,this is the ,,ascii or rock-bottom version of the text for people whose text readers cannot handle the real 7,unicode1 ,,utf-#h7 or even the simplified ,latin-#a version4 ,differences include3 --the oe and ae ligatures are each two letters --all fractions are written out as #a_/b1 #a_/d444 --the word ,pise is missing its accent --a few symbols such as the ,section and ,pound 7currency7 signs have had to be shown in an alternative form ,in illustration captions1 small capitals are shown as text2 in the advertising1 the same symbols represent boldface4 ,headers of odd-numbered pages changed from page to page4 ,these have been marked as ,headnote and are added to the ,table of ,contents in brackets to aid in text searching4 ,in the body text1 s4 and d4 7shillings and pence7 were always italicized2 in the advertising1 all prices were printed in boldface4 ,both have been left unmarked to reduce visual clutter4 ,errors and other problems are listed at the end of the e-text4 ,,cottage ,,building ,,in ,,cob1 ,,pise1 ,,chalk ,,clay ,illustration3 ,publisher's ,device ,,country ,,life ,first ,edition1 ,september #aiai ,second ,edition 7,revised and ,enlarged71 ,july #aibj ,illustration3 ,cob ,house built by ,mr4 ,ernest ,gimson1 near ,budleigh ,salterton1 ,devon4 ,frontispiece ,,cottage ,,building in ,,cob1 ,,pise1 ,,chalk ,,clay ,a ,renaissance ,by ,,clough ,,williams-,,ellis ,with ,an ,introduction ,by ,j4 ,st4 ,,loe ,,strachey ,second ,edition ,revised ,and ,enlarged ,london ,published at the ,offices of ,country ,life1 #bj1 ,tavistock ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 ,w4,c4#b1 and by ,george ,newnes1 ,ltd41 #h-aa1 ,southampton ,street1 ,strand1 ,w4,c4#b4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons ,,mcmxx ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,the exhaustion of the first edition of this book1 within so short a time of its publication1 makes it difficult to add much new matter for the reissue now called for1 or1 in the light of subsequent research and experience1 to revise what had already been written4 ,any book that seemed to show a way of meeting the present building difficulties1 however partially1 was fairly assured of a welcome1 but the somewhat unforeseen demand for my small contribution to the great volume of literature on cottage-building is1 ,i think1 to be attributed chiefly to its description of ,pise-building4 ,of the very large number of letters that reach me from readers of the book1 quite ninety-nine out of every hundred are concerned with ,pise4 ,the other methods of building have their advocates and exponents1 but it is clearly ,pise that has caught the attention of the public as well as of the ,press both at home and abroad1 and it is to this method of construction that ,i have chiefly devoted my attention since the writing of the book as it first appeared4 ,in our ,english climate ,pise-building is a summer craft1 and the small-scale experiments of one person through a single summer cannot in the nature of things add very greatly to the sum of our knowledge of what is possible with ,pise and of what is not4 ,most of the new data have come through the building of ,mr4 ,strachey's demonstration house1 an account of which is included in the present volume4 ,at the time of writing1 various tests are being carried out with the help of the ,national ,physical ,laboratory2 but the results1 though exceedingly encouraging1 are not yet ready for publication4#a ,the fact that ,pise-building is essentially a ,dry-earth method makes necessary the creation of artificial summer conditions under which the experiments may be conducted during the past winter4 ,as a result of these researches1 a considerable mass of useful data has become available for the opening of the present building season4#b ,much helpful information is also likely to come to us from the ,colonies1 particularly from ,rhodesia and ,british ,east ,africa1 where there is great activity in ,pise-building1 and where there is no close season such as our winter imposes upon us here4 ,it is instructive also to note that great interest in ,pise-building has been aroused in ,canada and in ,scandinavia1 the two countries that we were wont to associate particularly with timber-building4 ,from both ,i have received a number of letters complaining of the lumber shortage1 and discussing the advantages of ,pise as compared with their traditional wood-construction4 ,if these great timber countries are themselves feeling the pinch1 the advocates of wooden houses for ,england may find that they are not merely barking up the wrong tree1 but up a tree that is not even there4 ,the timber famine is1 in any case1 a calamity to anyone dependent on building1 that is to everyone1 for even a ,pise house must still have a roof and floors and joinery4 ,but to invoke the timber house as our salvation under existing conditions seems to be singularly perverse and unhelpful4 ,pise1 at all events1 seems to offer us a more promising field for exploration than most of the other heterodox methods of construction that have been suggested1 too often upon credentials that will not bear any but the most cursory scrutiny4 ,pise1 even now1 is still in its experimental infancy4 ,it has yet to prove itself in the fields of ,national ,housing and of competitive commercial building schemes on a large scale4 ,lastly1 ,pise does not claim to solve the housing problem4 ,there is no solution unless1 by some miracle1 the present purchasing power of the sovereign appreciates by #bjj per cent4 ,,clough ,,williams-,,ellis4 #bb1 ,south ,eaton ,place1 ,london1 ,s4,w4#a4 ,may #aibj4 ,footnote #a3 ,certain of these have since been issued and will be found in ,appendix ,,iv4 at the end of the book4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,appendix ,,iv4 ,,contents ,text shown in brackets was taken from headnotes and added here by the transcriber4 ,page ,,introduction #aa ,the ,search for ,cheap ,material -- ,experiments with ,pise -- ,rammed ,chalk1 ,pise de ,craie -- ,pise in ,moulds -- ,cob and ,chalk -- ,pise--a ,south ,african ,lead -- ,the ,discovery of the ,old ,,general ,,survey #bf ,the ,house ,famine -- ,local ,materials ,i4 ,,cob #cc ,the ,beauty of ,cob -- ,method of ,building -- ,implements -- ,walls and ,roofs -- ,protection -- ,raleigh's ,house -- ,mr4 ,baring-,gould -- ,old ,cob ,lore -- ,mr4 ,fulford's ,evidence -- ,a ,champion of ,cob ,,ii4 ,,pise ,,de ,,terre #eg ,method of ,building -- ,the ,ramming -- ,suitable ,soils -- ,experiments -- ,preparation of the ,earth -- ,the ,strength of ,pise -- ,a ,pise ,church -- ,indian and ,colonial ,practice -- ,plastering -- ,the ,right ,quantity of ,water -- ,pise ,buildings at ,empandeni -- ,pise ,buildings for ,settlers -- ,builders' ,aversions -- ,number of ,men ,required -- ,pise in ,new ,zealand -- ,pise ,shuttering -- ,if ,reason ,rule -- ,the ,newlands ,specification -- ,a ,swedish ,contribution -- ,a ,pise-,builder's ,school -- ,alternative ,shutterings -- ,south ,africa -- ,soils ,,iii4 ,,chalk #ajg ,winter ,work ,barred -- ,garden ,walls -- ,cost of ,three ,cottages -- ,expensive ,scaffolding ,avoided -- ,block ,chalk ,,iv4 ,,unburned ,,clay ,,and ,,earth ,,bricks #aba ,use for ,unskilled ,labour -- ,substantial and ,cool ,,appendix #abg ,distempers and ,limewashes -- ,local ,materials -- ,cost per ,foot ,cube -- ,pise ,tests ,,index #aci ,,illustrations ,,cob ,,house ,,built ,,by ,,mr4 ,,ernest ,,gimson1 ,,near ,,budleigh ,,salterton1 ,,devon ,frontispiece ,facing ,page ,,pise ,,waggon-,,house ,,at ,,newlands ,,corner #ah ,,the ,,newlands ,,waggon-,,house 7,,interior7 #ah ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,a ,,pise ,,fruit-,,house #ai ,,the ,,fruit-,,house ,,completed ,,with ,,roof ,,of ,,peat ,,blocks ,,on ,,rough ,,boarding #ai ,,model ,,of ,a ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,,house ,,to ,,be ,,built ,,in ,,three ,,successive ,,stages #bb ,,wayside ,,station ,,of ,,pise ,,at ,,simondium1 ,,south ,,africa1 ,,designed ,,by ,,mr4 ,,herbert ,,baker #bc ,,front ,,and ,,back ,,elevations ,,of ,,cottage ,,designed ,,by ,,sir ,,edwin ,,lutyens ,,and ,,mr4 ,,alban ,,scott #bh ,,plan ,,of ,,cottage ,,designed ,,by ,,sir ,,edwin ,,lutyens ,,and ,,mr4 ,,alban ,,scott #bi ,,another ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,cob ,,house ,,built ,,by ,,mr4 ,,ernest ,,gimson1 ,,near ,,budleigh ,,salterton1 ,,devon #cd ,a ,,fine ,,specimen ,,of ,a ,,devonshire ,,cob ,,house #ce ,a ,,devonshire ,,cob ,,farmhouse1 ,,probably ,,between #bjj ,,and #cjj ,,years ,,old #cf ,a ,,cob-,,built ,,village #cg ,a ,,devonshire ,,farm1 ,,local ,,material 7,,cob7 #db ,,devon ,,country ,,house1 ,,built ,,of ,,devon ,,cob #dc ,,cob ,,house ,,temp4 ,,elizabeth1 ,,lewishill #dd ,,another ,,devonshire 7,,cob7 ,,farmhouse1 ,,weeke ,,barton #de ,,ceilings ,,of ,,modelled ,,plaster ,,from ,,old ,,cob ,,houses ,,in ,,devon #df ,a ,,cob ,,garden-,,wall ,,with ,,thatched ,,coping #dg ,,pise ,,plant ,,and ,,implements #eh ,,diagram ,,of ,,mark ,v ,,pise ,,shuttering #hh ,,mark ,v ,,shuttering #hi ,a ,,simple ,,mould ,,for ,,pise ,,blocks #ij ,,block-,,moulds1 ,,large ,,and ,,small #ij ,,sketch ,,of ,a ,,pise ,,house ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,erection #ia ,,the ,,newlands ,,corner ,,building #ib ,,the ,,cottage ,,from ,,the ,,south-,,east #ic ,,the ,,garden ,,court #ic ,,the ,,backyard #id ,,framing ,,the ,,roof #ie ,,an ,,interior1 ,,showing ,,fire-,,brick ,,hearth ,,fire #ie ,,details ,,of ,,chalk ,,construction ,,at ,,amesbury #aaj ,,cottages ,,at ,,coldharbour1 ,,amesbury #aaa ,,three ,,chalk ,,cottages ,,at ,,hursley ,,park #aad ,,marsh ,,court1 ,,hampshire #aaf ,,brick-,,and-,,chalk ,,vaulting ,,at ,,the ,,deanery ,,garden1 ,,sonning #aag ,,once ,,corn ,,hall1 ,,now ,,council ,,school #abb ,a ,,row ,,of ,,clay-,,lump ,,cottages #abb ,,engineering ,,workshops #abc ,,considerations ,,if ,,all ,,available ,,brickworks ,,were ,,to ,,produce ,,at ,,their ,,highest ,,limit ,,of ,,output ,,and ,,with ,,all ,,the ,,labour ,,they ,,wanted ,,at ,,their ,,disposal ,,they ,,could ,,only ,,turn ,,out #d1jjj1jjj1jjj ,,bricks ,,in ,a ,,year ,,as ,,against ,a ,,pre-,,war ,,average ,,of #b1hjj1jjj1jjj4--7,see ,report by ,committee appointed by ,ministry of ,reconstruction to consider the post-war position of building47 ,the first year's programme of working-class housing alone calls for at least #f1jjj1jjj1jjj bricks4 ,that is to say1 unless wall materials other than brick are freely used1 we shall fall alarmingly short of what the population of ,great ,britain needs in bare accommodation1 and all building and engineering projects whatsoever other than housing must be postponed indefinitely4 ,,the ,,country ,,districts ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,wales ,,are ,,unsurpassed ,,for ,,variety ,,and ,,beauty ,,of ,,character1 ,,and ,,it ,,would ,,be ,,nothing ,,less ,,than ,a ,,national ,,misfortune ,,if ,,the ,,increased ,,development ,,of ,,small ,,holdings ,,were ,,to ,,result ,,in ,,the ,,erection ,,of ,,buildings ,,unsuited ,,to ,,their ,,environment ,,and ,,ugly ,,in ,,appearance4--7,extract from the report submitted by the ,departmental ,committee appointed to inquire as to ,buildings for ,small ,holdings1 #aiac47 ,,introduction ,i ,the country is faced by a dilemma probably greater and more poignant than any with which it has hitherto had to deal4 ,it needs1 and needs at once1 a million new houses1 and it has not only utterly inadequate stores of material with which to build them1 but has not even the plant by which that material can be rapidly created4 ,there is not merely a shortage1 but an actual famine everywhere as regards the things out of which houses are made4 ,bricks are wanted by the ten thousand million1 but there are practically no bricks in sight4 ,all that the brickyards of the ,united ,kingdom can do1 working all day and every day1 is to turn out something like four thousand million a year4 ,but to those who want houses at once1 what is the use of a promise of bricks in five years' time8 ,to tell them to turn to the stone quarries is a mere derision4 ,let alone the cost of work and of transport1 it is only in a few favoured places that the rocks will give us what we want4 ,needless to say we are short1 too1 of lime and cement1 and probably shall be shorter4 ,no coal1 no quicklime1 and ,no coal1 no cement1 and as things look now1 it is going to be a case1 if not of no coal1 at any rate of much less coal4 ,even worse is the shortage in timber--the material hitherto deemed essential for the making of roofs1 doors1 windows and floors4 ,raw timber is hardly obtainable1 and seasoned timber does not exist4 ,the same story has to be told about tiles1 slates1 corrugated iron1 and every other form of legitimate roofing substance4 ,there are none to be had4 ,in this dread predicament what are we to do as a nation8 ,what we must not do is at any rate quite clear4 ,we must not lie down in the high road of civilisation and cry out that we are ruined or betrayed1 or that the world is too hard for us1 and that we must give up the task of living in houses4 ,whether we like it or not we have got to do something about the housing question1 and we have got to do it at once1 and there is an end4 ,translated into terms of action1 this means that as we have not got enough of the old forms of material we must turn to others and learn how to house ourselves with materials such as we have not used before4 ,once again necessity must be the mother of invention1 or rather1 of invention and revival1 for in anything so old and universal as the housing problem it is too late to be ambitious4 ,here we always find that there has been an ancient ,assyrian or ,egyptian or a primitive man in front of us4 ,it is the object of the present book to attack part of the problem of how to build without bricks1 and indeed without mortar1 and equally important1 as far as possible without the vast cost of transporting the heavy material of the house from one quarter of ,england to another4 ,that is my apology for introducing to the public a work dealing with what ,i can hear old-fashioned master-builders describing as the bastard forms of construction4 ,one of these is ,pise de terre1 the old system of building with walls formed of rammed or compressed earth3 a system which was once known throughout ,europe and of which the primitive tribesmen of ,arizona and ,new ,mexico knew the secret4 ,down to our own day it has been practised with wonderful success in the ,valley of the ,rhone4 ,then come our own cob1 once the cottage material par excellence of ,devonshire and the ,west of ,england1 our system of building with plain clay blocks1 a plan indigenous in the ,eastern counties1 and again the use of chalk and chalk pise4 ,headnote3 ,the ,search for ,cheap ,material ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,for me ,pise de terre1 ever since ,i heard of it1 has offered special attractions4 ,it1 and it alone provides1 or if one must be cautious1 appears to provide the way to turn an old dream of mine and of many other people into a reality4 ,my connection with the problem of housing1 and especially of rural housing1 i4e4 cottage housing1 now nearly a quarter of a century old1 has been on the side of cheap material4 ,rightly or wrongly 7,i know that many great experts in building matters think quite wrongly71 ,i have had the simplicity to believe that if you are to get cheap housing you must get it by the use of cheap material4 ,it has always seemed to me that there is no other way4 ,what more natural than first to ask why building material was so dear1 and then what was the cause of its dearness8 ,i found it in the fact that bricks are very expensive things to make1 that stones are very expensive things to quarry1 that cements are very expensive things to manufacture1 and worst of all1 that all these things are very heavy and very expensive to drag about the country1 and to dump on the site in some lonely situation where cottages or a small-holder's house and outbuildings are1 to use the conventional phrase1 urgently demanded4 ,therefore1 to the unfeigned amusement1 nay1 contempt of all my architectural friends1 ,i spent a great deal of my leisure in the years before the war in racking my brains in the search for cheap material4 ,my deep desire was to find something in the earth out of which walls could be made4 ,my ideal was a man or group of men with spades and pickaxes coming upon the land and creating the walls of a house out of what they found there4 ,i wanted my house1 my cottage in ,cloud-,cuckoo ,land1 to rise like the lark from the furrows4 ,but ,i was at once dissuaded from my purpose by cautious and scientific persons4 ,the chemists1 if they did not scoff like the architects1 were visibly perturbed4 ,your dream is impossible1 they said4 ,nature abhors it as much as she used to be supposed to abhor a vacuum4 ,if your soil is clay1 and you can afford the time and cost of erecting kilns1 and bringing coal to the spot to make the bricks1 you can no doubt turn the earth on the spot into a house1 but even then you had far better buy them of those that sell4 ,your dream of having some chemical which will mix with the earth and turn it into a kind of stone1 is the merest delusion4 ,it is the nature of the earth to kill anything in the way of cement that is mixed with it4 ,for example1 even a little earth will kill concrete or mortar4 ,unless you wash your sand most carefully1 and free it from all earth stain1 you will ruin your concrete blocks4 ,i appeared to be literally up against a brick wall4 ,it was that or nothing4 ,and then1 and when things seemed at their very worst1 a kind correspondent of ,the ,spectator showed me a way of escape4 ,i felt like a man lost in underground passages who suddenly sees a tiny square of light and knows that it means the way out4 ,somebody wrote1 from ,south ,africa ,i think1 asking why ,i didn't find the thing ,i wanted in ,pise de terre1 much used in ,australia1 and occasionally in ,cape ,colony4 ,then came a rush of enlightenment4 ,people who had seen and even lived in such houses wrote to ,the ,spectator1 and the world indeed for the moment seemed alive with ,pise de terre4 ,i was even lent the ,farmer's ,handbook of ,new ,south ,wales1 in which the ,state ,government provides settlers with an elaborate description of how to build in ,pise1 and how to make the necessary shuttering for doing so4 ,it was then1 too1 that ,i began to hear of the seventeenth and eighteenth-century buildings of ,pise in the ,rhone ,valley4 ,in fact1 everybody but ,i seemed to know all there was to be known about ,pise de terre4 ,for the moment indeed1 the situation seemed like that described in ,punch's famous picture of the young lady and the ,german professor4 ,what is ,volapuk8 asks the young lady4 ,ze universal language1 says the professor4 ,where is it spoken8 ,no vairs4 ,pise de terre appeared to be the universal system of building1 but as far as ,i could make out1 it was practised no vairs1 or at any rate not in ,europe4 ,headnote3 ,experiments with ,pise ,,ii ,i had got as far as the position described above1 when down swept the war upon ,europe1 and everything had to be postponed in favour of the immediate need of filling the ranks of the nation's army and teaching the men how to fight our enemies4 ,as the war went on1 however1 the demand for rapid1 cheap1 and temporary building became very great1 and ,i felt ,i should be justified in trying some experiments with ,pise de terre1 even in spite of the difficulty of obtaining labour4 ,i think ,i can best illustrate the nature of ,pise and what it can do1 and ,i believe will do1 if ,i shortly recount in chronological order these humble pioneer efforts4 ,in the summer of #aiae ,i found that it was necessary in the interests of the hospital established in my house to find a place in which to store apples1 for the men in blue consumed them in incredible quantities4 ,i thought ,i would try ,pise4 ,accordingly1 ,i had some shuttering made on the ,australian model--not splendid scientific shuttering such as is described in the body of this work1 but still shuttering quite sufficient for the purpose4 ,with great rapidity a little fruit-house was put up1 roofed with boards1 and covered with blocks of compressed peat in order to make a roof which would be both vermin-proof and also keep out the heat and the frost4 ,in my ignorance and my hurry1 ,i now find that ,i violated every sound rule of ,pise construction4 ,i built the walls during a week of rain1 when the earth was wet1 which was a great mistake2 and ,i did not clear out the stones1 which was another error that prevented the walls from being homogeneous4 ,worst of all1 as soon as the walls were built 7and very pretty walls they were1 looking something like soft brown marble71 ,i painted them over with tar1 which of course would not enter the wet wall1 but only made a skin1 which in a few months peeled off exactly like the bark off a plane tree4 ,yet in spite of this ignorant mishandling of my material1 the little fruit-house is still standing and sheltered till ,january the few apples ,nature allowed us to gather last autumn4 ,it looks disreputable1 but there has been no structural collapse1 nor will there be4 ,headnote3 ,rammed ,chalk1 ,pise de ,craie ,no sooner was the fruit-house finished than ,i was met by the demand of my wife1 the commandant of the hospital1 to add to my house a patients' dining-room1 which would be bright1 dry1 airy1 warm1 and comfortable1 and be large enough for forty men to have their meals in1 and to use as a sitting-room during the rest of the day4 ,the local builder said that it was impossible to make a wooden addition1 for there was no wood to be procured1 or to build in bricks1 since my house stands #fjj ft4 above the sea on an isolated chalk down4 ,croesus would have found it difficult at that time to build on my site1 and for the ordinary economic man--,l'homme a quarantes ecus--it was quite impossible4 ,but the room had got to be built1 for the men were there1 and built at once1 since the out-of-door life of ,july and ,august could not continue4 ,there was nothing to do but to fall back upon ,pise4 ,i decided to be ambitious and to experiment1 not merely in ,pise de terre1 but in what ,i then thought--and perhaps rightly--was a new form of ,pise1 i4e4 ,pise de craie or compressed chalk4 ,my shuttering therefore was put up4 ,a hole not very far off was dug in the earth1 the chalk which was almost at the surface was quarried out1 and we began to build the wall1 candid and contemptuous friends telling us of course that the chalk wall would never stand the frosts in so exposed a position1 and that the wall1 if made1 would certainly explode6 ,everyone worked at that wall2 the nursing staff1 the coachman1 an occasional visitor1 a schoolboy1 a couple of boy scouts1 members of the ,national ,reserve who were guarding a vulnerable point close by1 and even some of the patients4 ,patients as a rule will endure any toil with the utmost good temper if it is for the purposes of sport4 ,if the task is useful it does not interest them4 ,still1 a wall which might explode offered a certain attraction4 ,we worked with more zeal than discretion1 but happily ,i had it in my mind that homogeneity was the essential1 and therefore the hard nuggets of chalk as they were thrown into the shuttering to be compressed by the rammers were first chopped up with spades1 much as one minces meat4 ,the wall had no foundations4 ,in ,pise you can make your foundations1 so to speak1 as you go1 through the simple process of ramming4 ,anyway1 and to cut a long story short1 the wall was made1 was able to receive the roof1 for which happily the local builder found some material1 and not only did the wall stand1 but showed a very creditable exterior4 ,its weight was of course enormous1 for there were some twenty tons of chalk put into it4 ,in spite of the irregularity of the labour it did not take more than ten or twelve days to build4 ,to prevent the wet and frost getting into it1 ,i painted the main front with a patent liquid material for rendering walls damp-proof4 ,the ,chalk ,pise wall not only served its purpose1 but served it very well4 ,the room proved extraordinarily warm and comfortable1 largely owing no doubt to the fact of a solid1 very dry1 #ah-;in4 wall on the north-east side4 ,,iii ,my next venture was in response to an urgent appeal from a farm tenant to build him a waggon house4 ,the result is seen in the accompanying illustration4 ,this building1 about #dj ft4 by #cj ft41 was made purely of earth1 but some experiments were tried in the way of introducing hurdles into the shuttering in order to afford a surface to which plaster could easily cling4 ,suffice it to say that the plain earth1 without plaster or any covering1 more than justified itself4 ,one part of the wall is very much exposed to the weather1 but it has stood the rains and the frosts of three very bad winters without turning a hair4 ,lovers of the picturesque may like to know that it presents a pleasant face of light ochre1 upon which a pale green efflorescence of lichen has appeared of late4 ,anyway1 the frost has not touched it4 ,,iv ,next ,i made some experiments in chalk farmyard walls4 ,unfortunately1 however1 one of these1 which was not made homogeneous by chalk mincing1 i4e4 in which the nuggets of chalk were not properly broken up1 got the wet into it1 and true to the candid friend's prophecy did literally explode in the big frost of #aiag-ah4 ,another very pretty chalk wall is1 however1 standing to this day4 ,but though ,chalk ,pise will1 ,i think1 do well if properly made and properly protected1 it is somewhat of a doubtful material for anything except a building with a good overlay of roof4 ,another structure put up by me was a largish gardener's potting shed4 ,this was built purely of earth1 and in dry weather4 ,when the walls were perfectly dry1 the local road authorities kindly came with their tar spray and sprayed it with hot tar1 with most excellent results4 ,the hot tar really entered instead of merely making a skin1 with the result that the external walls thus treated resembled a section of tarred road stood up on end4 ,illustration3 ,pise ,waggon-house at ,newlands ,corner4 ,an experiment in rendering4 ,illustration3 ,the ,newlands ,waggon-house4 ,interior4 ,illustration3 ,the ,beginning of a ,pise ,fruit-house4 ,illustration3 ,the ,fruit-house ,completed ,with ,roof of ,peat ,blocks on ,rough ,boarding4 ,i may add that ,i lent my ,pise shuttering to a ,guildford ,volunteer ,battalion1 who in a ten-hour day1 or rather1 two days of five hours each1 built an excellent hut about #bj ft4 square and #aj ft4 high1 and thus showed that a platoon might house themselves with ,pise in a day1 provided they had roofing material ready4 ,this building had subsequently to be destroyed1 because the ground on which it stood was wanted for another purpose4 ,when it was knocked down the house-breakers were astonished at the strength and tenacity of the walls4 ,yet the earth out of which they were made was particularly bad--as one of the volunteers expressed it1 not earth1 but merely leaf-mould and horse-manure4 ,the site had1 as a matter of fact1 been a suburban garden for at least two hundred years4 ,v ,before ,i leave the record of these terrestrial adventures ,i may note that in the early stages ,i received a great deal of help and encouragement from ,general ,sir ,robert ,scott-,moncrieff4 ,he was indeed so much struck by them that he drew up a series of instructions for walls of ,pise work which were issued to all engineer companies at the front in case they might have opportunities for experimenting4 ,these instructions were based upon the ,australian book and embodied the very simple form of shuttering there recommended4 ,the diagram that accompanied them is reproduced in the ,appendix to the present volume4 ,headnote3 ,pise in ,moulds ,,vi ,,pise ,,in ,,moulds ,there is one thing more to be said about ,pise4 ,i believe that a useful development of the system may be found in the plan of ramming earth into moulds and making earth blocks1 something like concrete blocks4 ,moulds of this kind are easy to make and are specially suitable when the soil is somewhat clayey in its nature4 ,they have the advantage of being much cheaper than shuttering1 and of being capable of being handled by one man without assistance4 ,with a strong wooden mould and a good rammer a small-holder may easily build his own pigsty1 his own chicken house1 and all the small outbuildings he requires1 if not indeed add an extra room to his house4 ,i am at present experimenting with these blocks and only yesterday had the pleasure of seeing a sergeant 7,r4,a4,m4,c71 discharged through ill-health and now trying to turn himself into a small-holder1 building a pigsty with the help of one of my moulds4 ,,vii ,apropos of the elusive universality and yet non-existence of ,pise work1 the following personal anecdote or footnote to compressed earth may amuse my readers4 ,happening to be sleeping in a bedroom at ,brooks's ,club in #aiaf1 ,i noticed a charming ,regency bookcase full of old books4 ,among them was a copy of a ,cyclopaedia of #ahai4 ,i thought it would be amusing to see whether there was any mention of ,pise de terre4 ,what was my astonishment to find that what ,i thought was my own special and peculiar hobby and discovery was treated therein at very great length and with very great ability1 but treated not in the least as anything new or wonderful1 but instead as this well-known and greatly appreciated system of building1 etc41 etc4 ,to complete the irony of the situation the fact was mentioned that a ,mr4 ,holland had lately sent to the ,board of ,agriculture a memorandum as to how to put up houses and farm-buildings in this form of construction4 ,my hair rose on my head1 for ,i had just committed a similar official indiscretion myself1 and had been bombarding appropriate authorities with what ,i thought must be a complete novelty4 ,truly one can never be first or do anything new4 ,it is always in the ,files1 as ,mr4 ,kipling says4 ,even in our most original moments we only keep on feebly imitating somebody else4 ,the claim to originality is nothing but a muddy mixture of pride and ignorance4 ,what did1 however1 somewhat amaze me was the calm statement of the ,cyclopaedia that this system of building was now well known in the counties of--and then came the names of practically all the counties of ,southern ,england4 ,and yet ,i had been keenly on the look-out for such buildings for several years4 ,the cynic will say that they had all fallen down4 ,that only shows the weakness of the cynic's point of view4 ,the truth is they are often concealed under various disguises of plaster1 paint1 and weather tiles4 ,few people know what their own walls are really made of till they try to cut a new opening for a door or a window in them4 ,headnote3 ,cob and ,chalk ,,viii ,,cob ,,and ,,chalk ,of ,cob ,i know little by actual experiment4 ,it is fully dealt with in the body of this work1 and readers will find that it is a kind of mud or clay concrete reinforced with straw4 ,it is therefore totally and absolutely different from ,pise4 ,one is wet1 the other dry4 ,all that need be said about chalk is said by the author of the present book4 ,,ix ,a ,,postscript ,in the body of this work mention is made of a very successful experiment in ,pise de terre made by the officials of a ,rhodesian mining company2 the outcome1 ,i am proud to think1 of my pre-war advocacy of ,pise in ,the ,spectator4 ,no sooner had my introduction been finished than there came by way of postscript an exceedingly interesting series of photographs1 sent to me by ,mr4 ,pickstone1 a gentleman very well known in ,south ,africa for his fruit gardens1 his peaches1 and his apricots4 ,on the strength of what he had read in ,the ,spectator1 ,mr4 ,pickstone lately undertook to build a station building and station-master's house for the railway station at ,simondium in the ,drakenstein ,valley1 a place which during the summer is noted for its great heat4 ,in the ,january number of the ,south ,african ,railways and ,harbours ,magazine1 ,mr4 ,pickstone gives a detailed account of his bold and successful experiment and illustrates it by a reproduction of some of his photographs4 ,here is his own account of what he did4 99 99 99 ,headnote3 ,pise--a ,south ,african ,lead ,it must have been about eighteen months ago that the railway administration decided to promote ,simondium ,siding to the dignity of a station4 ,as a siding1 it had always been a busy place in the fruit season1 during which time a permanent checker had for some years been kept quite busy1 his accommodation being a couple of small tin shanties1 and he had been accustomed to board out where he could4 ,now we were to have a 'pukka' station-master and1 presumably1 suitable premises4 ,the department quickly got to work and the station-master's house arrived4 ,it was what one might call a second-hand1 or even a third- or fourth-hand one1 consisting of the inevitable sheets of galvanised iron and the ever-essential ,oregon and ,swedish timber4 ,our new station-master also shortly afterwards arrived1 and turned out to be a married man with a wife and four children4 ,the station-master was not a grouser1 but during the hot summer--and it is terribly hot in the ,drakenstein ,valley during that time of the year--he complained to me that it was almost impossible to hold on1 owing to the conditions under which he and his family had to live4 ,it was just about this time that ,i saw in ,the ,spectator a series of articles strongly advocating ',pise de terre' construction for buildings of all kinds2 especially was it recommended as a war-time expedient for rapid and economical construction for barracks and hospitals1 and1 indeed1 it was strongly recommended by ,mr4 ,st4 ,loe ,strachey1 the editor1 for all sorts of general building and military purposes4 ,it is a curious fact1 which many readers could verify1 that frequently one lives one's life under certain conditions1 and in reality remains absolutely blind to their presence and potentialities4 ,here was ,i1 living in a country where some of the most beautiful old homesteads are on the principle of the ',pise de terre' construction1 and a large proportion of the older farm buildings in this district also built of similar material1 with the additional pleasing accompaniment of beautiful beams1 ceilings and floors made of colonial pine--one may advisedly add1 the despised colonial pine4 ,some of these buildings have stood the wear and use of close on a century1 and are still an object of joy to those privileged to have an eye to see4 ,here lived ,i1 as ,i say1 blind to its potentialities for to-day1 although it had been clearly appreciated and carried out with the most charming and solid results by our great-grandfathers in the old slave-labour days4 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,model of a ,pise de ,terre ,house to be built in ,three ,successive ,stages4 ,the right wing is planned to be built first as a complete small cottage1 eventually becoming service and servants' quarters4 ,clough ,williams-,ellis1 ,architect4 ,illustration3 ,wayside ,station of ,pise at ,simondium1 ,south ,africa1 designed by ,mr4 ,herbert ,baker4 ,the supervising architect1 ,mr4 ,kendall1 who was responsible for carrying out the work to the admirable design of ,mr4 ,herbert ,baker1 gives the following description of the way the work was actually executed1 which contains several very useful hints3 99 99 99 ,the construction of walls determined upon was that known as ',pise de terre1' consisting of earth walls some #ah in4 to #bd in4 thick1 which owe their solidity to a simple process of ramming between wooden casings previously placed in position on both sides4 ,these walls are built in stages of some #c ft4 in height1 the wood casing being raised at intervals as required4 ,the frames for doors and windows are placed in position at the right time1 and anchored into the walls by means of long hoop iron ties4 ,these walls1 when completed1 give a surface almost as hard as burnt brick1 but the external angles present a slight point of weakness1 as from their exposure they would be naturally inclined to chip away in cases of rough usage4 ,in order to overcome this it was arranged that irregular brick quoins should be embedded in the angles all the way up as the work proceeded4 ,the walls1 when completed1 were then plastered and whitewashed1 and present as good an appearance as more expensively plastered brickwork4 ,as additional security the weather sides were given1 prior to whitewashing1 a coat of hot gas tar direct on the plaster1 which in all exterior work was lime plus #aj per cent4 cement4 ,the roofs are of thatch with a fairly good overhang at the eaves in order to form a protection for the walls4 99 99 99 ,on one point1 however1 we may reassure ,mr4 ,kendall4 ,i do not think he need be afraid of his walls being destroyed by the weather even if he has no overhang4 ,part of a ,pise wall in my cart-shed1 built in a very exposed situation1 has no overhang4 ,further1 the wall is not covered by cement or any other protective covering4 ,the compressed earth was left quite bare1 and yet the three worst winters of alternating wet and frost known for many years have made no impression upon the wall4 ,it seems to be both rain-proof and frost-proof4 ,i may add that ,mr4 ,pickstone informs me in a letter dated ,february #aith that the ,pise walls have proved an enormous success from the point of view of protection from the heat4 ,whereas in an iron building lined with wood the temperature in the hot weather went up to #ajd degrees ,fahrenheit1 in the station-master's ,pise de terre dining-room the thermometer registered only #hf degrees4 ,those who have ever lived where such temperatures prevail will note the immense advantage gained by the ,pise walls4 ,such temperatures try strong men and women1 and for children they are positively death-dealing4 ,with so successful an experiment as that at ,simondium before my eyes1 ,i am beginning to feel that ,i may live to correct my view that this universal system of building is practised no vairs4 ,headnote3 ,the ,discovery of the ,old ,x ,,pliny ,,on ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,now for something which ,i have kept as the bonne bouche of my earthy story4 ,at the end of my researches and experiments ,i found that ,pliny has got it all in his ,natural ,history in six lines6 ,there is no need for more words4 ,have we not in ,africa and in ,spain walls of earth1 known as 'formocean' walls8 ,from the fact that they are moulded1 rather than built1 by enclosing earth within a frame of boards1 constructed on either side4 ,these walls will last for centuries1 are proof against rain1 wind1 and fire1 and are superior in solidity to any cement4 ,even at this day ,spain still holds watch-towers that were erected by ,hannibal4 --,pliny's ,natural ,history1 ,bk4 ,,xxxv1 chapter xlviii4 ,j4 ,,st4 ,,loe ,,strachey4 ,newlands ,corner1 ,surrey4 ,,general ,,survey ,always necessity has been the mother of invention4 ,the war has proved her prolific indeed1 and her teeming offspring are seen in the multiplicity of war contrivances and the bewildering array of substitutes for the once common things of our daily life4 ,where necessity has been most dire1 there invention has unfailingly come to the rescue with the most amazing ,ersatz products to replace the vanished originals4 ,at any rate it pleases us to attribute the truly astonishing feats of the ,germans in this direction to their greater need rather than to any superior ingenuity or enterprise on their part4 ,that their success was often no more than moderate will be readily admitted by anyone who1 for instance1 has made trial of their ,ersatz cigars or ration coffee4 ,still1 need did at least awaken prodigious effort1 ingenuity1 and enterprise--all co-ordinated and concentrated on the business of making good a hundred paralysing deficiencies4 ,headnote3 ,the ,house ,famine ,in this present matter of ,national ,housing the shortage of all the generally recognised building materials as well as of actual houses is extreme and grave4 ,effort1 ingenuity1 and enterprise in overcoming these insufficiencies are as urgently and vitally necessary to ,england in ,peace as ever they were to ,germany in war4 ,little will be said here of the direct and intimate connection between good houses and good citizens4 ,it is assumed that those who go to the pains of reading this book have at least glanced at the ,housing ,reports1 and drawn certain disquieting conclusions from the criminal and vital statistics with which the case for reform is reinforced4 ,in a recent speech the ,registrar-,general said3 ,war does not only fill the graves1 it also empties the cradles4 ,this is no less true of bad and inadequate housing4 ,only the most reckless and thick-skinned of the poorer population will adventure on marriage and the bringing up of a family whilst the odds against decent and reasonable housing persist as at present4 ,true1 ,housing is very properly being given considerable prominence in the press1 and scarcely a day passes but there appears an article or letter dealing with this question4 ,usually we are left but little wiser than we were1 whilst if we chance to know something about the subject1 the general tone of vague cheerfulness that pervades them all fills us with misgiving4 ,nothing is easier or pleasanter or more popular than to make airy promises or predictions about the ,homes for ,happy ,human ,beings that1 somehow1 are to be prepared for our returned soldiers1 and for all those others who are housed miserably or not at all4 ,it is very easy to predict and promise1 but without adequate materials performance is not merely difficult1 it is impossible4 ,there is a world-shortage of almost every manufactured or cultivated product2 there is also a labour famine1 a money famine1 and a transport famine4 ,in this country1 closely connected with these deficiencies and looming ominously over them all1 is1 as we have said1 our house-famine4 ,to relieve the last in face of the others1 and without further aggravating them1 is one of the most grave and pressing of the many problems that confront us4 ,briefly the problem is this3 ,to provide a maximum of new housing with a minimum expenditure of labour1 money1 transport1 and manufactured materials4 ,broadly speaking1 so far as rural housing is concerned1 the solution must be sought through the use of natural materials already existing on the site1 materials that can be worked straight into the fabric of the building1 without any elaborate or costly conversion1 and that by local labour4 ,pise de ,terre1 ,chalk ,compost1 and ,cob are three alternative forms of construction1 one of which will usually fulfil the above conditions in any given situation4 ,despite the somewhat outlandish and high-sounding name of the first1 it is nothing more than a very old and very simple method of building1 recently revived through stress of circumstances4 ,the rude technique has happily been kept alive and preserved for us in out-of-the-way corners of the ,continent and in our ,colonies4 ,wherever there is a sufficiency of sunshine to effect the necessary drying1 there have earth buildings arisen and prospered4 ,cob building needs less introduction1 as it is still well understood and a living craft in several parts of ,great ,britain1 notably in ,devonshire and ,south ,wales1 where its merits and advantages have been recognised apparently from the earliest times4 ,all those indeed who are familiar with this method of construction are fully alive to its virtues1 and the same is true of ,pise-building1 both in chalk and earth1 and also of clay-lump4 ,this book1 however1 is addressed to those who have in the past built only with stone1 brick1 concrete1 timber and plaster1 etc41 and who are only now considering a reversion to the more primitive construction here described1 through the shortage or absolute lack of their former materials4 ,illustration3 ,front and ,back ,elevations of ,cottage designed by ,sir ,edwin ,lutyens and ,mr4 ,alban ,scott4 ,this ,cottage can be built in ,cob1 ,pise1 ,concrete1 ,stone1 or ,brick4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,cottage designed by ,sir ,edwin ,lutyens and ,mr4 ,alban ,scott4 ,it is not so much a question as to whether a ,cob or ,pise house is preferable to one of brick or stone or concrete--though there are many who profess a lively preference for the former--but as to whether you will boldly revert to these old and well-tried methods of building1 or1 in the absence of the ordinary materials1 feebly sit down and build nothing at all4 ,for that will1 inevitably1 be the alternative for a great many private persons4 ,national and ,public-,utility ,housing ,schemes and public and industrial works of all sorts will naturally and properly claim priority in the matter of all building materials--and the private individual1 so far as he can secure such materials at all1 will only do so at a price that is the logical outcome of an unprecedented demand and an ominously inadequate supply4 ,headnote3 ,local ,materials ,timber1 tiles1 slates1 plaster1 and ironmongery he must still purchase and transport as best he may--but the shell of his house1 its outer walls at least1 could and should be raised from the soil of the site itself by the employment of the simplest gear and a small amount of unskilled local labour4 ,so acute indeed is the transport problem1 and so small is the hope of any substantial improvement in the near future1 that any expedient tending to ease matters in this respect is worthy of the most serious attention4 ,the restrictions imposed by high freights will of themselves tend to check the often senseless and unnecessary importation of materials foreign to a district1 which in the past was the despair of architects of the traditional school4 ,it was a wasteful practice that had gone far to obliterate all but the most robust traits in the old and very diverse local building conventions of rural ,england4 ,formerly1 he who wilfully carried bricks into ,merioneth or the ,cotswolds1 or slates into ,kent or ragstone-rubble into ,middlesex1 was guilty of no more than foolishness and an aesthetic solecism4 ,under present conditions such action should render him liable to prosecution and conviction on some such count as ,wasting the shrunken resources of his country in a time of great scarcity1 4 4 4 in that he did wantonly transport material for building the walls of a house by rail and road from ,a to ,b when suitable and sufficient material of another sort and at no higher cost existed1 and was readily accessible hard by the site at ,b4 ,that indeed is our one chance of salvation1 the existence and use of the materials of another sort hard by the site4 ,these natural materials and their appropriate use in building will be considered in the following pages4 99 99 99 ,the ,lutyens-,scott cottage1 of which illustrations are given1 is designed with a special view to the use of such local materials as cob1 chalk1 and ,pise1 though it could also be constructed without appreciable modification in stone or brick4 ,it is thus a model of unusually universal application1 providing1 too1 accommodation such as is certain to be demanded by the new and more educated generation that it is the aim of the country to produce4 ,i ,,cob ,sec4 ,i4 ,,general ,if ever the counties of ,england recover their bygone loyalty to their own materials and their old traditions1 then cob-building will return to ,devon and the ,west4 ,cheap bricks1 cheap transport1 and the ignoble rage for fashions from the town went far to oust provincial cob from the affections of those whom1 with their forbears1 it had housed so well for several centuries4 ,whether the new loyalty be from within1 or be imposed from without by force of circumstances1 matters little4 ,what does matter is the fact of its revival4 ,for with it will come again the building of cottages that are knit intimately to their sites and surroundings as of old1 cottages consanguineous with the ground they stand on1 be it brick-earth1 rock1 or common soil4 ,the soil of ,devonshire and of many parts of ,wessex and of ,wales serves excellently well for building in cob or clom4#c ,footnote #c3 ,probably1 indeed1 there is no county in the kingdom that has not considerable areas where the soil would1 if tried1 prove well adapted for cob-building4 ,the soil itself suggested the construction1 and the men of ,wessex were quick to take the hint and to act on it4 ,the yeomen and small-holders of earlier days were commonly builders too1 and often built their own homes in their own way1 yet by the guiding light of local tradition4 ,thus the old ,devonian countryman in need of a house would set to and build it himself--of stone if that were handy and easily worked1 of cob if it were not4 ,no doubt the doors and windows would be made and fitted by the village wheelwright2 but the cottager himself would thatch or slate the roof as naturally and successfully as he built4 ,the skill and care with which these versatile amateurs built their houses was not always of the highest1 and careless construction1 like other sins1 is visited on the children--the worse the sooner4 ,thus it is that there are to-day plenty of old cob cottages that are both damp and insecure1 but to condemn cob building in general because certain old builders were careless1 ignorant1 or incompetent is to condemn all materials from wattle and daub to ferro-concrete in the same breath4 ,cob1 being a humble1 amenable1 and thoroughly accommodating substance1 has reaped the inevitable reward of good nature in being put upon and in being asked to stand what is quite beyond its powers of endurance1 and yet ,devon cob houses of ,elizabethan date are not uncommon4 ,it is very reasonable in its demands1 but two things it does require--dry foundations and a good protecting roof4 ,to quote an old ,devonshire saw on cob--,giv'un a gude hat and pair of butes an' 'er'l last for ever4 ,in many instances the ,devonshire leaseholder1 usually only a life-lease holder1 built badly and on indifferent foundations4 ,he neglected to repair his thatch1 with the consequence that ruin followed sooner or later4 ,he did not always use rough-cast1 so that it often happened that by the time the lease expired the unfortunate landowner found that the cottage fell in--in the literal as well as in the legal sense4 ,the lower portions of the walls were honey-combed with rat-holes1 the walls bulged out or fissures resulted from subsidence1 and the dwelling presented that appearance of squalor and meanness that has led so many to decry the mud buildings of ,devon as relics of bygone barbarism4 ,but if adequate care is bestowed on the construction1 there is no reason why cob cottages should not prove at one and the same time comfortable to the inmates and pleasant to the eye1 and endure for many generations4 ,illustration3 ,another view of the ,cob ,house built by ,mr4 ,ernest ,gimson1 near ,budleigh ,salterton1 ,devon4 ,see ,frontispiece ,illustration3 ,a fine ,specimen of a ,devonshire ,cob ,house4 ,headnote3 ,the ,beauty of ,cob ,as to their comeliness and longevity1 a day's walk in ,devon1 or1 failing that1 a glance at the printed pictures will tell all that need be told4 ,that the beauty of cob buildings is not due merely to the irregularities and weathering produced by the passage of time is sufficiently proved by the photographs of ,mr4 ,gimson's charming cob cottage1 taken soon after he had finished it4 ,the work was done a year or two before the war2 this is ,mr4 ,gimson's own description of the manner of its building3 99 99 99 ,the cob was made of the stiff sand found on the site2 this was mixed with water and a great quantity of long wheat straw trodden into it4 ,the walls were built #c ft4 thick1 pared down to #b ft4 #f in41 and were placed on a plinth standing #ah in4 above the ground floor1 and built of cobble stones found among the sand4 ,the walls were given a coat of plaster and a coat of rough-cast1 which was gently trowelled over to smooth the surface slightly4 ,i believe eight men were engaged on the cobwork1 some preparing the material1 and others treading in on to the top of the walls4 ,it took them about three months to reach the wall plate2 the cost was #fs4 a cubic yard1 exclusive of the plastering4 ,no centring was used4 ,the joists rested on plates1 and above them the walls were reduced to #b ft4 #b in4 in thickness to leave the ends of the joists free4 ,the beams also rested on wide plates and the ends were built round with stone1 leaving space for ventilation4 ,tile or slate lintels were used over all openings4 ,the cost of the whole house was #f-a_/b;d4 a cubic foot4 ,building with cob is soon learnt--of the eight men1 only one of them had had any previous experience1 and1 ,i believe1 he had not built with it for thirty years4 ,this is the only house ,i have built of cob4 99 99 99 ,what is most interesting in this narrative is the workmen's lack of experience1 which seems to have been no hindrance4 ,anyone who proposes to revive the use of cob may take courage from ,mr4 ,gimson's evidence4 ,the time spent in building the walls was reasonable and the cost low4 ,it may be guessed that the post-war rise in cost will be no greater in proportion1 if as great1 when compared with brickwork4 ,the natural charm of the wall surface is enhanced by the crown of thatched roof1 modelled with a skill which few can bring so certainly to their task as ,mr4 ,gimson4 ,headnote3 ,method of ,building ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,,method ,,of ,,building ,composition4--,cob is a mixture of shale and clay1 straw and water4 ,shale is a common and widely distributed stratified formation of a slaty nature1 and there are few types of clay soil that would not serve for cob-making4 ,the precise relative proportion of the first two ingredients varies1 depending on their individual peculiarities4 ,local custom as to the composition and preparation of the mixture will generally be found to have adjusted itself to the peculiarities of the soil4 ,the following extract is from an analyst's report on a sample of typical old cob walling3 99 99 99 ,the material when placed in water fell to pieces4 ,on analysis1 it was found to consist of3 ,per cent4 ,stones 7residue on #g by #g mesh sieve7 #bd4dj ,sand1 coarse 7residue on #ej by #ej mesh sieve7 #ai4gj ,fine sand 7through #ej by #ej mesh sieve7 #cb4ej ,clay #bj4fj ,straw #a4be ,water1 etc4 #a4ee ------ #ajj4jj ------ ,the material is a conglomerate of slaty gravel with a very sandy clay1 to which mixture a small proportion of straw has been added4 ,the clay acts as an agglutinant1 and the straw as a reinforcement4 ,efficient protection from frost and rain would be necessary before such material could be considered weatherproof4 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,a ,devonshire ,cob ,farmhouse1 probably between #bjj and #cjj years old4 ,illustration3 ,a ,cob-built ,village4 7,n4,b4--,lime is occasionally added to the clay-shale1 but this is not usual47 ,mixing4--,the old method of mixing by hand is as follows3 ,a bed of clay-shale is formed close to the wall where it is to be used1 sufficient to do one perch4 ,a perch is superficial measurement described as #af-a_/b ft4 long1 #a ft4 high1 and the amount of material will vary according to the thickness of wall required4 ,four men usually work together4 ,the big stones are picked out4 ,the material is arranged in a circular heap about #e or #f ft4 in diameter4 ,starting at the edge the men turn over the material with cob picks1 standing and treading on the material all the time4 ,one man sprinkles on water1 and another sprinkles on barley straw from a wisp held under his left arm4 ,the heap is then turned over again in the other direction1 treading continuing all the time4 ,twice turning is usually considered sufficient4 ,straw bands may be wrapped puttee-wise around the legs of the men to keep them clean1 and these are removed at the end of the day4 ,more rarely the mixing is done in a rough trough1 whilst a power-driven pan-mill has also been tried with success2 though one would think that the use of such a machine might tend to diminish the binding strength of the straw submitted to its grinding4 ,headnote3 ,implements ,illustration3 ,,cob ,,pick 7,measured from example at ,great ,fulford74 ,building4--,in building a man stands on the low base-wall1 and lays the material handed up to him on the cob picks1 treading it into position4 ,thorough treading is important1 and the heels should be well used4 ,the material is allowed to project each side an inch or so beyond the stone base to allow for paring down afterwards4 ,the courses are usually about #b ft4 high4 ,the cob should be laid and trodden in diagonal layers1 as shown in the diagram3 this is to secure proper bonding4 ,it takes from two to three weeks for a course to dry1 according to the weather1 and five or six men would be required to build the walls of an ordinary cottage4 ,this would not keep them continuously employed1 however1 and they would require to have several buildings in hand at the same time1 so as to be able to turn from one to the other while the courses were drying4 ,illustration3 ,,cob ,,course1 ,,or ,,scar1 ,,showing ,,diagonal ,,layers4 ,at the completion of a course the corners are plumbed up from the stone base below1 a line is stretched through and the wall is then pared down plumb with the paring iron by the man standing on the wall4 ,sometimes1 however1 the paring down is left until the wall is finished and dry4 ,four men will do about four perches per day of a wall #b ft4 thick1 preparing and laying material4 ,the material is rarely laid between timber shuttering as in ,pise work1 as the retaining boards tend seriously to retard the drying out4 ,illustration3 ,,paring ,,iron 7,measured from example at ,great ,fulford7 ,drying4--,if a course takes from two to three weeks to dry1 it naturally takes a long time for a whole cottage to completely dry out4 ,the walls can be built from about ,march to ,september4 ,the internal fitting1 plastering1 etc41 can be done in the winter1 but the external rendering must not be done for at least a year1 perhaps two years1 to allow the walls to become perfectly dry4 ,as unprotected cob is sensitive to frost1 especially if not thoroughly dried out1 it should be given a good external rendering as soon as it is really dry1 and should in the meantime be protected from frost by some temporary covering1 straw-matting or what not4 ,also all cob-work must be protected from the rain both whilst building and when built4 ,no artificial methods of drying are at present usual1 beyond good fires inside during the winter1 though1 as under such conditions a cob cottage is not usually considered fit to live in for several months after completion1 some artificial means of drying might be worth considering4 ,foundations and ,base4--,the depth of the excavations required for the foundations naturally depends upon the character of the site and soil1 as also does the spread of the footings1 if any4 ,the base-course wall of brick1 stone1 or concrete should be carried up some #b ft4 or so above ground level4 ,in old days this walling was not infrequently built dry--but good lias lime or cement should be used in all new work4 ,the damp-course too was an unknown refinement to the by-gone builders1 and the introduction of this one improvement alone makes the new cob cottage a very different dwelling from the old4 ,the usual forms of damp-course serve well for cob walls1 though slates laid butt and broken joint in cement are probably the best4 ,headnote3 ,walls and ,roofs ,thickness of ,walls4--,the thickness of walls may be anything you please from #ah in4 upwards4 ,there are old examples a full #c ft4 across1 but for an ordinary two-storied cottage a thickness of about #b ft4 is general4 ,eighteen inches is certainly the minimum thickness1 and would not ordinarily be adopted for any but one-storied buildings4 ,the first-floor walls are made the same thickness as those below1 for if they were reduced in width1 as is usual in a stone building1 the extra weight thus thrown on to one side of the ground floor walls would tend to make them bulge1 unless quite dry and thoroughly set4 ,there are old cob walls in existence fully #cj ft4 in height1 and there is no apparent limit in this direction provided they are thick enough4 ,the upper layers compress the lower ones1 and automatically render them more dense and stone-like and fit to bear the load imposed above4 ,hipped ,roofs4--,as a general rule1 however1 it is found expedient to hip back the roof rather than carry it up in a tall gable1 partly because cob-building at a great height above the ground in short and diminishing layers is a somewhat tedious process1 partly because a hipped roof with good eaves is very welcome for the protection that its projection affords the walling4 ,masonry and ,carpentry4--,the bonding of cob to stone and brick is sometimes liable to leave an open joint that will require filling when the cob dries and shrinks4 ,many of the chimneys in old cob houses are of brick or stone1 and brick and stone jambs are sometimes to be seen in cob walls1 but they are probably by way of repairs to damaged corners4 ,it is considered better to have cob all round1 so ensuring the uniform settlement of the building4 ,the timber built into old cob does not seem to decay4 ,the walls are usually so dry1 especially when plastered1 that the wood is well preserved4 ,the straw in the interior of old cob walls is often as bright as when put in4 ,the straw in cob performs a similar function to hair in plaster4 ,heather has sometimes been used instead of straw with good results4 ,illustration3 ,,wall ,,copings4 ,the old practice was for beams1 wall plates1 joists1 etc41 to be just bedded on the cob1 and for the cob to be filled in between the joists4 ,in new work1 particularly when the use of imperfectly seasoned timber is unavoidable1 it would be wise to take the usual precautions as to the proper ventilation of all built in woodwork--especially the ends of joists and so forth4 ,roofs must of course be tied and exercise no thrust on walls4 ,the roof plates are sometimes tied down by galvanised iron wire4 ,illustration3 ,,lintel-,,bearing ,,cross-,,piece ,door and window-frames are also fixed to wood blocks built into the jambs and to the wood lintels above4 ,the frames are sometimes near the outer face of wall1 sometimes near the inner-face4 ,where the door-frames are on the interior face of a #b ft4 thick wall1 a convenient porch results4 ,illustration3 ,a ,devonshire ,farm1 ,local ,material 7,cob74 ,illustration3 ,devon ,country ,house1 built of ,devon ,cob4 ,other joinery is fixed to wood pins driven into the cob where required4 ,corners are usually of cob1 though stone quoins are occasionally met with4 ,lintels are usually of wood well tailed into the wall and resting on a wood pad placed crosswise4 ,headnote3 ,protection ,protection4--,old buildings that have been neglected are often found to be somewhat eroded towards the bottom of their walls through the action of rain and frost4 ,protection is less here than higher up under the projecting eaves1 and the ,achilles' heel of the cob wall is undoubtedly its base4 ,this vulnerable part1 exposed as it is to driven rain1 back-splash1 and the casual kicks1 should be given special protection4 ,where the base is of cob and not of masonry1 the traditional method is to provide a good deep skirting of pitch or tar1 or a mixture of both1 applied hot to the face of the rendering that should completely cover the exterior of all cob work4 ,this rendering is usually composed of lime and hair mortar1 though ,portland cement has come into use to some extent recently4 ,cement1 however1 is apt to be rather too short and brittle1 and it does not always hold to the cob walling very securely4 ,a rendering consisting of an equal mixture of cement and lime with three parts of sand adheres well to cob1 however1 and is probably the best coating that can be given to it4 ,this coating can be colour-washed or lime-whited in the usual way4 ,the granular surface of rough rendering or of slap-dash on the slightly wavy surface of cob walling perhaps gives to whitewash its very highest opportunity and charm4 ,certain it is that the old cob cottages of ,devon with the pearly gleam of their white walls1 their heaving bulk of thatch and their trim black skirtings1 are as gracious and as pleasant to the eye as any in all the length and breadth of ,england4 ,within1 lime-and-hair mortar plastered straight on to the cob makes an excellent lining4 ,chimneys4--,nowadays1 chimneys are commonly built up in brick or stone1 but numerous good examples survive of flues and stacks constructed in cob4 ,the insides of these are pargeted with lime and cow-dung in the usual way1 brickwork being only introduced immediately around the fireplaces4 ,rats4--,where the surface rendering of cob-walls has been omitted or has been allowed to fall away1 an enterprising rat will sometimes do considerable damage by his tunnelling4 ,a little powdered glass mixed with the lower strata of a wall will discourage any such burrowing1 but the best preservative for any cob building is a thoroughly good skin of rendering1 especially if this be reinforced by fine-mesh wire-netting secured to the wall4 ,strength4--,the strength of cob walls is surprisingly great so long as they are vertical1 and are not subjected to undue lateral thrust or tension4 ,beams as large as #ab in4 by #ab in4 may be seen supported by old cob walls1 and there is nothing likely to be asked of the material in the way of strength to which it cannot easily respond4 ,design4--,cob1 like every other material1 should have a certain say in the design of any building in which its use is intended4 ,the chief desiderata are a plain straightforward plan and broadly treated elevations where voids and solids are carefully disposed with an eye to getting as large unbroken blocks of cob as possible4 ,illustration3 ,cob ,house temp4 ,elizabeth1 ,lewishill4 ,walls from #c ft4 to #d ft4 thick4 ,a wing was added in #afah4 ,this farm has been occupied by the family of the present holder between #cjj and #djj years4 ,illustration3 ,another ,devonshire 7,cob7 ,farmhouse1 ,weeke ,barton4 ,the cracks that are sometimes found in old cob buildings are almost entirely attributable to unsuitable design in such respects1 or to bad foundations4 ,cob walls built up in the ordinary way are not very suitable for internal partitions on account of their considerable width and the consequent waste of space1 though in old work cob was sometimes used as a filling for stud and lath partitions which were finally plastered over in the usual way4 ,the sun-dried clay-lumps so much used for walling in ,suffolk would seem to be admirable for forming the partitions in a house of cob4 ,cob work is usually repaired with rubble1 stone1 or brick4 ,new openings are easily cut through cob walls1 and this fact has occasionally led to the collapse of an old building through the zeal for light and air of some new occupier exceeding his caution1 and causing him to cut away the substance of his walls in cheerful disregard of the laws of gravity4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,,conclusion ,,authorities--,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,not by any means was cob exclusively the poor man's material1 and several old homes of this sort still survive that are of some consideration4 ,headnote3 ,raleigh's ,house ,amongst them is ,hayes ,barton1 the birthplace of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 ,writing of ,raleigh and his home1 ,mr4 ,charles ,bernard says3 99 99 99 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's ,house4--,he had great affection for his boyhood's home--the old manor-house at ,hayes ,barton where he was born1 and did his best to secure it from its then owner4 ',i will1' he wrote1 'most willingly give you whatsoever in your conscience you shall deme it worth 4 4 4 for ye naturall disposition ,i have to that place1 being borne in that house1 ,i had rather see myself there than anywhere else4' ,but alas6 it was not to be1 and the snug and friendly ,tudor homestead passed into other hands4 ,the house at ,hayes ,barton was probably not newly built when ,raleigh's parents lived there1 and it says much for the character of cob that the house is as good to-day as ever it was2 though for all that it has1 to use ,mr4 ,eden ,phillpotts' words1 'been patched and tinkered through the centuries1' it 'still endures1 complete and sturdy1 in harmony of old design1 with unspoiled dignity from a far past4' ,lady ,rosalind ,northcote gives the following description of the house in her ,devon4 ,she writes3 ,in front of the garden1 a swirling stream crosses a strip of green2 and in the garden1 at the right time1 one may see the bees busy among golden-powdered clusters of candytuft1 and dark red gillyflowers1 and a few flame rose-coloured tulips1 proud and erect4 ,the house is very picturesque2 it has cob walls and a thatched roof1 and is built in the shape of the letter ,e2 a wing projects at either end1 and in the middle the porch juts out slightly4 ,the two wings are gabled2 there is a small gable over the porch and two dormer ones over the windows at each side of it1 the windows having lattice lights and narrow mullions4 ,dark carved beams above them show up well against the cream-coloured walls4 ,the heavy door is closely studded with nails1 and over it fall the delicate sprays and lilac butterfly blossoms of wistaria4' ,illustration3 ,ceilings of ,modelled ,plaster from old ,cob ,houses in ,devon4 ,illustration3 ,a ,cob ,garden-wall with ,thatched ,coping4 ,reed ,thatch4--,in recent years slates or tiles have replaced thatch for the roofing of cob buildings and walls1 owing to the cost of reed 7the local name for the straw from which the grain has been hand-threshed by flail to prevent the straw being broken71 and the difficulty of getting good thatchers4 ,the opinion is held by many that the lasting quality of thatch has deteriorated since the practice of liming the cornland has unfortunately been given up4 ,primitive ,methods4--,formerly the ground floors of cob cottages were all cobbled1 but these have1 generally speaking1 been replaced by lime1 ash1 or cement floors4 ,the cob builders of past generations apparently made no use of the square1 plumb-line1 or level4 ,no laths were used for the walls1 which were plastered within2 outside1 rough-cast or slap-dash was laid on4 ,headnote3 ,mr4 ,baring-,gould ,mr4 ,baring-,gould's ,testimony4--,mr4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould1 in his ,book of the ,west1 writing on the subject says3 ,no house can be considered more warm and cosy than that built of cob1 especially when thatched4 ,it is warm in winter and cool in summer1 and ,i have known labourers bitterly bewail their fate in being transferred from an old fifteenth or sixteenth century cob cottage into a newly-built stone edifice of the most approved style1 as they said it was like going out of warm life into a cold grave4 ,,devon ,,cob ,the following paragraph1 taken from ,c4 ,b4 ,allen's ,cottage-,building1 is of interest3 ,the cob walls of ,devonshire have been known to last above a century without requiring the slightest repair1 and the ,rev4 ,w4 ,elicombe1 who has himself built several houses of two stories with cob walls1 says that he was born in a cob-wall parsonage built in the reign of ,elizabeth1 or somewhat earlier1 and that it had to be taken down to be rebuilt only in the year #ahca4 ,fruit ,walls4--,again quoting ,mr4 ,baring-,gould3 ,cob walls for garden fruit are incomparable4 ,they retain the warmth of the sun and give it out through the night1 and when protected on top by slates1 tiles1 or thatch1 will last for centuries4 ,it will be seen that the disadvantages of cob buildings are solely due to faults of construction1 and not to any inherent defect in properly made cob as a material1 and that the construction of cottages1 farm buildings1 and garden walls is well within the compass of an averagely intelligent workman4 ,it is not intended to argue that the cob cottage could be advantageously built in every county1 but only that where it has been used and liked for centuries1 a wise building policy would encourage its continuance4 ,the materials are at hand1 and the population ready to welcome this form of dwelling-place4 ,headnote3 ,old ,cob ,lore ,an ,old ,authority4--,an old writer treating of cottage-building thus delivers himself3 99 99 99 ,a ,bill for inclosing the waste lands of the kingdom having been introduced into the ,house of ,commons1 under the auspices of the ,board of ,agriculture1 and as so beneficial a ,bill cannot fail1 sooner or later1 to pass into a law1 and as in consequence thereof1 many small houses must necessarily be built1 suited to small estates issuing out of allotments of such wastes1 we have been induced to submit to the consideration of the ,board three plans of such small houses to be built of different species of materials4 ,the first is with mud walls1 composed of soft mire and straw1 well trodden together1 and which1 by degrees1 is laid on1 stratum-super-stratum1 to the height required2 a species of building not uncommon for cottages1 and even for better houses1 barns1 etc41 in the western and some other parts of the kingdom4 ,it is the cheapest habitation that we can construct and is also very dry and comfortable4 99 99 99 ,and again3 99 99 99 ,walls of mud1 or of compressed earth1 are still more economical than those of timber1 and if they were raised on brick or stone foundations1 the height of a foot or #ah in4 above the ground1 or above the highest point at which dung or moist straw was ever likely to be placed against them1 their durability would be equal to that of marble1 if properly constructed and kept perfectly dry4 ,the cob walls of ,devonshire1 which are formed of clay and straw trodden together by oxen1 have been known to last above a century without requiring the slightest repair2 and we think that there are many farmers1 especially in ,america and ,australia1 who if they knew how easily walls of this description could be built1 would often avail themselves of them for various agricultural purposes4 ,the solidity of cob walls depends much upon their not being hurried in the process of making them1 for if hurried1 the walls will surely be crippled1 that is1 they will swag or swerve from the perpendicular4 ,it is usual to pare down the sides of each successive rise before another is added to it4 ,the instrument used for this purpose is like a baker's peel 7a kind of wooden shovel for taking the bread out of the oven71 but the cob-parer is made of iron4 ,the lintels of the doors and windows and of the cupboards and other recesses are put in as the work advances 7allowance being made for their settling71 bedding them on cross pieces1 and the walls being carried up solid4 ,the respective openings are cut out after the work is well settled4 ,in ,devonshire the builders of cob-wall houses like to begin their work when the birds begin to build their nests1 in order that there may be time to cover in the shell of the building before winter4 ,the outer walls are plastered the following spring4 ,should the work be overtaken by winter before the roof is on1 it is usual to put a temporary covering of thatch upon the walls1 to protect them from the frost4 99 99 99 ,headnote3 ,mr4 ,fulford's ,evidence ,mr4 ,fulford's ,evidence4--,mr4 ,fulford1 of ,great ,fulford1 near ,exeter1 whose own village and estate can show as many good examples of old cob work as any place in ,devon1 writes as follows3 99 99 99 ,cost4--,it is not possible to give a close estimate of what would now be the comparative cost of a building in cob1 stone1 or brick1 as this must depend upon the exact locality of the site4 ,it may1 however1 be of assistance if ,i quote particulars of the relative cost of cob and stone building in ,devon in the year #ahjh when cob was in common use4 ,the stonework referred to was rough rubble1 and not with square or dressed blocks4 ,it must be borne in mind that up to that date practically all material1 stone1 lime1 etc41 was carried on horses' backs4 ,wheeled carts which began to creep in about the beginning of #ahjj1 were not in general use until twenty or thirty years later4 ,as a boy ,i knew a farmer who remembered the first wheeled cart coming to ,dunsford4 ,in #ahch the ,rector of ,bridford 7the ',christowell' of ,blackmore's novel7 recorded the fact that in #ahah there was only one cart in the parish and it was scarcely used twice a year4 ,in #ahjh the price of building varied according to the district4 ,in the northern part of the county the common price of stonework1 including the value of three quarts of cider or beer daily1 was from #bb;d4 to #bd;d4 the perch 7#af-a_/b ft471 #bb in4 in width and #a ft4 in height4 ,including all expenses of quarrying and carriage of materials1 stonework worked out at from #es4 to #fs4 per perch running measure1 and cob estimated in like manner at about #cs4 #f;d4 ,masons when not employed by the piece received #bs4 per day1 and allowance of beer or cider4 ,in the ,dunstone district 7the clay shales from which make the best cob7 masonwork was #ah;d4 per rope of #bj ft4 in length1 #ah in4 thick1 and #a ft4 high1 stone and all materials found and placed on the spot2 cob work of the same measure was #ad;d4 ,in the ,south ,hams district masonwork cost #bs4 #f;d41 and cob #bs4 per perch of #ah ft4 in length1 #b ft4 thick1 and #a ft4 high4 ,use of ,shuttering4--,in those parts of the red land where ,dunstone shillot or clay shale is not available1 the red clay was mixed with small stones or gravel1 and frequently the cob was laid and trodden down between side boards as used in building concrete walls4 ,three cartloads of clay built a perch and a half of wall #bj in4 wide and #a ft4 deep4 ,eight bundles of barley straw1 equal to one pack-horse load1 were mixed and tempered with nine cartloads of clay4 ,roofing4--,thatching in #ahjh cost #hs4 per square of #aj ft42 #ajj sheaves of wheat-straw reed1 weighing #be lb4 each1 were sufficient for one square4 ,thatching1 however1 is not1 as many suppose1 indispensable as a roofing for cob buildings2 slate found in many parts of ,devon was frequently used1 and of late years ,welsh and ,delabole slates1 tiles1 and unfortunately1 from the picturesque point of view1 corrugated iron1 have to a large extent supplanted thatch4 ,a ,protective ,wash4--,vancouver1 in his report on the ,survey of ,devon for the ,board of ,agriculture in #ahjh1 gave the following recipe1 which he described as a preserving and highly ornamental wash for rough-cast that was then getting into common use3 ',four parts of pounded lime1 three of sand1 two of pounded wood ashes1 and one of scoria of iron1 mixed well together and made sufficiently fluid to be applied with a brush4 ,when dry it gives the appearance of new ,portland stone1 and affords an excellent protection against the penetrating force of the south-westerly storms4 ,rendering4--,for the rough-weather sides of cob buildings ,i have found cement and sand1 finished with a rough surface1 satisfactory1 and far more durable than ordinary lime and gravel rough cast4 ,for interior cob walls1 laths are not necessary4 ,the old plastering was frequently laid on too thick4 ,of late years ,i have used with excellent results granite silicon plaster for ceilings and walls4 ,this requires no hair1 and is easily applied4 ,the ,cob ,tradition4--,cob-making was1 like many other local trades1 carried on in some families from generation to generation and developed by them into an art1 but apart from these specialists1 practically every village mason and his labourers built as much with cob as they did with stone4 ,there are men still left in various parts of the county who have made cob1 and it would1 in my opinion1 be of advantage if demonstrations could be given by them to discharged sailors and soldiers who are anxious to take up work on the land4 ,training of ex-,soldiers4--,in cob-building1 as in many other arts and crafts1 a little showing is of far greater help to the novice than any amount of text-book instruction4 ,the knowledge and experience that these men would gain from being shown1 and better still1 assisting an expert in making cob1 would be of material advantage in the development of the county scheme promoted by the ,central ,land ,association for the establishment of ex-,service men on the land4 ,they could try their 'prentice hands on walls1 tool-sheds1 cart linhays1 etc41 for their own use1 and some no doubt would develop into expert builders capable of constructing walls for dwelling-houses from approved plans4 #ahai ,conditions ,returned4--,the depletion of our home-grown timber supply and the prohibitive cost of practically all building material has in effect brought about the conditions that led our forefathers to utilise suitable material that lay nearest to hand1 and unless some endeavour is made to follow their methods and profit by their example1 it will be impossible to provide sufficient buildings for the necessary equipment of the allotments and small holdings1 let alone housing accommodation for the workers on the land4 99 99 99 ,headnote3 ,a ,champion of ,cob ,there is probably no one who knows more about cob than does ,mr4 ,fulford--certainly no one who has done more to promote the revival of cob-building both by precept and example4 ,cob is the traditional material of his native place1 he has1 as it were1 been brought up on cob--he is familiar with both the ancient history and the modern practice of cob-building1 and in short1 he knows4 ,when a revivalist has knowledge as well as enthusiasm1 the grounds of his faith are usually worth serious attention4 ,,ii ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,sec4 ,i4 ,,general ,what it is4--,pise de terre is merely the ,french for rammed earth1 and rammed earth is an exceedingly good material for the building of walls4 ,the odd thing is that its very obvious merits should have secured it such small attention4 ,it is no new-fangled war-time invention brought forth by our present necessity1 but a very ancient system well proved by centuries of trial4 ,history4--,pliny gives an excellent account of ,pise-building in his ,natural ,history1 and ,monsieur ,gorffon1 who published a treatise on this method of construction in #aggb1 states that it was first introduced into ,france by the ,romans4 ,the following extracts from an old book based on a ,french original will serve well as an introduction to the study of ,pise-building3 99 99 99 ,capabilities4--,an account of a method of building strong and durable houses1 with no other materials than earth2 which has been practised for ages in the province of ,lyons1 though little known in the rest of ,france1 or in any other part of ,europe4 ,it appeared to be attended with so many advantages1 that many gentlemen in this country who employ their leisure in the study of rural economy were induced to make a trial of its efficiency2 and the result of their experiments has been of such a nature as to make them desire1 by all possible means1 to extend the knowledge and practice of so beneficial an art4 ,the possibility of raising the walls of houses two or even three stories high1 with earth only1 which will sustain floors loaded with the heaviest weights1 and of building the largest manufactories in this manner1 may astonish every one who has not been an eye-witness of such things4 ,of ,pise and its ,origin4--,pise is a very simple manual operation2 it is merely by compressing earth in moulds or cases1 that we may arrive at building houses of any size or height4 ,locale4--,this art1 though at present confined to the single province of the ,lyonese in ,france1 was known and practised at a very early period of antiquity4 ,the ,abbe ,rozier1 in his ,journal de ,physique1 says that he has discovered some traces of it 7,pise7 in ,catalonia2 so that ,spain1 like ,france1 has a single province in which this ancient manner of building has been preserved4 ,the art1 however1 well deserves to be introduced into more general use4 ,the cheapness of the materials which it requires1 and the great saving of time and labour which it admits of1 must recommend it in all places and on all occasions1 but the ,french author says that it will be found particularly useful in hilly countries1 where carriage is difficult1 and sometimes impracticable2 and for farm buildings1 which1 as they must be made of considerable extent1 are usually very expensive1 without yielding any return4 ,headnote3 ,method of ,building ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,,method ,,of ,,building ,there is an exhaustive article on ,pise in ,vol4 ,,xxvii of ,the ,cyclopaedia or ,universal ,dictionary of ,arts1 ,sciences1 and ,literature1 published in #ahai4 ,the writer1 ,abraham ,rees1 ,d4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 draws chiefly on ,french authorities and his directions are most detailed and precise4 ,illustration3 ,,pise4 ,implements for ,pise or ,rammed ,earth ,buildings ,pise ,plant and ,implements4 7,reproduced from an old ,encyclopaedia47 ,definition4--,he introduces his subject thus3 ,pise-building1 in ,rural ,economy1 the name of a method of building with loamy or other earthy matters1 which has long been practised with great success1 and in a very cheap manner1 in some departments of ,france1 and which is now had recourse to with similar advantage in some parts of this country4 ,it has been described1 delineated1 and recommended by ,mr4 ,h4 ,holland in the first volume of ,communications to the ,board of ,agriculture1 and is to be managed somewhat in the manner directed below4 99 99 99 ,at great length and with immense detail1 the plant1 the preliminaries1 and the process are each severally described4 ,the pith of the matter is sufficiently given by the following extracts3 ,shuttering4--,for the construction of the mould1 take several planks1 each #aj ft4 long1 of light wood1 in order that the mould may be easy to handle2 deal is the best as being least liable to warp4 ,to prevent which the boards should be straight1 sound1 well seasoned1 and with as few knots as possible4 ,let them be ploughed and tongued1 and planed on both sides4 ,of these planks1 fastened together with four strong ledges on each side1 the mould must be made1 #b ft4 #i in4 in height2 and two handles should be fixed to each side4 ,all the boards and ledges here mentioned must be1 after they are planed1 something more than #a in4 thick4 ,rammer4--,the instrument with which the earth is rammed into the mould is a tool of the greatest consequence1 on which the firmness and durability1 in short the perfection1 of the work depends4 ,it is called a pisoir1 or rammer2 and though it may appear very easy to make it1 more difficulty will be found in the execution than is at first apprehended4 ,a better idea of its construction may be formed by examining the ,plate1 in which it is delineated1 than any words can convey4 ,it should be made of hard wood1 either ash1 oak1 beech1 walnut1 etc41 or what is preferable1 the roots of either of them4 ,method of ,working4--,pise contains all the best principles of masonry1 together with some rules peculiar to itself1 which are now to be explained4 ,to begin with the foundation2 this may be made of any kind of masonry that is durable1 and should be raised to the height of #b ft4 above the ground2 which is necessary to secure the walls from the moisture of the earth1 and the splashing of the rain1 which will drop from the eaves of the roof4#d ,when these foundation walls are made level1 and #ah in4 thick1 mark upon them the distance at which the joists are to be set1 for receiving the moulds2 those distances should be #c ft4 each from centre to centre4 ,each side of the mould being #aj ft4 long1 will divide into three lengths of #c ft4 each1 and leave #f in4 at each end1 which serve to lengthen the mould at the angles of the house and are useful for many other purposes4 ,after having set the joists in their places1 the masonry must be raised between them #f in4 higher1 that is1 to a level with the joists2 there will1 therefore1 altogether be a base of #b-a_/b ft41 which in most cases will be found more than sufficient to prevent the rain1 frost1 snow1 or damp from injuring the walls4 ,raise the mould immediately on this new masonry1 placing it over one of the angles of the wall4 ,footnote #d3 ,the introduction of a damp-course and the provision of gutters at the eaves greatly reduce the function of the masonry base in modern work4 ,headnote3 ,the ,ramming ,a workman should be placed in each of the three divisions of the mould1 the best workman being placed at the angle4 ,he is to direct the work of the other two1 and by occasionally applying a plumb-rule1 to take care that the mould does not swerve from its upright position4 ,the labourers who dig and prepare the earth must give it in small quantities to the workmen in the mould1 who1 after having spread it with their feet1 begin to compress it with the rammer4 ,they must only receive at a time so much as will cover the bottom of the mould to the thickness of #c or #d in4 ,the first strokes of the rammer should be given close to the sides of the mould1 but they must be afterwards applied to every other part of the surface2 the men should then cross their strokes1 so that the earth may be compressed in every direction4 ,those who stand next to one another in the mould should regulate their strokes so as to beat at the same time under the cord1 because that part cannot be got at without difficulty1 and must be struck obliquely2 with this precaution1 the whole will be equally compressed4 ,the man at the angle of the wall should beat carefully against the head of the mould4 ,care must be taken that no fresh earth is received into the mould till the first layer is well beaten1 which may be ascertained by striking it with a rammer2 the stroke should leave hardly any print on the place4 ,they must proceed in this manner to ram in layer after layer1 till the whole mould is full4 ,when this is done1 the machine may be taken to pieces1 and the earth which is contained will remain firm and upright1 about #i ft4 in length and #b-a_/b ft4 in height4 ,the mould may then be replaced for another length1 including #a in4 of that which has first been completed4 ,the first course being thus completed1 we proceed to the second2 and here it must be observed that in each successive course we must proceed in a direction contrary to that of the preceding4 ,it may easily be conceived1 that with this precaution the joints of the several lengths will be inclined in opposite directions1 which will contribute very much to the firmness of the work4 ,there is no reason to fear overcharging the first course with the second1 though but just laid2 for three courses may be laid without danger in one day4 ,this description of the first two courses is equally applicable to all the others1 and will enable any person to build a house1 with no other materials than earth1 of whatever height and extent he pleases4 ,with respect to the gables1 they may be made without any difficulty1 by merely making their inclination in the mould and working the earth accordingly4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,science ,,of ,,pise ,the ,value of ,ramming4--,beating1 or compression1 is used in many different sorts of work2 the ancients employed it in making their rough walls2 the ,italians employ it for the terraces which adorn their houses2 the ,moors for all their walls2 the ,spaniards1 the ,french1 and others for some of the floors of their apartments4 ,the intent of the ancient architects1 when they recommended the beating of cement and other compositions used in building1 was to prevent them from shrinking and cracking2 and it is employed for the same purpose in walls which are made of earth4 ,the beater1 by repeated strokes1 forces out from the earth the superfluous water which is contained and closely unites all the particles together1 by which means the natural attraction of these particles is made powerful to operate1 as it is by other natural causes in the formation of stones4 ,hence arises the increasing strength and astonishing durability which houses of this kind are found to possess4 ,an ,experiment4--,upon beating a small portion of earth1 and weighing it immediately afterwards1 it was found to weigh #ci-a_/b lb4 ,fifteen days after1 it had lost #d-a_/d lb4 ,in the space of another fifteen days it lost but #a lb42 and in fifteen days after that its weight diminished only #a_/b lb4 ,in the space of about forty-five days the moisture was completely evaporated1 and its weight was diminished about one-eighth2 consequently only one-eighth of the whole mass was occupied by moisture1 and this small proportion cannot at all affect the solidity and consistency of the earth so treated4 ,this experiment is also sufficient to show the difference between this kind of building and that vulgar kind called in ,england 'mud-walling4' ,rate of ,work4--,in one single day three courses of about #c ft4 each may be laid one over the other2 so that a wall of earth of about #h or #i ft41 or one story high1 may be safely raised in one day4 ,experience has proved that as soon as the builders have raised their walls to a proper height for flooring1 the heaviest beams and rafters may without danger be placed on the walls thus newly made2 and that the thickest timber of a roof may be laid on the gables of pise the very instant they are completed4 ,headnote3 ,suitable ,soils ,,on ,,earth ,,proper ,,for ,,building ,suitable ,soils4--#ast4 ,all earths in general are fit for that use1 when they have not the lightness of poor lands nor the stiffness of clay4 #bndly4 ,all earths fit for vegetation4 #crdly4 ,brick-earths2 but these1 if they are used alone1 are apt to crack1 owing to the quantity of moisture which they contain4 ,this1 however1 does not hinder persons who understand the business from using them to a good purpose4 #dthly4 ,strong earths1 with a mixture of small gravel1 which for that reason cannot serve for making either bricks1 tiles1 or pottery4 ,these gravelly earths are very useful1 and the best pise is made of them4 ,soil ,tests4--,the following appearances indicate that the earth in which they are found is fit for building3 when a pickaxe1 spade1 or plough brings up large lumps of earth at a time2 when arable lands lies in clods or lumps2 when field-mice have made themselves subterraneous passages in the earth2 all these are favourable signs4 ,when the roads of a village1 having been worn away by the water continually running through them1 are lower than the other lands1 and the sides of those roads support themselves almost upright1 it is a sure mark that pise may be executed in that village4 ,one may also discover the fitness of the soil by trying to break with one's fingers the little clods of earth in the roads1 and finding a difficulty in doing it2 or by observing the ruts of the road1 in which the cart-wheels make a sort of pise by their pressure2 whenever there are deep ruts on a road1 one may be sure of finding abundance of proper earth4 ,proper earth is found at the bottom of the slopes of low lands that are cultivated1 because every year the rain brings down the fat or good earth4 ,it is frequently found on the banks of the river1 but above all1 it is found at the foot of hills1 and on all cultivated lands which have much slope4 ,in digging trenches and cellars for building1 it generally happens that what comes out of them is fit for the purpose4 ,,on ,,the ,,mixture ,,of ,,earths ,soil ,blending4--,as it may sometimes happen that earth of a proper quality is not to be found on the spot where it is intended to build1 it becomes of importance to attend to the method of mixing earths2 for though the earth which is near at hand may not of itself be proper1 it is very probable that it may be rendered so by the mixture of a small quantity of another earth fetched from a distance4 ,the principle on which a mixture must be made is very simple2 strong earths must be tempered with light2 those in which clay predominates1 with others that are composed more of chalk and sand2 and those of a rich1 glutinous substance1 with others of a poor and barren nature4 ,the degree in which these qualities of the earths prevail must determine the proportions of the mixture2 which it is impossible here to point out for every particular case1 but which may be learnt by a little practice4 ,some easy methods will be described1 by which any one may make a trial of the qualities of his earth4 ,it will not be amiss to mix with the earth some small pebbles1 gravel1 rubbish of mortar1 or in short any small mineral substances2 but none of the animal or vegetable kind must be admitted4#e ,such hard substances bind the earth firmly between them1 and being pressed and pressing in all directions1 contribute very much to the solidity of the whole2 so that well-worked earth1 in which there is a mixture of gravel1 becomes so hard at the end of two years that a chisel must be used to break it1 as if it was freestone4 ,footnote #e3 ,the pise does not admit any vegetable or animal substances4 ,in mud walls they put straw1 chopped hay1 hair1 flocks1 wool1 etc41 to make the mud adhere to the wood1 or laths2 whereas the workmen who build in pise are careful to pick out the least straw or the smallest bit of root which remains in the earth3 in short1 the pise is a mineral substance imitating stone1 consequently anything that can slake or rot must be excluded4 ,headnote3 ,experiments ,,experiments ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,any ,,earth ,trial by ,experiment4--,take a small wooden tub or pail1 without a bottom1 dig a hole in the ground of a court or garden1 and at the bottom of that hole fix a piece of stone1 flat and level2 place your tub upon the stone1 fill around it the earth that has been dug out to make the hole1 and ram it well1 that the tub may be enclosed1 to prevent its bursting4 ,then ram into the tub the earth you mean to try2 putting in1 at each time1 about the thickness of three or four fingers' breadths3 when this is well rammed1 add as much more1 and ram it in the same manner1 and so the third and fourth1 etc41 till the earth is raised above the brim4 ,this superfluous earth must be scraped off extremely smooth1 and rendered as even as the under-part will be1 which lies on the stone4 ,loosen with a spade the earth around the tub1 and you will then be able to take it out1 and with it the compressed earth that it contains2 then turn the tub upside down1 and if it is wider at the top than at the bottom1 as such vessels usually are1 the pise will easily come out1 but if it should happen to stick1 let it dry in the air about twenty-four hours1 and you will then find that the earth is loose enough to fall out of itself4 ,you must be careful to cover this lump of pise with a little board2 for though a shower of rain1 falling in an oblique direction1 will not injure it1 yet it may be a little damaged if the rain falls perpendicularly1 and especially if it remains upon it4 ,leave the lump exposed to the air1 only covered with a board or flat stone1 and if it continues without cracking or crumbling1 and increases daily in density and compactness as its natural moisture decreases1 you may be sure that the earth is fit for building4 ,but you must remember that it is necessary that the earth employed should be taken from a little below the surface of the ground1 in order that it may be neither too dry nor too wet2 it must be observed also that if the earth is not well pressed around the outside of the tub before it is filled1 though the hoops were of iron1 they would burst1 so great is the pressure of the beaten earth against the mould1 of whatever size it may be4 ,the ,earth-ball ,test--,an ,experiment which may be made at any time4--,every person in walking on his ground may make little balls of earth and press them as tight as he can between his hands4 ,if he brings them home and puts marks on them1 he will by that means know the quality of every piece of land1 and also be a judge of the mixture it will be necessary to make4 ,headnote3 ,preparation of the ,earth ,,on ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,for ,,building ,soil ,preparation4--,all the operations of this art are very simple and easy2 there is nothing to be done but to dig up the earth with a pickaxe1 break the clods with a shovel1 so as to divide it well1 and then lay it in a heap1 which is very necessary1 because as the labourers throw it on that heap1 the lumps of earth and large stones roll to the bottom1 where another man may break them or draw them away with a rake4 ,i must observe that there should be an interval of about an inch and a quarter between the teeth of the rake1 that the stones and pebbles of the size of a walnut1 or something more1 may escape1 and that it may draw off only the largest4 ,if the earth that has been dug has not the proper quality1 which is seldom the case1 and it is necessary to fetch some better from a distance1 then the mixture must be made in this manner3 one man must throw one shovelful of the best sort1 while the others throw five or six of the inferior sort on the heap1 and so more or less according to the proportions which have been previously ascertained4 ,rain4--,no more earth should be prepared than the men can work in one day1 or a little more1 that they may not be in want2 but if rain is expected1 you must have at hand either planks1 mats1 or old cloths to lay over the heap of earth1 so that the rain may not wet it2 and then as soon as the rain is over1 the men may resume their work1 which1 without this precaution1 must be delayed2 for it must be remembered that the earth cannot be used when it is either too dry or too wet1 and therefore if the rain should wet it after it has been prepared1 the men will be obliged to wait till it has recovered its proper consistency--a delay which would be equally disadvantageous to them and their employer4 ,when the earth has been soaked by rain1 instead of suffering compression1 it becomes mud in the mould2 even though it be but a little too moist1 it cannot be worked2 it swells under the blows of the rammer1 and a stroke in one place makes it rise in another4 ,when this is the case1 it is better to stop the work1 for the men find so much difficulty that it is not worth while to proceed4 ,but there is not the same necessity of discontinuing the work when the earth is too dry1 for it is easy to give it the necessary degree of moisture2 in such a case it should be sprinkled with a watering-pot1 and afterwards well mixed up together2 it will then be fit for use4 ,organic ,matter4--,it has already been observed that no vegetable substances should be left in the earth2 therefore in digging1 as well as in laying the earth in a heap1 great care must be taken to pick out every bit of root1 great and small1 all sprigs and herbs1 all bits of hay and straw1 chips or shavings of woods1 and in general everything that can rot or suffer a change in the earth4 ,,on ,,the ,,bond ,,timber ,,to ,,be ,,used ,,in ,,buildings ,,of ,,pise ,corners4--,to make good walls1 it is not sufficient that the earth be well beaten1 we must also learn to unite them well together4 ,here the binders cost very little2 they consist only of thin pieces of wood1 a few cramps and nails1 and these are sufficient to give the greatest stability to buildings of pise4 ,having gone on to explain that the angles of the building are formed by the successive courses alternately crossing one another on the corner like the alternating long and short quoins in a stone building1 our authority proceeds to describe how rough boards are laid between the courses of pise so as to cross at the corner and so1 entirely encased in tightly compressed earth1 they form effective ties4 ,this board must be rough1 as the sawyers have left it1 #e or #f ft4 long1 something less than #a in4 thick1 and in breadth about #h1 #i or #aj in41 so that there may remain on each side #d or #e in4 of earth1 if the wall is #ah in4 thick2 by this means the board will be entirely concealed in the body of the wall4 ,when thus placed neither the air nor damp can reach it1 and of course there is no danger of its rotting4 ,this has been often proved by experience1 as in taking down old houses of pise such boards have always been found perfectly sound1 and many that had not even lost the colour of new wood4 ,it is easy to conceive how much this board1 from the pressure of the work raised above it1 will help to bind together the two lengths of wall and to strengthen the angle4 ,bonders4--,it is useful 7particularly when the earth is not of a very good quality7 to put ends of planks into the pise after it has been rammed about half the height of the mould4 ,these ends of planks should only be #aj or #aa in4 long1 to leave as before a few inches of earth on each side of the wall1 if it is #ah in4 thick2 they should be laid crosswise 7as the plank before mentioned is laid lengthwise7 over the whole course1 at the distance of about #b ft4 from one another1 and will serve to equalise the pressure of the upper parts of the works on the lower course of the pise4 ,the boards above mentioned need only be placed at the angles of the exterior wall1 and in those parts where the courses of the partition walls join to those of the exterior wall1 the same directions that have here been given for the second course must be observed at each succeeding course1 up to the roof4 ,by these means the reader will perceive that an innumerable quantity of holders or bondings will be formed1 which sometimes draw to the right1 sometimes to the left of the angles1 and which powerfully unite the front walls with those of the partitions2 the several parts deriving mutual support from one another1 and the whole being rendered compact and solid4 ,headnote3 ,the ,strength of ,pise ,strength4--,hence these houses1 made of earth alone1 are able to resist the violence of the highest winds1 storms and tempests4 ,the height that is intended to be given to each story being known1 boards of #c or #d ft4 in length should be placed beforehand in the pise1 in those places where the beams are to be fixed1 and as soon as the mould no longer occupies that place1 the beams may be laid on1 though the pise be fresh made2 little slips of wood1 or boards1 may be introduced under them1 in order to fix them level4 ,the beams thus fixed for each story1 the pise may be continued as high as the place on which you intend to erect the roof4 ,,on ,,the ,,time ,,and ,,labour ,,necessary ,,in ,,building ,a ,,certain ,,quantity ,,of ,,pise ,speed of ,building4--,besides the advantages of strength and cheapness1 this method of building possesses that of speed in the execution4 ,that the reader may know the time that is required for building a house1 or an enclosure1 he need only be told that a mason used to the work can1 with the help of his labourer1 when the earth lies near1 build in one day #f ft4 square of the pise4 ,rendering4--,to prepare the walls for plastering1 indent them with the point of the hammer1 or hatchet1 without being afraid of spoiling the surface left by the mould2 all those little dents must be made as close as possible to each other1 and cut in from top to bottom1 so that every hole may have a little rest in the inferior part1 which will serve to retain and support the plaster4 ,if you happen to lay the plaster over them before the dampness is entirely gone1 you must expect that the sweat of the walls will cast off the plaster4 ,the wall surface having been duly hammer-chipped1 the work must be scoured with a stiff brush to remove all loose earth and dust1 and to finally prepare it for rough-casting4 ,rough-cast consists of a small quantity of mortar1 diluted with water in a tub1 to which a trowel of pure lime is added1 so as to make it about the thickness of cream4 ,one workman and his labourers are sufficient2 the workman on the scaffold sprinkles with a brush the wall he has indented1 swept1 and prepared2 after that he dips another brush1 made of bits of reed1 box1 etc41 into the tub which contains the rough-cast1 and throws with this brush the rough-cast against the wall4 ,rough-cast1 which is attended with so little trouble and expense1 is notwithstanding the best cover that can be made for pise walls1 and for all other constructions2 it contributes to preserve the buildings4 ,it is the peculiar advantage of these buildings that all the materials they require are cheap1 and all the workmanship simple and easy4 ,local ,testimony4--,at the end of the article just summarised1 an instructive letter from a former rector of ,st4 ,john's1 ,la ,rochelle1 is quoted3 ,,sir1-- ,my having been an inhabitant for some time of the town of ,montbrison1 capital of the ,forets1 enables me to give you some information concerning the mode of building houses with earth1 etc4 ,headnote3 ,a ,pise ,church ,a ,pise ,church4--,the church was the most remarkable in this style of building2 it is about #hj ft4 long1 #dj ft4 broad1 and #ej ft4 high2 the walls built in pise1 #ah in4 thick1 and crepe1 or rough-cast on the outside1 with lime and sand4 ,soon after my arrival1 the church1 by some accident1 was destroyed by fire1 and remained unroofed for about a twelvemonth1 exposed to rains and frost4 ,as it was suspected that the walls had sustained much damage1 either by fire or the inclemency of the season1 and might fall down1 it was determined to throw them down partially1 and leave only the lower parts standing2 but even this was not done without much difficulty1 such was the firmness and hardness these walls had acquired1 the church having stood above eighty years2 and all the repairs required were only to give it on the outside1 every twelve or fifteen years1 a new coating of rough-cast4 ,a house for a single family is generally finished in about a fortnight4 ,the following is the method ,i have seen them practise4 ,building ,procedure4--,the earth is pounded as much as possible1 in order to crumble any stones therein2 clay is added thereto in a small quantity1 about one-eighth part4 ,it is all beaten and mixed up together by repeated blows with a mallet about #aj in4 broad1 and #aj or #ae in4 long1 and #b in4 thick4 ,the earth being thus prepared1 and slightly wetted1 the foundation of the house is dug for2 this is laid with stone1 and when it is about #a ft4 high above the surface of the ground1 planks are arranged on each side1 which are filled with earth intended for the wall2 this is called ,pise in the dialect of the country4 ,it is strongly beaten2 and this method is continued successively all round the building4 ,the walls have more or less thickness according to the fancy of the owner2 ,i have seen them #f in4 and #ah in4 thick4 ,if several stories are intended in such erections1 they do not fail to place beams to support the floors before they build higher4 ,of such buildings ,i never saw any consisting of more than three floors at most2 generally they have but two4 ,when the building is thus finished1 it is left for some months to dry2 then such as wish to make the building more solid and durable1 give it a rough-cast coating on the outside with lime and sand4 ,this is what ,i have observed during a residence of three years in the town of ,montbrison4 ,i should be happy if this detail should afford the slightest information to the generous nation which has received us with so much goodness4 ,i am1 etc41 ,,jaucour4 ,the ,virtues of ,pise4--,such is the method of building which has been practised in the ,lyonnese for many centuries4 ,houses so built are strong1 healthy1 and very cheap1 they will last a great length of time1 for the ,french author says he had pulled down some of them which1 from the title-deeds in the possession of the proprietors1 appeared to be #afe years old1 though they had been ill kept in repair4 ,the rich traders of ,lyons have no other way of building their country-houses4 ,an outside covering of painting in fresco1 which is attended with very little expense1 conceals from the eye of the spectator the nature of the building1 and is a handsome ornament to the house4 ,that method of painting has more freshness and brilliancy than any other1 because water does not impair the colours4 ,no size1 oil1 or expense is required1 manual labour is almost all it costs1 either to the rich or poor4 ,any person may make his house look as splendid as he pleases1 for a few pence laid out in red or yellow ochre1 or in other mineral colours4 ,strangers who have sailed upon the ,rhone probably never suspected that those beautiful houses1 which they saw rising on the hills around them1 were built of nothing but earth1 nay1 many persons have dwelt for a considerable time in such houses without ever being aware of their singular construction4 ,farmers in that country generally have them simply white-washed1 but others1 who have a greater taste for ornament1 add pilasters1 window-cases1 panels1 and decorations of various kinds4 ,there is every reason for introducing this method of building into all parts of the kingdom2 whether we consider the honour of the nation as concerned in the neatness of its villages1 the great saving of wood which it will occasion1 and the consequent security from fire1 or the health of the inhabitants1 to which it will greatly contribute1 as such houses are never liable to the extremes of heat or cold4 ,it is attended with many other circumstances that are advantageous to the ,state as well as to individuals4 ,it saves both time and labour in building1 and the houses may be inhabited almost immediately after they are finished2 for which latter purpose1 the holes made for the joists should not be closed up directly1 as the air1 if suffered to circulate through them1 will dry the walls more speedily4 ,headnote3 ,indian and ,colonial ,practice ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,,indian ,,and ,,colonial ,,practice ,a ,manual on ,earthwork1 edited by ,colonel ,maclagan1 ,r4,e41 gives much interesting information as to ,pise-building and a number of valuable hints3 ,shutter-ties4--,cross pieces1 as the work proceeds1 become so firmly embedded in the wall1 that there is great difficulty in extracting them1 to remedy which iron bars have been substituted4 ,even these thin iron bars become so tightly jammed when surrounded by the compact pise earth1 that much labour and risk of injury to the work is incurred in extricating them1 and the expedient of setting them in a bed of sand has been successfully resorted to4 ,they are then drawn out with care1 the sand also is removed1 and the holes which they leave are subsequently filled with the same earth of which the wall is made1 and rammed hard4 ,the heads of the opposite uprights are held together by ropes1 but in practice in this country#f it has been found that1 under the immense pressure exerted upon the plank sides by the earth firmly rammed in the interior1 the ropes are so liable to stretch1 and to break1 that it is advisable to use iron rods or bars in this position also4 ,when ropes are used1 the distance between the side planks is measured by gauge rods1 and the ropes tightened when requisite to preserve the proper breadth of wall4 ,the use of iron connecting rods renders this unnecessary4 ,footnote #f3 ,india4 ,soil4--,soil of a medium quality1 that is neither very stiff nor very sandy1 is considered best adapted for pise4 ,it may be said that that which would make good bricks will answer well for this description of work4 ,when the earth is very dry1 a sprinkling of water will be necessary4 ,foundations4--,it is usual to begin the work upon a foundation of brick or masonry2 but there seems to be no reason why the pise might not be used from the commencement1 even for foundations under ground2 being carefully guarded from all chance of injury by running water4 ,the ,building4--,the casing being prepared and erected1 and the upper surface of the old work1 when above the first stage1 being sprinkled with water1 the earth1 well mixed and slightly moistened1 is thrown in1 and spread in thin layers of #d or #e in4 ,these should1 when rammed1 be reduced to one-half their original thickness4 ,the rammers should be of hard wood and very smooth4 ,the successive layers are similarly treated1 and thus the work proceeds until the top of the casing is reached4 ,the ends of each portion should be finished with a slope1 to which will be joined the portion next to be added longitudinally4 ,these joinings should not1 in the successive courses1 be above those of the lower stage1 but as in masonry and brickwork1 should 'break joint4' ,the seams are all distinctly perceptible when the work is complete4 ,headnote3 ,plastering ,plastering4--,the wall may have a coating of plaster1 or the surface may be simply smoothed and dressed with a shovel1 or similar implement4 ,when it is to be plastered1 it is necessary that the wall should first be thoroughly dry4 ,if dry only externally whilst damp within1 it has been found that the moisture is apt subsequently to attack the plaster and cause it to fall off in flakes4 ,without plaster1 good ,pise work is found successfully to withstand exposure to the weather1 and after the lapse of many years to be so compact and hard as to be picked down with difficulty4 ,protection4--,where the wall is not that of a roofed building1 it should be provided with a coping1 having a good projection to protect it from rain4 ,rods versus ,bars4--,the substitution of iron connecting bars for the wooden ones has been mentioned above4 ,the evils of the wooden arrangement were found to be3 the starting of the wedges1 the fracture of the tenons1 the tight jamming of the bars in the wall1 and the injury to the walls and to the bars themselves from the force requisite to be applied for extracting them4 ,the lower iron connecting bars are made #c-a_/b in4 by #a_/b in42 the upper1 #a in4 by #a_/c or #a_/d in4 each1 having holes #a_/b in4 by #a_/d in41 with corresponding pins4 ,the mode of setting the bars and arranging the work on each successive elevation of the casing is to cut on the surface of the completed part of the wall a groove #a in4 wider than the bar1 filling it in1 after placing the bar1 with sand1 to the level of the wall's surface4 ,the side boarding being set up1 the vacant space left along the bevelled edge of the previous course is filled up with moist clay to retain the first layer of the new course4 ,the end pieces are secured by iron bars or rods1 with screws and nuts4#g ,footnote #g3 ,a convenient arrangement might be3 to make the lower and upper connecting bars alike1 to raise the side boarding a few inches above the upper bars1 which1 when embedded1 might be allowed to remain and become the lower ones of the next course2 the external apparatus being shifted by taking out the pins and slipping off the stanchions and planks to be reapplied to the upper bars already in position to receive them4 ,ramming4--,gentle and quick ramming has been found most effectual4 ,report on the ,pise-work executed at the ,etah ,jail during #ahfg-h4 ,by ,mr4 ,h4 ,sprenger1 ,assistant ,engineer ,the boxes in which the pise-work at the ,etah ,jail is being executed consist of two wooden frames #aj ft4 long and #b-a_/b ft4 broad1 made of planks1 which are nailed on to stout battens4 ,they are held together by four pairs of posts #c in4 by #c in41 which are connected above and below with tie-bars of flat iron #a-a_/b in4 by #a_/d in4 ,the tie-bars have at each end a certain number of #a_/b in4 holes punched in them to receive pins for the purpose of preventing the posts from slipping off4 ,by changing the pins1 walls of any given dimension can be obtained1 wedges of hard wood1 with longitudinal slots1 are introduced between the posts and the pins1 to adjust the breadth of the boxes to a standard gauge4 ,after the boxes are fixed and adjusted1 they are secured in their position by ropes passing over them1 and tied to stakes on each side4 ,any deflection from the vertical should be corrected at the commencement of the work1 as it is impossible to alter the position of a box after it is half full4 ,any earth which is suitable for brick-making will do for pise-work4 ,on being dug out it is passed through a screen with #a_/b-;in4 meshes1 and thrown into the boxes in even layers of #f in4 in depth4 ,headnote3 ,the ,right ,quantity of ,water ,generally fresh earth contains sufficient moisture to ensure good consolidation2 but if it is found that it jumps up under the rammers1 it should1 on being thrown into the boxes1 be sprinkled with a little water out of a tin can with a rose4 ,the watering should be as uniform as possible1 as if it is applied unequally it will liquefy the earth1 which will commence oozing out under the rammers4 ,pise-work executed with too much water is worse than if done with dry earth1 as1 on account of the elasticity of the wet earth1 the effect of the ramming is deadened1 and the earth remains unconsolidated4 ,the men should be prohibited to keep time in ramming1 as it causes vibration1 which is injurious to the stability of the wall4 ,on working over a lower course1 it is as well to let the lower tie-bars about #d in4 into the same to give the boxes a firm hold on the old work1 thereby the joints become imperceptible1 and the upper edge of the lower course is prevented from chipping off4 ,the implements used are three different kinds of rammers4 ,the earth is first beaten down with a ,v-shaped rammer1 and then surfaced with one with a flat bottom4 ,the sides of the boxes are consolidated with a spade-shaped rammer4 ,when commencing the pise-work at ,etah1 considerable difficulty was experienced in extricating the lower tie-bars4 ,these were1 therefore1 supplied with holes #c in4 apart throughout their whole length4 ,a pin was inserted1 against which a crow-bar with a long slot and well bent at the end was made to work4 ,an equal pressure could thereby be exerted against the tie-bars2 they were thus extracted with great facility without injuring them or the face of the wall1 which was not the case formerly4 ,supplementary ,note by ,mr4 ,e4 ,battie1 ,executive ,engineer1 #eth ,division1 ,grand ,trunk ,road ,the work at ,etah has generally been concluded in the following manner3 ,in the morning the boxes were taken down1 and again put up and filled during the day2 they were left during the night1 so that the earth might detach itself from the sides4 ,it is not advisable to allow a course to dry thoroughly1 as the upper one will not bind well into it1 but probably show a crack4 ,if the earth is well rammed1 and only the proper quantity of moisture admitted1 a second course can be commenced immediately4 99 99 99 ,the ,report of the ,rhodesia ,munitions and ,resources ,committee issued in #aiah contains an interesting paper by ,mr4 ,john ,hynd on ,pise-building1 from which the following is extracted3 ,headnote3 ,pise ,buildings at ,empandeni ,pise de ,terre ,buildings ,the ,spectator took this matter up some two years ago and wrote as follows3 ',various schemes of land settlement are in the air4 4 4 4 ,all of them must1 however1 be concerned with cheap buildings4 ,that is a sine qua non4' 4 4 4 ,the material used for the walls at ,empandeni is one-third sand1 one-third ant-heap1 and one-third soil1 all pulverised and put through a sieve4 ,water is then added4 ,the mixture must be neither too wet nor too dry1 just sufficiently damp to bind2 a good indication of the correct consistency being that when squeezed hard by the hand it shows a tendency to bind4 ,sufficient of the loose mixture is thrown into the form to fill it to a depth of about #c in41 and this is thoroughly rammed before the next layer is put in4 ,most thorough ramming is essential4 ,when the frame is rammed full1 it is taken apart and shifted along to make another section and so on until the first layer is complete4 ,the first layer is1 as a rule1 sufficiently dry to permit the starting of the next about three hours after laying4 ,door and window frames are put in as the work proceeds1 and must be well braced while ramming4 ,in the top layer hoop iron or fencing wire is let in for fastening down the wall plates4 ,arsenite of soda or ,atlas ,compound is used in the first layer or two to keep out white ants4 ,the floor can be made of timber1 cement concrete1 or rammed earth1 and the roof thatched or covered with corrugated iron as is most convenient4 ,the following ,pise de terre buildings have been erected at ,empandeni3 ,a large schoolroom #ge ft4 by #bh ft4 by #ab ft4 high1 walls #ad in4 thick2 seven boys' dormitories1 each #cj ft4 by #bj ft4 by #ab ft42 twelve single-room houses1 each #af ft4 by #ab ft42 six fowl houses1 each #bj ft4 by #aj ft42 a large fowl house #bej ft4 long1 front walls #g ft4 and back walls #e ft4 high4 ,this building is divided into fifteen compartments4 ,from the foregoing description it is quite evident that cheap and efficient buildings of this nature can be erected at a very low cost4 ,on a farm it is not necessary to employ any skilled labour1 as the doors and windows can be purchased ready-made1 and the frame-work1 clamps1 etc41 put together by the farmer himself4 ,for a roof of thatch all the necessary material1 except iron ridging1 if this is used1 can as a rule be procured on the farm4 ,should a cement concrete floor1 which is cheaper than a wood one1 be desired1 there would be an extra expenditure for cement1 the amount required being about two bags per twelve square yards4 ,such a floor should be laid before the walls of the building are commenced1 and it is essential that the site is thoroughly well rammed and consolidated1 particularly below where walls will come1 before laying the concrete1 to prevent cracks developing through settlement4 ,the concrete raft should be carried at least #f in4 beyond the outside walls of the building1 and if the work is properly done1 a special ant-course will be unnecessary4 ,the concrete can be left rough below the walls to give a bond1 and it might be advisable to lay some pieces of hoop iron in it which would be left projecting to be bedded into the walls4 ,another good type of floor would probably be that suggested in ,the ,spectator1 viz4 road material laid down and tarred in the same manner as roads are now made in many places4 ,a number of rooms and houses have been erected on the ,globe and ,phoenix ,mine on much the same principle as ,pise de terre buildings1 but the system developed there is different as regards the mixture1 which consists of two parts ant-heap or ordinary dagga which must not be too sandy1 and three parts ashes or clinker sieved free from fine dust4 ,a very full description of the method employed on this mine was forwarded by the courtesy of the ,manager to the ,committee1 and it is interesting to note from this that the walls are made waterproof by first making them smooth with dagga plaster1 then1 when quite dry1 giving one good coat of boiling hot tar4 ,a coat of limewash is applied three days later4 ,that this is effective is well evidenced by the fact that the buildings erected have successfully withstood our last abnormally heavy rainy season4 ,the ,globe and ,phoenix system is the result of a number of experiments carried out on that mine4 ,their mixture1 which is stated to be ant-proof1 contains more moisture than ,pise de terre1 and each course is reinforced with old wire rope1 or other suitable scrap4 ,the material is left in a heap for one or two days before being used4 ,circular huts have been built on the mine of the same material1 the forms being made of two rings of corrugated iron in three or more sections joined up with cleats at the end laps and held in position with cross bolts and distance pieces4 ,the inner ring is #i in4 less radius than the outer one4 ,headnote3 ,pise ,buildings for ,settlers ,extracts from a paper on ,pise in the ,farmers' ,handbook1 issued by the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,new ,south ,wales1 #aiaa ,pise is a material readily obtainable by the settler1 of which cheap and durable buildings can be easily and substantially erected4 ,for the construction of pastoral or agricultural buildings1 especially in districts remote from railways1 or from towns in which other building materials are cheap or easily procurable1 pise is particularly well adapted4 ,in the country earth is plentiful and readily obtainable2 in the city or town such is not the case1 and this fact1 combined with the very bulky nature of the material1 prohibits its use in such centres of population4 ,to the selector or settler1 who1 like many of our successful pioneers1 is not burdened with a superfluity of hard cash1 but who possesses an abundant capital of energy1 combined with a certain amount of handiness1 pise has an additional advantage 7which it shares with slabs1 wattle and daub1 etc47 over most other building materials1 in that it affords him an opportunity of erecting his homesteading largely as the result of his own labour4 ,as a building material1 pise is infinitely superior and more durable than slabs1 galvanised iron1 or weather-boards4 ,in fact it is questionable whether it is not more suitable for our climate1 and therefore to be preferred to brickwork2 for pise buildings1 properly protected and finished1 are quite as durable and much cooler than buildings constructed with solid brick walls4 ,this statement may be questioned by some whose knowledge of pise is limited to buildings so badly planned that the very elementary principles of building construction have been neglected4 ,this neglect1 which is all too common1 makes things bad enough1 but when to it is added1 as is sometimes the case1 indifferent workmanship1 combined with the use of unsuitable material1 the result does not call for admiration1 and it is not surprising that a bad impression is created4 ,with no other knowledge of pise it is only natural to condemn it because of such specimens1 but under similar circumstances other better-known building materials of proved excellence would also be condemned4 ,brickwork would just as readily be condemned if its building qualities had to be estimated by the appearance presented by a brick building which had been constructed of badly-burnt bricks laid by unskilful tradesmen on an imperfectly thought-out plan4 ,just as with other building materials1 the possibilities of this material can only be judged by an examination of properly planned and constructed examples of the pise-builder's art4 ,such are found here and there throughout the country1 pleasing to look at1 affording comfort and satisfaction to their owners4 ,a properly constructed pise building can be finished to suit the taste of the most fastidious4 ,even without plaster the walls can be 'floated' down and a 'skin' obtained on them which1 when limewashed1 resembles stonework4 ,when plastered inside and out they possess the advantages of a stone house1 and are erected at a fraction of the cost4 ,some idea may be formed of the durability of pise by the fact that there is a stable built of pise which has been in constant use for over sixty years1 and which at the present time is in good order4 ,the good condition of this stable is the more surprising because the external walls are unprotected from the weather1 and it is generally recognised that pise-work1 especially if unplastered1 should be protected from the direct action of rain4 ,pise buildings are said to have a life of a century and a half4 ,the stability of pise buildings is beyond question1 as is proved by the following instance3--,at ,lambrigg1 a second-story brick building1 with #ad-;in4 walls1 and containing ten rooms1 is built upon a lower story of pise4 ,the bricklayer who had the contract for erecting the brick portion of the house refused1 as it was built upon pise1 to guarantee his work4 ,some time after the completion of the house he visited it1 and after a thorough examination of the building1 declared that it was the most substantial brick house in the district1 as it had not a crack in it1 a feature which was somewhat unusual in that locality4 ,another case bearing on the same subject is that of a residence at ,temora4 ,when this building was being constructed the workmen omitted to leave holes for the bolts which were to secure the verandah plates to the walls1 as it was thought these could readily be bored out afterwards with an auger4 ,on attempting to bore out these holes on the completion of the building1 and when the pise-work had become drier1 the operation of boring proved so difficult as to be practically impossible1 and had to be abandoned4 ,headnote3 ,builders' ,aversions ,the merits of pise-work have been recognised in ,france1 ,india1 ,mexico1 and ,california for years past1 and seeing its equal suitability for our climate1 it is surprising that these merits have not led to its being more extensively used4 ,the principal reason for this seems to be because our builders are averse to undertaking this class of work1 and in consequence the bulk of it is placed in the hands of untrained men1 who1 whilst quite fitted to carry out the pise-work1 are not competent to undertake the other constructive work of a building4 ,however1 they do not hesitate to do this1 as well as to undertake the more important work 7though unrecognised as being so7 of planning out the building4 ,the result is in most cases an improperly planned and defectively constructed building1 which appeals to no one1 but has a tendency to bring pise into disrepute4 ,the reason for a builder's unwillingness to undertake pise-work is not far to seek4 ,for the successful carrying out of his work a builder relies upon skilled tradesmen2 our tradesmen are trained in cities and towns1 and as pise is not a suitable material for such places1 tradesmen do not become familiar with it4 ,a good builder with a reputation to lose shrinks from placing that reputation at the mercy of a pise-builder1 who is not recognised as a tradesman1 and in whom1 in consequence of this1 a builder is likely to have little or no confidence4 ,the actual erection of pise-work presents so little difficulty that it can be done by any one who has sufficient strength to shovel earth and wield a rammer1 provided he will exercise care to see that the moulds or boxes into which the earth is shovelled are kept plumb and in straight lines4 ,the average settler1 even with no previous knowledge of pise-work or building construction1 need have no hesitation in undertaking the pise-work of his own buildings if he works to a well-thought-out plan drawn up by somebody competent to do so4 ,the necessity of having a plan prepared by some one who understands the principles and requirements of simple building construction1 before undertaking the erection of any building1 cannot be too strongly emphasised4 ,this great need1 which is often overlooked by the settler1 cannot be economically dispensed with4 ,the securing of a properly prepared plan is of the greatest value towards obtaining a building of the maximum strength and durability1 combined with the best appearance and greatest convenience1 for the least cost4 ,even when a settler undertakes the pise-work of his own building1 it will only be in rare instances that he will not have the advantage of trained supervision during its erection4 ,the services of a tradesman will invariably be found necessary to make doors and window-frames1 construct the roof1 etc4 ,this workman can be engaged when the building is started1 and whilst preparing the timbers of the roof1 in readiness for the time when they will be required on the completion of the pise-work1 can supervise the fixing of the door and window frames1 and see they are set correctly1 and in their proper places4 ,pise walls are constructed in sections1 the extent of which is regulated by the supply of casings available4 ,into the moulds formed by the boxes the earth is shovelled in layers of #d or #e in41 and then rammed until thoroughly solid before another layer is put in4 ,on the completion of the section1 i4e4 when the mould is full and well rammed1 the keys or pins are knocked out of the 'bolts1' and the 'boxes' taken apart and erected on another portion of the building4 ,the top of that portion of the pise-work on which it is proposed to erect another section should be well moistened and covered with wet bags some hours before the mould is formed4 ,the bottom of the mould should overlap the top of the pise-work by about #f in4 ,after the 'boxes' are put together1 the top layer of pise should be loosened with a pick so as to form a bond with the section about to be built1 and if this section adjoins one already built1 the ends of the latter should be bevelled off so as not to form a straight joint4 ,material which is too sandy will fret away1 and one containing clay will crack when dry4 ,soils containing these defects should be avoided4 ,there is1 however1 such a wide range of soils which are suitable that a holding of any size on which suitable soils cannot be found will be the exception4 ,it is possible to remedy the defects found in one soil by mixing it with another soil1 but very rarely will such a course be necessary4 ,headnote3 ,number of ,men ,required ,the plant required will depend upon the number of men to be employed4 ,three is the least number that can be economically employed--two attending to the boxes and ramming1 and one carting earth from its location to the building and assisting generally4 ,the plant required for this number of men is given below4 ,if more are engaged1 additional plant of the same character will be found advantageous4 ,the necessary plant will consist of--#b wooden rammers1 #a iron shod rammer1 #b straight boxes1 #b angle boxes1 #c casings for blocking up the ends of boxes1 bolts and keys for same1 #ab gauge rods1 washers--a liberal supply of #c_/d-;in4 washers1 #b shovels1 #a spade1 a horse and dray or other means for transporting the material to the building 7if required74 ,the following detailed instructions are taken from the same authority3 ,headnote3 ,pise in ,new ,zealand ,,specification ,,clauses ,,for ,a ,,pise ,,house 7,,new ,,zealand7 ,excavator4--,remove the turf to make footings1 but not deeper at any place than #c in4 ,step where required4 ,pise-,builder ,walls4--,erect the walls as shown on plan1 external walls #ah in41 internal walls #ae in41 carried up plumb and true1 with all cross walls properly bonded by continuing the pise-boxes around all angles2 when necessary1 the material for the walls is to be properly tempered with sufficient water4 ,all sticks and vegetable matter are to be removed4 ,suitable material3 to be a pipeclay loam1 with a trace of small gravel evenly distributed through it4#h ,the boxes to be filled in thin layers of #d in4 at a time1 and well rammed until solid2 the workmen are not to use their rammers in unison4 ,footnote #h3 ,this was specified because it was the best material near the site4 ,the whole of the internal angles1 also door and window jambs1 to be neatly splayed4 ,floating4--,moisten well the outside and inside walls before the floors are laid1 and float same to even smooth surface with wooden hand-float1 using weak plaster1 where required4 ,bolts4--,to hold down wall-plates1 provide and build in #a_/b in4 bolts1 not less than #ae in4 long1 and spaced not more than #f ft4 apart4 ,damp-course4--,below all walls lay a three-ply ,ruberoid damp-course the full width of walls1 to lap at ends at least #d in4 ,ventilators4--,insert below floors1 where directed1 four #i in4 by #f in4 galvanised iron air gratings1 in wooden frames #a-a_/b in4 thick by full width of walls2 also insert at about #ah in4 below ceiling similar air gratings and frames4 ,plugs4--,insert plugs #c ft4 apart for skirting1 chair and picture-rail1 at the heights directed4 ,frames4--,set all frames plumb and true1 and secured in wall before removing head4 ,lintels and heads must be well and solidly bedded in mortar1 at proper heights4 ,the whole of the work to be done in a proper workmanlike manner4 ,fillet4--,finish against intersection of floor and wall with neat #a-a_/b in4 quarter-round fillet1 scribed to wall and floor and nailed to floors4 ,the pise-builder will require to build into wall at all window and door openings #c in4 by #c in4 shaped plugs1 spaced not more than #c ft4 apart to secure architraves4 ,lintels4--,for all door and window openings provide #f in4 by #d in4 well-seasoned pine lintels1 to extend #ab in4 into pise-work on each side of opening4 ,skirting4--,provide and fix in all rooms1 to plugs about #c ft4 apart1 #f-;in4 skirting1 neatly scribed to floors1 mitred at angles as required4 ,picture-rail4--,provide #c in4 by #a in4 picture-rail to all rooms4 ,plugs4--,prepare and tar for pise-builder #c in4 by #a in4 well-seasoned softwood plugs1 #ae in4 long1 as per detail1 for skirtings1 picture- and chair-rail1 to be inserted #c ft4 apart4 ,,studding1 ,,wire-,,netting1 ,,and ,,pise ,this is a modification of ,pise1 which provides a settler in a district where poles and saplings are available with a quick method of providing himself with a comfortable temporary residence without the expenditure of much cash4 ,to construct buildings of this character1 a framework of saplings or poles1 at intervals of #c ft4 #f in4 to #c ft4 apart1 is first erected2 this framework is covered on both sides with #a-a_/d in4 mesh wire-netting4 ,the two sections of netting are held together1 strengthened1 and prevented from stretching and bulging between the posts by means of wire hooks or loops1 which are as long as the posts are wide4 ,the spaces thus enclosed by the netting and the poles are then filled with earth1 which is well rammed1 thus making a solid wall #d in4 to #f in4 thick4 ,this wall can be plastered1 the plaster forming a key with the wire-netting1 which holds securely4 ,buildings of this character can be made to look rather attractive1 and1 if neatly constructed1 are very much superior1 both in appearance and comfort1 to slabs or wattle and daub4 ,headnote3 ,pise ,shuttering ,,pise ,,shuttering ,i ,that the plant now commonly in use for pise-building is but a slight improvement on the anciently accepted model1 may be seen by a comparison of modern examples with old engravings and descriptions4 ,pise-building lay off the great main stream of constructional activity1 and the enterprise and ingenuity lavished on the perfecting of other building materials and methods passed ,pise by1 leaving it undisturbed in its quiet backwater1 a primitive system still with its primitive tackle4 ,yet there were a number of very obvious and unnecessary shortcomings in the accepted shuttering that seemed to clamour for attention1 defects1 too1 that were in no way inherent1 but merely traditional infelicities reproduced in succeeding models that remained remarkably true to their primitive ancestral architype--the ,pise plant described by ,pliny4 ,here seemed to be a very promising field for an ingenious inventor1 a field that is still ,to ,let4 ,in the absence of any such inventive genius1 the author has had certain ideas of his own embodied in the ,mark ,v type of shuttering--a type that further experience and experiment will doubtless modify4 ,the principle of the building-process remains unaffected4 ,the improvements1 such as they are1 are merely improvements of mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,mark ,v ,,pise ,,shuttering ,illustration3 ,mark ,v ,shuttering4 ,showing top cross-braces thrown back and free leg disengaged4 ,illustration3 ,mark ,v ,shuttering4 ,showing screw-up securing tackle of exterior corner-piece and its rounded interior4 ,also screw-cramp at interior angle of shuttering4 ,illustration3 ,mark ,v ,shuttering4 ,shuttering about to be removed from a first section of ,pise walling4 ,top cross-braces have been thrown back and clamps to legs released4 ,it is now only necessary to detach the stays and lift away the shutters4 ,where1 as here1 there is no masonry plinth1 the bearing-pins are only required for the succeeding courses of ,pise1 and need not be inserted for the first4 ,illustration3 ,mark ,v ,shuttering4 ,the angle-iron stay with cross-brace raised1 and the blocking-box showing its internal clamping-gear4 ,scientific research could doubtless1 if it would1 do much towards perfecting ,pise-building4 ,we know very little about the behaviour of different earths under compression1 or of their several reactions to chemical treatment4 ,meanwhile1 a few trifling mechanical modifications are all that distinguish our modern plant from that devised by the ancients4 ,that said1 a short description of the ,mark ,v model may be of some interest1 pending the future developments that may now be hoped for4 ,,ii ,the chief desiderata in designing a satisfactory ,pise plant appear to be these3 ,all constituent parts should be reasonably light and easy to handle4 ,the shutters should be rigid and not liable to warp1 without being expensively constructed4 ,the shutters1 when clamped in position1 should be firmly and positively supported1 without deviation from the vertical4 ,the fairway between the shutters must be as little obstructed by the cross-braces as may be1 leaving good room for the men on the wall to tread and ram4 ,the through-pins by which the shuttering rests upon the base wall or on a completed course of ,pise1 must be easily withdrawn without injury to the wall4 ,the shuttering must be easily disengaged and removed from the wall1 one side at a time4 ,the special corner-piece must have some means of rigid attachment to the ordinary shutters on the two meeting walls4 ,there must be some means of blocking off the shuttering at any desired point1 for the forming of door or window openings at any level4 ,the whole apparatus must be as simple and as fool-proof as possible1 and built to stand rough usage and exposure to the weather4 ,,iii ,the author has attempted to construct a plant embodying these essentials1 and the working drawing and photographs shown will give the reader a tolerable idea of his ,mark ,v model4 ,the thing has1 at the moment of writing1 only been experimentally tested in one of the ,london parks4 ,these trials were1 however1 sufficiently satisfactory to encourage a belief that the new plant will prove a very considerable improvement on the old4 ,it has now been despatched to a site in ,surrey1 there to undergo the searching and very practical test of being used for the building of a small-holder's house and homestead4 ,,iv ,to the second edition of this book a postscript must be added4 ,since the last paragraph was written1 the small-holder's house has come into actual being at ,newlands ,corner1 near ,guildford1 and has attracted a good deal of attention from the ,press1 both at home and abroad4 ,it has been inspected by multitudes of people1 including a great number of ,colonials and prospective ,colonists1 and by many distinguished persons directly or indirectly concerned with the problems of housing4 ,that ,good wine needs no bush may be a true saying1 but a novel system of building assuredly needs demonstration1 however great its merits4 ,the success of the experiment at ,newlands is admitted by all who have made the pilgrimage thither4 ,often would critics come to scoff and remain to pray4 ,specially prized amongst the converts is a foreman-bricklayer once openly scornful in his unbelief4 ,of enthusiasm1 perhaps1 there has been almost over much2 and it has been difficult to restrain the zeal of would-be pise-builders until the coming of spring1 and the return of such weather conditions as the craft might reasonably demand4 ,illustration3 ,a ,simple ,mould for ,pise ,blocks4 ,illustration3 ,block-,moulds1 ,large and ,small4 ,the ,latter shown opened out4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of a ,pise ,house in ,course of ,erection4 ,with acknowledgements to ,the ,sphere4 ,for pise is a dry-earth method of building1 and1 as at present practised1 that means it is a summer job1 so far1 at any rate1 as ,england is concerned4 ,the author is the last person to claim that pise-building may be successfully and economically carried out in all places1 and at all seasons4 ,he merely suggests that in a great many parts of the ,united ,kingdom1 pise offers possibilities of cheap yet permanent building that are very well worth exploitation4 ,a wide and thorough trial of the method now seems assured under a variety of conditions in a sufficient variety of places4 ,pise is to be given its chance in ,housing ,schemes1 in ,government building demonstrations1 on ,ducal estates1 and by ordinary private citizens in need of houses--by the rich 7old and new71 and by the poor4 ,headnote3 ,if ,reason ,rule ,if reason rule1 pise will make good and all will be well4 ,if pise-building is attempted where the conditions are unsuitable and in defiance of its physical limitations1 the misguided enthusiasts responsible must blame only themselves4 ,but it is not self-reproach alone that they will have to suffer1 for the author and all true friends of pise will view their troubles with as much anger as sorrow4 ,nothing could be so well calculated to bring discredit on a new movement as the failures of a few enthusiastic incompetents4 ,,the ,,first ,,demonstration ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,,house ,,at ,,newlands ,,corner1 ,,near ,,guildford ,with acknowledgments to the ,spectator ,description4--,the house has six rooms arranged on one floor1 of areas and cubical contents as laid down in their higher schedules of accommodation by the ,ministry of ,health and the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,the plan is an adaptation of the first type illustrated in the ,board's new manual designed for the guidance of ,county ,councils and their architects in the matter of buildings for small-holdings4 ,the walls are of #ah-;in4 solid pise-work1 the roof of red ,bridgewater tiles1 and the chimney breasts and stacks of brickwork4 ,the floors are boarded save for the back kitchen1 which is tiled4 ,the inner partitions are of #b-;in4 breeze blocks1 the ceilings are plastered1 and the casement windows are of steel4 ,there are two good lofts for storage1 one entered from the barn1 which is an extension of the house proper4 ,the pillars of the barn and the partition wall between scullery and veranda are of #ah in4 by #i in4 by #i in4 rammed earth blocks2 the angle pillar to the veranda is of similar blocks made from soft chalk4 ,the rest of the structure is of monolithic pise1 built up in situ without joints of any kind1 either horizontally or vertically4 ,cost4--,the total cost of the whole of the outer walling of the house 7in pise7 amounted to less than ,l#bj4 ,had the walls been built in brickwork the cost would1 according to estimate1 have been about ,l#bjj4 ,headnote3 ,the ,newlands ,specification ,specification4--,the following is an abridged extract from the specification so far as it affects the pise-builder3 7#a7 ,excavate to a depth of #i in4 over the site1 dumping the turf and surface humus where directed4 ,this soil is not to be used for building4 7#b7 ,lay a #f-;in4 bed of cement and flint concrete #c ft4 wide under outer walls4 ,centrally on this1 lay two courses of brickwork in cement1 to a width of #ah in41 or build up to the same extent in concrete4 ,lay on this an approved damp-proof course2 if of slates1 having a further course of brickwork or concrete above it to prevent fracture when ramming4 ,illustration3 ,the ,newlands ,corner ,pise ,demonstration ,building4 ,illustration3 ,newlands4 ,the ,cottage from the ,south-east4 ,illustration3 ,newlands4 ,the ,garden ,court4 7#c7 ,erect the walls according to the plan on the bases thus formed1 carrying them up plumb and true and properly bonded by working round the building course by course1 using the special angle-pieces at the corners to keep the work continuous and homogeneous4 7#d7 ,all stones and flints above a walnut size to be removed by riddling and reserved for concrete4 ,all sticks1 leaves1 roots1 and other vegetable matter to be eliminated4 7#e7 ,the soil immediately on the site to be used without admixture of any sort and to be thrown direct into the shutterings4 ,no water to be added without the express permission of the architect4 7#f7 ,the boxes are to be filled in thin layers of not more than #d in4 at a time1 and well rammed until solid4 ,the workmen are not to use their rammers in unison4 7#g7 ,rammed earth at box ends to be shaved down to a #de degrees slope so as to splice in with new span of pise adjoining it4 ,where door and window openings occur1 the special stops to be adjusted and firmly secured so as to withstand hard ramming4 ,two #d in4 by #b in4 by #i in4 plugs to be built in to each window jamb for the securing of the frames and three to each door jamb4 ,special care to be taken in the thorough ramming at the corners and along the box edges4 7#h7 ,insert below floor level1 where directed1 #bd #c-;in4 field drainage pipes to act as ventilators through the thickness of the wall4 ,insert wire mesh stops to exclude vermin4 7#i7 ,set all frames square and plumb1 and where in outer walls1 flush with finished exterior plaster-face1 the joint being covered by a #b-;in4 by #c_/d-;in4 fillet4 ,where lintels occur1 they are to be tailed in at least #i in4 on each side the opening4 ,provide plain picture-rail round all rooms at window-head level1 providing plugs for fixing where necessary4 ,secure to floor round all boarded rooms a #b-;in4 by #a-a_/b-;in4 angle fillet as skirting4 7#aj7 ,the smooth surface of the pise walling to be hammer-chipped to give good key to the plaster4 ,before rendering or plastering walls1 any loose earth or dust to be removed with a stiff brush and the wall surface evenly wetted4 ,illustration3 ,,newlands ,,corner ,,pise ,,house4 ,,the ,,plan4 ,the rendering to be carried evenly round the walls--the minor square angles being roughly chipped down first so as to obviate sharp corners4 ,the main corners of the house are ready-rounded off to a #i-;in4 radius by the special corner mould4 7#aa7 ,bond brick and slab work to pise walls by driving iron spikes into the latter every few courses at joint level and bedding in4 7#ab7 ,colour-wash walls with tallow lime-whiting tinted with ochre4 ,provide #b ft4 skirting of pitch1 applied hot1 to form base-course round exterior of building4 ,illustration3 ,newlands4 ,the ,backyard1 showing ,barn with ,pise ,pillars4 ,illustration3 ,newlands4 ,framing the ,roof4 ,illustration3 ,newlands4 ,an ,interior1 showing ,fire-brick ,hearth ,fire4 ,n4,b4--,the exterior of the walls of the ,newlands ,corner house have been finished in several different ways with a view to determining the most durable and economical form of epidermis4 ,a trial pise-building adjoining has stood for four years without any external protection whatever4 ,it has suffered no damage and grows continually harder4 ,for the sake of appearances1 however1 and for the better preservation of the wall from chance injury whilst still green1 a coating of some sort may be deemed necessary4 ,headnote3 ,a ,swedish ,contribution ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,pise ,the ,swedish scientist1 ,mr4 ,karl ,ellington1 of ,nossebro1 who is basing a book on pise 7in his own tongue7 upon the frail foundation of the present volume1 has1 in the course of a letter to the author1 made some exceedingly suggestive guesses at the truth4 ,i am very interested to hear that you are proposing to use an hydraulic rammer for making blocks4 ,i have thought a good deal about this pressure business4 ,i am trying to scrutinise the thing from 'the inside1' so to speak4 ,i am trying to trace out how ,nature makes rock4 ,that helps us to understand pise4 ,nature made all the stratified rocks out of what was once fine loose earth and mud4 ,rivers carried the mud out to sea4 ,waves pounded and gnawed the shores and got down some more stuff4 ,the tides went forth and back and shovelled and levelled at the sea-bottom4 ,some more mud on top of that1 and a few hundred or thousand feet of the heavy water on top of that--and ,nature's pise was in its making4 ,but why do these mud particles stick together for ever even after that stratum is raised up high above the sea and the pressure is discontinued8 ,that is the counterpoint of the whole problem4 ,what is gravitation8 ,is it some form of magnetic or electric energy8 ,we don't know4 ,do particles of mud grip and hold each other if they are forced together close enough to be united by some sort of magnetic or electric energy8 ,or do the particles only get a 'mechanical' grip on each other8 ,however that may be1 we seem to know now that we can make them grip by bringing them closely together4 ,it would seem important1 then1 that we must bring as much of particle surfaces together within any given cubic space as we possibly can2 that is1 we must have as little of 'holes1' 'empty spaces1' pores and channels as possible in the mass1 in the pressed wall4 ,this1 then1 would in turn make it important that plenty of very fine 7small7 particles must be present in the mass--and so well distributed among the coarser particles as to be on hand close by wherever there can be one more chance for a small particle to fill a little chamber that the coarser particles would like to bridge over4 ,we can think of how well ,nature was fitted for this work of shuffling over all the particles at the sea-bottom and under great water pressure till she got every particle into the niche where it would exactly fit4 ,she used waves1 tides1 and gulf streams as shovels and mixers and packers1 and the water above as 'hydraulic rammer4' ,looking at the pise matter in this way1 it would appear that both the mixing and the shuffling are of vital importance4 ,and by 'shuffling' ,i mean in this connection only that the smaller and larger particles get a chance to shift over a little during the process of pressing the earth together to hardness1 so that the pressure may not work only and exclusively in a straight downward direction1 but in a sort of wavy zigzag direction as well--much as when a street-roller is working the macadam and gravel a little forth and back at the same time as downward4 ,i have a great respect for old tools which are the outcome of long-time experience and handed-down wisdom4 ,i suspect the presence of some of that sort of experience in the rammer described in your book1 p4 #ei4 ,that tool would do the necessary shifting while attending to its main intention3 hammering the mass solidly together downwards4 ,now for your hydraulic rammer--is it advisable to make it blow or press only in a straight line downward8 ,maybe there ought to be two or three kinds of strokes alternating--one stroke with a rifled or wavy surface under the rammer--and the next stroke with a plane surface4 4 4 4 ,what sort of witchcraft enters into the effect of high frequency blows as compared with blows with a little longer intervals between8 ,do the strokes create also some 'magnetic' effect in the pounded earth-mass which helps to fasten the particles to each other8 ,and does this magnetic charge or friction heat1 or whatever it is1 act more promptly if one keeps on 'striking the iron while hot1' instead of letting the charge 'evaporate' and sneak away between strokes8 ,two or three of my hairs are turning grey over these questions alone4 ,you compliment me by insinuating that ,i might stumble across some fruitful idea for the forms or boxes if ,i speculate a little more on the key-problem4 ,well1 the thing won't leave me alone1 so ,i have thought out several foolish variations and rejected them too4 ,but the last one seems to have a little more vitality1 so if it will live till ,i write my next letter ,i will tell you about it4 ,one is so apt to follow the temptation of 'perfecting' an apparatus--at the cost of getting away from keeping it cheap1 simple--and 'fool-proof4' ,by this time the idea has grown ripe in my mind1 so that ,i ought to write out a little book on the pise problem in ,swedish and have it printed before springtime4 ,something ought to be done4 4 4 4 ,i have to ask you kindly to permit me to make use of the data contained in your book4 ,to this ,i will have to add what special precautions we must observe as to foundations in a climate like ours4 ,i intend to treat only the pise method4 ,cob and chalk methods are not applicable here1 as we have such materials only in a few unimportant spots4 ,mr4 ,ellington has long been an admirer and a firm friend of ,england1 and he is good enough to regard his country as indebted to ours for the introduction of pise-building3 ,let me tell you that the help you are giving me now--not me1 but my nation--will work as an additional bond that draws us more closely towards each other4 4 4 4 ,some of our people here have always looked too much towards the ,south and too little towards the ,west4 ,headnote3 ,a ,pise-,builder's ,school ,,pise1 ,,practice ,,and ,,plant ,now that so many able architects and enterprising bodies are seriously taking up pise-building1 the improvement in plant and technique should be both rapid and considerable4 ,the ,school of ,pise ,building established at ,hornchurch in ,essex1 by the ,imperial ,ex-service ,association1 should alone provide us with much new and valuable knowledge of a highly practical kind4 ,it is there1 for instance1 that various types of shuttering and rammers are being experimentally tested side by side1 and their relative efficiency under varying conditions ascertained4 ,under some conditions it is probable that the floor and roof timbers 7destined for use in the house under construction7 will be found the most economical and satisfactory form of temporary shuttering for the making of the earth walls4 ,the pise ,test-,house1 built by ,messrs4 ,alban ,richards at their ,ashstead works1 was built in this way1 and proved highly satisfactory4 ,another effective and more generally applicable form of shuttering 7designed and manufactured by the same firm7 is illustrated in the diagram reproduced below4 ,it should be observed that wedges intervene between the movable shutters and the uprights4 ,the method of employment of the ,mark ,v shuttering is well illustrated by the bird's-eye view showing the ,newlands cottage under construction4 ,headnote3 ,alternative ,shutterings ,in this matter of shuttering there is still1 however1 great scope for improvement1 and it may be hoped that soon ingenuity and experience will jointly produce a complete pise plant perfectly fulfilling all the many conditions enumerated earlier in the book4 ,shuttering made by riveting plain galvanised sheet iron to one side of a corrugated sheet has the qualities of lightness1 smoothness1 cheapness1 and rigidity1 and the claims of the inventor and patentee are now being put to the test in actual building4 ,illustration3 ,,patent ,,shuttering ,,for ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,by ,w4 ,alban ,richards and ,co4 ,there now seems little doubt but that pise blocks will be largely used for partitions and chimney stacks where the soil is good enough1 and experiments are being made with a view to discovering the best and cheapest way of making earth slabs similar to those of coke-breeze and concrete4 ,the size aimed at is #ah in4 by #ah in4 by #c in41 the edges to be tongued and grooved4 ,certain concrete machines seem to lend themselves to adaptation for the making of earth blocks1 but it is necessary to remember that sharp blows are required rather than a steady pressure1 and also that we are working with a dry material4 ,the ordinary primitive way of making pise blocks is indicated below4 ,the hand-rammers are undoubtedly worth study and careful design4 ,a set of three seems to meet all ordinary requirements1 and those shown on p4 #aja may be taken as typical4 ,they should be of hard-wood1 smoothly finished1 and provided with long handles4 ,they should be #i in4 to #ab in4 long1 and about #e in4 by #d in4 at maximum cross section4 ,in the sketch they are shown narrow-ways-on4 ,no4 #a is used for preliminary pounding and final finishing1 ,no4 #b for general consolidating1 and ,no4 #c for working along the edges1 against window stops1 and under cross-ties4 ,a ,south ,african correspondent1 ,major ,baylay1 makes interesting comment as regards rammers and local pise practice3 ,headnote3 ,south ,africa ,my experience of all black labour is1 that they won't put any 'guts' into it4 ,they therefore want fairly heavy rammers1 which they can lift and drop1 say a foot1 and which will do the rest for them4 ,the heat of the sun and extreme dryness of atmosphere out here make it advisable to cover up completed courses at once with sacking1 moist for choice1 otherwise it is liable to dry out too quickly and crack4 ,it dries out uncovered at night very well1 when there is no rain4 ,the red loams of ,south ,africa1 where not too sandy1 make excellent pise4 ,they or their equivalent are found almost everywhere4 ,in the dry state they set so hard that moisture added just before ramming is useless4 ,a large heap must be made1 well damped and covered over with moist sacking1 and left until the moisture is distributed throughout the mass4 ,when about four or five days old1 in ordinary weather1 the earth is ready to use--viz41 just wet enough to bind when gripped in the hand4 ,it should be passed through a sieve4 ,i use a sort of 'chicken run1' #h ft4 long1 and throw the earth on to it before using4 ,six feet of it is #a_/b-;in4 mesh1 and #b ft4 #a_/d-;in4 mesh2 the reason for this is that1 if the earth is a little too dry1 it does not always bind well with the previous layer4 ,therefore1 put a few petrol tins of the fine earth into the shuttering first in order to ensure good bond1 and throw the coarser stuff in after4 ,illustration3 ,,pise ,,hand ,,rammers ,second ,note by ,major ,baylay1 ,peter ,maritzburg1 ,natal1 ,south ,africa ,i have completed a small building1 and though weather conditions have been as bad as possible1 it is sound and very satisfactory4 ,in my opinion1 pise-building should not be attempted in the rainy season in ,africa4 ,earth contains too much moisture1 and the power of the sun dries it out too quickly and causes cracks4 ,re plastering4 ,i covered the outside and inside with a mixture of #f earth1 #b sand1 #a blue 7,hyd47 lime1 the earth being the red1 rather 'fat' earth found everywhere1 and the same stuff the house is built of4 ,it is put on thin with a trowel1 after damping the wall4 ,when it dries and cracks1 rub all over with a sacking pad covered with the plaster mixture1 but wetted to a thin cream consistency4 ,it may sound an odd method1 but the natives do this work well1 and the result is as good as one can wish for4 ,you can put tar or any wash 7,no4 #f7 on this4 ,headnote3 ,soils ,,soils ,were it not for the fact 7often somewhat embarrassing7 that soil quite incapable of making good pise will none the less produce enthusiastic pise-builders1 a warning as to the vital importance of the earth being really suitable might seem superfluous4 ,the author has found some of the staunchest champions of pise-building living on and valiantly struggling with stiff glutinous clay and almost pure sand4 ,even the most vigorous optimism can achieve little under such adverse conditions unless soil-blending be resorted to1 and even so1 pise-building begins to lose points in the matter of economy directly complications of this sort are introduced4 ,fortunately1 however1 ,england is well off in the matter of pise soils1 the red marls being amongst the very best4 ,a study of the country1 or1 failing that1 of the geological maps1 will reveal a great tract of this earth extending diagonally right across ,england1 from ,yorkshire down into ,devonshire1 where it ends conspicuously in the beautiful red cliffs about ,torquay4 ,there is a large area of the stuff in the ,midlands1 notably in ,warwickshire1 with lesser patches here and there about the country4 ,second only to the red marls come the brick earths1 which1 fortunately1 are also widely distributed4 ,brick earth is merely clay that has been well weathered and disintegrated under the action of wind1 rain1 frost1 and organic agents1 the sulphides having become oxides1 and what was a cold intractable slithery mass having become merely a strong and binding earth4 ,it is probable that even stiff clay1 if dug in the summer or autumn1 and left exposed for a winter1 would prove sufficiently reformed to be quite amenable for pise building in the spring4 ,after the marls and the brick earths there is an endless variety of soils that will serve well for pise-building--some1 of course1 better than others1 but all1 save the extremes 7the excessively light and the excessively clayey71 capable of giving good results under proper treatment4 ,before putting pise construction actually in hand1 however1 the intending builder will do well to submit samples of his earth to some competent authority1 that they may receive his blessing4 ,a fistful taken from a depth of #i in41 and another from say #b ft4 below the surface1 should give sufficient evidence as to the soil's suitability or the reverse4 ,,iii ,,chalk ,sec4 ,i4 ,,general ,chalk1 as a source of lime1 has always been of high importance to builders1 and1 until improved transport brought alien materials into its old preserves1 chalk was in general use for walling in the form of roughly squared blocks4 ,chalk again forms the basis of a compost that1 used in the form of a stiff paste1 has been largely employed for building from the earliest times down to the present4 ,pise de ,craie1 or chalk consolidated by ramming within a casing1 is a form of building that has been long held in high repute in ,france and elsewhere1 but which has only recently been given a serious trial in ,england4 ,chalk in all these forms1 if fairly dealt with and reasonably protected from the weather1 is a most amenable and satisfactory material to build with4 ,the last-named method particularly seems to promise results that should satisfy the most exacting critics of the unconventional1 as it assuredly does those who inhabit the cottages so constructed4 ,the several systems of chalk construction are fully dealt with in the pages that follow4 ,chalk ,compost3 ,historical4--,at the ,ancient ,british village on ,west ,down1 ,chilbolton1 some five miles south of ,andover1 delving archaeologists have brought to light undeniable fragments of chalk ,daub1 with the wattle marks still clearly showing upon them4 ,this discovery is chiefly of academic interest1 though it is a pretty refutation to those who regard any building material save brick and stone as new-fangled1 and it should also serve to hearten the doubters and the timid amongst us who seek historic sanction for any departure from current building practice4 ,composition and ,uses4--,in the ,andover district ,chalk ,compost or ,chalk ,mud1 as it is called locally1 is prepared and used as follows3 ,the chalk is dug out in the autumn1 and the frost allowed to play on it during the winter4 ,in the spring building starts1 and the weathered chalk is spread all around the outside of the walls4 ,straw is sprinkled on it and it is then well trodden1 usually by the workers1 but sometimes by horses4 ,sometimes chopped straw is added1 sometimes unchopped straw is sprinkled on4 ,the quality of the walls depends very largely on the preparation--that is1 in getting the mud to the right consistency--and the old hands know by experience when it is ready4 ,the compost is lifted on the wall by a fork and another man stands on the wall and treads it in4 ,it is then chopped down straight with a spade4 ,some of the naked walls at ,andover show traces of the courses1 which are usually something under #b ft4 in height4 ,where a course has to be left unfinished it should be ended with a diagonal ramp so as to splice in with the work that follows4 ,some of the old builders seem to have been somewhat catholic in their conceptions as to what constituted chalk1 and vague patches of earth1 loose flints and other stray substances not infrequently mar their work and sometimes seriously reduce its strength4 ,as a general rule1 the finer the chalk the stronger and more durable is the walling4 ,what is aimed at is a conglomerate of small chalk knobs cemented together by a matrix of plastic chalk and straw1 the whole forming as dense a mass as possible4 ,grinding in a mortar-mill would probably reduce all the chalk to an amorphous powder1 which would not be desirable1 and in any case such mechanical mixing is quite unnecessary4 ,building by ramming the moist compost between timber shutterings does not appear to have been practised in the past1 though there is nothing against the method except its tendency to delay the drying out4 ,the drying of each course takes several days1 depending on the weather4 ,a course is usually laid right round the building4 ,it must be covered up at night in case of rain1 and when it is hard another course is laid on1 and so on till completion4 ,the aim is to build during the summer and autumn1 and when the moisture has dried out1 to render the exterior4 ,where brickwork is used with chalk compost it is generally bonded in in the ordinary way1 but block-bonding the depth of a chalk course is a better way of doing it4 ,the exterior corners of chalk buildings are the vulnerable points1 and these should therefore be well rounded off4 ,timber4--,in the old work nothing seems to have been done to prevent woodwork built in to the compost from decaying1 though in many cases it has survived surprisingly4 ,in any new work1 however1 proper ventilated air-spaces should be contrived or the timber ends treated with some preservative4 ,the door and window frames are fixed to fairly large pieces of wood built in across the thickness of wall1 and other woodwork is fixed to wood blocks built in in a similar way4 ,picture-rails should be provided in all rooms1 as chalk walls are apt to flake and chip if nails are driven into them4 ,lintels are usually of wood1 and when plastering is carried down over these some form of key must of course be provided to hold it4 ,headnote3 ,winter ,work ,barred ,frost4--,new work must not be exposed to frost or there will be danger of collapse1 and winter work is barred out for this reason4 ,repairs4--,chalk compost walls are not easily repaired in that material1 and bricks are generally used1 well bonded in4 ,chimneys4--,chimneys1 too1 are usually of brick1 though there would seem no reason against the flues being carried up in chalk1 especially if clay pipe linings were used4 ,the chimney-stacks above the roof might well be built in flint1 the corners being rounded off in deference to the peculiarities of the material4 ,external ,rendering4--,it is of the first importance that a good weather-tight skin be maintained1 and many old buildings have suffered through neglect of this precaution4 ,the rendering was often of the poorest quality1 more mud than lime1 and the constant repairs that the indifferent materials necessitated has resulted in many of the old cottages becoming patchworks of variegated plaster blotches1 when not whitewashed over1 which give an impression of dilapidation by no means warranted by the facts4 ,rendering4--,given a good skin1 however1 of cement or cement and lime1 a chalk conglomerate wall will last indefinitely4 ,so vital is the skin that it is as well to put it on in two good coats--rounding off all the corners and finishing it either with slap-dash or rough from the wooden float4 ,also1 to ensure its proper adhesion throughout1 wire-netting may be used as reinforcement--being secured to the face of the chalk wall by means of cross netting or wires laid on the wall as the building rises4 ,if the netting be of a fine mesh it also serves as an absolute barrier to vermin1 though pounded glass incorporated in the base of the wall is equally effective4 ,strength4--,provided the wall has dried out thoroughly1 any of the ordinary loads occurring in a two-storied house can be borne with ease4 ,chalk conglomerate walling1 however1 has no great lateral strength1 and it should not be asked to stand up to thrusts4 ,the roof1 therefore1 must be well tied1 and should sit on the building merely as a lid4 ,illustration3 ,details of ,chalk ,construction at ,amesbury4 7,from a sketch by ,w4 ,r4 ,jaggard1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 the copyright of the ,department of ,scientific and ,industrial ,research47 ,illustration3 ,chalk ,construction at ,amesbury1 ,wilts4 7,from a sketch by ,w4 ,r4 ,jaggard1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 the copyright of the ,department of ,scientific and ,industrial ,research47 ,roof4--,though thatch is the traditional roofing material of chalk cottages1 any other will serve that is permanent and good of its kind4 ,the only special demand that chalk walls make is that the eaves shall be generously overhung for their better protection from the weather4 ,where1 in later years1 the boldly projecting thatch has been thoughtlessly replaced by a slate roof with meagre eaves1 or with none at all1 the walls have suffered accordingly4 ,headnote3 ,garden ,walls ,garden ,walls4--,a chalk garden wall must be afforded just as much protection as the wall of a house and on both sides4 ,the hat with which it is provided is of the highest importance to the health and longevity of the walling4 ,examples of garden wall copings are given in the sketches shown below4 ,illustration3 ,,wall ,,copings4 ,house ,walls4--,chalk conglomerate walls rarely exceed #ah in4 in thickness1 and are usually the same upstairs as down4 ,a plinth of the same thickness as the chalk wall it supports is usually carried up #f in4 to #ah in4 above the ground level in rubble-work1 flint1 or brick1 being known as the ,underpin ,course4 ,any of the stock damp-courses are suitable1 but they must be well and truly laid1 as damp feet are nearly as deleterious to a chalk wall as a leaky or inadequate hat4 ,no special tools are required for this method of building1 an ordinary farm fork for lifting and a spade for the final chopping down of the wall faces being all that are necessary4 ,a house built during the summer is usually fit for occupation the same autumn4 ,old ,examples4--,those who may wish to see buildings in chalk conglomerate1 both old and new1 would do well to visit some such typical chalk district as that lying about ,andover in ,wiltshire4 ,it should1 however1 be constantly borne in mind that most of the old cottages were somewhat unscientifically erected by their original jack-of-all-trades occupiers1 that damp-courses and ,portland cement were unknown1 and that the advantages of proper ventilation and the causes of dry-rot were discoveries yet to be made4 ,secondly1 a large number of these cottages have been sadly neglected either recently or in the past1 and they bear the disfiguring marks of their ill-treatment upon them now4 ,but a chalk cottage that is well found in the beginning1 and that is reasonably well cared for subsequently1 has nothing to fear from comparison with cottages built in the most approved manner of the more fashionable materials4 ,mr4 ,james ,thorold gives the following particulars of a block of three chalk cottages recently built for ,sir ,george ,cooper on his estate at ,hursley1 near ,winchester3 ,the chalk walling was done by ,messrs4 ,a4 ,annett and ,son1 of ,winterslow1 near ,salisbury1 where this method of building has been kept alive from olden days4 ,it consists of working up the soft upper strata of the chalk by putting a bed of it #d ft4 #f in4 thick on the ground1 watering and treading it to a sticky consistency with the feet1 working in shortish straw at the same time4 ,when thoroughly mixed by the builder's mate1 he lifts up a forkful to the builder working on the wall immediately above him1 the latter catches the chalk1 dumps it down on the top of the wall1 building an #ah in4 course all round4 ,as soon as the weather has dried this sufficiently he goes round with a sharp spade squaring up both sides of the wall4 ,as this work is greatly dependent on the weather it is well if the men have other work to fall back on1 and that building operations should be commenced in the spring or early summer4 ,the wall is built #ah in4 thick to the first floor joists and #ad in4 above4 ,chalk in itself being very absorbent of moisture1 the usual plan is to render the outside of the wall with a lime mortar1 which1 however1 requires renewal every few years4 ,to obviate this we fixed with long staples #a-a_/d in4 mesh wire-netting over the outside surface of the wall to give a reinforcement for a rendering of hair mortar and cement gauged in proportion of #a to #b respectively1 and left rough from the trowel4 ,this rendering was done at a cost of #cs4 #c-a_/b;d4 per square yard1 which is a substantial addition to the cost of the walling1 but so far there is no sign of a crack or hollow place behind it1 and the cottages have kept very dry4 ,the walls were finished off with a limewash containing ,russian tallow and copperas4#i ,footnote #i3 ,see recipes for ,whitewash in ,appendix 7,i74 ,headnote3 ,cost of ,three ,cottages ,as regards the cost of this block of three cottages1 the result is obscured by the fact that tall chimney-stacks with ornamental bricks and appropriate foundations were built and reinforced leaded lights were used in the windows to keep the building in character with the other cottages on the estate1 but at the time we estimated that the chalk walling saved a sum of ,l#ed as against the amount we should have had to have spent in carrying out the building with bricks made on the estate1 and this had to include lodging money and profit1 the builders being independent men4 ,the ornamental chimney-stacks were put in for the sake of appearance1 flues built up in the chalk being entirely satisfactory and fireproof4 ,the foundations are either flint or brick with a slate damp-course4 ,i consider that for a chalk country this method of building has many advantages4 7#a7 ,it saves cartage4 7#b7 ,it can be carried out by a skilled labourer who can be otherwise employed during unsuitable weather4 7#c7 ,no fuel is required as in burning bricks4 7#d7 ,if a suitable rendering is employed to keep it weatherproof1 and a good damp-course on the foundations1 the cottages are nice and dry and keep an equable temperature1 chalk being a good non-conductor4 ,sir ,george wonders if any method could be devised by chemical means to harden the chalk and make it weatherproof2 if this could be done it might save the expense of the cement rendering4 ,,chalk ,,conglomerate ,from ,country ,life1 ,february #bcrd1 #aija3 ,soft chalk is practically mud1 yet ,dr4 ,poore1 one leading authority on rural hygiene1 had his model hygienic cottage built with it at ,andover1 just outside the boundaries1 in order to escape the tyranny of the bye-laws4 ,in several other places this material has been used time out of mind4 ,the white cottages on the ,wiltshire ,downs are as good as any in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,three ,chalk ,cottages at ,hursley ,park ,,the ,,winterslow ,,cottages ,from ,country ,life1 ,april #fth1 #aija3 ,the white chalk cottages of the scattered straggling village are found in every sort of position4 ,they must not be confounded with the cottages of rock chalk at ,medmenham4 ,you might almost call them mud cottages4 ,the house is generally both planned and constructed by the owner4 4 4 4 ,the soil is only a few inches deep1 soft chalk lies close to the surface and can be dug out with a spade4 ,this is a very suitable material in the district and costs nothing but the labour of digging4 4 4 4 ,on the downs there is a constant lack of water2 that which falls in the shape of rain is therefore very precious1 and in some cases is indeed the only kind available4 ,but a large tank or artificial well is needed to contain it1 and the pit from which the chalk is dug out can be made to serve the purpose4 4 4 4 ,one was made watertight by means of a lining of concrete1 and held enough water to keep the family going through all the dry season4 ,in another house 4 4 4 the chalk-pit had been utilised to form a large and convenient cellar4 4 4 4 ,most of them 7the cottages7 4 4 4 are on two floors1 with parlour1 kitchen1 back kitchen and so forth on one1 and the bedrooms on the other4 ,in the preparation of the chalk1 the method followed is that of treading it into a kind of rubble1 and adding a proportion of straw and a small quantity of lime4 ,headnote3 ,expensive ,scaffolding ,avoided ,there is a local builder who will run up the shell of a house for a matter of ,l#ajj1 more or less1 according to its size4 4 4 4 ,most of the cottages are literally hand-made4 ,a skilful architect who visited the ,winterslow cottages felt sure that boards must be used to keep the walls straight1 but he was wrong4 ,the chalk is shovelled up and the walls are kept straight without line or plummet4 ,no expensive scaffolding or machinery is employed4 ,yet the walls come out beautifully in the end1 the colour being an exquisite soft white4 ,they are about #ah in4 thick1 and the slowness of their construction has one good effect1 it gives them time to dry4 ,no point is of more importance than this4 ,it is advisable not to put on any rough-cast1 plaster1 or paper for at least twelve months1 as doing so will prevent the moisture from exuding4 ,one or two of the little cottages were slightly damp1 but the majority were as dry as tinder4 ,the thickness of the walls helps to render the cottage more comfortable1 to make it cool in summer and dry in winter4 ,one word should be added in regard to soft chalk as a building material4 ,where it can be obtained in the garden at a few inches depth1 and especially where the cottager is his own architect and builder1 it can be most heartily recommended1 but there are obvious objections to its transportation to districts where it is foreign4 ,the village itself is a very homely and irregular one without a single dwelling of any pretence4 ,the country lying adjacent to ,salisbury ,plain consists of broken1 sparsely peopled downland1 and very ornate or finished cottages would be out of keeping1 but they would not look so well copied in a very rich1 heavily timbered country4 ,,rats ,,and ,,chalk ,note4--,conglomerate chalk is1 like cob1 vulnerable to the attacks of a really determined rat4 ,the outer defences provided by the exterior rendering can be backed up by the mixing in of broken glass or sharp flints with the substance of the wall1 where such attacks are likely4 ,illustration3 ,marsh ,court1 ,hampshire4 ,illustration3 ,brick-and-chalk ,vaulting at the ,deanery ,garden1 ,sonning ,headnote3 ,block ,chalk ,,block ,,chalk ,chalk is a term somewhat loosely used to denote the soft white limestone--the ,creta ,scriptoria--that is cousin to ,marl on one side and to ,ragstone on the other4 ,in its purest form chalk consists of over #ie per cent4 of carbonate of lime in the form of fine granular particles held together by a calcareous cement1 its organic origin being clearly traced in the remains of the minute sea creatures with which it abounds4 ,hewn blocks of chalk have been used for walling and vaulting from immemorial times1 and1 where not exposed to direct erosion by the weather1 remain to this day as clean-cut as when they were first quarried and a very great deal harder4 ,the filling in of the great vaults at ,salisbury ,cathedral and in the ,bishop's ,palace are of chalk1 whilst innumerable lesser buildings of more or less antiquity still remain to us as monuments to the excellence and durability of this stone4 ,chalk1 too1 was often used in combination with flint or brick to build the engaging chequer-work walls that embellish so many downland villages4 ,at ,medmenham there are cottages both old and new of hewn rock chalk1 and both the ,berks and ,bucks banks of the ,thames have many buildings to show of this beautiful material4 ,amongst present-day architects ,sir ,edwin ,lutyens was the first to give hewn chalk an opportunity of showing its quality in serious architecture1 ,marsh ,court in ,hampshire being an instance of more than local celebrity4 ,in the great walls at the ,bishop of ,winchester's palace1 ,farnham ,castle in ,surrey1 the old builders appear to have used bricks1 limestone and chalk proper1 according as the several materials were delivered1 quite indifferently1 and with results altogether delightful4 ,not all chalk is suitable for building1 that near the surface being often far gone in decay and much too friable for such a purpose4 ,even when apparently sound blocks have been gotten they are not infrequently found to be crossed in all directions by planes of weakness along which they are apt to fall to pieces in the handling4 ,from this cause the waste is sometimes considerable4 ,the well-known building stones from the quarries of ,beer1 ,sutton1 and ,tottenhoe in ,devonshire are really chalk1 but in a form not readily distinguishable from ordinary free-stone4 ,the longer that chalk blocks are kept to dry before building-in the better1 and the sun and wind of at least a year should be allowed free play upon them to dry out their natural sap and render them frost-proof4 ,during the drying-out process the chalk should1 if possible1 be protected from the rain4 ,for years after being built into the walls of a house1 chalk will continue to dry and harden4 ,but it is essentially a somewhat porous material1 and will quickly revenge itself on those neglecting its just demands for a sound roof and a proper damp-course4 ,in exposed situations new chalk walling is liable to allow the penetration of moisture under the pressure of the wind unless a cavity is provided or unless the surface is treated with a silicate or other vitrifying fluid4 ,chalk1 however1 has one shining virtue in common with its great antithesis--it improves mightily with keeping4 ,chalk walls sometimes have youthful vices in the way of porosity that entirely disappear with advancing years through the closing up of the surface pores1 which eventually makes a cavity and inner lining superfluous4 ,,iv ,,unburned ,,clay ,,and ,,earth ,,bricks ,,sun-,,dried ,,bricks ,the use of sun-dried bricks in this country1 is1 for no very apparent reason1 almost entirely restricted to ,east ,anglia4 ,there it has been used for generations with entirely satisfactory results4 ,mr4 ,skipper of ,norwich writes of the material as follows3 99 99 99 ,who1 travelling from ,norfolk to ,london1 whether by the ,ipswich or ,cambridge line1 has not noticed the numerous colour-washed or black 7tarred7 cottage1 farmhouse and agricultural buildings scattered practically all along the countryside8 ,some of these are of studwork and plaster1 some of wattle and daub1 but many are built of clay made up into lumps1 sun-dried1 and built into the walls with a soft clay-mixture as mortar4 ,no lime need be used1 though sometimes it is mixed with the clay mortar4 ,the preparation1 digging1 exposure and mixing with short straw are similar to the ,devonshire 'cob' work1 but in these parts the worked clay is thrown into moulds1 and lumps are formed of1 say1 #ah in4 by #ab in4 by #f in41 or #ah in4 by #i in4 by #f in4 for large sizes1 and for inside walling or backing to brick-faced walls1 #ah in4 by #f in4 by #f in4 ,the walls1 naturally1 are rough in texture and the joints are generally stopped up and besmeared with a thin coating or almost a wash of clay4 ,this coating sometimes has lime mixed with it1 but it is not necessary4 ,this is all that is needed to complete the walling1 and there is a building--a malting1 that any one can see at ,tivetshall ,station on the ,ipswich line1 about #bjj ft4 long1 #de ft4 or #ej ft4 wide and three floors high1 built of lumps #ah in4 by #ab in4 by #f in4--that has stood the weather and weight of its roof for forty years built in this way2 #ab in4 is the thickness of its walls4 ,a further stage in finish is to give the walls two or three coats of coal tar1 but it is not essential1 though desirable where stock are kept1 as cattle are rather fond of licking the clay1 and they do not use their horns much when walls are tarred4 ,the highest finish in this work is to cast sand on the last coating of tar before it is quite dry1 and then to colour or whitewash on this4 ,this accounts for the variety of colourings seen in these buildings1 some even of a kind of pink or red2 while some yellow or buff1 beside the white and the black or tarred buildings1 and all huddled together or standing apart1 whether covered with thatch or red pan or flat tiles1 look remarkably in harmony with their surroundings4 ,these lump walls are1 of course1 built on a base of brickwork1 about #ah in4 or #b ft4 high1 to keep them free from damp4 ,this kind of walling can be built for at least #ae per cent4 or #bj per cent4 cheaper than ordinary #i in4 brickwork4 ,thin as these walls are compared with those of 'cob' houses1 they are noted for being warm in winter and cool in summer4 ,when suitable clay is procurable a local builder almost invariably uses clay lumps when building a house for himself1 though to gratify a whim perhaps1 he will case the outside walls--especially the front next the street or road--with brickwork4 ,but clay lumps he carefully reserves for inside walls and weight-carrying linings to the outside walls1 bonding the two together very much in the same way as two #d-a_/b in4 'cavity walls' are bonded4 ,i am not suggesting that this walling is as interesting artistically as 'cob1' but ,i do suggest it is a practical1 sensible and dry walling1 and if properly done it will 'last for ever1' as a local builder repeatedly said to me when speaking of it4 ,one can easily see why the cost is light--the sun and the winds do the drying in the spring months1 and no coals are required1 and also the clay is often found on the building site1 hence no cartage4 ,actual building work naturally goes quickly1 as the lumps are large4 ,there is another important point to notice4 ,one may see a building complete with its roof on and occupied by its tenant while still awaiting an outside casing of brickwork to be built round it1 either with a view to greater protection or for the mere vanity of the owner1 for while thus left unprotected the lump walls take no harm from even winter exposure4 ,now to be quite practical in these extremely practical days1 ,i venture to suggest that the use of clay lumps at least for inside walls and linings of outside walls would be an immense boon to the numerous cottage-building schemes now being projected4 ,we must not forget that comparatively few bricks will be available this year1 while the cottages are wanted at once4 ,can these few bricks be better used than by forming foundations and chimneys for the clay-lump walls of these cottages8 ,i think not4 ,the cottages could1 of course1 be occupied in the late summer or autumn of this year1 and next year when bricks will be more plentiful perhaps the brick casings could be added1 if brickwork must complete them4 ,i make this strictly utilitarian suggestion solely to meet a very urgent and deep national need4 ,personally1 ,i prefer the sight of a cottage built and finished in the old-established method of the locality4 ,unskilled labour only is required1 working under intelligent supervision1 hence immediate employment for a great number of men would be provided4 ,headnote3 ,use for ,unskilled ,labour 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,once ,corn ,hall1 now ,council ,school4 ,built about a hundred years ago4 ,still in sound condition and quite dry4 ,illustration3 ,a ,row of ,clay-lump ,cottages4 ,the front has been plastered and panelled out4 ,in the upper part of the stable building1 seen in the foreground1 the clay-lumps are shown exposed4 ,illustration3 ,engineering ,workshops4 ,built twenty years ago4 ,the walls are thoroughly sound1 despite constant vibration1 and are perfectly dry1 except the brick face1 which was added for effect4 ,the use of sun-dried bricks for the interior partitions of cob and pise cottages is worth consideration1 as the nature of these materials demands a thickness of wall which is too wasteful of space to be acceptable in mere partitioning4 ,of the strength of clay-lump walls1 there is no question4 ,it was recently necessary to cut a new doorway in the old clay-lump wall of a large traction-engine garage1 and the blocks removed were thrown into a heap upon the ground4 ,the clay happened to be needed for other purposes1 for which it had first to be broken up4 ,ordinary hammers proved entirely ineffective1 and it was not until heavy sledges were used that the lumps could be smashed4 ,the tractor-house in question is a large building some #be ft4 by #ajj ft41 carrying a heavy roof and constantly subjected to vibration by the coming and going of the tractors4 ,the walls are only #ab in4 thick1 without piers or reinforcements of any kind1 and yet the whole building1 which is #bf ft1 high at the gables1 is as perfect to-day as when first erected some twenty years ago4 ,in the same town as this tractor-house1 ,east ,harling in ,norfolk1 is a council school built of clay lump 7converted from the old ,corn ,hall71 apparently not a pin the worse for a century of hard wear4 ,near by there are a number of private houses built of the same material1 some of them reputed to be upwards of #bjj years old and certain of them having considerable architectural merit4 ,headnote3 ,substantial and ,cool 7,extract from ,the ,farmers' ,handbook1 issued by the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,new ,south ,wales1 #aiaa7 ,adobe1 or ,sun-dried ,bricks ,as their name implies1 these buildings are constructed of sun-dried1 but unburnt bricks4 ,for buildings of this character1 material like clay1 which is unsuitable for pise-work1 can be used4 ,the bricks are made in a wooden mould1 and are #af in4 long1 #h in4 wide1 and #f in4 thick4 ,a man can mould about #ajj per day4 ,they are laid in a similar manner to other bricks1 the mortar used being wet loam1 or even the material of which the bricks are made4 ,the cost of making and laying is estimated at about #aes4 per #ajj4 ,buildings constructed of these bricks are substantial and cool1 and very similar in character to pise buildings4 ,a school-house built of these bricks eighteen years ago by ,mr4 ,nixon1 of ,reefton1 is still in an excellent state of preservation2 in fact1 little1 if any1 the worse for wear1 despite the fact that walls are unprotected by verandahs or overhanging eaves4 ,during its existence it has had1 first one coat of oil-paint1 and later a coat of coloured limewash4 99 99 99 ,clay lump1 then1 is one of the many good old building methods that needs no proving1 but only revival and perhaps improvement4 ,,appendix ,i ,,whitewash ,whitewashing has been frequently referred to in the foregoing pages as the most suitable treatment for the exterior of chalk and earth buildings4 ,there is1 however1 a certain prejudice against lime-whiting amongst both owners and occupiers1 owing to the frequent renewal that its adoption usually implies4 ,with a view to removing this drawback from a treatment otherwise so effective1 the following recipes are suggested as improvements on the usual practice4 ,ordinary whitewash is made by slaking about #aj lbs4 of quicklime with two gallons of water4 ,the following recipes are taken from ,white ,paints and ,painting 7,scott71 and are reliable3 7#a7 ,factory ,whitewash 7interiors71 for ,walls1 ,ceilings1 ,posts1 etc43 7a7 #fb lbs4 7#a bushel7 quicklime1 slake with #ae gallons water4 ,keep barrel covered till steam ceases to arise4 ,stir occasionally to prevent scorching4 7b7 #b-a_/b lbs4 rye-flour1 beat up in #a_/b gallon of cold water1 then add #b gallons boiling water4 7c7 #b-a_/b lbs4 of common rock-salt1 dissolve in #b-a_/b gallons of hot water4 ,mix 7b7 and 7c71 then pour into 7a71 and stir until all is well mixed4 ,this is the whitewash used in the large implement factories1 and recommended by the insurance companies4 ,the above formula gives a product of perfect brush consistency4 7#b7 ,weatherproof ,whitewash 7exteriors71 for ,buildings1 ,fences1 etc43 7a7 #fb lbs4 7#a bushel7 quicklime1 slake with #ab gallons of hot water4 7b7 #b lbs4 common table salt1 #a lb4 sulphate of zinc1 dissolved in a gallon of boiling water4 7c7 #b gallons skimmed milk4 ,pour 7b7 into 7a71 then add the milk 7c71 and mix thoroughly4 7#c7 ,light ,house ,whitewash3 7a7 #fb lbs4 7#a bushel7 quicklime1 slake with #ab gallons of hot water4 7b7 #ab gallons rock-salt1 dissolve in #f gallons of boiling water4 7c7 #f lbs4 of ,portland cement4 ,pour 7b7 into 7a71 and then add 7c74 99 99 99 ,note4--,alum added to a lime whitewash prevents it rubbing off4 ,an ounce to the gallon is sufficient4 ,flour paste answers the same purpose1 but needs zinc sulphate as a preservative4 ,the following are from #a1jjj ,more ,paint ,questions ,answered3 7#d7 ,durable ,whitewash for ,outside ,use4--,a whitewash that will not rub off or wash off in rainy weather can be made by mixing one half-pint of flour to a batter with cold water1 then stirring into this boiling water until it becomes a thick paste4 ,while still hot it is poured into a pailful of ready-made lime whitewash and well stirred in4 7#e7 ,another simple method is to add to #b gallons of ready-made lime whitewash one half-pint each of molasses and table salt4 ,must be stirred frequently while being used4 ,whitewash for ,exterior ,surfaces4--,a formula for a durable whitewash for out-buildings of rough lumber4 ,the following is reprinted from ,popular ,mechanics3 7#f7 ,place #a bushel good fresh lime in a barrel with #bj lbs4 beef tallow2 slake with hot water and cover with sackcloth to keep in steam4 ,when the lime is slaked1 the tallow will have disappeared1 having formed a chemical compound with the lime4 ,dry colours may be added to produce any tint desired4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,experiments and tests carried out for the author by the ,department of ,scientific and ,industrial ,research place this receipt at the head of the list4 ,it is better to add colour before slaking the lime1 but if this is not feasible mix the colour with alcohol and add it to the strained whitewash4 ,thin to easy flowing consistency with clear water4 ,headnote3 ,distempers and ,limewashes ,cold ,water ,paint that will stand the ,weather4--,a formula for making a white outside coating that will resist the action of the weather and remain hard even under the influence of moisture and rain4 ,experiments with different brands of cold water paints have proved failures4 ,a really effective cold water paint1 in order to resist the elements and remain white1 should contain a white pigment of good body and some oil in addition to the water1 and with this purpose in view the following is suggested3 7#g7 ,to make #ajj lbs4 of such paint1 mix #aj lbs4 white1 pure in oil1 with #aj lbs4 bolted whiting1 #h lbs4 raw linseed oil1 #f lbs4 soft soap 7made with potash71 and #bf lbs4 soft water4 ,one quart of pale copal varnish will improve the preparation4 ,the formula given is of the right consistency to apply on dressed lumber with the brush4 ,for application on rough lumber or with the spraying machine it requires more thinning with water and varnish4 ,the following is taken from ,pearce's ,painting and ,decorating3 7#h7 ,a ,london recipe for distemper has the following proportions3 #d balls whiting1 #b lbs4 ,young's patent size1 and sufficient water to cover the whiting4 7#i7 ,a ,scotch distemper is described as3 #ab lbs4 whiting1 size as given previously1 #b ozs4 alum1 #b ozs4 soft soap4 ,it is very fast1 for passages1 schools1 etc4 ,tinting colours for limewash should be restricted to ochres1 umbers1 lime blue1 lime greens1 charcoal or lamp black1 and earthy reds 7as ,venetian74 7#aj7 ,external limewash for farm buildings1 etc41 may be made as follows3 ,lime1 #a_/b bushel1 slaked with #a gallon of milk and remainder of water1 #a lb4 salt and #a_/b lb4 sulphate of zinc to make it withstand the weather4 ,experiments with and practical tests of these and other kinds of whitewash are being carried out1 and the author hopes that he may find opportunity at some later date of announcing the results obtained4 ,headnote3 ,local ,materials ,,ii ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,using ,,local ,,materials 7,extract from ,country ,life1 ,november #ith1 #aiah7 #cjj1jjj ,,cottages ,,would ,,entail ,,the ,,transport ,,of #fj1jjj1jjj ,,tons ,,of ,,material ,in carrying out any considerable scheme of house building two difficulties will have to be met4 ,the first arises from the scarcity of building material2 the other from the cost and difficulty of transport4 ,these1 to some extent1 can be obviated by the use of local material1 which is to be commended on other grounds as well4 ,local material fits into the character of the neighbourhood in which it is found and maintains its traditions4 ,very few people realise the bulk of materials1 and in order to help them the following statement has been prepared to show the materials needed for each cottage and the total for #cjj1jjj cottages3 ,materials4 ,weight4 ,per ,one ,cottage4 ,per #cjj1jjj4 ,tons4 ,cwts4 ,qrs4 7,tons47 ,ballast1 sand1 gravel #gh #ag #j #bc1fee1jjj ,lime #e #ah #j #a1ggj1jjj ,cement #ab #h #j #c1gbj1jjj ,bricks #he #j #j #be1ejj1jjj ,slates for ,d4,p4,c #j #aj #b #aeg1ejj ,chimney-pots #j #j #c #aa1bej ,tiles #g #b #b #b1acg1ejj ,carcassing timber #g #j #j #b1ajj1jjj ,complete joinery timber #a #ab #j #dhj1jjj ,cast-iron rain-water goods and sundries #j #i #j #ace1jjj ,stoves1 copper1 ash-bin1 etc4 #j #e #b #hb1ejj ,nails1 screws1 etc4 #j #a #b #bb1ejj ,hair for plaster #j #a #j #ae1jjj ,lead flashings1 etc4 #j #b #a #cc1gej ,sink1 waste pipes1 draining boards1 etc4 #j #b #a #cc1gej ,sanitary goods #j #a #j #ae1jjj ,whitening1 distemper and paint #j #c #a #dh1gej --------- ---------- ,total #aii #ad #b #ei1iag1ejj --------- ---------- ,it will be seen that to carry out the scheme for #cjj1jjj cottages a total of close on #fj1jjj1jjj tons of material will have to be shifted4 ,in addition to that1 it must be remembered that the cost of material is very small in comparison with that of building4 ,this will be apparent from an analysis of the items employed for actual cost and the percentage which that cost bears to the total cost4 ,cottages erected #aiab 7semi-detached73 total interior area of cottage1 #ggb ft4 super1 7parlour1 kitchen1 scullery and three bedrooms1 coal and ,w4,c473 ,per ,house4 ,no4 ,item4 ,actual ,cost4 ,per cent4 of ,total ,cost4 #a4 ,sundries #h #b4ff #b4 ,foundations #af #e4bh #c4 ,external and party walls 7a7 #gg #be4da ,windows and doors 7b7 #bc #g4ei #d4 ,internal partitions #cf #aa4hh #e4 ,ground floor #ah #e4id #f4 ,upper floor #bb #g4bf #g4 ,roof and rain-water goods #cd #a4bb #h4 ,chimney and fireplaces #cj #i4ij #i4 ,sanitary fittings1 water supply and drainage #ai #f4bg #aj4 ,staircases #aa #c4fc #aa4 ,fittings #f #a4ih ---- ,total ,l#cjj ,these facts help to clarify the problem4 ,the weight of the building materials required for an ordinary cottage with living-room1 parlour1 scullery1 three bedrooms1 etc41 the house containing cubic contents of about #aa1ejj ft41 would come approximately to #bjj tons per cottage2 and even assuming that there is only an average transport of fifty miles1 this would give #aj1jjj ton-miles per rural cottage1 which is taking it at a very low average4 ,in each cottage the weight of the brickwork represents about #db per cent4 of the total weight4 ,it is1 therefore1 apparent that every effort should be made to lessen the transit of materials required for the external walling4 ,if1 on the other hand1 local materials are employed1 this carriage would be saved and a great economy effected4 ,even if this utilitarian consideration were not so important as it is1 the desirability of making all possible use of local materials is very great from other points of view4 ,it would stimulate local interest in building and1 in addition to retaining the traditions of the district1 give greater hope of retaining and maintaining the proper architectural aspect of our villages4 ,it is scarcely necessary to summarise the advantages that may fairly be expected to flow from this endeavour to make a real start at finding a solution for the housing difficulty4 ,first and foremost must be placed the saving in transport4 ,a casual reader may easily imagine that the difficulties of carriage will vanish with the end of the war1 but that is not so in reality4 ,any one who has travelled in ,france must have noticed engines bearing such names as ,liverpool ,street1 ,king's ,cross1 ,euston1 ,birmingham1 and so on4 ,the meaning of that is that a great deal of our rolling stock was sent over to ,france1 and at the best will not be available here for a long time to come4 ,even the ordinary work of upkeep and repair has necessarily been neglected owing to the scarcity of men and other causes incidental to war-time4 ,transport difficulties are bound to last for a very considerable period after the peace settlement1 and it would not be at all advisable to delay the construction of houses so long4 ,the returned soldiers will make us vividly conscious of the shortage4 ,nothing could be imagined more likely to make them look for chances of going abroad than to learn that there is not sufficient housing accommodation for them in the village in which they lived before the war1 and to which they hoped to return on its conclusion4 ,headnote3 ,cost per ,foot ,cube ,,iii ,,extract ,,from ,a ,,letter ,,to ,,the ,,editor ,,of ,,country ,,life1 ,,july #bgth1 #aiah ,shortly before the war ,i had occasion to demolish some very old cottages at ,clovelly for the reconstruction of the ,new ,inn4 ,i was so much struck with the stability of these 7although by no means first-class samples of cob work7 that ,i collected some facts and notes on the subject from different parts of the county of ,devon4 ,where bye-laws have been adopted1 cob is no longer being used4 ,it is difficult1 therefore1 to give an accurate comparison of costs1 but after careful investigation ,i did arrive at the following results for ,north ,devon and ,scotland4 ,the prices were in #aiac1 and in both cases for a five-roomed cottage 7assuming four to be built at the same time1 including internal water supply1 but omitting any special work necessary to procure supply1 and omitting fencing74 ,cost per foot cube ,cost per foot cube cob at #b ft4 #f in4 #aa in4 hollow brick4 thick4 ,north ,devon #f-a_/b;d4 #e-g_/h;d4 ,scotland #f;d4 #f;d4 ,these prices assumed suitable material on or near site1 and allowed something for the difficulty of getting at least one experienced cob-worker to instruct the unskilled men4 ,since #aiac the cost of brick has risen so much that cob would now be much cheaper1 probably as much as #a;d4 or #a-a_/d;d4 foot cube in both cases1 and this is likely to be the case for many years4 ,suitable material exists in many parts of the country4 ,if reed straw cannot be had1 other reinforcements can be used4 ,i have seen various materials in use1 of which heather was perhaps the best and most easily procured4 ,i can endorse from experience the comfort of these old buildings1 and the affection of ,devon people for them4 ,the thick walls give all that a house should--protection from heat in summer and cold in winter4 ,for the contrast1 visit the new ,garden ,city at ,rosyth4 ,many of the houses are attractive1 but their thin brick walls1 tile and slate hanging are not suitable to the north and east coasts4 ,ask the opinion of the occupants of these new houses4 ,many of them are ,devon born and bred1 and imported from the dockyards of the three towns4 ,they nearly all complain of the cold1 and their views form an interesting comment on modern construction4 ,,iv ,,pise ,,tests 7,with acknowledgements to ,the ,spectator7 ,through the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,alban ,richards ,co4 we are able to publish the results of certain very instructive tests that have been carried out on ,pise during the past winter4 ,messrs4 ,richard's experience and ,report bring out two points with especial clearness1 7#a7 ,that ,pise work1 though not impossible under winter conditions1 is not ordinarily desirable unless some means of artificially drying the earth be resorted to4 7#b7 ,that the strength of ,pise increases with surprising rapidity as the work dries out4 ,it should be remarked that none of the samples tested were made from really good ,pise soil1 such for instance as the red marls or brick earths4 ,with such materials or anything approaching them1 the results would have been even better1 as the ,report points out3-- ,in conjunction with ,mr4 ,williams-,ellis1 we have made certain tests with a view to satisfying ourselves as to the practicability of pise de terre for house construction4 ,in order to obtain what we might term the minimum or 'worst' tests1 we decided to erect walls for this purpose in the winter4 ,this we have done for the last three months1 which has been a very wet period1 and the following is a short description of the tests we have made3-- #a4 ,two walls were erected measuring #ad ft4 long1 #i ft4 high and #ah in4 thick1 spaced #bj ft4 apart1 with short return ends to each wall4 ,wall plates were placed centrally along the top of each wall1 on which were placed #i in4 by #c in4 wood joists1 at #af in4 centres1 across the #bj ft span4 ,in order to obtain the minimum results we allowed the shutters to remain until the test was ready to be applied1 so that walls did not have an opportunity of drying or hardening4 ,this condition was thought necessary1 as it is quite reasonable to expect that if pise de terre cottages are erected1 considerable weight might be placed on the walls immediately the shuttering is struck4 ,we then proceeded to test the walls to destruction4 ,the floor space provided for by the joists referred to above measure #bbj super4 feet1 the load was then applied gradually4 ,the load applied totalled #af-a_/b tons1 which is equivalent of #afh lbs4 per super4 foot of floor space1 under which the wall collapsed1 which1 in our opinion1 provides a factor of safety of three to the normal load which a cottage floor would have to bear4 ,we are convinced that very much better results can be obtained in this method of construction with walls which were first dried before the load was applied4 ,further experiments are to be made to procure further data on this subject4 ,in addition to the above tests1 we have submitted to the ,national ,physical ,laboratory1 blocks made of pise de terre1 from poor to medium soil1 for testing purposes1 and the following are the results which have been obtained3-- ,the following ,report shows results of ,tests made by the ,national ,physical ,laboratory4 ,headnote3 ,pise ,tests ,,report ,,on ,,tests ,,of ,,building ,,blocks ,,of ,,pise ,,de ,,terre ,,sent ,,for ,,test ,,by ,,messrs4 ,w4 ,,alban ,,richards ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,tests made on ,january #ad1 #aibj4 ,first set of three blocks sent in ,november #aiai4 ,these blocks were composed of a fine gravel containing very few and very small stones4 ,the material was said to be similar to that used at ,merrow ,down1 near ,guildford1 ,surrey4 ,it appeared to be very similar to ,farnham gravel4 ,the blocks were tested in compression1 one within twenty-four hours of arrival at the laboratory1 and the others after drying for a time in the laboratory4 ,for results of tests see ,table ,i4 ,,table ,i ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,load4 ,age ,area,density------------ in in lbs4 in tons ,dimensions dayssq4 per in per ,no4 ,marks4 in inches4 99 ft4 c4 ft4 tons sq4 ft4 ,,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,ut#a #c #ix#ix#i #a 4#efb #aca #j4gj #a4ff ,cracked #a4jd #b4dg ,collapsed ,,ut#b #a #h4ix#h4ix#h4i #i 4#eej #abe #d4bg #aj4ej ,collapsed ,,ut#c #b #h4iex#h4iex#h4ieaf 4#eef #aag #b4ca #e4eg ,small #d4bc #aj4bj cracks appeared ---------------------------------------- --------------------- 993 ,age after arrival at laboratory4 ,second set of blocks sent in ,december #aiai4 ,this set consisted of six blocks in three pairs1 each pair having been rammed with a different quantity of water4 ,one of each pair was tested within twenty-four hours of arrival at the laboratory1 and the others after drying in the laboratory for twenty-six days4 ,the material used was not homogeneous1 and the mixture consisted of a very clayey loam1 a fibrous loam1 sand and large stones4 ,the clayey material gave rise to surface cracks as the blocks dried4 ,for results of tests see ,table ,,ii4 ,,table ,,ii ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,load4 ,age ,area,density------------ in in lbs4 in tons ,dimensions dayssq4 per in per ,no4 ,marks4 in inches4 99 ft4 c4 ft4 tons sq4 ft4 ,,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,vw#a #a #h4ix#ix#h4e #a 4#eee #ajf #j4de #j4ha ,cracked at dry one corner #j4ea #j4ib ,collapsed ,,vw#b #b #ix#ix#i #bf 4#efb #aje #b4ae #c4hd ,collapsed4 dry ,material quite dry in interior ,,vw#c #c #i4ax#i4ax#h4i #a 4#egj #acd #j4ee #j4if ,collapsed wet ,,vw#d #d #h4hx#h4hx#h4i #bf 4#edf #aaj #c4bj #e4hf ,collapsed4 wet ,material quite dry in interior ,,vw#e #e #ix#h4ix#i #a 4#eeh #abf #j4fj #a4jh ,bulged and medium cracked #j4fi #a4bd ,collapsed ,,vw#f #f #h4hx#h4hx#g #bf 4#edf #aji #c4cc #f4aj ,collapsed4 medium ,material slightly damp in the interior ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 993 ,age after arrival at laboratory4 ,seal of ,,national ,,physical ,,laboratory ,signature of ,director ,from the second set of blocks it would appear that it is better to ram with too much moisture than with too little4 ,it will be noted that the density of the wet block was #cj per cent4 more than that of the dry block1 so that a wall could be carried higher with the dry material than with the wet1 although such a wall would never gain the strength which a wet one would upon drying4 ,,conclusions ,we are of opinion1 having regard to the fact that the house at ,newlands ,corner 7,guildford four miles7 has weathered the winter1 without showing any signs of dampness1 that pise de terre will make a thoroughly dry house4 ,we consider that the tests made are satisfactory1 and prove that this form of construction is of a sufficiently sound nature to be employed in the building of houses4 ,with really suitable material1 such as a light brick-earth or marl1 it is considered that the results already obtained might well be #ajj per cent4 better4 ,we are informed that additional tests are now proceeding with regard to the water-proof and weather-resisting qualities of ,pise1 the results of which will be duly published4 ,,index ,,introduction3 ,chalk walls1 #ah ,cheap materials1 the search for1 #ac ,pise de craie1 #af1 #ag1 #ajg ,pise1 experiments with1 #ae in moulds1 #ai1 #bj in ,south ,africa1 #bb1 #bc ,pliny on ,pise de terre1 #be ,rammed chalk1 #af1 #ag1 #ajg ,,general ,,survey3 ,building materials1 shortage of1 #bf ,ersatz products introduced during the ,war1 #bf ,house famine1 the1 #bg ,local materials1 use of1 to avoid transport1 #bi ,lutyens1 ,sir ,edwin1 and ,mr4 ,alban ,scott1 cottage by1 #cj ,rural housing1 suitability of cob and pise for1 #bh ,i--,,cob3 ,allen1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,b41 his reference to ,devon cob1 quoted1 #dg ,baring-,gould1 ,rev4 ,s41 on cob1 quoted1 #dg ,beauty of cob1 #ce ,bernard1 ,mr4 ,charles1 his account of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's cob house1 #de1 #df ,book of the ,west1 ,the1 by ,rev4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould1 reference to cob in1 quoted1 #dg ,building1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci ,carpentry and joinery1 #da1 #db ,chimneys1 #dd ,cob tradition1 #eb ,composition1 #cf ,cost1 #ce1 #ej ,cottage-,building1 reference to cob in1 quoted1 #dg ,country ,life1 letter to1 relating to cob work1 quoted1 #aae1 #aaf ,design1 #dd1 #de ,devon cob1 #dg ,drying1 #ci ,elizabethan cob houses still existing1 #cd ,former conditions returned1 #eb ,foundations and base1 #dj2 result of bad1 #cd ,fruit walls1 of cob1 #dg1 #dh ,fulford1 ,mr41 of ,great ,fulford1 on cob1 #ej-eb ,gimson1 ,mr41 his description of building cob1 quoted1 #ce ,hayes ,barton1 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's house at1 #de1 #df ,hipped roofs1 #da ,joinery1 #da1 #db1 #dc ,masonry and carpentry1 #da1 #db ,method of building1 #cf-de ,mixing1 #cg ,northcote1 ,lady ,rosalind1 her description of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's house1 #df ,primitive methods1 #dg ,protection1 #dc ,protective wash1 #ea ,raleigh1 ,sir ,walter1 his cob house at ,hayes ,barton1 #de1 #df ,rats1 #dd ,reed thatch1 #df ,rendering1 #ea ,roofing1 #ea ,shuttering1 #ea ,strength1 #dd ,thickness of walls1 #dj ,traditional building material in ,devon and ,wessex1 #cc ,training of ex-soldiers1 #eb ,,ii--,,pise3 ,bolts1 #hf ,bonders1 #fi ,building procedure1 #ga1 #gb1 #gd1 #ge ,capabilities1 #eg1 #eh ,corners1 #fh ,cyclopaedia1 or ,universal ,dictionary of ,arts1 ,sciences1 and ,literature1 on pise1 quoted1 #ei-ga ,damp-course1 #hf ,definition of ,pise de terre1 #eg1 #ei ,durability1 #hb ,earthwork1 ,a ,manual on1 quoted1 #gc-gf ,empandeni1 pise work executed at1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,excavation1 #hf ,etah ,jail1 pise work executed at1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh ,fillet1 #hg ,floating1 #hf ,foundations1 #gd ,frames1 #hg ,france1 introduction of pise into1 #eg ,gorffon1 ,monsieur1 reference to his treatise on pise1 #eg ,history1 #eg ,indian and ,colonial practice1 #gc-hh ,introduced into ,france by the ,romans1 #eg ,journal de ,physique1 by the ,abbe ,rozier1 quoted1 #eh ,lintels1 #hg ,locale1 #eh ,method of building1 #eh-fb ,method of working1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb ,new ,south ,wales1 pise work in1 #ha-hh ,origin1 #eh ,picture-rail1 #hg ,plant required1 #he1 #hi1 #ij ,plastering1 #ge ,pliny1 references to his account of pise1 #be1 #eg ,plugs1 #hf1 #hg ,protection1 #ge ,rain1 #fg ,rammer1 the1 #ei1 #fj ,ramming1 #fb1 #gf ,rate of work1 #fc ,rendering1 #gj ,rods versus bars1 #ge1 #gf ,rozier1 the ,abbe1 his ,journal de ,physique1 quoted1 #eh ,shuttering1 #ei1 #hh1 #hi ,shutter ties1 #gc ,skirting1 #hg ,soil blending1 #fd preparation of1 #ff1 #fg suitable1 #fc1 #gd1 #hf tests1 #fc to ascertain quality of1 #fe ,speed of building1 #gj ,stability1 #hb ,strength1 #fi ,studding1 #hg1 #hh ,theory and science of pise1 the1 #fb-gc ,ventilators1 #hf ,virtues of pise1 #gb ,wire netting1 use of1 #hg1 #hh ,,iii--,,chalk3 ,block chalk1 #aag1 #aah ,chalk compost1 historical1 #ajg composition and uses1 #ajh1 #aji ,chalk conglomerate1 #aad ,chimneys1 #aaj ,external rendering1 #aaj ,frost1 #aji ,garden walls1 #aaa ,house walls1 #aab ,old and modern examples1 #aab-aae ,rats and chalk1 #aaf ,rendering1 #aaj ,repairs1 #aaj ,roof1 #aaa ,strength1 #aaj ,timber1 #aji ,winterslow cottages1 the1 #aae1 #aaf ,,iv--,,unburned ,,clay ,,and ,,earth ,,bricks3 ,adobe1 use of1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 #abd ,age of clay-lump buildings1 #abd ,east ,anglia1 use of sun-dried bricks in1 #aba ,method of making1 #aba ,new ,south ,wales1 use of sun-dried bricks in1 #abd ,skipper1 ,mr41 on sun-dried bricks1 quoted1 #aba ,strength of clay-lump walls1 #abd ,thickness of clay-lump walls1 #abb-abd ,,appendix3 ,cold-water paint1 recipe for1 #abi ,cost1 an analysis of building1 #aca ,country ,life1 letter to1 relating to cob work1 quoted1 #acb1 #acc ,distempers1 recipes for1 #abi ,local materials1 importance of using1 #acj1 #aca ,weight of building materials1 table of1 #acj ,whitewash1 recipes for1 #abg1 #abh ,printed by ,hazell1 ,watson and ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,recent ,additions to the ,,country ,,life ,,library4 ,the ,country ,life ,book of ,cottages4 ,by ,,lawrence ,,weaver4 ,nearly #cjj pages and over #cjj illustrations4 #i_/f net2 by post1 #aj_/-4 ,small ,country ,houses3 ,their ,repair and ,enlargement4 ,by ,,lawrence ,,weaver4 ,forty examples chosen from five centuries4 #cjj illustrations4 ,large quarto1 #ah_/i net2 by post1 #ai_/f4 ,anyone who wishes to adapt an old house for modern use will find much to learn from ,mr4 ,weaver's pages4 --,scotsman4 ,small ,country ,houses of ,to-day4 7,second ,series47 ,by ,,lawrence ,,weaver4 ,over #cjj illustrations and plans4 ,large quarto1 #be_/- net2 by post1 #bf_/-4 ,the ,first and ,chief ,groundes of ,architecture4 ,by ,,john ,,shute1 #aefc1 with a historical and critical introduction by ,,lawrence ,,weaver4 ,facsimile edition of the first book on architecture published in ,england4 ,folio1 half-bound in sheepskin1 #ah_/i net2 by post1 #ai_/f4 ,houses and ,gardens by ,e4 ,l4 ,lutyens4 ,described and criticised by ,,lawrence ,,weaver4 #djj folio pages1 and #fjj magnificent illustrations4 #bnd ,edition1 quarter buckram1 #ca_/c net2 half morocco1 #dc_/i net2 postage #aj;d4 extra4 ,it is only when we see such a publication as this1 that we realise what quality characterises some of the building of to-day4 ,abundantly and splendidly illustrated1 this book shows the work of a great master4 --,manchester ,guardian4 ,grinling ,gibbons and the ,woodwork of ,his ,age 7#afdh-agbj74 ,by ,h4 ,,avray ,,tipping1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,large folio1 quarter buckram1 #ca_/c net2 half morocco1 #dc_/i net2 postage #aj;d4 extra4 ,nearly #bej illustrations4 ,the book is rich in lessons for architects and amateurs of fine woodwork4 --,the ,scotsman4 ,english ,homes4 ,edited by ,h4 ,,avray ,,tipping1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,the internal character1 furniture and decorations1 of some of the most notable ,houses of ,england4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,iii41 containing #ejj matchless illustrations1 large folio1 handsomely bound1 each #eb_/f net4 ,a veritable revelation of the wealth of internal adornments1 architectural and other1 contained in the great country mansions of ,england4 ,to turn over the pages is to obtain keen pleasure1 as well as enlightenment1 concerning a treasury of domestic art and archaeology1 which to a large extent is kept closed from the common eye4 --,scotsman4 ,gardens ,old and ,new4 ,edited by ,h4 ,,avray ,,tipping1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,iii41 beautifully illustrated1 each #eb_/f net4 ,these volumes illustrate the relationship between house and garden in a way never before attempted4 ,the principle conveyed in the letterpress is that held by all great gardeners and architects--that house and garden are1 or should be1 intimately associated1 and that the character of the possessors should be reflected in both4 ,the accounts of lovely garden after lovely garden are most agreeable reading4 --,daily ,chronicle4 ,twenty-,five ,great ,houses of ,france4 ,by ,,sir ,,theodore ,,andrea ,,cook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 with an ,introductory ,chapter1 outlining the ,development of ,french ,domestic ,architecture1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,,ward1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 and illustrations by ,,frederick ,h4 ,,evans4 ,large folio1 containing over #djj superb illustrations1 plans and diagrams4 ,half-bound in buckram1 #eb_/f net2 in half morocco1 #fj_/f net2 postage #a_/- extra4 ,the ,publishers of ,,country ,,life have touched few subjects that they have not adorned1 but here they have surpassed themselves4 ,it is seldom that we have seen so rich and communicative photographs of great architecture4 --,daily ,news4 ,a book which will prove a source of endless delight to lovers of architecture4 --,glasgow ,herald4 ,garden ,ornament4 ,by ,,gertrude ,,jekyll1 with over #ejj wonderful illustrations4 ,large folio1 gilt edges1 #fc_/- net2 postage #a_/- extra4 ,miss ,jekyll's collection in this noble folio is a storehouse of examples1 styles and method in the decoration of gardens1 a compendium of the history and taste in ,english ,horticulture and a revelation of the treasures of beauty which our country holds4 --,times4 ,windsor ,castle4 ,an ,architectural ,history4 ,collected and written by command of ,their ,majesties ,,queen ,,victoria1 ,,king ,,edward ,,vii4 and ,king ,,george ,v4 ,by ,,sir ,,william ,h4 ,,st4 ,,john ,,hope1 ,litt4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,imperial quarto1 in ,two ,volumes1 and a ,portfolio4 ,bound in half sheepskin1 ,l#g #ags4 #f;d4 net2 whole sheepskin1 ,l#aj #ajs4 net2 full morocco1 ,l#ac #bs4 #f;d4 ,carriage extra4 ,illustrated prospectuses of these invaluable books and a complete catalogue will be sent post free on application to the ,manager1 ,,country ,,life1 ,,ltd41 #bj1 ,tavistock ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 ,w4,c4#b4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 ,bk4 ,,xxxv1 chapter xlviii1 quoted at end of ,introduction3 ,have we not in ,africa and in ,spain 444 erected by ,hannibal4 ,the standard numbering of this passage is ,,xxxv4lxi4 ,with punctuation and capitalization adjusted by transcriber to match translation3 ,quid non in ,africa ,hispaniaque e terra parietes1 quos appellant 'formaceos'1 quoniam in forma circumdatis ii utrimque tabulis inferciuntur verius quam struuntur8 ,aevis durant1 incorrupti imbribus1 ventis1 ignibus omnique caemento firmiores4 ,spectat etiam nunc speculas ,hannibalis ,hispania terrenasque turres iugis montium inpositas4 ,illustration reproduced from #ahai ,encyclopaedia3 ,immediately below the picture is the almost illegible text3 ,j4 ,f4 delin4 _/ ,lowry _/ ,published as the ,act directs #ahag by ,longman ,hurst ,rees1 ,orme ,brown ,paternoster ,row4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,errors and ,inconsistencies 7noted by transcriber73 ,headnotes ,pise--a ,south ,african ,lead ,the ,discovery of the ,old these two notes were transposed to fit the text ,illustration3 _/ ,the ,newlands ,waggon-house4 _/ ,interior4 final 4 missing force of the south-westerly storms4 single for double quote ,this requires no hair1 and is easily applied4 close quote missing have always been found perfectly sound prefectly ,strangers who have sailed upon the ,rhone open quote missing ,there is every reason for introducing open quote missing ,pise is a material readily obtainable single for double quote merely improvements of mechanism4 4 missing the misguided enthusiasts responsible line-end hyphen in mis-_/guided invisible it is generally bonded in in the ordinary way not an error ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chalk _/ ,sec4 ,i4 ,,general there are no sections ,,ii1 ,,iii444 fixed to wood blocks built in in a similar way not an error 993 ,age after arrival at laboratory4 duplicate footnote added by transcriber3 tables were printed on a single page