,,univ]sity ,,manuals ,,edit$ ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,knight ,,logic ,,inductive ,,& ,,d$uctive ,,publi%$ ,,may1 #ahic ,repr9t$ ,decemb]1 #ahic ,novemb]1 #ahid ,janu>y1 #ahii ,augu/1 #aijd ,june1 #aiji ,septemb]1 #aiab ,july1 #aiac ,janu>y1 #aiae ,,logic ,,inductive ,,& ,,d$uctive ,,by ,,william ,,m9to1 ,m4,a4 ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,/4 ,,&rews ,,late ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,logic ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,ab]de5 ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albem>le ,,/reet1 ,w4 #aiae ,,preface4 ,9 ?is little treatise two ?+s are attempt$ t at fir/ might appe> incompatible4 ,"o ( !m is to put ! /udy ( logical =mulae on a hi/orical basis4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ! sci5tific evolution ( logical =ms1 is a bit ( hi/ory t /ill awaits ! zeal & g5ius ( "s great s*ol>4 ,i h nei!r ambition nor qualification = su* a magnum opus1 & my life is already m ?an half sp5t2 b ! gap 9 evolution>y rese>* is s obvi\s t d\btless "s y\ng] man is n[ at "w 9 ! field unkn[n to me4 ,all t ,i c hope to d is to act z a humble pione] accord+ to my imp]fect lights4 ,ev5 ! little ,i h done repres5ts "w begun m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago1 & cont9u\sly pursu$ = ! la/ twelve ye>s dur+ a consid]able portion ( my "t4 ,! o!r aim1 :i* might at fir/ appe> inconsi/5t ) ?is1 is to increase ! p[] ( ,logic z a practical discipl9e4 ,! ma9 purpose ( ?is practical sci5ce1 or sci5tific art1 is conceiv$ to be ! organisation ( reason aga9/ error1 & error 9 its v>i\s k9ds is made ! basis ( ! division ( ! subject4 ,to c>ry out ?is practical aim along ) ! hi/orical "o is n hopeless1 because ?r\gh\t its long hi/ory ,logic has be5 a practical sci5ce2 &1 z ,i h tri$ to %[ at "s l5g? 9 introductory *apt]s1 has conc]n$ itself at diff]5t p]iods ) ! risks ( error peculi> to ea*4 ,to enum]ate ! v>i\s books1 anci5t & mod]n1 to :i* ,i h be5 indebt$1 w\ld be a va9 p>ade4 ,:]e ,i h consci\sly adopt$ any di/9ctive rec5t contribution to ! long l9e ( tradition1 ,i h made p>ticul> ackn[l$gm5t4 ,my greate/ obligation is to my old pr(essor1 ,alex&] ,ba91 to :om ,i owe my fir/ int]e/ 9 ! subject1 & m details ?an ,i c possibly sep>ate f ! g5]al body ( my k4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,ab]de51 ,janu>y1 #ahic4 ,s9ce ^! s5t5ces 7 writt51 ! au?or ( ?is book has di$2 & ,pr(essor ,m9to's ,logic is 8 la/ contribution to ! lit]ature ( 8 c\ntry4 ,x embodies a l>ge "p ( 8 tea*+ 9 ! philosophical class-room ( 8 ,univ]sity1 & d\btless reflects ! _s ( ! :ole ( x4 ,scotti% ,philosophy has lo/ 9 him "o ( its typical repres5tatives1 & ! ,univ]sity ( ! ,nor? "o ( its mo/ /imulat+ tea*]s4 ,!re h be5 few m di/+ui%$ m5 ?an ,william ,m9to 9 ! pr(essoriate ( ,ab]de52 & ! memory ( :at he 01 ( 8 wide & v>i$ le>n+1 8 brilliant conv]sation1 8 urbanity1 & 8 r>e p[] ( sympa?y ) m5 ) ^: op9ions he did n agree1 w rema9 a possession to _m :o m\rn 8 loss4 ,x w be some?+ if ?is little book keeps 8 memory alive1 bo? among/ ! /ud5ts :o ow$ s mu* to him1 & 9 ! l>ge circle ( fri5ds :o us$ to feel ! *>m ( 8 p]sonality4 ,,william ,,knight4 ,,g5]al ,,plan ,,( ,,! ,,s]ies4 ,?is ,s]ies is prim>ily design$ to aid ! ,univ]sity ,ext5sion ,movem5t ?r\gh\t ,great ,brita9 & ,am]ica1 & to supply ! ne$ s widely felt by /ud5ts1 ( ,text-books = /udy & ref]5ce1 9 connexion ) ! au?oris$ ,c\rses ( ,lectures4 ,! ,manuals diff] f ^? already 9 exi/5ce 9 t !y are n int5d$ = ,s*ool use1 or = ,exam9ation purposes2 & t _! aim is to educate1 r ?an to in=m4 ,! /atem5t ( details is meant to illu/rate ! work+ ( g5]al laws1 & ! developm5t ( pr9ciples2 :ile ! hi/orical evolution ( ! subject dealt ) is kept 9 view1 along ) its philosophical significance4 ,! rem>kable success :i* has att5d$ ,univ]sity ,ext5sion 9 ,brita9 has be5 p>tly due to ! comb9ation ( sci5tific treatm5t ) popul>ity1 & to ! union ( simplicity ) ?or\ghness4 ,?is movem5t1 h[ev]1 c only rea* ^? resid5t 9 ! l>g] c5tres ( population1 :ile all ov] ! c\ntry !re are ?\ghtful p]sons :o desire ! same k9d ( tea*+4 ,x is = !m also t ?is ,s]ies is design$4 ,its aim is to supply ! g5]al read] ) ! same k9d ( tea*+ z is giv5 9 ! ,lectures1 & to reflect ! _s :i* has *>act]is$ ! movem5t1 viz41 ! comb9ation ( pr9ciples ) facts1 & ( me?ods ) results4 ,! ,manuals are also int5d$ to be contributions to ! ,lit]ature ( ! ,subjects ) :i* !y respectively deal1 q ap>t f ,univ]sity ,ext5sion2 & "s ( !m w be f\nd to meet a g5]al r ?an a special want4 ,!y w be issu$ simultane\sly 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica4 ,volumes deal+ ) sep>ate sections ( ,lit]ature1 ,sci5ce1 ,philosophy1 ,hi/ory1 & ,art h be5 assign$ to repres5tative lit]>y m51 to ,univ]sity ,pr(essors1 or to ,ext5sion ,lectur]s connect$ ) ,ox=d1 ,cambridge1 ,london1 & ! ,univ]sities ( ,scotl& & ,irel&4 ,a li/ ( ! works 9 ?is ,s]ies w be f\nd at ! end ( ! volume4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,,page ,! ,orig9 & ,scope ( ,logic1 #a ,,ii4 ,logic z a ,prev5tive ( ,error or ,fallacy--,! ,inn] ,sophi/1 #ag ,,iii4 ,! ,axioms ( ,dialectic & ( ,syllogism1 #bi ,,book ,i4 ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,consi/5cy--,,syllogism ,,& ,,def9ition4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,g5]al ,names & ,alli$ ,di/9ctions1 #dc ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,syllogi/ic ,analysis ( ,proposition1 into ,t]ms4 7#a7 ,! ,b>e ,analytic ,=ms4 7#b7 ,! ,practice ( ,syllogi/ic ,analysis4 7#c7 ,"s ,te*nical ,difficulties1 #fb ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,def9ition4 ,,*apt] ,i4 7#a7 ,imp]fect ,und]/&+ ( ,words4 7#b7 ,v]ification ( ! ,mean+--,dialectic4 7#c7 ,fixation ( ! ,mean+--,division or ,classification1 ,def9ition1 ,nam+1 #hb ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,five ,pr$icables--,v]bal & ,real ,pr$ication1 #aje ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,ari/otle's ,categories1 #aab ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! ,controv]sy ab\t ,univ]sals--,difficulties conc]n+ ! ,relation ( ,g5]al ,names to ,?\ght & to ,reality1 #abj ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,!ories ( ,pr$ication--,!ories ( ,judgm5t1 #aca ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,opposition ( ,propositions--,! ,int]pretation ( ,no1 #aci ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,implication ( ,propositions--,imm$iate ,=mal ,inf]5ce --,eduction1 #adf ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! ,c\nt]-,implication ( ,propositions1 #aef ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,! ,,int]dep5d5ce ,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,! ,syllogism1 #afg ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,figures & ,moods ( ! ,syllogism4 7#a7 ,! ,fir/ ,figure4 7#b7 ,! ,m9or ,figures & _! ,r$uction to ! ,fir/4 7#c7 ,sorites1 #agc ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,demon/ration ( ! ,syllogi/ic ,moods--,! ,canons ( ! ,syllogism1 #ahe ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! ,analysis ( ,argum5ts into ,syllogi/ic ,=ms1 #aif ,,*apt] ,v4 ,en?ymemes1 #bje ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,utility ( ! ,syllogism1 #bji ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,conditional ,argum5ts--,hypo!tical ,syllogism1 ,disjunctive ,syllogism & ,dilemma1 #bae ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,fallacies 9 ,d$uctive ,argum5t--,petitio ,pr9cipii & ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 #bbf ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,=mal or ,ari/otelian ,induction--,inductive ,argum5t--,! ,inductive ,syllogism1 #bce ,,book ,,ii4 ,,inductive ,,logic1 ,,or ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,introduction1 #bdc ,,*apt] ,i4 ,! ,data ( ,exp]i5ce z ,gr\nds ( ,inf]5ce or ,rational ,belief1 #bgc ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,asc]ta9m5t ( ,simple ,facts 9 _! ,ord]--,p]sonal ,obs]vation--,he>say ,evid5ce--,me?od ( ,te/+ ,traditional ,evid5ce1 #bhe ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,asc]ta9m5t ( ,facts ( ,causation4 7#a7 ,po/ ,hoc ,ergo ,propt] ,hoc4 7#b7 ,mean+ ( ,cause--,me?ods ( ,obs]vation --,mill's ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods1 #bie ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,me?od ( ,obs]vation--,s+le ,diff]5ce4 7#a7 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,s+le ,diff]5ce4 7#b7 ,application ( ! ,pr9ciple1 #cjh ,,*apt] ,v4 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation--,elim9ation--,s+le ,agreem5t4 7#a7 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,elim9ation4 7#b7 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,s+le ,agreem5t4 7#c7 ,mill's ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce1 #cah ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation--,m9or ,me?ods4 7#a7 ,concomitant ,v>iations4 7#b7 ,s+le ,residue1 #cbi ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,explanation4 7#a7 ,! ,f\r ,/ages ( ,ord]ly ,proc$ure4 7#b7 ,ob/acles to ,explanation--,plurality ( ,causes & ,int]mixture ( ,effects4 7#c7 ,! ,pro( ( a ,hypo!sis1 #ccd ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,supplem5t>y ,me?ods ( ,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,! ,ma9t5ance ( ,av]ages--,supplem5t to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 7#b7 ,! ,presumption f ,extra-,casual ,co9cid5ce1 #cea ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,probable ,inf]5ce to ,p>ticul>s--,! ,measurem5t ( ,probability1 #cfb ,,*apt] ,x4 ,inf]5ce f ,analogy1 #cfg ,,introduction4 ,i4--,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,scope ,,( ,,logic4 ,! "q has sometimes be5 ask$1 ,:]e %\ld we beg9 9 ,logic8 ,p>ticul>ly )9 ! pres5t c5tury has ?is difficulty be5 felt1 :5 ! /udy ( ,logic has be5 reviv$ & made intricate by ! diff]5t purposes ( its cultivators4 ,:]e did ! f\nd] ( ,logic beg98 ,:]e did ,ari/otle beg98 ,?is seems to be ! simple/ way ( settl+ :]e we %\ld beg91 = ! sy/em %ap$ by ,ari/otle is /ill ! trunk ( ! tree1 ?\gh !re h be5 s _m (f%oots f ! old /ump & s _m p>asitic plants h w\nd !mselves r\nd x t ,logic is n[ almo/ z tangl$ a gr[? z ! ,yews ( ,borr[dale-- ,an int]twi/$ mass ( fibres s]p5t9e ,upcoil+ & invet]ately convolv$4 ,x us$ to be said t ,logic _h rema9$ = two ?\s& ye>s precisely z ,ari/otle left x4 ,x 0 an example ( a sci5ce or art p]fect$ at "o /roke by ! g5ius ( its fir/ inv5tor4 ,! bewild]$ /ud5t mu/ (t5 wi% t ?is 7 s3 x is only sup]ficially true4 ,mu* ( ,ari/otle's nom5clature & 8 c5tral =mulae h be5 reta9$1 b !y h be5 v v>i\sly supplem5t$ & int]pret$ to v diff]5t purposes--(t5 to no purpose at all4 ,! ,cambridge ma!matician's boa/ ab\t 8 new !orem--,! be/ ( x all is t x c nev] by any possibility be made ( ! slighte/ use to anybody = any?+--might be made ) tru? ab\t _m ( ! lat] developm5ts ( ,logic4 ,we may say ! same1 inde$1 ab\t ! lat] developm5ts ( any subject t has be5 a playgr\nd = g5]ation aft] g5]ation ( acute intellects1 happy 9 _! own dis9t]e/$ ex]cise4 ,educational subjects--subjects appropriat$ = ! g5]al s*ool+ ( "y m9ds--are p>ticul>ly apt to be develop$ out ( ! l9es ( _! orig9al int5tion4 ,s _m influ5ces conspire to p]v]t ! orig9al aim4 ,! conv5i5ce ( ! tea*]1 ! conv5i5ce ( ! le>n]1 ! love ( novelty1 ! love ( symmetry1 ! love ( subtlety2 easy-go+ indol5ce on ! "o h& & intellectual re/lessness on ! o!r--all ^! motives act f )9 on traditional matt] )\t reg>d to any ext]nal purpose :atev]4 ,?us 9 ,logic difficulties h be5 gloss$ ov] & simplifi$ = ! dull und]/&+1 :ile acute m9ds h revell$ 9 v>iations & new & +5i\s manipulations ( ! old =mulae1 & 9 multiplication & m exact & symmetrical def9ition ( ! old di/9ctions4 ,to trace ! evolution ( ! =ms & !ories ( ,logic "u ^! v>i\s influ5ces dur+ its p]iods ( active developm5t is a task m easily conceiv$ ?an execut$1 & "o f> above ! ambition ( an introductory treatise4 ,b x is well t ev5 he :o writes = beg9n]s %\ld recognise t ! =ms n[ commonly us$ h be5 evolv$ out ( a simpl] tradition4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! details ( ! process1 x is possible to indicate its ma9 /ages1 & ?us furni% a clue out ( ! mod]n labyr9?9e confusion ( purposes4 ,h[ did ! ,ari/otelian ,logic orig9ate8 ,its c5tral feature is ! syllogi/ic =ms4 ,9 :at circum/ances did ,ari/otle inv5t ^!8 ,= :at purpose8 ,:at use did he contemplate = !m8 ,9 rightly und]/&+ ?is1 we %all und]/& ! orig9al scope or prov9ce ( ,logic1 & ?us be 9 a position to und]/& m cle>ly h[ x has be5 modifi$1 contract$1 exp&$1 & supplem5t$4 ,logic has always made high claims z ! sci5tia sci5ti>um1 ! sci5ce ( sci5ces4 ,! build]s ( ?is ,t[] ( ,babel are ?reat5$ 9 ^! latt] days ) confusion ( tongues4 ,we may escape ?is dang] if we c recov] ! designs ( ! f\nd]1 & ( ! ma/]-build]s :o succe$$ him4 ,ari/otle's ,logic has be5 s long be=e ! _w 9 ab/ract isolation t we c h>dly believe t its =m 0 9 any way det]m9$ by local accid5t4 ,a horror z ( sacrilege is excit$ by ! b>e sugge/ion t ! au?or ( ?is gr& & v5]able "w1 "o ( ! mo/ augu/ monum5ts ( transc5d5t intellect1 0 9 8 day & g5]ation only a pre-em95t tutor or s*oolma/]1 & t 8 logical writ+s 7 design$ = ! accompli%m5t ( 8 pupils 9 a special art 9 :i* e intellectually ambiti\s "y ,a!nian ( ! p]iod aspir$ to excel4 ,yet su* is ! pla9 fact1 baldly /at$4 ,ari/otle's ,logic 9 its prim>y aim 0 z practical z a treatise on ,navigation1 or ,cav5di% on ,:i/4 ,! latt] is ! m exact ( ! two comp>isons4 ,x 0 9 effect 9 its v>i\s p>ts a s]ies ( h&books = a tempor>ily fa%ionable intellectual game1 a peculi> mode ( disputation or dialectic1#a ! game ( ,"q & ,answ]1 ! game s fully illu/rat$ 9 ! ,dialogues ( ,plato1 ! game id5tifi$ ) ! "n ( ,socrates4 ,we may lay /ress1 if we l1 on ! intellectuality ( ! game1 & ! high topics on :i* x 0 ex]cis$4 ,x 0 a game t c\ld fl\ri% only among a peculi>ly intellectual p2 a p less acute w\ld f9d little sport 9 x4 ,! ,a!nians /ill take a s+ul> delight 9 disputation4 ,y _c visit ,a!ns )\t be+ /ruck by x4 ,y may /ill see gr\ps =m$ r\nd two protagoni/s 9 ! cafes or ! squ>es1 or among ! ru9s ( ! ,acropolis1 9 a way to rem9d y ( ,socrates & 8 fri5ds4 ,!y d n argue z ,gil ,blas & 8 ,hib]nians did ) heat & temp]1 end+ 9 bl[s4 ,!y argue = ! pure love ( argu+1 ! audi5ce sitt+ or /&+ by to see fair play ) ! ke5e/ enjoym5t ( intellectual ?ru/ & p>ry4 ,no o!r p c\ld argue l ! ,greeks )\t com+ to bl[s4 ,x is "o ( _! *>act]i/ics n[1 & s x 0 9 old times two ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,& ab\t a c5tury be=e ,ari/otle rea*$ manhood1 !y _h inv5t$ ?is peculi>ly difficult & try+ species ( disputative pa/ime1 9 :i* we f9d ! g5esis ( ,ari/otle's logical treatises4 ,to get a prop] idea ( ?is debate by ,"q & ,answ]1 :i* we may call ,socratic disputation aft] its mo/ r5[n$ ma/]1 "o mu/ read "s ( ! dialogues ( ,plato4 ,i w indicate m]ely ! skeleton ( ! game1 to %[ h[ happily x l5t itself to ,ari/otle's analysis ( argum5ts & propositions4 ,a !sis or proposition is put up = debate1 e4g41 t k is no?+ else ?an s5sible p]ception1#b t x is a great] evil to d wrong ?an to suff] wrong1#c t ! love ( ga9 is n repreh5sible4#d ,!re are two disputants1 b !y d n speak on ! "q by turns1 s _m m9utes be+ all[$ to ea* z 9 a mod]n enc\nt] ( wits4 ,"o ( ! two1 :o may be call$ ! ,que/ion]1 is limit$ to ask+ que/ions1 ! o!r1 ! ,respond5t1 is limit$ to answ]+4 ,fur!r1 ! ,respond5t c answ] only ,yes or ,no1 ) p]haps a little explanation3 on 8 side ! ,que/ion] mu/ ask only que/ions t admit ( ! simple answ] ,yes or ,no4 ,! ,que/ion]'s bus9ess is to extract f ! ,respond5t admissions involv+ ! opposite ( :at he has und]tak5 to ma9ta94 ,! ,que/ion] tries 9 %ort to make him contradict himself4 ,only a v /upid ,respond5t w\ld d ?is at once3 ! ,que/ion] plies him ) g5]al pr9ciples1 analogies1 pla9 cases2 leads him on f admission to admission1 & !n putt+ ! admissions toge!r convicts him out ( 8 own m\? ( inconsi/5cy4#e ,n[ m>k precisely :]e ,ari/otle /ruck 9 ) 8 inv5tion ( ! ,syllogism1 ! inv5tion on :i* he prid$ himself z specially 8 own1 & ! =ms ( :i* h clung to ,logic ev] s9ce1 ev5 9 ! usage ( ^? :o d]ide ,ari/otle's ,moods & ,figures z antiquat$ sup]/itions4 ,suppose y\rself ! ,que/ion]1 :]e did he pr(ess to help y ) 8 me*anism8 ,9 effect1 z ! ^w ,syllogism indicates1 x 0 :5 y _h obta9$ a numb] ( admissions1 & wi%$ to reason !m toge!r1 to demon/rate h[ !y bore ^u ! !sis 9 dispute1 h[ !y hung toge!r1 h[ !y necess>ily involv$ :at y 7 cont5d+ =4 ,& ! ess5ce ( 8 me*anism 0 ! r$uction ( ! admitt$ propositions to common t]ms1 & to c]ta9 types or =ms :i* are manife/ly equival5t or int]-dep5d5t4 ,ari/otle advis$ 8 pupils also 9 ! tactics ( ! game1 b 8 gr& inv5tion 0 ! =m or type ( admissions t y %\ld /rive to obta91 & ! effective manipulation ( !m :5 y _h got !m4 ,an example w %[ ! nature ( ?is help1 & :at x 0 wor?4 ,to br+ ! ?+ ne>] home1 let u1 in/ead ( an example f ,plato1 ^: topics (t5 seem artificial to u n[1 take a !sis f la/ c5tury1 a p>adox /ill arguable1 ,m&eville's fam\s--"s w\ld say infam\s--p>adox t ,private ,vices are ,public ,b5efits4 ,und]take to ma9ta9 ?is1 & y w h no difficulty 9 gett+ a respond5t prep>$ to ma9ta9 ! negative4 ,! pla9 m51 su* z ,socrates cross-que/ion$1 w\ld h decl>$ at once t a vice is a vice1 & c nev] d any good to anybody4 ,y\r ,respond5t d5ies y\r proposition simply3 he upholds t private vices nev] are public b5efits1 & defies y to extract f him any admission inconsi/5t ) ?is4 ,y\r task !n is to lure him someh[ into admitt+ t 9 "s cases :at is vici\s 9 ! individual may be ( s]vice to ! ,/ate4 ,?is is en\gh3 y are n conc]n$ to e/abli% t ?is holds ( all private vices4 ,a s+le in/ance to ! contr>y is en\gh to break d[n 8 univ]sal negative4 ,y _c1 ( c\rse1 expect him to make ! necess>y admission 9 direct t]ms3 y mu/ g r\nd ab\t4 ,y "k1 p]haps1 t he has confid5ce 9 ,bi%op ,butl] z a morali/4 ,y try him ) ! say+3 ,to aim at public & private good are s f> f be+ inconsi/5t t !y mutually promote ea* o!r4 ,does he admit ?is8 ,p]haps he wants "s little explanation or exemplification to enable him to grasp y\r mean+4 ,?is 0 )9 ! rules ( ! game4 ,y put cases to him1 ask+ = 8 ,yes or ,no to ea*4 ,suppose a man goes into ,p>liam5t1 n out ( any zeal = ! public good1 b 9 pure va+lory1 or to s]ve 8 private ends1 is x possible = him to r5d] ! ,/ate good s]vice8 ,or suppose a milk-sell] takes great pa9s to keep 8 milk pure1 n because he c>es = ! public heal?1 b because x pays1 is ?is a b5efit to ! public8 ,let ^! que/ions be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative1 putt+ y 9 possession ( ! admission t "s actions und]tak5 = private ends are ( public advantage1 :at mu/ y extract besides to make good y\r position z aga9/ ! ,respond5t8 ,to see cle>ly at ?is /age :at n[ is requir$1 ?\gh y h to rea* x circuit\sly1 mask+ y\r approa* "u diff]5ce ( language1 w\ld cle>ly be an advantage4 ,?is 0 ! advantage t ,ari/otle's me?od (f]$ to supply4 ,a disputant famili> ) 8 analysis w\ld =esee at once t if he c\ld get ! ,respond5t to admit t all actions und]tak5 = private ends are vici\s1 ! victory 0 81 :ile no?+ %ort ( ?is w\ld s]ve4 ,"h my read] may int]ject t he c\ld h se5 ?is )\t any help f ,ari/otle1 & t anybody may see x )\t kn[+ t :at he has to d is1 9 ,ari/otelian language1 to con/ruct a syllogism 9 ,bok>do4 ,i pass ?is ov]4 ,i am n conc]n$ at ?is po9t to def5d ! utility ( ,ari/otle's me?od4 ,all t ,i want is to illu/rate ! k9d ( use t x 0 int5d$ =4 ,p]haps if ,ari/otle _h n habituat$ m5's m9ds to 8 analysis1 we %\ld none ( u h be5 able to disc]n coh]5ce & detect incoh]5ce z quickly & cle>ly z we d n[4 ,b to return to our example4 ,z ,ari/otle's pupil1 y w\ld h se5 at ! /age we are speak+ ( t ! e/abli%m5t ( y\r !sis mu/ turn ^u ! def9ition ( virtue & vice4 ,y mu/ proce$1 !re=e1 to cross-exam9e y\r ,respond5t ab\t ?is4 ,y are n all[$ to ask him :at he means by virtue1 or :at he means by vice4 ,9 accordance ) ! rules ( ! dialectic1 x is y\r bus9ess to prop\nd def9itions1 & dem& 8 ,yes or ,no to !m4 ,y ask him1 say1 :e!r he agrees ) ,%aftesbury's def9ition ( a virtu\s action z an action und]tak5 purely = ! good ( o!rs4 ,if he ass5ts1 x foll[s t an action und]tak5 ) any suspicion ( a self-int]e/$ motive _c be numb]$ among ! virtues4 ,if he agrees1 fur!r1 t e action mu/ be ei!r vici\s or virtu\s1 y h admissions suffici5t to prove y\r orig9al !sis4 ,all t y h n[ to d to make y\r triumph manife/1 is to display ! admissions y h obta9$ 9 common t]ms4 ,"s actions done ) a self-int]e/$ motive are public b5efits4 ,all actions done ) a self-int]e/$ motive are private vices4 ,f ^! premisses x foll[s irresi/ibly t ,"s private vices are public b5efits4 ,?is illu/ration may s]ve to %[ ! k9d ( disputation = :i* ,ari/otle's logic 0 design$1 & ?us to make cle> its prim>y uses & its limitations4 ,to realise its uses1 & judge :e!r !re is any?+ analog\s to !m 9 mod]n ne$s1 conceive ! *ief ?+s t x behov$ ,que/ion] & ,respond5t 9 ?is game to "k4 ,all t a proposition necess>ily implies2 all t two propositions put toge!r imply2 on :at conditions & to :at ext5t "o admission is inconsi/5t ) ano!r2 :5 "o admission necess>ily involves ano!r2 :5 two necess>ily involve a ?ird4 ,& to ^! ends x 0 obvi\sly necess>y to h an exact und]/&+ ( ! t]ms us$1 s z to avoid ! sn>es ( ambigu\s language4 ,t a ,syllogi/ic or ,logic ( ,consi/5cy %\ld em]ge out ( ,yes-&-,no ,dialectic 0 natural4 ,?+s 9 ?is _w come :5 !y are want$3 inv5tions are made on ! spur ( necessity4 ,x 0 above all necess>y 9 ?is k9d ( debate to avoid contradict+ y\rself3 to ma9ta9 y\r consi/5cy4 ,a clev] int]rogator spread out proposition aft] proposition be=e y & invit$ y\r ass5t1 *oos+ =ms ( words likely to cat* y\r prejudices & lure y into self-contradiction4 ,an organon1 in/rum5t1 or discipl9e calculat$ to protect y z ,respond5t & guide y z ,que/ion] by mak+ cle> :at an admission l$ to1 0 urg5tly call$ =1 & :5 ! game _h be5 9 high fa%ion = m ?an a c5tury ,ari/otle's g5ius devis$ :at 0 want$1 meet+ at ! same "t1 no d\bt1 collat]al ne$s t _h aris5 f ! application ( ,dialectic to v>i\s k9ds ( subject-matt]4 ,! ?or\ghness ( ,ari/otle's sy/em 0 d\btless due p>tly to ! se>*+ "* ( ! dialectic 9 :i* x _h its bir?4 ,no o!r mode ( disputation makes su* dem&s ^u ! disputant's intellectual agility & precision1 or is s well adapt$ to lay b>e ! skeleton ( an argum5t4 ,! uses ( ,ari/otle's logical treatises rema9$ :5 ! fa%ion t _h call$ !m =? _h pass$4#f ,cle> & consi/5t ?9k+1 a ma/]y ( ! p]plexities & ambiguities ( language1 p[] to detect id5tity ( mean+ "u diff]5ce ( expression1 a ready appreh5sion ( all t a proposition implies1 all t may be educ$ or d$uc$ f x--:atev] helps to ^! ends mu/ be ( p]petual use4 ,to purge ! und]/&+ ( ^? errors :i* lie 9 ! confusion & p]plexities ( an inconsequ5t ?9k+1 is a mod]n description ( ! ma9 scope ( ,logic4#g ,x is a good description ( ! bran* ( ,logic t keeps close/ to ! ,ari/otelian tradition4 ,! limitations z well z ! uses ( ,ari/otle's logic may be trac$ to ! circum/ances ( its orig94 ,bo? p>ties to ! disputation1 ,que/ion] & ,respond5t alike1 7 ma9ly conc]n$ ) ! int]-dep5d5ce ( ! propositions put =w>d4 ,once ! ,respond5t _h giv5 8 ass5t to a "q1 he 0 b\nd 9 consi/5cy to all t x impli$4 ,he mu/ take all ! consequ5ces ( 8 admission4 ,x might be true or x might be false z a matt] ( fact3 all ! same he 0 b\nd by x3 its tru? or falsehood 0 immat]ial to 8 position z a disputant4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,que/ion] c\ld n g beyond ! admissions ( ! ,respond5t4 ,x has (t5 be5 alleg$ z a defect 9 ! ,syllogism t ! conclusion does n g beyond ! premisses1 & +5i\s attempts h be5 made to %[ t x is really an advance ^u ! premisses4 ,b hav+ reg>d to ! prim>y use ( ! syllogism1 ?is 0 no defect1 b a necess>y "* ( ! relation4 ,! ,que/ion] c\ld n 9 fairness assume m ?an _h be5 grant$ by implication4 ,8 advance c\ld only be an argum5tative advance3 if 8 conclusion conta9$ a gra9 m ?an 0 conta9$ 9 ! premisses1 x 0 a sophi/ical trick1 & ! ,respond5t c\ld draw back & )hold 8 ass5t4 ,he 0 b\nd 9 consi/5cy to /& by 8 admissions2 he 0 n b\nd to g a fraction ( an in* beyond !m4 ,we ?us see h[ va9 x is to look to ! ,ari/otelian tradition = an organon ( tru? or a crit]ion ( falsehood4 ,directly & prim>ily1 at lea/1 x 0 n s2 ! circum/ances ( its orig9 gave x a diff]5t b5t4 ,indirectly & second>ily1 no d\bt1 x s]v$ ?is purpose1 inasmu* z tru? 0 ! aim ( all s]i\s ?9k]s :o s\ght to cle> _! m9ds & ! m9ds ( o!rs by ,dialectic4 ,b 9 actual debate tru? 0 repres5t$ m]ely by ! common-s5se ( ! audi5ce4 ,a dialectician :o ga9$ a triumph by outrag+ ?is1 h[ev] clev]ly he might outwit 8 antagoni/1 succe$$ only 9 amus+ 8 audi5ce1 & dialecticians ( ! grav] sort aim$ at m s]i\s uses & a m respectful homage1 & did _! be/ to disc\nt5ance m]ely eri/ic disputation4 ,fur!r1 x w\ld be a mi/ake to conclude because ,ari/otle's ,logic1 z an in/rum5t ( ,dialectic1 conc]n$ itself ) ! syllogism ( propositions r ?an _! tru?1 t x 0 m]ely an art ( quibbl+4 ,on ! contr>y1 x 0 ess5tially ! art ( prev5t+ & expos+ quibbl+4 ,x _h its orig9 9 quibbl+1 no d\bt1 inasmu* z :at we %\ld call v]bal quibbl+ 0 ( ! ess5ce ( ,yes-&-,no ,dialectic1 & ! ma9 secret ( its *>m = an intellectual & disputati\s p2 b x came into be+ z a safegu>d aga9/ quibbl+1 n a s]viceable adjunct4 ,! m$iaeval developm5ts ( ,logic reta9$ & ev5 exagg]at$ ! syllogi/ic "* ( ! orig9al treatises4 ,int]rogative dialectic _h disappe>$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages :e!r z a div]sion or z a discipl9e3 b errors ( inconsi/5cy /ill rema9$ ! errors aga9/ :i* pr9cipally educat$ m5 ne$$ a safegu>d4 ,m5 _h to keep _! utt]ances 9 h>mony ) ! dogmas ( ! ,*ur*4 ,a cle> hold ( ! exact implications ( a proposition1 :e!r s+ly or 9 comb9ation ) o!r propositions1 0 /ill an important practical ne$4 ,! ,inductive ,syllogism 0 n requir$1 & its treatm5t dw9dl$ to insignificance 9 m$iaeval text-books1 b ! ,d$uctive ,syllogism & ! =mal app>atus = ! def9ition ( t]ms held ! field4 ,x 0 :5 obs]vation ( ,nature & its laws became a p>am\nt pursuit t ! defects ( ,syllogi/ic ,logic began to be felt4 ,errors aga9/ :i* ?is ,logic (f]$ no protection !n call$ = a safegu>d--especially ! errors to :i* m5 are liable 9 ! inve/igation ( cause & effect4 ,br+ y\r ?\ghts into h>mony "o ) ano!r1 0 ! dem& ( ,ari/otle's age4 ,br+ y\r ?\ghts into h>mony ) au?ority1 0 ! dem& ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,br+ !m into h>mony ) fact1 0 ! requirem5t mo/ ke5ly felt 9 m rec5t times4 ,x is 9 response to ?is dem& t :at is commonly b n v happily kn[n z ,inductive ,logic has be5 =mulat$4 ,9 ob$i5ce to cu/om1 ,i %all foll[ ! n[ ord9>y division ( ,logic into ,d$uctive & ,inductive4 ,! titles are mislead+ 9 _m ways1 b !y are fix$ by a weight ( usage :i* x w\ld be va9 to try to unsettle4 ,bo? come *>g+ d[n ! /ream ( "t ea* ) its cohort ( doctr9es beh9d x1 borne =w>d ) irresi/ible mom5tum4 ,! be/ way ( prev5t+ confusion n[ is to reta9 ! e/abli%$ titles1 recognise t ! doctr9es beh9d ea* h a radically diff]5t aim or end1 & supply ! int]pretation ( ?is end f hi/ory4 ,:at !y h 9 common may be describ$ z ! prev5tion ( error1 ! organisation ( reason aga9/ error4 ,i h %[n t ow+ to ! b5t impress$ ^u x by ! circum/ances ( its orig91 ! errors *iefly safegu>d$ by ! ,ari/otelian logic 7 ! errors ( inconsi/5cy4 ,! o!r bran* ( ,logic1 commonly call$ ,induction1 0 really a sep>ate evolution1 hav+ its orig9 9 a diff]5t practical ne$4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is ,i w trace sep>ately aft] we h se5 our way ?r\gh ! ,ari/otelian tradition & its accretions4 ,! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods are no less manife/ly ! g]m1 ! evolution>y c5tre or />t+-po9t1 ( ! new ,logic ?an ! ,syllogism is ( ! old1 & ! ma9 errors safegu>d$ are errors ( fact & inf]5ce f fact4 ,at ?is /age x w be en\gh to indicate briefly ! broad relations betwe5 ,d$uctive ,logic & ,inductive ,logic4 ,inductive ,logic1 z we n[ und]/& x--! ,logic ( ,obs]vation & ,explanation--0 fir/ =mulat$ & articulat$ to a ,sy/em ( ,logic by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,x 0 he t add$ ?is w+ to ! old build+4 ,b ! ne$ ( x 0 cle>ly express$ z e>ly z ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,rog] ,bacon1 ! ,franciscan fri> 7#abad-abib71 & n 8 m illu/ri\s namesake ,francis1 ,"l ,v]ulam1 0 ! real f\nd] ( ,inductive ,logic4 ,x is rem>kable t ! same c5tury saw ,syllogi/ic ,logic advanc$ to its mo/ complete developm5t 9 ! sy/em ( ,petrus ,hispanus1 a ,portuguese s*ol> :o "u ! title ( ,john ,,xxi4 fill$ ! ,papal ,*air = eight mon?s 9 #abgf-g4 ,a casual rem>k ( ,rog] ,bacon's 9 ! c\rse ( 8 advocacy ( ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce 9 ! ,opus ,majus draws a cle> l9e betwe5 ! two bran*es ( ,logic4 ,!re are1 he says1 two ways ( kn[+1 by ,argum5t & by ,exp]i5ce4 ,argum5t concludes a "q1 b x does n make u feel c]ta91 unless ! tru? be also f\nd 9 exp]i5ce4 ,on ?is basis ! old ,logic may be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ! new1 tak+ z ! g5]al aim ( ,logic ! protection ( ! m9d aga9/ ! errors to :i* x is liable 9 ! acquisition ( k4 ,all k1 broadly speak+1 comes ei!r f ,au?ority1 i4e41 by argum5t f accept$ premisses1 or f ,exp]i5ce4 ,if x comes f ,au?ority x comes ?r\gh ! m$ium ( words3 if x comes f ,exp]i5ce x comes ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,9 tak+ 9 k ?r\gh words we are liable to c]ta9 errors2 & 9 tak+ 9 k ?r\gh ! s5ses we are liable to c]ta9 errors4 ,to protect aga9/ ! "o is ! ma9 end ( ,d$uctive ,logic3 to protect aga9/ ! o!r is ! ma9 end ( ,inductive ,logic4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! pi? ( treatises on ,d$uction & ,induction is direct$ to ^? ends respectively1 ! old mean+s ( ,d$uction & ,induction z =mal processes 7to be expla9$ aft]w>ds7 be+ virtually ignor$4 ,!re is ?us no antagonism :atev] betwe5 ! two bran*es ( ,logic4 ,!y are direct$ to diff]5t ends4 ,! "o is supplem5t>y to ! o!r4 ,! "o _c sup]s$e ! o!r4 ,ari/otelian ,logic c nev] become sup]flu\s z long z m5 are apt to be l$ a/ray by words4 ,its ultimate bus9ess is to safegu>d 9 ! int]pretation ( ! tradition ( language4 ,! m]e syllogi/ic1 ! b>e =ms ( equival5t or consi/5t expression1 h a v limit$ utility1 z we %all see4 ,b by cog5t sequ5ce syllogism leads to proposition1 & proposition to t]m1 & t]m to a close /udy ( ! relations betwe5 words & ?\ghts & ?+s4 ,footnote #a3 ,we "k = c]ta9--& x is "o ( ! evid5ces ( ! importance atta*$ to ?is trivial-look+ pa/ime--t two ( ! great tea*]'s logical treatises1 ! ,topics & ! ,sophi/ical ,refutations1 7 writt5 especially = ! guidance ( ,que/ion]s & ,respond5ts4 ,! "o in/ructs ! disputant h[ to qualify himself me?odically = discussion be=e an ord9>y audi5ce1 :5 ! admissions extract$ f ! respond5t are matt]s ( common belief1 ! que/ion]'s skill be+ direct$ to make x appe> t ! respond5t's position is inconsi/5t ) ^!4 ,! o!r is a sy/ematic exposure ( sophi/ical tricks1 mo/ly v]bal quibbles1 :]eby a delusive appe>ance ( victory 9 debate may be obta9$4 ,b 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! ,el5*i1 :]e ,ari/otle claims n only t 8 me?od is sup]ior to ! empirical me?ods ( rival tea*]s1 b t x is entirely orig9al1 x is ! ,syllogism ^u :i* he lays /ress z 8 peculi> & *ief inv5tion4 ,! ,syllogism1 ! pure =ms ( :i* are exp\nd$ 9 8 ,prior ,analytics1 is really ! c5tre ( ,ari/otle's logical sy/em1 :e!r ! propositions to :i* x is appli$ are matt]s ( sci5tific tru? z 9 ! ,po/]ior ,analytics1 or matt]s ( common op9ion z 9 ! ,topics4 ,! treatise on ,int]pretation1 i4e41 ! int]pretation ( ! ,respond5t's ,yes & ,no1 is prelim9>y to ! ,syllogism1 ! reason+ ( ! admissions toge!r4 ,ev5 9 ! half-grammatical half-logical treatise on ! ,categories1 ! au?or always keeps an eye on ! ,syllogi/ic analysis4 ,footnote #b3 ,!aetetus1 #aea ,e4 ,footnote #c3 ,gorgias1 #dgc ,d4 ,footnote #d3 ,hipp>*us1 #bbe ,a4 ,footnote #e3 ,9 its lead+ & prim>y use1 ?is 0 a mode ( debate1 a duel ( wits1 9 :i* two m5 engag$ be=e an audi5ce4 ,b ! same =m c\ld be us$1 & 0 us$1 notably by ,socrates1 n 9 an eri/ic _s b z a means ( awak5+ p to ! consequ5ces ( c]ta9 admissions or fir/ pr9ciples1 & ?us mak+ vague k explicit & cle>4 ,! m9d be+ deta9$ on proposition aft] proposition z ass5t 0 giv5 to x1 dialectic 0 a valuable in/rum5t ( in/ruction & exposition4 ,b :atev] ! purpose ( ! ex]cise1 controv]sial triumph1 or solid gr\nd+ 9 ! fir/ pr9ciples--! evolution ( 9-dwell+ conceptions--! c5tral int]e/ lay 9 ! syllogis+ or reason+ toge!r ( ! sep>ately assum$ or admitt$ propositions4 ,footnote #f3 ,l e o!r fa%ion1 ,yes-&-,no ,dialectic _h its p]iod1 its rise & fall4 ,! inv5tion ( x is ascrib$ to ,z5o ! ,eleatic1 ! answ]+ & que/ion+ ,z5o1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,socrates 7#dfi-cii7 0 9 8 prime at ! beg9n+ ( ! great ,peloponnesian ,w> :5 ,p]icles di$ 9 #dbi4 ,9 t ye> ,plato 0 born1 & liv$ to #cdg1 ! olive groves ( ,academe be+ e/abli%$ c5tre ( 8 tea*+ f ab\t #chf onw>ds4 ,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb71 :o 0 ! tutor ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 e/abli%$ 8 s*ool at ! ,lyceum :5 ,alex&] became k+ 9 #ccf & set out on 8 c>e] ( conque/4 ,t ,yes-&-,no ,dialectic 0 !n a prom95t ex]cise1 8 logical treatises ev]y:]e be> witness4 ,! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! game is obscure4 ,x is probable t ,ari/otle's ?or\gh exposition ( its legitimate arts & illegitimate tricks help$ to de/roy its int]e/ z an amusem5t4 ,footnote #g3 ,hamilton's ,lectures1 iii4 p4 #cg4 ,,ii4--,,logic ,,z ,a ,,prev5tive ,,( ,,error ,,or ,,fallacy4--,,! ,,inn] ,,sophi/4 ,:y describe ,logic z a sy/em ( def5ce aga9/ error8 ,:y say t its ma9 end & aim is ! organisation ( reason aga9/ confusion & falsehood8 ,:y n r say1 z is n[ usual1 t its end is ! atta9m5t ( tru?8 ,does ?is n come to ! same ?+8 ,sub/antially1 ! mean+ is ! same1 b ! latt] expression is m mislead+4 ,to speak ( ,logic z a body ( rules = ! inve/igation ( tru? has misl$ p into suppos+ t ,logic claims to be an art ( ,discov]y1 t x claims to lay d[n rules by simply obs]v+ :i* inve/igators may infallibly arrive at new tru?s4 ,n[1 ?is does n hold ev5 ( ! ,logic ( ,induction1 /ill less ( ! old] ,logic1 ! precise relation ( :i* to tru? w become app>5t z we proce$4 ,x is only by keep+ m5 f go+ a/ray & by disabus+ !m :5 !y ?9k !y h rea*$ _! de/9ation t ,logic helps m5 on ! road to tru?4 ,tru? (t5 lies hid 9 ! c5tre ( a maze1 & logical rules only help ! se>*] onw>ds by giv+ him w>n+ :5 he is on ! wrong track & mu/ try ano!r4 ,x is ! se>*]'s own impulse t c>ries him =w>d3 ,logic does n s mu* beckon him on to ! "r pa? z beckon him back f ! wrong4 ,9 lay+ d[n ! conditions ( correct int]pretation1 ( valid argum5t1 ( tru/wor?y evid5ce1 ( satisfactory explanation1 ,logic %[s ! inquir] h[ to te/ & purge 8 conclusions1 n h[ to rea* !m4 ,to discuss1 z is sometimes done1 :e!r ,fallacies lie )9 ! prop] sph]e ( ,logic1 is to obscure ! real connexion betwe5 ,fallacies & ,logic4 ,x is ! exi/5ce ( ,fallacies t calls ,logic into exi/5ce2 z a practical sci5ce ,logic is ne$$ z a protection aga9/ ,fallacies4 ,su* hi/orically is its orig94 ,we may1 if we l1 lay d[n an arbitr>y rule t a treatise on ,logic %\ld be cont5t to exp\nd ! correct =ms ( int]pretation & reason+ & %\ld n conc]n itself ) ! wrong4 ,if we take ?is view we are b\nd to pron\nce ,fallacies extra-logical4 ,b to d s is simply to cripple ! usefulness ( ,logic z a practical sci5ce4 ,! manipulation ( ! b>e logical =ms1 )\t ref]5ce to fallaci\s dep>tures f !m1 is no bett] ?an a nurs]y ex]cise4 ,e correct =m 9 ,logic is laid d[n z a safegu>d aga9/ "s errone\s =m to :i* m5 are prone1 :e!r 9 ! int]pretation ( argum5t or ! int]pretation ( exp]i5ce1 & ! /atem5t & illu/ration ( ! typical =ms ( wrong proc$ure %\ld accompany p>i passu ! exposition ( ! "r proc$ure4 ,9 accordance ) ?is pr9ciple1 ,i %all deal ) special fallacies1 special sn>es or pitfalls--misappreh5sion ( words1 mis9t]pretation ( propositions1 misund]/&+ ( argum5ts1 miscon/ruction ( facts1 evid5ces1 or signs--ea* 9 connexion ) its appropriate safegu>d4 ,?is seems to me ! mo/ pr(itable me?od4 ,b at ?is /age1 x may be wor? :ile1 by way ( emphasis+ ! ne$ = ,logic z a sci5ce ( rational belief1 to take a survey ( ! mo/ g5]al t5d5cies to irrational belief1 ! *ief k9ds ( illusion or bias t are root$ 9 ! human con/itution4 ,we %all !n bett] appreciate ! magnitude ( ! task t ,logic attempts 9 seek+ to protect reason aga9/ its own fallibility & ! pressure ( ! v>i\s =ces t w\ld usurp its place4 ,x is a common notion t we ne$ ,logic to protect u aga9/ ! arts ( ! ,sophi/1 ! di%one/ juggl] ) words & speci\s facts4 ,b 9 tru? ! ,inn] ,sophi/1 ^: in/rum5ts are our own inborn prop5sities to error1 is a mu* m dang]\s enemy4 ,= once t we are ! victims ( design+ ,sophi/s1 we are n9e times ! victims ( our own irrational impulses & prejudices4 ,m5 g5]ally deceive !mselves be=e !y deceive o!rs4 ,francis ,bacon drew att5tion to ^! inn] p]v]t+ influ5ces1 ^! univ]sal s\rces ( errone\s belief1 9 8 ,de ,augm5tis & aga9 9 8 ,novum ,organum1 "u ! designation ( ,idola 7,greek3 eidola71 deceptive appe>ances ( tru?1 illusions4 ,8 classification ( ,idola--,idola ,tribus1 illusions common to all m51 illusions ( ! race2 ,idola ,specus1 p]sonal illusions1 illusions peculi> to ! d5 9 :i* ea* man lives2 ,idola ,=i1 illusions ( conv]sation1 vulg> prejudices embodi$ 9 words2 ,idola ,!atri1 illusions ( illu/ri\s doctr9e1 illusions impos$ by ! dazzl+ au?ority ( great names--is defective z a classification inasmu* z ! fir/ class includes all ! o!rs1 b l all 8 writ+s x is full ( sagaci\s rem>ks & happy examples4 ,n = ! sake ( novelty1 b because x is well t matt]s s important %\ld be pres5t$ f m ?an "o po9t ( view1 ,i %all foll[ a division adapt$ f ! m sci5tific1 if less picturesque1 arrangem5t ( ,pr(essor ,ba91 9 8 *apt] on ! ,fallaci\s ,t5d5cies ( ! ,human ,m9d4#a ,! illusions to :i* we are all subject may be/ be classifi$ accord+ to _! orig9 9 ! dep?s ( our nature4 ,let u try to realise h[ illusory beliefs arise4 ,:at is a belief8 ,"o ( ! uses ( ,logic is to set u ?9k+ ab\t su* simple t]ms4 ,an exhau/ive analysis & def9ition ( belief is "o ( ! mo/ difficult ( psy*ological problems4 ,we _c ent] ^u t3 let u be cont5t ) a few simple *>act]s ( belief4 ,fir/1 !n1 belief is a /ate ( m9d4 ,second1 ?is /ate ( m9d is outw>d-po9t+3 x has a ref]5ce beyond itself1 a ref]5ce to ! ord] ( ?+s outside u4 ,9 believ+1 we hold t ! _w z x is1 has be51 or w be1 corresponds to our conceptions ( x4 ,?ird1 belief is ! guide ( action3 x is 9 accordance ) :at we believe t we direct our activities4 ,if we want to "k :at a man really believes1 we look at 8 action4 ,?is at lea/ is ! clue to :at he believes at ! mom5t4 ,i _c1 a great orator once said1 read ! m9ds ( m54 ,?is 0 receiv$ ) ironical *e]s4 ,no1 he retort$1 b ,i c con/rue _! acts4 ,promot]s ( companies are expect$ to inve/ _! own money z a gu>antee ( good fai?4 ,if a man says he believes ! _w is com+ to an end 9 a ye>1 & takes a lease ( a h\se = fifte5 ye>s1 we conclude t 8 belief is n ( ! highe/ degree ( /r5g?4 ,! close connexion ( belief ) our activities1 enables u to und]/& h[ illusions1 false conceptions ( reality1 arise4 ,! illusions ( ,feel+ & ! illusions ( ,cu/om are well und]/ood1 b o!r s\rces ( illusion1 :i* may be designat$ ,impati5t ,impulse & ,happy ,ex]cise1 are less g5]ally recognis$4 ,an example or two w %[ :at is meant4 ,we _c und]/& ! /r5g? ( ^! p]v]t+ influ5ces till we realise !m 9 our own case4 ,we detect !m quickly en\gh 9 o!rs4 ,see+ t 9 common spee* ! ^w illusion implies a degree ( error am\nt+ almo/ to insanity1 & ! illusions we speak ( are su* z no man is ev] q free f1 x is p]haps less />tl+ to use ! ^w bias4 ,! ,bias ( ,impati5t ,impulse4 ,z a be+ =m$ = action1 n only does heal?y man take a pleasure 9 action1 physical & m5tal1 = its own sake1 irrespective ( consequ5ces1 b he is s *>g$ ) en]gy t he _c be com=table unless x f9ds a free v5t4 ,9 proportion to ! am\nt & excitability ( 8 en]gy1 re/ra9t1 ob/ruction1 delay is irksome1 & soon becomes a positive & intol]able pa94 ,any b> or imp$im5t t gives u pause is hateful ev5 to ?9k (3 ! m]e prospect annoys & worries4 ,h5ce x arises t belief1 a feel+ ( be+ prep>$ = action1 a conviction t ! way is cle> be=e u = ! free ex]cise ( our activities1 is a v p[]ful & exhil>at+ feel+1 z mu* a necessity ( happy exi/5ce z action itself4 ,we see ?is :5 we consid] h[ depress+ & uncom=table a condition is ! opposite /ate to belief1 namely1 d\bt1 p]plexity1 hesitation1 unc]ta9ty z to our c\rse4 ,& realis+ ?is1 we see h[ /rong a bias we h 9 ?is fact ( our nature1 ?is imp]i\s inw>d necessity = action2 h[ x urges u to act )\t reg>d to consequ5ces1 & to jump at beliefs )\t inquiry4 ,=1 unless inquiry itself is our bus9ess1 a self-suffici5t occupation1 x means delay & ob/ruction4 ,?is ultimate fact ( our nature1 ?is natural inbr$ con/itutional impati5ce1 expla9s m ?an half ( ! wrong beliefs t we =m & p]si/ 94 ,we mu/ h a belief ( "s k9d3 we _c be happy till we get x1 & we take up ) ! fir/ t seems to %[ ! way cle>4 ,x may be "r or x may be wrong3 x is n1 ( c\rse1 necess>ily always wrong3 b t1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 is a matt] ( accid5t4 ,! press+ ne$ = a belief ( "s sort1 ^u :i* our en]gies may proce$ 9 anticipation at lea/1 w n all[ u to /op & inquire4 ,any c\rse t (f]s a relief f d\bt & hesitation1 any conviction t lets ! w g free1 is eag]ly embrac$4 ,x may be ?\ght t ?is c apply only to beliefs conc]n+ ! consequ5ces ( our own p]sonal actions1 affairs 9 :i* we individually play a "p4 ,x is f !m1 no d\bt1 t our nature takes ?is set3 b ! habit once =m$ is ext5d$ to all sorts ( matt]s 9 :i* we h no p]sonal int]e/4 ,tell an ord9>y ,engli%man1 x has be5 wittily said1 t x is a "q :e!r ! planets are inhabit$1 & he feels b\nd at once to h a confid5t op9ion on ! po9t4 ,! /r5g? ( ! conviction be>s no proportion to ! am\nt ( reason sp5t 9 rea*+ x1 unless x may be said t z a g5]al rule ! less a belief is reason$ ! m confid5tly x is held4 ,a groc]1 writes ,mr4 ,bagehot 9 an acute essay on ,! ,emotion ( ,conviction1#b has a full cre$ z to =eign policy1 a "y lady a complete !ory ( ! ,sacram5ts1 z to :i* nei!r has any d\bt4 ,a girl 9 a c\ntry p>sonage w be sure t ,p>is nev] c be tak51 or t ,bism>ck is a wret*4 ,an attitude ( philosophic d\bt1 ( susp5d$ judgm5t1 is repugnant to ! natural man4 ,belief is an indep5d5t joy to him4 ,?is bias works 9 all m54 ,:ile !re is life1 !re is pressure f )9 on belief1 t5d+ to pu% reason aside4 ,! =ce ( ! pressure1 ( c\rse1 v>ies ) individual temp]am5t1 age1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,! "y are m cr$ul\s ?an ! old1 z hav+ great] en]gy3 !y are apt1 z ,bacon puts x1 to be c>ri$ away by ! sangu9e elem5t 9 _! temp]am5t4 ,%akespe>e's ,la]tes is a /udy ( ! impulsive temp]am5t1 boldly contra/$ ) ,hamlet1 :o has m disc\rse ( reason4 ,:5 ,la]tes he>s t 8 fa!r has be5 kill$1 he hurries home1 collects a body ( arm$ sympa?is]s1 bur/s into ! pres5ce ( ! k+1 & ?reat5s ) 8 v5geance--! wrong man4 ,he nev] pauses to make inquiry3 l ,hotspur he is a wasp-/ung & impati5t fool2 he mu/ wreak 8 rev5ge on somebody1 & at once4 ,hamlet's fa!r also has be5 murd]$1 b 8 reason mu/ be satisfi$ be=e he proce$s to 8 rev5ge1 & :5 d\btful pro( is (f]$1 he waits = pro( m relative4 ,bacon's ,idola ,tribus & ,dr4 ,ba9's illu/rations ( incont95t en]gy1 are mo/ly examples ( unreason+ intellectual activity1 hurri$ g5]alisations1 uns\nd & sup]ficial analogies1 ra% hypo!ses4 ,bacon quotes ! case ( ! sceptic 9 ! temple ( ,poseidon1 :o1 :5 %[n ! (f]+s ( ^? :o _h made v[s 9 dang] & be5 deliv]$1 & ask$ :e!r he did n n[ ackn[l$ge ! p[] ( ! god1 repli$3 ,b :]e are !y :o made v[s & yet p]i%$8 ,?is man answ]$ rightly1 says ,bacon4 ,9 dreams1 om5s1 retributions1 & su* l1 we are apt to rememb] :5 !y come true & to =get ! cases :5 !y fail4 ,if we h se5 b "o man ( a nation1 we are apt to conclude t all 8 c\ntrym5 are l him2 we _c susp5d our judgm5t till we h se5 m4 ,confid5t belief1 z ,dr4 ,ba9 rem>ks1 is ! primitive attitude ( ! human m9d3 x is only by sl[ degrees t ?is is correct$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! old adage1 ,exp]i5ce tea*es fools1 has a mean+ ( its own1 b 9 "o s5se x is ! rev]se ( ! tru?4 ,! m>k ( a fool is t he is n taught by exp]i5ce1 & we are all m or less intractable pupils1 till our en]gies beg9 to fail4 ,! ,bias ( ,happy ,ex]cise4 ,if an occupation is pleasant 9 itself1 if x fully satisfies our inn] crav+ = action1 we are liable to be bl9d$ !reby to its consequ5ces4 ,happy ex]cise is ! fool's ,p>adise4 ,! fallacy lies n 9 be+ cont5t ) :at provides a field = ! full activity ( our p[]s3 to be cont5t 9 su* a case may be ! height ( wisdom3 b ! fallacy lies 9 claim+ = our occupation results1 b5efits1 utilities t d n really att5d ^u x4 ,?us we see subjects ( /udy1 orig9ally tak5 up = "s purpose1 practical1 arti/ic1 or religi\s1 pursu$ into elaborate detail f> beyond _! orig9al purpose1 & ! highe/ value1 intellectual1 spiritual1 moral1 claim$ = !m by _! vot>ies1 :5 9 tru? !y m]ely s]ve to consume s mu* vacant en]gy1 & may be a %e] wa/e ( "t t ought to be o!rwise employ$4 ,b z ,i am 9 dang] ( myself furni%+ an illu/ration ( ?is bias--x is n[h]e m preval5t ?an 9 philosophy--,i w pass to our next head4 ,! ,bias ( ! ,feel+s4 ,?is s\rce ( illusion is mu* m g5]ally und]/ood4 ,! bl9d+ & p]v]t+ influ5ce ( passion on reason has be5 a fav\rite !me ) morali/s ev] s9ce man began to moralise1 & is ackn[l$g$ 9 _m a popul> prov]b4 ,love is bl9d2 ,! wi% is fa!r to ! ?\ght2 ,"s p's geese are all swans2 & s =?4 ,we ne$ n dwell ^u ! illu/ration ( x4 ,fe> & ,slo? magnify dang]s & difficulties2 ,affection c see no imp]fection 9 its object3 9 ! eyes ( ,jeal\sy a rival is a wret*4 ,f ! nature ( ! case we are mu* m apt to see examples 9 o!rs ?an 9 ourselves4 ,if ! /r5g? ( ?is bias 7 prop]ly und]/ood by ev]ybody1 ! mi/ake w\ld n s (t5 be committ$ ( suspect+ bad fai?1 consci\s hypocrisy1 :5 p are f\nd practis+ ! grosse/ inconsi/5cies1 & %utt+ _! eyes app>5tly 9 delib]ate wilfulness to facts held "u _! v noses4 ,m5 are incl9$ to ascribe ?is human weakness to wom54 ,reason+ f feel+ is said to be fem99e logic4 ,b x is a human weakness4 ,to take "o v p[]ful feel+1 ! feel+ ( self-love or self-int]e/--?is op]ates 9 mu* m subtle ways ?an mo/ p imag9e1 9 ways s subtle t ! self-deceiv]1 h[ev] hone/1 w\ld fail to be consci\s ( ! influ5ce if x 7 po9t$ out to him4 ,:5 ! slo?ful man sai?1 ,!re is a lion 9 ! pa?1 we c all detect ! bias to 8 belief1 & s we c :5 ! slo?ful /ud5t says t he w "w h>d to-morr[1 or next week1 or next mon?2 or :5 ! disappo9t$ man %[s an exagg]at$ s5se ( ! advantages ( a successful rival or ( 8 own disadvantages4 ,b self-int]e/ works to bias belief 9 mu* less palpable ways ?an ^?4 ,x is ?is bias t acc\nts = ! difficulty t m5 ( antagoni/ic int]e/s h 9 see+ ! argum5ts or believ+ 9 ! hone/y ( _! oppon5ts4 ,y %all f9d conf]5ces held betwe5 capitali/s & workm5 9 :i* ! two sides1 bo? repres5t$ by m5 incapable ( consci\sly di%one/ action1 fail altoge!r to see ! =ce ( ea* o!r's argum5ts1 & are mutually a/oni%$ ea* at ! o!r's bl9dness4 ,! ,bias ( ,cu/om4 ,t cu/om1 habits ( ?\ght & practice1 affect belief1 is also g5]ally ackn[l$g$1 ?\gh ! /r5g? & wide rea* ( ! bias is seldom realis$4 ,v simple cases ( unreason+ prejudice 7 adduc$ by ,locke1 :o 0 ! fir/ to sugge/ a g5]al explanation ( !m 9 ! ,association ( ,ideas 7,human ,und]/&+1 bk4 ii4 *4 xxxiii474 ,!re is1 = in/ance1 ! fe> t ov]comes _m p :5 alone 9 ! d>k4 ,9 va9 reason tells !m t !re is no real dang]2 !y h a c]ta9 tremor ( appreh5sion t !y _c get rid (1 because d>kness is insep>ably connect$ 9 _! m9ds ) images ( horror4 ,simil>ly we contract unreasonable dislikes to places :]e pa9ful ?+s h happ5$ to u4 ,equally unreason+1 if n unreasonable1 is our atta*m5t to cu/om>y doctr9es or practices1 & our inv9cible antipa?y to ^? :o d n obs]ve !m4 ,words are v common vehicles = ! curr5cy ( ?is k9d ( prejudice1 good or bad mean+s be+ atta*$ to !m by cu/om4 ,! p[] ( words 9 ?is way is recognis$ 9 ! prov]b3 ,give a dog a bad "n1 & !n hang him4 ,^! v]bal prejudices are ,bacon's ,idola ,=i1 illusions ( conv]sation4 ,ea* ( u is br\ght up 9 a c]ta9 sect or p>ty1 & accu/om$ to respect or di%on\r c]ta9 sect>ian or p>ty names1 ,:ig1 ,tory1 ,radical1 ,sociali/1 ,evolutioni/1 ,broad1 ,l[1 or ,high ,*ur*4 ,we may meet a man )\t kn[+ "u :at label he walks & be *>m$ ) 8 company3 meet him aga9 :5 8 "n is kn[n1 & all is *ang$4 ,su* errors are call$ ,fallacies ( ,association to po9t to ! psy*ological explanation4 ,?is is t by =ce ( association c]ta9 ideas are br\ght into ! m9d1 & t once !y are !re1 we _c help giv+ !m objective reality4 ,= example1 a doctor comes to exam9e a pati5t1 & f9ds c]ta9 symptoms4 ,he has lately se5 or he>d ( _m cases ( influ5za1 we %all say2 influ5za is runn+ 9 8 head4 ,! idea once sugge/$ has all ! advantage ( possession4 ,b :y is x t a man _c get rid ( an idea8 ,:y does x =ce itself ^u him z a belief8 ,association1 cu/om1 expla9s h[ x got !re1 b n :y x p]si/s 9 /ay+4 ,to expla9 ?is we mu/ call 9 our fir/ fallaci\s pr9ciple1 ! ,impati5ce ( ,d\bt or ,delay1 ! imp]ative inw>d ne$ = a belief ( "s sort4 ,& ?is leads to ano!r rem>k1 t ?\gh = conv5i5ce ( exposition1 we sep>ate ^! v>i\s influ5ces1 !y are n sep>at$ 9 practice4 ,!y may & (t5 d act all toge!r1 ! ,inn] ,sophi/ conc5trat+ 8 =ces4 ,f9ally1 x may be ask$ :e!r1 see+ t illusions are ! (fspr+ ( su* highly respectable qualities z excess ( en]gy1 excess ( feel+1 excess ( docility1 x is a good ?+ = man to be disillusion$4 ,! rose-col\r t lies ov] ! _w = y\? is project$ f ! abundant en]gy & feel+ )93 disillusion comes ) fail+ en]gies1 :5 hope is unwill+ to be f$4 ,is x good !n to be disillusion$8 ,! =ego+ exposition w\ld be egregi\sly wrong if ! majority ( mank9d did n res5t ! intrusion ( ,reason & its organis+ lieut5ant ,logic4 ,b really !re is no dang] t ?is intrusion succe$s to ! ext5t ( p>alys+ action & de/roy+ feel+1 & uproot+ cu/om4 ,! utmo/ t ,logic c d is to modify ! excess ( ^! good qualities by sett+ =? ! conditions ( rational belief4 ,! /ud5t :o ma/]s ^? conditions w soon see ! practical wisdom ( apply+ 8 k only 9 cases :]e ! gr\nds ( rational belief are )9 8 rea*4 ,to apply x to ! consequ5ces ( e action w\ld be to yield to t bias ( incont95t activity :i* is1 p]haps1 our mo/ fruitful s\rce ( error4 ,footnote #a3 ,ba9's ,logic1 bk4 vi4 *ap4 iii4 ,bacon int5d$ 8 ,idola to be> ! same relation to 8 ,novum ,organum t ,ari/otle's ,fallacies or ,sophi/ical ,tricks bore to ! old ,organum4 ,b 9 tru?1 z ,i h already indicat$1 :at ,bacon classifies is our inbr$ t5d5cies to =m idola or false images1 & x is ^! same t5d5cies t make u liable to ! fallacies nam$ by ,ari/otle4 ,"s ( ,ari/otle's1 z we %all see1 are fallacies ( ,induction4 ,footnote #b3 ,bagehot's ,lit]>y ,/udies1 ii4 #dbg4 ,,iii4--,,! ,,axioms ,,( ,,dialectic ,,& ,,( ,,syllogism4 ,!re are c]ta9 pr9ciples kn[n z ! ,laws ( ,?\ght or ! ,maxims ( ,consi/5cy4 ,!y are v>i\sly express$1 v>i\sly demon/rat$1 & v>i\sly int]pret$1 b 9 "o =m or ano!r !y are (t5 said to be ! f\ndation ( all ,logic4 ,x is ev5 said t all ! doctr9es ( ,d$uctive or ,syllogi/ic ,logic may be educ$ f !m4 ,let u take ! mo/ ab/ract expression ( !m1 & see h[ !y orig9at$4 ,?ree laws are commonly giv51 nam$ respectively ! ,law ( ,id5tity1 ! ,law ( ,contradiction & ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 #a4 ,! ,law ( ,id5tity4 ,a is ,a4 ,socrates is ,socrates4 ,guilt is guilt4 #b4 ,! ,law ( ,contradiction4 ,a is n n-,a4 ,socrates is n o!r ?an ,socrates4 ,guilt is n o!r ?an guilt4 ,or ,a is n at once b & n-b4 ,socrates is n at once good & n-good4 ,guilt is n at once puni%able & n-puni%able4 #c4 ,! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,ev]y?+ is ei!r ,a or n-,a2 or1 ,a is ei!r b or n-b4 ,a giv5 ?+ is ei!r ,socrates or n-,socrates1 ei!r guilty or n-guilty4 ,x mu/ be "o or ! o!r3 no middle is possible4 ,:y lay d[n pr9ciples s obvi\s1 9 "s int]pretations1 & s manife/ly sophi/ical 9 o!rs8 ,! b>e =ms ( mod]n ,logic h be5 rea*$ by a process ( att5uation f a passage 9 ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics#a 7iii4 #c1 #d1 #ajje;b - #ajjh74 ,he is !re lay+ d[n ! fir/ pr9ciple ( demon/ration1 :i* he takes to be t x is impossible t ! same pr$icate c bo? belong1 & n belong1 to ! same subject1 at ! same "t1 & 9 ! same s5se4#b ,t ,socrates kn[s gramm>1 & does n "k gramm>--^! two propositions _c bo? be true at ! same "t1 & 9 ! same s5se4 ,two contr>ies _c exi/ toge!r 9 ! same subject4 ,! d\ble answ] ,yes & ,no _c be giv5 to "o & ! same "q und]/ood 9 ! same s5se4 ,b :y did ,ari/otle consid] x necess>y to lay d[n a pr9ciple s obvi\s8 ,simply because among ! subtle dialecticians :o prec$$ him ! pr9ciple _h be5 *all5g$4 ,! ,platonic dialogue ,eu?ydemus %[s ! f>cical l5g?s to :i* su* quibbl+ 0 c>ri$4 ,! two bro!rs vanqui% all oppon5ts1 b x is by claim+ t ! answ] ,no does n preclude ! answ] ,yes4 ,is n ! hon\rable hon\rable1 & ! base base8 asks ,socrates4 ,t is z ,i please1 replies ,dionysodorus4 ,socrates concludes t !re is no argu+ ) su* m53 !y repudiate ! fir/ pr9ciples ( dialectic4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 m respectable practition]s :o canvass$ on m plausible gr\nds any =m into :i* ultimate doctr9es ab\t contr>ies & contradictions1 tru? & falsehood1 c\ld be put1 & !re=e ,ari/otle consid]$ x necess>y to put =? & def5d at elaborate l5g? a /atem5t ( a fir/ pr9ciple ( demon/ration4 ,contradictions _c bo? be true ( ! same subject at ! same "t & 9 ! same s5se4 ,?is is ! orig9al =m ( ! ,law ( ,contradiction4 ,! words ( ! same subject1 at ! same "t1 & 9 ! same s5se1 are c>efully *os5 to gu>d aga9/ possible quibbles4 ,socrates kn[s gramm>4 ,by ,socrates we mu/ mean ! same individual man4 ,& ev5 ( ! same man ! ass]tion may be true at "o "t & n at ano!r4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 ,socrates did n "k gramm>1 ?\gh he kn[s x n[4 ,& ! ass]tion may be true 9 "o s5se & n 9 ano!r4 ,x may be true t ,socrates kn[s gramm>1 yet n t he kn[s ev]y?+ t is to be kn[n ab\t gramm>1 or t he kn[s z mu* z ,ari/>*us4 ,ari/otle ackn[l$ges t ?is fir/ pr9ciple _c itself be demon/rat$1 t is1 d$uc$ f any o!r4 ,if x is d5i$1 y c only r$uce ! d5i] to an absurdity4 ,& 9 %[+ h[ to proce$ 9 s do+1 he says y mu/ beg9 by com+ to an agreem5t ab\t ! words us$1 t !y signify ! same = "o & ! o!r disputant4#c ,no dialectic is possible )\t ?is und]/&+4 ,?is fir/ pr9ciple ( ,dialectic is ! orig9al ( ! ,law ( ,id5tity4 ,:ile any "q z to ! tru? or falsehood ( a "q is p5d+1 f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( any logical process1 ! words mu/ cont9ue to be accept$ 9 ! same s5se4 ,words mu/ h an id5tical ref]5ce to ?+s4 ,incid5tally 9 discuss+ ! ,axiom ( ,contradiction 7,greek3 axioma tes antiphaseos71#d ,ari/otle lays d[n :at is n[ kn[n z ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,( two contradictories "o or o!r mu/ be true3 we mu/ ei!r affirm or d5y any "o ?+ ( any o!r3 no mean or middle is possible4 ,9 _! orig91 !n1 ^! s-call$ ,laws ( ,?\ght 7 simply ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ,dialectic & ,demon/ration4 ,consecutive argum5t1 coh]5t ratioc9ation1 is impossible unless !y are tak5 = grant$4 ,if we divorce or ab/ract !m f _! orig9al application1 & consid] !m m]ely z laws ( ?9k+ or ( be+1 any ab/ract expression1 or illu/ration1 or designation ( !m may easily be pu%$ into antagonism ) o!r pla9 tru?s or fir/ pr9ciples equally rudim5t>y4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! p]plex+ & volum9\s discussion to :i* ^! laws h be5 subject$ by logicians )9 ! la/ hundr$ ye>s1 a little casui/ry is necess>y to enable ! /ud5t to und]/& )9 :at limits !y hold good4 ,socrates is ,socrates4 ,! "n ,socrates is a "n = some?+ to :i* y & ,i ref] :5 we use ! "n4 ,unless we h ! same ref]5ce1 we _c hold any argum5t ab\t ! ?+1 or make any communication "o to ano!r ab\t x4 ,b if we take ,socrates is ,socrates to mean t1 ,an object ( ?\ght or ?+ is id5tical ) itself1 ,an object ( ?\ght or ?+ _c be o!r ?an itself1 & call ?is a law ( ?\ght1 we are met at once by a difficulty4 ,?\ght1 prop]ly speak+1 does n beg9 till we pass beyond ! id5tity ( an object ) itself4 ,?\ght beg9s only :5 we recognise ! lik5ess betwe5 "o object & o!rs4 ,to keep )9 ! self-id5tity ( ! object is to susp5d ?\ght4 ,socrates 0 a native ( ,attica1 ,socrates 0 a wise man1 ,socrates 0 put to dea? z a tr\bl] ( ! commonweal--:5ev] we beg9 to ?9k or say any?+ ab\t ,socrates1 to ascribe any attributes to him1 we pass out ( 8 self-id5tity into 8 relations ( lik5ess ) o!r m51 into :at he has 9 common ) o!r m54 ,hegelians express ?is pla9 tru? ) p>adoxical po9t :5 !y say3 ,( any def9ite exi/5ce or ?\ght1 !re=e1 x may be said ) q z mu* tru? t x is n1 z t x is1 its own b>e self4#e ,or1 ,a ?+ mu/ o!r itself 9 ord] to be itself4 ,controv]siali/s treat ?is z a subv]sion ( ! laws ( ,id5tity & ,contradiction4 ,b x is only ,hegel's fun--8 p>adoxical way ( putt+ ! pla9 tru? t any object has m 9 common ) o!r objects ?an x has peculi> to itself4 ,till we ent] into ^? aspects ( agreem5t ) o!r objects1 we _c truly be said to ?9k at all4 ,if we say m]ely t a ?+ is itself1 we may z well say no?+ ab\t x4 ,to lay d[n ?is is n to subv]t ! ,law ( ,id5tity1 b to keep x f be+ pu%$ to ! extreme ( appe>+ to d5y ! ,law ( ,lik5ess1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( all ! *>act]s1 attributes1 or qualities ( ?+s 9 our ?\ghts4 ,t self-same objects are l o!r self-same objects1 is an assumption di/9ct f ! ,law ( ,id5tity1 & any int]pretation ( x t excludes ?is assumption is to be repudiat$4 ,b does n ! law ( ,id5tity z well z ! law ( ! lik5ess ( mutually exclusive id5tities presuppose t !re are objects self-same1 l o!rs1 & diff]5t f o!rs8 ,c]ta9ly3 ?is is "o ( ! presuppositions ( ,logic4#f ,we assume t ! _w ( :i* we talk & reason is sep>at$ into su* objects 9 our ?\ghts4 ,we assume t su* words z ,socrates repres5t individual objects ) a self-same be+ or sub/ance2 t su* words z wisdom1 hum\r1 ugl9ess1 runn+1 sitt+1 "h1 !re1 repres5t attributes1 qualities1 *>act]s or pr$icates ( individuals2 t su* words z man repres5t gr\ps or classes ( individuals4 ,"s logicians 9 express+ ! ,law ( ,id5tity h _! eye specially ^u ! objects signifi$ by g5]al names or ab/ract names1 man1 education4#g ,a concept is id5tical ) ! sum ( its *>act]s1 or1 ,classes are id5tical ) ! sum ( ! individuals compos+ !m4 ,! assumptions ?us express$ 9 te*nical language :i* w h]eaft] be expla9$ are und\bt$ly assumptions t ,logic makes3 b s9ce !y are /atem5ts ( ! int]nal con/itution ( "s ( ! id5tities t words repres5t1 to call !m ! ,law ( ,id5tity is to dep>t confus+ly f traditional usage4#h ,t ?r\gh\t any logical process a ^w mu/ signify ! same object1 is "o proposition3 t ! object signifi$ by a g5]al "n is id5tical ) ! sum ( ! individuals to ea* ( :om x is applicable1 or ) ! sum ( ! *>act]s t !y be> 9 common1 is ano!r proposition4 ,logic assumes bo?3 ,ari/otle assum$ bo?3 b x is ! fir/ t is hi/orically ! orig9al ( all expressions ( ! ,law ( ,id5tity 9 mod]n text-books4 ,yet ano!r expression ( a ,law ( ,id5tity :i* is really di/9ct f & an addition to ,ari/otle's orig9al4 ,socrates 0 an ,a!nian1 a philosoph]1 an ugly man1 an acute dialectician1 etc4 ,let x be grant$ t ! ^w ,socrates be>s ! same signification ?r\gh\t all ^! & any numb] m ( pr$icates1 we may /ill ask3 ,b :at is x t ,socrates signifies8 ,! title ,law ( ,id5tity is sometimes giv5#i to a !ory on ?is po9t4 ,socrates is ,socrates4 ,an individual is ! id5tity runn+ ?r\gh ! totality ( its attributes4 ,is ?is n1 x may be ask$1 to confuse ?\ght & be+1 to resolve ,socrates into a /r+ ( words8 ,no3 real exi/5ce is "o ( ! admissible pr$icates ( ,socrates3 "o ( ! attributes "u :i* we conceive him4 ,b :e!r we accept or reject ?is ,law ( ,id5tity1 x is an addition to ,ari/otle's dialectical law ( id5tity2 x is a !ory ( ! metaphysical nature ( ! id5tity signifi$ by a ,s+ul> "n4 ,& ! same may be said ( yet ano!r !ory ( ,id5tity1 t1 ,an individual is id5tical ) ! totality ( its pr$icates1 or 7ano!r way ( putt+ ! same !ory71 ,an individual is a conflux ( g5]alities4 ,to turn next to ! ,laws ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,^! also may be subject$ to ,casui/ry1 mak+ cle>] :at !y ass]t by %[+ :at !y d n d5y4 ,!y d n d5y t ?+s *ange1 & t successive /ates ( ! same ?+ may pass into "o ano!r by imp]ceptible degrees4 ,a ?+ may be nei!r "h nor !re3 x may be on ! passage f "h to !re3 &1 :ile x is 9 motion1 we may say1 ) equal tru?1 t x is nei!r "h nor !re1 or t x is bo? "h & !re4 ,y\? passes gradually into age1 day into night3 a giv5 man or a giv5 mom5t may be on ! bord]l& betwe5 ! two4 ,logic does n d5y ! exi/5ce ( indet]m9ate m>g9s3 x m]ely lays d[n t = purposes ( cle> communication & coh]5t reason+ ! l9e mu/ be drawn some:]e betwe5 b1 & n-b4 ,a diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 mu/ be recognis$ betwe5 logical negation & ! negations ( common ?\ght & common spee*4 ,! latt] are def9ite to a degree ) :i* ! m]e ,logic ( ,consi/5cy does n conc]n itself4 ,to realise ?is is to und]/& m cle>ly ! limitations ( ,=mal ,logic4 ,9 common spee*1 to d5y a quality ( any?+ is by implication to attribute to x "s o!r quality ( ! same k9d4 ,let any man tell me t ! /reets ( su* & su* a t[n are n pav$ ) wood1 ,i at once conclude t !y are pav$ ) "s o!r mat]ial4 ,x is ! legitimate effect ( 8 negative proposition to convey ?is impression to my m9d4 ,if1 proce$+ on ?is1 ,i g on to ask3 ,!n !y are pav$ ) granite or asphalt1 or ?is or t8 & he turns r\nd & says3 ,i did n say !y 7 pav$ at all1 ,i %\ld be ju/ifi$ 9 accus+ him ( a quibble4 ,9 ord9>y spee*1 to d5y "o k9d ( pavem5t is to ass]t pavem5t ( "s k9d4 ,simil>ly1 to d5y t ,s-&-s is n 9 ! ,tw5ty-fir/ ,regim5t1 is to imply t he is 9 ano!r regim5t1 t he is 9 ! army 9 "s regim5t4 ,to retort ^u ?is inf]5ce3 ,he is n 9 ! army at all1 is a quibble3 z mu* s z x w\ld be to retort3 ,!re is no su* p]son 9 exi/5ce4 ,n[ ,logic does n take acc\nt ( ?is implication1 & no?+ has contribut$ m to br+ ^u x ! reproa* ( quibbl+4 ,9 ,logic1 to d5y a quality is simply to decl>e a repugnance betwe5 x & ! subject2 negation is m]e sublation1 tak+ away1 & implies no?+ m4 ,n-b is entirely indef9ite3 x may cov] any?+ except b4 ,is ,logic !n really useless1 or ev5 mislead+1 inasmu* z x ignores ! def9ite implication ( negatives 9 ord9>y ?\ght & spee*8 ,9 ignor+ ?is implication1 does ,logic oppose ?is implication z errone\s8 ,does ,logic %elt] ! quibbl] :o trades ^u x8 ,by no means3 to jump to ?is conclusion 7 a misund]/&+4 ,! fact only is t no?+ beyond ! logical ,law ( ,contradiction ne$s to be assum$ = any ( ! processes ( ,=mal ,logic4 ,ari/otle requir$ to assume no?+ m = 8 syllogi/ic =mulae1 & ,logic has n yet includ$ 9 its scope any process t requires any fur!r assumption4 ,if n-b repres5t ev]y?+ except b1 ev]y?+ outside b1 !n t ,a is b1 & t ,a is n-b1 _c bo? be true1 & "o or o!r ( !m mu/ be true4 ,:e!r ! scope ( ,logic ought to be ext5d$ is ano!r "q4 ,x seems to me t ! scope ( ,logic may legitimately be ext5d$ s z to take acc\nt bo? ( ! positive implication ( negatives & ! negative implication ( positives4 ,i !re=e deal ) ?is subject 9 a sep>ate *apt] foll[+ on ! ord9>y doctr9es ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 :]e ,i try to expla9 ! simple ,law ( ,?\ght involv$4 ,:5 ,i say t ! ext5sion is legitimate1 ,i mean t x may be made )\t dep>t+ f ! traditional view ( ,logic z a practical sci5ce1 conv]sant ) ! nature ( ?\ght & its expression only 9 s f> z x c provide practical guidance aga9/ errone\s int]pretations & inf]5ces4 ,! ext5sion t ,i propose is 9 effect an attempt to br+ )9 ! fold ( ,practical ,logic "s ( ! results ( ! dialectic ( ,hegel & 8 foll[]s1 su* z ,mr4 ,bradley & ,mr4 ,bosanquet1 ,pr(essor ,caird & ,pr(essor ,wallace4#aj ,! logical processes =mulat$ by ,ari/otle are m]ely /ages 9 ! movem5t ( ?\ght t[>ds atta9+ def9ite conceptions ( reality4 ,to treat _! conclusions z positions 9 :i* ?\ght may dwell & re/1 is an error1 aga9/ :i* ,logic itself z a practical sci5ce may fairly be call$ ^u to gu>d4 ,x may ev5 be conc$$ t ! ,ari/otelian processes are artificial /ages1 c\rses t ?\ght does n take naturally1 b into :i* x has to be =c$ = a purpose4 ,to conc$e ?is is n to conc$e t ! ,ari/otelian logic is useless1 z long z we h reason on our side 9 hold+ t ?\ght is b5efit$ & /r5g!n$ aga9/ c]ta9 errors by pass+ ?r\gh ^? artificial /ages4 ,footnote #a3 ,! fir/ /atem5t ( ! ,law ( ,id5tity 9 ! =m ,ens e/ ens is ascrib$ by ,hamilton 7,lectures1 iii4 #ia7 to ,antonius ,&reas1 a f\rte5? c5tury comm5tator on ! ,metaphysics4 ,b ,&reas is m]ely exp\nd+ :at ,ari/otle sets =? 9 iii4 #d1 #ajjf a1 b4 ,ens e/ ens does n mean 9 ,&reas :at ,a is ,a means 9 ,hamilton4 ,footnote #b3 ,greek3 to g> auto hama hup>*e9 te kai me hup>*e9 adynaton to auto kai kata to auto1 4 4 4 ahute de pason e/i bebaiotate ton ar*on4 iii4 #c1 #ajje;b1 #ai-bc4 ,footnote #c3 ,hamilton cr$its ,&reas ) ma9ta9+1 aga9/ ,ari/otle1 t ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity1 & n ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 is ! "o absolutely fir/4 ,:i* comes fir/1 is a s*ola/ic "q on :i* +5uity may be ex]cis$4 ,b 9 fact ,ari/otle put ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity fir/ 9 ! above pla9 s5se1 & ,&reas only exp\nd$ m =mally :at ,ari/otle _h said4 ,footnote #d3 ,greek3 ,metaxu antiphaseos ende*etai e9ai ou!n1 all' ananke e phanai e apophanai en ka? h5os hoti\n4 ,metaph4 iii4 #g1 #ajaa;b1 #bc-d4 ,footnote #e3 ,pr(4 ,caird's ,hegel1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,v5n1 ,empirical ,logic1 #a-h4 ,footnote #g3 ,e4g41 ,hamilton1 lect4 v42 ,veit*'s ,in/itutes ( ,logic1 *aps1 xii41 xiii4 ,footnote #h3 ,! confusion probably arises 9 ?is way4 ,fir/1 ^! laws are =mulat$ z laws ( ?\ght t ,logic assumes4 ,second1 a notion arises t ^! laws are ! only po/ulates ( ,logic3 t all logical doctr9es c be evolv$ f !m4 ,?ird1 :5 x is felt t m ?an ! id5tical ref]5ce ( words or ! id5tity ( a ?+ ) itself mu/ be assum$ 9 ,logic1 ! ,law ( ,id5tity is ext5d$ to cov] ?is fur!r assumption4 ,footnote #i3 ,e4g41 ,bosanquet's ,logic1 ii4 #bjg4 ,footnote #aj3 ,bradley1 ,pr9ciples ( ,logic2 ,bosanquet1 ,logic or ,! ,morphology ( ,k2 ,caird1 ,hegel 79 ,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics72 ,wallace1 ,! ,logic ( ,hegel4 ,,book ,i4 ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,consi/5cy4 ,,syllogism ,,& ,,def9ition4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,g5]al ,,names ,,& ,,alli$ ,,di/9ctions4 ,to discipl9e u aga9/ ! errors we are liable to 9 receiv+ k ?r\gh ! m$ium ( words--su* is "o ( ! objects ( ,logic1 ! ma9 object ( :at may be call$ ! ,logic ( ,consi/5cy4 ,/rictly speak+1 we may receive k ab\t ?+s ?r\gh signs or s+le words1 z a nod1 a w9k1 a cry1 a call1 a comm&4 ,b an ass]tory s5t5ce1 proposition1 or pr$ication1 is ! unit ) :i* ,logic conc]ns itself--a s5t5ce 9 :i* a subject is nam$ & some?+ is said or pr$icat$ ab\t x4 ,let a man once und]/& ! errors incid5t to ?is regul> mode ( communication1 & he may safely be left to protect himself aga9/ ! errors incid5t to m rudim5t>y modes4 ,a proposition1 :e!r long or %ort1 is a unit1 b x is an analysable unit4 ,& ! key to syllogi/ic analysis is ! ,g5]al ,"n4 ,e proposition1 e s5t5ce 9 :i* we convey k to ano!r1 conta9s a g5]al "n or its equival5t4 ,t is to say1 e proposition may be resolv$ into a =m 9 :i* ! pr$icate is a g5]al "n4 ,a k ( ! function ( ?is elem5t ( spee* is ! basis ( all logical discipl9e4 ,!re=e1 ?\gh we mu/ always rememb] t ! proposition is ! real unit ( spee*1 & ! g5]al "n only an analytic elem5t1 we take ! g5]al "n & its alli$ di/9ctions 9 ?\ght & reality fir/4 ,h[ propositions are analys$ = syllogi/ic purposes w be %[n by-&-by1 b we mu/ fir/ expla9 v>i\s te*nical t]ms t logicians h devis$ to def9e ! features ( ?is c>d9al elem5t4 ,! te*nical t]ms ,,class1 ,,concept1 ,,notion1 ,,attribute1 ,,ext5sion or ,,d5otation1 ,,int5sion or ,,connotation1 ,,g5us1 ,,species1 ,,diff]5tia1 ,,s+ul> ,,"n1 ,,collective ,,"n1 ,,ab/ract ,,"n1 all c5tre r\nd x4 ,a g5]al "n is a "n applicable to a numb] ( diff]5t ?+s on ! gr\nd ( "s lik5ess among !m1 z man1 ratepay]1 man ( c\rage1 man :o f\ght at ,wat]loo4 ,f ! examples x w be se5 t a g5]al "n logically is n necess>ily a s+le ^w4 ,any ^w or comb9ation ( words t s]ves a c]ta9 function is te*nically a g5]al "n4 ,! diff]5t ways ( mak+ 9 common spee* ! equival5t ( a g5]al "n logically are = ! gramm>ian to consid]4 ,9 ! def9ition ( a g5]al "n att5tion is call$ to two di/9ct consid]ations1 ! individual objects to ea* ( :i* ! "n is applicable1 & ! po9ts ( resemblance among !m1 9 virtue ( :i* !y h a common "n4 ,= ^? di/9ctions !re are te*nical t]ms4 ,,class is ! te*nical t]m = ! objects1 diff]5t yet agree+1 to ea* ( :i* a g5]al "n may be appli$4 ,! po9ts ( resemblance are call$ ! common ,,attributes ( ! class4 ,a class may be con/itut$ on "o attribute or on sev]al4 ,ratepay]1 woman ratepay]1 unm>ri$ woman ratepay]2 soldi]1 ,briti% soldi]1 ,briti% soldi] on =eign s]vice4 ,b e individual to :i* ! g5]al "n c be appli$ mu/ possess ! common attribute or attributes4 ,^! common attributes are also call$ ! ,,notion ( ! class1 inasmu* z x is ^! t ! m9d notes or %\ld note :5 ! g5]al "n is appli$4 ,,concept is a synonym p]haps 9 m common use ?an notion2 ! rationale ( ?is t]m 7d]iv$ f con & cap]e1 to take or grasp toge!r7 be+ t x is by means ( ! po9ts ( resemblance t ! individuals are grasp$ or held toge!r by ! m9d4 ,^! common po9ts are ! "o 9 ! _m1 ! same amid/ ! diff]5t1 ! id5tity signifi$ by ! common "n4 ,! "n ( an attribute z ?\ght ( by itself )\t ref]5ce to any individual or class possess+ x1 is call$ an ,,ab/ract "n4 ,by contradi/9ction1 ! "n ( an individual or a class is ,,concrete4 ,te*nical t]ms are want$ also to express ! relation ( ! individuals & ! attributes to ! g5]al "n4 ,! individuals jo9tly are spok5 ( z ! ,,d5otation1 or ,,ext5sion or ,,scope ( ! "n2 ! common attributes z its ,,connotation1 ,,int5sion1 ,,compreh5sion1 or ,,gr\nd4 ,! :ole d5otation1 etc41 is ! class2 ! :ole connotation1 etc41 is ! concept4#a ,! limits ( a class 9 ,logic are fix$ by ! common attributes4 ,any individual object t possesses ^! is a memb]4 ,! /atem5t ( !m is ! ,,def9ition4 ,to pr$icate a g5]al "n ( any object1 z1 ,?is is a cat1 ,?is is a v sad affair1 is to ref] t object to a class1 :i* is equival5t to say+ t x has c]ta9 features ( resemblance ) o!r objects1 t x rem9ds u ( !m by its lik5ess to !m4 ,?us to say t ! pr$icate ( e proposition is a g5]al "n1 express$ or impli$1 is ! same z to say t e pr$ication may be tak5 z a ref]5ce to a class4 ,ord9>ily our notion or concept ( ! common features signifi$ by g5]al names is vague & hazy4 ,! bus9ess ( ,logic is to make !m cle>4 ,x is to ?is end t ! individual objects ( ! class are summon$ be=e ! m9d4 ,9 ord9>y ?9k+ !re is no def9ite array or mu/] ( objects3 :5 we ?9k ( dog or cat1 accid5t1 book1 begg>1 ratepay]1 we d n /op to call be=e ! m9d a ho/ ( repres5tatives ( ! class1 nor d we take precise acc\nt ( _! common attributes4 ,! concept ( h\se is :at all h\ses h 9 common4 ,to make ?is explicit w\ld be no easy matt]1 & yet we are con/antly ref]r+ objects to ! class h\se4 ,we %all see pres5tly t if we wi% to make ! connotation or concept cle> we mu/ run ov] ! d5otation or class1 t is to say1 ! objects to :i* ! g5]al "n is appli$ 9 common usage4 ,try1 = example1 to conceive cle>ly :at is meant by h\se1 tree1 dog1 walk+-/ick4 ,y ?9k ( individual objects1 s-call$1 & ( :at !y h 9 common4 ,a class may be con/itut$ on "o prop]ty or on _m4 ,!re are sev]al po9ts common to all h\ses1 enclos+ walls1 a ro(1 a means ( exit & entrance4 ,= ! full concept ( ! natural k9ds1 m51 dogs1 mice1 etc41 we %\ld h to g to ! natural hi/orian4 ,,degrees ,,( ,,g5]ality4 ,"o class is said to be ( high] g5]ality ?an ano!r :5 x includes t o!r & m4 ,?us animal includes man1 dog1 horse1 etc42 man includes ,aryan1 ,semite1 etc42 ,aryan includes ,h9doo1 ,teuton1 ,celt1 etc4 ,! te*nical names = high] & l[] classes are ,,g5us & ,,species4 ,^! t]ms are n fix$ z 9 ,natural ,hi/ory to c]ta9 grades1 b are purely relative "o to ano!r1 & movable up & d[n a scale ( g5]ality4 ,a class may be a species relatively to "o class1 :i* is above x1 & a g5us relatively to "o bel[ x4 ,?us ,aryan is a species ( ! g5us man1 ,teuton a species ( ! g5us ,aryan4 ,9 ! grad$ divisions ( ,natural ,hi/ory g5us & species are fix$ names = c]ta9 grades4 ,?us3 ,v]tebrates =m a division2 ! next subdivision1 e4g41 ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,reptiles1 etc41 is call$ a class2 ! next1 e4g41 ,rod5ts1 ,c>nivora1 ,rum9ants1 an ord]2 ! next1 e4g41 ,rats1 ,squirrels1 ,beav]s1 a g5us2 ! next1 e4g41 ,br[n rats1 ,mice1 a species4 ,v]tebrates 7division74 ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,reptiles1 etc4 7class74 ,rod5ts1 ,rum9ants1 ,c>nivors1 etc4 7ord]74 ,rats1 ,squirrels1 ,beav]s1 etc4 7g5us74 ,br[n rats1 ,mice1 etc4 7species74 ,if we subdivide a l>ge class into small] classes1 &1 aga91 subdivide ^! subdivisions1 we come at la/ to s+le objects4 ,m5 ------------ ,europeans1 ,asiatics1 etc4 ------------- ,engli%m51 ,fr5*m51 etc4 --------------------- ,john ,doe1 ,ri*>d ,roe1 etc4 ,a table ( high] & l[] classes arrang$ 9 ord] has be5 kn[n f ( old z a tree ( division or classification4 ,! foll[+ is ,porphyry's tree3-- ,be+ _/ ,corporeal ,incorporeal _/ 7,body7 _/ ,animate ,inanimate _/ 7,liv+ ,be+7 _/ ,s5sible ,ins5sible _/ 7,animal7 _/ ,rational ,irrational _/ 7,man7 --------------------------------------- ,socrates1 ,plato1 & o!r individuals4 ,! s+le objects are call$ ,,individuals1 because ! division _c be c>ri$ f>!r4 ,! highe/ class is te*nically ! ,,summum ,,g5us1 or ,g5us g5]alissimum2 ! next highe/ class to any species is ! ,,proximum ,,g5us2 ! l[e/ gr\p be=e y desc5d to individuals is ! ,,infima ,,species1 or ,species specialissima4 ,! attribute or attributes :]eby a species is di/+ui%$ f o!r species ( ! same g5us1 is call$ its ,,diff]5tia or ,,diff]5tiae4 ,! v>i\s species ( h\ses are diff]5tiat$ by _! sev]al uses1 dwell+-h\se1 t[n-h\se1 w>e-h\se1 public-h\se4 ,poetry is a species ( ,f9e ,art1 its diff]5tia be+ ! use ( metrical language z its in/rum5t4 ,a l[] class1 indicat$ by ! "n ( its high] class qualifi$ by adjectives or adjective phrases express+ its diff]5tial prop]ty or prop]ties1 is said to be describ$ ,,p] ,,g5us ,,et ,,diff]5tiam4 ,examples3 ,black-bird1 note-book1 clev] man1 man ( ,k5t1 em95t ,briti% pa9t] ( m>9e subjects4 ,by giv+ a comb9ation ( attributes common to him ) nobody else1 we may n>r[ d[n ! application ( a "n to an individual3 ,! ,comm&]-9-,*ief ( ! ,briti% =ces at ! battle ( ,wat]loo4 ,o!r attributes ( classes z divid$ & def9$1 h receiv$ te*nical names4 ,an attribute common to all ! individuals ( a class1 f\nd 9 t class only1 & foll[+ f ! ess5tial or def9+ attributes1 ?\gh n includ$ among !m1 is call$ a ,,proprium4 ,an attribute t belongs to "s1 b n to all1 or t belongs to all1 b is n a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! ess5tial attributes1 is call$ an ,,accid5t4 ,! cle>e/ examples ( ,propria are f\nd 9 ma!matical figures4 ,?us1 ! def9+ prop]ty ( an equilat]al triangle is ! equality ( ! sides3 ! equality ( ! angles is a proprium4 ,t ! ?ree angles ( a triangle are toge!r equal to two "r angles is a proprium1 true ( all triangles1 & d$ucible f ! ess5tial prop]ties ( a triangle4 ,outside ,ma!matics1 x is n easy to f9d propria t satisfy ! ?ree conditions ( ! def9ition4 ,x is a useful ex]cise ( ! wits to try = su*4 ,educability--an example ( ! proprium 9 m$iaeval text-books--is common to m51 & results f man's ess5tial con/itution2 b x is n peculi>2 o!r animals are educable4 ,t man cooks 8 food is probably a g5u9e proprium4 ,t horses run wild 9 ,?ibet3 t gold is f\nd 9 ,cali=nia3 t cl]gym5 we> :ite ties1 are examples ( ,accid5ts4 ,le>n+ is an accid5t 9 man1 ?\gh educability is a proprium4 ,:at is kn[n te*nically z an ,,insep>able ,,accid5t1 su* z ! black col\r ( ! cr[ or ! ,e?iopian1 is n easy to di/+ui% f ! ,proprium4 ,x is di/+ui%$ only by ! ?ird "*1 d$ucibility f ! ess5ce4#b ,accid5ts t are bo? common & peculi> are (t5 useful = di/+ui%+ memb]s ( a class4 ,di/9ctive dresses or badges1 su* z ! g[n ( a /ud5t1 ! hood ( a ,d4,d41 are accid5ts1 b m>k ! class ( ! individual we>]4 ,s ) ! col\rs ( fl[]s4 ,g5us1 ,species1 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5s h be5 kn[n s9ce ! "t ( ,porphyry z ! ,,five ,,pr$icables4 ,!y are really only t]ms us$ 9 divid+ & def9+4 ,we %all return to !m & endeav\r to %[ t !y h no significance except ) ref]5ce to fix$ s*emes1 sci5tific or popul>1 ( ,division or ,classification4 ,giv5 su* a fix$ s*eme1 v nice que/ions may be rais$ z to :e!r a p>ticul> attribute is a def9+ attribute1 or a proprium1 or an accid5t1 or an insep>able accid5t4 ,su* que/ions af=d great scope = ! ex]cise ( ! analytic intellect4 ,we %all deal m p>ticul>ly ) degrees ( g5]ality :5 we come to ,def9ition4 ,?is mu* has be5 necess>y to expla9 an unimportant b mu* discuss$ po9t 9 ,logic1 :at is kn[n z ! inv]se v>iation ( ,connotation & ,d5otation4 ,connotation & ,d5otation are (t5 said to v>y inv]sely 9 quantity4 ,! l>g] ! connotation ! small] ! d5otation1 & vice v]sa4 ,) c]ta9 qualifications ! /atem5t is correct en\gh1 b x is a r\gh comp5di\s way ( express+ ! facts & x ne$s qualification4 ,! ma9 fact to be express$ is t ! m g5]al a "n is1 ! ?9n] is its mean+4 ,! wid] ! scope1 ! %all[] ! gr\nd4 ,z y rise 9 ! scale ( g5]ality1 y\r classes are wid] b ! numb] ( common attributes is less4 ,inv]sely1 ! "n ( a species has a small] d5otation ?an ! "n ( its g5us1 b a ri*] connotation4 ,fruit-tree applies to few] objects ?an tree1 b ! objects d5ot$ h m 9 common3 s ) apple & fruit-tree1 ,rib/on ,pipp9 & apple4 ,aga91 z a rule1 if y increase ! connotation y contract ! area )9 :i* ! "n is applicable4 ,take any gr\p ( ?+s hav+ c]ta9 attributes 9 common1 say1 m5 ( ability3 add c\rage1 beauty1 height ( six feet1 *e/ measurem5t ( #dj in*es1 & ) ea* addition few] individuals are to be f\nd possess+ all ! common attributes4 ,?is is obvi\s en\gh1 & yet ! expression inv]se v>iation is op5 to objection4 ,= ! d5otation may be increas$ 9 a s5se )\t affect+ ! connotation4 ,! bir? ( an animal may be said to increase ! d5otation3 e ye> ?\s&s ( new h\ses are built3 !re are sw>ms ( flies 9 a hot summ] & few 9 a cold4 ,b all ! "t ! connotation ( animal1 h\se1 or fly rema9s ! same3 ! ^w does n *ange its mean+4 ,x is obvi\sly wrong to say t !y v>y 9 inv]se proportion4 ,d\ble or treble ! numb] ( attributes1 & y d n necess>ily r$uce ! d5otation by "o-half or "o-?ird4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 ! mean+ or connotation t is ! ma9 ?+4 ,?is det]m9es ! application ( a ^w4 ,z a rule if y increase mean+1 y re/rict scope4 ,let y\r idea1 notion1 or concept ( culture be a k ( ,ma!matics1 ,lat9 & ,greek3 y\r m5 ( culture w be m num]\s ?an if y require f ea* ( !m ^! qualifications plus a mod]n language1 an acqua9tance ) ! ,f9e ,arts1 urbanity ( mann]s1 etc4 ,x is j possible to increase ! connotation )\t decreas+ ! d5otation1 to ?ick5 or deep5 ! concept )\t dim9i%+ ! class4 ,?is is possible only :5 two prop]ties are exactly co-ext5sive1 z equilat]ality & equiangul>ity 9 triangles4 ,,s+ul> & ,,prop] ,,names4 ,a ,prop] or ,s+ul> "n is a "n us$ to designate an individual4 ,its function1 z di/+ui%$ f t ( ! g5]al "n1 is to be us$ purely = ! purpose ( di/9ctive ref]5ce4 ,a man is n call$ ,tom or ,dick because he is l 9 c]ta9 respects to o!r ,toms or o!r ,dicks4 ,! ,toms or ! ,dicks d n =m a logical class4 ,! names are giv5 purely = purposes ( di/9ction1 to s+le out an individual subject4 ,! ,arabic equival5t = a ,prop] "n1 alam1 a m>k1 a sign-po/1 is a recognition ( ?is4 ,9 ! expressions a ,napoleon1 a ,hotspur1 a ,h>ry1 ! names are n s+ul> names logically1 b g5]al names logically1 us$ to signify ! possession ( c]ta9 attributes4 ,a man may be nicknam$ on a gr\nd1 b if ! "n /icks & is (t5 us$1 ! orig9al mean+ is =gott54 ,if x sugge/s ! individual 9 any "o ( 8 qualities1 any po9t 9 :i* he resembles o!r individuals1 x is no long] a ,prop] or ,s+ul> "n logically1 t is1 9 logical function4 ,t function is fulfill$ :5 x has call$ to m9d ! individual int5d$4 ,to ask1 z is sometimes done1 :e!r ,prop] names are connotative or d5otative1 is m]ely a confusion ( language4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 connotation & d5otation1 ext5sion & int5sion1 applies only to g5]al names4 ,unless a "n is g5]al1 x has nei!r ext5sion nor int5sion3#c a ,prop] or ,s+ul> "n is ess5tially ! opposite ( a g5]al "n & has nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,a nice di/9ction may be drawn betwe5 ,prop] & ,s+ul> names1 ?\gh !y are /rict synonyms = ! same logical function4 ,x is n ess5tial to ! dis*>ge ( t function t ! "n %\ld be /rictly appropriat$ to "o object4 ,!re are _m ,toms & _m ,dicks4 ,x is en\gh t ! ^w indicates ! individual )\t confusion 9 ! p>ticul> circum/ances4 ,?is function may be dis*>g$ by words & comb9ations ( words t are n ,prop] 9 ! grammatical s5se4 ,?is man1 ! cov] ( ?is book1 ! ,prime ,m9i/] ( ,engl&1 ! se] ( ,*elsea1 may be ,s+ul> names z mu* z ,honolulu or ,"l ,t5nyson4 ,9 common spee* ,s+ul> names are (t5 manufactur$ ad hoc by tak+ a g5]al "n & n>r[+ x d[n by successive qualifications till x applies only to "o individual1 z ,! lead+ subject ( ! ,sov]eign ( ,engl& at ! pres5t "t4 ,if x s happ5s t an individual has "s attribute or comb9ation peculi> to himself1 he may be sugge/$ by ! m5tion ( t attribute or comb9ation3--! inv5tor ( ! /eam-eng9e1 ! au?or ( ,hudibras4 ,h su* names a connotation8 ,! /ud5t may ex]cise 8 wits on ! "q4 ,x is a nice "o1 an excell5t subject ( debate4 ,briefly1 if we keep rigid hold ( ! mean+ ( connotation1 ?is ,s+ul> "n has none4 ,! comb9ation is a s+ul> "n only :5 x is ! subject ( a pr$ication or an attribution1 z 9 ! s5t5ces1 ,! position ( ! lead+ subject ( etc41 is a difficult "o1 or ,! lead+ subject ( etc41 we>s an eyeglass4 ,9 su* a s5t5ce z ,s-&-s is ! lead+ subject ( etc41 ! comb9$ "n has a connotation1 b !n x is a g5]al & n a s+ul> "n4 ,,collective ,,names1 z di/+ui%$ f ,g5]al ,names4 ,a collective "n is a "n = a numb] ( simil> units tak5 z a :ole--a "n = a totality ( simil> units1 z army1 regim5t1 mob1 mank9d1 patrimony1 p]sonal e/ate4 ,a gr\p or collection designat$ by a collective "n is s f> l a class t ! individual objects h some?+ 9 common3 !y are n het]og5e\s b homog5e\s4 ,a mob is a collection ( human be+s2 a regim5t ( soldi]s2 a libr>y ( books4 ,! di/9ction lies 9 ?is1 t :atev] is said ( a collective "n is said ab\t ! collection z a :ole1 & does n apply to ea* individual2 :atev] is said ( a g5]al "n applies to ea* individual4 ,fur!r1 ! collective "n c be pr$icat$ only ( ! :ole gr\p1 z a :ole2 ! g5]al "n is pr$icable ( ea*1 di/ributively4 ,mank9d has be5 9 exi/5ce = ?\s&s ( ye>s2 ,! mob pass$ ?r\gh ! /reets4 ,9 su* expressions z ,an hone/ man's ! noble/ "w ( ,god1 ! subject is functionally a collective "n4 ,a collective "n may be us$ z a g5]al "n :5 x is ext5d$ on ! gr\nd ( :at is common to all su* totalities z x designates4 ,an excit$ mob is dang]\s2 ,an army )\t discipl9e is useless4 ,! collective "n is !n connotative ( ! common *>act]s ( ! collection4 ,,mat]ial ,,or ,,sub/antial ,,names4 ,! "q has be5 rais$ :e!r names ( mat]ial1 gold1 wat]1 sn[1 coal1 are g5]al or collective s+ul>4 ,9 ! case ( pieces or bits ( a mat]ial1 x is true t any pr$icate made conc]n+ ! mat]ial1 su* z ,sug> is sweet1 or ,wat] qu5*es ?ir/1 applies to any & e portion4 ,b ! sep>ate portions are n individuals 9 ! :ole signifi$ by a mat]ial "n z individuals are 9 a class4 ,fur!r1 ! "n ( mat]ial _c be pr$icat$ ( a portion z a class "n c be ( an individual4 ,we _c say1 ,?is is a sug>4 ,:5 we say1 ,?is is a piece ( sug>1 sug> is a collective "n = ! :ole mat]ial4 ,!re are probably words on ! bord]l& betwe5 g5]al names & collective names4 ,9 su* expressions z ,?is is a coal1 ,! bonnie wat] o' ,urie1 ! mat]ial "n is us$ z a g5]al "n4 ,! real di/9ction is betwe5 ! di/ributive use & ! collective use ( a "n2 z a matt] ( grammatical usage1 ! same ^w may be us$ ei!r way1 b logically 9 any actual proposition x mu/ be ei!r "o or ! o!r4 ,,ab/ract ,,names are names = ! common attributes or concepts on :i* classes are con/itut$4 ,a concrete "n is a "n directly applicable to an individual 9 all 8 attributes1 t is1 z he exi/s 9 ! concrete4 ,x may be writt5 on a ticket & p9n$ to him4 ,:5 we h occasion to speak ( ! po9t or po9ts 9 :i* a numb] ( individuals resemble "o ano!r1 we use :at is call$ an ab/ract "n4 ,g5]\s man1 clev] man1 timid man1 are concrete names2 g5]osity1 clev]ness1 timidity1 are ab/ract names4 ,x is disput$ :e!r ab/ract names are connotative4 ,! "q is a confus$ "o3 x is l ask+ :e!r ! "n ( a t[n is municipal4 ,an ab/ract "n is ! "n ( a connotation z a sep>ate object ( ?\ght or ref]5ce1 conceiv$ or spok5 ( 9 ab/raction f individual accid5ts4 ,/rictly speak+ x is notative r ?an connotative3 x _c be said to h a connotation because x is itself ! symbol ( :at is call$ ! connotation ( a g5]al "n4#d ,! di/9ction betwe5 ab/ract names & concrete names is virtually a grammatical di/9ction1 t is1 a di/9ction 9 mode ( pr$ication4 ,we may use concrete names or ab/ract names at our pleasure to express ! same mean+4 ,to say t ,john is a timid man is ! same ?+ z say+ t ,timidity is "o ( ! prop]ties or *>act]i/ics or attributes ( ,john4 ,pride & cruelty g5]ally g toge!r2 ,pr\d m5 are g5]ally cruel m54 ,g5]al names are pr$icable ( individuals because !y possess c]ta9 attributes3 to pr$icate ! possession ( ^? attributes is ! same ?+ z to pr$icate ! g5]al "n4 ,ab/ract =ms ( pr$ication are employ$ 9 common spee* q z frequ5tly z concrete1 & are1 z we %all see1 a great s\rce ( ambiguity & confusion4 ,footnote #a3 ,x has be5 some:at too ha/ily assum$ on ! au?ority ( ,mansel 7,note to ,aldri*1 pp4 #af1 #ag7 t ,mill inv]t$ ! s*ola/ic tradition 9 8 use ( ! ^w ,connotative4 ,mansel puts 8 /atem5t d\btfully1 & admits t !re 0 "s lic5ce 9 ! use ( ! ^w ,connotative1 b holds t 9 ,s*ola/ic ,logic an adjective 0 said to signify prim>ily ! attribute1 & to connote or signify second>ily 7,greek3 prossema9e97 ! subject ( inhesion4 ,! tru? is t ,mansel's view 0 a !ory ( usage n a /atem5t ( actual usage1 & he _h good reason = putt+ x d\btfully4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! hi/ory ( ! di/9ction foll[s ! simple type ( increas+ precision & complexity1 & ,mill 0 9 /rict accord ) /&>d tradition4 ,by ! ,nom9ali/ comm5tators on ! ,summulae ( ,petrus ,hispanus c]ta9 names1 adjectives grammatically1 are call$ ,connotativa z oppos$ to ,absoluta1 simply because !y h a d\ble function4 ,:ite is connotative z signify+ bo? a subject1 su* z ,socrates1 ( :om :it5ess is an attribute1 & an attribute :it5ess3 ! names ,socrates & :it5ess are ,absolute1 z hav+ b a s+le signification4 ,occam himself speaks ( ! subject z ! prim>y signification1 & ! attribute z ! second>y1 because ! answ] to ,:at is :ite8 is ,some?+ in=m$ ) :it5ess1 & ! subject is 9 ! nom9ative case :ile ! attribute is 9 an oblique case 7,logic1 "p ,i4 *ap4 x474 ,lat] on we f9d t ,tat>etus 7,expositio 9 ,summulas1 ,a4,d4 #aeja71 :ile m5tion+ 7,tract4 ,sept4 ,de ,appellationibus7 t x is a matt] ( dispute among ,doctores :e!r a connotative "n connotat ! subject or ! attribute1 is p]fectly explicit 9 8 own def9ition1 ,t]m9us connotativus e/ qui praet] illud pro quo supponit connotat aliquid adjac]e vel non adjac]e rei pro qua supponit 7,tract4 ,sept4 ,de ,suppositionibus74 ,& ?is rema9$ ! /&>d usage z long z ! di/9ction rema9$ 9 logical text-books4 ,we f9d x v cle>ly express$ by ,cli*toveus1 a ,nom9ali/1 quot$ z an au?ority by ,gu?utius 9 8 ,gymnasium ,speculativum1 ,p>is1 #afjg 7,de ,t]m9orum ,cognitione1 pp4 #gh-i74 ,t]m9us absolutus e/1 qui solum illud pro quo 9 propositione supponit1 significat4 ,connotativus autem1 qui ultra idipsum1 aliud importat4 ,?us man & animal are absolute t]ms1 :i* simply /& = 7supponunt pro7 ! ?+s !y signify4 ,:ite is a connotative "n1 because x /&s = 7supponit pro7 a subject 9 :i* x is an accid5t3 & beyond ?is1 /ill signifies an accid5t1 :i* is 9 t subject1 & is express$ by an ab/ract "n4 ,only ,cli*toveus drops ! v]b connotat1 p]haps z a disputable t]m1 & says simply ultra importat4 ,s 9 ! ,port ,royal ,logic 7#affb71 f :i* possibly ,mill took ! di/9ction3 ,les noms qui signifi5t les *oses comme modifiees1 m>quant premi]em5t et directem5t la *ose1 quoique plus confusem5t1 et indirectem5t le mode1 quoique plus di/9ctem5t1 sont appeles adjectifs ou connotatifs2 comme rond1 dur1 ju/e1 prud5t 7"p i4 *ap ii474 ,:at ,mill did 0 n to inv]t ,s*ola/ic usage b to revive ! di/9ction1 & ext5d ! ^w connotative to g5]al names on ! gr\nd t !y also import$ ! possession ( attributes4 ,! ^w has be5 z fruitful ( meticul\s discussion z x 0 9 ! ,r5aissance ( ,logic1 ?\gh ! gr\nd has *ang$4 ,! po9t ( ,mill's innovation 01 premis+ t g5]al names are n absolute b are appli$ 9 virtue ( a mean+1 to put emphasis on ?is mean+ z ! c>d9al consid]ation4 ,:at he call$ ! connotation _h dropp$ out ( sight z n be+ requir$ 9 ! ,syllogi/ic ,=ms4 ,?is 0 z x 7 ! po9t at :i* he put 9 8 horn to toss ! preval5t conception ( ,logic z ,syllogi/ic4 ,! real drift ( ,mill's innovation has be5 obscur$ by ! fact t x 0 introduc$ among ! prelim9>ies ( ,syllogism1 :]eas its real usefulness & significance belongs n to ,syllogism 9 ! /rict s5se b to ,def9ition4 ,he add$ to ! confusion by try+ to devise =ms ( ,syllogism bas$ on connotation1 & by discuss+ ! ,axiom ( ! ,syllogism f ?is po9t ( view4 ,= syllogi/ic purposes1 z we %all see1 ,ari/otle's =ms are p]fect1 & 8 conception ( ! proposition 9 ext5sion ! only correct conception4 ,:e!r ! c5tre ( gravity 9 ,consi/5cy ,logic %\ld n be %ift$ back f ,syllogism to ,def9ition1 ! latt] be+ ! true c5tre ( consi/5cy1 is ano!r "q4 ,! t5d5cy ( ,mill's polemic 0 to make ?is *ange4 ,& possibly ! secret ( ! support x has rec5tly receiv$ f ,mr4 ,bradley & ,mr4 ,bosanquet is t !y1 foll[+ ,hegel1 are mov+ 9 ! same direction4 ,9 effect1 ,mill's doctr9e ( ,connotation help$ to fix a conception ( ! g5]al "n fir/ dimly sugge/$ by ,ari/otle :5 he recognis$ t names ( g5]a & species signify ,quality1 9 %[+ :at sort a ?+ is4 ,occam c>ri$ ?is a /ep f>!r t[>ds cle> light by includ+ among ,connotative ,t]ms su* g5]al names z monk1 "n ( classes t at once sugge/ a def9ite attribute4 ,! ?ird /ep 0 made by ,mill 9 ext5d+ ! t]m ,connotation to su* words z man1 horse1 ! ,infimae ,species ( ! ,s*oolm51 ! ,species ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,:e!r connotation 0 ! be/ t]m to use = ?is purpose1 r ?an ext5sion1 may be que/ion$3 b at lea/ x 0 9 ! l9e ( tradition ?r\gh ,occam4 ,footnote #b3 ,! hi/ory ( ! def9ition ( ! ,proprium is an example ( ! t5d5cy ( di/9ctions to become m m9ute & at ! same "t m purposeless4 ,ari/otle's ,greek3 idion 0 an attribute1 su* z ! laugh ( ! man or ! b>k ( ! dog1 common to all ( a class & peculi> to ! class 7quod conv5it omni soli et semp]7 yet n compris$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! class4 ,porphyry recognis$ ?ree v>ieties ( ,greek3 idia besides ?is1 f\r 9 all1 z foll[s3--7#a7 an attribute peculi> to a species b n possess$ by all1 z k ( m$ic9e or geometry2 7#b7 possess$ by a :ole species b n peculi> to x1 z be+ a bip$ 9 man2 7#c7 peculi> to a species1 & possess$ by all at a c]ta9 "t1 z turn+ grey 9 old age2 7#d7 ,ari/otle's proprium1 peculi> & possess$ by all1 z risibility4 ,! idea ( ! ,proprium z d$ucible f or consequ5t on ! ess5ce w\ld seem to h orig9at$ 9 ! desire to f9d some?+ common to all ,poryphyry's f\r v>ieties4 ,footnote #c3 ,x is a plausible cont5tion t 9 ! case ( ! ,s+ul> "n ! ext5sion is at a m9imum & ! int5sion at a maximum1 ! ext5sion be+ "o individual1 & ! int5sion ! totality ( 8 attributes4 ,b ?is is an inexact & confus$ use ( words4 ,a "n does n ext5d beyond ! individual except :5 x is us$ to signify "o or m ( 8 prom95t qualities1 t is1 is us$ ) ! function ( a g5]al "n4 ,! ext5sion ( a ,s+ul> "n is z]o3 x has no ext5sion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x sugge/s1 9 its function z a ,s+ul> "n1 no prop]ties or qualities2 x sugge/s only a subject2 i4e41 x has no int5sion4 ,! ambiguity ( ! t]m ,d5otation helps ! confusion 9 ! case ( ,s+ul> names4 ,d5ote 9 common spee* means to indicate1 to di/+ui%4 ,b :5 9 ,logic we say t a g5]al "n d5otes individuals1 we h no ?\ght ( indicat+ or di/+ui%+3 we mean only t x is applicable to any "o1 )\t respect ( individuals1 ei!r 9 pr$ication or epi!tic description4 ,footnote #d3 ,/rictly speak+1 z ,i h tri$ to indicate all along1 ! words ,connotation & ,d5otation1 or ,ext5sion & ,int5sion1 apply only to g5]al names4 ,outside g5]al names1 !y h no significance4 ,an adjective ) its n\n is a g5]al "n1 ( :i* ! adjective gives "p ( ! ,connotation4 ,if we apply ! ^w connotation to signify m]ely ! sugge/ion ( an attribute 9 :atev] grammatical connexion1 !n an ab/ract "n is und\bt$ly z mu* connotative z an adjective4 ,! ^w ,sweetness has ! same mean+ z ,sweet3 x indicates or signifies1 conveys to ! m9d ( ! read] ! same attribute3 ! only diff]5ce is t x does n at ! same "t indicate a subject 9 :i* ! attribute is f\nd1 z sweet apple4 ,! mean+ is n connot$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,syllogi/ic ,,analysis ,,( ,,propositions ,,into ,,t]ms4 ,i4--,,! ,,b>e ,,analytic ,,=ms4 ,! ^w t]m is loosely us$ z a m]e synonym = a "n3 /rictly speak+1 a t]m 7,greek3 horos1 a b\nd>y7 is "o ( ! p>ts ( a proposition z analys$ into ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,9 ,logic1 a t]m is a te*nical ^w 9 an analysis made = a special purpose1 t purpose be+ to te/ ! mutual consi/5cy ( propositions4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! propositions ( common spee* may be view$ z consi/+ ( two ,,t]ms1 a l9kword call$ ! copula 7positive or negative7 express+ a relation betwe5 !m1 & c]ta9 symbols ( quantity us$ to express t relation m precisely4 ,let u indicate ! ,subject t]m by ,s1 & ! ,pr$icate t]m by ,p4 ,all propositions may be analys$ into "o or o!r ( f\r =ms3-- ,all ,s is ,p1 ,no ,s is ,p1 ,"s ,s is ,p1 ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,all ,s is ,p is call$ ! ,,univ]sal ,,affirmative1 & is indicat$ by ! symbol ,a 7! fir/ v[el ( ,affirmo74 ,no ,s is ,p is call$ ! ,,univ]sal ,,negative1 symbol ,e 7! fir/ v[el ( ,nego74 ,"s ,s is ,p is call$ ! ,,p>ticul> ,,affirmative1 symbol ,i 7! second v[el ( aff,irmo74 ,"s ,s is n ,p is call$ ! ,,p>ticul> ,,negative1 symbol ,o 7! second v[el ( neg,o74 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul> is call$ a di/9ction 9 ,,quantity2 betwe5 ,affirmative & ,negative1 a di/9ction 9 ,,quality4 ,a & ,e1 ,i & ,o1 are ( ! same quantity1 b ( diff]5t quality3 ,a & ,i1 ,e & ,o1 same 9 quality1 diff]5t 9 quantity4 ,9 ?is symbolism1 no provision is made = express+ degrees ( p>ticul> quantity4 ,"s /&s = any numb] %ort ( all3 x may be "o1 few1 mo/1 or all b "o4 ,! debates 9 :i* ,ari/otle's pupils 7 int]e/$ turn$ ma9ly on ! pro( or dispro( ( g5]al propositions2 if only a proposition c\ld be %[n to be n univ]sal1 x did n matt] h[ f> or h[ little %ort x came4 ,9 ! ,logic ( ,probability1 ! degree becomes ( importance4 ,di/+ui%1 9 ?is ,analysis1 to avoid subsequ5t confusion1 betwe5 ! ,subject & ! ,subject ,t]m1 ! ,pr$icate & ! ,pr$icate ,t]m4 ,! ,subject is ! ,subject ,t]m quantifi$3 9 ,a & ,e1#a ,all ,s2 9 ,i & ,o1 ,"s ,s4 ,! ,pr$icate is ! ,pr$icate ,t]m ) ! ,copula1 positive or negative3 9 ,a & ,i1 is ,p2 9 ,e & ,o1 is n ,p4 ,x is important also1 9 ! int]e/ ( exactness1 to note t ,s & ,p1 ) "o exception1 repres5t g5]al names4 ,!y are symbols = classes4 ,p is s always3 ,s also except :5 ! ,subject is an individual object4 ,9 ! ma*9]y ( ! ,syllogism1 pr$ications ab\t a ,s+ul> t]m are treat$ z ,univ]sal ,affirmatives4 ,socrates is a wise man is ( ! =m ,all ,s is ,p4 ,s & ,p be+ g5]al names1 ! signification ( ! symbol is is n ! same z ! is ( common spee*1 :e!r ! sub/antive v]b or ! v]b ( incomplete pr$ication4 ,9 ! syllogi/ic =m1 is means is conta9$ 91 is n1 is n conta9$ 94 ,! relations betwe5 ! t]ms 9 ! f\r =ms are repres5t$ by simple diagrams kn[n z ,eul]'s circles4 ,illu/ration3 #a conc5tric circles ( ,p & ,s - ,s 9 c5tre ,a #b ,s & ,p 9 ! same circle ,a #c ,s & ,p ea* 9 a circle1 ov]lapp+ circle4 ,i ,o #d ,s 9 "o circle & ,p 9 ano!r circle4 ,e #e conc5tric circles ( ,s & ,p - ,p 9 c5tre ,i8 ,diagram #e is a purely artificial =m1 hav+ no repres5tative 9 common spee*4 ,9 ! affirmations ( common spee*1 ,p is always a t]m ( great] ext5t ?an ,s4 ,no4 #b repres5ts ! special case :]e ,s & ,p are coext5sive1 z 9 ,all equiangul> triangles are equilat]al4 ,s & ,p be+ g5]al names1 !y are said to be ,,di/ribut$ :5 ! proposition applies to !m 9 _! :ole ext5t1 t is1 :5 ! ass]tion cov]s e individual 9 ! class4 ,9 ,e1 ! ,univ]sal ,negative1 bo? t]ms are di/ribut$3 ,no ,s is ,p :olly excludes ! two classes "o f ! o!r1 imports t n "o individual ( ei!r is 9 ! o!r4 ,9 ,a1 ,s is di/ribut$1 b n ,p4 ,s is :olly 9 ,p1 b no?+ is said ab\t ! ext5t ( ,p beyond ,s4 ,9 ,o1 ,s is undi/ribut$1 ,p is di/ribut$4 ,a "p ( ,s is decl>$ to be :olly exclud$ f ,p4 ,9 ,i1 nei!r ,s nor ,p is di/ribut$4 ,x w be se5 t ! ,pr$icate t]m ( a ,negative proposition is always di/ribut$1 ( an ,affirmative1 always undi/ribut$4 ,a little indi/9ctness 9 ! signification ( ,p crept into m$iaeval text-books1 & has t5d$ to confuse mod]n disputation ab\t ! import ( ,pr$ication4 ,unless ,p is a class "n1 ! ord9>y doctr9e ( di/ribution is nons5se2 & ,eul]'s diagrams are mean+less4 ,yet _m writ]s :o adopt bo? foll[ m$iaeval usage 9 treat+ ,p z ! equival5t ( an adjective1 & consequ5tly is z id5tical ) ! v]b ( incomplete pr$ication 9 common spee*4 ,x %\ld be recognis$ t ^! syllogi/ic =ms are purely artificial1 inv5t$ = a purpose1 namely1 ! simplification ( syllogis+4 ,ari/otle indicat$ ! precise usage on :i* 8 syllogism is bas$ 7,prior ,analytics1 i4 #a & #d74 ,8 =m#b = ,all ,s is ,p1 is ,s is :olly 9 ,p2 = ,no ,s is ,p1 ,s is :olly n 9 ,p4 ,8 copula is n is1 b is 91 & x is a pity t ?is usage 0 n kept4 ,all ,s is 9 ,p w\ld h sav$ mu* confusion4 ,b1 d\btless = ! sake ( simplicity1 ! besett+ s9 ( tutorial h&books1 ,all ,s is ,p crept 9 in/ead1 illu/rat$ by su* examples z ,all m5 are mortal4 ,?us ! is ( ! syllogi/ic =m became confus$ ) ! is ( common spee*1 & ! syllogi/ic view ( pr$ication z be+ equival5t to inclusion 91 or exclusion f a class1 0 misund]/ood4 ,! true ,ari/otelian doctr9e is n t pr$ication consi/s 9 ref]r+ subjects to classes1 b only t = c]ta9 logical purposes x may be s reg>d$4 ,! syllogi/ic =ms are artificial =ms4 ,!y 7 n orig9ally int5d$ to repres5t ! actual processes ( ?\ght express$ 9 common spee*4 ,to argue t :5 ,i say ,all cr[s are black1 ,i d n =m a class ( black ?+s1 & contemplate cr[s )9 x z "o circle is )9 ano!r1 is to contradict no intellig5t logical doctr9e4 ,! root ( ! confusion lies 9 quot+ s5t5ces f common spee* z examples ( ! logical =ms1 =gett+ t ^? =ms are purely artificial4 ,omnis homo e/ mortalis1 ,all m5 are mortal1 is n an example =mally ( ,all ,s is ,p4 ,p is a symbol = a sub/antive ^w or comb9ation ( words1 & mortal is an adjective4 ,/rictly speak+1 !re is no =mal equival5t 9 common spee*1 t is1 9 ! =ms ( ord9>y use--no /rict grammatical =mal equival5t--= ! syllogi/ic propositional symbols4 ,we c make an equival5t1 b x is n a =m t m5 w\ld use 9 ord9>y int]c\rse4 ,all man is 9 mortal be+ w\ld be a /rict equival5t1 b x is n ,engli% gramm>4 ,in/ead ( disput+ confus$ly :e!r ,all ,s is ,p %\ld be int]pret$ 9 ext5sion or 9 compreh5sion1 x w\ld be bett] to recognise ! orig9al & traditional use ( ! symbols ,s & ,p z class names1 & employ o!r symbols = ! expression 9 compreh5sion or connotation4 ,?us1 let s & p /& = ! connotation4 ,!n ! equival5t = ,all ,s is ,p w\ld be ,all ,s has p1 or p always accompanies s1 or p belongs to all ,s4 ,x may be said t if pr$ication is treat$ 9 ?is way1 ,logic is simplifi$ to ! ext5t ( *ildi%ness4 ,& inde$1 ! manipulation ( ! b>e =ms ) ! help ( diagrams & mnemonics is a v humble ex]cise4 ,! real discipl9e ( ,syllogi/ic ,logic lies 9 ! r$uction ( common spee* to ^! =ms4 ,?is ex]cise is valuable because x promotes cle> ideas ab\t ! use ( g5]al names 9 pr$ication1 _! gr\nd 9 ?\ght & reality1 & ! liabilities to error t lurk 9 ?is fundam5tal in/rum5t ( spee*4 ,footnote #a3 ,= p]fect symmetry1 ! =m ( ,e %\ld be ,all ,s is n ,p4 ,no ,s is ,p is adopt$ = ,e to avoid conflict ) a =m ( common spee*1 9 :i* ,all ,s is n ,p conveys ! mean+ ( ! ,p>ticul> ,negative4 ,all advices are n safe does n mean t saf5ess is d5i$ ( all advices1 b t saf5ess _c be affirm$ ( all1 i4e41 ,n all advices are safe1 i4e41 "s are n4 ,footnote #b3 ,8 mo/ precise =m1 ,i %\ld say1 = 9 ,p is pr$icat$ ( e ,s he virtually foll[s common spee*4 ,,ii4--,,! ,,practice ,,( ,,syllogi/ic ,,analysis4 ,! basis ( ! analysis is ! use ( g5]al names 9 pr$ication4 ,to say t 9 pr$ication a subject is ref]r$ to a class1 is only ano!r way ( say+ t 9 e categorical s5t5ce ! pr$icate is a g5]al "n express or impli$3 t x is by means ( g5]al names t we convey our ?\ghts ab\t ?+s to o!rs4 ,milton is a great poet4 ,quo? ,hudibras1 ,i smell a rat4 ,great poet is a g5]al "n3 x means c]ta9 qualities1 & applies to anybody possess+ !m4 ,quo? implies a g5]al "n1 a "n = p]sons speak+1 connot+ or mean+ a c]ta9 act & applicable to anybody 9 ! p]=mance ( x4 ,quo? expresses also pa/ "t3 ?us x implies ano!r g5]al "n1 a "n = p]sons 9 pa/ "t1 connot+ a quality :i* diff]5tiates a species 9 ! g5us p]sons speak+1 & mak+ ! pr$icate t]m p]sons speak+ 9 pa/ "t4 ,?us ! proposition ,quo? ,hudibras1 analys$ into ! syllogi/ic =m ,s is 9 ,p1 becomes ,s 7,hudibras7 is 9 ,p 7p]sons speak+ 9 pa/ "t74 ,! ,pr$icate t]m ,p is a class con/itut$ on ^? prop]ties4 ,smell a rat also implies a g5]al "n1 mean+ an act or /ate pr$icable ( _m individuals4 ,ev5 if we add ! grammatical object ( ,quo? to ! analysis1 ! ,pr$icate t]m is /ill a g5]al "n4 ,hudibras is only "o ( ! p]sons speak+ 9 pa/ "t :o h spok5 ( !mselves z be+ 9 a c]ta9 mood ( suspicion4#a ,! le>n] may well ask :at is ! use ( twi/+ pla9 spee* into ^! unc\? =ms4 ,! use is c]ta9ly n obvi\s4 ,! analysis may be directly useful1 z ,ari/otle claim$ = x1 :5 we wi% to asc]ta9 exactly :e!r "o proposition contradicts ano!r1 or =ms ) ano!r or o!rs a valid l9k 9 an argum5t4 ,?is is to admit t x is only 9 p]plex+ cases t ! analysis is ( direct use4 ,! indirect use is to famili>ise u ) :at ! =ms ( common spee* imply1 & ?us /r5g!n ! intellect = int]pret+ ! cond5s$ & elliptical expression 9 :i* common spee* ab\nds4 ,!re are c]ta9 te*nical names appli$ to ! compon5ts ( _m-word$ g5]al names1 ,,categorematic & ,,syncategorematic1 ,,subject & ,,attributive4 ,! di/9ctions are really grammatical r ?an logical1 & ( little practical value4 ,a ^w t c /& by itself z a t]m is said to be ,categorematic4 ,man1 poet1 or any o!r common n\n4 ,a ^w t c only =m "p ( a t]m is ,syncategorematic4 ,"u ?is def9ition come all adjectives & adv]bs4 ,! /ud5t's +5uity may be ex]cis$ 9 apply+ ! di/9ction to ! v>i\s p>ts ( spee*4 ,a v]b may be said to be ,hyp]categorematic1 imply+1 z x does1 n only a t]m1 b also a copula4 ,a nice po9t is :e!r ! ,adjective is categorematic or syncategorematic4 ,! "q dep5ds on ! def9ition ( t]m 9 ,logic4 ,9 common spee* an adjective may /& by itself z a pr$icate1 & s might be said to be ,categorematic4 ,?is he>t is m]ry4 ,b if a t]m is a class1 or ! "n ( a class1 x is n ,categorematic 9 ! above def9ition4 ,x c only help to specify a class :5 atta*$ to ! "n ( a high] g5us4 ,mr4 ,f[l]'s words ,,subject & ,,attributive express practically ! same di/9ction1 except t ,attributive is ( n>r[] ext5t ?an syncategorematic4 ,an ,attributive is a ^w t connotes an attribute or prop]ty1 z hot1 valor\s1 & is always grammatically an adjective4 ,! ,,expression ,,( ,,quantity1 t is1 ( ,univ]sality or non-univ]sality1 is all-important 9 syllogi/ic =mulae4 ,9 !m univ]sality is express$ by ,all or ,none4 ,9 ord9>y spee* univ]sality is express$ 9 v>i\s =ms1 concrete & ab/ract1 pla9 & figurative1 )\t ! use ( all or none4 ,uneasy lies ! head t we>s a cr[n4 ,he c't be wrong ^: life is 9 ! "r4 ,:at cat's av]se to fi%8 ,c ! leop>d *ange 8 spots8 ,! longe/ road has an end4 ,suspicion ev] haunts ! guilty m9d4 ,irresolution is always a sign ( weakness4 ,treason nev] prosp]s4 ,a proposition 9 :i* ! quantity is n express$ is call$ by ,ari/otle ,,indef9ite 7,greek3 adiori/os74 ,= indef9ite#b ,hamilton sugge/s ,,pre9designate1 undesignat$1 t is1 be=e be+ receiv$ f common spee* = ! syllogi/ic mill4 ,a proposition is ,,pr$esignate :5 ! quantity is def9itely indicat$4 ,all ! above propositions are ,pr$esignate univ]sals1 & r$ucible to ! =m ,all ,s is ,p1 or ,no ,s is ,p4 ,! foll[+ propositions are no less def9itely p>ticul>1 r$ucible to ! =m ,i or ,o4 ,9 !m z 9 ! prec$+ quantity is =mally express$1 ?\gh ! =ms us$ are n ! artificial syllogi/ic =ms3-- ,afflictions are (t5 salut>y4 ,n e advice is a safe "o4 ,all t glitt]s is n gold4 ,riv]s g5]ally#c run into ! sea4 ,(t51 h[ev]1 x is really unc]ta9 f ! =m ( common spee* :e!r x is int5d$ to express a univ]sal or a p>ticul>4 ,! quantity is n =mally express$4 ,?is is especially ! case ) prov]bs & loose float+ say+s ( a g5]al t5d5cy4 ,= example3-- ,ha/e makes wa/e4 ,k is p[]4 ,light come1 light g4 ,left-h&$ m5 are awkw>d antagoni/s4 ,vet]an soldi]s are ! /eadie/ 9 fight4 ,su* say+s are 9 actual spee* = ! mo/ "p deliv]$ z univ]sals4#d ,x is a useful ex]cise ( ! ,socratic k9d to decide :e!r !y are really s4 ,?is c only be det]m9$ by a survey ( facts4 ,! be/ me?od ( conduct+ su* a survey is probably 7#a7 to pick out ! concrete subject1 ha/y actions1 m5 possess$ ( k1 ?+s lightly acquir$2 7#b7 to fix ! attribute or attributes pr$icat$2 7#c7 to run ov] ! individuals ( ! subject class & settle :e!r ! attribute is z a matt] ( fact meant to be pr$icat$ ( ea* & e "o4 ,?is is ! op]ation ( ,,induction4 ,if "o individual c be f\nd ( :om ! attribute is n meant to be pr$icat$1 ! proposition is n int5d$ z ,univ]sal4 ,m>k ! diff]5ce betwe5 settl+ :at is int5d$ & settl+ :at is true4 ,! conditions ( tru? & ! errors incid5t to ! attempt to det]m9e x1 are ! bus9ess ( ! ,logic ( ,rational ,belief1 commonly entitl$ ,inductive ,logic4 ,! k9d ( induction "h contemplat$ has = its aim m]ely to det]m9e ! quantity ( a proposition 9 common acceptation1 :i* c be done by consid]+ 9 :at cases ! proposition w\ld g5]ally be alleg$4 ,?is corresponds ne>ly z we %all see to ,ari/otelian ,induction1 ! acceptance ( a univ]sal /atem5t :5 no in/ance to ! contr>y is alleg$4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t = ?is op]ation we d n practically use ! syllogi/ic =m ,all ,s is ,p4 ,we d n raise ! "q ,is ,all ,s1 ,p8 ,t is1 we d n con/itute 9 ?\ght a class ,p3 ! class 9 our m9ds is ,s1 & :at we ask is :e!r an attribute pr$icat$ ( ?is class is truly pr$icat$ ( e individual ( x4 ,suppose we indicate by p ! attribute1 knot ( attributes1 or concept on :i* ! class ,p is con/itut$1 !n ,all ,s is ,p is equival5t to ,all ,s has p3 & ,has ,all ,s p8 is ! =m ( a "q t we h 9 our m9ds :5 we make an inductive survey on ! above me?od4 ,i po9t ?is out to emphasise ! fact t !re is no pr]ogative 9 ! =m ,all ,s is ,p except = syllogi/ic purposes4 ,?is inductive survey may be made a useful ,,collat]al ,,discipl9e4 ,! b>e =ms ( ,syllogi/ic are a useless item ( k unless !y are appli$ to concrete ?\ght4 ,& det]m9+ ! quantity ( a common aphorism or saw1 ! limits )9 :i* x is meant to hold good1 is a valuable discipl9e 9 exactness ( und]/&+4 ,9 try+ to p5etrate to ! inn] int5tion ( a loose g5]al maxim1 we discov] t :at x is really int5d$ to ass]t is a g5]al connexion ( attributes1 & a survey ( concrete cases leads to a m exact appreh5sion ( ^? attributes4 ,?us 9 consid]+ :e!r ,k is p[] is meant to be ass]t$ ( all k1 we enc\nt] along ) su* examples z ! sailor's k t wett+ a rope %ort5s x1 :i* enabl$ "s masons to raise a /one to its desir$ position1 or ! k ( ,fr5* roads possess$ by ! ,g]man invad]s1--along ) su* examples z ^! we enc\nt] cases :]e a k ( difficulties )\t a k ( ! means ( ov]com+ !m is p>alys+ to action4 ,samuel ,daniel says3-- ,:]e timid k /&s consid]+ ,audaci\s ignorance has done ! de$4 ,/udy+ num]\s cases :]e ,k is p[] is alleg$ or d5i$1 we f9d t :at is meant is t a k ( ! "r means ( do+ any?+ is p[]--9 %ort1 t ! pr$icate is n made ( all k1 b only ( a species ( k4 ,take1 aga91 ,cu/om blunts s5sibility4 ,putt+ ?is 9 ! concrete1 & inquir+ :at pr$icate is made ab\t m5 accu/om$ to any?+ 7,s71 we h no difficulty 9 f9d+ examples :]e su* m5 are said to become indiff]5t to x4 ,we f9d su* illu/rations z ,lovelace's fam\s ,p>adox3-- ,?r\gh f\l we foll[ fair ,= _h ! _w "o face ,& e>? be5 bright z air ,we _h kn[n nei!r place4 ,indians smell n _! ne/ ,! ,swiss & ,f9n ta/e be/ ,! spices ( ! ,ea/4 ,s m5 accu/om$ to ri*es are n acutely s5sible ( _! advantages3 dwell]s 9 noisy /reets cease to be di/ract$ by ! d93 ! wat*mak] ceases to he> ! multitud9\s tick+ 9 8 %op3 ! neighb\rs ( *emical works are n annoy$ by ! smells l ! casual pass5g]4 ,b we f9d also t w9e-ta/]s acquire by practice an unusual delicacy ( s5se2 t ! eyes once accu/om$ to a dim light beg9 to di/+ui% objects t 7 at fir/ indi/+ui%able2 & s on4 ,:at mean+s ( cu/om & ( s5sibility w reconcile ^! app>5tly conflict+ examples8 ,:at are ! exact attributes signifi$ by ! names8 ,we %\ld probably f9d t by s5sibility is meant emotional s5sibility z di/+ui%$ f intellectual discrim9ation1 & t by cu/om is meant famili>ity ) impressions ^: v>iations are n att5d$ to1 or subjection to "o unv>y+ impression4 ,to v]ify ! mean+ ( ab/ract prov]bs 9 ?is way is to travel ov] ! road by :i* ! ,greek dialecticians 7 l$ to feel ! importance ( def9ition4 ,( ?is m w be said pres5tly4 ,if x is cont5d$ t su* excursions are beyond ! b\nds ( ,=mal ,logic1 ! answ] is t ! ex]cise is a useful "o & t x />ts naturally & conv5i5tly f ! =mulae ( ,logic4 ,x is ! practice & discipl9e t hi/orically prec$$ ! ,ari/otelian ,logic1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( :i* ! ,ari/otelian =mulae w\ld h a n>r[+ & cramp+ effect4 ,,c ,,all ,,propositions ,,be ,,r$uc$ ,,to ,,! ,,syllogi/ic ,,=m8 ,probably3 b ?is is a purely sci5tific inquiry1 collat]al to ,practical ,logic4 ,! conc]n ( ,practical ,logic is *iefly ) =ms ( proposition t fav\r inaccuracy or inexactness ( ?\ght4 ,:5 !re is no room = ambiguity or o!r error1 !re is no virtue 9 artificial syllogi/ic =m4 ,! attempt s to r$uce any & e proposition may lead1 h[ev]1 to ! /udy ( :at ,mr4 ,bosanquet happily calls ! ,morphology ( ,judgm5t1 ,judgm5t be+ ! te*nical "n = ! m5tal act t accompanies ! utt]ance ( a proposition4 ,ev5 9 su* s5t5ces z ,h[ hot x is6 or ,x ra9s1 ! rudim5t ( subject & pr$icate may be detect$4 ,:5 a man says ,h[ hot x is1 he conveys ! mean+1 ?\gh !re is no def9itely =m$ subject 9 8 m9d1 t ! out] _w at ! mom5t ( 8 speak+ has a c]ta9 quality or attribute4 ,s ) ,x ra9s4 ,! /udy ( su* examples 9 _! context1 h[ev]1 reveals ! fact t ! same =m ( ,common spee* may cov] diff]5t subjects & pr$icates 9 diff]5t connexions4 ,?us 9 ! argum5t3-- ,:atev] is1 is be/4 ,x ra9s6-- ! ,subject is ,ra9 & ! ,pr$icate is n[1 is at ! pres5t "t1 is 9 ! class ( pres5t ev5ts4 ,footnote #a3 ,rememb] t :5 we speak ( a g5]al "n1 we d n necess>ily mean a s+le ^w4 ,a g5]al "n1 logically view$1 is simply ! "n ( a g5us1 k9d1 or class3 & :e!r ?is is s+le-word$ or _m-word$ is1 /rictly speak+1 a grammatical "q4 ,man1 man-(-ability1 man-(-ability-&-c\rage1 man-(-ability-&-c\rage-&-gigantic-/ature 1 man-:o-f\ght-at-,m>a?on--^! are all g5]al names 9 _! logical function4 ,no matt] h[ ! con/itutive prop]ties ( ! class are indicat$1 by "o ^w or 9 comb9ation1 t ^w or comb9ation is a g5]al "n4 ,9 actual spee* we c seldom indicate by a s+le ^w ! mean+ pr$icat$4 ,footnote #b3 ,! objection tak5 to ! ^w indef9ite1 t ! quantity ( p>ticul> propositions is indef9ite1 "s mean+ any quantity less ?an all1 is an example ( ! misplac$ & frivol\s subtlety t has done s mu* to disord] ! tradition ( ,logic4 ,by indef9ite is simply meant n def9itely express$ z ei!r ,univ]sal or ,p>ticul>1 ,total or ,p>tial4 ,! same objection might be tak5 to any ^w us$ to express ! di/9ction3 ! degree ( quantity 9 ,"s ,s is n designate any m ?an x is def9ite or diori/ic4 ,footnote #c3 ,g5]ally4 ,9 ?is ^w we h an in/ance ( ! frequ5t conflict betwe5 ! words ( common spee* & logical t]m9ology4 ,h[ x arises %all be expla9$ 9 next *apt]4 ,a ,g5]al proposition is a synonym = a ,univ]sal proposition 7if ! =ms ,a & ,e are s t]m$73 b g5]ally 9 common spee* means = ! mo/ "p1 & is repres5t$ by ! symbol ( p>ticul> quantity1 ,"s4 ,footnote #d3 ,) "s logicians x is a me*anical rule 9 r$uc+ to syllogi/ic =m to treat z ,i or ,o all s5t5ces 9 :i* !re is no =mal expression ( quantity4 ,?is is to err on ! safe side1 b common speak]s are n s gu>d$1 & x is to be presum$ r t !y h a univ]sal application 9 _! m9ds :5 !y d n expressly qualify4 ,,iii4--,,"s ,,te*nical ,,difficulties4 ,! =mula = ,,exclusive ,,propositions4 ,none b ! brave des]ve ! fair3 ,no admittance except on bus9ess3 ,only ,prote/ants c sit on ! ?rone ( ,engl&4 ,^! propositions exemplify diff]5t ways 9 common spee* ( nam+ a subject exclusively1 ! pr$ication be+ made ( all outside a c]ta9 t]m4 ,none t are n brave1 etc42 none t are n on bus9ess1 etc42 none t are n ,prote/ants1 etc44 ,no n-,s is ,p4 ,x is only ab\t all outside ! giv5 t]m t ! univ]sal ass]tion is made3 we say no?+ univ]sally ab\t ! individuals )9 ! t]m3 we d n say t all ,prote/ants are eligible1 nor t all p]sons on bus9ess are admitt$1 nor t e "o ( ! brave des]ves ! fair4 ,all t we say is t ! possession ( ! attribute nam$ is an indisp5sable condition3 a p]son may possess ! attribute1 & yet on o!r gr\nds may n be entitl$ to ! pr$icate4 ,! ju/ification = tak+ special note ( ?is =m 9 ,logic is t we are apt by inadv]t5ce to make an inclusive inf]5ce f x4 ,let x be said t ,none b ^? :o "w h>d c reasonably expect to pass1 & we are apt to take ?is z mean+ t all :o "w h>d may reasonably expect to pass4 ,b :at is d5i$ ( e ,n-,s is n necess>ily affirm$ ( e ,s4 ,! expression ( ,,t5se or ,,"t 9 ! ,syllogi/ic ,=ms4 ,see+ t ! ,copula 9 ,s is ,p or ,s is 9 ,p does n express "t1 b only a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ,s & ,p1 ! "q arises ,:]e are we to put "t 9 ! analytic =mula8 ,:eat is de>2 ,all _h fl$2 "t is express$ 9 ^! propositions1 & our =mula %\ld r5d] ! :ole cont5t ( :at is giv54 ,are we to include x 9 ! ,pr$icate t]m or 9 ! ,subject t]m8 ,if x mu/ n be left out altoge!r1 & we _c put x ) ! copula1 we h a *oice betwe5 ! two t]ms4 ,x is a purely s*ola/ic "q4 ,! common te*nical treatm5t is to view ! t5se z "p ( ! pr$icate4 ,all _h fl$1 ,all ,s is ,p1 i4e41 ! :ole subject is includ$ 9 a class con/itut$ on ! attributes ( flight at a giv5 "t4 ,x may be t ! ,pr$icate is solely a pr$icate ( "t4 ,! ,bo>d met ye/]day at noon4 ,s is ,p1 i4e41 ! meet+ ( ! ,bo>d is "o ( ! ev5ts *>act]is$ by hav+ happ5$ at a c]ta9 "t1 agree+ ) o!r ev5ts 9 t respect4 ,b 9 "s cases ! "t is m prop]ly reg>d$ z "p ( ! subject4 ,e4g41 ,:eat is de>4 ,s does n "h /& = :eat collectively1 b = ! :eat n[ 9 ! m>ket1 ! :eat ( ! pres5t "t3 x is conc]n+ ?is t ! attribute ( de>ness is pr$icat$2 x is ?is t is 9 ! class ( de> ?+s4 ,! expression ( ,,modality 9 ! ,syllogi/ic ,=ms4 ,propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate is qualifi$ by an expression ( necessity1 cont+5cy1 possibility or impossibility i4e41 9 ,engli% by mu/1 may1 c1 or _c1 7 call$ 9 ,m$iaeval ,logic ,modal ,propositions4 ,two & two mu/ make f\r4 ,grubs may become butt]flies4 ,z c pa9t4 ,y _c fly4 ,!re are two recognis$ ways ( r$uc+ su* propositions to ! =m ,s is ,p4 ,"o is to di/+ui% betwe5 ! ,dictum & ! ,mode1 ! proposition & ! qualification ( its c]ta9ty1 & to treat ! ,dictum z ! ,subject & ! ,mode z ! ,pr$icate4 ,?us3 ,t two & two make f\r is necess>y2 ,t ,y c fly is impossible4 ,! o!r way is to treat ! ,mode z "p ( ! pr$icate4 ,! propriety ( ?is is n obvi\s 9 ! case ( ,necess>y propositions1 b x is unobjectionable 9 ! case ( ! o!r ?ree modes4 ,?us3 ,grubs are ?+s t h ! pot5tiality ( becom+ butt]flies2 ,z has ! faculty ( pa9t+2 ,y has n ! faculty ( fly+4 ,! *ief risk ( error is 9 det]m9+ ! quantity ( ! subject ab\t :i* ! ,cont+5t or ,possible pr$icate is made4 ,:5 x is said t ,victories may be ga9$ by accid5t1 is ! pr$icate made conc]n+ ,all victories or ,"s only8 ,"h we are apt to confuse ! mean+ ( ! cont+5t ass]tion ) ! matt] ( fact on :i* 9 common belief x re/s4 ,x is true only t "s victories h be5 ga9$ by accid5t1 & x is on ?is gr\nd t we ass]t 9 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 k conc]n+ any victory t x may h be5 s ga9$4 ,! latt] is ! effect ( ! cont+5t ass]tion3 x is made ab\t any victory 9 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 k1 t is to say1 =mally ab\t all4 ,! hi/ory ( ,modals 9 ,logic is a good illu/ration ( intricate confusion aris+ f disreg>d ( a cle> traditional def9ition4 ,! treatm5t ( !m by ,ari/otle 0 simple1 & _h direct ref]5ce to tricks ( disputation practis$ 9 8 "t4 ,he specifi$ f\r modes1 ! f\r t desc5d$ to m$iaeval logic1 & he conc]n$ himself *iefly ) ! import ( contradict+ ^! modals4 ,:at is ! true contradictory ( su* propositions z1 ,x is possible to be 7,greek3 dynaton e9ai71 ,x admits ( be+ 7,greek3 ende*etai e9ai71 ,x mu/ be 7,greek3 anankaion e9ai71 ,x is impossible to be 7,greek3 adynaton e9ai78 ,:at is impli$ 9 say+ ,no to su* propositions put int]rogatively8 ,is x possible = ,socrates to fly8 ,no4 ,does ?is mean t x is n possible = ,socrates to fly1 or t x is possible = ,socrates n to fly8 ,a disputant :o _h trapp$ a respond5t into admitt+ t x is possible = ,socrates n to fly1 might h pu%$ ! concession f>!r 9 "s su* way z ?is3 ,is x possible = ,socrates n to walk8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,is x possible = him to walk8 ,yes4 ,:5 y say t x is possible = a man to d any?+ d y n believe t x is possible = him to d x8 ,yes4 ,b y h admitt$ t x is possible = ,socrates n to fly8 ,x 0 9 view ( su* p]plexities z ^! t ,ari/otle set =? ! true contradictories ( 8 f\r ,modals4 ,we may laugh at su* quibbles n[ & wond] t a grave logician %\ld h ?\ght !m wor? gu>d+ aga9/4 ,b hi/orically ?is is ! orig9 ( ! ,modals ( ,=mal ,logic1 & to div]t ! names ( !m to signify o!r di/9ctions ?an ^? betwe5 modes ( qualify+ ! c]ta9ty ( a /atem5t is to introduce confusion4 ,?us we f9d ,alex&] 0 a great g5]al1 giv5 z an example ( a ,cont+5t ,modal1 on ! gr\nd t ?\gh z a matt] ( fact ,alex&] 0 s he might h be5 o!rwise4 ,x 0 n necess>y t ,alex&] %\ld be a great g5]al3 !re=e ! proposition is cont+5t4 ,n[ ! di/9ction betwe5 ,necess>y tru? & ,cont+5t tru? may be important philosophically3 b x is m]ely confus+ to call ! "* ( propositions z "o or ! o!r by ! "n ( ,modality4 ,! orig9al ,modality is a mode ( expression3 to apply ! "n to ?is "* is to %ift its mean+4 ,a m simple & obvi\sly unw>rantable dep>ture f tradition is to ext5d ! "n ,modality to any grammatical qualification ( a s+le v]b 9 common spee*4 ,on ?is und]/&+ ,alex&] conqu]$ ,d>ius is giv5 by ,hamilton z a ,pure proposition1 & ,alex&] conqu]$ ,d>ius hon\rably z a ,modal4 ,?is is a m]ely grammatical di/9ction1 a di/9ction 9 ! mode ( compos+ ! pr$icate t]m 9 common spee*4 ,9 logical tradition ,modality is a mode ( qualify+ ! c]ta9ty ( an affirmation4 ,! conque/ ( ,d>ius by ,alex&] 0 hon\rable1 or ,alex&] 9 conqu]+ ,d>ius 0 an hon\rable conqu]or1 is ! syllogi/ic =m ( ! proposition3 x is simply ass]tory1 n qualifi$ 9 any mode4 ,!re is a simil> misund]/&+ 9 ,mr4 ,%$d5's treatm5t ( g5]ally z con/itut+ a ,modal 9 su* s5t5ces1 z ,riv]s g5]ally fl[ into ! sea4 ,he argues t z g5]ally is n "p ei!r ( ! ,subject t]m or ( ! ,pr$icate t]m1 x mu/ belong to ! ,copula1 & is !re=e a modal qualification ( ! :ole ass]tion4 ,he ov]look$ ! fact t ! ^w g5]ally is an expression ( ,quantity3 x det]m9es ! quantity ( ! ,subject t]m4 ,f9ally x is sometimes held 7e4g41 by ,mr4 ,v5n7 t ! "q ( ,modality belongs prop]ly to ,sci5tific or ,inductive ,logic1 & is out ( place 9 ,=mal ,logic4 ,?is is s f> accurate t x is = ,inductive ,logic to exp\nd ! conditions ( v>i\s degrees ( c]ta9ty4 ,! consid]ation ( ,modality is p]t95t to ,=mal ,logic only 9 s f> z conc]ns special p]plexities 9 ! expression ( x4 ,! treatm5t ( x by ,logicians has be5 r5d]$ intricate by tortur+ ! old tradition to suit diff]5t conceptions ( ! end & aim ( ,logic4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,def9ition4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,imp]fect ,,und]/&+ ,,( ,,words ,,& ,,! ,,rem$ies ,,!re=4--,,dialectic4--,,def9ition4 ,we _c inquire f> into ! mean+ ( prov]bs or traditional say+s )\t discov]+ t ! common und]/&+ ( g5]al & ab/ract names is loose & unc]ta94 ,common spee* is a quicks&4 ,consid] h[ we acquire our vocabul>y1 h[ we pick up ! words t we use f our neighb\rs & f books1 & :y ?is is s soon becomes app>5t4 ,!oretically we "k ! full mean+ ( a "n :5 we "k all ! attributes t x connotes1 & we are n ju/ifi$ 9 ext5d+ x except to objects t possess all ! attributes4 ,?is is ! logical ideal1 b betwe5 ! ought to be ( ,logic & ! is ( practical life1 !re is a va/ diff]5ce4 ,h[ seldom d we conceive words 9 _! full mean+6 ,& :o is to in/ruct u 9 ! full mean+8 ,x is n z 9 ! exact sci5ces1 :]e we />t ) a k ( ! full mean+4 ,9 ,geometry1 = example1 we le>n ! def9itions ( ! words us$1 po9t1 l9e1 p>allel1 etc41 be=e we proce$ to use !m4 ,b 9 common spee*1 we le>n words fir/ 9 _! application to individual cases4 ,nobody ev] def9$ good to u1 or fair1 or k9d1 or highly educat$4 ,we he> ! words appli$ to individual objects3 we utt] !m 9 ! same connexion3 we ext5d !m to o!r objects t /rike u z l )\t kn[+ ! precise po9ts ( lik5ess t ! conv5tion ( common spee* includes4 ,! m exact mean+ we le>n by gradual induction f individual cases4 ,ugly1 beautiful1 good1 bad--we le>n ! words fir/ z applicable to ?+s & p]sons3 gradually !re arises a m or less def9ite s5se ( :at ! objects s designat$ h 9 common4 ,! individual's ext5sion ( ! "n proce$s ^u :at 9 ! objects has mo/ impress$ him :5 he caught ! ^w3 ?is may diff] 9 diff]5t individuals2 ! usage ( neighb\rs corrects individual ecc5tricities4 ,! *ild 9 arms %\ts ,da at ! pass+ /rang] :o rem9ds him ( 8 fa!r3 = him at fir/ x is a g5]al "n applicable to e man3 by degrees he le>ns t = him x is a s+ul> "n4 ,! mode 9 :i* words are le>nt & ext5d$ may be /udi$ mo/ simply 9 ! nurs]y4 ,a *ild1 say1 has le>nt to say mambro :5 x sees its nurse4 ,! nurse works a h&-turn$ sew+ ma*9e1 & s+s to x z %e works4 ,9 ! /reet ! *ild sees an organ-gr9d] s++ z he turns 8 h&le3 x calls mambro3 ! nurse cat*es ! mean+ & ! *ild is ov]joy$4 ,! organ-gr9d] has a monkey3 ! *ild has an india-rubb] monkey toy3 x calls ?is also mambro4 ,! "n is ext5d$ to a monkey 9 a picture-book4 ,x has a toy musical box ) a h&le3 ?is also becomes mambro1 ! ^w be+ ext5d$ along ano!r l9e ( resemblance4 ,a /roll] ) a ,fr5* fiddle comes )9 ! d5otation ( ! ^w3 a t[el-rail is also call$ mambro f "s fanci$ resemblance to ! fiddle4 ,a v sw>?y hun*-back mambro fright5s ! *ild3 ?is leads to ! transf]5ce ( ! ^w to a t]rific coalman ) a bag ( coals on 8 back4 ,9 a %ort "t ! ^w has become a "n = a great v>iety ( objects t h no?+ :atev] common to all ( !m1 ?\gh ea* is /rik+ly l 9 "s po9t to a pr$ecessor 9 ! s]ies4 ,:5 ! application becomes too het]og5e\s1 ! ^w ceases to be ( use z a sign & is gradually ab&on$1 ! mo/ impressive mean+ be+ ! la/ to g4 ,9 a *ild's vocabul>y :]e ! ^w mambro _h a run ( ne>ly two ye>s1 its la/ use 0 z an adjective signify+ ugly or horrible4 ,! hi/ory ( su* a ^w 9 a *ild's language is a type ( :at goes on 9 ! language ( m54 ,9 ! l>g] hi/ory we see simil> ext5sions "u simil> motives1 *eck$ & controll$ 9 ! same way by surr\nd+ usage4 ,x is obvi\s t to avoid error & confusion1 ! mean+ or connotation ( names1 ! concepts1 %\ld someh[ be fix$3 names _c o!rwise h an id5tical ref]5ce 9 human int]c\rse4 ,we may call ?is ideal fix$ concept ! ,,logical ,,concept3 or we may call x ! ,,sci5tific ,,concept1 inasmu* z "o ( ! ma9 objects ( ! sci5ces is to atta9 su* ideals 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( /udy4 ,b 9 actual spee* we h also ! ,,p]sonal ,,concept1 :i* v>ies m or less ) ! individual us]1 & ! ,,popul> or ,,v]nacul> ,,concept1 :i*1 ?\gh r\ghly fix$1 v>ies f social sect to social sect & f g5]ation to g5]ation4 ,! v>iations 9 ,popul> ,concepts may be trac$ 9 l+ui/ic hi/ory4 ,words *ange ) ?+s & ) ! aspects ( ?+s1 z ^! *ange 9 public int]e/ & importance4 ,z long z ! attributes t gov]n ! application ( words are simple1 s5sible attributes1 little confusion ne$ arise3 ! v>iations are matt]s ( curi\s rese>* = ! philologi/1 b are logically insignificant4 ,murray's ,diction>y1 or su* books z ,tr5*'s ,engli% ,pa/ & ,pres5t1 supply endless examples1 z _m1 inde$ z !re are words 9 ! language4 ,cl]k has almo/ z _m connotations z our typical mambro3 cl]k 9 holy ord]s1 *ur* cl]k1 t[n cl]k1 cl]k ( assize1 groc]'s cl]k4 ,9 ,e>ly ,engli%1 ! ^w meant man 9 a religi\s ord]1 cl]ic1 cl]gyman2 ability to read1 write1 & keep acc\nts be+ a prom95t attribute ( ! class1 ! ^w 0 ext5d$ on ?is simple gr\nd till x has ceas$ altoge!r to cov] its orig9al field except z a =mal designation4 ,b no confusion is caus$ by ! v>iation1 because ! prop]ty connot$ is simple4#a ,s ) any common n\n3 /reet1 c>riage1 %ip1 h\se1 m]*ant1 lawy]1 pr(essor4 ,we might be puzzl$ to give an exact def9ition ( su* words1 to say precisely :at !y connote 9 common usage2 b ! risk ( error 9 ! use ( !m is small4 ,:5 we come to words ( :i* ! logical concept is a complex relation1 an obscure or intangible attribute1 ! defects ( ! popul> conception & its t5d5cies to *ange & confusion1 are ( ! greate/ practical importance4 ,take su* words z ,mon>*y1 tyranny1 civil fre$om1 fre$om ( contract1 l&lord1 g5tleman1 prig1 culture1 education1 temp]ance1 g5]osity4 ,n m]ely %\ld we f9d x difficult to give an analytic def9ition ( su* words3 we might be unable to d s1 & yet flatt] ourselves t we _h a cle> und]/&+ ( _! mean+4 ,b let two m5 beg9 to discuss any proposition 9 :i* any su* ^w is involv$1 & x w (t5 be f\nd t !y take ! ^w 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,if ! relation express$ is complex1 !y h diff]5t sides or l9es ( x 9 _! m9ds2 if ! mean+ is an obscure quality1 !y are guid$ 9 _! application ( x by diff]5t outw>d signs4 ,mon>*y1 9 its orig9al mean+1 is appli$ to a =m ( gov]nm5t 9 :i* ! w ( "o man is supreme1 to make laws or break !m1 to appo9t or dismiss (fic]s ( /ate & ju/ice1 to det]m9e peace or w>1 )\t control ( /atute or cu/om4 ,b supreme p[] is nev] ?us uncontroll$ 9 reality2 & ! ^w has be5 ext5d$ to cov] gov]nm5ts 9 :i* ! p[] ( ! titul> head is controll$ 9 _m diff]5t modes & degrees4 ,! exi/5ce ( a head1 ) ! title ( ,k+ or ,emp]or1 is ! simple/ & mo/ sali5t fact3 & :]ev] ?is exi/s1 ! popul> concept ( a mon>*y is realis$4 ,! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has m real p[] ?an ! ,sov]eign ( ,great ,brita92 b ! "o gov]nm5t is call$ a ,republic & ! o!r a ,mon>*y4 ,p discuss ! advantages & disadvantages ( mon>*y )\t fir/ decid+ :e!r !y take ! ^w 9 its etymological s5se ( unlimit$ p[]1 or its popul> s5se ( titul> k+%ip1 or its logical s5se ( p[] def9itely limit$ 9 c]ta9 ways4 ,& (t5 9 debate1 mon>*y is really a s+ul> t]m = ! gov]nm5t ( ,great ,brita94 ,culture1 religi\s1 g5]\s1 are names = inw>d /ates or qualities3 ) mo/ individuals "s simple outw>d sign directs ! application ( ! ^w--x may be mann]1 or be>+1 or r\t9e obs]vances1 or ev5 no?+ m significant ?an ! cut ( ! clo!s or ( ! hair4 ,small ?+s und\bt$ly are significant1 & we mu/ judge by small ?+s :5 we h no?+ else to g by3 b in/ead ( try+ to get def9ite conceptions = our moral epi!ts1 & susp5d+ judgm5t till we "k t ! use ( ! epi!t is ju/ifi$1 ! trifl+ sup]ficial sign becomes = u practically ! :ole mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,we feel t we mu/ h a judgm5t ( "s sort at once3 only simple signs are suit$ to our impati5ce4 ,x 0 ) ref]5ce to ?is /ate ( ?+s t ,hegel =mulat$ 8 p>adox t ! true ab/ract ?9k] is ! pla9 man :o laughs at philosophy z :at he calls ab/ract & unpractical4 ,he holds decid$ op9ions = or aga9/ ?is or ! o!r ab/raction1 fre$om1 tyranny1 revolution1 re=m1 socialism1 b :at ^! words mean & )9 :at limits ! ?+s signifi$ are desirable or undesirable1 he is 9 too great a hurry to pause & consid]4 ,! disadvantages ( ?is k9d ( ab/ract ?9k+ are obvi\s4 ,! accumulat$ wisdom ( mank9d is /or$ 9 language4 ,until we h cle>$ our conceptions1 & p5etrat$ to ! full mean+ ( words1 t wisdom is a seal$ book to u4 ,wise maxims are int]pret$ by u ha/ily 9 accordance ) our own n>r[ conceptions4 ,all ! vocables ( a language may be m or less famili> to u1 & yet we may n h le>nt x z an in/rum5t ( ?\ght4 ,outside ! v limit$ range ( names = :at we see & use 9 ! daily r\t9e ( life1 food & clo!s & ! common occupations ( m51 words h little mean+ = u1 & are ! vehicles m]ely ( ?9 preconceptions & raw prejudices4 ,! rem$y = ab/ract ?9k+ is m ?9k+1 & 9 pursu+ ?is two aims may be specifi$ = ! sake ( cle>ness1 ?\gh !y are closely alli$1 & progress t[>ds bo? may (t5 be made by "o & ! same op]ation4 7#a7 ,we want to rea* a cle> & full conception ( ! mean+ ( names z us$ n[ or at a giv5 "t4 ,let u call ?is ! ,v]ification ( ! ,mean+4 7#b7 ,we want to fix su* conceptions1 & if necess>y readju/ _! b\nd>ies4 ,?is is ! prov9ce ( ,def9ition1 :i* _c be effectually p]=m$ )\t ,sci5tific ,classification or ,division4 ,i4--,,v]ification ,,( ,,! ,,mean+--,,dialectic4 ,?is c only be done by assembl+ ! objects to :i* ! words are appli$1 & consid]+ :at !y h 9 common4 ,to asc]ta9 ! actual connotation we mu/ run ov] ! actual d5otation4 ,& s9ce 9 su* an op]ation two or m m9ds are bett] ?an "o1 discussion or dialectic is bo? m fruitful & m /imulat+ ?an solit>y reflection or read+4 ,! fir/ to practise ?is process on a memorable scale1 & ) a di/9ct me?od & purpose1 0 ,socrates4 ,to insi/ ^u ! necessity ( cle> conceptions1 & to assi/ by 8 dialectic proc$ure 9 =m+ !m1 0 8 contribution to philosophy4 ,8 plan 0 to take a common "n1 pr(ess ignorance ( its mean+1 & ask 8 int]locutor :e!r he w\ld apply x 9 su* & su* an in/ance1 produc+ "o aft] ano!r4 ,accord+ to ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia he habitually *ose ! commone/ names1 good1 unju/1 fitt+1 & s =?1 & tri$ to set m5 ?9k+ ab\t !m1 & help$ !m by 8 que/ions to =m an intellig5t conception ( ! mean+4 ,= example1 :at is ! mean+ ( inju/ice8 ,w\ld y say t ! man :o *eats or deceives is unju/8 ,suppose a man deceives 8 enemies1 is !re any inju/ice 9 t8 ,c ! def9ition be t a man :o deceives 8 fri5ds is unju/8 ,b !re are cases :]e fri5ds are deceiv$ = _! own good3 are ^! cases ( inju/ice8 ,a g5]al may inspirit 8 soldi]s by a falsehood4 ,a man may cajole a weapon out ( 8 fri5d's h& :5 he sees him ab\t to commit suicide4 ,a fa!r may deceive 8 son into tak+ m$ic9e4 ,w\ld y call ^! m5 unju/8 ,by "s su* process ( int]rogation we are br\ght to ! def9ition t a man is unju/ :o deceives 8 fri5ds to _! hurt4 ,obs]ve t 9 mu* ( 8 dialectic ! aim ( ,socrates 0 m]ely to br+ out ! mean+ ly+ vague & lat5t1 z x 71 9 ! common m9d4 ,8 object 0 simply :at we h call$ ! v]ification ( ! mean+4 ,& a dialectic t conf9es itself to ! consid]ation ( :at is ord9>ily meant z di/9ct f :at ought to be meant may (t5 s]ve a useful purpose4 ,disputes ab\t words are n always z idle z is sometimes suppos$4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,sidgwick truly rem>ks 7a propos ( ! t]ms ( ,political ,economy7 t !re is (t5 m pr(it 9 seek+ a def9ition ?an 9 f9d+ x4 ,conceptions are n m]ely cle>$ b deep5$ by ! process4 ,mr4 ,sidgwick's rem>ks are s happy t ,i mu/ take leave to quote !m3 !y apply n m]ely to ! v]ification ( ord9>y mean+ b also to ! /udy ( special uses by au?orities1 & ! reasons = ^? special uses4 ,! tru? is--z mo/ read]s ( ,plato "k1 only x is a tru? difficult to reta9 & apply--t :at we ga9 by discuss+ a def9ition is (t5 b slightly repres5t$ 9 ! sup]ior fitness ( ! =mula t we ultimately adopt2 x consi/s *iefly 9 ! great] cle>ness & fulness 9 :i* ! *>act]i/ics ( ! matt] to :i* ! =mula ref]s h be5 br\ght be=e ! m9d 9 ! process ( seek+ = x4 ,:ile we are app>5tly aim+ at def9itions ( t]ms1 our att5tion %\ld be really fix$ on di/9ctions & relations ( fact4 ,^! latt] are :at we are conc]n$ to "k1 contemplate1 & z f> z possible arrange & sy/ematise2 & 9 subjects :]e we _c pres5t !m to ! m9d 9 ord9>y fulness by ! ex]cise ( ! organs ( s5se1 !re is no way ( survey+ !m s conv5i5t z t ( reflect+ on our use ( common t]ms4444 ,9 comp>+ diff]5t def9itions our aim %\ld be f> less to decide :i* we ought to adopt1 ?an to appreh5d & duly consid] ! gr\nds on :i* ea* has comm5d$ itself to reflective m9ds4 ,we %all g5]ally f9d t ea* writ] has not$ "s relation1 "s resemblance or diff]5ce1 :i* o!rs h ov]look$2 & we %all ga9 9 complet5ess1 & (t5 9 precision1 ( view by foll[+ him 9 8 obs]vations1 :e!r or n we foll[ him 9 8 conclusions4#b ,mr4 ,sidgwick's own discussions ( ,weal?1 ,value1 & ,money are models4 ,a clue is (t5 f\nd to ! mean+ 9 exam9+ />tl+ly discrepant /atem5ts connect$ ) ! same lead+ ^w4 ,?us we f9d "s au?orities decl>+ t /yle _c be taught or le>nt1 :ile o!rs decl>e t x c4 ,b on try+ to asc]ta9 :at !y mean by /yle1 we f9d t ^? :o say x _c be taught mean ei!r a c]ta9 m>k$ individual "* or mann] ( writ+--z 9 ,buffon's say+1 ,le /yle c'e/ l'homme meme--or a c]ta9 felicity & dignity ( expression1 :ile ^? :o say /yle c be taught mean lucid me?od 9 ! /ructure ( s5t5ces or 9 ! arrangem5t ( a disc\rse4 ,aga9 9 discussions on ! rank ( poets1 we f9d diff]5t conceptions ( :at con/itutes greatness 9 poetry ly+ at ! root ( ! inclusion ( ?is or ! o!r poet among great poets4 ,we f9d "o poet exclud$ f ! fir/ rank ( greatness because 8 poetry 0 n s]i\s2 ano!r because 8 poetry 0 n widely popul>2 ano!r because he wrote comp>atively little2 ano!r because he wrote only songs or odes & nev] attempt$ drama or epic4 ,^! v>i\s op9ions po9t to diff]5t conceptions ( :at con/itutes greatness 9 poets1 diff]5t connotations ( great poet4 ,comp>+ diff]5t op9ions conc]n+ education we may be l$ to ask :e!r x means m ?an in/ruction 9 ! details ( c]ta9 subjects1 :e!r x does n also import ! =mation ( a disposition to le>n or an int]e/ 9 le>n+ or in/ruction 9 a c]ta9 me?od ( le>n+4 ,hi/orically1 dialectic turn+ on ! use ( words prec$$ ! attempt to =mulate pr9ciples ( ,def9ition1 & attempts at precise def9ition l$ to ,division & ,classification1 t is to sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ! objects to be def9$4 ,attempt to def9e any su* ^w z education1 & y gradually become s5sible ( ! ne$s 9 respect ( me?od t =c$ !mselves ^u mank9d 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,y soon become aw>e t y _c def9e x by itself alone2 t y are beset by a sw>m ( m or less synonym\s words1 in/ruction1 discipl9e1 culture1 tra9+1 & s on2 t ^! v>i\s words repres5t di/9ctions & relations among ?+s m or less alli$2 & t1 if ea* mu/ be fix$ to a def9ite mean+1 ?is mu/ be done ) ref]5ce to "o ano!r & to ! :ole dep>tm5t ( ?+s t !y cov]4 ,! fir/ memorable attempts at sci5tific arrangem5t 7 ,ari/otle's treatises on ,e?ics & ,politics1 :i* _h be5 ! subjects ( active dialectic = at lea/ a c5tury be=e4 ,t ^! ! mo/ difficult ( all dep>tm5ts to subject to sci5tific treatm5t %\ld h be5 ! fir/ *os5 0 due simply to _! prepond]at+ int]e/3 ,! prop] /udy ( mank9d is man4 ,! sy/ems ( :at are kn[n z ! ,natural ,sci5ces are ( mod]n orig93 ! fir/1 t ( ,botany1 dates f ,cesalp9us 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,b ! pr9ciples on :i* ,ari/otle proce$$ 9 divid+ & def9+1 pr9ciples :i* h gradually !mselves be5 m precisely =mulat$1 are pr9ciples applicable to all sy/ematic arrangem5ts = purposes ( ord]ly /udy4 ,i give !m 9 ! precise =mulae :i* !y h gradually assum$ 9 ! tradition ( ,logic4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,division are (t5 giv5 9 ,=mal ,logic1 & ! pr9ciples ( ,classification 9 ,inductive ,logic1 b !re is no valid reason = ! sep>ation4 ,! classification ( objects 9 ! ,natural ,sci5ces1 ( animals1 plants1 & /ones1 ) a view to ! ?or\gh /udy ( !m 9 =m1 /ructure1 & function1 is m complex ?an classifications = m limit$ purposes1 & ! t5d5cy is to re/rict ! ^w classification to ^! elaborate sy/ems4 ,b really !y are only a s]ies ( divisions & subdivisions1 & ! same pr9ciples apply to ea* ( ! subord9ate divisions z well z to ! division ( ! :ole dep>tm5t ( /udy4 ,,ii4--,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,division ,,or ,,classification ,,& ,,def9ition4 ,confusion 9 ! b\nd>ies ( names arises f confus$ ideas reg>d+ ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( ?+s4 ,z a protective aga9/ ?is confusion1 ?+s mu/ be cle>ly di/+ui%$ 9 _! po9ts ( lik5ess & diff]5ce1 & ?is leads to _! arrangem5t 9 sy/ems1 t is1 to division & classification4 ,a "n is n secure aga9/ v>iation until x has a di/9ct place 9 su* a sy/em z a symbol = cle>ly di/+ui%$ attributes4 ,nor mu/ we =get1 fur!r1 t sy/ems h _! day1 t ! be/ sy/em atta9able is only tempor>y1 & may h to be reca/ to correspond ) *anges ( ?+s & ( man's way ( look+ at !m4 ,! lead+ pr9ciples ( ,,division may be /at$ z foll[s3-- ,i4 ,e division is made on ! gr\nd ( diff]5ces 9 "s attribute common to all ! memb]s ( ! :ole to be divid$4 ,?is is m]ely a way ( /at+ :at a logical division is4 ,x is a division ( a g5]ic :ole or g5us1 an indef9ite numb] ( objects ?\ght ( toge!r z possess+ "s common "* or attribute4 ,all h ?is attribute1 :i* is te*nically call$ ! fundam5tum divisionis1 or g5]ic attribute4 ,b ! :ole is divisible into small] gr\ps 7species71 ea* ( :i* possesses ! common "* ) a diff]5ce 7diff]5tia74 ,?us1 mank9d may be divid$ into ,:ite m51 ,black m51 ,yell[ m51 on gr\nd ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! col\r ( _! sk9s3 all h sk9s ( "s col\r3 ?is is ! fundam5tum divisionis3 b ea* subdivision or species has a diff]5t col\r3 ?is is ! diff]5tia4 ,rectil9eal figures are divid$ into triangles1 quadrangles1 p5tagons1 etc41 on ! gr\nd ( diff]5ces 9 ! numb] ( angles4 ,unless !re is a fund4 div41 i4e41 unless ! diff]5ces are diff]5ces 9 a common "*1 ! division is n a logical division4 ,to divide m5 into ,europeans1 opticians1 tailors1 blondes1 brunettes1 & dyspeptics is n to make a logical division4 ,?is is se5 m cle>ly 9 connexion ) ! second condition ( a p]fect division4 ,,ii4 ,9 a p]fect division1 ! subdivisions or species are mutually exclusive4 ,e object possess+ ! common "* %\ld be 9 "o or o!r ( ! gr\ps1 & none %\ld be 9 m ?an "o4 ,confusion betwe5 classes1 or ov]lapp+1 may arise f two causes4 ,x may be due 7#a7 to faulty division1 to want ( unity 9 ! fundam5tum divisionis2 7#b7 to ! indi/9ct "* ( ! objects to be def9$4 7#a7 ,unless ! division is bas$ ^u a s+le gr\nd1 unless ea* species is bas$ ^u "s mode ( ! g5]ic "*1 confusion is almo/ c]ta9 to arise4 ,suppose ! field to be divid$1 ! objects to be classifi$1 are ?ree-sid$ rectil9eal plane figures1 ea* gr\p mu/ be bas$ ^u "s modification ( ! ?ree sides4 ,divide !m into equilat]al1 isosceles1 & scal5e accord+ z ! ?ree sides are all ( equal l5g?1 or two ( equal l5g?1 or ea* ( diff]5t l5g?1 & y h a p]fect division4 ,simil>ly y c divide !m p]fectly accord+ to ! "* ( ! angles into acute-angl$1 "r-angl$ & obtuse-angl$4 ,b if y d n keep to a s+le basis1 z 9 divid+ !m into equilat]al1 isosceles1 scal5e1 & "r-angl$1 y h a cross-division4 ,! same triangle might be bo? "r-angl$ & isosceles4 7#b7 ,ov]lapp+1 h[ev]1 may be unavoidable 9 practice ow+ to ! nature ( ! objects4 ,!re may be objects 9 :i* ! divid+ *>act]s are n di/9ctly m>k$1 objects t possess ! diff]5tiae ( m ?an "o gr\p 9 a great] or less degree4 ,?+s are n always m>k$ (f f "o ano!r by h>d & fa/ l9es4 ,!y %ade into "o ano!r by imp]ceptible gradations4 ,a cle> sep>ation ( !m may be impossible4 ,9 t case y mu/ all[ a c]ta9 indet]m9ate m>g9 betwe5 y\r classes1 & sometimes x may be necess>y to put an object into m ?an "o class4 ,to insi/ t !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce unless a cle> dem>cation c be made is a fallacy4 ,a sophi/ical trick call$ ! ,sorites or ,heap f ! classical example ( x 0 bas$ ^u ?is difficulty ( draw+ %>p l9es ( def9ition4 ,assum+ t x is possible to say h[ _m /ones con/itute a heap1 y beg9 by ask+ :e!r ?ree /ones =m a heap4 ,if y\r respond5t says ,no1 y ask :e!r f\r /ones =m a heap1 !n five1 & s on & he is puzzl$ to say :5 ! addition ( a s+le /one makes t a heap :i* 0 n a heap be=e4 ,or y may beg9 by ask+ :e!r tw5ty /ones =m a heap1 !n n9ete51 !n eighte51 & s on1 ! difficulty be+ to say :5 :at 0 a heap ceases to be s4 ,:]e ! objects classifi$ are mix$ /ates or affections1 ! products ( int]act+ factors1 or diff]5tly int]lac$ or int]fus$ gr[?s f common roots1 z 9 ! case ( virtues1 or emotions1 or lit]>y qualities1 %>p dem>cations are impossible4 ,to di/+ui% betwe5 wit & hum\r1 or hum\r & pa?os1 or pa?os & sublimity is difficult because ! same composition may p>take ( m ?an "o "*4 ,! specific *>act]s _c be made rigidly exclusive "o ( ano!r4 ,ev5 9 ! natural sci5ces1 :]e ! individuals are concrete objects ( p]ception1 x may be difficult to decide 9 :i* ( two oppos$ gr\ps an object %\ld be includ$4 ,sydney ,smi? has commemorat$ ! p]plexities ( ,naturali/s ov] ! newly discov]$ animals & plants ( ,botany ,bay1 9 especial ) ! ,orni?oryn*us1--a quadrup$ z big z a l>ge cat1 ) ! eyes1 col\r1 & sk9 ( a mole1 & ! bill & web-feet ( a duck--puzzl+ ,dr4 ,%aw1 & r5d]+ ! latt] half ( 8 life mis]able1 f 8 utt] inability to det]m9e :e!r x 0 a bird or a bea/4 ,,iii4 ,! classes 9 any s*eme ( division %\ld be ( co-ord9ate rank4 ,! classes may be mutually exclusive1 & yet ! division imp]fect1 ow+ to _! n be+ ( equal rank4 ,?us 9 ! ord9>y division ( ! ,p>ts ( ,spee*1 p>ts1 t is1 ( a s5t5ce1 ,prepositions & ,conjunctions are n co-ord9ate 9 respect ( function1 :i* is ! basis ( ! division1 ) ,n\ns1 ,adjectives1 ,v]bs1 & ,adv]bs4 ,! preposition is a "p ( a phrase :i* s]ves ! same function z an adjective1 e4g41 royal army1 army ( ! k+2 x is ?us functionally "p ( a "p1 or a p>ticle4 ,s ) ! conjunction3 x also is a "p ( a "p1 i4e41 "p ( a clause s]v+ ! function ( adjective or adv]b4 ,,iv4 ,! basis ( division 7fundam5tum divisionis7 %\ld be an attribute admitt+ ( important diff]5ces4 ,! importance ( ! attribute *os5 z basis may v>y ) ! purpose ( ! division4 ,an attribute t is ( no importance 9 "o division1 may be important en\gh to be ! basis ( ano!r division4 ,?us 9 a division ( h\ses accord+ to _! ar*itectural attributes1 ! numb] ( w9d[s or ! r5t is ( little importance2 b if h\ses are tax$ or rat$ accord+ to ! numb] ( w9d[s or ! r5t1 ^! attributes become important en\gh to be a basis ( division = purposes ( taxation or rat+4 ,!y !n admit ( important diff]5ces4 ,t ! importance is relative to ! purpose ( ! division %\ld be borne 9 m9d because !re is a t5d5cy to reg>d attributes t are ( importance 9 any famili> or pre-em95t division z if !y _h an absolute importance4 ,9 %ort1 disreg>d ( ?is relativity is a fallacy to be gu>d$ aga9/4 ,9 ! sci5ces1 ! purpose be+ ! atta9m5t & pres]vation ( k1 ! objects ( /udy are divid$ s z to s]ve t purpose4 ,gr\ps mu/ be =m$ s z to br+ toge!r ! objects t h mo/ 9 common4 ,! "q1 ,:o are to be plac$ toge!r8 9 any arrangem5t = purposes ( /udy1 receives ! same answ] = individuals & = classes t h to be gr\p$ into high] classes1 namely1 ,^? t h mo/ 9 common4 ,?is is :at ,dr4 ,ba9 happily calls ! gold5 rule ( sci5tific classification3 ,( ! v>i\s gr\p+s ( resembl+ ?+s1 pref]5ce is giv5 to su* z h ! greate/ numb] ( attributes 9 common4 ,i slightly modify ,dr4 ,ba9's /atem5t3 he says ! mo/ num]\s & ! mo/ important attributes 9 common4 ,b = sci5tific purposes numb] ( attributes con/itutes importance1 z is well recognis$ by ,dr4 ,f[l] :5 he says t ! te/ ( importance 9 an attribute propos$ z a basis ( classification is ! numb] ( o!r attributes ( :i* x is an index or inv>iable accompanim5t4 ,?us 9 ,zoology ! squirrel1 ! rat1 & ! beav] are class$ toge!r z ,rod5ts1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 _! tee? & ! tee? ( o!r ,mammalia be+ ! basis ( division1 because ! diff]5ce 9 tee? is accompani$ by diff]5ces 9 _m o!r prop]ties4 ,s ! h$ge-hog1 ! %rew-m\se1 & ! mole1 ?\gh v unlike 9 outw>d appe>ance & habits1 are class$ toge!r z ,insectivora1 ! diff]5ce 9 :at !y fe$ on be+ accompani$ by a numb] ( o!r diff]5ces4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,,def9ition4 ,! ^w def9ition z us$ 9 ,logic %[s ! usual t5d5cy ( words to w&] f a /rict mean+ & become ambigu\s4 ,?r\gh\t mo/ ( its uses x reta9s ?is mu* ( a common signification1 ! fix+ or det]m9+ ( ! b\nd>ies ( a class#c by mak+ cle> its con/itu5t attributes4 ,n[ 9 ?is mak+ cle> two processes may be di/+ui%$1 a mat]ial process & a v]bal process4 ,we h 7#a7 ! cle>+ up ( ! common attributes by a c>eful exam9ation ( ! objects includ$ 9 ! class3 & we h 7#b7 ! /atem5t ( ^! common attributes 9 language4 ,! rules ( def9ition giv5 by ,dr4 ,ba91 :o devotes a sep>ate ,book 9 8 ,logic to ! subject ( ,def9ition1 conc]n ! fir/ ( ^! processes3 ! rules m commonly giv5 conc]n ma9ly ! second4 ,"o em95t m]it 9 ,dr4 ,ba9's treatm5t is t x recognises ! close connexion betwe5 ,def9ition & ,classification4 ,8 c>d9al rules are r$uc$ to two4 ,i4 ,assemble = comp>ison repres5tative individuals ( ! class4 ,,ii4 ,assemble = comp>ison repres5tative individuals ( ! contra/$ class or classes4 ,see+ t ! contra/$ classes are contra/$ on "s basis ( division1 ?is is 9 effect to recognise t y _c cle>ly def9e any class except 9 a s*eme ( classification4 ,y mu/ h a wide g5us ) its fundam5tum divisionis1 &1 )9 ?is1 species di/+ui%$ by _! sev]al diff]5tiae4 ,next1 z to ! v]bal process1 rules are commonly laid d[n mo/ly ( a trifl+ & obvi\s "*4 ,t a def9ition %\ld /ate nei!r m nor less ?an ! common attributes ( ! class1 or ?an ! attributes signifi$ by ! class-"n1 is sometimes giv5 z a rule ( def9ition4 ,?is is really an explanation ( :at a def9ition is1 a def9ition ( a def9ition4 ,& z f> z m]e /atem5t goes x is n /rictly accurate1 = :5 ! attributes ( a g5us are kn[n x is n necess>y to give all ! attributes ( ! species1 :i* include ! g5]ic attributes z well1 b x is suffici5t to give ! g5]ic "n & ! diff]5tia4 ,?us ,poetry may be def9$ z a ,f9e ,art hav+ metrical language z its in/rum5t4 ,?is is te*nically kn[n z def9ition p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 ,?is mode ( /atem5t is a recognition ( ! connexion betwe5 ,def9ition & ,division4 ,! rule t a def9ition %\ld n be a synonym\s repetition ( ! "n ( ! class to be def9$1 is too obvi\s to require =mal /atem5t4 ,to describe a ,vic]oy z a man :o ex]cises vic]egal functions1 may h po9t z an epigram 9 ! case ( a fa9eant vic]oy1 b x is n a def9ition4 ,s ) ! rule t a def9ition %\ld n be c\*$ 9 ambigu\s unfamili>1 or figurative language4 ,to call ! camel ! %ip ( ! des]t is a sugge/ive & lum9\s description ( a prop]ty1 b x is n a def9ition4 ,s ) ! noble description ( ,fai? z ! sub/ance ( ?+s hop$ =1 ! evid5ce ( ?+s n se54 ,b if "o wond]s :y s obvi\s a rule %\ld be laid d[n1 ! answ] is t x has its hi/orical orig9 9 ! caprices ( two classes ( (f5d]s1 my/ical philosoph]s & pomp\s lexicograph]s4#d ,t ! def9ition %\ld be simply conv]tible ) ! t]m = ! class def9$1 s t we may say1 = example1 ei!r3 ,w9e is ! juice ( ! grape1 or1 ,! juice ( ! grape is w9e1 is an obvi\s coroll>y f ! nature ( def9ition1 b %\ld h>dly be dignifi$ ) ! "n ( a rule4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,,nam+4 ,rules h be5 =mulat$ = ! *oice ( names 9 sci5tific def9ition & classification1 b x may be d\bt$ :e!r su* *oice c be r$uc$ to precise rule4 ,x is en\gh to draw att5tion to c]ta9 consid]ations obvi\s en\gh on reflection4 ,we may take = grant$ t !re %\ld be di/9ct names = e def9+ attribute 7a ,t]m9ology7 & = e gr\p or class 7a ,nom5clature74 ,:at ab\t ! selection ( ! names8 ,suppose an inve/igator is /ruck ) lik5esses & diff]5ces t seem to him important en\gh to be ! basis ( a new division1 h[ %\ld he be guid$ 9 8 *oice ( names = ! new gr\ps t he proposes8 ,%\ld he co9 new names1 or %\ld he take old names & try to fit !m ) new def9itions8 ,! balance ( advantages is probably 9 fav\r ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's dictum t 9 fram+ sci5tific t]ms1 ! appropriation ( old words is pref]able to ! inv5tion ( new ones4 ,only c>e mu/ be tak5 to keep z close z possible to ! curr5t mean+ ( ! old ^w1 & n to run c\nt] to /rong associations4 ,?is is an obvi\s precept ) a view to avoid+ confusion4 ,suppose1 = example1 t 9 divid+ ,gov]nm5ts y take ! di/ribution ( political p[] z y\r basis ( division & come to ! conclusion t ! mo/ important diff]5ces are :e!r ?is p[] is ve/$ 9 a few or 9 ! majority ( ! community4 ,y want names to fix ?is broad division4 ,y decide in/ead ( co9+ ! new ^w ,poll>*y to express ! opposite ( ,olig>*y to use ! old words ,republic & ,olig>*y4 ,y w\ld f9d1 z ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis f\nd1 t h[ev] c>efully y def9$ ! ^w ,republic1 a division "u :i* ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t _h to be rank$ among ,republics w\ld n be g5]ally und]/ood & accept$4 ,us+ ! ^w 9 ! s5se expla9$ above1 ,mr4 ,bagehot ma9ta9$ t ! con/itution ( ,great ,brita9 0 m ,republican ?an t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b 8 mean+ 0 n tak5 except by a few4 ,! difficulty 9 *oos+ betwe5 new words & old words to express new mean+s is h>dly felt 9 ! exact sci5ces4 ,x is at lea/ at a m9imum4 ,! innovator may enc\nt] viol5t prejudice1 b1 argu+ ) exp]ts1 he c at lea/ make sure ( be+ und]/ood1 if 8 new division is bas$ ^u real & important diff]5ces4 ,b 9 o!r subjects ! difficulty ( transmitt+ tru? or ( express+ x 9 language suit$ = precise transmission1 is almo/ great] ?an ! difficulty ( arriv+ at tru?4 ,betwe5 new names & old names r$ef9$1 ! possessor ( fre% k1 assum+ x to be p]fectly v]ifi$1 is 9 a qu&>y4 ,! objects ) :i* he deals are already nam$ 9 accordance ) loose divisions re/+ on /rong prejudices4 ,! names 9 curr5t use are absolutely incapable ( convey+ 8 mean+4 ,he mu/ r$ef9e !m if he is to use !m4 ,b 9 t case he runs ! risk ( be+ misund]/ood f p be+ too impati5t to ma/] 8 r$ef9ition4 ,8 "r to r$ef9e may ev5 be *all5g$ )\t any ref]5ce to ! facts to be express$3 he may simply be accus$ ( circulat+ false l+ui/ic co91 ( debas+ ! v]bal curr5cy4 ,! o!r alt]native op5 to him is to co9 new words4 ,9 t case he runs ! risk ( n be+ read at all4 ,8 contribution to v]ifi$ k is pass$ by z p$antic & un9telligible4 ,!re is no simple rule ( safety3 betwe5 ,scylla & ,*>ybdis ! m>9] mu/ /e] z be/ he may4 ,practically ! advantage lies ) old words r$ef9$1 because !reby discussion is provok$ & discussion cle>s ! air4 ,:e!r x is be/ to attempt a =mal def9ition or to use words 9 a private1 peculi>1 or esot]ic s5se1 & leave ?is to be ga!r$ by ! read] f ! g5]al t5or ( y\r utt]ances1 is a "q ( policy outside ! limits ( ,logic4 ,x is = ! logician to exp\nd ! me?od ( ,def9ition & ! conditions ( its application3 h[ f> !re are subjects t d n admit ( its application pr(itably mu/ be decid$ on o!r gr\nds4 ,b x is probably true t no man :o decl9es to be b\nd by a =mal def9ition ( 8 t]ms is capable ( c>ry+ !m 9 a cle> unambigu\s s5se ?r\gh a heat$ controv]sy4 ,footnote #a3 ,except1 p]haps1 9 new (fices to :i* ! "n is ext5d$1 su* z ,cl]k ( ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,! "n1 be>+ its mo/ simple & common mean+1 may cause popul> misappreh5sion ( ! nature ( ! duties4 ,any unc]ta9ty 9 mean+ may be dang]\s 9 practice3 elections h be5 affect$ by ! ambiguity ( ?is ^w4 ,footnote #b3 ,sidgwick's ,political ,economy1 pp4 #eb-c4 ,ed4 #ahhc4 ,footnote #c3 ,"s logicians1 h[ev]1 speak ( def9+ a ?+1 & illu/rate ?is z if by a ?+ !y meant a concrete individual1 ! reali/ic treatm5t ( ,univ]sals l5d+ itself to su* expressions4 ,b ?\gh ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle might be claim$ = ?is1 x is bett] to conf9e ! "n 9 /rictness to ! ma9 process ( def9+ a class4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! me?od is ! same :e!r x is an individual or a class t we want to make di/9ct1 !re is no h>m 9 ! ext5sion ( ! ^w def9ition to bo? v>ieties4 ,see ,davidson's ,logic ( ,def9ition1 *ap4 ii4 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,davidson's ,logic ( ,def9ition1 *ap4 iii4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,five ,,pr$icables4--,,v]bal ,,& ,,real ,,pr$ication4 ,we give a sep>ate *apt] to ?is topic out ( respect = ! space t x occupies 9 ! hi/ory ( ,logic4 ,b except z an ex]cise 9 subtle di/9ction = its own sake1 all t falls to be said ab\t ! ,pr$icables might be giv5 z a simple app5dix to ! *apt] on ,def9ition4 ,prim>ily1 ! ,five ,pr$icables or ,heads ( ,pr$icables--,g5us1 ,species1 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5s--are n pr$icables at all1 b m]ely a li/ or enum]ation ( t]ms us$ 9 divid+ & def9+ on ! basis ( attributes4 ,!y h no mean+ except 9 connexion ) a fix$ s*eme ( division4 ,giv5 su* a s*eme1 & we c di/+ui% 9 x ! :ole to be divid$ 7! g5us71 ! subord9ate divisions 7! species71 ! attribute or comb9ation ( attributes on :i* ea* species is con/itut$ 7! diff]5tia71 & o!r attributes1 :i* belong to "s or all ( ! individuals b are n reckon$ = purposes ( division & def9ition 7,propria & ,accid5tia74 ,! li/ is n itself a logical division3 x is het]og5e\s1 n homog5e\s2 ! two fir/ are names ( classes1 ! ?ree la/ ( attributes4 ,b correspond+ to x we might make a homog5e\s division ( attributes1 z foll[s3-- ,attributes ,def9+ ,non-def9+ ,g5]ic ,specific ,proprium ,accid5s 7,diff]5tia7 ,! orig9 ( ! title ,pr$icables z appli$ to ^! five t]ms is curi\s1 & may be wor? not+ z an in/ance ( ! difficulty ( keep+ names precise1 & ( ! confusion aris+ f =gett+ ! purpose ( a "n4 ,porphyry 9 8 ,greek3 eisagoge or ,introduction expla9s ! five words 7,greek3 phonai7 simply z t]ms t x is useful = v>i\s purposes to "k1 expressly m5tion+ def9ition & division4 ,b he casually rem>ks t ,s+ul> names1 ,?is man1 ,socrates1 c be pr$icat$ only ( "o individual1 :]eas ,g5]a1 ,species1 ,diff]5tiae1 etc41 are pr$icables ( _m4 ,t is to say he describes !m z ,pr$icables simply by contradi/9ction f ,s+ul> names4 ,a "n1 h[ev]1 0 want$ = ! five t]ms tak5 all toge!r1 & s9ce !y are n a logical division1 b m]ely a li/ ( t]ms us$ 9 divid+ & def9+1 !re 0 no apt g5]al designation = !m su* z w\ld occur spontane\sly4 ,?us x became ! cu/om to ref] to !m z ! ,pr$icables1 a means ( ref]5ce to !m collectively be+ desid]at$1 :ile ! mean+ ( ?is descriptive title 0 =gott54 ,to call ! five divisional elem5ts or ,divisoria ,pr$icables is to pres5t !m z a division ( ,pr$icate ,t]ms on ! basis ( _! relation to ! ,subject ,t]m3 to sugge/ t e ,pr$icate ,t]m mu/ be ei!r a ,g5us or a ,species1 or a ,diff]5tia1 or a ,proprium1 or an ,accid5s ( ! ,subject ,t]m4 ,!y are sometimes criticis$ z su*1 & x is rightly po9t$ out t ! ,pr$icate is nev] a species ( or ) ref]5ce to ! ,subject4 ,b1 9 tru?1 ! five s-call$ ,pr$icables 7 nev] meant z a division ( pr$icates 9 relation to ! subject3 x is only ! title t makes ?is mislead+ sugge/ion4 ,to complete ! confusion x s happ5s t ,ari/otle us$ ?ree ( ! ,five t]ms 9 :at 0 virtually a division ( ,pr$icates inasmu* z x 0 a division ( ,problems or ,que/ions4 ,9 exp\nd+ ! me?ods ( ,dialectic 9 ! ,topica he divid$ ,problems into f\r classes accord+ to ! relation ( ! ,pr$icate to ! ,subject4 ,! ,pr$icate mu/ ei!r be simply conv]tible ) ! subject or n4 ,if simply conv]tible1 ! two mu/ be coext5sive1 & ! ,pr$icate mu/ be ei!r a ,proprium or ! ,def9ition4 ,if n simply conv]tible1 ! ,pr$icate mu/ ei!r be "p ( ! ,def9ition or n4 ,if "p ( ! ,def9ition x mu/ be ei!r a ,g5]ic ,prop]ty or a ,diff]5tia 7bo? ( :i* 9 ?is connexion ,ari/otle includes "u ,g5us73 if n "p ( ! ,def9ition1 x is an ,accid5t4 ,ari/otle ?us arrives at a f\rfold division ( ,problems or ,pr$icates3--,greek3 g5os 7,g5us1 includ+ ,diff]5tia1 ,greek3 diaphora72 ,greek3 horos 7,def9ition72 ,greek3 to idion 7,proprium72 & ,greek3 to symbebekos 7,accid5s74 ,! object ( x 0 to provide a basis = 8 sy/ematic exposition2 ea* ( ! f\r k9ds admitt$ ( diff]5ces 9 dialectic me?od4 ,= u x is a matt] ( simple curiosity & +5uity4 ,x s]ves z a monum5t ( h[ mu* ,greek dialectic turn$ on ,def9ition1 & x corresponds exactly to ! division ( attributes into ,def9+ & ,non-def9+ giv5 above4 ,x is sometimes said t ,ari/otle %[$ a m sci5tific m9d ?an ,porphyry 9 mak+ ! ,pr$icables f\r in/ead ( five4 ,?is is true if ,porphyry's li/ _h be5 meant z a division ( attributes3 b x 0 n s meant4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,,v]bal or ,,analytic & ,,real or ,,syn!tic ,pr$ication corresponds to ! di/9ction betwe5 ,def9+ & ,non-def9+ attributes1 & also has no significance except ) ref]5ce to "s s*eme ( ,division1 sci5tific & precise or loose & popul>4 ,:5 a proposition pr$icates ( a subject some?+ conta9$ 9 ! full notion1 concept1 or def9ition ( ! subject t]m1 x is call$ ,v]bal1 ,analytic1 or ,explicative3 v]bal1 inasmu* z x m]ely expla9s ! mean+ ( a "n2 explicative = ! same reason2 analytic1 inasmu* z x unties ! bundle ( attributes held toge!r 9 ! concept & pays out "o1 or all "o by "o4 ,:5 ! attributes ( ! ,pr$icate are n conta9$ 9 ! concept ( ! ,subject1 ! proposition is call$ ,real1 ,syn!tic1 or ,ampliative1 = p>allel reasons4 ,?us3 ,a triangle is a ?ree-sid$ rectil9e> figure is ,v]bal or ,analytic2 ,triangles h ?ree angles toge!r equal to two "r angles1 or ,triangles are /udi$ 9 s*ools1 is ,real or ,syn!tic4 ,accord+ to ?is di/9ction1 pr$ications ( ! :ole ,def9ition or ( a ,g5]ic attribute or ( a ,specific attribute are ,v]bal2 pr$ications ( ,accid5t are ,real4 ,a nice po9t is :e!r ,propria are ,v]bal or ,real4 ,!y c h>dly be class$ ) ,v]bal1 inasmu* z "o may "k ! full mean+ ( ! "n )\t kn[+ !m3 b x might be argu$ t !y are ,analytic1 inasmu* z !y are implicitly conta9$ 9 ! def9+ attributes z be+ d$ucible f !m4 ,obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! :ole di/9ction is really valid only 9 relation to "s fix$ or accept$ s*eme ( classification or division4 ,o!rwise1 :at is ,v]bal or ,analytic to "o man may be ,real or ,syn!tic to ano!r4 ,x might ev5 be argu$ t e proposition is ,analytic to ! man :o utt]s x & ,syn!tic to ! man :o receives x4 ,we mu/ make "s analysis ( a :ole ( ?\ght be=e pay+ x out 9 words3 & 9 ! process ( appreh5d+ ! mean+ ( :at we he> or read we mu/ add ! o!r memb]s ( ! s5t5ce on to ! subject4 ,:e!r or n ?is is sup]-subtle1 x cle>ly holds good t :at is ,v]bal 79 ! s5se def9$7 to ! le>n$ man ( sci5ce may be ,real to ! le>n]4 ,t ! horse has six incisors 9 ea* jaw or t ! dome/ic dog has a curly tail1 is a ,v]bal ,proposition to ! ,natural ,hi/orian1 a m]e exposition ( def9+ m>ks2 b ! pla9 man has a notion ( horse or dog into :i* ?is def9+ attribute does n ent]1 & to him accord+ly ! proposition is ,real4 ,b :at ( propositions t ! pla9 man w\ld at once recognise z ,v]bal8 ,*>les ,lamb1 = example1 rem>ks t ! /atem5t t a good "n %[s ! e/imation 9 :i* a man is held 9 ! _w is a v]bal proposition4 ,:]e is ! fix$ s*eme ( division !re8 ,! answ] is t by a fix$ s*eme ( division we d n necess>ily mean a s*eme t is rigidly1 def9itely & precisely fix$4 ,to make su* s*emes is ! bus9ess ( ,sci5ce4 ,b ! ord9>y vocabul>y ( common int]c\rse z a matt] ( fact proce$s ^u s*emes ( division1 ?\gh ! names us$ 9 common spee* are n always sci5tifically accurate1 n always ! be/ t c\ld be devis$ = ! easy acquisition & sure transmission ( ?or\gh k4 ,! pla9 man's vocabul>y1 ?\gh (t5 twi/$ aside by su* causes z we h specifi$1 is r\ghly m\ld$ on ! mo/ m>k$ di/+ui%+ attributes ( ?+s4 ,?is 0 practically recognis$ by ,ari/otle :5 he made "o ( 8 modes ( def9ition consi/ 9 some?+ l :at we h call$ v]ify+ ! mean+ ( a "n1 asc]ta9+ ! attributes t x signifies 9 common spee* or 9 ! spee* ( s5sible m54 ,?is is to asc]ta9 ! ess5ce1 ,greek3 ousia1 or ,sub/antia1 ( ?+s1 ! mo/ sali5t attributes t /rike ! common eye ei!r at once or aft] ! clos] inspection t comes ( long companion%ip1 & =m ! basis ( ! ord9>y vocabul>y4 ,prop]ly speak+1 ,mansel says1#a ,all ,def9ition is an inquiry into ,attributes4 ,our complex notions ( ,sub/ances c only be resolv$ into v>i\s ,attributes1 ) ! addition ( an unkn[n sub/ratum3 a some?+ to :i* we are compell$ to reg>d ^! attributes z belong+4 ,man1 = example1 is analys$ into ,animality1 ,rationality1 & ! some?+ :i* exhibits ^! ph5om5a4 ,pursue ! analysis & ! result is ! same4 ,we h a some?+ corporeal1 animat$1 s5sible1 rational4 ,an unkn[n con/ant mu/ always be add$ to complete ! integration4 ,?is unkn[n con/ant 0 :at ,locke call$ ! ,real ,ess5ce1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ,nom9al ,ess5ce1 or complex ( attributes4 ,x is ^u ?is nom9al ess5ce1 ^u divisions ( ?+s accord+ to attributes1 t common spee* re/s1 & if x involves _m cross-divisions1 ?is is because ! divisions h be5 made = limit$ & conflict+ purposes4 ,footnote #a3 ,aldri*'s ,comp5dium1 ,app5dix1 ,note ,c4 ,! read] may be ref]r$ to ,mansel's ,notes ,a & ,c = valuable hi/orical notices ( ! ,pr$icables & ,def9ition4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,ari/otle',s ,,categories4 ,9 def]5ce to tradition a place mu/ be f\nd 9 e logical treatise = ,ari/otle's ,categories4 ,no writ+ ( ! same l5g? has ex]cis$ a ti! ( its influ5ce on human ?\ght4 ,x gov]n$ s*ola/ic ?\ght & expression = _m c5turies1 be+ f its %ortness & consequ5t eas9ess ( transcription "o ( ! few books 9 e educat$ man's libr>y4 ,x /ill regulates ! subdivisions ( ,p>ts ( ,spee* 9 our gramm>s4 ,its univ]sality ( acceptance is %[n 9 ! fact t ! words category 7,greek3 kategoria7 & pr$icam5t1 its ,lat9 translation1 h pass$ into common spee*4 ,! ,categories h be5 mu* criticis$ & (t5 condemn$ z a division1 b1 /range to say1 few h inquir$ :at !y orig9ally pr(ess$ to be a division (1 or :at 0 ! orig9al au?or's basis ( division4 ,:e!r ! basis is itself important1 is ano!r "q3 b to call ! division imp]fect1 )\t ref]5ce to ! au?or's int5tion1 is m]ely confus+1 & s]ves only to illu/rate ! fact t ! same objects may be diff]5tly divid$ on diff]5t pr9ciples ( division4 ,ramus 0 "r 9 say+ t ! ,categories _h no logical significance1 inasmu* z !y c\ld n be made a basis = dep>tm5ts ( logical me?od2 & ,kant & ,mill 9 say+ t !y _h no philosophical significance1 inasmu* z !y are f\nd$ ^u no !ory ( ,kn[+ & ,be+3 b ?is is to condemn !m = n be+ :at !y 7 nev] int5d$ to be4 ,! s5t5ce 9 :i* ,ari/otle /ates ! objects to be divid$1 & 8 division ( !m is s brief & bold t be>+ 9 m9d ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! ,categories1 "o fir/ comes ^u x ) a c]ta9 surprise4 ,he says simply3-- ,( ?+s express$ )\t syntax 7i4e41 s+le words71 ea* signifies ei!r sub/ance1 or quantity1 or quality1 or relation1 or place1 or "t1 or disposition 7i4e41 attitude or int]nal arrangem5t71 or appurt5ance1 or action 7do+71 or suff]+ 7be+ done to74#a ,! objects1 !n1 t ,ari/otle propos$ to classify 7 s+le words 7! !mata simplicia ( ! ,s*oolm574 ,he expla9s t by out ( syntax 7,greek3 aneu symplokes7 he means )\t ref]5ce to tru? or falsehood3 !re c be no decl>ation ( tru? or falsehood )\t a s5t5ce1 a comb9ation1 or syntax3 man runs is ei!r true or false1 man by itself1 runs by itself1 is nei!r4 ,8 division1 !re=e1 0 a division ( s+le words accord+ to _! diff]5ces ( signification1 & )\t ref]5ce to ! tru? or falsehood ( _! pr$ication4#b ,signification 0 ?us ! basis ( division4 ,b accord+ to :at diff]5ces8 ,! ,categories !mselves are s ab/ract t ?is "q might be discuss$ on _! b>e titles int]m9ably4 ,b (t5 :5 ab/ract t]ms are d\btful1 an au?or's int5tion may be ga!r$ f 8 examples4 ,& :5 ,ari/otle's examples are rang$ 9 a table1 c]ta9 pr9ciples ( subdivision leap to ! eyes4 ,?us3-- ,sub/ance ,man ,,common ,sub/ance 7,greek3 ousia7 7,greek3 an?ropos7 ,,n\n 7,sub/antia7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,quantity ,five-feet-five 7,greek3 poson7 7,greek3 tripe*u7 7,quantitas7 ,quality ,s*ol>ly ,p]man5t 7,greek3 poion7 7,greek3 grammatikon7 ,,adjective ,attribute 7,qualitas7 ,relation ,bigg] 7,greek3 pros ti7 7,greek3 meizon7 7,relatio7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,place ,9-!-,lyceum 7,greek3 p\7 7,greek3 en ,lykeio7 7,ubi7 ,,adv]b ,tempor>y ,"t ,ye/]day ,attribute 7,greek3 pote7 7,greek3 *!s7 7,qu&o7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,disposition ,recl9es 7,greek3 kei/hai7 7,greek3 anakeitai7 7,positio7 ,appurt5ance ,has-%oes-on 7,greek3 e*e97 7,greek3 hypod$etai7 7,habitus7 ,,v]b ,action ,cuts ,tempor>y 7,greek3 poie97 7,greek3 temnei7 ,attribute 7,actio7 ,passion ,is cut 7,greek3 pas*e97 7,greek3 temnetai7 7,passio7 ,9 look+ at ! examples1 our fir/ impression is t ,ari/otle has fall5 into a confusion4 ,he pr(esses to classify words out ( syntax1 yet he gives words ) ! m>ks ( syntax on !m4 ,?us 8 division is accid5tally grammatical1 a division ( p>ts ( spee*1 p>ts ( a s5t5ce1 into ,n\ns1 ,adjectives1 ,adv]bs1 & ,v]bs4 ,& 8 subdivisions ( ^! p>ts are /ill foll[$ 9 our gramm>s4 ,b really x is n ! grammatical function t he att5ds to1 b ! signification3 & look+ fur!r at ! examples1 we see :at diff]5ces ( signification he _h 9 8 m9d4 ,x is diff]5ces relative to a concrete individual1 diff]5ces 9 ! words appli$ to him accord+ z !y signify ! sub/ance ( him or 8 attributes1 p]man5t or tempor>y4 ,take any concrete ?+1 ,socrates1 ?is book1 ?is table4 ,x mu/ be "s k9d ( a ?+1 a man1 a book4 ,x mu/ h "s size or quantity1 six feet high1 ?ree in*es broad4 ,x mu/ h "s quality1 :ite1 le>n$1 h>d4 ,x mu/ h relations ) o!r ?+s1 half ?is1 d\ble t1 ! son ( a fa!r4 ,x mu/ be some:]e1 at "s "t1 9 "s attitude1 ) "s hav+s1 app5dages1 appurt5ances1 or belong+s1 do+ some?+1 or hav+ some?+ done to x4 ,c y conceive any "n 7simple or composite7 applicable to any object ( p]ception1 ^: signification does n fall into "o or o!r ( ^! classes8 ,if y _c1 ! categories are ju/ifi$ z an exhau/ive division ( significations4 ,!y are a complete li/ ( ! mo/ g5]al resemblances among individual ?+s1 9 o!r words1 ( ! summa g5]a1 ! g5]a g5]alissima ( pr$icates conc]n+ ?is1 t or ! o!r concrete individual4 ,no individual ?+ is sui g5]is3 ev]y?+ is l o!r ?+s3 ! categories are ! mo/ g5]al lik5esses4 ,! categories are exhau/ive1 b d !y fulfil ano!r requisite ( a good division--are !y mutually exclusive8 ,ari/otle himself rais$ ?is "q1 & "s ( 8 answ]s to difficulties are in/ructive4 ,p>ticul>ly 8 discussion ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ,second ,sub/ances or ,ess5ces & ,qualities4 ,"h he approximates to ! mod]n doctr9e ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ,sub/ance & ,attribute z set =? 9 our quotation f ,mansel at p4 #aaj4 ,ari/otle's ,second ,ess5ces 7,greek3 deut]ai ousiai7 are common n\ns or g5]al names1 ,species & ,g5]a1 man1 horse1 animal1 z di/+ui%$ f ,s+ul> names1 ?is man1 ?is horse1 :i* he calls ,fir/ ,sub/ances 7,greek3 protai ousiai71 ess5ces p> excell5ce1 to :i* real exi/5ce 9 ! highe/ s5se is attribut$4 ,common n\ns are put 9 ! ,fir/ ,category because !y are pr$icat$ 9 answ] to ! "q1 ,:at is ?is8 ,b he raises ! difficulty :e!r !y may n r be reg>d$ z be+ 9 ! ,?ird ,category1 t ( ,quality 7,greek3 to poion74 ,:5 we say1 ,?is is a man1 d we n decl>e :at sort ( a ?+ he is8 d we n decl>e 8 ,quality8 ,if ,ari/otle _h gone f>!r along ?is l9e1 he w\ld h arriv$ at ! mod]n po9t ( view t a man is a man 9 virtue ( 8 possess+ c]ta9 attributes1 t g5]al names are appli$ 9 virtue ( _! connotation4 ,?is w\ld h be5 to make ! l9e ( di/9ction betwe5 ! ,fir/ ,category & ! ,?ird pass betwe5 ,fir/ ,ess5ce & ,second1 rank+ ! ,second ,ess5ces ) ,qualities4 ,b ,ari/otle did n get out ( ! difficulty 9 ?is way4 ,he solv$ x by fall+ back on ! diff]5ces 9 common spee*4 ,man does n signify ! quality simply1 z :it5ess does4 ,:it5ess signifies no?+ b ! quality4 ,t is to say1 !re is no sep>ate "n 9 common spee* = ! common attributes ( man4 ,8 fur!r obscure rem>k t g5]al names def9e quality r\nd ess5ce ,greek3 p]i ousian1 inasmu* z !y signify :at sort a c]ta9 ess5ce is1 & t g5]a make ?is def9ition m widely ?an species1 bore fruit 9 ! m$iaeval discussions betwe5 ,reali/s & ,nom9ali/s by :i* ! signification ( g5]al names 0 cle>$ up4 ,ano!r difficulty ab\t ! mutual exclusiv5ess ( ! ,categories 0 />t$ by ,ari/otle 9 connexion ) ! ,f\r? ,category1 ,relation 7,greek3 pros ti ,ad aliquid1 ,to some?+74 ,mill rem>ks t t c\ld n be a v compreh5sive view ( ! nature ( ,relation :i* w\ld exclude action1 passivity1 & local situation f t ,category1 & _m comm5tators1 f ,simplicius d[n to ,hamilton1 h rem>k$ t all ! la/ six ,categories might be includ$ "u ,relation4 ,?is is s f> correct t ! ^w ,relation is "o ( ! vague/ & mo/ ext5sive ( words2 b ! criticism ignores ! /rictness ) :i* ,ari/otle conf9$ himself 9 8 ,categories to ! =ms ( common spee*4 ,x is cle> f 8 examples t 9 8 ,f\r? ,category he 0 ?9k+ only ( relation z def9itely express$ 9 common spee*4 ,9 8 mean+1 any ^w is a relative :i* is jo9$ ) ano!r 9 a s5t5ce by means ( a preposition or a case-inflection4 ,?us disposition is a relative3 x is ! disposition ( some?+4 ,?is k9d ( relation is p]fect :5 ! relat$ t]ms reciprocate grammatically2 ?us ma/]1 s]vant1 s9ce we c say ei!r ! ma/] ( ! s]vant1 or ! s]vant ( ! ma/]4 ,9 m$iaeval logic ! t]m ,relata 0 conf9$ to ^! p]fect cases1 b ! ,category _h a wid] scope ) ,ari/otle4 ,& he expressly rais$ ! "q :e!r a ^w might n h z mu* "r to be put 9 ano!r ,category z 9 ?is4 ,inde$1 he w5t fur!r ?an 8 critics 9 8 sugge/ions ( :at ,relation might be made to include4 ,?us3 big signifies ,quality2 yet a ?+ is big ) ref]5ce to some?+ else1 & is s f> a ,relative4 ,k mu/ be k ( some?+1 & is a relative3 :y !n %\ld we put kn[+ 7i4e41 le>n$7 9 ! ,category ( ,quality4 ,hope is a relative1 z be+ ! hope ( a man & ! hope ( some?+4 ,yet we say1 ,i h hope1 & !re hope w\ld be 9 ! category ( ,hav+1 ,appurt5ance4 ,= ! solution ( all su* difficulties1 ,ari/otle falls back ^u ! =ms ( common spee*1 & decides ! place ( words 9 8 categories accord+ to !m4 ,?is 0 h>dly consi/5t ) 8 proposal to deal ) sep>ate words out ( syntax1 if by ?is 0 meant any?+ m ?an deal+ ) !m )\t ref]5ce to tru? or falsehood4 ,he did n & c\ld n succe$ 9 deal+ ) sep>ate words o!rwise ?an z p>ts ( s5t5ces1 ow+ _! signification to _! position z p>ts ( a transi5t plexus ( ?\ght4 ,9 s f> z words h _! be+ 9 common spee*1 & x is _! be+ 9 ?is s5se t ,ari/otle consid]s 9 ! ,categories1 x is a transi5t be+4 ,:at be+ !y repres5t besides is1 9 ! words ( ,porphyry1 a v deep affair1 & "o t ne$s o!r & great] inve/igation4 ,footnote #a3 ,greek3 ton kata m$emian symplok5 legom5on heka/on etoi ousian sema9ei1 e poson1 e poion1 e pros ti1 e p\1 e pote1 e kei/hai1 e e*e91 e poie91 e pas*e94 7,categ4 ii4 #e47 ,footnote #b3 ,to describe ! ,categories z a grammatical division1 z ,mansel does 9 8 in/ructive ,app5dix ,c to ,aldri*1 is a little mislead+ )\t a qualification4 ,!y are non-logical inasmu* z !y h no be>+ on any logical purpose4 ,b !y are grammatical only 9 s f> z !y are conc]n$ ) words4 ,!y are n grammatical 9 ! s5se ( be+ conc]n$ ) ! function ( words 9 pr$ication4 ,! unit ( gramm> 9 ?is s5se is ! s5t5ce1 a comb9ation ( words 9 syntax2 & x is expressly ) words out ( syntax t ,ari/otle deals1 ) s+le words n 9 relation to ! o!r p>ts ( a s5t5ce1 b 9 relation to ! ?+s signifi$4 ,9 any /rict def9ition ( ! prov9ces ( ,gramm> & ,logic1 ! ,categories are nei!r grammatical nor logical3 ! gramm>ians h appropriat$ !m = ! subdivision ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! s5t5ce1 b ) no m "r ?an ! logicians4 ,!y really =m a treatise by !mselves1 :i* is 9 ! ma9 ontological1 a discussion ( sub/ances & attributes z und]ly+ ! =ms ( common spee*4 ,9 say+ ?is ,i use ! ^w sub/ance 9 ! mod]n s5se3 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,ari/otle's ,greek3 ousia1 translat$ sub/antia1 cov]$ ! ^w z well z ! ?+ signifi$1 & t 8 ,categories are prim>ily classes ( words4 ,! union betwe5 names & ?+s w\ld seem to h be5 clos] 9 ! ,greek m9d ?an we c n[ realise4 ,to get at x we mu/ note t e sep>ate ^w ,greek3 to legom5on is conceiv$ z hav+ a be+ or ?+ ,greek3 to on correspond+ to x1 s t be+s or ?+s ,greek3 ta onta are coext5sive ) s+le words3 a be+ or ?+ is :atev] receives a sep>ate "n4 ,?is is cle> & simple en\gh1 b p]plexity beg9s :5 we try to di/+ui% betwe5 ?is nameable be+ & concrete be+1 :i* la/ is ,ari/otle's category ( ,greek3 ousia1 ! be+ signifi$ by a ,prop] or a ,common z di/+ui%$ f an ,ab/ract ,n\n4 ,z we %all see1 x is relatively to ! highe/ s5se ( ?is la/ k9d ( be+1 namely1 ! be+ signifi$ by a ,prop] "n1 t he consid]s ! o!r k9ds ( be+4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,controv]sy ,,ab\t ,,univ]sals4--,,difficulties ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,g5]al ,,names ,,to ,,?\ght ,,& ,,to ,,reality4 ,9 ! op5+ s5t5ces ( 8 ,isagoge1 be=e giv+ 8 simple explanation ( ! ,five ,pr$icables1 ,porphyry m5tions c]ta9 que/ions conc]n+ ,g5]a & ,species1 :i* he passes ov] z be+ too difficult = ! beg9n]4 ,conc]n+ g5]a & species1 he says1 ! "q :e!r !y subsi/ 7i4e41 h real sub/ance71 or :e!r !y lie 9 ! m]e ?\ghts only1 or :e!r1 grant+ !m to subsi/1 !y are corporeal or incorporeal1 or :e!r !y subsi/ ap>t1 or 9 s5sible ?+s & coh]+ r\nd !m--?is ,i %all pass ov]1 su* a "q be+ a v deep affair & "o t ne$s o!r & great] inve/igation4 ,?is passage1 writt5 ab\t ! end ( ! ?ird c5tury1 ,a4,d41 is a k9d ( i/hmus betwe5 ,greek ,philosophy & ,m$iaeval3 x summ>ises que/ions :i* _h be5 turn$ ov] on e side & mo/ intricately discuss$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle & _! successors1 & ! bald summ>y became a />t+-po9t = equally intricate discussions among ! ,s*oolm51 among :om e conceivable v>iety ( doctr9e f\nd *ampions4 ,! dispute became kn[n z ! dispute ab\t ,univ]sals1 & ?ree ultra-typical =ms ( doctr9e 7 develop$1 kn[n respectively z ,realism1 ,nom9alism1 & ,conceptualism4 ,und\bt$ly ! dispute1 ) all its wa/e ( +5uity1 _h a cle>+ effect1 & we may fairly try n[ :at ,porphyry %rank f1 to ga!r "s simple results = ! bett] und]/&+ ( g5]al names & _! relations to ?\ghts & to ?+s4 ,! rival s*ools _h ea* "s aspect ( ! g5]al "n 9 view1 :i* _! exagg]ation s]v$ to r5d] m di/9ct4 ,:at does a g5]al "n signify8 ,= logical purposes x is suffici5t to answ]--! po9ts ( resemblance z grasp$ 9 ! m9d1 fix$ by a "n applicable to ea* ( ! resembl+ individuals4 ,?is is ! signification ( ! g5]al "n logically1 its connotation or concept1 ! id5tical elem5t ( objective ref]5ce 9 all uses ( a g5]al "n4 ,b o!r que/ions may be ask$ t _c be s simply answ]$4 ,:at is ?is concept 9 ?\ght8 ,:at is !re 9 our m9ds correspond+ to ! g5]al "n :5 we utt] x8 ,h[ is its signification conceiv$8 ,:at is ! signification psy*ologically8 ,we may ask1 fur!r1 ,:at is !re 9 nature t ! g5]al "n signifies8 ,:at is its relation to reality8 ,:at corresponds to x 9 ! real _w8 ,has ! unity t x repres5ts among individuals no exi/5ce except 9 ! m9d8 ,call+ ?is unity1 ?is "o 9 ! _m1 ! ,univ]sal 7,univ]sale1 ,greek3 to pan71 :at is ! ,univ]sal ontologically8 ,x 0 ?is ontological "q t 0 s hotly & bewild]+ly debat$ among ! ,s*oolm54 ,be=e giv+ ! ultra-typical answ]s to x1 x may be well to note h[ ?is "q 0 mix$ up ) /ill o!r que/ions ( ,!ology & ,cosmogony4 ,recognis+ t !re is a unity signifi$ by ! g5]al "n1 we may g on to inquire into ! gr\nd ( ! unity4 ,:y are ?+s ess5tially l "o ano!r8 ,h[ is ! unity ma9ta9$8 ,h[ is x cont9u$8 ,:]e does ! common patt]n come f8 ,! "q ( ! nature ( ! ,univ]sal ?us l9ks itself ) metaphysical !ories ( ! con/ruction ( ! _w1 or ev5 ) ! ,d>w9ian !ory ( ! orig9 ( species4 ,pass+ by ^! remot] que/ions1 we may give ! answ]s ( ! ?ree extreme s*ools to ! ontological "q1 ,:at is a ,univ]sal8 ,! answ] ( ! ,ultra-,reali/s1 broadly put1 0 t a ,univ]sal is a sub/ance hav+ an indep5d5t exi/5ce 9 nature4 ,( ! ,ultra-,nom9ali/s1 t ! ,univ]sal is a "n & no?+ else1 vox et praet]ea nihil2 t ?is "n is ! only unity among ! individuals ( a species1 all t !y h 9 common4 ,( ! ,ultra-,conceptuali/s1 t ! individuals h m 9 common ?an ! "n1 t !y h ! "n plus ! mean+1 vox significatio1 b t ! ,univ]sals1 ! g5]a & species1 exi/ only 9 ! m9d4 ,n[ ^! extreme doctr9es1 z lit]ally int]pret$ by oppon5ts1 are s easily refut$ & s manife/ly unt5able1 t x may be d\bt$ :e!r !y 7 ev] held by any ?9k]1 & !re=e ,i call !m ,ultra-,realism1 ,ultra-,nom9alism1 & ,ultra-,conceptualism4 ,!y are m]e exagg]ations or c>icatures1 set up by oppon5ts because !y c be easily knock$ d[n4 ,to ! ,ultra-,reali/s1 x is suffici5t to say t if !re exi/$ any:]e a sub/ance hav+ all ! common attributes ( a species & only ^!1 hav+ none ( ! attributes peculi> to any ( ! individuals ( t species1 correspond+ to ! g5]al "n z an individual corresponds to a ,prop] or ,s+ul> "n1 x w\ld n be ! ,univ]sal1 ! unity p]vad+ ! individuals1 b only ano!r individual4 ,to ! ,ultra-,nom9ali/s1 x is suffici5t to say t ! individuals mu/ h m 9 common ?an ! "n1 because ! "n is n appli$ arbitr>ily1 b on "s gr\nd4 ,! individuals mu/ h 9 common t on acc\nt ( :i* !y receive ! common "n3 to call !m by ! same "n is n to make !m ( ! same species4 ,to ! ,ultra-,conceptuali/s1 x is suffici5t to say t :5 we employ a g5]al "n1 z :5 we say ,socrates is a man1 we d n ref] to any pass+ ?\ght or /ate ( m9d1 b to c]ta9 attributes indep5d5t ( :at is pass+ 9 our m9ds4 ,we _c make a ?+ ( ?is or t species by m]ely ?9k+ ( x z su*4 ,! ultra-=ms ( ^! doctr9es are ?us easily %[n to be inadequate1 yet ea* ( ! ?ree1 ,realism1 ,nom9alism1 & ,conceptualism1 repres5ts a phase ( ! :ole tru?4 ,?us1 take ,realism4 ,al?\gh x is n true t !re is any?+ 9 reality correspond+ to ! g5]al "n su* z !re is correspond+ to ! s+ul> "n1 ! g5]al "n m]ely signify+ attributes ( :at ! s+ul> "n signifies1 x does n foll[1 z ! oppon5ts ( ,ultra-,realism ha/ily assume1 t !re is no?+ 9 ! real _w correspond+ to ! g5]al "n4 ,?ree s5ses may be p>ticul>is$ 9 :i* ,realism is ju/ifi$4 7#a7 ,! po9ts ( resemblance f :i* ! concept is =m$ are z real z ! individuals !mselves4 ,x is true 9 a s5se t x is our ?\ght t gives unity to ! individuals ( a class1 t ga!rs ! _m into "o1 & s f> ! ,conceptuali/s are "r4 ,/ill we %\ld n ga!r !m into "o if !y did n resemble "o ano!r3 t is ! reason :y we ?9k ( !m toge!r3 & ! respects 9 :i* !y resemble "o ano!r are z mu* indep5d5t ( u & our ?9k+ z ! individuals !mselves1 z mu* beyond ! p[] ( our ?\ght to *ange4 ,we mu/ g beh9d ! activity ( ! m9d 9 unify+ to ! reason = ! unification3 & ! gr\nd ( unity is f\nd 9 :at really exi/s4 ,we d n conf] ! unity3 we d n make all m5 or all dogs alike3 we f9d !m s4 ,! curly tails 9 a ?\s& dome/ic dogs1 :i* s]ve to di/+ui% !m f wolves & foxes1 are z real z ! ?\s& individual dome/ic dogs4 ,9 ?is s5se ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e1 ,univ]salia 9 re1 expresses a pla9 tru?4 7#b7 ,! ,platonic doctr9e1 =mulat$ by ! ,s*oolm5 z ,univ]salia ante rem1 has also a pla9 validity4 ,individuals come & g1 b ! type1 ! ,univ]sal1 is m abid+4 ,m5 are born & die3 man rema9s ?r\gh\t4 ,! sn[s ( la/ ye> h vani%$1 b sn[ is /ill a reality to be fac$4 ,wisdom does n p]i% ) ! wise m5 ( any g5]ation4 ,9 ?is pla9 s5se1 at lea/1 x is true t ,univ]sals exi/ be=e ,individuals1 h a great] p]man5ce1 or1 if we l to say s1 a high]1 z x is a m endur+1 reality4 7#c7 ,fur!r1 ! idea1 concept1 or univ]sal1 ?\gh x _c be sep>at$ f ! individual1 & :e!r or n we ascribe to x ! sep>ate supras5sual exi/5ce ( ! ar*etypal =ms ( ,plato's poetical fancy1 is a v pot5t factor 9 ! real _w4 ,ideals ( conduct1 ( mann]s1 ( art1 ( policy1 h a traditional life3 !y d n pass away ) ! individuals 9 :om !y h exi/$1 9 :om !y are tempor>ily mat]ialis$3 !y survive z pot5t influ5ces f age to age4 ,! idea ( ,*auc]'s ,man ( ,law1 :o always seem$ busi] ?an he 01 is /ill ) u4 ,m$iaeval conceptions ( *ivalry /ill gov]n conduct4 ,! ,univ]sal ent]s into ! ,individual1 takes possession ( him1 makes ( him its tempor>y manife/ation4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,nom9ali/s are "r 9 insi/+ on ! importance ( names4 ,:at we call ! real _w is a common object ( p]ception & k to y & me3 we _c arrive at a k ( x )\t "s means ( communication ) "o ano!r3 our means ( communication is language4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r ev5 ?9k+ c\ld g f> )\t symbols ) ! help ( :i* conceptions may be made def9ite4 ,a concept _c be expla9$ )\t ref]5ce to a symbol4 ,!re is ev5 a s5se 9 :i* ! ,ultra-,nom9ali/ doctr9e t ! individuals 9 a class h no?+ 9 common b ! "n is t5able4 ,d5otability by ! same "n is ! only respect 9 :i* ^? individuals are absolutely id5tical3 9 ?is s5se ! "n alone is common to !m1 ?\gh x is appli$ 9 virtue ( _! resemblance to "o ano!r4 ,f9ally1 ! ,conceptuali/s are "r 9 insi/+ on ! m9d's activity 9 connexion ) g5]al names4 ,g5]a & species are n m]e arbitr>y subjective collections3 ! union is det]m9$ by ! *>act]s ( ! ?+s collect$4 ,/ill x is ) ! concept 9 ea* man's m9d t ! "n is connect$3 x is by ! activity ( ?\ght 9 recognis+ lik5esses & =m+ concepts t we are able to ma/] ! div]sity ( our impressions1 to introduce unity into ! manifold ( s5se1 to r$uce our v>i\s recollections to ord] & coh]5ce4 ,s mu* = ! ,ontological "q4 ,n[ = ! ,,psy*ological4 ,:at is 9 ! m9d :5 we employ a g5]al "n8 ,:at is ! ,univ]sal psy*ologically8 ,h[ is x conceiv$8 ,:at bre$s confusion 9 ^! subtle inquiries is ! want ( fix$ unambigu\s names = ! ?+s to be di/+ui%$4 ,x is only by means ( su* names t we c hold on to ! di/9ctions1 & keep f puzzl+ ourselves4 ,n[ !re are ?ree ?+s to be di/+ui%$ 9 ?is inquiry1 :i* we may call ! ,concept1 ! ,conception1 & ! ,conceptual or ,g5]ic ,image4 ,let u call !m by ^! names1 & proce$ to expla9 !m4 ,by ! ,concept1 ,i und]/& ! mean+ ( ! g5]al "n1 :at ! g5]al "n signifies3 by ! ,conception1 ! m5tal act or /ate ( him :o conceives ?is mean+4 ,! concept ( triangle1 i4e41 :at y & ,i mean by ! ^w1 is n my act ( m9d or y\r act ( m9d :5 we ?9k or speak ( a triangle4 ,! ,conception1 :i* is ?is act1 is an ev5t or incid5t 9 our m5tal hi/ory1 a psy*ical act or /ate1 a di/9ct occurr5ce1 a p>ticul> fact 9 "t z mu* z ! battle ( ,wat]loo4 ,! concept is ! objective ref]5ce ( ! "n1 :i* is ! same1 or at lea/ is und]/ood to be ! same1 e "t we use x4 ,i make a figure on pap] ) ink or on a blackbo>d ) *alk1 & recognise or conceive x z a triangle3 y also conceive x z su*3 we d ! same to-morr[3 we did ! same ye/]day3 ea* act ( conception is a diff]5t ev5t1 b ! concept is ! same ?r\gh\t4 ,n[ ! psy*ological "q ab\t ! ,univ]sal is1 ,:at is ?is conception8 ,we _c def9e x positively fur!r ?an by say+ t x consi/s 9 realis+ ! mean+ ( a g5]al "n3 ! act be+ unique1 we c only make x intelligible by produc+ an example ( x4 ,b we may def9e x negatively by di/+ui%+ x f ! conceptual image4 ,:5ev] we conceive any?+1 man1 horse1 !re is g5]ally pres5t to our m9ds an image ( a man or horse1 ) accid5ts ( size1 col\r1 position or o!r categories4 ,b ?is conceptual image is n ! concept1 & ! m5tal act ( =m+ x is n conception4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 m5tal pictur+ or imag+ & ! conception ( common attributes is v>i\sly express$4 ,! correlative t]ms ,intuitive & ,symbolical ,?9k+1 ,pres5tative & ,repres5tative ,k h be5 employ$4#a ,b :atev] t]ms we use1 ! di/9ction itself is vital1 & ! want ( x leads to confusion4 ,?us ! fact t we _c =m a conceptual image compos$ solely ( common attributes has be5 us$ to support ! argum5t ( ,ultra-,nom9alism1 t ! individuals class$ "u a common "n h no?+ 9 common b ! "n4 ,:at ! ^w dog signifies1 i4e41 ! concept ( dog1 is nei!r big nor little1 nei!r black nor tan1 nei!r "h nor !re1 nei!r ,newf\ndl&1 nor ,retriev]1 nor ,t]ri]1 nor ,greyh\nd1 nor ,pug1 nor ,bulldog4 ,! concept consi/s only ( ! attributes common to all dogs ap>t f any t are peculi> to any v>iety or any individual4 ,n[ we _c =m any su* conceptual image4 ,our conceptual image is always ( "s def9ite size & %ape4 ,!re=e1 x is argu$1 we _c conceive :at a dog means1 & dogs h no?+ 9 common b ! "n4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n foll[4 ,! concept is n ! conceptual image1 & =m+ ! image is n conception4 ,we may ev51 z 9 ! case ( a *iliagon1 or ?\s&-sid$ figure1 conceive ! mean+ )\t be+ able to =m any def9ite image4 ,h[ !n1 d we ord9>ily proce$ 9 conceiv+1 if we _c picture ! common attributes alone & ap>t f p>ticul>s8 ,we att5d1 or /rive to att5d1 only to ^? aspects ( an image :i* x has 9 common ) ! individual ?+s d5ot$4 ,& if we want to make our conception def9ite1 we pass 9 review an indef9ite numb] ( ! individuals1 case aft] case4 ,a m9or psy*ological "q conc]ns ! nature ( ! conceptual image4 ,is x a copy ( "s p>ticul> impression1 or a confus$ blur or bl5d ( _m8 ,possibly nei!r3 possibly x is some?+ l "o ( ,mr4 ,galton's composite photographs1 photographs produc$ by expos+ ! same surface to ! impressions ( a numb] ( diff]5t photographs 9 succession4 ,if ! individuals are ne>ly alike1 ! result is an image t is n an exact copy ( any "o ( ! compon5ts & yet is p]fectly di/9ct4 ,possibly ! image t comes into our m9d's eye :5 we he> su* a ^w z horse or man is ( ?is "*1 ! result ( ! impressions ( a numb] ( simil> ?+s1 b n id5tical ) any "o4 ,z1 h[ev]1 diff]5t p]sons h diff]5t conceptual images ( ! same concept1 s we may h diff]5t conceptual images at diff]5t times4 ,x is only ! concept t rema9s ! same4 ,b h[1 x may be ask$1 c ! concept rema9 ! same8 ,if ! univ]sal or concept psy*ologically is an intellectual act1 repeat$ e "t we conceive1 :at gu>antee h we = ! p]man5ce ( ! concept8 ,does ?is !ory n d away ) all possibility ( def9+ & fix+ concepts8 ,?is br+s u back to ! doctr9e already laid d[n ab\t ! tru? ( ,realism4 ,! !ory ( ! concept is n exhau/$ :5 x is view$ only psy*ologically1 z a psy*ic act4 ,if we w\ld und]/& x fully1 we mu/ consid] ! act 9 its relations to ! real exp]i5ce ( ourselves & o!rs4 ,to fix ?is act1 we give x a sep>ate "n1 call+ x ! conception3 & !n we mu/ g beh9d ! activity ( ! m9d to ! objects on :i* x is ex]cis$4 ,! elem5t ( fixity is f\nd 9 !m4 ,& "h also ! tru? ( ,nom9alism comes 94 ,by means ( words we ent] into communication ) o!r m9ds4 ,x is ?us t we discov] :at is real1 & :at is m]ely p]sonal to ourselves4 ,footnote #a3 ,! only objection to ^! t]ms is t !y h slipp$ f _! moor+s 9 philosophical usage4 ,?us in/ead ( ,leibnitz's use ( ,intuitive & ,symbolical1 :i* corresponds to ! above di/9ction betwe5 ,imag+ & ,conception1 ,mr4 ,jevons employs ! t]ms to express a di/9ction among conceptions prop]4 ,we c und]/& :at a *iliagon means1 b we _c =m an image ( x 9 our m9ds1 except 9 a v confus$ & imp]fect way2 :]eas we c =m a di/9ct image ( a triangle4 ,mr4 ,jevons w\ld call ! conception ( ! triangle ,intuitive1 ( ! *iliagon ,symbolical4 ,aga91 :ile ,mansel uses ! words ,pres5tative & ,repres5tative to express our di/9ction1 a m common usage is to call actual ,p]ception ,pres5tative ,k1 & ideation or recollection 9 idea ,repres5tative4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,( ,,propositions4--,,opposition ,,& ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,pr$ication4--,,!ories ,,( ,,judgm5t4 ,we may n[ return to ! ,syllogi/ic ,=ms1 & ! consid]ation ( ! compatibility or incompatibility1 implication1 & int]dep5d5ce ( propositions4 ,x 0 to make ?is consid]ation cle> & simple t :at we h call$ ! ,syllogi/ic ,=m ( propositions 0 devis$4 ,:5 are propositions incompatible8 ,:5 d !y imply "o ano!r8 ,:5 d two imply a ?ird8 ,we h se5 9 ! ,introduction h[ su* que/ions 7 =c$ ^u ,ari/otle by ! disputative habits ( 8 "t4 ,x 0 to facilitate ! answ] t he analys$ propositions into ,subject & ,pr$icate1 & view$ ! ,pr$icate z a ref]5ce to a class3 9 o!r words1 analys$ ! ,pr$icate fur!r into a ,copula & a ,class ,t]m4 ,b be=e %[+ h[ he exhibit$ ! int]connexion ( propositions on ?is plan1 we may turn aside to consid] v>i\s s-call$ ,!ories ( ,pr$ication or ( ,judgm5t4 ,/rictly speak+1 !y are n altoge!r relevant to ,logic1 t is to say1 z a practical sci5ce3 !y are p>tly logical1 p>tly psy*ological !ories3 "s ( !m h no be>+ :atev] on practice1 b are matt]s ( pure sci5tific curiosity3 b hi/orically !y are connect$ ) ! logical treatm5t ( propositions z hav+ be5 develop$ out ( ?is4 ,! lea/ confus+ way ( pres5t+ ^! !ories is to /ate !m & exam9e !m bo? logically & psy*ologically4 ,! logical "q is1 ,has ! view any advantage = logical purposes8 ,does x help to prev5t error1 to cle> up confusion8 ,does x lead to firm] conceptions ( ! tru?8 ,! psy*ological "q is1 ,is ?is a correct !ory ( h[ m5 actually ?9k :5 !y make propositions8 ,x is a "q ( :at is 9 ! "o case1 & ( :at ought to be = a c]ta9 purpose 9 ! o!r4 ,:e!r we speak ( ,proposition or ( ,judgm5t does n mat]ially affect our answ]4 ,a ,judgm5t is ! m5tal act accompany+ a ,proposition1 or t may be express$ 9 a proposition & _c be express$ o!rwise3 we c give no o!r intelligible def9ition or description ( a judgm5t4 ,s a proposition c only be def9$ z ! expression ( a judgm5t3 unless !re is a judgm5t und]nea? !m1 a =m ( words is n a proposition4 ,let u take1 !n1 ! diff]5t !ories 9 turn4 ,we %all f9d t !y are n really antagoni/ic1 b only diff]5t3 t ea* is sub/antially "r f its own po9t ( view3 & t !y seem to contradict "o ano!r only :5 ! po9t ( view is misund]/ood4 ,i4 ,t ! ,pr$icate t]m may be reg>d$ z a class 9 or f :i* ! ,subject is includ$ or exclud$4 ,kn[n z ! ,class-,inclusion1 ,class-,ref]5ce1 or ,d5otative view4 ,?is way ( analys+ propositions is possible1 z we h se51 because e /atem5t implies a g5]al "n1 & ! ext5sion or d5otation ( a g5]al "n is a class def9$ by ! common attribute or attributes4 ,x is useful = syllogi/ic purposes3 c]ta9 relations among propositions c be mo/ simply exhibit$ 9 ?is way4 ,b if ?is is call$ a ,!ory ( ,pr$ication or ,judgm5t1 & tak5 psy*ologically z a !ory ( :at is 9 m5's m9ds :5ev] !y utt] a significant ,s5t5ce1 x is manife/ly wrong4 ,:5 discuss$ z su*1 x is v prop]ly reject$4 ,:5 a man says ,p /ruck ,q1 he has n necess>ily a class ( /rik]s ( ,q def9itely 9 8 m9d4 ,:at he has 9 8 m9d is ! logical equival5t ( ?is1 b x is n ?is directly4 ,simil>ly1 ,mr4 ,bradley w\ld be q ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( ,two ,t]ms & a ,copula z a sup]/ition1 if x 7 meant t ^! analytic elem5ts are pres5t to ! m9d ( an ord9>y speak]4 ,,ii4 ,t e ,proposition may be reg>d$ z affirm+ or d5y+ an attribute ( a subject4 ,kn[n sometimes z ! ,connotative or ! ,d5otative-,connotative view4 ,?is also foll[s f ! implicit pres5ce ( a g5]al "n 9 e s5t5ce4 ,b x %\ld n be tak5 z mean+ t ! man :o says3 ,tom came "h ye/]day1 or ,james g5]ally sits !re1 has a cle>ly analys$ ,subject & ,attribute 9 8 m9d4 ,o!rwise x is z f> wrong z ! o!r view4 ,,iii4 ,t e proposition may be reg>d$ z an equation betwe5 two t]ms4 ,kn[n z ! ,equational ,view4 ,?is is obvi\sly n true = common spee* or ord9>y ?\ght4 ,b x is a possible way ( reg>d+ ! analytic compon5ts ( a proposition1 legitimate en\gh if x s]ves any purpose4 ,x is a modification ( ! ,class-,ref]5ce analysis1 obta9$ by :at is kn[n z ,quantification ( ! ,pr$icate4 ,9 ,all ,s is 9 ,p1 ,p is undi/ribut$1 & has no symbol ( ,quantity4 ,b s9ce ! proposition imports t ,all ,s is a "p ( ,p1 i4e41 ,"s ,p1 we may1 if we *oose1 prefix ! symbol ( ,quantity1 & !n ! proposition may be read ,all ,s ,"s ,p4 ,& s ) ! o!r =ms4 ,is !re any advantage 9 ?is8 ,yes3 x enables u to subject ! =mulae to algebraic manipulation4 ,b any logical advantage--any help to ?9k+8 ,none :atev]4 ,! elaborate syllogi/ic sy/ems ( ,boole1 ,de ,morgan1 & ,jevons are n ( ! slighte/ use 9 help+ m5 to reason correctly4 ,! value ascrib$ to !m is m]ely an illu/ration ( ! ,bias ( ,happy ,ex]cise4 ,!y are beautifully +5i\s1 b !y leave e record$ in/ance ( le>n$ ,s*ola/ic trifl+ miles beh9d4 ,,iv4 ,t e proposition is ! expression ( a comp>ison betwe5 concepts4 ,sometimes call$ ! ,conceptuali/ ,view4 ,to judge1 ,hamilton says1 is to recognise ! relation ( congru5ce or confliction 9 :i* two concepts1 two individual ?+s1 or a concept & an individual comp>$ toge!r /& to ea* o!r4 ,?is way ( reg>d+ propositions is p]missible or n accord+ to our int]pretation ( ! words congru5ce & confliction1 & ! ^w concept4 ,if by concept we mean a conceiv$ attribute ( a ?+1 & if by say+ t two concepts are congru5t or conflict+1 we mean t !y may or may n coh]e 9 ! same ?+1 & by say+ t a concept is congru5t or conflict+ ) an individual t x may or may n belong to t individual1 !n ! !ory is a coroll>y f ,ari/otle's analysis4 ,see+ t we mu/ pass ?r\gh t analysis to rea* x1 x is obvi\sly n a !ory ( ord9>y ?\ght1 b ( ! ?\ght ( a logician p]=m+ t analysis4 ,! precise po9t ( ,hamilton's !ory 0 t ! logician does n conc]n himself ) ! "q :e!r two concepts are or are n z a matt] ( fact f\nd 9 ! same subject1 b only ) ! "q :e!r !y are ( su* a "* t !y may be f\nd1 or _c be f\nd1 9 ! same subject4 ,9 s f> z 8 !ory is s\nd1 x is an ab/ruse & te*nical way ( say+ t we may consid] ! consi/5cy ( propositions )\t consid]+ :e!r or n !y are true1 & t consi/5cy is ! peculi> bus9ess ( syllogi/ic logic4 ,v4 ,t ! ultimate subject ( e judgm5t is reality4 ,?is is ! =m 9 :i* ,mr4 ,bradley & ,mr4 ,bosanquet d5y ! ,ultra-,conceptuali/ position4 ,! same view is express$ by ,mill :5 he says t propositions are conc]n$ ) ?+s & n ) our ideas ( !m4 ,! lea/ consid]ation %[s t !re is ju/ice 9 ! view ?us en\nc$4 ,take a numb] ( propositions3-- ,! /reets are wet4 ,george has blue eyes4 ,! ,e>? goes r\nd ! ,sun4 ,two & two make f\r4 ,obvi\sly1 9 any ( ^! propositions1 !re is a ref]5ce beyond ! conceptions 9 ! speak]'s m9d1 view$ m]ely z incid5ts 9 8 m5tal hi/ory4 ,!y express beliefs ab\t ?+s & ! relations among ?+s 9 r]um natura3 :5 any "o und]/&s !m & gives 8 ass5t to !m1 he nev] /ops to ?9k ( ! speak]'s /ate ( m9d1 b ( :at ! words repres5t4 ,:5 /ates ( m9d are spok5 (1 z :5 we say t our ideas are confus$1 or t a man's conception ( duty influ5ces 8 conduct1 ^? /ates ( m9d are view$ z objective facts 9 ! _w ( realities4 ,ev5 :5 we speak ( ?+s t h 9 a s5se no reality1 z :5 we say t a c5taur is a comb9ation ( man & horse1 or t c5taurs 7 fabl$ to live 9 ! vales ( ,!ssaly1 x is n ! pass+ /ate ( m9d express$ by ! speak] z su* t we att5d to or ?9k (2 we pass at once to ! objective ref]5ce ( ! words4 ,psy*ologically1 !n1 ! !ory is s\nd3 :at is its logical value8 ,x is sometimes put =w>d z if x 7 inconsi/5t ) ! ,class-ref]5ce !ory or ! !ory t judgm5t consi/s 9 a comp>ison ( concepts4 ,hi/orically ! orig9 ( its =mal /atem5t is its suppos$ opposition to ^? !ories4 ,b really x is only a misconception ( !m t x contradicts4 ,x is inconsi/5t ) ! ,class-ref]5ce view only if by a class we und]/& an arbitr>y subjective collection1 n a collection ( ?+s on ! gr\nd ( common attributes4 ,& x is inconsi/5t ) ! ,conceptuali/ !ory only if by a concept we und]/& n ! objective ref]5ce ( a g5]al "n1 b :at we h di/+ui%$ z a conception or a conceptual image4 ,! !ory t ! ultimate subject is reality is assum$ 9 bo? ! o!r !ories1 rightly und]/ood4 ,if e proposition is ! utt]ance ( a judgm5t1 & e proposition implies a g5]al "n1 & e g5]al "n has a mean+ or connotation1 & e su* mean+ is an attribute ( ?+s & n a m5tal /ate1 x is impli$ t ! ultimate subject ( e proposition is reality4 ,b we may consid] :e!r or n propositions are consi/5t )\t consid]+ :e!r or n !y are true1 & x is only _! mutual consi/5cy t is consid]$ 9 ! syllogi/ic =mulae4 ,?us1 :ile x is p]fectly correct to say t e proposition expresses ei!r tru? or falsehood1 or t ! *>act]i/ic quality ( a judgm5t is to be true or false1 x is none ! less correct to say t we may tempor>ily susp5d consid]ation ( tru? or falsehood1 & t ?is is done 9 :at is commonly kn[n z ,=mal ,logic4 ,,vi4 ,t e proposition may be reg>d$ z express+ relations betwe5 ph5om5a4 ,ba9 foll[s ,mill 9 treat+ ?is z ! f9al import ( ,pr$ication4 ,b he indicates m accurately ! logical value ( ?is view 9 speak+ ( x z important = lay+ out ! divisions ( ,inductive ,logic4 ,!y diff] slightly 9 _! li/s ( ,univ]sal ,pr$icates bas$ ^u ,import 9 ?is s5se--,mill's be+ ,resemblance1 ,coexi/5ce1 ,simple ,sequ5ce1 & ,causal ,sequ5ce1 & ,ba9's be+ ,coexi/5ce1 ,succession1 & ,equality or ,inequality4 ,b bo? lay /ress ^u ,coexi/5ce & ,succession1 & we %all f9d t ! di/9ctions betwe5 ,simple ,sequ5ce & ,causal ,sequ5ce1 & betwe5 ,repeat$ & ,occasional ,coexi/5ce1 are all-important 9 ! ,logic ( ,inve/igation4 ,b = syllogi/ic purposes ! di/9ctions h no relevance4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,opposition ,,( ,,propositions4--,,! ,,int]pretation ,,( ,,no4 ,propositions are te*nically said to be oppos$ :51 hav+ ! same t]ms 9 ,subject & ,pr$icate1 !y diff] 9 ,quantity1 or 9 ,quality1 or 9 bo?4#a ,! practical "q f :i* ! te*nical doctr9e has be5 develop$ 0 h[ to det]m9e ! significance ( contradiction4 ,:at is meant by giv+ ! answ] ,no to a proposition put int]rogatively8 ,:at is ! int]pretation ( ,no8 ,:at is ! respond5t committ$ to !reby8 ,h all ratepay]s a vote8 ,if y answ] ,no1 y are b\nd to admit t "s ratepay]s h n4 ,o is ! ,,contradictory ( ,a4 ,if ,a is false1 ,o mu/ be true4 ,s if y d5y ,o1 y are b\nd to admit ,a3 "o or o!r mu/ be true3 ei!r ,"s ratepay]s h n a vote or ,all h4 ,is x ! case t no man c live )\t sleep8 ,d5y ?is1 & y commit y\rself to ma9ta9+ t ,"s man1 "o at lea/1 c live )\t sleep4 ,i is ! ,contradictory ( ,e2 & vice v]sa4 ,contradictory opposition is di/+ui%$ f ,,contr>y1 ! opposition ( "o ,univ]sal to ano!r1 ( ,a to ,e & ,e to ,a4 ,!re is a natural t5d5cy to meet a /rong ass]tion ) ! v rev]se4 ,let x be ma9ta9$ t wom5 are ess5tially fai?less or t ! poor 9 a lump is bad1 & disputants are apt to meet ?is extreme ) ano!r1 t con/ancy is to be f\nd only 9 wom5 or true virtue only among ! poor4 ,bo? extremes1 bo? ,a & ,e1 may be false3 ! tru? may lie betwe53 ,"s are1 ,"s n4 ,logically1 ! d5ial ( ,a or ,e implies only ! admission ( ,o or ,i4 ,y are n committ$ to ! full contr>y4 ,b ! implication ( ! ,contradictory is absolute2 !re is no half-way h\se :]e ! tru? may reside4 ,h5ce ! "n ( ,,exclud$ ,,middle is appli$ to ! pr9ciple t ,( two ,contradictories "o or o!r mu/ be true3 !y _c bo? be false4 ,:ile bo? ,,contr>ies may be false1 !y _c bo? be true4 ,x is sometimes said t 9 ! case ( ,s+ul> propositions1 ! ,contradictory & ! ,contr>y co9cide4 ,a m correct doctr9e is t 9 ! case ( ,s+ul> propositions1 ! di/9ction is n ne$$ & does n apply4 ,put ! "q ,is ,socrates wise8 or ,is ?is pap] :ite8 & ! answ] ,no admits ( only "o int]pretation1 provid$ ! t]ms rema9 ! same4 ,socrates may become fooli%1 or ?is pap] may h]eaft] be col\r$ diff]5tly1 b 9 ei!r case ! subject t]m is n ! same ab\t :i* ! "q 0 ask$4 ,contr>y opposition belongs only to g5]al t]ms tak5 univ]sally z subjects4 ,conc]n+ individual subjects an attribute mu/ be ei!r affirm$ or d5i$ simply3 !re is no middle c\rse4 ,su* a proposition z ,socrates is sometimes n wise1 is n a true ,s+ul> proposition1 ?\gh x has a ,s+ul> t]m z grammatical subject4 ,logically1 x is a ,p>ticul> proposition1 ( :i* ! subject-t]m is ! actions or judgm5ts ( ,socrates4#b ,opposition1 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 is ! opposition ( incompatible propositions1 & x 0 ) ?is only t ,ari/otle conc]n$ himself4 ,b f an e>ly p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ,logic1 ! ^w 0 ext5d$ to cov] m]e diff]5ces 9 ,quantity & ,quality among ! f\r =ms ,a ,e ,i ,o1 :i* diff]5ces h be5 nam$ & exhibit$ symmetrically 9 a diagram kn[n z3 ,! ,squ>e ( ,opposition4 ,a,contr>ies,e _/ s ,c e o i n r t o ,s r t ,s u a c u b i b a d a l _/ l t _/ t e _/ d e r _/ i r n a c n s r t s t o n r o i ,c e _/ s _/ ,i,sub-contr>ies,o ,! f\r =ms be+ plac$ at ! f\r corn]s ( ! ,squ>e1 & ! sides & diagonals repres5t+ relations betwe5 !m ?us sep>at$1 a v pretty & symmetrical doctr9e is ! result4 ,contradictories1 ,a & ,o1 ,e & ,i1 diff] bo? 9 ,quantity & 9 ,quality4 ,contr>ies1 ,a & ,e1 diff] 9 ,quality b n 9 ,quantity1 & are bo? ,univ]sal4 ,sub-contr>ies1 ,i & ,o1 diff] 9 ,quality b n 9 ,quantity1 & are bo? ,p>ticul>4 ,subalt]ns1 ,a & ,i1 ,e & ,o1 diff] 9 ,quantity b n 9 ,quality4 ,aga91 9 respect ( concurr5t tru? & falsehood !re is a c]ta9 symmetry4 ,contradictories _c bo? be true1 nor c !y bo? be false4 ,contr>ies may bo? be false1 b _c bo? be true4 ,sub-contr>ies may bo? be true1 b _c bo? be false4 ,subalt]ns may bo? be false & bo? true4 ,if ! ,univ]sal is true1 its subalt]nate ,p>ticul> is true3 b ! tru? ( ! ,p>ticul> does n simil>ly imply ! tru? ( its ,subalt]nat+ ,univ]sal4 ,?is la/ is ano!r way ( say+ t ! tru? ( ! ,contr>y involves ! tru? ( ! ,contradictory1 b ! tru? ( ! ,contradictory does n imply ! tru? ( ! ,contr>y4 ,!re1 h[ev]1 ! symmetry ends4 ,! sides & ! diagonals ( ! ,squ>e d n symmetrically repres5t degrees ( incompatibility1 or opposition 9 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,!re is no incompatibility betwe5 two ,sub-contr>ies or a ,subalt]n & its ,subalt]nant4 ,bo? may be true at ! same "t4 ,inde$1 z ,ari/otle rem>k$ ( ,i & ,o1 ! tru? ( ! "o commonly implies ! tru? ( ! o!r3 to say t "s ( ! crew 7 dr[n$1 implies t "s 7 n1 & vice v]sa4 ,subalt]n & ,subalt]nant also are compatible1 & some?+ m4 ,if a man has admitt$ ,a or ,e1 he _c refuse to admit ,i or ,o1 ! ,p>ticul> ( ! same ,quality4 ,if ,all poets are irritable1 x _c be d5i$ t "s are s2 if ,none is1 t ,"s are n4 ,! admission ( ! ,contr>y includes ! admission ( ! ,contradictory4 ,consid]ation ( ,subalt]ns1 h[ev]1 br+s to light a nice ambiguity 9 ,"s4 ,x is only :5 ,i is reg>d$ z ! ,contradictory ( ,e1 t x c prop]ly be said to be ,subalt]nate to ,a4 ,9 t case ! mean+ ( ,"s is n none1 i4e41 ,"s at lea/4 ,b :5 ,"s is tak5 z ! sign ( ,p>ticul> quantity simply1 i4e41 z mean+ n all1 or "s at mo/1 ,i is n ,subalt]nate to ,a1 b oppos$ to x 9 ! s5se t ! tru? ( ! "o is incompatible ) ! tru? ( ! o!r4 ,aga91 9 ! diagram ,contr>y opposition is repres5t$ by a side & ,contradictory by ! diagonal2 t is to say1 ! /rong] =m ( opposition by ! %ort] l9e4 ,! ,contr>y is m ?an a d5ial3 x is a c\nt]-ass]tion ( ! v rev]se1 ,greek3 to enantion4 ,are good adm9i/rators always good speak]s8 ,on ! contr>y1 !y nev] are4 ,?is is a mu* /rong] opposition1 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 ?an a mode/ contradictory1 :i* is w>rant$ by ! exi/5ce ( a s+le exception4 ,if ! diagram 7 to repres5t incompatibility accurately1 ! ,contr>y ought to h a long] l9e ?an ! ,contradictory1 & ?is x seems to h _h 9 ! diagram t ,ari/otle _h 9 m9d 7,de ,int]pret41 c4 #aj74 ,x is only :5 ,opposition is tak5 to mean m]ely diff]5ce 9 ,quantity & ,quality t !re c be said to be great] opposition betwe5 ,contradictories ?an betwe5 ,contr>ies4 ,contradictories diff] bo? 9 ,quantity & 9 ,quality3 ,contr>ies1 9 ,quality only4 ,!re is ano!r s5se 9 :i* ! ,p>ticul> ,contradictory may be said to be a /rong] opposite ?an ! ,contr>y4 ,x is a /rong] position to take up argum5tatively4 ,x is easi] to def5d ?an a ,contr>y4 ,b ?is is because x (f]s a n>r[] & m limit$ opposition4 ,we deal ) :at is call$ ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce 9 ! next *apt]4 ,p5d+ an exact def9ition ( ! process1 x is obvi\s t two imm$iate inf]5ces are op5 "u ! above doctr9es1 7#a7 ,grant$ ! tru? ( any proposition1 y may imm$iately inf] ! falsehood ( its ,contradictory4 7#b7 ,grant$ ! tru? ( any ,contr>y1 y may imm$iately inf] ! tru? ( its ,subalt]n4#c ,footnote #a3 ,?is is ! traditional def9ition ( ,opposition f an e>ly p]iod1 ?\gh ! tradition does n />t f ,ari/otle4 ,) him opposition 7,greek3 antikei/hai7 meant1 z x /ill means 9 ord9>y spee*1 incompatibility4 ,! te*nical mean+ ( ,opposition is bas$ on ! diagram 7giv5 aft]w>ds 9 ! text7 kn[n z ! ,squ>e ( ,opposition1 & probably orig9at$ 9 a confus$ appreh5sion ( ! reason :y x receiv$ t "n4 ,x 0 call$ ! ,squ>e ( ,opposition1 because x 0 int5d$ to illu/rate ! doctr9e ( ,opposition 9 ,ari/otle's s5se & ! ord9>y s5se ( repugnance or incompatibility4 ,:at ! ,squ>e br+s out is ?is4 ,if ! f\r =ms ,a ,e ,i ,o are arrang$ symmetrically accord+ z !y diff] 9 quantity1 or quality1 or bo?1 x is se5 t ^! diff]5ces d n correspond symmetrically to compatibility & incompatibility3 t propositions may diff] 9 quantity or 9 quality )\t be+ incompatible1 & t !y may diff] 9 bo? 7z ,contradictories7 & be less viol5tly incompatible ?an :5 !y diff] 9 "o only 7z ,contr>ies74 ,! orig9al purpose ( ! diagram 0 to br+ ?is out1 z is done 9 e exposition ( x4 ,h5ce x 0 call$ ! ,squ>e ( ,opposition4 ,b z a descriptive title ?is is a misnom]3 x %\ld h be5 ! ,squ>e ( ,diff]5ces 9 ,quantity or ,quality4 ,?is misnom] has be5 p]petuat$ by appropriat+ ,opposition z a common "n = diff]5ce 9 ,quantity or ,quality :5 ! t]ms are ! same & 9 ! same ord]1 & di/+ui%+ x 9 ?is s5se f ,repugnance or ,incompatibility 7,tat>etus 9 ,summulas1 ,de ,oppositionibus #aeja1 ,keynes1 ,! ,opposition ( ,propositions #ahhg74 ,see+ t !re nev] is occasion to speak ( ,opposition 9 ! limit$ s5se except 9 connexion ) ! ,squ>e1 !re is no real risk ( confusion4 ,a common "n is c]ta9ly want$ 9 t connexion1 if only to say t ,opposition 79 ! limit$ or diagrammatic s5se7 does n mean incompatibility4 ,footnote #b3 ,cp4 ,keynes1 pt4 ii4 *4 ii4 s4 #eg4 ,ari/otle laid d[n ! di/9ction betwe5 ,contr>y & ,contradictory to meet ano!r quibble 9 contradiction1 bas$ on tak+ ! ,univ]sal z a :ole & indivisible subject l an ,individual1 ( :i* a giv5 pr$icate mu/ be ei!r affirm$ or d5i$4 ,footnote #c3 ,i h said t !re is little risk ( confusion 9 us+ ! ^w ,opposition 9 its te*nical or limit$ s5se4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a little4 ,:5 x is said t ^! ,inf]5ces are bas$ on ,opposition1 or t ,opposition is a mode ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 !re is confusion ( ideas unless x is po9t$ out t :5 ?is is said1 x is ,opposition 9 ! ord9>y s5se t is meant4 ,! inf]5ces are really bas$ on ! rules ( ,contr>y & ,contradictory ,opposition2 ,contr>ies _c bo? be true1 & ( ,contradictories "o or o!r mu/ be4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,implication ,,( ,,propositions4--,,imm$iate ,,=mal ,,inf]5ce4 --,,education4 ,! mean+ ( ,inf]5ce g5]ally is a subject ( dispute1 & to avoid ent]+ ^u debatable gr\nd at ?is /age1 in/ead ( attempt+ to def9e ,inf]5ce g5]ally1 ,i w conf9e myself to def9+ :at is call$ ,=mal ,inf]5ce1 ab\t :i* !re is comp>atively little diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,,=mal ,,inf]5ce !n is ! appreh5sion ( :at is impli$ 9 a c]ta9 datum or admission3 ! d]ivation ( "o proposition1 call$ ! ,,conclusion1 f "o or m giv51 admitt$1 or assum$ propositions1 call$ ! ,,premiss or ,,premisses4 ,:5 ! conclusion is drawn f "o proposition1 ! inf]5ce is said to be ,,imm$iate2 :5 m ?an "o proposition is necess>y to ! conclusion1 ! inf]5ce is said to be ,,m$iate4 ,giv5 ! proposition1 ,all poets are irritable1 we c imm$iately inf] t ,nobody t is n irritable is a poet2 & ! "o admission implies ! o!r4 ,b we _c inf] imm$iately t all poets make bad husb&s4 ,be=e we c d ?is we mu/ h a second proposition conc$$1 t ,all irritable p]sons make bad husb&s4 ,! inf]5ce 9 ! second case is call$ ,m$iate4#a ,! modes & conditions ( valid ,m$iate ,inf]5ce con/itute ,syllogism1 :i* is 9 effect ! reason+ toge!r ( sep>ate admissions4 ,) ?is we %all deal pres5tly4 ,meantime ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,to /ate all ! implications ( a c]ta9 =m ( proposition1 to make explicit all t x implies1 is ! same ?+ ) %[+ :at imm$iate inf]5ces f x are legitimate4 ,=mal inf]5ce1 9 %ort1 is ! eduction ( all t a proposition implies4 ,mo/ ( ! modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce =mulat$ by logicians are prelim9>y to ! ,syllogi/ic process1 & h no o!r practical application4 ,! mo/ important ( !m te*nically is ! process kn[n z ,conv]sion1 b o!rs h be5 judg$ wor?y ( att5tion4 ,,aequipoll5t ,,or ,,equival5t ,,=ms--,,obv]sion4 ,a,equipollence or ,equival5ce 7,greek3 ,isodynamia7 is def9$ z ! p]fect agreem5t 9 s5se ( two propositions t diff] someh[ 9 expression4#b ,! hi/ory ( ,a,equipollence 9 logical treatises illu/rates two t5d5cies4 ,!re is a t5d5cy on ! "o h& to n>r[ a !me d[n to def9ite & manageable =ms4 ,b :5 a useful ex]cise is disc>d$ f "o place x has a t5d5cy to break out 9 ano!r "u ano!r "n4 ,a ?ird t5d5cy may also be said to be specially well illu/rat$--! t5d5cy to *ange ! traditional application ( logical t]ms4 ,9 accordance ) ! above def9ition ( ,a,equipollence or ,equival5ce1 :i* corresponds ) ord9>y acceptation1 ! t]m w\ld apply to all cases ( id5tical mean+ "u diff]5ce ( expression4 ,mo/ examples ( ! r$uction ( ord9>y spee* into syllogi/ic =m w\ld be examples ( aequipoll5ce2 all1 9 fact1 w\ld be s 7 x n t ord9>y spee* loses some:at 9 ! process1 ow+ to ! indef9it5ess ( ! syllogi/ic symbol = p>ticul> quality1 ,"s4 ,& 9 tru? all su* transmutations ( expression are z mu* entitl$ to ! dignity ( be+ call$ ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces z mo/ ( ! processes s entitl$4 ,dr4 ,ba9 uses ! ^w ) an approa* to ?is wid? ( application 9 discuss+ all t is n[ mo/ commonly call$ ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce "u ! title ( ,equival5t ,=ms4 ,! *ief objection to ?is usage is t ! ,conv]se p] accid5s is n /rictly equival5t4 ,a debat] may want = 8 argum5t less ?an ! /rict equival5t1 & cont5t himself ) educ+ ?is mu* f 8 oppon5t's admission4 7,:e!r ,dr4 ,ba9 is "r 9 treat+ ! ,m9or & ,conclusion ( a ,hypo!tical ,syllogism z be+ equival5t to ! ,major1 is n s mu* a "q ( nam+47 ,b 9 ! hi/ory ( ! subject1 ! traditional usage has be5 to conf9e ,a,equipollence to cases ( equival5ce betwe5 positive & negative =ms ( expression4 ,n all are1 is equival5t to ,"s are n3 ,n none is1 to ,"s are4 ,9 ,pre-,aldri*ian text-books1 ,a,equipollence corresponds ma9ly to :at x is n[ cu/om>y to call 7e4g41 ,f[l]1 pt4 iii4 c4 ii41 ,keynes1 pt4 ii4 c4 vii47 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce bas$ on ,opposition4 ,! d5ial ( any proposition involves ! admission ( its contradictory4 ,?us1 if ! negative p>ticle ,n is plac$ be=e ! sign ( ,quantity1 ,all or ,"s1 9 a proposition1 ! result+ proposition is equival5t to ! ,contradictory ( ! orig9al4 ,n all ,s is ,p ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,n any ,s is ,p ,no ,s is ,p4 ,! m$iaeval logicians tabulat$ ^! equival5ts1 & also ! =ms result+ f plac+ ! negative p>ticle aft]1 or bo? be=e & aft]1 ! sign ( ,quantity4 ,"u ! title ( ,a,equipollence1 9 fact1 !y consid]$ ! int]pretation ( ! negative p>ticle g5]ally4 ,if ! negative is plac$ aft] ! univ]sal sign1 x results 9 ! ,contr>y3 if bo? be=e & aft]1 9 ! ,subalt]n4 ,! /atem5t ( ^! equival5ts is a puzzl+ ex]cise :i* no d\bt acc\nts = ! prom95ce giv5 x by ,ari/otle & ! ,s*oolm54 ,! latt] help$ ! /ud5t ) ! foll[+ ,mnemonic l9e3 ,prae ,contradic41 po/ ,contr>41 prae po/que ,subalt]n4#c ,to ,a,equipollence belong$ also ! manipulation ( ! =ms kn[n aft] ! ,summulae z ,exponibiles1 notably ,exclusive & ,exceptive propositions1 su* z ,none b b>ri/]s are eligible1 ,! virtu\s alone are happy4 ,! introduction ( a negative p>ticle into ^! already negative =ms makes a v try+ problem 9 int]pretation4 ,! aequipoll5ce ( ! ,exponibiles 0 dropp$ f text-books long be=e ,aldri*1 & x is ! cu/om to laugh at !m z extreme examples ( frivol\s s*ola/ic subtlety3 b mo/ mod]n text-books deal ) "p ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,exponibiles 9 casual ex]cises4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 a =m left unnam$ by ! s*ola/ic logicians because too simple & useless1 has ! "n ,a,equipollent appropriat$ to x1 & to x alone1 by ,ueb]weg1 & has be5 adopt$ "u v>i\s names into all rec5t treatises4 ,ba9 calls x ! ,,=mal ,,obv]se1#d & ! title ( ,,obv]sion 7:i* has ! advantage ( rhym+ ) ,,conv]sion7 has be5 adopt$ by ,keynes1 ,miss ,johnson1 & o!rs4 ,f[l] 7foll[+ ,k>slake7 calls x ,,p]mutation4 ,! title is n a happy "o1 hav+ nei!r rhyme nor reason 9 its fav\r1 b x is also ext5sively us$4 ,?is imm$iate inf]5ce is a v simple affair to h be5 hon\r$ ) su* a *oice ( t]m9ology4 ,?is road is long3 !re=e1 x is n %ort1 is an easy inf]5ce3 ! second proposition is ! ,obv]se1 or ,p]mutation1 or ,a,equipollent1 or 79 ,jevons's title7 ! ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,privative ,conception1 ( ! fir/4 ,! inf]5ce1 su* z x is1 dep5ds on ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,ei!r a t]m ,p1 or its contradictory1 n-,p1 mu/ be true ( any giv5 subject1 ,s3 h5ce to affirm ,p ( all or "s ,s1 is equival5t to d5y+ n-,p ( ! same3 &1 simil>ly1 to d5y ,p1 is to affirm n-,p4 ,h5ce ! rule ( ,obv]sion2--,sub/itute = ! pr$icate t]m its ,contrapositive1#e & *ange ! ,quality ( ! proposition4 ,all ,s is ,p ,no ,s is n-,p4 ,no ,s is ,p ,all ,s is n-,p4 ,"s ,s is ,p ,"s ,s is n n-,p4 ,"s ,s is n ,p ,"s ,s is n-,p4 ,,conv]sion4 ,! process takes its "n f ! int]*ange ( ! t]ms4 ,! ,pr$icate-t]m becomes ! ,subject-t]m1 & ! ,subject-t]m ! ,pr$icate-t]m4 ,:5 propositions are analys$ into relations ( inclusion or exclusion betwe5 t]ms1 ! ass]tion ( any su* relation betwe5 "o t]m & ano!r1 implies a ,conv]se relation betwe5 ! second t]m & ! fir/4 ,! /atem5t ( ?is impli$ ass]tion is te*nically kn[n z ! ,,conv]se ( ! orig9al proposition1 :i* may be call$ ! ,conv]t5d4 ,?ree modes ( ,conv]sion are commonly recognis$3--7a7 ,,simple ,,conv]sion2 7b7 ,,conv]sion p] accid5s or by limitation2 7c7 ,,conv]sion ,,by ,,contraposition4 7a7 ,e & ,i c be simply conv]t$1 only ! t]ms be+ int]*ang$1 & ,quantity & ,quality rema9+ ! same4 ,if ,s is :olly exclud$ f ,p1 ,p mu/ be :olly exclud$ f ,s4 ,if ,"s ,s is conta9$ 9 ,p1 !n ,"s ,p mu/ be conta9$ 9 ,s4 7b7 ,a _c be simply conv]t$4 ,to "k t ,all ,s is conta9$ 9 ,p1 gives y no in=mation ab\t t portion ( ,p :i* is outside ,s4 ,x only enables y to ass]t t ,"s ,p is ,s2 t portion ( ,p1 namely1 :i* co9cides ) ,s4 ,o _c be conv]t$ ei!r simply or p] accid5s4 ,"s ,s is n ,p does n enable y to make any conv]se ass]tion ab\t ,p4 ,all ,p may be ,s1 or ,no ,p may be ,s1 or ,"s ,p may be n ,s4 ,all ! ?ree foll[+ diagrams are compatible ) ,"s ,s be+ exclud$ f ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,conc5tric circles ( ,s & ,p - ,p 9 c5tre ,s 9 "o circle & ,p 9 ano!r circle4 ,s & ,p ea* 9 a circle1 ov]lapp+ circle4 7c7 ,ano!r mode ( ,conv]sion1 kn[n by m$iaeval logicians foll[+ ,boe?ius z ,conv]sio p] contra positionem t]m9orum1 is useful 9 "s syllogi/ic manipulations4 ,?is ,conv]se is obta9$ by sub/itut+ = ! pr$icate t]m its ,contrapositive or ,contradictory1 n-,p1 mak+ ! consequ5t *ange ( ,quality1 & simply conv]t+4 ,?us ,all ,s is ,p is conv]t$ into ! equival5t ,no n-,p is ,s4#f ,"s h call$ x ,conv]sion by ,negation1 b negation is manife/ly too wide & common a ^w to be ?us arbitr>ily re/rict$ to ! process ( sub/itut+ = "o t]m its opposite4 ,o!rs 7& ?is has "s m$iaeval usage 9 its fav\r1 ?\gh n ! mo/ intellig5t7 w\ld call ! =m ,all n-,p is n-,s 7! ,obv]se or ,p]mutation ( ,no n-,p is ,s71 ! ,conv]se by ,contraposition4 ,?is is to con=m to an imag9>y rule t 9 ,conv]sion ! ,conv]se mu/ be ( ! same ,quality ) ! ,conv]t5d4 ,b ! ess5ce ( ,conv]sion is ! int]*ange ( ,subject & ,pr$icate3 ! ,quality is n 9 ! def9ition except by a bungle3 x is an accid5t4 ,no n-,p is ,s1 & ,"s n-,p is ,s are ! =ms us$ 9 ,syllogism1 & !re=e specially nam$4 ,unless a =m _h a use1 x 0 left unnam$1 l ! ,subalt]nate =ms ( ,syllogism3 ,nom5 hab5t nullum3 nec1 si b5e colligis1 usum4 ,,table ,,( ,,contrapositive ,,conv]ses4 ,con4 ,con4 ,all ,s is ,p ,no n-,p is ,s ,no ,s is ,p ,"s n-,p is ,s ,"s ,s is n ,p ,"s n-,p is ,s ,"s ,s is ,p ,none4 ,:5 n-,p is sub/itut$ = ,p1 ,"s ,s is ,p becomes ,"s ,s is n n-,p1 & ?is =m is inconv]tible4 ,,o!r ,,=ms ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce4 ,i h already spok5 ( ! ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces bas$ on ! rules ( ,contradictory & ,contr>y ,opposition 7see p4 #ade - ,"p ,,iii1 ,*4 ,,ii74 ,ano!r process 0 obs]v$ by ,?omson1 & nam$ ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,add$ ,det]m9ants4 ,if x is grant$ t ,a negro is a fell[-creature1 x foll[s t ,a negro 9 suff]+ is a fell[-creature 9 suff]+4 ,b t ?is does n foll[ = e attribute#g is manife/ if y take ano!r case3--,a tortoise is an animal3 !re=e1 a fa/ tortoise is a fa/ animal4 ,! =m1 inde$1 holds 9 cases n wor? specify+3 & is a m]e h&le = quibbl+4 ,x c\ld n be erect$ into a g5]al rule unless x 7 true t :atev] di/+ui%es a species )9 a class1 w equally di/+ui% x 9 e class 9 :i* ! fir/ is includ$4 ,,modal ,,consequ5ce has also be5 nam$ among ! =ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,by ?is is meant ! inf]5ce ( ! l[] degrees ( c]ta9ty f ! high]4 ,?us mu/ be is said to imply may be2 & ,none c be to imply ,none is4 ,dr4 ,ba9 includes also ,mat]ial ,obv]sion1 ! analogue ( ,=mal ,obv]sion appli$ to a ,subject4 ,?us ,peace is b5eficial to comm]ce1 implies t ,w> is injuri\s to comm]ce4 ,dr4 ,ba9 calls ?is ,mat]ial ,obv]sion because x _c be practis$ safely )\t ref]5ce to ! matt] ( ! proposition4 ,we %all recur to ! subject 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,footnote #a3 ,i purposely *ose disputable propositions to emphasise ! fact t ,=mal ,logic has no conc]n ) ! tru?1 b only ) ! int]dep5d5ce ( its propositions4 ,footnote #b3 ,m>k ,duncan1 ,in/4 ,log41 ii4 #e1 #afab4 ,footnote #c3 ,!re c be no d\bt t 9 _! doctr9e ( ,a,equipollents1 ! ,s*oolm5 7 try+ to make pla9 a real difficulty 9 int]pretation1 ! int]pretation ( ! =ce ( negatives4 ,_! results w\ld h be5 m obvi\sly useful if !y _h se5 _! way to g5]alis+ !m4 ,p]haps too !y wa/$ _! /r5g? 9 apply+ x to ! artificial syllogi/ic =ms1 :i* m5 d n ord9>ily enc\nt] except 9 ! manipulation ( syllogisms4 ,_! results might h be5 g5]alis$ z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,a n plac$ be=e ! sign ( ,quantity contradicts ! :ole proposition4 ,n ,all ,s is ,p1 n ,no ,s is ,p1 n ,"s ,s is ,p1 n ,"s ,s is n ,p1 are equival5t respectively to contradictories ( ! propositions ?us negativ$4 7#b7 ,a n plac$ aft] ! sign ( ,quantity affects ! copula1 & am\nts to inv]t+ its ,quality1 ?us d5y+ ! pr$icate t]m ( ! same quantity ( ! subject t]m ( :i* x 0 orig9ally affirm$1 & vice v]sa4 ,all ,s is n ,p ,no ,s is ,p4 ,no ,s is n ,p ,all ,s is ,p4 ,"s ,s is n ,p ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,"s ,s is n n ,p ,"s ,s is ,p4 7#c7 ,if a n is plac$ be=e z well z aft]1 ! result+ =ms are obvi\sly equival5t 7"u ,rule #a7 to ! ass]tion ( ! contradictories ( ! =ms on ! "r 79 ! illu/ration ( ,rule #b74 ,n ,all ,s is n ,p ,no ,s is ,p ,"s ,s is ,p4 ,n ,no ,s is n ,p ,all ,s is ,p ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,n ,"s ,s is n ,p ,"s ,s is n ,p ,all ,s is ,p4 ,n ,"s ,s is n n ,p ,"s ,s is ,p ,no ,s is ,p4 ,footnote #d3 ,=mal to di/+ui% x f :at he call$ ! ,mat]ial ,obv]se1 ab\t :i* m pres5tly4 ,footnote #e3 ,! m$iaeval ^w = ! opposite ( a t]m1 ! ^w ,contradictory be+ conf9$ to ! propositional =m4 ,footnote #f3 ,x is to be regrett$ t a practice has rec5tly crept 9 ( call+ ?is =m1 = %ortness1 ! ,contrapositive simply4 ,by long-e/abli%$ usage1 dat+ f ,boe?ius1 ! ^w ,contrapositive is a te*nical "n = a t]m9al =m1 n-,a1 & x is /ill want$ = ?is use4 ,!re is no reason :y ! propositional =m %\ld n be call$ ! ,conv]se by ,contraposition1 or ! ,contrapositive ,conv]se1 9 accordance ) traditional usage4 ,footnote #g3 ,cf4 ,/ock1 "p iii4 c4 vii42 ,ba91 ,d$uction1 p4 #aji4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,c\nt]-,,implication ,,( ,,propositions4 ,9 discuss+ ! ,axioms ( ,dialectic1 ,i indicat$ t ! propositions ( common spee* h a c]ta9 negative implication1 ?\gh ?is does n dep5d ^u any ( ! s-call$ ,laws ( ,?\ght1 ,id5tity1 ,contradiction1 & ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! c\nt]-implicate is an important guide 9 ! int]pretation ( propositions1 x is desirable to recognise x among ! modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,i propose1 !n1 fir/1 to %[ t p d ord9>ily inf] at once to a c\nt]-s5se2 second1 to expla9 briefly ! ,law ( ,?\ght on :i* su* an inf]5ce is ju/ifi$2 &1 ?ird1 h[ ?is law may be appli$ 9 ! int]pretation ( propositions1 ) a view to mak+ subject & pr$icate m def9ite4 ,e affirmation ab\t any?+ is an implicit negation ab\t some?+ else4 ,e say is a ga9say4 ,t p ord9>ily act ^u ?is z a rule ( int]pretation a little obs]vation is suffici5t to %[3 & we f9d also t ^? :o object to hav+ _! utt]ances int]pret$ by ?is rule (t5 %elt] !mselves "u ! "n ( ,logic4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a fri5d rem>ks1 :5 ! conv]sation turns on *ildr51 t ,john is a good boy1 ! natural inf]5ce is t ! speak] has 9 8 m9d ano!r *ild :o is n a good boy4 ,su* an inf]5ce w\ld at once be drawn by any actual he>]1 & ! speak] w\ld prote/ 9 va9 t he said no?+ ab\t anybody b ,john4 ,suppose !re are two c&idates = a s*ool appo9tm5t1 ,a & ,b1 & t /ress is laid ^u ! fact t ,a is an excell5t tea*]4 ,a's advocate w\ld at once be und]/ood to mean t ,b 0 n equally excell5t z a tea*]4 ,! fairness ( su* inf]5ces is g5]ally recognis$4 ,a review]1 = example1 ( "o ( ,mrs4 ,oliphant's hi/orical works1 aft] po9t+ out "s small errors1 w5t on to say t to conf9e himself to c5sure ( small po9ts1 0 to ackn[l$ge by implication t !re 7 no important po9ts to f9d fault )4 ,yet su* negative implications are (t5 repudiat$ z illogical4 ,x w\ld be m accurate to call !m extra-logical4 ,!y are n condemn$ by any logical doctr9e3 !y are simply ignor$4 ,!y are extra-logical only because !y are n legitimat$ by ! ,laws ( ,id5tity1 ,contradiction1 & ,exclud$ ,middle3 & ! reason :y ,logic conf9es itself to ^? laws is t !y are suffici5t = ,syllogism & its subsidi>y processes4 ,b1 ?\gh extra-logical1 to inf] a c\nt]-implicate is n unreasonable3 inde$1 if ,def9ition1 cle> vision ( ?+s 9 _! exact relations1 is our goal r ?an ,syllogism1 a k ( ! c\nt]-implicate is ( ! utmo/ consequ5ce4 ,su* an implicate !re mu/ always be "u an all-p]vad+ ,law ( ,?\ght :i* has n yet be5 nam$1 b :i* may be call$ t5tatively ! law ( ,homog5e\s ,c\nt]-relativity4 ,! title1 "o hopes1 is suffici5tly te*nical-look+3 ?\gh cumbr\s1 x is descriptive4 ,! law itself is simple1 & may be ?us /at$ & expla9$4 ,! ,law ( ,homog5e\s ,c\nt]-relativity4 ,e positive 9 ?\ght has a contrapositive1 & ! positive & contrapositive are ( ! same k9d4 ,! fir/ clause ( our law corresponds ) ,dr4 ,ba9's law ( ,discrim9ation or ,relativity3 x is1 inde$1 an expansion & completion ( t law4 ,no?+ is kn[n absolutely or 9 isolation2 ! v>i\s items ( our k are int]-relative2 ev]y?+ is kn[n by di/9ction f o!r ?+s4 ,light is kn[n z ! opposite ( d>kness1 pov]ty ( ri*es1 fre$om ( slav]y1 9 ( out2 ea* %ade ( col\r by contra/ to o!r %ades4 ,:at ,dr4 ,ba9 lays /ress ^u is ! elem5t ( diff]5ce 9 ?is int]-relativity4 ,he bases ?is law ( our k on ! fundam5tal law ( our s5sibility t *ange ( impression is necess>y to consci\sness4 ,a long cont9uance ( any unv>i$ impression results 9 ins5sibility to x4 ,we h se5 in/ances ( ?is 9 illu/rat+ ! maxim t cu/om blunts s5sibility 7p4 #gd74 ,poets h be5 be=eh& ) philosoph]s 9 =mulat+ ?is pr9ciple4 ,x is express$ ) ! greate/ precision by ,b>b\r 9 8 poem ( ,! ,bruce1 :]e he insi/s t m5 :o h nev] kn[n slav]y d n "k :at fre$om is4 ,?us contr> ?+is ev]m>e ,discov]+s ( t' o!r are4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ev]y?+ t comes )9 our consci\sness comes z a *ange or transition f some?+ else1 x results t our k is c\nt]-relative4 ,x is 9 ! cla% or conflict ( impressions t k em]ges3 e item ( k has its illum9at+ foil1 by :i* x is reveal$1 ov] aga9/ :i* x is def9$4 ,e positive 9 ?\ght has its contrapositive4 ,s mu* = ! elem5t ( diff]5ce4 ,b ?is is n ! :ole ( ! int]-relativity4 ,! ,hegelians rightly lay /ress on ! common lik5ess t connects ! oppos$ items ( k4 ,?\ght is n only di/9ction2 x is1 at ! same "t1 relation4#a ,if x m>ks (f "o ?+ f ano!r1 x1 at ! same "t1 connects "o ?+ ) ano!r4 ,nor c ei!r ( ^! functions ( ?\ght be sep>at$ f ! o!r3 z ,ari/otle himself said1 ! k ( opposites is "o4 ,a ?+ :i* has no?+ to di/+ui% x is un?9kable1 b equally un?9kable is a ?+ :i* is s sep>at$ f all o!r ?+s z to h no community ) !m4 ,if !n ! law ( contradiction be tak5 z ass]t+ ! self-id5tity ( ?+s or ?\ghts 9 a s5se t excludes _! community--9 o!r words1 if x be n tak5 z limit$ by ano!r law :i* ass]ts ! relativity ( ! ?+s or ?\ghts di/+ui%$--x involves a false ab/raction4444 ,if1 !n1 ! _w1 z an intelligible _w1 is a _w ( di/9ction1 diff]5tiation1 individuality1 x is equally true t 9 x z an intelligible _w !re are no absolute sep>ations or oppositions1 no antagonisms :i* _c be reconcil$4#b ,9 ! p5ultimate s5t5ce ( ?is quotation ,dr4 ,caird diff]5tiates 8 !ory aga9/ a ,logical c\nt]-!ory ( ! ,law ( ,id5tity1 & 9 ! la/ s5t5ce aga9/ an ,e?ical c\nt]-!ory3 b ! po9t "h is t he insi/s on ! relation ( lik5ess among opposites4 ,e impression felt is felt z a *ange or transition f some?+ else3 b x is a v>iation ( ! same impression--! some?+ else1 ! contrapositive1 is n entirely diff]5t4 ,*ange itself is felt z ! opposite ( sam5ess1 diff]5ce ( lik5ess1 & lik5ess ( diff]5ce4 ,we d n diff]5tiate our impression aga9/ ! :ole _w1 z x 71 b aga9/ some?+ ne>ly ak9 to x--^u "s common gr\nd4 ,! positive & ! contrapositive are ( ! same k9d4 ,let u surprise ourselves 9 ! act ( ?9k+ & we %all f9d t our ?\ghts obey ?is law4 ,we take note1 say1 ( ! col\r ( ! book be=e u3 we diff]5tiate x aga9/ "s o!r col\r actually be=e u 9 our field ( vision or imag9$ 9 our m9ds4 ,let u ?9k ( ! blackbo>d z black3 ! blackness is def9$ aga9/ ! :it5ess ( ! figures *alk$ or *alkable ^u x1 or aga9/ ! col\r ( ! adjac5t wall4 ,let u ?9k ( a man z a soldi]2 ! opposite 9 our m9ds is n ! col\r ( 8 hair1 or 8 height1 or 8 bir?place1 or 8 nationality1 b "s o!r pr(ession--soldi]1 sailor1 t9k]1 tailor4 ,x is always by means ( "s contrapositive t we make ! object ( our ?\ghts def9ite2 x is n necess>ily always ! same opposite1 b aga9/ :atev] opposite x is1 !y are always homog5e\s4 ,"o col\r is contradi/+ui%$ f ano!r col\r1 "o %ade f ano!r %ade3 col\r may be contradi/+ui%$ f %ape1 b x is )9 ! common g5us ( s5sible qualities4 ,a curi\s confirmation ( ?is law ( our ?9k+ has be5 po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,c>l ,abel4#c ,9 ,egyptian hi]oglyphics1 ! olde/ extant language1 we f9d1 he says1 a l>ge numb] ( symbols ) two mean+s1 ! "o ! exact opposite ( ! o!r4 ,?us ! same symbol repres5ts /rong & weak2 above--bel[2 )--)\t2 =--aga9/4 ,?is is :at ! ,hegelians mean by ! reconciliation ( antagonisms 9 high] unities4 ,!y d n mean t black is :ite1 b only t black & :ite h some?+ 9 common--!y are bo? col\rs4 ,i h said t ?is law ( ,homog5e\s ,c\nt]-relativity has n be5 recognis$ by logicians4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is only to say t x has n be5 explicitly =mulat$ & nam$1 z n be+ requir$ = ,syllogism2 a law s all-p]vad+ c\ld n escape recognition1 tacit or express4 ,& accord+ly we f9d t x is practically assum$ 9 ,def9ition3 x is really ! basis ( def9ition p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 ,:5 we wi% to h a def9ite conception ( any?+1 to appreh5d :at x is1 we place x 9 "s g5us & di/+ui% x f species ( ! same4 ,9 fact our law might be call$ ! ,law ( ,specification3 9 obey+ ! logical law ( :at we ought to d ) a view to cle> ?9k+1 we are only do+ ) exactness & consci\s me?od :at we all d & _c help do+ ) m or less def9it5ess 9 our ord9>y ?9k+4 ,x is ?us se5 t logicians con=m to ?is law :5 !y are n occupi$ ) ! n>r[ consid]ations prop] to ,syllogism4 ,& ano!r unconsci\s recognition ( x may be f\nd 9 mo/ logical text-books4 ,!oretically ! n-,a ( ! ,law ( ,contradiction--7,a is n n-,a7--is an inf9ite t]m4 ,x /&s = ev]y?+ b ,a4 ,?is is all t ne$s to be assum$ = ,conv]sion & ,syllogism4 ,b take ! examples giv5 ( ! ,=mal ,obv]se or ,p]mutation1 ,all m5 are fallible4 ,mo/ au?orities w\ld give z ! ,=mal ,obv]se ( ?is1 ,no m5 are infallible4 ,b1 /rictly speak+1 infallible is ( m limit$ & def9ite signification ?an n-fallible4 ,n-fallible1 o!r ?an fallible1 is br[n1 black1 *air1 table1 & e o!r nameable ?+ except fallible4 ,?us 9 ,obv]sion & ,conv]sion by ,contraposition1 ! homog5eity ( ! negative t]m is tacitly assum$2 x is assum$ t ,a & n-,a are ( ! same k9d4 ,n[ to apply ?is ,law ( our ,?\ght to ! int]pretation ( propositions4 ,:5ev] a proposition is utt]$ we are entitl$ to inf] at once 7or imm$iately7 t ! speak] has 9 8 m9d "s c\nt]-proposition1 9 :i* :at is ov]tly ass]t$ ( ! o/5sible subject is cov]tly d5i$ ( ano!r subject4 ,& we mu/ "k :at ?is c\nt]-proposition1 ! c\nt]-implicate is1 be=e we c fully & cle>ly und]/& 8 mean+4 ,b inasmu* z any positive may h m ?an "o contrapositive1 we _c tell imm$iately or )\t "s k ( ! circum/ances or context1 :at ! precise c\nt]-implicate is4 ,! peculi> fallacy incid5t to ?is mode ( int]pretation is1 kn[+ t !re mu/ be "s c\nt]-implicate1 to jump ra%ly or unw>ily to ! conclusion t x is "s def9ite "o4 ,dr4 ,ba9 applies ! t]m ,mat]ial ,obv]se to ! =m1 ,n-,s is n ,p1 z di/+ui%$ f ! =m ,s is n n-,p1 :i* he calls ! ,=mal ,obv]se1 on ! gr\nd t we c inf] ! ,pr$icate-contrapositive at once f ! =m1 :]eas we _c tell ! ,subject-contrapositive )\t an exam9ation ( ! matt]4 ,b 9 tru? we _c tell ei!r ,pr$icate-contrapositive or ,subject-contrapositive z x is 9 ! m9d ( ! speak] f ! b>e utt]ance4 ,we c only tell t if he has 9 8 m9d a proposition def9itely analys$ into subject & pr$icate1 he mu/ h contrapositives 9 8 m9d ( bo?1 & t !y mu/ be homog5e\s4 ,let a man say1 ,?is book is a qu>to4 ,= all t we "k he may mean t x is n a folio or t x is n an octavo3 we only "k = c]ta91 "u ! law ( ,homog5e\s ,c\nt]-relativity1 t he means "s def9ite o!r size4 ,"u ! same law1 we "k t he has a homog5e\s contrapositive ( ! subject1 a subject t admits ( ! same pr$icate1 "s o!r book 9 %ort4 ,:at ! p>ticul> book is we d n "k4 ,x w\ld h[ev] be a wa/e ( +5uity to dwell ^u ! manipulation ( =mulae f\nd$ on ?is law4 ,! practical conc]n is to "k t = ! int]pretation ( a proposition1 a k ( ! c\nt]-implicate1 a k ( :at x is meant to d5y1 is ess5tial4 ,! manipulation ( =mulae1 inde$1 has its own special sn>e4 ,we are apt to look = ! c\nt]p>ts ( !m 9 ! grammatical =ms ( common spee*4 ,?us1 x might seem to be a fair application ( our law to inf] f ! s5t5ce1 ,:eat is de>1 t ! speak] _h 9 8 m9d t ,oats or ,sug> or ,%irt+ or "s o!r commodity is *eap4 ,b ?is w\ld be a ra% conclusion4 ,! speak] may mean ?is1 b he may also mean t :eat is de> n[ z comp>$ ) "s o!r "t3 t is1 ! ,positive subject 9 8 m9d may be ,:eat z n[1 & ! ,contrapositive ,:eat z !n4 ,s a man may say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 mean+ t ! angels nev] ta/e dea?1 angels be+ ! contrapositive ( 8 subject m54 ,or he may mean m]ely t mortality is a sad ?+1 8 positive subject be+ m5 z !y are1 & 8 contrapositive m5 z he desires !m to be4 ,or 8 emphasis may be ^u ! all1 & he may mean only to d5y t "s "o man 9 8 m9d 7,mr4 ,glad/one1 = example7 is immortal4 ,x w\ld be mislead+1 !re=e1 to prescribe propositions z ex]cises 9 ,mat]ial ,obv]sion1 if we give t "n to ! explicit expression ( ! ,contrapositive ,subject3 x is only f ! context t we c tell :at ?is is4 ,! man :o wi%es to be cle>ly und]/ood gives u ?is in=mation1 z :5 ! epigrammati/ said3 ,we are all fallible--ev5 ! y\nge/ ( u4 ,b ! *ief practical value ( ! law is z a guide 9 /udy+ ! developm5t ( op9ions4 ,e doctr9e ev] put =w>d has be5 put =w>d 9 opposition to a previ\s doctr9e on ! same subject4 ,until we "k :at ! oppos$ doctr9e is1 we _c be c]ta9 ( ! mean+4 ,we _c ga!r x ) precision f a m]e /udy ( ! grammatical or ev5 79 ! n>r[ s5se ( ! ^w7 ! logical cont5t ( ! words us$4 ,?is is because ! fram]s ( doctr9es h n always be5 c>eful to put !m 9 a cle> =m ( subject & pr$icate1 :ile _! impugn]s h n m\ld$ _! d5ial exactly on ! language ( ! orig9al4 ,no d\bt x w\ld h be5 m conducive to cle>ness if !y _h done s4 ,b !y h n1 & we mu/ take !m z !y are4 ,?us we h se5 t ! ,hegelian doctr9e ( ,relativity is direct$ aga9/ c]ta9 o!r doctr9es 9 ,logic & 9 ,e?ics2 t ,ultra-,nom9alism is a contradiction ( a c]ta9 =m ( ,ultra-,realism2 & t v>i\s !ories ( ,pr$ication ea* has a backw>d look at "s pr$ecessor4 ,i quote f ,mr4 ,a4,b4 ,walkley a v happy application ( ?is pr9ciple ( int]pretation3-- ,x has always be5 a matt] = speculation :y s sagaci\s an obs]v] z ,did]ot %\ld h =mulat$ ! wild p>adox t ! greate/ actor is he :o feels 8 "p ! lea/4 ,mr4 ,ar*]'s bibliographical rese>* has solv$ ?is riddle4 ,did]ot's p>adox 0 a prote/ aga9/ a /ill wild] "o4 ,x seems t a previ\s eighte5? c5tury writ] on ! /age1 a c]ta9 ,sa9t-,alb9e1 _h advanc$ ! fanta/ic propositions t none b a magnanim\s man c act magnanimity1 t only lov]s c d ju/ice to a love sc5e1 & k9dr$ ass]tions t read l v>iations on ! famili> ',:o drives fat ox5 mu/ himself be fat'4 ,did]ot saw ! absurdity ( ?is2 he saw also ! ess5tially artificial nature ( ! ,fr5* trag$y & com$y ( 8 own day2 & he ha/ily took up ! position :i* ,mr4 ,ar*] has n[ %[n to be unt5able4 ,?is in/ance illu/rates ano!r pr9ciple t has to be borne 9 m9d 9 ! int]pretation ( doctr9es f _! hi/orical context ( c\nt]-implication4 ,?is is ! t5d5cy t m5 h to put doctr9es 9 too univ]sal a =m1 & to oppose univ]sal to univ]sal1 t is1 to d5y ) ! flat contr>y1 ! v rev]se1 :5 ! m humble contradictory is all t ! tru? admits (4 ,if a "n is want$ = ?is t5d5cy1 x might be call$ ! t5d5cy to ,ov]-,contradiction4 ,betwe5 ,all are & ,none are1 ! sob] tru? (t5 is t ,"s are & ,"s are n1 & ! process ( evolution has (t5 consi/$ 9 ! sub/itution ( ^! sob] =ms = _! m viol5t pr$ecessors4 ,footnote #a3 ,x is significant ( ! unsuitabl5ess ( ! vague unqualifi$ ^w ,relativity to express a logical di/9ction t ,dr4 ,ba9 calls 8 law ! ,law ( ,relativity simply1 hav+ reg>d to ! relation ( diff]5ce1 i4e41 to ,c\nt]-,relativity1 :ile ,dr4 ,caird applies ! "n ,relativity simply to ! relation ( lik5ess1 i4e41 to ,co-relativity4 ,x is ) a view to tak+ bo? =ms ( relation into acc\nt t ,i "n our law ! ,law ( ,homog5e\s ,c\nt]-relativity4 ,! ,protagorean ,law ( ,relativity has reg>d to yet ano!r relation1 ! relation ( k to ! kn[+ m9d3 ^! o!r logical laws are ( relations among ! v>i\s items ( k4 ,ari/otle's category ( ,relation is a f\r? k9d ( relation n to be confus$ ) ! o!rs4 ,fa!r--son1 uncle--nephew1 slave--ma/]1 are relata 9 ,ari/otle's s5se3 fa!r1 uncle are homog5e\s c\nt]-relatives1 v>ieties ( k9%ip2 s slave1 freeman are c\nt]-relatives 9 social /atus4 ,footnote #b3 ,dr4 ,caird's ,hegel1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #c3 ,see article on ,c\nt]-,s5se1 ,contempor>y ,review1 ,april1 #ahhd4 ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,! ,,int]dep5d5ce ,,( ,,propositions4--,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce4 --,,syllogism4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,we h already def9$ m$iate inf]5ce z ! d]ivation ( a conclusion f m ?an "o proposition4 ,! type or =m ( a m$iate inf]5ce fully express$ consi/s ( ?ree propositions s relat$ t "o ( !m is involv$ or impli$ 9 ! o!r two4 ,di/raction is exhau/+4 ,mod]n life is full ( di/raction 4'4 ,mod]n life is exhau/+4 ,we say no?+ ( ! tru? ( ^! propositions4 ,i purposely *oose que/ionable ones4 ,b d !y hang toge!r8 ,if y admit ! fir/ two1 are y b\nd 9 consi/5cy to admit ! ?ird8 ,is ! tru? ( ! conclusion a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! tru? ( ! premisses8 ,if s1 x is a valid m$iate inf]5ce f !m4 ,:5 "o ( ! two premisses is m g5]al ?an ! conclusion1 ! argum5t is said to be ,d$uctive4 ,y lead d[n f ! m g5]al to ! less g5]al4 ,! g5]al proposition is call$ ! ,major ,premiss1 or ,gr\nd+ ,proposition1 or ,sumption3 ! o!r premiss ! ,m9or1 or ,apply+ ,proposition1 or ,subsumption4 ,undue ha/e makes wa/e4 ,?is is a case ( undue ha/+4 4'4 ,x is a case ( undue wa/+4 ,we may1 & con/antly d1 apply pr9ciples & draw conclusions 9 ?is way )\t mak+ any =mal analysis ( ! propositions4 ,inde$ we reason m$iately & d$uctively :5ev] we make any application ( previ\s k1 al?\gh ! process is n express$ 9 propositions at all & is p]=m$ s rapidly t we are n consci\s ( ! /eps4 ,= example1 ,i ent] a room1 see a book1 op5 x & beg9 to read4 ,i want to make a note ( some?+3 ,i look r\nd1 see a pap] case1 op5 x1 take a %eet ( pap] & a p51 dip ! p5 9 ! ink & proce$ to write4 ,9 ! c\rse ( all ?is1 ,i act ^u c]ta9 inf]5ces :i* might be drawn out 9 ! =m ( ,syllogisms4 ,fir/1 9 virtue ( previ\s k ,i recognise :at lies be=e me z a book4 ,! process by :i* ,i rea* ! conclusion1 ?\gh x passes 9 a fla%1 might be analys$ & express$ 9 propositions4 ,:atev] pres5ts c]ta9 outw>d appe>ances1 conta9s readable pr9t4 ,?is pres5ts su* appe>ances4 4'4,x conta9s readable pr9t4 ,s ) ! pap] case1 & ! p51 & ! ink4 ,i inf] f peculi> appe>ances t :at ,i see conta9s pap]1 t ! liquid w make a black m>k on ! :ite %eet1 & s =?4 ,we are con/antly 9 daily life subsum+ p>ticul>s "u kn[n univ]sals 9 ?is way4 ,:atev] has c]ta9 visible prop]ties1 has c]ta9 o!r prop]ties3 ?is has ! visible ones3 !re=e1 x has ! o!rs is a =m ( reason+ con/antly lat5t 9 our m9ds4 ,! ,syllogism may be reg>d$ z ! explicit expression ( ?is type ( d$uctive reason+2 t is1 z ! analysis & =mal expression ( ?is e-day process ( apply+ kn[n univ]sals to p>ticul> cases4 ,?us view$ x is simply ! analysis ( a m5tal process1 z a psy*ological fact2 ! analysis ( ! proc$ure ( all m5 :5 !y reason f signs2 ! analysis ( ! k9d ( assumptions !y make :5 !y apply k to p>ticul> cases4 ,! assumptions may be w>rant$1 or !y may n3 b z a matt] ( fact ! individual :o makes ! confid5t inf]5ce has su* assumptions & subsumptions lat5t 9 8 m9d4 ,b practically view$1 t is logically view$1 if y reg>d ,logic z a practical sci5ce1 ! ,syllogism is a contrivance to assi/ ! correct p]=mance ( reason+ toge!r or syllogis+ 9 difficult cases4 ,x applies n to m5tal processes b to results ( su* express$ 9 words1 t is1 to propositions4 ,:]e ! ,syllogism comes 9 z a useful =m is :5 c]ta9 propositions are deliv]$ to y ab extra z conta9+ a c]ta9 conclusion2 & ! connexion is n app>5t4 ,^! propositions are analys$ & ?r[n into a =m 9 :i* x is at once app>5t :e!r ! alleg$ connexion exi/s4 ,?is =m is ! ,syllogism3 x is1 9 effect1 an analysis ( giv5 argum5ts4 ,x 0 z a practical eng9e or organon t x 0 inv5t$ by ,ari/otle1 an organon = ! syllogis+ ( admissions 9 ,dialectic4 ,! g]m ( ! inv5tion 0 ! analysis ( propositions into t]ms4 ,! syllogism 0 conceiv$ by ,ari/otle z a reason+ toge!r ( t]ms4 ,8 prime discov]y 0 t :5ev] two propositions necess>ily conta9 or imply a conclusion1 !y h a common t]m1 t is1 only ?ree t]ms betwe5 !m3 t ! o!r two t]ms :i* diff] 9 ea* are ! t]ms ( ! conclusion2 & t ! relation ass]t$ 9 ! conclusion betwe5 its two t]ms is a necess>y consequ5ce ( _! relations ) ! ?ird t]m z decl>$ 9 ! premisses4 ,su* 0 ,ari/otle's conception ( ! ,syllogism & su* x has rema9$ 9 ,logic4 ,x is /ill1 /rictly speak+1 a syllogism ( t]ms3 ( propositions only second>ily & aft] !y h be5 analys$4 ,! conclusion is conceiv$ analytically z a relation betwe5 two t]ms4 ,9 h[ _m ways may ?is relation be e/abli%$ ?r\gh a ?ird t]m8 ,! v>i\s moods & figures ( ! ,syllogism give ! answ] to t "q4 ,! use ( ! v ab/ract ^w relation makes ! problem appe> mu* m difficult ?an x really is4 ,! great *>m ( ,ari/otle's ,syllogism is its simplicity4 ,! ass]tion ( ! conclusion is r$uc$ to its simple/ possible k9d1 a relation ( inclusion or exclusion1 conta9$ or n conta9$4 ,to %[ t ! "o t]m is or is n conta9$ 9 ! o!r we h only to f9d a ?ird :i* conta9s ! "o & is conta9$ or n conta9$ 9 ! o!r4 ,! practical difficulties1 ( c\rse1 consi/ 9 ! r$uction ( ! conclusions & argum5ts ( common spee* to def9ite t]ms ?us simply relat$4 ,once !y are s r$uc$1 _! indep5d5ce or ! opposite is obvi\s4 ,!re9 lies ! virtue ( ! ,syllogism4 ,be=e proce$+ to %[ 9 h[ _m ways two t]ms may be ,syllogis$ ?r\gh a ?ird1 we mu/ h te*nical names = ! elem5ts4 ,! ?ird t]m is call$ ! ,,middle 7,m7 7,greek3 to meson73 ! o!r two ! ,extremes 7,greek3 akra74 ,! ,,extremes are ! ,subject 7,s7 & ! ,pr$icate 7,p7 ( ! conclusion4 ,9 an affirmative proposition 7! normal =m7 ,s is conta9$ 9 ,p3 h5ce ,p is call$ ! ,,major#a t]m 7,greek3 to meixon71 & ,s ! ,,m9or 7,greek3 to elatton71 be+ respectively l>g] & small] 9 ext5sion4 ,all difficulty ab\t ! names disappe>s if we rememb] t 9 be/[+ !m we />t f ! conclusion4 ,t 0 ! problem 7,greek3 problema7 or !sis 9 dialectic1 ! "q 9 dispute4 ,! two ,premisses1 or propositions giv+ ! relations betwe5 ! two ,extremes & ! ,middle1 are nam$ on an equally simple gr\nd4 ,"o ( !m gives ! relation betwe5 ! ,m9or ,t]m1 ,s1 & ! ,middle1 ,m4 ,s1 ,all or ,"s1 is or is n 9 ,m4 ,?is is call$ ! ,m9or ,premiss4 ,! o!r gives ! relation betwe5 ! ,major ,t]m & ! ,middle4 ,m1 ,all or ,"s1 is or is n 9 ,p4 ,?is is call$ ! ,major ,premiss4#b ,footnote #a3 ,ari/otle calls ! ,major ! ,fir/ 7,greek3 to proton7 & ! ,m9or ! la/ 7,greek3 to es*aton71 probably because t 0 _! ord] 9 ! conclusion :5 /at$ 9 8 mo/ usual =m1 ,p is pr$icat$ ( ,s1 or ,p belongs to ,s4 ,footnote #b3 ,:5 we speak ( ! ,m9or or ! ,major simply1 ! ref]5ce is to ! t]ms4 ,to avoid a confusion into :i* beg9n]s are apt to /umble1 & at ! same "t to emphasise ! orig9 ( ! names1 ! ,premisses might be spok5 ( at fir/ z ! ,m9or's ,premiss & ! ,major's ,premiss4 ,x 0 only 9 ! ,middle ,ages :5 ! orig9 ( ! ,syllogism _h be5 =gott51 t ! idea arose t ! t]ms 7 call$ ,major & ,m9or because !y occurr$ 9 ! ,major & ! ,m9or ,premiss respectively4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,figures ,,& ,,moods ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,i4--,! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,! =ms 7te*nically call$ ,,moods1 i4e41 modes7 ( ! ,fir/ ,figure are f\nd$ on ! simple/ relations ) ! ,middle t w yield or t necess>ily involve ! disput$ relation betwe5 ! ,extremes4 ,! simple/ type is /at$ by ,ari/otle z foll[s3 ,:5 ?ree t]ms are s relat$ t ! la/ 7! ,m9or7 is :olly 9 ! ,middle1 & ! ,middle :olly ei!r 9 or n 9 ! fir/ 7! ,major7 !re mu/ be a p]fect syllogism ( ! ,extremes4#a ,:5 ! ,m9or is p>tly 9 ! ,middle1 ! ,syllogism holds equally good4 ,?us !re are f\r possible ways 9 :i* two t]ms 7,greek3 oroi1 plane enclosures7 may be connect$ or disconnect$ ?r\gh a ?ird4 ,!y are usually repres5t$ by circles z be+ ! neate/ ( figures1 b any enclos+ outl9e answ]s ! purpose1 & ! r\gh] & m irregul> x is ! m truly w x repres5t ! ext5sion ( a ^w4 ,conclusion ,a4 ,all ,m is 9 ,p4 ,all ,s is 9 ,m4 ,all ,s is 9 ,p4 ,illu/ration3 conc5tric circles ( ,p1 ,m & ,s - ,s 9 c5tre ,conclusion ,e4 ,no ,m is 9 ,p4 ,all ,s is 9 ,m4 ,no ,s is 9 ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,conc5tric circles ( ,m & ,s1 ,s 9 c5tre & sep>ate circle ( ,p ,conclusion ,i4 ,all ,m is 9 ,p4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,conc5tric circles ( ,p & ,m1 ,m 9 c5tre1 bo? ov]lapp$ by circle ( ,s ,conclusion ,o4 ,no ,m is 9 ,p4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,circles ( ,m & ,p t\*+1 ea* ov]lapp$ by circle ( ,s ,^! f\r =ms con/itute :at are kn[n z ! moods ( ! ,fir/ ,figure ( ! ,syllogism4 ,see+ t all propositions may be r$uc$ to "o or o!r ( ! f\r =ms1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 or ,o1 we h 9 ^! premisses ab/ract types ( e possible valid argum5t f g5]al pr9ciples4 ,x is all ! same :atev] be ! matt] ( ! proposition4 ,:e!r ! subject ( debate is ma!matical1 physical1 social or political1 once premisses 9 ^! =ms are conc$$1 ! conclusion foll[s irresi/ibly1 ex vi =mae1 ex necessitate =mae4 ,if an argum5t c be analys$ into ^! =ms1 & y admit its propositions1 y are b\nd 9 consi/5cy to admit ! conclusion--unless y are prep>$ to d5y t if "o ?+ is 9 ano!r & t o!r 9 a ?ird1 ! fir/ is 9 ! ?ird1 or if "o ?+ is 9 ano!r & t o!r :olly outside a ?ird1 ! fir/ is also outside ! ?ird4 ,?is is call$ ! ,,axiom ,,( ,,syllogism4 ,! mo/ common =m ( x 9 ,logic is t kn[n z ! ,dictum1 or ,regula de ,omni et ,nullo3 ,:atev] is pr$icat$ ( ,all or ,none ( a t]m1 is pr$icat$ ( :atev] is conta9$ 9 t t]m4 ,x has be5 express$ ) _m little v>iations1 & !re has be5 a good deal ( discussion z to ! be/ way ( express+ x1 ! relativity ( ! ^w be/ be+ (t5 left out ( sight4 ,be/ = :at purpose8 ,practically t =m is ! be/ :i* be/ comm&s g5]al ass5t1 & = ?is purpose !re is little to *oose betwe5 v>i\s ways ( express+ x4 ,to make x easy & obvi\s x is p]haps be/ to h two sep>ate =ms1 "o = affirmative conclusions & "o = negative4 ,?us3 ,:atev] is affirm$ ( all ,m1 is affirm$ ( :atev] is conta9$ 9 ,m3 & :atev] is d5i$ ( all ,m1 is d5i$ ( :atev] is conta9$ 9 ,m4 ,! only advantage ( includ+ ! two =ms 9 "o expression1 is comp5di\s neatness4 ,a "p ( a "p is a "p ( ! :ole1 is a neat =m1 x be+ und]/ood t an individual or a species is "p ( a g5us4 ,:at is said ( a :ole1 is said ( e "o ( its p>ts1 is really a suffici5t /atem5t ( ! pr9ciple3 ! :ole be+ ! ,middle ,t]m1 & ! ,m9or be+ a "p ( x1 ! ,major is pr$icable ( ! ,m9or affirmatively or negatively if x is pr$icable simil>ly ( ! ,middle4 ,?is ,axiom1 z ! "n imports1 is indemon/rable4 ,z ,ari/otle po9t$ out 9 ! case ( ! ,axiom ( ,contradiction1 x c be v9dicat$1 if *all5g$1 only by r$uc+ ! *all5g] to a practical absurdity4 ,y c no m d5y x ?an y c d5y t if a leaf is 9 a book & ! book is 9 y\r pocket1 ! leaf is 9 y\r pocket4 ,if y say t y h a sov]eign 9 y\r purse & y\r purse is 9 y\r pocket1 & yet t ! sov]eign is n 9 y\r pocket3 w y give me :at is 9 y\r pocket = ! value ( ! purse8 ,,ii4--,,! ,,m9or ,,figures ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism1 ,,& ,,_! ,,r$uction ,,to ,,! ,,fir/4 ,! ^w ,figure 7,greek3 s*ema7 applies to ! =m or figure ( ! premisses1 t is1 ! ord] ( ! t]ms 9 ! /atem5t ( ! premisses1 :5 ! ,major ,premiss is put fir/1 & ! ,m9or second4 ,9 ! ,fir/ ,figure ! ord] is ,m ,p ,s ,m ,b !re are ?ree o!r possible ord]s or figures1 namely3-- ,fig4 ii4 ,fig4 iii4 ,fig4 iv4 ,,pm ,,mp ,,pm ,,sm ,,ms ,,ms4 ,x results f ! doctr9es ( ,conv]sion t valid argum5ts may be /at$ 9 ^! =ms1 inasmu* z a proposition 9 "o ord] ( t]ms may be equival5t to a proposition 9 ano!r4 ,?us ,no ,m is 9 ,p is conv]tible ) ,no ,p is 9 ,m3 consequ5tly ! argum5t ,no ,p is 9 ,m ,all ,s is 9 ,m1 9 ! ,second ,figure is z mu* valid z :5 x is /at$ 9 ! ,fir/-- ,no ,m is 9 ,p ,all ,s is 9 ,m4 ,simil>ly1 s9ce ,all ,m is 9 ,s is conv]tible into ,"s ,s is 9 ,m1 ! foll[+ argum5ts are equally valid3-- ,fig4 iii4 ,fig4 i4 ,all ,m is 9 ,p ,all ,m is 9 ,p ,all ,m is 9 ,s ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,us+ bo? ! above ,conv]ses 9 place ( _! ,conv]t5ds1 we h-- ,fig4 iv4 ,fig4 i4 ,no ,p is 9 ,m ,no ,m is 9 ,p ,all ,m is 9 ,s ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,x c be demon/rat$ 7we %all see pres5tly h[7 t altoge!r !re are possible f\r valid =ms or moods ( ! ,second ,figure1 six ( ! ,?ird1 & five ( ! ,f\r?4 ,an +5i\s ,mnemonic ( ^! v>i\s moods & _! r$uction to ! ,fir/ ,figure by ! transposition ( t]ms & premisses has come d[n f ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,! fir/ l9e names ! moods ( ! ,fir/1 ,normal1 or ,/&>d ,figure4 ,,barb,ar,a1 ,,cel,ar,ent1 ,,dar,,ii1 ,,fer,,ioque prioris2 ,,ces,ar,e1 ,,cam,e/r,es1 ,,fe/,in,o1 ,,bar,ok,o1 secundae2 ,t]tia ,,dar,apt,i1 ,,dis,am,is1 ,,dat,is,i1 ,,fel,apt,on1 ,,bok,ard,o1 ,,fer,is,oque1 habet2 qu>ta insup] addit1 ,br,am,ant,,ip1 ,,cam,en,es1 ,,dim,ar,is1 ,,fes,ap,o1 ,fr,es,is,on4 ,! v[els 9 ! names ( ! ,moods indicate ! propositions ( ! ,syllogism 9 ! f\r =ms1 ,a ,e ,i ,o4 ,to write out any ,mood at l5g? y h only to rememb] ! ,figure1 & transcribe ! propositions 9 ! ord] ( ,major ,premiss1 ,m9or ,premiss1 & ,conclusion4 ,?us1 ! ,second ,figure be+ ,,pm ,,sm ,,fe/,in,o is writt5-- ,no ,p is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,! ,f\r? ,figure be+ ,,pm ,,ms ,,dim,ar,is is ,"s ,p is 9 ,m4 ,all ,m is 9 ,s4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,p4 ,! initial lett] 9 a ,m9or ,mood indicates t ,mood ( ! ,fir/ to :i* x may be r$uc$4 ,?us ,fe/9o is r$uc$ to ,f]io1 & ,dim>is to ,d>ii4 ,9 ! cases ( ,b>oko & ,bok>do1 ,b indicates t y may employ ,b>b>a to br+ any impugn] to confusion1 z %all be aft]w>ds expla9$4 ,! lett]s s1 m1 & p are also significant4 ,plac$ aft] a v[el1 s indicates t ! proposition has to be simply conv]t$4 ,?us1 ,,fe/,in,o3-- ,no ,p is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,simply conv]t ! ,major ,premiss1 & y get ,,fer,,io1 ( ! ,fir/4 ,no ,m is 9 ,p4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 m 7muta1 or move7 indicates t ! premisses h to be transpos$4 ,?us1 9 ,,cam,e/r,es1 y h to transpose ! premisses1 z well z simply conv]t ! ,m9or ,premiss be=e rea*+ ! figure ( ,,cel,ar,ent4 ,all ,p is 9 ,m ,no ,m is 9 ,s ,no ,s is 9 ,m ,all ,p is 9 ,m4 ,f ?is x foll[s 9 ,,cel,ar,ent t ,no ,p is 9 ,s1 & ?is simply conv]t$ yields ,no ,s is 9 ,p4 ,a simple transposition ( ! premisses 9 ,,dim,ar,is ( ! ,f\r? ,"s ,p is 9 ,m ,all ,m is 9 ,s yields ! premisses ( ,,dar,,ii ,all ,m is 9 ,s ,"s ,p is 9 ,m1 b ! conclusion ,"s ,p is 9 ,s has to be simply conv]t$4 ,plac$ aft] a v[el1 p indicates t ! proposition has to be conv]t$ p] accid5s4 ,?us 9 ,,fel,apt,on ( ! ,?ird 7,,mp1 ,,ms7 ,no ,m is 9 ,p ,all ,m is 9 ,s ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p y h to sub/itute = ,all ,m is 9 ,s its conv]se by limitation to get ! premisses ( ,,fer,,io4 ,two ( ! ,m9or ,moods1 ,b>oko ( ! ,second ,figure1 & ,bok>do ( ! ,?ird1 _c be r$uc$ to ! ,fir/ ,figure by ! ord9>y processes ( ,conv]sion & ,transposition4 ,x is = deal+ ) ^! intractable moods t ,contraposition is requir$4 ,?us 9 ,,bar,ok,o ( ! ,second 7,,pm1 ,,sm7 ,all ,p is 9 ,m4 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,m4 ,sub/itute = ! ,major ,premiss its ,conv]se by ,contraposition1 & = ! ,m9or its ,=mal ,obv]se or ,p]mutation1 & y h ,,fer,,io ( ! ,fir/1 ) n-,m z ! ,middle4 ,no n-,m is 9 ,p4 ,"s ,s is 9 n-,m1 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,! processes might be indicat$ by ! ,mnemonic ,,facs,oc,o1 ) c indicat+ ! contraposition ( ! pr$icate t]m or ,=mal ,obv]sion4 ,! r$uction ( ,,bok,ard,o1 ,"s ,m is n 9 ,p ,all ,m is 9 ,s ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p1 is some:at m intricate4 ,x may be indicat$ by ,,dcs,am,osc4 ,y sub/itute = ! ,major ,premiss its ,conv]se by ,contraposition1 transpose ! ,premisses & y h ,,dar,,ii4 ,all ,m is 9 ,s4 ,"s n-,p is 9 ,m4 ,"s n-,p is 9 ,s4 ,conv]t n[ ! conclusion by ,contraposition1 & y h ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,! au?or ( ! ,mnemonic app>5tly did n recognise ,contraposition1 ?\gh x 0 admitt$ by ,boe?ius2 &1 x be+ impossible )\t ?is to demon/rate ! validity ( ,b>oko & ,bok>do by %[+ !m to be equival5t ) valid moods ( ! ,fir/ ,figure1 he provid$ = _! demon/ration by ! special process kn[n z ,r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,b indicates t ,b>b>a is ! m$ium4 ,! rationale ( ! process is ?is4 ,x is an imag9>y oppon5t t y r$uce to an absurdity or self-contradiction4 ,y %[ t x is impossible ) consi/5cy to admit ! premisses & at ! same "t d5y ! conclusion4 ,=1 let ?is be done2 let x be admitt$ z 9 ,,bar,ok,o t1 ,all ,p is 9 ,m ,"s ,s is n 9 ,m1 b d5i$ t ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,! d5ial ( a proposition implies ! admission ( its ,contradictory4 ,if x is n true t ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p1 x mu/ be true t ,all ,s is 9 ,p4 ,take ?is along ) ! admission t ,all ,p is 9 ,m1 & y h a syllogism 9 ,,barb,ar,a1 ,all ,p is 9 ,m ,all ,s is 9 ,p1 yield+ ! conclusion ,all ,s is 9 ,m4 ,if !n ! orig9al conclusion is d5i$1 x foll[s t ,all ,s is 9 ,m4 ,b ?is contradicts ! ,m9or ,premiss1 :i* has be5 admitt$ to be true4 ,x is ?us %[n t an oppon5t _c admit ! premisses & d5y ! conclusion )\t contradict+ himself4 ,! same process may be appli$ to ,bok>do4 ,"s ,m is n 9 ,p4 ,all ,m is 9 ,s4 ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,d5y ! conclusion1 & y mu/ admit t ,all ,s is 9 ,p4 ,syllogis$ 9 ,b>b>a ) ,all ,m is 9 ,s1 ?is yields ! conclusion t ,all ,m is 9 ,p1 ! contradictory ( ! ,major ,premiss4 ,! beg9n] may be rem9d$ t ! argum5t ad absurdum is n necess>ily conf9$ to ,b>oko & ,bok>do4 ,x is appli$ to !m simply because !y are n r$ucible by ! ord9>y processes to ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,x might be appli$ ) equal effect to o!r ,moods1 ,,dim,ar,is1 e4g41 ( ! ,?ird4 ,"s ,m is 9 ,p4 ,all ,m is 9 ,s4 ,"s ,s is 9 ,p4 ,let ,"s ,s is 9 ,p be d5i$1 & ,no ,s is 9 ,p mu/ be admitt$4 ,b if ,no ,s is 9 ,p & ,all ,m is 9 ,s1 x foll[s 79 ,cel>5t7 t ,no ,m is 9 ,p1 :i* an oppon5t _c hold consi/5tly ) 8 admission t ,"s ,m is 9 ,p4 ,! beg9n] sometimes asks3 ,:at is ! use ( r$uc+ ! ,m9or ,figures to ! ,fir/8 ,! reason is t x is only :5 ! relations betwe5 ! t]ms are /at$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure t x is at once app>5t :e!r or n ! argum5t is valid "u ! ,axiom or ,dictum de ,omni4 ,x is !n und5iably evid5t t if ! ,dictum holds ! argum5t holds4 ,& if ! ,moods ( ! ,fir/ ,figure hold1 _! equival5ts 9 ! o!r ,figures mu/ hold too4 ,ari/otle recognis$ only two ( ! ,m9or ,figures1 ! ,second & ,?ird1 & ?us _h 9 all only f\rte5 valid moods4 ,! recognition ( ! ,f\r? ,figure is attribut$ by ,av]roes to ,gal54 ,av]roes himself rejects x on ! gr\nd t no argum5ts express$ naturally1 t is1 9 accordance ) common usage1 fall into t =m4 ,?is is a suffici5t reason = n sp5d+ "t ^u x1 if ,logic is conceiv$ z a sci5ce t has a be>+ ^u ! actual practice ( discussion or discursive ?\ght4 ,& ?is 0 probably ! reason :y ,ari/otle pass$ x ov]4 ,if h[ev] ! ,syllogism ( ,t]ms is to be complet$ z an ab/ract doctr9e1 ! ,f\r? ,figure mu/ be notic$ z "o ( ! =ms ( premisses t conta9 ! requir$ relation betwe5 ! extremes4 ,!re is a valid syllogism betwe5 ! extremes :5 ! relations ( ! ?ree t]ms are z /at$ 9 c]ta9 premisses ( ! ,f\r? ,figure4 ,,iii4--,,! ,,sorites4 ,a *a9 ( ,syllogisms is call$ a ,sorites4 ,?us3-- ,all ,a is 9 ,b4 ,all ,b is 9 ,c4 ,all ,c is 9 ,d4 3 3 3 3 ,all ,x is 9 ,z4 4'4 ,all ,a is 9 ,z4 ,a ,m9or ,premiss c ?us be c>ri$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( ,univ]sal ,propositions ea* s]v+ 9 turn z a ,major to yield a conclusion :i* c be syllogis$ ) ! next4 ,obvi\sly a ,sorites may conta9 "o p>ticul> premiss1 provid$ x is ! fir/2 & "o univ]sal negative premiss1 provid$ x is ! la/4 ,a p>ticul> or a negative at any o!r po9t 9 ! *a9 is an insup]able b>4 ,footnote #a3 ,greek3 ,hotan oun horoi treis autos e*osi pros allel\s o/e ton es*aton en holo e9ai to meso1 kai ton meson en holo to kroto e e9ai e me e9ai1 ananke ton akron e9ai syllogismon teleion4 7,anal4 ,prior41 i4 #d47 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,demon/ration ,,( ,,! ,,syllogi/ic ,,moods4--,,! ,,canons ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,h[ d we "k t ! n9ete5 moods are ! only possible =ms ( valid syllogism8 ,ari/otle treat$ ?is z be+ self-evid5t ^u trial & simple inspection ( all possible =ms 9 ea* ( 8 ?ree ,figures4 ,grant$ ! p>ity betwe5 pr$ication & position 9 or out ( a limit$ enclosure 7t]m1 ,greek3 horos71 x is a matt] ( ! simple/ possible reason+4 ,y h ?ree su* t]ms or enclosures1 ,s1 ,p & ,m2 & y are giv5 ! relative positions ( two ( !m to ! ?ird z a clue to _! relative positions to "o ano!r4 ,is ,s 9 or out ( ,p1 & is x :olly 9 or :olly out or p>tly 9 or p>tly out8 ,y "k h[ ea* ( !m lies t[>d ! ?ird3 :5 c y tell f ?is h[ ,s lies t[>ds ,p8 ,we h se5 t :5 ,m is :olly 9 or out ( ,p1 & ,s :olly or p>tly 9 ,m1 ,s is :olly or p>tly 9 or out ( ,p4 ,try any o!r giv5 positions 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure1 & y f9d t y _c tell f !m h[ ,s lies relatively to ,p4 ,unless ! ,major ,premiss is ,univ]sal1 t is1 unless ,m lies :olly 9 or out ( ,p1 y c draw no conclusion1 :atev] ! ,m9or ,premiss may give4 ,giv51 e4g41 ,all ,s is 9 ,m1 x may be t ,all ,s is 9 ,p1 or t ,no ,s is 9 ,p1 or t ,"s ,s is 9 ,p1 or t ,"s ,s is n 9 ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,circles ( ,m & ,p1 ov]lapp+1 ) #c in/ances ( a circle ( ,s3 #a4 ,s 9 ,m1 b n 9 ,p2 #b4 ,s 9 ! ov]lap ( ,m & ,p2 #c4 ,s 9 ,m1 "s ,s 9 ,p4 ,aga91 unless ! ,m9or ,premiss is affirmative1 no matt] :at ! ,major ,premiss may be1 y c draw no conclusion4 ,= if ! ,m9or ,premiss is negative1 all t y "k is t ,all ,s or ,"s ,s lies some:]e outside ,m2 & h[ev] ,m may be situat$ relatively to ,p1 t k _c help t[>ds kn[+ h[ ,s lies relatively to ,p4 ,all ,s may be ,p1 or none ( x1 or "p ( x4 ,giv5 all ,m is 9 ,p2 ! ,all ,s 7or ,"s ,s7 :i* we "k to be outside ( ,m may lie any:]e 9 ,p or out ( x4 ,illu/ration3 ,conc5tric circles ( ,p & ,m1 ,m 9 c5t]1 ) #e in/ances ( circle ( ,s3 #a4 ,s :olly outside ,p & ,m2 #b4 ,s p>tly ov]lapp+ bo? ,p & ,m1 & p>tly outside bo?2 #c4 ,s ov]lapp+ ,p1 b outside ,m2 #d4 ,s :olly )9 ,p1 b :olly outside ,m2 #e4 ,s t\*+ circle ( ,p1 b outside bo? circles4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! ,second ,figure1 trial & simple inspection ( all possible conditions %[s t !re c be no conclusion unless ! ,major ,premiss is univ]sal1 & "o ( ! premisses negative4 ,ano!r & m common way ( elim9at+ ! invalid =ms1 elaborat$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 is to =mulate pr9ciples applicable irrespective ( ,figure1 & to rule out ( ea* ,figure ! moods t d n con=m to !m4 ,^! regulative pr9ciples are kn[n z ,! ,canons ( ! ,syllogism4 ,canon ,i4 ,9 e syllogism !re %\ld be ?ree1 & n m ?an ?ree1 t]ms1 & ! t]ms mu/ be us$ ?r\gh\t 9 ! same s5se4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 ow+ to ! ambiguity ( words1 t !re seem to be ?ree t]ms :5 !re are really f\r4 ,an in/ance ( ?is is se5 9 ! sophism3-- ,he :o is mo/ hungry eats mo/4 ,he :o eats lea/ is mo/ hungry4 4'4 ,he :o eats lea/ eats mo/4 ,?is ,canon1 h[ev]1 ?\gh x po9ts to a real dang] ( error 9 ! application ( ! syllogism to actual propositions1 is sup]flu\s 9 ! consid]ation ( purely =mal implication1 x be+ a prim>y assumption t t]ms are univocal1 & rema9 con/ant ?r\gh any process ( inf]5ce4 ,"u ?is ,canon1 ,m>k ,duncan says 7,in/4 ,log41 iv4 #c1 #b71 is compreh5d$ ano!r commonly express$ 9 ?is =m3 ,!re %\ld be no?+ 9 ! conclusion t 0 n 9 ! premisses3 inasmu* z if !re 7 any?+ 9 ! conclusion t 0 9 nei!r ( ! premisses1 !re w\ld be f\r t]ms 9 ! syllogism4 ,! rule t 9 e syllogism !re mu/ be ?ree1 & only ?ree1 propositions1 sometimes giv5 z a sep>ate ,canon1 is only a coroll>y f ,canon ,i4 ,canon ,,ii4 ,! ,middle ,t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ once at lea/ 9 ! ,premisses4 ,! ,middle ,t]m mu/ ei!r be :olly 91 or :olly out (1 "o or o!r ( ! ,extremes be=e x c be ! means ( e/abli%+ a connexion betwe5 !m4 ,if y "k only t x is p>tly 9 bo?1 y _c "k f t h[ !y lie relatively to "o ano!r3 & simil>ly if y "k only t x is p>tly outside bo?4 ,! ,canon ( ,di/ribut$ ,middle is a sort ( c\nt]-relative supplem5t to ! ,dictum de ,omni4 ,:atev] is pr$icable ( a :ole di/ributively is pr$icable ( all its sev]al p>ts4 ,if 9 nei!r premiss !re is a pr$ication ab\t ! :ole1 !re is no case = ! application ( ! axiom4 ,canon ,,iii4 ,no t]m %\ld be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion t 0 n di/ribut$ 9 ! premisses4 ,if an ass]tion is n made ab\t ! :ole ( a t]m 9 ! premisses1 x _c be made ab\t ! :ole ( t t]m 9 ! conclusion )\t go+ beyond :at has be5 giv54 ,! brea* ( ?is rule 9 ! case ( ! ,major t]m is te*nically kn[n z ! ,illicit ,process ( ! ,major3 9 ! case ( ! ,m9or t]m1 ,illicit ,process ( ! ,m9or4 ,great use is made ( ?is canon 9 cutt+ (f invalid moods4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ,pr$icate t]m is di/ribut$ or tak5 univ]sally 9 ,o 7,"s ,s is n 9 ,p7 z well z 9 ,e 7,no ,s is 9 ,p72 & t ,p is nev] di/ribut$ 9 affirmative propositions4 ,canon ,,iv4 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two negative premisses4 ,two negative premisses are really tantam\nt to a decl>ation t !re is no connexion :atev] betwe5 ! ,major & ,m9or 7z quantifi$ 9 ! premisses7 & ! t]m common to bo? premisses2 9 %ort1 t ?is is n a ,middle t]m--t ! condition ( a valid ,syllogism does n exi/4 ,!re is an app>5t exception to ?is :5 ! real ,middle 9 an argum5t is a contrapositive t]m1 n-,m4 ,?us3-- ,nobody :o is n ?ir/y is suff]+ f fev]4 ,?is p]son is n ?ir/y4 4'4 ,he is n suff]+ f fev]4 ,b 9 su* cases x is really ! abs5ce ( a quality or r ! pres5ce ( an opposite quality on :i* we reason2 & ! ,m9or ,premiss is really ,affirmative ( ! =m ,s is 9 n-,m4 ,canon ,v4 ,if "o premiss is negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative4 ,if "o premiss is negative1 "o ( ! ,extremes mu/ be exclud$ 9 :ole or 9 "p f ! ,middle t]m4 ,! o!r mu/ !re=e 7"u ,canon ,,iv47 decl>e "s co9cid5ce betwe5 ! ,middle t]m & ! o!r extreme2 & ! conclusion c only affirm exclusion 9 :ole or 9 "p f ! area ( ?is co9cid5ce4 ,canon ,,vi4 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two p>ticul> premisses4 ,?is is evid5t ^u a comp>ison ( t]ms 9 all possible positions1 b x c be m easily demon/rat$ ) ! help ( ! prec$+ canons4 ,! premisses _c bo? be p>ticul> & yield a conclusion )\t break+ "o or o!r ( ^? canons4 ,suppose bo? are affirmative1 ,,ii1 ! ,middle is n di/ribut$ 9 ei!r premiss4 ,suppose "o affirmative & ! o!r negative1 ,,io1 or ,,oi4 ,!n1 :atev] ! ,figure may be1 t is1 :atev] ! ord] ( ! t]ms1 only "o t]m c be di/ribut$1 namely1 ! pr$icate ( ,o4 ,?is 7,canon ,,ii47 mu/ be ! ,middle4 ,b 9 t case !re mu/ be ,illicit ,process ( ! ,major 7,canon ,,iii471 = "o ( ! premisses be+ negative1 ! conclusion is negative 7,canon ,v471 & ,p its pr$icate is di/ribut$4 ,briefly1 9 a negative mood1 bo? ,major & ,middle mu/ be di/ribut$1 & if bo? premisses are p>ticul> ?is _c be4 ,canon ,,vii4 ,if "o ,premiss is p>ticul> ! conclusion is p>ticul>4 ,?is canon is sometimes comb9$ ) :at we h giv5 z ,canon ,v41 9 a s+le rule3 ,! conclusion foll[s ! weak] premiss4 ,x c mo/ comp5di\sly be demon/rat$ ) ! help ( ! prec$+ canons4 ,suppose bo? premisses affirmative1 !n1 if "o is p>ticul>1 only "o t]m c be di/ribut$ 9 ! premisses1 namely1 ! subject ( ! ,univ]sal affirmative premiss4 ,by ,canon ,,ii41 ?is mu/ be ! ,middle1 & ! ,m9or1 be+ undi/ribut$ 9 ! ,premisses1 _c be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,t is1 ! conclusion _c be ,univ]sal--mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,suppose "o ,premiss negative1 ! o!r affirmative4 ,"o premiss be+ negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative1 & ,p mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,be=e1 !n1 ! conclusion c be univ]sal1 all ?ree t]ms1 ,s1 ,m1 & ,p1 mu/1 by ,canons ,,ii4 & ,,iii41 be di/ribut$ 9 ! premisses4 ,b :atev] ! ,figure ( ! premisses1 only two t]ms c be di/ribut$4 ,= if "o ( ! ,premisses be ,o1 ! o!r mu/ be ,a1 & if "o ( !m is ,e1 ! o!r mu/ be ,i4 ,h5ce ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>1 o!rwise !re w be illicit process ( ! ,m9or1 or ( ! ,major1 or ( ! ,middle4 ,! argum5t may be m briefly put z foll[s3 ,9 an affirmative mood1 ) "o premiss p>ticul>1 only "o t]m c be di/ribut$ 9 ! premisses1 & ?is _c be ! ,m9or )\t leav+ ! ,middle undi/ribut$4 ,9 a negative mood1 ) "o premiss p>ticul>1 only two t]ms c be di/ribut$1 & ! ,m9or _c be "o ( !m )\t leav+ ei!r ! ,middle or ! ,major undi/ribut$4 ,arm$ ) ^! canons1 we c quickly det]m9e1 giv5 any comb9ation ( ?ree propositions 9 "o ( ! ,figures1 :e!r x is or is n a valid ,syllogism4 ,obs]ve t ?\gh ^! canons hold = all ! ,figures1 ! ,figure mu/ be kn[n1 9 all comb9ations conta9+ ,a or ,o1 be=e we c settle a "q ( validity by ,canons ,,ii4 & ,,iii41 because ! di/ribution ( t]ms 9 ,a & ,o dep5ds on _! ord] 9 pr$ication4 ,take ,,aee4 ,9 ,fig4 ,i4-- ,all ,m is 9 ,p ,no ,s is 9 ,m ,no ,s is 9 ,p-- ! conclusion is invalid z involv+ an illicit process ( ! ,major4 ,p is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion & n 9 ! premisses4 ,9 ,fig4 ,,ii4 ,,aee-- ,all ,p is 9 ,m ,no ,s is 9 ,m ,no ,s is 9 ,p-- ! conclusion is valid 7,came/res74 ,9 ,fig4 ,,iii4 ,,aee-- ,all ,m is 9 ,p ,no ,m is 9 ,s ,no ,s is 9 ,p-- ! conclusion is invalid1 !re be+ illicit process ( ! ,major4 ,9 ,fig4 ,,iv4 ,,aee is valid 7,cam5es74 ,take ,,eio4 ,a little reflection %[s t ?is comb9ation is valid 9 all ! ,figures if 9 any1 ! di/ribution ( ! t]ms 9 bo? cases n be+ affect$ by _! ord] 9 pr$ication4 ,bo? ,e & ,i are simply conv]tible4 ,t ! comb9ation is valid is quickly se5 if we rememb] t 9 negative moods bo? ,major & ,middle mu/ be di/ribut$1 & t ?is is done by ,e4 ,,eie is invalid1 because y _c h a univ]sal conclusion ) "o premiss p>ticul>4 ,,aii is valid 9 ,fig4 ,i4 or ,fig4 ,,iii41 & invalid 9 ,figs4 ,,ii4 & ,,iv41 because ,m is ! subject ( ,a 9 ,i4 & ,,iii4 & pr$icate 9 ,,ii4 & ,,iv4 ,,oao is valid only 9 ,fig4 ,,iii41 because only 9 t ,figure w\ld ?is comb9ation ( premisses di/ribute bo? ,m & ,p4 ,simple ex]cises ( ?is k9d may be multipli$ till all possible comb9ations are exhau/$1 & x is se5 t only ! recognis$ moods /& ! te/4 ,if a m sy/ematic way ( demon/rat+ ! valid moods is desir$1 ! simple/ me?od is to d$uce f ! ,canons special rules = ea* ,figure4 ,ari/otle arriv$ at ^! special rules by simple inspection1 b x is easi] to d$uce !m4 ,i4 ,9 ! ,fir/ ,figure1 ! ,major ,premiss mu/ be ,univ]sal1 & ! ,m9or ,premiss affirmative4 ,to make ?is evid5t by ! ,canons1 we be> 9 m9d ! ,s*eme or ,figure-- ,m 9 ,p ,s 9 ,m-- & try ! alt]natives ( ,affirmative ,moods & ,negative ,moods4 ,obvi\sly 9 an affirmative mood ! ,middle is undi/ribut$ unless ! ,major ,premiss is ,univ]sal4 ,9 a negative mood1 7#a7 ,if ! ,major ,premiss is ,o1 ! ,m9or mu/ be affirmative1 & ,m is undi/ribut$2 7#b7 if ! ,major ,premiss is ,i1 ,m may be di/ribut$ by a negative ,m9or ,premiss1 b 9 t case !re w\ld be an illicit process ( ! ,major--,p be+ di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion 7,canon ,v47 & n 9 ! ,premisses4 ,?us ! ,major ,premiss c nei!r be ,o nor ,i1 & mu/ !re=e be ei!r ,a or ,e1 i4e41 mu/ be ,univ]sal4 ,t ! ,m9or mu/ be affirmative is evid5t1 = if x 7 negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative 7,canon ,v47 & ! ,major ,premiss mu/ be affirmative 7,canon ,,iv471 & ?is w\ld involve illicit process ( ! ,major1 ,p be+ di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion & n 9 ! ,premisses4 ,^! two special rules leave only f\r possible valid =ms 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,!re are sixte5 possible comb9ations ( premisses1 ea* ( ! f\r types ( proposition be+ comb9able ) itself & ) ea* ( ! o!rs4 ,,aa ,,ea ,,ia ,,oa ,,ae ,,ee ,,ie ,,oe ,,ai ,,ei ,,ii ,,oi ,,ao ,,eo ,,io ,,oo ,special ,rule ,i4 wipes out ! columns on ! "r ) ! p>ticul> major premisses2 & ,,ae1 ,,ee1 ,,ao1 & ,,eo are reject$ by ,special ,rule ,,ii41 leav+ ,,barb,ar,a1 ,,cel,ar,ent1 ,,dar,,ii & ,,fer,,io4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! ,second ,figure1 only ,negative ,moods are possible1 & ! ,major ,premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,only ,negative moods are possible1 = unless "o premiss is negative1 ,m be+ ! pr$icate t]m 9 bo?-- ,p 9 ,m ,s 9 ,m-- is undi/ribut$4 ,only negative moods be+ possible1 !re w be illicit process ( ! ,major unless ! ,major ,premiss is univ]sal1 ,p be+ its subject t]m4 ,^! special rules reject ,,aa & ,,ai1 & ! two columns on ! "r4 ,to get rid ( ,,ee & ,,eo1 we mu/ call 9 ! g5]al ,canon ,,iv42 :i* leaves u ) ,,ea1 ,,ae1 ,,ei1 & ,,ao--,,ces,ar,e1 ,,cam,e/r,es1 ,,fe/,in,o ,,bar,ok,o4 ,,iii4 ,9 ! ,?ird ,figure1 ! ,m9or ,premiss mu/ be affirmative4 ,o!rwise1 ! conclusion w\ld be negative1 & ! ,major ,premiss affirmative1 & !re w\ld be illicit process ( ! ,major1 ,p be+ ! pr$icate t]m 9 ! ,major ,premiss4 ,m 9 ,p ,m 9 ,s4 ,?is cuts (f ,,ae1 ,,ee1 ,,ie1 ,,oe1 ,,ao1 ,,eo1 ,,io1 ,,oo1--! second & f\r? r[s 9 ! above li/4 ,,ii & ,,oi are inadmissible by ,canon ,,vi42 :i* leaves ,,aa1 ,,ia1 ,,ai1 ,,ea1 ,,oa1 ,,ei--,,dar,apt,i1 ,,dis,am,is1 ,,dat,is,i1 ,,fel,apt,on1 ,,bok,ard,o1 ,,fer,is,o--?ree affirmative moods & ?ree negative4 ,,iv4 ,! ,f\r? ,figure is f5c$ by ?ree special rules4 7#a7 ,9 negative moods1 ! ,major ,premiss is univ]sal4 7#b7 ,if ! ,m9or is negative1 bo? premisses are univ]sal4 7#c7 ,if ! ,major is affirmative1 ! ,m9or is univ]sal4 7#a7 ,o!rwise1 ! ,figure be+ ,p 9 ,m ,m 9 ,s1 !re w\ld be illicit process ( ! ,major4 7#b7 ,! ,major mu/ be univ]sal by special rule 7#a71 & if ! ,m9or 7 n also univ]sal1 ! ,middle w\ld be undi/urb$4 7#c7 ,o!rwise ,m w\ld be undi/ribut$4 ,rule 7#a7 cuts (f ! "r-h& column1 ,,oa1 ,,oe1 ,,oi1 & ,,oo2 also ,,ie & ,,io4 ,rule 7#b7 cuts (f ,,ao1 ,,eo4 ,rule 7#c7 cuts (f ,,ai1 ,,ii4 ,,ee goes by g5]al ,canon ,,iv42 & we are left ) ,,aa1 ,,ae1 ,,ia1 ,,ea1 ,,ei--,br,am,ant,ip1 ,,cam,en,es1 ,,dim,ar,is1 ,,fes,ap,o1 ,fr,es,is,on4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,argum5ts ,,into ,,syllogi/ic ,,=ms4 ,turn+ giv5 argum5ts into syllogi/ic =m is apt to seem z trivial & useless z x is easy & me*anical4 ,9 mo/ cases ! necessity ( ! conclusion is z app>5t 9 ! pla9 spee* =m z 9 ! artificial logical =m4 ,! ju/ification ( su* ex]cises is t !y give famili>ity ) ! in/rum5t1 s]v+ at ! same "t z simple ex]cises 9 ratioc9ation3 :at fur!r uses may be made ( ! in/rum5t once x is ma/]$1 we %all consid] z we proce$4 ,i4--,,fir/ ,,figure4 ,giv5 ! foll[+ argum5t to be put into ,syllogi/ic =m3 ,no w> is long popul>3 = e w> increases taxation2 & ! popul>ity ( any?+ t t\*es ! pocket is %ort-liv$4 ,! simple/ me?od is to beg9 ) ! conclusion--,no w> is long popul>--,no ,s is ,p--!n to exam9e ! argum5t to see :e!r x yields premisses ( ! necess>y =m4 ,keep+ ! =m 9 m9d1 ,cel>5t ( ,fig4 ,i4-- ,no ,m is ,p ,all ,s is ,m ,no ,s is ,p-- we see at once t ,e w> increases taxation is ( ! =m ,all ,s is ,m4 ,does ! o!r s5t5ce yield ! ,major ,premiss ,no ,m is ,p1 :5 ,m repres5ts ! increas+ ( taxation1 i4e41 a class b\nd$ by t attribute8 ,we see t ! la/ s5t5ce ( ! argum5t is equival5t to say+ t ,no?+ t increases taxation is long popul>2 & ?is ) ! ,m9or yields ! conclusion 9 ,cel>5t4 ,no?+ t increases taxation is long popul>4 ,e w> increases taxation4 ,no w> is long popul>4 ,obs]ve1 n[1 :at 9 effect we h done 9 ?us r$uc+ ! argum5t to ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,9 effect1 a g5]al pr9ciple be+ alleg$ z ju/ify+ a c]ta9 conclusion1 we h put t pr9ciple into su* a =m t x has ! same pr$icate ) ! conclusion4 ,all t we h !n to d 9 ord] to inspect ! validity ( ! argum5t is to see :e!r ! subject ( ! conclusion is conta9$ 9 ! subject ( ! g5]al pr9ciple4 ,is w> "o ( ! ?+s t increase taxation8 ,is x "o ( t class8 ,if s1 !n x _c long be popul>1 long popul>ity be+ an attribute t _c be affirm$ ( any ( t class4 ,r$uc+ to ! fir/ figure1 !n1 am\nts simply to mak+ ! pr$ication ( ! proposition alleg$ z gr\nd uni=m ) ! conclusion bas$ ^u x4 ,! m9or premiss or apply+ proposition am\nts to say+ t ! subject ( ! conclusion is conta9$ 9 ! subject ( ! g5]al pr9ciple4 ,is ! subject ( ! conclusion conta9$ 9 ! subject ( ! g5]al pr9ciple :5 ! two h id5tical pr$icates8 ,if s1 ! argum5t falls at once "u ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo4 ,two ?+s may be not$ conc]n+ an argum5t ?us simplifi$4 #a4 ,x is n necess>y1 9 ord] to br+ an argum5t "u ! dictum de omni1 to r$uce ! pr$icate to ! =m ( an ext5sive t]m4 ,9 :atev] =m1 ab/ract or concrete1 ! pr$ication is made ( ! middle t]m1 x is applicable 9 ! same =m to t :i* is conta9$ 9 ! middle t]m4 #b4 ,! quantity ( ! ,m9or ,t]m does n require special att5tion1 inasmu* z ! argum5t does n turn ^u x4 ,9 :atev] quantity x is conta9$ 9 ! ,middle1 9 t quantity is ! pr$icate ( ! ,middle pr$icable ( x4 ,^! two po9ts be+ borne 9 m9d1 ! att5tion may be conc5trat$ on ! ,middle ,t]m & its relations ) ! extremes4 ,t ! pr$icate may be left unanalys$ )\t affect+ ! simplicity ( ! argum5t or 9 any way obscur+ ! exhibition ( its turn+-po9t1 has an important be>+ on ! r$uction ( ,modals4 ,! modality may be treat$ z "p ( ! pr$icate )\t 9 any way obscur+ :at x is ! design ( ! syllogism to make cle>4 ,we h only to be> 9 m9d t h[ev] ! pr$icate may be qualifi$ 9 ! premisses1 ! same qualification mu/ be transf]r$ to ! conclusion4 ,o!rwise we %\ld h ! fallacy ( ,f\r ,t]ms1 quat]nio t]m9orum4 ,to raise ! "q3 ,:at is ! prop] =m = a ,modal ( ,possibility1 ,a or ,i8 is to cle> up 9 an important respect our conceptions ( ! ,univ]sal proposition1 ,victories may be ga9$ by accid5t4 ,%\ld ?is be express$ z ,a or ,i8 ,is ! pr$icate applicable to ,all victories or only to ,"s8 ,obvi\sly ! mean+ is t ( any victory x may be true t x 0 ga9$ by accid5t1 & if we treat ! mode z "p ( ! pr$icate t]m ?+s t may be ga9$ by accid5t1 ! =m ( ! proposition is ,all ,s is 9 ,p4 ,b1 x may be ask$1 does n ! proposition t victories may be ga9$ by accid5t re/1 z a matt] ( fact1 on ! belief t "s victories h be5 ga9$ 9 ?is way8 ,& is n1 !re=e1 ! prop] =m ( proposition ,"s ,s is ,p8 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a misund]/&+4 ,:at we are conc]n$ ) is ! =mal analysis ( propositions z giv54 ,& ,"s victories h be5 ga9$ by accid5t is n ! =mal analysis ( ,victories may be ga9$ by accid5t4 ,! two propositions d n give ! same mean+ 9 diff]5t =ms3 ! mean+ z well z ! =m is diff]5t4 ,! "o is a /atem5t ( a matt] ( fact3 ! o!r ( an inf]5ce f\nd$ on x4 ,! full significance ( ! ,modal prop] may be /at$ ?us3 ,9 view ( ! fact t "s victories h be5 ga9$ by accid5t1 we are entitl$ to say ( any victory1 9 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 k1 t x may be "o ( !m4 ,a g5]al proposition1 9 %ort1 is a proposition ab\t a g5us1 tak5 univ]sally4 ,,ii4--,,second ,,figure4 ,= te/+ argum5ts f g5]al pr9ciples1 ! ,fir/ ,figure is ! simple/ & be/ =m ( analysis4 ,b !re is "o common class ( argum5ts t fall naturally1 z ord9>ily express$1 into ! ,second ,figure1 namely1 negative conclusions f ! abs5ce ( di/9ctive signs or symptoms1 or necess>y conditions4 ,?ir/1 = example1 is "o ( ! symptoms ( fev]3 if a pati5t is n ?ir/y1 y c conclude at once t 8 illness is n fev]1 & ! argum5t1 fully express$1 is 9 ! ,second ,figure4 ,all fev]-/rick5 pati5ts are ?ir/y4 ,?is pati5t is n ?ir/y4 4'4 ,he is n fev]-/rick54 ,argum5ts ( ?is type are extremely common4 ,arm$ ) ! g5]al pr9ciple t ill-do]s are ill-dread]s1 we argue f a man's be+ unsuspici\s t he is n guilty4 ,! negative diagnosis ( ! physician1 z :5 he argues f ! abs5ce ( sore ?roat or ! abs5ce ( a :ite speck 9 ! ?roat t ! case be=e him is n "o ( sc>lat9a or diph!ria1 foll[s ?is type3 & f its utility 9 mak+ su* argum5ts explicit1 ! ,second ,figure may be call$ ! ,figure ( ,negative ,diagnosis4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! "* ( ! argum5t is be/ disclos$ :5 ! ,major ,premiss is express$ by its ,conv]se by ,contraposition4 ,x is really f ! abs5ce ( a symptom t ! physician concludes2 z1 = example3 ,no pati5t t has n a sore ?roat is suff]+ f sc>lat9a4 ,& ! argum5t ?us express$ is 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,?us ! r$uction ( ,b>oko to ! ,fir/ ,figure by contraposition ( ! ,middle is v9dicat$ z a really useful process4 ,! real ,middle is a contrapositive t]m1 & ! =m corresponds m closely to ! reason+ :5 ! argum5t is put 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,! tru? is t if ! positive t]m or sign or necess>y condition is prom95t z ! basis ( ! argum5t1 !re is consid]able risk ( fallacy4 ,sore ?roat be+ "o ( ! symptoms ( sc>lat9a1 ! physician is apt on f9d+ ?is symptom pres5t to jump to a positive conclusion4 ,?is is equival5t te*nically to draw+ a positive conclusion f premisses ( ! ,second ,figure4 ,all sc>lat9a pati5ts h sore ?roat4 ,?is pati5t has sore ?roat4 ,a positive conclusion is te*nically kn[n z a ,non-,sequitur 7,doesn't foll[74 ,s ) argum5ts f ! pres5ce ( a necess>y condition :i* is only "o ( _m4 ,giv5 t x is impossible to pass )\t work+ at ! subject1 or t x is impossible to be a good m>ksman )\t hav+ a /eady h&1 we are apt to argue t giv5 also ! pres5ce ( ?is condition1 a conclusion is implicat$4 ,b really ! premisses giv5 are only two affirmatives ( ! ,second ,figure4 ,x is impossible to pass )\t work+ at ! subject4 ,?is1 put into ! =m ,no n-,m is ,p1 is to say t ,none :o h n work$ c pass4 ,?is is equival5t1 z ! conv]se by contraposition1 )-- ,all capable ( pass+ h work$ at ! subject4 ,b ?\gh ,q has work$ at ! subject1 x does n foll[ t he is capable ( pass+4 ,te*nically ! middle is undi/ribut$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if he has n work$ at ! subject1 x foll[s t he is n capable ( pass+4 ,we c draw a conclusion at once f ! abs5ce ( ! necess>y condition1 ?\gh none c be drawn f its pres5ce alone4 ,,?ird ,,figure4 ,argum5ts are sometimes advanc$ 9 ! =m ( ! ,?ird ,figure4 ,= in/ance3 ,kill+ is n always murd]3 = tyrannicide is n murd]1 & yet x is und\bt$ly kill+4 ,or aga93 ,unpleasant ?+s are sometimes salut>y3 = afflictions are sometimes s1 & no affliction c be call$ pleasant4 ,^! argum5ts1 :5 analys$ into t]ms1 are1 respectively1 ,felapton & ,disamis4 ,no tyrannicide is murd]2 ,all tyrannicide is kill+2 ,"s kill+ is n murd]4 ,"s afflictions are salut>y ?+s2 ,all afflictions are unpleasant ?+s2 ,"s unpleasant ?+s are salut>y ?+s4 ,! syllogi/ic =m _c 9 su* cases pret5d to be a simplification ( ! argum5t4 ,! argum5t w\ld be equally unmi/akable if advanc$ 9 ?is =m3 ,"s ,s is n ,p1 = example1 ,m4 ,"s kill+ is n murd]1 e4g41 tyrannicide4 ,"s unpleasant ?+s are salut>y1 e4g41 "s afflictions4 ,!re is really no d$uction 9 ! ?ird figure1 no lead+ d[n f g5]al to p>ticul>4 ,! middle t]m is only an example ( ! m9or4 ,x is ! syllogism ( ,contradictory ,examples4 ,9 actual debate examples are produc$ to disprove a univ]sal ass]tion1 affirmative or negative4 ,suppose x is ma9ta9$ t e wise man has a ke5 s5se ( hum\r4 ,y d\bt ?is3 y produce an in/ance ( ! opposite1 say ,milton4 ,! =ce ( y\r contradictory in/ance is n increas$ by exhibit+ ! argum5t 9 syllogi/ic =m3 ! po9t is n made cle>]4 ,! ,?ird ,figure 0 p]haps ( "s use 9 ,yes & ,no ,dialectic4 ,:5 y _h to get ev]y?+ ess5tial to y\r conclusion def9itely admitt$1 x 0 useful to "k t ! production ( an example to refute a g5]ality involv$ ! admission ( two propositions4 ,y mu/ extract f y\r oppon5t bo? t ,milton 0 a wise man1 & t ,milton _h n a ke5 s5se ( hum\r1 be=e y c\ld drive him f ! position t all wise m5 possess t quality4 ,examples = ,analysis4 ,sc>let fl[]s h no fragrance3 ?is fl[] has no fragrance3 does x foll[ t ?is fl[] is ( a sc>let col\r8 ,int]e/ 9 ! subject is an indisp5sable condition ( le>n+ easily2 ,z is int]e/$ 9 ! subject3 he is b\nd1 !re=e1 to le>n easily4 ,x is impossible to be a good %ot )\t hav+ a /eady h&3 ,john has a /eady h&3 he is capable1 !re=e1 ( becom+ a good %ot4 ,"s victories h be5 won by accid5t2 = example1 ,maiw&4 ,intemp]ance is m disgraceful ?an c[>dice1 because p h m opportunities ( acquir+ control ( _! bodily appetites4 ,"s m5 are n fools1 yet all m5 are fallible4 ,:at foll[s8 ,"s m5 all[ t _! memory is n good3 e man believes 9 8 own judgm5t4 ,:at is ! conclusion1 & 9 :at ,figure & ,mood may ! argum5t be express$8 ,an hone/ man's ! noble/ "w ( ,god3 ,z is an hone/ man3 !re=e1 he is--:at8 ,exam9e ! logical connexion betwe5 ! foll[+ exclamation & answ]3 ,b ,i he> "s "o exclaim+ t wick$ness is n easily conceal$4 ,to :i* ,i answ]1 ,no?+ great is easy4 ,if ! att5tion is actively ar\s$1 sleep becomes impossible3 h5ce ! sleeplessness ( anxiety1 = anxiety is a /ra9$ att5tion ^u an imp5d+ disa/]4 ,to foll[ tru? c nev] be a subject ( regret3 free inquiry does lead a man to regret ! days ( 8 *ildi% fai?2 !re=e x is n foll[+ tru?4--,j4 ,h4 ,newman4 ,he w\ld n take ! cr[n3 ,!re=e 'tis c]ta9 he 0 n ambiti\s4 ,z he 0 valiant1 ,i hon\r him2 z he 0 ambiti\s1 ,i slew him4 ,! ,utopians le>n$ ! language ( ! ,greeks ) m read9ess because !y 7 orig9ally ( ! same race ) !m4 ,no?+ :i* is cruel c be exp$i5t1 = cruelty is mo/ revolt+ to ! nature ( man4 ,! fif? c5tury saw ! f\ndation ( ! ,frank dom9ion 9 ,gaul1 & ! fir/ e/abli%m5t ( ! ,g]man races 9 ,brita94 ,! =m] 0 effect$ 9 a s+le long reign1 by ! en]gy ( "o great rul+ tribe1 :i* _h already modifi$ its traditional usages1 & n[1 by ! adoption ( ! language & religion ( ! conqu]$1 prep>$ ! way = a p]man5t amalgamation ) !m4 ,9 ! second ( ! above s5t5ces a g5]al proposition is assum$4 ,%[ 9 syllogi/ic =m h[ ! la/ proposition 9 ! s5t5ce dep5ds ^u x4 ,i d n mean to cont5d t active b5evol5ce may n h9d] a man's advancem5t 9 ! _w3 = advancem5t greatly dep5ds ^u a reputation = excell5ce 9 "s "o ?+ ( :i* ! _w p]ceives t x has pres5t ne$3 & an obvi\s att5tion to o!r ?+s1 ?\gh p]haps n incompatible ) ! excell5ce itself1 may easily prev5t a p]son f obta9+ a reputation = x4 ,pick out ! propositions "h giv5 z int]dep5d5t4 ,exam9e :e!r ! pr9ciple alleg$ is suffici5tly g5]al to necessitate a conclusion4 ,9 :at =m w\ld x be s8 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,en?ymemes4 ,!re is a c]ta9 v>iety 9 ! use ( ! ^w ,en?ymeme among logicians4 ,9 ! n>r[e/ s5se1 x is a valid =mal syllogism1 ) "o premiss suppress$4 ,9 ! wide/ s5se x is simply an argum5t1 valid or invalid1 =mal 9 expression or in=mal1 ) only "o premiss put =w>d or h9t$ at1 ! o!r be+ held 9 ! m9d 7,greek3 en ?ymo74 ,?is la/ is ! ,ari/otelian s5se4 ,x is only among =mal logicians ( ! /raite/ sect t ! n>r[e/ s5se prevails4 ,hamilton divides ,en?ymemes into ?ree classes accord+ z x is ! ,major ,premiss1 ! ,m9or ,premiss1 or ! ,conclusion t is suppress$4 ,?us1 a full syllogism be+3-- ,all li>s are c[>ds3 ,caius is a li>3 4'4 ,caius is a c[>d3-- ?is may be en?ymematically express$ 9 ?ree ways4 ,i4 ,en?ymeme ( ! ,fir/ ,ord] 7,major und]/ood74 ,caius is a c[>d2 = ,caius is a li>4 ,,ii4 ,en?ymeme ( ! ,second ,ord] 7,m9or und]/ood74 ,caius is a c[>d2 = all li>s are c[>ds4 ,,iii4 ,en?ymeme ( ! ,?ird ,ord] 7,conclusion und]/ood74 ,all li>s are c[>ds1 & ,caius is a li>4 ,! ,?ird ,ord] is a contribution ( ,hamilton's own4 ,x is sup]flu\s1 inasmu* z ! conclusion is nev] suppress$ except z a rhetorical figure ( spee*4 ,hamilton conf9es ! ^w ,en?ymeme to valid argum5ts1 9 pursuance ( 8 view t ,pure ,logic has no conc]n ) invalid argum5ts4 ,ari/otle us$ ,en?ymeme 9 ! wid] s5se ( an elliptically express$ argum5t4 ,!re has be5 "s d\bt z to ! mean+ ( 8 def9ition1 b t disappe>s on consid]ation ( 8 examples4 ,he def9es an ,en?ymeme 7,prior ,analyt41 ii4 #bg7 z a syllogism f probabilities or signs 7,greek3 syllogismos ex eikoton e semeion74 ,! ^w syllogism 9 ?is connexion is a little puzzl+4 ,b x is pla9 f ! examples he gives t he meant "h by syllogism n ev5 a correct reason+1 mu* less a reason+ 9 ! explicit =m ( ?ree t]ms & ?ree propositions4 ,he us$ syllogism1 9 fact1 9 ! same loose s5se 9 :i* we use ! words reason+ & argum5t1 apply+ )\t di/9ction ( good & bad4 ,! sign1 he says1 is tak5 9 ?ree ways1 9 z _m ways z !re are ,syllogi/ic ,figures4 7#a7 ,a sign int]pret$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure is conclusive4 ,?us3 ,?is p]son has be5 dr[n$1 = he has fro? 9 ! tra*ea4 ,tak5 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure ) ,all :o h fro? 9 ! tra*ea h be5 dr[n$ z a major premiss1 ?is argum5t is valid4 ,! sign is conclusive4 7#b7 ,?is pati5t is fev]-/rick51 = he is ?ir/y4 ,assum$ t ,all fev]-/rick5 pati5ts are ?ir/y1 ?is is an argum5t 9 ! ,second ,figure1 b x is n a valid argum5t4 ,?ir/ is a sign or symptom ( fev]1 b n a conclusive sign1 because x is indicative ( o!r ailm5ts also4 ,yet ! argum5t has a c]ta9 probability4 7#c7 ,wise m5 are e>ne/ 7,greek3 sp\daioi71 = ,pittacus is e>ne/4 ,"h ! suppress$ premiss is t ,pittacus is wise4 ,fully express$1 ! argum5t is 9 ! ,?ird ,figure3-- ,pittacus is e>ne/4 ,pittacus is wise4 4'4 ,wise m5 are e>ne/4 ,"h aga9 ! argum5t is inconclusive & yet x has a c]ta9 probability4 ,! co9cid5ce ( wisdom ) e>ne/ness 9 "o notable example l5ds a c]ta9 air ( probability to ! g5]al /atem5t4 ,su* are ,ari/otle's examples or /rict p>allels to !m4 ,! examples illu/rate also :at he says 9 8 ,rhetoric z to ! advantages ( en?ymemes4 ,= purposes ( p]suasion en?ymemes are bett] ?an explicit syllogisms1 because any inconclusiv5ess !re may be 9 ! argum5t is m likely to pass undetect$4 ,z we %all see1 "o ma9 use ( ! ,syllogism is to =ce tacit assumptions into light & s make _! true connexion or want ( connexion app>5t4 ,9 ,logic en?ymemes are recognis$ only to be %[n up3 ! elliptical expression is a cov] = fallacy1 :i* x is ! bus9ess ( ! logician to /rip (f4 ,9 ,ari/otle's examples "o ( ! premisses is express$4 ,b (t5 ! argum5ts ( common spee* are ev5 less explicit ?an ?is4 ,a g5]al pr9ciple is vaguely h9t$ at3 a subject is ref]r$ to a class ! attributes ( :i* are assum$ to be def9itely kn[n4 ,?us3-- ,he 0 too ambiti\s to be scrupul\s 9 8 *oice ( means4 ,he 0 too impulsive n to h made _m blund]s4 ,ea* ( ^! s5t5ces conta9s a conclusion & an en?ymematic argum5t 9 support ( x4 ,! he>] is und]/ood to h 9 8 m9d a def9ite idea ( ! degree ( ambition at :i* a man ceases to be scrupul\s1 or ! degree ( impulsiv5ess t is incompatible ) accuracy4 ,"o =m ( en?ymeme is s common 9 mod]n rhetoric z to des]ve a di/9ctive "n4 ,x may be call$ ! ,,en?ymeme ,,( ,,! ,,ab/ractly ,,d5om9at$ ,,pr9ciple4 ,a conclusion is decl>$ to be at v>iance ) ! pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy1 or contr>y to ! doctr9e ( ,evolution1 or inconsi/5t ) ,h]$ity1 or a violation ( ! sacr$ pr9ciple ( ,fre$om ( ,contract4 ,x is assum$ t ! he>] is famili> ) ! pr9ciples ref]r$ to4 ,z a safegu>d aga9/ fallacy1 x may be well to make ! pr9ciple explicit 9 a proposition uni=m ) ! conclusion4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,utility ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,! ma9 use ( ! ,syllogism is 9 deal+ ) incompletely express$ or elliptical argum5ts f g5]al pr9cipals4 ,?is may be call$ ,en?ymematic argum5t1 und]/&+ by ,en?ymeme an argum5t ) only "o premiss put =w>d or h9t$ at1 ! o!r be+ held 9 ! m9d4 ,9 ord] to te/ :e!r su* reason+ is s\nd or uns\nd1 x is ( advantage to make ! argum5t explicit 9 ,syllogi/ic =m4 ,!re h be5 heaps & mazes ( discussion ab\t ! use ( ! ,syllogism1 mu* ( x be+ pr(itable z a w>n+ aga9/ ! neglect ( ,=mal ,logic4 ,aga9 & aga9 x has be5 demon/rat$ t ! ,syllogism is useless = c]ta9 purposes1 & f ?is x has be5 conclud$ t ! ,syllogism is ( no use at all4 ,! inv5tor ( ! ,syllogism _h a def9ite practical purpose1 to get at ! simple/1 mo/ conv9c+1 und5iable & irresi/ible way ( putt+ admitt$ or self-evid5t propositions s t _! implication %\ld be app>5t4 ,8 ambition 0 to furni% a me?od = ! ,yes & ,no ,dialectician1 & ! exp\nd] ( sci5ce f self-evid5t pr9ciples4 ,a "q be+ put up = discussion1 x 0 an advantage to analyse x1 & =mulate ! necess>y premisses3 y c\ld !n bett] direct y\r int]rogations or gu>d y\r answ]s4 ,! analysis is simil>ly useful :5 y want to con/ruct an argum5t f self-evid5t pr9ciples4 ,all t ! ,syllogism c\ld %[ 0 ! consi/5cy ( ! premisses ) ! conclusion4 ,! conclusion c\ld n g beyond ! premisses1 because ! que/ion] c\ld n g beyond ! admissions ( ! respond5t4 ,!re is inde$ an advance1 b n an advance ^u ! two premisses tak5 toge!r4 ,!re is an advance ^u any "o ( !m1 & ?is advance is made ) ! help ( ! o!r4 ,bo? mu/ be admitt$3 a respond5t may admit "o )\t be+ committ$ to ! conclusion4 ,let him admit bo? & he _c )\t self-contradiction d5y ! conclusion4 ,t is all4 ,dialectic ( ! ,yes & ,no k9d is no long] practis$4 ,does any analog\s use = ! ,syllogism rema98 ,is !re a place = x z a safegu>d aga9/ error 9 mod]n debate8 ,z a matt] ( fact x is probably m useful n[ ?an x 0 = its orig9al purpose1 inasmu* z mod]n discussion1 aim+ at lit]>y grace & spurn+ exact =mality z smack+ ( s*ola/icism & p$antry1 is mu* m flabby & confus$4 ,9 ! old dialectic play !re 0 g5]ally a cle> "q propos$4 ,! int]rogative =m =c$ ?is mu* on ! disputants4 ,! mod]n debat] ( ! unp$antic1 uns*ola/ic s*ool is n s fett]$1 & may (t5 be se5 gallop+ wildly ab\t )\t any game 9 sight or sc5t1 8 maxim be+ to-- ,spur boldly on1 & da% ?r\gh ?ick & ?91 ,?r\gh s5se & nons5se1 nev] out nor 94 ,n[ ! syllogi/ic analysis may (t5 be ( "s use 9 help+ u to keep a cle> head 9 ! face ( a confus$ argum5t4 ,!re is a brilliant def5ce ( ! syllogism z an analysis ( argum5ts 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review = ,janu>y1 #ahbh4 ,! article 0 a notice ( ,:ately's ,logic3 x 0 writt5 by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,= "s reason x has nev] be5 repr9t$1 b x puts ! utility ( ! ,syllogism on cle>] gr\nd ?an ,mill aft]w>ds s\ght = x4 ,c a fallacy 9 argum5t be detect$ at once8 ,is common-s5se suffici5t8 ,common-s5se w\ld require "s inspection4 ,h[ w\ld x proce$8 ,does common-s5se inspect ! argum5t 9 a lump or piecemeal8 ,all at once or /ep by /ep8 ,x analyses4 ,h[8 ,fir/1 x sep>ates out ! propositions :i* contribute to ! conclusion f ^? :i* d n1 ! ess5tial f ! irrelevant4 ,!n x /ates explicitly all t may h be5 assum$ tacitly4 ,f9ally1 x enum]ates ! propositions 9 ord]4 ,"s su* proc$ure z ?is w\ld be adopt$ by common-s5se 9 analys+ an argum5t4 ,b :5 common-s5se has done ?is1 x has exhibit$ ! argum5t 9 a s]ies ( syllogisms4 ,su* is ,mill's e>ly def5ce ( ! ,syllogism4 ,x is weak only 9 "o po9t1 9 fail+ to repres5t h[ common-s5se w\ld arrive at ! peculi> syllogi/ic =m4 ,x is ! peculi> =m ( logical analysis t is ! di/9ction ( ! syllogism4 ,:5 y h dis5tangl$ ! relevant propositions y h n necess>ily put !m 9 ?is =m4 ,! argum5ts giv5 9 text-books to be ca/ into syllogi/ic =m1 consi/ only z a rule ( relevant propositions1 b !y are n yet =mal syllogisms4 ,b common-s5se _h only "o o!r /ep to make to rea* ! di/9ctive =m4 ,x _h only to ask aft] analys+ ! argum5t1 ,is !re any =m ( /atem5t specially suitable = exhibit+ ! connexion betwe5 a conclusion & ! g5]al pr9ciple on :i* x is alleg$ to dep5d8 ,ask y\rself ! "q1 & y w soon see t !re w\ld be an obvi\s advantage 9 mak+ ! conclusion & ! g5]al pr9ciple uni=m1 9 /at+ !m ) ! same pr$icate4 ,b :5 y d ?is1 z ,i h already %[n 7p4 #aig7 y /ate ! argum5t 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure ( ! ,syllogism4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be admitt$ t x is *iefly = exhibit+1 or =c+ into light1 tacit or lurk+ assumptions t ! ,syllogi/ic =m is ( use4 ,unless id5tity ( mean+ is disguis$ or di/ort$ by puzzl+ diff]5ce ( language1 !re is no special illum9ative virtue 9 ! ,syllogism4 ,! argum5t 9 a ,euclidean demon/ration w\ld n be made cle>] by be+ ca/ into =mal ,syllogisms4 ,aga91 :5 ! subject matt] is simple1 ! ,syllogi/ic =m is n really requir$ = protection aga9/ error4 ,9 su* en?ymemes z ! foll[+ = example3-- ,%e mu/ be clev]3 %e is s uncompromis+ly ugly4 ,romeo mu/ be 9 love3 = is he n sev5te58 x is pla9 to ! av]age intellig5ce )\t any k ( ,syllogism t ! argum5t takes = grant$ a g5]al proposition & :at ! g5]al proposition is4 ,ano!r ?+ is pla9 to ! av]age intellig5ce1 p]haps pla9] ?an to a pr(ici5t 9 ! use ( ! ,syllogism4 ,cle>ly we _c inf] ) c]ta9ty t a woman is clev] because %e is ugly1 unless x is ! case t all ugly wom5 are clev]4 ,b a ,syllogis]1 see+ t no c]ta9 conclusion c be drawn except ^u ?is condition1 is apt to dismiss ! argum5t z altoge!r wor?less4 ,?is may be specifi$ z an error incid5t to ! practice ( ! ,syllogism1 t x incl9es u to look = necess>ily conclusive premisses1 & to d5y all weight to any?+ %ort ( ?is4 ,n[ 9 ord9>y life x is comp>atively seldom t su* premisses c be f\nd4 ,we are oblig$ to proce$ on maxims t are n ( univ]sal scope1 & :i* l5d only a m or less /rong col\r ( probability to cases t c be br\ght "u !m4 ,a little le>n+ is a dang]\s ?+2 ,ha/e makes wa/e2 ,sl[ness ( spee* is a sign ( dep? ( ?\ght2 ,vivacity is a sign ( %all[ness3 su* are ! endoxes or commonplaces ( popul> k t m5 br+ to be> 9 daily life4 ,!y are n true = all cases1 b "s ( !m are true = mo/ or = a good _m1 & !y may be appli$ ) a c]ta9 probability ?\gh !y are n rigidly conclusive4 ,! pla9 man's dang] is t he apply !m un?9k+ly z univ]sals3 ! =mal logician's dang] is t1 see+ !m to be inapplicable z univ]sals1 he dismisses !m z be+ void ( all argum5tative =ce4 ,x helps to fix ! limits ( ,=mal ,logic to rememb] t x lies outside its b\nds to det]m9e ! degree ( probability atta*+ to ! application ( approximate tru?s1 su* z are ! /aple ( argum5ts 9 ord9>y affairs4 ,=mal ,logic1 we may repeat1 is n conc]n$ ) degrees ( tru? or falsehood1 probability or improbability4 ,x m]ely %[s ! int]dep5d5cy ( c]ta9 argum5ts1 ! consi/5cy ( conclusion ) premisses4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a function t might easily be und]rat$4 ,its value is m indirect ?an direct4 ,9 %[+ :at is requir$ = a c]ta9 conclusion1 x puts u on ! road to a m exact e/imate ( ! premisses alleg$1 a s\nd] judgm5t ( _! wor?4 ,well begun is half done3 9 und]tak+ ! exam9ation ( any argum5t f au?ority1 a =mal syllogism is a good beg9n+4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,conditional ,,argum5ts4--,,hypo!tical ,,syllogism1 ,,disjunctive ,,syllogism1 ,,& ,,dilemma4 ,! ju/ification ( includ+ ^! =ms ( argum5t 9 ,logic is simply t !y are sometimes us$ 9 debate1 & t confusion may arise unless ! precise mean+ ( ! premisses employ$ is und]/ood4 ,ari/otle did n include !m z n[ giv5 9 8 exposition ( ! ,syllogism1 probably because !y h no connexion ) ! mode ( reason+ toge!r to :i* he appropriat$ ! title4 ,! fallacies connect$ ) !m are ( su* a simple k9d t to discuss z a "q ( me?od ! precise place !y %\ld occupy 9 a logical treatise is a wa/e ( +5uity4#a ,i4--,,hypo!tical ,,syllogisms4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,a is ,b ,,modus 4'4,c is ,d ,,pon5s4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,c is n ,d ,,modus 4'4,a is n ,b ,,toll5s4 ,a s-call$ ,hypo!tical ,syllogism is ?us se5 to be a ,syllogism 9 :i* ! major premiss is a ,,hypo!tical ,,proposition1 t is to say1 a complex proposition 9 :i* two propositions are giv5 z s relat$ t ! tru? ( "o foll[s necess>ily f ! tru? ( ! o!r4 ,two propositions s relat$ are te*nically call$ ! ,,antec$5t or ,reason1 & ! ,,consequ5t4 ,! mean+ & implication ( ! =m1 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 is express$ 9 :at is kn[n z ! ,,law ,,( ,,reason ,,& ,,consequ5t3-- ,:5 two propositions are relat$ z ,reason & ,consequ5t1 ! tru? ( ! ,consequ5t foll[s f ! tru? ( ! ,antec$5t1 & ! falsehood ( ! ,antec$5t1 f ! falsehood ( ! ,consequ5t4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 implies t ,if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is n ,b4 ,if ?is subject is educative1 x quick5s ! wits2 if x does n quick5 ! wits1 x is n educative4 ,admitt$1 !n1 t ! law ( ,reason & ,consequ5t holds betwe5 two propositions--t ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d3 admitt$ also ! ,antec$5t1 ! tru? ( ! ,consequ5t foll[s4 ,?is is ! ,,modus ,,pon5s or ,positive ,mode1 :]e y rea* a conclusion by obta9+ ! admission ( ! ,antec$5t4 ,admit ! ,antec$5t & ! tru? ( ! ,consequ5t foll[s4 ,) ! same ,major ,premiss1 y may also1 "u ! ,law ( ,reason & ,consequ5t rea* a conclusion by obta9+ ! d5ial ( ! ,consequ5t4 ,?is is ! ,,modus ,,toll5s or ,negative ,mode4 ,d5y ! ,consequ5t & "o is b\nd to d5y ! ,antec$5t4 ,b to gu>d aga9/ ! fallacy te*nically kn[n z ,,fallacia ,,consequ5tis1 we mu/ obs]ve :at ! relation ( ,reason & ,consequ5t does n imply4 ,! tru? ( ! ,consequ5t does n involve ! tru? ( ! ,antec$5t1 & ! falsehood ( ! ,antec$5t does n involve ! falsehood ( ! ,consequ5t4 ,if ! h>b\r is froz51 ! %ips _c come 94 ,if ! h>b\r is n froz51 x does n foll[ t ! %ips c come 93 !y may be exclud$ by o!r causes4 ,& s1 ?\gh !y _c come 91 x does n foll[ t ! h>b\r is froz54 ,,que/ions ,,connect$ ,,) ,,hypo!tical ,,syllogisms4 7#a7 ,are !y prop]ly call$ ,syllogisms8 ,?is is purely a "q ( ,me?od & ,def9ition4 ,if we want a sep>ate te*nical "n = =ms ( argum5t 9 :i* two t]ms are reason$ toge!r by means ( a ?ird1 ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism1 n be+ 9 su* a =m1 is n prop]ly s call$4 ,! fact is t = ! purposes ( ! ,hypo!tical ,argum5t1 we d n require an analysis into t]ms at all3 x is sup]flu\s3 we are conc]n$ only ) ! affirmation or d5ial ( ! con/itu5t propositions z :oles4 ,b if we ext5d ! ^w ,syllogism to cov] all argum5ts 9 :i* two propositions necess>ily involve a ?ird1 ! ,hypo!tical ,argum5t is on ?is und]/&+ prop]ly en\gh call$ a ,syllogism4 7#b7 ,is ! inf]5ce 9 ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism ,m$iate or ,imm$iate8 ,to answ] ?is "q we h to consid] :e!r ! ,conclusion c be drawn f ei!r ( ! two premisses )\t ! help ( ! o!r4 ,if x is possible imm$iately1 x mu/ be educible directly ei!r f ! ,major ,premiss or f ! ,m9or4 7a7 ,"s logicians argue z if ! ,conclusion 7 imm$iately possible f ! ,major ,premiss4 ,! ,m9or ,premiss & ! ,conclusion1 !y urge1 are simply equival5t to ! ,major ,premiss4 ,b ?is is a misund]/&+4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 is n equival5t to ,a is ,b1 !re=e ,c is ,d4 ,if ! h>b\r is froz51 ! %ips _c come 9 is n to say t ! h>b\r is froz51 & !re=e1 etc4 ,! ,major ,premiss m]ely affirms ! exi/5ce ( ! relation ( ,reason & ,consequ5t betwe5 ! two propositions4 ,b we _c !reupon ass]t ! ,conclusion unless ! ,m9or ,premiss is also conc$$2 t is1 ! inf]5ce ( ! ,conclusion is ,m$iate1 z be+ f two premisses & n f "o alone4 7b7 ,simil>ly ) ,hamilton's cont5tion t ! ,conclusion is inf]rible imm$iately f ! ,m9or ,premiss1 inasmu* z ! ,consequ5t is involv$ 9 ! ,reason4 ,true1 ! ,consequ5t is involv$ 9 ! ,reason3 b we _c inf] f ,a is ,b to ,c is ,d1 unless x is conc$$ t ! relation ( ,reason & ,consequ5t holds betwe5 !m2 t is1 unless ! ,major ,premiss is conc$$ z well z ! ,m9or4 7#c7 ,c ,hypo!tical ,syllogism be r$uc$ to ! ,categorical ,=m8 ,to oppose ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms to ,categorical is mislead+1 unless we take note ( ! precise diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,x is only 9 ! =m ( ! ,major ,premiss t !y diff]3 ,m9or ,premiss & ,conclusion are categorical 9 bo?4 ,& ! mean+ ( a ,hypo!tical ,major ,premiss 7unless x is a m]e arbitr>y conv5tion betwe5 two disputants1 to ! effect t ! ,consequ5t w be admitt$ if ! ,antec$5t is prov$1 or t ! ,antec$5t w be rel9qui%$ if ! ,consequ5t is disprov$71 c always be put 9 ! =m ( a g5]al proposition1 f :i*1 ) ! ,m9or ,premiss z apply+ proposition1 a conclusion id5tical ) ! orig9al c be drawn 9 regul> ,categorical =m4 ,?us3-- ,if ! h>b\r is froz51 ! %ips _c come 94 ,! h>b\r is froz54 4'4 ,! %ips _c come 94 ,?is is a ,hypo!tical ,syllogism1 ,modus ,pon5s4 ,express ! ,hypo!tical ,major 9 ! =m ( ! g5]al proposition :i* x implies1 & y rea* a conclusion 79 ,b>b>a7 :i* is only grammatically diff]5t f ! orig9al4 ,all froz5 h>b\rs exclude %ips4 ,! h>b\r is froz54 4'4 ,x excludes %ips4 ,aga91 take an example ( ! ,modus ,toll5s-- ,if ra9 has fall51 ! /reets are wet4 ,! /reets are n wet4 4'4 ,ra9 has n fall54 ,?is is r$ucible1 by =mulat+ ! und]ly+ proposition1 to ,came/res or ,b>oko ( ! ,second ,figure4 ,all /reets ra9$ ^u are wet4 ,! /reets are n wet4 4'4 ,!y are n /reets ra9$ ^u4 ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms are ?us r$ucible1 by m]ely grammatical *ange#b1 or by ! /atem5t ( self-evid5t implications1 to ! ,categorical =m4 ,&1 simil>ly1 any ,categorical ,syllogism may be r$uc$ to ! ,hypo!tical =m4 ,?us3-- ,all m5 are mortal4 ,socrates is a man4 4'4 ,socrates is mortal4 ,?is argum5t is n diff]5t1 except 9 ! expression ( ! ,major & ! ,conclusion1 f ! foll[+3-- ,if ,socrates is a man1 dea? w ov]take him4 ,socrates is a man4 4'4 ,dea? w ov]take him4 ,! advantage ( ! ,hypo!tical =m 9 argum5t is t x is simpl]4 ,x 0 mu* us$ 9 ,m$iaeval ,disputation1 & is /ill m popul> ?an ! ,categorical ,syllogism4 ,p]haps ! prom95ce giv5 to ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms z syllogisms 9 ,po/-,r5aissance text-books is due to ! use ( !m 9 ! =mal disputations ( gradu&s 9 ! ,univ]sities4 ,x 0 ! cu/om = ! ,disputant to exp\nd 8 argum5t 9 ?is =m3-- ,if s & s is ! case1 su* & su* foll[s4 ,s & s is ! case4 4'4 ,su* & su* foll[s4 ,to :i* ! ,respond5t w\ld reply3 ,accipio antec$5tem1 nego consequ5tiam1 & argue accord+ly4 ,petrus ,hispanus does n give ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism z a ,syllogism3 he m]ely expla9s ! true law ( ,reason & ,consequ5t 9 connexion ) ! ,fallacia ,consequ5tis 9 ! section on ,fallacies4 7,summulae4 ,tractatus ,sextus47 ,,ii4--,,disjunctive ,,syllogisms4 ,a ,disjunctive ,syllogism is a syllogism 9 :i* ! ,major ,premiss is a ,,disjunctive ,,proposition1 i4e41 "o 9 :i* two propositions are decl>$ to be mutually incompatible4 ,x is ( ! =m ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d4#c ,if ! disjunction betwe5 ! alt]natives is really complete1 ! =m implies f\r hypo!tical propositions3-- 7#a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d4 7#b7 ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4 7#c7 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is n ,b4 7#d7 ,if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is ,b4 ,suppose !n t an antagoni/ has grant$ y a ,disjunctive ,proposition1 y c1 us+ ?is z a ,major ,premiss1 extract f him f\r diff]5t ,conclusions1 if y c get him also to admit ! requisite ,m9ors4 ,! ,mode ( two ( ^! is te*nically call$ ,,modus ,,pon5do ,,toll5s1 ! mode t d5ies ! "o alt]native by grant+ ! o!r--,a is ,b1 !re=e ,c is n ,d2 ,c is ,d1 !re=e ,a is n ,b4 ,! o!r ,mode is also twice op51 ! ,,modus ,,toll5do ,,pon5s--,a is n ,b1 !re=e ,c is ,d2 ,c is n ,d1 !re=e ,a is ,b4 ,fallacy is sometimes committ$ ?r\gh ! ,disjunctive =m ow+ to ! fact t 9 common spee* !re is a t5d5cy to use x 9 place ( a m]e hypo!tical1 :5 !re are n really two incompatible alt]natives4 ,?us x may be said ,ei!r ! witness is p]jur$1 or ! prison] is guilty1 :5 ! mean+ m]ely is t if ! witness is n p]jur$ ! prison] is guilty4 ,b really !re is n a valid disjunction & a correct use ( ! disjunctive =m1 unless f\r hypo!ticals are impli$1 t is1 unless ! concession ( ei!r involves ! d5ial ( ! o!r1 & ! d5ial ( ei!r ! concession ( ! o!r4 ,n[ ! prison] may be guilty & yet ! witness be p]jur$2 s t two ( ! f\r hypo!ticals1 namely-- ,if ! witness is p]jur$1 ! prison] is n guilty1 ,if ! prison] is guilty1 ! witness is n p]jur$-- d n necess>ily hold4 ,if1 !n1 we w\ld gu>d aga9/ fallacy1 we mu/ always make sure be=e ass5t+ to a disjunctive proposition t !re is really a complete disjunction or mutual incompatibility betwe5 ! alt]natives4 ,,iii4--,,! ,,dilemma4 ,a ,dilemma is a comb9ation ( ,hypo!tical & ,disjunctive propositions4 ,! ^w has pass$ into common spee*1 & its ord9>y use is a clue to ! logical /ructure4 ,we are said to be 9 a dilemma :5 we h only two c\rses op5 to u & bo? ( !m are att5d$ by unpleasant consequ5ces4 ,9 argum5t we are 9 ?is position :5 we are %ut into a *oice betwe5 two admissions1 & ei!r admission leads to a conclusion :i* we d n l4 ,! /atem5t ( ! alt]natives z ! consequ5ces hypo!tically ( c]ta9 conditions is ! major premiss ( ! dilemma3 once we admit t ! relations ( ,antec$5t & ,consequ5t are z /at$1 we are 9 a trap1 if trap x is3 we are on ! horns ( ! dilemma1 ready to be toss$ f "o to ! o!r4 ,= example3-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,a is ,c1 & if ,a is n ,b1 ,a is ,d4 ,b ,a ei!r is or is n ,b4 ,!re=e1 ,a ei!r is ,c or is ,d4 ,if ,a act$ ( 8 own motive1 he is a knave2 if ,a did n act ( 8 own motive1 he is a catspaw4 ,b ,a ei!r act$ ( 8 own motive or he did n4 ,!reupon ,a is ei!r a knave or a catspaw4 ,?is is an example ( ! ,con/ructive ,dilemma1 ! =m ( x correspond+ to ! common use ( ! ^w z a *oice betwe5 equally unpleasant alt]natives4 ,! /&>d example is ! dilemma 9 :i* ! cu/odians ( ! ,alex&rian ,libr>y are said to h be5 put by ! ,caliph ,om> 9 #fdj ,a4,d4 ,if y\r books are 9 con=mity ) ! ,koran1 !y are sup]flu\s2 if !y are at v>iance ) x1 !y are p]nici\s4 ,b !y mu/ ei!r be 9 con=mity ) ! ,koran or at v>iance ) x4 ,!re=e !y are ei!r sup]flu\s or p]nici\s4 ,:]e caution has to be ex]cis$ is 9 accept+ ! clauses ( ! ,major4 ,we mu/ make sure t ! ass]t$ relations ( ,reason & ,consequ5t really hold4 ,x is !re t fallacy is apt to creep 9 & hide its head4 ,! ,alex&rian ,libr>ians 7 ra% 9 accept+ ! fir/ clause ( ! conqu]or's ,major3 x does n foll[ t ! books are sup]flu\s unless ! doctr9es ( ! ,koran are n m]ely s\nd b conta9 all t is wor? kn[+4 ,! prop\nd] ( ! dilemma cov]tly assumes ?is4 ,x is 9 ! facility t x af=ds = :at is te*nically kn[n z ,petitio ,pr9cipii t ! ,dilemma is a useful in/rum5t = ! ,sophi/4 ,we %all illu/rate x fur!r "u t head4 ,:at is kn[n z ! ,de/ructive ,dilemma is ( a some:at diff]5t =m4 ,x proce$s ^u ! d5ial ( ! ,consequ5t z involv+ ! d5ial ( ! ,antec$5t4 ,9 ! ,major y obta9 ! admission t if a c]ta9 ?+ holds1 x mu/ be foll[$ by "o or o!r ( two consequ5ces4 ,y !n prove by way ( ,m9or t nei!r ( ! alt]natives is true4 ,! conclusion is t ! antec$5t is false4 ,we _h an example ( ?is 9 discuss+ :e!r ! inf]5ce 9 ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism is ,imm$iate4 ,our argum5t 0 9 ?is =m3-- ,if ! inf]5ce is imm$iate1 x mu/ be drawn ei!r f ! ,major alone or f ! ,m9or alone4 ,b x _c be drawn f ! ,major alone1 nei!r c x be drawn f ! ,m9or alone4 ,!re=e1 x is n imm$iate4 ,9 ?is =m ( ,dilemma1 :i* is (t5 s]viceable = cle>ness ( exposition1 we mu/ z 9 ! o!r make sure ( ! tru? ( ! ,major3 we mu/ take c>e t ! alt]natives are really ! only two op54 ,o!rwise ! impos+ =m ( ! argum5t is a conv5i5t mask = sophi/ry4 ,z5o's fam\s dilemma1 direct$ to prove t motion is impossible1 cov]s a petitio pr9cipii4 ,if a body moves1 x mu/ move ei!r :]e x is or :]e x is n4 ,b a body _c move :]e x is3 nei!r c x move :]e x is n4 ,conclusion1 x _c move at all1 i4e41 ,motion is impossible4 ,! conclusion is irresi/ible if we admit ! ,major1 because ! ,major cov]tly assumes ! po9t to be prov$4 ,9 tru?1 if a body moves1 x moves nei!r :]e x is nor :]e x is n1 b f :]e x is to :]e x is n4 ,motion consi/s 9 *ange ( place3 ! ,major assumes t ! place is un*ang$1 t is1 t !re is no motion4 ,footnote #a3 ,= ! hi/ory ( ,hypo!tical ,syllogism see ,mansel's ,aldri*1 ,app5dix ,i4 ,footnote #b3 ,x may be argu$ t ! *ange is n m]ely grammatical1 & t ! implication ( a g5]al proposition 9 a hypo!tical & vice v]sa is a /rictly logical conc]n4 ,at any rate su* an implication exi/s1 :e!r x is ! function ( ! ,gramm>ian or ! ,logician to exp\nd x4 ,footnote #c3 ,"s logicians pref] ! =m ,ei!r ,a is1 or ,b is4 ,b ! two alt]natives are propositions1 & if ,a is repres5ts a proposition1 ! is is n ! ,syllogi/ic copula4 ,if ?is is und]/ood x does n matt]3 ! analysis ( ! alt]native propositions is uness5tial4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,fallacies ,,9 ,,d$uctive ,,argum5t4--,,petitio ,,pr9cipii ,,& ,,ignoratio ,,el5*i4 ,! traditional treatm5t ( ,fallacies 9 ,logic foll[s ,ari/otle's special treatise ,greek3 ,p]i sophi/ikon el5*on--,conc]n+ ,sophi/ical ,refutations--,pret5d$ ,dispro(s--,argum5tative ,tricks4 ,reg>d+ ,logic z 9 ! ma9 a protection aga9/ ,fallacies1 ,i h be5 go+ on ! plan ( tak+ ea* fallacy 9 connexion ) its special safegu>d1 & 9 accordance ) t plan propose to deal "h ) ! two great types ( fallacy 9 d$uctive argum5t4 ,bo? ( !m 7 recognis$ & nam$ by ,ari/otle3 b be=e expla9+ !m x is wor? :ile to indicate ,ari/otle's plan z a :ole4 ,"s ( 8 ,argum5tative ,tricks 7 really peculi> to ,yes-&-,no ,dialectic 9 its mo/ sportive =ms3 b 8 lead+ types1 bo? ,inductive & ,d$uctive1 are p]man5t1 & 8 plan z a :ole has hi/orical int]e/4 ,"y read]s w\ld miss !m f ,logic3 !y appeal to ! av]age argum5tative boy4 ,he divides ,fallacies broadly into ,v]bal ,fallacies 7,greek3 p>a t5 lex91 9 dictione71 & ,non-,v]bal ,fallacies 7,greek3 exo tes lexeos1 extra dictionem74 ,! fir/ class are m]e ,v]bal ,quibbles1 & h>dly des]ve s]i\s treatm5t1 /ill less m9ute subdivision4 ,! _w 0 "y :5 "t 0 sp5t ^u !m4 ,ari/otle names six v>ieties1 b !y all turn on ambiguity ( ^w or /ructure1 & "s ( !m1 be+ dep5d5t on ,greek syntax1 _c easily be p>allel$ 9 ano!r tongue4 7#a7 ,ambiguity ( ^w 7,greek3 homonymia74 ,z if "o 7 to argue3 ,all cold c be expell$ by heat3 ,john's illness is a cold3 !re=e x c be expell$ by heat4 ,or3 ,"s afflictions are *e]+1 = afflictions are sometimes light1 & light is always *e]+4 ,! s]i\s confusion ( ambigu\s words is met by ,def9ition1 z expla9$ at l5g? 9 pt4 ii4 c i4 7#b7 ,ambiguity ( /ructure 7,greek3 amphibolia74 ,:at he 0 beat5 ) 0 :at ,i saw him beat5 )3 :at ,i saw him beat5 ) 0 my eye3 !re=e1 :at he 0 beat5 ) 0 my eye4 ,h[ d y d8 ,d8 ,d :at8 ,i mean1 h[ d y feel8 ,h[ d ,i feel8 ,) my f+]s1 ( c\rse2 b ,i c see v well4 ,no1 no2 ,i mean1 h[ d y f9d y\rself8 ,!n :y did y n say s8 ,i nev] exactly notic$1 b ,i w tell y next "t ,i lose myself4 7#c7 ,illicit conjunction 7,greek3 syn!sis74 ,socrates is good4 ,socrates is a musician4 ,!re=e ,socrates is a good musician4 7#d7 ,illicit disjunction 7,greek3 diairesis74 ,socrates is a good musician4 ,!re=e he is a good man4 7#e7 ,ambiguity ( pronunciation 7,greek3 prosodia1 fallacia acc5tus74 ,analogies to words t diff] only 9 acc5t1 su* z ,greek3 ou-) acc5ts psili & p]sipom5i & ,greek3 ou-) acc5ts psili & oxia1 may be f\nd 9 diff]5ces ( pronunciation4 ,hair v ?ick1 sir1 said a b>b] to a cu/om]1 ^: hair 0 bu%y1 b beg9n+ to turn grey4 ,yes1 ,i d>esay4 ,b ,i w\ld r h x ?ick ?an ?94 ,ah1 too ?ick to-day1 sir4 ,b ,i don't want to dye x4 ,excuse me1 sir1 ,i mean ! hair ( ! hatmosph]e1 t-o-d-a-y1 to-day4 ,he said1 saddle me ! ass4 ,& !y saddl$ him4 7#f7 ,ambiguity ( inflexion 7,greek3 s*ema tes lexeos1 ,figura dictionis74 ,?is is n easy to make intelligible 9 ,engli%4 ,! idea is t a t]m9ation may be ambigu\sly int]pret$1 a neut] p>ticiple1 e4g41 tak5 = an active4 ,?us3 ,george is ail+4 ,do+ :at1 did y say8 ,ail+8 ,:at is he ail+8 ,g+]-ale+8 ,non-,v]bal ,fallacies1 or ,fallacies 9 ?\ght1 are a m important division4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es sev54 ,( ^!1 ?ree are comp>atively unimportant & trifl+4 ,"o ( !m1 kn[n to ! ,s*oolm5 z ,fallacia ,plurium ,int]rogationum1 0 peculi> to ,int]rogative disputation4 ,x is ! trick ( putt+ m ?an "o "q z "o1 s t a simple ,yes commits ! respond5t to some?+ impli$4 ,h y left (f beat+ y\r fa!r8 ,if y answ] ,yes1 t implies t y h be5 9 ! habit ( beat+ him4 ,has ! practice ( excessive dr9k+ ceas$ 9 y\r "p ( ! c\ntry8 ,su* que/ions 7 unfair :5 ! ,respond5t c\ld answ] only ,yes or ,no4 ,! mod]n disputant :o dem&s a pla9 answ] ,yes or ,no1 is sometimes guilty ( ?is trick4 ,two o!rs1 ! fallacies kn[n z ,a dicto simplicit] ad dictum secundum quid1 & ,a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]1 are z common 9 mod]n dialectic z !y 7 9 anci5t4 ,! trick1 consci\s or unconsci\s1 consi/s 9 gett+ ass5t to a /atem5t ) a qualification & proce$+ to argue z if x _h be5 conc$$ )\t qualification1 & vice v]sa4 ,= example1 x be+ admitt$ t culture is good1 a disputant goes on to argue z if ! admission appli$ to "s sort ( culture 9 special1 sci5tific1 ae/hetic1 philosophical or moral4 ,! fallacy 0 also kn[n z ,fallacia ,accid5tis4 ,prov+ t ! ,syllogism is useless = a c]ta9 purpose1 & !n claim+ to h prov$ t x is useless = any purpose is ano!r example4 ,gett+ a limit$ admission & !n ext5d+ x indef9itely is p]haps ! m common ( ! two =ms4 ,x is common en\gh to des]ve a %ort] "n4 ,! ,fallacia ,consequ5tis1 or ,non-,sequitur1 :i* consi/s specially 9 ignor+ ! possibility ( a plurality ( causes1 has already be5 p>tly expla9$ 9 connexion ) ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism1 & w be expla9$ fur!r 9 ! ,logic ( ,induction4 ,po/ hoc ergo prop] hoc is a purely ,inductive ,fallacy1 & w be expla9$ 9 connexion ) ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods4 ,!re rema9 ! two typical ,d$uctive ,fallacies1 ,,petitio ,,pr9cipii 7,surreptiti\s ,assumption7 & ,,ignoratio ,,el5*i 7,irrelevant ,argum5t7 ab\t :i* we mu/ speak m at l5g?4 ,! phrase ( :i* ,petitio ,pr9cipii or ,begg+ ! ,"q is a translation--,greek3 to en ar*e aitei/hai--0 appli$ by ,ari/otle to an argum5tative trick 9 debate by ,"q & ,answ]4 ,! trick consi/$ 9 tak+ = grant$ a proposition necess>y to ! refutation )\t hav+ obta9$ ! admission ( x4 ,ano!r expression = ! same ?+--,greek3 to en ar*e lambane9--tak+ ! pr9ciple = grant$--is m descriptive4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ,ari/otle says1 ,begg+ ! ,"q consi/s 9 n demon/rat+ ! !orem4 ,x w\ld be 9 accordance ) ?is g5]al description to ext5d ! "n to all cases ( tacitly or cov]tly1 unwitt+ly to oneself or to "o's oppon5t1 assum+ any premiss necess>y to ! conclusion4 ,x is ! fallacy ( ,surreptiti\s ,assumption1 & all cases ( ,en?ymematic or ,elliptical argum5t1 :]e ! unexpress$ l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( argum5t are n fully und]/ood1 are examples ( x4 ,by contra/1 ! articulate & explicit ,syllogism is an ,expositio ,pr9cipii4 ,! only rem$y = cov]t assumptions is to =ce !m into ! light4#a ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 ignor+ ! refutation 7,greek3 t\ el5*\ agnoia71 is simply argu+ beside ! po9t1 di/ract+ ! att5tion by irrelevant consid]ations4 ,x (t5 succe$s by prov+ "s o!r conclusion :i* is n ! "o 9 dispute1 b has a sup]ficial resemblance to x1 or is m or less remotely connect$ ) x4 ,x is easi] to expla9 :at ^! fallacies consi/ 9 ?an to illu/rate !m conv9c+ly4 ,x is *iefly 9 long argum5ts t ! mis*ief is done4 ,a ,fallacy1 says ,:ately1 :i* :5 /at$ b>ely 9 a few s5t5ces w\ld n deceive a *ild1 may deceive half ! _w if dilut$ 9 a qu>to volume4 ,v r>ely is a s]ies ( propositions put be=e u 9 regul> =m & ord]1 all be>+ on a def9ite po9t4 ,a c]ta9 conclusion is 9 dispute1 n v def9itely =mulat$ p]haps1 & a mix$ ho/ ( consid]ations are tumbl$ out be=e u4 ,if we 7 p]fectly cle>-head$ p]sons1 capable ( protract$ conc5tration ( att5tion1 incapable ( bewild]m5t1 always on ! al]t1 nev] 9 a hurry1 nev] ov]-excit$1 absolutely )\t prejudice1 we %\ld keep our att5tion fix$ ^u two ?+s :ile li/5+ to an argum5t1 ! po9t to be prov$1 & ! necess>y premisses4 ,we %\ld hold ! po9t cle>ly 9 our m9ds1 & wat* indefatigably = ! corroborat+ propositions4 ,b none ( u be+ capable ( ?is1 all ( u be+ subject to bewild]m5t by a rapid :irl ( /atem5ts1 & all ( u bias$ m or less = or aga9/ a conclusion1 ! sophi/ has facilities = do+ two ?+s--tak+ = grant$ t he has /at$ ! requir$ premisses 7petitio pr9cipii71 & prov+ to p]fect demon/ration some?+ :i* is n ! po9t 9 dispute1 b :i* we are will+ to mi/ake = x 7ignoratio el5*i74 ,x is *iefly 9 ! heat ( argum5t t ei!r ,petitio or ,ignoratio succe$s4 ,:5 a fallacy cont9ues to p]plex u 9 cold blood1 x mu/ h 9 its fav\r ei!r "s deeply-root$ prejudice or "s peculi> intricacy 9 ! language us$1 or "s ab/rus5ess 9 ! matt]4 ,if we are n famili> ) ! matt] ( ! argum5t1 & h b a vague hold ( ! words employ$1 we are1 ( c\rse1 mu* m easily impos$ ^u4 ,! fam\s ,sophisms ( antiquity %[ ! fasc9ation ex]cis$ ov] u by prov+ some?+1 no matt] h[ irrelevant4 ,if c]ta9 /eps 9 an argum5t are s\nd1 we seem to be fasc9at$ by !m s t we _c apply our m9ds to ! error1 j z our s5ses are fasc9at$ by an exp]t juggl]4 ,we h se5 h[ plausibly ,z5o's argum5t aga9/ ! possibility ( motion hides a ,petitio3 ! ,fatali/ ,dilemma is ano!r example ( ! same sort4 ,if x is fat$ t y die1 y w die :e!r y call 9 a doctor or n1 & if x is fat$ t y w recov]1 y w recov] :e!r y call 9 a doctor or n4 ,b x mu/ be fat$ ei!r t y die or t y recov]4 ,!re=e1 y w ei!r die or recov] :e!r y call 9 a doctor or n4 ,"h x is tacitly assum$ 9 ! ,major ,premiss t ! call+ 9 ( a doctor _c be a l9k 9 ! fat$ *a9 ( ev5ts4 ,9 ! /atem5t ( bo? ! alt]native conditions1 x is assum$ t ,fate does n act ?r\gh doctors1 & ! conclusion is m]ely a repetition ( ?is assumption1 a v]bal proposition aft] an impos+ %[ ( argum5t4 ,if ,fate does n act ?r\gh doctors1 y w die :e!r y call 9 a doctor or n4 ,! fallacy 9 ?is case is probably aid$ by our v5]ation = ! gr& ab/raction ( ,fate & ! awful idea ( ,dea?1 :i* absorbs our att5tion & takes x away f ! artful ,petitio4 ,! ,sophism ( ,a*illes & ! ,tortoise is ! mo/ triumphant ( examples ( ,ignoratio ,el5*i4 ,! po9t t ! ,sophism und]takes to prove is t ,a*illes c nev] ov]take a ,tortoise once x has a c]ta9 />t3 :at x really proves1 & proves indisputably1 is t he _c ov]take ! ,tortoise )9 a c]ta9 space or "t4 ,= simplicity ( exposition1 let u assume t ! ,tortoise has #ajj y>ds />t & t ,a*illes runs t5 times z fa/4 ,!n1 cle>ly1 ,a*illes w n come up ) x at ! end ( #ajj y>ds1 = :ile he has run #ajj1 ! ,tortoise has run #aj2 nor at ! end ( #aaj1 = !n ! ,tortoise has run #a m2 nor at ! end ( #aaa1 = !n ! ,tortoise has run #a_/aj m2 nor at ! end ( #aaa--a_/aj1 = !n ! ,tortoise has ga9$ #a_/ajj m4 ,s :ile ,a*illes runs ?is #a_/ajj1 ! ,tortoise runs #a_/ajjj2 :ile he runs ! #a_/ajjj1 x runs #a_/ajjjj4 ,?us x w\ld seem t ! ,tortoise mu/ always keep ahead3 he c nev] ov]take x4 ,b ! conclusion is only a confusion ( ideas3 all t is really prov$ is t ,a*illes w n ov]take ! ,tortoise :ile runn+ #ajj #aj #a #a_/aj #a_/ajj #a_/ajjj #a_/ajjjj1 etc4 ,t is1 t he w n ov]take x till he has complet$ ! sum ( ?is s]ies1 #aaa-a_/i y>ds4 ,to prove ?is is an ignoratio el5*i2 :at ! ,sophi/ und]takes to prove is t ,a*illes w nev] ov]take x1 & he really proves t ,a*illes passes x betwe5 ! #aaa? & #aab? y>ds4 ,! exposure ( ?is sophism is an example also ( ! value ( a te*nical t]m4 ,all attempts to expose x )\t us+ ! t]m ,ignoratio ,el5*i or some?+ equival5t to x1 succe$ only 9 bewild]+ ! /ud5t4 ,x is cu/om>y to say t ! root ( ! fallacy lies 9 assum+ t ! sum ( an inf9ite s]ies is equal to inf9ity4 ,?is pr(\nd error may be impli$3 b if any assumption s h>d to und]/& 7 really requir$1 ! fallacy w\ld h little =ce ) ! g5]ality4 ,x has (t5 be5 argu$ t ! ,syllogism involves a petitio pr9cipii1 because ! ,major ,premiss conta9s ! ,conclusion1 & w\ld n be true unless ! ,conclusion 7 true4 ,b ?is is really an ,ignoratio ,el5*i4 ,! fact adduc$1 t ! ,major ,premiss conta9s ! ,conclusion1 is indisputable2 b ?is does n prove ! ,syllogism guilty ( ,petitio4 ,petitio pr9cipii is an argum5tative trick1 a consci\s or unconsci\s act ( deception1 a cov]t assumption1 & ! ,syllogism1 s f> f fav\r+ ?is1 is an expositio pr9cipii1 an explicit /atem5t ( premisses su* t1 if !y are true1 ! conclusion is true4 ,! ,syllogism m]ely %[s ! int]dep5d5ce ( premisses & conclusion2 its only tacit assumption is ! ,dictum de ,omni4 ,if1 inde$1 an oppon5t *all5ges ! tru? ( ! conclusion1 & y adduce premisses necess>ily conta9+ x z a refutation1 t is an ignoratio el5*i unless y\r oppon5t admits ^? premisses4 ,if he admits !m & d5ies ! conclusion1 y convict him ( inconsi/5cy1 b y d n prove ! tru? ( ! conclusion4 ,suppose a man to take up ! position3 ,i am n mortal1 = ,i h procur$ ! elixir vitae4 ,y d n disprove ?is by say+1 ,all m5 are mortal1 & y are a man4 ,9 d5y+ t he is mortal1 he d5ies t all m5 are mortal4 ,:atev] is suffici5t evid5ce t he is n mortal1 is suffici5t evid5ce t all m5 are n mortal4 ,p]haps x might be said t 9 argu+1 ,all m5 are mortal1 & y are a man1 x is n s mu* ignoratio el5*i z petitio pr9cipii t y commit4 ,b be x always rememb]$ t y may commit bo? fallacies at once4 ,y may bo? argue beside ! po9t & beg ! "q 9 ! c\rse ( "o & ! same argum5t4 ,footnote #a3 ,cp4 ,mr4 ,sidgwick's in/ructive treatise on ,fallacies1 ,int]national ,sci5tific ,s]ies1 p4 #aii4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,=mal ,,or ,,ari/otelian ,,induction4--,,inductive ,,argum5t4 ,! di/9ction commonly drawn betwe5 ,d$uction & ,induction is t ,d$uction is reason+ f g5]al to p>ticul>1 & ,induction reason+ f p>ticul> to g5]al4 ,b x is really only z modes ( argum5tation t ! two processes c be ?us cle>ly & fix$ly oppos$4 ,! ^w ,induction is us$ 9 a mu* wid] s5se :5 x is ! title ( a treatise on ! ,me?ods ( ,sci5tific ,inve/igation4 ,x is !n us$ to cov] all ! processes employ$ 9 man's se>* into ! sy/em ( reality2 & 9 ?is se>* d$uction is employ$ z well z induction 9 ! n>r[ s5se4 ,we may call ,induction 9 ! n>r[ s5se ,=mal ,induction or ,inductive ,argum5t1 or we may simply call x ,ari/otelian ,induction inasmu* z x 0 ! /eps ( ,inductive argum5t t ,ari/otle =mulat$1 & = :i* he det]m9$ ! conditions ( validity4 ,let u contra/ x ) ,d$uctive argum5t4 ,9 ?is ! que/ion]'s proc$ure is to procure ! admission ( a g5]al proposition ) a view to =c+ ! admission ( a p>ticul> conclusion :i* is 9 dispute4 ,9 ,inductive argum5t1 on ! o!r h&1 x is a g5]al proposition t is 9 dispute1 & ! proc$ure is to obta9 ! admission ( p>ticul> cases ) a view to =c+ ! admission ( ?is g5]al proposition4 ,let ! "q be :e!r ,all horn$ animals rum9ate4 ,y engage to make an oppon5t admit ?is4 ,h[ d y proce$8 ,y ask him :e!r he admits x ab\t ! v>i\s species4 ,does ! ox rum9ate8 ,! %eep8 ,! goat8 ,& s on4 ,! br++ 9 ( ! v>i\s p>ticul>s is ! induction 7,greek3 epagoge74 ,:5 is ?is inductive argum5t complete8 ,:5 is ! oppon5t b\nd to admit t all horn$ animals rum9ate8 ,obvi\sly1 :5 he has admitt$ x ab\t e "o4 ,he mu/ admit t he has admitt$ x ab\t e "o1 9 o!r words1 t ! p>ticul>s enum]at$ con/itute ! :ole1 be=e he c be held b\nd 9 consi/5cy to admit x ab\t ! :ole4 ,! condition ( ! validity ( ?is argum5t is ultimately ! same ) t ( ,d$uctive argum5t1 ! id5tity = purposes ( pr$ication ( a g5]ic :ole ) ! sum ( its con/itu5t p>ts4 ,! ,axiom ( ,inductive ,argum5t is1 ,:at is pr$icat$ ( e "o ( ! p>ts is pr$icable ( ! :ole4 ,?is is ! simple conv]se ( ! ,axiom ( ,d$uctive argum5t1 ! ,dictum de ,omni1 ,:at is pr$icat$ ( ! :ole is pr$icable ab\t e "o ( ! p>ts4 ,! ,axiom is simply conv]tible because = purposes ( pr$ication g5]ic :ole & specific or individual p>ts tak5 all toge!r are id5tical4 ,practically 9 inductive argum5t an oppon5t is wor/$ :5 he _c produce an in/ance to ! contr>y4 ,suppose he admits ! pr$icate 9 "q to be true ( ?is1 t & ! o!r1 b d5ies t ?is1 t & ! o!r con/itute ! :ole class 9 "q1 he is defeat$ 9 common judgem5t if he _c in/ance a memb] ( ! class ab\t :i* ! pr$icate does n hold4 ,h5ce ?is mode ( induction became te*nically kn[n z ,inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem ubi non rep]itur in/antia contradictoria4 ,:5 ?is phrase is appli$ to a g5]alisation ( fact1 ,nature or ,exp]i5ce is put figuratively 9 ! position ( a ,respond5t unable to contradict ! inquir]4 ,su* 9 pla9 language is ! :ole doctr9e ( ,inductive ,argum5t4 ,ari/otle's ,inductive ,syllogism is1 9 effect1 an expression ( ?is simple doctr9e tortu\sly 9 t]ms ( ! ,d$uctive ,syllogism4 ,! great ma/] 0 s enam\r$ ( 8 prime inv5tion t he desir$ to impress its =m ^u ev]y?+3 o!rwise1 !re 0 no reason = express+ ! process ( ,induction syllogi/ically4 ,"h is 8 description ( ! ,inductive ,syllogism3-- ,induction1 !n1 & ! ,inductive ,syllogism1 consi/s 9 syllogis+ "o extreme ) ! middle ?r\gh ! o!r extreme4 ,= example1 if ,b is middle to ,a & ,c1 to prove ?r\gh ,c t ,a belongs to ,b4#a ,?is may be int]pret$ z foll[s3 ,suppose a g5]al proposition is 9 dispute1 & t y wi% to make x good by obta9+ sev]ally ! admission ( all ! p>ticul>s t x sums up4 ,! type ( a g5]al proposition 9 ,syllogi/ic t]m9ology is ! ,major ,premiss1 ,all ,m is ,p4 ,:at is ! type ( ! p>ticul>s t x sums up8 ,obvi\sly1 ! ,conclusion1 ,s is ,p4 ,?is p>ticul> is conta9$ 9 ! ,major ,premiss1 ,all ,m is ,p2 its tru? is accept$ z conta9$ 9 ! tru? ( ,all ,m is ,p4 ,s is "o ( ! p>ts ( ! g5]ic :ole ,m2 "o ( ! individuals or species conta9$ 9 ! class ,m4 ,if y wi%1 !n1 to e/abli% ,p ( ,all ,m by ,induction1 y mu/ e/abli% ,p ( all ! p>ts1 species1 or individuals conta9$ 9 ,m1 t is1 ( all possible ,ss3 y mu/ make good t ?is1 t & ! o!r ,s is ,p1 & also t ?is1 t & ! o!r ,s con/itute ! :ole ( ,m4 ,y are !n entitl$ to conclude t ,all ,m is ,p3 y h syllogis$ "o ,extreme ) ! ,middle ?r\gh ! o!r ,extreme4 ,! =mal /atem5t ( ^! premisses & conclusion is ! ,inductive ,syllogism4 ,?is1 t & ! o!r ,s is ,p1 ,major4 ,?is1 t & ! o!r ,s is all ,m1 ,m9or4 4'4 ,all ,m is ,p1 ,conclusion4 ,?is1 t & ! o!r magnet 7i4e41 magnets individually7 attract iron4 ,?is1 t & ! o!r magnet 7i4e41 ! individuals sep>ately admitt$7 are all magnets4 4'4 ,all magnets attract iron4 ,?is1 t & ! o!r ,s be+ simply conv]tible ) ,all ,m1 y h only to make ?is conv]sion & y h a syllogism 9 ,b>b>a :]e ?is1 t & ! o!r ,s figures z ! ,middle ,t]m4 ,! practical value ( ?is tortu\s expression is n obvi\s4 ,m$iaeval logicians %ort5$ x into :at 0 kn[n z ! ,inductive ,en?ymeme3 ,?is1 t & ! o!r1 !re=e all1 an obvi\s conclusion :5 ?is1 t & ! o!r con/itute all4 ,x is m]ely an evid5ce ( ! great ma/]'s intoxication ) 8 gr& inv5tion4 ,x is a pro( also t ,ari/otle really look$ at ,induction f ! po9t ( view ( ,int]rogative ,dialectic4 ,8 "q 01 ,:5 is a ,respond5t b\nd to admit a g5]al conclusion8 ,& 8 answ] 01 ,:5 he has admitt$ a c]ta9 numb] ( p>ticul>s1 & _c d5y t ^? p>ticul>s con/itute ! :ole ^: pr$icate is 9 dispute4 ,he 0 n conc]n$ prim>ily ) ! analysis ( ! /eps ( an inquir] g5]alis+ f ,nature4 ,footnote #a3 ,greek3 epagoge m5 oun e/i kai ho ex epagoges syllogismos to dia t\ et]\ ?at]on akron to meso syllogisa/hai2 ,oion ei ton ,a ,g meson to ,b1 dia t\ ,g deixai to ,a to ,b hyp>*on4 7,an4 ,prior41 ii4 #bc47 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,inductive ,,logic1 ,,or ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,introduction4 ,p]haps ! simple/ way ( dis5tangl+ ! lead+ features ( ! dep>tm5ts ( ,logic is to take !m 9 relation to hi/orical circum/ances4 ,^! features are writ l>ge1 z x 71 9 hi/ory4 ,if we recognise t all bodies ( doctr9e h _! orig9 9 practical ne$s1 we may conceive diff]5t ages z controll$ ea* by a di/9ctive _s1 :i* issues its m&ate to ! m5 ( ! age1 assign+ to !m _! di/9ctive "w4 ,! m&ate issu$ to ! age ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 0 ,br+ y\r beliefs into h>mony "o ) ano!r4 ,! ,ari/otelian ,logic 0 fram$ 9 response to ?is ord]3 its ma9 aim 0 to devise in/rum5ts = mak+ cle> ! coh]5ce1 ! concat5ation1 ! mutual implication ( curr5t beliefs4 ,! m&ate ( ! ,m$iaeval ,_s 0 ,br+ y\r beliefs into h>mony ) dogma4 ,! m$iaeval logic 0 contract$ f ,ari/otle's "u ?is impulse4 ,induction z conceiv$ by him 0 neglect$1 all[$ to dw9dle1 almo/ to disappe> f ,logic4 ,great] prom95ce 0 giv5 to ,d$uction4 ,!n z ,dogmatic ,au?ority became aggressive1 & ! ,*ur* ?r\gh its (ficials claim$ to pron\nce on matt]s outside ,!ology1 a new _s 0 r\s$1 ! m&ate ( :i* 01 ,br+ y\r beliefs into h>mony ) facts4 ,x 0 "u ?is impulse t a body ( me?odical doctr9e vaguely call$ ,induction gradually orig9at$4 ,9 deal+ ) ! g5esis ( ! ,old ,logic1 we began ) ,ari/otle4 ,none c dispute 8 title to be call$ its f\nd]4 ,b :o 0 ! f\nd] ( ! ,new ,logic8 ,9 :at circum/ances did x orig9ate8 ,! cr$it ( f\nd+ ,induction is usually giv5 to ,francis ,bacon1 ,"l ,v]ulam4 ,t great man claim$ x = himself 9 call+ 8 treatise on ! ,int]pretation ( ,nature ! ,novum ,organum4 ,! claim is g5]ally conc$$4 ,reid's acc\nt ( ! matt] repres5ts ! curr5t belief s9ce ,bacon's own "t4 ,aft] man _h lab\r$ 9 ! se>* ( tru? ne> two ?\s& ye>s by ! help ( ,syllogisms1 ,"l ,bacon propos$ ! me?od ( ,,induction z a m effectual eng9e = t purpose4 ,8 ,novum ,organum gave a new turn to ! ?\ghts & lab\rs ( ! inquisitive1 m rem>kable & m useful ?an t :i* ! ,organon ( ,ari/otle _h giv5 be=e1 & may be consid]$ z a second gr& era 9 ! progress ( human nature4444 ,mo/ arts h be5 r$uc$ to rules aft] !y _h be5 br\ght to a consid]able degree ( p]fection by ! natural sagacity ( arti/s2 & ! rules h be5 drawn f ! be/ examples ( ! art t _h be5 be=e exhibit$2 b ! art ( philosophical induction 0 del9eat$ by ,"l ,bacon 9 a v ample mann] be=e ! _w _h se5 any tol]able example ( x4#a ,!re is a radical misconception "h1 :i*1 = reasons t ,i hope to make pla91 imp]atively ne$s to be cle>$ up4 ,x obscures ! v ess5ce ( philosophical induction4 ,!re are ?ree ways 9 :i* movem5t 9 any direction may be help$ =w>d1 ,exhortation1 ,example1 & ,precept4 ,exhortation3 a man may exhort to ! practice ( an art & !reby give a /imulus4 ,example3 he may practise ! art himself1 & %[ by example h[ a ?+ %\ld be done4 ,precept3 he may =mulate a cle> me?od1 & s make pla9 h[ to d x4 ,let u see :at 0 ,bacon's a*ievem5t 9 ea* ( ^? ?ree ways4 ,und\bt$ly ,bacon's p[]ful eloqu5ce & high political position contribut$ mu* to make ! /udy ( ,nature fa%ionable4 ,he 0 high 9 place & great 9 intellect1 "o ( ! comm&+ p]sonalities ( 8 "t4 ,tak+ all k = 8 prov9ce1 ?\gh /udy 0 really b 8 recreation1 he sket*$ out a plan ( univ]sal conque/ ) a cle>ness & confid5ce t made ! mob eag] to range !mselves "u 8 lead]%ip4 ,he 0 ! magnific5t demagogue ( sci5ce4 ,!re _h be5 *ampions ( ,induction be=e him1 b !y _h be5 comp>atively obscure & tongue-ti$4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 we admit to ! full ! great s]vices ( ?is mighty advocate 9 mak+ an ,inductive me?od popul>1 we %\ld n =get t he _h pione]s ev5 9 hortatory lead]%ip4 ,8 happie/ wat*word1 ! ,int]pretation ( ,nature1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ,int]pretation ( ,au?oritative ,books1 0 n ( 8 inv5tion4 ,if we read ,:ewell's ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 we %all f9d t _m be=e him _h aspir$ to give a new turn to ! labors ( ! inquisitive1 & 9 p>ticul> to sub/itute inquisition = disquisition4 ,"o might compile f ,:ewell a long catalogue ( em95t m5 be=e ,bacon :o held t ! /udy ( ,nature 0 ! prop] "w ( ! inquisitive3 ,leon>do da ,v9ci 7#adeb-aeai71 "o ( ! wond]s ( mank9d = v]satility1 a miracle ( excell5ce 9 _m ?+s1 pa9t]1 sculptor1 eng9e]1 ar*itect1 a/ronom]1 & physici/2 ,cop]nicus 7#adgc-aedc71 ! au?or ( ! ,helioc5tric !ory2 ,telesius 7#aejh-aehh71 a !oretical re=m]1 ^: ,de ,r]um ,natura 7#aefe7 anticipat$ n a little ( ! ,novum ,organum2 ,cesalp9us 7#aebj-afjc71 ! ,botani/2 ,gilb]t 7#aedj-afjc71 ! inve/igator ( ,magnetism4 ,by all ^! m5 exp]im5t & obs]vation 7 advocat$ z ! only way ( really increas+ k4 ,!y all d]id$ m]e book-le>n+4 ,! conception ( ! _w ( s5se z ! orig9al ,,ms4 ( :i* sy/ems ( philosophy are b copies1 0 a famili> image ) !m4 ,s also 0 ,bacon's epigrammatic retort to ^? :o wi% to re/ on ! wisdom ( ! anci5ts1 t antiquity is ! y\? ( ! _w & t we are ! true anci5ts4 ,we are old]1 said ,giordano ,bruno1 & h liv$ long] ?an our pr$ecessors4 ,?is la/ argum5t1 inde$1 is mu* old] ?an ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,x 0 us$ by ! ,doctor ,mirabilis ( ! ?irte5?1 ! ,franciscan ,fri>1 ,rog] ,bacon 7#abad-abib74 ,! lat] m5 are1 ! m enlight5$ !y are2 & wise m5 n[ are ignorant ( mu* ! _w w "s day "k4 ,! tru? is t if y are 9 se>* ( a ,fa!r = ,inductive ,philosophy1 ! m$iaeval fri> has bett] claims ?an 8 m illu/ri\s namesake4 ,8 en?usiasm = ! advancem5t ( le>n+ 0 n less nobly ambiti\s & f>-rea*+1 & he 0 himself an ard5t exp]im5t] & inv5tor4 ,8 ,opus ,majus--an eloqu5t outl9e ( 8 projects = a new le>n+1 address$ 9 #abfe to ,pope ,clem5t ,,iv41 ?r\gh :om he (f]$ to give to ! ,*ur* ! empire ( ! _w z ,ari/otle _h giv5 x to ,alex&]--0 almo/ incr$ibly bold1 compreh5sive & sagaci\s4 ,fix+ ^u ,au?ority1 ,cu/om1 ,popul> ,op9ion1 & ! ,pride ( ,suppos$ ,k1 z ! f\r causes ( human ignorance1 he urg$ a direct critical /udy ( ! ,scriptures1 & aft] an acute illu/ration ( ! usefulness ( ,gramm> & ,ma!matics 7widely int]pret$71 conclud$ ) ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce z ! great s\rce ( human k4 ,i h already quot$ 7p4 #ae7 ! ,fri>'s di/9ction betwe5 ! two modes ( ,kn[+1 ,argum5t & ,exp]i5ce1 :]e9 he laid d[n t x is only exp]i5ce t makes u feel c]ta94 ,x 7 bett]1 he cri$ 9 8 impati5ce1 to burn ,ari/otle & make a fre% />t ?an to accept 8 conclusions )\t inquiry4 ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce1 ! sole mi/ress ( ,speculative ,sci5ce1 has ?ree great ,pr]ogatives among o!r p>ts ( ,k4 ,fir/1 %e te/s by exp]im5t ! noble/ conclusions ( all o!r sci5ces4 ,next1 %e discov]s respect+ ! notions :i* o!r sci5ces deal )1 magnific5t tru?s to :i* ^! sci5ces c by no means atta94 ,h] ?ird dignity is t %e by h] own p[] & )\t respect to o!r sci5ces inve/igates ! secret ( ,nature4 ,s f>1 !n1 z ,exhortation goes1 ,k+ ,james's great lawy] & /atesman 0 n 9 advance ( ,pope ,clem5t's fri>4 ,_! fir/ pr9ciple 0 ! same4 ,x is only by facts t !ories c be te/$4 ,man mu/ n impose 8 own preconceptions 7anticipationes m5tis7 on nature4 ,man is only ! int]pret] ( nature4 ,bo? 7 also at "o 9 hold+ t ! secrets ( nature c\ld n be discov]$ by discussion1 b only by obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,francis ,bacon1 h[ev]1 w5t beyond all 8 pr$ecessors 9 furni%+ an elaborate ,me?od = ! int]pretation ( ,nature4 ,:5 he prote/$ aga9/ ! intellect's be+ left to itself 7intellectus sibi p]missus71 he meant m ?an speculation left un*eck$ by /udy ( ! facts4 ,he meant also t ! int]pret] mu/ h a me?od4 ,z man1 he says1 _c move rocks by ! m]e /r5g? ( 8 h&s )\t in/rum5ts1 s he _c p5etrate to ! secrets ( ,nature by m]e /r5g? ( 8 intellect )\t in/rum5ts4 ,^! in/rum5ts he und]takes to provide 9 8 ,inductive ,me?od or ,novum ,organum4 ,& x is important to und]/& precisely :at 8 me?ods 71 because x is on ! gr\nd ( !m t he is call$ ! f\nd] ( ,inductive ,philosophy1 & because ?is has creat$ a misappreh5sion ( ! me?ods actually foll[$ by m5 ( sci5ce4 ,+5i\s1 p5etrat+1 wide-rang+1 happy 9 nom5clature1 ! ,novum ,organum is a wond]ful monum5t ( ! au?or's subtle wit & re/less en]gy2 b1 beyond giv+ a g5]al impulse to te/+ speculative fancies by close comp>ison ) facts1 x did no?+ = sci5ce4 ,8 me?od--) its ,tables ( ,prelim9>y ,mu/] = ! ,intellect 7tabulae comp>5tiae primae in/anti>um ad intellectum1 facts collect$ & me?odically arrang$ = ! intellect to "w ^u72 its ,elim9ation ^u fir/ inspection ( obvi\sly accid5tal concomitants 7,rejectio sive ,exclusiva natur>um72 its ,provisional ,hypo!sis 7,v9demiatio ,prima sive ,int]pretatio ,in*oata72 its advance to a true ,induction or f9al ,int]pretation by exam9ation ( special in/ances 7he enum]ates tw5ty-sev51 #c x #c x #c1 ,pr]ogativas ,in/anti>um1 try+ to %[ ! special value ( ea* = ! inquir]7#b--0 beautifully regul> & impos+1 b x 0 only a va9 %[ ( a me?od4 ,x 0 r5d]$ s *iefly by ! end or aim t ,bacon propos$ = ! inquir]4 ,9 ?is he 0 n 9 advance ( 8 age2 on ! contr>y1 he 0 probably beh9d ,rog] ,bacon1 & c]ta9ly f> beh9d su* pati5t & conc5trat$ ?9k]s z ,cop]nicus1 ,gilb]t1 & ,galileo--no discr$it to ! gr&eur ( 8 intellect :5 we rememb] t sci5ce 0 only 8 recreation1 ! indulg5ce ( 8 leisure f ,law & ,/ate4 ,9 effect1 8 me?od came to ?is4 ,collect z _m in/ances z y c ( ! effect to be inve/igat$1 & ! abs5ce ( x :]e y w\ld expect x1 arrange !m me?odically1 !n put aside guesses at ! cause :i* are obvi\sly unsuitable1 !n draw up a probably explanation1 !n proce$ to make ?is exact by fur!r comp>ison ) in/ances4 ,x is :5 we consid] :at he direct$ ! inquir] to se>* = t we see :y s ord]ly a me?od 0 little likely to be fruitful4 ,he />ts f ! pr9ciple t ! ultimate object ( all k is use1 practice 7scimus ut op]emur74 ,we want to "k h[ ,nature produces ?+s t we may produce !m = ourselves1 if we c4 ,! inquir]'s fir/ aim1 !re=e1 %\ld be to f9d out h[ ! qualities ( bodies are produc$1 to discov] ! =mae or =mal causes ( ea* quality4 ,an example %[s :at he meant by ?is4 ,gold is a cr[d or conjugation ( v>i\s qualities or natures2 x is yell[1 x has a c]ta9 weight1 x is malleable or ductile to a c]ta9 degree1 x is n volatile 7loses no?+ "u fire71 x c be melt$1 x is soluble4 ,if we knew ! =ma or =mal cause ( ea* ( ^? qualities1 we c\ld make gold1 provid$ ! causes 7 )9 our control4 ,! fir/ object1 !n1 ( ! inve/igator ( ,nature is to discov] su* =mae1 9 ord] to be able to effect ! trans=mation ( bodies4 ,x may be desirable also to "k ! lat5s processus1 any /eps n app>5t to ! s5ses by :i* a body gr[s f its fir/ g]ms or rudim5ts1 & ! s*ematismus or ultimate inn] con/itution ( ! body4 ,b ! discov]y ( ! =mae ( ! con/itu5t qualities 7naturae s+ulae71 heat1 col\r1 d5sity or r>ity1 sweetness1 saltness1 & s =?1 is ! gr& object ( ! ,int]pret] ( ,nature2 & x is = ?is t ,bacon prescrib$ 8 me?od4 ,! ,sylva ,sylv>um1 or ,natural ,hi/ory1 a miscellane\s collection ( facts & fictions1 obs]vations & traditions1 ) guesses at ! explanation ( !m1 af=ds u a measure ( ,bacon's own advancem5t z an int]pret] ( ,nature4 ,x 0 a po/hum\s "w1 & ! editor1 8 secret>y1 tells u t he (t5 said t if he _h consid]$ 8 reputation he w\ld h )held x f ! _w1 because x 0 n dige/$ accord+ to 8 own me?od3 yet he p]suad$ himself t ! causes !re9 assign$ 7 f> m c]ta9 ?an ^? r5d]$ by o!rs1 n = any excell5ce ( 8 own wit1 b 9 respect ( 8 cont9ual conv]sation ) ,nature & ,exp]i5ce1 & mank9d might /ay ^u !m till true ,axioms 7 m fully discov]$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we exam9e ! causes assign$1 we f9d t 9 practice ,bacon c\ld n c>ry out 8 own precepts3 t he did n attempt to creep up to an explanation by sl[ & pati5t asc5t1 b jump$ to ! highe/ g5]alisations3 & t 8 explanatory notions 7 tak5 n f nature1 b f ! ord9>y traditions ( m$iaeval physical sci5ce4 ,he deceiv$ himself1 9 %ort1 9 ?9k+ t he c\ld ?r[ aside tradition & />t afre% f obs]vation4 ,= example4 ,he is /ruck by ! ph5om5on ( bubbles on wat]3 ,x seeme? some:at /range t ! air %\ld rise s swiftly1 :ile x is 9 ! wat]1 & :5 x come? to ! top %\ld be /ay$ by s weak a cov] z t ( ! bubble is4 ,! swift asc5t ( ! air he expla9s z a motion ( p]cussion1 ! wat] desc5d+ & =c+ up ! air1 & n a motion ( levity 9 ! air itself4 ,! cause ( ! enclosure ( ! bubble is = t ! appetite to resi/ sep>ation or discont9uance1 :i* is /rong 9 solids1 is also 9 liquors1 ?\gh fa9t] & weak]4 ,! same reason is ( ! r\ndness ( ! bubble1 z well = ! sk9 ( wat] z = ! air )94 ,= ! air likewise avoide? discont9uance1 & !re=e ca/e? itself into a r\nd figure4 ,& = ! /op & arre/ ( ! air a little :ile1 x %[e? t ! air ( itself ha? little or no appetite ( asc5d+4#c ,^! notions 7 n tak5 direct f ! facts3 !y desc5d$ f ,ari/otle4 ,he diff]s f ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 9 8 explanation ( ! col\rs ( birds' fea!rs4 ,ari/otle give? ! cause va9ly t birds are m 9 ! beams ( ! sun ?an bea/s4 ,b t is manife/ly untrue2 = cattle are m 9 ! sun ?an birds1 t live commonly 9 ! woods or 9 "s cov]t4 ,! true cause is t ! excrem5titi\s moi/ure ( liv+ creatures1 :i* make? z well ! fea!rs 9 birds z ! hair 9 bea/s1 passe? 9 birds ?r\gh a f9] & m delicate /ra9] ?an x do? 9 bea/s4 ,= fea!rs pass ?r\gh quills1 & hair ?r\gh sk94 ,x is an in/ance ( p]colation or filt]+3 o!r effects ( ! same cause be+ ! gums ( trees1 :i* are b a f9e passage or /ra9+ ( ! juice ?r\gh ! wood & b>k1 & ,corni% ,diamonds & ,rock ,rubies1 :i* are 9 l mann] f9e exudations ( /one4#d ,^! examples ( ,bacon's ,inductions are tak5 f ! ,sylva at r&om4 ,b ! example :i* be/ ( all illu/rates 8 attitude z a sci5tific inve/igator is ! rem>k he makes 9 ! ,novum ,organum ab\t ! ,cop]nican !ory4 ,else:]e he says t !re is no?+ to *oose betwe5 x & ! ,ptolemaic2 & 9 ! ,novum ,organum 7lib4 ii4 #e7 he rem>ks t no "o c hope to t]m9ate ! "q :e!r 9 diurnal motion x is really ! e>? or ! sky t rotates1 unless he %all fir/ h compreh5d$ ! nature ( spontane\s rotation4 ,t is1 we mu/ fir/ f9d out ! =ma or =mal cause ( spontane\s rotation4 ,?is is a v]itable in/antia crucis1 z fix+ ,bacon's place 9 ! m$iaeval & n 9 ! new _w ( sci5tific speculation4 ,bacon1 9 %ort1 9 ! practice ( induction did n advance an in* beyond ,ari/otle4 ,r he retrograd$1 inasmu* z he fail$ to draw s cle> a l9e betwe5 ! respective sph]es ( ,inductive collection ( facts & ,explanation4 ,!re are two s\rces ( g5]al propositions1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 ,induction & ,n\s4 ,by ,induction he meant ! g5]alisation ( facts op5 to s5se1 ! summation ( obs]v$ p>ticul>s1 ! inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem ( ! s*oolm54 ,by ,n\s he meant ! ,reason or ,speculative ,faculty1 z ex]cis$ ) tra9$ sagacity by exp]ts4 ,?us by ,induction we ga!r t all horn$ animals rum9ate4 ,! explanation ( ?is is furni%$ by ! ,n\s1 & ! explanation t comm5d$ itself to ! tra9$ sagacity ( 8 "t 0 t ,nature hav+ b a limit$ am\nt ( h>d mat]ial & hav+ sp5t ?is on ! horns1 _h none left = tee?1 & s provid$ f\r /oma*s by way ( comp5sation4 ,bacon's guesses at causes are on ! same sci5tific level ) ?is1 only he r confus$ matt]s by speak+ ( !m z if !y 7 inductions f fact1 in/ead ( be+ m]ely fancies sup]9duc$ ^u fact4 ,8 !ory ( int]pretation1 x is true1 0 s f> an advance t he insi/$ on ! necessity ( v]ify+ e hypo!sis by fur!r appeal to facts1 ?\gh 9 practice he himself ex]cis$ no su* pati5ce & nev] realis$ ! conditions ( v]ification4 ,aga9/ ?is1 aga91 mu/ be set ! fact t by call+ 8 me?od induction1 & lay+ s mu* /ress on ! collection ( facts1 he fo/]$1 &1 inde$1 fix$ 9 ! public m9d ! errone\s idea t ! :ole "w ( sci5ce consi/s 9 obs]vation4 ,! goal ( sci5ce1 z ,h]s*el said1 is ,explanation1 ?\gh e explanation mu/ be made to con=m to fact1 & explanation is only ano!r t]m = atta9+ to high] g5]alisations1 high] unities4 ,! tru? is t ,induction1 if t is ! "n we use = sci5tific me?od1 is n1 z ,reid conceiv$1 an exception to ! usual rule ( arts 9 be+ ! inv5tion ( "o man4 ,bacon nei!r inv5t$ nor practis$ x4 ,x 0 p]fect$ gradually 9 ! practice ( m5 ( sci5ce4 ,! bir?place ( x z a consci\s me?od 0 9 ! discussions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 z ! bir?place ( ! ,ari/otelian ,logic 0 9 ! discussions ( ! ,a!nian s*ools4 ,its fir/ great triumph 0 ,newton's law ( ,gravitation4 ,if we are to "n x aft] its fir/ illu/ri\s practition]1 we mu/ call x ! ,newtonian me?od1 n ! ,baconian4 ,newton really /&s to ! ,sci5tific ,me?od ( ,explanation z ,ari/otle /&s to ! ,me?od ( ,dialectic & ,d$uction4 ,he p>tly made x explicit 9 8 ,regulae ,philosoph&i 7#afhe74 ,locke1 8 fri5d & fell[-memb] ( ! ,royal ,society1 :o appli$ ! me?od to ! facts ( ,m9d 9 8 ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+ 7#afia71 made x /ill fur!r explicit 9 ! ,f\r? ,book ( t fam\s "w4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 a c5tury & a half lat] t an attempt 0 fir/ made to incorporate sci5tific me?od ) ,logic "u ! "n ( ,induction1 & add x z a new w+ to ! old ,ari/otelian build+4 ,?is 0 ! "w ( ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ^: ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,d$uctive & ,inductive1 0 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahdc4 ,! g5esis ( ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic1 z ( o!r ?+s1 ?r[s light ^u its "*4 ,& 9 inquiries into ! g5esis ( any?+ t man makes we may pr(itably foll[ ,ari/otle's division ( causes4 ,! ,effici5t ,cause is ! man himself1 b we h also to f9d out ! ,f9al ,cause1 8 object or purpose 9 mak+ ! ?+1 ! ,mat]ial ,cause1 ! s\rces ( 8 mat]ial1 & ! ,=mal ,cause1 ! reason :y he %ap$ x z he did4 ,9 ! case ( ,mill's sy/em we h to ask3 ,:at fir/ mov$ him to =mulate ! me?ods ( sci5tific inve/igation8 ,:5ce did he d]ive 8 mat]ials8 ,:y did he give 8 sci5tific me?od ! =m ( a supplem5t to ! old ,ari/otelian ,logic8 ,we _c absolutely sep>ate ! ?ree inquiries1 b motive1 matt] & =m ea* _h a traceable influ5ce on ! lead+ features ( 8 ,sy/em4 ,fir/1 !n1 z to 8 motive4 ,x is a mi/ake to suppose t ,mill's object 0 to frame an organon t might assi/ m5 ( sci5ce z ord9>ily und]/ood 9 mak+ discov]ies4 ,bacon1 8 secret>y tells u1 0 wont to compla9 t he %\ld be =c$ to be a ,workman & a ,lab\r] 9 sci5ce :5 he ?\ght he des]v$ to be an ,ar*itect 9 ?is build+4 ,& m5 ( sci5ce h sometimes rebuk$ ,mill = 8 presumption 9 t1 n be+ himself an inve/igator 9 any dep>tm5t ( exact sci5ce1 he %\ld volunte] to tea* !m _! bus9ess4 ,b ,mill 0 really guilty ( no su* presumption4 ,8 object1 on ! contr>y1 0 to le>n _! me?od ) a view to its application to subjects t _h n yet und]gone sci5tific treatm5t4 ,briefly /at$1 8 purpose 0 to g to ! practical work]s 9 ! exact sci5ces1 ,a/ronomy1 ,*emi/ry1 ,heat1 ,light1 ,electricity1 ,mol> & ,molecul> ,physics2 asc]ta91 n s mu* h[ !y made _! discov]ies z h[ !y assur$ !mselves & o!rs t _! conclusions 7 s\nd2 & hav+ asc]ta9$ _! te/s ( tru? & pr9ciples ( pro(1 to =mulate ^! te/s s t !y might be appli$ to propositions outside ! range ( ! exact sci5ces1 propositions 9 ,politics1 ,e?ics1 ,hi/ory1 ,psy*ology4 ,m p>ticul>ly he /udi$ h[ sci5tific m5 v]ify1 & :5 !y accept z prov$1 propositions ( causation1 explanations ( ! causes ( ?+s4 ,9 effect1 8 survey ( sci5tific me?od 0 design$ to lead up to ! ,six? ,book 9 8 ,sy/em1 ! ,logic ( ! ,moral ,sci5ces4 ,!re are multitudes ( float+ endoxes or curr5t op9ions conc]n+ man & 8 conc]ns1 assign+ causes = ! conduct & "* ( individuals & ( communities4 ,mill %[$ himself q aw>e t ! same modes ( inve/igation may n be practicable1 & t x may n be possible1 ?\gh m5 are always ready to assign causes ) confid5ce1 to asc]ta9 causes ) ! same degree ( c]ta9ty3 b at lea/ ! conditions ( exact v]ification %\ld be ! same1 & x is necess>y to see :at !y are 9 ord] to see h[ f> !y c be realis$4 ,t su* 0 ,mill's design 9 ! ma9 is app>5t on int]nal evid5ce1 & x 0 ! int]nal evid5ce t fir/ /ruck me4 ,b !re is ext]nal evid5ce z well4 ,we may fir/ adduce "s essays on ! ,_s ( ! ,age1 publi%$ 9 ! ,exam9] 9 #ahca1 essays :i* drew f ,c>lyle ! exclamation1 ,"h is a new ,my/ic6 ,^! essays h nev] be5 republi%$1 b !y conta9 ,mill's fir/ public expression ( ! ne$ = a me?od 9 social inquiries4 ,he />ts f ! ,platonic idea t no /ate c be /able 9 :i* ! judgm5t ( ! wise/ 9 political affairs is n supreme4 ,he =esees dang] 9 ! preval5t an>*y ( op9ion4 ,h[ is x to be av]t$8 ,h[ are m5 to be br\ght to accept loyally ! judgm5t ( ! exp]t 9 public affairs8 ,!y accept at once & )\t "q ! decisions ( ! specially skill$ 9 ! physical sci5ces4 ,:y is ?is8 ,= "o reason1 because !re is complete agreem5t among exp]ts4 ,& :y is !re ?is complete agreem5t8 ,because all accept ! same te/s ( tru?1 ! same conditions ( pro(4 ,is x n possible to obta9 among political inve/igators simil> unanimity z to _! me?ods ( arriv+ at conclusions1 s z to secure simil> respect = _! au?ority8 ,we ne$ n /op to ask :e!r ?is 0 a va9 dream1 & :e!r x mu/ n always be ! case t to ensure confid5ce 9 a political or moral advis] m is ne$$ ?an fai? 9 8 special k & tra9$ sagacity4 ,our po9t is t 9 #ahca ,mill 0 9 se>* ( a me?od ( reason+ 9 social que/ions4 ,opportunely soon aft]1 e>ly 9 #ahcb1 0 publi%$ ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 ! fir/ attempt by an em95t man ( sci5ce to make ! me?ods ( sci5ce explicit4 ,mill review$ ?is book 9 ! ,exam9]1 & !re returns m def9itely to ! que/ on :i* he 0 b5t4 ,! unc]ta9ty1 he says1 t hangs ov] ! v elem5ts ( moral & social philosophy proves t ! means ( arriv+ at ! tru? 9 ^? sci5ces are n yet prop]ly und]/ood4 ,& :i!r c mank9d s advantage\sly turn1 9 ord] to le>n ! prop] means & to =m _! m9ds to ! prop] habits1 z to t bran* ( k 9 :i* by univ]sal ackn[l$gm5t ! greate/ numb] ( tru?s h be5 asc]ta9$ & ! greate/ possible degree ( c]ta9ty arriv$ at8 ,we le>n f ,mill himself t he made an attempt ab\t ?is "t1 :ile 8 m9d 0 full ( ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse1 to connect a sci5tific me?od ) ! body ( ! ,old ,logic4 ,b he c\ld n make ! junction to 8 satisfaction1 & ab&on$ ! attempt 9 despair4 ,a little lat]1 9 #ahcg1 ^u ! appe>ance ( ,:ewell's ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 he r5ew$ x1 & ?is "t ) happi] results4 ,:ewell's ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdj1 b by t "t ,mill's sy/em 0 def9itely %ap$4 ,x 01 !n1 to ,h]s*el & ,:ewell1 b especially to ! =m]1 t ,mill ow$ ! raw mat]ials ( 8 ,inductive ,me?od4 ,b :y did he desire to concat5ate ?is ) ! old ,logic8 ,probably because he consid]$ t ?is also _h its uses = ! /ud5t ( society1 ! political ?9k]4 ,he _h inh]it$ a respect = ! old ,logic f 8 fa!r4 ,b x 0 ! po9t at :i* he s\ght to connect ! new mat]ial ) ! old1 ! po9t ( junction betwe5 ! two1 t det]m9$ ! =m ( 8 sy/em4 ,we f9d ! explanation ( ?is 9 ! hi/ory ( ! old ,logic4 ,x s happ5$ t ,:ately's ,logic 0 9 ! asc5dant1 & ,:ately's treatm5t ( ,induction gives ! key to ,mill's4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ?is c5tury !re 0 a great revival ( ! /udy ( ,logic at ,ox=d4 ,! /udy _h become me*anical1 ,aldri*'s ,comp5dium1 an intellig5t b exce$+ly brief ab/ract ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,logic1 be+ ! text-book beyond :i* no tutor c>$ to g4 ,! man :o seems to h giv5 new life to ! /udy 0 a tutor :o subsequ5tly became ,bi%op ( ,ll&aff1 ,edw>d ,cople/on4 ,! fir/ public fruits ( ! revival begun by him 0 ,:ately's article on ,logic 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia ,metropolitana1 publi%$ z a sep>ate book 9 #ahbg4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 "o ( ,:ately's mo/ active collaborators 9 ! "w 0 ,john ,h5ry ,newman1 s t ! common room ( ,oriel1 :i* ,mr4 ,fr\de describes z ! c5tre f :i* emanat$ ! ,high ,*ur* ,movem5t1 may also be said to h be5 ! c5tre f :i* emanat$ ! movem5t t culm9at$ 9 ! revolution ( ,logic4 ,! publication ( ,:ately's ,logic made a great /ir4 ,x 0 review$ by ,mill1 !n a "y man ( tw5ty-"o1 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review 7#ahbh71 & by ,hamilton1 !n =ty-five ye>s ( age1 9 ! ,ed9burgh 7#ahcc74 ,!re c be no d\bt t x awak5$ ,mill's int]e/ 9 ! subject4 ,a society =m$ = ! discussion ( philosophical que/ions1 & call$ ! ,speculative ,society1 met at ,grote's h\se 9 #ahbe1 & = "s ye>s foll[+4 ,( ?is society "y ,mill 0 a memb]1 & _! cont9u\s topic 9 #ahbg 0 ,logic1 ,:ately's treatise be+ us$ z a sort ( text-book4 ,x is rem>kable t ,mill's review ( ,:ately1 ! outcome ( ^! discussions1 says v little ab\t ,induction4 ,at t /age ,mill's *ief conc]n seems to h be5 to uphold ! usefulness ( ,d$uctive ,logic1 & he ev5 goes s f> z to sc(f at its eighte5? c5tury detractors & _! ambition to sup]s$e x ) a sy/em ( ,induction4 ,! mo/ /rik+ feature ( ! article is ! brilliant def5ce ( ! ,syllogism z an analysis ( argum5ts to :i* ,i h already ref]r$4 ,he does n d5y t an ,inductive ,logic might be useful z a supplem5t1 b app>5tly he _h n !n =m$ ! design ( supply+ su* a supplem5t4 ,:51 h[ev]1 t design s]i\sly ent]$ 8 m9d1 consequ5t ^u ! felt ne$ ( a me?od = social inve/igations1 x 0 ,:ately's conception ( ,induction t he fell back ^u4 ,hi/orically view$1 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic 0 an attempt to connect ! practical conditions ( pro( set =? 9 ,h]s*el's disc\rse ) ! !oretic view ( ,induction prop\nd$ 9 ,:ately's4 ,! tag by :i* he s\ght to atta* ! new mat]ial to ! old sy/em 0 ! ,inductive ,en?ymeme ( ! ,s*oolm5 z int]pret$ by ,:ately4 ,:ately's int]pretation--or mis9t]pretation--( ?is ,en?ymeme1 & ! conception ( ,induction und]ly+ x1 s9ce x became ,mill's rul+ conception ( ,induction1 & virtually ! =mative pr9ciple ( 8 sy/em1 des]ves p>ticul> att5tion4 ,?is1 t & ! o!r horn$ animal1 ox1 %eep1 goat1 rum9ate2 !re=e1 all horn$ animals rum9ate4 ,! traditional view ( ?is ,en?ymeme ,i h giv5 9 my *apt] on ,=mal ,induction 7p4 #bch74 ,x is t a ,m9or ,premiss is suppress$3 ,?is1 t & ! o!r con/itute ! :ole class4 ,?is is ! =m ( ! ,m9or 9 ,ari/otle's ,inductive ,syllogism4 ,b1 ,:ately argu$1 h[ d we "k t ?is1 t & ! o!r--! individuals we h exam9$--con/itute ! :ole class8 ,d we n assume t :at belongs to ! individuals exam9$ belongs to ! :ole class8 ,?is tacit assumption1 he cont5d$1 is really at ! bottom ( ! ,en?ymeme1 & its prop] completion is to take ?is z ! ,major ,premiss1 ) ! enum]ation ( individuals z ! ,m9or4 ,?us3-- ,:at belongs to ! individuals exam9$ belongs to ! :ole class4 ,! prop]ty ( ! rum9at+ belongs to ! individuals exam9$1 ox1 %eep1 goat1 etc4 ,!re=e1 x belongs to all4 ,9 answ] to ?is1 ,hamilton repeat$ ! traditional view1 treat+ ,:ately's view m]ely z an in/ance ( ! prevail+ ignorance ( ! hi/ory ( ,logic4 ,he po9t$ out besides t ,:ately's ,major 0 ! po/ulate ( a diff]5t k9d ( inf]5ce f t contemplat$ 9 ,ari/otle's ,inductive ,syllogism1 ,mat]ial z di/+ui%$ f ,=mal inf]5ce4 ,?is is und5iable if we take ?is syllogism purely z an argum5tative syllogism4 ,! all ( ! conclusion simply cov]s ! individuals enum]at$ & admitt$ to be all 9 ! ,m9or ,premiss4 ,if a disputant admits ! cases produc$ to be all & c produce none to ! contr>y1 he is b\nd to admit ! conclusion4 ,n[ ! inf]5ce contemplat$ by ,:ately 0 n inf]5ce f an admission to :at x implies1 b inf]5ce f a s]ies ( obs]vations to all ( a l k9d1 obs]v$ & unobs]v$4 ,x is n wor? :ile discuss+ :at hi/orical ju/ification ,:ately _h = 8 view ( ,induction4 ,x is at lea/ arguable t ! ^w _h come to mean1 if x did n mean ) ,ari/otle himself1 m ?an a m]e summation ( p>ticul>s 9 a g5]al /atem5t4 ,ev5 ,ari/otle's respond5t 9 ! concession ( 8 ,m9or admitt$ t ! individuals enum]at$ con/itut$ all 9 ! truly g5]al s5se1 n m]ely all obs]v$ b all beyond ! range ( obs]vation4 ,! po9t1 h[ev]1 is insignificant4 ,:at really signifies is t :ile ,hamilton1 aft] draw+ ! l9e betwe5 ,=mal ,induction & ,mat]ial1 fell back & entr5*$ himself )9 t l9e1 ,mill caught up ,:ately's conception ( ,induction1 pu%$ =w>d1 & made x ! basis ( 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic4 ,9 ,mill's def9ition1 ! m]e summation ( p>ticul>s1 ,inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem ubi non rep]itur in/antia contradictoria1 is ,induction improp]ly s call$4 ,! only process wor?y ( ! "n is ,mat]ial ,induction1 inf]5ce to ! unobs]v$4 ,"h only is !re an advance f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 a v]itable inductive haz>d4 ,/>t+ !n ) ?is conception ( inf]5ce to ! unobs]v$ z ! only true inf]5ce1 & ) an empirical law--a g5]ality ext5d$ f obs]v$ cases to unobs]v$--z ! type ( su* inf]5ce1 ,mill saw 8 way to connect+ a new ,logic ) ! old4 ,we mu/ exam9e ?is junction c>efully1 & ! brilliant & plausible argum5ts by :i* he support$ x2 we %all f9d t1 bias$ by ?is desire to connect ! new ) ! old1 he gave a mislead+ dialectic sett+ to 8 propositions1 &1 9 effect1 confus$ ! pr9ciples ( ,argum5tative conclusion on ! "o h& & ( ,sci5tific ,obs]vation & ,inf]5ce on ! o!r4 ,! conception ( ,inf]5ce :i* he adopt$ f ,:ately 0 too n>r[ on bo? sides = ! uses to :i* he put x4 ,be x und]/ood t 9 ! c5tral me?ods bo? ( ,syllogi/ic & ( ,sci5ce1 ,mill 0 sub/antially 9 accord ) tradition2 x is 9 8 mode ( junction1 & ! light !reby ?r[n ^u ! ends & aims ( bo?1 t he is mo/ op5 to criticism4 ,z reg>ds ! relation betwe5 ,d$uction & ,induction1 ,mill's *ief proposition 0 ! brilliant p>adox t all inf]5ce is at bottom ,inductive1 t ,d$uction is only a p>tial & accid5tal /age 9 a process ! :ole ( :i* may be call$ ,induction4 ,an op9ion 0 abroad--fo/]$ by ! app>5tly exclusive devotion ( ,logic to ,d$uction--t all inf]5ce is ess5tially ,d$uctive4 ,n s1 answ]$ ,mill1 meet+ ?is extreme ) ano!r3 all inf]5ce is ess5tially ,inductive4 ,he arrives at ?is ?r\gh ! conception t ,induction is a g5]alisation f obs]v$ p>ticul>s1 :ile ,d$uction is m]ely ! ext5sion ( ! g5]alisation to a new case1 a new p>ticul>4 ,! example t he us$ w make 8 mean+ pla94 ,take a common ,syllogism3-- ,all m5 are mortal4 ,socrates is a man4 ,socrates is mortal4 ,! proposition1 ,mill says1 t ,socrates is mortal is evid5tly an inf]5ce4 ,x is got at z a conclusion f some?+ else4 ,b d we 9 reality conclude x f ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal8 ,he answ]s t ?is _c be1 because if x is n true t ,socrates is mortal x _c be true t all m5 are mortal4 ,x is cle> t our belief 9 ! mortality ( ,socrates mu/ re/ on ! same gr\nd z our belief 9 ! mortality ( m5 9 g5]al4 ,he goes on to ask :5ce we d]ive our k ( ! g5]al tru?1 & answ]s3 ,( c\rse f obs]vation4 ,n[ all :i* man c obs]ve are individual cases4444 ,a g5]al tru? is b an aggregate ( p>ticul> tru?s4 ,b a g5]al proposition is n m]ely a comp5di\s =m = record+ a numb] ( p>ticul> facts4444 ,x is also a process ( inf]5ce4 ,f in/ances :i* we h obs]v$ we feel w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t :at we h f\nd true 9 ^? in/ances1 holds 9 all simil> ones1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,we !n record all t we h obs]v$ toge!r ) :at we inf] f our obs]vations1 9 "o concise expression4 ,a g5]al proposition is ?us at once a summ>y ( p>ticul> facts & a memor&um ( our "r to inf] f !m4 ,& :5 we make a d$uction we are1 z x 71 int]pret+ ?is memor&um4 ,b x is ^u ! p>ticul> facts t ! inf]5ce really re/s1 & ,mill cont5ds t we might if we *ose inf] to ! p>ticul> conclusion at once )\t go+ ?r\gh ! =m ( a g5]al inf]5ce4 ,?us ,mills seeks to make good 8 po9t t all inf]5ce is ess5tially ,inductive1 & t x is only = conv5i5ce t ! ^w ,induction has be5 conf9$ to ! g5]al induction1 :ile ! ^w ,d$uction is appli$ to ! process ( int]pret+ our memor&um4 ,cle> & consecutive z ?is argum5t is1 x is fundam5tally confus+4 ,x confuses ! nature ( ,syllogi/ic conclusion or ,d$uction1 & at ! same "t gives a p>tial & incomplete acc\nt ( ! gr\nd ( ,mat]ial inf]5ce4 ,! root ( ! fir/ confusion lies 9 rais+ ! "q ( ! gr\nd ( mat]ial inf]5ce 9 connexion ) ! ,syllogism4 ,z reg>ds ! usefulness ( ! ,syllogism1 ?is is an ,,ignoratio ,,el5*i4 ,t ! ,major & ! conclusion re/ ^u ! same gr\nd z matt]s ( belief is indisputable3 b x is irrelevant4 ,9 s f> z ,socrates is mortal is an inf]5ce f facts1 x is n ! conclusion ( a ,syllogism4 ,?is is implicitly & ) unconsci\s inconsi/5cy recognis$ by ,mill :5 he repres5ts ,d$uction z ! int]pretation ( a memor&um4 ,to repres5t ,d$uction z ! int]pretation ( a memor&um--a v happy way ( putt+ x & q 9 accordance ) ,rog] ,bacon's view--is really inconsi/5t ) reg>d+ ,d$uction z an occasional /ep 9 ! process ( ,induction4 ,if ,d$uction is ! int]pretation ( a memor&um1 x is no "p ( ! process ( inf]5ce f facts4 ,! conditions ( correct int]pretation z laid d[n 9 ,syllogism are "o ?+1 & ! me?ods ( correct inf]5ce f ! facts1 ! me?ods ( sci5ce t he 0 9 se>* (1 are ano!r4 ,let u emphasise ?is view ( ,d$uction z ! int]pretation ( a memor&um4 ,x corresponds exactly ) ! view t ,i h tak5 9 discuss+ ! utility ( ! ,syllogism4 ,suppose we want to "k :e!r a p>ticul> conclusion is consi/5t ) our memor&um1 :at h we to look to8 ,we h to put our memor&um into su* a =m t x is at once app>5t :e!r or n x cov]s our p>ticul> case4 ,! ,syllogism aspires to be su* a =m4 ,t is ! end & aim ( x4 ,x does n enable u to judge :e!r ! memor&um is a legitimate memor&um or n4 ,x only makes cle> t if ! memor&um is legitimate1 s is ! conclusion4 ,h[ to make cle> & consi/5t memor&a ( our beliefs 9 words is a suffici5tly complete description ( ! ma9 purpose ( ,d$uctive ,logic4 ,in/ead1 !n1 ( try+ to pres5t ,d$uction & ,induction z p>ts ( ! same process1 :i* he 0 l$ to d by 8 desire to connect ! new & ! old1 ,mill ought r1 9 consi/5cy z well z 9 ! int]e/s ( cle> sy/em1 to h drawn a l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! two z hav+ really diff]5t ends1 ! conditions ( correct conclusion f accept$ g5]alities on ! "o h&1 & ! conditions ( correct inf]5ce f facts on ! o!r4 ,:e!r ! fir/ %\ld be call$ inf]5ce at all is a "q ( nam+ t ought to h be5 consid]$ by itself4 ,we may refuse to call x inf]5ce1 b we only confuse ourselves & o!rs if we d n ackn[l$ge t 9 s do+ we are break+ ) traditional usage4 ,p]haps ! be/ way 9 ! int]e/s ( cle>ness is to compromise ) tradition by call+ ! "o ,=mal ,inf]5ce & ! o!r ,mat]ial ,inf]5ce4 ,x is ) ! latt] t ! ,physical ,sci5ces are ma9ly conc]n$1 & x 0 ! conditions & me?ods ( its correct p]=mance t ,mill desir$ to sy/ematise 9 8 ,inductive ,logic4 ,we h next to see h[ 8 /atem5t ( ! gr\nds ( ,mat]ial ,inf]5ce 0 affect$ by 8 connexion ( ,d$uction & ,induction4 ,"h also we %all f9d a reason = a cle>] sep>ation betwe5 ! two dep>tm5ts ( ,logic4 ,9 8 antagonism to a suppos$ doctr9e t all reason+ is f g5]al to p>ticul>1 ,mill ma9ta9$ simplicit] t all reason+ is f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s4 ,n[ ?is is true only secundum quid1 & al?\gh 9 ! c\rse ( 8 argum5t ,mill introduc$ ! necess>y qualifications1 ! unqualifi$ !sis 0 confus+4 ,x is p]fectly true t we may inf]--we c h>dly be said to reason--f obs]v$ p>ticul>s to unobs]v$4 ,we may ev5 inf]1 & inf] correctly1 f a s+le case4 ,! village matron1 call$ 9 to prescribe = a neighb\r's sick *ild1 inf]s t :at cur$ h] own *ild w cure ! neighb\r's1 & prescribes accord+ly4 ,& %e may be "r4 ,b x is also true t %e may be wrong1 & t no fallacy is m common ?an reason+ f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s )\t ! requisite precautions4 ,?is is ! moral ( "o ( ! fables ( ,cam]>ius4 ,two donkeys 7 travell+ 9 ! same c>avan1 ! "o lad5 ) salt1 ! o!r ) hay4 ,! "o lad5 ) salt /umbl$ 9 cross+ a /ream1 8 panni]s dipp$ 9 ! /ream1 ! salt melt$1 & 8 burd5 0 light5$4 ,:5 !y came to ano!r /ream1 ! donkey t 0 lad5 ) hay dipp$ 8 panni]s 9 ! wat]1 expect+ a simil> result4 ,mill's illu/rations ( correct inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s 7 really irrelevant4 ,:at we are conc]n$ ) 9 consid]+ ! gr\nds ( ,inf]5ce1 is ! condition ( correct inf]5ce1 & no inf]5ce to an unobs]v$ case is s\nd unless x is ( a l k9d ) ! obs]v$ case or cases on :i* x is f\nd$1 t is to say1 unless we are entitl$ to make a g5]al proposition4 ,we ne$ n g ?r\gh ! =m ( mak+ a g5]al proposition1 b if a g5]al proposition = all p>ticul>s ( a c]ta9 description is n legitimate1 no m is ! p>ticul> inf]5ce4 ,mill1 ( c\rse1 did n d5y ?is1 he 0 only betray$ by ! turn ( 8 polemic into an unqualifi$ =m ( /atem5t t seem$ to ignore x4 ,b ?is 0 n ! wor/ defect ( ,mill's attempt at a junction ( old & new ?r\gh ,:ately's conception ( ,induction4 ,a m s]i\s defect 0 due to ! insuffici5cy ( ?is conception to repres5t all ! modes ( sci5tific inf]5ce4 ,:5 a c]ta9 attribute has be5 f\nd 9 a c]ta9 connexion 9 ?is1 t1 & ! o!r1 to ! ext5t ( all obs]v$ in/ances1 we inf] t x w be f\nd 9 all1 t ! connexion t has obta9$ )9 ! range ( our actual exp]i5ce has obta9$ beyond t range & w obta9 9 ! future4 ,call ?is an obs]v$ uni=mity ( nature3 we hold ourselves ju/ifi$ 9 expect+ t ! obs]v$ uni=mities ( nature w cont9ue4 ,su* an obs]v$ uni=mity--t ,all animals h a n]v\s sy/em1 t ,all animals die1 t ,qu99e cures ague--is also call$ an ,empirical ,law4 ,b :ile we are ju/ifi$ 9 ext5d+ an empirical law beyond ! limits )9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$ to hold good1 x is a mi/ake to suppose t ! ma9 "w ( sci5ce is ! collection ( empirical laws1 & t ! only sci5tific inf]5ce is ! inf]5ce f ! obs]v$ preval5ce ( an empirical law to its cont9uance4 ,) sci5ce ! collection ( empirical laws is only a prelim9>y3 ! goal ( sci5ce1 9 ,h]s*el's phrase1 is explanation4 ,9 giv+ su* prom95ce to empirical laws 9 8 !ory1 ,mill conf9$ ,induction to a n>r[] scope ?an sci5ce ascribes to x4 ,sci5ce aims at rea*+ ! causes ( ?+s3 x tries to p5etrate beh9d obs]v$ uni=mities to ! explanation ( !m4 ,9 fact1 z long z a sci5ce consi/s only ( obs]v$ uni=mities1 z long z x is 9 ! empirical /age1 x is a sci5ce only by c\rtesy4 ,a/ronomy 0 9 ?is /age be=e ! discov]y ( ! ,law ( ,gravitation4 ,m$ic9e is m]ely empirical z long z its practice re/s ^u su* g5]alisations z t ,qu99e cures ague1 )\t kn[+ :y4 ,x is true t ?is explanation may consi/ only 9 ! discov]y ( a high] or deep] uni=mity1 a m recondite law ( connexion3 ! po9t is t ^! deep] laws are n always op5 to obs]vation1 & t ! me?od ( rea*+ !m is n m]ely obs]v+ & record+4 ,9 ! body ( 8 ,inductive ,logic1 ,mill gave a suffici5t acc\nt ( ! ,me?od ( ,explanation z practis$ 9 sci5tific inquiry4 ,x 0 only 8 mode ( approa*+ ! subject t 0 confus+1 & made x appe> z if ! prop] "w ( sci5ce 7 m]ely ext5d+ obs]v$ g5]alities1 z :5 we conclude t all m5 w die because all m5 h di$1 or t all horn$ animals rum9ate because all hi!rto obs]v$ h _h ?is attribute4 ,a m9or s\rce ( confusion incid5t to ! same controv]sy 0 8 refus+ ! title ( ,induction prop] to a m]e summ>y ( p>ticul>s4 ,he seem$ !reby to ca/ a slight ^u ! m]e summation ( p>ticul>s4 ,& yet1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 x 0 ^? p>ticul>s t 7 ! basis ( ! ,induction prop]ly s call$4 ,t all m5 w die is an inf]5ce f ! obs]vation summ$ up 9 ! proposition t all m5 h di$4 ,if we refuse ! "n ( ,induction to ! g5]al proposition ( fact1 :at are we to call x8 ,! tru? is t ! reason :y ! ^w ,induction is appli$ indiff]5tly to ! g5]al proposition ( fact & ! g5]al proposition applicable to all "t is t1 once we are sure ( ! facts1 ! transition to ! inf]5ce is s simple an affair t x has n be5 f\nd necess>y 9 practice to di/+ui% !m by diff]5t names4 ,our criticism ( ,mill w\ld itself mislead if x 7 tak5 to mean t ! me?ods ( sci5ce :i* he =mulat$ are n ! me?ods ( sci5ce or t 8 sy/em ( ^? me?ods is sub/antially incomplete4 ,8 ,inductive ,logic z a sy/em ( sci5tific me?od 0 a great a*ievem5t 9 organisation1 a v]itable ,novum ,organum ( k4 ,:at kept him sub/antially "r 0 t ! me?ods :i* he sy/ematis$ 7 tak5 f ! practice ( m5 ( sci5ce4 ,our criticism am\nts only to ?is1 t 9 correlat+ ! new sy/em ) ! old he w5t ^u a wrong track4 ,= m ?an two c5turies ,d$uction _h be5 oppos$ to ,induction1 ! ars diss]5di to ! ars inv5i5di4 ,9 try+ to reconcile !m & br+ !m "u "o ro(1 ,mill drew ! bonds too tight4 ,9 /at+ ! t]ms ( ! union betwe5 ! two p>tn]s1 he did n sep>ate _! sph]es ( "w ) suffici5t di/9ctness4 ,mill's !ory ( ,d$uction & ,induction & ! volum9\s criticism to :i* 9 its turn x has be5 subject$ h und\bt$ly be5 ( great s]vice 9 cle>+ up ! f\ndations ( reason+4 ,b ! moral ( x is t if we are to make ! me?ods ( ,sci5ce a "p ( ,logic1 & to "n ?is dep>tm5t ,induction1 x is bett] to disc>d altoge!r ! que/ions ( ,g5]al & ,p>ticul> :i* are p]t95t to ,syllogism1 & to recognise ! new dep>tm5t simply z be+ conc]n$ ) a diff]5t k9d ( inf]5ce1 inf]5ce f facts to :at lies beyond !m1 inf]5ce f ! obs]v$ to ! unobs]v$4 ,t ?is is ! g5]al aim & prop] "w ( ,sci5ce is evid5t f its hi/ory4 ,get at ! secrets ( ,nature by ! /udy ( ,nature1 p5etrate to :at is unkn[n & unexp]i5c$ by help ( :at is kn[n & has be5 exp]i5c$1 0 ! cry ( ! e>ly re=m]s ( ,sci5ce4 ,?us only1 9 ,rog] ,bacon's phrase1 c\ld c]ta9ty--assur$1 well gr\nd$1 rational belief--be rea*$4 ,?is doctr9e1 l e o!r1 c be und]/ood only by :at x 0 int5d$ to d5y4 ,! way ( rea*+ c]ta9ty t ,rog] ,bacon repudiat$ 0 argum5t1 discussion1 dialectic4 ,?is concludes a "q b does n make u feel c]ta91 or acquiesce 9 ! contemplation ( tru? t is n also f\nd 9 ,exp]i5ce4 ,argum5t is n necess>ily useless2 ! proposition combat$ is only t by x alone--by discussion t does n g beyond accept$ !ories or conceptions--rational belief ab\t ! unkn[n _c be rea*$4 ,! proposition affirm$ is t to ?is end ! conclusions ( argum5t mu/ be te/$ by exp]i5ce4 ,obs]vation ( facts !n is a c>d9al "p ( ! me?od ( ,sci5ce4 ,! facts on :i* our inf]5ces are bas$1 by :i* our conclusions are te/$1 mu/ be accurate4 ,b 9 ?us lay+ emphasis on ! necessity ( accurate obs]vation1 we mu/ bew>e ( ru%+ to ! opposite extreme1 & suppos+ t obs]vation alone is en\gh4 ,obs]vation1 ! accurate use ( ! s5ses 7by :i* we mu/ und]/& inn] z well z out] s5se71 is n ! :ole "w ( ,sci5ce4 ,we may />e at facts e m9ute ( our wak+ day )\t be+ a :it ! wis] unless we ex]t our intellects to build ^u !m or "u !m4 ,to make our exam9ation fruitful1 we mu/ h conceptions1 !ories1 speculations1 to br+ to ! te/4 ,! comp>ison ( ^! ) ! facts is ! inductive v]ification ( !m4 ,sci5ce has to ex]cise its +5uity bo? 9 mak+ hypo!ses & 9 contriv+ occasions = te/+ !m by obs]vation4 ,^! contriv$ occasions are its artificial exp]im5ts1 :i* h come to be call$ exp]im5ts simply by contra/ ) conclusive obs]vations = :i* ,nature h]self furni%es ! occasion4 ,! obs]vations ( ,sci5ce are n passive obs]vations4 ,! ^w exp]im5t simply means trial1 & e exp]im5t1 natural or artificial1 is ! trial ( a hypo!sis4 ,9 ! language ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 ,!ory is ! g5]al1 ,exp]im5ts are ! soldi]s4 ,obs]vation & ,inf]5ce g h& 9 h& 9 ! "w ( ,sci5ce1 b ) a view to a me?odical exposition ( its me?ods1 we may divide !m broadly into ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation & ,me?ods ( ,inf]5ce4 ,!re are errors specially incid5t to ,obs]vation1 & errors specially incid5t to ,inf]5ce4 ,h[ to obs]ve correctly & h[ to make correct inf]5ces f our obs]vations are ! two objects ( our /udy 9 ,inductive ,logic3 we /udy ! examples ( ,sci5ce because !y h be5 successful 9 accompli%+ ^? objects4 ,t all inf]5ce to ! unobs]v$ is f\nd$ on facts1 on ! data ( exp]i5ce1 ne$ n be po/ulat$4 ,x is en\gh to say t ,inductive ,logic is conc]n$ ) inf]5ce 9 s f> z x is f\nd$ on ! data ( exp]i5ce4 ,b inasmu* z all ! data ( exp]i5ce are n ( equal value z bases ( inf]5ce1 x is well to beg9 ) an analysis ( !m1 if we wi% to take a compreh5sive survey ( ! v>i\s modes ( inf]5ce & ! conditions ( _! validity4 ,footnote #a3 ,hamilton's ,reid1 p4 #gab4 ,footnote #b3 ,! ,novum ,organum 0 nev] complet$4 ,( ! n9e heads ( special aids to ! intellect 9 ! f9al int]pretation he complet$ only ! fir/1 ! li/ ( ,pr]ogative ,in/ances4 ,footnote #c3 ,sylva ,sylv>um1 ,c5tury ,i1 #bd4 ,footnote #d3 ,sylva ,sylv>um1 ,c5tury ,i1 #e4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,data ,,( ,,exp]i5ce ,,z ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,inf]5ce ,,or ,,rational ,,belief4 ,if we exam9e any ( ! facts or p>ticul>s on :i* an inf]5ce to ! unobs]v$ is f\nd$1 we %all f9d t !y are n isolat$ individuals or attributes1 sep>ate objects ( p]ception or ?\ght1 b relations among ?+s & _! qualities1 con/itu5ts1 or +r$i5ts4 ,take ! p>ticul> f :i* ,mill's village matron inf]r$1 ! fact on :i* %e bas$ h] expectation ( a cure = h] neighb\r's *ild4 ,x is a relation betwe5 ?+s4 ,we h ! fir/ *ild's ailm5t1 ! adm9i/ration ( ! drug1 & ! recov]y1 a s]ies ( ev5ts 9 sequ5ce4 ,?is obs]v$ sequ5ce is ! fact f :i* %e is said to inf]1 ! datum ( exp]i5ce4 ,%e expects ?is sequ5ce to be repeat$ 9 ! case ( h] neighb\r's *ild4 ,simil>ly we %all f9d t1 9 all cases :]e we inf]1 ! facts are complex1 are n m]e isolat$ ?+s1 b relations among ?+s--us+ ! ^w ?+ 9 its wide/ s5se--relations :i* we expect to f9d repeat$1 or believe to h occurr$ be=e1 or to be occurr+ n[ beyond ! range ( our obs]vation4 ,^! relations1 :i* we may call co9cid5ces or conjunctions1 are ! data ( exp]i5ce f :i* we />t 9 our beliefs or inf]5ces ab\t ! unexp]i5c$4 ,! problem ( ,inductive ,logic be+ to det]m9e :5 or on :at conditions su* beliefs are rational1 we may beg9 by di/+ui%+ ! data ( co9cid5ce or conjunction accord+ly4 ,!re are c]ta9 co9cid5ces t we expect to f9d repeat$ beyond ! occasions on :i* we h obs]v$ !m1 & o!rs t we d n expect to f9d repeat$4 ,if x is a s\nd basis ( inf]5ce t we are 9 se>* (1 x is evid5tly to ^! fir/1 ! co9cid5ces t we are assur$ ( f9d+ aga91 t we mu/ direct our /udy4 ,let u see :e!r !y c be specifi$4 7#a7 ,if !re is no causal connexion betwe5 ,a & ,b1 us+ ^! z symbols = ! memb]s ( a co9cid5ce--! objects t are pres5t$ toge!r--we d n expect ! co9cid5ce to be repeat$4 ,if ,a & ,b are connect$ z cause & effect1 we expect ! effect to recur 9 company ) ! cause4 ,we expect t :5 ! cause reappe>s 9 simil> circum/ances1 ! effect also w reappe>4 ,y are hit1 e4g41 by a sn[ball1 & ! bl[ is foll[$ by a feel+ ( pa94 ,! sun1 we %all say1 0 %9+ at ! mom5t ( ! impact ( ! sn[ball on y\r body4 ,! sun%9e prec$$ y\r feel+ ( pa9 z well z ! bl[4 ,b y d n expect ! pa9 to recur next "t t ! sun %9es4 ,y d expect x to recur next "t y are hit by a sn[ball4 ,! tak+ ( food & a c]ta9 feel+ ( /r5g? are causally connect$4 ,if we g )\t food1 we are n surpris$ :5 fa9tness or we>9ess sup]v5es4 ,suppose t :5 our village matron adm9i/]$ h] rem$y to h] own *ild1 a dog /ood by ! b$side & b>k$4 ,! b>k+ 9 t case w\ld prec$e ! cure4 ,n[1 if ! matron 7 :at we %\ld call a sup]/iti\s p]son1 & believ$ t ?is concomitant _h a c]ta9 efficacy1 t ! dog's b>k+ & ! cure 7 causally connect$1 %e w\ld take ! dog ) h] :5 %e w5t to cure h] neighb\r's *ild4 ,o!rwise %e w\ld n4 ,%e w\ld say t ! b>k+ 0 an accid5tal1 casual1 =tuit\s co9cid5ce1 & w\ld build no expectation ^u x4 ,^! illu/rations may s]ve to rem9d u ( ! famili> fact t ! causal nexus is at lea/ "o ( ! ?+s t we dep5d on 9 our inf]5ces to ! unobs]v$4 ,to a simple sequ5ce we atta* no importance1 b a causal sequ5ce or consequ5ce t has be5 obs]v$ is a ma9/ay ( inf]5ce4 ,:e!r ! causal sequ5ce holds or n z a matt] ( fact1 we dep5d ^u x if we believe 9 x z a matt] ( fact4 ,b unless x does hold z a matt] ( fact1 x is valueless z a guide to ! unkn[n1 & our belief is irrational4 ,cle>ly1 !re=e1 if rational belief is :at we aim at1 x is ( importance t we %\ld make sure ( cause & effect z matt] ( fact 9 ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,"o l>ge dep>tm5t ( ,inductive ,logic1 ! s-call$ ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods1 is design$ to help u 9 ?us mak+ sure1 i4e41 9 asc]ta9+ causal sequ5ce z a matt] ( fact4 ,x is assum$ t by c>eful obs]vation ( ! circum/ances1 we c di/+ui% betwe5 m]e simple sequ5ce & causal sequ5ce or consequ5ce1 & me?ods are recomm5d$ ( obs]v+ ) ! prop] precautions aga9/ error4 ,obs]ve t ^! me?ods1 ?\gh call$ ,inductive1 are n conc]n$ ) arriv+ at g5]al propositions4 ,! pr9ciple we g ^u is simply ?is1 t if x c be asc]ta9$ z matt] ( fact t a c]ta9 ?+ is relat$ to ano!r z cause & effect1 we may c\nt ^u ! same relation z hold+ 9 unobs]v$ ,nature1 on ! g5]al gr\nd t l causes produce l effects 9 l circum/ances4 ,obs]ve1 also1 t ,i delib]ately speak ( ! causal relation z a relation among ph5om5a4 ,:e!r ?is use ( ! words cause & effect is philosophically ju/ifiable1 is a "q t w be rais$ & p>tly discuss$ lat] on4 ,"h ,i simply foll[ ! common usage1 9 accordance ) :i* objects ( p]ception1 e4g41 ! adm9i/ration ( a drug & ! recov]y ( a pati5t1 are spok5 ( z cause & effect4 ,su* obs]vable sequ5ces are causal sequ5ces 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 & x is "p ( ! "w ( ,sci5ce to obs]ve !m4 ,i d n d5y t ! true cause1 ( ! cause t sci5ce aims ultimately at discov]+1 is to be f\nd 9 ! lat5t con/itution or composition ( ! ?+s conc]n$4 ,only t1 z we %all see m precisely1 is a cause ( ano!r description4 ,meantime1 let u take ! ^w to cov] :at x und\bt$ly cov]s 9 ord9>y spee*1 ! p]ceptible antec$5t ( a p]ceptible consequ5t4 ,/rictly speak+1 z we %all f9d1 ,sci5ce has only "o me?od ( directly obs]v+ :5 ev5ts are 9 causal sequ5ce4 ,b !re are v>i\s indirect me?ods1 :i* %all be describ$ 9 "s sort ( ord]4 ,= ! practical purposes ( life1 a s+le asc]ta9$ causal sequ5ce is ( little value z a basis ( inf]5ce1 because we c inf] only to its repetition 9 id5tical circum/ances4 ,suppose our village matron _h be5 able to asc]ta9 z a matt] ( fact--a feat z we %all f9d n to be a*iev$ by direct obs]vation--t ! drug did cure h] *ild1 ?is k by itself w\ld h be5 practically valueless1 because ! only legitimate inf]5ce w\ld h be5 t an exactly simil> dose w\ld h ! same effect 9 exactly simil> circum/ances4 ,b1 z we %all f9d1 ?\gh practically valueless1 a s+le asc]ta9$ causal sequ5ce is ( supreme value 9 te/+ sci5tific speculations z to ! und]ly+ causes4 7#b7 ,we h next to see :e!r !re are any o!r rational expectations bas$ on obs]v$ facts4 ,we may lay d[n z a pr9ciple ! foll[+3-- ,if a conjunction or co9cid5ce has con/antly be5 repeat$ )9 our exp]i5ce1 we expect x to recur & believe t x has recurr$ outside our exp]i5ce4 ,h[ f> su* expectations are rational1 & ) :at degrees ( confid5ce !y %\ld be ent]ta9$1 are ! que/ions = ! ,logic ( ,inf]5ce1 b we may fir/ note t we d z a matt] ( habit f\nd expectations on repeat$ co9cid5ce1 & inde$ guide our daily life 9 ?is way4 ,if we meet a man repeat$ly 9 ! /reet at a c]ta9 h\r1 we g out expect+ to meet him3 x is a %ock to our expectations1 a surprise1 :5 we d n4 ,if we are walk+ along a road & f9d poles set up at regul> int]vals1 we cont9ue our walk expect+ to f9d a pole co9cid5t ) ! end ( ea* int]val4 ,:at ,mill calls ! uni=mities ( ,nature1 ! uni=mities express$ 9 g5]al propositions1 are f ! po9t ( view ( ! obs]v]1 examples ( repeat$ co9cid5ce4 ,bir?1 gr[?1 decay1 dea?1 are n isolat$ or v>iable co9cid5ces ) organis$ be+3 all are born1 all gr[1 all decay1 & all die4 ,^! uni=mities con/itute ! ord] ( ,nature3 ! co9cid5ces obs]v$ are n occasional1 occurr+ once 9 a way or only n[ & !n2 !y turn up aga9 & aga94 ,trees are among ! uni=mities on ! v>i$ face ( ,nature3 c]ta9 relations betwe5 ! soil & ! plant1 betwe5 trunk1 bran*es1 & leaves are common to !m4 ,= u :o obs]ve1 ea* p>ticul> tree t comes "u our obs]vation is a repetition ( ! co9cid5ce4 ,& s ) animals3 9 ea* we f9d c]ta9 tissues1 c]ta9 organs1 conjo9$ on an inv>iable plan4 ,te*nically ^! uni=mities h be5 divid$ into uni=mities ( ,sequ5ce & uni=mities ( ,coexi/5ce4 ,?us ! repeat$ alt]nation ( day & night is a uni=mity ( ,sequ5ce3 ! inv>iable conjunction ( in]tia ) weight is a uni=mity ( ,coexi/5ce4 ,b ! di/9ction is really immat]ial to ,logic4 ,:at ,logic is conc]n$ ) is ! obs]vation ( ! facts & ! validity ( any inf]5ce bas$ on !m3 & 9 ^! respects x makes no diff]5ce :e!r ! uni=mity t we obs]ve & f\nd ^u is "o ( ,sequ5ce or ( ,coexi/5ce4 ,x 0 exclusively to su* inf]5ces1 inf]5ces f obs]v$ facts ( repeat$ co9cid5ce1 t ,mill conf9$ himself 9 8 !ory ( ,induction1 ?\gh n 9 8 exposition ( ! me?ods4 ,^! are ! inf]5ces = :i* we mu/ po/ulate :at he calls ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 ,e induction1 he says1 foll[+ ,:ately1 may be ?r[n into ! =m ( a ,syllogism1 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature is ! ,major ,premiss1 /&+ to ! inf]5ce 9 ! relation 9 :i* ! ,major ,premiss ( a ,syllogism /&s to ! conclusion4 ,if we express ?is ab/ractly d5om9at$ pr9ciple 9 propositional =m1 & take x 9 connexion ) ,mill's o!r say+ t ! c\rse ( ,nature is n a uni=mity b uni=mities1 we %all f9d1 ,i ?9k1 t ?is po/ulat$ ,major ,premiss am\nts to an assumption t ! obs]v$ ,uni=mities ( ,nature cont9ue4 ,mill's ,inductive ,syllogism ?us made explicit w\ld be some?+ l ?is3-- ,all ! obs]v$ uni=mities ( ,nature cont9ue4 ,t all m5 h di$ is an obs]v$ uni=mity4 ,!re=e1 x cont9ues2 i4e41 all m5 w die & did die be=e ! beg9n+ ( record4 ,!re is no d\bt t ?is is a p]fectly s\nd po/ulate4 ,l all ultimate po/ulates x is indemon/rable2 ,mill's d]ivation ( x f ,exp]i5ce did n am\nt to a demon/ration4 ,x is simply an assumption on :i* we act4 ,if any man c>es to d5y x1 !re is no argum5t t we c turn aga9/ him4 ,we c only convict him ( practical inconsi/5cy1 by %[+ t he acts ^u ?is assumption himself e m9ute ( 8 wak+ day4 ,if we d n believe 9 ! cont9uance ( obs]v$ uni=mities1 :y d we turn our eyes to ! w9d[ expect+ to f9d x 9 its accu/om$ ord] ( place8 ,:y d we n look = x 9 ano!r wall8 ,:y d we dip our p5s 9 ink1 & expect ! application ( !m to :ite pap] to be foll[$ by a black m>k8 ,! pr9ciple is s\nd1 b is x our only po/ulate 9 inf]5ce to ! unobs]v$1 & does ! cont9uance ( empirical laws repres5t all t ,sci5ce assumes 9 its inf]5ces8 ,mill 0 n satisfi$ ab\t ?is "q4 ,he po9t$ out a difficulty :i* a m]e belief 9 empirical cont9uity does n solve4 ,:y d we believe m confid5tly 9 "s uni=mities ?an 9 o!rs8 ,:y w\ld a report$ brea* ( "o be reg>d$ ) m incr$ulity ?an t ( ano!r8 ,suppose a travell] to return f a /range c\ntry & report t he _h met m5 ) heads gr[+ b5ea? _! %\ld]s1 :y w\ld ?is be pron\nc$ m incr$ible ?an a report t he _h se5 a grey cr[8 ,all cr[s hi!rto obs]v$ h be5 black1 & 9 all m5 hi!rto obs]v$ ! heads h be5 above ! %\ld]s3 if ! m]e cont9uity ( obs]v$ uni=mities is all t we g ^u 9 our inf]5ces1 a brea* ( ! "o uni=mity %\ld be j z improbable z a brea* ( ! o!r1 nei!r m nor less4 ,mill admitt$ ! difficulty1 & rem>k$ t :oev] c\ld solve x w\ld h solv$ ! problem ( ,induction4 ,n[ x seems to me t ?is p>ticul> difficulty may be solv$1 & yet leave ano!r beh9d4 ,x may be solv$ )9 ! limits ( ! pr9ciple ( emp]ical--mean+ by t obs]vational--cont9uity4 ,! uni=m blackness ( ! cr[ is an exception )9 a wid] uni=mity3 ! col\r ( animals is g5]ally v>iable4 ,h5ce we are n s mu* surpris$ at ! report$ appe>ance ( a grey cr[3 x is 9 accordance ) ! m g5]al law4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! uni=m position ( ! head relative to o!r p>ts ( ! body is a uni=mity z wide z ! animal k+dom3 x is a co9cid5ce repeat$ z (t5 z animals h be5 repeat$1 & m]ely on ! pr9ciple t uni=mities cont9ue1 x has an absolutely uncontradict$ s]ies 9 its fav\r4 ,b is ?is pr9ciple really all t we assume8 ,d we n also assume t beh9d ! obs]v$ fact uni=mity1 !re is a cause = x1 a cause t does n appe> on ! surface ( ! obs]vation1 b mu/ be s\ght outside ( its range8 ,& d n ! v>i\s degrees ( confid5ce ) :i* we expect a repetition ( ! co9cid5ce1 dep5d ^u ! ext5t ( our k ( ! produc+ causes & ! mode ( _! op]ation8 ,at bottom our belief 9 ! cont9uance ( ! obs]v$ uni=mities re/s on a belief 9 ! cont9uance ( ! produc+ causes1 & till we "k :at ^! are our belief has an inf]ior w>rant3 !re is less reason = our confid5ce4 ,to g back to ! illu/rations ) :i* we />t$4 ,if we h met a man e day = mon?s at a c]ta9 place at a c]ta9 h\r1 x is reasonable to expect to meet him !re to-morr[1 ev5 if our k does n g beyond ! obs]v$ facts ( repeat$ co9cid5ce4 ,b if we "k also :at br+s him !re1 & t ?is cause cont9ues1 we h a /rong] reason = our expectation4 ,& s ) ! case ( poles at regul> int]vals on a road4 ,if we "k :y !y are plac$ !re1 & ! range ( ! purpose1 we expect _! recurr5ce m confid5tly )9 ! limits ( t purpose4 ,?is fur!r k is a w>rant = /rong] confid5ce1 because if we "k ! produc+ causes1 we are 9 a bett] position = kn[+ :e!r any?+ is likely to defeat ! co9cid5ce4 ,a uni=mity is said to be expla9$ :5 its cause is kn[n1 & an inf]5ce f an expla9$ uni=mity is always m c]ta9 ?an an inf]5ce f a uni=mity t is m]ely empirical 9 ! s5se ( be+ simply obs]v$4 ,n[1 ! special "w ( ,sci5ce is to expla91 9 ! s5se ( discov]+ ! causes at "w b5ea? :at lies op5 to obs]vation4 ,9 s do+ x foll[s a c]ta9 me?od1 & obeys c]ta9 conditions ( satisfactory explanation4 ,its explanations are inf]5ces f facts1 inasmu* z x is con=mity ) obs]v$ facts1 ) outw>d signs ( und]ly+ causal nexus1 t is ! ju/ification ( !m4 ,b !y are n inf]5ces f facts 9 ! s5se above describ$ z empirical inf]5ce4 ,9 its explanations also ,sci5ce po/ulates a pr9ciple t may be call$ ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 ,b ?is pr9ciple is n m]ely t obs]v$ uni=mities cont9ue4 ,x may be express$ r z an assumption t ! und]ly+ causes are uni=m 9 _! op]ation1 t z !y h act$ b5ea? ! record$ exp]i5ces ( mank9d1 s !y h act$ be=e & w cont9ue to act4 ,! =ego+ consid]ations indicate a plan = a r\ghly sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ! me?ods ( ,induction4 ,see+ t all inf]5ce f ! data ( exp]i5ce presupposes causal connexion among ! data f :i* we inf]1 all ef=ts at e/abli%+ s\nd bases ( inf]5ce1 or rational gr\nd = expectation fall1 broadly speak+1 "u two heads3 7#a7 ,me?ods ( asc]ta9+ causal connexion among ph5om5a z a matt] ( fact1 t is1 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation2 & 7#b7 ,me?ods ( asc]ta9+ :at ! causal connexion is1 t is1 ,me?ods ( ,explanation4 ,^! con/itute ! body ( ,inductive ,logic4 ,b !re is a prelim9>y & a p5dant4 ,)\t rais+ ! "q ( causal connexion1 we are liable to c]ta9 errors 9 asc]ta9+ 9 :at sequ5ce & ) :at circum/ances ev5ts really occurr$4 ,^! t5d5cies to error des]ve to be po9t$ out by way ( w>n+1 & ?is ,i %all attempt 9 a sep>ate *apt] on obs]vation ( facts ( simple sequ5ce4 ,?is is prelim9>y to ! special me?ods ( obs]v+ causal sequ5ce4 ,!n1 by way ( p5dant1 ,i %all consid] two modes ( empirical inf]5ce f data 9 :i* ! causal connexion has n be5 asc]ta9$ or expla9$--,inf]5ce f approximate g5]alisations to p>ticul> cases1 & ,inf]5ce f ,analogy4 ,mo/ ( ^! me?ods 9 "o =m or ano!r 7 includ$ by ,mill 9 8 sy/em ( ,inductive ,logic1 & ! great m]it ( 8 "w 0 t he did include !m1 ?\gh at "s sacrifice ( consi/5cy ) 8 introductory !ory4 ,) reg>d to ! k9d ( empirical inf]5ce :i* t !ory1 foll[+ ! lead ( ,:ately1 took z ! type ( all inf]5ce1 ,logic has really little to say4 ,x 0 ?is probably t 0 9 ,mill's m9d :5 he said t !re is no ,logic ( ,obs]vation1 ignor+ ! fact t ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods are really me?ods ( obs]vation1 z well z ! ,me?ods ( ,elim9at+ ,*ance by calculation ( ,probability4 ,!re is no me?od ( obs]v+ uni=mities except simply obs]v+ !m4 ,nor inde$ is !re any me?od ( inf]r+ f !m3 we c only po9t out t 9 e p>ticul> inf]5ce f !m we assume or po/ulate _! cont9uance g5]ally4 ,z reg>ds _! obs]vation1 we may po9t out fur!r t a special fallacy is incid5t to x1 ! fallacy ( ignor+ exceptions4 ,if we are prepossess$ or prejudic$ 9 fav\r ( a uni=mity1 we are apt to obs]ve only ! fav\rable in/ances1 & to be bl9d to cases :]e ! suppos$ inv>iable co9cid5ce does n occur4 ,?us1 z ,bacon rem>k$ among 8 ,idola1 we are apt to rememb] :5 our dreams come true1 & to =get :5 !y d n4 ,suppose we take up ! notion t a new moon on a ,saturday is inv>iably foll[$ by tw5ty days ( unsettl$ wea!r1 "o or two or a few cases 9 :i* ?is notably holds good are apt to be borne 9 m9d1 :ile cases :]e ! wea!r is nei!r conspicu\sly good nor bad are apt to be ov]look$4 ,b :5 a w>n+ has be5 giv5 aga9/ ?is besett+ fallacy1 ,logic has no?+ fur!r to say ab\t empirical uni=mities1 except t we may inf] f !m ) "s degree ( reasonable probability1 & t if we want gr\nd = a m c]ta9 inf]5ce we %\ld try to expla9 !m4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,asc]ta9m5t ,,( ,,simple ,,facts ,,9 ,,_! ,,ord]4--,,p]sonal ,,obs]vation4 --,,he>say ,,evid5ce--,,me?od ,,( ,,te/+ ,,traditional ,,evid5ce4 ,all beliefs z to simple matt] ( fact mu/ re/ ultimately on obs]vation4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 we believe _m ?+s to h happ5$ t we h nev] se54 ,z ,*auc] says3-- ,b ,god =b$e b m5 %\lde 'lieve ,wel m ?+ ?an m5 han se5 ) eye4 ,man %all n we55 ev]y?+ a lie ,b if himself x see? or else do?4 ,= ! great bulk ( matt]s ( fact t we believe we are necess>ily dep5d5t on ! obs]vations ( o!rs4 ,& if we are to apply sci5tific me?od to ! asc]ta9m5t ( ?is1 we mu/ "k :at errors we are liable to 9 our recollections ( :at we h ourselves witness$1 & :at errors are apt to arise 9 ! tradition ( :at purports to be ! evid5ce ( eye-witnesses4 ,i4--,,p]sonal ,,obs]vation4 ,x is h>d to conv9ce anybody t he _c tru/ implicitly to 8 memory ( :at he has himself se54 ,we are ready en\gh to believe t o!rs may be deceiv$3 b n our own s5ses4 ,see+ is believ+4 ,x is well1 h[ev]1 t we %\ld realise t all obs]vation is fallible1 ev5 our own4 ,?ree great besett+ fallacies or t5d5cies to error may be specifi$3-- #a4 ,liability to h ! att5tion fa/5$ on special incid5ts1 & s div]t$ f o!r p>ts ( ! occurr5ce4 #b4 ,liability to confuse & transpose ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 #c4 ,liability to sub/itute inf]5ce = fact4 ,x is ^u ! fir/ ( ^! weaknesses 9 man z an obs]v+ ma*9e t juggl]s *iefly dep5d on work+ _! m>vels4 ,sleight ( h& c\nts = mu*1 b div]t+ ! spectator's eyes = a good deal m4 ,t is :y !y h music play$ & patt] incessantly z !y op]ate4 ,_! patt] is n purposeless3 x is calculat$ to turn our eyes away f ! movem5ts ( _! nimble h&s4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t 9 any field ( vision !re are _m objects1 & t 9 any rapid succession ( incid5ts mu* m passes be=e ! eyes ?an ! memory c reta9 9 its exact ord]4 ,x is ( c\rse 9 mom5ts ( excitem5t & hurry1 :5 our obs]vation is di/ract$1 t we are mo/ subject to fallaci\s illusions ( memory4 ,unconsci\sly we make a coh]5t picture ( :at we h se51 & v (t5 x happ5s t ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts is n :at actually pass$1 b :at we 7 prejudic$ 9 fav\r ( see+4 ,h5ce ! unlikelihood ( f9d+ exact agreem5t among ! witnesses ( any excit+ occurr5ce1 a qu>rel1 a railway accid5t1 a collision at sea1 ! incid5ts ( a battle4 ,x commonly happ5s1 says ,mr4 ,k+lake1#a t incid5ts occurr+ 9 a battle are told by ! mo/ tru?ful by/&]s ) diff]5ces m or less wide4 ,9 ! attack on ! ,great ,r$\bt 9 ! ,battle ( ! ,alma1 a "y (fic]1 ,an/ru!r1 ru%$ =w>d & plant$ ! col\rs ( ! ,royal ,wel%--b :]e8 ,"s di/9ctly rememb]$ see+ him dig ! butt-end ( ! flag/aff into ! p>apet3 o!rs z di/9ctly rememb]$ see+ him fall sev]al paces be=e he rea*$ x4 ,simil>ly ) ! incid5ts ( ! dea? ( ! ,pr9ce ,imp]ial ne> ! ,italezi ,hills 9 ! ,zulu ,w>4 ,he 0 out z a volunte] ) a reconnoitr+ p>ty4 ,!y _h (f-saddl$ at a kraal & 7 re/+1 :5 a b& ( ,zulus crept up ?r\gh ! long grass1 & sudd5ly op5$ fire & made a ru% =w>d4 ,our sc\ts at once took horse1 z a reconnoitr+ p>ty 0 b\nd to d1 & scamp]$ (f1 b ! ,pr9ce 0 ov]tak5 & kill$4 ,at ! ,c\rt-,m>tial :i* ensu$1 ! five troop]s gave ! mo/ conflict+ acc\nts ( p>ticul>s :i* an unskill$ inve/igator w\ld ?9k c\ld n possibly h be5 mi/ak5 by eye-witnesses ( ! same ev5t4 ,"o said t ! ,pr9ce _h giv5 ! ord] to m\nt be=e ! ,zulus fir$3 ano!r t he gave ! ord] directly aft]3 a ?ird 0 positive t he nev] gave ! ord] at all1 b t x 0 giv5 aft] ! surprise by ! (fic] 9 comm&4 ,"o said t he saw ! ,pr9ce vault into ! saddle z he gave ! ord]3 ano!r t 8 horse bolt$ z he laid hold ( ! saddle1 & t he ran alongside try+ to get up4 ,! evid5ce be=e any ,c\rt ( ,inquiry into an excit+ occurr5ce is almo/ c]ta9 to reveal simil> discrepancies4 ,b :at we f9d x h>d to realise is t we ourselves c possibly be mi/ak5 9 :at we h a di/9ct & positive recollection ( hav+ se54 ,x once happ5$ to myself 9 a ,london /reet to see a drunk5 woman ?r[n "u a cab by h] husb&4 ,two cabs 7 runn+ along1 a f\r-:eel] & a hansom3 ! woman /agg]$ almo/ "u ! fir/1 & 0 ?r[n "u ! second4 ,z x happ5$ ! case nev] got beyond ! police /ation to :i* ! p>ties 7 convey$ aft] fi]ce opposition f "s neighb\rs1 :o sympa?is$ entirely ) ! man4 ,! woman h]self1 :5 h] w\nds 7 dress$1 ackn[l$g$ ! ju/ice ( h] puni%m5t1 & refus$ to *>ge h] husb&4 ,i 0 all ! m will+ to acquiesce 9 ?is because ,i f\nd t :ile ,i _h ! mo/ di/9ct impression ( hav+ se5 ! f\r-:eel] run ov] ! woman's body1 & %\ld h be5 oblig$ to swe> accord+ly1 !re c\ld be no d\bt t x 0 really ! hansom t _h done s4 ,?is 0 n only ! evid5ce ( ! neighb\rs1 :i* ,i suspect$ at ! "t ( be+ a trick1 b ( ! cabdriv]1 :o _h /opp$ at ! mom5t to abide ! results ( ! accid5t4 ,i aft]w>ds _h ! curiosity to ask an em95t police magi/rate1 ,sir ,john ,bridge1 :e!r ?is illusion ( memory on my "p--:i* ,i c only acc\nt = by suppos+ t my eyes _h be5 fix$ on ! suff]] & t ,i _h unconsci\sly ref]r$ h] injuries to ! heavi] vehicle--w\ld h entirely discr$it$ my te/imony 9 8 ,c\rt4 ,8 answ] 0 t x w\ld n2 t he 0 con/antly meet+ ) su* errors1 & t if he f\nd a numb] ( witnesses ( ! same occurr5ce exactly agre$ 9 e p>ticul>1 he w\ld suspect t !y _h talk$ ! matt] ov] & agre$ ^u :at !y 7 to say4 ,?is 0 ! op9ion ( an exp]i5c$ judge1 a skill$ critic ( ! defects ( p]sonal obs]vation4 ,an ,old ,bailey c\nsel = ! def5ce1 :o is equally acqua9t$ ) ! weakness ( human memory1 takes advantage ( ! fact t x is n g5]ally und]/ood by a ,jury1 & makes ! fallaci\s assumption t gl>+ discrepancies are irreconcilable ) ! good fai? ( ! witnesses :o diff]4#b ,,ii4--,,tradition4--,,he>say ,,evid5ce4 ,next 9 value to p]sonal obs]vation1 we mu/ place ! report1 oral or writt51 ( an eye-witness4 ,?is is ! be/ evid5ce we c get if we h n witness$ an occurr5ce ourselves4 ,yet ,c\rts ( ,law1 :i* 9 consid]ation ( ! defects ( p]sonal obs]vation require m ?an "o witness to e/abli% ! tru?1 exclude he>say evid5ce altoge!r 9 c]ta9 cases1 & n )\t reason4 ,9 he>+ a report we are 9 ! position ( obs]v]s ( a s]ies ( significant s\nds1 & we are subject to all ! fallacies ( obs]vation already m5tion$4 ,9 an aggravat$ degree1 = words are h>d] to obs]ve ?an visible ?+s4 ,our att5tion is apt to be m li/less ?an 9 pres5ce ( ! actual ev5ts4 ,our m9ds dwell ^u p>ts ( ! n>rative to ! neglect ( o!r p>ts1 & 9 ! coh]5t /ory or description t we reta9 9 our memories1 sequ5ces are apt to be alt]$ & miss+ l9ks suppli$ 9 accordance ) :at we 7 pr$ispos$ to he>4 ,?us he>say evid5ce is subject to all ! imp]fections ( ! orig9al obs]v]1 9 addition to ! /ill m insidi\s imp]fections ( ! second obs]v]4 ,h[ quickly 9 ! c\rse ( a few su* transmissions he>say loses all evid5ti>y value is simply illu/rat$ by ! game kn[n z ,russian ,sc&al4 ,"o ( a company1 ,a1 writes d[n a %ort tale or sket*1 & reads x to ,b4 ,b repeats x to ,c1 ,c to ,d1 & s on4 ,:5 x has ?us gone ! r\nd ( ! company1 ! la/ he>] writes d[n 8 v]sion1 & x is comp>$ ) ! orig9al4 ,) e will+ness to play fair1 ! *anges are g5]ally consid]able & significant4 ,sometimes x is possible to comp>e an oral tradition ) a contempor>y writt5 record4 ,9 "o ( ,mr4 ,hayw>d's ,essays--,! ,pe>ls & ,mock ,pe>ls ( ,hi/ory--!re are "s examples ( ?is dis5*ant+ process4 ,!re is1 = in/ance1 a pretty /ory ( an ex*ange ( c\rtesies betwe5 ! lead]s ( ! ,fr5* & ,engli% ,gu>ds at ! battle ( ,font5oy4 ,! tradition runs t ,"l ,*>les ,hay /epp$ 9 front ( 8 m5 & invit$ ! ,fr5* ,gu>ds to fire1 to :i* ,m4 d',aut]o*e ) no less *ivalry respond$3 ,monsieur1 we nev] fire fir/2 y fire4 ,:at really pass$ we le>n f a lett] f ,"l ,*>les ,hay to 8 "m1 :i* happ5s to h be5 pres]v$4 ,i advanc$ be=e our regim5t1 & drank to ! ,fr5*m51 & told !m we 7 ! ,engli% ,gu>ds1 & hop$ !y w\ld /& till we came1 & n swim ! ,s*eldt z !y did ! ,ma9e at ,dett+54 ,tradition has *ang$ ?is lively piece ( buffoon]y into an act ( /ately & romantic c\rtesy4 ,! *ange 0 probably made q unconsci\sly by "s t5? or hundr$? transmitt]1 :o rememb]$ only "p ( ! /ory1 & dress$ ! rema9d] to suit 8 own fancy4 ,! "q has be5 rais$1 ,= h[ long c oral tradition be tru/$8 ,newton 0 ( op9ion t x might be tru/$ = eighty ye>s aft] ! ev5t4 ,o!rs h nam$ =ty ye>s4 ,b if ?is means t we may believe a /ory t we f9d 9 circulation =ty ye>s aft] ! alleg$ ev5ts1 x is wildly extravagant4 ,x does inju/ice to ! ,my?opoeic ,faculty ( man4 ,! p]iod ( "t t suffices = ! creation ( a full-bl[n my?1 mu/ be measur$ by h\rs r ?an by ye>s4 ,i w give an in/ance f my own obs]vation1 if t has n be5 entirely discr$it$ by my previ\s confessions4 ,! baza>s ( ! ,ea/ are g5]ally suppos$ to be ! peculi> home ( my?1 hotb$s 9 :i* my?s gr[ ) ! mo/ amaz+ spe$1 b ! locality ( my my? is ,ab]de54 ,9 ! summ] ( #ahhg our t[n set up 9 "o ( its /eeples a v f9e c>illon ( ,belgian bells4 ,!re 0 mu* public excitem5t ov] ! ev5t3 ! descriptions ( en?usia/ic promot]s _h prep>$ u to he> silv]y music float+ all ov] ! t[n & fill+ ! :ole air4 ,on ! day fix$ = ! inauguration1 f\r h\rs aft] ! "t ann\nc$ = ! fir/ c]emonial peal1 n hav+ he>d ! bells1 ,i 0 9 a %op & ask$ if any?+ _h happ5$ to put (f ! c]emony4 ,yes1 ,i 0 told2 !re _h be5 an accid5t2 !y _h n be5 prop]ly hung1 & :5 ! wife ( ! ,"l ,provo/ _h tak5 hold ( a /r+ to give ! fir/ pull1 ! :ole ma*9]y _h come d[n4 ,z a matt] ( fact all t _h happ5$ 0 t ! s\nd ( ! bells 0 fa9t1 b>ely audible a hundr$ y>ds f ! belfry1 & n at all l :at _h be5 expect$4 ,!re 7 hundr$s ( p 9 ! /reets1 & ! my? _h orig9at$ someh[ among ^? :o _h n he>d :at !y w5t out to he>4 ,! %op :]e x 0 repeat$ circum/antially to me 0 9 ! ma9 /reet1 n m ?an a qu>t] ( a mile f :]e ! c>illon _h be5 play$ 9 ! he>+ ( a l>ge b disappo9t$ cr[d4 ,i c\ld n help reflect+ t if ,i _h be5 a m$iaeval *ronicl]1 ,i %\ld h gone home & record$ ! /ory1 :i* cont9u$ to circulate = "s days 9 spite ( ! newspap]s3 & two hundr$ ye>s h5ce no hi/orian w\ld h v5tur$ to *all5ge ! tru? ( ! contempor>y evid5ce4 ,,iii4--,,me?od ,,( ,,te/+ ,,traditional ,,evid5ce4 ,x is obvi\s t ! te/s appli$ to descriptive te/imony 9 ,c\rts ( ,law _c be appli$ to ! ass]tions ( ,hi/ory4 ,x is a supreme canon ( hi/orical evid5ce t only ! /atem5ts ( contempor>ies c be admitt$3 b mo/ ev5 ( _! /atem5ts mu/ re/ on he>say1 & ev5 :5 ! hi/orian pr(esses to h be5 an eye-witness1 ! range ( 8 obs]vation is necess>ily limit$1 & he _c be put into ! witness-box & cross-exam9$4 ,is !re !n no way ( asc]ta9+ hi/orical fact8 ,mu/ we reject hi/ory z altoge!r unwor?y ( cr$it8 ,! rational conclusion only is t v few facts c be e/abli%$ by descriptive te/imony su* z w\ld satisfy a ,c\rt ( ,law4 ,^? :o look = su* asc]ta9m5t are on a wrong track1 & are doom$ to disappo9tm5t4 ,x is told ( ,sir ,walt] ,raleigh t :5 he 0 writ+ 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,_w1 he he>d f 8 prison 9 ! ,t[] a qu>rel outside1 tri$ to f9d out ! rights & ! wrongs & ! c\rse ( x1 & fail+ to satisfy himself aft] c>eful inquiry1 ask$ 9 despair h[ he c\ld pret5d to write ! hi/ory ( ! _w :5 he c\ld n f9d out ! tru? ab\t :at occurr$ "u 8 own w9d[s4 ,b ?is 0 really to set up an impossible /&>d ( hi/orical evid5ce4 ,! me?od ( te/+ hi/orical evid5ce foll[s r ! l9es ( ! ,newtonian me?od ( ,explanation1 :i* we %all aft]w>ds describe4 ,we mu/ treat any hi/orical record z be+ itself 9 ! fir/ place a fact to be expla9$4 ,! /atem5t at lea/ is extant3 our fir/ "q is1 ,:at is ! mo/ rational way ( acc\nt+ = x8 ,c x be acc\nt$ = mo/ probably by suppos+ ! ev5t /at$ to h really occurr$ ) all ! circum/ances alleg$8 ,or is x a m probable hypo!sis t x 0 ! result ( an illusion ( memory on ! "p ( ! orig9al obs]v]1 if x pr(esses to be ! record ( an eye-witness1 or on ! "p ( "s int]m$iate transmitt]1 if x is ! record ( a tradition8 ,to qualify ourselves to answ] ! latt] k9d ( "q ) reasonable probability we mu/ acqua9t ourselves ) ! v>i\s t5d5cies to error 9 p]sonal obs]vation & 9 tradition1 & exam9e h[ f> any ( !m are likely to h op]at$ 9 ! giv5 case4 ,we mu/ /udy ! op]ation ( ^! t5d5cies )9 our exp]i5ce1 & apply ! k ?us ga9$4 ,we mu/ le>n f actual obs]vation ( facts :at ! ,my?opoeic ,faculty is capable ( 9 ! way ( creation & transmutation1 & :at feats are beyond its p[]s1 & !n det]m9e ) z ne> a probability z we c h[ f> x has be5 active 9 ! p>ticul> case be=e u4 ,footnote #a3 ,! ,invasion ( ! ,crimea1 iii4 #abd ,footnote #b3 ,! tru? is1 t we see mu* less ?an is commonly suppos$4 ,n e impression is att5d$ to t is made on ! ret9a1 & unless we d att5d we _c1 prop]ly speak+1 be said to see4 ,walk+ across to college "o day1 ,i 0 />tl$ by see+ on ! face ( a clock 9 my way t x 0 t5 m9utes to twelve1 :]eas ,i g5]ally pass$ t spot ab\t tw5ty m9utes to twelve4 ,i hurri$ on1 fe>+ to be late1 & on my arrival f\nd myself 9 v good "t4 ,on my way back1 pass+ ! clock aga91 ,i look$ up to see h[ mu* x 0 fa/4 ,x m>k$ t5 m9utes to eight4 ,x _h /opp$ at t "t4 ,:5 ,i pass$ be=e ,i _h really se5 only ! m9ute h&4 ,! :ole dial mu/ h be5 on my ret9a1 b ,i _h look$ at or att5d$ to only :at ,i 0 9 d\bt ab\t1 tak+ ! h\r = grant$4 ,i am b\nd to add t my bus9ess fri5ds h9t t x is only absorb$ /ud5ts t are capable ( su* mi/akes1 & t al]t m5 ( bus9ess are m circumspect4 ,t c only be because !y are m alive to ! dang] ( error4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,asc]ta9m5t ,,( ,,facts ,,( ,,causation4 ,i4--,,po/ ,,hoc ,,ergo ,,propt] ,,hoc4 ,"o ( ! *ief contributions ( ! ,old ,logic to ,inductive ,me?od 0 a "n = a :ole important class ( misobs]vations4 ,! fallacy entitl$ ,po/ ,hoc ergo ,propt] ,hoc--,aft]1 !re=e1 ,because (--consi/$ 9 alleg+ m]e sequ5ce z a pro( ( consequ5ce or causal sequ5ce4 ,! sophi/ appeals to exp]i5ce1 to obs]v$ facts3 ! sequ5ce :i* he alleges has be5 obs]v$4 ,b ! appeal is fallaci\s3 ! obs]vation on :i* he relies am\nts only to ?is1 t ! "o ev5t has foll[$ ^u ! o!r4 ,?is mu* mu/ be obs]vable 9 all cases ( causal sequ5ce1 b x is n en\gh = pro(4 ,po/ hoc ergo propt] hoc may be tak5 z a g5]ic "n = imp]fect pro( ( causation f obs]v$ facts ( succession4 ,! /&>d example ( ! fallacy is ! old ,k5ti% peasant's argum5t t ,t5t]d5 ,/eeple 0 ! cause ( ,goodw9 ,s&s4 ,sir ,?omas ,m 7z ,latim] tells ! /ory 9 "o ( 8 ,s]mons to ridicule incauti\s inf]5ce7 _h be5 s5t d[n into ,k5t z a commission] to inquire into ! cause ( ! silt+ up ( ,s&wi* ,hav54 ,among ^? :o came to 8 c\rt 0 ! olde/ inhabitant1 & ?9k+ t he f 8 great age mu/ at lea/ h se5 m ?an anybody else1 ,m ask$ him :at he _h to say z to ! cause ( ! s&s4 ,=soo?1 sir1 0 ! greybe>d's answ]1 ,i am an old man3 ,i ?9k t ,t5t]d5 ,/eeple is ! cause ( ,goodw9 ,s&s4 ,= ,i am an old man1 & ,i may rememb] ! build+ ( ,t5t]d5 ,/eeple1 & ,i may rememb] :5 !re 0 no /eeple at all !re4 ,& be=e t ,t5t]d5 ,/eeple 0 9 build+1 !re 0 no mann] ( speak+ ( any flats or s&s t /opp$ ! hav52 &1 !re=e1 ,i ?9k t ,t5t]d5 ,/eeple is ! cause ( ! de/roy+ & decay+ ( ,s&wi* ,hav54 ,?is mu/ be tak5 z ,latim] meant x to be1 z a ridicul\s example ( a purely imbecile argum5t f obs]vation1 b ! appeal to exp]i5ce may h m %[ ( reason & yet be equally fallaci\s4 ,! believ]s 9 ,k5elm ,digby's ,o9tm5t ( ,hon\r appeal$ to exp]i5ce 9 support ( its efficacy4 ,! treatm5t 0 to apply ! o9tm5t1 n to ! w\nd1 b to ! sword t _h inflict$ x1 to dress ?is c>efully at regul> int]vals1 &1 meantime1 hav+ b\nd up ! w\nd1 to leave x alone = sev5 days4 ,x 0 obs]v$ t _m cures foll[$ ^u ?is treatm5t4 ,b ^? :o inf]r$ t ! cure 0 due to ! b&ag+ ( ! sword1 fail$ to obs]ve t !re 0 ano!r circum/ance t might h be5 in/rum5tal1 namely1 ! exclusion ( ! air & ! leav+ ( ! w\nd undi/urb$ :ile ! natural heal+ processes w5t on4 ,& x 0 f\nd ^u fur!r obs]vation t b9d+ up ! w\nd alone answ]$ ! purpose equally well :e!r ! sword 0 dress$ or n4 ,9 cases :]e po/ hoc is mi/ak5 = propt] hoc1 simple sequ5ce = causal sequ5ce1 !re is commonly "s bias ( prejudice or cu/om :i* fixes obs]vation on "s "o antec$5t & div]ts att5tion f o!r circum/ances & f :at may be obs]v$ to foll[ 9 o!r cases4 ,9 ! m9ds ( ,digby & 8 foll[]s !re 0 probably a v5]ation = ! sword z ! weapon ( hon\r1 & a sup]/iti\s belief 9 "s secret sympa?y betwe5 ! sword & its own]4 ,s :5 ! practice ( poison+ 0 common1 & suspicion 0 flurri$ by panic fe>1 obs]vation 0 (t5 at fault4 ,pope ,clem5t ,,viii4 0 said to h be5 kill$ by ! fumes ( a poison$ c&le :i* 0 plac$ 9 8 b$room4 ,und\bt$ly c&les 7 !re1 b ^? :o attribut$ ! ,pope's dea? to !m took no notice ( ! fact t a brazi] ( burn+ *>coal 0 at ! same "t 9 ! ap>tm5t ) no suffici5t outlet = its fumes4 ,pr9ce ,eug5e is said to h receiv$ a poison$ lett]1 :i* he suspect$ & imm$iately ?rew f him4 ,to asc]ta9 :e!r 8 suspicions 7 well f\nd$ ! lett] 0 adm9i/]$ to a dog1 :i*1 to make assurance d\bly sure1 0 =tifi$ by an antidote4 ,! dog di$1 b no inquiry seems to h be5 made into ! "* ( ! antidote4 ,hotspur's retort to ,gl5d[] %[$ a s\nd s5se ( ! true value to be atta*$ to m]e priority4 ,gl5d[]4 ,at my nativity ,! front ( heav5 0 full ( fi]y %apes1 ,( burn+ cressets3 & at my bir? ,! frame & huge f\ndation ( ! e>? ,%ak$ l a c[>d4 ,hotspur4 ,:y s x w\ld h done at ! same season1 if y\r "m's cat _h b kitt5$1 ?\gh y\rself _h nev] be5 born4 #a ,h54 ,,iv41 #c1 #a1 #ac4 ,we all admit at once t ! retort 0 j4 ,:at pr9ciple ( s\nd conclusion 0 involv$ 9 x8 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ,inductive ,logic to make su* pr9ciples explicit4 ,tak+ ,po/ ,hoc ergo ,propt] ,hoc z a g5]ic "n = fallaci\s argum5ts ( causation bas$ on obs]v$ facts1 = ! fallaci\s pro( ( causation f exp]i5ce1 ! "q = ,logic is1 ,:at m ?an m]e sequ5ce is requir$ to prove consequ5ce8 ,:5 d obs]vations ( ,po/ ,hoc w>rant ! conclusion ,propt] ,hoc8 ,,ii4--,,mean+ ,,( ,,cause4--,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation--,,mill',s ,,exp]im5tal ,,me?ods4 ,! me?ods =mulat$ by ,mill "u ! "n ( ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods are me?ods actually practis$ by m5 ( sci5ce ) satisfactory results1 & are p]fectly s\nd 9 pr9ciple4 ,!y 71 inde$1 9 sub/ance1 tak5 by him f ! practice ( ! sci5tific laboratory & /udy z g5]alis$ by ,h]s*el4 ,9 effect :at ,mill did 0 to re/ate !m & fit !m into a sy/em4 ,b ! controv]sies into :i* he 0 tempt$ 9 s do+ h some:at obscur$ _! exact function 9 sci5tific inquiry4 ,ho/ile critics1 f9d+ t !y did n s]ve ! ends t he seem$ to claim = !m1 h jump$ to ! conclusion t !y are altoge!r illusory & s]ve no purpose at all4 ,fir/1 we mu/ dismiss ! notion1 enc\rag$ by ,mill's g5]al !ory ( ,inf]5ce1 t ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods h any?+ special to d ) ! obs]vation & inf]5tial ext5sion ( uni=mities su* z t dea? is common to all organis$ be+s4 ,"o ( ! ,me?ods1 z we %all see1 t nam$ by ,mill ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 does incid5tally & collat]ally e/abli% empirical laws 9 ! c\rse ( its obs]vations1 & ?is probably acc\nts = ! prom95ce giv5 to x 9 ,mill's sy/em4 ,b ?is is n its end & aim1 & ! lead+ ,me?od1 t nam$ by him ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 e/abli%es z fact only a p>ticul> case ( causal co9cid5ce4 ,x is ) ! pro( ( !ories ( causation t ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods are conc]n$3 !y are me?ods ( obs]v+ ) a view to su* pro(4#a ,! next po9t to be made cle> is t ! facts ( causation ) :i* ! ,me?ods are conc]n$ are obs]vable facts1 relations among ph5om5a1 b t ! causal relations or conditions ( :i* !y are ! pro( are n ph5om5a1 9 ! mean+ ( be+ manife/ to ! s5ses1 b r n\m5a1 inasmu* z !y are rea*$ by reason+ f :at is manife/4 ,take1 = example1 :at is kn[n z ! quaquav]sus pr9ciple 9 ,hydro/atics1 t pressure ^u a liquid is propagat$ equally 9 all directions4 ,we _c obs]ve ?is ext5sion ( pressure among ! liquid p>ticles directly4 ,x _c be trac$ among ! p>ticles by any ( our s5ses4 ,b we c assume t x is s1 consid] :at ought to be visible if x is s1 & !n obs]ve :e!r ! visible facts are 9 accordance ) ! hypo!sis4 ,a box c be made1 fill$ ) wat]1 & s fitt$ ) pi/ons on top & bottom & on ea* ( its f\r sides t !y w indicate ! am\nt ( pressure on !m f )94 ,let pressure !n be appli$ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! top1 & ! pi/ons %[ t x has be5 communicat$ to !m equally4 ,! application ( ! pressure & ! yield+ ( ! pi/ons are obs]vable facts1 facts 9 causal sequ5ce3 :at happ5s among ! p>ticles ( ! liquid is n obs]v$ b reasonably conjectur$1 is n ph5om5al b n\m5al4 ,?is di/9ction1 necess>y to an und]/&+ ( ! scope ( ! ,me?ods1 0 some:at obscur$ by ,mill 9 8 prelim9>y discussion ( ! mean+ ( cause4 ,v rightly1 ?\gh some:at inconsi/5tly ) 8 fir/ !ory ( ,induction1 he insi/s t ! notion ( ,cause be+ ! root ( ! :ole !ory ( ,induction1 x is indisp5sable t ?is idea %\ld at ! v outset ( our inquiry be1 ) ! utmo/ practicable degree ( precision1 fix$ & det]m9$4 ,b 9 ?is det]m9ation1 n cont5t ) simply recognis+ t x is ) ph5om5a t ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods prim>ily deal1 x be+ inde$ only ph5om5a t c be ! subjects ( exp]im5tal managem5t & obs]vation1 he />ts by decl>+ t sci5ce has n to d ) any causes except su* z are ph5om5al--:5 ,i speak ( ! cause ( any ph5om5on1 ,i d n mean a cause :i* is n itself a ph5om5on--& goes on to def9e z ! only correct mean+ ( cause ! sum total ( conditions1 includ+ among !m conditions :i* are n ph5om5al1 9 ! s5se ( be+ directly op5 to obs]vation4 ,:5 ,mill prote/$ t he _h reg>d only to ph5om5al causes1 he spoke z ! p>tisan ( a philosophical tradition4 ,x w\ld h be5 well if he _h act$ ^u 8 own rem>k t ! prop] und]/&+ ( ! sci5tific me?od ( inve/igat+ cause is indep5d5t ( metaphysical analysis ( :at cause means4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ?is rem>k is ! preface to an analysis ( cause :i* has b slight relevance to sci5ce1 & is really ! cont9uation ( a dispute begun by ,hume4 ,?is is ! key to 8 use ( ! ^w ph5om5on3 x mu/ be int]pret$ ) ref]5ce to ?is3 :5 he spoke ( causes z ph5om5al1 he oppos$ ! ^w to occult 9 "s suppos$ metaphysical s5se4#b ,& ?is irrelevant discussion1 into ! vortex ( :i* he all[$ himself to be c>ri$1 obscur$ ! fact1 else:]e fully recognis$ by ,mill himself1 t sci5ce does attempt to get beyond ph5om5a at ultimate laws :i* are n !mselves ph5om5a ?\gh !y b9d ph5om5a toge!r4 ,! colligation ( ! facts1 to use ,:ewell's phrase1 is n a ph5om5on1 b a n\m5on4 ,! tru? is t a v simple analysis ( cause is suffici5t = ! purposes ( sci5tific inquiry4 ,x is en\gh to make sure t causal sequ5ce or consequ5ce %all n be conf\nd$ ) simple sequ5ce4 ,causal sequ5ce is simple sequ5ce & some?+ m1 t some?+ m be+ express$ by call+ x causal4 ,:at we call a cause is n m]ely antec$5t or prior 9 "t to :at we call its effect3 x is s relat$ to ! effect t if x or an equival5t ev5t _h n happ5$ ! effect w\ld n h happ5$4 ,any?+ 9 ! abs5ce ( :i* a ph5om5on w\ld n h come to pass z x did come to pass is a cause 9 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,we may describe x z an indisp5sable antec$5t1 ) ?is res]vation 7:i* w be m fully und]/ood aft]w>ds71 t if we speak ( a g5]al effect1 su* z dea?1 ! antec$5ts mu/ be tak5 ) correspond+ g5]ality4 ,x is mislead+ to sugge/1 z ,mill does1 by def9+ cause z ! sum total ( conditions--a def9ition giv5 to back up 8 conception ( cause z ph5om5al--t sci5ce uses ! ^w cause 9 a diff]5t mean+ f t ( ord9>y spee*4 ,x is q true t ! cause1 philosophically speak+1 is ! sum total ( ! conditions1 positive & negative1 tak5 toge!r3 ! :ole ( ! cont+5cies ( e description1 :i* be+ realis$1 ! consequ5t inv>iably foll[s4 ,b ?is does n imply any discrepancy betwe5 ! sci5tific or philosophical mean+ & ! ord9>y mean+4 ,x is only ano!r way ( say+ t ! bus9ess ( sci5ce or philosophy is to furni% a complete explanation ( an ev5t1 an acc\nt ( all its indisp5sable antec$5ts4 ,! pla9 man w\ld n refuse ! "n ( cause to any?+ t sci5ce or philosophy c\ld prove to be an indisp5sable antec$5t1 b 8 int]e/ 9 explanation is m limit$4 ,x is conf9$ to :at he wants to "k = ! purpose he has 9 h&4 ,nor c\ld ! man ( sci5ce consi/5tly refuse ! "n ( cause to :at ! pla9 man applies x to1 if x really 0 some?+ 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! ev5t took place4 ,only 8 int]e/ 9 explanation is diff]5t4 ,! indisp5sable antec$5ts t he wants to "k may n be ! same4 ,sci5ce or philosophy applies itself to ! satisfaction ( a wid] curiosity3 x wants to "k all ! causes1 ! :ole :y1 ! sum total ( conditions4 ,to t end ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce int]e/ !mselves 9 v>i\s species ( conditions4 ,b all und]/& ! ^w cause 9 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,we mu/ n conclude f accid5tal diff]5ces 9 explanation or /atem5t ( cause1 dep5d5t on ! purpose 9 view1 t ! ^w ,cause is us$ 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,9 answ]+ a "q z to ! cause ( any?+1 we limit ourselves to :at we suppose our int]rogator to be ignorant ( & desir\s ( kn[+4 ,if ask$ :y ! bells are r++1 we m5tion a royal m>riage1 or a victory1 or a *ur* meet+1 or a factory d9n] h\r1 or :atev] ! occasion may be4 ,we d n consid] x necess>y to m5tion t ! bells are /ruck by a clapp]4 ,our he>] und]/&s ?is )\t our m5tion+ x4 ,nor d we consid] x necess>y to m5tion ! ac\/ic condition1 t ! vibration ( ! bells is communicat$ to our e>s ?r\gh ! air1 or ! physiological condition1 t ! vibrations 9 ! drums ( our e>s are convey$ by a c]ta9 me*anism ( bone & tissue to ! n]ves4 ,our he>] may n c>e to "k ?is1 ?\gh q prep>$ to admit t ^! conditions are indisp5sable antec$5ts4 ,simil>ly1 a physiograph]1 9 /at+ ! cause ( ! p]iodical inundation ( ! ,nile1 w\ld consid] x en\gh to m5tion ! melt+ ( sn[ on ! m\nta9s 9 ! int]ior ( ,africa1 )\t say+ any?+ ( su* conditions z ! laws ( gravity or ! laws ( liquefaction by heat1 ?\gh he kn[s t ^! conditions are also indisp5sable4 ,dea? is expla9$ by ! doctor :5 ref]r$ to a gun%ot w\nd1 or a poison1 or a virul5t disease4 ,! ,pa?ologi/ may inquire fur!r1 & ! ,moral ,philosoph] fur!r /ill4 ,b all inquiries into indisp5sable conditions are inquiries into cause4 ,& all alike h to be on _! gu>d aga9/ mi/ak+ simple sequ5ce = consequ5ce4 ,to speak ( ! sum total ( conditions1 z ! ,cause 9 a di/9ctively sci5tific s5se1 is mislead+ 9 ano!r direction4 ,x r enc\rages ! idea t sci5ce inve/igates conditions 9 ! lump1 m]ely obs]v+ ! visible relations betwe5 sets ( antec$5ts & _! consequ5ts4 ,n[ ?is is ! v ?+ t sci5ce mu/ avoid 9 ord] to make progress4 ,x analyses ! antec$5t situation1 tries to sep>ate ! v>i\s coeffici5ts1 & f9ds out :at !y are capable ( s+ly4 ,x mu/ recognise t "s ( ! antec$5ts ( :i* x is 9 se>* are n op5 to obs]vation4 ,x is ^!1 inde$1 = ! mo/ "p t con/itute ! special subject-matt] ( ! sci5ces 9 ,mol> z well z 9 ,molecul> ,physics4 ,= practical e-day purposes1 x is *iefly ! visible succession ( ph5om5a t conc]ns u1 & we are int]e/$ 9 ! lat5t conditions only 9 z f> z !y provide saf] gr\nd = inf]5ce reg>d+ su* visible succession4 ,b to rea* ! lat5t conditions is ! ma9 "w ( sci5ce4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only ?r\gh obs]vation ( :at is op5 to ! s5ses t sci5ce c rea* ! und]ly+ conditions1 &1 !re=e1 to und]/& its me?ods we mu/ consid] g5]ally :at is op5 to obs]vation 9 causal succession4 ,:at c be obs]v$ :5 ph5om5a foll[ "o ano!r z cause & effect1 t is1 :5 ! "o happ5s 9 consequ5ce ( ! happ5+ ( ! o!r8 ,9 ,hume's !ory1 :i* ,mill =mally adopt$ ) a modification1#c !re is no?+ obs]vable b ! con/ancy or inv>iability ( ! connexion4 ,:5 we say t ,fire burns1 !re is no?+ to be obs]v$ except t a c]ta9 s5sation inv>iably foll[s ^u close proximity to fire4 ,b ?is holds good only if our obs]vation is arbitr>ily limit$ to ! facts en\nc$ 9 ! expression4 ,if ?is !ory 7 s\nd1 sci5ce w\ld be conf9$ to ! obs]vation ( empirical laws4 ,b t !re is some?+ wrong ) x becomes app>5t :5 we reflect t x has be5 asc]ta9$ beyond d\bt t 9 _m obs]v$ *anges1 & presumably 9 all1 !re is a transf]5ce ( en]gy f "o =m to ano!r4 ,! p>alogism really lies 9 ! assumption f :i* ,hume d$uc$ 8 !ory1 namely1 t e idea is a copy ( "s impression4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 we h ideas t are n copies ( any "o impression1 b a b9d+ toge!r1 colligation1 or intellection ( sev]al impressions4 ,psy*ological analysis %[s u t ev5 :5 we say t ?+s exi/ ) c]ta9 qualities1 we are express+ n s+le impressions or m5tal ph5om5a1 b suppos$ causes & conditions ( su*1 n\m5a 9 %ort1 :i* connect our recollections ( _m sep>ate impressions & expectations ( m4 ,! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods proce$ on ! assumption t !re is o!r outw>d & visible evid5ce ( causal connexion ?an inv>iability ( sequ5ce4 ,9 ! lead+ ,me?od x is assum$ t :5 ev5ts may be obs]v$ to foll[ "o ano!r 9 a c]ta9 way1 !y are 9 causal sequ5ce4 ,if we c make sure t an antec$5t *ange is ! only *ange t has occurr$ 9 an antec$5t situation1 we h pro( positive t any imm$iately subsequ5t *ange 9 ! situation is a consequ5t1 t ! successive *anges are 9 causal sequ5ce4 ,?us :5 ,pascal's b>omet] 0 c>ri$ to ! top ( ,puy le ,dome1 & ! m]cury 9 x fell1 ! exp]im5t]s argu$ t ! fall ( ! m]cury 0 causally connect$ ) ! *ange ( elevation1 all ! o!r circum/ances rema9+ ! same4 ,?is is ! f\ndation ( ! s-call$ ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,to det]m9e t ! lat5t condition 0 a diff]5ce 9 ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 ne$$ o!r obs]vations1 calculations & inf]5ces2 b if x c\ld be %[n t ! elevation 0 ! only antec$5t *ang$ 9 a s+le in/ance1 causal connexion 0 e/abli%$ betwe5 ?is & ! ph5om5on ( ! fall ( ! b>omet]4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 com+ to ?is conclusion we assume :at _c be demon/rat$ b mu/ simply be tak5 z a work+ pr9ciple to be confirm$ by its accordance ) exp]i5ce1 t no?+ comes into be+ )\t "s *ange 9 ! antec$5t circum/ances4 ,?is is ! assumption kn[n z ! ,law ( ,causation--ex nihilo nihil fit4 ,aga91 c]ta9 obs]vable facts are tak5 z evid5ce t !re is no causal connexion4 ,on ! assumption t any antec$5t 9 ^: abs5ce a ph5om5on takes place is n causally connect$ ) x1 we set aside or elim9ate v>i\s antec$5ts z =tuit\s or non-causal4 ,?is negative pr9ciple1 z we %all see1 is ! f\ndation ( :at ,mill call$ ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,be x rem>k$1 once = all1 t be=e com+ to a conclusion on ! ,positive ,me?od or ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 we may (t5 h to make _m obs]vations on ! ,negative ,me?od4 ,?us ,pascal's exp]im5t]s1 be=e conclud+ t ! *ange ( altitude 0 ! only influ5tial *ange1 tri$ ! b>omet] 9 expos$ positions & 9 %elt]$1 :5 ! w9d blew & :5 x 0 calm1 9 ra9 & 9 fog1 9 ord] to prove t ^! circum/ances 7 indiff]5t4 ,we mu/ exp\nd & illu/rate ! me?ods sep>ately1 b e me?od kn[n to sci5ce may h 9 practice to be employ$ 9 arriv+ at a s+le conclusion4 ,footnote #a3 ,?is is impli$1 z ,i h already rem>k$1 9 ! ^w ,exp]im5tal4 ,an exp]im5t is a pro( or trial3 ( :at8 ,( a !ory1 a conjecture4 ,footnote #b3 ,if we rememb]1 z becomes app>5t on exact psy*ological analysis1 t ?+s & _! qualities are z mu* n\m5a & n1 /rictly speak+1 ph5om5a z ! attraction ( gravity or ! quaquav]sus pr9ciple 9 liquid pressure1 ! prejudice aga9/ occultism is mitigat$4 ,footnote #c3 ,! modification 0 t causation is n only inv>iable b also unconditional sequ5ce4 ,?is addition ( unconditionality z "p ( ! mean+ ( cause1 aft] def9+ cause z ! sum total ( ! conditions1 is v mu* l argu+ 9 a circle4 ,aft] all1 ! only po9t recognis$ 9 ! !ory z obs]vable is ! inv>iability ( ! sequ5ce4 ,b ?is is less important ?an ! fact t 9 8 canons ( ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods ,mill recognis$ t m is obs]vable4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation4--,,s+le ,,diff]5ce4 ,i4--,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,s+le ,,diff]5ce4--,,mill',s ,,canon4 ,on :at pr9ciple d we decide1 9 wat*+ a succession ( ph5om5a1 t !y are connect$ z cause & effect1 t "o happ5$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! happ5+ ( ano!r8 ,x may be word$ z foll[s3-- ,:5 ! addition ( an ag5t is foll[$ by ! appe>ance or its subtraction by ! disappe>ance ( a c]ta9 effect1 no o!r influ5tial circum/ance hav+ be5 add$ or subtract$ at ! same "t or 9 ! meantime1 & no *ange hav+ occurr$ among ! orig9al circum/ances1 t ag5t is a cause ( ! effect4 ,on ?is pr9ciple we w\ld ju/ify our belief 9 ! causal prop]ties ( common ?+s--t fire burns1 t food appeases hung]1 t wat] qu5*es ?ir/1 t a sp>k ignites gunp[d]1 t tak+ (f a tight %oe relieves a p9*$ foot4 ,we h obs]v$ ! effect foll[+ :5 !re 0 no o!r *ange 9 ! antec$5t circum/ances1 :5 ! circum/ance to :i* we ref] x 0 simply add$ to or subtract$ f ! prior situation4 ,suppose we d\bt :e!r a giv5 ag5t is or is n capable ( produc+ a c]ta9 effect 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 h[ d we put x to ! pro(8 ,we add x s+ly or subtract x s+ly1 tak+ c>e t ev]y?+ else rema9s z be=e1 & wat* ! result4 ,if we wi% to "k :e!r a spoonful ( sug> c sweet5 a cup ( tea1 we ta/e ! tea )\t ! sug>1 !n add ! sug>1 & ta/e aga94 ,! isolat$ introduction ( ! ag5t is ! pro(1 ! exp]im5t4 ,if we wi% to "k :e!r a pa9 9 ! foot is due to a tight lac+1 we relax ! lac+ & make no o!r *ange3 if ! pa9 !n disappe>s1 we ref] x to ! lac+ z ! cause4 ,! pro( is ! disappe>ance ( ! pa9 on ! subtraction ( ! s+le antec$5t4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* we decide t !re is causal connexion is ! same :e!r we make ! exp]im5tal *anges ourselves or m]ely wat* !m z !y occur--! only c\rse op5 to u ) ! great =ces ( nature :i* are beyond ! p[] ( human manipulation4 ,9 any case we h pro( ( causation :5 we c make sure t !re 0 only "o diff]5ce 9 ! antec$5t circum/ances correspond+ to ! diff]5ce ( result4 ,mill's /atem5t ( ?is pr9ciple1 :i* he calls ! ,canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 is some:at m ab/ract1 b ! pro( reli$ ^u is sub/antially ! same4 ,if an in/ance 9 :i* ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* x does n occur1 h e circum/ance 9 common save "o1 t "o occurr+ only 9 ! =m]1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances diff] is ! effect1 or#a ! cause1 or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4 ,mill's /atem5t has ! m]it ( exactness1 b besides be+ too ab/ract to be easy ( application1 ! canon is apt to mislead 9 "o respect4 ,! word+ ( x sugge/s t ! two in/ances requir$ mu/ be two sep>ate sets ( circum/ances1 su* z may be put side by side & comp>$1 "o exhibit+ ! ph5om5on & ! o!r n4 ,n[ 9 practice x is commonly "o set ( circum/ances t we obs]ve ) a special circum/ance introduc$ or )drawn3 ! two in/ances1 ! data ( obs]vation1 are furni%$ by ! sc5e be=e & ! sc5e aft] ! exp]im5tal int]f]5ce4 ,9 ! case1 = example1 ( a man %ot 9 ! head & fall+ dead1 dea? be+ ! ph5om5on 9 "q1 ! in/ance :]e x does n occur is ! man's condition be=e he receiv$ ! w\nd1 & ! in/ance :]e x does occur is 8 condition aft]1 ! s+le circum/ance ( diff]5ce be+ ! w\nd1 a diff]5ce produc$ by ! addition or introduction ( a new circum/ance4 ,aga91 take ! common co9 & fea!r exp]im5t1 contriv$ to %[ t ! resi/ance ( ! air is ! cause ( ! fea!r's fall+ to ! gr\nd m sl[ly ?an ! co94 ,! ph5om5on "u inve/igation is ! ret>dation ( ! fea!r4 ,:5 ! two are dropp$ simultane\sly 9 ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 ! air be+ left 91 ! fea!r flutt]s to ! gr\nd aft] ! co94 ,?is is ! in/ance :]e ! ph5om5on occurs4 ,!n ! air is pump$ out ( ! receiv]1 & ! co9 & ! fea!r be+ dropp$ at ! same in/ant rea* ! gr\nd toge!r4 ,?is is ! in/ance :]e ! ph5om5on does n occur4 ,! s+le circum/ances ( diff]5ce is ! pres5ce ( air 9 ! =m] in/ance1 a diff]5ce produc$ by ! subtraction ( a circum/ance4 ,mill's ,canon is fram$ s z to suit equally :e!r ! significant diff]5ce is produc$ by addition to or subtraction f an exi/+ sum ( circum/ances4 ,b t is mislead+ 9 s f> z x sugge/s t ! two in/ances mu/ be sep>ate sets ( circum/ances1 is %[n by ! fact t x misl$ himself :5 he spoke ( ! application ( ! me?od 9 social inve/igations1 su* z ! effect ( ,protection on national weal?4 ,9 ord]1 he says1 to apply to ! case ! mo/ p]fect ( ! me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 we require to f9d two in/ances :i* tally 9 e p>ticul> except ! "o :i* is ! subject ( inquiry4 ,we mu/ h two nations alike 9 all natural advantages & disadvantages2 resembl+ ea* o!r 9 e quality physical & moral2 habits1 usages1 laws1 & in/itutions1 & diff]+ only 9 ! circum/ance t ! "o has a prohibitory t>iff & ! o!r has n4 ,x be+ impossible ev] to f9d two su* in/ances1 he conclud$ t ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce c\ld n be appli$ 9 social inquiries4 ,b really x is n necess>y 9 ord] to h two in/ances t we %\ld h two diff]5t nations3 ! same nation be=e & aft] a new law or in/itution fulfils t requirem5t4 ,! real difficulty1 z we %all see1 is to satisfy ! p>am\nt condition t ! two in/ances %all diff] 9 a s+le circum/ance4 ,e new enactm5t w\ld be an exp]im5t aft] ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 if all circum/ances b x rema9$ ! same till its results appe>$4 ,x is because ?is seldom or nev] occurs t decisive obs]vation is difficult or impossible1 & ! simple me?od ( diff]5ce has to be supplem5t$ by o!r means4 ,to introduce or remove a circum/ance s+ly is ! typical application ( ! pr9ciple2 b x may be employ$ also to comp>e ! effects ( diff]5t ag5ts1 ea* add$ alone to exactly simil> circum/ances4 ,a simple example is se5 9 ,mr4 ,jamieson's agricultural exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! effects ( diff]5t manures1 su* z coprolite & sup]phosphate1 on ! gr[? ( crops4 ,c>e is tak5 to h all ! antec$5t circum/ances z exactly alike z possible1 except z reg>ds ! ag5cy ^: effects are to be obs]v$4 ,a field is *os5 ( uni=m soil & ev5 exposure & divid$ into plots3 x is equally dra9$ s z to h ! same degree ( moi/ure ?r\gh\t2 ! se$ is c>efully select$ = ! :ole s[+4 ,betwe5 ! s[+ & ! matur+ ( ! crop all p>ts ( ! field are op5 to ! same wea!r4 ,ea* plot may ?us be reg>d$ z practically compos+ ! same set ( conditions1 & any diff]5ce 9 ! product may ) reasonable probability be ascrib$ to ! s+le diff]5ce 9 ! antec$5ts1 ! manures :i* x is desir$ to comp>e4 ,,ii4--,,application ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple4 ,! pr9ciple ( ref]r+ a ph5om5on to ! only imm$iately prec$+ *ange 9 antec$5t circum/ances t c\ld possibly h affect$ x1 is s simple & s (t5 employ$ by ev]ybody e day1 t at fir/ we d n see h[ !re c be any difficulty ab\t x or any possibility ( error4 ,& once we und]/& h[ _m difficulties !re are 9 rea*+ exact k ev5 on ?is simple pr9ciple1 & :at c>e has to be tak51 we are apt to ov]rate its value1 & to imag9e t x c>ries u fur!r ?an x really does4 ,! sci5tific exp]t mu/ "k h[ to apply ?is pr9ciple1 & a s+le application ( x ) ! prop] precautions may take him days or weeks1 & yet all t c be made good by x may c>ry b a little way t[>ds ! k ( :i* he is 9 se>*4 ,:5 ! circum/ances are simple & ! effect foll[s at once1 z :5 hot wat] scalds1 or a bl[ ) a /ick breaks a pane ( glass1 !re c be no d\bt ( ! causal connexion s f>1 ?\gh pl5ty ( room = fur!r inquiry into ! :y4 ,b ! m]e succession ( ph5om5a may be obscure4 ,we may introduce m ?an "o ag5t )\t kn[+ x1 & if "s "t elapses betwe5 ! exp]im5tal int]f]5ce & ! appe>ance ( ! effect1 o!r ag5ts may come 9 )\t our k4 ,we mu/ "k exactly :at x is t we introduce & all ! circum/ances into :i* we introduce x4 ,we are apt to ignore ! pres5ce ( antec$5ts t are really influ5tial 9 ! result4 ,a man heat$ by "w 9 ! h>ve/ field ha/ily swall[s a glass ( wat]1 & drops d[n dead4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! dr9k+ ( ! wat] 0 a causal antec$5t1 b ! influ5tial circum/ance may n h be5 ! quantity or ! quality ( ! liquid b its temp]ature1 & ?is 0 introduc$ into ! situation z well z a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! liquid compon5ts4 ,9 mak+ tea we put 9 s mu* tea & s mu* boil+ wat]4 ,b ! temp]ature ( ! pot is also an influ5tial circum/ance 9 ! result+ infusion4 ,s 9 *emical exp]im5ts1 :]e "o might expect ! result to dep5d only ^u ! proportions ( ! +r$i5ts1 x is f\nd t ! quantity is also influ5tial1 ! degree ( heat evolv$ ent]+ z a factor into ! result4 ,be=e we c apply ! pr9ciple ( s+le diff]5ce1 we mu/ make sure t !re is really only a s+le diff]5ce betwe5 ! in/ances t we br+ into comp>ison4 ,! air-pump 0 inv5t$ %ortly be=e ! f\ndation ( ! ,royal ,society1 & its memb]s made _m exp]im5ts ) ?is new means ( isolat+ an ag5t & ?us discov]+ its pot5tialities4 ,= example1 live animals 7 put into ! receiv]1 & ! air exhau/$1 ) ! result t !y quickly di$4 ,! abs5ce ( ! air be+ ! sole diff]5ce1 x 0 ?us prov$ to be indisp5sable to life4 ,b air is a composite ag5t1 & :5 means 7 contriv$ ( sep>at+ its compon5ts1 ! effects ( oxyg5 alone & ( c>bonic acid alone 7 exp]im5tally det]m9$4 ,a good example ( ! difficulty ( exclud+ ag5cies o!r ?an ^? we are obs]v+1 ( mak+ sure t none su* intrude1 is f\nd 9 ! exp]im5ts t h be5 made 9 connexion ) spontane\s g5]ation4 ,! "q to be decid$ is :e!r life ev] comes into exi/5ce )\t ! antec$5t pres5ce ( liv+ g]ms4 ,& ! me?od ( det]m9+ ?is is to exclude all g]ms rigor\sly f a comp\nd ( inorganic matt]1 & obs]ve :e!r life ev] appe>s4 ,if we c\ld make sure 9 any "o case t no g]ms 7 antec$5tly pres5t1 we %\ld h prov$ t 9 t case at lea/ life 0 spontane\sly g5]at$4 ,! difficulty "h arises f ! subtlety ( ! ag5t "u obs]vation4 ,! notion t maggots are spontane\sly g5]at$ 9 putrid meat1 0 comp>atively easy to explode4 ,x 0 f\nd t :5 flies 7 exclud$ by f9e wire-gauze1 ! maggots did n appe>4 ,b 9 ! case ( microscopic organisms pro( is n s easy4 ,! g]ms are invisible1 & x is difficult to make c]ta9 ( _! exclusion4 ,a ,fr5* exp]im5t]1 ,p\*et1 ?\ght he _h obta9$ indubitable cases ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,he took infusions ( vegetable matt]1 boil$ !m to a pit* suffici5t to de/roy all g]ms ( life1 & h]metically seal$ up ! liquid 9 glass flasks4 ,aft] an int]val1 micro-organisms appe>$4 ,d\bts z to ! conclusion t !y _h be5 spontane\sly g5]at$ turn$ ^u two que/ions3 :e!r all g]ms 9 ! liquid _h be5 de/roy$ by ! prelim9>y boil+1 & :e!r g]ms c\ld h f\nd access 9 ! c\rse ( ! int]val be=e life appe>$4 ,at a c]ta9 /age 9 ,p\*et's process he _h occasion to dip ! m\?s ( ! flasks 9 m]cury4 ,x occurr$ to ,pa/eur 9 repeat+ ! exp]im5ts t g]ms might h f\nd _! way 9 f ! atmosph]ic du/ on ! surface ( ?is m]cury4 ,t ?is 0 s 0 r5d]$ probable by 8 f9d+ t :5 he c>efully cleans$ ! surface ( ! m]cury no life appe>$ aft]w>ds 9 8 flasks4 ,! application ( ! pr9ciple 9 human affairs is r5d]$ unc]ta9 by ! imm5se complication ( ! ph5om5a1 ! difficulty ( exp]im5t1 & ! special liability ( our judgm5ts to prejudice4 ,t m5 & communities ( m5 are influ5c$ by circum/ances is n to be d5i$1 & ! influ5ce ( circum/ances1 if x is to be trac$ at all1 mu/ be trac$ ?r\gh obs]v$ facts4 ,obs]vation ( ! succession ( ph5om5a mu/ be "p at lea/ ( any me?od ( trac+ cause & effect4 ,we mu/ wat* :at foll[s ^u ! addition ( new ag5cies to a previ\sly exi/+ sum4 ,b we c seldom or nev] get a decisive obs]vation f "o pair ( in/ances1 a cle> case ( diff]5ce ( result prec$$ by a s+le diff]5ce 9 ! antec$5ts4 ,! simple ,me?od ( ,exp]im5tal ,addition or ,subtraction is practically inapplicable4 ,we c d no?+ ) a man analog\s to putt+ him into a h]metically seal$ retort4 ,any man or any community t is ! subject ( our obs]vations mu/ be "u manifold influ5ces4 ,ea* ( !m probably works "s fraction ( ! total *ange obs]vable1 b h[ are !y to be dis5tangl$8 ,consid]1 = example1 h[ impossible x w\ld be to prove 9 an individual case1 on ! /rict pr9ciple ( ,s+le ,diff]5ce1 t ,evil communications corrupt good mann]s4 ,moral det]ioration may be obs]v$ foll[+ ^u ! introduction ( an evil companion1 b h[ c we make sure t no o!r degrad+ influ5ce has op]at$1 & t no orig9al depravity has develop$ itself 9 ! int]val8 ,yet su* propositions ( moral causation c be prov$ f exp]i5ce ) reasonable probability4 ,only x mu/ be by m ext5d$ obs]vations ?an ! /rict ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce takes into acc\nt4 ,! me?od is to obs]ve repeat$ co9cid5ces betwe5 evil companion%ip & moral det]ioration1 & to acc\nt = ?is 9 accordance ) /ill wid] obs]vations ( ! int]action ( human p]sonalities4 ,= equally obvi\s reasons ! simple ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is inapplicable to trac+ cause & effect 9 communities4 ,e new law or repeal ( an old law is ! introduction ( a new ag5cy1 b ! effects ( x are int]mix$ ) ! effects ( o!r ag5cies t op]ate at ! same "t4 ,?us ,pr(essor ,cairnes rem>ks1 conc]n+ ! introduction ( a high ,protective ,t>iff into ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahfa1 t be=e its results c\ld appe> 9 ! trade & manufacture ( ! ,/ates1 !re occurr$ 7#a7 ,! great ,civil ,w>1 att5d$ ) enorm\s de/ruction ( capital2 7#b7 ,consequ5t ^u ?is ! creation ( a huge national debt1 & a great increase ( taxation2 7#c7 ,! issue ( an inconv]tible pap] curr5cy1 d]ang+ prices & wages2 7#d7 ,! discov]y ( great m9]al res\rces & oil-spr+s2 7#e7 ,a great ext5sion ( railway ent]prise4 ,obvi\sly 9 su* circum/ances o!r me?ods ?an ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce mu/ be br\ght into play be=e !re c be any satisfactory reason+ on ! facts obs]v$4 ,/ill :at inve/igators aim at is ! isolation ( ! results ( s+le ag5cies4 ,footnote #a3 ,pr(4 ,ba91 :o adopts ,mill's ,canon1 sil5tly drops ! words )9 brackets4 ,!y seem to be an inadv]t5ce4 ,! circum/ance1 9 all ! examples t ,mill gives1 is an antec$5t circum/ance4 ,h]s*el's /atem5t1 ( :i* ,mill's is an adaptation1 runs z foll[s3 ,if we c ei!r f9d produc$ by nature1 or produce design$ly = ourselves1 two in/ances :i* agree exactly 9 all b "o p>ticul> & diff] 9 t "o1 its influ5ce 9 produc+ ! ph5om5on1 if x h any1 mu/ !reby be r5d]$ app>5t4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation4--,,elim9ation4--,,s+le ,,agreem5t4 ,i4--,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,elim9ation4 ,! ess5ce ( :at ,mill calls ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is really ! elim9ation#a ( accid5tal1 casual1 or =tuit\s antec$5ts4 ,x is a me?od employ$ :5 we are giv5 an effect & set to "w to discov] ! cause4 ,x is f ! effect t we />t & "w back4 ,we make a prelim9>y analysis ( ! antec$5ts2 call ! roll1 z x 71 ( all circum/ances pres5t be=e ! effect appe>$4 ,!n we proce$ to exam9e o!r in/ances ( ! same effect1 & o!r in/ances ( ! occurr5ce ( ! v>i\s antec$5ts1 & br+ to be> ! pr9ciple t any antec$5t 9 ! abs5ce ( :i* ! effect has appe>$ or on ! pres5ce ( :i* x has n appe>$ may be set aside z =tuit\s1 z be+ n an indisp5sable antec$5t4 ,?is is really ! guid+ pr9ciple ( ! me?od z a me?od ( obs]vation4 ,let ! inquiry1 = example1 be into ! cause ( ,endemic ,goitre4 ,in/ances ( ! disease h be5 collect$ f ! m$ical obs]vations ( all c\ntries ov] _m ye>s4 ,:y is x endemic 9 "s localities & n 9 o!rs8 ,we proce$ on ! assumption t ! cause1 :atev] x is1 mu/ be "s circum/ance common to all localities :]e x is endemic4 ,if any su* circum/ance is obvi\s at once1 we may conclude on ! m]e pr9ciple ( repeat$ co9cid5ce t !re is causal connexion betwe5 x & ! disease1 & cont9ue our inquiry into ! nature ( ! connexion4 ,b if no su* circum/ance is obvi\s1 !n 9 ! c\rse ( our se>* = x we elim9ate1 z =tuit\s1 conditions t are pres5t 9 "s cases b abs5t 9 o!rs4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ !ories 0 t endemic goitre 0 connect$ ) ! altitude & configuration ( ! gr\nd1 "s notori\s c5tres ( x be+ deeply cleft m\nta9 valleys1 ) little air & w9d & damp m>%y soil4 ,b wid] obs]vation f\nd x 9 _m valleys nei!r n>r[] nor deep] ?an o!rs t 7 exempt1 & also 9 wide expos$ valleys su* z ! ,a>4 ,0 x due to ! geological =mation8 ,?is also _h to be ab&on$1 = ! disease is (t5 incid5t )9 v n>r[ limits1 occurr+ 9 "s villages & sp>+ o!rs ?\gh ! geological =mation is absolutely ! same4 ,0 x due to ! "* ( ! dr9k+-wat]8 ,especially to ! pres5ce ( lime or magnesia8 ,?is !ory 0 held /rongly1 & c]ta9 spr+s *>act]is$ z goitre-spr+s4 ,b ! spr+s 9 "s goitre c5tres %[ n a trace ( magnesia4 ,! comp>ative immunity ( coa/ regions sugge/$ t x might be ow+ to a defici5cy ( iod9e 9 ! dr9k+-wat] & ! air1 & _m in/ances 7 adduc$ 9 fav\r ( ?is4 ,b fur!r inquiries made out ! pres5ce ( iod9e 9 consid]able quantities1 9 ! air1 ! wat]1 & ! vegetation ( di/ricts :]e goitre 0 widely preval5t2 :ile 9 ,cuba x is said t n a trace ( iod9e is discov]able ei!r 9 ! air or ! wat]1 & yet x is q free f goitre4 ,aft] a huge multiplication ( in/ances1 result+ 9 ! elim9ation ( e local condition t _h be5 sugge/$ z a possible cause1 ,hirs* came to ! conclusion t ! true cause mu/ be a morbid poison1 & t endemic goitre has to be reckon$ among ! infecti\s diseases4#b ,on ?is negative pr9ciple1 t if a circum/ance comes & goes )\t br++ ! ph5om5on 9 its tra91 ! ph5om5on is causally indep5d5t ( x1 common-s5se is always at "w disconnect+ ev5ts t are occasionally co9cid5t 9 "t4 ,a bird s+s at our w9d[1 = example1 & ! clock ticks on ! mantelpiece4 ,b ! clock does n beg9 to tick :5 ! bird beg9s to s+1 nor cease to tick :5 ! bird flies away4 ,accord+ly1 if ! clock %\ld /op at any "t1 & we wi%$ to inquire into ! cause1 & anybody 7 to sugge/ t ! /oppage ( ! clock 0 caus$ by ! /oppage ( a bird's song outside1 we %\ld dismiss ! sugge/ion at once4 ,we %\ld elim9ate ?is circum/ance f our inquiry1 on ! gr\nd t f o!r obs]vations we knew x to be a casual or =tuit\s concomitant4 ,hotspur's retort to ,gl5dov] 7p4 #big7 0 bas$ on ?is pr9ciple4 ,:5 poetic s5tim5t or sup]/ition rejects a v]dict ( common-s5se or sci5ce1 x is because x imag9es a causal connexion to exi/ t is n op5 to obs]vation1 z 9 ! case ( ! gr&fa!r's clock :i* /opp$ %ort nev] to g aga9 :5 ! old man di$4 ,,ii4--,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,s+le ,,agreem5t4 ,! proc$ure 9 ,mill's ,me?od ( ,agreem5t consi/s 9 ?us elim9at+ =tuit\s antec$5ts or concomitants till only "o rema9s4 ,we see ! nature ( ! pro( reli$ ^u :5 we ask1 ,h[ f> mu/ elim9ation be c>ri$ 9 ord] to atta9 pro( ( causal connexion8 ,! answ] is t we mu/ g on till we h elim9at$ all b "o4 ,we mu/ multiply in/ances ( ! ph5om5on1 till we h settl$ ( ea* ( ! antec$5ts except "o t x is n ! cause4 ,we mu/ h tak5 acc\nt ( all ! antec$5ts1 & we mu/ h f\nd 9 our obs]vations t all b "o h be5 only occasionally pres5t4 ,:5 all ! antec$5ts ( an effect except "o c be abs5t )\t ! disappe>ance ( ! effect1 t "o is causally connect$ ) ! effect1 due precautions be+ tak5 t no o!r circum/ances h be5 pres5t besides ^? tak5 acc\nt (4 ,mill's ,canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is sub/antially id5tical ) ?is3-- ,:5 two or m in/ances ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone all ! in/ances agree is ! cause 7or effect7 ( ! giv5 ph5om5on4 ,h]s*el's /atem5t1 on :i* ?is canon is f\nd$1 runs z foll[s3 ,any circum/ance 9 :i* all ! facts )\t exception agree1 may be ! cause 9 "q1 or if n1 at lea/ a collat]al effect ( ! same cause3 if !re be b "o su* po9t ( agreem5t1 ! possibility becomes a c]ta9ty4 ,all ! in/ances exam9$ mu/ agree 9 "o circum/ance--h5ce ! title ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,b x is n 9 ! agreem5t m]ely t ! pro( consi/s1 b ! agreem5t 9 "o circum/ance comb9$ ) diff]5ce 9 all ! o!r circum/ances1 :5 we are c]ta9 t e circum/ance has come )9 our obs]vation4 ,x is ! s+l5ess ( ! agreem5t t con/itutes ! pro( j z x is ! s+l5ess ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4#c ,x has be5 said t ,mill's ,me?od ( ,agreem5t am\nts aft] all only to an uncontradict$ ,inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem1 :i* he himself /igmatis$ z ,induction improp]ly s call$4 ,b ?is is n /rictly correct4 ,x is a misund]/&+ probably caus$ by call+ ! me?od t ( agreem5t simply1 in/ead ( call+ x ! ,me?od ( ,s+le ,agreem5t1 s z to lay /ress ^u ! process ( elim9ation by :i* ! s+l5ess is e/abli%$4 ,x is true t 9 ! c\rse ( our obs]vations we d p]=m an induction by simple enum]ation4 ,9 elim9at+1 we at ! same "t g5]alise4 ,t is to say1 9 multiply+ in/ances = ! elim9ation ( non-causes1 we necess>ily at ! same "t multiply in/ances :]e ! true causal antec$5t1 if !re is only "o possible1 is pres5t4 ,an antec$5t conta9+ ! true cause mu/ always be !re :5 ! ph5om5on appe>s1 & ?us we may e/abli% by our elim9at+ obs]vations a uni=mity ( connexion betwe5 two facts4 ,take1 = example1 ,rog] ,bacon's inquiry into ! cause ( ! col\rs ( ! ra9b[4 ,8 fir/ notion seems to h be5 to connect ! ph5om5on ) ! sub/ance cry/al1 probably f 8 ?9k+ ( ! cry/al firmam5t !n suppos$ to encircle ! univ]se4 ,he f\nd ! ra9b[ col\rs produc$ by ! passage ( light ?r\gh hexagonal cry/als4 ,b on ext5d+ 8 obs]vations1 he f\nd t ! passage ( light ?r\gh o!r transp>5t m$iums 0 also att5d$ by ! ph5om5on4 ,he f\nd x 9 dewdrops1 9 ! spray ( wat]falls1 9 drops %ak5 f ! o> 9 r[+4 ,he ?us elim9at$ ! sub/ance cry/al1 & at ! same "t e/abli%$ ! empirical law t ! passage ( light ?r\gh transp>5t m$iums ( a globul> or prismatic %ape 0 a causal antec$5t ( ! ra9b[ col\rs4#d ,asc]ta9m5t ( inv>iable antec$5ts may ?us proce$ side by side ) t ( v>iable antec$5ts1 ! use ( ! elim9ation be+ simply to n>r[ ! scope ( ! inquiry4 ,b ! pro( set =? 9 ,mill's ,canon does n dep5d m]ely on "o antec$5t or concomitant be+ inv>iably pres5t1 b also on ! assumption t all ! influ5tial circum/ances h be5 )9 our obs]vation4 ,!n only c we be sure t ! in/ances h only "o circum/ance 9 common4 ,! tru? is t ow+ to ! difficulty ( fulfill+ ?is condition1 pro( ( causation 9 accordance ) ,mill's ,canon is practically all b impossible4 ,x is n atta9$ 9 any ( ! examples commonly giv54 ,! want ( conclusiv5ess is disguis$ by ! fact t bo? elim9ation & positive obs]vation ( m]e agreem5t or uni=m concomitance are useful & sugge/ive 9 ! se>* = causes1 ?\gh !y d n am\nt to complete pro( su* z ! ,canon describes4 ,?us 9 ! inquiry into ! cause ( goitre1 ! elim9ation s]ves "s purpose ?\gh ! result is purely negative4 ,:5 ! inquir] is satisfi$ t goitre is n orig9at$ by any directly obs]vable local conditions1 altitude1 temp]ature1 climate1 soil1 wat]1 social circum/ances1 habits ( ex]tion1 8 se>* is pr(itably limit$4 ,& m]e frequ5cy1 mu* m con/ancy ( concomitance1 raises a presumption ( causal connexion1 & look+ out = x is valuable z a mode ( reconnoitr+4 ,! fir/ ?+ t an inquir] naturally asks :5 confront$ by num]\s in/ances ( a ph5om5on is1 ,:at h !y 9 common8 ,& if he f9ds t !y h "s "o circum/ance inv>iably or ev5 frequ5tly pres5t1 al?\gh he _c prove t !y h no o!r circum/ance 9 common z ! ,cannon ( ,s+le ,agreem5t requires1 ! presumption ( causal connexion is /rong en\gh to furni% good gr\nd = fur!r inquiry4 ,if an inquir] f9ds an illness ) m>k$ symptoms 9 a numb] ( diff]5t h\seholds1 & f9ds also t all ! h\seholds get _! milk supply f ! same s\rce1 ?is is n conclusive pro( ( causation1 b x is a suffici5t presumption to w>rant him 9 exam9+ :e!r !re is any virul5t +r$i5t 9 ! milk4 ,?us v>y+ ! circum/ances s z to br+ out a common antec$5t1 ?\gh x does n end 9 exact pro(1 may indicate causal connexion ?\gh x does n prove :at ! nature ( ! connexion is4 ,rog] ,bacon's obs]vations indicat$ t ! production ( ra9b[ col\rs 0 connect$ ) ! passage ( light ?r\gh a transp>5t globe or prism4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ,newton to prove by o!r me?ods t :ite light 0 compos$ ( rays1 & t ^? rays 7 diff]5tly refract$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! transp>5t m$ium4 ,we h ano!r example ( h[ f> m]e agreem5t1 reveal$ by v>y+ ! circum/ances1 c>ries u t[>ds discov]y ( ! cause1 9 ,wells's inve/igation ( ! cause ( dew4 ,comp>+ ! num]\s in/ances ( dew appe>+ )\t visible fall ( moi/ure1 ,wells f\nd t !y all agre$ 9 ! comp>ative coldness ( ! surface dew$4 ,?is 0 all ! agreem5t t he e/abli%$ by obs]vation2 he did n c>ry obs]vation to ! po9t ( det]m9+ t !re 0 absolutely no o!r common circum/ance3 :5 he _h simply discov]$ dew$ surfaces1 he tri$ next to %[ by reason+ f o!r kn[s facts h[ ! coldness ( ! surface affect$ ! aque\s vap\r ( ! neighb\r+ air4 ,he did n e/abli% 8 ,!ory ( ,dew by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t3 b ! obs]vation ( an agreem5t or common feature 9 a numb] ( in/ances 0 a /age 9 ! process by :i* he rea*$ 8 !ory4 ,,iii4--,,mill',s ,,jo9t ,,me?od ,,( ,,agreem5t ,,& ,,diff]5ce4 ,aft] exam9+ a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* an effect appe>s1 & f9d+ t !y all agree 9 ! antec$5t pres5ce ( "s "o circum/ance1 we may proce$ to exam9e in/ances o!rwise simil> 79 p>i mat]ia1 z ,pr(4 ,f[l] puts x7 :]e ! effect does n appe>4 ,if ^! all agree 9 ! abs5ce ( ! circum/ance t is uni=mly pres5t ) ! effect1 we h corroborative evid5ce t !re is causal connexion betwe5 ?is circum/ance & ! effect4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is me?od seems to h be5 sugge/$ to ,mill by ,wells's inve/igations into ,dew4 ,wells expos$ a numb] ( poli%$ surfaces ( v>i\s sub/ances1 & comp>$ ^? 9 :i* !re 0 a copi\s deposit ( dew ) ^? 9 :i* !re 0 little or none4 ,if he c\ld h got two surfaces1 "o dew$ & ! o!r n1 id5tical 9 e concomitant b "o1 he w\ld h atta9$ complete pro( on ! pr9ciple ( ,s+le ,diff]5ce4 ,b ?is be+ impracticable1 he foll[$ a c\rse :i* approximat$ to ! me?od ( elim9at+ e circum/ance b "o f in/ances ( dew1 & e circum/ance b "o 9 ! in/ances ( no-dew4 ,mill sums up z foll[s ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts3 ,x appe>s t ! in/ances 9 :i* mu* dew is deposit$1 :i* are v v>i\s1 agree 9 ?is1 &1 s f> z we are able to obs]ve1 9 ?is only1 t !y ei!r radiate heat rapidly or conduct x sl[ly3 qualities betwe5 :i* !re is no o!r circum/ance ( agreem5t ?an t by virtue ( ei!r1 ! body t5ds to lose heat f ! surface m rapidly ?an x c be re/or$ f )94 ,! in/ances1 on ! contr>y1 9 :i* no dew1 or b a small quantity ( x1 is =m$1 & :i* are also extremely v>i\s1 agree 7z f> z we c obs]ve7 9 no?+ except 9 n hav+ ?is same prop]ty4 ,we seem !re=e to h detect$ ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! sub/ances on :i* ! dew is produc$1 & ^? on :i* x is n produc$4 ,& ?us h be5 realis$ ! requisitions ( :at we h t]m$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 ,! ,canon ( ?is ,me?od is accord+ly /at$ by ,mill z foll[s3-- ,if two or m in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 :ile two or m in/ances 9 :i* x does n occur h no?+ 9 common save ! abs5ce ( t circum/ance2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two sets ( in/ances diff]1 is ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 ?is !oretical /&>d ( pro( is nev] atta9$4 ,:at inve/igators really proce$ ^u is ! presumption af=d$1 to use ,pr(4 ,ba9's t]ms1 by ,agreem5t 9 ,pres5ce comb9$ ) ,agreem5t 9 ,abs5ce4 ,:5 x is f\nd t all sub/ances :i* h a /rong smell agree 9 be+ readily oxidisable1 & t ! m>% gas or c>bonett$ hydrog5 :i* has no smell is n oxidisable at common temp]atures1 ! presumption t oxidation is "o ( ! causal circum/ances 9 smell is /r5g!n$1 ev5 ?\gh we h n succe$$ 9 elim9at+ e circum/ance b ?is "o f ei!r ! positive or ! negative in/ances4 ,s 9 ! foll[+ examples giv5 by ,pr(4 ,f[l] !re is n really a compliance ) ! !oretical requirem5ts ( ,mill's ,me?od3 !re is only an increas$ presumption f ! d\ble agreem5t4 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce 7or ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or1 z ,i %\ld pref] to call x1 ! ,d\ble ,me?od ( ,agreem5t7 is be+ cont9ually employ$ by u 9 ! ord9>y affairs ( life4 ,if :5 ,i take a p>ticul> k9d ( food1 ,i f9d t ,i inv>iably suff] f "s p>ticul> =m ( illness1 :]eas1 :5 ,i leave x (f1 ,i cease to suff]1 ,i ent]ta9 a d\ble assurance t ! food is ! cause ( my illness4 ,i h obs]v$ t a c]ta9 plant is inv>iably pl5tiful on a p>ticul> soil2 if1 ) a wide exp]i5ce1 ,i fail to f9d x gr[+ on any o!r soil1 ,i feel confirm$ 9 my belief t !re is 9 ?is p>ticul> soil "s *emical con/itu5t1 or "s peculi> comb9ation ( *emical con/itu5ts1 :i* is highly fav\rable1 if n ess5tial1 to ! gr[? ( ! plant4 ,footnote #a3 ,elim9ation1 or sett+ aside z be+ ( no conc]n1 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! exclusion ( ag5ts practis$ 9 apply+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,we use ! ^w 9 its ord9>y s5se ( putt+ outside ! sph]e ( an argum5t4 ,by a curi\s slip1 ,pr(essor ,ba9 foll[s ,mill 9 apply+ ! ^w sometimes to ! process ( s+l+ out or dis5tangl+ a causal circum/ance4 ,?is is an inadv]t5t dep>ture f ! ord9>y usage1 accord+ to :i* elim9ation means disc>d+ f consid]ation z be+ non-ess5tial4 ,footnote #b3 ,hirs*'s ,geographical & ,hi/orical ,pa?ology1 ,creighton's translation1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aba-bjb4 ,footnote #c3 ,! b>e titles ,diff]5ce & ,agreem5t1 ?\gh !y h ! advantage ( simplicity1 are apt to puzzle beg9n]s inasmu* z 9 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce ! agreem5t among ! in/ances is at a maximum1 & ! diff]5ce at a m9imum1 & vice v]sa 9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,9 bo? ,me?ods x is really ! isolation ( ! connexion betwe5 antec$5t & sequ5t t con/itutes ! pro(4 ,footnote #d3 ,t ra9b[s 9 ! sky are produc$ by ! passage ( light ?r\gh m9ute drops 9 ! cl\ds 0 an inf]5ce f ?is obs]v$ uni=mity4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation4--,,m9or ,,me?ods4 ,i4--,,concomitant ,,v>iations4 ,:atev] ph5om5on v>ies 9 any mann] :5ev] ano!r ph5om5on v>ies 9 "s p>ticul> mann]1 is ei!r a cause or an effect ( t ph5om5on1 or is connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s fact ( causation4 ,?is simple pr9ciple is con/antly appli$ by u 9 connect+ & disconnect+ ph5om5a4 ,if we he> a s\nd :i* waxes & wanes ) ! rise & fall ( ! w9d1 we at once connect ! two ph5om5a4 ,we may n "k :at ! causal connexion is1 b if !y uni=mly v>y toge!r1 !re is at once a presumption t ! "o is causally dep5d5t on ! o!r1 or t bo? are effects ( ! same cause4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 employ$ by ,wells 9 8 rese>*es into ,dew4 ,"s bodies are worse conductors ( heat ?an o!rs1 & r\gh surfaces radiate heat m rapidly ?an smoo?4 ,wells made obs]vations on conductors & radiators ( v>i\s degrees1 & f\nd t ! am\nt ( dew deposit$ 0 great] or less accord+ z ! objects conduct$ heat sl[ly or radiat$ heat rapidly4 ,he ?us e/abli%$ :at ,h]s*el call$ a scale ( int5sity betwe5 ! conduct+ & radiat+ prop]ties ( ! bodies b$ew$1 & ! am\nt ( ! dew deposit4 ,! explanation 0 t 9 bad conductors ! surface cools m quickly ?an 9 good conductors because heat is m sl[ly suppli$ f )94 ,simil>ly 9 r\gh surfaces !re is a m rapid cool+ because heat is giv5 (f m quickly4 ,b :atev] ! explanation might be1 ! m]e concomitant v>iation ( ! dew deposit ) ^! prop]ties %[$ t !re 0 "s causal connexion betwe5 !m4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! m]e fact ( concomitant v>iation is only an index t "s causal connexion exi/s4 ,! nature ( ! connexion mu/ be asc]ta9$ by o!r means1 & may rema9 a problem1 "o ( ! uses ( su* obs]v$ facts be+ inde$ to sugge/ problems1 = inquiry4 ,?us a rem>kable concomitance has be5 obs]v$ betwe5 spots on ! sun1 displays ( ,aurora ,borealis1 & magnetic /orms4 ,! probability is t !y are causally connect$1 b sci5ce has n yet discov]$ h[4 ,simil>ly 9 ! v>i\s sci5ces prop]ties are arrang$ 9 scales ( int5sity1 & any correspond5ce betwe5 two scales becomes a subject = inve/igation on ! assumption t x po9ts to a causal connexion4 ,we %all see aft]w>ds h[ 9 social inve/igations concomitant v>iations 9 av]ages furni% mat]ial = reason+4 ,:5 two v>iants c be precisely measur$1 ! ratio ( ! v>iation may be asc]ta9$ by ! ,me?od ( ,s+le ,diff]5ce4 ,we may *ange an antec$5t 9 degree1 & wat* ! correspond+ *ange 9 ! effect1 tak+ c>e t no o!r ag5t influ5ces ! effect 9 ! meantime4 ,(t5 :5 we _c remove an ag5t altoge!r1 we may remove x 9 a measurable am\nt1 & obs]ve ! result4 ,we _c remove friction altoge!r1 b ! m x is dim9i%$1 ! fur!r w a body travel "u ! impulse ( ! same =ce4 ,until a concomitant v>iation has be5 fully expla9$1 x is m]ely an empirical law1 & any inf]5ce t x ext5ds at ! same rate beyond ! limits ( obs]vation mu/ be made ) due caution4 ,p>allel v>iation1 says ,pr(essor ,ba91 is sometimes int]rupt$ by critical po9ts1 z 9 ! expansion ( bodies by heat1 :i* suff]s a rev]se ne> ! po9t ( cool+4 ,aga91 ! en]gy ( a solution does n always foll[ ! /r5g?2 v dilute solutions occasionally ex]cise a specific p[] n possess$ 9 any degree by /rong]4 ,s1 9 ! animal body1 food & /imulants op]ate proportionally up to a c]ta9 po9t1 at :i* _! fur!r op]ation is *eck$ by ! peculi>ities 9 ! /ructure ( ! liv+ organs4444 ,we _c always reason f a few /eps 9 a s]ies to ! :ole s]ies1 p>tly because ( ! occurr5ce ( critical po9ts1 & p>tly f ! developm5t at ! extremes ( new & unsuspect$ p[]s4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el rem>ks t until v rec5tly '! =mulae empirically d$uc$ = ! ela/icity ( /eam1 ^? = ! resi/ance ( fluids1 & on o!r simil> subjects1 h almo/ inv>iably fail$ to support ! !oretical /ructures t h be5 erect$ ^u !m'4#a ,,ii4--,,s+le ,,residue4 ,subduct f any ph5om5on su* "p z previ\s induction has %[n to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & ! residue ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts4 ,complicat$ ph5om5a1 9 :i* sev]al causes concurr+1 oppos+1 or q indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 op]ate at once1 s z to produce a comp\nd effect1 may be simplifi$ by subduct+ ! effect ( all ! kn[n causes1 z well z ! nature ( ! case p]mits1 ei!r by d$uctive reason+ or by appeal to exp]i5ce1 & ?us leav+ z x 7 a residual ph5om5on to be expla9$4 ,x is by ?is process1 9 fact1 t sci5ce1 9 its pres5t advanc$ /ate1 is *iefly promot$4 ,mo/ ( ! ph5om5a :i* nature pres5ts are v complicat$2 & :5 ! effects ( all kn[n causes are e/imat$ ) exactness1 & subduct$1 ! residual facts are con/antly appe>+ 9 ! =m ( ph5om5a altoge!r new1 & lead+ to ! mo/ important conclusions4#b ,x is obvi\s t ?is is n a prim>y me?od ( obs]vation1 b a me?od t may be employ$ ) great effect to guide obs]vation :5 a consid]able advance has be5 made 9 accurate k ( ag5ts & _! mode ( op]ation4 ,! greate/ triumph ( ! me?od1 ! discov]y ( ! planet ,neptune1 0 won "s ye>s aft] ! above passage f ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse 0 writt54 ,c]ta9 p]turbations 7 obs]v$ 9 ! movem5ts ( ! planet ,uranus3 t is to say1 its orbit 0 f\nd n to correspond exactly ) :at x %\ld be :5 calculat$ accord+ to ! kn[n influ5ces ( ! bodies !n kn[n to a/ronom]s4 ,^! p]turbations 7 a residual ph5om5on4 ,x 0 suppos$ t !y might be due to ! action ( an unkn[n planet1 & two a/ronom]s1 ,adams & ,le ,v]ri]1 simultane\sly calculat$ ! position ( a body su* z w\ld acc\nt = ! obs]v$ deviations4 ,:5 telescopes 7 direct$ to ! spot ?us indicat$1 ! planet ,neptune 0 discov]$4 ,?is 0 9 ,septemb]1 #ahdf3 be=e its actual discov]y1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el exult$ 9 ! prospect ( x 9 language t /rik+ly expresses ! p[] ( ! me?od4 ,we see x1 he said1 z ,columbus saw ,am]ica f ! %ores ( ,spa94 ,its movem5ts h be5 felt1 trembl+ along ! f>-rea*+ l9e ( our analysis1 ) a c]ta9ty h>dly inf]ior to t ( ocul> demon/ration4#c ,_m ( ! new elem5ts 9 ,*emi/ry h be5 discov]$ 9 ?is way4 ,= example1 :5 di/9ctive spectrums _h be5 obs]v$ = all kn[n sub/ances1 !n on ! assumption t e sub/ance has a di/9ctive spectrum1 ! appe>ance ( l9es n ref]able to any kn[n sub/ance indicat$ ! exi/5ce ( hi!rto undiscov]$ sub/ances & direct$ se>* = !m4 ,?us ,buns5 9 #ahfj discov]$ two new alkal9e metals1 ,caesium & ,rubidium4 ,he 0 exam9+ alkalies left f ! evaporation ( a l>ge quantity ( m9]al wat] f ,durkheim4 ,on apply+ ! spectroscope to ! flame :i* ?is p>ticul> salt or mixture ( salts gave (f1 he f\nd t "s bright l9es 7 visible :i* he _h nev] obs]v$ be=e1 & :i* he knew 7 n produc$ ei!r by pota% or soda4 ,he !n set to "w to analyse ! mixture1 & ultimately succe$$ 9 sep>at+ two new alkal9e sub/ances4 ,:5 he _h succe$$ 9 gett+ !m sep>ate1 x 0 ( c\rse by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce t he asc]ta9$ !m to be capable ( produc+ ! l9es t _h excit$ 8 curiosity4 ,footnote #a3 ,ba9's ,logic1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #b3 ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse1 ,sec4 #aeh4 ,footnote #c3 ,de ,morgan's ,budget ( ,p>adoxes1 p4 #bcg4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,explanation4 ,giv5 p]plexity z to ! cause ( any ph5om5on1 :at is our natural fir/ /ep8 ,we may describe x z se>*+ = a clue3 we look c>efully at ! circum/ances ) a view to f9d+ "s means ( assimilat+ :at p]plexes u to :at is already )9 our k4 ,our next /ep is to make a guess1 or conjecture1 or1 9 sci5tific language1 a hypo!sis4 ,we ex]cise our ,reason or ,n\s1 or ,imag9ation1 or :atev] we *oose to call ! faculty1 & try to conceive "s cause t /rikes u z suffici5t to acc\nt = ! ph5om5on4 ,if x is n at once manife/ t ?is cause has really op]at$1 our ?ird /ep is to consid] :at appe>ances ought to pres5t !mselves if x did op]ate4 ,we !n return to ! facts 9 "q1 & obs]ve :e!r ^? appe>ances d pres5t !mselves4 ,if !y d1 & if !re is no o!r way ( acc\nt+ = ! effect 9 all its circum/ances1 we conclude t our guess is correct1 t our hypo!sis is prov$1 t we h rea*$ a satisfactory explanation4 ,^! f\r /eps or /ages may be di/+ui%$ 9 mo/ protract$ inquiries into cause4 ,!y correspond to ! f\r /ages ( :at ,mr4 ,jevons calls ! ,inductive ,me?od p> excell5ce1 ,prelim9>y ,obs]vation1 ,hypo!sis1 ,d$uction & ,v]ification4 ,see+ t ! ^w ,induction is already an ov]load$ drudge1 p]haps x w\ld be bett] to call ^! f\r /ages ! ,me?od ( ,explanation4 ,! ^w ,induction1 if we keep ne> its orig9al & mo/ e/abli%$ mean+1 w\ld apply /rictly only to ! f\r? /age1 ! ,v]ification1 ! br++ 9 ( ! facts to confirm our hypo!sis4 ,we might call ! me?od ! ,newtonian me?od1 = all f\r /ages are m>k$ 9 ! prolong$ process by :i* he made good 8 !ory ( ,gravitation4 ,to give ! "n ( ,inductive ,me?od simply to all ! f\r /ages ( an ord]ly proc$ure f d\bt to a suffici5t explanation is to enc\rage a widespread misappreh5sion4 ,!re c\ld be no great] error ?an to suppose t only ! s5ses are us$ 9 sci5tific inve/igation4 ,!re is no error t m5 ( sci5ce are s apt to res5t 9 ! m\?s ( ! non-sci5tific4 ,yet !y h p>tly br\ght x on !mselves by _! loose use ( ! ^w ,induction1 :i* !y foll[ ,bacon 9 wre/+ f ! traditional mean+ ( ,induction1 us+ x to cov] bo? ,induction or ! br++ 9 ( facts--an affair ma9ly ( ,obs]vation--& ,reason+1 ! ex]cise ( ,n\s1 ! process ( con/ruct+ satisfactory hypo!ses4 ,9 reaction aga9/ ! popul> misconception :i* ,bacon enc\rag$1 x is fa%ionable n[ to speak ( ! use ( ,imag9ation 9 ,sci5ce4 ,?is is well en\gh polemically4 ,imag9ation z commonly und]/ood is ak9 to ! con/ructive faculty 9 ,sci5ce1 & x is legitimate w>f>e to employ ! famili> ^w ( high repute to =ce g5]al recognition ( ! tru?4 ,b 9 common usage ,imag9ation is appropriat$ to creative g5ius 9 ! ,f9e ,arts1 & to speak ( ,imag9ation 9 ,sci5ce is to sugge/ t ,sci5ce deals 9 fictions1 & has disc>d$ ,newton's decl>ation ,hypo!ses non f+o4 ,9 a fight = popul> respect1 m5 ( sci5ce may be "r to claim = !mselves ,imag9ation2 b 9 ! int]e/s ( cle> und]/&+1 ! logician mu/ deplore t !y %\ld def5d !mselves f a *>ge due to _! abuse ( "o ^w by mak+ an equally unw>rantable & confus+ ext5sion ( ano!r4 ,call x :at we w1 ! faculty ( likely guess+1 ( mak+ probable hypo!ses1 ( conceiv+ 9 all its circum/ances ! pa/ situation or ! lat5t & supramicroscopical situation out ( :i* a ph5om5on has em]g$1 is "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! sci5tific man's special gifts4 ,x is by virtue ( x t ! greate/ advancem5ts ( k h be5 a*iev$1 ! c>d9al discov]ies 9 ,mol> & ,molecul> ,physics1 ,biology1 ,geology1 & all dep>tm5ts ( ,sci5ce4 ,we mu/ n pu% ! idea ( /ages 9 explanatory me?od too f>3 ! "r explanation may be rea*$ 9 a fla%4 ,! idea ( /ages is really useful ma9ly 9 try+ to make cle> ! v>i\s difficulties 9 inve/igation1 & ! fact t diff]5t m5 ( g5ius may %[ diff]5t p[]s 9 ov]com+ !m4 ,! "r hypo!sis may occur 9 a mom5t1 z if by simple intuition1 b x may be t$i\s to prove1 & ! gifts t tell 9 pro(1 su* z ,newton's imm5se ma!matical p[] 9 calculat+ :at a hypo!sis implies1 ,d>w9's pati5ce 9 v]ify+1 ,f>aday's +5uity 9 devis+ exp]im5ts1 are all great gifts1 & may be s]viceable at diff]5t /ages4 ,b )\t orig9ality & f]tility 9 probable hypo!sis1 no?+ c be done4 ,! dispute betwe5 ,mill & ,:ewell z to ! place & value ( hypo!ses 9 sci5ce 0 9 ! ma9 a dispute ab\t words4 ,mill did n really und]value hypo!sis1 & he gave a mo/ lum9\s & accurate acc\nt ( ! conditions ( pro(4 ,b "h & !re he incauti\sly spoke ( ! hypo!tical me?od 7by :i* he meant :at we h call$ ! me?od ( ,explanation7 z if x 7 a defective k9d ( pro(1 a me?od resort$ to by sci5ce :5 ! exp]im5tal me?ods c\ld n be appli$4 ,:e!r 8 language fairly bore ?is con/ruction is n wor? argu+1 b ?is 0 manife/ly ! con/ruction t ,:ewell _h 9 8 m9d :5 he retort$1 z if 9 def5ce ( hypo!ses1 t ! inductive process consi/s 9 fram+ successive hypo!ses1 ! comp>ison ( ^! ) ! asc]ta9$ facts ( nature1 & ! introduction into !m ( su* modifications z ! comp>ison may r5d] necess>y4 ,?is is a v fair description ( ! :ole me?od ( explanation4 ,!re is no?+ really inconsi/5t ) x 9 ,mill's acc\nt ( 8 hypo!tical me?od2 only he err$ himself or 0 ! cause ( error 9 o!rs 9 sugge/+1 int5tionally or un9t5tionally1 t ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods 7 diff]5t me?ods ( pro(4 ,! hypo!tical me?od1 z he describ$ x1 consi/+ ( ,induction1 ,ratioc9ation1 & ,v]ification1 really compreh5ds ! pr9ciples ( all modes ( obs]vation1 :e!r naturally or artificially exp]im5tal4 ,we see ?is at once :5 we ask h[ ! previ\s k is got 9 accordance ) :i* hypo!ses are fram$4 ,! answ] mu/ be1 by ,obs]vation4 ,h[ev] pr(\nd ! calculations1 x mu/ be f obs]v$ laws1 or suppos$ analogues ( !m1 t we />t4 ,& x is always by ,obs]vation t ! results ( ^! calculations are v]ifi$4 ,bo? ,mill & ,:ewell1 h[ev]1 conf9$ !mselves too exclusively to ! great hypo!ses ( ! ,sci5ces1 su* z ,gravitation & ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,light4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( sci5tific me?od1 x is a mi/ake to conf9e our att5tion to ^! great que/ions1 :i* f ! multitude ( facts embrac$ c only be v]ifi$ by prolong$ & intricate inquiry4 ,attempts at ! explanation ( ! smalle/ ph5om5a proce$ on ! same plan1 & ! v]ification ( conjectures ab\t !m is subject to ! same conditions1 & ! me?ods ( inve/igation & ! conditions ( v]ification c be /udi$ mo/ simply 9 ! small] cases4 ,fur!r1 ,i v5ture to ?9k x a mi/ake to conf9e ourselves to sci5tific inquiry 9 ! n>r[ s5se1 mean+ !reby inquiry conduct$ )9 ! pale ( ! exact sci5ces4 ,= n m]ely ! exact sci5ces b all m5 9 ! ord9>y affairs ( life mu/ foll[ ! same me?ods or at lea/ obs]ve ! same pr9ciples & conditions1 9 any satisfactory attempt to expla94 ,t>es appe> among ! :eat4 ,good se$ 0 s[n3 :5ce1 !n1 come ! t>es8 ,an enemy has done ?is4 ,if an enemy has actually be5 obs]v$ s[+ ! t>es1 8 ag5cy c be prov$ by descriptive te/imony4 ,b if he has n be5 se5 9 ! act1 we mu/ resort to :at is kn[n 9 ,c\rts ( ,law z circum/antial evid5ce4 ,?is is ! hypo!tical me?od ( sci5ce4 ,t ! t>es are ! "w ( an enemy is a hypo!sis3 we exam9e all ! circum/ances ( ! case 9 ord] to prove1 by inf]5ce f our k ( simil> cases1 t ?us1 & ?us only1 c ^? circum/ances be acc\nt$ =4 ,simil>ly1 :5 a "q is rais$ z to ! au?or%ip ( an anonym\s book4 ,we fir/ se>* = a clue by c>efully not+ ! diction1 ! /ructure ( ! s5t5ces1 ! "* & s\rces ( ! illu/ration1 ! special tracks ( ?\ght4 ,we proce$ ^u ! k t e au?or has *>act]i/ic turns ( phrase & imag]y & fav\rite ve9s ( ?\ght1 & we look out = su* int]nal evid5ce ( au?or%ip 9 ! "w be=e u4 ,special k & acum5 may enable u to detect ! au?or%ip at once f ! g5]al resemblance to kn[n "w4 ,b if we w\ld h cle> pro(1 we mu/ %[ t ! resemblance ext5ds to all ! details ( phrase1 /ructure & imag]y3 we mu/ %[ t our hypo!sis ( ! au?or%ip ( ,,xyz expla9s all ! circum/ances4 ,& ev5 ?is is n suffici5t1 z _m errone\s guesses f int]nal evid5ce may conv9ce u4 ,we mu/ e/abli% fur!r t !re is no o!r reasonable way ( acc\nt+ = ! matt] & mann] ( ! book2 = example1 t x is n ! "w ( an imitator4 ,an imitator may reproduce all ! sup]ficial peculi>ities ( an au?or ) su* fidelity t ! imitation c h>dly be di/+ui%$ f ! orig9al3 ?us few c di/+ui% betwe5 ,f5ton's "w & ,pope's 9 ! translation ( ! ,odyssey4 ,we mu/ take su* kn[n facts into acc\nt 9 decid+ a hypo!sis ( au?or%ip4 ,su* hypo!ses c seldom be decid$ on int]nal evid5ce alone3 o!r circum/antial evid5ce--o!r circum/ances t ought to be discov]able if ! hypo!sis is correct--mu/ be se>*$ =4 ,! op]ation ( causes t are manife/ only 9 _! effects mu/ be prov$ by ! same me?od z ! op]ation ( pa/ causes t h left only _! effects beh9d !m4 ,:e!r light is caus$ by a projection ( p>ticles f a lum9\s body or by an agitation communicat$ ?r\gh an int]v5+ m$ium _c be directly obs]v$4 ,! only pro( op5 is to calculate :at %\ld occur on ei!r hypo!sis1 & obs]ve :e!r ?is does occur4 ,9 su* a case !re is room = ! utmo/ calculat+ p[] & exp]im5tal +5uity4 ,! m]e mak+ ( ! g5]al hypo!sis or guess is simple en\gh1 bo? modes ( transmitt+ influ5ce1 ! projection ( mov+ matt] & ! travell+ ( an undulation or wave movem5t1 be+ famili> facts4 ,b x is n s easy to calculate exactly h[ a giv5 impulse w\ld travel1 & :at ph5om5a ( ray & %ad[1 ( reflection1 refraction & diffraction ought to be visible 9 its progress4 ,/ill1 no matt] h[ intricate ! calculation1 its correspond5ce ) :at c be obs]v$ is ! only legitimate pro( ( ! hypo!sis4 ,,ii4--,,ob/acles ,,to ,,explanation4--,,plurality ,,( ,,causes ,,& ,,int]mixture ,,( ,,effects4 ,!re are two ma9 ways 9 :i* explanation may be baffl$4 ,!re may exi/ m ?an "o cause s+ly capable ( produc+ ! effect 9 "q1 & we may h no means ( det]m9+ :i* ( ! equally suffici5t causes has actually be5 at "w4 ,= all t appe>s ! t>es 9 our :eat may be ! effect ( accid5t or ( malici\s design3 an anonym\s book may be ! "w ( an orig9al au?or or ( an imitator4 ,aga91 an effect may be ! jo9t result ( sev]al co-op]at+ causes1 & x may be impossible to det]m9e _! sev]al pot5cies4 ,! bitt] article 9 ! ,qu>t]ly may h help$ to kill ,john ,keats1 b x co-op]at$ ) an enfeebl$ con/itution & a naturally ov]-s5sitive temp]am5t1 & we _c assign its exact weight to ea* ( ^! coeffici5ts4 ,dea? may be ! result ( a comb9ation ( causes2 organic disease co-op]at+ ) exposure1 ov]-fatigue co-op]at+ ) ! enfeeblem5t ( ! sy/em by disease4 ,! te*nical names = ^! difficulties1 ,plurality ( ,causes & ,int]mixture ( ,effects1 are apt to confuse )\t "s cle>+ up4 ,9 bo? k9ds ( difficulty m causes ?an "o are involv$3 b 9 ! "o k9d ( case !re is a plurality ( possible or equally probable causes1 & we are at a loss to decide :i*3 9 ! o!r k9d ( case !re is a plurality ( co-op]at+ causes2 ! effect is ! result or product ( sev]al causes work+ conjo9tly1 & we are unable to assign to ea* its due %>e4 ,x is ) a view to ov]com+ ^! difficulties t ,sci5ce endeav\rs to isolate ag5cies & asc]ta9 :at ea* is capable ( s+ly4 ,mill & ,ba9 treat ,plurality ( ,causes & ,int]mixture ( ,effects 9 connexion ) ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods4 ,x is bett]1 p]haps1 to reg>d !m simply z ob/acles to explanation1 & ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods z me?ods ( ov]com+ ^? ob/acles4 ,! :ole purpose ( ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods is to isolate ag5cies & effects3 unless !y c be isolat$1 ! ,me?ods are inapplicable4 ,9 situations :]e ! effects obs]vable may be ref]r$ ) equal probability to m ?an "o cause1 y _c elim9ate s z to obta9 a s+le agreem5t4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is fru/rat$4 ,& an inve/igator c get no light f mix$ effects1 unless he kn[s en\gh ( ! causes at "w to be able to apply ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,if he does n1 he mu/ simply look out = or devise in/ances :]e ! ag5cies are at "w sep>ately1 & apply ! pr9ciple ( ,s+le ,diff]5ce4 ,great1 h[ev]1 z ! difficulties are1 ! !ory ( ,plurality & ,int]mixture baldly /at$ makes !m appe> great] ?an !y are 9 practice4 ,!re is a consid]ation t mitigates ! complication1 & r5d]s ! task ( unravell+ x n altoge!r hopeless4 ,?is is t diff]5t causes h di/9ctive ways ( op]at+1 & leave beh9d !m m>ks ( _! pres5ce by :i* _! ag5cy 9 a giv5 case may be recognis$4 ,an explosion1 = example1 occurs4 ,!re are sev]al explosive ag5cies1 capable ( caus+ z mu* de/ruction z meets ! eye at ! fir/ glance4 ,! ag5t 9 ! case be=e u may be gunp[d] or x may be dynamite4 ,b ! two ag5ts are n s alike 9 _! mode ( op]ation z to produce results id5tical 9 e circum/ance4 ,! exp]t inquir] kn[s by previ\s obs]vation t :5 gunp[d] acts ! objects 9 ! neighb\rhood are black5$2 & t an explosion ( dynamite te>s & %att]s 9 a way peculi> to itself4 ,he is ?us able to int]pret ! traces1 to make & prove a hypo!sis4 ,a man's body is f\nd dead 9 wat]4 ,x may be a "q :e!r dea? came by dr[n+ or by previ\s viol5ce4 ,he may h be5 suffocat$ & aft]w>ds ?r[n into ! wat]4 ,b ! circum/ances w tell ! true /ory4 ,dea? by dr[n+ has di/9ctive symptoms4 ,if dr[n+ 0 ! cause1 wat] w be f\nd 9 ! /oma* & fro? 9 ! tra*ea4 ,?us1 ?\gh !re may be a plurality ( possible causes1 ! causation 9 ! giv5 case may be br\ght home to "o by di/9ctive accompanim5ts1 & x is ! bus9ess ( ! sci5tific inquir] to /udy ^!4 ,:at is kn[n z ! ripple-m>k 9 s&/one surfaces may be produc$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,! mo/ famili> way is by ! action ( ! tides on ! s& ( ! sea-%ore1 & ! int]pret] :o kn[s ?is way only w\ld ascribe ! m>ks at once to ?is ag5cy4 ,b ripple-m>ks are produc$ also by ! w9ds on drift+ s&s1 by curr5ts ( wat] :]e no tidal influ5ce is felt1 & 9 fact by any body ( wat] 9 a /ate ( oscillation4 ,is x1 !n1 impossible to decide betwe5 ^! alt]native possibilities ( causation8 ,no3 w9d-ripples & curr5t-ripples & tidal-ripples h ea* _! own special "* & accompany+ conditions1 & ! hypo!sis ( "o r ?an ano!r may be made good by means ( ^!4 ,9 rock-=mations1 ,mr4 ,page says1#a !re are _m ?+s :i* at fir/ sight seem simil>1 & yet on m m9ute exam9ation1 diff]5ces are detect$ & conditions discov]$ :i* r5d] x impossible t ^! appe>ances c h aris5 f ! same causation4 ,! tru? is t g5]ally :5 we speak ( plurality ( causes1 ( alt]native possibilities ( causation1 we are n ?9k+ ( ! effect 9 its individual entirety1 b only ( "s g5]al or ab/ract aspect ( x4 ,:5 we say1 e4g41 t dea? may be produc$ by a great _m diff]5t causes1 poison1 gun%ot w\nds1 disease ( ?is or t organ1 we are ?9k+ ( dea? 9 ! ab/ract1 n ( ! p>ticul> case "u consid]ation1 :i* z an individual case1 has *>act]s s di/9ctive t only "o comb9ation ( causes is possible4 ,! ef=t ( sci5ce is to become less & less ab/ract 9 ?is s5se1 by obs]v+ ag5cies or comb9ations ( ag5cies ap>t & /udy+ ! special *>act]s ( _! effects4 ,t k is !n appli$1 on ! assumption t :]e ^? *>act]s are pres5t1 ! ag5t or comb9ation ( ag5cies has be5 at "w4 ,giv5 an effect to be expla9$1 x is br\ght home to "o out ( sev]al possible alt]natives by circum/antial evid5ce4 ,bacon's phrase1 ,in/antia ,crucis1#b or ,f+]-po/ ,in/ance1 might be conv5i5tly appropriat$ z a te*nical "n = a circum/ance t is decisive betwe5 rival hypo!ses4 ,?is 01 9 effect1 propos$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1#c :o drew att5tion to ! importance ( ^! crucial in/ances1 & gave ! foll[+ example3 ,a curi\s example is giv5 by ,m4 ,fresnel1 z decisive1 9 8 m9d1 ( ! "q betwe5 ! two great op9ions on ! nature ( light1 :i*1 s9ce ! "t ( ,newton & ,huygh5s1 h divid$ philosoph]s4 ,:5 two v clean glasses are laid "o on ! o!r1 if !y be n p]fectly flat1 b "o or bo? 9 an almo/ imp]ceptible degree convex or prom95t1 beautiful & vivid col\rs w be se5 betwe5 !m2 & if ^! be view$ ?r\gh a r$ glass1 _! appe>ance w be t ( alt]nate d>k & bright /ripes4444 ,n[1 ! col\r$ /ripes ?us produc$ are explicable on bo? !ories1 & are appeal$ to by bo? z /rong confirmatory facts2 b !re is a diff]5ce 9 "o circum/ance accord+ z "o or ! o!r !ory is employ$ to expla9 !m4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,huygh5ian doctr9e1 ! int]vals betwe5 ! bright /ripes ought to appe> absolutely black2 9 ! o!r1 half bright1 :5 view$ 9 a p>ticul> mann] ?r\gh a prism4 ,?is curi\s case ( diff]5ce 0 tri$ z soon z ! oppos+ consequ5ces ( ! two !ories 7 not$ by ,m4 ,fresnel1 & ! result is /at$ by him to be decisive 9 fav\r ( t !ory :i* makes light to consi/ 9 ! vibrations ( an ela/ic m$ium4 ,,iii4--,,! ,,pro( ,,( ,a ,,hypo!sis4 ,! complete/ pro( ( a hypo!sis is :5 t :i* has be5 hypo!tically assum$ to exi/ z a means ( acc\nt+ = c]ta9 ph5om5a is aft]w>ds actually obs]v$ to exi/ or is prov$ by descriptive te/imony to h exi/$4 ,our argum5t1 = example1 f int]nal evid5ce t ,mill 9 writ+ 8 ,logic aim$ at furni%+ a me?od = social inve/igations is confirm$ by a lett] to ,miss ,c>ol9e ,fox1 9 :i* he di/9ctly av[$ t object4 ,! mo/ /rik+ example ( ?is cr[n+ v]ification 9 ,sci5ce is ! discov]y ( ! planet ,neptune1 9 :i* case an ag5t hypo!tically assum$ 0 actually br\ght "u ! telescope z calculat$4 ,examples almo/ equally /rik+ h occurr$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,evolution doctr9e4 ,hypo!tical ance/ors ) c]ta9 peculi>ities ( /ructure h be5 assum$ z l9ks betwe5 liv+ species1 & 9 "s cases _! fossils h actually be5 f\nd 9 ! geological regi/]4 ,su* triumphs ( v]ification are necess>ily r>e4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! hypo!tical me?od is appli$ to cases :]e pro( by actual obs]vation is impossible1 su* z prehi/oric conditions ( ! e>? or ( life ^u ! e>?1 or conditions 9 ! ultimate con/itution ( matt] t are beyond ! rea* ( ! /ronge/ microscope4 ,inde$1 "s w\ld conf9e ! ^w hypo!sis to cases ( ?is k9d4 ,?is1 9 fact1 0 done by ,mill3 hypo!sis1 z he def9$ x1 0 a conjecture n completely prov$1 b ) a l>ge am\nt ( evid5ce 9 its fav\r4 ,b see+ t ! proc$ure ( inve/igation is ! same1 namely1 conjecture1 calculation & comp>ison ( facts ) ! calculat$ results1 :e!r ! ag5cy assum$ c be br\ght to ! te/ ( direct obs]vation or n1 x seems bett] n to re/rict ! ^w hypo!sis to incompletely prov$ conjectures1 b to apply x simply to a conjecture made at a c]ta9 /age 9 :atev] way x may aft]w>ds be v]ifi$4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( direct v]ification1 ! pro( ( a hypo!sis is exclusive suffici5cy to expla9 ! circum/ances4 ,! hypo!sis mu/ acc\nt = all ! circum/ances1 & !re mu/ be no o!r way ( acc\nt+ = !m4 ,ano!r requirem5t 0 m5tion$ by ,newton 9 a phrase ab\t ! exact mean+ ( :i* !re has be5 "s cont5tion4 ,! fir/ ( 8 ,regulae ,philosoph&i laid d[n t ! cause assum$ mu/ be a v]a causa4 ,we are n1 ! ,rule runs1 to admit o!r causes ( natural ?+s ?an su* z bo? are true1 & suffice = expla9+ _! ph5om5a4#d ,x has be5 argu$ t ! requirem5t ( v]ity is sup]flu\s2 t x is really includ$ 9 ! requirem5t ( suffici5cy2 t if a cause is suffici5t to expla9 ! ph5om5a x mu/ ipso facto be ! true cause4 ,?is may be te*nically arguable1 giv5 a suffici5t latitude to ! ^w suffici5cy3 nev]!less1 x is conv5i5t to di/+ui% betwe5 m]e suffici5cy to expla9 ! ph5om5a 9 "q1 & ! pro( o!rwise t ! cause assign$ really exi/s 9 r]um natura1 or t x op]at$ 9 ! giv5 case4 ,! frequ5cy ) :i* ! expression v]a causa has be5 us$ s9ce ,newton's "t %[s t a ne$ is felt = x1 ?\gh x may be h>d to def9e v]ity precisely z some?+ ap>t f suffici5cy4 ,if we exam9e ! common usage ( ! expression we %all probably f9d t :at is meant by insi/+ on a v]a causa is t we mu/ h "s evid5ce = ! cause assign$ outside ! ph5om5a 9 "q4 ,9 seek+ = v]ification ( a hypo!sis we mu/ ext5d our range beyond ! limit$ facts t h engag$ our curiosity & t dem& explanation4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ,newton himself aim$ 8 rule at ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis ( ,vortices4 ,?is 0 an attempt to expla9 ! sol> sy/em on ! hypo!sis t cosmic space is fill$ ) a fluid 9 :i* ! planets are c>ri$ r\nd z *ips ( wood 9 a :irlpool1 or leaves or du/ 9 a :irlw9d4 ,n[ ?is is s f> a v]a causa t ! action ( fluid vortices is a famili> "o3 we h only to /ir a cup ( tea ) a bit ( /alk 9 x to get an in/ance4 ,! ag5cy suppos$ is suffici5t also to acc\nt = ! revolution ( a planet r\nd ! sun1 giv5 suffici5t /r5g? 9 ! fluid to buoy up ! planet4 ,b if !re 7 su* a fluid 9 space !re w\ld be o!r ph5om5a3 & 9 ! abs5ce ( ^! o!r ph5om5a ! hypo!sis mu/ be dismiss$ z imag9>y4 ,! fact t comets pass into & out ( spaces :]e ! vortices mu/ be assum$ to be 9 action )\t exhibit+ any p]turbation is an in/antia crucis aga9/ ! hypo!sis4 ,if by ! requirem5t ( a v]a causa 7 meant t ! cause assign$ mu/ be "o directly op5 to obs]vation1 ?is w\ld und\bt$ly be too n>r[ a limit4 ,x w\ld exclude su* causes z ! e!r :i* is assum$ to fill int]/ell> space z a m$ium = ! propagation ( light4 ,! only evid5ce = su* a m$ium & its v>i\s prop]ties is suffici5cy to expla9 ! ph5om5a4 ,l suppositions z to ! ultimate con/itution ( bodies1 x is ( ! nature ( :at ,pr(essor ,ba9 calls a ,repres5tative ,fiction3 ! only condition is t x mu/ expla9 all ! ph5om5a1 & t !re mu/ be no o!r way ( expla9+ all4 ,:5 x is prov$ t light travels ) a f9ite velocity1 we are conf9$ to two alt]native ways ( conceiv+ its transmission1 a projection ( matt] f ! lum9\s body & ! transf]5ce ( vibrations ?r\gh an int]v5+ m$ium4 ,ei!r hypo!sis w\ld expla9 _m ( ! facts3 our *oice mu/ re/ ) t :i* be/ expla9s all4 ,b suppos+ t all ! ph5om5a ( light 7 expla9$ by attribut+ c]ta9 prop]ties to ?is int]v5+ m$ium1 x w\ld probably be held t ! hypo!sis ( an e!r _h n be5 fully v]ifi$ till o!r ph5om5a ?an ^? ( light _h be5 %[n to be incapable ( explanation on any o!r hypo!sis4 ,if ! prop]ties ascrib$ to x to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( light suffic$ at ! same "t to expla9 o!rwise inexplicable ph5om5a connect$ ) ,heat1 ,electricity1 or ,gravity1 ! evid5ce ( its reality w\ld be greatly /r5g!n$4 ,n only mu/ ! circum/ances 9 h& be expla9$1 b o!r circum/ances mu/ be f\nd to be su* z we %\ld expect if ! cause assign$ really op]at$4 ,take1 = example1 ! case ( ,erratic blocks or b\ld]s1 huge fragm5ts ( rock f\nd at a di/ance f _! p>5t /rata4 ,! l[l&s ( ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,irel&1 & ! great c5tral pla9 ( ,nor!rn ,europe conta9 _m su* fragm5ts4 ,_! composition %[s indubitably t !y once =m$ "p ( hills to ! nor?w>d ( _! pres5t site4 ,!y mu/ someh[ h be5 deta*$ & transport$ to :]e we n[ f9d !m4 ,h[8 ,"o old explanation is t !y 7 c>ri$ by wit*es1 or t !y 7 !mselves wit*es accid5tally dropp$ & turn$ into /one4 ,any su* explanation by sup]natural means c nei!r be prov$ nor disprov$4 ,"s logicians w\ld exclude su* hypo!ses altoge!r on ! gr\nd t !y _c be r5d]$ ei!r m or less probable by subsequ5t exam9ation4#e ,! prop] sci5tific limit1 h[ev]1 is n to ! mak+ ( hypo!ses1 b to ! pro( ( !m4 ,! m hypo!ses ! m]ri]3 only if su* an ag5cy z wit*craft is sugge/$1 we %\ld expect to f9d o!r evid5ce ( its exi/5ce 9 o!r ph5om5a t c\ld n o!rwise be expla9$4 ,aga91 x has be5 sugge/$ t ! erratic b\ld]s may h be5 transport$ by wat]4 ,wat] is s f> a v]a causa t curr5ts are kn[n to be capable ( wa%+ huge blocks to a great di/ance4 ,b blocks transport$ 9 ?is way h ! edges worn (f by ! friction ( _! passage3 &1 besides1 curr5ts /rong en\gh to dislodge & =ce along = miles blocks z big z cottages mu/ h left o!r m>ks ( _! pres5ce4 ,! explanation n[ receiv$ is t glaci]s & iceb]gs 7 ! means ( transport4 ,b ?is explanation 0 n accept$ till multitudes ( circum/ances 7 exam9$ all t5d+ to %[ t glaci]s _h once be5 pres5t 9 ! regions :]e ! erratic blocks are f\nd4 ,! m9ute habits ( glaci]s h be5 /udi$ :]e !y /ill exi/3 h[ !y sl[ly move d[n c>ry+ fragm5ts ( rock2 h[ iceb]gs break (f :5 !y rea* wat]1 float (f ) _! load1 & drop x :5 !y melt2 h[ !y gr9d & smoo? ! surfaces ( rocks ov] :i* !y pass or t are froz5 into !m3 h[ !y und]cut & m>k ! faces ( precipices pa/ :i* !y move2 h[ mora9es are =m$ at ! melt+ ends ( !m1 & s =?4 ,:5 a di/rict exhibits all ! circum/ances t are n[ obs]v$ to att5d ! action ( glaci]s ! pro( ( ! hypo!sis t glaci]s 7 once !re is complete4 ,footnote #a3 ,page's ,philosophy ( ,geology1 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #b3 ,crux 9 ?is phrase means a cross erect$ at ! p>t+ ( ways1 ) arms to tell :i!r ea* way leads4 ,footnote #c3 ,disc\rse1 ,sec4 #bah4 ,footnote #d3 ,causas r]um naturalium non plures admitti deb]e quam quae et v]iae s9t et c>um ph5om5is explic&is sufficiant4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,pr(4 ,f[l] on ! ,conditions ( ,hypo!ses1 ,inductive ,logic1 pp4 #ajj-aae4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,me?ods ,,( ,,inve/igation4 ,i4--,,! ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,av]ages4--,,supplem5t ,,to ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,diff]5ce4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( law obta9s among ev5ts t are usually spok5 ( z matt]s ( *ance or accid5t 9 ! individual case4 ,e k9d ( accid5t recurs ) a c]ta9 uni=mity4 ,if we take a succession ( p]iods1 & divide ! total numb] ( any k9d ( ev5t by ! numb] ( p]iods1 we get :at is call$ ! av]age = t p]iod3 & x is obs]v$ t su* av]ages are ma9ta9$ f p]iod to p]iod4 ,ov] a s]ies ( ye>s !re is a fix$ proportion betwe5 good h>ve/s & bad1 betwe5 wet days & dry3 e ye> ne>ly ! same numb] ( suicides takes place1 ! same numb] ( crimes1 ( accid5ts to life & limb1 ev5 ( suicides1 crimes1 or injuries by p>ticul> means3 e ye> 9 a t[n ne>ly ! same numb] ( *ildr5 /ray f _! p>5ts & are re/or$ by ! police3 e ye> ne>ly ! same numb] ( p]sons po/ lett]s )\t putt+ an address on !m4 ,?is ma9t5ance ( av]ages is simple matt] ( obs]vation1 a datum ( exp]i5ce1 an empirical law4 ,once an av]age = any k9d ( ev5t has be5 not$1 we may c\nt ^u its cont9uance z we c\nt ^u ! cont9uance ( any o!r k9d ( obs]v$ uni=mity4 ,insurance companies proce$ ^u su* empirical laws ( av]age 9 l5g? ( life & immunity f injuri\s accid5ts by sea or l&3 _! prosp]ity is a practical pro( ( ! correctness & complet5ess ( ! obs]v$ facts & ! s\ndness ( _! inf]5ce to ! cont9uance ( ! av]age4 ,! con/ancy ( av]ages is ?us a guide 9 practice4 ,b 9 reason+ ^u !m 9 inve/igations ( cause1 we make a fur!r assumption ?an cont9u$ uni=mity4 ,we assume t ! ma9t5ance ( ! av]age is due to ! p]man5ce ( ! produc+ causes4 ,we reg>d ! av]age z ! result ( ! op]ation ( a limit$ sum ( =ces & conditions1 incalculable z reg>ds _! p>ticul> incid5ce1 b always press+ into action1 & ?us likely to op]ate a c]ta9 numb] ( times )9 a limit$ p]iod4 ,assum+ ! correctness ( ?is explanation1 x w\ld foll[ t any *ange 9 ! av]age is due to "s *ange 9 ! produc+ conditions2 & ?is d]ivative law is appli$ z a help 9 ! obs]vation & explanation ( social facts4 ,/ati/ics are collect$ & classifi$3 av]ages are /ruck3 & *anges 9 ! av]age are ref]r$ to *anges 9 ! concomitant conditions4 ,) ! help ( ?is law1 we may make a ne> approa* to ! precision ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,a multitude ( unkn[n or unmeasur$ ag5ts may be at "w on a situation1 b we may accept ! av]age z ! result ( _! jo9t op]ation4 ,if !n a new ag5cy is introduc$ or "o ( ! kn[n ag5ts is *ang$ 9 degree1 & ?is is at once foll[$ by a *ange 9 ! av]age1 we may ) fair probability ref] ! *ange 9 ! result to ! *ange 9 ! antec$5ts4 ,! difficulty is to f9d a situation :]e only "o antec$5t has be5 *ang$ be=e ! appe>ance ( ! effect4 ,?is difficulty may be dim9i%$ 9 practice by elim9at+ *anges t we h reason to "k c\ld n h affect$ ! circum/ances 9 "q4 ,suppose1 = example1 our "q is :e!r ! ,education ,act ( #ahgb _h an influ5ce 9 ! decrease ( juv5ile crime4 ,su* a decrease took place po/ hoc2 0 x propt] hoc8 ,we may at once elim9ate or put out ( acc\nt ! abolition ( ,pur*ase 9 ! ,army or ! ext5sion ( ! ,fran*ise z n hav+ possibly ex]cis$ any influ5ce on juv5ile crime4 ,b ) all su* elim9ations1 !re may /ill rema9 o!r possible influ5ces1 su* z an improvem5t 9 ! organisation ( ! ,police1 or an expansion or contraction 9 employm5t4 ,c y tell me 9 ! face ( *ronology1 a lead+ /atesman once ask$1 t ! ,crimes ,act ( #ahhg did n dim9i% disord] 9 ,irel&8 ,b *ronological sequ5ce alone is n a pro( ( causation z long z !re are o!r contemporane\s *anges ( condition t may also h be5 influ5tial4 ,! great s\rce ( fallacy is our pron5ess to elim9ate or isolate 9 accordance ) our prejudices4 ,?is has l$ to ! gibe t any?+ c be prov$ by /ati/ics4 ,und\bt$ly /ati/ics may be made to prove any?+ if y h a suffici5tly l[ /&>d ( pro( & ignore ! facts t make aga9/ y\r conclusion4 ,b av]ages & v>iations 9 !m are in/ructive en\gh if h&l$ ) due caution4 ,! rem$y = ra% conclusions f /ati/ics is n no /ati/ics1 b m ( !m & a s\nd k ( ! conditions ( reasonable pro(4 ,,ii4--,,! ,,presumption ,,f ,,extra-,,casual ,,co9cid5ce4 ,we h se5 t repeat$ co9cid5ce raises a presumption ( causal connexion betwe5 ! co9cid+ ev5ts4 ,if we f9d two ev5ts go+ repeat$ly toge!r1 ei!r abrea/ or 9 sequ5ce1 we inf] t ! two are someh[ connect$ 9 ! way ( causation1 t !re is a reason = ! co9cid5ce 9 ! mann] ( _! production4 ,x may n be t ! "o produces ! o!r1 or ev5 t _! causes are 9 any way connect$3 b at lea/1 if !y are indep5d5t "o ( ! o!r1 bo? are ti$ d[n to happ5 at ! same place & "t1--! co9cid5ce ( bo? ) "t & place is someh[ fix$4 ,b ?\gh ?is is true 9 ! ma91 x is n true )\t qualification4 ,we expect a c]ta9 am\nt ( repeat$ co9cid5ce )\t suppos+ causal connexion4 ,if c]ta9 ev5ts are repeat$ v (t5 )9 our exp]i5ce1 if !y h great positive frequ5cy1 we may obs]ve !m happ5+ toge!r m ?an once )\t conclud+ t ! co9cid5ce is m ?an =tuit\s4 ,= example1 if we live 9 a neighb\rhood possess$ ( _m black cats1 & sally =? to our daily bus9ess 9 ! morn+1 a mis=tune 9 ! c\rse ( ! day might m ?an once foll[ ^u our meet+ a black cat z we w5t out )\t rais+ 9 our m9ds any presumption t ! "o ev5t 0 ! result ( ! o!r4 ,c]ta9 planets are above ! horizon at c]ta9 p]iods ( ! ye> & bel[ ! horizon at c]ta9 o!r p]iods4 ,all ?r\gh ! ye> m5 & wom5 are born :o aft]w>ds a*ieve di/9ction 9 v>i\s walks ( life1 9 love1 9 w>1 9 bus9ess1 at ! b>1 9 ! pulpit4 ,we p]ceive a c]ta9 numb] ( co9cid5ces betwe5 ! asc5dancy ( c]ta9 planets & ! bir? ( di/+ui%$ individuals )\t suspect+ t planet>y influ5ce 0 conc]n$ 9 _! sup]iority4 ,m>riages take place on all days ( ! ye>3 ! sun %9es on a good _m days at ! ord9>y "t = su* c]emonies2 "s m>riages are happy1 "s unhappy2 b ?\gh 9 ! case ( _m happy m>riages ! sun has %one ^u ! bride1 we reg>d ! co9cid5ce z m]ely accid5tal4 ,m5 (t5 dream ( calamities & (t5 suff] calamities 9 real life3 we %\ld expect ! co9cid5ce ( a dream ( calamity foll[$ by a reality to occur m ?an once z a result ( *ance4 ,!re are ?\s&s ( m5 ( diff]5t nationalities 9 bus9ess 9 ,london1 & _m =tunes are made3 we %\ld expect m ?an "o man ( any nationality repres5t$ !re to make a =tune )\t argu+ any connexion betwe5 8 nationality & 8 success4 ,we all[1 !n1 = a c]ta9 am\nt ( repeat$ co9cid5ce )\t presum+ causal connexion3 c any rule be laid d[n = det]m9+ ! exact am\nt8 ,pr(4 ,ba9 has =mulat$ ! foll[+ rule3 ,consid] ! positive frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 h[ great frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce mu/ foll[ f t1 suppos+ !re is nei!r connexion nor repugnance4 ,if !re be great] frequ5cy1 !re is connexion2 if less1 repugnance4 ,i d n "k t we c g fur!r def9ite 9 precept4 ,! numb] ( casual co9cid5ces be>s a c]ta9 proportion to ! positive frequ5cy ( ! co9cid+ ph5om5a3 t proportion is to be det]m9$ by common-s5se 9 ea* case4 ,x may be possible1 h[ev]1 to br+ out m cle>ly ! pr9ciple on :i* common-s5se proce$s 9 decid+ :at *ance w & w n acc\nt =1 al?\gh our exposition am\nts only to mak+ m cle> :at x is t we mean by *ance z di/+ui%$ f assignable reason4 ,i w\ld sugge/ t 9 decid+ :at *ance w n acc\nt =1 we make regressive application ( a pr9ciple :i* may be call$ ! pr9ciple ( ,equal & ,unequal ,alt]natives1 & :i* may be word$ z foll[s3-- ,( a giv5 numb] ( possible alt]natives1 all equally possible1 "o ( :i* is b\nd to occur at a giv5 "t1 we expect ea* to h its turn an equal numb] ( times 9 ! long run4 ,if sev]al ( ! alt]natives are ( ! same k9d1 we expect an alt]native ( t k9d to recur ) a frequ5cy proportion$ to _! great] numb]4 ,if any ( ! alt]natives has an advantage1 x w recur ) a frequ5cy proportion$ to ! /r5g? ( t advantage4 ,situations 9 :i* alt]natives are absolutely equal are r>e 9 nature1 b !y are artificially creat$ = games ( *ance1 z 9 toss+ a co91 ?r[+ dice1 draw+ lots1 %uffl+ & deal+ a pack ( c>ds4 ,! ess5ce ( all games ( *ance is to con/ruct a numb] ( equal alt]natives1 mak+ !m z ne>ly equal z possible1 & to make no pre>rangem5t :i* ( ! numb] %all come (f4 ,we !n say t ?is is det]m9$ by *ance4 ,if we ask :y we believe t :5 we g on br++ (f "o alt]native at a "t1 ea* w h its turn1 "p ( ! answ] und\bt$ly is t giv5 by ,de ,morgan1 namely1 t we "k no reason :y "o %\ld be *os5 r ?an ano!r4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is probably n ! :ole reason = our belief4 ,! rational belief 9 ! matt] is t x is only 9 ! long run or on ! av]age t ea* ( ! equal alt]natives w h its turn1 & ?is is probably f\nd$ on ! exp]i5ce ( actual trial4 ,! m]e equality ( ! alt]natives1 suppos+ !m to be p]fectly equal1 w\ld ju/ify u z mu* 9 expect+ t ea* w\ld h its turn 9 a s+le revolution ( ! s]ies1 9 "o complete cycle ( ! alt]natives4 ,?is1 inde$1 may be describ$ z ! natural & primitive expectation :i* is correct$ by exp]i5ce4 ,put six balls 9 a wick] bottle1 %ake !m up1 & roll "o out3 return ?is "o1 & repeat ! op]ation3 at ! end ( six draws we might expect ea* ball to h _h its turn ( be+ drawn if we w5t m]ely on ! ab/ract equality ( ! alt]natives4 ,b exp]i5ce %[s u t 9 six successive draws ! same ball may come out twice or ev5 ?ree or f\r times1 al?\gh :5 ?\s&s ( draw+s are made ea* comes out ne>ly an equal numb] ( times4 ,s 9 toss+ a co91 heads may turn up t5 or twelve times 9 succession1 ?\gh 9 ?\s&s ( tosses heads & tails are ne>ly equal4 ,runs ( luck are ?us )9 ! rational doctr9e ( *ances3 x is only 9 ! long run t luck is equalis$ suppos+ t ! ev5ts are pure matt] ( *ance1 t is1 suppos+ ! fundam5tal alt]natives to be equal4 ,if ?ree out ( six balls are ( ! same col\r1 we expect a ball ( t col\r to come out ?ree times z (t5 z any o!r col\r on ! av]age ( a long succession ( tries4 ,?is illu/rates ! second clause ( our pr9ciple4 ,! ?ird is illu/rat$ by a load$ co9 or die4 ,by mak+ regressive application ( ! pr9ciple ?us asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce1 we (t5 obta9 a clue to special causal connexion4 ,we are at lea/ enabl$ to isolate a problem = inve/igation4 ,if we f9d "o ( a numb] ( alt]natives recurr+ m frequ5tly ?an ! o!rs1 we are entitl$ to presume t !y are n equally possible1 t !re is "s inequality 9 _! conditions4 ,! inequality may simply lie 9 ! great] possible frequ5cy ( "o ( ! co9cid+ ev5ts1 z :5 !re are ?ree black balls 9 a bottle ( six4 ,we mu/ !re=e disc\nt ! positive frequ5cy be=e look+ = any o!r cause4 ,suppose1 = example1 we f9d t ! asc5dancy ( ,jupit] co9cides m frequ5tly ) ! bir? ( m5 aft]w>ds di/+ui%$ 9 bus9ess ?an ) ! bir? ( m5 o!rwise di/+ui%$1 say 9 w>1 or at ! b>1 or 9 s*ol>%ip4 ,we are n at lib]ty to conclude planet>y influ5ce till we h comp>$ ! positive frequ5cy ( ! diff]5t modes ( di/9ction4 ,! explanation ( ! m frequ5tly repeat$ co9cid5ce may simply be t m m5 altoge!r are successful 9 bus9ess ?an 9 w> or law or s*ol>%ip4 ,if s1 we say t *ance acc\nts = ! co9cid5ce1 t is to say1 t ! co9cid5ce is casual z f> z planet>y influ5ce is conc]n$4 ,s 9 epidemics ( fev]1 if we f9d on tak+ a long av]age t m cases occur 9 "s /reets ( a t[n ?an 9 o!rs1 we are n w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t ! cause lies 9 ! sanit>y conditions ( ^? /reets or 9 any special liability to infection )\t fir/ tak+ into acc\nt ! numb] ( families 9 ! diff]5t /reets4 ,if "o /reet %[$ on ! av]age t5 times z _m cases z ano!r1 ! co9cid5ce might /ill be judg$ casual if !re 7 t5 times z _m families 9 x4 ,ap>t f ! fallacy ( ov]look+ ! positive frequ5cy1 c]ta9 o!r fallacies or liabilities to error 9 apply+ ?is doctr9e ( *ances may be specifi$4 #a4 ,we are apt1 "u ! influ5ce ( prepossession or prejudice1 to rememb] c]ta9 co9cid5ces bett] ?an o!rs1 & s to imag9e extra-casual co9cid5ce :]e none exi/s4 ,?is bias works 9 confirm+ all k9ds ( e/abli%$ beliefs1 sup]/iti\s & o!r1 beliefs 9 dreams1 om5s1 retributions1 telepa?ic communications1 & s =?4 ,_m p believe t nobody :o ?w>ts !m ev] comes to good1 & c produce num]\s in/ances f exp]i5ce 9 support ( ?is belief4 #b4 ,we are apt1 aft] prov+ t !re is a residuum beyond :at *ance w acc\nt = on due all[ance made = positive frequ5cy1 to take = grant$ t we h prov$ "s p>ticul> cause = ?is residuum4 ,n[ we h n really expla9$ ! residuum by ! application ( ! pr9ciple ( *ances3 we h only isolat$ a problem = explanation4 ,!re may be m ?an *ance w acc\nt =3 yet ! cause may n be ! cause t we assign (f-h&4 ,take1 = example1 ! co9cid5ce t has be5 rem>k$ betwe5 race & diff]5t =ms ( ,*ri/ianity 9 ,europe4 ,if ! di/ribution ( religi\s sy/ems 7 entirely indep5d5t ( race1 x might be said t y w\ld expect "o sy/em to co9cide equally (t5 ) diff]5t races 9 proportion to ! positive numb] ( _! communities4 ,b ! ,greek sy/em is f\nd almo/ solely among ,slavonic peoples1 ! ,roman among ,celtic1 & ! ,prote/ant among ,teutonic4 ,! co9cid5ce is great] ?an *ance w acc\nt =4 ,is ! explanation !n to be f\nd 9 "s special adaptability ( ! religi\s sy/em to ! "* ( ! p8 ,?is may be ! "r explanation1 b we h n prov$ x by m]ely disc\nt+ *ance4 ,to prove ?is we mu/ %[ t !re 0 no o!r cause at "w1 t "* 0 ! only op]ative condition 9 ! *oice ( sy/em1 t political comb9ations1 = example1 _h no?+ to d ) x4 ,! presumption f extra-casual co9cid5ce is only t !re is a special cause3 9 det]m9+ :at t is we mu/ con=m to ! ord9>y conditions ( explanation4 ,s co9cid5ce betwe5 memb]%ip ( ! ,gov]nm5t & a classical education may be great] ?an *ance w\ld acc\nt =1 & yet ! circum/ance ( hav+ be5 taught ,lat9 & ,greek at s*ool may h _h no special influ5ce 9 qualify+ ! memb]s = _! duties4 ,! proportion ( classically educat$ 9 ! ,gov]nm5t may be great] ?an ! proportion ( !m 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 & yet _! em95ce may be 9 no way due to _! education4 ,m5 ( a c]ta9 social position h an advantage 9 ! competition = (fice1 & all ^? m5 h be5 taught ,lat9 & ,greek z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,te*nically speak+1 ! co9cid+ ph5om5a may be indep5d5t effects ( ! same cause4 #c4 ,:]e ! alt]native possibilities are v num]\s1 we are apt n to make due all[ance = ! numb]1 sometimes ov]rat+ x1 sometimes und]rat+ x4 ,! fallacy ( und]rat+ ! numb] is (t5 se5 9 games ( *ance1 :]e ! object is to create a va/ numb] ( alt]natives1 all equally possible1 equally op5 to ! play]1 )\t 8 be+ able to affect ! adv5t ( "o m ?an ano!r4 ,9 :i/1 = example1 !re are "s six billions ( possible h&s4 ,yet x is a common impression t1 "o night ) ano!r1 9 ! c\rse ( a ye>1 a play] w h dealt to him ab\t an equal numb] ( good & bad h&s4 ,?is is a fallacy4 ,a v mu* long] "t is requir$ to exhau/ ! possible comb9ations4 ,suppose a play] to h #bjjj h&s 9 ! c\rse ( a ye>3 ?is is only "o set1 "o comb9ation1 out ( ?\s&s ( millions ( su* sets possible4 ,among ^? millions ( sets1 if !re is no?+ b *ance 9 ! matt]1 !re ought to be all proportions ( good & bad1 "s sets all good1 "s all bad1 z well z "s equally divid$ betwe5 good & bad4#a ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! numb] ( possible alt]natives is ov]rat$4 ,?us1 visitors to ,london (t5 rem>k t !y nev] g !re )\t meet+ somebody f _! own locality1 & !y are surpris$ at ?is z if !y _h ! same *ance ( meet+ _! fell[-visitors & any o!r ( ! f\r millions ( ! metropolis4 ,b really ! possible alt]natives ( r5c\nt] are f> less num]\s4 ,! places frequ5t$ by visitors to ,london are fill$ by mu* m limit$ numb]s3 ! possible r5c\nt]s are to be c\nt$ by ?\s&s r ?an by millions4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,de ,morgan's ,essay on ,probabilities1 c4 vi41 ,on ,common ,notions ( ,probability4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,probable ,,inf]5ce ,,to ,,p>ticul>s--,,! ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,probability4 ,und\bt$ly !re are degrees ( probability4 ,n only d we expect "s ev5ts ) m confid5ce ?an o!rs3 we may d s1 & our confid5ce may be misplac$3 b we h reason to expect "s ) m confid5ce ?an o!rs4 ,!re are diff]5t degrees ( rational expectation4 ,c ^? degrees be measur$ num]ically8 ,! "q has come into ,logic f ! ma!maticians4 ,! calculation ( ,probabilities is a bran* ( ,ma!matics4 ,we h se5 h[ x may be appli$ to guide inve/igation by elim9at+ :at is due to *ance1 & x has be5 vaguely conceiv$ by logicians t :at is call$ ! calculus ( probabilities might be f\nd useful also 9 det]m9+ by exact num]ical measurem5t ! probability ( s+le ev5ts4 ,dr4 ,v5n1 :o has writt5 a sep>ate treatise on ! ,logic ( ,*ance1 m5tions accurate quantitative apportionm5t ( our belief z "o ( ! goals :i* ,logic %\ld /rive to atta94 ,! foll[+ passage w %[ 8 drift4#a ,a man 9 good heal? w\ld d\btless l to "k :e!r he w be alive ?is "t next ye>4 ,! fact w be settl$ "o way or ! o!r 9 due "t1 if he c af=d to wait1 b if he wants a pres5t decision1 ,/ati/ics & ! ,!ory ( ,probability c alone give him any in=mation4 ,he le>ns t ! odds are1 say five to "o t he w survive1 & ?is is an answ] to 8 "q z f> z any answ] c be giv54 ,/ati/icians are gradually accumulat+ a va/ mass ( data ( ?is g5]al "*4 ,:at !y may be said to aim at is to place u 9 ! position ( be+ able to say1 9 any giv5 "t or place1 :at are ! odds = or aga9/ any at pres5t indet]m9able fact :i* belongs to a class admitt+ ( /ati/ical treatm5t4 ,aga91 outside ! regions ( /ati/ics prop]--:i* deal1 broadly speak+1 ) ev5ts :i* c be numb]$ or measur$1 & :i* occur ) "s frequ5cy--!re is /ill a l>ge field z to :i* "s bett] approa* to a reason$ int5sity ( belief c be acquir$4 ,:at w be ! issue ( a com+ w>8 ,:i* p>ty w w9 9 ! next election8 ,w a pati5t 9 ! crisis ( a giv5 disease recov] or n8 ,t /ati/ics are ly+ "h 9 ! backgr\nd1 & are ?us indirectly effici5t 9 produc+ & graduat+ our belief1 ,i fully hold2 b !re is su* a l>ge int]m$iate process ( e/imat+1 & su* scope = ! ex]cise ( a practis$ judgm5t1 t no direct appeal to /ati/ics 9 ! common s5se c directly help u4 ,9 sket*+ out !re=e ! claims ( an ,ideal condition ( k1 we ought cle>ly to include a due apportionm5t ( belief to e ev5t ( su* a class z ?is4 ,x is an obvi\s defect t "o man %\ld reg>d z almo/ c]ta9 :at ano!r man reg>ds z almo/ impossible4 ,%ort1 !re=e1 ( c]ta9 prevision ( ! future1 we want complete agreem5t z to ! degree ( probability ( e future ev5t3 & = t matt] ( e pa/ ev5t z well4 ,te*nically speak+1 if we ext5d ! "n ,modality 7see p4 #gh7 to any qualification ( ! c]ta9ty ( a /atem5t ( belief1 :at ,dr4 ,v5n "h desid]ates1 z he has himself sugge/$1 is a m exact measurem5t ( ! ,modality ( propositions4 ,we speak ( ?+s z be+ c]ta91 possible1 impossible1 probable1 extremely probable1 fa9tly probable1 & s =?3 tak+ c]ta9ty z ! highe/ degree ( probability#b %ad+ gradually d[n to ! z]o ( ! impossible1 c we obta9 an exact num]ical measure = ! gradations ( assurance8 ,to exam9e ! pr9ciples ( all ! cases 9 :i* *ances = & aga9/ an occurr5ce h be5 calculat$ f real or hypo!tical data1 w\ld be to trespass into ! prov9ce ( ,ma!matics1 b a few simple cases w s]ve to %[ :at x is t ! calculus attempts to measure1 & :at is ! practical value ( ! measurem5t z appli$ to ! probability ( a s+le ev5t4 ,suppose !re are #ajj balls 9 a box1 #cj :ite & #gj black1 all be+ alike except 9 respect ( col\r1 we say t ! *ances ( draw+ a black ball z aga9/ a :ite are z #g to #c1 & ! probability ( draw+ black is measur$ by ! fraction #g_/aj4 ,9 believ+ ?is we proce$ on ! pr9ciple already expla9$ 7p4 #cef7 ( ,proportional ,*ances4 ,we d n "k = c]ta9 :e!r black or :ite w em]ge1 b kn[+ ! antec$5t situation we expect black r ?an :ite ) a degree ( assurance correspond+ to ! proportions ( ! two 9 ! box4 ,x is our degree ( rational assurance t we measure by ?is fraction1 & ! rationality ( x dep5ds on ! objective condition ( ! facts1 & is ! same = all m51 h[ev] mu* _! actual degree ( confid5ce may v>y ) individual temp]am5t4 ,t black w be drawn sev5 times out ( e t5 on an av]age if we g on draw+ to inf9ity1 is z c]ta9 z any empirical law3 x is ! probability ( a s+le draw t we measure by ! fraction #g_/aj4 ,:5 we build expectations ( s+le ev5ts on /ati/ics ( obs]v$ proportions ( ev5ts ( t k9d1 x is ultimately on ! same pr9ciple t rational expectation re/s4 ,t ! proportion w obta9 on ! av]age we reg>d z c]ta93 ! ratio ( fav\rable cases to ! :ole numb] ( possible alt]natives is ! measure ( rational expectation or probability 9 reg>d to a p>ticul> occurr5ce4 ,if e ye> five p] c5t4 ( ! *ildr5 ( a t[n /ray f _! gu>dians1 ! probability ( ?is or t *ild's go+ a/ray is #a_/bj4 ,! ratio is a correct measure only on ! assumption t ! av]age is ma9ta9$ f ye> to ye>4 ,)\t go+ into ! comb9ation ( probabilities1 we are n[ 9 a position to see ! practical value ( su* a calculus z appli$ to p>ticul> cases4 ,!re has be5 "s misund]/&+ among logicians on ! po9t4 ,mr4 ,jevons rebuk$ ,mill = speak+ disrespectfully ( ! calculus1 eulogis$ x z "o ( ! noble/ creations ( ! human intellect1 & quot$ ,butl]'s say+ t ,probability is ! guide ( life4 ,b :5 ,butl] utt]$ ?is fam\s say+ he 0 probably n ?9k+ ( ! ma!matical calculus ( probabilities z appli$ to p>ticul> cases1 & x 0 ?is special application to :i* ,mill atta*$ comp>atively little value4 ,! tru? is t we seldom calculate or h any occasion to calculate individual *ances except z a matt] ( curiosity4 ,x is true t insurance (fices calculate probabilities1 b x is n ! probability ( ?is or t man dy+ at a p>ticul> age4 ,! precise %ade ( probability = ! individual1 9 s f> z ?is dep5ds on vital /ati/ics1 is a matt] ( indiff]5ce to ! company z long z ! av]age is ma9ta9$4 ,our expectations ab\t any individual life _c be measur$ by a calculation ( ! *ances because a v>iety ( o!r elem5ts affect ^? expectations4 ,we =m beliefs ab\t individual cases1 b we try to get sur] gr\nds = !m ?an ! *ances z calculable f /ati/ical data4 ,suppose a p]son 7 to in/itute a home = lo/ dogs1 he w\ld d\btless try to asc]ta9 h[ _m dogs 7 likely to g a/ray1 & 9 s do+ w\ld be guid$ by /ati/ics4 ,b 9 judg+ ( ! probability ( ! /ray+ ( a p>ticul> dog1 he w\ld pay little he$ to /ati/ics z det]m9+ ! *ances1 b w\ld proce$ ^u empirical k ( ! "* ( ! dog & 8 ma/]4 ,ev5 9 bett+ on ! field aga9/ a p>ticul> horse1 ! bookmak] does n calculate f num]ical data su* z ! numb] ( horses ent]$ or ! numb] ( times ! fav\rite has be5 beat53 he tries to get at ! p$igree & previ\s p]=mances ( ! v>i\s horses 9 ! runn+4 ,we proce$ by calculation ( *ances only :5 we _c d bett]4 ,footnote #a3 ,empirical ,logic1 p4 #eef4 ,footnote #b3 ,mr4 ,jevons held t all inf]5ce is m]ely probable & t no inf]5ce is c]ta94 ,b ?is is a purposeless repudiation ( common mean+1 :i* he _c himself consi/5tly adh]e to4 ,we f9d him say+ t if a p5ny is toss$ into ! air x w c]ta9ly come d[n on "o side or ! o!r1 on :i* side be+ a matt] ( probability4 ,9 common spee* probability is appli$ to a degree ( belief %ort ( c]ta9ty1 b to say t c]ta9ty is ! highe/ degree ( probability does no viol5ce to ! common mean+4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,inf]5ce ,,f ,,analogy4 ,! ^w ,analogy 0 appropriat$ by ,mill1 9 accordance ) ! usage ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 to designate a gr\nd ( inf]5ce di/9ct f t on :i* we proce$ 9 ext5d+ a law1 empirical or sci5tific1 to a new case4 ,b x is us$ 9 v>i\s o!r s5ses1 m or less simil>1 & 9 ord] to make cle> ! exact logical s5se1 x is well to specify "s ( ^!4 ,! orig9al ^w ,greek3 analogia1 z employ$ by ,ari/otle1 corresponds to ! ^w ,proportion 9 ,ari?metic3 x signifi$ an equality ( ratios1 ,greek3 isotes logon3 two comp>$ ) f\r is analog\s to f\r comp>$ ) eight4 ,!re is some?+ ( ! same mean+ 9 ! te*nical use ( ! ^w 9 ,physiology1 :]e x is us$ to signify simil>ity ( function z di/+ui%$ f simil>ity ( /ructure1 :i* is call$ homology3 ?us ! tail ( a :ale is analog\s to ! tail ( a fi%1 inasmu* z x is simil>ly us$ = motion1 b x is homolog\s ) ! h9d legs ( a quadrup$2 a man's arms are homolog\s ) a horse's =e legs1 b !y are n analog\s inasmu* z !y are n us$ = progression4 ,ap>t f ^! te*nical employm5ts1 ! ^w is loosely us$ 9 common spee* = any k9d ( resemblance4 ,?us ,de ,qu9cey speaks ( ! analogical p[] 9 memory1 mean+ !reby ! p[] ( recall+ ?+s by _! inh]5t lik5ess z di/+ui%$ f _! casual connexions or _! ord] 9 a s]ies4 ,b ev5 9 common spee*1 !re is a trace ( ! orig9al mean+3 g5]ally :5 we speak ( analogy we h 9 our m9ds m ?an "o pair ( ?+s1 & :at we call ! analogy is "s resemblance betwe5 ! diff]5t pairs4 ,?is is probably :at ,:ately _h 9 view :5 he def9$ analogy z resemblance ( relations4 ,9 a /rict logical s5se1 h[ev]1 z def9$ by ,mill1 sanction$ by ! previ\s usage ( ,butl] & ,kant1 analogy means m ?an a resemblance ( relations4 ,x means a prepond]at+ resemblance betwe5 two ?+s su* z to w>rant u 9 inf]r+ t ! resemblance ext5ds fur!r4 ,?is is a species ( argum5t di/9ct f ! ext5sion ( an empirical law4 ,9 ! ext5sion ( an empirical law1 ! gr\nd ( inf]5ce is a co9cid5ce frequ5tly repeat$ )9 our exp]i5ce1 & ! inf]5ce is t x has occurr$ or w occur beyond t exp]i5ce3 9 ! argum5t f analogy1 ! gr\nd ( inf]5ce is ! resemblance betwe5 two individual objects or k9ds ( objects 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( po9ts1 & ! inf]5ce is t !y resemble "o ano!r 9 "s o!r po9t1 kn[n to belong to ! "o1 b n kn[n to belong to ! o!r4 ,two ?+s g toge!r 9 _m cases1 !re=e 9 all1 includ+ ?is "o1 is ! argum5t 9 ext5d+ a g5]alisation3 ,two ?+s agree 9 _m respects1 !re=e 9 ?is o!r1 is ! argum5t f analogy4 ,! example giv5 by ,reid 9 8 ,intellectual ,p[]s has become ! /&>d illu/ration ( ! peculi> argum5t f analogy4 ,we may obs]ve a v great similitude betwe5 ?is e>? :i* we inhabit1 & ! o!r planets1 ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 ,m>s1 ,v5us & ,m]cury4 ,!y all revolve r\nd ! sun1 z ! e>? does1 al?\gh at diff]5t di/ances & 9 diff]5t p]iods4 ,!y borr[ all _! light f ! sun1 z ! e>? does4 ,sev]al ( !m are kn[n to revolve r\nd _! axis l ! e>?1 & by t means h l succession ( day & night4 ,"s ( !m h moons1 t s]ve to give !m light 9 ! abs5ce ( ! sun1 z our moon does to u4 ,!y are all1 9 _! motions1 subject to ! same law ( gravitation z ! e>? is4 ,f all ?is similitude x is n unreasonable to ?9k t ^! planets may1 l our e>?1 be ! habitation ( v>i\s ord]s ( liv+ creatures4 ,!re is "s probability 9 ?is conclusion f analogy4#a ,! argum5t f analogy is sometimes said to range ?r\gh all degrees ( probability f c]ta9ty to z]o4 ,b ?is is true only if we take ! ^w analogy 9 its loose/ s5se = any k9d ( resemblance4 ,if we d ?is1 we may call any k9d ( argum5t an argum5t f analogy1 = all inf]5ces turn ^u resemblance4 ,i believe t if ,i ?r[ my p5 9 ! air x w come d[n aga91 because x is l o!r pond]able bodies4 ,b if we use ! ^w 9 its limit$ logical s5se1 ! degree ( probability is mu* ne>] z]o ?an c]ta9ty4 ,?is is app>5t f ! conditions t logicians h =mulat$ ( a /rict argum5t f analogy4 #a4 ,! resemblance mu/ be prepond]at+4 ,9 e/imat+ ! value ( an argum5t f analogy1 we mu/ reckon ! po9ts ( diff]5ce z c\nt+ aga9/ ! conclusion1 & also ! po9ts 9 reg>d to :i* we d n "k :e!r ! two objects agree or diff]4 ,! num]ical measure ( value is ! ratio ( ! po9ts ( resemblance to ! po9ts ( diff]5ce plus ! unkn[n po9ts4 ,?us1 9 ! argum5t t ! planets are inhabit$ because !y resemble ! e>? 9 "s respects & ! e>? is inhabit$1 ! =ce ( ! analogy is weak5$ by ! fact t we "k v little ab\t ! surface ( ! planets4 #b4 ,9 a num]ical e/imate all circum/ances t hang toge!r z effects ( "o cause mu/ be reckon$ z "o4 ,o!rwise1 we might make a fallaci\sly impos+ array ( po9ts ( resemblance4 ,?us 9 ,reid's enum]ation ( ! agreem5ts betwe5 ! e>? & ! planets1 _! revolution r\nd ! sun & _! ob$i5ce to ! law ( gravitation %\ld c\nt z "o po9t ( resemblance4 ,if two objects agree 9 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 b b foll[s f a1 & d & e f c1 ! five po9ts c\nt only z two4 #c4 ,if ! object to :i* we inf] is kn[n to possess "s prop]ty incompatible ) ! prop]ty inf]r$1 ! g5]al resemblance c\nts = no?+4 ,! moon has no atmosph]e1 & we "k t air is an indisp5sable condition ( life4 ,h5ce1 h[ev] mu* ! moon may resemble ! e>?1 we are deb>r$ f conclud+ t !re are liv+ creatures on ! moon su* z we "k to exi/ on ! e>?4 ,we "k also t life su* z x is on ! e>? is possible only )9 c]ta9 limits ( temp]ature1 & t ,m]cury is too hot = life1 & ,saturn too cold1 no matt] h[ great ! resemblance to ! e>? 9 o!r respects4 #d4 ,if ! prop]ty inf]r$ is kn[n or presum$ to be a concomitant ( "o or m ( ! po9ts ( resemblance1 any argum5t f analogy is sup]flu\s4 ,?is is1 9 effect1 to say t we h no occasion to argue f g5]al resemblance :5 we h reason to believe t a prop]ty foll[s f some?+ t an object is kn[n to possess4 ,if we knew t any "o ( ! planets possess$ all ! conditions1 positive & negative1 ( life1 we %\ld n require to reckon up all ! respects 9 :i* x resembles ! e>? 9 ord] to create a presumption t x is inhabit$4 ,we %\ld be able to draw ! conclusion on o!r gr\nds ?an ^? ( analogy4 ,newton's fam\s inf]5ce t ! diamond is combu/ible is sometimes quot$ z an argum5t f analogy4 ,b1 te*nically speak+1 x 0 r1 z ,pr(essor ,ba9 has po9t$ out1 ( ! nature ( an ext5d$ g5]alisation4 ,comp>+ bodies 9 respect ( _! d5sities & refract+ p[]s1 he obs]v$ t combu/ible bodies refract m ?an o!rs ( ! same d5sity2 & obs]v+ ! exceptionally high refract+ p[] ( ! diamond1 he inf]r$ f ?is t x 0 combu/ible1 an inf]5ce aft]w>ds confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,! concurr5ce ( high refract+ p[] ) inflammability 0 an empirical law2 & ,newton1 p]ceiv+ ! law1 ext5d$ x to ! adjac5t case ( ! diamond4 ,! rem>k is made by ,brew/] t _h ,newton kn[n ! refractive p[]s ( ! m9]als gre5ockite & octoh$rite1 he w\ld h ext5d$ ! inf]5ce to !m1 & w\ld h be5 mi/ak54#b ,f ^! conditions x w be se5 t we _c conclude ) any high degree ( probability f analogy alone4 ,?is is n to d5y1 z ,mr4 ,jevons seems to suppose1 t analogies1 9 ! s5se ( g5]al resemblances1 are (t5 useful 9 direct+ inve/igation4 ,:5 we f9d two ?+s v mu* alike1 & asc]ta9 t "o ( !m possesses a c]ta9 prop]ty1 ! presumption t ! o!r has ! same is /rong en\gh to make x wor? :ile try+ :e!r z a matt] ( fact x has4 ,x is said t a g5]al resemblance ( ! hills ne> ,ball>at 9 ,au/ralia to ! ,cali=nian hills :]e gold _h be5 f\nd sugge/$ ! idea ( digg+ = gold at ,ball>at4 ,?is 0 a lucky issue to an argum5t f analogy1 b d\btless _m h dug = gold on simil> g5]al resemblances )\t f9d+ t ! resemblance ext5d$ to t p>ticul>4 ,simil>ly1 _m ( ! ext5sions ( ! ,ph>macopeia h proce$$ ^u g5]al resemblances1 ! fact t "o drug resembles ano!r 9 c]ta9 prop]ties be+ a suffici5t reason = try+ :e!r ! resemblance goes fur!r4 ,! lucky guesses ( :at is kn[n z natural sagacity are (t5 analogical4 ,a man ( wide exp]i5ce 9 any subject-matt] su* z ! wea!r1 or ! conduct ( m5 9 w>1 9 bus9ess1 or 9 politics1 may conclude to ! case 9 h& f "s previ\s case t be>s a g5]al resemblance to x1 & v (t5 8 conclusions may be p]fectly s\nd ?\gh he has n made a num]ical e/imate ( ! data4 ,! *ief s\rce ( fallacy 9 analogical argum5t is ignor+ ! numb] ( po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,x (t5 happ5s t an am\nt ( resemblance only suffici5t = a rhetorical simile is made to d duty z a solid argum5t4 ,?us ! resemblance betwe5 a liv+ body & ! body politic is sometimes us$ to support inf]5ces f successful !rapeutic treatm5t to ,/ate policy4 ,! advocates ( annual ,p>liam5ts 9 ! "t ( ! ,commonweal? bas$ _! case on ! s]p5t's habit ( annually ca/+ its sk94 ,wise/ ( bea/s ! s]p5t see1 ,j emblem ( et]nity1 ,& ( a ,/ate's duration2 ,ea* ye> an annual sk9 he takes1 ,& ) fre% life & vig\r wakes ,at e r5ovation4 ,brita96 t s]p5t imitate4 ,?y ,commons ,h\se1 t sk9 ( ,/ate1 ,by annual *oice re/ore2 ,s *oos+ ?\ %all live secure1 ,& fre$om to ?y sons inure1 ,till ,"t %all be no m4 ,c>lyle's say+ t a %ip c\ld nev] be tak5 r\nd ,cape ,horn if ! crew 7 consult$ e "t ! capta9 propos$ to alt] ! c\rse1 if tak5 s]i\sly z an analogical argum5t aga9/ ,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t1 is op5 to ! objection t ! diff]5ces betwe5 a %ip & a ,/ate are too great = any argum5t f "o to ! o!r to be ( value4 ,x 0 su* fallaci\s analogies z ^! t ,he9e _h 9 view 9 8 humor\s pray]1 ,heav5 def5d u f ! ,evil ,"o & f metaphors4 ,footnote #a3 ,hamilton's ,reid1 p4 #bcf4 ,footnote #b3 ,ba9's ,logic1 ii4 #ade4 ,,pr9t$ ,,at ,,! ,,ed9burgh ,,press1 #i ,,& #ab ,,"y ,,/reet 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 page #aac3 'aneo symplokes' correct$ to 'aneu symplokes'