,huaxtecan 8centzon-tilmatli0 or mantles of four hundred colors1 8finely woven and covered with intricate and artistic designs40 ,this circumstance points to a possible connection with ,zilan1 the reputed ,maya centre of female industry4 ,it has been stated by good authorities that the only antiquities thus far found in ,america1 which testify to the existence of a degraded and obscene cult1 are from the region of ,panuco4 #ef ,it is interesting to note in the above description absolutely no mention of woman in the organization of ,mayapan4 ,it is therefore to be presumed that they were excluded from this capital1 and inhabited1 as in ,mexico1 their own town1 under female rulership and that of the 8lords of the ,night40 #eg ,see the ,atlatl or ,spear-thrower of the ,ancient ,mexicans4 ,peabody ,museum ,papers1 vol4 #a1 no4 #c4 ,cambridge1 #ahia4 #eh ,relacion4 ed4 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 p4 #eb4 ,in a note the ,abb states that the above description recalls the monoliths of ,copan and ,quirigua4 #ei ,we are told that the ,cheles inhabited a province named ,ah-bin-chel1 and that their capitals were ,tikoh and ,izamal 7literally1 ,ahthey who are of1 kinsun1 chelsort of bird and the ancient name of a sacerdotal lineage in ,yucatan74 ,thence the title ,chelekatholiness1 highness1 grandeur1 given to the head of this lineage 7,brasseur de ,bourbourg74 ,ix-chelthe woman-bird1 was the high-priestess or medicine-woman and midwife4 ,the ,cheles1 ,tutul-xius and ,cocomes were the three most powerful tribes at the time of the ,conquest4 ,it is noteworthy that they all had bird names and that the word chel1 the totemic bird of the ,cheles1 so closely resembles chtree1 that the combination of a ch or tree as a symbol of the tribe and the chel-bird would have been suggested by the language4 #fj ,according to ,seor ,garcia ,cubas1 8this peninsula of ,yucatan must have been united at one time1 to the island of ,cuba1 the determining cause of their separation being the impetuous current of the ,gulf of ,mexico0 7,atlas ,metodico1 ,mexico1 #ahgd1 p4 #cb74 #fa ,for a general account of the ruins of ,copan and for a plan on which the position of the different structures1 stel1 altars and prominent sculptures are given1 ,i refer to the ,memoirs of the ,peabody ,museum vol4 ,i1 no4 #a1 containing a preliminary report1 of the ,explorations by the ,museum4 ,cambridge1 #ahif4 #fb ,historia de la ,provincia de ,yucathan1 by ,friar ,diego ,lopez ,cogolludo1 ,madrid1 #afhh4 #fc ,it seems to me that this statement establishes once and for all the order in which these sculptured glyphs are to be read4 ,it is evident that in fastening them to the walls the idea was that of building up the calculiform record by placing the stones above each other1 in the same manner that a stone wall would be raised4 ,accordingly1 the earliest records would form the base and the last be at the top4 #fd ,see ,biologia ,centrali ,americana1 pt4 ,i1 ,copan 8a0 pl4 #i4 ,casts of this sculpture and of two others nearly identical1 from ,copan1 are in the ,peabody ,museum4 #fe ,it is my intention to reproduce these plans of ,copan and ,quirigua and of other ancient ,american capitals in the publication ,i have undertaken to make in co-editorship with ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,dahlgren of ,stockholm1 of the beautiful map of the ,city of ,mexico and its surroundings1 painted by ,alonzo de la ,cruz1 the cosmographer of ,philip ,,ii of ,spain4 ,mr4 ,dahlgren published an interesting account of this map1 which is preserved in the library of the university at ,upsala1 in #ahhi1 with its uncolored reproduction on a reduced scale4 ,in his monumental work on ancient cartography1 ,baron ,nordenskjld also published an uncolored production of this map and1 with ,dr4 ,bovallius1 exhibited a beautiful facsimile of this precious document1 at the ,historical ,exposition in ,madrid1 in ,october1 #ahib4 ,during the previous summer at ,stockholm1 ,i had personally superintended the painting of a perfect facsimile copy of the map which ,i exhibited in the ,anthropological ,building of the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition in #ahic4 ,the original map was exhibited in ,stockholm during the meeting of the ,congress of ,americanists at ,stockholm in #ahid1 and ,i suggested that it ought to be published in exact facsimile and in colors1 particularly on account of the many hieroglyphic names of localities it exhibits4 ,it was thereupon agreed by ,mr4 ,dahlgren and myself that we should jointly publish the map with an accompanying text in ,english1 my share of the work being principally the decipherment of the hieroglyphs of localities1 the classification of the tribes inhabiting them1 as well as the presentation of all historical facts connected with them that ,i could obtain from the native and early ,spanish chronicles4 ,with characteristic liberality the ,duc de ,loubat most kindly supported the proposed publication by subscribing to twenty copies of it in advance and depositing the payment for these at the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,the reproduction of the map has been facilitated by this generous action and ,i take great pleasure in expressing here our grateful appreciation to the ,duc de ,loubat1 who has been patiently awaiting the achievement of our undertaking4 ,both ,mr4 ,dahlgren and ,i have been prevented from completing this up to the present1 by work planned previously to the publication of the map4 ,the present publication will prove1 however1 that the social organization of the ,mexicans has been the object of my painstaking study and that1 until ,i had satisfactorily set forth the fundamental principles which influenced not only the distribution of the population1 but the ground-plan of the capital itself1 any text ,i could publish with the map would be incomplete4 ,as matters now stand1 ,i propose to treat of the ,city of ,mexico as a type of an ancient ,american sacred city1 to compare its ground plan with those of other native capitals and to trace1 as far as possible1 the localization of the various tribes and classes of the ancient population1 so that we can form an adequate idea of the topography and machinery of the great state known as the ,empire of ,montezuma4 ,i hope and expect to complete this publication in a reasonable period of time but dare not define its limits1 as all scientific research demands more time and strength than can be determined upon in advance4 ,in conclusion ,i would state that1 at the ,congress of ,americanists which took place at the city of ,mexico in #ahie1 the distinguished ,mexican cartographer1 ,seor ,garcia ,cubas1 whose splendid maps of ,mexico are well known1 made an interesting communication on this map1 of which he had seen a copy4 #ff ,it has been surmised that the name ,palenque is of ,spanish origin and means 8a palisade20 but it seems far more likely to be the approximate rendering of the sound of the old native word by a ,spanish word1 in the same way that the ,nahuatl ,quauh-nahuac became the ,spanish ,cuerna-vaca1 literally cow's horn4 #fg ,brasseur de ,bourbourg's ,maya ,vocabulary contains an interesting instance of a native tribe or lineage bearing the name of a bird3 8,chel3 name of a kind of bird2 ancient name of a great sacerdotal family reigning at ,tecoh 7near ,izamal1 ,yucatan74 ,thence the title #8,chelekat1' which meant holy1 exalted1 great1 and was applied to the head of this family40 #fh ,on a large tablet at ,ixkun1 the cast of which is now in ,mr4 ,maudslay's collection at the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 similarly placed figures support on their bent backs and shoulders standing personages1 facing each other1 and surrounded by glyphs4 ,in this case1 however1 the men who serve as footstools1 are bound and distinctly show a difference of type and costume1 so that there can be no doubt that the tablet commemorated the conquest of an alien tribe4 #fi ,estudio arqueologico y jeroglifico del ,calendario o gran libro astronomico4444 ,mexico4 #ahhi4 #gj ,shakespeare1 ,julius ,caesar1 ,,iii1 #a1 #fj4 #ga ,a somewhat disheartening consideration concerning the ,stone of the ,great ,plan deserves mention4 ,the probability is that it was originally painted with the colors of the four quarters and that some of the records thus made are irretrievably lost4 ,on taking the first impressions with gelatine1 in order to make his admirable cast of the monolith1 ,seor ,abadiano discovered many traces of color1 lodged in small crevices and corners of the carvings4 ,moreover1 the use of the symbolical colors on stone monuments is vouched for by the great painted monolith which was1 strange to say1 re-interred after having been discovered in the ,city of ,mexico some years ago4 ,the reproduction of an obviously incorrect drawing made of this stone during its uncovered state1 has been published in vol4 ,,ii of the ,annals of the ,national ,museum of ,mexico4 #gb ,relacion1 p4 #cci1 ,kingsborough1 vol4 ,,ix4 #gc ,leon y ,gama advanced the opinion that the stone1 supplemented by a gnomon1 served as a solar clock or dial1 to mark the hours of the days and the seasons1 etc4 ,he added that the stone may have served further purposes than those he enumerated and hints that it may have also recorded lunar periods4 ,this distinguished scholar concludes by acknowledging that the ancient ,mexicans possessed enlightened knowledge of the movements of the principal planets and methods of observing them1 in order to divide time for the purposes of civil and religious government 7,description de las dos ,piedras4 ,mexico1 #aheb1 p4 #aaj74 ,the late ,doctor ,philip ,valentini1 in a learned discourse on the ,calendar-stone1 read at ,new ,york in #ahgh1 expressed his view that it contained a complete and plastic representation of the division of time employed in ancient ,mexico4 ,the distinguished ,mexican scholar1 ,seor ,alfredo ,chavero1 has published the most elaborate treatise which has been written on the subject and discusses the views of ,gama and ,valentini with much erudition4 ,referring the reader to his publications in the ,annals of the ,national ,museum of ,mexico ,i shall but mention his views that the four symbols1 contained in the quadruplicate central figure1 record four epochs of the native cosmogony1 that the central head is an image of the sun and that the monument itself is a votive tablet which was erected to the ,sun in historical time1 two conclusions to which ,i cannot subscribe4 ,it is impossible to discuss fully the valuable publications of ,seores ,troncoso and ,chavero in these cursive remarks1 but ,i shall do so on another occasion4 ,meanwhile there is one point upon which both of these authorities agree1 namely1 in admitting the possible connection between the civilization of ,mexico and ,peru and in recognizing that various ancient people of ,america had the nahui-ollin in common4 ,a passage in ,seor ,chavero's work claims moreover special mention1 as it contains his supposition that the sign nahui-ollin may have symbolized not only the four movements of the sun1 but also those of the moon1 which the writer seems to regard as the nocturnal or dark sun4 ,i am quite ready to agree with the above authorities on some of the points mentioned1 conflicting as their views appear to be at first sight4 ,inasmuch as ,i regard the monument as the image of a plan or theoretical scheme which colored and influenced all native thought1 ,i hail any recognition made by other students of its all-pervading presence in the ,calendar and in the cosmogony of the ancient ,mexicans4 ,on the other hand ,i maintain a view which materially differs from those of previous writers1 namely1 that the entire plan was originally based on the primitive observation of ,polaris and in the conception of a stable centre3 the seat of a power extending over the ,four ,quarters and the ,above and ,below4 #gd ,in the text1 as published1 ,bernal ,diaz states that this statue had a face like that of a bear 8un rostro1 como de osso10 but goes on to say that it was decorated according to the same mode as the other 8del otro40 ,i am inclined to think it more than probable that instead of 8de osso 0 the text should also read 8del otro10 as among the many images of ,tezcatlipoca that are extant1 none show him connected with the bear in any form or shape4 #ge ,in ,tullan we seem to find the ,maya equivalent to the ,mexican ,itzacualenclosure1 by which the ,teotihuacan pyramids are popularly designated1 as may be verified by the discussion of the ,maya word in the preceding pages 7cf4 tulum1 tulul1 tuliz1 tulacal71 which conveys the idea of something enclosed1 entire1 whole and universal and will be reverted to4 ,cholol-lan seems to be connected with the verb cholol-tiato escape 7like game from a snare or net7 to fly1 or to spring away4 ,according to this1 ,cholol-lan would mean 8the place of escape or flight0 and it will be seen that this designation will be found to agree with the native tradition concerning the purpose of the pyramid1 which will be cited presently4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that ,cholol-lan may be bilingual and also be a corrupt rendering of the ,maya ho or hoolhead1 also capital4 ,this supposition receives a certain support from ,padre ,rios' statement that 8the inhabitants of ,cholula1 in their sacred festivals1 performed a solemn dance around the pyramid chanting a song which began with the words ,tulanian ,hulaez40 ,these1 he states1 8belonged to none of the languages now spoken in ,mexico0 7,orozco y ,berra op4 cit4 p4 #cfc74 ,the name ,tlachiuhaltepetl is translated by ,orozcoy ,berra by 8mountain made by hand10 i4 e4 artificial mountain or pyramid2 from tlachiuhaliztli1 the act of accomplishing some work forming or creating something4 ,as the origin of primitive symbolism is a question of such deep interest ,i shall mention here some curious data in connection with the pyramid4 ,the word ,tlachiuhale was a title or name applied to the 8,creator or ,former of living creatures40 ,in order to express the sound of this word in the picture-writings1 it is obvious that a pyramid could have been employed1 since it graphically and phonetically conveyed the desired sound tlachiual-tepetl4 ,at the same time a complementary sign would be necessary so as to obtain a symbol which would specially apply to the ,creator alone4 ,the word tlachiato look1 see1 watch1 naturally suggests itself1 as a complement to the sound tlach2 and to express1 in a cursive way1 the action of seeing1 an eye sufficed4 ,we thus see that an artificial mountain or pyramid and an eye formed a hieroglyph which expressed the sound 8,tlachiuale0 and signified the 8,creator40 ,as the eye by itself was the sign for star1 and the idea of a central star1 as frequently depicted in the nahui-ollin sign1 was an emblem of the creative and central power1 it is evident that1 besides its literal meaning1 i4 e4 an artificial or created mountain1 a 8tlachiuhaltepetl0 would have been regarded by the initiated as the ,mountain of the ,creator1 the sacred pyramid1 which was the image of central1 dual and quadruple power4 #gf ,the testimony of early ,spanish missionaries established the fact that in ancient ,mexico a caste of master builders and masons existed1 whose name1 ,tulteca1 identified them with the ancient centre of civilization and integral state of ,tullan4 8,whenever the natives were asked who had constructed certain edifices1 passes and roads1 etc41 they invariably answered the #8tultecas1' a ,nahuatl word in current use1 which signified #8the skilled artificers or workers in stone1 etc41 the master-masons or builders4' 0 #gg ,the ancient native name of this volcano was ,citlal-tepetl1 literally the ,star ,mountain1 from which it may1 perhaps1 be inferred that1 from the plains1 its high and sharp peak served as a means of registering the movements of certain stars and planets4 #gh ,china1 ,prof4 ,rob4 ,douglas1 p4 #bei4 #gi ,the ,chinese designation ho1 applied to the limits of space1 is particularly interesting in connection with the ,maya ho and its homonyms4 #hj 8,the ,mongol-,mayan ,constitution10 ,the ,american ,antiquarian1 ,may and ,june1 #ahih4 ,it is with all the more genuine appreciation that ,i point out how ,mr4 ,wickersham1 anticipating my publication of the same conclusion1 has recognized that the ,zuis1 ,mexicans and ,peruvians as well as the ,chinese1 were ruled by what he aptly terms the 8,quadriform ,constitution10 since it has taken me years of hard study to perceive this common basis4 ,i likewise draw attention to his study in primitive law1 8,the ,constitution of ,china 7,olympia1 #ahih710 but must remark that ,i strongly differ from his conclusions in the recently published ,answer to ,major ,powell's inquiry 8,whence came the ,american ,indians80 7,tacoma1 #ahii47 #ha ,shu ,king4 ,the ,chinese ,classics1 ,legge4 ,book ,i1 p4 #cg4 #hb ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,legge1 vol4 ,,iii1 ,sh ,king2 also ,w4 ,h4 ,medhurst1 ,shanghai1 #ahdf4 #hc ,an interesting note in connection with the assignment of color to the cardinal points in ,asia1 is given by ,schlagintweit 7,buddhism in ,thibet1 #bg1 #c71 who relates that 8the walls of the temples look towards the #d quarters of heaven and each side should be painted with its particular colour1 viz43 northgreen1 eastwhite1 southyellow1 westred1 but this rule is not strictly adhered to2 most1 indeed1 are painted red40 ,as a parallel to this ,i refer to ,sahagun's description of the temple of the high-priest ,quetzalcoatl at ,tula1 which held four chambers facing the cardinal points2 8,the east chamber was termed the golden house and was lined with plates of gold2 the west chamber was termed the house of emeralds and turquoises2 the south chamber was inlaid with silver and mother of pearl and the north chamber with red jasper and shells40 ,sahagun describes also a second building of the same kind1 in which the decoration of the four rooms was carried out in the same colors1 in feather-mosaic 7op4 cit4 ,book ,x1 chap4 ,,xxix74 #hd ,the alligator-altar of ,copan and the 8,great ,turtle0 of ,quirigua1 on which four limbs may be discerned1 are the most remarkable examples of the native employment of the quadruped figure as a symbol of clan-organization and the great ,quadruplicate ,plan4 ,an interesting instance of the association1 in ,china1 of the form of a four-footed animal with numerical divisions is furnished by the following passage from the ,book of ,yu1 ,shoo-,king1 ed4 ,legge4 ,khung-she has said that 8,heaven conferred on ,y the divine tortoise bearing a book out of the river2 on its back were various numbers1 up to nine4 ,y arranged them and completed the #i species4 ,on the head of the tortoise was #i1 on the tail #a1 on the left side #c1 on the right #g4 ,the shoulders were formed by #b and #d1 the thighs by #f and #h40 #he ,as ,prof4 ,e4 ,b4 ,taylor has aptly pointed out3 8,by accident the ,mexican ,calendar may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of cards laid out in rotation of the four suits1 as an ace of hearts1 #b of spades1 #c of diamonds1 #d of clubs1 #e of hearts1 etc4444 ,this system of combining signs with numerals is similar to that of central southwestern ,asia where1 among the ,mongols1 ,tibetans and ,chinese1 etc41 series of signs are thus combined to reckon years1 months and days4444 ,humboldt makes this comparison in his ,vue des ,cordillres1 p4 #bab04444 7,article 8,mexico10 ,ency4 ,brit474 #hf ,the following passages contain interesting evidences of the ancient application of the number seven to tribal organization in ,china4 8,in the time of the ,suy dynasty ,manchuria went by the name of ,mo-ho in ,china 444 the people being then divided into seven tribes4444 ,towards the end of the eleventh century one ,yang-ko was elected as their chief 444 and he organized something of a regular government throughout the various tribes of ,jou-tchi or ,ni-tchi's and collected taxes from them4 ,the highest of his officers were all styled po-k-eih-lee and were distinguished by the names of the sun1 planets and #bh constellations of the ,zodiac4 ,every five1 every ten and every hundred men had their special officers4444 ,from the chief of five to the chief of ten thousand1 each trained his dependents in military art44440 ,wylie3 ,on the origin of the ,manchus 7,chinese ,researches1 p4 #bdd74 #hg ,the ,nestorian ,tablet in ,si-ngan-foo 7p4 #bd1 ,chinese ,researches4 ,shanghai1 #ahig74 #hh 7,the ,religion of ,japan1 ,wm4 ,elliott ,griffis4 ,london1 #ahie1 p4 #fg and note #i47 ,this curious agreement between the ,japanese and other ethnic traditions1 in locating ,paradise1 the origin of the human family and of civilization at the north pole1 has not escaped the attention of ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,warren1 ,president of ,boston ,university1 who makes extended reference to it in his suggestive book1 8,paradise ,found1 ,the ,cradle of the ,human ,race at the ,north ,pole4 ,a ,study of the ,prehistoric ,world4 ,boston1 #ahhe40 #hi ,an interesting parallelism in the development or evolution of the idea of rotation around a central pole was brought to my notice by a model in the ,indian ,department of the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,it represents the ,hindu fanatical religious rite known as the 8,churruck ,puja40 ,four individuals are suspended by cords1 with hooks drawn through their flesh1 to a movable wooden structure like a wheel surmounting a high pole1 similar to that used by the ,ancient ,mexican 8flyers0 7see p4 #bd7 which likewise served as a pivot for the circling motion of the performers4 ,the torture voluntarily endured by the latter recalls that accompanying the sacred sun pole-dance of certain ,north ,american ,indian tribes4 ,it is interesting to contrast the ancient ,mexican refined and intellectual symbolization of circumpolar motion with the fanatical and hideous self-torture associated with the ,north ,american and ,hindu modes of representing the same phenomena1 as it throws much light on the development of certain sides of human nature4 #ij ,mr4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,goodyear1 from whose admirable work1 the ,grammar of the ,lotus1 the above quotations are taken1 remarks that 8the myth of ,horus rising from the lotus1 as found in the ,egyptian texts1 is the exact counterpart of this idea and as far as ,brahmanism is concerned1 is much the older20 also that 8it is possible that the lotus symbolism of ,egypt and ,india dates from a race which divided into separate branches2 it is also possible that the people of ,india experienced the influence1 direct or indirect1 of ,egypt40 #ia ,researches into the origin of the primitive constellations of the ,greeks1 ,phnicians and ,babylonians 7,robert ,brown1 jun41 ,f4 ,s4 ,a41 ,m4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s41 vol4 ,i1 #ahii1 p4 #ceg74 #ib ,in ,assyria we find one of the oldest temples bearing the name ,e-kharsag-kurkura1 that stamps the edifice as the reproduction of the 8mountain of all lands0 and there are other temples that likewise bear names in which the idea of a mountain is introduced4444 ,the zikkurat or 8mountain-house0,e-kur was at ,nippur1 ,sippar1 ,uruk1 ,ur and ,larsa1 8the centre of a considerable group of buildings2 while at ,babylon 444 the temple area of ,e-sagila must have presented the appearance of a little city of itself1 shut off from the rest of the town by a wall which invariably enclosed the sacred quarter40 ,the name ,e-kur was used at ,nippur1 by extension1 to denote the entire sacred precinct which contained the zikkurat or staged tower1 the great court where worshippers assembled1 shrines and other minor structures4 ,the excavations at ,nippur have afforded us1 for the first time1 a general view of a sacred quarter in an ancient ,babylonian city4 ,the extent of the quarter was considerable4 ,dr4 ,peters' estimate is eight acres for the zikkurat and surrounding structures4444 8,a factor that contributed largely to the growth of the sacred precinct in the large centres was the circumstance that the political importance of such centres as ,nippur1 ,lagash1 ,ur1 ,babylon and ,nineveh led the rulers to group around the worship of the chief deity1 the cult of the minor ones who constituted the family or court of the chief god40 ,a 8list of temples in ,lagash1 recently published by ,scheil1 444 furnishes the name of no less than thirteen sacred edifices1 and we are certain that as many as four or five smaller chapels surrounded the precinct in which stood the great temple ,e-ninnu 4440 7,jastrow1 op4 cit474 #ic ,these facts shed additional light and interest upon the ,mt4 ,meru of ,india1 where the ,brahmans sought union with their god ,brahma4 #id 8,diodorus ,siculus maintains that the ,e-kur was employed as an astronomical observatory4 ,the antiquity of ,babylonian astronomy is indicated by the testimony of ,simplicius and ,porphyrius who relate that ,callisthenes1 the companion of ,alexander the ,great during his campaigns1 brought back from ,babylon and communicated to ,aristoteles a series of observations which had been made there for a period of #a1ijc years4 ,accordingly1 the ,chaldans must have begun to make astronomical notes more than #b1bjj years before the ,christian era4 ,it stands indeed to reason that they must have made observations during countless centuries1 since they discovered the ,saros1 known as the ,chaldan period of #fehc-a_/c days1 which served for the prediction of eclipses and were also acquainted with the precession of the equinoxes40 #ie ,professor ,jastrow tells us that the name ,shamash merely signifies vassal or servitor4 ,i venture to point out what is doubtlessly a fact familiar to ,assyriologists1 that the name closely resembles the ,babylonian-,assyrian name ,shameheaven1 the equivalent of the ,sumerian an1 a word of which the most ancient cuneiform signs were four crossed lines1 forming eight lines proceeding from a common centre4 #if ,a striking corroboration of the view that ,china derived its civilization from ,asia ,minor is afforded by the resemblance between the ,assyrian ,anu and the ,chinese ,shang1 both signifying ,heaven1 and the ,assyrian ,ea and ,chinese ,lea1 both applied to 8the ,below40 #ig ,an analytical study of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian divinities enumerated in ,professor ,jastrow's hand-book enables us to detect some of the natural associations of ideas that influenced the formation of one artificial theological system after another1 all springing from a single root4 ,the fundamental realization of the antithesis of light and darkness giving rise to the division of the universe into two distinct parts1 the conception of an eternal antagonism between both followed and led to the stage of thought set forth by ,mr4 ,robert ,brown who tells us 7op4 cit47 that 8the original twins were the ,sun and ,moon0 and that an archaic cosmogonic legend attached to the third month of ,kas 7twins7 is that of two hostile brethren and the building of the first city4 ,the great twin-brethren who join together to build the city are the ,sun and ,moon1 engaged in preserving cosmic order yet also constantly antagonistic to each other and who constantly chase each other1 one being up when the other is down4 ,mr4 ,brown also relates the myth of antagonistic satraps ,namaros and ,parsondas and states that1 in the twin stars1 ,castor and ,pollux1 named by the ,euphrateans the great ,twins,mastab-bagal-gal1 the ,sun and ,moon were re-duplicated4 ,the ,euphratean abbreviation is mastwin or mas-mas1 and ,pollux is equated with the fourth antediluvian king ,ammenon1 a name derived from ,akkadian3 umunoffspring1 anheaven i4 e4 the ,sun1 8the son or offspring of heaven40 #ih 8,there are reasons for believing1 however1 that ,sarpanitum1 the offspring-producing goddess once enjoyed considerable importance of her own2 that1 prior to the rise of ,marduk to his supreme position1 a goddess was worshipped in ,babylon1 one of whose special functions it was to protect the progeny while still in the mother's womb4 ,a late king of ,babylon1 the great ,nebuchadnezzar1 appeals to this attribute of the goddess4 ,to her was also attributed the possession of knowledge concealed from men4444 ,a late ruler of ,babylon1 ,shamash-,shumu-kin1 calls her #8the queen of the gods' and declares himself to have been nominated by her to lord it over men0 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 p4 #abb74 ,the following extracts from ,assyrian prayers addressed to ,ishtar further define her position at one time3 8,the producer1 queen of heaven1 the glorious lady4 ,to the one who dwells in ,e-babbara4444 ,to the queen of the gods to whom has been entrusted the commands of the great gods4 ,to the lady of ,nineveh4444 ,to the daughter of ,sin1 the twin-sister of ,shamash1 ruling over all kingdoms4 ,who issues decrees1 the goddess of the universe4444 ,besides thee there is no guiding deity44440 #ii ,as an illustration of the ideas connected with ,astarte it is interesting to note that fish and doves1 inhabitants of the sea and air1 became her sacred emblems4 ,the horns which she is sometimes represented as wearing seem to be not only symbolical of the moon1 but also to be a remnant of a more ancient form of symbolism which associated the goddess with the cow4 ,it is stated that1 in ,canaan1 ,astarte was represented under the form of a cow and it will be shown that1 in the ,egyptian zodiac ,polaris and ,ursa ,major were represented under the form of a bull or cow or its thigh4 ,the eye painted on the prow of the ship was also a symbol of the goddess1 an interesting fact considering that the eye expresses a star among other primitive people4 #ajj ,book ,v1 ,chaps4 ,,viii-,x4 #aja 8,that the ,hebrew and ,babylonian traditions of the ,creation spring from a common source is so evident as to require no further proof4 ,the agreements are too close to be accidental4 ,at the same time the variations in detail point to an independent elaboration of the traditions on the part of the ,hebrews and ,babylonians4444 ,it is in ,babylonia that the thought would naturally arise of making the world begin with the close of the storms and rains in the spring4 ,the ,terahites must1 therefore1 have brought those cosmological traditions with them upon migrating from the ,euphrates ,valley to the ,jordan district4444 ,the intercourse1 political and commercial1 between ,palestine and ,mesopotamia was uninterrupted4444 ,the so-called ,babylonian exile brought ,hebrews and ,babylonians once more side by side4444 ,a direct borrowing of traditions from the ,babylonians has not taken place and while the ,babylonian records are in all probability much older than the ,hebrew1 the latter again contain elements1 as ,gunkel has shown1 of a more primitive character than the ,babylonian production4 ,this relationship can only satisfactorily be explained on the assumption that the ,hebrews possessed the traditions upon which ,genesis narrative rests1 long before the ,babylonian exile1 when the story appears1 indeed1 to have received its final and present shape4444 ,yahwe is assigned the rle of ,bel-,marduk1 the division of the work of creation into six days is definitely made and some further modifications introduced 4440 7,jastrow1 op4 cit4 pp4 #deb-dec74 #ajb ,dr4 von ,luschan 7op4 cit4 p4 #bb7 translates this cuneiform sign1 which exists in ,babylonian and ,assyrian forms1 as 8,siebeneinigkeit0 and emphasizes the fact that it is employed in the singular form4 ,the inference that it may designate not only the ,pleiades but more probably ,ursa ,major corroborates the view that the mystic number seven impressed itself upon the human mind by its association with the ,septentriones4 #ajc ,the fact that the mountain was the symbol of the centre of the earth and of ,bel1 throws light upon the meaning of the clay cones which were 8very common votive objects in ,babylonia especially in the earlier periods40 ,they would have been appropriately used in the cult of ,baal1 the personification of the male principle1 and are indeed usually represented as offered by male worshippers4 ,that the cones in some cases represented the conical bunch of the male blossom of the palm tree may also be conjectured4 #ajd ,an interesting complement to this is furnished by the texts of oracular messages sent by the goddess ,ishtar to ,king ,ashurbanapal who seems to have been a fervent disciple of the theological school of ,arbela4 ,on one occasion1 when the king's army was in a predicament1 ,ishtar appears at night and declares3 8,i walk in front of ,ashurbanapal1 the king1 who is the creation of my hands40 ,on another occasion the oracle-giving medium reports to the king3 8,ishtar1 dwelling in ,arbela1 came with quivers hung on her right and left sides with a bow in her hand and girded with a pointed unsheathed sword4 ,before thee i4 e4 the king she stood and like the mother that bore thee with maternal kindness ,ishtar1 supreme among the gods1 addressed thee commanding3 #8,be encouraged literally1 look up for the fray4 ,wherever thou art1 ,i am4' 0 ,the images of ,ashur aiming his arrow and ,ishtar with an unsheathed pointed sword recall the biblical description of the flaming sword which turned every way1 to keep the way of the tree of life 7,genesis ,,iii74 #aje ,it is interesting to trace to the same origin the 8quadriga0 which may well have been associated with the 8primitive sun0,polaris1 before supreme sovereignty was transferred to ,phbus1 the diurnal sun1 by the votaries of the cult of ,light4 #ajf ,i am pleased to be able1 at the last moment1 to insert the following interesting points personally communicated to me by ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge3 ,in remotest antiquity two mythical mountains marked the two divisions of the land3 ,bakhan1 situated to the southeast1 and ,manu1 situated to the northwest4 ,the latter1 like the mountain ,meru of ,india1 was the abode of the blessed1 towards which the souls of the dead set out from ,abydos and where eternal rest was to be found4 ,the curious connection between the northmehta and the westamenta1 which ,i have shown to have prevailed in ancient ,mexico where the north is named ,mictlan and in ,yucatan where ,aman signifies north1 is particularly interesting in connection with the exclamation or exhortation to the soul1 constantly met with in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead3 ,er-amentetto the hidden land6 i4 e41 the northwest4 #ajg ,thesaurus ,inscriptionem gyptiacarum ,,ii1 p4 #bab4 #ajh ,first ,steps in ,egyptian1 ,london1 #ahih4 ,i am mainly indebted to this useful book and other publications by the same author for the ,egyptian words cited in the following pages4 ,an interesting point1 personally communicated to me by ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 is that the cardinal points in ,egypt were located diagonally1 a method which is shown to have also existed in ,central ,america by the diagonal orientation of numberless pyramids and buildings4 #aji ,a ,history of ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,london1 #ahif4 #aaj ,reference is made to another translation of the hymn in the 8,records of the ,past10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #abg-acf1 and to ,grbaut1 ,hymne ,ammon ,ra4 #aaa ,first steps in ,egyptian1 ,mr4 ,wallis ,budge1 p4 #bce4 #aab ,an extremely interesting instance of the hand being actually figured between the sun and the moon1 i4 e4 as the symbol of the ,middle1 is to be seen on the ,phnician tablet to ,baal ,hamman and ,tanitla1 from ,carthage1 preserved at the ,british ,museum and figured by ,mr4 ,goodyear1 fig4 #fd1 #a4 ,above the hand is a group of symbols consisting of two ,s-shaped signs1 resembling the ,mexican picture of ,ursa ,major4 ,between these is a pyramid and above this a seven-petalled conventionalized flower1 which should be compared with fig4 #fd1 #c1 a copy of the familiar flower on the sacred tree of the ,assyrians4 ,in fig4 #fd1 #b1 copied from another ,phnician tablet 7,goodyear71 the flower occupies the central position between two hands2 the latter taking the places of sun and moon in the tablet #a1 an interesting detail considering the instances cited1 showing that dual rulership was indiscriminately associated with 8right and left hand0 or 8the sun and moon40 #aac ,it is remarkable that the sound of the ,latin word for ramaries1 so closely resembles the ,egyptian symbols for ,amen-,ra 7see fig4 #fc1 #a-d7 and that the am and ar syllables occur in the following names for ram or sheep1 applied to the zodiacal constellation3 ,al ,hamalthe sheep 7,arabic74 ,barathe ram 7,persian74 ,amruthe ram 7,syrian74 ,varakthe ram 7,parsi74 #aad ,the inscription on this monument1 which also exhibits the portrait statue of ,amenophis ,,iii1 is of particular interest as it states that the temple of ,saleb1 built by the king1 was 8very wide and large 444 its towers reached to the sky1 and the flagstaffs united themselves with the stars of heaven0 7see official catalogue of the ,berlin ,museum1 p4 #abb74 ,this appears to indicate that the flagstaffs were employed for purposes of astronomical observations4 #aae ,the ideas associated with the form of a lion couchant are best learned from the following passages from the ,bible3 8,he couched1 he lay down as a lion and as a great lion2 who shall stir him up80 7,numbers ,,xxiv1 #i1 see also ,genesis ,,xlix1 #i74 ,it is only by the light afforded by such insights into eastern contemporaneous thought that the meaning of the ,egyptian sphinx can be in some measure understood4 #aaf ,i address the query to ,egyptologists3 whether there are any indications of a common identity of sound in the ,egyptian word for beard and same name1 denoting rule or power1 similar to that existing in the ,maya language between 8ah-meex0bearded man and 8ah-mek-tan0 governor1 ruler 7see p4 #bcb74 #aag ,the somewhat perplexing allusions to the 8divine marriage0 of ,isis to her father or brother and to her giving birth to her own mother1 as in the above text1 are very naturally explained by the fact that the successive officiating king-high-priest always personified ,ra-,osiris or the ,sun and the queen ,isis-,sothis-,hathor and the ,moon or ,sirius4 ,the female child to whom the queen gives birth was destined to be her successor and another personification of ,isis1 therefore she could be said to have given birth to her own mother1 since1 like the latter1 the child would be an ,isis4 ,in the same way the queen could be said to marry her father and brother1 as1 like herself1 the king was the offspring of a divine union and bore his father's title4 ,in connection with the custom of the male ,horus naming the 8young sun0 and the female ,horus the young star or moon1 it is noteworthy that the son and daughter of ,anthony and ,cleopatra1 who used to assume the insignia of ,isis on state occasions1 were given the ,greek surnames of ,helios and ,selene4 #aah ,it is extremely curious and interesting that the ,incas1 the civilizers of ,peru1 also set up a disk of gold as the image of the ,creator and placed it between images of the sun and moon4 ,we also find the ,inca ,ccapac ,yupanqui1 like ,amenhotep1 deploring the spread of idolatry and image-worship as a misfortune to his vassals and a sorrow to himself4 ,it is recorded of another ,inca that1 as a wise measure he destroyed all writing1 presumably picture and rebus writing1 as calculated to mislead his people by a multiplication of symbols4 ,it is an interesting reflection which our increased knowledge of the primitive civilization of ,egypt enables us to make1 that the organization of ,peru1 under ,inca rule1 must have closely resembled that of ,egypt in remotest antiquity1 at its primitive stage of development1 when simplicity1 harmony and equilibrium existed throughout the 8celestial kingdom40 #aai ,the following detached extracts1 partly from ,mr4 ,richard ,hinckley ,allen's valuable work1 should be carefully studied in connection with the above text1 as they throw further light upon the ideas associated with the sacred centres of heaven and earth by nations with whom the ,greeks were in touch4 8,to the whole ,arabian nation1 heathen or ,mahommedan1 ,polaris was ,alfass1 the hole in which the earth's axle found its bearing0 7p4 #dea74 ,the following important material pertains to the chapter on ,india1 of whose insufficiency ,i am painfully aware4 8,in earliest ,northern ,india the star nearest the pole was known as ,grahadhara1 #8the pivot of the planets1' representing the great god ,dhruva1 and ,al ,biruni said that among the ,hindus of his time it was ,dhruva himself4 ,it was an object of their worship0 7p4 #def74 ,in ,bournouf's ,bhagavata-prana 7chap4 ,,iv7 it is said that 8,dhruva1 meditating on ,brahma1 stood on one foot1 motionless as a post2 while he did so half the world1 wounded by his big toe1 bent over under his weight like a boat which1 bearing a vigorous elephant1 leans at each step he takes1 from left to right40 ,o',neil1 citing the same source continues3 8,in consequence of his austerities ,bhagavat said #8,i grant thee virtuous ,child1 a ,spot which has never yet been occupied by any being1 a ,spot blazing with splendor1 of which the ground is firm1 where is fixed the circus of the celestial lights1 of the planets1 constellations and stars2 which turn all around like oxen round their stake1 and which the ,spot subsists motionless even after the ,dwellers of a ,kalpa a day and night of ,brahm i4 e4 #d1cbj1jjj1jjj years have disappeared4 ,around this ,spot there turn with the stars and leaving it on their right1 ,dharma1 ,agni1 ,kasyapa and ,sakra and the ,solitaries who live in the ,forest' 4440 7p4 #hja74 ,according to the ,vishnu-purna3 8,as ,dhruva turns1 he causes sun1 moon and other planets to turn round also1 and the lunar asterisms follow in his circular course1 for all the celestial lights are in fact bound to the ,polar star by arial cords0 7,vishnu-purna1 see ,o',neil1 p4 #ejc74 ,it is instructive to compare these descriptions of ,dhruva with the ,akkadian-,sumerian hymn to ,ishtar1 whom ,i have identified as the female form of ,polaris 7p4 #cdb74 ,according to ,professor ,sayce it begins3 8,thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest4 ,in the dwellings of the earth her name revolves0 7,o',neil1 p4 #gae74 ,o',neil further notes that 8,dhruva is named the sun of ,uttna-,pda0 and that this name is connected with uttaratnorth and also signifies outstretched1 supine4 ,he also states that 8,uttara and ,uttar was the dual god of the north1 the son and daughter of ,virta1 and expresses the opinion that the age of the ,dhruva legend is unutterable0 7p4 #ejc74 ,according to another ,sanscrit legend3 8,at one time in the history of the creation an attempt was made by ,visvamitra to locate a southern pole and another bear in positions corresponding to the northern1 this pole passing through the island ,lumka or ,vadavmukha 7,ceylon70 7,allen1 p4 #dcf74 ,professor ,sayce writes3 8,in early ,sumerian days1 the heaven was believed to rest upon the peak of #8the mountain of the world' in the far northeast1 where the gods had their habitations 7cf4 ,isa4 ,,xiv1 #ac7 the mount of congregation in the uttermost parts of the north1 while an ocean or #8deep' encircled the earth which rested upon its surface40 ,von ,herder referred to it as 8,albordz1 the dazzling mountain on which was held the assembly of the gods1 and identified it with the holy mountain of ,god10 alluded to in the ,book of the ,prophet ,ezekiel ,,xxviii1 #ad2 and ,professor ,whitney quoted from the sixty-second verse of the first chapter of the ,surya ,siddhanta1 8the mountain which is the seat of the gods0 and from the thirty-fourth verse of the twelfth chapter3 8,a collection of manifold jewels1 a mountain of gold1 is ,meru1 passing through the middle of the earth-globe1 and protruding on either side20 commenting on which he says3 the 8seat of the gods0 is ,mount ,meru1 situated at the ,north ,pole 7p4 #deb74 #abj ,i likewise deeply regret that it is only since the last pages of the present investigation have been in proof1 that a remarkable work1 full of valuable material relating to the universal spread of pole-star worship and symbolism1 was particularly recommended to me by a distinguished fellow archologist4 ,had ,i realized before this the great value of the late ,john ,o',neil's 8,the ,night of the ,gods0 7,david ,nutt1 ,london1 #ahig71 as a compendium1 the result of years of conscientious and painstaking labor1 ,i should have made extensive use of it and should have been able to make my survey of the ancient civilizations of the ,old ,world far more complete and my material more convincing4 ,as it is1 ,i can only warmly recommend the work to all interested in the present investigation1 who will see for themselves the widely different points of view from which our respective researches have been carried out but will probably be struck with the identity of some of our views4 ,i should like to express here my keen realization of the many blunders and omissions ,i have probably made in the course of the present investigation1 which carried me1 reluctantly1 into fields of research where ,i felt myself to be a stranger4 ,in view of the disadvantages under which ,i have labored1 under pressure of time and a frequent inability to obtain all the books ,i wished to consult1 ,i rely upon the leniency of specialists and upon their kindly communicating to me the faults they detect1 so that ,i may avoid them in future publications4 #aba 8,the ,century ,dictionary has a theory as to the origin of the idea of a ,bear for the seven stars1 doubtless from its editor1 ,professor ,whitney1 that seems plausible1 at all events scholarly4 ,it is that their ,sanscrit designation1 ,riksha1 signifies1 in two different genders1 #8a bear' and #8a star1' #8bright' or #8to shine2' hence a title1 the ,seven ,shiners1--to that it would appear to have come1 by some confusion of sound of the two words1 among a people not familiar with the sound0 7p4 #dbd74 8,later on ,riksha was confounded with ,rishi1 and so connected with the ,seven ,sages or ,poets of ,india4 ,al ,biruni devoted a chapter of his work on ,india to the seven stars of ,ursa ,major known as ,saptar ,shayar1 the seven ,anchorites0 7,allen74 ,i draw attention here to the curious fact that the ,sanscrit verb to seeiksh is nearly homonymous with riksha and that therefore1 in ,sanscrit1 the association of a star with the eyeakshan1 that seesiksh1 must have been a very close one and suggested the employment of the eye as a symbol for star4 ,in connection with the ,sanscrit riksha it is curious to note that1 in ,japanese1 riki means power1 viz41 jin-riki-shaman--power-wagon2 and hasha or rinshawagon or wain4 ,the following extract from one of the hymns in the oldest ,veda1 the ,brahmna1 which 8mark the beginning of the philosophical creed of the ,vedic period10 is particularly significant when compared1 not only with the preceding association of ,ursa ,major with the seven sages of ,india1 but also with ,plato's cosmological doctrines3 8,i have beheld the ,lord of ,men10 one poet writes1 8with seven sons1 of which delightful and benevolent deity who is the object of our invocation1 there is an all-pervading middle brother and a third brother4444 ,they yoke the seven to the one wheeled car2 one horse named seven bears it along2 the three-axled wheel is undecaying1 never loosened and in it all these regions of the universe abide4444 ,immature1 undiscerning in mind1 ,i inquire of those things which are hidden from the gods cf4 ,hymn to ,amen-,ra1 p4 #chh1 where the same expression is used1 the seven threads which the sages have spread to envelop the sun in whom all abide0 7,chambers' ,encyclopdia1 article ,india74 #abb ,fig4 #gb1 #a1 is referred to on p4 #cai4 #abc ,the original name for ,phrygia is said to have been ,askanios1 from ,askanios its first ruler4 ,the cenotaph of ,midas is built in the rock at ,jazylykaia1 in the vicinity of ,kumbet1 where other similarly decorated royal tombs exist4 #abd ,it would be interesting to learn whether the ,arabian title ,om-al-kara1 8the mother of cities10 has ever been connected with ,roma by investigators4 #abe ,it is recalled here that the twin brothers ,romulus and ,remus are supposed to have been the issue of the union1 in the temple of ,mars1 of the vestal virgin ,rhea ,silvia with a personification of the god ,mars4 #abf ,the recurrence of the square plan1 employed in ,babylonia and ,egypt 7see pp4 #ccc and #cfi71 is noteworthy4 #abg ,in course of time each ,roman civitas1 or political canton or community1 possessed such 8a centre1 which was termed capitolium1 i4 e4 the height1 from being originally fixed on a height or hill-top1 corresponding to the ,greek akra4 ,round this stronghold of the canton1 which formed the nucleus of the earliest ,latin towns1 houses sprang up1 which were in turn surrounded by the oppidum or the urbs 7ring-wall connected with urbus1 curvus1 orbis72 hence1 in later times1 oppidum and urbs became1 naturally enough1 the recognized designations of town and city40--,chambers' ,encyclopdia4 #abh ,diocletian 7,a4,d4 #bib7 revived dual rulership and quadruplicate organization by instituting the quadruple hierarchy of two ,augusti and two ,csars4 ,the prevalence of quadruplicate division with current cosmical conceptions is shown by the following text3 8,the usual form of taking an augury was very solemn2 the augur ascending a tower1 bearing in his hand a curved stick called a litus4 ,he turned his face to the east and marked out some distant objects as the limits within which he would make his observations and divided mentally the enclosed space into four divisions4444 ,he next 444 prayed and offered sacrifices44440 8,we learn from 444 the augur ,cicero that while the ,romans only had four divisions to their heavens-templum1 the ,etruscans had sixteen1 obtained by bisecting and rebisecting the four angles0 7,o',neil1 p4 #dcc74 #abi ,the cult of ,ishtar,isis1 associated with mystery and of ,serapis,osiris1 had been instituted in ,rome by ,domitian 7,a4,d4 #hb7 who caused temples to be built for them4 ,curious instances of the spread of the cults of other countries throughout the ,roman empire have come under my personal notice4 ,in the ,museum at ,bonn1 ,germany1 there is a ,roman tombstone the inscription on which consists of a wheel above the name ,jovis1 the association of ,jove with the wheel1 being very remarkable and significant in connection with the present subject4 ,at ,nmes in the ,south of ,france1 a curious statue of ,mithra was found in the ruins of the ,roman city4 ,it consists of a ,hermes1 surmounted by a hairy1 dog-like face4 ,a great serpent is wound around the ,hermes1 the signs of the zodiac being sculptured between the coils4 ,in the light of the present investigation the meaning of the symbolical statue seems too obvious to require explanation4 ,it is strange that the recollection of seeing this statue at the age of nine with my father1 who pointed out and explained the signs of the zodiac to me1 is one of the most vivid of my childhood4 #acj ,the curious association of the number seven with ,stonehenge in gypsy folk-lore1 which possibly contains vestiges of ,druidical folk-lore1 is brought out by ,r4 ,g4 ,haliburton in his paper on 8,gypsy folk-lore as to ,stonehenge10 to which ,i refer the reader4 #aca ,in the case of ,mayapan1 ,yucatan1 the practical use of analogous council-houses is described 7p4 #bji74 ,the ,irish tower and seven houses are remarkably in accord with the scheme of organization used in ancient ,greece where1 at ,tenos1 each gens was known as 8a tower0 and each gens1 as well as its town1 was divided into at least seven parts 7p4 #def74 #acb ,john ,speed relates that one of the kings of ,kent1 named ,catigera1 8was interred upon a plain where his monument vulgarly called #8citscotehouse1' consisted of four stones pitched in the manner of the stonehenge40 ,it is tempting to see in the four stones 8pitched0 around the grave1 the underlying thought of a resting-place in the cosmical centre1 of the symbolized four quarters1 and to view the prehistoric crosses of ,ireland and ,scotland as emblematic of the ,middle and ,four ,quarters1 associated with secret pole-star and cosmical cult and employed as symbols of time and of quadruplicate government4 #acc ,celi-,ced and the cult of the wren4 ,theosophical review1 ,june #ae1 #aijj4 #acd ,light is thrown upon the possible conception of ,ursa ,major as ,thor's wagon and the most primitive form of chariots in general by the archaic chariot of state used1 to this day1 in ,corea and formerly in ,japan4 ,it is one-wheeled and the seat1 destined for one person1 is placed high above the single wheel and rests upon two long poles1 the ends of which project in front and behind4 ,four men are required to support and push this chariot of state1 a fine example of which has lately been secured for the ,museum of ,salem1 ,mass41 by ,prof4 ,e4 ,s4 ,morse4 #ace ,it is with keenest interest that ,i look forward to learning1 from the distinguished archologists of ,sweden1 among whom ,i have the honor of having highly-esteemed1 personal friends1 how far their observation and deeper knowledge lead them to entertain views ,i have advanced concerning the origin of the swastika and the influence of pole-star worship upon the development of primitive religion and social organization4 ,it is from them that ,i expect information as to the relation of the prehistoric inhabitants of ,scandinavia to the ancient centres of civilization which have been discussed4 #acf ,hewitt states 7p4 #ij7 that1 8it was successively immigrating races from the ,north 444 who placed a king at the head of the confederated provinces formed from their confederated villages4444 ,the confederate form of these kingdoms is shown in such names as ,chuttisgurh which means the #cf gurhs or united provinces4 ,but the final consolidated form of the pre-,aryan ,indian village was that framed by the ,kushites4 ,it was they who placed the royal province in the centre of the kingdom4444 ,it was on these principles that the government of the ,ooraon village of ,chota ,nagpore was constructed4 ,the ,ooraon form of village government is that which has been preserved with less alteration from subsequent invaders than that of any other part of ,india1 for the ,ooraons1 ,mundas1 ,ho-kals and ,bhuyas have always been able1 under the protection of their mountain fastnesses1 their political organization and their natural love of independence1 to keep their country free from the interference of the hated ,sadhs1 the name by which they call the ,hindus4 ,but these people1 who repelled and held themselves aloof from later invaders were of no less foreign origin than those who succeeded them1 for they were all formed by the union with the matriarchal ,australioids and patriarchal ,mongols or ,finnish and other ,northern stocks1 most of whom were formed into confederated tribes of artisans and agriculturists in ,asia ,minor and it was from the southern part of ,asia ,minor or ,northern ,palestine1 that the ,ooraons came4 ,they themselves say that they came from ,western ,india1 from the land of ,ruhidas the land of the red men1 but this means ,syria1 the country whose people were called ,rotou by the ,egyptians1 and they were the race who introduced barley and plough-tillage into ,india and ,chota ,nagpore40 ,particular attention is drawn to ,wylie's statements1 quoted on p4 #cjc1 concerning the migration of ,israelites to ,china1 via ,persia 7about ,a4,d4 #eh-ge7 and the native record that ,christianity was the ancient religion of ,ta-,tsin,syria4 ,hewitt's identification of ,syria as the 8red land0 causes the ,ooraon and ,chinese traditions to agree in assigning it as the common source of origin of their civilization4 ,according to ,professor ,sayce it was 8about ,b4,c4 #fjj that the ,phnicians penetrated to the northwest coast of ,india10 and 8tradition brought them originally from the ,persian ,gulf0 7,ancient ,empire of the ,east1 p4 #ahc74 #acg ,the recent discovery1 by ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie1 of the mummy of ,aha-,mena1 and of six other kings of the first dynasty1 suggests the possibility that they may have reigned simultaneously and constituted a heptarchy7874 ,although it would materially affect ,egyptian and ,babylonian-,assyrian chronology as it now stands1 historians may yet find it necessary to make a revision taking into deeper consideration the existence of tetrarchies and heptarchies in which a number of kings and subrulers reigned simultaneously4 #ach ,to assist these four principal secretaries are two under-secretaries1 one ,manchu and one ,chinese1 and a board of ten assistants4 ,together1 these sixteen secretaries divided between two races1 constitute a grand secretariat1 which acts as nearly as possible as the cabinet of the ,emperor4 7,missions in ,china4 ,jas4 ,s4 ,dennis1 ,d4,d47 #aci ,this association of ,tenos with seven-fold division is particularly suggestive because1 in ,pythagorean philosophy1 the number seven was named ,parthenos1 ,athene1 also ,apollo1 ,hermes1 ,hephaistos1 ,heracles1 ,dionysius1 ,rex1 etc4 ,these divinities1 the second and third of which are specially known as patrons of cities1 appear in a new light when it is realized that they were personifications of the number seven and1 by extension1 of the seven-fold cosmos1 state and city4 ,on p4 #ddi1 ,plato's division of the ,cosmos is cited4 ,reference to the history of ,greek philosophy shows1 however that the spurious existence of four or five elements had not always been accepted in ,greece1 that ,thals 7#fdj-eej ,b4,c47 had laid down the doctrine of a single eternal1 original element1 water or fluid substance1 and 8assimilated the universe to an organized body or system40 ,xenophans 7#egj-dhj ,b4,c47 conceived 8nature as one unchangeable and indivisible whole1 spherical1 animated 444 penetrated by or indeed identical with ,god40 ,it is usually accepted that it was ,empedocles 7#ddd ,b4,c47 who first formulated the elements1 earth1 air1 fire and water1 to which later philosophers added a fifth1 the all-embracing ther4 ,in a luminous monograph 7,pythagoras und die ,inder1 ,leipzig1 #ahhd471 ,professor ,l4 von ,schroeder1 of ,dorpat1 ,russia1 quoting the authority of ,professor ,max ,mller1 ,edward ,zeller and ,oldenburg1 has conclusively shown that the five elements1 earth1 fire1 water1 air and ther 7,sanskrit ka7 already occur in the ,brahmanas2 were taught in the ,smkhya philosophy of the ,kapila and were therefore known in ,india at least as far back as in the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,the idea of the five elements is so familiar to the ,hindus at the present time that death is usually spoken of as 8a dissolution into the five elements10 or a 8going over into the ,five40 ,professor von ,schroeder's conclusion is that ,pythagorean philosophy derived the elemental divisions from ,india as well as its doctrine of transmigration1 etc41 and its science of geometry and of number1 mentioning1 in support of the latter assertion1 the fact that ,smkya1 the name of the ancient ,indian school of philosophy1 signifies 8number10 that its followers were therefore designated as 8philosophers or teachers of numbers40 ,at the same time ,i point out that1 according to ,oliver1 8a large portion of ,egyptian philosophy and religion was constructed almost wholly upon the science of numbers and we are assured by ,kircher 7,oedip4 ,egypt1 ,,ii1 #b7 that everything in nature was explained on this principle alone40 ,returning to ,professor von ,schroeder's work ,i refer the reader to pp4 #ei and #fe1 and notes for an extremely interesting discussion of the ,greek name of the fifth element that figures in the work of ,philolaus1 the first who wrote a treatise on the ,pythagorean system of philosophy4 ,the name employed has been deciphered by different authorities as 1 1 1 1 1 or 4 ,the interpretation given is that the name 7the first syllable of which recurs in the word ,olympus7 signified 8that which moves or carries with it the universe40 ,professor von ,schroeder suggests that the name may be a corruption of the ,sanscrit name for ther1 the all-embracing element1 ka4 ,i venture to recall here the curious fact that1 in ancient ,mexico1 the symbol1 enclosing the four elements1 is always designated as the ollin1 a word associated with the idea of 8movement0 and of lifeyoli4 ,in his work on the 8,pythagorean ,triangle10 the ,rev4 ,g4 ,oliver gives an extremely clear account of the ,pythagorean philosophy and tells us that its central thought is the idea of number1 the recognition of the 8numerical and mathematical relations of things44440 8,the ,pythagoreans seem10 says ,aristotle1 8to have looked upon number as the principle and1 so to speak1 the matter of which existences consist20 and again 8they supposed the elements of number to be the elements of existence1 and pronounced the whole heaven to be harmony and number40 ,concerning the universe1 like many early thinkers1 as a sphere1 they placed in the heart of it the central fire to which they gave the name of ,hestia1 the hearth or altar of the universe1 the citadel or throne of ,zeus4 ,around this move the ten heavenly bodies 444 the earth revolved on its own axis4444 ,they developed a list of ten fundamental oppositions3 #a1 limited and unlimited2 #b1 odd and even2 #c1 one and many2 #d1 right and left2 #e1 masculine and feminine2 #f1 rest and motion2 #g1 straight and crooked2 #h1 light and darkness2 #i1 good and evil4444 ,the union of opposites in which consists the existence of things is harmony2 hence the expression that the whole heaven or the whole universe is harmony4 ,pointing out that it is only by a combination of odd and even numbers that a harmonious cycle is created1 ,i continue to cite from ,mr4 ,oliver's work3 8,the decade1 as the basis of the numerical system1 appeared to them to comprehend all other numbers in itself1 and to it are applied1 therefore1 the epithets quoted above of number in general4 ,similar language is held of the number #8four' because it is the first square number and is also the potential decade 7#abcdaj74 ,pythagoras is celebrated as the discoverer of the holy #8,tetraktos' the fountain and root of ever-living nature1 or the ,cosmos consisting of ,fire1 ,air1 ,earth1 ,water1 the four roots of all existing things4 8,number10 says ,philolaus1 8is great and perfect and omnipotent1 and the principle and guide of divine and human life4 ,number then is the principle of order1 the principle on which cosmos or ordered world exists40 ,without number and the limitation which number brings1 there would only be chaos and the illimitable1 a thought abhorrent to the ,greek mind4 #adj 8,the four ,ionic tribes were abolished by ,kleisthenes 7#eaj ,b4,c47 who created1 in their place1 ten new tribes founded on a new principle1 independent of the gentes and phratries4 ,each new tribe comprised a certain number of demes or cantons with the enrolled proprietors and residents in each of them4 ,each tribe had a chapel1 sacred rites and festivals and a common fund for such meetings1 in honor of its eponymous hero1 administered by members of its own choice2 and the statues of all the ten eponymous heroes1 fraternal patrons of the democracy1 were planted in the most conspicuous part of the agora of ,athens4444 ,the demes taken altogether1 included the entire surface of ,attica4 ,simultaneously ,kleisthenes divided the year into ten portions called ,prytanies1--the fifty senators of each tribe taking by turns the duty of constant attendance during one prytany and receiving during that time1 the title of ,the ,prytanes4 ,the order of precedence among the tribes in these duties was annually determined by lot4444 ,moreover1 a further subdivision of the prytany into five periods of seven days each and of the fifty tribe-senators into five bodies of ten each1 was recognized2 each body of ten presided in the senate for one period of seven days1 drawing lots every day among their number for a new chairman called ,epistates1 to whom1 during his day of office were confided the keys of the acropolis and the treasury1 together with the city seal40 ,the remaining senators1 not belonging to the prytanizing tribe1 might of course attend if they chose1 but the attendance of nine among them1 one from each of the remaining nine tribes1 was imperatively necessary to constitute a valid meeting and to insure a constant representation of the collective people4 ,during those later times--the ekklesia or formal assembly of the citizens1 was convened four times regularly during each prytany 444 7op4 cit41 vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ach74 ,special attention is drawn here to the intimate association of the system of government and the calendar1 analogous to the ancient ,mexican system4 8,the number of inhabitants an ideal state should contain and their numerical organization were evidently subjects of supreme interest to ,greek statesmen and philosophers4 ,the great work by ,aristoteles 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c47 on ,politics1 #8according to ,grote1' was based on a collection made by himself1 of #aeh different constitutions of states1 which collection has1 unfortunately1 been lost40 8,the purpose of comfortable subsistence for which commonwealths are instituted1 requiring a minute subdivision of labor10 ,aristotle says1 that 8in this particular view1 the more populous the community its end will be the more completely attained4444 ,all things considered he declares in favour of what would be now deemed a very small commonwealth1 consisting of #ae1jjj or #bj1jjj citizens44440 8,in his #8,book of ,laws' ,plato intended to delineate a more practicable scheme of government than that of his first4444 ,his two republics nearly agree in form1 though they differ in magnitude2 the first containing one thousand and the second five thousand and forty men bearing arms4444 ,in his second republic he equalizes estates but leaves population unlimited4444 ,a regulation directly the reverse of this is introduced by one of the most ancient writers on the subject of politics1 ,pheidon of ,corinth1 who limits population1 but does not equalize possessions4444 ,the republic1 planned by the architect ,hippodamus1 consisted of ten thousand men1 divided into the three classes of artificers1 husbandmen and soldiers4 ,the territory he likewise divides into three portions3 the sacred1 destined for the various exigencies of public worship2 the common1 to be cultivated for the common benefit of the soldiers2 and the private1 to be separately appropriated by the husbandmen4 ,his laws were also divided into three kinds44440 7,aristotle's ,ethics and ,politics1 ,john ,gillies1 ,,ll4,d41 ,london #ahjd74 ,the knowledge that a republic was actually planned on the scheme of three-fold division naturally suggests the possibility that the ,sicilian coat of arms1 the triskeles1 may be a survival of a period when a similar republic existed in ,sicily and the year was divided into three seasons only4 7,for interesting details concerning the employment and spread of a year of three seasons in ancient times1 see ,hewitt1 op4 cit4 ,preface ,,xvi1 vol4 ,i47 ,in ,grote's history we learn that after the establishment of the first ,athenian democracy by ,kleisthenes and the victory they gained over the ,botians and ,chalkidians1 the ,athenians planted a body of four thousand of their citizens as kleruchs 7lot-holders7 or settlers upon the lands of the wealthy conquered ,chalkidians4 ,this is a system which we shall find hereafter extensively followed out by the ,athenians in the days of their power2 partly with a view of providing for their poorer citizens1 partly to serve as garrison among a population either hostile or of doubtful fidelity4 ,these ,attic kleruchs did not lose their birthright as ,athenian citizens3 they were not colonists in the ,grecian sense and they are known by a totally different name--but they corresponded very nearly to the colonies formally planted out on the conquered lands by ,rome4 ,the increase of the poorer population was always more or less painfully felt in every ,grecian city 444 the numerous kleruchies sent out by ,athens1 of which this to ,euba was the first1 arose in a great measure out of the multiplication of the poorer population1 which her extended power was employed in providing for 444 7op4 cit4 vol4 #d1 p4 #aga74 ,the number 8four thousand0 specially designated is of particular interest because the letter of the ,greek alphabet expressing it was the delta1 in the form of a triangle or pyramid1 which also signified 8the fourth0 or 8a quarter40 ,the ideas suggested by these facts are3 that the foundation of such a colony would have been commemorated by the building of a pyramid by the conquered race1 the division of labor amongst them preparing the way for the institution of a social organization on the familiar plan 7cf4 p4 #bgc74 ,it is only when we reflect what an admirable means of establishing communal life and activity the mere act of building under direction and guidance must have been1 that we appreciate the fine wisdom of the ancient kings1 civilizers and culture-heroes1 who were1 first of all1 master builders1 architects and masons and who began the work of rearing an empire by directing the erection of a monument which1 by its form1 expressed the all-pervading plan of organization4 #ada 8,taylor says that the reason ,plato adopted this division is because the number #ab1 the image of all-perfect progression1 is the product of #c by #d1 both of which numbers1 according to the ,pythagoreans1 are images of perfection4 ,on the other hand1 ,ast conceives that ,plato had in mind the division of the country in twelve parts found in ,egypt and elsewhere1 and which seems1 as may be inferred from other portions of his work1 to have been connected with the division of the year into twelve months1 each under the superintendence of one of the twelve greater gods40 ,to this note ,i add the remark that1 in ,b4 ,,vi1 ,c4 #h1 ,plato distinctly refers to the twelve tribes as 8the thrice four tribes1 recommending that they should appoint thrice four interpreters10 one for each tribe4 ,it should also be recalled that ,cecrops is said to have employed the division into twelve and is supposed to have brought it from ,egypt4 ,in the present summary the employment of the same division in other countries can be verified4 ,it may be of interest to note here that1 like the ,egyptians1 the ,greeks divided their month into #c decades4 ,the year consequently contained #cabcf decades#e days4 #adb ,considering that the employment of silver or gold currency among the nations of antiquity has been regarded1 by some1 as a proof of advanced culture1 it is interesting to learn1 from the following passage1 that1 as a result of experience and with wisdom and foresight1 ,plato recommended the adoption of different forms of currency in each different state1 in order to avert the dangers resulting from the accumulation of riches4 8,a law 444 that no private person be permitted to possess any gold or silver2 but that there be a coin for the sake of daily exchange1 which it is almost necessary for handicrafts to change and for all who have need of such things to pay the wages due to hired persons1 be they slaves or domestic servants4 ,on which account we say that they must possess coin which is of value to themselves1 but of no worth amongst the rest of mankind40 ,it is curious to note how closely the employment of the cocoa bean1 in ancient ,mexico and of wampum in ,north ,america1 as the staple currency1 fulfilled the purpose recognized as desirable1 by ,plato4 #adc ,at the last moment ,i learn that fragments of gean pottery lately found at ,abydos in tombs of the ,egyptian kings of the first dynasty1 by ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie are considered to prove that1 8,grecian merchants sailed the seas in #dejj ,b4,c41 444 a conclusion further borne-out by the pictures of vessels with #fj oarsmen1 vessels quite large enough for crossing the ,mediterranean1 which have been seen on prehistoric memorials of the oldest inhabitants of ,egypt0 7,rawnsley74 ,in this connection it is interesting to learn1 from ,professor ,sayce1 that the ,phnician galley was the model of the ,greek one1 that it was at ,carthage that a ship1 with more than three banks of oars1 was first built1 and that its pilots steered by the pole star1 not1 like the ,greeks1 by the ,great ,bear 7,ancient ,empires of the ,east1 p4 #bje74 #add ,an interesting interpretation of this somewhat obscure sentence is obtained by collating it with the conception of 8the revolving eye of the ,norse world mill-stone which was directly above ,oergelmer and through which the waters flowed to and fro from the great fountain of the ,universe mountains0 7p4 #dgb74 ,the analogy is strengthened by the fact that the mountainous region in which ,kyrn was situated has always been noted for its fertility1 the water1 from the mountains enclosing its plains1 settling in pools and lakes1 affording a constant supply1 during the summer months1 to the ,arabs who frequent it4 ,the feature of ,kyrn1 most renowned in antiquity1 was its inexhaustible ,fountain of ,apollo1 and travellers describe how1 to this day1 the ,bedouin ,arabs flock to it when their supply of water and herbage fails in the interior4 ,grote states that the same circumstance must have operated in ancient times to hold the nomadic ,libyans in a sort of dependence upon ,kyrn 7,grote1 op4 cit4 vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cg74 ,the realization that an inexhaustible fountain of water meant life to primitive nomadic people1 enables us to understand the expression 8fountain of life0 and the constant associations of the sacred central mountain with pools of water and streams flowing in four directions4 ,it is remarkable and highly suggestive how closely the following topographical details1 given by ,grote1 of the original seat of the ,macedonians 7which were in the regions east of the chain of ,skardus1 north of the chain which connects ,olympus with ,pindus and which forms the northwestern boundary of ,thessaly71 coincide with the conception of ,mt4 ,meru1 for instance4 8,reckoning the basin of ,thessaly as a fourth1 here are four distinct inclosed plains on the east side of this long range of ,skardus and ,pindus1--each generally bounded by mountains which rise precipitously to an alpine height1 and each leaving only one cleft for drainage by a single river1--the ,axius1 the ,erign1 the ,haliakmn and the ,peneius respectively4 ,all four plains 444 are of distinguished fertility 4440 7,grote1 op4 cit4 vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aj74 ,the close vicinity of ,olympus1 the ,grecian 8divine mountain10 is particularly suggestive1 inasmuch as it proves to be geographically associated with four remarkable plains and rivers4 #ade 8,this metaphorical name 7the ,krittakas7 was derived from the vocabulary of the ,northern races1 who had learned in ,asia ,minor and the neighborhood of the ,caspian ,sea to spin thread and weave cloth from the flax of ,asia ,minor1 and the hemp of the shores of the ,caspian ,sea1 and who had taken their knowledge with them when emigrating to the villages of the ,neolithic life in ,europe and to the ,kushite ,empire in ,india1 where they divided the people into guilds or trade unions1 founded on community of function1 and discovered how to use cotton thread for weaving4 ,the reverence of the ,ashura ,kushika for the ,pleiades1 whose mother star is ,amba1 also proves them to be connected with the southwestern ,semites1 the ,himydritic ,arabs of ,southern ,arabia1 the land of ,sheba1 meaning seven1 meaning the seven stars of the constellation of the ,great ,bear1 called by the ,arabs ,al-suha1 who first worshipped the ,pleiades with its #f stars1 the sacred number of the ,ashura1 as their mother constellation1 under the name of ,tur-ayya1 or children of the father-pole 7tur1 of the ,turanian race7 4440 7,hewitt74 #adf ,various writers have observed and pointed out the close resemblance in form and decoration1 between the terra-cotta whorls found1 in profusion1 in ,mexico and those of ,troy4 #adg ,there is1 however1 a wide difference between ,hewitt's views and mine concerning the stars associated with the year wheel and the origin and meaning of the primitive cross-symbols and swastika1 although at times they partially agree4 ,as ,hewitt gives several totally distinct and different explanations of the origin and significance of crosses and swastikas1 it is difficult to understand clearly his standpoint4 ,on p4 #i1 vol4 ,,ii1 he makes an interesting differentiation between a diagonal or transverse and upright cross1 respectively designating them as rain-cross and fire-cross1 and states that their superposition forms the eight-rayed star1 the ,akkadian and early ,indian sign of ,anugod4 ,on p4 #ade1 vol4 ,,ii he names the transverse cross a sun-cross and says it describes the track of the sun across the heavens1 on solstitial days and distinctly describes the swastika in the centre of the triangle on the ,hindu altar1 as 8a symbolic picture of the sun rising at midsummer in the ,n4 ,e4 and setting in the ,n4 ,w41 and at the winter solstice rising in the ,s4 ,e4 and setting in the ,s4 ,w40 ,on the other hand ,hewitt associates the right-angled cross with the fire-god and the pole-star 7p4 #aia1 vol4 ,,ii71 and the five-rayed star of ,horus as the rain or meridian pole1 or mountain standing in the midst of the four stars marking the four quarters of the heavens 7p4 #i1 vol4 ,,ii and p4 #ag1 vol4 ,i74 ,i recommend a careful re-perusal of all of ,hewitt's interpretations of cross-symbols and swastika and a close comparison of these with my views1 as set forth in the beginning of the present publication1 to ,mr4 ,stansbury ,hagar who1 somewhat hastily1 upon hearing my brief communication to ,section ,h of the ,a4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s4 in ,new ,york1 ,june #aijj1 stated 7in the ,october number of the ,folklore ,journal7 that my view concerning the origin of the swastika was the same as that suggested by ,hewitt4 #adh ,referring the reader to pp4 #ahf-aib for details concerning native tree worship1 ,i shall but add that to this day1 among certain ,north ,american tribes1 the planting of the sacred tribal pole in the hallowed earth socket is accompanied by curious ritualistic marriage rites1 and the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire of the fire drill4 ,for the association of four ,mexican tribes with four tribal trees and totemic birds1 see fig4 #ec1 and note that the central figure1 enclosed in a square1 is represented as though four streams of blood1 flowing from the four angles1 converged in his person1 constituting him the 8,four in ,one40 #adi ,the only mention of a movable axle or hub that ,i know of in ,mexican chronicles is the cylinder of wood1 described on p4 #bd as being shaped like a mortar4 ,the only native illustration ,i have met which suggests the native employment of some kind of revolving press or axle is the curious and clumsy apparatus figured on pp4 #aa and #ab of the ,selden ,,ms4 preserved at the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford1 and reproduced by ,kingsborough4 ,an examination of this strange mechanical contrivance apparently associated with a monkeyozomatli1 and the sacrifice of two prisoners1 will be found as interesting as it is puzzling4 #aej ,in a paper read to the ,section of ,anthropology of the ,new ,york meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,mr4 ,stansbury ,hagar communicated the interesting results of his study of the ,salcamayhua tablet which has been alluded to on p4 #afb of the present publication4 ,with his kind authorization ,i take pleasure in citing here his interpretation of the name of the ,peruvian ,creator1 an abbreviation of which is inscribed on the plate or tablet4 ,it will be found to accord with that given by ,sir ,clements ,b4 ,markham 7,history of ,peru1 p4 #bj71 but to be more explicit4 ,according to his view the name should be analyzed as follows3 illalight1 lightningfire2 ticcifoundation1 brickearth2 uayra i4 e4 huaiiair1 wind2 cochalakewater4 8,illa ticci uayra cocha would thus mean3 the universal spirit defined by naming what seemed to a people unacquainted with scientific chemistry to be the four ultimate elements40 ,referring to the cognate ,aymara language1 ,mr4 ,hagar interprets the name pachaya chachic as 8source1 lit4 male ancestor1 grandfather of all things10 and states that the opening inscription on the tablet should therefore read3 8,spirit of ,fire1 ,earth1 ,air and ,water1 source of all things0 444 that is to say 8image of the source whence heaven and earth have emanated40 ,mr4 ,hagar states that this source seems to be appropriately figured by the oval form which he interprets as an egg 7see fig4 #bh1 c74 ,on the other hand ,i point out that the flat plate of fine gold1 which was set up by the ,inca ,manco ,capac between images of the sun and moon1 is figured as circular in shape 7fig4 #bh1 b74 ,i draw attention to ,mr4 ,stansbury ,hagar's interesting and suggestive paper on 8,the ,celestial ,bear10 which appeared in vol4 ,,xiii1 no4 ,,xlix1 of the ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 in ,july1 #aijj4 ,in this he relates the legend connected with ,ursa ,major by the ,micmac ,indians1 that 8this group of stars served to mark the divisions of the night and the seasons for the ,micmacs40 ,a point of particular interest in connection with the ,micmac legend is the fact1 so clearly distinguishable1 that the story was suggested to the minds of the ,indians by the different positions assumed by the constellation in its annual circuit around ,polaris4 8,the ,micmacs say14444 ,in all things as it was and is in the sky1 so it is on earth4444 ,in midspring the bear does actually seem to be climbing down out of her celestial den corona borealis1 which appears higher up to the northern horizon4 ,in midsummer 444 the bear runs along the northern horizon4444 ,soon after the bear assumes an erect position she topples over on her back is slain in the autumn4 ,in midwinter she lies dead on her back1 444 but the den corona borealis has re-appeared1 with the bear of the new year lying therein1 invisible4 ,but this does not end the story of the bear1 444 through the winter her skeleton lies upon its back in the sky1 but her life spirit has entered another bear who also lies upon her back in the den1 invisible and sleeping the winter sleep4 ,when the spring comes around again1 this bear will again issue forth from the den to be again pursued by the hunters1 to be again slain1 but again to send into the den her life-spirit1 to issue forth yet again when the sun once more awakens the sleeping earth4 ,and so the drama keeps on eternally40 ,reasoning by induction1 ,i am strongly tempted to assign the origin of the ,egyptian myth of ,osiris and of the 8child in its cradle10 to the same source of inspiration--possibly also other myths of antiquity1 such as the twelve labors of ,hercules 7held by ,o',neil to be a pole-star god7 may be assigned to the same source4 ,at all events1 the ,micmac example is extremely instructive and suggestive4 ,the following extracts from ,mr4 ,hagar's paper establish that ,ursa ,major was known as the ,bear to several ,north ,american tribes1 and generally served to mark time and seasons4 8,in a ,blackfoot myth we read3 ,the seven ,persons slowly swung around and pointed downward4 ,it was the middle of the night10 showing that they too marked the time at night by the position of these stars4 ,so the ,zuis tell1 when winter comes1 how the bear1 lying1 sleeps1 no longer guarding the ,west land from the cold of the ,ice gods1 etc41 a story which demonstrates that in ,zui mythology there was a marked association between the terrestrial bear the 8great white bear of the seven stars10 ,cushing and the seasons4 ,the ,ojibways mention the constellation in connection with the four quarters in heaven1 showing that they1 at some time1 were accustomed to mark their seasons not only by the position of the stars of the ,bear1 but also by the rising and setting of various fixed stars4 ,in conclusion ,i would state that ,miss ,alice ,fletcher has informed me that1 among the ,omaha ,indians1 time is measured by ,ursa ,major1 and that the pole-star is named the 8,star which never travels40 #aea 8,the amulet is of finely wrought silver1 with magic inscription1 the seven-branched candlestick of ,jerusalem and the usual ,christian monogram4 ,the inscription is in ,greek1 mixed with barbarous and unintelligible forms4 ,it contains however express allusions to ,christianity and states that whoever wore it would be sure to please gods and men40 ,it is well known that ,constantine had on the reverse of his coin the inscription ,sol ,invictus and on the obverse the monogram of ,christ4 8,this has been interpreted as a proof that the sun was his own guardian deity10 but ,i venture to explain the adoption of the sun as analogous to the ancient ,egyptian mode of designating the sovereign as the son of the sun1 the sacred representation of ,heaven4 ,dean ,stanley 7,eastern ,church1 p4 #aic7 refers to ,constantine's 8mode of harmonizing the discordant religions of the empire under one institution and retention of the old ,pagan name of ,dies ,solis or ,sunday1 for the weekly ,christian festival10 which was recommended by ,constantine to his subjects1 ,pagan and ,christian alike1 as 8the venerable day of the ,sun40 #aeb 8,no country in the world can compare with ,india for the exposition of the pyramidal cross4444 ,the body of the great temple of ,bindh madhu 7formerly the boast of the ancient city of ,benares 444 demolished in the seventeenth century7 was constructed in the figure of a colossal cross1 with a lofty dome at the centre1 above which rose a massive structure of a pyramidal form4 ,at the four extremities of the cross there were four other pyramids4444 ,a similar building existed at ,mhuttra4444 ,by pyramidal towers placed crosswise the ,hindoo also displayed the all-pervading sign of the cross4 ,at the famous temple of ,chillambrum1 on the ,coromandel coast1 there were seven lofty walls1 one within the other1 round a central quadrangle1 and as many pyramidal gateways in the midst of each side which forms the limbs of a vast cross0 7,faber1 quoted by ,donelly in ,atlantis1 p4 #cce74 #aec 8,the ,tur-vasu1 or people whose creating god 7vasu7 was the pole 7tur71 when united with the traders of the south1 became the mercantile mariners of the ,indian ,ocean1 who had imposed their rule and traditions both on the lands of ,northern ,india and on those of the twin rivers1 the ,euphrates and ,tigris4444 ,from ,india1 the only land on the ,indian ,ocean where they could build sea-going ships1 they extended their trade1 forms of government and national myths1 first to the ,euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to ,egypt and ,syria1 where they were known to the ,greeks as the ,phnicians0 7p4 #cef74 8,these people had seven parent stars whose names are preserved4 ,professor ,sayce has identified the first of these1 ,sugi1 with #8the star of the ,wain' and states that it means the #8creating-spirit-reed' or the northern khubird1 the #8reed of the bird1 the mother of life4' ,sugi is therefore an additional name for the ,bear to that of ,bel1 distributor of waters4444 ,in both names the metaphor is the same1 for it is from the reeds at the source of the rivers1 their point of distribution1 that the rivers are born4444 ,both names denoted the star that led the year and it was the ,great ,bear1 as ,sugi1 that led the earliest year1 opening with the week of creation0 444 7p4 #ceg74 444 8,the sons of the ,tur or pole were the ,indian ,tur-vashu1 the ,zend ,turanians1 the mariners of ,asia ,minor called by the ,egyptians ,tour-sha 7,maspero71 the sea traders of the ,mediterranean called the ,tur-sene of ,lydia1 the ,tur-sena or ,tyrrhenians of ,lemnos and ,etruria1 who spoke a language closely allied to that of the ,akkadians4 ,that their god was worshiped in ,cyprus and ,asia ,minor is proved by the terra-cotta whorl found in one of the settlements on the site of ,troy1 dedicated in ,cypriote characters to ,patori-,turi1 the father ,tur1 who gave his name to the ,phrygian city of ,turiaion4 ,the great antiquity of the settlement is proved by the fact that though some bronze knives and instruments were found in it1 by far the greater number of implements were of stone and the pottery1 though similar to that of ,mycen1 is of a more archaic type0 7,schuchhardt's ,schliemann's ,excavations1 ,app4 ,i1 #cca-ccb and #ccd74 8,they were also the first spinners1 weavers1 makers of pottery and built canoes and worked in mines4444 ,they grew wheat1 barley1 peas1 flax and fruit trees4444 ,these men covered the whole of ,europe and ,southern ,asia 444 and the ,indian ,dekhan with cromlechs and stone circles1 which were certainly in some cases roofed over1 dolmens1 meaning stone tables1 shrines1 altars1 tumuli and memorial stones or pillars and all of these1 whether found in ,western ,europe or ,southern ,asia1 are completely identical in character4 ,these people had1 in their migrations1 established an active and widespread foreign trade4440 7p4 #agh74 8,these maritime ,tursena were intermingled with the matriarchal ,amazonian tribes who preceded them1 and who seemed to have founded the ancient ports of ,asia ,minor and ,palestine1 especially the ,ionian cities of ,smyrna and ,ephesus and that of ,askelon4 ,it was in the land of ,phrygia1 the mountain countries of the ,caucasus range and the snowy heights whence the ,euphrates rose1 that the earliest shepherds met the matriarchal races1 the immigrants from the southeast1 the ,hindu village communities1 who are called by the ,greeks ,amazons1 and are described as the earliest ruling races of ,asia ,minor and ,greece 7p4 #age740 8444 ,the ,great ,naga is the ,akkadian god ,ner-gal1 and the ,phnician god ,sarrahu1 or the ,great ,sar4 ,his name among the ,shuites1 or the worshippers of ,susi-nag on the west of the ,euphrates1 is ,emu1 a name which is letter for letter the same as that of the national god of the ,ammonites1 ,amun0 7,sayce3 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhg1 ,,iii1 p4 #aif1 note #a4 8,amun means the builder1 or architect1 and is1 like that of the ,egyptian god1 formed of aman1 to sustain0 7,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #aae74 8,he was the god of the house pole1 who became in ,egyptian ,thebes1 ,amen-,ra1 the hidden1 and it was the people who made the house-pole the symbol of their ancestors1 444 who brought to ,egypt as well as to ,assyria and ,india1 the custom of having cities for the dead apart from those for the living4444 ,it was from the rains of the summer-solstice 444 generated from the ,naga snake that the ,phnician sons of ,kush were born1 whose kings1 like those of ,egypt1 wore the ,urus snake as a sign of royal authority4 ,their original settlement1 according to a tradition recorded by ,theophrastus1 was at ,tulos or ,turos1 in the ,persian ,gulf1 the modern ,bahrein4 ,this was the holy island of ,diloun1 called ,dilmun by the ,akkadians4444 ,it was the settlement of ,hindu navigators in the holy island of ,dilmun in the ,persian gulf1 and at ,eridu1 which first brought them in contact with the ,arabian star-gazers and merchants1 and it was the union1 in the ancient city of ,ur1 of these races with the ,hebrew tribe of ,gad 7who built1 not only the cities of ,bashan1 but also those of ,assyria and were the great builders of the ancient world71 which first formed the ,semite race4 ,it was the meridian pole1 the heavenly1 revolving pole1 the ,tur of the ,akkadians1 which the ,dravidian traders of ,india brought with them to ,eridu0 7p4 #bib74 8,it was these ,tursena who1 by developing the ancient organization of the village and province in ,india1 divided all the countries they occupied into confederacies of cities1 such as we find among the ,euphratean nations1 the ,egyptians1 ,canaanites and the people of ,asia ,minor1 ,greece and ,italy4 ,it was they who were the fathers of ,greek and ,latin civilization40 7p4 #bif74 8,it was these people who brought from ,india their village institutions1 their holy groves and seasonal dances4444 ,among them the ,finnic mining races descended4444 ,it was in ,phrygia that they were mixed with the ,daktuloi1 or race of handicraftsmen and artificers1 the sons of ,dak1 the showing or teaching god1 the god ,daksha1 the father of the ,kush race4444 ,they were the carpenters and builders of the ,stone age40 ,prof4 ,sayce's 8,ancient ,empires of the ,east0 furnishes further interesting details concerning the ,phnicians4 ,according to this eminent authority1 at an early date1 in order to relieve the pressure of population1 they sent out organized colonies to the recently discovered lands of the ,west4 ,accordingly commercial marts were established at ,thera and ,melos14444 ,colonies were established at ,attica1 on the coast of ,africa1 in ,sicily1 ,sardinia and ,corsica1 and beyond the columns of ,herakles1 in ,gadeira4 ,the three cities of ,rhodes were planned by ,phnician architects4444 ,the ,assyrian character of early ,greek art is due to its ,phnician inspiration4444 ,it was about 8,b4,c4 #fjj that these people penetrated to the northwest coast of ,india and probably to the island of ,britain as well4444 ,they were the intermediaries of ancient civilization 444 and the chief elements of ,greek art and civilization came from ,assyria through the hands of ,phnicians4444 ,phnician art was essentially catholic 444 it assimilated the art of ,babylonia1 ,egypt and ,assyria superadding something of its own4444 ,their chief deity was ,yeud or ,ekhadthe ,only ,one 444 they worshipped the ,kabeiri 444 originally seven stars 444 who were the makers of the world1 the founders of civilization1 the inventors of ships4444 ,the cities of ,phnicia were the first trading communities the world has seen4444 ,their colonies were originally mere marts and their voyages of discovery were taken in the interests of trade4 ,the tin of ,britain1 the silver of ,spain1 the birds of the ,canaries1 the frankincense of ,arabia1 the pearls and ivory of ,india1 all flowed into their harbours4444 ,many of their colonies were wholly independent1 and governed by their own kings and benefiting ,phnicia only in the way of trade4444 ,in ,phnicia 444 the king seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling 444 princes and 444 chiefs4 ,in time the monarchy disappeared altogether1 its place being supplied by suffetes or #8judges1' whose term of office lasted sometimes for a year1 sometimes for more1 sometimes even for life4444 ,at ,carthage there were two suffetes1 who were merely presidents of the senate of thirty 444 whose power was subsequently checked by a board of one hundred and four4444 ,by providing that no member of the board should hold office for two years running1 ,hannibal changed the government into a democracy40 #aed ,evolution and ,ethics4 ,appleton ed4 ,new ,york1 #ahif1 p4 #ajd4 #aee 8,death no ,bane10 translation by ,robert ,black1 ,m4 ,a41 ,sampson ,low1 ,marston ,co41 ,london1 #ahhi1 p4 #aba1 note4 #aef ,merely as affording a glimpse of the troublous period during which ,plotinus lived1 ,i recall the fact that ,caracalla1 visiting ,egypt1 caused a large number of young men to be massacred at ,alexandria 7,a4,d4 #baa74 ,between ,a4,d4 #bdh and #bfh1 ,alexandria was the seat of civil war for twelve years1 and through war1 famine and pestilence1 in a few years1 about half of the population1 not only of ,alexandria1 but of ,rome1 perished4 ,a general persecution of ,christians was also carried on at this period1 and in ,a4,d4 #bfh ,zenobia invaded ,egypt4 #aeg ,to those of my fellow-workers who have made a special study of the most ancient forms of cursive and ikonomatic writings of the ,old ,world1 ,i should like to submit some facts concerning the ancient ,mexican method1 which may carry a fresh suggestion and be an aid to future research4 ,when the first ,spanish missionaries who reached ,mexico found themselves confronted by the barrier of language and wished to teach the native converts the ,lord's ,prayer in ,latin1 they adopted the method of picture writing employed by the aborigines4 ,by painting a bannerpantli1 a stonetetl1 a cactusnochtli and another stonetetl1 they conveyed the words ,pa-te-noch-te1 which1 approximately1 represented paternoster4 ,the consequence was that the ,indians were able to memorize prayers in a language unknown to them1 by referring to pictures of objects and naming these in their own tongue4 ,a number of curious documents exist1 which exhibit a great difference and variety in execution and are more or less cursive1 according to the artistic sense and ability of the missionary or converted ,indian who drew them4 ,the fact that ,spaniards1 possessing our mode of writing1 should have found picture-writing the most effective means of teaching primitive people speaking an alien tongue has always appeared to me as most instructive and suggestive4 ,as the natives suggested this method to their instructors1 it is obvious that it was their habitual mode of memorizing a foreign language4 ,the possibility that words recorded in native pictography may belong to an alien tongue1 opens out a new field for future research4 ,a curious result is obtained when ,tenoch-,titlan1 one of the ancient names of the capital of ,mexico is studied from this point of view4 ,in the well-known rebus now employed as the arms of ,mexico1 the syllables ,te and ,noch only are actually expressed in picture-writing by the stonetetl1 from which a cactusnochtli is growing4 ,this group is1 however1 surmounted by an eagle holding a serpent in its talons and the meaning of this animal group appears symbolical merely4 ,it may be a curious coincidence that the eagle holding a serpent in its talons was employed by ,mediterranean people as an emblem of victory and occurs on ancient ,greek coins with this significance1 and that the recorded name1 ,tenochtitlan or 8the land of ,tenoch10 curiously resembles ,tenos1 the name of a ,greek heptarchy1 founded by seven tribes just as the adjacent town of ,chalco1 in ,mexico1 resembles ,chalcis1 the town in ,euba1 where ,aristoteles died4 ,on p4 #dah and in my discussion of ,egyptian hieratic script1 ,i have pointed out that some signs employed express the sounds of words in another tongue1 that the syllables am and an1 for instance1 seem indissolubly and universally linked to pole-star worship and symbolism4 ,it does not seem unreasonable to endeavor to explain this by imagining that individuals1 wishing1 in each case1 to teach the word ,samathe revolving heaven i4 e4 the ,north1 to people speaking different languages1 should make a picture of a tree or boat named am in one tongue1 and in another country1 draw a spider1 named am1 by its inhabitants4 ,in the first country the tree1 or boat1 and in the second1 the spider1 would1 in time1 become the symbols of the north1 and though different1 signify the same thing4 ,in time1 each sign might be employed to express the syllable am in general and in this way isolated systems of ikonomatic writing would evolve and1 in course of time1 native artists would more or less skilfully produce conventionalized and distinctly characteristic forms and methods4 ,at the same time the colonizing race might be employing and perfecting a totally different form of cursive writing for their own purposes of registration1 etc4 ,for instance3 in ,athens1 where ,euclid held an archonship in #djc ,b4,c4 and1 during centuries1 ,pythagorean philosophers identified 8earth with a cube1 fire with a pyramid1 air with an octahedron1 water with an icosahedron1 and the ,sphere of the ,universe with a dodecahedron10 and also taught that a point corresponds with the monad1 both being indivisible2 a line with the duad1 etc41 it is obvious that points1 lines and geometrical figures must have been employed for the cursive registration of ideas4 ,in a state1 firmly established on fixed principles of numbers1 the cursive registration of its subdivisions1 by means of numbers only1 was rendered possible and in such a community the necessity for cursive writing would be limited and perhaps be confined to the registration and identification of individuals1 the reports of quantities of produce1 etc4 ,the facts that the letters of the ,greek alphabet possess fixed numerical values1 and that the initial letters only of their tribal names were inscribed on the shields of ,lacedmonian1 ,sicyonian and ,messenian warriors1 for instance1 appear to indicate that1 at one time1 each ,greek tribal division possessed its cursive mark1 a letter1 which may have indicated1 at the same time1 a numerical division of the confederacy4 ,to understand such cursive records it is evident that a knowledge of the numerical basis of the state would be indispensable and imperative and that this would be confined to the rulers only4 ,my opinion that the ,maya calculiform hieroglyphs constitute cursive notation relating entirely to the calendrical and governmental cyclical system and absolutely unintelligible without a knowledge of this1 has already been partially referred to on pp4 #bdb and #bdd4 ,from ,mexican manuscripts1 where individuals1 by means of a number and a calendar sign1 are linked to a division of the state1 ,i hope yet to be able to clearly demonstrate the practical harmonious working of a machinery of state1 established on a perfected numerical scheme1 the cursive notation of which was extremely simple4 ,meanwhile ,i offer the foregoing remarks as suggestions for future research and as an expression of my opinion that people1 using geometrical and numerical cursive methods of notation in their own country1 may have systematically employed the pictographic method in teaching their language to strangers and in establishing their civilization in foreign lands4 #aeh ,it is particularly interesting to learn from ,professor ,sayce 7op4 cit4 p4 #ahh71 not only that ,phnician culture had been introduced among the rude tribes of ,israel1 but that the temple of ,jerusalem was built by ,phnician artists after the model of a ,phnician one1 the main features of which were the two columns or cones at the entrance and the brazen sea or basin1 which rested on twelve bulls1 this number agreeing with the number of ,israelitic tribes and with tribal or caste divisions in other ancient centres of civilization4 ,it is thus certainly suggestive to find the number twelve associated with the ,phnicians1 to whom the spread of civilization in the ,old ,world is attributed and whose predecessors1 at the period of ,babylonian culture1 were1 according to ,professor ,sayce1 8solitary traders1 who trafficked in slaves1 in purple-fish 444 and whose voyages were intermittent and private40 444 8,diodorus ,siculus assigns to the ,carthaginians the knowledge of an island in the ocean1 the secret of which they reserved for themselves as a refuge to which they could withdraw should fate ever compel them to desert their ,african home4 ,it is far from improbable that we may identify this obscure island with one of the ,azores1 which lies #hjj miles from the coast of ,portugal4 ,neither ,greek nor ,roman writers make any reference to them1 but the discovery of numerous ,carthaginian coins at ,carvo1 the northwesterly island of the group1 leaves little room to doubt that they were visited by ,punic voyagers40--,sir ,daniel ,wilson4 ,the lost ,atlantis and other ethnographic studies4 ,new ,york1 #ahib4 #aei ,address of the retiring ,president of the ,a4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s41 ,columbus meeting1 #ahii4 ,proceedings of the ,a4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s41 vol4 ,,xlviii1 to which the reader is referred for valuable data4 #afj 8,professor ,perry1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 in his admirable monograph on ,spinning ,tops1 7,romance of ,science3 ,spinning ,tops1 by ,professor ,john ,perry1 ,m4 ,e41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 #ahij1 pp4 #ajg-aaj1 #ab-ac1 cited by ,o',neil1 op4 cit41 p4 #edj47 shows how a spinning gyrostat whose spinning axis is compelled by the experimenter into a horizontal plane is then constrained by the earth's motion alone to direct its spinning axis due north and south and so to indicate mathematically the lie of the true meridian of its spot4 ,if the spinning gyrostat be next shut off from all other motion except a vertical one in the plane of this meridian1 its spinning axis will point its north end up to1 and continue to point truly up to1 the celestial pole40 ,then1 adds ,professor ,perry1 in terms strangely suitable to my purposes3 8,it is with a curious mixture of feelings that one first recognizes the fact that all rotating bodies1 fly-wheels of steam-engines and the like1 are always tending to turn themselves towards the ,polestar2 gently and vainly tugging at their foundations1 all the time they are in motion1 to get round towards the object of their adoration40 #afa ,the ,incas claimed to have descended from three windows4 ,see ,rites and ,laws of the ,incas1 p4 #gg4 #afb ,it is noteworthy that the ,zui name for village in general is ti-na-kwin-ne4 ,tinamany sitting around and kwin-neplace of4 #afc ,the accuracy and value of the above article are vouched for1 in an interesting way by the ,rev4 ,samuel ,m4 ,zwemer1 ,f4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 7a missionary who spent ten years in ,arabia71 who refers to it as follows1 and quotes it in his recent publication3 8,arabia1 the cradle of ,islam4 ,new ,york1 #aijj10 p4 #bhi4 8,an anonymous article in the ,london ,standard1 ,oct4 #ai1 #ahid1 entitled1 #8,a prayer-meeting of the ,star-worshippers1' curiously gave me the key to open the lock of their silence4 ,whoever wrote it must have been perfectly acquainted with their religious ceremonies1 for when ,i translated it to a company of ,sabeans at ,amara1 they were dumfounded4 ,knowing that ,i knew something1 made it easy for them to tell me more40 #afd ,i point out the remarkable fact that the ,chinese name for jadeyu1 is homonymous with the word for source or origin1 hence1 perhaps1 its sacredness and employment as a secret symbol of the hidden source of all things4 ,see p4 #bgg for ,chinese choice of symbols influenced by sound of name4 #afe ,the ,hindu ,yama and ,yami were twin brother and sister1 and have been respectively identified by ,prof4 ,max ,mller as night and day4 ,yama1 the inseparable duality1 is entitled law and justice1 etc4 and was represented with four arms1 riding a buffalo1 with a crown on his head1 accompanied by 8two four-eyed watch dogs1 which are probably the eight or twice-four regions of the compass0444 7,chambers' ,encyclopdia74 ,of the originally cosmical character of ,yama there can be no doubt4 ,it is curious to find1 at the epic and ,puranic period1 the account of 8,yama0 marrying the thirteen daughters of ,daksha 7north-people1 white71 becoming the regent of the south and residing in ,yamapura1 a town in the lower regions2 details which appear to indicate the actual establishment of a kingdom on the familiar plan by an earthly representative of the cosmical deity4 #aff ,this was the first god of the divine triad of whom it is recorded that 8they hid their persons20 see ,translation of the ,ko-ji-ki or ,records of ,ancient ,matters1 ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain1 vol4 ,x1 supplement1 ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan1 ,sections ,i and ,,ii from which this and the following names of gods are taken4 #afg ,the ,akkadian ,sumerian ,cosmos is thus described3 8,above the earth extended the sky1 ana1 spangled with its fixed stars 7mul7 revolving around the mountain of the east 7,kharsak ,kurra7 the column which joins the heaven and the earth and serves as an axis to the celestial vault4 ,the culminating point in the heaven1 the zenith 7,paku71 was not this axis or pole2 on the contrary1 it was situated immediately above the country of ,akkadia ,kalama which was regarded as the centre of the inhabited lands1 while the mountain which acted as a pivot to the starry heavens was to the northeast of this country4 ,beyond the mountain1 also to the northeast1 extended the land of ,aralli1 which was very rich in gold and was inhabited by the gods and blessed spirits0 7,lenormant1 quoted by ,warren op4 cit4 p4 #aff74 #afh ,this is the ,ka of ,egyptian theology 444 he is the ,sek-,nag1 the god of the ,rj1 or royal race of ,gonds1 born 7ja7 of ,r1 that is1 the sons of ,ra-,hu1 the begetting 7,hu7 creating fire-god 7,ra74 ,his festival is held every seven years and is attended only by males who are bound to secrecy as to its rites4444 ,this god1 the great ,nag1 is the soul of life in the rain cloud1 the heavenly snake 444 the other being the ,ahi or ,echis1 the snake of earth4 8,to the present day the ,jains1 who are the great trading race of ,india1 call themselves ,ka-yathe sons of ,ka4 ,this name they must have brought with them to the holy island 7,dilmun71 from thence it must have travelled to ,egypt with the race who established the ,kushite rule there0 7,hewitt74 #afi ,the titles 8,middle king10 8,great ,middle princess10 are cited by ,chamberlain1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfe and #bfg4 #agj ,madhuthe inspiring intoxicating honey mead used in the sacred ritual1 substituted by a ,northern people for the barley liquor offered in the manthin or creating1 churning cup4 ,the names given to the drinkers of madhu8madhuya10 madhu-p and ,madhvi2 also madhu-varna1 the men of ,madhu's caste1 are curiously homonymous with the word for ,middle ,madhyias and appear to designate them as the 8,middle caste10 naturally associated with the ,north4 #aga ,quoted by ,o',neil from ,satow and ,hawes' ,hdbk4 of ,japan1 #bnd ed4 p4 #ci4 ,it is interesting to compare the following ,japanese words with ,miyauken3 ,,miyowonderful1 admirable1 secret1 mysterious1 holy4 ,,miya,shinto temple where the kami are worshipped4 ,japan4 ,,miyukitravelling1 going1 only applied to circuit of provinces performed by ,mikado4 ,,kenimperial domain1 or that territory which is under the direct government of the ,mikado1 cf4 ,chinese k'anland4 #agb ,transactions of ,asiatic ,society of ,japan1 vol4 ,x1 p4 #bde1 note #b4