,,etna4 ,illustration3 ,view of ,etna from ,catania ,,etna ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,and ,,of ,,its ,,eruptions4 ,,by ,g4 ,f4 ,,rodwell1 ,,science ,,master ,,in ,,marlborough ,,college4 ,,with ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations4 ,illustration ,,london ,c4 ,,kegan ,,paul ,,co41 #a1 ,,paternoster ,,square #ahgh ,the rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved4 ,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,book ,,to ,,my ,,mother4 ,,preface4 ,while preparing an account of ,,mount ,,etna for the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,i was surprised to find that there exists no single work in the ,english language devoted to the history of the most famous volcano in the world4 ,i was consequently induced to considerably enlarge the ,encyclopdia article1 and the following pages are the result4 ,the facts recorded have been collected from various sources--,german1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,english1 and from my own observations made during the summer of #ahgg4 ,i desire to express my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,frank ,rutley1 of ,h4,m4 ,geological ,survey1 for his careful examination of the lavas which were collected during my ascent of the mountain1 and for the account which he has written of them2 also to ,mr4 ,john ,murray for permission to copy figures from ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology4 ,my thanks are also due to ,mr4 ,george ,dennis1 ,h4,m4 ,consul-,general in ,sicily2 ,mr4 ,robert ,o4 ,franck1 ,vice-,consul in ,catania2 and to ,prof4 ,orazio ,silvestri1 for information with which they have severally supplied me4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,rodwell4 ,,marlborough1 ,september #fth1 #ahgh4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 #a ,position4--,name4--,mention of ,etna by early writers4--,pindar4-- schylus4--,thucydides4--,virgil4--,strab o4--,lucretius4--,lucilius ,junior4--,etna the home of early myths4--,cardinal ,bembo4--,fazzello4-- ,filoteo4--,early ,maps of the ,mountain4--,hamilton4--,houel4--,brydon e4-- ,ferrara4--,recupero4--,captain ,smyth4--,gemellaro2 his ,map of ,etna4-- ,elie de ,beaumont4--,abich4--,hoffmann4--,von ,waltershausen's ,atlas des ,aetna4--,lyell4--,map of the ,italian ,stato ,maggiore4--,carlo ,gemellaro4--,orazio ,silvestri4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 #bf ,height4--,radius of ,vision from the summit4--,boundaries4--,area4-- ,population4--,general aspect of ,etna4--,the ,val del ,bove4--,minor ,cones4--,caverns4--,position and extent of the three ,regions4-- ,regione ,coltivata4--,regione ,selvosa4--,regione ,deserta4--,botanical ,regions4--,divisions of ,rafinesque-,schmaltz1 and of ,presl4--,animal life in the upper ,regions4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,ascent ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 #dc ,the most suitable time for ascending ,etna4--,the ,ascent commenced4-- ,nicolosi4--,etna mules4--,night journey through the upper ,regions of the mountain4--,brilliancy of the ,stars4--,proposed ,observatory on ,etna4--,the ,casa ,inglesi4--,summit of the ,great ,crater4--,sunrise from the summit4--,the ,crater4--,descent from the ,mountain4-- ,effects of ,refraction4--,fatigue of the ,ascent4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,towns ,,situated ,,on ,,the ,,mountain4 #fb ,paterno4--,ste4 ,maria di ,licodia4--,the site of the ancient town of ,aetna4--,biancavilla4--,aderno4--,sicil ian ,inns4--,adranum4--,bronte4-- ,randazzo4--,mascali4--,giarre4--,aci ,reale4--,its position4--,the ,scogli de',ciclopi4--,catania1 its early history1 and present condition4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,eruptions ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 #gi ,their frequency within the historical period4--#ebe ,b4,c4--#dgg ,b4,c4-- #dbf ,b4,c4--#cif ,b4,c4--#adj ,b4,c4--#acd ,b4,c4--#abf ,b4,c4--#abb ,b4,c4-- #di ,b4,c4--#dc ,b4,c4--#ch ,b4,c4--#cb ,b4,c4--#dj ,a4,d4--#gb4--bec4--dbj4--hab4-- #aafi4--aaha4--abhe4--acbi4--accc4--acga 4--adjh4--addd4--addf4--addg4-- ,close of the ,fifteenth ,century4--#aecf4--aecg4--aeff4--aegi4-- afjc4-- #afjg4--afaj4--afad4--afai4--afcc4--afdf 4--afea4--affi4--afhb4-- #afhh4--afhi4--afic4--afid4--agjb4--agbc 4--agcb4--agce4--agdd4--agdg4-- #agee4--;,flood of #agee4--agei4--agfc4--agff4--aghj4--agha 4--aghg4-- #agib4--agig4--agih4--agii4--ahjj4--ahjb 4--ahje4--ahjh4--ahji4--ahaa4-- #ahai4--ahca4--ahcb4--ahch4--ahdb4--ahdc 4--aheb4--ahfe4--ahgd4-- ,general character of the ,eruptions4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,geology ,,and ,,mineralogy ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 #aad ,elie de ,beaumont's classification of the rocks of ,etna4--,hoffman's geological map4--,lyell's researches4--,the period of earliest eruption4--,the ,val del ,bove4--,two craters of eruption4--,antiquity of ,etna4--,the lavas of ,etna4--,labradorite4--,augite4--,olivin e4-- ,analcime4--,titaniferous iron4--,mr4 ,rutley's examination of ,etna lavas under the microscope4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,view of ,etna from ,catania ,to face ,title4 ,topographical ,map of ,etna ,to face page #a ,sections of ,etna #cj ,grotto delle ,palombe #cf ,the ,casa ,inglesi and ,cone of ,etna #eb ,view of the ,val de ,bove #eh ,view of ,etna from ,bronte #ff ,island of ,columnar ,basalt off ,trezza #gd ,geological ,map of ,etna #aad ,map of the ,val del ,bove 7woodcut7 #aag ,ideal ,section of ,mount ,etna #aai ,profile of ,etna #aba ,sections of ,etna ,lavas seen under the ,microscope1 to face p4 #ach ,illustration3 ,topographical ,map of ,etna ,,etna4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,and ,,of ,,its ,,eruptions4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 ,position4--,name4--,mention of ,etna by early writers4--,pindar4-- schylus4--,thucydides4--,virgil4--,strab o4--,lucretius4--,lucilius ,junior4--,etna the home of early myths4--,cardinal ,bembo4--,fazzello4-- ,filoteo4--,early ,maps of the ,mountain4--,hamilton4--,houel4--,brydon e4-- ,ferrara4--,recupero4--,captain ,smyth4--,gemellaro2 his ,map of ,etna4-- ,elie de ,beaumont4--,abich4--,hoffmann4--,von ,waltershausen's ,atlas des ,aetna4--,lyell4--,map of the ,italian ,stato ,maggiore4--,carlo ,gemellaro4--,orazio ,silvestri4 ,the principal mountain chain of ,sicily skirts the ,north and a portion of the ,north-eastern coast1 and would appear to be a prolongation of the ,apennines4 ,an inferior group passes through the centre of the island1 diverging towards the ,south1 as it approaches the ,east coast4 ,between the two ranges1 and completely separated from them by the valleys of the ,alcantara and the ,simeto1 stands the mighty mass of ,mount ,etna1 which rises in solitary grandeur from the eastern sea-board of the island4 ,volcanoes1 by the very mode of their formation1 are frequently completely isolated2 and1 if they are of any magnitude1 they thus acquire an imposing contour and a majesty1 which larger mountains1 forming parts of a chain1 do not possess4 ,this specially applies to ,etna4 ,coelebs degit1 says ,cardinal ,bembo1 et nullius montis dignata conjugium1 caste intra suos terminos continetur4 ,it is not alone the conspicuous appearance of the mountain which has made it the most famous volcano either of ancient or modern times3--the number and violence of its eruptions1 the extent of its lava streams1 its association with antiquity1 and its history prolonged over more than #bdjj years1 have all tended to make it celebrated4 ,the geographical position of ,etna was first accurately determined by ,captain ,smyth in #ahad4 ,he estimated the latitude of the highest point of the bifid peak of the great crater at #cg #dc' #ca ,n42 and the longitude at #ae ,east of ,greenwich4 ,elie de ,beaumont repeated the observations in #ahcd with nearly the same result2 and these determinations have been very generally adopted4 ,in the new ,italian map recently constructed by the ,stato ,maggiore1 the latitude of the centre of the crater is stated to be #cg #dd' #ee ,n41 and the longitude #dd' #ee ,e4 of the meridian of ,naples1 which passes through the ,observatory of ,capo di ,monte4 ,according to ,bochart the name of ,etna is derived from the ,phoenician athana--a furnace2 others derive it from aith--to burn4 ,professor ,benfey of ,gottingen1 a great authority on the subject1 considers that the word was created by one of the early ,indo-,germanic races4 ,he identifies the root ait with the ,greek aith and the ,latin aed--to burn1 as in aes-tu4 ,the ,greek name ,aitna was known to ,hesiod4 ,the more modern name1 ,mongibello1 by which the mountain is still commonly known to the ,sicilians1 is a combination of the ,arabic ,gibel1 and the ,italian ,monte4 ,during the ,saracenic occupation of ,sicily1 ,etna was called ,gibel ,uttamat--the mountain of fire2 and the last syllables of ,mongibello are a relic of the ,saracenic name4 ,a mountain near ,palermo is still called ,gibel ,rosso--the red mountain2 and names may not unfrequently be found in the immediate neighbourhood of ,etna which are partly1 or sometimes even entirely1 composed of ,arabic words2 such1 for example1 as ,alcantara--the river of the bridge4 ,etna is also often spoken of distinctively as ,il ,monte--the mountain par excellence2 a name which1 in its capacity of the largest mountain in the kingdom of ,italy1 and the loftiest volcano in ,europe1 it fully justifies4 ,etna is frequently alluded to by classical writers4 ,by the poets it was sometimes feigned to be the prison of the giant ,enceladus or ,typhon1 sometimes the forge of ,hephaistos1 and the abode of the ,cyclops4 ,it is strange that ,homer1 who has so minutely described certain portions of the contiguous ,sicilian coast1 does not allude to ,etna4 ,this has been thought by some to be a proof that the mountain was in a quiescent state during the period which preceded and coincided with the time of ,homer4 ,pindar 7,b4,c4 #ebb-ddb7 is the first writer of antiquity who has described ,etna4 ,in the first of the ,pythian ,odes for ,hieron1 of the town of ,aitna1 winner in the chariot race in ,b4,c4 #dgd1 he exclaims3 444 ,he 7,typhon7 is fast bound by a pillar of the sky1 even by snowy ,etna1 nursing the whole year's length her dazzling snow4 ,whereout pure springs of unapproachable fire are vomited from the inmost depths3 in the daytime the lava-streams pour forth a lurid rush of smoke2 but in the darkness a red rolling flame sweepeth rocks with uproar to the wide deep sea4444 ,that dragon-thing 7,typhon7 it is that maketh issue from beneath the terrible fiery flood4#a #a ,translated by ,ernest ,myers1 ,m4,a41 #ahgd4 schylus 7,b4,c4 #ebe-def7 speaks also of the mighty ,typhon1 7,prometheus ,v473 4 4 4 4 4 ,he lies ,a helpless1 powerless carcase1 near the strait ,of the great sea1 fast pressed beneath the roots ,of ancient ,etna1 where on highest peak ,hephstos sits and smites his iron red hot1 ,from whence hereafter streams of fire shall burst1 ,devouring with fierce jaws the golden plains ,of fruitful1 fair ,sikelia4#b #b ,translated by ,e4 ,myers4 ,herein he probably refers to the eruption which had occurred a few years previously 7,b4,c4 #dgf74 ,thucydides 7,b4,c4 #dga-djb7 alludes in the last lines of the ,third ,book to several early eruptions of the mountain in the following terms3 ,in the first days of this spring1 the stream of fire issued from ,etna1 as on former occasions1 and destroyed some land of the ,catanians1 who live upon ,mount ,etna1 which is the largest mountain in ,sicily4 ,fifty years1 it is said1 had elapsed since the last eruption1 there having been three in all since the ,hellenes have inhabited ,sicily4#c #c ,translated by ,e4 ,crawley4 ,virgil's oft-quoted description of the mountain 7,eneid1 ,bk4 #c7 we give in the spirited translation of ,conington3 ,but ,etna with her voice of fear ,in weltering chaos thunders near4 ,now pitchy clouds she belches forth ,of cinders red1 and vapour swarth2 ,and from her caverns lifts on high ,live balls of flame that lick the sky3 ,now with more dire convulsion flings ,disploded rocks1 her heart's rent strings1 ,and lava torrents hurls to-day ,a burning gulf of fiery spray4 ,many other early writers speak of the mountain1 among them ,theokritos1 ,aristotle1 ,ovid1 ,livy1 ,seneca1 ,lucretius1 ,pliny1 ,lucan1 ,petronius1 ,cornelius ,severus1 ,dion ,cassius1 ,strabo1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 and ,lucilius ,junior4 ,seneca makes various allusions to ,etna1 and mentions the fact that lightning sometimes proceeded from its smoke4 ,strabo has given a very fair description of the mountain4 ,he asserts that in his time the upper part of it was bare1 and covered with ashes1 and in winter with snow1 while the lower slopes were clothed with forests4 ,the summit was a plain about twenty stadia in circumference1 surrounded by a ridge1 within which there was a small hillock1 the smoke from which ascended to a considerable height4 ,he further mentions a second crater4 ,etna was commonly ascended in ,strabo's time from the south-west4 ,while the poets on the one hand had invested the mountain with various supernatural attributes1 and had made it the prison-house of a chained giant1 and the workshop of a swart god1 ,lucretius endeavoured to show that the eruptions and other phenomena could be easily explained by the ordinary operations of nature4 ,and now at last1 he writes1 ,i will explain in what ways yon flame1 roused to fury in a moment1 blazes forth from the huge furnaces of ,aetna4 ,and1 first1 the nature of the whole mountain is hollow underneath1 underpropped throughout with caverns of basalt rocks4 ,furthermore1 in all caves are wind and air1 for wind is produced when the air has been stirred and put in motion4 ,when this air has been thoroughly heated1 and1 raging about1 has imparted its heat to all the rocks around1 wherever it comes in contact with them1 and to the earth1 and has struck out from them fire burning with swift flames1 it rises up and then forces itself out on high1 straight through the gorges2 and so carries its heat far1 and scatters far its ashes1 and rolls on smoke of a thick pitchy blackness1 and flings out at the same time stones of prodigious weight--leaving no doubt that this is the stormy force of air4 ,again1 the sea1 to a great extent1 breaks its waves and sucks back its surf at the roots of that mountain4 ,caverns reach from this sea as far as the deep gorges of the mountain below4 ,through these you must admit that air mixed up with water passes2 and the nature of the case compels this air to enter in from that open sea1 and pass right within1 and then go out in blasts1 and so lift up flame1 and throw out stones1 and raise clouds of sand2 for on the summit are craters1 as they name them in their own language1 what we call gorges and mouths4#d #d ,de ,natur ,rerum1 ,book #f1 p4 #ehj4 ,translated by ,e4 ,munro #ahfd4 ,these ideas were developed by ,lucilius ,junior in a poem consisting of #fdd hexameters entitled ,aetna4 ,the authorship of this poem has long been a disputed point2 it has been attributed to ,virgil1 ,claudian1 ,quintilius ,varus1 ,manilius1 and1 by ,joseph ,scaliger#e and others1 to ,cornelius ,severus4 ,wensdorff was the first to adduce reasons for attributing the poem to ,lucilius ,junior1 and his views are generally adopted4 ,lucilius ,junior was ,procurator of ,sicily under ,nero1 and1 while resident in the ,island1 he ascended ,etna2 and it is said that he proposed writing a detailed history of the mountain4 ,he adopted the scientific opinions of ,epicurus1 as established in ,rome by ,lucretius1 and was more immediately a disciple of ,seneca4 ,the latter dedicated to him his ,qustiones ,naturales1 in which he alludes more than once to ,etna4 ,m4 ,chenu speaks of the poem of ,lucilius ,junior as sans doute trs-petique1 mais assez souvent dur1 heurt1 concis1 et parcela mme1 d'une obscurit parfois dsesprante4#f ,at the commencement of the poem1 ,lucilius ridicules the ideas of the poets as regards the connection of ,etna with ,vulcan and the ,cyclops4 ,he has no belief in the practice1 which apparently prevailed in his time1 of ascending to the edge of the crater and there offering incense to the tutelary gods of the mountain4 ,he adopts to a great extent the tone and style of ,lucretius1 in his explanation of the phenomena of the mountain4 ,water filters through the crevices and cracks in the rocks1 until it comes into contact with the internal fires1 when it is converted into vapour and expelled with violence4 ,the internal fires are nourished by the winds which penetrate into the mountain4 ,he traces some curious connection between the plants which grow upon the mountain1 and the supply of sulphur and bitumen to the interior1 which is1 at best1 but partly intelligible4 #e ,see ,lucilius ,junioris ,,aetna4 ,recensuit notasque ,jos4 ,scaligeri1 ,frid4 ,lindenbruchii et suas addidit ,fridericus ,jacob4 ,lipsi1 #ahbf4 #f ,l',etna de ,lucilius ,junior4 ,traduction nouvelle par ,jules ,chenu4 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,nunc superant1 quacunque regant incendia silv ,qu flammis alimenta vacent1 quid nutriat ,aetnam4 ,incendi patiens illis vernacula caulis ,materia1 appositumque igni genus utile terr est1 ,uritur assidue calidus nunc sulfuris humor1 ,nunc spissus crebro prbetur flumine succus1 ,pingue bitumen adest1 et quidquid cominus acres ,irritat flammas2 illius corporis tna est4 ,atque hanc materiam penitus discurrere fontes ,infect erumpunt et aqu radice sub ipsa4 ,many of the myths developed by the earlier poets had their home in the immediate neighbourhood1 sometimes upon the very sides1 of ,etna--,demeter seeking ,persephone2 ,acis and ,galatea2 ,polyphemus and the ,cyclops4 ,mr4 ,symonds tells us that the one-eyed giant ,polyphemus was ,etna itself1 with its one great crater1 while the ,cyclops were the many minor cones4 ,persephone was the patroness of ,sicily1 because amid the billowy corn-fields of her mother ,demeter1 and the meadow-flowers she loved in girlhood1 are ever found sulphurous ravines1 and chasms breathing vapour from the pit of ,hades4#g #g ,sketches in ,italy and ,greece1 p4 #bja4 ,it is said that both ,plato and the ,emperor ,hadrian ascended ,etna in order to witness the sunrise from its summit4 ,the story of ,he who to be deemed ,a god1 leaped fondly into ,etna flames1 ,empedokles is too trite to need repetition4 ,a ruined tower near the head of the ,val del ,bove1 #i1egj feet above the sea1 has from time immemorial been called the ,torre del ,filosofo1 and is asserted to have been the observatory of ,empedokles4 ,others regard it as the remains of a ,roman tower1 which was possibly erected on the occasion of ,hadrian's ascent of the mountain4 ,during the ,middle ,ages ,etna is frequently alluded to1 among others by ,dante1 ,petrarch1 ,boccaccio1 and ,cardinal ,bembo4 ,the latter gives a description of the mountain in the form of a dialogue1 which ,ferrara characterises as erudito1 e grecizzante1 ma sensa nervi4 ,he describes its general appearance1 its well-wooded sides1 and sterile summit4 ,when he visited the mountain it had two craters about a stone's throw apart2 the larger of the two was said to be about three miles in circumference1 and it stood somewhat above the other4#h #h ,petri ,bembi ,,de ,,aetna4 ,ad ,angelum ,chabrielem ,liber ,impressum ,venetiis ,aedibus ,aldi ,romani4 ,mense ,februario anno ,m4,v4,d4 7#adie74 ,in #aeda ,fazzello made an ascent of the mountain1 which he briefly describes in the fourth chapter of his bulky volume ,de ,rebus ,siculis4#i ,this chapter is entitled ,de ,aetna monte et ejus ignibus2 it contains a short history of the mountain1 and some mention of the principal towns which he enumerates in the following order3 ,catana1 ,tauromenium1 ,caltabianco1 ,linguagrossa1 ,castroleone1 ,francavilla1 ,rocella1 ,randatio 7,randazzo71 ,bronte1 ,adrano1 ,paterno1 and ,motta4 ,fazzello speaks of only one crater4 #i ,fazzellus ,t4 ,,de ,,rebus ,,siculis4 ,panormi1 #aeeh2 folio4 ,in #aeia ,antonio ,filoteo1 who was born on ,etna1 published a work in ,venice in which he describes the general features of the mountain1 and gives a special account of an eruption which he witnessed in #aecf4aj ,the mountain was then1 as now1 divided into three ,regions4 ,the first and uppermost of these1 he asserts1 is very arid1 rugged1 and uneven1 and full of broken rocks2 the second is covered with forests2 and the third is cultivated in the ordinary manner4 ,of the height he remarks1 ,ascensum triginta circiter millia passuum ad plus habet4 ,in regard to the name1 ,mongibello1 he makes a curious error1 deriving it from ,mulciber1 one of the names of ,vulcan1 who1 as we have seen1 was feigned by the earlier poets to have had his forge within the mountain4 #aj ,antonii ,philothei de ,homodeis ,siculi1 ,,aetn ,,topographia1 incendiorum ,aetnorum ,historia4 ,venetiis4 #aeia4 ,preface dated ,september1 #aeij4 ,in #afcf ,carrera gave an account of ,etna1 followed by that of the ,jesuit ,kircher1 in #afch4 ,the great eruption of #affi was described at length by various eye-witnesses1 and furnished the subject of the first detailed description of the eruptive phenomena of the mountain4 ,public attention was now very generally drawn to the subject in all civilised countries4 ,it was described by the naturalist1 ,borelli1 and in our own ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,lord ,winchelsea1 our ambassador at ,constantinople1 was returning to ,england by way of the ,straits of ,messina at the time of the eruption1 and he forwarded to ,charles ,,ii ,a true and exact relation of the late prodigious earthquake and eruption of ,mount tna1 or ,monte ,gibello4 ,the first map of the mountain which we have been able to meet with1 was published in reference to the eruption of #affi2 it is entitled1 ,plan du ,mont ,etna communenent dit ,mount ,gibel en l',isle de ,scicille et de t'incedie arrive par un treblement de terre le #hme ,mars dernier #affi4 ,this plan is in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 in ,paris2 it was probably drawn from a simple description1 or perhaps altogether from the imagination1 as it is utterly unlike the mountain1 the sides of which possess an impossible steepness4 ,another very inaccurate map was published in ,nuremberg about #afhj1 annexed to a map of ,sicily1 which is entitled1 ,regnorum ,sicili et ,sardini1 ,nova ,tabula4 ,again1 in #agad ,h4 ,moll1 geographer in ,devereux ,street1 ,strand1 published a new map of ,italy1 in which there is a representation of ,etna during the eruption of #affi4 ,this also was probably drawn from the imagination2 no one who has ever seen the mountain would recognise it1 for it has a small base1 and sides which rival the ,matterhorn in abruptness4 ,over against the coast of ,sicily1 and near the mountain1 is written3--,mount ,etna1 or ,mount ,gibello4 ,this mountain sometimes issues out pure flame1 and at other times a thick smoak with ashes2 streams of fire run down with great quantities of burning stones1 and has made many eruptions4 ,during the eighteenth century ,etna was frequently ascended1 and as frequently described4 ,we have the accounts of ,massa 7#agjc71 ,count ,d',orville 7#agbg71 ,riedesel 7#agfg71 ,sir ,william ,hamilton 7#agfi71 ,brydone 7#aggf71 ,houel 7#aghf71 ,dolomieu 7#aghh71 ,spallanzani 7#agij71 and many minor writers1 such as ,borch1 ,brocchi1 ,swinburne1 ,denon1 and ,faujas de ,saint ,fond4 ,there is great sameness in all of these narratives1 and much repetition of the same facts2 some of them1 however1 merit a passing notice4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,campi ,phlegri relates mainly to ,vesuvius and the surrounding neighbourhood2 but one of the letters addressed to the ,secretary of the ,royal ,society on ,october #agth1 #agfi1 describes an ascent of ,etna4 ,hamilton ascended on ,june #bdth with the ,canon ,recupero and other companions2 the few observations of any value which he made have been alluded to elsewhere under the head of the special subjects to which they refer4 ,the illustrations of the ,campi ,phlegri1 specially the original water-colours which are contained in one of the ,british ,museum copies1 are magnificent1 and convey a better idea of volcanic phenomena than any amount of simple reading4 ,from them we can well realise the opening of a long rift extending down the sides of a mountain during its eruption1 and the formation of subsidiary craters along the line of fire thus opened4 ,various volcanic products are also admirably painted4 ,in the picture of ,etna1 however1 which was drawn by ,antonio ,fabris1 the artist has scarcely been more successful than his predecessors1 and the slope of the sides of the mountain has been greatly exaggerated4 ,m4 ,houel1 in his ,voyage pittoresque dans les ,deux ,siciles1 #agha-aghf1 has given a fairly good account of ,etna1 accompanied by some really excellent engravings4 ,in #aggf ,patrick ,brydone1 a clever ,irishman with a good deal of native shrewdness and humour1 published two volumes of a ,tour in ,sicily and ,malta1 in which he devoted several chapters to ,mount ,etna4 ,he made the ascent of the mountain1 and collected from the ,canon ,recupero1 and from others1 many facts concerning its then present1 and its past history4 ,he also made observations as to the height1 temperature of the air at various elevations1 brightness of the stars1 and so on4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton calls ,brydone a very ingenious and accurate observer1 and adds that he was well acquainted with ,alpine measurements4 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 writing in #ahcf1 speaks of him as le celebre ,brydone2 while1 on the other hand1 the ,abb ,spallanzani1 displeased at certain remarks which he made concerning ,roman ,catholicism in ,sicily1 never fails to deprecate his work1 and deplores his trivial and insipid pleasantries4 ,albeit ,brydone's chapters on ,etna furnished a more complete account of the volcano than any which had appeared in ,english up to that time2 his remarks are frequently very sound and just1 and we shall have occasion more than once to quote him4 ,it was reserved1 however1 for the ,abate ,francesco ,ferrara1 ,professor of ,physical ,science in the ,university of ,catania1 to furnish the first history of ,etna and of its eruptions1 which had any just claim to completeness4 ,it is entitled1 ,descrizione dell' ,etna1 con la ,storia delle ,eruzioni e il ,catalogo del prodotti4 ,the first edition appeared in #agic1 and a second was printed in ,palermo in #ahah4 ,the author had an enthusiastic love for his subject3--,nato sopra l',etna1 he writes1 che io conobbi ben presto palmo a palmo la mia passione per lo studio fiss la mia attenzione sul bello1 e terribile fenomeno che avea avanti agli occhi4 ,the work commences with a general description of the mountain--its height1 the temperature of the different regions1 the view from the summit1 the mass1 the water-springs1 the vegetable and animal life1 and the internal fires4 ,this extends over sixty-nine octavo pages4 ,the second part of the book--eighty pages--gives a history of the eruptions from the earliest times to the year #ahaa2 the third part--sixty-seven pages--treats of the nature of the volcanic products2 and the fourth part--thirty-four pages--discusses certain geological and physical considerations concerning the mountain4 ,at the end there are a few badly drawn and engraved woodcuts1 and a map which1 although the trend of the coast-line is quite wrong1 is otherwise fairly good4 ,the engravings represent the mountain as seen from ,catania2 the ,isole dei ,ciclopi1 and the neighbouring coast2 the ,montagna della ,motta2 and a view from ,catania of the eruption of #aghg4 ,this work has evidently to a great extent been a labour of love2 it is full of personal observations1 and also embodies the results of many other observers4 ,it has furnished the foundation of much that has since been written concerning ,etna4 ,the ,canon ,recupero has been alluded to above2 he accompanied ,hamilton1 ,brydone1 and others to the summit of the mountain1 and he was employed by the ,government to report on the flood which1 in #agee1 descended with extraordinary violence through the ,val del ,bove4 ,beyond this1 ,recupero does not appear to have published anything concerning ,etna1 although it was well known that he had plenty of materials4 ,he died in #aggh1 and it was not till the year #ahae that his results were published under the title of ,storia ,naturale et ,generale dell' ,etna1 del ,canonico ,giuseppe ,recupero4--,opera ,postuma4 ,this work consists of two bulky quarto volumes1 the first of which is devoted to a general description of the mountain1 the second to a history of the eruptions1 and an account of the products of eruptions4 ,some idea may be formed of the extreme prolixity of the author if we mention that two chapters1 together containing twelve quarto pages1 are devoted to the discussion of the height of ,etna1 while the first volume is terminated by sixty-three closely printed pages of annotations4 ,a few rough woodcuts accompany the volumes2 a view of the mountain which1 as usual1 is out of all reason as regards abruptness of ascent1 and a carta oryctographia di ,mongibello in which the trend of the coast-line between ,catania and ,taormina is altogether inexact1 complete the illustrations of this most detailed of histories4 ,during the years #ahad-ahaf ,captain ,smyth1 acting under orders from the ,admiralty1 made a survey of the coast of ,sicily1 and of the adjacent islands4 ,at this time the ,mediterranean charts were very defective2 some places on the coast of ,sicily were mapped as much as twenty miles out of their true position1 and even the exact positions of the observatories at ,naples1 ,palermo1 and ,malta were not known4 ,among other results1 ,smyth carefully determined the latitude and longitude of ,etna1 accurately measured its height1 and examined the surroundings of the mountain4 ,his results were published in #ahbd1 and are often regarded as the most accurate that we possess4 ,in #ahbd ,dr4 ,joseph ,gemellaro1 who lived all his life on the mountain1 and made it his constant study1 published an ,historical and ,topographical ,map of the ,eruptions of ,etna from the era of the ,sicani to the year #ahbd4 ,in it he delineates the extent of the three ,regions1 ,coltivata1 ,selvosa1 and ,deserta2 he places the minor cones1 to the number of seventy-four1 in their proper places1 and he traces the course of the various lava-streams which have flowed from them and from the great crater4 ,this map is the result of much patient labour and study1 and it is a great improvement upon those of ,ferrara and ,recupero1 but of course it is impossible for one man to survey with much accuracy an area of nearly #ejj square miles1 and to trace the tortuous course of a large number of lava-streams4 ,hence we must be prepared for inaccuracies1 and they are not uncommon--the coast line is altogether wrong as to its bearings1 some of the small towns on the sides of the mountain are misplaced1 and but little attention has been paid to scale4 ,still the map is very useful1 as it is the only one which shows the course of the lava-streams4 ,mario ,gemellaro1 brother of the preceding1 made almost daily observations of the condition of ,etna1 between the years #ahjc and #ahcb4 ,these results were tabulated1 and they are given in the ,vulcanologia dell' ,etna of his brother1 ,professor ,carlo ,gemellaro1 under the title of ,registro di ,osservazioni del ,sigr4 ,mario ,gemellaro4 ,carlo ,gemellaro contributed many memoirs on subjects connected with the mountain4 ,they are chiefly to be found in the ,atti dell' ,accademia ,gioenia of ,catania1 and they extend over a number of years4 ,perhaps the most important is the treatise entitled ,la ,vulcanologia dell' ,etna che comprende la ,topographia1 la ,geologia1 la ,storia1 delle sue ,eruzioni4 ,it was published in ,catania in #aheh1 and is dedicated to ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 who ascended the mountain under the guidance of the author4 ,the latter also published a ,breve ,raggualio della ,eruzione dell' ,etna1 del #ba ,agosto #aheb1 which contains the most authentic account of this important eruption1 accompanied by some graphic sketches made on the spot4 ,the last contribution of ,carlo ,gemellaro to the history of ,etna1 is fitly entitled ,un ,addio al ,maggior ,vulcano di ,europa4 ,it was published in #ahff1 and with pardonable vanity the author reviews his work in connection with the mountain1 extending over a period of more than forty years4 ,he commences his somewhat florid farewell with the following apostrophe3--,o ,etna6 splendida e perenne manifestazione della esistenza dei ,fuochi sotteranei massimo fra quanti altri monti1 dalle coste meridionali di ,europa1 dalle orientali dell' ,asia e delle settentrionali dell' ,africa si specchiano nel ,mediterraneo3 tremendo pei tuoi incendii3 benigno per la fertilit del vulcanico tuo terreno ridotto a prospera coltivazione 444 io1 nato appi del vasto tuo cono1 in quella ,citt che hai minacciato pi d'una volta di sepellire sotto le tue infocate correnti3 allogato1 nella mia prima et1 in una stanza della casa paterna1 che signoreggiava in allora pi basse abizioni vicine1 ed intiera godeva la veduta della estesa parte meridional della tua mole1 io non potera non averti di continuo sotto gli occhi1 e non essere spettatore dei tuoi visibili fenomeni6 ,in #ahcd1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont commenced a minute geological examination of the mountain4 ,his results were published in #ahch1 under the title of ,recherches sur la structure et sur l'origine du ,mont ,etna1 and they extend over #bbe pages4#aa ,he re-determined the latitude and longitude of the mountain1 measured the slope of the cone1 and the diameter of the great crater1 and minutely examined the structure of the rocks at the base of the mountain4 ,he also gives a good sectional view1 elevations taken from each quarter of the compass1 and a geological map1 which although accurate in its general details1 can scarcely be considered very satisfactory4 ,a relief map of ,etna1 a copy of which is in the ,royal ,school of ,mines1 was afterwards constructed from the flat map1 and this was1 we believe1 at the same time1 the first geological map1 and the first map in relief1 which had been made of the mountain4 ,elie de ,beaumont considers granite as the basis of the mountain1 because it is sometimes ejected from the crater2 old basaltic rocks appear in the ,isole dei ,ciclopi1 and near ,paterno1 ,licodia1 and ,aderno2 cailloux rouls near ,motta2 ancient lavas on each side of the ,val del ,bove2 modern lavas in every part of the mountain1 and calcareous and arenaceous rocks in the surrounding mountains4 #aa ,printed in vol4 ,,iv4 of ,mmoires pour servir a une description ,geologique de la ,france4 ,par ,m4,m4 ,dufrnoy et ,elie de ,beaumont4 ,in #ahcf1 ,abich published some excellent sections of ,etna1 and an accurate view of the interior of the crater1 in a work entitled ,vues illustratives de quelques ,phnomnes ,gologiques prises sur le ,vsuve et l',etna pendant les annes #ahcc and #ahcd4 ,the whole of the thirteenth volume 7#ahci7 of the ,berlin ,archiv fr ,mineralogie1 ,geognosie1 ,berghau und ,httenkunde1 is occupied by an elaborate memoir on the geology of ,sicily#ab by ,friedrich ,hoffmann1 accompanied by an excellent geological map4 ,a long account of the geology of ,etna is given1 and an enlarged map of the mountain was afterwards constructed and published in the ,vulkanen ,atlas of ,dr4 ,leonhard in #ahej4ac #ab ,entitled ,geognostiche ,beobachtungen ,gesammelt auf einer ,reise durch ,italian und ,sicilien1 in den jahren #ahcj bis #ahcb1 von ,friedrich ,hoffmann4 #ac ,vulkanen ,atlas zur naturgeschichte der ,erde von ,k4 ,g4 ,von ,leonhard4 ,stuttgardt4 #ahej4 ,in #ahcf ,baron ,sartorius ,von ,waltershausen commenced a minute survey of ,etna1 preparatory to a complete description of the mountain1 both geological and otherwise4 ,he was assisted by ,professor ,cavallari of ,palermo1 ,professor ,peters of ,hensbourg1 and ,professor ,roos of ,mayence4 ,the survey occupied six years1 7#ahcf-ahdb71 and the results of direct observation in the form of maps and drawings1 occupied a hundred sheets #afj millimetres 7#f-a_/d inches7 long1 by #acc m4m4 7#e-a_/d inches7 broad4 ,twenty-nine separate points were made use of in the triangulation2 and the scale chosen was #a in #ej1jjj4 ,the results were published in a large folio atlas1 which appeared in eight parts2 the first in #ahde and the last in #ahfa1 when the death of ,von ,waltershausen put an end to the further publication4 ,there are #bf fine coloured maps1 and #ca engravings4 ,the cost of the atlas is #ab4 ,the maps are both geological and topographical1 and they are accompanied by outline engravings of various details of special interest4 ,the ,atlas des ,aetna furnishes the most exhaustive history of any one mountain on the face of the earth1 and ,sartorius ,von ,waltershausen will always be the principal authority on the subject of ,etna4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell visited ,etna in #ahbd1 #aheg1 and again in #aheh4 ,he embodied his researches in a paper presented to the ,royal ,society in #ahei1 and in a lengthy chapter in the ,principles of ,geology4 ,his investigations have added much to our knowledge of the formation and geological characteristics of the mountain1 especially of that part of it called the ,val del ,bove4 ,later writers usually quote ,von ,waltershausen and ,lyell1 and do not add much original matter4 ,the facts of all subsequent writers are taken more or less directly from these authors4 ,the latest addition to the literature of the mountain1 is the ,wanderungen am ,aetna of ,dr4 ,baltzer1 in the journal of the ,swiss ,alpine ,club for #ahgd4ad #ad ,jahrbuch des ,schweizer ,alpen ,club4 ,neunter ,jahrgang1 #ahgc-ahgd4 ,bern #ahgd4 ,a fine map of ,sicily1 on the unusually large scale of #a in #ej1jjj1 or #abff inch to a mile1 was constructed by the ,stato ,maggiore of the ,italian government1 between #ahfd and #ahfh4 ,the portion relating to ,etna1 and its immediate surroundings occupies four sheets4 ,all the small roads and rivulets are introduced2 the minor cones and monticules are placed in their proper positions1 and the elevation of the ground is given at short intervals of space over the entire map4 ,an examination of this map shows us that distances1 areas1 and heights1 have been repeatedly misstated1 the minor cones misplaced1 and the trend of the coast line misrepresented4 ,for example1 if we draw a line due north and south through ,catania1 and a second line from the ,capo di ,taormina1 7the north-eastern limit of the base of ,etna71 until it meets the first line at ,catania1 the lines1 will be found to enclose an angle of #bf4 ,if we adopt the same plan with ,gemellaro's map1 the included angle is found to be #ec1 and in the case of the maps of ,ferrara and ,recupero more than #fj4 ,again1 it has been stated on good authority1 that the lava of #cif ,b4,c4 which enters the sea at ,capo di ,schiso flowed for a distance of nearly #cj miles2 the map shows us that its true course was less than #af miles4 ,lyell in #aheh gives a section of the mountain from ,west #bj ,n41 to ,east #bj ,s41 but a comparison with the new map proves that the section is really taken from ,west #ce ,n4 to ,east #ce ,s41 an error which at a radius of ten miles from the crater would amount to a difference of nearly three miles4 ,the mantle of ,carlo ,gemellaro appears to have fallen upon ,cav4 ,orazio ,silvestri1 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,catania4 ,he has devoted himself with unwearying vigour to the study of the mountain1 and his memoirs have done much to elucidate its past and present history4 ,his most recent work of importance on the subject is entitled ,i ,fenomeni ,vulcanici presentati dall',etna nel #ahfc-fd-fe-ff4 ,it was published in ,catania in #ahfg1 and contains an account of some very elaborate chemico-geological researches4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 ,height4--,radius of ,vision from the summit4--,boundaries4--,area4-- ,population4--,general aspect of ,etna4--,the ,val del ,bove4--,minor ,cones4--,caverns4--,position and extent of the three ,regions4--,regione ,coltivata4--,regione ,selvosa4--,regione ,deserta4--,botanical ,regions4-- ,divisions of ,rafinesque-,schmaltz1 and of ,presl4--,animal life in the upper ,regions4 ,in the preceding chapter we have discussed the history of ,mount ,etna2 the references to its phenomena afforded by writers of various periods2 and the present state of the literature of the subject4 ,we have now to consider the general aspect and physical features of the mountain1 together with the divisions of its surface into distinct regions4 ,the height of ,etna has been often determined4 ,the earlier writers had very extravagant notions on the subject1 and three miles has sometimes been assigned to it4 ,brydone1 ,saussure1 ,shuckburgh1 ,irvine1 and others1 obtained approximations to the real height2 it must be borne in mind1 however1 that the cone of a volcano is liable to variations in height at different periods1 and a diminution of as much as #cjj feet occurred during one of the eruptions of ,etna1 owing to the falling in of the upper portion of the crater4 ,during the last sixty years1 however1 the height of the mountain has been practically constant4 ,in #ahae ,captain ,smyth determined it to be #aj1hgd feet4 ,in #ahbd ,sir ,john ,herschel1 who was unacquainted with ,smyth's results1 estimated it at #aj1hgb-a_/b feet4 ,the new map of the ,stato ,maggiore gives #ccabfa metres #ajhfgid feet4 ,when the ,canon ,recupero devoted two chapters of his quarto volume to a discussion of the height of ,etna1 no such exact observations had been made1 consequently he compared1 and critically examined1 the various determinations which then existed4 ,the almost perfect concordance of the results given by ,smyth1 ,herschel1 and the ,stato ,maggiore1 render it unnecessary for us to further discuss a subject about which there can now be no difference of opinion4 ,professor ,jukes says1 ,if we were to put ,snowdon1 the highest mountain in ,wales1 on the top of ,ben ,nevis1 the highest in ,scotland1 and ,carrantuohill1 the highest in ,ireland1 on the summit of both1 we should make a mountain but a very little higher than ,etna1 and we should require to heap up a great number of other mountains round the flanks of our new one in order to build a gentle sloping pile which should equal ,etna in bulk4 ,the extent of radius of vision from the summit of ,etna is very variously stated4 ,the exaggerated notions of the earlier writers1 that the coast of ,africa and of ,greece are sometimes visible1 may be at once set aside4 ,lord ,ormonde's statement that he saw the ,gulf of ,taranta1 and the mountains of ,terra di ,lecce beyond it--a distance of #bde miles--must be received with caution4 ,it is1 however1 a fact that ,malta1 #acj miles distant1 is often visible2 and ,captain ,smyth asserts that a considerable portion of the upper part of the mountain may sometimes be seen1 and that he once saw more than half of it1 from ,malta1 although that island is usually surrounded by a sea-horizon4 ,it is stated on good authority that ,monte ,s4 ,giuliano above ,trapani1 and the ,o,egadean ,isles1 #afj miles distant1 are sometimes seen4 ,other writers give #abh miles as the limit4 ,the fact is1 that atmospheric refraction varies so much with different conditions of the atmosphere that it is almost impossible to give any exact statement4 ,the more so when we remember that there may be many layers of atmosphere of different density between the observer and the horizon4 ,distant objects seem to be just under one's feet when seen from the summit of the mountain4 ,smyth gives the radius of vision as #aejg miles3 and this we are inclined to adopt as the nearest approach to the truth1 because ,smyth was an accurate observer1 and he made careful corrections both for error of instruments and for refraction4 ,this radius gives an horizon of #idfd miles of circumference1 and an included area of #ci1ijj square miles--larger than the area of ,ireland4 ,if a circle be traced with the crater of ,etna as a centre1 and a radius of #aejg miles1 it will be found to take in the whole of ,sicily and ,malta1 to cut the western coast of ,italy at ,scalca in ,calabria1 leaving the south-east coast near ,cape ,rizzuto4 ,such a circle will include the whole of ,ireland1 or if we take ,derby as the centre1 its circumference will touch the sea beyond ,yarmouth on the ,east1 the ,isle of ,wight on the ,south1 the ,irish ,channel on the ,west1 and it will pass beyond ,carlisle and ,newcastle-on-,tyne on the ,north4 ,the road which surrounds the mountain is carried along its lower slopes1 and is #hg miles in length4 ,it passes through the towns of ,paterno1 ,aderno1 ,bronte1 ,randazzo1 ,linguaglossa1 ,giarre1 and ,aci ,reale4 ,it is considered by some writers to define the base of the mountain1 which is hence most erroneously said to have a circumference of #hg miles2 but the road frequently passes over high beds of lava1 and winds considerably4 ,it is about #aj miles from the crater on the ,north1 ,east1 and ,west sides1 increasing to #ae-a_/b miles at ,paterno1 7,s4,w474 ,the elevation on the ,north and ,west flanks of the mountain is nearly #b1ejj feet1 while on the ,south it falls to #a1ejj feet1 and on the ,east to within #ej feet of the level of the sea4 ,it is quite clear that it cannot be asserted with any degree of accuracy to define the base of the mountain4 ,illustration3 ,sections of ,etna ,the natural boundaries of ,etna are the rivers ,alcantara and ,simeto on the ,north1 ,west1 and ,south1 and the sea on the ,east to the extent of #bc miles of coast1 along which lava streams have been traced1 sometimes forming headlands several hundred feet in height4 ,the base of the mountain1 as defined by these natural boundaries1 is said to have a circumference of at least #abj miles1 an examination of the new map1 however1 proves that this is over-estimated4 ,if we take the sea as the eastern boundary1 the river ,alcantara1 7immediately beyond which ,monte di ,mojo1 the most northerly minor cone of ,etna is situated71 as the northern boundary1 and the river ,simeto as the boundary on the west and south1 we obtain a circumference of #ia miles for the base of ,etna4 ,in this estimate the small sinuosities of the river have been neglected1 and the southern circuit has been completed by drawing a line from near ,paterno to ,catania1 because the ,simeto runs for the last few miles of its course through the plain of ,catania1 quite beyond the most southerly stream of lava4 ,the ,simeto 7anciently ,simthus7 is called the ,giaretta along the last three miles of its course1 after its junction with the ,gurna ,longa4 ,the area of the region enclosed by these boundaries is approximately #dhj square miles4 ,reclus gives the area of the mountain as #a1bjj square kilometres--#dfa square miles4 7,nouvelle ,geographie ,universelle1 #ahge47 ,the last edition of a standard ,gazetteer states it as #hdi square miles2 but this estimate is altogether absurd4 ,this would require a circle having a radius of between sixteen and seventeen miles4 ,if a circle be drawn with a radius of sixteen miles from the crater1 it will pass out to sea to a distance of #d-a_/b miles on the ,east1 while on the ,west and ,north it will pass through limestone and sandstone formations far beyond the ,alcantara and the ,simeto1 and beyond the limit of the lava streams4 ,there are two cities1 ,catania and ,aci ,reale1 and sixty-two towns or villages on ,mount ,etna4 ,it is far more thickly populated than any other part of ,sicily or ,italy1 for while the population of the former is #bbh per square mile1 and of the latter #bcc1 the population of the habitable zone of ,etna amounts to #a1dbd per square mile4 ,more than #cjj1jjj persons live on the slopes of the mountain4 ,thus with an area rather larger than that of ,bedfordshire 7#dfb square miles7 the mountain has more than double the population2 and with an area equal to about one-third that of ,wiltshire1 the population of the mountain is greater by nearly #ej1jjj inhabitants4 ,we have stated above that the area of ,etna is #dhj square miles1 but it must be borne in mind that the habitable zone only commences at a distance of about #i-a_/d miles from the crater4 ,a circle1 having a radius of #i-a_/d miles1 encloses an area of #bfi square miles2 and #dhj minus #bfi leaves #baa square miles as the approximate area of the habitable zone4 ,only a few insignificant villages on the ,east side are nearer to the crater than #i-a_/d miles4 ,taking the inhabitants as #cjj1jjj1 we find1 by dividing this number by #baa1 7the area of the habitable zone71 that the population amounts to #a1dbd per square mile4 ,even ,lancashire1 the most populous county in ,great ,britain1 7of course excepting ,middlesex71 and the possessor of two cities1 which alone furnish more than a million inhabitants1 has a population of only #a1dgi to the square mile4 ,some idea of the closeness of the towns and villages may be found by examining the south-east corner of the map4 ,if we draw a line from ,aci ,reale to ,nicolosi1 and from ,nicolosi to ,catania1 we enclose a nearly equilateral triangle1 having the coast line between ,aci ,reale and ,catania as its third side4 ,starting from ,aci ,reale with #bd1aea inhabitants1 and moving westwards to ,nicolosi1 we come in succession to ,aci ,s4 ,lucia1 ,aci ,catena1 ,aci ,s4 ,antonio1 ,via ,grande1 ,tre ,castagni1 ,pedara1 ,nicolosi1 completing the first side of the triangle2 then turning to the south-east and following the ,catania road1 we pass ,torre di ,grifo1 ,mascalucia1 ,gravina1 and reach ,catania with #he1jee inhabitants2 while on the line of coast between ,catania and ,aci ,reale we have ,ognina1 ,aci ,castello1 and ,trezza4 ,within the triangle we find ,aci ,patane1 ,aci ,s4 ,filippo1 ,valverde1 ,bonacorsi1 ,s4 ,gregorio1 ,tremestieri1 ,piano1 ,s4 ,agata1 ,trappeto1 and ,s4 ,giovanni la ,punta3 in all twenty-five1 two of which are cities1 several of the others towns of about #c1jjj inhabitants1 and the rest villages4 ,these are all included within an area of less than thirty square miles1 which constitutes the most populous portion of the habitable zone of ,etna4 ,that the population is rapidly increasing is well shown by a comparison of the number of inhabitants of some of the more important towns in #ahbd and in #ahgf4ae #ahbd #ahgf ,catania #de1jha #he1jee ,aci ,reale #ad1jid #bd1aea ,giarre #ac1gje #ag1ife ,patern #i1hjh #af1eab ,aderno #f1fbc #ae1feg ,bronte #i1aec #ae1jha ,biancavilla #e1hgj #ac1bfa ,linguaglossa #b1dae #i1abj ,randazzo #d1gjj #h1cgh ,piedimonte ,etnea #a1djd #d1ibd ,zaffarana ,etnea #gjj #c1hhd ,pedara #b1jfh #c1aha ,trecastagni #b1djf #c1jfa #ae ,i am indebted for these figures to ,mr4 ,george ,dennis1 ,h4,m4 ,consul ,general for ,sicily4 ,the general aspect of ,etna is that of a pretty regular cone1 covered with vegetation1 except near the summit4 ,the regularity is broken on the ,east side by a slightly oval valley1 four or five miles in diameter1 called the ,val del ,bove1 or in the language of the district ,val del ,bue4 ,this commences about two miles from the summit1 and is bounded on three sides by nearly vertical precipices from #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet in height4 ,the bottom of the valley is covered with lavas of various date1 and several minor craters have from time to time been upraised from it4 ,many eruptions have commenced in the immediate neighbourhood of the ,val del ,bove1 and ,lyell believes that there formerly existed a centre of permanent eruption in the valley4 ,the ,val del ,bove is altogether sterile2 but the mountain at the same level is1 on other sides1 clothed with trees4 ,the vast mass of the mountain is realised by the fact that1 after twelve miles of the ascent from ,catania1 the summit looks as far off as it did at starting4 ,moreover1 ,mount ,vesuvius might be almost hidden away in the ,val del ,bove4 ,a remarkable feature of ,etna is the large number of minor craters which are scattered over its sides4 ,they look small in comparison with the great mass of the mountain1 but in reality some of them are of large dimensions4 ,monte ,minardo1 near ,bronte1 the largest of these minor cones1 is still #gej feet high1 although its base has been raised by modern lava-streams which have flowed around it4 ,there are #hj of the more conspicuous of these minor cones1 but ,von ,waltershausen has mapped no less than #bjj within a ten mile radius from the great crater1 while neglecting many monticules of ashes4 ,as to the statement made by ,reclus to the effect that there are #gjj minor cones1 and by ,jukes1 that the number is #fjj1 it is to be supposed that they include not only the most insignificant monticules and heaps of cinders1 but also the bocche and boccarelle from which at any time lava or fire has issued4 ,if these be included1 no doubt these numbers are not exaggerations4 ,illustration3 ,grotto delle ,palombe ,the only important minor cone which has been produced during the historical period1 is the double mountain known as ,monti ,rossi1 from the red colour of the cinders which compose it4 ,this was raised from the plain of ,nicolosi during the eruption of #affi2 it is #dej feet in height1 and two miles in circumference at the base4 ,in a line between the ,monti ,rossi and the great crater1 thirty-three minor cones may be counted4 ,hamilton counted forty-four1 looking down from the summit towards ,catania1 and ,captain ,smyth was able to discern fifty at once from an elevated position on the mountain4 ,many of these parasitic cones are covered with vegetation1 as the names ,monte ,faggi1 ,monte ,ilice1 ,monte ,zappini1 indicate4 ,the names have not been happily chosen2 thus there are several cones in different parts of the mountain called by the same name--,monte ,arso1 ,monte ,nero1 ,monte ,rosso1 ,monte ,frumento1 are the most common of the duplicates4 ,moreover1 the names have from time to time been altered1 and it thus sometimes becomes difficult to trace a cone which has been alluded to under a former name1 or by an author who wrote before the name was changed4 ,in addition to the minor cones from which lava once proceeded1 there are numerous smaller vents for the subterranean fires called ,bocche1 or if very small1 ,boccarelle1 del ,fuoco4 ,in the eruption of #affi1 thirteen mouths opened in the course of a few days2 and in the eruption of #ahji1 twenty new mouths opened one after the other in a line about six miles long4 ,two new craters were formed in the ,val del ,bove in #aheb1 and seven craters in #ahfe4 ,the outbursts of lava from lateral cones are no doubt due to the fact that the pressure of lava in the great crater1 which is nearly #ajjj feet in depth1 becomes so great that the lava is forced out at some lower point of less resistance4 ,the most northerly of the minor cones is ,monte di ,mojo1 from whence issued the lava of #cif ,b4,c41 it is #aa-a_/b miles from the crater2 the most southerly cone is ,monte ,ste ,sofia1 #af miles from the crater4 ,nearly all the minor cones are within #aj miles of the crater1 and the majority are collected between south-east1 and west1 that is1 in an angular space of #ace1 starting midway between east and south1 7#de south of due east7 to due west1 7#ij west of due south74 ,lyell speaks of the minor cones as the most grand and original feature in the physiognomy of ,etna4 ,a number of caverns are met with in various parts of ,etna2 ,boccacio speaks of the ,cavern of ,thalia1 and several early writers allude to the ,grotto delle ,palombe near ,nicolosi4 ,the latter is situated in front of ,monte ,fusara1 and the entrance to it is evidently the crater of an extinct monticule4 ,it descends for #gh feet1 and at the bottom a cavern is entered by a long shaft2 this leads to a second cavern1 which abruptly descends1 and appears to be continued into the heart of the neighbouring ,monti ,rossi4 ,brydone says that people have lost their senses in these caverns1 imagining that they saw devils1 and the spirits of the damned2 for it is still very generally believed that ,etna is the mouth of ,hell4 ,many of the caverns near the upper part of the mountain are used for storing snow1 and sometimes as places of shelter for shepherds4 ,we have already seen to what extent ,lucretius attributed the eruptions to air pent up within the interior caverns of the mountains4 ,the surface of the mountain has been divided into three zones or regions--the ,piedimontana or ,coltivata2 the ,selvosa or ,nemorosa2 and the ,deserta or ,discoperta4 ,sometimes the name of ,regione del ,fuoco is given to the central cone and crater4 ,as regards temperature1 the zones correspond more or less to the ,torrid1 ,temperate1 and ,frigid4 ,the lowest of these1 the ,cultivated ,region1 yields in abundance all the ordinary ,sicilian products4 ,the soil1 which consists of decomposed lava1 is extremely fertile1 although of course large tracts of land are covered by recent lavas1 or by those which decompose slowly4 ,in this region the vine flourishes1 and abundance of corn1 olives1 pistachio nuts1 oranges1 lemons1 figs1 and other fruit trees4 ,the breadth of this region varies2 it terminates at an approximate height of #bjjj feet4 ,a circle drawn with a radius of #aj miles from the crater1 roughly defines the limit4 ,the elevation of this on the north is #b1caj feet near ,randazzo2 on the south1 #b1ade feet near ,nicolosi2 on the east1 #fjj feet near ,mascali2 and on the west1 #a1ade feet near ,bronte4 ,the breadth of this cultivated zone is about #b miles on the north1 east1 and west1 and #i or #aj on the south1 if we take for the base of the mountain the limits proposed above4 ,the ,woody ,region commences where the cultivated region ends1 and extends as a belt of varying width to an approximate height of #f1cjj feet4 ,it is terminated above by a circle having a radius of nearly #a-a_/b miles from the crater4 ,there are fourteen separate forests in this region3 some abounding with the oak1 beech1 pine1 and poplar1 others with the chestnut1 ilex1 and cork tree4 ,the celebrated ,castagno di ,cento ,cavalli1 one of the largest and oldest trees in the world1 is in the ,forest of ,carpinetto1 on the ,east side of the mountain1 five miles above ,giarre4 ,this tree has the appearance of five separate trunks united into one1 but ,ferrara declares that by digging a very short distance below the surface he found one single stem4 ,the public road now passes through the much-decayed trunk4 ,captain ,smyth measured the circumference a few feet from the ground1 and found it to be #afc feet1 which would give it a diameter of more than #ej feet4 ,the tree derives its name from the story that one of the ,queens of ,arragon took shelter in its trunk with a suite of #ajj horsemen4 ,near this patriarch are several large chestnuts1 which1 without a shadow of doubt1 are single trees2 one of these is #ah feet in diameter1 and a second #ae feet1 while the ,castagno della ,galea1 higher up on the mountain1 is #be feet in diameter1 and probably more than #ajjj years old4 ,the breadth of the ,regione ,selvosa varies considerably1 as may be seen by reference to the accompanying map2 in the direction of the ,val del ,bove it is very narrow1 while elsewhere it frequently has a breadth of from #f to #h miles4 ,the ,desert ,region is embraced between the limit of #f1cjj feet and the summit4 ,it occupies about #aj square miles1 and consists of a dreary waste of black sand1 scori1 ashes1 and masses of ejected lava4 ,in winter it remains permanently covered with snow1 and even in the height of summer snow may be found in certain rifts4 ,botanists have divided the surface of ,etna into seven regions4 ,the first extends from the level of the sea to #ajj feet above it1 and in it flourishes the palm1 banana1 ,indian fig or prickly pear1 sugar-cane1 mimosa1 and acacia4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that it is only on the east side of the mountain that the level within the base sinks to #ajj feet above the sea2 and1 moreover1 that the palm1 banana1 and sugar-cane1 are comparative rarities in this part of ,sicily4 ,prickly pears and vines are the most abundant products of the lower slopes of the eastern side of ,etna4 ,the second1 or hilly region1 reaches from #ajj to #bjjj feet above the sea1 and therefore constitutes1 with the preceding1 the ,regione ,coltivata of our former division4 ,in it are found cotton1 maize1 orange1 lemon1 shaddock1 and the ordinary ,sicilian produce4 ,the culture of the vine ceases near its upward limit4 ,the third1 or woody region1 reaches from #bjjj to #djjj feet1 and the principal trees within it are the cork1 oak1 maple1 and chestnut4 ,the fourth region extends from #djjj to #fjjj feet1 and contains the beech1 ,scotch fir1 birch1 dock1 plaintain1 and sandworth4 ,the fifth1 or sub-,alpine region1 extending from #fjjj to #gjjj feet1 contains the barberry1 soapwort1 toad-flax1 and juniper4 ,in the sixth region1 #g1ejj to #ijjj feet1 are found soapwort1 sorrel1 and groundsel2 while the last narrow zone1 #ijjj to #i1bjj feet1 contains a few lichens1 the commonest of which is the ,stereocaulon ,paschale4 ,the flora of ,etna comprises #dgg species1 only #dj of which are found between #gjjj feet and the summit1 while in the last #bjjj feet only five phanerogamous species are found1 viz41 ,anthemis ,etnensis1 ,senecio ,etnensis1 ,robertsia taraxacoides1 7which are peculiar to ,etna71 ,tanacetum vulgare1 and ,astragulus ,siculus4 ,common ferns1 such as the pteris aquilina1 are found in abundance beneath the trees in the ,regione ,selvosa4 ,this division has been advocated by ,presl in his ,flora ,sicula4#af ,he names the different regions beginning from below3 ,regio ,subtropica1 ,regio ,collina1 ,regio ,sylvatica inferior1 ,regio fagi ,sylvestris4 ,these four are common to all ,sicily4 ,the three remaining regions1 ,regio ,subalpina1 ,regio ,alpina1 and ,regio ,lichenum1 together extending from #fjjj to #i1bjj feet1 belong to ,etna alone4 #af ,flora sicula3 exhibens ,plantas vasculosas in ,sicilia aut sponte crescentes aut frequentissime cultas1 secundum systema naturale digestas4 ,auctore ,g4 ,b4 ,presl4 ,prag1 #ahbd4 ,at the conclusion of the first volume of ,recupero's ,storia ,naturale et ,generale dell' ,etna we find a somewhat different botanical division proposed by ,signor ,rafinesque-,schmaltz4#ag ,he makes his divisions in the following manner3-- #a4 ,florula ,piedemontana4 #b4 ,florula ,nemorosa4 #c4 ,florula excelsa o della ,regione ,discoperta4 #d4 ,florula ,arenosa o della ,regione delle ,scorie4 #ag ,chloris ,aetnensis3 o le quattro ,florule dell' ,etna1 opusculo del ,sig4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque-,schmaltz1 ,palermo4 ,dicembre1 #ahac4 ,in the latter region1 7to which he assigns no limit as to height71 he found ,potentilla ,argentea1 ,rumex ,scutatus1 ,tanacetum ,vulgare1 ,anthemis ,montana1 ,jacoba ,chrysanthemifolia1 ,seriola ,uniflora1 and ,phalaris ,alpina4 ,as regards the animal life on ,etna1 of course it is the same as that of the eastern sea-board of ,sicily1 except in the higher regions1 where it becomes more sparse4 ,the only living creatures in the upper regions are ants1 a little lower down ,spallanzani found a few partridges1 jays1 thrushes1 ravens1 and kites4 ,brydone says of the three regions3 ,besides the corn1 the wine1 the oil1 the silk1 the spice1 and delicious fruits of its lower region2 the beautiful forests1 the flocks1 the game1 the tar1 the cork1 the honey of its second2 the snow and ice of its third2 it affords from its caverns a variety of minerals and other productions--cinnabar1 mercury1 sulphur1 alum1 nitre1 and vitriol2 so that this wonderful mountain at the same time produces every necessary1 and every luxury of life4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,ascent ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 ,the most suitable time for ascending ,etna4--,the ascent commenced4-- ,nicolosi4--,etna mules4--,night journey through the upper ,regions of the mountain4--,brilliancy of the ,stars4--,proposed ,observatory on ,etna4--,the ,casa ,inglesi4--,summit of the ,great ,crater4--,sunrise from the summit4--,the ,crater4--,descent from the ,mountain4--,effects of ,refraction4--,fatigue of the ,ascent4 ,the ascent of ,mount ,etna has been described many times during the last eighteen centuries1 from ,strabo in the second century to ,dr4 ,baltzer in #ahge4 ,one of the most interesting accounts is certainly that of ,brydone1 and in this century perhaps that of ,mr4 ,gladstone4 ,of course the interest of the expedition is greatly increased if it can be combined with that spice of danger which is afforded by the fact of the mountain being in a state of eruption at the time4 ,the best period for making the ascent is between ,may and ,september1 after the melting of the winter snows1 and before the autumnal rains4 ,in winter snow frequently extends from the summit downwards for nine or ten miles2 the paths are obliterated1 and the guides refuse to accompany travellers4 ,even so late in the spring as ,may #bith ,brydone had to traverse seven miles of snow before reaching the summit4 ,moreover1 violent storms often rage in the upper regions of the mountain1 and the wind acquires a force which it is difficult to withstand1 and is at the same time piercingly cold4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 in relating his ascent on the night of ,june #bfth1 #agfi1 remarks that1 if they had not kindled a fire at the halting place1 and put on much warm clothing1 they would surely have perished with the cold4 ,at the same time the wind was so violent that they had several times to throw themselves on their faces to avoid being overthrown4 ,yet the guides said that the wind was not unusually violent4 ,some writers1 well used to ,alpine climbing1 have asserted that the cold on ,etna was more severe than anything they have ever experienced in the ,alps4 ,the writer of this memoir made the ascent of the mountain in ,august #ahgg1 accompanied by a courier and a guide4 ,we took with us two mules2 some thick rugs2 provisions consisting of bread1 meat1 wine1 coffee1 and brandy2 wooden staves for making the ascent of the cone2 a geological hammer2 a bag for specimens2 and a few other requisites4 ,it has to be remembered that absolutely nothing is to be met with at the ,casa ,inglesi1 where the halt is made for the night2 even firewood has to be taken1 a fire being most necessary in those elevated regions even during a midsummer's night4 ,for some time previous to our ascent the weather had been uniformly bright and fine1 and there had been no rain for more than three months4 ,the mean temperature in the shade at ,catania1 and generally along the eastern sea-base of the mountain1 was #hb ,f4 ,as we desired to see the sunrise from the summit of the mountain1 we determined to ascend during the cool of the evening1 resting for an hour or two before sunrise at the ,casa ,inglesi at the foot of the cone4 ,accordingly we left ,catania soon after midday1 and drove to ,nicolosi1 twelve miles distant1 and #b1bhh feet above the sea4 ,the road for some distance passed through a very fertile district2 on either side there were corn fields and vineyards1 and gardens of orange and lemon trees1 figs and almonds1 growing luxuriantly in the decomposed lava4 ,about half way between ,catania and ,nicolosi stands the village of ,gravina1 and a mile beyond it ,mascalucia1 a small town containing nearly #djjj inhabitants4 ,near this is the ruined church of ,st4 ,antonio1 founded in #acjj4 ,nine miles from ,catania the village of ,torre di ,grifo is passed1 and the road then enters a nearly barren district covered with the lava and scori of #aebg4 ,the only prominent form of vegetation is a peculiar tall broom--,genista ,etnensis--which here flourishes4 ,we are now entering the region of minor cones2 the vineclad cone of ,monpilieri is visible on the left1 and just above it ,monti ,rossi1 #c1aaj feet above the sea2 to the right of the latter we see ,monte ,san ,nicola1 ,serrapizzuta1 and ,monte ,arso4 ,we reach ,nicolosi at half-past four2 for although the distance is short1 the road is very rugged and steep4 ,nicolosi has a population of less than #c1jjj2 it consists of a long street1 bordered by one-storied cottages of lava4 ,in the church the priests were preparing for a festa in honour of ,s4 ,anthony of ,padua4 ,they politely took us into the sacristy1 and exhibited with much pride some graven images of rather coarse workmanship1 which were covered with gilding and bright coloured paint4 ,near ,nicolosi stands the convent of ,s4 ,nicola dell' ,arena1 once inhabited by ,benedictine monks1 who however were compelled to abandon it in consequence of the destruction produced by successive shocks of earthquake4 ,nicolosi itself has been more than once shaken to the ground4 ,we dined pretty comfortably1 thanks to the courier who acted as cook1 in the one public room of the one primitive inn of the town2 starting for the ,casa ,inglesi at #f o'clock4 ,the good people of the inn surrounded us at our departure and with much warmth wished us a safe and successful journey4 ,for a short distance above ,nicolosi1 stunted vines are seen growing in black cinders1 but these soon give place to a large tract covered with lava and ashes1 with here and there patches of broom4 ,there was no visible path1 but the mules seemed to know the way perfectly1 and they continued to ascend with the same easy even pace without any guidance1 even after the sun had disappeared behind the western flank of the mountain4 ,in fact1 you trust yourself absolutely to your mule1 which picks his way over the roughest ground1 and rarely stumbles or changes his even step4 ,i found it quite easy to write notes while ascending1 and even to use a pocket spectroscope at the time of the setting sun4 ,subsequently we saw a man extended at full length1 and fast asleep upon a mule1 which was leisurely plodding along the highway4 ,the same confidence must not however be extended to the donkeys of ,etna1 as ,i found to my cost a few days later at ,taormina4 ,here the only animal to be procured to carry me down to the sea-shore1 #hjj feet below1 was a donkey4 ,it was during the hottest part of the day1 and it was necessary to carry an umbrella in one hand1 and comfortable to wear a kind of turban of many folds of thin muslin round one's cap4 ,the donkey after carefully selecting the roughest and most precipitous part of the road1 promptly fell down1 leaving me extended at full length on the road1 with the open umbrella a few yards off4 ,at the same time the turban came unfolded1 and stretched itself for many a foot upon the ground4 ,altogether it was a most comical sight1 and it reminded me forcibly1 and at the instant1 of a picture which ,i once saw over the altar of a church in ,pisa1 and which represented ,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas discomfiting ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and ,averres4 ,the latter was completely overthrown1 and in the most literal sense1 for he was grovelling in the dust at the feet of ,s4 ,thomas1 while his disarranged turban had fallen from him4 ,the district of lava and ashes above ,nicolosi is succeeded by forests of small trees1 and we are now fairly within the ,regione ,selvosa4 ,at half-past #h o'clock the temperature was #ff1 at ,nicolosi at #d o'clock it was #hj4 ,about #i o'clock we arrived at the ,casa del ,bosco1 7#d1baf feet71 a small house in which several men in charge of the forest live4 ,here we rested till #aj o'clock1 and then after ,i had put on a great-coat and a second waistcoat1 we started for the higher regions4 ,at this time the air was extraordinarily still1 the flame of a candle placed near the open door of the house did not flicker4 ,the ascent from this point carried us through forests of pollard oaks1 in which it was quite impossible to see either a path or any obstacles which might lie in one's way4 ,the guide carried a lantern1 and the mules seemed well accustomed to the route4 ,at about #f1cjj feet we entered the ,regione ,deserta1 a lifeless waste of black sand1 ashes1 and lava2 the ascent became more steep1 and the air was bitterly cold4 ,there was no moon1 but the stars shone with an extraordinary brilliancy1 and sparkled like particles of white-hot steel4 ,i had never before seen the heavens studded with such myriads of stars4 ,the milky-way shone like a path of fire1 and meteors flashed across the sky in such numbers that ,i soon gave up any attempt to count them4 ,the vault of heaven seemed to be much nearer than when seen from the earth1 and more flat1 as if only a short distance above our heads1 and some of the brighter stars appeared to be hanging down from the sky4 ,brydone1 in speaking of his impressions under similar circumstances says3 ,the sky was clear1 and the immense vault of heaven appeared in awful majesty and splendour4 ,we found ourselves more struck with veneration than below1 and at first were at a loss to know the cause1 till we observed with astonishment that the number of the stars seemed to be infinitely increased1 and the light of each of them appeared brighter than usual4 ,the whiteness of the milky-way was like a pure flame that shot across the heavens1 and with the naked eye we could observe clusters of stars that were invisible in the regions below4 ,we did not at first attend to the cause1 nor recollect that we had now passed through ten or twelve thousand feet of gross vapour1 that blunts and confuses every ray before it reaches the surface of the earth4 ,we were amazed at the distinctness of vision1 and exclaimed together1 ',what a glorious situation for an observatory6 had ,empedocles had the eyes of ,galileo1 what discoveries must he not have made6' ,we regretted that ,jupiter was not visible1 as ,i am persuaded we might have discovered some of his satellites with the naked eye1 or at least with a small glass which ,i had in my pocket4 ,brydone wrote a hundred years ago1 but his idea of erecting an observatory on ,mount ,etna was only revived last year1 when ,prof4 ,tacchini the ,astronomer ,royal at ,palermo1 communicated a paper to the ,accademia ,gioenia1 entitled ,della ,convenienza ed utilita di erigere sull' ,etna una ,stazione ,astronomico-,meteorologico4 ,tacchini mentions the extraordinary blueness of the sky as seen from ,etna1 and the appearance of the sun1 which is whiter and more tranquil than when seen from below4 ,moreover1 the spectroscopic lines are defined with wonderful distinctness4 ,in the evening at #aj o'clock1 ,sirius appeared to rival ,venus1 the peculiarities of the ring of ,saturn were seen far better than at ,palermo2 and ,venus emitted a light sufficiently powerful to cast shadows2 it also scintillated4 ,when the chromosphere of the sun was examined the next morning by the spectroscope1 the inversion of the magnesium line1 and of the line #adgd was immediately apparent1 although it was impossible to obtain this effect at ,palermo4 ,tacchini proposes that an observatory should be established at the ,casa ,inglesi1 in connection with the ,university of ,catania1 and that it be provided with a good six-inch refracting telescope1 and with meteorological instruments4 ,in this observatory1 constant observations should be made from the beginning of ,june to the end of ,september1 and the telescope should then be transported to ,catania1 where a duplicate mounting might be provided for it1 and observations continued for the rest of the year4 ,there seems to be every probability that this scheme will be carried out in the course of next year4 ,during this digression we have been toiling along the slopes of the ,regione ,deserta and looking at the sky2 at length we reach the ,piano del ,lago or ,plain of the ,lake1 so called because a lake produced by the melting of the snows existed here till #afjg1 when it was filled up by lava4 ,the air is now excessively cold1 and a sharp wind is blowing4 ,progress is very slow1 the soil consists of loose ashes1 and the mules frequently stop2 the guide assures us that the ,casa ,inglesi is quite near1 but the stoppages become so frequent that it seems a long way off2 at length we dismount1 and drag the mules after us1 and after a toilsome walk the small lava-built house1 called the ,casa ,inglesi1 is reached 7#a4cj a4m41 temperature #dj ,f47 ,it stands at a height of #i1feb feet above the sea1 near the base of the cone of the great crater1 and it takes its name from the fact that it was erected by the ,english officers stationed in ,sicily in #ahaa4 ,it has suffered severely from time to time from the pressure of snow and from earthquakes1 but it was thoroughly repaired in #ahfb1 on the occasion of the visit of ,prince ,humbert1 and is now in tolerable preservation4 ,it consists of three rooms1 containing a few deal chairs1 a table1 and several shelves like the berths of ships furnished with plain straw mattresses2 there is also a rough fireplace4 ,we had no sooner reached this house1 very weary and so cold that we could scarcely move1 than it was discovered that the courier had omitted to get the key from ,nicolosi1 and there seemed a prospect of spending the hours till dawn in the open air4 ,fortunately we had with us a chisel and a geological hammer1 and by the aid of these we forced open the shutter serving as a window1 and crept into the house2 ten minutes later a large wood fire was blazing up the chimney1 our eatables were unpacked1 some hot coffee was made1 and we were supremely comfortable4 ,illustration3 ,the ,casa ,inglesi and ,cone of ,etna ,at #c a4m4 we left the ,casa ,inglesi for the summit of the great crater1 #a1bjj feet above us1 in order to be in time to witness the sunrise4 ,our road lay for a short distance over the upper portion of the ,piano del ,lago1 and the walking was difficult4 ,the brighter stars had disappeared1 and it was much darker than it had been some hours before4 ,the guide led the way with a lantern4 ,the ascent of the cone was a very stiff piece of work2 it consists of loose ashes and blocks of lava1 and slopes at an angle of #de or more according to one writer1 and of #cc according to another2 probably the slope varies on different sides of the cone3 we do not think that the slope much exceeds #cc anywhere on the side of the cone which we ascended4 ,fortunately there was no strong wind1 and we did not suffer from the sickness of which travellers constantly complain in the rarefied air of the summit4 ,we reached the highest point at #d4cj a4m41 and found a temperature of #dg ,f4 ,when ,sir ,william ,hamilton ascended towards the end of ,june the temperature at the base of the mountain was #hd ,f41 and at the summit #ef ,f4 ,when ,brydone left ,catania on ,may #bfth1 #aggj1 the temperature was #gf ,f41 ,bar4 #bi in4 #h-a_/b lines2 at ,nicolosi at midday on the #bgth it was #gc ,f41 ,bar4 #bg in4 #a-a_/b lines2 at the ,spelonca del ,capriole 7#f1bjj feet71 #fa ,f41 ,bar4 #bf in4 #e-a_/b lines2 at the foot of the crater1 temp4 #cc ,f41 ,bar4 #bj in4 #d-a_/b lines1 and at the summit of the crater just before sunrise1 temp4 #bg ,f41 ,bar4 #ai in4 #d lines4 ,on reaching the summit we noticed that a quantity of steam and sulphurous acid gas issued from the ground under our feet1 and in some places the cinders were so hot that it was necessary to choose a cool place to sit down upon4 ,a thermometer inserted just beneath the soil from which steam issued registered #ahb ,f4 ,for a short time we anxiously awaited the rising of the sun4 ,nearly all the stars had faded away2 the vault of heaven was a pale blue1 becoming a darker and darker grey towards the west1 where it appeared to be nearly black4 ,just before sunrise the sky had the appearance of an enormous arched spectrum1 extremely extended at the blue end4 ,above the place where the sun would presently appear there was a brilliant red1 shading off in the direction of the zenith to orange and yellow2 this was succeeded by pale green1 then a long stretch of pale blue1 darker blue1 dark grey1 ending opposite the rising sun with black4 ,this effect was quite distinct1 it lasted some minutes1 and was very remarkable4 ,this was succeeded by the usual rayed appearance of the rising sun1 and at ten minutes to #e o'clock the upper limb of the sun was seen above the mountains of ,calabria4 ,examined by the spectroscope the ,fraunhofer lines were extremely distinct1 particularly two lines near the red end of the spectrum4 ,the top of the mountain was now illuminated1 while all below was in comparative darkness1 and a light mist floated over the lower regions4 ,we were so fortunate as to witness a phenomenon which is not always visible1 viz41 the projection of the triangular shadow of the mountain across the island1 a hundred miles away4 ,the shadow appeared vertically suspended in space at or beyond ,palermo1 and resting on a slightly misty atmosphere2 it gradually sank until it reached the surface of the island1 and as the sun rose it approached nearer and nearer to the base of the mountain4 ,in a short time the flood of light destroyed the first effects of light and shadow4 ,the mountains of ,calabria and the west coast of ,italy appeared very close1 and ,stromboli and the ,lipari ,islands almost under our feet2 the east coast of ,sicily could be traced until it ended at ,cape ,passaro and turned to the west1 forming the southern boundary of the island1 while to the west distant mountains appeared4 ,no one would have the hardihood to attempt to describe the various impressions which rapidly float through the mind during the contemplation of sunrise from the summit of ,etna4 ,brydone1 who is by no means inclined to be rapturous or ecstatic in regard to the many wonderful sights he saw in the course of his tour1 calls this the most wonderful and most sublime sight in nature4 ,here1 he adds1 description must ever fall short1 for no imagination has dared to form an idea of so glorious and so magnificent a scene4 ,neither is there on the surface of this globe any one point that unites so many awful and sublime objects4 ,the immense elevation from the surface of the earth1 drawn as it were to a single point1 without any neighbouring mountains for the senses and imagination to rest upon1 and recover from their astonishment in their way down to the world4 ,this point or pinnacle1 raised on the brink of a bottomless gulph1 as old as the world1 often discharging rivers of fire and throwing out burning rocks with a noise that shakes the whole island4 ,add to this1 the unbounded extent of the prospect1 comprehending the greatest diversity and the most beautiful scenery in nature1 with the rising sun advancing in the east to illuminate the scene4 ,when the sun had risen we had time to examine the crater1 a vast abyss nearly #ajjj feet in depth1 and with very precipitous sides4 ,its dimensions vary1 but it is now between two and three miles in circumference4 ,sometimes it is nearly full of lava1 at other times it appears to be bottomless4 ,at the present time it is like an inverted cone2 its sides are covered with incrustations of sulphur and ammonia salts1 and jets of steam perpetually issue from crevices4 ,near the summit we found a deposit1 several inches in thickness1 of a white substance1 apparently lava decomposed by the hot issuing gases4 ,hydrochloric acid is said to frequently issue from the crater2 the gases that were most abundant appeared to be sulphurous acid and steam4 ,the interior of the crater appeared to be very similar to that of the ,solfatara near ,puzzuoli4 ,during the descent from the cone we collected various specimens of ash and cinder1 some red1 others black and very vesicular1 others crystalline1 some pale pink4 ,the steep slope of the cone was well shown by the fact that1 although the surface is either extremely rugged owing to the accumulation of masses of lava1 or soft and yielding on account of the depth of cinders1 a large mass of lava set rolling at the top rushes down with increasing velocity until it bounds off to the level plain below4 ,illustration3 ,view of the ,val de ,bove ,the great cone is formed by the accumulation of sand1 scori1 and masses of rock ejected from the crater2 it is oval in form1 and has varied both in shape and size in the course of centuries4 ,when we saw it1 it was not full of smoke or steam2 but it was possible to see to the bottom of it1 in spite of small jets of steam which issued from the sides4 ,it presented the appearance of a profound funnel-shaped abyss2 the sides of which were covered with an efflorescence of a red or yellow1 and sometimes nearly white1 colour4 ,the crater presented the same appearance when it was seen by ,captain ,smyth in #ahad1 but he was so fortunate as to witness it in a less quiescent state4 ,while making these observations1 he writes1 on a sudden the ground trembled under our feet1 a harsh rumbling with sonorous thunder was heard1 and volumes of heavy smoke rolled over the side of the crater1 while a lighter one ascended vertically1 with the electric fluid escaping from it in frequent flashes in every direction4444 ,during some time the ground shook so violently that we apprehended the whole cone would tumble into the burning gulf 7as it actually had done several times before7 and destroy us in the horrible consequences2 however1 in less than a couple of hours all was again clear above and quiet within4 ,when ,mr4 ,gladstone ascended in #ahch1 the volcano was in a slight state of eruption3 ,the great features of this action1 he writes1 are the sharp and loud claps1 which perceptibly shook from time to time the ground of the mountain under our feet2 the sheet of flame which leapt up with a sudden momentary blast1 and soon disappeared in smoke2 then the shower of red-hot stones and lava4 ,at this time1 as we found on our way down1 lava masses of #aej or #bjj pound weight were being thrown a distance of probably a mile and a half2 smaller ones we found even more remote4 ,these showers were most copious1 and often came in the most rapid succession4 ,even while we were ascending the exterior of the cone1 we saw them alighting on its slope1 and sometimes bounding down with immense rapidity within1 perhaps1 some thirty or forty yards of our rickety footing on the mountain side4 ,they dispersed like the sparks of a rocket2 they lay beneath the moon1 over the mountain1 thicker than ever the stars in heaven2 the larger ones ascended as it were with deliberation1 and descended1 first with speed and then with fury4 ,now they passed even over our heads1 and we could pick up some newly fallen1 and almost intolerably hot4 ,lastly1 there was the black grey column1 which seemed smoke1 and was really ash1 and which was shot from time to time out of the very bowels of the crater1 far above its edge1 in regular unbroken form4 ,at the ,casa ,inglesi we remounted the mules1 and made a slight detour to the east in order to look down into the ,val del ,bove1 which is here seen as a gigantic valley1 bounded on the north by the precipitous cliffs of the ,serra delle ,concazze1 and on the ,south by the ,serra del ,solfizio4 ,it is believed by ,lyell and others that in the ,balzo di ,trifoglietto1 at which point the precipices are most profound and abrupt1 there was a second permanent crater of eruption4 ,the ,torre del ,filosofo1 a ruined tower1 traditionally the observatory of ,empedocles1 stands near the ,casa ,inglesi4 ,not far from this a great deposit of ice was found in #ahbh4 ,it was preserved from melting by a layer of ashes and sand1 which had covered it1 soon after its first existence1 as a glacier3 a stream of lava subsequently flowed over the ashes1 and completely protected the ice2 the non-conducting power of the ashes prevented the lava from melting the ice4 ,the snow which falls on the mountain is stowed away in caves1 and used by the ,sicilians during summer4 ,a ship load is also sent to ,malta1 and the ,archbishop of ,catania derives a good deal of his income from the sale of ,etna snow4 ,during our descent from the mountain we were much struck by the apparent nearness of the minor cones beneath us1 and of the villages at the base of the mountain4 ,they seemed to be painted on a vertical wall in front of us1 and although from ten to fifteen miles distant they appeared to be almost within a stone's throw4 ,this curious effect1 which has often been observed before1 is due to refraction4 ,at the summit of ,etna we have left one-third of the atmosphere beneath us1 and the air is now pressing upon the surface of the earth with a weight of ten pounds on the square inch1 instead of the usual fifteen pounds experienced at the level of the sea4 ,in looking towards the base of the mountain we are consequently looking from a rarer to a denser medium2 and it is a law of optics1 that when light passes from a denser to a rarer medium it is refracted away from the perpendicular1 and thus the object1 from which it emanates1 appears raised1 and nearer to us than it really is4 ,the objects around ,etna appear near to us and raised vertically from the horizon for the same reason that a stick plunged in water appears bent4 ,we reached ,nicolosi again about noon1 having left it eighteen hours before4 ,the ascent of the mountain1 although it does not involve much hard walking1 is somewhat trying on account of the extremes of temperature which have to be endured4 ,in the course of the morning of our descent we had experienced a difference equal to more than #dj ,f4 ,as to the ascent1 you are moving upwards nearly all night2 you have six hours of riding on a mule1 some of it in a bitterly cold atmosphere2 you get very much heated by the final steep climb of #aajj feet1 and you find at the summit a piercing wind2 of course there is no shelter1 and you sit down to wait for sunrise on cinders which are gently giving off steam and sulphurous acid2 the former condenses to water as soon as it meets the cold air1 and you find your great coat1 or the rug on which you have sat down1 speedily saturated with moisture4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,towns ,,situated ,,on ,,the ,,mountain4 ,paterno4--,ste4 ,maria di ,licodia4--,the site of the ancient town of ,aetna4--,biancavilla4--,aderno4--,sicil ian ,inns4--,adranum4--,bronte4-- ,randazzo4--,mascali4--,giarre4--,aci ,reale4--,its position4--,the ,scogli de',ciclopi4--,catania1 its early history1 and present condition4 ,we have before alluded to the fact that ,etna is far more thickly populated than any other part of ,sicily or ,italy2 in fact1 more so than almost any equal area in the world1 of course excepting large cities and their neighbourhood4 ,this is due to the wonderful fertility of the soil1 the salubrity of the climate1 and1 on the eastern base1 to the proximity of a sea-coast indented with excellent harbours4 ,the habitable zone of ,etna is restricted to the ,regione ,coltivata1 nevertheless some of the towns on the north and west have a considerable elevation2 thus ,bronte is #b1ghb feet above the sea1 and ,randazzo #b1gah4 ,all the principal towns are situated on the base road of the mountain1 which was indeed constructed in order to connect them4 ,out of the sixty-four towns and villages on the mountain1 the following are the most important3 ,catania1 ,aci ,reale1 ,paterno1 ,aderno1 ,bronte1 ,randazzo1 ,aci ,s4 ,antonio1 ,biancavilla1 ,calatabiano1 ,giarre1 ,francavilla1 ,linguagrossa1 ,licodia1 ,mascali1 ,misterbianco1 ,nicolosi1 ,pedara1 ,piedemonte1 ,trecastagne1 and ,tremestieri4 ,on our return from the summit1 we rested for awhile at ,nicolosi1 and in the cool of the evening started to make a giro of the mountain by way of the base road4 ,descending by the ,nicolosi road as far as ,mascalucia1 we branched off to the west1 and made for ,paterno1 passing near the town of ,belpasso1 which was destroyed by the earthquake of #affi1 and subsequently erected on a new site4 ,it still contains more than #g1jjj inhabitants1 although the district is extremely unhealthy4 ,paterno1 the second largest town on the flanks of ,etna after ,catania and ,aci ,reale1 stands in the very heart of the ,regione ,coltivata1 and possesses more than #af1jjj inhabitants4 ,according to ,cluverius1 it is the site of the city of ,hybla ,major 7,hybla ,megal71 a ,sikelian city which was unsuccessfully attacked by the ,athenians soon after they first landed in ,sicily4 ,during the second ,punic ,war1 the inhabitants went over to the ,carthagenians1 but the city was speedily recovered by the ,romans4 ,pliny1 ,cicero1 and ,pausanias allude to it1 but its later history has not come down to us4 ,an altar was lately found in ,paterno dedicated to ,veneri ,victrici ,hyblensi4 ,several towns in ,sicily were called ,hybla1 probably--according to ,pausanias--in honour of a local deity4 ,paterno was founded by ,roger ,i4 in #ajgc3 it was once a feudal city of some importance1 and possessed a cathedral and castle1 and several large monasteries4 ,although much fallen to decay1 it still possesses a good deal of vitality1 and the population is on the increase4 ,on leaving ,paterno the road turns to the ,north-west1 and passes through the village of ,ste4 ,maria di ,licodia4 ,here originally stood the ,sikelian ,city of ,inessa 7,inssa71 which1 after the death of ,hiero ,i41 was peopled by colonists from ,katana 7then called ,aitn74 ,the new occupants of the city changed its name from ,inessa to ,aetna1 which it retained4 ,the town later fell into the hands of the ,syracusans1 and in #dfb ,b4,c4 the ,athenians in vain attempted to take it4 ,during the ,athenian expedition both ,aetna and ,hybla were allies of ,syracuse4 ,in #djc ,b4,c4 ,aetna was taken by ,dionysius1 who placed in it a body of ,campanian mercenaries4 ,sixty-four years later 7,b4,c4 #cci7 the town was taken by ,timoleon4 ,for many succeeding years we find no further mention of it4 ,cicero speaks of it in his time as an important place1 and the centre of a very fertile district2 it is also mentioned by ,pliny and ,ptolemy1 and ,strabo says that it was usually the starting point for those who ascended the mountain4 ,of its later history we know absolutely nothing4 ,six miles to the north-west of ,st4 ,mariah di ,licodia1 the road passes through ,biancavilla--a town of #ac1jjj inhabitants1 and the centre of a cotton district4 ,the road continues in the same direction until the town of ,aderno is reached2 and here we arrived late in the evening1 and gained our first experience of a ,sicilian inn in an out-of-the-way town4 ,after many enquiries we were directed to the only inn which the place could boast1 kept by a doctor4 ,no one appeared at or near the entrance1 of course there was no bell or knocker1 and we made our way up a dark stone staircase till we arrived at a dimly-lighted passage4 ,a horrible old ,sicilian woman now appeared1 and showed us with great incivility the only room in the house1 which its inmates were willing to place at our disposal4 ,it was a fairly large room1 with a stone floor which apparently had not been swept for weeks1 and walls that had once been whitewashed2 the furniture consisted of three beds placed on tressels1 a plain deal table1 and some primitive chairs4 ,as to food they had neither bread1 meat1 wine1 eggs1 macaroni1 fruit1 or butter in the house2 neither did they offer to procure anything4 ,even when some eggs had been obtained1 and 7after an hour's delay7 cooked1 there was not a single teaspoon to eat them with4 ,the people of the town appear to subsist chiefly on beans and a kind of dried fish4 ,if our courier had not been a very handy fellow and a tolerable cook1 we should have been obliged more than once to go to bed supperless4 ,as it was1 the best he could do on this occasion was to get some bread1 eggs1 and wine1 and--best of all--some snow1 for the heat was intolerable4 ,in a town of the same size--#ae1feg inhabitants--in ,england1 we should have at least two really comfortable inns ready at any moment to receive and entertain the weary traveller4 ,illustration3 ,view of ,etna from ,bronte ,aderno stands on the site1 and has preserved the name1 of the ancient ,sikelian city of ,adranum 7,adranon74 ,according to ,diodorus there existed here1 from very early times1 the temple of a local deity named ,adranus4 ,the city was founded by the elder ,dionysius in #djj ,b4,c42 it owed its importance to the renown of its temple1 which was guarded by a thousand dogs4 ,in #cde ,b4,c4 the city fell into the hands of ,timoleon1 and it was taken by the ,romans at the commencement of the first ,punic ,war4 ,after this we cease to hear of it4 ,the modern town was founded by ,roger ,i4 in the #abth century4 ,the fine ,norman tower--now used as a prison--and the monastery1 were both built by ,king ,roger4 ,after leaving ,aderno the base-road ascends1 turns nearly due north1 and leads us past a number of lava streams1 notably those of #afaj1 #afjc1 and #afea4 ,a good view of ,monte ,minardo1 and the minor cones in its more immediate neighbourhood1 is obtained on the left1 while on the right we see the ,valley of the ,simeto1 and ,centorbi high upon the hills4 ,nearly due west of the great crater is the town of ,bronte1 which is #b1ghb feet above the sea1 and has a population of more than #ae1jjj4 ,it is a very primitive place1 and several centuries behind the age2 it reminded us forcibly1 in one or two particulars1 of ,pompeii3 the streets are narrow and tortuous1 and the roadway very uneven4 ,awnings are sometimes hung across the street from side to side to provide shade4 ,the shops are exactly like those at ,pompeii2 and in the main street we noticed an open-air kitchen1 to which the would-be diner repairs1 purchases a plateful of food1 and eats it standing in the public way4 ,the inn was even worse than that of ,aderno1 and apparently had never before received guests4 ,we were offered one miserable room1 without a lock to the door1 and unprovided with either table or chair4 ,of course the bare idea of offering to procure1 or furnish1 or cook1 any kind of food was too monstrous to be entertained for a moment4 ,with difficulty the courier obtained some eggs1 macaroni1 and fruit1 on which we dined in a small barn attached to a wine-shop4 ,at ,bronte we are only nine miles from the crater1 on the steepest side of the mountain1 and near the ,tertiary sandstone which underlies this portion of the mountain4 ,a short distance outside the town we saw great beds of the lava of #ahcb1 piled up fantastically in all sorts of forms1 and excessively rugged and uneven4 ,it is quite bare of vegetation1 and does not appear to have even commenced to be decomposed4 ,bronte gave its name to ,lord ,nelson1 who was created ,duke of ,bronte by ,ferdinand ,,iv43--an appropriate name for a great warrior 7,greek3 bront1 thunder74 ,the ,nelson estates are scattered around the town4 ,on leaving ,bronte the road conducted us past several high hills of sandstone and quartzite near ,monte ,rivoglia2 then we passed near ,maletto1 and1 leaving the malarious lake ,gurrita on our left1 we soon after arrived at ,randazzo4 ,near ,maletto the road reaches it highest point--#c1heb feet4 ,the town of ,randazzo was founded by the ,lombards in the #ajth century2 during the ,middle ,ages it appears to have been a prosperous1 populous1 place2 at present it possesses more than #h1jjj inhabitants4 ,the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 created his son ,duke of ,randazzo1 and added to the name of the town1 ,etnea4 ,it contains several very interesting architectural remains2 a church of the #acth century1 a medival palace--the ,palazzo ,finochiaro1--and a ducal palace now used as a prison4 ,the houses are for the most part built of lava1 and some of the shops have massive lava counters extending half across their open front1 while the door occupies the remainder1 as at ,pompeii4 ,the view from ,randazzo is very fine in every direction2 the crater of ,etna appears near1 and ,monte ,spagnuolo--many hours distant--just outside the town4 ,the town is #b1gah feet above the sea1 just above the ,valley of the ,alcantara--of which it commands a fine view1 and also of the limestone hills on the other side4 ,we were obliged to pass the night in the town1 in an inn scarcely superior to that of ,aderno1 but distinctly better than the miserable ,albergo ,collegio at ,bronte4 ,at least the people were civil1 and did their best4 ,the one room of the inn had a bed in each corner1 and a deal table in the middle4 ,three of the beds were occupied by engineers who were surveying in connection with a new line of railway2 the fourth was made over to the courier4 ,i slept in a small kind of ante-room on a bed chiefly composed of deal boards placed on tressels4 ,here again the courier was invaluable1 in fact it would be simply impossible to make the circuit of ,etna without a courier4 ,he procured some eggs1 macaroni1 fruit1 snow1 tomatoes1 and even meat1 and cooked everything well1 without a trace of garlic4 ,he also took care that the linen was clean1 and the general arrangements as comfortable as they could be under the circumstances4 ,let us also admit that neither at ,aderno1 ,bronte1 nor ,randazzo were we troubled with musquitoes or any worse species of insect4 ,these1 we were assured1 would appear in full force in the following month 7,september74 ,our only inconvenience of this nature arose from swarms of flies4 ,the inns of these out-of-the-way towns probably receive scarcely a dozen travellers in the year1 and these are ,sicilians1 who are not used to better accommodation4 ,evidently a forestiare is quite a novelty3 the people of these small towns used to look at us with great curiosity1 and crowded round the carriage when we started4 ,at ,bronte we had a good example of this curiosity3 owing to the hardness of the lava of #ahcb the head had come off the handle of our hammer1 and we went into a carpenter's shop to have it put on again4 ,presently we noticed that eleven people1 including a priest1 were looking on1 apparently with intense and absorbing interest4 ,from ,randazzo the base-road descends1 until at ,giarre it is near the sea-level4 ,this road is one of the most beautiful in ,sicily2 it is part of the old military route from ,messina to ,palermo1 and it was traversed by ,himilco in #cif ,b4,c42 by ,timoleon in #cdd ,b4,c42 and by ,charles ,v4 in #aecd4 ,after leaving ,randazzo the valley of the ,alcantara becomes visible1 while beyond it rise the lofty mountains of the ,nebrodes4 ,the road passes near ,monte ,dolce1 and soon reaches ,linguaglossa1 a small town from whence the craters of #ahfe may be reached in about four hours4 ,the rapidly descending road passes through ,piedemonte and ,mascali1 in the heart of an extraordinarily fertile region4 ,mascali1 a village of #cjej inhabitants1 was considered by ,cluverius to be the site of the ,greek town of ,callipolis1 founded by a colony from ,naxos as early as the fifth century1 ,b4,c4 ,a full view of the coast line is obtained from the ,capo di ,taormina on the north1 to a point below ,riposto on the south4 ,we descended through plantations of nuts1 and groves of oranges and lemons1 to gentle slopes covered with vineyards4 ,from the town of ,giarre1 7#ag1ife inhabitants71 we get a view of the ,val del ,bove1 which1 however1 is almost always obscured by thin white clouds1 while the summit of the mountain is clear4 ,we noticed1 indeed1 every day that the summit1 which had been absolutely clear all the day and night1 became covered with clouds shortly before sunset1 while about an hour later the clouds cleared off1 and the mountain was sharply defined against the sky during the starlit night4 ,some of the effects of sunset behind clouds resting on the summit1 while all the rest of the sky was bright blue1 were exceedingly beautiful1 and were quite untranslatable into any known language1 save that of painting1 and of music4 ,perhaps ,turner could have done justice to them4 ,after leaving ,giarre we passed through a good deal of highly cultivated land belonging to ,baron ,pennisi1 the largest landholder and richest man in ,sicily4 ,he makes good use of his wealth1 and seems to be very popular among all classes4 ,he possesses three palaces in ,aci ,reale1 and has done a great deal to beautify the town4 ,archologists will remember him as the possessor of the finest collection of ,sicilian coins in the world4 ,many of these have been found on his own estates1 but he never scruples to give large sums of money for any coin which he covets4 ,aci ,reale1 one of the prettiest towns in ,europe1 is situated in the midst of a very fertile region #eej feet above the sea4 ,to the east it faces the ,ionian sea1 while on the west towers ,etna4 ,the town is full of wealthy inhabitants1 and the houses are large1 lofty1 and well built4 ,it contains #bd1aea inhabitants1 and possesses celebrated sulphur baths1 and one of the best hotels in ,sicily4 ,the wealth of this small town is well shown by the following fact3 ,since its foundation in the tenth century1 till within a year or two of the present time1 the town had been under the jurisdiction of the ,archbishop of ,catania4 ,it happened1 however1 a few years ago1 on the occasion of a religious procession in ,catania1 that the people of ,aci considered that their patron ,saint1 ,s4 ,venera1 was slighted4 ,in fact the image of ,s4 ,agata1 the patron ,saint of the ,catanese--whose veil has so often averted the lava-streams from the city--was put in all the prominent parts of the procession1 while the image of ,s4 ,venera was comparatively neglected4 ,the people of ,aci at once returned home1 and sent a petition to the ,pope1 praying that they might have a ,bishop of their own directly subject to the ,holy ,see1 in order that they might no longer be subjected to such slights4 ,the ,vatican having duly considered the question consented to raise ,aci to the dignity of a ,bishopric1 and to pay the ,bishop a yearly stipend of #aj1jjj lire1 7about #djj1 but equal to #fjj in ,sicily71 on condition that #bjj1jjj lire were paid at once into the coffers of the ,vatican4 ,this was promptly done1 and now ,monsignore ,gerlando ,genuardi1 ,bishop of ,aci ,reale1 may snap his fingers in the face of ,monsignore ,giuseppe ,benedetto ,dusmet1 a ,benedictine of the ,congregation of ,monte ,cassino1 and ,archbishop of ,catania4 ,illustration3 ,island of ,columnar ,basalt off ,trezza ,six villages in the neighbourhood of ,aci ,reale bear the name of ,aci3 ,aci ,castello1 ,aci ,sant' ,antonio1 and so on1 but ,aci ,reale claims to stand upon the very site rendered memorable by the story of ,acis and ,galatea4 ,the river ,acis 7now called ,acque ,grande7 rises from a bed of lava1 and falls into the sea a mile from its source4 ,aci ,reale stands on seven different beds of superposed lava1 having layers of earth resulting from decomposed lava between4 ,the ,canon ,recupero calculated from observation1 that a lava requires at least #bjjj years to form even a scanty layer of earth1 consequently he inferred that the lowest of the lava streams upon which ,aci rests must have been formed #ad1jjj years ago4 ,these views he stated to ,brydone a hundred years ago2 the latter says1 ,recupero tells me he is exceedingly embarrassed by these discoveries in writing the history of the mountain4 ,that ,moses hangs like a dead weight upon him1 and blunts all his zeal for enquiry2 for that really he has not the conscience to make his mountain so young as that prophet makes the world4 ,what do you think of these sentiments from a ,roman ,catholic ,divine8 ,the ,bishop1 who is strenuously orthodox--for it is an excellent ,see--has already warned him to be upon his guard1 and not to pretend to be a better natural historian than ,moses2 not to presume to urge anything that may1 in the smallest degree1 be deemed contradictory to his sacred authority4 ,the ,canon ,recupero lost his church preferment on the publication of ,brydone's book1 and the whole body of clergy of ,girgenti received a reprimand on account of a capital story which ,brydone told of a dinner at which the ,bishop presided1 during which several of the reverend ,canons suffered severely from the effects of ,english punch1 which ,brydone had brewed for them4 ,we quite agree with ,admiral ,smyth when he says1 ,it is a pity that ,mr4 ,brydone laboured under such a cacoethes1 as to sacrifice a friend for the sake of a good story4 ,of course we now know that ,recupero's estimate of the age of ,etna was far within the true limits1 but we derive this information from other sources4 ,no true estimate can be obtained from the observation of the decomposition of lavas1 for it has been often observed that two lavas will decompose at very different rates4 ,a little to the north of the village of ,la ,scaletta1 at the base of the rocks upon which ,aci ,reale stands1 there are two small caverns in the abrupt face of the basalt1 which can only be approached in a boat4 ,they consist of columnar basalt bent very curiously1 and capped by amorphous basalt4 ,a drive of a few miles to the ,south of ,aci ,reale brings us to ,trezza1 a small village built of lava4 ,a short distance from the shore are the celebrated ,scogli di ,ciclopi1 or rocks of the ,cyclops1 said to be those which ,polyphemus hurled at ,ulysses after his escape from the cave4 ,the rocks1 seven in number1 form small islets1 the largest of which1 the ,isola d',aci1 is about #cjjj feet in circumference1 and #aej feet high4 ,it consists of crudely columnar basalt capped by a kind of marl4 ,near the top of the island there is a cave called the ,grotto of ,polyphemus1 also a cistern of water4 ,to the south of this island a very picturesque rock rises from the sea4 ,it is #bjjj feet in circumference and about #bjj feet in height1 and consists of columnar basalt in four and eight-sided prisms1 but not very regular2 a hard calcareous substance is found in their interstices4 ,fine crystals of analcime are sometimes met with in the basalts of the ,cyclops ,islands4 ,lyell considers these basalts the most ancient monuments of volcanic action within the region of ,etna4 ,a few miles south of the ,isole di ,ciclopi are the bay and city of ,catania4 ,we started from the latter when we commenced our ascent of ,etna1 and now on returning to it1 we completed the circuit of the mountain by its base-road of #hg miles4 ,katana 7,katan7 is believed to have been founded about #gcj ,b4,c4 by a ,greek colony of ,naxos1 which had originally come from ,chalcis4 ,the city maintained its independence till the time of ,hieron1 who expelled the original inhabitants in #dgf ,b4,c41 and peopled the city with ,syracusans and inhabitants of the ,peloponnesus to the number of #aj1jjj4 ,at the same time the name of the city was changed to ,aetna 7,greek3 ,aitn74 ,in #dfa ,b4,c41 however1 the old inhabitants retook their city1 and drove out the newly-settled strangers1 who betook themselves to ,inessa1 occupied it1 and changed its name to ,aetna4 ,at a later period the ,katanians sided with the ,athenians against the ,syracusans4 ,but in #djc ,b4,c4 ,dionysius of ,syracuse took and plundered the city1 sold the inhabitants as slaves1 and established in it a body of ,campanian mercenaries4 ,the latter quitted it and retired to ,aetna in #cif ,b4,c41 when the city was taken by the ,carthaginians after a battle off the rocks of the ,cyclops4 ,katana submitted to the ,romans in #bfc ,b4,c41 during the first ,punic ,war1 and it soon became a very populous city4 ,cicero mentions it as a wealthy city and important seaport4 ,during the ,middle ,ages it underwent many changes both at the hands of nature and of man2 it belonged in succession to the ,goths1 ,saracens1 and ,normans2 and in #aafi was destroyed by an earthquake1 during which #ae1jjj of its inhabitants perished4 ,again in #affi1 and #afic1 it was almost destroyed by earthquakes4 ,the present town is comparatively new1 many of its more ancient remains are covered with lava1 among them the remains of a fine ,greco-,roman theatre1 in which it is probable that ,alcibiades addressed the ,catanians in #dae ,b4,c4 ,there are also remains of a ,roman amphitheatre1 bath1 and tombs4 ,of more modern structures1 the cathedral is the first to claim our notice4 ,it was commenced by ,roger ,i4 in #ajia1 but in less than a century was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake4 ,at one corner of the building you descend through a narrow passage cut in the lava1 to a crypt in which some ancient ,roman arches are shown1 partly filled up with lava4 ,here also is seen a small stream of very clear water flowing through the lava4 ,the cathedral contains several interesting tombs1 and in the chapel of ,s4 ,agata1 her body is preserved in a silver sarcophagus1 which during certain fetes is carried through the town in procession1 attended by all the authorities4 ,s4 ,agata was martyred by the ,prtor ,quintianus in the reign of ,decius1 and is the patron saint of the city4 ,whenever ,catania has been in trouble from the approach of lava streams1 or from earthquakes1 the veil of ,s4 ,agata has been used as a charm to avert the evil4 ,the ,university of ,catania is the most celebrated in ,sicily4 ,it was founded in #adde by ,alfonso of ,arragon1 and has produced several men of eminence4 ,the city also possesses one of the finest monasteries in the world1 now converted into schools and barracks4 ,formerly the monastery of ,s4 ,nicola was occupied by #dj monks1 all members of noble families2 it is sufficiently large to hold #djj4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,eruptions ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 ,their frequency within the historical period4--#ebe ,b4,c4--#dgg ,b4,c4-- #dbf ,b4,c4--#cif ,b4,c4--#adj ,b4,c4--#acd ,b4,c4--#abf ,b4,c4--#abb ,b4,c4--#di ,b4,c4 --#dc ,b4,c4--#ch ,b4,c4--#cb ,b4,c4--#dj ,a4,d4--#gb4--bec4--dbj4--hab4--aafi4 --#aaha4--abhe4--acbi4--accc4--acga4--ad jh4--addd4--addf4--addg4-- ,close of the ,fifteenth ,century4--#aecf4--aecg--aeff4--aegi4--a fjc4-- #afjg4--afaj4--afad4--afai4--afcc4--afdf 4--afea4--affi4--afhb4--afhh4 --#afhi4--afic4--afid4--agjb4--agbc4--ag cb4--agce4--agdd4--agdg4-- #agee4--;,flood of #agee4--agei4--agfc4--agff4--aghj4--agha 4--aghg4-- #agib4--agig4--agih4--agii4--ahjj4--ahjb 4--ahje4--ahjh4--ahji4--ahaa4 --#ahai4--ahca4--ahcb4--ahch4--ahdb4--ah dc4--aheb4--ahfe4--ahgd4-- ,general character of the ,eruptions4 ,a list of all the eruptions of ,etna from the earliest times has been given by several writers1 notably by ,ferrara in his ,descrizione dell' ,etna1 and by ,gemellaro4 ,the latter places the first eruption in #abbf ,b4,c4 in the time of the ,sicani2 the second in #aagj ,b4,c42 and of the third he says1 ,in #aadi ,b4,c4 there was an eruption1 and ,hercules in consequence fled from the island4 ,of course these dates are worthless1 and the statements are no doubt based upon the assertion of ,diodorus1 that before the ,trojan war the ,sicani were driven from the east side of ,sicily by the eruptions of the volcano4 #a4 ,the first eruption appears to have occurred in the time of ,pythagoras2 we have no details as to its nature4 #b4 ,the second eruption occurred in #dgg ,b4,c4 ,it is mentioned by ,thucydides1 and it must be the eruption to which ,pindar and schylus allude4 ,the former visited the tomb of ,hiero ,i4 of ,syracuse in #dgc ,b4,c41 and the latter was in ,sicily in #dga ,b4,c4 ,on the occasion of this eruption1 two heroic youths named ,anapias and ,amphinomus1 performed a deed to which ,seneca and other writers allude with enthusiasm4 ,while the lava was rapidly overwhelming the city of ,katana1 they placed their aged parents on their shoulders1 and1 at the risk of their lives1 bore them through the flaming streets1 and succeeded in placing them in safety4 ,it was said that the fiery stream of lava parted to make way for them4 ,statues were raised to the honour of the ,pii ,fratres1 and their burial place was long known as the ,campus ,piorum4 ,even a temple was erected to commemorate the deed4 ,lucilius ,junior devotes the concluding lines of his poem on ,etna to the glory of the brothers3 ,the flames blushed to touch the filial youths1 and wherever they plant their footsteps1 they retire4 ,that day is a day of fortune2 harmless that land4 ,on their right hand fierce dangers prevail2 on their left are burning fires4 ,athwart the flames they pass in triumph1 his brother and he1 each safe beneath his filial burden4 ,there the devouring fire flees backward1 and checks itself round the twin pair4 ,at length they issue forth unharmed1 and bear with them their deities in safety4 ,songs of poets honour and admire them2 them has ,pluto placed apart beneath a glorious name1 nor can the mean ,fates reach the holy youths1 but have truly granted them the homes and dominion of the blessed4#ah #ah ,translated by ,l4 ,e4 ,upcott1 ,m4,a4 #c4 ,the third eruption occurred in the year #dbf ,b4,c4 ,it is mentioned by ,thucydides as having commenced in the sixth year of the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,it destroyed a portion of the territory of the inhabitants of ,katana4 #d4 ,an important eruption occurred in the year #cif ,b4,c4 ,it broke out from ,monte di ,mojo1 the most northerly of the minor cones of ,etna1 and following the course of the river ,acesines1 7now the ,alcantara7 entered the sea at the site of the ancient ,greek colony of ,naxos4 ,himilco the ,carthaginian general1 was at this time on his way from ,messana to ,syracuse1 and he was compelled to march his troops round the west side of the mountain in order to avoid the stream of lava4 #e4 ,we hear of no further eruption for #bef years1 when in the year #adj ,b4,c41 in the consulship of ,c4 ,llius ,sapiens and ,q4 ,servilius ,cpio1 there was an outburst from the volcano which destroyed #dj people4 #f4 ,six years later an eruption occurred according to ,orosius and ,julius ,obsequens1 in the consulship of ,sergius ,fulvius ,flaccus1 and ,quintus ,calpurnius ,piso4 ,we have no details concerning its nature or extent4 #g4 ,the same authorities state that in the year #abf ,b4,c4 in the consulship of ,l4 ,o,emilius ,lepidus1 and ,l4 ,aurelius ,orestes1 ,sicily suffered from a very severe earthquake1 and a deluge of fiery matter poured from ,etna1 overwhelming large tracts of country1 and rendering the waters of the adjacent ,ionian sea positively hot4 ,it is said that the sea near the island of ,lipari boiled1 and that the inhabitants ate so large a number of the fishes which were cast1 already cooked1 upon their shores1 that a distemper appeared which destroyed a large number of people4 #h4 ,four years later ,katana was nearly destroyed by a new eruption4 ,the roofs of many of the houses were broken in by the weight of hot ashes which fell upon them2 but the lava stream turned aside near the city and flowed into the sea4 ,the lava is believed to have issued from a small crater near ,gravina1 about #b-a_/b miles from ,katana4 ,the city was so much injured by this eruption that the ,romans granted the inhabitants an immunity from all taxes for a space of ten years4 #i4 ,an eruption1 of which we have no details1 occurred during the civil war between ,csar and ,pompey4 #aj4 ,livy speaks of an eruption and earthquake which took place shortly before the death of ,csar1 which it was believed to portend4 #aa4 ,in #ch ,b4,c41 during the civil war between ,octavianus and ,sextus ,pompeius1 a violent eruption occurred on the east side of the mountain1 accompanied by fearful noises and outbursts of flame4 #ab4 ,six years afterwards an eruption of a less violent character took place4 #ac4 ,the next eruption of which we hear is that mentioned by ,suetonius in his ,life of ,caligula4 ,the ,emperor happened to be at ,messina at the time1 and he fled from the town through fear of the eruption4 ,this was in #dj ,a4,d4 #ad4 ,an eruption is said to have occurred in #gb1 in the second year after the capture of ,jerusalem by ,titus4 #ae4 ,etna was now quiescent for nearly two centuries1 but in the year #bec1 in the reign of the ,emperor ,decius1 a violent eruption lasting nine days occurred4 ,the lava flowed in the direction of ,catania1 and the inhabitants for the first time tested the efficacy of the veil of ,s4 ,agatha1 which afterwards stood them in such good stead on more than one occasion4 ,the ,saint had been martyred the year before1 and when the frightened inhabitants saw the stream of lava approaching the city1 they rushed to the tomb1 and removed the veil which covered her body4 ,this was carried to the edge of the descending torrent of lava1 and is asserted to have at once arrested its progress4 #af4 ,according to ,carrera and ,photius an eruption occurred in the year #dbj4 #ag4 ,we now find no record of any volcanic action for nearly four hundred years4 ,geoffrey of ,viterbo states that an eruption occurred in #hab1 when ,charlemagne was in ,messina4 #ah4 ,after another long interval of more than three centuries and a half1 the mountain again entered into eruption4 ,in ,february1 #aafi1 occurred one of the most disastrous eruptions on record4 ,a violent earthquake1 which was felt as far as ,reggio1 occurred about dawn1 and in a few minutes ,catania was a heap of ruins4 ,it is estimated that #ae1jjj persons were buried beneath the ruins4 ,it was the vigil of the feast of ,s4 ,agatha1 and the ,cathedral of ,catania was crowded with people1 who were all buried beneath the ruins1 together with the ,bishop and forty-four ,benedictine monks4 ,the side of the cone of the great crater towards ,taormina fell into the crater4 ,at ,messina the sea retired to some distance from the shore1 and then suddenly returned1 overwhelming a portion of the city1 and sweeping away a number of persons who had fled to the shore for safety4 ,the clear and pure fountain of ,arethusa at ,syracuse became muddy and brackish2 while the fountain of ,ajo1 near the village of ,saraceni1 ceased to flow for two hours1 and then emitted water of the colour of blood4 ,ludovico ,aurelio states that the vines1 corn1 and trees were burnt up over large districts4 #ai4 ,according to ,nicolo ,speziale1 there was a great eruption from the eastern side of the mountain in #aaha4 #bj4 ,a stream of lava is said to have burst from the eastern side of the mountain in #abhe1 when ,charles of ,anjou was on his death-bed1 and to have flowed fifteen miles4 #ba4 ,in the year #acbi ,niccolo ,speziale was in ,catania1 and witnessed the eruption of which he has left us an account4 ,on the evening of ,june #bhth1 about the hour of vespers1 ,etna was strongly convulsed1 terrible noises were emitted1 and flames issued from the south side of the mountain4 ,a new crater--,monte ,lepre--opened in the ,val del ,bove above the rock of ,musarra1 and emitted large quantities of dense black smoke4 ,soon afterwards a torrent of lava poured from the crater1 and red-hot masses of rock were projected into the air4 ,these effects continued till the #aeth of ,july1 when a second crater opened ten miles to the ,s4,e4 of ,montelepre1 and near the ,church of ,s4 ,giovanni ,paparometto4 ,soon after four other craters opened around it1 and emitted smoke and lava4 ,the sun was obscured from morning till evening by the smoke and ashes1 and the adjacent fields were burnt up by the hot sand and ashes4 ,multitudes of birds and animals perished1 and many persons are said to have died from terror4 ,the lava streams were divided into three portions1 two of which flowed towards ,aci1 and the third towards ,catania4 ,the ashes were carried as far as ,malta1 a distance of #acj miles4 #bb4 ,four years afterwards an eruption is recorded by ,silvaggio4 #bc4 ,a manuscript preserved in the archives of the ,cathedral of ,catania mentions an eruption which occurred on the #fth of ,august1 #acga1 which caused the destruction of numerous olive groves near the city4 #bd4 ,an eruption which lasted for twelve days commenced on the #ith of ,november1 #adjh2 it originated in the great crater1 but several mouths subsequently opened near the base of the mountain4 ,large quantities of red-hot ashes were emitted1 some of which fell in ,calabria4 ,the villages of ,pedara and ,tre ,castagne suffered severely from this eruption4 #be4 ,a violent earthquake in #addd caused the upper cone of the mountain to fall into the crater4 ,a torrent of lava also issued from the mountain1 and moved for a space of twenty days towards ,catania1 but it did not reach the city4 #bf4 ,two years later lava issued from the ,val del ,bove near the ,rock of ,musarra2 the crater then formed was perhaps the present ,monte ,finocchio4 #bg4 ,a short eruption1 of which we have no details1 occurred in #addg3 after which ,etna was quiescent for #hi years4 #bh4 ,bembo and ,fazzello mention an eruption which occurred towards the close of the #aeth century1 during which a current of lava flowed from the great crater1 and destroyed a portion of ,catania4 ,in #aecc ,filoteo1 of whom we have before spoken as one of the earliest historians of ,etna1 descended into the crater1 which possessed its present funnel-like form4 ,he found at the bottom a hole1 not larger than a man's head1 from which issued a thin moist sulphurous vapour4 #bi4 ,in ,march1 #aecf1 a quantity of lava issued from the great crater1 and several new apertures opened near the summit of the mountain and emitted lava4 ,it divided into several streams1 flowing in different directions1 one towards ,randazzo1 a second towards ,aderno1 and a third towards ,bronte4 ,the lava swept everything before it2 at the same time quantities of smoke and ashes were ejected1 the mountain was convulsed1 and fearful noises were heard4 ,three new craters were formed on the south and west sides of the mountain1 and on the #bfth of ,march twelve new craters1 or bocche1 opened between ,monte ,manfre and ,monte ,vituri4 ,a physician of ,lentini1 named ,negro di ,piazza1 having approached too near to the scene of the eruption1 was destroyed by a volley of red-hot stones4 ,several rifts were formed in the sides of the mountain from which issued flames and hot cinders4 #cj4 ,a year later1 in ,may1 #aecg1 a fresh outburst occurred2 a number of new mouths were opened on the south slope of the mountain near ,la ,fontanelle1 and a quantity of lava was emitted1 which flowed in the direction of ,catania1 destroying a part of ,nicolosi1 and ,s4 ,antonio4 ,in four days the lava had run fifteen miles4 ,at the same time violent shocks of earthquake occurred all over ,sicily1 the inhabitants thought that the last day had come1 and many prepared for their end by receiving ,extreme ,unction4 ,according to ,filoteo the noises were so violent that many persons were struck deaf4 ,the sun was obscured by smoke and dust1 ashes fell in sufficient quantities to destroy the olive plantations of ,messina1 and were even carried #cjj miles out to sea4 ,the great crater suddenly fell in1 so as to become level with the ,piano del ,lago4 ,the height of the mountain was thus diminished by #cbj feet4 #ca4 ,three new craters opened in ,november1 #aeff1 on the north-east slope of the mountain4 ,quantities of lava were emitted1 which flowed towards ,linguaglossa and ,randazzo4 #cb4 ,a slight eruption1 of which we have no details1 occurred in #aegi4 #cc4 ,according to ,carrera1 an eruption occurred in ,june1 #afjc4 ,the mountain was shaken with earthquakes1 and great volumes of smoke and flame were emitted4 #cd4 ,a stream of lava issued from the great crater four years later1 and filled up the lake which had previously existed in the ,piano del ,lago4 #ce4 ,in ,february1 #afaj1 lava was emitted from the great crater4 ,it flowed towards ,aderno1 and filled up the bed of the ,simeto1 a little above the ,ponte di ,carcaci4 ,a few months later a second stream destroyed a large portion of the forest ,del ,pino4 #cf4 ,in #afad several new craters were opened between ,randazzo and the great crater on the north side of the mountain4 ,a quantity of lava issued from them1 which united into one stream1 and ran for ten miles1 destroying a great deal of wooded country4 #cg4 ,a slight eruption occurred in #afai4 #ch4 ,in ,february1 #afcc1 ,nicolosi was partially destroyed by a violent earthquake2 and in the following ,december earthquakes became frequent on the mountain4 ,a new crater opened above the cone called ,serrapizzuta1 five miles from the great crater1 and emitted a good deal of lava4 ,a second crater afterwards opened about two miles to the east of the former4 ,the eruption lasted off and on for four years3 the ejected lava then covered a tract eighteen miles in length by two miles in width1 the thickness sometimes attaining #db feet4 ,in #afdc a severe earthquake occurred1 which was mainly felt on the west side of the mountain4 #ci4 ,in #afdf a new mouth opened on the north-north-east side of the mountain1 five miles from the great crater4 ,the lava flowed towards ,castiglione4 #dj4 ,in ,february1 #afea1 several new mouths opened on the west side of the mountain1 and poured out vast volumes of lava which threatened to overwhelm ,bronte4 ,in twenty-four hours the lava ran sixteen miles with a breadth of four miles4 #da4 ,we have a more detailed account of the eruption of #affi than of any previous outburst4 ,it was observed by many men of different nations2 and we find accounts of it in our own ,philosophical ,transactions1 in ,french1 and of course in ,italian4 ,perhaps the most accurate and complete description is that given by ,alfonso ,borelli1 ,professor of ,mathematics in ,catania4 ,the eruption was1 in every respect1 one of the most terrible on record4 ,on the #hth of ,march the sun was obscured1 and a whirlwind blew over the face of the mountain2 at the same time earthquakes commenced1 and continued to increase in violence for three days1 when ,nicolosi was converted into a heap of ruins4 ,on the morning of the #aath a fissure nearly twelve miles in length opened in the side of the mountain1 and extended from the ,piano di ,s4 ,leo to ,monte ,frumento1 a mile from the summit4 ,the fissure was only six feet wide1 but it seemed to be of unknown depth1 and a bright light proceeded from it4 ,six mouths opened in a line with the principal fissure2 they emitted vast columns of smoke1 accompanied by loud bellowings which could be heard #dj miles off4 ,towards the close of the day1 a crater opened about a mile below the others1 and it ejected red hot stones to a considerable distance1 and afterwards sand and ashes which covered the country for a distance of #fj miles4 ,the new crater soon vomited forth a torrent of lava which presented a front of two miles1 it encircled ,monpilieri1 and afterwards flowed towards ,belpasso1 a town of #hjjj inhabitants1 which was speedily destroyed4 ,seven mouths of fire opened around the new crater1 and in three days united with it1 forming one large crater #hjj feet in diameter4 ,the torrent of lava all this time continued to descend1 and it destroyed the town of ,mascalucia on the #bcrd of ,march4 ,on the same day the crater cast up great quantities of sand1 ashes1 and scori1 and formed above itself the great double-coned hill now called ,monti ,rossi from the red colour of the ashes of which it is mainly composed4 ,on the #beth very violent earthquakes occurred1 and the cone of the great central crater was shaken down into the crater for the fifth time since the first century ,a4,d4 ,the original current of lava had divided into three streams1 one of which destroyed ,s4 ,pietro1 the second ,camporotondo1 and the third the lands about ,mascalucia1 and afterwards the village of ,misterbianco4 ,fourteen villages were altogether destroyed1 and the lava was on its way to ,catania4 ,at ,albanelli1 two miles from the city1 it undermined a hill covered with cornfields1 and carried it forward a considerable distance2 a vineyard was also seen to be floating on its fiery surface4 ,when the lava reached the walls of ,catania it accumulated without progression until it rose to the top of the wall1 #fj feet in height1 and it then fell over in a fiery cascade1 and overwhelmed a part of the city4 ,another portion of the same stream threw down #abj feet of the wall1 and flowed into the city4 ,on the #bcrd of ,april the lava reached the sea1 which it entered as a stream #fjj yards broad and #dj feet deep4 ,the stream had moved at the rate of thirteen miles in twenty days1 but as it cooled it moved less quickly1 and during the last twenty-three days of its course it only moved two miles4 ,on reaching the sea the water of course began to boil violently1 and clouds of steam arose1 carrying with them particles of scori4 ,towards the end of ,april the stream on the west side of ,catania1 which had appeared to be consolidated1 again burst forth1 and flowed into the garden of the ,benedictine ,monastery of ,s4 ,niccola1 and then branched off into the city4 ,attempts were made to build walls to arrest its progress4 ,an attempt of another kind was made by a gentleman of ,catania1 named ,pappalardo1 who took fifty men with him1 having previously provided them with skins for protection from the intense heat1 and with crowbars to effect an opening in the lava4 ,they pierced the solid outer crust of solidified lava1 and a rivulet of the molten interior immediately gushed out1 and flowed in the direction of ,paterno2 whereupon #ejj men of that town1 alarmed for its safety1 took up arms1 and caused ,pappalardo and his men to desist4 ,the lava did not altogether stop for four months2 and two years after it had ceased to flow it was found to be red hot beneath the surface4 ,even eight years after the eruption quantities of steam escaped from the lava after a shower of rain4 ,the stones which were ejected from the crater during this eruption were often of considerable magnitude1 and ,borelli calculated that the diameter of one which he saw was #ej feet2 it was thrown to a distance of a mile1 and as it fell it penetrated the earth to a depth of #bc feet4 ,the volume of lava emitted during this eruption amounted to many millions of cubic feet3 ,ferrara considers that the length of the stream was at least fifteen miles1 while its average width was between two and three miles1 so that it covered at least forty square miles of surface4 ,in a somewhat rare tract1#ai ,lord ,winchelsea1 who was returning to ,england from ,constantinople1 and who landed at ,catania1 gives an account of what he saw of the eruption4 ,he appears to have been frightened at the sight1 and took good care to keep in a safe place2 hence his letter1 which is a short one1 is mainly founded on hearsay4 ,however1 he says1 ,i could discern the river of fire to descend the mountain1 of a terrible fiery or red colour1 and stones of a paler red to swim thereon1 and to be as big as an ordinary table4444 ,of #bj1jjj persons which inhabited ,catania1 #cjjj did only remain2 all their goods are carried away1 the cannon of brass are removed out of the castle1 some great bells taken down1 the city gates walled up next the fire1 and preparations made by all to abandon the city4 ,the noble earl is less happy in his scientific ideas than in his general statement of the facts of which he was an eye-witness2 we can only hope that he joined the recently-formed ,royal ,society on his return to ,england1 and listened to ,robert ,hooke's discourse on fire4 ,in describing the lava1 ,lord ,winchelsea says1 ,the composition of this fire1 stones1 and cinders1 are sulphur1 nitre1 quicksilver1 sal-ammoniac1 lead1 iron1 brass1 and all other mettals6 ,two other accounts are appended to the above letter2 in one of these we are told that as the lava approached ,catania1 the various religious bodies carried their relics in procession1 followed by great multitudes of people1 some of them mortifying themselves with whips1 and other signs of penance1 with great complaints and cries1 expressing their dreadful expectation of the events of those prodigious fiery inundations4 ,in the midst of all this1 news was brought that a large band of robbers had taken advantage of the general distress1 and were robbing right and left1 and murdering the people3 whereupon a troop of ,spanish horse was sent out to protect the city and country1 three pair of gallows were set up1 and such as were found robbing were executed without trial by martial law4 #ai ,a true and exact relation of the late prodigious earthquake and eruption of ,mount tna or ,monte ,gibello2 as it came in a letter written to his ,majesty from ,naples by the ,rt4 ,honble4 the ,earl of ,winchelsea late ,ambassadour at ,constantinople1 who in his return from thence visiting ,catania in the ,island of ,sicily1 was an eye-witness of that dreadful spectacle4 ,published by ,authority4 ,printed by ,t4 ,newcomb in the ,savoy4 #affi4 ,as the lava streams approached the city1 the ,senate1 accompanied by the ,bishop and all the clergy1 secular and regular1 went in procession out of the city to ,monte di ,s4 ,sofia with all their relics1 etc4 ,there they erected an altar in view of the burning mountain1 and celebrated mass1 and used the exorcismes accustomed upon such extraordinary occasions1 all which time the mountain ceased not as before with excessive roaring to throw up its smoak and flames with extraordinary violence1 and abundance of great stones1 which were carried through the air4 #db4 ,for a few years after this terrible eruption ,etna was quiescent1 but in #afhb a new mouth opened on the east side of the mountain1 a little below the summit1 and above the ,val del ,bove4 ,lava issued from it1 and rushed down the precipices of the ,val del ,bove as far as the rock of ,musarra4 #dc4 ,six years later a torrent of lava burst from an opening in the great cone1 and flowed into the ,val del ,bove for a distance of three miles4 #dd4 ,in the following year lava was emitted from a mouth in the ,val del ,bove1 and it descended for about ten miles1 destroying everything in its course1 until it reached a little valley near ,macchia4 #de4 ,early in ,january #afic1 clouds of black smoke were poured from the great crater1 and loud noises resembling the discharge of artillery were heard4 ,a violent earthquake succeeded1 and ,catania was shaken to the ground1 burying #ah1jjj of its inhabitants in the ruins4 ,it is said that in all fifty towns were destroyed in ,sicily1 together with from #fj1jjj to #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,lava was emitted from the crater1 which was lowered by the eruption4 #df4 ,in the following year ,etna again entered into eruption1 ejecting large quantities of ashes1 some of which were carried as far as ,malta4 #dg4 ,in ,march #agjb1 three mouths opened in the ,contrada del ,trifoglietto1 near the head of the ,val del ,bove4 ,lava was emitted from them1 which flowed into the ,valley of ,calanna4 #dh4 ,towards the end of #agbc loud bellowings issued from the mountain2 earthquakes occurred1 and a torrent of lava issued from the crater1 which flowed towards ,bronte1 through the ,bosco di ,bronte4 #di4 ,a small lava stream issued from the crater in #agcb1 and descended the western slope of the mountain1 but without producing any damage4 #ej4 ,in ,october #agce1 the usual noises which presage an eruption were heard1 earthquakes followed1 and a little later the crater emitted flames and red-hot stones4 ,lava also issued from it1 and the stream divided into three branches1 one of which flowed towards ,bronte1 a second towards ,linguaglossa1 and a third towards ,mascali2 but they did not get beyond the upper regions of the mountain4 #ea4 ,in #agdd the mountain threw out great quantities of ashes1 but no lava4 #eb4 ,in #agdg a quantity of lava flowed from the great crater into the ,val del ,bove1 and the height of the cone was considerably increased during the eruption4 #ec4 ,early in the year #agee1 ,etna began to show signs of disturbance2 a great column of black smoke issued from the crater1 from which forked lightning was frequently emitted4 ,loud detonations were heard1 and two streams of lava issued from the crater4 ,a new mouth opened near the ,rocca di ,musarra in the ,val del ,bove1 four miles from the summit1 and a quantity of lava was ejected from it4 ,an extraordinary flood of water descended from the ,val del ,bove1 carrying all before it1 and strewing its path1 with huge blocks4 ,recupero estimated the volume of water as #af1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 probably a greater amount than could be furnished by the melting of all the winter's snow on the mountain4 ,it formed a channel two miles broad1 and1 in some places1 thirty-four feet deep1 and it flowed at the rate of a mile in a minute and a half during the first twelve miles of its course4 ,lyell considers the flood was probably produced by the melting1 not only of the winter's snow1 but also of older layers of ice1 which were suddenly melted by the permeation of hot steam and lava1 and which had been previously preserved from melting by a deposit of sand and ashes1 as in the case of the ancient glacier found near the summit of the mountain in #ahbh4 ,in ,november #ageh1 a smart shock of earthquake caused the cone of the great crater to fall in1 but no eruption occurred at the time4 #ed4 ,great quantities of ashes1 and some small streams of lava1 were emitted from the crater in #agei1 a little later the cone1 which had been again raised by the eruption1 gave way1 and the greater part of it fell into the crater4 ,two parts of it however were left standing4 #ee4 ,severe shocks of earthquakes were felt on the east side of the mountain in #agfc1 and a new mouth opened in the ,bosco di ,bronte1 ten miles from the town1 between ,monte ,rosso and ,monte ,lepre4 ,four other mouths were afterwards opened in a line2 they threw up quantities of scori and ashes1 and afterwards lava4 ,in the middle of ,june several mouths opened on the south side of the mountain1 and a fissure #bjjj feet long opened downwards in a southerly direction4 ,the lava divided into two branches1 the larger of which was ten miles long and #bej feet wide1 with a depth of #be feet4 #ef4 ,several new mouths opened in the spring of #agff1 and ejected large volumes of ashes1 also streams of lava1 which flowed in the direction of ,nicolosi and ,pedara4 ,the ,canon ,recupero1 one of the historians of ,etna1 witnessed this eruption1 and narrowly escaped being destroyed4 ,he had ascended a small hill #ej feet high1 of ancient volcanic matter1 in order to witness the approach of the lava stream which was slowly advancing with a front of two miles and a half4 ,suddenly two small streams detached themselves from the main stream1 and ran rapidly towards the hill4 ,recupero and his guide at once hastened to descend1 and had barely escaped when they saw the hill surrounded by lava1 and in a few minutes it was melted down and sank into the molten mass4 #eg4 ,in the early part of #aghj1 earthquakes were felt all over ,sicily1 and on the #ahth of ,may a fissure opened on the south-west side of the mountain1 and extended from the base of the great crater for seven miles1 terminating in a new mouth from which a stream of lava emanated4 ,this encountered the cone of ,palmintelli in its course1 and separated into two branches1 each of which was #djj feet wide4 ,other mouths opened later in the year1 and emitted large quantities of lava1 which devastated the country of ,montemazzo4 #eh4 ,in #agha the volcano emitted a quantity of lava which flowed into the ,val del ,bove4 ,clouds of grey ashes were also ejected4 ,at the commencement of the great ,calabrian earthquake of #aghc1 ,etna ejected large quantities of smoke1 but it was otherwise quiescent4 #ei4 ,in the middle of #aghg lava burst from the great crater1 which also discharged quantities of sand1 scori1 and red-hot ashes4 ,large heated masses of rock were ejected to a great height1 and subterranean bellowings were heard by the dwellers on the mountain4 #fj4 ,five years afterwards a fresh outburst occurred1 earthquakes were prevalent1 and vast volumes of smoke bore to seaward1 and seemed to bridge the sea between ,sicily and ,africa4 ,a torrent of lava flowed towards ,aderno1 and a second flowed into the ,val del ,bove as far as ,zoccolaro4 ,a pit called ,la ,cisterna1 #dj feet in diameter1 opened in the ,piano del ,lago1 near the great cone1 and ejected smoke and masses of old lava saturated with water4 ,several mouths opened below the crater1 and the country round about ,zaffarana was desolated4 ,the ,abate ,ferrara1 the author of the ,descrizione dell' ,etna1 witnessed this eruption3 ,i shall never forget1 he writes1 that this last mouth opened precisely on the spot where1 the day before1 ,i had made my meal with a shepherd4 ,on my return next day he related how1 after a stunning explosion1 the rocks on which we had sat together were blown into the air1 and a mouth opened1 discharging a flood of fire1 which1 rushing down with the rapidity of water1 hardly gave him time to make his escape4 #fa4 ,in #agig a slight eruption occurred1 and the great crater threw out ashes and sand1 but no lava4 ,earthquakes were frequent4 #fb4 ,in the following year lava was emitted1 and severe earthquakes occurred4 #fc4 ,the eruptions continued during #agii4 #fd4 ,in ,february #ahjj loud explosions were heard by the dwellers on the mountain1 and columns of fire issued from the crater1 accompanied by forked lightning4 ,this was succeeded by a discharge of hot ashes and scori1 which1 falling on the snows accumulated near the summit of the mountain1 produced devastating floods of water4 #fe4 ,in ,november #ahjb a new mouth opened near the ,rocca di ,musarra in the ,val del ,bove1 which emitted a copious stream of lava4 ,in a day and a half the lava had run twelve miles4 #ff4 ,in #ahje the great crater was in a state of eruption1 and a cone was thrown up within it to a height of #a1jej feet4 #fg4 ,in #ahjh the mountain again became active1 and fire and smoke were emitted from the crater4 #fh4 ,in ,march #ahji1 no less than twenty-one mouths of fire opened in the direction of ,castiglione4 ,they ejected volumes of smoke1 large quantities of scori and ashes1 and afterwards lava1 which1 uniting into one torrent1 flowed with a front of #dej feet for #h miles4 ,fissures were formed in the earth1 and loud explosions constantly occurred within the great crater2 a small cone was thrown up4 #fi4 ,two years afterwards more than thirty mouths opened in a line running eastwards for five miles4 ,they ejected jets of fire accompanied by much smoke4 ,the eruptions soon diminished in the higher mouths1 and became more and more violent in the lower mouths1 until the eruption centred in the lowest one called ,s4 ,simone1 near the head of the ,val del ,bove4 ,from this1 great black clouds1 having a lustre like that of black wool1 issued1 and afterwards quantities of lava1 which formed a stream a mile wide1 and eight miles long4 ,it flowed nearly as far as the village of ,milo4 ,frequent earthquakes accompanied this outburst1 and they continued in various parts of the island for the following five years4 #gj4 ,in #ahai five new mouths of fire opened near the scene of the eruption of #ahaa2 three of these united into one large crater1 and poured forth a quantity of lava into the ,val del ,bove4 ,the lava flowed until it reached a nearly perpendicular precipice at the bend of the valley of ,calanna1 over which it fell in a cascade1 and1 being hardened by its descent1 it was forced against the sides of the tufaceous rock at the bottom1 so as to produce an extraordinary amount of abrasion1 accompanied by clouds of dust1 worn off by the friction4 ,mr4 ,scrope observed that the lava flowed at the rate of about a yard an hour1 nine months after its emission4 #ga4 ,a slight eruption occurred in #ahca from the great crater1 which threw out lava on its northern side4 #gb4 ,in ,october of the following year a violent eruption occurred4 ,a new crater was formed in the ,val del ,serbo1 above ,bronte and three miles from the summit4 ,seven mouths afterwards opened1 three miles below the first4 ,from one of these lava was emitted1 which flowed to within a mile and a half of ,bronte4 ,the stream was a mile and a half broad1 and #dj feet deep4 #gc4 ,a slight eruption occurred in #ahch1 when a small quantity of lava was poured from the great crater into the ,val del ,bove4 #gd4 ,four years later the crater discharged ashes and scori1 and lava burst from the cone #cjj feet from the summit4 ,it flowed into the ,val del ,bove1 in a stream #fjj feet wide1 and it came to a standstill ten miles from the summit4 #ge4 ,near the end of the following year1 fifteen mouths of fire opened near the crater of #ahcb1 at a height of #gjjj feet above the sea4 ,they began by discharging scori and sand1 and afterwards lava1 which divided into three streams1 the two outer ones soon came to a standstill1 while the central stream continued to flow at the rapid rate of #ahj feet a minute1 the descent being an angle of #be4 ,the heat at a distance of #abj feet from the current was #ij ,f4 ,a new crater opened just above ,bronte1 and discharged lava which threatened the town1 but it fortunately encountered ,monte ,vittoria and was diverted into another course4 ,while a number of the inhabitants of ,bronte were watching the progress of the lava1 the front of the stream was suddenly blown out as by an explosion of gunpowder2 in an instant red-hot masses were hurled in every direction2 and a cloud of vapour enveloped everything4 ,thirty-six persons were killed on the spot1 and twenty survived but a few hours4 ,the great crater showed signs of disturbance1 by emitting dense volumes of smoke1 and loud bellowings1 also quantities of volcanic dust saturated with hydrochloric acid1 which destroyed the vegetation wherever it fell4 #gf4 ,a very violent eruption which lasted more than nine months1 commenced on the #bast of ,august1 #aheb4 ,it was first witnessed by a party of six ,english tourists1 who were ascending the mountain from ,nicolosi in order to see the sunrise from the summit4 ,as they approached the ,casa ,inglesi the crater commenced to give forth ashes and flames of fire4 ,in a narrow defile they were met by a violent hurricane1 which overthrew both the mules and their riders1 and urged them towards the precipices of the ,val del ,bove4 ,they sheltered themselves beneath some masses of lava1 when suddenly an earthquake shook the mountain1 and their mules in terror fled away4 ,they returned on foot towards daylight to ,nicolosi1 fortunately without having sustained injury4 ,in the course of the night many bocche del fuoco opened in that part of the ,val del ,bove called the ,balzo di ,trifoglietto1 and a great fissure opened at the base of the ,giannicola ,grande1 and a crater was thrown up from which for seventeen days showers of sand and scori were ejected4 ,during the next day a quantity of lava flowed down the ,val del ,bove1 branching off so that one stream advanced to the foot of ,monte ,finocchio1 and the other to ,monte ,calanna4 ,afterwards it flowed towards ,zaffarana1 and devastated a large tract of woody region4 ,four days later a second crater was formed near the first1 from which lava was emitted together with sand and scori1 which caused cones to rise around the craters4 ,the lava moved but slowly1 and towards the end of ,august it came to a stand1 only a quarter of a mile from ,zaffarana3 on the second of ,september1 ,gemellaro ascended ,monte ,finocchio in the ,val del ,bove in order to witness the outburst4 ,he states that the hill was violently agitated1 like a ship at sea4 ,the surface of the ,val del ,bove appeared like a molten lake2 scori were thrown up from the craters to a great height1 and loud explosions were heard at frequent intervals4 ,the eruption continued to increase in violence4 ,on ,october #fth two new mouths opened in the ,val del ,bove1 emitting lava which flowed towards the ,valley of ,calanna1 and fell over the ,salto della ,giumenta1 a precipice nearly #bjj feet deep4 ,the noise which it produced was like that of the clash of metallic masses4 ,the eruption continued with abated violence during the early months of #ahec1 and it did not finally cease till ,may #bg4 ,the entire mass of lava ejected is estimated to be equal to an area six miles long by two miles broad1 with an average depth of about twelve feet4 ,i am indebted to ,m4 ,antonin ,moris of ,palermo for the following account of the eruption of #aheb3 ,the eruption of #aheb commenced on the #bast of ,august4 ,the earthquakes1 the jets of flame from the great crater1 and the subterranean rumblings which usually precede an eruption1 did not herald the approach of this one4 ,an ,english family1 who were then making the ascent of the mountain1 together with a poor shepherd of ,riposto1 were the only witnesses of the first outburst4 ,the latter was asleep in the midst of his flocks1 and was awakened by violent shakings of the ground2 he fled in haste1 and some seconds afterwards the earth opened with a loud noise1 vomiting a terrible column of fire1 at the very spot which he had just abandoned4 ,an enormous crevasse opened on the north side of ,trifoglietto in the direction of the great crater4 ,on its summit near the opening called the ,piccolo ,teatro1 several openings were produced at the very first1 but they only emitted feeble currents of lava4 ,all the force of the eruption was concentrated at the foot of the escarpment of the ,serra di ,giannicola1 #d kilometres1 7#b-a_/b miles7 from the summit of ,etna4 ,to the west of1 and somewhat above the principal crater1 a second one was formed1 but its activity was of short duration4 ,the liquid lava issued with such violence that in #bd hours it had reached the base of ,monte ,calanna1 a distance of #c kilometres1 7nearly #b miles74 ,after surrounding this hill1 it divided into two currents1 one of which ran towards ,zaffarana1 and the other towards ,milo4 ,at a distance they seemed to present a united front of #b kilometres1 7#a-a_/d mile71 which threatened to destroy all the villages below4 ,the ,val del ,bove was already entirely overrun2 ,isoletta dei ,zappinelli in the midst of the lavas of #ahaa and #ahai was overwhelmed2 the valley of ,calanna was buried under the fire with lava1 when on the #bhth of ,august the lava hurled itself into the narrow passage of the ,portella di ,calanna4 ,a frightful cascade of lava was then seen to precipitate itself from a height of #fj metres1 with a harsh metallic noise1 accompanied by loud cracking4 ,zaffarana was on the eve of total ruin2 the fire had taken the direction of the ravine which terminates there1 when suddenly1 in the beginning of ,september1 the devastating stream stayed its march against the ill-fated district4 ,on the contrary that which had taken the direction of ,milo1 reinforced by a new current on the #ajth of ,september1 destroyed the hamlet of ,caselle del ,milo2 and afterwards divided itself into two branches1 which left the village of ,caselle in safety between them4 ,the inhabitants of ,la ,macchia and ,giarre gave themselves up for lost2 for it seemed that the lava would be obliged to follow the valley of ,santa ,maria della ,strada2 happily1 however1 from the #bjth of ,september onward1 it ceased to advance perceptibly4 ,the eruption did not totally subside till ,march #ahec2 but the lava-flows did no more than travel by the side1 or on the top of the older1 without extending beyond them4 ,the crater of #aheb was called the ,centenario1 from its having been formed at the time of the centenary of the fte of ,s4 ,agatha4 ,santiago1 in the island of ,cuba1 was destroyed by an earthquake on the very day of the eruption4 ,during the whole period of the eruption1 only one explosion proceeded from the great crater of ,etna4 ,by it an enormous column of ashes and scori was cast into the air4 ,on the #ith of ,september white ashes were seen on the summit1 which at a distance appeared like snow4 ,when pressed together by the hand they took the consistence of clay1 but they hardened in the fire1 and could then be reduced to powder4 ,they have been considered to be the debris of felspathic rocks1 disintegrated by the heat of the lava1 and blown out by the expansive power of disengaged gas4 ,the eruption of #aheb was one of the grandest of the recorded eruptions of ,etna4 ,more than #b1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of red hot lava was spread over three square miles4 ,this eruption was minutely described by ,carlo ,gemellaro1 in a memoir entitled1 ,breve ragguaglio della eruzione dell' ,etna del #ba ,agosto1 #aheb4 #gg4 ,in ,october #ahfd1 frequent shocks of earthquakes were felt by the dwellers on ,etna4 ,in ,january clouds of smoke were emitted by the great crater1 and roaring sounds were heard4 ,on the night of the #cjth a violent shock was felt on the north-east side of the mountain1 and a mouth opened below ,monte ,frumento1 from which lava was ejected4 ,it flowed at a rate of about a mile a day1 and ultimately divided into two streams4 ,by ,march #ajth the new mouths of fire had increased to seven in number1 and they were all situated along a line stretching down from the summit4 ,the three upper craters gave forth loud detonations three or four times a minute4 ,professor ,orazio ,silvestri has devoted a quarto of #bfg pages to an account of ,i ,fenomeni ,vulcanici presentati dall',etna nel #ahfc-fd-fe-ff4 #gh4 ,in ,august #ahgd the inhabitants of the towns situated on the north1 west1 and east sides of the mountain1 were awakened by loud subterranean rumblings4 ,soon afterwards a formidable column of black smoke issued from the crater1 accompanied by sand1 scori1 and ignited matter 7infuocata materia74 ,severe shocks of earthquake were felt1 the centre of impulsion being apparently situated on the northern flank of the mountain1 at a height of #bdej metres above the level of the sea4 ,some small bocche eruttive opened near the great crater1 and ejected lava1 but the quantity was comparatively small1 and but little damage was done4 ,an account of this eruption was given by ,silvestri in #ahgd1 in a small pamphlet entitled1 ,notizie sulla eruzione dell' ,etna del #bi ,agosto1 #ahgd4 ,since #ahgd the mountain has been in a quiescent state4 ,the centre of disturbance was at an elevation of #bdej metres 7#gfjj feet7 above the sea1 on the north side of the crater1 and between the minor cones known as the ,fratelli ,pii and ,monte ,grigio4 ,a new crater1 having an elliptical contour1 and a diameter of about #ajj metres1 was formed at this point4 ,it is composed of a prehistoric grey labradorite1 and of doleritic lava4 ,downwards from the main crater1 in the direction of ,monte di ,mojo1 a long fissure extended for #djj metres1 and along the line of this fissure no less than thirty-five minor cones opened1 with craters of from thirty to three metres in diameter4 ,the stream of lava ejected from the various boccarelle was #djj metres long1 #hj wide1 and #b metres in thickness1 and the bulk of volcanic material brought to the surface1 including the principal cone and its thirty-five subordinates and their ejectamenta1 was calculated to amount to #a1cea1jjj cubic metres4 ,the lava is of an augitic character1 and magnetic2 it possesses a specific gravity of #bcfcf at #be ,c4 ,it will be seen from the account of the foregoing eruptions that there is a great similarity in the character of the eruptions of ,etna4 ,earthquakes presage the outburst2 loud explosions follow1 rifts and bocche del fuoco open in the sides of the mountain2 smoke1 sand1 ashes1 and scori are discharged1 the action localises itself in one or more craters1 cinders are thrown up1 and accumulate around the crater and cone1 ultimately lava rises1 and frequently breaks down one side of the cone1 where the resistance is least4 ,then the eruption is at an end4 ,smyth says1 ,the symptoms which precede an eruption are generally irregular clouds of smoke1 ferilli1 or volcanic lightnings1 hollow intonations1 and local earthquakes that often alarm the surrounding country as far as ,messina1 and have given the whole province the name of ,val ,demone1 as being the abode of infernal spirits4 ,these agitations increase until the vast cauldron becomes surcharged with the fused minerals1 when1 if the convulsion is not sufficiently powerful to force them from the great crater 7which1 from its great altitude and the weight of the candent matter1 requires an uncommon effort71 they explode through that part of the side which offers the least resistance with a grand and terrific effect1 throwing red-hot stones and flakes of fire to an incredible height1 and spreading ignited cinders and ashes in every direction4 ,after the eruption of ashes1 lava frequently follows1 sometimes rising to the top of the cone of cinders1 at others breaching it on the least resisting side4 ,when the lava has reached the base of the cone1 it begins to flow down the mountain1 and being then in a very fluid state1 it moves with great velocity4 ,as it cools the sides and surface begin to harden1 its velocity decreases1 and in the course of a few days it only moves a few yards in an hour4 ,the internal portions1 however1 part slowly with their heat1 and months after the eruption1 clouds of steam arise from the black and externally cold lava beds after rain1 which1 having penetrated through the cracks1 has found its way to the heated mass within4 ,of the seventy-eight eruptions described above1 it will be noticed that not more than nineteen have been of extreme violence1 while the majority have been of a slight and comparatively harmless character4 ,illustration3 ,geological ,map of ,etna ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,geology ,,and ,,mineralogy ,,of ,,the ,,mountain4 ,elie de ,beaumont's classification of rocks of ,etna4--,hoffman's geological map4--,lyell's researches4--,the period of earliest eruption4--,the ,val del ,bove4--,two craters of eruption4--,antiquity of ,etna4--,the lavas of ,etna4--,labradorite4--,augite4--,olivin e4-- ,analcime4--,titaniferous iron4--,mr4 ,rutley's examination of ,etna lavas under the microscope4 ,the opinion of geologists is divided as to the manner in which a volcano is first formed4 ,some hold that the volcanic forces have upraised the rocks from beneath1 and at last finding vent have scattered the lighter portions of such rocks into the air1 and have poured out lava through the rent masses1 thus forming a crater of elevation4 ,others maintain that the volcanic products are ejected from an aperture or fissure already existing in rocks previously formed1 and that the accumulation of these products around the vent forms the mass of the volcano and the crater of eruption4 ,lyell favours the latter view2 ,von ,buch1 ,dufrnoy1 and ,elie de ,beaumont the former4 ,according to ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 ,etna is an irregular crater of elevation4 ,the original deposits were nearly horizontal1 and lavas were poured through fissures in these1 and accumulated at first in layers2 afterwards the whole mass was upheaved and a crater formed4#bj ,the upheaving force does not appear to have acted at one point1 but along a line traversing the ,val del ,bove4 ,the latter he refers to a subsidence of a portion of the mountain4 ,he divides the rocks of ,etna into six orders3 #a4 ,the lowest basis of the mountain would appear to consist of granite1 because masses of that rock have from time to time been ejected4 #b4 ,calcareous and arenaceous rocks1 of which the mountains surrounding ,etna are composed1 and which appear capped with lava near ,bronte and elsewhere4 #c4 ,basaltic rocks1 which are met with near ,motta ,s4 ,anastasia1 ,paterno1 ,licodia1 and ,aderno1 and in the ,isole de',ciclopi4 #d4 ,rolled pebbles1 which form a range of slightly rising ground between the first slopes of ,etna on the southern side and the plain of ,catania4 7,lyell speaks of this rising ground as consisting of argillaceous and sandy beds with marine shells1 nearly all of living ,mediterranean species1 and with associated and contemporaneous volcanic rocks47 #e4 ,ancient lavas forming the escarpments around the ,val del ,bove2 and #fth1 ,modern lavas4 ,he considers that the fissures which abound on ,etna are shifts or faults produced by dislocation1 and that the minor cones are points along such fissures from which ashes and lava have been ejected4 ,he admits the existence of two cones4 ,the geological map of ,etna prepared by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont to accompany his memoir can scarcely be regarded as a great addition to our knowledge of the mountain4 ,for although in the main points it is correct1 so many details have been omitted that the map must be considered to have now been quite superseded by those of ,von ,waltershausen and ,friedrich ,hoffmann4 #bj ,rcherches sur la structure et sur l'origine du ,mont ,etna4 #ahcf4 ,the most convenient geological map of the mountain is without doubt that of ,hoffmann1 given in the ,vulkanen ,atlas of ,dr4 ,von ,leonhard2 and here reproduced4 ,von ,waltershausen's geological map has been the foundation of all others which have subsequently appeared4 ,it is a marvel of accurate work1 and patient industry4 ,the form however is inconvenient1 as it nowhere appears as a whole1 but in separate portions1 which are scattered through the folio sheets of the very expensive ,atlas des ,aetna4 ,it is accurate1 and at the same time very clear and intelligible4 ,by reference to the map it will be seen that from ,capo di ,schiso westward1 to near ,paterno1 ,etna is surrounded by sandstone hills2 at the south we have recent clays1 and1 at intervals1 chalk4 ,a large triangular space having the two angles at its base1 respectively near ,maletto and ,aderno1 and its apex at the great crater1 is covered with new lava2 while around ,nicolosi there is volcanic sand4 ,at the ,isole de',ciclopi1 ,motta ,s4 ,anastasia1 and a few other places1 basalt is seen2 on each side of the ,val del ,bove1 dolerite2 and near ,misterbianco and ,piedemonte1 small deposits of clay slate4 ,the great mass of the surface of the mountain1 not specially mentioned above1 is volcanic tuff4 ,illustration3 ,map of the ,val del ,bove1 to illustrate the theory of a double axis of eruption4 7,lyell74 ,among the more important and recent additions to our knowledge of the geology of ,etna may be mentioned ,lyell's paper on the subject1 communicated to the ,royal ,society in #aheh1 the matter of which is incorporated in a lengthy chapter on ,etna in the ,principles of ,geology4 ,lyell visited the mountain in #ahbh1 #aheg1 and #aheh1 and he then collected together a great number of personal observations2 he also made use of the maps and plans of ,von ,waltershausen1 and he has analysed the views of ,elie de ,beaumont and other writers4 ,he alludes at the outset to the numerous minor cones of ,etna produced by lateral eruption1 and points out the fact that they are gradually obliterated by the lava descending from the upper part of the mountain1 which flows around them and heightens the ground on which they stand4 ,in this way the crater of ,monte ,nocilla is now level with the plain1 and the crater of ,monte ,capreolo was nearly filled by a lava stream in #affi4 ,thus without doubt beneath the sloping sides of ,etna a multitude of obliterated monticules exist4 ,illustration3 ,ideal section of ,mount ,etna ,the strata which surround ,mount ,etna on the south are of ,newer ,pliocene date1 and contain shells which are nearly all of species still living in the ,mediterranean4 ,out of sixty-five species collected by ,lyell in #ahbh1 sixty-one were found to belong to species still common in the ,mediterranean4 ,these strata are about the age of the ,norwich crag2 and the oldest eruptions of ,etna must have taken place during the glacial period1 but before the period of greatest cold in ,northern ,europe4 ,before visiting ,etna1 ,lyell had been told by ,dr4 ,buckland that in his opinion the ,val del ,bove was the most interesting part of ,etna1 accordingly he specially and minutely examined that part of the mountain4 ,this vast valley is situated on the eastern flanks of the mountain1 and it commences near the base of the cone1 stretching for nearly five miles downwards4 ,it is a large oval basin formed in the side of the mountain1 and surrounded by vast precipices1 some of which at the head of the valley are between three and four thousand feet in height4 ,the surface is covered with lava of various dates1 and several minor cones1 notably those of #aheb1 are within its boundaries4 ,the abrupt precipices reveal the presence of a large number of vertical dikes1 radiating from a point within the valley1 some of them1 according to ,von ,waltershausen1 being of ancient greenstone4 ,other dikes of more modern doleritic lava radiate from the present crater4 ,from the slope of the beds in the ,val del ,bove1 ,lyell and ,von ,waltershausen have independently inferred that there was once a second great centre of eruption in the ,val del ,bove between the ,sierra ,giannicola1 and ,zoccolaro 7vide the ,figure on p4 #aag74 ,the axis of eruption passing through this point ,lyell calls the ,axis of ,trifoglietto2 while he distinguishes the present centre of eruption as the ,axis of ,mongibello4 ,these centres probably existed simultaneously1 but were unequal as regards eruptive violence2 the crater of ,mongibello was the more active of the two1 and eventually overwhelmed the crater of ,trifoglietto with its products1 by which means the whole mountain became a fairly symmetrical cone1 having the crater of ,mongibello at its apex 7vide the ,figures on pp4 #aai and #aba74 ,subsequently the ,val del ,bove was formed1 probably by some paroxysmal explosion1 caused by pent-up gases escaping from fissures4 ,possibly also subsidence may have occurred4 ,illustration3 ,profile of ,etna ,we must then in the first place think of ,etna as a submarine volcano of the ,newer ,pliocene age2 when it reached the surface it increased rapidly in bulk by pouring out scori and lava from its two centres of eruption--the centre of ,mongibello1 and the centre of ,trifoglietto1--general upheaval of the surrounding district followed1 and ultimately the crater of ,trifoglietto was obliterated by the discharges from the crater of ,mongibello4 ,afterwards the ,val del ,bove was blown out by sudden eruptive force from beneath1 and the mountain assumed its present aspect4 ,then the historical eruptions commenced1 and of these we have given an account in the preceding chapter4 ,the most obvious method of obtaining some idea as to the age of ,etna1 is to ascertain the thickness of matter added during the historical period to the sides of the mountain1 and to compare this with the thickness of the beds of ancient lava and scori exposed at the abrupt precipices of the ,val del ,bove4 ,there is reason for believing1 however1 that none of the ancient lavas equalled in volume the lava streams of #ahji and #aheb1 and the question is much complicated by other considerations4 ,lyell compares the growth of a volcano to that of an exogenous tree1 which increases both in bulk and height by the external application of ligneous matter4 ,branches which shoot out from the trunk1 first pierce the bark and proceed outwards1 but if they die or are broken off they become inclosed in the body of the tree1 forming knots in the wood4 ,similarly the volcano consists of a series of conical masses placed one above the other1 while the minor cones1 corresponding to the branches of the tree1 first project1 and then become buried again1 as successive layers of lava flow around them4 ,but volcanic action is very intermittent1 the layers of lava and scori do not accumulate evenly and regularly like the layers of a tree4 ,a violent paroxysmal outbreak may be succeeded by centuries of quiescence1 or by a number of ordinary eruptions2 or1 again1 several paroxysmal outbreaks may occur in succession4 ,moreover1 each conical envelope of the mountain is made up of a number of distinct currents of lava1 and showers of scori4 ,yet we cannot fail to form the most exalted conception of the antiquity of this mountain1 when we consider that its base is about #ij miles in circumference2 so that it would require ninety flows of lava1 each a mile in breadth at their termination1 to raise the present foot of the volcano as much as the average height of one lava current4 ,if all the minor cones now visible on ,etna could be removed1 with all the lava and scori which have ever proceeded from them1 the mountain would appear scarcely perceptibly smaller4 ,other cones would reveal themselves beneath those now existing4 ,since the time when1 in the ,newer ,pliocene period1 the foundations of ,etna were laid in the sea1 it is quite impossible even to hint at the number of hundreds of thousands of years which have elapsed4 ,we collected specimens of lava from various points around and upon the mountain4 ,they presented a wonderful similarity of structure1 and a mineralogist to whom they were shown remarked that they might almost all have come from the same crater1 at the same time4 ,a specimen of the lava of #aece found near ,borello1 was ground by a lapidary until it was sufficiently transparent to be examined under the microscope by polarised light4 ,it was found to contain good crystals of augite and olivine1 well striated labradorite1 and titaniferous iron ore4 ,elie de ,beaumont affirms that the lavas of ,etna consist of labradorite1 pyroxene 7augite71 peridot 7olivine71 and titaniferous iron4 ,rose was the first to prove that the lavas of ,etna do not contain ordinary felspar 7or potash felspar71 but labradorite 7or lime felspar47 7,annales des ,mines1 #c serie1 t4 viii41 p4 #c47 ,elie de ,beaumont detached a quantity of white crystals from the interior of a lava found between ,giarre and ,aci ,reale2 these were analysed by ,m4 ,auguste ,laurent with the following results in #ajj parts3-- ,silica #dgi ,alumina #cdj ,oxide of ,iron #bd ,soda 7,na#b,o7 #ea ,potash 7,k#b,o7 #i ,lime #ie ,magnesia #b ----- #ajjj ,von ,waltershausen gives the following as the composition of two specimens of ,labradorite from ,etna3-- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,silica #ecef #eehc ,alumina #behb #beca ,sesquioxide of ,iron #cda #cfd ,magnesia #eb #gd ,lime #aafi #ajdi ,soda #dji #ceb ,potash #ed #hc ,water #ie -- ------ ------ #ajjeh #ajjcf ,specimens of ,augite from ,etna have been examined by ,von ,waltershausen and ,rammelsberg1 with the following results3-- ,greenish ,from ,from ,black4 ,black4 ,mascali4 ,monti ,rossi4 ,silica #dgfc #eagj #difi #dgch ,alumina #fgd #dch #ebb #eeb ,protoxide of ,iron #aaci #dbd #ajge #ghi ,manganese #ba -- -- #aj ,magnesia #abij #baaa #adgd #aebi ,lime #bjhg #ahjb #ahdd #aiaj ,sesquioxide of ,iron -- -- -- #che ,water #bh #di #ea #dc ------ ----- ----- ----- #ajjjb #iiid #iice #iief ,olivine is generally met with in the lavas of ,etna4 ,it has an olive1 or bottle-glass green colour1 and is disseminated through the lavas in the form of small crystalline grains1 sometimes of some magnitude4 ,specific gravity #cccd4 ,a specimen from ,etna gave the following results on analysis3-- ,silica #daja ,protoxide of ,iron #ajjf ,magnesia #dgbg ,alumina #fd ,oxide of ,nickel #bj ,water #ajd ------ #ajjbb ,the titaniferous iron of ,etna is found disseminated through the mass of the lavas1 and is plainly distinguished when a thin section is examined under the microscope4 ,it is sometimes met with in masses4 ,a specimen from ,etna1 analysed by ,von ,waltershausen1 was found to contain3-- ,titanic ,acid #aaad ,sesquioxide of ,iron #ehhf ,protoxide of ,iron #cjjj ------ #ajjjj ,the basalts of the ,isole de',ciclopi enclose beautiful transparent crystals of ,analcime1 the zeolite dure of ,dolomieu4 ,the word is derived from analkis weak1 in allusion to the weak electric power which the mineral acquires when heated or rubbed4 ,dana prefers the term analcite4 ,specimens from the ,cyclops ,islands have been analysed by ,von ,waltershausen and ,rammelsberg1 with the following results3-- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,silica #ecgb #eebb #edcd ,alumina #bdjc #bcad #bcfa ,lime #abc #be #ba ,soda 7,na#b,o7 #gib #abai #abie ,potash 7,k#b,o7 #ddf #aeb #ff ,water #hej #gfh #haa ,magnesia #je -- -- ,sesquioxide of ,iron -- -- #ab ----- ------ ------ #iiia #ajjjj #ajjjj ,the minerals of ,etna are not nearly as numerous as those of ,vesuvius4 ,it has been remarked that no area of equal size on the face of the globe furnishes so many different species of minerals as ,vesuvius and its immediate neighbourhood4 ,out of the #chj species of simple minerals enumerated by ,hauy1 no less than #hb had been found on and around ,vesuvius1 as long ago as #ahbh1 and many have been since found4 ,of other common products of ,etna1 there are sulphur in various forms1 sulphurous acid gas1 ammonia salts1 hydrochloric acid gas1 and steam4 ,a curious white mass1 which we found near the summit1 proved to be the result of the decomposition of lava by hot acid vapours4 ,in the different lavas1 the crystals of labradorite1 and of olivine1 vary in size considerably4 ,magnetic oxide of iron is very visible in thin slices of the lavas when placed under the microscope2 and iron appears to be a constant constituent in nearly all the products of the mountain4 ,within the last few months ,prof4 ,silvestri has detected a mineral oil in the cavities of a prehistoric doleritic lava found near ,paterno4#ba ,the lava is in close contiguity to the clay deposits of a mud volcano1 and when examined under the microscope is seen to consist mainly of augite1 together with olivine and transparent crystals of labradorite4 ,it contains numerous cavities coated with arragonite1 and filled with a mineral oil which constitutes about one per cent of the whole weight of the lava4 ,it was taken from the lava at a temperature of #bd ,c41 7#geb ,f471 and solidified at #ag ,c4 7#fbf ,f47 to a yellowish green mass1 which on analysis gave the following percentage composition3-- ,liquid hydrocarbons boiling at #gi ,c4 #agig ,hydrocarbons solidifying below #j ,c41 boiling between #bhj and #djj ,c4 #caie ,paraffine melting between #eb and #eg ,c4 #dbgi ,asphalt containing #ab per cent of ash #bij ,sulphur #dcb ------ #iiic #ba ,atti ,accademia ,gioenia1 serie iii41 vol4 xii4 ,prof4 ,silvestri has recently made some interesting determinations of the specific gravity and chemical composition of the different products of ,etna4 ,they are given in full in his work entitled1 ,i ,fenomeni ,vulcanici presentati dall',etna1 nel #ahfc1 #ahfd1 #ahfe1 #ahff1 which was published in ,catania in #ahfg4 ,the following table gives the specific gravity of various ancient and modern forms of lava1 ashes1 etc4 of ,etna3-- ,sp4 ,gr4 ,ashes ejected in #ahfe #bfdd ,sand #bgae ,scori #bfcc ,compact lava #bgga ,scori ejected in #affi #bfbb ,compact lava #bfig ,lapilli ejected in #addd #bdbj ,compact lava ejected in prehistoric times #bhed ,a very decided change in the specific gravity was found to take place after fusion4 ,this can only be accounted for on the supposition that a chemical change is effected during the fusion3-- ,sp4 ,gr4 ,sp4 ,gr4 before fusion4 after fusion4 ,pyroxene of ,etna #cdec #badh ,felspar #bibe #acfa ,olivine #cdaj #bbij ,lava of #ahfe #bgga #aigb ,ancient basaltic lava from #bhed #bjjj the ,scogli de',ciclopi ,ancient basaltic lava from #bgie #aidg ,aci ,reale ,it will be seen from the following analyses that the sand1 ashes1 scori1 and compact lava have virtually the same composition--indeed they consist of the same substance in different states of aggregation4 ,ashes4 ,sand4 ,scori4 ,compact lava4 ,silica #ejjj #dihj #ejjj #diie ,alumina #aijh #ahbj #aijj #ahge ,protoxide of iron #abaf #abdb #aagj #aaba ,protoxide of ,manganese #dj #de #ej #di ,lime #iih #aajj #ajbh #aaaj ,magnesia #dab #djj #dbj #dje ,potash #fj #di #fi #gj ,soda #cgb #cfj #cdj #cga ,water #cf #bi #cc #bc ,phosphoric acid ,titanic acid traces traces traces traces ,vanadic acid ,sesquioxide of iron ------ ------ ------ ------ #ajjdb #ajjbe #ajjaj #ajjai ,with these we may compare the composition of the lava which issued from ,monti ,rossi in #affi1 and was analysed by ,lowe1 and of an ancient lava of ,etna ejected during an unknown eruption1 and analysed by ,hesser4 ,ancient lava4 ,lava of #affi4 ,silica #difc #dhhc ,alumina #bbdg #afae ,protoxide of ,iron #ajhj #afcb ,protoxide of ,manganese #fc #ed ,lime #ije #ica ,magnesia #bfh #deh ,soda #cjg #cde ,potash #ih #gg ----- ----- #iica #iiie ,the sublimations from the fumaroles are chiefly chloride of ammonium1 perchloride of iron1 and sulphur4 ,an analysis of the gases of the fumaroles of #ahfe gave the following results3-- ,carbonic acid #eje ,hydrosulphuric acid #aai ,oxygen #ga ,nitrogen #cje ----- #ajjj ,an account of microscopic analysis of some of the lavas of ,etna1 for which ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,frank ,rutley1 will be found appended to this chapter4 ,he considers that they are ,plagioclase-basalts1 and occasionally ,olivine-basalts2 and that they consist of ,plagioclase1 ,augite1 ,olivine1 ,magnetite1 ,titaniferous iron1 and a residuum of glass4 ,near the summit of the great crater ,i found a mass of perfectly white1 vesicular1 and very friable substance1 somewhat pumiceous in appearance4 ,it proved to be a decomposed lava1 and was found elsewhere on the sides of the crater4 ,mr4 ,rutley examined a section of it1 and reports3 ,under the microscope a tolerably thin section shows the outlines of felspar crystals1 lying in a hazy milk-white semi-opaque granular matrix4 ,the felspar crystals are lighter and more translucent than the matrix1 but are of much the same character1 having a granulated or flocculent appearance1 somewhat like that of the decomposed felspars in diabase4 ,there are numerous roundish cavities in the section which may once have contained olivine1 or some other mineral1 or they may be merely vesicles4 ,a qualitative analysis of this substance1 made by ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,elder1 has proved that it contains a large quantity of ,silica 7about #gj per cent471 and smaller proportions of ,alumina1 ,iron1 ,magnesium1 ,calcium1 and ,potash2 together with very small amounts of ,sulphuric ,acid and a trace of ,ammonia4 ,lithium is absent1 and ,sodium is only present in very minute quantity4 ,water is present to the extent of nearly #bj per cent4 ,during the eruption of ,etna in #ahfi ,von ,waltershausen noticed on some of the lava blocks which were still hot and smoking1 silver-coloured particles1 which rapidly underwent change4 ,an insufficient quantity for analysis was collected1 but during the eruption of #ahgd1 ,silvestri found a quantity of the substance and analysed it4 7,poggendorff's ,annalen1 ,,clvii4 #afe1 #ahgf47 ,it possesses a specific gravity of #cadg1 and shows a metallic lustre similar to that of steel4 ,on analysis it was found to consist of3-- ,iron #ijhf ,nitrogen #iad ------ #ajjjj which corresponds with the formula ,fe#e,n#b1--;a formula assigned by ,fremy to ,nitride of iron4 ,it has been named ,siderazote4 ,this new mineral species appears to be formed by the action of hydrochloric acid1 and of ammonia on red-hot lava containing a large percentage of iron4 ,it was formed artificially by exposing fragments of lava alternately to the action of hydrochloric acid and ammonia in a red-hot tube4 ,at a high temperature ,siderazote undergoes decomposition1 nitrogen being evolved4 ,in contact with steam at a red heat it forms magnetite and ammonia4 ,the ,mineral ,constitution and ,microscopic ,characters of some of the ,lavas of ,etna4 ,by ,frank ,rutley1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 of ,h4,m4 ,,geological ,,survey4 ,a cursory examination of the series of specimens collected by ,mr4 ,rodwell1 seemed to show that all the lavas of ,etna1 irrespective of their differences in age1 exhibit a remarkable similarity in mineralogical constitution4 ,occasionally1 however1 there appears to have been a little difference in their respective viscidity at the time of the eruption1 the crystals in some of them lying in all directions1 while in others there appears to be a more or less definite arrangement of the felspar crystals1 as seen in the lava of ,a4,d4 #afhi4 ,although the specimens which ,i have examined microscopically do not appear to differ in the nature of their constituents1 yet in some of them certain minerals fluctuate in quantity1 some containing a comparatively large amount of olivine and well-developed crystals of augite1 while1 in others1 these minerals1 although one or other is always present1 are but poorly represented by minute and sparsely-disseminated grains4 ,it seems probable that all the ,etna lavas contain traces of a vitreous residuum1 since1 when sections are examined under the microscope1 a more or less general darkness pervades their ground mass as soon as the ,nicols are crossed1 and this general darkness does not appear to be dissipated during the horizontal revolution of the sections themselves4 ,the translucent minerals in these sections are all doubly refracting1 and as ,i have not been able to detect the presence of hauyne1 noseau1 sodalite1 analcime1 or any other cubic mineral in them1 the natural inference is that the obscurity between crossed ,nicols is due to amorphous matter4 ,i have only been able to ascertain the presence of glass distinctly in a microscopic section of the lava of ,salto di ,pulichello4 ,in the other sections which ,i have examined there appears to be a small quantity of interstitial glass1 but it is so finely disseminated between the microliths of felspar and granules of olivine1 augite and magnetite1 which constitute the ground-mass of these rocks1 that it is most difficult to determine the single refraction of such minute specks during revolution between crossed ,nicols1 and ,i therefore merely express a belief1 which1 in some instances1 ,i cannot demonstrate with any certainty4 ,illustration3 ,sections of ,etna ,lavas seen under the ,microscope ,plagioclastic felspars are unquestionably the dominant constituents of these lavas4 ,lyell1 in his ,principles of ,geology1 7#ith ,edition1 p4 #daa71 states that the felspar is ,labradorite4 ,he does not1 however1 give the grounds for this conclusion1 and1 as microscopic examination alone merely indicates the crystalline system and not the species of felspar1 it is unsafe to speculate upon this point in the absence of chemical investigation4 ,in some of these lavas ,sanidine is also present1 but it is always subordinate to the plagioclase1 and does not1 as a rule1 appear to play a part sufficiently prominent to entitle the rock to the appellation ,trachy-dolerite4 ,augite and olivine are generally present in the ,etna lavas1 especially the latter mineral4 ,magnetite appears to occur in all of them4 ,titaniferous iron may also be represented1 but ,i have failed to detect any well-defined crystals1 or any traces of the characteristic white decomposition product which would justify me in citing the presence of this mineral1 although it is stated by ,lyell to occur in these rocks4 ,the constituent minerals of the ,etna lavas now to be described1 namely1 those of ,b4,c4 #cif and ,a4,d4 #aece1 #afjc and #afhi1 are3-- ,plagioclase1 augite1 olivine1 magnetite1 and1 in some cases1 sanidine--possibly titaniferous iron--and in some1 if not in all1 a slight residuum of glass4 ,these lavas must therefore be regarded as plagioclase-basalts1 or occasionally as olivine-basalts4 ,the plagioclase crystals vary greatly in size1 some being mere microliths while others are over the eighth of an inch in length4 ,they show the characteristic twin lamellation by polarized light1 but the lamell are often very irregular as regards their boundaries4 ,the sections of the crystals themselves are also frequently bounded by irregular outlines1 but they often show internally delicate zonal markings1 as indicated in ,fig4 #a1bb which correspond with the outlines of perfectly developed crystals4 ,the inclosures in the larger plagioclastic felspars consist for the most part either of brownish glass1 containing fine dark granular matter--probably magnetite1 which often renders them opaque1--or of matter similar to that which constitutes the groundmass of the surrounding rock4 ,these stone and glass cavities are very numerous and most irregular in outline1 as shown in ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,they appear1 however1 to be elongated generally in the direction of the planes of composition of the twin lamell4 ,zirkel has noted the plentiful occurrence of these glass inclosures in the felspar crystals and fragments of crystals which partly constitute the volcanic sands of ,etna1 in which he has also detected the presence of numerous isolated particles of brownish glass4#bc ,the felspar microliths1 which constitute so large a proportion of the ground-mass in the ,etna lavas1 are in most instances probably triclinic4 ,monoclinic felspar does1 however1 occur in some of these rocks2 but the difficulty of ascertaining the precise character of microliths renders it unsafe to speculate on the amount of sanidine which may be present4 ,some crystals1 such as that shown in the centre of ,fig4 #b1 appear at first sight to be sanidine1 twinned on the ,carlsbad type1 but closer inspection often demonstrates the presence of other and very delicate twin lamell4 #bb ,the figures in this plate are magnified #ce diameters4 ,fig4 #a4 ,lava of ,b4,c4 #cif4 ,the upper half of the drawing is occupied by a crystal of plagioclastic felspar showing twin lamellation and faint zonal markings1 and with numerous irregular dark-brown inclosures of glass1 probably containing magnetite dust and matter similar to that of the groundmass of the rock which consists of felspar microliths1 granules of olivine1 and augite crystals1 grains of magnetite1 and apparently a little interstitial glass4 ,a crystal of augite is shown near the bottom of the drawing4 ,fig4 #b4 ,lava of ,a4,d4 #afhi4 ,on the right hand side part of a plagioclase crystal with inclosures similar to that in the preceding figure4 ,in the centre a small crystal of plagioclase4 ,groundmass similar to that of ,fig4 #a1 but showing a somewhat definite arrangement of the small felspar crystals1 indicative of fluxion4 #bc ,mikroskopische ,beschaffenheit der ,mineralien und ,gesteine4 ,leipzig1 #ahgc2 p4 #dhj4 ,the augite in these lavas sometimes occurs in well-formed crystals of a green or brown colour1 and often shows the characteristic cleavage very well1 especially in the augite crystals of the lava of the ,boccarelle del ,fuoco1 erupted in #aece4 ,a small crystal of green augite is represented at the bottom of ,fig4 #a4 ,augite1 however1 appears to be more plentiful in the rocks in the form of small roundish grains4 ,olivine is of very common occurrence in the ,etna lavas1 mostly in round or irregularly shaped grains1 but also in crystals which usually exhibit rounded angles4 ,a specimen of lava from ,salto di ,pulichello1 erupted in #afjc1 gave well-developed examples of the presence of olivine1 and also of plagioclase4 ,the ground mass was found to consist of felspar microliths1 and grains of olivine1 augite1 and magnetite1 with some interstitial glass4 ,magnetite is present in all of the lavas here described4 ,it occurs both in octahedral crystals and in the form of irregular grains and fine dust4 ,to the presence of this substance much of the opacity of thin sections of the ,etna lavas is due4 ,titaniferous iron may also be present4 ,one small crystal in the lava of #aece appeared to show a somewhat characteristic form1 but although much of the black opaque matter has undergone decomposition1 ,i have failed to detect any of the white or greyish alteration product which characterises titaniferous iron1 and in the absence of this1 of definite crystalline form1 and of chemical analysis1 it seems better to speak of this mineral with reserve1 although titanium is very probably present1 since much magnetite is known to be titaniferous4 ,the vitreous matter which occurs in these lavas is principally present in the form of inclosures in the felspar1 and1 sometimes1 the augite and olivine crystals previously described4 ,its occurrence in the groundmass of these rocks has also been alluded to4 ,in this interstitial condition its amount is usually very small--a fact already pointed out by ,zirkel4 ,i have unfortunately had no opportunity of examining the volcanic sands and ashes of ,etna1 but ,zirkel's description of them seems to indicate their close mineralogical relation to lavas erupted in this district1 with one exception1 as pointed out by ,rosenbusch1#bd namely1 that he makes no mention of the occurrence of olivine in these ejectamenta4 #bd ,mikroskopische ,physiographie der ,massigen ,gesteine4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgg2 p4 #edg4 ,reference to the ,figures #a and #b will suffice to show how close a relationship in mineral constitution exists between these two lavas1 separated in the dates of their eruption by an interval of over two thousand years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,maps of ,etna4--,after these pages had received their final revision in type1 ,i met with two new maps of ,etna in the ,paris ,exhibition4 ,the literature of our subject will obviously be incomplete without some notice of them1 although this belongs properly to the first chapter rather than to the last4 ,the one is a map in relief constructed by ,captain ,francesco ,pistoja for the ,istituto ,topografico ,militare of ,florence4 ,the vertical scale is #a_/be1jjj and the horizontal is #a_/ej1jjj4 ,the surface is coloured geologically3 the lavas erupted during each century being differently coloured1 while the course of each stream is traced4 ,this map1 although by no means free from errors1 is a vast improvement on the relief map of ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont4 ,one defect1 which might be easily remedied1 is due to the fact that the lavas of three consecutive centuries are coloured so much alike1 that it is almost impossible to distinguish them4 ,the minor cones are well shown1 the ,val del ,bove fairly well1 and the map is altogether a valuable addition to our knowledge of the mountain4 ,the other map is a ,carta ,agronomica dell' ,etna1 showing the surface cultivation4 ,different colours denote different plants1 pistachio nuts1 vines1 olives1 chestnuts1 etc4 ,it is beautifully drawn and coloured by hand1 and is the work of ,signor ,l4 ,ardini1 of ,catania4 ,,index4 ,abich1 #bb ,acesines1 ,river1 #ha ,aci ,reale1 #gb1 #gc ,acis1 ,river1 #gc ,acque ,grande1 #gc ,aderno1 #fe ,adranum1 ,city of1 #ff schylus1 #d ,aetna1 ,town of1 #fd ,ajo1 ,fountain of1 #he ,alcantara1 ,valley of1 #fi ,amphinomus1 #hj ,analcime1 ,analysis of1 #abh ,analcite1 #abg ,analysis of ,augite1 #abf ,labradorite1 #abe1 #abf ,olivine1 #abg ,titaniferous ,iron1 #abg ,analcime1 #abh ,mineral ,oil1 #abi ,volcanic ,ashes1 #aca ,lava1 #aca1 #acb ,sand1 #aca ,scori1 #aca ,microscopic1 of ,lavas1 #ace-ada ,siderazote1 #acc1 #acd ,sublimations1 #acb white friable substance1 #acc ,anapias1 #hj ,arethusa1 ,fountain of1 #he ,ascent1 ,fatigue of1 #fj ,ashes1 ,volcanic1 ,analysis of1 #aca ,specific ,gravity of1 #acj ,atlas des ,aetna1 #bc ,augite1 ,analysis of1 #abf ,axis of ,mongibello1 #aai1 #abb ,trifoglietto1 #aai1 #abb ,baltzer1 #bd ,basalt1 ,columnar1 #ge ,base1 ,circumference of1 #cj ,belpasso1 #fc ,bembo1 ,cardinal1 #aj ,biancavilla1 #fe ,boccarelle del ,fuoco1 #cf ,bocche eruttive1 #aaj del ,fuoco1 #cf ,borelli1 #ij ,bosco di ,bronte1 #ii ,botanical ,regions1 #dj-db ,boundaries of ,etna1 #bi ,brilliancy of ,stars1 #dh1 #di ,bronte1 #fg1 #fh ,brydone1 #ae ,campi ,phlegri1 #ad ,campus ,piorum1 #hj ,cardinal ,bembo1 #aj ,carpinetto1 ,forest of1 #ci ,carrera1 #ab ,casa del ,bosco1 #dh ,inglesi1 #ea1 #eb ,castagno di ,cento ,cavalli1 #ci della ,galea1 #ci ,catania1 #gf-gh ,destruction of1 #id-if ,caverns of ,etna1 #cg ,cavern of ,thalia1 #cg ,centenario1 #ajh ,chestnuts1 #ci ,circumference of base1 #cj ,cisterna1 #aja ,coltivata1 ,regione1 #cg1 #ch ,cones1 ,minor1 #cd-cf ,crater of ,elevation1 #aad of ,eruption1 #aad ,the ,great1 #ef-eh ,craters1 ,minor1 #cd-cf ,cultivated ,region1 #ch ,cyclops1 ,rocks of1 #ge ,decomposed ,lava1 ,analysis of1 #acc ,desert ,region1 #ci1 #dj ,effects of ,refraction1 #ei1 #fj ,elevation1 ,crater of1 #aad ,elie de ,beaumont1 #ba ,elie de ,beaumont's ,classification1 #aae1 #aaf ,empedokles1 #aj ,errors in ,maps1 #bd ,eruption1 ,crater of1 #aad ,eruptions1 ,general ,character of1 #aab ,number of1 #aac ,etna1 the ,home of ,early ,myths1 #i a ,submarine ,volcano1 #abb ,enceladus1 #d ,fatigue of ,ascent1 #fj ,fazzello1 #aa ,ferrara1 #ae1 #af ,filoteo1 #aa ,flood of #agee1 #ih ,forest of ,carpinetto1 #ci ,fratelli ,pii1 ,cone of1 #aaa ,fumaroles1 ,sublimations of1 #acb ,fuoco1 ,regione del1 #cg ,gemellaro1 ,giuseppe1 #ah ,mario1 #ai ,carlo1 #ai1 #bj ,general aspect of ,etna1 #cd ,genista ,etnensis1 #de ,geological ,maps of ,etna1 #aag-ah ,gibel ,uttamat1 #c ,gladstone's ,account of ,eruption1 #eh ,gravity1 ,specific1 of ,ejectamenta1 #acj ,great ,crater1 #eg1 #eh ,grotto of ,polyphemus1 #ge delle ,palombe1 #cg ,growth of a ,volcano1 #abc ,gurrita1 ,lake1 #fh ,hamilton1 #ad ,height of ,etna1 #bf1 #bg ,hephaistos1 ,forge of1 #d ,himilco1 #ha ,hoffmann1 #bb ,homer1 #d ,houel1 #ad ,hybla ,major1 #fc ,increase of ,population1 #cc ,inessa1 ,city of1 #fd ,inglesi1 ,casa1 #ea1 #eb ,inns1 ,sicilian1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi ,iron1 ,nitride of1 #acd ,perchloride of1 #acb ,iron1 ,titaniferous1 #abg ,isola d',aci1 #ge ,katana1 #gf1 #gg ,kircher1 #ab ,labradorite1 ,analysis of1 #abe1 #abf ,la ,cisterna1 #aja ,latitude of ,crater1 #b ,la ,scaletta1 #ge ,lava1 ,analysis of1 #aca1 #acb ,specific ,gravity of1 #acj ,decomposed1 ,analysis of1 #acc ,lavas1 ,microscopic ,analysis of1 #ace-ada ,lavas of ,etna1 #abe-ada ,linguaglossa1 #gj ,longitude of ,crater1 #b ,lucilius ,junior1 #g-i ,lucretius1 #f ,lyell1 #bc ,lyell's ,researches1 #aah-abb ,magnetite1 #aci ,maletto1 #fh ,maps1 ,geological1 of ,etna1 #aag1 #aah of ,etna1 #ac1 #af1 #ba-bd ,mascali1 #ga ,microscopic ,analysis of ,lavas1 #ace-ada ,milo1 #ajh ,mineral ,oil in ,lava1 #abi ,minor ,cones1 #cd-cf ,mongibello1 #c ,axis of1 #abb ,monte ,calanna1 #ajg ,capreolo1 #aah di ,mojo1 #cf1ha ,minardo1 #cd ,ste4 ,sofia1 #cf ,fusara1 #cg ,grigio1 #aaa ,lepre1 #he ,nocilla1 #aah ,rosso1 #ii ,spagnuolo1 #fi ,ste4 ,sofia1 #ie ,monti ,rossi1 #ce1 #ia ,mules1 #dg ,name of ,etna1 #c ,natural ,boundaries of ,etna1 #cj ,naxos1 #ha ,newer ,pliocene ,strata1 #abj ,nicolosi1 #df ,nitride of ,iron1 #acd ,observatory on ,etna1 #ej ,oil1 ,mineral1 in ,lava1 #abi ,olivine1 #aci ,analysis of1 #abg ,palombe1 ,grotto delle1 #cg ,paterno1 #fc ,pennisi1 ,baron1 #ga1 #gb ,piano del ,lago1 #ea di ,s4 ,leo1 #ij ,piedimontana1 ,regione1 #cg1 #ch ,pii ,fratres1 #hj1 #ha ,pindar1 #d ,polarized ,light1 applied to ,analysis of ,lavas1 #acf-aci ,polyphemus1 ,grotto of1 #ge ,population1 #ca-cc ,position of ,etna1 #b ,presl's ,flora ,sicula1 #da1 #db ,radius of ,vision1 #bh ,randazzo1 #fh1 #fi ,recupero1 #ag ,recupero's ,account of ,eruption1 #ii ,refraction1 ,effects of1 #ei1 #fj ,regions of ,etna1 #cg-db ,regione del ,fuoco1 #cg ,river1 ,acis1 #gc ,road around ,etna1 #bi ,rocca di ,musarra1 #ih ,rocks of ,cyclops1 #ge ,rutley's1 ,mr4 ,frank1 ,analysis of ,lavas1 #ace-ada ,st4 ,agatha1 ,veil of1 #hc ,maria di ,licodia1 #fd ,s4 ,niccola1 ,monastery of1 #ib ,s4 ,simone1 #ajb ,salto della ,guimenta1 #ajf ,sand1 ,volcanic1 ,analysis of1 #aca ,specific ,gravity of1 #acj ,scogli di ,ciclopi1 #ge ,scori1 ,volcanic1 ,analysis of1 #aca ,specific ,gravity of1 #acj ,serra delle ,concazze1 #ei del ,solfizio1 #ei di ,giannicola1 #ajg ,serrapizzuta1 #hi ,sicilian ,inns1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi ,siderazote1 #acc1 #acd ,silvestri1 ,researches of1 #be ,simeto1 ,valley of1 #fg ,smyth1 #ah ,smyth's ,observations1 #b ,snow of ,etna1 #ei ,specific ,gravity1 ,alteration of1 #acj of ,ejectamenta1 #acj ,strabo1 #f ,stars1 ,brilliancy of1 #dh1 #di ,stato ,maggiore1 ,map of1 #bd ,sulphur in ,sublimations1 #acb ,sublimations from ,fumaroles1 #acb ,summit of ,cone1 #ec1 #ed ,sunrise seen from ,summit1 #ed1 #ee ,tacchini1 #ej ,taormina1 #ga ,tertiary ,sandstone of ,bronte1 #fg ,thucydides1 #e ,titaniferous ,iron1 #abg ,torre del ,filosofo1 #aj1 #ei ,towns on ,etna1 #ca ,trezza1 #ge ,trifoglietto1 ,axis of1 #aba ,trunks of ,large ,chestnuts1 #ci ,val del ,bove1 #cd1 #ga1 #ih1 #ajj1 #aai-aba ,serbo1 #ajc ,valley of ,alcantara1 #fi ,virgil1 #e ,vision1 ,radius of1 #bh ,volcano1 ,growth of1 #abc ,von ,waltershausen1 #bc1 #abj ,vulkanen ,atlas1 #aaf ,winchelsea1 ,lord1 #ab1 #id1 #ie ,woody ,region1 #ch ,zeolite dure1 #abg ,zones of ,temperature1 #ch 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcribers ,notes3 ,,oe ligatures have been written as two letters4 ,the chemical formulae in this text have subscripts written in curly brackets4 ,for example1 water appears as ,h#b,o4 ,passages in italics indicated by underscores4 ,passages in ,greek indicated by tildes4 ,printer's errors corrected and other transcription points as follows3 ,page ,correction ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- - ,some arcane spellings retained where verified as correct for the time of publication or quote1 such as 'musquitoes'1 'plaintain'1 'mettals'1 'felspar'1 etc4 - ,italian quotations sometimes include phrases such as sull' ,etna or dell' ,asia4 ,there should be no space after the apostrophes but spaces are often present4 ,this may have been done to better space the text during justification4 ,such errors have not been corrected4 - ,the document is inconsistent in the use of commas where quoting numbers of over #a1jjj2 sometimes they are used and sometimes they are not used4 ,these inconsistencies remain4 ix ,added '4' at end of ',silvestri' in text block to maintain style of other entries4 x ,added '4' at end of ',eruptions' in text block to maintain style of other entries4 x ,added '4' after '#adjh' in text block to maintain style of other entries4 xi ,added '4' after 'microscope' in text block to maintain style of other entries4 #d ,corrected 'ength' to 'length'4 #ab ,corrected 't'jncedie' to 't'incedie'4 't'jncedie' and 'treblement' both printed with tildes over the first occurrence of e in each word4 ,tildes omitted in this version4 #ag ,corrected ',guiseppe' to ',giuseppe'4 #bg ,added end quotes after final word on page4 #bi ,inserted full-stop after '7,s4,w47'1 to end sentence4 #cc ,corrected 'f' to 'of'4 #db 'of-course' corrected to 'of course'4 #dd ,corrected 'unusally' to 'unusually'4 #ei ,corrected 'subsequenly' to 'subsequently'4 #fd ,corrected 'athough' to 'although'4 #gi ,added '4' after '#hab' in text block to maintain style of other entries4 #hj ,anapias and ,amphinomus printed with diacritic marks omitted in this text 7breves over first 'a' in 'anapias' and 'i' in ',amphinomus'74 #hb ,numbered list runs #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #e1 #g1 #h444 ,second occurrence of #e amended to #f4 #he ',in the #acbi' corrected to ',in the year #acbi'4 #abg 'the time analcite' corrected to 'the term analcite'4 #add ,corrected ',guiseppe' to ',giuseppe'4 #ade ,corrected ',miscroscope' to ',microscope'4 #aeb ,corrected 'magnitite' to 'magnetite'4