,,the ,,christian ,,view  ,,of ,,the    
,,old ,,testament    ,,by  ,,frederick  
,,carl ,,eiselen  ,professor in ,garrett
 ,biblical ,institute     ,,the         
,,methodist ,,book ,,concern  ,,new     
,,york ---- ,,cincinnati ---- ,,chicago 
,copyright1 #aiab   ,,frederick ,,carl  
,,eiselen     ,printed in the ,united   
,states of ,america    ,first ,edition  
,printed ,september1 #aiab   ,second    
,printing1 ,june1 #aiac   ,third        
,printing1 ,may1 #aiaf   ,fourth        
,printing1 ,november1 #aiag   ,fifth    
,printing1 ,september1 #aiba   ,sixth   
,printing1 ,september1 #aibc   ,seventh 
,printing1 ,october1 #aibe   ,eighth    
,printing1 ,july1 #aibh     #e          
,,contents   ,,chapter                  
,,page         ,,preface 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4    #g      
,i4  ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,view ,,of
 ,,the ,,old ,,testament 4 4 4 4    #i  
,,ii4  ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and    
,,modern ,,science  4 4 4 4 4 4 4   #ch 
,,iii4  ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and   

,,modern ,,criticism  4 4 4 4 4 4   #ff 
,,iv4  ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and    
,,archaeology 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #aaj   
,v4  ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and      
,,comparative ,,religion  4 4 4 4  #afj 
,,vi4  ,,the ,,permanent ,,significance 
,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament 4 4  #bbg  
,,index 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #bfd     ,,other ,,works 
,,by ,,professor ,,eiselen    ,,prophecy
 ,,and ,,the ,,prophets   ,,the ,,minor 
,,prophets   ,,the ,,worker ,,and ,,his 
,,bible   ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the      
,,pentateuch   ,,the ,,psalms ,,and     
,,other ,,sacred ,,writings   ,,the     
,,prophetic ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old    
,,testament 7,two ,volumes7     #g      
,,preface  ,during the past half century
 the attitude of many men toward the    
,bible has undergone a decided change4  
,the old confidence seems to be gone2 a 
feeling of uncertainty and of unrest has
 taken its place4  ,this small volume is
 intended to set forth the ,christian   
view of the ,old ,testament1 and to     

furnish answers to some of the questions
 men are asking concerning the ,sacred  
,scriptures of the ,hebrews1 which the  
early ,christians included in the canon 
of ,christian sacred writings4  ,the old
 foundations are not shaken4  ,the ,old 
,testament has stood the tests of the   
past1 which have been severe and often  
merciless2 and there is to-day stronger 
ground than ever for believing that in  
its pages men spake from ,god1 being    
moved by the ,holy ,spirit4  ,,frederick
 ,,carl ,,eiselen4  ,evanston1          
,illinois4     #i  ,,chapter ,i  ,,the  
,,new ,,testament ,,view ,,of ,,the     
,,old ,,testament  ,the ,christian      
,church has always assigned to the      
,bible a unique place in theology and   
life4  ,what is true of the ,bible as a 
whole is equally true of that part of   
the ,bible which is known as the ,old   
,testament4 ,indeed1 until the middle of
 the second century of the ,christian   
era1 the only ,scriptures accepted as   
authoritative were those of the ,old    

,testament4  ,even then1 only gradually 
and under the pressure of real need1    
different groups of ,christian writings 
were added and received an authority    
equal to that of the older ,scriptures4 
,and though in the course of the        
centuries there have been some who      
denied to the ,old ,testament a rightful
 place in ,christian thought and life1  
the ,church as a whole has always upheld
 the judgment of the early ,christians  
in making the ,old ,testament a part of 
the canon of ,christian sacred writings4
  ,it is worthy of note that the ,old   
,testament played an important part in  
the religious life of ,jesus4  ,no one  
can study the records of his life       
without seeing that he gathered much of 
his #aj spiritual nourishment from its  
pages4  ,even in the moments of severest
 temptation1 greatest distress1 and     
bitterest agony the words of these      
ancient writings were on his lips1 and  
their consoling and inspiring messages  
in his heart and mind4  ,this attitude  

of ,jesus toward the ancient ,hebrew    
,scriptures in itself explains the high 
estimate placed upon them by his        
followers4 ,for1 in the words of ,g4 ,a4
 ,smith1 ,that which was used by the    
,redeemer himself for the sustenance of 
his own soul can never pass out of the  
use of his redeemed4  ,that from which  
he proved the divinity of his mission   
and the age-long preparation for his    
coming must always have a principal     
place in his ,church's argument for     
him4#a  ,the attitude of ,jesus is      
reflected in his disciples and those who
 have given to us the ,new ,testament   
books4  ,nearly three hundred quotations
 from the ,old ,testament are scattered 
throughout the ,gospels and ,epistles1  
and in a number of passages is the value
 of ,old ,testament study specifically  
emphasized4  ,perhaps nowhere is this   
done more clearly than in #b ,tim4 #c4  
#ae-ag1 in words written primarily of   
the ,old ,testament3 ,the sacred        
writings which are able to make thee    

wise unto salvation through faith which 
is in ,christ ,jesus4  ,every scripture 
inspired of ,god is also profitable for 
teaching1 for reproof1 for #aa          
correction1 for instruction which is in 
righteousness3 that the man of ,god may 
be complete1 furnished completely unto  
every good work4 ,evidently the writer  
of these words considers the sacred     
writings of the ,hebrews able to inspire
 a personal saving faith in ,jesus1 the 
,christ2 to furnish a knowledge of the  
things of ,god2 and to prepare for      
efficient service4  ,and these are the  
elements which enter into the life      
advocated and illustrated by the        
,founder of ,christianity4  ,an attempt 
will be made in this chapter to         
determine the ,new ,testament view of   
the ,old ,testament for the purpose of  
discovering what is the proper          
,christian view of that part of the     
,bible4  ,for1 if the teaching1 spirit1 
and example of ,jesus have a vital      
relation to ,christian belief1 and if   

his immediate followers have preserved  
an essentially accurate portrayal of    
him1 then the modern ,christian view of 
the ,old ,testament should be a         
reflection of the view of ,jesus and of 
those who1 as a result of their intimate
 fellowship with him1 were in a position
 to give a correct interpretation of him
 and his teaching4  ,we may inquire1 in 
the first place1 what is the ,new       
,testament view of the purpose of the   
,old ,testament ,scriptures8  ,the      
answer to this inquiry is furnished by  
the passage in the ,second ,epistle to  
,timothy quoted above4  ,neither this   
nor any other passage in the whole      
,bible warrants #ab the belief that the 
,old ,testament ever was meant to teach 
physical science1 or history1 or        
philosophy1 or psychology4  ,everywhere 
it is stated or clearly implied that the
 purpose of all biblical teaching is to 
make man morally and spiritually        
perfect1 and to furnish him unto every  
good work4  ,therefore we may expect    

that where the ,old ,testament writers  
touch upon questions of science and     
history they develop them only in so far
 as they serve this higher religious and
 ethical purpose4  ,this being the      
biblical view of the purpose of the     
,scriptures1 any theory of the ,old     
,testament which makes no distinction   
between scientific and historical       
statements on the one hand1 and         
religious and ethical statements on the 
other1 is inadequate and erroneous1     
because it is not in accord with the    
,new ,testament teaching on that point4 
,the purpose of the ,bible is intimately
 connected with its nature and          
character4  ,the ,new ,testament view of
 the nature and character of the ,old   
,testament is suggested in ,heb4 #a4 #a1
 #b3 ,god1 having of old time spoken    
unto the fathers in the prophets by     
divers portions and in divers manners1  
hath at the end of these days spoken    
unto us in a ,son4 ,four great truths   
concerning the ,old ,testament          

dispensation are definitely indicated in
 these words1 with a fifth one implied3 
7#a7 ,god spoke2 7#b7 ,god spoke in the 
prophets1 #ac that is1 in or through    
human agents2 7#c7 ,god spoke in divers 
portions2 7#d7 ,god spoke in divers     
manners2 7#e7 the words imply that the  
,old ,testament dispensation was        
incomplete2 it had to be supplemented   
and perfected by a revelation in and    
through a ,son4  ,the truths expressed  
here constitute the essential elements  
which enter into the ,new ,testament    
view of the ,old ,testament4  ,the two  
expressions1 in divers portions and in  
divers manners1 concern largely the     
external form of divine revelation4     
,the former means that the revelations  
recorded in the ,old ,testament were not
 given at one time1 through one channel 
or by one man1 but at many times1       
through many channels1 by many men1     
scattered over a period of many         
centuries1 in places hundreds of miles  
apart4  ,one result of this is seen in  

the fact that the ,old ,testament       
contains many books written by different
 authors in successive periods of       
,hebrew history4  ,the latter expression
 has to do with the different kinds of  
literature in the ,old ,testament1 but  
it goes deeper than mere literary form4 
,it means that in giving revelations of 
himself during the ,old ,testament      
period ,god used various methods and    
means1 the different kinds of literature
 being simply the outgrowth of the      
various modes of revelation4  ,it is a  
universal ,christian belief that ,god   
#ad reveals himself to-day in divers    
manners and modes4  ,every ,christian   
believes1 for example1 that ,god reveals
 himself in the events of history1 be it
 the history of individuals or of       
nations4  ,again1 to many devout        
persons1 ,god speaks very distinctly    
through the outward acts and ceremonies 
of worship4  ,to thousands of earnest   
and sincere ,christians connected with  
churches using an elaborate ritual1 this

 ritual is no mere form2 it is a means  
of blessing and grace through which ,god
 reveals himself to their souls4        
,moreover1 ,god selects certain persons1
 especially well qualified to hear his  
voice2 these he commissions as          
ambassadors to declare him and his will 
to the people4  ,the belief in this     
method of revelation is the             
philosophical basis for the offices of  
the ,christian preacher and the         
,christian religious teacher4  ,once    
more1 in his attempt to reach the human 
heart ,god may dispense with all        
external means2 he may and does reveal  
himself by working directly upon and in 
the mind and spirit of the individual4  
,these are some of the manners in which 
,god reveals himself to his children    
to-day1 and these are some of the means 
and manners in which ,god made himself  
known during the ,old ,testament        
dispensation4  ,then1 as he does now1 he
 revealed himself in nature1 in the     
events of history1 in the ritual1 and by

 direct impressions2 and at times he    
selected certain individuals to whom he 
might #ae make himself known in all     
these various ways and who could        
transmit the various revelations to     
others4  ,the ,old ,testament contains  
records and interpretations of these    
manifold revelations4  ,it is           
self-evident that when attempts were    
made to record these various            
manifestations of ,god different kinds  
of literature must be used in order to  
express most vividly the truth or truths
 gathered from the divine revelations4  
,the several kinds of literature1       
therefore1 are the natural outgrowth of 
the manifold modes of divine revelation4
  ,in the ,old ,testament five kinds of 
literature may be distinguished3 the    
prophetic1 the wisdom1 the devotional1  
the legal or priestly1 and the          
historical4  ,in their production four  
classes of religious workers who        
observed1 interpreted1 and mediated the 
divine revelations1 were active3 the    

prophets1 the wise men1 the priests     
7compare ,jer4 #ah4 #ah71 and the       
psalmists4  ,the prophetic literature   
owes its origin to prophetic activity4  
,the prophets towered above their       
contemporaries in purity of character1  
strength of intellect1 sincerity of     
purpose1 intimacy of communion with     
,god1 and illumination by the divine    
,spirit4  ,as a result of these         
qualifications they were able to        
understand truth hidden from the eyes   
and minds of those who did not live in  
the same intimate fellowship with       
,jehovah4  ,their high conceptions of   
the character of ,god enabled #af them  
to appreciate the divine ideals of      
righteousness1 and they sought with     
flaming enthusiasm to impress the truths
 burning in their hearts upon their less
 enlightened contemporaries4  ,in       
carrying out this purpose they became   
statesmen1 social reformers1 and        
religious and ethical teachers4  ,no    
records have been preserved of the      

utterances of the earliest prophets4    
,but when1 with the general advance in  
culture1 reading and writing became more
 common1 the prophets1 anxious to reach 
a wider circle1 and to preserve their   
messages for more willing ears1 put     
their utterances into writing1 and to   
this new departure we owe the sublime   
specimens of prophetic literature in the
 ,old ,testament4  ,in his direct appeal
 to heart and conscience the ancient    
prophet resembles the modern preacher4  
,the wise man1 like the prophet1 sought 
to make the divine will known to others1
 but in his method he resembles1 rather1
 the modern religious teacher4  ,his    
ultimate aim was to influence conduct   
and life1 but instead of appealing      
directly to the conscience he addressed 
himself primarily to the mind through   
counsel and argument1 hoping that his   
appeal to the common sense of the       
listener would make an impression1 the  
effects of which might be seen in       
transformed conduct4  ,the prophet would

 have said to the lazy man1 ,thus saith 
,jehovah1 ,go to work1 thou indolent    
man4 #ag ,prov4 #bd4 #cj-cd may serve as
 an illustration of the method of the   
wise man3    ,i went by the field of the
 sluggard1   ,and by the vineyard of the
 man void of understanding2   ,and1 lo1 
it was all grown over with thorns1      
,the face thereof was covered with      
nettles1   ,and the stone wall thereof  
was broken down   ,then ,i beheld1 and  
considered well2   ,i saw1 and received 
instruction3   ,yet a little sleep1 a   
little slumber1   ,a little folding of  
the hands to sleep2   ,so shall thy     
poverty come as a robber1   ,and thy    
want as an armed man4  ,nothing escaped 
the observation of these men1 and from  
beginning to end they emphasized the    
important truth that religion and the   
daily life are inseparable4  ,from      
giving simple practical precepts1 the   
wise men rose to speculation1 and the   
books of ,job and ,ecclesiastes bear    
witness that they busied themselves with

 no mean problems4  ,of profound        
significance is also the devotional     
literature of the ,old ,testament4  ,in 
a real sense the entire ,old ,testament 
is a book of devotion4  ,it is the      
outgrowth of a spirit of intense        
devotion to ,jehovah1 and it has helped 
in all ages to nurture the devotional   
spirit of its readers4  ,here1 however1 
the term devotional is used in the      
narrower sense of those poetic          
compositions which are primarily the    
expressions of the religious experience 
or emotions of the authors1 generated   
#ah and fostered by their intimate      
fellowship with ,jehovah4 ,the chief    
representative of this literature is the
 book of ,psalms1 which is aptly        
described by ,johannes ,arnd in these   
words3 ,what the heart is in man1 that  
is the ,psalter in the ,bible4  ,the    
,psalms contain in the form of sacred   
lyrics the outpourings of devout        
souls--prophets1 priests1 kings1 wise   
men1 and peasants--who came into the    

very presence of ,god1 held communion   
with him1 and were privileged to hear   
the sweet sound of his voice4  ,no other
 literary compositions lift us into such
 atmosphere of religious thought and    
emotion4  ,because these lyrics reflect 
personal experiences they may still be  
used to express emotions of joy1 sorrow1
 hope1 fear1 anticipation1 etc41 even by
 persons who live on a higher spiritual 
plane than did the original authors4    
,the legal literature differs from the  
other kinds in that it does not form    
separate books1 but is embodied in other
 writings1 principally in the books of  
,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and      
,deuteronomy4  ,all the representatives 
of ,jehovah--prophets1 priests1 wise    
men1 and even psalmists--were thought   
competent to make known the law of      
,jehovah1 but the ,old ,testament makes 
it clear that at a comparatively early  
period the giving of law came to be     
looked upon as the special duty of the  
priests4  ,these priests constituted a  

#ai very important class of religious   
workers among the ancient ,hebrews4     
,during the greater part of the national
 life their chief functions were the    
care of the sanctuary and the           
performance of ceremonial rites4  ,but  
in addition to these duties they        
continued to administer the law of      
,jehovah1 consisting not only of        
ceremonial regulations but also of moral
 and judicial precepts and directions4  
,for centuries these laws may have been 
transmitted by word of mouth1 or were   
only partially committed to writing1 but
 when circumstances made it desirable to
 codify them and put them in writing the
 priests would be called upon to take   
this advance step4  ,thus1 while it is  
quite probable that other               
representatives of ,jehovah helped to   
formulate laws1 the legal literature    
embodied in the ,old ,testament reached 
its final form under priestly influence4
  ,the historical literature furnishes  
an interpretation of the movements of   

,god in the events of history4  ,it owes
 its origin in part to prophetic1 in    
part to priestly1 activity4  ,the       
prophet was an ambassador of ,jehovah   
appointed to make known the divine will 
concerning the past1 the present1 and   
the future4  ,of the present he spoke as
 a preacher2 when his message concerned 
the future it took the form of          
prediction2 but the case might arise    
that the people failed to understand the
 significance of events in their own    
history1 and #bj thus failed to         
appreciate the lessons which the events 
were intended to teach4  ,if these      
lessons were not to be lost1 some one   
must serve as an interpreter1 and who   
would be better qualified to furnish the
 right interpretation than the prophet8 
,this demand made of him1 in a sense1 an
 historian1 not for the purpose of      
merely recording events but of          
interpreting them at the same time1 and 
these prophetic interpretations are     
embodied in the historical literature   

originating with the prophets4  ,but not
 all ,old ,testament history comes from 
the prophets4  ,as already indicated1   
the legal and ceremonial literature is  
due to priestly activity4  ,now1 in     
connection with the recording of the    
laws1 customs1 institutions1 and        
ceremonial requirements1 the origin of  
these laws and customs became a matter  
of interest and importance4  ,this      
interest1 and the demand for information
 arising from it1 led the priests also  
to become historians4  ,and to these    
priestly writers we are indebted for not
 a small part of sacred history4  ,the  
third truth taught by the writer of the 
,epistle to the ,hebrews is that ,god   
spoke unto the fathers in or by the     
prophets1 which means1 that he used     
human agents to mediate his revelations4
  ,the ,old ,testament may be more than 
a human production2 nevertheless1 it    
will be #ba impossible to appreciate it 
adequately unless it is borne in mind   
that it contains a human element4  ,in  

the first place may be noted the        
differences in style between various    
writers4  ,these are frequently the     
outgrowth of differences in temperament 
and early training4  ,even the ,english 
reader can notice such differences      
between ,amos and ,hosea1 or between    
,isaiah and ,jeremiah4  ,evidently1     
whatever divine coperation the biblical 
writers enjoyed1 they retained enough of
 their human faculties and powers to    
make use of their own peculiar styles4  
,again1 the hand of man may be seen in  
the manner of literary composition4     
,most ,bible students are familiar with 
the opening words of the ,gospel of     
,luke3 ,forasmuch as many have taken in 
hand to draw up a narrative concerning  
those matters which have been fulfilled 
among us1 even as they delivered them   
unto us1 who from the beginning were    
eyewitnesses and ministers of the word1 
it seemed good to me also1 having traced
 the course of all things accurately    
from the first1 to write unto thee in   

order1 most excellent ,theophilus2 that 
thou mightest know the certainty        
concerning the things wherein thou wast 
instructed4 ,evidently1 the evangelist  
carefully sifted the material at hand   
before he wrote the ,gospel1 just as a  
modern writer would do4  ,in the ,old   
,testament even clearer evidence is     
found #bb that the authors of the       
several books were guided in the process
 of composition by the same principles  
as writers of extra-biblical            
productions4  ,the most suggestive      
illustrations of this fact are found in 
the books of ,chronicles1 in which      
reference is made again and again to the
 sources from which the compiler        
gathered his material4  ,in #a ,chron4  
#bi4 #bi1 for example1 mention is made  
of the words of ,samuel the seer1 444   
the words of ,nathan the prophet1 and   
444 the words of ,gad the seer2 #b      
,chron4 #i4 #bi refers to words of      
,nathan the prophet1 444 the prophecy of
 ,ahijah1 444 the visions of ,iddo the  

seer4  ,these are only a few of the     
references scattered throughout         
,chronicles1 but they are sufficient to 
show that in their composition methods  
employed by secular writers were used4  
,the same characteristic appears in the 
book of ,proverbs4 ,according to its own
 testimony1 it contains several separate
 collections4  ,after the general title1
 ,proverbs of ,solomon1 in #a4 #a1 the  
following additional headings are found3
 #aj4 #a1 ,proverbs of ,solomon2 #bb4   
#ag1 ,the words of the wise2 #bd4 #bc1  
,these also are the sayings of the wise2
 #be4 #a1 ,these also are the proverbs  
of ,solomon1 which the men of ,hezekiah1
 king of ,judah1 copied out2 #cj4 #a1   
,the words of ,agur2 #ca4 #a1 ,the words
 of ,king ,lemuel2 #ca4 #aj-ca is an    
anonymous alphabetic acrostic4  ,similar
 more or less clearly marked phenomena  
may #bc be noted in other ,old          
,testament books1 all of them bearing   
witness to the presence of a human      
element in these writings4  ,more       

significant are the historical          
inaccuracies found here and there in the
 books4  ,they may not be serious2 the  
substantial accuracy of the writings may
 be established1 but even the slightest 
inaccuracy constitutes a blemish which  
one would not expect in a work coming   
directly from an all-wise ,god4  ,for   
example1 #b ,kings #ah4 #aj states that 
,samaria was taken in the sixth year of 
,hezekiah1 king of ,judah2 verse #ac    
contains the statement that in the      
fourteenth year of ,hezekiah1           
,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria1 came    
against ,jerusalem4  ,now1 the date of  
the capture of ,samaria is definitely   
fixed by the ,assyrian inscriptions4    
,the city fell either in the closing    
days of ,b4,c4 #gbb1 or the beginning of
 ,b4,c4 #gba4  ,assuming that it was in 
#gbb1 the fourteenth year of ,hezekiah  
would be ,b4,c4 #gad4  ,but ,sennacherib
 did not become king of ,assyria until  
,b4,c4 #gje1 while his attack upon      
,judah and ,jerusalem was not undertaken

 until ,b4,c4 #gja1 hence there would   
seem to be an inaccuracy somewhere4     
,certainly1 since the primary purpose of
 the writings is not historical1 but    
religious1 these inaccuracies do not    
affect the real value of the book4      
,nevertheless1 their presence shows that
 the writings cannot be looked upon as  
coming in all their parts directly from 
#bd ,god4  ,at some point man must have 
stepped in and left marks of his        
limitations4  ,more serious perhaps may 
appear the incompleteness and           
imperfection of the religious and       
ethical conceptions1 especially in the  
older portions4  ,read1 for example1 the
 twenty-fourth chapter of ,second       
,samuel4  ,jehovah is there represented 
as causing ,david to number the people1 
and when he carried out the command     
,jehovah was angry and sent a pestilence
 which destroyed1 not ,david1 but       
seventy thousand innocent men4  ,can any
 ,christian believe that the ,god of    
love revealed by ,jesus ever acted in   

such arbitrary manner8  ,no6  ,the      
trouble lies with the author of the     
passage1 who1 on account of his         
relatively low conception of the        
character of ,jehovah1 gave an erroneous
 interpretation of the events recorded4 
,a later writer1 who had a truer        
conception of the ,god of ,israel1 saw  
that a mistake had been made2 therefore 
he introduced ,satan as the one who     
caused the numbering 7#a ,chron4 #ba4   
#a74  ,or take the twenty-second chapter
 of ,first ,kings1 especially verses #ai
 to #bc4 ,four hundred prophets of      
,jehovah urge ,ahab to go up against    
,ramoth-gilead4  ,on the advice of the  
king of ,judah1 ,micaiah is called1 who 
announces1 after some hesitation1 that  
the expedition will end disastrously4   
,he then explains how it happened that  
the other prophets told a falsehood3 #be
 ,therefore hear thou the word of       
,jehovah3 ,i saw ,jehovah sitting on his
 throne1 and all the host of heaven     
standing by him on his right hand and on

 his left4  ,and ,jehovah said1 ,who    
shall entice ,ahab1 that he may go up   
and fall at ,ramoth-gilead8  ,and one   
said on this manner2 and another said on
 that manner4  ,and there came forth a  
spirit1 and stood before ,jehovah1 and  
said1 ,i will entice him4  ,and ,jehovah
 said unto him1 ,wherewith8  ,and he    
said1 ,i will go forth1 and will be a   
lying spirit in the mouth of all his    
prophets4  ,and he said1 ,thou shalt    
entice him1 and shalt prevail also2 go  
forth1 and do so4 ,now therefore1       
behold1 ,jehovah hath put a lying spirit
 in the mouth of all these thy prophets2
 and ,jehovah hath spoken evil          
concerning thee4 ,can any ,christian    
believe that our ,god who is infinitely 
pure and holy ever did persuade anyone  
to tell a lie8  ,god never changes2 he  
has always been pure and holy2 but man  
was not able in the beginning to        
comprehend him in his fullness4  ,the   
human conceptions of the divine were    
imperfect and incomplete1 and these     

imperfect conceptions are embodied in   
some of the ,old ,testament writings4   
,true1 as ,bowne suggests1 ,god might   
conceivably have made man over all at   
once by fiat1 but in that case it would 
have been a magical rather than a moral 
revelation4#b  ,throughout the entire   
book these and other #bf indications of 
the presence of a human element may be  
seen1 which the reader cannot afford to 
overlook if he would estimate rightly   
the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,but   
while they are there1 they must not     
blind the eyes of the student to the    
fourth great truth expressed by the     
writer of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 
namely1 that ,god spoke through these   
men2 in other words1 that there is also 
a divine element in the ,old ,testament4
  ,in the words of ,s4 ,i4 ,curtis3     
,while it seems to me that we find      
abundant evidences of development in the
 ,old ,testament from very simple       
concrete representations of ,god to     
those which are profoundly spiritual1 ,i

 am not able to account for this        
development on naturalistic principles4 
,in it ,i see ,god at all times and     
everywhere coworking with human         
instruments until the fullness of time  
should come#c4  ,the presence of this   
divine element was recognized by ,jesus 
and by all the ,new ,testament writers1 
and surely it is a significant fact that
 in the first outburst of ,christian    
enthusiasm1 and under the living        
impression of the unique personality of 
the ,master1 no doubt arose concerning  
the inspiration and permanent value of  
the ,old ,testament4  ,with the         
,christian the testimony of ,jesus and  
his disciples carries great weight4     
,but without appealing to his authority 
every unbiased reader may convince      
himself of the nature and character #bg 
of the ,book2 it is not necessary to    
depend upon the testimony of men who    
lived centuries ago1 though they were   
inspired men4  ,the ,book is an open    
book1 ready for examination1 and        

inviting the closest scrutiny on the    
part of every reader4  ,former          
generations found the principal         
arguments in favor of the belief in a   
divine element in the ,old ,testament in
 the presence of miracles in its records
 and in the fulfillment of prophecy4    
,the present generation cannot depend   
upon these arguments exclusively4  ,the 
whole question of miracles in the ,old  
,testament has assumed a different      
aspect within recent years4  ,in the    
first place1 it is seen that in some    
places where formerly a miracle was     
thought to have been wrought natural    
causes may have played a prominent part1
 as1 for example1 in the crossing of the
 ,red ,sea and the ,jordan4  ,in other  
cases language which used to be         
interpreted literally is now seen to be 
poetic and imaginative4  ,in still other
 cases the absolute historical accuracy 
of certain narratives has come to be    
questioned4  ,all this has resulted in a
 weakening of the evidence relied upon  

by former generations4 ,approaching the 
subject of miracles from another side1 a
 better acquaintance with the uniformity
 of nature and the laws of nature has   
led some to question even the           
possibility of miracles1 while the      
greater emphasis upon the immanence of  
,god has resulted #bh in altered        
conceptions of the natural and          
supernatural1 if not in an almost       
complete obliteration of any distinction
 between the two4  ,since miracles are  
involved in so much uncertainty1 they do
 not at present constitute a very strong
 argument to prove the presence of a    
divine element in the ,old ,testament to
 one who is at all skeptically inclined2
 indeed1 there are many sincere         
,christians who find miracles useless as
 an aid to faith4  ,in a similar manner1
 one cannot appeal with the same        
assurance as formerly to the fulfillment
 of prophecy4  ,it is undoubtedly true  
that many prophetic utterances were     
fulfilled2 it is equally true that some 

were not fulfilled4  ,if1 however1 the  
apologist depends upon the fulfillment  
of prophecy as a proof1 the             
nonfulfillment of even a single one     
weakens his position4  ,moreover1 it is 
recognized at present that prophecy in  
the sense of prediction occupies a      
relatively insignificant place in the   
,old ,testament4  ,besides1 scientific  
methods of study have shown that some   
passages interpreted formerly as        
predictions can no longer be so         
interpreted1 while in the case of others
 the interpretation is more or less     
doubtful4  ,here1 again1 the            
difficulties connected with the use of  
the argument have become so perplexing  
that many consider it wise not to use it
 at all4  ,if used with caution1        
prophecy1 especially ,messianic #bi     
prophecy1 possesses great evidential    
value2 but the argument from the        
fulfillment of prophecy as used formerly
 has lost much of its worth as a proof  
of inspiration4 ,the arguments relied   

upon at the present time are simpler    
than those of the past1 and are of such 
a nature that any fair-minded student   
can test them4  ,in the first place1    
attention may be called to the essential
 unity of the book4  ,there are in the  
,old ,world great and magnificent       
cathedrals1 some of which have been     
centuries in building1 yet in all of    
them may be found unity and harmony4    
,how is this to be explained8  ,although
 generation after generation of workmen 
have labored on the enterprise1 back of 
all the efforts was a single plan1      
evolved in the mind of one man1 which   
mind controlled all the succeeding      
generations of workmen4 ,the result is  
unity and harmony4  ,the ,bible has been
 likened to a magnificent cathedral4    
,the phenomenon to which reference has  
been made in connection with ancient    
cathedrals may be seen in the ,bible as 
a whole1 as also in the ,old ,testament 
considered separately4  ,the latter     
contains thirty-nine books1 by how many 

authors no one knows1 scattered over a  
period of more than a thousand years1   
written1 at least some of them1         
independently of one another1 in places 
hundreds of miles apart4 ,and yet there 
is one thought running through them     
all--the #cj gradual unfolding of ,god's
 plan of redemption for the human race4 
,there must be an explanation of this   
unity4  ,is it not natural to find it in
 the fact that one and the same divine  
spirit overshadowed the many men who    
made contributions to the ,book8  ,the  
proof of the presence of a divine       
element in the ,old ,testament which is 
derived from the essential unity of the 
book1 is confirmed by the response of   
the soul to its message1 and the effect 
which it produces in the lives of those 
who yield themselves to its teachings4  
,jesus and his disciples observed that  
its message rightly applied would awaken
 a response in the human heart2         
sometimes1 indeed1 it produced a sense  
of indignation1 because it carried with 

it a sentence of condemnation2 at other 
times it led to loving obedience4  ,and 
they themselves experienced the effects 
of its teaching upon life and character3
 it was with truths proclaimed in the   
,old ,testament that ,jesus overcame    
temptation1 and the quotations used in  
the darkest hours of his earthly life   
are an indication that at all times he  
found the most refreshing soul food in  
its pages4  ,the same is true of the    
early disciples of ,jesus4              
,undoubtedly1 the statement in #b ,tim4 
#c4 #ae-ag is the expression of a living
 experience2 and ever since these words 
were written millions of ,christians    
have experienced the uplifting influence
 of many portions of the #ca ,old       
,testament ,scriptures4  ,they may not  
enjoin the finer graces of              
,christianity1 but they insist most     
strongly and persistently upon the      
fundamental virtues which go to make up 
a sturdy1 noble1 righteous1             
uncompromising character4  ,a message   

which produces such divine results bears
 witness to itself that it embodies     
truth which in some sense proceeded from
 ,god4  ,this is aptly stated by        
,coleridge in these words3 ,need ,i say 
that ,i have met everywhere more or less
 copious sources of truth and power and 
purifying impulses1 that ,i have found  
words for my inmost thoughts1 songs for 
my joy1 utterances for my hidden griefs1
 and pleadings for my shame and         
feebleness8  ,in short1 whatever finds  
me1 bears witness for itself that it has
 proceeded from a ,holy ,spirit1 even   
from the same ,spirit which remaining in
 itself1 yet regenerateth all other     
powers1 and in all ages entering into   
holy souls1 maketh them friends of ,god 
and prophets4#d  ,as long as the ,old   
,testament is able to awaken this       
response and produce these effects men  
will believe that it contains a divine  
element2 and it will accomplish these   
things whenever men are willing to study
 it intelligently and devoutly4  ,what  

the ,old ,testament calls for is not a  
defense but earnest and devout study4   
,the words of ,richard ,rothe concerning
 the ,bible as a whole are applicable   
also to the ,old ,testament ,scriptures3
 #cb ,let the ,bible go forth into      
,christendom as it is in itself1 as a   
book like other books1 without allowing 
any dogmatic theory to assign it to a   
reserved position in the ranks of books1
 let it accomplish of itself entirely   
through its own character and through   
that which each man can find in it for  
himself1 and it will accomplish great   
things4#e  ,the words of ,professor     
,westphal are also worthy to be         
remembered3 ,the only thing for our more
 enlightened religion to bear in mind is
 that the proof of revelation is not    
necessarily to be found in the formula  
which claims to herald it1 but1 above   
all1 in the specific value of the thing 
revealed1 in the divine character of the
 inspired ,word which forces our        
conscience to recognize in it the       

expression of ,god's will itself4#f     
,the value and significance of the above
 argument cannot be overestimated4  ,but
 during the past century other proofs   
have become available as a result of the
 careful1 painstaking study of the      
,bible by scholars in many lands and    
from various points of view4  ,these    
investigations have shown the ,old      
,testament to be a peculiarly unique    
book when compared with other sacred    
literatures of antiquity4  ,this        
uniqueness consists principally in the  
pure and lofty atmosphere which         
permeates the whole from beginning to   
end4  ,one may read its stories of      
prehistoric times1 its records #cc of   
history1 its law1 its poetry1 its       
prophecy1 and everywhere he will find a 
religious tone and spirit which1 if     
present at all1 is much less marked in  
the similar literatures of other        
nations4  ,the modern scientific student
 has approached the ,old ,testament     
chiefly from four directions1 and in the

 pursuit of his work four distinct tests
 have been applied to the ,old          
,testament3 the tests of science1 of    
criticism1 of archology1 and of         
comparative religion4  ,these four tests
 and their bearing upon the ,new        
,testament1 or ,christian1 view of the  
,old ,testament are considered in the   
succeeding pages4  ,before closing this 
chapter one important question remains  
to be considered4  ,it may be formulated
 in this wise3 ,if there are limitations
 and imperfections in the ,old          
,testament1 or anywhere else in the     
,bible1 how may they be distinguished   
from the truth8  ,in the case of        
historical or scientific errors the     
method of procedure may appear clear to 
those who hold the ,new ,testament view 
as to the purpose of the ,old ,testament
 writers2 but the situation seems more  
troublesome in the case of religious and
 ethical imperfections1 because religion
 and ethics are the rightful sphere of  
the biblical writings4  ,if the ,bible  

is not the final authority1 where can be
 found a criterion by which the         
biblical1 or ,old ,testament1 statements
 may be judged8  ,startling as the      
suggestion #cd to judge scriptures may  
seem in theory1 a moment's thought will 
show that it is being done every day by 
practically every ,christian who seeks  
spiritual nourishment in the ,sacred    
,book4  ,who has not passed through     
experiences such as are suggested in    
these words of ,marcus ,dods8--,who is  
at the reader's elbow as he peruses     
,exodus and ,leviticus to tell him what 
is of permanent authority and what is   
for the ,mosaic economy only8  ,who     
whispers as we read ,genesis and ,kings1
 ',this is exemplary2 this is not'8     
,who sifts for us the speeches of ,job1 
and enables us to treasure up as divine 
truth what he utters in one verse1 while
 we reject the next as ,satanic ravings8
  ,who gives the preacher authority and 
accuracy of aim to pounce on a sound    
text in ,ecclesiastes1 while wisdom and 

folly toss and roll over one another in 
confusingly rapid and inextricable      
contortions8  ,what enables the humblest
 ,christian to come safely through the  
cursing ,psalms and go straight to      
forgive his enemy8  ,what tells us that 
we may eat things strangled1 though the 
whole college of apostles deliberately  
and expressly prohibited such eating8   
,who assures us that we need not anoint 
the sick with oil1 although in the ,new 
,testament we are explicitly commanded  
to do so8  ,in a word1 how is it that   
the simplest reader can be trusted with 
the ,bible and can be left to find his  
own #ce spiritual nourishment in it1    
rejecting almost as much as he          
receives8#g  ,these questions call      
attention to a common ,christian        
practice4  ,but1 if the practice can be 
justified as ,christian1 the principle  
underlying the practice may be          
,christian also2 and so it is1 for it is
 recognized as legitimate in the ,new   
,testament4  ,a single sentence from a  

,new ,testament book suggests the answer
 to the above questions3 ,he that is    
spiritual judgeth all things4#h  ,the   
,scriptures are included among the all  
things4  ,but notice1 ,paul does not say
 that anyone may set himself up as      
judge1 but he that is spiritual2 that   
is1 the man who is controlled by the    
spirit of the ,christ4  ,if ,jesus has  
given to the world the highest          
revelation of ,god and truth1 then the  
expressions of all other revelations    
must be measured by his revelation1     
either as an external standard1 or as an
 inner criterion by him who1 in his own 
experience1 has appropriated the        
character1 spirit1 and life of ,jesus4  
,he who has thus appropriated the       
,christ in his fullness will be able to 
judge all things4  ,but until he has    
reached that standard man's judgment    
will remain imperfect and more or less  
unreliable1 and though for his own      
guidance he is still dependent upon it1 
he must guard against the error of      

setting up his own imperfect ,christian 
consciousness as the ultimate criterion 
for all4  #cf  ,up to the present time  
no individual has reached the stage of  
experience where he may be appealed to  
as final authority for all4 ,perhaps the
 sum total of the general ,christian    
consciousness would prove a more        
reliable guide1 or the ,church in so far
 as it embodies this consciousness4     
,but it also still falls short of its   
final glory4 ,it is in the process of   
development toward perfection1 but it   
has not yet reached that stage1 and will
 not reach it until the consciousness of
 every individual contributing to it    
reflects the consciousness of ,jesus    
himself4  ,then1 and then only1 can it  
be appealed to as an ultimate criterion 
in matters religious or ,christian1     
including the specific question under   
consideration3 ,what in the ,old        
,testament is from ,god1 and so1        
permanent1 and what is due to the human 
limitations of the authors1 and so1     

temporary and local8  ,it seems1        
therefore1 necessary to appeal at the   
present time to what may be called1 in a
 sense1 an external standard3 the       
spirit1 the teaching1 and the life of   
,jesus as it may be determined          
objectively from the gospel records4    
,the supreme position occupied by ,jesus
 the ,christ in ,christian thinking is  
well described by ,w4 ,n4 ,clarke3 ,he  
,jesus ,christ has shown ,god as he is  
in his character and relations with men4
  ,he has represented life in its true  
meaning1 and opened to us the real way  
to genuine welfare and success in       
existence4  #cg ,what he has made known 
commends and proves itself as true by   
the manner in which it fits into the    
human scheme1 meets human needs1 and    
renders thought rational and life       
successful4  ,god eternally is such a   
being as ,jesus represents him to       
be--this is the heart of ,christianity1 
to be apprehended1 not first in thought 
but first in life and love1 and this is 

forever true4  ,and it is a revelation  
never to be superseded1 but forever to  
be better and better known4#i  ,by this 
standard1 called by ,clarke the         
,christian element in the ,bible1 the   
,old ,testament teaching must be        
measured2 and by the application of this
 standard alone is it possible to       
separate the human from the divine and  
to estimate rightly the permanent value 
of ,old or ,new ,testament teaching4    
,whatever in the ,scriptures endures    
this test may be received as of         
permanent religious value1 because it is
 divine in the deepest sense4   ,,notes 
,,on ,,chapter ,i  #a ,modern ,criticism
 and the ,preaching of the ,old         
,testament1 p4 #ai4  #b ,studies in     
,christianity1 p4 #gc4  #c ,primitive   
,semitic ,religions ,to-day1 p4 #ad4  #d
 ,letters on the ,inspiration of the    
,scriptures1 ,letter ,i4  #e ,quoted in 
the ,old ,testament ,student1 ,vol4     
,,viii1 p4 #hd4  #f ,the ,law and the   
,prophets1 p4 #af4  #g ,the ,bible1 ,its

 ,origin and ,nature1 pp4 #afj1 #afa4   
#h #a ,cor4 #b4 #ae4  #i ,the ,use of   
the ,scriptures in ,theology1 pp4 #ea1  
#eb4     #ch  ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the     
,,old ,,testament ,,and ,,modern        
,,science  ,for many centuries during   
the ,christian era science was almost   
completely dominated by theology4       
,whenever1 therefore1 a scientific      
investigator proposed views not in      
accord with the theological notions of  
the age he was considered a heretic and 
condemned as such4  ,during these same  
centuries theology was dominated by a   
view of the ,bible which valued the     
latter as an infallible authority in    
every realm of human thought4  ,the view
 of the ,bible held then was expressed  
as late as #ahfa in these words3 ,the   
,bible is none other than the voice of  
,him that sitteth upon the throne4      
,every book of it1 every chapter of it1 
every verse of it1 every word of it1    
every syllable of it 7where are we to   
stop871 every letter of it1 is the      

direct utterance of the ,most ,high4    
,the ,bible is none other than the word 
of ,god2 not some part of it more1 some 
part of it less1 but all alike1 the     
utterance of ,him who sitteth upon the  
throne1 faultless1 unerring1 supreme4#a 
,a book which came thus directly from   
the mind of ,god must be inerrant and   
infallible2 hence closely associated    
with this mechanical view of #ci the    
divine origin of the ,bible was the     
belief in its absolute inerrancy and    
infallibility4  ,this is clearly        
recognized in the words of two eminent  
,american theologians3 ,the historical  
faith of the ,church has always been    
that the affirmations of the scriptures 
of all kinds1 whether of spiritual      
doctrine or duty1 or of physical or     
historical fact1 or of psychological or 
philosophical principle1 are without any
 error1 when the ipsissima verba of the 
autographs are ascertained and          
interpreted in their natural and        
intended sense4#b  ,with such an        

estimate of the ,bible it is only       
natural that theology should bitterly   
resent any and all scientific           
conclusions which seemed to be contrary 
to the statements of the ,bible4        
,however1 a study of the history of     
,bible interpretation creates a serious 
perplexity4  ,the principles upon which 
the interpretations rested were not the 
same in all ages4  ,as a result1 the    
natural and intended sense of biblical  
statements was variously apprehended4   
,what was considered the clear teaching 
of ,scripture in one age might be       
condemned as unscriptural in another4   
,moreover1 some of the methods of       
interpretation are not calculated to    
inspire confidence in the results4      
,when1 for example1 the poetic passage1 
,sun1 stand thou still upon ,gibeon1    
,and thou1 moon1 in the valley of       
,aijalon4   ,and the sun stood still1   
and the moon stayed1#c  #dj is          
considered sufficient to discredit the  
scientific claim that the earth moves   

around the sun1 rather than the sun     
around the earth1 one's confidence in   
the truth of the theological view is    
somewhat shaken4  ,it may be insisted1  
then1 that much of the so-called        
conflict between science and the ,bible 
was in reality a conflict between       
science and a misinterpreted ,bible4    
,this1 even theology seems to have      
recognized1 for again and again it      
changed its interpretation of the ,bible
 so as to bring it into accord with the 
persistent claims of science4  ,the     
history of most modern sciences1 says   
,farrar1 has been as follows3 their     
discoverers have been proscribed1       
anathematized1 and1 in every possible   
instance1 silenced or persecuted2 yet   
before a generation has passed the      
champions of a spurious orthodoxy have  
had to confess that their               
interpretations were erroneous2 and--for
 the most part without an apology and   
without a blush--have complacently      
invented some new line of exposition by 

which the phrases of ,scripture can be  
squared into semblable accordance with  
the now acknowledged fact4#d  ,the      
so-called historical method of ,bible   
study1 which has gradually won its way1 
at least in ,protestant ,christianity1  
has established ,bible interpretation   
upon a firmer foundation1 so that at    
present much less uncertainty exists as 
to the #da meaning of the ,bible than at
 any preceding age4  ,in the same way   
scientific investigation has made       
remarkable strides during the nineteenth
 century2 ,twentieth century science is 
far different from that of the early    
years of the preceding century4  ,and as
 scientists have had to surrender many  
of their positions in the past it is    
very probable that1 as the result of    
further investigation1 some views held  
at present will be superseded by others4
  ,nevertheless1 though science cannot  
as yet dispense with working hypotheses 
which may or may not prove true1 and    
though modifications in certain widely  

accepted views may be expected1 there   
are many conclusions which may be       
considered firmly established4  ,this   
being the case1 if at the present time  
the conflict between science and the    
,bible is discussed1 it is a conflict   
between scientific conclusions reached  
after prolonged1 careful study and      
investigation and the teaching of the   
,bible as determined by the scientific  
use of all legitimate means of          
interpretation4  ,does such conflict    
exist8  ,many geologists1 astronomers1  
biologists1 and other scientists have   
claimed for some time that they have    
reached conclusions not in accord with  
certain statements of the ,bible4  ,take
 as an illustration the biblical and    
scientific statements concerning the age
 of the earth1 or creation in general4#e
  ,the general conclusion reached by an 
overwhelming majority #db of the most   
competent students of the ,bible has    
been that according to the information  
furnished by the ,scriptures1 the date  

of creation was1 in round numbers1 four 
thousand years before the opening of the
 ,christian era4#f  ,at that time1 in   
the words of the ,westminster           
,confession1#g ,it pleased ,god 444 to  
create or make of nothing the world and 
all things therein whether visible or   
invisible in the space of six days and  
all very good4  ,this was accepted as   
the plain teaching of the first chapter 
of ,genesis even after scientific       
methods had been introduced in the study
 of the ,bible4  ,then came geology1    
pushing back the beginnings1 adding     
millions of years to the age of the     
globe1 and insisting that there is      
abundant evidence to prove the existence
 of life upon earth many millenniums    
before ,b4,c4 #d1jjj4  ,other sciences  
reached conclusions pointing in the same
 direction1 until it became perfectly   
evident that ,bible students must reckon
 with what seemed a real conflict       
between the conclusions of science and  
the teaching of the ,bible4  ,no wonder 

,bible lovers were troubled when        
scientists in ever-increasing numbers   
advanced claims that appeared to involve
 a charge of scientific inaccuracy      
against the ,sacred ,scriptures4  ,many 
were convinced that this could not be1  
for they feared that if the ,bible      
contained inaccuracies of any sort1 its 
value would be #dc completely destroyed1
 and with the ,bible ,christianity must 
fall into ruins4  ,in ,brother ,anthony1
 intended to picture the perplexed soul 
of a monk in the days of ,galileo1 ,mark
 ,guy ,pearse gives a vivid portrayal of
 the doubts and perplexities of many    
devout ,bible students in the nineteenth
 century3    ,but on my fevered heart   
there falls no balm2   ,the garden of my
 soul1 where happy birds   ,sang in the 
fullness of their joy1 and bloomed      
,the flowers bright1 finds only winter  
now2   ,and bleak winds moan about the  
leafless trees1   ,and chill rains beat 
to earth the rotting stalks4   ,hope1   
,faith1 and ,god1 alike are gone1 all   

gone--   ,if it be so1 as this ,galileo 
saith4   ,the earth is round and moves  
about the sun2   ,the sun1 he saith1 is 
still1 the axle fixed   ,of nature's    
wheel1 center of all the worlds4        
,galileo is an honest soul1 ,god knows--
   ,no end has he to serve but only     
truth1   ,by that which he declares1    
daring to risk   ,position1 liberty1 and
 even life itself4  ,he knows4   ,and   
yet the ages have believed it not4      
,have they not meditated1 watched1 and  
prayed--   ,great souls with vision     
purged and purified8   ,had ,god no     
messenger until arose   ,galileo6  ,long
 years the ,church has prayed1          
,seeking ,his grace who guided into     
truth1   ,and weary eyes have watched   
the sun and stars1   ,and heard the many
 voices that proclaim   ,god's hidden   
ways--did they believe a lie8   ,the    
,church's holy fathers1 were they wrong8
   ,yet speaks ,galileo as one who      
knows4    ,shrinks all my soul from     
breathing any word   ,that dares to     

question ,god's most holy ,book1  #dd   
,as men beneath an avalanche pass dumb  
,for fear a sound should bring          
destruction down4   ,if but a jot or    
tittle of the ,word   ,do pass away1    
then is all lost4  ,and yet   ,if what  
,galileo maintains be true6--   ,the sun
 itself moves not4  ,the ,scripture     
tells   ,at ,joshua's command the sun   
stood still4   ,doth scripture lie8     
,the blessed ,lord himself1   ,spake he 
not of the sun that rose and set6   ,so 
cracks and cleaves the ground beneath my
 feet4    ,the sun that fills and floods
 the world with light   ,my darkness and
 confusion hath become6   ,o ,god1 as   
here about the old gray walls   ,the ivy
 clings and twines its arms1 and finds  
,a strength by which it rises from the  
earth   ,and mounts toward heaven1 then 
gladly flings   ,its grateful crown of  
greenery round the height1   ,so by thy 
,word my all uncertain soul   ,hath     
mounted toward thy heaven1 and brought  
,its love1 its all1 wherewith to crown  

my ,lord4   ,alas1 the wall is fallen4  
,beneath it crushed   ,the clinging ivy 
lies2 its stronghold once   ,is now the 
prison house1 the cruel grave4#h        
,since the scientific position seemed to
 many devout believers to undermine the 
,christian faith1 it is not altogether  
strange that they should set themselves 
against these claims with all their     
might1 though it may be difficult to    
justify the bitterness displayed by many
 ,christian ministers in the            
denunciation of even devout ,christian  
scientists1 as infidels1 impugners of   
the sacred records1 assailants of the   
,word of ,god1 etc4  ,it is hardly      
credible that during the enlightened #de
 nineteenth century geology should be   
denounced as not a subject of lawful    
inquiry1 a dark art1 dangerous and      
disreputable1 a forbidden province1     
infernal artillery1 an awful evasion of 
the testimony of revelation4  ,but the  
progress of science could not be blocked
 by denunciation1 and gradually the     

claims of geology1 astronomy1 and other 
sciences respecting the great age of the
 earth came to be accepted as well      
established4  ,is1 then1 the scientific 
teaching of the ,bible false8  ,by no   
means1 said many defenders of the faith2
 on the contrary1 there is perfect      
agreement between science and the       
,bible1 provided the latter is rightly  
interpreted4  ,the first problem was to 
extend what was commonly taken to be the
 biblical teaching respecting the age of
 the earth so as to meet the demands of 
geology4  ,this was readily done by     
interpreting day figuratively as meaning
 an indefinite period4  ,it could easily
 be shown that in some passages day did 
not mean a day of twenty-four hours4    
,hence1 why not interpret the word      
metaphorically in ,gen4 #a8  ,it is safe
 to say that1 had it not been for a     
desire to harmonize the biblical account
 with the conclusions of science1 no    
,bible student would ever have thought  
of this interpretation in connection    

with the acts of creation1 for a natural
 interpretation of the writer's language
 makes it evident that when the author  
of ,gen4 #a speaks #df of the successive
 events of creation he is thinking of   
days of twenty-four hours1 each         
consisting of day and night4#i  ,marcus 
,dods is right when he says1 ,if the    
word 'day' in these chapters does not   
mean a period of twenty-four hours1 the 
interpretation of scripture is          
hopeless4#aj ,no permanent good can come
 from doing violence to plain statements
 of the ,bible by the use of methods of 
interpretation that would be considered 
illegitimate in the study of other      
literary productions4  ,in all the      
harmonizing efforts this caution has    
been overlooked4  ,the believer in      
revelation1 thinking that the agreement 
between science and the ,bible must be  
minute1 has yielded to the temptation to
 twist the biblical record into a new   
meaning with every fresh discovery of   
science4  ,many scientists were repelled

 by this arbitrary method1 and when they
 saw that agreement could not be had by 
legitimate methods1 and knew of no other
 way out of the difficulty1 they too    
frequently assumed a hostile attitude   
toward revelation4  ,a method leading to
 such disastrous results cannot be      
considered altogether satisfactory4     
,granting1 however1 for the sake of     
argument1 the possibility of            
interpreting day metaphorically1 the    
troubles are by no means ended1 for it  
is impossible to discover clearly       
defined periods in the geological       
records such as are presupposed in the  
biblical record4  ,but there is a more  
serious #dg difficulty4  ,the order in  
which the different living beings and   
the heavenly bodies are said in ,genesis
 to have been created does not seem to  
be the same as that suggested by geology
 and astronomy4  ,for example1 according
 to ,genesis1 fishes and birds appeared 
together on the fifth day1 preceding all
 land animals1 which are said to have   

been created on the sixth day4          
,according to geology1 fish and numerous
 species of land animals1 especially    
reptiles living on land1 preceded       
birds4#aa  ,moreover1 according to      
,genesis1 the sun1 moon1 and stars were 
created after the earth1 a view which is
 altogether inconsistent with the modern
 scientific view of the universe1 and of
 the part the sun plays in plant and    
animal life upon earth4  ,true1 this    
last difficulty is avoided by some by   
giving to certain ,hebrew words a       
meaning which they do not ordinarily    
have4  ,for example1 it is said1 ,let   
there be 7verse #ad7 means ,let there   
appear2 ,god made 7verse #af7 means ,god
 made to appear1 or ,god appointed1 to a
 specific office4  ,with this           
interpretation1 it is stated1 ,genesis  
says nothing about the formation or     
creation of the luminaries4  ,they may  
have existed for a long time1 only on   
the fourth day they were made to        
appear--the vapor around the earth      

having previously hidden them--and were 
appointed to the offices mentioned in   
verses #ad to #ah4  ,no one will claim  
that this is a natural #dh              
interpretation of the biblical language4
  ,if the writer meant ,let there       
appear1 he could have found a suitable  
word in ,hebrew1 as also to express the 
idea appoint4  ,the language of ,driver 
is not too strong3 ,verses fourteen to  
eighteen cannot be legitimately         
interpreted except as implying that in  
the conception of the writer luminaries 
had not previously existed1 and that    
they were made and set in their places  
in the heavens after the separation of  
sea and land and the appearance of      
vegetation upon the earth4#ab  ,various 
attempts have been made to escape the   
difficulty caused by the conclusions of 
geology as to the order in which        
different forms of life have appeared   
upon earth4  ,these conclusions are     
based chiefly upon the presence of      
fossil remains imbedded in the different

 strata of the earth's surface4         
,passing by the earlier                 
explanations--for example1 that these   
fossil remains were placed there by a   
direct act of ,god on one of the        
creative days for some mysterious       
purpose1 perhaps for the trial of human 
faith1 or that they were due to the     
ravages of the ,deluge--reference may be
 made to two or three of the more recent
 scientific attempts to harmonize the   
facts of science with the statements of 
,genesis4  ,there is1 first of all1 the 
restitution theory advocated by ,j4 ,h4 
,kurtz and ,thomas ,chalmers4#ac        
,admitting that the fossil remains are  
important for the determination #di of  
the age of the earth and the order in   
which different forms of life appeared  
upon the globe1 ,kurtz writes3 ,the     
animal and vegetable world which lies   
buried in the stratified formations was 
not that which1 according to the ,bible1
 was created respectively on the third1 
fifth1 and sixth days4  ,its origin must

 belong to an earlier period4#ad  ,in   
other words1 his view is that the main  
description in ,genesis does not relate 
to the geological periods at all2 that  
room is left for these periods between  
verse one and verse two2 that the life  
which then flourished upon the earth was
 brought to an end by a catastrophe1 the
 results of which are alluded to in     
verse two2 and that what follows 7verses
 #c;ff47 is the description of a second 
creation immediately preceding the      
appearance of man4  ,that this view is  
due to a desire to harmonize the        
biblical account with science is clearly
 implied in the words of ,kurtz intended
 to meet the charge of ,delitzsch that  
his view is pure delusion4  ,it is1 says
 ,kurtz1 merely a delusion to attempt   
identifying the creation of the primeval
 fossil flora and fauna with those of   
the third1 fifth1 and sixth days1 and at
 the same time to endeavor harmonizing  
geology and the ,bible4  ,not to speak  
of the astronomical difficulty referred 

to above1 which remains1 science has    
nothing whatever to offer in support of 
this theory1 while1 on the other #ej    
hand1 the tenor of the ,genesis         
narrative implies such close connection 
between verse one and verse two that    
there is no room for the alleged        
catastrophe4  ,it is not strange1       
therefore1 that modern apologists have  
discarded the restitution hypothesis4   
,the vision theory has been presented   
most forcefully by ,hugh ,miller4#ae    
,according to this view the narrative   
was not meant to describe the actual    
succession of events1 but was the       
description of a series of visions      
presented prophetically to the          
narrator's mental eye1 and representing1
 not the first appearance of each       
species of life upon the globe1 but its 
maximum development4  ,the 'drama of    
creation1' it is said1 is not described 
as it was enacted historically1 but     
optically1 as it would present itself to
 a spectator in a series of pictures or 

tableaux embodying the most             
characteristic and conspicuous feature  
of each period1 and1 as it were1        
summarizing in miniature its results4   
,though this view was presented with    
much eloquence and skill1 it has been   
unable to maintain its position1 simply 
because it is based upon an unnatural   
interpretation of the biblical record4  
,no one approaching ,genesis without a  
theory to defend would think for a      
moment that he is reading the           
description of a vision4  ,the only     
natural interpretation is that the      
author means to record what he considers
 actual fact4 ,moreover1 #ea where in   
,scripture could there be found an      
analogy to this mode of procedure8  ,the
 revelation of an unknown past to a     
historian or prophet seems not in accord
 with the ordinary method of ,god's     
revelations to men4  ,but1 admitting the
 possibility of this method of divine   
communication1 why should the picture   
thus presented to the mind of the author

 differ so widely from the facts        
uncovered by geologists8  ,similar      
attempts to harmonize ,genesis with     
geology have been made by other         
geologists1 among them ,professor       
,alexander ,winchell1#af ,sir ,j4 ,w4   
,dawson1#ag and ,professor ,j4 ,d4      
,dana4#ah  ,the results are perfectly   
satisfactory to these writers1 but they 
fail to see that in order to accomplish 
their purpose they must have recourse to
 unnatural interpretations of the       
,genesis account1 which in itself is    
sufficient evidence to show the         
hopelessness of the task4  ,a similar   
judgment must be passed on the more     
recent attempt by ,f4 ,h4 ,capron#ai to 
bring the biblical account into harmony 
with the modern theory of evolution4    
,capron is fully convinced that the most
 rudimentary knowledge of geology is    
sufficient to satisfy any candid critic 
that the ,genesis narrative as          
interpreted by any one of them#bj cannot
 be brought into harmony with the       

admitted facts of science4  ,he1        
therefore1 attempts a new harmony by    
trying to show that the first chapter of
 ,genesis #eb gives only the order in   
which the creative words were uttered1  
not the order in which the resulting    
effects were produced4  ,unfortunately1 
in accomplishing this purpose1 he1 like 
his predecessors1 reveals an almost     
complete disregard for the obvious      
meaning of the ,genesis narrative4      
,after a close study of the ,genesis    
narrative and the numerous attempts of  
harmonizing it with science1 the present
 writer has become thoroughly convinced 
that it is impossible to establish a    
complete1 detailed harmony between the  
,genesis account of creation and the    
established facts of science without    
doing violence to the ,bible or to      
science or to both4  ,the only harmony  
possible is what has been called an     
ideal harmony1 that is1 a harmony not   
extending to details1 but limited to    
salient features4  ,but this gives away 

the very position for which the         
harmonists have contended4  ,as ,driver 
says1 ,if the relative priority of      
plants and animals1 or the period at    
which the sun and moon were formed1 are 
amongst the details on which harmony    
cannot be established1 what other       
statement 7in the account of creation7  
can claim acceptance on the ground that 
it forms part of the narrative of       
,genesis8#ba  ,admitting now the        
presence of discrepancies between       
science and the ,old ,testament1 what   
becomes of the ,old ,testament8#bb      
,must it be #ec discarded as no longer  
profitable for teaching1 for reproof1   
for correction1 for instruction which is
 in righteousness8  ,some there are who 
seem to fear such fate for the book they
 dearly love4  ,on the other hand1 there
 are multitudes who calmly admit the    
claims of science1 and at the same time 
continue to read and study the pages of 
the ,old ,testament1 assured that it can
 still furnish nourishment to their     

spiritual natures4  ,this attitude of   
confidence has been made possible1 on   
the one hand1 by a broader and truer    
conception of divine revelation1 and1 on
 the other1 by a more adequate          
interpretation of the purpose of the    
,bible and of the biblical writers4     
,believers in ,god have come to realize 
as never before that ,god has spoken and
 still speaks in a variety of ways4     
,manifestations of ,god may be seen on  
every hand3    ,the heavens declare the 
glory of ,god2   ,and the firmament     
showeth his handiwork4   ,day unto day  
uttereth speech1   ,and night unto night
 showeth knowledge4#bc  ,what is the    
universe but a manifestation of ,god8   
,the whole realm of nature is in a real 
sense a record of divine revelations1   
which science seeks to interpret4  ,now1
 says ,a4 ,h4 ,mc,neile1#bd ,if ,god    
created all things and carries the      
universe along by the utterance of his  
power1 it is clear that every fresh item
 of knowledge gained by #ed scientific  

investigation is a fresh glimpse into   
the will of ,god4  ,strictly speaking1  
there is no such thing as secular       
knowledge4  ,a man only makes his       
studies secular for himself as he       
divorces them from the thought of ,god1 
so that all the scientific experiments  
in the world form part of the study of  
one aspect of ,god's ,word4  ,on the    
other hand the purpose of scripture has 
come to be more adequately apprehended4 
,the ,new ,testament makes it perfectly 
clear that the aim of the ,old          
,testament ,scriptures is to bring man  
into harmony with ,god1 to make him     
morally and spiritually perfect1 and to 
point to the consummation of the        
redemptive purpose of ,god in and       
through the ,christ4#be  ,there is no   
warrant anywhere for the belief that the
 ,old ,testament writers meant to teach 
science of any kind4 ,this is admitted  
even by some who insist upon the        
accuracy of the scientific teaching of  
the ,bible4  ,it is true that the       

,scriptures were not designed to teach  
philosophy1 science1 or ethnology1 or   
human history as such1 and therefore    
they are not to be studied primarily as 
sources of information on these         
subjects4#bf  ,evidently1 then1 wherever
 the ,old ,testament touches upon       
questions of science it treats them only
 in so far as they serve a higher       
ethical or spiritual purpose4  ,is it   
necessary to have absolute scientific   
accuracy in every detail in order to do 
this #ee effectively8  ,a moment's      
thought will show that it is not4  ,the 
writer heard not long ago a powerful    
appeal on behalf of the boys in a       
certain community1 in which the speaker 
referred to the ,gracchi1 the most      
renowned citizens of ,athens4  ,the     
historical inaccuracy in no wise        
affected the moral force of the appeal4 
,no one would be foolish enough to      
assume that the spiritual and ethical   
value of sermons preached by the early  
,church fathers is invalidated by the   

fanciful science mixed with their gospel
 message4 ,who has not heard sermons    
that created a profound spiritual       
impression1 though their science and    
history were not altogether faultless8  
,it would seem1 then1 that in estimating
 extra-biblical utterances the principle
 is recognized that ignorance of some   
departments of truth does not disqualify
 a man for knowing and imparting truth  
about ,god2 that in order to be a medium
 of revelation a man does not need to be
 in advance of his age in secular       
learning2 that intimate communion with  
,god1 a spirit trained to discern       
spiritual things1 a perfect             
understanding of and zeal for ,god's    
purpose are qualities quite independent 
of a knowledge of the discoveries of    
science4#bg  ,is it right to raise a    
different standard for the ,scriptures8 
,certainly1 say many1 because the ,bible
 is inspired2 it is the ,word of ,god1  
and ,god cannot inspire an untruth of   
any kind4 #ef ,now1 it may be readily   

admitted that ,god cannot inspire an    
untruth2 but have we any right to argue 
as if we knew exactly how ,god ought to 
convey a revelation to man8  ,without   
entering upon a discussion of the entire
 subject of inspiration1 the question   
may be raised whether or not inspiration
 covers purely scientific information4  
,the claim has been put forth by some   
who believe that the ,bible and science 
are in perfect agreement that this      
agreement proves that the scientific    
element of scripture as well as the     
doctrinal was within the scope of       
inspiration4#bh  ,consistency might seem
 to require the admission that          
disagreement would prove that the       
scientific element does not fall within 
the scope of inspiration4  ,at any rate1
 it is of enormous importance to        
remember1 what should be a perfectly    
obvious principle1 that the facts       
presented in the ,bible must determine  
the answer to the inquiry4  ,in other   
words1 ,we can learn what the ,bible is 

only from what the ,bible itself        
says4#bi  ,one thing is quite certain1  
namely1 that the ,bible makes not the   
slightest claim of being a scientific   
treatise complete and up-to-date4#cj    
,it is equally true that it does not    
deny being such a treatise1 hence the   
inquirer is thrown back upon a study of 
the facts presented in the ,bible2 and  
upon the basis of these he must         
determine whether or not there is reason
 for believing that scientific #eg      
knowledge comes within the scope of     
inspiration4  ,now1 the abstract        
possibility of ,god communicating to man
 a knowledge of exact scientific facts  
in a prescientific age need not be      
denied4  ,it is1 however1 a question    
whether ,god could have communicated    
such facts to man three thousand years  
ago without robbing him of his          
personality and changing him into a     
mechanism4  ,so far as the ways of ,god 
are known from experience1 observation1 
history1 and other sources1 he has      

always treated with respect and         
consideration the powers and faculties  
of his chief creature4  ,had inspired   
men1 says ,dods1#ca introduced into     
their writings information which        
anticipated the discoveries of science1 
their state of mind would be            
inconceivable1 and revelation would be a
 source of confusion4  ,god's methods   
are harmonious with one another1 and as 
he has given men natural faculties to   
acquire scientific knowledge and        
historical information1 he did not      
stultify this gift by imparting such    
knowledge in a miraculous and           
unintelligible manner4  ,the same truth 
is expressed by ,h4 ,e4 ,ryle in these  
words3 ,we do not expect instruction    
upon matters of physical inquiry from   
revelation in the written ,word4  ,god's
 other gifts to men1 of learning1       
perseverance1 calculation1 and the like1
 have been and are a true source of     
revelation4  ,but scripture supplies no 
short cut for the intellect4  ,where #eh

 man's intellectual powers may hope to  
attain to the truth1 be it in the region
 of historical1 scientific1 and critical
 study1 we have no warrant to expect an 
anticipation of results through the     
interposition of supernatural           
instruction in the letter of            
scripture4444  ,scripture is divinely   
inspired1 not to release men from the   
toil of mental inquiry1 but to lead and 
instruct their souls in things of       
eternal salvation4#cb  ,this is not an  
arbitrary limitation of the scope of    
inspiration2 it is a conclusion based   
upon a careful consideration of the     
facts of science and of the ,bible1     
which seem to furnish sufficient        
evidence that the biblical writers were 
not in any marked degree in advance of  
their age in the knowledge of physical  
facts or laws4  ,in other words1 the    
,bible is primarily a book of religion1 
hence religion1 and not science1 is to  
be looked for in its pages4  ,altogether
 too much time has been spent in an     

effort to find in it scientific truth in
 a scientific form4  ,such attempts     
clearly disregard the purpose of the    
biblical writers as interpreted in the  
,new ,testament4  ,and could a ,divine  
,providence have chosen a different     
method8  ,even now discoveries follow   
one another so fast in the realm of     
science that no book remains a standard 
work for more than a few years4  ,it    
seems obvious1 therefore1 that a book   
written thousands of years ago could not
 remain a standard scientific work for  
all times4  #ei ,but assuming for the   
sake of argument that ,god had          
communicated the knowledge of scientific
 facts to these writers--evidence for   
which is entirely lacking--what would   
have been the result8  ,later           
occurrences suggest what might have     
happened4  ,the great mass of people    
would have looked upon teachers of      
strange science as heretics and madmen1 
and would have rejected not only their  
scientific teaching but their religious 

teaching as well4  ,what a loss that    
would have been to mankind6  ,no serious
 loss would come to men if they were    
left a while longer in ignorance        
concerning scientific matters1 but very 
serious loss would come to them by      
continuing in their lower religious and 
ethical beliefs and practices4  ,the    
only way to make the higher religious   
truth understood was to present it in a 
form easily apprehended by the people4  
,to do this is the chief purpose of the 
primitive1 prescientific science of the 
,old ,testament ,scriptures4  ,the      
peculiar element in scripture is the    
spirit and religious atmosphere which   
permeate all its parts and give to the  
,bible a unique place among the         
literatures of the world4  ,this is the 
divine element due to inspiration4  ,it 
is this element which establishes a gulf
 between the ,hebrew account of creation
 and the cosmologies of other nations4  
,though the biblical writers had very   
much the same idea about the form and   

general #fj arrangement of the visible  
world as we find among other            
peoples--ideas that have satisfied at   
all times the majority of men even among
 nations with a pretense to culture1    
namely1 the cosmology of                
appearances--these ideas were all       
connected with their sublime faith in   
,jehovah3 to his omnipotence they       
referred the existence of the world1 and
 they made all its changes depend       
entirely on his will4  ,in their        
monotheistic religion they secured the  
foundation of a clear and simple        
cosmology different from the grotesque  
cosmologies of other nations and yet not
 beyond the demands of men of a         
primitive type and of simple mind1 who  
were full of a lively imagination1 but  
not much accustomed to analyze phenomena
 or their causes4  ,in this connection  
it may prove helpful to remember what1  
according to the biblical viewpoint and 
in the light of history1 was the        
contribution of ,israel to the          

development of the human race4  ,israel1
 says ,g4 ,w4 ,jordan1#cc is            
comparatively young1 politically it is  
provincial1 socially it is not          
brilliant1 in the realm of science it is
 narrow and dependent2 yet when we lay  
stress on these limitations we only     
cause the peculiar glory of this        
nation's life to stand out more clearly2
 it has its own individuality2 its real 
leaders are men of genius1 their        
ambition is to speak in the name of the 
eternal king2 they #fa hear the divine  
message and claim for it the supreme    
significance4  ,this is the judgment of 
a ,bible student4  ,the same truth is   
expressed in the words of one who       
approaches the ,bible from the viewpoint
 of the scientist1 namely1 the eminent  
,italian astronomer1 ,schiaparelli#cd3  
,their the ,hebrews natural gifts1 as   
well as the course of events1 carried   
them to a different mission from that of
 ,greece and ,rome of no smaller        
importance--that of purifying the       

religious sentiment and of preparing the
 way for monotheism4  ,of this way they 
mark the first clear traces4  ,in the   
laborious accomplishment of this great  
task ,israel lived1 suffered1 and       
completely exhausted itself4  ,israel's 
history1 legislation1 and literature    
were essentially cordinated toward this 
end2 science and art were for ,israel of
 secondary importance4  ,no wonder1     
therefore1 that the steps of the ,jews' 
advance in the field of scientific      
conceptions and speculations were small 
and feeble2 no wonder that in such      
respects they were easily vanquished by 
their neighbors on the ,nile and the    
,euphrates4  ,in conclusion3 ,permanent 
harmony between science and the ,bible  
will be secured when each is assigned to
 its legitimate sphere4  ,science has a 
right to ask that1 if men are seeking   
purely scientific information1 they     
should turn to recent text-books in     
geology1 astronomy1 or the other #fb    
sciences4  ,but in the sphere to which  

,jesus and the ,new ,testament writers  
assigned the ,old ,testament science    
cannot deny or seriously question its   
inspiration or permanent value4         
,unprejudiced science has never done    
this4  ,it is perfectly ready to        
recognize the inestimable religious and 
ethical value of even those ,old        
,testament narratives which refer to    
scientific facts1 not because of their  
scientific teaching1 but because of the 
presence of eternal truth in the crude  
form of primitive science4  ,fair-minded
 scientists readily admit that if anyone
 wishes to know what connection the     
world has with ,god1 if he seeks to     
trace back all that now is to the very  
fountain head of life1 if he desires to 
discover some unifying principle1 some  
illuminating purpose in the history of  
the world1 he may still turn to the     
early chapters of ,genesis as a safe    
guide4  ,what1 then1 is the bearing of  
the conclusions of modern science upon  
the permanent value of the ,old         

,testament8  ,science has compelled the 
,bible student to withdraw the attention
 from the nonessential and secondary1   
and to concentrate it upon the heart and
 substance4  ,in doing this it has      
established upon a much firmer basis the
 conviction that1 whatever the          
scientific value of scripture may be or 
may not be1 the apostle was right when  
he wrote that the sacred writings 444   
are able to make wise unto salvation    
through #fc faith which is in ,christ   
,jesus4  ,every scripture inspired of   
,god is also profitable for teaching1   
for reproof1 for correction1 for        
instruction which is in righteousness3  
that the man of ,god may be complete1   
furnished completely unto every good    
work4#ce   ,,notes ,,on ,,chapter ,,ii  
#a ,burgon1 ,inspiration and            
,interpretation1 p4 #hi4  #b            
,presbyterian ,review1 #ahha1 p4 #bch4  
#c ,josh4 #aj4 #ab4  #d ,the            
,bible--,its ,meaning and ,supremacy1 p4
 #afj4  #e ,in a brief treatment it     

seems preferable to confine the         
discussion to a specific concrete case2 
therefore this chapter deals almost     
exclusively with questions centering    
around the subject of cosmogony4  #f    
,the margin of the ,authorized ,version 
still gives the chronology of           
,archbishop ,ussher to that effect4  #g 
,chapter ,,iv1 #a4  #h ,the ,expositor1 
#aijb1 pp4 #aei1 #afj4  #i ,it requires 
but a reading of the proofs of the      
opposite view to understand their       
weakness4  ,compare ,expositor1 #ahhf1  
pp4 #bhg-bhi4  #aj ,the book of         
,genesis1 p4 #d4  #aa ,another          
difficulty has been found in the        
statement of ,genesis that vegetation   
was complete two days before animal life
 appeared1 but the disagreement is more 
apparent than real4  ,the geological    
record1 it is true1 shows many more     
animal than plant remains in the very   
ancient rocks4  ,it was not until       
,devonian and ,carboniferous times that 
the plants became very abundant1 as far 

as the geological records go4 ,indeed1  
in the oldest rocks in which animal     
remains occur1 no plant remains have    
been discovered4  ,however1 this is not 
to be #fd taken as proving that animals 
existed before plants1 because low forms
 of the latter1 having no hard parts1   
would be preserved with difficulty4     
,moreover1 in some of the primitive     
forms1 it is not easy to distinguish    
plants from animals4  ,but1 apart from  
the records in the rocks1 both          
biologists and geologists believe that  
plants existed as early as animals1 if  
not earlier1 for the latter needed the  
former to live upon4 ,an eminent        
geologist1 ,professor ,u4 ,s4 ,grant1 of
 ,northwestern ,university1 has         
expressed his opinion to the writer in  
these words3 ,it seems to me that1      
viewed in an abstract way1 the ,genesis 
statement of vegetation appearing before
 animal life is not far from correct4   
#ab ,the ,book of ,genesis1 p4 #be4  #ac
 ,natural ,theology1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbi1

 #bcj4  #ad ,history of the ,old        
,covenant1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 cxxix4  #ae ,the
 ,testimony of the ,rocks1 ,lecture     
,,iv4  #af ,reconciliation of ,science  
and ,religion1 pp4 #cef;ff42 compare    
also ,pre-,adamites1 passim4  #ag       
,origin of the ,world ,according to     
,revelation and ,science1 passim4  #ah  
,bibliotheca ,sacra1 #ahhe1 pp4 #bja;ff4
  #ai ,the ,conflict of ,truth1 pp4     
#afb;ff4  #bj ,kurtz1 ,miller1 ,dawson1 
,dana1 and the rest4  #ba ,expositor1   
#ahhf1 p4 #ch4  #bb ,the writer wants it
 clearly understood that an ideal1      
harmony1 as described above1 can be     
established4  ,he is equally certain1   
however1 that the harmony cannot be     
carried into details4  #bc ,psa4 #ai4   
#a1 #b4  #bd ,expository ,times1        
,october1 #aijg1 p4 #bj4  #be ,see      
above1 ,chapter ,i1 p4 #ab4  #bf        
,presbyterian ,review1 #ahha1 p4 #bci4  
#bg ,marcus ,dods1 ,the ,book of        
,genesis1 pp4 #d1 #e4  #bh ,presbyterian
 ,review1 #ahha1 p4 #bci4  #bi          

,expository ,times1 ,october1 #aijg1 p4 
#bj4  #fe  #cj ,surely1 there is not the
 slightest claim in ,scripture that     
,moses or any other biblical writer     
received divine information concerning  
the beginnings of the universe2 nor is  
there anything to support the assumption
 that the account of creation was       
supernaturally revealed to ,adam1 and   
that from him it was transmitted word   
for word through the families of the    
pious antediluvians1 of ,noah1 ,shem1   
,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 etc41 until it
 was finally received and committed to  
writing by ,moses4  #ca ,the ,book of   
,genesis1 p4 #e4  #cb ,h4 ,e4 ,ryle1    
,the ,early ,narratives of ,genesis1 pp4
 #e1 #f4  #cc ,biblical ,criticism and  
,modern ,thought1 p4 #ij4  #cd          
,astronomy in the ,old ,testament1 p4   
#a4  #ce #b ,tim4 #c4 #ae-ag2 on the    
permanent value and significance of the 
,genesis narratives2 see also below1 pp4
 #bcd;ff4     #ff  ,,chapter ,,iii      
,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and ,,modern  

,,criticism  ,no careful observer can   
doubt that modern criticism has exerted 
a marked influence upon the attitude of 
many ,christian people toward the       
,bible4  ,both those in sympathy with   
new ideas and those opposed to them     
frequently speak of the crisis which    
this criticism has brought about4 ,it   
does seem1 says ,john ,e4 ,mc,fadyen1 a 
believer in the methods and results of  
modern criticism1 that the ,church      
to-day in all her branches is face to   
face with a crisis of the most serious  
kind4#a ,on the other hand1 ,john       
,smith1 a determined opponent of        
criticism1 writes concerning the        
conclusions of the latter3 ,they        
conflict with the profoundest certitudes
 of the faith1 must inevitably alter the
 foundation on which from the beginning 
our holy religion has stood before the  
world1 and1 consequently1 so far as a   
theory can1 must obstruct her mission   
and abridge her influence4#b  ,whether  
the crisis is as acute as is here       

implied or not1 there seems to be much  
concern among devout believers in the   
,bible about the bearing of modern      
criticism upon the value of the book    
they dearly love4  ,in the nature #fg of
 the case1 limitation of space forbids  
an exhaustive discussion of this        
interesting subject here4  ,there are1  
however1 three questions which are      
worthy of serious consideration3 7#a7   
,what is modern criticism8  7#b7 ,what  
are the more important conclusions of   
criticism that have secured wide        
recognition8  7#c7 ,what is the bearing 
of these conclusions1 if true1 upon the 
,christian view of the ,old ,testament8 
,what1 then1 is biblical criticism8  ,it
 is defined by ,nash as the free study  
of all the facts1#c which definition    
,mc,fadyen expands so as to read1 the   
free and reverent study of all the      
biblical facts4#d ,criticism is study1  
which means careful investigation rather
 than superficial reading followed by   
hasty or unfounded conclusions4  ,the   

investigation is free in the sense that 
though it is not disrespectful to       
traditional beliefs1 it is not prevented
 by them from marking out new paths if  
the facts so demand4  ,it is reverent   
because it deals with a book that has   
played a unique part in the religious   
life and thought of many centuries1 and 
has been received as a book in which the
 voice of ,god may be heard4  ,it is    
primarily a study of the facts presented
 by the book1 not of theories or        
speculations1 though in the study of    
these facts much may be learned from the
 theories of the past1 and the study may
 give rise to new theories4  ,in order  
to be #fh thoroughly scientific1 it must
 have due regard for all the facts in   
the case4  ,for convenience sake it has 
become customary to distinguish four    
phases of ,old ,testament1 or biblical1 
criticism3 7#a7 ,textual ,criticism2    
7#b7 ,linguistic ,criticism2 7#c7       
,literary ,criticism2 and 7#d7          
,historical ,criticism4  ,close students

 of the ,hebrew text of the ,old        
,testament have been compelled to admit 
that even the oldest ,hebrew manuscripts
 now known are not free from errors and 
blemishes1 and it is the office of      
textual criticism to remove such errors 
by the use of all legitimate methods and
 means and to restore the ipsissima     
verba of the author4  ,the presence of  
corruptions in the text is established  
by facts like these3 7#a7 ,there are    
passages in which the text as it stands 
cannot be translated without violence to
 the laws of grammar1 or1 which are     
irreconcilable with the context or with 
other passages4  ,for example1 in #a    
,sam4 #c4 #a the ,authorized ,version   
reads1 ,saul reigned one year1 and when 
he had reigned two years over ,israel4  
,this translation does violence to the  
laws of ,hebrew grammar4  ,the ,hebrew  
reads1 literally1 ,the son of a year was
 ,saul in his reigning1 which may be    
rendered1 ,saul was a year old when he  
began to reign4  ,the narratives        

concerning events in the life of ,saul  
before he became king make it clear that
 this statement is not correct4         
,perhaps the scribe1 in writing the #fi 
formula1 which is the usual formula for 
stating a king's age at his accession1  
left a space for the numeral to be      
filled in later1 and forgot the         
omission2 or the numeral has            
accidentally dropped out4  ,in this     
case1 it is the duty of textual         
criticism to supply1 if possible1 the   
age of ,saul when he was made king4  ,in
 the absence of all external evidence   
the textual critic must fall back upon  
conjecture4  ,this the translators of   
the ,revised ,version did1 for in the   
,english ,revised ,version we find in   
brackets the word thirty1 in the        
,american ,revised ,version forty4  ,in 
this special case the assured results of
 textual criticism are purely negative1 
in that they have established the fact  
that the present text cannot be correct4
  ,the attempt to restore the original  

text rests upon conjecture4  7#b7       
,parallel passages differ in such a     
manner as to make it certain that the   
variations are largely due to textual   
corruption4  ,a good illustration is    
seen in ,psa4 #ah1 when compared with #b
 ,sam4 #bb4  ,these two passages were   
undoubtedly identical in the beginning2 
but even the oldest existing manuscripts
 show more than seventy variants between
 the two chapters4  7#c7 ,some of the   
ancient versions contain readings which 
often bear a strong stamp of probability
 and remove or lessen the difficulties  
of the ,hebrew text4  ,for example1 in  
,josh4 #i4 #d1 where the ,hebrew reads1 
,and they #gj went and made as if they  
had been ambassadors1 the ,septuagint   
reads1 ,and they went and provisioned   
themselves4  ,the latter reading is     
supported by nearly all the ancient     
versions1 and seems more probable than  
that of the ,hebrew text4 ,another      
illustration of a similar character is  
found in ,psa4 #bb4 #af;c1 which is     

translated by both the ,authorized and  
the ,revised ,version1 ,they pierced my 
hands and my feet4  ,this1 however1 is  
not a translation of the ,hebrew at all1
 for it reads1 ,like a lion1 my hands   
and my feet4  ,in this case the ,new    
,testament1 as well as the ,latin and   
,syriac translations1 supports the      
reading of the ,septuagint4  ,passages  
like these1 in which the text has       
evidently suffered in the course of     
transmission1 might be multiplied a     
hundredfold1 and it is generally        
considered a legitimate ambition to     
attempt the restoration of the ,hebrew  
text to its original form4  ,linguistic 
criticism deals with difficult and      
obscure passages4 ,sometimes the meaning
 of single words or phrases is          
uncertain1 as1 for example1 in ,isa4    
#ec4 #a1 which reads1 in the ,authorized
 ,version1 ,who hath believed our       
report8  ,the margin gives as           
alternatives for report the words       
doctrine and hearing4  ,the ,revised    

,version reads1 ,who hath believed our  
message8 with a marginal note1 ,or1 that
 which we have heard4  ,in form the word
 translated message #ga is a passive    
participle1 meaning1 literally1 that    
which has been heard4  ,surely1 no one  
would consider report1 doctrine1        
hearing1 message1 etc41 synonymous4  ,it
 is the duty of linguistic criticism to 
determine the exact meaning of the word4
  ,sometimes grammatical constructions  
are ambiguous4  ,very familiar are the  
words in ,isa4 #f4 #c1 ,holy1 holy1     
holy1 is ,jehovah of hosts3 the whole   
earth is full of his glory4  ,the margin
 suggests as an alternative for the last
 clause1 the fullness of the whole earth
 is his glory1 which might mean         
something entirely different from the   
ordinary rendering4  ,there are other   
passages1 some among the sublimest      
prophetic utterances1 in which it is by 
no means clear whether the reference is 
to the past or to the present or to the 
future4  ,there is1 indeed1 plenty of   

room for the most painstaking work of   
the linguistic critic4  ,the literary   
criticism concerns itself with the      
literary history of ,old ,testament     
books4  ,the ,bible may be more than a  
human production1 but in outward form it
 has the appearance of an ordinary work 
of literature2 and1 so far as its       
history as a collection of literary     
productions is concerned1 it has not    
escaped the fortunes or misfortunes of  
other ancient literary works4  ,it is a 
well-known fact that extra-biblical     
books1 religious and secular1 have come 
down from the #gb distant past bearing  
the names of men who cannot have been   
their authors2 for example1 the ,gospel 
of ,peter1 or the ,ascension of ,isaiah4
  ,some ancient books have been         
interpolated and added to from time to  
time2 for example1 the ,sibylline       
,oracles1 the religious books of the    
,hindus4 ,some ancient books are        
compilations rather than original       
productions2 for example1 the           

,diatessaron of ,tatian1 or the         
religious books of the ,babylonians1    
which give abundant evidence of         
compilation4  ,the discoveries of these 
phenomena in extra-biblical books       
naturally raised the question whether   
similar phenomena might not be found in 
the books of the ,old ,testament4  ,it  
is the duty of literary criticism to    
throw light on these questions2 to      
decide whether all the ,old ,testament  
books are rightly ascribed to the men   
whose names they bear1 whether they are 
original productions or compilations    
from earlier material1 and whether any  
of the books have received additions or 
interpolations in the course of their   
literary history4  ,hand in hand with   
literary criticism goes historical      
criticism4  ,the student of ,old        
,testament history seeks to trace the   
development of the history of ,israel by
 combining in a scientific manner the   
historical material scattered throughout
 the ,old ,testament4  ,in doing this he

 is compelled to determine the value of 
the sources #gc from which he gathers   
information4  ,to do this is the duty of
 historical criticism4 ,it inquires1 for
 example1 whether the records are       
approximately contemporaneous with the  
events they record2 if so1 whether the  
writers were qualified to observe the   
events accurately1 or to record and     
interpret them correctly2 and1 if the   
accounts were written a considerable    
time subsequent to the events recorded1 
whether they were colored in any way by 
the beliefs and practices of the time in
 which they were written or compiled4   
,this line of investigation is almost   
thrust upon the ,bible student by a     
comparison of the books of ,kings with  
the books of ,chronicles1 which in many 
portions cover the same ground2 and yet1
 there are marked differences between   
the descriptions of the two4  ,these are
 the different phases of criticism4     
,ordinarily1 however1 only two kinds are
 distinguished3 the lower1 or textual   

criticism1 and the higher criticism4    
,the aims of textual criticism are      
described above4 ,the higher criticism  
combines the functions of literary and  
historical criticism1 while linguistic  
criticism is considered a part of       
exegesis or interpretation1 not a       
separate branch of ,bible study4  ,the  
legitimacy of textual criticism is      
universally recognized4  ,its importance
 in a comprehensive study of the ,bible 
is clearly implied in these words of ,w4
 ,h4 ,green1 a #gd generation ago the   
best known defender of the traditional  
view of the ,old ,testament3 ,its       
function is to determine1 by a careful  
examination of all the evidence bearing 
upon the case1 the condition of the     
sacred text1 the measure of its         
correspondence with1 or divergence from1
 the exact language of the inspired     
penman1 and by means of all available   
helps to remove the errors which may    
have gained admission to it from        
whatever cause1 and to restore the text 

to its pristine purity as it came from  
the hands of the original writers4444   
,it is not an arbitrary but a judicial  
process1 based on fixed and intelligible
 principles and conducted in a          
determinate manner1 in which all the    
evidence is diligently collected1       
thoroughly sifted1 and accurately       
weighed1 and the decision given in      
accordance with the ascertained facts4#e
  ,no exception is taken to linguistic  
criticism as a legitimate part of       
exegesis1 but at the mention of higher  
criticism many good men and women become
 greatly disturbed1 for they seem to    
look upon it as a handmaid of ,satan4   
,a few expressions will illustrate the  
feeling with which some regard this kind
 of study3 ,one writer says1 ,neither   
hard times nor higher criticism nor     
infidelity 444 has any effect upon the  
sale of the ,divine ,scriptures4  ,he   
evidently places higher criticism on a  
par with infidelity4  ,again3 ,the      
so-called higher critics1 it is well    

known1 are constantly #ge trying to     
shake the faith of the ,christian by    
telling him that the books of the ,bible
 were not written by the men whose names
 are usually given as the human authors4
 ,another writer declares that the      
higher critics allege that the ,bible is
 the off-spring of incompetence and     
fraud4  ,one more quotation may suffice3
 ,higher criticism tends invariably 444 
to absolute rationalism and the         
discrediting of inspiration4  ,now1 if  
higher criticism is on a par with       
infidelity1 if it declares the ,bible to
 be the offspring of incompetence and   
fraud1 if it constantly tries to shake  
the faith of ,christians1 if it tends   
invariably to absolute rationalism and  
discredits inspiration--if it does these
 things1 then the ,christian ,church may
 well look upon it with dread and alarm4
  ,whether or not higher criticism is   
guilty of the things charged against it 
will probably appear in the further     
discussion1 for from now on chief       

emphasis will be placed upon the bearing
 of the higher criticism on the         
,christian view of the ,old ,testament4 
,first of all1 it may be well to define1
 if possible1 the term higher criticism4
  ,it is too often assumed by those who 
should know better1 that the adjective  
higher exhibits the arrogance of those  
using it1 who claim thereby an          
unwarranted precedence for their        
methods4  ,this assumption is erroneous1
 for the adjective is used #gf simply to
 distinguish this kind of criticism from
 the lower or textual criticism1 which1 
since its purpose is to fix the exact   
text of a book1 necessarily precedes the
 application of the processes of the    
higher criticism4  ,the designation may 
be unfortunate1 but thus far no clearer 
or less objectionable substitute has    
been found4  ,but what is higher        
criticism8  ,higher criticism may be    
defined as a process of scientific      
investigation for the purpose of        
determining the origin1 original form1  

and intended value of literary          
productions4  ,it cannot be emphasized  
too strongly that higher criticism is   
nothing more than a process of study or 
investigation4  ,it is not a set of     
conclusions respecting the books of the 
,bible2 it is not a philosophical       
principle underlying the investigation2 
it is not a certain attitude of mind    
toward the ,bible2 it is not a theory of
 inspiration nor a denial of            
inspiration4  ,higher criticism is none 
of these things4  ,it is simply a       
process of study to determine certain   
truths concerning literary productions4 
,again1 higher criticism1 as a process  
of study1 is not confined to the study  
of the ,bible4  ,it was applied to      
extra-biblical books long before there  
was any thought of applying it to the   
,old or ,new ,testament4 ,eichhorn1 who 
first applied the term to ,old          
,testament study1 has this to say3 ,i   
have been obliged to bestow the greatest
 #gg amount of labor on a hitherto      

entirely unworked field3 the            
investigation of the inner constitution 
of the separate books of the ,old       
,testament by the aid of the higher     
criticism1 a new name to no humanist4#f 
,once more3 the higher criticism as such
 is not opposed to traditional views4   
,in the words of ,professor ,zenos3 ,its
 relation to the old and the new views  
respectively is one of indifference4    
,it may result in the confirmation of   
the old1 or in the substitution of the  
new for the old4444  ,it is no respecter
 of antiquity or novelty2 its aim is to 
discover and verify the truth1 to bring 
facts to light whether these validate or
 invalidate previously held opinions4#g 
,it is a grave mistake1 therefore1 to   
attribute to higher criticism an        
essentially destructive purpose4  ,in   
reality1 it has confirmed traditional   
views at least as often as it has shown 
them to be untenable4  ,it does not     
approach its investigations even with a 
suspicion of the correctness of         

tradition2 it starts out with the       
tradition1 it accepts it as correct     
until the process of investigation has  
brought to light facts and indications  
which cannot be harmonized with         
tradition4  ,in such a case criticism   
believes itself bound to supply a       
satisfactory explanation of the facts1  
though such explanation may be contrary 
to the claims of tradition4  ,any       
student ,who approaches the inquiry in a
 spirit #gh different from that here    
indicated introduces into his           
investigation elements that are not a   
part of higher criticism as such1 and   
the latter cannot and should not be held
 accountable for them4  ,that it is     
desirable to answer questions concerning
 the origin1 form1 and value of biblical
 books no one will dispute4  ,c4 ,m4    
,mead1 exceedingly cautious and         
conservative1 says3 ,i regard the higher
 criticism as not only legitimate but as
 useful1 and indiscriminate condemnation
 of it as foolish4  ,genuine criticism  

is nothing but the search after truth1  
and of this there cannot be too much4#h 
,no literary production in the ,bible or
 outside of the ,bible can be fully     
understood unless the interpreter has a 
full knowledge of its origin1 its       
author1 and its first readers4  ,when1  
where1 by whom1 to whom1 under what     
circumstances1 for what purpose8--an    
answer to these and similar questions   
will wonderfully illuminate the message 
of a book4  ,a knowledge of the form of 
the writing is also essential to a      
proper understanding of the same4  ,is  
it history or poetry8 is it narrative or
 prediction8 or any one of the various  
kinds of literature8  ,in a similar     
manner it is important1 though not      
always easy1 to know the value a given  
literary work was intended to have4  ,is
 it to be understood as literal history8
  ,is its essential purpose didactic1   
without special regard for historic     
accuracy in #gi every detail8  ,are the 
religious and ethical truths taught     

intended to be final1 or do they mark a 
stage in the development toward         
perfection and finality8 ,these and     
other important questions of a similar  
nature the higher criticism seeks to    
answer4  ,some one may say1 ,scholars in
 all ages have sought to answer these   
questions2 why is it1 then1 that modern 
higher criticism reaches conclusions    
concerning the origin1 form1 and value  
of ,old ,testament writings not dreamed 
of a few centuries ago8  ,this is a     
legitimate question1 but the answer is  
not far to seek4  ,it may best be       
answered by asking another question3    
,men in all ages have studied the earth1
 the sun1 the stars1 and other phenomena
 of nature2 how is it that modern       
scientists have reached conclusions     
unknown and undreamed of a few centuries
 ago8  ,the modern higher criticism1    
like all modern science1 is the         
outgrowth of the awakening during the   
,middle ,ages which revolutionized the  
whole world of science1 literature1 and 

religion4 ,the ,renaissance aroused     
men's interest in literature and        
science1 the ,reformation aroused men's 
interest in religion as a personal      
experience4  ,in the ,renaissance men   
began to think for themselves in matters
 of science and literature2 in the      
,reformation they began to think for    
themselves in matters of religion4  ,it 
was inevitable that #hj the awakening of
 thought and the substitution of reason 
for authority in science1 secular       
literature1 and secular history should  
ultimately affect sacred history and    
sacred literature as well4#i            
,chronologically1 it is true1 the work  
of higher criticism began even before   
the time of the ,renaissance among      
,spanish ,jews4  ,but this ,jewish      
criticism did not at the time exert any 
influence in the ,christian ,church4    
,only after criticism had secured a     
foothold among ,christian scholars were 
the results of ,jewish investigation    
made use of4  ,in the same way the      

purely negative conclusions of some of  
the early ,christian heretics1 based    
upon dogmatic considerations rather than
 historical investigations1 have no     
organic connection with the             
investigations and results of modern    
criticism4  ,it is perfectly correct1   
therefore1 to state that the modern     
higher criticism had its birth in the   
great awakening of the ,renaissance and 
the ,reformation4  ,they gave to it a   
life and an impetus which from that day 
to this have not abated in the least4   
,some of the reformers themselves and   
their coworkers advanced views which    
later investigation has confirmed and   
expanded4  ,carlstadt1 for example1 the 
friend and coworker of ,luther1         
published in #aebj an essay in which he 
argued1 on the ground that the style of 
narration in the account of ,moses's    
death which1 he believed1 was not       
written by ,moses1 was #ha the same as  
in the preceding chapters1 that it might
 be held that ,moses did not write the  

entire ,pentateuch4  ,the freedom with  
which ,luther criticized both the ,old  
and the ,new ,testament books is well   
known4  ,concerning the ,old ,testament1
 he admitted that the books of ,kings   
were more credible than ,chronicles4    
,what would it matter1 he asks1 if      
,moses did not write the ,pentateuch8   
,he thinks it probable that ,isaiah1    
,jeremiah1 ,hosea1 and ,ecclesiastes    
received their final form at the hands  
of redactors4  ,the testimony of the    
psalm titles he does not regard as      
conclusive4  ,he admits chronological   
difficulties and contradictions in the  
statements of historical facts4 ,he     
concedes that we do not always hear ,god
 himself speaking in the ,old           
,testament4  ,esther might well have    
been left out of the canon1 and ,first  
,maccabees might have been included4    
,if this is not criticism1 what is8     
,the case of ,luther has been mentioned 
simply to show the absurdity of the     
claim that modern higher criticism is   

the outgrowth of ,german rationalism or 
,english deism or infidelity2 or that a 
man who pursues ,old ,testament study on
 the line of the higher criticism is    
necessarily an infidel1 a rationalist1  
or a fool4  ,true1 there have been and  
are those out of sympathy with          
,christianity or the ,bible who have    
employed critical methods in carrying on
 their anti-,christian warfare2 but #hb 
such misuse of critical methods no more 
proves the illegitimacy of this process 
of investigation than the employment of 
a surgical instrument1 which1 in the    
hands of a skillful surgeon1 may be the 
means of saving a diseased organism1 by 
a murderer to carry out his destructive 
aim1 would prove that the use of all    
surgical instruments is unscientific or 
criminal4  ,the vast majority of the    
so-called higher critics do not deserve 
the denunciations heaped upon them by   
some who consider themselves sole       
defenders of the faith4  ,most of them  
are ,christian men whose loyalty to     

,christ1 whose devotion to the truth1   
and whose sincerity of motive no one has
 reason or right to question or doubt4  
,it is exceedingly unfortunate that many
 writers have failed to recognize this  
fact4  ,no one acquainted with the      
history of biblical criticism can accept
 the following as a true                
characterization of serious critics3 ,i 
mean by professional critic1 one who    
spends his time and strength in trying  
to find some error or discrepancy in the
 ,bible2 and1 if he thinks he does1     
rejoiceth as 'one who findeth great     
spoil'2 who hopes1 while he works1 that 
he may succeed1 thinking thereby to     
obtain a name and notoriety for         
himself4#aj  ,in a similar spirit ,sir  
,robert ,anderson speaks of the foreign 
infidel type of scholar 444 as ignorant 
of man and his needs as a monk1 and as  
ignorant of ,god and his ways as a      
monkey4#aa #hc ,such abuse is           
unchristian1 and no good can be         
accomplished by it4  ,the truth of the  

matter is more adequately expressed by  
,james ,orr when he says3 ,there are1   
one must own1 few outstanding scholars  
at the present day on the ,continent or 
in ,britain--in ,america it is somewhat 
different--who do not in greater or less
 degree accept conclusions regarding the
 ,old ,testament of the kind ordinarily 
denominated critical4  ,yet among the   
foremost are many whom no one who       
understands their work would dream as   
classing as other than believing1 and   
defenders of revealed religion4#ab      
,then1 after mentioning a number of     
scholars1 he describes them as all more 
or less critics1 but all convinced      
upholders of supernatural revelation4   
,but even among these ,christian1       
evangelical1 higher critics a           
distinction must be made between two    
classes4  ,the one may be called1 for   
want of a better name1 traditional1     
because its adherents insist that their 
investigations on the line of the higher
 criticism have confirmed in all        

essentials the positions held during    
many centuries4  ,it should be noted1   
however1 that many scholars who are     
sometimes quoted as upholders of the    
traditional view are ready to make many 
concessions to those who believe that   
the traditional views are no longer     
tenable4#ac ,on the other hand is a     
class of critics which may be called    
nontraditional1 critics who claim that  
#hd their investigations1 while         
confirming the truth of many traditional
 positions1 compel them in other cases  
to set aside the traditional views in   
favor of some more in accord with the   
facts in the case4  ,it may be difficult
 to state all the causes responsible for
 the differences in the conclusions of  
these two classes of critics4  ,however1
 the writings of some scholars in the   
former class seem to show that the      
authors are influenced1 to some extent  
at least1 by the fear that further      
concessions would affect the ,christian 
theory of inspiration4  ,another cause  

may be found in the fact that the       
present generation of ,old ,testament   
scholars received its training largely  
at the hands of those accustomed to the 
traditional viewpoint2 the influence of 
this early training manifests itself to 
some extent in the present attitude4  ,a
 more important cause1 however1 is      
supplied by the nature of the evidence  
upon the basis of which these critical  
questions must be settled4              
,mathematical demonstration is          
impossible in very many cases4  ,the    
critic must be qualified to estimate    
probabilities1 and various degrees of   
probability1 depending upon the nature  
of the grounds on which it rests4  ,in  
the nature of the case1 the personal    
element enters into the estimate of the 
degree of probability4  ,what to some   
may appear a high degree of probability1
 or amount to practical certainty1 may  
to another investigator1 perhaps less   
familiar with #he the facts in the case1
 appear of less value and lead him to   

reject the conclusion entirely4  ,as    
long as this condition of affairs       
continues--and there is no reason to    
suppose that it ever will be            
otherwise--perfect agreement among      
critical investigators need not be      
expected2 but a fair and thorough       
examination of the facts by all must be 
insisted upon4  ,it is not necessary to 
enlarge upon the views of the           
traditional class of critics1 for theirs
 are the views with which most          
,christians now living have been        
familiar since their childhood4  ,in    
order to understand1 however1 the       
bearing of the nontraditional criticism 
upon the ,christian view of the ,old    
,testament it is necessary to consider  
the most important conclusions of the   
nontraditional class of evangelical     
criticism2 and to these conclusions we  
may now turn our attention4  #a4        
,modern criticism has placed into       
clearer light the progressive character 
of ,old ,testament revelation4  ,god is 

the same yesterday1 to-day1 and forever1
 but man has taken many advance steps2  
and as he advanced his spiritual        
capacities and powers of apprehension   
increased4 ,this growth enabled him to  
secure1 from generation to generation   
and from century to century1 during the 
,old ,testament dispensation1 an        
ever-broadening and deepening conception
 of the nature and character of ,god and
 of his will4  ,the ,old #hf ,testament 
books1 says ,kent1 are the harmonious   
and many-sided record of ten centuries  
of strenuous human endeavor to know and 
to do the will of ,god1 and of his full 
and gracious response to that effort4#ad
  #b4  ,formerly the beginning of the   
,old ,testament canon was traced to     
,moses4  ,he was thought not only to    
have written the books of the           
,pentateuch but to have given to them   
official sanction as canonical books4   
,to these books were gradually added the
 other sacred writings of the ,old      
,testament on the authority of the      

divinely chosen successors of ,moses1   
like ,joshua1 ,samuel1 and the prophets4
  ,the close of the canon was ascribed  
to ,ezra1 who1 according to later views1
 had to share the honor with the men of 
the ,great ,synagogue4  ,modern         
criticism assigns new dates to some of  
the ,old ,testament books2 it believes  
that the exile was a period of great    
spiritual and intellectual activity1 and
 a number of books are placed subsequent
 to ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 which in itself
 would imply a denial of the view that  
the canon was finally closed in the days
 of ,ezra4  ,the modern critical view is
 that the ,old ,testament books were    
canonized--whatever the dates of their  
writing--gradually and at a             
comparatively late period4  ,the        
canonization of the ,law is placed at   
about ,b4,c4 #djj1 that of the ,prophets
 between ,b4,c4 #bej and ,b4,c4 #ahj1   
while the third #hg division of the     
,jewish canon1 the ,writings1 is        
believed to have acquired canonical     

authority during the second and first   
centuries ,b4,c4  #c4  ,formerly the    
order of the ,old ,testament books      
determined largely the view of the      
development of ,hebrew religion4  ,just 
as in the ,new ,testament the ,gospels  
occupy first place1 the ,epistles being 
expositions of the principles laid down 
in the ,gospels1 so it was thought that 
the ,law of the ,pentateuch1 coming from
 the hands of ,moses1 served as the     
basis of the religious development of   
the ,hebrews during subsequent          
centuries4  ,the prophets were looked   
upon chiefly as expounders and          
interpreters of this ,law4  ,modern     
criticism has introduced a change of    
viewpoint4  ,it does not deny the       
pre-exilic existence of all law1 or of  
sacrifice1 or of a ceremonial1 or of    
other priestly elements1 but it believes
 that in the religious development of   
,israel1 the pre-exilic period was      
preminently the period of the prophets1 
while the religious life during the     

post-exilic period was dominated by the 
priests1 the priestly type of religion  
finding literary expression in the      
ceremonial system embodied in the       
,pentateuch4  #d4  ,according to modern 
criticism1 compilation had a prominent  
place in the production of ,old         
,testament books4  ,the composite       
character of the ,pentateuch is touched 
upon in the next paragraph1 but1 in     
addition1 it is believed that #hh there 
is sufficient evidence to establish the 
composite character of practically all  
the other historical books4 ,mc,fadyen  
accurately represents the modern        
viewpoint when he says1 ,in the light of
 all these facts the general            
possibility1 if not the practical       
certainty1 of the compositeness of the  
historical books may be conceded4#ae    
,evidences of compilation are seen also 
in several of the prophetic books4  ,the
 assignment of ,isaiah and ,zechariah to
 more than one author each furnishes    
perhaps the best known examples1 but    

other prophetic books are similarly     
divided4  #e4  ,the ,pentateuch is no   
longer assigned in its entirety to      
,moses2 it is thought1 rather1 to       
contain material selected from four     
different sources1 which the compiler   
had before him in writing4#af  ,these   
documents did not reach their final form
 until some time subsequent to ,moses1  
but all of them contained ancient       
material1 much of it going back to the  
time of ,moses1 some of it even to      
pre-,mosaic days4  ,among the contents  
of the ,pentateuch special attention is 
called to three legal codes--the ,book  
of the ,covenant1 the ,deuteronomic     
,code1 and the ,priestly                
,code--belonging to different periods in
 ,hebrew history1 and reflecting        
different stages in the religious and   
social development of the nation4  ,the 
,deuteronomic ,code1 in some form1 is   
believed to have been the basis of the  
reforms instituted by ,josiah #hi and to
 have been written most probably during 

the early part of the seventh century4  
,on these general questions respecting  
the ,pentateuch there seems to be       
general agreement among critical        
scholars2 on the other hand1 there is   
wide divergence of opinion concerning   
points of detail1 such as the           
chronological order in which the several
 documents reached their final form1    
their exact dates1 the manner and time  
of their compilation1 the detailed      
distribution of the material among the  
several sources1 etc4  ,the differences 
of opinion on these points are due to   
the fact that the data upon the basis of
 which the problems must be solved are  
not sufficiently numerous or decisive4  
#f4  ,doubt is thrown upon the          
authorship of a number of ,old          
,testament books1 or parts of books1    
which have been assigned to certain     
authors by both ,jewish and ,christian  
tradition4  ,as already stated1 the     
,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch is
 denied2 the book of ,lamentation is    

taken away from ,jeremiah2 parts of     
,isaiah and ,zechariah and the whole of 
,daniel are assigned to persons other   
than the prophets bearing these names4  
,the accuracy of the psalm titles is    
questioned2 few of the psalms1 if any1  
are assigned to ,david or his age2 and  
most of the psalms--by some scholars    
all--are placed in the post-exilic      
period4  ,a conservative scholar1 like  
,w4 ,t4 ,davison1 is not willing to say 
more than that #ij from ten to twenty   
psalms--including #c1 #d1 #g1 #h1 #ae1  
#ah1 #bc1 #bd1 #cb1 and perhaps #aja and
 #aaj--may have come down to us from    
,david's pen1 but that the number can   
hardly be greater1 and may be still     
less4#ag  ,the same uncertainty is      
believed to exist respecting the        
authorship of ,proverbs and of          
,ecclesiastes1 which is considered one  
of the latest books in the ,old         
,testament canon4  ,other books1 like   
,job1 which in the absence of external  
testimony were formerly assigned to an  

early date1 are now placed in the later 
period of ,hebrew history4  ,in addition
 to these results touching upon matters 
practically unrecognized before1 the    
higher criticism has emphasized some    
truths which1 though known1 exerted     
little1 if any1 influence upon the      
conception or study of the ,old         
,testament4  ,of these perhaps the most 
important are1 first1 that the ,old     
,testament is not so much a single book 
as a library consisting of many books of
 different dates and authorship1 though 
all these books may be held together by 
one common spirit and purpose2#ah and1  
second1 that in these books are         
represented practically all the various 
forms and kinds of literary composition 
that can be found in the literatures of 
other nations4  ,these are perhaps the  
most important conclusions reached by   
the nontraditional higher critics4      
,some may not be willing to admit that  
#ia these conclusions are well founded1 
and1 indeed1 the cautious among the     

critics very candidly state that in most
 cases scientific demonstration is      
impossible1 that probability of varying 
degrees is an important element in the  
conclusions2 but unless one has followed
 those who have reached the conclusions 
into every detail of their              
investigation1 he is hardly competent to
 pass a valid judgment4  ,and it is well
 to remember what seems to be an        
indisputable fact1 that with very few   
exceptions ,old ,testament experts      
everywhere agree essentially on these   
results1 and that an ever-increasing    
number of serious ,old ,testament       
students whose competency and sincerity 
cannot be doubted feel compelled to     
accept these conclusions1 convinced that
 the traditional views cannot be        
maintained without numerous             
modifications4 ,this fact may not       
establish the truth of these            
conclusions2 nevertheless1 it may serve 
as a sufficient reason for the          
consideration of another question3      

,should the truth of the conclusions    
enumerated be established beyond a      
possibility of doubt1 what would be the 
effect upon the ,christian conception of
 the ,old ,testament8  ,what would      
become of its inspiration or authority1 
of the supernatural in its history1 of  
the work and character of ,moses1       
,isaiah1 or ,david2 and1 perhaps most   
important of all1 what effect would this
 have upon the authority of ,jesus      
,christ himself8  #ib  ,the most        
important and vital of these questions  
may be considered first4  ,how do the   
conclusions of the nontraditional higher
 criticism affect the authority of      
,jesus ,christ8  ,this question arises  
chiefly in connection with              
investigations into the authorship of   
,old ,testament books1 especially of the
 ,pentateuch1 the ,psalms1 and ,isaiah4 
,it is asserted that since ,christ      
quotes and refers to passages from the  
books bearing the names of ,moses1      
,david1 and ,isaiah1 apparently as if   

they had been written by these men1 any 
claim that these passages were not      
written by the authors mentioned is an  
indication of unbelief1 an insult to    
,christ1 and a denial of his authority4 
,if ,moses did not write the            
,pentateuch1 says ,l4 ,w4 ,munhall1 or  
any portion of it1 and the highest      
critics 7,jesus ,christ and the ,holy   
,spirit7 declare he did1 it would be a  
lie4  ,it would be none the less a lie1 
even though the ,jews held traditionally
 that ,moses was the author of these    
books4  ,the testimony of the ,highest  
,critics is absolutely unerringly and   
eternally true1 and he who hesitates to 
receive it as against all other         
testimonies is disloyal to the truth4#ai
  ,clearly1 this statement is based upon
 the assumption that ,jesus gave        
deliberate decisions on questions of    
authorship1 which assumption cannot be  
substantiated4  ,in the first place1 it 
is well to note that in less than one   
fifth of the ,new ,testament #ic        

quotations from the ,old ,testament is a
 personal name connected with the       
quotation2 ,jesus himself1 in quoting   
from the ,pentateuch and other ,old     
,testament books1 frequently omits all  
reference to the alleged author1 which  
shows that he considered the question of
 authorship of no special significance  
in comparison with the truth taught4    
,moreover1 in some cases at least1 the  
exact form of quotation is doubtful4    
,compare1 for example1 ,matt4 #ae4 #d1  
,god said1 with ,mark #g4 #aj1 ,moses   
said2 and ,luke #bj4 #cg1 ,moses showed1
 in the place concerning the ,bush1 with
 ,mark #ab4 #bf1 ,have ye not read in   
the book of ,moses1 in the place        
concerning the ,bush how ,god spake unto
 him1 with ,matt4 #bb4 #ca1 which1      
referring to the same statement1        
introduces it by1 ,have ye not read that
 which was spoken unto you by ,god8     
,which one of the evangelists has       
preserved the actual words of ,jesus8   
,but even admitting that ,jesus used in 

these and other passages a personal     
name1 does this imply a decision        
respecting authorship8  ,in             
extra-biblical literature no one would  
raise serious objection to the use of   
the name of a man to designate a book   
without implying that the man named was 
the author of the entire book4  ,this is
 done also in the ,new ,testament4  ,in 
the sermon of ,peter1 ,samuel evidently 
is used in the sense of book of ,samuel1
 for the reference #id is not to an     
utterance of ,samuel but of ,nathan1#bj 
and it cannot imply authorship1 for some
 of the events recorded in ,first       
,samuel and those in ,second ,samuel    
occurred after ,samuel's death4  ,in the
 ,epistle to the ,hebrews1#ba a psalm is
 referred to as ,david1 which is not    
even by the title assigned to the great 
king of ,israel4#bb  ,might it not be1  
therefore1 that ,moses was used as a    
designation of a book1 without a thought
 of authorship4  ,this seems to be the  
case in #b ,cor4 #c4 #ae3 ,whensoever   

,moses is read1 a veil lieth upon their 
heart4#bc  ,all these facts suggest that
 while ,jesus frequently quotes the     
,pentateuch1 and in some cases connects 
the name of ,moses with it1 he never    
does so to prove that ,moses wrote it4  
,w4 ,t4 ,davison describes the situation
 correctly when he writes1 ,a study of  
the whole use of the ,old ,testament    
made by ,christ in his teaching shows   
that the questions of date and          
authorship with which criticism is      
chiefly concerned were not before the   
mind of our ,lord as he spoke1 nor was  
it his object to pronounce upon them4#bd
  ,but even admitting that the          
references of ,jesus imply in some cases
 a recognition of authorship1 the       
question still remains whether the few  
passages quoted carry with them the     
authorship of the entire book from which
 the quotations are made4  ,there are   
even some conservative scholars who #ie 
answer this question in the negative4   
,after enumerating some of the passages 

referred to by ,jesus as coming from    
,moses1 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,wright continues3  
,all1 however1 that can be fairly       
deduced from such statements is1 the    
,pentateuch contains portions written by
 ,moses4  ,it does not follow that the  
five books as a whole were written by   
that lawgiver4#be  ,though this         
explanation seems satisfactory to some1 
others consider it somewhat forced and  
unnatural1 and they are inclined to give
 different interpretations of the words 
of ,jesus4  ,many hold that in his      
references to ,old ,testament books     
,jesus accommodated himself to the usage
 of the ,jews without indorsing their   
views or giving expression to his own1  
even though he knew that the commonly   
held opinions as to the authorship of   
certain ,old ,testament books were      
erroneous4  ,those who advocate this    
view believe that their attitude in no  
wise dishonors the ,master4  ,indeed1   
they say1 one cannot easily see what    
other course he could have taken4       

,jesus had come to reveal the ,father1  
to bring a fallen race into harmony with
 a holy ,god4 ,surely1 the task was     
great1 and there was but little time in 
which to accomplish it4  ,if he had     
turned aside from his chief purpose to  
settle scientific and literary questions
 which were not under discussion among  
the people1 he would have aroused       
popular #if opposition and thus have    
hindered his chief work4  ,in no case do
 his references imply that he desired to
 pronounce an authoritative critical    
judgment1 and in no case does the value 
of the quotation depend upon its        
authorship4  ,looking at the matter1    
therefore1 from a pedagogical           
standpoint1 it would seem that1 in view 
of his important mission in the world1  
he was compelled to accommodate himself 
to the views of the people in all       
matters not essential to his work4      
,this view seems entirely satisfactory  
to many sincere ,christian believers4   
,there are1 however1 those who maintain 

that it would not have been legitimate  
for ,jesus thus to accommodate himself  
to the usage of the people if he had    
known that their views were not in      
accord with the facts2 nevertheless1    
they insist that his utterances do not  
settle purely literary questions4  ,they
 believe that ,jesus shared the views of
 the people1 that he actually thought   
that ,moses wrote the entire            
,pentateuch1 and ,isaiah1 the whole of  
the book bearing his name2 but that this
 was a limitation of knowledge on his   
part4  ,and they further insist that    
this attitude toward ,jesus in no wise  
affects the supreme and final authority 
of the ,christ over the lives of men4   
,the entire life of the ,master1 they   
say1 shows that he regarded his mission 
as spiritual2 he did not come to correct
 all errors1 but merely those touching  
religion and #ig ethics2 and even here  
he did not give detailed specific rules4
  ,in many cases he simply laid down    
great principles1 which in time might be

 worked out and applied to the details  
of human activity4  ,he did not abolish 
slavery1 he made no efforts to correct  
errors in science2 why should he correct
 erroneous views respecting literary and
 critical questions8  ,these were       
outside of his immediate sphere of      
interest4  ,his knowledge or ignorance  
in these secondary matters does not     
necessarily involve his knowledge or    
authority in essentials4#bf  ,again1    
while ,christ was ,god1 he was also     
truly man4  ,this union of the divine   
with the human1 if real1 must have      
brought some limitations4  ,and the ,new
 ,testament clearly teaches that in some
 respects the powers of ,christ were    
limited4  ,his omnipotence was limited1 
else he could not have felt hunger1     
weariness1 pain1 etc4 ,as strength was  
needed1 it was supplied4  ,it may have  
been there potentially1 but not         
actually4  ,might it not have been the  
same with omniscience8  ,in one case1 at
 least1 ,jesus admits that his knowledge

 was limited3 ,but of that day or hour  
knoweth no one1 not even the angels in  
heaven1 neither the ,son1 but the       
,father4#bg  ,and1 surely1 that which1  
according to this admission1 was hidden 
from ,jesus was1 as compared with a     
question of the authorship of a biblical
 book1 of infinitely greater importance4
  ,it would seem1 therefore1 #ih that   
,b4 ,p4 ,raymond is right when he says3 
,to affirm that he had knowledge of the 
critical questions which agitate        
,christian scholars to-day is to deny   
that he was made like unto his brethren4
  ,it is to compromise the reality of   
his humanity and to start on the road   
that leads to docetism4  ,fairbairn's   
conclusions are just2 ',the humanity of 
the ,saviour must be absolutely         
real4'#bh  ,there are1 then1 three      
explanations of the references of       
,christ to the authorship of ,old       
,testament books1 each one of which     
seems perfectly fair1 natural1 and1     
above all1 scriptural2 and each one     

shows that his utterances do not finally
 settle purely literary questions4      
,this conclusion1 since it is in perfect
 accord with the ,new ,testament1 can in
 no wise be construed as an insult to   
the ,christ1 nor does it affect in the  
least the authority of ,jesus in matters
 religious and ethical4 ,what is said   
here of the words of ,jesus is equally  
true1 with some slight modifications1 of
 similar ,new ,testament references     
coming1 not from ,jesus directly1 but   
from the authors of the ,new ,testament 
books4  ,from the consideration of this 
question of vital interest we may turn  
to another1 also of great importance1   
namely1 what is the effect of critical  
conclusions upon the belief in the      
inspiration of the ,old ,testament1 in  
the supernatural in its history1 and in 
its authority8 ,all these questions #ii 
center in one1 for inspiration implies  
the presence of a supernatural element1 
and the authority of the ,old ,testament
 depends upon the reality of its        

inspiration4  ,hence the real question  
is1 ,have the conclusions of the higher 
criticism disproved1 or in any serious  
way affected1 the reality of the        
inspiration of the ,old ,testament      
writers8  ,this inquiry must be answered
 with an emphatic ,no4  ,inspiration    
does not depend upon the fact that a    
certain definite individual is          
responsible for a writing4  ,a book is  
inspired because ,god is back of it and 
in it1 and not because a certain man    
wrote it4  ,nor does belief in          
inspiration depend upon the knowledge of
 the human author1 else how could       
,christians believe in the inspiration  
of the men who wrote books like the     
,epistle to the ,hebrews1 the book of   
,job1 the books of ,samuel1 and other   
biblical books whose authors are not    
named8  ,moreover1 an inspired book does
 not lose its inspiration because it is 
discovered that the human agent inspired
 is one different from the man to whom  
tradition has been accustomed to assign 

the book4 ,would the laws of the        
,pentateuch be any less divine if it    
should be proved that they were the     
product of the experience of the chosen 
people from the time of ,moses to the   
exile8  ,would the ,psalms cease to lift
 us into the presence of ,god1 if it    
should be demonstrated that most of them
 came #ajj from a period later than     
,david8  ,is the book of ,job less      
majestic and sublime because we know not
 the time or place of its birth8  ,are  
the ,proverbs less instructive because  
criticism claims that they do not all   
come from the son of ,david8#bi  ,once  
more3 inspiration is not confined to any
 form of literature2 a parable may be as
 truly inspired as history2 and the     
inspiration of a book does not vanish   
when it is assigned to one form of      
literature rather than to another4  ,the
 conclusions of the legitimate higher   
criticism in no wise tend toward a      
denial of the inspiration of the ,old   
,testament4  ,inspiration1 the special  

divine providence over ,israel1 ,god's  
interference in the history of the      
chosen people1 would stand out as       
prominently as ever if every claim of   
the higher criticism should be proved   
true4  ,most critical scholars are ready
 to indorse the words of ,professor     
,sanday3 ,my experience is that         
criticism leads straight up to the      
supernatural1 and not away from it4#cj  
,but if this be true1 how can any       
authority which rightly belongs to the  
,old ,testament be affected by          
criticism8  ,this authority belongs to  
it by virtue of its inspiration1 and the
 voice of ,god is not silenced by the   
conclusions of modern criticism4  ,but1 
some one will say1 if this is true how  
is it that criticism has been and still 
is condemned unsparingly by many men    
whose sincerity #aja and love for the   
truth cannot be called into question8   
,there are several reasons for this4    
,in the first place even some very      
intelligent men seem to misunderstand   

both the purpose and the claims of the  
higher criticism4  ,another reason is   
that there are even among the           
evangelical critics those who lack      
judgment1 and who permit themselves to  
draw inferences unwarranted by the facts
 in the case4  ,as a consequence1       
ill-informed persons have concluded that
 all the results of criticism are       
unwarranted by the facts4  ,a third     
reason is that some critics are arrogant
 and obnoxious in the presentation of   
their views1 and1 therefore1 bring the  
entire process into disrepute4  ,a      
fourth1 and perhaps the most important1 
reason is that in addition to the       
legitimate higher criticism discussed in
 the preceding pages there is an        
illegitimate criticism which very       
frequently1 though erroneously1 is      
thought to be the only kind of criticism
 practiced4  ,this criticism also       
studies the facts1 but--and this is its 
distinguishing feature--its             
investigations are colored by certain   

presuppositions1 such as the belief in a
 materialistic or deistic evolution1 in 
the presence of which there is no room  
for inspiration1 or for the             
supernatural1 or for miracles1 in the   
,christian sense of these terms4 ,this  
kind of criticism is not legitimate1    
because it is not scientific1 proceeding
 as it does on the basis of an          
unestablished1 #ajb unchristian1 and    
impossible view of the universe4  ,but  
higher critics belonging to this class  
are few in number1 and fairness and     
,christian courtesy demand that in any  
discussion of the subject clear         
distinctions should be made between this
 criticism and that process of          
investigation which is not only         
legitimate1 but indispensable4  ,it is  
also well to bear in mind that the      
conclusions of the illegitimate         
criticism will never be disproved by    
denunciation1 but1 rather1 by the       
careful and painstaking labors of those 
critics who approach their studies      

without these unwarranted assumptions4  
,one more question remains to be        
considered1 namely1 ,what becomes of the
 men from whom criticism takes away at  
least part of the writings traditionally
 connected with their names8  ,preminent
 among these are ,moses1 ,isaiah1 and   
,david4  ,moses is not1 as is sometimes 
erroneously asserted1 removed to the    
realm of myths4#ca  ,to prove this      
assertion it is only necessary to quote 
the words of one who accepts the results
 of the higher criticism as set forth   
above3 ,moses was the man who under     
divine direction 'hewed ,israel from the
 rock4'  ,subsequent prophets and       
circumstances chiseled the rough bowlder
 into symmetrical form1 but the glory of
 the creative act is rightly attributed 
to the first great ,hebrew prophet4  ,as
 a leader he not only created a nation  
but guided them through infinite #ajc   
vicissitudes to a land where they might 
have a settled abode and develop into a 
stable power2 in so doing he left upon  

his race the imprint of his own mighty  
personality4 ,as a judge he set in      
motion forces which ultimately led to   
the incorporation of the principles of  
right in objective laws4  ,as a priest  
he first gave definite form to the      
worship of ,jehovah4  ,as a prophet he  
gathered together all that was best in  
the faith of his age and race1 and1     
fusing them1 gave to his people a living
 religion4 ,under his enlightened       
guidance ,israel became truly and       
forever the people of ,jehovah4         
,through him the ,divine revealed       
himself to ,israel as their ,deliverer1 
,leader1 and ,counselor--not afar off1  
but present2 a ,god powerful and willing
 to succor his people1 and1 therefore1  
one to be trusted and loved as well as  
feared4  ,as the acorn contains the     
sturdy oak in embryo1 so the revelation 
through ,moses was the germ which       
developed into the message of ,israel to
 humanity4#cb  ,isaiah1 though losing   
some of the sublimest passages in the   

book1 is still the king among the       
prophets4  ,in the words of ,ewald1 a   
pronounced advocate of the conclusions  
of modern criticism3 ,of the other      
prophets all the more celebrated ones   
were distinguished by some special      
excellence and peculiar power1 whether  
of speech or of deed2 in ,isaiah all the
 powers and all the beauties #ajd of    
prophetic speech and deed combine to    
form a symmetrical whole2 he is         
distinguished less by any special       
excellence than by the symmetry and     
perfection of all his parts4  ,there are
 rarely combined in one individual the  
profoundest prophetic emotion and purest
 feeling1 the most unwearied1           
successful1 and consistent activity amid
 all the confusions and changes of life2
 and1 lastly1 true poetic genius and    
beauty of style1 combined with force and
 irresistible power2 yet this triad of  
powers we find realized in ,isaiah as in
 no other prophet4#cc  ,david1 indeed1  
loses some of his halo1 if many of the  

most beautiful psalms are taken from    
him1 yet he remains the man after ,god's
 own heart4  ,according to his light1 he
 served the ,jehovah whom he knew with  
marvelous fidelity and constancy4444    
,he ruled over the united ,hebrew tribes
 as ,jehovah's representative4  ,in his 
name he fought the battles against      
,israel's foes1 whom he regarded as     
,jehovah's also4444 ,from the spoils    
which he won in his wars he provided the
 means wherewith to build a fitting     
dwelling place for the ,god of his      
nation4 ,the priests found in him a     
generous patron1 and prophets like      
,nathan were among his most trusted     
counselors4  ,to do the will of ,jehovah
 as it was revealed to him was the      
dominating principle of his life4  ,more
 cannot be said of any one4#cd  #aje  ,a
 splendid summary of the bearing of     
modern evangelical criticism upon the   
,christian view of the ,old ,testament  
is given by ,canon ,driver3 ,it is not  
the case that critical conclusions are  

in conflict either with the ,christian  
creeds or with the articles of the      
,christian faith4 ,those conclusions    
affect not the fact of revelation but   
only its form4  ,they help to determine 
the stages through which it passed1 the 
different phases which it assumed1 and  
the process by which the record of it   
was built up4  ,they do not touch either
 the authority or the inspiration of the
 ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament4    
,they imply no change in respect to the 
divine attributes revealed in the ,old  
,testament1 no change in the lessons of 
human duty to be derived from it1 no    
change as to the general position 7apart
 from the interpretation of particular  
passages7 that the ,old ,testament      
points forward prophetically to ,christ4
  ,that both the religion of ,israel    
itself and the record of its history    
embodied in the ,old ,testament are the 
work of men whose hearts have been      
touched and minds illuminated1 in       
different degrees1 by the ,spirit of    

,god is manifest4#ce  ,but not only has 
criticism not taken away anything       
essential from the ,bible2 on the       
contrary1 it has resulted in some       
distinct gains4  ,the textual criticism 
has furnished the modern #ajf student   
with a much more accurate text of the   
biblical books1 while the linguistic    
criticism has established the           
interpretation of this text upon a      
firmer basis4  ,the higher criticism    
also has made invaluable contributions  
toward a more adequate understanding of 
the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,it has
 made impossible the arbitrary and1     
sometimes1 unreasonable interpretations 
of scripture which in former ages have  
proved a serious detriment to religion  
and theology4  ,it has restored to      
religious use some of the biblical books
 almost forgotten before1 and endowed   
them with flesh and blood by throwing   
bright light upon the circumstances     
connected with their origin4  ,it has   
made it possible to secure a reasonable1

 probable1 and even thrilling view of   
the history and religion of ,israel and 
of the steps by which the records of    
these grew up4  ,many of the moral1     
religious1 and historical difficulties  
which served as effective weapons to    
skeptics in all ages have disappeared1  
and the weapons have been snatched from 
the enemies of the ,bible4  ,many of the
 confusions and apparent discrepancies1 
which according to former theories      
presented insurmountable difficulties1  
have found a satisfactory explanation4  
,higher criticism1 says ,r4 ,f4 ,horton1
 so much dreaded by pious souls1 is     
furnishing a conclusive answer to the   
untiring opponents of revelation4#cf    
,everyone knows #ajg that the ,bible has
 been bitterly attacked in the past1 and
 that such attacks have not altogether  
ceased even now2 but it is sometimes    
overlooked that in the majority of cases
 these attacks are made by men who are1 
or seem to be1 lamentably ignorant of   
the attitude and results of modern      

critical study4  ,their arguments become
 absolutely powerless against the modern
 historical interpretation of the       
,bible2 and the more that interpretation
 underlies the teaching of the young1   
the more certain are those attacks to   
die a natural death4#cg  ,there are1    
indeed1 few ,old ,testament scholars who
 would not indorse the testimony of     
,professor ,a4 ,s4 ,peake1 given in a   
paper on ,permanent ,results of         
,biblical ,criticism1 read before the   
,fourth ,methodist ,ecumenical          
,conference3 ,speaking for myself1 ,i   
may truthfully say that my sense of the 
value of ,scripture1 my interest in it1 
my attachment to it1 have been almost   
indefinitely enhanced by the new        
attitude and new mode of study which    
criticism has brought to us4   ,,notes  
,,on ,,chapter ,,iii  #a ,old ,testament
 ,criticism and the ,christian ,church1 
p4 #a4  #b ,the ,integrity of           
,scripture1 p4 #a4  #c ,the ,history of 
the ,higher ,criticism of the ,new      

,testament1 p4 #he4  #d ,old ,testament 
,criticism and the ,christian ,church1  
p4 #dg4  #ajh  #e ,general ,introduction
 to the ,old ,testament3 ,the ,text1 pp4
 #afb1 #afc4  #f ,j4 ,g4 ,eichhorn1     
,einleitung in das ,alte ,testament1    
,preface to ,second ,edition4  #g ,the  
,elements of the ,higher ,criticism1 pp4
 #ab1 #ac4  #h ,christ and ,criticism1  
,preface4  #i ,j4 ,p4 ,peters1 ,the ,old
 ,testament and the ,new ,scholarship1  
p4 #hg4  #aj ,l4 ,w4 ,munhall1          
,anti-,higher ,criticism1 p4 #i4  ,for a
 discriminating study of the theological
 and philosophical bias of the more     
representative ,old ,testament critics1 
see ,bibliotheca ,sacra1 ,january1      
#aiab1 pp4 #a;ff4  #aa ,the ,bible and  
,modern ,criticism1 p4 #ai4  #ab ,the   
,problem of the ,old ,testament1 pp4 #g1
 #h4  #ac ,some of these concessions are
 enumerated in ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,fadyen1 ,old 
,testament ,criticism and the ,christian
 ,church1 pp4 #ae;ff4  ,the ,problem of 
the ,old ,testament1 by ,james ,orr1 is 

often quoted as overthrowing entirely   
the positions of modern criticism       
regarding the authorship of the         
,pentateuch4  ,if1 however1 one reads   
,orr's summary of the chief results of  
his own critical investigation 7pp4     
#cga;ff471 the question may well be     
asked1 ,why should he be considered less
 of a higher critic than1 for example1  
,wellhausen8  #ad ,the ,origin and      
,permanent ,value of the ,old           
,testament1 p4 #cj4  #ae ,old ,testament
 ,criticism and the ,christian ,church1 
p4 #adc4  #af ,even those who question  
the existence of four independent       
documents assume the activity of at     
least four different hands4  #ag ,james 
,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible1   
,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aea4  #ah ,see above1   
pp4 #cj;ff4  #ai ,the ,highest ,critics 
vs4 ,the ,higher ,critics1 pp4 #g1 #h4  
#aji  #bj ,acts #c4 #bd4  ,the passage  
in the mind of the apostle seems to be  
#b ,sam4 #g4 #aa-af4  #ba ,heb4 #d4 #g4 
#bb ,psa4 #ie4  #bc ,the origin of the  

designations ,moses  ,pentateuch1       
,samuel  books of ,samuel1 ,david  book 
of ,psalms1 must be explained1 and can  
be explained2 but as the mention of     
,samuel and ,david shows1 it cannot     
always rest upon the fact of authorship1
 whatever the popular idea may have     
been4  #bd ,james ,hastings1 ,dictionary
 of the ,bible1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aea4    
#be ,introduction to the ,old           
,testament1 p4 #gf4  #bf ,see above1 p4 
#ee4  #bg ,mark #ac4 #cb4  #bh ,m4 ,s4  
,terry1 ,moses and the ,prophets1 p4    
#aid4  #bi ,c4 ,a4 ,briggs1 ,general    
,introduction to the ,study of ,holy    
,scripture1 p4 #bf4  #cj ,quoted in ,j4 
,e4 ,mc,fadyen1 ,old ,testament         
,criticism and the ,christian ,church1  
p4 #bec4  #ca ,moses has1 indeed1 been  
removed by some investigators to the    
realm of myth1 but not upon the basis of
 conclusions reached by the legitimate  
modern criticism4  #cb ,c4 ,f4 ,kent1 ,a
 ,history of the ,hebrew ,people1 ,vol4 
,i1 pp4 #dd1 #de4  #cc ,prophets1       

,english translation1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #a4
  #cd ,c4 ,f4 ,kent1 ,a ,history of the 
,hebrew ,people1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #afg4  #ce
 ,introduction to the ,literature of the
 ,old ,testament1 pp4 viii1 ix4  #cf    
,revelation and the ,bible1 p4 #fa4  #cg
 ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,fadyen1 ,old ,testament    
,criticism and the ,christian ,church1  
p4 #acf4     #aaj  ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,the
 ,,old ,,testament ,,and ,,archeology   
,a century ago the student of the       
world's history found it exceedingly    
difficult1 if not impossible1 to paint  
for himself a clear picture of events   
antedating ,b4,c4 #djj4  ,concerning    
earlier periods1 he was1 aside from the 
,old ,testament1 practically without    
records that could claim                
contemporaneousness with the events     
recorded4  ,but1 one hundred years ago1 
men had commenced to test every         
statement1 be it historical1 or         
scientific1 or theological1 by severe   
canons of criticism1 and if it could not
 stand the test1 it was speedily        

rejected4  ,one result of this tendency 
was to reject historical statements of  
the ,bible when they could not be       
corroborated by reliable extra-biblical 
records4  ,the nineteenth century has   
wrought a marvelous change4  ,the ,old  
,testament is no longer the lone ,old   
,testament1 at the mercy of the         
scientific investigator4  ,the historian
 and the ,bible student now have at     
their command literary treasures almost 
without number1 partly contemporaneous  
with the ,old ,testament1 partly older  
by many centuries4 ,these rich treasures
 have been brought to light by the #aaa 
perseverance and painstaking toil of    
archologists1 whose discoveries have    
shed light on human history during a    
period of more than four thousand years 
before the opening of the ,christian    
era4  ,the historical movements recorded
 in the ,old ,testament1 in which the   
,hebrews had a vital interest1 were     
confined chiefly to the territory       
between the four seas of western ,asia3 

the ,mediterranean ,sea1 the ,black     
,sea1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and the        
,persian ,gulf4  ,in the ,east the      
territory might be extended to include  
,persia2 in the ,west1 to include ,asia 
,minor2 and in the ,south or ,southwest1
 to include ,egypt1 in ,north ,africa4  
,all these districts1 which may be      
designated ,bible lands1 have been more 
or less thoroughly explored1 and in most
 of them excavations have been carried  
on4  ,the countries in which the most   
valuable finds1 so far as ,bible study  
is concerned1 have been made are        
,palestine1 ,babylonia-,assyria1 ,egypt1
 ,northern ,syria1 ,phoenicia1 ,moab1   
and ,asia ,minor4  ,even before         
excavations were undertaken travelers   
had visited these different countries   
and had reported their observations1 but
 the information thus gained was more or
 less vague1 and in many cases of no    
practical scientific value4#a  ,they saw
 many strange mounds and ruins1 and     
noticed and occasionally picked up      

fragments of inscriptions and monuments2
 but no one could #aab decipher the     
inscriptions2 hence the finds were      
preserved simply as mementoes and relics
 of an unknown age1 from which nothing  
could be learned concerning the history 
and civilization of the people that once
 occupied these lands4  ,the mounds and 
heaps of ruins which contained the real 
treasures were left undisturbed until   
the nineteenth century4  ,the pioneer in
 the work of excavation in the territory
 of ,babylonia and ,assyria was         
,claudius ,james ,rich1 who1 while      
resident of the ,british ,east ,india   
,company in ,bagdad1 in #ahaa1 visited  
and studied the ruins of ,babylon1 and a
 little later made similar              
investigations in the mounds marking the
 site of the ancient city of ,nineveh4  
,in the gullies cut by centuries of rain
 he gathered numerous little clay       
tablets1 covered on every side with the 
same wedge-shaped characters as those   
seen on the fragments found by earlier  

travelers4  ,these he saved carefully1  
and in time presented them to the       
,british ,museum4  ,no systematic       
excavations were carried on until #ahdb1
 when ,p4 ,c4 ,botta was sent by the    
,french government as vice-consul to    
,mosul on the upper ,tigris4  ,he       
noticed across the river from ,mosul    
extensive artificial mounds which were  
supposed to mark the site of the city of
 ,nineveh4 ,these so aroused his        
curiosity that he began digging in the  
two most prominent mounds4  ,failing to 
make #aac any discoveries1 he           
transferred1 the following year1 at the 
suggestion of a peasant1 his activities 
to ,korsabad1 a few miles to the        
northeast1 where the digging produced1  
almost immediately1 startling results4  
,in the course of his excavations he    
laid bare a complex of buildings which  
proved to be the palace of ,sargon1 king
 of ,assyria from ,b4,c4 #gbb to ,b4,c4 
#gje1 a palace covering an area of about
 twenty-five acres4  ,the walls of the  

various buildings were all wainscotted  
with alabaster slabs1 upon which were   
representations of battles1 sieges1     
triumphal processions1 and similar      
events in the life of ancient ,assyria4 
,he also found1 in the course of the    
excavations1 scores of strange figures  
and colossi1 and numerous other remains 
of a long lost civilization4  ,botta's  
discoveries filled the whole            
archological world with enthusiasm4     
,even before ,botta reached ,mosul1 a   
young ,englishman1 ,austin ,henry       
,layard1 visited the territory of       
ancient ,assyria1 and was so impressed  
by its mounds and ruins that he resolved
 to examine them thoroughly whenever it 
might be in his power to do so4  ,this  
resolution was taken in ,april1 #ahdj1  
but more than five years elapsed before 
he began operations4  ,it would be      
interesting to follow ,layard's work as 
described by him in a most fascinating  
manner in ,nineveh and ,its ,remains1   
and other writings1 which give #aad     

complete records of the wonderful       
successes he achieved wherever he went4 
,never again did the labors entirely    
cease1 though there were periods of     
decline4  ,layard's operations were     
continued under the direction of        
,rassam1 ,taylor1 ,loftus1 and ,henry   
,c4 ,rawlinson2 the ,french operations  
were in charge of such men as ,place1   
,thomas1 ,fresnell1 and ,oppert4        
,however1 it was not until #ahgc that   
other startling discoveries were made1  
chiefly under the direction of ,george  
,smith1 who was sent by the ,daily      
,telegraph1 of ,london1 to visit the    
site of ,nineveh for the purpose of     
finding1 if possible1 fragments of the  
,babylonian account of the ,deluge1     
parts of which he had previously        
discovered on tablets that had been     
shipped to the ,british ,museum4  ,in   
#ahgg ,france sent ,ernest de ,sarzec as
 consul to ,bosra in ,lower ,babylonia4 
,his interest in archology led him to   
investigate some of the mounds in the   

neighborhood1 and he soon began work at 
one called ,telloh4  ,in the course of  
several campaigns1 which continued until
 #ahid1 he unearthed a great variety of 
material illustrative of primitive ages1
 among his treasures being palaces1     
statues1 vases1 thousands of tablets1   
and various other articles of interest4 
,the first steps toward sending out an  
,american expedition for excavation were
 taken at a meeting of the ,american    
,oriental ,society in the spring of #aae
 #ahhd4  ,in the fall of the same year a
 preliminary expedition of exploration  
was sent out1 which completed its labors
 during the winter and spring1 returning
 in ,june1 #ahhe4  ,but the means for   
excavation were not forthcoming until   
#ahhh1 when a well-equipped expedition  
was sent out under the auspices of the  
,university of ,pennsylvania4  ,four    
successive campaigns were carried on    
upon the great mounds of ,nuffar1 the   
site of ,nippur1 a center of early      
,babylonian life4  ,each expedition     

brought to light architectural and      
artistic remains and many thousands of  
tablets1 throwing light upon all sides  
of the ancient life and civilization1   
over which hitherto there had lain      
almost complete darkness4  ,in #ahii    
,germany sent its first expedition to   
,babylon and1 during successive seasons1
 extensive excavations have been carried
 on1 which have resulted in the         
discovery of many interesting finds4    
,at a later date excavations were begun 
and1 like those of ,babylon1 are still  
continued1 on the mound covering the    
site of the ancient capital city of     
,assyria1 ,asshur1 where inscriptions of
 great value have been uncovered4  ,at  
the present time the ,germans are       
perhaps the most active excavators in   
,assyria-,babylonia1 and by their       
painstaking care to record every new    
discovery they are bound to increase the
 knowledge of the early history and     
civilization of these ancient empires4#b
  #aaf  ,reference may be made also to  

the later excavations of the ,french at 
,susa1 the scene of the book of ,esther1
 where they have uncovered much valuable
 material4  ,the most important find1   
made in the winter of #aija-aijb1 is the
 monument upon which is inscribed the   
legal code of ,hammurabi1 king of       
,babylon1 generally identified with the 
,amraphel of ,gen4 #ad4 #a4  ,for a     
short time the ,university of ,chicago  
carried on excavations at ,bismiyah1 in 
southern ,babylonia1 which have brought 
to light many objects of interest1 if   
not of great historical importance4 ,the
 ,turkish government1 under whose rule  
the territory of ,babylonia and ,assyria
 now is1 stimulated by the example of   
other nations1 is taking an active      
interest in these excavations1 granting 
the privilege of excavating to an       
ever-increasing number of scholars1 and 
giving them protection while engaged in 
their work4  ,the ,sultan has erected in
 ,constantinople a magnificent museum1  
where the valuable antiquities are      

accessible to the scholarship of the    
world4  ,the credit of having first     
turned the attention of the ,west toward
 the monuments of ,egypt1 and of having 
brought them within the reach of        
science1 belongs to the military        
expedition of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1     
undertaken in the summer of #agih4c  ,in
 ,august1 #agii1 a ,french artillery    
officer1 ,boussard1 unearthed at the    
,fort ,saint ,julien1 near #aag         
,rosetta1 in the ,nile ,delta1 a stone  
of black granite1 three feet five inches
 in height1 two feet four and one half  
inches in width1 and eleven inches in   
thickness4  ,it is thought to have been 
at least twelve inches higher and to    
have had a rounded top4  ,on the upper  
portion of this block could be seen     
parts of fourteen lines of characters1  
resembling those seen everywhere on the 
obelisks and ruined temples of the land2
 adjoining these below are thirty-two   
lines of another species of script1     
while at the bottom are fifty-four      

lines1 twenty-eight of them complete1 in
 ,greek uncial letters4  ,the ,greek was
 easily read1 and told the story of the 
stone3 ,it was set up in ,b4,c4 #aie1 by
 the priests of ,egypt1 in honor of     
,ptolemy ,epiphanes1 because he had     
canceled arrearages of certain taxes due
 from the sacerdotal body4  ,the        
grateful priests ordered the memorial   
decree to be inscribed in the sacred    
characters of ,egypt1 in the vernacular1
 and in ,greek4  ,the ,greek portion    
having been read1 it was conjectured    
that the two inscriptions above the     
,greek told the same story4  ,such being
 the case1 the value of the document for
 the decipherment of the ,egyptian      
inscriptions was at once perceived1 and 
scholars immediately set to work on the 
task of deciphering the unknown script4 
,the honor of having solved the mystery 
belongs to ,franois ,champollion1 who by
 #ahbb had succeeded in fixing the value
 of a considerable #aah portion of the  
ancient ,egyptian signs1 and at the time

 of his death1 ten years later1 left    
behind in manuscript a complete         
,egyptian grammar and vocabulary4       
,through the discovery of ,champollion  
the interest in ancient ,egypt grew in  
all learned circles1 and from his day   
until now efforts at bringing to light  
the remains of the ,egyptian            
civilization have never ceased4 ,the    
,french have been especially active2 but
 other nations also have been in the    
field and have greatly added to our     
knowledge of ancient ,egypt4  ,since    
#ahhc the ,egyptian ,exploration ,fund  
has been at work in various parts of the
 ,nile valley2 private subscriptions    
have enabled the investigation of       
certain places of special interest2 and 
now every year new finds are made1 which
 constantly enrich our knowledge of the 
history1 art1 and civilization of the   
land of the ,pharaohs4  ,palestine1 says
 ,dr4 ,benzinger1 became the object of  
most general interest earlier than any  
other ,oriental country4444             

,nevertheless1 ,palestine research is   
but a child of the century just closed1 
the systematic exploration of the land1 
in all its aspects1 beginning properly  
speaking with the foundation of the     
,english ,palestine ,exploration ,fund  
in #ahfe4d  ,the reason for this delay  
is not far to seek4  ,from the time that
 ,christians first began to visit       
,palestine to a comparatively #aai      
recent date all pilgrimages were        
prompted by religious1 not by scientific
 motives4  ,the interest of the pilgrims
 was excited only by those places which 
were pointed out to them as the scenes  
of sacred events1 and the knowledge they
 brought home consisted chiefly of      
descriptions of the places held in      
special veneration4  ,in #ahda there    
appeared in three volumes a work        
entitled ,biblical ,researches1 in which
 ,professor ,edward ,robinson recorded  
the results of his travels in ,palestine
 during the year #ahch4  ,in #aheb      
,robinson made a second journey4        

,during these two trips he and his      
companions worked with ceaseless        
industry1 always accurately measuring   
the distances1 and describing the route1
 even to the smallest detail4  ,this    
painstaking care made the accounts so   
valuable that his books marked a turning
 point in the whole matter of           
,palestinian research1 and could serve  
as a foundation upon which all future   
researches might rest4  ,among other    
travelers who have made valuable        
contributions to our knowledge of       
,palestine1 the most important are      
,titus ,tobler1 ,h4 ,v4 ,guerin1 ,e4    
,renan1 and ,g4 ,a4 ,smith4  ,but the   
better the land came to be known1 the   
more fully was it realized that the     
complete systematic exploration of the  
land was beyond the power of individual 
travelers4 ,hence in #ahfe a number of  
men interested in ,palestinian research 
met in ,london #abj and organized a     
society known as the ,palestine         
,exploration ,fund4  ,its object was the

 complete1 systematic1 and scientific   
exploration of the ,holy ,land1         
especially for the purpose of           
elucidating the ,scriptures4  ,the idea 
was taken up with great enthusiasm1 and 
from the beginning until now the society
 has been actively engaged in           
illuminating ,palestine past and        
present4  ,during the early history of  
the ,fund few excavations were carried  
on1 and these were confined to the city 
of ,jerusalem2 but since #ahij several  
mounds in southern ,palestine have been 
excavated1 the most important being     
,tel-el-,hesy1 the probable site of     
ancient ,lachish1 and the site of the   
important city of ,gezer4  ,at present  
7#aiab7 the site of ancient             
,beth-,shemesh is being excavated4  ,the
 ,german ,palestine ,society was        
organized in #ahgg for a similar        
purpose4  ,when the ,english surveyors  
were prevented by the ,turkish          
government from completing the survey of
 eastern ,palestine the ,german society 

took up the work1 and its results are   
embodied in a map now in process of     
publication4  ,the principal excavations
 of the ,german society were carried on 
between #aijc and #aijg at ,tel-el      
,mutasellim1 the ancient ,megiddo1 under
 the direction of ,dr4 ,benzinger and   
,dr4 ,schumacher4  ,dr4 ,sellin carried 
on excavations at the neighboring       
,taanach for the ,austrian government   
between #aijb and #aijd4  #aba ,two     
other sites have been                   
excavated--,jericho by the ,germans and 
,samaria by ,harvard ,university1 and   
though no epoch-making finds have come  
to light in these two places1 the       
results illuminate the early history of 
,palestine4  ,phoenicia has yielded some
 of its treasures4  ,the first of       
importance1 found in #ahee in the       
,necropolis of ,sidon1 was the          
sarcophagus of ,eshmunazar1 king of     
,sidon4  ,since then various other sites
 have been examined1 and much material  
has been unearthed1 throwing light on   

the history1 religion1 art1 and         
civilization of these ancient neighbors 
of ,israel4  ,in the year #ahfh a       
,german missionary1 the ,rev4 ,f4       
,klein1 discovered at ,diban1 the site  
of an ancient royal city of ,moab1 a    
large stone1 with an inscription of     
,mesha1 a king of ,moab in the ninth    
century ,b4,c4 ,between #ahhh and #ahia 
investigations were conducted1 for the  
,royal ,museum in ,berlin1 at the mound 
of ,zenjirli1 once a city in the land   
,shamal1 near the northern limits of    
,syria1 south of the ,issus1 about forty
 miles inland4  ,the old citadel was    
uncovered1 and various sculptures1      
showing ,hittite influence1 a           
magnificent statue of ,esarhaddon1 king 
of ,assyria1 a huge statue of the god   
,hadad1 and several ,aramaic            
inscriptions of great value1 as         
illustrating early ,syrian civilization1
 were found4  ,more recently1 in #aijf  
and #aijg1 ,professor ,winckler visited 
,boghaz-koei1 in ,asia ,minor1 a center 

of #abb early ,hittite civilization1    
where he uncovered thousands of tablets 
which throw new light upon the history  
of western ,asia in ancient times4      
,thus1 generation after generation1 amid
 dangers and hardships1 a body of       
enthusiastic1 self-sacrificing men have 
toiled almost day and night in order to 
restore to life a civilization buried   
for many centuries beneath the sands of 
the desert and the ruins of ancient     
cities1 and we are only at the          
beginning4  ,what revelations the next  
fifty years may have in store6  ,the    
results of these expeditions have been  
enthusiastically welcomed by all who are
 interested in antiquity3 the students  
of history1 art1 science1 anthropology1 
early civilization1 and many others4    
,they are1 however1 of special interest 
to the ,bible student2 and it is well to
 remember that1 whatever additional     
motives may be responsible for          
excavations at the present time1 from   
the beginning until now the desire to   

find illustrations1 or confirmations of 
scriptural statements1 has played a     
prominent part4  ,to what end1 says     
,professor ,delitzsch1#e this toil and  
trouble in distant1 inhospitable and    
danger-ridden lands8  ,why all this     
expense in ransacking to their utmost   
depths the rubbish heaps of forgotten   
centuries1 where we know neither        
treasures of gold nor of silver exist8  
,why this zealous emulation on the part 
of the nations to secure the greatest   
possible #abc number of mounds for      
excavation8  ,and whence1 too1 that     
constantly increasing interest1 that    
burning enthusiasm1 born of generous    
sacrifice1 now being bestowed on both   
sides of the ,atlantic upon the         
excavations in ,babylonia and ,assyria8 
,one answer echoes to all these         
questions1 one answer which1 if not     
absolutely adequate1 is yet largely the 
reason and consummation of it all--the  
,bible4  ,our purpose is to discuss the 
bearing of recent researches in ,bible  

lands upon the ,christian view of the   
,old ,testament1 that is1 the view which
 looks upon the ,old ,testament as      
containing records of divine revelations
 granted in divers portions and in      
divers manners to the people of ,israel4
  ,concerning this bearing1 two distinct
 and opposing claims are made3 on the   
one hand1 it is said that archological  
research only confirms the familiar view
 of the ,bible as a trustworthy and     
unique record of religion and history2  
on the other hand1 it is claimed that   
archological research has shown the ,old
 ,testament to be untrustworthy as to   
history1 and as to religion1 what has   
hitherto been regarded as original with 
the ,hebrews is claimed to have been    
borrowed almost bodily from the         
surrounding nations4  ,what is the true 
situation8  ,the archological material  
which has more or less direct bearing   
upon our inquiry may be roughly arranged
 under #abd two heads3 7#a7 ,the        
,historico-,geographical2 7#b7 ,the     

,religio-,ethical4  ,the present chapter
 deals with the bearing of the          
historico-geographical material upon the
 ,old ,testament historical records1 the
 other class being reserved for the     
succeeding chapter4 ,the next step in   
the discussion will be to enumerate at  
least the more important finds having a 
more or less direct relation to the ,old
 ,testament4  ,many archological objects
 have been brought to light1 which1     
though they have but indirect bearing   
upon the ,old ,testament1 have          
wonderfully illuminated the life of the 
ancient ,east1 and thus have made more  
distinct the general historical         
background upon which the scenes        
recorded in the ,old ,testament were    
enacted4  ,but a more important source  
of information are the inscriptions     
which have been discovered by the       
thousands and tens of thousands4  ,these
 inscriptions were written on all kinds 
of material--granite1 alabaster1 wood1  
clay1 papyrus1 etc42 shaped in a variety

 of forms--tablets1 cylinders1 rolls1   
statues1 walls1 etc42 and they have been
 dug out of mounds1 tombs1 pyramids1 and
 many other places4  ,what1 then1 are   
the most important finds8  ,the first   
thing to bear in mind is that the       
inscriptions have very little to say    
about the earlier period of ,hebrew     
history4  ,says ,driver1#f ,with the    
exception of the statement on the stele 
of ,merneptah1 that ',israel is         
desolated1' the first #abe event        
connected with ,israel and its ancestors
 which the inscriptions mention or      
attest1 is ,shishak's invasion of ,judah
 in the reign of ,rehoboam2 and the     
first ,israelites whom they specify by  
name are ,omri and his son ,ahab4       
,before considering the statement on the
 stele of ,merneptah1 attention may be  
given to certain inscriptions which     
throw considerable light on conditions  
in ,palestine before the ,hebrew        
conquest1 namely1 the so-called         
,tel-el-,amarna tablets4#g  ,these      

tablets were discovered by accident in  
the winter of #ahhg-ahhh at             
,tel-el-,amarna1 the site of the ancient
 capital of ,amenophis ,,iv of ,egypt1  
about midway between ,memphis and       
,thebes4  ,on examination they proved to
 be a part of the official archives of  
,amenophis ,,iii 7#adaa-acge7 and       
,amenophis ,,iv 7#acge-aceh71 consisting
 almost entirely of letters and reports 
addressed to these two ,pharaohs by     
their officials in western ,asia1 and by
 rulers who sustained close relations to
 the ,egyptian court4  ,the royal       
letters1 about forty in number1 are     
chiefly from kings of the ,hittites1 of 
the ,mitanni1 of ,assyria1 and of       
,babylonia4  ,the rest of the           
correspondence1 about two hundred and   
fifty letters1 is of much greater       
historical interest2 it consists of     
letters from ,egyptian governors in     
various cities of ,palestine1           
,phoenicia1 and ,syria4  ,these         
inscriptions show that about ,b4,c4     

#adjj1 #abf about two hundred years     
before the ,hebrew conquest1 ,palestine 
and the neighboring countries formed an 
,egyptian province under the rule of    
,egyptian governors stationed in all    
principal towns4  ,at the time the      
,egyptians had considerable difficulty  
in maintaining their authority4  ,their 
power was threatened by the ,hittites   
and other powerful neighbors1 by the    
dissatisfied native population1 by the  
,habiri1 who seem to have been invaders 
from the desert1 and by the intrigues   
and rivalries of the ,egyptian governors
 themselves4  ,practically all the      
principal cities of the land are        
mentioned in these letters4  ,from the  
standpoint of ,old ,testament study1 six
 letters written by ,abdi-hiba1         
,governor of ,jerusalem1 are of special 
interest4  ,he1 like many of the other  
governors1 is in difficulty4  ,the      
,habiri are pressing him hard2 the      
neighboring cities of ,gezer1 ,lachish1 
and ,askelon are aiding the enemy2 he   

has been slandered before the king and  
accused of disloyalty4  ,in the letters 
he emphatically protests his innocence4 
,one of them reads3 ,to the king my     
lord1 say also thus3 ,it is ,abdi-hiba1 
thy servant2 at the feet of my lord the 
king twice seven times1 and twice seven 
times ,i fall4  ,what have ,i done      
against the king my lord8  ,they        
backbite1 they slander me before the    
king my lord1 saying3 ,abdi-hiba has    
fallen away from the king his lord4     
,behold1 as for me1 neither my father   
nor my #abg mother set me in this place2
 the arm of the mighty king caused me to
 enter into the house of my father4     
,why should ,i commit a sin against the 
king my lord8  ,perhaps the most        
surprising fact about these letters is  
that the ,palestinian governors used1 in
 the correspondence with their superiors
 in ,egypt1 not the ,egyptian or native 
,canaanite1 but the ,babylonian         
language1 which seems conclusive        
evidence that for some time previously  

,western ,asia had been under           
,babylonian influence4  ,without doubt  
this influence was primarily political1 
but naturally it would bring with it    
elements of civilization1 art1 science1 
and religion4  ,now and then words in   
the ,canaanite language occur1 either   
independently1 or for the purpose of    
explaining a ,babylonian expression in  
the more familiar dialect of the scribe4
  ,these ,canaanite words are hardly    
distinguishable from the ,hebrew of the 
,old ,testament4  ,it is evident1       
therefore1 that the pre-,israelite      
inhabitants of ,palestine were closely  
akin to the ,hebrews1 and spoke         
substantially the same language4  ,the  
inscriptions of later ,egyptian kings1  
during the thirteenth and the early part
 of the twelfth century1 throw little   
additional light on conditions in       
,palestine1 except that it becomes      
increasingly clear that ,egypt cannot   
maintain its hold on the land4          
,subsequent to ,rameses ,,iii           

7#aaih-aafg7 ,palestine was entirely    
#abh lost to ,egypt for several         
centuries1 which explains why the       
,hebrews were not disturbed by the      
empire on the ,nile in their attempts to
 establish themselves in ,palestine4    
,the first direct reference to ,israel  
in the inscriptions apparently takes us 
near the time of the exodus4            
,archaeology has nothing to say directly
 about the exodus2 but in the           
enumeration of his victories1 ,merneptah
 ,,ii1 thought to be the ,pharaoh during
 whose reign the exodus took place1 uses
 these words3 ,israel is lost1 his seed 
is not4  ,the discovery of this         
inscription in #ahif was hailed with    
great rejoicing1 for at last the name   
,israel was found in an ,egyptian       
inscription coming1 approximately at    
least1 from the time of the exodus2 but1
 unfortunately1 the reference is so     
indefinite that its exact significance  
and bearing upon the date of the exodus 
is still under discussion4  ,it is to be

 noted that1 whereas the other places or
 peoples named in the inscription have  
the determinative for country1 ,israel  
has the determinative for men2 perhaps  
an evidence that the reference is not to
 the land of ,israel1 or to ,israel     
permanently settled1 but to a tribe or  
people at the time without a settled    
abode4 ,but where was ,israel at the    
time8  ,to this a variety of answers    
have been given4  ,d4 ,r4 ,fotheringham 
suggests that the reference is to the   
destruction of the crops of ,israel in  
,goshen4  #abi ,israel1 he thinks1 had  
just left1 with the crops unharvested4  
,these ,merneptah claims to have        
destroyed4#h  ,others believe that the  
,israelites had already entered ,canaan 
when they suffered the defeat mentioned 
by ,merneptah4 ,petrie thinks that the  
,israelites defeated were in ,palestine1
 but that they had no connection with   
the tribes that had a part in the       
biblical exodus2 he believes that the   
latter were still in ,goshen at the time

 of this defeat4#i  ,still others       
believe that the ,israelites were1 at   
the time of the defeat1 in the          
wilderness south of ,palestine1 and that
 the claim of ,merneptah is simply an   
attempt to account for their            
disappearance from ,egypt4  ,and now    
comes ,eerdmans1 of ,leiden1 with the   
suggestion that the ,israelites defeated
 by ,merneptah were the ,israelites     
before they went down to ,egypt4#aj  ,it
 is seen1 therefore1 that the reference 
on the stele of ,merneptah1 while of    
much interest1 because it is the first  
mention of ,israel in an ,egyptian      
inscription1 after all throws little    
light upon the date and the events of   
the exodus4  ,the next monument of      
importance contains an account of the   
invasion of ,palestine by ,shishak1 five
 years after the death of ,solomon4  ,on
 the southern wall of the court of the  
great temple of ,amen at ,karnak the    
king has left a pictorial representation
 of his campaign4  ,a giant figure is   

represented as holding in his left hand 
the ends of ropes which #acj bind long  
rows of captives neck to neck4  ,their  
hands are tied behind them1 and the     
victor's right hand holds a rod with    
which he threatens them4  ,the names of 
the conquered cities are inscribed on   
shields that cover the lower part of the
 body of each prisoner4  ,some of the   
most familiar names in this list are    
,gaza1 ,abel1 ,adullam1 ,bethhoron1     
,aijalon1 ,gibeon1 and ,shunem4#aa      
,from about the middle of the ninth     
century on inscriptions containing      
references to kings of ,israel1 or to   
events in which the ,hebrews played     
important parts1 become more numerous4  
,to the reign of ,omri 7#hhi-hge7 and   
his immediate successors refers the     
inscription of ,mesha on the so-called  
,moabite ,stone4#ab  ,this notable      
specimen of antiquity is a stone of a   
bluish-black color1 about two feet wide1
 nearly four feet high1 and fourteen and
 one-half inches thick2 rounded at the  

top1 and1 according to the testimony of 
the discoverer1 the ,rev4 ,f4 ,klein1   
also at the bottom1 which1 however1 is  
doubtful4  ,the value of the stone lies 
not only in the fact that it preserves  
one of the most ancient styles of       
,hebrew writing1 but more especially in 
the historical1 topographical1 and      
religious information it furnishes4  ,in
 #b ,kings #c we read of the relations  
between ,moab and ,omri and his         
successors4  ,omri had subdued ,moab and
 had collected from her a yearly        
tribute4  ,ahab had enjoyed the same    
revenue1 amounting during #aca ,mesha's 
reign to the wool of a hundred thousand 
lambs and a hundred thousand rams4  ,at 
the close of ,ahab's reign ,mesha       
refused to continue the payment of the  
tribute4  ,the allied kings of ,israel1 
,judah1 and ,edom marched with their    
armies against the ,moabites1 who fled  
for refuge within the strong fortress of
 ,kir-hareseth1 where ,mesha offered up 
his own son as a burnt-offering to      

,chemosh1 his god2 whereupon there was  
great wrath against ,israel1 and they   
departed from them and returned to their
 own land4  ,the ,moabite ,stone was set
 up by ,king ,mesha to his god ,chemosh 
in commemoration of this deliverance4   
,the opening lines read3 ,i am ,mesha1  
son of ,chemosh-ken1 king of ,moab1 the 
,daibonite4  ,my father reigned over    
,moab for thirty years1 and ,i reigned  
after my father4  ,and ,i made this high
 place for ,chemosh in ,korhah1 a high  
place of salvation1 because he had saved
 me from all the assailants1 and because
 he had let me see my desire upon all   
them that hated me4  ,omri1 king of     
,israel1 afflicted ,moab for many days1 
because ,chemosh was angry with his     
land2 and his son succeeded him2 and he 
also said1 ,i will afflict ,moab4  ,in  
my days said he thus4  ,but ,i saw my   
desire upon him and his house1 and      
,israel perished with an everlasting    
destruction4  ,as a supplement to the   
,old ,testament narrative1 this account 

is very instructive4  ,the mention of   
#acb ,yahweh1 the ,god of ,israel1 is of
 interest1 as also the fact that in     
,moab1 as in ,israel1 national disaster 
was attributed to the anger of the      
national deity4  ,the idiom in which the
 inscription is written differs only    
dialectically from the ,hebrew of the   
,old ,testament4  ,small idiomatic      
differences are observable1 but1 on the 
other hand1 it shares with it several   
distinctive features1 so that1 on the   
whole1 it resembles ,hebrew far more    
closely than any other ,semitic language
 now known4  ,in point of style the     
inscription reads almost like a page    
from one of the earlier historical books
 of the ,old ,testament4  ,from the time
 of ,omri on ,israel came into frequent 
contact with ,assyria2 indeed1 the      
fortunes of ,israel were closely bound  
up with the fortunes of this great      
,eastern world-power4#ac  ,in #hhe1 at  
about the time when ,omri had finally   
succeeded in overcoming his rivals1     

,ashurnasirpal ascended the throne of   
,assyria4  ,he determined to restore the
 former glory of his nation1 which had  
become eclipsed under his incompetent   
predecessors2 and with him began a      
period of conquest which ultimately     
brought the whole eastern shore of the  
,mediterranean under ,assyrian sway4    
,in #hfj ,shalmaneser ,,iii#ad succeeded
 his father upon the throne of ,assyria1
 and in the following year he renewed   
the attack upon the ,west4  ,in #hed he 
felt prepared for a supreme effort1 and 
it is in the #acc account of this       
campaign that we read for the first time
 the name of an ,israelite king in the  
,assyrian inscription4  ,shalmaneser    
advanced with great speed and success   
until he reached ,karkar1 near the      
,orontes1 a little north of ,hamath4    
,in the account of the campaign he      
mentions1 among the allies who fought   
against him1 ,ahab of ,israel1 who1 he  
says1 furnished two thousand chariots   
and ten thousand men4  ,the campaign is 

recorded in several inscriptions1 in all
 of which ,shalmaneser claims a complete
 victory4  ,the most famous inscription 
of this king is the one on the so-called
 ,black ,obelisk1 an alabaster monolith 
found at ,nimrud in #ahdf4  ,this       
monument is inscribed on all four sides 
with an account1 in one hundred and     
ninety lines1 of the expeditions        
undertaken during thirty-one years of   
the king's reign4  ,in the text of the  
inscription reference is made to        
campaigns against the west land 7,syria 
and ,palestine7 in #hei1 #hed1 #hej1    
#hdi1 #hdf1 #hdb1 and #hci4  ,in        
addition to the inscription the monument
 contains1 on the upper portion1 five   
series of four reliefs each1 each series
 representing the tribute brought to the
 ,assyrian king by kings whom he had    
conquered or who sought his favor4  ,in 
the inscription itself1 no mention is   
made of ,israel or the king of ,israel1 
but the second tier of reliefs is of    
much interest4  ,it depicts a prince or 

deputy prostrating himself before       
,shalmaneser1 #acd and behind the       
prostrated figure are attendants bearing
 gifts of various kinds4  ,the          
superscription reads3 ,the tribute of   
,jehu1 son of ,omri1 silver1 gold1 a    
golden bowl1 a golden ladle1 golden     
goblets1 golden pitchers1 lead1 a staff 
for the hand of the king1 shafts of     
spears1 ,i received of him4  ,in #hdb   
,shalmaneser undertook an expedition    
against ,hazael of ,damascus1 and in the
 account of this expedition he says1 ,at
 that time ,i received the tribute of   
the ,tyrians and ,sidonians1 and of     
,jehu1 the son of ,omri4  ,about half a 
century after the occurrence of ,jehu's 
name in the inscription of ,shalmaneser 
,,iii ,israel is mentioned again as     
tributary to ,assyria4  ,adad-nirari    
,,iv 7#hab-ghc71 after enumerating other
 countries subjugated by him1 writes3   
,from the ,euphrates to the land of the 
,hatti1 the west country in its entire  
compass1 ,tyre1 ,sidon1 the land of     

,omri1 ,edom1 ,philistia1 as far as the 
great sea of the setting of the sun     
7,mediterranean ,sea71 ,i subjected to  
my yoke2 payment of tribute ,i imposed  
upon them4  ,adad-nirari was succeeded  
by a series of weak kings1 during whose 
reign the power of ,assyria declined1   
but in #gde the great ,tiglath-pileser  
,,iv1 mentioned in the ,old ,testament  
also under the name ,pul1 ascended the  
throne4  ,he succeeded in reorganizing  
the resources of the empire and in      
rekindling its ambitions for conquest4  
,this #ace energetic king has left      
several inscriptions of much interest to
 the student of ,old ,testament history4
  ,in one of these1 narrating an        
expedition against northern ,syria about
 ,b4,c4 #gch1 he mentions a king1       
,azriau of the land of ,yaudi4  ,it has 
been customary to identify this king    
with ,azariah 7,uzziah7 of ,judah4  ,the
 contents speak against this            
identification1 and since the           
inscriptions found in ,zenjirli have    

established the existence in northern   
,syria of a state called ,yaudi1 perhaps
 the king mentioned in                  
,tiglath-pileser's inscription was a    
ruler of this northern kingdom4 ,in the 
annals which tell of his victory over   
,azriau of ,yaudi he mentions ,menahem  
of ,samaria as one of the kings whose   
tribute he received4  ,the same         
inscription1 referring to events in #gcd
 or #gcc1 speaks of a victory over the  
,house of ,omri1 and the assassination  
of the king ,pekah1 but the inscription 
is so fragmentary that the details are  
obscure4  ,fortunately1 the same events 
are recorded in another inscription1    
which is in a better state of           
preservation1 though it also has several
 gaps4  ,after enumerating several      
cities which he captured in ,palestine1 
among them ,gaza1 he continues3 ,the    
land of the dynasty of ,omri 444 the    
whole of its inhabitants1 their         
possessions to ,assyria ,i deported4    
,pekah1 their king1 they slew1 ,hoshea  

to rule over them appointed4  ,ten      
talents of gold1 a thousand talents of  
silver1 ,i received #acf as tribute4    
,ahaz of ,judah is also mentioned in an 
inscription of ,tiglath-pileser1 as     
paying tribute1 but it is not clear to  
what year this refers4  ,tiglath-pileser
 died in #gbg1 and was succeeded by     
,shalmaneser ,v1 who in turn gave place 
in #gbb to ,sargon ,,ii4  ,shalmaneser  
is mentioned as the king who attacked   
the northern kingdom1 and the ,old      
,testament narrative leaves the         
impression that he was the king who     
finally captured the city of ,samaria4  
,the inscriptions show that it was      
,sargon who overcame the city soon after
 the beginning of his reign4  ,in one of
 his inscriptions he calls himself1 the 
brave hero 444 who overthrew the ,house 
of ,omri4  ,in another he says3 ,samaria
 ,i besieged1 ,i took4 #bg1bij of its   
inhabitants ,i carried away2 #ej        
chariots ,i gathered from them2 the rest
 of them ,i permitted to retain their   

possessions4  ,over them ,i appointed my
 governor1 and upon them ,i imposed the 
tribute of the former king4  ,the annals
 of ,sargon1 which give an account of   
the events during his reign in          
chronological order1 give the date of   
the capture of ,samaria4  ,after the    
introduction1 he continues3 ,in the     
beginning of my reign and in the first  
year of my reign1 444 ,samaria ,i       
besieged and took4444  #bg1bij          
inhabitants ,i carried away2 #ej        
chariots as my royal portion ,i         
collected there4444  ,i restored and    
made as it was before4444  ,people from 
all countries1 my captives1 ,i settled  
there4  ,my #acg official ,i appointed  
as governor over them4  ,tribute and    
taxes like the ,assyrian ,i imposed upon
 them4  ,after the destruction of the   
northern kingdom the life of the        
,hebrews became centered in ,judah and  
,jerusalem4  ,the fall of ,samaria made 
an impression on the ,south that was    
remembered for some time4 ,nevertheless1

 the states along the eastern shore of  
the ,mediterranean ,sea bore impatiently
 the ,assyrian yoke1 and in most cities 
there arose a party which1 relying on   
the promised help of ,egypt1 was eager  
to free itself from ,assyria4  ,that    
this party gained a foothold also in    
,jerusalem is seen from the prophecy in 
,isa4 #bj1 in which the prophet warns   
the people against trusting in ,egypt   
and rebelling against ,assyria4  ,in the
 same direction points an inscription of
 ,sargon describing an expedition       
against ,ashdod3 ,the people of         
,philistia1 ,judah1 ,edom1 and ,moab1   
dwelling beside the sea1 bringing       
tribute and presents to ,ashur my lord1 
were speaking treason4  ,the people and 
their evil chiefs1 to fight against me1 
to ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt1 a prince   
who could not save them1 their presents 
carried and besought his alliance4  ,in 
all probability1 ,judah did not become  
involved seriously at this time4  ,but  
the death of ,sargon in #gje seems to   

have been a signal for revolt in many   
parts of the ,assyrian empire4  ,his son
 and successor1 ,sennacherib1 gave these
 rebellions his immediate attention2    
until #gjb #ach he was kept busy in the 
,east1 but in that year he turned       
westward1 and by #gja was ready to      
attack ,judah4  ,the campaign and the   
remarkable deliverance of ,jerusalem on 
that occasion are recorded at length in 
#b ,kings #ah1 #ai1 and ,isa4 #cf1 #cg4 
,the account of the same campaign by the
 ,assyrian king is1 from the standpoint 
of ,old ,testament history1 perhaps the 
most interesting historical inscription 
left by an ,assyrian ruler4  ,it is     
found in the so-called ,taylor          
,cylinder1#ae column #b1 line #cd1 to   
column #c1 line #da4  ,the most         
interesting portion reads3     ,to the  
city of ,ekron ,i went2 the governors   
and princes1 who had committed a        
transgression1 ,i killed and   bound    
their corpses on poles around the city4 
,the inhabitants of the city1 who had   

committed sin and evil1   ,i counted as 
spoil2 to the rest of them   who had    
committed no sin and wrong1 who had   no
 guilt1 ,i spoke peace4  ,padi   their  
king1 ,i brought forth from the   city  
of ,jerusalem2 upon the throne of       
lordship over them   ,i placed him4     
,the tribute of my lordship   ,i laid   
upon him4  ,but ,hezekiah   of ,judah1  
who had not submitted to my yoke1   ,i  
besieged #df of his strong cities1      
fortresses1 and small cities   of their 
environs1 without number1 and   by the  
battering of rams and the assault of    
engines1   by the attack of foot        
soldiers1 mines1 breaches1 and axes1    
,i besieged1 ,i took them2 #bjj1aej men1
 young and old1 male       and female1  
horses1 mules1 asses1 camels1 oxen   and
 sheep without number ,i brought out    
from them1   ,i counted them as spoil4  
,hezekiah himself ,i shut up like       
a caged bird in ,jerusalem  #aci    his 
royal city2 the walls ,i fortified      
against him and whosoever came out of   

the gates of the       city1 ,i turned  
back4  ,his cities1 which ,i had        
plundered1 ,i separated from       his  
land   and gave them to ,mitinti1 king  
of ,ashdod1   to ,padi1 king of ,ekron1 
and to ,sil-,bel1   king of ,gaza1 and  
thus diminished his territory4   ,to the
 former tribute1 paid yearly1   ,i added
 the tribute and presents of my lordship
 and   laid that upon him4  ,hezekiah   
himself   was overwhelmed by the fear of
 the brightness of my lordship2   the   
,arabians and his other faithful        
warriors   whom1 as a defense for       
,jerusalem his royal city   he had      
brought in1 fell into fear4   ,with #cj 
talents of gold and #hjj talents of     
silver1 precious       stones1   gukhli 
daggassi 7871 large lapis lazuli1       
couches of ivory1 thrones of ivory1     
ivory1 usu wood1 box wood 7871 of every 
kind1 a heavy       treasure1   and his 
daughters1 his women of the palace1     
the young men and young women1 to       
,nineveh1 the city of       my lordship1

   ,i caused to be brought after me1 and
 he sent his ambassadors1   to give     
tribute and to pay homage4   ,these are1
 perhaps1 the most important historical 
inscriptions illustrating specific      
events in the history of ,israel and    
,judah4  ,there are1 however1 many more 
that make important1 though more or less
 indirect1 contributions toward a better
 understanding of ,old ,testament       
history4  ,just to mention a few3       
,tirhaka of ,egypt1 who1 temporarily at 
least1 interfered with the plans of the 
,assyrians1 #adj appears several times  
in the inscriptions2 the real           
significance of the events recorded in  
#b ,kings #bj4 #ab;ff41 and ,isa4 #ci1  
can be understood only in the light of  
the inscriptions2 an interesting        
sidelight is thrown by the inscriptions 
on the biblical account of              
,sennacherib's death4  ,in one of the   
inscriptions of ,esarhaddon1 the son and
 successor of ,sennacherib1 we are told 
that among the twenty-two kings of the  

land of the ,hittites who assisted him  
in his building enterprises was         
,manasseh1 king of ,judah4              
,ashurbanipal1 the successor of         
,esarhaddon1 includes ,manasseh in a    
similar list4  ,though this king is not 
mentioned in the ,old ,testament under  
his ,assyrian name1 it is very probable 
that he is the king referred to in ,ezra
 #d4 #aj1 where it is said that the     
great and noble ,osnappar brought       
,babylonians1 ,susanians1 ,elamites1 and
 men of other nationalities to ,samaria4
  ,the inscriptions do not throw much   
light upon the closing years of ,judah's
 history1 but we can understand the     
events in which ,judah played a part    
better because the inscriptions set into
 clearer light the general history of   
,western ,asia4  ,the advance of the    
,scythians1 the revival of ,egypt in the
 seventh century1 the fall of ,nineveh1 
the rise of the ,chaldean empire1 which 
reached its highest glory under         
,nebuchadrezzar1 the conqueror of       

,judah--all these are described in the  
inscriptions1 or1 at least1 illuminated 
by them4 #ada ,in a similar way the     
inscriptions1 though not mentioning the 
,jewish exiles in ,babylonia1 illuminate
 the biblical records in many respects4 
,fortunately1 also1 the inscriptions    
furnish a good idea of the events       
leading to the downfall of ,babylon1    
which resulted in the restoration of    
many exiles to ,judah2 and the          
restoration itself assumes a new        
significance in the light of the        
inscriptions2 for the permission to     
return granted by ,cyrus to the ,jews is
 seen to be in accord with the general  
policy of the conqueror to secure the   
good-will of the peoples deported by the
 ,babylonians by restoring them to their
 own homes4  ,the historical situation  
of the age may suggest another reason   
for the kindly treatment of the ,jews4  
,it was inevitable that sooner or later 
,cyrus1 or his successors1 should come  
into conflict with ,egypt4  ,at such    

time it would be of immense value to him
 to have near the border of ,egypt a    
nation upon whose fidelity and gratitude
 he could rely4 ,archaeology has not    
thrown any direct light on the condition
 of the ,jews in ,palestine under the   
,persian rule4  ,on the other hand1 we  
know a great deal about conditions in   
,babylonia during that period1 and      
within the past decade several important
 documents written on papyrus have been 
found in ,egypt which furnish           
indisputable evidence that the island of
 ,elephantine1 opposite ,assuan1 a short
 distance north of the first cataract   
#adb of the ,nile1 was the seat of a    
,jewish colony at least as early as the 
reign of ,cambyses1 king of ,persia     
7,b4,c4 #ebi-eba74af  ,this concludes   
the survey of the archological material 
of a historical nature4  ,it is seen    
that during the period from the division
 of the kingdom subsequent to the death 
of ,solomon to the restablishment of the
 ,jews in ,palestine after the exile the

 inscriptions furnish most interesting  
and instructive illustrations of events 
mentioned or alluded to in the ,old     
,testament4  ,as a result the history   
and also the prophecy of the ,old       
,testament have been removed from the   
isolated position in which they         
previously seemed to stand4  ,they are  
now seen to be connected by many links  
with the great movements taking place in
 the world without4  ,the question as to
 the bearing of the archological        
historical records on the historical    
records of the ,old ,testament remains  
to be considered4  ,this question was   
asked as soon as the contents of the    
inscriptions became known4  ,the answers
 have varied greatly4  ,on the one hand1
 it has been claimed that the ,old      
,testament records are confirmed in     
every detail2 on the other1 those have  
not been wanting who claimed that the   
inscriptions discredit the ,old         
,testament4  ,here1 as in other         
investigations1 the true conclusion can 

be reached only after a careful         
examination of all #adc the facts in the
 case4  ,in the study of the question   
there are several considerations and    
cautions which must not be lost sight of
 if we would reach a true estimate4     
,some of these cautions are suggested by
 the nature of the inscriptions4  ,in   
the first place1 it must be remembered  
that most of the archological material  
has come from lands outside of          
,palestine1 and that the testimony is   
that of people not friendly to the      
,hebrews4  ,we may expect1 therefore1   
that at times personal bias may have    
colored the portrayal and caused the    
,hebrews to appear in a less favorable  
light than the facts would warrant1 or  
that the events in which the ,hebrews   
took part were described in a manner to 
make them favor the interests of the    
writers4  ,again1 not every period of   
,hebrew history is illuminated by the   
inscriptions4  ,true1 the earliest      
monuments found in ,egypt and ,babylonia

 antedate the birth of ,jesus perhaps   
more than four thousand years2 but it is
 not until the time of ,ahab1 king of   
,israel1 that the important historical  
material begins4  ,the references to    
,israel preceding the time of the       
,assyrian king1 ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 c4  
,b4,c4 #hej1 are few and more or less   
obscure4  ,there is the monument of     
,shishak in the tenth century2 but some 
are inclined to believe that the list of
 the cities alleged to have been        
conquered by ,shishak was simply taken  
over by him from #add an earlier        
document1 and that1 therefore1 it is of 
little or no historical value4  ,israel 
is mentioned in the inscription of      
,merneptah1 but1 as has been seen1 the  
significance of the brief reference is  
obscure2 there is nothing concerning the
 stay in ,egypt1 nothing concerning the 
patriarchs1 and nothing concerning the  
earlier period that can in any way be   
connected with the historical records of
 the ,old ,testament4  ,furthermore1 to 

get at the true value of the evidence   
from the monuments we must distinguish  
between facts and inferences from the   
facts4  ,this distinction1 obvious as it
 seems1 has not always been maintained  
even by eminent archologists4  ,for     
example1 ,professor ,sayce1 who is in   
just repute among ,assyriologists1 made 
a few years ago the statement3 ,the     
vindication of the reality of ,menes one
 of the early kings of ,egypt means the 
vindication also of the historical      
character of the ,hebrew patriarchs4    
,surely1 common sense says that facts   
proving the historicity of an early king
 of ,egypt do not necessarily prove the 
historicity of men living many centuries
 later4 ,many similar illustrations     
might be given4  ,because bricks made   
without straw were found it has been    
claimed that every detail of the ,old   
,testament narrative concerning the stay
 of ,israel in ,egypt was corroborated  
by archology4  ,the finding of the walls
 of royal palaces in ,babylon furnished 

#ade the claim that the story of the    
handwriting on the wall was established 
beyond doubt4  ,the finding of images of
 deities has been interpreted as showing
 beyond a possibility of question the   
historicity of the narrative in ,daniel 
concerning the image erected by         
,nebuchadrezzar1 etc4  ,there can easily
 be too much blind dependence on        
authority2 an assumption of fact1 upon  
the mere dictum of some presumably      
honest and competent scholar4  ,about a 
generation ago a well-known investigator
 said1 ,assyriology has its guesses and 
it has its accurate knowledge4#ag       
,these words might be expanded to       
include the whole field of archology4   
,archaeology has its facts1 and it has  
its inferences4  ,the two must not be   
confused4  ,moreover1 the possibility of
 inscribing lies upon clay tablets must 
not be overlooked4  ,sometimes it has   
been claimed1 and that most absurdly1   
that because an inscription has been    
engraved upon imperishable stone or clay

 it has a superior value4  ,but the mere
 fact of a record being inscribed on a  
tablet of clay1 perishable or           
imperishable1 gives it no superiority   
over one written on papyrus or parchment
 or paper4  ,clay tablets were to the   
civilization of the ,euphrates valley   
what print paper is to us4  ,we all know
 that paper is patient1 else the daily  
papers would be of smaller size and many
 books would remain unwritten4 ,the same
 is true of clay tablets4  ,clay tablets
 are #adf patient4  ,it was recognized  
long ago by ,assyriologists that the    
so-called historical inscriptions are   
not all unbiased statements of objective
 facts4  ,in many cases the chief       
purpose seems to have been the          
glorification of the king2 victories are
 recorded with the greatest care1 but no
 mention is made of defeats4  ,for      
example3 in one of the earliest         
inscriptions mentioning a king of       
,israel1 ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 king of    
,assyria1 claims a great victory over   

the ,western allies in the battle of    
,karkar in #hed2 but1 strange to say1   
the victory resulted in a rather hasty  
retreat of the ,assyrian army4  ,another
 evidence of the absolute reliability of
 the historical tablets is offered by   
the inscriptions of the same king4 ,in  
connection with the battle of ,karkar1  
one inscription declares that the allies
 killed numbered #ad1jjj2 another1      
#bj1ejj2 while a third claims #be1jjj4  
,we have1 indeed1 reason to say that the
 evident uncertainty in the figures     
makes us doubt somewhat the clearness of
 the entire result4  ,the claim of a    
great victory is almost certainly       
false4#ah  ,once more3 the translation  
of the inscriptions is not in every case
 beyond question4  ,for example1 in     
lines #g-i of the ,moabite ,stone we    
read1 according to the common           
translation1 ,now ,omri annexed all the 
land of ,medeba1 and ,israel occupied it
 his days and half the days of his son1 
forty years4  ,this rendering would     

imply that the #adg period from the     
conquest under ,omri to the end of the  
first half of ,ahab's reign was forty   
years4  ,the chronology of ,kings gives 
as the total of the full reigns of the  
two kings only thirty-four years1 while 
the above translation of the inscription
 would require about sixty--a serious   
discrepancy4  ,now1 it is generally     
conceded that the chronology of the     
,bible cannot be accepted as final in   
all its details1 and that it must be    
checked by the chronology of the        
inscriptions wherever that is possible4 
,yet before we can make use of the      
monumental testimony we should be sure  
of its exact meaning4  ,in cases such as
 the one mentioned this certainty is    
absent1 and we should move very slowly4 
,another translation of the passage has 
been proposed3 ,omri conquered the whole
 land of ,medeba and held it in         
possession as long as he reigned and    
during half of my reign his son1 in all 
forty years2 but yet in my reign        

,chemosh recovered it4#ai  ,this        
translation would bring the total of the
 two reigns to about forty years1 and   
thus the chronological difficulty       
apparently offered by #b ,kings #c would
 be removed4  ,the five considerations  
to which attention has been called must 
be observed if we would understand      
rightly the bearing of the monuments on 
the ,old ,testament1 when viewed from   
the standpoint of the inscriptions4     
,attention must now be called to certain
 considerations touching #adh primarily 
the ,old ,testament that must be        
regarded in forming an estimate of the  
value of its historical records4  ,we   
must remember1 for example1 that the    
purpose of the ,old ,testament is       
essentially and predominatingly         
religious4  ,this is recognized by the  
,jews1 for they do not call any of the  
so-called historical books by that name4
  ,the five books of the ,pentateuch    
they designate as ,law1 because in these
 books practically all ,hebrew          

legislation is embodied4 ,joshua1       
,judges1 ,samuel1 ,kings1 they include  
in the list of prophetic books1 because 
they recognize the essentially prophetic
 purpose of the authors4  ,the other    
books belong to the third division of   
the ,jewish canon1 called the ,writings4
  ,concerning the books of ,kings1 which
 are the principal historical books of  
the ,old ,testament1 it has been truly  
said3 ,kings1 by virtue of its contents1
 belongs as much to the prophetical     
books as to the historical4  ,it is not 
a continuous chronicle2 it is a book of 
prophetic teaching in which sometimes   
history1 sometimes story1 is employed as
 the vehicle of teaching4  ,it enforces 
the principle that ,god is the          
controlling power and sin the disturbing
 force in the entire history of men and 
nations4#bj  ,in a similar manner the   
religious purpose predominates in the   
other ,old ,testament historical books4 
,they do not pretend to give a complete 
history even of #adi the ,hebrew people4

  ,the writers embodied only such       
historical material as was thought to   
illustrate the self-revelation of ,god  
in the history of individuals and of the
 nation1 or to bear in some marked way  
upon the coming of the kingdom of ,god4 
,a modern secular historian is          
disappointed at many omissions which    
would be unpardonable in a strictly     
historical production4  ,now1 it is     
readily seen that the religious purpose 
may be served1 and the didactic value of
 the narrative may remain1 even though  
historical inaccuracies in details      
should be discovered4  ,another fact to 
be remembered is the possible difference
 in the viewpoint of several narrators  
of one and the same event4  ,in sacred1 
as in secular history1 the viewpoint of 
the author determines to a considerable 
extent the character of the narrative4  
,for example3 the delineation of the    
events of the ,civil ,war will not be   
the same in official documents1 in a    
secular history1 in a church history1 or

 in a work containing personal memoirs4 
,still other differences might be seen  
in narratives confined to special       
incidents4  ,such differences in        
viewpoint may be noticed also among the 
writers of the ,old ,testament          
historical books4  ,broadly speaking1   
part of the historical literature of the
 ,old ,testament is due to prophetic    
activity1 part to priestly activity4    
,in writing history the prophets1 with  
their broad interest in all the #aej    
affairs of the nation1 resemble the     
modern secular historian4  ,they portray
 events more objectively than the       
priests1 hence they are more reliable4  
,the priestly writers resemble the      
modern ecclesiastical historian1 who    
judges everyone and everything according
 to their attitude toward the peculiar  
religious conceptions he represents4    
,the ,old ,testament contains also some 
personal memoirs 7in ,ezra and          
,nehemiah7 and some narratives of       
special incidents 7,ruth1 ,esther71     

while the historical books in their     
present form embody also what may have  
been official documents4  ,moreover1 in 
estimating the reliability of the ,old  
,testament historical books we must not 
overlook certain unconscious references 
and indications which show that the     
authors exercised considerable care in  
producing the books4  ,in the first     
place1 historical statements appear to  
have been preserved with considerable   
care1 at least so far as the substance  
is concerned4  ,this may be seen from   
the retention of parallel narratives of 
the same events1 without attempts at    
harmonizing minor disagreements4  ,in   
the second place1 history was written   
with some discrimination4  ,this is     
evident especially in ,kings1 where the 
several degrees in which certain of the 
kings departed from the legitimate      
religion of ,israel are carefully       
indicated4  ,a clear distinction is made
 between the relatively pious kings1 who
 simply did not #aea remove the high    

places 7#a ,kings #ae4 #ad2 #b ,kings   
#ab4 #c7 and those who1 in defiance of a
 fundamental principle 7,exod4 #bj4 #d1 
#e71 desired to represent the spiritual 
,god of ,israel in images that would    
appeal to the senses 7#a ,kings #ab4    
#bh1 #bi2 #ad4 #af1 etc471 and those    
who1 in defiance of the first           
requirement of the ,decalogue 7,exod4   
#bj4 #c71 served other gods 7#a ,kings  
#af4 #ca-cc2 #ah4 #bb1 etc474  ,once    
more3 in the ,old ,testament records we 
find evidence of the historical         
consciousness of ancient ,israel resting
 upon a very sure foundation4  ,the     
,mosaic age was regarded as the supreme 
crisis in the national history4  ,moses 
was the great hero2 yet his grandeur was
 not able to extinguish the             
consciousness of the glory of the       
pre-,mosaic period4  ,throughout the    
entire literature ,abraham and ,jacob   
and ,joseph are also connected with the 
beginnings of the ,hebrew nation and    
with the beginning of the religious     

mission of the people4  ,the memory of  
the pre-,mosaic period seems indeed to  
have been securely founded4  ,what1     
then1 are the results of this           
comparative study8  ,the ,old ,testament
 world has become a new world4  ,dark   
regions were ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,elam1   
and other countries mentioned in the    
,old ,testament before the explorers and
 excavators entered these lands4  ,now  
it is comparatively easy to trace with  
considerable accuracy the boundaries of 
empires that existed in the first #aeb  
and second millenniums ,b4,c4 ,in       
addition1 we can fix with certainty the 
sites of some ,old ,testament cities    
whose location was previously unknown   
and1 in some cases1 whose very existence
 had been doubted4  ,the topography of  
cities like ,nineveh1 ,nippur1 and      
,babylon has become quite definitely    
fixed4  ,the historical gains are even  
more remarkable4  ,whole nations have   
been resurrected4  ,what did we know a  
century ago of ,elam8  ,nothing but the 

name4  ,what of ,assyria8  ,only a few  
traditions1 sometimes untrustworthy1    
preserved by classical writers1 and the 
statements of the ,bible1 some of which 
were unintelligible because of their    
fragmentary character4  ,now these and  
other nations pass one after the other  
in review1 great and powerful in all    
their ancient glory4  ,and1 almost every
 day1 new light is thrown on these early
 centuries4  ,only a few years ago it   
was thought that ,assyrian history1 as  
distinct from that of ,babylon1 began   
about ,b4,c4 #ahjj2 now we know the     
names of many rulers who lived          
generations and centuries before that   
date4  ,the chronological gains are     
especially important4  ,it is generally 
admitted that ,hebrew chronology is not 
always reliable1 and various expedients 
have been resorted to to remove the     
difficulties4  ,it was very gratifying1 
therefore1 to discover that the         
chronological system of the ,assyrians  
was #aec more precise4  ,among the      

inscriptions are especially three       
classes of public records in which the  
occurrences are carefully dated3 7#a7   
,records of the reigns of certain kings 
in which their activities are carefully 
arranged in chronological order2 7#b7   
business tablets in which transactions  
are definitely dated2 and 7#c7 the      
so-called eponym lists4  ,according to  
,assyrian custom1 each year was named   
after a prominent official4  ,lists of  
these were carefully made and kept1 and1
 fortunately1 large fragments of them   
have been preserved4  ,two recensions of
 these eponym lists have come down4  ,in
 one only the names of the years are    
given2 in the other references to       
important events are added to the names4
  ,if1 now1 any one of these events can 
be dated1 it becomes possible to trace  
the dates designated by the names on    
either side of the one whose date is    
first determined4 ,by means of these    
lists and the other records the         
,assyrian chronology can be definitely  

fixed from about ,b4,c4 #ijj on4  ,this1
 in turn1 enables us to bring order into
 the chaos of ,hebrew chronology during 
the most important period of the        
nation's existence4  ,when we think of  
these and other gains1 not the least of 
which is the discovery of the           
contemporaneous documents1 the absence  
of which was at one time made the basis 
for the rejection of many statements    
found exclusively in the ,old #aed      
,testament1 we may gratefully receive   
this new light and rejoice in the       
advance in ,bible knowledge made        
possible through the excavations4       
,what1 now1 is the general bearing of   
these discoveries on the trustworthiness
 of the ,old ,testament8  ,in the first 
place1 it is well to remember that for  
many periods of ,hebrew history we are  
still entirely dependent on the ,old    
,testament for direct information4  ,for
 example1 ,professor ,clay's claim      
concerning the patriarchal age1 that the
 increase of knowledge gained through   

the inscriptions of this period has in  
every instance dissolved conclusions    
arrived at by those critics who maintain
 that the patriarchs are not to be      
regarded as historical1#ba is not       
justified by the facts4  ,in reality1 no
 incident in the patriarchal story is   
referred to in any of the inscriptions  
read thus far4  ,on the other hand1 the 
age of the patriarchs has been          
wonderfully illuminated4  ,formerly the 
world in which the patriarchs moved     
seemed to be almost empty2 now we see it
 filled with embassies1 armies1 busy    
cities1 and long lines of traders       
passing to and fro between one center of
 civilization and another2 but amid all 
that crowded life we peer in vain for   
any trace of the fathers of the         
,hebrews2 we listen in vain for any     
mention of their names2 this is the     
whole change archology has wrought3 it  
has given us an atmosphere and a        
background for the stories of ,genesis2 
it is #aee unable to recall or certify  

their heroes4#bb  ,all that can be said 
in this1 as in other cases1 is1 that    
archology1 by furnishing a broad        
historical background1 has established  
the possibility of the principal events 
recorded in the biblical narratives     
being correct4  ,it is silent concerning
 the events themselves1 and1 therefore1 
neither confirms nor discredits them4   
,a few cases there are1 especially in   
connection with questions of chronology1
 where archology has modified and       
corrected biblical statements4          
,according to the inscriptions of       
,tiglath-pileser1 for example1 ,menahem 
of ,israel paid tribute to the ,assyrian
 king in ,b4,c4 #gch1 and there is      
reason for believing that this tribute  
was paid near the beginning of          
,menahem's reign for the purpose of     
securing the good will of ,assyria4  ,in
 #gcd or #gcc ,pekah is said to have    
been slain and to have been succeeded by
 ,hoshea4  ,now1 according to the ,old  
,testament1 ,menahem reigned ten years2 

his son1 ,pekahiah1 two years1 and      
,pekah twenty years1 a total of         
thirty-two years4  ,even if we assume   
that the tribute was paid by ,menahem   
during his last year--which is not at   
all likely--there would remain          
twenty-two years to be provided for     
between #gch and #gcd or #gcc4          
,evidently1 the ,old ,testament figures 
are too high4 ,a similar case is found  
in connection with events that took     
place only a few years later4  ,in #b   
,kings #aef #ah4 #aj the statement is   
found that ,samaria was taken in the    
sixth year of ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah4
  ,then1 verse #ac states that in the   
fourteenth year of ,hezekiah1           
,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria1 came    
against ,jerusalem4  ,the date of the   
capture of ,samaria is definitely fixed 
by the ,assyrian inscriptions4  ,the    
city fell either in the closing days of 
,b4,c4 #gbb or the opening days of      
,b4,c4 #gba4  ,assuming that it was     
#gbb1 the fourteenth year of ,hezekiah  

would be #gad4  ,but ,sennacherib did   
not become king until #gje1 and the     
attack upon ,jerusalem was not made     
until #gja4  ,here1 again1 the biblical 
account seems to be inaccurate4  ,in    
many other cases1 however1 remarkable   
confirmations are seen4  ,there are many
 persons and events mentioned in the    
,old ,testament which are referred to   
also in the inscriptions4  ,think of the
 long list of ,babylonian and ,assyrian 
kings named in the ,old ,testament2     
,amraphel1 king of ,shinar1 at one time 
considered a mythical figure1 is shown  
to have been one of the greatest        
generals1 wisest administrators1 and    
fairest lawgivers among the early kings 
of ,babylon4  ,sargon1 whose very       
existence was once doubted1 has in      
defiance risen from the dust4  ,in these
 and numerous other cases1 especially   
from the ninth century onward--as may be
 seen from a comparison of the          
inscriptions quoted above with the      
corresponding portions of #aeg the ,old 

,testament--the archological records    
furnish striking confirmations of the   
,old ,testament narratives4  ,to sum up 
this entire inquiry3 ,it must be        
apparent to every unbiased student that 
the monuments1 when read intelligently1 
neither set aside nor discredit the ,old
 ,testament documents4  ,on the         
contrary1 they prove their substantial  
accuracy4 ,they may at times modify     
them1 especially in questions of        
chronology2 but they more frequently    
corroborate than impugn2 thus they offer
 their services not as a substitute but 
as a supplement1 by the aid of which we 
may study from without the history of   
the ,hebrew people4   ,,notes ,,on      
,,chapter ,,iv  #a ,an excellent account
 of the explorations and excavations in 
,babylonia and ,assyria1 and of the     
decipherment of the inscriptions is     
found in ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,a ,history of
 ,babylonia and ,assyria1 ,vol4 ,i1     
,chapters ,i-,,viii2 compare also ,h4   
,v4 ,hilprecht1 ,explorations in ,bible 

,lands during the ,nineteenth ,century1 
,part ,i4  #b ,preliminary reports of   
the results of the ,german excavations  
are given from time to time in the      
,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient    
,gesellschaft4  #c ,g4 ,steindorff1     
,excavations in ,egypt1 in ,h4 ,v4      
,hilprecht1 ,explorations in ,bible     
,lands1 pp4 #fbc-fij4  #d ,opening words
 of ,i4 ,benzinger1 ,researches in      
,palestine1 in ,hilprecht1              
,explorations1 pp4 #egi-fbb4  ,a very   
complete discussion of explorations and 
excavations in ,palestine may be found  
in ,f4 ,jones ,bliss1 ,development of   
,palestine ,exploration4  ,the #aeh     
progress of the excavations is reported 
in the ,quarterly ,statement of the     
,palestine ,exploration ,fund4  #e      
,opening words of the first lecture on  
,babel and ,bible4  #f ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 
,the ,book of ,genesis1 p4 xlviii4  #g  
,a4 ,t4 ,clay1 ,light on the ,old       
,testament from ,babel1 ,chapter ,,xi4  
#h ,the ,chronology of the ,old         

,testament1 p4 #ig4  #i ,egypt and      
,israel1 p4 #ce4  ,breasted also seems  
to think that the ,israelites defeated  
by ,merneptah had no direct connection  
with those who suffered in ,egypt1 ,a   
,history of ,egypt1 p4 #dff2 compare p4 
#daj4  #aj ,the ,expositor1 #aijh1 p4   
#aii4  #aa ,j4 ,c4 ,ball1 ,light from   
the ,east1 pp4 #aca1 #acb4  #ab ,w4 ,h4 
,bennett1 ,the ,moabite ,stone2         
,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible1   
art41 ,moab1 ,moabites4  #ac ,most of   
the inscriptions from this period on are
 found in ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,authority  
and ,archaeology1 ,part ,i--,hebrew     
,authority1 by ,s4 ,r4 ,driver4  ,see   
also ,t4 ,g4 ,pinches1 ,the ,old        
,testament in the ,light of the         
,historical ,records and ,legends of    
,assyria and ,babylonia2 ,a4 ,t4 ,clay1 
,light on the ,old ,testament from      
,babel2 ,a4 ,jeremias1 ,the ,old        
,testament in the ,light of the ,ancient
 ,orient2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and
 ,babylonian ,literature2 ,s4 ,r4       

,driver1 ,modern ,research as           
,illustrating the ,bible4  ,the most    
recent and most complete collection of  
cuneiform inscriptions throwing light on
 ,old ,testament religion and history is
 contained in ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1          
,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old       
,testament1 which appeared after this   
book had gone to press4  #ad ,formerly  
called ,shalmaneser ,,ii2 see           
,expository ,times1 ,february1 #aiab1 p4
 #bch4  #ae ,a translation of the entire
 inscription by ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers is found
 in ,records of the ,past1 ,new ,series1
 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #hj;ff4  ,these        
,records of the ,past contain           
translations of the more important      
ancient inscriptions4  #aei  #af ,the   
most important of these papyri is       
translated in the ,biblical ,world1     
,june1 #aijh1 pp4 #ddh;ff4  #ag ,francis
 ,brown1 ,assyriology--,its ,use and    
,abuse in ,old ,testament ,study1 p4 #c4
  #ah ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,history of      
,babylonia and ,assyria1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 

#hj4  #ai ,encyclopedia ,biblica1 ,vol4 
,i1 col4 #gib1 ,note4  #bj ,e4 ,w4      
,barnes1 ,the ,first ,book of ,kings1 p4
 xxxiii4  #ba ,a4 ,t4 ,clay1 ,light on  
the ,old ,testament from ,babel1 p4     
#adc4  #bb ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the ,book  
of ,genesis1 p4 liii1 quoted in part    
from ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,modern ,criticism 
and the ,preaching of the ,old          
,testament1 p4 #aja4     #afj  ,,chapter
 ,v  ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and      
,,comparative ,,religion  ,the present  
is an era of comparative study4  ,we no 
longer study subjects by themselves1 but
 compare them with correlated           
experiences and phenomena4  ,in the     
sphere of language study we have the    
science of comparative philology4       
,language is compared with language4    
,by means of this comparison we have    
found that there are groups of languages
 closely related to one another2 and1   
comparing these groups with one another1
 we have discovered certain universal   
laws of language4 ,comparing further the

 languages within each group1 we        
ascertain the laws common to that group4
  ,by such comparison a flood of light  
has been thrown on language4  ,we know  
,greek and ,latin and ,hebrew to-day as 
our predecessors did not know them4#a   
,the same principle of comparison is now
 applied to the study of history1 of    
literature1 of philosophy1 of ethics1   
and of religion1 including the          
literature and religion of the ,hebrews4
  ,men are laying to-day the entire     
,hebrew literature1 history1 and        
religion alongside of the literatures1  
histories1 and religions of other #afa  
nations1 testing them by the same       
methods and applying to them the same   
rules4  ,what should be the attitude of 
the ,christian toward this method of    
study8  ,when the science of comparative
 philology first asserted itself many   
good ,christians set themselves against 
it1 because one of its claims was that  
,hebrew is not the original language    
given by ,god to men4  ,comparative     

philology has won its way1 and ,bible   
students are truly grateful for the     
light it has shed upon sacred scripture4
  ,when the comparative study of the    
,scriptures was first advocated there   
were many timid souls who felt that this
 method of study was an attack upon the 
,bible1 which could only issue in such  
an overturning of belief that the       
,church would remain helpless with a    
worthless ,bible4  ,hence they set      
themselves with all their might against 
the new study as an enemy of            
,christianity4  ,is this the proper     
attitude8  ,in the first place1 it is   
well to remember that the ,bible has    
withstood all attacks for thousands of  
years4  ,its great river of truth has   
flowed serenely on1 watering the whole  
earth with its life-giving streams1 and 
refusing to be dammed up by any foe4    
,surely1 history teaches that there need
 be no fear that any new method of study
 will bring about an end of the ,bible's
 reign4  ,on the other hand1 history    

teaches the folly of resisting the      
progress of science along any line of   
investigation4 #afb ,true science will  
win its way just as surely as the       
teaching of the ,bible will win its way 
into the hearts of men4  ,hence it would
 seem the part of wisdom to encourage   
rather than to discourage the efforts of
 the comparative student of the ,old    
,testament4  ,as a matter of fact1 we   
cannot do anything else unless we would 
stultify ourselves4  ,we have said to   
the adherents of every other religion3  
,you say your sacred books are divine1  
prove it2 lay your books open before the
 jury of the world1 let the critics     
scrutinize them1 analyze them1 criticize
 them1 according to the canons of modern
 criticism by which they criticize all  
books4  ,and can we refuse to open our  
,bible before the jury of the world and 
bid it scrutinize1 analyze1 and         
criticize it according to the same      
canons which it applies to the ,veda1   
the ,koran1 and other so-called holy    

books8  ,would such an attitude be fair8
  ,if we believe that the ,bible is     
different from the sacred books of other
 nations1 that it stands on a far higher
 plane1 unique1 needing no concealment  
and no bolstering up with traditions and
 doctrines--if that is our faith1 then  
let us lay it down open before the world
 and challenge men to read it1 study it1
 and compare it with all the sacred     
literatures of the world4  ,the man who 
really believes in the inspiration of   
the ,bible ought not to be afraid of    
such a test4 ,he may rest assured #afc  
that the comparative study of biblical  
literature and biblical religion will   
prove one of the things that work       
together for good to all those who have 
a living faith in ,god4  ,an exhaustive 
discussion of the subject of this       
chapter would involve a study of all the
 great historical religions1 known      
better to-day than ever before1 and a   
comparison of them with the religion of 
the ,old ,testament4  ,this1 however1   

could not be done satisfactorily within 
the limits of a single chapter4  ,it    
seems1 therefore1 advisable to confine  
the investigation to the religious      
beliefs1 practices1 and institutions of 
the nations with whom the ,hebrews came 
into more or less close contact1 such as
 the ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 and      
,egyptians4  ,political contact1 which  
was common between these nations and the
 ,hebrews1 might furnish occasions for  
exerting influence in the realms of     
religion1 law1 and other elements of    
civilization4  ,when alien races and    
diverse faiths confronted each other it 
might not always be the cause of war1   
but it was always the occasion of       
psychical conflict4#b  ,since the       
knowledge of the religions of the       
nations named has been supplied very    
largely through archological labors1    
this inquiry is simply one phase of the 
broader question as to the bearing of   
archology upon the ,old ,testament2 more
 especially1 the bearing of the         

archological material of a religious and
 ethical nature #afd upon the uniqueness
 and permanent significance of the ,old 
,testament religion4  ,the importance of
 this study is suggested in the         
following quotation from a prominent    
,assyriologist1 ,hugo ,winckler3 ,we    
come in the end to this1 that we can    
distinguish only two views of the world 
which the human race has known in its   
historical development3 the old         
,babylonian1 and the modern empirical   
naturalistic1 which is still in process 
of development and is yet struggling    
with the old one in many departments of 
life4#c  ,to avoid misunderstanding     
respecting the extent of the ,babylonian
 influence1 he adds1 ,the view of the   
world and religion are one for the      
ancient ,oriental4#c  ,in this statement
 ,winckler robs the ,old ,testament     
religion of all originality2 he         
considers it simply a natural           
development of the ,babylonian religion4
  ,friedrich ,delitzsch1 in his lectures

 on ,babel and ,bible1#d expresses the  
same idea in a slightly modified form   
and attempts to show the predominance of
 ,babylonian thought in the ,hebrew     
conception of the origin of the world1  
the ,fall1 the ,flood1 life after death1
 angels1 demons1 the devil1 the         
,sabbath1 a large part of the           
sacrificial cult1 the directions        
concerning the priesthood1 the name and 
worship of ,jehovah1 and even in the    
monotheistic conception of ,deity4  ,how
 much truth is there in these claims8   
,or1 to put the question in another     
form1 ,if the religious #afe ideas      
expressed in the ,old ,testament have   
parallels among nations commonly called 
heathen1 and if these extra-biblical    
ideas cannot be explained as dependent  
on the ,bible1 does it follow that the  
ideas of the ,bible are appropriated    
from these nations1 and if so1 what     
becomes of the uniqueness1 the          
sacredness1 the inspiration of the ,old 
,testament8  ,in order to answer the    

question adequately it is necessary to  
consider in detail the most important   
phases of the religious ideas of the    
,hebrews on the one hand1 and of the    
nations with whom the ,hebrews came in  
contact on the other4  ,fundamental to  
all religious thinking is the conception
 of ,deity4  ,the origin of the         
,babylonian conception of ,deity1 which 
shows more striking similarities to the 
ideas of the ,old ,testament than do the
 conceptions of the other nations above 
mentioned1 belongs to a period of which 
little or nothing is known4  ,but there 
are indications that a fundamental      
aspect of the earliest religion of the  
country was animism1 that is1 the belief
 that every object was possessed and    
animated by a spirit4  ,life was the    
only force known to man which explained 
motion1 and1 conversely1 motion was the 
sign and manifestation of life4  ,the   
arrow which sped through the air1 or the
 rock which fell from the cliff1 did so 
in virtue of their possessing life1 or  

because the motive force of #aff life   
lay in some way or other behind them4   
,the stars1 which slowly moved through  
the sky1 and the sun1 which rose and set
 day by day1 were living beings4  ,it   
was life which gave them the power of   
movement as it gave the power of        
movement to man himself1 and the animals
 by whom he was surrounded4#e  ,besides 
this belief in animism1 the ,babylonian 
religion shows evidences of a belief in 
ghosts that were related to the world of
 the dead4  ,these ghosts were thought  
to exercise an evil influence upon men  
and could be cast out only by the use of
 incantations4  ,but1 while these       
elements belonged to the early religion1
 ,babylonian religion as it actually    
meets us even in the earliest           
inscriptions has reached a higher stage 
of development4  ,there appear many     
local deities2 every center of human    
habitation had its special patron deity2
 for example1 ,babylon was the city of  
,marduk2 ,nippur1 of ,enlil2 ,ur1 of    

,sin2 ,sippara1 of ,shamash2 ,cuthah1 of
 ,nergal2 ,asshur1 of ,ashur2 etc4      
,these deities are usually associated   
with natural phenomena2 foremost among  
them stand the sun and the moon2 but by 
the side of these many other natural    
objects or forces were personified and  
deified4  ,it is probable that in the   
beginning1 as the result of limited     
observation and speculation1 the number 
of gods in the ,babylonian pantheon was 
relatively small4  ,however1 in the     
course of time1 #afg they became greatly
 multiplied as the result of a wider    
observation of the phenomena of nature1 
political changes1 and theological      
speculation4  ,over against this        
tendency to multiply deities there shows
 itself1 in the course of the centuries1
 a tendency to diminish the number of   
gods1 and in the end comparatively few  
remain1 until in the late ,babylonian   
period the worship seems to have been   
confined chiefly to ,marduk1 ,nabu1     
,sin1 ,shamash1 and ,ishtar4  ,some of  

the great thinkers of ,babylonia seem to
 have gone even so far as to consider   
the various deities manifestation of the
 one god ,marduk4  ,there is in         
existence a tablet of the               
,neo-,babylonian period which states    
that ,marduk is called ,ninib as the    
possessor of power1 ,nergal as lord of  
battle1 ,bel as possessor of dominion1  
,nabu as lord of business1 ,sin as the  
illuminator of the night1 ,shamash as   
the lord of right1 ,addu as the lord of 
rain1 etc4#f  ,it is seen1 then1 that   
monotheistic tendencies are not absent  
from the ,babylonian religion4  ,but    
they never go beyond the realm of       
speculation4  ,the ,babylonians1 with   
all their wonderful gifts1 were never   
able to conceive of one god1 of one god 
alone1 of one god whose very existence  
makes logically impossible the existence
 of any other deity4  ,monotheism       
transcends the spiritual grasp of the   
,babylonian mind4#g  ,in the words of   
,delitzsch1 ,notwithstanding all this1  

however1 and despite #afh the fact that 
many liberal and enlightened minds      
openly advocated the doctrine that      
,nergal and ,nebo1 that the moon-god and
 the sun-god1 the god of thunder1       
,ramman1 and all the rest of the        
,babylonian pantheon1 were one in       
,marduk1 the god of light1 still        
polytheism1 gross polytheism1 remained  
for three thousand years the ,babylonian
 state religion--a sad and significant  
warning against the indolence of men and
 races in matters of religion1 and      
against the colossal power which may be 
acquired by a strongly organized        
priesthood based upon it4#h  ,even the  
most spiritual expressions of the       
,babylonian religion1 the so-called     
penitential psalms1 bear witness to the 
fact that the writers continued to      
worship many deities4  ,in one of the   
most spiritual of these psalms1 the     
psalmist prays3    ,that the heart anger
 of my lord be appeased1   ,a god       
unknown to me be appeased1   ,a goddess 

unknown to me be appeased1   ,a known   
and unknown god be appeased1   ,a known 
and unknown goddess be appeased1   ,that
 the heart of my god be appeased1   ,the
 heart of my goddess be appeased1   ,god
 and goddess1 known and unknown1 be     
appeased4#i  ,some of the hymns and     
prayers addressed to certain deities    
read almost as if the authors were      
monotheists4  ,but this is due simply to
 the fact that just at the time they are
 interested in the power or #afi        
splendor or favor of a specific deity4  
,again and again the fact that they     
believe in the existence of other       
deities1 and in their duty to pay homage
 to different deities1 crops out4  ,at  
no period of the religious history of   
,babylonia is there any indication of a 
clear and well-defined monotheism4  ,in 
,egypt also a tendency toward monotheism
 manifested itself1 especially during   
the reign of ,amenophis ,,iv1 soon after
 ,b4,c4 #adjj1aj that is1 during the    
period when the ,hebrews were in ,egypt4

  ,he tried to do away with the worship 
of many deities and to establish as the 
one supreme deity the orb of the sun2   
but after the death of ,amenophis1 who  
was considered a heretic1 the new cult  
disappeared without exerting any        
noticeable influence on ,egyptian       
religion4  ,there certainly is no       
evidence that either the ,babylonian or 
the ,egyptian monotheistic tendencies   
influenced in any direct way the        
development of ,israel's religion4      
,turning now to the religion of the ,old
 ,testament1 we soon discover that      
,hebrew religion1 including the         
conception of ,deity1 passed through    
various stages of development1 the      
earliest of these belonging to the      
period before ,moses4  ,the first thing 
to be noted about this period is that1  
in spite of the close relation of the   
ancient ,hebrews with ,babylon1 the     
early ,hebrew conception of ,deity does 
not seem to have been influenced in any 
marked manner by that of ,babylonia2 nor

 #agj is there any indication of        
,egyptian influence4  ,on the other     
hand1 the oldest ,hebrew conceptions    
show marked similarities with the       
religion of their nomadic neighbors1 as 
reflected1 for example1 in the oldest   
traditions of the ,arab tribes4  ,this  
does not mean that an indirect influence
 may not have been exerted by ,babylon2 
indeed1 the absence of such influence   
would be very strange in view of the    
fact that1 according to ,hebrew         
tradition1 the truth of which cannot be 
doubted1 the ancestors of the ,hebrews  
came from ,babylonia1 from the city of  
,ur1 the principal center of the worship
 of the ,babylonian moon-god1 ,sin4     
,the results of modern investigations   
into the nature of early ,hebrew        
religion may be briefly stated as       
follows3 ,like the early ,babylonian    
religion1 the religion of ,israel passed
 through a stage of animism4  ,in one   
form this is the belief in the activity 
of the spirits of recently deceased     

relatives4  ,but this becomes a religion
 only when it leads to the worship of   
the departed1 that is1 ancestor worship1
 of which there is no definite          
indication in the biblical material at  
our command4  ,but there is a form of   
animism of which there are traces in    
,israel as in ,babylonia1 namely1 the   
worship of spirits that were believed to
 be the inhabitants and possessors of   
certain objects and places1 like trees1 
stones1 springs1 which thereby assumed a
 sacred character4  ,to this form of    
#aga religion the name polydemonism1    
which means the worship of many demons1 
is ordinarily given4  ,demon1 however1  
is to be understood here1 not in the    
sense of evil spirit1 but simply a      
divine being of an inferior order4  ,as 
illustrations of this belief1 attention 
may be called to the sacred stone1      
,bethel1 which gave the locality its    
name1 ,house of ,god 7,gen4 #bh4 #ai71  
or to the sacred oracular tree at       
,shechem 7,gen4 #ab4 #f2 ,deut4 #aa4    

#cj71 or to the sacred wells at ,kadesh 
7,gen4 #ad4 #g7 and ,beersheba 7,gen4   
#ba4 #bh-cc74  ,in general1 it may be   
said that during the pre-,mosaic period 
the religion of ,israel1 whatever may   
have been true of isolated individuals1 
was not essentially different from the  
religious conceptions of the people with
 which we have become better acquainted 
through modern exploration and          
excavation4#aa  ,another and very       
different conception appears from the   
time of the exodus on4  ,the most       
striking feature of this new conception 
is that the ,israelites now worship one 
,god1 whom they consider their own      
peculiar ,deity1 while they look upon   
themselves as his own peculiar people4  
,true1 the earlier conceptions did not  
disappear entirely or immediately2 but  
for the religious leaders there was but 
one ,god who had a right to demand      
,israel's loyalty4  ,jehovah1 or        
,yahweh1 was the name of this ,god1 and 
the religious watchword was1 ,jehovah1  

the ,god of ,israel2 ,israel the people 
#agb of ,jehovah4  ,now archeology has  
shown the name ,yahweh to have been used
 as a divine name long before the time  
of the exodus2 but archology has also   
shown that the conception of the nature 
and character of ,yahweh held by the    
religious leaders of the ,hebrews from  
the time of ,moses on is peculiar to    
them4  ,says ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,there    
can1 therefore1 be no escape from the   
conclusion that the divine name         
',yahweh' is not a peculiar possession  
of the ,hebrews4#ab  ,then he continues3
 ,at first sight this may seem like a   
startling robbery of ,israel1 this      
taking away from her the divine name    
',yahweh' as an exclusive possession1   
but it is not so4  ,yahweh himself is   
not taken away3 he remains the priceless
 possession1 the chief glory of ,israel4
  ,it is only the name that is shown to 
be widespread4  ,and the name matters   
little4  ,the great question is1 ,what  
does this name convey8  ,what is its    

theological content8  ,the name came to 
,israel from the outside2 but into that 
vessel a long line of prophets from     
,moses onward poured such a flood of    
attributes as never a priest in all     
western ,asia from ,babylonia to the sea
 ever dreamed of in his highest moments 
of spiritual insight4  ,in this name and
 through ,israel's history ,god chose to
 reveal himself to ,israel1 and by      
,israel to the world4  ,therein lies the
 supreme and lonesome superiority of    
,israel over ,babylonia4#ac  #agc       
,archaeology has revealed the pantheon  
of ,babylonia and ,assyria2 the         
inscriptions have also set in a clear   
light the nature and character of the   
gods as conceived by their worshipers4  
,for example1 the gods are looked upon  
as a part of the process of creation1 as
 may be seen from the opening lines of  
the story of ,creation3#ad    ,when no  
one of the gods had been called into    
being1   ,and none bore a name1 and no  
destinies were fixed4   ,then were      

created the gods in the midst of heaven4
  ,an idea of the character of these    
deities may be gathered from the        
description of a heavenly banquet scene 
in the same poem3    ,they made ready   
the feast1 at the banquet they sat1     
,they ate bread1 they mingled the wine4 
,the sweet drink made them drunken 444  
,by drinking they were drunken1 their   
bodies were filled4   ,they shouted     
aloud1 their heart was exalted1   ,then 
for ,marduk1 their avenger1 did they    
decree destiny4  ,certainly1 not all the
 religious thinkers of ,babylonia held  
these low conceptions4  ,in some of     
their prayers and hymns they rise to    
lofty spiritual and ethical conceptions 
which compare quite favorably with      
expressions found in the ,old           
,testament4  ,in a hymn addressed to    
,shamash1 the sun-god1 are found these  
lines3    ,who plans evil--his horn thou
 dost destroy1   ,whoever in fixing     
boundaries annuls rights4   ,the unjust 
judge thou restrainest with force4  #agd

    ,whoever accepts a bribe1 who does  
not judge justly--on him       thou     
imposest sin4   ,but he who does not    
accept a bribe1 who has a care for the  
oppressed1   ,to him ,shamash is        
gracious1 his life he prolongs4   ,the  
judge who renders a just decision       
,shall end in a palace1 the place of    
princes shall be his dwelling4       99 
99      99      99      99   ,the seed  
of those who act unjustly shall not     
flourish4   ,what their mouth declares  
in thy presence   ,thou shalt burn it   
up1 what they purpose wilt thou annul4  
,thou knowest their transgressions2 the 
declaration of the       wicked thou    
dost cast aside4   ,every one wherever  
he may be is in thy care4   ,thou       
directest their judgments1 the          
imprisoned dost thou       liberate4    
,thou hearest1 ,o ,shamash1 petition1   
prayer1 and appeal1   ,humility1        
prostration1 petitioning1 and reverence4
   ,with loud voice the unfortunate one 
cries to thee4   ,the weak1 the         

exhausted1 the oppressed1 the lowly1    
,mother1 wife1 maid appeal to thee1     
,he who is removed from his family1 he  
that dwelleth far from       his        
city4#ae  ,far be it from the writer to 
rob the religion of ,babylonia of any of
 its glory4  ,nevertheless1 he ventures 
to assert without any fear of           
contradiction that we may search the    
pantheon of ,babylon1 from one end to   
the other1 and we shall not find one god
 who in nature and character can compare
 with the ,jehovah of ,israel as        
proclaimed by the great prophets and    
glorified by the sweet singers of the   
nation1 a ,god merciful and gracious1   
slow to anger1 and abundant in          
loving-kindness and truth4  ,we may well
 speak of a great gulf1 #age which is   
fixed between primitive ,semitic        
conceptions of ,god and the noble       
spiritual views of him set forth under  
divine illumination by ,isaiah4#af  ,it 
is due to this fundamental difference in
 the conception of the nature and       

character of ,deity that the religion of
 ,israel became a living and ethical    
power1 growing and increasing until     
,jesus1 greatest of the prophets1       
completed the message of his            
predecessors1 and ,christianity was     
born4  ,from the conception of ,deity we
 may pass to a brief consideration of   
religious institutions and beliefs4     
,one of the most important results of   
recent archological discoveries has been
 to show that many of the religious     
rites1 customs1 and institutions of     
,babylonia and ,assyria1 as also of     
,egypt1 resemble closely those assigned 
in the ,old ,testament to the ,hebrews4 
,this cannot appear strange when we     
remember that ,israel was a branch of   
the great ,semitic race1 which was1 at  
the time of its separation from the     
common stock1 in possession of many of  
the common ,semitic notions and         
practices4  ,it would have been         
impossible to rid the ,israelite        
consciousness of all of these2 therefore

 the religious leaders of the ,hebrews  
took the better way of retaining the    
familiar forms and pouring into them a  
new1 higher1 and more spiritual         
significance4  ,one of the earliest     
religious institutions recognized in the
 ,old ,testament is the ,sabbath4  ,the 
#agf very fact that it is mentioned in  
the story of creation shows that1       
whatever the reason for its observance  
among the ,hebrews1 it was recognized as
 a very ancient institution4  ,has      
archology thrown any light on the origin
 of the ,sabbath day8#ag  ,in his first 
lecture on ,babel and ,bible1 ,delitzsch
 answers the question in these words3   
,there can therefore be scarcely the    
shadow of a doubt that in the last      
resort we are indebted to this ancient  
nation on the banks of the ,euphrates   
and the ,tigris for the plenitude of    
blessings that flows from our day of    
,sabbath1 or ,sunday1 rest4#ah  ,this   
statement was soon criticized1 because  
it seemed to give too much credit to the

 ,babylonians1 and ,delitzsch later     
modified the statement and claimed1     
simply1 that the ,hebrew ,sabbath       
ultimately is rooted in a ,babylonian   
institution4#ai  ,no exception can be   
taken to this putting of the claim4     
,what are the facts in the case8  7#a7  
,the ,babylonians observed in a peculiar
 way the seventh1 fourteenth1           
twenty-first1 and twenty-eighth days of 
the month1 that is1 the days on which   
the moon entered a new phase4  ,they    
also observed the nineteenth day of the 
month1 which was the forty-ninth day    
from the beginning of the preceding     
month4  ,these days were considered     
unlucky days1 on which certain actions  
had to be avoided1 at least by important
 personages1 like the king1 #agg priest1
 and physician4  ,the prohibition reads3
 ,the shepherd 7king7 of the great      
nations shall not eat roasted nor smoked
 meat1 not change his garment1 not put  
on white raiment1 not offer sacrifice2  
the king shall not mount his chariot1 as

 ruler not pronounce judgment2 the      
priest shall not give oracles in the    
secret place2 the physician shall not   
lay his hand on the sick1 the day being 
inauspicious for any affair whatever4   
,the ,babylonians evidently observed    
these days by at least partial cessation
 of work1 because nothing would prosper 
anyway on those days4  ,in contrast1 it 
may be well to notice that in the       
,sabbath observance among the early     
,hebrews the humanitarian element played
 a prominent part4  7#b7 ,the name      
,sha-bat-tu has been found in the       
inscriptions as an interpretation of the
 phrase1 um nuh libbi1 which means1 a   
day for appeasing the heart 7of the     
deity74  ,it would seem1 therefore1 that
 the ,babylonian ,sabbath was intended  
to be a day of atonement or             
supplication1 which might imply         
cessation of ordinary labor1 especially 
since the word ,sha-bat-tu may be       
identical in meaning with gamaru1 to    
complete or finish1 which leads         

naturally to the idea of rest1 because  
the work is completed4  7#c7 ,there is  
no definite evidence that the five days 
mentioned were called ,sha-bat-tu2 the  
name is given rather to the fifteenth   
day of the month1 which is the day of   
the full moon4  #agh  ,in the light of  
these facts it is not improbable that   
there is some connection between the    
,hebrew ,sabbath and certain special    
days among the ,babylonians2 but1 as in 
other cases1 the ,hebrews have given to 
the adopted institution a new           
significance4  ,some of the changes     
introduced by the ,hebrews are3 7a7 ,the
 ,hebrews observed every seventh day    
without regard for the month or the     
year4  ,the ,babylonians observed the   
seventh1 fourteenth1 twenty-first1 and  
twenty-eighth days of each month1 7b7   
,the motive underlying the observance   
among the two people differs4  ,the     
earliest ,hebrew legislation 7,exod4    
#bc4 #ab7 would seem to indicate that   
humanitarian considerations are         

responsible for ,sabbath observance1 not
 religious superstition1 7c7 ,the       
,sabbath law of the ,hebrews was binding
 on all4  ,according to our present     
knowledge1 among the ,babylonians only  
the leaders appear to have been         
affected4  ,the ,babylonians1           
,egyptians1 and other ancient peoples   
had in addition to the ,sabbath numerous
 other festivals1 and it is not         
improbable that some of the ,hebrew     
festivals are connected with these1     
though the exact relation is not yet    
determined4  ,archaeology has thrown    
much light on the complicated ceremonial
 system of the ,old ,testament1 though  
it is an exaggeration to say that1 if we
 want to trace the origin of the late   
,jewish ceremonial of the ,priest ,code1
 we must look for #agi it in the        
cuneiform ritual texts of the           
,babylonians4#bj  ,attention may be     
called here to a few of the more marked 
similarities between the ,hebrew and    
,babylonian systems4#ba  7#a7 ,the      

,babylonian temple closely resembled the
 temple of ,solomon4  ,both had two     
courts1 chambers for the priests1 the   
sanctuary1 and the ,holy of holies4     
,externally1 both were mere rectangular 
boxes1 without much architectural beauty
 or variety of design4  ,it was only in 
the possession of a tower that the      
,babylonian temple differed from the    
,hebrew1 a difference due to a          
difference in the conception of ,deity4 
,the temples agreed even in the details 
of their furniture3 the two altars of   
the ,babylonian sanctuary are found     
again in the temple of ,jerusalem2 so   
also the mercy seat and the table of    
showbread4  ,the bronze sea of ,solomon 
was modeled after a ,babylonian         
original4  ,the twin pillars1 which     
,solomon erected in the porch of the    
temple1 have their counterparts in      
,babylonian sanctuaries4  ,even the     
sacred ark seems to have had a          
,babylonian origin1 though some would   
trace it to ,egypt4  7#b7 ,every great  

sanctuary had its chief priest4  ,under 
him was a large number of subordinate   
priests and temple ministers1 such as   
sacrificers1 pourers of libations1      
anointers with oil1 bakers1 chanters1   
wailers1 etc4  ,connected with the      
sanctuaries were also the prophets1     
augurs1 soothsayers1 necromancers1 etc4 
#ahj ,though not all these classes of   
religious workers are found in          
connection with the ,jewish sanctuaries1
 the chief priest and his subordinates  
are found there as well as in ,babylon4 
7#c7 ,similarities in the details of the
 sacrificial system may be noted4       
,libations were poured out before the   
deities1 consisting originally1         
probably1 of pure water1 to which was   
subsequently added wine1 made either    
from the palm or the vine4  ,all the    
first-fruits of the cultivated land were
 offered to the god2 milk and butter and
 oil1 dates and vegetables were given in
 abundance4  ,so too were spices and    
incense1 brought from the southern coast

 of ,arabia1 the corn that was grown in 
the fields1 garlic and other herbs from 
the garden1 and honey from the hive4    
,annual sacrifices were not forgotten4  
,oxen and calves1 sheep and lambs1 goats
 and kids1 fish and certain kinds of    
birds1 were slain upon the altar4       
,there are traces of human sacrifice1   
but1 as among the ,hebrews1 the practice
 disappeared at an early date4          
,babylonia1 says ,sayce1 was the        
inventor of the tithe1#bb which was paid
 by all classes1 even the king4  ,one of
 the last acts recorded of the crown    
prince1 ,belshazzar1 is the payment of a
 tithe1 forty-seven shekels in amount1  
due from his sister to the temple of the
 sun-god at ,sippara4  ,the daily       
sacrifice was a fixed custom4 ,several  
of the technical terms of the ,old      
,testament are #aha found also in       
,assyrian4  ,for example3 torah1 law1   
has its counterpart in the ,assyrian    
tertu2 the biblical kipper1 atonement1  
is the ,assyrian kuppuru2 korban1 gift  

or offering1 is the ,assyrian kurbannu4 
,the names for animal sacrifice1 zibu1  
for meal offering1 manitu1 and for      
freewill offering1 nidbu1 all are found 
in their ,hebrew forms in the ,old      
,testament4  ,as in the ,hebrew         
legislation1 a distinction is made      
between the offerings of the rich and   
the poor1 and the sacrificial animal was
 to be without blemish4  ,the           
,babylonian priest retained certain     
parts for himself1 which was also the   
custom among the ,hebrews 7,deut4 #ah4  
#c71 though the parts retained are not  
the same in the two cases4  ,a ritual   
tablet shows that ,babylonians sprinkled
 the blood of the lamb that was killed  
at the gate of the palace on the        
lintels1 on the figures flanking the    
entrances1 and on the doorposts to the  
right and the left1 which has its       
parallel in the ,hebrew passover        
ceremony4  ,these illustrations1 which  
by no means exhaust the list1 reveal    
close similarities between the ,hebrew  

ceremonial and that of the inhabitants  
of the ,euphrates-,tigris valley1 and   
the more we know of the ,babylonian     
ritual1 the more extensive and striking 
these resemblances become4 ,they both   
start from the same principles and agree
 in many of their details4  ,between    
them1 however1 lies that deep gulf which
 separates the religion of #ahb ,israel 
from that of ,babylonia as a whole4     
,the one is monotheistic1 the other     
polytheistic4  ,upon the basis of this  
fundamental difference the religious    
leaders of ,israel gave to the similar  
forms adopted from other nations a new  
and deeper meaning and significance4    
,like the ,hebrew religion1 the religion
 of ,babylonia has its guardian         
angels4#bc  ,the ,babylonian rulers     
stood in need of hosts of messengers to 
bear their behests into all quarters of 
their dominions4  ,in a similar manner1 
it was thought1 the gods needed their   
heavenly hosts to carry out their       
commissions4  ,these angels are         

represented under various forms1 but all
 of them are equipped with wings1 so as 
to be able to carry upon the winds of   
heaven the commands of the gods to the  
children of men4  ,sometimes they are   
represented with eagles' heads1 perhaps 
to indicate that they possess the       
keenness of vision and the rapidity of  
flight of an eagle2 sometimes they have 
human countenances to denote their human
 intelligence4  ,frequently they appear 
as hybrid figures1 with the body of a   
lion or bull1 the wings of an eagle1 and
 the head of a man1 symbolizing         
strength1 swiftness1 and intelligence4  
,the duties of these angels are         
manifold4  ,those placed at the         
entrances of palaces or temples are to  
guard those entrances4  ,the peculiar   
relations of angels to men are          
suggested1 for example1 by #ahc a letter
 of a ,babylonian officer to the queen  
mother4  ,he writes3 ,mother of the     
king1 my lady1 be comforted4  ,bel's and
 ,nabu's angel of mercy attends on the  

king of the land1 my lord4  ,a letter   
addressed to ,esarhaddon contains these 
words3 ,may the great gods send a       
guardian of salvation and life to stand 
by the king my lord4  ,and              
,nabopolassar1 the founder of the       
,chaldean empire1 and father of         
,nebuchadrezzar1 writes3 ,to lordship   
over land and people1 ,marduk called me4
  ,he sent a cherub of mercy to attend  
on me1 and everything ,i undertook he   
aided4  ,alongside of these guardian    
angels there appear evil spirits and    
demons4  ,these demons were everywhere3 
they lurked in every corner1 watching   
for their prey4  ,the city streets knew 
their malevolent presence1 the rivers1  
the seas1 the tops of the mountains4    
,they appeared sometimes as serpents    
gliding noiselessly upon their victims2 
as birds1 horrid of mien1 flying        
resistlessly to destroy or afflict2 as  
beings in human form1 grotesque1        
malformed1 awe-inspiring through their  
hideousness4  ,to these demons all sorts

 of misfortunes were ascribed3          
toothache1 headache1 broken bones1      
raging fever1 outbursts of anger1 of    
jealousy4  ,did a man lie wasting of    
disease and torn of pain1 a demon was   
thought to be within him1 the disease   
being but a manifestation of his        
malevolence4  ,there could be no return 
of the precious boon of #ahd good health
 until the demon was exorcised1 and it  
was to the exorcising of demons that so 
large1 so disproportionate a part of the
 religious literature of ,babylon and   
,nineveh was devoted4#bd ,sometimes     
demons are referred to in a manner which
 shows that the conception in ,job #a4  
#f;ff41 ,zech4 #c4 #a;ff41 of the       
,adversary1 or the ,satan1 is closely   
related to the ,babylonian conception of
 a demon as accuser1 persecutor1 or     
oppressor4  ,the vision of the ,old     
,testament is largely confined to this  
world4 ,there is little hope for a man  
after he passes away from this earth4   
,indeed1 there are some passages which  

would seem to imply the thought that    
with death existence came entirely to an
 end4  ,compare1 for example1 ,psa4     
#ci4ac3    ,oh1 spare me1 that ,i may   
recover strength   ,before ,i go hence1 
and be no more2  or ,job #ad4 #g-ab3    
,for there is hope of a tree1   ,if it  
be cut down1 that it will sprout again1 
,and that the tender branch thereof will
 not cease4   ,though the root thereof  
wax old in the earth1   ,and the stock  
thereof die in the ground2   ,yet       
through the scent of water it will bud1 
,and put forth boughs like a plant4     
,but man dieth1 and is laid low2   ,yea1
 man giveth up the ghost1 and where is  
he8   ,as the waters fail from the sea1 
,and the river wasteth and drieth up2   
,so man lieth down and riseth not3      
,till the heavens be no more1 they shall
 not awake1   ,nor be roused out of     
their sleep4  #ahe ,these are           
expressions of deepest despondency and  
despair over a life soon ended1 never to
 be lived again here upon earth4        

,however1 by far the greatest number of 
,old ,testament passages dealing with   
the subject express a belief in a       
continuous existence after death in     
,sheol4  ,sheol is the place of departed
 personalities2 the generations of one's
 forefathers are there3 he who dies is  
gathered unto his fathers2 the tribal   
divisions of one's race are there3 the  
dead is gathered unto his people2 and if
 his descendants have died before him1  
they are there1 and he goes down to     
them1 as ,jacob to his son 7,gen4 #cg4  
#ce3 ,for ,i will go down to ,sheol to  
my son mourning71 and ,david to his     
child 7#b ,sam4 #ab4 #bc3 ,i shall go to
 him1 and he shall not return to me74   
,there are only a few passages which go 
beyond this1 expressing a hope of       
immortality or a resurrection4  ,there  
is1 for example1 the hope expressed in  
,psa4 #af4 #h-aa3    ,i have set        
,jehovah always before me3   ,because he
 is at my right hand1 ,i shall not be   
moved4   ,therefore my heart is glad1   

and my glory rejoiceth3   ,my flesh also
 shall dwell in safety4   ,for thou will
 not leave my soul to ,sheol2   ,neither
 wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see   
corruption4   ,thou wilt show me the    
path of life3   ,in thy presence is     
fullness of joy2   ,in thy right hand   
there are pleasures for evermore4  ,the 
hope expressed here is not a hope of a  
resurrection1 but1 rather1 a hope that  
the psalmist will #ahf be delivered from
 death and live in fellowship with ,god 
forevermore4  ,there are other passages 
which recognize the impossibility of    
escaping death1 but express a hope that 
there will be a resurrection from death4
  ,the most definite ,old ,testament    
teaching of a resurrection is in ,dan4  
#ab4 #b1 ,and many of them that sleep in
 the dust of the earth shall awake1 some
 to everlasting life1 and some to shame 
and everlasting contempt4  ,these lofty 
hopes are peculiar to ,israel4  ,but    
,israel's conception of ,sheol shows    
very striking resemblances with the     

,babylonian conception4 ,the            
descriptions found in ,job1 in the      
,psalms1 in ,isaiah1 in ,ezekiel and    
elsewhere1 are hardly to be             
distinguished from those found in       
,babylonian literature4  ,the opening   
lines of ,ishtar's descent into ,sheol  
read3    ,to the land from which there  
is no return1 the home of darkness1     
,ishtar1 the daughter of ,sin1 turned   
her mind1   ,yea1 the daughter of ,sin  
set her mind to go2   ,to the house of  
gloom1 the dwelling of ,irkalla1   ,to  
the house from which those who enter    
depart not1   ,the road from whose path 
there is no return2   ,to the house     
where they who enter are deprived of    
light2   ,a place where dust is their   
nourishment1 clay their food2   ,the    
light they behold not1 in thick darkness
 they dwell2   ,they are clad like bats 
in a garb of wings2   ,on door and bolt 
the dust is laid4  ,compare with this   
,job #aj4 #ba1 #bb3    ,before ,i go1   
whence ,i shall not return1   ,to the   

land of darkness1 yea deepest darkness1 
#ahg    ,the land dark as midnight1     
,of deepest darkness without any order1 
,and where the light is as midnight2  or
 ,job #g4 #i1 #aj3    ,he that goeth    
down to ,sheol shall come up no more1   
,he shall return no more to his house1  
,neither shall his place know him any   
more4  ,other similarities may be noted3
 the ,hebrew ,sheol1 like the           
,babylonian1 was deep down in the earth2
 it is pictured as a cavern2 silence    
reigns supreme1 etc4  ,there is but one 
explanation for these similarities3     
,when the ancestors of the ,hebrews left
 their homes in the ,euphrates valley   
they carried with them the traditions1  
beliefs1 and customs current in that    
district4  ,under new surroundings1 and 
especially under the influence of their 
higher religion1 new features were added
 and old conceptions were transformed4  
,but these changes were not able to     
obscure entirely the character impressed
 upon the older beliefs by contact with 

,babylon4  ,striking similarities are   
found also between the legal systems of 
,babylonia and ,israel4  ,in the light  
of recent discoveries the study of      
ancient law begins to-day1 not with the 
legal systems of ,rome1 or of ,greece1  
or of ,israel1 but with the laws of     
early ,babylonia4  ,of the beginning of 
the ,babylonian legal system we know    
nothing except a few popular traditions1
 which trace it back to some deity4  ,it
 is clear1 however1 that long #ahh      
centuries before the time of ,moses or  
,minos or ,romulus the people living in 
the lower ,euphrates-,tigris valley     
developed legal codes of a high and     
complex order4  ,in the legal phrase    
books of the later scribes there have   
been preserved seven so-called ,sumerian
 family laws1 written in the language of
 the people occupying the southern part 
of the ,euphrates-,tigris valley before 
it came under the sway of the ,semites4 
,these laws1 in theme and literary form 
resembling later ,babylonian and early  

,hebrew laws1 were probably in existence
 in the fourth millennium ,b4,c42 some  
of them may go even farther back4  ,by  
far the most important ,babylonian legal
 code now known is the so-called ,code  
of ,hammurabi4#be  ,hammurabi was known 
to ,assyriologists long before the      
finding of his legal code4  ,he reigned 
in ,babylon about ,b4,c4 #bjjj1 was the 
sixth king of the first ,babylonian     
dynasty1 and the first permanently to   
unite the numerous small city states    
under one ruler4  ,he may1 therefore1 be
 called the founder of the ,babylonian  
empire4  ,from his numerous letters and 
inscriptions1 as also from other        
documents coming from the same period1  
he was known as a great conqueror and   
statesman1 interested in the highest    
welfare of his people1 and persistently 
laboring for the improvement of their   
conditions4  ,the ,bible student has a  
special interest in ,hammurabi1 however1
 because in all #ahi probability he is  
no other than the ,amraphel of ,gen4    

#ad4 #a4  ,the monument on which the    
code is engraved was found during the   
winter #aija-aijb by a ,french excavator
 in the acropolis of ,susa1 the scene of
 the book of ,esther4  ,it is a block of
 black diorite1 about eight feet in     
height4  ,when found it was in three    
pieces1 which1 however1 were easily     
joined4  ,on the obverse is a bas relief
 representing the king as receiving the 
ruler's staff and ring from the sun-god 
,shamash1 the judge of heaven and earth4
  ,then follow on the obverse sixteen   
columns of writing1 containing #a1aad   
lines4  ,there were five more columns on
 this side1 but they were erased and the
 stone repolished1 probably by the      
,elamite conqueror who carried the      
monument to ,susa4  ,on the reverse are 
twenty-eight columns with more than     
#b1ejj lines of inscription4 ,the       
,english ,assyriologist1 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4    
,johns1 estimates that originally the   
inscription contained forty-nine        
columns1 #d1jjj lines1 and about #h1jjj 

words4  ,about #hjj lines are taken up  
by the prologue and epilogue1 setting   
forth the king's titles1 his glory1 the 
extent of his rule1 his care for his    
subjects1 and devotion to his gods4     
,the inscription opens with a statement 
of his call by the gods to be the ruler 
of ,babylon3 ,when the lofty ,anu1 king 
of the ,anunaki1 and ,bel1 lord of      
heaven and earth1 he who determines the 
destiny #aij of the land1 committed the 
rule of all mankind to ,marduk1 the     
chief son of ,ea2 when they made him    
great among the ,igigi2 when they       
pronounced the lofty name of ,babylon1  
when they made it famous among the      
quarters of the world1 and in its midst 
established an everlasting kingdom1     
whose foundations were firm as heaven   
and earth--at that time1 ,ami and ,bel  
called me1 ,hammurabi1 the exalted      
prince1 the worshiper of the gods1 to   
cause justice to prevail in the land1 to
 destroy the wicked and the evil1 to    
prevent the strong from oppressing the  

weak1 to go forth like the sun over the 
blackhead race1 to enlighten the land   
and to further the welfare of the       
people4  ,according to the closing      
statement of the prologue he faithfully 
executed this commission3 ,when ,marduk 
sent me to rule the people and to bring 
help to the country1 ,i established law 
and justice in the land and promoted the
 welfare of the people 7,v4 #ad-ba74    
,to better care for the welfare of the  
people he set up the code of laws4  ,in 
column ,,xli1 a part of the epilogue1 he
 says3 ,let any oppressed man1 who has a
 cause1 come before my image as king of 
righteousness6  ,let him read the       
inscription on my monument6  ,let him   
give heed to my weighty words6 ,and may 
my monument enlighten him as to his     
cause and may he understand his case6   
,may he set his heart at ease6 7#a-ai47 
,he recognizes the value #aia of his law
 code and advises his successors on the 
throne to make good use of it3 ,in the  
days that are yet to come1 for all      

future time1 may the king who is in the 
land observe the words of righteousness 
which ,i have written upon my monument6 
,may he not alter the judgments of the  
land which ,i have pronounced1 or the   
decisions of the country which ,i have  
rendered6  ,may he not efface my        
statues6  ,if that man have wisdom1 if  
he wish to give his land good           
government1 let him give attention to   
the words which ,i have written upon my 
monument6 ,and may this monument        
enlighten him as to procedure and       
administration1 the judgments which ,i  
have pronounced1 and the judgments which
 ,i have rendered for the land6  ,and   
let him rightly rule his blackhead      
people2 let him pronounce judgments for 
them and render for them decisions6 ,let
 him root out the wicked and evildoer   
from the land6  ,let him promote the    
welfare of his people6 7#ei-id47  ,the  
epilogue closes with a blessing upon the
 king who will observe the laws1 and    
curses upon him who will disregard or   

alter them 7,,xlii-,,xliv74 ,the        
pronouncement of blessings is very      
brief2 the curses are reiterated in     
various forms1 and numerous gods and    
goddesses are appealed to by name to    
destroy the evildoer and his reign4     
,the section begins 7,,xlii1 #b-di73 ,if
 that man pay attention to my words     
which ,i have written #aib upon my      
monument1 do not efface my judgments1 do
 not overrule my words1 and do not alter
 my statues1 then will ,shamash prolong 
that man's reign1 as he has mine1 who am
 king of righteousness1 that he may rule
 his people in righteousness4  ,it      
continues3 ,if that man do not pay      
attention to my words which ,i have     
written upon my monument2 if he forget  
my curses and do not fear the curse of  
god2 if he abolish the judgments which  
,i have formulated1 overrule my words1  
alter my statues1 efface my name written
 thereon and write his own name2 on     
account of these curses commission      
another to do so--as for that man1 be he

 king or lord1 or priestking or         
commoner1 whoever he may be1 may the    
great god1 the father of the gods1 who  
has ordained my reign1 take from him the
 glory of his sovereignty1 may he break 
his scepter and curse his fate6         
,between the prologue and the epilogue  
is the law code proper4 ,originally     
there appear to have been #bhb separate 
enactments 7this is the estimate of the 
,french ,assyriologist1 ,father ,scheil1
 who first edited the code1 and is      
commonly accepted as correct72 of these 
#ff-ii are now missing as a result of   
the erasure to which reference has been 
made4  ,the code covers a variety of    
topics4  ,laws dealing with the same    
subject are ordinarily grouped together2
 sometimes the principle of arrangement 
is the class or profession concerned4   
#aic ,a brief outline will give at least
 a general notion of its contents3 #a1  
#b1 ,false accusation of a crime2 #c1   
#d1 ,false witness and bribery2 #e1     
,alteration of judgment by a judge2     

#f-h1 ,theft2 #i-ac1 ,concealing of     
stolen property2 #ad1 ,kidnapping2      
#ae-bj1 ,assisting in the escape of     
slaves2 #ba-be1 ,burglary and           
brigandage2 #bf-da1 ,rights and duties  
of officers1 constables1 and            
taxgatherers2 #db-eb1 ,renting of fields
 for cultivation2 #ec-ef1 ,care of dykes
 and canals2 #eg1 #eh1 ,shepherds       
allowing their sheep to pasture on the  
fields of another2 #ei1 ,unlawful       
cutting down of trees2 #fj-fe1 ,duties  
of gardeners2 #ff-ii1 7lost72 #ajj-ajg1 
,relation of merchants to their agents2 
#ajh-aaa1 ,regulations concerning       
wine-sellers1 always women4  ,it may be 
interesting to note that with them the  
law was very severe4  ,of the three     
crimes condemned--minor crimes at       
that--one is to be punished by throwing 
the wine-seller into the water1 the     
second by putting her to death1 the     
third by burning her4  #aab1 ,loss of   
goods intrusted for transportation2     
#aac-aai1 ,securing settlement for      

debts2 #abj-abf1 ,liability for         
deposits2 #abg1 ,slander2 #abh1         
,marriage contract2 #abi-acb1 ,adultery1
 rape1 and suspected unchastity2        
#acc-adc1 ,separation and divorce2      
#add-adi1 ,concubines2 #aej-aeb1        
,marriage dowry2 #aec1 ,murder of       
husband for the sake of another2        
#aed-aeh1 ,illegitimate sexual          
intercourse2 #aei-afa1 ,breach of       
promise2 #afb-afd1 ,disposition of dowry
 after the #aid death of the wife2      
#afe-agg1 ,inheritance of sons in       
polygamous relations2 #agh-ahb1         
,inheritance of priestesses2 #ahc1 #ahd1
 ,inheritance of daughters of           
concubines2 #ahe-aid1 ,treatment of     
adopted children2 #aie-bad1 ,offenses   
against limb and life2 #bae-bbe1        
,operations by doctors and veterinary   
surgeons4  ,for example1 ,if a physician
 cause a man a severe wound with a      
bronze lancet and cause the man's death1
 or1 in opening an abscess of a man with
 a bronze lancet1 destroy the man's eye1

 they shall cut off his fingers 7#bah74 
#bbf1 #bbg1 ,unlawful branding of       
slaves2 #bbh-bcc1 ,liability of         
negligent builders4  ,for example1 ,if a
 builder build a house for a man1 and do
 not make its construction firm1 and the
 house which he has built collapse and  
cause the death of the owner of the     
house1 that builder shall be put to     
death 7#bbi74  #bcd-beb1 ,hired         
animals--the injuries they cause or     
suffer2 #bec-bgg1 ,rights and duties of 
workmen2 #bgh-bhb1 ,selling and         
treatment of slaves4  ,in addition to   
this very complete code there is a vast 
amount of information from both early   
and late periods concerning legal       
practices1 to be gathered from the      
thousands of tablets recording business 
and legal transactions of various sorts3
 ,marriage and dowry contracts1         
partnership agreements1 records of debts
 and promissory notes1 leases of land1  
houses1 or slaves2 records of sales of  
all kinds of property1 mortgages1       

documents #aie granting the power of    
attorney2 concerning adoption1 divorce1 
bankruptcy1 inheritance--in short1      
almost every imaginable kind of         
contract4  ,over against this complex   
legal system of ,babylonia we may place 
the legal literature of the ,hebrews4#bf
  ,anyone who approaches the study of   
,hebrew laws is met by two difficulties4
  ,in the first place1 the legal        
portions do not form separate books1 but
 are embodied in writings belonging to  
other kinds of literature2 in the second
 place1 there is a lack of system in the
 arrangement of the laws4  ,the abrupt  
transitions from one subject to another 
are almost as marked as they are in the 
book of ,proverbs4  ,civil and          
ceremonial1 criminal and humane1 secular
 and religious1 ancient and late laws   
and precedents are all mingled together1
 with little trace of systematic        
arrangement4  ,the legal literature is  
found mainly in the books of ,exodus1   
,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and ,deuteronomy2 

outside the ,pentateuch the most        
important piece of legislation is ,ezek4
 #dj-dh4  ,this legal material may be   
separated from its surroundings and     
arranged by itself4  ,indeed1 this has  
been done1 and modern scholars are quite
 generally agreed that the ,pentateuch  
contains several distinct legal codes   
belonging to different periods in the   
history of ,israel and reflecting       
different stages of political1 social1  
and religious development3 7#a7 ,the    
,decalogue2 7#b7 the ,book of the       
,covenant2 7#c7 the #aif ,deuteronomic  
,code2 7#d7 the ,code of ,holiness2 7#e7
 the ,priestly ,code4  ,of these five   
codes the last two are almost entirely  
religious and ceremonial1 and as the    
similarities between the ,babylonian and
 ,hebrew ceremonial have already been   
pointed out1 they need not be considered
 in this connection4  ,the other three  
contain much legislation concerning     
social1 civil1 and criminal relations1  
just like the ,babylonian legal         

provisions1 and therefore may be        
considered somewhat more in detail4  ,in
 connection with the ,deuteronomic      
,code1 however1 it may be noted that    
three fourths of the laws in the earlier
 codes are reproduced in some form in   
,deuteronomy2 so that for purposes of   
comparison1 the ,deuteronomic ,code does
 not furnish many new elements4  ,it is 
seen1 therefore1 that for a comparative 
study1 the ,code of ,hammurabi on the   
one hand1 and the ,decalogue and the    
,book of the ,covenant on the other1    
furnish the most important material2 and
 since the ,code of ,hammurabi contains 
no religious and ceremonial provisions1 
the material of that nature in the      
,hebrew codes may be omitted in this    
connection4  ,that there exist          
similarities between the legislations of
 the two nations even a superficial     
reading will show4  ,one is immediately 
struck1 for example1 by the similarity  
in the application of the lex talionis3 
,ham4 #aif1 ,if a man destroy the eye of

 another man1 they shall destroy his    
eye2 #aig1 ,if one #aig break a man's   
bone1 they shall break his bone2 #bjj1  
,if a man knock out the tooth of a man  
of his own rank1 they shall knock out   
his tooth4 ,with this compare ,exod4    
#ba4 #bc-be1 ,thou shalt give life for  
life1 eye for eye1 tooth for tooth1     
burning for burning1 wound for wound1   
stripe for stripe2 or ,deut4 #ai4 #ba1  
,thine eyes shall not pity2 life shall  
go for life1 eye for eye1 tooth for     
tooth1 hand for hand1 foot for foot4    
,compare also ,lev4 #bd4 #ai1 #bj1 ,if a
 man cause a blemish in his neighbor2 as
 he hath done1 so shall it be done to   
him3 breach for breach2 eye for eye1    
tooth for tooth2 as he hath caused a    
blemish in a man1 so shall it be        
rendered to him4  ,this principle is    
applied very extensively in both codes  
in providing restitution for damage     
done4  ,the use of the oath of innocence
 is also enjoined in both codes3 ,ham4  
#bdi1 ,if a man hire an ox and a god    

strike it and it die1 the man who hired 
the ox shall swear before god and shall 
go free4  ,with this may be compared    
,exod4 #bb4 #aj1 #aa1 ,if a man deliver 
unto his neighbor an ass1 or an ox1 or a
 sheep1 or any beast to keep1 and it    
die1 or be hurt1 or driven away1 no man 
seeing it1 the oath of ,jehovah shall be
 between them both1 whether he hath not 
put his hand unto his neighbor's goods1 
and the owner thereof shall accept it1  
and he shall not make restitution4  ,the
 illustrations might be multiplied      
manifold4  #aih ,jeremias points out    
twenty-four similarities between the    
,code of ,hammurabi and the ,book of the
 ,covenant alone2#bg which number is    
greatly increased if the comparison is  
extended so as to include the entire    
,pentateuch4  ,the spirit permeating the
 two systems is one of humaneness and   
kindness4  ,hammurabi describes himself 
as a shepherd chosen by the gods to care
 for his people1 to lead them into safe 
pastures and to make them dwell in peace

 and security4  ,he compiled the code1  
that the great should not oppress the   
weak2 to counsel the widow and orphan1  
to render judgment and to decide the    
decisions of the land1 and to succor the
 injured4  ,this is the same spirit that
 permeates the ,pentateuchal            
legislation4  ,the picture at the head  
of the code1 representing ,hammurabi    
standing before the sun-god ,shamash1   
the supreme judge of heaven and earth1  
is very suggestive1 for it reminds one  
of the narrative in ,exodus which       
represents ,moses as receiving the      
,hebrew laws directly from ,jehovah4    
,certainly1 there are also differences  
between the two systems2 and this is    
only what we should expect1 since the   
civilization of ,babylon was far in     
advance of and much more complex than   
that of the ,israelites1 even during the
 period of the latter's highest         
development4  ,besides1 the lower       
religious conceptions would inevitably  
influence the legislation4  #aii        

,attention may be called also to some   
similarities between the ,decalogue and 
certain requirements in ,babylonia1 the 
existence of which is implied in an     
incantation#bh in which these questions 
are asked3 ,has he broken into the house
 of his neighbor8  ,has he approached   
the wife of his neighbor8  ,has he      
spilled the blood of his neighbor8  ,has
 he grasped the garment of his neighbor8
  ,these questions would seem to imply  
the existence of laws like these3 ,thou 
shalt not break into the house of thy   
neighbor2 ,thou shalt not approach the  
wife of thy neighbor2 ,thou shalt not   
spill the blood of thy neighbor2 ,thou  
shalt not grasp the garment of thy      
neighbor4  ,in view of all these        
similarities1 the question naturally    
arises whether the ,babylonian legal    
system exerted any influence upon the   
lawmakers of the ,hebrews1 for the      
resemblances are too close to be        
explained entirely on the basis of      
coincidence4  ,those who admit some     

relation between the two legislations   
are not in agreement as to the nature of
 the connection4  ,some hold that there 
is direct dependence2 that the author or
 authors of the laws of the ,pentateuch 
was or were acquainted with the laws of 
,hammurabi1 and made these laws the     
basis of the ,hebrew legislative system4
  ,the possibility of such dependence   
cannot be denied4  ,surely1 an          
acquaintance with the ,code of          
,hammurabi in the ,arabian #bjj desert  
or in ,palestine at the time of the     
exodus or later cannot appear strange in
 view of the evidence of the            
,tel-el-,amarna tablets1 showing that   
some time before the exodus intercourse 
between ,babylon and the ,west was      
frequent2 that religious1 political1 and
 literary influence was widespread1 and 
that the language of ,babylon was the   
lingua franca throughout ,canaan4  ,on  
the other hand1 there are those who     
believe that the parallels and analogies
 between the two codes are due to the   

common ,semitic origin of the two       
systems4  ,the ,babylonians and the     
,hebrews were ,semites1 originally      
dwelling in a common home4  ,when they  
left this home they carried with them   
their common traditions1 laws1 customs1 
and practices4  ,in their new homes they
 developed them and impressed upon them 
their own individuality4  ,the result   
among the ,hebrews1 determined in a     
large measure by their peculiar         
religion1 is seen in the legislation of 
the ,pentateuch1 while the outcome in   
,babylon is best represented by the     
,code of ,hammurabi4  ,which of these   
two explanations is correct it may be   
impossible to say with absolute         
certainty4  ,to me it seems that both   
contain elements of truth4  ,sometimes  
the one1 sometimes the other may be     
correct1 while in other cases the       
similarities may be due to coincidence4 
,in any case1 the value of the          
,pentateuchal legislation remains #bja  
unaffected1 for it depends1 not upon its

 origin or process of growth1 but1      
rather1 upon its inherent spirit and    
character4  ,attention may further be   
called to the existence in ,babylonia of
 stories showing almost startling       
resemblances to the accounts of the     
creation of the world1 of the origin of 
man and of sin1 of a ,deluge1 and other 
narratives contained in the first eleven
 chapters of the book of ,genesis4      
,several distinct creation stories1     
originating in different religious      
centers1 have been handed down4  ,the   
most remarkable of these1 called ,enuma 
elish 7when above71 from its opening    
words1 has been deciphered from tablets 
found in the library of ,ashurbanipal in
 the ruins of ,nineveh4  ,these tablets 
represent a copy made in the seventh    
century ,b4,c4  ,the time of the        
composition1 or compilation of the      
story1 is not known4  ,however1         
pictorial representations of some of the
 scenes in the epic1 and allusions in   
other literary productions whose dates  

can be fixed1 make it certain that the  
story1 or at least the most important   
component elements of the story1 existed
 before ,b4,c4 #bjjj4  ,in its present  
form it belongs to a period later than  
the elevation of ,babylon to be the     
national center1 which took place under 
,hammurabi1 about ,b4,c4 #bjjj1 for the 
chief place is assigned to ,marduk1 the 
god of ,babylon4#bi  ,echoes of this    
story are found in several ,old #bjb    
,testament passages1 especially in the  
poetic and prophetic writings4  ,in     
these ,jehovah is represented as having 
contended with a great primeval monster1
 called in some passages ,rahab1 in     
others ,leviathan1 or ,dragon4  ,this   
being seems to symbolize chaos1 or to   
personify the primeval ocean1 which     
existed when the process of creation    
began4  ,in the conflict between        
,jehovah and this monster the hostile   
creature and its helpers were           
overthrown1 after which the heavens and 
the earth were created4  ,a few of these

 passages may be quoted3    ,o ,jehovah 
,god of hosts1   ,who is a mighty one1  
like unto thee1 ,o ,jehovah8   ,and thy 
faithfulness is round about thee4       
,thou rulest the pride of the sea3      
,when the waves thereof arise1 thou     
stillest them4   ,thou hast broken      
,rahab in pieces1 as one that is slain2 
,thou hast scattered thine enemies with 
the arm of thy strength4   ,the heavens 
are thine1 the earth also is thine3     
,the world and the fullness thereof1    
thou hast founded them1   ,the north and
 the south1 thou hast created them      
7,psa4 #hi4 #h-ab74  ,rahab is a        
reflection of the ,babylonian ,tiamat2  
,jehovah takes the place of the         
,babylonian god1 ,marduk1 the conqueror 
of ,tiamat2 the enemies are the helpers 
of ,tiamat mentioned in the ,babylonian 
poem4  ,the order of events is the same 
in the two accounts3 first the conflict1
 then creation4    ,he stirreth up the  
sea with his power1   ,and by his       
understanding he smiteth through ,rahab4

  #bjc    ,by his ,spirit the heavens   
are garnished2   ,his hand hath pierced 
the swift serpent 7,job #bf4 #ab1 #ac74 
,god will not withdraw his anger2   ,the
 helpers of ,rahab do stoop under him   
7,job #i4 #ac74    ,yet ,god is my ,king
 of old1   ,working salvation in the    
midst of the earth4   ,thou didst divide
 the sea by thy strength3   ,thou       
brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in
 the waters4   ,thou brakest the heads  
of leviathan in pieces2   ,thou gavest  
him to be food to the people inhabiting 
the wilderness4   ,thou didst cleave    
fountain and flood3   ,thou driedst up  
mighty rivers4   ,the day is thine1 the 
night also is thine3   ,thou hast       
prepared the light and the sun4   ,thou 
hast set all the borders of the earth3  
,thou hast made summer and winter 7,psa4
 #gd4 #ab-ag74   ,the similarities      
between the ,babylonian story called    
,enuma elish and the narrative of       
creation in ,gen4 #a are especially     
pronounced3 7#a7 ,both accounts         

recognize a time when all was chaos4    
,in the ,babylonian conception this     
chaos is personified in ,tiamat2 in     
,gen4 #a4 #b occurs the word tehom1     
translated deep1 which is the same as   
,tiamat1 changed but slightly in passing
 from one language to the other4  7#b7  
,in ,genesis light dispels darkness and 
order follows2 in the ,babylonian       
account1 ,marduk1 the god of light1     
overcomes the demon of chaos and        
darkness4 7#c7 ,the second act of       
creation is the making of the firmament1
 which divided the waters which were    
under the #bjd firmament from the waters
 which were above the firmament 7,gen4  
#a4 #f-h72 in the ,babylonian poem the  
body of ,tiamat is divided and one half 
becomes the firmament to keep the       
heavenly waters in place4  7#d7 ,the    
third and fourth acts of creation in the
 ,hebrew story are the creation of earth
 and the beginning of vegetation 7,gen4 
#a4 #i-ac72 the corresponding           
,babylonian story has been lost1 but it 

seems quite probable that these acts    
were described in the same order on the 
fifth tablet4  ,berosus1 in his summary 
of the ,babylonian account1 says that   
,bel formed the earth out of one half of
 ,omorka's body--,omorka is probably a  
corruption of ,ummu-,khubur1 a title of 
,tiamat--and as in every instance where 
the narrative of ,berosus has been      
tested it has proved to be correct1 we  
may assume that in this also he gives a 
correct reproduction of the ,babylonian 
tradition4  ,moreover1 at the beginning 
of the seventh tablet ,marduk is hailed 
as bestower of fruitfulness1 founder of 
agriculture1 creator of grain and       
plants1 he who caused the green herb to 
spring up4  7#e7 ,the fifth act of      
creation is the making of the heavenly  
bodies 7,gen4 #a4 #ad-ai74  ,with this  
the ,babylonian parallel shows close    
similarities1 for it states that ,marduk
    ,made the stations for the great    
gods1   ,the stars1 their images1 as the
 constellations he fixed1   ,he ordained

 the year1 marked off its divisions4#cj 
#bje  7#f7 ,the sixth and seventh acts  
of creation were the creation of fishes 
and birds and of land animals 7,gen4 #a4
 #bj-be73 the ,babylonian parallels in  
,enuma elish are wanting at present2 but
 ,berosus hints that they were created  
at the same time as man1 so that it is  
probable that the account of these acts 
of creation appeared somewhere in the   
lost portions of the fifth or sixth     
tablet4  ,from allusions in other       
writings we learn that ,marduk was      
looked upon as the creator of the       
animals and other living creatures of   
the field4  7#g7 ,the eighth act of     
creation1 that of man 7,gen4 #a4        
#bf-ca71 finds its parallel upon the    
sixth tablet3    ,when ,marduk heard the
 word of the gods   ,his heart moved him
 and he devised a cunning plan4   ,he   
opened his mouth and unto ,ea he spoke1 
,that which he had conceived in his     
heart he made known unto him4   ,my     
blood will ,i take and bone will ,i     

fashion1   ,i shall make man that man   
may 444   ,i shall create man1 who shall
 inhabit the earth1   ,that the service 
of the gods may be established and that 
their shrines may be built4#ca   ,in    
order to estimate rightly the relations 
between the ,babylonian and ,hebrew     
accounts the differences between the two
 must also be noted4  ,to begin with1   
the order of the separate acts of       
creation is not quite the same4  ,for   
example1 in the ,babylonian account1 the
 creation of the heavenly bodies follows
 immediately upon the #bjf making of the
 firmament1 while in the ,hebrew story  
it follows the making of the earth and  
the springing up of vegetation4         
,certainly1 this difference is of no    
special significance1 and the change may
 easily be explained as due to the      
desire of the ,hebrew writer to crowd   
the creative acts into the six working  
days of the week4  ,the real difference 
is more fundamental and appears         
especially in the conception of the     

nature and character of ,deity4  ,the   
,babylonian story opens with these      
words3    ,when above the heaven was not
 named   ,and beneath the earth bore no 
name1   ,and the primeval ,apsu1 who    
begat them1   ,and ,mummu-,tiamat1 the  
mother of them all--   ,their waters    
were mingled together1   ,and no reed   
was formed1 no marsh seen1   ,when no   
one of the gods had been called into    
being1   ,and none bore a name1 and no  
destinies were fixed1   ,then were      
created the gods in the midst of heaven4
  ,compare with this the simple1 yet    
majestic1 conception1 ,in the beginning 
,god created the heavens and the earth4 
,in one case many gods1 in the other one
 ,god almighty2 in one case the gods are
 a part of the process of creation1 in  
the other the uncreated ,god is in the  
beginning4  ,genesis presents ,god as   
almighty1 but also as kind1 beneficent1 
loving2 ,marduk1 the ,babylonian        
creator1 is represented as a great hero1
 but exceedingly selfish4  ,he          

undertakes the mighty task of #bjg      
overcoming ,tiamat only after making    
arrangements for a suitable reward4     
,the description of the heavenly banquet
 scene1 to which reference has been made
 earlier in the chapter1 implies a      
conception of the character of the gods 
which is separated by an impassable gulf
 from the ,old ,testament ideal4  ,no   
one can read with an unbiased mind the  
two accounts without realizing the great
 differences between the mythological1  
polytheistic account of the ,babylonians
 and the simple1 solemn1 sublime1       
monotheistic picture in ,genesis4  ,the 
soberness1 the dignity1 the simplicity  
of the ,hebrew account lift it far above
 its ,babylonian counterpart4  ,from it 
the crude nature myths have all been    
stripped away4  ,no drunken gods hold   
revels in its solemn lines4  ,above and 
behind and in all is one righteous and  
beneficent ,god4  ,in this sublime      
ethical monotheism the ,hebrew story    
rises infinitely above the story that   

originated in the ,euphrates-,tigris    
valley4  ,another ,babylonian tradition1
 the close relation of which to the     
biblical account has long been          
recognized1 is the story of the ,deluge4
 ,in its cuneiform text it was first    
discovered on fragments of tablets      
brought from the library of             
,ashurbanipal4  ,but that the           
,babylonians possessed a story of the   
,flood was known before from an outline 
preserved by ,berosus4  ,the tradition  
brought to #bjh light by archology forms
 an episode in an epic which narrates   
the exploits of ,gilgamesh and occupies 
the eleventh of the twelve parts into   
which the epic is divided4  ,gilgamesh  
sprang from a city1 ,shurippak1 which   
afterward completely disappeared4  ,he  
became king of ,erech1 where he ruled as
 a tyrant until the gods created        
,ea-bani to destroy him4  ,the two1     
however1 became bosom friends4          
,together they delivered ,erech from the
 ,elamite oppressor1 ,khumbaba4         

,ishtar1 the goddess of love1 then      
offered her hand to ,gilgamesh in       
marriage1 which he spurned with scorn4  
,out of revenge1 she sent a scorpion1   
whose sting proved fatal to ,ea-bani4   
,gilgamesh himself she smote with an    
incurable disease4  ,to find relief1 the
 latter set out for the dwelling place  
of his great-grandfather1 ,ut-napishtim1
 far away on the isles of the blessed4  
,when he finally reaches him the latter 
tells him all about the great ,flood    
from which he escaped to enjoy eternal  
life4#cb  ,the most striking            
resemblances between the ,babylonian and
 ,hebrew stories of the ,flood may now  
be noted3 7#a7 ,compare the instruction 
given by ,god to ,noah 7,gen4 #f4       
#ac-bb7 with the words addressed by the 
god ,ea to ,ut-napishtim3    ,o man of  
,shurippak1 son of ,ubaratutu1   ,pull  
down thy house1 build a ship1   ,leave  
thy possessions1 take thought for thy   
life1  #bji    ,thy property abandon1   
save thy life1   ,bring living seed of  

every kind into the ship4   ,the ship   
that thou shalt build1   ,so shall be   
the measure of its dimensions1   ,thus  
shall correspond its breadth and height1
   ,into the ocean let it fare4#cc  7#b7
 ,in both accounts the destruction is   
due to sin4  ,this is definitely stated 
in ,gen4 #f4 #e-g4  ,for the ,babylonian
 story it is implied in the rebuke given
 to ,bel by ,ea3    ,on the sinner lay  
his sin1   ,on the transgressor lay his 
transgression4   ,forbear1 let not all  
be destroyed4#cd  7#c7 ,in both         
accounts1 only a seed of life sufficient
 to replenish the earth is saved4       
,compare ,gen4 #f4 #ai1 #bj with the    
command1 ,bring living seed of every    
kind into the ship1 or with the         
statement3    ,i brought into the ship  
my family and household2   ,the cattle  
of the field1 the beasts of the field1  
craftsmen1 all       of them ,i brought 
in4#ce  7#d7 ,both stories tell of a    
great storm and deluge of water4  ,gen4 
#g4 #aa reads1 ,the fountains of the    

great deep were broken up1 and the      
windows of heaven were opened4  ,and the
 rain was upon the earth forty days and 
forty nights4  ,compare with this3      
,the dawning of that day ,i feared1   ,i
 feared to behold that day4   ,i entered
 the ship and closed the door4   ,when  
the first flush of dawn appeared        
,there came up from the horizon a black 
cloud4  #baj    ,adad thundered within  
it1   ,while ,nabu and ,marduk went     
before4   ,they go as messengers over   
mountain and valley4   ,nergal bore away
 the anchor4   ,ninib advances1 the     
storm he makes to descend4   ,the       
,anunaki lifted up their torches1       
,with their brightness they light up the
 land4   ,adad's storm reached unto     
heaven1   ,all light was turned into    
darkness1   ,it flooded the land like   
444   44444444 the storm   ,raged high1 
the water climbed over the mountains1   
,like a besom of destruction they       
brought it upon men4#cf  7#e7 ,in both  
instances the structure rests upon a    

mountain in the north4 ,gen4 #h4 #d     
reads1 ,and the ark rested 444 upon the 
mountains of ,ararat1 that is1 ,armenia4
  ,the ,babylonian story reads3    ,to  
the land of ,nisir the ship made its    
way1   ,the mount of ,nisir held it fast
 that it moved not4#cg  ,mount ,nisir is
 east of the upper ,tigris4 7#f7 ,in    
both cases birds are sent out to        
ascertain the condition of the land4    
,compare ,gen4 #h4 #f-ab with these     
lines3    ,when the seventh day         
approached   ,i sent forth a dove and   
let her go4   ,the dove flew to and fro1
   ,but there was no resting place and  
she returned4   ,i sent forth a swallow 
and let her go2   ,the swallow flew to  
and fro1   ,but there was no resting    
place1 and she returned4   ,i sent forth
 a raven and let her go2   ,the raven   
flew away1 she saw the abatement of the 
waters1  #baa    ,she drew near1 she    
waded 7871 she croaked1 and came not    
back4   ,then ,i sent everything forth  
to the four quarters of heaven4#ch  7#g7

 ,sacrifice is offered by ,noah and     
,ut-napishtim1 acceptable to the ,god of
 ,noah and to the gods of the           
,babylonian hero1 in both cases         
resulting in a promise not to repeat the
 ,flood4  ,compare ,gen4 #h4 #bj-bb     
with3          ,i offered sacrifice1    
,i made a libation upon the mountain's  
peak4   ,by sevens ,i set out the       
sacrificial vessels1   ,beneath them ,i 
heaped up reed and cedar wood and       
myrtle4   ,the gods smelt the savor1    
,the gods smelt the sweet savor1   ,the 
gods gathered like flies over the       
sacrificer4#ci  ,other similarities     
might be noted1 such as the use of      
bitumen1 the arrangement of the ship in 
stories1 and1 what seems more striking1 
the fact that the hero of the           
,babylonian story is the tenth          
antediluvian king1 while ,noah is the   
tenth antediluvian patriarch4  ,as in   
the stories of creation1 marked         
differences may also be noted between   
the two representations of the ,flood2  

and these differences appear where they 
are most significant1 namely1 in the    
spirit and purity of conception         
permeating the entire ,hebrew account4  
,for example1 the book of ,genesis      
introduces the divine displeasure with  
sin1 the ethical element1 as a          
fundamental note2 then1 #bab when the   
divine mercy is aroused1 the ,flood     
ceases2 according to the ,babylonian    
story1 the ,flood is caused by the      
capricious anger of ,bel1 the idea of   
punishment for sin cropping out only as 
an incident in the conversation between 
,ea and ,bel at the end of the story4   
,the ,flood ceases because the other    
gods are terrified1 and ,ishtar         
intercedes for her own creation4        
,moreover1 the whole ,hebrew conception 
of the ,divine differs from the         
,babylonian4  ,in the ,hebrew account we
 find ourselves in an atmosphere of     
ethical monotheism that is unknown apart
 from the chosen people4  ,disappeared  
have all the gods who war with one      

another1 who rejoice in successful      
intrigues1 who do not hesitate to tell  
untruths or instruct their favorites to 
do so2 the gods unstable in all their   
ways1 now seeking to destroy1 now       
flattering their creatures2 the gods    
who1 terrified by the storm1 cower like 
dogs at the edge of heaven1 and who     
gathered like flies around the sacrifice
 of the saved hero4 ,all these          
characteristic features of the          
,babylonian account are absent from the 
,bible4  ,surely1 there is no connection
 between these deities and the one      
sublime and gracious ,god of ,genesis4  
,lack of space will not permit us to    
institute detailed comparisons between  
other narratives in the early chapters  
of ,genesis and ,babylonian literature4 
,it may be sufficient to say that the   
#bac resemblances are not confined to   
the stories of creation and of the      
,flood4  ,true1 no complete ,babylonian 
story of paradise and of the fall is at 
present known2 nevertheless1 there are  

certain features in the biblical        
narrative which strongly point to       
,babylonia1 and in the light of the     
known fact that elements in the two     
important narratives of creation and of 
the ,flood are derived from ,babylonia1 
it may be safe to infer that in this    
case also echoes of ,babylonian beliefs 
supplied1 at least in part1 the         
framework of the ,hebrew representation4
  ,the antediluvian patriarchs also seem
 to have their counterparts in          
,babylonian tradition1 and the story of 
the ,tower of ,babel1 though it does not
 seem to be of ,babylonian origin1      
presupposes a knowledge of ,babylonia1  
and it is not impossible that some      
,babylonian legend served as the basis  
of it4  ,in closing this discussion1    
attention may be called to a few general
 considerations that must be borne in   
mind in any attempt to answer the       
question whether the religious and      
ethical ideas of the ,hebrews which show
 similarities with the ideas of other   

nations were borrowed bodily from these 
nations1 or1 after all1 contain elements
 that were original with the ,hebrews4  
,in the first place1 it must be         
remembered that similarities between the
 customs or beliefs of two peoples do   
not necessarily imply the dependence    
#bad of one upon the other2 much less do
 they indicate which is the original4   
,where similarities are found at least  
four possibilities should be recognized3
 ,a may depend upon ,b2 ,b may depend   
upon ,a2 both ,a and ,b may have been   
derived from a common original2 or ,a   
and ,b may have developed independently1
 the similarities being merely          
coincidence4  ,which interpretation is  
the right one in a given case does not  
lie on the surface2 it is only by       
careful1 patient1 unbiased study that   
one may arrive at a proper              
understanding4  ,take as an illustration
 the ,decalogue4  ,the ,buddhists have  
ten prohibitory laws1 sometimes called  
the ,buddhist ,decalogue4  ,the first   

five read1 ,thou shalt not kill2 ,thou  
shalt not steal2 ,thou shalt not lie2   
,thou shalt not commit adultery2 ,thou  
shalt not get drunk4  ,three of these   
correspond exactly to three of the      
demands in the ,jewish ,decalogue4 ,does
 it necessarily follow that the         
,decalogue was borrowed from ,buddha8   
,the ,egyptians also had a sacred law4  
,the law itself has not yet come to     
light1 but the ,book of the ,dead       
indicates its existence4  ,in the one   
hundred and twenty-fifth chapter of this
 book we read the justifications offered
 by the dead3 ,i have not acted with    
deceit or done evil to men2 ,i have not 
oppressed the poor2 ,i have not judged  
unjustly1 etc4  ,these negations seem to
 imply the existence of a law1 either   
oral or written1 #bae forbidding these  
things4  ,from the negations1 ,i have   
not acted with deceit2 ,i have not      
committed murder2 ,i have not been      
unchaste1 etc41 one may infer that the  
,egyptians had precepts corresponding   

substantially to some of the            
requirements in the ,decalogue4  ,does  
logic demand1 therefore1 the conclusion 
that the ,decalogue owes its existence  
to the sacred law of the ,egyptians8    
,among the ,babylonians also we find    
evidence of the existence of1 at least1 
some of the requirements of the ,hebrew 
,decalogue3 ,thou shalt not break into  
the house of thy neighbor2 ,thou shalt  
not approach the wife of thy neighbor2  
,thou shalt not spill the blood of thy  
neighbor2 ,thou shalt not grasp the     
garment of thy neighbor4  ,do these     
similarities prove beyond question the  
dependence of the one upon the other8   
,there are1 then1 marked resemblances   
between the ,hebrew ,decalogue1 certain 
requirements among the ,babylonians1    
among the ,egyptians1 and among the     
,buddhists4  ,i know of no one who      
claims that the ,decalogue was borrowed 
from ,buddha2 some1 however1 seem to    
think1 that in part at least1 it was    
dependent upon ,babylon2 others1 that   

,moses is indebted for it to ,egypt4    
,true1 in the minds of most scholars the
 dependence is not direct2 there would  
be room1 according to their theory1 for 
the work of the ,spirit in the selection
 of these fundamental1 ethical          
conceptions #baf from the great mass of 
requirements1 the majority of which are 
far inferior to the ,decalogue4  ,such  
dependence1 even if it could be proved1 
would not rob the ,decalogue of         
inspiration or permanent value2 but it  
seems to me that the similarities do not
 warrant the claim of even such         
dependence4  ,is it not more likely that
 these similarities are due to the      
instinct implanted in man by the        
,creator1 which recognizes the sanctity 
of life1 of family relations1 and of    
property rights8  ,but this instinct    
does not account for the obvious        
differences between the ,hebrew         
,decalogue as a whole and the           
legislations of other peoples4  ,these  
must be traced to the special activity  

of a ,spirit who produced among the     
,hebrews a collection of commandments   
such as natural instinct1 if left to    
itself1 could not have produced4  ,it is
 different1 perhaps1 when we consider   
the relation of the more comprehensive  
civil legislation of the ,pentateuch to 
the ,code of ,hammurabi4  ,there the    
resemblances are numerous and striking  
enough to justify the inference that    
there exists some relation of           
dependence1 and yet by no means that the
 legislation of the ,pentateuch is      
borrowed directly from the other1 or    
even that there is a literary           
dependence4 ,how extensive this         
dependence is only careful examination  
can show2 but1 however complete1 it will
 not destroy the fact that the laws of  
,israel are permeated by a ,divine #bag 
,spirit4  ,the important question is    
not1 ,where do we find the natural basis
 upon which the system is built up by   
men under divine guidance8 but1 ,does   
the spirit and character of the system  

indicate such guidance8  ,in the second 
place1 in seeking the truth about this  
relationship assumption must not be     
confused with knowledge4  ,modern       
archologists seem to be in peculiar     
danger of taking things for granted4    
,it is not without reason that a        
prominent ,old ,testament scholar       
proposes to change the title of the     
third edition of a book entitled ,the   
,cuneiform ,inscriptions and the ,old   
,testament into ,the ,cuneiform ,scholar
 and the ,old ,testament4  ,it is       
stated1 for example1 without            
qualification by ,delitzsch that the    
name ,yahweh has been discovered on     
inscriptions belonging to the period of 
,hammurabi4  ,no hint is given that the 
reading is questioned by many           
,assyriologists4  ,there is1 at least1 a
 possibility1 no matter how small1 of a 
different rendering1 with1 of course1 a 
vastly different conclusion4  ,but      
admitting1 as ,i believe we must do1    
that the name does occur1 the inference 

drawn from this occurrence by           
,delitzsch1 and expressed in the        
following words1 is an assumption and   
misleading1 unless it is materially     
modified3 ,yahweh1 the abiding one1 the 
permanent one1 who1 unlike man1 is not  
to-morrow a thing of the past1 but one  
that endures forever1 that #bah lives   
and labors for all eternity above the   
broad1 resplendent1 law-bound canopy of 
the stars--it was this ,yahweh that     
constituted the primordial patrimony of 
those ,canaanite tribes from which      
centuries afterward the twelve tribes of
 ,israel sprang4#dj  ,the fact is that  
you may search the ,babylonian pantheon 
from one end to the other and you will  
not find one god who in nature and      
character can compare with the ,jehovah 
of ,israel1 merciful and gracious1 slow 
to anger1 and abundant in               
loving-kindness and truth4  ,another    
instance of the same character is the   
story of the fall4  ,one thing we know1 
namely1 that a story of the fall of man1

 similar to that in ,genesis1 has not as
 yet been found among the fragments of  
,babylonian libraries4  ,certainly1 such
 story may have existed1 and probably   
did exist2 it may even be1 as has been  
asserted1 that some connection exists   
between the scriptural story of the fall
 and the picture on an old ,babylonian  
seal cylinder having in the center a    
tree with fruits hanging down1 on each  
side a figure1 and behind the figure at 
the left a mark which may represent a   
serpent4  ,but the interpretation is by 
no means certain4  ,the fact that an    
assertion is made by an expert favors   
the presumption1 but does not prove1    
that the statement is true4  ,some      
archologists claim that the monotheism  
of ,israel was derived from outside of  
,israel1 #bai either from ,arabia#da or 
from ,babylonia#db4 ,among the arguments
 in favor of this claim is the          
occurrence of proper names which are    
alleged to imply the existence of       
monotheism2 for example1 ,yasma-ilu1    

which may be translated ,god hears1     
implying the existence of but one ,god4 
,however1 it might mean also a god      
hears1 or god--referring to one of      
many--hears1 the giver of the name      
singling out the one for special        
consideration4  ,and as there are clear 
indications of polytheism in southern   
,arabia1 where the name is found1 the   
name1 in all probability1 means the     
latter1 thus implying polytheism4  ,the 
same may be said of the names found in  
,babylonia4 ,whatever the primary       
meaning of ilu1 these names do not in   
themselves prove the existence of       
monotheism4  ,they may be translated in 
perfect accord with logic and grammar as
 admitting the existence of more than   
one god4  ,indeed1 the historical facts 
demand such interpretation4  ,if we     
find1 for example1 ,sin-muballit 7the   
moon-god brings to life7 as the name of 
the father of ,hammurabi1 and           
,shamshu-iluna 7in all probability1 the 
sun-god is our god7 as that of his son1 

the facts surely indicate that the      
monotheism of the period was not very   
distinct4  ,the testimony of the ,code  
of ,hammurabi points in the same        
direction1 as also the most spiritual   
utterances of religion in the ,euphrates
 valley1 the penitential psalms4  #bbj  
,it is seen1 then1 that facts do not    
warrant the claim1 made by some1 that   
that upon which rests the significance  
of the ,bible in the world's history1   
namely1 monotheism1 was taken over by   
the ,hebrews from the ,babylonians4     
,josh4 #bd4 #b remains uncontradicted3  
,your fathers dwelt of old time beyond  
the ,river1 even ,terah1 the father of  
,abraham1 and the father of ,nahor2 and 
they served other gods4  ,it is only in 
,israel that we find a clearly developed
 monotheism4  ,assumption and facts are 
not quite the same4  ,another important 
point1 to which attention has already   
been called1 is the marked difference   
which obtains between the literature of 
the ,old ,testament and that uncovered  

by archology4  ,true1 there are points  
of contact2 indeed1 strange it would be 
if there were none2 for1 like the       
,babylonians1 the ,hebrews were         
,semites4  ,surely1 it is not strange   
that nations of the same race1          
originally in the same home1 should     
possess similar traditions1 customs1    
beliefs1 and practices4  ,when they left
 their common home they carried with    
them their common traditions1 customs1  
and beliefs2 in their new homes they    
developed them and impressed upon them  
their own individualities4  ,we are     
nowhere informed in the ,old ,testament1
 and it would seem contrary to reason to
 suppose1 that at the time of ,abraham1 
,moses1 or at any other period1 ,god    
emptied the ,hebrew mind and #bba       
consciousness of all the things which   
had been the possession of the ,semitic 
race from the beginning4  ,is it not    
more likely that the inspired teachers  
and writers employed for their loftier  
purposes the ancient traditions and     

beliefs familiar to their               
contemporaries8  ,in doing so they took 
that which was1 in some cases1 common   
and unclean1 and1 purifying it under the
 guidance of the ,divine ,spirit1 made  
it the medium by which to impart the    
sublimest truths ever presented to man4 
,obviously1 the special religious value 
of the ,old ,testament literature does  
not lie in what is common to it and     
,babylon1 but in the elements in which  
they differ4  ,the points of contact    
must not blind the eye to the points of 
contrast4 ,these points of contrast are 
in the spirit and atmosphere pervading  
the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 which are quite
 distinct1 not simply from ,babylonian1 
but from all other literatures4  ,these 
essential differences occur1 as we have 
seen1 throughout the entire religious   
and ethical literature4  ,in many cases 
is agreement in form1 but how far       
superior the spirit and substance of the
 ,hebrew6  ,think of the different      
conceptions of the nature and character 

of ,god1 of ,god's relation to man1 of  
the divine government of the world1 and 
many other truths precious to           
,christians in all ages4  ,there is1    
indeed1 in the ,hebrew record an        
intensity of spiritual #bbb conception1 
a sublimity of spiritual tone1 an       
insight into the unseen1 a reliance upon
 an invisible yet all-controlling       
,power1 that create the gap between the 
,hebrew and his brother ,semite beyond  
the ,river4  ,how are we to account for 
these differences8  ,professor ,sayce   
has suggested an answer in these words3 
,i can find only one explanation1       
unfashionable and antiquated though it  
be4  ,in the language of a former       
generation1 it marks the dividing line  
between revelation and unrevealed       
religion4  ,it is like that something   
hard to define which separates man from 
the ape1 even though on the             
physiological side the ape may be the   
ancestor of man4#dc  ,though the        
language of this statement may be       

unfortunate1 especially where it implies
 that there is no revelation in the     
ancient religions outside of the ,old   
,testament1 it does call attention to   
the secret of the fundamental difference
 between the ,old ,testament sacred     
literature and that of the surrounding  
nations4  ,there is in the former       
abundant evidence of the activity of a  
,spirit whose presence is less manifest 
in the sacred literatures of other      
ancient nations4  ,true1 the monuments  
have not spoken their last word2 but if 
we have the right to draw inferences    
from the known1 we may safely affirm    
that though the monuments may swell into
 infinity1 they will offer nothing to   
equal1 much less to supersede1 in       
substance and spirit1 our #bbc ,old     
,testament4  ,we may receive gratefully 
every ray of light1 but the time has not
 yet come1 nor ever will come1 when we  
may lay aside the ,old ,testament and   
accept as a substitute the legends and  
myths of heathen lands to give to us the

 bread of life which the ,saviour found 
in the pages of the ,old ,book4  ,let us
 welcome the light and knowledge ,god   
has bestowed upon us2 let us rejoice in 
them with perfect assurance that they   
are for good and not for evil2 let us   
learn to use them wisely and honestly1  
and let us still be ever alert listening
 for other words1 uttered ages ago1 but 
not yet audible to modern ears4  ,it is 
for us to catch these messages1 and to  
understand them1 that we may fit them   
into the great fabric of apprehended    
truth to the enrichment of ourselves1   
and to the glory of our common ,lord4   
,,notes ,,on ,,chapter ,v  #a ,j4 ,p4   
,peters1 ,the ,old ,testament and the   
,new ,scholarship1 p4 #ib4  #b ,s4 ,g4  
,smith1 ,religion in the ,making1 p4    
#bj4  #c ,hugo ,winckler1 ,himmels- und 
,weltenbild der ,babylonier1 p4 #i4  #d 
,professor ,friedrich ,delitzsch1 of the
 ,university of ,berlin1 delivered three
 lectures on the relation of ,babylonian
 religion to the religion of the ,old   

,testament1 under the title1 ,babel und 
,bibel4  #e ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,the        
,religions of ,ancient ,egypt and       
,babylonia1 pp4 #bgf1 #bgg4  #f ,a4     
,jeremias1 ,the ,old ,testament in the  
,light of the ,ancient ,east1 ,i1 p4    
#hf4  #bbd  #g ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,the    
,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 p4
 #hh4 ,practically all the cuneiform    
inscriptions quoted or referred to in   
this chapter are translated in ,r4 ,w4  
,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the   
,old ,testament4  #h ,friedrich         
,delitzsch1 ,babel and ,bible1 ,two     
,lectures1 published by ,open ,court    
,co41 p4 #fe4  #i ,a translation of the 
entire psalm is found in ,sayce1 ,the   
,religions of ,ancient ,egypt and       
,babylonia1 pp4 #dai-dba2 also in       
,rogers1 ,religion of ,babylonia and    
,assyria1 pp4 #ahb-ahd2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1
 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1 
pp4 #dcf-dci4  #aj ,sayce1 ,religions of
 ,ancient ,egypt and ,babylonia1 pp4    
#ce1 #ic1 #aie4 ,a translation of a hymn

 composed by this king to his supreme   
god is found in ,j4 ,h4 ,breasted1 ,a   
,history of ,egypt1 pp4 #cga;ff4  #aa   
,an excellent brief survey of the       
religious conceptions of the pre-,mosaic
 period is given in the article on      
,religion of ,israel1 by ,e4 ,kautzsch1 
in ,james ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the 
,bible1 ,extra ,vol41 pp4 #fac;ff4  #ab 
,the ,religion of ,babylonia and        
,assyria1 p4 #ie4  #ac ,ibid41 p4 #ig4  
#ad ,the most recent and most           
satisfactory edition and translation of 
the entire ,babylonian story of creation
 is by ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,seven       
,tablets of ,creation4  ,the two        
quotations given are ,tablet ,i1 lines  
#g-i1 and ,tablet ,,iii1 lines #acc-ach4
  #ae ,additional portions of this hymn 
are found in ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,religion 
of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #agj;ff4
  #af ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive      
,semitic ,religions ,to-day1 p4 #ad4    
#ag ,a4 ,t4 ,clay1 ,light on the ,old   
,testament from ,babel1 p4 #ae2 ,a4 ,h4 

,sayce1 ,religions of ,ancient ,egypt   
and ,babylonia1 pp4 #dgf;ff42 ,m4       
,jastrow1 in ,american ,journal of      
,theology1 #ahih1 pp4 #cae-ceb2 ,a4     
,jeremias1 ,the ,old ,testament in the  
,light of the ,ancient ,east1 ,i1 pp4   
#aih;ff4  #bbe  #ah ,babel and ,bible1  
,two ,lectures1 p4 #ch4  #ai ,ibid41 p4 
#aja4  #bj ,paul ,haupt1 ,babylonian    
,elements in the ,levitical ,ritual1    
,journal of ,biblical ,literature1      
#aijj1 p4 #fa4  #ba ,the details of this
 question have been discussed very      
extensively4 ,admirable discussions of  
the entire subject are found in ,sayce1 
,religions of ,ancient ,egypt and       
,babylonia1 pp4 #ddh-dgh2 ,jeremias1    
,old ,testament in the ,light of the    
,ancient ,east1 ,,ii1 pp4 #aab;ff4  #bb 
,religions of ,ancient ,egypt and       
,babylonia1 p4 #dfi4  #bc ,delitzsch1   
,babel and ,bible1 ,two ,lectures1 pp4  
#ec;ff4  #bd ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,religion 
of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 p4 #ade4    
#be ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,the ,code of      

,hammurabi2 art4 on the same subject in 
,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible1   
,extra ,vol41 pp4 #ehd;ff42 ,w4 ,w4     
,davies1 ,the ,codes of ,hammurabi and  
,moses4  #bf ,the best and most complete
 recent treatment of the legal          
literature of the ,old ,testament is    
found in ,c4 ,f4 ,kent1 ,israel's ,laws 
and ,legal ,precedents1 which is ,vol4  
,,iv in ,the ,student's ,old ,testament4
  #bg ,johannes ,jeremias1 ,moses and   
,hammurabi1 pp4 #ca;ff4  #bh ,r4 ,w4    
,rogers1 ,religion of ,babylonia and    
,assyria1 p4 #aeh4  #bi ,l4 ,w4 ,king1  
,the ,seven ,tablets of ,creation1 ,two 
,vols42 a translation is also found in  
,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and          
,babylonian ,literature1 pp4 #bhb;ff4   
,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,religion of ,babylonia
 and ,assyria1 pp4 #ajg;ff4  #cj ,tablet
 ,v1 lines #a-c4  #ca ,lines #a-h4  #cb 
,an ,english translation of the entire  
epic is found in ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1       
,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1  
pp4 #cbd;ff42 the ,deluge story is given

 by ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,religion of       
,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #aii;ff4   
#bbf  #cc ,lines #bc-ca4  #cd ,lines    
#ahd-ahf4  #ce ,lines #bg1 #he1 #hf4    
#cf ,lines #ib-aaa4  #cg ,lines #ada1   
#adb4  #ch ,lines #adf-aef4  #ci ,lines 
#aef-afb4  #dj ,babel and ,bible1 ,two  
,lectures1 p4 #fb4  #da ,f4 ,hommel1    
,the ,ancient ,hebrew ,tradition1 pp4   
#ge;ff4  #db ,p4 ,delitzsch1 ,babel and 
,bible1 pp4 #eh;ff4  #dc ,preface to    
,religions of ,ancient ,egypt and       
,babylonia4     #bbg  ,,chapter ,,vi    
,,the ,,permanent ,,significance ,,of   
,,the ,,old ,,testament  ,in the opening
 paragraphs of ,chapter ,i1 attention is
 called to the unique place occupied by 
the ,old ,testament in the thought1     
life1 and theology of the early ,church4
  ,throughout the ,middle ,ages1 and in 
the eyes of the ,protestant reformers1  
the two great divisions of the ,bible1  
the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 continued
 to command equal respect and attention4
  ,the legal principles of the          

,pentateuch have determined the legal   
systems of all civilized nations2 the   
bold and fiery sermons of the prophets  
have been the chief inspiration on the  
fierce battles for righteousness in all 
ages2 and the sublime religious lyrics  
of the ,psalter have ushered millions   
into the very presence of ,god4         
,indeed1 the ,old ,testament has exerted
 an incalculable influence on the       
development of religion and             
civilization4  ,however1 it must be     
admitted that during the latter part of 
the nineteenth century a change of      
attitude toward the ,old ,testament     
seems to have taken place4  ,true1 from 
nearly the beginning of the ,christian  
era again and again voices have #bbh    
been heard denying to the ,old          
,testament a place in ,christian thought
 and life1 but not until comparatively  
recent times has this sentiment become  
widespread4  ,says a writer in a book   
published a few years ago3 ,the ,bible  
was never more studied nor less read    

than at the present day4  ,this paradox 
is true1 at least1 of the ,old          
,testament4  ,for two generations scores
 of patient scholars have toiled on the 
text1 scanning each letter with         
microscopic care1 and one result of     
their labors has been that to the       
majority of educated men and women of   
whatever belief1 or no belief1 the      
,bible has become a closed1 yea1 a      
sealed1 book4  ,it is not what it used  
to be2 what it has become they do not   
know1 and in scorn or sorrow or apathy  
they have laid it aside4#a  ,there may  
be some exaggeration in this statement1 
but it cannot be doubted that there is  
considerable justification for the      
complaint4  ,c4 ,f4 ,kent makes the     
admission that with the exception of a  
very few books1 like the ,psalter1 the  
,old ,testament1 which was the arsenal  
of the old militant theology1 has been  
unconsciously1 if not deliberately1     
shunned by the present generation4#b    
,and the words of ,professor ,cheyne are

 almost as applicable to-day as they    
were when they were first written1 more 
than twenty years ago3 ,a theory is     
already propounded1 both in private and 
in a nave simple way in sermons1 that   
the #bbi ,old ,testament is of no       
particular moment1 all that we need     
being the ,new ,testament1 which has    
been defended by our valiant apologists 
and expounded by our admirable          
interpreters4#c  ,if this represents in 
any sense the true state of affairs2 if1
 on the other hand1 the words of the    
apostle are true1 that every scripture  
inspired of ,god is also profitable for 
teaching1 for reproof1 for correction1  
for instruction which is in             
righteousness1 that the man of ,god may 
be complete1 furnished completely unto  
every good work2 and if these words are 
applicable to the ,old ,testament1 as   
the writer intended them to be--if1 ,i  
say1 these things are true1 then        
,christians appear to be in great peril 
of losing sight of one of the important 

means of grace1 on which were nourished 
,jesus and his disciples1 and millions  
in former generations1 and for the      
restoration of which the reformers      
risked their very lives4  ,the change of
 attitude toward the ,old ,testament may
 be traced to a variety of causes1 all  
of which affect very vitally modern     
religious thought and life4  ,there are1
 for example1 many who feel1 and that   
with some justice1 that the ,new        
,testament is in a peculiar sense the   
sacred book of ,christianity4  ,why1    
they ask1 go to the ,old ,testament when
 we have the ,new with its more complete
 and perfect revelation8  ,but this     
attitude reflects only a half truth1    
which is often #bcj more deceptive than 
an out and out falsehood4  ,certainly1  
,christians find their loftiest         
inspiration in the study of the life1   
character1 and teaching of the ,master  
and of his disciples2 but the ,new      
,testament has by no means displaced the
 ,old4  ,the early ,christians were     

right in placing it beside the ,new1    
because the former is still of          
inestimable value4  ,indeed1 it is      
impossible to understand the ,new       
,testament properly unless one has an   
adequate knowledge of the ,old4         
,moreover1 there are many truths taken  
for granted in the ,new ,testament for a
 biblical statement of which we must    
turn to the ,old4  ,will the revelation 
of the nature and character of ,god     
contained in the ,old ,testament ever   
lose its doctrinal value8  ,and even in 
cases where both ,testaments cover the  
same field the ,old retains a peculiar  
value4 ,true1 the ,new ,testament       
presents a more complete and perfect    
revelation1 but there are few ,new      
,testament truths which have not their  
roots in the ,old4  ,the former presents
 the full-grown revelation2             
nevertheless1 a vast number of people1  
who have not yet reached a state of     
perfection1 will understand even ,new   
,testament truths more readily as they  

are presented in the ,old ,testament2   
for here they can see the truths in more
 concrete form2 they have flesh and     
blood2 they are struggling for victory  
over darkness and superstition4  ,nearly
 all the great and vital doctrines of   
the ,church1 #bca though founded        
principally on the ,new ,testament1 are 
illustrated1 are made more real and     
human1 become more impressive and       
forceful as we study their development  
and growth under the ,old ,testament    
dispensation4  ,the neglect of the ,old 
,testament is due1 in the second place1 
to a reaction against its misuse by     
former generations4#d  ,puritanism and  
the theology of the past three centuries
 were largely rooted in the ,old        
,testament4  ,from it the stern         
,puritans drew their spirit of justice1 
their zeal for righteousness1 and their 
uncompromising condemnation of          
everything that appeared wrong4  ,their 
preachers nobly echoed the thunders of  
,sinai and the denunciations of ,elijah 

and ,amos2 but in doing this they failed
 to recognize the divine love back of   
the prophetic message1 and by their     
narrow interpretation of the letter1 and
 their emphasis upon the more primitive 
and imperfect teaching of the ,old      
,testament1 they were often led to      
extremes that were neither biblical nor 
,christian4  ,against intolerance and   
persecution the human heart rebels1 and 
with it comes a feeling of resentment   
against the cause4  ,thus it happened   
that the reaction against ,puritanism   
brought with it a disregard of the ,old 
,testament1 which was followed either by
 the exaltation of the ,new ,testament1 
whose spirit is more merciful and       
tender1 or by hostility against the     
entire #bcb ,bible and ,christianity as 
a whole4  ,this abuse of the ,old       
,testament was due in large part to the 
use of faulty1 or erroneous1 methods of 
interpretation4  ,and since there seems 
to be even now a tendency in some places
 to defend these methods1 which are out 

of keeping with the spirit of scientific
 investigation in this age1 many        
intelligent men have come to look with  
suspicion upon a book in the study of   
which unscientific methods continue to  
be used4  ,another important cause of   
the change of attitude toward the ,old  
,testament is to be found in the labors 
expended upon the ,old ,testament by    
able scholars in the pursuit of a       
careful1 critical study of the ancient  
records4  ,as has been stated in another
 connection1 these studies are not the  
outgrowth1 as is often erroneously      
assumed1 of a desire to discredit the   
,bible1 to displace it from the heart   
and confidence of the people1 or to     
attack its teaching or inspiration4 ,it 
would be a most hopeless thing1 says ,w4
 ,g4 ,jordan1 to regard all this toil as
 the outcome of skepticism and vanity1 a
 huge specimen of perverse ingenuity and
 misdirected effort4#e  ,they are simply
 the results of ,protestantism and the  
,renaissance4#f  ,but whatever the      

spirit back of the study1 and whatever  
the gains of this investigation1 one    
result is that many ,christians feel    
perplexed with regard to the true       
position of the ,old ,testament4  #bcc  
,what of its claims8  ,what of its      
inspiration8  ,how far is it human in   
origin8  ,how far divine8 ,these and    
similar questions are asked by men      
everywhere4  ,never was there more      
interest1 more inquiry1 and1 perhaps1   
more unrest and disquietude among       
thoughtful people4  ,surely1 it is high 
time to realize that all this           
investigation has had no harmful effect 
upon the substance of the divine        
revelations conveyed in the ,old        
,testament records4  ,in the words of   
,jordan1 ,to me1 with my faith that the 
whole universe is filled with the       
presence of the living1 self-revealing  
,god1 ,i cannot conceive 444 that the   
most severe criticism can ever banish   
the divine power from that great        
literature which is one of the choicest 

organs of its manifestations4#g  ,as has
 been pointed out in the preceding      
chapters1 some long-cherished notions   
and interpretations have been           
overthrown2 to some extent our ideas    
concerning its literary forms have had  
to be modified1 but its substance has   
not been disturbed4  ,on the contrary1  
it has come to be seen with a clearness 
unrecognized before that it bears the   
indelible stamp of ,god4  ,this being   
the case1 students of the ,bible should 
return to a more just appreciation of   
that part of ,sacred ,scripture which is
 so intimately connected with the       
training of ,jesus and his disciples4   
,if the ,old ,testament contains records
 #bcd and interpretations of divine     
revelations1 those who claim to be      
children of ,god should be willing1 yea1
 anxious1 to put forth some efforts to  
familiarize themselves adequately with  
these records4  ,but the sense of       
gratitude and appreciation for these    
self-revelations of ,god is not the only

 reason which should prompt the         
,christian to turn more frequently to   
the pages of the ,old ,book4  ,a much   
more important consideration is the fact
 that the lessons taught in the ,old    
,testament are of profound significance 
to-day1 and that they cannot be         
neglected without serious consequences4 
,again1 attention may be called to the  
fact that the ,founder of ,christianity 
and his disciples found nourishment in  
its pages1 and that they constantly     
exhorted their followers to do the same4
  ,now1 ,jesus is recognized by all     
,christians as a model worthy of        
imitation in every relation of life4    
,would it not be well to imitate him in 
the use of the ,old ,testament          
,scriptures8  ,if he found in the pages 
of the ,old ,testament weapons with     
which to put to flight the ,evil ,one1  
might not we8  ,aside from these general
 considerations1 it is easily shown that
 every part of the ,old ,testament is   
full of teaching which is of the highest

 value even in the twentieth century of 
the ,christian era4 ,consider1 for      
example1 the first eleven chapters of   
,genesis1 around which much controversy 
has raged4  ,in former days these       
chapters were #bce thought to give an   
absolutely accurate account of creation 
and the early history of mankind4       
,however1 various lines of investigation
 have shown this view to be untenable4  
,we are forced1 therefore1 says a recent
 writer1 to the conclusion that1 though 
the writers to whom we owe the first    
eleven chapters of ,genesis report      
faithfully what was currently believed  
among the ,hebrews respecting the early 
history of mankind1 yet there was much  
they did not know1 and could not take   
cognizance of4  ,these chapters1        
consequently1 contain no account of the 
real beginnings1 either of the earth    
itself1 or of man and human civilization
 upon it4#h  ,all this need create not  
the slightest difficulty for one who    
holds the scriptural conception of the  

nature and purpose of the biblical      
writings4  ,it is true of these         
chapters1 as of other parts of the      
record1 that the only care of the       
prophetic tradition is to bring out     
clearly the religious origin of         
humanity4#i ,if anyone is in search of  
accurate information regarding the age  
of this earth1 or its relation to the   
sun1 moon1 or stars1 or regarding the   
exact order in which plants and animals 
have appeared upon it1 he should go to  
recent textbooks in astronomy1 geology1 
and paleontology4 ,it is not the purpose
 of the writers of ,scripture to impart 
physical instruction1 or to enlarge the 
bounds of scientific knowledge4  ,so far
 as the #bcf scientific or historical   
information imparted in these chapters  
is concerned1 it is of little more value
 than the similar stories of other      
nations4  ,and yet the student of these 
chapters can see a striking contrast    
between them and extra-biblical stories 
describing the same unknown ages handed 

down from pre-scientific centuries4     
,here comes to view the uniqueness of   
the ,bible4  ,the other traditions are  
of interest only as relics of a by-gone 
past4  ,not so the biblical statements2 
they are and ever will be of inestimable
 value1 not because of their scientific 
teaching1 but because of the presence of
 sublime religious truth in the crude   
forms of primitive science4  ,if anyone 
wishes to know what connection the world
 has with ,god1 if he seeks to trace    
back all that now is to the very        
fountain-head of life1 if he desires to 
discover some unifying principle1 some  
illuminating purpose in the history of  
the earth1 he may turn to these chapters
 as his safest and1 indeed1 only guide  
to the information he seeks4  ,the      
purpose of the narratives being         
primarily religious1 it is only natural 
that their lessons should be religious  
lessons4  ,the one supreme lesson taught
 throughout the entire section is ,in   
the beginning1 ,god4  ,but each separate

 narrative teaches its own peculiar     
lessons4  ,the more important of these  
are briefly summarized by ,driver as    
follows3 ,the narrative of creation #bcg
 sets forth1 in a series of dignified   
and impressive pictures1 the sovereignty
 of ,god2 his priority to and separation
 from all finite1 material nature2 his  
purpose to constitute an ordered cosmos1
 and gradually to adapt the earth to    
become the habitation of living beings2 
and his endowment of man with the       
peculiar1 unique possession of          
self-conscious reason1 in virtue of     
which he became capable of intellectual 
and moral life1 and is even able to know
 and hold communion with his ,maker4    
,in chapters two and three we read1     
though1 again1 not in a historical but  
in a pictorial and symbolic form1 how   
man was once innocent1 how he became    
conscious of a moral law1 and how       
temptation fell upon him and he broke   
that law4 ,the fall of man1 the great   
and terrible truth1 which history not   

less than individual experience only too
 vividly teaches each one of us1 is thus
 impressively set before us4  ,man1     
however1 though punished by ,god1 is not
 forsaken by him1 nor left in his long  
conflict with evil without hope of      
victory4  ,in chapter four the          
increasing power of sin1 and the fatal  
consequence to which1 if unchecked1 it  
may lead1 is vividly portrayed in the   
tragic figure of ,cain4  ,the spirit of 
vindictiveness and the brutal triumph in
 the power of the sword is personified  
in ,lamech4  ,in the narrative of the   
,flood ,god's wrath against sin and the 
divine prerogative of mercy are alike   
exemplified3 #bch ,noah is a standing   
illustration of the truth that          
'righteousness delivereth from death1'  
and ,god's dealings with him after the  
,flood form a striking declaration of   
the purposes of grace and good will with
 which ,god regards mankind4  ,the      
narrative of the ,tower of ,babel       
emphasizes ,jehovah's supremacy in the  

world1 and teaches how the              
self-exaltation of man is checked by    
,god4#aj  ,these chapters are followed  
by the stories of the patriarchs4       
,missionaries say--and experience at    
home has confirmed the claim--that the  
patriarchal narratives are of           
inestimable value to impress lessons of 
the reality and providence of ,god1 and 
to encourage the exercise of faith and  
confidence in him4  ,there is nothing   
that can be substituted for them in     
religious instruction4  ,lack of space  
will not permit to point out in detail  
the educational value of these          
documents2 however1 in passing1 mention 
may be made of the fact that ,professor 
,w4 ,w4 ,white enumerates twenty-one    
,christian virtues that are illustrated 
and enforced in the life of ,abraham4#aa
  ,he was 7#a7 steadfast1 7#b7 resolute1
 7#c7 prudent1 7#d7 tactful1 7#e7       
candid1 7#f7 kind1 7#g7 self-controlled1
 7#h7 obliging1 7#i7 self-denying1 7#aj7
 condescending1 7#aa7 unselfish1 7#ab7  

peaceable1 7#ac7 hospitable1 7#ad7      
courteous1 7#ae7 humble1 7#af7 thankful1
 7#ag7 reverent1 7#ah7 prayerful1 7#ai7 
worshipful1 7#bj7 faithful1 #bci 7#ba7  
obedient4  ,not one iota of their value 
for purposes of instruction in          
righteousness have these records lost   
because doubt has been cast upon their  
absolute historical accuracy4 ,abraham  
is still the hero of righteousness and  
faith2 ,lot and ,laban1 ,sarah and      
,rebekah1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 and ,joseph1  
in their characters and experiences1 are
 still in different ways types of our   
own selves1 and still in one way or     
another exemplify the ways in which ,god
 deals with the individual soul1 and the
 manner in which the individual soul    
ought1 or ought not1 to respond to his  
leadings4#ab  ,what if some of these    
figures pass before us on the stage     
rather than in real life1 do they on    
that account lose their vividness1 their
 truthfulness1 their force8 ,if1 says   
,j4 ,e4 ,mc,fadyen1#ac it should be made

 highly probable that the stories were  
not strictly historical1 what should we 
then have to say8  ,we should then have 
to say that their religious value was   
still extremely high4  ,the religious   
truth to which they give vivid and      
immortal expression would remain the    
same4  ,the story of ,abraham would     
still illustrate the trials and the     
rewards of faith4  ,the story of ,jacob 
would still illustrate the power of sin 
to haunt and determine a man's career1  
and the power of ,god to humble1        
discipline1 and purify a self-confident 
nature4  ,the story of ,joseph would    
still illustrate how fidelity amid #bdj 
temptation1 wrong1 and sorrow is crowned
 at last with glory and honor4  ,the    
spiritual value of these and similar    
tales is not lost1 even when their      
historical value is reduced to a        
minimum1 for the truths which they      
illustrate are truths of universal      
experience4  ,the present writer is     
convinced that even as historical       

documents these narratives are of       
immense value4  ,nevertheless1 it may be
 well to remind ourselves again that the
 apostle does not point his readers to  
the ,old ,testament ,scriptures for     
instruction in ancient history1 but he  
claims that they are profitable for     
teaching1 for reproof1 for correction1  
for instruction which is in             
righteousness2 and these records1       
whatever their historical shortcomings  
may be1 are most assuredly profitable   
for all these purposes4  ,the historical
 books of the ,old ,testament are a     
continuous illustration of the reality  
of a ,divine ,providence1 by revealing  
on almost every page the hand of ,god in
 human history4  ,only as we trace the  
history of the ,hebrews can we          
understand the unfolding in the mind of 
man under the influence of the ,divine  
,spirit of the great religious ideas and
 conceptions which have become the      
mainspring of human progress2 the ideas 
which may be seen in crystallized form  

in modern ,judaism1 in perverted form in
 ,mohammedanism1 and in expanded and    
spiritualized form in ,christianity4    
#bda ,preminent among these conceptions 
is the idea of one personal holy and    
righteous ,god4  ,the ,hebrews were also
 the first to teach man that the supreme
 goal of life is righteousness1 and thus
 they became the ethical teachers of the
 human race4  ,they first gave objective
 expression to pure and lofty ethics in 
law4  ,to-day the principles of ,hebrew 
legislation are still the bone and      
marrow of the world's greatest legal    
systems4  ,though the ,romans may be1 to
 a large extent1 responsible for the    
form which modern legal systems have    
adopted1 the substance must be traced   
back to ,hebrew legislation4  ,moreover1
 the ,hebrews prepared the way for      
,christianity4  ,jesus himself          
recognized that the faith he proclaimed 
was not a new creation4  ,think not1    
said he1 that ,i came to destroy the law
 or the prophets3 ,i came not to        

destroy1 but to fulfill4#ad  ,he came to
 fill up1 to spiritualize and intensify 
the religious and ethical teaching of   
the great leaders of the ,hebrews4  ,men
 needed the preliminary training of the 
,old ,testament dispensation before they
 were ready to appreciate the fuller    
revelation in and through ,jesus the    
,christ1 and ,christianity could never  
have triumphed had it not been for the  
preparatory work of the religious and   
ethical teachers of the ,hebrews1 whose 
activity was very largely determined by 
the course of the nation's history4     
,again1 #bdb ,jesus1 according to the   
flesh1 was a descendant of ,abraham1    
reared in a ,jewish home1 and under     
,jewish influences4  ,he studied ,jewish
 literature and ,jewish ideals were held
 up before him4  ,all this must have    
made some impression upon the mind and  
life of the ,master4 ,he and his        
teaching can be understood only if he is
 studied in the light of ,jewish thought
 and ,jewish religion reaching back to  

the very beginning of ,hebrew history4  
,all this shows how important is the    
study of the historical books of the    
,old ,testament to one who desires to   
appreciate fully the ,christian         
religion4  ,it is impossible to estimate
 too highly the eternal value of the    
devotional literature of the ,old       
,testament as illustrated1 for example1 
in the book of ,psalms4  ,well has it   
been said1 ,what the heart is in man1   
that is the ,psalter in the ,bible4#ae  
,the ,psalms touch the heart1 because   
they are the expressions of the deepest 
feelings of the writers2 and because    
these lyrics express personal           
experiences they may be1 and are1 used  
even to-day to express the various      
emotions of joy1 sorrow1 hope1 fear1    
anticipation1 etc41 of persons who live 
even on a higher plane than did their   
authors4  ,what is there1 says ,richard 
,hooker1#af necessary for man to know   
which the ,psalms are not able to teach8
  ,heroical magnanimity1 exquisite      

justice1 grave moderation1 #bdc exact   
wisdom1 repentance unfeigned1 unwearied 
patience1 the mysteries of ,god1 the    
sufferings of ,christ1 the terrors of   
wrath1 the comforts of grace1 the works 
of ,providence over this world1 and the 
promised joys of that world which is to 
come2 all good1 necessarily to be either
 known or done1 or had1 this one        
celestial fountain yieldeth2 let there  
be any grief or disaster incident to the
 soul of man1 any wound or sickness     
named for which there is not in this    
treasure-house a present comfortable    
remedy at all times ready to be found4  
,manifold indeed are the contents of the
 ,psalter2 manifold the moods of the    
authors2 and manifold the experiences   
they express4  ,but there is one bond   
which unites them all into one living   
unity1 namely1 a sublime faith in       
,jehovah1 the ,god of ,israel4  ,this   
variety on the one hand1 and essential  
unity on the other1 are the qualities   
which have given to the book in all ages

 a unique place in the religious life of
 the individual and of the ,church of   
,god4  ,with full justice says          
,perowne3#ag ,no single book of         
,scripture1 not even the ,new           
,testament1 has1 perhaps1 ever taken    
such hold on the heart of ,christendom4 
,none1 if we dare judge1 unless it be   
the ,gospels1 has had so large an       
influence in molding the affections1    
sustaining the hopes1 purifying the     
faith of believers4  ,with its words1   
rather than with their own1 they have   
come before ,god4  ,in these they have  
uttered #bdd their desires1 their fears1
 their confessions1 their aspirations1  
their sorrows1 their joys1 their        
thanksgivings4  ,by these their devotion
 has been kindled and their hearts      
comforted4  ,the ,psalter has been in   
the truest sense the prayer book of both
 ,jews and ,christians4  ,equally       
profitable is the study of the ,wisdom  
literature4  ,the wise men accepted the 
great religious truths proclaimed by the

 prophets2 it was their business to     
apply them to the details of everyday   
life1 and instruct their contemporaries 
in that application4  ,they did an      
important and necessary work2 they      
pointed out constantly and persistently 
that religion cannot be separated from  
the daily life4 ,but the wise men were  
dealing with persons who had hardly gone
 beyond the childhood stage in things   
religious and ethical1 hence they must  
put the most profound truths in the     
simplest possible form4  ,they must     
abstain1 as far as possible1 from all   
speculation1 and confine themselves to  
simple1 practical precepts which would  
appeal to the ordinary practical common 
sense of the hearer4  ,the great desire 
of the sages1 says ,marshall1 was to    
reduce the lofty theistic morality which
 underlies ,mosaism to brief1 pithy     
sayings1 easily remembered and readily  
applicable to the everyday life of      
man4#ah  ,certainly1 in time they would 
be compelled to rise above simple       

precepts and try to solve some of #bde  
the more perplexing problems of life2 on
 the other hand1 there would always be a
 demand for the more simple sayings of  
these moral guides4  ,the ,old          
,testament contains specimens of these  
different productions of wisdom         
activity4  ,the book of ,proverbs is a  
collection of the more simple1 practical
 precepts1 while the books of ,job and  
,ecclesiastes illustrate speculative    
wisdom4  ,the charge has sometimes been 
made against the book of ,proverbs that 
it is not truly religious1 that it moves
 on a lower plane1 and contemplates     
lower aims than the other books of the  
,old ,testament2 but this is only a half
 truth4  ,that the book differs from    
other books is undoubtedly true1 but    
that is due to the purpose of its       
author4  ,he did not mean to collect    
prophetic discourses or sublime         
religious lyrics1 but those simple      
precepts of life which1 though simple1  
are ever needed for the proper conduct  

of man4  ,there are two phases of       
religion3 the one internal1 the         
religious experience2 the other         
external1 the religious life4  ,the two 
go together1 though at times the one1 at
 times the other1 may be emphasized4    
,the authors of the ,proverbs emphasized
 chiefly the latter4  ,they teach the   
most difficult of all lessons3 how to   
practice religion2 how to fulfill the   
duties and overcome the temptations of  
everyday life4  ,but these wise men     
rested their practical teaching upon a  
religious basis4  ,their #bdf religion  
may not be on a ,new ,testament level1  
but in this they resemble other ,old    
,testament writings2 their conceptions  
of reward and punishment may be crude1  
and at times materialistic1 but this    
peculiarity they share with all those   
saints of ,israel whose vision is       
limited to this world4  ,underneath all 
their teaching there is a firm belief in
 the existence of a righteous ,god and  
the reality of his rule over the world1 

as also in the other great religious    
verities taught by the prophets4  ,far  
from disregarding religion1 the writers 
of the ,proverbs sought to make it the  
controlling motive of life and conduct4 
,a profound religious spirit pervades   
the whole book2 but in addition there   
are many passages which give definite   
expression to the lofty religious       
conceptions of the wise men4#ai         
,nevertheless1 as is natural in view of 
the purpose of the wise men1 greater    
stress is laid upon ethics1 the practice
 of religion4  ,nothing and no relation 
of life seems to have escaped the       
attention of the writers4  ,precepts are
 given concerning ordinary everyday     
conduct1 the relations of men to their  
fellows1 domestic relations and         
happiness1 national life and the proper 
attitude toward the government1 and     
other relations and interests of life4  
,the permanent value of the book is     
suggested in these words of ,davison3#bj
 ,for the writers of ,proverbs religion 

#bdg means good sense1 religion means   
mastery of affairs1 religion means      
strength and manliness and success1     
religion means a well-furnished         
intellect employing the best means to   
accomplish the highest ends4  ,there is 
a healthy1 vigorous tone about this kind
 of teaching which is never out of date1
 but which1 human nature being what it  
is1 is only too apt to disappear in the 
actual presentation of religion in the  
,church on earth4  ,from simple         
practical precepts the wise men rose to 
speculation4  ,their speculative        
philosophy is theistic1 for it starts   
from the conviction that there is a     
personal ,god4  ,the best specimen of   
this type of ,wisdom literature is the  
book of ,job1 which deals with the      
perplexing problem of evil and          
suffering4  ,the book recounts how ,job1
 a man of exemplary piety1 was overtaken
 by an unprecedented series of          
calamities1 and it reports the debate   
between ,job and other speakers to which

 the occasion is supposed to have given 
rise4  ,the experiences of the perfect  
,job raised the perplexing question1    
,how can the suffering of a righteous   
man be harmonized with the belief in a  
holy and just ,god8  ,the popular view1 
reflected in the greater portion of the 
,old ,testament1 was that suffering was 
always punishment for sin1 prosperity   
reward for piety4 ,such belief seemed in
 accord with the righteousness of       
,jehovah4 ,undoubtedly1 exceptions to   
the rule might be #bdh noted1 but as    
long as the individual was looked upon  
simply as an atom in the national unit1 
the apparent inequalities in the        
fortunes of individuals would not       
constitute a pressing problem4  ,when1  
however1 especially through the teaching
 of ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 the         
individual received proper recognition1 
an experience like that of ,job was     
bound to create difficulties1 for the   
suffering of a righteous man would seem 
to point to unfairness on the part of   

,god4  ,that this perplexity was felt is
 seen from allusions in the prophetic   
books4  ,at last the time came when a   
wise man in ,israel sought to solve the 
problem in the light of the religious   
knowledge he possessed4  ,the problem1  
then1 discussed by the author of the    
book of ,job is1 ,how can the sufferings
 of a righteous man be harmonized with  
belief in a holy and righteous ,god8    
,various solutions of this problem are  
suggested in different parts of the     
book3 7#a7 ,the solution of the         
prologue--,suffering is a test of       
character4 7#b7 ,the solution of the    
friends--,suffering is always punishment
 for sin4  7#c7 ,the solution of        
,job--,job struggles long and           
persistently with the problem2 a few    
times he seems to have a glimpse of a   
possible straightening-out of the       
present inequalities after death1 but it
 is only a glimpse2 he always sinks back
 to a feeling of uncertainty and        
perplexity4  ,his general attitude is   

that there must be #bdi something out of
 gear in the world1 for the             
righteousness of ,god cannot be         
discerned as things are going now4  7#d7
 ,the solution of ,elihu--,elihu agrees 
with the friends that suffering is      
closely connected with sin2 but he      
emphasizes more than they the           
disciplinary purpose of suffering1      
which1 he points out1 is the voice of   
,god warning men to return to ,him4 7#e7
 ,the solution of ,jehovah--,the whole  
universe is an unfathomable mystery1 in 
which the evil is no more perplexing    
than the good4  ,in the presence of all 
mysteries the proper attitude is one of 
humble submission4  7#f7 ,the solution  
of the epilogue--,returns to the opinion
 of the friends1 for it teaches that    
righteousness will sooner or later be   
rewarded with prosperity even in this   
world4  ,it is chiefly in the solution  
of this age-long problem suggested by   
the author of the book of ,job that the 
real value of the discussion lies4 ,the 

author nowhere states which of the      
above-mentioned conclusions he accepts  
as true4  ,as a result1 he has been     
charged with raising a profound problem1
 discussing it with relentless logic1   
and then leaving it unsolved4  ,this1   
however1 is not quite fair to this      
ancient wise man4  ,with a touch too    
artistic to permit him to descend to a  
homiletic attitude1 the poet has shown  
that his solution of life's problem is a
 religious one4  ,he had portrayed with 
great power the inability of #bej man's 
mind to comprehend the universe or to   
understand why man must suffer2 but he  
makes ,job1 his hero1 find in a vision  
of ,god the secret of life4  ,job's     
questions remain unanswered1 but now    
that he knows ,god1 he is content to let
 them remain unanswered4 ,he cannot     
solve life's riddle1 but is content to  
trust ,god1 of whose goodness he is     
convinced1 and who1 ,job is sure1 knows 
the answer4  ,the poet has thus taught  
that it is in the realm of religion1 and

 not in that of the intellect1 that the 
solution of life's mysteries is to be   
found4#ba  ,even ,christianity has no   
other solution of the problem to offer2 
it must still insist upon a solution of 
faith1 with a lofty conception of ,god1 
and a vision of life broad enough to    
include eternity1 when the apparent     
inequalities of this life may be        
adjusted by a loving and righteous ,god4
  ,the book of ,ecclesiastes1 dealing   
with the perplexities of life in        
general1 full of pessimism and          
skepticism1 is not without its permanent
 value4  ,the author of the book has    
passed through many disappointments1 and
 his spirit has grown somewhat skeptical
 and pessimistic4 ,everything has proved
 vanity3 riches1 pleasure1 honor1 even  
the search for wisdom2 and he is not    
sure concerning his destiny after death4
  ,but over against his experiences in  
life there is a faith in ,god who       
governs the world4  ,the book1 which    
portrays #bea the struggle between      

experience and faith1 has aptly been    
called a cry for light4  ,the author    
does not see the light clearly1 though  
here and there he may have a glimpse of 
it4  ,the real perplexity is due to the 
fact that the author's horizon is       
bounded by the grave4  ,in this life he 
sees no hope1 therefore he looks with   
longing for a possible reckoning in an  
after life2 but it remains a hope and   
cry1 it never grows into a conviction4  
,the more significant is the retention  
of his faith in ,god4 ,he is conscious  
of a moral order in the world1 though   
its operation is often frustrated2 he is
 aware of cases in which the            
,god-fearing man had an advantage over  
others4  ,hence1 with all his           
uncertainty and doubt1 he holds that it 
is his duty1 and the duty of everyone   
else1 to fear ,god and keep his         
commandments2 ,god1 somehow1 will care  
for the mysteries and perplexities of   
life4  ,even the ,song of ,songs1 or    
,song of ,solomon1 often an object of   

ridicule1 when rightly interpreted1 is  
seen to bring suggestive lessons to the 
present age4  ,the book owes its place  
in the canon of ,sacred ,scripture to   
the allegorical interpretation given to 
it from the earliest times4  ,the ,jews 
interpreted it as picturing the close   
relation existing between ,jehovah and  
,israel2 the ,christians1 as picturing  
the intimate fellowship between ,christ 
and his bride1 the ,church4  ,at present
 it is quite generally held that this   
interpretation #beb does not do justice 
to the primary purpose of the book2 but 
as to its original purpose two different
 views are held4  ,according to both    
interpretations1 the subject of the book
 is love--human love2 the differences of
 opinion are with reference to the      
manner in which the subject is treated4 
,some think that the book is simply a   
collection of love or wedding songs1 all
 independent of one another4  ,others   
feel that there are too many evidences  
of real unity in it to permit this      

interpretation2 they see in the book a  
didactic drama or melodrama1 the aim of 
the author being the glorification of   
true human love4  ,the drama centers    
around three principal                  
characters--,solomon1 the ,shunammite   
maiden1 and her shepherd lover4  ,the   
book relates how the maiden1 surprised  
by the king and his train1 was brought  
to the palace in ,jerusalem1 where the  
king hoped to win her affections and to 
induce her to exchange her rustic home  
for the enjoyment and honor the court   
life affords4  ,she has1 however1       
already pledged her heart to a young    
shepherd2 and the admiration and        
blandishments which the king lavishes   
upon her are powerless to make her      
forget him4  ,in the end she is         
permitted to return to her mountain     
home1 where at the close of the poem the
 lovers appear hand in hand and express1
 in warm1 glowing words1 the superiority
 of genuine spontaneous #bec affection4 
,the real aim of the book1 therefore1   

seems to be to glorify true love1 and   
more specifically1 true betrothed love1 
which remains steadfast even in the most
 dangerous and most seductive           
situations4  ,in this age1 when the     
responsibility of the individual        
,christian and of the ,christian ,church
 toward the practical1 social1          
religious1 and moral problems and evils 
is recognized more than at any other    
previous time1 the prophetic literature 
is worthy of the most careful study on  
the part of all ,christians who         
recognize and who are willing to meet   
their obligations to their day and      
generation4  ,the prophets of old met in
 the strength of ,god1 and at the divine
 impulse1 the problems and evils of     
their own age4  ,they had to face the   
problems of materialism and             
commercialism2 the evils resulting from 
the accumulation of wealth1 power1 and  
resources in the hands of a few2 very   
serious economic problems2 cruelty1     
oppression1 arrogance on the part of the

 rich proprietors2 corruption in        
government and in the administration of 
justice2 they had to grapple with a     
cold1 heartless formalism that          
threatened to destroy pure1 spiritual   
religion4  ,against these evils and     
wrongs the prophets of old raised their 
hands and voices4  ,when the old tribal 
customs and bonds were weakened by the  
growth of cities and the cultivation of 
commerce they saw that #bed society must
 be set upon a moral basis or suffer    
destruction4  ,when the nation itself   
was about to be broken to pieces they   
saw in this a call for a deeper         
spiritual life4444  ,they were          
interested in politics1 but not as a    
profession in which to show their skill1
 or out of which they might gain wealth 
or glory4  ,politics for them meant     
simply the life of the nation in its    
relation to ,god and to the great       
outside world4  ,they were social       
reformers4  ,to the earlier prophets man
 was regarded always as a member of     

society rather than as an independent   
individual4444  ,in opposition to a     
showy ritual1 they set up their demands 
for justice between man and man4#bb     
,surely1 it is a part of the            
,christian's duty to do his share toward
 a ,christian solution of the social and
 religious problems of our day4  ,we can
 hardly claim to have reached the full  
stature of ,christian manhood or        
womanhood until we have acquired the    
knowledge and power to cope with these  
difficulties in the spirit of the       
,master and with the methods best       
adapted to the ,christianizing of modern
 society4  ,in these our efforts to lift
 humanity nearer to ,god1 or to bring   
,god nearer to humanity1 we may learn   
much from the prophets of old4  ,to sum 
up the results of our study3 ,as        
,christians we may find our loftiest    
inspiration in the study of the life1   
the character1 and the teachings #bee of
 the ,master1 and of the words of his   
disciples4  ,but the ,new ,testament is 

little more than a quarter of the       
,bible4  ,in the preceding pages the    
attempt has been made to emphasize the  
permanent value of the larger division  
of the ,sacred ,book4  ,it has been     
carefully scrutinized1 tested in        
furnaces heated seven times1 but out of 
the fire it has come bearing the stamp  
of ,god1 testifying more confidently    
than ever before that ,god in olden     
times spake unto the fathers1 and that  
in its pages may be found records and   
interpretations of these revelations4   
,the features of the ,old ,testament    
which assure to it a permanent place in 
religious thought and life may be       
briefly indicated as follows3  ,the ,old
 ,testament will always prove attractive
 as literature4  ,the more we know of   
other literatures of antiquity1 the more
 evident it becomes that even from the  
literary viewpoint the ,old ,testament  
is far superior to any other literary   
remains of ancient civilization4  ,if   
the inimitable freshness of life is     

preserved in ,homer1 it is not less     
preserved in the epic stories of the    
,old ,testament2 while the still more   
intangible simplicity of the idyl is    
found perfect in ,ruth and ,tobit1 the  
orations of ,deuteronomy are as noble   
models as the orations of ,cicero4      
,read by the side of the poetry of the  
,psalms1 the lyrics of ,pindar seem     
almost provincial4  ,the imaginative    
poetry of #bef the ,greeks is perfect in
 its own sphere1 but by the ,hebrew     
prophets as bold an imagination is      
carried into the mysteries of the       
spiritual world4 ,if the philosophy of  
,plato and his successors has a special 
interest as the starting point for a    
progression of thought still going on as
 modern science1 yet the field of       
biblical wisdom offers an attraction of 
a different kind1 in a progression of   
thought which has run its full round and
 has reached a position of rest4444     
,and in the inner circle of the world's 
masterpieces1 in which all kinds of     

literary influences meet1 the ,bible has
 placed ,job1 the ,isaiahan ,rhapsody1  
444 unsurpassed and unsurpassable4#bc   
,from the standpoint of history the ,old
 ,testament still occupies1 and ever    
will occupy1 a unique position4         
,important as are the contributions of  
archology1 the student of ancient       
history can by no means spare the       
testimony of the ,bible4  ,the ,old     
,testament is still the main source of  
information for the national history of 
the ,hebrew people1 and it is and will  
remain a very important secondary source
 for the history of the surrounding     
nations4  ,it also retains a unique     
place in the history of religion1 for   
without it the religious development of 
the ,jews could not be traced2 and since
 the ,jewish religion is the foundation 
upon which ,christianity was developed1 
ignorance of that earlier religion #beg 
would prove a serious handicap to the   
student of ,christianity4  ,the ,old    
,testament will always be of value      

because of its intimate connection with 
the ,new4  ,from the purely linguistic  
standpoint a knowledge of the former is 
essential for an understanding of the   
latter4  ,new ,testament modes of       
thought and expression are inexplicable 
without a study of the ,old4  ,there are
 many passages in the ,new ,testament   
taken from the ,old and referring back  
to it which cannot be properly          
understood unless we examine them in    
their original context4 ,but the        
connection is even more vital1 for in a 
very real sense the new dispensation has
 its roots in the old4  ,it is one      
kingdom of ,god that is the subject of  
the history in both1 and the ,bible as a
 whole can never be rightly understood  
until the two ,testaments are           
comprehended in their unity and harmony1
 for they are joined in inseparable     
unity in ,christ himself4  ,most        
important of all1 the ,old ,testament   
retains1 and ever will retain1 a unique 
religious value4  ,it will ever be      

important in the field of doctrine4     
,true1 the ,new ,testament is the       
primary source for the doctrines of     
,christianity1 but there are some things
 which the ,new ,testament takes for    
granted1 and for which we must turn to  
the ,old4 ,will the revelation of the   
nature and character of ,god contained  
in the ,old ,testament #beh ever lose   
its doctrinal value8--,god1 a spirit1   
personal1 with a clearly defined moral  
character1 in his mercy condescending to
 enter into covenant relations with his 
creatures1 loving man and desiring to be
 loved by him1 his anger aroused by sin1
 but gracious toward the repenting      
sinner8  ,again1 have those early       
chapters of ,genesis lost their         
doctrinal value8  ,has anyone supplied a
 substitute for the simple ,in the      
beginning ,god created heaven and earth8
  ,the ,old ,testament is of permanent  
religious value because of its keen     
insight into human nature4  ,the ,bible 
has been called the family album of the 

,holy ,god2 we might compare it1 rather1
 to a picture gallery4 ,what a variety6 
,everywhere we see them flesh and blood6
  ,why is it they impress us so8  ,is it
 not because the pictures are so true to
 human nature that in spite of the      
difference in time1 place1 and          
circumstances they may serve even us as 
mirrors8  ,the ,old ,testament will     
always deserve study from the religious 
standpoint1 because of the ideal of     
character it sets before us4  ,it       
presents to our souls characters that   
are supremely worthy of our reverence   
because consciously centered in ,god and
 full of his power4 ,it permits us to   
share the enthusiasm of the men who     
discovered the fundamentals of our      
religion and the character of our ,god4 
,it is indispensable to complete the    
#bei discipleship of ,christ1 because it
 is the creator of the mold which his   
soul expanded4#bd  ,its types of        
character may lack the finer graces1 yet
 they are types we may do well to       

imitate4  ,will the lives of ,abraham1  
,joseph1 ,samuel1 ,elijah1 ,david1 and  
many others ever lose their lessons8    
,what sublime ideals even the ,christian
 minister may find in the lives of the  
prophets6  ,will we ever get beyond the 
moral duties which are1 according to the
 ,old ,testament1 obligatory upon man8  
,purity of thought1 sincerity of motive1
 singleness of purpose1 truthfulness1   
honesty1 justice1 generosity1           
love--these are some of the virtues     
which again and again are in the        
strongest language insisted upon in the 
pages of the ,old ,book4  ,indeed1 the  
,old ,testament emphasizes the loftiest 
ideals of human life and society1       
anticipating the time when in all the   
world the universal ,fatherhood of ,god 
and the common brotherhood of man would 
be realized4  ,in an editorial in the   
,expository ,times1 commenting upon a   
paper read before the ,first            
,international ,moral ,education        
,congress1 are found these suggestive   

words3 ,it is when the teaching of the  
,old ,testament is simple1 frank1 and   
historical that it becomes the best     
text-book of ethics in the world1 for it
 possesses these two incomparable       
advantages--it is full of humanity1 and 
it is full of variety4  ,the epics of   
,joseph and ,david1 the #bfj tragedies  
of ,elijah and ,isaiah have an undying  
charm4  ,and the examples are varied as 
they are interesting4  ,it offers       
examples of almost every stage of moral 
development4  ,whatever the pupil's     
moral attitude1 there is some ,jewish   
hero that appeals to him4  ,that hero's 
actions can be traced to their motives  
and followed to their consequences4  ,he
 can be treated with sympathy in so far 
as he attains the standard of his times1
 and yet criticized in so far as his    
motives are not those which we recognize
 as absolute4  ,so the pupil may learn  
at once to appropriate those media      
axiamata which fit him1 and yet realize 
that there is something beyond and above

 them4#be  ,the ,old ,testament is of   
permanent significance because of its   
insistence on pure and spiritual        
religion1 and its condemnation of all   
cold and external formalism4  ,these    
words of the prophet ,isaiah imply a    
lofty conception of true religion3 ,what
 unto me is the multitude of your       
sacrifices8 saith ,jehovah3 ,i have had 
enough of the burnt-offerings of rams1  
and the fat of fed beasts2 and ,i       
delight not in the blood of bullocks1 or
 of lambs1 or of he-goats4  ,when ye    
come to appear before me1 who hath      
required this at your hand1 to trample  
my courts8  ,bring no more vain         
oblations2 incense is an abomination    
unto me2 new moon and sabbath1 the      
calling of #bfa assemblies--,i cannot   
away with iniquity and the solemn       
meeting4  ,your new moons and your      
appointed feasts my soul hateth2 they   
are a trouble unto me2 ,i am weary of   
bearing them4  ,and when ye spread forth
 your hands1 ,i will hide mine eyes from

 you2 yea1 when ye make many prayers1 ,i
 will not hear3 your hands are full of  
blood4  ,wash you1 make you clean2 put  
away the evil of your doings from before
 mine eyes2 cease to do evil2 learn to  
do well2 seek justice1 relieve the      
oppressed1 judge the fatherless1 plead  
for the widow4#bf  ,and the prophetic   
definition of religion1 ,he hath showed 
thee1 ,o man1 what is good2 and what    
doth ,jehovah require of thee1 but to do
 justly1 and to love kindness1 and to   
walk humbly with thy ,god8#bg is in no  
wise inferior to that given in the ,new 
,testament3 ,pure religion and undefiled
 before our ,god and ,father is this1 to
 visit the fatherless and widows in     
their affliction1 and to keep oneself   
unspotted from the world4#bh  ,finally1 
how can we estimate highly enough the   
devotional value of the ,old ,testament 
as illustrated1 for example1 in the book
 of ,psalms8  ,here we have the         
outpourings of human souls in the       
closest fellowship with their ,god1     

giving without restraint expression to  
the most various emotions1 hopes1       
desires1 and aspirations4  ,what other  
literary compositions lift us into such 
atmosphere of religious thought and     
emotion8  #bfb ,surely1 the sweet       
singers enjoy a preminence from which   
they can never be dethroned4  ,it is    
quite safe1 therefore1 to assert1 that  
as long as human nature is what it is   
now the ,old ,testament must remain an  
ever-flowing fountain of living truth1  
able to invigorate and to restore1 to   
purify and to refine2 to ennoble and to 
enrich the moral and spiritual being of 
man4 ,no man1 says ,a4 ,w4 ,vernon1#bi  
save ,jesus1 ever had the right to lay  
the ,book 444 aside1 and he made it     
immortal4   ,,notes ,,on ,,chapter ,,vi 
#a ,j4 ,c4 ,todd1 ,politics and         
,religion in ,ancient ,israel1 p4 vii4  
#b ,the ,origin and ,permanent ,value of
 the ,old ,testament1 p4 #g4  #c        
,contemporary ,review1 ,august1 #ahhi1  
p4 #bcb4  #d ,c4 ,f4 ,kent1 ,the ,origin

 and ,permanent ,value of the ,old      
,testament1 pp4 #e;ff4  #e ,biblical    
,criticism and ,modern ,thought1 p4 #f4 
#f ,see above1 p4 #gi4  #g ,biblical    
,criticism and ,modern ,thought1 p4     
#bcj4  #h ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the ,book of
 ,genesis1 p4 xlii4  #i ,a4 ,westphal1  
,the ,law and the ,prophets1 p4 #dc4    
#aj ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the ,book of      
,genesis1 p4 lxx4  #aa ,w4 ,w4 ,white1  
,studies in ,old ,testament ,characters1
 p4 #ad4  #ab ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the     
,book of ,genesis1 p4 lxviii4  #ac ,old 
,testament ,criticism and the ,christian
 ,church1 p4 #cce4  #ad ,matt4 #e4 #ag4 
#bfc  #ae ,these words of ,johannes     
,arnd are used by ,franz ,delitzsch as  
the motto for his ,commentary on the    
,psalms4  #af ,ecclesiastical ,polity1  
,book ,v1 ,chapter ,,xxxvii1 #b4  #ag   
,the ,book of ,psalms1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ah4
  #ah ,j4 ,t4 ,marshall1 ,job and ,his  
,comforters1 p4 #d4  #ai ,for example1  
#c4 #e-g2 #af4 #c1 #f1 #i2 #bc4 #ag4    
#bj ,w4 ,t4 ,davison1 ,the ,wisdom      

,literature of the ,old ,testament1 pp4 
#acd1 #ace4  #ba ,g4 ,a4 ,barton1 ,the  
,book of ,job1 p4 #ab4  #bb ,w4 ,g4     
,jordan1 ,biblical ,criticism and       
,modern ,thought1 pp4 #bhd1 #bhe4  #bc  
,richard ,g4 ,moulton1 ,the ,modern     
,reader's ,bible1 ,one ,vol4 ed41 p4 x4 
#bd ,a4 ,w4 ,vernon1 ,the ,religious    
,value of the ,old ,testament1 p4 #hj4  
#be ,expository ,times1 ,november1      
#aijh1 pp4 #ed1 #ee4  #bf ,isa4 #a4     
#aa-ag4  #bg ,mic4 #f4 #h4  #bh ,james  
#a4 #bg4  #bi ,the ,religious ,value of 
the ,old ,testament1 p4 #ha4     #bfd   
,,index   ,abraham1 #bch4  ,adad-nirari 
,,iv1 #acd4  ,ahab1 #aca ff4  ,angels1  
#ahb f4  ,animism1 #afe f41 #afi f4     
,appeal to the soul1 #cj ff4            
,archaeological material1 #abc f4       
,archaeology1 #aaj ff4  ,ashurbanipal1  
#adj4  ,assumption versus knowledge1    
#bag ff4  ,authorship1 of ,pentateuch1  
#hh f42 other books1 #hi f4   ,babylon1 
fall of1 #ada4  ,benefits of criticism1 
#aje ff4  ,bible and ,reason1 #cc f4    

,bible lands1 #aaa4  ,black ,obelisk1   
#acc f4   ,canon1 #hf f4  ,ceremonial   
system1 #agh ff4  ,character study1     
#bch1 #beh f4  ,christian consciousness1
 #cf4  ,comparative religion1 #afj ff4  
,comparative study1 #afj ff42 aim1 #afj2
 attitude toward1 #afa f42 importance1  
#afd  ,compilation1 #hg f4              
,composition1 #ba-bc4  ,confirmations1  
#aef4  ,conflict between science and    
,genesis1 #da ff4  ,contrasts1 #bba f4  
,cosmology of appearances1 #ei f4       
,creation1 #da ff42 story of1 #bja ff42 
permanent value1 #bce f4  ,criticism1   
#ff ff42 benefits1 #aje ff42 definition1
 #fg f42 ,jesus and c41 #ib ff42        
inspiration and c41 #ih ff41 #aje4      
,cyrus1 #ada4   ,david1 #ajd4  ,day of  
,creation1 #de f4  ,decalogue1 #aii1    
#bad ff4  ,deity1 conception of1 #afe   
ff41 #bjf f41 #bab2 ,babylonian1        
#afe-afi1 ,egyptian1 #afi1 ,hebrew1     
#afi-agb2 ,character of ,d41 #agc ff4   
,demons1 #ahc f4  ,devotional           
literature1 #ag f41 #bdb f4  ,divine    

element1 #bf ff4  ,doctrinal value1 #beg
 f4   ,ecclesiastes1 #bej f4            
,elephantine1 #ada4  ,eponym lists1     
#aec4  ,esarhaddon1 #adj4  ,excavations1
 #aab ff42 ,assyrio-,babylonia1         
#aab-aaf2 ,egypt1 #aaf-aah2 ,palestine1 
#aah-aba2 ,phoenicia1 #aba2 ,moab1 #aba2
 ,syria1 #aba2 ,asia ,minor1 #aba f4    
,exile1 #ada4  ,exodus1 #abh f4   ,facts
 versus inferences1 #add f4  ,fall1     
#bac4  ,festivals1 #agh4  ,flood1 #bjg  
ff4  ,fulfillment of prophecy1 #bh f4   
,gains from excavations1 #aea ff42      
chronology1 #aeb f41 #aee2 geography1   
#aea f42 history1 #aeb4  ,gilgamesh1    
#bjh4   ,hammurabi1 code of1 #ahh ff4   
,harmonizing science with scripture1 #de
 ff4  ,harmony between science and      
,genesis1 #fa f4  ,hezekiah1 #ach f4    
,higher criticism1 #gc ff42 definition1 
#gf2 extra-biblical1 #gf f42 tradition  
and h4 c41 #gg2 importance1 #gh f42     
origin1 #gi ff42 reformers and h4 c41   
#hj f42 loyalty to ,christ and h4 c41   
#hb f42 traditional1 #hc2               

non-traditional1 #hc ff42 conclusions1  
#he ff42 illegitimate1 #aja f42 ,jesus  
and h4 c41 #ib ff42 inspiration and h4  
c41 #ih ff42 ,moses and h4 c41 #ajb f42 
,isaiah and h4 c41 #ajc f42 ,david and  
h4 c41 #ajd4  ,historical criticism1 #gb
 f4  ,historical literature1 #ai f41    
#bdj ff41 #bef f4  ,human element1 #bj  
ff4   ,ideal harmony1 #eb4              
,illegitimate criticism1 #aja f4        
,imperfections1 #bd f4  ,inaccuracies1  
#bc f41 #ee ff4  ,infallibility1 #ch f4 
,inferences versus facts1 #add f4       
,inspiration and criticism #ih ff41     
#aje4  ,interpretation1 #ci f41 #de ff4 
,isaiah1 #ajc f4   ,jehu1 #acd4  ,jesus1
 the supreme revealer1 #ce ff42         
limitation of knowledge1 #ig f42        
criticism and ,j41 #ib ff42 the ,old    
,testament and ,jesus1 #i f41 #bf1 #cf  
f41 #bcd4  ,job1 #bdg-bej4   ,knowledge 
versus assumption1 #bag ff4   ,legal    
literature1 #ah f4  ,legal system1      
,babylonian1 #ahg ff42 ,hebrew1 #aie f42
 relation between the two1 #aii f4      

,linguistic criticism1 #gj f4  ,literary
 criticism1 #ga f4  ,literature1 kinds  
of1 #ae ff41 #ij4   ,merneptah1 #abh f4 
,miracles1 #bg f4  ,mission of ,israel1 
#fj f4  ,misuse1 #bca f4  ,moabite      
,stone1 #acj ff4  ,monotheism1 #afg f41 
#bah f4  ,monotheistic tendencies1      
#afg-afi4  ,moral teaching1 #bei4       
,moses1 #ajb f4   ,nature of ,old       
,testament1 #ab f4  ,nebuchadrezzar1    
#adj f4  ,neglect1 #bbg f42 causes of1  
#bbi-bcc4  ,new ,testament1 superiority1
 #bbi f41 #bed f42 estimate of ,o4 ,t41 
#aj f4   ,old ,testament1 nature1 #ab   
f42 reliability1 #aej f42 as literature1
 #bee f42 in ,christian church1 #i2 ,new
 ,testament estimate of1 #aj f42 ,old   
,testament and interpretation of ,new   
,testament1 #beg2 ,jesus and ,old       
,testament1 #i f41 #bf1 #cf f41 #bcd4   
,omri1 #acj f4  ,opposition to          
criticism1 #gd f41 #hb1 #aja4  ,order of
 creation1 #dg ff4   ,patriarchal age1  
#aed2 narratives1 #bch f4  ,pekah1 #ace4
  ,penitential ,psalms1 #afh4           

,pentateuch1 authorship of1 #hh f4      
,permanent value1 #ei ff41 #bbg ff4     
,polydemonism1 #aga4  ,polytheism1 #aff 
ff4  ,priesthood1 #agi f4  ,prophecy1   
fulfilment of1 #bh f4  ,prophetic       
literature1 #ae f41 #bec f4  ,proverbs1 
#bde-bdg4  ,psalms1 #bdb-bdd1 #bfa4     
,purpose of ,old ,testament1 #aa f41 #ec
 ff41 #adh4   ,reliability1 of ,o4 ,t4  
history1 #aej f4  ,religion1 development
 of1 #hg4  ,religious imperfections1 #bd
 f42 r4 institutions1 #age ff4          
,restitution theory1 #dh f4             
,revelation1 #ec ff42 methods of1 #ac   
f42 progressive1 #he f4   ,sabbath1 #age
 ff4  ,sacrifice1 #ahj f4  ,samaria1    
capture of1 #acf f4  ,sargon ,,ii1 #acf4
  ,science1 #ch ff4  ,sennacherib1 #acg 
ff4  ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 #acb f4        
,shalmaneser ,v1 #acf4  ,sheol1 #ahd ff4
  ,shishak1 #abi f4  ,similarities1     
#bbj4  ,song of ,songs1 #bea-bec4       
,spiritual appeal1 #bi ff42 judgment1   
#ce f42 unity1 #bi f4  ,style1 #ba4     
,taylor ,cylinder1 #ach f4              

,tel-el-,amarna tablets1 #abe ff4       
,temple1 #agi4  ,textual criticism1 #fh 
ff41 #gd4  ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv1 #acd  
ff4  ,tirhaka1 #aci f4  ,tithe1 #ahj4   
,true religion1 #bfj f4   ,uniqueness1  
#cb f4  ,unity1 #bi f4  ,unrest1 #db    
ff41 #bcb4  ,use of archological        
material1 #adc ff4   ,veracity of       
inscriptions1 #ade f4  ,view point1 #adi
 f4  ,vision theory1 #ej f4   ,wisdom   
literature1 #af f41 #bdd ff4   ,yahweh1 
#aga ff41 #bag4  ,yaudi1 #ace4