,,the ,,cathedrals ,,of ,,northern ,,spain ,illustration3 ,bookcover ,illustration3 inside cover ,the ,cathedral ,series ,the following1 each #a vol41 library #abmo1 cloth1 gilt top1 profusely illustrated4 #b4ej ,the ,cathedrals of ,northern ,france ,,by ,,francis ,,miltoun ,the ,cathedrals of ,southern ,france ,,by ,,francis ,,miltoun ,the ,cathedrals of ,england ,,by ,,mary ,j4 ,,taber ,the following1 each #a vol41 library #abmo1 cloth1 gilt top1 profusely illustrated4 ,net1 #b4jj ,the ,cathedrals and ,churches of the ,rhine ,,by ,,francis ,,miltoun ,the ,cathedrals of ,northern ,spain ,,by ,,charles ,,rudy ,l4 ,c4 ,,page ,,company ,new ,england ,building1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,illustration3 ,,leon ,,cathedral 7,see page #aed7 ,the ,cathedrals of ,northern ,spain ,,their ,,history ,,and ,,their ,,architecture2 ,,together ,,with ,,much ,,of ,,interest ,,concerning ,,the ,,bishops1 ,,rulers1 ,,and ,,other ,,personages ,,identified ,,with ,,them ,,by ,,charles ,,rudy ,illustrated ,,boston ,l4 ,c4 ,,page ,,company ,,mdccccvi ,copyright1 #aije ,,by ,l4 ,c4 ,,page ,,company 7,,incorporated7 ,all rights reserved ,published ,october1 #aije ,,colonial ,,press ,electrotyped and ,printed by ,c4 ,h4 ,simonds ,co4 ,boston1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,to ,,all ,,true ,,lovers ,,of ,,spain1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,hispanofilos ,,preface ,it is a la mode to write prefaces4 ,some of us write good ones1 others bad1 and most of us write neither good nor bad ones4 ,the chapter entitled ,general ,remarks is the real introduction to the book1 so in these lines ,i shall pen a few words of self-introduction to such readers as belong to the class to whom ,i have dedicated this volume4 ,my love for ,spain is unbounded4 ,as great as is my love for the people1 so great also is my depreciation for those who have wronged her1 being her sons4 ,who are they8 ,they know that best themselves4 ,spain's architecture is both agreeable and disagreeable1 but it is all of it peculiarly ,spanish4 ,a foreigner1 dropping as by accident across the ,pyrenees from ,france1 can do nothing better than criticize all architectural monuments he meets with in a five days' journey across ,spain with a ,cook's ticket in his pocketbook4 ,it is natural he should do so4 ,everything is so totally different from the pure 7sic7 styles he has learned to admire in ,france6 ,but we who have lived years in ,spain grow to like and admire just such complex compositions as the cathedrals of ,toledo1 of ,santiago1 and ,la ,seo in ,saragosse2 we lose our narrow-mindedness1 and fail to see why a pure ,gothic or an ,italian ,renaissance should be better than an ,iberian cathedral4 ,as long as harmony exists between the different parts1 all is well4 ,the moment this harmony does not exist1 our sense of the artistically beautiful is shocked--and the building is a bad one4 ,personality is consequently ever uppermost in all art criticism or admiration4 ,but it should not be influenced by the words pure1 flawless1 etc4 ,were such to be the case1 there would be but one good cathedral in ,spain1 namely1 that of ,leon1 a ,french temple built by foreigners on ,spanish soil4 ,yet nothing is less ,spanish than the cathedral of ,leon4 ,under the circumstances1 it is necessary1 upon visiting ,spain1 to discard foreignisms and turn a ,spaniard1 if but for a few days4 ,otherwise the tourist will not understand the country's art monuments1 and will be inclined to leave the peninsula as he entered it1 not a whit the wiser for having come4 ,to help the traveller to understand the whys and wherefores of ,spanish architecture1 ,i have written the ,introductory ,studies4 ,i hope they will enable him to become a ,spaniard1 or1 at least1 to join the enthusiastic army of ,hispanofilos4 ,c4 ,,rudy4 ,,madrid1 ,july1 #aije ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,part ,i4 ,,introductory ,,studies ,i4 ,general ,remarks #aa ,,ii4 ,historical ,arabesques #ah ,,iii4 ,architectural ,arabesques #ce ,,iv4 ,conclusion #ff ,,part ,,ii4 ,,galicia ,i4 ,santiago de ,campostela #ge ,,ii4 ,corunna #hi ,,iii4 ,mondonedo #ie ,,iv4 ,lugo #ajb ,v4 ,orense #aaj ,,vi4 ,tuy #abj ,,vii4 ,bayona and ,vigo #aca ,,part ,,iii4 ,,the ,,north ,i4 ,oviedo #acg ,,ii4 ,covadonga #ade ,,iii4 ,leon #aej ,,iv4 ,astorga #afg ,v4 ,burgos #agd ,,vi4 ,santander #ahh ,,vii4 ,vitoria #aib ,,viii4 ,upper ,rioja #aif ,,ix4 ,soria #bji ,,part ,,iv4 ,,western ,,castile ,i4 ,palencia #bai ,,ii4 ,zamora #bcj ,,iii4 ,toro #bdd ,,iv4 ,salamanca #bea ,v4 ,ciudad ,rodrigo #bfi ,,vi4 ,coria #bgh ,,vii4 ,plasencia #bhd ,,part ,v4 ,,eastern ,,castile ,i4 ,valladolid #bic ,,ii4 ,avila #cjb ,,iii4 ,segovia #cab ,,iv4 ,madrid-,alcala #cba ,v4 ,sigueenza #cce ,,vi4 ,cuenca #cdb ,,vii4 ,toledo #cdi ,appendix #cfi ,index #chg ,note of ,transcriber of the ebook ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,leon ,cathedral 7,see page #aed7 ,frontispiece ,cloister ,stalls in a ,monastic ,church at ,leon #dh ,typical ,retablo 7,palencia7 #ej ,mudejar ,architecture 7,sahagun7 #fd ,santiago and ,its ,cathedral #hb ,church of ,santiago1 ,corunna #ib ,general ,view of ,mondonedo #if ,mondonedo ,cathedral #ih ,northern ,portal of ,orense ,cathedral #aaf ,tuy ,cathedral #abh ,oviedo ,cathedral #adj ,cloister of ,oviedo ,cathedral #add ,apse of ,san ,isidoro1 ,leon #afd ,burgos ,cathedral #ahj ,crypt of ,santander ,cathedral #aij ,cloister of ,najera ,cathedral #bjb ,santa ,maria la ,redonda1 ,logrono #bjd ,western ,front of ,calahorra ,cathedral #bjg ,cloister of ,soria ,cathedral #bab ,palencia ,cathedral #bbf ,zamora ,cathedral #bch ,toro ,cathedral #bdh ,old ,salamanca ,cathedral #bfj ,new ,salamanca ,cathedral #bff ,cuidad ,rodrigo ,cathedral #bgb ,facade of ,plasencia ,cathedral #bhh ,western ,front of ,valladolid ,cathedral #cjj ,tower of ,avila ,cathedral #caj ,segovia ,cathedral #caf ,san ,isidro1 ,madrid #cbf ,alcala de ,henares ,cathedral #ccb ,toledo ,cathedral #cfj ,,part ,i ,introductory ,studies ,the ,cathedrals of ,northern ,spain ,i ,,general ,,remarks ,history and architecture go hand in hand2 the former is not complete if it does not mention the latter1 and the latter is incomprehensible if the former is entirely ignored4 ,the following chapters are therefore historical and architectural2 they are based on evolutionary principles and seek to demonstrate the motives of certain artistic phenomena4 ,many of the ideas superficially mentioned in the following essays will be severely discussed1 for they are original2 others are based on two excellent modern historical works1 namely1 ,the ,history of the ,spanish ,people1 by ,major ,martin ,hume1 and ,historia de ,espana1 by ,senor ,rafael ,altamira4 ,these two works can be regarded as the dernier mot concerning the evolution of ,spanish history4 ,unluckily1 however1 the author has been unable to consult any work on architecture which might have given him a concise idea of the story of its gradual evolution and development1 and of the different art-waves which flowed across the peninsula during the stormy period of the middle ages1 which1 properly speaking1 begins with the ,arab invasion of the eighth century and ends with the fall of ,granada1 in the fifteenth4 ,several works on ,spanish architecture have been written 7the reader will find them mentioned elsewhere71 but none treats the matter from an evolutionary standpoint4 ,on the contrary1 most of them are limited to the study of a period1 of a style or of a locality2 hence they cannot claim to be a dernier mot4 ,such a work has still to be written4 ,be it understood1 nevertheless1 that the author does not pretend--,dios me libre6--to have supplied the lack in the following pages4 ,in a couple of thousand words it would be utterly impossible to do so4 ,no2 a complete1 evolutionary study of ,spanish architecture would imply years of labour1 of travel1 and of study4 ,for so much on the peninsula is hybrid and exotic1 and yet again1 so much is peculiar to ,spain alone4 ,thus it is often most difficult to determine which art phenomena are natural--that is1 which are the logical results of a well-defined art movement--and which are artificial or the casual product of elements utterly foreign to ,spanish soil4 ,willingly the author leaves to other and wiser heads the solving of the above riddle4 ,he hopes1 nevertheless1 that they 7those who care to undertake the mentioned task7 will find some remarks or some observations in the following chapters to help them discover the real truth concerning the ,spaniard's love1 or his insensibility for architectural monuments1 as well as his share in the erection of cathedrals1 palaces1 and castles4 ,spanish architecture--better still1 architecture in ,spain--is peculiarly strange and foreign to us ,northerners4 ,we admire many edifices in ,iberia1 but are unable to say wherefore2 we are overawed at the magnificence displayed in the interior of cathedral churches and at a loss to explain the reason4 ,as regards the former1 it can be attributed to the ,oriental spirit still throbbing in the country2 not in vain did the ,moor inhabit ,iberia for nearly eight hundred years6 ,the powerful influence of the ,church on the inhabitants1 an influence that has lasted from the middle ages to the present day1 explains the other phenomenon4 ,even to-day1 in ,spain1 the ,pope is supreme and the princes of the ,church are the rulers4 ,does the country gain thereby8 ,not at all4 ,andalusia is in a miserable state of poverty1 so are ,extremadura1 ,la ,mancha1 and ,castile4 ,not a penny do the rich1 or even royalty1 give to better the country people's piteous lot2 neither does the ,church4 ,it is nevertheless necessary to be just4 ,in studying the evolutionary history of architecture in ,spain1 we must praise the tyranny of the ,church which spent the millions of dollars of the poor in erecting such marvels as the cathedral of ,toledo1 etc41 and we must ignore the sweating farmer1 the terror-stricken ,jew1 the accused heretic1 the disgraced courtier1 the seafaring conquistador1 who gave up their all to buy a few months' life1 the respite of an hour4 ,and the author has striven to be impartial in the following pages4 ,once in awhile his bitterness has escaped the pen1 but be it plainly understood that not one of his remarks is aimed against ,spain1 a country and a people to be admired1--above all to be pitied1 for they1 the people1 are slaves to an arrogant ,church1 to a self-amusing royalty1 and to a grasping horde of second-rate politicians4 ,,ii ,,historical ,,arabesques ,the history of ,spain is1 perhaps1 more than that of any other nation1 one long series of thrilling1 contradictory1 and frequently incomprehensible events4 ,this is not only due to the country's past importance as a powerful factor in the evolution of our modern civilization1 but to the unforeseen doings of fate4 ,fate enchained and enslaved its people1 moulded its greatness and wrought its ruin4 ,of no other country can it so truthfully be said that it was the unwitting tool of some higher destiny4 ,most of the phenomena of its history took place in spite of the people's wishes or votes2 neither did the different art questions1 styles1 periods1 or movements emanate from the people4 ,this must be borne in mind4 ,the ,romans were the first to come to ,spain with a view to conquering the land1 and to organizing the half-savage clans or tribes who roamed through the thickets and across the plains4 ,but nowhere did the great rulers of the world encounter such fierce resistance4 ,the clans were extremely warlike and1 besides1 intensely individual4 ,they did not only oppose the foreigner's conquest of the land1 but also his system of organization1 which consisted in the submission of the individual to the state4 ,the clans or tribes recognized no other law than their own sweet will2 they acted independently of each other1 and only on rare occasions did they fight in groups4 ,they were local patriots who recognized no fatherland beyond their natal vale or village4 ,this primary characteristic of the ,spanish people is the clue to many of the subsequent events of the country's history4 ,against it the ,romans fought1 but fought in vain1 for they were not able to overcome it4 ,christianity dawned in the ,east and was introduced into ,spain1 some say by ,st4 ,james in the north1 others by ,st4 ,peter or ,st4 ,paul in the south4 ,the result was astonishing3 what ,roman swords1 laws1 and highroads had been unable to accomplish 7as regards the organization of the savage tribes7 ,christianity brought about in a comparatively short lapse of time4 ,the reason is twofold4 ,in the first place1 the new form of religion taught that all men were equal2 consequently it was more to the taste of the individualistic ,spaniard than the state doctrines of the ,roman ,empire4 ,secondly1 it permitted him to worship his deity in as many forms 7saints7 as there were days in the year2 consequently each village or town could boast of its own saint1 prophet1 or martyr1 who1 in the minds of the citizens1 was greater than all other saints1 and really the god of their fervent adoration4 ,hence ,christianity was able to introduce into the ,roman province of ,hispania a social organization which was to exert a lasting influence on the country and to acquire an unheard-of degree of wealth and power4 ,when the temporal domination of ,rome in ,spain had dwindled away to nothing1 other foreigners1 the ,visigoths1 usurped the fictitious rule4 ,their state was civil in name1 military in organization1 and ecclesiastical in reality4 ,they formed no nation1 however1 though they preserved the broken fragments of the ,west ,roman ,empire4 ,the same spirit of individualism characterized the tribes or people1 and they swore allegiance to their local saint 7,god7 and to the priest who was his representative on earth 7,church7--but to no one else4 ,consequently it can be assumed that the ,spanish nation had not as yet been born2 the controlling power had passed from the hands of one foreigner to those of another3 only one institution--the ,church--could claim to possess a national character2 around it1 or upon its foundations1 the nation was to be built up1 stone by stone1 and turret by turret4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the third foreigner appeared on the scene4 ,he was doubtless the most important factor in the formation of the ,spanish nation4 ,it is probable that the ,church called him over the ,straits of ,gibraltar as an aid against ,rodrigo1 the last ,visigothic king1 who lost his throne and his life because too deeply in love with his beautiful ,tolesian mistress4 ,legends explain the ,moor's landing differently4 ,sohail1 as powerfully narrated by ,mr4 ,cunninghame-,graham1 is one of these legends1 beautifully fatalistic and exceptionally interesting4 ,according to it1 the destiny of the ,moors is ruled by a star named ,sohail4 ,whither it goes they must follow it4 ,in the eighth century it happened that ,sohail1 in her irregular course across the heavens1 was to be seen1 a brilliant star1 from ,gibraltar4 ,obeying the stellar call1 ,tarik landed in ,spain and moved northwards at the head of his irresistible1 fanatic hordes4 ,the star continued its northerly movement1 visible one fine night from the ,arab tents pitched on the plains between ,poitiers and ,tours4 ,the next night1 however1 it was no longer visible1 and ,charles ,martel drove the invading ,moors back to the south4 ,centuries went by and ,sohail appeared ever lower down on the southern horizon4 ,one night it was only visible from ,granada1 and then ,spain saw it no more4 ,that same day--'twas in the fifteenth century--,boabdil el ,chico surrendered the keys of ,granada1 and the ,arabs fled1 obeying the retreating star's call4 ,to-day they are waiting in the north of ,africa for ,sohail to move once again to the north3 when she does so1 they will rise again as a single man1 and regain their passionately loved ,alhambra1 their beautiful kingdom of ,andalusia4 ,tradition is fond of showing us a nucleus of fervent ,christian patriots obliged by the invading ,arab hordes to retire to the north-western corner of the ,iberian peninsula4 ,here they made a stand1 a last glorious stand1 and1 gradually increasing in strength1 they were at last able to drive back the invader inch by inch until he fled across the straits to trouble ,iberia no more4 ,nothing is1 however1 less true4 ,the noblemen and monarchs of ,galicia1 ,leon1 and ,oviedo--later of ,castile1 ,navarra1 and ,aragon--were so many petty lords who1 fighting continually among themselves1 ruled over fragments of the defeated ,visigothic kingdom4 ,at times they called in the ,arab enemy--to whom in the early centuries they paid a yearly tribute--to help them against the encroachments of their brother ,christians4 ,consequently they lacked that spirit of patriotism and of national ambition which might have justified their claims to be called monarchs or rulers of ,spain4 ,the ,church was no better4 ,its bishops were independent princes who ruled in their dioceses like sovereigns in their palaces2 they recognized no supreme master1 not even the ,pope1 whose advice was ignored1 and whose orders were disobeyed4 ,it was not until the twelfth or thirteenth century that the ,christian incursions into ,moorish territory took the form of patriotic crusades1 in which fervent ,christians burnt with the holy desire of weeding out of the peninsula the ,saracen infidel4 ,this holy crusade was due to the coming from ,france and ,italy of the ,cluny monks4 ,foreigners1--like the ,romans1 the ,church1 the ,visigoths1 and the ,moors1--they created a situation which facilitated the union of the different monarchs1 prelates1 and noblemen1 by showing them a common cause to fight for4 ,besides1 anxious to establish the supreme power of the ,pope in a land where his authority was a dead letter1 they crossed the ,pyrenees and broke the absolute power of the arrogant prelates4 ,the result was obvious3 the ,church became uniform throughout the country1 and its influence waxed to the detriment of that of the noblemen4 ,once again the kings learnt to rely upon the former1 thus putting an end to the power of the latter4 ,once more the ,church grew to be an ecclesiastical organization in which the role of the prelates became more important as time went on4 ,in short1 if the coming of the ,moors retarded for nearly six hundred years the birth of the ,spanish nation1 this birth was directly brought about by the political ability of the ,cluny monks2 the ,moors1 on the other hand1 exerted a direct and lasting influence on the shaping and moulding of the future nation4 ,christian ,spain1 at the time of the death of the pious warrior-king ,san ,fernando1 was roughly divided into an eastern and a western half1 into the kingdom of ,castile 7and ,leon7 and that of ,aragon4 ,the fusion of these two halves by the marriage of ,ferdinand and ,isabel1 two hundred years later1 marks the date of the birth of ,spain as a nation4 ,it is true1 nevertheless1 that the people had little or no voice in the arrangement of matters4 ,they were indifferent to what their crowned rulers were doing1 and ignorant of the growing power1 wealth1 and learning of the prelates4 ,all they asked for was individual liberty and permission to pray to the ,god of their choice4 ,neither had as yet the spirit of patriotism burned in their breasts1 and they were utterly insensible to any and all politics which concerned the peninsula as a unity4 ,but the ,church-state had successfully evolutionized1 and ,catholic kings sat on the only available throne4 ,the last ,moor had been driven from the peninsula1 the ,jews had been expelled from the ,catholic kingdom1 and the ,inquisition--now that the ,church could no longer direct its energy against the infidel--strengthened the ,pope's hold on the land and increased the importance and magnificence of the prelates themselves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a word as to heresy 7the ,reformation7 and the ,inquisition4 ,the latter was not directed against the former1 for it would have been impossible for the people to accept the reformed faith in the fifteenth century4 ,for the ,spaniard the charm of the ,christian religion was that it placed him on an equal footing with all men2 hence1 it flattered his love of personal liberty and his self-consciousness or pride4 ,the charm of ,catholicism was that it enabled him to adore a local deity in the shape of a martyred saint2 thus1 it flattered his vanity as a clansman1 and his spirit of individualism4 ,it was not so much the ,god of ,christianity he worshipped as ,our ,lady of the ,pillar1 ,our ,lady of ,sorrows1 of the ,camino1 etc41 and he obeyed less readily the archbishop than the custodian priest of his particular saint1 of whom he declared that he could humiliate all other saints4 ,consequently ,protestantism1 which tended to kill this local worship by upholding that of a collective deity1 could never have taken a serious hold of the country1 and it is doubtful if it ever will4 ,on the other hand--as previously remarked--the ,spanish ,inquisition helped to centralize the ,church's power and obliged the people to accept its decisions as final4 ,the effect of ,torquemada's policy is still to be felt in ,spain--could it be otherwise8 99 99 99 99 99 ,had successive events in this stage of ,spain's history followed a normal course1 and had the education of the people been fostered by the state instead of being cursed by the ,church1 it is more than probable that the map of ,europe would have been different to-day from what it is4 ,for the ,spanish people would have learnt to think as patriots1 as a nation2 they would have developed their country's rich soil and thickly populated the vast vegas2 they would have taken the offensive against foreign nations1 and would have chased and battled the ,moor beyond the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,it was not to be1 however4 ,an abnormal event was to take place--and did take place--which repeated in fair ,iberia the retrograde movement initiated by the ,arab invasion #gej years earlier4 ,a foreigner was again the cause of this new phenomenon1 a harebrained ,genoese navigator whom the world calls a genius because he was successful1 but who was an evil genius for the new-born ,spanish nation1 one who was to load his adopted country with unparalleled fame and glory before causing her rapid and clashing downfall4 ,christopher ,columbus came to ,spain from the east2 he sailed westwards from ,spain and discovered--for ,spain6--two vast continents4 ,the importance of this event for ,spain is apt to be overlooked by those who are blinded by the unexpected realization of ,columbus's daring dreams4 ,it was as though a volcanic eruption had taken place in a virgin soil1 tossing earth and grass1 layers and strata of stone1 hither and thither in utter confusion1 impeding the further growth of young plantlets and forbidding the building up of a solid national edifice4 ,instead of devoting their energies to the interior organization of the country1 ,spaniards turned their eyes to the ,new ,world4 ,in exchange for the gold and precious stones which poured into the land1 they gave that which left the country poor and weak indeed3 their blood and their lives4 ,the bravest and most intrepid leaders crossed the seas with their followers1 and behind them sailed thousands upon thousands of hardy adventurers and soldiers4 ,but the ,spaniards could not colonize4 ,they lacked those qualities of collectivity which characterized ,rome and ,england4 ,the individualistic spirit of the people caused them to go and to come as they chose without possessing any ambition of establishing in the newly acquired territories a home and a family2 neither did the women folk emigrate--and hence the failure of ,spain as a colonizing power4 ,on the other hand1 those who had sailed the seas to the ,spanish main1 and had hoarded up a significant treasure1 invariably returned1 not to ,spain exactly1 but to their native town or village4 ,upon arriving home1 their first act was to bequeath a considerable sum to the ,church1 so as to ease their conscience and to assure themselves homage1 respect1 and unrestrained liberty4 ,the effects produced by this phenomenon of individualism were manifold4 ,they exist even to-day1 so lasting were they4 ,a new nobility was created--wealthy1 powerful1 and generally arrogant and unscrupulous1 which replaced the feudal aristocracy of the middle ages4 ,secondly1 oligarchy--or better still1 caciquismo1 an individualistic form of oligarchy--sprung up into existence1 and rapidly became the bane of modern ,spain2 that is1 ever since the ,bourbon dynasty ruled the country's fate4 ,as can easily be understood1 this caciquismo can only flourish there where individualism is the leading characteristic of the people4 ,thirdly1 all hopes of the country's possessing a well-to-do middle class--stamina of a wealthy nation1 and without which no people can attain a national standard of wealth--vanished completely away4 ,lastly the ,church1 which had become wealthy beyond the dreams of the ,cluny monks1 retained its iron grip on the country1 and retarded the liberal education of the masses4 ,to repay the fidelity of servile ,catholics1 it canonized legions of local prophets and martyrs1 and organized hundreds of gay annual fiestas to honour their memory4 ,the ignorant people1 flattered at the tribute of admiration paid to their deities1 looked no further ahead into the growing chaos of misery and poverty1 and were happy4 ,the crash came--could it be otherwise8 ,beyond the seas an immense territory1 hundreds of times larger than the natal solar1 or mother country1 stretched from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific2 at home1 a stillborn nation lay in an arid meadow beside a solemn church1 a frivolous1 selfish throne1 and a mute and gloomy brick-built convent4 ,the ,spanish ,armada sailed to ,england never to return1 and ,philip ,,ii4 built the ,escorial1 a melancholy pantheon for the kings of the ,iberian peninsula4 ,one by one the colonies dropped off1 fragments of an illusory empire1 and at last the mother country stood once more stark naked as in the days before ,columbus left ,palos harbour4 ,but the mother's face was no longer young and fresh like an infant's3 wrinkles of age and of suffering creased the brow and the chin1 for not in vain was she1 during centuries1 the toy of unmerciful fate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such is1 in gigantic strides1 the history of ,spain4 ,the volcanic eruption in the fifteenth century has left1 it is true1 indelible traces in the country's soil4 ,nevertheless1 on the very day when the treaty of ,paris was signed and the last of the ,spanish colonies de ultramar were lost for ever1 that day a ,spanish nation was born again on the disturbed foundations of the old4 ,there is no denying it3 when ,ferdinand and ,isabel united their kingdoms a nation was born2 it fell to pieces 7though apparently not until a later date7 when ,columbus landed in ,america4 ,anarchy1 misrule1 and oppression1 ignorance and poverty1 now frivolity and now austerity at court1 fill the succeeding centuries until the coronation of ,alfonso ,,xii4 ,during all those years1 but once did ,spain--no longer a nation--shine forth in history with an even greater brilliancy than when she claimed to be mistress of the world4 ,but1 on this occasion1 when she opposed1 in brave but disbanded groups1 the invasion of the ,french legions1 she gave another proof of the individualistic instincts of the race1 as opposed to all social and compact organization of the masses4 ,the ,carlist wars need but a passing remark4 ,they were not national2 they were caused by the ambitions of rulers and noblemen1 and fought out by the inhabitants of ,navarra and the ,basque ,provinces who upheld their fueros1 by paid soldiery1 and by aldeanos whose houses and families were threatened4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,spain was born a few years ago1 but so far she has given no proof of vitality4 ,as it is1 she is cumbered by traditions and harassed by memories4 ,she must fight a sharp battle with existing evil institutions handed down to her as a questionable legacy from the past4 ,if she emerge victorious from the struggle1 universal history will hear her name again1 for the country is not gastado or degenerate1 as many would have us believe4 ,if she fail to throw overboard the worthless and superfluous ballast1 it is possible that the ship of state will founder--and then1 who knows8 ,in the meantime1 let us not misjudge the ,spaniard nor throw stones at his broken glass mansion4 ,to help us in this1 let us remember that unexpected vicissitudes1 entirely foreign to his country1 were the cause of his illusory grandeur in the sixteenth century4 ,besides1 no more ardent a lover of individual 7not social7 freedom than the ,spaniard breathes in this wide world of ours--excepting it be the ,moor4 ,under the circumstances he is to be admired--even pitied4 ,,iii ,,architectural ,,arabesques ,preliminaries ,the different periods mentioned in the preceding chapter are characterized by a corresponding art-movement4 ,the germs of these movements came invariably from abroad4 ,in ,spain they lingered1 were localized and grew up1 a species of hybrid plants in which the foreign element was still visible1 though it had undergone a series of changes1 due either to the addition of other elements1 to the inventive genius of the artist-architect1 or else peculiar to the locality in which the building was erected4 ,other conclusive remarks arrived at in the foregoing study help to explain the evolution of church architecture4 ,five were the conclusions3 7#a7 ,the power and wealth of the ,church1 7#b7 the influence exerted by foreigners on the country's fate1 7#c7 the individualistic spirit of the clanspeople1 7#d7 the short duration of a ,spanish nation1 nipped in the bud before it could bloom1 and 7#e7 the formation of an oligarchy 7caciquismo7 which hindered the establishment of an educated bourgeoisie4 ,the first of the above conclusive observations needs no further remarks1 considering that we are studying church architecture4 ,it suffices to indicate the great number of cathedrals1 churches1 hermitages1 monasteries1 convents1 cloisters1 and episcopal palaces to be convinced of the ,church's influence on the country and on the purses of the inhabitants4 ,the ,spaniard1 psychologically speaking1 is no artist2 it is doubtful if illiterate and uneducated people are1 and the average inhabitant of ,spain forms no exception to this rule4 ,his artistic talents are exclusively limited to music1 for which he has an excessively fine ear4 ,but beauty in the plastic arts and architecture leave him cold and indifferent2 he is influenced by mass1 weight1 and quantity rather than by elegance or lightness1 and consequently it is the same to him whether a cathedral be ,gothic or ,romanesque1 as long as it be dedicated to the deity of his choice4 ,the difference between ,italian and ,iberian is therefore very marked4 ,even the landscapes in each country prove it beyond a doubt4 ,in ,italy they are composed of soft rolling lines2 the colours are varied1--green1 red1 and blue2 the soil is damp and fruitful4 ,in ,spain1 on the contrary1 everything is dry1 arid1 and savage2 blue is the sky1 red the brick houses1 and grayish golden the soil2 the inhabitants are as savage as the country1 and the proverbial ma e piu bello of the ,italian does not bother the former in the slightest4 ,all of which goes to explain the ,spaniard's insensibility to the plastic arts1 as well as 7for instance7 the universal use of huge retablos or altar-pieces1 in which size and bright colours are all that is required and the greater the size1 the more clashing the colours1 the better4 ,neither is it surprising that the ,spaniard created no architectural school of his own4 ,all he possesses is borrowed from abroad4 ,his love of ,byzantine grotesqueness and of ,moorish geometrical arabesques is inherited1 the one from the ,visigoths1 and the other directly from the ,moors4 ,the remaining styles are northern and ,italian1 and were introduced into the country by such foreigners--monks and artists--as crowded to ,spain in search of ,spanish gold4 ,these artists 7it is true that some1 and perhaps the best of them1 were ,spaniards7 did not work for the people1 for there was no bourgeoisie4 ,they worked for the wealthy prelates1 for the aristocracy1 and for the caciques4 ,these latter had sumptuous chapels decorated1 dedicated an altar to such and such a deity1 and erected a magnificent sepulchre or series of sepulchres for themselves and their families4 ,this peculiar phenomenon explains the wealth of ,spanish churches in lateral chapels4 ,not a cathedral but has about twenty of them2 not a church but possesses its half a dozen4 ,moreover1 some of the very finest examples of sepulchral art are not to be found in cathedrals1 but in out-of-the-way village churches1 where some cacique or other laid his bones to rest and had his effigy carved on a gorgeous marble tomb4 ,these chapels are built in all possible styles and in all degrees of splendour and magnificence1 according to the generosity of the donor4 ,here they bulge out1 deforming the regular plan of the church1 or else they take up an important part of the interior of the building4 ,there they are ,renaissance jewels in a ,gothic temple1 or else ogival marvels in a ,romanesque building4 ,they are1 as it were1 small churches--or important annexes like that of the ,condestable in ,burgos1 possessing a dome of its own--absolutely independent of the cathedral itself1 rich in decorative details1 luxurious in the use of polished stone and metal1 of agate and golden accessories1 of gilded friezes1 low reliefs1 and painted retablos4 ,they constitute one of the most characteristic features of ,spanish religious architecture and art in general1 and it is above all due to them that ,iberia's cathedrals are museums rather than solemn places of worship4 ,but the ,spanish people did not erect them2 they were commanded by vain and death-fearing caciques1 and erected by artists--generally foreigners1 though often natives4 ,the people did not care nor take any interest in the matter2 so long as the village saint was not insulted1 nor their individual liberty 7fuero7 infringed upon1 the world1 its artists and caciques1 could do as it liked4 ,this insensibility helped to hinder the formation of a national style4 ,besides1 as the duration of the ,spanish nation was so exceedingly short1 there was no time at hand to develop a national art school4 ,in certain localities1 as in ,galicia1 a prevailing type or style was in common use1 and was slowly evolving into something strictly local and excellent4 ,these types1 together with ,moorish art1 and above all ,mudejar work1 might have evolved still further and produced a national style4 ,but the nation fell to pieces like a dried-up barrel whose hoops are broken1 and the nation's style was never formed4 ,besides1 contemporary with the birth of the nation was the advent of the ,renaissance movement4 ,this was the coup de grace1 the final blow to any germs of a ,spanish style1 of a style composed of ,christian and ,islam principles and ideals3 ,es waer zu schoen gewesen1 ,es haett' nicht sollen sein6 ,under the circumstances1 the art student in ,spain1 however enthusiastic or one-sided he may be1 cannot claim to discover a national school4 ,he must necessarily limit his studies to the analysis of the foreign art waves which inundated the land2 he must observe how they became localized and were modified1 how they were united both wisely and ridiculously1 and he must point out the reasons or causes of these medleys and transformations4 ,there his task ends4 ,one peculiarity will strike him3 the peninsula possesses no pure ,gothic1 ,romanesque1 or ,renaissance building4 ,the same might almost be stated as regards ,moorish art4 ,the capitals of the pillars in the mezquita of ,cordoba are ,latin-,romanesque1 torn from a previous building by the invading ,arab to adorn his own temple4 ,the ,alhambra1 likewise1 shows animal arabesques which are ,byzantine and not ,moorish4 ,nevertheless1 ,arab art is1 on the whole1 purer in style than ,christian art4 ,this transformation of foreign styles proves3 7#a7 ,that though the ,spanish artist lacked creative genius1 he was no base imitator1 but sought to combine2 he sought to give the temple he had to construct that heavy1 massive1 strong1 and sombre aspect so well in harmony with the religious and warlike spirit of the different clanspeople2 and 7#b7 that the same artist failed completely to understand the ideal of soaring ogival1 of simple ,renaissance1 or of pure ,romanesque 7this latter he understood better than either of the others74 ,for him1 they--as well as ,islam art--were but elements to be made use of4 ,apart from their constructive use1 they were superfluous1 and the artist-architect was blind to their ethical object or aesthetical value4 ,with their aid he built architectural wonders1 but hybrid marvels1 complex1 grand1 luxurious1 and magnificent4 ,be it plainly understood1 nevertheless1 that in the above paragraphs no contempt for ,spanish cathedrals is either felt or implied4 ,facts are stated1 but no personal opinion is emitted as to which is better1 a pure ,gothic or a complicated ,spanish ,gothic4 ,in art there is really no better2 besides1 comparisons are odious and here they are utterly superfluous4 ,cathedral ,churches ,before accompanying the art student in his task of determining the different foreign styles1 we will do well to examine certain general characteristics common to all ,spanish cathedrals4 ,we will then be able to understand with greater ease the causes of the changes introduced into pure styles4 ,the exterior aspect of all cathedrals is severe and massive1 even naked and solemn4 ,neither windows nor flying buttresses are used in such profusion as in ,french cathedrals1 and the height of the aisles is greater4 ,the object is doubtless to impart an idea of strength to the exterior walls by raising them in a compact mass4 ,an even greater effect is obtained by square1 heavy towers instead of elegant spires4 7,compare1 however1 chapters on ,leon1 ,oviedo1 ,burgos1 etc47 ,the use of domes 7cimborios1 lanterns1 and cupolas7 is also frequent1 most of them being decidedly ,oriental in appearance4 ,the apse is prominent and generally five-sided1 warlike in its severe outline4 ,stone is invariably used as the principal constructive element1--granite1 berroquena 7a soft white stone turning deep gray with age and exposure71 and sillar or silleria 7a red sandstone cut into similar slabs of the size and aspect of brick74 ,where red sandstone is used1 the weaker parts of the buildings are very often constructed in brick1 and it is these last-named cathedrals that are most ,oriental in appearance1 especially when the brick surface is carved into ,mudejar reliefs4 ,taken all in all1 the whole building often resembles a castle or fortress rather than a temple1 in harmony with the austere1 arid landscape1 and the fierce1 passionate1 and idolatrous character of the clanspeople or inhabitants of the different regions4 ,the principal entrance is usually small in comparison to the height and great mass of the building4 ,the pointed arch--or series of arches--which crowns the portal1 is timid in its structure1 or1 in other words1 is but slightly pointed or not at all4 ,the interior aspect of the church is totally different4 ,as bare and naked as was the outside1 so luxurious and magnificent is the inside4 ,involuntarily mediaeval ,spanish palaces come to our mind3 their gloomy appearance from the outside1 and the gay patio or courtyard behind the heavy1 uninviting panels of the doors4 ,the ,moors even to this day employ this system of architecture2 its origin1 even in the case of ,christian churches1 is ,oriental4 ,leaving aside all architectural considerations1 which will be referred to in the chapters dedicated to the description of the various cathedrals1 let us examine the general disposition of some of the most interesting parts of the ,spanish church4 ,the aisles are1 as a rule1 high and dark1 buried in perpetual shadow4 ,the lightest and airiest part of the building is beneath the croisee 7intersection of nave and transept71 which is often crowned by a handsome cimborio4 ,the nave is the most important member of the church1 and the most impressive view is obtained by the visitor standing beneath the croisee4 ,to the east of him1 the nave terminates in a semicircular chapel1 the farther end of which boasts of an immense retablo2 to the west1 the choir1 with its stalls and organs1 interrupts likewise the continuity of the nave4 ,both choir and altar are rich in decorative details4 ,behind the high altar runs the ambulatory1 joining the aisles and separating the former from the apse and its chapels4 ,the rear wall of the high altar 7in the ambulatory7 is called the trasaltar1 where a small altar is generally situated in a recess and dedicated to the patron saint1 that is1 if the cathedral itself be dedicated to the ,virgin1 as generally happens4 ,sometimes an oval window pierces the wall of the trasaltar and lets the light from the apsidal windows enter the high altar2 this arrangement is called a transparente4 ,the choir1 as wide as the nave and often as high1 is rectangular2 an altar-table generally stands in the western extremity1 which is closed off by a wall4 ,the rear of this wall 7facing the western entrance to the temple7 is called the trascoro1 and contains the altar or a chapel2 the lateral walls are also pierced by low rooms or niches which serve either as chapels or as altar-frames4 ,the placing of the choir in the very centre of the church1 its width and height1 and its enclosure on the western end by a wall1 render impossible a view of the whole building such as occurs in ,northern cathedrals1 and upon which the impression of architectural grandeur and majesty largely depends4 ,it was as though ,spanish architects were utterly foreign to the latter impression1 or wilfully murdered it by substituting another more to their taste1 namely1 that of magnificence and sumptuousness4 ,nowhere--to the author's knowledge--is this impression more acutely felt than in a ,spanish cathedral1 viewed from beneath the croisee4 ,glittering brilliancy1 dazzling gold1 silver1 or gilt1 polished marble1 agate1 and jasper1 and a luxuriance of vivid colours meet the visitor's eyes when standing there4 ,the effect is theatrical1 doubtless1 but it impresses the humble true believer as ,oriental splendour2 and what1 in other countries1 might be considered as grotesque and unhealthy art1 must in ,spain be regarded as the very essence of the country's worship1 the very raison d'etre of the cathedral4 ,neither can it be considered as unhealthy3 with us in the ,north1 our religious awe is produced by the solemn majesty of rising shafts and long1 high1 and narrow aisles2 this fails to impress the ,iberian of to-day2 and yet1 the same sentiment of religious awe1 of the terrible unknown1 be it saint1 ,saviour1 ,virgin1 or ,god1 is imparted to him by this brilliant display of incalculable wealth4 ,to produce this magnificence in choir and high altar1 decorative and industrial art were given a free hand1 and together wrought those wonders of the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and seventeenth centuries which placed ,spain in a prominent position in the history of art4 ,goldsmiths and silversmiths1 masters of ironcraft1 sculptors in stone and wood1 painters and estofadores1 together with a legion of other artists and artisans of all classes and nationalities1 worked together in unison to create both choir and high altar4 ,therefore1 from an artistic point of view1 the ,spanish cathedral is for the foreigner a museum1 a collection of art objects1 pertaining1 most of them1 to the country's industrial arts1 for which ,iberia was first among all nations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,choir ,,stalls4--,space cannot allow us to classify this most important accessory of ,spanish cathedrals4 ,carved in walnut or oak1 now simple and severe1 now rich and florid1 this branch of graphic art in low relief constitutes one of ,spain's most legitimate glories4 ,it is strange that no illustrated work dedicated exclusively to choir stalls should have been published in any language4 ,the tourist's attention must nevertheless be drawn to this part of religious buildings2 it must not escape his observation when visiting cathedral and parish churches1 and above all1 monastical churches4 ,illustration3 ,,cloister ,,stalls ,,in ,a ,,monastic ,,church ,,at ,,leon 99 99 99 99 99 ,,retablo4--,the above remarks hold good here as well1 when speaking about the huge and imposing altar-pieces so universally characteristic of ,spain4 ,the eastern wall of the holy chapel in a cathedral is entirely hidden from top to bottom by the retablo1 a painted wooden structure resembling a huge honeycomb4 ,it consists of niches flanked by gilded columns4 ,according to the construction of these columns1 now ,gothic shafts1 now ,greek or composite1 now simple and severe1 the period to which the retablo belongs is determined4 ,generally pyramidically superimposed1 these niches1 of the height1 breadth1 and depth of an average man1 contain life-size statues of apostle or saint1 painted and decorated by the estofadores in brilliant colours 7of course1 as they are intended to be seen from a distance671 in which red and blue are predominant1 and which produce a gorgeous effect rehausse by the gilt columns of the niches4 7,compare with the ,oriental taste of ,mudejar work in ceilings or artesonados47 ,the whole retablo1 in the low reliefs which form the base1 and in the statues or groups in the niches1 represents graphically the life of the ,saviour or the ,virgin1 of the patron saint or an apostle2 some of them are of exquisite execution and of great variety and movement2 in others1 greater attention has been paid to the decoration of the columns or shafts by original floral garlands1 etc4 ,foment1 ,juni1 and ,berruguete are among the most noted retablo sculptors1 but space will not permit of a more prolific classification or analysis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gold ,,and ,,silversmiths4--,the vessels used on the altar-table1 effigies of saints1 processional crosses1 etc41 in beaten gold and silver1 are well worth examination4 ,so is also the cathedral treasure1 in some cases of an immense value1 both artistic and intrinsic4 ,cloths1 woven in coloured silks1 gold1 and precious stones1 are beautiful enough to make any art lover envious4 ,the central niche of the retablo1 immediately above the altar-table1 is generally occupied by a massive beaten silver effigy1 the artistic value of which is unluckily partially concealed beneath a heap of valuable cloths and jewels4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,retablo 7,,palencia7 ,but where the silversmith's art is purest and most lavishly pronounced is in the sagrarios4 ,these are solid silver carved pyramids about two or three feet high3 they represent miniature temples or thrones with shafts or columns supporting arches1 windows1 pinnacles1 and cupolas4 ,in the interior1 an effigy of the saint1 or the ,virgin1 etc41 to whom the cathedral is dedicated1 is to be seen seated on a throne4 ,in all cases the workmanship of these miniature temples is exquisite1 and has brought just fame to ,spain's fifteenth and sixteenth century silversmiths4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ironcraft4--,last to be mentioned1 but not least in importance1 are the artisans who worked in iron4 ,they brought their trade up to the height of a fine art of universal fame2 their artistic window rejas1 in the houses and palaces of the rich1 are the wonder of all art lovers1 and so also are the immense rejas or grilles which close off the high altar and the choir from the transept1 or the entrance to chapels from the aisles4 ,though this art has completely degenerated to-day1 nevertheless1 a just remark was made in the author's hearing by an ,englishman1 who said3 ,even to-day1 ,spaniards are unable to make a bad reja4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the reader's and tourist's attention has been called to the salient artistic points of a ,spanish cathedral4 ,they must be examined one by one1 and they will be admired2 the view of the ensemble will puzzle and amaze him1 yet it will be wise for him not to criticize harshly the lack of unity of style4 ,frequently the choir stalls are ogival1 the retablo ,renaissance1 the rejas plateresque1 and the general decoration of columns1 etc41 of the most lavish grotesque4 ,this in itself is no sin1 neither artistic nor ethical1 as long as the religious awe comes home to the ,spaniard1 for whom these cathedrals are intended4 ,besides1 it is an open question whether the monotony of a pure style be nobler than a luxurious moulding together of all styles4 ,the whole question is1 do the different parts harmonize1 or do they produce a criard impression4 ,the answer in all cases is purely personal4 ,yet1 even if unfavourable1 the utility of the art demonstration must be borne in mind and considered as well4 ,and as regards the ,spaniard1 the utility does exist beyond a doubt4 ,architectural ,styles ,let us now follow the art student in his task4 ,he will determine the different styles1 and1 to make the matter clearer1 he will employ a rhetorical figure3 ,there is an island in the sea4 ,huge breakers roar on the beach and dash against the rocky cliffs4 ,second1 third1 and fourth breakers of varying strength and energy race with the first1 and are in their turn pushed relentlessly on from behind until they ripple in dying surf on the golden sands and boil in white spray in hidden clifts and caves4 ,with the years that roll along the island is shaped according to the will of the waves4 ,spain1 figuratively speaking1 is that island1 or a peninsula off the southwestern coast of the ,old ,world1 barred from ,france by the impassable ,pyrenees1 and forming the link between ,africa and ,europe3 the first stepping-stone for the former in its northern march1 the last extremity or the rear-guard of the latter4 ,the breakers represent the different art movements which1 born in countries where compact nations were fighting energetically for an existence and for an ideal1 flooded with terrible force the civilized lands of the middle ages1 and sought to outdo and conquer their rivals4 ,these breakers were3 from the east1 early ,christian 7both ,latin-,lombard and ,byzantine72 from the north1 ,gothic2 from the south1 ,arab1 or1 to be more accurate1 ,moorish4 ,the first two were advocates of one civilization1 the ,christian or ,occidental2 the latter was the propagandist of another1 the ,neo-,oriental or ,mohammedan4 ,the ,renaissance was but a second or third breaker coming from the east1 which breathed new life into antiquated constructive and decorative elements by adapting them to a new religion or faith4 ,later architectural forms were but the periodical revival or combination of one or another of the already existing elements4 ,spain1 thanks to her unique position1 was the point where all these contradictory waves met in a final endeavour to crush their opponents4 ,in ,spain1 ,byzantine pillars fought against ,lombard shafts1 and ,gothic pinnacles rose haughtily beside the horseshoe arch and the arc brise4 ,in ,spain ,christianity grappled with the ,islam faith and sent it bleeding back to the wilds of ,africa2 in ,spain the polygon1 circle1 and square struggled for supremacy and lost their personality in the complex blending of the one with the other1 and minarets1 cupolas1 and spires combined in bizarre fantasy and richness of decoration to serve the ambitions of mighty prelates1 fanatic kings1 and death-fearing noblemen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such is1 rhetorically speaking1 the history of architecture of ,spain4 ,cathedrals had a cachet of their own1 either national 7in certain characteristics7 or else local4 ,but the elements of which they were composed were foreign4 ,that is1 excepting in the case of ,spanish-,moorish art4 ,moorish art6 ,in the second volume 7,southern ,spain71 the author of these lines will dedicate several paragraphs to the art of the ,moors in ,spain4 ,suffice to assert in the present chapter the following statements4 7#a7 ,moorish art in ,spain is peculiar to the ,arabs who inhabited the peninsula during seven hundred years4 ,consequently this art1 born on ,iberian soil1 cannot be regarded as foreign4 7#b7 ,much of what is called ,moorish art owes its existence to the ,christians1 to the ,muzarabs and ,jews who inhabited cities which were dependent upon or belonged to the ,moors4 ,in the same way1 much of the ,oriental taste of the ,spanish ,christians was inherited from the ,moors and received in ,spain the generic name of ,mudejar4 7#c7 ,the art of the ,moors1 though largely used in ,spain1 especially in the south1 rarely entered into cathedral structures1 though often noticeable in churches1 cloisters1 and in decorative motives4 7#d7 ,the ,moors learnt more art motives in ,spain than they introduced into the country4 ,these and many other points of interest will have to be neglected in the present chapter4 ,for the cathedrals of the north are 7as regards the ideal which brought about their erection7 radically opposed to ,moorish art4 ,prehistoric ,roman and ,visigothic 787 art are equally unimportant in this study1 as neither the one nor the other constructed any ,christian temple standing to-day4 ,that is to say1 cathedral2 for ,visigothic or early ,latin and ,byzantine ,romanesque churches do exist in ,asturias1 and a notable specimen in ,venta de ,banos4 ,they are peculiarly strange edifices1 and it is to be regretted that they are not cathedrals1 for their study would be most interesting1 not only as regards ,iberian art1 but above all as regards the history of art in the middle ages4 ,so far1 they have been completely neglected1 and1 unfortunately1 are but little known abroad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,romanesque4--,the origin of ,romanesque is greatly discussed4 ,some attribute it to ,italy1 others to ,france2 others again are of the conviction that all ,christian 7religious7 art previous to the birth of ,gothic is ,romanesque1 etc41 etc4 ,the most plausible theory is that the style in question evolved out of the early ,latin-,christian 7basilique7 style1 at the same time borrowing many decorative details from the ,byzantine-,christian style4 ,in ,spain1 pre-,romanesque ,christian architecture 7or ,visigothic7 shows decided ,byzantine influence1 more so1 probably1 than in any other ,european country4 ,this peculiarity influences also ,romanesque1 both early and late4 ,it is not strange1 either1 considering that an important colony of ,bizantinos 7,christians7 settled in ,eastern ,andalusia during the ,visigothic period4 ,in the tenth century churches1 and in the eleventh cathedrals1 commenced to be erected in ,northern ,spain4 ,byzantine influence was very marked in the earlier monuments4 ,was ,romanesque a foreign style8 ,was it introduced from ,italy or ,france1 or was it a natural outcome or evolutionary product of decadent early ,christian architecture8 ,in the latter case there is no saying where it evolved1 possibly to the north or to the south of the ,pyrenees1 possibly to the east or to the west of the ,alps4 ,what is more1 the ,pyrenees in those days did not serve as a strict frontier line like to-day2 on the contrary1 both ,navarra and ,aragon extended beyond the mountainous wall1 and the dukes of ,southern ,france occasionally possessed immense territories and cities to the south of the ,pyrenees4 ,be that as it may1 ,romanesque1 as a style1 first dawned in ,spain in the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,its birth coincided with that of the popular religious crusade against the ,moor who had inhabited the peninsula during four centuries2 it coincided also with the great church-erecting period of ,northern ,spanish history1 when the ,alfonsos of ,castile created bishoprics 7to aid them in their political ambitions7 as easily as they broke inconvenient treaties and savagely murdered friends1 relatives1 and foes alike4 ,consequently1 many were the ,romanesque cathedrals erected1 and though the greater part were destroyed later and replaced by ,gothic structures1 several fine specimens of the former style are still to be seen4 ,needless to say1 ,romanesque became localized2 in other words1 it acquired certain characteristics restricted to determined regions4 ,galician ,romanesque and that of ,western ,castile1 for instance1 are almost totally different in aspect3 the former is exceedingly poetical and possesses carved wall decorations both rich and excellent2 the latter is intensely strong and warlike1 and the decorations1 if employed at all1 are ,byzantine1 or at least ,oriental in taste4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transition4--,many of the cathedrals of ,galicia belong1 according to several authors1 to this period in which ,romanesque strength evolved into primitive ,gothic or ogival airiness4 ,in another chapter a personal opinion has been emitted denying the accuracy of the above remark4 ,there is no typical example of ,transition in ,spain4 ,ogival changes introduced at a later date into ,romanesque churches1 a very common occurrence1 cannot justify the classification of the buildings as ,transition monuments4 ,nor is it surprising that such buildings should be lacking in ,spain4 ,for ,gothic did not evolve from ,romanesque in the peninsula1 but was introduced from ,france4 ,a short time after its first appearance it swept all before it1 thanks to the ,cluny monks1 and was exclusively used in church-building4 ,in a strict sense it stands1 moreover1 to reason that the former 7,transition7 can only exist there where a new style emerges from an old without being introduced from abroad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ogival ,,art4--,the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries are1 properly speaking1 those of the great northern art wave which spread rapidly through the peninsula1 bending all before its irresistible will4 ,romanesque churches were destroyed or modified 7the introduction of an ambulatory in almost all ,romanesque buildings71 and new cathedrals sprung up1 called into existence by the needs and requirements of a new people1 a conquering1 ,christian people1 driving the infidel out of the land1 and raising the ,holy ,cross on the sacred monuments of the ,islam religion4 ,the changements introduced into the new style tended to give it a more severe and defiant exterior appearance than in northern churches1--a scarcity of windows and flying buttresses1 timidly pointed arches1 and solid towers4 ,besides1 round-headed arches 7vaultings and horizontal lines7 were indiscriminately used to break the vertical tendency of pure ogival2 so also were ,byzantine cupolas and domes4 ,the solemn1 cold1 and naked cathedral church of ,alcala de ,henares is a fine example of the above4 ,few people would consider it to belong to the same class as the eloquent cathedral of ,leon and the no less imposing see of ,burgos4 ,nevertheless1 it is1 every inch of it1 as pure ,gothic as the last named1 only1 it is essentially ,spanish1 the other two being ,french2 it bears the sombre cachet of the age of ,spanish ,inquisition1 of the fanatic intolerant age of the ,catholic kings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,later ,,styles4--,toward the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries1 ,italian ,renaissance entered the country and drove ,gothic architecture out of the minds of artists and patronizing prelates4 ,but ,italian ,renaissance failed to impress the ,spaniard1 whose character was opposed to that of his ,mediterranean cousin2 so also was the general aspect of his country different from that of ,italy4 ,consequently1 it is not surprising that we should find very few pure ,renaissance monuments on the peninsula4 ,on the other hand1 ,spanish ,renaissance--a florid form of the ,italian--is frequently to be met with2 in its severest form it is called plateresco4 ,in the times of ,philip ,,ii41 ,juan ,herrero created his style 7,escorial71 of which symmetry1 grandeur in size1 and poverty in decoration were the leading characteristics4 ,the reaction came1 however1 quickly1 and ,churriguera introduced the most astounding and theatrical grotesque imaginable4 ,the later history of ,spanish architecture is similar to that of the rest of ,europe4 ,as it is1 the period which above all interests us here is that reaching from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries1 embracing ,romanesque1 ogival1 and plateresque styles4 ,of the cathedrals treated of in this volume1 all belong to either of the two first named architectural schools1 excepting those of ,valladolid1 ,madrid1 and1 to a certain extent1 the new cathedral of ,salamanca and that of ,segovia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mudejar ,,art4--,previous to the advent of ,italian ,renaissance in ,spain1 a new art had been created which was purely national1 having been born on the peninsula as the complex product of ,christian and ,islam elements4 ,this art1 known by the generic name of ,mudejar1 received a mortal blow at the hands of the new ,italian art movement4 ,consequently1 the only school which might have been regarded as ,spanish1 degenerated sadly1 sharing the fate of the new-born nation4 ,rather than a constructive style1 the ,mudejar or ,spanish style is decorative4 ,with admirable variety and profusion it ornamented brick surfaces by covering them with reliefs1 either geometrical 7,moorish7 or ,gothic1 either sunk into the wall or else the latter cut around the former4 ,the aspect of these ,mudejar buildings is peculiar4 ,in a ruddy plain beneath a dazzling blue sky1 these red brick churches gleam thirstily from afar4 ,shadows play among the reliefs1 lending them strength and vigour2 the alminar tower stands forth prominently against the sky and contrasts delightfully with the cupola raised on the apse or on the croisee4 ,among the finest examples of ,mudejar art1 must be counted the brilliantly coloured ceilings1 such as are to be seen in ,alcala1 ,toledo1 and elsewhere4 ,these artesonados1 without being ,moorish1 are1 nevertheless1 of a pronounced ,oriental taste4 ,a geometrical pattern is carved on the wood of the ceiling and brilliantly painted4 ,prominent surfaces are preferably golden in hue1 and such as are sunk beneath the level are red or blue4 ,the effect is dazzling4 ,illustration3 ,,mudejar ,,architecture 7,,sahagun7 ,unluckily1 but little attention has been paid out of ,spain to ,mudejar art1 and it is but little known4 ,even ,spanish critics do not agree as to the national significance of this art1 and it is a great pity1 as unfortunately the country can point to no other art phenomena and claim them to be ,spanish4 ,how can it1 when the nation had not as yet been born1 and1 once born1 was to die almost simultaneously1 like a moth that flies blindly and headlong into an intense flame8 ,,iv ,,conclusion ,spain geographically can be roughly divided into two parts1 a northern and southern1 separated by a mountain chain1 composed of the ,sierras de ,guaderrama1 ,gredos1 and ,gata to the north of ,madrid4 ,such a division does not1 however1 explain the historical development of the ,christian kingdoms from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries1 nor is it advisable to adopt it for an architectural study4 ,during the great period of church-building1 the nine kingdoms of ,spain formed four distinct groups3 ,galicia1 ,asturias1 ,leon1 and ,castile2 ,navarra and ,aragon2 ,barcelona and ,valencia2 ,andalusia4 ,the first group gradually evolved until ,castile absorbed the remaining three kingdoms1 and later ,andalusia as well2 the second and third groups succumbed to the royal house of ,aragon4 ,from an architectural point of view1 there are three groups1 or even four3 ,castile1 ,aragon1 the ,mediterranean coast-line1 and ,andalusia4 ,in the last three the ,oriental influence is far more pronounced than in the first named4 ,further1 ,spain is divided into nine archbishoprics3 four corresponding to ,castile 7,santiago1 ,burgos1 ,valladolid1 and ,toledo72 one to ,aragon 7,zaragoza72 two to the ,mediterranean coast 7,tarragon and ,valencia72 and two to ,andalusia 7,sevilla and ,granada74 ,it was the author's object to preserve as far as possible in the following chapters and in the general subdivision of his work1 not only the geographical1 but the historical1 architectural1 and ecclesiastical divisions as well4 ,better still1 he sacrificed the first when incompatible with the latter three4 ,but--and here the difficulty arose--what title should be chosen for each of the two volumes which were to be dedicated to ,spain8 ,because two volumes were necessary1 considering the eighty odd cathedrals to be described4 ,cathedrals of ,northern ,spain as opposed to ,cathedrals of ,southern ,spain--was one of the titles4 ,gothic cathedrals of ,spain--as opposed to ,moorish ,cathedrals of ,spain--was another2 the latter had to be discarded1 as only one ,moorish mezquita converted into a ,christian temple exists to-day1 namely1 that of ,cordoba4 ,there remained1 therefore1 the first title4 ,the first volume1 discarding ,navarra and ,aragon 7in the north71 is dedicated to ,castile1 as well as its four archbishoprics4 ,the narrow belt of land1 running from east to west1 from ,cuenca to ,coria1 to the south of the ,sierra de ,guaderrama1 and constituting the archbishopric of ,toledo1 has been added to the region lying to the north and to the northwest of ,madrid4 ,moreover1 to aid the reader1 the present volume has been divided into parts1 namely3 ,galicia1 the ,north1 and ,castile2 the latter has been subdivided into western and eastern1 making in all four divisions4 7#a7 ,galicia4 ,santiago de ,campostela is1 from an ecclesiastical point of view1 all ,galicia4 ,thanks to this spirit1 the entire region shows a decided uniformity in the style of its churches1 for that of ,santiago 7,romanesque7 served as a pattern or model to be adopted in the remaining sees4 ,the character of the people is no less uniform1 and the ,celtic inheritance of poetry has drifted into the monuments of the ,christian religion4 ,the episcopal see of ,oviedo falls under the jurisdiction of ,santiago2 the ,gothic cathedral shows no ,romanesque motives excepting the ,camara ,sagrada1 and has therefore been included in-- 7#b7 ,the ,north4 ,with the exception of ,oviedo1 all the bishoprics in this group fall under the jurisdiction of the ,archbishop of ,burgos4 ,the two finest ,gothic temples in ,northern ,spain pertain to this group3 ,burgos and ,leon4 ,there is1 however1 but little uniformity in this northern region1 for ,santander and ,vitoria have but little in common with the remaining sees4 7#c7 ,western ,castile4 ,a certain degree of uniformity is seen to exist among the sees of ,western ,castile1 namely1 the warlike appearance of the ,byzantine ,romanesque edifices4 ,besides1 the use of sandstone and brick is here universal1 and the immense plain of ,old ,castile to the north of the ,sierra de ,gata1 and of ,northern ,extremadura to the south of the same range1 have a peculiar ruddy aspect1 dry and ,oriental 7,african871 that is perfectly delightful4 ,the sees to the north of the mentioned mountain chain belong to ,valladolid2 those of the south to ,toledo4 7#d7 ,eastern ,castile extends from ,valladolid in the north 7archbishopric7 to ,toledo in the south 7archbishopric71 from ,avila in the west to ,sigueenza in the east1 and to ,cuenca in the extreme southeast of ,new ,castile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the middle ages the ,christian kings of ,asturias 7,galicia87 grew more and more powerful1 and their territory stretched out to the south and to the east4 ,on the ,mino ,river1 ,tuy and ,orense were frontier towns1 to populate which1 bishoprics were erected4 ,to the south of ,oviedo1 and almost on a line with the two ,galician towns1 ,astorga1 ,leon and ,burgos were strongly fortified1 and formed an imaginary line to the north of which ruled ,christian monarchs1 and to the south ,arab emirs4 ,burgos at the same time served as fortress-town against the rival kings of ,navarra to the north and east2 the latter1 on the other hand1 fortified the ,rioja against ,castile until at last it fell into the hands of the latter4 ,then ,burgos1 no longer a frontier town1 grew to be capital of the new-formed kingdom of ,castile4 ,slowly1 but surely1 the ,arabs moved southwards1 followed by the implacable line of ,christian fortresses4 ,at one time ,valladolid1 ,palencia1 ,toro1 and ,zamora formed this line4 ,when ,toledo was conquered it was substituted by ,coria1 ,plasencia1 ,sigueenza1 and1 slightly to the north1 by ,madrid1 ,avila1 ,segovia1 and ,salamanca4 ,at the same time ,sigueenza1 ,segovia1 ,soria1 and ,logrono formed another strategic line of fortifications against ,aragon1 whilst in the west ,plasencia1 ,coria1 ,toro and ,zamora1 ,tuy1 ,orense1 and ,astorga kept the ,portuguese from ,castilian soil4 ,in the extreme southwest ,cuenca1 impregnable and highly strategical1 looked eastwards and southwards against the ,moor1 and northwards against the ,aragonese4 ,in all these links of the immense strategical chain which protected ,castile from her enemies1 the monarchs were cunning enough to erect sees and appoint warrior-bishops4 ,they even donated the new fortress-cities with special privileges or fueros1 in virtue of which settlers came from all parts of the country to inhabit and constitute the new municipality4 ,such--in gigantic strides--is the story of most of ,castile's world-famed cities4 ,in each chapter1 dates1 anecdotes1 and more details are given1 with a view to enable the reader to become acquainted not only with the ecclesiastical history of cities like ,burgos and ,valladolid1 but also with the causes which produced the growing importance of each see1 as well as its decadence within the last few centuries4 ,,part ,,ii ,galicia ,i ,,santiago ,,de ,,campostela ,when the ,christian religion was still young1 ,st4 ,james the ,apostle--he whom ,christ called his brother--landed in ,galicia and roamed across the northern half of the ,iberian peninsula dressed in a pilgrim's modest garb and leaning upon a pilgrim's humble staff4 ,after years of wandering from place to place1 he returned to ,galicia and was beheaded by the ,romans1 his enemies4 ,this legend--or truth--has been poetically interwoven with other legends of ,celtic origin1 until the whole story forms what ,brunetiere would call a cycle chevaleresque with ,st4 ,james--or ,santiago--as the central hero4 ,according to one of these legends1 it would appear that the apostle was persecuted by his great enemy ,lupa1 a woman of singular beauty whom the ascetic pilgrim had mortally offended4 ,thanks to certain accessory details1 it is possible to assume that ,lupa is the symbol of the ,god without a name of ,celtic mythology1 and it is she who finally venges herself by decapitating the pilgrim saint4 ,the disciples of ,st4 ,james laid his corpse in a cart1 together with the executioner's axe and the pilgrim's staff4 ,two wild bulls were then harnessed to the vehicle1 and away went cart and saint4 ,as night fell and the moon rose over the vales of ,galicia1 the weary animals stopped on the summit of a wooded hill in an unknown vale1 surrounded by other hillocks likewise covered with foliage and verdure4 ,the disciples buried the saint1 together with axe and staff1 and there they left him with the secret of his burial-ground4 ,this must have happened in the first or second century of the ,christian era4 ,six hundred years later1 and one hundred years after the ,moors had landed in ,andalusia1 one ,theodosio1 ,bishop of ,iria 7,galicia71 took a walk one day in his wide domains accompanied by a monk4 ,together they lost their way and roamed about till night-fall1 when they found themselves far from home4 ,stars twinkled in the heavens as they do to this day4 ,being tired1 the bishop and his companion dreamt as they walked along--at least it appears so from what followed--and the stars were so many miraculous lights which led the wanderers on and on4 ,at last the stars remained motionless above a wooded hill standing isolated in a beautiful vale4 ,the prelate stopped also1 and it occurred to him to dig1 for he attributed his dreams to a supernatural miracle4 ,digging1 a coffin was revealed to him1 and therein the saintly remains of ,st4 ,james or ,santiago4 ,giving thanks to ,him who guides all steps1 ,theodosio returned to ,iria1 and1 by his orders1 a primitive basilica was erected some years later on the very spot where the saint had been buried1 and in such a manner as to place the high altar just above the coffin4 ,a crypt was then dug out and lined with mosaic1 and the coffin1 either repaired or renewed1 was laid therein1--some say it was visible to the hordes of pilgrims in the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,the shrine was then called ,santiago de ,campostela4--,santiago1 which means ,st4 ,james1 and ,campostela1 field of stars1 in memory of the miraculous lights the ,bishop of ,iria and his companion had perceived whilst sweetly dreaming4 ,the news of the discovery spread abroad with wonderful rapidity4 ,monasteries1 churches1 and inns soon surrounded the basilica1 and within a few years a village and then a city 7the bishop's see was created previous to #hdb ,a4 ,d47 filled the vale1 which barely fifty years earlier had been an undiscovered and savage region4 ,throughout the middle ages1 from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries1 ,santiago de ,campostela was the scene of pilgrimages--not to say crusades--to the tomb of ,st4 ,james4 ,from ,france1 ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,england hundreds and thousands of men1 women1 and children wandered to the ,galician valley1 then one of the foci of ecclesiastical significance and industrial activity4 ,the city1 despite its local character1 wore an international garb1 much to the benefit of ,galician1 even ,spanish1 arts and literature4 ,it is a pity that so little research has been made concerning these pilgrimages and the influences they brought to bear on the history of the country4 ,a book treating of this subject would be a highly interesting account of one of the most important movements of the middle ages4 ,the ,moors under ,almanzor pillaged the city of ,santiago in #iii2 then they retreated southwards1 as was their wont4 ,the ,norman vikings also visited the sacred vale1 attracted thither by the reports of its wealth2 but they also retreated1 like the waves of the sea when the tide goes out4 ,after the last ,arab invasion1 an extemporaneous edifice was erected in place of the shrine which had been demolished4 ,it did not stand long1 however1 for the ,christian kings of ,spain1 whose dominions were limited to ,asturias1 ,leon1 and ,galicia1 ordered the construction of a building worthy of ,st4 ,james1 who was looked upon as the god of battles1 much like ,st4 ,george in ,england4 ,so in #ajgh the new cathedral1 the present building1 was commenced1 and1 as the story runs1 it was built around the then existing basilica1 which was left standing until after the vault of the new edifice had been closed4 ,the history of ,spain at this moment helped to increase the religious importance of ,santiago4 ,the kingdom of ,asturias 7,oviedo7 had stretched out beyond its limits and died2 the ,christian nuclei were ,galicia1 ,leon1 and ,navarra4 ,in these three the power of the noblemen1 and consequently of the bishops and archbishops1 was greater than it had ever been before4 ,each was lord or sovereign in his own domains1 and fought against his enemies with or without the aid of the infidel ,arab armies1 which he had no compunction in inviting to help him against his ,christian brothers4 ,now and again a king managed to subdue these aristocratic lords and ecclesiastical prelates1 but only for a short time4 ,besides1 nowhere was the independent spirit of the noblemen more accentuated than in ,galicia2 nowhere were the prelates so rebellious as in ,santiago1 the ,sacred ,city1 and none attained a greater height of personal power and wealth than ,diego ,galmirez1 the first archbishop of ,santiago1 and one of the most striking and interesting personalities of ,spanish history in the twelfth century1 to whom ,santiago owes much of her glory1 and ,spain not little of her future history4 ,the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were thus the period of ,santiago's greatest fame and renown4 ,little by little the central power of the monarchs went southwards to ,castile and ,andalusia1 and little by little ,santiago declined and dwindled in importance1 until to-day it is one city more of those that have been and are no longer4 ,for the city's history is that of its cathedral1 of its shrine4 ,with the birth of ,protestantism and the death of feudal power1 both city and cathedral lost their previous importance3 they had sprung into life together1 and the existence of the one was intricately interwoven with that of the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the stranger who visits ,santiago to-day does not approach it fervently by the ,mount of ,joys as did the footsore pilgrims in the middle ages4 ,on the contrary1 he steps out of the train and hurries to the cathedral church1 which sadly seems to repeat the thoughts of the city itself1 or the words of ,senor ,muguira3 ,to-day1 what am ,i8 ,an echo of the joys and pains of hundreds of generations2 a distant rumour both confused and undefinable1 a last sunbeam fading at evening and dying on the glassy surface of sleeping waters4 ,never will man learn my secrets1 never will he be able to open my granite lips and oblige them to reveal the mysterious past4 ,as is generally known1 the cathedral is a ,romanesque building of the eleventh and twelfth centuries mutilated by posterior additions and recent ameliorations 7sic74 ,it was begun in #ajgh1 and1 though finished about #aej years later1 no ogival elements drifted into the construction until long after its completion4 ,as will be seen later on1 it served as the model for most of ,galicia's cathedrals4 ,on the other hand1 it is generally believed to be an imitation--as regards the general disposition--of ,st4 ,saturnin in ,toulouse3 a combatable theory1 however1 as the churches were contemporaneous4 ,seen from the outside1 the ,cathedral of ,santiago lacks harmony2 few remains of the primitive structure are to be discovered among the many later-date additions and reforms4 ,the base of the towers and some fine blinded windows1 with naive low reliefs in the semicircular tympanum1 will have to be excepted4 ,the ,holy ,door--a peculiarly placed apsidal portal on the eastern front--is built up of decorative elements saved from the northern and western facades when they were torn down4 ,illustration3 ,,santiago ,,and ,,its ,,cathedral ,the best portal is the ,puerta de la ,plateria1 opening into the southern arm of the transept4 ,it is1 unluckily1 depressed and thrown into the background by the cloister walls on the left1 and by the ,trinity ,tower on the right4 ,nevertheless1 both handsome and sober1 it can be counted among the finest examples of its kind--pure ,romanesque--in ,spain1 and is rendered even more attractive by the peculiar ,galician poetry which inspired its sculptors4 ,immediately above the panels of the door1 which are covered with twelfth-century metal reliefs1 there is a stone plaque or low relief1 representing the ,passion scene2 to the left of it is to be seen a kneeling woman holding a skull in her hand4 ,evidently it is a weeping1 penitent ,magdalene4 ,the popular tongue has invented a legend--perhaps a true one--concerning this woman1 who is believed to symbolize the adulteress4 ,it appears that a certain hidalgo1 discovering his wife's sins1 killed her lover by cutting off his head2 he then obliged her to kiss and adore the skull twice daily throughout her life1--a rather cruel punishment and a slow torture1 quite in accordance with the mystic spirit of the ,celts4 ,the apse of the church1 circular in the interior1 is squared off on the outside by the addition of chapels4 ,as regards the plateresque northern and western facades1 they are out of place1 though the former might have passed off elsewhere as a fairly good example of the severe sixteenth-century style4 ,the general plan of the building is ,roman cruciform2 the principal nave is high1 and contains both choir and high altar2 the two aisles are much lower and darker1 and terminate behind the high altar in an ambulatory walk4 ,the width of the transept is enormous1 and is composed of a nave and two aisles similar in size to those of the body of the church4 ,the croisee is surmounted by a dome1 which1 though not ,romanesque1 is certainly an advantageous addition4 ,excepting the high altar with its retablo1 the choir with its none too beautiful stalls1 and the various chapels of little interest and less taste1 the general view of the interior is impressively beautiful4 ,the height of the central nave1 rendered more elegant by the addition of a handsome ,romanesque triforium of round-headed arches1 contrasts harmoniously with the sombre aisles1 whereas the bareness of the walls--for all mural paintings were washed away by a bigoted prelate somewhere in the fifteenth century--helps to show off to better advantage the rich sculptural decorations1 leaf and floral designs on capitals and friezes4 ,the real wonder of the cathedral is the far-famed ,portico de la ,gloria1 the vestibule or narthex behind the western entrance of the church1 and as renowned as its sculptural value is meritorious4 ,so much has already been written concerning this work of art that really little need be mentioned here4 ,street1 who persuaded the ,british ,government to send a body of artists to take a plaster copy of this strange work1 could not help declaring that3 ,i pronounce this effort of ,master ,mathews at ,santiago to be one of the greatest glories of ,christian art4 ,and so it is4 ,executed in the true ,romanesque period1 each column and square inch of surface covered with exquisite decorative designs1 elaborated with care and not hastily1 as was the habit of later-day artists1 the three-vaulted rectangular vestibule between the body of the church and the western extremity where the light streams in through the rose window1 is an immense allegory of the ,christian religion1 of human life1 and above all of the mystic1 melancholy poetry of ,celtic ,galicia4 ,buried in half-lights1 this song of stone with the statue of the ,trinity and ,st4 ,james1 with the angels blowing their trumpets from the walls1 and the virtues and vices of this world symbolized by groups and by persons1 is of a sincere poetry that leaves a lasting impression upon the spectator4 ,life1 ,faith1 and ,death1 ,judgment and ,purgatory1 ,hell and ,paradise or ,glory1 are the motives carved out in stone in this unique narthex1 so masterful in the execution1 and so vivid in the tale it tells1 that we can compare its author to ,dante1 and call the ,portico de la ,gloria the ,divina ,commedia of architecture4 ,at one end there is the figure of a kneeling man1 the head almost touching the ground in the body's fervent prostration in front of the group representing ,glory1 ,trinity1 and ,st4 ,james4 ,is it a twelfth-century pilgrim whom the artist in a moment of realistic enthusiasm has portrayed here1 in the act of praying to his ,creator and invoking his mercy8 ,or is it the portrait of the artist1 who1 even after death1 wished to live in the midst of the wonders of his creation8 ,it is not positively known1 though it is generally supposed to be ,maestro ,mateo himself1 kneeling in front of his ,glory1 admiring it as do all visitors1 and watching over it as would a mother over her son4 ,if the chapels which surround the building have been omitted on account of their artistic worthlessness1 not the same fate awaits the cloister4 ,of a much later date than the cathedral itself1 having been constructed in the sixteenth century1 it is a late ,gothic monument betraying ,renaissance additions and mixtures2 consequently it is entirely out of place and time here1 and does not harmonize with the cathedral4 ,examined as a detached edifice1 it impresses favourably as regards the height and length of the galleries1 which show it to be one of the largest cloisters in ,spain4 ,the cathedral's crypt is one of its most peculiar features1 and certainly well worth examining better than has been heretofore done4 ,it is reached by a small door behind the high altar 7evidently used when the saint's coffin was placed on grand occasions on the altar-table7 or by a subterranean gallery leading down from the ,portico de la ,gloria1 a gallery as rich in sculptural decorations as the vestibule itself4 ,the popular belief in ,galicia is that in this crypt the cathedral reflects itself1 towers and all1 as it would in the limpid surface of a lake4 ,hardly2 and yet the crypt is a nude copy of the ground floor above1 with the corresponding naves and aisles and apsidal chapels4 ,the height of the crypt is surprising1 the architectural construction is pure ,romanesque1--more so than that of the building itself1--and just beneath the high altar the shrine of ,st4 ,james is situated where it was found in the ninth century4 ,,ii ,,corunna ,corunna1 seated on her beautiful bay1 the waters of which are ever warmed by the ,gulf ,stream1 gazes out westwards across the turbulent waves of the ocean as she has done for nearly two thousand years4 ,brigandtia was her first known name1 a centre of the ,celtic druid religion4 ,the inhabitants of the town1 it is to-day believed1 communicated by sea with their brethren in ,ireland long before the coming of the ,phoenicians and ,greeks who established a trading post and a tin factory1 and built the ,tower of ,hercules4 ,the ,roman conquest saved ,brigandtium from being great before her time4 ,for the ,latin people were miserable sailors1 and gazed with awe into the waves of the ,atlantic4 ,for them ,brigandtia was the last spot in the world1 a dangerous spot1 to be shunned4 ,so they left her seated on her beautiful bay beside the ,torre de ,hercules1 and made ,lugo their capital4 ,in the shuffling of bishops and sees in the fifth and sixth centuries1 ,corunna was forgotten4 ,unimportant1 known only for its castle and its tower1 it passed a useless existence1 patiently waiting for a change in its favour4 ,this change came in the fifteenth century as a result of the discovery of ,america4 ,since then1 and with varying success1 the city has grown in importance1 until to-day it is the most wealthy and active of ,galicia's towns1 and one of the largest seaports on ,spain's ,atlantic coast4 ,its history since the sixteenth century is well known1 especially to ,englishmen1 who1 whenever their country had a rupture with ,spain1 were quick in entering ,corunna's bay4 ,from here part of the ,invincible ,armada sailed one day to fight the ,saxons and to be destroyed by a tempest2 ten years later ,england returned the challenge with better luck1 and her fleets entered the historical bay and burned the town4 ,during the war with ,napoleon1 ,general ,moore fought the ,french in the vicinity and lost his life1 whereas a few years earlier an ,english fleet defeated1 just outside the bay1 a united ,french and ,spanish squadron4 ,to-day1 the old city on the hill looks down upon the new one below2 the former is poetic and artistic1 the latter is straight-lined1 industrial1 and modern4 ,nevertheless1 the aspect of the city denies its age1 for it is more modern than many cities that are younger4 ,what is more1 tradition does not weigh heavily on its brow1 and depress its inhabitants1 as is the case in ,lugo and ,tuy and ,santiago4 ,the movement on the wharves1 the continual coming and going of vessels of all sizes1 commerce1 industry1 and other delights of modern civilization do not give the citizens leisure to ponder over the city's two thousand years1 nor to preoccupy themselves about art problems4 ,moreover1 the tourist who has come to ,spain to visit ,toledo and ,sevilla hurries off inland1 gladly leaving ,corunna's streets to sailors and to merchants4 ,there are1 nevertheless1 two churches well worth a visit2 one is the ,colegiata 7supposed to have been a bishopric for a short time in the thirteenth century7 or suffragan church1 and the other the ,church of ,santiago4 ,the latter has a fine ,romanesque portal of the twelfth century1 reminding one in certain decorative details of the ,portico de la ,gloria in ,santiago4 ,the interior of the building consists of one nave or aisle spanned by a daring vault1 executed in the early ogival style2 doubtless it was originally ,romanesque1 as is evidently shown by the capitals of the pillars1 and was most likely rebuilt after the terrible fire which broke out early in the sixteenth century4 ,santa ,maria del ,campo is the name of the suffragan church dedicated to the ,virgin4 ,the church itself was erected to a suffragan of ,santiago in #adda4 ,the date of its erection is doubtful1 some authors placing it in the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century4 ,street1 whom we can take as an intelligent guide in these matters1 calls it a twelfth-century church1 contemporaneous with and perhaps even built by the same architect who built that of ,santiago de ,campostela4 ,moreover1 the mentioned critic affirms this in spite of a doubtful inscription placed in the vault above the choir1 which accuses the building of having been completed in #acjg4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,santiago1 ,,corunna ,the primitive plan of the church was doubtless ,romanesque1 of one nave and two aisles4 ,as in ,mondonedo and ,lugo1 the former is surmounted by an ogival vault1 and the aisles1 lower in height1 are somewhat depressed by the use of ,romanesque plein-cintre vaultings4 ,the form of the building is that of a ,roman cross with rather short arms2 the apse consists of but one chapel1 the lady-chapel4 ,as regards the light1 it is horrible1 for the window in the west is insignificant and1 what is more1 has recently been blinded1 though only ,heaven knows why4 ,the towers emerging from the western front are unmeaning1 and not similar1 which detracts from the harmony of the whole4 ,as regards the different facades1 the western has been spoilt quite recently2 the northern and southern are1 however1 ,romanesque1 though not pure1 as ogival arches are used in the decoration of the tympanum4 ,in other words1 the ,church of ,santiago at ,corunna is more important1 from an archaeological point of view1 than the ,colegiata4 ,the fishing folk do not think so1 however2 they care but little for such secondary details1 and their veneration is entirely centred in the suffragan church--one of the three ,virgins1 as they call her to whom it is dedicated4 ,to them this particular ,mary is the estrella del mar 7sea star71 and she is the principal object of their devotion4 ,it is strange--be it said in parenthesis--how frequently in ,galicia mention is made of stars3 they form a most important feature of the country's superstitions4 ,blood will out--and ,celtic mythology peeps through the ,christian surface in spite of centuries of true belief4 ,,iii ,,mondonedo ,a ,village grown to be a city1 and yet a village4 ,a city without history or tradition1 and a cathedral that has been spoilt by the hand of time1 and above all by the hands of luckless artists called upon to rebuild deteriorated parts4 ,to the north of ,lugo1 at a respectable distance from the railway which runs from the latter to ,corunna1 and reached either by means of a stage or on horseback1 ,mondonedo passes a sleeping existence in a picturesque vale surrounded by the greenest of hills4 ,rarely bothered by the tourist who prefers the train to the stage1 it procures for the art lover many moments of delight--that is1 if he will but take the trouble to visit the cathedral1 the two towers of which loom up in the vale1 and though rather too stumpy to be able to lend elegance to the ensemble1 add a poetic charm to the valley and to the village itself4 ,how on earth did it ever occur to any one to raise the church at ,mondonedo to a bishopric8 ,surely the sees in ,galicia were badly shuffled2 and yet1 where can a quieter spot be found in this wide world of ours for the contemplation of a cathedral--and a ,romanesque one1 to boot6 ,it is to the ,norman vikings that is due the establishment of a see in this lonely valley4 ,until the sixth century it had been situated in ,mindunietum of the ,romans1 when it was removed to ,ribadeo1 remaining there until late in the twelfth century4 ,both these towns were seaports1 and both suffered from the cruel incursions and piratical expeditions of the vikings1 and so after the total pillage of the church in ,ribadeo1 the see was removed inland out of harm's way1 to a village known by the name of ,villamayor or ,mondonedo4 ,there it has remained till the present day1 ignored by the tourist who has no time1 and who follows the beaten track established by ,messrs4 ,cook and ,company1 in ,london4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,mondonedo ,as will have been seen1 ,mondonedo is a city without history1 and without a past2 doubtless it will for ever remain a village without a future4 ,its doings1 its raison d'etre1 are summed up in the cathedral that stands in its centre1 just as in ,santiago1 though from different motives4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the most picturesque spot in ,galicia1 a gently sloping landscape buried in a violet haze1 reminding one of ,swiss valleys in the quiet ,jura4 ,besides1 the streets are silent and often deserted1 the village inn or fonda is neither excellent nor very bad1 and as for the villagers1 they are happy1 simple1 and hospitable dawdlers along the paths of this life4 ,according to a popular belief1 the life of one man1 a bishop named ,don ,martin 7#abai-dh71 is wrapped up in ,mondonedo's cathedral1 so much so1 in fact1 that both their lives are one and the same4 ,he began building his see2 he saw it finished and consecrated it--construxit1 consumavit et consacravit2 then he died1 but the church and his name lived on4 ,modern art critics disagree with the above belief2 the older or primitive part of the church dates from the twelfth and not from the thirteenth century4 ,originally1 as can easily be seen upon examining the older part of the building1 it was a pure ,romanesque basilica1 the nave and the two aisles running up to the transept1 where they were cut off1 and immediately to the east of the latter came the apse with three chapels1 the lady-chapel being slightly larger than the lateral ones4 ,in the primitive construction of the building--and excepting all later-date additions1 of which there are more than enough--early ,gothic and ,romanesque elements are so closely intermingled that one is perforce obliged to consider the monument as belonging to the period of ,transition1 as being1 perhaps1 a unique example of this period to be met with in ,galicia or even in ,spain4 ,of course1 as in the case of the other ,galician cathedrals1 the original character of the interior1 which if it had remained unaltered would be both majestic and imposing1 has been greatly deformed by the addition of posterior reforms4 ,the form of the apse has been completely changed by the introduction of an ambulatory or circular apsidal aisle dating at least from the fifteenth century1 as shown by the presence of the late ,gothic and ,renaissance elements4 ,illustration3 ,,mondonedo ,,cathedral ,the general plan is rectangular1 #abj feet long by seventy-one wide1 and seen from the outside is solid rather than elegant1 a fortress rather than a temple4 ,the height of the nave1 crowned by a ,gothic vaulting1 is about forty-five feet2 a triforium 7ogival7 runs around the top4 ,the lateral aisles are slightly more than half as high and covered by a ,romanesque vaulting reposing on capitals and shafts of the finest twelfth century execution4 ,the original basilica form of the church has1 unluckily1 been altered by the additional length given to the arms of the transept1 and1 as mentioned already1 by the ambulatory walk characteristic of ,spanish cathedrals2 the workmanship of the latter1 though lamentably out of tune in this old cathedral1 is1 taken by itself1 better than many similar additions in other churches4 ,the western facade1 which is the only one worthy of contemplation1 is as good an example of ,romanesque1 spoilt by the addition at a recent date of grotesque and bizarre figures and monsters1 as can be seen anywhere4 ,the buttresses are more developed than in either ,lugo or ,santiago1 and though these bodies1 from a decorative point of view1 were evidently intended to give a certain seal of elegance to the ensemble1 the stunted towers and the few windows in the body of the church only help to heighten its fortress-like aspect4 ,in a previous paragraph it has been stated that this cathedral is perhaps a unique example of the period of ,transition 7,romanesque and early ,gothic74 ,it is an opinion shared by many art critics1 but personally the author of these lines is inclined to consider it as an example of the ,galician conservative spirit1 and of the fight that was made in cathedral chapters against the introduction of early ,gothic4 ,for the temple at ,santiago was ,romanesque2 therefore1 according to the narrow reasoning peculiar to ,galicia1 that style was the best and consequently good enough for any other church4 ,as a result1 we have in this region of ,spain a series of cathedrals which are practically ,romanesque1 but into the structure of which ogival elements have filtered4 ,further1 as there is no existing example of a finished ,gothic church in ,galicia1 it is rather difficult to speak of a period of ,transition1 by which is meant the period of passing from one style to another4 ,in ,galicia1 there was no passing3 the conservative spirit of the country1 the poetry of the ,celtic inhabitants1 and above all of their artists1 found greater pleasure in ,romanesque than in ,gothic1 and consequently the cathedrals are ,romanesque1 with slight ,gothic additions1 when these could combine or submit in arrangement to the heavier ,romanesque principles of architecture4 ,later1 in other centuries1 the spirit of architecture had completely died out in ,spain1 and the additions made in these days are so many lamentable signs of decadence4 ,not so the ogival introduction in ,romanesque churches1 which in many cases improved the ,romanesque appearance4 ,,iv ,,lugo ,what ,santiago was as regards ecclesiastical politics1 ,lugo1 one of the three cities on the ,mino ,river1 was as regards civil power4 ,it was the nominal capital of ,galicia1 and at one time1 in the reign of ,alfonso the ,chaste1 it was intended to make it the capital of the nascent ,spanish kingdom1 but for some reason or other ,oviedo was chosen instead as being more suitable4 ,since then the city of ,lugo has completely fallen into ruins and insignificance4 ,it first appears in history when the ,romans conquered it from the ,celts4 ,it was their capital and their ,holy ,city2 in its centre was ,lupa's ,bower1 where the ,romans built a magnificent temple to ,diana4 ,some mosaics of this edifice have been discovered recently1 and the peculiar designs prove beyond a doubt that the mythological attributions of the ,celts were made use of and intermingled with those of the ,latin race--not at all a strange occurrence1 as ,lupa and ,diana seem to have enjoyed many common qualities4 ,under the ,roman rule1 the city walls1 remains of which are still standing in many places1 were erected1 and ,locus ,augusti became the capital of the northern provinces4 ,all through the middle ages1 when really ,oviedo had usurped its civil1 and ,santiago its religious significance1 ,lugo was still considered as being the capital of ,galicia1 a stronghold against ,arab incursions1 and a hotbed of unruly noblemen who lost no opportunity in striking a blow for liberty against the encroaching power of the neighbouring kingdom of ,asturias1 and later on of ,leon4 ,when at last the central power of the ,christian kings was firmly established in ,leon and ,castile1 in ,lugo the famous message of adhesion to the dynasty of the ,alfonsos was voted1 and the kingdom of ,galicia1 like that of ,asturias1 faded away1 the shadow of a name without even the right to have its coat of arms placed on the national escutcheon4 ,the ecclesiastical history of the city of ,lugo is neither interesting nor does it differ from that of other ,galician towns4 ,erected to a see in the fifth century1 its cathedral was a primitive basilica destroyed by the ,moors in one of their powerful northern raids in the eighth century4 ,the legendary bishop ,odoario lost no time in building a second basilica1 which met the same fate about two hundred years later1 in the tenth century4 ,alfonso the ,chaste1 one of the few kings of ,asturias to take a lively interest in ,galician politics1 ordered either the reconstruction of the old basilica or the erection of a new temple4 ,those were stormy times for the city3 between the rise and stand of ambitious noblemen1 who1 pretending to fight for ,galicia's freedom1 fought for their own interests1 and the continual encroachments of the proud prelates on the rights and privileges of the people1 barely a year passed without ,lugo being the scene of street fights or sieges4 ,as in ,santiago1 one prince of the ,church lost his life1 murdered by the faithful 7sic7 flocks1 and many1 upon coming to take possession of their see1 found the city gates locked in their faces1 and were obliged to conquer the cathedral before entering their palace4 ,the new basilica suffered in consequence1 and had to be entirely rebuilt in the twelfth century4 ,the new edifice is the one standing to-day1 but how changed from the primitive building6 ,thanks to graceless additions in all possible styles and combinations of styles1 the ,romanesque origin is hardly recognizable4 ,consequently1 the cathedral church of ,lugo1 which otherwise might have been an architectural jewel1 does not inspire the visitor with any of those sentiments that ought to be the very essence of time-worn religious edifices of all kinds4 ,the general disposition of the church is ,roman cruciform2 the arms of the cross are exceedingly short1 however1 in comparison to their height2 the croisee is surmounted by a semicircular vaulting 7,spanish ,romanesque74 ,the nave shows decided affinity to early ,gothic1 as shown by the ogival arches and vaulting4 ,the presence of the ogival arches 7as well as those of the handsome triforium1 perhaps the most elegant in ,galicia7 shows this church to be the first in ,galicia to have submitted to the infiltration of ,gothic elements4 ,this peculiarity is explained by the fact that1 in #aabi1 the erection of the cathedral was entrusted to one ,maestro ,raimundo1 who stipulated that1 in the case of his death before the completion of the church1 his son should be commissioned to carry on the work4 ,he died1 and his son1 a generation younger and imbued with the newer architectural theories1 even went so far as to alter his father's plans2 he built the nave higher than was customary in ,romanesque churches1 and gave elegance to the whole structure by employing the pointed arch even in the triforium1 otherwise a copy of that of ,santiago4 ,the most curious and impressive part of the building is that constructed by ,maestro ,raimundo1 father1 namely the aisles1 especially that part of them to the right and left of the choir2 they are1 with the croisee1 the best interior remains of the primitive ,romanesque plans3 short1 even stumpy1 rather dark it is true1 for the light that comes in by the narrow windows is but poor at its best1 they are1 nevertheless1 rich in decorative designs4 ,the wealth of sculptural ornaments of pure ,romanesque in these aisles is perhaps the cathedral's best claim to the tourist's admiration1 and puts it in a prominent place among the ,romanesque cathedrals of ,spain4 ,not the same favourable opinion can be emitted when it is a question of the exterior4 ,the towers are comparatively new2 the apse--with the peculiar and salient addition of an octagonal body revealing ,renaissance influence--is picturesque1 it is true1 but at the same time it has spoilt the architectural value of the cathedral as a ,romanesque edifice4 ,the northern facade1 preceded by an ogival porch so common in ,galicia1 contains a portal of greater beauty than the ,puerta de la ,plateria in ,santiago1 and stands forth in greater prominence than the other named example of twelfth-century art1 by not being lost among or depressed by flanking bodies of greater height and mass4 ,as regards the sculptural ornamentation of the door itself1 it is felt and not only portrayed3 the ,christ standing between the immense valves of the vesica piscis which crowns the portal is an example of twelfth-century sculpture4 ,the iron-studded panels of the doors have already been praised by ,street1 who placed their execution likewise in the twelfth century4 ,excepting this portal--a marvel in its class with its rounded tympanum richly ornamented--the portion of the building doubtless more strongly imbued than any other with the general spirit of the edifice is that part of the apse independent of the octagonal addition previously mentioned1 and which is dedicated to ,la ,virgen de los ,ojos ,grandes--the ,virgin of the ,large ,eyes4 7,she must have been ,andalusian67 ,of the true apse1 the lower part has ogival arched windows of singular elegance2 the upper body1 also semicircular in form1 but slightly smaller1 has round-headed windows4 ,both the ogival windows of the first and the ,romanesque windows of the second harmonize wonderfully1 thanks to the lesser height and width of the upper row4 ,the buttresses1 simple1 and yet alive with a gently curving line1 are well worth noticing4 ,it is strange1 nevertheless1 that they should not reach the ground1 but only support the upper body1 and unite it with the lower1 forming thus a sort of crown for the latter's benefit4 ,personally--and the author must be excused if he emit his opinion--he considers the old apse of the cathedral in ,lugo to be one of the finest pieces of architecture to be met with in ,galicia4 ,it belongs to what has been called the period of ,transition 7compare previous remarks in another chapter concerning this style71 and yet it has a character of its own not to be found elsewhere1 and the harmony of ogival and ,romanesque has been so artfully revealed that it cannot fail to appeal to the tourist who contemplates it carefully4 ,v ,,orense ,coming by rail from ,lugo or ,monforte toward ,tuy and ,vigo1 the train suddenly escapes from the savage canon where the picturesque ,mino rushes and boils beside the road1 and emerges into a broad and fertile valley where figs1 grapes1 and olives grow in profusion4 ,this valley is broad1 its soil is of golden hue1 and the sky above it is as brilliantly blue as a sapphire4 ,in its centre ,orense1 heavy ,orense1 which claims as its founder a ,greek hero fresh from the pages of the ,iliad1 basks in the sun beside the beautiful ,mino2 the while its cathedral looms up above the roofs of the surrounding houses4 ,the history of the town is as agitated as any in ,galicia and shows the same general happenings4 ,the ,romans appreciated it for its sulphur baths and called it ,auria 7golden7 from the colour of the soil1 of the water1 and perhaps also on account of certain grains of gold discovered in the sands of the ,mino4 ,the ,suevos1 who dominated ,galicia and proved so beneficial to ,tuy1 did not ignore the importance of ,orense3 one of the first bishoprics1 if not the first historical one in ,galicia1 was that of ,orense1 dating from before the fourth century1 at least such is the opinion of to-day4 ,more than any other ,galician city1 excepting ,tuy1 it suffered from the ,arab invasions4 ,entirely destroyed1 razed to the ground upon two occasions1 it was ever being rebuilt by the returning inhabitants who had fled4 ,previous to these ,arab incursions the cathedral had been dedicated to ,st4 ,martin de ,tours 7,france71 and yearly pilgrimages took place to the ,galician shrine1 where some relics belonging to the saint were revered4 ,but with the infidels these relics1 or whatever they were1 were dispersed1 and the next century 7the eleventh7 saw the new cathedral dedicated to the ,virgin ,mother 7874 ,besides1 the inhabitants seemed to have forgotten the patronage of ,st4 ,martin1 he who protects the vine-grower's metier--and this in spite of the fact that the valley of ,orense is and was famous above all ,galician regions for the cultivation of vines4 ,even ,froissart1 the ,french historian1 could not speak of the town without mentioning its wine4 ,he passed a season in the valley1 accompanying1 ,i believe1 the ,duke of ,lancaster and his ,english soldiers4 ,the wine was so good and strong1 wrote the historian1 that the soldiers clamoured for it2 after they had drunk a little they toppled over like ninepins4 ,the ,arabs defeated and thrown out of the peninsula1 the vikings' last business trip to ,galicia over1 and the ,portuguese arms driven to the valley of ,braga beyond the ,mino1 ,orense settled down to a peaceful life1 the monotony of which was broken now and again--as it usually was in this part of the country--by squabbles between noblemen1 prelates1 and the bons bourgeois4 ,if no prince of the ,church was killed here1 as happened in ,lugo1 one at least died mysteriously in the hands of his enemies4 ,not that it seemed to have mattered much1 for said bishop appears to have been a peculiar sort of spiritual shepherd1 full of vice1 and devoid of virtue1 some of whose doings have been caricatured--according to the popular belief--in the cornices and friezes of the convent of ,san ,francisco4 ,otherwise1 peace reigned in the land1 and ,orense passed a quiet existence1 a circumstance that did not in the slightest add to its importance1 either as an art1 commercial1 or industrial centre4 ,to-day1 full of strangers in summer1 who visit the sulphurous baths as did the ,romans1 and empty in winter1 it exists without living1 as does so many a ,spanish town4 ,nevertheless1 with ,vigo and ,corunna1 it is one of the cities with a future still before it4 ,at least1 its situation is bound to call attention as soon as ever the country is opened up to progress and commerce4 ,the cathedral of ,orense1 like those of ,tuy1 ,santiago1 and ,lugo1 was erected in a castro4 ,these castros were circular dips in the ground1 surrounded by a low wall1 which served the druids as their place of worship4 ,the erection of ,christian churches in these sacred spots proves beyond a doubt that the new religion became amalgamated with the old1 and even laid its foundations on the latter's most hallowed castros4 ,perhaps the question presents itself as to why a cathedral was erected in ,orense previous to any other city4 ,from a legend it would appear that the king of the ,suevos1 ,carrarick1 had a son who was dying2 thanks to the advice of a ,christian monk1 a disciple of ,st4 ,martin1 and1 one is inclined to think1 fresh from ,tours1 the king dipped his son in the baths of ,orense1 invoking at the same time the help of ,st4 ,martin4 ,upon pulling his offspring out of the water1 he discovered that he had been miraculously cured4 ,the grateful monarch immediately became a stout ,christian1 and erected a basilica--destroyed and rebuilt many a time during the dark ages of feudalism and ,arab invasion--in honour of his son's saviour4 ,what is more wonderful still is that1 soon afterward1 the relics of the ,french saint were cherished in ,orense without its being positively known whence they came6 ,the present cathedral1 the date of the erection of which is a point of discussion to-day1 is generally believed to have been built on the spot occupied by the primitive basilica4 ,it is dedicated to ,santa ,maria la ,madre according to the official 7doubtful87 statement1 and to ,st4 ,martin of ,tours1 ,apostle of ,gaul1 according to the popular version4 ,the general appearance of the cathedral proclaims it to have been begun1 or at least planned1 in the twelfth century1 and not1 as ,baedeker states1 in #abbj4 ,as a twelfth-century church we are not obliged to consider it for more reasons than one1 and especially because1 as we have seen1 the twelfth century was the great period of ,galician church-building4 ,it was in this century that the northwest shone forth in the history of ,spain as it had not done before1 nor has done since4 ,the church is another ,romanesque specimen1 but less pure in its style than any of the others mentioned so far3 the ogival arch is prevalent1 but rather as a decorative than as an essentially constructive element4 ,as it is1 it was commenced at least fifty years after the cathedral of ,lugo1 and though both are twelfth-century churches1 the one is an early and the other presumably a late one2 the employment of the ogival arch to a greater degree in ,orense than in ,lugo is thus easily explained4 ,in short1 the cathedral of ,orense is another example of the peculiar ,romanesque of ,galicia1 which1 withstanding the invasion of ,gothic1 created a school of its own1 pretty in details1 bold in harmony1 though it be a hybrid school after all4 ,the influence of the cathedral of ,santiago is self-evident in the cathedral of ,orense4 ,how could it be otherwise1 when the bishop ,don ,diego1 who sat on the chair1 was a great friend and a continual visitor of that other ,don ,diego in ,santiago who erected the primate cathedral of ,galicia8 ,this influence is above all to be seen in the ,portico del ,paraiso1 an interior narthex leading from the western front to the body of the church4 ,it is a handsome area of ,romanesque sculpture covered by an ogival vaulting1 and would be an important monument if its rival and prototype in ,santiago were not greater1 both as regards its perfection of design1 and the grand idea which inspired it4 ,of the three doors which lead into the cathedral1 the western is crowned by three rounded arches reposing on simple columns4 ,the tympanum as a decorative element is lacking1 as is also the low relief1 which is usually superimposed above the upper arches4 ,the latter are1 however1 carved in the most elaborate manner4 ,as regards the other two portals1 the northern and southern1 their composition1 as far as generalities are concerned1 is the same as the western1 excepting that they are surrounded by a depressed semicircular arch in relief1 the whole of a primitive design4 ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,portal ,,of ,,orense ,,cathedral ,the towers of the cathedral are not old4 ,the general impression of the building from the outside--unluckily it cannot be contemplated from any distance1 as the surrounding houses impede it--is agreeable4 ,to be especially observed are some fine fourteenth-century 787 windows which show ogival pattern1 but either of timid execution or else of a bold endeavour on the artist's part to subdue solemn ,gothic to the ,romanesque traditions of the country4 ,the interior has been restored and changed many a time4 ,in its original plan it consisted of two aisles and a nave with a one-aisled transept1 and1 just as in ,lugo1 an apse formed by three semicircles1 of which the central was the largest1 and contained the high altar4 ,to-day1 though the general appearance or disposition of the church 7,roman cruciform with exceedingly short lateral arms7 is the same1 an ambulatory walk surrounds the high altar1 which has been moved nearer the transept in the principal nave4 ,the vaulting is ogival1 reposing on solid and severe shafts2 the aisles are slightly lower than the central nave1 and the croisee is surmounted1 as in ,santiago1 by a handsome cupola similar in construction to that of ,valencia1 though more reduced in size1 and of a less elegant pattern4 ,the lack of triforium is to be noted1 and its want is felt4 ,the northern aisle has no chapels let into its exterior wall1 but a long row of sepulchres and sepulchral reliefs to replace them4 ,some of them are severe and beautiful4 ,the choir has finely carved stalls1 and the ,gothic retablo is the only one of its kind in ,galicia1 and one of the best in ,spain4 ,many more details could be given concerning the worthy cathedral of ,orense1 second only in richness of certain elements to that of ,santiago4 ,the additions1 both in ,romanesque and ogival styles1 are better than in most other cathedrals in ,galicia1 though1 as far as ,renaissance is concerned1 ,galicia showed but little love for ,italia's art4 ,this was due to the regional ,celtic taste of the inhabitants1 or else to the marked signs of art decadence in this part of ,spain1 when the ,renaissance was introduced into the country4 ,as regards the cloister1--small and rather compact in its composition1--it is held by many to be a jewel of the fifteenth century in the ogival style1 handsome in its general outlines1 and beautiful in its wealth of sculptural decoration4 ,,vi ,,tuy ,the last ,spanish city on the ,mino1 the ,rhine of ,galicia1 as beautiful as its ,german rival1 and as rich in architectural remains1 both military and ecclesiastical1 is ,tuy1 the ,castellum ,tude of the ,romans1 lying half-way on the main road from ,braga 7,portugal7 to ,lugo and ,astorga in ,spain4 ,the approach to the city by rail from ,orense is simply superb4 ,the valley of the ,mino is broad and luxuriant1 with ruins of castles to the right and to the left1 ahead and behind2 in the distance1 time-old ,tuy1 the city of a hundred misfortunes1 is seated on an isolated hill1 the summit of which is crowned by a fortress-cathedral of the twelfth century4 ,tuy sits on her hill1 and gazes across the river at ,valenca do ,minho1 the rival fortress opposite1 and the first town in ,portugal4 ,a handsome bridge unites the enemies--friends to-day4 ,nevertheless1 the cannons' mouths of the glaring strongholds are for ever pointed toward each other1 as though wishing to recall those days of the middle ages when ,tuy was the goal of ,portuguese ambitions and the last ,spanish town in ,galicia4 ,before the ,romans conquered ,iberia1 ,tuy1 which is evidently a ,celtic name1 was a most important town4 ,this is easily explained by its position1 a sort of inland ,gibraltar1 backed by the ,sierra to the rear1 and crowning the river which brought ships from the ocean to its wharves4 ,the city's future was brilliant4 ,matters changed soon1 however4 ,the ,romans drew away much of its power to cities further inland1 as was their wont4 ,the castle remained standing1 as did the walls1 which reached on the northern shores of the river down to ,guardia1 situated in the delta about thirty miles away4 ,remains of the cyclopean walls which crown the mountain chain on the ,spanish side of the ,mino are still to be seen to-day1 yet they give but a feeble idea of the city's former strength4 ,after the ,romans had been defeated by the invasion of savage tribes from the north1 ,tuy became the capital of the ,suevos1 a tribe opposed to the ,visigoths1 who settled in the rest of ,spain1 and for centuries waged a cruel war against the kings whose subjects had settled principally in ,galicia and in the north of ,portugal4 ,the power of the ,suevos1 who were seated firmly in ,tuy1 was at last completely broken1 and the capital1 its inhabitants fighting energetically to the end1 was at length conquered4 ,it was the last stronghold to fall into the hands of the conquerors4 ,a century later ,witiza1 the sovereign of the ,visigoths1 made ,tuy his capital for some length of time1 and the district round about is full of the traditions of the doings of this monarch4 ,most of these legends denigrate his character1 and make him appear cruel1 wilful1 and false4 ,one of them1 concerning ,duke ,favila and ,dona ,luz1 is perhaps the most popular4 ,according to it1 ,witiza fell in love with the former's wife1 ,dona ,luz1 and1 to remove the husband1 he heartlessly had his eyes put out1 on the charge of being ambitious1 and of having conspired against the throne4 ,the fate that awaited ,dona ,luz1 who defended her honour1 was no better1 according to this legend4 ,after the return of ,witiza to ,toledo1 the city slowly lost its importance1 and since then she has never recovered her ancient fame4 ,like the remaining seaports of ,galicia1--or such cities as were situated near the ocean1--,tuy was sacked and pillaged by ,arabs and vikings alike4 ,the times were extremely warlike1 and ,galicia1 from her position1 and on account of the independent spirit of the noblemen1 was called upon to suffer more than any other region1 and ,tuy1 near the ocean1 and a frontier town to boot1 underwent greater hardships than any other ,galician city4 ,of an admirable natural position1 it would have been able to resist the attacks of ,gudroed and ,olaf1 of the ,portuguese noblemen and of ,arab armies1 had it been but decently fortified4 ,the lack of such fortifications1 however1 and the neglect and indifference with which it was1 as a rule1 regarded by the kings of ,asturias1 easily account for its having fallen into the hands of enemies1 of having been razed more than once to the ground1 of having been the seat of ambitious and conspiring noblemen who were only bent on thrashing their neighbours1 ,christians and infidels alike4 ,in the sixth century ,tuy had already been raised to the dignity of a city1 but until after the eleventh century the prelates of the church1 tyrants when the times were propitious1 but cowardly when danger was at hand1 were continually removing their see to the neighbouring villages and mountains to the rear4 ,they left their church with surprising alacrity and ease to the mercy of warriors and enemies1 to such an extent1 in fact1 that neither are documents at hand to tell us what happened exactly in the darker ages of mediaeval history1 nor are the existing monuments in themselves sufficient to convince us of the vicissitudes which befell the city1 its see1 and the latter's flocks4 ,since the last ,arab and ,norseman raid1 matters seemed to have gone better with fair ,tuy1 for1 excepting the continual strife between ,portuguese and ,galician noblemen1 who were for ever gaining and losing the city on the ,mino1 neither infidels nor pirates visited its wharves4 ,it was then that the foundations of the present cathedral were laid1 but not without disputes between the prelates 7one of whom was taken prisoner1 and had to give a handsome ransom to be released7 and the noblemen who called themselves seigneurs of the city4 ,between the claims and struggles of these two factions1 those who suffered most were the citizens themselves1 who had nothing to gain and everything to lose4 ,between the bishops who pretended to possess the whole city1 and the noblemen who endeavoured to leave the prelates without a groat1 the ignored inhabitants of the poorer quarters of the town passed a miserable life4 ,since the middle ages1 or better still1 since the time when the ,mino became definitely the frontier line between ,spain and ,portugal1 the city of ,tuy has been heard of but little4 ,few art students visit it to-day1 and yet it is one of the most picturesquely situated cities in ,galicia1 or even in ,spain4 ,its cathedral1 as well as the ,pre-,roman1 ,roman1 ,gothic1 and middle age remains1--most of them covered over with heaps of dust and earth1--are well worth a visit1 being highly interesting both to artists and to archaeological students4 ,in short1 ,tuy on her hill beside the ,mino1 glaring across an iron bridge at ,portugal1 is a city rich in traditions and legends of faded hopes and past glories4 ,unluckily for her1 cities of less historical fame are better known and more admired4 ,as has already been mentioned1 the cathedral crowns the hill1 upon the slopes of which the city descends to the river2 moreover1 the edifice occupies the summit only1--a castro1 as explained in a previous chapter4 ,therefore1 for proofs are lacking both ways1 it is probable that the present building was erected on the same spot where the many basilicas which we know existed and were destroyed in one or another of the many sieges1 stood in bygone days4 ,the present cathedral dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary1 like that in ,orense1 was most likely begun in the first half of the twelfth century2 successive earthquakes suffered by the city1 especially that felt in ,lisbon in #agee1 obliged the edifice to be repaired more than once1 which accounts for many of the base additions which spoil the ensemble4 ,from the general disposition of the building1 which is similar in many details to the cathedral at ,lugo1 it has been thought probable that ,maestro ,raimundo 7father87 was the builder of the church2 definite proofs are1 however1 lacking4 ,the ground-plan is rectangular1 with a square apse2 the interior is ,roman cruciform1 consisting of a nave and two aisles2 the transept1 like that of ,santiago1 is also composed of a nave and two aisles2 the four arms of the cross are all of them very short1 and almost all are of the same length4 ,were it not for the height of the nave1 crowned by a ,romanesque triforium of blinded arches1 the interior would be decidedly ugly4 ,however1 the height attained gives a noble aspect to the whole1 and what is more1 renders the ensemble curious rather than beautiful4 ,the large and ungainly choir spoils the general view of the nave1 whereas the continuation of the aisles1 broad and light to the very apse1 where1 facing each aisle1 there is a handsome rose window which throws a flood of coloured light into the building1 cannot be too highly praised4 ,the walls are devoid of all decoration1 and if it were not for the chapels1 some of which in default of pure workmanship are richly ornamented1 this see of ,tuy would have to pass as a very poor one indeed4 ,the roof of the building has been added lately1 doubtless after one of the many earthquakes4 ,it is of a simple execution1 neither good nor bad1 composed of a series of slightly rounded arches with pronounced ribs4 ,it is outside1 however1 that the tourist will pass the greater part of his time4 ,unluckily1 the houses which closely surround the building forbid a general view from being obtained of any but the western front1 yet this is perhaps a blessing1 for none of the other sides are worthy of special notice4 ,as mentioned1 the appearance of the church is that of a fortress rather than of a temple1 or better still1 is that of a feudal castle4 ,the crenelated square tower on the western front is heavy1 and no higher than the peaked and simple crowning of the handsome ,romanesque window above the narthex2 the general impression is that of resistance rather than of faith1 and the lack of all decoration has caused the temple to be called sombre4 ,the handsome narthex1 the summit of which is crenelated like the tower1 is the simplest and noblest to be found in ,galicia1 and is really beautiful in its original severity4 ,though dating from a time when florid ogival had taken possession of ,spain1 the artist who erected it 7it is posterior to the rest of the building--early fifteenth century7 had the good taste to complete it simply1 without decoration1 so as to render it homogeneous with the rest of the building4 ,it is also possible that there were no funds at hand for him to erect it otherwise6 ,illustration3 ,,tuy ,,cathedral ,the doors stand immediately behind this narthex4 ,the portal is carved or decorated in an elaborate late ,romanesque style1 one of the most richly ornamented porticos belonging to this school in ,spain1 and a handsome page in the history of ,galician art in the twelfth century4 ,the low reliefs above the door and in the tympanum of the richly carved arcade1 are felt and are admirably executed4 ,the northern entrance to the building is another fine example of twelfth-century ,spanish1 or ,galician ,romanesque4 ,though simpler in execution than the western front1 it nevertheless is by some critics considered purer in style 7earlier87 than the first mentioned4 ,the tower which stands to the left of the northern entrance is one of the few in the ,romanesque style to be seen in northern ,spain2 it is severe in its structure and pierced by a series of round-headed windows4 ,the cloister dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is another of ,galicia's monuments well worth a visit1 which proves the local mixture of ,romanesque and ogival1 and is1 perhaps1 the last example on record1 as toward the fifteenth century ,renaissance elements had completely captured all art monuments4 ,such is the cathedral of ,tuy1 a unique example of ,galician ,romanesque in certain details1 an edifice that really ought to be better known than it is4 ,,vii ,,bayona ,,and ,,vigo ,the prettiest bay in ,galicia is that of ,vigo1 which reaches inland to ,redondela--a village seated1 as it were1 on a ,swiss lake1 with two immense viaducts passing over its head where the train speeds to ,tuy and ,santiago4 ,there is no lovelier spot in all ,spain4 ,the city of ,vigo1 with its suffragan church on the hillside1 is a modern town dedicated to commerce2 its wharves are important1 and the water in the bay is deep enough to permit the largest vessels afloat to enter and anchor4 ,the art student will not linger here1 however1 but will go by boat to ,bayona outside the bay and to the south near the ,portuguese frontier4 ,here1 until quite recently1 stood for an unknown length of time the suffragan church which has now been removed to ,vigo4 ,but ,bayona1 once upon a time the most important seaport in ,galicia1 is a ruin to-day1 a delightful ruin1 and one of the prettiest in its ensemble1 thanks to the beautiful and weird surroundings4 ,its history extends from the times of the ,phoenicians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1--even earlier1 as remains of lake-dwellers have been found4 ,this statement is not an exaggeration1 though it may appear to be one1 for the bay is as quiet as a lake4 ,after the defeat of the ,armada1 ,bayona was left a prey to ,drake and his worthy companions4 ,they dealt the city a death-blow from which it has never recovered1 and ,vigo1 the new1 the commercial1 has usurped its importance1 as it did its church1 which once upon a time1 as is generally believed1 was a bishopric4 ,the present ruinous edifice of ,bayona is peculiarly ,galician and shows the same characteristics as the remaining cathedrals we have spoken about so far4 ,it was ordained in #adhb by the ,bishop of ,tuy4 ,the windows of the nave 7clerestory7 are decidedly pointed or ogival2 those of the aisles are pure ,romanesque4 ,the peculiar feature is the use of animal designs in the decorative elements of the capitals1--a unique example in ,galicia1 where only floral or leaf motives were used in the best period of ,romanesque4 ,the design to be noticed here on one of the capitals is a bird devouring a toad1 and it is so crudely and rustically carved that one is almost inclined to believe that a native of the country conceived and executed it4 ,,part ,,iii ,the ,north ,i ,,oviedo ,oviedo was born of a religious inspiration2 its first building was a temple 7monastery871 and monks were its first inhabitants4 ,in the valley adjoining ,cangas1 in the eighth century1 the most important village in ,asturias1 a religious sect erected a monastery4 ,froila or ,froela1 one of the early noblemen 7now called a king1 though he was no king in those days7 who fought against the ,moors1 erected in the same century a church in the vicinity of ,cangas 7in ,oviedo871 dedicating it to the ,saviour2 he also built a palace near the same spot4 ,his son1 ,alfonso the ,chaste1 born in this palace1 was brought up in a convent near ,lugo in ,galicia4 ,upon becoming king he hesitated whether to establish his court in ,lugo1 or in the new village which had been his birthplace1 namely ,oviedo4 ,at length1 remembering perhaps his father's love for the country near ,cangas1 he established it in the latter place in the ninth century1 and formed the kingdom of ,asturias as opposed to that of ,galicia2 the capital of the new kingdom was ,oviedo4 ,the king gave the city to the ,saviour and to the venerable church built by his father1 and which1 like a sun surrounded by its planets1 he placed within a circle of other temples4 ,he convocated an ecclesiastical council with a view to establish a primate see in ,oviedo2 he maintained an assembly of prelates who lent lustre to the church1 and he gave each a particular residence2 the spiritual splendour of ,oviedo eclipsed even the brilliancy of the throne4 ,this was in #hab1 and the first bishop consecrated was one ,adulfo4 ,the subsequent reign of ,alfonso was signalized by the discovery in ,galicia of the corpse of ,st4 ,james the ,apostle4 ,the sovereign1 it appears1 showed great interest in the discovery1 established a church on the sacred spot1 and generously donated the nascent town4 ,not without reason did posterity celebrate his many ,christian virtues by calling him the ,chaste1 el ,casto4 ,two hundred years only did ,oviedo play an important part in the history of ,spain as capital of the ,christian ,kingdom4 ,in #ajbj its civil dignities were removed by ,alfonso ,v4 to ,leon in the south4 ,from then on the city remained important only as the alleged cradle of the new dynasty1 and its church--that of the ,salvador--was used as the pantheon of the kings4 ,in the twelfth century the basilica was in a ruinous state1 and almost completely destroyed4 ,the fate of the ,romanesque edifice which was then built was as short as the city's glory had been ephemeral1 for in #achj it was destroyed by flames1 and in its place the first stone of the present building was laid by one ,bishop ,gutierre4 ,one hundred and seventy years later the then reigning prelate placed his coat of arms on the spire1 and the ,gothic monument which is to-day admired by all who visit it was completed4 ,the history of the city--an ecclesiastical and civil metropolis--is devoid of interest since the tenth century4 ,it was as though the streets were too crowded with the legends of the fictitious kingdom of ,asturias1 to be enabled to shake off the depression which little by little spread over the whole town4 ,apart from its cathedral1 ,oviedo and the surrounding country possesses many of the earliest religious monuments in ,spain1 dating from the eighth century4 ,these1 on account of their primary ,romanesque and basilica style1 form a chapter apart in the history of ecclesiastical architecture1 and ought to be thoroughly studied4 ,this is not the place1 however1 to speak about them1 in spite of their extreme age and the great interest they awaken4 ,nothing could be more graceful than the famous tower of the cathedral of ,oviedo1 which is a superb ,gothic fleche of well-proportioned elements1 and literally covered over and encrusted with tiny pinnacles4 ,slender and tapering1 it rises to a height of about #bhj feet4 ,it is composed of five distinct bodies1 of which the penultimate betrays certain ,renaissance influences in the triangular cornices of the windows1 etc42 this passes1 however1 entirely unperceived from a certain distance4 ,the angles formed by the sides of the tower are flanked by a pair of slender shafts in high relief1 which tend to give it an even more majestic impression than would be the case without them4 ,illustration3 ,,oviedo ,,cathedral ,the cathedral itself is a late ogival building belonging to the fifteenth century2 though it cannot compare in fairy-like beauty with that of ,leon1 nor in majesty with that of ,burgos1 it is nevertheless one of the richest ,gothic structures in ,spain1 especially as regards the decoration of the interior4 ,the western front is entirely taken up by the triple portal1 surmounted by arches that prove a certain reluctance on the builder's part to make them pointed2 the northern extremity of the front is devoid of a tower1 though the base be standing4 ,it was originally intended to erect a second fleche similar to the one described1 but for some reason or other--without a doubt purely financial--it was never built4 ,of the three portals1 that which corresponds to the central nave is the larger2 it is flanked by the only two statuettes in the whole front1 namely1 by those of ,alfonso the ,chaste and ,froela1 and is surmounted by a bold low relief4 ,the arches of the three doors are richly carved with ogival arabesques1 and the panels1 though more modern1 have been wrought by the hand of a master4 ,taken all in all1 this western front can be counted among the most sombre and naked in ,spain1 so naked1 in fact1 that it appears rather as though money had been lacking to give it a richer aspect than that the artist's genius should have been so completely devoid of decorative taste or imagination4 ,the interior of the ,roman cruciform building1 though by no means one of the largest1 is1 as regards its architectural disposition1 one of the most imposing ,gothic interiors in ,spain4 ,high1 long1 and narrow1 the central nave is rendered lighter and more elegant by the bold triforium and the lancet windows of the upper clerestory wall4 ,the wider aisles1 on the other hand1 are dark in comparison to the nave1 and tend to give the latter greater importance4 ,this was doubtless the intention of the primitive master who terminated the aisles at the transept by constructing chapels to the right and to the left of the high altar and on a line with it4 ,the sixteenth-century builders thought differently1 however1 and so the aisles were prolonged into an apsidal ambulatory behind the high altar4 ,this part of the building is far less pure in style than the primitive structure1 and the chapels which open to the right and to the left are of a more recent date1 and consequently even more out of harmony than the plateresque ambulatory4 ,the three rose windows in the semicircular apse are richly decorated with ogival nervures1 and correspond1 one to the nave and one to each of the aisles2 they belong to the primitive structure1 having illuminated the afore-mentioned chapels4 ,standing beneath the croisee1 under a simple ogival vaulting1 the ribs of which are supported by richly carved capitals and elegant shafts1 the tourist is almost as favourably impressed by the view of the high altar to the east and of the choir to the west1 as is the case in ,toledo4 ,for in ,oviedo begins that series of ,gothic churches in which the aesthetic impression is not restricted to architectural or sculptural details alone1 but is also produced by the blinding display of metal1 wood1 and other decorative accessories4 ,the retablo--a fine ,gothic specimen--stands boldly forth against the light coming from the apse in the rear1 while on the opposite side of the transept handsome1 deep brown choir stalls peep out from behind a magnificent iron reja4 ,so beautiful is the view of the choir's ensemble that the spectator almost forgives it for breaking in upon the grandeur of the nave4 ,the chapels buried in the walls of the north aisle have most of them been built in too extravagant a manner2 the south aisle1 on the other hand1 is devoid of such characteristic rooms1 but contains some highly interesting tomb slabs4 ,the cloister to the south of the church is a rich and florid example of late ogival2 it is1 above all1 conspicuous for the marvellous variety of its decorative motives1 both as regards the sculptural scenes of the capitals 7which portray scenes in the lives of saints and ,asturian kings1 and are almost grotesque1 though by no means carved without fire and spirit7 and the fretwork of the arches which look out upon the garth4 ,the ,camara ,santa1 or treasure-room1 is an annex to the north of the cathedral1 and dates from the ninth or tenth century2 it is small1 and was formerly used as a chapel in the old ,romanesque building torn down in #achj4 ,beside it1 in the eleventh century1 was constructed another and larger room in the same style1 with the characteristic ,romanesque vaulting1 the rounded windows1 and the decorative motives of the massive pillars and capitals4 ,illustration3 ,,cloister ,,of ,,oviedo ,,cathedral ,,ii ,,covadonga ,to the battle of ,covadonga modern ,spain owes her existence1 that is1 if we are to believe the legends which have been handed down to us1 and which rightfully or wrongfully belong to history4 ,under the circumstances1 it is not surprising that the gratitude of later monarchs should have erected a church on the site of the famous battle1 and should have raised it to a collegiate church4 ,covadonga lies in the vicinity of ,oviedo1 in a ravine lost in the heart of the ,picos de ,europa2 it is at once the ,morgarten and ,sempach of ,spanish history1 and though no art monuments1 excepting the above named monastic church and two ,byzantine-,romanesque tombs1 are to be seen1 there is hardly a visitor who1 having come as far north as ,oviedo1 does not pay a visit to the cradle of ,spanish history4 ,nor is the time lost4 ,for the tourist who leaves the capital of ,asturias with the intention of going1 as would a pilgrim1 to ,covadonga 7by stage and not by rail67 will be delightfully surprised by the weird and savage wildness of the country through which he is driven4 ,following the bed of a river1 he enters a ravine2 up and up climbs the road bordered by steep declivities until at last it reaches a wall--a cul-de-sac the ,french would call it--rising perpendicularly ahead of him4 ,half-way up1 and on a platform1 stands a solitary church2 near by a small cave1 with an authentic 787 image of the ,virgin of ,battles and two old sepulchres1 is at first hidden from sight behind a protruding mass of rock4 ,the guide or cicerone then explains to the tourist the origin of ,spanish history in the middle ages1 buried in the legends1 of which the following is a short extract4 ,pelayo1 the son of ,dona ,luz and ,duke ,favila1 who1 as we have seen1 was killed by ,witiza in ,tuy1 fled from ,toledo to the north of ,spain1 living among the savage inhabitants of ,asturias4 ,a few years later1 when ,rodrigo1 who was king at the time1 and by some strange coincidence ,pelayo's cousin as well1 lost the battle of ,guadalete and his life to boot1 the ,arabs conquered the whole peninsula and placed in ,gijon1 a seaport town of ,asturias1 a garrison under the command of one ,munuza4 ,the latter fell desperately in love with ,pelayo's sister ,hermesinda1 whom he had met in the village of ,cangas4 ,wishing to get the brother out of the way1 he sent him on an errand to ,cordoba1 expecting him to be assassinated on the road4 ,but ,pelayo escaped and returned in time to save his sister2 mad with wrath and swearing eternal revenge1 he retreated to the mountainous vales of ,asturias1 bearing ,hermesinda away with him4 ,he was joined by many refugee ,christians dissatisfied with the ,arab yoke1 and aided by them1 made many a bold incursion into the plains below1 and grew so daring that at length ,munuza mustered an army two hundred thousand 767 strong and set out to punish the rebel4 ,up a narrow pass between two high ridges went the pagan army1 paying little heed to the growing asperity and savageness of the path it was treading4 ,suddenly ahead of the two hundred thousand a high sheet of rock rose perpendicularly skywards2 on a platform ,pelayo and his three hundred warriors1 who somehow or other had managed to emerge from a miraculous cave where they had found an effigy of the ,virgin of ,battles1 made a last stand for their lives and liberties4 ,immediately a shower of stones1 beams1 trunks1 and what not was hurled down into the midst of the heathen army by the three hundred warriors4 ,confusion arose1 and1 like frightened deer1 the ,arabs turned and fled down the path to the vale1 pushing each other1 in their fear1 into the precipice below4 ,then the ,virgin of ,battles arose1 and wishing to make the defeat still more glorious1 she caused the whole mountain to slide2 an avalanche of stones and earth dragged the remnants of ,munuza's army into the ravine beneath4 ,so great was the slaughter and the loss of lives caused by this defeat1 that for centuries afterward bones and weapons were to be seen in the bed of the river when autumn's heat left the sands bare4 ,this ,pelayo was the first king of ,asturias1 the first king of ,spain1 from whom all later-date monarchs descended1 though neither in a direct nor a legitimate line1 be it remarked in parenthesis4 ,the tourist will be told that it is ,pelayo's tomb1 and that of his sister1 that are still to be seen in the cave at ,covadonga4 ,perhaps1 though no documents or other signs exist to bear out the statement4 ,at any rate1 the sepulchres are old1 which is their chief merit4 ,the monastical church which stands hard by cannot claim this latter quality2 neither is it important as an art monument4 ,,iii ,,leon ,the civil power enjoyed by ,oviedo previous to the eleventh century moved southwards in the wake of ,asturias's conquering army4 ,for about a century it stopped on its way to ,toledo in a fortress-town situated in a wind-swept plain1 at the juncture of two important rivers4 ,leon was the name of this fortress1 one of the strategical points1 not only of the early ,romans1 but of the ,arabs who conquered the country1 and later of the nascent ,christian kingdom of ,asturias4 ,in the tenth century1 or1 better still1 toward the beginning of the eleventh1 and after the final retreat of the ,moors and their terrible general ,almanzor1 ,leon became the recognized capital of ,asturias4 ,when the ,christian wave first spread over the ,iberian peninsula in the time of the ,romans1 the fortress ,legio ,septima1 established by ,trajanus's soldiers1 had already grown in importance1 and was considered one of the promising ,north ,spanish towns4 ,the inhabitants were among the most fearless adherents of the new faith1 and it is said that the first persecution of the martyrs took place in ,leon2 consequently1 it is not to be wondered at that1 as soon as ,christianity was established in ,iberia1 a see should be erected on the blood-soaked soil of the ,roman fortress4 7,first known bishop1 ,basilides1 #beb ,a4 ,d47 ,marcelo seems to have been the most stoically brave of the many ,leonese martyrs4 ,a soldier or subaltern in the ,roman legion1 he was daring enough to throw his sword at the feet of his commander1 who stood in front of the regiment1 saying3 ,i obey the eternal ,king and scorn your silent gods of stone and wood4 ,if to obey ,caesar is to revere him as an idol1 ,i refuse to obey him4 ,stoic1 with a grain of sad grandeur about them1 were his last words when ,agricolanus condemned him to death4 ,may ,god bless you1 ,agricolano4 ,and his head was severed from his body4 ,the next religious war to be waged in and around ,leon took place between ,christians and the invading ,visigoths1 who professed a doctrine called ,arrianism4 ,persecutions were1 of course1 ripe again1 and the story is told of how the prior of ,san ,vicente1 after having been beheaded1 appeared in a dream to his cloister brethren trembling behind their monastic walls1 and advised them to flee1 as otherwise they would all be killed1--an advice the timid monks thought was an explicit order to be immediately obeyed4 ,the conversion of ,recaredo to ,christianity--for political reasons only6--stopped all further persecution2 during the following centuries ,leon's inhabitants strove to keep away the ,arab hordes who swept northwards2 now the ,christians were overcome and ,allah was worshipped in the basilica2 now the ,asturian kings captured the town from ,moorish hands1 and the holy cross crowned the altar4 ,finally the dreaded infidel ,almanzor burnt the city to the ground1 and retreated to ,cordoba4 ,ordono ,i41 following in his wake1 rebuilt the walls and the basilica1 and from thenceforward ,leon was never again to see an ,arab army within its gates4 ,prosperity then smiled on the city soon to become the capital of the kingdom of ,asturias4 ,the cathedral church was built on the spot where ,ordono had erected a palace2 the first stone was laid in #aaii4 ,the traditions1 legends1 and historical events which took place in the kingdom's capital until late in the thirteenth century belong to ,spanish history1 or what is known as such4 ,ordono ,,ii4 was mysteriously put to death1 by the ,counts of ,castile1 some say2 ,alfonso ,,iv4--a monk rather than a king--renounced his right to the throne1 and retired to a convent to pray for his soul4 ,after awhile he tired of mumbling prayers and1 coming out from his retreat1 endeavoured to wrest the sceptre from the hands of his brother ,ramiro4 ,but alas1 had he never left the cloister cell6 ,he was taken prisoner by his humane brother1 had his eyes burnt out for the pains he had taken1 and died a few years later4 ,not long after1 ,alfonso ,,vii4 was crowned ,emperor of ,spain in the church of ,san ,isidoro1 an event which marks the climax of ,leon's fame and wealth4 ,gradually the kings moved southwards in pursuit of the retreating ,moors1 and with them went their court and their patronage1 until finally the political centre of ,castile and ,leon was established in ,burgos1 and the fate that had befallen ,oviedo and ,lugo visited also the one-time powerful fortress of the ,roman ,legio ,septima4 ,to-day8 ,a dormant city on a baking plain and an immense cathedral pointing back to centuries of desperate wars between ,christians and ,moors2 a collegiate church1 far older still1 which served as cathedral when ,alfonso ,,vii4 was crowned ,emperor of ,spain4 ,pulchra ,leonina is the epithet applied to the beautiful cathedral of ,leon1 dedicated to the ,ascension of ,our ,lady and to ,nuestra ,senora de la ,blanca4 ,the first stone was laid in #aaii1 presumably on the spot where ,ordono ,i4 had erected his palace2 the construction of the edifice did not really take place1 however1 until toward #abej1 so that it can be considered as belonging to the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries4 ,two hundred years only did the temple enjoy a quiet life4 ,in the sixteenth century1 restorations and additions were begun2 in #afca the simple vault of the croisee fell in and was replaced by an absurd dome2 in #afid ,manuel ,conde destroyed and rebuilt the southern front according to the style then in vogue1 and in #agdc a great number of the arches of the aisles fell in4 ,different parts of the building were continually tumbling down1 having become too weak to support the heavier materials used in the construction of additions and renovations4 ,the cathedral was closed to the public by the government in #ahej and handed over to a body of architects1 who were to restore it in accordance with the thirteenth-century design2 in #aija the interior of the building had been definitely finished1 and was opened once more to the religious cult4 ,the general plan of the building is ,roman cruciform1 with a semicircular apse composed of five chapels and an ambulatory behind the high altar4 ,as peculiarities1 the following may be mentioned3 the two towers of the western front do not head the aisles1 but flank them2 the transept is exceptionally wide 7in ,spanish cathedrals the distance between the high altar and the choir must be regarded as the transept1 properly speaking7 and is composed of a broad nave and two aisles to the east and one to the west2 the width also of the church at the transept is greater by two aisles than that of the body itself1--a modification which produces a double ,roman cross and lends exceptional beauty to the ensemble1 as it permits of an unobstructed view from the western porch to the very apse4 ,attention must also be drawn to the row of two chapels and a vestibule which separate the church from the cloister 7one of the most celebrated in ,spain as a ,gothic structure1 though mixed with ,renaissance motives and spoilt by fresco paintings74 ,thanks to this arrangement1 the cathedral possesses a northern portal similar to the southern one4 ,as regards the exterior of the building1 it is a pity that the two towers which flank the aisles are heavy in comparison to the general construction of the church2 had light and slender towers like those of ,burgos or that of ,oviedo been placed here1 how grand would have been the effect6 ,besides1 they are not similar1 but date from different periods1 which is another circumstance to be regretted4 ,the second bodies of the western and southern facades also clash on account of the ,renaissance elements1 with their simple horizontal lines opposed to the vertical tendency of pure ,gothic4 ,but then1 they also were erected at a later date4 ,excepting these remarks1 however1 nothing is more airily beautiful and elegant than the superb expression of the razonadas locuras 7logical nonsense7 of the ogival style in all its phases1 both early and late1 or even decadent4 ,for examples of each period are to be found here1 corresponding to the century in which they were erected4 ,the ensemble is an astonishing profusion of high and narrow windows1 of which there are three rows3 the clerestory1 the triforium1 and the aisles4 ,each window is divided into two by a column so fragile that it resembles a spider's thread4 ,these windows peep forth from a forest of flying buttresses1 and nowhere does the mixture of pinnacles and painted panes attain a more perfect eloquence than in the eastern extremity of the polygonal apse4 ,the western and southern facades--the northern being replaced by the cloister--are alike in their general design1 and are composed of three portals surmounted by a decidedly pointed arch which1 in the case of the central portals1 adorns a richly sculptured tympanum4 ,the artistic merit of the statuary in the niches of both central portals is devoid of exceptional praise1 that of the southern facade being perhaps of a better taste4 ,as regards the stone pillar which divides the central door into two wings1 that on the south represents ,our ,lady of the ,blanca1 and that on the west ,san ,froilan1 one of the early martyr bishops of ,leon4 ,excepting the ,renaissance impurities already referred to1 each portal is surmounted by a row of five lancet windows1 which give birth1 as it were1 to one immense window of delicate design4 ,penetrating into the interior of the building1 preferably by the lateral doors of the western front1 the tourist is overcome by a feeling of awe and amazement at the bold construction of aisles and nave1 as slender as is the frost pattern on a spotless pane4 ,the full value of the windows1 which are gorgeous from the outside1 is only obtained from the interior of the temple2 those of the clerestory reach from the sharp ogival vaulting to the height of the triforium1 which in its turn is backed by another row of painted windows2 in the aisles1 another series of panes rose in the sixteenth century from the very ground 7671 though in recent times the bases have unluckily been blinded to about the height of a man4 ,the pillars and columns are of the simplest and most sober construction1 so simple that they do not draw the spectator's attention1 but leave him to be impressed by the great height of nave and aisles as compared with their insignificant width1 and above all by the profuse perforation of the walls by hundreds upon hundreds of windows4 ,unluckily1 the original pattern of the painted glass does not exist but in an insignificant quantity3 the northern window1 the windows of the high altar1 and those of the ,chapel of ,st4 ,james are about the only ones dating from the fifteenth century that are left standing to-day2 they are easily recognizable by the rich1 mellow tints unattained in modern stained glass4 ,as accessories1 foremost to be mentioned are the choir stalls1 which are of an elegant and severe workmanship totally different from the florid carving of those in ,toledo4 ,the high altar1 on the other hand1 is devoid of interest excepting for the fine ogival sepulchre of ,king ,ordono ,,ii2 the remaining chapels1 some of which contain art objects of value1 need not claim the tourist's special attention4 ,by way of conclusion3 the cathedral of ,leon1 restored to-day after years of ruin and neglect1 stands forth as one of the master examples of ,gothic workmanship1 unrivalled in fairy-like beauty and1 from an architectural point of view1 the very best example of ,french ogival to be met with in ,spain4 ,moreover1 those who wrought it1 felt the real principles of all ,gothic architecture4 ,many are the cathedrals in ,spain pertaining to this great school1 but not one of them can compare with that of ,leon in the way the essential principle was felt and expressed4 ,they are all beautiful in their complex and hybrid style1 but none of them can claim to be ,gothic in the way they are built4 ,for wealth1 power1 and luxury in details is generally the lesson ,spanish cathedrals teach1 but they do not give their lancets and shafts1 their vertical lines and pointed arches1 the chance to impress the visitor or true believer with those sentiments so peculiar to the great ogival style4 ,the cathedral of ,leon is1 in ,spain1 the unique exception to this rule4 ,save only those constructive errors or dissonances previously referred to1 and which tend to counteract the soaring characteristic1 it could be considered as being pure in style4 ,nevertheless1 it is not only the truest ,gothic cathedral on the peninsula1 but one of the finest in the world4 ,at the same time1 it is no less true that it is not so ,spanish as either the ,gothic of ,burgos or of ,toledo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ajfc the ,king of ,leon1 ,fernando ,i41 signed a treaty with the ,arab governor of ,sevilla1 obliging the latter to hand over to the ,catholic monarch1 in exchange for some other privileges1 the corpse of ,san ,isidoro4 ,it was conveyed to ,leon1 where a church was built to contain the remains of the saint2 the same building was to serve as a royal pantheon4 ,about a century later ,alfonso ,,vii4 was battling against the pagans in ,andalusia when1 in the field of ,baeza1 the warlike apparition of ,san ,isidoro appeared in the heavens and encouraged the ,christian soldiers4 ,thanks to this divine aid1 the ,moors were beaten1 and ,alfonso ,,vii41 returning to ,leon1 enriched the saint's shrine1 enlarged it1 and raised it to a suffragan church1 destined later to serve as the temporary see while the building of the real cathedral was going on4 ,in #aace ,alfonso ,,vii4 was crowned ,emperor of the ,west ,roman ,empire with extraordinary pomp and splendour in the ,church of ,san ,isidoro4 ,the apogee of ,leon's importance and power coincides with this memorable event4 ,the emperor's sister1 ,sancha1 a pious infanta1 bequeathed her vast fortune as well as her palace to ,san ,isidoro1 her favourite saint2 the church in ,leon became1 consequently1 one of the richest in ,spain1 a privilege it was1 however1 unable to retain for any length of time4 ,in #ajbi1 shortly after the erection of the primitive building1 its front was sullied1 according to the tradition1 by the blood of one ,count ,garcia of ,castile4 ,the following is the story3 ,the ,king of ,asturias at the time was ,bermudo ,,ii41 married to ,urraca1 the daughter of ,count ,sancho of ,castile4 ,political motives had produced this union1 for the ,condes de ,castile had grown to be the most important and powerful feudal lords of the kingdom4 ,to assure the count's assistance and friendship1 the king went even further3 he promised his sister ,sancha to the count's son ,garcia1 who lost no time in visiting ,leon so as to become acquainted with his future spouse4 ,three sons of the defeated ,count of ,vela1 a ,basque nobleman whom the ,counts of ,castile had put to death1 were in the city at the time4 ,pretending to be very friendly with the young fiance1 they conspired against his life1 and1 knowing that he paid matinal visits to ,san ,isidoro1 they hid in the portal one day1 and slew the youth as he entered4 ,the promised bride arrived in haste and fell weeping on the body of the murdered man2 she wept bitterly and prayed to be allowed to be buried with her sweetheart4 ,her prayer was1 of course1 not granted3 so she swore she would never marry4 ,she was not long in breaking this oath1 however1 for a few months later she wedded a prince of the house of ,navarra4 ,the present state of the building of ,san ,isidoro is ruinous1 thanks to a stroke of lightning in #ahaa1 and to the harsh treatment bestowed upon the building by ,napoleon's soldiers during the ,war for ,independence 7#ahjh74 ,seen from the outside1 the edifice is as uninteresting as possible2 the lower part is constructed in the early ,latin ,romanesque style2 the upper1 of a posterior construction1 shows a decided tendency to early ,gothic4 ,the apse was originally three-lobed1 composed of three identical chapels corresponding to the nave and aisles2 in the sixteenth century the central lobe was prolonged and squared off2 the same century saw the erection of the statue of ,san ,isidoro in the southern front1 which spoiled the otherwise excellently simple ,romanesque portal4 ,in the interior of the ruin--for such it is to-day--the only peculiarity to be noted is the use of the horseshoe arches in the arcades which separate the aisles from the nave1 as well as the ,arab dentated arches of the transept4 ,it is the first case on record where1 in a ,christian temple of the importance of ,san ,isidoro1 ,arab or pagan architectural elements were made use of in the decoration2 that is to say1 after the invasion1 for previous examples were known1 having most likely penetrated into the country by means of ,byzantine workmen in the fifth and sixth centuries4 7,in ,san ,juan de ,banos47 ,illustration3 ,,apse ,,of ,,san ,,isidoro1 ,,leon ,instead of being lined with chapels the aisles are covered with mural paintings4 ,these frescoes are of great archaeological value on account of their great age and the evident ,byzantine influence which characterizes them2 artistically they are unimportant4 ,the chief attraction of the building is the pantheon1 a low1 square chapel of six arches1 supported in the centre by two gigantic pillars which are crowned by huge cylindrical capitals4 ,nothing more depressing or gloomy can be seen in the peninsula excepting the pantheon in the ,escorial2 it is doubtful which of the two is more melancholy4 ,the pure ,oriental origin 7almost ,indian67 of this pantheon is unmistakable and highly interesting4 ,the fresco paintings which cover the ceiling and the massive ribs of the vaulting are equally morbid1 representing hell-scenes from the ,apocalypse1 the massacre of the babes1 etc4 ,only one or two of the ,romanesque marble tombs which lined the walls are remaining to-day2 the others were used by the ,french soldiers as drinking-troughs for their cavalry horses6 ,,iv ,,astorga ,the ,asturica ,augusta of the ,romans was the capital of the northern provinces of ,asturias and the central point of four military roads which led to ,braga1 ,aquitania1 ,saragosse1 and ,tarragon4 ,during the ,visigothic domination1 and especially under the reign of ,witiza1 ,astorga as well as ,leon1 ,toledo1 and ,tuy were the only four cities allowed to retain their walls4 ,according to some accounts1 ,astorga was the seat of the earliest bishopric in the peninsula1 having been consecrated in the first century by ,santiago or his immediate followers2 historically1 however1 the first known bishop was ,dominiciano1 who lived about #cdg ,a4 ,d4 ,in the fourth and fifth centuries several heresies or false doctrines were ripe in ,spain4 ,of one of these1 ,libelatism1 ,astorga was the centre2 the other1 ,priscilianism1 originally ,galician1 found many adherents in the fortress-town1 more so than elsewhere1 excepting only ,tuy1 ,orense1 and ,palencia4 ,libelatism4--,its great defender was ,basilides1 ,bishop of ,astorga4 ,strictly speaking1 this faith was no heresy1 but a sham or fraud which spread out beyond the ,pyrenees to ,france4 ,it consisted in denying the new faith2 those who proclaimed it1 or1 in other words1 the ,christians1 who were severely persecuted in those days1 pretended to worship the ,latin gods so as to save their skins4 ,with this object in view1 and to be able to prove their sincerity1 they were obliged to obtain a certificate1 libelum 7libel871 from the ,roman governor1 stating their belief in ,jupiter1 ,venus1 etc4 ,doubtless they had to pay a tax for this certificate1 and thus the ,roman state showed its practical wisdom3 it was paid by cowards for being tyrannical4 ,but then1 not all ,christians are born martyrs4 ,priscilianism4--,of quite a different character was the other heresy previously mentioned4 ,it was a doctrine opposed to the ,christian religion1 proud of many adherents1 and at one time threatening danger to the ,holy ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,considering that it is but little known to-day 7for after a lingering life of about three or four centuries in ,galicia it was quite ignored by philosophers and ,christians alike71 it may be of some use to transcribe the salient points of this doctrine1 in case some one be inclined to baptize him or herself as prophet of the new religion4 ,it was preached by one ,prisciliano in the fourth century1 and was a mixture of ,celtic mythology and ,christian faith4 ,prisciliano did not believe in the mystery of the ,holy ,trinity2 he believed that the world had been created by the devil 7perhaps he was not wrong67 and that the devil held it beneath his sway2 further1 that the soul is part of the ,divine ,essence and the body dependent upon the stars2 that this life is a punishment1 as only sinful souls descend on earth to be incarnated in organic bodies4 ,he denied the resurrection of the flesh and the authenticity of the ,old ,testament4 ,he defended the transmigration of souls1 the invocation of the dead1 and other ideas1 doubtless taken from native ,galician mythology4 ,to conclude1 he celebrated the ,holy ,communion with grape and milk instead of with wine1 and admitted that all true believers 7his true believers1 ,i suppose1 for we are all of us true believers of some sort7 could celebrate religious ceremonies without being ordained curates4 ,sinfosio1 ,bishop of ,astorga in #djj1 was converted to the new religion4 ,but1 upon intimation that he might be deprived of his see1 he hurriedly turned ,christian again1 putting thus a full stop to the spread of heresy1 by his brave and unselfish act4 ,toribio in #ddg was1 however1 the bishop who wrought the greatest harm to ,priscilianism4 ,he seems to have been the divine instrument called upon to prove by marvellous happenings the true religion3 he converted the ,king of the ,suevos in ,orense by miraculously curing his son2 when surrounded by flames he emerged unharmed2 when he left his diocese1 and until his return1 the crops were all lost2 upon his return the church-bells rang without human help1 etc41 etc4 ,all of which doings proved the authenticity of the true religion beyond a doubt1 and that ,toribio was a saint2 the ,pope canonized him4 ,during the ,arab invasion1 ,astorga1 being a frontier town1 suffered more than most cities farther north2 it was continually being taken and lost1 built up and torn down by the ,christians and ,moors4 ,terrible ,almanzor conquered it in his raid in the tenth century1 and utterly destroyed it4 ,it was rebuilt by ,veremundo or ,bermudo ,,iii41 but never regained its lost importance1 which reverted to ,leon4 ,when the ,christian armies had conquered the peninsula as far south as ,toledo1 ,astorga was no longer a frontier town1 and rapidly fell asleep1 and has slept ever since4 ,it remained a see1 however1 but only one of secondary importance4 ,it would be difficult to state how many cathedral churches the city possessed previous to the eleventh century4 ,in #ajfi the first on record was built2 in #aabj another2 a third in the thirteenth century1 and finally the fourth and present building in #adga4 ,it was the evident intention of the architect to imitate the ,pulchra ,leonina1 but other tastes and other styles had swept across the peninsula and the result of the unknown master's plans resembles rather a heavy1 awkward caricature than anything else1 and a bastard mixture of ,gothic1 plateresque1 and grotesque styles4 ,the northern front is by far the best of the two1 boasting of a rather good relief in the tympanum of the ogival arch2 some of the painted windows are also of good workmanship1 though the greater part are modern glass1 and unluckily unstained4 ,its peculiarities can be signalized2 the windows of the southern aisle are situated above the lateral chapels1 while those of the northern are lower and situated in the chapels4 ,the height and width of the aisles are also remarkable--a circumstance that does not lend either beauty or effect to the building4 ,there is no ambulatory behind the high altar1 which stands in the lady-chapel2 the apse is rounded4 ,this peculiarity reminds one dimly of what the primitive plan of the ,oviedo cathedral must have resembled4 ,by far the most meritorious piece of work in the cathedral is the sixteenth-century retablo of the high altar1 which alone is worth a visit to ,astorga4 ,it is one of ,becerra's masterpieces in the late plateresque style1 as well as being one of the master's last known works 7#aefi74 ,it is composed of five vertical and three horizontal bodies2 the niches in the lower are flanked by ,doric1 those of the second by ,corinthian1 and those of the upper by composite columns and capitals4 ,the polychrome statues which fill the niches are life-size and among the best in ,spain2 together they are intended to give a graphic description of the life of the ,virgin and of her ,son4 ,in some of the decorative details1 however1 this retablo shows evident signs of plateresque decadence1 and the birth of the florid grotesque style1 which is but the natural reaction against the severity of early sixteenth-century art4 ,v ,,burgos ,burgos is the old capital of ,castile4 ,castile--or properly ,castilla--owed its name to the great number of castles which stood on solitary hills in the midst of the plains lying to the north of the ,sierra de ,guaderrama2 one of these castles was called ,burgos4 ,unlike ,leon and ,astorga1 ,burgos was not known to the ,romans1 but was founded by feudal noblemen in the middle ages1 most likely by the ,count of ,castilla prior to #hhd ,a4 ,d41 when its name first appears in history4 ,situated almost in the same line and to the west of ,astorga and ,leon1 it entered the chain of fortresses which formed the frontier between the ,christian kingdoms and the ,moorish dominion4 ,at the same time it looked westwards toward the kingdom of ,navarra1 and managed to keep the ambitious sovereigns of ,pamplona from ,castilian soil4 ,during the first centuries which followed upon the foundation of the village of ,burgos at the foot of a prominent castle1 both belonged to the feudal lords of ,castile1 the celebrated counts of the same name4 ,this family of intrepid noblemen grew to be the most important in ,northern ,spain2 vassals of the kings of ,asturias1 they broke out in frequent rebellion1 and their doings alone fill nine of every ten pages of mediaeval history4 ,orduno ,,iii4--he who lost the battle of ,valdejunquera against the ,moors because the noblemen he had ordered to assist refrained from doing so--enticed the ,count of ,castile1 together with other conspirators1 to his palace1 and had them foully murdered4 ,so1 at least1 saith history4 ,the successor to the title was no fool4 ,on the contrary1 he was one of the greatest characters in ,spanish history1 hero of a hundred legends and traditions4 ,fernan ,gonzalez was his name1 and he freed ,castile from owing vassalage to ,asturias1 for he threw off the yoke which bound him to ,leon1 and lived as an independent sovereign in his castle of ,burgos4 ,this is the date of ,castile's first appearance in history as one of the nuclei of ,christian resistance 7in the tenth century74 ,nevertheless1 against the military genius of ,almanzor 7the victorious71 ,fernan ,gonzalez could do no more than the kings of ,leon4 ,the fate that befell ,santiago1 ,leon1 and ,astorga awaited ,burgos1 which was utterly destroyed with the exception of the impregnable castle4 ,after the ,arab's death1 hailed by the ,christians with shouts of joy1 and from the pulpits with the grim remark3 ,almanzor mortuus est et sepultus et in inferno1 the strength of ,castile grew year by year1 until one ,conde ,garcia de ,castilla married one of his daughters to the ,king of ,navarra and the other to ,bermudo ,,iii4 of ,leon4 ,his son1 as has already been seen in a previous chapter1 was killed in ,leon when he went to marry ,bermudo's sister ,sancha4 ,but his grandson1 the recognized heir to the throne of ,navarra1 ,fernando by name1 inherited his grandfather's title and estates1 even his murdered uncle's promised bride1 the sister of ,bermudo4 ,at the latter's death some years later1 without an heir1 he inherited--or conquered--,leon and ,asturias1 and for the first time in history1 all the ,christian kingdoms of the peninsula were united beneath one sceptre4 ,castile was now the most powerful state in the peninsula1 and its capital1 ,burgos1 the most important city north of ,toledo4 ,two hundred years later the centralization of power in ,burgos was an accomplished fact1 as well as the death in all but name of the ancient kingdom of ,leon1 ,asturias1 and ,galicia4 ,castile was ,spain1 and ,burgos its splendid capital 7#abcj1 in the reign of ,san ,fernando74 ,the above events are closely connected with the ecclesiastical history1 which depends entirely upon the civil importance of the city4 ,a few years after ,fernando ,i4 had inaugurated the title of ,king of ,castile1 he raised the parish church of ,burgos to a bishopric 7#ajge7 by removing to his new capital the see that from time immemorial had existed in ,oca4 ,he also laid the first stone of the cathedral church in the same spot where ,fernan ,gonzalez had erected a summer palace1 previous to the ,arab raid under ,almanzor4 ,ten years later the same king had the bishopric raised to an archiepiscopal see4 ,san ,fernando1 being unable to do more than had already been done by his forefather ,fernando ,i41 had the ruined church pulled down1 and in its place he erected the cathedral still standing to-day4 ,this was in #abba4 ,so rapidly was the main edifice constructed1 that as early as #abcj the first holy mass was celebrated in the altar-chapel4 ,the erection of the remaining parts took longer1 however1 for the building was not completed until about three hundred years later4 ,burgos did not remain the sole capital of ,northern ,spain for any great length of time4 ,before the close of the thirteenth century1 ,valladolid had destroyed the former's monopoly1 and from then on1 and during the next three hundred years1 these two and ,toledo were obliged to take turns in the honour of being considered capital1 an honour that depended entirely upon the caprices of the rulers of the land1 until it was definitely conferred upon ,madrid in the seventeenth century4 ,as regards legends and traditions of feudal romance and tragedy1 hardly a city excepting ,toledo and ,salamanca can compete with ,burgos4 ,historical events1 produced by throne usurpers and defenders1 by continual strife1 by the obstinacy of the noblemen and the perfidy of the monarchs1--all interwoven with beautiful dames and cruel warriors--are sufficiently numerous to enable every house in and around ,burgos to possess some secret or other1 generally gruesome and licentious1 which means chivalrous4 ,the reign of ,peter the ,cruel and of his predecessor ,alfonso1 the father of four or five bastards1 and the lover of ,dona ,leonor2 the heroic deeds of ,fernan ,gonzalez and of the ,cid ,campeador 7,rodrigo ,diaz de ,vivar72 the splendour of the court of ,isabel ,i41 and the peculiar constitution of the land with its ,cortes1 its convents1 and monasteries1--all tend to make ,burgos the centre of a chivalrous literature still recited by the people and firmly believed in by them4 ,unluckily their recital cannot find a place here1 and we pass on to examine the grand cathedral1 object of the present chapter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the train1 coming from the north1 approaches the city of ,burgos4 ,a low horizon line and undulating plains stretch as far as the eye can reach2 in the distance ahead are two church spires and a castle looming up against a blue sky4 ,the train reaches the station2 a mass of houses and1 overtopping the roofs of all buildings1 the same spires as seen before1 lost as it were in a forest of pinnacles1 emerging from two octagonal lanterns or cimborios4 ,in the background1 on a sandy hill1 are the ruins of the castle which once upon a time was the stronghold of the ,counts of ,castile4 ,burgos6 ,passing beneath a four-hundred-year-old gateway--,arco de ,santa ,maria--raised by trembling bourgeois to appease a monarch's wrath1 the visitor arrives after many a turn in a square situated in front of the cathedral4 ,a poor architectural element is this western front of the cathedral as regards the first body or the portals4 ,devoid of all ornamentation1 and consequently naked1 three doors or portals1 surmounted by a peculiar egg-shaped ogival arch1 open into the nave and aisles4 ,originally they were richly decorated by means of sculptural reliefs and statuary1 but in the plateresque period of the sixteenth century they were demolished4 ,the two lateral doors leading into the aisles are situated beneath the #bge feet high towers of excellent workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,,burgos ,,cathedral ,the central door is surmounted by a plateresque-,renaissance pediment imbedded in an ogival arch 7of all things672 the side doors are crowned by a simple window4 ,vastly superior in all respects to the lower body are the upper stories1 of which the first is begun by a pinnacled balustrade running from tower to tower2 in the centre1 between the two towers1 there is an immense rosace of a magnificent design and embellished by means of an ogival arch in delicate relief2 the windows of the tower1 as well as in the superior bodies1 are pure ogival4 ,the next story can be considered as the basement of the towers1 properly speaking4 ,the central part begins with a prominent balustrade of statues thrown against a background formed by twin ogival windows of exceptional size4 ,the third story is composed1 as regards the towers1 of the last of the square bodies upon which the fleche reposes2 these square bases are united by a light frieze or perforated balustrade which crowns the central part of the facade and is decorated with ogival designs4 ,last to be mentioned1 but not least in importance1 are the fleches4 ,though short in comparison to the bold structure at ,oviedo1 they are1 nevertheless1 of surprising dignity and elegance1 and richly ornamented1 being covered over with an innumerable amount of tiny pinnacles encrusted1 as it were1 on the stone network of a perforated pyramid4 ,the northern facade is richer in sculptural details than the western1 though the portal possesses but one row of statues4 ,the rosace is substituted by a three-lobed window1 the central pane of which is larger than the lateral two4 ,as this northern facade is almost fifteen feet higher than the ground-plan of the temple1--on account of the street being much higher1--a flight of steps leads down into the transept4 ,as a ,renaissance work1 this golden staircase is one of ,spain's marvels1 but it looks rather out of place in an essentially ,gothic cathedral4 ,to avoid the danger of falling down these stairs and with a view to their preservation1 the transept was pierced by another door in the sixteenth century1 on a level with the floor of the building1 and leading into a street lower than the previous one2 it is situated on the east of the prolonged transept1 or better still1 of the prolonged northern transept arm4 ,on the south side a cloister door corresponds to this last-named portal4 ,though the latter is plateresque1 cold and severe1 the former is the richest of all the portals as regards sculptural details2 the carving of the panels is also of the finest workmanship4 ,beside it1 the southern front of the cathedral coincides perfectly with the northern2 like the ,puerta de la ,plateria in ,santiago1 it is rendered somewhat insignificant by the cloister to the right and by the archbishop's palace to the left1 between which it is reached by a paved series of terraces1 for on this side the street is lower than the floor of the cathedral4 ,the impression produced by this alley is grand and imposing1 unique in ,spain4 ,neither is the situation of the temple exactly east and west1 a rare circumstance in such a highly ,catholic country like ,spain4 ,it is ,roman cruciform in shape2 the central nave contains both choir and high altar2 the aisles are prolonged behind the latter in an ambulatory4 ,the lateral walls of the church1 enlarged here and there to make room for chapels of different dimensions1 give an irregular outline to the building which has been partly remedied by the free use of buttresses1 flying buttresses1 and pinnacles4 ,the first impression produced on the visitor standing in either of the aisles is that of size rather than beauty2 a close examination1 however1 of the wealth of statues and tombs1 and of the sculptural excellence of stone decoration1 will draw from the tourist many an exclamation of wonder and delight4 ,further1 the distribution of light is such as to render the interior of the temple gay rather than sombre2 it is a pity1 nevertheless1 that the stained glasses of the sixteenth century see were all destroyed by a powder explosion in #ahac1 when the ,french soldiers demolished the castle4 ,the unusual height of the choir mars the ensemble of the interior2 the stalls are lavishly carved1 but do not inspire the same feeling of wonderful beauty as do those of ,leon and ,toledo1 for instance2 the reja or grille which separates the choir from the transept is one of the finest pieces of work in the cathedral1 and1 though massive1 it is simple and elegant4 ,the retablo of the high altar1 richly gilt1 is of the ,renaissance period2 the statues and groups which fill the niches are marvellously drawn and full of life4 ,in the ambulatory1 imbedded in the wall of the trascoro1 there are six plaques in low relief2 as sculptural work in stone they are unrivalled in the cathedral1 and were carved1 beyond a doubt1 by the hand of a master4 ,the croisee and the ,chapel of the ,condestable are the two chief attractions of the cathedral church4 ,the last named chapel is an octagonal addition to the apse4 ,its walls from the exterior are seen to be richly sculptured and surmounted by a lantern1 or windowed dome1 surrounded by high pinnacles and spires placed on the angles of the polygon base4 ,the croisee is similar in structure1 but1 due to its greater height1 appears even more slender and aerial4 ,the towers with their fleches1 together with these original octagonal lanterns with their pinnacles1 lend an undescribable grace1 elegance1 and majesty to what would otherwise have been a rather unwieldy edifice4 ,the ,chapel of the ,condestable is separated from the ambulatory 7in the interior of the temple7 by a good grille of the sixteenth century1 and by a profusely sculptured door4 ,the windows above the altar are the only ones that retain painted panes of the sixteenth century4 ,among the other objects contained in this chapel--which is really a connoisseur's collection of art objects of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries--can be mentioned the two marvellously carved tombs of the ,condestable and of his wife4 ,the croisee1 on the other hand1 has been called the cathedral's cathedral4 ,gazing skyward from the centre of the transept into the high cimborio1 and admiring the harmony of its details1 the wealth of decorative elements1 and the no less original structure of the dome1 whose vault is formed by an immense star1 one can understand the epithet applied to this majestic piece of work1 a marvel of its kind4 ,strange to say1 the primitive cupola which crowned the croisee fell down in the sixteenth century1 the date also of ,burgos's growing insignificance in political questions4 ,consequently1 it was believed by many that the same fate produced both accidents1 and that the downfall of the one necessarily involved the decadence of the other4 ,to conclude3 ,the ,gothic cathedral of ,burgos is1 with that of ,leon and perhaps that of ,sevilla1 the one which expresses in a greater measure than any other on the peninsula the true ideal of ogival architecture4 ,less airy1 light1 and graceful than that of ,leon1 it is1 nevertheless1 more ,spanish1 or in other words1 more majestic1 heavier1 and more imposing as regards size and weight4 ,from a sculptural point of view--stone sculpture--it is the first of all ,spanish ,gothic cathedrals1 and ranks among the most elaborate and perfect in ,europe4 ,,vi ,,santander ,the foundation of ,santander is attributed to the ,romans who baptized it ,harbour of ,victory4 ,its decadence after the ,roman dominion seems to have been complete1 and its name does not appear in the annals of ,spanish history until in #aahg1 when ,alfonso1 eighth of that name and ,king of ,castile1 induced the repopulation of the deserted hamlet by giving it a special fuero or privilege4 ,at that time a monastery surrounded by a few miserable huts seems to have been all that was left of the ,roman seaport2 this monastery was dedicated to the martyr saints ,emeterio and ,celedonio1 for it was1 and still is1 believed that they perished here1 and not in ,calahorra1 as will be seen later on4 ,the name of the nascent city in the times of ,alfonso ,,viii4 was ,sancti ,emetrii1 from that of the monastery or of the old town1 but within a few years the new town eclipsed the former in importance and1 being dedicated to ,st4 ,andrew1 gave its name to the present city 7,san-t-,andres1 ,santander74 ,as a maritime town1 ,santander became connected with all the naval events undertaken by young ,castile1 and later by ,philip ,,ii41 against ,england4 ,kings1 princes1 princess-consorts1 and ambassadors from foreign lands came by sea to ,santander1 and went from thence to ,burgos and ,valladolid2 from ,santander and the immediate seaports the fleet sailed which was to travel up the ,guadalquivir and conquer ,sevilla2 in #aegd the ,invincible ,armada left the ,bay of ,biscay never to return1 and from thence on until now1 ,santander has ever remained the most important ,spanish seaport on the ,cantabric ,sea4 ,its ecclesiastical history is uninteresting--or1 rather1 the city possesses no ecclesiastical past2 perhaps that is one of the causes of its flourishing state to-day4 ,in the thirteenth century the monastical ,church of ,san ,emeterio was raised to a collegiate and in #agge to a bishopric4 ,the same unimportance1 from an art point of view1 attaches itself to the cathedral church4 ,no one visits the city for the sake of the heavy1 clumsy1 and exceedingly irregularly built temple which stands on the highest part of the town4 ,on the contrary1 the great attraction is the fine beach of the ,sardinero which lies to the west of the industrial town1 and is1 in summer1 the ,brighton of ,spain4 ,the coast-line1 deeply dentated and backed by the ,cantabric ,mountains1 is far more delightful and attractive than the ,gothic cathedral structure of the thirteenth century4 ,consequently1 little need be said about it4 ,in the interior1 the height of the nave and aisles1 rendered more pronounced by the pointed ogival arches1 gives the building a somewhat aerial appearance that is belied by the view from without4 ,illustration3 ,,crypt ,,of ,,santander ,,cathedral ,the square tower on the western end is undermined by a gallery or tunnel through which the ,calle de ,puente passes4 ,to the right of the same1 and reached by a flight of steps1 stands the entrance to the crypt1 which is used to-day as a most unhealthy parish church4 ,this crypt of the late twelfth century or early thirteenth shows a decided ,romanesque tendency in its general appearance3 it is low1 massive1 strong1 and crowned by a semicircular vaulting reposing on gigantic pillars whose capitals are roughly sculptured4 ,the windows which let in the little light that enters are ogival1 proving the ,transition period to which the crypt belongs2 it was originally intended as the pantheon for the abbots of the monastery4 ,but unlike the ,galician ,romanesque1 it lacks an individual cachet2 if it resembles anything it is the pantheon of the kings in ,san ,isidoro in ,leon1 though in point of view of beauty1 the two cannot be compared4 ,the form of the crypt is that of a perfect ,romanesque basilica1 a nave and two aisles terminating a three-lobed apse4 ,in the cathedral1 properly speaking1 there is a baptismal font of marble1 bearing an ,arabic inscription by way of upper frieze2 it is square1 and of ,moorish workmanship1 and doubtless was brought from ,cordoba after the reconquest4 ,its primitive use had been practical1 for in ,andalusia it stood at the entrance to some mezquita1 and in its limpid waters the disciples of ,mahomet performed their hygienic and religious ablutions4 ,,vii ,,vitoria ,if the foreigner enter ,spain by ,irun1 the first cathedral town on his way south is ,vitoria4 ,gazteiz seems to have been its ,basque name prior to #aaha1 when it was enlarged by ,don ,sancho of ,navarra and was given a fuero or privilege1 together with its new name1 chosen to commemorate a victory obtained by the king over his rival1 ,alfonso of ,castile4 ,fortune did not smile for any length of time on ,don ,sancho1 for seventeen years later ,alfonso ,,viii4 incorporated the city in his kingdom of ,castile1 and it was lost for ever to ,navarra4 ,as regards the celebrated fueros given by the last named monarch to the inhabitants of the city1 a curious custom was in vogue in the city until a few years ago1 when the ,basque ,provinces finally lost the privileges they had fought for during centuries4 ,when ,alfonso ,,viii4 granted these privileges1 he told the citizens they were to conserve them as long as the waters of the ,zadorria flowed into the ,ebro4 ,the ,zadorria is the river upon which ,vitoria is situated2 about two miles up the river there is a historical village1 ,arriago1 and a no less historical bridge4 ,hither1 then1 every year on ,st4 ,john's ,day1 the inhabitants of ,vitoria came in procession1 headed by the municipal authorities1 the bishop and clergy1 the clerk of the town hall1 and the sheriff4 ,the latter on his steed waded into the waters of the ,zadorria1 and threw a letter into the stream2 it flowed with the current toward the ,ebro ,river4 ,an act was then drawn up by the clerk1 signed by the mayor and the sheriff1 testifying that the waters of the ,zadorria flowed into the ,ebro4 ,to-day the waters still flow into the ,ebro1 but the procession does not take place1 and the city's fueros are no more4 ,in the reign of ,isabel the ,catholic1 the ,church of ,st4 ,mary was raised to a ,colegiata1 and it is only quite recently1 according to the latest treaty between ,spain and ,rome1 that an episcopal see has been established in the city of ,vitoria4 ,documents that have been discovered state that in #abha--;a hundred years after the city had been newly baptized--the principal temple was a church and castle combined2 in the fourteenth century this was completely torn down to make room for the new building1 a modest ogival church of little or no merit4 ,the tower is of a later date than the body of the cathedral1 as is easily seen by the triangular pediments which crown the square windows3 it is composed of three bodies1 as is generally the case in ,spain1 the first of which is square in its cross-section1 possessing four turrets which crown the angles2 the second body is octagonal and the third is in the form of a pyramid terminating in a spire4 ,the portal is cut into the base of the tower4 ,it is the handsomest front of the building1 though in a rather dilapidated state2 the sculptural decorations of the three arches1 as well as the aerial reliefs of the tympanum1 are true to the period in which they were conceived4 ,the sacristy encloses a primitive wooden effigy of the ,virgin2 it is of greater historic than artistic value4 ,there is also a famous picture attributed now to ,van ,dyck1 now to ,murillo2 it represents ,christ in the arms of his mother1 and ,mary ,magdalene weeping on her knees beside the principal group4 ,the picture is known by the name of ,piety or ,la ,piedad4 ,the high altar1 instead of being placed to the east of the transept1 as is generally the case1 is set beneath the croisee1 in the circular area formed by the intersection of nave and transept4 ,the view of the interior is therefore completely obstructed1 no matter where the spectator stands4 ,,viii ,,upper ,,rioja ,to the south of ,navarra and about a hundred miles to the west of ,burgos1 the ,ebro ,river flows through a fertile vale called the ,rioja1 famous for its claret4 ,it is little frequented by strangers or tourists1 and yet it is well worth a visit4 ,the train runs down the ,ebro valley from ,miranda to ,saragosse4 ,a hilly country to the north and south1 well wooded and gently sloping like the ,jura2 nearer1 and along the banks of the stream1 huertas or orchards1 gardens1 and vineyards offer a pleasant contrast to the distant landscape1 and produce a favourable impression1 especially when a village or town with its square1 massive church-tower peeps forth from out of the foliage of fruit-trees and elms4 ,such is ,upper ,rioja--one of the prettiest spots in ,spain1 the ,touraine1 one might almost say1 of ,iberia1 a circular region of about twenty-five miles in radius1 containing four cities1 ,logrono1 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada1 ,najera1 and ,calahorra4 ,the ,roman military road from ,tarragon to ,astorga passed through the ,rioja1 and ,calahorra1 a ,celtiberian stronghold slightly to the south1 was conquered by the invaders after as sturdy a resistance as that of ,numantia itself4 ,it was not totally destroyed by the conquering ,romans as happened in the last named town2 on the contrary1 it grew to be the most important fortress between ,leon and ,saragosse4 ,when the ,christian religion dawned in the ,west1 two youths1 inseparable brothers1 and soldiers in the seventh legion stationed in ,leon1 embraced the true religion and migrated to ,calahorra4 ,they were beheaded after being submitted to a series of the most frightful tortures1 and their tunics1 leaving the bodies from which life had escaped1 soared skywards with the saintly souls1 to the great astonishment of the ,roman spectators4 ,the names of these two martyr saints were ,emeterio and ,celedonio1 who1 as we have seen1 are worshipped in ,santander2 besides1 they are also the patron saints of ,calahorra4 ,the first ,bishop of ,calahorra took possession of his see toward the middle of the fifth century2 his name was ,silvano4 ,unluckily1 he was the only one whose name is known to-day1 and yet it has been proven that when the ,moors invaded the country two or three hundred years later1 the see was removed to ,oviedo1 later to ,alava 7near ,vitoria1 where no remains of a cathedral church are to be seen to-day71 and in the tenth century to ,najera4 ,one hundred years later1 when the ,king of ,navarra1 ,don ,garcia1 conquered the ,arab fortress at ,calahorra1 the wandering see was once more firmly chained down to the original spot of its creation 7#ajcj2 the first bishop de modernis being ,don ,sancho74 ,near by1 and in a vale leading to the south from the ,ebro1 the ,moors built a fortress and called it ,najera4 ,conquered by the early kings of ,navarra1 it was raised to the dignity of one of the cathedral towns of the country2 from #iej 7first bishop1 ,theodomio7 to #ajcj ten bishops held their court here1 that is1 until the see was removed to ,calahorra4 ,since then1 and especially after the conquest of ,rioja by ,alfonso ,,vi4 of ,castile1 the city's significance died out completely1 and to-day it is but a shadow of what it previously had been1 or better still1 it is an ignored village among ruins4 ,still further west1 and likewise situated in a vale to the south of the ,ebro1 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada ranks as the third city4 ,originally its parish was but a suffragan church of ,calahorra1 but in #abbg it was raised to an episcopal see4 ,quite recently1 in the beginning of the nineteenth century1 when church funds were no longer what they had been1 only one bishop was appointed to both sees1 with an alternative residence in either of the two1 that is to say1 one prelate resided in ,calahorra1 his successor in ,santo ,domingo1 and so forth and so on4 ,since #ahej1 however1 both villages--for they are cities in name only--have lost all right to a bishop1 the see having been definitely removed to ,logrono1 or it will be removed there as soon as the present bishop dies4 ,but he has a long life1 the present bishop6 ,the origin of ,santo ,domingo is purely religious4 ,in the eleventh and twelfth centuries a pious individual lived in the neighbourhood whose life-work and ambition it was to facilitate the travelling pilgrims to ,santiago in ,galicia4 ,he served as guide1 kept a road open in winter and summer1 and even built bridges across the streams1 one of which is still existing to-day1 and leads into the town which bears his name4 ,he had even gone so far as to establish a rustic sort of an inn where the pilgrims could pass the night and eat 7without paying874 ,he also constructed a church beside his inn4 ,upon dying1 he was canonized ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada 7,domingo was his name1 and calzada is old ,spanish for highroad74 ,the ,alfonsos of ,castile were grateful to the humble saint for having saved them the expense and trouble of looking after their roads1 and ordained that a handsome church should be erected on the spot where previously the humble inn and chapel had stood4 ,houses grew up around it rapidly and the dignity of the new temple was raised in consequence4 ,of the four cities of ,upper ,rioja1 the only one worthy of the name of city is ,logrono1 with its historical bridge across the ,ebro1 a bridge that was held1 according to the tradition1 by the hero1 ,ruy ,diaz ,gaona1 and three valiant companions against a whole army of invading ,navarrese4 ,the name ,lucronio or ,logrono is first mentioned in a document toward the middle of the eleventh century4 ,the date of its foundation is absolutely unknown1 and all that can be said is that1 once it had fallen into the hands of the monarchs of ,castile 7#ajgf71 it grew rapidly in importance1 out-shining the other three ,rioja cities4 ,it is seated on the southern banks of the ,ebro in the most fertile part of the whole region1 and enjoys a delightful climate4 ,since #ahej it has been raised to the dignity of an episcopal see4 ,as regards the architectural remains of the four cities in the ,upper ,rioja valley1 they are similar to those of ,navarra1 properly speaking1 though not so pure in their general lines4 ,in other words1 they belong to the decadent period of ,gothic art4 ,moreover1 they have one and all been spoiled by ingenious1 though dreadful mixtures of plateresque1 ,renaissance1 and grotesque decorative details1 and consequently the real remains of the old twelfth and thirteenth century ,gothic and ,romanesque constructions are difficult to trace4 ,najera4--,absolutely nothing remains of the old ,romanesque church built by the king ,don ,garcia4 ,a new edifice of decadent ,gothic1 mixed with ,renaissance details1 and dating from the fifteenth century1 stands to-day2 it contains a magnificent series of choir stalls of excellent workmanship1 and similar to those of ,burgos4 ,the cloister1 in spite of the ,arab-looking geometrical tracery of the ogival arches1 is both light and elegant4 ,this cathedral was at one time used as the pantheon of the kings of ,navarra4 ,about ten elaborate marble tombs still lie at the foot of the building4 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada4--,the primitive ground-plan of the cathedral has been preserved1 a nave and two aisles showing ,romanesque strength in the lower and ogival lightness in the upper tiers4 ,but otherwise nothing reminds one of a twelfth or thirteenth century church4 ,the cloister1 of the sixteenth century1 is a handsome plateresque-,renaissance edifice1 rather small1 severe1 and cold4 ,the great merit of this church lies in the sepulchral tombs in the different chapels1 all of which were executed toward the end of the fifteenth and during the first years of the seventeenth centuries1 and any one wishing to form for himself an idea of this particular branch of ,spanish monumental art must not fail to examine such sepulchres as those of ,carranza1 ,fernando ,alfonso1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,cloister ,,of ,,najera ,,cathedral ,the effigy of the patron saint 7,santo ,domingo7 is of painted wood clothed in rich silver robes1 which form a striking antithesis to the saint's humble and modest life4 ,the chapel where the latter lies is closed by a gilded iron reja of plateresque workmanship4 ,the saint's body lies in a simple marble sepulchre1 said to have been carved by ,santo ,domingo himself1 who was both an architect and a sculptor4 ,the truth of this version is1 however1 doubtful4 ,of the square tower and the principal entrance no remarks need be made1 for both are insignificant4 ,the retablo of the high altar has been attributed to ,foment1 who constructed those of ,saragosse and ,huesca4 ,the attribution is1 however1 most doubtful1 as shown by the completely different styles employed by the artist of each4 ,not that the retablo in the ,church of ,santo ,domingo is inferior to ,foment's masterworks in ,aragon1 but the decorative motives of the flanking columns and low reliefs would prove--in case they had been executed by the ,aragonese ,foment--a departure from the latter's classic style4 ,in one of the niches of the cloister1 in a simple urn1 lies the heart of ,don ,enrique1 second ,king of ,castile of that name1 the half-brother 7one of the bastards mentioned in a previous chapter and from whom all later ,spanish monarchs are descended7 of ,peter the ,cruel4 ,the latter was murdered by his fond relative1 who usurped the throne4 ,logrono4--,in #adce ,santa ,maria la ,redonda was raised to a suffragan church of ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada2 about this date the old building must have been almost entirely torn down1 as the ogival arches of the nave are of the fifteenth century2 so also are the lower windows which1 on the west1 flank the southern door4 ,excepting these few remains1 nothing can bring to the tourist's mind the fifteenth-century edifice1 and not a single stone can recall the twelfth-century church4 ,for the remaining parts of the building are of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and successive centuries1 and to-day the interior is being enlarged so as to make room for the see which is to be removed here from ,santo ,domingo and ,calahorra4 ,illustration3 ,,santa ,,maria ,,la ,,redonda1 ,,logrono ,the interior is ,roman cruciform with a high and airy central nave1 in which stands the choir1 and on each hand a rather dark aisle of much smaller dimensions4 ,the trascoro is the only peculiarity possessed by this church4 ,it is large and circular1 closed by an immense vaulting which turns it into a chapel separated from the rest of the church 7compare with the ,church of the ,pillar of ,saragosse74 ,true to the grotesque style to which it belongs1 the whole surface of walls and vault is covered with paintings1 the former apparently in oil1 the latter frescoes4 ,vixes painted them in the theatrical style of the eighteenth century4 ,from the outside1 the regular features of the church please the eye in spite of the evident signs of artistic decadence4 ,the two towers1 high and slender1 are among the best produced by the period of decadence in ,spain which followed upon ,herrero's severe style1 if only the uppermost body lacked the circular linterna which makes the spire top-heavy4 ,between the two towers1 which1 when seen from a distance1 gain in beauty and lend to the city a noble and picturesque aspect1 the facade1 properly speaking1 reaches to their second body4 ,it is a hollow1 crowned by half a dome in the shape of a shell which in its turn is surmounted by a plateresque cornice in the shape of a long and narrow scroll4 ,the hollow is a peculiar and daring medley of architectural elegance and sculptural bizarrerie and vice versa4 ,from ,madrazo it drew the exclamation that1 since he had seen it1 he was convinced that not all monuments belonging to the grotesque style were devoid of beauty4 ,the date of the erection of the western front is doubtless the same as that of the trascoro2 both are contemporaneous--the author is inclined to believe--with the erection of the ,pillar in ,saragosse2 at least1 they resemble each other in certain unmistakable details4 ,calahorra4--,the fourth of the cathedral churches of ,upper ,rioja is that of ,calahorra4 ,after the repopulation of the town by ,alfonso ,,vi4 of ,castile in the eleventh century1 the bodies of the two martyr saints ,emeterio and ,celedonio were pulled up out of a well 7to be seen to-day in the cloister7 where they had been hidden by the ,christians1 when the ,moors conquered the fortress1 and a church was built near the same spot4 ,of this eleventh-century church nothing remains to-day4 ,illustration3 ,,western ,,front ,,of ,,calahorra ,,cathedral ,in the twelfth century1 a new building was begun1 but the process of construction continued slowly1 and it was not until two hundred years later that the apse was finally finished4 ,the body of the church1 from the western front 7this latter hideously modern and uninteresting7 to the transept1 is the oldest part1--simple ,gothic of the thirteenth century4 ,the numerous chapels which form a ring around the church have all been decorated in the grotesque style of the eighteenth century1 and with their lively colours1 their polychrome statues1 and overdone ornamentation1 they offer but little interest to the visitor4 ,the retablo of the high altar is one of the largest to be seen anywhere2 but the ,renaissance elegance of the lower body is completely drowned by the grotesque decoration of the upper half1 which was constructed at a later date4 ,the choir stalls are fine specimens of that style in which the artist preferred an intricate composition to simple beauty4 ,biblical scenes1 surrounded and separated by allegorical personages and symbolical lines in great profusion1 show the carver's talent rather than his artistic genius4 ,,ix ,,soria ,the ,duero ,river1 upon leaving its source at the foot of the ,pico de ,urbion 7near ,vinuesa71 flows eastward for about fifty miles1 then southward for another fifty miles1 when it turns abruptly westward on its lengthy journey across the ,iberian peninsula4 ,the circular region1 limited on three sides by the river's course1 is the historical field of ,soria--part of the province of the same name1 ,numantia1 ,rome's great enemy and almost the cause of her ruin1 lay somewhere in this part of the country1 though where is not exactly known1 as the great ,scipio took care to destroy it so thoroughly that not even a stone remains to-day to indicate where the heroic fortress stood4 ,in the present day1 two cities and two cathedrals are seated on the banks of the ,duero within this circle2 the one is ,soria1 the other ,osma4 ,the latter was a ,roman town1 an early episcopal see1 and later an ,arab fortress2 the former was founded by one of the ,alfonsos toward the end of the eleventh century1 as a frontier fortress against ,aragon to the east1 the ,moors to the south1 and ,navarra to the north4 ,the town grew apace1 thanks to the remarkable fueros granted to the citizens1 who lived as in a republic of their own making--an almost unique case of self-government to be recorded in the middle ages4 ,the principal parish church was raised to a suffragan of ,osma in the twelfth century4 ,since then1 there has been a continual spirit of rivalry between the two cities1 for the former1 more important as a town and as the capital of a province1 could not bend its head to the ecclesiastical authority of a village like ,osma4 ,throughout the middle ages the jealousy between the two was food for incessant strife4 ,pope ,clement ,,iv41 at ,alfonso ,,viii4's instigation1 raised the ,collegiate at ,soria to an episcopal see independent of ,osma1 but the hard-headed chapter of the last named city refused to acknowledge the ,pope's order1 and no bishop was elected or appointed4 ,this bitter hatred between the two rivals was the origin of many an amusing incident4 ,upon one occasion the ,bishop of ,osma1 visiting his suffragan church in ,soria1 had the house in which he was stopping for the night burnt about his ears4 ,he moved off to another house1 and on the second night this was also mysteriously set on fire4 ,his lordship did not await the third night1 afraid of what might happen1 but bolted back to his episcopal palace at ,osma4 ,in #aebj the chapter of the ,collegiate in ,soria sent a petition to the country's sovereign asking him to order the erection of a new church in place of the old twelfth-century building1 and in another part of the town4 ,the request was not granted1 however1 so what did the wily chapter do8 ,it ordered an architect to construct a chapel in the very centre of the church1 and when it was completed1 admired the work with great enthusiasm1 excepting only the pillar in front of it which obstructed the uninterrupted view4 ,this pillar was the real support of the church1 and though the chapter was told as much 7as though it did not know it67 the architect was ordered to pull it down4 ,after hesitating to do so1 the latter acceded3 the pillar was pulled down1 and with it the whole church tumbled down as well6 ,but the chapter's game was discovered1 and it was obliged to rebuild the cathedral on the same spot and with the same materials4 ,consequently1 the church at ,soria is a sixteenth-century building of little or no merit1 excepting the western front1 which is the only part of the old building that did not fall down1 and is a fine specimen of ,castilian ,romanesque1 as well as the cloister1 one of the handsomest1 besides being one of the few twelfth-century cloisters in ,spain1 with a double row of slender columns supporting the round-headed arches4 ,this modification of the conventional type lends an aspect of peculiar lightness to the otherwise heavy ,romanesque4 ,as regards the settlement of the strife between ,soria and ,osma1 the see is to-day a double one1 like that of ,madrid and ,alcala4 ,upon the death of the present bishop1 however1 it will be transported definitely to ,soria1 and consequently the inhabitants of the last named city will at last be able to give thanks for the great mercies ,allah or the ,true ,god has bestowed upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,cloister ,,of ,,soria ,,cathedral ,osma4--,from an historical and architectural point of view1 ,osma1 the rival city on the ,duero ,river1 is much more important than ,soria4 ,according to the tradition1 ,st4 ,james preached the ,holy ,gospel1 and after him ,st4 ,peter 7or ,st4 ,paul871 who left his disciple ,st4 ,astorgio behind as bishop 7#ia ,a4 ,d474 ,twenty-two bishops succeeded him1 the twenty-third on the list being ,john ,i41 really the first of whose existence we have any positive proof1 for he signed the third council in ,toledo in the sixth century4 ,in the eighth century1 the ,saracens drove the shepherd of the ,christian flock northward to ,asturias1 and it was not until #aajj that the first bishop de modernis was appointed by ,archbishop ,bernardo of ,toledo4 ,the latter's choice fell on ,peter1 a virtuous ,french monastic monk1 who was canonized by the ,pope after his death1 and figures in the calendar as ,st4 ,peter of ,osma4 ,when the first bishop took possession of his see1 he started to build his cathedral4 ,instead of choosing ,osma itself as the seat1 however1 he selected the site of a convent on the opposite banks of the ,duero 7to the north71 where the ,virgin had appeared to a shepherd4 ,houses soon grew up around the temple and1 to distinguish it from ,osma1 the new city was called ,burgo de ,osma1 a name it still retains4 ,in #abcb1 not a hundred years after the erection of the cathedral1 it was totally destroyed1 excepting one or two chapels still to be seen in the cloister1 by ,juan ,dominguez1 who was bishop at the time1 and who wished to possess a see more important in appearance than that left to him by his predecessor1 ,st4 ,peter4 ,the building as it stands to-day is small1 but highly interesting4 ,the original plan was that of a ,romanesque basilica with a three-lobed apse1 but in #agha the ambulatory walk behind the altar joined the two lateral aisles4 ,two of the best pieces of sculptural work in the cathedral are the retablo of the high altar1 and the relief imbedded in the wall of the trascoro--both of them carved in wood by ,juan de ,juni1 one of the best ,castilian sculptors of the sixteenth century4 ,the plastic beauty of the figures and their lifelike postures harmonize well with the simple ,renaissance columns ornamented here and there with finely wrought flowers and garlands4 ,the chapel where ,st4 ,peter of ,osma's body lies is an original rather than a beautiful annex of the church4 ,for1 given the small dimensions of the cathedral1 it was difficult to find sufficient room for the chapels1 sacristy1 vestuary1 etc4 ,in the case of the above chapel1 therefore1 it was necessary to build it above the vestuary2 it is reached by a flight of stairs1 beneath which two three-lobed arches lead to the sombre room below4 ,the result is highly original4 ,the same remarks as regard lack of space can be made when speaking about the principal entrance4 ,previously the portal had been situated in the western front2 the erection of the tower on one side1 and of a chapel on the other1 had rendered this entrance insignificant and half blinded by the prominent tower4 ,so a new one had to be erected1 considered by many art critics to be a beautiful addition to the cathedral properly speaking1 but which strikes the author as excessively ugly1 especially the upper half1 with its balcony1 and a hollow arch above it1 in the shadows of which the rose window loses both its artistic and its useful object4 ,so1 being round1 it is placed within a semicircular sort of avant-porche or recess1 the strong contours of which deform the immense circle of the window4 ,to conclude3 in the cathedral of ,osma1 bad architecture is only too evident4 ,the tower is perhaps the most elegant part1 and yet the second body1 which was to give it a gradually sloping elegance1 was omitted1 and the third placed directly upon the first4 ,this is no improvement4 ,perhaps the real reason for these architectural mishaps is not so much the fault of the architects and artists as that of the chapter1 and of the flock which could not help satisfactorily toward the erection of a worthy cathedral4 ,luckily1 however1 there are other cathedrals in ,spain1 where1 in spite of reduced funds1 a decent and homogeneous building was erected4 ,the cloister1 bare on the inner side1 is nevertheless a modest ,gothic structure with acceptable lobulated ogival windows4 ,,part ,,iv ,western ,castile ,i ,,palencia ,the history of ,palencia can be divided into two distinct parts1 separated from each other by a lapse of about five hundred years1 during which the city was entirely blotted out from the map of ,spain4 ,the first period reaches from before the ,roman ,conquest to the ,visigothic domination4 ,originally inhabited by the ,vacceos1 a ,celtiberian tribe1 it was one of the last fortresses to succumb to ,roman arms1 having joined ,numantia in the terrible war waged by ,spaniards and which has become both legendary and universal4 ,under ,roman rule the broad belt of land1 of which ,palencia1 a military town on the road from ,astorga to ,tarragon1 was the capital1 flourished as it had never done before4 ,consequently it is but natural that one of the first sees should have been established there as soon as ,christianity invaded the peninsula4 ,no records are1 however1 at hand as regards the names of the first bishops and of the martyr saints1 as thick here as elsewhere and as numerous in ,spain as in ,rome itself4 ,at any rate1 contemporary documents mention a ,bishop ,toribio1 not the first to occupy the see nor the same prelate who worked miracles in ,orense and ,astorga4 ,the ,palencian ,toribio fought also against the ,priscilian heresy1 and was one of the impediments which stopped its spread further southward4 ,of this man it is said that1 disgusted with the heresy practised at large in his ,pallantia1 he mounted on a hill1 and1 stretching his arms heavenwards1 caused the waters of the river to leave their bed and inundate the city1 a most efficacious means of bringing loitering sheep to the fold4 ,nowhere did the ,visigoths wreak greater vengeance or harm on the ,iberians who had hindered their entry into the peninsula than in ,palencia4 ,it was entirely wrecked and ruined1 not one stone remaining to tell the tale of the city that had been4 ,slowly it emerged from the wreck1 a village rather than a town2 once in awhile its bishops are mentioned1 living rather in ,toledo than in their humble see4 ,the ,arab invasion devastated a second time the growing town2 perhaps it was ,alfonso ,i4 himself who completely wrecked it1 for the ,moorish frontier was to the north of the city1 and it was the sovereign's tactics to raze to the ground all cities he could not keep1 when he made a risky incursion into hostile country4 ,so ,palencia was forgotten until the eleventh century1 when ,sancho el ,mayor1 ,king of ,navarra1 who had conquered this part of ,castile1 reestablished the long-ignored see4 ,he was hunting among the weeds that covered the ruins of what had once been a ,roman fortress1 when a boar sprang out of cover in front of him and escaped4 ,being light of foot1 the king followed the animal until it disappeared in a cave1 or what appeared to be such1 though it really was a subterranean chapel dedicated to the martyrs1 or to the patron saint of old ,pallantia1 namely1 ,san ,antolin4 ,the hunted beast cowered down in front of the altar2 the king lifted his arm to spear it1 when lo1 his arm was detained in mid-air by an invisible hand6 ,immediately the monarch prostrated himself before the miraculous effigy of the saint2 he acknowledged his sacrilegious sin1 and prayed for forgiveness2 the boar escaped1 the monarch's arm fell to his side1 and a few days later the see was reestablished1 a church was erected above the subterranean chapel1 and ,bernardo was appointed the first bishop 7#ajce74 ,after ,sancho's death1 his son ,ferdinand1 who1 as we have seen1 managed to unite for the first time all ,northern ,spain beneath his sceptre1 made it a point of honour to favour the see his father had erected a few months before his death1 an example followed by all later monarchs until the times of ,isabel the ,catholic4 ,a surprising number of houses were soon built around the cathedral1 and the city's future was most promising4 ,its bishops were among the noble-blooded of the land1 and enjoyed such exceptional privileges as gave them power and wealth rarely equalled in the history of the middle ages4 ,but then1 the city had been built for the church and not the church for the city1 and it is not to be marvelled at that the prelates bore the title of hecho un rey y un papa--king and pope4 ,the greater part of these princes1 it is true1 lived at court rather than in their episcopal see1 which is1 perhaps1 one of the reasons why ,palencia failed to emulate with ,burgos and ,valladolid1 though at one time it was the residence of some of the kings of ,castile4 ,moreover1 being only second in importance to the two last named cities1 ,palencia was continually the seat of dissident noblemen and thwarted heirs to the throne2 because these latter1 being unable to conquer the capital1 or ,valladolid1 invariably sought to establish themselves in ,palencia1 sometimes successfully1 at others being obliged to retreat from the city walls4 ,the story of the town is consequently one of the most adventurous and varied to be read in ,spanish history1 and it is due to the side it took in the rebellion against ,charles-,quint1 in the time of the ,comuneros1 that it was finally obliged to cede its place definitely to ,valladolid1 and lost its importance as one of the three cities of ,castilla la ,vieja4 ,it remains to be mentioned that ,palencia was the seat of the first ,spanish university 7,christian1 not ,moorish71 previous to either that of ,salamanca or ,alcala4 ,in #abjh this educational institution was founded by ,alfonso ,,viii42 professors were procured from ,italy and ,france1 and a building was erected beside the cathedral and under its protecting wing4 ,it did not survive the monarch's death1 however1 for the reign of the latter's son left but little spare time for science and letters1 and in #abdh it was closed1 though twenty years later ,pope ,urbano ,,iv4 futilely endeavoured to reestablish it4 ,according to a popular tradition1 it owed its definite death to the inhabitants of the town1 who1 bent upon venging an outrage committed by one of the students upon a daughter of the city1 fell upon them one night at a given signal and killed them to the last man4 ,in the fourteenth century1 the cathedral1 which had suffered enormously from sieges and from the hands of enemies1 was entirely pulled down and a new one built on the same spot 7,june1 #acba74 ,the subterranean chapel1 which had been the cause of the city's resurrection1 was still the central attraction and relic of the cathedral1 and1 according to another legend1 no less marvellous than that of ,toribio1 its genuineness has been placed definitely 787 without the pale of skeptic doubts4 ,it appears that one ,pedro1 ,bishop of ,osma 7,st4 ,peter of ,osma871 was praying before the effigy of ,san ,antolin when the lights went out4 ,the pious yet doubting prelate prayed to ,god to give him a proof of the relic's authenticity by lighting the candles4 ,to his surprise 787 and glee1 the candles lit by themselves6 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us approach the city by rail4 ,the train leaves ,venta de ,banos1 a junction station with a village about two miles away possessing a seventh-century ,visigothic church which offers the great peculiarity of horseshoe arches in its structure1 dating from before the ,arab invasion4 ,immediately upon emerging from the station1 the train enters an immense rolling plain of a ruddy1 sandy appearance1 with here and there an isolated sand-hill crowned by the forgotten ruins of a mediaeval castle4 ,the capital of this region is ,palencia4 ,the erection of the cathedral church of the town was begun in #acba2 it was dedicated to the ,mother and ,child1 and to ,san ,antolin1 whose chapel1 devoid of all artistic merit1 is still to be seen beneath the choir4 ,this edifice was finished toward #aeej4 ,the same division as has been observed in the history of the city can be applied to the temple3 at first it was intended to construct a modest ,gothic church of red sandstone2 the apse with its five chapels and traditional ambulatory was erected1 as well as the transept and the high altar terminating the central nave4 ,then1 after about a hundred years had passed away1 the original plan was altered by lengthening the body of the building4 ,consequently the chapel of the high altar was too small in comparison with the enlarged proportions1 and it was transformed into a parish chapel4 ,opposite it1 and to the west of the old transept1 another high altar was constructed in the central nave1 and a second transept separated it from the choir which followed4 ,in other words1 and looking at this curious monument as it stands to-day1 the central nave is surmounted by an ogival vaulting of a series of ten vaults4 ,the first transept cuts the nave beneath the sixth1 and the second beneath the ninth vault4 7,vault ,no4 #a is at the western end of the church47 ,both transepts protrude literally beyond the general width of the building4 ,the choir stands beneath the fourth and fifth vaults1 and the high altar between the two transepts1 occupying the seventh and eighth space4 ,beneath the tenth stands the parish chapel or ex-high altar1 behind which runs the ambulatory1 on the off-side of which are situated the five apsidal chapels4 ,consequently the second transept separates the old from the new high altar4 ,illustration3 ,,palencia ,,cathedral ,in spite of the low aisles and nave1 and the absence of sculptural motives so pronounced in ,burgos1 the effect produced on the spectator by the double cross and the unusual length as compared with the width is agreeable4 ,the evident lack of unity in the ,gothic structure is recompensed by the original and pleasing plan4 ,the final judgment that can be emitted concerning this cathedral church1 when seen from the outside1 is that it shows the typical ,spanish-,gothic characteristic1 namely1 heaviness as contrasted to pure ogival lightness4 ,there is poverty in the decorative details1 and solemnity in the interior2 the appearance from the outside is of a fortress rather than a temple1 with slightly pointed ,gothic windows1 and a heavy and solid1 rather than an elegant and light1 general structure4 ,only the cathedral church of ,palencia outgrew the original model and took the strange and exotic form it possesses to-day1 without losing its fortress-like aspect4 ,though really built in stone 7see the columns and pillars in the interior71 brick has been largely used in the exterior2 hence also the impossibility of erecting a pure ,gothic building1 and this is a remark that can be applied to most churches in ,spain4 ,the buttresses are heavy1 the square tower 7unfinished7 is ,romanesque or ,mudejar in form rather than ,gothic1 though the windows be ogival4 ,there is no western facade or portal2 the tower is situated on the southern side between the true transepts4 ,of the four doorways1 two to the north and two to the south1 which give access to the transepts1 the largest and richest in sculptural decoration is the ,bishop's ,door 7south74 ,observe the geometrical designs in the panels of the otherwise ogival and slightly pointed doorway4 ,the other portal on the south is far simpler1 and the arch which surmounts it is of a purer ,gothic style2 not so the geometrically decorated panels and the almost ,arabian frieze which runs above the arches4 ,this frieze is ,moorish or ,mudejar-,byzantine1 and though really it does not belong in an ogival building1 it harmonizes strangely with it4 ,in the interior of the cathedral the nakedness of the columns is partially recompensed by the richness in sculptural design of some sepulchres1 as well as by several sixteenth-century grilles4 ,the huge retablo of the high altar shows ,gothic luxuriousness in its details1 and at the same time 7in the capitals of the flanking columns7 nascent plateresque severity4 ,perhaps the most interesting corner of the interior is the trascoro1 or the exterior side of the wall which closes the choir on the west4 ,here the patronizing genius of ,bishop ,fonseca1 a scion of the celebrated ,castilian family1 excelled itself4 ,the wall itself is richly sculptured1 and possesses two fine lateral reliefs4 ,in the centre there is a ,flemish canvas of the sixteenth century1 of excellent colour1 and an elegantly carved pulpit4 ,in the chapter-room are to be seen some well-preserved ,flemish tapestries1 and in an apsidal chapel is one of ,zurbaran's mystic subjects3 a praying nun4 7,this portrait1 ,i believe1 has been sold or donated by the chapter1 for1 if ,i am not mistaken1 it is to be seen to-day in the art collection of the ,spanish royal family47 ,,ii ,,zamora ,whatever may have been the origin of ,zamora1 erroneously confounded with that of ,numantia1 it is not until the ninth century that the city1 or frontier fortress1 appears in history as an ,arab stronghold1 taken from the ,moors and fortified anew by ,alfonso ,i4 or by his son ,froila1 and necessarily lost and regained by ,christians and ,moors a hundred times over in such terrible battles as the celebrated and much sung dia de ,zamora in #ija4 ,in #ici another famous siege of the town was undertaken by infidel hordes1 but the strength of the citadel and the numerous moats1 six it appears they were in number1 separated by high walls surrounding the town1 were invincible1 and the ,arab warriors had to retreat4 ,nevertheless1 between #ijj and #ihj the fortress was lost five times by the ,christians4 ,the last ,moor to take it was ,almanzor1 who razed it to the ground and then repopulated it with ,arabs from ,andalusia4 ,previously1 in #ije1 the parish church had been raised to an episcopal see2 the first to occupy it being one ,atilano1 canonized later by ,pope ,urbano ,,ii4 ,ten years after this bishop had taken possession of his spiritual throne1 he was troubled by certain religious scruples1 and1 putting on a pilgrim's robe1 he distributed his revenues among the parish poor and left the city4 ,crossing the bridge1--still standing to-day and leading from the town to ,portugal1--he threw his pastoral ring into the river1 swearing he would only reoccupy the lost see when the ring should have been given back into his hands2 should this happen1 it would prove that the ,almighty had pardoned his sins4 ,for two years he roamed about visiting shrines and succouring the poor2 at last one day he dreamed that his ,master ordered him to repair immediately to his see1 where he was sorely needed4 ,returning to ,zamora1 he passed the night in a neighbouring hermitage1 and while supping--it must have been ,friday6--in the belly of the fish he was eating he discovered his pastoral ring4 ,the following day the church-bells were rung by an invisible hand1 and the pilgrim1 entering the city1 was hailed as a saint by the inhabitants2 the same invisible hands took off his pilgrim's clothes and dressed him in rich episcopal garments4 ,he took possession of his see1 dying in the seventh year of his second reign4 ,almanzor el terrible1 on the last powerful raid the ,moors were to make1 buried the ,christian see beneath the ruins of the cathedral1 and erected a mezquita to glorify ,allah2 fifteen years later the city fell into the hands of the ,christians again1 and saw no more an ,arab army beneath its walls4 ,it was not1 however1 until #abe years later that the ruined episcopal see was reestablished de modernis1 the first bishop being ,bernardo 7#aabd74 ,but previous to the above date1 an event took place in and around ,zamora that has given national fame to the city1 and has made it the centre of a ,spanish ,iliad hardly less poetic or dramatic than the ,homerian legend1 and therefore well worth narrating as perhaps unique in the peninsula1 not to say in the history of the middle ages4 ,when ,fernando ,i4 of ,castile died in #ajfe1 he left his vast territories to his five children1 bequeathing ,castile to his eldest son ,sancho1 ,galicia to ,garcia1 ,leon to ,alfonso1 ,toro to ,elvira1 and ,zamora to ,urraca1 who was the eldest daughter1 and1 with ,sancho1 the bravest and most intrepid of the five children4 ,according to the romance of ,zamora1 she1 ,dona ,urraca1 worried her father's last moments by trying to wheedle more than ,zamora out of him2 but the king was firm1 adding only the following curse3 ',quien os la tomara1 hija1 i,la mi maldicion le caiga6'-- ,todos dicen amen1 amen1 ,sino ,don ,sancho que calla4 ,which in other words means3 ,let my curse fall on whomsoever endeavours to take ,zamora from you4444 ,those who were present agreed by saying amen2 only the eldest son1 ,don ,sancho1 remained silent4 ,the latter1 being ambitious1 dethroned his brothers and sent them flying across the frontier to ,andalusia1 then ,moorish territory4 ,toro also submitted to him1 but not so ,zamora1 held by the dauntless ,urraca and the governor of the citadel1 ,arias ,gonzalo4 ,so it was besieged by the royal troops and asked to surrender1 the message being taken by the great ,cid from ,don ,sancho to his sister4 ,she1 of course1 refused to give up the town4 ,wherefore is not known1 but the fact is that the ,cid1 the ablest warrior in the hostile army1 after having carried the embassy to the ,infanta1 left the king's army2 the many romances which treat of this siege accuse him of having fallen in love with ,dona ,urraca's lovely eyes1--a love that was perhaps reciprocated1--who knows8 ,in short1 the city was besieged during nine months4 ,hunger1 starvation1 and illness glared at the besieged4 ,on the point of surrendering1 they were beseeched by the ,infanta to hold out nine days longer2 in the meantime one ,vellido ,dolfo1 famous in song1 emerged by the city's postern gate and went to ,king ,sancho's camp1 saying that he was tired of serving ,dona ,urraca1 with whom he had had a dispute1 and that he would show the king how to enter the city by a secret path4 ,according to the romances1 it would appear that the king was warned by the inhabitants themselves against the traitorous intentions of ,vellido4 ,take care1 ,king ,sancho1 they shouted from the walls1 and remember that we warn you2 a traitor has left the city gates who has already committed treason four times1 and is about to commit the fifth4 ,the king did not hearken1 as is generally the case1 and went out walking with the knight who was to show him the secret gate2 he never returned1 being killed by a spear-thrust under almost similar circumstances to ,siegfried's4 ,the father's curse had thus been fulfilled4 ,the traitor returned to the city1 and1 strange to say1 was not punished1 or only insufficiently so2 consequently1 it is to-day believed that the sister of the murdered monarch had a hand in the crime4 ,upon ,vellido's return to the besieged town1 the governor wished to imprison him--which in those days meant more than confinement--but the ,infanta objected2 it is even stated that the traitor spoke with his heartless mistress1 saying3 ,it was time the promise should be fulfilled4 ,in the meanwhile1 from the besieging army a solitary knight1 ,diego ,ordonez1 rode up to the city walls1 and accusing the inhabitants of felony and treason1 both men and women1 young and old1 living and dead1 born and to be born1 he challenged them to a duel4 ,it had to be accepted1 and1 according to the laws of chivalry1 the challenger had to meet in single combat five champions1 one after another1 for he had insulted1 not a single man1 but a community4 ,the gray-haired governor of the fortress reserved for himself and his four sons the duty of accepting the challenge2 the ,infanta beseeched him in vain to desist from his enterprise1 but he was firm3 his mistress's honour was at stake4 ,at last1 persuaded by royal tears1 according to the romance1 he agreed to let his sons precede him1 and1 only in case it should be necessary1 would he take the last turn4 ,the eldest son left the city gates1 blessed by the weeping father2 his helmet and head were cleft in twain by ,diego ,ordonez's terrible sword1 and the latter's ironical shout was heard addressing the governor3 ,don ,arias1 send me hither another of your charming sons1 because this one cannot bear you the message4 ,a second and third son went forth1 meeting the same fate3 but the latter's wounded horse1 in throwing its rider1 ran blindly into ,ordonez and knocked him out of the ring2 the duel was therefore judged to be a draw4 ,several days afterward ,alfonso1 the dead king's younger brother1 hurried up from ,toledo1 and after swearing in ,burgos that he had had nothing to do with the felonious murder1 was anointed ,king of ,castile1 ,leon1 and ,galicia4 ,his brave sister ,urraca lived with him at court1 giving him useful advice1 until she retired to a convent1 and at her death left her palace and her fortune to the ,collegiate ,church at ,leon4 ,the remaining history of ,zamora is one interminable list of revolts1 sieges1 massacres1 and duels4 ,as frontier fortress against ,portugal in the west1 its importance as the last garrison town on the ,duero was exceptional1 and consequently1 though it never became important as a metropolis1 as a stronghold it was one of ,castile's most strategical points4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the best view of the city is obtained from the southern shore of the ,duero2 on a low hill opposite the spectator1 the city walls run east and west2 behind them1 to the left1 the castle towers loom up1 square and ,byzantine in appearance2 immediately to the right the cathedral nave forms a horizontal line to where the cimborio practically terminates the church4 ,thus from afar it seems as though the castle tower were part of the religious edifice1 and the general appearance of the whole city surrounded by massive walls cannot be more warlike4 ,the colour also of the ruddy sandstone and brick1 brilliant beneath a bright blue sky1 is characteristic of this part of ,castile1 and certainly constitutes one of its charms4 ,what is more1 the landscape is rendered more exotic or ,african by the ,oriental appearance of the whole town1 its castle1 and its cathedral4 ,the latter was begun and ended in the twelfth century2 the first stone was laid in #aaea1 and the vaults were closed twenty-three years later1 in #aagd2 consequently it is one of the unique twelfth-century churches in ,spain completed before the year #abjj4 ,it is true that the original edifice has been deformed by posterior additions and changes dating from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,excepting these abominable additions1 the primitive building is ,romanesque2 not ,romanesque as are the cathedrals we have seen in ,galicia1 but ,byzantine1 or military ,romanesque1 showing decided ,oriental influences4 ,would to ,heaven the cathedral of ,zamora were to-day as it stood in the twelfth century6 ,illustration3 ,,zamora ,,cathedral ,the form of the church is that of a basilica4 ,like the cathedral of ,palencia1 it lacks a western front2 the apse is semicircular1 strengthened by heavy leaning buttresses2 the upper1 towerless rim of this same body is decorated with an ogival festoon set off by means of the primitive pinnacles of the top of the buttresses4 ,the northern 7,renaissance or plateresque7 front is1 though beautiful and severe in itself1 a calamity when compared with the ,romanesque edifice1 as is also the new and horrid clock-tower4 ,the view of the southern end of the transept1 as seen from the left1 is the most imposing to be obtained of the building4 ,two flights of steps lead up to the ,romanesque portal1 flanked by three simple pillars1 which support three rounded arches deeply dentated7674 ,blind windows1 similar in structure to the portal1 occupy the second body of the facade1 and are surmounted in their turn by a simple row of inverted crenelated teeth1 showing in their rounded edges the timid use of the horseshoe arc4 ,the superior body is formed by two concentric and slightly ogival arches embedded in the wall4 ,the greatest attraction1 and that which above all gives a warlike aspect to the whole building1 is the cimborio1 or lantern of the croisee4 ,flanked by four circular turrets1 which are pierced by round-topped windows and surmounted by ,oriental domes that add a stunted1 solid appearance to the whole1 the principal cupola rises to the same height as the previously mentioned turrets4 ,the whole is a marvel of simple architectural resource within the narrow limits of the round-arched style4 ,what is more1 though this cupola and that of ,santiago belong to the same period1 what a world of difference between the two6 ,seen as indicated above1 the factura of the whole is intensely ,oriental 7excepting the addition of the triangular cornices emerging from beneath the cupola71 and1 it may be said in parenthesis1 exceptionally fine4 ,besides1 the high walls of the aisles1 as compared with the stunted growth of the cimborio1 and with the compact and slightly angular form of the entire building1 lend an unrivalled aspect of solidity1 strength1 and resistance to the twelfth-century cathedral church1 so intrinsically different from that of ,santiago4 ,the interior is no less peculiar1 and particularly so beneath the lantern of the croisee4 ,the latter is composed of more than a dozen windows1 slightly ogival in shape1 though from the outside the pillars of the flanking turrets support round-headed arches2 these windows are separated from each other by simple columns or shafts4 ,again1 what a difference between this solid and simple cimborio and the marvellous lantern of the cathedral at ,burgos6 ,two ages1 two generations1 even two ideals1 are represented in both2 the earlier1 the stronger1 in ,zamora2 the later1 the more aerial and elaborate1 in ,burgos4 ,another ,romanesque characteristic is the approximate height of nave and aisles4 ,this circumstance examined from within or from without is one of the causes of the solid appearance of the church2 the windows of the aisles--unimportant1 it is true1 from an artistic point of view--are slightly ogival2 those of the nave are far more primitive and round-headed4 ,the transept1 originally of the same length as the width of the church1 was prolonged in the fifteenth century4 7,on the south side also8444 ,it is extremely doubtful1 as the southern facade previously described is hardly a fifteenth-century construction2 on the other hand1 that on the north side is easily classified as posterior to the general construction of the building47 ,further1 the western end1 lacking a facade1 is terminated by an apse1 that is1 each aisle and the central nave run into a chapel4 ,the effect of this double apse is highly peculiar1 especially as seen from within1 with chapels to the east and chapels to the west4 ,the retablo is of indifferent workmanship2 the choir stalls1 on the other hand1 are among the most exquisitely wrought--simple1 sober1 and natural--to be seen in ,spain1 especially those of the lower row4 ,the chapels are as usual in ,spanish cathedrals1 as different in style as they are in size2 none of those in ,zamora can be considered as artistic jewels4 ,the best is doubtless that which terminates the southern aisles on the western end of the church1 where the principal facade ought to have been placed4 ,it is ,gothic1 rich in its decoration1 but showing here and there the decadence of the northern style4 ,the cloister--well1 anywhere else it might have been praised for its plateresque simplicity and severity1 but here6--it is out of date and place4 ,to conclude1 the general characteristics of the cathedral of ,zamora are such as justify the opinion that the edifice1 especially as its ,byzantine-,oriental and severe primitive structure is concerned1 is one of the great churches that can still be admired in ,spain1 in spite of the reduced size and of the additions which have been introduced4 ,,note4--,to the traveller interested in church architecture1 the author wishes to draw attention to the parish church of ,la ,magdalen in ,zamora4 ,the northern portal of the same is one of the most perfect--if not the most perfect--specimen of ,byzantine-,romanesque decoration to be met with in ,spain4 ,it is perhaps unique in the world4 ,at the same time1 the severe ,oriental appearance of the church1 both from the outside and as seen from within1 cannot fail to draw the attention of the most casual observer4 ,,iii ,,toro ,to the west of ,valladolid1 on the river ,duero1 ,toro1 the second of the two great fortress cities1 uplifts its ,alcazar to the blue sky2 like ,zamora1 it owed its fame to its strategic position3 first1 as one of the ,christian outposts to the north of the ,duero against the ,arab possessions to the south1 and1 secondly1 as a link between ,valladolid and ,zamora1 the latter being the bulwark of ,christian opposition against the ever encroaching ,portuguese4 ,twin cities the fortresses have been called1 and no better expression is at hand to denote at once the similarity of their history1 their necessary origin1 and their necessary decadence4 ,nevertheless1 ,toro appears in history somewhat later than ,zamora1 having been erected either on virgin soil1 or upon the ruins of a destroyed ,arab fortress as late as in the tenth century1 by ,garcia1 son of ,alfonso ,,iii4 ,at any rate1 it was not until a century later1 in #ajfe1 that the city attained any importance1 when ,fernando ,i4 bequeathed it to his daughter ,elvira1 who1 seeing her elder brother's impetuous ambitions1 handed over the town and the citadel to him4 ,throughout the middle ages the name of ,toro is foremost among the important fortresses of ,castile1 and many an event--generally tragic and bloody--took place behind its walls4 ,here ,alfonso ,,xi4 murdered his uncle in cold blood1 and ,don ,pedro el ,cruel1 after besieging the town and the citadel held in opposition to him by his mother1 allowed her a free exit with the gentlemen defenders of the place1 but broke his word when they were on the bridge1 and murdered all excepting his widowed mother6 ,in the days of ,isabel the ,catholic1 ,toro was taken by the kings of ,portugal1 who upheld the claims of ,enrique ,,iv's illegitimate daughter1 ,juana la ,beltranaja4 ,in the vicinity of the town1 the great battle of ,pelea ,gonzalo was fought1 which gave the western part of ,castile to the rightful sovereigns4 ,this battle is famous for the many prelates and curates who1 armed1--and wearing trousers and not frocks6--fought like ,christians 767 in the ranks4 ,in ,toro1 ,cortes was assembled in #aeje to open ,queen ,isabel's testament1 and to promulgate those laws which have gone down in ,spanish history as the ,leyes de ,toro2 this was the last spark of ,toro's fame1 for since then its fate has been identical with that of ,zamora1 forty miles away4 ,strictly speaking1 it is doubtful if ,toro ever was a city2 at one time it seems to have possessed an ephemeral bishop1--at least such is the popular belief1--who must have reigned in his see but a short time1 as at an early date the city was submitted to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of ,astorga4 ,later1 when the see was reestablished in ,zamora1 the latter's twin sister1 ,toro1 was definitely included in the new episcopal diocese4 ,be that as it may1 the ,catholic kings raised the church at ,toro to a collegiate in the sixteenth century 7#aejj87 because they were anxious to gain the good-will of the inhabitants after the ,portuguese invasion4 ,built either toward the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century1 ,santa ,maria la ,mayor1 popularly called la catedral1 closely resembles the cathedral church at ,zamora4 ,the style is the same 7,byzantine-,romanesque71 and the impression of strength and solidity produced by the warlike aspect of the building is even more pronounced than in the case of the sister church4 ,the general plan is that of a basilica1 rectangular in shape1 with a three-lobed apse1 the central lobe being by far the largest in size1 and a transept which protrudes slightly beyond the width of the church4 ,this transept is situated immediately in front of the apse2 the croisee is surmounted by the handsome cimborio1 larger than that at ,zamora1 pierced by twice as many round-topped windows1 but lacking a cupola1 as do also the flanking towers1 which are flat-topped4 ,above and between these latter1 the cone-shaped roof of the cimborio1 properly speaking1 is sloping and triangular in its cross-section4 ,this body1 less ,oriental in appearance than the one in ,zamora1 impresses one with a feeling of greater awe1 thanks to the great diameter as compared with the foreshortened height4 ,crowning as it does the apse 7from the proximity of the transept to the head of the church71 the croisee1 and the two wings of the transept1 the cupola in question produces a weird and incomprehensible effect on the spectator viewing it from the southeast4 ,the more modern tower1 which backs the cimborio1 lends1 it is true1 a certain elegance to the edifice that the early builders were not willing to impart4 ,the ensemble is1 nevertheless1 peculiarly ,byzantine1 and1 with the mother-church in ,zamora1 which it resembles without copying1 it stands almost unique in the history of art4 ,the lateral doors1 not situated in the transept1 are located near the foot of the church4 ,the southern portal is the larger1 but the most simple2 the arch which crowns it shows a decided ogival tendency1 a circumstance which need not necessarily be attributed to ,gothic influence1 as in many churches prior to the introduction of the ogival arch the pointed top was known1 and in isolated cases it was made use of1 though purely by accident1 and not as a constructive element4 ,the northern door is smaller1 but a hundred times richer in sculptural design4 ,it shows ,byzantine influence in the decoration1 and as a ,byzantine-,romanesque portal can figure among the best in ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,toro ,,cathedral ,it has been supposed that the western front of the building possessed at one time a narthex1 like the cathedral ,tuy1 for instance4 ,nothing remains of it1 however1 as the portal which used to be here was done away with1 and in its place a modern chapel with a fine ,gothic retablo was consecrated4 ,seen from the interior1 the almost similar height of the nave and aisles1 leaves1 as in ,zamora1 a somewhat stern and depressing impression on the visitor2 the light which enters is also feeble1 excepting beneath the linterna1 where the difficulty of placing a circular body on a square without the aid of supports 7pechinas7 has been so naturally and perfectly overcome that we are obliged to doubt of its ever having existed4 ,gothic elements1 more so than in ,zamora1 mix with the ,romanesque traditions in the decoration of the nave and aisles2 nevertheless1 the elements of construction are purely ,romanesque1 excepting the central apsidal chapel which contains the high altar4 ,restored by the ,fonseca family in the sixteenth century1 it is ogival in conception and execution1 and contains some fine tombs of the above named aristocratic family4 ,but the chapel passes unnoticed in this peculiarly exotic building1 where solidity and not grace was the object sought and obtained4 ,,iv ,,salamanca ,the very position of ,salamanca1 immediately to the north of the chain of mountains which served for many a century as a rough frontier wall between ,christians and ,moors1 was bound to ensure the city's importance and fame4 ,its history is consequently unique1 grander and more exciting than that of any other city2 the universal name it acquired in the fourteenth century1 thanks to its university1 can only be compared with that of ,bologna1 ,paris1 and ,oxford4 ,consequently its fall from past renown to present insignificance was tremendous1 and to-day1 a heap of ruins1 boasting of traditions like ,toledo and ,burgos1 of two cathedrals and twenty-four parish churches1 of twice as many convents and palaces1 of a one-time glorious university and half a hundred colleges1--,salamanca sleeps away a useless existence from which it will never awaken4 ,its history has still to be penned4 ,what an exciting and stirring account of middle age life in ,spain it would be6 ,the ,romans knew ,salamantia1 and the first notice handed down to us of the city reads like a fairy story1 as though predicting future events4 ,according to ,plutarch1 the town was besieged by ,hannibal1 and had to surrender4 ,the inhabitants were allowed to leave1 unarmed1 and taking away with them only their clothes2 the men were searched as they passed out1 but not so the women4 ,together men and women left the town4 ,a mile away they halted1 and the women drew forth from beneath their robes concealed weapons4 ,together the men and the women returned to their town and stealthily fell upon their foes1 slaughtering them in considerable numbers4 ,hannibal was so enchanted 767 with the bravery displayed by the women1 that he drew away his army from the town1 leaving the patriotic inhabitants to settle again their beloved ,salamanca4 ,the ,western ,goths1 upon their arrival in ,spain1 found ,salamanca in a flourishing state1 and respected its episcopal see1 the origin of which is ignored4 ,the first bishop we have any record of is ,eleuterio1 who signed the third ,council of ,toledo in #ehi4 ,the ,arabs treated the city more harshly2 it was in turn taken and destroyed by infidels and ,christians2 the former sacking frontier towns1 the latter destroying all fortresses they could not hold4 ,in the eighth century no bishop seems to have existed in ,salamanca2 in the tenth1 date of a partial reestablishment of the see1 seven prelates are mentioned2 these did not1 however1 risk their skins by taking possession of their chair1 but lived quietly in the north1 either in ,santiago--farther north they could not go6--or else in ,leon and ,burgos4 ,the eleventh century is again devoid of any ecclesiastical news connected with the see of ,salamanca2 what is more1 the very name of the city is forgotten until ,alfonso ,,vi4 crossed the ,guaderrama and fixed his court in ,toledo4 ,this bold step1 taken in a hostile country far from the centre of the kingdom and from his base of operations1 obliged the monarch to erect with all speed a series of fortresses to the north2 as a result1 ,salamanca1 ,segovia1 and ,avila1 beyond the ,guaderrama ,mountains1 and ,madrid to the south1 were quickly populated by ,christians4 ,this occurred in #aajb2 the first bishop de modernis was ,jeronimo1 a ,french warrior-monk1 who had accompanied his bosom friend el ,cid to ,valencia1 had fought beside him1 and had been appointed bishop of the conquered see4 ,not for any length of time1 however1 for as soon as el ,cid died1 the ,moors drove the ,christians out of the new kingdom1 and the bishop came to ,leon with the ,cristo de las ,batallas1--a miraculous cross of old ,byzantine workmanship1 supposed to have aided the ,cid in many a battle1--as the only souvenir of his stay in the ,valencian see4 ,the next four or five bishops fought among themselves4 ,at one time the city had no fewer than two1 a usurper1 and another who was not much better2 the ,pope deprived one of his dignity1 the king another1 the influential ,archbishop of ,santiago chose a third1 who was also deposed--the good old times6--until at last one ,berengario was appointed1 and the ignominious conflict was peacefully settled4 ,the inhabitants of the city at the beginning were a strong1 warlike medley of ,jews 7these were doubtless the least warlike671 ,arabs1 ,aragonese1 ,castilian1 ,french1 and ,leonese4 ,bands of these without a commander invaded ,moorish territory1 sacking and pillaging where they could4 ,on one occasion they were pursued by an ,arab army1 whose general asked to speak with the captain of the ,salamantinos4 ,the answer was1 ,each of us is his own captain6 words that can be considered typical of the anarchy which reigned in ,spain until the advent of ,isabel and ,ferdinand in the fifteenth century4 ,if the bishops fought among themselves1 and if the low class people lived in a state of utter anarchy1 the same spirit spread to--or emanated from--the nobility1 of whom ,salamanca had more than its share1 especially as soon as the university was founded4 ,the annals of no other city are so replete with family traditions and feuds1 which were not only restricted to the original disputers1 to their families and acquaintances1 but became generalized among the inhabitants themselves1 who took part in the feud4 ,thus it often happened that the city was divided into two camps1 separated by an imaginary line1 and woe betide the daring or careless individual who crossed it6 ,one of the most dramatic of these feuds--a savage species of vendetta--was the following3 ,dona ,maria ,perez1 a ,plasencian dame of noble birth1 had married one of the most powerful noblemen in ,salamanca1 ,monroy by name1 and upon the latter's death remained a widowed mother of two sons4 ,one of them asked and obtained in marriage the hand of a noble lady who had refused a similar proposition made by one ,enriquez1 son of a ,sevillan aristocrat4 ,the youth's jealousy and anger was therefore bitterly aroused1 and he and his brother waited for a suitable opportunity in which to avenge themselves4 ,it soon came3 they were playing ,spanish ball1 pelota1 one day with the accepted suitor1 when a dispute arose as to who was the better player2 the two brothers fell upon their victim and foully murdered him4 ,but afraid lest his brother should venge the latter's death1 they lay in wait for him behind a street corner1 and as he came along they rapidly killed him as they had his brother4 ,then they fled across the frontier to ,portugal4 ,the two corpses had in the meantime been carried on a bier by the crowds and laid down in front of ,dona ,maria's house2 the latter stepped out on the balcony1 with dishevelled hair2 an angry murmur went from one end of the crowd to the other1 and a universal clamour arose3 vengeance was on every one's lips4 ,but ,dona ,maria commanded silence4 ,be calm1 she said1 and take these bodies to the cathedral4 ,vengeance8 ,fear not1 ,i shall venge myself4 ,an hour later she left the town with an escort1 apparently with a view to retire to her estates near ,plasencia4 ,once well away from the city1 she divulged her plan to the escort and asked if they were willing to follow her4 ,receiving an affirmative reply1 she tore off her woman's clothes and appeared dressed in full armour2 placing a helmet on her head1 she took the lead of her troops again1 and set out for the ,portuguese frontier4 ,the strange company arrived on the third day at a ,portuguese frontier town1 where they were told that two foreigners had arrived the night before4 ,by the description of the two ,spaniards1 ,dona ,maria felt sure they were her sons' murderers1 and consequently she and her escort approached the house where the fugitives were passing the night4 ,placing the escort beneath the window1 she stealthily entered the house and stole to the brothers' room2 then she slew them whilst they were sleeping1 and1 rushing to the window1 threw it open1 and1 spearing the heads of her enemies on her lance1 she showed them to her retinue1 with the words3 ,i'm venged6 ,back to ,salamanca4 ,silently1 at the head of her troops1 and bearing the two heads on her lance1 ,dona ,maria returned to ,salamanca4 ,entering the cathedral1 she threw them on the newly raised slabs which covered her sons' remains4 ,ever after she was known as ,dona ,maria la brava1 and is as celebrated to-day as she was in the fifteenth century1 during the abominable reign of ,henry ,,iv4 ,and so great was the feud which divided the city into two camps1 that it lasted many years1 and many were the victims of the gigantic vendetta4 ,the city's greatest fame lay in its university1 founded toward #abae1 by ,alfonso ,,ix4 of ,leon1 who was jealous of his cousin ,alfonso ,,viii4 of ,castile1 the founder of the luckless university of ,palencia4 ,the fate of the last named university has been duly mentioned elsewhere2 that of ,salamanca was far different4 ,in #abee the ,pope called it one of the four lamps of the world2 strangers--students from all corners of ,europe--flocked to the city to study4 ,perhaps its greatest merit was the study of ,arabic and ,arabian letters1 and it has been said that the study of the ,orient penetrated into ,europe through ,salamanca alone4 ,what a glorious life must have been the university city's during the apogee of her fame6 ,students from all ,european lands1 dressed in the picturesque costume worn by those who attended the university1 wended their way through the streets1 singing and playing the guitar or the mandolin2 they mingled with dusky noblemen1 richly dressed in satins and silks1 and wearing the rapier hanging by their sides2 they flirted with the beautiful daughters of ,spain1 and gravely saluted the bishop when he was carried along in his chair1 or rode a quiet palfrey4 ,at one time the court was established in the university city1 lending a still more brilliant lustre to the every-day life of the inhabitants1 and to the sombre streets lined with palaces1 churches1 colleges1 convents1 and monasteries4 ,gone6 ,to-day the city lies beneath an immense weight of ruins of all kinds1 that chain her down to the past which was her glory1 and impede her from looking ahead into her future with ambitions and hopes4 ,the cathedrals ,salamanca can boast of to-day are two1 an old one and a comparatively new one2 the latter was built beside the former1 a praiseworthy and exceptional proceeding1 for1 instead of pulling down the old to make room for the new1 as happens throughout the world1 the cathedral chapter convocated an assembly of architects1 and was intelligent enough--another wonder6--to accept the verdict that the old building1 a ,romanesque-,byzantine edifice of exceptional value1 should not be demolished4 ,the new temple was therefore erected beside the former1 and1 obeying the art impulses of the centuries which witnessed its construction1 is an ogival church spoilt--or bettered--by ,renaissance1 plateresque1 and grotesque decorative elements4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,old ,cathedral4--,the exact date of the erection of the old see is not known2 toward #aaeb it was already in construction1 and #aej years later1 in #abii1 it was not concluded4 ,consequently1 and more than in the case of ,zamora and ,toro1 the upper part of the building shows decided ogival tendencies2 yet in spite of these evident signs of transition1 the ensemble1 the spirit of the building1 is1 beyond a doubt1 ,romanesque-,byzantine1 and not ,gothic4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,salamanca ,,cathedral ,the plan of the church is the same as those of ,zamora1 ,toro1 and ,coria3 a nave and two aisles cut short at the transept1 which is slightly prolonged beyond the width of the body of the church2 there is no ambulatory walk1 but to the east of the transept are three chapels in a three-lobed apse1 the central lobe larger than the others and containing the high altar2 the choir was placed 7originally7 in the centre of the nave1 and a cimborio crowns the croisee1 this latter being a peculiarity of the three cathedral churches of ,zamora1 ,toro1 and ,salamanca4 ,unluckily1 the erection of the new building as an annex of the old one required 7as in ,plasencia1 though from different reasons7 the demolition of certain parts of the latter2 as1 for instance1 the two towers of the western front1 the northern portal as well as the northern half of the apse1 and the corresponding part of the transept4 ,parts of these have either been surrounded or replaced by the new building4 ,the narthex and the western end are still preserved4 ,they are of the same width as the nave1 for1 beneath the towers1 of which one seems to have been far higher than the other1 each of the aisles terminates in a chapel4 ,byzantine in appearance1 the two western doors are1 nevertheless1 crowned by an ogival arch1 and flanked by statuettes of the same style4 ,the facade1 repaired and spoilt1 is of ,renaissance severity4 ,the interior of the building is more impressive than that of either ,zamora or ,toro2 this is due to the absence of the choir1--removed to the new cathedral1--which permits an uninterrupted view of the whole church1 which does not occur in any other temple throughout ,spain4 ,romanesque strength and gloominess is clearly discernible1 whereas the height of the central nave 7sixty feet7 is rendered stumpy in appearance by the almost equal height of the aisles4 ,the strength and solidity of the pillars and columns1 supporting capitals and friezes of a peculiar and decided ,byzantine taste 7animals1 dragons1 etc471 show more keenly than in ,galicia the ,oriental influence which helped so thoroughly to shape ,central ,spanish ,romanesque4 ,of the chapels1 but one deserves special mention1 both as seen from without and from within1 namely1 the high altar1 or central apsidal chapel4 ,seen from without1 it is of perfect ,romanesque construction1 excepting the upper row of rose windows1 which are ogival in their traceries2 inside1 it contains a mural painting of an exceedingly primitive design1 and a retablo in low reliefs enchased in ogival arches2 it is of ,italian workmanship4 ,of the remaining chapels1 that of ,san ,bartolome contains an alabaster sepulchre of the ,bishop ,diego de ,anaya--one of the many prelates of those times who was the possessor of illegitimate sons2 the bodies of most of the latter lie within this chapel1 which can be regarded not only as a family pantheon1 but as a symbol of ecclesiastical greatness and human weakness4 ,the windows which light up the nave are round-headed1 and yet they are delicately decorated1 as is rarely to be seen in the ,romanesque type4 ,the aisles1 on the contrary1 are not lit up by any windows4 ,like the churches of ,zamora and ,toro1 the whole cathedral resembles a fortress rather than a place of worship4 ,the simplicity of the general structure1 the rounded turrets buried in the walls1 serving as leaning buttresses1 the narrow slits in the walls instead of windows1 lend an indisputable aspect of strength4 ,the beautiful1 the really beautiful lantern1 situated above the croisee1 with its turrets1 its niches1 its thirty odd windows1 and its elegant cupola1 is an architectural body that wins the admiration of all who behold it1 either from within the church or from without1 and which1 strictly ,byzantine in conception 7though rendered peculiarly ,spanish by the addition of certain elements which pertain rather to ,gothic military art than to church architecture71 is unique--to the author's knowledge--in all ,europe4 ,less pure in style1 and less ,oriental in appearance than that of ,zamora1 it was nevertheless1 created more perfect by the artistic conception of the architect1 and consequently more finished or developed than those of ,toro and ,zamora4 ,without hesitation1 it can claim to be one of ,salamanca's chief attractions4 ,the thickness of the walls 7ten feet671 the admirable simpleness of the vaulting1 and the general aspect from the exterior1 have won for the church the name of fortis ,salamantini4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,new ,cathedral4--,it was begun in #aeac1 the old temple having been judged too small1 and above all too narrow for a city of the importance of ,salamanca4 ,over two hundred years did the building of the present edifice last2 at times all work was stopped for years1 no funds being at hand to pay either artists or masons4 ,the primitive plan of the church1 as proposed by the congress of architects1 was ,gothic of the second period1 with an octagonal apse2 the lower part of the church1 from the foot to the transept1 was the first to be constructed4 ,the upper part of the apse was not begun until the year #aehh1 and the artist1 imbued with the beauty of ,herrero's ,escorial1 squared the apse with the evident intention of constructing turrets on the exterior angles1 which would have rendered the building symmetrical3 two towers on the western front1 a cupola on the croisee1 and two smaller turrets on the eastern end4 ,the building as it stands to-day is a perfect rectangle cut in its length by a nave 7containing the choir and the high altar71 and by two aisles1 lower than the nave and continued in an ambulatory walk behind the high altar4 ,the same symmetry is visible in the lateral chapels3 eight square huecos on the exterior walls of the aisles1 five to the west1 and three to the east of the transept1 and three in the extreme eastern wall of the apse4 ,magnificence rather than beauty is the characteristic note of the new cathedral4 ,the primitive part--pure ogival with but little mixture--contrasts with the eastern end1 which is covered over with the most glaring grotesque decoration2 most of the chapels are spoiled by the same shocking profusion of super-ornamentation2 the otherwise majestic cupola1 the high altar1 and the choir--all suffer from the same defect4 ,the double triforium--one higher than the other--in the clerestory produces a most favourable impression2 this is heightened by the wealth of light1 which1 entering by two rows of windows and by the cimborio1 falls upon the rich decoration of friezes and capitals4 ,the general view of the whole building is also freer than in most ,spanish cathedrals1 and this harmony existing in the proportions of the different parts strikes the visitor more favourably1 perhaps1 than in the severer cathedral at ,burgos4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,salamanca ,,cathedral ,the exterior of the building reflects more truthfully than the interior the different art waves which spread over ,spain during the centuries of the temple's erection4 ,in the western front1 the rich ,gothic portal of the third period1 the richest perhaps in sculptural variety of any on the peninsula1 contrasts with the high mongrel tower1 a true example of the composite towers so frequently met with in certain ,spanish regions4 ,the second body of the same facade 7western7 is highly interesting1 not on account of its ornamentation1 which is simple1 but because of the solid1 frank structure1 and the curious fortress-like turrets embedded in the angles4 ,the flank of the building1 seen from the north--for on the south side stand the ruins of the old cathedral--is none too homogeneous1 thanks to the different styles in which the three piers of windows--of chapels1 aisles1 and clerestory--have been constructed4 ,the ensemble is picturesque1 nevertheless3 the three rows of windows1 surmounted by the huge cupola and half-lost among the buttresses1 certainly contribute toward the general elegance of the granite structure4 ,v ,,ciudad ,,rodrigo ,in the times of the ,romans1 the country to the west of ,salamanca seems to have been thickly populated4 ,calabria1 situated between the ,agueda and ,coa ,rivers1 was an episcopal see2 in its vicinity ,augustabriga and ,mirobriga were two other important towns4 ,of these three ,roman fortresses1 and perhaps native towns1 before the invasion1 not as much as a stone or a legend remains to relate the tale of their existence and death4 ,toward #aaej1 ,fernando ,,ii4 of ,castile1 obeying the military requirements of the ,reconquest1 and at the same time wishing to erect a fortress-town1 which1 together with ,zamora to the north1 ,salamanca to the west1 and ,coria to the south1 could resist the invasion of ,spain by ,portuguese armies1 founded ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 and twenty years later raised the church to an episcopal see1 a practical means of attracting ,god-fearing settlers4 ,consequently1 the twelfth-century town1 inheriting the ecclesiastical dignity of ,calabria1 if the latter ever possessed it1 besides being situated in the same region as the three ,roman cities previously mentioned1 can claim to have been born a city4 ,one of the early bishops 7the first was a certain ,domingo7 was the famous ,pedro ,diaz1 about whom a legend has been handed down to us4 ,this legend has also been graphically illustrated by an artist of the sixteenth century2 his painting is to be seen to the right of the northern transept door in the cathedral4 ,pedro ,diaz seems to have been a worldly priest1 fond of the sins of the flesh and of good eating1 who fell ill in the third year of his reign4 ,his secretary1 a pious servant of the ,lord1 dreamt he saw his master's soul devoured by demons1 and persuaded him to confess his sins4 ,it was too late1 for a few days later he died2 his death was1 however1 kept a secret by his menials1 who wished to have plenty of time to make a generous division of his fortune4 ,when all had been settled to their liking1 the funeral procession moved through the streets of the city1 and1 to the surprise of all1 the dead bishop1 resurrected by ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 at the time in ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 opened the coffin and stood upon the hearse4 ,he accused his servants of their greed1 and at the same time made certain revelations concerning the life hereafter4 ,his experiences must have been rather pessimistic1 to judge by the bishop's later deeds1 for1 having been granted a respite of twenty days upon this earth1 he fasted and made penitence1 doubtless eager to escape a second time the tortures of the other world4 ,other traditions concerning the lives and doings of the noblemen who disputed the feudal right or senorio over the town1 are as numerous as in ,plasencia1 with which city ,ciudad ,rodrigo has certain historical affinities4 ,the story of the ,virgen ,coronada1 who1 though poor1 did not hesitate in killing a powerful and wealthy libertine nobleman whom she was serving2 the no less stirring account of ,dona ,maria ,adan's vow that she would give her fair daughter's hand to whomsoever venged her wrongs on the five sons of her husband's murderer1 are among the most tragic and thrilling4 ,there are many other traditions beside1 which constitute the past's legacy to the solitary city near the ,portuguese frontier4 ,it was in the nineteenth century that ,ciudad ,rodrigo earned fame as a brave city4 ,the ,spanish war for independence had broken out against the ,french1 who overran the country1 and passed from ,bayonne in the ,gascogne to ,lisbon in ,portugal4 ,ciudad ,rodrigo lay on the shortest route for the ,french army1 and had to suffer two sieges1 one in #ahaj and the second in #ahab4 ,in the latter1 ,wellington was the commander of the ,english forces who had come to help the ,spanish chase the ,french out of the peninsula2 the siege of the town and the battle which ensued were long and terrible1 but at last the allied ,english and ,spanish won1 with the loss of two ,english generals4 ,the ,iron ,duke was rewarded by ,spanish ,cortes1 with the title of ,duke of ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 together with the honours of grandee of ,spain1 which are still retained by ,wellington's descendants4 ,illustration3 ,,cuidad ,,rodrigo ,,cathedral ,the cathedral church of ,ciudad ,rodrigo is a twelfth-century building1 in which the ,romanesque style1 similar to those of ,zamora and ,toro1 fights with the nascent ogival style4 ,notwithstanding these remarks1 however1 the building does not pertain to the ,transition period1 but rather to the second or last period of ,spanish ,romanesque4 ,this is easily seen by the basilica form of the church1 the three-lobed apse1 the lack of an ambulatory walk1 and the apparently similar height of nave and aisles4 ,the square tower1 surmounted by a cupola1 at the foot of the church1 as well as the entire western front1 dates from the eighteenth century2 it is cold1 anti-artistic1 utterly unable to appeal to the poetic instincts of the spectator4 ,behind the western front1 and leading directly into the body of the church1 is a delightful ,romanesque narthex which doubtlessly served as the western facade prior to the eighteenth-century additions4 ,it is separated from the principal nave by a door divided into two by a solid pediment1 upon which is encrusted a statue of the ,virgin with ,child in her arms4 ,the semicircular arches which surmount the door are finely executed1 and the columns which support them are decorated with handsome twelfth-century statuettes4 ,there is a great similarity between this portal and the principal one 7del ,obispo7 in ,toro3 it almost seems as though the same hand had chiselled both1 or at least traced the plan of their decoration4 ,of the two doors which lead1 one on the south and the other on the north1 into the transept1 the former is perhaps the more perfect specimen of the primitive style4 ,both are richly decorated2 unluckily1 in both portals1 the rounded arches have been crowned in more recent times by an ogival arch1 which certainly mars the pureness of the style1 though not the harmony of the ensemble4 ,to the left of these doors1 a niche has been carved into the wall to contain a full-length statue of the ,virgin2 this is an unusual arrangement in ,spanish churches4 ,the exterior of the apse retains its primitive cachet2 the central chapel1 where the high altar is placed1 was1 however1 rebuilt in the sixteenth century by ,tavera1 the ,cardinal-,archbishop of ,toledo1 who had at one time occupied the see of ,ciudad ,rodrigo4 ,it is a peculiar mixture of ,gothic and ,romanesque1 of pointed windows and heavy buttresses2 the flat roof is decorated by means of a low stone railing or balustrade composed of elegantly carved pinnacles4 ,to conclude3 excepting the western front and the central lobe of the apse1 the tower and the ogival arch surmounting the northern and southern portals1 the cathedral of ,ciudad ,rodrigo is one of the most perfectly preserved ,romanesque buildings to the south of ,zamora and ,toro4 ,it is less grim and warlike than the two last-named edifices1 and yet it is also a fair example of severe and gloomy 7though not less artistic67 ,castilian ,romanesque4 ,its croisee is not surmounted by the heavy cupola as in ,salamanca and elsewhere1 and it is perhaps just this suppression or omission which gives the whole building a far less ,oriental appearance than the others mentioned heretofore4 ,in the inside1 the choir occupies its usual place4 ,its stalls1 it is believed1 were carved by ,aleman1 the same who probably wrought those superb seats at ,plasencia4 ,it is doubtful if the same master carved both1 however1 but were it so1 the stalls at ,ciudad ,rodrigo would have to be classified as older1 executed before those we shall examine in a future chapter4 ,the nave and two aisles1 pierced by ogival windows in the clerestory and round-headed windows in the aisles1 constitute the church2 the croisee is covered by means of a simple ogival vaulting2 the arches separating the nave from the aisles are ,romanesque1 as is the vaulting of the former4 ,it was originally the intention of the chapter to beautify the solemn appearance of the interior by means of a triforium or running gallery4 ,unluckily1 perhaps because of lack of funds1 the triforium was never begun excepting that here and there are seen remnants of the primitive tracing4 ,with the lady-chapel profusely and lavishly ornamented1 and quite out of place in this solemn building1 there are five chapels1 one at the foot of each aisle and two in the apse1 to the right and left of the lady-chapel4 ,they all lack art interest1 however1 as does the actual retablo1 which replaces the one destroyed by the ,french2 remnants of the latter are to be seen patched up on the cloister walls4 ,this cloister to the north of the church is a historical monument1 for each of the four sides of the square edifice is an architectural page differing from its companions4 ,studying first the western1 then the southern1 and lastly the two remaining sides1 the student can obtain an idea of how ,romanesque principles struggled with ,gothic before dying completely out1 and how the latter1 having reached its apogee1 deteriorated into the most lamentable superdecoration before fading away into the naked1 straight-lined features of the ,renaissance so little compatible with ,christian ideals4 ,,vi ,,coria ,to the west of ,toledo and to the south of the ,sierra de ,gata1 which1 with the mountains of ,gredo and the ,guaderrama1 formed in the middle ages a natural frontier between ,christians and ,moors1 lies1 in a picturesque and fertile vale about twenty miles distant from the nearest railway station1 the little known cathedral town of ,coria4 ,it is situated on the northern shores of the ,alagon1 a river flowing about ten miles farther west into the ,tago1 near where the latter leaves ,spanish territory and enters that of ,portugal4 ,caurium1 or ,curia ,vetona1 was its name when the ,romans held ,extremadura1 and it was in this town1 or in its vicinity1 that ,viriato1 the ,spanish hero1 destroyed four ,roman armies sent to conquer his wild hordes4 ,he never lost a single battle or skirmish1 and might possibly have dealt a death-blow to ,roman plans of domination in the peninsula1 had not the traitor's knife ended his noble career4 ,their enemy dead1 the ,romans entered the city of ,coria1 which they immediately surrounded by a circular wall half a mile in length1 and twenty-six feet thick 7674 ,this ,roman wall1 considered by many to be the most perfectly preserved in ,europe1 is severely simple in structure1 and flanked by square towers2 it constitutes the city's one great attraction4 ,the episcopal see was erected in #cch4 ,the names of the first bishops have long been forgotten1 the first mentioned being one ,laquinto1 who signed the third ,toledo ,council in #ehi4 ,two centuries later the ,moors raised ,al-,karica to one of their capitals2 in #hed ,zeth1 an ambitious ,saracen warrior1 freed it from the yoke of ,cordoba1 and reigned in the city as an independent sovereign4 ,like ,zamora and ,toro1 ,coria was continually being lost and won by ,christians and ,moors1 with this difference1 that whereas the first two can be looked upon as the last ,christian outposts to the north of the ,duero1 ,coria was the last ,arab stronghold to the north of the ,tago4 ,toward the beginning of the thirteenth century1 the strong fortress on the ,alagon was definitely torn from the hands of its independent sovereign by ,alfonso ,,viii41 after the battle of ,las ,navas de ,tolosa4 ,a bishop was immediately reinstated in the see1 and after five centuries of ,mussulman domination1 ,coria saw the standard of ,castile waving from its citadel4 ,as happened with so many other provincial towns in ,spain1 the centralization of power to the north of ,toledo shoved ,coria into the background2 to-day it is a cathedral village forgotten or completely ignored by the rest of ,spain4 ,really1 it might perhaps have been better for the ,arabs to have preserved it1 for under their rule it flourished4 ,it is picturesque1 this village on the banks of the ,alagon3 a heap or bundle of red bricks surrounded by grim stone walls1 over-topped by a cathedral tower and citadel1--the whole picture emerging from a prairie and thrown against a background formed by the mountains to the north and the bright blue sky in the distance4 ,arab influence is only too evident in the buildings and houses1 in the ,alcazar1 and in the streets2 unluckily1 these remembrances of a happy past depress the dreamy visitor obliged to recognize the infinite sadness which accompanied the expulsion of the ,moors by intolerant tyrants from the land they had inhabited1 formed1 and moulded to their taste4 ,nowhere is this so evident as in ,coria1 a forgotten bit of mediaeval ,moor-land4 ,the poet's exclamation is full of bitterness and resignation when he exclaims3 ,is it possible that this heap of ruins should have been in other times the splendid court of ,zeth and ,mondhir6 99 99 99 99 99 ,as an architectural building1 the cathedral of ,coria is a parish church1 which1 removed to any other town1 would be devoid of any and all beauty4 ,in other words1 the impressions it produces are entirely dependent upon its local surroundings2 eliminate these1 and the temple is worthless from an artistic or poetical point of view4 ,it was begun in #aabj1 most likely by ,arab workmen2 it was finished toward the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,honestly speaking1 it is a puzzle what the artisans did in all those long years2 doubtless they slept at their task1 or else decades passed away without work of any kind being done1 or again1 perhaps only one mason was employed at a time4 ,the interior is that of a simple ,gothic church of one aisle1 #aej feet long by fifty-two wide and eighty-four high2 the high altar is situated in the rounded apse2 in the centre of the church the choir stalls of the fifteenth century obstruct the view of the walls1 decorated only by means of pilasters which pretend to support the ,gothic vaulting4 ,to the right1 in the altar chapel1 is a fine marble sepulchre of the sixteenth century1 in which the chasuble of the kneeling bishop portrayed is among the best pieces of imitative sculpture to be seen in ,spain4 ,to the right of the high altar1 and buried in the cathedral wall1 a door leads out into the paseo1--a walk on the broad walls of the city1 with a delightful view southwards across the river to the prairie in the distance4 ,where can a prettier and more natural cloister be found8 ,the western facade is never used1 and is surrounded by the old cemetery1--a rather peculiar place for a cemetery in a cathedral church2 the northern facade is anti-artistic1 but the tower to the right has one great virtue1 that of comparative height4 ,though evidently intended to be ,gothic1 the ,arab taste1 so pronounced throughout this region1 got the better of the architect1 and he erected a square steeple crowned by a cupola4 ,yet1 and in spite of criticism which can hardly find an element worthy of praise in the whole cathedral building1 the tourist should not hesitate in visiting the city4 ,besides1 the whole region of ,northern ,extremadura1 in which ,coria and ,plasencia lie1 is historically most interesting3 ,yuste1 where ,charles-,quint spent the last years of his life1 is not far off2 neither is the ,convent of ,guadalupe1 famous for its pictures by the great ,zurbaran4 ,as for ,coria itself1 it is a forgotten corner of ,moor-land4 ,,vii ,,plasencia ,the foundation of ,plasencia by ,king ,alfonso ,,viii4 in #aagh1 and the erection of a new episcopal see twelve years later1 can be regarded as the coup de grace given to the importance of ,coria1 the twin sister forty miles away4 ,nevertheless1 the ,royal ,city1 as ,plasencia was called1 which ended by burying its older rival in the most shocking oblivion1 was not able to acquire a name in history4 ,founded by a king1 and handed over to a bishop and to favourite courtiers1 who ruled it indifferently well1 not to say badly1 it grew up to be an aristocratic town without a bourgeoisie4 ,its history in the middle ages is consequently one long series of family feuds1 duels1 and tragedies1 the record of bloody happenings1 and acts of heroic brutality and bravery4 ,in #abcc a ,moorish army conquered it1 shortly after the battle of ,alarcos was lost to ,alfonso ,,viii41 at that time blindly in love with his beautiful ,jewish mistress1 ,rachel of ,toledo4 ,but the infidels did not remain master of the situation1 far less of the city1 for any length of time1 as within the next year or so it fell again into the hands of its founder1 who strengthened the walls still standing to-day1 and completed the citadel4 ,the population of the city1 like that of ,toledo1 was mixed4 ,christians1 ,jews1 and ,moors lived together1 each in their quarter1 and together they used the fertile vegas1 which surround the town4 ,the ,jews and ,moors were1 in the fifteenth century1 about ten thousand in number2 in #adib the former were expelled by the ,catholic kings1 and in #afji ,philip ,,iii4 signed a decree expelling the ,moors4 ,since then ,plasencia has lost its municipal wealth and importance1 and the see1 from being one of the richest in ,spain1 rapidly sank until to-day it drags along a weary life1 impoverished and unimportant4 ,the ,jewish cemetery is still to be seen in the outskirts of the town2 ,arab remains1 both architectural and irrigatory1 are everywhere present1 and the quarter inhabited by them1 the most picturesque in ,plasencia1 is a ,moorish village4 ,the city itself1 crowning a hill beside the rushing ,ierte1 is a small ,toledo2 its streets are narrow and winding2 its church towers are numerous1 and the red brick houses warmly reflect the brilliancy of the southern atmosphere4 ,the same death1 however1 the same inactivity and lack of movement1 which characterize ,toledo and other cities1 hover in the alleys and in the public squares1 in the fertile vegas and silent patios of ,plasencia4 ,the history of the feuds between the great ,castilian families who lived here is tragically interesting3 ,hernan ,perez killed by ,diego ,alvarez1 the son of one of the former's victims2 the family of ,monroye pitched against the ,zunigas and other noblemen1--these and many other traditions are among the most stirring of the events that happened in ,spain in the middle ages4 ,even the bishops called upon to occupy the see seem to have been slaves to the warlike spirit that hovered1 as it were1 in the very atmosphere of the town4 ,the first prelate1 ,don ,domingo1 won the battle of ,navas de ,tolosa for his protector1 ,alfonso ,,viii4 ,when the ,christian army was wavering1 he rushed to the front 7with his naked sword1 the cross having been left at home71 at the head of his soldiers1 and drove the already triumphant ,moors back until they broke their ranks and fled4 ,the same bishop carried the ,christian sword to the very heart of the ,moorish dominions1 to ,granada1 and conquered neighbouring ,loja4 ,the next prelate1 ,don ,adan1 was one of the leaders of the army that conquered ,cordoba in #abcf1 and1 entering the celebrated mezquita1 sanctified its use as a ,christian church4 ,the history of the cathedral church is no less interesting4 ,the primitive see was temporarily placed in a church on a hill near the fortress2 this building was pulled down in the fifteenth century1 and replaced by a ,jesuit college4 ,toward the beginning of the fourteenth century a cathedral church was inaugurated4 ,its life was short1 however1 for in #adih it was partially pulled down to make way for a newer and larger edifice1 which is to-day the unfinished ,renaissance cathedral visited by the tourist4 ,parts of the old cathedral are1 however1 still standing4 ,between the tower of the new temple and the episcopal palace1 but unluckily weighted down by modern superstructures1 stands the old facade1 almost intact4 ,the grossness of the structural work1 the timid use of the ogival arch1 the primitive rose window1 and the general heaviness of the structure1 show it to belong to the decadent period of the ,romanesque style1 when the artists were attempting something new and forgetting the lessons of the past4 ,the new cathedral is a complicated ,gothic-,renaissance building of a nave and two aisles1 with an ambulatory behind the high altar4 ,not a square inch but what has been hollowed out into a niche or covered over with sculptural designs2 the ,gothic plan is anything but pure ,gothic1 and the ,renaissance style has been so overwrought that it is anything but ,italian ,renaissance4 ,the facade of the building is imposing1 if not artistic2 it is composed of four bodies1 each supported laterally by pillars and columns of different shapes and orders1 and possessing a hueco or hollow in the centre1 the lowest being the door1 the highest a stained glass window1 and the two central ones blind windows1 which spoil the whole4 ,the floral and ,byzantine 7,arab87 decoration of pillars and friezes is of a great wealth of varied designs2 statuettes are missing in the niches1 proving the unfinished state of the church4 ,illustration3 ,,facade ,,of ,,plasencia ,,cathedral ,three arches and four pillars1 sumptuously decorated1 uphold each of the clerestory walls1 which are pierced at the top by a handsome triforium running completely around the church4 ,the retablo of the high altar is richly decorated1 perhaps too richly2 the reja1 which closes off the sacred area1 is of fine seventeenth-century workmanship4 ,the choir stalls are of a surprising richness1 carved scenes covering the backs and seats4 ,they are famous throughout the country1 and the genius1 above all the imagination1 of the artist who executed them 7his name is unluckily not known1 though it is believed to be ,aleman7 must have been notable4 ,pious when carving the upper and visible seats1 he seems to have been exceedingly ironical and profane when sculpturing the inside of the same1 where the reverse or the caustic observation produced in the carver's mind has been artfully drawn1 though sometimes with an undignified grain of indecency and obscenity not quite in harmony with our ,puritanic spirit of to-day4 ,,part ,v ,eastern ,castile ,i ,,valladolid ,the origin of ,valladolid is lost in the shadows of the distant past4 ,as it was the capital of a vast kingdom1 it was thought necessary1 as in the case of ,madrid1 to place its foundation prior to the ,roman invasion2 the attempt failed1 however1 and though ,roman ruins have been found in the vicinity1 nothing is positively known about the city's history prior to the eleventh century4 ,when ,sancho ,,ii4 fought against his sister locked up in ,zamora1 he offered her ,vallisoletum in exchange for the powerful fortress she had inherited from her father4 ,in vain1 and the town seated on the ,pisuerga is not mentioned again in historical documents until #ajgd1 when ,alfonso ,,vi4 handed it over1 with several other villages1 to ,pedro ,ansurez1 who made it his capital1 raised the church 7,santa ,maria la ,mayor7 to a suffragan of ,palencia1 and laid the first foundations of its future greatness4 ,in #abjh the family of ,ansurez died out1 and the villa reverted to the crown2 from then until the reign of ,philip ,,iv4 ,valladolid was doubtless one of the most important cities in ,castile1 and the capital of all the ,spains1 from the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabel to that of ,philip ,,iii4 ,consequently1 the history of ,valladolid from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century is that of ,spain4 ,in ,valladolid1 ,peter the ,cruel1 after three days' marriage1 forsook his bride1 ,dona ,blanca de ,bourbon1 and returned to the arms of his mistress ,maria2 several years later he committed most of his terrible crimes within the limits of the town4 ,here ,maria de ,molina upheld her son's right to the throne during his minority1 and in ,valladolid also1 after her son's death1 the same widow fought for her grandson against the intrigues of uncles and cousins4 ,isabel and ,alfonso fought in ,valladolid against the proclamation of their niece1 ,juana1 the illegitimate daughter of ,henry ,,iv41 as heiress to the throne2 the citizens upheld the ,catholic princess's claims1 and it is not surprising that when the princess became queen--the greatest ,spain ever had--she made ,valladolid her capital1 in gratitude to the loyalty of its inhabitants4 ,in ,valladolid1 ,columbus obtained the royal permission to sail westwards in #adib1 and1 upon his last return from ,america1 he died in the selfsame city in #aejf2 here also ,berruguete1 the sculptor1 created many of his chefs-d'oeuvres and the immortal ,cervantes appeared before the law courts and wrote the second part of his ,quixote4 ,unlucky ,juana la ,loca 7,jane the ,mad7 and her husband ,felipe el ,hermoso 7,philip the ,handsome7 reigned here after the death of ,isabel the ,catholic1 and fifty years later1 when ,philip ,,ii4 returned from ,england to ascend the ,spanish throne1 he settled in ,valladolid1 until his religious fanaticism or craze obliged him to move to a city nearer the ,escorial4 ,then he fixed upon ,madrid as his court4 ,being a religious man1 nevertheless1 and conscious of a certain love for ,valladolid1 his natal town1 he had the suffragan church erected to a cathedral in #aeie1 appointing ,don ,bartolome de la ,plaza to be its first bishop4 ,at the same time1 he ordered ,juan de ,herrero1 the severe architect of the ,escorial1 to draw the plans and commence the building of the new edifice4 ,the growing importance of ,madrid1 and the final establishment in the last named city of all the honours which belonged to ,valladolid1 threw the city seated on the ,pisuerga into the shade1 and its star of fortune slowly waned4 ,but not to such a degree as that of ,salamanca or ,burgos1 for to-day1 of all the old cities of ,castile1 the only one which has a life of its own1 and a commercial and industrial personality1 is ,valladolid1 the one-time capital of all the ,spains1 and now the seat of an archbishopric4 ,it began by usurping the dignity of ,burgos2 then it rose to greater heights of fame than its rival1 thanks to the discovery of ,america1 and finally it lost its prestige when ,madrid was crowned the unica villa4 ,the general appearance of the city is peculiarly ,spanish1 especially as regards the prolific use of brick in the construction of churches and edifices in general4 ,it is presumable that the ,arabs were possessors of the town before the ,christian conquest1 though no documental proofs are at hand4 ,the etymology of the city's name1 ,medinat-el-,walid1 is purely ,arabic1 ,walid being the name of a ,moorish general4 ,if the cathedral church was erected as late as the sixteenth century1 it must not be supposed that the town lacked parish churches4 ,on the contrary1 there is barely a city in ,spain with more religious edifices of all kinds1 and the greater part of them of far more architectural merit than the cathedral itself4 ,the astonishing number of convents is remarkable2 many of them date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 and are1 consequently1 ,romanesque with a good deal of ,byzantine taste about them1 or else they belong to the period of ,transition4 ,taken all in all1 they are really the only architectural attractions to be discovered in the city to-day4 ,the traditions which explain the foundation of some of these are among the most characteristic in ,valladolid1 and a thread of ,oriental romance is more predominant among them than elsewhere4 ,a good example of one of these explains the foundation of the large convent of the ,mercedes4 ,dona ,leonor was the wife of one ,acuna1 a fearless 787 knight4 ,the ,king of ,portugal unluckily fell in love with ,dona ,leonor1 and1 wishing to marry her1 had her previous marriage annulled and placed her on his throne4 ,acuna fled from ,portugal and came to ,valladolid1 where1 with unparalleled sarcasm1 he wore a badge on his hat proclaiming his dishonour4 ,both ,acuna and the ,king of ,portugal died1 and ,dona ,leonor1 whose morals were none too edifying1 fell in love with a certain ,zuniguez2 the daughter of these two was handed over to the care of a knight1 ,fernan by name1 and ,dona ,leonor ordered him to found a convent1 upon her death1 and lock up her daughter within its walls2 the mother was doubtless only too anxious to have her daughter escape the ills of this life4 ,unluckily she counted without the person principally concerned1 namely1 the daughter1 for the latter fell secretly in love with her keeper's nephew4 ,she thought he was her cousin1 however1 for it appears she was passed off as ,fernan's daughter4 ,upon her mother's death she learnt her real origin1 and wedded her lover4 ,in gratitude for her non-relationship with her husband1 she founded the convent her mother had ordered1 but she herself remained without its walls6 ,the least that can be said about the cathedral of ,valladolid1 the better4 ,doubtless there are many people who consider the building a marvel of beauty4 ,as a specimen of ,juan de ,herrero's severe and majestic style1 it is second to no other building excepting only that great masterwork1 the ,escorial1 and perhaps parts of the ,pillar at ,saragosse4 ,but as an art monument1 where beauty and not ,greco-,roman effects are sought1 it is a failure4 ,the original plan of the building was a rectangle1 #daa feet long by #bjd wide1 divided in its length by a nave and two aisles1 and in its width by a broad transept situated exactly half-way between the apse and the foot of the church4 ,the form was thus that of a ,greek cross2 each angle of the building was to be surmounted by a tower1 and the croisee by an immense cupola or dome4 7,compare with the new cathedral in ,salamanca47 ,the lateral walls of the aisles were to contain symmetrical chapels1 as was also the apse4 ,from the foregoing it will be seen that symmetry and the ,greco-,roman straight horizontal line were to replace the ogival arch and the generally vertical1 soaring effect of ,gothic buildings4 ,the architect died before his monument was completed1 and ,churriguera1 the most anti-artistic artist that ever breathed1--according to the author's personal opinion1--was called upon to finish the edifice3 his trade-mark covers almost the entire western front1 where the second body shows the defects into which ,herrero's severe style degenerated soon after his death4 ,of the four towers and the cupola which were to render the capitol of ,valladolid second in grandeur to none excepting ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 only one tower was erected3 it fell down in #ahda1 and is being reerected at the present time4 ,in the interior the same disparity is everywhere visible1 as well as in the unfinished state of the temple4 ,greek columns are prevalent1 and1 contrasting with their simplicity1 the high altar1 as grotesque a body as ever was placed in a holy cathedral1 attracts the eye of the vulgar with something of the same feeling as a blood-and-thunder melodrama4 ,needless to say1 the art connoisseur flees therefrom4 ,illustration3 ,,western ,,front ,,of ,,valladolid ,,cathedral ,to the rear of the building the remains of the ,romanesque ,church of ,santa ,maria la ,mayor are still to be seen2 what a difference between the rigid1 anti-artistic conception of ,herrero1 ridiculized by ,churriguera1 and left but half-completed by successive generations of moneyless believers1 and the simple but elegant features of the old collegiate church1 with its tower still standing1 a ,byzantine recuerdo of the thirteenth century4 ,,ii ,,avila ,to the west of ,madrid1 in the very heart of the ,sierra de ,gredos1 lies ,avila1 another of the interesting cities of ,castile1 whose time-old mansions and palaces1 built of a gray granite1 lend a solemn and almost repulsively melancholic air to the city4 ,perhaps more than any other town1 ,avila is characteristic of the middle ages1 of the continual strife between the noblemen1 the ,church1 and the common people4 ,the houses of the aristocrats are castles rather than palaces1 with no artistic decoration to hide their bare nakedness2 the cathedral is really a fortress1 and not only apparently so1 as in ,salamanca and ,toro1 for its very apse is embedded in the city walls1 of which it forms a part1 a battlemented1 turreted1 and warlike projection1 sure of having to bear the brunt of an attack in case of a siege4 ,like the general aspect of the city is also the character of the inhabitant1 and it is but drawing it mildly to state that ,avila's sons were ever foremost in battle and strife4 ,kings in their minority were brought hither by prudent mothers who relied more upon the city's walls than upon the promises of noblemen in ,valladolid and ,burgos2 this trust was never misplaced4 ,in the conquest of ,extremadura and of ,andalusia1 also1 the ,avilese troops1 headed by daring warrior-prelates1 played a most important part1 and1 as a frontier fortress1 together with ,segovia1 against ,aragon to the east1 it managed to keep away from ,castilian territory the ambitions of the monarchs of the rival kingdom4 ,avela of the ,romans was a garrison town1 the walls of which were partly thrown down by the ,western ,goths upon their arrival in the peninsula4 ,previously1 ,san ,segundo1 one of the disciples of the ,apostles who had visited ,betica 7,andalusia71 preached the ,true ,word in ,avila1 and was created its first bishop--in the first century4 ,during the terrible persecution of the ,christians under the reign of ,trajanus1 one ,san ,vicente and his two sisters1 ,sabina and ,cristeta1 escaped from ,portugal and came to ,avila1 hoping to be hospitably received4 ,all in vain2 their heads were smashed between stones1 and their bodies left to rot in the streets4 ,an immense serpent emerged from the city walls and kept guard over the three saintly corpses4 ,the first to approach was a ,jew1 drawn hither by curiosity2 he was immediately enveloped by the reptile's body4 ,on the point of being strangled1 he pronounced the word1 ,jesus--and the serpent released him4 ,so grateful was the ,jew at being delivered from death that he turned ,christian and erected a church in honour of ,san ,vicente1 ,sabina1 and ,cristeta1 and had them buried within its walls4 ,this church subsisted throughout the dark ages of the ,moorish invasion until at last ,fernando ,i4 removed the saintly remains to ,leon in the eleventh century4 ,the church was then destroyed1 and1 it is believed1 the present cathedral was built on the same spot4 ,the ,moors1 calling the city ,abila1 used it as one of the fortresses defending ,toledo on the north against the continual ,christian raids2 with varying success they held it until the end of the eleventh century1 when it finally fell into the hands of the ,christians1 and was repopulated a short time before ,salamanca toward the end of the same century4 ,during the centuries of ,moorish dominion the see had fallen into the completest oblivion1 no mention being made of any bishops of ,avila2 the ecclesiastical dignity was reestablished immediately after the final conquest of the region to the north of the ,sierra of ,guaderrama1 and though documents are lacking as to who was the first prelate de modernis1 it is generally believed to have been one ,jeronimo1 toward the end of the eleventh century4 ,the city grew rapidly in strength2 settlers came from the north--from ,castile and ,leon--and from the east1 from ,aragon2 they travelled to their new home in bullock-carts containing household furniture1 agricultural and war implements1 wives1 and children4 ,in the subsequent history of ,spain ,avila played an important part1 and many a stirring event took place within its walls4 ,it was besieged by the ,aragonese ,alfonso el ,batallador1 whose army advanced to the attack behind its prisoners1 sons of ,avila4 ,brothers1 fathers1 and relatives were thus obliged to fire upon their own kin if they wished to save their city4 ,the same king1 it is said1 killed his hostages by having their heads cut off and boiled in oil1 as though severed heads were capable of feeling the delightful sensation of seething oil6 ,of all the traditions as numerous here as elsewhere1 the prettiest and most improbable is doubtless that of ,nalvillos1 a typical chevalier of romance1 who fell desperately in love with a beautiful ,moorish princess and wedded her4 ,she pined1 however1 for a lover whom in her youth she had promised to wed1 and though her husband erected palaces and bought slaves for her1 she escaped with her sweetheart4 ,nalvillos followed the couple to where they lay retired in a castle1 and it was surrounded by him and his trusty followers4 ,the hero himself1 disguised as a seller of curative herbs1 entered the apartment where his wife was waiting for her lover's return1 and made himself known4 ,the former's return1 however1 cut matters short1 and ,nalvillos was obliged to hide himself4 ,the ,moorish girl was true to her love1 and told her sweetheart where the ,christian was hiding2 brought out of his retreat1 he was on the point of being killed when he asked permission to blow a last blast on his bugle--a wish that was readily conceded by the magnanimous lover4 ,the result8 ,the princess and her sweetheart were burnt to death by the flames ignited by ,nalvillos's soldiers4 ,the ,christian warrior was1 of course1 able to escape4 ,in #adee the effigy of ,henry ,,iv4 was dethroned in ,avila by the prelates of ,toledo and other cities1 and by an assembly of noblemen who felt that feudalism was dying out1 and were anxious to strike a last blow at the weak king whom they considered was their enemy4 ,the effigy was placed on a throne2 the ,archbishop of ,toledo harangued the multitude which1 silent and scowling1 was kept away from the throne by a goodly number of obedient mercenary soldiers4 ,then the prelate tore off the mock crown1 another of the conspirators the sceptre1 another the royal garments1 and so on1 each accompanying his act by an ignominious curse4 ,at last the effigy was torn from the throne and trampled under the feet of the soldiers4 ,alfonso1 a boy of eleven1 stepped on the dais and was proclaimed king4 ,his hand was kissed by the humble 767 prelates and noblemen1 who swore allegiance1 an oath they had not the slightest intention of keeping1 and did not keep1 either4 ,philip ,,iii4's decree expelling ,moors from ,spain1 was1 as in the case of ,plasencia1 the coup de grace given to the city's importance2 half the population was obliged to leave1 and ,avila never recovered her lost importance and influence4 ,to-day1 with only about ten thousand inhabitants1 thrown in the background by ,madrid1 it manages to keep alive and nothing more4 ,the date when the erection of the cathedral church of ,avila was begun is utterly unknown4 ,according to a pious legend1 it was founded by the third bishop1 ,don ,pedro1 who1 being anxious to erect a temple worthy of his dignity1 undertook a long pilgrimage to foreign countries in search of arms1 and returned to his see in #ajia4 ,sixteen years later1 according to the same tradition1 the present cathedral was essentially completed1 a bold statement that cannot be accepted because in manifest contradiction with the build of the church4 ,according to ,senor ,quadrado1 the oldest part of the building1 the apse1 was probably erected toward the end of the twelfth century4 ,it is a massive1 almost windowless1 semicircular body1 its bare walls unsupported by buttresses1 and every inch of it like the corner-tower of a castle wall1 crenelated and flat-topped4 ,the same author opines that the transept1 a handsome1 broad1 and airy ogival nave1 dates from the fourteenth century1 whereas the western front of the church is of a much more recent date4 ,be that as it may1 the fact is that the cathedral of ,avila1 seen from the east1 west1 or north1 is a fortress building1 a huge1 unwieldy and anti-artistic composition of ,romanesque1 ,gothic1 and other elements4 ,the western front1 with its heavy tower to the north1 and the lack of such to the south1 appears more gloomy than ever on account of the obscure colour of the stone2 the facade above the portal is of one of the most peculiar of artistic conceptions ever imagined2 above the first body or the pointed arch which crowns the portal comes the second body1 divided from the former by a straight line1 which supports eight columns flanking seven niches2 on the top of this unlucky part comes an ogival window4 ,the whole facade is narrow--one door--and high4 ,the effect is disastrous3 an unnecessary contortion or misplacement of vertical1 horizontal1 slanting1 and circular lines4 ,the tower is flanked at the angles by two rims of stone1 the edges of which are cut into bolas 7balls74 ,if this shows certain ,mudejar taste1 so1 also1 do the geometrical designs carved in relief against a background1 as seen in the arabesques above the upper windows4 ,the northern portal1 excepting the upper arch1 which is but slightly curved and almost horizontal1 and weighs down the ogival arches1 is far better as regards the artist's conception of beauty2 the stone carving is also of a better class4 ,returning to the interior of the building1 preferably by the transept1 the handsomest part of the church1 the spectator perceives a double ambulatory behind the high altar2 the latter1 as well as the choir1 is low1 and a fine view is obtained of the ensemble4 ,the central nave1 almost twice as high and little broader than the aisles1 is crowned by a double triforium of ,gothic elegance4 ,seen from the transept1 it would appear as though there were four aisles on the west side instead of two1 a peculiar deception produced by the lateral opening of the last chapels1 exactly similar in construction to the arch which crowns the intersection of the aisles and transept4 ,illustration3 ,,tower ,,of ,,avila ,,cathedral ,in the northern and southern extremity of the transept two handsome rosaces1 above a row of lancet windows1 let in the outside light through stained panes4 ,the impression produced by the interior of the cathedral is greatly superior to that received from without4 ,in the latter case curiosity is about the only sentiment felt by the spectator1 whereas within the temple does not lack a simple beauty and mystery4 ,as regards sculptural details1 the best are doubtless the low reliefs to be seen to the rear of the choir1 as well as several sepulchres1 of which the best--and one of the best ,renaissance monuments of its kind in ,spain--is that of the ,bishop ,alfonso ,tostado in the ambulatory4 ,the retablo of the high altar is also a magnificent piece of work of the second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth4 ,,iii ,,segovia ,avila's twin sister1 ,segovia1 retains its old ,celtiberian name2 it retains1 also1 the undeniable proofs of ,roman domination in its far-famed aqueduct and in its amphitheatre4 ,according to the popular tradition1 ,san ,hierateo1 the disciple of ,st4 ,paul1 was the first bishop in the first century1 but probably the see was not erected until about #ebg1 when it is first mentioned in a ,tolesian document2 the name of the first bishop 7historical7 is ,peter1 who was present at the third ,council in ,toledo 7#ehi74 ,the local saint is one ,san ,fruto1 who1 upon the approach of the ,saracen hosts1 gathered together a handful of fugitives and retired to the mountains2 his brother ,valentine and his sister ,engracia 7of ,aragonese fame87 died martyrs to their belief4 ,san ,fruto1 on the other hand1 lived the life of a hermit in the mountains and wrought many miracles1 such as splitting open a rock with his jack-knife1 etc4 ,the most miraculous of his deeds was the proof he gave to the ,moors of the genuineness of the ,catholic religion3 on a tray of oats he placed the host and offered it to a mule1 which1 instead of munching oats and host1 fell on its knees1 and perhaps even crossed itself6 ,disputed by ,arabs and ,christians1 like all ,castilian towns1 ,segovia lagged along until it fell definitely into the hands of the latter4 ,a ,christian colony seems1 nevertheless1 to have lived in the town during the ,arab dominion1 because the documents of the time speak of a ,bishop ,ilderedo in #idj4 ,the exact year of the repopulation of ,segovia is not known1 but doubtless it was a decade or so prior to either that of ,salamanca or ,avila4 ,neither was the warlike spirit of the inhabitants inferior to that of their brethren in the last named cities4 ,it was due to their bravery that ,madrid fell into the hands of the ,christians toward #aaaj1 for1 arriving late at the besieging camp1 the king1 who was present1 told them that if they wished to pass the night comfortably1 there was but one place1 namely1 the city itself4 ,without a moment's hesitation the daring warriors dashed at the walls of ,madrid1 and1 scaling them1 took a tower1 where they passed the night at their ease1 and to their monarch's great astonishment4 ,in #aaae1 the first bishop de modernis1 ,don ,pedro1 was consecrated1 and the cathedral was begun at about the same time4 ,several of the successive prelates were battling warriors rather than spiritual shepherds1 and fought with energy and success against the infidel in ,andalusia4 ,one1 ,don ,gutierre ,giron1 even found his death in the terrible defeat of the ,christian arms at ,alarcon4 ,the event which brought the greatest fame to ,segovia was the erection of its celebrated ,alcazar1 or castle1 the finest specimen of military architecture in ,spain4 ,every city had its citadel1 it is true1 but none were so strong and invulnerable as that of ,segovia1 and in the stormy days of ,castilian history the monarchs found a safe retreat from the attacks of unscrupulous noblemen behind its walls4 ,until #aecj the old cathedral stood at the back of the ,alcazar1 but in a revolution of the ,comuneros against ,charles-,quint1 the infuriated mob1 anxious to seize the castle1 tore down the temple and used its stones1 beams1 stalls1 and railings as a means to scale the high walls of the fortress4 ,their efforts were in vain1 for an army came to the relief of the castle from ,valladolid2 a general pardon was1 nevertheless1 granted to the population by the monarch1 who was too far off to care much what his ,spanish subjects did4 ,after the storm was over1 the hot-headed citizens found themselves with a bishop and a chapter1 but without a church or means wherewith to erect a new one4 ,the struggles between city and fortress were numerous1 and were the cause1 in a great measure1 of the town's decadence4 ,upon one occasion1 ,isabel the ,catholic infringed upon the citizens' rights by making a gift of some of the feudal villages to a court favourite4 ,the day after the news of this infringement reached the city1 by a common accord the citizens dressed in black1 did not amuse themselves1 nor put on clean linen2 neither did they sweep the house steps1 nor light the lamps at night2 neither did they buy nor sell1 and what is more1 they boxed their children's ears so that they should for ever remember the day4 ,so great were the public signs of grief that it has been said that never did a republic wear deeper mourning for the loss of its liberties4 ,the end of the matter was that the queen in her famous testament revoked her gift and returned the villages to the city4 ,the old cathedral was torn down in ,november1 #aebj1 and it was not until ,june1 #aebe1 that the bishop1 who had made a patriotic appeal to all ,spaniards in behalf of the church funds1 laid the first stone of the new edifice4 ,thirty years later the building was consecrated4 ,nowhere else can a church be found which is a more thorough expression of a city's fervour and enthusiasm4 ,it was as though the sacrilegious act of the enraged mob reacted on the penitent minds of the calmed citizens1 for rich and poor alike gave their alms to the cathedral chapter4 ,jewels were sold1 donations came from abroad1 feudal lords gave whole villages to the church1 and the poor men1 the workmen1 and the peasants gave their pennies4 ,daily processions arrived at ,santa ,clara1 then used as cathedral church1 from all parts of the diocese4 ,to-day they were composed of tradesmen1 of ,zuenfte1 who gave their offerings of a few pounds2 to-morrow a village would bring in a cartload of stone1 of mortar1 of wood1 etc4 ,on holidays and ,sundays the repentant citizens1 instead of amusing themselves at the dance or bull-fight1 carted materials for their new cathedral's erection1 and all this they did of their own free will4 ,illustration3 ,,segovia ,,cathedral ,the act of consecrating the finished building constituted a grand holiday4 ,the long aqueduct was illuminated from top to bottom1 as was also the cathedral tower1 and every house in the city4 ,during a week the holiday-making lasted with open-air amusements for the poor and banquets for the rich4 ,the date of the construction of the new building was contemporaneous with that of ,salamanca1 and the architect was1 to a certain extent1 the same4 ,it is not strange1 therefore1 that both should resemble each other in their general disposition4 ,what is more1 the construction in both churches was begun at the foot 7west71 and not in the east1 as is generally the case4 ,the oldest part of the building is consequently the western front1 classic in its outline1 but showing among its ogival details both the symmetry and triangular pediment of ,renaissance art4 ,the tower1 higher than that of ,sevilla1 and broader than that of ,toledo1 is simple in its structure2 it is ,byzantine1 and does not lack a certain cachet of elegance2 the first body is surmounted by a dome1 upon which rises the second1--smaller1 and also crowned by a cupola4 ,the tower was twice struck by lightning and partly ruined in #afbj2 it was rebuilt in #ahbe1 and a lightning conductor replaced the cross of the spire4 ,though consecrated1 as has been said1 in #aeeh1 the new temple was by no means finished3 the transept and the eastern end were still to be built4 ,the latter was finished prior to #aehj1 and in #afae the ,renaissance dome which surmounts the croisee was erected by an artist-architect1 who evidently was incapable of giving it a true ,gothic appearance4 ,the apse1 with its three harmonizing etages corresponding to the chapels1 aisles1 and nave1 and flanked by leaning buttresses ornamented with delicate pinnacles1 is ,gothic in its details2 the ensemble is1 nevertheless1 ,renaissance1 thanks to a perfect symmetry painfully pronounced by naked horizontal lines--so contradictory to the spirit of true ogival4 ,less regularity and a greater profusion of buttresses1 and above all of flying buttresses1 would have been more agreeable1 but the times had changed and new tastes had entered the country4 ,neither does the broad transept1 its facade1--either southern or northern1--and the cupola join1 as it were1 the eastern and the western half of the building2 on the contrary1 it distinctly separates them1 not to the building's advantage4 ,the interior is gay rather than solemn3 the general disposition of the parts is as customary in a ,gothic church of the ,transition 7,renaissance74 ,the nave and transept are of the same width2 the lateral chapels1 running along the exterior walls of the aisles1 are symmetrical1 as in ,salamanca2 the ambulatory separates the high altar from the apse and its seven chapels4 ,the pavement of the church is of black and white marble slabs1 like that of ,toledo1 for instance2 as for the stained windows1 they are numerous1 and those in the older part of the building of good 7,flemish87 workmanship and of a rich colour1 which heightens the happy expression of the whole building4 ,the cloister is the oldest part of the building1 having pertained to the previous cathedral4 ,after the latter's destruction1 and the successful erection of the new temple1 the cloister was transported stone by stone from its old emplacement to where it now stands4 ,it is a handsome and richly decorated ,gothic building1 containing many tombs1 among them those of the architects of the cathedral and of ,maria del ,salto4 ,this ,mary was a certain ,jewess1 who1 condemned to death1 and thrown over the ,pena ,grajera1 invoked the aid of the ,virgin1 and was saved4 ,another tomb is that of ,prince ,don ,pedro1 son of ,enrique ,,ii41 who fell out of a window of the ,alcazar4 ,his nurse1 according to the tradition1 threw herself out of the window after her charge1 and together they were picked up1 one locked in the arms of the other4 ,,iv ,,madrid-,,alcala ,though ,madrid was proclaimed the capital of ,spain in the sixteenth century1 it was not until #ahej that its collegiate church of ,san ,isidro was raised to an episcopal see4 ,the appointment met with a storm of disapproval in the neighbouring town of ,alcala de ,henares1 the citizens claiming the erection of the ecclesiastical throne in their own collegiate1 instead of in ,madrid4 ,their reasons were purely historical1 as will be seen later on1 whereas the capital lacked both history and ecclesiastical significance4 ,to pacify the inhabitants of ,alcala1 and at the same time to raise ,madrid to the rank of a city1 the following arrangement was made3 the newly created see was to be called ,madrid-,alcala2 the bishop was to possess two cathedral churches1 and both towns were to be cities4 ,such is the state of affairs at present4 ,the recent governmental closure of the old cathedral in ,alcala has deprived the partisans of the double see of one of their chief arguments1 namely1 the possession of a worthy temple1 unique in the world as regards its organization4 ,consequently1 it is generally stated that the title of ,madrid-,alcala will die out with the present bishop1 and that the next will simply be the ,bishop of ,madrid4 ,madrid ,the city of ,madrid is new and uninteresting2 it is an overgrown village1 with no buildings worthy of the capital of a kingdom4 ,from an architectural point of view1 the royal palace1 majestic and imposing1 though decidedly poor in style1 is about the only edifice that can be admired4 ,in history1 ,madrid plays a most unimportant part until the times of ,philip ,,ii41 the black-browed monarch who1 intent upon erecting his mausoleum in the ,escorial1 proclaimed ,madrid to be the only capital4 ,that was in #aefj2 previously ,magerit had been an ,arab fortress to the north of ,toledo1 and the first in the region now called ,castilla la ,nueva 7,new ,castile71 to distinguish it from ,old ,castile1 which lies to the north of the mountain chain4 ,most likely ,magerit had been founded by the ,moors1 though1 as soon as it had become the capital of ,spain1 its inhabitants1 who were only too eager to lend their town a history it did not possess1 invented a series of traditions and legends more ridiculous than veracious4 ,on the slopes of the last hill1 descending to the ,manzanares1 and beside the present royal palace1 the ,christian conquerors of the ,arab fortress in the twelfth century discovered an effigy of the ,virgin1 in an almudena or storehouse4 ,this was the starting-point for the traditions of the twelfth-century monks who discovered 787 that this effigy had been placed where it was found by ,st4 ,james1 according to some1 and by the ,virgin herself1 according to others2 what is more1 they even established a series of bishops in ,magerit previous to the ,arab invasion4 ,no foundations are of course at hand for such fabulous inventions1 and if the effigy really were found in the almudena1 it must have been placed there by the ,moors themselves1 who most likely had taken it as their booty when sacking a church or convent to the north4 ,the patron saint of ,madrid is one ,isidro1 not to be confounded with ,san ,isidoro of ,leon4 ,the former was a farmer or labourer1 who1 with his wife1 lived a quiet and unpretentious life in the vicinity of ,madrid1 on the opposite banks of the ,manzanares1 where a chapel was erected to his memory sometime in the seventeenth century4 ,of the many miracles this saint is supposed to have wrought1 not one differs from the usual deeds attributed to holy individuals4 ,being a farmer1 his voice called forth water from the parched land1 and angels helped his oxen to plough the fields4 ,save the effigy of the ,virgin de la ,almudena1 and the life of ,san ,isidro1 ,madrid has no ecclesiastical history1--the ,virgin de la ,atocha has been forgotten1 but she is only a duplicate of her sister virgin4 ,convents and monasteries are of course as numerous as elsewhere in ,spain2 brick parish churches of a decided ,spanish-,oriental appearance rear their cupolas skyward in almost every street1 the largest among them being ,san ,francisco el ,grande1 which1 with ,san ,antonio de la ,florida 7containing several handsome paintings by ,goya71 is the only temple worth visiting4 ,as regards a cathedral building1 there is1 in the lower part of the city1 a large stone church dedicated to ,san ,isidro2 it serves the stead of a cathedral church until a new building1 begun about #ahhe1 will have been completed4 ,this new building1 the cathedral properly speaking1 is to be a tenth wonder2 it is to be constructed in granite1 and its foundations stand beside the royal palace in the very spot where the ,virgin de la ,almudena was found1 and where1 until #ahfi1 a church enclosed the sacred effigy2 the new building is to be dedicated to the same deity4 ,unluckily1 the erection of the new cathedral proceeds but slowly2 so far only the basement stones have been laid and the crypt finished4 ,the funds for its erection are entirely dependent upon alms1 but1 as the religious fervour which incited the inhabitants of ,segovia in the sixteenth century is almost dead to-day1 it is an open question whether the cathedral of ,madrid will ever be finished4 ,the temporary cathedral of ,san ,isidro was erected in the seventeenth century2 its two clumsy towers are unfinished1 its western front1 between the towers1 is severe2 four columns support the balcony1 behind which the cupola1 which crowns the croisee1 peeps forth4 ,inside there is nothing worthy of interest to be admired except some pictures1 one of them painted by the ,divino ,morales4 ,the nave is light1 but the chapels are so dark that almost nothing can be seen in their interior4 ,this church1 until the expulsion of the ,jesuits1 was the temple of their order1 dedicated to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul2 adjoining it a ,jesuit school was erected1 which has been incorporated in the government colleges4 ,alcala de ,henares ,about twenty miles to the east of ,madrid lies the one-time glorious university city of ,alcala1 famous above all things for having been the cradle of ,cervantes1 and the hearth1 if not the home1 of ,cardinal ,cisneros4 ,its history and its decadence are of the saddest2 the latter serves in many respects as an adequate symbol of ,spain's own tremendous downfall4 ,illustration3 ,,san ,,isidro1 ,,madrid ,the ,romans founded ,alcala2 it was their ,complutum1 of which some few remains have been discovered in the vicinity of the modern city4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this lack of substantial evidence1 the inhabitants of the region still proudly call themselves ,complutenses4 ,when the ,west ,goths were rulers of the peninsula1 the ,roman monuments must have been completely destroyed1 for all traces of the strategic stronghold were effaced from the map of ,spain4 ,the invading ,arabs1 possessing to a certain degree both ,roman military instinct and foresight1 built a fortress on the spot where the ,state ,archives ,building stands to-day4 ,this castle was used by them as one of ,toledo's northern defences against the warlike ,christian kings4 ,in the twelfth century the fortress fell into the hands of the ,christians2 in the succeeding centuries it was strongly rebuilt by the cardinal-archbishops of ,toledo1 who used it both as their palace and as their stronghold4 ,outside the bastioned and turreted walls of the castle1 the new-born city grew up under its protecting shadows4 ,known by the ,arabic name of its fortress 7,al-,kala71 it was successively baptized ,alcala de ,san ,justo1 ,alcala de ,fenares1 and since the sixteenth century1 ,alcala de ,henares 7heno1 old ,spanish feno1 meaning hay74 ,protected by such powerful arms as those of the princes of the ,church1 it grew up to be a second ,toledo1 a city of church spires and convent walls1 but of which only a reduced number stand to-day to point back to the religious fervour of the middle ages4 ,the world-spread fame acquired by ,alcala in the fifteenth century was due to the patronage of ,cardinal ,cisneros1 who built the university1 at one time one of the most celebrated in ,europe1 and to-day a mere skeleton of architectural beauty4 ,the same prelate raised ,san ,justo to a suffragan church2 its chapter was composed only of learned professors of the university1 as were also its canons2 ,leon ,x4 gave it the enviable title of ,la ,magistral1 the ,learned1 which points it out as unique in the ,christian world4 ,the ,polyglot ,bible1 published in the sixteenth century1 and famous in all ,europe1 was worked out by these scholars under ,cisneros's direction1 and the favoured city outshone the newly built ,madrid twenty miles away1 and rivalled ,salamanca in learning1 and ,toledo in worldly and religious splendour4 ,madrid grew greater and greater as years went by1 and consequently ,alcala de ,henares dwindled away to the shadow of a name4 ,the university1 the just pride of the ,complutenses1 was removed to the capital2 the cathedral1 for lack of proper care1 became an untimely ruin2 the episcopal palace was confiscated by the state1 which1 besides repairing it1 filled its seventy odd halls with rows upon rows of dusty documents and governmental papers4 ,to-day the city drags along a weary1 inactive existence3 soldiers from the barracks and long-robed priests from the church fill the streets1 and are as numerous as the civil inhabitants1 if not more so2 convents and cloisters of nuns1 either grass-grown ruins or else sombre grated and barred edifices1 are to be met with at every step4 ,strangers visit the place hurriedly in the morning and return to ,madrid in the afternoon2 they buy a tin box of sugar almonds 7the city's specialty71 carelessly examine the university and the archiepiscopal palace1 gaze unmoved at some ,cervantes relics1 and at the facade of the cathedral4 ,besides1 they are told that in such and such a house the immortal author of ,don ,quixote was born1 which is a base1 though comprehensible1 invention1 because no such house exists to-day4 ,that is all2 perchance in crossing the city's only square1 the traveller notices that it can boast of no fewer than three names1 doubtless with a view to hide its glaring nakedness4 ,these three names are ,plaza de ,cervantes1 ,plaza ,mayor1 and ,plaza de la ,constitucion1 of which the latter is spread out boldly across the town hall and seems to invoke the remembrance of the ephemeral efforts of the republic in #ahfi4 ,in the third century after the birth of ,christ1 two infants1 ,justo and ,pastor1 preached the ,true ,word to the unbelieving ,roman rulers of ,complutum4 ,the result was not in the least surprising3 the two infants lost their baby heads for the trouble they had taken in trying to trouble warriors4 ,but the ,vatican remembered them1 and canonized ,pastor and ,justo4 ,hundreds of churches1 sown by the blood of martyrs1 grew up in all corners of the peninsula to commemorate pagan cruelty1 and to induce all men to follow the examples set by the two babes4 ,no one knew1 however1 where the mortal remains of ,justo and ,pastor were lying4 ,in the fourth century their resting-place was miraculously revealed to one ,austurio1 ,archbishop of ,toledo1 who had them removed to his cathedral4 ,they did not stay long in the primate city1 for the invasion of the ,moors obliged all ,true ,believers to hide ,church relics4 ,thus1 ,justo and ,pastor wandered forth again from village to village1 running away from the infidels until they reposed temporarily in the cathedral of ,huesca in the north of ,aragon4 ,in ,alcala their memory was kept alive in the parish church dedicated to them4 ,but as the city grew1 it was deemed preferable to build a solid temple worthy of the saintly pair1 and ,carillo1 ,archbishop of ,toledo1 had the old church pulled down and began the erection of a larger edifice4 ,this took place in the middle of the fifteenth century1 when ,ximenez de ,cisneros1 who ruled the fate of ,spain and its church1 gave it the ecclesiastical constitution previously mentioned4 ,fifty years later the weary bodies of the two infants were brought back in triumph to their native town amid the rejoicings and admiration of the people1 and were placed in the cathedral of ,san ,justo1 then a collegiate church of ,toledo4 ,a few years ago the cathedral church of ,san ,justo was denounced by the state architect and closed4 ,to-day it is a dreary ruin1 with tufts of grass growing among the battlements4 ,the chapter1 depriving the hoary building of its high altar1 its precious relics and paintings1 its stalls and other accessories1 installed the cathedral in the ,jesuit temple1 an insignificant building in the other extremity of the town4 ,recently the abandoned ruin has been declared a national monument1 which means that the state is obliged to undertake its restoration4 ,la ,magistral is a brick building of imposing simplicity and severity in its general outlines4 ,its decorative elements are ogival1 but of true ,spanish nakedness and lack of elegance4 ,though ,renaissance principles have not entered into the composition1 as might have been supposed1 considering the date of the erection1 nevertheless1 the lack of flying buttresses1 the scarcity of windows1 the undecorated angles of the western front1 the barren walls1 and flat-topped1 though slightly sloping1 roofs prove that the simple and severe style is latent in the minds of artists4 ,illustration3 ,,alcala ,,de ,,henares ,,cathedral ,the apse is well developed1 and the croisee surmounted by a cupola2 the tower which flanks the western front is massive2 it is decorated with blind arches and ogival arabesques4 ,the ground plan of the building is ,latin ,cruciform2 the aisles are but slightly lower than the nave and join in the apse behind the high altar in an ambulatory walk4 ,the crypt1 reached by two ,renaissance doors in the trasaltar1 is spacious1 and contains the bodies of ,san ,justo and ,san ,pastor4 ,the general impression produced on the mind of the tourist is sadness4 ,the severity of the structure is heightened by the absence of any distracting decorative elements1 excepting the fine ,mudejar ceiling to the left upon entering4 ,in the reigning shadows of this deserted temple1 two magnificent tombs stand in solitude and silence4 ,they are those of ,carillo and ,cardinal ,cisneros1 the latter one of the greatest sons of ,spain and one of her most contradictory geniuses4 ,his sepulchre is a gorgeous marble monument of ,renaissance style1 surrounded by a massive bronze grille of excellent workmanship1 a marvel of ,spanish metal art of the sixteenth century4 ,the other sepulchre is simple in its ogival decorations1 and the prostrate effigy of ,carillo is among the best to be admired by the tourist in ,iberia4 ,carillo's life was that of a restless1 ambitious1 and worldly man4 ,when he died1 he was buried in the ,convent of ,san ,juan de ,dios1 where his illegitimate son had been buried before him1 for1 said the archbishop-father1 if in life my robes separated me from my son1 in death we shall be united4 ,but he reckoned without his host1 or rather his successor1 the man whose remains now lie beside his own in the shadows of the great ruin4 ,for1 said ,cisneros1 the ,church must separate man from his sin even in death4 ,so he ordered the son to be left in the convent1 and the father to be brought to the temple he had begun to erect4 ,v ,s,i,g,ue,e,n,z,a ,the origin of the fortress admirably situated to the north of ,guadalajara was doubtless ,moorish1 though in the vicinity is ,villavieja1 where the ,romans had established a town on the transverse road from ,cadiz to ,tarragon1 and called by them ,seguncia1 or ,segoncia4 ,when the ,christian religion first appeared in ,spain1 it is believed that ,sigueenza1 or ,segoncia1 possessed an episcopal see2 nothing is positively known1 however1 of the early bishops1 until ,protogenes signed the third ,council of ,toledo in #ehi4 ,it is believed that in the reign of ,alfonso ,,vi41 he who conquered ,toledo and the region to the south of ,valladolid and as far east as ,aragon1 ,sigueenza was repopulated1 though no mention is made of the place in the earlier chronicles of the time4 ,all that is known is that a bishop was immediately appointed by ,alfonso ,,vii4 to the vacancy which had lasted for over two hundred years1 during which ,sigueenza had been one of the provincial capitals of the ,kingdom of ,toledo4 ,the first known bishop was ,don ,bernardo4 ,the history of the town was never of the most brilliant4 ,in the times of ,alfonso ,,vii4 and his immediate successors it gained certain importance as a frontier stronghold1 as a check to the growing ambitions of the royal house of ,aragon4 ,but after the union of ,castile and ,aragon1 its importance gradually dwindled2 to-day1 if it were not for the bishopric1 it would be one historic village more on the map of ,spain4 ,in the reign of ,peter the ,cruel1 its castle--considered with that of ,segovia to be the strongest in ,castile--was used for some time as the prison palace for that most unhappy princess1 ,dona ,blanca1 who1 married to his ,catholic ,majesty1 had been deposed on the third day of the wedding by the heartless and passionate lover of the ,padilla4 ,she was at first shut up in ,toledo1 but the king did not consider the ,alcazar strong enough4 ,so she was sent off to ,sigueenza1 where it is popularly believed1 though documents deny it1 that she died1 or was put to death4 ,the city belonged to the bishop2 it was his feudal property1 and passed down to his successors in the see4 ,of the doings of these prelate-warriors1 the first1 ,don ,bernardo1 was doubtless the most striking personality1 lord of a thousand armed vassals and of three hundred horse1 who fought with the emperor in almost all the great battles in ,andalusia4 ,it is even believed he died wielding the naked sword1 and that his remains were brought back to the town of which he had been the first and undisputed lord4 ,the strong castle which crowns the city did not possess1 as was generally the case1 an alcalde1 or governor2 it was the episcopal palace or residence1 a circumstance which proves beyond a doubt the double significance of the bishop3 a spiritual leader and military personage1 more influential and wealthy than any prelate in ,spain1 excepting the ,archbishops of ,toledo and ,santiago4 ,during the ,french invasion in the beginning of the nineteenth century1 ,sigueenza had already lost its political significance4 ,the invaders occupied the castle1 and1 as was their custom1 threw documents and archives into the fire1 to make room for themselves1 and to spend the winter comfortably4 ,consequently1 the notices we have of the cathedral church are but scarce4 ,the fourth bishop was ,jocelyn1 an ,englishman who had come over with ,eleanor1 ,henry ,,ii4's daughter1 and married to the ,king of ,castile4 ,he 7the bishop7 was not a whit less warlike than his predecessors had been2 he helped the king to win the town of ,cuenca1 and when he died on the battle-field1 only his right arm was carried back to the see1 to the chapel of ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury1 which the dead prelate had founded in the new cathedral1 and it was buried beneath a stone which bears the following inscription3 ,hic est inclusa ,jocelini praesulis ulna4 ,from the above we can conclude that the cathedral must have been begun previous to the ,englishman's coming to ,spain1 that is1 in the beginning of the twelfth century4 ,doubtless the vaulting was not closed until at least one hundred years later2 nevertheless1 it is one of the unique and at the same time one of the handsomest ,spanish monuments of the ,transition period4 ,the city of ,sigueenza1 situated on the slopes of a hill crowned by the castle1 is a village rather than a town2 there are1 however1 fewer spots in ,spain that are more picturesque in their old age1 and there is a certain uniformity in the architecture that reminds one of ,german towns2 this is not at all characteristic of ,spain1 where so many styles mix and mingle until hardly distinguishable from each other4 ,the ,transition style--between the strong ,romanesque and the airy ogival--is the city's cachet1 printed with particular care on the handsome cathedral which stands on the slope of the hill to the north of the castle4 ,two massive square towers1 crenelated at the top and pierced by a few round-headed windows1 flank the western front4 ,the three portals are massive ,romanesque without floral or sculptural decoration of any kind2 the central door is larger and surmounted by a large though primitive rosace4 ,the height of the aisles and nave is indicated by three ogival arches cut in relief on the facade2 here already the mixture of both styles1 of the round-arched ,romanesque and the pointed ,gothic1 is clearly visible--as it is also in the windows of the aisles1 which are ,romanesque1 and of the nave1 which are ogival--in the buttresses1 which are leaning on the lower body1 and flying in the upper story1 uniting the exterior of the clerestory with that of the aisles4 7,compare with apse of the cathedral of ,lugo47 ,the portal of the southern arm of the transept is an ugly addition1 more modern and completely out of harmony with the rest4 ,the rosace above the door is one of the handsomest of the ,transition period in ,spain1 and the stained glass is both rich and mellow4 ,the interior shows the same harmonious mixture of the stronger and more solemn old style1 and the graceful lightness of the newer4 ,but the hesitancy in the mind of the architect is also evident1 especially in the vaulting1 which is timidly arched4 ,the original plan of the church was1 doubtless1 purely ,romanesque3 ,roman cruciform with a three-lobed apse1 the central one much longer so as to contain the high altar4 ,in the sixteenth century1 however1 an ambulatory was constructed behind the high altar1 joining the two aisles1 and the high altar was removed to the east of the transept4 ,what a pity that the huge choir1 placed in the centre of the church1 should so completely obstruct the view of the ensemble of the nave and aisles1 separated by massive ,byzantine arches between the solid pillars1 which1 in their turn1 support the nascent ogival vaulting of the high nave6 ,were it1 as well as the grotesque trascoro--of the unhappiest artistic taste--anywhere but in the centre of the church1 what a splendid view would be obtained of the long1 narrow1 and high aisles and nave in which the old and the new were moulded together in perfect harmony1 instead of fighting each other and clashing together1 as happened in so many ,spanish cathedral churches6 ,one of the most richly decorated parts of the church is the sacristy1 a small room entirely covered with medallions and sculptural designs of the greatest variety of subjects4 ,though of ,arabian taste 7,mudejar71 no ,moorish elements have entered into the composition1 and consequently it is one of the very finest1 if not the very best specimen1 of ,christian ,arab decoration4 ,,vi ,,cuenca ,to the east of ,toledo1 and to the north of the plains of ,la ,mancha1 ,cuenca sits on its steep hill surrounded by mountains2 a high stone bridge1 spanning a green valley and the rushing river1 joined the city to a mountain plateau2 to-day the mediaeval bridge has been replaced by an iron one1 which contrasts harshly with the somnolent aspect of the landscape4 ,never was a city founded in a more picturesque spot4 ,it almost resembles ,goeschenen in ,switzerland1 with the difference that whereas in the last named village a white-washed church rears its spire skyward1 in ,cuenca a large cathedral1 rich in decorative accessories1 and yet sombre and severe in its wealth1 occupies the most prominent place in the town4 ,of the origin of the city nothing is known4 ,in the tenth and the eleventh centuries ,conca was an impregnable ,arab fortress4 ,in #aagf the united armies of ,castile and ,aragon1 commanded by two sovereigns1 ,alfonso ,,viii4 of ,castile and ,alfonso ,,ii4 of ,aragon1 laid siege to the fortress1 and after nine months' patience1 the ,alcazar surrendered4 ,according to the popular tradition1 it was won by treachery3 one ,martin ,alhaxa1 a captive and a shepherd by trade1 introduced the ,christians disguised with sheepskins into the city through a postern gate4 ,as the conquest of ,cuenca had cost the ,king of ,castile such trouble 7his ,aragonese partner had not waited to see the end of the siege71 and as he was fully conscious of its importance as a strategical outpost against ,aragon to the north and against the ,moors to the south and east1 he laid special stress on the city's being strongly fortified2 he also gave special privileges to such ,christians as would repopulate1 or rather populate1 the nascent town4 ,a few years later ,pone ,lucio ,,iii4 raised the church to an episcopal see1 appointing ,juan ,yanez1 a ,tolesian ,muzarab1 to be its first bishop 7#aahc74 ,unlike ,sigueenza1 a feudal possession of the bishop1 ,cuenca belonged exclusively to the monarch of ,castile2 the castle was consequently held in the sovereign's name by a governor1--at one time there were even four who governed simultaneously4 ,between these governors and the inhabitants of the city1 fights were numerous1 especially during the first half of the fifteenth century1 the darkest and most ignoble period of ,castilian history4 ,the story is told of one ,dona ,inez de ,barrientos1 granddaughter of a bishop on her mother's side1 and of a governor on that of her father4 ,it appears that her husband had been murdered by some of the wealthiest citizens of the town4 ,feigning joy at her spouse's death1 the widow invited the murderers to her house to a banquet1 when1 despues de opipara cena 7after an excellent dinner71 they passed from the lethargy of drunkenness to the sleep of eternity1 assassinated by hidden servants4 ,the following morning their bodies hung from the windows of the palace1 and provoked not anger but silent dread and shivers among the terror-stricken inhabitants4 ,with the ,inquisition1 the siege by the ,english in #agjf1 the invasion of the ,french in #ahjh1 ,cuenca rapidly lost all importance and even political significance4 ,to-day it is one of the many picturesque ruins that offer but little interest to the art traveller1 for even its old age is degenerated1 and the monuments of the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries have one and all been spoilt by the hand of time1 and by the less grasping hand of restauradores--or architect-repairers4 ,the ,byzantine character1 the ,arab taste of the primitive inhabitants1 has also been lost4 ,who would think1 upon examining the cathedral1 that it had served once upon a time as the principal ,arab mosque8 ,entirely rebuilt1 as were most of the primitive ,arab houses1 it has lost all traces of the early founders1 more so than in other cities where the ,arabs remained but a few years4 ,the patron saint of ,cuenca is ,san ,julian1 one of the cathedral's first bishops1 who led a saintly life1 giving all he had and taking nothing that was not his1 and who retired from his see to live the humble life of a basket-maker1 seated with willow branches beneath the arches of the high bridge1 and preaching saintly words to teamsters and mule-drivers as they approached the city1 until his death in #abjg4 ,in the same century the ,arab mosque was torn down and the new cathedral begun4 ,it is a primitive ogival 7,spanish7 temple of the thirteenth century1 with smatterings of ,romanesque-,byzantine4 ,unlike the cathedral of ,sigueenza1 it is neither elegant1 harmonious1 nor of great architectural value2 its wealth lies chiefly in the chapels1 in the doors which lead to the cloister1 in the sacristy1 and in the elegant high altar4 ,the cloister door is perhaps one of the finest details of the cathedral church3 decorated in the plateresque style general in ,spain in the sixteenth century1 it offers one of the finest examples of said style to be found anywhere1 and though utterly different in ornamentation to the sacristy of ,sigueenza1 it nevertheless resembles it in the general composition4 ,the nave1 exceedingly high1 is decorated by a blind triforium of ogival arches2 the aisles are sombre and lower than the nave4 ,on the other hand1 the transept1 broad and simple1 is similar to the nave and as long as the width of the church1 including the lateral chapels4 ,the croisee is surmounted by a cimborio1 insignificant in comparison to those of ,salamanca1 ,zamora1 and ,toro4 ,the northern and southern extremities of the transept differ from each other as regard style4 ,the southern has an ogival portal surmounted by a rosace2 the northern1 one that is plateresque1 the rounded arch1 delicately decorated1 reposing on ,corinthian columns4 ,the eastern end of the church has been greatly modified--as is clearly seen by the mixture of fifteenth-century styles1 and not to the advantage of the ensemble4 ,byzantine pillars1 and even horseshoe arches1 mingle with ,gothic elements4 ,of the chapels1 the greater number are richly decorated1 not only with sepulchres and sepulchral works1 but with paintings1 some of them by well-known masters4 ,taken all in all1 the cathedral of ,cuenca does not inspire any of the sentiments peculiar to religious temples4 ,not the worst cathedral in ,spain1 by any means1 neither as regards size nor majesty1 it nevertheless lacks conviction1 as though the artist who traced the primitive plan miscalculated its final appearance4 ,the additions1 due to necessity or to the ruinous state of some of the parts1 were luckless1 as are generally all those undertaken at a posterior date4 ,the decorative wealth of the chapels1 which is really astonishing in so small a town1 the luxurious display of grotesque elements1 the presence of a fairly good transparente1 as well as the rich leaf-decoration of ,byzantine pillars and plateresque arches1 give a peculiar cachet to this church which is not to be found elsewhere4 ,the same can be said of the city and of the inhabitant4 ,in the words of an authority1 ,cuenca is national1 it is ,spanish1 it is a typical rural town4 ,yet1 it is so typical1 that no other city resembles it4 ,,vii ,,toledo ,a forest of spires and alminar towers rising from a roof-covered hill to pierce the distant azure sky2 a ruined cemetery surrounded on three sides by the rushing ,tago as it cuts out a foaming path through foothills1 and stretching away on the fourth toward the snow-capped ,sierra de ,gredo in the distance1 beyond the fruitful prairies and the intervening plains of ,new ,castile4 ,such is ,toledo1 the famous1 the wonderful1 the legend-spun primate city of all the ,spains1 the former wealthy capital of the ,spanish ,empire6 ,madrid usurped all her civic honours under the reign of ,philip ,,ii41 he who lost the ,armada and built the ,escorial4 ,since then ,toledo1 like ,alcala de ,henares1 ,segovia1 and ,burgos1 has dragged along a forlorn existence1 frozen in winter and scorched in summer1 and visited at all times of the year by gaping tourists of all nationalities4 ,even the approach to the city from the mile distant station is peculiarly characteristic4 ,seated in an old and shaky omnibus1 pulled by four thrashed mules1 and followed along the dusty road by racing beggars1 who whine their would-be ,french1 ,un p'it sou1 mouchieur1 with surprising alacrity and a melancholy smile in their big black eyes1 the visitor is driven sharply around a bluff1 when suddenly ,toledo1 the mysterious1 comes into sight1 crowning the opposite hill4 ,at a canter the mules cross the bridge of ,alcantara and pass beneath the gateway of the same name1 a ponderous structure still guarding the time-rusty city as it did centuries ago when ,toledo was the ,gothic metropolis4 ,up the winding road1 beneath the solemn and fire-devastated walls of the ,alcazar1 the visitor is hurriedly driven along2 he disappears from the burning sunlight into a gloomy labyrinth of ill-paved streets to emerge a few minutes later in the principal square4 ,a shoal of yelling1 gesticulating interpreters literally grab at the tourist1 and in ten seconds exhaust their vocabulary of foreign words4 ,at last one walks triumphantly off beside the newcomer1 while the others1 with a depreciative shrug of the shoulders and extinguishing their volcanic outburst of energy1 loiter around the square smoking cigarettes4 ,it does not take the visitor long to notice that he is in a great archaeological museum4 ,the streets are crooked and narrow1 so narrow that the tiny patch of sky above seems more brilliant than ever and farther away1 while on each side are gloomy houses with but few windows1 and monstrous1 nail-studded doors4 ,at every turn a church rears its head1 and the cheerless spirit of a palace glares with a sadly vacant stare from behind wrought-iron rejas and a complicated stone-carved blazon4 ,rarely is the door opened2 when it is1 the passer catches a glimpse of a sun-bathed courtyard1 gorgeously alive with light and many flowers4 ,the effect produced by the sudden contrast between the joyless street and the sunny garden1 whose existence was never dreamt of1 is delightful and never to be forgotten2 from ,theophile ,gautier1 who had been in ,northern ,africa1 land of ,mohammedan harems1 it wrung the piquant exclamation3 ,the ,moors have been here6 ,every stick1 stone1 mound1 house1 lantern1 and what not has its legend4 ,in this humble posada1 ,cervantes1 whose ancestral castle is on yonder bluff overlooking the ,tago1 wrote his ,ilustre ,fregona4 ,the family history of yonder fortress-palace inspired ,zorilla's romantic pen1 and a thousand and one other objects recall the past1--the past that is ,toledo's present and doubtless will have to be her future4 ,gone are the days when ,tolaitola was a peerless jewel1 for which ,moors and ,christians fought1 until at last the ,believers of the ,true ,faith drove back the ,arabs who fled southward from whence they had emerged4 ,long closed are also the famous smithies1 where swords--,tolesian blades they were then called--were hammered so supple that they could bend like a watchspring1 so strong they could cleave an anvil1 and so sharp they could cut an eiderdown pillow in twain without displacing a feather4 ,distant1 moreover1 are the nights of capa y espada and of miracles wrought by the ,virgin2 dwindled away to a meagre shadow is the princely magnificence of the primate prelates of all the ,spains1 of those spiritual princes who neither asked the ,pope's advice nor received orders from ,st4 ,peter at ,rome4 ,besides1 of the two hundred thousand souls proud to be called sons of ,toledo in the days of ,charles-,quint1 but seventeen thousand inhabitants remain to-day to guard the nation's great city-museum1 unsullied as yet by progress and modern civilization1 by immense advertisements and those other necessities of daily life in other climes4 ,the city's history explains the mixture of architectural styles and the bizarre modifications introduced in ,gothic1 ,byzantine1 or ,arab structures4 ,legends accuse ,toledo of having been mysteriously founded long before the birth of ,rome on her seven hills4 ,to us1 however1 it first appears in history as a ,roman stronghold1 capital of one of ,hispania's provinces4 ,st4 ,james1 as has been seen1 roamed across this peninsula2 he came to ,toledo4 ,so delighted was he with the site and the people--saith the tradition--that he ordained that the city on the ,tago should contain the primate church of all the ,spains4 ,the vanquished ,romans withdrew1 leaving to posterity but feeble ruins to the north of the city2 the ,west ,goths built the threatening city walls which still are standing1 and1 having turned ,christians1 their ,king ,recaredo was baptized in the river's waters1 and ,toledo became the flourishing capital of the ,visigothic kingdom 7#eab ,a4,d474 ,the ,moors1 in their northward march1 conquered both the ,church and the state4 ,legends hover around the sudden apparition of ,berber hordes in ,andalusia1 and accuse ,rodrigo1 the last ,king of the ,goths1 of having outraged ,florinda1 a beautiful girl whom he saw1 from his palace window1 bathing herself in a marble bath near the ,tago1--the bath is still shown to this day1--and with whom he fell in love4 ,the father1 ,count ,julian1 ,governor of ,ceuta1 called in the ,moors to aid him in his righteous work of vengeance1 and1 as often happens in similar cases1 the allies lost no time in becoming the masters and the conquerors4 ,nearly four hundred years did the ,arabs remain in their beloved ,tolaitola2 the traces of their occupancy are everywhere visible3 in the streets and in the patios1 in fanciful arabesques1 and above all in ,santa ,maria la ,blanca4 ,the ,spaniards returned and brought ,christianity back with them4 ,they erected an immense cathedral and turned mosques into chapels without altering the ,oriental form4 ,jews1 ,arabs1 and ,christians lived peacefully together during the four following centuries4 ,together they created the ,mudejar style tower of ,san ,tomas and the ,puerta de ,sol4 ,pure ,gothic was transformed1 rendered even more insubstantial and lighter1 thanks to ,oriental decorative motives4 ,in ,san ,juan de los ,reyes1 the ,mudejar style left a unique specimen of what it might have developed into had it not been murdered by the ,renaissance fresh from ,italy1 where ,aragonese troops had conquered the kingdom of the ,two ,sicilies4 ,with the first ,philips--and even earlier--foreign workmen came over to ,toledo in shoals from ,germany1 ,france1 ,flanders1 and ,italy4 ,they also had their way1 more so than in any other ,spanish city1 and their tastes helped to weld together that incongruous mass of architectural styles which is ,toledo's alone of all cities4 ,granada may have its ,alhambra1 and ,cordoba its mosque2 ,leon its cathedral and ,segovia its ,alcazar1 but none of them is so luxuriously rich in complex grandeur and in the excellent--and yet frequently grotesque--confusion of all those art waves which flooded ,spain4 ,in this respect ,toledo is unique in ,spain1 unique in the world4 ,can we wonder at her being called a museum8 ,the ,alcazar1 which overlooks the rushing ,tago1 is a symbol of ,toledo's past4 ,it was successively burnt and rebuilt2 its four facades1 here stern and forbidding1 there grotesque and worthless1 differ from each other as much as the centuries in which they were built4 ,the eastern facade dates from the eleventh1 the western from the fifteenth1 and the other two from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,but other arts than those purely architectural are richly represented in ,toledo4 ,for ,spain's capital in the days following upon the fall of ,granada was a centre of industrial arts1 where both foreign and national workmen1 heathen1 ,jews1 and ,christians mixed1 wrought such wonders as have forced their way into museums the world over2 besides1 ,tolesian sculptors are among ,spain's most famous4 ,as regards painting1 one artist's life is wrapped up in that of the wonderful city on the ,tago2 many of his masterworks are to be seen in ,toledo's churches and in the provincial museum4 ,i refer to ,domenico ,theotocopuli1 he who was considered a madman because he was a genius1 and who has been called el ,greco when really he ought to have been called el ,toledano4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if ,toledo is the nation's architectural museum1 the city's cathedral1 the huge imposing ,gothic structure1 is1 beyond a doubt1 an incomparable art museum4 ,centuries of sculptors carved marble and berroquena2 armies of artisans wrought marvels in cloths1 metals1 precious stones1 glass1 and wood1 and a host of painters1 both foreign and national1 from ,goya and ,ribera to the ,greco and ,rubens1 painted religious compositions for the sacristy and chapels4 ,consequently1 and besides the architectural beauty of the primate church of ,spain1 what interests perhaps more keenly than the study of the cathedral's skeleton1 is the study of the ensemble1 of that wealth of decorative designs and of priceless art objects for which the temple is above all renowned4 ,previous to the coming of the ,moors in the eighth century1 a humble cathedral stood where the magnificent church now lifts its three-hundred-foot tower in the summer sky4 ,it had been built in the sixth century and dedicated to the ,virgin1 who had appeared in the selfsame spot to ,san ,ildefonso1 when the latter1 ardent and vehement1 had defended her ,immaculate ,honour before a body of skeptics4 ,the ,moors tore down or modified the cathedral1 and erected their principal mosque in its stead4 ,when1 three hundred years later1 they surrendered their ,tolaitola to ,alfonso ,,vi4 7#ajhe71 they stipulated for the retention of their mezquita1 a clause the king1 who had but little time to lose squabbling1 was only too glad to allow4 ,the following year1 however1 ,king ,alfonso went off on a campaign1 leaving his wife ,dona ,constanza and the ,archbishop ,don ,bernardo to look after the city in his absence4 ,no sooner was his back turned1 when1 one fine morning1 ,don ,bernardo arrived with a motley crowd of goodly ,christians in front of the mosque4 ,he knocked in the principal door1 and1 entering1 threw out into the street the sacred objects of the ,islam cult4 ,then the ,christians proceeded to set up an altar1 a crucifix1 and an image of the ,virgin2 the archbishop hallowed his work1 and in an hour was the smiling possessor of his see4 ,strange to say1 ,don ,bernardo was no ,spaniard1 but a worthy ,frenchman4 ,the news of this outrage upon his honour brought ,alfonso rushing back to ,toledo1 vowing to revenge himself upon those who had seemingly made him break his royal word2 on the way he was met by a committee of the ,arab inhabitants1 who1 clever enough to understand that the sovereign would reinstate the mosque1 but would ever after look upon them as the cause of his rupture with his wife and his friend the prelate1 asked the king to pardon the evil-doers1 stating that they renounced voluntarily their mosque1 knowing as they did that the other conditions of the surrender would be sacredly adhered to by his ,majesty4 ,thanks to this noble 7cunning7 attitude on the part of the outraged ,moors1 the latter were able to live at peace within the walls of ,toledo well into the seventeenth century4 ,toward the beginning of the thirteenth century ,fernando el ,santo was ,king of ,castile1 and his capital was the city on the ,tago4 ,the growing nation was strong and full of ambition1 while the coming of the ,cluny monks and ,flemish and ,german artisans had brought ,northern ,gothic across the frontiers4 ,so it occurred to the sovereign and his people to erect a primate cathedral of ,christian ,spain worthy of its name4 ,in #abbg the first stone was laid by the pious warrior-king4 ,the cathedral's outline was traced3 a ,roman cruciform ,gothic structure of five aisles and a bold transept2 two flanking towers1--of which only the northern has been constructed1 the other having been substituted by a cupola of decided ,byzantine or ,oriental taste1--and a noble western facade of three immense doors surmounted by a circular rosace thirty feet wide4 ,the size of the building was in itself a guarantee that it would be one of the largest in the world1 being four hundred feet long by two hundred broad1 and one hundred feet high at the intersection of transept and nave4 ,illustration3 ,,toledo ,,cathedral ,it took #bej years for the cathedral to be built1 and even then it was not really completed until toward the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,in the meantime the nation had risen to its climax of power and wealth1 and showered riches and jewels upon its great cathedral4 ,columbus returned from ,america1 and the first gold he brought was handed over to the archbishop2 foreign artisans--especially ,flemish and ,german--arrived by hundreds1 and were employed by ,talavera1 ,cisneros1 and ,mendoza1 in the decoration of the church4 ,unluckily1 additions were made3 the pointed arches of the facade were surmounted by a rectangular body which had nothing in common with the principle set down when the cathedral was to have been purely ogival4 ,the interior of the church was also enlarged1 especially the high altar1 the base of which was doubled in size4 ,the retablo of painted wood was erected toward the end of the fifteenth century1 as well as many of the chapels1 which are built into the walls of the building1 and are as different in style as the saints to whom they are dedicated4 ,as time went on1 and the rich continued sending their jewels and relics to the cathedral1 the ,treasury ,room1 with its pictures by ,rubens1 ,duerer1 ,titian1 etc41 and with its sagrario1--a carved image of ,our ,lady1 crowning an admirably chiselled cone of silver and jewels1 and covered over with the richest cloths woven in gold1 silver1 silk1 and precious stones1--was gradually filled with hoarded wealth4 ,even to-day1 when ,spain has apparently reached the very low ebb of her glory1 the cathedral of ,toledo remains almost intact as the only living representative of the grandeur of the ,church and of the arts it fostered in the sixteenth century4 ,almost up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the building was continually being enlarged1 modified1 and repaired4 ,six hundred years since the first stone had been laid6 ,what vicissitudes had not the country seen--and how many art waves had swept over the peninsula6 ,gothic is traceable throughout the building3 here it is flamboyant1 there rayonnant4 ,here the gold and red of ,mudejar ceilings are exquisitely represented1 as in the chapter-room2 there ,moorish influence in azulejos 7multicoloured glazed tiles7 and in decorative designs is to be seen1 such as in the horseshoe arches of the triforium in the chapel of the high altar4 ,renaissance details are not lacking1 nor the severe plateresque taste 7in the grilles of the choir and high altar71 and neither did the grotesque style avoid ,spain's great cathedral1 for there is the double ambulatory behind the high altar1 that is to say1 the transparente1 a circular chapel of the most gorgeous ultra-decoration to be found anywhere in ,spain4 ,signs of decadence are unluckily to be observed in the cathedral to-day4 ,the same care is no longer taken to repair fallen bits of carved stone2 pigeon-lamps that burn little oil replace the huge bronze lamps of other days1 and no new additions are being made4 ,the cathedral's apogee has been reached2 from now on it will either remain intact for centuries1 or else it will gradually crumble away4 ,seen from the exterior1 the cathedral does not impress to such an extent as it might4 ,houses are built up around it1 and the small square to the south and west is too insignificant to permit a good view of the ensemble4 ,nevertheless1 the spectator who is standing near the western facade1 either craning his neck skyward or else examining the seventy odd statues which compose the huge portal of the principal entrance1 is overawed at the immensity of the edifice in front of him1 as well as amazed at the amount of work necessary for the decorating of the portal4 ,the ,puerta de los ,leones1 or the southern entrance giving access to the transept1 is perhaps of a more careful workmanship as regards the sculptural decoration4 ,the door itself1 studded on the outside with nails and covered over with a sheet of bronze of the most exquisite workmanship in relief1 is a chef-d'oeuvre of metal-stamping of the sixteenth century1 whilst the wood-carving on the interior is among the finest in the cathedral4 ,the effect produced on the spectator within the building is totally different4 ,the height and length of the aisles1 which are buried in shadows1--for the light which enters illuminates rather the chapels which are built into the walls between the flying buttresses1--astonishes2 the factura is severe and beautiful in its grand simplicity4 ,not so the chapels1 which are decorated in all manner of styles1 and ornamented in all degrees of lavishness4 ,the largest is the ,muzarab chapel beneath the dome which substitutes the missing tower2 except the dome1 this chapel1 where the old ,gothic ,rite 7as opposed to the ,gregorian ,rite7 is sung every day in the year1 is constructed in pure ,gothic2 it contains a beautiful ,italian mosaic of the ,virgin as well as frescoes illustrating ,cardinal ,cisneros's ,african wars1 when the battling prelate thought it was his duty to bear the crucifix and ,spanish rights into ,morocco as his royal masters had carried them into ,granada4 ,the remaining chapels1 some of them of impressive though generally complex structure1 will have to be omitted here4 ,so also the sacristy with its wonderful picture by the ,greco1 and the chapter-room with the portraits of all the archbishops1 the elegant carved door1 and the well-preserved ,mudejar ceiling1 etc4 ,and we pass on to the central nave1 and stand beneath the croisee4 ,to the east the high altar1 to the west the choir1 claim the greater part of our attention4 ,for it is here that the people centred their gifts4 ,the objects used on the altar-table are of gold1 silver1 jasper1 and agate2 the monstrance in the central niche of the altar-piece is also of silver1 and the garments worn by the effigy are woven in gold1 silk1 and precious stones4 ,the two immense grilles which close off the high altar and the eastern end of the choir are of iron1 tin1 and copper1 gilded and silvered1 having been covered over with black paint in the nineteenth century so as to escape the greedy eyes--and hands6--of the ,french soldiery4 ,the workmanship of these two rejas is of the most sober ,spanish classic or plateresque period1 and though the black has not as yet been taken off1 the silver and gold peep forth here and there1 and show what a brilliancy must have radiated from these elegantly decorated bars and cross-bars in the eighteenth century4 ,the three tiers of choir stalls1 carved in walnut1 are among the very finest in ,spain1 both as regards the accomplished craftsmanship and the astonishing variety in the composition4 ,the two organs1 opposite each other and attaining the very height of the nave1 are the best in the peninsula1 whilst the designs of the marble pavement1 red and white in the high altar1 and black and white in the choir1 only add to the luxurious effect produced by statues1 pulpits1 and other accessories1 either brilliantly coloured1 or else wrought in polished metal or stone4 ,the altar-piece itself1 slightly concave in shape1 is the largest1 if not the best1 of its kind4 ,it is composed of pyramidically superimposed niches flanked by gilded columns and occupied by statues of painted and gilded wood4 ,the effect from a distance is dazzling1--the reds1 blues1 and gold mingle together and produce a multicoloured mass reaching to the height of the nave2 on closer examination1 the workmanship is seen to be both coarse and naive1--primitive as compared to the more finished retablos of ,burgos1 ,astorga1 etc4 ,to conclude3 ,the visitor who1 standing between the choir and the high altar of the cathedral1 looks at both1 stands1 as it were1 in the presence of an immense riddle4 ,he cannot classify3 there is no purity of one style1 but a medley of hundreds of styles1 pure in themselves1 it is true1 but not in the ensemble4 ,besides1 the personality of each has been lost or drowned1 either by ultra-decoration or by juxtaposition4 ,a collective value is thus obtained which cannot be pulled to pieces1 for then it would lose all its significance as an art unity--a complex art unity1 in this case peculiar to ,spain4 ,neither is repose1 meditation1 or frank admiration to be gleaned from such a gigantic potpourri of art wonders1 but rather a feeling--as far as we ,northerners are concerned--of amazement1 of stupor1 and of an utter impossibility to understand such a luxurious display of idolatry rather than of faith1 of scenic effect rather than of discreet prayer4 ,but then1 it may just be this idolatry and love of scenic effect which produces in the ,spaniard what we have called religious awe4 ,we feel it in a long-aisled ,gothic temple2 the ,spaniard feels it when standing beneath the croisee of his cathedral churches4 ,the whole matter is a question of race4 ,,the ,,end4 ,appendices ,i ,illustration ,archbishoprics and ,bishoprics of ,northern ,spain ,,ii ,dimensions and ,chronology ,,astorga ,see dedicated to ,saviour and ,san ,toribio4 ,legendary 787 erection of see1 #ast century 7oldest in peninsula74 ,first historical bishop1 ,dominiciano1 #cdg ,a4 ,d4 ,during ,arab invasion see was being continually destroyed and rebuilt4 #ajfi1 first cathedral 7on record7 was erected4 #aabj1 second cathedral was erected4 ,x,i,i,ith century1 third cathedral was erected4 #adga1 fourth 7present7 cathedral was begun2 terminated ,x,v,ith century4 ,x,vth and ,x,v,ith century ogival2 imitation of that of ,leon4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,northern front1 plateresque retablo4 ,,avila ,dedicated to ,san ,salvador4 ,first bishop 7legendary871 ,san ,segundo1 in ,ist century4 ,see destroyed during ,arab invasion4 ,first bishop after ,reconquest1 ,jeronimo in ,x,ith century4 99 99 99 ,date of foundation and erection unknown4 ,legendary foundation1 #ajia2 finished in #aaje 7874 ,late ,x,i,ith century ,spanish ,gothic fortress church4 ,apse ,x,i,ith century2 transept ,x,i,vth century4 ,western front ,x,vth century2 tower late ,x,i,vth century4 99 99 99 ,width of transept and of nave1 #cj feet4 ,width of aisles1 #be feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,exterior of apse1 nave and transept with rose windows1 tomb of ,bishop ,tostada4 ,,burgos ,see dedicated to the ,holy ,mary and ,son4 ,bishopric erected1 #ajge2 archbishopric1 #ajhe4 ,first bishop1 ,don ,simon2 first archbishop1 ,gomez ,,ii4 99 99 99 ,present cathedral begun1 #abba4 ,first holy mass celebrated in altar-chapel1 #abcj4 ,building terminated #cjj years later 7#aeba74 ,x,i,i,ith-,x,i,vth century ,spanish ogival4 99 99 99 ,length 7excluding ,chapel of ,condestable71 #bgc feet4 ,length of transept1 #aie feet2 width1 #cb feet4 ,height of lantern crowning croisee1 #afb feet4 ,height of western front1 #dg feet4 ,height of towers1 #bgc feet2 width at base1 #ai feet4 ,width of nave1 #ca feet2 of aisles1 #ai feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the ensemble1 interior decoration1 lantern on croisee1 the ,chapel of the ,condestable1 choir1 high altar1 etc4 7,with that of ,toledo1 the richest cathedral in ,spain47 ,,calahorra ,see dedicated to ,san ,emeterio and ,san ,celedonio1 martyrs4 ,bishopric erected ,vth century2 first bishop1 ,silvano4 ,daring ,arab invasion see removed to ,oviedo 7#gej74 ,removed to ,alava in ,i,xth century2 in ,xth century1 to ,najera4 ,in #ajcj1 moved again to ,calahorra2 first bishop1 ,don ,sancho4 ,since ,x,i,xth century1 one bishop appointed to double see ,calahorra-,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada4 ,this double see to be removed to ,logrono4 99 99 99 ,cathedral begun in ,x,i,ith century2 terminated in ,x,i,vth century4 ,x,i,i,ith century ,gothic 7body of church only74 ,western front of a much later date4 99 99 99 ,chief attraction3 ,choir-stalls4 ,,ciudad ,,rodrigo ,see dedicated to the ,virgin and ,child4 ,origin of bishopric in ,calabria under ,romans 7legendary874 ,foundation of city in #aaej2 erection of see1 #aagj4 ,first bishop1 ,domingo1 #aagj4 ,see nominally suppressed in #ahgj2 in reality the suppression has not taken place as yet4 99 99 99 ,cathedral church begun toward #aafj4 ,x,i,ith century ,romanesque-,gothic edifice4 ,tower and western front date from ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,lady-chapel from ,x,v,ith century4 ,building suffered considerably from ,french in #ahjh4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,romanesque narthex1 cloister1 choir-stalls1 ,romanesque doors leading into transept4 ,,coria ,see dedicated to ,santa ,maria4 ,date of erection1 #cch4 ,first known bishop1 ,laquinto1 in #ehi4 ,during ,moorish domination the bishopric entirely destroyed4 ,see reestablished toward beginning ,x,i,i,ith century4 99 99 99 ,cathedral church begun in #aabj4 ,terminated in ,x,v,ith century4 99 99 99 ,is an unimportant village church rather than a cathedral4 ,one aisle1 #aej feet long1 #eb feet wide1 #hd feet high4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,paseo1 or cloister walk2 in lady-chapel1 sepulchre of ,x,v,ith century4 ,,cuenca ,see dedicated to the ,virgin4 ,erected in #aahc4 ,first bishop1 ,juan ,yanez4 99 99 99 ,x,i,i,ith century ogival church greatly deteriorated1 in a ruinous state4 ,tower which stood on western end fell down recently4 99 99 99 ,length of building1 #cab feet2 width1 #adj feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,cloister door1 chapels4 ,,leon ,see dedicated to ,san ,froilan and ,santa ,maria de la ,blanca4 ,date of erection not known4 ,first known bishop1 ,basilides1 #beb ,a4,d4 ,during ,arab invasion1 see existed on and off4 99 99 99 ,first stone of present cathedral laid in #aaii4 ,the building did not begin until #abej2 terminated end of ,x,i,vth century4 ,x,i,ith century ,french ogival4 ,vaulting above croisee fell down in #afca4 ,southern front rebuilt in #afid4 ,whole cathedral partly ruined in #agdc4 ,closed to public by government in #ahej4 ,reopened in #aija4 99 99 99 ,total length1 #cjj feet2 width1 #acj feet2 height of nave1 #ajj feet4 ,height of northern tower1 #baa feet2 of southern1 #bba feet4 ,length of each side of cloister1 #ig feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the ensemble1 windows1 choir-stalls1 cloister4 ,,logrono ,see dedicated to the ,holy ,virgin4 ,compare ,calahorra4 99 99 99 ,santa ,maria raised to collegiate church in #adce4 ,old building torn down in same year1 excepting some few remains4 ,present church begun in #adce2 not terminated yet4 ,enlargements being introduced at the present date4 ,belongs to ,spanish-,grotesque4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,western front1 trascoro1 towers4 ,,lugo ,see dedicated to the ,mother and ,child4 ,bishopric erected in ,vth century2 first bishop1 ,agrestio1 in #dcc4 99 99 99 ,cathedral began in #aabi2 completed in #aagg4 ,x,i,ith century ,galician ,romanesque spoilt by posterior additions4 ,building greatly reformed in ,x,v,ith to ,x,v,i,i,ith centuries4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the ensemble 7interior71 western portal1 exterior of apse4 ,,madrid-,,alcala ,see erected in #ahej4 ,,madrid ,temporary cathedral dedicated to ,san ,isidro4 ,seventeenth century building of no art merit4 ,new cathedral dedicated to the ,virgen de la ,almudena4 ,in course of construction2 begun in #ahhe4 ,,alcala ,dedicated to ,santos ,justo and ,pastor2 called la ,magistral4 ,in a ruinous state2 closed1 and see temporarily removed to ,jesuit temple4 ,constructed in ,x,vth century1 and raised to suffragan in same century4 ,severe and naked 7gloomy7 ,spanish-,gothic4 ,interior of building cannot be visited4 ,,mondonedo ,see dedicated to the ,virgin4 ,bishopric removed here from ,ribadeo1 late ,x,i,ith century4 ,first 7or second7 bishop1 ,don ,martin1 about #abai4 99 99 99 ,foundation of cathedral dates probably from ,x,i,ith century4 ,x,i,i,ith century ,galician ,romanesque structure4 ,greatly spoilt by posterior additions4 ,ambulatory dates from ,x,vth or ,x,v,ith century4 99 99 99 ,rectangular in form2 #abj feet long by #ga wide4 ,height of nave1 #de feet2 of aisles1 #bh feet4 ,,orense ,see dedicated to ,st4 ,martin of ,tours and ,st4 ,mary ,mother4 ,bishopric erected previous to ,i,vth century 7874 99 99 99 ,erection of present building begun late ,x,i,ith century4 ,probably terminated late ,x,i,i,ith century4 ,x,i,i,ith century1 ,galician ,romanesque with pronounced ogival mixture4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,portico del ,paraiso1 western portal1 decoration of the interior4 ,,osma ,see dedicated to ,san ,pedro de ,osma4 ,legendary 787 erection of see in #ia ,a4 ,d4 ,first bishop1 ,san ,astorgio4 ,first historical bishop1 ,juan ,i1 in #ehi4 ,destruction of see during ,arab invasion4 ,see restored1 #aajj2 first bishop1 ,san ,pedro de ,osma4 99 99 99 ,x,i,ith century cathedral destroyed in ,x,i,i,ith century1 excepting a few chapels4 ,erection of new cathedral begun in #abcb2 terminated1 beginning ,x,i,vth century4 ,x,i,i,ith century ,romanesque-,gothic 7not pure74 ,ambulatory introduced in ,x,v,i,ith century4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,retablo1 reliefs of trasaltar4 ,,oviedo ,see dedicated to the ,mother and ,child4 ,bishopric erected1 #hab2 first bishop1 ,adulfo4 99 99 99 ,until ,x,i,ith century cathedral was a basilica2 destroyed4 ,romanesque edifice erected in ,x,i,ith century2 destroyed #achj4 ,present edifice begun #achj2 completed #aeej4 ,x,vth century ogival 7,french874 ,decoration of the interior terminated ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,tower and spire1 ,x,v,ith century4 ,camara ,santa dates from ,x,i,ith century2 a remnant of the early ,romanesque edifice4 99 99 99 ,total length1 #bah feet2 width1 #gb feet4 ,height of nave1 #fe feet2 of aisles1 #cc feet4 ,height of tower1 #bfg feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,fleche1 decoration of the interior1 rosaces in apse1 ,gothic retablo1 cloister1 ,camara ,santa4 ,,palencia ,see dedicated to ,mother and ,child and ,san ,antolin1 martyr4 ,date of erection unknown2 ,i,id or ,i,i,id century4 ,one of the earliest bishops1 ,san ,toribio4 ,during the ,arab invasion city and see completely destroyed4 ,first bishop after ,reconquest1 ,bernardo1 in #ajce4 99 99 99 ,x,vth century florid ,gothic building4 ,erection begun in #acba4 ,eastern end finished prior to #adjj4 ,century later western end begun on larger scale4 ,temple completed in #aeej4 99 99 99 ,total length1 #dje feet4 ,width 7at transept71 #afj feet4 ,height 7of nave71 #ie feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the ensemble 7interior and exterior71 ,bishop's ,door1 choir-stalls1 trascoro4 ,,plasencia ,dedicated to the ,holy ,virgin4 ,erection of see #ab years after foundation city 7#aaij74 ,first bishop1 ,domingo2 second1 ,adam2 both were warrior prelates4 99 99 99 ,old cathedral 7few remains left7 commenced in beginning ,x,i,vth century4 ,partially destroyed to make room for-- ,new cathedral1 commenced in #adih4 ,x,v,ith century ,renaissance-,gothic edifice4 ,ultra-decorated and ornamented in later centuries4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,choir-stalls1 western entrance1 decorative motives1 sepulchres4 ,,salamanca ,bishopric existed in ,vth century4 ,first known bishop1 ,eleuterio 7#ehi74 ,v,i,i,ith century1 devoid of notices concerning see4 ,xth century1 #g bishops mentioned--living in ,leon or ,oviedo4 ,x,ith century1 no news1 even name of city forgotten4 ,first bishop de modernis1 ,jeronimo of ,valencia 7#aajb74 99 99 99 ,old cathedral still standing2 city possesses therefore two cathedrals4 ,,old ,,cathedral ,dedicated to ,st4 ,mary 7,santa ,maria de la ,sede74 ,in #aaeb already in construction2 not finished in #abii4 ,x,i,ith or ,x,i,i,ith century1 ,castilian ,romanesque with ogival mixture4 ,nave1 #cc feet wide1 #aij feet long1 #fj feet high4 ,aisles1 #bj feet wide1 #ahj feet long1 #dj feet high4 ,thickness of walls1 #aj feet4 ,part of cathedral demolished to make room for new in #aeac4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,cimborio1 central apsidal chapel1 and retablo4 ,,new ,,cathedral ,dedicated to the ,mother and ,saviour4 ,begun in #aeac2 not completed until ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,originally ,late ,gothic building4 ,plateresque1 ,herrera and grotesque additions4 ,compare churches of ,valladolid and ,segovia4 99 99 99 ,rectangular in shape2 #cgh feet long1 #aha feet wide4 ,height of nave1 #acj feet2 that of aisles1 #hh feet4 ,width of nave1 #ej feet2 of aisles1 #cg feet4 ,length 7and width7 of chapels1 #bh feet2 height1 #ed feet4 ,height of tower1 #cbj feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,western facade1 decorative wealth1 ensemble4 ,,santander ,see dedicated to ,san ,emeterio1 martyr1 and to the ,virgin4 ,monastical church of ,san ,emeterio raised to collegiate in ,x,i,i,ith century4 ,bishopric erected in #agge4 99 99 99 ,cathedral church built in ,x,i,i,ith century4 99 99 99 ,chief attraction3 ,crypt1 fount4 ,,santiago ,see dedicated to ,st4 ,james1 patron saint of ,spain4 ,bishopric erected previous to #hdb2 first bishop1 ,sisnando4 ,archbishopric erected ,x,i,ith century2 first archbishop1 ,diego ,galmirez4 99 99 99 ,cathedral church begun1 #ajgh2 terminated1 #abaa4 ,x,i,ith century ,romanesque building4 ,exterior suffered grotesque and plateresque repairs1 ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,cloister dates from #aecj4 99 99 99 ,length1 #cje feet2 width 7at transept71 #bjd feet4 ,height of nave1 #gh feet2 of aisles1 #bc feet2 of cupola1 #ajg feet2 of tower 7de la ,trinidad71 #bfj feet2 of western towers1 #bbg feet4 ,length of each side of cloister1 #aad feet2 width1 #ai feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the ensemble 7interior71 ,portico de la ,gloria1 crypt1 cloister1 southern portal4 ,,santo ,,domingo ,,de ,,la ,,calzada ,see dedicated to ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada4 ,bishopric dates from #abbg4 ,compare ,calahorra4 99 99 99 ,cathedral church begun toward #aaej4 ,terminated1 #abej4 ,x,i,ith-,x,i,i,ith century ,romanesque-,gothic structure4 99 99 99 ,chief attraction3 ,the retablo1 ,x,vth and ,x,v,ith sepulchres4 ,,segovia ,see dedicated to ,san ,fruto and the ,virgin4 ,first bishop 7legendary871 ,san ,hierateo1 in ,ist century4 ,see known to have existed in #ebg4 ,first historical bishop1 ,peter 7#ehi74 ,during ,arab invasion only one bishop mentioned1 ,ilderedo1 #idj4 ,first bishop after the ,reconquest1 ,don ,pedro1 in #aaae4 99 99 99 ,first stone of present cathedral laid1 #aebe4 ,cathedral consecrated1 #aeeh2 finished in #aehj4 ,cupola erected in #afae4 ,gothic-,renaissance building4 ,tower struck by lightning and partly ruined1 #afbj4 ,rebuilt 7tower7 in #ahbe4 99 99 99 ,total length1 #cda feet2 width1 #aef feet4 ,height of dome1 #bah feet4 ,width of nave and transept1 #dd feet2 aisles1 #cc feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,old cloister1 apse1 tower4 ,s,i,g,ue,e,n,z,a ,see dedicated to ,mother and ,child4 ,first known bishop1 ,protogenes1 in ,v,ith century4 ,during ,arab invasion no mention is made of see4 ,first bishop after ,reconquest1 ,bernardo 7#aaie74 ,fourth bishop an ,englishman1 ,jocelyn4 99 99 99 ,date of erection of the cathedral unknown4 ,probably ,x,i,ith or ,x,i,i,ith century ,romanesque-,gothic edifice4 ,ambulatory added in ,x,v,ith century4 99 99 99 ,length of building1 #cac feet2 width1 #aab feet4 ,height of nave1 #fh feet2 of aisles1 #fc feet4 ,circumference of central pillar1 #ej feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,western front1 sacristy1 rose window in southern transept arm4 ,,soria ,see to be moved here from ,osma4 ,church dedicated to ,st4 ,mary4 ,raised to suffragan of ,osma in ,x,i,ith century4 99 99 99 ,x,v,ith century1 ,gothic-plateresque building4 ,x,i,ith century1 western front2 ,castilian ,romanesque4 ,x,i,ith century1 ,romanesque cloister4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,western front1 cloister4 ,,toledo ,see dedicated to the ,virgin ,mother and her ,apparition to ,san ,ildefonso4 ,bishopric erected prior to #eac ,a4 ,d4 ,one of first bishops is ,san ,ildefonso4 ,during ,arab domination see remains vacant4 ,first archbishop1 ,don ,bernardo 7#ajhe74 ,primate cathedral of all the ,spains since ,x,vth century4 99 99 99 ,first stone of present building laid in #abbg4 ,church completed in #adic4 ,additions1 repairs1 etc41 dating from ,x,v,ith-,x,v,i,i,ith century4 99 99 99 ,length1 #djd feet2 width1 #bjd feet2 height of tower1 #bih feet4 ,height of nave1 #ih feet4 ,height of principal door1 #bj feet2 width1 #g feet4 ,diameter of rose window in western front1 #cj feet4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the ensemble1 decorative and industrial accessories1 chapter-room1 sacristy1 paintings1 bell-tower1 etc4 7,the richest cathedral in ,spain47 ,,toro ,collegiate ,church dedicated to ,st4 ,mary4 99 99 99 ,existence of bishopric cannot be proven1 though believed to have been erected during first decade of ,reconquest in ,xth century4 ,is definitely made a suffragan of ,zamora in ,x,v,ith century4 99 99 99 ,cathedral--or collegiate--erected end of ,x,i,ith or beginning of ,x,i,i,ith century4 ,castilian ,romanesque building4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,military aspect of building1 height of walls1 massive cimborio4 ,,tuy ,see dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary4 ,bishopric erected in ,v,ith century4 99 99 99 ,cathedral erected in first half ,x,i,ith century4 ,suffered greatly from earthquakes1 especially in #agee4 ,x,i,ith century ,galician ,romanesque in spoilt conditions4 ,western porch or narthex dates from ,x,vth century4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,western front1 northern portal1 cloister4 ,,valladolid ,santa ,maria la ,antigua raised to suffragan of ,palencia1 #ajgd4 ,church built in ,x,i,ith century1 ,castilian ,romanesque4 ,ruins still to be seen to rear of-- ,santa ,maria la ,mayor4 ,seat of archbishopric since #ahej4 ,bishopric established1 #aeie2 first bishop1 ,don ,bartolome4 99 99 99 ,cathedral begun in #aehe by ,juan de ,herrera4 ,continued ,x,v,i,ith century by ,churriguera4 ,escorial style spoilt by grotesque decoration4 ,tower falls down in #ahda2 new one being erected4 99 99 99 ,rectangular in shape2 length1 #daa feet2 width1 #bjd feet4 ,transept half-way between apse and western front4 ,croisee surmounted by cupola4 ,only one of four towers was constructed4 ,,vitoria ,see dedicated to ,santa ,maria4 ,st4 ,mary erected to collegiate1 ,x,vth century4 ,bishopric erected in ,x,i,xth century4 99 99 99 ,cathedral church erected in ,x,i,vth century4 ,x,i,vth century ,late ,gothic structure of no art interest4 ,tower of ,x,v,ith and ,x,v,i,ith centuries4 99 99 99 ,chief attraction3 ,in sacristy a canvas called ,piety4 ,,zamora ,see dedicated to ,san ,atilano and the ,holy ,mother4 ,bishopric established #ije2 first bishop1 ,san ,atilano4 ,destroyed by ,moors in #iih2 vacancy not filled until #aabd4 ,first bishop de modernis1 ,bernardo4 99 99 99 ,cathedral commenced #aaea2 vaulting terminated #aagd4 ,x,i,ith century ,castilian ,romanesque4 99 99 99 ,chief attractions3 ,the cimborio1 southern entrance4 ,,iii ,a ,list of the ,provinces of ,spain and of the ,middle ,age ,states or ,kingdoms from which they have evolved4 ,principal ,kingdoms ,conquered ,states ,present-day ,provinces ,castile ,galicia ,la ,coruna99 ,lugo99 ,orense99 ,pontevedra99 ,asturias99 ,oviedo99 ,leon ,leon99 ,palencia99 ,zamora99 ,basque ,provinces ,guipuzcua99 ,vizcaya99 ,alava99 ,rioja ,logrono99 ,old ,castile ,santander99 ,burgos99 ,soria99 ,valladolid99 ,avila99 ,segovia99 ,salamanca99 ,new ,castile ,madrid99 ,guadalajara99 ,toledo99 ,cuenca99 ,ciudad ,real99 ,extremadura ,caceres99 ,badajoz ,andalusia ,sevilla ,huelva ,cadiz ,cordoba ,jaen ,granada ,granada ,malaga ,almeria ,murcia ,murcia ,albacete ,aragon ,aragon ,zaragoza ,huesca ,teruel ,cataluna ,barcelona ,gerona ,lerida ,tarragona ,valencia ,valencia ,alicante ,castellon ,navarra ,navarra 7,pamplona7 ,,notes ,the star 7997 indicates the provinces treated of in this volume2 the remainder will be treated of in ,volume ,,ii4 ,two provinces have not been mentioned3 that of the ,balearic ,isles 7belonged to the old kingdom of ,aragon71 and that of the ,canary ,isles 7belonged to the old kingdom of ,castile74 ,dates have not been indicated4 ,for so complicated was the evolution of the different states 7regions7 throughout the ,middle ,ages1 that a series of tables would be necessary1 as well as a series of geographical maps4 ,the above list1 however1 shows ,spain 7minus ,portugal7 at the death of ,fernando 7the husband of ,isabel7 in #aeaf1 as well as the component parts of ,castile and ,aragon4 ,the division of ,spain into provinces dates from #ahcc4 ,a bishopric does not necessarily coincide with a province4 ,thus1 the ,province of ,lugo has two sees 7,lugo and ,mondonedo72 on the other hand1 three ,basque ,provinces have but one see 7,vitoria74 ,excepting in the case of ,navarra1 whose capital is ,pamplona1 the different provinces of ,spain bear the name of the capital4 ,thus the capital of the ,province of ,madrid is ,madrid1 and ,jaen is the capital of the province of the same name4 ,bibliography ,espana1 sus ,monumentos y ,artes1 su ,naturaleza e ,historia3 ,burgos1 by ,r4 ,amador de los ,rios4 ,santander1 by ,r4 ,amador de los ,rios4 ,navarra y ,logrono1 ,vol4 ,,iii41 by ,p4 de ,madrazo4 ,soria1 by ,n4 ,rabal4 ,galicia1 by ,m4 ,murguia4 ,alava1 etc41 by ,a4 ,pirala4 ,extremadura1 by ,n4 ,diaz y ,perez4 ,recuerdos y ,bellezas de ,espana3 ,castilla ,la ,nueva1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,quadrado4 ,asturias y ,leon1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,quadrado4 ,valladolid1 etc41 by ,j4 ,m4 ,quadrado4 ,salamanca1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,quadrado4 ,espagne et ,portugal1 by ,baedeker4 ,historia del ,pueblo ,espanol 7,spanish translation71 by ,major ,m4 ,hume4 ,historia de ,espana1 by ,r4 ,altamira4 ,toledo en la ,mano1 by ,s4 ,parro4 ,estudios ,historico-,artisticos relativos a ,valladolid1 by ,marti y ,monso4 ,,index ,acuna1 ,don1 #big1 #bih4 ,adan1 ,maria1 #bga2 ,don1 ,bishop of ,plasencia1 #bhg1 #cgf4 ,adulfo1 ,bishop of ,oviedo1 #ach1 #cge4 ,african ,wars1 #cfd4 ,agrestio1 ,bishop of ,lugo1 #cgc4 ,agricolanus1 #aea4 ,agueda ,river1 #bfi4 ,alagon ,river1 #bgh1 #bhj4 ,alarcos1 ,battle of1 #bhd1 #cad4 ,alava1 #aih1 #cga4 ,alcala 7,see ,alcala de ,henares74 ,alcala de ,fenares 7,see ,alcala de ,henares74 ,alcala de ,henares1 #fa1 #fd1 #bab1 #bbc1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbf-ccd1 #cdi2 ,churches of 7,see under ,churches72 ,university of1 #cbh4 ,alcala de ,san ,justo 7,see ,alcala de ,henares74 ,alcantara1 ,bridge of1 #cej4 ,alcazar 7,cuenca71 #cdc1 7,segovia7 #cad1 #cbj1 #cee1 7,toledo7 #ccf1 #cej1 #cef4 ,aleman1 #bge1 #bhi4 ,alfonso1 #cjg4 ,alfonso ,i41 #bba1 #bcj4 ,alfonso ,,ii41 #cdc4 ,alfonso ,,iii41 #bde4 ,alfonso ,,iv41 #aec4 ,alfonso ,v41 #aci1 #bid4 ,alfonso ,,vi41 #aih1 #bjf1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bec1 #bic1 #cce1 #ceh1 #cei4 ,alfonso ,,vii41 #aec1 #aed1 #afa1 #afb1 #ccf4 ,alfonso ,,viii41 #ahh1 #aib1 #aic1 #baj1 #bbc1 #beh1 #bhj1 #bhd1 #bhf1 #cch1 #cdc4 ,alfonso ,,ix41 #beh4 ,alfonso ,,xi41 #agi1 #bde4 ,alfonso the ,chaste1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada4 ,alfonsos1 ,dynasty of1 #ajc1 #bjj4 ,alfonso el ,batallador1 #cje4 ,al-,kala 7,see ,alcala de ,henares74 ,alhambra1 ,the1 #bb1 #da1 #cee4 ,alhaxa1 ,martin1 #cdc4 ,al-,karica 7,see ,coria74 ,almanzor1 #gi1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aga1 #agf1 #agg1 #bcj1 #bcb4 ,alps1 ,the1 #eh4 ,altamira1 ,rafael1 #ad4 ,alvarez1 ,diego1 #bhf4 ,america1 #bi1 #cb1 #ij1 #bie1 #bif1 #cfj4 ,anaya1 ,diego de1 ,tomb of1 #bfc4 ,andalusia1 #af1 #bb1 #ff1 #fg1 #gf1 #ha1 #afa1 #aia1 #cjc1 #cad1 #ccg1 #ced4 ,ansurez1 ,pedro1 #bic2 ,family of1 #bid4 ,aquitania1 #afg4 ,arabs and ,arab ,invasions1 #bc1 #ch1 #ga1 #gi1 #hj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aad1 #abc1 #abd1 #adg1 #adh1 #aeb1 #agj1 #agg1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bec1 #bed1 #bhj1 #bif1 #cac1 #cbc1 #cbg1 #ced1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cge1 #cgh1 #cgi4 ,aragon1 #bc1 #be1 #eh1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga1 #bjc1 #baj1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cca1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cdb1 #cdc4 ,arco de ,santa ,marta 7,burgos71 #ahj4 ,armada1 ,the1 #ca1 #ij1 #acb1 #ahi1 #cdi4 ,arriago1 #aic4 ,arrianism1 #aec4 ,astorga1 #gj1 #ga1 #abj1 #afg-agc1 #agd1 #agf1 #aig1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bdf1 #cfi2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,asturias1 #eg1 #ff1 #gj1 #gi1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ach1 #aci1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #aej1 #aec1 #afb1 #afg1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #bac4 ,asturica ,augusta 7,see ,astorga74 ,augustabriga1 #bfi4 ,auria 7,see ,orense74 ,austurio1 ,archbishop of ,toledo1 #cca4 ,avila1 #gj1 #ga1 #bec1 #cjb-caa1 #cab1 #cac1 #cgj2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishop72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,baeza1 #afa4 ,baedeker1 #aae4 ,barcelona1 #ff4 ,barrientos1 ,inez de1 #cdd4 ,bartolome1 ,bishop of ,valladolid1 #cha4 ,basilides1 ,bishop of ,astorga1 #afh4 ,basilides1 ,bishop of ,leon1 #aea1 #cgb4 ,basque ,provinces1 #cc1 #aib4 ,bay of ,biscay1 #ahi4 ,bayona1 #aca1 #acb2 ,church of 7,see under ,churches74 ,bayonne in ,gascogne1 #bgb4 ,becerra1 #agb4 ,berengario1 #bed4 ,bermudo ,,ii41 #afb4 ,bermudo ,,iii41 #aga1 #agf4 ,bernardo1 ,bishop of ,palencia1 #bbb1 #cge4 ,bernardo1 ,bishop of ,sigueenza1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cgi4 ,bernardo1 ,archbishop of ,toledo1 #bac1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cgi4 ,bernardo1 ,bishop of ,zamora1 #bcb4 ,berruguete1 #ej1 #bie4 ,betica 7,see ,andalusia74 ,bishops and ,archbishops 7,basilides71 #afh2 ,astorga 7,dominiciano71 #afg1 #cfi2 ,avila 7,jeronimo71 #cgj1 7,pedro7 #cjh1 7,san ,segundo7 #cgj1 7,tostada7 #cgj2 ,burgos 7,don ,simon71 #cgj1 7,gomez ,,ii47 #cgj2 ,calahorra 7,don ,sancho71 #aih1 #cga1 7,silvano7 #cga2 ,cuidad ,rodrigo 7,domingo71 #bgj1 #cga1 7,pedro ,diaz7 #bgj2 ,coria 7,laquinto71 #bgi1 #cgb2 ,cuenca 7,juan ,yanez71 #cdc1 #cgb2 ,iria 7,theodosio71 #gf1 #gg1 #gh2 ,leon 7,basilides71 #aea1 #bgb2 ,lugo 7,agrestio71 #cgc1 7,odoario7 #ajd2 ,mondonedo 7,martin71 #ig1 #cgd2 ,osma1 #baa1 7,juan ,i47 #bad1 #cge1 7,pedro7 #bbd1 #cge1 7,san ,astorgio7 #cge2 ,orense 7,diego71 #aaf2 ,oviedo 7,adulfo71 #ach1 7,gutierre7 #aci2 ,palencia 7,bernardo71 #bbb1 #cge1 7,san ,toribio7 #cge2 ,plasencia 7,adan71 #bhg1 #cgf1 7,domingo7 #bhf1 #cgf2 ,salamanca 7,eleuterio71 #bec1 #cgf1 7,jeronimo7 #bed1 #cje1 #cgf2 ,santiago1 #bed1 #ccg1 7,diego ,galmirez7 #hj1 #aaf1 #cgg1 7,sisnando71 #cgg2 ,segovia 7,don ,pedro71 #cab1 #cad1 #cgh1 7,ilderedo7 #cac1 #cgh1 7,san ,hierateo71 #cab1 #cgh2 ,sigueenza 7,austurio71 #cca1 7,bernardo7 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cgi1 7,jocelyn7 #cch1 #cgi1 7,protogenes7 #cce1 #cgi2 ,toledo1 #cjg1 #cca1 #ccg1 7,bernardo7 #bac1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cgi1 7,carillo7 #cca1 #ccd1 7,ildefonso7 #ceh1 #cgi1 7,tavera7 #bgd2 ,tuy1 #acb2 ,valladolid 7,bartolome71 #cha1 7,bernardo7 #bcb2 ,zamora 7,san ,atilano71 #bca1 #cha4 ,bishop's ,door 7,palencia ,cathedral71 #bbh1 #cgf4 ,blanca de ,bourbon1 #bid1 #ccf4 ,boabdil el ,chico1 #bb4 ,bologna1 #bea4 ,bourbon1 ,blanca de1 #bid1 #ccf4 ,bourbon ,dynasty1 #cj4 ,braga1 #aab1 #abj1 #afg4 ,brigandtia 7,see ,corunna74 ,brunetiere1 #ge4 ,burgos1 #ci1 #dc1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #aed1 #agd-ahj1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aif1 #bbc1 #bcg1 #bea1 #bec1 #bif1 #cjc1 #cdi1 #cgj2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,burgo de ,osma1 #bad4 ,cadiz #cce4 ,calabria1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #cga4 ,calahorra1 #ahh1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #cga2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,calle de ,puente1 #aij4 ,camara ,sagrada1 #fi4 ,camara ,santa 7,oviedo71 #add1 #cge4 ,cangas1 #acg1 #ach1 #adg4 ,cantabric ,mountains1 #aij4 ,cantabric ,sea1 #ahi4 ,carillo1 ,archbishop of ,toledo1 #cca1 #ccd2 ,tomb of1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,carlist ,wars1 #cc4 ,carranza1 #bjc4 ,carrarick1 ,king of the ,suevos1 #aad4 ,castellum ,tude 7,see ,tuy74 ,castile1 #af1 #bc1 #be1 #ei1 #ff-gg1 #ha1 #ajc1 #aed1 #agd-agg1 #ahi1 #aib1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bba1 #bcc1 #bde1 #bhj1 #bid1 #bif1 #cjb1 #cje1 #ccf1 #cdc4 ,castile1 ,counts of1 #bec1 #bgi1 #cab1 #cce4 ,cathedrals1 ,astorga1 #afg-agc1 #cfg1 #cfi2 ,avila1 #cjb-caa1 #cgj2 ,burgos1 #fb1 #ada1 #aef1 #afa1 #agd-ahg1 #bjb1 #bbg-bda1 #bfg1 #cfg-cgj2 ,calahorra1 #bjf-bjh1 #cgc1 #cgh2 ,canterbury 7,st4 ,thomas71 #cch2 ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 #bfi-bgg1 #cga2 ,coria1 #bfa1 #bgh1 #bhc1 #cgb2 ,huesca1 #bjc1 #cca2 ,leon1 #fb1 #ada1 #aej-aff1 #aga1 #cgb2 ,lugo1 #ii1 #ajb-aji1 #aac1 #aae1 #aag1 #cdj1 #cgc2 ,madrid1 ,san ,isidro and ,virgen de la ,almudena1 #cba1 #cbf1 #cgc2 ,mondonedo1 #ie-aja1 #cgd2 ,najera1 #bja-bjb2 ,orense1 ,santa ,maria la ,madre1 #aaj-aai1 #abf1 #cgd2 ,osma1 #bab-baf1 #cgd1 #cge2 ,nuestra ,senora de la ,blanca 7,see ,leon72 ,oviedo1 #acg-add1 #aef1 #agb1 #ahb1 #cge2 ,pulchra ,leonina 7,see ,leon72 ,palencia1 #bai-bbi1 #bci1 #cge2 ,plasencia1 #bge1 #bhd-bhi1 #cgf2 ,rome 7,st4 ,peter's71 #cjj2 ,salamanca1 ,old and ,new ,cathedrals1 #bea-bfh1 #bge1 #bii1 #cag1 #cdf1 #cgf1 #cgg2 ,santiago1 ,santiago de ,campostela1 #ge-hh1 #ib1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abg1 #bdj1 #bda1 #cgg2 ,santander1 #ahh-aia1 #cgg2 ,segovia1 #cab-cbj1 #cgg1 #cgh2 ,sevilla1 #ahg2 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada1 #bjb-bjd1 #cgh2 ,sigueenza1 #cce-cda1 #cdf1 #cgi2 ,tours1 ,st4 ,martin1 #cgd2 ,tuy1 ,santa ,maria la ,madre1 #aac1 #abj-acj1 #bdi1 #chj2 ,valladolid1 #bic-cja1 #cgg1 #chj2 ,vitoria1 #aib-aie1 #cha2 ,zamora1 #bcj-bdc1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bge1 #cdf1 #cha2 ,toledo1 #af1 #fd1 #adc1 #aei1 #afa1 #ahd1 #cag1 #cai1 #ccb1 #cdi-cfh1 #cga1 #cgi2 ,toulouse1 ,st4 ,saturnin1 #hb2 ,toro1 ,santa ,maria la ,mayor1 #bdd-bej1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bgc1 #bge1 #cdf1 #chj4 ,celedonio1 #ahh1 #aig1 #bjf4 ,celts1 ,the1 #hd1 #ajb4 ,cervantes1 #bie1 #cbf1 #ceb4 ,charles-,quinte1 #bbc1 #bhc1 #cad1 #cec4 ,choir ,stalls1 #dh1 #di4 ,churches3 ,alcala de ,henares1 ,la ,magistral1 #cbh1 #ccb1 #cgd2 ,san ,justo1 #cbh1 #ccb2 ,burgos1 ,chapel of the ,condestable1 #ci1 #ahe1 #cgj1 #cga2 ,bayona and ,vigo1 #aca-acc2 ,corunna 7,colegiata71 #ia1 #ic1 ,church of ,santiago1 #ic1 #id1 ,santa ,maria del ,campo1 #ib2 ,cordoba1 ,the ,mosque1 #da1 #fh2 ,cuenca1 #cdb-cdh1 #cgb2 ,leon1 ,san ,isidoro1 #aec1 #afc1 #aia1 ,chapel of ,st4 ,james1 #aei1 ,santa ,maria la ,blanca1 #cgb1 ,santa ,maria la ,redonda1 ,san ,froilan1 #cgb2 ,logrono1 #bjd1 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada1 #bjd2 ,madrid1 ,san ,antonio de la ,florida1 #cbd1 ,san ,francisco el ,grande1 #cbd1 ,san ,isidro1 #cba1 #cbe1 #cgc2 ,oviedo1 ,salvador1 #aci2 ,palencia1 ,san ,antolin1 #cge2 ,rioja1 ,santa ,maria la ,redonda1 #bjd-bjf1 ,san ,juan de ,banos1 #afe2 ,santander1 ,san ,emeterio1 #ahi1 #cgg2 ,saragosse1 ,church of the ,pillar1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bii1 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada1 #bjb-bjd1 #cgh2 ,soria1 #bji-bab1 #cgi2 ,segovia1 ,santa ,clara1 #caf2 ,toledo1 ,san ,juan de las ,reyes1 #cee1 ,santa ,maria la ,blanca1 #ced1 ,san ,tomas1 #cee1 ,puerta de ,sol1 #cee2 ,valladolid1 ,santa ,maria la ,mayor1 #bic1 #cjj1 #cha1 ,santa ,maria la ,antiqua1 #chj1 ,venta de ,banos1 #eg2 ,zamora1 ,la ,magdalen1 #bdc4 ,churriguera1 #fc1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cha4 ,cid1 ,the ,great1 #bcd1 #bed4 ,cid ,campeador 7,rodrigo ,diaz de ,vivar71 #agi4 ,cisneros1 ,cardinal1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cca1 #ccd1 #cfa1 #cfd2 ,tomb of1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 #bfi-bgg1 #cga2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,clement ,,iv41 #baj4 ,cluny ,monks1 ,the1 #bd1 #cj1 #fj1 #cei4 ,coa ,river1 #bfi4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 #bh1 #ca1 #cb1 #bie1 #cfj4 ,complutum 7,alcala71 #cbg1 #ccj4 ,complutenses1 #cbg-cbi4 ,comuneros1 ,the1 #cad4 ,conca 7,see ,cuenca74 ,conde1 ,manuel1 #aed4 ,condestable1 ,chapel of the 7,burgos71 #ci1 #ahe1 #cgj1 #cga2 ,tomb of 7,burgos71 #ahf4 ,constanza1 ,dona1 #ceh4 ,convent of ,guadalupe1 #bhc4 ,convent of the ,mercedes 7,valladolid71 #big4 ,convent of ,san ,juan de ,dios1 #ccd4 ,cordoba1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aia1 #bgi1 #bhf2 ,mosque of1 #da1 #fh1 #cee4 ,coria1 #fh1 #ga1 #bfi1 #bgh-bhc1 #bhd1 #cgb2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals72 ,roman ,wall of1 #bgi4 ,coronada1 #bga4 ,cortez1 #bdf1 #bgb4 ,corunna1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #aac2 ,churches of1 #hi-id4 ,council of ,toledo1 #bec1 #bgi1 #cab1 #cce4 ,counts of ,castile1 #aec1 #afb1 #afc1 #agd1 #age1 #ahj4 ,covadonga1 #ade1 #adf1 #adi2 ,battle of1 #ade4 ,cristeta1 #cjc4 ,cristo de las ,batallas 7,salamanca71 #bed4 ,cuenca1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #cdb-cdh1 #cgb2 ,alcazar1 #cdc2 ,battle of1 #cch2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,church of 7,see under ,churches74 ,cunninghame-,graham1 ,mr41 #ba4 ,curia ,vetona1 or ,caurium 7,see ,coria74 ,del ,obispo 7,portal in ,toro ,cathedral71 #bgc4 ,del ,salto1 ,maria1 ,tomb of1 #cbj4 ,diana1 ,temple to1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,diaz1 ,pedro1 ,bishop of ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 #bgj4 ,dolfo1 ,vellido1 #bcd1 #bce4 ,domingo1 ,bishop of ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 #bgj1 #cga4 ,domingo1 ,bishop of ,plasencia1 #bhf1 #cgf4 ,dominguez1 ,juan1 ,bishop of ,osma1 #bad1 #cge4 ,dominiciano1 ,bishop of ,astorga1 #afg1 #cfi4 ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 #acb4 ,duero ,river1 #bji1 #bac1 #bcg1 #bdd1 #bgi4 ,duke of ,lancaster1 #aab4 ,duerer1 #cfa4 ,eleanor 7,daughter of ,henry ,,ii471 #cch4 ,early ,christian ,art1 #ed4 ,eastern ,castile1 #gj4 ,ebro ,river1 #aic1 #aif1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,eleuterio1 ,bishop of ,salamanca1 #bec1 #cgf4 ,elvira1 #bcc1 #bde4 ,england1 #bi1 #ca1 #gh1 #ij1 #ahi1 #bie4 ,engracia 7of ,aragon71 #cab4 ,enrique ,,ii41 ,king of ,castile1 #bjd1 #cbj4 ,enrique ,,iv41 #bde4 ,enriquez1 ,don1 #bef4 ,escorial 7,madrid71 #ca1 #fb1 #afe1 #bfe1 #bie1 #bii1 #cbb1 #cdi4 ,extremadura1 #af1 #fi1 #bgh1 #cjc4 ,favila1 ,duke1 #abb1 #adf4 ,felipe el ,hermoso 7,philip the ,handsome71 #bie4 ,ferdinand1 #be1 #cb1 #bee4 ,fernan1 ,knight1 #bih4 ,fernando ,i41 #afa1 #agf-agh1 #bbb1 #bcb1 #bde1 #cjd4 ,fernando ,,ii41 #bfi4 ,fernando ,alfonso1 #bjc4 ,fernando el ,santo1 #cei4 ,florinda1 #ced4 ,flanders1 #cee4 ,foment1 #ej1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,fonseca1 ,bishop1 #bbi2 ,family1 #bdi4 ,france1 #bd1 #ec1 #eg1 #eh1 #gh1 #afh1 #bbd1 #cee4 ,froila 7or ,froela71 #acg1 #ada1 #bcj4 ,froissart1 #aab4 ,galicia1 #bc1 #dj1 #fj1 #ff1 #fh1 #ge1 #gf1 #gi1 #hj1 #hh1 #ij1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abe1 #abh1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acg1 #ach1 #afi1 #agg1 #aii1 #bcc1 #bch4 ,galician ,romanesque ,art1 #ei4 ,galmirez1 ,diego1 ,archbishop of ,santiago1 #hj1 #cgg4 ,garcia1 ,count of ,castile1 #afb1 #afc1 #agf1 #bcc4 ,garcia1 ,don1 ,king of ,navarra1 #aih1 #bja4 ,garcia1 ,son of ,alfonso ,,iii41 #bde4 ,gasteiz 7,see ,vitoria74 ,gautier1 ,theophile1 #cea4 ,germany1 #gh1 #cee4 ,gibraltar1 #bb2 ,straits of1 #ba1 #bh4 ,gijon1 #adg4 ,giron1 ,don ,gutierre1 #cad4 ,gold and ,silversmiths1 #ej-ea4 ,gomez ,,ii41 ,bishop of ,burgos1 #cgj4 ,gonzalez1 ,fernan1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #agi4 ,gonzalo1 ,arias1 #bcc4 ,goeschenen in ,switzerland1 #cdb4 ,goya1 #cbe1 #ceg4 ,granada1 #bb1 #fg1 #bhg1 #cee1 #cef1 #cfe4 ,greco1 #ceg1 #cfe4 ,gredo ,mountains1 #bgh4 ,greeks1 ,the1 #hi1 #acb4 ,guadalajara1 #cce4 ,guadalete1 ,battle of1 #adg4 ,guadalquivir1 #ahi4 ,guaderrama ,mountains1 #bec1 #bgh4 ,guardia1 #aba4 ,gudroed1 #abc4 ,gutierre1 ,bishop of ,oviedo1 #aci4 ,hannibal1 #beb4 ,harbour of ,victory1 #ahh4 ,henry ,,iv41 #beh1 #bid1 #cjg4 ,hermesinda1 #adg4 ,herrero1 #fb1 #bje1 #bfe1 #bie1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cha4 ,huesca1 ,cathedral of1 #bjc1 #cca4 ,hume1 ,martin1 #ad4 ,ierte ,river1 #bhf4 ,ilderedo1 ,bishop of ,segovia1 #cac1 #cgh4 ,ildefonso1 ,bishop of ,toledo1 #cgi4 ,inquisition1 ,the1 #bf1 #bg1 #cdd4 ,ireland1 #hi4 ,iria1 #gf1 #gg4 ,ironcraft1 #ea1 #eb4 ,irun1 #aib4 ,isabella1 #be1 #cb1 #bee4 ,isabel the ,catholic1 #aic1 #bbb1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bid1 #bie1 #cae4 ,italy1 #bd1 #cg1 #eg1 #eh1 #fb1 #gh1 #bbd1 #cee4 ,jeronimo1 ,bishop of ,avila1 #cgj4 ,jeronimo1 ,bishop of ,salamanca1 #bed1 #cje1 #cgf4 ,jesuit ,school 7,madrid71 #cbf4 ,jocelyn1 ,bishop of ,sigueenza1 #cch1 #cgi4 ,john ,i41 #bac4 ,juan ,i41 ,bishop of ,osma1 #bad1 #cge4 ,juana1 #bid4 ,juana la ,beltranaja1 #bde4 ,juana la ,loca1 #bie4 ,julian1 ,count1 #ced4 ,juni1 ,juan de1 #ej1 #bad4 ,jura1 ,the1 #ig1 #aif4 ,la ,magistral1 ,church of 7,alcala de ,henares71 #cbh1 #ccb1 #cgd4 ,la ,mancha1 #af1 #cdb4 ,lancaster1 ,duke of1 #aab4 ,laquinto1 ,bishop of ,coria1 #bgi1 #cgb4 ,las ,navas de ,tolosa1 #bhj4 ,leon1 #bc1 #be1 #dc1 #ff1 #fi1 #gj1 #gi1 #hj1 #ajc1 #aci1 #aej-aff1 #afg1 #aga1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #aig1 #bcc1 #bec1 #bed1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cee1 #cgb1 #cgf2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals72 ,king of1 #afa4 ,leon ,x41 #cbh4 ,leonese1 ,the1 #bed4 ,leonor1 ,dona1 #agi1 #big1 #bih4 ,leyes de ,toro1 #bdf4 ,libelatism1 #afg1 #afh4 ,lisbon1 #abf1 #bgb4 ,locus ,augusti 7,see ,lugo74 ,logrono1 #ga1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #cga1 #cgc2 ,church of 7,see under ,churches74 ,loja1 #bhg4 ,lucio ,,iii41 #cdc4 ,lugo1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ie1 #ajb-aji1 #aaj1 #aab1 #abj1 #acg1 #aed1 #cgc2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,lupa1 #ge1 #gf1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,luz1 ,dona1 #abb1 #adf4 ,madrazo1 #bjf4 ,madrid1 #ff1 #fh1 #ga1 #agh1 #bab1 #bec1 #bic1 #bie1 #bif1 #cac1 #cad1 #cba-cbf1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #cdi1 #cgc2 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals72 ,churches of 7,see under ,churches74 ,maestro ,mateo1 #hg4 ,maestro ,raimundo1 #ajf1 #abf4 ,magerit1 #cbb1 #cbc4 ,munuza1 #adg1 #adh4 ,manzanares ,river1 #cbc1 #cbd4 ,marcelo1 #aea4 ,martin1 ,bishop of ,mondonedo1 #ig1 #cgd4 ,martel1 ,charles1 #bb4 ,medinat-el-,walid1 #bif4 ,mendoza1 #cfa4 ,mindunietum1 #if4 ,mino ,river1 #gj1 #ajb1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #abj1 #aba1 #abd1 #abe4 ,miranda1 #aif4 ,mirobriga1 #bfi4 ,molina1 ,maria de1 #bid4 ,mondonedo1 #ic1 #ie-aja1 #cgd2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,monroy ,family1 #bef1 #bhf4 ,monforte1 #aaj4 ,moore1 ,general1 #ij4 ,moorish ,art1 #ee1 #ef4 ,moors1 ,the1 #bb1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #bh1 #cd1 #ch1 #ee1 #ef1 #ei1 #ga1 #gf1 #gi1 #ajd1 #acg1 #aec1 #aed1 #afa1 #aga1 #age1 #aih1 #bjg1 #baj1 #bcj1 #bcb1 #bea1 #bed1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cjh1 #cac1 #cbc1 #cca1 #cdc1 #ceb1 #ced1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cha4 ,morales1 ,divino1 #cbf4 ,morgarten1 #ade4 ,morocco1 #cfd4 ,mosque of ,cordoba1 #da1 #fh1 #cee4 ,mount of ,joys1 #ha4 ,mudejar ,art1 #fc-fe4 ,muguira1 #ha4 ,murillo1 #aie4 ,najera1 #aig1 #aih1 #bja1 #bjb1 #cga2 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,nalvillos1 #cjf1 #cjg4 ,napoleon1 #ij1 #afd4 ,navarra1 #bc1 #cc1 #eh1 #ff1 #fh1 #gj1 #hj1 #agd1 #agf1 #aib1 #aif1 #aih1 #bja1 #bjb1 #baj4 ,navas de ,tolosa1 ,battle of1 #bhf4 ,neustra ,senora de la ,blanca 7,see ,cathedral of ,leon74 ,new ,world1 ,the 7,see ,america74 ,norman ,vikings1 #gi1 #if1 #aab1 #abc1 #abd4 ,north1 ,the1 #fi4 ,numantia1 #aig1 #bji1 #bai1 #bcj4 ,odoario1 ,bishop of ,lugo1 #ajd4 ,ogival ,art1 #fa4 ,olaf1 #abc4 ,old ,castile1 ,plain of1 #fi4 ,ordonez1 ,diego1 #bce1 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,bishop of ,segovia1 #cgh4 ,pelayo1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi4 ,pelea ,gonzalo1 ,battle of1 #bde4 ,pena ,grajera1 #cbj4 ,perez1 ,dona ,maria1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh4 ,perez1 ,hernan1 #bhf4 ,peter1 ,bishop of ,segovia1 #cab1 #cad1 #cgh4 ,peter the ,cruel1 #agi1 #bjd1 #bde1 #bid1 #ccf4 ,philip ,,ii41 #ca1 #fb1 #ahi1 #bie1 #cbb1 #cdi4 ,philip ,,iii41 #bhe1 #cjh4 ,philip ,,iv41 #bid4 ,philip the ,handsome1 #bie4 ,phoenicians1 ,the1 #hi1 #acb4 ,picos de ,europa1 #ade4 ,pico de ,urbion1 #bji4 ,piedad 7,pity71 #aie4 ,pillar at ,saragosse1 #bii4 ,pisuerga1 #bic1 #bif4 ,plasencia1 #ga1 #beg1 #bfa1 #bga1 #bhc1 #bhd-bhi1 #cjh1 #cgf2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,plaza1 ,bartolome de la 7,bishop of ,valladolid71 #bie4 ,plaza de ,cervantes 7,alcala71 #ccj4 ,plaza de la ,constitucion 7,alcala71 #ccj4 ,plaza ,mayor 7,alcala71 #ccj4 ,plutarch1 #beb4 ,poitiers1 #bb4 ,polyglot ,bible1 ,the1 #cbh4 ,portico de la ,gloria 7,santiago71 #he-hh1 #ib1 #cgh4 ,portico del 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,the1 #ah1 #ai1 #bd1 #ge1 #hi1 #if1 #ajb1 #aab1 #aac1 #abj1 #aba1 #acb1 #aej1 #agd1 #ahh1 #beb1 #bic1 #cjc1 #cbf1 #cce1 #cec1 #cga4 ,rome1 #bi1 #bbj1 #cec4 ,rubens1 #ceg1 #cfa4 ,ruy ,diaz ,gaona1 #bjj4 ,sabina1 #cjc4 ,salamanca1 #ga1 #agh1 #bbc1 #bea1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bif1 #cjb1 #cje1 #cac1 #cgf2 ,bishop 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral 7,see under ,cathedrals72 ,university of1 #beh1 #bei4 ,san ,antolin1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #cge4 ,san ,antonio de la ,florida1 #cbd4 ,san ,astorgio1 ,bishop of ,osma1 #cge4 ,san ,atilano1 ,bishop of ,zamora1 #bca1 #cha4 ,san ,bartolome 7,salamanca71 ,chapel of1 #bfc4 ,san ,celedonio1 #cga4 ,sancha1 #afb1 #afc1 #agf4 ,sancho1 ,bishop of ,calahorra1 #aih1 #cga4 ,sancho1 ,count of ,castile1 #afb1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bic4 ,sancho1 ,don1 of ,navarra1 #aib4 ,sancho el ,mayor1 ,king of ,navarra1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,sancti ,emetrii1 #ahh4 ,san ,emeterio1 #ahh1 #aig1 #bjf1 #cga1 #cgg4 ,san ,emeterio1 ,church of 7,santander71 #ahi4 ,san ,fernando1 #be1 #agg-agh4 ,san ,francisco1 ,convent of1 #aac4 ,san ,francisco el ,grande 7,madrid71 #cbd4 ,san ,froilan1 #aeh1 #cgb4 ,san ,fruto1 #cab1 #cgh4 ,san ,hierateo1 #cab1 #cgh4 ,san ,ildefonso1 ,bishop of ,toledo1 #ceh1 #cgi4 ,san ,isidro 7of ,madrid71 #cbd4 ,san ,isidro1 ,church of 7,madrid71 #cba1 #cbe4 ,san ,isidoro1 ,church of 7,leon71 #aec1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #aia1 #cbd4 ,san ,isidoro1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd4 ,san ,juan de ,banos1 #afe4 ,san ,juan de ,dios1 ,convent of1 #ccd4 ,san ,juan de los ,reyes 7,toledo71 #cee4 ,san ,julian1 #cde4 ,san ,justo1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccc1 #cgd4 ,san ,justo1 ,church of 7,alcala de ,henares71 #cbh4 ,san ,pastor1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccc1 #cgd4 ,san ,salvador1 #cgj4 ,san ,segundo1 #cjc4 ,santa ,clara 7,segovia71 #caf4 ,santa ,maria de la ,blanca 7,leon71 #cgb4 ,santa ,maria la ,blanca 7,toledo71 #ced4 ,santa ,maria la ,madre 7,orense71 #aad4 ,santa ,maria la ,madre 7,tuy71 #abj-acj4 ,santa ,maria la ,redonda1 #bjd4 ,santander1 #fi1 #ahh-aia1 #aig1 #bgg2 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,santiago1 #ge-hh1 #ia1 #ib1 #ig1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aaf1 #aca1 #afg1 #agf1 #aii1 #cgg2 ,archbishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,san ,tomas 7,toledo71 #cee4 ,santo ,domingo1 #bjc4 ,santo ,domingo de la ,calzada1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb-bjd1 #cga4 #cgh2 ,church of 7,see under ,churches74 ,san ,toribio 7,astorga71 #cfi2 7,palencia71 #cge4 ,san ,vicente1 #aeb1 #cjc4 ,saracens1 ,the1 #bac1 #cab4 ,saragosse1 #fg1 #afg1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjc2 ,church 7,see under ,churches74 ,sardinero1 #aij4 ,scipio1 #bji4 ,segovia1 #ga1 #bec1 #cjc1 #cab1 #cac1 #cbe1 #cdi1 #cgh2 ,bishop 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,seguncia 7or ,segoncia71 ,see ,sigueenza4 ,sempach1 #ade4 ,sevilla1 #fg1 #ia1 #afa1 #ahi1 #cag2 ,cathedral of1 #ahg4 ,sierra de ,guaderrama1 #ff1 #fh1 #agd1 #cje4 ,sierra de ,gredos1 #ff1 #cjb1 #cdi4 ,sierra de ,gata1 #ff1 #fi1 #bgh4 ,sigueenza1 #gj1 #ga1 #cce-cda1 #cdc1 #cgi2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,silvano1 ,bishop of ,calahorra1 #aih1 #cga4 ,simon1 ,bishop of ,burgos1 #cgj4 ,sinfosio1 #agj4 ,sisnando1 ,bishop of ,santiago1 #cgg4 ,sohail1 #ba-bb4 ,soria1 #ga1 #bji-bab1 #bac1 #cgi2 ,church of 7,see under ,churches74 ,state ,archives ,building 7,alcala71 #cbg4 ,street1 #hg1 #ajg4 ,st4 ,astorgio1 #bac4 ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 #bga4 ,st4 ,james1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hh1 #ach1 #bac1 #cbc1 #cec2 ,chapel of 7,leon71 #aei4 ,st4 ,martin1 #aaa1 #aad4 ,st4 ,martin of ,tours 7,cathedral71 #cgd4 ,st4 ,paul1 #cab4 ,st4 ,peter1 #bac1 #ceb4 ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 #cjj4 ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury1 ,chapel of1 #cch4 ,st4 ,saturnin 7,toulouse71 #hb4 ,suevos1 #aaa1 #abb2 ,king of1 #aad1 #agj4 ,tago ,river1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #cdi1 #ceb1 #cec1 #ced1 #cef1 #cei4 ,talavera1 #cfa4 ,tarik1 #bb4 ,tarragon1 #fg1 #afg1 #aig1 #bai1 #cce4 ,tavera1 ,bishop of ,toledo1 #bgd4 ,theodomio1 #aih4 ,theodosio1 ,bishop of ,iria1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh4 ,theotocopuli1 ,domenico1 #ceg4 ,titian1 #cfa4 ,tolaitola 7,see ,toledo74 ,toledo1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #ia1 #abc1 #adf1 #aej1 #afg1 #aga1 #agh1 #bcg1 #bea1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #cjd1 #cjg1 #cbb1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #cce1 #cdb1 #cdi-cfh1 #cgi2 ,alcazar1 #ccf1 #cej1 #cef2 ,archbishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral 7,see under ,cathedrals72 ,council of1 #bac1 #bec1 #bgi1 #cab1 #cce4 ,tomb1 ,bishop ,tostado1 #caa1 #cgj2 ,carillo 7,alcala71 #ccc1 #ccd2 ,cisneros 7,alcala71 #ccc1 #ccd2 ,condestable1 #ahf2 ,diego de ,anaya 7,salamanca71 #bfc2 ,maria del ,salto1 #cbj2 ,prince ,don ,pedro1 #cbj4 ,toribio1 #agj1 #bbj1 #bbd4 ,toro1 #ga1 #bcc1 #bdd-bej1 #bgi1 #cjb1 #chj2 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,torquemada1 #bg4 ,tostado1 ,bishop1 ,tomb of1 #caa1 #cgj4 ,tours1 #bb1 #aad4 ,tower de la ,trinidad 7,santiago71 #hc1 #cgh4 ,tower of ,hercules1 #hi1 #ij4 ,trajanus1 #aea1 #cjc4 ,transition ,art1 #fj4 ,tuy1 #gj1 #ga1 #ia1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #abj-acj1 #aca1 #adf1 #afg1 #afh1 #chj2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,university of ,alcala de ,henares1 #cbh4 ,university of ,palencia1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #beh4 ,university of ,salamanca1 #beh1 #bei4 ,urbano ,,ii41 #bca4 ,urbano ,,iv41 #bbd4 ,urraca1 ,dona1 #afb1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,vacceos1 #bai4 ,valdejunquera1 ,battle of1 #age4 ,valencia1 #ff1 #fg1 #bed4 ,valencia ,cupola1 #aah4 ,valenca do ,minho1 #abj4 ,valentine1 #cab4 ,valladolid1 #fg1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #agh1 #ahi1 #bbc1 #bdd1 #bic-cja1 #cjc1 #cad1 #cce1 #chj2 ,bishop of 7,see under ,bishops72 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,vallisoletum1 #bic4 ,van ,dyck1 #aie4 ,vela1 ,count of1 #afc4 ,venta de ,banos1 #eg1 #bbe4 ,veremundo1 #aga4 ,vigo1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aca-acc2 ,church of 7,see under ,churches74 ,villamayor1 #if4 ,villavieja1 #cce4 ,vinuesa1 #bji4 ,virgin de la ,atocha1 #cbd4 ,virgin de la ,almudena1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cgd4 ,viriato1 #bgh4 ,visigoths1 ,the1 #bj1 #bd1 #abb1 #aeb1 #bbj1 #cbg1 #cec4 ,vitoria1 #fi1 #aib-aie1 #cha2 ,cathedral of 7,see under ,cathedrals74 ,war for 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