,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,! foll[+ errors are not$1 b h n be5 correct$3 ,page #ag1 footnote3 plutomium %\ld be plutonium ,page #h3 kn[ns %\ld be kn[s ,9 elem5t names1 repres5ts subscript$ numb]s & repres5ts sup]script$ numb]s4 ,read]s may also ref] to ! ,,html v]sion ( ! text1 9 :i* sup] & subscript$ numb]s are repres5t$ visually4 ,italic emphasis is indicat$ by surr\nd+ ! ^w ) und]scores4 ,greek lett]s 9 ! orig9al text are m>k$ 9 brackets1 e4 g4 alpha or gamma4 ,table ,i 7,,! ,,transuranium ,,elem5ts7 has be5 mov$ f pages #ab-ac1 9 ! middle ( ! book1 to ! end ( ! text4 ,a ,brief ,hi/ory ( ,,elem5t ,,discov]y1 ,,syn!sis1 & ,,analysis ,gl5 ,w4 ,watson ,septemb] #aifc ,illu/ration ,,lawr5ce ,,radiation ,,laboratory ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia ,b]keley & ,liv]more ,op]at+ "u contract ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission ,illu/ration3 ,radioactive elem5ts3 alpha p>ticles f a speck ( radium leave tracks on a photographic emulsion4 7,oc*ial9i & ,p[ell1 #aidg7 ,a ,,brief ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,elem5t ,,discov]y1 ,,syn!sis1 ,,& ,,analysis ,x is well kn[n t ! numb] ( elem5ts has gr[n f f\r 9 ! days ( ! ,greeks to #ajc at pres5t1 b ! *ange 9 me?ods ne$$ = _! discov]y is n s well kn[n4 ,up until #aici1 only #hh naturally occurr+ elem5ts _h be5 discov]$4 ,x took a dramatic mod]n te*nique 7bas$ on ,erne/ ,o4 ,lawr5ce's ,nobel-prize-w9n+ atom sma%]1 ! cyclotron7 to syn!size ! mo/ rec5tly discov]$ elem5ts4 ,mo/ ( ^! rec5t discov]ies are directly attribut$ to sci5ti/s work+ "u ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia's ,radiation ,laboratory at ,b]keley4 ,b x is app>5t t our pres5t k ( ! elem5ts /ret*es back into hi/ory3 back to ,engl&'s ,erne/ ,ru!r=d1 :o 9 #aiai prov$ t1 occasionally1 :5 an alpha p>ticle f radium /rikes a nitrog5 atom1 ei!r a proton or a hydrog5 nucleus is eject$2 to ! ,dane ,niels ,bohr & 8 #aiac idea ( electron orbits2 to a once unkn[n ,swiss pat5t cl]k1 ,alb]t ,e9/e91 & 8 n[ fam\s !ories2 to ,pol&'s ,m>ie ,curie :o1 9 #ahih1 ) h] ,fr5* husb& ,pi]re labori\sly isolat$ polonium & radium2 back to ! ,fr5* sci5ti/ ,h4 ,a4 ,becqu]el1 :o fir/ discov]$ some?+ he call$ a spontane\s emission ( p5etrat+ rays f c]ta9 salts ( uranium2 to ! ,g]man physici/ ,w4 ,k4 ,ro5tg5 & 8 discov]y ( x rays 9 #ahie2 & back /ill fur!r4 ,dur+ ?is passage ( sci5tific hi/ory1 ! v idea ( elem5t has und]gone sev]al great *anges4 ,! e>ly ,greeks sugge/$ e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat] z be+ ! ess5tial mat]ial f :i* all o!rs 7 made4 ,ari/otle consid]$ ^! z be+ comb9ations ( f\r prop]ties3 hot1 cold1 dry1 & moi/ 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,! elem5ts z propos$ by ! e>ly ,greeks4 ,lat]1 a fif? ess5ce1 e!r1 ! build+ mat]ial ( ! heav5ly bodies 0 add$4 ,p>acelsus 7#adic-aeda7 introduc$ ! ?ree al*emical symbols salt1 sulfur1 & m]cury4 ,sulfur 0 ! pr9ciple ( combu/ability1 salt ! fix$ "p left aft] burn+ 7calc9ation71 & m]cury ! ess5tial "p ( all metals4 ,= example1 gold & silv] 7 suppos$ly diff]5t comb9ations ( sulfur & m]cury4 ,rob]t ,boyle 9 8 ,sceptical ,*ymi/ 7#affa7 fir/ def9$ ! ^w elem5t 9 ! s5se :i* x reta9$ until ! discov]y ( radioactivity 7#ahif71 namely1 a =m ( matt] t c\ld n be split into simpl] =ms4 ,! fir/ discov]y ( a true elem5t 9 hi/orical "t 0 t ( phosphorus by ,dr4 ,br& ( ,hamburg1 9 #affi4 ,br& kept 8 process secret1 b1 z 9 mod]n times1 k ( ! elem5t's exi/5ce 0 suffici5t to let o!rs1 l ,kunkel & ,boyle 9 ,engl&1 succe$ indep5d5tly 9 isolat+ x %ortly aft]w>d4 ,z 9 our atomic age1 a delicate balance 0 made betwe5 ! light-giv+ 7desirable7 & heat-giv+ 7fe>$7 p[]s ( a discov]y4 ,an e>ly exp]im5t] 0 at fir/ delight$ ) ! :ite1 waxy sub/ance t gl[$ s *>m+ly 9 ! d>k ( 8 laboratory1 b lat] wrote1 ,i am n mak+ x any m = mu* h>m may come ( x4 ,rob]t ,boyle wrote 9 #afhj ( phosphorus1 ,x %one s briskly & lookt s oddly t ! sight 0 extreamly pleas+1 hav+ 9 x a mixture ( /rang5ess1 beauty & frightfulness4 ,^! words describe almo/ exactly ! impressions ( eye witnesses ( ! fir/ atom bomb te/ at ,alamagordo1 ,new ,mexico1 ,july #af1 #aide4 ,= ! next two & ?ree-qu>t]s c5turies ! *emi/s _h mu* fun & "s fame discov]+ new elem5ts4 ,frequ5tly !re 0 a long int]val betwe5 discov]y & recognition4 ,?us ,s*eele made *lor9e 9 #aggd by ! action ( black manganese 7manganese dioxide7 on conc5trat$ muriatic acid 7hydro*loric acid71 b x 0 n recogniz$ z an elem5t till ! "w ( ,davy 9 #ahaj4 ,occasionally ! developm5t ( a new te*nique w\ld lead to ! easy discov]y ( a :ole gr\p ( new elem5ts4 ,?us ,davy1 />t+ 9 #ahjg1 appli$ ! me?od ( electrolysis1 us+ a developm5t ( ,volta's pile z a s\rce ( curr5t2 9 a %ort "t he discov]$ alum9um1 b>ium1 boron1 calcium1 magnesium1 potassium1 sodium1 & /rontium4 ,! inv5tion ( ! spectroscope by ,buns5 & ,kir*h(f 9 #ahei provid$ a new tool :i* c\ld e/abli% ! purity ( sub/ances already kn[n & lead to ! discov]y ( o!rs4 ,?us1 helium 0 discov]$ 9 ! sun's spectrum by ,jans5 & isolat$ f uranite by ,ramsay 9 #ahie4 ,! discov]y ( radioactivity by ,becqu]el 9 #ahif 7t\*$ (f by ,ro5tg5's discov]y ( x rays ! ye> be=e7 gave an ev5 m s5sitive me?od ( detect+ ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( c]ta9 k9ds ( matt]4 ,x is well kn[n t ,pi]re & ,m>ie ,curie us$ ?is new-f\nd radioactivity to id5tify ! new elem5ts polonium & radium4 ,comp\nds ( ^! new elem5ts 7 obta9$ by pati5t fractional recry/allization ( _! salts4 ,! explanation ( radioactivity l$ to ! discov]y ( isotopes by ,ru!r=d & ,soddy 9 #aiad1 & ) ?is discov]y a revision ( our idea ( elem5ts became necess>y4 ,s9ce ,boyle1 x _h be5 assum$ t all atoms ( ! individual elem5ts 7 id5tical & unlike any o!rs1 & c\ld n be *ang$ into any?+ simpl]4 ,n[ x became evid5t t ! atoms ( radioactive elem5ts 7 con/antly *ang+ into o!r elem5ts1 !reby releas+ v l>ge am\nts ( en]gy1 & t _m diff]5t =ms ( ! same elem5t 7lead 0 ! fir/ /udi$7 7 possible4 ,we n[ ?9k ( an elem5t z a =m ( matt] 9 :i* all atoms h ! same nucle> *>ge4 ,! human m9d has always s\ght ord] & simplification ( ! ext]nal _w2 9 *emi/ry ! fruitful classifications 7 ,dob]e9]'s ,triads 7#ahbi71 ,newl&'s law ( octaves 7#ahfe71 & ,m5deleev's p]iodic law 7#ahfi74 ,! *>t express+ ?is p]iodic law seem$ to indicate ! maximum ext5t ( ! elem5ts & gave good h9ts :]e to look = & ! probable prop]ties ( ! rema9+ ones 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,by #aibe1 all b f\r ( ! slots 9 ! #ib-place file _h be5 fill$4 ,! vacancies 7 at #dc1 #fa1 #he1 & #hg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,p]iodic *>t ( ! elem5ts 7#aifc7 ,work]s us+ traditional analytical te*niques cont9u$ to se>* = ^! elem5ts1 b _! ef=ts 7 =$oom$ to failure4 ,none ( ! nuclei ( ! isotopes ( elem5ts #dc1 #fa1 #he1 & #hg are /able2 h5ce weighable quantities ( !m d n exi/ 9 nature1 & new te*niques _h to be develop$ be=e we c\ld really say we _h discov]$ !m4 ,9 #aiai1 ,ru!r=d accompli%$ sci5tifically :at m$ieval al*emi/s _h fail$ to d ) magic exp]im5ts & o!r less sophi/icat$ te*niques4 ,x wasn't gold 7! goal ( ! al*emi/s7 he f\nd b some?+ m valuable ) ev5 great] pot5tial = good & evil3 a me?od ( transmut+ "o elem5t into ano!r4 ,by bomb>d+ nitrog5 nuclei ) alpha p>ticles f radium1 he f\nd t nitrog5 0 *ang$ into oxyg54 ,! process = radioactive transmutation is some:at l a common *emical reaction4 ,an alpha p>ticle1 :i* has ! same *>ge 7#b7 & atomic mass 7#d7 z a helium nucleus1 p5etrates ! repulsive =ces ( ! nitrog5 nucleus & deposits "o proton & "o neutron2 ?is *anges ! nitrog5 atom into an oxyg5 atom4 ,! reaction is writt5 #g,n#ad #b;,he#d -- #a;,h#a #h,o#ag4 ,! numb] at ! l[] left ( ea* elem5t symbol 9 ! above reaction is ! proton numb]4 ,?is numb] det]m9es ! basic *emical id5tity ( an atom1 & x is ?is numb] sci5ti/s mu/ *ange be=e "o elem5t c be trans=m$ into ano!r4 ,! common way to accompli% ?is artificially is by bomb>d+ nuclei ) nucle> projectiles4 ,ru!r=d us$ naturally occurr+ alpha p>ticles f radium z 8 projectiles because !y 7 ! mo/ effective he c\ld !n f9d4 ,b ^! natural alpha p>ticles h sev]al drawbacks3 !y are positively *>g$1 l ! nucleus itself1 & are !re=e m or less repuls$ dep5d+ on ! proton numb] ( ! elem5t be+ bomb>d$2 !y d n move fa/ en\gh to p5etrate ! nuclei ( heavi] elem5ts 7^? ) _m protons72 &1 = v>i\s o!r reasons 7"s ( !m unexpla9$71 are ineffici5t 9 break+ up ! nucleus4 ,x is e/imat$ t only #a out ( #cjj1jjj ( ^! alpha p>ticles w react ) nitrog54 ,physici/s imm$iately began ! se>* = artificial means to accel]ate a wid] v>iety ( nucle> p>ticles to high en]gies4 ,protons1 because !y h a #a *>ge r ?an ! #b *>ge ( ! alpha p>ticles1 are repuls$ less /rongly by ! positive *>ge on ! nucleus1 & are !re=e m useful z bomb>d+ projectiles4 ,9 #aibi1 ,e4 ,t4 ,s4 ,walton & ,j4 ,d4 ,cockcr(t pass$ an electric dis*>ge ?r\gh hydrog5 gas1 !reby remov+ electrons f ! hydrog5 atom2 ?is left a beam ( protons 7i4 e41 hydrog5 ions71 :i* 0 !n accel]at$ by high voltages4 ,?is ,cockcr(t-,walton voltage multipli] accel]at$ ! protons to fairly high en]gies 7ab\t #hjj1jjj electron volts71 b ! protons /ill _h a plus *>ge & _! en]gies 7 /ill n high en\gh to ov]come ! repulsive =ces 7,c\lombic repulsion7 ( ! heavi] nuclei4 ,a lat] developm5t1 ! ,van de ,graaff electro/atic g5]ator1 produc$ a beam ( hydrog5 ions & o!r positively *>g$ ions1 & electrons at ev5 high] en]gies4 ,an e>ly model ( ! l9e> accel]ator also gave a beam ( heavy positive ions at high en]gies4 ,^! 7 ! next two in/rum5ts devis$ 9 ! se>* = effici5t bomb>d+ projectiles4 ,h[ev]1 ! impasse cont9u$3 nei!r in/rum5t all[$ sci5ti/s to crack ! nuclei ( ! heavi] elem5ts4 ,erne/ ,o4 ,lawr5ce's cyclotron1 built 9 #aica1 0 ! fir/ device capable ( accel]at+ positive ions to ! v high en]gies ne$$4 ,its basic pr9ciple ( op]ation is n difficult to und]/&4 ,a *>g$ p>ticle accel]at$ 9 a cyclotron is analog\s to a ball be+ :irl$ on a /r+ fa/5$ to ! top ( a pole4 ,a negative electric field attracts ! positively *>g$ p>ticle 7ball7 t[>ds x & !n swit*es (f until ! p>ticle sw+s halfway ar\nd2 ! field !n becomes negative 9 front ( ! p>ticle aga91 & aga9 attracts x4 ,z ! p>ticle moves fa/] & fa/] x spirals outw>d 9 an ev] increas+ circle1 some?+ l a te!r ball unw9d+ f a pole4 ,! en]gies a*iev$ w\ld h seem$ fanta/ic to e>li] sci5ti/s4 ,! ,bevatron1 a mod]n (fspr+ ( ! fir/ cyclotron1 accel]ates protons to #ii4ac ! spe$ ( light1 !reby giv+ !m #f4b billion electron volts 7,be,v74 ,ano!r in/rum5t1 ! heavy-ion l9e> accel]ator 7,hilac71 accel]ates ions z heavy z neon to ab\t #ae ! spe$ ( light4 ,x is call$ a l9e> accel]ator because x accel]ates p>ticles 9 a /raight l9e4 ,/an=d ,univ]sity is curr5tly 7#aifc7 9 ! process ( build+ a l9e> accel]ator approximately two miles long :i* w accel]ate *>g$ p>ticles to #ii4i ! spe$ ( light4 ,b highly accel]at$ *>g$ p>ticles did n solve all ( sci5ce's que/ions ab\t ! inn] work+s ( ! nucleus4 ,9 #aicb1 dur+ ! e>ly se>* = m effici5t ways to bomb>d nuclei1 ,james ,*adwick discov]$ ! neutron4 ,?is p>ticle1 :i* is neutral 9 *>ge & is approximately ! same mass z a proton1 has ! rem>kable quality ( effici5tly produc+ nucle> reactions ev5 at v l[ en]gies4 ,no "o exactly kn[ns :y4 ,at l[ en]gies1 protons1 alpha p>ticles1 or o!r *>g$ p>ticles d n int]act ) nuclei because !y _c p5etrate ! electro/atic en]gy b>ri]s4 ,= example1 sl[ positive p>ticles pick up electrons1 become neutral1 & lose _! ability to cause nucle> trans=mations4 ,sl[ neutrons1 on ! o!r h&1 c ent] ne>ly all atomic nuclei & induce fission ( c]ta9 ( ! heavi] ones4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ^! prop]ties ( ! neutron :i* h made possible ! utilization ( atomic en]gy4 ,) ^! tools1 rese>*]s 7 n long 9 accurately id5tify+ ! miss+ elem5ts #dc1 #fa1 #he1 & #hg & m--inde$1 ! li/ ( new elem5ts1 isotopes1 & p>ticles n[ seems endless4 ,elem5t #dc 0 made = ! fir/ "t z a result ( bomb>d+ molybd5um ) deut]ons 9 ! ,b]keley cyclotron4 ,! *emical "w ( id5tify+ ! elem5t 0 done by ,emilio ,segr & o!rs !n work+ at ,pal]mo1 ,sicily1 & !y *ose to call x te*netium1 because x 0 ! elem5t fir/ made by artificial te*nical me?ods4 ,elem5t #fa 0 made = ! fir/ "t f ! fission dis9tegration products ( uranium 9 ! ,cl9ton 7,oak ,ridge7 reactor4 ,m>9sky & ,gl5d591 :o did ! *emical "w ( id5tification1 *ose to call x prome?ium because !y wi%$ to po9t out t j z ,prome!us /ole fire 7a great =ce = good or evil7 f ! hidd5 /oreh\se ( ! gods & pres5t$ x to man1 s _! newly assembl$ reactor deliv]$ to mank9d an ev5 great] =ce1 nucle> en]gy4 ,elem5t #he is call$ a/at9e1 f ! ,greek a/atos1 mean+ un/able1 because a/at9e is un/able 7( c\rse all o!r elem5ts hav+ a nucle> *>ge numb] great] ?an #hd are un/able1 too74 ,a/at9e 0 fir/ made at ,b]keley by bomb>d+ bismu? ) alpha p>ticles1 :i* produc$ a/at9e & releas$ two neutrons4 ,! elem5t has s9ce be5 f\nd 9 nature z a small con/itu5t ( ! natural decay ( act9ium4 ,! la/ ( ! orig9al #ib elem5ts to be discov]$ 0 elem5t #hg1 francium4 ,x 0 id5tifi$ 9 #aici by ,fr5* sci5ti/ ,m>gu]ite ,p]ey4 ,*ildr5 h a game 9 :i* !y pile blocks up to see h[ high !y c g be=e !y topple ov]4 ,9 m$ieval times1 petty rul]s 9 _! ,italian /ates vi$ ) "o ano!r to see :o c\ld build ! talle/ t[]4 ,"s beautiful results ( ?is game /ill rema9 9 ,flor5ce1 ,si5a1 & o!r ,italian hill cities4 ,curr5tly1 ,am]icans vie 9 a simil> way ) ! :eelbase & ov]all l5g? ( _! c>s4 ,aft] #aicd1 ! game among sci5ti/s took ! =m ( see+ :o c\ld ext5d ! l5g? ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts2 z ) m$ieval t[]s1 x 0 ,italy t aga9 began ) ! mo/ en?usiasm & activity "u ! lead]%ip ( ,enrico ,f]mi4 ,m]ely add+ neutrons w\ld n be en\gh2 t w\ld make only a heavi] isotope ( ! already kn[n heavie/ elem5ts1 uranium4 ,h[ev]1 if ! incom+ neutron caus$ "s re>rangem5t )9 ! nucleus & if x 7 accompani$ by expulsion ( electrons1 t w\ld make a new elem5t4 ,trials by ,f]mi & 8 co-work]s ) v>i\s elem5ts l$ to unmi/akeable evid5ce ( ! expulsion ( electrons 7beta activity7 ) at lea/ f\r diff]5t rates ( decay 7half-lives74 ,claims 7 advanc$ = ! creation ( elem5ts #ic & #id & possibly fur!r 7! transuranium elem5ts1 ,table ,i74 ,mu* difficulty 0 exp]i5c$1 h[ev]1 9 prov+ t ! activity really 0 due to ! =mation ( elem5ts #ic & #id4 ,z m p became int]e/$ & ext5d$ ! scope ( ! exp]im5ts1 ! picture became m confus$ r ?an cl>ifi$4 ,c>eful /udies soon %[$ t ! activities did n decay log>i?mically--:i* means t !y 7 caus$ by mixtures1 n individual pure sub/ances--& ! orig9al f\r activities report$ by ,f]mi grew to at lea/ n9e4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! way out ( ! difficulty _h be5 indicat$ soon aft] ,f]mi's orig9al ann\ncem5t4 ,dr4 ,ida ,noddack po9t$ out t no "o _h se>*$ among ! products ( ,f]mi's exp]im5t = elem5ts light] ?an lead1 b no "o paid any att5tion to h] sugge/ion at ! "t4 ,! matt] 0 f9ally cle>$ up by ,dr4 ,otto ,hahn & ,f4 ,/rassmann4 ,!y 7 able to %[ t in/ead ( uranium hav+ small pieces l helium nuclei1 fa/ electrons1 & sup]-h>d x-rays1 knock$ (f z expect$1 ! atom _h split into two r\ghly equal pieces1 toge!r ) "s excess neutrons4 ,?is process is call$ nucle> fission4 ,! two l>ge pieces 7 un/able & decay$ fur!r ) ! loss ( electrons1 h5ce ! beta activity4 ,?is process is s complicat$ t !re are n1 z orig9ally report$1 only f\r half-lives1 b at lea/ #bjj diff]5t v>ieties ( at lea/ #ce diff]5t elem5ts4 ,! discov]y ( fission att5d$ by ! release ( enorm\s am\nts ( en]gy l$ to fev]i% activity on ! "p ( physici/s & *emi/s ev]y:]e 9 ! _w4 ,9 ,june #aidj1 ,mc,millan & ,abelson pres5t$ def9ite pro( t elem5t #ic _h be5 f\nd 9 uranium p5etrat$ by neutrons dur+ deut]on bomb>dm5t 9 ! cyclotron at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia ,radiation ,laboratory4 ,! ,cali=nia sci5ti/s call$ ! newly discov]$ elem5t neptunium1 because x lies beyond ! elem5t uranium j z ! planet ,neptune lies beyond ,uranus4 ,! p>ticul> isotope =m$ 9 ^? fir/ exp]im5ts 0 #ic,np#bci2 ?is is read neptunium hav+ a nucle> *>ge ( #ic & an atomic mass numb] ( #bci4 ,x has a half-life ( #b4c days1 dur+ :i* x gives up ano!r electron 7beta p>ticle7 & becomes elem5t #id1 or plutonium 7s call$ aft] ,pluto1 ! next planet beyond ,neptune74 ,?is p>ticul> =m ( plutonium 7#id,pu#bci7 has su* a long half-life 7#bd1jjj ye>s7 t x c\ld n be detect$4 ,! fir/ isotope ( elem5t #id to be discov]$ 0 ,pu#bch1 made by direct deut]on bomb>dm5t 9 ! ,b]keley #fj-;in* cyclotron by ,radiation ,laboratory sci5ti/s ,seaborg1 ,mc,millan1 ,k5n$y1 & ,wahl2 x _h an alpha-decay half-life ( #hf4d ye>s1 :i* gave x suffici5t radioactivity s t its *emi/ry c\ld be /udi$4 ,hav+ f\nd ^! *emical prop]ties 9 ,pu#bch1 exp]im5t]s knew #id,pu#bci w\ld behave simil>ly4 ,x 0 soon %[n t ! nucleus ( #id,pu#bci w\ld und]go fission 9 ! same way z #ib,u#bce :5 bomb>d$ ) sl[ neutrons & t x c\ld be produc$ 9 ! newly assembl$ atomic pile4 ,rese>*]s wi%$ to le>n z mu* z possible ab\t its *emi/ry2 !re=e1 dur+ ! summ] ( #aidb two l>ge cyclotrons at ,/4 ,l\is & ,b]keley bomb>d$ hundr$s ( p\nds ( uranium almo/ cont9u\sly4 ,?is result$ 9 ! =mation ( #bjj micrograms ( plutonium4 ,f ?is small am\nt1 en\gh ( ! *emical prop]ties ( ! elem5t 7 le>n$ to p]mit correct design ( ! huge plutonium-recov]y plant at ,han=d1 ,wa%+ton4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! inve/igations1 balances t w\ld weigh up to #aj4e mg ) a s5sitivity ( #j4jb microgram 7 develop$4 ,! te/ tubes & beak]s us$ _h int]nal diamet]s ( #j4a to #a mm & c\ld measure volumes ( #a_/aj to #a_/aj1jjj ml ) an accuracy ( #a4 ,! fact t !re 0 no int]m$iate /age ( exp]im5tation1 b a direct scale-up at ,han=d ( t5 billion times1 requir$ truly h]oic skill & c\rage4 ,by #aidd suffici5t plutonium 0 available f uranium piles 7reactors7 s t x 0 available z t>get mat]ial = cyclotrons4 ,at ,b]keley x 0 bomb>d$ ) #cb-,me,v d\bly *>g$ helium ions1 & ! foll[+ reactions took place3 #id,pu#bci 7alpha1 n7 #if;,cm#bdb alpha _/ #aej days -- #id,pu#bch4 ,?is is to be read3 plutonium hav+ an atomic numb] ( #id 7#id positively *>g$ protons 9 ! nucleus7 & a mass numb] ( #bci 7! :ole atom weighs approximately #bci times z mu* z a proton71 :5 bomb>d$ ) alpha p>ticles 7positively *>g$ helium nuclei7 reacts to give (f a neutron & a new elem5t1 curium1 t has atomic numb] #if & mass numb] #bdb4 ,?is gives (f alpha p>ticles at su* a rate t half ( x has decompos$ 9 #aej days1 leav+ plutonium ) atomic numb] #id & mass numb] #bch4 ,! radio*emical "w lead+ to ! isolation & id5tification ( ! atoms ( elem5t #if 0 done at ! metallurgical laboratory ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago4 ,! int5se neutron flux available 9 mod]n reactors l$ to a new elem5t1 am]icium 7,am71 z foll[s3 #id,pu#bci 7n1 gamma7 #id,pu#bdj 7n1 gamma7 #id,pu#bda beta -- #ie;,am#bda4 ,! notation 7n1 gamma7 means t ! plutonium absorbs a neutron & gives (f "s en]gy 9 ! =m ( gamma rays 7v h>d x rays72 x fir/ =ms #id,pu#bdj & !n #id,pu#bda1 :i* is un/able & gives (f fa/ electrons 7beta71 leav+ #ie;,am#bda4 ,b]kelium & cali=nium1 elem5ts #ig & #ih1 7 produc$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia by me?ods analog\s to t us$ = curium1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ equations3 #ie;,am#bdj alpha -- #ig;,bk#bdc #jn#a1 & #if;,cm#bda alpha -- #ih;,cf#bdd #jn#a4 ,! next two elem5ts1 e9/e9ium 7#ii;,es7 & f]mium 7#ajj;,fm71 7 orig9ally f\nd 9 ! debris f ! !rmonucle> device ,mike1 :i* 0 detonat$ on ,eniwetok atoll ,novemb] #aieb4 7,?is me?od ( creat+ new sub/ances is some:at m extravagant ?an ! my?ical ,*9ese me?od ( burn+ d[n a build+ to get a roa/ pig47 ,^! elem5ts h s9ce be5 made 9 nucle> reactors & by bomb>dm5t4 ,?is "t ! bullet 0 ,n#ad /ripp$ ( electrons till x _h a *>ge ( #f1 & ! t>get 0 plutonium4 ,rese>*]s at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia us$ new te*niques 9 =m+ & id5tify+ elem5t #aja1 m5delevium4 ,a v ?9 lay] ( #ii;,es#bec 0 electroplat$ onto a ?9 gold foil & 0 !n bomb>d$1 f beh9d ! lay]1 ) #da-,me,v alpha p>ticles4 ,un*ang$ #ii;,es#bec /ay$ on ! gold1 b ^? atoms hit by alpha p>ticles 7 knock$ (f & deposit$ on a cat*] gold foil1 :i* 0 !n dissolv$ & analyz$ 7,fig4 #c74 ,?is fre$ ! new elem5t f mo/ ( ! v reactive p>5t sub/ances1 s t analysis 0 easi]4 ,ev5 s1 ! radioactivity 0 s weak t ! new elem5t 0 id5tifi$ "o atom at a "t2 ?is is possible because its daught] elem5t1 f]mium1 spontane\sly fissions & releases en]gy 9 great] bur/s ?an any possible contam9ant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,! production ( m5delevium4 ,9 #aieg1 9 ,/ockholm1 elem5t #ajb 0 report$ f\nd by an int]national team ( sci5ti/s 7:o call$ x nobelium71 b dilig5t & ext5sive rese>* fail$ to duplicate ! ,/ockholm f9d+s4 ,h[ev]1 a /ill new] te*nique develop$ at ,b]keley %[$ ! footpr9ts--if n ! liv+ pres5ce--( #ajb 7see ,fig4 #d74 ,! r>e isotope curium-#bdf is coat$ on a small piece ( nickel foil1 enclos$ 9 a helium-fill$ conta9]1 & plac$ 9 ! heavy-ion l9e> accel]ator 7,hilac7 beam4 ,positively *>g$ atoms ( elem5t #ajb are knock$ (f ! foil by ! beam1 :i* is ( c>bon-#ab or c>bon-#ac nuclei1 & are deposit$ on a negatively *>g$ conveyor apron4 ,b elem5t #ajb doesn't live long en\gh to be actually measur$4 ,z x decays1 its daught] product1 #ajj;,fm#bej1 is attract$ onto a *>g$ alum9um foil :]e x c be analyz$4 ,! rese>*]s h decid$ t ! h5 really did come fir/3 !y h ! egg2 !re=e ! h5 mu/ h exi/$4 ,by measur+ ! "t di/ance betwe5 t>get & daught] product1 !y figure t ! h5-"m 7elem5t #ajb7 mu/ h a half-life ( ?ree seconds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,! exp]im5tal arrangem5t us$ 9 ! discov]y ( elem5t #ajb4 ,9 an exp]im5t complet$ 9 #aifa1 rese>*]s at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley une>!d simil> footpr9ts belong+ to elem5t #ajc 7nam$ lawr5cium 9 honor ( ,nobel prizew9n] ,erne/ ,o4 ,lawr5ce74 ,!y f\nd t ! bomb>dm5t ( cali=nium ) boron ions releas$ alpha p>ticles :i* _h an en]gy ( #h4f ,me,v & decay$ ) a half-life ( #h #b seconds4 ,^! p>ticles c only be produc$ by elem5t #ajc1 :i*1 accord+ to "o sci5tific !ory1 is a type ( d9osaur ( matt] t di$ out a few weeks aft] creation ( ! univ]se4 ,! half-life ( lawr5cium 7,lw7 is ab\t #h seconds1 & its mass numb] is ?\ght to be #beg1 al?\gh fur!r rese>* is requir$ to e/abli% ?is conclusively4 ,rese>* on lawr5cium is complicat$4 ,its total alpha activity am\nts to b>ely a few c\nts p] h\r4 ,&1 s9ce sci5ti/s _h ! alpha-p>ticle footpr9ts only & n ! bea/ itself1 ! complications increas$4 ,!re=e no direct *emical te*niques c\ld be us$1 & elem5t #ajc 0 ! fir/ to be discov]$ solely by nucle> me?ods4,a ,= _m ye>s ! p]iodic sy/em 0 consid]$ clos$ at #ib4 ,x has n[ be5 ext5d$ by at lea/ elev5 places 7,table ,i71 & "o ( ! ext5sions 7plutonium7 has be5 made 9 truckload lots4 ,its production & use affect ! life ( ev]yone 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & mo/ ( ! _w4 ,surely ! end is aga9 9 sight1 at lea/ = ord9>y matt]1 al?\gh p]si/5t sci5ti/s may %ift _! se>* to ! o!r-_w anti p>ticles4 ,^!1 too1 w call = v special te*niques = detection ( _! fleet+ pres5ce4 ,e>ly en?usia/ic rese>*]s compla9$ t a man's life 0 n long en\gh to let him d all ! "w he w\ld l on an elem5t4 ,! situation has n[ rea*$ a /ate ( equilibrium2 nei!r man nor elem5t lives long en\gh to p]mit all ! desir$ "w4 ,a ,9 ,augu/ #aifd ,russian sci5ti/s claim$ t !y creat$ elem5t #ajd ) a half-life ( ab\t #j4c seconds by bomb>d+ plutomium ) accel]at$ neon-#bb ions4 ,table ,i4 ,,! ,,transuranium ,,elem5ts ,elem5t ,"n 7,symbol7 ,mass ,ye> ,discov]$2 by :om2 ,numb] :]e2 h[ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ic ,neptunium 7,np7 #bch #aidj2 ,e4 ,m4 ,mc,millan1 ,p4 ,h4 ,abelson2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley2 sl[-neutron bomb>dm5t ( ,u#bch 9 ! #fj-;in* cyclotron4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #id ,plutonium 7,pu7 #bch #aida2 ,j4 ,w4 ,k5n$y1 ,e4 ,m4 ,mc,millan1 ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg1 & ,a4 ,c4 ,wahl2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley2 #af-,me,v deut]on bomb>dm5t ( ,u#bch 9 ! #fj-;in* cyclotron4 7,pu7 #bci ,pu#bci2 ! fissionable isotope ( plutonium1 0 also discov]$ 9 #aida by ,j4 ,w4 ,k5n$y1 ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg1 ,e4 ,segr & ,a4 ,c4 ,wahl2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley2 sl[-neutron bomb>dm5t ( ,u#bch 9 ! #fj-;in* cyclotron4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ie ,am]icium 7,am7 #bda #aidd-de2 ,b]keley sci5ti/s ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,r4 ,a4 ,james1 ,l4 ,o4 ,morgan1 & ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg at ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago2 int5se neutron bomb>dm5t ( plutonium 9 nucle> reactors4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #if ,curium 7,cm7 #bdb #aide2 ,b]keley sci5ti/s ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,r4 ,a4 ,james1 & ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg at ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago2 bomb>dm5t ( ,pu#bci by #cb-,me,v helium ions f ! #fj-;in* cyclotron4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ig ,b]kelium 7,bk7 #bdc #aidi2 ,s4 ,g4 ,?ompson1 ,a4 ,ghiorso1 & ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley2 #ce-,me,v helium-ion bomb>dm5t ( ,am#bda4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ih ,cali=nium 7,cf7 #bde #aiej2 ,s4 ,g4 ,?ompson1 ,k4 ,/reet1 ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley2 #ce-,me,v helium-ion bomb>dm5t ( ,cm#bdb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ii ,e9/e9ium 7,es7 #bec #aieb-ec2 ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,s4 ,g4 #ajj ,f]mium 7,fm7 #bee ,?ompson1 ,g4 ,h4 ,higg9s1 ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg1 ,m4 ,h4 ,/udi]1 ,p4 ,r4 ,fields1 ,s4 ,m4 ,fri$1 ,h4 ,diamond1 ,j4 ,f4 ,me*1 ,g4 ,l4 ,pyle1 ,j4 ,r4 ,huiz5ga1 ,a4 ,hirs*1 ,w4 ,m4 ,mann+1 ,c4 ,i4 ,br[ne1 ,h4 ,l4 ,smi?1 ,r4 ,w4 ,sp5ce2 ,mike explosion 9 ,s\? ,pacific2 "w done at ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley1 ,los ,alamos ,sci5tific ,laboratory1 & ,argonne ,national ,laboratory2 bo? elem5ts creat$ by multiple capture ( neutrons 9 uranium ( fir/ detonation ( a !rmonucle> device4 ,! elem5ts 7 *emically isolat$ f ! debris ( ! explosion4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #aja ,m5delevium 7,md7 #bef #aiee2 ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,b4 ,g4 ,h>vey1 ,g4 ,r4 ,*opp91 ,s4 ,g4 ,?ompson1 ,g4 ,t4 ,seaborg2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley2 #da-,me,v helium-ion bomb>dm5t ( ,es#bec 9 #fj-;in* cyclotron4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ajb ,unnam$,b #bed #aieh2 ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,t4 ,sikkel&1 ,a4 ,e4 ,l>%1 ,r4 ,m4 ,latim]2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 ,lawr5ce ,radiation ,laboratory1 ,b]keley2 #fh-,me,v c>bon-ion bomb>dm5t ( ,cm#bdf 9 heavy-ion l9e> accel]ator 7,hilac74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ajc ,lawr5cium #beg #aifa2 ,a4 ,ghiorso1 ,t4 ,sikkel&1 ,a4 ,e4 ,l>%1 ,r4 ,m4 ,latim]2 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 ,lawr5ce ,radiation ,laboratory1 ,b]keley2 #gj-,me,v boron-ion bomb>dm5t ( ,cf#bej1 ,cf#bea1 & ,cf#beb 9 ,hilac4 ,b ,a #aieg claim = ! syn!sis & id5tification ( elem5t #ajb 0 accept$ at t "t by ! ,int]national ,union ( ,pure & ,appli$ ,*emi/ry1 & ! "n nobelium 7symbol ,no7 0 adopt$4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia sci5ti/s1 ,a4 ,ghiorso et al41 cit$ "h believe !y h disprov$ ! e>li] claim & h ! "r to sugge/ a diff]5t "n = ! elem5t4