file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #cafbg-;h4htm or #cafbg-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #cafbg_/pg#cafbg-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#cafb g_/cafbg-;h4zip7 ,! ,contempor>y ,sci5ce ,s]ies4 ,edit$ by ,havelock ,ellis4 ,,volcanoes3 ,,pa/ ,,& ,,pres5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #ahgb-ahgc ,,volcanoes3 ,,pa/ ,,& ,,pres5t4 by ,,edw>d ,,hull1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,exam9] 9 ,geology to ! ,univ]sity ( ,london4 ,) #da ,illu/rations & #d ,plates ( ,rock-,sections4 ,london3 ,walt] ,scott1 ,limit$1 #bd1 ,w>wick ,lane1 ,pat]no/] ,r[4 #ahib4 ,,by ,,! ,,same ,,au?or4 ,! ,coal-fields ( ,great ,brita93 _! ,hi/ory1 ,/ructure1 & ,res\rces4 #d? edit4 7#ahha47 ,e4 ,/an=d4 ,! ,physical ,hi/ory ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,) a ,diss]tation on ! ,orig9 ( ,we/]n ,europe & ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 7#ahhb47 ,e4 ,/an=d4 ,! ,physical ,geology & ,geography ( ,irel&4 #bnd edit4 7#ahia47 ,e4 ,/an=d4 ,treatise on ! ,build+ & ,ornam5tal ,/ones ( ,great ,brita9 & ,=eign ,c\ntries4 7#ahgb47 ,macmillan & ,co4 ,memoir on ! ,physical ,geology & ,geography ( ,arabia-,petra1 ,pale/9e1 & adjo9+ ,di/ricts4 7#ahhf47 ,committee ( ! ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund4 ,m\nt ,seir1 ,s9ai1 & ,we/]n ,pale/9e4 ,be+ a ,n>rative ( a ,sci5tific ,exp$ition1 #ahhc-hd4 7#ahhe47 ,committee ( ! ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund4 ,text-book ( ,physiography4 7#ahhh47 ,c4 ,w4 ,deacon & ,co4 ,sket* ( ,geological ,hi/ory4 7#ahhg47 ,c4 ,w4 ,deacon & ,co4 ,,preface4 ,x has n be5 my object to pres5t 9 ! foll[+ pages ev5 an approximately complete description ( ! volcanic & seismic ph5om5a ( ! globe2 su* an und]tak+ w\ld involve an am\nt ( lab\r :i* few w\ld be bold en\gh to attempt2 nor w\ld x be compatible ) ! aims ( ! ,contempor>y ,sci5ce ,s]ies4 ,i h r *os5 to illu/rate ! mo/ rec5t conclusions reg>d+ ! ph5om5a & orig9 ( volcanic action1 by ! selection ( examples drawn f ! di/ricts :]e ^! ph5om5a h be5 mo/ c>efully obs]v$ & record$ "u ! light ( mod]n geological sci5ce4 ,i h also endeav\r$ to %[1 by illu/rations c>ri$ back into lat] geological epo*s1 h[ ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ! pres5t day d n diff] 9 k9d1 ?\gh !y may 9 degree1 f ^? ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( our globe4 ,= n only d ! modes ( eruption ( volcanic mat]ials 9 pa/ geological times resemble ^? ( ! pres5t or human epo*1 b ! mat]ials !mselves are s simil> 9 "* t x is only 9 consequ5ce ( alt]ations 9 /ructure or composition :i* ! orig9al mat]ials h und]gone1 s9ce _! extrusion1 t any important di/9ctions c be recognis$ betwe5 ! volcanic products ( rec5t times & ^? ( e>li] p]iods4 ,i h1 f9ally1 endeav\r$ to f9d an answ] to two int]e/+ & important que/ions3 7#a7 ,are we n[ liv+ 9 an epo* ( extraord9>y volcanic en]gy8--a "q :i* su* t]rible outbur/s z we h rec5tly witness$ 9 ,japan1 ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 & ev5 9 ,italy1 naturally sugge/2 & 7#b7 ,:at is ! ultimate cause ( volcanic action8 ,on ?is latt] po9t ,i am gratifi$ to f9d t my conclusions are 9 accordance ) ^? exp\nd$ by "o :o has be5 appropriately designat$ ! ,ne/or ( ,mod]n ,geology1 ,pr(essor ,pre/wi*4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s ! /udy ( ! /ructure & composition ( volcanic rocks1 by means ( ! microscope br\ght to be> on _! transluc5t sections1 has add$ wond]fully to our k ( su* rocks1 & has become a special bran* ( petrological inve/igation4 ,comm5c$ by ,sorby1 & c>ri$ on by ,allport1 ,zirkel1 ,ros5bus*1 ,von ,lasaulx1 ,teall1 & _m m en?usia/ic /ud5ts1 x has ?r[n a flood ( light ^u our k ( ! mutual relations ( ! compon5t m9]als ( igne\s masses1 ! alt]ation ^! m9]als h und]gone 9 "s cases1 & ! conditions "u :i* !y h be5 erupt$ & consolidat$4 ,b no?+ t has be5 obs]v$ has t5d$ mat]ially to alt] conclusions arriv$ at by o!r processes ( reason+ reg>d+ volcanic ph5om5a1 & = ^! we h to fall back ^u obs]vations conduct$ 9 ! field on a m or less l>ge scale1 & c>ri$ on be=e1 dur+1 & aft] eruptions4 ,macroscopic & microscopic obs]vations h to g h& 9 h& 9 ! /udy ( volcanic ph5om5a4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,page ,*ap4 ,i4 ,hi/oric ,notices ( ,volcanic ,action #a-i ,,ii4 ,=m1 ,/ructure1 & ,composition ( ,volcanic ,m\nta9s #aj-ai ,,iii4 ,l9es & ,gr\ps ( ,active ,volcanic ,v5ts #bj-bi ,,iv4 ,mid-ocean ,volcanic ,isl&s #cj-dj ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,european ,,volcanoes4 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,vesuvius #da-fj ,,ii4 ,etna #fa-fh ,,iii4 ,! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 ,/romboli #fi-ge ,,iv4 ,! ,santor9 ,gr\p #gf-hc ,v4 ,european ,ext9ct or ,dormant ,volcanoes #hd-ia ,,vi4 ,ext9ct ,volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,france #ib-aab ,,vii4 ,! ,volcanic ,di/rict ( ! ,rh9e ,valley #ac-abe ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,dormant ,,or ,,moribund ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,o!r ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,dormant ,volcanoes ( ,pale/9e & ,arabia #abf-ace ,,ii4 ,! ,volcanic ,regions ( ,nor? ,am]ica #acf-ade ,,iii4 ,volcanoes ( ,new ,zeal& #adf-aec ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,t]ti>y ,,volcanic ,,di/ricts ,,( ,,! ,,briti% ,,isles4 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,antrim #aed-aei ,,ii4 ,succession ( ,volcanic ,eruptions #afj-aga ,,iii4 ,isl& ( ,mull & ,adjo9+ ,coa/ #agb-agf ,,iv4 ,isle ( ,skye #agg-agi ,v4 ,! ,scuir ( ,eigg #ahj-ahd ,,vi4 ,isle ( ,/affa #ahe-ahf ,,"p ,v4 ,,pre-,,t]ti>y ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,! ,deccan ,trap-s]ies ( ,india #ahg-ahi ,,ii4 ,abyss9ian ,table-l&s #aij-aic ,,iii4 ,cape ,colony #aid-aie ,,iv4 ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,pa/ ,geological ,p]iods ( ! ,briti% ,isles #aif-aii ,,"p ,,vi4 ,,special ,,volcanic ,,& ,,seismic ,,ph5om5a4 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,! ,eruption ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahhc #bja-baf ,,ii4 ,e>?quakes #bag-bbd ,,"p ,,vii4 ,,volcanic ,,& ,,seismic ,,problems4 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,! ,ultimate ,cause ( ,volcanic ,action #bbe-bce ,,ii4 ,lun> ,volcanoes #bcf-beb ,,iii4 ,are we ,liv+ 9 an ,epo* ( ,special ,volcanic ,activity8 #bec-beg ,,app5dix4 ,a ,brief ,acc\nt ( ! ,pr9cipal ,v>ieties ( ,volcanic ,rocks #bei-bfe ,index #bfh ,,illu/rations4 ,fig4 #a4 ,eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #ahgb-gc ,frontispiece #b4 ,cotopaxi ,page #af #c4 ,volcanic ,cone ( ,orizaba #ba ,map ( ! ,_w1 %[+ ,active & ,ext9ct ,volcanoes #bc #d4 ,t5]iffe1 se5 f ! ,ocean #ca #e4 ,view ( ! ,summit ( ,t5]iffe #ce #f4 ,probable ,aspect ( ,vesuvius at ,beg9n+ ( ,*ri/ian ,era #dc #g4 ,view ( ,vesuvius be=e #agfg #ej #h4 ,map ( ,di/rict bord]+ ,bay ( ,naples #eb #i4 ,view ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahgb #ec #aj4 ,ideal ,section ?r\gh ,etna #fc #aa4 ,map ( ! ,lip>i ,isl&s #gj #ab4 ,! ,isl& ( ,vulcano 9 ,eruption #ga #ac4 ,ideal ,section ?r\gh ,gulf ( ,santor9 #gf #ad4 ,bird's-eye ,view ( ,gulf ( ,santor9 #gi #ae4 ,gr\nd ,plan ( ,rocca ,monf9a #hj #af4 ,geological ,section ( ,tib] ,valley at ,rome #hh #ag4 ,g5]alis$ ,section ,?r\gh ! ,vale ( ,cl]mont #ic ,fig4 #ah4 ,view ( ,puy de ,dme & ,neighb\r+ ,volcanoes ,page #ie #ai4 ,mont ,demise1 se5 f ! ,s4,e4 #ajc #bj4 ,sket* ,map ( ,rh5i% ,area 9 ! ,mioc5e ,epo* #aad #ba4 ,! ,volcanic ,range ( ! ,sieb5gebirge #aag #bb4 ,section ( ,ext9ct ,crat] ( ! ,rod]b]g #abj #bc4 ,plan & ,section ( ! ,laa*] ,see #abb #bd4 ,ext9ct ,crat]s 9 ! ,jauln #acj #be4 ,m\nt ,%a/a #aci #bf4 ,=ms ( ,volcanic ,tuff-,cones1 ,auckl& #adh #bg4 ,! ,:ite ,rocks1 ,portru%1 ,co4 ,antrim #aeg #bh4 ,section across ! ,volcanic ,plateau ( ,antrim #aei #bi4 ,section at ,templepatrick #afa #cj4 ,cliff above ! ,giant's ,causeway #afc #ca4 ,! ,giant's ,causeway1 ,co4 ,antrim #afe #cb4 ,! ,*imneys1 ,nor? ,coa/ ( ,antrim #aff #cc4 ,section at ,alt na ,se>mo91 ,mull #age #cd4 ,view ( ! ,scuir ( ,eigg f ! ,ea/ #aha ,map ( ,volcanic ,b& ( ! ,moluccas #bjj #ce4 ,map ( ! ,krakatoa ,gr\p ( ,isl&s #bjc #cf4 ,section f ,v]lat5 ,isl& ?r\gh ,krakatoa #bjd ,fig4 #cg4 ,isoseismals ( ! ,*>le/on ,e>?quake ,page #bbc #ch4 ,photograph ( ! ,moon's ,surface #bda #ci4 ,portion ( ! ,moon's ,surface #bdc ,,plates4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,magnifi$ ,sections ( ,vesuvian ,lavas4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,magnifi$ ,sections ( ,volcanic ,rocks4 ,volcanoes3 ,pa/ & ,pres5t4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,hi/oric ,,notices ,,( ,,volcanic ,,action4 ,!re are no manife/ations ( ! =ces ( ,nature m calculat$ to inspire u ) feel+s ( awe & admiration ?an volcanic eruptions prec$$ or accompani$1 z !y g5]ally are1 by e>?quake %ocks4 ,few ag5ts h be5 s de/ructive 9 _! effects2 & to ! real dang]s :i* foll[ su* t]re/rial convulsions are to be add$ ! feel+s ( unc]ta9ty & revulsion :i* arise f ! fact t ! e>? ^u :i* we tread1 & :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d z ! emblem ( /ability1 may become at any mom5t ! ag5t ( our de/ruction4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n surpris+ t ! anci5t ,greeks1 :o1 z well z ! ,romans1 7 close obs]v]s ( ! ph5om5a ( ,nature1 %\ld h inve/igat$ ! causes ( t]re/rial di/urbances1 & %\ld h come to "s conclusions ^u !m 9 accordance ) ! light !y possess$4 ,^! t]rible =ces pres5t$ to ! ,greeks1 :o clo!d all ! op]ations ( ,nature 9 poetic imag]y & deifi$ h] =ces1 _! poetical & my/ical side2 & z !re 0 a deity = e natural =ce1 s !re 0 "o = e>?quakes & volcanoes4 ,vulcan1 ! de=m$ son ( ,juno 7^: "n be>s s /range a resemblance to t ( ! fir/ artific] 9 iron ( ! ,bible1 ,tubal ,ca971 is condemn$ to pass 8 days "u ,m\nt ,etna1 fabricat+ ! ?und]bolts ( ,jove1 & arms = ! gods & great h]oes ( antiquity4 ,! ,py?agoreans appe> to h held ! doctr9e ( a c5tral fire 7meson pyr7 z ! s\rce ( volcanic ph5om5a2 & 9 ! ,dialogues ( ,plato allusion is made to a subt]ranean res]voir ( lava1 :i*1 accord+ to ,simplicius1 0 9 accordance ) ! doctr9e ( ! ,py?agoreans :i* ,plato 0 rec\nt+4#a ,?ucydides cle>ly describes ! effect ( e>?quakes ^u coa/-l9es ( ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 simil> to t :i* took place 9 ! case ( ! e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 ! sea fir/ retir+ & aft]w>ds inundat+ ! %ore4 ,pl9y suppos$ t x 0 by e>?quake avulsion t isl&s 7 naturally =m$4 ,?us ,sicily 0 torn f ,italy1 ,cyprus f ,syria1 ,euboea f ,boeotia1 & ! re/2 b ?is view 0 previ\sly enunciat$ by ,ari/otle 9 8 ,p]i kosm\1 :]e he /ates t e>?quakes h torn to pieces _m p>ts ( ! e>?1 :ile l&s h be5 conv]t$ into sea1 & t tracts once cov]$ by ! sea h be5 conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,b ! mo/ philosophical views reg>d+ t]re/rial ph5om5a are ^? giv5 by ,ovid z hav+ be5 held by ,py?agoras 7ab\t ,b4,c4 #ehj74 ,9 ! ,metamorphoses 8 views reg>d+ ! int]*ange ( l& & sea1 ! effects ( runn+ wat] 9 erod+ valleys1 ! gr[? ( deltas1 ! effect ( e>?quakes 9 bury+ cities & div]t+ /reams f _! s\rces1 are rem>kable anticipations ( doctr9es n[ g5]ally held4#b ,b :at mo/ conc]ns u at pres5t are 8 views reg>d+ ! *anges :i* h come ov] volcanic m\nta9s4 ,9 8 day ,vesuvius 0 dormant1 b ,etna 0 active2 s 8 illu/rations are drawn f ! latt] m\nta92 & 9 ?is connection he obs]ves t volcanic v5ts %ift _! position4 ,!re 0 a "t1 he says1 :5 ,etna 0 n a burn+ m\nta91 & ! "t w come :5 x w cease to burn2 :e!r x be t "s cav]ns become clos$ up by ! movem5ts ( ! e>?1 or o!rs op5$1 or :e!r ! fuel is f9ally exhau/$4#c ,/rabo may be reg>d$ z hav+ orig9at$ ! view1 n[ g5]ally held1 t active volcanoes are safety-valves to ! regions 9 :i* !y are situat$4 ,ref]r+ to ! tradition record$ by ,pl9y1 t ,sicily 0 torn f ,italy by an e>?quake1 he obs]ves t ! l& ne> ! sea 9 ^? p>ts 0 r>ely %ak5 by e>?quakes1 s9ce !re are n[ orifices :]eby fire & ignit$ matt]s & wat]s escape2 b =m]ly1 :5 ! volcanoes ( ,etna1 ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 ,is*ia1 & o!rs 7 clos$ up1 ! imprison$ fire & w9d might h produc$ f> m viol5t movem5ts4#d ,! acc\nt ( ! fir/ record$ eruption ( ,vesuvius has be5 graphically relat$ by ! y\ng] ,pl9y 9 8 two lett]s to ,tacitus1 to :i* ,i %all h occasion to ref] fur!r on4#e ,^! br+ d[n ! ref]5ces to volcanic ph5om5a among/ anci5t au?ors to ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,*ri/ian era2 f all ( :i* we may inf] t ! m enlight5$ philosoph]s ( antiquity _h a g5]al idea t eruptions _h _! orig9 9 a c5tral fire )9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 t volcanic m\nta9s 7 liable to become dormant = long p]iods1 & aft]w>ds to break out into r5ew$ activity1 t !re exi/$ a connection betwe5 volcanic action & e>?quakes1 & t volcanoes are safety-valves = ! regions ar\nd4 ,x is unnecess>y t ,i %\ld pursue ! hi/orical sket* fur!r4 ,^? :o wi% to "k ! views ( writ]s ( ! ,middle ,ages w f9d !m record$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell4#f ,! long controv]sy c>ri$ on dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury betwe5 ,neptuni/s1 l$ by ,w]n] on ! "o side1 & ,vulcani/s1 l$ by ,hutton & ,playfair on ! o!r1 reg>d+ ! orig9 ( su* rocks z granite & basalt1 0 f9ally br\ght to a close by ! triumph ( ! ,vulcani/s1 :o demon/rat$ t su* rocks are ! result ( igne\s fusion2 & t 9 ! cases ( basalt & its cong5]s1 !y are be+ extrud$ f volcanic v5ts at ! pres5t day4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples = ! classification ( rocks z recognis$ 9 mod]n sci5ce may be reg>d$ z hav+ be5 f9ally e/abli%$ by ,james ,hutton1 ( ,ed9burgh1 9 8 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1#g :ile !y 7 illu/rat$ & def5d$ by ,pr(essor ,playfair 9 8 "w entitl$1 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1#h al?\gh o!r obs]v]s1 su* z ,desm>e/1 ,coll9i1 & ,guett>d1 _h 9 o!r c\ntries come to v cle> views on ?is subject4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! m important works on ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes & e>?quakes publi%$ dur+ ! pres5t c5tury3--#i #a4 ,p\lett ,scrope1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,consid]ations on ,volcanoes 7#ahbe74 ,?is "w is d$icat$ to ,lyell1 8 fell[-work] 9 ! same dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 & 0 und]tak51 z he says1 9 ord] to help to dispel t signal delusion z to ! mode ( action ( ! subtelluric =ces ) :i* ! ,elevation-,crat] !ory _h my/ifi$ ! geological _w4 ,! second edition 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgb4 #b4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by ! admirable "w1 ,on ! ,ext9ct ,volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,france1 publi%$ 9 #ahbf 7#bnd edition1 #aheh71 & is "o ( ! mo/ complete monographs on a special volcanic di/rict ev] writt54 #c4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,hibb]t1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,ext9ct ,volcanoes ( ! ,bas9 ( ,neuwi$ on ! ,l[] ,rh9e 7#ahcb74 ,dr4 ,hibb]t's "w is "o ( rem>kable m]it1 if we consid] ! "t at :i* x 0 writt54 ,= n only does x give a cle> & detail$ acc\nt ( ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ! ,eifel & ! ,l[] ,rh9e1 b x anticipates ! pr9ciples ^u :i* mod]n writ]s acc\nt = ! =mation ( riv] valleys & o!r physical features2 & 9 work+ out ! physical hi/ory ( ! ,rh9e valley bel[ ,ma9z1 & its connection ) ! ext9ct volcanoes :i* are f\nd on bo? banks ( t riv]1 he has tak5 v mu* ! same l9e ( reason+ :i* 0 "s ye>s aft]w>ds adopt$ by ,sir ,a4 ,ramsay :5 deal+ ) ! same subject4 ,x does n appe> t ! latt] writ] 0 aw>e ( ,dr4 ,hibb]t's treatise4 #d4 ,leopold von ,bu*1 ,description ,physique des ,iles ,can>ies 7#ahbe71 translat$ f ! orig9al by ,c4 ,b\lang] 7#ahcf72 ,geogno/is*e ,reise 7,b]l91 #ahji71 #b vols42 & ,reise dur* ,itali5 7#ahji74 ,f a l>ge numb] ( writ+s on volcanoes by ?is di/+ui%$ travell]1 :om ,alex&] von ,humboldt calls dem gei/rei*5 ,=s*] d] ,natur1 ! above are select$ z be+ ! mo/ important4 ,t on ! ,can>ies is accompani$ by a l>ge atlas1 9 :i* ! volcanoes ( ,t5]iffe1 ,palma1 & ,lanc]ote1 ) "s o!rs1 are elaborately repres5t$1 & are consid]$ to be> out ! au?or's views reg>d+ ! =mation ( volcanic cones by elevation or upheaval4 ,! works deal+ ) ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ,c5tral & ,s\!rn ,italy are also writt5 ) ! object1 9 "p at lea/1 ( illu/rat+ & support+ ! same !oretical views2 ) ^! we h to deal 9 ! next *apt]4 #e4 ,dr4 ,*>les ,daub5y1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,description ( ,active & ,ext9ct ,volcanoes1 ( ,e>?quakes1 & ( ,!rmal ,spr+s1 ) rem>ks on ! causes ( ^! ph5om5a1 ! "* ( _! respective products1 & _! influ5ce on ! pa/ & pres5t condition ( ! globe 7#bnd edition1 #ahdh74 ,9 ?is "w ! au?or gives detail$ descriptions ( almo/ all ! kn[n volcanic di/ricts ( ! globe1 & def5ds :at is call$ ! *emical !ory ( volcanic action--a !ory at "o "t held by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 #f4 ,wolfgang ,s>torius von ,walt]%aus51 ,d] tna4 ,?is "w possesses a melan*oly int]e/ f ! fact t its di/+ui%$ au?or did n live to see its publication4 ,von ,walt]%aus51 hav+ sp5t sev]al ye>s 9 mak+ an elaborate survey ( ,etna1 produc$ an atlas conta9+ num]\s detail$ maps1 views1 & draw+s ( ?is m\nta9 & its surr\nd+s1 :i* 7 publi%$ at ,weim> by ,engelmann 9 #aheh4 ,a description 9 ,,ms4 to accompany ! atlas 0 also prep>$1 b be=e x 0 pr9t$1 ! au?or di$1 on ! #af? ,octob] #ahgf4 ,! ,,ms4 hav+ be5 put into ! h&s ( ! late ,pr(essor ,arnold von ,lasaulx by ! publi%] ( ! atlas1 x 0 subsequ5tly br\ght out "u ! c>e ( ?is di/+ui%$ petrologi/1 :o 0 s fully fitt$ = an und]tak+ ( ?is k9d4 #g4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell 9 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology#aj devotes sev]al *apt]s to ! consid]ation ( volcanic ph5om5a1 9 :i*1 be+ 9 h>mony ) ! views ( 8 fri5d1 ,p\lett ,scrope1 he combats ! elevation !ory ( ,von ,bu*1 z appli$ to ! =mation ( volcanic m\nta9s1 hold+ t !y are built up ( a%es1 /ones1 & scori bl[n out ( ! ?roat ( ! volcano & pil$ ar\nd ! orifice 9 a conical =m4 ,toge!r ) ^! mat]ials are %eets ( lava extrud$ 9 a molt5 condition f ! sides or ?roat ( ! crat] itself4 #h4 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,w4 ,judd1 ,f4,r4,s41 9 8 able "w entitl$1 ,volcanoes3 ,:at !y are1 & :at !y tea*1#aa has furni%$ ! /ud5t ( vulcanicity ) a v complete manual ( a g5]al "* on ! subject4 ,! au?or1 hav+ ext5sive p]sonal acqua9tance ) ! volcanoes ( ! s\? ( ,europe & ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 0 well equipp$ = und]tak+ a "w ( ! k9d2 & 9 x he supports ! views ( ,lyell & ,scrope reg>d+ ! mode ( =mation ( volcanic m\nta9s4 #i4 ,sir ,ar*ibald ,geikie1 ,f4,r4,s41 9 8 elaborate monograph#ab on ! ,t]ti>y ,volcanic ,rocks ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 has record$ 8 views reg>d+ ! orig9 & succession ( ! plateau basalts & associat$ rocks ov] ! region ext5d+ f ! nor? ( ,irel& to ! ,inn] ,hebrides2 & 9 deal+ ) ^! di/ricts 9 ! foll[+ pages ,i h made ext5sive use ( 8 obs]vations & conclusions4 #aj4 ,report publi%$ by ! ,royal ,society on ! ,eruption ( ,krakatoa--drawn up by sev]al au?ors 7#ahhe7--;& ! "w on ! same subject by ,*ev4 ,v]beek1 & publi%$ by ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,ne!rl&s 7#ahhf74 ,9 ^! works all ! ph5om5a connect$ ) ! extraord9>y eruptions ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahhc are c>efully not$ & sci5tifically discuss$1 & illu/rat$ by maps & draw+s4 #aa4 ,! ,*>le/on ,e>?quake ( ,augu/ #ca1 #ahhf1 by ,capta9 ,cl>5ce ,edw>d ,dutton1 ,u4,s4 ,ordnance ,corps4 ,n9? ,annual ,report ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 #ahhg-hh1 ) maps & illu/rations4 #ab4 ,among/ o!r works :i* may be consult$ ) advantage is t ( ,mr4 ,t4 ,mell>d ,reade on ,! ,orig9 ( ,m\nta9 ,ranges2 ! ,rev4 ,osmond ,fi%]'s ,physics ( ! ,e>?2 ,pr(essor ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w9 & ,mr4 ,c4 ,davison on ,! ,int]nal ,t5sion ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 vol4 #agh2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,mallet1 ,on ! ,dynamics ( ,e>?quakes1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,academy1 vol4 xxi42 ,pr(essor ,o',reilly's ,catalogues ( ,e>?quakes1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,academy1 vol4 xxviii4 7#ahhd & #ahhh72 & ,mr4 ,a4 ,ent4 ,goo* ,on ! ,causes ( ,volcanic ,action 7,london1 #ahij74 ,^! & o!r au?orities w be ref]r$ to 9 ! text4 #a ,see ,julius ,s*w>ez ,on ! ,failure ( ,geological ,attempts made by ! ,greeks4 7,edition #ahhh47 #b ,vidi ego1 quod fu]at quondam solidissima tellus1 ,esse fretum4 ,vidi factas ex quore t]ras3 ,et procul pelago con* jacu]e m>92 ,et vetus inv5ta e/ 9 montibus an*ora sumnis4 ,quodque fuit campus1 vallem de cursus aqu>um ,fecit2 et eluvie mons e/ d$uctus 9 quor3 ,eque paludosa siccis humus aret ar5is2 ,quque sitim tul]ant1 /agnata paludibus hum5t4 ,hic fontes ,natura novos emissit1 at illuc ,clausit3 et antiquis concussa tremoribus orbis ,fulm9a prosiliunt4444 --,lib4 xv4 #bfb4 #c ,nec1 qu sulfureis ardet =nacibus1 tne ,ignea semp] erit2 neque enim fuit ignea semp]4 ,nam1 sive e/ animal tellus1 et vivit1 habetque ,spiram5ta locis flammam exhalantia multis2 ,spir&i mut>e vias1 quotiesque movetur1 ,has f9ire pote/1 illas ap]ire cav]nas3 ,sive leves imis v5ti cohib5tur 9 antris2 ,saxaque cum saxis4444 --,ibid41 #cdj4 #d ,/rabo1 lib4 vi4 #e ,tacitus1 lib4 vi4 #af1 #bj4 #f ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #aa? edition1 vol4 i41 *4 #c4 #g #b vols41 ,ed94 7#agie74 #h ,ed94 7#ahjb74 #i ,a m ext5d$ li/ ( e>ly works w be f\nd 9 ,daub5y's ,volcanoes 7#ahdh74 #aj #aa? edition 7#ahgb74 #aa #d? edition 7#ahhh74 #ab ,! ,hi/ory ( ,volcanic ,action dur+ ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,ed94 ,vol4 xxxv1 7#ahhh74 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,=m1 ,,/ructure1 ,,& ,,composition ,,( ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s4 ,! conical =m ( a volcanic m\nta9 is s g5]ally recognis$1 t _m p]sons :o h no intellig5t acqua9tance ) geological ph5om5a are 9 ! habit ( attribut+ to all m\nta9s hav+ a conical =m1 & especially if accompani$ by a truncat$ apex1 a volcanic orig94 ,yet ?is is v f> f be+ ! fact1 z "s v>ieties ( rock1 su* z qu>tzite1 n unfrequ5tly assume ?is %ape4 ,( su* we h an example 9 ! case ( ,errigal1 a qu>tzite m\nta9 9 ,donegal1 ne>ly #cjjj feet high1 :i* be>s a v ne> approa* 9 =m to a p]fect cone or pyramid1 & yet is 9 no way connect$1 z reg>ds its orig9 or /ructure1 ) volcanic ph5om5a4 ,ano!r rem>kable in/ance is t ( ,s*ehallion 9 ,scotl&1 also compos$ ( qu>tz-rock2 & o!rs may be f\nd among/ ! ranges ( ,islay & ,jura1 describ$ by ,sir ,a4 ,geikie4#a ,not)/&+1 h[ev]1 su* exceptions1 :i* might be greatly multipli$1 ! majority ( cone-%ap$ m\nta9s ov] ! globe h a volcanic orig94#b ,! orig9 ( ?is =m 9 ea* case is entirely di/9ct4 ,9 ! case ( qu>tzite m\nta9s1 ! conical =m is due to atmosph]ic influ5ces act+ on a rock ( uni=m composition1 trav]s$ by num]\s jo9ts & fissures cross+ ea* o!r at obtuse angles1 along :i* ! rock breaks up & falls away1 s t ! sides are always cov]$ by angul> %+le =m+ slopes correspond+ to ! angle ( friction ( ! rock 9 "q4 ,9 ! case ( a volcanic m\nta91 h[ev]1 ! same =m is due ei!r to accumulation ( fragm5tal mat]ial pil$ ar\nd ! cup-%ap$ holl[1 or crat]1 :i* is usually plac$ at ! apex ( ! cone1 & ow+ to :i* x is bluntly t]m9at$1 or else to ! well+ up f b5ea? ( visc\s matt] 9 ! mann] pres5tly to be describ$4 ,views ( ,sir ,humphrey ,davy & ,l4 von ,bu*4--,! "q h[ a volcanic cone came to be =m$ 0 n settl$ )\t a long controv]sy c>ri$ on by sev]al naturali/s ( em95ce4 ,"s ( ! e>li] writ]s ( mod]n times on ! subject ( vulcanicity--su* z ,sir ,humphrey ,davy & ,leopold von ,bu*--ma9ta9$ t ! conical =m 0 due to upheaval by a =ce act+ f bel[ at a c5tral focus1 :]eby ! mat]ials ( :i* ! m\nta9 is =m$ 7 =c$ to assume a qu-qu v]sal position--t is1 a position 9 :i* ! mat]ials dip away f ! c5tral focus 9 e direction4 ,b ?is view1 orig9ally conte/$ by ,scrope & ,lyell1 has n[ be5 g5]ally ab&on$4 ,x w be se5 on reflection t if a s]ies ( /rata ( a%es1 tuff1 & lava1 orig9ally horizontal1 or ne>ly s1 7 to be =c$ upw>ds into a conical =m by a c5tral =ce1 ! result w\ld be ! =mation ( a s]ies ( radiat+ fissures ev] wid5+ f ! circumf]5ce t[>ds ! focus4 ,9 ! case ( a l>ge m\nta9 su* fissures1 :e!r fill$ ) lava or o!rwise1 w\ld be ( great bread? t[>ds ! focus1 or c5tral crat]1 & c\ld n fail to make manife/ beyond dispute _! me*anical orig94 ,b no fissures ( ! k9d "h ref]r$ to are1 z a matt] ( fact1 to be obs]v$4 ,^? :i* d exi/ are too insignificant & too irregul> 9 direction to be ascrib$ to su* an orig92 s t ! views ( ,von ,bu* & ,davy mu/ be dismiss$1 z be+ unsupport$ by obs]vation1 & z unt5able on dynamical gr\nds4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! elevatory !ory1 or ! elevation-crat] !ory1 z x is call$ by ,scrope1 has be5 almo/ univ]sally ab&on$ by writ]s on vulcanicity4 ,pr9cipal ,v>ieties ( ,volcanic ,m\nta9s z reg>ds ,=m4--,b :il/ reject+ ! elevatory !ory1 x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d t volcanic cones & dome-%ap$ elevations h be5 =m$ 9 sev]al di/9ct ways1 giv+ rise to v>ieties ( /ructure ess5tially diff]5t4 ,two ( ! m g5]al ( ^! v>ieties ( =m1 ! crat]-cone & ! dome1 are f\nd 9 "s di/ricts1 z 9 ,auv]gne1 side by side4 ,! crat]-cone consi/s ( b$s or %eets ( a%es1 lapilli1 & slag pil$ up 9 a conical =m1 ) a c5tral crat] 7or cup7 conta9+ ! pr9cipal pipe ?r\gh :i* ^! mat]ials h be5 erupt$2 ! dome1 ( a v>iety ( tra*ytic lava1 :i* has be5 extrud$ 9 a molt51 or visc\s1 condition f a c5tral pipe1 & 9 su* cases !re is no di/9ct crat]4 ,!re are o!r =ms ( volcanic m\nta9s1 su* z ^? built up ( basaltic matt]1 ( :i* ,i %all h to speak h]eaft]1 b ! two =m] v>ieties are ! mo/ preval5t2 & we may n[ proce$ to consid] ! conditions "u :i* ! crat]-cone volcanoes h be5 =m$4 ,crat]i=m ,volcanic ,cones4--,( ?is class ne>ly all ! active volcanoes ( ! ,m$it]ranean region--,etna1 ,vesuvius1 ,/romboli1 & ! ,lip>i ,isl&s--may be consid]$ z repres5tatives4 ,!y consi/ ess5tially ( masses ( fragm5tal mat]ial1 :i* h f "t to "t be5 bl[n out ( an orifice & pil$ up ar\nd ) m or less regul>ity 7accord+ to ! =ce ex]t$1 & direction ( ! preval5t w9ds71 alt]nat+ ) %eets ( lava4 ,9 ?is way m\nta9s sev]al ?\s& feet 9 height & ( va/ horizontal ext5t are =m$4 ,! fragm5tal mat]ials ?us accumulat$ are ( all sizes1 f ! f9e/ du/ up to blocks _m tons 9 weight1 ! latt] be+ naturally pil$ ar\nd ne>e/ to ! orifice4 ,! f9e du/1 bl[n high into ! air by ! explosive =ce ( ! gases & vap\rs1 is (t5 c>ri$ to great di/ances by ! preval5t w9ds4 ,?us dur+ ! eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 ,a4,d4 #dgb %[]s ( a%es1 c>ri$ high into ! air by ! we/]ly w9d1 fell ov] ,con/ant9ople at a di/ance ( #gej miles4#c ,^! loose1 or p>tially consolidat$1 fragm5tal mat]ials are rudely /ratifi$1 & slope d[nw>ds & outw>ds f ! edge ( ! crat]1 s z to pres5t ! appe>ance ( :at is kn[n z ! dip ( /ratifi$ deposits :i* h be5 uprais$ f ! horizontal position by t]re/rial =ces4 ,x 0 ?is exc5trical arrangem5t :i* gave rise to ! supposition t su* volcanic a%-b$s _h be5 tilt$ up by a =ce act+ 9 ! direction ( ! volcanic ?roat1 or orifice ( eruption4 ,! int]ior wall ( ,monte di ,somma1 ! orig9al crat] ( ,vesuvius1 pres5ts a good illu/ration ( su* fragm5tal b$s4 ,i %all h occasion fur!r on to describe m fully ! /ructure ( ?is rem>kable m\nta92 s t x w suffice to say "h t ?is old prehi/oric crat]1 ! walls ( :i* enclose ! mod]n cone ( ,vesuvius1 is se5 to be =m$ ( irregul> b$s ( a%1 scori1 & fragm5tal masses1 trav]s$ by num]\s dykes ( lava1 & slop+ away outw>ds t[>ds ! surr\nd+ pla9s4 ,( simil> mat]ials are ! flanks ( ,etna compos$1 ev5 at great di/ances f ! c5tral crat]2 ! b$s ( a% & agglom]ate sometimes alt]nat+ ) %eets ( solidifi$ lava & trav]s$ by dykes ( simil> mat]ial ( lat] date1 inject$ f bel[ ?r\gh fissures =m$ dur+ p]iods ( eruptive en]gy4 ,num]\s simil> examples are to be obs]v$ 9 ! ,auv]gne region ( ,c5tral ,france & ! ,eifel4 ,& "h we f9d rem>kable cases ( brea*$ cones1 or crat]s1 :i* w require "s special description4 ,/&+ on ! summit ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 & look+ nor?w>ds or s\?w>ds1 ! eye w&]s ov] a tract =m$ ( dome-%ap$ hills & ( ext9ct crat]-cones ris+ f a granitic plat=m4 ,b :at is mo/ peculi> 9 ! sc5e is ! ruptur$ condition ( a l>ge numb] ( ! cones ) crat]s4 ,9 su* cases ! wall ( ! crat] has be5 brok5 d[n on "o side1 & we obs]ve t a /ream ( lava has be5 p\r$ out ?r\gh ! brea* & ov]fl[$ ! pla9 bel[4 ,! cause ( ?is brea*$ =m is suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,9 su* cases !re has be5 an explosion ( a%es1 /ones1 & scori f ! volcanic ?roat1 by :i* a cone-%ap$ hill ) a crat] has be5 built up4 ,?is has be5 foll[$ by molt5 lava well+ up ?r\gh ! ?roat1 & gradually fill+ ! crat]4 ,b1 z ! lava is mu* m d5se ?an ! mat]ial ( :i* ! crat] wall is compos$1 ! pressure ( ! lava outw>ds has become too great = ! resi/ance ( ! wall1 :i* consequ5tly has giv5 way at its weake/ "p &1 a brea* be+ =m$1 ! molt5 matt] has fl[$ out 9 a /ream :i* has inundat$ ! c\ntry ly+ at ! base ( ! cone4 ,9 "o in/ance m5tion$ by ,scrope1 ! orig9al upp] limit ( ! lake ( molt5 lava has left its m>k 9 ! =m ( a r+ ( slag on ! inside ( ! brea*$ crat]4#d ,crat]less ,domes4--,^! diff] ess5tially bo? 9 =m & composition f ^? j describ$1 & h _! typical repres5tatives 9 ! ,auv]gne di/rict1 ?\gh n )\t _! analogues else:]e1 z 9 ! case ( ,*imborazo1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 "o ( ! l(tie/ volcanic m\nta9s 9 ! _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,cotopaxi1 a volcano ( ! ,cordill]as ( ,quito1 /ill active1 & cov]$ by sn[ d[n to a level ( #ad1hjj feet4 ,bel[ ?is is a zone ( nak$ rock1 succe$$ by ano!r ( =e/ vegetation4 ,ow+ to ! cont9u\s extrusion ( lava f ! crat]1 ! cone is be+ gradually built up ( fre% mat]ial1 & ! crat] is comp>atively small 9 consequ5ce4--7,a diagrammatic view aft] ,a4 von ,humboldt47 ,tak+ ! ,puy de ,dme1 ,petit ,su*et1 ,cli]s\1 ,gr& ,s>c\i 9 ,auv]gne1 & ! ,mamelon 9 ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon z illu/rations1 we h 9 all ^! cases a gr\p ( volcanic hills1 dome-%ap$ & de/itute ( crat]s1 ! summits be+ r\nd$ or slightly flatt5$4 ,we also obs]ve t ! flanks rise m abruptly f _! bases1 & contra/ 9 outl9e ) ! graceful curve ( ! crat] cones4 ,! dome-%ap$ volcanoes are g5]ally compos$ ( felsitic matt]1 :e!r domite1 tra*yte1 or &esite1 :i* has be5 extrud$ 9 a molt5 or visc\s condition f "s orifice or fissure 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & be+ pil$ up & spread+ outw>ds1 necess>ily assumes su* a =m z t ( a dome1 z has be5 %[n by exp]im5t on a small scale by ,dr4 ,e4 ,rey]1 ( ,grtz4#e ,! contra/ betwe5 ! two =ms 7^? ( ! dome & ! crat]-cone7 is exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( ! ,gr& ,s>c\i & its neighb\rs4 ,! =m] is compos$ ( a species ( tra*yte2 ! latt] ( a%es & fragm5tal matt] :i* h be5 bl[n out ( _! respective v5ts ( eruption into ! air1 & pil$ up & ar\nd 9 a crat]i=m mann] ) sides ( gradually dim9i%+ slope outw>ds1 ?us giv+ rise to ! *>act]i/ic volcanic curve4 ,! two v>ieties "h ref]r$ to1 contra/+ 9 =m1 composition1 & col\r ( mat]ial1 c be cle>ly recognis$ f ! summit ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 :i* rises by a head & %\ld]s above its fell[s1 & ?us af=ds an advantage\s /&po9t f :i* to comp>e ! v>i\s =ms ( ?is rem>kable gr\p ( volcanic m\nta9s4 ,cotopaxi 7,fig4 #b7 has be5 g5]ally suppos$ to be a dome2 b ,:ymp]1 :o asc5d$ ! m\nta9 9 #ahhj1 %[s t x is a cone ) a crat]1 #b1cjj feet 9 l>ge/ diamet]4 ,he det]m9$ ! height to be #ai1fac feet above ! ocean4 ,its real elevation above ! sea is some:at mask$1 ow+ to ! fact t x rises f ! high pla9 ( ,tapia1 :i* is itself #h1ijj feet above ! sea surface4 ,! small] peak on ! "r 7,fig4 #b7 is t ( ,c>ihuairazo1 :i* rea*es an elevation ( ov] #af1jjj feet4 ,*imborazo1 9 ,columbia1 prov9ce ( ,quito1 is "o ( ! l(tie/ ( ! *a9 ( ! ,&es1 & is situat$ 9 lat4 #a #cj' ,s41 long4 #gh #eh' ,w4 ,?\gh n 9 a /ate ( activity1 x is :olly compos$ ( volcanic mat]ial1 & rea*es an elevation ( ov] #bj1jjj feet above ! ocean2 its sides be+ cov]$ by a %eet ( p]man5t sn[ to a level ( #b1fjj feet bel[ ! summit4#f ,se5 f ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 aft] ! long ra9s ( w9t]1 x pres5ts a magnific5t spectacle1 :5 ! transp>5cy ( ! air is increas$1 & its enorm\s circul> summit is se5 project$ ^u ! deep azure blue ( ! equatorial sky4 ,! great r>ity ( ! air ?r\gh :i* ! tops ( ! ,&es are se5 adds mu* to ! spl5d\r ( ! sn[1 & aids ! magical effect ( its reflection4 ,*imborazo 0 asc5d$ by ,humboldt & ,bonpl& 9 #ahjb almo/ to ! summit2 b at a height ( #ai1cjj feet by b>ometrical measurem5t1 _! fur!r asc5t 0 arre/$ by a wide *asm4 ,b\ss+ault1 9 company ) ,colonel ,hall1 accompli%$ ! asc5t z f> z ! foot ( ! mass ( column> tra*yte1 ! upp] surface ( :i*1 cov]$ by a dome ( sn[1 =ms ! summit ( ! m\nta94 ,! :ole mass ( ! m\nta9 consi/s ( volcanic rock1 v>ieties ( &esite2 !re is no trace ( a crat]1 nor ( any fragm5tal mat]ials1 su* z are usually eject$ f a volcanic v5t ( eruption4#g ,lava ,crat]-,cones4--,a ?ird =m ( volcanic m\nta9 is t :i* has be5 built up by successive eruptions ( basic lava1 su* z basalt or dol]ite1 :5 9 a molt5 condition4 ,^! are v r>e1 & ! slope ( ! sides dep5ds on ! am\nt ( orig9al viscosity4 ,:]e ! lava is highly fus$ its slope w be slight1 b if 9 a visc\s condition1 successive outp\r+s f ! orifice1 unable to rea* ! base ( ! m\nta91 w t5d to =m a cone ) increas+ slope upw>ds4 ,mauna ,loa & ,kilauea1 9 ! ,hawaiian ,gr\p1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 are basalt volcanoes 9 a normal /ate4 ,!y h di/9ct crat]s1 & ! mat]ial ( :i* ! m\nta9 is =m$ is basalt or dol]ite4 ,! volcano ( ,rangitoto 9 ,auckl&1 ,new ,zeal&1 appe>s to belong to ?is class4 ,basalt is ! mo/ fusible ( volcanic rocks1 ow+ to ! augite & magnetite x conta9s1 s t x spreads out ) a v slight slope :5 highly fus$4 ,tra*yte1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! lea/ fusible ow+ to ! pres5ce ( or?oclase felsp>1 or qu>tz2 s t ! volcanic domes =m$ ( ?is mat]ial /& at a high] angle f ! horizon ?an ^? ( basaltic cones4 #a ,sc5]y & ,geology ( ,scotl& 7#ahfe71 p4 #bad4 #b ,humboldt says3 ,! =m ( isolat$ conical m\nta9s1 z ^? ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe1 ,tunguagua1 & ,cotopaxi1 is c]ta9ly ! %ape mo/ commonly obs]v$ 9 volcanoes all ov] ! globe4--,views ( ,nature1 translat$ by ,e4 ,c4 ,ott & ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn 7#ahej74 #c ,x is suppos$ t aft] ! disa/r\s explosion ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahhc ! f9e du/ c>ri$ into ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e 0 c>ri$ r\nd almo/ ! entire globe1 & rema9$ susp5d$ = a l5g!n$ p]iod1 z describ$ 9 a future page4 #d ,ano!r rem>kable case is m5tion$ & figur$ by ,judd1 :]e "o ( ! ,lip>i ,isles1 compos$ ( pumice & ris+ out ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 has be5 brea*$ by a lava-/ream ( obsidian4--,loc4 cit41 p4 #abc4 #e ,rey] has produc$ su* dome-%ap$ masses by =c+ a quantity ( pla/] ( ,p>is 9 a pa/y condition up ?r\gh an orifice 9 a bo>d2 ref]r$ to by ,judd1 loc4 cit41 p4 #abe4 #f ,:ymp] det]m9$ ! height to be #bj1dih feet2 ,reiss & ,/bel make x #bj1gjc feet4 ,:ymp] ?9ks !re may be a crat] conceal$ b5ea? ! dome ( sn[4--,travels among/ ! ,great ,&es ( ! ,equator1 by ,edw>d ,:ymp] 7#ahib74 #g ,:ymp] /ates t !re is a preval5t idea t ,cotopaxi & a volcano call$ ,sangai act z safety-valves to ea* o!r4 ,sangai rea*es an elevation 7accord+ to ,reiss & ,/bel7 ( #ag1dfd feet1 & s5ds int]mitt5t jets ( /eam high into ! air1 spread+ out into va/ cumulus cl\ds1 :i* float away s\?w>ds1 & ultimately disappe>4--,ibid41 p4 #gc4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,l9es ,,& ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,active ,,volcanic ,,v5ts4 ,! globe is girdl$ by a *a9 ( volcanic m\nta9s 9 a /ate ( great] or less activity1 :i* may p]haps be consid]$ a girdle ( safety = ! :ole _w1 ?r\gh :i* ! masses ( molt5 matt] 9 a /ate ( high pressure b5ea? ! cru/ f9d a way ( escape2 & ?us ! /ructure ( ! globe is pres]v$ f ev5 great] convulsions ?an ^? :i* f "t to "t take place at v>i\s po9ts on its surface4 ,?is girdle is p>tly t]re/rial1 p>tly subm>9e2 & comm5c+ at ,m\nt ,erebus1 ne> ! ,ant>ctic ,pole1 rang+ ?r\gh ,s\? ,%etl& ,isle1 ,cape ,horn1 ! ,&es ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 !n ?r\gh ,c5tral ,am]ica & ,mexico1 & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s to ,kamts*atka1 ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 ! ,kuriles1 ! ,japanese1 ! ,philipp9es1 ,new ,gu9ea1 & ,new ,zeal&1 rea*es ! ,ant>ctic ,circle by ! ,ball5y ,isl&s4 ,?is girdle s5ds (f bran*es at sev]al po9ts4 7,see ,map1 p4 #bc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--,volcanic cone ( ,orizaba 7,cittaltepe?71 9 ,mexico1 n[ ext9ct2 ! upp] "p sn[-clad1 & at its base =e/ vegetation2 x rea*es a height ( #af1cjb ,p>isian feet above ! sea4--7,aft] ,a4 von ,humboldt47 7a47 ,! l9e> arrangem5t ( active or dormant volcanic v5ts has be5 po9t$ out by ,humboldt1 ,von ,bu*1 ,daub5y1 & o!r writ]s4 ,! great range ( burn+ m\nta9s ( ! ,&es ( ,*ili1 ,p]u1 ,bolivia1 & ,mexico1 t ( ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 ( ,kamts*atka & ! ,kurile ,isl&s1 ext5d+ s\?w>ds into ! ,philipp9es1 & ! bran*+ range ( ! ,sunda ,isl&s are well-kn[n examples4 ,t ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s1 rang+ f ,gr5ada ?r\gh ,/4 ,v9c5t1 ,/4 ,lucia1 ,m>t9ique1 ,dom9ica1 ,guadel\pe1 ,monts]rat1 ,nevis1 & ,/4 ,eu/ace1#a is also a rem>kable example ( ! l9e> arrangem5t ( volcanic m\nta9s4 ,on trac+ ^! ranges on a map ( ! _w#b 7,map1 p4 #bc71 x w be obs]v$ t !y are ei!r /r+s ( isl&s1 or lie 9 proximity to ! ocean2 & h5ce ! view 0 naturally ent]ta9$ by "s writ]s t oceanic wat]1 or at any rate t ( a l>ge lake or sea1 0 a necess>y ag5t 9 ! production ( volcanic eruptions4 ,?is view seems to receive fur!r corroboration f ! fact t ! int]ior portions ( ! cont95ts & l>ge isl&s su* z ,au/ralia are de/itute ( volcanoes 9 action1 ) ! rem>kable exceptions ( ,m\nts ,k5ia & ,kilimanj>o 9 ,c5tral ,africa1 & a few o!rs4 ,x is also v significant 9 ?is connection t _m ( ! volcanoes n[ ext9ct1 or at lea/ dormant1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,asia1 appe> to h be5 9 proximity to %eets ( wat] dur+ ! p]iod ( activity4 ,?us ! old volcanoes ( ! ,haurn1 ea/ ( ! ,jordan1 appe> to h be5 active at ! p]iod :5 ! pres5t ,jordan valley 0 fill$ ) wat] to su* an ext5t z to con/itute a lake two hundr$ miles 9 l5g?1 b :i* has n[ %runk back to )9 ! pres5t limits ( ! ,dead ,sea4#c ,aga91 at ! p]iod :5 ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,france 7 9 active op]ation1 an ext5sive lake ov]spread ! tract ly+ to ! ea/ ( ! granitic plateau on :i* ! crat]s & domes are plant$1 n[ con/itut+ ! ri* & f]tile pla9 ( ,cl]mont4 ,illu/ration3 ,map ,( ,! ,_w ,%[+ ,active ,& ,ext9ct ,volcanoes 7,l>ge ,dots7 ,su* in/ances are too significant to all[ u to d\bt t wat] 9 "s =m is v g5]ally connect$ ) volcanic op]ations2 b x does n foll[ t x 0 necess>y to ! orig9al =mation ( volcanic v5ts1 :e!r l9e> or sporadic4 ,if ?is 7 s1 ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ! ,briti% ,isles w\ld /ill be active1 z !y are close to ! sea-m>g91 & no volcano w\ld n[ be active :i* is n ne> to "s l>ge %eet ( wat]4 ,b ,jorullo1 "o ( ! great active volcanoes ( ,mexico1 lies no less ?an #abj miles f ! ocean1 & ,cotopaxi1 9 ,ecuador1 is ne>ly equally di/ant4 ,kilimanj>o1 #ah1hha feet high1 & ,k5ia1 9 ! equatorial regions ( ,c5tral ,africa1 are ab\t #aej miles f ! ,victoria ,nyanza1 & a /ill great] di/ance f ! ocean2 & ,m\nt ,demav5d1 9 ,p]sia1 :i* rises to an elevation ( #ah1dfd feet ne> ! s\!rn %ore ( ! ,caspian ,sea1 a volcanic m\nta9 ( ! fir/ magnitude1 is n[ ext9ct or dormant4#d ,su* facts z ^! all t5d to %[ t al?\gh wat] may be an accessory ( volcanic eruptions1 x is n 9 all cases ess5tial2 & we are oblig$1 !re=e1 to h rec\rse to "s o!r !ory ( volcanic action diff]+ f t :i* w\ld attribute x to ! access ( wat] to highly heat$ or molt5 matt] )9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 7b47 ,leopold von ,bu* on ,r5ts & ,fissures 9 ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,! view ( ,leopold von ,bu*1 :o consid]$ t ! great l9es ( volcanic m\nta9s above ref]r$ to rise along ! bord]s ( r5ts1 or fissures1 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 is "o :i* is inh]5tly probable1 & is 9 keep+ ) obs]vation4 ,t ! cru/ ( ! globe is to a rem>kable ext5t fissur$ & torn 9 all directions is a ph5om5on famili> to all field geologi/s4 ,su* r5ts & fissures are (t5 accompani$ by displacem5t ( ! /rata1 ow+ to :i* ! cru/ has be5 v]tically elevat$ on "o side or l[]$ on ! o!r1 & su* displacem5ts 7or faults7 sometimes am\nt to ?\s&s ( feet4 ,x is only occasionally1 h[ev]1 t su* fractures are accompani$ by ! extrusion ( molt5 matt]2 & 9 ! ,nor? ( ,engl& & ,scotl& dykes ( igne\s rock1 su* z basalt1 :i* run across ! c\ntry = _m miles 9 ne>ly /raight l9es1 (t5 cut across ! faults1 & are only r>ely co9cid5t ) !m4 ,nev]!less1 x c sc>cely be a "q t ! gr& *a9 ( volcanic m\nta9s :i* /ret*es almo/ cont9u\sly along ! ,&es ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & nor?w>ds ?r\gh ,mexico1 has be5 pil$ up along ! l9e ( a sy/em ( fissures 9 ! fundam5tal rocks p>allel to ! coa/1 ?\gh n actually co9cid5t !re)4 7c47 ,! ,cordill]as ( ,quito4--,! /ructure & arrangem5t ( ! ,cordill]as ( ,quito1 = example1 are em95tly sugge/ive ( arrangem5t along l9es ( fissure4 ,z %[n by ,alex&] von ,humboldt1#e ! volcanic m\nta9s are dispos$ 9 two p>allel *a9s1 :i* run side by side = a di/ance ( ov] #ejj miles nor?w>ds into ! ,/ate ( ,columbia1 & enclose betwe5 !m ! high pla9s ( ,quito & ,lacunga4 ,along ! ea/]n *a9 are ! great cones ( ,el ,alt>1 ris+ to an elevation ( #af1chc feet above ! ocean1 & hav+ an enorm\s crat] app>5tly dormant or ext9ct1 & cov]$ ) sn[2 !n ,cotopaxi 7,fig4 #b71 its sides cov]$ ) sn[1 & s5d+ =? f its crat] sev]al columns ( smoke2 !n ,guamani & ,cayambe 7#ai1jjj feet71 huge truncat$ cones app>5tly ext9ct2 ^! con/itute ! ea/]n *a9 ( volcanic heights4 ,! we/]n *a9 conta9s ev5 l(ti] m\nta9s4 ,"h we f9d ! gigantic ,*imborazo1 an ext9ct volcano ^: summit is :ite ) sn[2 ,c>ihuairazo#f & ,ill9iza1 a l(ty po9t$ peak l ! ,matt]horn2 ,corazon1 a sn[-clad dome1 rea*+ a height ( #ae1hga feet2 ,atacazo & ,pi*9*a1 ! latt] an ext9ct volcano rea*+ an elevation ( #ae1ibj feet2 su* is ! we/]n *a91 rem>kable = its /raightness1 ! volcanic cones be+ plant$ 9 "o gr& procession f s\? to nor?4 ,?is rectil9e> arrangem5t ( ! we/]n *a91 only a little less conspicu\s 9 ! ea/]n1 is v sugge/ive ( a l9e ( fracture 9 ! cru/ b5ea?4 ,& :5 we contemplate ! prodigi\s quantity ( matt] includ$ )9 ! limits ( ^! colossal domes & _! environm5ts1 all ( :i* has be5 extrud$ f ! int]nal res]voirs1 we ga9 "s idea ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! contract+ cru/ disposes ( ! matt] x c no long] conta94#g ,betwe5 ! volcanoes ( ,quito & ^? ( ,p]u !re is an int]v5+ space ( f\rte5 degrees ( latitude4 ,?is is occupi$ by ! ,&es1 reg>d+ ! /ructure ( :i* we h n mu* in=mation except t at ?is "p ( its c\rse x is n volcanic4 ,b f ,arequipa 9 ,p]u 7lat4 #af ,s471 an active volcano1 we f9d a new s]ies ( volcanic m\nta9s cont9u$ s\?w>ds ?r\gh ,tacora 7#ai1gdj feet71 !n fur!r s\? ! m or less active v5ts ( ,sajama 7#bb1iae feet71 ,coqu9a1 ,tutupaca1 ,calama1 ,atacama1 ,toconado1 & o!rs1 =m+ an almo/ cont9u\s range ) t "p ( ! des]t ( ,atacama p]ta9+ to ,*ili4 ,?r\gh ?is c\ntry we f9d ! volcanic range appe>+ at int]vals2 & /ill m to ! s\?w>ds x is d\btless connect$ ) ! volcanoes ( ,patagonia1 nor? ( ! ,magellan ,/raits1 & ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,mr4 ,david ,=bes consid]s t ?is great range ( volcanic m\nta9s1 ly+ ne>ly nor? & s\?1 corresponds to a l9e ( fracture ly+ some:at to ! ea/ ( ! range4#h 7d47 ,o!r ,volcanic ,*a9s4--,a simil> /atem5t 9 all probability applies to ! sy/ems ( volcanic m\nta9s ( ! ,aleutian ,isles1 ,kamts*atka1 ! ,kuriles1 ! ,philipp9es1 & ,sunda ,isles4 ,nor c x be reasonably d\bt$ t ! we/]n ,am]ican coa/-l9e has to a great ext5t be5 det]m9$1 or m>k$ out1 by su* l9es ( displacem5t2 =1 z ,d>w9 has %[n1 ! :ole we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 = a di/ance ( betwe5 #bjjj & #cjjj miles s\? ( ! ,equator1 has und]gone an upw>d movem5t 9 v rec5t times--t is1 )9 ! p]iod ( liv+ m>9e %ells--dur+ :i* p]iod ! volcanoes h be5 9 activity4#i 7e47 ,! ,kurile ,isl&s4--,?is *a9 may also be cit$ 9 evid5ce ( volcanic action along fissure l9es4 ,x connects ! volcanoes ( ,kamts*atka ) ^? ( ,japan1 & ! l9e> arrangem5t is app>5t4 ,9 ! =m] p59sula ,erman c\nt$ no few] ?an ?irte5 active volcanic m\nta9s ris+ to heights ( #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj feet above ! sea4#aj ,9 ! *a9 ( ! ,kuriles ,pr(essor ,john ,milne c\nt$ fifty-two well-def9$ volcanoes1 ( :i* n9e1 p]haps m1 are c]ta9ly active4#aa ,!y are n s high z ^? ( ,kamts*atka2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !y rise f v deep oceanic wat]s1 & h be5 probably built up f ! sea bottom by successive eruptions ( tuff1 lava1 & a%4 ,accord+ to ! view ( ,pr(essor ,milne1 ! volcanoes ( ! ,kurile *a9 are fa/ becom+ ext9ct4 7f47 ,volcanic ,gr\ps4--,besides ! volcanic v5ts arrang$ 9 l9es1 ( :i* we h treat$ above1 !re are a l>ge numb]1 bo? active & ext9ct1 :i* appe> to be dispos$ 9 gr\ps1 or sporadically di/ribut$1 ov] v>i\s portions ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,i say appe> to be1 because ?is sporadic di/ribution may really be resolvable 7at lea/ 9 "s cases7 into l9e> di/ribution = %ort di/ances4 ,?us ! ,neapolitan ,gr\p1 :i* might at fir/ sight seem to be arrang$ r\nd ,vesuvius z a c5tre1 really resolves itself into a l9e ( active & ext9ct v5ts ( eruption1 rang+ across ,italy f ! ,tyrrh5ian ,sea to ! ,adriatic1 ?r\gh ,is*ia1 ,procida1 ,monte ,nuovo & ! ,phlegran ,fields1 ,vesuvius1 & ,m\nt ,vultur4#ab ,aga91 ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,france1 :i* appe> to =m an isolat$ gr\p1 indicate1 :5 view$ 9 detail1 a l9e> arrangem5t rang+ f nor? to s\?4#ac ,ano!r region ov] :i* ext9ct crat]s are di/ribut$ lies along ! banks ( ! ,rh9e1 above ,bonn & ! ,moselle2 a f\r? 9 ,hung>y2 a fif? 9 ,asia ,m9or & ,nor!rn ,pale/9e2 & a six? 9 ,c5tral ,asia ar\nd ,lake ,balka%4 ,^! are all cont95tal1 & ! l9e> di/ribution is n app>5t4 #a ,= an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ?is range ( volcanic isl&s see ,k+sley's ,at ,la/4 ,! gr&e/ volcanic peak is t ( ,guadel\pe1 ris+ to a height ( #ejjj feet above ! ocean1 amid/ a gr\p ( f\rte5 ext9ct crat]s4 ,b ! mo/ active v5t ( ! range is ! ,s\ffrire ( ,/4 ,v9c5t4 ,9 ! eruption ( #ahab ?is m\nta9 s5t =? cl\ds ( pumice1 scori & a%es1 "s ( :i* 7 c>ri$ by an upp] c\nt] curr5t to ,b>bados1 "o hundr$ miles to ! ea/w>d1 cov]+ ! surface ) volcanic du/ to a dep? ( sev]al in*es4 #b ,an excell5t1 & p]haps ! mo/ rec5t1 map ( ?is k9d is t giv5 by ,pr(essor ,pre/wi* 9 8 ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #baf4 ,"o on a l>g] scale is t by ,kei? ,john/on 9 8 ,physical ,atlas4 #c ,memoir on ! ,physical ,geology & ,geography ( ,arabia ,petra1 ,pale/9e1 etc41 publi%$ = ! ,committee ( ! ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund 7#ahhf71 p4 #aac1 etc4 #d ,?is m\nta9 0 asc5d$ 9 #ahcg by ,mr4 ,taylor ,?omson1 :o f\nd ! summit cov]$ ) sulphur1 & f a cone fumes at a high temp]ature issu$ =?1 b !re 0 no eruption4--,j\rn4 ,roy4 ,geographical ,soc41 vol4 viii4 p4 #aji4 #e ,humboldt1 ,atlas d] ,kle9]5 ,s*rift5 7#ahec74 #f ,asc5d$ by ,:ymp] ,june #bi1 #ahhj4 ,he f\nd ! elevation to be #af1eae feet4 #g ,! arrangem5t ( ! volcanoes ( ,p]u & ,bolivia is also sugge/ive ( a d\ble l9e ( fissure1 :ile ^? ( ,*ili sugge/ "o s+le l9e4 ,! volcanoes ( ,arequipa1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,p]u1 are dealt ) by ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,hat*1 9 8 inaugural diss]tation1 ,ueb] die ,ge/e9e d] ,vulcan-,gruppe von ,arequipa 7,wi51 #ahhf74 ,! volcanoes rise to great elevations1 hav+ _! summits capp$ by sn[4 ,! volcano ( ,*>*ani1 ly+ to ! nor? ( ,arequipa1 rea*es an elevation ( #ah1chb ,p>isian feet4 ,t ( ,pi*upi*u rea*es a height ( #ag1cee ,p>4 feet4 ,! c5tral cone ( ,mi/i has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ to range f #ag1bdj to #ai1jjj ,p>4 feet4 ,! rocks ( :i* ! m\nta9s are compos$ consi/ ( v>ieties ( &esite4 #h ,d4 ,=bes1 ,on ! ,geology ( ,bolivia & ,s\!rn ,p]u1 ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ! ,geological ,society1 vol4 xvii4 p4 #bb 7#ahfa74 #i ,d>w91 ,/ructure & ,di/ribution ( ,coral ,reefs1 second edition1 p4 #ahf4 #aj ,erman1 ,reise um die ,welt4 #aa ,milne1 ,cruise among/ ! ,kurile ,isl&s1 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,new ,s]4 7,augu/ #ahgi74 #ab ,see ,daub5y1 ,volcanoes1 ,map ,i4 #ac ,sir ,a4 ,geikie has connect$ z a l9e ( volcanic v5ts ^? ( ,sicily1 ,italy1 ,c5tral ,france1 ! ,n4 ,e4 ( ,irel&1 ! ,inn] ,hebrides & ,icel&1 ( :i* ! c5tral v5ts are ext9ct or dormant1 ! extremities active4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,mid-,,ocean ,,volcanic ,,isl&s4 ,oceanic ,isl&s4--,by f> ! mo/ ext5sive regions ) sporadically di/ribut$ volcanic v5ts1 bo? active & ext9ct1 are ^? :i* are ov]spread by ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 :]e ! v5ts em]ge 9 ! =m ( isl&s4 ,^! are to be f\nd 9 all ! great oceans1 ! ,atlantic1 ! ,pacific1 & ! ,indian2 b are especially num]\s ov] ! c5tral ,pacific region4 ,z ,kotzebue & subsequ5tly ,d>w9 h po9t$ out1 all ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific are ei!r coral-reefs or ( volcanic orig92 & _m ( ^! rise f great dep?s2 t is to say1 f dep?s ( #ajjj to #bjjj fa?oms4 ,x is unnecess>y "h to attempt to enum]ate all ^! isl&s :i* rise 9 solit>y gr&eur f ! surface ( ! ocean1 & are ! sc5es ( volcanic op]ations2 a few may1 h[ev]1 be enum]at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe 7,pic de ,teyde7 z se5 f ! ocean4--7,f a photograph47 7a47 ,icel&4--,9 ! ,atlantic1 ,icel& fir/ claims notice1 ow+ to ! magnitude & numb] ( its active v5ts & ! v>iety ( ! accompany+ ph5om5a1 especially ! geys]s4 ,z ,lyell has obs]v$1#a ) ! exception ( ,etna & ,vesuvius1 ! mo/ complete *ronological records ( a s]ies ( eruptions 9 exi/5ce are ^? ( ,icel&1 :i* come d[n f ! n9? c5tury ( our era1 & :i* g to %[ t s9ce ! twelf? c5tury !re has nev] be5 an int]val ( m ?an =ty ye>s )\t ei!r an eruption or a great e>?quake4 ,s int5se is ! volcanic en]gy 9 ?is isl& t "s ( ! eruptions ( ,hecla h la/$ six ye>s )\t cessation4 ,e>?quakes h (t5 %ak5 ! :ole isl& at once1 caus+ great *anges 9 ! int]ior1 su* z ! s9k+ d[n ( hills1 ! r5d+ ( m\nta9s1 ! des]tion by riv]s ( _! *annels1 & ! appe>ance ( new lakes4 ,new isl&s h (t5 be5 ?r[n up ne> ! coa/1 :ile o!rs h disappe>$4 ,9 ! int]vals betwe5 ! eruptions1 innum]able hot spr+s af=d v5t to ! subt]ranean heat1 & solfat>as dis*>ge copi\s /reams ( inflammable matt]4 ,! volcanoes 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! isl& are obs]v$1 l ^? ( ! ,phlegran ,fields1 to be 9 activity by turns1 "o v5t s]v+ = a "t z a safety-valve = ! o!rs4 ,! mo/ memorable eruption ( rec5t ye>s 0 t ( ,skaptr ,jokul 9 #aghc1 :5 a new isl& 0 ?r[n up1 & two torr5ts ( lava issu$ =?1 "o #de & ! o!r #ej miles 9 l5g?1 & :i*1 accord+ to ! e/imate ( ,pr(essor ,bis*(f1 conta9$ matt] surpass+ 9 magnitude ! bulk ( ,mont ,blanc4 ,"o ( ^! /reams fill$ up a l>ge lake1 &1 ent]+ ! *annel ( ! ,skapt1 completely dri$ up ! riv]4 ,! volcanoes ( ,icel& may be consid]$ z safety-valves to ! region 9 :i* lie ! ,briti% ,isles4 7b47 ,! ,azores1 ,can>y1 & ,cape de ,v]de ,gr\ps4--,?is gr\p ( volcanic isles rises f deep ,atlantic wat]s nor? ( ! ,equator1 & ! v5ts ( eruption are p>tially active1 p>tially dormant1 or ext9ct4 ,x mu/ be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t at a =m] p]iod volcanic action 0 va/ly m en]getic ?an at pres5t2 =1 except at ! ,gr& ,can>y1 ,gom]a1 ,=ta ,v5tura1 & ,lanc]ote1 :]e v>i\s non-volcanic rocks are f\nd1 ^! isl&s appe> to h be5 built up f _! f\ndations ( eruptive mat]ials4 ,! highe/ po9t 9 ! ,azores is ! ,peak ( ,pico1 :i* rises to a height ( #gjaf feet above ! ocean4 ,b ?is great elevation is surpass$ by t ( ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe 7or ,pic de ,teyde7 9 ! ,can>ies1 :i* atta9s to an elevation ( #ab1bbe feet1 z det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,piazzi ,smy?4#b ,?is great volcanic cone1 ris+ f ! ocean1 its summit %r\d$ 9 sn[1 & (t5 protrud+ above ! cl\ds1 mu/ be an object ( uncommon beauty & int]e/ :5 se5 f ! deck ( a %ip4 7,fig4 #d47 ,! c5tral cone1 =m$ ( tra*yte1 pumice1 obsidian1 & a%es1 rises out ( a va/ caldron ( old] basaltic rocks ) precipit\s inn] walls--mu* z ! cone ( ,vesuvius rises f )9 ! p>tially encircl+ walls ( ,somma4 7,fig4 #e47 ,f ! summit issue =? sulphur\s vap\rs1 b no flame4 ,piazzi ,smy?1 :o dur+ a prolong$ visit to ?is m\nta9 9 #ahef made a c>eful survey ( its =m & /ructure1 %[s t ! great cone is surr\nd$ by an out] r+ ( basalt enclos+ two foci ( eruption1 ! lavas f :i* h brok5 ?r\gh ! r+ ( ! out] crat] on ! we/]n side1 & h p\r$ d[n ! m\nta94 ,at ! top ( ! peak its once active crat] is fill$ up1 & we f9d a convex surface 7,! ,pla9 ( ,rambleta7 surm\nt$ t[>ds its ea/]n end by a dim9utive cone1 #ejj feet high1 call$ ,humboldt's ,a% ,cone4 ,! slope ( ! great cone ( ,t5]iffe ranges f #bh to #ch2 & bel[ a level ( #gjjj feet ! g5]al slope ( ! :ole m\nta9 d[n to ! wat]'s edge v>ies f #aj to #ab f ! horizontal4 ,! great cone is p5etrat$ by num]\s basaltic dykes4 ,! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s1 :i* conta9 b$s ( lime/one along ) volcanic matt]1 possess 9 ! isl& ( ,fuego an active volcano1 ris+ to a height ( #gjjj feet above ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,! c5tral cone1 l t ( ,t5]iffe1 rises f )9 an out] crat]1 =m$ ( basalt alt]nat+ ) b$s ( agglom]ate1 & trav]s$ by num]\s dykes ( lava4 ,?is has be5 brok5 d[n on "o side l t ( ,somma2 & ov] its flanks are scatt]$ num]\s cones ( scori1 ! mo/ rec5t dat+ f ! ye>s #aghe & #agii4c ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,view ( ! summit ( ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe 7#ab1bbe feet7 & ( ! second>y crat]1 or out] r+ ( basaltic %eets :i* surr\nds its base2 se5 f ! ea/4--7,aft] ,leopold von ,bu*47 ,! volcanoes ( ,lanc]ote h a rem>kably l9e> arrangem5t f we/ to ea/ across ! isl&4 ,!y are n yet ext9ct2 = an eruption 9 #agcj de/roy$ a l>ge numb] ( villages1 & cov]$ ) lava ! mo/ f]tile tracts 9 ! isl&1 :i* at ! "t ( ,leopold von ,bu*'s visit lay wa/e & de/itute ( h]bage4#d ,9 ! isl& ( ,palma !re is "o l>ge c5tral crat]1 ! ,cald]a de ,palma1 ?ree leagues 9 diamet]1 ! walls ( :i* con=m closely to ! m>g9 ( ! coa/4 ,von ,bu* calls ?is crat] une m]veille de la nature1 = x di/+ui%es ?is isle f all ! o!rs1 & r5d]s x "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & rem>kable among/ ! volcanic isl&s ( ! ocean4 ,! out] walls are =m$ ( basaltic %eets1 & t[>ds ! s\? ?is great natural !atre is connect$ ) ! ocean by a long /raight valley1 call$ ! ,b>ranco de los ,dolores1 along ^: sides ! /ructure ( ! m\nta9 is deeply laid op5 to view4 ,! out] flanks ( ! crat] are furr[$ by a great numb] ( small] b>rancos radiat+ outw>d f ! rim ( ! cald]a4 ,von ,bu* reg>ds ! b>rancos z hav+ be5 =m$ dur+ ! upheaval ( ! isl&1 accord+ to 8 !ory ( ! =mation ( su* m\nta9s 7! elevation-!ory72 b un=tunately = 8 views1 ^! rav9es wid5 outw>ds f ! c5tre1 or at lea/ d n become n>r[] 9 t direction1 z w\ld be ! case 7 ! elevation-!ory s\nd4 ,! maps :i* accompany ,von ,bu*'s "w are rem>kably good1 & 7 p>tly con/ruct$ by himself4 7c47 ,volcanic ,isl&s 9 ! ,atlantic s\? ( ! ,equator4--,! isl& ( ,asc5sion1 =m$ entirely ( volcanic matt]1 rises f a dep? ( #bjjj fa?oms 9 ! v c5tre ( ! ,atlantic4 ,z describ$ by ,d>w91 ! c5tral & m elevat$ portions are =m$ ( tra*ytic matt]1 ) obsidian & lam9at$ a% b$s4 ,among/ ^! are f\nd eject$ masses ( un*ang$ granite1 fragm5ts ( :i* h be5 torn f ! c5tral pipe dur+ p]iods ( activity1 & w\ld seem to indicate a granitic floor1 or at lea/ an orig9al floor ^u :i* m rec5t deposits may h be5 sup]impos$4 ,9 ,/4 ,hel5a we seem1 accord+ to ,daub5y1 to h ! m]e wreck ( "o great crat]1 no "o /ream ( lava be+ traceable to its s\rce1 :ile dykes ( lava are scatt]$ 9 pr(usion ?r\gh\t ! :ole sub/ance ( ! basaltic masses :i* compose ! isl&4 ,tri/an da ,cunha1 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic1 rises abruptly f a dep? ( #ab1aej feet1 at a di/ance ( #aejj miles f any l&2 & "o ( its summits rea*es an elevation ( #gjjj feet1 be+ a truncat$ cone compos$ ( alt]nat+ /rata ( tuff & augitic lava1 surr\nd+ a crat] 9 :i* is a lake ( pure wat]4 ,! volcano is ext9ct or dormant4 ,7 ! wat]s ( ! ocean to be drawn (f1 ^! volcanic isl&s w\ld appe> l /up5d\s conical m\nta9s1 f> l(ti]1 & ) sides m precipit\s1 ?an any to be f\nd on our cont95tal l&s1 all ( :i* rise f plat=ms ( consid]able elevation4 ,! enorm\s pressure ( ! wat] on _! sides enables ^! mid-oceanic isl&s to /& ) slopes v>y+ f ! p]p5dicul> to a small] ext5t ?an if !y 7 sub-a]ial2 & x is on ?is acc\nt t we f9d !m ris+ ) su* extraord9>y abruptness f ! va/y deep4 7d47 ,volcanic ,isl&s ( ! ,pacific4--,! volcanic isl&s ( ?is great ocean are scatt]$ ov] a wide tract on bo? sides ( ! equator4 ,^? to ! nor? ( ?is l9e include ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ! ,m>iana or ,ladrone ,isl&s1 ,s\? ,isl&1 & ,bon9 ,sima2 s\? ( ! equator1 ! ,galapagos1 ,new ,brita91 ,salomon1 ,santa ,cruz1 ,new ,hebrides1 ! ,fri5dly & ,society ,isles4 ,:ile ! coral reefs & isl&s ( ! ,pacific may be recognis$ by _! slight elevation above ! surface ( ! wat]s1 ^? ( volcanic orig9 & conta9+ active or ext9ct crat]s ( eruption g5]ally rise into l(ty elevations1 s t ! two k9ds are call$ ! ,l[ ,isl&s & ,high ,isl&s respectively4 ,among/ ! gr\p are tra*ytic domes su* z ! ,m\nta9 ( ,tobreonu 9 ! ,society ,isl&s1 ris+ to a height probably n inf]ior to t ( ,etna1 ) extremely /eep sides1 & hold+ a lake on its summit4#e ,! l9e> arrangem5t ( "s ( ! volcanic isl&s ( ! ,pacific is illu/rat$ by ^? ( ! ,tonga1 or ,fri5dly1 ,gr\p1 ly+ to ! nor? ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,!y consi/ ( ?ree divisions--7#a7 ! volcanic2 7#b7 ^? =m$ ( /ratifi$ volcanic tuff1 sometimes entirely or p>tially cov]$ by corall9e lime/one2 & 7#c7 ^? :i* are purely corall9e4 ,! fir/ =m a *a9 ( l(ty cones & crat]s1 ly+ 9 a ,e4,n4,e4 & ,w4,s4,w4 direction1 & ris+ f dep?s ( ov] #ajjj fa?oms4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,li/]1 :o has describ$ ! physical *>act]s ( ^! isl&s1 has %[n v cle>ly t !y lie along a l9e--probably t ( a great fissure--/ret*+ f ! volcanic isl& ( ,am>gura on ! nor? 7lat4 #ah ,s471 ?r\gh ,lette1 ,metis1 ,kao 7#cjcj feet71 ,t(ua1 ,falcon1 ,honga ,tonga1 & ! ,k]madec ,gr\p into ! ,new ,zeal& *a9 on ! s\?4 ,"s ( ^! volcanoes are 9 a /ate ( int]mitt5t activity1 z 9 ! case ( ,t(ua 7lat4 #bj #cj' ,s471 ,metis ,isl&1 & ,am>gura2 ! o!rs are dormant or ext9ct4 ,! :ole gr\p appe>s to h be5 elevat$ at a rec5t p]iod1 z "s ( ! b$s ( coral h be5 rais$ #abgb feet & upw>d above ! sea-level1 z 9 ! case ( ,eua ,isl&4#f ,! great] numb] ( ! ,pacific volcanoes appe> to be basaltic2 su* z ^? ( ! ,hawaiian ,gr\p1 :i* h be5 s fully describ$ by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,dana4#g ,"h fifte5 volcanoes ( ! fir/ class h be5 9 brilliant action2 all ( :i*1 except ?ree1 are n[ ext9ct1 & ^! are 9 ,hawaii ! l>ge/ & mo/ ea/]n ( ! gr\p4 ,?is isl& conta9s five volcanic m\nta9s1 ( :i* ,kea1 #ac1hje feet1 is ! highe/2 next to t1 ,loa1 #ac1fge feet2 aft] ^!1 ,hualalai1 ris+ #hbgc feet2 ,kilauea1 #daeh feet2 & ,kohala1 #eeje feet above ! sea2 ?is la/ is l>gely buri$ b5ea? ! lavas ( ,mauna ,kea4 ,! gr\p conta9s a d\ble l9e ( volcanoes1 "o ly+ to ! nor? & we/ ( ! o!r2 & z ! highe/ ( ! ,hawaiian ,gr\p rises f a dep? 9 ! ocean ( ov] #bjjj fa?oms1 ! total elevation ( ?is m\nta9 f its base on ! b$ ( ! ocean is n f> f #bf1jjj feet1 an elevation ab\t t ( ! ,himalayas4 ,mauna ,kea has long be5 ext9ct1 ,hualalai has be5 dormant s9ce #ahja2 b ,mauna ,loa is t]ribly active1 !re hav+ be5 sev]al eruptions1 accompani$ by e>?quakes1 )9 rec5t ye>s1 ! mo/ memorable be+ ^? ( #aheb & #ahfh4 ,9 ! =m] case ! lava rose f ! deep crat] into a l(ty m\nta91 z describ$ by ,mr4 ,coan1#h & !n fl[$ away ea/w>d = a di/ance ( tw5ty miles4 ,! int]ior ( ! crat] consi/s ( a va/ caldron1 surr\nd$ by a precipice #bjj to #djj feet 9 dep?1 ) a circumf]5ce ( ab\t fifte5 miles1 & conta9+ )9 x a second crat]1 b\nd$ by a black l$ge ) a /eep wall ( basalt--a crat] )9 a crat]2 & f ! floor ( ! inn] crat]1 =m$ ( molt5 basalt1 9 a see?+ & boil+ /ate1 arise a l>ge numb] ( small cones & pyramids ( lava1 "s emitt+ columns ( grey smoke1 o!rs brilliant flames & /reams ( molt5 lava1 pres5t+ a wond]ful spectacle1 ! effect ( :i* is height5$ by ! con/ant ro>+ ( ! va/ furnaces bel[4#i #a ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #aa? edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dh4 #b ,smy?1 ,report on ! ,t5]iffe ,a/ronomical ,exp]im5t ( #ahef4 ,humboldt makes ! elevation #ab1jij feet4 ,a beautiful model ( ! ,peak 0 con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,nasmy? f ,piazzi ,smy?'s plans1 ( :i* photographs are giv5 by ! latt]4 #c ,daub5y1 loc4 cit41 p4 #dfj4 #d ,iles ,can>ies1 p4 #cg4 #e ,daub5y1 loc4 cit41 p4 #dbf4 #f ,li/]1 ,notes on ! ,geology ( ! ,tonga ,isl&s1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,no4 #ahh1 p4 #eij 7#ahia74 #g ,dana1 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,volcanoes1 ) ,contributions ( ,facts & ,pr9ciples f ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s4 ,london1 #ahij4--;,also1 ,geology ( ! ,am]ican ,explor+ ,exp$ition--,volcanoes ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 #h ,coan1 ,am]4 ,j\r4 ( ,sci5ce1 #ahec4 #i ,w4 ,ellis1 ! mission>y1 has giv5 a vivid description ( ?is volcano 9 8 ,t\r ( ,hawaii4 ,london1 #ahbf4--,plans ( ! crat] w be f\nd 9 ,pr(essor ,dana's "w above quot$4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,european ,,volcanoes4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,vesuvius4 ,hav+ n[ dealt 9 a necess>ily cursory mann] ) volcanoes ( di/ant p>ts ( ! globe1 we may proce$ to ! consid]ation ( ! gr\p ( active volcanoes :i* /ill survive 9 ,europe1 z !y possess a special int]e/1 n only f _! proximity & facility ( access1 at lea/ to resid5ts 9 ,europe & ! ,briti% ,isles1 b f _! hi/oric incid5ts2 & 9 ?is respect ,vesuvius1 ?\gh n by any means ! l>ge/ ( ! gr\p1 /&s ! fir/1 & dem&s m special notice4 ,! :ole gr\p rises f ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & consi/s ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,/romboli1 "o ( ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 & ,vulcano1 a m\nta9 :i* has giv5 ! "n to all m\nta9s ( simil> orig9 ) itself4#a ,along ) ^! are innum]able cones & crat]s ( ext9ct or dormant volcanoes1 ( :i* a l>ge numb] h be5 ?r[n out on ! flanks ( ,etna4 7a47 ,prehi/oric ,ideas reg>d+ ! ,nature ( ?is ,m\nta94--,d[n to ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,*ri/ian era ?is m\nta9 _h giv5 no o/5sible indication t x conta9$ )9 itself a p[]ful focus ( volcanic en]gy4 ,true1 t "s vague tradition t ! m\nta9 once gave =? fire hov]$ ar\nd its bord]s2 & sev]al anci5t writ]s1 among/ !m ,diodorus ,siculus & ,/rabo1 inf]r$ f ! appe>ances ( ! high] p>ts ( ! m\nta9 & ! "* ( ! rocks1 :i* 7 c9d]y & z if eat5 by fire1 t ! c\ntry 0 once 9 a burn+ /ate1 be+ full ( fi]y abysses1 ?\gh n[ ext9ct f want ( fuel4 ,s5eca 7,b4,c4 #a to ,a4,d4 #fd7 _h detect$ ! true "* ( ,vesuvius1 z hav+ be5 a *annel = ! int]nal fire1 b n its food2 nev]!less1 at ?is p]iod ! flanks ( ! m\nta9 7 cov]$ by fields & v9ey>ds1 :ile ! summit1 p>tially enclos$ ) precipit\s walls ( ! long ext9ct volcano1 ,somma1 0 =m$ ( slaggy & scoriace\s mat]ial1 ) probably a cov]+ ( scrub4 ,"h x 0 t ! gladiator ,sp>tacus 7,b4,c4 #gb71 /ung by ! intol]able evils ( ! ,roman ,gov]nm5t1 retreat$ to ! v summit ( ! m\nta9 ) "s tru/y foll[]s4 ,clodius ! ,prtor1 accord+ to ! n>ration ( ,plut>*1 ) a p>ty ( ?ree ?\s& m51 0 s5t aga9/ !m1 & besieg$ !m 9 a m\nta9 7mean+ ,vesuvius or ,somma7 hav+ b "o n>r[ & difficult passage1 :i* ,clodius kept gu>d$2 all ! re/ 0 encompass$ ) brok5 & slipp]y precipices1 b ^u ! top grew a great _m wild v9es2 ! besieg$ cut d[n z _m z !y _h ne$ (1 & twi/$ !m into ladd]s long en\gh to rea* f !nce to ! bottom1 by :i*1 )\t any dang]1 all got d[n except "o1 :o /ay$ beh9d to ?r[ !m _! arms1 aft] :i* he sav$ himself ) ! re/4#b ,on ! top mu/ 7z ,pr(essor ,phillips obs]ves7 be int]pret$ ! summit ( ! ext]ior slope or crat] edge1 :i* w\ld appe> f ! n>rative to h brok5 d[n on "o side1 af=d+ an entrance & mode ( egress by :i* ,sp>tacus fell ^u1 & surpris$1 ! neglig5t ,clodius ,glabrus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,probable aspect ( ,vesuvius z x appe>$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era2 se5 f ! ,bay ( ,naples4 ,9 fanci$ security1 villas1 temples1 & cities _h be5 erect$ on ! slopes ( ! m\nta94 ,h]culaneum1 ,pompeii1 & ,/abi1 ! abodes ( art1 luxury1 & vice1 _h sprung up 9 happy ignorance t !y /ood on a volcano1 & t _! prosp]ity 0 to h a sudd5 & disa/r\s close4#c 7b47 ,premonitory ,e>?quake ,%ocks4--,! fir/ monitions ( ! imp5d+ cata/rophe occurr$ 9 ! #fcrd ye> aft] ,*ri/1 :5 ! :ole ,campagna 0 %ak5 by an e>?quake1 :i* did mu* damage to ! t[ns & villas surr\nd+ ! m\nta9 ev5 beyond ,naples4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by o!r %ocks2 & 9 ,pompeii ! temple ( ,isis 0 s mu* damag$ z to require recon/ruction1 :i* 0 und]tak5 & c>ri$ out by a citiz5 at 8 own exp5se4#d ,^! e>?quake %ak+s cont9u$ = sixte5 ye>s4 ,at l5g?1 on ! night ( ,augu/ #bd?1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 !y became s viol5t t ! :ole region seem$ to reel & tott]1 & all ?+s appe>$ to be ?reat5$ ) de/ruction4 ,! next day1 ab\t "o 9 ! aft]noon1 !re 0 se5 to rise 9 ! direction ( ,vesuvius a d5se cl\d1 :i*1 aft] asc5d+ f ! summit ( ! m\nta9 into ! air = a c]ta9 height 9 "o n>r[1 v]tical trunk1 spread itself out lat]ally 9 su* a =m t ! upp] "p might be comp>$ to ! clu/] ( bran*es1 & ! l[] to ! /em ( ! p9e :i* =ms s common a feature 9 ! ,italian l&scape4#e 7c47 ,pl9y's ,lett]s to ,tacitus4--,= an acc\nt ( :at foll[$ we are indebt$ to ! admirable lett]s ( ! y\ng] ,pl9y1 address$ to ! hi/orian ,tacitus1 rec\nt+ ! ev5ts :i* caus$1 or accompani$1 ! dea? ( 8 uncle1 ! eld] ,pl9y1 :o at ! "t ( ?is fir/ eruption ( ,vesuvius 0 9 comm& ( ! ,roman fleet at ! entrance to ! ,bay ( ,naples4 ,^! lett]s1 :i* are models ( /yle & ( accurate description1 are too long to be ins]t$ "h2 b he rec\nts h[ ! d5se cl\d :i* hung ov] ! m\nta9 spread ov] ! :ole surr\nd+ region1 sometimes illum9at$ by fla%es ( light m vivid ?an lightn+2 h[ %[]s ( c9d]s1 /ones1 & a%es fell 9 su* quantity t 8 uncle _h to flee f ,/abi1 & t ev5 at s great a di/ance z ,mis5um !y encumb]$ ! surface ( ! gr\nd2 h[ ! gr\nd heav$ & ! b$ ( ! sea 0 uprais$2 h[ ! cl\d desc5d$ on ,mis5um1 & ev5 ! isl& ( ,capre 0 conceal$ f view2 & f9ally1 h[1 urg$ by a fri5d :o _h arriv$ f ,spa91 he1 ) filial affection1 support$ ! /eps ( 8 "m 9 fly+ f ! city ( de/ruction4 ,su* be+ ! condition ( ! atmosph]e & ! effects ( ! eruption at a po9t s di/ant z ,cape ,mis5um1 "s sixte5 geographical miles f ! focus ( eruption1 x is only to be expect$ t places n half ! di/ance1 su* z ,h]culaneum1 ,pompeii1 & ev5 ,/abi1 ) _m villages & dwell+s1 %\ld h %>$ a worse fate4 ,! fir/ ( ^! cities1 situat$ on ! coa/ ( ! ,bay ( ,naples1 appe>s to h be5 ov]:elm$ by volcanic mud2 ,pompeii 0 buri$ 9 a%es & lapilli1 & ,/abi probably %>$ a simil> fate4#f 7d47 ,appe>ance ( ! ,m\nta9 at ! ,comm5cem5t ( ! ,*ri/ian ,era4--,at ! "t ( ! fir/ record$ eruption ,vesuvius appe>s to h consi/$ ( only a s+le cone ) a crat]1 n[ kn[n z ,monte di ,somma1 ! c5tral cone ( eruption :i* n[ rises f )9 ?is out] ruptur$ cas+ n hav+ be5 =m$4 7,fig4 #f47 ,! fir/ effect ( ! eruption ( ! ye> #gi 0 to bl[ out ! solidifi$ cov]+ ( slag & scori =m+ ! floor ( ! caldron4 ,d\btless at ! close ( ! eruption a cone ( fragm5tal matt] & lava ( "s slight elevation 0 built up1 &1 if s1 0 subsequ5tly de/roy$2 =1 z we %all pres5tly see by ! te/imony ( ! ,abate ,guilio ,ces>e ,bracc9i1 :o exam9$ ! m\nta9 n long be=e ! great eruption ( ,a4,d4 #afca1 !re 0 no c5tral cone to ! m\nta9 at t "t2 & ! m\nta9 _h assum$ pretty mu* ! appe>ance x _h at ! "t t ,sp>tacus took refuge )9 ! walls ( ! great crat]4 7e47 ,de/ruction ( ,pompeii4--,pompeii 0 ov]:elm$ ) dry a%es & lapilli4 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton f\nd "s ( ! /ones to weigh eight p\nds4 ,at ! "t ( ! au?or's visit1 e>ly 9 ,april #ahgb1 ! excavations _h laid op5 a section ab\t t5 feet deep1 *iefly compos$ ( alt]nat+ lay]s ( small pumice /ones 7lapilli7 & volcanic du/4 ,x 0 dur+ ! s9k+ ( a well 9 #agac ^u ! !atre conta9+ ! /atues ( ,h]cules & ,cleopatra t ! exi/5ce ( ! anci5t city 0 accid5tally discov]$4 7f47 ,m rec5t eruptions4--,s9ce ! fir/ record$ eruption 9 ,a4,d4 #gi d[n to ! pres5t day1 ,vesuvius has be5 ! sc5e ( num]\s int]mitt5t eruptions1 ( :i* "s h be5 record$2 b _m1 d\btless1 are =gott54 ,9 ,a4,d4 #bjc1 dur+ ! reign ( ,sev]us1 an eruption ( extraord9>y viol5ce took place1 :i* is relat$ by ,dion ,cassius1 f ^: n>rative we may ga!r t at ?is "t !re 0 only "o l>ge crat]1 & t ! c5tral cone ( ,vesuvius _h n z yet be5 uprais$4 ,9 ,a4,d4 #dgb an eruption occurr$ ( su* magnitude z to cov] all ,europe ) f9e du/1 & spread al>m ev5 at ,con/ant9ople4 7g47 ,eruption ( #afca4--;,9 ,decemb] #afca occurr$ ! great convulsion ^: memorials are writt5 widely on ! we/]n face ( ,vesuvius 9 ru9$ villages4 ,?is eruption left lay]s ( a%es ov] hundr$s ( miles ( c\ntry1 or heaps ( mud swept d[n by hot wat] floods f ! crat]2 ! crat] itself hav+ be5 dissipat$ 9 ! convulsion4 ,bracc9i1 :o exam9$ ! m\nta9 n long be=e ?is eruption1 f\nd app>5tly no cone 7or m\nt7 l t ( ! mod]n ,vesuvius4 ,he /ates t ! crat] 0 five miles 9 circumf]5ce1 ab\t a ?\s& paces deep 7or 9 slop+ desc5t71 & its sides cov]$ ) =e/ trees & bru%wood1 :ile at ! bottom !re 0 a pla9 on :i* cattle graz$4#g ,x w\ld seem t ! m\nta9 _h at ?is "t enjoy$ a long int]val ( re/1 & t x _h rev]t$ to v mu* ! same /ate 9 :i* x 0 at ! p]iod ( ! fir/ eruption1 :5 ! flanks 7 peopl$ by inhabitants liv+ 9 fanci$ security4 ,b six mon?s ( viol5t e>?quakes1 :i* grew m viol5t t[>ds ! close ( #afca1 h]ald$ ! eruption :i* took place 9 ,decemb]1 accompani$ by t]rific noises f )9 ! int]ior ( ! m\nta94 ,! inhabitants ( ! coa/ 7 ?us w>n$ ( ! approa*+ dang]1 & _h sev]al days to arrange = _! safety2 b 9 ! end1 a great "p ( ,torre del ,greco 0 de/roy$1 & a l fate ov]took ,res9a & ,granatello1 ) a loss ( life report$ at #ah1jjj p]sons4 ,dur+ ! eruption cl\ds cond5s$ into tempe/s ( ra91 & hot wat] f ! m\nta91 =m+ deluges ( mud1 swept d[n ! sides1 & rea*$ ev5 to ,nola & ! ,ap5n9es4 ,nor 0 ! sea unmov$4 ,x retir$ dur+ ! viol5t e>?quakes1 & !n return$ full ?irty paces beyond its =m] limits4 ,n inde$ until ne> ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury is !re any evid5ce t ! c5tral cone ( ,vesuvius 0 9 exi/5ce2 b 9 ,octob] #afhe an eruption occurr$ :i* is record$ by ,sorr5t9o1 dur+ :i* 0 erect$ a new m\nta9 )91 & high] ?an ! old "o1 & visible f ,naples1 a /atem5t evid5tly ref]able to ! exi/+ cone--s t x is little m ?an two c5turies s9ce ?is fam\s volcanic m\nta9 assum$ its pres5t =m4 7h47 ,eruptions betwe5 ! ye>s #aejj & #ahjj4--,s9ce ,a4,d4 #aejj !re h be5 fifty-six record$ eruptions ( ,vesuvius2 "o ( ^! 9 #agfg 0 ( t]rific viol5ce & de/ructiv5ess1 & is repres5t$ by ,sir ,william ,hamilton 9 views tak5 bo? be=e & dur+ ! eruption4 ,a p5-&-ink draw+ ( ! appe>ance ( ! crat] be=e ! eruption is "h reproduc$ f ,hamilton's picture1 f :i* x w be se5 t ! c5tral crat] conta9$ )9 itself a second crat]-cone1 f :5ce /eam1 lava1 & /ones 7 be+ erupt$ 7,fig4 #g74 ,?us x w be se5 t ,vesuvius at ?is epo* consi/$ ( ?ree crat]-cones )9 ea* o!r4 ,! fir/1 ,monte di ,somma2 ! second1 ! cone ( ,vesuvius2 & ! ?ird1 ! little crat]-cone )9 ! second4 ,dur+ ?is eruption1 va/ lava-%eets invad$ ! fields & v9ey>ds on ! flanks ( ! m\nta94 ,a vivid acc\nt ( ?is eruption1 z witness$ by ,padre ,torre1 is giv5 by ,pr(essor ,phillips4#h ,we %all pass ov] o!rs )\t fur!r ref]5ce until we come d[n to our own times1 9 :i* ,vesuvius has resum$ its old "*1 & 9 "o gr& exhibition ( volcanic en]gy1 :i* took place 9 #ahgb1 has ev9c$ to ! _w t x /ill conta9s )9 its deep-seat$ laboratory all ! elem5ts ( de/ructive =ce :i* x exhibit$ at ! comm5cem5t ( our era4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,view ( ! crat] ( ,vesuvius be=e ! eruption ( #agfg1 %[+ an int]ior crat]-cone ris+ f ! c5tre ( ! ext]ior crat]4--7,aft] ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton47 7i47 ,/ructure ( ! ,neapolitan ,campagna4--,b be=e giv+ a description ( ?is t]rific outbur/ ( volcanic en]gy1 x may be desirable to give "s acc\nt ( ! physical position & /ructure ( ?is m\nta91 by :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! eruption w be bett] und]/ood4 ,vesuvius & ! ,neapolitan ,campagna are =m$ ( volcanic mat]ials b\nd$ on ! we/ by ! ,gulf ( ,naples1 & on ! ea/ & s\? by ranges ( ,jurassic lime/one1 a prolongation ( ! ,ap5n9es1 :i* s5d out a spur b\nd+ ! bay on ! s\?1 & =m+ ! promontory ( ,sorr5to4 ,! little isl& ( ,capri is also =m$ ( lime/one1 & is dissev]$ f ! promontory by a n>r[ *annel4 ,! nor!rn side ( ! bay is1 h[ev]1 =m$ ( volcanic mat]ials2 x includes ! ,phlegran ,fields 7,campi ,phlegri71 & t]m9ates 9 ! promontory ( ,mis5o4 ,ly+ 9 ! same direction are ! isl&s ( ,procida & ,is*ia1 also volcanic4 ,h5ce x w be se5 t ! two horns ( ! bay are =m$ ( entirely diff]5t mat]ials1 t ( ,mis5o on ! nor? be+ volcanic1 t ( ,sorr5to on ! s\? be+ compos$ ( ,jurassic lime/one1 ( an age va/ly m anci5t ?an ! volcanic rocks on ! opposite %ore4 7,map1 p4 #eb47 ,! g5]al composition ( ! ,neapolitan ,campagna1 f :i* ! m\nta9 rises1 has be5 reveal$ by means ( ! ,artesian well sunk to a dep? ( ab\t #ejj metres 7#afdj feet7 at ! ,royal ,palace ( ,naples1 & may be g5]alis$ z foll[s3-- ,rec5t b$s ( volcanic tuff 7#a7 ,f surface to dep? ( ) m>9e %ells1 & conta9+ #gae feet fragm5ts ( tra*ytic lava1 etc4 7,volcanic ,b$s74 ,bitum9\s s&s & m>ls 7#b7 ,f #gae to #adbj ) m>9e %ells ( rec5t species787 7,pre-,volcanic ,b$s74 7#c7 ,f #adbj to #aegd ,,eoc5e ,,b$s4 ,micace\s s&/one & m>l 7,macigno74 7#d7 ,f #aegd to bottom ,,jurassic ,,b$s4 ,ap5n9e ,lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--,map ( ! di/rict bord]+ ! ,bay ( ,naples1 ) ! isl&s ( ,capri1 ,is*ia1 & ,procida4 ,f ! above section1 = :i* we are indebt$ to ,mr4 ,john/on-,lavis1 ! mo/ rec5t writ] on ,vesuvius1 x w\ld appe> t ! fir/ volcanic explosions by :i* ! m\nta9 0 ultimately to be built up took place aft] ! deposition ( ! s&s & m>ls 7,no4 #b71 :ile ! :ole ,campagna 0 subm]g$ "u ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,by ! accumulation ( ! /ratifi$ tuff 7,no4 #a71 ! sea-b$ 0 gradually fill$ up dur+ a p]iod ( volcanic activity1 & aft]w>ds elevat$ into dry l&4#i ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,view ( ,vesuvius f ! ,h>b\r ( ,naples at ! comm5cem5t ( ! eruption ( #ahgb4--7;,f a sket* by ! au?or47 7j47 ,pres5t ,=m & ,/ructure ( ,vesuvius & ,somma4--,! out] cone ( ,vesuvius1 or ,monte di ,somma1 rises f a circul> plat=m by a mod]ately g5tle asc5t1 & along ! nor? & ea/ t]m9ates 9 a craggy cre/1 ) a precipit\s cliff desc5d+ into ! ,atria del ,cavallo1 =m+ ! wall ( ! anci5t crat] ?r\gh\t half its circumf]5ce2 ?is wall is =m$ ( scori1 a%es1 & lapilli1 & is trav]s$ by num]\s dykes ( lava4 ,along ! we/ & s\? ?is old crat] has be5 brok5 d[n2 b ne> ! c5tre !re rema9s a r\nd-back$ ridge ( simil> mat]ials1 once d\btless a "p ( ! orig9al crat] ( ,somma1 ris+ above ! slopes ( lava on ei!r h&4 ,on ?is has be5 erect$ ! ,royal ,obs]vatory1 "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ,pr(essor ,luigi ,palmi]i1 :]e cont9u\s obs]vations are be+ made1 by means ( delicate seismomet]s1 ( ! e>?-tremors :i* prec$e or accompany eruptions2 = x is only ju/ice to say t ,vesuvius gives fair w>n+ ( imp5d+ mis*ief1 & ! in/rum5ts are quick to notify any premonitory symptoms ( a com+ cata/rophe4 ,! elevation ( ! ,obs]vatory is #bjhj feet above ! sea4 ,on ei!r side ( ! ,obs]vatory ridge are wide *annels fill$ to a c]ta9 height ) lavas ( ! n9ete5? & prec$+ c5turies1 ! mo/ rec5t pres5t+ an aspect :i* c only be comp>$ to a confus$ multitude ( black s]p5ts & pa*yd]ms wri?+ & int]lock$ 9 "s frightful dea?-/ruggle4 ,"s ( ?is lava1 t5 ye>s old1 z we cross its rugg$ & black surface pres5ts gap+ fissures1 %[+ ! mass to be r$-hot a few feet f ! surface1 s sl[ is ! process ( cool+4 ,^! lava-/reams--"s ( !m rea*+ to ! sea-coa/--h issu$ =? f ! ,atria at successive p]iods ( eruption4 ,f ! mid/ ( ! ,atria rises ! c5tral cone1 =m$ ( c9d]s1 scori1 & lava-/reams1 & fissur$ along l9es radiat+ f ! axis4 ,?is cone is v /eep1 ! angle be+ ab\t #dj-de f ! horizontal1 & is =m$ ( loose c9d]y matt] :i* gives way at e /ep1 & is r difficult to climb4 ,b on rea*+ ! summit we look d[n into ! crat]1 display+ a sc5e ( ev]-v>y+ *>act]s1 r oval 9 =m1 & ab\t #aajj y>ds 9 diamet]4 ,f ! map ( ,pr(essor ,guisc>di1 publi%$ 9 #ahee1 !re are se5 two m9or crat]s )9 ! c5tral "o1 =m$ 9 #ahej1 & an outfl[ ( lava f ! ,n4,w4 d[n ! cone4 ,at ! "t ( ! au?or's visit ! crat] 0 giv+ indications1 by ! great quantity ( sulphur\s gas & vap\r ris+ f its surface1 & small jets ( molt5 lava beg9n+ to fl[ d[n ! out] side1 ( ! gr& outbur/ ( int]nal =ces :i* 0 pres5tly to foll[4 7k47 ,eruption ( #ahgb4--,! gr& eruption ( #ahgb1 ( :i* a detail$ acc\nt is giv5 by ,pr(essor ,palmi]i1#aj comm5c$ ) a slight dis*>ge ( inc&esc5t projectiles f ! crat]2 & on ! #ac? ,janu>y an ap]ture appe>$ on ! upp] edge ( ! cone f :i* at fir/ a little lava issu$ =?1 foll[$ by ! upris+ ( a cone :i* ?rew out projectiles accompani$ by smoke1 :il/ ! c5tral crat] cont9u$ to detonate m l\dly & frequ5tly4 ,?is little cone ultimately increas$ 9 size1 until 9 ,april x fill$ ! :ole crat] & rose f\r or five metres above ! brim4 ,at ?is "t abundant lavas p\r$ d[n f ! base ( ! cone into ! ,atria del ,cavallo1 !nce turn$ into ! ,fossa della ,vetr>ia 9 ! direction ( ! ,obs]vatory & t[>ds ! ,crocella1 :]e !y accumulat$ to su* an ext5t z to cov] ! hillside = a di/ance ( ab\t #cjj metres2 !n turn+ bel[ ! ,cant]oni1 =m$ a hillock )\t spread+ mu* f>!r4 ,9 ,octob] ano!r small crat] 0 =m$ by ! fall+ 9 ( ! lava1 :i* aft] a few days gave v5t to smoke & sev]al jets ( lava2 & t[>ds ! end ( ,octob] ! detonations increas$1 ! smoke f ! c5tral crat] issu$ =? m d5sely mix$ ) a%es1 & ! seismographical app>atus 0 mu* di/urb$4 ,on ! #crd & #d? ,novemb] copi\s & spl5did lava-/reams c\rs$ d[n ! pr9cipal cone on its we/]n side1 b 7 soon exhau/$2 & 9 ! beg9n+ ( #ahgb ! little cone1 rega9+ vig\r1 began to dis*>ge lava f ! summit in/ead ( ! base z h]et(ore4 ,9 ! mon? ( ,m>* #ahgc1 ) ! full moon1 ! cone op5$ on ! nor?-we/ side--! cleavage be+ indicat$ by a l9e ( fum>oles--& lava issu$ f ! base & p\r$ d[n into ! ,atria z f> z ! precipices ( ,monte di ,somma4 ,on ! #bcrd ,april 7ano!r full moon7 ! activity ( ! crat]s increas$1 & on ! ev5+ ( ! #bd? spl5did lava-/reams desc5d$ ! cone 9 v>i\s directions1 attract+ on ! same night ! visits ( a great _m /rang]s4 ,a lam5table ev5t foll[$ on ! #bf?4 ,a p>ty ( visitors1 accompani$ by inexp]i5c$ guides1 & contr>y to ! advice ( ,pr(essor ,palmi]i1 insi/$ on asc5d+ to ! place f :i* ! lava issu$4 ,at half-pa/ ?ree on ! morn+ ( ! #bf? !y 7 9 ! ,atria del ,cavallo1 :5 ! ,vesuvian cone 0 r5t 9 a nor?-we/ direction & a copi\s torr5t ( lava issu$ =?4 ,two l>ge crat]s =m$ at ! summit ( ! m\nta91 dis*>g+ inc&esc5t projectiles & a%es4 ,a cl\d ( smoke envelop$ ! unhappy visitors1 :o 7 "u a hail-/orm ( burn+ projectiles4 ,eight 7 buri$ b5ea? x1 or 9 ! lava1 :ile elev5 7 griev\sly injur$4#aa ,! lava-/ream1 fl[+ ov] t ( #ahga 9 ! ,atria1 divid$ into two bran*es1 ! small] "o fl[+ t[>ds ,res9a1 b /opp+ be=e rea*+ ! t[n2 ! l>g] precipitat$ itself into ! ,fossa della ,vetr>ia1 occupy+ ! :ole wid? ( #hjj metres1 & trav]s+ ! entire l5g? ( #acjj metres 9 ?ree h\rs4 ,x da%$ into ! ,fossa di ,f>one1 & rea*$ ! villages ( ,massa & ,/4 ,seba/iano1 cov]+ a portion ( ! h\ses1 &1 cont9u+ its c\rse ?r\gh an artificial foss1 or tr5*1 invad$ cultivat$ gr\nd & sev]al villages4 ,if x _h n greatly slack5$ aft] midnight1 f failure ( supply at its s\rce1 x w\ld h rea*$ ,naples by ,ponticelli & fl[$ into ! sea4 ,! eruption t[>ds ! end ( ,april _h rea*$ its height4 ,! ,obs]vatory ridge 0 b\nd$ on ei!r side by two fi]y /reams1 :i* r5d]$ ! heat intol]able4 ,simultane\sly ) ! op5+ ( ! great fissure two l>ge crat]s op5$ at ! summit1 dis*>g+ ) a dreadful noise an imm5se cl\d ( smoke & a%es1 ) bombs :i* rose to a height ( #acjj metres above ! brim ( ! volcano4#ab ,! torr5ts ( fire :i* ?reat5$ ,res9a1 ,bosco1 & ,torre ,annunziata1 & :i* deva/at$ ! f]tile c\ntry ( ,novelle1 ,massa1 ,/4 ,seba/iano1 & ,c]ole1 & two p>tially buri$ cities1 ! cont9ual ?und]+s & gr[l+ ( ! crat]s1 caus$ su* t]ror1 t numb]s ab&on$ _! dwell+s1 fly+ = refuge into ,naples1 :ile _m ,neapolitans w5t to ,rome or o!r places4 ,=tunately1 ! p>oxysm _h n[ pass$1 ! lava-/reams /opp$ 9 _! c\rse1 & ! great torr5t :i* pass$ ! %\ld]s ( ! ,obs]vatory ?r\gh ! ,fossa della ,vetr>ia l[]$ ! level ( its surface bel[ t ( its sides1 :i* appe>$ l two p>allel ramp>ts above x4 ,_h ^! /reams cont9u$ to fl[ on ! #bg? ( ,april z !y _h done on ! previ\s night1 !y w\ld h rea*$ ! sea1 br++ de/ruction to ! v walls ( ,naples4 ,dur+ ?is eruption ,torre del ,greco 0 uprais$ to ! ext5t ( two metres1 & ne>ly all ! h\ses 7 knock$ d[n4 ,! igne\s p]iod ( eruption hav+ t]m9at$1 ! a%es1 lapilli1 & projectiles became m abundant1 accompani$ by ?und] & lightn+4 ,on ! #bh? !y d>k5$ ! air1 & ! t]rific noise ( ! m\nta9 cont9u+ or increas+1 ! t]ror at ,res9a1 ,portici1 & ,naples became univ]sal4 ,x seem$ z ?\gh ! tragic calamities ( ! eruption ( ,a4,d4 #gi 7 ab\t to be repeat$4 ,b gradually ! =ce ( ! explosions decreas$1 & ! noise f ! crat] became discont9u\s1 s t on ! #cj? ! detonations 7 v few1 & by ! #a/ ,may ! eruption 0 completely ov]4 ,su* is a cond5s$ acc\nt ( "o ( ! mo/ =midable eruptions ( our era4 ,9 ! frontispiece ( ?is volume a repres5tation1 tak5 7by p]mission7 f a photograph by ,negretti ,zambra1 is giv51 %[+ ! appe>ance ( ,vesuvius dur+ ! f9al /age ( ! eruption1 :5 prodigi\s masses ( smoke1 /eam1 & illum9at$ gas issu$ =? f ! summit & ov]spread ! :ole c\ntry ar\nd ) a canopy :i* ! light ( ! sun c\ld sc>cely p5etrate4 ,x w be notic$ 9 ! above acc\nt t1 concurr5tly ) ! full moon1 !re 7 two di/9ct & special outbreaks ( activity2 "o occurr+ 9 ,m>*1 ! o!r 9 ! mon? foll[+4 ,t ! conditions ( lun> & sol> attraction %\ld h a m>k$ effect on a "p ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :ile "u ! t5sion ( eruptive =ces1 is only :at might be expect$4 ,at full moon ! e>? is betwe5 ! sun & ! moon1 & at new moon ! moon is betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?2 "u ^! conditions 7! two bodies act+ 9 conc]t7 we h spr+ tides 9 ! ocean1 & a maximum ( attraction on ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,h5ce ! cru/1 :i* at ! "t ref]r$ to 0 "u trem5d\s /ra91 only requir$ ! addition ( t caus$ by ! lun> & sol> attractions to produce rupture 9 bo? cases1 giv+ rise to increas$ activity1 & ! extrusion ( lava & volatile matt]4 ,x may1 9 g5]al1 be safely affirm$ t l[ b>ometric pressure on ! "o h&1 & ! occurr5ce ( ! syzygies 7:5 ! attractions ( ! sun & moon are 9 ! same l9e7 on ! o!r1 h _h great influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! crises ( eruptions ( volcanic m\nta9s :5 9 a /ate ( unre/4 ,contra/ betwe5 ! ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn ,slopes4--,be=e leav+ ,vesuvius x may be obs]v$ t ?r\gh\t all ! eruptions ( mod]n times ! nor!rn side ( ! m\nta91 t is ! old crat] & flank ( ,somma1 has be5 secure f ! lava-fl[s1 & has enjoy$ an immunity :i* does n belong to ! s\!rn & we/]n side4 ,if we look at a map ( ! m\nta9 %[+ ! direction ( ! /reams dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies1#ac we obs]ve t all ! /reams ( t p]iod fl[$ d[n on ! side ov]look+ ! ,bay ( ,naples2 on ! opposite side ! wall ( ,monte di ,somma pres5ts an unbrok5 front to ! lava-/reams4 ,f ?is x may be inf]r$ t "o side1 ! we/1 is weak] ?an ! o!r2 & consequ5tly1 :5 ! lava & vap\rs are be+ =c$ upw>ds1 "u enorm\s pressure f b5ea?1 ! we/]n side gives way "u ! /ra91 z 9 ! case ( ! fissure ( #ahgb1 & ! lava & vap\rs f9d means ( escape4 ,f :at has happ5$ 9 ! pa/ x is cle> t no place on ! we/]n side ( ! m\nta9 is entirely safe f deva/ation by floods ( lava2 :ile ! preval5t w9ds t5d to c>ry ! a%es & lapilli1 :i* are hurl$ into ! air1 9 ! same we/]ly direction4 #a ,= an excell5t view ( ?is rem>kable volcanic gr\p see ,judd's ,volcanoes1 #d? edition1 p4 #dc4 #b ,plut>*1 ,life ( ,cassius2 ed4 ,reiske1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bdj4 #c ,/rabo gives ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! appe>ance & condition ( ,vesuvius 9 8 day3--,supra hc loca situs e/ ,vesuvius mons1 agris c9ctus optimis2 dempto v]tice1 qui magna sui p>te planus1 totus /]ilis e/1 adspectu s9]eus1 cav]nasque o/5d5s fi/ul>um pl5as et lapidum colore fulig9oso1 utpote ab igni exesorum4 ,ut conject>um fac]e possis1 i/a loca quondam arsisse et crat]as ignis habuisse1 de9de mat]ia defici5te re/ricta fuisse4--,r]4 ,geog41 lib4 v4 #d ,a tablet ov] ! entrance records ?is act ( pi\s lib]ality1 & is giv5 by ,phillips1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ab4 #e ,! /one p9e1 ,p9us p9ea1 :i* ,turn] knew h[ to use ) s mu* effect 9 8 ,italian l&scapes4 #f ,bulw] ,lytton's ,la/ ,days ( ,pompeii pres5ts to ! read] a graphic picture ( ! t]rible ev5t "h ref]r$ to3--,! eyes ( ! cr[d foll[$ ! ge/ure ( ! ,egyptian1 & beheld ) ineffable dismay a va/ vap\r %oot+ f ! summit ( ,vesuvius1 9 ! =m ( a gigantic p9e tree2 ! trunk--blackness1 ! bran*es--fire6 ,a fire t %ift$ & wav]$ 9 its hues ) e mom5t--n[ fi]cely lum9\s1 n[ ( a dull & dy+ r$ t aga9 blaz$ t]rifically =? ) intol]able gl>e6444 ,!n !re arose on high ! %rieks ( wom52 ! m5 />$ at ea* o!r1 b 7 spee*less4 ,at t mom5t !y felt ! e>? %ake b5ea? _! feet2 ! walls ( ! !atre trembl$2 & beyond1 9 ! di/ance1 !y he>d ! cra% ( fall+ ro(s2 an in/ant m & ! m\nta9-cl\d seem$ to roll t[>ds !m1 d>k & rapid2 at ! same "t x ca/ =? f its bosom a %[] ( a%es mix$ ) va/ fragm5ts ( burn+ /one4 ,ov] ! cru%+ v9es--ov] ! desolate /reets--ov] ! amphi!atre itself--f> & wide1 ) _m a mighty spla% 9 ! agitat$ sea1 fell t awful %[]4 ,a visit to ! dis9t]r$ city w probably produce on ! m9d a /ill m la/+ & vivid impression ( ! swift de/ruction :i* ov]took ?is city4 #g ,quot$ by ,phillips1 loc4 cit41 p4 #de4 #h ,vesuvius1 p4 #gb et seq4 #i ,john/on-,lavis1 ,on ! ,geology ( ,monti ,somma & ,vesuvius1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 #dj 7#ahhd74 #aj ,palmi]i1 ,eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahgb1 ) notes1 etc41 by ,rob]t ,mallet1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,london1 #ahgc4 #aa ,^? :o lo/ _! lives 7 m$ical /ud5ts1 & an ,assi/ant ,pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity1 ,antonio ,giannone by "n4 #ab ,involv+1 z ,mr4 ,mallet calculates1 an initial velocity ( projection ( above #fjj feet p] second4 #ac ,su* z t giv5 by ,pr(essor ,phillips 9 8 ,vesuvius4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,etna4 7a47 ,/ructure ( ! ,m\nta94--,etna1 unlike ,vesuvius1 has ev] be5 a burn+ m\nta92 h5ce x 0 well kn[n z su* to classic writ]s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! /ructure & features ( ?is magnific5t m\nta9 h be5 abundantly illu/rat$ by ,elie de ,beaumont1#a ,daub5y1#b ,b>on von ,walt]%aus51#c & ,lyell1#d ( ^: writ+s ,i %all freely avail myself 9 ! foll[+ acc\nt1 n hav+ _h ! advantage ( a p]sonal exam9ation ( ?is region4 ,/ructure ( ,etna4--,s l>ge is ,etna t x w\ld enclose )9 its ample skirts sev]al cones ( ! size ( ,vesuvius4 ,x rises to a height ( ne>ly #aa1jjj feet above ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean1#e & is plant$ on a floor consi/+ ( /ratifi$ m>9e volcanic matt]1 ) clays1 s&s1 & lime/ones ( new] ,plioc5e age4 ,its base is ne>ly circul>1 & has a circumf]5ce ( #hg ,engli% miles4 ,9 asc5d+ its flanks we pass successively ov] ?ree well-def9$ physical zones3 ! l[e/1 or f]tile zone1 compris+ ! tract ar\nd ! skirts ( ! m\nta9 up to a level ( ab\t #bejj feet1 be+ well cultivat$ & cov]$ by dwell+s surr\nd$ by olive groves1 fields1 v9ey>ds1 & fruit-trees2 ! second1 or =e/ zone1 ext5d+ to a level ( ab\t #fbgj feet1 clo!d ) *e/nut1 oak1 bee*1 & cork trees1 giv+ place to p9es2 & ! ?ird1 ext5d+ to ! summit & call$ ! des]t region1 a wa/e ( black lava & scori ) mighty crags & precipices1 t]m9at+ 9 a sn[-clad tablel&1 f :i* rises ! c5tral cone1 #aajj feet high1 emitt+ cont9ually /eam & sulphur\s vap\rs1 & 9 ! c\rse ( almo/ e c5tury s5d+ =? /reams ( molt5 lava4 ,! =e/ zone is rem>kable = ! great numb] ( m9or crat]s :i* rise up f ! mid/ ( ! foliage1 & are !mselves clo!d ) trees4 ,s>torius von ,walt]%aus5 has laid d[n on 8 map ( ,etna ab\t #bjj ( ^! cones & crat]s1 "s ( :i*1 l ^? ( ,auv]gne1 h be5 brok5 d[n on "o side4 ,_m ( ^! volcanoes ( second or ?ird magnitude lie outside ! =e/ zone1 bo? above & bel[ x2 su* z ! d\ble hill ( ,monti ,rossi1 ne> ,nicolosi1 =m$ 9 #afei1 :i* is #dej feet 9 height1 & two miles 9 circumf]5ce at its base4 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell obs]ves t ^! m9or crat]-cones pres5t u ) "o ( ! mo/ delightful & *>act]i/ic sc5es 9 ,europe4 ,!y occur ( e v>iety ( height & size1 & are arrang$ 9 picturesque gr\ps4 ,h[ev] uni=m !y may appe> :5 se5 f ! sea or ! pla9s bel[1 no?+ c be m div]sifi$ ?an _! %ape :5 we look f above into _! ruptur$ crat]s4 ,! cones situat$ 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! =e/ zone are *iefly clo!d ) l(ty p9es2 :ile ^? at a l[] elevation are adorn$ ) *e/nuts1 oaks1 & bee* trees4 ,^! cones h f "t to "t be5 buri$ amid/ fre% lava-/reams desc5d+ f ! great crat]1 & ?us (t5 become oblit]at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,ideal ,section ?r\gh ,etna4 7,aft] ,lyell47--,a4 ,axis ( pres5t cone ( eruption2 ,b4 ,axis ( ext9ct cone ( eruption2 a4 ,old] lavas1 *iefly tra*ytic2 b4 ,new] lavas1 erupt$ 7) a7 be=e orig9 ( ! ,val del ,bove2 c4 ,scoria & lava ( rec5t age2 ,t4 ,t]ti>y /rata =m+ ! f\ndation to ! volcanic rocks4 ,! position ( ! ,val del ,bove be=e its =mation is %[n by ! lightly-%ad$ portion above ,b4 7b47 ,val del ,bove4--,! mo/ wond]ful feature ( ,m\nt ,etna is ! celebrat$ ,val del ,bove 7,valle del ,bue71 ( :i* ,s4 von ,walt]%aus5 has furni%$ a v beautiful plate#f--;a va/ amphi!atre hewn out ( ! ea/]n flank ( ! m\nta91 j bel[ ! sn[-mantl$ plat=m4 ,x is a physical feature some:at aft] ! fa%ion ( ,monte ,somma 9 ,vesuvius1 b exce$s x 9 magnitude z ,etna exce$s ,vesuvius4 ,! ,val del ,bove is ab\t five miles 9 diamet]1 b\nd$ ?r\gh\t ?ree-f\r?s ( its circumf]5ce by precipit\s walls ( a%es1 scori1 & lava1 trav]s$ by innum]able dykes1 & ris+ inw>ds to a height ( betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj feet4 ,t[>ds ! ea/ ! cliffs gradually fall to a height ( ab\t #ejj feet1 & at ?is side ! va/ *asm op5s out ^u ! slope ( ! m\nta94 ,at ! head ( ! ,val del ,bove rises ! plat=m1 surm\nt$ by ! great cone & crat]4 ,x w ?us be se5 t by means ( ?is holl[ we h access almo/ to ! v he>t ( ! m\nta94 ,:at is v rem>kable ab\t ! /ructure ( ?is valley is t ! b$s exhibit ! qu-qu v]sal dip--9 o!r words1 !y dip away on all sides f ! c5tre--:i* has l$ to ! conclusion t 9 ! c5tre is a focus ( eruption :i* _h become clos$ up antec$5tly to ! =mation ( ! valley itself4 ,lyell has expla9$ ?is po9t v cle>ly by %[+ t ?is focus _h ceas$ to eject matt] at "s di/ant p]iod1 & t ! exi/+ crat] at ! summit ( ! m\nta9 _h p\r$ out its lavas ov] ^? ( ! ext9ct orifice4 ,?is 0 prior to ! =mation ( ! ,val del ,bove itself2 & ! "q rema9s = consid]ation h[ ?is va/ natural amphi!atre came to be holl[$ out2 = its /ructure %[s unque/ionably t x owes its =m to "s process ( excavation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is c]ta9ly n ! "w ( runn+ wat]1 z 9 ! case ( ! caons ( ,colorado2 ! por\s matt] ( :i* ! m\nta9 is =m$ is q incapable ( orig9at+ & support+ a /ream ( suffici5t volume to excavate & c>ry away su* enorm\s masses ( matt] )9 ! p]iod requir$ = ! purpose4 ,we mu/ !re=e h rec\rse to "s o!r ag5cy4 ,num]\s illu/rations are to be f\nd ( ! explosive action ( volcanoes 9 bl[+ (f ei!r ! summits ( m\nta9s1 or portions ( _! sides4 ,= example1 !re is reason = believ+ t ! fir/ result ( ! r5ew$ en]gy ( ,vesuvius 0 to bl[ into ! air ! upp] surface ( ! m\nta94 ,aga91 s late z #ahbb1 dur+ a viol5t e>?quake 9 ,java1 a c\ntry :i* has be5 repeat$ly deva/at$ by e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions1 ! m\nta9 ( ,galongoon1 :i* 0 cov]$ by a d5se =e/1 & situat$ 9 a f]tile & ?ickly-peopl$ region1 & _h nev] )9 ! p]iod ( tradition be5 9 activity1 0 ?us ruptur$ by int]nal =ces4 ,9 ! mon? ( ,july #ahbb1 aft] a t]rible e>?quake1 an explosion 0 he>d1 & imm5se columns ( boil+ wat]1 mix$ ) mud & /ones1 7 project$ f ! m\nta9 l a wat]-sp\t1 & 9 fall+ fill$ up ! valleys1 & cov]$ ! c\ntry ) a ?ick deposit = _m miles1 bury+ villages & _! inhabitants4 ,dur+ a subsequ5t eruption great blocks ( basalt 7 ?r[n to a di/ance ( sev5 miles2 ! result ( all be+ t an enorm\s semicircul> gulf 0 =m$ betwe5 ! summit & ! pla91 b\nd$ by /eep cliffs1 & be>+ consid]able resemblance to ! ,val del ,bove4 ,o!r examples ( ! p[] ( volcanic explosions might be cit$2 b ! above are suffici5t to %[ t great holl[s may ?us be =m$ ei!r on ! summits or flanks ( volcanic m\nta9s4 ,*asms may also be =m$ by ! fall+ 9 ( ! solidifi$ cru/1 ow+ to ! extrusion ( molt5 matt] f "s neighb\r+ v5t ( eruption2 & x is conceivable t by "o or o!r ( ^! processes ! va/ *asm ( ! ,val del ,bove on ! flanks ( ,etna may h be5 produc$4 7c47 ,! ,physical ,hi/ory ( ,etna4--,! physical hi/ory ( ,etna seems to be some:at z foll[s3-- ,fir/ ,/age4--,some:]e t[>ds ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod--p]haps e>ly ,plioc5e or late ,mioc5e--a v5t ( eruption op5$ on ! floor ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 f :i* %eets ( lava 7 p\r$ =?1 & a%es m+l$ ) clays & s&s1 br\ght d[n f ! neighb\r+ l&s1 7 /rewn ov] ! sea-b$4 ,dur+ a pause 9 volcanic activity1 b$s ( lime/one ) m>9e %ells 7 deposit$4 ,second ,/age4--,?is sea-b$ 0 gradually uprais$ into ! air1 :ile fre% %eets ( lava & o!r ejecta 7 accumulat$ r\nd ! v5ts ( eruption1 ( :i* !re 7 two pr9cipal ones--! old] "u ! pres5t ,val del ,bove1 ! new] "u ! summit ( ! pr9cipal cone4 ,?us 0 ! m\nta9 gradually pil$ up4 ,?ird ,/age4--,! v5t "u ! ,val del ,bove ceas$ to extrude m matt]1 & became ext9ct4 ,mean:ile ! second v5t cont9u$ active1 &1 pil+ up m & m matt] r\nd ! c5tral crat]1 surm\nt$ ! =m] v5t1 & cov]$ its ejecta ) new] %eets ( lava1 a%es1 & lapilli1 :ile num]\s small] v5ts1 scatt]$ all ov] ! sides ( ! m\nta91 gave rise to small] cones & crat]s4 ,f\r? ,/age4--,?is /age is signalis$ by ! =mation ( ! ,val del ,bove ?r\gh "s gr& explosion1 or s]ies ( explosions1 by :i* ?is va/ *asm 0 op5$ 9 ! side ( ! m\nta91 z already expla9$4 ,fif? ,/age4--,?is repres5ts ! pres5t condition ( ! m\nta91 ^: height above ! sea is due1 n only to accumulation ( volcanic mat]ials r\nd ! c5tral cone1 b to elevation ( ! :ole isl&1 z ev9c$ by num]\s rais$ bea*es ( gravel & s&1 conta9+ %ells & o!r =ms ( m>9e species n[ liv+ 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean4#g ,s9ce !n ! condition & =m ( ! m\nta9 has rema9$ v mu* ! same1 v>i$ only by ! results ( occasional eruptions4 7d47 ,dissimil>ity 9 ! ,con/itution ( ! ,lavas ( ,etna & ,vesuvius4--,be=e leav+ ! subject we h be5 consid]+1 x is necess>y t ,i %\ld m5tion "o rem>kable fact connect$ ) ! orig9 ( ! lavas ( ,etna & ,vesuvius respectively2 ,i ref] to _! ess5tial diff]5ces 9 m9]al composition4 ,x might at fir/ sight h be5 suppos$ t ! lavas ( ^! two volcanic m\nta9s--situat$ at su* a %ort di/ance f ea* o!r1 & evid5tly along ! same l9e ( fracture 9 ! cru/--w\ld be ( ! same g5]al composition2 b su* is n ! case4 ,9 ! lava ( ,vesuvius leucite is an ess5tial1 & p]haps ! mo/ abundant m9]al4 ,x is call$ by ,zirkel ,sanid9-,leucitge/e94 7,see ,plate ,,iv47 ,b 9 t ( ,etna ?is m9]al is 7z f> z ,i am aw>e7 altoge!r abs5t4 ,we h =tunately abundant means ( comp>ison1 z ! lavas ( ^! two m\nta9s h be5 submitt$ to close exam9ation by petrologi/s4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,vesuvian lavas1 an elaborate s]ies ( *emical analyses & microscopical obs]vations h be5 made by ! ,rev4 ,pr(essor ,haughton1 ( ,dubl9 ,univ]sity1 & ! au?or1#h f specim5s collect$ by ,pr(essor ,guisc>di f ! lava-fl[s ext5d+ f #afca to #ahfh1 9 e "o ( :i* leucite occurs1 g5]ally z ! mo/ abundant m9]al1 always z an ess5tial con/itu5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! composition ( ! lavas ( ,etna1 det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,a4 von ,lasaulx1 f specim5s tak5 f ! olde/ 7vortnis*57 %eets ( lava d[n to ^? ( ! pres5t day1 indicates a rock ( rem>kable uni=mity ( composition1 9 :i* ! compon5ts are plagioclase felsp>1 augite1 oliv9e1 magnetite1 & sometimes apatite2 b ( leucite we h no trace4#i ,9 fact1 ! lavas ( ,etna are v mu* ! same 9 composition z ! ord9>y basalts ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 :ile ^? ( ,vesuvius are ( a diff]5t type4 ,?is seems to sugge/ an orig9 ( ! two sets ( lavas f a diff]5t deep-seat$ magma2 ! pres5ce ( leucite 9 su* l>ge quantity requir+ a magma 9 :i* soda is 9 excess1 z comp>$ ) t f :i* ! lavas ( ,etna h be5 d]iv$4#aj #a ,mmoires p\r ,s]vir1 etc41 vol4 ii4 #b ,daub5y1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #bgj4 #c ,von ,walt]%aus51 ,d] tna1 edit$ by ,a4 von ,lasaulx4 #d ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 ii41 edition #ahgb4 #e ,its height1 z det]m9$ by ,capta9 ,smy? 9 #ahge trigonometrically1 0 #aj1hgd feet1 & aft]w>ds by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el b>ometrically1 #aj1hgb feet4 #f ,atlas des tna 7,weim>1 #aheh71 9 :i* ! diff]5t lava-/reams ( #afhh1 #ahjb1 #ahji1 #ahaa1 #ahai1 #ahbd1 & #ahch are del9eat$4 #g ,sir ,william ,hamilton obs]ves t hi/ory is sil5t reg>d+ ! fir/ eruptions ( ,etna4 ,x 0 9 activity be=e ! ,trojan ,w>1 & ev5 be=e ! arrival ( ! ,sizili5 settl]s4 ,diodorus & ,?ucydides notice ! e>lie/ record$ eruptions1 ^? f #ggb to #chh ,b4,c41 dur+ :i* "t ! m\nta9 0 ?rice 9 eruption4 ,lat] eruptions took place 9 ! ye> #adj1 #ace1 #abe1 #abb ,b4,c4 ,9 ! ye> #dd ,b4,c41 9 ! reign ( ,julius ,cs>1 !re 0 a v viol5t outbur/ ( volcanic activity4--,neu]e ,beoba*tung5 b] die ,vulkane ,itali5s und am ,rhe91 p4 #agc1 ,frankfurt 7#aghd74 #h ,report on ! ,*emical & ,m9]alogical ,*>act]s ( ! ,lavas ( ,vesuvius f #afca to #ahfh1 ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,iri% ,academy1 vol4 xxvi4 7#ahgf74 ,9 ! lava ( #ahdh leucite 0 f\nd to rea* #dd4i p] c5t4 ( ! :ole mass4 ,9 t ( ,granatello1 #afca1 x rea*es its l[e/ proportion--viz41 #c4cg p] c5t4 #i ,a4 von ,lasaulx1 9 ,von ,walt]%aus5's ,d] tna1 ,book ,,ii41 x4 #dbc4 #aj ,! view ( ,pr(essor ,judd1 t leucite easily *anges into felsp>1 & t "s anci5t igne\s rocks :i* n[ conta9 felsp> 7 orig9ally leucitic1 does n seem to be borne out by ! above facts4 ,9 su* cases ! felsp> cry/als ought to reta9 ! =ms ( leucite4 ,see ,volcanoes1 #d? edition1 p4 #bfh4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,lip>i ,,isl&s1 ,,/romboli4 7a47 ,a brief acc\nt ( ?is rem>kable gr\p ( volcanic isl&s mu/ "h be giv51 inasmu* z !y seem to be repres5tatives ( a /age ( volcanic action 9 :i* ! igne\s =ces are gradually los+ _! en]gy4 ,accord+ to ,daub5y1 ! volcanic action 9 ^! isl&s seems to be develop$ along two l9es1 ne>ly at "r angles to ea* o!r1 "o p>allel to t ( ! ,ap5n9es1 beg9n+ ) ,/romboli1 int]sect+ ,pan>ia1 ,lip>i1 & ,vulcano2 ! o!r ext5d+ f ,pan>ia to ,sal9a1 ,alicudi1 & ,felicudi1 & aga9 visible 9 ! volcanic products :i* make _! appe>ance at ,u/ica4 7,see ,map1 ,fig4 #aa47 ,! isl&s lie betwe5 ! nor? coa/ ( ,sicily & t ( ,italy1 & f _! position seem to connect ,etna ) ,vesuvius2 b ?is is v problematical1 z w\ld appe> f ! diff]5ce ( _! lavas4 ,! pr9cipal isl&s are ^? ( ,/romboli1 ,pan>ia1 ,lip>i1 ,vulcano1 ,sal9a1 ,felicudi1 & ,alicudi4 ,^! ?ree la/ are ext9ct or dormant1 b ,sal9a conta9s a crat]1 ris+1 accord+ to ,daub5y1 n less ?an #cejj feet above ! sea4#a ,vulcano 7ref]r$ to by ,/rabo "u ! "n ( ,hi]a7 consi/s ( a crat] :i* con/antly emits l>ge quantities ( sulphur\s vap\rs1 b 0 9 a /ate ( activity 9 ! ye> #aghf1 :51 aft] frequ5t e>?quake %ocks & subt]ranean noises1 x vomit$ =? dur+ fifte5 days %[]s ( s&1 toge!r ) cl\ds ( smoke & flame1 alt]+ mat]ially ! %ape ( ! crat] f :i* !y proce$$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,lip>i ,,isl&s4 ,fig4 #aa4--,map to %[ ! position ( ^! isl&s1 %[+ ! bran*+ l9es ( volcanic action--"o p>allel to t ( ! ,ap5n9es1 ! o!r /ret*+ we/w>ds at "r angles !reto4 ,! isl&s ( ,lip>i are =m$ ( b$s ( tuff1 p5etrat$ by num]\s dykes ( lava1 f :i* uprise two or ?ree crat]s1 =m$ ( pumice & obsidian pass+ into tra*yte4 ,volcanic op]ations might h "h be5 said to be ext9ct1 7 x n t _! cont9uance is manife/$ by ! exi/5ce ( hot spr+s & /ufes1 or vap\r ba?s1 at ,/4 ,calog]o1 ab\t f\r miles f ! t[n ( ,lip>i4 ,daub5y consid]s x n improbable t ?is isl& may h _h an active volcano ev5 )9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 a view :i* is borne out by ! /atem5t ( ,/rabo4#b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,isl& ( ,vulcano1 "o ( ! ,lip>i ,gr\p1 9 eruption4--7,aft] ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton47 7b47 ,b by f> ! mo/ rem>kable isl& ( ! gr\p1 z reg>ds its pres5t volcanic condition1 is ,/romboli1 :i* has ev] be5 9 active eruption f ! comm5cem5t ( hi/ory d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,pr(essor ,judd1 :o visit$ ?is isl& 9 #ahgd1 & has produc$ a /rik+ repres5tation ( its aspect1#c gives an acc\nt ( :i* ,i %all "h avail myself4#d ,! isl& is ( rudely circul> outl9e1 & rises into a cone1 ! summit ( :i* is #cjij feet above ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,f a po9t on ! side ( ! m\nta9 masses ( vap\r are se5 to issue1 & ^! unite to =m a cl\d ov] ! summit2 ! outl9e ( ?is vap\r-cl\d v>y+ cont9ually accord+ to ! hygrometric /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 & ! direction & =ce ( ! w9d4 ,at ! "t ( ,pr(essor ,judd's visit1 ! vap\r-cl\d 0 spread 9 a great horizontal /ratum ov]%ad[+ ! :ole isl&2 b x 0 cle>ly se5 to be made up ( a numb] ( globul> masses1 ea* ( :i* is a product ( a di/9ct outbur/ ( volcanic =ces4 ,view$ at night-"t1 ,/romboli pres5ts a f> m /rik+ & s+ul> spectacle4 ,:5 wat*$ f ! deck ( a vessel1 a gl[ ( r$ light is se5 to make its appe>ance f "t to "t above ! summit ( ! m\nta92 x may be obs]v$ to increase gradually 9 int5sity1 & !n z gradually to die away4 ,aft] a %ort int]val ! same appe>ances are repeat$1 & ?is goes on till ! increas+ light ( dawn causes ! ph5om5on to be no long] visible4 ,! resemblance pres5t$ by ,/romboli to a fla%+ light on a mo/ gigantic scale is v /rik+1 & ! m\nta9 has long be5 kn[n z ! ligh?\se ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! m\nta9 is built up ( a%es1 slag1 & scori1 to a height ( 7z already /at$7 ov] #cjjj feet above ! surface ( ! sea2 b1 z ,pr(essor ,judd obs]ves1 ?is by no means gives a j idea ( its va/ bulk4 ,s\nd+s 9 ! sea surr\nd+ ! isl& %[ t ! bottom gradually %elves ar\nd ! %ores to a dep? ( ne>ly #fjj fa?oms1 s t ,/romboli is a great conical mass ( c9d]s & slaggy mat]ials1 hav+ a height above its floor ( ab\t #ffjj feet1 & a base ! diamet] ( :i* exce$s f\r miles4 ,! crat] ( ,/romboli is situat$1 n at ! apex ( ! cone1 b at a di/ance ( #ajjj feet bel[ x4 ,! explosions ( /eam1 accompani$ by ! ro>+ z ( a smelt+ furnace1 or ( a railway eng9e :5 bl[+ (f its /eam1 are said by ,judd to take place at v irregul> int]vals ( "t1 v>y+ f less ?an "o m9ute to tw5ty m9utes1 or ev5 m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,h(fmann describes !m z occurr+ at p]fectly regul> int]vals1 s t1 p]haps1 "s v>iation has tak5 place )9 ! int]val ( ab\t =ty ye>s betwe5 ea* obs]vation4 ,bo? obs]v]s agree 9 /at+ t lava is to be se5 well+ up f "s ( ! ap]tures )9 ! crat]1 & p\r+ d[n ! slope t[>ds ! sea1 :i* x seldom or nev] rea*es4#e ,! int]mitt5t "* ( ^! eruptions appe>s to be due1 z ,mr4 ,scrope has sugge/$1 to ! exact proportion betwe5 ! expansive & repressive =ces2 ! expansive =ce aris+ f ! g5]ation ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( aque\s vap\r & ( ela/ic gas2 ! repressive1 f ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e & f ! weight ( ! sup]9cumb5t volcanic products4 ,/eam is "h1 z 9 a /eam-eng9e1 n ! orig9at+ ag5t 9 ! ph5om5a record$2 b ! result ( wat] com+ 9 contact ) molt5 lava con/antly well+ up f ! int]ior1 by :i* x is conv]t$ into /eam1 :i* f "t to "t acquires suffici5t ela/ic =ce to produce ! eruptions2 ! wat] be+ obvi\sly d]iv$ f ! surr\nd+ sea1 :i* f9ds its way by filtration ?r\gh fissures1 or ?r\gh ! por\s mass ( :i* ! m\nta9 is =m$4 ,7 x n = ! access ( wat] ?is volcano w\ld probably appe> z a fissure-cone extrud+ a small & cont9u\s /ream ( molt5 lava4 ,! adv5titi\s access ( ! sea wat] gives rise to ! ph5om5a ( int]mitt5t explosions4 ,! vitality ( ! volcano is !re=e due1 n to ! pres5ce ( wat]1 b to ! well+ up ( matt] f ! int]nal res]voir ?r\gh ! ?roat ( ! volcano4 ,pantell]ia4--,?is isl&1 ly+ betwe5 ! coa/ ( ,sicily & ,cape ,bon 9 ,africa1 is :olly volcanic4 ,x has a circumf]5ce ( ?irty miles1 & f its c5tre rises an ext9ct crat]-cone to a height ( ab\t #cjjj feet4 ,! flanks ( ?is volcano are div]sifi$ by sev]al fre% crat]s & lava-/reams1 :ile hot spr+s bur/ out ) a hiss+ noise on its s\!rn flank1 %[+ t molt5 matt] lies bel[ at no v great dep?4 ,?is isl& probably lies along ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! non-volcanic & volcanic region ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & is consequ5tly liable to int]mitt5t eruptions4 ,x 0 at a %ort di/ance f ?is isl& t ! rem>kable subm>9e outbur/ ( volcanic =ces took place on ,octob] #ag?1 #ahia1 = an acc\nt ( :i* we are indebt$ to ,colonel ,j4 ,c4 ,mack[54#f ,on t day1 aft] a succession ( e>?quake %ocks1 ! inhabitants 7 />tl$ by obs]v+ a column ( smoke ris+ out ( ! sea at a di/ance ( ?ree miles1 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction4 ,! ,gov]nor1 ,francesco ,val5za1 hav+ mann$ a boat1 r[$ out t[>ds ! fi]y column1 & on arriv+ f\nd x to consi/ ( black scoriace\s bombs1 :i* 7 be+ hurl$ into ! air to a height ( ne>ly ?irty y>ds2 "s ( !m bur/ 9 ! air1 o!rs1 dis*>g+ /eam1 ran hiss+ ov] ! wat]2 _m ( !m 7 v hot1 "s ev5 r$-hot4 ,"o ( ^! bombs1 measur+ two feet 9 diamet]1 0 captur$ & br\ght to %ore4 ,x 0 obs]v$ t aft] ! eruption ! e>?quake %ocks ceas$4 ,a va/ am\nt ( mat]ial 0 ca/ out ( ! subm>9e crat]1 =m+ an isl& #ejj y>ds 9 l5g? & ris+ up to n9e feet above ! surface1 b aft] a few days x 0 brok5 up & disp]s$ ov] ! sea-b$ by ! action ( ! waves4 #a ,volcanoes1 p4 #bfb4 ,^! isl&s are describ$ by ,h(fmann1 ,pogg5dorf ,annal41 vol4 xxvi4 7#ahcb72 also by ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 ii41 & by ,judd1 :o p]sonally visit$ !m1 & gives a v vivid acc\nt ( _! appe>ance & /ructure4 #b ,/rabo1 lib4 vi4 #c ,judd1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #h4 #d ,/romboli has also be5 describ$ by ,spallanzani1 ,h(fmann1 ,daub5y1 & o!rs4 ,! acc\nt ( ,judd is ! mo/ rec5t4 ,( ?is isl& ,/rabo says1 ,/rongyle a rotundate figur sic dicta1 ignita ipsa quoque1 viol5tia flamm>um m9or1 fulgore excell5s2 ibi habitasse colum ajunt4--,lib4 vi4 #e ,pogg5d4 ,annal41 vol4 xxvi41 quot$ by ,daub5y4 #f ,communicat$ by ,capta9 ,petrie to ! ,victoria ,in/itute1 #a/ ,febru>y #ahib4 ,see also a detail$ & illu/rat$ acc\nt ( ! eruption communicat$ by ,a4 ,ricco to ! ,annali dell' ,ufficio c5trale ,meteorologico e ,geodonamico1 ,s]4 ii41 ,p>te #c1 vol4 xi4 ,summ>is$ by ,mr4 ,butl] 9 ,nature1 ,april #ba1 #ahib4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,santor9 ,,gr\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,ideal ,section ?r\gh ! ,gulf ( ,santor91 to %[ ! /ructure ( ! subm]g$ volcano4--a4 ,isl& ( ,aspronisi2 b4 ,isl& ( ,!ra2 #a4 ,old ,kaim5i ,isl&2 #b4 ,new ,kaim5i ,isl&2 #c4 ,little ,kaim5i ,isl&4 7a47 ,be=e leav+ ! subject ( ,european active volcanoes1 x is necess>y to give "s acc\nt ( ! rem>kable volcanic isl& ( ,santor91 9 ! ,grecian ar*ipelago4 ,?is isl& = #bjjj ye>s has be5 ! sc5e ( active volcanic op]ations1 & 9 its outl9e & configuration1 bo? bel[ & above ! surface ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 pres5ts ! aspect ( a p>tially subm]g$ volcanic m\nta94 7,see ,section1 ,fig4 #ac47 ,if1 = example1 we c imag9e ! wat]s ( ! sea to rise ar\nd ! flanks ( ,vesuvius until !y h ent]$ & ov]fl[$ to "s dep? ! int]ior caldron ( ,somma1 ?us conv]t+ ! old crat] into a cresc5t-%ap$ isl&1 & ! cone ( ,vesuvius into an isl&--or gr\p ( isl&s--)9 ! caldron1 !n we %all =m "s idea ( ! appe>ance & /ructure ( ! ,santor9 gr\p4 ,=m ( ! ,gr\p4--,! pr9cipal isl&1 ,!ra1 has some:at ! %ape ( a cresc5t1 break+ (f 9 a precipit\s cliff on ! inn] side1 b on ! out] side slop+ at an angle ( ab\t fifte5 degrees into deep wat]4 ,cont9u+ ! curvature ( ! cresc5t1 b sep>at$ by a *annel1 is ! isl& ( ,!rasia2 & betwe5 ?is & ! s\!rn promontory ( ,!ra is ano!r isl& call$ ,aspronisi4 ,all ^! isl&s1 if unit$1 w\ld =m ! rim ( a crat]1 9 :i* ! volcanic matt] slopes outw>d into deep wat]1 desc5d+ at a %ort di/ance to a dep? ( #bjj fa?oms & upw>ds4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! gulf ?us =m$ rise ?ree isl&s1 call$ ! ,old1 ,new1 & ,little ,kaim5is4 ,^! may be reg>d$ z cones ( eruption1 :i* hi/ory records z hav+ be5 ?r[n up at successive int]vals4 ,accord+ to ,pl9y1 ! ye> #ahf ,b4,c4 gave bir? to ,old ,kaim5i1 also call$ ,hi]a1 or ! ,sacr$ ,isle2 & 9 ! fir/ ye> ( our era ,!ra 7! ,div9e7 made its appe>ance above ! wat]1 & 0 soon jo9$ to ! old] isl& by subsequ5t eruptions4 ,old ,kaim5i also increas$ 9 size by ! eruptions ( #gbf & #adbg4 ,a c5tury & a half lat]1 9 #aegc1 ano!r eruption produc$ ! cone & crat] call$ ,micra-,kaim5i4 ,?us 7 =m$1 or r 7 r5d]$ visible above ! wat]1 ! c5tral crat]s ( eruption2 & betwe5 ^! & ! inn] cliff ( ,!ra & ,!rasia is a r+ ( deep wat]1 desc5d+ to a dep? ( ov] #bjj fa?oms4 ,s t1 7 ^! isl&s rais$ out ( ! sea1 we %\ld h pres5t$ to our view a magnific5t circul> crat] ab\t six miles 9 diamet]1 b\nd$ by ne>ly v]tical walls ( rock f #ajjj to #aejj feet 9 height1 & ruptur$ at "o po9t1 f ! c5tre ( :i* w\ld rise two volcanic cones--namely1 ! ,kaim5is--"o ) a d\ble crat]1 /ill foci ( eruption1 & f "t to "t bur/+ =? 9 p>oxysms ( volcanic en]gy1 ( :i* ^? ( #afej1 #agjg1 & #ahff 7 ! mo/ viol5t & de/ructive4#a ,( ?is la/ ,i give a bird's-eye view 7,fig4 #ad74 ,! only rock ( non-volcanic orig9 9 ^! isl&s consi/s ( granul> lime/one & clay slate =m+ ! ridge ( ,m\nt ,/4 ,elias1 :i* rises to a height ( #ahhg feet at ! s\?-ea/]n side ( ! isl& ( ,!ra1 cross+ ! isl& f its out] m>g9 ne>ly to ! int]ior cliff1 s t ! volcanic mat]ials h be5 pil$ up along its sides4 ,! rocks ( ,/4 ,elias are mu* m anci5t ?an any ( ! volcanic mat]ials ar\nd2 &1 z ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t has %[n1 h be5 subject$ to ! same flexures1 dip & /rike1 z ^? s$im5t>y rocks :i* g to =m ! non-volcanic isl&s ( ! ,grecian ar*ipelago4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,bird's-eye ,view ( ! ,gulf ( ,santor9 dur+ ! volcanic eruption ( ,febru>y #ahff4--7;,aft] ,lyell47 ,illu/ration3 ,gr\nd ,plan ( ,rocca ,monf9a ,fig4 #ae4--,rocca ,monf9a1 9 ,s\!rn ,italy1 %[+ a crat]-r+ ( tra*ytic tuffs1 f ! mid/ ( :i*1 accord+ to ,judd1 an &esite lava-cone has be5 built up4 ,comp>e ) ! ,santor9 ,gr\p4 7b47 ,orig9 ( ! ,santor9 ,gr\p4--,9 ref]5ce to ! orig9 ( ! ,santor9 gr\p1 ,lyell reg>ds x z a remnant ( a great volcanic m\nta9 :i* possess$ a focus ( eruption ris+ 9 ! position ( ! pres5t foci1 b aft]w>ds p>tially de/roy$ & ! :ole subm]g$ to a dep? ( ov] #ajjj feet4 ,b ano!r explanation is op5 to u1 & "o n inconsi/5t ) :at we n[ "k ( ! physical *anges to :i* ! ,m$it]ranean has be5 subject$ s9ce e>ly ,t]ti>y times4 ,to my m9d x is difficult to conceive h[ su* a volcanic m\nta9 z t ( ,santor9 c\ld h be5 =m$ "u wat]2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 its physical /ructure & cont\r be> s /rik+ a resemblance 7z already obs]v$7 to ^? ( ,vesuvius & ,rocca ,monf9a t we are mu* tempt$ to inf] t x _h a some:at simil> orig94 ,n[ we "k t ,vesuvius 0 built up by means ( successive eruptions tak+ place "u ! air2 & ! "q arises :e!r x c\ld be possible t ,santor9 _h a simil> orig9 ow+ to ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean hav+ be5 temporally l[]$ at a lat] ,t]ti>y epo*4 ,x has be5 /at$ by ,m4 ,f\qu t ! age ( ! m anci5t volcanic b$s ( ,santor9 belong1 z %[n by ! includ$ fossils1 to ! new] ,plioc5e epo*4 ,^! are ( c\rse ! unsubm]g$1 & !re=e m rec5t /rata1 & may h be5 rec5tly upheav$ dur+ "o or m ( ! outbur/s ( volcanic en]gy4 ,b x seems an impossibility t ! ,gulf ( ,santor91 ) its precipit\s walls & deep circul> int]ior *annel1 z %[n by ! ,ideal ,section 7,fig4 #ac71 c\ld h be5 =m$ o!rwise ?an "u ! air4 ,we are l$1 !re=e1 to inquire :e!r !re 0 a "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 s9ce ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 :5 ! wat]s 7 l[] ?an at pres5t4 ,t ?is 0 ! case we h cle> evid5ce4 ,! rema9s ( elephants1 hippopotami1 & o!r animals1 :i* h be5 discov]$ 9 great numb]s 9 ! ,maltese caves1 %[ t ?is isl& 0 unit$ to ,sicily1 & ?is aga9 to ,europe1 dur+ ! lat] ,plioc5e epo*1 s z to h become ! abode ( an ,europasian fauna4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,wallace1 a causeway ( dry l& exi/$1 /ret*+ f ,italy to ,tunis 9 ,nor? ,africa ?r\gh ! ,maltese ,isl&s--an inf]5ce involv+ ! l[]+ ( ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean by sev]al hundr$ feet4#b ,!re is e reason = suppos+ t ! old volcano ( ,santor9 0 9 active eruption at ?is p]iod2 & its hi/ory may be consid]$ to be simil> to t ( ,vesuvius until1 at ! ris+ ( ! wat]s dur+ ! ,pluvial 7or ,po/-,plioc5e7 epo*1 dur+ :i* !y rose high] ?an at pres5t1 ,santor9 0 conv]t$ into a gr\p ( isl&s1 slightly diff]+ 9 =m f ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,?is view seems to meet ! difficulties reg>d+ ! orig9 ( ?is gr\p1 difficulties :i* ,lyell _h long s9ce cle>ly recognis$4 7c47 ,limit ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,volcanic ,region4--,) ! ,santor9 gr\p we conclude our acc\nt ( ! active ,european volcanoes4 ,x may be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t f "s cause n asc]ta9$ ! volcanic di/ricts ( ! ,m$it]ranean & its %ores are conf9$ to ! nor? side ( t great inl& sea2 s t z reg>ds vulcanicity ! ,african coa/ pres5ts a /rik+ contra/ to t ( ! opposite side4 ,if we draw a l9e f ! %ores ( ! ,levant to ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 by ,c&ia1 ,malta1 & to ! s\? ( ,pantell]ia & ,s>d9ia1 we %all f9d t ! volcanic isl&s & di/ricts ( ! ma9l& lie to ! nor? ( x4#c ,?is has d\btless "s connection ) ! int]nal geological /ructure4 ,! immunity ( ! ,libyan des]t f volcanic irruptions is 9 keep+ ) ! rem>kably undi/urb$ condition ( ! ,second>y /rata1 :i* seldom dep>t mu* f ! horizontal position2 :ile ! igne\s rocks ( ! ,atlas m\nta9s are probably ( great geological antiquity4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,second>y & ,t]ti>y =mations ( ! nor!rn %ores & isl&s ( ! ,m$it]ranean are g5]ally *>act]is$ by ! highly-incl9$1 flexur$1 & fold$ position ( ! /rata4 ,h5ce we may suppose t ! cru/ ov] ! region ly+ to ! nor? ( ! volcanic l9e1 ow+ to its brok5 & ruptur$ condition1 0 less able to resi/ ! pressure ( ! int]nal =ces ( eruption ?an t ly+ to ! s\? ( x2 & t1 9 consequ5ce1 v5ts & fissures ( eruption 7 e/abli%$ ov] ! =m] ( ^! regions1 :ile !y are abs5t 9 ! latt]4 #a ,full] details w be f\nd 9 ,daub5y's ,volcanoes1 *ap4 xviii41 & ,lyell's ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fe 7edition #ahgb74 ,! bird's-eye view is tak5 f ?is latt] "w by k9d p]mission ( ! publi%]1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,murray1 z also ! accompany+ ,ideal ,section1 ,fig4 #ac4 #b ,wallace1 ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,animals 7#ahgf74 ,! au?or's ,sket* ( ,geological ,hi/ory1 p4 #acj 7,deacon ,co41 #ahhg74 #c ,! volcanic area ly+ to ! nor? ( ?is l9e w include ,s>d9ia1 ,sicily1 ,pantell]ia1 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ,syria2 ! non-volcanic area ly+ to ! s\? ( ?is l9e w include ! ,african coa/1 ,malta1 ,isles ( ,crete & ,cyprus4 ,! ,isle ( ,pantell]ia is app>5tly j on ! l9e1 :i*1 cont9u$ ea/w>d1 probably foll[s ! nor? coa/ ( ,cyprus1 p>allel to ! /rike ( ! /rata & ( ! c5tral axis ( t isl&4--,see ,c>te ,gologique de l'le de ,*ypre1 p> ,,mm4 ,alb]t ,gaudry et ,am$e ,dam\r 7#ahfj74 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,european ,,ext9ct ,,or ,,dormant ,,volcanoes4 ,we are naturally l$ on f a consid]ation ( ! active volcanoes ( ,europe to t ( volcanoes :i* are ei!r dormant or ext9ct 9 ! same region4 ,su* are to be f\nd 9 ,italy1 ,c5tral ,france1 bo? banks ( ! ,rh9e & ,moselle1 ! ,we/]wald1 ,vogelsgebirge1 & o!r di/ricts ( ,g]many2 9 ,hung>y1 ,/yria1 & ! bord]s ( ! ,grecian ar*ipelago4 ,b ! subject is too l>ge to be treat$ "h 9 detail2 & ,i propose to conf9e my obs]vations to "s select$ cases :i* are to be f\nd 9 ,s\!rn ,italy1 ,c5tral ,france1 & ! ,rh5i% di/ricts1 :]e ! volcanic features are ( s rec5t an age z to pres]ve _! outw>d =m & /ructure almo/ intact4 7a47 ,s\!rn ,italy4--,ext9ct volcanoes & volcanic rocks occupy consid]able tracts betwe5 ! we/]n flanks ( ! ,ap5n9es & ! ,m$it]ranean coa/ 9 ! ,neapolitan & ,roman ,/ates1 =m+ ! rem>kable gr\p ( ! ,phlegran fields 7,campi ,phlegri71 ) ! adjo9+ isl&s ( ,is*ia1 ,procida1 ,nisida1 ,v&ol5a1 ,ponza1 & ,palm>ola2 at ,melfi & ,avell9o4 ,all ! region ar\nd ,rome ext5d+ along ! we/]n slopes ( ! ,ap5n9es f ,velletri to ,orvieto1 toge!r ) ,m\nt ,annato 9 ,tuscany1 is =m$ ( volcanic mat]ial1 & ! same may be said ( a l>ge "p ( ! isl& ( ,s>d9ia4 ,f ^! di/ricts ,i %all select "s po9ts :i* seem to be ( special int]e/4 ,monte ,nuovo & ! ,phlegran ,fields4--,! tract ( :i* ?is celebrat$ di/rict =ms a "p lies z x 7 9 a bay ( ! ,ap5n9e lime/one ( ,jurassic age4 ,! floor ( ?is bay is compos$ ( puzzolana1 a "n giv5 to b$s ( volcanic tuff ( great ?ickness1 & ris+ into consid]able hills 9 ! vic9ity ( ! city ( ,naples1 su* z t ( ,/4 ,elmo4 ,its composition is peculi>1 z x is *iefly =m$ ( small pieces ( pumice1 obsidian1 & tra*yte1 9 b$s alt]nat+ ) loam1 f]rif]\s s&1 & fragm5ts ( lime/one4 ,x is evid5tly ( m>9e =mation1 z ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 ,pr(essor ,pilla1 & o!rs h detect$ sea-%ells !re91 ( ! g5]a ,o/ra1 ,c>dium1 ,pect5 & ,pectunculus1 ,bucc9um1 etc4 ,x is g5]ally ( a greyi% col\r1 & sometimes suffici5tly firm to be us$ z a build+ /one4 ,! ,roman ,campagna is l>gely =m$ ( simil> mat]ials1 :i* 7 deposit$ at a "t :5 ! di/ricts 9 "q 7 subm]g$1 & matt] 0 be+ erupt$ f volcanic v5ts at v>i\s po9ts ar\nd1 & spread ov] ! sea-b$4 ,su* is ! "* ( ! g5]al floor on :i* ! m rec5t crat]-cones ( ?is di/rict h be5 built4 ,^! are num]\s1 & all ext9ct ) ! exception ( ! ,solfat>a1 ne> ,puzzuoli1 f :i* gases mix$ ) aque\s vap\r are cont9ually be+ exhal$4 ,! gases consi/ ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 mix$ ) a m9ute quantity ( muriatic acid4#a ,?is di/rict is also rem>kable = conta9+ sev]al lakes occupy+ ! int]iors ( ext9ct crat]s2 among/ o!rs1 ,lake ,av]nus1 :i*1 ow+ to its surface hav+ be5 d>k5$ by =e/s1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ! effluvia aris+ f its /agnant wat]s1 has _h imp>t$ to x a "* ( gloom & t]ror1 s t ,hom] 9 ! ,odyssey makes x ! entrance to hell1 & describes ! visit ( ,ulysses to x4 ,virgil foll[s 9 8 /eps4 ,ano!r lake ( simil> orig9 is ,lake ,agnano4 ,"h also is ! ,grotto del ,cane1 a cav]n f :i* are con/antly issu+ volumes ( c>bonic acid gas comb9$ ) mu* aque\s vap\r1 :i* is cond5s$ by ! coldness ( ! ext]nal air1 ?us prov+ ! high temp]ature ( ! gr\nd f :i* ! gase\s vap\r issues4 ,?is :ole volcanic region1 s replete ) objects ( int]e/1#b may be consid]$1 z reg>ds its volcanic "*1 9 a moribund condition2 b t x is /ill capable ( spasmodic movem5t is ev9c$ by ! orig9 ( ,monte ,nuovo1 ! mo/ rec5t ( ! crat]-cones ( ! di/rict4 ,?is m\nta91 ris+ f ! %ore ( ! ,bay ( ,bai1 0 sudd5ly =m$ 9 ,septemb] #bi?1 #aech1 & rises to a height ( #ddj feet above ! sea-level4 ,x is a crat]-cone1 & ! dep? ( ! crat] has be5 det]m9$ by ! ,italian m9]alogi/ ,p9i to be #dba ,engli% feet2 its bottom is ?us only #ai feet above ! sea-level4 ,a portion ( ! base ( ! cone is consid]$ p>tly to occupy ! site ( ! ,lucr9e ,lake1 :i* 0 itself no?+ m ?an ! crat] ( a pre-exi/5t volcano1 & 0 almo/ entirely fill$ up dur+ ! explosion ( #aech4 ,monte ,nuovo is compos$ ( a%es1 lapilli1 & pumice-/ones2 & its sudd5 =mation1 h]ald$ by e>?quakes1 & accompani$ by ! ejection ( volcanic matt] mix$ ) fire & wat]1 is record$ by ,falconi1 :o vividly depicts ! t]ror & con/]nation ( ! inhabitants ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry produc$ by ?is sudd5 & t]rible outbur/ ( volcanic =ces4#c 7b47 ,c5tral ,italy & ! ,roman ,/ates4--,! tract bord]+ ! we/]n slopes ( ! ,ap5n9es nor?w>d f ,naples into ,tuscany1 & includ+ ! ,roman ,/ates1 is *>act]is$ by volcanic rocks & physical features ( rem>kable int]e/ & v>iety4 ,^! occur 9 ! =m ( ext9ct crat]s1 sometimes fill$ ) wat]1 & ?us conv]t$ into circul> lakes2 or ( ext5sive %eets & conical hills ( tuff2 or1 f9ally1 ( old necks & masses ( tra*yte & basalt1 sometimes exhibit+ ! column> /ructure4 ,! ,et]nal ,city itself is built on hills ( volcanic mat]ial :i* "s obs]v]s h suppos$ to be ! crat] ( a great volcano2 b ,ponzi1 ,broc*i1 & ,daub5y all concur 9 ! op9ion t ?is is n ! case1 z w cle>ly appe> f ! foll[+ acc\nt4 ,! geological /ructure ( ! valley ( ! ,tib] at ,rome is v cle>ly describ$ by ,pr(essor ,ponzi 9 a memoir publi%$ 9 #ahej1 f :i* ! accompany+ section is tak54#d 7,fig4 #af47 ,f ?is x w be se5 t ! ,sev5-hill$ ,city is built ^u promontories ( /ratifi$ volcanic tuff1 ( :i* ! ,campagna is =m$1 break+ (f along ! banks ( ! ,tib]1 ! hills be+ ! result ( ! erosion1 or d5udation1 ( ! /rata along ! side ( ! riv] valley4 ,z ! /rata dip f we/ to ea/ across ! c\rse ( ! riv]1 x foll[s t ^? on ! we/]n banks are bel[ ^? on ! opposite side2 & ?us ! m>9e s&s & m>ls :i* und]lie ! volcanic tuff1 & are conceal$ by x along ! ea/]n side ( ! valley1 em]ge on ! we/1 & =m ! range ( hills on t side4 ,su* be+ ! /ructure ( ! =mations "u ,rome1 x is evid5t t x is n built on a volcano4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,geological ,section across ! ,valley ( ! ,tib] at ,rome4 #a4 ,alluvium ( ! ,tib]2 #b4 ,diluvium2 #c4 ,volcanic tuff 7rec5t deposits72 #d4 ,s&s1 etc42 #e4 ,blue m>l 7sub-,ap5n9e deposits74 ,! tuff conta9s fragm5ts ( lava & pebbles ( ,ap5n9e lime/one1 & 0 deposit$ "u ! wat]s ( an ext5sive lake at a "t :5 volcanic action 0 rife amid/ ! ,alban ,hills4 ,?is lacu/r9e =mation re/s 9 turn on deposits ( m>9e orig91 conta9+ oy/]s1 patell1 & o!r sea-%ells1 ( :i* ! *a9 ( hills on ! "r bank ( ! ,tib] is *iefly =m$4 ,! di/rict ar\nd ,albano ly+ to ! s\? ( ,rome is ( peculi> int]e/ f ! assemblage ( old crat]-lakes :i* x conta9s2 z1 = in/ance1 ^? ( ,albano1 ,vall>iccia1 ,nemi1 ,juturna1 & ! lake ( ,gabii4 ,! lake ( ,albano1 "o ( ! mo/ beautiful %eets ( wat] 9 ! _w1 is ab\t six miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & surr\nd$ by b$s ( pep]9o1 a v>iety ( tuff pres5t+ a bright1 undecompos$ aspect :5 newly brok54 ,! level ( ?is lake 0 l[]$ by ! ,romans dur+ ! siege ( ,veii by means ( a tunnel1 s t ! wat]s are #bjj feet l[] ?an ! level at :i* !y orig9ally /ood4 ,9 ! same di/rict is ! lake ( ,nemi1 v regul> 9 its circul> outl9e2 t ( ,juturna ly+ ne> ! foot ( ! ,alban ,hills1 & t ( ,ariccia ly+ 9 a deep holl[ eight miles 9 circumf]5ce2--all may be suppos$ to h be5 ! crat]s ( ext9ct volcanoes1 bo? by reason ( _! %ape & ( ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are =m$4 ,all ^! old crat]s are1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,daub5y1 only ! dep5d5cies & (f%oots1 z x 71 ( ! great ext9ct volcano1 ! traces ( :i* /ill rema9 ^u ! summit ( ! ,alban ,hills1 & :i* is comp>able 9 its =m to t ( ,vesuvius1 z x is surr\nd$ by an out] circle ( volcanic rock comp>able to t ( ,somma4#e ,to ! nor? ( ! city ( ,rome are sev]al crat]i=m lakes1 "s ( :i* are ( great size1 su* z t ( ,bols5a1 ov] tw5ty miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & ! ,lago di ,bracciano1 almo/ z l>ge1 & ly+ ab\t twelve miles f ! city4 ,^! ext5sive %eets ( wat] are surr\nd$ by banks ( tuff & volcanic s&1 9 :i* fragm5ts ( augite1 leucite1 & cry/als ( titanite are di/ribut$4 ,! t[n ( ,vit]bo is built up at ! foot ( a /eep hill call$ ,monte ,cim9i1 ! l[] "p ( :i* is compos$ ( tra*yte2 ?is is surm\nt$ by tuff1 :i* appe>s to h be5 eject$ f an ext9ct crat] occupy+ ! summit ( ! m\nta91 & n[ conv]t$ into a lake call$ ! ,lake ( ,vico4 ,?is crat] is p]fectly circul>1 & f its c5tre rises a little conical hill cov]$ by trees4 7c47 ,physical ,hi/ory4--,space does n p]mit ( a full] description ( ! rem>kable volcanic features ( ! tract ly+ along ! we/]n slope ( ! ,ap5n9es2 b f :at has be5 /at$ x w be cle> t volcanic =ces h be5 9 op]ation at "o "t on a gr& scale 9 ! ,roman ,/ates & ! ,s\? ( ,tuscany1 ov] a tract ext5d+ f ,m\nt ,annato to ,velletri & ,segni4 ,?is tract 0 sep>at$ f t ( ! ,neapolitan volcanic region by a range ( lime/one hills ( ,jurassic age betwe5 ,segni & ,gaeta1 a protrusion ( ! ,alban ,hills we/w>d2 b ! g5]al /ructure & physical hi/ory ( bo? regions are probably v simil>1 ) ! exception t ! igne\s =ces /ill reta9 _! vitality 9 ! m s\!rly region4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,roman volcanic di/rict1 a bay seems to h be5 =m$ ab\t ! close ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 b\nd$ on all sides b ! we/ by hills ( lime/one1 ov] ^: b$ /rata ( m>l1 s&/one1 & conglom]ate 7 deposit$4 ,?is tract 0 conv]t$ by subsequ5t movem5ts into a fre%-wat] lake1 & contemporane\sly volcanic op]ations comm5c$ ov] ! :ole region1 & b$s ( tuff1 (t5 conta9+ blocks ( rock eject$ f neighb\r+ crat]s1 7 deposit$ ov] ^? ( m>9e orig94 ,mean:ile num]\s crat]-cones 7 ?r[n up2 &1 z ! l& gradually rose1 ! wat]s ( ! lake 7 dra9$ (f1 leav+ dry ! ,campagna & pla9 ( ! ,tib]4 ,ultimately ! volcanic fires sm\ld]$ d[n & di$ out1 :e!r )9 ! hi/oric epo* or n is unc]ta92 lakes 7 =m$ )9 ! n[ dormant crat]s1 & ! face ( nature gradually assum$ a m placid & less =bidd+ aspect ov] ?is memorable region1 de/9$ to be ! site ( ,rome1 ! ,mi/ress ( ! ,_w4 #a ,z det]m9$ by ,daub5y 9 #ahbe4 #b ,includ+ ! ru9s ( ! ,temple ( ,s]apis1 ^: pill>s are p]=at$ by m>9e bor+ %ells up to a height ( ab\t #af feet f _! base2 indicat+ t ! l& _h sunk d[n b5ea? ! sea1 & aft]w>ds be5 elevat$ to its pres5t level4 #c ,! acc\nt ( ,falconi1 & ano!r by ,pietro ,giacomo di ,tol$o1 are giv5 by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 op4 cit41 p4 #aih1 & also reproduc$ by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples1 vol4 i4 p4 #fjh4 #d ,guiseppe ,ponzi1 ,sulla /oria fisica del ,bac9o di ,roma1 ,annali di ,sci5ze ,fisi*e 7,roma1 #ahej74 #e ,daub5y1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #aga4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,ext9ct ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,c5tral ,,france4 7a47 ,g5]al ,/ructure ( ! ,auv]gne ,di/rict4--,f a granitic & gneissose plat=m situat$ ne> ! c5tre ( ,france1 & sep>at$ f ! we/]n spurs ( ! ,alps by ! wide valley ( ! ,rhone1 !re rises a gr\p ( volcanic m\nta9s surpass+ 9 v>iety ( =m & /ructure any simil> m\nta9 gr\p 9 ,europe1 & belong+ to an epo* rang+ f ! ,middle ,t]ti>y d[n almo/ to ! pres5t day4 ,?is volcanic gr\p ( m\nta9s gives rise to sev]al important riv]s1 su* z ! ,loire1 ! ,alli]1 ! ,s\le 7a bran* ( ! ,loire71 ! ,creuse1 ! ,dordogne1 & ! ,lot2 & 9 ! ,plomb du ,cantal atta9s an elevation ( #facj feet above ! sea4 ,its s\!rn section1 t ( ,mont ,dore1 ! ,cantal1 & ! ,haute ,loire1 is *>act]is$ by magnific5t valleys1 trav]s+ plateaux ( volcanic lava1 & exhibit+ ! results ( riv] erosion on a gr& scale2 :ile its nor!rn section1 t ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 pres5ts to u a v>i$ succession ( volcanic crat]-cones & domes1 ) _! extrud$ lava-/reams1 almo/ z fre% & un*ang$ 9 =m z if !y _h only ye/]day become ext9ct4 ,a some:at simil>1 b less important1 *a9 ( ext9ct volcanoes also occurs 9 ! ,velay & ,viv>ais1 betwe5 ! upp] wat]s ( ! ,loire & ! ,alli]1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! t[n ( ,le ,puy4#a ,! pr9cipal city 9 ?is region is ,cl]mont-,f]r&1 ly+ ne> ! base ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 & ev] memorable z ! bir?place ( ,blaise ,pascal4#b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,g5]alis$ ,section ?r\gh ! ,puy de ,dme & ,vale ( ,cl]mont1 di/ance ab\t t5 miles4 ,! g5]al floor =m$ ( granite & gneiss 7,g72 ,d4 ,domite-lava ( ! ,puy de ,dme2 ,sc4 ,cones ( a%es & scori2 ,l4 ,lava-%eets2 ,a4 ,alluvium ( ! ,vale ( ,cl]mont & ,lake deposits4 ,! physical /ructure ( ?is region is on ! :ole v simple4 ,! fundam5tal rocks consi/ ( granite & gneiss pass+ into s*i/1 all ( extreme geological antiquity1 =m+ a va/ plat=m gradually ris+ 9 a s\!rly direction t[>ds ! head wat]s ( ! ,loire & ! ,alli] 9 ! ,dep>tm5ts ( ,haute ,loire1 ,lozre1 & ,ard*e4 ,on ?is plat=m are plant$ ! :ole ( ! volcanic m\nta9s4 7,see ,fig4 #ag47 ,! granitic plateau is b\nd$ on ! ea/1 ?r\gh\t a di/ance ( ab\t #ej miles1 by ! wide & f]tile pla9 ( ,cl]mont1 wat]$ by ! ,alli] & its num]\s bran*es desc5d+ f ! volcanic m\nta9s1 & is ab\t #be miles 9 wid? f ea/ to we/ 9 ! p>allel ( ,cl]mont1 b gradually n>r[+ 9 a s\!rly direction1 till at ,bri\de x becomes an ord9>y m\nta9 rav9e4 ,! ea/]n m>g9 ( ! pla9 is =m$ by ano!r granitic ridge exp&+ into a plateau t[>ds ! s\?1 & jo9+ 9 ) t already describ$2 b t[>ds ! nor? & directly ea/ ( ,cl]mont x =ms a high ridge trav]s$ by ! railway to ,/4 ti5ne & ,lyons1 & desc5d+ t[>ds ! ea/ into ! valley ( ! ,loire4 ,no m impressive view is to be obta9$ ( ! volcanic region ?an t f ! summit ( ?is second ridge1 on arriv+ !re t[>ds ev5+ f ! city ( ,lyons4 ,at y\r feet lies ! ri*ly-cultivat$ pla9 ( ,cl]mont1 dott$ ) t[ns1 villages1 & hamlets1 & decorat$ ) pa/ures1 or*>ds1 v9ey>ds1 & num]\s trees2 :ile beyond rises ! granitic plateau1 break+ (f abruptly along ! m>g9 ( ! pla91 & deeply ind5t$ by ! valleys & gorges along :i* ! /reams desc5d to jo9 ! ,alli]4 ,b ! *ief po9t ( int]e/ is ! *a9 ( volcanic crat]-cones & dome-%ap$ em95ces :i* rise f ! plateau1 among/ :i* ! ,puy de ,dme t[]s supreme4 ,_! individual =ms /& out 9 cle> & %>p relief aga9/ ! we/]n sky1 & gradually fade away t[>ds ! s\? into ! s]ri$ masses ( ,mont ,dore & ,cantal1 ar\nd ^: summits ! ev5+ mi/s are ga!r+4 ,except ! fir/ view ( ! ,mont ,blanc range f ! cre/ ( ! ,jura1 !re is no sc5e p]haps :i* is calculat$ to impress itself m vividly on ! memory ?an t "h fa9tly describ$4#c ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,transv]se view ( ! ,puy de ,dme & neighb\r+ volcanoes f ! ,puy de ,*op9e4--7,aft] ,scrope47 7b47 ,! ,vale ( ,cl]mont4--,! pla9 ^u :i* we look d[n 0 once ! floor ( an ext5sive lake1 = x is compos$ ( v>i\s /rata ( s&1 clay1 m>l1 & lime/one1 conta9+ v>i\s g5]a & species ( fre%-wat] %ells4 ,^! /rata are ( great ?ickness1 p]haps a ?\s& feet 9 "s places2 & along ) su* %ells z ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 & ,limna are also f\nd rema9s ( v>i\s o!r animals1 su* z fi%1 s]p5ts1 batra*ians1 crocodiles1 rum9ants1 & ^? ( huge pa*yd]ms1 z ,rh9oc]os1 ,d9o!rium1 & ,cno!rium4 ,?is great lake1 occupy+ a holl[ 9 ! old granitic plat=m ( ,c5tral ,france1 mu/ h be5 9 exi/5ce = an ext5sive p]iod1 :i* ,,mm4 ,pomel1 ,aym>d1 & ,lyell all unite 9 ref]r+ to t ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,b :at is to u ( special int]e/ is ! fact t1 9 ! deposits ( ?is lake ( ! ,haute ,loire1 ) ! exception ( ! v late/1 !re is no int]mixture ( volcanic products su* z might h be5 expect$ to occur if ! neighb\r+ volcanoes _h be5 9 activity dur+ its exi/5ce4 ,h5ce x may be suppos$ t1 z ,scrope sugge/$1 ! wat]s ( ! lake 7 dra9$ (f ow+ to ! di/urbance 9 ! levels ( ! c\ntry caus$ by ! fir/ explosions ( ! ,auv]gne volcanoes4#d ,if ?is be s1 !n we possess a key by :i* to det]m9e ! p]iod ( ! fir/ =mation ( volcanoes 9 ,c5tral ,france2 =1 z ! animal rema9s enclos$ 9 ! lacu/r9e deposits ( ! ,vale ( ,cl]mont belong to ! e>ly ,mioc5e /age1 & ! e>lie/ traces ( contemporane\s volcanic ejecta are f\nd only 9 ! upp]mo/ deposits1 we may conclude t ! fir/ outbur/ ( volcanic action occurr$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod--a p]iod rem>kable = simil> exhibitions ( int]nal igne\s action 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 7c47 ,successive ,/ages ( ,volcanic ,action 9 ,auv]gne4--,! volcanic region "h describ$1 :i* has an area ( ab\t "o hundr$ squ>e miles1 does n appe> to h be5 at "o & ! same p]iod ( "t ! !atre ( volcanic action ov] its :ole ext5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 ?is action appe>s to h comm5c$ at ! s\!rn bord] ( ! region 9 ! ,cantal1 & travell+ nor?w>ds1 to h brok5 out 9 ! ,mont ,dore region2 f9ally t]m9at+ its outw>d manife/ations among ! crat]s & domes ( ! ,puy de ,dme4 ,9 a simil> mann] ! volcanic eruptions ( ! ,haute ,loire & ,ard*e1 ly+ to ! ea/w>d1 & sep>at$ f ^? ( ! ,cantal by ! granitoid ridge ( ! ,montagnes de ,m>g]ide1 belong to two successive p]iods ref]able v closely to ^? ( ! ,mont ,dore & ! ,puy de ,dme gr\ps4#e ,! evid5ce 9 support ( ?is view is v cle> & conclusive2 =1 :ile ! volcanic crat]s =m$ ( a%1 lapilli1 & scori1 toge!r ) ! r\nd$ domes ( tra*ytic rock ( :i* ! ,puy de ,dme gr\p is compos$1 pres]ve ! =m & surface indications ( rec5tly ext+ui%$ volcanoes1 ^? :i* we may assume to h be5 pil$ up 9 ! region ( ,mont ,dore & ,cantal h be5 entirely swept away by prolong$ ra9 & riv] action1 & ! sites ( ! anci5t crat]s & cones ( eruption are only to be det]m9$ by trac+ ! great %eets ( lava up ! sides ( ! valleys to _! s\rces1 g5]ally situat$ at ! culm9at+ po9ts ( _! respective gr\ps4 ,o!r po9ts ( evid5ce ( ! great antiquity ( ! latt] gr\ps might be adduc$ f ! ext5t ( ! erosion :i* has tak5 place 9 ! %eets ( lava hav+ _! s\rces 9 ! v5ts ( ! ,plomb du ,cantal & ( ,mont ,dore1 ow+ to :i*1 magnific5t valleys1 _m miles 9 l5g? & hundr$s ( feet 9 dep?1 h be5 cut out ( ^! %eets ( lava & _! support+ rocks1 :e!r granitic or lacu/r9e1 & ! mat]ials c>ri$ away by ! /reams :i* fl[ along _! b$s4 ,^! po9ts w be bett] und]/ood :5 ,i come to give an acc\nt ( ! sev]al gr\ps2 & 9 do+ s ,i w comm5ce ) t ( ! ,cantal4#f 7d47 ,! ,volcanoes ( ! ,cantal4--,! orig9al crat]-cones ( ?is gr\p h entirely disappe>$ ?r\gh\t ! long ages :i* h elaps$ s9ce ! lava-/reams issu$ =? f _! int]nal res]voirs4 ,! g5]al figure ( ?is gr\p ( volcanic m\nta9s is t ( a depress$ cone1 ^: sides slope away 9 all directions f ! c5tral heights1 :i* are deeply erod$ by /reams ris+ ne> ! apex & fl[+ d[nw>ds 9 all directions t[>ds ! circumf]5ce ( ! m\nta91 :]e !y ent] ! ,lot1 ! ,dordogne1 & ! ,alli]4 ,! orifice ( eruption 0 situat$ at ! ,plomb du ,cantal1 =m$ ( solid masses ( tra*yte1 :i*1 ow+1 z ,mr4 ,scrope supposes1 to a high degree ( fluidity1 7 able to ext5d to great di/ances 9 ext5sive %eets1 & 7 aft]w>ds cov]$ by repeat$ & widely-spread fl[s ( basalt2 s t ! tra*yte t[>ds ! m>g9 ( ! volcanic area becomes less conspicu\s ?an ! basalt by :i* x is m or less conceal$ f view1 or ov]lapp$4 ,ext5sive b$s ( tuff & breccia accompany ! tra*ytic masses4 ,magnific5t sections ( ! rocks are laid op5 to view along ! sides ( ! valleys1 :i* are /eep & rock-b\nd4 ,except t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 ab\t ,aurillac1 :]e lacu/r9e /rata ov]lie ! granite1 ! plat=m f :i* rises ! volcanic dome is compos$ ( granitic or gneissose rocks4 ,accompany+ ! lava-/reams are great b$s ( volcanic agglom]ate1 :i* ,mr4 ,scrope consid]s to h be5 =m$ contemporane\sly ) ! lava :i* !y envelop1 & to be due to torr5ts ( wat] tumultu\sly desc5d+ ! sides ( ! volcano at p]iods ( eruption1 & be>+ d[n imm5se volumes ( its fragm5tal ejecta 9 company ) its lava-/reams4#g ,n[h]e ?r\gh\t ?is region d b$s ( tra*yte & basalt alt]nate ) "o ano!r2 9 all cases ! basalt is ! new] ( ! two v>ieties ( rock1 & ?is is g5]ally ! case ?r\gh\t ! region "h describ$4 7e47 ,volcanoes ( ,mont ,dore4--,?is m\nta9 lies to ! nor? ( t ( ,cantal1 & some:at resembles x 9 g5]al /ructure & configuration4 ,l ,cantal1 x is de/itute ( any di/9ct crat]2 all t is left ( ! c5tral focus ( eruption be+ ! solidifi$ matt] :i* fill$ ! ?roat ( ! orig9al volcano1 & :i* =ms a rocky mass ( lava1 ris+ 9 its highe/ po9t1 ! ,pic de ,saucy1 to an elevation 7z giv5 by ,ramond7 ( #fbeh feet above ! level ( ! sea1 ?us exce$+ t ( ! ,plomb du ,cantal by #abh feet4 ,its figure w be be/ und]/ood by suppos+ sev5 or eight rocky summits gr\p$ toge!r )9 a circle ( ab\t a mile 9 diamet]1 f :5ce1 z f ! apex ( an irregul> & flatt5$ cone1 all ! sides slope m or less rapidly d[nw>ds1 until _! incl9ation is gradually lo/ 9 ! pla9 ar\nd4 ,?is dome-%ap$ mass has be5 deeply erod$ on opposite sides by ! valleys ( ! ,dordogne & ,*ambon2 :ile x is fur!r furr[$ by num]\s m9or /reams4#h ,! great b$s ( volcanic rock1 dispos$ z above /at$1 consi/ ( prodigi\s lay]s ( scori1 pumice-/ones1 & detritus1 alt]nat+ ) b$s ( tra*yte & basalt1 :i* (t5 desc5d 9 un9t]rupt$ curr5ts till !y rea* ! granite plat=m1 & !n spread !mselves = miles ar\nd4 ,! %eets ( basalt are f\nd to /ret* to great] di/ances ?an ^? ( tra*yte1 & h fl[$ z f> z #ae or #bj miles f _! orifices ( eruption2 :ile 9 "s cases1 on ! ea/ & nor? sides1 !y h ext5d$ z f> z #be or #cj miles f ! c5tral height4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a radius ( ab\t t5 miles f ! c5tre w\ld probably include all ! /reams ( tra*yte2--s mu* great] has be5 ! viscosity ( ! basalt ov] ! latt] rock4 ,"s portions ( ^! great %eets ( lava1 cut (f by riv] valleys or erod$ areas f ! ma9 mass ( :i* !y once =m$ a "p1 are f\nd =m+ isolat$ t]races & plateaux ei!r on ! granitic plat=m1 or re/+ on ! fre%-wat] /rata ( ! valley ( ! ,alli]1 :ile 9 a nor!rn direction !y ov]spread a l>ge portion ( ! granitic plateau f :i* rise ! ,puy de ,dme & associat$ volcanic m\nta9s4 ,/ill m rem>kable are ! cases 9 :i* ^! lava-/reams h desc5d$ into ! old riv] *annels :i* dra9$ ! granitic plateau4 ,?us ! curr5t :i* took its orig9 9 ! ,puy ,gros desc5d$ into ! valley ( ! ,dordogne1 :ile ano!r /ream invad$ ! gorge ( ,*ampeix on ! ea/]n side4 ,! m anci5t lava-/reams j describ$ are invad$ by curr5ts & surm\nt$ by cones ( eruption ( m rec5t date1 simil> to ^? ( ! ,puy de ,dme gr\p ly+ to ! nor?w>d4 ,su* cones & curr5ts1 among/ :i* are ! ,puy de ,t>t>et & t ( ,mont5>d1 pres5t exactly ! same *>act]s z ^? ( ?is gr\p1 to :i* we %all return fur!r on4 7f47 ,volcanoes ( ! ,haute ,loire & ,ard*e4--,sep>at$ by ! valley ( ! ,alli] & ! granitic ridge ( ,la ,m>g]ide f ! volcanic regions ( ,cantal & ,mont ,dore is ano!r volcanic region ( great ext5t1 :i* rea*es its highe/ elevation 9 ! c5tral po9ts ( ,mont ,mez51 atta9+ an elevation 7accord+ to ,cordi]7 ( #ehbj feet1 & =m$ ( cl9k/one4 ,! volcanic products ( ,mez5 h be5 erupt$ f "o c5tral orifice ( va/ size1 & consi/ ma9ly ( ext5sive %eets ( cl9k/one1 a v>iety ( tra*ytic lava1 :i* h tak5 c\rses ma9ly t[>ds ! nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/4 ,^! great %eets1 "o ( :i* appe>s to h cov]$ a space m ?an #bf miles 9 l5g? ) an av]age bread? ( #f miles1 ?us ov]spread+ an e/imat$ area ( #aef squ>e miles1 has be5 deeply erod$ by /reams dra9+ into ! ,loire1 along ^: banks ! rocks t[] 9 l(ty cliffs2 :ile x has also suff]$ enorm\s d5udation1 by :i* outly+ fragm5ts are disconnect$ f ! ma9 mass1 & =m flat-topp$ hills & plateaux z f> di/ant z ,ro*e en ,reign] & ,beauzac1 at ! extreme di/ance 7z /at$ above7 ( #bf miles f ! s\rce ( eruption4 ,b ev5 m rem>kable ?an ! above are ! va/ basaltic %eets :i* /ret* away = a di/ance ( #cj miles by ,privas almo/ to ! banks ( ! ,rhne1 opposite ,montlim>t4 ,^! h _! orig9 among/ ! cl9k/one heights ( ,mont ,mez51 & tak+ _! c\rse along ! granitic plateau 9 a s\?-ea/]ly direction1 ultimately pass ov] on to ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s =mations compos+ ! plateau ( ! ,coiron1 :i* break (f 9 v]tical cliffs f #cjj to #djj feet 9 height1 surm\nt+ ! slopes t rise f ! banks ( ! ,ard*e & ,esc\rtais riv]s ne> ,vill5euve de ,b]e4 ,?is is probably "o ( ! mo/ ext5sive %eets ( basalt ) :i* we are acqua9t$ 9 ! ,european area1 & x is only a remnant ( a va/ly great] orig9al %eet4#i ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,mont ,demise1 ne> ,le ,puy1 se5 f ! ,s4,e4 7,aft] ,scrope47--#a4 ,build+ /&+ on old breccia1 rocks ( ! ,col2 #b4 ,road to ,bri\de2 #c4 ,croix de la ,paille2 #d4 ,orgue d',expailly 7basalt72 #e4 ,spot :]e human bones 7 f\nd4 7g47 ,new] ,volcanoes ( ! ,haute ,loire 7! ,velay & ,viv>ais74--,subsequ5tly to ! =mation ( ! lava-/reams above describ$1 & probably aft] ! lapse ( a l5g!n$ p]iod1 ! region ( ! ,haute ,loire & ,ard*e became ! sc5e ( a fre% outbur/ ( volcanic action1 dur+ :i* ! surface ( ! old] lavas1 or ( ! fundam5tal granite1 0 cov]$ by num]\s crat]-cones & lava-/reams /rewn along ! banks ( ! ,alli] & ( ! ,loire = _m miles4 ,^! cones & crat]s are n q s fre% z ^? ( ! ,mont ,dme gr\p2 ^? ( ! ,haute ,loire be+ slightly e>li] 9 po9t ( "t1 &1 z ,daub5y %[s1 belong+ to a diff]5t sy/em4 ,s num]\s are ^! m rec5t cones & crat]s t ,scrope c\nt$ m ?an #aej ( !m1 & probably omitt$ _m4 ,! volcanic ph5om5a n[ describ$ h a special int]e/ z be>+ on ! "q :e!r man 0 an inhabitant ( ?is region at ! "t ( ^! lat] eruptions4 ,! "q seems to be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative by ! discov]y ( a human skull & sev]al bones 9 ! volcanic breccia ( ,mont ,demise1 9 company ) rema9s ( ! elephant 7,e4 primig5ius71 rh9oc]os 7,r4 ti*orh9us71 /ag1 & o!r l>ge mammif]s4 ,! discov]y ( ^! rema9s 0 made 9 ! ye> #ahdd1 & ! circum/ances 7 fully inve/igat$ & report$ ^u by ,m4 ,aym>d1 & aft]w>ds by ,mr4 ,p\lett ,scrope1 ^u ^: m9d no possible d\bt ( ! fact rema9$4 ,f :at we n[ "k ( ! occurr5ce ( human rema9s & works ( art 9 o!r p>ts ( ,france & ,europe1 no surprise ne$ be felt at ! occurr5ce ( human rema9s 9 company ) "s ext9ct mammalia 9 ^! volcanic tuffs1 :i* belong to ! ,po/-,plioc5e or sup]ficial alluvia antec$5t to ! hi/oric p]iod4#aj 7h47 ,mont ,dme ,*a94--,we n[ come to ! consid]ation ( ! mo/ rec5t ( all ! volcanic m\nta9 gr\ps ( ! region ( ,c5tral ,france1 t ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 ly+ to ! nor? ( ,mont ,dore & ,cantal4 ,we h se5 t !re is almo/ conclusive evid5ce t man 0 a witness to ! lat] volcanic outbur/s ( ! ,viv>ais1 & z ^! crat]s seem to be ( some:at e>li] date ?an ^? ( ! ,puy de ,dme gr\p1 we _c d\bt t !y 7 9 active eruption :5 human be+s inhabit$ ! c\ntry1 & n improbably )9 :at is kn[n z ! ,hi/oric ,p]iod4 ,no m5tion1 h[ev]1 is made ei!r by ,cs>1 ,pl9y1 or o!r ,roman writ]s ( ! exi/5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ?is region4 ,cs>1 :o 0 a close obs]v]1 & :o c>ri$ ! ,roman arms into ,auv]gne1 makes no m5tion ( su*2 nor yet does ! eld] ,pl9y1 :o enum]at$ ! kn[n burn+ m\nta9s ( 8 day all ov] ! ,roman ,empire4 ,x is n till we come d[n to ! fif? c5tury ( our era t we f9d any notices :i* might lead u to inf] ! exi/5ce ( volcanic action 9 ,c5tral ,france4 ,?is is ! well-kn[n lett] writt5 by ,sidonius ,apollon>ius1 bi%op ( ,auv]gne1 to ,alc9us ,avitus1 bi%op ( ,vi5ne1 9 :i* ! =m] ref]s to c]ta9 t]rific t]re/rial manife/ations :i* _h occurr$ 9 ! diocese ( ! latt]4 ,b1 z ,dr4 ,daub5y obs]ves1 ?is is no evid5ce ( volcanic action 9 ,auv]gne1 :]e ,sidonius himself resid$2 ! t]re/rial di/urbances above ref]r$ to may h be5 e>?quake %ocks ( extreme sev]ity4#aa ,b al?\gh we h no reliably hi/orical record ( volcanic action among/ ! m\nta9s ( ! ,mont ,dme gr\p1 ! fact t ^! are1 comp>atively1 extremely rec5t w be evid5t to an obs]v] visit+ ?is di/rict1 & ?is conclusion is bas$ on ?ree pr9cipal gr\nds3 fir/1 because ( ! well-pres]v$ =ms ( ! orig9al crat]s1 ?\gh g5]ally compos$ ( v loose mat]ial1 su* z a%es1 lapilli1 & slag2 secondly1 because ( ! fre%ness ( ! lava-/reams ov] ^: rugg$ surfaces ev5 a scanty h]bage has 9 "s places sc>cely f\nd a foot+2#ab & ?irdly1 because ! lava f ! crat]-cones has invad$ *annels previ\sly occupi$ by ! e>li] lavas1 or ^? :i* _h be5 erod$ s9ce ! ov]fl[ ( ! great basaltic %eets ( ,mont ,dore4 ,/ill1 z 9 ! case ( ! valleys ( ,lake ,aidot1 ( ,*annonat1 & ( ,royat1 ^! /reams are suffici5tly anci5t to h giv5 "t = ! exi/+ riv]s to h worn out 9 !m *annels ( "s dep?1 b be>+ no comp>ison to ! great valleys :i* _h be5 erod$ out ( ! m anci5t lavas1 su* z ^? ( ! ,coiron1 ( ! ,ard*e1 & ( ! ,dordogne & ,*ambon 9 ! di/rict ( ,mont ,dore4 7i47 ,dome-%ap$ ,volcanic ,hills4--,i h previ\sly 7page #ae7 ref]r$ to ! two classes ( volcanic em95ces to be f\nd 9 ! *a9 ( ! ,puy de ,dme2 "o indicat$ by ! "n itself1 =m$ ( a v>iety ( tra*ytic lava call$ domite1 & ( ! =m ( a dome2 ! o!r1 compos$ ( fragm5tal matt] pil$ up 9 ! =m ( a crat] or cup1 (t5 ruptur$ on "o side by a /ream ( lava :i* has bur/ ?r\gh ! side1 ow+ to its sup]ior d5sity4 ,( ! =m] class ! ,puy de ,dme & ! ,gr& ,s>c\i 7see ,fig4 #ah7 are ! mo/ /rik+ examples out ( ! five enum]at$ by ,scrope1 :ile !re is a l>ge numb]1 altoge!r sixty-"o1 belong+ to ! latt] class4 ,^! domes & crat]-cones1 z already /at$1 rise f a plat=m ( granite1 ei!r directly or f "o =m$ ( ! lava-%eets ( ! ,mont ,dore region1 :i* 9 turn ov]lies ! granitic plat=m4 ,( ! ne>ly p]fect crat]s !re are ! ,petit ,puy de ,dme1 ly+ p>tially aga9/ ! nor!rn flank ( ! great] em95ce2 ! ,puy de ,cone1 rem>kable = ! symmetry ( its conical =m1 ris+ to a height ( #ijj feet f ! pla92 & ! ,puys de ,*aumont & ,?iolet ly+ to ! nor? ( ! ,puy de ,dme4 ,( ^? to ! s\? ( ?is m\nt1 two out ( ! ?ree crat]s ( ! ,puy de ,b>me & ! ,puy de ,vi*atel are p]fect2 b mo/ ( ! crat]-cones s\? ( ! ,puy de ,dme are brea*$4 ,"s ( ! lava /reams by :i* ^! crat]s 7 brok5 d[n fl[$ = long di/ances4 ,t ! lava foll[$ ! %[]s ( a%es & lapilli =m+ ! walls ( ! crat]s is r5d]$ v evid5t 9 ! case ( ! ,puy de la ,va*e1 ^: lava-/ream coalesc+ ) ^? f ! ,puy de la ,solas & ,puy ,noir1 delug$ ! surr\nd+ tracts & fl[$ d[n ! ,*annonat ,valley z f> z ,la ,ro*e ,blanc 9 ! ,vale ( ,cl]mont4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! upp] "p ( ! crat] /ill rema9+ may be se5 ! level 7s to speak7 to :i* ! molt5 lava rose be=e x bur/ its b>ri]4 ,?is level is m>k$ by a project+ plat=m ( r$di% or yell[ mat]ial1 ri* 9 specul> iron1 app>5tly "p ( ! fro?y scum :i* =m$ on ! surface ( ! lava & adh]$ to ! side ( ! bas9 at ! mom5t ( its be+ empti$4 ,space does n p]mit a full] description ( ?is rem>kable assemblage ( ext9ct volcanoes1 & ! read] mu/ be ref]r$ = fur!r details to ! "w ( ,mr4 ,scrope4 ,i %all cont5t myself ) "s fur!r ref]5ce to ! c5tral figure 9 ?is gr& *a91 ! ,puy de ,dme itself4 ,asc5t ( ! ,puy de ,dme4--,on asc5d+ by ! w9d+ pa? up ! /eep side ( ! m\nt1 & on rea*+ ! some:at flatt5$ summit1 ! fir/ objects :i* /rike ! eye are ! massive f\ndations ( ! ,roman temple ( ,m]cury2 !y are hewn out ( solid grey lava1 altoge!r diff]5t f ! rock ( ! ,puy de ,dme itself1 :i* mu/ h be5 obta9$ f "o ( ! lava-%eets ( ! ,mont ,dore gr\p4 ,to h c>ri$ ^! l>ge blocks to _! pres5t re/+-place mu/ h co/ no little lab\r & ef=t4 ,! temple is suppos$ to h be5 surm\nt$ by a colossal /atue ( ! w+$ deity1 visible f all p>ts ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry :i* 0 d$icat$ to 8 hon\r1 & ! f\ndations 7 only discov]$ a few ye>s ago :5 excavat+ = ! f\ndation ( ! obs]vatory1 :i* /&s a little fur!r on "u ! *>ge ( ,pr(essor ,janss54 ,on proce$+ to ! nor!rn cre/ ( ! plat=m a wond]ful view ( ! ext9ct crat]s & domes--ab\t =ty 9 numb]1 & t]m9at+ 9 ! ,puy de ,beauny1 ! mo/ nor!rly memb] ( ! *a9--is pres5t$ to ! spectator4 ,to ! "r is ! ,vale ( ,cl]mont & ! ri* valley ( ! ,alli] m]g+ into ! great pla9 ( ,c5tral ,france4 ,on ! s\? side ( ! plat=m a no less rem>kable spectacle meets ! eye4 ,! *a9 ( ,puys & brok5 crat]s /ret*es away s\?w>ds = a di/ance ( ne>ly t5 miles1 :ile ! horizon is b\nd$ 9 t direction by ! l(ty masses ( ! ,mont ,dore1 ,cantal1 & ,le ,puy ranges4 ,nor does x require mu* ef=t ( ! imag9ation to re/ore ! "* ( ! region :5 ^! n[ dormant volcanoes 7 9 full activity1 project+ %[]s ( a%es & /ones high into ! air amid/ flames ( fire & va/ cl\ds ( inc&esc5t gas & /eam4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* ! ,puy de ,dme is =m$ consi/s ( a light grey1 ne>ly :ite1 s(t felsitic lava1 conta9+ cry/als ( mica1 hornbl5de1 & specul> iron-ore4 ,x is highly vesicul>1 & 0 probably extrud$ 9 a pa/y condition f a ?roat pi]c+ ! granitic plateau & ! ov]ly+ %eet ( anci5t lava ( ,mont ,dore4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t su* highly felsitic & acid lavas z t ( :i* ! ,puy de ,dme1 ! ,gr& ,s>c\i1 & ,cli]s\ are compos$1 may h _h _! orig9 9 ! granite itself1 melt$ & r5d]$ visc\s by int5se heat4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,gordon ,hull has sugge/$ t ! domite hills 7ow+ to _! l[ specific gravity7 may h fill$ up pre-exi/+ crat]s ( a%es & scori )\t ruptur+ !m1 z 9 ! case ( ! heavi] basaltic lavas1 & !n /ill cont9u+ to be extrud$1 may h entirely envelop$ !m 9 its mass2 s t ea* domite hill encloses )9 its int]ior a crat] =m$ ( a%es1 /ones1 & scori4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,puy de ,dme !re is "s evid5ce t ! domite matt] re/s on a basis ( a%es & scori1 :i* may be se5 9 a few places ar\nd ! base ( ! cone4 ,x is difficult )\t "s su* !ory z ?is to expla9 h[ a visc\s mass 0 able to raise m\nta9s "s #bjjj or #cjjj feet above ! surr\nd+ pla94#ac 7j47 ,sket* ( ! ,volcanic ,hi/ory ( ,c5tral ,france4--,x n[ only rema9s to give a brief resum ( ! volcanic hi/ory ( ?is region z x may be ga!r$ f ! relations ( ! rocks & /rata to ! volcanic products1 & ( ^! latt] to ea* o!r4 #a/ ,/age4--,x w\ld appe> t at ! close ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod great t]re/rial *anges occurr$4 ,! b$ ( ! sea 0 conv]t$ into dry l&1 ! /rata 7 flexur$ & d5ud$1 & a depression 0 =m$ 9 ! granitic floor ( ,c5tral ,france1 :i*1 9 ! succe$+ ,mioc5e p]iod1 0 conv]t$ into an ext5sive lake peopl$ by molluscs1 fi%es1 reptiles1 & pa*yd]ms ( ! p]iod4 #bnd ,/age4--,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,mioc5e epo* volcanic eruptions comm5c$ on a gr& scale ov] ! granitic plat=m 9 ! di/ricts n[ call$ ,mont ,dore1 ,cantal1 & ! ,viv>ais4 ,va/ %eets ( tra*ytic & basaltic lavas successively invad$ ! tracts surr\nd+ ! c5tral orifices ( eruption1 n[ con/itut+ ! m anci5t ( ! lava-%eets ( ! ,auv]gne region1 &1 invad+ ! wat]s ( ! neighb\r+ lake1 ov]spread ! lacu/r9e deposits :i* 7 be+ accumulat$ !re94 ,^! volcanic eruptions probably cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 int]rupt$ by occasional int]vals ( inactivity1 & ultimately altoge!r ceas$4 #crd ,/age4--,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod t]re/rial movem5ts took place1 ow+ to :i* ! wat]s ( ! lake began to fall away1 & ! %eets ( lava 7 subject$ to great d5udation4 ,?is process1 probably accel]at$ by excessive ra9fall dur+ ! succe$+ ,po/-,plioc5e & ,pluvial p]iods1 0 cont9u$ until pla9s & ext5sive riv]-valleys 7 erod$ out ( ! %eets ( lava & _! support+ granitic rocks & ! adjo9+ lacu/r9e /rata4 #d? ,/age4--,a new outbur/ ( volcanic =ces m>ks ?is /age1 dur+ :i* ! *a9 ( ! ,puy de ,dme 0 ?r[n up on ! we/1 & t ( ! new] cones ( ! ,viv>ais on ! s\?-ea/ ( ! lacu/r9e tract4 ,! wat]s ( ! lake 7 n[ completely dra9$ away ?r\gh ! *annel ( ! ,alli]1 & d5udation1 ext5d+ d[n to ! pres5t day1 began ov] ! area n[ =m+ ! ,vale ( ,cl]mont & adjo9+ di/ricts4 ,! volcanic action ultimately sp5t its =ce2 & some:]e ab\t ! "t ( ! appe>ance ( man1 ! mammo?1 rh9oc]os1 /ag1 & re9de] on ! sc5e1 eruptions entirely ceas$1 & gradually ! region assum$ ^? conditions ( repose by :i* x is n[ physically *>act]is$4 #a ,! lit]ature ref]r+ to ?is region is v ext5sive4 ,guett>d 9 #agge1 aft]w>ds ,faujas1 publi%$ descriptions ( ! rocks ( ! ,viv>ais & ,velay2 & ,desm>e/'s geological map1 publi%$ 9 #aggi1 is a "w ( great m]it4 ,! di/rict 0 aft]w>ds describ$ by ,daub5y1 ,lyell1 ,von ,bu*1 & o!rs2 b by f> ! mo/ complete "w is t ( ,scrope1 entitl$ ,volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,france1 conta9+ maps & num]\s illu/rations1 publi%$ 9 #ahbf1 & republi%$ 9 a m ext5d$ =m 9 #aheh2 to ?is ,i am l>gely indebt$4 #b ,a monum5t to ,pascal1 erect$ by ! citiz5s1 occupies ! c5tre ( ! squ>e 9 ,cl]mont4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ,pascal v]ifi$ ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,torricelli reg>d+ ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 by c>ry+ a ,torricellian tube to ! summit ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 & record+ h[ ! m]cury cont9ually fell dur+ ! asc5t1 & rose z he desc5d$4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 made 9 #afde4 #c ,9 ?is visit to ,auv]gne 9 ! summ] ( #ahhj1 ! au?or 0 accompani$ by 8 son1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,gordon ,hull1 & ,sir ,rob]t ,s4 ,ball4 ,on rea*+ ! /ation at ! summit ( ! ridge x seem$ z if ! volcanic fires _h aga9 be5 light$1 = ! :ole sky 0 agl[ ) ! rays ( ! we/]n sun4 #d ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 b$s ( a% & o!r volcanic ejecta occur 9 ! upp]mo/ /rata ( lake deposits ( ,limagne1 s t ^! may indicate ! comm5cem5t ( ! p]iod ( eruption1 z sugge/$ fur!r on4 #e ,only v closely2 = ,mr4 ,scrope consid]s t ! crat]-cones ( ! *a9 ( ! ,haute ,loire give evid5ce ( a some:at e>li] epo* ( activity ?an ^? ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 z !y h und]gone a great] am\nt ( suba]ial erosion4 #f ,! ext5t ( ?is riv] erosion has be5 cle>ly br\ght out by ,scrope1 & is admirably illu/rat$ by sev]al ( 8 panoramic views1 su* z t 9 ,plate ,,ix4 ( 8 "w4 #g ,scrope1 loc4 cit41 p4 #adg4 #h ,scrope1 loc4 cit41 p4 #add4 #i ,scrope gives a view ( ^! rem>kable basaltic cliffs 9 ,plate ,,xii4 ( 8 "w1 f :i* ! above acc\nt is tak54 ,at "o spot ne> ! village ( ,le ,gua !re is a break 9 ! cont9uity ( ! %eet4 #aj ,see ,scrope1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aha2 also ,app5dix1 p4 #bbh4 ,:ile !re is no prim facie reason = que/ion+ ! orig9 ( ! ,demise skull1 yet f :at ,lyell /ates 9 8 ,antiquity ( ,man1 p4 #aif1 x w be se5 t he f\nd x impossible to id5tify its position1 or to det]m9e beyond "q t its int]m5t 0 due to natural causes4 ,b assum+ ?is to be ! case1 he %[s h[ ! individual to :om x belong$ might h be5 envelop$ 9 volcanic tuff or mud %[]$ d[n dur+ ! f9al eruption ( ! volcano ( ,demise4 ,,mm4 ,hb]t & ,l>tet1 on visit+ ! locality1 also fail$ to f9d 9 situ any exact c\nt]p>t ( ! /one n[ 9 ! museum ( ,le ,puy4 #aa ,see ,daub5y1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #ca4 #ab ,t is to say1 ! surfaces ( ! lava-/reams are n at all1 or only slightly1 decompos$ into soil suitable = ! gr[? ( plants1 except 9 r>e in/ances4 #ac ,e4 ,g4 ,hull1 ,on ! ,domite ,m\nta9s ( ,c5tral ,france1 ,sci54 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,dubl9 ,society1 ,july #ahha1 p4 #ade4 ,dr4 ,hull det]m9$ ! d5sity ( ! domite ( ! ,puy de ,dme to be #b4e1 :ile t ( lava is ab\t #c4j4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,di/rict ,,( ,,! ,,rh9e ,,valley4 ,! region bord]+ ! ,rh9e along bo? its banks above ,bonn1 & ext5d+ !nce along ! valley ( ! ,moselle & into ! ,eifel1 has be5 ! !atre ( active volcanic ph5om5a d[n into rec5t times1 b at ! pres5t day ! volcanoes are dormant or ext9ct4 7a47 ,geological ,/ructure4--,! fundam5tal rocks ( ?is region belong to ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s sy/ems1 consi/+ ( s*i/s1 grits1 & lime/ones1 ) occasional horizontal b$s ( ,mioc5e s&/one & %ale ) lignite1 re/+ on ! upturn$ edges ( ! old] rocks4 ,scatt]$ ov] ! great] "p ( ! di/rict "h ref]r$ to are a numb] ( conical em95ces1 (t5 ) crat]s1 ! bottoms ( :i* are usually sunk mu* bel[ ! pres5t level ( ! c\ntry1 & ?us receiv+ ! surface dra9age1 h be5 conv]t$ into little lakes call$ ma>s1 diff]+ f ord9>y lakes by _! circul> =m & ! abs5ce ( any app>5t outlet = _! wat]s4#a ,b be=e ent]+ into details1 x may be desirable to pres5t ! read] ) a %ort outl9e ( ! physical hi/ory ( ! region 7:i* has be5 ably done by ,dr4 ,hibb]t 9 8 treatise1 to :i* ,i h already ref]r$71 s z to enable him bett] to und]/& ! succession ( physical ev5ts 9 its volcanic hi/ory4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,sket* ,map to %[ ! physical condition ( ! ,rh5i% area 9 ! ,mioc5e epo*4--7,aft] ,hibb]t47 7b47 ,physical ,hi/ory4--,f ! wide di/ribution ( /ratifi$ deposits ( s& & clay at high levels on bo? banks ( ! ,rh9e nor? ( ! ,moselle1 x w\ld appe> t an ext5sive fre%-wat] bas91 :i* ,dr4 ,hibb]t calls ,! ,bas9 ( ,neuwi$1 occupi$ a consid]able tract on bo? banks1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* ! pres5t city ( ,neuwi$ /&s4 ,?is bas9 0 b\nd$ t[>ds ! s\? by ! slopes ( ! ,hndsruck & ,taunus1 :i* at ! "t "h ref]r$ to =m$ a cont9u\s *a9 ( m\nta9s4 7,fig4 #bj47 ,to ! s\? ( ?is *a9 lay ! ,t]ti>y bas9 ( ,may5ce1 :i* 0 connect$ at an e>ly p]iod--t ( ! ,mioc5e--) ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 z %[n by ! fact t ! l[] /rata conta9 m>9e %ells2 ^! aft]w>ds gave place to fre%-wat] conditions4 ,! bas9 ( ,neuwi$ 0 b\nd$ t[>ds ! nor? by a ridge ( ,devonian /rata :i* ext5d$ across ! pres5t gorge ( ! ,rh9e betwe5 ,&]na* & ,l9z1 & to ! nor? ( ?is b>ri] lay ano!r m ext5sive fre%-wat] bas91 t ( ,cologne4 ,f ?is x w be se5 t ! ,rh9e1 z we n[ f9d x1 _h !n only an infantile exi/5ce2 9 fact1 its wat]s to ! s\? ( ! ,hndsruck ridge dra9$ away t[>ds ! s\?4 ,b t[>ds ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod ! b>ri]s ( ! ,hndsruck & ,taunus1 z also t ( ! ,l9z1 7 brok5 ?r\gh1 & ! c\rse ( ! wat]s 0 *ang$2 & ?us gradually1 z ! riv] deep5$ its b$1 ! wat]s 7 dra9$ (f f ! great lakes4#b ,?is rupture ( ! b>ri]s may h be5 due1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ! t]re/rial di/urbances accompany+ ! volcanic eruptions ( ! ,eifel & ,sieb5gebirge1 ?\gh ! erosion ( ! gorges at ,b+5 & at ,l9z to _! pres5t dep? & dim5sions is ( c\rse due to prolong$ riv] action4 ,x 0 ab\t ! epo* we h n[ arriv$ at--viz41 ! close ( ! ,mioc5e--t volcanic action bur/ =? 9 ! region ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e4 ,x is probable t ?is action comm5c$ 9 ! di/rict ( ! ,sieb5gebirge1 & aft]w>ds ext5d$ into t ( ! ,moselle & ! ,eifel1 ! volcanoes ( :i* be> evid5ce ( rec5t date4 ,lay]s ( tra*ytic tuff are int]/ratifi$ ) ! deposits ( s&1 clay1 & lignite ( ! =mation kn[n z t ( ! ,br[n ,coal--( ,mioc5e age--:i* und]lies ne>ly ! :ole ( ! volcanic di/rict on bo? sides ( ! ,rh9e ne> ,bonn1#c ?us %[+ t volcanic action _h already comm5c$ 9 t "p to "s ext5t2 b x does n appe> f ,dr4 ,hibb]t's /atem5t t any su* fragm5ts ( eruptive rock are to be f\nd 9 ! /rata :i* 7 deposit$ ov] ! floor ( ! ,neuwi$ bas94#d ,x w be recollect$ t ! epo* assign$ = ! e>lie/ volcanic eruptions ( ,auv]gne 0 t "h inf]r$ = ^? ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e--viz41 ! close ( ! ,mioc5e /age--& f evid5ce subsequ5tly to be adduc$ f o!r ,european di/ricts1 x w be f\nd t !re 0 a v widely spread outbur/ ( volcanic action at ?is epo*4 7c47 ,! ,range ( ! ,sieb5gebirge4--,?is range ( hills--=m$ ( ! old] volcanic rocks ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e--rises along ! "r bank ( ?is noble riv] opposite ,bonn1 :]e x leaves ! n>r[ gorge :i* x trav]ses all ! way f ,b+51 & op5s out on ! broad pla9 ( ,nor!rn ,g]many4 ,! range consi/s ( a succession ( conical hills sometimes flat-topp$--z 9 ! case ( ,pet]sb]g2 & at ! ,dra*5fels1 ne> ! c5tre ( ! range x pres5ts to ! riv] a bold front ( precipit\s cliffs ( tra*yte porphyry4 ,! sket* 7,fig4 #ba7 "h pres5t$ 0 tak5 by ! au?or 9 #aheg f ! old ext9ct volcano ( ,rod]b]g1 & w convey1 p]haps1 a bett] idea ( ! "* ( ?is picturesque range ?an a description4 ,! ,sieb5gebirge1 al?\gh appe>+ z an isolat$ gr\p ( hills1 is 9 reality an (f%oot f ! range ( ! ,we/]wald1 :i* is connect$ ) ano!r volcanic di/rict ( ,c5tral ,g]many kn[n z ! ,vogelsgebirge4 ,! highe/ po9t 9 ! range is atta9$ 9 ! ,lohrb]g1 :i* rises #acee feet above ! sea2 ! next1 ! ,great ,trnkeb]g1 #accj feet2 & ! next1 ,great ,oelb]g1 #abif feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,! ,volcanic ,range ( ! ,sieb5gebirge1 se5 f ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 above ,bonn4--7,orig9al47 ,! range consi/s ma9ly ( tra*ytic rocks--namely1 tra*yte-conglom]ate1 & solid tra*yte1 ( :i* ,h4 von ,de*5 makes two v>ieties--t ( ! ,dra*5fels1 & t ( ! ,wolk5burg4 ,b associat$ ) ^! highly-silicat$ v>ieties ( lava--& g5]ally1 if n always1 ( lat] date--are basaltic rocks :i* cap ! hills ( ,pet]sb]g1 ,nonn5/rom1 ,gr4 & ,ll4 ,oelb]g1 ,gr4 ,weilb]g1 & ,ob] ,doll5dorf] ,h>dt4 ,! "q :e!r !re is a transition f ! "o v>iety ( volcanic rock into ! o!r1 or :e!r ea* belongs to a di/9ct & sep>ate epo* ( eruption1 does n seem to be v cle>ly det]m9$4 ,mr4 ,leon>d ,horn] /ates t x w\ld be easy to =m a suite ( specim5s %[+ a gradation f a :ite tra*yte to a black basalt2#e b we mu/ recollect t :5 ,mr4 ,horn] wrote1 ! microscopic exam9ation ( rocks by means ( ?9 sections 0 n kn[n or practis$1 & an exam9ation by ?is process might h prov$ t ?is app>5t transition is unreal4 ,accord+ to ,h4 von ,de*51 !re are %eets ( basalt old] ?an ! great] mass ( ! br[n coal =mation1 & o!rs new] ?an ! tra*yte2#f :ile dykes ( basalt trav]s+ ! tra*ytic lavas are n uncommon4#g ,! tra*yte-conglom]ate--:i* seems to be associat$ ) ! upp] b$s ( ! br[n coal /rata--is trav]s$ by dykes ( tra*yte ( lat] date2 & ?\gh x is difficult to trace ! l9e betwe5 ! two v>ieties ( ?is rock on ! gr\nd1 ,dr4 von ,ra? has recognis$ ! g5]al di/9ction betwe5 !m1 :i* consi/s 9 ! great] abundance ( hornbl5de & mica 9 ! tra*yte ( ! ,wolk5burg ?an 9 t ( ! ,dra*5fels4 ,! tra*yte ( ! ,dra*5fels 0 probably ! neck ( a volcano :i* bur/ ?r\gh ! fundam5tal s*i/s ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,x is rem>kable = ! l>ge cry/als ( sanid9e 7glassy felsp>7 :i* x conta9s1 & has a rude column> /ructure4 ,! abs5ce ( any cle>ly-def9$ crat]s ( eruption1 su* z are to be f\nd 9 ! ,eifel di/rict & on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e--z1 = example1 9 ! case ( ! ,rod]b]g--may be reg>d$ z suffici5t evid5ce t ?is range is ( comp>atively high antiquity4 ,x seems to be> ! same relation to ! m mod]n crat]s ( ! ,eifel & ,moselle t ! ,mont ,dore & ,cantal volcanoes d to ^? ( ! ,puy de ,dme4 ,9 bo? cases1 d5udation c>ri$ on ?r\gh\t p]haps ! ,plioc5e & ,po/-,plioc5e p]iods d[n to ! pres5t day has _h ! effect ( demoli%+ ! orig9al crat]s2 s t :at we n[ obs]ve z =m+ ^! ranges are ! consolidat$ columns ( orig9al molt5 matt] :i* fill$ ! ?roats ( ! old volcanoes1 or ! %eets ( lava :i* 7 extrud$ f !m1 b are n[ probably mu* r$uc$ 9 size & ext5t4 ,hav+ ?us giv5 a description ( ! old] volcanic range on ! "r bank ( ! ,rh9e1 we %all cross ! riv] 9 se>* ( "s details reg>d+ ! m rec5t gr\p ( ,rh5i% volcanoes1 comm5c+ ) t ( ! ,rod]b]g1 a rem>kable hill a few miles s\? ( ,bonn1 f :i* ! view ( ! ,sev5 ,m\nta9s 0 tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,section ( ! ext9ct crat] ( ! ,rod]b]g on ! bank ( ! ,rh9e1 above ,bonn4--7,orig9al47 7d47 ,! ,rod]b]g4--,?is crat]1 :i* 0 visit$ by ! au?or 9 #aheg1 is ab\t "o-f\r? ( a mile 9 diamet]1 & is 9 ! =m ( a cup ) g5tle slopes on all sides4 ,9 its c5tre is a f>mh\se surr\nd$ by corn-fields4 ,! g5]al section ?r\gh ! hill is repres5t$ above 7,fig4 #bb74 ,! flanks on ! nor? side are compos$ ( loose qu>tzose gravel 7g]olle71 a remnant ( ! deposits =m$ ar\nd ! m>g9 ( ! ,bas9 ( ,neuwi$ describ$ above 7p4 #aad74 ,?is gravel is f\nd cov]+ ! t]races ( ! br[n coal =mation sev]al hundr$ feet above ! ,rh9e4 ,besides qu>tz-pebbles1 ! deposit conta9s o!rs ( slate1 grit1 & volcanic rock4 ,on rea*+ ! edge ( ! crat] we f9d ! gravel cov]$ ov] by black & purple scoria or slag ! sup]position ( ! scoria on ! gravel be+ visible 9 sev]al places1 %[+ t ! =m] is ( m rec5t orig94 ,on ! opposite side ( ! crat]1 ov]look+ ! ,rh9e1 we f9d ! cliff ( ,rol&sec compos$ ( h>d vesicul> lava1 rudely prismatic1 & ext5d+ f ! summit ( ! hill to its base1 ab\t #bej feet bel[4 ,?is is ! mo/ nor!rly ( ! gr\p ( ! ,eifel volcanoes4 7e47 ,di/rict ( ! ,riv]s ,brhl & ,nette4--,! volcanic region ( ! ,l[] ,eifel1 dra9$ by ^! two pr9cipal /reams :i* fl[ into ! ,rh9e1 w amply repay exploration by ! /ud5t ( volcanic ph5om5a1 ow+ to ! v>iety ( =ms & conditions "u :i* ^! pres5t !mselves )9 a small space4 ,! fundam5tal rock is slate or grit ( ,devonian age1 furr[$ by num]\s valleys1 (t5 ri*ly wood$1 & div]sifi$ by conical hills ( tra*yte2 or by crat]-cones1 =m$ ( basalt or a%es1 sometimes ruptur$ on "o side1 & occasionally s5d+ =? /reams ( lava1 z 9 ! cases ( ! ,p]l9kopf1 ! ,baus5b]g1 & ! ,engel]kopf4 ,! di/rict atta9s its greate/ altitude 9 ! ,high ,a*t 7,d] ,hohe ,a*t71 an isolat$ cone ( slate capp$ by basalt ) oliv9e1 & rea*+ a level ( #bdcd ,rh5i% feet4#h 7f47 ,! ,laa*] ,see4--,x w\ld be impossible 9 a "w ( ?is k9d to attempt a detail$ description ( ! ,eifel volcanoes1 (t5 ( a v complex "* & obscure physical hi/ory1 z 9 ! case ( ! bas9 ( ,ri$51 :]e tuface\s deposits1 tra*ytic & basaltic lavas & crat]-cones1 are confus$ly int]m+l$1 s t ,i %all conf9e my rem>ks to ! des]v$ly fam\s di/rict ( ! ,laa*] ,see1 :i* ,i _h an opportunity ( p]sonally visit+ "s ye>s s9ce4#i ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,plan & ,section ( ! ,laa*] ,see1 a lake on ! bord]s ( ! ,eifel1 occupy+ ! crat] ( an old volcano4--,g4 ,gravel & volcanic s& =m+ banks ( ! lake & rim ( old crat]2 ,l4 ,%eet ( tra*ytic lava ) column> /ructure2 ,b4 ,basaltic dyke2 ,s4 ,devonian slate1 etc4 ,! ,laa*] ,see is a lake ( an oval =m1 ov] an ,engli% mile 9 ! %ort] diamet]1 & surr\nd$ by high banks ( volcanic s&1 gravel1 & scori1 except on ! ea/ side1 :]e cliffs ( clay-slate1 9 a ne>ly v]tical position1 & /rik+ ne>ly ,e4,w41 may be obs]v$4 ,its dep? f ! surface ( ! wat] is #bad feet4#aj ,! a%es ( ! encircl+ banks conta9 blocks ( slate & lava :i* h be5 torn f ! sides ( ! orifice or neck ( ! volcano & bl[n into ! air2 & !re c be no d\bt t ! a%es & volcanic gravel is ! result ( v rec5t eruptions4 ,at ! ea/ side ( ! lake we f9d a /ream ( scoriace\s lava ( a purple or r$di% col\r1 highly vesicul>1 & conta9+ cry/als ( mica2 b ! mo/ important lava-/ream is t :i* has tak5 a s\!rly direction f ! crat] ( ! ,laa*] ,see t[>ds ,ni$] ,m5dig & ,may51 = a di/ance ( ab\t six miles4 ,?is great /ream is cov]$ ?r\gh\t half its di/ance by b$s ( volcanic a% & lapilli1 b em]ges into ! air at a di/ance ( ab\t two miles f ! edge ( ! crat] 7see ,fig4 #bc71 & 0 =m]ly ext5sively qu>ri$ 9 und]gr\nd cav]ns = mill/ones4 ,"h ! rock is a vesicul> tra*yte1 ( a greyi% col\r1 solidifi$ 9 v]tical columns ( hexagonal =m1 ab\t f\r feet 9 diamet]1 & trav]s$ by transv]se jo9t planes4 ,^! qu>ries h be5 work$ f ! "t ( ! ,roman occupation ( ! c\ntry2 &1 be=e ! introduction ( iron or /eel roll]s = gr9d+ corn1 mill/ones 7 export$ to all p>ts ( ,europe & ! ,briti% ,isles f ?is qu>ry4#aa ,! di/rict ar\nd ! ,laa*] ,see is cov]$ by lam9at$ ejecta ( ! old volcano1 probably ( subarial orig91 ?r\gh :i* bosses ( ! fundam5tal slate pe] up at int]vals1 :ile ! surface is div]sifi$ by sev]al truncat$ cones4 7g47 ,trass ( ! ,brhl ,valley4--,! ,brhl ,valley1 :i* unites ) t ( ! ,rh9e at ! t[n ( t "n1 & dra9s ! nor!rn side ( ! volcanic region1 has always be5 reg>d$ ) mu* int]e/ by travell]s = ! pres5ce ( a deposit ( trass ) :i* x is p>tially fill$4 ,! orig9 ( ?is valley 0 pre-volcanic1 z x is hewn out ( ! slaty rocks ( ! di/rict4 ,b at a lat] p]iod x became fill$ ) volcanic mud 7tuff/e971 out ( :i* ! /ream has made = itself a fre% *annel4 ,! s\rce ( ?is mud is consid]$ by ,hibb]t#ab to h be5 ! old volcano ( ! ,lumm]feld1 :i*1 aft] becom+ dormant1 0 fill$ ) wat]1 & ?us became a lake4 ,at a subsequ5t p]iod1 h[ev]1 a fre% eruption took place ne> ! edge ( ! lake1 result+ 9 ! rem>kable ruptur$ crat] kn[n z ! ,kunkskpfe1 :i* rises ab\t f\r miles to ! nor? ( ! ,laa*] ,see4 ,! eruptions ( ?is volcano appe> to h displac$ ! mud ( ! ,lumm]feld1 caus+ x to fl[ d[n into ! deep gorge ( ! ,brhl1 :i* x completely fill$1 z /at$ above4 ,on walk+ d[n ! valley "o may sometimes see ! junction ( ! tuff ) ! slate-rock :i* enfolds x4 ,! tuff consi/s ( :ite felspa?ic mud1 ) fragm5ts ( slate & lava1 rea*+ a dep? 9 "s places ( #aej feet4 ,aft] x has be5 qu>ri$ x is gr\nd 9 mills1 & us$ = cem5t /one "u ! "n ( trass4 ,x is said to resemble ! volcanic mud by :i* ,h]culaneum 0 ov]:elm$ dur+ ! fir/ eruption ( ,vesuvius1 & :i* 0 produc$ by ! torr5ts ( ra9 mix+ ) ! a%es z !y 7 bl[n out ( ! volcano4 ,suffici5t has probably n[ be5 writt5 reg>d+ ! dormant1 or rec5tly ext9ct1 volcanic di/ricts ( ,europe to give ! read] a cle> idea reg>d+ _! nature & physical /ructure4 ,o!r di/ricts might be add$1 su* z ^? ( ,c5tral ,g]many1 ,hung>y1 ,transylvania1 & ,/yria2 b to d s w\ld be to exce$ ! propos$ limits ( ?is "w2 & we may !re=e pass on to ! consid]ation ( ! volcanic region ( ,syria & ,pale/9e1 :i* adjo9s ! ,m$it]ranean di/rict we h consid]$ 9 a =m] page4 #a ,daub5y1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ga4 ,! geology ( ?is region has _h _m inve/igators1 ( :om ! *ief are ,/e9+]1 ,erlos*55 ,vulkane 9 d] ,eifel 7#ahbj72 ,hibb]t1 ,ext9ct ,volcanoes ( ! ,bas9 ( ,neuwi$1 #ahcb2 ,ngg]a?1 ,das ,gebirge im ,rhe9l&1 etc41 #d vols42 ,horn]1 ,on ! ,geology ( ,bonn1 ,transactions ( ! ,geological ,society1 ,london1 vol4 iv4 #b ,! views ( ,dr4 ,hibb]t are n inconsi/5t ) ^? ( ! late ,sir ,a4 ,ramsay1 on ,! ,physical ,hi/ory ( ! ,valley ( ! ,rh9e1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx4 7#ahgd74 #c ,von ,de*51 ,geog4 ,bes*reib4 des ,sieb5gebirges am ,rhe9 7,bonn1 #aheb74 #d ,hibb]t1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ah4 #e ,horn]1 ,geology ( ,environs ( ,bonn1 ,transactions ( ! ,geological ,society1 vol4 iv41 new s]ies4 #f ,h4 von ,de*51 ,geog4 ,fhr] 9 das ,sieb5gebirge am ,rhe9 7,bonn1 #ahfa74 #g ,ibid41 p4 #aia4 #h ,dr4 ,hibb]t's "w is illu/rat$ by v c>efully drawn & accurate views ( "s ( ! old cones & crat]s ( ?is di/rict1 accompani$ by detail$ descriptions4 #i ,! lava ( ,s*or5b]g1 ne> ,ri$51 is int]e/+ f ! fact1 /at$ by ,zirkel1 t x conta9s leucite1 nosean1 & nephel94--,die ,mikros4 ,bes*af4 d4 ,m9]4 u4 ,ge/e9e1 p4 #aed 7#ahgc74 #aj ,hibb]t1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bc4 #aa ,at ! "t ( ! au?or's visit ! und]gr\nd cav]ns1 :i* are delici\sly cool 9 summ]1 7 us$ = ! /orage ( ! celebrat$ be] brew$ by ! ,moravians ( ,neuwi$4 #ab ,hibb]t1 loc4 cit41 p4 #abi4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,dormant ,,or ,,moribund ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,o!r ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,dormant ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,pale/9e ,,& ,,arabia4 7a47 ,region ea/ ( ! ,jordan & ,dead ,sea4--,! rem>kable l9e ( c\ntry ly+ along ! valley ( ! ,jordan1 & ext5d+ into ! great ,arabian ,des]t1 has be5 ! seat ( ext5sive volcanic action 9 prehi/oric times4 ,! specially volcanic region seems to be b\nd$ by ! depression ( ! ,jordan1 ! ,dead ,sea1 & ! ,arabah z f> s\? z ! ,gulf ( ,akabah2 =1 al?\gh ,saf$1 ly+ at ! head ( ! ,sea ( ,galilee on ! we/ ( ! ,jordan valley1 is built on a basaltic %eet1 & is 9 proximity to an ext9ct crat]1 its position is exceptional to ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! volcanic products :i* may be trac$ at int]vals f ! base ( ,h]mon into ,c5tral ,arabia1 a di/ance ( ab\t #ajjj miles4#a ,! tract ref]r$ to has be5 describ$ at int]vals by sev]al au?ors1 ( :om ,g4 ,s*uma*]1#b ,l4 ,l>tet1#c ,canon ,tri/ram1#d ,m4 ,niebuhr1#e & ,c4 ,m4 ,d\ghty#f may be specially m5tion$ 9 ?is connection4 ,! mo/ ext5sive manife/ations ( volcanic en]gy ?r\gh\t ?is long tract ( c\ntry appe> to be conc5trat$ at its extreme limits4 ,at ! nor!rn extremity ! g5]ally wild & rugg$ tract ( ! ,jauln & ,haurn1 call$ 9 ! ,bible ,tra*onitis1 & /ill f>!r to ! ea/w>d ! plateau ( ! ,lejah1 ) its r[ ( volcanic peaks slop+ d[n to ! va/ level ( ,ba%an1 is cov]$ ?r\gh\t ne>ly its :ole ext5t by great %eets ( basaltic lava1 above :i* rise at int]vals1 & 9 v p]fect =m1 ! old crat]-cones ( eruption4 ,a simil> gr\p ( ext9ct crat]s ) lava-fl[s has be5 describ$ & figur$ by a rec5t travell]1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,d\ghty1 9 p>ts ( ,c5tral ,arabia4 ,! g5]al resemblance ( ^! ,arabian volcanoes to ^? ( ! ,jauln is unque/ionable2 & z !y are connect$ ) ea* o!r by %eets ( basaltic lava at int]vals ?r\gh\t ! l& ( ,moab1 x is tol]ably c]ta9 t ! volcanoes ly+ at ei!r end ( ! *a9 belong to "o sy/em1 & 7 contemporane\sly 9 a /ate ( activity4 7b47 ,geological ,conditions4--,be=e ent]+ any fur!r into p>ticul>s reg>d+ ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ?is region1 x may be desirable to give a %ort acc\nt ( its geological /ructure1 & ! physical conditions among/ :i* ! igne\s eruptions 7 develop$4 ,d[n to ! close ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod ! :ole region n[ "u consid]ation 0 occupi$ by ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! m\nta9s ( ,s9ai 7 isl&s 9 ?is ocean1 :i* _h a v wide range ov] p>ts ( ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,europe4 ,b at ! comm5cem5t ( ! succe$+ ,mioc5e /age ! cru/ 0 subject$ to lat]al contraction1 ow+ to :i* ! ocean b$ 0 uprais$4 ,! /rata 7 flexur$1 fold$1 & (t5 fault$ & fissur$ along l9es rang+ nor? & s\?1 ! great fault ( ! ,jordan-,arabah valley be+ ! mo/ important4 ,at ?is p]iod ! m\nta9s ( ! ,lebanon1 ! table-l&s ( ,juda & ( ,arabia1 =m$ ( lime/one1 previ\sly con/itut+ ! b$ ( ! ocean dur+ ! ,eoc5e & ,cretace\s p]iods1 7 conv]t$ into l& surfaces4 ,along ) ?is upheaval ( ! sea-b$ !re 0 ext5sive d5udation & erosion ( ! /rata1 s t valleys 7 erod$ ov] ! subarial tracts1 & ! ,jordan-,arabah valley receiv$ its prim>y =m & outl9e4 ,up to ?is "t !re does n appe> to h be5 any outbreak ( volcanic =ces2 b ) ! succe$+ ,plioc5e p]iod ^! came into play1 & eruptions ( basaltic lava took place along r5ts & fissures 9 ! /rata1 :ile crat]s & cones ( slag1 scori1 & a%es 7 ?r[n up ov] ! region ly+ to ! ea/ ( ! ,sea ( ,galilee & ! s\rces ( ! ,jordan on ! "o h&1 & ! c5tral p>ts ( ! great ,arabian ,des]t on ! o!r4 ,^! eruptions1 probably int]mitt5t1 cont9u$ into ! succe$+ ,glacial or ,pluvial p]iod1 & only di$ out ab\t ! "t t ! e>lie/ inhabitants appe>$ on ! sc5e4 7c47 ,! ,jauln & ,haurn4--,?is tract is b\nd$ by ! valley ( ! ,jordan & ! ,sea ( ,galilee on ! we/1 f :i* x rises by /eep & rocky declivities into an elevat$ table-l&1 dra9$ by ! ,y>mk 7,hi]omax71 ! ,nahr er ,rukkd1 & o!r /reams1 :i* fl[ we/w>ds into ! ,jordan along deep *annels 9 :i* ! basaltic %eets & und]ly+ lime/one /rata are well laid op5 to view4 ,on consid]ation x seems improbable t ! great %eets ( augitic lava1 su* z cov] ! surface ( ! l& ( ,ba%an1 are altoge!r ! product ( ! volcanic m\nta9s :i* appe> to be conf9$ to special di/ricts 9 ?is wide area4 ,"s ( ! crat]s d inde$ s5d =? visible lava-/reams1 b !y are insignificant z comp>$ ) ! g5]al mass ( ! plateau-basalts2 & ! crat]-cones !mselves appe> 9 "s cases to be po/]ior to ! plat=ms ( basalt f :i* !y rise4 ,x is v probable1 !re=e1 t ! lavas ( ?is region h1 9 ! ma91 be5 extrud$ f fissures ( eruption at an e>ly p]iod1 & spread ov] ! surface ( ! c\ntry 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ! ,snake ,riv] region1 & ! bord]s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & possibly ( ! ,antrim ,plateau 9 ,irel&1 aft]w>ds to be describ$4 ,! volcanic hills :i* rise above ! plateau are describ$ 9 detail by ,s*uma*]4 ,( ^!1 ,tell ,ab ,n$r is ! l>ge/ 9 ! ,jauln4 ,x rea*es an elevation ( #dacb feet above ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 & #agaj feet above ! pla9 f :i* x rises2 ! circumf]5ce ( its base is ?ree miles1 & ! rim ( ! crat] itself1 :i* is oval 9 =m1 is #acca y>ds 9 its l>g] diamet]4 ,! int]ior is cultivat$ by ,circassians1 & is v fruitful2 ! walls desc5d at an angle ( ab\t #cj on ! inside1 ! ext]ior slope ( ! m\nta9 be+ ab\t #bb4 ,! cone seems to be =m$ *iefly ( scori1 & ! lava-/ream1 :i* issues =? f ! int]ior1 =ms a frightfully /ony & lac]at$ di/rict4#g ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,ext9ct ,crat]s 9 ! ,jauln1 nor?-ea/ f ! ,sea ( ,galilee1 call$ ,tell ,ab en ,n$ & ,tell el ,urm1 ) a c5tral cone4--7,aft] ,s*uma*]47 ,ano!r rem>kable volcano is ! ,tell ,ab en ,n$ 7,fig4 #bd74 ,?is is a d\ble crat]1 ) a cone 7probably ( c9d]s7 ris+ f ! int]ior ( "o ( !m4 ,! highe/ po9t ( ! rim ( "o ( ! crat]s rea*es a level ( #djdb feet above ! sea4 ,a lava-/ream issues =? f ,ab en ,n$1 & unites ) ano!r f a neighb\r+ volcano4 ,tell el ,ahmr is a ruptur$ crat] ( impos+ aspect1 rea*+ an elevation ( #djfj feet1 & s5d+ =? a lava-curr5t1 :i* falls 9 regul> t]races f ! outlet t[>ds ! we/ & nor?4 ,! ruptur$ crat] ( ,tell el ,akka%eh1 :i* rea*es a height ( #cdjj feet1 has a less =bidd+ aspect ?an ! great] numb] ( ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ?is region1 ow+ to ! fact t its sides are cov]$ by oaks1 :i* atta9 to magnific5t proportions along ! summit4 ,num]\s o!r volcanic hills occur 9 ?is di/rict1 b ! mo/ rem>kable is t call$ ,tell el ,f>ras 7! ,hill ( ! ,horse74 ,x is an isolat$ m\nta91 visible f af>1 & rea*es an elevation ( #caaj feet1 or ne>ly #hjj feet above ! surr\nd+ pla94 ,! oval crat] ( ?is volcano op5s t[>ds ! nor?1 & has a dep? ( #ajh feet bel[ ! edge1 ) mod]ately /eep slop+ sides 7#ag-cb71 :ile ! slope ( ! ext]ior1 at fir/ /eep1 gradually less5s to #bj-ba4 ,^! slopes are cov]$ ) r$di% or yell[i% slag4 ,! above examples w probably suffice to af=d ! read] a g5]al idea ( ! size & =m ( ! volcanoes 9 ?is little kn[n region4 ,x has be5 /at$ above t ! great lava-floods h probably be5 p\r$ =? int]mitt5tly4 ,! /atem5t receives confirmation f ! obs]vations ( ,canon ,tri/ram1 made 9 ! valley ( ! ,y>mk4#h ,?is impetu\s torr5t ru%es d[n a gorge1 sometimes hav+ lime/one on "o side & a wall ( basalt on ! o!r4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! riv] *annel _h be5 erod$ be=e ! volcanic eruptions _h comm5c$2 b on ! lava-/ream rea*+ ! *annel1 x naturally desc5d$ t[>ds ! valley ( ! ,jordan along its b$1 displac+ ! riv]1 or conv]t+ x into cl\ds ( /eam4 ,subsequ5tly ! riv] aga9 hew$ out its *annel1 sometimes 9 ! lava1 sometimes betwe5 ?is rock & ! *alky lime/one4 ,b1 9 addition to ?is1 x has be5 obs]v$ t !re is a b$ ( riv] gravel int]pos$ betwe5 two %eets ( basalt 9 ! ,y>mk rav9e2 %[+ t aft] ! fir/ fl[ ( t molt5 rock ! riv] reoccupi$ its *annel1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds invad$ by ano!r molt5 lava-/ream1 into :i* ! wat]s h aga9 furr[$ ! *annel :i* !y n[ occupy4 ,! basaltic %eets desc5d "u ! wat]s ( ! ,sea ( ,galilee on ! ea/ side1 & 7 probably connect$ ) ^? ( ,saf$1 cross+ ! ,jordan valley nor? ( t lake2 ow+ to ?is ! wat]s ( ! ,lake ( ,m]om 7,huleh7 7 p5t up1 & =m]ly cov]$ an ext5sive tract1 n[ =m$ ( alluvial deposits4 7d47 ,l& ( ,moab4--,proce$+ s\?w>ds into ! ,l& ( ,moab1 ! volcanic ph5om5a are "h ( great int]e/4 ,ext5sive %eets ( basaltic lava1 describ$ z f> back z #ahjg by ,seetz51 & m rec5tly by ,l>tet & ,tri/ram1 are f\nd at int]vals betwe5 ! ,wdies ,mojib 7,arnon7 & ,haidan4 ,on ei!r side ( ! ,mojib1 cliffs ( column> basalt are se5 capp+ ! b$s ( :ite ,cretace\s lime/one1 :ile a l>ge mass has desc5d$ into ! ,w4 ,haidan betwe5 cliffs ( lime/one & m>l on ei!r h&4 ,ar\nd ,jebel ,att>us--a dome-%ap$ hill ( lime/one--a %eet ( basaltic lava has be5 p\r$1 & has desc5d$ ! deep gorge ( ! ,z]ka ,man1 :i* ent]s ! ,dead ,sea "s #bjjj feet bel[4 ,?is gorge _h be5 erod$ be=e ! basaltic eruption1 s t ! /ream ( molt5 lava took its c\rse d[n ! b$ ( ?is /ream to ! wat]'s edge1 & gr& sections h be5 laid b>e by subsequ5t erosion along ! banks4 ,p5tagonal columns ( black basalt =m p]p5dicul> walls1 fir/ on "o side1 !n on ! o!r2 :ile consid]able masses ( scori1 pep]9o1 & breccia appe> at ! head ( ! gl51 probably m>k+ ! orifice ( eruption4 ,o!r eruptions ( basalt occur1 "o at ,m\nt> ez ,z>a1 to ! s\? ( ,z]ka ,man1 & ano!r at ,wady ,ghuweir1 ne> ! nor?-ea/]n end ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,!re are no lava-/reams on ! we/]n side ( ! ,ghor1 or ( ! ,dead ,sea4#i ,! outbur/ ( ! celebrat$ !rmal spr+s ( ,callirrho1 toge!r ) n9e or t5 o!rs1 along ! *annel ( ! ,z]ka ,man1 is a circum/ance :i* _c be dissociat$ f ! occurr5ce ( basaltic lava at ?is spot4 ,9 a rea* ( ?ree miles1 accord+ to ,tri/ram1 !re are t5 pr9cipal spr+s1 ( :i* ! fif? 9 desc5t is ! l>ge/2 b ! sev5? & eigh?1 ab\t half a mile l[] d[n1 are ! mo/ rem>kable1 giv+ =? l>ge supplies ( sulphur\s wat]4 ,! t5? & la/ is ! hotte/ ( all1 indicat+ a temp]ature ( #adc ,fahr4 ,?us x w\ld appe> t ! heat increases ) ! dep? f ! upp] surface ( ! table-l&2 a result :i* might be expect$1 suppos+ ! heat$ volcanic rocks to be !mselves ! s\rce ( ! high temp]ature4 ,to a simil> cause may be attribut$ ! hot-spr+s ( ,hamma?1 ne> ,tib]ias1 & ^? ( ! ,y>mk ne> its conflu5ce ) ! ,jordan4 ,"s ( ^! & o!r spr+s break out along1 or ne>1 ! l9e ( ! great ,jordan-,arabah fault :i* ranges ?r\gh\t ! :ole ext5t ( ?is depression1 f ! base ( ,h]mon to ! ,gulf ( ,akabah1 g5]ally keep+ close to ! ea/]n m>g9 ( ! valley4 7e47 ,! ,arabian ,des]t4--,! basaltic lava-floods occupy a v l>ge ext5t ( ! ,arabian ,des]t1 f ,el ,hisma 7lat4 #bg #ce' ,n47 to ! neighb\rhood ( ,mecca on ! s\?1 a di/ance ( ab\t #ddj miles1 ) occasional int]vals4 ,! lava-%eets are call$ ,h>ras 7or ,h>rat71 "o ( :i*1 ,h>rat ,sfe9a1 t]m9ates ab\t t5 miles nor? ( ,mecca4 ,! lava-%eets re/ sometimes on ! r$ s&/one1 at o!r times1 on ! granite & o!r cry/all9e rocks ( great geological antiquity4 ,9 addition to ! %eets ( basalt1 num]\s crat]-cones rise f ! basaltic plat=m at a level ( #ejjj feet above ! sea1 & two volcanic m\nta9s1 ris+ f> to ! we/ ( ! pr9cipal range1 call$ respectively ,h>rt ,jeheyma & ,h4 ,rodwa1 almo/ ov]look ! coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea4#aj 7f47 ,age ( ! ,volcanic ,eruptions4--,x is v cle> t ! fir/ eruptions1 produc+ ! great basaltic %eets ( ,moab & ,arabia1 occurr$ aft] ! pr9cipal features ( ! c\ntry _h be5 develop$4 ,! depression ( ! ,jordan-,arabah valley1 ! elevation ( ! ea/]n side ( ?is valley along ! great fault l9e1 & ! *annels ( ! pr9cipal tribut>y /reams1 su* z ^? ( ! ,y>mk & ,z]ka ,man1 all ^! _h be5 erod$ out be=e !y 7 invad$ by ! molt5 /reams ( lava4 ,n[1 z ^! physical features 7 develop$ & sculptur$ out dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 z ,i h else:]e %[n to be ! case1#aa we may ) great probability ref] ! volcanic eruptions to ! geological epo* foll[+--namely1 ! ,plioc5e4 ,h[ f> d[nw>ds t[>ds ! hi/oric p]iod ! eruptions cont9u$ is n s c]ta94 ,dr4 ,daub5y1 quot+ sev]al passages f ! ,old ,te/am5t prophets1#ab says x might be inf]r$ t volcanoes 7 9 activity ev5 s late z to admit ( _! be+ includ$ )9 ! limits ( au!ntic hi/ory4 ,! poetic language & imag]y us$ 9 ^! passages by ! prophets c]ta9ly l5ds a probability to ?is view1 b no?+ m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^! regions h suff]$ ?r\gh _m c5turies f ! second>y effects ( seismic action & subt]ranean =ces1 & e>?quake %ocks h laid 9 ru9s ! great temples & palaces ( ,palmyra1 ,baalbec1 & o!r cities ( antiquity4 ,! same unc]ta9ty reg>d+ ! "t at :i* volcanic action di$ out1 ) ref]5ce to ! appe>ance ( man on ! sc5e1 hangs ov] ! region ( ,arabia & ,syria1 z we h se5 to be ! case 9 ref]5ce to ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ,auv]gne1 ! ,eifel1 & ! ,l[] ,rh9e4 ,9 all ^! cases ! comm5cem5t & close ( eruptive action appe> to h be5 v mu* ab\t ! same p]iod--namely1 ! ,mioc5e p]iod on ! "o h&1 & t at :i* man ent]$ ^u ! sc5e on ! o!r2 b 9 ! case ( ,syria & ,we/]n ,pale/9e1 ! close ( ! volcanic p]iod may h be5 some:at m ?an #bjjj ,b4,c4 #a ,lake ,phiala1 ne> ! ,lake ( ,huleh1 is also situat$ to ! we/ ( ! ,jordan valley4 ,its orig91 accord+ to ,tri/ram1 is volcanic4 #b ,s*uma*]1 ,! ,jauln1 ,qu>t]ly ,/atem5t ( ! ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund1 #ahhf & #ahhh2 & ,across ! ,jordan1 ,london1 #ahhf4 #c ,l>tet1 ,voyage d',exploration de la m] ,morte 7,gologie71 ,p>is1 #ahhj4 #d ,tri/ram1 ,l& ( ,moab1 ,london1 #ahgc2 & ,l& ( ,israel1 #ahff4 #e ,niebuhr1 ,bes*reibung von ,arabi51 #aggc4 #f ,c4 ,m4 ,d\ghty1 ,arabia ,des]ta1 #b vols41 #ahhh4 ,a g5]alis$ acc\nt ( ?is volcanic region by ! au?or w be f\nd 9 ! ,memoir on ! ,physical ,geology ( ,arabia ,petra1 & ,pale/9e1 ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund1 #ahhg4 #g ,s*uma*]1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bdh4 #h ,l& ( ,israel1 p4 #dfa4 #i ,geology ( ,arabia ,petra1 & ,pale/9e1 ,memoirs ( ! ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund1 p4 #ie4 #aj ,d\ghty1 loc4 cit41 vol4 i41 plate vi41 p4 #daf4 ,an excell5t geological sket* map accompanies ?is "w4 #aa ,memoir ( ! ,geology ( ,arabia ,petra1 & ,pale/9e1 *ap4 vi4 p4 #fg4 #ab ,nahum1 i4 #e1 #f2 ,micah1 i4 #c1 #d2 ,isaiah1 lxiv4 #a-c2 ,j]emiah1 l4 #be4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,regions ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica4 7a47 ,contra/ betwe5 ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,regions4--,9 no po9t is !re a m rem>kable contra/ betwe5 ! physical /ructure ( ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,am]ica ?an 9 ! abs5ce ( volcanic ph5om5a 9 ! =m] & _! prodigi\s developm5t 9 ! latt]4 ,! great valley ( ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies =ms ! divid+ t]ritory betwe5 ! volcanic & non-volcanic areas2 s t on cross+ ! high ridges 9 :i* ! we/]n tribut>ies ( ,am]ica's greate/ riv] h _! s\rces1 & to :i* ! "n ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s m prop]ly belongs1 we f9d ourselves 9 a region :i*1 ?r\gh\t ! lat] ,t]ti>y times d[n almo/ to ! pres5t day1 has be5 ! sc5e ( volcanic op]ations on ! gr&e/ scale2 :]e lava-floods h be5 p\r$ ov] ! c\ntry ?r\gh ?\s&s ( squ>e miles1 & :]e volcanic cones1 vy+ 9 magnitude ) ^? ( ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 or ,hecla1 h e/abli%$ !mselves4 ,?is region1 g5]ally kn[n z ,! ,great ,bas91 is b\nd$ on ! we/ by ! ,pacific ,range ( m\nta9s1 & includes portions ( ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 ,cali=nia1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,idaho1 ,oregon1 ,wyom+1 ,montana1 & ,wa%+ton4 ,to ! s\? x passes into ! m\nta9\s region ( ,mexico1 also highly volcanic2 & !nce into ! ridge ( ,panama & ! ,&es4 ,x _c be que/ion$ b t ! volcanic nature ( ! ,great ,bas9 is due to ! same causes :i* h orig9at$ ! volcanic outbur/s ( ! ,&es2 b1 f :atev] cause1 ! volcanic =ces h "h ent]$ ^u _! second>y or moribund /age4 ,9 ! ,yell[/one ,valley1 geys]s1 hot spr+s1 & fum>oles give evid5ce ( ?is condition4 ,9 o!r di/ricts ! lava-/reams are s fre% & unwea!r$ z to sugge/ t !y _h be5 erupt$ only a few hundr$ ye>s ago2 b no active v5t or crat] is to be f\nd ov] ! :ole ( ?is wide region4 ,a few special di/ricts only c "h be select$ by way ( illu/ration ( its special features 9 connection ) its volcanic hi/ory4 7b47 ,! ,plateau ,c\ntry ( ,utah & ,arizona4--,?is tract1 :i* is dra9$ by ! ,colorado ,riv] & its tribut>ies1 is b\nd$ on ! nor? by ! ,wahsat* range1 & ext5ds ea/w>ds to ! base ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada4 ,r\nd its m>g9 ext5sive volcanic tracts are to be f\nd1 ) num]\s peaks & truncat$ cones--! anci5t crat]s ( eruption--( :i* ,m\nt ,san ,francisco is ! culm9at+ em95ce4 ,s\? ( ! ,wahsat*1 & occupy+ ! high plateaux ( ,utah1 enorm\s masses ( volcanic products h be5 spread ov] an area ( #ijjj squ>e miles1 atta9+ a ?ickness ( betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj feet4 ,! e>li] ( ^! great lava-floods appe> to h be5 tra*ytic1 b ! lat] basaltic2 & 9 ! op9ion ( ,capta9 ,dutton1 :o has describ$ !m1 !y range 9 po9t ( "t f ! ,middle ,t]ti>y 7,mioc5e7 d[n to comp>atively rec5t times4 7c47 ,! ,gr& ,caon4--,to ! s\? ( ! high plateaux ( ,utah are _m m9or volcanic m\nta9s1 n[ ext9ct2 & z we desc5d t[>ds ! ,gr& ,caon ( ,colorado we f9d num]\s c9d]-cones scatt]$ ab\t at int]vals ne> ! cliffs4#a ,ext5sive lava-fields1 surm\nt$ by c9d]-cones1 occupy ! plateau on ! we/]n side ( ! ,gr& ,caon2 &1 accord+ to ,dutton1 ! great %eets ( basaltic lava1 ( v rec5t age1 :i* occupy _m hundr$ squ>e miles ( des]t1 h _h _! s\rces 9 ^! cones ( eruption4#b ,cross+ to ! ea/ ( ! ,gr& ,caon1 we f9d o!r lava-floods p\r$ ov] ! c\ntry at int]vals1 surm\nt$ by ,san ,francisco--a volcanic m\nta9 ( ! fir/ magnitude--:i* rea*es an elevation1 accord+ to ,:eel]1 ( #ab1efb feet above ! ocean4 ,x has long be5 ext9ct1 & its summit & flanks are cov]$ ) sn[-fields & glaci]s4 ,o!r p>ts ( ,arizona are ov]spread by %eets ( basaltic lava1 ?r\gh :i* old necks ( eruption1 =m$ ( m solid lava ?an ! %eets1 rise occasionally above ! surface1 & are prom95t features 9 ! l&scape4 ,fur!r to ! ea/w>d 9 ,new ,mexico1 & ne> ! m>g9 ( ! volcanic region1 is ano!r volcanic m\nta9 little less l(ty ?an ,san ,francisco1 call$ ,m\nt ,taylor1 :i*1 accord+ to ,dutton1 rises to an elevation ( #aa1cij feet above ! ocean1 & #hbjj feet above ! g5]al level ( ! surr\nd+ plateau ( lava4 ,?is m\nta9 =ms ! culm9at+ po9t ( a wide volcanic tract1 ov] :i* are di/ribut$ numb]less v5ts ( eruption4 ,scores ( su* v5ts--g5]ally c9d]-cones--are visible 9 e "p ( ! plateau1 & always 9 a m or less dilapidat$ condition4#c ,m\nt ,taylor is a volcano1 ) a c5tral pipe t]m9at+ 9 a l>ge crat]1 ! wall ( :i* 0 brok5 d[n on ! ea/ side 9 ! lat] /age ( its hi/ory4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4--,m\nt ,%a/a 7#ad1eaa feet71 a sn[-clad volcanic cone 9 ,cali=nia1 ) ,m\nt ,%a/9a1 a second>y crat]1 on ! "r2 ! valley betwe5 is fill$ ) glaci]-ice4--7,aft] ,dutton74 7d47 ,cali=nia4--,proce$+ we/w>ds into ,cali=nia1 we are aga9 confront$ ) volcanic ph5om5a on a /up5d\s scale4 ,! coa/ range ( m\nta9s1 :i* bran*es (f f ! ,si]ra ,nevada at ,m\nt ,p9os1 on ! s\?1 is t]m9at$ ne> ! nor!rn extremity ( ! ,/ate by a v l(ty m\nta9 ( volcanic orig91 call$ ,m\nt ,%a/a1 :i* atta9s an elevation ( #ad1eaa feet 7see ,fig4 #be74 ,?is m\nta9 0 fir/ asc5d$ by ,cl>5ce ,k+ 9 #ahgj1d & al?\gh =m+1 z x 71 a portion ( ! ,pacific ,coa/ ,range1 x really rises f ! pla9 9 solit>y gr&eur1 its summit cov]$ by sn[1 & orig9at+ sev]al f9e glaci]s4 ,! summit ( ,m\nt ,%a/a is a ne>ly p]fect cone1 b f its nor?-we/ side !re juts out a l>ge crat]-cone j bel[ ! sn[-l9e1 betwe5 :i* & ! ma9 mass ( ! m\nta9 !re exi/s a deep depression fill$ ) glaci] ice4 ,?is second>y crat]-cone has be5 nam$ ,m\nt ,%a/9a1 & r\nd its inn] side ! /ream ( glaci] ice w9ds itself1 sometimes surm\nt+ ! rim ( ! crat]1 & %oot+ d[n masses ( ice into ! great caldron4 ,! l5g? ( ?is glaci] is ab\t ?ree miles1 & its bread? ab\t #djjj feet4 ,ano!r v l(ty volcanic m\nta9 is ,m\nt ,ra9i]1 9 ! ,wa%+ton t]ritory1 consi/+ ( ?ree peaks ( :i* ! ea/]n possesses a crat] v p]fect ?r\gh\t its entire circumf]5ce4 ,?is m\nta9 appe>s to be =m$ ma9ly ( tra*ytic matt]4 ,proce$+ fur!r nor? into ,briti% t]ritory1 sev]al volcanic m\nta9s ne> ! ,pacific ,coa/ are said to exhibit evid5ce ( activity4 ,( ^! may be m5tion$ ,m\nt ,edgecombe1 9 lat4 #eg4c2 ,m\nt ,fairwea!r1 lat4 #eg4bj :i* rises to a height ( #ad1icb feet2 & ,m\nt ,/4 ,elias1 lat4 #fj4e1 j )9 ! divisional l9e betwe5 ,briti% & ,russian t]ritory1 & rea*+ an altitude ( #af1hfj feet4 ,?is1 ! l(tie/ ( all ! volcanoes ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 except ^? ( ,mexico1 may be consid]$ z ! connect+ l9k 9 ! volcanic *a9 betwe5 ! cont95t & ! ,aleutian ,isl&s4#e 7e47 ,lake ,bonneville4--,return+ to ,utah we are br\ght into contact ) ph5om5a ( special int]e/1 ow+ to ! int]-relations ( volcanic & lacu/r9e conditions :i* once prevail$ ov] l>ge tracts ( t t]ritory4 ,! pres5t ,great ,salt ,lake1 & ! small] neighb\r+ lakes1 ^? call$ ,utah & ,sevi]1 are b remnants ( an orig9ally f> great] expanse ( inl& wat]1 ! b\nd>ies ( :i* h be5 trac$ out by ,mr4 ,c4 ,k4 ,gilb]t1 & describ$ "u ! "n ( ,lake ,bonneville4#f ,! wat]s ( ?is lake appe> to h rea*$ _! highe/ level at ! p]iod ( maximum cold ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod1 :5 ! glaci]s desc5d$ to its m>g91 & l>ge /reams ( glaci] wat] 7 p\r$ into x4 ,eruptions ( basaltic lava f successive crat]s appe> to h gone on be=e1 dur+1 & aft] ! lacu/r9e epo*s2 & ! dry+ up ( ! wat]s ov] ! great] ext5t ( _! orig9al area1 n[ conv]t$ into ! ,sevi] ,des]t1 & _! conc5tration into _! pres5t comp>atively n>r[ bas9s1 appe>s to h proce$$ p>i passu ) ! gradual ext9ction ( ! volcanic outbur/s4 ,two successive epo*s ( eruption ( basalt appe> to h be5 cle>ly e/abli%$--an e>li] "o ( ! ,provo ,age1 :5 ! lava 0 extrud$ f ! ,tab]nacle crat]s1 & a lat] epo*1 :5 ! eruptions took place f ! ,ice ,spr+ crat]s4 ,! olde/ volcanic rock appe>s to be rhyolite1 :i* pe]s up 9 two small hills almo/ smo!r$ b5ea? ! lake deposits4 ,its eruption 0 long ant]ior to ! lake p]iod4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! cessation ( ! eruptions ( ! lat] basaltic %eets is evid5tly an ev5t ( su* rec5t date t ,mr4 ,gilb]t is l$ to look =w>d to _! resumption at "s future1 b n di/ant1 epo*4 ,z he truly obs]ves1 we are n to inf] t1 because ! outw>d manife/ations ( volcanic action h ceas$1 ! int]nal causes ( ^? manife/ations h pass$ away4 ,^! are /ill 9 op]ation1 & mu/ make !mselves felt :5 ! int]nal =ces h recov]$ _! exhau/$ en]gies2 b p]haps n to ! same ext5t z be=e4 7f47 ,region ( ! ,snake ,riv]4--,! tract ( c\ntry bord]+ ! ,snake ,riv] 9 ,idaho & ,wa%+ton is rem>kable = ! va/ %eets ( plateau-basalt ) :i* x is ov]spread1 ext5d+ sometimes 9 "o great flood f>!r ?an ! eye c rea*1 & :at is /ill m rem>kable1 !y are (t5 unaccompani$ by any visible crat]s or v5ts ( eruption4 ,9 ,oregon ! plateau-basalt is at lea/ #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & :]e trav]s$ by ! ,columbia ,riv] x rea*es a ?ickness ( ab\t #c1jjj feet4 ,! ,snake & ,columbia riv]s are l9$ by walls ( volcanic rock1 basaltic above1 tra*ytic bel[1 = a di/ance (1 9 ! =m]1 "o hundr$1 9 ! latt]1 two hundr$1 miles4 ,capta9 ,dutton1 9 describ+ ! ,high ,plateau ( ,utah1 obs]ves t ! lavas appe> to h well$ up 9 mighty floods )\t any ( t explosive viol5ce g5]ally *>act]i/ic ( volcanic action4 ,?is extravasat$ matt] has spread ov] wide fields1 delug+ ! surr\nd+ c\ntry l a tide 9 a bay1 & ov]fl[+ all inequalities4 ,"h also we h evid5ce ( old] volcanic cones buri$ b5ea? seas ( lava subsequ5tly extrud$4 7g47 ,fissures ( ,eruption4--,! abs5ce1 or r>ity1 ( volcanic crat]s or cones ( eruption 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ^! great %eets has l$ ,am]ican geologi/s to ! conclusion t ! lavas 7 9 _m cases extrud$ f fissures 9 ! e>?'s cru/ r ?an f ord9>y crat]s4#g ,?is view is also urg$ by ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 :o visit$ ! ,utah region ( ! ,snake ,riv] 9 #ahhj1 & has vividly describ$ ! impression produc$ by ! sight ( ^! va/ fields ( basaltic lava4 ,he says1 ,we f\nd t ! old] tra*ytic lavas ( ! hills _h be5 deeply tr5*$ by ! lat]al valleys1 & t all ^! valleys _h a floor ( black basalt t _h be5 p\r$ out z ! la/ ( ! molt5 mat]ials f ! n[ ext9ct volcanoes4 ,!re 7 no visible cones or v5ts f :i* ^! floods ( basalt c\ld h proce$$4 ,we rode = h\rs by ! m>g9 ( a va/ pla9 ( basalt /ret*+ s\?w>d & we/w>d z f> z ! eye c\ld rea*4444 ,i realis$ ! tru? ( an ass]tion made fir/ by ,ri*?(51#h t our mod]n volcanoes1 su* z ,vesuvius & ,etna1 pres5t u ) by no means ! gr&e/ type ( volcanic action1 b r belong to a "t ( fail+ activity4 ,!re h be5 p]iods ( trem5d\s volcanic en]gy1 :5 in/ead ( escap+ f a local v5t1 l a ,vesuvian cone1 ! lava has f\nd its way to ! surface by innum]able fissures op5$ = x 9 ! solid cru/ ( ! globe ov] ?\s&s ( squ>e miles4#i 7h47 ,volcanic ,hi/ory ( ,we/]n ,am]ica4--,! g5]al succession ( volcanic ev5ts ?r\gh\t ! region ( ,we/]n ,am]ica appe>s to h be5 some:at z foll[s3--#aj ,! e>lie/ volcanic eruptions occurr$ 9 ! lat] ,eoc5e epo* & 7 cont9u$ into ! succe$+ ,mioc5e /age4 ,^! consi/$ ( rocks mod]ately ri* 9 silica1 & are gr\p$ "u ! heads ( propylite & &esite4 ,to ^! succe$$ dur+ ! ,plioc5e epo* /ill m highly silicat$ rocks ( tra*ytic type1 consi/+ ( sanid9e & oligoclase tra*ytes4 ,!n came eruptions ( rhyolite dur+ ! lat] ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e epo*s2 & la/ly1 aft] a p]iod ( cessation1 dur+ :i* ! rocks j describ$ 7 greatly erod$1 came ! great eruptions ( basaltic lava1 delug+ ! pla9s1 w9d+ r\nd ! cones or plateaux ( ! old] lavas1 desc5d+ into ! riv] valleys & flood+ ! lake b$s1 issu+ =? f bo? v5ts & fissures1 & cont9u+ int]mitt5tly d[n almo/ into ! pres5t day--c]ta9ly into ! p]iod ( man's appe>ance on ! sc5e4 ,?us ! volcanic hi/ory ( ,we/]n ,am]ica corresponds rem>kably to t ( ! ,european regions ) :i* we h previ\sly dealt1 bo? z reg>ds ! succession ( ! v>i\s lavas & ! epo*s ( _! eruption4 7i47 ,! ,yell[/one ,p>k4--,! geys]s & hot spr+s ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 l ^? 9 ,icel& & ,new ,zeal&1 are special manife/ations ( volcanic action1 g5]ally 9 its second>y or moribund /age4 ,! geys]s ( ! ,yell[/one occur on a gr& scale2 ! eruptions are frequ5t1 & ! wat] is project$ into ! air to a height ( ov] #bjj feet4 ,mo/ ( ^! are int]mitt5t1 l ! rem>kable "o kn[n z ,old ,fai?ful1 ! ,ca/le ,geys]1 & ! ,giantess ,geys] describ$ by ,dr4 ,hayd51 :i* ejects ! wat] to a height ( #bej feet4 ,! geys]-wat]s hold l>ge quantities ( silica & sulphur 9 solution1 ow+ to _! high temp]ature "u great pressure1 & ^! m9]als are precipitat$ ^u ! cool+ ( ! wat]s 9 ! air1 & =m circul> bas9s1 (t5 gorge\sly t9t$ ) r$ & yell[ col\rs4#aa #a ,j4 ,w4 ,p[ell1 ,exploration ( ! ,caons ( ! ,colorado1 pp4 #aad1 #aif4 ,major ,p[ell describes a fault or fissure ?r\gh :i* floods ( lava h be5 =c$ up f b5ea? & h be5 p\r$ ov] ! surface4 ,_m c9d]-cones are plant$ along ! l9e ( ?is fissure4 #b ,capt4 ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton4 ,six? ,ann4 ,rep4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #ahhd-he4 #c ,dutton1 loc4 cit41 *ap4 iv4 p4 #afe4 #d ,am]4 ,j\r4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #c41 s]4 7#ahga74 ,a beautiful map ( ?is m\nta9 is giv5 9 ! ,fif? ,annual ,report1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #ahhc-hd4 ,plate #dd4 #e ,daub5y1 loc4 cit41 p4 #dgd4 #f ,gilb]t1 ,monograph ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 vol4 i4 7#ahij74 #g ,p[ell1 ,exploration ( ! ,colorado ,riv]1 p4 #agg1 etc4 7#ahge74 ,hayd51 ,rep4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ( ! ,colorado1 etc4 7#ahga-hj74 #h ,ri*?(51 ,natural ,sy/em ( ,volcanic ,rocks1 ,mem4 ,cali=nia ,acad4 ,sci5ces1 vol4 i4 7#ahfh74 #i ,geikie1 ,geological ,sket*es at ,home & ,abroad1 p4 #bga 7#ahhb74 #aj ,pre/wi*1 ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgj1 quot+ f ,ri*?(54 #aa ,! orig9 ( geys]s is v>i\sly expla9$2 see ,pre/wi*1 ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #agj4 ,!y are probably due to heat$ wat]s sudd5ly conv]t$ into /eam by contact ) rock at a high temp]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,new ,,zeal&4 ,"o o!r region ( volcanic action rema9s to be notic$ be=e pass+ on to ! consid]ation ( ^? ( less rec5t age4 ,new ,zeal& is an isl& :]e9 seem to be conc5trat$ all ! ph5om5a ( volcanic action ( pa/ & pres5t "t4 ,?\gh x is d\btful if ! t]m active1 9 its full s5se1 c be appli$ to any ( ! exi/+ crat]s 7) two or ?ree exceptions1 su* z ,tong>iro & ,:ak>i ,isl&71 we f9d crat]s & cones 9 great numb]s 9 p]fectly fre% condition1 ext5sive %eets ( tra*ytic & basaltic lavas1 a%es1 & agglom]ates2 lava-floods desc5d+ f ! ruptur$ crat]s ( a%es & scori2 old crat]-bas9s conv]t$ into lakes2 geys]s1 hot spr+s & fum>oles :i* may be c\nt$ by hundr$s1 & cat>acts break+ ov] b>ri]s ( silice\s s9t]2 &1 la/ly1 l(ty volcanic m\nta9s vy+ 9 magnitude ) ,vesuvius & ,etna4 ,all ^! wond]ful exhibitions ( moribund volcanic action seem to be conc5trat$ 9 ! nor!rn isl& ( ,auckl&4 ,! s\!rn isl&1 :i* is ! l>g]1 also has its natural attractions1 b !y are ( a diff]5t k9d2 *ief ( all is ! gr& range ( m\nta9s call$1 n inappropriately1 ! ,s\!rn ,alps1 vy+ ) its ,european repres5tative 9 ! l(t9ess ( its peaks & ! spl5d\r ( its sn[fields & glaci]s1 b =m$ ( m anci5t & solid rocks ?an ^? ( ! nor!rn isl&4 7a47 ,auckl& ,di/rict4--,we are indebt$ to sev]al naturali/s = our k ( ! volcanic regions ( ,new ,zeal&1 b *iefly to ,f]d9& von ,ho*/ett]1 ^: beautiful maps & graphic descriptions leave no?+ to be desir$4#a ,9 ?is "w ,ho*/ett] 0 assi/$ by ,julius ,haa/ & ,sir ,j4 ,hector4 ,f _! acc\nt we le>n t ! ,i/hmus ( ,auckl& is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable volcanic di/ricts 9 ! _w4 ,x is *>act]is$ by a l>ge numb] ( ext9ct c9d]-cones1 9 a great] or less p]fect /ate ( pres]vation1 & giv+ orig9 to lava-/reams :i* h p\r$ d[n ! sides ( ! hills on to ! pla9s4 ,besides ^! are o!rs =m$ ( /ratifi$ tuff1 ) int]ior crat]s1 surr\nd+ 9 mural cliffs eruptive cones ( scori1 a%es1 & lapilli2 ^! cones are scatt]$ ov] ! i/hmus & %ores ( ,waitemata & ,manukau4 ,! tuff cones & crat]s rise f a floor ( ,t]ti>y s&/one & %ale1 ! horizontal /rata ( :i* are laid op5 9 ! precipit\s bluffs ( ,waitemata & ,manukau h>b\rs2 !y sometimes conta9 fossil %ells ( ! g5]a ,pect51 ,nucula1 ,c>dium1 ,turbo1 & ,n]it4 ,z ! volcanic tuff-b$s are int]m+l$ ) ! ,upp] ,t]ti>y /rata1 x is inf]r$ t ! fir/ outbur/s ( volcanic =ces occurr$ :5 ! region 0 /ill b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,cross-sections %[ t ! diff]5t lay]s slope bo? outw>ds 7p>allel to ! sides7 & inw>ds t[>ds ! bottom ( ! crat]s4 ,sometimes ^! crat]s h be5 conv]t$ into lakes1 z 9 ! case ( ^? ( ! ,eifel2 b g5]ally !y are dry or h a floor ( morass4 ,( ! crat]-lakes1 ^? ( ,kohuora1 five 9 numb]1 are p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable2 & 9 ! case ( two ( ^! ! c5tral cones ( slag appe> z islets ris+ f ! surface ( ! wat]s4 ,! fre%-wat] lake ,pupuka has a dep? ( tw5ty-eight fa?oms4 ,to ! nor? ( ,auckl& ,h>b\r rises out ( ! wat]s ( ! ,hauraki ,gulf ! cone ( ,rangitoto1 #ibj feet high1 ! flanks =m$ ( rugg$ /reams ( basalt1 & ! summit cr[n$ by a circul> crat] ( slag & a%1 out ( ! c5tre ( :i* rises a second cone ) ! v5t ( eruption4 ,?is is ! l>ge/ & newe/ ( ! ,auckl& volcanoes1 & appe>s to h be5 built up by successive outp\r+s ( basaltic lava f ! c5tral orifice1 aft] ! g5]al elevation ( ! isl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,=ms ( volcanic tuff cones1 ) _! cross-sections1 9 ! ,prov9ce ( ,auckl&4--,no4 #a4 ,simple tuff cone ) c5tral crat]2 ,no4 #b4 ,out] tuff cone ) int]ior c9d] cone & crat]2 ,no4 #c4 ,! same ) lava-/ream issu+ f ! int]ior cone4--7,aft] ,ho*/ett]47 ,be=e leav+ ! description ( ! tuff-cones1 :i* are a peculi> feature 9 ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ,new ,zeal&1 & are ( _m =ms & v>ieties1 we mu/ ref] to t ( ,m\nt ,well+ton 7,maunga ,rei74 ,?is is a comp\nd volcano1 9 :i* ! olde/ & smalle/ ( ! gr\p is a tuff-crat]-cone1 exhibit+ v beautifully ! outw>d slope ( its b$s4 ,)9 ?is crat] arise two cones ( c9d]s1 ea* ) small crat]s4 ,x w\ld appe> t aft] a long int]val ! l>g] ( ! two pr9cipal cones1 =m$ ( c9d]s & kn[n z ,m\nt ,well+ton1 bur/ =? f ! s\!rn m>g9 ( ! old] tuff-cone1 &1 be+ built up to a height ( #hej feet1 gradually ov]spread ! sides ( its old] neighb\r4 ,m\nt ,well+ton itself has ?ree crat]s1 & f ^! l>ge /reams ( basaltic lava h issu$ =? 9 a we/]ly direction1 :ile a bran* ent]$ & p>tially fill$ ! old tuff-crat] to ! nor?w>ds4 ,s\?w>ds f ,manukau ,h>b\r1 & ext5d+ a %ort di/ance f ! coa/-l9e to ,t>anaki ,po9t1 !re occurs a plateau ( basalt-conglom]ate 7,basaltkonglom]at71 ) %eets ( basaltic lava ov]spread+ ! ,t]ti>y /rata4 ,^! plateau-basalts are int]sect$ by eruptive masses 9 ! =m ( dykes1 b /ill !re are no crat]s or cones ( eruption to be se52 s t we may inf] t ! %eets1 at lea/1 7 extrud$ f fissures 9 ! mann] ( ^? ( ! ,colorado or ,idaho regions ( ,am]ica4 ,proce$+ /ill fur!r s\? into ! int]ior ( ! isl&1 we "h f9d a l(ty plateau ( an av]age elevation ( #b1jjj feet1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! ,t]ti>y b$s ( ! ,upp] & ,middle ,waikato1 & =m$ ( tra*ytic & pit*-/one tuff1 among/ :i* arise old ext9ct volcanic cones1 su* z ^? ( ,k>ioi1 ,pirongia1 ,kakepuku1 ,maunga ,taut>i1 ,aroha1 & _m o!rs4 ,^! tra*ytic lavas w\ld seem to be m anci5t ?an ! basaltic1 previ\sly describ$4 7b47 ,taupo ,lake1 & surr\nd+ di/rict4--,b ( all ^! volcanic di/ricts1 none is m rem>kable ?an t surr\nd+ ! ,taupo ,lake1 :i* lies amid/ ! ,t]ti>y /rata ( ! ,upp] ,waikato ,bas94 ,! surface ( ?is lake is #a1bej feet above t ( ! ocean1 & its m>g9 is enclos$ )9 a bord] ( rhyolite & pit*/one--ris+ into a mass ( ! same mat]ial #a1hjj feet high on ! ea/]n side4 ,! =m ( ! lake does n sugge/ t x is itself ! crat] ( a volcano1 b r t x 0 orig9at$ by subsid5ce4 ,on all sides1 h[ev]1 tra*ytic cones arise1 ( :i* ! mo/ rem>kable gr\p lies to ! s\? ( ! lake1 j 9 front ( ! two giant tra*ytic cones1 ! l(tie/ 9 ,new ,zeal&1 "o call$ ,tong>iro1 ris+ ab\t #f1ejj feet1 & ! o!r ,ruapahu1 :i* atta9s an elevation ( ov] #i1jjj feet1 ) ! summit capp$ by sn[4 ,^! two l(ty cones1 /&+ side by side1 are suppos$ by ! ,maoris to be ! husb& & wife to :om 7 born ! gr\p ( small] cones above ref]r$ to z occupy+ ! s\!rn %ore ( ,taupo ,lake4 ,! volcano ( ,tong>iro may /ill be consid]$ z 9 a /ate ( activity1 z its two crat]s 7,ngauruhoe & ,ketetahi7 con/antly emit /eam1 & sev]al solfat>as break out on its flanks4#b 7c47 ,roto ,mahana4--,9 a nor!rly direction f ,tong>iro1 & di/ant f ! coa/ by a few miles1 lies 9 ! ,bay ( ,pl5ty ! second ( ! active volcanoes ( ,new ,zeal&1 ! volcanic isl& ( ,:ak>i 7,:ite ,isl&71 f ! crat] ( :i* are con/antly erupt$ va/ masses ( /eam cl\ds4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ^! two active crat]s is #abj nautical miles2 & along ! tract jo9+ !m /eam-jets & geys]s issue =? f ! deep fissures ?r\gh :i* ! lava %eets h =m]ly be5 extrud$4 ,num]\s lakes also occupy ! l>g] cavities 9 ! gr\nd2 & hot-spr+s1 /eam-fum>oles & solfat>as bur/ out 9 great numb]s along ! banks ( ! ,roto ,mahana ,lake & ! ,kaiwaka ,riv] by :i* x is dra9$4 ,among/ su* eruptions ( hot-wat] & /eam we might expect ! =mation ( silice\s s9t]1 & ! deposition ( sulphur & o!r m9]als2 nor w our expectations be disappo9t$4 ,= "h we h ! wond]ful t]races ( silice\s s9t] deposit$ by ! wat]s ent]+ ,roto ,mahana z !y desc5d f ! num]\s hot-spr+s or pools ne> its m>g94 ,all travell]s concur 9 describ+ ^! t]races z ! mo/ wond]ful ( all ! wond]s ( ! ,lake di/rict ( ,new ,zeal&--s great is _! ext5t1 & s ri* & v>i$ is _! col\r+4 ,! beautiful map ( ,roto ,mahana on an enl>g$ scale by ,ho*/ett] %[s no few] ?an t5 l>ge s9t] t]races desc5d+ t[>ds ! m>g9 ( ?is lake1 besides sev]al mud-spr+s1 fum>oles1 & solfat>as4 ,b ! l>ge/ & mo/ celebrat$ ( all ! s9t] t]races has )9 ! la/ few ye>s be5 buri$ f view b5ea? a flood ( volcanic trass1 or mud1 an ev5t :i* 0 z unexpect$ z x 0 unwelcome4 ,9 ,may1 #ahhg1 ! m\nta9 ( ,t>aw]a1 :i* rises to ! nor?-ea/ ( ,roto ,mahana1 & on ! l9e ( eruption above describ$1 sudd5ly bur/ =? into viol5t activity1 cov]+ ! c\ntry = miles ar\nd ) cl\ds ( a%es1 &1 p\r+ d[n torr5ts ( mud1 completely envelop$ ! beautiful t]race ( s9t] :i* _h previ\sly be5 "o ( ! wond]s ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,by ! same eruption sev]al human be+s 7 entomb$1 & _! resid5ces de/roy$4 ,! wat]s ( ,roto ,mahana1 toge!r ) ! hot-spr+s & f\nta9s are f$ f ra91 & f ! wat]s ( ,taupo ,lake1 :i*1 s9k+ ?r\gh fissures 9 ! gr\nd1 come 9 contact ) ! int]ior heat$ matt]1 & ?us /eam at high temp]ature & pressure is g5]at$4#c 7d47 ,moribund condition ( ,new ,zeal& ,volcanoes4--,f :at has be5 said1 x w be inf]r$ t 9 ! case ( ,new ,zeal&1 z 9 ^? ( ,auv]gne1 ! ,eifel & ,l[] ,rh9e1 ,arabia1 & ,we/]n ,am]ica1 we h an example ( a region :]e9 ! volcanic =ces are well-nigh sp5t1 b 9 :i* !y 7 9 a /ate ( extraord9>y activity ?r\gh\t ! lat] ,t]ti>y1 d[n to ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t epo*4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! cases ! second>y ph5om5a ( vulcanicity are abundantly manife/2 b ! great exhibitions ( igne\s action1 :5 ! pla9s 7 deva/at$ by %eets ( lava1 & cones & crat]s 7 pil$ up ?r\gh hundr$s & ?\s&s ( feet1 h = ! pres5t1 at lea/1 pass$ away4 #a ,geol4-topographis*] ,atlas von ,neu-,seel&1 von ,dr4 ,f]d4 von ,ho*/ett] und ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,go?a3 ,ju/us ,p]!s 7#ahfc74 ,also ,new ,zeal&1 trans4 by ,e4 ,saut]1 ,/uttg>t 7#ahfg74 #b ,tong>iro 0 visit$ 9 #ahea by ,mr4 ,h4 ,dyson1 :o describes ! eruption ( /eam4 #c ,mr4 ,fr\de figures & describes ! two t]races1 ! ,:ite & ,p9k1 9 ,oceana1 #bnd edition1 pp4 #bhe-bia4 ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,t]ti>y ,,volcanic ,,di/ricts ,,( ,,! ,,briti% ,,isles4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,antrim4 ,x is an easy transition to pass f ! consid]ation ( ,european & o!r dormant1 or ext9ct1 volcanic regions to ^? ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ?\gh ! volcanic =ces may h become 9 ?is latt] in/ance quiesc5t = a some:at long] p]iod4 ,9 all ! cases we h be5 consid]+1 :e!r ^? ( ,c5tral ,italy1 ( ! ,rh9e & ,moselle1 ( ,auv]gne1 or ( ,syria & ,arabia1 ! cones & crat]s ( eruption are g5]ally pres5t entire1 or b slightly modifi$ 9 =m & size by ! effects ( "t4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! ,t]ti>y volcanic di/ricts ( ! ,briti% ,isles ?is is n s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ^! m prom95t features ( vulcanicity ov] ! surface ( ! gr\nd h be5 remov$ by ! ag5ts ( d5udation1 & our obs]vations are conf9$ to ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by ext5sive %eets ( lava & b$s ( a%1 or ! /umps & necks ( =m] v5ts ( eruption1 toge!r ) dykes ( trap by :i* ! plateau-lavas are ev]y:]e trav]s$ or int]sect$4 ,! volcanic region ( ! ,briti% ,isles ext5ds at int]vals f ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& ?r\gh ! ,isl& ( ,mull & adjo9+ di/ricts on ! ma9l& ( ,morv]n & ,ardnamur*an into ! ,isle ( ,skye1 & comprises sev]al small] islets2 ! :ole be+ includ$ 9 ! g5]al "n ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,x is d\btful if ! volcanic lavas ( ,co4 ,antrim 7 ev] physically connect$ ) ^? ( ! we/ ( ,scotl&1 ?\gh !y may be consid]$ z contempor>y ) !m2 & 9 all cases ! exi/+ tracts ( volcanic rock are m]e fragm5ts ( ^? orig9ally =m$ by ! extrusion ( lavas f v5ts ( eruption4 ,9 addition to ^!1 !re are l>ge areas ( volcanic rock ov]spread by ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 7a47 ,geological ,age4--,! ,briti% volcanic eruptions n[ "u consid]ation are all lat] ?an ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,?r\gh\t ,antrim1 & 9 p>ts ( ,mull1 ! lavas are f\nd re/+ on highly erod$ faces ei!r ( ! ,upp] ,*alk 7,fig4 #bg71 or1 :]e x has be5 altoge!r d5ud$ away1 on /ill old] ,mesozoic /rata4 ,f ! relations ( ! basaltic %eets ( ,antrim to ! ,upp] ,*alk1 x is cle> t ! latt] =mation1 aft] its deposition b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! ,cretace\s seas1 0 elevat$ into dry l& & expos$ to a long p]iod ( subarial erosion be=e ! fir/ %eets ( lava invad$ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,we are1 !re=e1 tol]ably safe 9 consid]+ ! fir/ eruptions to belong to ! ,t]ti>y p]iod2 b ! evid5ce1 d]iv$ z x is exclusively f plant rema9s1 is some:at conflict+ z to ! precise epo* to :i* ! lavas & b$s ( tuff conta9+ ! plant-rema9s are to be ref]r$4 ,! probabilities appe> to be t !y are ( ,mioc5e age2 & if s1 ! tra*ytic lavas1 :i* 9 ,antrim are old] ?an ^? conta9+ plants1 may be ref]r$ to a /ill e>li] epo*--namely1 t ( ! ,eoc5e4#a ,z plant rema9s are n v di/9ctive1 ! "q reg>d+ ! exact "t ( ! fir/ volcanic eruptions w probably rema9 = ev] undecid$2 b we are n likely to be mu* 9 error if we consid] ! entire volcanic p]iod to range f ! close ( ! ,eoc5e to t ( ! ,mioc5e2 by f> ! great] mass ( ! volcanic rocks be+ ref]able to ! latt] epo*4 ,9 describ+ ! ,briti% volcanic di/ricts x w be mo/ conv5i5t to deal ) !m 9 ?ree divisions--viz41 ^? ( ,antrim1 ,mull1 & ,skye1 comm5c+ ) ,antrim4#b 7b47 ,volcanic ,area4--,! great %eets ( basalt & o!r volcanic products ( ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& ov]spread almo/ ! :ole ( ! ,c\nty ,antrim1 & adjo9+ di/ricts ( ,londond]ry & ,tyrone1 break+ (f 9 a f9e mural esc>pm5t along ! nor!rn %ore ( ,belfa/ ,l\gh & ! sea coa/ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( its range f ,l>ne ,h>b\r to ,l\gh ,foyle2 ! only direction 9 :i* ^! features subside into ! g5]al level ( ! c\ntry be+ ar\nd ! %ores ( ,l\gh ,neagh4 ,sev]al outli]s ( ! volcanic %eets are to be f\nd at int]vals ar\nd ! great c5tral plateau2 su* z ^? ( ,ra?l9 ,isl&1 ,isl& ,magee1 & ,scrabo ,hill 9 ,co4 ,d[n4 ,! area ( ! basaltic plateau may be r\ghly e/imat$ at #b1jjj squ>e miles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,! ,:ite ,rocks1 ,portru%1 ,co4 ,antrim1 %[+ ! plateau-basalt re/+ on an erod$ surface ( ! ,upp] ,*alk1 ) b&s ( fl9t4--7,f a photograph47 ,! truncat$ edges ( ?is m>g9al esc>pm5t ris+ to levels ( #a1jjj to #a1bfj feet1 z 9 ! case ( ,b5ev5agh 9 ,co4 ,d]ry1 & #a1hbe feet at ,mullaghmore1 atte/ an orig9ally greatly m ext5d$ range ( ! basaltic %eets2 & x is n improbable t at ! close ( ! ,mioc5e epo* !y ext5d$ "r across ! pres5t e/u>y ( ,l\gh ,foyle to ! flanks ( ! m\nta9s ( ,ini%[5 9 ,donegal 9 "o direction1 & to ^? ( ,slieve ,croob 9 ! o!r4 ,9 ! direction ( ,scotl& ! promontories ( ,k9tyre & ,islay d\btless =m$ a "p ( ! orig9al m>g94 ,?r\gh\t ?is va/ area ! volcanic lavas re/ on an exce$+ly v>i$ rocky floor1 bo? z reg>ds composition & geological age4 7,see ,fig4 #bh47 ,?r\gh\t ! c5tral1 s\!rn1 ea/]n1 & nor!rn p>ts ( _! ext5t1 ! ,*alk =mation may be consid]$ to =m ?is floor2 b 9 ! direction ( ,armagh & ,tyrone1 t[>ds ! s\?we/]n m>g91 ! basaltic %eets are f\nd re/+ indiscrim9ately on ,silurian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 & ,triassic /rata4 ,! g5]al relations ( ! plateau-basalts to ! und]ly+ =mations %[1 t at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod !re _h be5 consid]able t]re/rial di/urbances & great subarial d5udation1 result+ 9 "s cases 9 ! complete de/ruction ( ! :ole ( ! ,cretace\s /rata1 be=e ! lava floods 7 p\r$ out2 ow+ to :i*1 ^! latt] are f\nd re/+ on =mations ( old] date ?an ! ,cretace\s4#c ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,section across ! volcanic plateau ( ,antrim1 f ! ,highl&s ( ,ini%[51 ,co4 ,donegal1 on ! ,n4,w41 to ,belfa/ ,l\gh on ! ,s4,e41 to %[ ! relations ( ! volcanic rocks to ! old] =mations4--,b4 ,basaltic %eets break+ (f 9 high esc>pm5ts2 ,t4 ,tra*yte porphyry ( ,t>dree m\nta9 ris+ f bel[ ! new] plateau-basalts2 ,c4 ,upp] ,*alk ) fl9ts2 ,n4,r4 ,new ,r$ m>l & s&/one 7,trias72 ,m4 ,metamorphic b$s ( qu>tzite1 v>i\s s*i/s & cry/all9e lime/one2 ,f4 ,l>ge fault4 #a ,mr4 ,j4 ,/>kie ,g>dn]1 f a rec5t comp>ison ( ! plant-rema9s ( ,antrim & ,mull1 concludes t t !y might belong to any age betwe5 ! beg9n+ & ! end ( ! w>m] ,eoc5e p]iod2 & t !y _c be ( e>li]1 & are unlikely to be ( lat]1 date4--,trans4 ,palont4 ,soc41 vol4 xxxvii4 7#ahhc74 #b ,hav+ dealt ) ?is di/rict r fully 9 ,! ,physical ,geology & ,geography ( ,irel& 7,edit4 #ahia1 p4 #ha71 & also 9 my ,presid5tial ,address 7,section ,c47 at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association1 #ahgd1 a brief review ( ! subject w be suffici5t "h1 ! read] be+ ref]r$ to ! =m] treatises = full] details4 ,! foll[+ %\ld also be consult$3 ,g54 ,portlock1 ,geology ( ,londond]ry & ,tyrone 7#ahdc72 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 ,hi/ory ( ,volcanic ,action dur+ ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahhh2 & ! ,descriptive ,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey relat+ to ?is tract ( c\ntry4 #c ,ow+ to ! sup]position ( ! basaltic masses on b$s ( *alk ?r\gh\t a long l9e ( coa/1 we are pres5t$ ) ! curi\s spectacle ( ! :ite/ rocks 9 nature ov]la9 by ! blacke/1 z may be se5 9 ! cliffs at ,l>ne1 ,gl5>m1 ,k9bane & ,portru%4 7,see ,fig4 #bg47 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,succession ,,( ,,volcanic ,,eruptions4 7c47 ,fir/ ,/age4--,! e>lie/ eruptions ( lava 9 ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& belong$ to ! highly acid v>ieties1 consi/+ ( qu>tz-tra*yte ) tridymite4#a ,?is rock rises to ! surface at ,t>dree & ,br[n ,dod hills & ,templepatrick4 ,x consi/s ( a light-greyi% felsitic pa/e enclos+ gra9s ( smoke-qu>tz1 cry/als ( sanid9e1 plagioclase & biotite1 ) a little magnetite & apatite4 ,x is a rock ( peculi> int]e/ f ! fact t x is almo/ unique 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 & has its petrological c\nt]p>t r among/ ! volcanic hills ( ! ,sieb5gebirge ?an else:]e4 ,x is g5]ally consolidat$ ) ! column> /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,"p ( ! section %[n 9 ! qu>ry at ,templepatrick1 %[+ ! sup]position ( ! basalt 7d7 to ! tra*yte 7b71 ) ! int]v5+ b$ ( fl9t gravel 7c74 ,all ^! rocks are se5 to re/ ^u an erod$ surface ( ! ,*alk =mation 7a74 ,! tra*yte appe>s to h be5 extrud$ f "o or m v5ts 9 a visc\s condition1 ! pr9cipal v5t be+ probably situat$ "u ,t>dree m\nta91 :]e ! rock occurs 9 greate/ mass1 & x probably arose z a dome-%ap$ mass1 ) a some:at ext5d$ m>g91 above ! floor ( ,*alk :i* =m$ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4#b 7,fig4 #bg47 ,at ,templepatrick ! column> tra*yte may be obs]v$ re/+ on ! ,*alk1 or ^u a lay] ( fl9t gravel int]pos$ betwe5 ! two rocks1 & :i* has be5 ?ru/ out ( position by a lat] intrusion ( basalt com+ 9 f ! side4#c ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! tra*ytic lavas n[h]e appe> cropp+ out along ) ! %eets ( basalt ar\nd ! esc>pm5ts ov]look+ ! sea1 or inl&2 %[+ t !y did n spread v f> f _! v5ts ( eruption2 a fact illu/rat+ ! l[] viscosity1 or fluidity1 ( ! acid lavas z comp>$ ) ^? ( ! basic type4 7d47 ,second ,/age4--,aft] an int]val1 probably ( long duration1 a second eruption ( volcanic matt] took place ov] ! entire area2 b n[ ! acid lavas ( ! fir/ /age are replac$ by basic lavas4 ,n[1 = ! fir/ "t1 va/ masses ( basalt & dol]ite are extrud$ bo? f v5ts ( eruption & fissures2 &1 ow+ to _! extreme viscosity1 spread !mselves f> & wide until !y rea* ! m>g9 ( "s upris+ gr\nd ( old ,palozoic or ,metamorphic rocks by :i* ! volcanic pla9 is almo/ surr\nd$4 ,! great lava %eets ?us produc$ are g5]ally m or less amorph\s1 vesicul> & amygdaloidal1 (t5 exhibit+ ! globul> conc5tric /ructure1 & wea!r+ rapidly to a k9d ( f]rug9\s s& or clay "u ! influ5ce ( ! atmosph]e4 ,successive extrusions ( ^! lavas produce successive b$s1 :i* are pil$ "o ov] ! o!r 9 "s places to a dep? ( #fjj feet2 & at ! close ( ! /age1 :5 ! volcanic =ces _h = ! "t exhau/$ !mselves1 ! :ole ( ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& mu/ h pres5t$ an aspect n unlike t ( "o ( ^? great tracts ( simil> lava 9 ! region ( ,idaho & ! ,snake ,riv] 9 ,we/]n ,am]ica1 describ$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 7e47 ,?ird ,/age 7,int]-volcanic74--,! ?ird /age may be describ$ z int]-volcanic4 ,ow+ to ! =mation ( a bas91 probably n deep1 & ) g5tly slop+ sides1 a l>ge lake 0 =m$ ov] ! c5tre ( ! area above describ$4 ,its floor 0 basalt1 & ! /reams f ! surr\nd+ upl&s c>ri$ d[n leaves & /ems ( trees1 /rew+ !m ov] its b$4 ,occasionally eruptions ( a% took place f small v5ts1 =m+ ! a%-b$s ) plants f\nd at ,ballypallidy1 ,gl5>m1 & along ! coa/ z at ,c>rick-a-raide4 ,! /reams also br\ght d[n s& & gravel f ! upris+ domes ( tra*yte1 & deposit$ !m ov] ! lake-b$ along ) ! erupt$ a%es4#d ,! epo* we are n[ ref]r+ to 0 "o ( economic importance2 z1 t[>ds its close1 !re 0 an ext5sive deposition ( pisolitic iron-ore ov] ! floor ( ! lake1 sometimes to ! dep? ( two or ?ree feet4 ,?is ore has be5 ext5sively work$ 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,cliff section above ! ,giant's ,causeway1 coa/ ( ,co4 ,antrim1 %[+ successive ti]s ( basaltic lava1 ) int]v5+ b&s ( bole4 7f47 ,f\r? ,/age 7,volcanic74--,! la/ /age describ$ 0 br\ght to a t]m9ation by a second outbur/ ( basic lavas on a scale probably ev5 gr&] ?an ! prec$+4 ,^! lavas consi/+ ( basalt & dol]ite1 ) _! v>ieties1 & extrud$ f v5ts & fissures1 spread !mselves 9 all directions ov] ! pre-exi/+ lake deposits or ! old] %eets ( augitic lava1 & probably entirely buri$ ! tra*ytic hills4 ,^! lat] %eets solidifi$ into m solid masses ?an ^? ( ! second /age4 ,!y =m successive t]races ) column> /ructure1 ea* t]race diff]+ f t above & bel[ x 9 ! size & l5g? ( ! columns1 & sep>at$ by ?9 b&s ( bole 7decompos$ lava71 (t5 r$di% 9 col\r1 cle>ly def9+ ! limits ( ! successive lava-fl[s4 ,n[h]e ?r\gh\t ! entire volcanic area are ^! successive t]races s f9ely laid op5 to view z along ! nor? coa/ ( ,antrim1 :]e ! l(ty mural cliffs1 worn back into successive bays ) int]v5+ headl&s by ! irresi/ible =ce ( ! ,atlantic waves1 pres5t to ! spectator a v]tical section f #cjj to #djj feet 9 height1 9 :i* ! successive ti]s ( column> basalt1 sep>at$ by ?9 b&s ( bole1 are se5 to rise "o above ! o!r f ! wat]'s edge to ! summit ( ! cliff1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cj4 ,"h1 also1 at ! we/]n extremity ( ! l9e ( cliffs we f9d t rem>kable gr\p ( v]tical basaltic columns1 /ret*+ f ! base ( ! cliff into ! ,atlantic1 & kn[n f> & wide by ! "n ( ,! ,giant's ,causeway1 ! upp] ends ( ! columns =m+ a tol]ably level surface1 g5tly slop+ seaw>ds1 & hav+ v mu* ! aspect ( an artificial tesselat$ pavem5t on a huge scale4 ,a portion ( ! ,causeway1 ) ! cliff 9 ! backgr\nd1 is %[n 9 ! figure 7,fig4 #ca74 ,! columns are rem>kable = _! symmetry1 be+ g5]ally hexagonal1 ?\gh occasionally !y are p5tagons1 & ea* column is horizontally trav]s$ by jo9ts ( ! ball-&-socket =m1 ?us divid+ !m into di/9ct c\rses ( natural masonry4 ,^! are v well %[n 9 ! accompany+ view ( ! rem>kable basaltic pill>s kn[n z ,! ,*imneys1 :i* /& up f ! m>g9 ( ! headl& adjo9+ ! ,causeway1 monum5ts ( pa/ d5udation1 z !y orig9ally =m$ individuals among/ ! gr\p belong+ to "o ( ! t]races 9 ! adjo9+ coa/4#e 7,fig4 #cb74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,! ,giant's ,causeway1 =m$ ( basaltic columns 9 a v]tical position1 & ( p5tagonal or hexagonal section2 above ! ,causeway is se5 a portion ( ! cliff compos$ ( ti]s ( lava ) int]v5+ b&s ( bole1 etc4--7,f a photograph47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,! ,*imneys1 columns ( basalt on slope ( cliff ov]look+ ! ,atlantic1 nor? coa/ ( ,co4 ,antrim4 ,! horizontal segm5ts1 or cup-&-ball jo9ts1 ( ! columns are well %[n 9 ?is figure4 7,f a photograph47 7g47 ,orig9al ,?ickness ( ! ,antrim ,lavas4--,x is impossible to det]m9e ) c]ta9ty :at may h be5 ! orig9al ?ickness ( ! accumulat$ %eets ( basic lavas ) _! associat$ b$s ( a% & bole4 ,! greate/ kn[n ?ickness ( ! l[] zone ( lavas is1 z ,i h already /at$1 ab\t #fjj feet4 ,! int]m$iate b$s ( a% & bole sometimes atta9 a ?ickness ( #dj feet1 & ! upp] gr\p ( basalt ab\t #djj feet2 ^! toge!r w\ld con/itute a s]ies ( ov] #a1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,b ?is am\nt1 great z x is1 is und\bt$ly bel[ ! orig9al maximum1 z ! upp]mo/ %eets h be5 remov$ by d5ud+ ag5cies1 we "k n to :at ext5t4 ,nor is x ( any great importance4 ,suffici5t rema9s to enable u to =m a j conception ( ! magnitude bo? z reg>ds ?ickness & ext5t ( ! erupt$ matt] ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod ov] ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& & adjo9+ subm]g$ tracts1 & ( ! magnitude ( ! volcanic op]ations necess>y = ! production ( su* masses4 7h47 ,volcanic ,necks4--,z already rem>k$1 no crat]s ( eruption survive ?r\gh\t ! volcanic region ( ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&1 ow+ to ! enorm\s ext5t ( ! d5udation :i* ?is region has und]gone s9ce ! ,mioc5e ,epo*2 b ! old necks ( su* crat]s--9 o!r words1 ! pipes fill$ ) ei!r solid basalt1 or basalt & a%es--are /ill to be f\nd at int]vals ov] ! :ole area4 ,ow+ to ! great] solidity ( ! lava :i* fill$ up ^! necks ov] ! plateau-basaltic %eets :i* surr\nd !m1 !y appe> z bosses or hills ris+ above ! g5]al level ( ! gr\nd4 ,"o ( ^! bosses ( highly column> basalt occurs betwe5 ,portru% & ,bu%mills1 n f> f ,dunluce ,ca/le1 ano!r at ,scawt ,hill1 ne> ,gl5>m1 & a ?ird at ,c>money ,hill above ,belfa/ ,l\gh4 ,b by f> ! mo/ prom95t ( ^! old solidifi$ v5ts ( eruption is t ( ,sleami%1 a conspicu\s m\nta9 :i* rises above ! g5]al level ( ! plateau ne> ,ballym5a1 & atta9s an elevation ( #a1dcg feet above ! sea4 ,se5 f ! we/1 ! m\nta9 has ! appe>ance ( a r\nd-topp$ cone2 b on exam9ation x is f\nd to be 9 reality a huge dyke1 break+ (f abruptly t[>ds ! nor?-we/1 9 :i* direction x rea*es its greate/ height1 !n slop+ d[nw>ds t[>ds ! ea/4 ,?is =m sugge/s t ,sleami% is 9 reality "o ( ! fissure-v5ts ( eruption r ?an ! neck ( an old volcano4 ,! rock ( :i* x is =m$ consi/s ( exce$+ly massive1 co>sely-cry/all9e dol]ite1 ri* 9 oliv9e1 & divid$ into l>ge quadrangul> blocks by p>allel jo9t planes4 ,its junction ) ! plateau-basalt f :i* x rises c n[h]e be se52 b at ! ne>e/ po9t :]e ! two rocks are traceable ! plateau-basalt appe>s to be some:at indurat$2 break+ ) a spl9t]y fracture & a %>p r+ "u ! hamm]1 sugge/+ t ! lava ( ,sleami% _h be5 extrud$ ?r\gh ! horizontal %eets1 & _h consid]ably indurat$ ! portions 9 contact )1 or 9 proximity to1 x4#f ,among/ ! v5ts fill$ ) a% & agglom]ate1 ! mo/ rem>kable is t ( ,c>rick-a-raide1 ne> ,ballyca/le4 ,x =ms ?is rocky isl& & a portion ( ! adjo9+ coa/1 :]e ! b$s ( a% are f9ely display$2 consi/+ ( fragm5ts & bombs ( basalt1 ) pieces ( *alk1 fl9t1 & pep]9o1 :i* is irregul>ly b$d$4 ,^! a%-b$s atta9 a ?ickness ( ab\t #abj feet j bel[ ! road to ,ballyca/le1 b rapidly tail out 9 bo? directions f ! locality ( ! v5t4 ,j bel[ ! a%-b$s1 ! :ite *alk ) fl9ts may be se5 ext5d+ d[n into ! sea-b$4 ,n[h]e 9 ,antrim is !re su* a display ( volcanic a% & agglom]ate z at ?is spot4#g 7i47 ,dykes3 ,conditions "u :i* !y 7 ,erupt$4--,no "o c visit ! geological sections 9 ,co4 ,antrim & ! adjo9+ di/ricts ( ,d[n1 ,armagh1 ,d]ry1 & ,tyrone1 )\t be+ /ruck by ! great numb] & v>iety ( ! igne\s dykes by :i* ! rocks are trav]s$4 ,! great majority ( ^! dykes are basaltic1 & !y are f\nd trav]s+ all ! =mations1 includ+ ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y basaltic %eets4 ,! ,c>l+=d & ,m\rne ,m\nta9s are seam$ ) su* dykes1 & !y are spl5didly laid op5 to view along ! coa/ s\? ( ,newca/le 9 ,co4 ,d[n1 z also along ! ,antrim coa/ f ,belfa/ to ,l>ne4 ,! f9e old ca/le ( ,c>rickf]gus has its f\ndations on "o ( ^? dyke-l intrusions1 b "o ( great] size ?an ord9>y4 ,all ! dykes "h ref]r$ to are n1 h[ev]1 ( ! same age1 z is conclusively prov$ by sections among/ ! ,m\rne ,m\nta9s :]e cliffs ( ,l[] ,silurian /rata1 sup]impos$ on ! intrusive granite ( ! di/rict1 exhibit two sets ( basaltic dykes--"o 7! old]7 abruptly t]m9at$ at ! granite m>g91 ! o!r & new] p5etrat+ ! granite & ,silurian rocks alike4 ,x is n improbable t ! old] dykes belong to ! ,c>bonif]\s or ,p]mian age1 :ile ! new] are ) equal probability ( ,t]ti>y age4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie has %[n t ! ,t]ti>y dykes ( ! ,nor? ( ,irel& are repres5tatives ( o!rs occurr+ at int]vals ov] ! ,nor? ( ,engl&1 & ,c5tral & ,we/]n ,scotl&1 all po9t+ t[>ds ! c5tral region ( volcanic activity2 or 9 a p>allel direction !reto1 approximat+ to ! ,n4,w4 9 ,irel&1 ! ,isl& ( ,islay1 & ,ea/ ,argyle%ire1 b 9 ! c5tre ( ,scotl& g5]ally rang+ f ea/ to we/4#h ,! area affect$ by ! dykes ( und\bt$ ,t]ti>y age ,geikie e/imates at no less ?an #dj1jjj squ>e miles--a t]ritory great] ?an ei!r ,scotl& or ,irel&1 & equal to m ?an a ?ird ( ! total l&-surface ( ! ,briti% ,isles2#i & he reg>ds !m z po/]ior to ! re/ ( ! geological /ructures ( ! regions :i* !y trav]se4 ,x is cle> t ! dykes ref]r$ to belong to "o great sy/em ( eruption or intrusion2 & !y may be reg>d$ z ! manife/ation ( ! f9al ef=t ( int]nal =ces ov] ?is region ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,!y te/ify to ! exi/5ce ( a cont9u\s magma 7or %ell7 ( augitic lava b5ea? ! cru/2 & z ! aggregate horizontal ext5t ( all ^! dykes1 or ( ! fissures :i* !y fill1 mu/ be v consid]able1 x is cle> t ! cru/ ?r\gh :i* !y h be5 extrud$ has receiv$ an accession ( horizontal space1 & has be5 fissur$ by =ces act+ f b5ea?1 z ! late ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 ( ,cambridge1 _h expla9$ on me*anical gr\nds 9 8 elaborate essay _m ye>s ago4#aj ,?is view occurr$ to myself :5 exam9+ ! region ( ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&1 b ,i 0 n !n aw>e t x _h be5 dealt ) on ma!matical pr9ciples by s em95t a ma!matician4 ,! bulg+ ( ! cru/ is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! abs5ce ( plication ( ! /rata due to ! extrusion ( ?is enorm\s quantity ( molt5 lava2 & ! intrusion ( ?\s&s ( dykes ov] ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&1 unaccompani$ by fold+s ( ! /rata1 mu/ h add$ a horizontal space ( sev]al ?\s& feet to t region4#aa #a ,a peculi> =m ( cry/all9e qu>tz fir/ recogniz$ 9 ?is rock by a di/+ui%$ ,g]man petrologi/1 ! late ,pr(4 ,a4 von ,lasaulx1 :o visit$ ! di/rict 9 #ahgf4 #b ,sir ,a4 ,geikie has disput$ ! correctness ( ! view1 :i* ,i advocat$ z f> back z #ahgd1 t ! tra*ytic lavas ( ,antrim are ! e>lie/ products ( volcanic action2 b at ! "t he wrote 8 pap] on ! volcanic hi/ory ( ^! isl&s1 x 0 n kn[n t pebbles ( ?is tra*yte are l>gely di/ribut$ among/ ! a%-b$s :i* occur 9 ! v mid/ ( ! ov]ly+ basaltic %eets1 z ,i %all h to expla9 lat] on4 ,?is discov]y puts ! "q at re/ z reg>ds ! relations ( ! two sets ( rocks4 #c ,?is rem>kable section at ! *alk qu>ries ( ,templepatrick ! au?or has figur$ & describ$ 9 ! ,physical ,geology & ,geography ( ,irel&1 p4 #ii1 #bnd edit4 7#ahia71 :]e ! read] w f9d ! subject discuss$ m fully ?an c be done "h4 #d ,^! pebbles 7 fir/ notic$ by ,mr4 ,mc,henry1 ( ! ,iri% ,geological ,survey1 9 #ahij4 #e ,! v]tical position ( ! columns ( ! ,giant's ,causeway is r enigmatical4 ,! ,causeway _c be a dyke1 z has (t5 be5 suppos$1 o!rwise ! columns w\ld h be5 horizontal1 i4e41 at "r angles to ! sides ( ! dyke4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,g4 ,symes1 ( ! ,geological ,survey1 has sugge/$ t ! ,causeway columns h be5 v]tically l[]$ betwe5 two l9es ( fault1 & t orig9ally !y =m$ a portion ( ! ti] ( beautiful columns se5 9 ! cliff above1 & kn[n z ,! ,organ4 #f ,sleami% & sev]al o!r ( ! ,antrim v5ts are describ$ by ,sir ,a4 ,geikie 9 ! monograph already ref]r$ to1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aja1 et seq4 ,also 9 ! ,expl4 ,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,irel&4 #g ,a diagrammatis$ section ( ! ,c>rick-a-raide volcanic neck is giv5 by ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aje4 #h ,geikie1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bi1 et seq4 #i ,p4 #cb4 ,! view t ! cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 horizontally ext5d$ by ! intrusion ( dykes is notic$ by ,mc,culloch 9 ref]5ce to ! dykes ( ,skye4 #aj ,hopk9s1 ,cambridge ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 vi4 p4 #a 7#ahcf74 #aa ,z sugge/$ 9 my ,presid5tial ,address to ,section ,c4 ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,belfa/1 #ahgd4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,isl& ,,( ,,mull ,,& ,,adjo9+ ,,coa/4 ,! ,isl& ( ,mull1 ) ! adjo9+ di/ricts ( ,morv]n & ,ardnamur*an1 =ms ! m s\!rn ( ! two *ief c5tres ( ,t]ti>y volcanic eruptions 9 ! ,we/ ( ,scotl&1 t ( ,skye be+ ! m nor!rn4 ,^! di/ricts h be5 ! subject ( critical & detail$ /udy by sev]al geologi/s1 f ,mc,culloch d[n to ! pres5t day2 & among/ ! m rec5t1 ,sir ,ar*ibald ,geikie & ,pr(essor ,judd hold ! *ief place4 ,un=tunately1 ! int]pretation ( ! volcanic ph5om5a by ^! two accompli%$ obs]v]s has l$ !m to v diff]5t conclusions z reg>ds sev]al important po9ts 9 ! volcanic hi/ory ( ^! gr\ps ( isl&s2 z1 = example1 reg>d+ ! relative ages ( ! plateau-basalts & ! acid rocks1 su* z ! tra*ytes & granophyres2 aga9 z reg>ds ! pres5ce ( di/9ct c5tres ( eruption2 & also z reg>ds ! relations ( ! gabbros ( ,skye to ! basaltic %eets4 ,su* be+ ! case1 x w\ld appe> ! height ( ra%ness on ! "p ( ! writ]1 especially 9 ! abs5ce ( a detail$ exam9ation ( ! sections ov] ! :ole region1 to v5ture on a /atem5t ( op9ion reg>d+ ! po9ts at issue2 & he mu/1 !re=e1 cont5t himself ) a brief acc\nt ( ! ph5om5a z ga!r$ f a p]usal ( ! writ+s ( ^! & o!r obs]v]s1#a guid$ also to "s ext5t by ! analog\s ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! volcanic region ( ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&4 7a47 ,g5]al ,features4--,z 9 ! case ( ! ,antrim di/rict1 ! ,isl& ( ,mull & adjo9+ tracts pres5t u ) ! spectacle ( a va/ accumulation ( basaltic lava-fl[s1 pil$ lay] ^u lay]1 ) int]v5+ b$s ( bole & tuff1 up to a ?ickness1 accord+ to ,geikie1 ( ab\t #c1ejj feet4 ,at ! gr& headl& ( ,gribon1 on ! we/ coa/1 ! basaltic %eets are se5 to rise 9 "o %e] sweep to a height ( #a1fjj feet1 & !n to /ret* away ) a slight ea/]ly dip "u ,b5 ,m at a di/ance ( "s eight miles4 ,?is m\nta91 ! upp] "p ( :i* is =m$ ( b$s ( a%es1 rea*es an elevation ( #c1afi feet1 s t ! accumulat$ ?ickness ( ! b$s ( basalt "u ! high] "p ( ! m\nta9 mu/ be at lea/ equal to ! am\nt /at$ above--t is1 twice z great z ! repres5tative masses ( ,antrim4 ,! base ( ! volcanic s]ies is se5 at ,c>saig & ,gribon to re/ on ,cretace\s & ,jurassic rocks1 l ^? ( ,antrim2 h5ce ! ,t]ti>y age is fully e/abli%$ by ! evid5ce ( sup]position4 ,?is 0 fur!r confirm$ by ! discov]y by ! ,duke ( ,argyll1#b "s ye>s ago 7#ahej71 ( b&s ( fl9t-gravel & tuff1 ) dicotyl$on\s leaves among/ ! basalts ( ,ardtun ,head4 ,! basem5t b$s ( tuff & gravel conta91 besides pebbles ( fl9t & *alk1 o!rs ( sanid9e tra*yte1 %[+ t highly acid lavas _h be5 extrud$ & consolidat$ be=e ! fir/ eruption ( ! plateau-basalts2 ano!r po9t ( analogy betwe5 ! volcanic ph5om5on ( ,antrim & ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,^! great %eets ( augitic lava ext5d ov] ! :ole ( ! nor!rn tract ( ,mull1 ! ,isles ( ,ulva & ,/affa1 & = a di/ance ( sev]al miles inw>ds f ! nor!rn %ore ( ! ,s\nd ( ,mull1 cov]+ ! wild moorl&s ( ,morv]n & ,ardnamur*an1 :]e !y t]m9ate 9 esc>pm5ts & outly+ masses1 indicat+ an orig9ally mu* m ext5d$ range ?an at ! pres5t day4 ,! summits ( ,b5 ,m & its neighb\r+ height1 ,b5 ,buy1 are =m$ ( b$s ( a% & tuff4 ,! volcanic plateau is1 accord+ to ,judd1 abruptly t]m9at$ along ! s\!rn side by a l>ge vault1 br++ ! basalt 9 contact ) ,palozoic rocks4#c 7b47 ,granophyres4--,! great] "p ( ! tract ly+ to ! s\? ( ,lo* na ,keal1 :i* almo/ divides ,mull into two isl&s1 & ext5d+ s\?w>ds & ea/w>ds to ! %ores ( ! ,fir? ( ,lorn & ! ,s\nd ( ,mull1 is =m$ ( a peculi> gr\p ( acid 7or highly silicat$7 rocks1 class$ "u ! g5]al t]m ( ,granophyres4 ,^! rocks approa* t[>ds true granites 9 "o direction1 & ?r\gh qu>tz-porphyry & felsite to rhyolite 9 ano!r--probably dep5d+ ^u ! conditions ( cool+ & consolidation4 ,9 _! mode ( wea!r+ & g5]al appe>ance on a l>ge scale1 !y pres5t a m>k$ contra/ to ! basic lavas ) :i* !y are 9 contact f ! coa/ ( ,l4 na ,keal to t ( ,l4 ,buy4 ,! nature ( ?is contact1 :e!r indicat+ ! priority ( ! granophyres to ! plateau-basalts or o!rwise1 is a matt] ( dispute betwe5 ! two obs]v]s above nam$2 b ! circum/antial acc\nt giv5 by ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1#d accompani$ by draw+s ( special sections %[+ ?is contact1 appe>s to prove t ! granophyre is ! new] ( ! two masses ( volcanic rock1 & t x has be5 intrud$ among/ ! basaltic-lavas at a late p]iod 9 ! volcanic hi/ory ( ^! isl&s4 ,a copy ( "o ( ^! sket*es is "h giv5 7,fig4 #cc71 accord+ to :i* ! felsite is %[n to p5etrate ! basaltic %eets at ,alt na ,se>mo9 9 ,mull2 o!r sections se5 at ,crua* ,torr an ,lo*a91 & on ! s\? side ( ,be9n ,fada1 appe> to lead to simil> conclusions4 ,^! rocks are p5etrat$ by num]\s basaltic dykes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,section at ,alt na ,se>mo91 ,mull1 to %[ ! intrusion ( felsite 7or granophyre7 7b7 into basalt & dol]ite 7a7 ( ! plateau-basalt s]ies4--7,geikie47 7c47 ,repres5tative ,rocks ( ,m\rne & ,c>l+=d1 ,irel&4--,assum+ ,sir ,a4 ,geikie's view to be correct1 x is possible t we may h 9 ! granite & qu>tz-porphyries ( ,m\rne & ,c>l+=d repres5tatives ( ! granites1 granophyres1 & o!r acid rocks ( ! lat] p]iod ( ,mull4 ,! granite ( ,m\rne is peculi> 9 /ructure1 & diff]s f ! ord9>y type ( t rock 9 :i* ! silica =ms ! gr\nd mass4 ,9 ! case ( ! granite ( ! ,m\rne ,m\nta9s1 ! rock consi/s ( a cry/all9e granul> aggregate ( or?oclase1 albite1 smoke-qu>tz1 & mica2 x is also full ( drusy cavities1 9 :i* ! v>i\s m9]als cry/allise out 9 v p]fect =m4 ,z f> z reg>ds direct evid5ce1 ! age ( ?is rock c only be /at$ to be po/-,c>bonif]\s1 & e>li] ?an c]ta9 ,t]ti>y basaltic dykes by :i* x is trav]s$4 ,! granophyres ( ,mull are trav]s$ by simil> dykes1 :i* are repres5tatives ( ! v late/ /age ( volcanic action 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,! au?or is !re=e incl9$ to concur ) ,sir ,a4 ,geikie 9 assign+ to ! granite ( ! ,m\rne ,m\nta9s1 & ! repres5tative felsitic rocks ( ! ,c>l+=d ,m\nta9s1 a ,t]ti>y age--9 :i* case ! analogy betwe5 ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides & ( ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& w\ld seem to be complete4#e #a ,geikie1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh 7#ahfg72 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 7,dundee1 #ahfg72 ,t]ti>y ,volcanic ,rocks ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii4 p4 #bgi2 also1 ,hi/ory ( ,volcanic ,action 9 ,briti% ,isles1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed94 7#ahhh72 ,judd1 ,on ! ,anci5t ,volcanoes ( ! ,highl&s1 etc41 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx4 p4 #bcc2 & ,volcanoes1 p4 #aci4 #b ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 = #ahej1 p4 #gj4 #c ,judd1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx4 p4 #bdb4 #d ,hi/ory ( ,volcanic ,action1 etc41 loc4 cit4 p4 #aec1 et seq4 ,! ,granophyres ( ,geikie come "u ! head ( ,felsites1 pass+ into granite 9 "o direction & qu>tz-tra*yte 9 ano!r1 accord+ to ,judd2 ! proportion ( silica f #fi to #ge p] c5t4--,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx4 p4 #bce4 #e ,?is view ! au?or has express$ 9 a rec5t edition ( ,! ,physical ,geology ( ,irel&1 p4 #agg 7#ahia74 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,isle ,,( ,,skye4 ,?is is ! l>ge/ & mo/ important ( all ! ,t]ti>y volcanic di/ricts1 b ow+ to ! ext5sive d5udation to :i*1 9 common ) o!r ,t]ti>y volcanic regions ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 x has be5 subject$1 its pres5t limits are v re/rict$ comp>atively to its orig9al ext5t4 ,n only is ?is evid5t f ! mann] 9 :i* ! basaltic %eets t]m9ate along ! sea-coa/ 9 gr& mural cliffs1 z opposite ,macleod's ,maid5s1 & at ! entrance to ,l\gh ,bracadale on ! we/]n coa/1 b ! evid5ce is1 accord+ to ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 /ill m /rik+ along ! ea/]n coa/2 %[+ t ! ,jurassic1 & o!r old] rocks !re visible1 7 orig9ally buri$ deep "u ! basaltic %eets :i* h be5 /ripp$ f (f t "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,^! great plateau-basalts occupy ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! entire isl& along ! we/]n & nor!rn areas1 ris+ into t]rac$ m\nta9s ov] #b1jjj feet 9 height1 & are deeply furr[$ by gl5s & arms ( ! sea1 along :i* ! g5]al /ructure ( ! tablel& is laid op51 sometimes = leagues at a "t4 ,x is t[>ds ! s\?-ea/]n "p ( ! isl& t ! mo/ int]e/+ & important ph5om5a are c5tr$2 = "h we meet ) repres5tatives ( ! acid 7or highly silicat$7 gr\p ( rocks1 & ( rem>kable b$s ( gabbro1 :i* h long attract$ ! att5tion ( petrologi/s4 ,^! latt] b$s1 ?r\gh\t a consid]able di/ance r\nd ! flanks ( ! ,cuill9 ,hills1 are int]pos$ betwe5 ! acid rocks & ! plateau-basalts2 b t[>ds ! nor?1 on approa*+ ,l\gh ,sligahan1 ! acid rocks1 consi/+ ( granophyres1 qu>tz-porphyries1 & hornbl5dic-granitites1 are 9 direct contact ) ! plateau-basalts2 &1 accord+ to ! v circum/antial acc\nt ( ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 are intrusive into !m2 n only s5d+ ve9s into ! basaltic %eets1 b also produc+ a m>k$ alt]ation 9 _! /ructure :]e !y approa* ! new] intrusive mass4 ,equally circum/antial is ! same au?or's acc\nt ( ! relations ( ! granophyres to ! gabbros1#a z se5 at ,meall ,de>g & ! we/]n bord] ( ! ,cuill9 ,hills--:]e ! =m] rock may be se5 to s5d num]\s ve9s into ! latt]4 ,n only is ?is s1 b ! granophyre is frequ5tly se5 to truncate1 & abruptly t]m9ate "s ( ! basaltic dykes by :i* ! basic %eets are trav]s$--z 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,be9n na ,dubhaic4 ,all ^! ph5om5a /rongly rem9d u ( ! conditions ( simil> rocks among/ ! m\nta9s ( ,m\rne & ,c>l+=d 9 ,irel&2 :]e1 at ,b>naveve1 ! sy5ite 7or hornbl5dic qu>tz-felsite7 is se5 to break ?r\gh ! masses ( oliv9e gabbro1 & s5d num]\s ve9s into ?is latt] rock4#b ,! int]pretation "h briefly sket*$ diff]s widely f t arriv$ at by ,pr(essor ,judd4 ,! granitoid masses ( ! ,r$ ,m\nta9s 7,be9n ,de>g7 & ! neighb\r+ heights are1 9 8 view1 ! roots ( ! great volcano f :i* 7 erupt$ ! v>i\s lavas2 ! e>li] eruptions produc+ ! acid lavas1 to be foll[$ by ! gabbros1 & ^! by ! plateau-basaltic %eets1 :i* /ret* away t[>ds ! nor? & we/ into sev]al p59sulas4 ,?us he holds t ! rocks ( basic composition 7 eject$ subsequ5tly to ^? ( ! acid v>iety1 & appeals to v>i\s sections 9 confirmation ( ?is view4#c ,to reconcile ^! views is at pres5t impossible2 b z ! controv]sy betwe5 ^! two obs]v]s is probably n yet clos$1 !re is room = hope t ! true int]pretation ( ! relations ( ^! rocks to ea* o!r w ere long be fully e/abli%$4 #a ,geikie1 loc4 cit41 p4 #afa1 etc4 #b ,physical ,geology ( ,irel&1 #bnd edition1 p4 #agd 7,fig4 #ba74 ,pr(essor ,judd has also come to ! conclusion t ! granite ( ,m\rne is ( ,t]ti>y age1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx4 p4 #bge4 #c ,judd1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bed4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,scuir ,,( ,,eigg4 ,among/ ! m rem>kable ( ! small] islets are ^? ( ,eigg1 ,rum1 ,canna1 & ,muck1 ly+ betwe5 ,mull on ! s\? & ,skye on ! nor?1 & und\bt$ly at "o "t physically connect$ toge!r4 ,! ,isl& ( ,eigg is especially rem>kable = ! fact1 z /at$ by ,geikie1 t "h we h ! "o solit>y case ( a true sup]ficial /ream ( acid lava--t ( ! ,scuir ( ,eigg4#a 7,fig4 #cd47 ,?is =ms a s9u\s ridge1 compos$ ( pit*/one ( sev]al k9ds1 ( ov] two miles 9 l5g?1 ris+ f ! mid/ ( a tablel& ( b$d$ basalt & tuff to a height ( #a1bhi feet above ! ocean2 ! plateau-basalt is trav]s$ by basaltic dykes1 rang+ 9 a ,n4,w4-,s4,e4 direction4 ,b :at is specially rem>kable is ! evid5ce af=d$ by an exam9ation ( ! c\rse ( ! ,scuir1 t x foll[s ! *annel ( an anci5t riv]-valley1 :i* has be5 holl[$ out 9 ! surface ( ! plateau4 ,! c\rse ( ?is *annel is indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( a deposit ( riv]-gravel1 :i* 9 "s places =ms a sort ( cu%ion betwe5 ! base ( ! ,scuir & ! side ( ! *annel4 ,ov] ?is gravel-b$ ! visc\s pit*/one-lava appe>s to h fl[$1 tak+ possession ( ! riv]-*annel1 & also ( ! b$s ( sev]al small tribut>y /reams :i* fl[$ into ! *annel ( ! ,scuir4 ,! rec5t date ( ! pit*/one =m+ ?is rem>kable mural ridge1 once occupy+ ! b$ ( a riv]-*annel1 is %[n by ! fact t ! basaltic dykes :i* trav]se ! plateau-basalts are truncat$ by ! riv]-gravel1 :i* is1 !re=e1 m rec5t2 &1 z we h se51 ! pit*/one /ream is m rec5t ?an ! riv]-gravel4 ,b at ! "t :5 ?is la/ volcanic eruption took place1 ! physical geography ( ! :ole region mu/ h be5 v diff]5t f t ( ! pres5t "t4 ,f ! "* & composition ( ! pebbles 9 ! old riv]-b$1 among/ :i* are ,cambrian s&/one1 qu>tzite1 clay-slate1 & :ite ,jurassic lime/one1 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie concludes t :5 ! riv] 0 fl[+1 ! isl& mu/ h be5 connect$ ) ! ma9l& to ! ea/ :]e ! p>5t masses ( ^! pebbles are f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,view ( ! ,scuir ( ,eigg f ! ea/4 ,! l[] portion ( ! m\nta9 is =m$ ( b$d$ basalt1 or dol]ite ) num]\s dykes & ve9s ( basalt1 fel/one1 & pit*/one2 ! upp] cliff1 or ,scuir1 is compos$ ( pit*/one ( new] age1 ! remnant ( a lava fl[ :i* once fill$ a riv] *annel 9 ! basaltic %eets4 ,a dyke1 or %eet1 ( porphyry is se5 to be int]pos$ betwe5 ! ,scuir & ! basaltic %eets4--7,aft] ,geikie47 ,effects ( ,d5udation4--,! position ( ! ,scuir ( ,eigg & its relations to ! basaltic %eets %[ ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation :i* ^! latt] h und]gone s9ce ! /ream ( pit*/one-lava fill$ ! old riv] *annel4 ,! walls1 or banks1 ( ! *annel h be5 d5ud$ away1 ?us conv]t+ ! pit*/one ca/+ into a project+ wall ( rock4 ,t x orig9ally ext5d$ outw>ds into ! ocean to a f> great] di/ance ?an at pres5t is evid5t f ! abruptly truncat$ face ( ! cliff2 & yet ?is rem>kable volcanic mass seems to h be51 p]haps1 ! mo/ rec5t exhibition ( volcanic action to be f\nd 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,x is p]haps1 on ?is acc\nt1 ! mo/ /rik+ ( ! num]\s examples exhibit$ ?r\gh\t ! ,we/ ( ,scotl& & ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation to :i* ^! di/ricts h be5 subject$ s9ce ! ext9ction ( ! volcanic fires2 & ?is at a p]iod to :i* we _c assign a date m anci5t ?an t ( ! ,plioc5e4 ,yet1 let u consid] = a mom5t to :at physical vicissitudes ^! di/ricts h be5 subject$ s9ce t epo*4 ,assum+1 z we may ) confid5ce1 t ! volcanic eruptions 7 subarial1 & t ! tracts cov]$ by ! plateau-basalts 7 9 ! condition ( dry l& :5 ! eruptions comm5c$1 9 ?is condition !y cont9u$ 9 ! ma9 ?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( volcanic activity4 ,b ! eruptions _h sc>cely ceas$1 & ! lava floods & dykes become consolidat$1 be=e ! succe$+ glacial epo* set 92 :5 ! sn[s & glaci]s ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s gradually desc5d+ f _! orig9al m\nta9 heights1 & spread+ outw>ds 9 all directions1 ultimately envelop$ ! :ole ( ! region we are n[ consid]+ until x 0 entirely conceal$ b5ea? a mantle ( ice mov+ sl[ly1 b irresi/ibly1 outw>ds t[>ds ! ,atlantic1 cross+ ! deep *annels1 su* z ! ,s\nd ( ,mull & ! ,m9*1 climb+ up ! sides ( oppos+ rocks & isl&s until ev5 ! ,out] ,hebrides & ! ,nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& 7 cov]$ by "o va/ mantle ( ice & sn[4 ,! movem5t ( su* a body ( ice ov] ! l& mu/ h be5 att5d$ ) a l>ge am\nt ( abrasion ( ! rocky floor2 nor h ! evid5ces ( t abrasion entirely disappe>$ ev5 at ! pres5t day4 ,we /ill detect ! grooves & scor+s on ! rock-surfaces :]e !y h be5 protect$ by a coat+ ( b\ld] clay2 & we /ill f9d ! surface /rewn ) ! blocks & dbris ( t mighty ice-flood4 ,b :atev] may h be5 ! am\nt ( erosion caus$ by ! great ice-%eet1 x 0 *iefly conf9$ to ! m or less horizontal surface-planes4 ,erosion ( ano!r k9d 0 to succe$1 & to produce m la/+ effects on ! configuration ( ! surface4 ,on ! disappe>ance ( ! ice-%eet1 an epo* *>act]is$ by mild] conditions ( climate set 94 ,?is 0 accompani$ by subsid5ce & subm]sion ( l>ge tracts ( ! l& dur+ ! ,int]glacial /age2 s t ! sea rose to heights ( sev]al hundr$ feet above ! pres5t level1 & has left beh9d /ratifi$ gravels ) %ells at ^! elevations 9 protect$ places4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ( depression & ( subsequ5t re-em]g5ce ! wave-action ( ! ,atlantic wat]s mu/ h told sev]ely on ! coa/ & isl&s1 we>+ !m into cliffs & esc>pm5ts1 furr[+ out *annels & levell+ ob/ructions4 ,su* action has gone on d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,! ,nor?-we/ ( ,scotl& & ( ,irel& has be5 subject$ ?r\gh\t a v l5g!n$ p]iod to ! we> & te> ( ! ,atlantic bill[s4 ,9 ! case ( ! =m]1 ! rem>kable breakwat] :i* nature has ?r[n a?w>t ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s 9 ! direction ( ! waves1 =m+ ! *a9 ( isl&s con/itut+ ! ,out] ,hebrides1 & compos$ ( v t\gh ,ar*an gneiss & s*i/1 has done mu* to ret>d ! inroads :i* ! waves might o!rwise h made on ! ,isle ( ,skye2 :ile ,coll & ,tiree1 compos$ ( simil> mat]ials1 h act$ ) simil> b5efic5t effect = ,mull & ! adjo9+ coa/s4 ,b su* is ! trem5d\s p[] ( ! ,atlantic bill[s :5 impell$ by we/]ly w9ds1 t to _! ag5cy mu/ be ma9ly attribut$ ! small size ( ! volcanic l&-surfaces z comp>$ ) _! orig9al ext5t1 & ! =mation ( ^? gr& headl&s :i* are pres5t$ by ! igne\s masses ( ,skye1 ,ardnamur*an1 & ,mull t[>ds ! we/4 ,ra9 & riv] action1 supplem5t$ by t ( glaci]s1 h also _h a %>e 9 erod+ *annels & we>+ d[n ! upp] surface ( ! gr\nd1 ) ! result we at pres5t behold 9 ! wild & brok5 sc5]y ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides & adjo9+ coa/4 #a ,geikie1 loc4 cit41 p4 #agh2 also ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii4 p4 #cjc4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,isle ,,( ,,/affa4 ,ref]5ce has be5 made to ?is rem>kable isl& 9 a =m] page1 b "s m ext5d$ notice is desirable be=e leav+ ! region ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,along ) ! isl&s ( ,pladda1 ,tre%ni%1 & ,blackmore1 ,/affa is "o ( ! outly+ volcanic isl&s ( ! gr\p1 be+ di/ant ab\t six miles f ! coa/ ( ,mull1 & indicates ! m9imum di/ance to :i* ! plateau-basaltic %eets orig9ally ext5d$ 9 ! direction ( ! old m>g9al l&s ( ,tiree & ,coll4 ,! isl& consi/s ( successive %eets ( b$d$ basaltic lava1 ) p>t+s ( tuff1 "o ( :i* ( consid]able ?ickness is %[n to lie at ! base ( ! cliff on ! s\?-we/ side ( ! isl&4#a ,! successive lava-%eets pres5t great v>ieties ( /ructure1 l ^? on ! nor? coa/ ( ,antrim2 "s be+ amorph\s1 o!rs column>1 ) ei!r /raight or b5t columns4 ,! lava-%eet out ( :i* ,f+al's ,cave is excavat$ consi/s ( v]tical prisms1 beautifully =m$1 & surm\nt$ by an amorph\s mass ( ! same mat]ial4 ,at ! entrance ( ! ,boat ,cave we h a some:at simil> arrangem5t ( ! columns2#b b at ! ,clam-%ell ,cave ! prisms are curv$1 indicat+ "s movem5t 9 ! visc\s mass be=e !y _h be5 fully consolidat$4 ,f+al's ,cave is call$ aft] ! celebrat$ pr9ce ( ,morv]n 7or ,morv571 a prov9ce ( anci5t ,cal$onia4 ,he is suppos$ to h be5 ! fa!r ( ,ossian1 ! ,celtic b>d r5d]$ fam\s by ,macph]son4 ,! cave1 "o ( _m :i* pi]ce ! coa/-cliffs ( ,we/]n ,scotl&1 is #bbg feet 9 l5g?1 #aff feet 9 height1 & #dj feet 9 wid?4 ,on all sides regul> columns ( basalt1 "s entire1 o!rs brok51 rise out ( ! wat] & support ! ro(4 ,! cave is only accessible 9 calm wea!r4 #a ,a draw+ ( ?is cliff is giv5 by ,geikie 9 ! ,manual ( ,geology 7,jukes & ,geikie71 #crd edition1 p4 #bgg4 #b ,pre/wi*1 ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #bha1 :]e a view ( ?is cave is giv54 ,,"p ,v4 ,,pre-,,t]ti>y ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,deccan ,,trap-,,s]ies ,,( ,,india4 ,! great outp\r+s ( augitic lava ( ,t]ti>y & rec5t times :i* we h be5 consid]+ appe> to h be5 anticipat$ 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! _w1 m especially 9 ,p59sul> ,india & 9 ,africa1 & x is desirable t we %\ld devote a few pages to ! description ( ^! rem>kable volcanic =mations1 z !y resemble1 bo? 9 _! mode ( occurr5ce & g5]al /ructure1 "s ( ! great lava-floods ( a m rec5t p]iod we h be5 consid]+4 ,( ! di/ricts to be describ$1 ! fir/ :i* claims our notice is ! ,deccan4 7a47 ,ext5t ( ! ,volcanic ,plateau4--,! volcanic plateau ( ! ,deccan /ret*es f ! bord]s ( ! ,we/]n ,ghats & ! sea-coa/ ne> ,bombay inl& to ,am>antak1 at ! head ( ! ,n>budda ,riv] 7long4 #hb ,e471 & f ,belgaum 7lat4 #ae #ca' ,n47 to ne> ,goona 7lat4 #bd #cj'74 ,! va/ area ?us circumscrib$ is f> f repres5t+ ! orig9al ext5t ( ! tract ov]spread by ! lava-floods1 z outly+ fragm5ts ( ^! lavas are f\nd z f> ea/ z long4 #hd ,e4 9 "o direction1 & at ,kattiw> & ,cut* 9 ano!r4 ,! pres5t area1 h[ev]1 is e/imat$ to be n less ?an #bjj1jjj squ>e miles4#a 7b47 ,nature & ,?ickness ( ! ,lava-fl[s4--,?is tract is ov]spread almo/ cont9u\sly by %eets ( basaltic lava1 ) occasional b&s ( fre%-wat] /rata conta9+ num]\s %ells1 figur$ & describ$ by ,hislop1 & believ$ by him to be ( ,l[] ,eoc5e age4 ,! lava-%eets v>y consid]ably 9 "*1 rang+ f f9e/ compact basalt to co>sely cry/all9e dol]ite1 9 :i* oliv9e is abundant4 ,! column> /ructure is n preval5t1 ! rock be+ ei!r amorph\s1 or wea!r+ into conc5tric %ells4 ,volcanic a%1 or bole1 is frequ5tly f\nd sep>at+ ! diff]5t lava-fl[s2 & 9 ! upp] amygdaloidal %eets num]\s second>y m9]als are f\nd1 su* z qu>tz1 agate & jasp]1 /ilbite & *lorite4 ,! total ?ickness ( ! :ole s]ies1 :]e complete1 is ab\t #f1jjj feet1 divid$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,upp] trap2 ) a% & int]-trappean b$s #a1ejj feet #b4 ,middle trap2 %eets ( basalt & a% #d1jjj #c4 ,l[] trap2 basalt ) int]-trappean b$s #ejj -------- #f1jjj ,?r\gh\t ! region "h describ$ ^! great %eets ( volcanic rock are ev]y:]e approximately horizontal1 & con/itute a table-l& ( #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet 9 elevation1 break+ (f 9 t]rac$ esc>pm5ts1 & p5etrat$ by deep riv]-valleys1 ( :i* ! ,n>budda is ! mo/ important4 ,! f\ndation rock is sometimes metamorphic s*i/1 or gneiss1 at o!r times s&/one ref]r$ by ,hislop to ,jurassic age2 & 9 no s+le in/ance has a volcanic crat] or focus ( eruption be5 obs]v$4 ,b outside ! c5tral trappean area volcanic foci are num]\s1 z 9 ,cut*1 ! ,rajhipla ,hills & ! ,l[] ,n>budda valley4 ,! orig9al excessive fluidity ( ! ,deccan trap is prov$ by ! rem>kable horizontality ( ! b$s ov] l>ge areas1 & ! ext5sive regions cov]$ by v ?9 %eets ( basalt or dol]ite4 7c47 ,geological ,age4--,z reg>ds ! geological age ( ?is great volcanic s]ies mu* unc]ta9ty exi/s1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( m>9e =ms 9 ! int]-trappean b$s4 ,"o s+le species1 ,c>dita v>iabilis1 has be5 obs]v$ z occurr+ 9 ^! b$s1 & 9 ! lime/one bel[ ! base ( ! trap at ,dudukur4 ,! facies ( ! =ms 9 ?is lime/one is ,t]ti>y2 b !re is a rem>kable abs5ce ( *>act]i/ic g5]a4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,mr4 ,blan=d /ates t ! b$d$ traps are se5 to und]lie ! ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y /rata ) ,nummulites 9 ,guz]at & ,cut*1#b :i* w\ld appe> to det]m9e ! limit ( _! age 9 "o direction4 ,on balanc+ ! evid5ce1 h[ev]1 x is tol]ably cle> t ! volcanic eruptions comm5c$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 & cont9u$ into ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y1 ?us bridg+ ov] ! int]val betwe5 ! two epo*s2 & s9ce ! great] %eets h be5 expos$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! ,t]ti>y & ,qu>t]n>y p]iods1 x is n surpris+ if !y h suff]$ enorm\sly f d5ud+ ag5cies1 & t any crat]s or cones ( eruption t may once h exi/$ h disappe>$4 #a ,! ,deccan ,traps h be5 describ$ by ,sykes1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #bnd ,s]ies1 vol4 iv42 also ,rev4 ,s4 ,hislop1 ,on ! ,geology ( ! ,neighb\rhood ( ,nagpur1 ,c5tral ,india1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 x4 p4 #bgd2 & ,ibid41 vol4 xvi4 p4 #aed4 ,also1 ,h4 ,b4 ,m$licott & ,w4 ,t4 ,blan=d1 ,manual ( ! ,geology ( ,india1 vol4 i4 7#ahgi74 #b ,blan=d1 ,geology ( ,abyss9ia1 p4 #ahe4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,abyss9ian ,,table-,,l&s4 ,ano!r region 9 :i* ! volcanic ph5om5a be> a rem>kable analogy to ^? ( ,c5tral ,india1 j describ$1 is t ( ,abyss9ia4 ,nor are ^! tracts s widely sep>at$ t !y may n be consid]$ z portions ( "o great volcanic area ext5d+ f ,abyss9ia1 ?r\gh ,s\!rn ,arabia1 into ,cut* & ! ,deccan1 9 ! "o direction1 :ile ! great volcanic cones ( ,k5ia & ,kilimanj>o1 ) _! surr\nd+ tracts ( volcanic matt]1 may be ! extreme prolongations 9 ! o!r4 ,along ?is tract volcanic op]ations are /ill active 9 ! ,gulf ( ,ad52 & cones q un*ang$ 9 =m1 & evid5tly ( v rec5t date1 ab\nd 9 _m places along ! coa/ bo? ( ,arabia & ,africa4 ,! volcanic =mations ( ?is tract are1 h[ev]1 mu* m rec5t ?an ^? :i* occupy ! high plateaux ( ,c5tral & ,s\!rn ,abyss9ia ( :i* we are ab\t to speak4 7a47 ,physical ,features4--,abyss9ia =ms a compact region ( l(ty plateaux int]sect$ by deep valleys1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! bas9 ( ! ,nile on ! we/1 & ! l[-ly+ tract bord]+ ! ,r$ ,sea & ! ,indian ,ocean on ! ea/4 ,! plateaux are deeply int]sect$ by valleys & rav9es1 giv+ bir? to /reams :i* fe$ ! head wat]s ( ! ,blue ,nile 7,bahr el ,arak7 & ! ,atb>a4 ,sev]al f9e lakes lie 9 ! lap ( ! m\nta9s1 ( :i* ! ,zana1 or ,dembia1 is ! l>ge/1 & next ,a%angi1 visit$ by ! ,briti% army on its m>* to ,magdala 9 #ahfh1 & :i*1 f its =m & ! volcanic nature ( ! surr\nd+ hills1 appe>s to occupy ! holl[ ( an ext9ct crat]4 ,! table-l& ( ,abyss9ia rea*es its highe/ elevation along ! ea/]n & s\!rn m>g91 :]e its av]age height may be #h1jjj to #aj1jjj feet2 b "s peaks rise to a height ( #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj feet 9 ,%oa & ,ankob>4#a 7b47 ,basaltic ,lava ,%eets4--,an enorm\s area ( ?is c\ntry seems to be compos$ ( volcanic rocks *iefly 9 ! =m ( %eets ( basaltic lava1 :i* rise into high plateaux1 & break (f 9 /eep--sometimes precipit\s--mural esc>pm5ts along ! sides ( ! valleys4 ,^! are divisible into ! foll[+ s]ies3-- 7#a7 ,! ,a%angi ,volcanic ,s]ies4--,! e>lie/ =]unn]s ( ! m rec5t lavas seem to h be5 erupt$ 9 ,jurassic times1 9 ! =m ( %eets ( contemporane\s basalt or dol]ite among/ ! ,antola lime/ones :i* are ( ?is p]iod4 ,b ! great mass ( ! volcanic rocks are mu* m rec5t1 & may be confid5tly ref]r$ to ! late ,cretace\s or e>ly ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,_! resemblance to ! great trappean s]ies ( ,we/]n ,india1 ev5 9 m9ute p>ticul>s1 is ref]r$ to by ,mr4 ,blan=d1 :o sugge/s ! view t !y belong to "o & ! same great s]ies ( lava-fl[s extrud$ ov] ! surface ( ?is "p ( ! globe4 ,?is view is inh]5tly probable4 ,!y consi/ ( basalts & dol]ites1 g5]ally amygdaloidal1 ) nodules ( agate & zeolite1 & are frequ5tly coat$ ) gre5-e>? 7*lorite74 ,b$s ( volcanic a% or breccia also frequ5tly occur1 & (t5 conta9 augite cry/als4 ,at ,s5af1 hills ( tra*yte pass+ into clay/one & basalt 7 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,blan=d1 b x is n cle> :at are _! relations to ! plateau-basaltic %eets4#b 7#b7 ,magdala ,volcanic ,s]ies4--,?is is a m rec5t gr\p ( volcanic lavas1 *iefly di/+ui%$ f ! l[]1 or ,a%angi1 gr\p1 by ! occurr5ce ( ?ick b$s ( tra*yte1 usually m or less cry/all9e1 & conta9+ beautiful cry/als ( sanid9e4 ,! b$s ( tra*yte break (f 9 precipit\s sc>ps1 & be+ ( great ?ickness & p]fectly horizontal1 are unusually conspicu\s4 ,mr4 ,blan=d says1 ) reg>d to ?is gr\p1 t !re is a rem>kable resemblance 9 its physical aspect to ! sc5]y ( ! ,deccan & ! high] valleys ( ! ,we/]n ,ghats ( ,india1 b ! peculi>ities ( ! l&scape are exagg]at$ 9 ,abyss9ia4 ,_m ( ! tra*ytic b$s are brecciat$ & highly column>2 s$im5t>y b$s are also int]/ratifi$ ) ^? ( volcanic orig94 ,! ,magdala gr\p is uncon=mable to t ( ,a%angi 9 "s places4 ,a /ill m rec5t gr\p ( volcanic rocks appe>s to occur 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,s5af1 consi/+ ( amorph\s masses ( tra*yte1 (t5 s f9e-gra9$ & compact z to pass into clay/one & to resemble s&/one4 ,at ,akub ,t]iki ! rocks appe> to be 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( an anci5t v5t ( eruption4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x w be app>5t t ,abyss9ia (f]s volcanic ph5om5a ( great int]e/ = ! obs]v]4 ,!re is consid]able v>iety 9 ! rock masses1 9 _! mode ( di/ribution1 & 9 ! sc5]y :i* !y produce4 ,! ext5sive horizontal %eets ( lava are sugge/ive ( fissure-eruption r ?an ( eruption ?r\gh volcanic crat]s2 & al?\gh ^! may h once be5 9 exi/5ce1 d5udation has left no ve/iges ( !m at ! pres5t day4 ,9 all ^! respects ! resemblance ( ! volcanic ph5om5a to ^? ( ,p59sul> ,india is rem>kably /rik+2 x sugge/s ! view t !y are contemporane\s z reg>ds ! "t ( _! eruption1 & simil> z reg>ds _! mode ( =mation4 #a ,w4 ,t4 ,blan=d1 ,geology ( ,abyss9ia1 pp4 #aea-b4 #b ,blan=d1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ahb4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,cape ,,colony4 ,basalt ( ! ,plateau4--,! ext5sive %eets ( plateau-basalt =m+ portions ( ! ,neuweld range & ! elevat$ table-l& ( ,cape ,colony1 may be reg>d$ z =]unn]s ( ^? j describ$1 & possibly contemporane\s ) ! ,a%angi volcanic s]ies ( ,abyss9ia4 ,! great basaltic %eets ( ! ,cape ,colony are f\nd capp+ ! highe/ elevations ( ! ,camd]boo & ,/ormb]g ranges1 z well z ov]spread+ imm5se areas ( less elevat$ l&1 to an ext5t1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,a4 ,h4 ,gre51 ( at lea/ #abj1jjj squ>e miles4#a ,among/ ^! %eets1 innum]able dykes1 & masses ( solid lava :i* fill$ ! old v5ts ( eruption1 are to be obs]v$4 ,! floor ^u :i* ! lava-floods h be5 p\r$ out g5]ally consi/s ( ! ,cave ,s&/one1 ! upp]mo/ ( a s]ies ( deposits :i* _h previ\sly be5 laid d[n ov] ! b$ ( an ext5sive lake :i* occupi$ ?is "p ( ,africa dur+ ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,aft] ! deposition ( ?is s&/one1 ! volcanic =ces appe> to h bur/ ?r\gh ! cru/1 & f v5ts & fissures great floods ( augitic lava1 ) b$s ( tuff1 invad$ ! region occupi$ by ! wat]s ( ! lake4 ,! lava-%eets h s9ce und]gone ext5sive d5udation1 & are int]sect$ by valleys & depressions erod$ d[n ?r\gh !m into ! s&/one floor b5ea?2 & ?\gh ! precise geological p]iod at :i* !y 7 extrud$ mu/ rema9 9 d\bt1 x appe>s probable t !y may be ref]r$ to t ( ! ,trias4#b #a ,gre54 ,on ! ,geology ( ! ,cape ,colony1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xliv4 7#ahhh74 #b ,! di/rict ly+ along ! s\? coa/ ( ,africa is describ$ by ,&rew ,g4 ,ba91 9 ! ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vii4 7#ahde72 b !re is little in=mation reg>d+ ! volcanic region "h ref]r$ to4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks ,,( ,,pa/ ,,geological ,,p]iods ,,( ,,! ,,briti% ,,isles4 ,x is beyond ! scope ( ?is "w to describe ! volcanic rocks ( pre-,t]ti>y times ov] v>i\s p>ts ( ! globe4 ,! subject is f> too l>ge to be treat$ o!rwise ?an 9 a di/9ct & sep>ate essay4 ,i w !re=e cont5t myself ) a brief enum]ation ( ! =mations ( ! ,briti% ,isles 9 :i* contemporane\s volcanic action has be5 recognis$4#a ,!re is little evid5ce ( volcanic action ?r\gh\t ! long lapse ( "t ext5d+ backw>ds f ! ,cretace\s to ! ,triassic epo*s1 t is to say1 ?r\gh\t ! ,mesozoic or ,second>y p]iod1 & x is n till we rea* ! ,palozoic /rata t evid5ce ( volcanic action unmi/akably pres5ts itself4 ,p]mian ,p]iod4--,9 ,ayr%ire1 & 9 ! we/]n p>ts ( ,devon%ire1 b$s ( felspa?ic porphyry1 fel/one & a% are int]/ratifi$ ) /rata believ$ to be ( ,p]mian age4 ,9 ,devon%ire ^! h only rec5tly be5 recognis$ by ,dr4 ,irv+ & ! au?or z ( ,p]mian age1 ! /rata consi/+ ( b$s ( breccia1 ly+ at ! base ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,^? ( ,ayr%ire h long be5 recognis$ z ( ! same p]iod2 z !y re/ uncon=mably on ! coal measures1 & consi/ ( porphyrites1 melaphyres1 & tuffs ( volcanic orig94 ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4--,volcanic rocks occur among/ ! coal-measures ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 :ile !y are also f\nd int]b$d$ ) ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one s]ies 9 ,d]by%ire1 ,scotl&1 & ,co4 ,lim]ick 9 ,irel&4 ,! rocks consi/ *iefly ( basalt1 dol]ite1 melaphyre & fel/one4 ,devonian ,p]iod4--,volcanic rocks ( ,devonian age occur 9 ! ,s\? ( ,scotl&1 consi/+ ( fel/one-porphyries & melaphyres2 also at ,boyle1 9 ,roscommon1 & among/ ! ,gl5g>iff b$s ne> ,kill>ney 9 ,irel&4 ,upp] ,silurian ,p]iod4--,volcanic rocks ( ?is /age are only kn[n 9 ,irel&1 on ! bord]s ( ,cos4 ,mayo & ,galway1 we/ ( ,l\gh ,mask1 & at ! extreme headl& ( ! ,d+le ,promontory 9 ,co4 ,k]ry4 ,!y consi/ ( porphyrites1 fel/ones & tuffs1 or breccias1 contemporane\sly erupt$ dur+ ! ,w5lock & ,ludl[ /ages4 ,ar\nd ! flanks ( ,muilrea1 b$s ( purple qu>tz-fel/one ) tuff are int]/ratifi$ ) ! ,upp] ,silurian grits & slates4 ,l[] ,silurian ,p]iod4--,volcanic action 0 develop$ on a gr& scale dur+ ! ,ar5ig & ,c>adoc-,bala /ages1 bo? 9 ,wales & ! ,lake di/rict1 & 9 ! ,ll&eilo /age 9 ! ,s\? ( ,scotl&4 ,! felspa?ic lavas1 ) _! associat$ b$s ( tuff & breccia1 rise into "s ( ! gr&e/ m\nta9 cre/s ( ,nor? ,wales1 su* z ^? ( ,cad] ,idris1 ,aran ,m[ddwy1 ,ar5ig & ,moel ,wyn4 ,a simil> s]ies is also repres5t$ 9 ,irel&1 rang+ f ,wickl[ to ,wat]=d1 =m+ a d\ble gr\p ( fel/ones1 porphyries1 breccias1 & a%-b$s1 ) dykes ( basalt & dol]ite4 ,! same s]ies aga9 appe>s amid/ ! ,l[] ,silurian b$s ( ,co4 ,l\?1 ne> ,drogh$a4 ,metamorphic ,s]ies presumably ( ,l[] ,silurian ,age4--,if1 z seems highly probable1 ! great metamorphic s]ies ( ,donegal & ,d]ry are ! repres5tatives 9 "t ( ! ,l[] ,silurian s]ies1 "s ( ! great %eets ( felspa?ic & hornbl5dic trap :i* !y conta9 are ref]able to ?is epo*4 ,^! rocks h und]gone a *ange 9 /ructure along ) ! s$im5t>y /rata ( :i* !y 7 orig9ally =m$1 s t ! %eets ( 7presumably7 augitic lava h be5 conv]t$ into hornbl5de-rock & s*i/4 ,simil> masses occur 9 ,nor? ,mayo1 s\? ( ,beld]g ,h>b\r4 ,cambrian ,p]iod4--,9 ! ,pass ( ,llanb]is1 along ! banks ( ,llyn ,pad>n1 masses ( qu>tz-porphyry1 felsite & agglom]ate1 or breccia1 indicate volcanic action dur+ ?is /age4 ,^! rocks und]lie b$s ( conglom]ate1 slate & grit ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian epo*1 &1 z ,mr4 ,blake has %[n1 are cle>ly ( volcanic orig91 & pass upw>ds into ! s$im5t>y /rata ( ! p]iod4 ,a simil> gr\p1 fir/ recognis$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 /ret*es s\?w>ds f ,bangor along ! s\!rn %ore ( ! ,m5ai ,/raits4 ,aga91 we f9d ! volcanic eruptions ( ?is epo* at ,/4 ,david's1 consi/+ ( diabasic & felsitic lava1 ) b$s ( a%2 & 9 ! c5tre ( ,engl&1 among/ ! grits & slates ( ,*>nwood ,=e/ presumably ( ,cambrian age1 v>i\s fel/ones1 porphyries1 & volcanic breccias are f\nd4 ,?us x w be se5 t e epo*1 f ! e>lie/ /age ( ! ,cambrian to ! ,p]mian1 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 gives evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( volcanic action2 f :i* we may inf] t ! orig9at+ cause1 :atev] x may be1 has be5 9 op]ation ?r\gh\t all pa/ geological "t repres5t$ by liv+ =ms4 ,! "q ( ! condition ( our globe 9 ,ar*an times1 & e>li]1 is "o :i* only c be discuss$ on !oretic gr\nd1 & is beyond ! scope ( ?is "w4 #a ,! read] is ref]r$ to ,sir ,a4 ,geikie's ,presid5tial ,address to ! ,geological ,society 7#ahia7 = ! late/ view ( ?is subject4 ,illu/ration3 ,,volcanic ,,b& ,,( ,,! ,,moluccas4 ,map %[+ ! volcanic belt to :i* ,krakatoa belongs4 ,! %ad$ portion is volcanic4 ,,"p ,,vi4 ,,special ,,volcanic ,,& ,,seismic ,,ph5om5a4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,eruption ,,( ,,krakatoa ,,9 #ahhc4 ,i propose to introduce "h "s acc\nt ( "o ( ! mo/ t]rible outbur/s ( volcanic action t h tak5 place 9 mod]n times2 namely1 ! eruption ( ! volcano ( ,krakatoa 7a corruption ( ,rakata7 9 ! /rait ( ,sunda1 betwe5 ! isl&s ( ,sumatra & ,java1 9 ! ye> #ahhc4 ,! ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 ( :i* ?is isl& once =m$ a memb]1 is a region :]e volcanic action is con/ant1 & :]e ! outbur/s are exceptionally viol5t4 ,) ! great isl& ( ,borneo z a solid1 non-volcanic c5tral core1 a l9e ( volcanic isl&s ext5ds f ,*$ooba (f ! coa/ ( ,pegu ?r\gh ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,sumbawa1 ,flores1 &1 rea*+ ! ,moluccas1 /ret*es nor?w>ds ?r\gh ! ,philipp9es into ,japan & ,kamts*atka4 ,?is is probably ! mo/ active volcanic belt 9 ! _w1 & ! rec5t t]rible e>?quake & eruption 9 ,japan 7,novemb]1 #ahia7 gives pro( t ! volcanic =ces are z p[]ful & de/ructive z ev]4#a 7a47 ,dormant ,condition d[n to #afhj4--;,d[n to ! ye> #afhj1 ?is isl&1 al?\gh f its =m & /ructure evid5tly volcanic1 appe>s to h be5 9 a dormant /ate2 its sides 7 cov]$ ) luxuriant =e/s1 & num]\s habitations dott$ its %ore4 ,b 9 ,may ( t ye> an eruption occurr$1 ow+ to :i* ! aspect ( ,krakatoa z describ$ by ,vogel 0 entirely *ang$2 ! surface ( ! isl& :5 ?is writ] pass$ on 8 voyage to ,sumatra appe>$ burnt up & arid1 :ile blocks ( inc&esc5t rock 7 be+ hurl$ into ! air f f\r di/9ct po9ts4 ,aft] ?is fir/ record$ eruption ! isl& relaps$ into a /ate ( repose1 & except = a /ream ( molt5 lava :i* issu$ f ! nor!rn extremity1 !re 0 no evid5ce ( its dang]\s condition4 ,! luxuriant vegetation ( ! tropics spe$ily re-e/abli%$ itself1 & ! volcano 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z ext9ct4#b ,hi/ory repeats itself2 & ! hi/ory ( ,vesuvius 0 repeat$ 9 ! case ( ,krakatoa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,map ,( ,! ,krakatoa ,gr\p ,( ,isl&s ,be=e ,! ,eruption ,( ,augu/ #ahhc 7,f ,admiralty ,*>t7 7b47 ,eruption ( ,may1 #ahhc4c--,on ! morn+ ( ,may #bj1 #ahhc1 ! inhabitants ( ,batavia1 ( ,buit5zorg1 & neighb\r+ localities1 7 surpris$ by a confus$ noise1 m+l$ ) detonations resembl+ ! fir+ ( artill]y4 ,! ph5om5a comm5c$ betwe5 t5 & elev5 o'clock 9 ! morn+1 & soon acquir$ su* int5sity z to cause g5]al al>m4 ,! detonations 7 accompani$ by trembl+s ( ! gr\nd1 ( build+s & v>i\s objects conta9$ 9 dwell+s2 b x 0 g5]ally admitt$ t ^! did n proce$ f e>?quake %ocks1 b f atmosph]ic vibrations4 ,no deviation ( ! magnetic ne$le 0 obs]v$ at ! ,meteorological ,in/itute ( ,batavia2 b a v]tical oscillation 0 app>5t1 & p]sons :o li/5$ ) ! e> plac$ on ! gr\nd1 ev5 dur+ ! mo/ viol5t detonations1 c\ld he> no subt]ranean noise :atev]4 ,x became cle> t ! s\nds came f "s volcano bur/ into activity2 b x is /range t = two :ole days x rema9$ unc]ta9 :at 0 ! p>ticul> volcano to :i* ! ph5om5a 7 to be ref]r$4 ,! detonations appe>$1 inde$1 to come f ! direction ( ,krakatoa2 b f ,s]ang1 ,anj]1 & ,m]ak1 localities situat$ mu* ne>] ,krakatoa ?an ,batavia1 ! telegraph ann\nc$ t nei!r detonations nor atmosph]ic vibrations _h be5 p]ceiv$4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ,batavia & ,krakatoa is n9ety-?ree ,engli% miles4 ,! d\bts ?us exp]i5c$ 71 h[ev]1 soon put to re/ by ! arrival ( an ,am]ican vessel "u ! comm& ( ,a4 ,r4 ,?omas1 & ( o!r %ips :i* hail$ f ! /raits ( ,sunda4 ,f _! acc\nts x 0 asc]ta9$ t 9 ! direction ( ,krakatoa ! heav5s 7 cl\d$ ) a%es1 & t a gr& column ( smoke1 illum9$ f "t to "t by fla%es ( flame1 arose f above ! isl&4 ,?us aft] a repose ( m ?an two hundr$ ye>s1 ! peaceable isle ( ,krakatoa1 inhabit$1 & cov]$ by ?ick =e/s1 0 sudd5ly awak5$ f its condition ( fanci$ security4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,section f ,v]lat5 ,isl& ?r\gh ,krakatoa1 to %[ ! outl9e be=e & aft] ! eruption ( ,augu/1 #ahhh4 ,! cont9u\s l9e %[s ! =m]2 ! dott$ l9e & %ad+1 ! latt]2 f :i* x w be obs]v$ t ! orig9al isl& has to a l>ge ext5t disappe>$4 ,! l9e ( section is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ce4 7c47 ,=m & ,appe>ance ( ! ,isl& be=e ! ,eruption ( #ahhc4--;,f surveys made 9 #ahdi & #ahha1 x w\ld appe> t ! isl& ( ,krakatoa consi/$ ( ?ree m\nta9s or gr\ps ( m\nta9s 7,figs4 #ce1 #cf72 ! s\!rn =m$ by ! cone ( ,rakata 7prop]ly s call$71 ris+ ) a sc>p$ face above ! sea to a height ( ov] #hjj mtres 7#b1fbb feet74 ,adjo9+ ?is cone1 & ris+ f ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 came ! gr\p ( ,danan1 compos$ ( _m summits1 probably =m+ "p ( ! ence9te annulaire ( a crat]4 ,& ne> ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isle1 a ?ird gr\p ( mammelat$ heights c\ld be recognis$ "u ! g5]al "n ( ,p]boewatan1 f :i* issu$ sev]al obsidian lava-fl[s1 ) a /eep slope2 ^! dat$ back p]haps to ! p]iod ( ! fir/ kn[n eruption ( #afhj4 ,?is l>ge & m\nta9\s isl& z x exi/$ at ! beg9n+ ( ,may1 #ahhc1 has be5 entirely de/roy$ by ! t]rible eruptions ( t ye>1 ) ! exception ( ! p]iph]ic rim 7compos$ ( ! mo/ anci5t ( ! volcanic rocks1 &esite71 ( :i* ,v]lat5 ,isl& & ,rakata =m$ a "p1 & "o v small islet1 :i* is not$ on ! maps z rots 7rock71 & on ! new map ( ! ,/raits ( ,sunda ( ! ,dut* ,navy z t ( ,bootsmansrots4#d ,z %[n by ! map 9 ! ,report ( ! ,royal ,society1 ! gr\p ( isl&s :i* exi/$ previ\s to #ahhc 7 b ! unsubm]g$ portions ( "o va/ volcanic crat]1 built up ( a rem>kable v>iety ( lava alli$ to ! &esite ( ! ,java volcanoes1 b hav+ a l>g] p]c5tage ( silica1 & h5ce fall+ "u ! head ( en/atite-dacite4#e ,t ^! volcanic rocks are ( v rec5t orig9 is %[n by ! fact1 asc]ta9$ by ,v]beek1 t b5ea? !m occur deposits ( ,po/-,t]ti>y age1 & t ^! 9 turn re/ on ! ,t]ti>y /rata :i* are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ,sumatra1 ,java1 & ! adjo9+ isl&s4 ,accord+ to ! reason+ ( ,pr(essor ,judd1 ! ,krakatoa gr\p at an e>ly p]iod ( its hi/ory pres5t$ ! =m ( a magnific5t crat]-cone1 sev]al miles 9 circumf]5ce at ! base1 :i* subsequ5t eruptions %att]$ into fragm5ts or blew into ! air 9 ! =m ( du/1 a%es1 & blocks ( lava1 :ile ! c5tral "p collaps$ & fell 91 leav+ a va/ circul> r+ l ! anci5t crat] ( ,somma 7see ,fig4 #f1 p4 #dc71 & he supposes ! =m] eruptions to h be5 on a scale exce$+ 9 magnific5ce ^? :i* h caus$ su* _w-wide int]e/ )9 ! la/ few ye>s4 7d47 ,eruption ( #bf? to #bh? ( ,augu/4--,x 01 z we h se51 9 ! mon? ( ,may t1 9 ! language ( ,*ev4 ,v]beek1 ! volcano ( ,krakatoa *ose to ann\nce 9 a high voice to ! inhabitants ( ! ,ar*ipelago t1 al?\gh almo/ no?+ among/ ! _m colossal volcanic m\nta9s ( ! ,indies1 x yield$ to none ( !m 9 reg>d to its p[]4 ,^! eruptions 71 h[ev]1 only premonitory ( ! trem5d\s & t]rible explosion :i* 0 to comm5ce on ,sunday1 ! #bf? ( ,augu/1 & :i* cont9u$ = sev]al days subsequ5tly4 ,a little aft] noon ( t day1 a rumbl+ noise accompani$ by %ort & feeble explosions 0 he>d at ,buit5zorg1 com+ f ! direction ( ,krakatoa2 & simil> s\nds 7 he>d at ,anj] & ,batavia a little lat]4 ,soon ^! detonations augm5t$ 9 int5sity1 especially ab\t five o'clock 9 ! ev5+2 & news 0 aft]w>ds receiv$ t ! s\nds _h be5 he>d 9 ! isle ( ,java4 ,^! s\nds increas$ /ill m dur+ ! night1 s t few p]sons liv+ on ! we/ side ( ! isle ( ,java 7 able to sleep4 ,at sev5 9 ! morn+ !re came a cra% s =midable1 t ^? :o _h hop$ = a little sleep at ,buit5zorg leap$ f _! b$s4 ,mean:ile ! sky1 :i* _h up to ?is "t be5 cle>1 became ov]ca/1 s t by t5 o'clock x became necess>y to h rec\rse to lamps1 & ! air became *>g$ ) vap\r4 ,occasional %ocks ( e>?quake 7 n[ felt4 ,d>kness became g5]al all ov] ! /raits & ! bord]+ coa/s4 ,%[]s ( a%es began to fall4 ,! repeat$ %ocks ( e>?quake1 & ! rapid dis*>ges ( subt]ranean artill]y1 all comb9$ to %[ t an eruption ( ev5 great] viol5ce ?an t ( ,may 0 9 progress at ! isle ( ,krakatoa4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/$ witnesses to ?is t]rible outbur/ 7 ^? on bo>d ! %ips ply+ ?r\gh ! /raits4 ,among/ ^! 0 ! ,*>les ,bal1 a ,briti% vessel "u ! comm& ( ,capta9 ,watson4 ,?is %ip 0 t5 miles s\? ( ! volcano on ,sunday aft]noon1 & !re=e well 9 sight ( ! isl& at ! "t :5 ! volcano _h ent]$ ^u its p>oxysmal /ate ( action4 ,capta9 ,watson describes ! isl& z be+ cov]$ by a d5se black cl\d1 :ile s\nds l ! dis*>ges ( artill]y occurr$ at int]vals ( a second ( "t2 & a crackl+ noise 7probably aris+ f ! impact ( fragm5ts ( rock asc5d+ & desc5d+ 9 ! atmosph]e7 0 he>d by ^? on bo>d4 ,^! appe>ances became s ?reat5+ t[>ds five o'clock 9 ! ev5+1 t ! comm&] fe>$ to cont9ue 8 voyage & began to %ort5 sail4 ,f five to six o'clock a ra9 ( pumice 9 l>ge pieces1 q w>m1 fell ^u ! %ip1 :i* 0 "o ( ^? t escap$ de/ruction dur+ ?is t]rible night4#f 7e47 ,electrical ,ph5om5a4--,dur+ ?is eruption1 electrical ph5om5a ( great spl5d\r 7 obs]v$4 ,capta9 ,wooldbridge1 view+ ! eruption 9 ! aft]noon ( ! #bf? f a di/ance ( =ty miles1 speaks ( a great vap\r-cl\d look+ l an imm5se wall be+ mom5t>ily light$ up by bur/s ( =k$ lightn+ l l>ge s]p5ts ru%+ ?r\gh ! air4 ,aft] sunset ?is d>k wall resembl$ a blood-r$ curta91 ) edges ( all %ades ( yell[1 ! :ole ( a murky t+e1 ?r\gh :i* gleam$ fi]ce fla%es ( lightn+4 ,z ,pr(essor ,judd obs]ves1 ! abundant g5]ation ( atmosph]ic electricity is a famili> ph5om5on 9 all volcanic eruptions on a gr& scale4 ,! /eam-jets ru%+ ?r\gh ! orifices ( ! e>?'s cru/ con/itute an enorm\s hydro-electrical eng9e1 & ! friction ( ! eject$ mat]ials /rik+ aga9/ "o ano!r 9 _! asc5t & desc5t also does mu* 9 ! way ( g5]at+ electricity4#g ,x has be5 e/imat$ by sev]al obs]v]s t ! column ( wat]y vap\r asc5d$ to a height ( f twelve to sev5te5 & ev5 tw5ty-?ree miles2 & on rea*+ ! upp] /rata ( ! atmosph]e1 x spread itself out 9 a va/ canopy resembl+ ! p9e-tree =m ( ,vesuvian eruptions2 & ?r\gh\t ! long night ( ! #bg? ?is canopy cont9u$ to ext5d lat]ally1 & ! p>ticles ( du/ :i* x enclos$ began to desc5d sl[ly ?r\gh ! air4 7f47 ,=mation ( ,waves4--,?is trem5d\s outbur/ ( volcanic =ces1 :i* to a great] or less ext5t influ5c$ ! entire surface ( ! globe1 gave rise to waves :i* trav]s$ bo? air & ocean2 & 9 consequ5ce ( ! l>ge numb] ( obs]vatories scatt]$ all ov] ! globe1 & ! excell5ce & delicacy ( ! in/rum5ts ( obs]vation1 we are put 9 possession ( ! rem>kable results :i* h be5 obta9$ f ! collection ( ! obs]vations 9 ! h&s ( compet5t speciali/s4 ,! results are relat$ 9 ext5so 9 ! ,report ( ! ,royal ,society1 illu/rat$ by maps & diagrams1 & are wor?y ( c>eful /udy by ^? int]e/$ 9 t]re/rial ph5om5a4 ,a brief summ>y is all t c be giv5 "h1 b x w probably suffice to br+ home to ! read] ! magnitude & gr&eur ( ! eruption4 ,! vibrations or waves g5]at$ 9 ,augu/1 #ahhc1 at ,krakatoa may be arrang$ "u ?ree heads3 7#a7 ,atmosph]ic ,waves2 7#b7 ,s\nd ,waves2 & 7#c7 ,oceanic ,waves2 :i* ,i w t\* ^u 9 ! ord] "h /at$4 7#a7 ,atmosph]ic ,waves4--,^! ph5om5a h be5 ably h&l$ by ,g5]al ,/ra*ey1#h f a l>ge numb] ( obs]vations ext5d+ all ov] ! globe4 ,f ^! x has be5 cle>ly e/abli%$ t an atmosph]ic wave1 orig9at+ at ,krakatoa z a c5tre1 exp&$ outw>ds 9 a circul> =m & travell$ onw>ds till x became a great circle at a di/ance ( #ahj degrees f its po9t ( orig91 aft] :i* x /ill advanc$1 b n[ gradually contract+ to a node at ! antipodes ( ,krakatoa2 t is to say1 at a po9t ov] ! surface ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 situat$ 9 lat4 #f ,n4 & long4 #gb ,w4 7or !reab\t74 ,hav+ atta9$ ?is position1 ! wave 0 reflect$ or reproduc$1 exp&+ outw>ds = #ahj degrees & travell+ backw>ds aga9 to ,krakatoa1 f :i* x aga9 />t$1 & return+ to its orig9al =m aga9 ov]spread ! globe4 ,?is wond]ful repetition1 due to ! sph]ical =m ( ! e>?1 0 obs]v$ no few] ?an sev5 times1 ?\gh ) su* dim9i%$ =ce z ultimately to be outside ! range ( obs]vation by ! mo/ s5sitive in/rum5ts4 ,x is "o ( ! triumphs ( mod]n sci5tific appliances t ! c\rse ( su* a wave1 g5]at$ 9 a fluid surr\nd+ a globe1 :i* might be demon/rat$ on ma!matical pr9ciples1 has be5 actually det]m9$ by exp]im5ts c>ri$ on ov] s great an area4 7#b7 ,s\nd ,waves4--,if ! s\nd-waves produc$ at ! "t ( maximum eruption 7 n q z f>-rea*+ z ^? ( ! air1 !y 7 c]ta9ly suffici5tly surpris+ to be almo/ incr$ible1 7 x n t !y re/1 bo? z reg>ds "t & "*1 ^u inconte/ible au?ority4 ,! s\nd ( ! eruption1 resembl+ t ( ! dis*>ge ( artill]y1 0 he>d n only ov] ne>ly all p>ts ( ,sumatra1 ,java1 & ! coa/ ( ,borneo opposite ! ,/raits ( ,sunda1 b at places ov] two ?\s& miles di/ant f ! sc5e ( ! explosions4 ,detail$ acc\nts1 collect$ ) great c>e1 are giv5 9 ! ,report ( ! ,royal ,society1 f :i* ! foll[+ are select$ z examples3-- #a4 ,at ! port ( ,a*e51 at ! nor!rn extremity ( ,sumatra1 di/ant #a1jgc miles1 x 0 suppos$ t ! port 0 be+ attack$1 & ! troops 7 put "u arms4 #b4 ,at ,s+apore1 di/ant #ebb miles1 two /eam]s 7 dispat*$ to look out = ! vessel :i* 0 suppos$ to be fir+ guns z signals ( di/ress4 #c4 ,at ,bankok1 9 ,siam1 di/ant #a1dac miles1 ! report 0 he>d on ! #bg?2 z also at ,labuan1 9 ,borneo1 di/ant #a1jcg miles4 #d4 ,at places 9 ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 di/ant ab\t #a1dej miles1 detonations 7 he>d on ! #bg?1 at ! "t ( ! eruption4 ,! above places lie nor?w>ds ( ,krakatoa4 ,9 ! opposite direction1 we h ! foll[+ examples3-- #e4 ,at ,p]?1 9 ,we/]n ,au/ralia1 di/ant #a1jib miles1 s\nds z ( guns fir+ at sea 7 he>d2 & at ! ,victorian ,pla9s1 di/ant ab\t #a1gjj miles1 simil> s\nds 7 he>d4 #f4 ,9 ,s\? ,au/ralia1 at ,alice's ,spr+s1 ,undoolga1 & o!r places at di/ances ( ov] #b1jjj miles1 ! s\nds ( ! eruption 7 also he>d4 #g4 ,9 a we/]ly direction at ,dut* ,bay1 ,ceylon1 di/ant #b1jeh miles1 ! s\nds 7 he>d betwe5 #g a4m4 & #aj a4m4 on ! morn+ ( ! #bg? ( ,augu/4 #h4 ,la/ly1 at ! ,*agos ,isl&s1 di/ant #b1bfg miles1 ! detonations 7 audible betwe5 #aj & #aa a4m4 ( ! same day4 ,"s ( ! above di/ances are s great t we may fail to realise !m2 b !y w be m easily appreciat$1 p]haps1 if we *ange ! localities to our own side ( ! globe1 & take two or ?ree cases ) simil> di/ances4 ,!n1 if ! eruption _h tak5 place among/ ! volcanoes ( ! ,can>ies1 ! detonations w\ld h be5 he>d at ,gibralt>1 at ,lisbon1 at ,portsm\?1 ,s\?ampton1 ,cork1 & probably at ,dubl9 & ,liv]pool2 or1 aga91 suppos+ ! eruption _h tak5 place on ! coa/ ( ,icel&1 ! report w\ld h be5 he>d all ov] ! we/]n & nor!rn coa/s ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 z well z at ,am/]dam & ! ,hague4 ,! enorm\s di/ance to :i* ! s\nd travell$ 9 ! case ( ,krakatoa 0 greatly due to ! fact t ! explosions took place at ! surface ( ! sea1 & ! s\nd 0 c>ri$ along t surface un9t]rupt$ly to ! localities record$2 a range ( m\nta9s int]v5+ w\ld h cut (f ! s\nd-wave at a comp>atively %ort di/ance f its s\rce4 7#c7 ,oceanic ,waves4--,z may be suppos$1 ! eruption gave rise to great agitation ( ! ocean wat]s ) v>i\s degrees ( v]tical oscillation2 b accord+ to ! conclusions ( ,capta9 ,:>ton1 f\nd$ on num]\s data1 ! greate/ wave seems to h orig9at$ at ,krakatoa ab\t #aj a4m4 on ! #bg? ( ,augu/1 ris+ on ! coa/s ( ! ,/raits ( ,sunda to a height ( fifty feet above ! ord9>y sea-level4 ,?is wave appe>s to h be5 obs]v$ ov] at lea/ half ! globe4 ,x travell$ we/w>ds to ! coa/ ( ,h9do/an & ,s\!rn ,arabia1 ultimately rea*+ ! coa/s ( ,france & ,engl&4 ,ea/w>ds x /ruck ! coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ,alaska1 & ! we/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 s t x 0 only ! cont95t ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica :i* =m$ a b>ri] 7& t n absolute7 to ! circulation ( ?is oceanic wave all ov] ! globe4 ,! de/ruction to life & prop]ty caus$ by ?is wave along ! coa/s ( ,sunda 0 v great4 ,comb9$ ) ! e>?quake %ocks 7:i*1 h[ev]1 7 n v sev]e71 ! trem5d\s /orm ( w9d1 ! fall ( a%es & c9d]s1 & ! *anges 9 ! sea-b$1 x produc$ 9 ! ,/raits ( ,sunda = "s "t aft] ! eruption a disa/r\s trans=mation4 ,ligh?\ses _h be5 swept away2 all ! old famili> l&m>ks on ! %ore 7 obscur$ by a va/ deposit ( volcanic du/2 ! sea itself 0 encumb]$ ) enorm\s quantities ( float+ pumice1 9 _m places ( su* ?ickness t no vessel c\ld =ce its way ?r\gh !m2 & = mon?s aft] ! eruption "o ( ! pr9cipal *annels 0 greatly ob/ruct$ by two isl&s :i* _h aris5 9 its mid/4 ,! ,sebesi *annel 0 completely block$ by banks compos$ ( volcanic mat]ials1 & two portions ( ^! banks rose above ! sea z isl&s1 :i* receiv$ ! "n ( ,/e]s ,isl& & ,calmey] ,isl&2 b ^!1 by ! action ( ! waves1 h s9ce be5 completely swept away1 & ! mat]ials /rewn ov] ! b$ ( ! sea4#i 7g47 ,atmosph]ic ,effects4--,b ! face ( nature1 ev5 9 h] mo/ t]rific & repulsive aspect1 is seldom altoge!r unreliev$ by "s traces ( beauty4 ,9 contra/ to ! fe>ful & disa/r\s ph5om5a j describ$1 is to be plac$ ! spl5d\r ( ! heav5s1 witness$ all ov] ! c5tral regions ( ! globe ?r\gh\t a p]iod ( sev]al mon?s aft] ! eruption ( #ahhc1 :i* has be5 ably treat$ by ! ,hon4 ,rollo ,russell & ,mr4 ,c4 ,d4 ,ar*ibald1 9 ! ,royal ,society's ,report4 ,:5 ! p>ticles ( lava & a%es m+l$ ) vap\r 7 project$ into ! air ) a velocity great] ?an t ( a ball dis*>g$ f ! l>ge/ ,arm/rong gun1 ^! mat]ials 7 c>ri$ by ! preval5t trade-w9ds 9 a we/]ly direction1 & "s ( !m fell on ! deck ( %ips sail+ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean z f> z long4 #hj ,e41 z 9 ! case ( ! ,briti% ,empire--on :i* ! p>ticles fell on ! #bi? ( ,augu/1 at a di/ance ( #a1fjj miles f ,krakatoa4 ,b f> beyond ?is limit1 ! f9] p>ticles ( du/ 7or r m9ute cry/als ( felsp> & o!r m9]als71 m+l$ ) vap\r ( wat]1 7 c>ri$ by ! high] curr5ts ( ! air z f> z ! ,sey*elles & ,africa1--n only ! ,ea/ coa/1 b also ! ,we/1 z ,cape ,coa/ ,ca/le on ! ,gold ,coa/2 to ,p>am>ibo1 ,tr9idad1 ,panama1 ! ,s&wi* ,isles1 ,ceylon & ,briti% ,india1 at all ( :i* places dur+ ! mon? ( ,septemb] ! sun assum$ t9ts ( blue or gre51 z did also ! moon j be=e & aft] ! appe>ance ( ! />s2#aj & f ! latt] end ( ,septemb] & = sev]al mon?s1 ! sky 0 rem>kable = its magnific5t coloration2 pass+ f crimson ?r\gh purple to yell[1 & melt+ away 9 azure t9ts :i* 7 visible 9 ,europe & ! ,briti% ,isles2 :ile a l>ge corona 0 obs]v$ r\nd bo? ! sun & moon4 ,^! beautiful sky effects 7 objects ( g5]al obs]vation ?r\gh\t ! latt] "p ( ! ye> #ahhc & comm5cem5t ( ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! explanation ( ^! ph5om5a may be briefly /at$4 ,! f9e p>ticles1 consi/+ = ! mo/ "p ( transluc5t cry/als1 or fragm5ts ( cry/als1 =m$ a canopy high up 9 ! atmosph]e1 be+ gradually spread ov] bo? sides ( ! equator till x =m$ a broad belt1 ?r\gh :i* ! rays ( ! sun & moon 7 refract$4 ,t[>ds dawn & sunset !y 7 refract$ & reflect$ f ! facets ( ! cry/al1 & ?us und]w5t decomposition into ! prismatic col\rs2 z d ! rays ( ! sun :5 refract$ & reflect$ f ! p>ticles ( moi/ure 9 a ra9-cl\d4 ,! subject is "o :i* _c be fully dealt ) "h1 & is r outside ! scope ( ?is "w4 7h47 ,orig9 ( ! ,eruption4--,! ultimate cause ( volcanic eruptions is treat$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt]1 nor is t ( ,krakatoa ess5tially diff]5t f o!rs4 ,x 0 rem>kable1 h[ev]1 bo? = ! magnitude ( ! =ces evok$ & ! /up5d\s scale ( ! result+ ph5om5a4 ,x is evid5t t wat] play$ an important "p 9 ^! ph5om5a1 ?\gh n z ! prime mov]2--any m ?an wat] 9 ! boil] ( a locomotive is ! prime mov] 9 ! g5]ation ( ! /eam4 ,)\t ! fuel 9 ! furnace ! /eam w\ld n be produc$2 & ! am\nt ( /eam g5]at$ w be proportional to ! quantity & heat ( ! fuel 9 ! furnace & ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,9 ! case ( ,krakatoa1 bo? ^! elem5ts 7 enorm\s & inexhau/ible4 ,! volcanic *imney 7or sy/em ( *imneys71 be+ situat$ on an isl&1 0 readily accessible to ! wat]s ( ! ocean :5 fissures gave !m access to ! int]ior molt5 matt]4 ,t su* fissures 7 op5$ we may well believe4 ,! e>?quakes :i* occurr$ at ! beg9n+ ( ,may1 & lat] on1 on ! #bg? ( t mon?1 may indicate movem5ts ( ! cru/ by :i* wat] ga9$ access4 ,x appe>s t 9 ,may ! only crat] 9 a /ate ( activity 0 t ( ,p]boewatan2 9 ,june ano!r crat] came into action1 connect$ ) ,danan 9 ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 & 9 ,augu/ a ?ird bur/ =?4 ,?us !re 0 progressive activity up to ! comm5cem5t ( ! gr& eruption ( ! #bf? ( t mon?4#aa ,dur+ ?is la/ p>oxysmal /age1 ! c5tre ( ! isl& gave way & sunk d[n1 :5 ! wat]s ( ! ocean ga9$ free access1 & meet+ ) ! columns ( molt5 matt] ris+ f bel[ orig9at$ ! prodigi\s masses ( /eam :i* rose into ! air4 7i47 ,cause ( ! ,detonations4--,! detonations :i* accompani$ ! la/ great eruption are repeat$ly ref]r$ to 9 all ! acc\nts4 ,^! may h be5 due1 n only to ! sudd5 explosions ( /eam directly produc$ by ! ocean wat] com+ 9 contact ) ! molt5 lava1 b by dissociation ( ! vap\r ( wat] at ! critical po9t ( temp]ature into its elem5ts ( oxyg5 & hydrog52 ! reunion ( ^! elem5ts at ! requir$ temp]ature w\ld also result 9 explosions4 ,! ph5om5a att5d+ ?is great volcanic eruption1 s c>efully tabulat$ & critically exam9$1 w h5ce=? be ref]r$ to z con/itut+ an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( volcanic action ov] ! globe1 & be ( imm5se value = ref]5ce & comp>ison4 #a ,! eruption ( ,krakatoa has be5 ! subject ( an elaborate ,report publi%$ by ! ,royal ,society1 & is also describ$ 9 a "w by ,*evali] ,r4 ,d4 ,m4 ,v]beek1 ,+5ieur en ,*ef des ,m9es1 & publi%$ by ord] ( ! ,gov]nor-,g5]al ( ! ,ne!rl& ,indies 7#ahhf74 ,see also an ,article by ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,ball 9 ! ,contempor>y ,review = ,novemb]1 #ahhh4 #b ,v]beek1 loc4 cit41 p4 #d4 #c ,! acc\nt ( ?is eruption is a free translation f ,v]beek4 #d ,v]beek1 loc4 cit41 p4 #afj4 #e ,judd1 ,rep4 ,r4 ,s4 #f ,a full] acc\nt by ,pr(4 ,judd w be f\nd 9 ! ,report ( ! ,royal ,society1 p4 #ad4 ,sev]al vessels at an*or 7 driv5 a%ore on ! /raits ow+ to ! /rong w9d :i* arose4 #g ,judd1 ,report1 p4 #ba4 #h ,report1 ,"p ii4 #i ,9 ?is eruption1 #cf1chj human be+s p]i%$1 ( :om #cg 7 ,europeans2 #afc villages 7kampo5gs7 7 entirely1 & #acb p>tially1 de/roy$4--,v]beek1 loc4 cit41 p4 #gi4 #aj ,v]beek1 loc4 cit41 p4 #add-e4 ,! du/ put a girdle r\nd ! e>? 9 ?irte5 days4 #aa ,v]beek1 loc4 cit41 p4 #cj4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,e>?quakes4 ,connection ( ,e>?quakes ) ,volcanic ,action4--,! connection betwe5 e>?quake %ocks & volcanic eruptions is n[ s g5]ally recognis$ t x is unnecess>y to insi/ ^u x "h4 ,all volcanic di/ricts ov] ! globe are specially liable to vibrations ( ! cru/2 b at ! same "t x is to be recollect$ t ^! movem5ts visit c\ntries occasionally f :i* volcanoes1 ei!r rec5t or ext9ct1 are abs5t2 9 :i* cases we may consid] e>?quake %ocks to be abortive attempts to orig9ate volcanic action4 7a47 ,orig94--,f ! num]\s obs]vations :i* h be5 made reg>d+ ! nature ( ^! ph5om5a by ,hopk9s1 ,lyell1 & o!rs1 x seems cle>ly e/abli%$ t e>?quakes h _! orig9 9 "s sudd5 impact ( gas1 /eam1 or molt5 matt] impell$ by gas or /eam "u high pressure1 b5ea? ! solid cru/4#a ,h[ su* impact orig9ates we ne$ n /op to inquire1 z ! cause is closely connect$ ) t :i* produces volcanic eruptions4 ,! effect1 h[ev]1 ( su* impact is to orig9ate a wave ( translation ?r\gh ! cru/1 travell+ outw>ds f ! po9t1 or focus1 on ! surface imm$iately ov] ! po9t ( impact4#b ,^! waves ( translation c 9 "s cases be laid d[n on a map1 & are call$ isoseismal curves1 ea* curve repres5t+ approximately an equal degree ( seismal int5sity2 z %[n on ! *>t ( a "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica affect$ by ! great ,*>le/on e>?quake4 7,fig4 #cg47 ,mr4 ,hopk9s has %[n t ! e>?quake-wave1 :5 x passes ?r\gh rocks diff]+ 9 d5sity & ela/icity1 *anges 9 "s degree n only its velocity1 b its direction2 be+ bo? refract$ & reflect$ 9 a mann] analog\s to t ( light :5 x passes f "o m$ium to ano!r ( diff]5t d5sity4#c ,:5 a %ock trav]ses ! cru/ ?r\gh a ?ickness ( sev]al miles x w meet ) v>i\s k9ds ( rock z well z ) fissures & plications ( ! /rata1 ow+ to :i* its c\rse w be m or less modifi$4 7b47 ,=mation ( ,fissures4--,dur+ e>?quake movem5ts1 fissures may be =m$ 9 ! cru/1 & fill$ ) gase\s or melt$ matt] :i* may n 9 all cases rea* ! surface2 &1 on ! pr9ciple t volcanoes are safety-valves = regions beyond _! imm$iate influ5ce1 we may inf] t ! e>?quake %ock1 :i* g5]ally prec$es ! outbur/ ( a volcano long dormant1 f9ds relief by ! eruption :i* foll[s2 s t :atev] may be ! ext5t ( ! disa/r\s results ( su* an eruption1 !y w\ld be /ill m disa/r\s if !re _h be5 no su* safety-valve z t af=d$ by a volcanic v5t4 ,?us1 probably1 ow+ to ! ext9ction ( volcanic activity 9 ,syria1 ! e>?quakes 9 t region h be5 peculi>ly de/ructive4 ,= example1 on ,janu>y #a1 #ahcg1 ! t[n ( ,saf$ we/ ( ! ,jordan valley 0 completely de/roy$ by an e>?quake 9 :i* mo/ ( ! inhabitants p]i%$4 ,! great e>?quakes ( ,aleppo 9 ! pres5t c5tury1 & ( ,syria 9 ! middle ( ! eighte5?1 7 ( exceptional sev]ity4 ,9 t ( ,syria1 :i* took place 9 #agei1 & :i* 0 protract$ dur+ a p]iod ( ?ree mon?s1 an area ( #aj1jjj squ>e leagues 0 affect$4 ,accon1 ,saphat1 ,baalbeck1 ,damascus1 ,sidon1 ,tripoli1 & o!r places 7 almo/ entirely levell$ to ! gr\nd2 _m ?\s&s ( human be+s lo/ _! lives4#d ,o!r examples might be cit$4 7c47 ,e>?quake ,waves4--,we h n[ to return to ! ph5om5a connect$ ) ! transmission ( e>?quake-waves4 ,! velocity ( transmission ?r\gh ! e>? is v great1 & sev]al attempts h be5 made to measure ?is velocity ) accuracy4 ,! mo/ valuable ( su* attempts are ^? connect$ ) ! ,*>le/on & ,rivi]a %ocks4 ,=tunately1 ow+ to ! p]fection ( mod]n appliances1 & ! numb] ( obs]v]s all ov] ! globe1 ^! results are entitl$ to great confid5ce4 ,! ph5om5a connect$ ) ! ,*>le/on e>?quake1 :i* took place on ! #ca/ ( ,augu/1 #ahhf1 are describ$ 9 great detail by ,capta9 ,cl>5ce ,e4 ,dutton1 ( ! ,u4,s4 ,ordnance ,corps4#e ,! conclusions arriv$ at are2--t z reg>ds ! dep? ( ! focal po9t1 ?is is e/imat$ at twelve miles1 ) a probable error ( less ?an two miles2 :ile1 z reg>ds ! rate ( travel ( ! e>?quake-wave1 ! e/imate is 79 "o case7 ab\t #c4bcf miles p] second2 & 9 ano!r ab\t #c4bbf miles p] second4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! case ( ! e>?quake ( ! ,rivi]a1 :i* took place on ! #bcrd ( ,febru>y1 #ahhg1 at #e4cj a4m4 7local "t71 ! vibrations ( :i* appe> to h ext5d$ across ! ,atlantic1 & to h s5sibly affect$ ! seismograph 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ,signal ,(fice at ,wa%+ton1 ! rate ( travel 0 calculat$ at ab\t #ejj miles p] h\r1 less ?an "o-half t det]m9$ 9 ! case ( ,*>le/on2 b ,capta9 ,dutton claims1 & probably ) ju/ice1 t ! results obta9$ 9 ! latt] case are f> m reliable ?an any hi!rto arriv$ at4 7d47 ,oceanic ,waves4--,:5 ! orig9at+ impact takes place "u ! b$ ( ! ocean--ei!r by a sudd5 up-?ru/ ( ! cru/ to ! ext5t1 let u suppose1 ( two or ?ree feet1 or by an explosion f a subm>9e volcano--a d\ble wave is =m$1 "o travell+ ?r\gh ! cru/1 ! o!r ?r\gh ! ocean2 & z ! rate ( velocity ( ! =m] is greatly 9 excess ( t ( ! latt]1 ! results on _! rea*+ ! l& are (t5 disa/r\s 9 ! extreme4 ,x is ! ocean-wave1 h[ev]1 :i* is ! m important1 & calls = special consid]ation4 ,if ! impact takes place 9 v deep wat]1 ! :ole mass ( ! wat] is rais$ 9 ! =m ( a l[ dome1 slop+ equally away 9 all directions2 & x comm5ces to travel outw>ds z a wave ) an advanc+ cre/ until x approa*es ! coa/ & ent]s %all[ wat]4 ,! wave !n increases 9 height1 & ! wat] 9 front is drawn 9 & relatively l[]$2 s t on rea*+ a coa/ ) a %elv+ %ore ! =m ( ! surface consi/s ( a tr\gh 9 front foll[$ by an advanc+ cre/4 ,^! effects may be obs]v$ on a small scale 9 ! case ( a /eam%ip advanc+ up a riv]1 or into a h>b\r ) a n>r[ *annel1 b are inappreciable 9 deep wat]1 or along a precipit\s op5 coa/4 7e47 ,! ,e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 #agee4--,! disa/r\s results ( a subm>9e e>?quake ^u ! coa/ h nev] be5 m t]ribly illu/rat$ ?an 9 ! case ( ! e>?quake ( ,lisbon :i* took place on ,novemb] #a1 #agee4 ,! inhabitants _h no w>n+ ( ! com+ dang]1 :5 a s\nd l t ( ?und] 0 he>d und]gr\nd1 & imm$iately aft]w>ds a viol5t %ock ?rew d[n ! great] "p ( _! city2 ?is 0 ! l&-wave4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ab\t six m9utes1 sixty ?\s& p]sons p]i%$4 ,! sea fir/ retir$ & left ! h>b\r dry1 s =m+ ! tr\gh 9 front ( ! cre/2 imm$iately aft] ! wat] roll$ 9 ) a l(ty cre/1 "s #ej feet above ! ord9>y level1 flood+ ! h>b\r & portions ( ! city bord]+ ! %ore4 ,! m\nta9s ( ,arrabida1 ,e/rella1 ,julio1 ,m>van1 & ,c9tra1 7 impetu\sly %ak51 z x 71 f _! v f\ndations2 & accord+ to ! computation ( ,humboldt1 a portion ( ! e>?'s surface f\r times ! ext5t ( ,europe felt ! effects ( ?is great seismic %ock1 :i* ext5d$ to ! ,alps1 ! %ores ( ! ,baltic1 ! lakes ( ,scotl&1 ! great lakes ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s4 ,! velocity ( ! sea-wave 0 e/imat$ at ab\t #bj miles p] m9ute4 7f47 ,e>?quake ( ,lima & ,callao1 #bh? ,octob]1 #agdf4--,( some:at simil> "* 0 ! t]rible cata/rophe ) :i* ! cities ( ,lima & ,callao 7 visit$ 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1#f 9 :i* ! =m] city1 !n "o ( great magnific5ce1 0 ov]?r[n2 & ,callao 0 inundat$ by a sea-wave1 9 :i* out ( #bc %ips ( all sizes 9 ! h>b\r ! great] numb] f\nd]$2 sev]al1 includ+ a man-(-w>1 7 lift$ bodily & /r&$1 & all ! inhabitants ) ! exception ( ab\t two hundr$ 7 dr[n$4 ,a volcano 9 ,lucanas bur/ =? ! same night1 & su* quantities ( wat] desc5d$ f ! cone t ! :ole c\ntry 0 ov]fl[$2 & 9 ! m\nta9 ne> ,pataz1 call$ ,conv]siones de ,caxam>quilla1 ?ree o!r volcanoes bur/ =?1 & torr5ts ( wat] swept d[n _! sides4 ,9 ! case ( ^! cities1 ! l&-wave1 or %ock1 prec$$ ! sea-wave1 :i* ( c\rse only rea*$ ! port ( ,callao4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,! l9es repres5t isoseismal curves1 or curves ( equal int5sity1 ! =ce decreas+ outw>ds f ! focus at ,*>le/on1 ,no4 #aj4 7g47 ,e>?quake ( ,*>le/on1 #ca/ ,augu/1 #ahhf4--;,i %all close ?is acc\nt ( "s rem>kable e>?quakes ) a few facts reg>d+ t ( ,*>le/on1 on ! ,atlantic seabo>d ( ,c>ol9a4#g ,at #i4ea a4m4 ( ?is day1 ! inhabitants engag$ 9 _! ord9>y occupations 7 />tl$ by ! s\nd ( a di/ant ro>1 :i* spe$ily deep5$ 9 volume s z to resemble ! noise ( cannon rattl+ along ! road1 spread+ into an awful noise1 t seem$ to p]vade at once ! tr\bl$ e>? bel[ & ! /ill air above4 ,at ! same "t ! floors began to heave und]foot1 ! walls visibly sway$ to & fro1 & ! cra% ( fall+ masonry 0 he>d on all sides1 :ile univ]sal t]ror took possession ( ! populace1 :o ru%$ into ! /reets1 ! black portion ( ! community be+ ! mo/ demon/rative ( _! t]ror4 ,su* 0 ! comm5cem5t ( ! e>?quake1 by :i* ne>ly all ! h\ses ( ,*>le/on 7 damag$ or de/roy$1 _m ( ! public build+s s]i\sly injur$ or p>tially demoli%$4 ,! effects 7 felt all ov] ! ,/ates z f> z ! great lakes ( ,canada & ! bord]s ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,two epic5tral foci appe> to h be5 e/abli%$2 "o ly+ ab\t #ae miles to ! ,n4,w4 ( ,*>le/on1 call$ ! ,wood/ock focus2 ! o!r ab\t #ad miles due we/ ( ,*>le/on1 call$ ! ,rant[les focus2 ar\nd ea* ( ^! foci ! isoseismic curves conc5trat$1#h b 9 ! map 7,fig4 #cg7 are comb9$ into ! area ( "o curve4 ,! position ( ^! foci cle>ly %[s t ! orig9 ( ! ,*>le/on e>?quake 0 n subm>9e1 ?\gh occurr+ )9 a %ort di/ance ( ! ,atlantic bord]2 ! curves ( equal int5sity 7isoseismals7 are drawn all ov] ! area influ5c$ by ! %ock4 ,z a g5]al result ( ^! detail$ obs]vations1 ,capta9 ,dutton /ates t !re is a rem>kable co9cid5ce 9 ! ph5om5a ) ^? indicat$ by ! !ory ( wave-motion z ! prop] "o = an ela/ic1 ne>ly homog5e\s1 solid m$ium1 compos$ ( su* mat]ials z we "k to con/itute ! rocks ( ! out] portions ( ! e>?2 b on ! o!r h& he /ates t no?+ has be5 disclos$ :i* seems to br+ u any ne>] to ! precise nature ( ! =ces :i* g5]at$ ! di/urbance4#i #a ,! views ( ,mr4 ,r4 ,mallet1 briefly /at$1 are some:at z foll[s3--,ow+ to ! secul> cool+ ( ! e>?1 & ! consequ5t lat]al cru%+ ( ! surface1 ?is cru%+ f "t to "t ov]comes ! resi/ance2 9 :i* case %ocks are exp]i5c$ along ! l9es ( fracture & fault+ by :i* ! cru/ is int]sect$4 ,^! %ocks give rise to e>?quake waves1 & z ! cru%+ ( ! walls ( ! fissure developes heat1 we h "h ! v]a causa bo? ( volcanic eruptions & e>?quake %ocks--! =m] int5sifi$ into explosions by access ( wat] ?r\gh ! fissures4--,on ! ,dynamics ( ,e>?quakes1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad41 vol4 xxi4 #b ,illu/ration ( ! mode ( propagation ( e>?quake %ocks w be f\nd 9 ,lyell's ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acf1 or 9 ! au?or's ,physiography1 p4 #gf1 aft] ,hopk9s4 #c ,rep4 on ,!ories ( ,elevation & ,e>?quakes1 ,brit4 ,ass4 ,rep4 #ahdg1 p4 #cc4 ,9 ! map prep>$ by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,milne & ,mr4 ,w4 ,k4 ,burton to %[ ! range ( ! great e>?quake ( ,japan 7#ahia71 simil> isoseismal l9es are laid d[n4 #d ,lyell1 loc4 cit41 p4 #afc4 ,two ,catalogues ( ,e>?quakes h be5 drawn up by ,pr(4 ,o',reilly1 & are publi%$ 9 ! ,trans4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,academy1 vol4 xxviii4 7#ahhd & #ahhf74 #e ,n9? ,annual ,report1 ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey 7#ahhh74 #f ,a ,true & ,p>ticul> ,acc\nt ( ! ,dreadful ,e>?quake1 #bnd edit4 ,! orig9al publi%$ at ,lima by comm& ( ! ,vic]oy4 ,london1 #agdh4 ,translat$ f ! ,spani%4 #g ,i take ! acc\nt f t ( ,capt4 ,dutton above cit$1 p4 #bbj4 #h ,dutton1 ,report1 ,plate xxvi41 p4 #cjh4 #i ,ibid41 p4 #baa4 ,on ! connection betwe5 ! moon's position & e>?quake %ocks1 see ,mr4 ,ri*>dson's pap] on ,scotti% e>?quakes1 ,trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vi4 p4 #aid 7#ahib74 ,,"p ,,vii4 ,,volcanic ,,& ,,seismic ,,problems4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,ultimate ,,cause ,,( ,,volcanic ,,action4 ,volcanic ph5om5a are ! outw>d manife/ations ( =ces deep-seat$ b5ea? ! cru/ ( ! globe2 & 9 seek+ = ! causes ( su* ph5om5a we mu/ be guid$ by obs]vation ( _! nature & mode ( action4 ,! univ]sality ( ^! ph5om5a all ov] ! surface ( our globe1 9 pa/ or pres5t times1 indicates ! exi/5ce ( a g5]al cause b5ea? ! cru/4 ,x is true t !re are to be f\nd l>ge tracts f :i* volcanic rocks 7except ^? ( great geological antiquity7 are abs5t1 su* z ,c5tral ,russia1 ! ,nubian ,des]t1 & ! ,c5tral ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 b su* abs5ce by no means implies ! non-exi/5ce ( ! =ces :i* give rise to volcanic action b5ea? ^? regions1 b only t ! =ces h n be5 suffici5tly p[]ful to ov]come ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! cru/ ov] ^? p>ticul> tracts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! simil>ity ( volcanic lavas ov] wide regions is /rong evid5ce t !y are drawn f "o cont9u\s magma1 consi/+ ( molt5 matt] b5ea? ! solid ext]ior cru/4 7a47 ,l9es ( ,volcanic ,action4--,x has be5 %[n 9 a previ\s page t volcanic action ( rec5t or ,t]ti>y times has tak5 place ma9ly along c]ta9 l9es :i* may be trac$ on ! surface ( a map or globe4 ,"o ( ^! l9es girdles ! :ole globe1 :ile o!rs lie 9 c]ta9 directions m or less co9cid5t ) l9es ( flexure1 plication or fault+4 ,! ,isle ( ,sumatra (f]s a rem>kable example ( ! co9cid5ce ( su* l9es ) ^? ( volcanic v5ts4 ,n only ! great volcanic cones1 b also ! small] ones1 are dispos$ 9 *a9s :i* run p>allel to ! longitud9al axis ( ! isl& 7,n4,w4-,s4,e474 ,! s$im5t>y rocks are b5t & fault$ 9 l9es p>allel to ! ma9 axis1 & also to ! *a9s ( volcanic m\nta9s1 & ! obs]vation holds good ) reg>d to diff]5t geological p]iods4#a ,ano!r rem>kable case is t ( ! ,jordan ,valley4 ,n[h]e c ! exi/5ce ( a great fracture & v]tical displacem5t ( ! /rata be m cle>ly det]m9$ ?an along ?is rem>kable l9e ( depression2 & x is "o :i* is also co9cid5t ) a zone ( e>?quake & volcanic di/urbances4 7b47 ,su* ,l9es g5]ally lie along ! ,bord]s ( ! ,ocean4--,b ev5 :]e1 f "s special cause1 actual obs]vation on ! relations ( ! /rata are preclud$1 ! g5]al configuration ( ! gr\nd & ! relations ( ! b\nd>ies betwe5 l& & sea to ^? ( volcanic *a9s1 evid5tly po9t 9 _m cases to _! mutual int]dep5d5ce4 ,! rem>kable /raightness ( ! coa/ ( ,we/]n ,am]ica1 & ( ! p>allel *a9 ( ! ,&es1 af=ds presumptive evid5ce t ?is l9e is co9cid5t ) a fracture or sy/em ( faults1 along :i* ! cont95t has be5 bodily rais$ out ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,( ?is elevation )9 v rec5t times we h abundant evid5ce 9 ! exi/5ce ( rais$ coral-reefs & oceanic %ell-b$s at int]vals all along ! coa/2 ris+ 9 ,p]u to a level ( no less ?an #c1jjj feet above ! ocean1 z %[n by ,alex&] ,agassiz4#b ,su* elevations probably occurr$ at a "t :5 ! volcanoes ( ! ,&es 7 mu* m active ?an at pres5t4 ,consid]$ z a :ole1 ^! great volcanic m\nta9s may be reg>d$ z 9 a dormant1 or p>tially moribund1 condition2 & if ! volcanic =ces h to "s ext5t lo/ _! /r5g?1 s x w\ld appe> h ^? ( elevation4 7c47 ,areas ( ,volcanic ,action 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4--,9 ! case ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s x may be obs]v$ t ! lat] ,t]ti>y volcanic di/ricts lie along v anci5t depressions1 :i* may indicate zones ( weakness 9 ! cru/4 ,?us ! ,antrim plateau1 z orig9ally con/itut$1 lay 9 ! lap ( a range ( hills =m$ ( cry/all9e1 or ,l[] ,silurian1 rocks2 :ile ! volcanic isles ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides 7 enclos$ betwe5 ! solid range ( ! ,ar*an rocks ( ! ,out] ,hebrides on ! "o side1 & ! ,silurian & ,ar*an ranges ( ! ma9l& on ! o!r4 ,& if we g back to ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 we f9d t ! volcanic di/rict ( ! c5tre ( ,scotl& 0 b\nd$ by ranges ( solid /rata bo? to ! nor? & s\?1 :]e ! resi/ance to int]ior pressure f molt5 matt] w\ld h be5 great] ?an 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s holl[-gr\nd1 :]e su* molt5 matt] has be5 abundantly extrud$4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! outfl[ ( molt5 matt] 0 9 a direction some:at p>allel to ! plications ( ! /rata4 7d47 ,special ,conditions "u :i* ! ,volcanic ,action op]ates4--,assum+1 !n1 t ! molt5 matt]1 =m+ an int]ior magma or %ell1 is con/antly ex]t+ pressure aga9/ ! inn] surface ( ! solid cru/1 & c only escape :]e ! cru/ is too weak 7ow+ to faults1 plications1 or fissures7 to resi/ ! pressure1 we h to inquire :at are ! special conditions "u :i* outbur/s ( volcanic matt] take place1 & :at are ! g5]al results z reg>ds ! nature ( ! ejecta dep5d5t on ^? conditions4 7e47 ,effect ( ! ,pres5ce or ,abs5ce ( ,wat]4--,! two *ief conditions det]m9+ ! nature ( volcanic products1 consid]$ 9 ! mass1 are ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( wat]4 ,su* pres5ce or abs5ce does n ( c\rse affect ! ess5tial *emical composition ( ! ejecta1 b x mat]ially influ5ces ! =m 9 :i* ! matt] is erupt$4 ,! ag5cy ( wat] 9 volcanic eruptions is a v int]e/+ & important subject 9 connection ) ! hi/ory ( volcanic action1 & has be5 ably treat$ by ,pr(essor ,pre/wi*4#c ,at "o "t x 0 consid]$ t wat] 0 ess5tial to volcanic activity2 & ! fact t ! great majority ( volcanic cones are situat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! oceanic wat]s1 or ( inl& seas1 0 po9t$ to 9 confirmation ( ?is !ory4 ,b ! exi/5ce 9 ,we/]n ,am]ica & o!r volcanic c\ntries ( fissures ( eruption along :i* molt5 lava has be5 extrud$ )\t explosions ( /eam1 %[s t wat] is n an ess5tial factor 9 ! production ( volcanic ph5om5a2 &1 z ,pr(essor ,pre/wi* has cle>ly demon/rat$1 x is to be reg>d$ z an elem5t 9 volcanic explosions1 r ?an z a prime cause ( volcanic action4 ,! ma9 difficulty he %[s to be !rmo-dynamical2 & calculat+ ! rate ( increase 9 ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam on desc5d+ to great] & great] dep?s & rea*+ /rata ( high] & high] temp]atures1 z comp>$ ) ! =ce ( capill>ity1 he comes to ! conclusion t wat] _c p5etrate to dep?s ( m ?an sev5 or eight miles1 & !re=e _c rea* ! seat ( ! eruptive =ces4 ,pr(essor ,pre/wi* also po9ts out t if ! extrusion ( lava 7 due to ! ela/ic =ce ( vap\r ( wat] !re %\ld be a di/9ct relation betwe5 ! dis*>ge ( ! lava & ( ! vap\r2 :]eas ! result ( an exam9ation ( a numb] ( well-record$ eruptions %[s t ! two op]ations are n relat$1 & are1 9 fact1 p]fectly indep5d5t4 ,sometimes !re has be5 a l>ge dis*>ge ( lava1 & little or no escape ( /eam2 at o!r times !re h be5 p>oxysmal explosive eruptions ) little dis*>ge ( lava4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( ,vesuvius1 :i* is close to ! sea1 !re h be5 in/ances :5 ! lava has well$ out almo/ ) ! tranquillity ( a wat]-spr+4 7f47 ,access ( ,surface ,wat] to ,molt5 ,lava dur+ ,eruptions4--,! exi/5ce ( wat] dur+ c]ta9 /ages 9 eruptions is too frequ5t a ph5om5a to be lo/ sight (2 b its pres5ce may be acc\nt$ = 9 o!r ways1 besides proximity to ! sea or ocean4 ,c]ta9 volcanic m\nta9s1 su* z ,etna & ,vesuvius1 are built ^u wat]-be>+ /rata1 receiv+ _! supplies f ! ra9fall ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 or p]haps p>tly f ! sea4 ,9 addition to ?is ! a%es & scori ( ! m\nta9 sides are highly por\s1 & ra9 or sn[ c p5etrate & settle d[nw>ds ar\nd ! pipe or ?roat ?r\gh :i* molt5 lava wells up f b5ea?4 ,9 su* cases x is easy to und]/& h[1 at ! comm5cem5t ( a p]iod ( activity1 molt5 lava asc5d+ ?r\gh "o or m fissures1 & meet+ ) wat]-*>g$ /rata or scori1 w conv]t ! wat] into /eam at high pressure1 result+ 9 explosions m or less viol5t & prolong$1 9 proportion to ! quantity ( wat] & ! dep? to :i* x has p5etrat$4 ,9 ?is mann] we may suppose t a%es1 scori1 & blocks ( rock torn f ! sides ( ! crat]-?roat1 & hurl$ into ! air1 are pil$ ar\nd ! v5t1 & accumulate into hills or m\nta9s ( conical =m4 ,aft] ! explosion has exhau/$ itself1 ! molt5 lava quietly wells up & fills ! crat]1 z 9 ! cases ( ^? ( ,auv]gne & ,syria1 & o!r places4 ,we may1 !re=e1 adopt ! g5]al pr9ciple t 9 volcanic eruptions :]e wat] 9 l>ge quantities is pres5t1 we %all h crat]-cones built up ( a%es1 scori1 & pumice2 b :]e abs5t1 ! lava w be extravasat$ 9 %eets to great] or less di/ances )\t ! =mation ( su* cones2 or if cones are fann$1 !y w be compos$ ( solidifi$ lava only1 easily di/+ui%able f crat]-cones ( ! fir/ class4 7g47 ,nature ( ! ,int]ior ,res]voir f :i* ,lavas are d]iv$4--,we h n[ to consid] ! nature ( ! int]ior res]voir f :i* lavas are d]iv$1 & ! physical conditions necess>y = _! eruption at ! surface4 ,)\t go+ back to ! "q ( ! orig9al condition ( our globe1 we may safely hold ! view t at a v e>ly p]iod ( geological hi/ory x consi/$ ( a solidifi$ cru/ at a high temp]ature1 enfold+ a globe ( molt5 matt] at a /ill high] temp]ature4 ,z "t w5t on1 & ! heat radiat$ into space f ! surface ( ! globe1 :ile at ! same "t sl[ly asc5d+ f ! int]ior by conduction1 ! cru/ necess>ily contract$1 & press+ m & m on ! int]ior molt5 magma1 ?is latt] 0 =c$ f "t to "t to break ?r\gh ! contract+ cru/ along zones ( weakness or fissures4 7h47 ,! ,e>?'s ,cru/ 9 a ,/ate ( bo? ,ext]ior ,?ru/ & ( ,int]ior ,t5sion4--,z has be5 %[n by ,hopk9s1#d & m rec5tly by ,mr4 ,davison1#e an ext]ior cru/ 9 su* a condition mu/ ev5tually result 9 be+ "u a /ate ( horizontal ?ru/ t[>ds ! ext]ior & ( t5sion t[>ds ! int]ior surface4 ,= ! ext]ior portion1 hav+ cool$ d[n1 & consequ5tly contract$ to its normal /ate1 w rema9 rigid up to a c]ta9 po9t ( resi/ance2 b ! int]ior portion /ill cont9u+ to contract1 ow+ to ! conduction ( ! heat t[>ds ! ext]ior1 w\ld t5d to ent] ^u a condition ( t5sion1 z becom+ too small = ! int]ior molt5 magma2 & su* a /ate ( t5sion w\ld t5d to produce rupture ( ! int]ior "p4 ,9 ?is mann] fissures w\ld be =m$ into :i* ! molt5 matt] w\ld ent]2 & if ! fissures happ5$ to ext5d to ! surface1 ow+ to weakness ( ! cru/ or flexur+ ( ! /rata1 or o!r cause1 ! molt5 matt] w\ld be extrud$ ei!r 9 ! =m ( dykes or volcanic v5ts4 ,9 ?is way we may acc\nt = ! num]\s dykes ( trap by :i* "s volcanic di/ricts are int]sect$1 su* z ^? ( ! nor? ( ,irel& & c5tre ( ,scotl&4 ,f ! above consid]ations1 x foll[s t ! e>?'s cru/ mu/ be 9 a condition bo? ( pressure 7or lat]al ?ru/7 t[>ds ! ext]ior portion1 & ( t5sion t[>ds ! int]ior1 ! =m] condition result+ 9 fault+ & flexur+ ( ! rocks1 ! latt] 9 ! =mation ( op5 fissures1 ?r\gh :i* lava c asc5d "u high pressure4 ,^! op]ations are ( c\rse ! attempt ( ! natural =ces to arrive at a condition ( equilibrium1 :i* is nev] atta9$ because ! processes are nev] complet$2 9 o!r words1 radiation & convection ( heat are con/antly proce$+1 giv+ rise to new =ces ( ?ru/ & t5sion4 ,x n[ rema9s = u to consid] :at may be ! condition ( ! int]ior molt5 magma2 & 9 do+ s we mu/ be guid$ to a l>ge ext5t by consid]ations reg>d+ ! nature ( ! extrud$ matt] at ! surface4 7i47 ,relative ,d5sities ( ,lavas4--,n[1 obs]vation %[s t1 z be>+ on ! subject "u consid]ation1 lavas occur ma9ly "u two classes z reg>ds _! d5sity4 ,! mo/ d5se 7or basic7 are ^? 9 :i* silica is defici5t1 b iron is abundant2 ! lea/ d5se 7or acid7 are ^? :i* are ri* 9 silica1 b 9 :i* iron occurs 9 small quantity4 ,?is division corresponds ) t propos$ by ,buns5 & ,duro*]#f = volcanic rocks1 ^u ! results ( analyses ( a l>ge numb] ( specim5s f v>i\s di/ricts4 ,rocks may be ?us arrang$ 9 gr\ps3 7#a7 ,! ,basic 7,heavi]7--poor 9 silica1 ri* 9 iron2 conta9+ silica #de-eh p] c5t4 ,examples3 ,basalt1 ,dol]ite1 ,hornbl5de rock1 ,diorite1 ,diabase1 ,gabbro1 ,melaphyre1 & ,leucite lava4 7#b7 ,! ,acid 7,light]7--ri* 9 silica1 poor 9 iron2 conta9+ silica #fb-gh p] c5t4 ,examples3 ,tra*yte1 ,rhyolite1 ,obsidian1 ,domite1 ,felsite1 ,qu>tz-porphyry1 ,granite4 ,! ,&esite gr\p =ms a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! highly acid & ! basic gr\ps1 & !re are _m v>ieties ( ! above :i* x is n necess>y to enum]ate4 ,duro*] supposes t ! molt5 magmas ( ^! v>i\s rocks are arrang$ 9 conc5tric %ells )9 ! solid cru/ 9 ord] ( _! respective d5sities1 ^? ( ! light] d5sity1 namely ! acid magmas1 be+ outside ^? ( great] d5sity1 namely ! basic2 & ?is is a view :i* seems n improbable f a consid]ation n only ( ! pr9ciple itself1 b ( ! succession ( ! v>ieties ( lava 9 _m di/ricts4 ,?us we f9d t acid lavas h be5 g5]ally extrud$ fir/1 & basic aft]w>ds--z 9 ! cases ( ,we/]n ,am]ica1 ( ,antrim1 ! ,rh9e & ,c5tral ,france4 ,& if ! int]ior ( our globe _h be5 9 a condition ( equilibrium f ! "t ( ! consolidation ( ! cru/ to ! pres5t1 reason w\ld induce u to conclude t ! lavas w\ld ultimately h arrang$ !mselves 9 accordance ) ! conditions ( d5sity b5ea? t cru/4 ,b ! /ate ( equilibrium has be5 con/antly di/urb$4 ,e fre% outbur/ ( volcanic =ce1 & e fre% extrusion ( lava1 t5ds to di/urb x1 & to alt] ! relations ( ! int]ior visc\s or molt5 magmas4 ,ow+ to ?is x happ5s1 z we may suppose1 t ! ord] ( eruption accord+ to d5sity is sometimes brok51 & we f9d su* rocks z granophyre 7a v>iety ( &esite7 break+ ?r\gh ! plateau-basalts ( ,mull & ,skye1 z expla9$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,not)/&+ su* v>iations1 h[ev]1 ! view ( ,duro*] may be consid]$ z ! mo/ reasonable we c arrive at on a subject :i* is confess$ly highly conjectural4 7j47 ,conclusion z reg>ds ! ,ultimate ,cause ( ,volcanic ,action4--,not)/&+1 h[ev]1 ! complexity ( ! subject1 & ! unc]ta9ties :i* mu/ att5d an inquiry :]e "s ( ! data are outside ! range ( our obs]vation1 suffici5t evid5ce c be adduc$ to enable u to arrive at a tol]ably cle> view ( ! ultimate cause ( volcanic action4 ,s tempt+ a subject 0 sure to evoke num]\s essays1 "s ( great +5uity1 su* z t ( ,mr4 ,mallet2 o!rs ( great complexity1 su* z t ( ,dr4 ,daub5y4 ,b m rec5t consid]ation & wid] obs]vation h t5d$ to lead u to ! conclusion t ! ultimate cause is ! mo/ simple1 ! mo/ p[]ful1 & ! mo/ g5]al :i* c be sugge/$2 namely1 ! contraction ( ! cru/ due to secul> cool+ ( ! m deeply seat$ p>ts by conduction & radiation ( heat into space4 ,ow+ to ?is cause1 ! enclos$ molt5 matt] is m or less abundantly extrud$ f "t to "t along ! l9es & v5ts ( eruption1 s z to accommodate itself to ! ev]-contract+ cru/4 ,nor c we d\bt t ?is process has be5 go+ on f ! v e>lie/ p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 & =m]ly at a great] rate ?an at pres5t4 ,:5 ! cru/ 0 m highly heat$1 ! radiation & conduction mu/ h be5 proportionately m rapid4 ,ow+ to ?is cause also ! contraction ( ! cru/ 0 accel]at$4 ,to su* irresi/ible =ce we owe ! wond]ful flexur+1 fold+1 & horizontal ov]?ru/+ :i* ! rocks h und]gone 9 "s portions ( ! globe--su* z 9 ! ,alps1 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl& & ( ,irel&1 & ! ,alleghannies ( ,am]ica4 ,x is easy to %[ t ! accel]ation ( ! e>?'s rotation mu/ be a consequ5ce ( su* contraction2 b1 aft] all1 ?is is b "o ( ^? comp5satory =ces ( :i* we see sev]al examples 9 ! _w ar\nd u4 ,x c also be confid5tly inf]r$ t at an e>ly p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 :5 ! moon 0 ne>] to our planet ?an at pres5t1 ! tides 7 f> m p[]ful1 & _! effect 9 ret>d+ ! e>?'s rotation 0 consequ5tly great]4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! accel]ation due to contraction 0 also great]2 & ! two =ces probably v ne>ly balanc$ ea* o!r4 ,bo? ^! =ces 7^? ( accel]ation & ret>dation7 h be5 gr[+ weak] d[n to ! pres5t day1 ?\gh !re appe>s to h be5 a slight advantage on ! side ( ! ret>d+ =ce4#g #a ,r4 ,d4 ,m4 ,v]beek1 ,krakatau1 p4 #aje 7#ahhf72 also1 ,j4 ,milne1 ,! ,great ,e>?quake ( ,japan1 #ahia4 #b ,bull4 ,mus4 ,comp4 ,zool41 vol4 iii4 #c ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,no4 #bcg 7#ahhe72 also1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 7#ahha74 #d ,hopk9s1 supra cit41 p4 #bah4 #e ,c4 ,davison & ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w91 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 #agh1 p2 #bda4 #f ,duro*]1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 vol4 ii4 7#aheg74 #g ,see on ?is subject ! au?or's ,textbook ( ,physiography 7,deacon & ,co41 #ahhh71 pp4 #ef & #abb4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,lun> ,,volcanoes4 ,! surface ( ! moon pres5t$ to our view af=ds su* rem>kable indications ( volcanic ph5om5a ( a special k9d1 t we are ju/ifi$ 9 devot+ a *apt] to _! consid]ation4 ,x is v tantalis+ t our beautiful satellite only p]mits u to look at & admire "o half ( h] sph]e2 b x is n a v f>-fet*$ inf]5ce if we feel satisfi$ t ! o!r half be>s a g5]al resemblance to t :i* is pres5t$ to ! e>?4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to in=m ! read] :y x is t we nev] see b "o face2 /ill1 = ! sake ( ^? :o h n ?\ght out ! subject ,i may /ate t x is because ! moon rotates on h] axis exactly 9 ! "t t %e p]=ms a revolution r\nd ! e>?4 ,if ?is %\ld n be suffici5tly cle>1 let ! read] p]=m a v simple exp]im5t = himself1 :i* w probably br+ conviction to 8 m9d t ! explanation "h giv5 is correct4 ,let him place an orange 9 ! c5tre ( a r\nd table1 & !n let him move r\nd ! table f a />t+-po9t sideways1 ev] keep+ 8 face direct$ t[>ds ! orange2 & :5 he has rea*$ 8 />t+-po9t1 he w f9d t he has rotat$ once r\nd :ile he has p]=m$ "o revolution r\nd ! table4 ,9 ?is case ! p]=m] repres5ts ! moon & ! orange ! e>?4 ,n[ ?is connection betwe5 ! e>? & h] satellite is suffici5tly close to be us$ z an argum5t 7if n z actual demon/ration7 t ! e>? & ! moon 7 orig9ally portions ( ! same mass1 & t dur+ "s v e>ly /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! sol> sy/em ^! bodies p>t$ company1 to assume = ev] aft] ! relations ( planet & satellite4 ,at ! epo* ref]r$ to1 we may also suppose t ^! two masses ( matt] 7 9 a highly inc&esc5t1 if n ev5 gase\s1 /ate2 & we conclude1 !re=e1 t hav+ be5 once portions ( ! same mass1 !y are compos$ ( simil> mat]ials4 ,?is conclusion is ( great importance 9 enabl+ u to reason f analogy reg>d+ ! orig9 ( ! physical features on ! moon's surface1 & = ! purpose ( comp>ison ) ^? :i* we f9d on ! surface ( our globe2 because x is evid5t t1 if ! composition ( ! moon 7 ess5tially diff]5t f t ( our e>?1 we %\ld h no basis :atev] = a comp>ison ( _! physical features4 ,:5 ! moon />t$ on h] c>e] ( revolution r\nd ! e>?1 we may well suppose t h] orbit 0 mu* small] ?an at pres5t4 ,%e 0 influ5c$ by c\nt]act+ =ces1 ^? ( gravitation draw+ h] t[>ds ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>?1#a & ! c5trifugal =ce1 :i* 9 ! fir/ in/ance 0 ! /rong]1 s t h] orbit = a l5g!n$ p]iod gradually increas$ until ! two =ces1 ^? ( attraction & repulsion1 came into a condition ( equilibrium1 & %e n[ p]=ms h] revolution r\nd ! e>? at a mean di/ance ( #bdj1jjj miles1 9 an orbit :i* is only v slightly elliptical4#b ,h[ ! p]iod ( ! moon's rotation is regulat$ by ! e>?'s attraction on h] molt5 lava-%eets1 fir/ at ! surface1 & n[ probably bel[ ! out] cru/1 has be5 graphically %[n by ,sir ,rob]t ,ball1#c b x _c be d\bt$ t once ! moon 0 appreciably ne>] to our globe ?an at pres5t4 ,! attraction ( h] mass produc$ tides 9 ! ocean ( correspond+ly great] magnitude1 & capable ( effect+ results1 bo? 9 erod+ ! surface & 9 transport+ masses ( rock1 f> beyond ! b\nds ( our e-day exp]i5ce4 ,( all ! heav5ly bodies1 ! sun except$1 ! moon is ! mo/ impressive & beautiful4 ,z we cat* h] =m1 ris+ z a fair cresc5t 9 ! we/]n sky aft] sunset1 gradually increas+ 9 size & brilliancy night aft] night till f h] circul> disk %e ?r[s a full flood ( light on our _w & !n passes ?r\gh h] decreas+ phases1 we recognise h] z ! ,gov]nor ( ! night1 or 9 ! words ( our own poet1 :5 9 h] cresc5t phase1 ! ,diadem ( night4 ,se5 ?r\gh a good b9ocul> glass1 h] =m ga9s 9 rotundity2 b "u an ord9>y telescope ) a f\r-in* objective1 %e appe>s l a globe ( molt5 gold4 ,yet all ?is light is d]ivative1 & is only a small portion ( t %e receives f ! sun4 ,t h] surface is a mass ( rigid matt] de/itute ( any inh]5t brilliancy1 appe>s pla9 en\gh :5 we view a portion ( h] disk ?r\gh a v l>ge telescope4 ,x 0 ! good =tune ( ! au?or to h an opportunity = su* a view ?r\gh "o ( ! l>ge/ telescopes 9 ! _w4 ,! #bg-;in* refractor manufactur$ by ,sir ,h[>d ,grubb ( ,dubl91 = ! ,vi5na obs]vatory1 a few ye>s ago1 0 turn$ on a portion ( ! moon's disk be=e be+ f9ally s5t (f to its de/9ation2 & se5 by ! aid ( su* enorm\s magnify+ p[]1 no?+ c\ld be m disappo9t+ z reg>ds ! appe>ance ( our satellite4 ,! %e5 & lu/re ( ! surface 0 n[ obs]v$ no long]2 ! m\nta9s & valleys1 ! circul> ridges & holl[s 71 inde$1 wond]fully def9$ & magnifi$1 b ! matt] ( :i* !y seem$ to be con/itut$ resembl$ no?+ s mu* z ! pale pla/] ( a model4 ,"o c\ld ?us fully realise ! fact t ! moon's light is only d]ivative4 ,/ill we mu/ recollect t ! mo/ p[]ful telescope c only br+ ! surface ( ! moon to a di/ance f u ( ab\t #bej miles2 & x ne$ n be said t objects se5 at su* a di/ance on our e>? pres5t v deceptive appe>ances2 s t we ga9 little in=mation reg>d+ ! composition ( ! moon's cru/1 or ext]ior surface1 simply f obs]vation by ! aid ( l>ge telescopes4 ,reason+ f analogy ) our globe1 we may inf] t ! ext]ior %ell ( ! moon consi/s ( cry/all9e volcanic matt] ( ! highly silicat$1 or acid1 v>ieties re/+ ^u ano!r ( a d5s] description1 ri* 9 iron1 & resembl+ basalt4 ,?is hypo!sis is haz>d$ on ! supposition t ! composition ( ! matt] ( ! moon's mass resembles 9 ! ma9 t ( our globe4 ,dur+ ! process ( cool+ f a molt5 condition1 ! heavi] lavas w\ld t5d to fall inw>ds1 & all[ ! light] to come to ! surface1 & =m ! out] %ell 9 bo? cases4 ,?us1 ! out] cru/ w\ld resemble ! tra*ytic lavas ( our globe1 & _! pale col\r w\ld enable ! sun's rays to be reflect$ to a great] ext5t ?an if ! mat]ial 7 ( ! blackness ( basalt4#d ,s mu* = ! mat]ial4 ,we h n[ to consid] ! /ructure ( ! moon's surface1 & "h we f9d ourselves tread+ on less speculative & saf] gr\nd4 ,all a/ronom]s s9ce ! "t ( ,s*rot] seem to be ( accord 9 ! op9ion t ! rem>kable features ( ! moon's surface are 9 "s measure ( volcanic orig91 & we %all pres5tly proce$ to consid] ! "* ( ^! =ms m 9 detail4 ,b fir/1 & z lead+ up to ! discussion ( ^! physical features1 we mu/ notice "o ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! con/itution ( ! moon & ( ! e>?2 namely1 ! abs5ce ( wat] & ( an atmosph]e 9 ! case ( ! moon4 ,! sudd5 & complete occultation ( ! />s :5 ! moon's disk passes betwe5 !m & ! place ( ! obs]v] on ! e>?'s surface1 is suffici5t evid5ce ( ! abs5ce ( air2 &1 z no cl\d has ev] be5 notic$ to veil ev5 = a mom5t any "p ( our satellite's face1 we are pretty safe 9 conclud+ t !re is no wat]2 or at lea/1 if !re be any1 t x is inappreciable 9 quantity4#e ,h5ce we inf] t !re is no animal or vegetable life on ! moon's surface2 nei!r are !re oceans1 lakes or riv]s1 sn[fields or glaci]s1 riv]-valleys or caons1 isl&s1 /ratifi$ rocks1 nor volcanoes ( ! k9d mo/ preval5t on our own globe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,photograph ( ! moon's surface 79 "p7 %[+ ! illum9at$ spots1 & ridges1 & ! deep holl[s4 ,! position ( ,ty*o is %[n ne> ! upp] edge1 & "s ( ! volcanic crat]s are v cle>ly se5 ne> ! m>g94 ,n[ on look+ at a photographic picture ( ! moon's surface 7,fig4 #ch71 we obs]ve t !re are enorm\s d>k spaces1 irregul> 9 outl9e1 b m or less approa*+ ! circul> =m1 surr\nd$ by /eep & precipit\s declivities1 b ) sides slop+ outw>ds4 ,^! 7 suppos$ at "o "t to be seas2 & !y reta9 ! "n1 ?\gh x is univ]sally admitt$ t !y conta9 no wat]4 ,"s ( ^! holl[s are f\r ,engli% miles 9 dep?4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^!1 situat$ ne> ! nor? pole ( ! moon1 is call$ ,m>e ,imbrium2 next to x is ,m>e ,s]5itatis2 next1 ,m>e ,tranquilitatis1 ) sev]al o!rs4#f ,m>e ,imbrium is ( great dep?1 & f its floor rise sev]al conical m\nta9s ) circul> crat]s1 ! l>ge/ ( :i*1 ,ar*im$es1 is fifty miles 9 diamet]2 its va/ smoo? int]ior be+ divid$ into sev5 di/9ct zones runn+ ea/ & we/4 ,!re is no c5tral m\nta9 or o!r obvi\s int]nal sign ( =m] volcanic activity1 b its irregul> wall rises into abrupt t[]s1 & is m>k$ outside by decid$ t]races4#g ,! ,m>e ,imbrium is b\nd$ along ! ea/ by a range ( m\nta9s call$ ! ,ap5n9es1 & t[>ds ! nor? by ano!r range call$ ! ,alps2 :ile a ?ird range1 t ( ! ,caucasus1 /rikes nor?w>d f ! junction ( ! two =m] ranges4 ,sev]al circul> or oval crat]s are situat$ on1 & ne> to1 ! cre/ ( ^! ridges4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,a magnifi$ portion ( ! moon's surface1 %[+ ! =ms ( ! great crat]s ) _! out] ramp>ts4 ,! :ite spot ) %ad[ is a cone ris+ f ! c5tre ( "o ( ! l>g] crat]s to a great height & ?us becom+ illum9at$ by ! sun's light4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! moon's hemisph]e is dott$ ov] by almo/ innum]able circul> crat]-l holl[s2 sometimes conspicu\sly surm\nt+ l(ty conical m\nta9s1 at o!r times only s9k+ bel[ ! g5]al out] surface ( ! lun> sph]e4 ,on approa*+ ! m>g91 ^! circul> holl[s appe> oval 9 %ape ow+ to _! position on ! sph]e2 & ! g5]al aspect ( ^? t are visible leads to ! conclusion t !re are l>ge numb]s ( small] crat]s too small to be se5 by ! mo/ p[]ful telescopes4 ,^! cones & crat]s are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic objects on ! :ole ( ! visible surface1 & :5 highly magnifi$ pres5t v rugg$ outl9es1 sugge/ive ( slag1 or lava1 :i* has consolidat$ on cool+1 z 9 ! case ( mo/ solidifi$ lava-/reams on our e>?4#h ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! crat]i=m m\nta9s is t nam$ ,cop]nicus1 situat$ 9 a l9e ) ! s\!rn prolongation ( ! ,ap5n9es4 ,( ?is m\nta9 ,sir ,r4 ,ball says3 ,x is p>ticul>ly well kn[n ?r\gh ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's draw+1 s beautifully reproduc$ 9 ! _m editions ( ! ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy4 ,! region to ! we/ is dott$ ov] ) innum]able m9ute crat]lets4 ,x has a c5tral1 _m-peak$ m\nta9 ab\t #b1djj feet 9 height4 ,!re is good reason to believe t ! t]rac+ %[n 9 its int]ior is ma9ly due to ! repeat$ alt]nate rise1 p>tial congealation & retreat ( a va/ sea ( lava4 ,at full moon x is surr\nd$ by radiat+ /reaks4#i ,! view reg>d+ ! /ructure ( ,cop]nicus "h express$ is ( importance1 z x is probably applicable to all ! crat]s ( our satellite4 ,:5 ! moon is five or six days old1 says ,sir ,rob]t ,ball1 a beautiful gr\p ( ?ree crat]s w be readily f\nd on ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 night & day4 ,^! are ,ca?>9a1 ,cyrillus1 & ,!ophilus4 ,ca?>9a is ! mo/ s\!rly ( ! gr\p1 & is m ?an #af1jjj feet deep & connect$ to ,cyrillus by a wide valley2 b betwe5 ,cyrillus & ,!ophilus !re is no su* connection4 ,inde$ ,cyrillus looks z if its huge surr\nd+ ramp>ts1 z high z ,mont ,blanc1 _h be5 completely f9i%$ :5 ! volcanic =ces comm5c$ ! =mation ( ,!ophilus1 ! ramp>t ( :i* encroa*es consid]ably on its old] neighb\r4 ,!ophilus /&s z a well-def9$ r\nd crat]1 ab\t #fd miles 9 diamet]1 ) an int]nal dep? ( #ad1jjj to #ah1jjj feet1 & a beautiful c5tral gr\p ( m\nta9s1 "o-?ird ( t height1 on its floor4 ,?is proves t ! la/ eruptive ef=ts 9 ?is "p ( ! moon fully equall$ 9 int5sity ^? t _h prec$$ !m4 ,al?\gh ,!ophilus is on ! :ole ! deepe/ crat] we c see 9 ! moon1 x has receiv$ little or no de=mation by second>y eruptions4 ,b p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable object on ! :ole hemisph]e ( ! moon is ! maje/ic ,ty*o1 :i* rises f ! surface ne> ! s\? pole1 & at a di/ance ( ab\t #a_/f? ( ! diamet] ( ! sph]e f its m>g94 ,its dep? is /at$ by ,ball to be #ag1jjj feet1 & its diamet] #ej miles4 ,b its special di/9ction among/ ! o!r volcanic crat]s lies 9 ! /reaks ( light :i* radiate f x 9 all directions = hundr$s & ev5 ?\s&s ( miles1 /ret*+ ) sup]b indiff]5ce across va/ pla9s1 into ! deepe/ crat]s1 & ov] ! highe/ oppos+ ridges4 ,:5 ! sun rises on ,ty*o ^! /reaks are invisible1 b z soon z x has rea*$ a height ( #be to #cj above ! horizon1 ! rays em]ge f _! obscurity1 & gradually increase 9 brightness until full moon1 :5 !y become ! mo/ conspicu\s objects on h] surface4 ,z yet no satisfactory explanation has be5 giv5 ( ! orig9 ( ^! illum9at$ rays1#aj b ,i may be p]mitt$ to add t _! =m & mode ( occurr5ce are em95tly sugge/ive ( gase\s exhalations f ! volcano illum9$ by ! sun's rays2 & ow+ to ! abs5ce ( an atmosph]e1 spread+ !mselves out 9 all directions & becom+ m & m att5uat$ until !y cease to be visible4 ,! above acc\nt w probably suffice to give ! read] a g5]al idea ( ! features & inf]5tial /ructure ( ! moon's surface4 ,t %e 0 once a molt5 mass is inf]r$ f h] globul> =m2 b1 accord+ to ,g4 ,f4 ,*amb]s1 ! mo/ delicate measurem5ts indicate no compression at ! poles4#aa ,t h] surface has cool$ & become rigid is also a necess>y inf]5ce2 ?\gh ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el consid]$ t ! surface /ill reta9s a temp]ature possibly exce$+ t ( boil+ wat]4#ab ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is pretty c]ta9 t :atev] *anges may occur ^u h] surface are n due to pres5t volcanic action1 all evid5ce ( su* action be+ admitt$ly abs5t4 ,if1 :5 ! e>? & moon p>t$ company1 _! respective temp]atures 7 equal1 ! moon be+ s mu* ! small] ( ! two w\ld h cool$ m rapidly1 & ! surface may h be5 cov]$ by a rigid cru/ :5 z yet t ( ! e>? may h be5 molt5 f heat4 ,h5ce ! rigidity ( ! moon's surface may date back to an imm5sely di/ant p]iod1 b %e may /ill reta9 a high temp]ature )9 ?is cru/4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ?is /age ( our n>rative1 we are 9 a position to consid] by :at means1 & "u :at conditions1 ! cones & crat]s :i* div]sify ! lun> surface h be5 develop$4 ,9 do+ s x may be desirable1 9 ! fir/ place1 to det]m9e :at =m ( crat] on our e>?'s surface ^? ( ! moon d n repres5t2 & we are guid$ 9 our inquiry by ! consid]ation ( ! abs5ce ( wat] on ! lun> surface4 ,n[ !re are l>ge numb]s ( crat]i=m m\nta9s on our globe 9 ! =mation ( :i* wat] has play$ an important1 inde$ ess5tial1 "p4 ,z we h already se51 wat]1 ?\gh n ! ultimate cause ( volcanic eruptions1 has be5 ! *ief ag5t1 :5 9 ! =m ( /eam at high pressure1 9 produc+ ! explosions :i* accompany ^! eruptions1 & 9 te>+ up & hurl+ into ! air ! masses ( rock1 scori1 & a%es1 :i* are pil$ ar\nd ! v5ts ( eruption 9 ! =m ( crat]s dur+ p]iods ( activity4 ,to ?is class ( crat]s ^? ( ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & ,auv]gne belong4 ,^! m\nta9s & conical hills 7! domes except$7 are all built up ( accumulations ( fragm5tal mat]ial1 ) occasional %eets & dykes ( lava int]v5+2 & :]e eruptions h tak5 place 9 rec5t times1 obs]vation has %[n t !y are accompani$ by outbur/s ( va/ quantities ( aque\s vap\r1 :i* has be5 ! *ief ag5t 7along ) v>i\s gases7 9 pil+ up ! circul> walls ( ! crat]4 ,x has also be5 %[n t 9 _m in/ances ^! crat]-walls h be5 brea*$ on "o side1 & t /reams ( molt5 lava :i* once occupi$ ! cup to a great] or less height1 h p\r$ d[n ! m\nta9 side4 ,h5ce ! =m or outl9e ( _m ( ^! fragm5tal crat]s is cresc5t-%ap$4 ,su* brea*$ crat]s are to be f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 & are n conf9$ to any "o di/rict1 or ev5 cont95t1 s t !y may be consid]$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! class ( volcanic crat]-cones to :i* ,i am n[ ref]r+4 ,9 ! case ( ! moon1 h[ev]1 we fail to obs]ve any decid$ in/ances ( brea*$ crat]s1 ) lava-/reams1 su* z ^? ,i h describ$4#ac ,9 ne>ly all cases ! ramp>ts appe> to ext5d cont9u\sly r\nd ! enclos$ depression1 solid & unbrok52 or at lea/ ) no l>ge gap occupy+ a v consid]able section ( ! circumf]5ce4 7,see ,fig4 #ch47 ,h5ce we are l$ to suspect t !re is "s ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 ! crat]s on ! surface ( ! moon & ! great] numb] ( ^? on ! surface ( our e>?4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to add t ! volcanic m\nta9s ( ! moon (f] no resemblance :atev] to ! dome-%ap$ volcanic m\nta9s ( our globe4 ,if x 7 o!rwise1 ! lun> m\nta9s w\ld appe> z simple lum9\s po9ts ris+ f a d>k floor1 ov] :i* !y w\ld ca/ a conical %ad[4 ,b ! =m ( ! lun> volcanic m\nta9s is ess5tially diff]5t2 z already obs]v$1 !y consi/ 9 g5]al ( a circul> ramp>t enclos+ a depress$ floor1 sometimes t]rac$ z 9 ! case ( ,cop]nicus1 f :i* rise "o or m conical m\nta9s1 :i* are 9 effect ! lat] v5ts ( eruption4 ,9 our se>*1 !re=e1 = analog\s =ms on our own e>?1 we mu/ leave out ! crat]s & domes ( ! type furni%$ by ! ,european volcanoes & _! repres5tatives abroad1 & h rec\rse to o!rs ( a diff]5t type4 ,is !re !n1 we may ask1 any type ( volcanic m\nta9 on our globe comp>able ) ^? on ! moon8 ,9 all probability !re is4 ,if ! read] w turn to ! description ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,hawaiian gr\p 9 ! ,pacific1 especially t ( ,mauna ,loa1 z giv5 by ,pr(essor ,dana & o!rs1 & comp>e x ) t ( ,cop]nicus1 he w f9d t 9 bo? cases we h a circul> ramp>t ( solid lava enclos+ a va/ pla9 ( ! same mat]ial f :i* rise "o or m lava-cones4 ,! int]iors 9 bo? cases are t]rac$4 ,s t1 all[+ = diff]5ces 9 magnitude1 x w\ld seem t !re is no ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 lun> crat]s & t]re/rial crat]s ( ! type ( ,mauna ,loa4 ,dana calls ^! ,hawaiian volcanoes basaltic1 basalt be+ ! preval5t mat]ial ( :i* !y are =m$4 ,^? ( ! moon may be compos$ ( simil> mat]ial1 or o!rwise2 b 9 ei!r case we may suppose !y are built up ( lava1 erupt$ f v5ts connect$ ) ! molt5 res]voirs ( ! int]ior4 ,?us we conclude t !y belong to an entirely diff]5t type1 & h be5 built up 9 a diff]5t mann]1 f ^? repres5t$ by ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & mo/ ( ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ,auv]gne1 ! ,eifel1 & ( o!r di/ricts consid]$ 9 ^! pages4 ,let u n[ endeav\r to picture to ourselves ! /ages ?r\gh :i* ! moon may be suppos$ to h pass$ f ! "t h] surface began to consolidate ow+ to ! radiation ( h] heat into space2 = !re is e probability t "s ( ! crat]s n[ visible on h] disk 7 =m$ at a v e>ly p]iod ( h] physical hi/ory4 ,:5 ! surface began to consolidate1 x mu/ also h contract$2 & ! int]ior molt5 matt]1 press$ out by ! contract+ cru/1 mu/ h be5 ov] & ov] aga9 extrud$ ?r\gh fissures produc$ ov] ! solidifi$ surface1 until ! solid cru/ ext5d$ ov] ! :ole lun> surface1 & became ( consid]able ?ickness4 ,x is f ?is epo* t1 9 all probability1 we %\ld date ! comm5cem5t ( :at may be t]m$ ! volcanic hi/ory ( ! moon4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t al?\gh ! moon's surface _h become solid1 its temp]ature may h rema9$ high = a v long p]iod4 ,b ! cont9u\s radiation ( ! surface-heat into space w\ld produce cont9u\s contraction1 :ile ! convection ( ! int]ior heat w\ld t5d to increase ! ?ickness ( ! out] solid %ell2 & ?is1 ev] press+ ) increas+ =ce on ! int]ior molt5 mass1 w\ld result 9 frequ5t ruptures ( ! %ell1 & ! extrusion ( molt5 lava ris+ f bel[4 ,h5ce we may suppose ! fissure-eruptions ( lava 7 ( frequ5t occurr5ce = a l5g!n$ p]iod dur+ ! e>ly /age ( consolidation ( ! lun> cru/2 b aft]w>ds ^! may be suppos$ to h giv5 place to eruptions ?r\gh pipes or v5ts1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( ! circul> crat]s :i* =m su* /rik+ & *>act]i/ic objects 9 ! physical aspect ( our satellite4#ad ,x is n to be suppos$ t ! v>i\s physical features on ! lun> surface h all orig9at$ 9 ! same way4 ,! great ranges ( m\nta9s previ\sly describ$ may h orig9at$ by a process ( pil+ up ( imm5se masses ( molt5 lava extrud$ f ! int]ior ?r\gh v5ts or fissures2 :ile ! great holl[s 7or seas7 are probably due to ! fall+ inw>ds ( l>ge spaces ow+ to ! escape ( ! int]ior lava4 ,b x is ) ! circul> crat]s t we are mo/ conc]n$4 ,judg+ f analogy ) ! lava-crat]s pres5t on our globe1 we mu/ suppose !m to be due to ! extrusion1 & pil+ up1 ( lava ?r\gh c5tral pipes1 foll[$ 9 "s cases by ! subsid5ce ( ! floor ( ! crat]4 ,x seems n improbable t x 0 9 ?is way ! great] numb] ( ! circul> crat]s ly+ ar\nd ,ty*o1 & dott+ s l>ge a space r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! moon1 7 con/ruct$4 7,see ,fig4 #ch47 ,9 g5]al !y appe> to consi/ ( an elevat$ rim1 enclos+ a depress$ pla91 out ( :i* a c5tral cone arises4 ,! rim may be suppos$ to h be5 pil$ up by successive dis*>ges ( lava f a c5tral orifice2 & aft] ! subsid5ce ( ! p>oxysm ! lava /ill 9 a molt5 condition may h sunk d[n1 =m+ a see?+ lake )9 ! va/ circul> ramp>t1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,hawaiian volcanoes4 ,! t]races obs]vable )9 ! crat]s 9 "s in/ances h probably be5 left by subsequ5t eruptions :i* h n atta9$ to ! level ( prec$+ ones2 & :]e a c5tral crat]-cone is se5 to rise )9 ! caldron1 we may suppose ?is to h be5 built up by a lat] s]ies ( eruptions ( lava ?r\gh ! orig9al pipe aft] ! consolidation ( ! int]ior sea ( lava4 ,! mamelons ( ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon1#ae & "s ( ! lava-cones ( ,hawaii1 appe> to (f] examples on our e>?'s surface ( ^! peculi> =ms4 ,su* are ! views ( ! orig9 ( ! physical features ( our satellite :i* _! =m & inf]r$ con/itution appe> to sugge/4 ,!y are n (f]$ ) any int5tion ( dogmatis+ on a subject :i* is admitt$ly obscure1 & reg>d+ :i* we h by no means all ! necess>y data = com+ to a cle> conclusion4 ,all t c be affirm$ is1 t !re is a great deal to be said 9 support ( !m1 & t !y are to "s ext5t 9 h>mony ) ph5om5a )9 range ( obs]vation on ! surface ( our e>?4 ,! f> great] effects ( lun> vulcanicity1 z comp>$ ) ^? ( our globe1 may be acc\nt$ = to "s ext5t by ! consid]ation t ! =ce ( gravity on ! surface ( ! moon is only "o-six? ( t on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,h5ce ! eruptive =ces ( ! int]ior ( our satellite h _h less resi/ance to ov]come ?an 9 ! case ( our planet2 & ! erupt$ mat]ials h be5 %ot =? to great] di/ances1 & pil$ up 9 great] magnitude1 ?an ) u4 ,we h also to recollect t ! abrad+ action ( wat] has be5 abs5t f ! moon2 s t1 :ile accumulations ( matt] _h be5 proce$+ ?r\gh\t a prolong$ p]iod ov] its surface1 !re 0 no c\nt]act+ ag5cy ( d5udation at "w to modify or less5 ! effects ( ! ruptive =ces4 #a ,correctly speak+1 ea* attracts ! o!r t[>ds its c5tre ( gravity ) a =ce proportionate to its mass1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance2 b ! e>? be+ by mu* ! l>g] body1 its attraction is f> great] ?an t ( ! moon4 #b ,! v>iation 9 ! di/ance is only "u r>e circum/ances #dj1jjj miles1 b ord9>ily ab\t #ac1jjj miles4 #c ,/ory ( ! ,heav5s1 #bnd edition1 p4 #ebe1 et seq4 #d ,a s]ies ( rese>*es made by ,zlln]1 ( ,leipzig1 l$ him to assign to ! light-reflect+ capacity ( ! full-moon a result int]m$iate betwe5 t obta9$ by ,b\gu]1 :i* gave a brightness equal to #a_/cjjjjj "p ( t ( ! sun1 & ( ,wolla/on1 :i* gave #a_/hjajgj "p4 ,we may accept #a_/fahjjj ( ,zlln] z suffici5tly close2 s t x w\ld require #fjj1jjj full moons to give ! same am\nt ( light z t ( ! sun4 #e ,s*rot]1 h[ev]1 came to ! conclusion t ! moon has an atmosph]e4 #f ,a *>t ( ! moon's surface1 ) ! names ( ! pr9cipal physical features1 w be f\nd 9 ,ball's ,/ory ( ! ,heav5s1 #bnd edit41 p4 #fj4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! moon z se5 ?r\gh a telescope appe>s 9 rev]s$ position4 #g ,ibid41 p4 #ff4 #h ,z repres5t$ by ,nasmy?'s models 9 pla/]4 #i ,ball1 loc4 cit41 p4 #fg4 #aj ,ball1 loc4 cit41 p4 #fi4 #aa ,a/ronomy1 p4 #gh4 #ab ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy1 p4 #bhe4 #ac ,at r>e int]vals a few cresc5t-%ap$ ridges are disc]nible on ! lun> sph]e1 b x is v d\btful if !y are to be reg>d$ z brea*$ crat]s4 #ad ,! numb] ( spots on ! moon 0 consid]$ to be #bdd until ,s*rot] increas$ x to #f1jjj1 & accurately describ$ _m ( !m4 ,s*rot] seems to h be5 ! e>lie/ obs]v] :o id5tifi$ ! circul> holl[s on ! moon's surface z volcanic crat]s4 #ae ,draw+s ( ^! v curi\s =ms are giv5 by ,judd1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #abg4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,are ,,we ,,liv+ ,,9 ,,an ,,epo* ,,( ,,special ,,volcanic ,,activity8 ,! "q :i* we are ab\t to discuss 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ?is volume is "o to :i* we ought to be able to (f] a def9ite answ]4 ,?is c only be arriv$ at by a comp>ison ( ! viol5ce & ext5t ( volcanic & seismic ph5om5a )9 ! p]iod ( hi/ory ) ^? ( pre-hi/oric p]iods4 ,at fir/ sight we might be dispos$ to give to ! "q an affirmative reply :5 we rememb] ! eruptions ( ! la/ few ye>s1 & add to ^! ! volcanic outbur/s & e>?quake %ocks :i* hi/ory records4 ,! cases ( ! e>?quake & eruption 9 ,japan ( ,novemb]1 #ahia1 :]e 9 "o prov9ce alone two ?\s& p lo/ _! lives & _m ?\s& h\ses 7 levell$#a2 t ( ,krakatoa1 9 #ahhc2 ( ,vesuvius1 9 #ahgb2 & _m o!rs ( rec5t date :i* might be nam$1 add$ to ^? :i* hi/ory records2--! recollection ( su* cases might lead u to conclude t our epo* is "o 9 :i* ! subt]ranean volcanic =ces _h brok5 out ) extraord9>y en]gy ov] ! e>?'s surface4 ,/ill1 :5 we come to exam9e into ! cases ( record$ eruptions--especially ^? ( great viol5ce--we f9d t !y are limit$ to v special di/ricts2 & ev5 if we ext5d our retrospect into ! lat] c5turies ( our era1 we %all f9d t ! exceptionally great eruptions h be5 conf9$ to c]ta9 p]man5tly volcanic regions1 su* z ! *a9 ( ! ,&es1 t ( ! ,aleutian1 ,kurile1 ,japanese1 & ,philipp9e & ,sunda ,isl&s1 ly+ = ! mo/ "p along ! rem>kable volcanic girdle ( ! _w to :i* ,i h ref]r$ 9 a previ\s page4 ,add to ^! ! cases ( ,icel& & ! volcanic isl&s ( ! ,pacific1 & we h almo/ ! :ole ( ! v active volcanoes ( ! _w4 ,!n = ! purposes ( our inquiry we h to asc]ta9 h[ ^! active v5ts ( eruption comp>e1 z reg>ds ! magnitude ( _! op]ations1 ) ^? ( ! pre-hi/oric & lat] ,t]ti>y times4 ,b be=e ent]+ into ?is "q x maybe obs]v$1 9 ! fir/ place1 t a l>ge numb] ( ! v5ts ( eruption1 ev5 along ! *a9 ( ! e>?'s volcanic girdle1 are dormant or ext9ct4 ,?is obs]vation applies to _m ( ! great cones & domes ( ! ,&es1 includ+ ,*imborazo & o!r colossal m\nta9s 9 ,ecuador1 ,columbia1 ,*ili1 ,p]u1 & ,mexico4 ,! region betwe5 ! ea/]n ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! we/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica 01 z we h se51 "o ov] :i* volcanic eruptions took place on a va/ scale 9 lat] ,t]ti>y times2 b "o 9 :i* only ! aft]-effects ( volcanic action are at pres5t 9 op]ation4 ,we h also se5 t ! *a9 ( volcanoes ( ,japan & ( ! ,kurile ,isl&s are only active to a slight ext5t z comp>$ ) =m] times1 & ! same obs]vation applies to ^? ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,out ( #acj volcanoes 9 ! ,japanese isl&s1 only #dh are n[ believ$ to be active4 ,aga91 if we turn to o!r di/ricts we h be5 consid]+1 we f9d t 9 ! ,indian ,p59sula1 9 ,arabia1 9 ,syria & ! ,holy ,l&1 9 ,p]sia1 9 ,abyss9ia & ,asia ,m9or--regions :]e volcanic op]ations 7 exhibit$ on a gr& scale ?r\gh\t ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & 9 "s cases almo/ d[n into rec5t times--we are met by simil> evid5ces ei!r ( decay+ volcanic en]gy1 or ( an en]gy :i*1 z f> z surface ph5om5a are conc]n$1 is a ?+ ( ! pa/4 ,la/ly1 turn+ our att5tion to ! ,european area1 not)/&+ ! /ill active condition ( ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & a few adjo9+ isl&s1 we see 9 all directions ?r\gh\t ,s\!rn ,italy evid5ces ( volcanic op]ations ( a pa/ "t1--su* z ext9ct crat]-cones1 lakes occupy+ ! crat]s ( =m] volcanoes1 & ext5sive deposits ( tuff or /reams ( lava--all concurr+ 9 giv+ evid5ce ( a p]iod n[ pa/1 :5 vulcanicity 0 widespread ov] regions :]e its pres5ce is n[ nev] felt except :5 "s e>?quake %ock1 l t ( ! ,rivi]a1 br+s home to our m9ds ! fact t ! motive =ce is /ill b5ea? our feet1 ?\gh "u re/ra9$ conditions z comp>$ ) a =m] p]iod4 ,simil> conclusions are applicable ) ev5 great] =ce to o!r p>ts ( ! ,european area4 ,! region ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e & ,moselle1 ( ,hung>y & ! ,c>pa?ians1 ( ,c5tral ,france1 ( ! ,nor? ( ,irel& & ! ,inn] ,hebrides1 all af=d evid5ce ( volcanic op]ations at a =m] p]iod on an ext5sive scale2 & ! contra/ betwe5 ! pres5t physically sil5t & peaceful condition ( ^! regions1 z reg>ds any outw>d manife/ations ( sub-t]re/rial =ces1 comp>$ ) ^? :i* 7 =m]ly preval5t1 _c fail to impress our m9ds irresi/ibly ) ! idea t volcanic en]gy has well-nigh exhau/$ itself ov] ^! tracts ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,f ?is g5]al survey ( ! pres5t condition ( ! e>?'s surface1 z reg>ds ! volcanic op]ations go+ on ov] x1 & a comp>ison ) ^? ( a prec$+ p]iod1 we are driv5 to ! conclusion t1 h[ev] viol5t & (t5 disa/r\s are ! volcanic & seismic ph5om5a ( ! pres5t day1 !y are re/rict$ to comp>atively n>r[ limits2 & t ev5 )9 ^! limits ! volcanic =ces are less p[]ful ?an !y 7 9 pre-hi/oric times4 ,! middle "p ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod appe>s1 9 fact1 to h be5 "o ( extraord9>y volcanic activity1 :e!r we reg>d ! wide area ov] :i* ?is activity manife/$ itself1 or ! results z %[n by ! great am\nt ( ! erupt$ mat]ials4 ,_m ( ! /ill active volcanic *a9s1 or gr\ps1 probably _h _! fir/ beg9n+s at ! p]iod ref]r$ to2 b 9 ! majority ( cases ! eruptive =ces h become dormant or ext9ct4 ,) ! exception ( ! lavas ( ! ,indian-,p59sul> area1 :i* appe>1 at lea/ p>tially1 to belong to ! close ( ! ,cretace\s epo*1 ! specially volcanic p]iod may be consid]$ to ext5d f ! beg9n+ ( ! ,mioc5e d[n to ! close ( ! ,plioc5e /age4 ,dur+ ! ,eoc5e /age1 volcanic en]gy appe>s to h be5 to a great degree dormant2 b plutonic en]gy 0 ga!r+ /r5g? = ! great ef=t ( ! ,mioc5e epo*1 :5 ! volcanic =ces broke out ) extraord9>y viol5ce ov] ,europe1 ! ,briti% ,isles1 & o!r regions1 & cont9u$ to develop ?r\gh\t ! succe$+ ,plioc5e epo*1 until ! :ole globe 0 surr\nd$ by a girdle ( fire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! reply1 !re=e1 to ! "q ) :i* we set out is v pla92 & is to ! effect t ! pres5t epo* is "o ( comp>atively l[ volcanic activity4 ,! fur!r "q sugge/s itself1 :e!r ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ! middle ,t]ti>y p]iod be> any comp>ison ) ^? ( pa/ geological times4 ,?is1 ?\gh a "q ( great int]e/1 is "o :i* is f> too l>ge to be discuss$ "h2 & x is d\btful if we h mat]ials available ^u :i* to base a conclusion4 ,b x may be /at$ ) "s confid5ce1 9 g5]al t]ms1 t ! hi/ory ( ! e>? appe>s to %[ t1 ?r\gh\t all geological "t1 our _w has be5 ! !atre ( int]mitt5t geological activity1 p]iods ( re/ succe$+ ^? ( action2 & if we are to draw a conclusion reg>d+ ! pres5t & future1 x w\ld be t1 ow+ to ! l[] rate ( secul> cool+ ( ! cru/1 volcanic action ought to become less p[]ful z ! _w gr[s old]4 #a ,admirably illu/rat$ 9 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,milne's rec5tly publi%$ "w1 ,! ,great ,e>?quake ( ,japan1 #ahia4 ,,app5dix4 ,a ,,brief ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,v>ieties ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,! text-books on ?is subject are s num]\s & accessible1 t a v brief acc\nt ( ! volcanic rocks is all t ne$ be giv5 "h = ! purposes ( ref]5ce by read]s n famili> ) petrological details4 ,let x be obs]v$1 9 ! fir/ place1 t !re is no h>d & fa/ l9e betwe5 ! v>ieties ( igne\s & volcanic rocks4 ,9 ?is z 9 o!r p>ts ( creation--natura nil facit p] saltum2 !re are gradations f "o v>iety to ! o!r4 ,at ! same "t a sy/ematic arrangem5t is n only desirable1 b necess>y2 & ! mo/ important basis ( arrangem5t is t f\nd$ on ! proportion ( silica 7or qu>tz7 9 ! v>i\s rocks1 z fir/ demon/rat$ by ,duro*] & ,buns51 :o %[$ t silica plays ! same "p 9 ! inorganic k+dom t c>bon does 9 ! organic4 ,^u ?is hypo!sis1 :i* is a v useful "o to "w )1 ^! au?ors sep>at$ all igne\s & volcanic rocks into two classes1 viz41 ! ,basic & ! ,acid2 ! =m] conta9+ f #de-eh p] c5t41 ! latt] #fb-gh p] c5t4 ( t m9]al4 ,b !re are a few int]m$iate v>ieties :i* s]ve to bridge ov] ! space betwe5 ! ,basic & ,acid ,gr\ps4 ,! foll[+ is a g5]alis$ arrangem5t ( ! mo/ important rocks "u ! above heads3-- ,tabul> ,view ( ,*ief ,igne\s & ,volcanic ,rocks4 ,,basic ,,gr\p4 #a4 ,basalt & ,dol]ite4 #b4 ,gabbro4 #c4 ,diorite4 #d4 ,diabase & ,melaphyre4 #e4 ,porphyrite4 ,,int]m$iate ,,gr\p4 #f4 ,sy5ite4 #g4 ,mica-trap1 or ,lampophyre4 #h4 ,&esite4 ,,acid ,,gr\p4 #i4 ,tra*yte1 ,domite1 & ,phonolite4 #aj4 ,rhyolite & ,obsidian4 #aa4 ,granophyre4 #ab4 ,granite4 ,9 ! above gr\p+1 & 9 ! foll[+ def9itions1 ,i h n be5 able to foll[ any special au?ority4 ,b ! mo/ s]viceable text-books are ^? ( ,mr4 ,frank ,rutley1 ,/udy ( ,rocks1 & ,dr4 ,hat*1 ,petrology2 also ,h4 ,ros5bus*1 ,mikroskopis*e ,physiographie d] ,m9]ali51 & ,f4 ,zirkel's ,unt]su*ung5 b] mikroskopis*e ,/ructur d] ,basaltge/e9e4 ,we %all consid] ^! 9 ! ord] above indicat$3-- #a4 ,,basalt4--,! mo/ ext5sively di/ribut$ ( all volcanic rocks4 ,x is a d5se1 d>k rock ( high specific gravity 7#b4d-b4h71 consi/+ ( plagioclase felsp> 7,labradorite or anor?ite71 augite1 & titano-f]rite 7titanif]\s magnetite74 ,oliv9e is (t5 pres5t2 & :5 abundant ! rock is call$ oliv9e-basalt4 ,9 ! old] rocks1 basalt has (t5 und]gone decomposition into melaphyre2 & among/ ! metamorphic rocks x has be5 *ang$ into diorite or hornbl5de rock2 ! augite hav+ be5 conv]t$ into hornbl5de4 ,:5 leucite or nephel9e replaces plagioclase1 ! rock becomes a leucite-basalt1#a or nephel9e-basalt4 ,"s basalts h a glass pa/e1 or gr\nd-mass1 9 :i* ! m9]als are enclos$4 ,! lava ( ,vesuvius may be reg>d$ z a v>iety ( basalt 9 :i* leucite replaces plagioclase1 al?\gh ?is latt] m9]al is also pres5t4 ,zirkel calls x ,sanid9-leucitge/e91 z bo? ! macroscopic & microscopic /ructure reveal ! pres5ce ( leucite1 sanid9e1 plagioclase1 nephil9e1 augite1 mica1 oliv9e1 apatite1 & magnetite4#b ,dol]ite does n diff] ess5tially f basalt 9 composition or /ructure1 b is a l>gely cry/all9e-granul> v>iety1 occurr+ m abundantly ?an basalt among/ ! m anci5t rocks1 & ! diff]5t m9]als are di/9ctly visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,a rem>kable v>iety ( ?is rock occurs at ,slieve ,gullion 9 ,irel&1 9 :i* mica is s abundant z to con/itute ! rock a micace\s dol]ite4 #b4 ,,gabbro4--,a r wide gr\p ( volcanic rocks ) v>iable composition4 ,ess5tially x is a cry/all9e-granul> comp\nd ( plagioclase1 g5]ally ,labradorite & diallage4 ,sometimes ! pyrox5ic m9]al becomes hyp]/h5e1 giv+ rise to hyp]/h5e-gabbro2 or :5 hornbl5de is pres5t1 to hornbl5de-gabbro2 :5 oliv9e1 to oliv9e-gabbro4 ,magnetite is always pres5t4 ,^! rocks occur 9 ! ,c>l+=d di/rict 9 ,irel&1 9 ! ,liz>d di/rict ( ,cornwall1 ! ,inn] ,hebrides 7,mull1 ,skye1 etc47 ( ,scotl&1 & 9 ,saxony4 #c4 ,,diorite4--,a cry/all9e-granul> comp\nd ( plagioclase & hornbl5de ) magnetite4 ,:5 qu>tz is pres5t x becomes 7accord+ to ! usual ,briti% acceptation7 a sy5ite2 b ?is view is gradually giv+ place to ! ,g]man def9ition ( sy5ite1 :i* is a comp\nd ( or?oclase & hornbl5de2 & x may be bett] to d5om9ate ! v>iety z qu>tz-diorite4 ,! diorites are abundant z %eets & dykes among/ ! old] palozoic & metamorphic rocks1 & are sometimes exce$+ly ri* 9 magnetite4 ,mica1 epidote1 & *lorite are also pres5t z accessories4 ,! rock occurs 9 ,nor? ,wales1 ,*>nwood ,=e/1 ,wickl[1 ,galway1 & ,donegal1 & ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&4 ,!re c be little d\bt t among/ ! metamorphic rocks ( ,galway1 ,mayo1 & ,donegal ! great b$s ( 7(t5 column>7 diorite 7 orig9ally augitic lavas1 :i* h s9ce und]gone trans=mation4 #d4 ,,diabase4--,x is v d\btful if ,diabase ought to be reg>d$ z a di/9ct species ( igne\s rock1 z x seems to be simply an alt]$ v>iety ( basalt or dol]ite1 9 :i* *lorite1 a second>y alt]ation-product1 has be5 develop$ by ! decomposition ( ! pyrox5e or oliv9e ( ! orig9al rock4 ,x is a conv5i5t "n = use 9 ! field :5 d\bt occurs z to ! real nature ( an igne\s rock4 ,melaphyre is a "n giv5 to ! v d>k v>ieties ( alt]$ augitic lavas1 ri* 9 magnetite & *lorite4 #e4 ,,porphyrite 7or qu>tzless porphyry74--,a basic v>iety ( fel/one-porphyry1 consi/+ ( a felspa?ic base ) di/9ct cry/als ( felsp>1 ) :i* !re may be o!rs ( hornbl5de1 mica1 or augite4 ,! col\r is g5]ally r$ or purple1 & x wea!rs into r$ clay1 9 contra/ to ! highly acid or silicat$ felsites :i* wea!r into :iti% s&4 #f4 ,,sy5ite4--,z /at$ above1 ?is "n has be5 v>i\sly appli$4 ,its d]ivation is f ,sy5e 7,ass\an7 9 ,egypt1 & ! granitic rocks ( t di/rict 7 call$ sy5ites1 "u ! supposition 7n[ kn[n to be errone\s7 t !y diff] f ord9>y granites 9 t !y 7 suppos$ to be compos$ ( qu>tz1 felsp>1 & hornbl5de1 in/ead ( qu>tz1 felsp>1 & mica4 ,f ?is x arose t sy5ite 0 reg>d$ z a v>iety ( granite 9 :i* ! mica is replac$ by hornbl5de1 & ?is has g5]ally be5 ! ,briti% view ( ! "q4 ,b ! ,g]man def9ition is appli$ to an entirely diff]5t rock1 belong+ to ! fel/one family2 & accord+ to ?is classification sy5ite consi/s ( a cry/all9e-granul> comp\nd ( or?oclase & hornbl5de1 9 :i* qu>tz may or may n be pres5t4 ,f ?is x w be se5 t1 accord+ to ,zirkel1 sy5ite is ess5tially di/9ct f diorite 9 ! species ( its felsp>4#c ,x seems desirable to adopt ! ,g]man view2 & z reg>ds diorites conta9+ qu>tz z an accessory1 to apply to !m ! "n ( qu>tz-diorite1 z /at$ above1 ! "n sy5ite z us$ by ,briti% geologi/s hav+ aris5 f a misconception4 #g4 ,,mica-,,trap 7,,lampophyre74--,a rock1 alli$ to ! fel/one family1 9 :i* mica is an abundant & ess5tial con/itu5t1 ?us consi/+ ( plagioclase & mica1 ) a little magnetite4 ,qu>tz may be an accessory4 ,?is rock occurs among/ ! ,l[] ,silurian /rata ( ,irel&1 ,cumb]l&1 & ! ,s\? ( ,scotl&2 x is n volcanic 9 ! ord9>y acceptation ( t t]m4 ,! t]m lampophyre 0 introduc$ by ,gmbel 9 describ+ ! mica-traps ( ,fi*telgebirge4 #h4 ,,&esite4--,?is is a d>k-col\r$1 compact or vesicul>1 semi-vitre\s gr\p ( volcanic rocks1 compos$ ess5tially ( a glassy plagioclase felsp>1 & a f]ro-magnesian con/itu5t enclos$ 9 a glassy base4 ,accord+ to ! nature ( ! f]ro-magnesian con/itu5t1 ! gr\p may be divid$ into hornbl5de-&esite1 biotite-&esite1 & augite-&esite4 ,qu>tz is sometimes pres5t1 & :5 ?is m9]al becomes an ess5tial x gives rise to a v>iety call$ qu>tz-&esite or dacite4 ,^! rocks are ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( ! lavas ( ! ,&es1 & ! "n 0 fir/ appli$ to !m by ,leopold von ,bu*2 b _! repres5tatives also occur 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 ,g]many1 & else:]e4 ,dacite is ! lava ( ,krakatoa & "s ( ! volcanoes ( ,japan4 #i1 #aj4 ,,tra*yte & ,,domite1 etc4--,^! names include v num]\s v>ieties ( highly silicat$ volcanic rock1 & 9 _! g5]al =m consi/ ( a :ite felsitic pa/e ) di/9ct cry/als ( sanid9e1 toge!r ) plagioclase1 augite1 biotite1 hornbl5de1 & accessories4 ,:5 cry/all9e gra9s or blebs ( qu>tz occur1 we h a qu>tz-tra*yte2 :5 tridymite is abundant1 z 9 ! tra*yte ( ,co4 ,antrim1 we h tridymite-tra*yte4 ,! tra*ytes occupy a position betwe5 ! pit*/one lavas on ! "o h&1 & ! &esites & granophyres on ! o!r4 7b47 ,domite is ! "n appli$ to ! tra*ytic rocks ( ! ,auv]gne di/rict & ! ,puy de ,dme p>ticul>ly4 ,!y d n conta9 free qu>tz1 ?\gh !y are highly acid rocks1 conta9+ sometimes z mu* z #fh p] c5t4 ( silica4 7c47 ,phonolite 7,cl9k/one7 is a tra*ytic rock1 compos$ ess5tially ( sanid9e1 nephel9e1 & augite or hornbl5de4 ,x is usually ( a gre5i% col\r1 h>d & compact1 s z to r+ "u ! hamm]2 h5ce ! "n4 ,! ,wolf ,rock is compos$ ( phonolite1 & x occurs l>gely 9 ,auv]gne4 7d47 ,rhyolites are closely connect$ ) ! qu>tz-tra*ytes1 b pres5t a m>k$ fluidal1 sph]ulitic1 or p]litic /ructure4 ,!y consi/ ( a tra*ytic gr\nd-mass 9 :i* gra9s or cry/als ( qu>tz & sanid9e1 ) o!r accessory m9]als1 are imb$d$4 ,!y occur among/ ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ,hung>y1 & ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 f :i* ! "n ,lip>ite has be5 d]iv$4 7e47 ,obsidian 7,pit*/one74--,?is is a vitre\s1 highly acid rock1 :i* has become a volcanic glass 9 consequ5ce ( rapid cool+1 di/9ct m9]als n hav+ _h "t to =m4 ,x has a con*oidal fracture1 v>i\s %ades ( col\r f grey to black2 & "u ! microscope is se5 to conta9 cry/allites or microli?s1 (t5 beautifully arrang$ 9 /ellate or fea!ry gr\ps4 ,sph]ulitic /ructure is n infrequ5t2 & occasionally a few cry/als ( sanid9e1 augite1 or hornbl5de are to be se5 imb$d$ 9 ! glassy gr\nd-mass4 ,! rock occurs 9 dykes & ve9s 9 ! ,we/]n ,isles ( ,scotl&1 9 ,antrim1 & on ! bord]s ( ! ,m\rne ,m\nta9s1 ne> ,newry1 9 ,irel&4 #aa4 ,,granophyre4--,?is t]m1 accord+ to ,geikie1 embraces ! great] portion ( ! acid volcanic rocks ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,!y are closely alli$ to ! qu>tz-porphyries1 & v>y 9 texture f a f9e felsitic or cry/all9e-granul> qu>tz-porphyry1 9 ! gr\nd-mass ( :i* porphyritic turbid felsp> & qu>tz may g5]ally be detect$1 to a granitoid rock ( m$ium gra91 9 :i* ! compon5t dull felsp> & cle> qu>tz c be readily di/+ui%$ by ! nak$ eye4 ,?r\gh\t all ! v>ieties ( texture !re is a /rong t5d5cy to ! developm5t ( m9ute irregul>ly-%ap$ cavities1 inside ( :i* qu>tz or felsp> has cry/allis$ out--a feature *>act]i/ic ( ! granites ( ,arran & ( ! ,m\rne ,m\nta9s4 #ab4 ,,granite4--,a true granite consi/s ( a cry/all9e-granul> rock consi/+ ( qu>tz1 felsp> 7or?oclase71 & mica2 ! qu>tz is ! pa/e or gr\nd-mass 9 :i* ! felsp> & mica cry/als are enclos$4 ,?is is ! ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 a granite & a qu>tz-porphyry or a granophyre4 ,ow+ to ! pres5ce ( highly-heat$ /eam "u pressure 9 ! body ( ! mass :5 9 a molt5 condition1 ! qu>tz has be5 ! la/ ( ! m9]als to cry/allise out1 & h5ce does n itself occur ) ! cry/all9e =m4 ,true granite is n a volcanic rock1 & its repres5tatives among/ volcanic ejecta are to be f\nd 9 ! granophyres1 qu>tz-porphyries1 felsites1 tra*ytes1 & rhyolites s abundant 9 mo/ volcanic c\ntries1 & to "o or o!r ( ^! ! s-call$ granites ( ! ,m\rne ,m\nta9s1 ( ,arran ,isl&1 & ( ,skye are to be ref]r$4 ,granite is a rock :i* has be5 intrud$ 9 a molt5 condition among/ ! deep-seat$ p>ts ( ! cru/1 & has consolidat$ "u great pressure 9 pres5ce ( aque\s vap\r & ) extreme sl[ness1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( a rock :i* is l>gely cry/all9e-granul>4 ,its pres5ce at ! surface is due to d5udation ( ! masses by :i* x 0 orig9ally ov]spread4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,i4 ,,explanation ,,( ,,plate ,i4 ,,magnifi$ ,,sections ,,( ,,vesuvian ,,m9]als4 ,fig4 #a4 ,section ( leucite cry/al f ! lava ( #ahfh1 ) fluid cavities4 ,mag41 #cej diams4 #b1 #c1 #d1 & #e4 ,sections ( nephel9e cry/als f ! lava ( #agfg1 #ahcd1 & #ahed4 #f4 ,section ( sodalite cry/al f ! lava ( #agid1 ) belonites & cry/als ( magnetite enclos$4 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,cry/als ( leucite ) microli?s & cavities d>k5$ by magnetite du/2 also1 conta9+ cry/als ( magnetite4 #aj4 ,gr\p ( leucite cry/als ( irregul> =m f ! lava ( #ahee1 congregat$ ar\nd a nucleus ( cry/als ( plagioclase & magnetite4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ii4 ,,explanation ,,( ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,magnifi$ ,,sections ,,( ,,vesuvian ,,m9]als4 ,fig4 #a4 ,section ( augite cry/al f ! lava ( #agid1 ) num]\s gas cells & delicately b&$ walls4 ,! int]ior conta9s two long prisms1 probably ( apatite4 #b4 ,cry/al ( augite ) b&$ walls1 & ind5t$ by leucite cry/als1 f ! lava ( #agid4 ,mag41 #dj diams4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,sections ( augite cry/als f ! lavas ( #agid & #ahbj4 #f4 ,gr\p ( augite cry/als f ! lava ( #ahce4 #g4 ,ditto f ! lava ( #ahbb1 ) enclud$ mica-flake 7a7 & portion ( ! glass pa/e1 or gr\nd-mass1 ( ! rock 7b71 conta9+ microli?s & gra9s ( magnetite4 ,fig4 #h4 ,two cry/als ( oliv9e f ! lava ( #ahee2 !y are int]sect$ on "o side by ! plane ( ! ?9 section1 & are rem>kable = %[+ l9es ( gas cells1 & b&s ( gr[? sometimes cellul>4 ,mag41 #dj diams4 #i4 ,section ( rock-cry/al 7qu>tz71 ) d\ble t]m9al pyramids1 f ! lava ( #ahej4 #aj4 ,tw9 cry/al ( sanid9e f ! lava ( #aheh4 ,mag41 #dj diams4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac4 ,sections ( plagioclase cry/als 7probably labradorite7 f ! lava ( #ahee4 ,mag41 #ajj diams4 #ad4 ,section ( oliv9e cry/al f ! lava ( #afca--;imp]fectly =m$4 ,mag41 #cj diams4 #ae4 ,section ( mica-flake f ! lava ( #ahbb4 ,mag41 #cj diams4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iii4 ,,explanation ,,( ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,magnifi$ ,,sections ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 #a4 ,diorite dyke1 trav]s+ ,assynt lime/one1 ,nor? ,highl&s4 #b4 ,basalt f upp] b$s1 ne> ,giant's ,causeway1 ,c\nty ,antrim4 #c4 ,hornbl5de-hyp]/h5e-augite ,&esite1 f ,pi*upi*u1 ,&es4 #d4 ,augite-,&esite f ,pi*upi*u1 ,&es4 #e4 ,oliv9e dol]ite1 ) hornbl5de & biotite1 ,madagasc>4 #f4 ,leucite basalt1 ) mellilite1 ,capo di ,bove1 ,italy4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iv4 ,,explanation ,,( ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,magnifi$ ,,sections ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 #a4 ,vesuvian lava1 glass pa/e ) num]\s cry/als ( leucite2 o!rs ( augite & nephel9e porphyritically develop$2 also small gra9s ( magnetite4 #b4 ,vesuvian lava1 glass pa/e ) num]\s cry/als ( leucite2 o!rs ( oliv9e1 hornbl5de1 & sanid9e1 porphyritically develop$2 small gra9s ( magnetite4 #c4 ,tra*yte f ,hung>y2 felsitic pa/e ) cry/als ( hornbl5de & sanid9e1 & a little magnetite4 #d4 ,gabbro1 f ,c>l+=d ,hill1 ,irel&1 consi/+ ( anor?ite1 augite1 a little oliv9e1 & magnetite4 #e4 ,dol]ite1 f old volcanic neck1 ,scalot ,hill1 ne> ,lame1 consi/+ ( labradorite1 augite1 oliv9e1 & magnetite4 #f4 ,dol]ite1 ,ball9toy1 ,c\nty ,antrim1 %[+ ophetic /ructure1 consi/+ ( augite1 labradorite1 & magnetite4 #a ,mr4 ,s4 ,allport has discov]$ ?is 9 ! rock call$ ! ,wolf ,rock (f ! coa/ ( ,cornwall4 ,! mo/ important "w on basalt is t by ,f4 ,zirkel1 ,unt]s4 b] mikros4 ,zusamm5setzung und ,/ructur d] ,basaltge/e9e4 ,bonn 7#ahgj74 #b ,zirkel1 ,die mikroskopis*e ,bes*aff5heit d] ,m9]ali5 und ,ge/e9e1 p4 #aec4 ,leipsig 7#ahgc74 #c ,zirkel1 ,petrog41 i4 #egh2 ,b4 von ,cotta1 p4 #agh 7,eng4 ,trans474 ,,index4 ,,index4 ,abyss9ian table-l&s1 #aij et seq4 ,albano1 ,lake1 #hi ,am]ica1 volcanic regions ( ,nor?1 #acf et seq42 ( ,we/]n1 #add ,&es1 #ah1 #bg1 #bbg1 #bed ,&esite1 #bfc ,antrim1 #aed et seq4 ,arabia1 dormant volcanoes (1 #abf-ace ,arabian des]t1 #acd ,ar*ibald1 ,c4 ,d41 #bac ,arizona1 volcanoes (1 #acg ,argyll1 ,duke (1 #agc ,asc5sion1 #cf ,a%angi1 volcanic s]ies (1 #aib ,atmosph]ic effects ( ,krakatoa eruption1 #bac-bad ,auckl& di/rict1 volcanoes (1 #adg ,auv]gne1 volcanic regions (1 #ad1 #af1 #ib et seq4 ,azores1 #cb ,ball1 ,sir ,r4 ,s41 #bdb1 #bdd ,basalt1 #bfj ,blan=d1 ,w4 ,t41 #ahh1 #ahi ,bonneville1 ,lake1 #ada-adb ,briti% ,isles1 ,t]ti>y volcanic di/ricts (1 #aed et seq41 #bbg2 pre-,t]ti>y volcanic di/ricts (1 #aif et seq4 ,bu*1 ,l4 von1 #f1 #aa1 #bd ,cali=nia1 volcanoes (1 #adj ,callirrho1 spr+s (1 #acc ,caon1 ! ,gr&1 #ach ,cantal1 volcanoes ( !1 #ii-aja ,cape ,colony1 ,basalts (1 #aid ,*>le/on e>?quake1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bbd ,*amb]s1 ,g4 ,f41 #bdf ,*>nwood ,=e/1 #aih ,*imborazo1 #ah ,cl]mont1 vale (1 #if-ig ,cl9k/one1 #bfc ,cordill]as ( ,quito1 #be ,cotopaxi1 #af-ah1 #bd1 #bf ,crat]-cones1 ,lava1 #ai ,crat]i=m cones1 #ac ,crat]less domes1 #ae ,dana1 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,d41 #ai1 #ci1 #bdi ,d>w91 #bh1 #cj ,d>w91 ,pr(4 ,g4 ,h41 #i1 #bca ,daub5y1 #g1 #fa1 #fi ,davison1 ,c41 #i1 #bca ,davy1 ,sir ,h41 #aa ,deccan trap-s]ies1 #ahg et seq4 ,demav5d1 ,m\nt1 #bd ,diabase1 #bfb ,diorite1 #bfa ,dol]ite1 #bfa ,domite1 #bfc ,dore1 volcanoes ( ,mont1 #ajj-aja ,d\ghty1 ,c4 ,m41 #abg ,duro*]1 #bcb ,dutton1 ,capt4 ,c4 ,e41 #i1 #bbj1 #bbb ,dykes 9 ,irel&1 #afi-agj ,e>?quakes1 #bag et seq4 ,errigal1 #aj ,etna1 #ad1 #fa et seq41 #bbi ,f+al's ,cave1 #ahe ,=bes1 ,d41 #bg ,france1 ext9ct volcanoes (1 #ib et seq4 ,gabbro1 #bfa ,g>dn]1 ,j4 ,s41 #aef ,geikie1 ,sir ,a41 #h1 #bi1 #adc1 #aef1 #afj1 #afi1 #agb1 #agf1 #agg1 #aif ,giant's ,causeway1 #afe-aff ,granite1 #bfd ,granophyre1 #bfd2 ( ,mull1 #agd ,gre51 ,pr(4 ,a4 ,h41 #aid ,hat*1 ,dr41 #bfj ,haughton1 ,pr(41 #fh ,haurn1 volcanoes ( !1 #bb1 #abi ,haute ,loire1 volcanic di/ricts (1 #aja-aje ,hawaii1 volcanoes (1 #ci1 #bdi1 #bea ,hecla1 #cb ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,j41 #bdd ,hibb]t1 ,dr4 ,s41 #f1 #aad1 #abd ,ho*/ett]1 ,f4 von1 #adg ,hopk9s1 #aga1 #bag ,hull1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,g41 #aaj ,humboldt1 ,a4 von1 #bj1 #be ,hutton1 ,james1 #e ,icel&1 volcanoes (1 #cj-cb ,irel&1 volcanic ,t]ti>y rocks (1 #aed et seq4 ,jauln1 #abi ,john/on-,lavis1 #eb ,jordan valley1 #abf et seq41 #bbf ,jorullo1 #bd ,judd1 ,pr(41 #h1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #agb1 #agh1 #bjh ,krakatoa1 eruption (1 #bjf et seq4 ,kurile ,isl&s1 volcanoes (1 #bh ,laa*] ,see1 #aba-abc ,lampophyre1 #bfb ,lanc]ote1 #cd ,lasaulx1 ,pr(4 von1 #fh ,lavas1 relative d5sity (1 #bcb-bcd ,lima 9 #agdf1 e>?quake (1 #bbb ,lip>i ,isl&s1 volcanoes (1 #fi et seq4 ,lisbon1 e>?quake (1 #bba ,li/]1 ,j4 ,j41 #ch ,lun> volcanoes1 #bcf et seq4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c41 #cj1 #fb1 #gh1 #bag ,mack[51 ,col41 #gd ,magdala1 volcanic s]ies (1 #aib-aic ,mallet1 ,r41 #i1 #bag ,mauna ,loa1 #ai1 #ci1 #bdi ,mica-trap1 #bfb ,milne1 ,pr(41 #bh1 #bah1 #bec ,moab1 volcanic regions (1 #acb ,moon1 volcanoes (1 #bcf et seq4 ,monte ,nuovo1 #he ,mull1 #agb et seq4 ,neapolitan gr\p ( volcanoes1 #bh ,new ,zeal&1 volcanoes (1 #adf ,obsidian1 #bfd ,ocean waves ( seismic orig91 #bjh1 #bbj ,o',reilly1 ,pr(41 #i1 #bai ,orizaba1 #ba ,ovid1 #c ,pacific1 volcanic isl&s (1 #cg ,pale/9e1 dormant volcanoes (1 #abf-ace ,palmi]i1 ,pr(41 #ee ,pantell]ia1 #gd ,phlegran fields1 #he ,phonolite1 #bfc ,pit*/one1 #bfd ,pl9y1 #b1 #d ,porphyrite1 #bfb ,p[ell1 ,major1 #ach ,pre-,t]ti>y volcanic rocks1 #ahg et seq42 ( ,briti% ,isles1 #aif et seq4 ,puy de ,dme1 #aje-aaj ,py?agoreans on volcanoes1 #b-c ,quito1 ,cordill]as (1 #be ,rangitoto1 #ai1 #adi ,rey]1 ,dr4 ,e41 #ag ,rh9e valley1 volcanoes (1 #aac et seq4 ,rhyolite1 #bfc ,rivi]a 9 #ahhg1 e>?quake (1 #bai ,rocca ,monf9a1 #hj ,rod]b]g1 #aai1 #abj ,rome1 #hh-hi ,ros5bus*1 ,h41 #bfj ,roto ,mahana1 #aea ,ruapahu1 #aea ,russell1 ,hon4 ,rollo1 #bac ,rutley1 ,f41 #bfj ,/4 ,hel5a1 #cg ,san ,francisco1 ,m\nt1 #ach ,santor91 #gf-hc ,s*ehallion1 #aj ,s*uma*]1 #abg ,scotl&1 volcanic di/ricts (1 #agb et seq4 ,scrope1 ,p\lett1 #e1 #gc1 #ic1 #ih ,scuir ( ,eigg1 #ahj-ahd ,seismic ph5om5a1 special1 #bja et seq41 #bag et seq4 ,%a/a1 ,m\nt1 #adj ,sieb5gebirge1 #aaf-abj ,skye1 #agg-agi ,sleami%1 #afh ,smy?1 ,piazzi1 #cc ,snake ,riv]1 volcanoes (1 #adb ,/affa1 #ahe-ahf ,/rabo on volcanoes1 #c ,/romboli1 #ga-gc ,sumatra1 volcanic action 91 #bbf ,sy5ite1 #bfb ,symes1 ,r4 ,g41 #afg ,syria1 e>?quakes 91 #bai ,taupo ,lake1 #aej ,taylor1 ,m\nt1 #ach ,tell el ,ahmr1 #aca ,tell el ,akka%eh1 #aca ,tell el ,f>ras1 #aca ,tell ,ab en ,n$1 #acj ,tell ,ab ,n$r1 #abi ,templepatrick1 qu>ry at1 #afj ,t5]iffe1 #cc ,t]ti>y p]iod1 volcanic activity (1 #bee ,?ucydides1 #b ,tonga ,isl&s1 volcanoes (1 #ch ,tong>iro1 #aea ,tra*yte1 #bfc ,trass ( ,brhl ,valley1 #abc-abe ,tri/an da ,cunha1 #cg ,tri/ram1 ,canon1 #abg1 #aca ,utah1 volcanoes (1 #acg ,v]beek1 ,r4 ,d4 ,m41 #bjb ,vesuvius1 #d1 #ad1 #da-fj1 #fg1 #bbi ,volcanoes1 hi/oric notices (1 #a-e2 =m1 /ructure1 & composition (1 #aj-ai2 l9es & gr\ps ( active1 #bj-bi2 ( mid-ocean1 #cj-dj2 ext9ct or dormant1 #hd et seq42 special volcanic & seismic ph5om5a1 #bja et seq42 ! ultimate cause ( volcanic action1 #bbe et seq42 :e!r we are liv+ 9 an epo* ( special volcanic activity1 #bec-bef2 brief acc\nt ( volcanic rocks1 #bei-bfe ,vulcani/s1 #e ,vulcano1 #fi1 #ga ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 #ha ,walt]%aus51 ,w4 ,s4 von1 #g1 #fa ,well+ton1 ,m\nt1 #adi ,:>ton1 ,capt41 #bab ,:ymp]1 ,e41 #ah ,y>mk1 valley ( !1 #abi1 #aca ,yell[/one ,p>k1 #ade ,zirkel1 ,f41 #bfj ,zlln]1 #bdj ,,! ,,walt] ,,scott ,,press1 ,,newca/le-,,on-,,tyne4 ,! ,contempor>y ,sci5ce ,s]ies4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,,havelock ,,ellis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cr[n #hvo1 ,clo?1 #cs4 #f;d4 p] vol42 ,half ,morocco1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,i4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,sex4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,patrick ,,g$des & ,j4 ,,ar?ur ,,?omson4 ,) #ij ,illu/rations4 ,second ,edition4 ,! au?ors h br\ght to ! task--z inde$ _! names gu>antee--a weal? ( k1 a lucid & attractive me?od ( treatm5t1 & a ri* ve9 ( picturesque language4--,nature4 ,,ii4 ,,electricity ,,9 ,,mod]n ,,life4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,de ,,tunzelmann4 ,) #hh ,illu/rations4 ,a cle>ly-writt5 & connect$ sket* ( :at is kn[n ab\t electricity & magnetism1 ! m prom95t mod]n applications1 & ! pr9ciples on :i* !y are bas$4--,saturday ,review4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,aryans4 ,by ,dr4 ,,isaac ,,taylor4 ,illu/rat$4 ,second ,edition4 ,canon ,taylor is probably ! mo/ encyclopdic all-r\nd s*ol> n[ liv+4 ,8 new volume on ! ,orig9 ( ! ,aryans is a fir/-rate example ( ! excell5t acc\nt to :i* he c turn 8 exceptionally wide & v>i$ in=mation4444 ,ma/]ly & exhau/ive4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,iv4 ,,physiognomy ,,& ,,expression4 ,by ,p4 ,,mantegazza4 ,illu/rat$4 ,pr(essor ,mantegazza is a writ] full ( life & _s1 & ! natural attractiv5ess ( 8 subject is n de/roy$ by 8 sci5tific h&l+ ( x4--,lit]>y ,_w 7,bo/on74 ,v4 ,,evolution ,,& ,,disease4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,sutton1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,) #ace ,illu/rations4 ,! "w is ( special value to pr(essional m51 yet educat$ p]sons g5]ally w f9d mu* 9 x :i* x is bo? int]e/+ & important to "k4--,! ,scotti% ,weekly4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,village ,,community4 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,,gomme4 ,illu/rat$4 ,8 book w probably rema9 = "s "t ! be/ "w ( ref]5ce = facts be>+ on ^? traces ( ! village community :i* h n be5 effac$ by conque/1 encroa*m5t1 & ! heavy h& ( ,roman law4--,scotti% ,lead]4 ,,vii4 ,,! ,,crim9al4 ,by ,,havelock ,,ellis4 ,illu/rat$4 ,an ably writt51 an in/ructive1 & a mo/ ent]ta9+ book4--,law ,qu>t]ly ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,london3 ,,walt] ,,scott1 ,,limit$1 #bd ,w>wick ,lane4 ,! ,contempor>y ,sci5ce ,s]ies--cont9u$4 ,,viii4 ,,sanity ,,& ,,insanity4 ,by ,dr4 ,,*>les ,,m]ci]4 ,illu/rat$4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 x is ! brighte/ book on ! physical side ( m5tal sci5ce publi%$ 9 our "t4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,ix4 ,,hypnotism4 ,by ,dr4 ,,alb]t ,,moll4 ,second ,edition4 ,m>ks a /ep ( "s importance 9 ! /udy ( "s difficult physiological & psy*ological problems :i* h n yet receiv$ mu* att5tion 9 ! sci5tific _w ( ,engl&4--,nature4 ,x4 ,,manual ,,tra9+4 ,by ,dr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,,woodw>d1 ,director ( ! ,manual ,tra9+ ,s*ool1 ,/4 ,l\is4 ,illu/rat$4 ,!re is no great] au?ority on ! subject ?an ,pr(essor ,woodw>d4--,man*e/] ,gu>dian4 ,,xi4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,by ,e4 ,,sidney ,,h>tl&4 ,mr4 ,h>tl&'s book w w9 ! sympa?y ( all e>ne/ /ud5ts1 bo? by ! k x displays1 & by a ?or\gh love & appreciation ( 8 subject1 :i* is evid5t ?r\gh\t4--,spectator4 ,,xii4 ,,primitive ,,folk4 ,by ,,elie ,,reclus4 ,= an introduction to ! /udy ( ! que/ions ( prop]ty1 m>riage1 gov]nm5t1 religion1--9 a ^w1 to ! evolution ( society1--?is little volume w be f\nd mo/ conv5i5t4--,scotti% ,lead]4 ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,m>riage4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,let\rneau4 ,among ! di/+ui%$ ,fr5* /ud5ts ( sociology1 ,pr(essor ,let\rneau has long /ood 9 ! fir/ rank4 ,he approa*es ! great /udy ( man free f bias & %y ( g5]alisations4 ,to collect1 scrut9ise1 & appraise facts is 8 *ief bus9ess4--,sci5ce4 ,,xiv4 ,,bact]ia ,,& ,,_! ,,products4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,,sims ,,woodhead4 ,illu/rat$4 ,an excell5t summ>y ( ! pres5t /ate ( k ( ! subject4--,lancet4 ,,xv4 ,,education ,,& ,,h]$ity4 ,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,guyau4 ,x is a sign ( ! value ( ?is book t ! natural impulse on arriv+ at its la/ page is to turn aga9 to ! fir/1 & try to ga!r up & coord9ate "s ( ! _m admirable tru?s x pres5ts4--,anti-,jacob94 ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,man ,,( ,,g5ius4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,lombroso4 ,illu/rat$4 ,by f> ! mo/ compreh5sive & fasc9at+ collection ( facts & g5]alisations conc]n+ g5ius :i* has yet be5 br\ght toge!r4--,j\rnal ( ,m5tal ,sci5ce4 ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,gramm> ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,k>l ,,pe>son4 ,illu/rat$4 ,,xviii4 ,,prop]ty3 ,,its ,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t4 ,by ,,*4 ,,let\rneau1 ,g5]al ,secret>y to ! ,an?ropological ,society1 ,p>is1 & ,pr(essor 9 ! ,s*ool ( ,an?ropology1 ,p>is4 ,an e?nological acc\nt ( ! beg9n+s ( prop]ty among animals1 ( its communi/ic /ages among primitive races1 & ( its lat] individuali/ic developm5ts1 toge!r ) a brief sket* ( its probable evolution 9 ! future4 99 99 99 99 99 ,london3 ,,walt] ,,scott1 ,,limit$1 #bd ,w>wick ,lane4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,*ang$ ',kil>rea' to ',kilauea' on page #ai3 ,mauna ,loa & ,kil>rea4 ,*ang$ ',kilanea' to ',kilauea' on page #ci3 ,kilanea1 #daeh feet4 ,made punctuation 7semi-colons7 consi/5t 9 caption to figure #af4 ,*ang$ ',brionde' to ',bri\de' on page #id3 till at ,brionde x becomes4 ,*ang$ 'occup+' to 'occupy+' on page #if3 occup+ a holl[4 ,*ang$ ',rodesb]g' to ',rod]b]g' on page #aah3 old ext9ct volcano ( ,rodesb]g4 ,*ang$ ',wolk5b]g' to ',wolk5burg' on page #aah3 & t ( ! ,wolk5b]g4 ,left ! ref]5ce to ,j]emiah1 l4 #be4 9 footnote to ,"p ,,iii ,*apt] ,i1 al?\gh ,j]emiah1 li4 #be4 seems m appropriate4 ,*ang$ 'fum>ols' to 'fum>oles' on page #acg3 fum>ols give evid5ce4 ,remov$ extra comma on page #aec3 ( ! pres5t1 epo*4 ,*ang$ 'columnal' to 'column>' on page #agf3 ! columnal /ructure4 ,*ang$ 'groves' to 'grooves' on page #ahc3 ! groves & scor+s4 ,*ang$ ',angu/' to ',augu/' on page #bab3 ! #bg? ( ,angu/4 ,*ang$ 'mikroskopis*5' to 'mikroskopis*e' on page #bfj3 b] mikroskopis*5 ,/ructur4 ,*ang$ 'become' to 'becomes' on page #bfj3 ! rock become a leucite-basalt4 ,left inconsi/5t spell+s ( ',baalbec' & ',baalbeck'2 ',h>rat' & ',h>rt'2 'mtres' & 'metres'2 'pit*/one' & 'pit*-/one'2 'prehi/oric' & 'pre-hi/oric'2 ',rhne' & ',rhone'2 'sub-a]ial'1 'subarial' & 'suba]ial'2 'tablel&' & 'table-l&'4 ,greek words 7 replac$ ) _! translit]ations3 'meson pyr' & ',p]i kosm\'4 ,! oe-ligature 0 exp&$ to ! two sep>ate *>act]s3 ',euboea' & ',boeotia'4 ,left ! li/ numb]+ z is at ! beg9n+ ( ,*apt] ,,ii ( ,"p ,,iv1 ev5 ?\gh ! li/ beg9s at item c1 z if x cont9ues ! li/ :i* began 9 ! previ\s *apt]4