,illustration3 ,book ,cover ,,health ,,lessons ,,book ,i ,,by ,,alvin ,,davison1 ,m4,s41 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,biology ,,in ,,lafayette ,,college ,illustration3 ,publisher ,symbol ,,new ,,york ,,cincinnati ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,copyright1 #aiaj1 ,,by ,,alvin ,,davison4 ,,entered ,,at ,,stationers' ,,hall1 ,,london4 ,,health ,,lessons4 ,,bk4 #a4 ,w4 ,p4 #f ,illustration3 ,exercise1 clean air1 and well-chewed food make a strong and healthy body4 ,,preface ,scarcely one half of the children of our country continue in school much beyond the fifth grade4 ,it is important1 therefore1 that so far as possible the knowledge which has most to do with human welfare should be presented in the early years of school life4 ,fisher1 ,metchnikoff1 ,sedgwick1 and others have shown that the health of a people influences the prosperity and happiness of a nation more than any other one thing4 ,the highest patriotism is therefore the conservation of health4 ,the seven hundred thousand lives annually destroyed by infectious diseases and the million other serious cases of sickness from contagious maladies1 with all their attendant suffering1 are largely sacrifices on the altar of ignorance4 ,the loving mother menaces the life of her babe by feeding it milk with a germ content nearly half as great as that of sewage1 the anemic girl sleeps with fast-closed windows1 wondering in the morning why she feels so lifeless1 and the one-time vigorous boy goes to a consumptive's early grave1 because they did not know 7what every school ought to teach7 the way to health4 ,doctor ,price1 the ,secretary of the ,state ,board of ,health of ,maryland1 recently said before the ,american ,public ,health ,association that the text-books of our schools show a marked disregard for the urgent problems which enter our daily life1 such as the prevention of tuberculosis1 typhoid fever1 and acute infectious diseases4 ,since the observing public have seen educated communities decrease their death rate from typhoid fever1 tuberculosis1 and diphtheria from one third to three fourths by heeding the health call1 lawmakers are becoming convinced that the needless waste of human life should be stopped4 ,michigan has already decreed that every school child shall be taught the cause and prevention of the communicable diseases1 and several other states are contemplating like action4 ,this book meets fully the demands of all such laws as are contemplated1 and presents the important truths not by dogmatic assertion1 but by citing specific facts appealing to the child mind in such a way as to make a lasting impression4 ,after the eleventh year of age1 the first cause of death among school children is tuberculosis4 ,the chief aim of the author has been to show the child the sure way of preventing this disease and others of like nature1 and to establish an undying faith in the motto of ,pasteur1 ,it is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease4 ,nearly all of the illustrations used are from photographs and drawings specially prepared for this book4 ,these1 together with the large amount of material gleaned from original sources and from the author's experiments in the laboratory1 will1 it is hoped1 make this little volume worthy of the same generous welcome accorded the two earlier books of this series4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,caring ,,for ,,the ,,health #i ,,ii4 ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,body #ae ,,iii4 ,,feeding ,,the ,,body #ba ,,iv4 ,,food ,,and ,,health #cj ,v4 ,,how ,,plants ,,sour ,,or ,,spoil ,,food #cf ,,vi4 ,,milk ,,may ,,be ,a ,,food ,,or ,a ,,poison #da ,,vii4 ,,how ,,the ,,body ,,uses ,,food #dg ,,viii4 ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,mouth #fj ,,ix4 ,,alcoholic ,,drinks #fh ,x4 ,,alcohol ,,and ,,health #gd ,,xi4 ,,tobacco ,,and ,,the ,,drugs ,,which ,,injure ,,the ,,health #gh ,,xii4 ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,bathing #he ,,xiii4 ,,clothing ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it #id ,,xiv4 ,,breathing #ajj ,,xv4 ,,fresh ,,air ,,and ,,health #aaa ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,blood ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,flows ,,through ,,the ,,body #aag ,,xvii4 ,,insects ,,and ,,health #abg ,,xviii4 ,,how ,,the ,,body ,,moves #ace ,,xix4 ,,the ,,muscles ,,and ,,health #add ,,xx4 ,,how ,,the ,,body ,,is ,,governed #adi ,,xxi4 ,,how ,,narcotics ,,and ,,stimulants ,,affect ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves #aeh ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,senses1 ,,or ,,doors ,,of ,,knowledge #afe ,,xxiii4 ,,keeping ,,away ,,sickness #agd ,,xxiv4 ,,helping ,,before ,,the ,,doctor ,,comes #ahc ,,index #ahi ,,health ,,lessons ,,chapter ,i ,,caring ,,for ,,the ,,health ,good ,health better than ,gold4--,horses and houses1 balls and dolls1 and much else that people think they want to make them happy can be bought with money4 ,the one thing which is worth more than all else cannot be bought with even a houseful of gold4 ,this thing is good health4 ,over three million persons in our country are now sick1 and many of them are suffering much pain4 ,some of them would give all the money they have to gain once more the good health which the poorest may usually enjoy by right living day by day4 ,how long shall you live8--,in this country most of the persons born live to be over forty years of age1 and some live more than one hundred years4 ,a hundred years ago most persons died before the age of thirty-five years4 ,in ,london three hundred years ago only about one half of those born reached the age of twenty-five years4 ,scarcely one half of the people in ,india to-day live beyond the age of twenty-five years4 ,in fact1 people in ,india are dying nearly twice as fast as in our own country4 ,this is because they have not learned how to take care of the body in ,india so well as we have4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,by right living this woman remained in good health for several years after she was a century old4 ,the study which tells how to keep well is ,hygiene4 ,whether you keep well and live long1 or suffer much from headaches1 cold1 and other sickness1 depends largely on how you care for your body4 ,working together for ,health4--,one cannot always keep well and strong by his own efforts4 ,the grocer and milkman may sell to you bad food1 the town may furnish impure water1 churches and schools may injure your health by failing to supply fresh air in their buildings4 ,more than a hundred thousand people were made very sick last year through the use of water poisoned by waste matter which other persons carelessly let reach the streams and wells4 ,many of the sick died of the fever caused by this water4 ,although it cannot be said that we are engaged in real war1 yet we are surely killing one another by our thoughtless habits in scattering disease4 ,we must therefore not only know how to care for our own bodies1 but teach all to help one another to keep well4 ,a ,lesson from ,war4--,the mention of war makes those who know its terrors shudder4 ,disease has caused more than ten times as much suffering and death as war with its harvest of mangled bodies1 shattered limbs1 and blinded eyes4 ,in our four months' war with ,spain in #ahih only #bfh soldiers were killed in battle1 while nearly #djjj brave men died from disease4 ,we lost more than ten men by disease to every one killed by bullets4 ,in the late war between ,japan and ,russia the ,japanese soldiers cared for their health so carefully that only one fourth as many died from disease as perished in battle4 ,this shows that with care for the health the small men of ,japan saved themselves from disease1 and thus won a victory told around the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the ,surgeon ,general who1 by keeping the soldiers well1 helped ,japan win in the war against ,russia4 ,the ,battle with ,disease4--,for long ages sickness has caused more sorrow1 misery1 and death than famine1 war1 and wild beasts4 ,many years ago a plague called the black death swept over most of the earth1 and killed nearly one third of the inhabitants4 ,a little more than a hundred years ago yellow fever killed thousands of people in ,philadelphia and ,new ,york in a few weeks4 ,when ,boston was a city with a population of #aa1jjj1 more than one half of the persons had smallpox in one year4 ,within a few years one half of the sturdy red men of our forests were slain by smallpox when it first visited our shores4 ,before the year #agih few boys or girls reached the age of twenty years without a pit-marked face due to the dreadful disease of smallpox4 ,this disease was formerly more common than measles and chicken pox now are because we had not yet learned how to prevent it as we do to-day4 ,victory over ,disease4--,cholera1 yellow fever1 black death1 and smallpox no longer cause people to flee into the wilderness to escape them when they occasionally break out in a town or city4 ,we have learned how to prevent these ailments among people who will obey the laws of health4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,one of the thousands of sturdy red men which smallpox slew before we learned how to prevent the disease4 ,until the year #aijj1 people fled from a city when yellow fever was announced1 but now any one can sleep with a fever patient and not catch the disease1 because we have learned how to prevent it4 ,nurses and doctors no longer hesitate to sit for hours in the rooms of those sick with smallpox because they know how to treat the body to keep away this disease4 ,by studying this book1 boys and girls may learn not only how to keep free from these diseases1 but how to manage their bodies to make them strong enough to escape other diseases4 ,as the ,twig is bent so the ,tree is inclined4--,this old saying means that a strong1 straight1 healthy1 full-grown tree cannot come from a weak and bent young tree4 ,health in manhood and womanhood depends on how the health is cared for in childhood4 ,the foundation for disease is often laid during school years4 ,the making of strong bodies that will live joyous lives for long years must begin in boyhood and girlhood4 ,in youth is the time to begin right living4 ,bad habits formed in early life often cause much sorrow in later years4 ,it is said that over one half the drunkards began drinking liquor before they were twenty years of age and most of the smokers began to use tobacco before they were twenty years old4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,what is worth most in this world8 #b4 ,how many people are sick in our country8 #c4 ,how long do most people live8 #d4 ,why do people not live long in ,india8 #e4 ,what is hygiene8 #f4 ,how many more deaths are caused by disease than by war8 #g4 ,give some facts about smallpox4 #h4 ,why do we have no fear of yellow fever and smallpox now8 #i4 ,why should you be careful of your health while young8 #aj4 ,when do most smokers and drinkers begin their bad habits8 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,body ,regions of the ,body4--,in order to talk about any part of the body it must have a name4 ,the main portion of the body is called the trunk4 ,at the top of the trunk is the head4 ,the arms and legs are known as limbs or extremities4 ,the part of the arm between the elbow and wrist is the forearm4 ,the thigh is the part of the leg between the knee and hip4 ,the upper part of the trunk is called the chest and is encircled by the ribs4 ,the lower part of the trunk is named the abdomen4 ,a large cavity within the chest contains the lungs and heart4 ,the cavity of the abdomen is filled with the liver1 stomach1 food tube1 and other working parts4 ,the ,plan of the ,body4--,all parts of the body are not the same4 ,one part has one kind of work to do while another performs quite a different duty4 ,the covering of the body is the skin4 ,beneath is the red meat called muscle4 ,it looks just like the beef bought at the butcher shop which is the muscle of a cow or ox4 ,nearly one half of the weight of the body is made of muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,general plan of the organs of the body4 ,the muscle is fastened to the bones which support the body and give it stiffness4 ,the muscle by pulling on the bones helps the body to do all kinds of work4 ,the muscles and bones cannot work day after day without being fed4 ,for this reason a food tube leads from the mouth down into the trunk to prepare milk1 meat1 bread1 or other food1 for the use of the body4 ,feeding the ,body4--,the mouth receives the food and chews it so that it may be easily swallowed4 ,it then goes into a sac called the stomach4 ,here the hard parts are broken up into tiny bits and float about in a watery fluid4 ,this goes out of the stomach into a long crooked tube1 the intestine4 ,here the particles are made still finer1 and the whole mass is then ready to be carried to every part of the muscles1 bones1 and brain to build up what is being worn out in work and play4 ,carrying ,food through the ,body4--,in all parts of the body are little branching tubes4 ,these unite into larger tubes leading to the heart4 ,through these tubes flows blood4 ,hundreds of tiny tubes in the walls of the intestine drink in the watery food1 and it flows with the blood to the heart4 ,the heart then pushes this blood with its food out through another set of tubes which divide into fine branches as they lead to every part of the body 7,fig4 #e74 ,getting rid of ,ashes and ,worn-out ,parts4--,the body works like a machine4 ,food is used somewhat as a locomotive uses coal to give it power to work4 ,some ashes are left from the used food1 and other waste matter is formed by the dead and worn-out parts of the body4 ,this waste is gathered up by the richly branching blood tubes and carried to the lungs4 ,here some of it passes out at every breath4 ,part of the waste goes out through the skin with the sweat and part passes out through the kidneys4 ,in this way the dead matter is kept from collecting in the body and clogging its parts4 ,how the ,parts of the ,body are made to work ,together4--,the mass of red flesh covering the bones is made up of many pieces called muscles4 ,whenever we catch a ball or run or even speak1 more than a dozen muscles must be made to act together just in the right way4 ,when food goes into the stomach1 something must tell the juice to flow out of the walls to act on the food4 ,the boss or manager of all the work carried on by the thousands of parts of the body is known as the brain and spinal cord with their tiny threads1 the nerves1 spreading everywhere through bones and muscles4 ,the brain and spinal cord give the orders and the nerves carry them 7,fig4 #e74 ,the ,servants of the ,body4--,the parts of the body are much like the servants in a large house or the clerks in a store4 ,one servant or clerk does one kind of work while another does something entirely different4 ,each portion of the body does a different kind of work4 ,each one of these parts doing a particular work is called an organ4 ,the stomach is an organ to prepare food and the heart is an organ for sending the blood through the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,on the left are shown the branching tubes which carry blood to all parts of the body2 on the right are the brain1 spinal cord1 and nerves which direct the work of the organs4 ,the entire body is composed of several hundred organs4 ,each of them is formed of several kinds of materials named tissue4 ,a skinlike tissue makes up the lining of the stomach1 while its outside is made of muscular tissue4 ,the smallest parts of a tissue are little bodies named cells1 and very fine threads called fibers4 ,growth of the ,body4--,the body grows rapidly in childhood and more slowly after the sixteenth year1 but it continues to get larger until about the twenty-fifth year of age4 ,some children always grow slowly1 have weak bones1 and frail bodies4 ,this is generally so because they have poor food or do not chew it well1 and get too little fresh air1 sunshine1 and sleep4 ,the use of beer1 wine1 or tobacco may hinder the body from using food for growth1 or they may poison the body so that it will never be large and strong4 ,the body should grow about a hundred pounds in weight during the first thirteen years of life4 ,whether children grow little or much generally depends on the food they give their bodies4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,point out and name four parts of the body4 #b4 ,name the two parts of the trunk4 #c4 ,what does the chest contain8 #d4 ,what is muscle8 #e4 ,how is the body fed8 #f4 ,give three parts taking waste out of the body4 #g4 ,of what use are the brain and nerves8 #h4 ,name two organs4 #i4 ,how long does the body continue to grow8 #aj4 ,why are some children weak and of slow growth8 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,feeding ,,the ,,body ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,photograph of the outer dead skin pushed off from a black snake crawling through the brush4 ,why the ,body needs ,food4--,every living thing1 whether a plant or an animal1 needs food4 ,while the whole body lives1 a part of it is constantly dying4 ,the entire outer layer of a snake's skin dies three or four times during a year and is cast off1 sometimes in a single piece4 ,we can scrape dead bits of skin from the surface of our body at any time4 ,tiny particles are dying in all regions of the body1 and we should soon waste away if food were not taken to make up the loss for the worn-out parts4 ,the body also needs food to help it do its work and keep warm4 ,the body has the strange power of using food eaten to make the legs and arms move and the brain to think4 ,in doing this the body is said to burn the food4 ,how the ,body burns itself and also ,food4--,if a boy is weighed just before playing a game of ball and again afterward1 he will find that part of his body has been used up and given off in the breath and sweat4 ,he has burned part of his body1 and the breath and sweat are like the smoke given off when a match is burned4 ,one fifth of the air is made of a gas called oxygen4 ,when anything becomes very hot1 this oxygen makes it burst into a flame and burn4 ,we breathe in oxygen with the air and the living action of the body causes such a slow union of the oxygen and the tissues that there is no blaze although there is a little heat4 ,kinds of ,food4--,there are four general classes of foods4 ,these are the building foods1 the sugars and starches1 the fats1 and the mineral foods4 ,the building foods are those which help largely in forming new muscle and blood or other parts of the body4 ,proteids is another name for building foods4 ,sugars and starches are placed in one group because starch changes to sugar within the body4 ,if you chew a starchy food like bread for a few minutes1 it will begin to taste sweet because the starch is becoming sugar4 ,fats are got not only from fat meat but also from eggs1 butter1 milk1 and many other foods4 ,there is some mineral matter1 such as potash and soda1 in many of the vegetables and meats eaten1 and we use much table salt to season other foods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,good foods for building muscles1 blood1 and bone4 ,body-building ,foods4--,a person with all the sugar1 molasses1 starch1 butter1 and lard he could eat would starve to death in a few weeks because none of these foods would help to build up the dying parts of the body4 ,a large amount of body builder is found in lean meat1 eggs1 milk1 peas1 beans1 corn meal1 and bread4 ,bread and milk is a good food to make the body grow4 ,if the body takes in more building food than it needs for repairs1 it may store it up in the form of fat or burn it to help the body do its work4 ,the ,fuel ,foods4--,the fuel foods are the sugars1 starches1 and fats4 ,these are the foods which the body can easily burn to keep it warm and give it power to act4 ,candy1 molasses1 or sugar in any form1 taken in small quantities1 is a good food4 ,starch1 which the body quickly changes to sugar1 is a much cheaper food4 ,meats contain very little starch1 but nearly all vegetables contain much starch4 ,three fourths of corn meal1 rice1 wheat flour1 and soda crackers consists of starch4 ,more than one half of white bread1 dried beans1 and peas is made of pure starch1 and there is much starch in potatoes4 ,fat is more abundant in animal than in vegetable food4 ,castor oil and cotton-seed oil are fats from vegetables4 ,the fat of the cow is called suet or tallow1 while the fat of the hog is known as lard4 ,butter is the fat collected from milk4 ,cream and eggs contain much fat4 ,when persons eat too much of the sugars1 starches1 or fats1 the body may store them up as fat4 ,for this reason thin persons wishing to gain in flesh eat eggs1 nuts1 and rich milk4 ,the ,mineral ,foods4--,the body must have not only lime to help form the bones1 but iron1 salt1 soda1 and potash for other parts of the body4 ,all these minerals except salt are found in many of the common foods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,good foods for giving the body power and heat4 ,water is one of the most important of the mineral foods because it helps the body use all the other foods4 ,most people drink too little water to enjoy the best health4 ,the body needs more than two quarts of water every day4 ,there is much water in our foods4 ,more than one half of eggs1 meat1 and potatoes is made of water1 and more than three fourths of tomatoes1 green corn1 onions1 cabbage1 and string beans is composed of water4 ,we should drink one quart or more of water daily4 ,it should not be used ice cold1 and very little should be taken at meal time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,diagram showing how the drainage from a house with a sick person caused one hundred and twenty cases of typhoid fever at ,mount ,savage1 ,maryland4 ,water and ,health4--,one of the common causes of sickness is bad water4 ,water from shallow wells within a hundred feet of barnyards1 pigpens1 or other outhouses is usually unsafe to drink4 ,at ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 more than eighty persons were made sick with the fever by drinking the water from a well only ten feet deep4 ,the impure water from one spring at ,trenton1 ,new ,jersey1 gave the fever to nearly a hundred persons in one season4 ,at ,mount ,savage1 ,maryland1 a hundred and twenty persons were made ill by using the water from a spring near a house drain4 ,water from rivers and streams running near where many people live is likely to be made impure and is sure to bring sickness and death to some of those who use it4 ,water from a small stream at ,plymouth1 ,pennsylvania1 running past a house occupied by a typhoid patient1 gave the fever to over a thousand persons in one month4 ,the water from a small stream at ,ithaca1 ,new ,york1 gave the fever to over thirteen hundred people in one season1 and an almost equal number caught the fever in a few weeks at ,butler1 ,pennsylvania1 by drinking water from a small creek along which some sick persons lived4 ,preventing ,sickness from ,bad ,water4--,it is better to go thirsty than to drink water which is likely to cause sickness4 ,any water can be made safe by boiling it one minute4 ,boiled water is the most healthful kind of water to use4 ,the people of ,china and ,japan seldom use water that has not been boiled4 ,many cities using water from rivers run it through a layer of sand and gravel to remove the tiny things that cause so much sickness and death4 ,this makes the water very much purer1 but it is not so certain to make the water safe as is boiling it4 ,bad water makes nearly a quarter of a million of our people sick every year and kills twenty thousand of them4 ,how much ,food does the ,body ,need8--,most people eat too much4 ,overeating overworks the stomach1 poisons the body1 makes one feel lazy1 and causes headache4 ,if you chew your food fine and stop eating as soon as hunger is satisfied without tempting the appetite with sweets1 you are not likely to overeat4 ,about one seventh of a pound of building food is needed daily to keep the body in repair1 and a quarter of a pound of fat and a pound of starches and sugars are required to help the body do a hard day's work4 ,a half pound of bread1 beans1 and meat each1 a pound of potatoes1 a pint of milk1 and a quarter of a pound of butter and sugar each1 will give a working man all the food he needs for a day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,bird's-eye view of ,plymouth1 ,pennsylvania1 showing where the waste from one sick room was thrown on the bank of a stream which several miles below supplied the town with water and caused over one thousand cases of fever and more than a hundred deaths within seven weeks4 ,beer and ,wine as ,foods4--,it was once thought that beer and wine were good foods1 but hundreds of late experiments show that these drinks are very poor and expensive foods4 ,a half glass of milk is of more use to the body as a food than a full quart of beer4 ,the use of much wine or beer may seem to satisfy the appetite because they deaden the real feeling of hunger4 ,neither of these drinks can be used by the young without danger of doing much harm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the little glass of milk contains nearly twice as much food for building flesh and blood as the large glass of beer4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,why does the body need food8 #b4 ,why do you weigh less after working8 #c4 ,what is oxygen8 #d4 ,from what do we get body-building foods8 #e4 ,in what is starch found8 #f4 ,how much water does the body need8 #g4 ,where have people been made sick by using bad water8 #h4 ,how can we prevent sickness from bad water8 #i4 ,what harm does overeating do8 #aj4 ,what can you say of beer as a food8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,food ,,and ,,health ,meats4--,beef is the best of all meat for food4 ,nearly one fifth of it can be used to repair the worn-out parts of the body4 ,mutton1 the meat of sheep1 is almost as good for food as beef4 ,veal and pork also contain much body-building matter1 but the stomach must work hard to prepare them for use4 ,fish is an excellent food1 but it has only little more than one half as much flesh-building matter as good beef4 ,poultry is a healthful food1 especially for the weak and sick1 but it is more expensive than the other meats4 ,oysters are largely made of water and do not contain much to strengthen the body4 ,in all meat there is some waste matter4 ,this may harm the body if we eat too much meat4 ,it is no longer thought healthful for most persons to eat meat more than once a day4 ,too much meat used daily for several years is likely to cause disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,each of these articles costs the same1 but the bread will furnish four times as much food for the body as the cabbage1 more than twice as much as the fish1 and nearly twice as much as the milk4 ,the ,cooking of ,meat4--,the best meat if poorly cooked is unfit for eating4 ,broiled and roasted meats are more healthful than boiled or fried meat4 ,meat is broiled by holding it in a wire frame over a flame or hot coals4 ,it is roasted by placing it in a covered pan in a hot oven for two or three hours4 ,it is boiled by keeping it in hot water several hours4 ,meat is fried by cooking it in lard or other fat in a pan4 ,only those who have strong bodies should eat fried meat4 ,the cheap cuts of meat from the neck1 breast1 and legs have about as much food matter in them as the more costly parts4 ,such meat may be made more tender by boiling than by roasting4 ,soup4--,soup1 broth1 and beef tea furnish but little food for the body4 ,they are very useful in giving us a good appetite for the real food to be eaten later4 ,they make the stomach go to work more quickly than other food4 ,soup or broth is made from meat by placing it on the stove in cold water1 gradually heating it1 and then keeping it hot several hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,either group of foods will give the body the same strength and nourishment for work and growth4 ,vegetables4--,some persons never eat meat of any kind because they enjoy better health when using only vegetables1 milk1 and eggs4 ,peas and beans contain much matter for making new flesh and blood and also much starch to give heat and power to the body4 ,potatoes form a valuable food4 ,roasted potatoes are more healthful than those boiled or fried4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,the amount of real food in these articles4 ,radishes1 onions1 and cucumbers are made largely of water4 ,only a small amount of these should be eaten at one meal as the stomach must work hard to make use of them4 ,young beets1 lettuce1 and ripe tomatoes may be eaten by young and old4 ,they contain useful minerals and help keep the body in a healthful condition4 ,the ,cereals or ,grain ,foods4--,these foods are eaten in the form of bread1 oatmeal1 corn meal1 rice1 and breakfast foods4 ,all of these furnish much matter to strengthen the body and make it grow4 ,bread and butter with rice are excellent foods for children4 ,fruits4--,very few people can remain well long without eating fruit of some kind4 ,ripe apples1 pears1 plums1 peaches1 berries1 and cherries furnish useful salts to the body and also help the stomach and food tube do their work in a more healthful way4 ,fruits also increase the appetite4 ,green fruit and fruit which is overripe should never be eaten4 ,eggs4--,eggs form a good food for nearly everybody1 but they are specially needed by the young and other persons with weak bodies4 ,they can repair the worn-out parts of the body and also help it do its work4 ,eggs are most healthful when eaten raw or soft cooked4 ,the best way to cook them through evenly is to put them in a pan off the stove and add about a quart of boiling water for every three eggs4 ,cover and let them cook fifteen minutes4 ,eggs should be kept in a cold room or cellar until used4 ,they become stale in less than a week when left in a warm living room and may get a bad taste when only three or four days old4 ,salt1 ,pepper1 and ,vinegar4--,eating much salt is harmful4 ,a small quantity of salt and pepper increases the appetite and makes the stomach do its work better4 ,children should use very little pepper and almost no vinegar and mustard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,a bottle of beer4 ,the dotted part at the top shows how much body-building food it contains4 ,tobacco4--,some people think tobacco is a food because it is made from the leaves of a plant4 ,other people think tobacco is a food because they do not feel hungry after smoking or chewing it4 ,the truth is that tobacco is of no use to the body as a food and may do it much harm because of the poison it contains4 ,tobacco satisfies hunger somewhat by deadening the parts of the body that are calling for food4 ,beer4--,the people who make beer and sell it say that it is a food4 ,men who have no interest in selling beer1 and have experimented with it to find out whether it strengthens the body1 say that beer should never be used as a food4 ,it often tends to weaken the body4 ,children should never use beer at any time1 and older people can sometimes avoid disease by letting it alone4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,which are the best meats for food8 #b4 ,why should we not eat meat at every meal8 #c4 ,how should meat be cooked to make it most tender8 #d4 ,how is soup or broth made8 #e4 ,name the best vegetables for food4 #f4 ,name some good grain foods4 #g4 ,of what use are fruits8 #h4 ,what can you say of the use of eggs8 #i4 ,how should eggs be cared for8 #aj4 ,what can you say of the use of salt and pepper8 #aa4 ,why does tobacco satisfy hunger8 #ab4 ,of what value is beer for food8 ,,chapter ,v ,,how ,,plants ,,sour ,,or ,,spoil ,,food ,germs1 ,microbes1 or ,bacteria4--,the dust and dirt of all sorts contain thousands of tiny plants too small to be seen by the eye without help4 ,an instrument called a microscope makes them appear so large that their form and growth are easily studied4 ,these little plants are called germs or microbes4 ,they are also named bacteria4 ,they are so small that a million laid side by side would not cover the head of a pin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,bacteria or microbes found in water1 dust1 and waste4 ,they help change straw and other dead matter into food for plants4 ,much enlarged4 ,there are hundreds of different kinds of germs4 ,some are round like little balls and others are the shape of tiny rods4 ,many of them which look just alike act very different in growing4 ,there are more than twenty different kinds that grow in our bodies and cause diphtheria1 tuberculosis1 and other diseases4 ,we have measles and scarlet fever because we have gotten these disease germs from some one else in whom they were growing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,mold which grew on moist bread in two days4 #e1 seed bodies breaking out of the sack2 #a1 #b1 and #d1 one of the seed bodies after one1 two1 and four hours' growth4 ,much enlarged4 ,most germs feed on dead matter instead of our living bodies and make it melt away or change into another form4 ,an apple or a piece of meat thrown out on the ground will soon change and become like the earth on which it lies4 ,the change1 called decay1 is caused by millions of germs4 ,the farmer's best friends are certain germs which help make the ground rich1 so that the crops will grow4 ,mold4--,the dust raised in sweeping contains tiny living seedlike bodies4 ,if these fall on bread1 cheese1 or fruit1 and this food is afterward kept moist in a warm room for a day or two1 they will grow into grayish fluffy spots4 ,these spots are mold4 ,the greenish white growth on the top of some canned fruit and on berries left in the warm kitchen over night is also mold4 ,mold is a plant which grows from tiny round bodies acting like seeds 7,fig4 #ag74 ,these seed bodies of mold are common in all dust and often fly through the air4 ,on this account food should be kept covered when possible and especially when one is sweeping4 ,some mold gives bread1 cheese1 and other food a bad taste1 but it will not make one sick4 ,how ,germs ,grow4--,germs will not grow where it is very cold1 but freezing the germs does not kill them4 ,boiling one minute kills most germs4 ,drying will stop the germs from growing1 but will not kill all of them4 ,sunlight kills many of them4 ,moisture and warmth make germs grow rapidly4 ,a germ in growing lengthens out a little and then divides in the middle4 ,it does this so quickly that one germ may become two in fifteen minutes4 ,each of these will then divide4 ,in this way one germ can make many million germs in a single day 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the ,spoiling of ,meat4--,fresh meat will not remain good even one day if left in a warm place4 ,a large greenish blue fly seen buzzing about in warm weather will sometimes lay its eggs on meat4 ,these will hatch the next day into little worms1 called maggots4 ,they grow rapidly and a few days later change into flies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,drawing of the germ at the top every ten minutes1 showing how it grew into two germs in a half hour4 ,much enlarged4 ,germs will also spoil meat not kept cold4 ,they feed on the meat and give off a poison1 making it unfit to eat4 ,the bad odor tells when the germs are at work4 ,every home should have a cold cellar or an ice box to keep food from spoiling4 ,saving ,food from ,souring4--,the souring of milk and of cooked food of any kind is due to the germs always present in the air and clinging by the thousands to unwashed dishes and hands4 ,if meat or fruit is cooked and kept tightly covered1 it will remain good for years4 ,many persons save fruit and vegetables for use in winter by putting them in jars1 which are heated to kill the germs1 and sealed tight to keep out other germs4 ,yeast or the ,alcohol ,plant4--,sweet cider and other fruit juices are sometimes spoiled by a plant named yeast4 ,this plant has the form of a football and is so small that a million of its kind together would not make a mass as large as the head of a pin4 ,it floats about in the air and is present on the skins of fruits4 ,yeast is also called the alcohol plant because whenever it grows in a sweet substance like fruit juice it changes part of it into a biting substance called alcohol4 ,at the same time it gives off a gas4 ,it is this gas which forms the bubbling or frothing in beer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,yeast plants used in making bread and beer4 ,those on the right are growing new plants4 ,much enlarged4 ,the millions of yeast plants in the yeast cake bought at the store1 when put into the dough for bread1 grow and form gas4 ,this pushes the bits of dough apart and makes it light4 ,the little alcohol formed is all driven off in the baking4 ,the alcohol which yeast forms by growing in sweet cider is in a few weeks changed to vinegar by other germs called the vinegar plants4 ,sour cider may make those who use it sick and drunk because it contains alcohol4 ,yeast makes wine out of grape juice4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,where are germs found8 #b4 ,what is the form of microbes8 #c4 ,name some diseases caused by germs4 #d4 ,what is mold8 #e4 ,why should food be kept covered when not in use8 #f4 ,what causes meat to spoil8 #g4 ,how may fruit be kept from spoiling8 #h4 ,where is yeast found8 #i4 ,what effect has yeast on fruit juice8 #aj4 ,why should you not drink sour cider8 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,milk ,,may ,,be ,a ,,food ,,or ,a ,,poison ,of what ,milk is ,made4--,milk is the most perfect food known4 ,it contains everything needed to build and strengthen the body4 ,in one gallon of milk there is about one teacupful of pure fat1 nearly the same amount of sugar1 one teacupful of body-building food needed to make muscle and blood4 ,there is also some lime and other mineral matter to make the bones of the young grow strong4 ,the remaining seven pints are water4 ,kinds of ,milk4--,when milk is left standing in a jar for several hours1 much of the fat1 which is present in the form of tiny balls1 rises to the upper part4 ,this upper layer of milk full of fat is called cream4 ,if this is removed1 the rest is called skim milk4 ,milk after standing in a warm place one or two days becomes sour4 ,it is then sometimes put into a tight box or barrel and beat in such a way as to break up the little balls of fat4 ,these are then pressed together into a mass called butter4 ,it requires a whole gallon of milk to make one teacupful of butter4 ,the milk remaining after the butter is taken out is called buttermilk4 ,cheese is made from milk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,two kinds of milk1 showing the amount of fat in each4 ,milk as a ,food4--,milk is a healthful drink for nearly every one and especially useful for those with weak bodies4 ,during sickness it is sometimes the only food the patient can take4 ,it is well for children to use two or three glasses of milk daily with their meals4 ,it should be sipped slowly so it will mix with the fluid in the mouth and not form lumps called curds in the stomach4 ,a quart of milk contains more food for the body than a half pound of good beefsteak4 ,a pint of milk will supply the body with about as much food as a pint of oysters4 ,a bowl of milk and a half loaf of bread is a healthful supper for a boy or girl4 ,skim milk and buttermilk are healthful drinks which furnish much food for building bone1 blood1 and muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,germs which grow in milk and make it sour4 ,when ,milk is a ,poison4--,in ,new ,york1 ,cincinnati1 and ,chicago it has been noticed for many years that large numbers of babies become sick in warm weather and many of them die4 ,the doctors learned that most of the babies taken sick were being fed on cows' milk because their own mothers did not have enough for them4 ,it was then found that the sick babies had been using milk from dairies where the stables were dirty1 the cows soiled1 and the hands of the milkers unclean4 ,on this account much dirt got into the milk4 ,babies fed on clean milk from clean cows kept in clean stables remained strong and well4 ,by much study the doctors learned that dirty milk is poisonous milk4 ,the poison is made by the germs or bacteria living by the millions in unclean stables and in milk buckets not well washed in boiling water4 ,dirty milk becomes most poisonous in hot weather because warmth makes the germs grow very fast and become so numerous that millions are present in a teaspoonful of milk4 ,keeping ,milk ,clean4--,during one week of hot weather in ,cincinnati1 over a hundred babies were poisoned with dirty milk4 ,in the same week twice this number were made sick by unclean milk in ,philadelphia4 ,during the hot part of the year in our country bad milk kills more than a half dozen babies every hour of the day and night4 ,the only way to have milk clean is to have clean stables with clean cows1 milked by clean hands1 and the milk handled in clean pails1 cans1 and bottles which have been scalded after being washed4 ,the milk must then be kept cold until used1 so that the germs will not grow in it4 ,saving the ,baby from ,bad ,milk4--,if possible1 milk should be bought for the baby in bottles sealed with a pasteboard lid4 ,if milk turns sour the same day it is delivered1 it is not fit for the baby to take4 ,heating it makes most milk safer for use4 ,the heating of milk to kill most of the germs is pasteurizing it4 ,it should be kept very hot for about fifteen minutes1 but should not be allowed to boil4 ,it should be cooled by placing the vessel on ice or in cold water4 ,the baby's bottle and nipple should be washed in cold water and then well scalded immediately after being used4 ,the bottle1 the nipple1 and the milk should be kept away from flies and dust4 ,one fly has been known to carry on its body more germs than there are leaves on a large tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,plan of the prison at ,easton1 ,pa4 ,the crosses show into which cells the flies brought typhoid germs from the sewer and made the prisoners sick with fever4 ,flies and ,fever in a ,prison4--,in ,august1 #aijh1 thirteen prisoners in the jail at ,easton1 ,pennsylvania1 were taken ill with typhoid fever4 ,they had not been near any sick persons and their food and water were found to be pure4 ,all those sick were in cells in one end of the prison4 ,about twenty feet from this end a sewer had been uncovered two weeks before and left open4 ,this sewer carried the waste from the hospital where several patients were sick with the fever4 ,flies fed on the waste in the sewer and then with the germs sticking to their feet flew into the cells of the prisoners and walked over their cups1 spoons1 and food4 ,a little girl who played near this open sewer and shared her lunch with the flies had a severe attack of fever two weeks later because the germs scraped from the flies' feet on her food got into her body and grew4 ,milk and ,disease4--,we must be very careful to get not only clean milk but milk from healthy cows milked by persons who have no typhoid fever1 scarlet fever1 or diphtheria in their homes4 ,if only one or two disease germs get into the milk from the hands of those who have nursed the sick1 these will grow into immense numbers in a single day4 ,many of those who use the milk will then become ill4 ,hundreds are made sick in this way every year4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,why is milk a good food8 #b4 ,what does a gallon of milk contain8 #c4 ,what is cream8 #d4 ,how is butter made8 #e4 ,for whom is milk specially good8 #f4 ,how does milk become poisonous8 #g4 ,why is dirty milk more poisonous in hot weather8 #h4 ,tell what harm unclean milk does4 #i4 ,how may milk be kept clean8 #aj4 ,explain how milk is heated to make it safe for use4 #aa4 ,show how flies may cause fever4 #ab4 ,tell how milk may carry diphtheria into our homes4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,how ,,the ,,body ,,uses ,,food ,organs for making ready the ,food4--,before the food can get into the blood and be carried over the body to feed the muscles and the brain1 it must be made into a fluid4 ,this changing of the solid food into a liquid by the stomach and other organs is called digestion4 ,the organs which do this work are known as digestive organs4 ,they consist of a food tube and several bodies called glands4 ,the ,food ,tube4--,the food canal is about thirty feet long4 ,its first part1 the mouth1 opens back of the tongue into the throat1 named the pharynx4 ,this leads into a tube1 the gullet1 passing down through the back part of the chest into the stomach below the diaphragm4 ,the stomach is a bent sac opening into a tube over twenty-five feet long called the bowels or intestines4 ,this tube is folded into a bunch which fills a large part of the cavity of the abdomen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,the plan of a gland4 a carries blood to the gland and v takes it away after the gland has taken out what it needs4 ,on the right side the top of the gland has been cut off4 ,the ,glands or ,juice ,makers4--,a gland is a little tube closed at one end1 or a bunch of such tubes1 which can take something out of the blood and make it into a juice4 ,a gland under each ear and four others near the tongue make the juice called saliva which flows into the mouth through tubes4 ,a long1 flat1 pink gland back of the stomach is called the sweetbread or pancreas4 ,this and a large brown gland1 the liver1 empty their juices into the intestines4 ,the whole inner surface of the stomach and intestines is lined with tiny tubes1 the glands4 ,the juice of these with that of the other glands softens the food and makes it into a liquid4 ,the ,work of the ,mouth4--,the mouth has three things to do3 ,it should break the lumps of food into fine bits so it can be well wet with the slippery fluid called saliva and also easily swallowed4 ,it must roll the food about so that it gets soaked with saliva4 ,it must hold the food long enough to get much taste from it because this starts the juices to flowing into the stomach4 ,food gives out its taste only after it is changed to a liquid4 ,it should not be washed down with water1 as this weakens the juices in the stomach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,the three glands which make the saliva for acting on the food in the mouth4 ,no food should be swallowed until it is broken into bits nearly as small as the head of a pin4 ,some foods1 such as cheese1 bananas1 and nuts1 should be made even finer than this4 ,there is nothing in the stomach to crush to pieces large lumps of food4 ,the juices of the stomach can do their full work only when the food is well chewed in the mouth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute by a boy who had poor teeth because he had not taken care of them4 ,the lumps are so large that the juices of the stomach could not dissolve them4 ,the ,chewing of ,food keeps away ,sickness4--,bread1 meat1 and potatoes should be cut into pieces no larger than half the size of your thumb and each piece put separately into your mouth with a fork4 ,it should then be chewed from twenty to thirty times before another piece is put into the mouth4 ,food treated in this way will not cause headache or a sickness in the stomach called indigestion or dyspepsia4 ,it is said that there are so many persons with this kind of sickness that more than #e1jjj1jjj are spent every year for medicine to help them4 ,too little chewing of the food while you are young may not cause many aches or pains1 but if you form the habit of rapid eating it is hard to learn to eat slowly4 ,no one who chews his food poorly can avoid sickness long or grow well and strong4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute by a boy with good teeth4 ,the ,work of the ,stomach4--,when the food is swallowed1 it passes through the gullet into the stomach4 ,this is a sac holding more than a quart 7,fig4 #bg74 ,it is made of an outer wall of muscle and an inner skinlike coat full of tiny tubes called gastric glands4 ,millions of these give out drop by drop a watery fluid named gastric juice4 ,this juice begins to flow as soon as we smell or taste food and continues to drop out as long as there is any food in the stomach4 ,the use of the gastric juice is to help change part of the food into a more watery fluid4 ,to do this it must be well mixed with the food4 ,this mixing is done by the muscles in the outer wall of the stomach 7,fig4 #bi74 ,they squeeze together and then loosen up in such a way as to move the food about and turn it over until every particle is wet again and again with the gastric juice4 ,how long ,food stays in the ,stomach4--,a ring of muscle around the end of the stomach keeps the food from escaping until it has become a thin grayish liquid4 ,the stomach can finish its work on some kinds of food in one or two hours4 ,with other foods it must work four or five hours4 ,the stomach can finish its work on soft boiled eggs1 milk1 roasted potatoes1 and broiled lamb within two hours4 ,with pork1 veal1 cabbage1 and fried potatoes it must work four or five hours4 ,when a person is sick the stomach is weak1 and he should have only the food which causes the stomach the least work4 ,the ,work of the ,intestines4--,the last part of the work in getting the food ready for the blood is done in the long folded tube known as the intestine 7,fig4 #bg74 ,here juices coming from the pancreas and liver mix with the food and change into a liquid those parts not acted on in the stomach4 ,the intestine does quite as much work as the stomach4 ,sometimes when the stomach is sick1 too much work is put off on the intestines and then they become sick and give much pain4 ,the pint of watery fluid from the pancreas and the quart of greenish yellow fluid called bile given out by the liver are carried through two tubes into the intestine 7,fig4 #bg74 ,to mix these juices with the food the intestine is being swung gently back and forth and the walls squeezed together by muscles forming its outer coat4 ,as soon as the intestine has finished its work the food begins to enter the blood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,the organs which get the food ready to enter the blood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,showing how the food in the dog is carried from the intestine to the liver and heart4 ,the white tubes carry the fats up to the vein in the neck1 and the dark tubes which are veins carry the other part of the food to the liver4 ,how ,food gets into the ,blood4--,an hour or two after food has entered the intestine it is almost as thin a fluid as milk4 ,millions of tiny fingerlike growths stick out from the inner side of the intestines and drink in the watery food4 ,these little fingers for drinking up the food are scarcely one fourth as large as the point of a pencil4 ,they are called villi4 ,the villi are filled with blood tubes having thin walls4 ,the food passes through these walls into the blood stream4 ,much of it then goes to the liver1 but the fatty parts flow up a tube along the backbone and empty into a blood tube in the neck4 ,from the neck and the liver the food goes with the blood to the heart which sends it to all parts of the body4 ,what the ,liver does4--,the liver is a dark red body nearly as large as the upper half of your head4 ,it lies just below the diaphragm4 ,it works night and day helping to keep the inner parts of the body clean and at the same time deal out food4 ,the liver takes some waste out of the blood and sends it out into the intestine with the bile4 ,when there is no food in the intestine1 the bile is stored up in the gall bladder under the liver4 ,the liver changes certain waste matter in the blood into such form that other organs can cast it out of the body4 ,it also stores up certain parts of the food coming from the intestines and gives it out to the body little by little as it is needed4 ,when and ,how much to ,eat4--,when the food organs do not do their work rightly1 the whole body becomes sick4 ,eating too much overworks the stomach4 ,it becomes so full that the food cannot be moved about and well mixed with the juices4 ,germs then work on the food and make it sour4 ,in fact the germs may change part of the food into a poison4 ,this poison will cause headache and a bad feeling4 ,do not form a habit of taking powders to cure headache4 ,they are likely to hurt the heart4 ,take less food1 eat it more slowly1 and do not wash it down with drink4 ,stop eating before your stomach feels full4 ,each meal gives the stomach about four hours of work to do4 ,it then needs one hour of rest4 ,this shows that the time from one meal to the next should be about five hours4 ,very young children and sick persons need food oftener4 ,boys and girls should not eat candies1 cake1 or other food between meals4 ,it spoils the appetite and is likely to get the stomach out of working order4 ,danger ,signals4--,a white or yellowish coat on the tongue1 a bad breath1 pain in the bowels1 or a headache is a danger signal4 ,it tells that the food organs are not doing their work as they should and unless help is given sickness is likely to occur4 ,medicine may help1 but using foods easy to digest1 eating less1 chewing more1 and getting plenty of exercise in the fresh air are likely to be the greatest aids to health4 ,the ,chewing of ,tobacco and ,digestion4--,some men chew tobacco as much as ten hours every day4 ,the taste of the tobacco makes the saliva flow from the glands into the mouth4 ,this dissolves the poison out of the tobacco and it is then spit out4 ,if the tobacco-soaked saliva were all swallowed1 the man would be poisoned4 ,the chewing of tobacco causes the loss of much saliva which is needed to help digest the food4 ,anyone who tires his jaw by chewing tobacco is not likely to chew his food well4 ,some of the poison in the tobacco is taken into the body through the blood vessels in the lining of the mouth4 ,this is shown by the fact that a boy not used to tobacco becomes very sick after he has chewed a mouthful for only ten minutes4 ,smoking and ,digestion4--,some persons think that the smoking of a cigar after a meal helps digestion4 ,it may do so in some cases4 ,if a lawyer is much excited about a case he is trying1 or a business man is in trouble about his losses1 the thinking causes the blood to flow to the head when it is needed in the stomach to give out digestive juices4 ,the taste of the tobacco smoke may cause some gastric juice to run out into the stomach1 but at the same time it is likely to hurt the nerves of taste so that food cannot give so much enjoyment as when the nerves are unharmed4 ,although smoking may at the time help digestion a little1 the poison in the tobacco may afterward injure the body4 ,this poison is especially harmful to growing bodies1 and boys who are wise will refuse to smoke on all occasions4 ,beer and ,digestion4--,some people drink beer with their meals because they think it makes the food taste better4 ,it really prevents them from getting the full taste of the food because they wash it down before it is well soaked with the saliva4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,the stomach1 showing the arrangement of the muscular fibers which alcohol may hinder from doing good work4 ,at the right a piece is cut out of the top layer of muscle4 ,the flavor of beer may sometimes cause an extra flow of gastric juice into the stomach1 but the alcohol in the beer is likely to make the movements of the stomach slower4 ,this prevents the food from being well and quickly mixed with the juices4 ,several glasses of beer used at one meal will make the stomach do its work very slowly1 and it will not do it well4 ,wine and ,digestion4--,wine is taken by some people to give more appetite for food4 ,it is likely1 however1 to do more harm than good because the alcohol in it makes the muscles which mix the food in the stomach act more slowly4 ,some of the food may sour before it gets wet with the juice4 ,much wine used at a meal is always harmful4 ,natural ,appetite4--,if one is in health1 he should feel a desire for his food at every meal4 ,this desire for a reasonable amount of food is a natural appetite4 ,fresh air and exercise will do much to give one the right kind of an appetite4 ,the eating of much sweets and the breathing of bad air are likely to spoil the appetite4 ,the use of some things1 such as opium1 tobacco1 beer1 wine1 and whisky1 creates an unnatural appetite4 ,that is1 after one has used these articles a few months he cannot stop their use without great suffering4 ,the younger the person1 the sooner the appetite becomes fixed4 ,for this reason young persons should never use tobacco or alcoholic drinks of any kind4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,what is digestion8 #b4 ,name the parts of the food tube4 #c4 ,where does saliva come from8 #d4 ,explain how the food is acted on in the mouth4 #e4 ,why should food be well chewed8 #f4 ,what forms the gastric juice8 #g4 ,of what use is the gastric juice8 #h4 ,how long does food stay in the stomach8 #i4 ,name some foods easily digested4 #aj4 ,what does the intestine do8 #aa4 ,what are villi8 #ab4 ,tell how the food gets into the blood4 #ac4 ,of what use is the liver8 #ad4 ,why should we not eat too much8 #ae4 ,should we eat between meals8 #af4 ,give three reasons why you should not use tobacco4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,mouth ,sickness often begins in the ,mouth4--,a clean mouth and sound teeth have much to do in keeping one well4 ,the germs which cause nearly a half million deaths in the ,united ,states every year enter the body through the mouth4 ,if the mouth is unclean1 only one or two disease germs entering it may remain there and grow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,the teeth of the upper jaw at eleven years of age4 ,it is just as important to wash the mouth two or three times each day as it is to wash the hands and face4 ,a few germs of diphtheria1 sore throat1 or tuberculosis are likely to get into the mouth any day1 but if the mouth and teeth are well washed with a brush morning and night1 the germs will not have time to grow and cause sickness4 ,the ,teeth4--,the first twenty teeth that appear are called the milk set4 ,the eight front teeth grow out during the first year of life and back of these twelve others appear during the second year4 ,between the seventh and the tenth year all of the milk teeth are lost because others grow beneath them and push them out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,the full set of teeth on the right side at twelve years of age4 ,the numbers show at what year of age each one grows out of the gum4 ,the first four teeth of the second set appear in the sixth year1 just behind the last milk teeth 7,fig4 #cj74 ,these teeth should be watched very closely and at the first sign of decay you should go to the dentist4 ,as the milk teeth get loose and come out1 the second set of teeth take their places4 ,if you are ten or eleven years old1 you should have twelve good teeth in the upper jaw and the same number below4 ,the last ones to break through the gums are the four wisdom teeth at the back of the mouth4 ,they appear after the seventeenth year4 ,the front teeth are called incisors because they are used to cut the food4 ,the back teeth are named molars because they are used in grinding the food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,photograph of teeth not kept clean1 showing how germs and a sour substance called acid eat holes in them and thus cause decay and toothache4 ,toothache4--,toothache is a common ailment1 and yet it can be entirely prevented4 ,a tooth does not ache until it has a hole in it4 ,the tender nerve within gives us warning that it is being hurt4 ,the dentist can stop the ache and mend the tooth so that it will not ache again4 ,look at your teeth every month and feel about them with a wooden tooth-pick to know when the decay begins4 ,if the little holes are mended as soon as found1 you will never have toothache1 and you can keep your teeth as long as you live4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,slice down through a tooth showing f1 the enamel1 and d1 the soft pulp with nerves and blood tubes from the root at h4 ,how to keep the ,teeth ,sound4--,every tooth is covered with a layer of hard shining substance called enamel 7,fig4 #cc74 ,so long as this is unbroken the softer bony part of the tooth cannot decay4 ,at the base of the tooth where the gum joins it the enamel is very thin1 so that the scratch of a pin or other instrument may break it4 ,never pick the teeth with a pin or needle4 ,the biting off of thread1 finger nails1 and other hard material may crack the enamel4 ,it may also be softened and eaten away by acid formed where food remains about a tooth4 ,for this reason a quill or wooden pick or piece of tough thread1 called dental floss1 should be used to clear the teeth of food after each meal4 ,slimy matter collects over the whole surface of the teeth1 and is likely to cause decay in spots unless it is cleaned off night and morning with brush and water4 ,the chewing of dry crusts of bread or crackers strengthens the teeth and keeps off decay4 ,why ,candy and other ,sweets cause the ,teeth to ,decay4--,a sour substance called acid usually starts the decay of a tooth by eating through the enamel4 ,germs change sugar and other sweets into an acid4 ,the acid is not made at once4 ,an hour or more is needed for the germs to grow to form the acid4 ,if1 after eating sweet foods1 the mouth is well cleaned1 no acid will be formed4 ,sugar and candy do not1 therefore1 spoil the teeth unless it is left sticking about them4 ,how to brush the ,teeth4--,every boy and girl should own a toothbrush4 ,the teeth should be brushed every night and morning and kept white4 ,yellow or gray slimy teeth are very ugly4 ,the teeth should be brushed on the inside as well as on the outside4 ,it is best to brush the teeth crosswise for two minutes and then spend another two minutes brushing the upper teeth downwards and the lower teeth upwards4 ,this prevents pushing the gum away from the teeth4 ,plenty of water should be used with the brush1 and a little good powder is helpful once a day4 ,how the ,dentist can ,help4--,sometimes the milk teeth do not get loose so that they can be pulled with the fingers at the right time4 ,the second teeth then come in at one side and may never get straight in place4 ,they then spoil the appearance of the face and do poor work in chewing4 ,the dentist should be asked to help straighten the teeth as soon as they appear crooked4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,exact drawing of the teeth of two persons4 ,those in the lower picture began to decay over twenty-five years ago and they were then filled so as to remain perfect4 ,the teeth in the upper picture began to decay less than ten years ago but were not filled4 ,it is wise to have the dentist examine the teeth once or twice every year and remove a limy substance called tartar collecting at their base4 ,the dentist can stop the decay in a tooth by cleaning out the little hole and filling it with gold or some other material4 ,it may cause a little pain and expense to have the teeth filled1 but it will save a hundred times as much pain and expense later4 ,the six year molars need special care as they are likely to decay early4 ,even the milk teeth often need filling so that they will not be lost too soon4 ,bad ,teeth cause ,sickness4--,when anything decays1 it is full of germs1 and they are always giving off some poison4 ,the poison may hurt the body and is likely to make parts of the mouth sore and tender so that other germs of disease can break through into the flesh4 ,disease germs can easily lodge in the holes of decaying teeth1 grow in numbers1 and finally cause diphtheria1 sore throat1 or other ailments4 ,four out of every five children suffering from diphtheria or other throat or ear troubles are found to have from one to ten bad teeth4 ,you must keep good teeth if you wish to be well and strong4 ,the ,value of ,sound ,teeth4--,sound teeth which will do good work in chewing food are worth more than a foot or an arm4 ,if the foot or arm is lost1 the body is likely to get well and be as healthy as ever4 ,the health of the whole body depends upon the work done by the teeth4 ,unless they do their part the stomach cannot get the food ready for the blood4 ,a part of badly chewed food is turned into a poison farther down in the food canal4 ,this is what makes many people feel so tired and miserable much of the time4 ,hundreds of men have been refused admission to our army because they have poor teeth4 ,soldiers must be strong and well to take long marches and fight battles4 ,sound teeth give strength and health4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,why should the mouth be washed out every day8 #b4 ,when do the milk teeth appear8 #c4 ,when are the milk teeth lost8 #d4 ,how many teeth have you8 #e4 ,how many show signs of decay8 #f4 ,how may toothache be prevented8 #g4 ,how may the teeth be kept sound8 #h4 ,why do sweets cause the teeth to decay8 #i4 ,how should you brush your teeth8 #aj4 ,why should the dentist examine your teeth every year8 #aa4 ,why are sound teeth of great worth8 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,alcoholic ,,drinks ,drink needed for ,health4--,water in the form of sweat and in other ways is constantly passing off from the body4 ,this water carries with it the waste matter which1 if it remained1 would poison the body4 ,there is some water in the food we eat1 but not enough to supply the wants of the body4 ,some persons think that the body needs beer or wine to keep it in good order4 ,these liquids1 as well as whisky1 brandy1 and rum1 are called alcoholic drinks4 ,the latest experiments and studies show that the body never needs alcoholic drinks to keep it in the best of health4 ,these drinks sometimes make the body sick1 and if much alcohol is taken at one time1 the person becomes dizzy1 staggers1 and may fall down and go to sleep4 ,the ,desire for ,drink4--,when parts of the body have too little water1 there is a longing for drink4 ,this is called thirst4 ,as soon as a cup of water is drunk the desire is satisfied4 ,there is no danger of drinking too much pure water4 ,persons who have been accustomed to use alcoholic drink have a thirst which water does not satisfy4 ,it is an unnatural thirst4 ,even beer or wine will not satisfy such a thirst except for a few minutes4 ,very often a person's thirst is not satisfied until he has used so much wine or whisky that he becomes dull and unsteady in his walk4 ,he is then said to be drunk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,yeast plants growing as in the making of beer and wine4 ,much enlarged4 ,how the ,yeast ,plant makes ,alcohol4--,in the cake of yeast bought at the grocery there are millions of tiny plants1 each shaped somewhat like a potato4 ,this strange little plant will grow very rapidly when put into any sweet watery substance4 ,it sends out a bud which grows larger and larger until in a half hour the bud is as large as the old plant4 ,it may then break loose and grow other buds1 just like the mother plant4 ,when yeast grows1 it changes the sugar or sweet part of the water into alcohol and a gas called carbon dioxide4 ,it is this gas which makes beer foam and bubble when opened4 ,all alcohol used in beer1 porter1 ale1 wine1 brandy1 rum1 gin1 and whisky is made by yeast plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,photograph of sprouted barley grains called malt4 ,how ,beer is ,made4--,there is more beer used than any other alcoholic drink4 ,it is cheap and is much weaker in alcohol than wine or whisky4 ,only about one twentieth part of beer is alcohol4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,photograph of a spray of hops1 which are used to flavor beer4 ,in making beer1 a sweet watery mixture is first prepared by mashing sprouted barley grains in water4 ,barley or any other grain forms sugar as soon as it begins to grow4 ,yeast plants are added to the sweet mixture4 ,by growing they change some of the sugar into alcohol4 ,hops are also put in to give the beer a fine flavor4 ,after a time the clear liquid is separated from the barley grains and hops and put into tight casks and bottles4 ,the ,making of ,wine4--,wine contains from two to four times as much alcohol as beer4 ,most of the wine is made in ,california1 ,france1 and ,germany because grapes grow better in these countries than elsewhere4 ,wine may be made from the juice of any fruit1 but the grape is generally used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,the quantity of grapes required to make this glass full of wine4 ,the grapes after being picked are thrown into large tubs and crushed so that the juice runs out4 ,the wild yeast always present on the grape skins begins to grow in the juice and change some of the sugar into alcohol4 ,this work of the yeast lasts from one to eight weeks4 ,at the end of that time1 the grape juice has become a kind of poor wine1 consisting of alcohol1 water1 grape flavor1 and some acid4 ,to make the wine good it must be drawn off into casks1 where the yeast causes further changes during several weeks4 ,it is then put into bottles1 where it should remain about five years to get the right flavor4 ,sherry is a strong wine used in flavoring food1 such as puddings and sauces4 ,a few teaspoonfuls of this wine will make a child drunk4 ,the wines made at home from elderberries1 blackberries1 and cherries contain alcohol which will do just as much harm as that in the purchased wines4 ,how ,brandy is ,made4--,brandy contains more alcohol than wine and almost as much as whisky4 ,in fact brandy is only very strong wine4 ,after the yeast plants have formed as much alcohol as they can in grape juice it becomes so strong that it kills them4 ,this wine is then heated in such a way as to separate some of the water from it4 ,the taking away of the water leaves the wine stronger in alcohol and it then forms brandy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,the shaded part at the bottom of each bottle shows the amount of alcohol in the drink4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,a still used in making whisky or brandy4 ,the heat makes the alcohol fumes or vapor rise and pass over through the pipe coiled in a vessel of cold water4 ,the cold changes the vapor to a liquid which is whisky4 ,whisky and ,rum4--,these two drinks are strong in alcohol4 ,nearly one half of each is pure alcohol4 ,whisky is usually made from rye1 corn1 or wheat1 or all three together4 ,they furnish the food in which the yeast grows and makes alcohol4 ,this watery mixture of grain and alcohol is then heated and the vapor or steam forms whisky after it goes off through a pipe into another vessel4 ,this kind of heating is distillation4 ,rum is formed in somewhat the same way from molasses or cane juice4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,name some alcoholic drinks4 #b4 ,what is an unnatural thirst8 #c4 ,explain how the yeast plant forms alcohol4 #d4 ,tell how beer is made4 #e4 ,tell how wine is made4 #f4 ,what is brandy8 #g4 ,which drinks contain most alcohol8 ,,chapter ,x ,,alcohol ,,and ,,health ,the ,money spent for ,alcoholic ,drinks4--,if the money spent for alcoholic drinks were all collected together in silver dollars1 it would more than fill ten schoolrooms of average size4 ,not only rich men spend large sums yearly for fine wines and brandies1 but also the poor give their money for beer and other drinks which the body does not need4 ,when parents waste their money on drink1 they cannot buy the food and clothes needed to keep their families strong and well4 ,in this way strong drink causes much sickness and suffering and sometimes even death4 ,alcohol injures the ,body4--,some persons drink very little beer or wine1 so they seem to have but little effect on the health4 ,others use strong drink every day and for a few years they may remain quite well4 ,later ill health often comes on1 and they then find that some of the organs have been so much hurt that they will never be quite well again4 ,a few years ago a group of fifty well-known men in the ,united ,states spent much time and thousands of dollars to learn how much alcohol was harming our country4 ,after much study among many people they announced that there were about one million men and boys whose health had been injured by strong drink1 such as beer1 wine1 and whisky4 ,because strong drink causes so much sorrow and sickness several states have passed laws forbidding its sale1 and saloons have been closed by laws in parts of many other states4 ,how ,alcohol affects ,kittens4--,the body of a kitten is made very much like the body of a child4 ,it has just the same organs that a child has1 and they do the same kind of work4 ,doctor ,hodge1 a well-known scientist of ,massachusetts1 therefore concluded that alcohol would act on kittens in the same way as it would on a man or boy4 ,the doctor got two healthy kittens and fed them a little alcohol every day for nearly two weeks4 ,in a few days they stopped being playful1 did not grow1 and did not keep their fur clean and smooth as healthy kittens do4 ,after using alcohol several days they became very ill4 ,this experiment showed that alcohol stops kittens from growing and robs them of good health4 ,how ,alcohol hurts ,dogs4--,doctor ,hodge fed a little alcohol to two dogs nearly every day for three years4 ,he also kept the brother and sister of these dogs1 but gave them no alcohol4 ,all the dogs had the same kind of food and were treated alike except that one pair got alcohol and the other pair did not4 ,the two drinking dogs got sick more easily and staid sick much longer than the temperance dogs4 ,the drinking dogs became lazy1 and timid1 while the others were strong1 full of fun1 and brave4 ,within four years the drinking dogs had born to them twenty-seven puppies1 but only four of them lived to grow up4 ,the others were too weak or sickly to live4 ,during the same time the temperance dogs had forty-five puppies and forty-one of these lived4 ,this shows that strong drink will not only injure the bodies of those who take it1 but will make their children weak and sickly4 ,the ,use of ,strong ,drink causes ,disease4--,many persons who take beer or wine every day become fat4 ,they think this is a sign of health4 ,it is really a sign of disease4 ,they become short of breath4 ,they can no longer run so fast or do so much work because the heart is covered with fat and even some of its wall is changed to fat4 ,for this reason the heart cannot do its work easily or well4 ,the kidneys which take the waste out of the blood often become injured by alcohol and a disease causing death follows4 ,sometimes the stomach becomes diseased so that it cannot do its work4 ,this makes the whole body sick4 ,the hardening of parts of the liver is nearly always caused by the use of beer4 ,the liver is sure to suffer if one uses much alcoholic drink because the alcohol goes direct from the food tube to the liver4 ,long use of strong drink may bring on disease in the brain and nerves4 ,alcoholic ,drinks may cause ,death4--,every ten years the government appoints persons to visit each home in our land to take the census4 ,a part of this census report consists of a table showing the disease of which people died4 ,it is from the census report that we know that hundreds of people die every year from the use of alcohol4 ,danger to ,health in beginning the ,use of ,strong ,drink4--,a large number of people take a drink of beer or wine occasionally because they do not see that it hurts the body4 ,no one expects to become a steady drinker or a drunkard when he begins to drink4 ,reports show that every drunkard begins his downward course by taking a few drinks occasionally4 ,thousands of persons begin a drunkard's life every year because the appetite leads them on gently until they become slaves and cannot let drink alone4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,tobacco ,,and ,,other ,,drugs ,,which ,,injure ,,the ,,health ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,the tobacco plant4 ,how ,tobacco is ,made4--,tobacco is made from the leaves of the tobacco plant4 ,the plant may grow as tall as a man and bear more than a dozen leaves4 ,each leaf is two or three times as large as your hand4 ,the seeds are planted in the springtime1 and the plants are ready to be cut in the autumn4 ,most of our tobacco is raised in the ,southern states and ,cuba4 ,after cutting1 the tobacco must be dried and cared for in a special way to give it the right flavor4 ,it is then sent to factories and made into cigars1 smoking tobacco1 or chewing tobacco4 ,how ,tobacco is ,used4--,many million dollars are spent every year by the people of our country for tobacco4 ,most of the tobacco is used in smoking4 ,some men smoke it in pipes1 while others smoke it in the form of cigars or cigarettes4 ,many men chew tobacco4 ,when used in this way1 something like licorice is generally mixed with the tobacco to give it a more pleasant taste4 ,sometimes the dry tobacco is ground into a fine powder called snuff4 ,this is used by both men and women4 ,tobacco contains a ,poison4--,when boys chew or smoke tobacco for the first time1 it always makes them sick4 ,chewing or smoking for fifteen minutes will make them grow dizzy and weak and feel so sick that they must lie down for a long time4 ,the sickness is caused by a poison called nicotine which is present in all tobacco4 ,much of this poison may be soaked out by boiling the tobacco in water4 ,a cup of water in which a pipeful of tobacco has been boiled will kill goldfish in an hour when poured into a gallon jar of water with the fish4 ,there is enough poison in a handful of tobacco to kill a boy who is not in the habit of using it4 ,why ,men can use ,tobacco without becoming ,sick4--,experiments upon animals have shown that the body can learn to use a poison and not become sick from it4 ,the poison of a rattlesnake is deadly to most animals2 but if a tiny bit of the poison is put under the skin of the rabbit one day and then on each succeeding day a little larger dose of the poison is given the rabbit for a long time1 the animal will become so accustomed to the poison that the bite of a rattlesnake will not harm it4 ,it is the same way with tobacco4 ,little by little the body learns to overcome the effects of the poison1 but much use of tobacco is likely to hurt certain parts of the body4 ,tobacco is ,harmful to the ,young4--,a dose of poison which will kill a child may do but little harm to a man4 ,tobacco is certain to hurt boys more than it does men4 ,the poison makes the body grow slower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,there is more poison in the one on the right than in the one on the left4 ,a large number of measurements made by ,doctor ,seaver showed that the boys who did not use tobacco gained in four years one twentieth more in weight and one fourth more in girth and height than the users of tobacco4 ,these boys were between sixteen and twenty-two years of age4 ,it is likely that tobacco will have a more harmful effect on younger boys4 ,laws to keep the ,young ,healthy4--,boys ought to be wise and brave enough to let alone what keeps their bodies from growing and hurts their health1 but some will not do it4 ,for this reason some countries are trying to save the health of their boys by making laws against the use of tobacco4 ,the ,germans a few years ago passed a law in their land forbidding all boys and girls under sixteen years of age to use tobacco in any form4 ,seeing the good results of this law in ,germany and the harm that tobacco was doing the boys in the ,united ,states1 the ,emperor of ,japan on the #fth of ,march1 #aijj1 proclaimed this law3 ,the smoking of tobacco by minors under the age of twenty is prohibited4 ,in our own country several states have passed laws against the use of cigarettes by boys4 ,one country after another is learning that if they want strong men1 to fight1 to work1 and to win1 tobacco must not be allowed to weaken the bodies of the young4 ,how the ,white ,man becomes a ,slave4--,before the ,civil ,war the black men of the ,south were slaves4 ,they could not do as they pleased because they belonged to their masters whom they must obey or else they would suffer punishment4 ,no boy can begin the use of tobacco without the danger of becoming a slave to it4 ,the use of tobacco either by chewing or smoking gradually causes in any one the growth of an appetite which makes him feel miserable and unhappy unless it is kept satisfied4 ,it can be satisfied only by the use of more and more tobacco4 ,many men would like to quit the use of tobacco if they could do so without suffering4 ,they are slaves1 and tobacco is their master4 ,cigarettes and ,health4--,a cigarette is a tube of paper filled with tobacco4 ,the tobacco is usually not so strong as that used in cigars and pipes4 ,for this reason1 boys like it better1 and because it is so mild they draw the smoke down into the lungs4 ,this gives the poison a better chance to be taken up by the blood4 ,on this account1 and because one is likely to smoke oftener when he smokes a small piece of tobacco1 cigarettes are thought by some to be more harmful than the use of tobacco in pipes and cigars4 ,tea and ,coffee4--,tea is made from the dried leaves of the tea plant4 ,tea plants are raised in ,north ,carolina1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,the drink called tea used at the table is made by pouring boiling water on the tea leaves4 ,the leaves should not be boiled as this draws out a substance which keeps the stomach from doing its work in the right way4 ,coffee is the seed of a plant growing in ,south ,america and ,asia4 ,it is roasted1 then ground1 and boiled in water to make the drink called coffee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,branch of a tea plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,branch of a coffee plant with bunches of coffee berries near the bottom4 ,children should not use either tea or coffee as they are likely to hurt the stomach and may injure the heart4 ,one or two cups of tea or coffee daily seem to have little or no bad effect on the health of most grown persons4 ,coffee taken at supper may keep one awake by sending too much blood to the brain4 ,opium and ,morphine4--,opium is a dangerous drug which is got from the heads of the white poppy plant grown mostly in the far ,east4 ,from gashes cut in the poppy heads a juice runs out and hardens into a gum from which the pure drug is made4 ,some persons smoke opium for the drowsy and pleasant feeling it gives4 ,its use is very hurtful and ruins both body and mind4 ,morphine is a pure form of opium4 ,persons take it to kill pain and make them sleep4 ,you should never take it except when given by the doctor1 as a habit is quickly formed which will make you miserable through life4 ,patent ,medicines4--,these are medicines advertised to cure ailments which generally cannot be cured by drugs4 ,they are the medicines much advertised in the newspapers and magazines4 ,never use them unless your doctor tells you to do so4 ,many of them contain harmful drugs1 such as morphine and alcohol4 ,when you are sick1 go to your doctor for advice4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,explain how tobacco is raised4 #b4 ,how is tobacco used8 #c4 ,how does tobacco affect a boy using it for the first time8 #d4 ,what is the name of the poison in tobacco8 #e4 ,tell how tobacco keeps boys from growing4 #f4 ,what countries do not allow boys to use tobacco8 #g4 ,what is meant by being a slave to tobacco8 #h4 ,what is tea8 #i4 ,what is coffee8 #aj4 ,why should you not use opium or morphine8 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,bathing ,parts of the ,skin4--,the skin is about as thick as the leather of your shoe4 ,it is fastened to the muscles beneath with fine white threads like spider webs4 ,this is called connective tissue because it connects the skin to the lean meat4 ,the skin is made of two layers 7,fig4 #de74 ,the upper layer is formed of cells4 ,this is named epidermis or scarfskin4 ,the deeper layer is made largely of fine threads woven together4 ,it is the true skin or derma4 ,there is no blood in the scarfskin1 but there is a network of blood tubes in the true skin4 ,it is the crowding of these with blood that makes the skin look so red when we get hot or excited4 ,the ,use of the ,skin4--,the skin has three chief uses4 ,it protects the softer parts of the body from being hurt by rough or hard things which might touch it4 ,it contains the organs of feeling4 ,it helps keep the right amount of heat in the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,a thin slice through the skin1 showing sweat glands1 a nerve1 and blood-tubes4 ,much enlarged4 ,the top part of the skin is dry and dead4 ,this gives better protection than if it were moist and tender4 ,particles of it are wearing out and dropping off while other bits are growing beneath to take the place of the worn-out parts4 ,the more this top skin is pressed on and rubbed1 the thicker it becomes4 ,for this reason it is twice as thick in the palms of the hand and on the soles of the feet4 ,scattered through the true skin are millions of tiny organs fastened to the ends of the nerve threads leading to the spinal cord and brain4 ,these organs tell us when the skin is touched or when it is hot or cold or is being hurt4 ,the ,pores and the ,sweat ,glands4--,on a warm day the skin becomes wet with a salty fluid called sweat or perspiration4 ,this flows from the tiny holes or pores in the skin4 ,a good magnifying glass will show these pores arranged in rows on the ridges in the palm of the hand4 ,from each pore a tube leads down into the true skin to a coiled tube forming the sweat gland 7,fig4 #de74 ,sweat glands are present by the thousands in the skin of all parts of the body4 ,they give out from one pint to a gallon of sweat daily4 ,the more we work and the warmer the weather1 the more the sweat flows4 ,there is a little waste matter carried out of the body by the sweat1 but its chief use is to cool the body4 ,it does this by passing off in the air and carrying the heat with it4 ,in this way the body is kept from getting too hot in summer4 ,the ,color of the ,skin4--,in the ,african race the color of the skin is black1 in the ,chinese it is yellowish1 while in our race it is nearly white4 ,the different hues are due to a coloring matter called pigment4 ,this lies in the deep part of the scarfskin4 ,going out in the wind and sun causes more pigment to collect1 and we say we are tanned4 ,if the pigment collects in spots1 it makes freckles4 ,there is no way of removing at once freckles or tan4 ,they usually disappear in the winter4 ,no powders nor any other kind of medicine should be taken to make the skin white and smooth4 ,such medicines may contain poison and are likely in time to hurt the body4 ,the skin may usually be kept soft and smooth by washing well with soft water and good soap4 ,if it becomes harsh or cracked1 a little glycerine rubbed on after each washing may help it4 ,the ,nails and their ,care4--,the nails are hardened parts of the epidermis4 ,they are intended to prevent the ends of the fingers from being hurt and to give a neat appearance to the hand4 ,the ends of the nails should never be chewed or torn off1 as this makes the fingers blunt and the flesh sore4 ,they should be filed or cut neatly with the scissors so that they do not stick out beyond the ends of the fingers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,photograph of hands showing at the right how the nails should appear1 and at the left how biting off the nails makes the fingers blunt and sore4 ,many boys and some girls spoil the appearance of their nails by letting a line of black dirt remain beneath them4 ,a piece of a stick or a nail cleaner should be passed beneath the nails every time the hands are washed4 ,if the fingers are much soiled1 a stiff brush is useful in removing the dirt under the nails4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,a slice through a hair in its sac4 ,much enlarged4 ,the ,hair4--,some hair grows on nearly all parts of the body4 ,it is much thicker on the head than elsewhere4 ,each hair grows from a little knob at the bottom of a tiny tube in the skin called the hair sac 7,fig4 #dg74 ,if hair is pulled out1 another one will grow in its place if the knob at the bottom of the sac is not hurt4 ,one or two oil glands open into each hair sac and give out an oil to keep the scalp and hair soft4 ,no other hair dressing is needed4 ,after thirty or forty years of age the hair begins to turn gray4 ,no medicine will prevent the hair from turning gray1 and it is generally unwise to color the hair with a dye4 ,there is poison in some of the mixtures sold to color the hair4 ,the ,care of the ,hair4--,when the hair is uncombed1 the whole person looks untidy4 ,the hair should be combed carefully every morning and again made tidy before each meal4 ,you should use as little water as possible to moisten the hair4 ,the glands can be made to give out their hair oil by squeezing parts of the scalp between the fingers4 ,the scalp should be well cleansed with soap and warm water every three or four weeks4 ,the hair should be dried quickly with a soft towel and by sitting in the sun or near a stove4 ,one is likely to catch cold by going out of doors when the hair is wet4 ,hair oils and dandruff cures should not be used unless advised by a physician4 ,pinching and wrinkling the scalp twice weekly with the fingers makes the blood tubes grow larger and bring more food to the hair4 ,it will also in many persons stop the hair from falling out and prevent dandruff and itching4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,photographs showing how keeping the hair tidy improves the appearance4 ,do not use the hair brush of another person or exchange hats with your companions4 ,unclean persons and those living or playing much with them often have among their hairs little creatures called head lice4 ,they suck blood and cause constant itching4 ,the doctor will tell any one how to get rid of them easily4 ,keeping the ,skin ,clean4--,the amount of dead matter carried out by the sweat on to the skin every day is equal to a mass as large as your thumb4 ,dust also works through the clothing and sticks fast to the moist skin4 ,for this reason every one should wash the whole body once or twice each week4 ,the feet should be washed oftener as they become more soiled4 ,many persons take a bath every day4 ,a cold bath taken just after rising in the morning wakes up the nerves1 makes the heart work better1 and gives health and strength to the whole body4 ,afterward1 the body should be well rubbed with a coarse towel4 ,the bath may be taken by lying in a tub of water or by rubbing the body over quickly with a wet sponge4 ,a hot bath is best for cleansing the skin4 ,a warm bath makes one sleepy and should1 therefore1 be taken only at bedtime4 ,the hands should always be well washed before handling food4 ,persons neglecting to do this have caused much sickness because of the disease germs on their hands4 ,one hundred and fifty persons were given typhoid fever in one city in ,massachusetts by a man who handled milk without washing his hands4 ,dirt and disease are companions4 ,you must be clean if you would be healthy4 ,the ,kidneys4--,the sweat glands do not take out of the blood one quarter as much waste matter as the kidneys4 ,these are two bodies longer than the finger and more than twice as wide1 and having the shape of a bean4 ,one lies on either side of the backbone below the liver4 ,the blood coming to the kidneys is full of waste and dead matter picked up from all parts of the body4 ,this is passed out through the thin walls of the thousands of little blood tubes into the many tiny tubes of the kidneys4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,the blood tubes in a piece of skin as large as the head of a pin4 ,water is required to keep the body clean within as well as without4 ,for this reason you should drink more than a quart of water daily4 ,a glass or two of water drunk a half hour before meals cleanses and rouses to action the digestive organs4 ,alcohol and the ,skin4--,the skin of those who use much beer or whisky often becomes rough1 red1 and pimply4 ,any alcoholic drink is likely to injure the skin because it may hinder good digestion4 ,the drunkard has a red nose and a dark-colored skin4 ,this is because alcohol weakens the walls of the blood tubes and lets them become gorged with blood4 ,if a person takes a drink only once in a while1 his face becomes red after each drink1 and an hour or two later the effect of the alcohol passes off4 ,the blood tubes have squeezed up to their natural size4 ,alcohol and the ,kidneys4--,taking several glasses daily of even such weak alcoholic drink as beer often causes the kidneys to become sick4 ,some of their working parts become changed to fat and some parts become hard4 ,the cells which let the waste matter pass out of the blood get hurt by the poison of the alcohol so that they let some of the food also pass out of the blood4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,name the two parts of the skin4 #b4 ,give the three uses of the skin4 #c4 ,what is a sweat gland8 #d4 ,how much sweat is formed daily8 #e4 ,of what use is the sweat8 #f4 ,how should the nails be cared for8 #g4 ,tell what care should be given the hair4 #h4 ,why should you not use another person's hair brush8 #i4 ,why should the skin be washed often8 #aj4 ,of what use is a cold bath8 #aa4 ,why should the hands be well washed before handling food8 #ab4 ,why does the drunkard have a red nose8 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,clothing ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,kinds of ,clothing4--,people are beginning to learn that the wearing of the right kind of clothing has much to do with keeping them well4 ,many persons wear too heavy clothing in winter4 ,keeping the body too hot makes it weak4 ,some kinds of clothing are much warmer than others4 ,some are expensive and others are cheap4 ,cheap clothes will often serve the same purpose as the more costly ones4 ,if you look at your handkerchief or stockings1 you will see that they are made of threads running crosswise to each other4 ,all clothing is made from threads4 ,some of these are wool1 some are linen1 a few are silk1 and many are cotton4 ,woolen ,clothing4--,woolen clothing1 such as overcoats and fine cloth dresses and suits1 is made from the wool cut from sheep4 ,enough wool can be sheared from two sheep in one year to make an entire suit of clothes4 ,the raw wool is first twisted into threads and then woven by machines into cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,at the left is a bunch of flax gathered from the field1 and on the right is a spool of thread made from the flax and ready to be woven into linen4 ,linen4--,linen is used in making collars1 cuffs1 and handkerchiefs4 ,it is made from fine threads taken from the flax plant4 ,on a piece of ground as large as a schoolroom enough flax can be raised to make a half dozen collars4 ,garments to be worn in warm weather are sometimes made of linen4 ,silk4--,silk is used in making neckties1 gloves1 ribbons1 and dresses4 ,silk cloth is woven from the cocoons made by silkworms4 ,a silkworm is about as big as your largest finger4 ,it grows to this size from the egg in one month4 ,in three or four days it spins a shell of silk thread completely surrounding itself4 ,this shell is called a cocoon4 ,within this it changes to a moth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,photograph of silkworms changing mulberry leaves into silk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,these fibers from the lint about the seed of cotton are woven into cotton cloth4 ,when the cocoons are to be used for silk1 the worm is killed by heat as soon as it has woven its home so that it may not change to a moth and eat off some of the silk in getting out4 ,many thousand worms are needed to get enough silk for a dress4 ,the worms are raised largely in ,china1 ,japan1 ,italy1 and ,france4 ,cotton4--,all calico1 muslin1 and most cheap clothing are made from cotton thread4 ,this is made from the cotton fibers surrounding the seeds of the cotton plant 7,fig4 #eb74 ,the cotton used in this country is raised in the ,southern states4 ,cotton clothing is stronger and wears much longer than silk or wool1 but it does not look so well and is not nearly so warm4 ,the ,use of ,wraps and ,overcoats4--,outer wraps and overcoats should never be worn in a warm room or while working hard4 ,they cause much sweat to form on the body1 and as soon as one goes out of doors the sweat begins to pass off4 ,this makes the body feel cold and in some cases leads to a long sickness4 ,when riding in cold weather1 extra wraps should be worn4 ,scarfs and furs should not be worn about the throat except in extreme cold weather4 ,bundling up the neck and chin is likely to cause sore throat4 ,danger from ,wet ,clothing4--,many children have caught severe colds leading to serious sickness by wearing wet or damp clothing4 ,wet clothing causes the heat to pass off from the body quickly1 so that it is chilled before we know it4 ,this may be shown by wrapping two bottles of warm water in cloths4 ,wet one cloth and let the other remain dry4 ,in twenty minutes the bottle with the wet cloth will be cool1 but the other one will still be warm4 ,if your wet clothing cannot be changed at once1 keep exercising or throw a heavy coat about you4 ,untidy and ,soiled ,clothing4--,all boys and girls should learn to keep their clothing as clean as possible4 ,do not wipe the hands on the clothing1 or sit down in the dirt1 or let food smear the front of the coat or dress4 ,the sweat is constantly bringing waste matter out of the body4 ,this soils the clothing next to it4 ,on this account clothing to be washed every week or oftener should be worn next to the skin4 ,very thin cotton underclothing should be worn in summer4 ,woolen clothes give more warmth for winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,showing how to prevent the shoe from pressing on corns caused by wearing tight shoes or socks roughly darned4 ,shoes4--,badly fitting shoes cause sore feet and much pain4 ,a shoe that is tight across the toes is sure to cause corns4 ,a corn is a thickened part of the top skin which presses on the more tender part beneath4 ,soaking the feet in hot water and filing off the top of the corn or using a corn plaster will help it4 ,shoes should always be a half inch longer than the foot4 ,waterproof shoes or rubbers should be worn in wet weather4 ,rubbers should not be worn in the house4 ,alcohol and ,clothing4--,many persons think that a drink of whisky will make them warm when taken on a cold day4 ,for this reason whisky is sometimes used when clothing is really needed4 ,the use of whisky or any other alcoholic drink will not make the body warm4 ,it may make one feel warm because it loosens the muscles in the blood tubes of the skin and so lets more blood come to the surface4 ,in this way the body becomes colder because too much blood gets into the skin and is then chilled by the cold air4 ,as alcohol deadens the feeling it may prevent one from feeling cold when the body is really very cold4 ,too little clothing and too much alcohol have been known to cause men to freeze to death4 ,experience in using ,alcohol to keep the ,body ,warm4--,doctor ,hayes1 who went as physician with ,doctor ,kane to explore in the ,arctic regions1 said that he would never again take alcoholic drink with him on such a trip4 ,he declared alcohol was of no use in helping men to keep warm4 ,he found from actual experience that those who use alcohol cannot endure cold so well as other people4 ,doctor ,carpenter1 a well-known physician1 tells of a crew of sixty-six men who tried to stay in ,hudson ,bay all winter4 ,they used some alcoholic drink4 ,only two of the party lived through the winter4 ,later another party of twenty-two men passed the winter in the same place4 ,they used no strong drink at any time and as a consequence all but two of them were reported well and strong in the following spring4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,breathing ,the ,lungs4--,the lungs are two light spongy bodies filling up the greater part of the chest4 ,the heart lies between the lungs4 ,the lungs are formed largely of thousands of thin-walled sacs and two sets of tubes4 ,one set of tubes carries air into and out of the lungs1 and the other set is filled with blood4 ,these sacs and tubes are held in place by a loose meshwork of tissue4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,the ribs and front wall of the chest cut away to show the lungs4 ,a piece of one lung is cut off to show the heart4 ,a and ,e1 parts of the breastbone2 ,f1 diaphragm4 ,why we ,breathe4--,breathing means taking air into the lungs and forcing it out4 ,the air is made to go into the lungs in order that a part of it called oxygen may get into the blood4 ,the blood then carries the oxygen to all parts of the body where it can help the organs do their work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,photograph of a salamander1 showing the gills on either side of the head1 which are used in breathing4 ,the air which comes out of the lungs is not the same as that which goes in4 ,some of the oxygen has been used up and in its place is a heavier gas named carbon dioxide1 which has been given out by the body4 ,this carbon dioxide is part of the waste formed in every part of the body from the used-up food and dying parts of the body4 ,we breathe therefore to get oxygen into the body and to take out some of the waste matter4 ,all animals must breathe4 ,if our breath is shut off only four or five minutes1 death results4 ,in the earthworm the oxygen goes right through the skin into the blood4 ,bugs and flies have several little openings along the sides of the body which lead into tubes branching throughout the body to carry air4 ,a fish gets air through its gills lying under a bony flap on each side of the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,the windpipe and lungs viewed from in front4 ,on the right1 the tissue is removed to show the air tubes4 ,how the ,air passes into the ,lungs4--,the outer openings of the nose are called nostrils4 ,from here two channels lead back through the nose to the throat4 ,the cavity of the throat behind the nose and tongue is the pharynx4 ,at the bottom of the pharynx is a tube made mostly of gristle4 ,this tube is larger than your thumb and is named the larynx1 or voice box4 ,the bump on its front part forms the lump in the throat called the ,adam's ,apple4 ,from the voice box extends the windpipe called trachea1 down to the lungs4 ,the windpipe divides at its lower end between the lungs into two branches4 ,one of these enters each lung4 ,the ,air ,tubes in the ,lungs4--,as the branch of the windpipe enters each lung it divides into smaller branches just like the limbs of a tree4 ,these divide into still smaller tubes1 which branch again and again until they are as small as a hair4 ,these hairlike tubes have swollen ends called air sacs4 ,the walls of the air sacs are much thinner than tissue paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,a bunch of air cells at the end of an air tube in the lungs1 showing the blood vessels which receive the oxygen and give out the carbon dioxide4 ,how the ,blood trades ,waste for ,oxygen in the ,lungs4--,the blood1 which is constantly running from all parts of the body to the lungs1 collects waste formed from the burnt food and dying parts of the organs4 ,when the blood comes to the lungs1 it is full of this waste1 called carbon dioxide4 ,the blood tubes divide into fine branches with very thin walls and form a rich network over the air sacs4 ,this allows the carbon dioxide and water to pass out of the blood tubes into the air sacs1 while the oxygen at the same time goes through into the blood4 ,more than a pint of water is given off in the breath daily4 ,how we ,breathe4--,the bottom of the chest cavity is formed by an upward arching sheet of muscle called the diaphragm4 ,this is fastened to the lower ribs4 ,the ribs at rest slant downward and inward4 ,when the ribs are pulled up or the arch of the diaphragm down1 the cavity of the chest becomes larger4 ,the air then runs into the lungs and swells them out4 ,when the ribs are let drop or the arch of the diaphragm goes up1 the air is pushed out of the lungs4 ,without thinking1 we work the muscles to draw up the ribs about eighteen times every minute1 because all parts of the body are calling for oxygen4 ,the harder we work the oftener we breathe because the muscles need more oxygen to make them go4 ,why we should breathe through the ,nose4--,most persons find it easy to breathe through the nose4 ,in some1 however1 the passages in the nose are too small to carry the air without effort4 ,on this account they let the mouth hang open and breathe through it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,face cut through the middle to show how the adenoids stop the air from passing through the nose4 ,arrows show the course which the air should take4 ,the air should pass only through the nose because it is lined with hairs and tiny waving threads which catch the dust4 ,in this way germs and dirt are prevented from getting into the throat and lungs1 and in winter the cold air is warmed4 ,why ,some ,children cannot breathe through the ,nose4--,when one has a cold1 the lining of the nose becomes swollen and gives out a white substance called mucus4 ,the swelling of the lining and the mucus fill up the passages4 ,the nose should be kept clean by using a handkerchief and blowing out the mucus into it4 ,never put the finger into the nose4 ,disease germs often get on the fingers from things touched4 ,children who have the habit of breathing through the mouth should be examined by a physician4 ,he will1 in most cases1 find soft spongy growths called adenoids in the back part of the nose4 ,they should always be removed as soon as possible4 ,they may cause disease or deafness and may even injure the mind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,a view of the voice box from the top4 ,the ,voice4--,in the upper part of the voice box at the top of the windpipe is a fold of tissue stretched on either side4 ,these two folds of tissue form the vocal cords4 ,the air rushing past them causes sound4 ,the different sounds are made by stretching the cords tight or loosely4 ,by means of the tongue1 teeth1 and lips the sound is formed into words4 ,how to use the ,voice4--,a cold or much shouting makes the vocal cords swell and we become hoarse4 ,rest is the best cure4 ,it is not polite to shout or whistle in the house and you should never use an angry tone of voice4 ,when talking to a person1 always speak distinctly but pleasantly and turn your face toward his and look directly into his eyes4 ,never use a harsh1 loud tone of voice4 ,why you should not spit on ,floors or ,sidewalks4--,we used to think that any one well had no germs of sickness in his mouth1 but we now know that many well persons have germs in their mouths which can cause long sickness when they get into other persons4 ,if you are sick with diphtheria1 scarlet fever1 or sore throat1 the germs of the disease are likely to remain in your mouth two or three months4 ,persons with tuberculosis throw out millions of these germs in their spit every day4 ,spitting is not only an unclean habit but a deadly curse4 ,spit often contains the seeds of death4 ,women's skirts and the soles of our shoes carry it into the houses4 ,it becomes dry1 but the germs live and float about in the dust1 then enter the mouth to make us sick4 ,carelessness with spit is said to cause more than a hundred deaths every day in our land4 ,do not use an ,open ,spittoon4--,it is much safer to have a smallpox patient in the house than an open spittoon in the summer4 ,you can prevent the smallpox by vaccination1 but you cannot keep the flies from carrying ten thousand germs of death from the spittoon to the food on the table4 ,a million germs have been found on a single fly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,photograph of a house fly on a piece of bread4 ,this fly had been feeding on spit and a study of its legs and body showed more germs present than there are hairs on a person's head4 ,spit should be dropped into a cup which should be kept covered when not being used4 ,the spit should be destroyed by fire or some germ-killing fluid1 such as lye or formalin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,an exact drawing of the germs in a spot as large as a period1 on the edge of a drinking cup4 ,keeping ,sickness away from the ,throat and ,lungs4--,all sickness of the throat and lungs is caught from some one else4 ,the germs are passed from one to another on the drinking cup1 by sucking pencils1 wetting the finger to turn the pages of a book1 or putting the fingers in the nose or mouth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a dish of beef broth jelly left open two minutes in a room being swept4 ,each spot is a city of thousands of germs which grew from one germ dropping on the jelly4 ,by counting the spots you can tell how many germs fell from the dust on this dish three inches in diameter4 ,dust is the partner of disease4 ,it contains germs4 ,avoid dust4 ,wipe up the rooms with a damp cloth2 never use a feather duster4 ,avoid dry sweeping4 ,use a suction cleaner or have rugs which can be cleaned out of doors4 ,give the lungs fresh air and deep breathing and the body good food and plenty of sleep to make it so strong that germs cannot overcome it when they enter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,photograph of consumption germs1 the tiny rods which often grow and cause tuberculosis in bodies weakened by beer or whisky4 ,much enlarged4 ,alcoholic ,drink and the ,lungs4--,the most common disease of the lungs is tuberculosis4 ,nearly all bartenders who sell strong drink take some themselves4 ,lately it has been learned in ,germany that tuberculosis causes one half of all the deaths among bartenders4 ,alcohol was once thought to be a good medicine for lung troubles1 but it has been clearly proven that beer and whisky weaken the lungs and make them ready for the germs of disease4 ,the body already weakened by the poison of the alcohol is then easily overcome by the disease4 ,tobacco and the ,lungs4--,the occasional use of tobacco does not seem to hurt the lungs when fully grown4 ,a study of many young persons has shown that the chest of smokers grows much more slowly than in those who do not use tobacco4 ,as the lungs cannot grow any faster than the chest1 they must grow slowly in boys using much tobacco4 ,tobacco is a common cause of sore throat4 ,many smokers have been compelled to quit the habit because of throat troubles4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,where are the lungs located8 #b4 ,what do the tubes in the lungs carry8 #c4 ,what part of the air do we use in the body8 #d4 ,tell how the air gets into the lungs4 #e4 ,what passes from the blood into the air sacs8 #f4 ,why should we breathe through the nose8 #g4 ,why should you keep the fingers away from the nose8 #h4 ,what are the vocal cords8 #i4 ,give two reasons why no one should spit on the floor4 #aj4 ,tell how alcohol harms the lungs4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,fresh ,,air ,,and ,,health ,how much ,air we ,breathe4--,at every breath we take in about one pint of air4 ,we breathe eighteen times each minute4 ,nine quarts of air therefore pass in and out of the lungs every minute4 ,air once breathed is not fit to breathe again4 ,it contains waste and carbon dioxide which weaken the body4 ,if you breathe three full breaths into a wide-mouthed jar or bottle1 it will contain so much of the carbon dioxide that a lighted candle or splinter will at once go out when thrust into the jar4 ,a cat shut in a tight box two feet square and one foot high will die in less than a half hour4 ,many years ago when the ,british and ,hindoo soldiers were fighting each other1 the ,hindoos made prisoners of #adf of the ,british and locked them in a room about one half as large as a common schoolroom4 ,there were only two small windows4 ,during the night #abc of these men died because of the bad air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,the direction of the flame of the candle shows how the fresh air enters and the bad air leaves a room4 ,how much ,air should enter a ,room4--,the air laden with waste coming out of the lungs quickly mixes with the other air of the room4 ,in this way all of the air in the room soon becomes impure4 ,forty children will give out nearly two barrels of air in one minute4 ,in another minute this air has made all of the other air in the room unclean4 ,it can still be breathed1 but it makes children feel drowsy and lazy and may cause headache4 ,they then do poor work4 ,to keep the air pure in a room1 fresh air must be let in from the outside4 ,if there are many in the room1 the openings must be large or fans on a wheel must be used to force the air in4 ,in the ,new ,york schools a little over a cubic yard of fresh air is forced into the room for each child every minute4 ,how to get ,fresh ,air into a ,room4--,when air is warmed it becomes lighter and rises4 ,in many public buildings1 fresh air heated by a furnace is forced into the rooms through pipes entering several feet above the floor4 ,by a fan or heated flue the impure air is sucked out of the room through openings near the floor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,how the windows of your bedroom should be open to get the most fresh air4 ,changing the air in a room is called ventilation4 ,to get plenty of fresh air in a room there must be one or more places for it to enter and one or more places for it to pass out4 ,where there is no furnace or fan1 windows on one side of the room may be opened at the bottom to let in the air and the same windows opened at the top to let the impure air escape4 ,do not sit in a draft1 but use a board or curtain to throw the air upward as it enters the window4 ,a room should not be kept too warm4 ,sitting in a very warm room weakens the body and prepares it to take cold4 ,the temperature of a living room should be between #fe and #gj degrees4 ,fresh ,air while you ,sleep4--,thousands of people have weakened their bodies and brought on disease by sleeping in bad air4 ,many persons keep their windows so tightly closed during the night that the air smells bad in the morning4 ,i knew a family who always slept with windows closed except in the very warmest weather4 ,three of the children died of tuberculosis1 and a fourth one took the disease but was saved by keeping his windows wide open4 ,bad air in the sleeping room makes one feel drowsy in the morning instead of refreshed by sleep4 ,your windows should always be open while you sleep4 ,in cold weather a window should be open a foot at both the bottom and the top1 or if there are two windows in the room1 both may be opened at the bottom4 ,in moderate weather the openings should be twice as large4 ,a cap may be worn to keep the head warm1 and the bed should be out of the draft4 ,fresh ,air gives ,health4--,four hundred people die of tuberculosis in our country every day4 ,a few years ago it was thought that no one could get well of this disease4 ,now three fourths of those in the first stages of the disease get well4 ,the chief part of the cure is fresh air4 ,medicine is seldom used because no medicine will cure tuberculosis4 ,good food and rest are great helps4 ,many of those with tuberculosis stay out of doors all day and at night sleep in tents or with all of the windows wide open1 even in the coldest weather4 ,snow may blow in and the water in the room may turn to solid ice1 but fresh air1 the good angel of health1 will give the body new strength and make it well and strong again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,this man is curing himself of tuberculosis by sleeping at night1 and sitting by day1 on this porch4 ,many years ago when the ,indians lived in tents and often slept outdoors none of them had this dirty air disease of tuberculosis4 ,since they have formed the habit of living in houses nearly one half of some tribes have become sick with this catching disease4 ,making the ,lungs ,strong4--,it requires over three quarts of air to fill your lungs4 ,when you breathe quietly1 less than one pint of air passes in and out of your lungs4 ,this shows that a large part of the lungs is not used4 ,the air sacs at the top and in the bottom part of the lungs are seldom filled completely4 ,it is in these places that disease begins4 ,several minutes should be spent two or three times each day in exercising the lungs4 ,fill them completely with air many times4 ,learn to breathe deeply while you are walking in the fresh air4 ,hold the head up and the shoulders back so that every part of the lungs can be filled4 ,sit straight4 ,your life depends upon your lungs4 ,give them a chance to do their work and teach them to do it well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,unhealthful position which squeezes the lungs so that they cannot work freely4 ,tobacco and ,pure ,air4--,there is poison in the smoke of tobacco4 ,this is shown by its effect on insects4 ,owners of greenhouses often buy the stems and other waste parts of tobacco4 ,they pile it in a pan and after closing the doors and windows of the greenhouse tightly1 set fire to it4 ,the smoke rises and fills the whole house4 ,in less than an hour it has killed many of the bugs and beetles which were destroying the plants4 ,a person not used to tobacco will sometimes be made sick by sitting only an hour in a room where persons are smoking4 ,it is wrong for smokers to poison the air which others must breathe4 ,for this reason a smoking room should be well ventilated4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,blood ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,flows ,,through ,,the ,,body ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,the cells in the blood4 ,the two white ones were drawn while crawling4 ,much enlarged4 ,the ,blood keeps the ,body ,clean within and gives it ,food4--,every tiny particle of the body1 whether in the legs1 arms1 or head1 must have food to keep it alive and help it do its work4 ,it must also have oxygen1 and it must be washed clean of its waste matter4 ,all this is done by the streams of blood1 which bathe every cell to bring it food and oxygen and to wash away its waste4 ,parts of the ,blood4--,blood consists of a clear1 watery part called plasma and many little bodies named cells4 ,the liquid found in a blister is the clear part of the blood4 ,the cells which float in the watery part are so little and so close together that more than a million are in each drop of blood4 ,a few of the cells are white1 but most of them are red1 and it is their color that makes the blood look red4 ,your body contains about one gallon of blood4 ,it is carried through the body in branching tubes called blood vessels 7,fig4 #gj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,photograph of the heart from in front with the lungs pinned aside4 ,one fourth natural size4 ,the ,blood ,vessels4--,there are four kinds of blood vessels4 ,they are the heart1 the arteries1 the capillaries1 and the veins4 ,the heart lies in the chest between the lungs4 ,it squeezes the blood into the arteries4 ,these carry the blood to all parts of the body4 ,it then runs into the capillaries1 which are tiny tubes connecting the arteries with the veins4 ,the veins return the blood to the heart4 ,the blood flows so fast that it goes from the heart down to the toes and back again in a half minute4 ,the ,heart or ,pump of ,life4--,when the heart stops we die1 because the blood can no longer flow to carry food and oxygen to the hungry tissues4 ,the heart is a sac with thick walls of muscle4 ,it is shaped like a strawberry and is about as large as your fist4 ,its cavity is divided into four parts4 ,the two upper ones are called auricles and the lower ones are named ventricles4 ,the blood enters the auricles and then pours through an opening into each ventricle1 from which it passes out into the arteries4 ,the ,arteries or ,sending ,tubes4--,the blood is sent out from the heart through the arteries leading to all parts of the body4 ,the chief artery is the aorta4 ,it is larger than your thumb and extends from the heart down through the body in front of the backbone4 ,it has more than twenty branches4 ,all of these branch again and again like the limbs of a tree until they are finer than hairs4 ,a large tube1 the lung artery1 takes blood directly from the heart to the lungs4 ,here it branches into more than a thousand divisions1 so that the blood can take in oxygen and give off to the lungs its waste4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,arteries1 the tubes carrying the blood from the heart through the body4 ,only the chief vessels are shown on one side4 ,the ,capillaries or ,feeding ,tubes4--,these are the tiny tubes1 finer than hairs1 which join the smallest end branches of the arteries with the beginnings of the little veins4 ,they are so thickly scattered in the flesh that you cannot stick it with a pin without piercing one4 ,they are called feeding tubes because they have such very thin walls that the food in the blood and the oxygen brought from the lungs can pass through to feed the muscles and other organs4 ,the dead parts of the body and also the ashes of the food used up1 pass from the organs into the capillaries4 ,the ,veins or ,returning ,tubes4--,the veins1 beginning in fine branches formed by the capillaries1 return the blood to the heart4 ,the branches unite into larger and larger vessels and finally flow into one main vein1 the vena cava4 ,this extends along in front of the backbone and opens into the heart4 ,why the ,blood flows in only one ,direction4--,the heart causes the flow of the blood4 ,it does this by squeezing together its walls so as to make the blood go out into the arteries4 ,when once in the arteries1 the blood must go forward because there are little doors at the mouths of the arteries in the heart4 ,these doors1 called valves1 open in only one direction1 so that the blood cannot flow backward 7,fig4 #ga74 ,there are other valves between the upper and lower cavities of the heart1 preventing the blood from being pushed back into the veins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,the heart with the front part cut away to show the four chambers and valves4 ,the arrows show the direction in which the blood flows4 ,the movement of the walls of the heart in and out is called the heart beat4 ,this can be plainly felt by placing the hand on the left side of the chest4 ,the heart beats about seventy times each minute in grown persons1 but much oftener in children4 ,at each beat a wave of blood flows along the arteries4 ,this is known as the pulse4 ,it may be felt at the base of the thumb1 where an artery runs just under the skin4 ,why the ,heart sometimes beats ,faster4--,when we run or do hard work1 the heart may beat twice as fast as when we are lying down4 ,this is because the muscles need more oxygen to help them act4 ,work makes them get hungry1 and they send word by the nerves to the heart to hurry along the blood to bring more oxygen from the lungs4 ,when germs make the body sick1 the heart often beats faster because it is affected by the poison made by the germs4 ,the doctor then feels the pulse to tell how much the body is poisoned4 ,use of ,blood ,cells4--,the red cells act like boats4 ,they load up with oxygen in the lungs and carry it to all parts of the body4 ,here they trade it off for carbon dioxide1 a waste substance4 ,this they carry back to the lungs to be cast out of the body4 ,there is one white blood cell to every four hundred red ones4 ,the white cells are the body-guards4 ,they change their shape and are able to crawl through the walls of the capillaries4 ,wherever the body is hurt1 they collect in large numbers and eat the germs which are always trying to get into the body through sores4 ,the white matter called pus in a sore is largely made of white blood cells which came there to fight the germs and were killed in the battle4 ,the germs of boils and fevers often get into the blood1 but the white cells usually kill them before they have a chance to grow into large numbers and make the body sick4 ,how to stop ,bleeding4--,most of the larger arteries are deep in the flesh and seldom get cut4 ,there are many veins just under the skin4 ,if the blood comes out in spurts1 it is from an artery2 but if it flows steadily1 it is from a vein4 ,if the blood does not run out in a stream1 it will stop without any special care4 ,as soon as the blood gets to the air it forms a jellylike mass called a clot4 ,this helps stop the flow4 ,all hurt places in the skin should be tied up in a clean cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,stopping the flow of blood from an artery4 ,if a large artery is cut1 a bandage twisted tight with a stick around the limb on the side of the wound next to the heart will stop the bleeding4 ,if a vein is cut1 the bandage should be placed on the side of the cut away from the heart4 ,alcoholic ,drinks weaken the ,blood4--,it has been noticed for some years that when a user of beer or whisky is attacked with fever1 the disease is more severe than in one not using alcohol4 ,the reason for this has lately been explained by a well-known scientist working in ,paris4 ,he put certain disease germs in rabbits1 but they did not become sick4 ,when he gave them a little alcohol and put the same amount of disease germs in them as before1 they became sick and died4 ,by careful study he learned that the white blood cells had in the first case killed the germs4 ,in the second experiment the blood cells were made so weak and lazy by the alcohol that they did not put up such a strong fight against the germs4 ,tobacco and the ,blood4--,any one who chews or smokes tobacco regularly gets much of the poison into the blood4 ,the vessels in the mouth and throat drink in some of the juice and also the poison from the smoke4 ,how much this poison affects the blood cells is not known1 but it is likely to do them some harm because it makes the growing cells of the body less active4 ,how ,beer weakens the ,heart4--,whisky was at one time thought to strengthen the heart1 but doctors generally agree now that it weakens the heart4 ,it may make the heart beat a little stronger for a few minutes1 but after that the beating is weaker than usual4 ,much use of beer is known to make fat collect around the heart and also cause some of the heart muscle itself to change into fat4 ,in this way the heart becomes so weak that it can no longer do its work1 and death results4 ,the reports from ,germany show that hundreds of persons die every year from weakened hearts made so by the use of much beer4 ,alcohol hurts the ,blood ,vessels4--,careful examination of the blood vessels of drunkards after death shows that in many cases the alcohol has caused the walls of the vessels to become thick and sometimes hard4 ,the thickening of the wall makes the channel of the tube smaller4 ,the heart must then work much harder to get the blood through to feed the tissues4 ,tobacco and the ,heart4--,many boys who use tobacco regularly do not have a steady heart beat4 ,this is specially true of those who smoke several cigarettes daily4 ,a few years ago1 when our country was at war with ,spain1 thousands of young men1 wanted for soldiers1 were examined to find out whether their bodies were strong enough to endure the hardships of war4 ,hundreds were refused admittance to the army because of weak bodies1 and many of them were reported by the physicians as having hearts weakened by the use of tobacco4 ,the boys preparing for the army at the ,military ,academy at ,west ,point and for sea fighting at the ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis are not allowed to smoke cigarettes4 ,our country must have strong men for hard work4 ,tobacco never gives strength1 but often causes weakness4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,insects ,,and ,,health ,malaria or ,chills and ,fever4--,malaria is a disease in which the patient usually has a chill followed by a fever at the same time each day or every other day4 ,thousands of people suffer from this sickness in the warm parts of our country and hundreds of them die every year4 ,in some regions people cannot live because this sickness attacks every one who comes there4 ,many years ago a doctor found in the blood of malaria patients tiny animals4 ,he thought that they might be the cause of the illness1 but he could not find out how they got into the blood4 ,finding out how ,malaria ,germs get into the ,blood4--,it had been noticed for many years that mosquitoes were always found wherever there was malaria4 ,in the year #aijj two men decided to find out if they could live in a malaria region and not have the disease when the mosquitoes were kept from biting them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,position of the common humpback mosquito at rest with body full of blood sucked by thrusting the bill into the flesh4 ,they made their home a whole season in a cottage in the midst of many persons who were sick with malaria4 ,they breathed the same air1 ate the same kind of food1 and drank the same kind of water as those who suffered from the disease1 but they remained well4 ,the only thing that they did different from those who got sick was to keep the mosquitoes out of their rooms at night by means of screens4 ,this experiment and many other studies have shown that we catch malaria only by the bites of mosquitoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,position of the malaria mosquito at rest4 ,only a ,few ,mosquitoes carry ,malaria4--,malaria is not common in all regions where mosquitoes live1 and it has been found that only one group of mosquitoes carries the germs4 ,the two common groups are the straight-backed and the humped4 ,to prove that the straight-backed ones did the harm several of them were allowed to suck blood from a man sick with malaria in ,italy4 ,they were then sent to ,london and let bite a healthy man4 ,in a few days he became sick with malaria4 ,many experiments with the humped-back mosquitoes1 found nearly everywhere in our country1 show that they do not carry malaria germs4 ,yellow ,fever4--,until #aija yellow fever was the scourge of many cities in the ,south4 ,thousands of persons lost their lives from it4 ,wherever the dread disease broke out in a city many persons would flee to the country because they thought that they could not breathe the air without getting the germs4 ,some persons thought that mosquitoes might cause the disease1 and in #aijj experiments were carried out in ,cuba to learn whether mosquitoes really did carry yellow fever germs4 ,seven men made their home in a room well screened to keep out the mosquitoes4 ,they used clothing which had been worn by others sick with the fever and even slept on pillows and blankets on which yellow fever victims had died4 ,many persons thought that these bedclothes were full of fever germs and that all the men would surely get the disease4 ,not one of them1 however1 got sick although they lived in the midst of these soiled materials for three weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,the yellow fever mosquito biting the finger4 ,note how the lower lip is bent4 ,seven other men were chosen for another experiment4 ,a large room was prepared and made thoroughly clean4 ,only clean bedding and clean clothes were used4 ,the men were given pure food and pure water1 but into the room were let loose mosquitoes which had been sucking blood from a person sick with the fever4 ,in a few days six of the seven men became sick with the fever and one of them died4 ,from these experiments and other studies we now know that this dreadful fever is carried from the sick to the well only by the bites of mosquitoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,a bunch of mosquito eggs floating on the surface of the water4 ,enlarged about fifteen times4 ,how ,mosquitoes ,live4--,before we can get rid of any pests we must know where the eggs are hatched and the young pass their early life4 ,the eggs of mosquitoes are laid on standing water4 ,the water may be in an old tomato can1 a rain barrel1 a cistern1 or a large pond4 ,a day or two after the mother lays one or two hundred eggs1 they hatch into dark1 wriggling objects called wigglers4 ,in from ten to twenty days later they change into flying mosquitoes4 ,these habits of life show that the easiest time to kill them is when they are young4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,photograph of wigglers1 the stage in which the mosquito lives a week or two in water4 ,getting rid of ,mosquitoes4--,during warm weather mosquitoes cause the death of more than a thousand persons in the world every day besides making many others very sick4 ,to get rid of mosquitoes is to prevent sickness and death4 ,in one year yellow fever killed over five thousand people in ,new ,york and ,philadelphia because the doctors did not know how to stop the disease from spreading4 ,when this fever broke out in ,new ,orleans in #aije1 less than five hundred persons died of it because the doctors had then learned that the disease is spread only by the yellow fever mosquito4 ,they therefore began killing the mosquitoes4 ,kerosene was poured over all the ponds and stagnant pools of water which could not be drained4 ,this kills the young mosquitoes because the oil gets into their breathing tube which they stick up to the surface of the water to get air4 ,all rain barrels and tin cans were emptied and cisterns were tightly covered4 ,men1 women1 and children worked week days and ,sundays killing mosquitoes because they knew that they were saving human life4 ,the destroying fever was stopped4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,photograph of eggs laid on waste matter by two flies in one hour4 ,flies cause much ,sickness4--,very few people are afraid of house flies because they do not bite4 ,although they are so small and seemingly harmless yet we know that they cause many more deaths every year than mad dogs1 poisonous snakes1 and all wild beasts4 ,flies crawl around among slops1 in spittoons1 and in other unclean places4 ,in this way they get thousands of germs of tuberculosis1 typhoid fever1 and cholera on their feet and then scatter them over our food as they crawl about on the table1 in the grocery store1 or among the milk cans4 ,in our last war with ,spain more than a thousand of our soldiers were made sick with fever carried to them by flies4 ,in ,denver1 ,colorado1 in #aijh fifty persons were made sick with the fever by flies which fed on the slops from a sick room and then crawled around in the milk cans from which those who became sick used milk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,photograph of the worm stage or larva of the fly at the left and three of the sleeping stage or pup at the right4 ,twice the natural size4 ,how to fight the ,flies4--,house flies lay at one time about one hundred eggs in the dirt thrown out of horse stables1 in garbage cans1 or in any other unclean place4 ,in a day or two the eggs hatch into little white worms which feed on the dirt4 ,one or two weeks later the worms change to flies4 ,flies may be kept out of houses by putting screens in the windows and doors or by darkening the rooms when they are not in use4 ,the few which gain entrance may be caught in fly traps4 ,all food in the store or the home should be kept covered4 ,it is not safe to eat candy on which flies have wiped their feet or to drink the milk in which they have washed them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,photograph of a half handful of manure which had been thrown out of a horse stable4 ,note more than one hundred houseflies in the sleeping stage4 ,the surest way to get rid of flies in any community is for all the people to work together and keep the entire neighborhood clean4 ,no dead grass1 weeds1 or rags should be allowed to lie in the backyards or alleys4 ,the cleanings from stables should be hauled away every week or stored in tightly covered boxes4 ,garbage cans must have close-fitting lids1 so that there will be no place in which the young may hatch and grow4 ,other ,insects which carry ,disease4--,in certain parts of ,africa1 the sleeping sickness has made ruins of prosperous villages4 ,thousands of the natives are dying yearly from this disease4 ,the germs are carried from one person to another by the bite of a fly4 ,some fleas carry the germs of plague1 which a few centuries ago swept across ,asia and ,europe destroying hundreds of lives daily4 ,the plague is now common in ,india and was present in ,california in #aijh and #aiaj4 ,the bedbug spreads several kinds of fevers in warm countries and may also be a carrier of leprosy and typhoid fever4 ,these facts show that insects are dangerous and should be kept out of the home4 ,any one troubled with these little pests in the house may learn how to get rid of them by writing to the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,how ,,the ,,body ,,moves ,the ,need of a ,framework4--,the body needs a stiff framework made of bones for three purposes4 ,one purpose is to give it shape1 a second purpose is to help the body move1 and a third one is to protect from injury some of the delicate organs1 such as the heart and brain4 ,the bones are nowhere separate but are joined together with tough bands named ligaments4 ,all the bones together form the skeleton4 ,all animals from fish to man have a skeleton4 ,many of the lower creatures1 such as worms and flies1 have no bony skeleton4 ,most of these move sluggishly or have a hardened outer covering1 like beetles and wasps4 ,the skeleton of animals such as the cat1 rabbit1 or cow1 has about the same number of bones as man1 and they are arranged in the same way4 ,of what a ,bone is ,made4--,although the bones are so hard1 they are not dead4 ,they contain blood1 have feeling1 and are just as much alive as the softer parts of the body4 ,it is the lime that makes them stiff4 ,this can be eaten out by putting the bone in strong vinegar or other acid for a few days4 ,a long bone will then become so limber that it can be tied into a knot4 ,the living part of a bone can be burned out by placing it on hot coals for a half hour4 ,at the end of this time the bone will look just as before1 but when it is touched1 will crumble to pieces4 ,forms of ,bones4--,the bones of the legs and arms are hollow4 ,this form gives the greatest strength with the least weight4 ,you can prove this by using two sheets of paper4 ,roll one sheet and fold the other one4 ,hang weights on both ends of each and use the finger for a support in the middle4 ,the cavity of these bones is filled with a soft white substance called marrow4 ,this is largely fat4 ,each bone is surrounded by a tough membrane to which the muscles are attached4 ,arrangement of the ,bones4--,the bones of the head form the skull4 ,the other bones of the body not belonging to the limbs make up the trunk4 ,there are over two hundred bones in the entire body4 ,eight of these form a case for the brain4 ,fourteen give shape to the face4 ,a chain of twenty-six bones named vertebr forms the backbone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,photograph of the bones of the skeleton4 ,twelve pairs of ribs encircle the chest4 ,they are fastened behind to the backbone4 ,the front parts of the ribs are made of pieces of gristle4 ,the seven upper pairs are joined to the breastbone4 ,the five lower pairs are named false ribs4 ,the collar bone is in front of the shoulder and behind it is the flat shoulder blade4 ,there is one bone in the upper part of each arm and leg and two bones in the lower part of each limb4 ,twenty-eight small bones are found in the hand1 while twenty-seven are present in the foot4 ,how the ,bones may be ,injured4--,in the young some of the entire bones and parts of many others are soft like gristle4 ,for this reason1 the bones of the young seldom get broken1 but they are easily bent and pressed out of their natural shape4 ,on this account you should hold the body erect in sitting and walking4 ,bending over the table or desk day after day is not only likely to cause round shoulders1 but is sure to squeeze up the lungs and other organs so they cannot do their best work4 ,sitting at a table or desk1 so that one shoulder is higher than the other or carrying books at the side1 so that they rest on the hip may cause a curve sidewise in the backbone4 ,tight clothing about the waist presses the ribs out of shape and hurts the other organs within the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,how the bones are held together4 ,a piece has been cut out of the tough ligament to show the cup of the hip bone into which the head of the thigh bone fits4 ,caring for ,broken ,bones4--,when a bone of the arm or leg is broken1 the muscles tend to make the ends shove over each other4 ,the broken ends are sometimes sharp1 and if the limb is bent1 these may tear through the flesh4 ,this may be prevented by binding a board firmly on opposite sides of the limb across the broken part4 ,this will hold the bones in place until the surgeon comes and will also allow the patient to be moved4 ,the surgeon will set the broken bones by bringing the ends together and holding them in place by sheets of wood or metal firmly held by a bandage4 ,in a few days the membrane around the bone begins to grow new bone to join the broken parts4 ,how the ,bones are joined together4--,the two general classes of joints are the movable and immovable4 ,except the lower jaw1 the bones of the skull are so tightly joined together that there is no motion between them4 ,the bones of the wrist and back have but little movement4 ,the freest motion is at the shoulder joint1 where the round head of one bone fits into the shallow cup of another4 ,this is called a ball and socket joint4 ,such a joint is found also at the hip4 ,at the elbow and knee the bones move back and forth like a hinge and these are named hinge joints4 ,working ,parts of a ,joint4--,the ends of the bones are covered with a thin layer of gristle4 ,the bones are held in place by several strong bands called ligaments 7,fig4 #hb74 ,these entirely surround the joint4 ,on their inner sides is a delicate membrane which gives out a slippery fluid to make the joint work easily4 ,the ligaments are sometimes strained1 stretched1 or torn by a fall4 ,the joint then swells because the watery part of the blood collects there4 ,a sprained limb should be elevated to prevent swelling4 ,bathing it in very hot water is helpful4 ,the ,muscles4--,the muscles form the lean meat in any animal4 ,they make up about one half the weight of the body4 ,each muscle is a bundle of thousands of little threads held together by other finer threads1 while the whole is surrounded by a thin sheet4 ,little bundles formed of several of these threads called fibers may be seen in a piece of cooked beef picked to pieces4 ,there are over five hundred muscles in the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,fifty of the muscles just under the skin4 ,note the white cords1 the tendons in the regions of the hands and feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,the biceps muscle contracted above and relaxed or loosened below4 ,some of the muscles are more than a foot long and have the shape of a ribbon4 ,some are circular like those around the mouth1 eyes1 and stomach1 while others are large in the middle and taper toward the ends4 ,how the ,muscles are fastened to the ,bones4--,the two ends of a muscle are attached to different bones4 ,in many cases the muscle is not joined directly to the bone1 but is connected to a tough white cord called a tendon4 ,the tendon is then fixed to the bone4 ,several of the muscles in the forearm run into tendons in the wrist because if the muscle part were to extend along the wrist1 this part of the arm would be large and clumsy instead of graceful and slender4 ,some of these tendons may be seen to move by bending the wrist and then working the fingers4 ,how the ,muscles do their ,work4--,a tiny nerve thread runs from the spinal cord or brain to every muscle thread4 ,messages sent through the nerve threads to the muscles make them act4 ,a muscle can act in only two ways 7,fig4 #hd74 ,it can become shorter or longer4 ,when it gets shorter1 we say it contracts4 ,when it stretches out1 it is said to relax4 ,a muscle cannot contract more than one fourth of its length4 ,to pull the forearm up1 the brain sends a message to the muscle fixed by one end at the shoulder and by the other end to a bone at the elbow4 ,the muscle at once becomes shorter and thicker1 as may be felt by placing the fingers on it4 ,although it shortens only two inches it is fastened to the bone so near the elbow that it draws the hand up two feet4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,of what use are the bones8 #b4 ,what animals have bony skeletons8 #c4 ,what can you say of the form of bones8 #d4 ,how many bones in the body8 #e4 ,name six bones4 #f4 ,what part of the arm has two bones side by side8 #g4 ,how many ribs have you8 #h4 ,explain how a broken bone should be cared for4 #i4 ,point out and name two kinds of joints4 #aj4 ,what are ligaments8 #aa4 ,of what is a muscle made8 #ab4 ,how many muscles in the body8 #ac4 ,how many tendons can you feel in your wrist8 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,muscles ,,and ,,health ,making the ,muscles ,strong4--,no persons use all of the five hundred muscles in the body every day4 ,in slow walking only about twenty muscles are used1 while in running more than four times that number are called into action4 ,muscles which are not used get lazy and weak4 ,every time a muscle is made to act the blood vessels enlarge and bring to it more blood to supply food4 ,the more food the muscle has the stronger it grows4 ,the right arm is used more than the left in most persons4 ,this makes it so much stronger that some boys can lift twenty-five pounds more with the right arm than they can with the left4 ,using the ,muscles keeps the ,body ,well4--,all muscles must have more blood when they are used so that the heart is made to beat faster and stronger by exercise4 ,in this way its valves and walls become able to do more work4 ,such a heart not only does its work better in a well person1 but is able to keep pumping when the body is weakened by disease4 ,many persons die because the heart gets too weak to push the blood through the body4 ,in all the little spaces between the muscles and parts of other organs is some watery part of the blood containing much waste given off from the tissues4 ,moving the muscles presses on this watery waste in such a way as to move it along into the blood channels4 ,it then can be cast out of the body by the lungs and other organs4 ,one reason why we feel so good after exercise is because the poisonous waste has been taken away4 ,no one can remain well very long without taking exercise4 ,children as well as older persons should enjoy one or two hours of outdoor play every day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,various ways of exercising the muscles to keep the body well4 ,how to exercise the ,muscles4--,outdoor games give the best form of exercise4 ,tennis1 baseball1 cricket1 rowing1 and swimming are sports which bring nearly all the muscles into use4 ,every boy and girl should learn to swim4 ,it is dangerous to go swimming alone or to swim in deep water4 ,cramp may seize the muscles at any time1 so that the limbs cannot be moved4 ,hundreds of persons are drowned every year by venturing in deep water4 ,taking care of the yard and garden and helping with other work about the home is one of the best ways of getting exercise and at the same time doing some good4 ,special ,kinds of ,exercise4--,a room with ropes1 swings1 and machines in it for exercise is called a gymnasium4 ,under the direction of a teacher the pupils can get quickly just the right kind of exercise to strengthen the weak parts of the body and keep every organ in health4 ,the muscles oftenest neglected are those of the chest4 ,every one should keep his chest full and round by swinging the arms and practicing deep breathing every day4 ,danger from too much ,exercise4--,lately it has been learned that very violent exercise for more than a few minutes often injures the heart4 ,the running of many races until you are all out of breath or much jumping of the rope is likely to strain the heart4 ,it is always harmful to urge the body on until it is completely tired out4 ,alcohol makes the ,muscles ,weak4--,in the year #aijc two learned men in ,switzerland spent much time to determine whether alcohol helped persons do more work4 ,they tried more than two hundred experiments with men to whom they sometimes gave wine and sometimes food1 and sometimes both were given together4 ,the results of these tests showed that when wine was given alone1 the man's ability to do work was increased for a short time1 but later he could not do so much work as when he had taken no wine4 ,when the man took both food and wine1 he could do only about nine tenths as much work as when he took food alone4 ,the most careful tests by other persons show that whisky will not help a man do more work1 lift a heavier weight1 or shoot straighter4 ,in fact little or much whisky makes him less able to do any of these things4 ,beer makes the ,muscles ,lazy4--,doctor ,parkes of ,netley secured two gangs of soldiers to do the same kind of work4 ,he allowed the first gang to drink some beer1 but the second gang were not allowed to have any4 ,during the first hour the beer gang did the most work1 but after that the temperance gang did far more work during the entire day4 ,the next week beer was refused the first gang and given to the second4 ,the beer helped the second gang do more work than the first one for nearly two hours1 but after that they did much less than the first gang4 ,this shows that men who wish to do their best work during the entire day should not use beer4 ,tobacco and the ,muscles4--,many experiments and studies have shown that the body cannot do its best work when even very small amounts of poison are taken day after day4 ,the poison in tobacco is believed to weaken the muscles so much that no man on a football team in any of our large colleges or universities is allowed to smoke or chew during the season4 ,persons training for any contest where much strength is required do not use tobacco in any form4 ,tobacco prevents ,growth of the ,muscles4--,the moderate use of tobacco by men has but little effect on the muscles4 ,it may cause them to tire a little more easily when doing very hard work4 ,tobacco poison does1 however1 show a marked effect on the muscles of the young4 ,very careful measurements made at one of the large universities showed that the boys who did not smoke grew one tenth more in weight and one fourth more in height than those using tobacco regularly4 ,this slow growth in tobacco users is partly due to the fact that tobacco makes the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels squeeze together so as to shut off some of the blood from the legs1 arms1 and other parts1 so that they get too little food4 ,tobacco may also cause less food to be digested for the use of the body4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,how ,,the ,,body ,,is ,,governed ,making the ,parts of the ,body ,work4--,each of the hundreds of organs in the body has a certain work to do and this must be done at the right time4 ,in order that all may work together and each one do its part when needed1 there is a chief manager called the brain and a helping manager named the spinal cord4 ,millions of tiny threads for sending messages connect the two managers with every part of the body4 ,these threads form the nerves4 ,the ,brain4--,the brain is a soft bunch of matter filling the inside of the skull4 ,the bones of the skull are a quarter of an inch thick and prevent any common knocks from hurting the brain4 ,it is surrounded by three coverings which also help shield it from injury4 ,the surface of the brain is very uneven4 ,there are a great many folds separated by grooves4 ,some of these are more than an inch deep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,the under side of the brain and the spinal cord with the chief nerves of one side of the body viewed from in front4 ,parts of the ,brain4--,the brain is divided into three chief parts4 ,the upper and larger part is called the big brain or cerebrum4 ,the lower part behind is the little brain or cerebellum4 ,the part under the little brain and round like the thumb is the stem of the brain4 ,it connects the larger parts of the brain with the spinal cord4 ,the big brain is partly separated into halves by a deep cut called a fissure4 ,each half is a hemisphere4 ,the outer layer of the brain is gray4 ,it is made of millions of tiny lumps of matter which are the bodies of nerve cells4 ,these are connected by threads much finer than hairs with other parts of the brain and spinal cord4 ,over these threads called nerve fibers one cell can talk to another somewhat as we talk over a telephone wire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,side of the skull cut away to show the brain4 ,b1 backbone4 ,the ,spinal ,cord4--,this is a bundle of nerve matter about as thick as your finger4 ,it extends from the stem of the brain down the canal in the backbone4 ,the outer layer of the spinal cord is white because it is made of the tiny threads1 nerve fibers4 ,the inner part is made of the bodies of nerve cells and therefore looks gray4 ,the fibers are branching threads from the cells in the cord and brain4 ,the ,message ,carriers or ,nerve ,fibers4--,in order that the managers may send messages1 these fine threads1 the nerve fibers1 extend from them to all parts of the body4 ,in many places from five to five hundred or more of these fibers are united in one white cord called a nerve4 ,twelve pairs of nerves are joined to the under side of the brain and thirty-one pairs are connected with the spinal cord 7,fig4 #hf74 ,the nerves of the brain branch to all parts of the head and neck1 and one pair goes down to the lungs1 heart1 and stomach4 ,the nerves connected with the spinal cord branch to every part of the muscles1 bones1 and skin of the arms1 trunk1 and legs4 ,how the ,nerves do their ,work4--,on a telephone wire we can send a message in either direction4 ,a message can travel on a nerve in only one direction4 ,for this reason there must be two kinds of nerves4 ,one kind is called sending nerves because the brain and cord send orders over them to make the organs act4 ,the other kind carries messages to the brain from the eyes1 ears1 skin1 or other organs of sense1 telling it how they feel4 ,on this account these are named receiving nerves4 ,when we wish to catch a ball1 the brain sends an order along the nerve threads down the spinal cord and out through the nerves of the arm to the fingers to get ready to seize a ball4 ,the fingers are spread to grasp the ball1 but they do not close until a message goes from the skin of the finger tips to the spinal cord1 telling it that the ball is in the hand4 ,the ,work of the ,brain4--,the brain is not only the chief manager of the body1 but the home of the mind4 ,the mind acts through the brain4 ,the mind receives through the brain what the eye sees1 the ear hears1 the nose smells1 and the fingers feel4 ,all this knowledge is stored up in the mind and called memory4 ,these facts and others learned later are worked over by the mind4 ,this is called thought4 ,the mind rules and becomes good or bad according to whether it contains good thoughts or bad thoughts4 ,it is wrong to read books and papers about robberies and murders or to tell or to listen to bad stories1 because in this way evil thoughts get into the mind4 ,the best way of keeping badness out of the mind is to fill it with goodness4 ,it is said that ,lincoln was so busy thinking how he could help others that there was no room in his mind for a bad thought4 ,doing some kindness every day helps much in the making of a good mind4 ,habit4--,the doing of anything over and over again until the body goes through the same motions without any or very little thought is called habit4 ,the brain and nerves are so formed that when they get used to obeying the same order of the mind again and again1 they will carry out these orders when the mind no longer gives them4 ,sometimes they will continue to obey the old orders even when new ones are given4 ,many persons would like to break off the habit of drinking beer or whisky1 of chewing tobacco1 and using bad language1 but they find it very hard to make the mind rule the body because they have let the nerves have their own way so long4 ,speaking cheerfully to those we meet1 giving a kind word to our friends1 and looking pleasant are good habits which every one ought to form in youth4 ,they not only make the mind better1 but they help the body to keep well and will prepare the way for success in life later4 ,nobody wants a grumbling clerk or a sour-faced housekeeper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,the difference in appearance between a pouting and a pleasant expression4 ,parts of the ,body work without ,orders from the ,brain4--,a snake with its brain crushed will still squirm and a chicken with its head cut off jumps about4 ,these movements are caused by orders sent from the spinal cord4 ,when the hand or foot is being hurt1 the spinal cord orders the muscles to draw the limb away even before we feel the pain in the brain4 ,many of the movements of the body which are often repeated may be directed by the spinal cord1 while the brain is left free to do other work4 ,this is why the spinal cord is called the helping manager4 ,the action of the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels1 the working of the stomach1 the liver1 pancreas1 and other glands are not directed by the brain1 but by the sympathetic nerves4 ,these extend from a little cord on either side of the backbone to all parts of the body and make the organs1 such as the heart and sweat glands1 which we cannot make obey our will1 do their work4 ,injury to the ,nerves4--,the nerves are so important for the welfare of the body that all the chief ones are placed deep in the flesh1 where they are not likely to be hurt4 ,if the nerves leading to the arm were cut1 it could not be moved1 and we should have no feeling in it4 ,the hurting of a part of the brain1 the spinal cord1 or the nerves may cause loss of feeling or motion in the leg1 arm1 or other part of the body4 ,such a part then seems asleep or dead and is said to have paralysis4 ,pressing on a nerve prevents it from acting4 ,sitting so as to press on the nerve of the leg often makes the foot go to sleep4 ,the bursting of a blood vessel in the brain may let a blood clot form and press on the nerves which govern the arm or the leg4 ,this pressure may cause paralysis4 ,resting the ,brain4--,when there is no food in the stomach1 it has time to rest4 ,when we sit down or lie down1 the muscles get rest4 ,the brain is always busy except when we are asleep4 ,no one can live even a week without sleep4 ,if a dog is kept awake five days1 it will die4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,sleeping in the position shown in the lower figure prevents free breathing and tends to cause round shoulders4 ,the upper figure shows correct position4 ,children need much more sleep than older persons4 ,men and women who work should have about eight hours of sleep daily to remain in good health4 ,children of twelve years should sleep nine hours each day2 those of ten years1 ten hours2 those of seven years1 eleven hours2 and those of four years1 twelve hours4 ,getting the most out of ,sleep4--,you should go to bed every night at about the same hour4 ,this will help you to fall asleep as soon as you are in bed4 ,do not sleep in the clothes which you have worn during the day1 but hang them up to air1 and put on a night robe4 ,children should use a very low pillow1 so that the body can lie straight in the bed4 ,this gives the lungs and heart freedom to act4 ,do not lie on the back as this causes some of the organs to press on certain nerves and makes you dream4 ,the windows should be opened wide because fresh air is the best aid to rest and health and keeps away tuberculosis4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,what makes the parts of the body work together8 #b4 ,describe the surface of the brain4 #c4 ,name the three parts of the brain4 #d4 ,of what is the outer layer of the brain made8 #e4 ,where is the spinal cord8 #f4 ,what are nerve fibers8 #g4 ,what work does the brain do8 #h4 ,what makes the mind good or bad8 #i4 ,what is habit8 #aj4 ,how long should children sleep8 #aa4 ,how can you get the most good out of sleep8 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,how ,,narcotics ,,and ,,stimulants ,,affect ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves ,what ,narcotics and ,stimulants ,are4--,a narcotic is something which when taken into the body makes the organs do their work more slowly and tends to cause sleepiness4 ,alcoholic drinks1 tobacco1 opium1 soothing sirups1 and pain killers are narcotics4 ,a stimulant is a substance which makes the organs of the body do more and quicker work and does not later make the organs work more slowly4 ,coffee and tea are stimulants4 ,beer1 wine1 and whisky were once thought to be stimulants1 but experiments have shown them to be narcotics4 ,they urge the brain to faster work for a few minutes1 but a half hour later they make it act slower than usual4 ,alcohol hurts the ,brain4--,within five minutes after a drink of beer or whisky has been swallowed1 part of the alcohol has reached the blood4 ,within fifteen minutes much of the alcohol has gone from the stomach directly into the blood4 ,in a minute after entering the blood vessels it reaches the brain4 ,if much strong drink is taken1 the cells of the brain become so numbed that they cannot give the right orders to the muscles to move the limbs4 ,the person then staggers about and is said to be drunk4 ,much whisky taken will make the nerve cells so numb that a man cannot move1 and he will then lie down as if in a deep sleep4 ,a tablespoonful of whisky will make a child drunk and twice that amount may make him very sick4 ,much use of strong drink sometimes gives to the brain a terrible disease called delirium tremens4 ,in this sickness the man thinks he sees horned animals1 hissing snakes1 and other creatures which annoy him4 ,alcohol injures the ,thinking ,part of the ,brain4--,it was once thought that wine or whisky would make a man think better4 ,now we know that either of these drinks makes his thoughts slower and also causes him to make mistakes4 ,two doctors in ,europe made many tests with men to learn how alcohol affected their thinking4 ,they found that when using wine the men could do about one tenth less work in adding numbers than when they took no strong drink4 ,these doctors also tested the effect of alcohol on memory and discovered that the use of even small quantities of liquor caused their pupils to learn their lessons more slowly4 ,when persons have taken only a very little drink1 they often say and do very foolish things4 ,they sometimes tell secrets1 for which they are very sorry when they get sober4 ,often they become angry at the least cause and strike or even shoot any person who seems to speak or work against them in any way4 ,alcohol makes ,people ,steal and ,kill4--,the alcohol in strong drink1 when often used1 appears to deaden that part of the brain which helps the mind know right from wrong4 ,in one year the courts of ,suffolk ,county in ,massachusetts found #ag1jjj persons guilty of doing some wickedness and in over #ab1jjj of these cases alcohol was found to be the cause of doing the wrong for which they were arrested4 ,some time ago there were collected the records of #cj1jjj prisoners1 and among these over #ab1jjj had done their wicked acts while alcohol was numbing the brain4 ,lately another careful record of over #ac1jjj prisoners in twelve different states has been studied4 ,in over #djjj of these men the use of strong drink was the first cause of their crimes4 ,alcohol makes the ,mind ,sick4--,since the mind depends upon certain parts of the brain1 whatever hurts the brain is quite sure to hurt the mind4 ,when the mind cannot reason rightly1 the person is said to be insane4 ,a study of #bjjj insane men in ,new ,york ,state showed that the use of alcoholic drink was the cause of the mind sickness in over #ejj of them4 ,of #fhg persons in ,massachusetts who were so insane that they had to be cared for daily by others1 more than #bjj of them were brought to this sad condition by alcohol4 ,brain of the ,young easily overcome by ,alcohol4--,no one expects to become a drunkard or a criminal when he first begins to drink4 ,the continued use of alcohol1 however1 soon numbs the brain and weakens the mind1 so that the person's will power is lost4 ,he is then not able to quit drinking even though he wants to stop4 ,he has become a slave to alcohol4 ,the brain of a young person is injured much more quickly by alcohol than that of an older person and he is much more likely to become a slave than one who begins the use of drink late in life4 ,doctor ,lambert1 of ,new ,york1 studied the cases of #bei slaves to alcohol4 ,he learned that four began to drink before six years of age2 thirteen between six and twelve years of age2 sixty1 between twelve and sixteen years2 #ajb between sixteen and twenty-one years2 seventy-one1 between twenty-one and thirty years2 and only eight after thirty years of age4 ,these facts teach that it is dangerous for the young to take strong drink at any time4 ,laws against ,alcohol4--,the men who make laws for the good of the people are learning that alcohol is injuring the mind and body of many persons every year4 ,for this reason laws have lately been passed forbidding the sale of strong drink in several entire states and in large parts of many other states4 ,tobacco makes the ,brain work ,slower4--,an examination of the age and habits of hundreds of the students entering a large university in ,new ,england showed that those who smoked required more than a year longer than those who did not use tobacco1 to learn enough to enter the first classes in this school4 ,moreover1 out of every hundred of those who took the highest rank in their work in the university1 ninety-five did not use tobacco4 ,it is likely that tobacco makes the mind work slower by preventing the full amount of blood from going to the brain4 ,it does this by making the blood vessels smaller4 ,so far as known tobacco has but little effect upon the brains of older persons4 ,superintendent ,ogg of ,indiana reports that the occasional users of cigarettes are a year1 and the regular users two years1 behind those who do not smoke4 ,the conduct and honesty of the smokers were also found to be lower than among those who did not smoke4 ,opium1 ,morphine1 and ,cocaine4--,all of these harmful drugs are widely used in our country4 ,they act on the brain in a strange way4 ,all of them deaden pain4 ,when a person first begins their use1 only a small amount is required to produce the effect wanted on the body4 ,later the doses must be increased4 ,after a few months' use the person becomes a slave to the habit of using them1 and he cannot stop their use without the help of a doctor4 ,it is therefore dangerous to use these drugs at any time4 ,powders used for colds in the nose1 also paregoric and laudanum1 contain these harmful drugs4 ,pain ,killers and ,soothing ,sirups4--,all pain killers contain opium or morphine or other harmful drugs4 ,they are therefore dangerous to use4 ,pain is useful in telling us that some organ is out of order and needs care4 ,killing the pain does not help the sick organ1 and it may let the organ get so sick as to cause death4 ,one use of the nerves is to tell us when any part of the body is hurt or sick4 ,pain is nature's warning1 and to numb the nerves which tell us about it is as foolish as to kill a person because he brings us bad news4 ,no medicine should ever be given children to make them sleep or stop their crying except by the advice of the physician4 ,powders and ,pills4--,if you get sick1 do not try to cure yourself with pills or powders bought at the store4 ,some of these medicines contain poisons which hurt the heart or other organs4 ,a number of persons have been killed by taking such medicines4 ,when you are sick1 go to a good doctor who understands how the organs should work1 and he will find which one is out of order and tell you exactly what medicine you need and what to eat in order to get well quickly4 ,tea and ,coffee4--,these drinks usually wake up the brain and make it work better for a time4 ,if too much of them is used1 they may excite the brain in such a way as to make persons nervous4 ,if taken for supper1 they may prevent sleep4 ,children should not use either tea or coffee4 ,tea sometimes disturbs digestion1 and coffee may injure both the stomach and the heart4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,what is a narcotic8 #b4 ,name some narcotics4 #c4 ,what is a stimulant8 #d4 ,name some stimulants4 #e4 ,how long before alcohol taken reaches the brain8 #f4 ,what effect does strong drink have on the brain8 #g4 ,does alcohol help us think better8 #h4 ,what facts show that alcohol sends men to prison8 #i4 ,what shows that alcohol makes the mind sick8 #aj4 ,why is it dangerous for the young to take strong drink8 #aa4 ,what shows that tobacco makes the brain work slower8 #ab4 ,why should you not use opium or morphine8 #ac4 ,what do pain killers contain8 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,senses1 ,,or ,,doors ,,of ,,knowledge ,the ,organs of ,sense4--,in order that our body may keep out of the way of other persons and find food and drink and do its work1 the brain must have some way of receiving news about what is near us1 how it looks1 and of what it is made4 ,special organs for receiving knowledge of people and things about us are scattered over the surface of the body4 ,they are called sense organs4 ,the chief ones are the two eyes1 the two ears1 the nose1 and many organs of taste in the mouth1 and the thousands of tiny organs of feeling in the skin4 ,the ,eye4--,the eye consists of a globe called the eyeball and parts which move this and protect it from injury4 ,each eyeball is attached at its back part to the large nerve of sight 7,fig4 #ij74 ,this carries messages to the brain1 telling it what the eye sees4 ,the eyeball is held in a socket in the front of the skull4 ,a layer of fat lines the socket and keeps the eye from being injured by jars4 ,the eyebrows at the lower edge of the forehead prevent the sweat from running into the eyeball4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,side of the face cut away to show the eyeball in its socket4 n is the nerve of sight2 the other letters show the muscles which move the eyeball4 ,the eyelids can close over the front of the eyeball to shut out dirt or anything else likely to hurt it4 ,the lids have learned to do their work so well that we do not need to think to close them when anything flies toward the eye1 for they are shut before we can think4 ,a salty fluid called tears flows from the tear gland at the upper and outer side of the eyeball4 ,the tears keep the front of the eyeball clean4 ,parts of the ,eyeball4--,the outside of the eyeball is a tough white coat except in front1 where it is as clear as glass4 ,within the outer coat is a very thin black lining to keep the light from scattering4 ,in front the lining is not against the outer coat1 but hangs loose and has in it a round hole called the pupil to let the light pass through4 ,the part around the hole is the iris4 ,it may be blue1 black1 or brown1 and can squeeze up so as to make the pupil very small when the light is strong4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,a slice from before backward through the eye4 ,the end of the nerve of sight forms a tender pink covering over most of the inner surface of the eyeball4 ,the cavity within the eyeball is filled with three clear substances4 ,the lens1 shaped like a flat door knob1 is fixed just behind the pupil4 ,in front of the lens is a watery fluid and behind it is a clear jellylike mass4 ,the use of the lens and also the other substances is to bend the rays of light together so that they will meet at one place4 ,how the ,eyeball is ,moved4--,six muscles fixed to the bones of the socket holding the eye have their other ends fastened to the tough coat of the eyeball4 ,one muscle turns the ball upward1 another turns it downward1 one turns it inward and another turns it outward4 ,if an inner or an outer muscle is too strong1 a person may have cross eyes4 ,keeping the ,eye ,strong4--,nearly all young children have perfect eyes4 ,after a year or two in school the eyes of some children become weak4 ,many children get weak eyes after they are ten or twelve years old4 ,this is because they have not taken care of the eyes4 ,the eyes are often hurt by reading a book with fine print1 reading in a dim light1 or by leaning over the book so that the eyes look downward instead of straight forward4 ,as the eyes are very weak after measles and most other diseases1 they should not be used much until a week or more after recovery4 ,in reading the book should be held a little over a foot in front of the chest and you should sit nearly straight and let the light fall on the page from one side4 ,never read while lying down because it strains the eyes4 ,stop reading as soon as the eyes smart4 ,helping the ,eyes to ,see4--,very few old people can see to read without the help of glasses1 because the lens of the eye hardens in old age4 ,to see things near by1 the shape of the lens must be changed4 ,in some children1 the shape of the eyes has become so changed by straining them to read fine print or see things in a dim light that the eyes hurt after being used for any kind of work1 and the head may often ache and make the whole body feel bad4 ,such eyes need help4 ,you should have them examined by an eye doctor who can fit you with glasses which will help you see clearly without headache4 ,keeping the ,eyes ,well4--,bits of dirt often get beneath the eyelids and cause much pain4 ,by taking hold of the eyelashes the lid may be pulled out from the eye and any dirt removed with the corner of a clean handkerchief passed gently along the lid4 ,the eyes sometimes become sore because they are rubbed with soiled fingers on which are germs4 ,these germs get inside the lids and grow1 and in this way poison the eyes4 ,unless care is used sore eyes are likely to spread from one child to another in the school4 ,the sick child rubs its eyes and then handles a book or pencil on which the germs are smeared by the fingers which touched the eyes4 ,the next child picks up the same book later1 gets the germs on the fingers1 and then rubs the eyes4 ,for this reason you should never rub the eyes4 ,if you have sore eyes1 be careful that no one else catches the sickness from you4 ,the ,ear4--,the ear is made of three parts called the outer ear1 the middle ear or eardrum1 and the inner ear4 ,the outer ear is made of a plate of skin and gristle and a slightly bent tube about one inch long4 ,at the inner end of this tube is a thin membrane or drumhead4 ,beyond the drumhead is the cavity of the middle ear about as large as a pea4 ,a chain of three tiny bones stretches from the outer drumhead across this cavity to a tiny inner drumhead4 ,beyond the inner drumhead is the inner ear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,view of the ear from in front4 ,three little bones stretch across the middle ear4 ,the middle ear is kept full of air by means of a tube leading from it to the throat4 ,a cold or other sickness may cause this tube to fill up and make you deaf4 ,the inner ear consists of a sac and four bent tubes filled with a watery fluid4 ,they are also surrounded by watery fluid contained in channels in a bone of the skull4 ,the end of the nerve of hearing is on one of the tubes4 ,how we ,hear4--,throwing a stone in the water makes waves which move farther and farther outward4 ,in the same way a noise causes waves in the air4 ,these waves pass into the ear tube1 strike the outer drumhead1 and make it move4 ,this moves the chain of bones in the middle ear so that they cause motion in the inner drumhead4 ,this in moving back and forth makes waves in the fluid of the inner ear which strike on the ends of the nerve of hearing and cause messages to be carried to the brain4 ,care of the ,ears4--,the ears should not be struck or pulled1 as the eardrum is easily broken4 ,do not put pencils1 pins1 or anything else in your ears4 ,wax naturally forms in the ear tube to keep out bugs and flies4 ,the outer part of the tube may be kept clean by wiping it with a moist cloth over the little finger4 ,if you often have earache or a running ear1 you should have it examined by a physician4 ,neglecting a sick ear may cause deafness4 ,some persons are deaf in one ear and do not know it4 ,test each ear by covering the other one with a heavy cloth and note how far off you can hear the ticks of a watch4 ,the ,nose4--,the nose has a skin-like lining1 but it is always kept moist by little glands which give out a watery fluid4 ,the endings of the nerve of smell are in the lining in the upper part of the nose4 ,two nerves lead from the nose to the brain4 ,when we catch cold1 much blood rushes to the lining of the nose and it becomes swollen4 ,it then gives out a thick white mucus4 ,this covers the nerve endings1 so that we cannot smell4 ,smell is of great use in telling us whether our food is good1 by helping us to enjoy food with a pleasant odor1 and by warning us against bad air4 ,the ,sense of ,taste4--,the nerves by which we taste end in the soft covering of the tongue and some other parts of the mouth4 ,a food cannot be tasted while it is dry4 ,for this reason much slippery fluid flows into the mouth from glands under the ears and tongue4 ,this fluid1 called saliva1 softens the solid food when it is well chewed1 so we can taste it4 ,the ,senses of the ,skin4--,there are endings of nerves in the skin all over the body4 ,they are of three or four different kinds4 ,some of them tell us about heat1 others tell us about cold4 ,some tell us about the shape1 the smoothness1 or hardness of objects1 while others tell us when the skin gets hurt4 ,most of the nerve endings are in the deeper part of the skin1 so that they are covered by the epidermis and cannot be hurt by the rough things handled4 ,alcohol and the ,senses4--,the senses are but little affected by a small amount of alcoholic drink4 ,the sense of taste1 after being accustomed to the sharpness of strong drink1 may be less easily pleased with the taste of common food and drink4 ,the use of large amounts of alcohol blunts all the senses4 ,in a drunken man the senses of the skin are so numbed that he does not know when anything touches him1 and he may be badly burned before he feels the pain4 ,heavy drinking makes the hearing less keen1 enlarges the blood vessels of the eyes1 and makes them appear red and bloodshot4 ,tobacco and the ,senses4--,the use of tobacco does not injure the senses of the skin and usually has no effect on hearing4 ,both chewing and smoking1 if much practiced1 make the sense of taste less delicate1 so that one cannot enjoy his food to the fullest extent4 ,much smoking of tobacco may hurt the nerve of sight and in a few cases it has made men blind4 ,many boys have weakened their eyes by the use of cigarettes4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,name the chief sense organs4 #b4 ,of what use are the eyelids and tears8 #c4 ,name four parts of the eyeball4 #d4 ,what is the iris8 #e4 ,of what use is the lens8 #f4 ,what moves the eyeball8 #g4 ,when do children get weak eyes8 #h4 ,how are the eyes often hurt8 #i4 ,how may poor eyes be helped8 #aj4 ,what makes the eyes sore8 #aa4 ,how do germs get into the eyes8 #ab4 ,name the three parts of the ear4 #ac4 ,what does the inner ear contain8 #ad4 ,what may result from neglecting a sick ear8 #ae4 ,of what use is smell8 #af4 ,why should food be well chewed8 #ag4 ,in what part of the skin are most of the nerve endings8 #ah4 ,what effect does tobacco have on the sense of taste8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,keeping ,,away ,,sickness ,too ,much ,sickness4--,many diseases are caused by our own carelessness and our bad habits of living4 ,we have about one doctor for every one hundred families4 ,there are enough people sick every day to make a city as large as ,new ,york or to equal the number of people living in the thirteen states of ,idaho1 ,nevada1 ,wyoming1 ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 ,utah1 ,delaware1 ,montana1 ,vermont1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,north ,dakota and ,south ,dakota1 and ,oklahoma4 ,a careful study of disease and its cause shows that at least one half of all the sickness in our land can be avoided by right living4 ,the ,cause of ,sickness4--,some people are so foolish as to make themselves sick4 ,they weaken the body by using much beer or wine1 by breathing bad air1 by lack of exercise1 or by fast eating4 ,when the body becomes weak1 it is likely to get sick at any time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,the germs of diseases4 ,much enlarged4 ,it is not always our own fault when we are sick4 ,it may be caused by the carelessness of others who have let germs escape from their bodies so that they are able to reach us4 ,one half of the sickness in our land is catching sickness4 ,that is1 it is sickness which passes from one person to another and is caused by tiny germs or microbes4 ,a catching sickness is called a contagious disease4 ,some of the common catching diseases are sore throat1 colds1 diphtheria1 pneumonia1 typhoid fever1 measles1 grippe1 and whooping cough4 ,how we get a ,catching ,sickness4--,we get a catching sickness by taking into our bodies the germs from some other person4 ,the germs of the sick do not pass off in the breath1 but in the spit or anything else which comes from their bodies4 ,this is why the spit and all slops from the sick room should be burned1 buried1 or destroyed in some way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,how the germs of disease start on their mission of death4 ,this sewer carries slops from the houses of the sick and well and empties into a stream used below for drinking water4 ,we should think it very wicked if a showman should turn his lions and tigers loose in a crowd of women and children4 ,somebody would surely be killed and others hurt4 ,it is just as wrong to turn loose the germs of the sick by throwing the spit and the slops where they will get into a stream or where the flies may find them and by soiling their feet leave death in their trail wherever they crawl4 ,how the ,germs of ,sickness catch ,us4--,the germs of sickness have no feet to walk and no wings to fly1 yet they easily travel from the sick to the well4 ,they are not killed by being frozen1 or drowned by floating in water1 or destroyed by drying4 ,for this reason they can travel with the ice1 water1 milk1 and dust4 ,in ,buffalo1 ,new ,york1 fifty-seven children caught the scarlet fever in one week by using milk cared for by a boy who was getting well from the scarlet fever4 ,the germs of sickness are so small that a million can hang to the hands or clothing and not be seen4 ,for this reason they are often left clinging to the fingers1 desks1 books1 and pencils1 and travel in large numbers on the feet of flies4 ,the surest way the germs have of getting from one person to another is by the common drinking cup4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,photograph of clear beef broth jelly in which a fly walked five minutes scattering germs4 ,two days later each germ brushed off the fly's feet grew into a city of germs appearing as a white spot4 ,the ,common ,drinking ,cup is an ,exchange ,station for ,germs4--,the most careful examinations have shown that there are thousands of children as well as grown persons who have very light attacks of scarlet fever1 tuberculosis1 or other diseases and go to school or about their work scattering the germs of sickness in their spit4 ,a child seldom drinks from a cup without leaving on it thousands of germs4 ,some of these may be germs which will cause sickness4 ,on one drinking cup used in a school1 the germs were found to be as thick as the leaves on a maple tree in ,june4 ,in an ,ohio school one warm day1 a boy with beginning measles drank from the cup which was afterward used on the same day by the teacher and all the other pupils4 ,in less than two weeks every pupil and the teacher were suffering from measles4 ,put nothing into your mouth which has been in another's mouth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,a schoolhouse in ,morgan county1 ,ohio1 where sixteen pupils and the teacher caught the measles in one day by drinking from a cup which had been used by a boy sick with the measles4 ,the ,golden ,rule4--,if you have a catching sickness1 such as measles1 chicken pox1 or whooping cough1 stay away from others4 ,since the germs of some diseases1 like scarlet fever and diphtheria1 remain in the spit sometimes several months after you feel well1 don't scatter your spit4 ,hold a handkerchief before your face when you sneeze or cough4 ,wash your hands before handling food4 ,some ,animals carry ,sickness4--,mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow fever and some other diseases4 ,flies carry typhoid fever1 grippe1 diphtheria1 and tuberculosis4 ,bedbugs and fleas carry the plague and leprosy4 ,rats carry the plague4 ,cats sometimes carry diphtheria4 ,many cows have tuberculosis and the germs of this disease are then sometimes found in their milk4 ,some children have caught tuberculosis from drinking such milk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,a pane of glass held about two feet before the face of a boy who sneezed4 ,the spots are the droplets of spit thrown out4 ,each spot showed under the microscope from #ej to #ajjj germs4 ,keeping away ,smallpox4--,smallpox was once the most terrible of all diseases4 ,it is so catching that two or three were often sick with it at one time in the same family4 ,sometimes nearly one half the people of a whole town would have the disease in one year4 ,over a hundred years ago nearly every grown up person had little pits scattered over his face as a result of having had smallpox4 ,you can always keep away smallpox by being vaccinated4 ,the doctor can vaccinate you by putting on the freshly scraped skin of your arm some weak smallpox germs from a clean healthy calf which has been vaccinated4 ,your arm will in a few days get sore and you will not feel well for about one week1 but you will be made safe from smallpox for several years4 ,fifty nurses were vaccinated in ,philadelphia and cared for many sick with the smallpox1 staying with them day after day1 but not one of the nurses took the disease4 ,every one should be vaccinated when a year old and again at the age of ten or twelve years4 ,colds4--,some colds are catching1 but we generally take cold because we have weak bodies or have been careless4 ,if you want to be free from colds1 remember these six rules3-- ,don't sit still in wet clothes or with wet feet4 ,don't sit in a cold draft or in a cold room4 ,don't sit on the damp ground or on the ice when you are resting from skating4 ,don't cool off quickly after exercising4 ,sleep in a room with the windows wide open4 ,take a cold bath every morning and draw fresh air to the bottom of the lungs many times every day4 ,tuberculosis or ,consumption4--,this disease is so common and deadly that twenty persons die from it in our country every hour4 ,it is caused by tiny germs 7,fig4 #fc7 which lodge in the lungs1 glands1 bones1 or other parts of the body1 where they give off poison and hurt the tissues4 ,we take these germs into the body with dust or food1 and also by putting to the lips a drinking cup or other things used by a consumptive4 ,generally the germs will not grow in a strong body1 even when they have lodged there4 ,preventing ,consumption4--,living in poorly lighted houses without much fresh air1 working in dusty rooms1 using much strong drink and tobacco1 eating poor food1 losing sleep1 neglecting a cough1 and taking little or no outdoor exercise weaken the body so that the consumption germs can grow in it4 ,deep breathing1 sitting and walking erect1 living in rooms with sunshine1 sleeping with the windows open eight or nine hours every night1 and eating good food will prevent one from taking consumption and will often cure the disease4 ,persons with this sickness give out the germs in their spit1 which should be caught in a cup and burned4 ,the ,hookworm ,disease4--,this is a sickness affecting thousands of persons in the ,south4 ,it is caused by tiny worms half as large as a pin hanging fast to the lining of the bowels4 ,the worm is sometimes called the lazy germ because it destroys the red blood cells and makes the body feel weak and lazy4 ,children with these worms grow slowly1 have a dry skin1 and a swollen abdomen with a tender spot below the stomach4 ,the disease is easily cured by a physician1 but it is better to prevent it by killing the germs in the waste from the bowels4 ,for directions1 address the ,department of ,health at the capital of your state4 ,if the germs reach the ground they crawl around and may get into the well1 and enter the body again with the drinking water4 ,generally1 however1 the worms enter through the skin of those going barefooted1 and are carried by the blood to the lungs4 ,from here they go up the windpipe to the throat1 and then down the gullet to the bowels4 ,it is their entrance through the skin that causes ground itch or dew itch4 ,wearing shoes will help prevent the disease4 ,a ,strong ,body ,wins4--,nobody wants to be weak and sickly4 ,most all of us could keep well if we would try in the right way to keep the body strong4 ,to keep the body in health it must have plenty of sleep1 enough good food well chewed1 plenty of clean water1 exercise every day1 and an abundance of fresh air4 ,the body is the temple of the soul4 ,don't hurt it with bad habits4 ,,practical ,,questions #a4 ,how many people are sick to-day in our country8 #b4 ,how can much sickness be avoided8 #c4 ,what causes sickness8 #d4 ,what is a contagious disease8 #e4 ,name some contagious diseases4 #f4 ,how do we get a catching sickness8 #g4 ,why should we be careful with the slops from the sick room8 #h4 ,tell how children in ,buffalo caught scarlet fever4 #i4 ,what is the danger in using a cup from which others have drunk8 #aj4 ,how can you prevent others from getting your sickness8 #aa4 ,name some animals which carry sickness4 #ab4 ,how can we keep away smallpox8 #ac4 ,give six rules to keep away colds4 #ad4 ,how may the body be kept strong8 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,helping ,,before ,,the ,,doctor ,,comes ,the ,need of ,quick ,help4--,in many places in the country1 or when out camping1 it is impossible to get a doctor in less than two or three hours4 ,unless some one at hand can give aid before the doctor comes1 much suffering and even death may result when a simple accident occurs4 ,for this reason every one should know how to help in case of such accidents as burns1 bleeding1 choking1 and sunstroke4 ,clothing on ,fire4--,children should never play about an open fire4 ,a single spark lighting on a cotton dress may cause it to burst into a blaze so that within a few minutes the child is enveloped in flames4 ,the quickest way to put out such a fire is to wrap the child in a blanket1 a piece of carpet1 a coat1 or any part of your clothing quickly removed4 ,if nothing is at hand to wrap the sufferer in1 roll him over and over in the dirt or weeds until the flames are smothered4 ,when your clothing is on fire1 you must not run1 because this fans the fire and makes it burn4 ,burns and ,scalds4--,if there is clothing on the part burned1 it should be taken off slowly so as not to tear the skin4 ,if the clothing sticks1 soak it in oil a few minutes until it gets loose4 ,cover the burned part as quickly as possible with vaseline or a clean cloth soaked in a quart of boiled water containing a cup of washing soda4 ,let nothing dirty touch the burned surface and keep it well wrapped4 ,bleeding4--,a person can lose a quart of blood without danger of death and may live after more than two quarts have been lost1 but it is wise to try to stop any flow of blood as quickly as possible4 ,tying a clean cloth folded several times over the cut will in most cases stop the flow4 ,this will help a clot to form and will also close the ends of the cut vessels if the bandage is twisted tight with a stick4 ,if the cut is on a limb and the blood comes out in spurts1 a bandage tied about the limb between the cut and the body may be twisted tight with a stick so as to press upon the artery and close it4 ,a piece of wood or folded cloth placed over the artery under the bandage before it is tightened is helpful4 ,nosebleed4--,some persons are troubled frequently with bleeding from the nose4 ,the least knock may cause it to bleed for more than an hour4 ,it may generally be stopped without sending for a doctor4 ,sit up straight to keep the blood out of the head and press the middle part of the nose firmly between the fingers4 ,apply a cold wet cloth or a lump of ice wrapped in a cloth to the back of the neck4 ,put a bag of pounded ice on the root of the nose4 ,if it does not stop in a half hour1 wet a soft rag or a piece of cotton with cold tea or alum water and put it gently into the bleeding nostril so as to entirely close it4 ,do not blow the nose for several hours after the bleeding has stopped as this may start it again4 ,fainting4--,fainting may be caused by bad air1 an overheated room1 by fear1 or by some other excitement4 ,a fainting person falls down and appears to be asleep4 ,the lips are pale and there may be cold sweat on the forehead4 ,there is too little blood in the brain1 and the heart is weak4 ,a fainting person should be laid flat on the floor or on a couch1 and all doors and windows opened wide4 ,loosen all tight clothing and apply to the forehead a cloth wet with cold water4 ,a faint usually lasts only a few minutes4 ,sunstroke4--,a person with sunstroke becomes giddy1 sick at the stomach1 and weak4 ,he then gets drowsy and may seem as if asleep1 but he cannot be aroused4 ,the skin is hot and dry instead of being cold and pale1 as in fainting4 ,the doctor should be sent for at once4 ,the first aid for sunstroke is to put the patient in a cool cellar or an icehouse1 raise the head1 and wet the head1 neck1 and back of the chest with cold water4 ,as soon as he wakens put him in a cool room4 ,frostbite4--,when out in very cold weather1 the end of the nose1 the tips of the ears1 and the toes and fingers are sometimes frozen4 ,if a person comes into a warm room1 these frozen parts will give much pain4 ,the parts should be rubbed with snow or ice water until a tingling sensation is felt4 ,breaks in the ,skin4--,a small cut or tear in the skin may become very sore and cause much trouble if not cared for so as to keep the germs out4 ,if there is dirt in the wound1 as when made with a rusty nail or by the bite of a dog1 it should be squeezed and washed with boiled water to make it perfectly clean4 ,it may then be bound up in a clean cloth4 ,a little turpentine poured on the wound will help kill the germs which may make it sore4 ,if the dog is thought to be mad or the wound is too deep to be easily washed out to the bottom1 a doctor should be called4 ,snakebite4--,the scratches made by the little teeth of most snakes1 such as the milk snake1 garter snake1 and black snake1 do no more harm than the scratch of a pin4 ,the copperhead1 the southern moccasin1 and the rattlesnake have a pair of long teeth called fangs in the upper jaw4 ,these teeth have little canals in them through which the snake presses poison into the bite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,photograph of a copperhead snake whose bite may cause death4 ,if a person is bitten by one of these snakes1 the doctor must be sent for and help given at once4 ,put a bandage above the bite and twist it tight with a stick4 ,make two or three deep cuts into the bitten place to let out the poisoned blood4 ,suck the wound to draw out the poison and apply ammonia4 ,choking4--,a hard piece of meat1 a bone1 or a peach seed may slip back into the throat and press so hard on the windpipe as to cut off the air from the lungs4 ,if the object is not far back in the throat1 it may be seized with the first finger4 ,a few smart slaps on the upper part of the back while the body is bent forward may drive enough air out of the lungs to push the object outward4 ,drowning4--,every one should learn to swim while young1 but no one should venture in deep water4 ,stiffening of the muscles called cramps often causes the best swimmer to drown4 ,after a person has been under the water two or three minutes he appears lifeless4 ,he may1 however1 be brought to life if laid face downward1 his clothes loosened1 and the lungs made to breathe4 ,a heavy folded coat1 a piece of sod1 or a bunch of weeds should be put under the chest4 ,then standing astride of him place the hands on the lower ribs and bend forward gradually so as to press on the ribs and push the air out of the lungs4 ,then straighten your body and slowly lessen pressure on the patient's ribs so that the air will run into the lungs4 ,in this way make the air go in and out of the lungs about fifteen times each minute4 ,poisoning4--,whenever a person has taken poison1 a physician should be sent for at once4 ,in most cases an effort should be made to get the poison out of the stomach by causing vomiting4 ,a glass or two of weak1 warm soapsuds1 a pint of water with a tablespoonful of mustard1 or a glass of water with two tablespoonfuls of salt may be taken to make the stomach throw out the poison4 ,tickling the throat back of the tongue will help cause vomiting4 ,if a strong acid such as carbolic acid or a strong alkali such as ammonia has been taken1 do not cause vomiting4 ,for acids give chalk in warm water and a pint of milk4 ,for an alkali give vinegar in water4 ,,index ,ab domen1 #ae4 ,ade noids1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,air and health1 #aaa-aaf4 ,air sacs1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,air tubes1 #ajc4 ,alcohol1 #bj1 #ce4 and blood1 #abd1 #abe4 and blood vessels1 #abf4 and brain1 #aeh-afb4 and clothing1 #ih1 #ii4 and crime1 #afj1 #afa4 and digestion1 #eg1 #eh4 and health1 #gd1 #ge4 and kidneys1 #ic4 and lungs1 #aji1 #aaj4 and muscles1 #adf-adh4 and senses1 #agb4 and skin1 #ib1 #ic4 ,alcoholic drinks1 #fh-gc4 as food1 #bg1 #bi4 ,a orta1 #af4 ,appetite1 #eh1 #ei4 ,arteries1 #ai1 #aai4 ,backbone1 #af4 ,bac teria1 #cf1 #ci4 of disease1 #age-agg4 of milk1 #dc4 ,bathing1 #ia4 ,beans1 #bd4 ,bedbugs and disease1 #acd1 #agh4 ,beef tea1 #ca4 ,beer and digestion1 #eg1 #eh4 as a food1 #bg1 #ce4 and heart1 #abe4 making of1 #gj4 ,bile1 #eb1 #ee4 ,blackdeath1 #aa4 ,bleeding1 to stop1 #abc1 #abd1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,blood1 #ag1 #aag1 #aah4 ,blood vessels1 #ai1 #aah-abb4 ,body1 parts of1 #ae-ai4 ,bones1 #ace-aci4 ,bowels1 #dg1 #eb1 #ec4 ,brain1 #adi-aec4 ,brain1 use of1 #ah4 ,brandy1 #gb4 ,bread1 #bc4 ,breathing1 #ajj-ajg4 ,building foods1 #bb1 #bc4 ,burns and scalds1 #ahd4 ,butter1 #da4 ,capillaries1 #aai1 #abj4 ,carbon dioxide1 #ajb1 #aaa4 ,cells1 #bj4 ,cereals1 #cc4 ,cere brum1 #aej1 #aea4 ,chest1 #ae4 ,chewing and health1 #di-ej4 ,choking1 #ahg4 ,cholera1 #age4 ,cider1 #dj4 ,cigarettes1 #hb1 #afb4 ,cleanliness1 #dd1 #ia4 ,clothing1 #id-ii4 ,coca ine1 #afb4 ,coffee1 #hb1 #hc1 #afd4 ,colds1 #ahj4 ,consumption1 #aji1 #ahj-aha4 ,cooking of eggs1 #cd4 of meat1 #cj1 #ca4 ,corns1 #ih4 ,cotton1 #if4 ,cream1 #da4 ,deafness1 #aga4 ,diaphragm 7dia fram71 #af1 #ajd ,digestion1 organs of1 #dg-eb4 ,diphtheria1 #age1 #agh4 ,disease1 cause of1 #be-bg4 from alcohol1 #gf1 #gg4 from bad air1 #aad4 from drinking cup1 #ajh1 #agg4 from dust1 #ajh1 #aji4 of eyes1 #afi4 from flies1 #ajh4 from insects1 #abg-acd4 from milk1 #dc-df1 #agh4 prevention of1 #agd-ahb4 ,disease1 from spit1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #agh1 #agi4 victory over1 #ab4 ,dis til lation1 #gc4 ,drinking cup and disease1 #ajh1 #agg4 ,drowning1 #ahg4 ,drunkards1 cause of1 #ad4 ,dust and disease1 #cg1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,dys pepsi a1 #ej4 ,ear1 #afi-aga4 ,eggs1 #bc1 #cc1 #cd4 ,epidermis1 #he1 #hf4 ,exercise1 #add-adf4 ,eye1 #afe-afh4 ,fainting1 #ahe4 ,fat1 #bd4 ,fats1 #bb1 #bc4 ,feeding of body1 #ba4 ,feeling1 #agb4 ,feet1 care of1 #ih4 ,fish as food1 #cj4 ,fleas and disease1 #acd4 ,flies and disease1 #de-df1 #ajh1 #acb-acd1 #agf1 #agh4 ,food1 amount needed1 #bg4 and health1 #cj-ce4 digestion of1 #dg-ee4 entrance to blood1 #eb1 #ed4 ,foods1 #bb4 ,freckles1 #hg4 ,frostbite1 #ahf4 ,fruits1 #cc1 #cd4 ,fuel foods1 #bc1 #bd4 ,gastric juice1 #ea4 ,germs1 #cf-dj4 of disease1 #age1 #agf4 of milk1 #dc4 of spit1 #ajg4 ,glands1 #dg-di4 ,growth of body1 #bj4 ,gullet1 #af1 #ec4 ,habit1 #acc1 #aed4 ,habits1 #ad4 ,hair1 #hh-ij4 ,headache1 #ee4 ,hearing1 #agj4 ,heart1 #af1 #ajj1 #aah1 #abb4 ,hookworm disease1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,hookworms1 #age4 ,hygi ene1 #aj4 ,insects and health1 #abi-acd4 ,intestine1 #af4 ,intestines1 #dg1 #eb1 #ec4 ,joints1 #aci1 #adj4 ,kidney1 #af4 ,kidneys1 #ag1 #ib4 ,larynx 7larinks71 #ajb4 ,leprosy1 #acd4 ,life1 length of1 #i4 ,ligaments1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj4 ,linen1 #ie4 ,liver1 #af1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #ajj4 ,lung1 #af4 ,lungs1 #ajj-aja4 ,malaria1 #age4 ,measles1 #age4 ,meat1 #bc4 cooking of1 #cj4 spoiling of1 #ch1 #ci4 ,meats1 #cj4 ,microbes1 #cf1 #cg4 ,milk1 #bc1 #bi1 #da-df4 and scarlet fever1 #agf4 as a food1 #ca4 souring of1 #ci4 ,mineral foods1 #bd4 ,mold1 #cg1 #ch4 ,morphine1 #hc1 #hd1 #afb1 #afc4 ,mosquitoes and disease1 #abg-acb4 ,mouth1 #fj-fg4 ,muscles1 #adj-adc4 ,muscles and health1 #add-adh4 ,nails1 #hg1 #hh4 ,nar cotics1 #aeh-afd4 ,nerves1 #ai1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,nose1 #ajd-ajf1 #aga4 ,nose bleed1 #aha4 ,opium1 #hc1 #hd1 #afb1 #afc4 ,organ1 #ah4 ,organs of body1 #af4 ,oxygen1 #bb4 ,oysters as a food1 #cj4 ,painkillers1 #afc4 ,pancre as1 #af1 #dh1 #eb1 #ec4 ,pa raly sis1 #aee4 ,patent medicines1 #hd4 ,pharynx 7farinks71 #dg4 ,plague1 #acd1 #age4 ,poisoning1 #ahh4 ,prote ids1 #bb4 ,pus1 #abc4 ,radius1 #acg4 ,ribs1 #acg4 ,rum1 #gc4 ,sa liva1 #dh1 #di4 ,salt1 #cd4 ,scarlet fever1 #age1 #agf1 #agh4 ,sense organs1 #afe-agc4 ,shoes1 #ih4 ,sick1 number of1 #i4 ,sickness1 how caused1 #aa4 prevention of1 #agd-ahb4 ,silk1 #ie4 ,skin1 #he-ic4 senses of1 #agb4 ,skull1 #acf4 ,sleep1 #aef1 #aeg4 and disease1 #aac1 #aad4 ,sleeping sickness1 #acd4 ,slops1 care of1 #age4 ,smallpox1 #ab1 #agh-ahj4 ,smell1 #aga4 ,smoking1 #eg4 ,snakebites1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,sore throat1 #age4 ,soups1 #ca4 ,spinal cord1 #af1 #ai1 #aea1 #aed1 #aee4 ,spit1 care of1 #age1 #agh4 ,spitting and health1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,spleen1 #ed4 ,starch1 #bc1 #bd4 ,stimulants1 #aeh1 #afd4 ,stomach1 #af1 #dg1 #ej-ec1 #ajj4 ,sugars1 #bb1 #bc4 ,sunstroke1 #ahe4 ,sweeping and health1 #cg4 ,sweetbread1 #dh4 ,swimming1 #ade1 #adf1 #ahg4 ,sym pa thetic nerves1 #aee4 ,taste1 #aga1 #agb4 ,tea1 #hb1 #hc1 #afd4 ,teeth1 #fj-fg4 ,thigh1 #ae4 ,tissue1 #ah4 ,tobacco1 #bj4 and air1 #aaf4 and blood1 #abe4 and brain1 #afb4 and digestion1 #ef1 #eg4 as food1 #cd1 #ce4 and health1 #gh-hb4 and heart1 #abf4 and lungs1 #aaj4 and muscles1 #adh4 and senses1 #agb1 #agc4 ,tonsil1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,toothache1 #fb1 #fc4 ,tuberculosis1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #age4 and bad air1 #aad1 #aae4 cause of1 #agh1 #ahj4 prevention of1 #ajg-aji1 #aaa-aaf1 #ahj-aha4 ,trunk1 #ae4 ,typhoid fever1 #age4 how caused1 #be-bg1 #bh1 #acd4 ,vaccination1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,vegetables as food1 #cb1 #cc4 ,veins1 #bh1 #aba4 ,ventilation1 #aaa-aae4 ,villi1 #ed4 ,vocal cords1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,voice1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,voice box1 #ajb4 ,war1 deaths from1 #aa4 ,waste1 giving out of1 #ag4 ,water1 use of1 #bd1 #ib4 ,water and health1 #be-bg1 #bh4 ,water in food1 #be4 ,whisky1 #gb1 #gc4 ,whooping cough1 #age4 ,wigglers1 #acj-aca4 ,windpipe1 #af1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,wine1 #bg1 #bh4 and digestion1 #eh4 making of1 #gj-ga4 ,wounds1 #ahf4 ,yeast1 #ci1 #dj1 #fi4 ,yellow fever1 #ab1 #ac1 #abi1 #acj4 ,,baldwin ,,and ,,bender',s ,,readers ,reading with ,expression ,by ,,james ,,baldwin1 ,author of ,baldwin's ,school ,readers1 ,harper's ,readers1 etc4 and ,,ida ,c4 ,,bender1 ,supervisor of ,primary ,grades1 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york4 ,,an ,,eight ,,book ,,series or ,a ,,five ,,book ,,series ,the authorship of this series is conclusive evidence of its rare worth1 of its happy union of the ideal and the practical4 ,the chief design of the books is to help pupils to acquire the art and habit of reading so well as to give pleasure both to themselves and to those who listen to them4 ,they teach reading with expression1 and the selections have1 to a large extent1 been chosen for this purpose4 ,these readers are very teachable and readable1 and are unusually interesting both in selections and in illustrations4 ,the selections are of a very high literary quality4 ,besides the choicest schoolbook classics1 there are a large number which have never before appeared in school readers4 ,the contents are well balanced between prose and poetry1 and the subject matter is unusually varied4 ,beginning with the ,third ,reader1 selections relating to similar subjects or requiring similar methods of study or recitation1 are grouped together4 ,many selections are in dialogue form and suitable for dramatization4 ,the ,first ,reader may be used with any method of teaching reading1 for it combines the best ideas of each4 ,a number of helpful new features are also included4 ,each reading lesson is on a right-hand page1 and is approached by a series of preparatory exercises on the preceding left-hand page4 ,the illustrations constitute the finest and most attractive collection ever brought together in a series of readers4 ,there are over #fjj in all1 every one made especially for these books by an artist of national reputation4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,hicks',s ,,champion ,,spelling ,,book ,by ,,warren ,e4 ,,hicks1 ,assistant ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,complete1 #j4be--,part ,one1 #j4ah--,part ,two1 #j4ah ,this book embodies the method that enabled the pupils in the ,cleveland schools after two years to win the ,national ,education ,association ,spelling ,contest of #aijh4 ,by this method a spelling lesson of ten words is given each day from the spoken vocabulary of the pupil4 ,of these ten words two are selected for intensive study1 and in the spelling book are made prominent in both position and type at the head of each day's lessons1 these two words being followed by the remaining eight words in smaller type4 ,systematic review is provided throughout the book4 ,each of the ten prominent words taught intensively in a week is listed as a subordinate word in the next two weeks2 included in a written spelling contest at the end of eight weeks2 again in the annual contest at the end of the year2 and again as a subordinate word in the following year's work2--used five times in all within two years4 ,the ,champion ,spelling ,book consists of a series of lessons arranged as above for six school years1 from the third to the eighth1 inclusive4 ,it presents about #a1bjj words each year1 and teaches #cab of them with especial clearness and intensity4 ,it also includes occasional supplementary exercises which serve as aids in teaching sounds1 vowels1 homonyms1 rules of spelling1 abbreviated forms1 suffixes1 prefixes1 the use of hyphens1 plurals1 dictation work1 and word building4 ,the words have been selected from lists1 supplied by grade teachers of ,cleveland schools1 of words ordinarily misspelled by the pupils of their respective grades4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,spencers' ,,practical ,,writing ,by ,,platt ,r4 ,,spencer',s ,,sons ,books #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 and #h ,per dozen1 #j4fj ,,spencers' ,,practical ,,writing has been devised because of the distinct and wide-spread reaction from the use of vertical writing in schools4 ,it is thoroughly up-to-date1 embodying all the advantages of the old and of the new4 ,each word can be written by one continuous movement of the pen4 ,the books teach a plain1 practical hand1 moderate in slant1 and free from ornamental curves1 shades1 and meaningless lines4 ,the stem letters are long enough to be clear and unmistakable4 ,the capitals are about two spaces in height4 ,the copies begin with words and gradually develop into sentences4 ,the letters1 both large and small1 are taught systematically4 ,in the first two books the writing is somewhat larger than is customary because it is more easily learned by young children4 ,these books also contain many illustrations in outline4 ,the ruling is very simple4 ,instruction is afforded showing how the pupil should sit at the desk1 and hold the pen and paper4 ,a series of drill movement exercises1 thirty-three in number1 with directions for their use1 accompanies each book4 ,,spencerian ,,practical ,,writing ,,speller ,per dozen1 #j4dh ,this simple1 inexpensive device provides abundant drill in writing words4 ,at the same time it trains pupils to form their copies in accordance with the most modern and popular system of penmanship1 and saves much valuable time for both teacher and pupil4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,maxwell',s ,,new ,,grammars ,by ,,william ,h4 ,,maxwell1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,city of ,new ,york ,elementary ,grammar #j4dj ,school ,grammar #j4fj ,the ,,elementary ,,grammar presents in very small space all the grammar usually taught in elementary schools4 ,it gives the pupil an insight into the general forms in which thought is expressed1 and enables him to see the meaning of complicated sentences4 ,the explanatory matter is made clear by the use of simple language1 by the elimination of unnecessary technical terms1 and by the frequent introduction of illustrative sentences4 ,the definitions are simple and precise4 ,the exercises are abundant and peculiarly ingenious4 ,a novel device for parsing and analysis permits these two subjects to be combined in one exercise for purposes of drill4 ,the ,,school ,,grammar contains everything needed by students in upper grammar grades and secondary schools4 ,it covers fully the requirements of the ,syllabus in ,english issued by the ,new ,york ,state ,education ,department4 ,the book treats of grammar only1 and presents many exercises which call for considerable reflection on the meaning of the expressions to be analyzed4 ,throughout1 stress is laid on the broader distinctions of thought and expression4 ,the common errors of written and spoken language are so classified as to make it comparatively easy for pupils to detect and correct them through the application of the rules of grammar4 ,the book ends with an historical sketch of the ,english language1 an article on the formation of words1 and a list of equivalent terms employed by other grammarians4 ,the full index makes the volume useful for reference4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,transcriber's ,note3 99 ,inconsistent hyphenation in the word skinlike retained4 99 ,pg #ia ,added period after ,clean located in ,keeping the ,skin ,clean4 99 ,pg #ahb ,added period after sickness located in animals which carry sickness4 99 ,pg #ahh ,removed extraneous comma after back located in throat back1 of the tongue4 99 ,pg #aij ,index page reference #dg amended to #fg located in ,mouth1 #fj-dg4