,libr>ies7 ,,conc]n+ ,,ju/ice ,,by ,,lucilius ,a4 ,,em]y ,,new ,,hav53 ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,london3 ,,humphrey ,,mil=d ,,ox=d ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,mdccccxiv ,,copyright1 #aiad ,,by ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,fir/ pr9t$ ,augu/1 #aiad1 #ajjj copies ,,to ,,my ,,*ildr5 ,,h5ry ,,crosby ,,em]y ,,anne ,,crosby ,,em]y ,,all9son ,,! ,,addresses ,,conta9$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,book ,,7 ,,deliv]$ ,,9 ,,! ,,william ,l4 ,,/orrs ,,lecture ,,s]ies1 #aiad1 ,,be=e ,,! ,,law ,,s*ool ,,( ,,yale ,,univ]sity1 ,,new ,,hav51 ,,connecticut4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,problem ,,/at$4 ,,!ories ,,z ,,to ,,! ,,s\rce ,,( ,,ju/ice4 ,,def9itions ,,( ,,ju/ice #c ,,ii4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,rights4 ,,diff]5t ,,!ories ,,z ,,to ,,! ,,s\rce ,,( ,,rights #ca ,,iii4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,rights ,,cont9u$4 ,,! ,,ne$ ,,( ,,lib]ty ,,( ,,action ,,= ,,! ,,individual #dc ,,iv4 ,,ju/ice ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,fre$om ,,( ,,! ,,individual ,,& ,,! ,,safety ,,( ,,society #ef ,v4 ,,ju/ice ,,c ,,be ,,secur$ ,,only ,,?r\gh ,,gov]nm5tal ,,action4 ,,! ,,be/ ,,=m ,,( ,,gov]nm5t #gg ,,vi4 ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,con/itutional ,,limitations ,,^u ,,! ,,p[]s ,,( ,,! ,,gov]nm5t4 ,,bills ,,( ,,rights #ie ,,vii4 ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,& ,,en=cem5t ,,( ,,con/itutional ,,limitations ,,necess>ily ,a ,,function ,,( ,,! ,,judici>y #aaj ,,viii4 ,,an ,,indep5d5t ,,& ,,imp>tial ,,judici>y ,,ess5tial ,,= ,,ju/ice #aba ,,ix4 ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,ma9ta9+ ,,undim9i%$ ,,! ,,con/itutional ,,limitations ,,& ,,! ,,p[] ,,( ,,! ,,c\rts ,,to ,,en=ce ,,!m4--,,conclusion #adf ,,conc]n+ ,,ju/ice ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,problem ,,/at$4 ,,!ories ,,z ,,to ,,! ,,s\rce ,,( ,,ju/ice4 ,,def9itions ,,( ,,ju/ice ,= c5turies n[ mu* has be5 writt5 & proclaim$ conc]n+ ju/ice & today ! ^w seems to be m ?an ev] ^u ! lips ( m51 m ?an ev] us$1 b n always appositely1 9 argum5ts = propos$ political action4 ,h5ce x may n be inappropriate to ! "t & occasion to v5ture1 n answ]s to1 b "s obs]vations ^u ! que/ions1 :at is ju/ice1 & h[ c x be secur$4 ,x 0 decl>$ by ! ,roman juri/ ,ulpian1 c5turies ago1 t /ud5ts ( law %\ld also be /ud5ts ( ju/ice4 ,by way ( prelude1 h[ev]1 & 9 ! hope ( acc5tuat+ ! ma9 "q & pres5t+ ! subject m vividly by comp>ison & contra/1 ,i w\ld recall to y\r m9ds ano!r & ev5 m fundam5tal "q ask$ tw5ty c5turies ago 9 a judicial proce$+ 9 di/ant ,judea4 ,x is relat$ t :5 ,jesus1 ^u 8 accusation be=e ,pilate1 claim$ 9 def5se t he _h come into ! _w to be> witness unto ! tru?1 ,pilate inquir$ ( him ,:at is tru?82 b x is fur!r relat$ t :5 ,pilate _h said ?is he w5t out aga9 unto ! ,jews4 ,app>5tly he did n wait = an answ]4 ,p]haps he rep5t$ ( 8 "q z soon z ask$ & w5t out to escape an answ]4 ,m5 be=e & s9ce ,pilate h s\ght to avoid he>+ ! tru?4 ,inde$1 h[ev] grave ! "q1 h[ev] ess5tial ! answ] to _! well-be+1 !re does n seem to be ev5 n[ on ! "p ( ! multitude an e>ne/ desire = ! tru?4 ,_! wi%es & emotions cl\d _! vision & !y are reluctant to h ^? cl\ds bru%$ aside le/ ! tru? ?us reveal$ be h>% & condemnatory4 ,! tru? (t5 causes pa94 ,z said by ! ,prea*]1 ,he t increase? k increase? sorr[4 ,p g5]ally give mu* ! great] welcome & he$ to him :o tells !m t _! desires & s*emes are righte\s & c be realiz$1 ?an to him :o tells !m t _! desires are selfi% or t _! s*emes are impracticable4 ,x has always be5 ! few :o h s\ght ! tru?1 resolute to f9d x & decl>e x1 :e!r pleasant or unpleasant1 9 accord ) ! wi%es ( mank9d or o!rwise4 ,su* m5 h sometimes suff]$ m>tyrdom 9 ! pa/1 & (t5 incur ho/ility 9 ! pres5t1 ev5 :5 seek+ t tru? on :i* alone ju/ice c securely re/4 ,nev]!less1 s closely l9k$ are tru? & ju/ice 9 ! spee*1 if n ! m9ds1 ( m51 !re %\ld be "s consid]ation ( ,pilate's "q4 ,:e!r tru? is absolute or only relative has be5 p]haps ! mo/ actively discuss$ topic 9 ! field ( philosophy = ! la/ decade4 ,into ?is discussion1 h[ev]1 we ne$ n ent]1 = su* discussion is really ov] ! problem ( det]m9+ ! prop] crit]ion ( tru?4 ,:]ev] be ?is crit]ion1 :e!r 9 "s quality ( inh]5t rationality or 9 "s utilit>ian te/ ( practicability1 ! tru? itself has "s attributes s f> unque/ion$ & ( :i* we may feel c]ta9 z be+ inh]5t1 necess>y1 & self-evid5t4 ,tru? is uncompromis+4 ,x is unadaptable2 all else mu/ be adapt$ to x4 ,x is n a matt] ( conv5tion among m51 is n e/abli%$ ev5 by _! unanim\s ass5t1 & x does n *ange ) *anges ( op9ion4 ,x is id5tical ?r\gh\t "t & space4 ,if x be true n[ t s9ce creation ! e>? has swung 9 an orbit r\nd ! sun1 x 0 true be=e ! bir? ( ,cop]nicus & ,galileo4 ,if x be true n[ t ! sum ( ! ?ree angles ( a triangle is equal to ! sum ( two "r angles1 x 0 always true & always w be true1 true at ! poles & at ! equator1 true among all peoples & 9 all c\ntries1 true alike 9 mon>*ies1 olig>*ies1 & democracies4 ,tru? is also s+le4 ,!re are no diff]5t k9ds ( tru?1 ?\gh !re may be innum]able k9ds ( propositions ( :i* tru? may or may n be pr$icat$4 ,:i*ev] crit]ion ! philosoph]s may f9ally agree ^u1 x w hold 9 all propositions alike4 ,! tru? ( a proposition 9 ma!matics is ! same z ! tru? ( a proposition 9 any o!r sci5ce1 physical1 social1 political1 or !ological4 ,x c be no m nor less true 9 ea* & all4 ,aga91 9 e sci5ce1 social & political z well z o!rs1 & z to e proposition 9 any sci5ce1 ! tru? is to be discov]$1 n assum$ by m]e conv5tion2 & m5 mu/ discov] x & discov] x fully at _! p]il4 ,failure ev5 aft] ! utmo/ ef=t w n be =giv54 ,if ! tru? be f\nd x w be a sure guide 9 life4 ,if x be n f\nd ! lives ( m5 w s f> g awry4 ,t x may be difficult to f9d1 t we may nev] be sure we h f\nd x1 makes no diff]5ce4 ,are !re any attributes ( ju/ice ( :i* we c speak s confid5tly z be+ necess>y1 inh]5t1 & self-evid5t8 ,t ju/ice ranks next to tru?1 if n ) x1 seems to h be51 & to be1 ! g5]al judgm5t ( mank9d4 ,x has engag$ ! ?\ght & fir$ ! imag9ation ( ! greate/ m9ds4 ,a few quotations f su*1 rang+ f anci5t to mod]n times1 w illu/rate ?is4 ,! ,hebrew ,psalmi/ glori$ t ju/ice & judgm5t 7 ! habitation ( ,jehovah's ?rone4 ,ari/otle wrote1 political sci5ce is ! mo/ excell5t ( all ! arts & sci5ces1 & ! end s\ght = 9 political sci5ce is ! greate/ good = man1 :i* is ju/ice1 = ju/ice is ! int]e/ ( all4 ,e>ly 9 ! #ab? c5tury ! juri/ ,irn]ius1 di/+ui%$ = 8 le>n+ & = 8 zeal 9 promot+ ! revival ( ! /udy ( law & jurisprud5ce1 & also z ! reput$ f\nd] ( ! fam\s ,law ,s*ool at ,bologna1 imag$ ju/ice z clo!d ) dignity ineffable1 %9+ ) reason & equity1 & support$ by ,religion1 ,loyalty1 ,*>ity1 ,retribution1 ,rev]5ce1 & ,tru?4 ,six c5turies lat] ,addison1 fam$ z a cle> ?9k] & writ]1 ?us wrote ( ju/ice3 ,!re is no virtue s truly great & godlike z ju/ice4444 ,omnisci5ce & omnipot5ce are requisites = ! full ex]cise ( x4 ,almo/ 9 our own "t ,daniel ,web/]1 call$ 9 8 day ! great exp\nd] & ev5 n[ reckon$ among ! greate/ ( m5 intellectually1 9 8 eulogy ^u ,ju/ice ,/ory ?us apo/rophiz$ ju/ice3 ,ju/ice is ! great int]e/ ( man on e>?4 ,x is ! ligam5t :i* holds civiliz$ be+s & civiliz$ nations toge!r4 ,:]ev] h] temple /&s & s long z x is duly honor$1 !re is a f\ndation = social security1 g5]al happ9ess1 & ! improvem5t & progress ( our race4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 none ( ^! laudations is s vividly impressive z is ! pi?y rem>k ( an old ,engli% judge t inju/ice cuts to ! bone4 ,b :at is ?is ju/ice1 decl>$ to be s great a virtue1 s ineffable1 s supremely important8 ,i h said we feel c]ta9 ( "s attributes ( tru?4 ,d we "k or c we "k any?+ c]ta9 ab\t ju/ice8 ,is x some?+ above & ap>t f ! w ( m51 or is x simply a matt] ( conv5tion among m58 ,is x immutable1 or does its nature *ange ) *ang+ times & conditions8 ,if mutable1 does x *ange ( itself or d m5 *ange x8 ,is x univ]sal or local1 ! same ev]y:]e or is x diff]5t 9 diff]5t localities8 ,is x ! same = all m5 & races ( m5 or does x diff] accord+ to classes & races8 ,aga91 is x s+le or div]se 9 its nature8 ,is !re m ?an "o k9d ( ju/ice8 ,we he> ( natural ju/ice1 social ju/ice1 indu/rial ju/ice1 political ju/ice4 ,:at d !y :o use ^? t]ms mean by !m8 ,d nature1 society1 indu/ry1 politics1 ea* h a diff]5t crit]ion8 ,/ill aga91 & briefly1 is ju/ice an inexorable law l ! law ( gravitation or c its op]ation h exceptions8 ,is x simply a quality ( action or conduct1 or1 z /at$ by ,ulpian1 is x a disposition or /ate ( m9d8 ,f9ally1 is x a reality or1 z ,fal/aff said ( honor1 is x aft] all a ^w1 a m]e scut*eon8 ,i am n s presumptu\s z to v5ture an answ] to any ( ^! que/ions except p]haps ! la/4 ,z to t1 ,i appeal to our consci\sness1 to our innate conviction t !re does exi/ some?+1 "s virtue1 "s s5tim5t1 h[ev] undef9able 9 t]ms1 hold+ m5 toge!r 9 society despite _! natural selfi%ness1 & )\t :i* !y w\ld fall ap>t4 ,x is ?is virtue1 ?is ligam5t ( society1 t we call ju/ice4 ,we feel t ! ^w is n a m]e ^w1 b t x connotes a vital reality 9 human relation%ip4 ,if ?is reality be ignor$1 m5 _c be held toge!r 9 any society4 ,if ju/ice be ! greate/ good1 z s g5]ally ass]t$1 !n its negative1 or inju/ice1 mu/ be ! greate/ evil4 ,h5ce error 9 m5's op9ions ( :at is ju/ice w "w t greate/ evil4 ,society z a :ole is liable to error 9 respect to ju/ice2 has (t5 be5 mi/ak5 9 ! pa/ & may be mi/ak5 today4 ,! individuals compos+ society are seldom1 if ev]1 :olly dis9t]e/$ & dispassionate 9 _! judgm5ts4 ,ea* individual is prone to believe t :at is app>5tly good = himself or 8 gr\p or class1 is 9 accord ) ju/ice4 ,himself p]suad$ t he is battl+ = ju/ice1 he does n see t he may be battl+ only = "s advantage ov] o!rs1 = "s individual relief f common burd5s1 = "s privilege n to be accord$ to o!rs2 does n see t :at he is battl+ = may cause inju/ice to o!rs4 ,?r\gh ignorance ( ! real nature ( ju/ice1 ! grant to "o ( 8 plea = :at he calls ju/ice may "w griev\s inju/ice to o!rs4 ,s :5 altrui/s1 w>m ) sympa?y1 obta9 ! enactm5t ( laws int5d$ = ! bett]m5t ( ! less =tunate1 !y may at times d inju/ice to o!rs & ev5 to ^? !y hop$ to b5efit4 ,hi/ory records _m in/ances :]e laws int5d$ to insure ju/ice _h ! contr>y effect4 ,_m a /atute design$ to prev5t oppression has itself prov$ oppressive 9 op]ation4 ,_m a !ory ( ju/ice has be5 f\nd to "w inju/ice4 ,a conspicu\s & famili> in/ance is f\nd 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,! ,jacob9s believ$ t _! !ories if giv5 effect w\ld u%] 9 ! reign ( ju/ice 9 ,france4 ,!y obta9$ p[] & exploit$ _! !ories only to br+ 9 ! ,reign ( ,t]ror1 t reign ( t]rible inju/ice4 ,z mi/akes & griev\s mi/akes h be5 made 9 ! pa/ z to :at is ju/ice1 s !y w be made n[ & 9 ! future1 & c be less5$ only by great] wisdom & =e?\ght1 by great] ef=t to consid] ju/ice ap>t by itself1 ) philosophical deta*m5t1 ) m9ds uncl\d$ by pity1 sympa?y1 *>ity1 & o!r l virtues1 on ! "o h&1 or by envy1 hate1 prejudice1 & l evil s5tim5ts1 on ! o!r4 ,true1 m5 are m enlight5$ n[ & education is m g5]al1 b society is m complex1 ) m div]se & conflict+ int]e/s1 ?an =m]ly4 ,! social me*anism is n[ s intricate t ev5 a slight di/urbance 9 "o "p may dis>range ! :ole4 ,inju/ice to "o may injure ! _m4 ,h5ce ! duty ( asc]ta9+ z completely z possible ! real nature ( ju/ice is z imp]ative today z ev]4 ,z decl>$ by ,ulpian1 ?is duty is especially incumb5t ^u ^? :o h to d ) ! fram+ or adm9i/ration ( ! laws1 s9ce ju/ice c be en=c$ only by law4 ,9 any inquiry into ! nature ( ju/ice we get little help f ! wisdom ( ! anci5ts4 ,!y wre/l$ ) ! "q b seem to h be5 z puzzl$ z we ( today4 ,inde$1 ,plato repres5ts ! sage ,socrates z frankly confess+ 8 inability to answ] satisfactorily ! p]si/5t "q ,:at is ju/ice8 ,! "q comes up = discussion by ,socrates & "s fri5ds at ! home ( ,cephalus at ! ,piru4 ,socrates criticizes & punctures ! def9itions advanc$ by ! o!rs until ,?rasyma*us1 app>5tly ) "s heat1 *all5ges ,socrates to give an answ] ( 8 own to ! "q :at is ju/ice8 & n to cont5t himself1 nor to consume "t1 ) m]ely refut+ o!rs4 ,aft] "s fur!r discussion ( v>i\s aspects ( ! "q1 ,socrates f9ally says1 ,i h gone f "o subject to ano!r )\t hav+ discov]$ :at ,i s\ght at fir/1 ! nature ( ju/ice4 ,i left ! inquiry & turn$ away to consid] :e!r ju/ice is virtue & wisdom1 or evil & folly1 & :5 !re arose a fur!r "q ab\t ! comp>ative advantages ( ju/ice & inju/ice ,i c\ld n refra9 f pass+ on to t4 ,! result ( ! :ole discussion has be5 t ,i "k no?+ at all4 ,i "k n :at ju/ice is & !re=e am n likely to "k :e!r or n x is a virtue1 nor c ,i say :e!r ! j man is happy or unhappy4 ,grant+ t ! confession may h be5 int5d$ ironically1 ! fur!r discussion did n result 9 any practical solution1 ev5 if 9 "o possible 9 ,plato's ideal1 b impossible1 /ate4 ,inde$1 ! inquiry is n yet clos$ & w n be until ! mill5nium4 ,/ill1 ^u a "q s old1 s important1 s p]si/5t1 s +ra9$ 9 human society1 & ev5 n[ receiv+ su* div]se & conflict+ answ]s1 a brief consid]ation ( ! e>li] beliefs & !ories may n be useless4 ,z said by ,bi%op ,/ubbs1 ! hi/orian1 ,! roots ( ! pres5t lie deep 9 ! pa/ & no?+ 9 ! pa/ is dead to him :o w\ld le>n h[ ! pres5t came to be :at x is4 ,! roots %\ld be exam9$ by him :o w\ld und]/& ! tree4 ,9 ,hom] we get a glimpse ( a !ory ( 8 "t1 to wit1 t ea* sep>ate decision giv5 by ! magi/rate 9 any litigat$ controv]sy 0 furni%$ to him by ,zeus specially = t case4 ,! ,greek ^w = su* a decision 0 !mis1 & x 0 suppos$ t some:]e 9 ! ,pan!on 0 a correspond+ deity ^: special function 0 to furni% ! appropriate !mis = ea* case4 ,?is deity 0 %ad[ily p]sonifi$ z ! goddess ,!mis1 ! daught] ( heav5 & e>?1 ! companion & c\nselor ( ,zeus4 ,x 0 %e :o summon$ gods & m5 to c\ncil & presid$ unse5 ov] _! delib]ations4 ,h5ce %e came to be reg>d$ z also ! _s ( ord] )\t :i* ! ,greek philosoph]s1 notably ,plato1 held !re c\ld be no ju/ice4 ,?is !ory t ju/ice & ev5 ! laws 7 b ! w ( deity1 reveal$ 9 v>i\s ways1 0 long g5]ally accept$4 ,9 ,rome1 9 ! "t ( ! k+s1 ! k+ 0 ! ,pontifex ,maximus1 & z su*1 ) ! help ( ! ,college ( ,prie/s1 decl>$ ! laws & decid$ lawsuits4 ,= "s "t also "u ! ,republic1 :5 a vote 0 to be tak5 9 ! ,comitia ^u a propos$ law1 ! "q 0 ?us put3 ,is ?is y\r pleasure1 ,o ,quirites1 & d y hold x to be ! w ( ! gods8 ,"u ! ,empire1 despite ! reason+ ( _m philosoph]s & lawy]s t ! ,emp]or d]iv$ f ! p 8 p[] to make laws & decl>e ! law 9 any giv5 case1 he assum$ & 0 assum$ to h d]iv$ ! p[] & inspiration solely f ! gods4 ,! e>ly ,*ri/ian ,*ur* also prea*$ ! doctr9e t ! rul+ p[] 9 ! /ate1 h[ev] e/abli%$1 0 orda9$ ( ,god & z su* 0 entitl$ to ! ob$i5ce ( ! pi\s4 ,?is belief t ju/ice & judgm5t 7 simply ! w ( ,god1 to be asc]ta9$1 n by reason b by o!r means1 0 s g5]al & deep t su* crude devices z trials by ordeal & battle 7 (t5 resort$ to = det]m9+ guilt or innoc5ce & o!r que/ions ( fact4 ,inde$1 resort to su* exp$i5ts = det]m9+ que/ions ( law1 z well z que/ions ( fact1 0 n unkn[n4 ,9 ! t5? c5tury "u ! ,saxon ,k+ ,otto a "q arose :e!r ^u ! dea? ( _! gr&fa!r 8 gr&*ildr5 by a prior deceas$ son %\ld %>e 9 ! inh]itance along ) _! surviv+ uncles4 ,! k+ ord]$ a trial by battle1 :i* be+ _h1 ! *ampions = ! gr&*ildr5 7 ! victors4 ,x 0 !re=e held to be ! div9e w t gr&*ildr5 by a prior deceas$ *ild %\ld inh]it direct f _! gr&fa!r4 ,i may "h rem9d y t trial by battle 0 n =mally aboli%$ 9 ,engl& until well into ! #ai? c5tury4 ,& !re is ev5 n[ pr(ess$ a belief t ! w ( ,god c be asc]ta9$ by c\nt+ ballots4 ,vox ,populi ,vox ,dei is /ill a %ibbole?4 ,b ! doctr9e t ju/ice is heav5 born1 sup]ior to & controll+ ! op9ions & wills ( m51 did n escape *all5ge ev5 9 anci5t times4 ,^? sects ( philosoph]s kn[n z ,epicureans & ,sophi/s1 consi/5tly ) _! !ory ( ! nature ( virtue 9 g5]al1 ma9ta9$ t ju/ice 0 m]ely a "n = su* conv5tions among m5 z !y %\ld adjudge be/ = _! own utility & happ9ess4 ,! mo/ vigor\s *ampion ( ?is latt] !ory appe>s to h be5 "o ,c>neades1 a ,greek philosoph] ( ! second c5tury ,b4,c41 said to h be5 ! f\nd] ( ! ?ird ,academy & exp\nd] ( ! philosophy ( probabilities & to h possess$ ! acute/ m9d ( antiquity4 ,9 a c\rse ( lectures at ,rome he /at$ ! argum5ts = ! or?odox view ( ju/ice & !n boldly assum$ to answ] !m & demon/rate t ju/ice 0 n a virtue at all z virtue 0 def9$ by ! philosoph]s1 b 0 m]ely a conv5tion2 0 :at m5 %\ld agree to be a s\nd basis = ! ma9t5ance ( civil society1 & h5ce t x v>i$ ) times1 places1 circum/ances1 & ev5 op9ions4 ,?is argum5t evid5tly _h mu* effect ^u public op9ion1 = ,cato urg$ 9 ! ,s5ate t ,c>neades be bani%$ because dang]\s to ! /ate4 ,s great 0 ! influ5ce ( ,c>neades t a c5tury lat] ,cic]o1 a disciple ( ! ,/oic s*ool ( philosophy1 ?\ght x necess>y to refute him specifically z ! *ief h]etic1 & to uphold ! or?odox !ory aga9/ 8 argum5ts4 ,cic]o d5\nc$ ) eloqu5t w>m? ! doctr9e t utility 0 ! f\ndation ( ju/ice4 ,he decl>$ t1 n utility1 b nature1 0 ! s\rce ( ju/ice1 t ju/ice 0 a pr9ciple ( nature1 ! ultimate pr9ciple beh9d all law4 ,to abridge ! famili> quotation f 8 ,de ,republica1 ,!re is a law :i* is ! same z true reason1 accordant ) nature1 a law :i* is con/ant & et]nal1 :i* calls & comm&s to duty1 :i* w>ns & t]rifies m5 f ! practice ( deceit4 ,?is law is n "o ?+ at ,rome1 ano!r at ,a!ns1 b is et]nal & immutable1 ! expression & comm& ( ,deity4 ,9 8 treatise ,de ,legibus he decl>$ t m5 are born to ju/ice2 t "r is e/abli%$ n by op9ion b by nature2 t all civil law is b ! expression or application ( ?is et]nal law ( nature2 t ! p or ! pr9ce may make laws b ^! h n ! true "* ( law unless !y be d]iv$ f ! ultimate law2 t ! s\rce & f\ndation ( "r law mu/ be look$ = 9 t supreme law :i* came into be+ ages be=e any /ate 0 =m$4 ,?is !ory ( ! ,/oics s eloqu5tly urg$ by ,cic]o 0 practically ! jus naturale ( ! ,roman juri/s ( classical times1 ?\gh m mod]ately express$ by !m4 ,x does n seem to h be5 :olly academic1 b to h be5 actually appli$ at times4 ,9 8 hi/ory ( ,rome1 ,momms5 relates t ev5 dur+ ! ne>ly absolute sway ( ,sulla1 aft] ! fall ( ,m>ius1 ! ,cornelian ,laws enact$ to deprive v>i\s ,italian communities ( _! ,roman fran*ise 7 ignor$ 9 judicial proce$+s z null & void2 also t1 contr>y to ,sulla's decree1 ! juri/s held t ! fran*ise ( citiz5%ip 0 n =feit$ by capture & sale into slav]y dur+ ! civil w> ) ,m>ius4 ,lat]1 :5 ! *ur* became a p[] 9 ! /ate !re are in/ances :]e laws adjudg$ to be contr>y to ! laws ( ,god 7 refus$ effect4 ,9 ,engl& z late z ! middle ( ! #ag? c5tury ,*ief ,ju/ice ,hob>t1 a judge ( high repute1 ass]t$ t ev5 an act ( ,p>liam5t made aga9/ natural equity1 z to make a man judge 9 8 own case1 is void 9 itself = ! laws ( nature are immutable & !y are ! laws ( laws4 ,9 ! #ah? c5tury ,black/one ass5t$ to ! doctr9e ( a jus naturale & wrote ( x3 ,?is law ( nature be+ coeval ) mank9d & dictat$ by ,god himself is ( c\rse sup]ior 9 obligation to any o!r4444 ,no human laws are ( any validity if contr>y to ?is1 & su* ( !m z are valid d]ive all _! =ce & all _! au?ority1 m$iately or imm$iately1 f ?is orig9al4 ,true1 ,black/one combat$ ! doctr9e t duly enact$ /atutes 7 to be held void if ! judges ?\ght !m contr>y to reason1 b he admitt$ t t extreme doctr9e 0 m g5]ally held4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! doctr9e ( a high] law ?an ! ,con/itution ev51 & to be obey$ r ?an ! ,con/itution & laws enact$ 9 accordance !re)1 has _h & ev5 n[ has e>ne/ advocates4 ,b ! contr>y doctr9e ( ,c>neades & ! ,sophi/s w\ld n d[n4 ,aft] ,cic]o & ! civilians1 aft] ,hob>t & ,black/one1 came our mod]n utilit>ians1 or sophi/s1 ,b5?am1 ,mill1 ,au/91 & o!rs1 :o h vigor\sly ma9ta9$ ) weighty argum5ts ! utilit>ian !ory ( ju/ice2 & t !ory is n[ g5]ally accept$ by lawy]s & /atesm5 z at lea/ ! mo/ workable !ory 9 human affairs4 ,!re /ill exi/s1 h[ev]1 9 ! m9ds ( _m ! belief t above & beh9d all ! turmoil & /rife ( politics1 all ! flux & reflux ( social movem5ts & public s5tim5t1 ! confusion ( enactm5ts1 am5dm5ts1 & repeals ( /atutes1 ! sway+ ( judicial op9ion1 !re is "s law ( nature or 9 nature1 "s crit]ion1 :i* if asc]ta9$ & obey$ w\ld be p]fect ju/ice4 ,?is "q ( ! orig91 ! f\ndation ( ju/ice1 :e!r x be ( ,god or ( m51 seems to h be5 mu* m debat$ ?an ! "q :at is ! nature ( ju/ice :atev] its orig9 or f\ndation4 ,yet "s attempts1 o!r ?an ^? attribut$ to ,socrates1 h be5 made ( old to give a def9ition ( ju/ice4 ,! e>lie/ description ,i h f\nd is t ( ! e>ly ,py?agoreans1 :o1 9 accordance ) _! practise ( symboliz+ ! virtues by geometrical figures1 designat$ ju/ice by ! squ>e1 & ! j man by ! cube4 ,plato seems to h _h a !ory ( ju/ice :5 he wrote 9 ! ,gorgias1 ,nature h]self intimates t x is j = ! bett] to h m ?an ! worse1 ! /rong] ?an ! weak]1 & 9 _m ways %e %[s t among m5 z well z among animals ju/ice consi/s 9 ! sup]ior rul+ ov] & hav+ m ?an ! inf]ior4 ,9 ^! days our fir/ impulse may be to d5\nce ,plato's /atem5t z altoge!r wrong if n worse4 ,we %\ld rememb]1 h[ev]1 t ,plato 0 n consid]+ any altrui/ic virtue su* z k9dness1 sympa?y1 b5evol5ce1 g5]osity & ! l1 b only :at nature indicates to be ! ess5tial condition ( successful association4 ,?us int]pret$1 are we prep>$ to confute ! /atem5t8 ,d we "k ( any /ate ( society 9 human or animal life at any "t1 pa/ or pres5t1 ( :i* ! contr>y ( ,plato's /atem5t is true8 ,b pass+ ov] all o!r attempts ( ! anci5ts to def9e ju/ice1 none ( :i* seems to h be5 mu* reg>d$ by contempor>y op9ion1 ,i w only cite ! mo/ fam\s1 t by ,ulpian1 ! r5[n$ juri/ ( ! be/ p]iod ( ,roman jurisprud5ce1 ^: writ+s 7 mo/ drawn ^u by ! le>n$ compil]s ( ! ,in/itutes & ,dige/ ( ,ju/9ian2 viz41 ,ju/itia e/ con/ans et p]petua voluntas jus suum cuique tribu5di1 or ,ju/ice is ! con/ant & p]petual w to r5d] to e "o 8 "r4 ,?is def9ition 0 adopt$ by ! compil]s z correct & made ! introduction to ! ,in/itutes4 ,x ?us receiv$ ! imp]ial sanction & 0 quot$ :]ev] ! law ( ,rome prevail$1 d[n ?r\gh m$ieval times & lat]1 almo/ z if x 7 an inspir$ or at lea/ au?oritative def9ition n to be que/ion$4 ,b not)/&+ ! acclaim ) :i* ?is def9ition 0 hail$1 ,i "q t x 0 any improvem5t on t ( ,ari/otle1 :o t]sely def9$ ju/ice z t virtue ( ! s\l :i* is di/ributive accord+ to des]t4 ,inde$1 ,i ?9k ,ari/otle 0 ne>] ! m>k4 ,^u ! revival ( ! /udy ( law & jurisprud5ce 9 ! #aa? & #ab? c5turies sev]al ( ! m fam\s juri/s ( t "t1 ,azo1 ,irn]ius1 ,plac5t9us & o!rs1 essay$ def9itions ( ju/ice1 b !y d n seem to h improv$ ^u ,ulpian4 ,_! def9itions 7 vitiat$ by !ological assumptions & none ( !m has become a text = comm5tators or /ud5ts4 ,nei!r 9 mod]n times has any def9ition ( ju/ice be5 sugge/$ :i* has receiv$ su* univ]sal ass5t z did t ( ,ulpian 9 8 "t & = c5turies aft]w>d4 ,we may !re=e return to ,ulpian's def9ition z our po9t ( dep>ture1 s9ce 8 def9ition is sub/antially t sugge/$ e>li] by ,ari/otle1 & obs]vations on ! lat] w also apply 9 _m respects to ! e>li]4 ,ulpian's def9ition is elegant 9 /yle1 b x does n c>ry u v f> 9 our inquiry4 ,we are told inde$ t ju/ice is a /ate or disposition ( ! m9d1 ! disposition to r5d] to ev]yone 8 "r or1 z put by ,ari/otle1 is ! disposition to di/ribute accord+ to des]t4 ,x 0 ?is /atem5t t captur$ ! m$ieval juri/s & :i* !y made _! text1 b x is n[ reg>d$ z incomplete & ev5 inaccurate4 ,"o may h ! disposition1 ! desire1 ! w1 to r5d] to e "o 8 "r1 b unless he c "k :at is 8 fell['s "r he may unwitt+ly fail to accord x to him & ?us unwitt+ly d inju/ice4 ,x evid5tly is n en\gh to h ! disposition or w2 h5ce ! def9ition is incomplete1 & any def9ition is incomplete :i* does n furni% a crit]ion = det]m9+ :at is ! giv5 man's "r4 ,b ! def9ition z f> z x does g is n /rictly accurate4 ,! man ( malevol5t disposition :o w\ld wrong 8 fell[ if he d>$1 may yet1 to avoid unpleasant consequ5ces to himself1 r5d] fully to e o!r man 8 "r4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t ju/ice is an attribute or quality ( conduct r ?an a disposition or /ate ( m9d1 & ( conduct t[>d o!rs r ?an ( conduct t[>d "o's self4 ,x is only ( ! conduct ( m5 9 _! relations to o!r m5 t we c pr$icate ju/ice or inju/ice4 ,"o's conduct may result 9 good or evil to himself & s be wise or unwise1 b assum+1 :at probably is nev] ! fact1 t x affects only himself1 9 no way affects any o!r1 8 conduct is nei!r j nor unju/4 ,rob9son ,crusoe1 until ! arrival ( ! man ,friday1 _h no occasion to consid] our problem4 ,b1 admitt+ t ea* man's conduct1 :e!r active or passive1 does affect "s o!r p]son1 :at is ! crit]ion by :i* to det]m9e ! ju/ice or inju/ice ( t conduct8 ,x is n en\gh to say t if ! conduct 9 any degree imp$es ! o!r p]son 9 ! enjoym5t ( any ( 8 rights x is unju/1 o!rwise n2 = !n ! "q comes to ! front1 :at is ! "r ( t o!r 9 ! giv5 case8 ,inde$1 ?is latt] "q is ! crux ( ! problem ( ju/ice4 ,! d]ivation ( ! ^w ju/ice also %[s ?is4 ,! ,lat9 ju/itia or ju/itium accord+ to "s s*ol>s is comp\nd$ ( jus1 "r1 & si/o or /eti1 to place1 or to cause to /&1 & h5ce ! :ole ^w may be held to signify ! ma9t5ance ( jus or "r4 ,) ! "q ( jus or "r correctly answ]$1 ! problem ( ju/ice is practically solv$4 ,! "r ( ! "o be+ kn[n1 ! effect ( any p>ticul> conduct ( ano!r on t "r1 & consequ5tly its ju/ice or inju/ice1 is det]m9able ) comp>ative ease4 ,h5ce to make progress 9 our inquiry we mu/ consid] ! problem ( rights1 = we almo/ in/9ctively accept z correct s mu* ( ,ulpian's def9ition z implies t ju/ice is to be pr$icat$ ( ! act ( r5d]+ to ev]yone 8 "r4 ,we in/9ctively feel t if we r5d] to ano!r 8 full "r we d him full ju/ice1 & t if we ourselves are depriv$ ( any "r we suff] inju/ice4 ,:at is 8 or our "r is !re=e ! real "q4 ,?is w be our next subject = consid]ation4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,rights4 ,,diff]5t ,,!ories ,,z ,,to ,,! ,,s\rce ,,( ,,rights ,! problem ( ,rights is also c5turies old4 ,!re h be5 9 lat] ye>s gl[+ tributes to human rights ev5 m ?an to ju/ice1 ?\gh ! s5tim5t ( rights is egoi/ic1 :ile t ( ju/ice is 9 "s measure altrui/ic4 ,!re h also be5 div]se op9ions 9 ! pa/1 z n[1 z to ! s\rce1 f\ndation1 & nature ( :at are call$ ,rights1 z !re 7 & are ( ju/ice4 ,a brief review ( ^! op9ions & ( ! *anges 9 !m may pres5t ! problem m vividly4 ,9 patri>*al times !re c\ld be no political que/ions ab\t rights4 ,! head ( ! family 0 supreme & sole rul] & judge4 ,ev5 9 ,rome "u an organiz$ civil gov]nm5t ! pat] familias 0 long left ! p[] ( life & dea? ov] ! memb]s ( 8 family4 ,:5 families & tribes 7 comb9$ 9 /ates1 gov]nm5t 0 long conduct$ on ! !ory t z ! individual _h belong$ to ! family or tribe into :i* he 0 born or adopt$1 s he n[ belong$ to ! /ate1 to be direct$ & dispos$ ( z ! /ate might ord]4 ,:at he might enjoy ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty 0 ! gift ( ! /ate1 subject to revocation at w4 ,plato reflects ?is !ory 9 mak+ ,hippias decl>e t ! measure ( man's "r is :at ! /ate comm&s4 ,! total abolition ( ! lib]ty ( innoc5t p]sons by hold+ !m 9 slav]y 0 n deem$ any infr+em5t ( any "r ( !irs4 ,?is !ory 0 act$ ^u 9 democratic z well z 9 mon>*ical /ates4 ,slav]y 0 z lawful 9 ,a!ns1 ,sp>ta1 & republican ,rome z 9 ,p]sia or ,egypt4 ,true1 !re 7 rebellions & revolutions at times1 b1 ?\gh sometimes provok$ by oppression1 !y 7 usually to acquire ! p[] ( gov]nm5t & n 9 def5se ( individual rights4 ,! ,plebeians revolt$ to obta9 a great] %>e 9 ! gov]n+ p[]4 ,! civil w>s ( ,m>ius & ,sulla 7 n wag$ = lib]ty b = p[]4 ,9 ,sicily1 :]e ! slaves "u ,eunus _h = a "t wre/$ ! gov]n+ p[] f _! ma/]s1 !y did n hesitate to enslave 9 turn4 ,! doctr9e t ! individual man has "s rights by nature :i* ! /ate ought n to disreg>d _h no place 9 anci5t nor m$ieval gov]nm5ts4 ,! ,engli% ,magna ,*>ta purports to be a grant f ! k+ &1 ?\gh fram$ by ! b>ons & =c$ ^u ! k+1 x conta9s no ass]tion ( rights by nature4 ,! rights claim$ 7 claim$ z accu/om$ rights previ\sly conf]r$ & enjoy$1 su* z ! laws & cu/oms ( ! "t ( ,h5ry ,i4 ,ap>t f provisions z to improv$ me?ods ( adm9i/ration1 ! language ( ! ,*>t] implies re/oration r ?an revolution4 ,s 9 ! ,petition ( ,"r 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,i1 no appeal 0 made to natural rights1 b ! dem& 0 = accu/om$ privileges1 = ! obs]vance by ! k+ ( ! old laws & cu/oms ( ! realm1 especially ^? 9 =ce "u ,edw>d ,i & ,edw>d ,,iii4 ,9 ! ,petition1 ! ,*>t] ( ,k+ ,john is cit$1 n z a s*$ule ( ! rights ( man 9 ! ab/ract1 b z ,! ,great ,*>t] ( ! ,lib]ties ( ,engl&1 imply+ t ! lib]ties !re9 nam$ 7 n ! natural h]itage ( m5 9 g5]al b ! peculi> h]itage ( ,engli%m51 "u ,engli% law4 ,! pray] ( ! ,petition is simply t ! k+ %all accord ! p ( ,engl& _! rights & lib]ties accord+ to ! laws & /atutes ( ! realm4 ,s 9 ! ,bill ( ,rights fram$ by ,p>liam5t & approv$ by ,william & ,m>y ^u _! accession to ! ?rone1 x 0 n ass]t$ t ! acts ( ,james ,,ii compla9$ ( 7 contr>y to any natural "r ( ! subject1 b t !y 7 utt]ly & directly contr>y to ! kn[n laws & /atutes & fre$om ( ?is realm4 ,! purpose ( ! ,bill ( ,rights 0 decl>$ by ! ,p>liam5t 9 behalf ( ! p to be = ! v9dicat+ & ass]t+ _! anci5t rights & lib]ties4 ,9 ! e>li] remon/rances ( ! legislatures ( ! ,engli% colonies 9 ,am]ica aga9/ v>i\s acts ( ! k+ & ,p>liam5t1 only ! accu/om$ rights ( ,engli%m5 7 claim$ to be violat$4 ,! coloni/s1 at fir/1 claim$ z aga9/ k+ & ,p>liam5t no rights n accord$ to ,engli%m5 9 ,engl&4 ,b ?\gh ! notion t man has rights by nature1 n grant$ by ! /ate & :i* ! /ate %\ld respect z su*1 did n = c5turies f9d expression 9 /ate pap]s or /ate action1 x 0 by no means non-exi/5t4 ,x 0 e>ly 9 ! m9ds ( _m & f\nd "s expression 9 ! writ+s ( juri/s & philosoph]s4 ,9 ,rome x 0 a coroll>y ( ! doctr9e ( ! exi/5ce ( a jus naturale4 ,! /atem5t ( t doctr9e by ,ulpian incorporat$ 9 ! ,dige/ implies a doctr9e t man does h "s rights ant]ior to & indep5d5t ( ! /ate4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 z ! /atem5t 0 susceptible ( t con/ruction x 0 n g5]ally act$ ^u & rema9$ practically a dead lett]4 ,! doctr9e itself surviv$1 h[ev]1 engag+ ! att5tion & receiv+ ! support ( v>i\s writ]s4 ,x gradually ga9$ gr\nd among /ud5ts ( politics & spread rapidly aft] ! ,prote/ant ,re=mation1 s-call$1 because ( ! impetus giv5 by t ev5t to ! ex]cise ( private judgm5t4 ,z e>ly z ! #ag? c5tury1 ?\gh f9d+ little or no expression 9 ! ,petition ( ,"r or ,bill ( ,rights1 ! doctr9e t individual rights 7 d]iv$ f nature r ?an f ! /ate 0 g5]ally ent]ta9$ by ! ,puritans & o!r diss5t]s f ! ,e/abli%$ ,*ur*1 & 0 invok$ by !m to "s ext5t z ju/ify+ ! revolution ( #afdj4 ,! doctr9e also pass$ ov] to ! ,puritan ,colonies 9 ,am]ica & e>ly f\nd "s expression !re4 ,9 ! ,massa*usetts ,body ( ,lib]ties ( #afda !re is a sugge/ion t ! lib]ties1 etc41 !re9 recit$1 7 ^? dem&$ by humanity1 civility & *ri/ianity r ?an accu/om$ lib]ties4 ,x 0 fur!r ass]t$ t ^! lib]ties 7 to be enjoy$ by ! p ( ! ,colony & _! po/]ity =ev]4 ,! lat] disputes z to ! prop] limits ( ! p[] ( ! ,briti% ,k+ & ,p>liam5t ov] ! ,am]ican ,colonies l$ ! colonial lawy]s & politicians to a /udy ( ! !ory ( natural rights advanc$ by v>i\s political writ]s1 ,engli% & ,cont95tal4 ,x has be5 said1 ,i ?9k ) tru?1 t ! writ+s ( ,locke1 ,voltaire1 ,r\sseau1 ,montesquieu1 & ev5 ( ,black/one1 7 m widely read & /udi$ 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,europe4 ,! brilliant writ+s ( ,tom ,pa9e also _h great influ5ce4 ,! result 0 t ! doctr9e ( natural rights came to be g5]ally accept$ by ! p ( ! ,colonies z ! real f\ndation ( _! claims & ! real ju/ification = _! resi/ance to ! objectionable acts ( ! ,k+ & ,p>liam5t4 ,9 #aggd ! fir/ ,cont95tal ,congress 9 its ,decl>ation ( ,rights decl>$ t ! p ( ! ,colonies _h ^? rights by ! immutable laws ( nature z well z by _! *>t]s & ! pr9ciples ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution4 ,two ye>s lat] 9 ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce ! repres5tatives ( ! p made no ref]5ce to _! *>t]s nor to ! pr9ciples ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution z ! f\ndation ( _! claims1 b bas$ !m exclusively on ! !ory ( natural rights4 ,!y decl>$3 ,we hold ^! tru?s to be self-evid5t1 t all m5 are creat$ equal2 t !y are end[$ by _! ,creator ) c]ta9 unali5able rights2 t among ^! are life1 lib]ty & ! pursuit ( happ9ess4 ,! same influ5ces und\bt$ly contribut$ to br+ ab\t ! ,fr5* ,revolution ( #aghi1 & ! !ory ( natural rights aga9 f\nd expression 9 ! ,fr5* /ate pap]s ( t p]iod4 ,9 ,augu/ ( t ye>1 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! ,revolution1 ! foll[+ ,decl>ation ( ! ,rights ( ,man & ,citiz5 0 put =? by ! ,national ,assembly & aft]w>ds made ! fir/ two articles ( ! ,con/itution ( #agia1 viz41 ,art4 #a4 ,m5 are born & rema9 free & equal 9 rights4 ,social di/9ctions c be bas$ only ^u public utility4 ,art4 #b4 ,! aim ( e political association is ! pres]vation ( ! natural & imprescriptible rights ( man4 ,^! rights are lib]ty1 prop]ty1 security & resi/ance to oppression4 ,?us 9 ! latt] "p ( ! #ah? c5tury ! doctr9e t man has "s individual rights by nature1 n by grant or prescription1 & n ali5able1 obta9$ (ficial recognition 9 two great nations4 ,x has s9ce be5 =mally & (ficially it]at$ 9 ! ,con/itutions ( _m ,am]ican ,/ates & has be5 proclaim$ & invok$ z an impregnably e/abli%$ political tru?4 ,nev]!less ! doctr9e is only a !ory1 n yet demon/rat$ nor und\bt$4 ,x has be5 assail$ & 9 ! op9ion ( _m refut$1 by ,b5?am1 ,mill1 & o!r utilit>ian writ]s1 ! successors ( ,epicurus1 ,c>neades & ! ,sophi/s4 ,ev5 9 ,france & ,am]ica x is n[ repudiat$ by _m & decl>$ to be an ob/acle to social & political improvem5t4 ,/ill1 despite ! vigor\s argum5ts aga9/ ! doctr9e1 !re rema9s ! innate feel+ & a g5]al belief t society abridges individual rights in/ead ( conf]r+ !m4 ,9 support ( ?is notion may be cit$ ! fact t ! /atutes ( any /ate or nation are almo/ :olly re/rictive or compulsory 9 "*1 & r>ely1 if ev]1 p]missive4 ,f ! ,decalogue d[n1 ! language ( ! law has be5 compulsive1 ,?\ %alt & ,?\ %alt n2 & m5 g5]ally act ^u ! !ory t :at society does n =bid by /atute or cu/om ! individual may d4 ,9 pass+ n[ f ! region ( !ory1 ( speculative op9ion1 to :at seems to me ! region ( facts1 ( actual conditions1 ( actual traits ( human nature1 ,i wi% x to be und]/ood di/9ctly t 9 :at ,i may say ab\t rights ,i am consid]+ only ! precepts ( ju/ice1 & t ,i diff]5tiate ^? precepts f ! precepts ( religion1 *>ity1 philan?ropy1 b5evol5ce1 & o!r simil> virtues1 & ev5 ^? ( :at is loosely call$ humanity4 ,if x be true z ass]t$ by ,addison t ju/ice is ! greate/ & mo/ godlike ( ! virtues1 x does n foll[ t ! j man1 to be j1 mu/ possess all or any ( ! o!r virtues4 ,"o c be j )\t be+ religi\s1 *>itable1 or philan?ropic1 & ev5 )\t e>n+ ! reputation ( be+ humane4 ,i wi% fur!r to premise t ,i am consid]+ our subject only ) ref]5ce to ^? :o h gr[n to ! age ( self-ma9t5ance & consequ5t fre$om4 ,i d n take into acc\nt ! rights ( *ildr5 "u t age4 ,) ^! premises borne 9 m9d1 ,i w\ld n[ 9 ! next *apt] call att5tion to "s propositions ( fact1 :i* ,i %all assume to be e/abli%$ by sci5ce & hi/ory & by ! read]'s own exp]i5ce & obs]vation1 & :i* ,i ?9k be> m or less directly on our subject4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,rights ,,cont9u$4 ,,! ,,ne$ ,,( ,,lib]ty ,,( ,,action ,,= ,,! ,,individual ,m5 are end[$ by nature ) sundry p[]s1 faculties1 capacities1 physical & m5tal4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are n at all uni=m1 b are div]se 9 k9d & degree 9 diff]5t races ( m5 & 9 diff]5t individuals ( ! same race4 ,nature seems to "w ?r\gh div]sity r ?an ?r\gh uni=mity1 inde$ ?r\gh inequality r ?an ?r\gh equality4 ,n all m5 are born poets1 nor are all poets equally good poets4 ,n all m5 are by nature adapt$ = intellectual pursuits1 & ^? :o are s adapt$ are n 9 t respect equally favor$ by nature4 ,ev5 9 ! field ( ! simple/ manual labor !re is great div]sity ( natural capacity4 ,x seems to be nature's !ory t mank9d1 ! human race z a :ole1 w be bett] s]v$ by div]sities1 by diff]5ces 9 k9ds & degrees ( p[]s1 ?an by uni=mity & equality4 ,fur!r1 normal m5 are also by nature end[$1 if n ) rights1 yet ) sundry in/9cts1 desires1 passions2 also ) sundry feel+s1 emotions1 s5tim5ts2 & also ) "s degree ( reason & p[] ( *oice4 ,"s ( ^! may n be app>5t 9 infancy1 b !y appe> 9 a great] or less degree ( int5sity z ! individual develops4 ,among ^! in/9cts or desires is ! desire to live1 ! desire to s]ve ea* 8 own welf>e & t ( 8 (fspr+1 & ! desire to decide = himself :at w be/ s]ve t welf>e4 ,z a coroll>y1 he also has by bir? ! desire = fre$om to ex]cise any & all ( 8 tal5ts & p[]s 9 su* mann]1 to su* ext5t1 & 9 pursuit ( su* objects z he pref]s1 or to be idle if he pref]s idl5ess4 ,fur!r1 he has ! in/9ct ( acquisitiv5ess1 ! desire to appropriate to himself & reta9 control ( su* mat]ial objects z he ?9ks may s]ve 8 welf>e & t ( 8 (fspr+1 & especially does he h a natural in/9ct & desire to possess & control exclusively = himself :atev]1 mu* or little1 he has wr5*$ f nature or o!rwise obta9$ by ! ex]cise ( 8 v>i\s p[]s4 ,?is in/9ct is also obs]vable 9 "s animals4 ,a dog w hide a bone = 8 own exclusive future use4 ,man also in/9ctively claims = 8 own ! natural increase ( :at he has acquir$1 ! "y ( 8 bea/s1 ! fruits ( 8 or*>d4 ,?is desire = control includes ! desire to /ore up1 to use1 to consume1 to transf]1 & ev5 to de/roy at w4 ,?is desire is se5 9 "y *ildr51 :o w try to clut* & hold :atev] attracts !m1 & :o w ho>d or break toys or ?r[ !m away z _! :ims may be4 ,z !y get old] ! desire to control gr[s /rong]1 = !y de/roy less & pres]ve m 9 ord] to h great] measure ( control2 b /ill !y desire fre$om to consume or de/roy at _! own w4 ,s /rong is ?is desire ( control t m5 wi% to direct :at %all be done ) _! prop]ty aft] _! dea?4 ,if "o is balk$ or h9d]$ 9 ! gratification ( any ( ^! desires1 !re is excit$ 9 him a feel+ ( res5tm5t aga9/ ! cause1 ev5 if x be only "s =ce ( nature4 ,!re is a note ( ang] 9 ! cries ( a *ild ov] int]f]5ce ) 8 play1 ! deprivation ( any toy or o!r ?+ he may h or desire4 ,t ! w9d or ! ra9 0 ! cause does n soo? him4 ,9 ! mature man also1 ang] adds "s =ce to ! kick he gives ev5 inanimate objects unexpect$ly imp$+ him4 ,:o ( u has ev] fall5 ov] a *air 9 ! d>k )\t m5tally1 at lea/1 consign+ x to p]dition8 ,! old law ( ,deod& 0 an expression ( ?is feel+ ( res5tm5t aga9/ inanimate objects ev54 ,by t law1 accord+ to ,black/one1 :atev] *attel 0 ! imm$iate cause ( ! dea? ( a reasonable creature 0 =feit$ to ! cr[n1 z :5 a c>t ran ov] a man4 ,by ! laws ( ,draco :atev] caus$ a man's dea? by fall+ ^u him 0 to be de/roy$ or ca/ out ( ! community4 ,?us a /atue hav+ fall5 ^u a man1 x 0 ?r[n into ! sea4 ,! ,mosaic law savagely decl>$3 ,if an ox gore a man t he die1 ! ox %all be /on$ & 8 fle% %all n be eat54 ,is n ?is in/9ctive feel+ ( res5tm5t at int]f]5ce ) "o's p]son1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 ! rudim5t ( a lat] develop$ idea1 or s5tim5t1 ( rights possess$8 ,res5tm5t is felt only :5 "o is depriv$ ( some?+ he feels he is entitl$ to4 ,grant+ t nature has n end[$ man ) rights1 x has imbu$ him ) a belief t he has rights1 & also ) a disposition to def5d !m4 ,man is also born into a mat]ial _w ( natural =ces1 & h5ce to gratify 8 desire to live & s]ve 8 own welf>e & t ( 8 (fspr+1 he mu/ adapt himself to 8 environm5t1 fit himself to )/& heat & cold1 provide himself ) food & %elt]4 ,he n only desires to1 b he mu/1 ex]cise 8 p[]s ( m9d & body & h5ce %\ld be free to ex]cise !m to t ext5t at lea/4 ,nature does n fe$1 clo! & %elt] man4 ,x only provides ! raw mat]ial :i* man mu/ himself f9d1 take1 & conv]t by 8 labor1 manual & intellectual1 into food1 clo?+1 %elt]1 & :atev] else he desires4 ,b man is also born into association ) o!r m51 into "s sort ( social organization1 & well = him t he is4 ,x is n society1 h[ev] ill organiz$1 t has caus$1 or today causes1 pov]ty4 ,t is ! primitive condition ( ! human race4 ,x is only ?r\gh "s social organization ensur+ to man fre$om = 8 labor & security = 8 sav+s t he c escape pov]ty4 ,if ea* individual by 8 own unaid$ ef=ts _h to f9d ! raw mat]ial1 mold x to s]ve 8 ne$s & desires1 & also def5d x f attacks by o!rs1 8 life w\ld be "o ( dire pov]ty1 sc>cely above t ( ! high] animals4 ,fur!r1 nature has s =m$ man t he n only ne$s b desires association ) o!r m54 ,*ildr5 in/9ctively flock toge!r = common play1 & ?is social in/9ct cont9ues ?r\gh life & ext5ds to "w z well z play4 ,we f9d m5 ev]y:]e 9 ! civiliz$ _w volunt>ily ent]+ into associations = v>i\s purposes ?\ght by ! memb]s to be ( s]vice to !mselves or o!rs4 ,b !re is ov] & surr\nd+ ^! associations t l>g] association1 racial or t]ritorial1 :i* we call society4 ,?is is ! necess>y association into :i* man is born & 9 :i* he mu/ live if he desires o!r ?an m]e animal life4 ,?is society mu/ be ma9ta9$ if ! race ( m51 z m5 & n z m]e animals1 is to cont9ue4 ,inde$1 society itself has a sort ( in/9ct = self-pres]vation4 ,x is n a m]e aggregation ( individual units b is an association ( s5ti5t correlat$ be+s ) a resultant life & movem5t ( its own4 ,association1 h[ev]1 does n ext+ui% nor appreciably less5 ! natural in/9cts1 desires1 feel+s1 s5tim5ts1 etc41 ( ! individual1 ?\gh !y may be made less active by cont9u$ re/ra9t4 ,association ev5 ext5ds ! scope ( man's individual desires & activities4 ,he n[ desires fre$om to make arrangem5ts ) o!r m5 ( su* nature & = su* purposes z he & !y may agree ^u4 ,if he is prev5t$ by au?ority f mak+ su* arrangem5ts he feels "s res5tm5t1 feels t 8 "r is infr+$4 ,he also comes to desire t ^? :o h ent]$ into arrangem5ts or contracts ) him %\ld p]=m _! "p1 & he in/9ctively feels res5tm5t at _! neglect or refusal to d s4 ,he feels t he has a "r to ! p]=mance ( ! contract4 ,ano!r desire is develop$ or giv5 play by society1--! desire to equal "o's fell[s 9 ! race = b5efits1 &1 t accompli%$1 to excel !m4 ,he desires to w9 9 e game1 to be ! victor 9 e conte/ ( physical or m5tal p[]s1 & 9 bus9ess z well z 9 sports4 ,if he is held back he feels res5tm5t aga9/ ! p[] assum+ to re/ra9 him4 ,he ?us feels he has a "r to equal & to excel if he c4 ,:e!r competition %\ld be en=c$ or /imulat$ by society is a "q 9 economics4 ,:at affects ! "q ( rights & h5ce ( ju/ice is :e!r ?is desire to excel %\ld be imp$$4 ,9 ?is association1 h[ev]1 ea* individual man f9ds himself 9 close contact all ?r\gh life ) o!r m5 hav+ l in/9cts1 desires1 feel+s1 emotions1 etc41 z 8 own2 & :o also feel l res5tm5ts & h l notions ( rights possess$4 ,if ea* is left by society free to gratify ^! desires or to en=ce 8 claims ( rights 9 8 own way unm9dful h[ 8 action may affect o!rs2 if !y be left free to take :o h ! p[] & only !y may keep :o c1 society c\ld n exi/ & civilization1 if n ! race1 w\ld p]i%4 ,society1 !re=e1 mu/ frame & en=ce rules = ! regulation & control ( ! conduct ( its individual memb]s1 mu/ ev5 re/ra9 !m to "s ext5t f ! gratification ( "s ( _! desires4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^! in/9cts1 desires1 etc41 mu/ /ill be reckon$ )4 ,!y _c be :olly suppress$ nor ev5 v mu* r$uc$ or imp$$ if society is to progress or ev5 exi/4 ,!re mu/ be left to ! individual "s degree ( lib]ty ( *oice & action4 ,an em95t ,am]ican juri/1 ,james ,c4 ,c>t]1 vividly /at$ ?is1 ?\gh p]haps 9 ! extreme1 :5 he wrote t ! sole function ( law & legislation is to secure to ea* individual ! utmo/ lib]ty :i* he c enjoy consi/5tly ) ! pres]vation ( ! l lib]ty to all o!rs4 ,lib]ty 7he wrote71 ! fir/ ( bless+s1 ! aspiration ( e human s\l1 is ! supreme object4 ,e abridgm5t ( x dem&s an excuse1 & ! only good excuse is ! necessity ( pres]v+ x4 7,c>t]'s ,law4 ,its orig9 & gr[?1 page #ccg47 ,!re mu/ also be left to ! individual "s p]sonal motives = labor & ?rift1 =1 aft] all1 x is ! toil ( individuals t supports society & its memb]s4 ,x is ! surplus products1 n consum$1 b /or$ up by ! economy ( individuals t con/itutes ! en]gy ( society4 ,h[ev] x may be improv$ 9 ! future1 ! nature ( ! av]age man today is su* t he w n toil & d5y himself )\t prospect ( rew>ds to accrue to himself = 8 own p]sonal use4 ,he w n /rive to e>n & !n cons]ve 8 e>n+s unless he c h !m = 8 own1 to control1 use & dispose ( at 8 pleasure4 ,h[ev] x may be ) a few unselfi%1 devot$ s\ls1 m5 z a rule are n yet s altrui/ic z to devote !mselves exclusively to ! good ( o!rs1 ( society4 ,i ?9k x evid5t t if ! impell+ natural desire to s]ve "o's self be :olly or ev5 l>gely disreg>d$ by society1 little w\ld be produc$ or sav$ by volunt>y labor & self-d5ial4 ,! alt]native w\ld be ! re/oration ( "s sy/em ( en=c$ labor1 ( slav]y1 = ! va/ majority ( m54 ,at ?is day1 aft] c5turies ( exhortation to practise ! virtues ( b5evol5ce1 ( bro!rly love1 ( self-sacrifice = ! good ( o!rs1 m5 d n f pure love ( humanity volunt>ily endure heat & cold1 exp5d _! labor & sav+s 9 work+ m9es1 9 brav+ seas1 9 build+ & op]at+ factories1 railroads & /eam%ips1 9 gr[+ corn & cotton4 ,ev5 ^? public (fices1 9 :i* ! altrui/ might f9d ! be/ opportunities = s]v+ ! p1 are n mu* s\ght = unless "s p]sonal honor or pecuni>y pr(it be atta*$ to !m4 ,%\ld society decree t ! labor]1 :e!r ) h&s or bra91 %\ld h no individual rew>d proportionate to ! effici5cy ( 8 labor1 b only 8 num]ical proportion ( ! product ( all labor]s1 ,i fe> ! effici5cy ( all classes ( labor]s1 manual & m5tal1 w\ld fall to ! irr$ucible m9imum4 ,! =ego+ /atem5ts & inf]5ces lead to ! "q1 h[ f> %\ld society g 9 und]tak+ to regulate ! conduct & re/rict ! fre$om ( ! individual1--t fre$om :i* w\ld be 8 if he 7 alone 9 ! _w8 ,x may be ?\ght t ?is is a "q ( exp$i5cy = economi/s & sociologi/s1 & s x is l>gely1 b x is also a "q ( rights & h5ce ( ju/ice1 s9ce e action or non-action ( society affects ! fre$om ( ! individual 9 ! gratification ( 8 desires or1 9 o!r words1 9 8 pursuit ( happ9ess4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,ju/ice ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,fre$om ,,( ,,! ,,individual ,,& ,,! ,,safety ,,( ,,society ,! "q /at$ at ! close ( ! la/ *apt] is mo/ important &1 9 a s5se1 is p]haps ! crux ( ! :ole matt]4 ,n only may error 9 ! solution ( ! "q injuri\sly affect ! mat]ial int]e/s ( individuals & h5ce ( society z a :ole1 b x may cause unhapp9ess f> great] ?an t caus$ by any mat]ial loss1 viz41 a s5se ( inju/ice4 ,z said by ! ,engli% judge1 ,inju/ice cuts to ! bone4 ,at ! outset ,i accept ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s !ory t ! idea ( ju/ice conta9s two s5tim5ts1 positive & negative2 ! "o ! s5tim5t ( ! individual t he has ! "r by nature to ! unimp$$ use ( 8 faculties & to ! b5efits he acquires by su* use2 ! o!r ! consci\sness t ! pres5ce ( o!r individuals ) simil> claims ( rights necessitates "s limitation ( 8 own claims4 ,out ( ^? two s5tim5ts is evolv$1 ,i ?9k1 ! idea ( ju/ice or inju/ice accord+ z !y are or are n 9 equilibrium4 ,!y sugge/ ! def9ition t ju/ice is ! equilibrium betwe5 ! full fre$om ( ! individual & ! re/rictions !reon necess>y = ! safety ( society4 ,! re/ra9t ( p]sonal conduct )9 too n>r[ limits1 ! necessity ( :i* _c be made cle>1 excites res5tm5t1 /imulates angry passions1 & h5ce causes unhapp9ess ?r\gh a s5se ( inju/ice4 ,re/ra9t )9 necess>y limits only1 ! necessity ( :i* c be se51 ar\ses no res5tm5t2 on ! contr>y1 x satisfies ! individual1 favors h>moni\s coop]ation1 pr(its society & increases ! happ9ess ( its memb]s1 ?r\gh ! appreciation ( t necessity4 ,b = ! fix+ ( ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 necess>y & unnecess>y re/ra9ts ^u p]sonal conduct1 "s o!r matt]s /ill are to be consid]$4 ,i h said t man in/9ctively feels res5tm5t at int]f]5ce ) :atev] he may ?9k is 8 "r to d1 or get1 or keep4 ,if ?is int]f]5ce is f any ( 8 fell[ m5 8 res5tm5t is great] ?an :5 x is f natural =ces4 ,!re arises ! desire = v5geance1 ! desire to get ev51--to use a common phrase1--by inflict+ a correspond+ injury on ! (f5d]4 ,an eye = an eye1 a too? = a too?1 is in/9ctively dem&$ n[ z ( old4 ,if unable to inflict a correspond+ injury !re is ! desire to inflict an equival5t injury4 ,to p>aphrase ,bacon1 rev5ge is ju/ice runn+ wild4 ,?is in/9ct %\ld be he$$ by society4 ,if x be necess>y = its own pres]vation t society re/ra9 ?is in/9ct1 prohibit private v5geance1 !n x mu/ itself provide = satisfaction ( ! in/9ct2 ! (f5d] mu/ be compell$ to make full comp5sation or else be made to suff] 9 turn "s deprivation ( rights claim$ by him t %all be comm5surate ) ! (f5se4 ,?is %\ld be done spe$ily & gratuit\sly s f> z possible4 ,delay & exp5se cause res5tm5t 9 ! suitor = ju/ice & s cause inju/ice4 ,9 do+ ?is1 society n only protects itself b x re/ores an equilibrium ( rights di/urb$ by ! (f5d]4 ,?is re/oration ( equilibrium is an ess5tial elem5t 9 ! concept ( ju/ice4 ,( c\rse1 z society progresses & human nature improves1 ?is desire ( ! injur$ = v5geance on ! (f5d] becomes weak]4 ,! virtues ( m]cy1 =giv5ess1 or will+ness to =ego ! dem& = puni%m5t1 come into play & society is all[$ to attempt to re=m r ?an to puni%1 or is all[$ to p>don altoge!r4 ,^! virtues1 h[ev]1 are n "p ( ! concept ( ju/ice4 ,if ! puni%m5t seems inadequate1 or ! p>don seems undes]v$1 !re rema9s1 or is aga9 excit$1 ! feel+ ( res5tm5t4 ,! equilibrium is n re/or$4 ,ano!r s5tim5t or feel+ is to be reckon$ ) 9 ord] to secure ?is equilibrium 9 society4 ,! "y1 untra9$ *ild is impati5t ( all re/ra9t4 ,x is only by exp]i5ce t he le>ns he mu/ submit to re/ra9t if he w\ld h any sort ( association ) 8 fell[s4 ,he le>ns t he mu/ submit to ! rules ( ! game if he w\ld h a "p 9 ! game4 ,z he comes to maturity he becomes consci\s t society mu/ impose re/ra9t ^u him & h5ce feels no res5tm5t aga9/ all re/ra9t1 z does ! untra9$ *ild4 ,he does1 h[ev]1 feel res5tm5t if re/ra9ts are impos$ ^u him 9 8 pursuit ( happ9ess :i* are n impos$ ^u o!rs 9 _! pursuit4 ,simil>ly he feels res5tm5t if exemptions f re/ra9t are all[$ "s o!rs & n all[$ him also4 ,fur!rmore1 he is quick to note any discrim9ation aga9/ himself & prone to imag9e x :5 9 fact !re is none4 ,almo/ z soon z ! av]age *ild is plac$ ) o!rs "u a common au?ority1 z 9 a public s*ool1 he beg9s to compla9 ( ! tea*]'s p>tiality to o!r pupils4 ,he w /ay 9 no game :]e ! rules op]ate unequally aga9/ him4 ,he insi/s on an ev5 *ance ) 8 fell[ play]s4 ,:5 lat] 9 life he engages 9 bus9ess he res5ts any favoritism %[n by ! gov]nm5t ( 8 /ate or t[n to o!rs 9 ! same or a simil> bus9ess4 ,?is feel+ is especially noticeable 9 ! matt] ( taxation4 ,if "o believes ! taxes impos$ by ! gov]nm5t are unnecess>ily heavy he may feel "s res5tm5t1 b 8 res5tm5t is mu* great] if he believes he is ov]tax$ 9 comp>ison ) 8 fell[s1 t !y are escap+ _! proportionate %>e ( ! burd51 or t taxes are impos$ on 8 products 9 ord] to favor ! products ( o!rs1 z :5 oleom>g>9e 0 tax$ to h&icap x 9 its competition ) butt]4 ,?is feel+ ( res5tm5t at inequality ( re/ra9ts & burd5s impos$ & exemptions grant$ is n ignoble1 is n a feel+ to be suppress$ or ev5 conceal$4 ,x is f> diff]5t f ! feel+ ( envy4 ,if ,i c only af=d to ride 9 a trolley c> ,i may envy ! man :o c af=d to ride 9 a luxuri\s motor c> & yet n feel wrong$4 ,b if ,i am exclud$ f a public /reet c> to :i* he is admitt$ ,i h a diff]5t feel+1 t ( res5tm5t4 ,i may be p]fectly will+ t all o!rs1 ri* or poor1 %all use ! /reets to ! full ext5t t ,i d1 b if x be propos$ t my use %all be limit$ 9 ord] t "s o!rs may = _! private purposes h m ?an an equal use ) me1 my feel+ is n "o ( envy b ( indignation4 ,s ,i c appreciate t if ,i wilfully or ?r\gh c>elessness injure ano!r ,i %\ld make full comp5sation1 & h5ce c *e]fully submit to ! law compell+ me to d s2 b if ! law und]takes to exempt any o!r p]son f a simil> liability1 ,i feel a ke5 s5se ( wrong4 ,conv]sely1 ! mo/ /rict discipl9>ian1 ! m>t9et ev51 if o!rwise compet5t receives ready ob$i5ce & respect if x is se5 t he treats alike1 accord+ to _! m]its1 all subject to 8 au?ority4 ,?is feel+ is natural4 ,nature is imp>tial 9 ! application ( its laws4 ,x all[s no exemption4 ,its fires burn ! weak z well z ! /rong1 ! *ild z well z ! man1 ! poor z well z ! ri*4 ,"o /> diff]s f ano!r /> 9 glory1 b no "o ( all ! millions ( />s is exempt f any ( ! laws set by nature = />s4 ,?is feel+ ( "r to imp>tiality ( treatm5t _h "s fa9t expression 9 ! ,massa*usetts ,body ( ,lib]ties ( #afda1 9 :i* x 0 decl>$ t ! lib]ties1 etc41 !re9 enum]at$ %\ld be enjoy$ imp>tially by all p]sons )9 ! jurisdiction ( ! colony4 ,x 0 m di/9ctly recogniz$ 9 ! ,connecticut ,decl>ation ( #ahah & a "p ( ! ,connecticut ,bill ( ,rights today1 ,t all m5 :5 !y =m a social compact are equal 9 rights & t no man or set ( m5 are entitl$ to exclusive public emolum5ts or privileges f ! community4 ,aga9 x appe>s 9 ! f$]al & "s /ate con/itutions 9 ! provision aga9/ ! grant+ ( titles ( nobility4 ,x seems to be at lea/ impli$ly recogniz$ 9 ! ,x,i,vth am5dm5t to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution 9 ! clause t no /ate %all d5y any p]son )9 its jurisdiction ! equal protection ( ! laws1 s9ce ! equal protection ( ! laws necess>ily implies protection aga9/ unequal laws1 laws favor+ "s at ! exp5se ( o!rs or ( ! :ole4 ,if ! /ate favors "o m ?an ano!r x does d5y t o!r equal protection4 ,i d n subscribe to ! doctr9e t ! greate/ good ( ! greate/ numb] is to be s\ght4 ,! only legitimate se>* is = ! good ( ! :ole numb] )\t discrim9ation = or aga9/ any "o4 ,?is s5tim5t f\nd expression 9 ! once popul> slogan1 ,equal rights = all4 ,special privileges = none4 ,i say once popul>1 = today x w\ld seem n popul> 9 practice4 ,true1 special privileges are /ill l\dly d5\nc$1 b "u ! "n ( special exemptions1 !y are /ill dem&$ by ^? :o d5\nce !m mo/ l\dly4 ,x is n inequality ( natural p[]s ( body or m9d1 nor inequality 9 natural conditions1 t excites ?is feel+ ( res5tm5t ,i h not$4 ,! man ( feeble natural p[]s may envy him ( /rong natural p[]s1 b he c see t society1 t law1 is n responsible = t inequality4 ,if "o f9ds himself f lack ( natural ability or adaptiv5ess unable to accompli% :at o!rs ( sup]ior ability or adaptiv5ess easily accompli%1 & h5ce he fails to receive ! prize !y s easily w91 he may feel great disappo9tm5t & regret1 b if hone/ ) himself w n attribute 8 failure to ! inju/ice ( society4 ,x is n ess5tial to ! pres]vation ( society & ! race t su* inequalities %\ld be remov$1 t all m5 %\ld be r$uc$ to a dead level ( capacity1 t human nature %\ld be ignor$4 ,x is /rongly felt1 h[ev]1 t society %\ld n itself create artificial inequalities1 %\ld n all[ "o man or set ( m5 a lib]ty x w n all[ to o!rs1 %\ld n impose burd5s on "o man or set ( m5 to be borne by !m alone :ile o!rs are exempt2 or if x does und]take to d s x %\ld be able to demon/rate t su* artificial inequality is necess>y = ! safety ( all4 ,! int5sity ( ?is feel+ aga9/ artificial inequalities is s great t m5 sometimes pref] equality be=e ! law ev5 to lib]ty4 ,:5 ! ,briti% ambassador said to ,madam ,de ,/ael t ,fr5*m5 _h no m lib]ty aft] ! ,revolution ?an be=e1 %e answ]$ t !y _h acquir$ equality be=e ! law & !y pref]r$ t to m lib]ty4 ,?is s5tim5t 0 t]sely & well express$ 9 ! ,fr5* ,decl>ation ( ,rights ( #agie4 ,equality consi/s 9 ?is1 t ! law is ! same = all :e!r x protects or puni%es4 ,( c\rse1 no ass]tion ( rights c be c>ri$ to ! ext5t ( ! dictum1 ,fiat ,ju/itia ruat ,respublica1 = if ! /ate fall1 all hopes ( ju/ice fall ) x4 ,:5 ! alt]native is ! conque/ ( ! p>ticul> society by invasion or its disorganization by rebellion or riot+ or o!rwise1 "s ( its memb]s mu/ submit to ! sacrifice ( "s or all ( _! rights4 ,nature w sacrifice individuals = ! pres]vation ( ! race4 ,society mu/ sometimes d ! same4 ,int] arma sil5t leges4 ,b su* times are exceptional & n )9 ! scope ( our inquiry4 ,to sum up ! matt]1 ju/ice is ! accord+ to e "o 8 "r1 & t "r is su* fre$om ( action 9 gratify+ "o's desires z c be ex]cis$ 9 h>mony ) l fre$om by o!rs4 ,9 o!r words1 x is equal fre$om1 equal re/ra9t4 ,x is ord] & h>mony4 ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 "r 9 tea*+ t ord] is an ess5tial elem5t ( ju/ice4 ,b :o is to det]m9e ! matt]8 ,:o is to det]m9e :at degree ( re/ra9t or lib]ty is necess>y to secure ?is ord] & h>mony1 ?is ju/ice8 ,obvi\sly x is society1 or r1 individuals act+ z a :ole ?r\gh society & n ea* individual act+ = himself1 t mu/ det]m9e su* que/ions4 ,society has ! responsibility4 ,if x imposes too _m re/ra9ts or imposes !m unequally x excites1 z said be=e1 res5tm5t & antagonism1 sometimes to ! ext5t ( resi/ance4 ,if x imposes no m re/ra9ts ?an are necess>y & imposes !m equally1 ord] & h>mony are secur$4 ,& :5 we h ?is equal fre$om ) equal & only necess>y re/ra9ts we h ord] & h>mony1--9 o!r words1 ju/ice4 ,inde$1 to repeat1 ju/ice 9 "s ( its aspects may be consid]$ z ! desir$ equilibrium betwe5 ! ne$s ( society & ! int]e/s ( its individual memb]s4 ,i h left out ( ! acc\nt v>i\s virtues1--pity1 sympa?y1 philan?ropy1 g5]osity & ! l4 ,?\gh ^! make social life m agreeable & contribute mu* to ! sum ( human happ9ess1 !y are n ess5tial to ! exi/5ce ( ! race or society4 ,society z an organization is n held toge!r by ^! virtues1 ?\gh _m ( its weak] memb]s might suff] & p]i% if !y 7 non-exi/5t4 ,all[ m5 z mu* fre$om ( ?\ght & action z c be ex]cis$ )\t int]f]5ce ) l fre$om ( o!rs1 b re/ra9 !m f ex]cis+ any great] fre$om1 & !y c & w live toge!r 9 society ?\gh !y may be :olly selfi% 9 feel+ & conduct4 ,:at is call$ ! gold5 rule1 t we %\ld d to o!rs z we w\ld h !m d to u1 is a precept ( philan?ropy1 ( *>ity1 n ( ju/ice4 ,! rule enunciat$ by ,confucius five hundr$ ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 ! rule t we %\ld n d to o!rs :at we w\ld n h !m d to u1 is suffici5t = ! exi/5ce ( society4 ,! ,fr5* ,conv5tion ( #agic /at$ ! proposition 9 ^! words3 ,lib]ty is ! p[] t belongs to man to d :atev] is n injuri\s to ! rights ( o!rs2 x has nature = its pr9ciple1 ju/ice = its rule1 law = its def5se3 its normal limit is ! maxim1 ,d n to ano!r t :i* y d n wi% to be done to y4 ,?is ord] & h>mony1 h[ev]1 are n easily secur$4 ,n only are !re hone/ diff]5ces ( op9ion z to :at re/ra9ts are necess>y & h[ & on :om !y %\ld be impos$1 b society is divid$ into gr\ps or classes ) int]e/s conflict+1 or ?\ght to be conflict+1 & ea* seek+ to impose re/ra9ts on o!rs :ile reta9+ fre$om = !mselves4 ,:ile pr(ess+ to dem& m lib]ty & equality1 !y are (t5 really insi/+ on great] re/ra9t & inequality4 ,! successful insi/5ce ( ! trades-unions ( ,engl& 9 secur+ f ,p>liam5t a /atute exempt+ _! funds f answ]+ 9 damages = injuries caus$ by !m is a conspicu\s in/ance4 ,ano!r & equally gl>+ example is ! ef=t 9 ?is c\ntry to exempt f ! law aga9/ comb9ations 9 re/ra9t ( trade1 comb9ations to increase ! co/ ( liv+ by increas+ ! prices ( agricultural products & ! prices to be paid = labor4 ,! ef=t seems to be to compel m5 to compete 9 ! use ( _! sav+s no matt] h[ wa/eful ! competition1 & to =bid m5 compet+ 9 ! use ( _! labor1 no matt] :at ! idl5ess !reby caus$4 ,i ?9k x a truism t :oev] seeks to be exempt$ f ! re/rictions or liabilities he w\ld impose on o!rs1 seeks n ju/ice1 b to d inju/ice4 ,ano!r h9drance arises out ( ! v virtues ( pity & sympa?y4 ,^! impel _m to endeavor1 n to p]suade1 b to compel ! m effici5t & prud5t :o h by _! f>sight$ness1 c\rage1 indu/ry & ?rift made good provision = !mselves & _! (fspr+1 to provide also = ! ineffici5t & ! improvid5t4 ,to be ask$ to give to ^! does n (f5d any s5se ( "r1 b if "o be told he mu/ give he feels res5tful at once4 ,he feels he has a "r to decide = himself to :om & to :at ext5t he %all give ( 8 sav+s4 ,society did n come into exi/5ce nor does x n[ exi/ to correct ! inequalities ( nature1 ! inequalities ( natural p[]s1 nor to prev5t ! effici5t & prud5t receiv+ & enjoy+ ! results ( _! effici5cy & prud5ce4 ,nature itself makes no su* ef=t4 ,x r t5ds to elim9ate ! less effici5t & pres]ve ! m effici5t4 ,ev5 if society may /rive to pres]ve ! ineffici5t & improvid5t1 %\ld x d s by hamp]+ & re/ra9+ ^? wis] & m capable8 ,we mu/ expect nature to deal ) society1 ) /ates & nations1 z x does ) individuals4 ,if a /ate by its laws disc\rages ! ex]cise to its full ext5t ( ! effici5cy ( ! few & r5d]s less sev]e ! p5alties = ! ineffici5cy & imprud5ce ( ! _m1 x _c long ma9ta9 any advantage\s position among o!r nations4 ,:atev] ! precepts ( religion1 ( philan?ropy1 or ( o!r virtues may require1 ! precepts ( ju/ice d n require society to support m5 9 idl5ess nor ev5 to furni% !m ) employm5t4 ,nei!r d ! precepts ( ju/ice require ! /ate to furni% opportunities1 nor ev5 to e/abli% equality ( opportunity1 b only equality ( "r to take advantage ( opportunity4 ,x is a say+1 b n a fact1 t opportunity knocks once at e man's door4 ,nature does n br+ opportunities1 mu* less equal opportunities1 to m5's doors4 ,x requires m5 to g out & se>* = opportunities1 or at lea/ to be on ! wat* = !m1 z x requires m5 to se>* or wat* = o!r ?+s !y desire2 & he ( ! quicke/ p]ception & mo/ f>sight$ w soone/ see !m1 & :5 se5 he does n feel any obligation to %>e !m ) o!rs less vigilant or ev5 less =tunate4 ,society does n support its memb]s1 !y support x & mu/ support x & !mselves by _! own ex]tions1 f9d _! own place1 f9d employm5t = !mselves1 s f> z ! precepts ( ju/ice are conc]n$4 ,h[ev] preval5t ! s5tim5t t m ?an equality ( "r to use 8 opportunities is due to any "o1 x is n an in/9ctive s5tim5t4 ,! contr>y is ! fact4 ,unless we are dom9at$ by "s o!r s5tim5t ?an ju/ice1 we in/9ctively yield ass5t to ,ari/otle's proposition t ! prize flute %\ld be aw>d$ to ! be/ flute play] :e!r opul5t or indig5t1 lit]ate or illit]ate1 citiz5 or slave4 ,a gr\p ( small *ildr5 explor+ ! fields & woods = wild fl[]s w conc$e to ea* :at fl[]s he f9ds :e!r by 8 bett] eyes or bett] luck4 ,s ) gr\ps ( small boys fi%+ 9 ! /reams & brooks4 ,9 games ( c>ds = /akes1 ! play]s d n expect to hold c>ds ( equal value & !y conc$e ! /akes to ! w9n]1 :e!r won by 8 great] skill or sup]ior c>ds4 ,also !re is an in/9ctive s5tim5t t ! evil results ( "o's own conduct %\ld be borne by him alone4 ,if "o suff]s loss ?r\gh 8 own misjudgm5t1 incapacity1 or want ( c>e1 !n1 :atev] ! precepts ( o!r virtues may require1 we d n feel t ju/ice requires u to be> any "p ( t loss4 ,on ! contr>y1 we feel in/9ctively t he %\ld be> ! loss alone1 t x is ! natural p5alty = 8 lack ( judgm5t1 capacity1 or c>e4 ,if my neighbor neglects to insure 8 h\se & loses x by fire1 ,i see no reason :y he %\ld n be> ! loss alone4 ,9 ?is connection1 p]haps ,i %\ld n omit to notice ref]5ces (t5 made to ! rights ( labor1 ! rights ( capital1 prop]ty rights1 & p]sonal rights1 z if !y 7 diff]5t 9 _! nature & importance4 ,i d n z yet see su* diff]5ce4 ,all rights are p]sonal rights1 & ! "r ( ea* to control 8 labor1 8 sav+s1 8 p]son1 & 8 prop]ty is ! same4 ,i am n yet conv9c$ t ! "r ( ! labor] to make use ( 8 labor is sup]ior to t ( ! capitali/ to make use ( 8 capital2 t1 :atev] 8 great] ne$1 ! "r ( "o )\t prop]ty is sup]ior to t ( "o :o has prop]ty2 t ! "r to get is sup]ior to ! "r to save4 ,x is also l\dly proclaim$ t prop]ty rights are ( little importance comp>$ ) human rights1 unm9dful ( ! tru? t ! "r ( acquir+1 possess+ & def5d+ prop]ty is1 z mu* z any o!r1 a human "r &1 z su*1 necess>y to be ma9ta9$ if ! race is to rise above its primitive condition ( pov]ty4 ,h[ev]1 ,i d n see t ! diff]5ces1 if any1 affect ! g5]al "q ( individual rights4 ,! conclusion ,i arrive at is ?is3 ,society1 & ) x ! race1 _c survive unless x re/ra9s to "s ext5t individual fre$om ( action1 nor c any p>ticul> society long survive if x c>ry t re/ra9t too f>4 ,x %\ld1 !re=e1 asc]ta9 & ma9ta9 ! l9e1 ! equilibrium1 betwe5 necess>y fre$om & necess>y re/ra9t4 ,x is only by su* action ( society t ju/ice c be e/abli%$ & ! welf>e ( ! race be advanc$4 ,?is br+s u to ! "q ( h[ & by :at in/rum5talities society c be/ p]=m ?is mom5t\s task1 ! secur+ ( ju/ice4 ,?is w be consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,ju/ice ,,c ,,be ,,secur$ ,,only ,,?r\gh ,,gov]nm5tal ,,action4 ,,! ,,be/ ,,=m ,,( ,,gov]nm5t ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( civilization society _c act effectively = det]m9+ & ma9ta9+ ! l9e1 ! equilibrium1 betwe5 necess>y fre$om & necess>y re/ra9t1 or 9 %ort1 ju/ice1 except ?r\gh "s gov]nm5tal organization ) p[] to def9e & en=ce4 ,appeals to altrui/ic s5tim5ts w n suffice4 ,?is tru? 0 recogniz$ by ! fram]s ( our f$]al & _m /ate con/itutions1 9 nam+ fir/ among ! purposes ( gov]nm5t ! e/abli%m5t ( ju/ice4 ,any gov]nm5t1 h[ev]1 or r ^? entru/$ ) its adm9i/ration1 may ?r\gh mi/ake or wilfulness d inju/ice to "s ( its subjects4 ,x has (t5 done s 9 ! pa/ & ! future is n free f ! dang]4 ,! v possession ( p[] excites a desire to use x1 & x is an admitt$ *>act]i/ic ( our human nature t ^? ve/$ ) p[]1 political or o!r1 are prone to ex]cise x unduly1 to abuse x4 ,m5 9 au?ority are (t5 said to be drunk ) p[]4 ,h5ce to ensure ju/ice ! gov]nm5tal organization %\ld be su* t ! limits ( ! v>i\s p[]s ( ! gov]nm5t be c>efully def9$ & its adm9i/rators be kept )9 ^? limits4 ,"s ye>s ago ,i might h po9t$ to our own f$]al & /ate gov]nm5ts z ! be/ 9 =m & "* = e/abli%+ ju/ice & re/$ !re4 ,9 lat] ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! sup]iority ( our sy/em is que/ion$1 & radical *anges are urg$1 & inde$ "s h be5 made1 9 ! f$]al sy/em & 9 t ( "s ( ! /ates4 ,i feel1 !re=e1 t ,i %\ld make "s def5se ( ! sy/em1 believ+ z ,i d t 9 its g5]al =m & "* x is be/ adapt$ to secure firmly z mu* individual lib]ty ( action & equality ( "r z is consi/5t ) ! welf>e ( ! :ole numb]1 or1 9 o!r words1 be/ adapt$ to secure ju/ice4 ,x has become a famili> maxim t ! functions & p[]s ( gov]nm5t may all be gr\p$ 9 ?ree classes or dep>tm5ts1 correspond+ to ! duties already nam$3 7#a7 t ( det]m9+ :at rules & regulations %\ld be obs]v$1 :at re/ra9ts & duties %\ld be impos$ ^u its subjects2 7#b7 t ( det]m9+ :e!r 9 a giv5 case any ( ^! rules1 etc41 h be5 violat$2 & 7#c7 t ( puni%+ _! violation & o!rwise en=c+ _! obs]vance4 ,^! ?ree gr\ps h come to be call$ ! ?ree p[]s ( gov]nm5t & to be designat$ z ! legislative1 judicial1 & executive1 ?\gh !y are usually nam$ 9 ano!r ord] z ! executive1 legislative1 & judicial4 ,! mo/ effici5t =m ( gov]nm5t = good or evil1 & ! quicke/ to act1 is und\bt$ly t 9 :i* all ( ^! p[]s are unit$ 9 a s+le individual4 ,if t individual 7 always /rong1 yet peace-lov+1 self-controll$1 sagaci\s & exclusively devot$ to ! welf>e ( 8 subjects1 t =m ( gov]nm5t w\ld p]haps secure !m ju/ice mo/ surely & spe$ily4 ,su* m51 h[ev]1 are r>e & su* gov]nm5ts h be5 f\nd to be inv>iably & almo/ inevitably arbitr>y 9 _! deal+s ) _! subjects1 & 9 ! pl5itude ( _! p[] to become oppressive4 ,:ile !y may effectually protect _! subjects f =eign aggression & dome/ic an>*y1 _! t5d5cy is to impose burd5s & re/rict individual lib]ty m ?an necess>y1 & to disreg>d ! innate desire ( m5 = lib]ty or at lea/ = equality ( re/ra9t4 ,?is =m ( gov]nm5t has already l>gely disappe>$ & is fur!r disappe>+1 ?\gh x may aga9 be resort$ to = ! re/oration ( ord]1 %\ld ! pres5t =ms ( gov]nm5t fail to prev5t viol5ce & pres]ve ! peace4 ,b o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t h n be5 & are n yet :olly free f ! same objectionable t5d5cy4 ,! ve/+ ( all ^! gov]nm5tal p[]s 9 a gr\p or class ( p]sons in/ead ( "o p]son has be5 foll[$ by ! same results4 ,ari/ocracies or olig>*ies h ! same t5d5cy & ev5 9 a great] degree4 ,!y h prov$ ev5 m selfi% & tyrannical ?an ! s+le rul]4 ,!y1 l all cr[ds1 are less s5sitive 9 consci5ce1 less mov$ by appeals to reason1 ?an is ! s+le individual4 ,!y (f5d m ! s5tim5t ( equality4 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution 0 n s mu* aga9/ ! k+ z aga9/ ! nobility1 :o ) _! oppressive feudal exemptions _h excit$ ! res5tm5t ( ! p at l>ge4 ,x 0 n till aft] he _h ca/ 9 8 lot ) ! emigrs t ! k+ 0 depos$ & guillot9$4 ,nor h pure democracies1 9 ! few in/ances :]e !y h und]tak5 to ex]cise directly all ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t1 %[$ less t5d5cy to be arbitr>y & inconsid]ate ( individual fre$om & desires4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to su* a gov]nm5t 0 t ( anci5t ,a!ns :]e ! populace s5t into exile1 practically )\t trial1 ,ari/ides1 call$ ! ,j1 ,miltiades1 ! victor ( ,m>a?on1 & ,!mi/ocles1 ! victor ( ,salamis4 ,! excesses ( ! ,p>is ,commune ( #ahgj dur+ its reign1 ! lyn*+s ( today by mobs ( s-call$ respectable citiz5s :o assume ! p[] to accuse1 judge & execute all at once1 indicate h[ mu* reg>d unre/ra9$ democracies w\ld h = ! rights ( _! individual memb]s4 ,nev]!less1 despite ! dang] ( m or less arbitr>9ess1 ( m or less oppression ( ! individual1 any gov]nm5t mu/ be made /rong en\gh p]fectly to ma9ta9 ord] & peace among its subjects4 ,ord] is e>?'s z well z heav5's fir/ law4 ,! goddess ,!mis 9 ! e>ly ,greek my?ology 0 ! goddess ( ord] z well z ! suppli] ( !mi/es or decisions4 ,%e 0 pres5t z ! _s ( ord] 9 ! c\ncils ( gods & m54 ,! gov]nm5t t _c or w n ma9ta9 ord] & peace1 prev5t viol5ce & fraud1 en=ce individual rights & r$ress individual wrongs completely & promptly1 is s f> a failure & :atev] its =m %\ld be re=m$ or ov]?r[n4 ,ev5 milit>y despotism is bett] ?an disord]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt ! t5d5cy1 already m5tion$1 ( ! possessor ( unlimit$ p[] ov] o!rs to use x = 8 own b5efit or pleasure at ! exp5se ( ^? subject to 8 control1 :]e n re/ra9$ by affection or l virtues4 ,"u all gov]nm5ts !re has be5 m or less friction betwe5 ! p]sons gov]n+ & ^? gov]n$2 m or less /rife1 sometimes culm9at+ 9 rebellion & ev5 revolution4 ,if x be said t "u a gov]nm5t by ! p directly1 a pure democracy1 su* z seems to be advocat$ at ?is day1 !re w\ld be no di/9ction betwe5 gov]nors & gov]n$1 t all w\ld be gov]nors & gov]n$ alike1 ! answ] is t 9 a pure democracy ! gov]n+ p[] is & c be ex]cis$ by only a "p ( ! p1 a majority x may be1 b /ill only a "p4 ,?is "p are ! gov]nors4 ,! o!r "p1 p]haps ne>ly z num]\s1 are gov]n$4 ,friction & ev5 facti\s /rife w\ld /ill exi/4 ,inde$1 a gov]nm5t by a pure democracy rul+ directly w\ld probably be m arbitr>y ?an any o!r1 z 0 ! case 9 ,a!ns4 ,! gov]nm5t by "o1 or t by a few1 w\ld be re/ra9$ to "s ext5t by public op9ion1 w\ld refra9 f extreme measures le/ !y excite effectual resi/ance1 b a majority w\ld feel no su* re/ra9t4 ,x w\ld itself con/itute public op9ion & x w\ld be less likely to fe> resi/ance4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! frame ( gov]nm5t %\ld be su* z to secure uni=mity 9 its action s t x %all n act arbitr>ily & unequally on its subjects4 ,i assume t no sane man w\ld desire to live "u any gov]nm5t :]e ! wield]s ( ! gov]nm5tal p[]1 "o or _m1 are entirely )\t legal re/ra9t4 ,we all desire normally1 n only ord] & peace1 b also p]sonal lib]ty & equality ( rights4 ,! problem1 !n1 is h[ to ord] ! frame ( gov]nm5t s t x %all be /rong en\gh to protect u individually z well z collectively1 b n left able to oppress u or any ( u4 ,z said by ,alex&] ,hamilton1 we mu/ fir/ enable ! gov]nm5t to control ! gov]n$1 & 9 ! next place oblige x to control itself4 ,"o great /ep t[>d su* a =m ( gov]nm5t 0 made 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( our f$]al & /ate gov]nm5ts by giv+ effect to ! !ory ( ! trip>tite nature ( gov]nm5tal p[]s1 entru/+ ea* ( ! ?ree to a diff]5t p]son or gr\p ( p]sons1 or1 9 o!r words1 to a diff]5t dep>tm5t1 ea* re/ra9+ ! o!r dep>tm5ts f exce$+ _! def9$ p[]s1 s t ! gov]nm5t1 h[ev] democratic1 %all n run wild4 ,at ?is day1 h[ev]1 ev5 ?is feature ( our =m ( gov]nm5t is assail$ z hamp]+ ! p & _! gov]nm5t & greatly delay+ desir$ re=ms4 ,x may be admitt$ t a gov]nm5t ) its p[]s ?us sep>at$ 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts is n able to act z quickly z desir$ by zeal\s p]sons confid5t ( ! excell5ce ( _! s*emes & impati5t = _! realization1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is less liable to act too ha/ily1 less liable to act arbitr>ily1 or to disreg>d individual rights & int]e/s4 ,! idea ( a division ( gov]nm5tal p[]s is n ( rec5t orig94 ,ari/otle argu$ t ! judges %\ld h no o!r political p[]1 %\ld n !mselves en=ce _! decisions4 ,9 ,rome "u ! ,republic !re 0 divid$ betwe5 ! pretor & ! judex ! p[] to decide controv]sies4 ,! pretor _h o!r duties1 b ! judex 0 conf9$ to ! s+le duty to he> & det]m9e4 ,! fram]s ( our ,f$]al ,con/itution & ( our e>ly /ate con/itutions did n act ha/ily nor unadvis$ly4 ,z h]et(ore /at$1 ! long controv]sy ) ,great ,brita9 ov] ! relations betwe5 t c\ntry & h] ,colonies1 ! arbitr>y acts ( ! ,briti% ,k+ & ,p>liam5t1 caus$ 9 ! ,colonies a pr(\nd /udy ( ! nature ( gov]nm5t3 :at %\ld be its purposes & h[ be/ to effect its purposes & avoid its abuses4 ,! pr9cipal m5 among !m 9 ea* ,colony 7 famili> ) ! hi/ory ( gov]nm5ts & ) ! !ories ( gov]nm5t advanc$ by ,european lawy]s & political philosoph]s4 ,!y 7 acqua9t$ ) ! argum5ts ( ,montesquieu & o!rs t a sep>ation ( ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t & ! ve/+ ( ea*1 ! executive1 legislative1 & judicial1 9 diff]5t h&s 0 ess5tial to lib]ty4 ,!y did n m]ely !orize1 h[ev]4 ,!y _h !mselves liv$ & labor$ "u gov]nm5ts n ?us divid$ 9 functions or only p>tially s4 ,colonial gov]nors _h assum$ legislative functions 9 ! promulgation ( ord9ances1 & also judicial functions z judges ( probate & 9 o!r ways4 ,! colonial legislatures did n hesitate to dictate to ! c\rts 9 p>ticul> cases & (t5 act$ z a c\rt ( appeal4 ,9 ,massa*usetts ,bay ! legislature came to be kn[n z ! ,g5]al ,c\rt & ex]cis$ judicial p[] freely1 sometimes call+ 9 ! judges to sit ) !m4 ,! same individual c\ld at "o & ! same "t fill an executive & a legislative or judicial (fice4 ,9 colonial ,massa*usetts ,william ,/\ghton held ! (fices ( milit>y comm&]1 lieut5ant gov]nor1 & *ief ju/ice at ! same "t4 ,because ( ! frequ5t & prolong$ abs5ces ( ! titul> gov]nor he 0 (t5 ! act+ gov]nor4 ,z an inevitable consequ5ce1 :5 sitt+ z a judge he 0 m a zeal\s prosecutor ?an an imp>tial judge4 ,8 conduct 9 ! wit*craft trials 0 comp>able to t ( ,jeffreys 9 ! infam\s ,bloody ,assizes4 ,hut*9son 0 also (t5 act+ gov]nor :ile hold+ 8 commission z *ief ju/ice4 ,9 view ( _! exp]i5ce & deep /udy1 ! op9ions =m$ by ! fram]s ( ! e>ly con/itutions ( ?is c\ntry %\ld be ( great weight 9 =m+ our own4 ,x is wor? :ile to cite ! op9ions ( "s4 ,?omas ,jeff]son 0 n 9 8 day1 nor has he be5 s9ce1 reg>d$ z oppos$ to popul> gov]nm5t4 ,virg9ia _h z e>ly z #aggf decl>$ 9 its fir/ con/itution t ! ?ree great dep>tm5ts %\ld be kept sep>ate4 ,jeff]son1 :o besides 8 o!r opportunities ( obs]v+ ! op]ation ( gov]nm5t 0 himself *ief magi/rate ( ! /ate1 criticiz$ t con/itution z n mak+ su* sep>ation effectual4 ,9 8 ,notes on ,virg9ia he wrote ( x3 ,all ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t1 legislative1 executive & judici>y1 result to ! legislative body4 ,! conc5trat+ ^! 9 ! same h&s is precisely ! def9ition ( despotic gov]nm5t4 ,x w be no alleviation t ^! p[]s w be ex]cis$ by a plurality ( h&s & n by a s+le "o4 ,"o hundr$ & sev5ty-?ree despots w\ld surely be z oppressive z "o4 ,let ^? :o d\bt x turn _! eyes on ! republic ( ,v5ice4 ,z little w x avail u t !y are *os5 by ourselves4 ,an elective despotism 0 n ! gov]nm5t we f\ght =1 b "o :i* %\ld n only be f\nd$ on free pr9ciples1 b 9 :i* ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t %\ld be s divid$ & balanc$ among sev]al bodies ( magi/racy z t no "o c\ld transc5d _! legal limits )\t be+ effectually *eck$ & re/ra9$ by ! o!rs4 ,= ?is reason ! conv5tion :i* pass$ ! ord9ance ( gov]nm5t laid its f\ndation on ?is basis1 t ! legislative1 executive & judici>y dep>tm5ts %\ld be sep>ate & di/9ct1 s t no p]son %\ld ex]cise m ?an "o ( !m at ! same "t4 ,b no b>ri] 0 provid$ betwe5 ^! sev]al p[]s4 ,x 0 ?is defect1 ?is lack ( b>ri]s1 t ,jeff]son lam5t$4 ,:5 ! draft ( ! ,f$]al ,con/itution ( #aghg 0 submitt$ to ! /ates1 "o ( ! pr9cipal objections urg$ aga9/ x 0 t 9 its /ructure suffici5t reg>d 0 n paid to keep+ ! ?ree dep>tm5ts ( gov]nm5t sep>ate & di/9ct4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is objection ,madison wrote 9 ! ,f$]ali/3 ,no political tru? is c]ta9ly ( great] intr9sic value or is /amp$ ) ! au?ority ( m enlight5$ patrons ( lib]ty ?an t on :i* ?is objection is f\nd$4 ,! accumulation ( all p[]s1 legislative1 executive1 & judici>y1 9 ! same h&s1 :e!r ( "o1 few1 or _m1 & :e!r h]$it>y1 self-appo9t$1 or elective1 may ju/ly be pron\nc$ ! v def9ition ( tyranny4 ,7 ! ,f$]al ,con/itution !re=e really *>geable ) ?is accumulation ( p[]s1 or ) a mixture ( p[]s hav+ a dang]\s t5d5cy to su* an accumulation1 no fur!r argum5t w\ld be necess>y to inspire a univ]sal reprobation ( ! sy/em4 ,he else:]e decl>$ ! maxim to be a fundam5tal article ( lib]ty4 ,hamilton 0 appreh5sive ( dang] to lib]ty f ! legislative dep>tm5t & favor$ a /rong executive to gu>d aga9/ x4 ,he decl>$ 9 ! ,f$]ali/ t ! legislative dep>tm5t 0 ev]y:]e ext5d+ ! sph]e ( its activity & draw+ all p[] into its impetu\s vortex1--t ! p nev] seem to h recollect$ ! dang] f legislative usurpation :i* by assembl+ all p[] 9 ! same h&s mu/ lead to ! same tyranny z is ?reat5$ by executive usurpation4 ,wa%+ton 9 8 ,f>ewell ,address1 aft] mu* exp]i5ce )1 & obs]vation (1 legislative action1 said3 ,! necessity ( reciprocal *ecks 9 ! ex]cise ( political p[] by divid+ & di/ribut+ x 9 diff]5t deposit>ies & con/itut+ ea* ! gu>dian ( ! public weal aga9/ invasions by ! o!rs has be5 ev9c$ by exp]im5ts anci5t & mod]n1 "s ( !m 9 our own c\ntry & "u our own eyes4 ,to pres]ve !m mu/ be z necess>y z to in/itute !m4 ,aft] hav+ liv$ = g5]ations "u gov]nm5ts 9 :i* !re 0 no effective division ( p[]s1 ! p ( ! v>i\s colonies 9 sett+ up _! own gov]nm5ts at ! "t ( ! ,revolution v g5]ally decl>$ = su* division1 9 m or less explicit t]ms4 ,ev5 9 ! few cases :]e ! division 0 n expressly made1 x 0 impli$ 9 ! con/itution4 ,! provision 9 ! con/itution ( ,massa*usetts adopt$ 9 #aghj may be cit$ z an example ( ! /r5g? ( ! conviction4 ,9 ! gov]nm5t ( ?is ,commonweal? ! legislative dep>tm5t %all nev] ex]cise ! executive & judicial p[]s or ei!r ( !m2 ! executive %all nev] ex]cise ! legislative & judicial p[]s or ei!r ( !m2 ! judicial %all nev] ex]cise ! legislative & executive p[]s or ei!r ( !m4 ,to ?is provision 7 app5d$1 z ! reason = x1 ! memorable words1 ,to ! end t x may be a gov]nm5t ( laws & n ( m54 ,f #aggf to ! pres5t c5tury z new /ates 7 =m$ _! p 9 mo/ in/ances h adopt$ simil> provisions4 ,p]haps ! p ( ,ma9e :5 !y sep>at$ f ,massa*usetts 9 #ahbj adopt$ ! mo/ /r+5t provision by prohibit+ n only ! dep>tm5ts b all ! p]sons 9 ei!r dep>tm5t f ex]cis+ any ( ! p[]s prop]ly belong+ to ei!r ( ! o!r dep>tm5ts4 ,( c\rse "s exceptions to ! rule are necess>y & ^! are usually nam$ 9 ! con/itution itself4 ,aga9 ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! p[]s _c always be precisely def9$ &1 fur!r1 ea* dep>tm5t 9 ! p]=mance ( its own prop] functions may sometimes be oblig$ to ex]cise a p[] /rictly p]ta9+ to ano!r dep>tm5t4 ,all t ! maxim requires is t ! ?ree p[]s %\ld be kept z di/9ct & sep>ate z possible & h ! gov]nm5t /ill g on4 ,x is true we %\ld n fe> to "q ! wisdom ( our fa!rs1 b conclusions !y h arriv$ at 9 matt]s ( gov]nm5t aft] long /udy1 obs]vation1 & actual exp]i5ce %\ld n be disreg>d$ unless _! error c be cle>ly demon/rat$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,con/itutional ,,limitations ,,^u ,,! ,,p[]s ,,( ,,! ,,gov]nm5t4 ,,bills ,,( ,,rights ,x %\ld be evid5t t ! division & di/ribution ( gov]nm5tal p[]s among diff]5t deposit>ies w n alone prev5t encroa*m5ts by ! gov]n+ p[] ^u ! lib]ty ( ! subject4 ,! executive dep>tm5t 9 p]=m+ only executive functions c1 9 ! abs5ce ( o!r *ecks1 act oppressively4 ,! legislative dep>tm5t1 especially1 )\t exce$+ ! legislative function1 c 9 _m ways & 9 excessive degrees oppress ! individual by unnecess>y re/rictions ( p]sonal lib]ty1 by unnecess>y exactions1 by arbitr>y discrim9ations4 ,! !ory ( repres5tative gov]nm5t is t ! legislature w be a body ( m5 :o w reg>d !mselves z entru/$ ) important p[]s to be ex]cis$ delib]ately & wisely = ! welf>e ( ! :ole commonweal? & n = any "o or m classes or int]e/s1--:o w reg>d !mselves n z m]e delegates or proxies1 b z repres5tatives1 l ! directors ( a corporation1 to =m & act ^u _! own judgm5t aft] inve/igation & reflection4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n1 h[ev]1 t memb]s ( ! legislature d n always nor g5]ally act ^u t !ory4 ,!y seem to be inoculat$ ) ! bacillus ( irrepressible activity1 ! desire cont9ually to be propos+ new laws1 new re/rictions1 new exactions4 ,if ! laws enact$ prove difficult ( en=cem5t by reason ( _! int]f]5ce ) :at individuals feel to be _! rights1 !n new & oppressive me?ods ( en=cem5t are devis$1 /ill fur!r re/rict+ lib]ty & equality4 ,i h se5 x /at$ t 9 ! fir/ t5 days ( ! session ( ! ,massa*usetts legislature ?is pres5t ye> ov] a ?\s& laws 7 propos$4 ,fur!r1 ! memb]s ( ! legislature are beset by con/itu5ts & o!rs to favor legislative measures = _! own special b5efit1 or t ( _! association1 or ( _! locality4 ,"o result is t dur+ e legislative session ! ord9>y citiz5 is dread+ oppressive legislation & feels reliev$ :5 ! session is ov]4 ,:5 we consid] ! wide1 almo/ unlimit$ range ( ! legislative function1 & ! p[] & t5d5cy ( legislatures to pu% t function to ! extreme1 x w\ld seem t "s *eck %\ld be put ^u ! legislature to prev5t its enact+ discrim9atory laws or o!rwise depriv+ ! individual ( "s accu/om$ & *]i%$ fre$om ( action4 ,if x be said t public op9ion is suffici5t re/ra9t1 ! answ] is t 9 a democracy1 or 9 a republic ) univ]sal suffrage1 ! effici5t public op9ion is practically t ( ! majority ( ! electorate1 & x is an ackn[l$g$ truism t ! unre/ra9$ majority is ev5 m likely ?an ! few to be oppressive ( ! individual4 ,! op9ion ( ! _m is m v>iable ?an t ( ! few1 m likely to be sway$ by sympa?y1 prejudice1 & o!r emotions4 ,inde$1 public op9ion sometimes induces legislatures to enact laws :i* !y !mselves feel to be unwise & tyrannical4 ,if hi/ory & reason %[ t ! happ9ess ( ! p z a :ole requires c]ta9 individual lib]ties & rights to be left undi/urb$ & t ! safety ( ! p z a :ole does n require ! contr>y1 !n 9 ord] to secure ju/ice ^? possess+ ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t %\ld be re/ra9$ f any acts infr++ ^? lib]ties & rights2 =1 z already /at$1 ju/ice consi/s 9 ! equilibrium betwe5 re/rictions necess>y = ! welf>e ( ! :ole p )\t discrim9ation1 & ! fre$om ( ! individual to s]ve 8 own welf>e4 ,i ?9k !re are su* lib]ties & rights4 ,! subjects ( ,k+ ,john 9 ! #ac? c5tury ?\ght s & compell$ ! k+ to gu>antee by ! ,magna ,*>ta t c]ta9 specifi$ rights & lib]ties %\ld n be infr+$4 ,aga91 ! subjects ( ,*>les ,i 9 ! #ag? c5tury _h a simil> conviction & express$ x 9 ! ,petition ( ,"r1 :i* nam$ "s lib]ties & rights n to be infr+$4 ,! k+ ass5t$ to t mu* limitation ( ! royal p[]4 ,9 ! same c5tury1 ^u ! accession ( ,william & ,m>y1 a ,bill ( ,rights 0 fram$ & enact$ into law by ,k+ & ,p>liam5t1 nam+ lib]ties & rights ( ! subject :i* ought n to be abridg$4 ,succe$+ ,k+s & ,p>liam5ts seem to h respect$ ! provisions ( ?is ,bill ( ,rights 9 _! legislation = ,briti% subjects4 ,_h !y conc$$ ! claim ( ! p ( ! ,am]ican ,colonies t !y also 7 protect$ by its provisions1 ! c\rse ( our political hi/ory might h be5 diff]5t4 ,z x 01 h[ev]1 ! ,briti% gov]nm5t practically held t nei!r ,magna ,*>ta1 ! ,petition ( ,"r1 nor ! ,bill ( ,rights re/ra9$ x 9 its deal+s ) ! ,colonies1 & ?is 9 despite ( ! prote/s ( "s ( its mo/ em95t /atesm54 ,! resolutions ( ! v>i\s ,colonial legislatures & ! =mal ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce recite _m griev\s in/ances ( arbitr>y action by ! gov]nm5t 9 disreg>d ( ! doctr9es ( ^? *>t]s4 ,s bitt] 0 _! exp]i5ce t1 :5 ! p ( ! v>i\s ,colonies came to frame con/itutions = a gov]nm5t ( ! p1 by ! p1 & = ! p indep5d5t ( ! ,briti% cr[n & all o!r ext]nal au?ority1 !y v g5]ally insi/$ t ev5 su* a gov]nm5t %\ld h its p[]s def9$ & limit$1 t "s rights ( ! individual %\ld be specifi$ :i* ! gov]nm5t %\ld n infr+e nor h ! lawful p[] to infr+e4 ,f _! own exp]i5ce ! p 7 conv9c$ t su* def9itions & limitations 7 necess>y = ! security ( ! individual ev5 "u a popul> gov]nm5t4 ,! fir/ /ep ( ! repres5tatives ( ! p ( ,virg9ia t[>d a decl>ation ( indep5d5ce ( ! ,briti% cr[n1 & ! sett+ up an indep5d5t gov]nm5t1 0 ! adoption ( a decl>ation ( rights 9 ! individual :i* no gov]nm5t %\ld infr+e4 ,?is 0 adopt$ & promulgat$ sometime be=e ! con/itution prop] 0 fram$4 ,! /atem5t 0 decl>$ to be necess>y 9 ord] t ! gov]nm5t might be effectually secur$ aga9/ maladm9i/ration4 ,simil> limitations ^u ! p[]s ( ! gov]nm5t 7 impos$ 9 ! e>ly con/itutions ( ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,delaw>e1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 also 9 ! fir/ con/itution ( ,connecticut 9 #ahah1 & 9 ! fir/ con/itution ( ,rhode ,isl& 9 #ahdb4 ,! p ( ,new ,j]sey 9 #ahdd made ! limitations m def9ite1 & ! p ( ,m>yl& impos$ additional limitations 9 #ahfd4 ,! p ( ,new ,york did n 9 _! fir/ con/itution ( #aggg expressly 9 t]ms gu>antee individual rights1 b !y impli$ly did s by mak+ ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce ! preamble1 & 9 _! con/itution ( #ahba !y incorporat$ an explicit /atem5t ( individual rights n to be infr+$4 ,! example ( ! orig9al /ates 9 ?is respect has be5 foll[$ by mo/ ( ! subsequ5t /ates ( ! ,union4 ,9 #aggh a conv5tion *os5 to draft a con/itution = ,massa*usetts submitt$ a draft to ! p1 :o reject$ x by a l>ge majority ma9ly because x did n conta9 a ,bill ( ,rights4 ,to quote f ,h>ry ,a4 ,cu%+1 a writ] on ! ,hi/ory ( ,commonweal? ,gov]nm5t 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,no dem& 0 m g5]al ?an t = a ,bill ( ,rights :i* %\ld embody ! be/ results ( exp]i5ce4 ,9 #aghj a second conv5tion submitt$ ano!r draft ( a con/itution conta9+ ! fam\s ,massa*usetts ,decl>ation ( ,rights1 & ?is ! p adopt$ by a majority ( m ?an two to "o4 ,! only objection urg$ aga9/ ! ,decl>ation ( ,rights 0 t x did n g f> en\gh4 ,9 ! conv5tion t draft$ ! ,f$]al ,con/itution x 0 /rongly urg$ t a ,bill ( ,rights %\ld be incorporat$ 9 ! draft1 b x 0 deem$1 by ! majority at lea/1 unnecess>y & ev5 dang]\s to make a specific decl>ation ( individual rights1 inasmu* z ! f$]al gov]nm5t contemplat$ 0 9 its v nature limit$ to su* p[]s z 7 expressly1 or by necess>y implication1 conf]r$ by ! ,con/itution1 & h5ce to specify c]ta9 ?+s ! gov]nm5t %\ld n d might be con/ru$ z p]mitt+ x to d any?+ n s specifi$4 ,?is argum5t prevail$ & ! draft submitt$ to ! /ates conta9$ no ,bill ( ,rights4 ,imm$iately1 h[ev]1 a /orm ( objections 0 rais$ aga9/ x because ( ! omission4 ,despite ! argum5ts ( ,hamilton & ,madison t a ,bill ( ,rights 0 unnecess>y1 ratification 0 f9ally obta9$ only by a g5]al assurance & und]/&+ t a suffici5t ,bill ( ,rights %\ld be add$ imm$iately ^u ! organization ( ! new gov]nm5t4 ,! necess>y am5dm5ts1 !re=e1 7 submitt$ at ! fir/ session ( ! new ,congress & 7 unanim\sly adopt$ by ! /ates4 ,o!r limitations h s9ce be5 impos$1 notably ^? 9 ! ,x,i,vth am5dm5t1 assur+ to e citiz5 equal consid]ation 9 legislation by ! /ates4 ,by ! ,f$]al ,con/itution z x n[ /&s ! citiz51 9 "t ( peace at lea/1 is gu>ante$1 among o!r matt]s1 ! protection ( ! writ ( habeas corpus2 fre$om f bills ( atta9d] & ex po/ facto legislation2 fre$om ( religi\s belief & wor%ip2 fre$om ( ?\ght & its expression2 fre$om peacefully to assemble ) o!rs & petition = r$ress ( grievances2 fre$om f unreasonable se>*es & seizure2 ! "r n to be prosecut$ = infam\s crimes except fir/ accus$ by a gr& jury2 ! "r 9 all crim9al prosecutions to a spe$y & public trial by an imp>tial jury1 to be confront$ ) ! witnesses aga9/ him & to h assi/ance ( c\nsel2 t he %all n be depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty )\t due process ( law2 t 8 private prop]ty %all n be tak5 f him ev5 = public use )\t j comp5sation2 t ! obligations accru+ to him "u lawful contracts %all n be impair$2 t he %all n be d5i$ ! equal protection ( ! laws4 ,! gu>antees 9 ! /ate con/itutions are g5]ally ( ! same nature4 ,x is difficult to see h[ any ( ^! gu>anties1 or su* o!r gu>anties z may be conta9$ 9 ! f$]al & /ate con/itutions1 prev5t legislative or executive action necess>y = ! welf>e ( ! p g5]ally4 ,!re is c]ta9ly an ample field = su* action )\t ov]/epp+ ^! b\nd>ies4 ,nev]!less1 x is today urg$ by "s impulsive p]sons1 eag] to impose _! !ories on ! p at once1 t all or _m ( ^! limitations ^u ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t %\ld be remov$ or disreg>d$ & ! majority ( ! p all[$ unre/rict$ sway 9 all matt]s ( gov]nm5tal action4 ,o!rs :o d n g s f>1 yet urge t ! majority %\ld be free to susp5d ^! gu>anties tempor>ily or 9 "s p>ticul> classes ( cases4 ,aga9/ ?is op9ion ,i submit t aft] s _m c5turies ( exp]i5ce ( ! t5d5cy ( all gov]nm5ts to enl>ge _! p[]s ov] ! subject1 & ( /ruggles to limit ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t ov] private rights & to protect ! individual f gov]nm5tal oppression1 ! burd5 ( evid5ce & ( argum5t is heavily on ^? :o w\ld n[ advocate unlimit$ p[]s ev5 = ! mo/ democratic gov]nm5t4 ,a gov]nm5t directly by ! p is ( c\rse 9 practice a gov]nm5t by a %ift+ & (t5 n>r[ majority ( ! p4 ,x is n yet demon/rat$ by exp]i5ce or reason t su* a gov]nm5t1 unlimit$1 w\ld be z reg>dful ( individual rights or welf>e z a republican =m ( gov]nm5t ) its *ecks & balances & con/itutional re/rictions4 ,! excesses ( ! unlimit$ democracies ( anci5t ,greece & ( ! unre/ra9$ democracy ( ,france dur+ & aft] ! revolution ( #aghi & ! lyn*+s 9 ?is c\ntry d n contribute to su* demon/ration4 ,x is n ^? :o def5d our pres5t =m ( gov]nm5t ) its con/itutional gu>anties1 :o resi/ political action t5d+ to weak5 !m1 t %\ld be call$ unprogressive1 undemocratic1 or want+ 9 love ( c\ntry4 ,^? ( our ance/ors1 ,engli% & ,am]ican1 :o f\ght = ^! gu>anties1 :o obta9$ !m only aft] ye>s ( /rife1 :o incorporat$ !m 9 our f$]al & /ate con/itutions & safegu>d$ !m aga9/ ! v>y+ impulses ( ! populace1 7 n unpatriotic nor unm9dful ( ! welf>e ( ! p1--7 n indiff]5t to human lib]ties or human rights4 ,nei!r are !y su* :o today /rive to pres]ve ^? gu>anties won at su* exp5se ( blood & treasure4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is ^? :o w\ld ov]ride ^! gu>anties & rev]t to ! old days ( unlimit$ gov]nm5tal p[]1 t are ! reaction>ies4 ,x may be admitt$ t "s ( ^! limitations if en=c$ d n[ & !n imp$e & ev5 prev5t "s gov]nm5tal action desir$ by "s gr\p or section ( ! p1 b :ile action 9 violation ( ^! limitations might b5efit its sponsors x w\ld necess>ily be at ! exp5se ( o!rs4 ,^? :o seek su* legislation aga9/ o!rs w\ld quickly appeal to ^! limitations if legislation 7 direct$ aga9/ !mselves4 ,! noisie/ declaim]s aga9/ ^! gu>anties fall back = protection ^u ! con/itutional gu>anty ( fre$om ( spee*4 ,s long z ^! b>ri]s are ma9ta9$ e individual1 no matt] h[ poor & feeble1 w be1 !oretically at lea/1 secure 9 "s rights aga9/ ! attacks ( ! _m4 ,)\t su* b>ri]s e individual is at ! m]cy ( an incon/ant majority4 ,)\t su* b>ri]s ju/ice _c be said to be secur$4 ,"l ,treasur] ,burleigh ( ,que5 ,elizabe?'s "t decl>$ t ,engl& c\ld nev] be ru9$ by its k+s1 b only by its ,p>liam5t4 ,if ! safegu>ds ( ! f$]al & /ate con/itutions are ma9ta9$1 nei!r ,congress nor ! /ate legislatures c ru9 ,am]ica4 ,if ! ,am]ican p %\ld ev] cons5t to ! removal ( ^! safegu>ds !y w\ld give evid5ce ( _! want ( self-re/ra9t1 ( _! unwill+ness & ev5 incapacity to gov]n !mselves1 & w\ld pave ! way = ! man on horseback z ! ,fr5* ,revolution pav$ ! way = ,napoleon4 ,to deprive a s+le "o ( 8 rightful lib]ty is to endang] ! lib]ties ( all4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,& ,,en=cem5t ,,( ,,con/itutional ,,limitations ,,necess>ily ,a ,,function ,,( ,,! ,,judici>y ,"u our f$]al & /ate =m ( gov]nm5t ! "q naturally arises :]e %\ld be lodg$ ! p[] to det]m9e :e!r 9 a giv5 in/ance ei!r dep>tm5t has encroa*$ on ! prop] field ( any o!r dep>tm5t1 & :e!r ei!r dep>tm5t has encroa*$ on ! con/itutional rights ( ! individual citiz54 ,x %\ld be evid5t t nei!r ! executive nor ! legislative dep>tm5t is a fit deposit>y ( su* p[]4 ,bo? ^!1 f ! nature ( _! p[]s1 are aggressive4 ,!y act ( _! own volition4 ,!y initiate proce$+s & measures to c>ry out policies4 ,9 _! activities !y are apt1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 to ov]/ep ! b\nd>y l9es betwe5 ! dep>tm5ts & also ! limits set = ! protection ( ! citiz5 aga9/ su* activities4 ,aga91 que/ions may & (t5 d arise betwe5 ! gov]nm5t & ! individual citiz5 t are n political que/ions1 b are que/ions ( private "r1 ! "r ( ! individual aga9/ ! gov]nm5t4 ,! disputants are ! individual citiz5 or gr\p ( citiz5s on ! "o h&1 & ! gov]nm5t on ! o!r :e!r t gov]nm5t be a mon>*y1 a republican or repres5tative gov]nm5t1 or a pure democracy4 ,9 su* case x w\ld seem cle> t "o p>ty %\ld n h ! p[] to decide ! "q4 ,x is an axiom t nei!r p>ty to a controv]sy %\ld be ! judge 9 ! matt]4 ,! legislature t enacts a /atute claim$ by a citiz5 to be beyond its p[]s & to deprive him ( "s "r gu>ante$ to him by ! con/itution1 %\ld n be ! judge ( ! "q any m ?an %\ld ! compla9+ citiz54 ,s ! executive %\ld n be ! judge :]e a citiz5 claims x has exce$$ its p[]s to ! detrim5t ( 8 con/itutional or /atutory rights4 ,ev5 if a /atute be enact$ or ratifi$ by ! p directly1 "u ! mod]n initiative & ref]5dum1 & a citiz5 claims t ! /atute deprives him ( "s "r gu>ante$ by ! con/itution1 ! p %\ld n be ! judge2 mu* less %\ld a majority4 ,if ! individual is left to be ! judge ( 8 con/itutional or legal "r z aga9/ ! gov]nm5t1 ! result w\ld be an>*y4 ,if ! gov]nm5t1 ev5 ! mo/ popul> gov]nm5t1 is to be ! judge1 ! result w\ld (t5 be tyranny4 ,!re w\ld be occasions1 z !re h be51 :5 an excit$ p or majority w\ld tyrannize ov] ! individual1 inde$ ov] ! m9ority4 ,to secure alike ! p aga9/ an>*y & ! individual aga9/ tyranny1 p[] mu/ be ve/$ 9 "s imp>tial1 indep5d5t arbit] to det]m9e au?oritatively & f9ally ! relative rights & duties ( ea* "u ! con/itution4 ,! prop] dep>tm5t to be made ! deposit>y ( ?is important p[] w\ld seem to be ! judicial4 ,t dep>tm5t does n initiate1 has no policies1 does n act ( its own volition1 b acts only :5 its action is regul>ly invok$ 9 "s controv]sy & !n only to end t controv]sy4 ,x may seem unnecess>y ev5 to /ate1 mu* less def5d1 ! proposition1 b z its logical result is t ! judici>y :5 invok$ by ! individual mu/ refuse effect1 s f> z he is conc]n$1 to a legislative act :i* deprives him ( "s "r gu>ante$ by ! con/itution1 & mu/ ?us disappo9t ^? :o procur$ ! passage ( ! act1 ! proposition has be51 is /ill be+1 d5i$4 ,! action ( ! c\rts 9 ex]cis+ t p[] has be5 & is ev5 n[ d5\nc$ z usurpation4 ,?\gh ! proposition is n[ long e/abli%$1 ^! attacks ju/ify "s repetition ( ! argum5t 9 its support4 ,! logic ( ,*ief ,ju/ice ,m>%all 9 ,m>bury v4 ,madison1 #a ,cran* #acg at p4 #agf1 seems to me irresi/ible & wor?y ( frequ5t quotation despite ! attacks ^u x4 ,! ,*ief ,ju/ice said3 ,?is orig9al & supreme w 7( a p7 organizes ! gov]nm5t & assigns to diff]5t dep>tm5ts _! respective p[]s4 ,x may ei!r /op "h1 or e/abli% c]ta9 limits n to be transc5d$ by ^? dep>tm5ts4444 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ( ! latt] description4 ,! p[]s ( ! legislature are def9$ & limit$2 & t ^? limits may n be mi/ak5 or =gott51 ! ,con/itution is writt54 ,to :at purpose are p[]s limit$ & to :at purpose is t limitation committ$ to writ+ if ^! limits may at any "t be pass$ by ^? int5d$ to be re/ra9$8 ,! di/9ction betwe5 a gov]nm5t ) limit$ & unlimit$ p[]s is aboli%$ if ^? limits d n conf9e ! p]sons on :om !y are impos$1 & if acts prohibit$ & acts all[$ are ( equal obligation4 ,x is a proposition too pla9 to be conte/$1 ei!r t ! ,con/itution controls any legislative act repugnant to x1 or t ! legislature may alt] ! ,con/itution by an ord9>y act4 ,betwe5 ^! alt]natives !re is no middle gr\nd4 ,! ,con/itution is ei!r a sup]ior1 p>am\nt law un*angeable by ord9>y means1 or x is on a level ) ord9>y legislative acts1 &1 l o!r acts1 is alt]able :5 ! legislature %all please to alt] x4444 ,c]ta9ly all ^? :o h fram$ writt5 con/itutions contemplate !m z =m+ ! fundam5tal & p>am\nt law ( ! nation1 & consequ5tly ! !ory ( e su* gov]nm5t mu/ be t an act ( ! legislature repugnant to ! ,con/itution is void4 ,9 #ahbe t em95t juri/1 ,*ief ,ju/ice ,gibson ( ,p5nsylvania1 9 a diss5t+ op9ion 9 ,eak9 v4 ,raub1 #ab ,s4 ,r4 #ccj1 insi/$ 9 an able1 elaborate1 & exhau/ive argum5t t :ile ! judici>y 0 b\nd to refuse effect to a /ate /atute 9 conflict ) ! ,f$]al ,con/itution1 x 0 b\nd to give x effect if repugnant only to ! /ate con/itution4 ,he frankly admitt$ ! logical conclusion t 9 su* case ! only rem$y ! citiz5 _h to en=ce 8 con/itutional rights 0 t ( revolution4 ,:51 h[ev]1 8 op9ion 9 ,eak9 v4 ,raub 0 cit$ 9 #ahde 9 argum5t 9 ,norris v4 ,clym]1 #b ,pa4 ,/4 #bgg1 he said he _h *ang$ 8 op9ion on t "q1 p>tly f exp]i5ce ( ! necessity ( ! case4 ,9 ! lat] case1 ,de ,*a/ellux v4 ,fair*ild1 #ae ,pa4 ,/4 #ah1 he 0 emphatic 9 8 decl>ation ( ! p[] & duty ( ! c\rt to refuse effect to a /ate /atute 9 conflict ) ! /ate con/itution4 ,9 deliv]+ ! op9ion ( ! c\rt he us$ ?is vigor\s language3 ,x is idle to say ! au?ority ( ea* bran* 7( ! gov]nm5t7 is def9$ & limit$ 9 ! con/itution1 if !re be n an indep5d5t p[] able & will+ to en=ce ! limitations4444 ,f its v position x is app>5t t ! cons]vative p[] is lodg$ ) ! judici>y1 :i* 9 ! ex]cise ( its und\bt$ "r is b\nd to meet e em]g5cy4 ,! results ( ! contr>y doctr9e are well /at$ by ! same c\rt 9 ,p]k9s v4 ,philadelphia1 #aef ,pa4 ,/4 #eed4 ,if laws 9 conflict ) ! con/itution be pass$ by ! legislature1 approv$ by ! gov]nor & su/a9$ by ! c\rt1 t is revolution4 ,x is no less revolution because accompli%$ )\t great viol5ce4 ,x matt]s little to ! h\se own] :e!r ! /ructure built to %elt] him be bl[n up by dynamite1 or ! f\ndation be pri$ out /one by /one ) a cr[b>4 ,9 ei!r case he is h\seless4 ,"o desirable result ( ?is doctr9e t ! c\rts :5 regul>ly invok$ c & %\ld refuse effect to an uncon/itutional /atute is t x ensures to e p]son1 n 9 ! milit>y or naval s]vice1 ! "r to te/ 9 ! judicial c\rts ! au?ority ( any (ficial to int]f]e ) 8 p]son1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 :atev] au?ority1 executive or legislative1 ! (ficial may plead4 ,9 ,france & o!r c\ntries ( cont95tal ,europe que/ions ( ! exi/5ce & ext5t ( ! au?ority ( an (ficial 9 8 action aga9/ individuals are triable1 at lea/ at ! pleasure ( ! executive1 only 9 adm9i/rative tribunals1 t is1 c\rts p]ta9+ to ! executive dep>tm5t & in/itut$ to assi/ t dep>tm5t 9 ! p]=mance ( its functions4 ,! aggriev$ individual c only apply to ! sup]iors ( ! (ficial compla9$ (4 ,su* tribunals naturally incl9e to uphold ! au?ority claim$1 & inde$ c lawfully all[ ! plea t ! act compla9$ ( 0 ord]$ 9 pursuance ( "s executive policy4 ,a rec5t in/ance is t unhappy affair at ,zab]n 9 ,alsace :]e an army (fic] 9 "t ( peace wantonly /ruck & w\nd$ a peaceful crippl$ citiz5 ) 8 sabre4 ,! victim c\ld only appeal to ! (fic]'s milit>y sup]iors1 :o acquitt$ ! (f5d] on ! gr\nd t ! dignity ( ! milit>y mu/ be protect$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 :ile at pres5t1 z = c5turies1 ! individual c appeal to ! judicial c\rts aga9/ (ficials act+ "u any executive or legislative ord]s1 ,p>liam5t1 & ev5 a majority ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 c at any "t deprive him ( t "r4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! executive & legislative dep>tm5ts comb9$ h no su* p[]4 ,s long z our pres5t sy/em is ma9ta9$1 que/ions betwe5 gov]nm5t (ficials & individuals mu/ rema9 cognizable by ! judicial c\rts :]e ! private citiz5 is on a p> ) ! highe/ (ficial1 & ! s+le individual is on a p> ) ! gov]nm5t itself4 ,9 contra/ to ! ,zab]n affair we may note t ! /rik+ copp] m9]s ( ,mi*igan 7 n oblig$ to apply to high] milit>y (ficials = r$ress ( wrongs claim$ to h be5 inflict$ ^u !m by ! milit>y4 ,!y 7 free to apply1 & did apply1 to tribunals outside ( & indep5d5t ( ! executive4 ,!y & su* z !y %\ld be ! mo/ unwill+ to degrade ! c\rts or less5 _! p[]4 ,a simil> in/ance is t ( ! /rik+ m9]s 9 ,colorado :o s l\dly compla9$ ( ! acts ( ! militia4 ,!y 7 n oblig$ to appeal to milit>y or executive (fic]s = r$ress4 ,! ,judicial ,c\rts 7 z op5 to !m z to any o!rs & !re !y w\ld be ^u an equality ) ! (ficials4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,an ,,indep5d5t ,,& ,,imp>tial ,,judici>y ,,ess5tial ,,= ,,ju/ice ,= ! judici>y to be 9 fact1 z well z 9 !ory1 ! protector ( ! con/itutional rights ( ! individual aga9/ ! gov]nm5t1 & ( ! legal rights ( ! individual aga9/ ! aggressions ( o!rs1 x %\ld be made s f> z possible free1 imp>tial & indep5d5t4 ,! judges %\ld h su* security ( t5ure1 & su* security & lib]ality ( ma9t5ance1 t !y w h no occasion nor disposition to c\rt ! favor1 or fe> ! disfavor1 ( any individual or class h[ev] p[]ful or num]\s1 n ev5 ! gov]nm5t itself4 ,!y %\ld be made free to consid] only :at is ! tru? z to ! exi/+ law or fact 9 "q1 un9flu5c$ by any sugge/ions ( :at is dem&$ by pr9ce1 p1 or individual1 or by any sugge/ion ( consequ5t good or evil to !mselves4 ,?is proposition to my m9d is s self-evid5t t quotations f em95t philosoph]s _c /r5g!n x4 ,! necessity ( "s indep5d5t tribunal betwe5 ! gov]nors & ! gov]n$ 0 recogniz$ 9 republican ,rome1 :]e x 0 provid$ t ! p]sons ( ! tribunes %\ld be inviolate1 an immunity n grant$ to any o!r (ficials4 ,! m$ieval cities ( ,italy frequ5tly select$ _! judges f "s o!r city t !y might be free f any connection ) diff]5t local factions or int]e/s4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! empire supplant$ ! republic 9 ,rome1 & ! free cities ( ,italy 7 made subject to despotic dom9ation1 ! indep5d5ce ( ^! tribunals 0 lo/4 ,hi/ory %[s t ^? possess+ ! gov]nm5tal p[] h always be5 unwill+ to ma9ta9 an indep5d5t judici>y4 ,! only c\ntries today possess+ a judici>y ) any consid]able degree ( indep5d5ce are ! ,unit$ ,k+dom & "s ( its ,dom9ions beyond ! seas & our own c\ntry4 ,! ne$ ( x 0 se5 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! p ( ,engl& & ( ! ,engli% ,colonies 9 ,am]ica "u a judici>y liable to be depriv$ ( (fice or sal>y if its op9ions 7 displeas+ to ! cr[n4 ,*>les ,i ass5t$ to ! ,petition ( ,"r & promis$ to obs]ve x1 b no provision 0 made = any tribunal indep5d5t ( ! k+ to det]m9e :e!r 8 acts 7 9 violation ( any article ( ! ,petition4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 aft]w>d 9 ! matt] ( ! tonnage & p\ndage tax ,p>liam5t remon/rat$ aga9/ ! imposition ( ! tax z a violation ( ! royal promise 9 ass5t+ to ! ,petition ( ,"r1 ! k+ abruptly end$ ! session & 9 8 spee* ( prorogation d5i$ ! "r ( ,p>liam5t to int]pret ! ,petition & ass]t$ t x 0 = him alone to det]m9e ! true int5t !re(4 ,aga91 ! legality ( ! imposition by ! k+ ( ! %ip money tax )\t ! cons5t ( ,p>liam5t 0 hopelessly que/ion$4 ,! k+ procur$ f ! judges an op9ion t he c\ld lawfully impose su* a tax )\t await+ ! ass5t ( ,p>liam5t1 :5 necess>y = ! def5se ( ! k+dom1 & t he 0 ! judge ( ! necessity & prop] am\nt ( ! tax4 ,b ?is 0 n ! op9ion ( an indep5d5t judici>y4 ,! judges at t "t c\ld be promot$1 remov$1 or recall$ at any "t at ! k+'s sole pleasure1 & !y well knew ! k+'s ob/9ate insi/5ce 9 ! matt]4 ,_! op9ion simply gave expression to ! k+'s w1 & h5ce inspir$ no respect4 ,f9ally1 = want ( an indep5d5t tribunal emp[]$ to det]m9e au?oritatively betwe5 k+ & subject ! true int5t ( ! ,petition ( ,"r1 ! legal ext5t & limitation ( ! royal p[]1 ! lawfulness ( its ex]cise ^u ! subject 9 a giv5 case1 ! issues betwe5 !m _h to be submitt$ to ! arbitram5t ( civil w>1 ) ! result t ! mon>*ical sy/em ( gov]nm5t 0 ov]?r[n4 ,its successor1 an un*eck$ p>liam5t1 0 no less arbitr>y 9 _m ( its acts1 & 0 9 turn ov]?r[n & ! mon>*y re/or$4 ,! re/or$ dyna/y1 h[ev]1 obey+ ! impulse ( all possessors ( gov]nm5tal p[]s1 soon began aga9 to claim & ex]cise autocratic p[]1 to encroa* ^u ! rights & lib]ties ?\ght to h be5 secur$ to ! subject by ! royal ass5t to ! ,petition ( ,"r & v9dicat$ by successful resi/ance1 & also to susp5d ! op]ation ( ! laws at 8 pleasure4 ,un=tunately aga9 !re 0 z yet no imp>tial1 indep5d5t tribunal 9 ,engl& to det]m9e au?oritatively ! l9e betwe5 ! royal p[] & ! specifi$ rights ( ! subject4 ,! judges 7 /ill removable at ! k+'s sole pleasure4 ,james ,,ii did n hesitate to use ?is p[] to obta9 su* op9ions & decisions z he desir$4 ,prep>atory to ! trial ( ! ,quo ,w>ranto case aga9/ ! ,city ( ,london to procure ! =feiture ( its *>t]1 ! k+ remov$ ,*ief ,ju/ice ,pemb]ton & appo9t$ 9 8 place ! s]vile ,saund]s :o _h drawn ! writ 9 ! case & _h conduct$ all ! proce$+s 9 behalf ( ! cr[n z its c\nsel to ! /age :]e ! case 0 ready = argum5t 9 ! ,c\rt ( ,k+'s ,b5*4 ,! case ( ! city 0 !reby made hopeless & ! city itself helpless4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,sev5 ,bi%ops1 prosecut$ = libel 9 pres5t+ to ! k+ a petition = him to recall 8 ord] = ! read+ 9 ! *ur*es 8 ,decl>ation ( ,indulg5ce1 he seems to h felt tol]ably sure ( ! c\rt z x 0 already con/itut$4 ,two able & le>n$ ju/ices1 h[ev]1 ,holl[ay & ,p[ell1 v5tur$ ! op9ion t ! petition 0 n libel\s4 ,!y 7 bo? promptly recall$4 ,aga9 =ce _h to be us$ to free ! subject & ma9ta9 8 rights & lib]ties aga9/ ! sov]eign4 ,james ,,ii 0 driv5 f ! c\ntry & ,william ( ,orange call$ to ! ?rone4 ,?is "t ! p 9 settl+ ! new gov]nm5t ?r\gh p>liam5t>y action w5t f>!r ?an be=e 9 ! way ( re/ra9t ^u ! gov]nm5t & took ! necess>y /ep to secure _! rights & lib]ties4 ,9 a new in/rum5t1 ?is "t call$ a ,decl>ation in/ead ( a ,petition1 !y reit]at$ ! rights ( ! subject z twice be=e !y _h be5 =mally ass]t$ 9 ! ,magna ,*>ta & ! ,petition ( ,"r4 ,?is in/rum5t1 kn[n z ! ,decl>ation ( ,rights ( #afhh1 0 pres5t$ to ,william & ,m>y1 :o solemnly engag$ to obs]ve & ma9ta9 its provisions4 ,fur!r /ill 7& ?is 0 ! new & effective gu>anty ( ! subject's rights71 9 ! ,act = ! settlem5t ( ! cr[n x 0 enact$ by k+1 lords1 & commons t !reaft] ! judicial t5ure ( ! judges ( ! c\rts %\ld be dur+ good behavior4 ,s9ce t "t = m ?an two c5turies ! true int5t ( ! laws has be5 det]m9$1 n by k+ or p>liam5t or p1 b by a judici>y made /rong & indep5d5t4 ,!re has be5 no ne$ to resort to =ce to def5d ! legal rights ( ! subject4 ,b ?is security = individual rights & lib]ties 0 n ext5d$ to ,briti% subjects 9 ,am]ica4 ,aft] ! ,colonies _h s increas$ 9 population & weal? t !y 7 deem$ wor? exploitation1 ! gov]nm5t1 among o!r means ( controll+ !m1 took ov] ! appo9tm5t ( _! judges1 9 _m in/ances ) a t5ure dur+ ! gov]nm5t's pleasure only4 ,9 ! circul> lett] ( ,massa*usetts ,bay ,colony to ! o!r ,colonies 9 #agfh !y are ask$ to consid] :e!r = ! judges ( ! l& n to hold _! commissions dur+ good behavior & to h _! sal>ies appo9t$ = !m by ! cr[n did n h a t5d5cy to endang] ! happ9ess & security ( ! subjects4 ,"o ( ! c\nts 9 ! indictm5t ( ,july #d1 #aggf1 aga9/ ! k+'s gov]nm5t 0 t x _h made ! colonial judges dep5d5t on ! k+'s w alone = ! t5ure ( _! (fices & ! am\nt & paym5t ( _! sal>ies4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is exp]i5ce ) a judici>y dep5d5t on ! gov]n+ p[] = ! t5ure & ma9t5ance ( its judges1 ! ,colonies :5 !y set up indep5d5t gov]nm5ts ( _! own provid$ a fix$ t5ure = _! judges 9 e in/ance b "o4 ,connecticut 9 its fir/ con/itution made ! t5ure dur+ good behavior1 z did ,delaw>e1 ,m>yl&1 ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,virg9ia4 ,p5nsylvania at fir/ fix$ ! t5ure at sev5 ye>s1 b 9 #agij *ang$ x to good behavior4 ,! same t5ure 0 fix$ = ! f$]al judges 9 ! ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,9 "s in/ances also1 fur!r provision 0 made = ! indep5d5ce ( ! judges by =bidd+ ! dim9i%+ ( _! sal>ies dur+ _! t]m ( (fice4 ,! p ( ,massa*usetts1 :i* _h be5 ! mo/ h>ri$ ( ! ,colonies1 decl>$ emphatically ! necessity = an indep5d5t judici>y4 ,article ,,xxix ( ! ,massa*usetts ,decl>ation ( ,rights adopt$ 9 #aghj is z foll[s3 ,x is ess5tial to ! pres]vation ( e individual1 8 life1 lib]ty & prop]ty & "* t !re be an imp>tial int]pretation ( ! laws1 & adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,x is ! "r ( e citiz5 to be tri$ by judges z free1 imp>tial & indep5d5t z ! lot ( humanity w admit4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n only ! be/ policy b = ! security ( ! rights ( ! p & ( e citiz5 t ! judges ( ! supreme judicial c\rt %\ld hold _! (fices s long z !y behave !mselves well2 & t !y %\ld h honorable sal>ies asc]ta9$ & e/abli%$ by /&+ laws4 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ) a simil> exp]i5ce1 adopt$ ! same language 9 ,art4 ,,xxxv ( h] ,bill ( ,rights4 ,! ,m>yl& ,decl>ation ( ,rights ( #aggf conta9s ?is article3 ,art4 ,,xxx4 ,t ! indep5d5cy & uprightness ( ! judges are ess5tial to ! imp>tial adm9i/ration ( ju/ice & a great security to ! rights & lib]ties ( ! p2 :]e=e ! *ancellor & judges ought to hold commissions dur+ good behavior4 ,x is true t 9 mo/ ( ! /ates ! (ficial t5ure ( ! judges has s9ce be5 r$uc$ to a m or less brief t]m ( ye>s4 ,?is fact is only ano!r in/ance ( ! t5d5cy ( ! gov]n+ p[] to l[] if n remove all b>ri]s set up aga9/ x = ! protection ( ! individual4 ,majorities z well z absolute k+s l _! own way4 ,! *ange :]e made may h giv5 majorities great] fre$om to en=ce _! w ^u individuals1 b x has n increas$ confid5ce 9 ! integrity ( ! judges nor made !m m firm to asc]ta9 & decl>e only ! tru?4 ,x is true also t 9 mo/ /ates n[ ! p h tak5 to !mselves directly ! task ( select+ m5 suitable = judges in/ead ( entru/+ t important duty to ! gov]nor or legislature1 z 0 ! practice 9 ! e>ly days ( ! republic4 ,i _c ?9k ?is has t5d$ to secure bett] judges1 ?\gh x may h secur$ judges m subs]vi5t to majorities4 ,effectually to gu>d ! con/itutional & legal rights ( all alike1 ! judges %\ld possess :at is call$ ! legal m9d & ! judicial temp]am5t4 ,!y %\ld be able & le>n$ t !y may appreciate ! real mean+1 purpose1 & scope ( ! con/itution & /atutes2 calm & equable 9 temp]am5t t !y may n be influ5c$ by sympa?y1 prejudice1 or o!r emotions2 /rong & c\rage\s 9 "* t !y may resi/ all pressure o!r ?an fair argum5t4 ,to f9d ! m5 possess+ ^! qualities requires ext5sive & protract$ inquiry & pati5t consid]ation1 su* z are n & _c be ex]cis$ by ! p directly4 ,! task %\ld be deput$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance to ! head ( ! /ate1 ! *ief executive4 ,he has ! be/ means ( asc]ta9+ :o possesses ! requisite qualifications 9 ! greate/ degree4 ,he w\ld feel t he alone 0 responsible = a prop] selection1 & t feel+ ( responsibility w\ld t5d to make him delib]ate & pa9/ak+ 9 8 *oice4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! orig9al selection be entru/$ to ! legislature or left ) ! p act+ directly1 individual memb]s w\ld h a mu* l[] s5se ( p]sonal responsibility & ! individual memb]s ( ! electorate sc>cely any at all4 ,true1 9 ^? /ates :]e ! judges are elect$ by ! p directly1 excell5t judges are (t5 & p]haps ord9>ily *os51 b ,i ?9k ,i /ate a tru? 9 /at+ t ^u ! :ole ^? c\rts compos$ ( judges ) a long t5ure & appo9t$ by ! executive /& high] 9 public e/imation & _! op9ions h great] weight4 ,su* c\rts are c]ta9ly a great] protection to ^? guilty ( no wrong1 b :o h be5 s un=tunate z to incur ! displeasure ( an excit$ community4 ,nev]!less1 despite ! lessons ( hi/ory & ! reasons contra1 x is propos$ 9 ?is tw5tie? c5tury t ! t5ure ( ! judges %all aga9 be dur+ pleasure only1--?is "t dur+ ! pleasure ( ! majority ( ! electorate4 ,! proposition is n /at$ s baldly by its propos]s4 ,!y phrase x z ! "r ( ! p to remove or recall unsatisfactory public s]vants1 :e!r judges1 or gov]nors1 or o!r (ficials4 ,!y propose t at ! reque/ ( a c]ta9 small p]c5tage ( ! electorate1 sett+ =? _! dissatisfaction ) a judge1 he may be remov$ by a majority ( ! vot]s4 ,z prec$5ts = _! proposal !y po9t triumphantly to ! provision ( ! ,briti% ,act ( ,settlem5t t judges %\ld be removable by ! cr[n ^u ! reque/ ( bo? ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t1 & to simil> provisions 9 _m ( our /ate con/itutions4 ,( c\rse1 !re %\ld be lodg$ some:]e ! p[] to remove judges prov5 to be unwor?y ( _! high (fice1 or incapable ( p]=m+ its high duties1 b x %\ld be lodg$ 9 a body ( m5 be=e :om ! accus$ judge c appe> 9 p]son or by c\nsel1 he> ! compla9ts & face ! witnesses aga9/ him1 & adduce evid5ce & argum5t 9 reply1--& :o c on _! "p see ! witnesses & he> ! argum5ts be=e decid+4 ,t 0 ! op9ion ( ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t 9 ! few cases pres5t$ to !m1 & ! /ate legislatures 9 ?is c\ntry h g5]ally ent]ta9$ ! same op9ion4 ,x 0 also held by ,p>liam5t t ! address = removal %\ld /ate ! reasons !re=4 ,9 #ahee ,gov]nor ,g>dn] ( ,massa*usetts decl9$ to remove a judge ( probate on address by ! legislature because no suffici5t gr\nds 7 /at$ 9 ! address4 ,he said t 9 e in/ance !n on record full reasons = removal _h accompani$ ! address4 ,! con/itutional provision = removal by address evid5tly 0 n design$ to less5 ! imp>tiality & indep5d5ce ( ! judge by subject+ him to removal at ! m]e w ( ! executive & legislature1 b t he might be remov$ = corruption1 neglect ( duty1 incapacity1 immorality1 or o!r disgraceful conduct1 aft] notice1 he>+1 & delib]ation4 ,= ! executive & legislature1 or ev5 ! majority ( ! p1 to remove a judge because !y d n l 8 op9ions z to :at ! con/itution requires or =bids !m to d1 w\ld de/roy ! indep5d5ce ( ! judges & ?us deprive ! citiz5 ( all security = 8 rights & lib]ties "u ! con/itution1--w\ld be despotism4 ,! pr9cipal argum5t = less5+ ! indep5d5ce ( ! judges & mak+ !m m subs]vi5t to ! incon/ant majority seems to be t o!rwise ! judges w misuse _! p[] & imp$e ! op]ation ( /atutes !y d n !mselves approve (4 ,! argum5t has little or no f\ndation 9 fact4 ,p]haps among ! hundr$s1 if n ?\s&s1 ( cases ( hold+ a /atute uncon/itutional a few may seem to h be5 s decid$ because ! judges ?\ght !m unwise & oppressive4 ,"s expressions 9 judicial op9ions h be5 un=tunate 9 t respect1 b ! c\rts ev]y:]e 9 ?is c\ntry1 n[ if n at fir/1 disclaim any su* p[]4 ,! same ,*ief ,ju/ice ,m>%all1 :o _h s conv9c+ly /at$ ! duty ( ! judici>y to refuse effect to uncon/itutional /atutes1 lat] 9 ,mc,culloch v4 ,m>yl&1 #d ,:eat4 #caf1 disclaim$ = ! c\rts all pret5sions to any p[] to inquire into ! necessity ( any /atute1 or 9 any way to int]f]e ) ! discretion ( ! legislature4 ,9 /rong & explicit language o!r c\rts h disclaim$ su* pret5sions4 ,! ,m9nesota c\rt 9 ,/ate v4 ,corbett1 #eg ,m9n4 #cde1 held t c\rts 7 n at lib]ty to decl>e a /atute uncon/itutional because x is ?\ght by !m to be unju/ or oppressive1 or to violate "s natural1 social1 or political "r ( ! citiz51 unless x c be %[n t su* inju/ice is prohibit$1 or su* rights protect$1 by ! con/itution4 ,! ,p5nsylvania c\rt 9 ,com4 v4 ,moir1 #aii ,pa4 ,/4 #ecd1 us$ ?is language3 ,mu* ( ! argum5t & ne>ly all ! specific objections advanc$ are to ! wisdom & propriety & to ! ju/ice ( ! /atute & ! motives suppos$ to h inspir$ its passage4 ,) ^! we h no?+ to d4 ,!y are beyond our prov9ce & are consid]ations to be adduc$ solely to ! legislature4 ,! c\rt ( ,we/ ,virg9ia 9 ,slack v4 ,jacob1 #h ,w4 ,va4 #fab1 said3 ,t ! judges are conv9c$ t a /atute is contr>y to natural "r1 absolute ju/ice1 or s\nd morality does n au?orize !m to refuse x effect4 ,! c\rt ( ,wa%+ton 9 ,fi%+ ,co4 v4 ,george1 #bh ,wa%4 #bjj1 held t a /atute _c be ignor$ by ! c\rts because lead+ 9 its application to absurd1 incongru\s1 or mis*iev\s results4 ,a few cases may also be cit$ %[+ h[ rel5tlessly ?is disclaim] is appli$4 ,! c\rt ( ,new ,york 9 ,kitt+] v4 ,buffalo ,traction ,co41 #afj ,n4 ,y4 #cgg1 held t ! c\rts _h no p[] to inquire into ! motives induc+ legislation & c\ld n impute to ! legislature any o!r ?an public motives4 ,! ,p5nsylvania c\rt 9 ,sunbury ,r4,r4 ,co4 v4 ,p1 #cc ,pa4 ,/4 #bgh1 _h urg$ ^u x ! argum5t t ! /atute 9 "q _h be5 pass$ 9 fraud ( ! rights ( ! p4 ,! c\rt held t1 if true1 t fact w\ld n au?orize x to refuse x effect4 ,! ,t5nessee c\rt 9 ,lynn v4 ,polk1 #gf ,t5n4 ,/4 #aba1 0 ask$ to decl>e a /atute ineffective because its enactm5t 0 procur$ by brib+ memb]s ( ! legislature4 ,! c\rt held x c\ld n d s4 ,! ,miss\ri c\rt 9 ,slate v4 ,cl>ke1 #ed ,mo4 #ag1 _h be=e x a /atute au?oriz+ ! lic5s+ ( bawdy h\ses & 0 urg$ to decl>e x uncon/itutional because aga9/ public policy & de/ructive ( good morals4 ,! c\rt held x _h no su* p[]4 ,! ,ju/ices ( ! ,ma9e ,supreme ,c\rt 9 an op9ion report$ 9 #ajc ,ma9e #ejh /at$ ! pr9ciple z foll[s3 ,x is = ! legislature to det]m9e f "t to "t ! occasion & :at laws are necess>y or exp$i5t = ! def5se & b5efit ( ! p2 & h[ev] inconv5i5c$1 re/rict$1 or ev5 damag$ p>ticul> p]sons & corporations may be1 su* g5]al laws are to be held valid unless !re c be po9t$ out "s provision 9 ! ,/ate or ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution :i* cle>ly prohibits !m4 ,fur!r1 x is a maxim ( ! judici>y1 f ! beg9n+ & n[1 t no /atute %\ld be refus$ effect unless cle>ly contr>y to "s provision ( ! con/itution1--unless ! conflict is evid5t beyond a reasonable d\bt4 ,?is is a maxim1 a canon ( int]pretation1 t c\rts always h 9 m9d & apply 9 consid]+ ! "q ( ! con/itutionality ( a /atute4 ,?us scrupul\s are ! c\rts to keep )9 _! prop] sph]e1 to respect ! limits ( _! p[]s4 ,if ! legislatures w\ld be equally scrupul\s1 w\ld !mselves refra9 f infr++ on ^? rights & lib]ties ( ! citiz5 gu>ante$ by ! con/itution1 !re w\ld be less re/riction1 less friction1 less turmoil1 less ne$ ( ! judicial *eck1 less inju/ice4 ,b ! compla9ts aga9/ ! c\rts are n all because ( _! hold+ /atutes uncon/itutional4 ,_m h felt t c\rts sometimes err$ 9 hav+ too mu* respect = ! legislative p[] & because ( t respect h all[$ con/itutional rights & lib]ties to be sacrific$ at ! behe/ ( majorities & (t5 at ! behe/ ( active1 int]e/$ m9orities m insi/5t ?an ! in]t majority4 ,! decision ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt 9 ! ,*>les ,riv] ,bridge case1 #aa ,pet]s #dbj1 0 m\rn$ by su* m5 z ,web/]1 ,k5t1 ,/ory1 & o!rs z break+ d[n ! safegu>ds ( ! con/itution4 ,! decision 9 ! ,slaught] ,h\se cases 0 reg>d$ by _m able juri/s z ignor+ t provision ( ! ,x,i,vth am5dm5t to ! ,f$]al ,con/itution =bidd+ any d5ial to any "o ( ! equal protection ( ! laws4 ,! ,elevator cases1 hold+ t elevators 7 public utilities & !re=e subject to public control z to *>ges = s]vice1 ?\gh ! own]s _h no special fran*ise1 no "p ( public p[]1 are ev5 n[ ?\ght to h made a wide brea* 9 ! con/itutional b>ri]s aga9/ ! invasion ( private rights4 ,! decision 9 ! ,*9ese ,deportation cases1 #adi ,u4 ,s4 #fih1 %ock$ ! s5se ( ju/ice ( _m4 ,x 0 to ! effect t ,congress c\ld emp[] ! executive to arre/ ^u its own w>rant any p]son x claim$ to be an ali5 unlawfully resid+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & to deport him )\t trial1 unless he c\ld affirmatively prove to ! satisfaction ( a s+le judge 7to be select$ by ! executive71 & by a specifi$ k9d ( evid5ce only1 t he 0 n guilty1 h[ev] ample & probative o!r evid5ce might be adduc$ & h[ev] impossible to produce ! specifi$ evid5ce4 ,ju/ices ,full]1 ,field1 & ,brew] vigor\sly diss5t$ on ! gr\nd t su* action by ! executive1 ?\gh "u ! au?ority ( ,congress1 0 9 violation ( ! con/itutional gu>anties aga9/ arre/ )\t judicial w>rant1 aga9/ deprivation ( lib]ty )\t trial by jury & due process ( law4 ,ju/ice ,brew] aft] quot+ ,madison1 t bani%m5t is among ! sev]e/ ( puni%m5ts1 w5t on to say3 ,b puni%m5t implies a trial4 ',no p]son %all be depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty or prop]ty )\t due process ( law4' ,due process ( law requires t a man be he>d be=e he is condemn$1 & bo? he>d & condemn$ 9 ! due & ord]ly proc$ure z recogniz$ by ! common law f "t immemorial4 ,9 my rese>* ,i h f\nd m cases :]e x has seem$ to me ! c\rts h con/ru$ con/itutional gu>anties too /rictly1 ?an :]e !y h con/ru$ !m too lib]ally4 ,! t5d5cy has be5 r away f ! en=cem5t ( con/itutional gu>anties & to all[ legislative encroa*m5ts ^u !m4 ,i reg>d ?is z a v dang]\s t5d5cy4 ,p]haps ! encroa*m5ts h n be5 at fir/ p]ceiv$1 b ,i ?9k c\rts %\ld be vigilantly on ! wat* = !m1 o!rwise individual rights gu>ante$ to ! p by ! con/itution may be gradually weak5$ & f9ally de/roy$4 ,?is duty ( ! c\rts 0 decl>$ 9 ! case ( ,boyd v4 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aaf ,u4 ,s4 #faf at page #fda--:]e 9 refus+ effect to a /atute requir+ ! production ( 8 books & pap]s by a def5dant 9 proce$+s = =feiture1 ! c\rt said3 ,?\gh ! proce$+ 9 "q is deve/$ ( ! aggravat+ effects ( actual se>* & seizure1 yet x conta9s _! sub/ance & ess5ce1 & effects _! sub/antial purpose4 ,x may be t x is ! obnoxi\s ?+ 9 its milde/ & lea/ repulsive =m2 b illegitimate & uncon/itutional practices get _! fir/ foot+ 9 t way1 namely1 by sil5t approa*es & slight deviations f legal modes ( proc$ure4 ,?is c only be obviat$ by adh]+ to ! rule t con/itutional provisions = ! security ( p]son & prop]ty %\ld be lib]ally con/ru$4 ,a close & lit]al con/ruction deprives !m ( half _! efficacy & leads to gradual depreciation ( ! "r z if x consi/$ m 9 s\nd ?an 9 sub/ance4 ,x is ! duty ( c\rts to be wat*ful = ! con/itutional rights ( ! citiz5 & aga9/ any /eal?y encroa*m5ts !reon4 ,_! motto %\ld be ob/a pr9cipiis4 ,a review ( ! cases 9 :i* ! c\rts h be5 call$ ^u to decide :e!r a /atute breaks ov] ! con/itutional limitation w demon/rate to any dispassionate p]son t ^u que/ions ( exp$i5cy1 ( ! g5]al welf>e1 or ev5 ( ju/ice1 ! judges r>ely if ev] oppose _! op9ion to t ( ! legislators4 ,! c\rts d n ob/ruct ! curr5t ( progress2 !y only keep x f ov]fl[+ its banks to ! deva/ation ( ! con/itutional rights ( ! p4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,ma9ta9+ ,,undim9i%$ ,,! ,,con/itutional ,,limitations ,,& ,,! ,,p[] ,,( ,,! ,,c\rts ,,to ,,en=ce ,,!m4--,,conclusion ,despite ! lessons ( hi/ory %[+ ! ne$ ( specifi$ limitations ^u ! legislative p[] to ensure p]sonal lib]ty & ju/ice1 x is /ill urg$ by ! impati5t t ?is *eck ^u legislative action %\ld be remov$1 or at lea/ t ! legislature %\ld itself be ! judge ( ! con/itutionality ( its acts1 & t ! legislatures z ! repres5tatives ( ! p may be tru/$ to obs]ve con/itutional requirem5ts & limitations4 ,f ! beg9n+1 h[ev]1 ! p ( ?is c\ntry h n fully tru/$ _! legislatures4 ,!y h n only set b\nds to legislative p[]1 b )9 ^? b\nds !y h impos$ 9 mo/ in/ances ! *eck ( an executive veto4 ,!y h also compla9$ ( _! legislatures f> m l\dly ?an !y h ( _! c\rts1 & latt]ly h subject$ !m to ! initiative & ref]5dum & 9 "s in/ances to ! recall4 ,p]haps ! judgm5t ( ^? urg+ t ! legislature %\ld be tru/$ n to trespass on ! con/itutional rights ( ! p may be enlight5$ by recall+ "s in/ances ( legislative action ^u con/itutional que/ions left to its decision by ! con/itution itself4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to cite in/ances ( ! abuse ( ?is p[] 9 ! matt] ( det]m9+ :o are entitl$ to seats 9 ! legislature4 ,x is common k t1 9 ! pa/ at lea/1 bo? law & fact h (t5 be5 ov]-ridd5 = p>tisan advantage4 ,z an illu/ration ( h[ f> a legislature w sometimes g 9 ?is direction ,i may cite a rec5t in/ance 9 ,ma9e4 ,! con/itution ( t /ate provides 7,art4 ,,iv1 ,pt4 #c1 ,sec4 #aa7 t no p]son hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7po/ (fic]s except$7 %all h a seat 9 ei!r h\se ( ! legislature dur+ 8 cont9u+ 9 su* (fice4 ,?is provision 0 9 ! orig9al con/itution ( #ahba1 & until ! legislative session ( #aiac ! exception ( po/ (fic]s 0 und]/ood to ref] to (fic]s 9 ! po/al s]vice & su* (fic]s (t5 held seats 9 ! legislature )\t "q4 ,9 #aiac1 h[ev]1 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives held = a:ile t ! exception ref]r$ only to milit>y (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates /ation$ at milit>y po/s )9 ! /ate1 ?\gh no su* (fic] _h ev] held a seat 9 ! legislature4 ,t legislatures are prone to disreg>d con/itutional provisions is also manife/ 9 ! va/ am\nt ( special legislation enact$ despite con/itutional prohibitions ( su* legislation4 ,!re are also num]\s in/ances :]e legislatures :ile p]functorily he$+ ! lett] ( ! con/itution consci\sly violate its _s & evade its requirem5ts4 ,9 _m /ates !re is a con/itutional provision t no legislative act %all become effective until aft] a specifi$ "t has elaps$ f its enactm5t except 9 cases ( em]g5cy1 :i* em]g5cy1 h[ev]1 is to be decl>$ 9 ! act itself4 ,?is provision1 ( c\rse1 is to give ! p "t to und]/& ! /atute & prep>e to obey x4 ,! ^w em]g5cy 9 ! exception implies a sudd51 unexpect$ happ5+4 ,x is def9$ 9 ,web/] z a press+ necessity2 an un=ese5 occurr5ce or comb9ation ( circum/ances :i* calls = imm$iate action or rem$y4 ,9 ,indiana 9 "o legislative session1 out ( #bjj acts1 #aee 7 made to take effect at once by a recital t an em]g5cy exi/$ !re=4 ,9 ,ill9ois a two-?irds vote ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se is requir$ = ! adoption ( ! em]g5cy clause4 ,among ! acts ( ! la/ session conta9+ ! em]g5cy clause 0 "o appropriat+ #fjj = pr9t+ ! report ( a monum5t association4 ,9 ,t5nessee ! exception 0 ( cases :]e ! public welf>e requir$ an e>li] date4 ,out ( #bfe laws pass$ at "o session #bcj conta9$ ! decl>ation t ! public welf>e requir$ _! go+ into effect imm$iately4 ,9 ,texas ! con/itution provides t no bill %all be pass$ until x has be5 read on ?ree sev]al days 9 ea* h\se & free discussion all[$ !reon1 b t 9 cases ( imp]ative public necessity f\r-fif?s ( ! h\se may susp5d ! rule4 ,out ( #aah laws pass$ at "o session all b five conta9$ ! /atem5t t imp]ative public necessity requir$ susp5sion ( ! rule4 ,legislatures also seem prone to disreg>d ! con/itutional provision = ! ref]5dum despite ! /rong1 explicit language ( t provision4 ,9 ,cali=nia ! con/itutional provision is z foll[s3 ,no act %all g into effect until n9ety days aft] ! adj\rnm5t ( ! legislature :i* pass$ su* act 444 except urg5cy measures necess>y = ! imm$iate pres]vation ( ! public peace1 heal? or safety1 pass$ by a two-?irds vote ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se4 ,surely ! language ( ! exception is /rong & =ceful4 ,two-?irds ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se mu/ hold t ! measure is urg5t1 n admitt+ ( delay1 t ! public peace1 heal? or safety1 n ! m]e int]e/s or conv5i5ce ( individuals or localities1 is ?reat5$ & t ! dang] is imm95t1 requir+ imm$iate action4 ,among o!r in/ances1 ! legislature ( ,cali=nia at its special session ( #aiaa adjudg$ an act to validate c]ta9 defective regi/rations ( vot]s 9 "s municipalities to be an urg5cy measure )9 ! language ( ! exception2 also an act to *ange ! b\nd>ies 9 a ,reclamation ,di/rict4 ,oregon has a simil> con/itutional requirem5t & exception :i* its legislature does n always obs]ve4 ,at ! session ( #aiaa1 among o!r cases ! legislature adjudg$ an act au?oriz+ a c\nty to levy a tax = adv]tis+ ! c\nty's res\rces to be )9 ! exception2 also an act divid+ a road di/rict2 b an act appropriat+ money to gu>d aga9/ ! bubonic plague 0 n decl>$ to be )9 ! exception4 ,9 ,oklahoma ) a simil> con/itutional provision & exception1 ! legislature seems to h run riot4 ,at ! session ( #aiaj a v l>ge proportion1 if n a majority1 ( ! /atutes 7 adjudg$ to be )9 ! exception4 ,among !m 0 an act to pay ! mileage & p] diem ( ! memb]s2 an act provid+ /5ograph]s = ! ,supreme ,c\rt2 an act au?oriz+ ! sale ( f\r tracts ( l& at public sale2 an act to pay ,j4 ,j4 ,o',r\rke #bch4aj = room r5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an act to reimburse ! ,gov]nor #ejjj exp5d$ by him = /ate purposes1 & an act to reimburse a %]iff #djjj exp5d$ by him 9 ! support ( /ate prison]s 7 n s consid]$4 ,true1 ,oklahoma is a new & radical /ate1 b let u turn to ! extreme ea/1 to ,ma9e ) its h]itage ( law-abid+ traditions f ! p>5t /ate ( ,massa*usetts4 ,ma9e has also adopt$ ! ref]5dum 9 language simil> to t 9 ! ,cali=nia con/itution1 includ+ ! exception4 ,! /ate _h got along q com=tably )\t mak+ ,l9coln's bir?day a legal holiday1 b 9 #aiji ! legislature awoke to ! imm95t dang] to ! public peace1 heal? or safety ( ! /ate 9 long] delay & s e/abli%$ su* a holiday at once )\t accord+ to ! p _! "r ( review4 ,! t[n ( ,ed51 9 :i* is situat$ ,b> ,h>bor1 a summ] resort1 _h by vote = sometime exclud$ automobiles )\t any app>5t dang] to ! public peace1 heal? or safety1 b at its la/ session 9 #aiac ! legislature by a two-?irds vote ( all ! memb]s elect$ to ea* h\se adjudg$ t ! public peace1 heal? or safety w\ld be imp]il$ by po/pon+ = n9ety days ! op]ation ( an act au?oriz+ a repeal ( ! vote4 ,9 all ! in/ances cit$1 :i* are b few out ( _m1 x is difficult to see h[ ! n9ety days' po/ponem5t ( ! op]ation ( ! acts cit$ c\ld imp]il ! peace1 heal? or safety ( ! public1 h[ev] mu* x might inconv5i5ce or annoy individuals or localities4 ,^! in/ances %\ld1 h[ev]1 ?r[ consid]able d\bt ^u ! proposition t ! con/itutional rights ( ! p are safe 9 ! h&s ( ! legislative dep>tm5t )\t ! *eck ( ! judici>y4 ,i h some:]e se5 ! /atem5t t dur+ rec5t ye>s upw>ds ( #ejj acts ( f$]al & /ate legislation h be5 held by ! c\rts to be 9 violation ( "s con/itutional provision1 & t ?is fact %\ld ar\se ! p to put "s *eck on su* ex]cise ( ! judicial p[]4 ,on ! contr>y1 x %\ld ar\se ! p to insi/ on ! ret5tion ( t p[]1 & to elect wis] legislators :o w m fai?fully respect _! oa?s to obs]ve con/itutional limitations4 ,b ano!r & diff]5t proposition is urg$ ^u u4 ,x is n to leave ! legislature )\t *eck ^u ! t5d5cy to disreg>d con/itutional limitations ^u its p[]1 b to subject ! judicial *eck itself to rev]sal by a majority ( t "p ( ! electorate *oos+ to act on ! matt]4 ,x is propos$ t :5ev] a c\rt ( la/ resort %all adjudge t a /atute trespasses ^u ! res]v$ con/itutional rights ( ! individual1 an appeal may be tak5 direct to ! electorate1 & t if a majority ( ^? *oos+ to vote on ! "q desire ! /atute to /&1 ! con/itution %all !reaft] be held to be am5d$ to t ext5t4 ,x is submitt$ t su* a proc$ure w\ld de/roy all con/itutional gu>anties1 no matt] :at safegu>ds are attempt$4 ,is !re any assurance t su* a majority w\ld be m consid]ate ( ! individual's "r to life1 lib]ty1 & prop]ty ?an _! repres5tatives :om !y h select$ or %\ld h select$ = _! virtue & wisdom1 & :o are sworn1 z well z ! judges1 to respect con/itutional gu>anties8 ,"u ! pres5t proc$ure = am5dm5t to con/itutions1 propositions = am5dm5t are fir/ consid]$ & debat$ face to face 9 a legislature or con/itutional conv5tion by repres5tatives ( ! p1 & _c be submitt$ to ! p until aft] opportunity = full & free discussion by _! repres5tatives1 & ! p !mselves h !reby be5 m or less prep>$ = its consid]ation4 ,ev5 "u ?is proc$ure1 am5dm5ts h be5 adopt$ t ! p h aft]w>d regrett$4 ,!re is n[ mu* agitation = ! %ort ballot1 = re/or+ to ! *ief executive ! p[] ( appo9tm5t ( important (ficials1 a p[] at fir/ possess$ by him1 b tak5 away by lat] con/itutional am5dm5ts4 ,! adoption ( ! initiative & ref]5dum has n produc$ ! b5eficial results expect$4 ,x is f\nd t ! initiative sometimes produces defective1 unworkable /atutes1 & t ! ref]5dum c be us$ to delay & ev5 veto exp$i5t legislation4 ,"u ! propos$ proc$ure ! que/ions :e!r ! con/itution %\ld be am5d$ & z to ! nature ( ! am5dm5t are sprung ^u ! p )\t ?is prelim9>y exam9ation1 debate & approval by _! *os5 repres5tatives1 & ?is (t51 if n always1 9 times ( popul> excitem5t4 ,) su* a proc$ure ,i c see no m /ability ( "r1 no m security = ju/ice1 ?an "u any unlimit$1 absolute gov]nm5t4 ,h[ un/able popul> s5tim5t may be at times may be se5 9 ! classic example ( ! citiz5s ( ,rome applaud+ ,m>ius & ,sulla 9 turn ) equal f]vor1 & 9 ! less] & v rec5t example ( ! vot]s ( ! city ( ,seattle1 :o elect$ a mayor1 !n soon recall$ him1 & b little lat] re-elect$ him by a l>g] majority ?an be=e4 ,con/itutions to be ( any value z bulw>ks ( lib]ty %\ld n be imm$iately *angeable ) ! popul> s5tim5t ( ! day1 b sl[ly & only aft] long reflection & discussion4 ,!y %\ld conta9 only ! results ( long ?\ght & long exp]i5ce4 ,legislation is ev] active1 ev] mov+ ?is way & t way1 ev] exp]im5t+1 enact+ new /atutes & am5d+ & repeal+ old ones1 n[ impos+ fett]s on individual lib]ty1 n[ /rik+ !m (f & p]haps impos+ o!rs4 ,ev5 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica1 :]e p]sonal lib]ty ( action is mo/ priz$1 "t 0 :5 /atutes 7 enact$ almo/ putt+ p & bus9ess 9 /rait-jackets4 ,9 ,engli% ,norfolk z late z ,h5ry ,,viii's "t no "o 0 to dye1 %e> or cal5d] clo? except 9 ! t[n ( ,norwi*2 & no "o 9 ! nor!rn c\nties 0 to make wor/$ cov]lets except 9 ! city ( ,york4 ,9 ! reign ( ,elizabe? a /atute 0 pass$ =bidd+ ! eat+ ( meat on ,w$nesday & ,saturdays & ?is n on ! score ( heal? or religion b av[$ly to increase ! price ( fi%4 ,/atutes fix+ ! weight & price ( loaves ( bread & ! size & price ( a glass ( ale 7 n =mally repeal$ till #ahbd4 ,! fam\s ,/atute ( ,labor]s =bade labor+ m5 to ask or receive m ?an a prescrib$ l[ sum = _! labor & also =bade _! mov+ ab\t seek+ employm5t4 ,! /atutes aga9/ =e/all+1 regrat+1 & engross+ 7 n =mally repeal$ until #ahdd4 ,9 e>ly times 9 ,new ,engl& also1 /atutory attempts 7 made to fix ! price ( v>i\s commodities & ! wages ( v>i\s k9ds ( workm54 ,m5 7 f9$ = accept+ high] ?an ! prescrib$ wages4 ,! ,sunday laws 9 "s places =bade walk+ ab\t on ,sunday except rev]5tly to g to & return f meet+4 ,ev]y:]e 0 ! ev] pres5t t5d5cy ( ! legislative p[] to invade & direct e function ( society1--social1 religi\s1 political1 & economical4 ,x %\ld be not$ t all ^! & simil> /atutes 7 "u gov]nm5ts unre/ra9$ by writt5 con/itutions & bills ( "r en=c$ by an indep5d5t judici>y4 ,?\gh f "t to "t _m re/rictive /atutes h be5 modifi$ & _m repeal$1 o!r re/rictive /atutes h be5 enact$4 ,today ! same process is go+ on4 ,:ile n[ & !n re/rictions & emb>goes ( long] or %ort] /&+ are remov$1 !re is /ill ! same t5d5cy to enact o!r re/rictions & prohibitions4 ,at e session ( ,congress & ( ! /ate legislatures measures are con/antly propos$ hamp]+ 9 "s way ! fre$om ( ! citiz5 9 8 occupation1 9 8 pursuit ( happ9ess4 ,dem&s are be+ made ^u ! legislative dep>tm5t by "o class or int]e/ = legislation to re/ra9 o!r classes or int]e/s1 b = exemption = itself4 ,9 e>li] times !re 7 /atutes fix+ a maximum wage = labor1 & ?\gh ^! prov$ ineffectual x is n[ propos$ to fix a m9imum wage1 ev5 ?\gh x %\ld prove to be mu* m ?an ! labor is wor?4 ,!re are also propos$1 & 9 _m in/ances enact$1 /atutes re/rict+ ! fre$om ( ! workman z to 8 output1 ( ! employ] z to 8 direction ( 8 bus9ess4 ,! natural activities ( m5 are s\ght to be hamp]$ & h&icapp$ 9 vexati\s ways4 ,9 illu/ration1 ,i quote ! foll[+ f ! ,bo/on ,h]ald ( ,june #e1 #aiad3 ,tw5ty-five /ates & ! ,unit$ ,/ates itself =bid any discrim9ation by an employ] aga9/ union m54 ,utah alone has a law to protect ! non-union m5 f organiz$ discrim9ation ( union labor to drive him f 8 trade4 ,sev]al ( our /ates require t all public pr9t+ %all be> ! union label4 ,"o ext5ds t rule to all /ation]y4 ,twelve /ates require employ]s adv]tis+ = help to m5tion 9 ! adv]tisem5t ! exi/5ce ( a /rike4 ,! ,m9nesota /atute provides t1 p] contra1 no employ] %all require any /atem5t f a p]son seek+ employm5t z to 8 p>ticipation 9 a /rike4 ,eight /ates h enact$ /atutes exempt+ labor organizations f _! respective anti-tru/ laws4 ,! unscrupul\s employ] may yet f9d ! labor union ! be/ means ( ?rottl+ 8 competitors & secur+ a monopoly4 ,!re seems at times to be a fr5zy = su* legislation4 ,only a vivid imag9ation c adequately picture :at might result if ,congress & ! /ate legislatures1 or ! incon/ant majority ( ! electorate1 7 fre$ f all con/itutional limitations or f ! *eck ( an indep5d5t judici>y4 ,?\gh ,great ,brita91 our "m c\ntry1 has no writt5 con/itution & no judici>y emp[]$ to en=ce its limitations1 x is ! happy possessor ( a practically homog5e\s p ( ! ,anglo-,saxon race1 little affect$ by immigration1 & imbu$ = c5turies ) a deep reg>d = p]sonal lib]ty & private rights4 ,yet1 ev5 !re today1 /atutes are dem&$ & sometimes enact$ 9 d]ogation ( !m4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! population z ! result ( great immigration is m het]og5e\s4 ,x comprises races & peoples ( div]se temp]am5ts1 ( div]se exp]i5ces1 ( div]se traditions1 _m uns*ool$ 9 self-gov]nm5t & lack+ 9 t traditional rev]5ce = lib]ty & ord] s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,teutonic races4 ,we ev5 f9d "s classes op5ly decl>+ t if !y c get possession ( ! gov]nm5t !y w exploit ! re/ ( ! p = _! own b5efit4 ,!y essay also to b>ga9 _! votes = special legislation 9 _! favor at ! exp5se ( ! p at l>ge & )\t reg>d to ! pr9ciples ( equality ( "r4 ,) su* a population ) its univ]sal suffrage1 7 x n = our writt5 con/itutions ) _! ,bills ( ,rights & ) an indep5d5t judici>y to gu>d !m1 !re w\ld be no security "h = p]sonal lib]ty & rights4 ,we %\ld be 9 ! condition ( ! p ( ,france z depict$ by ,wm4 ,s4 ,lilly 9 8 rec5t book1 ,! ,new ,france4 ,he wrote3 ,x is n[ m ?an a c5tury s9ce ! pr9ciples ( #aghi 7 =mulat$ !re4 ,b 9 no c\ntry1 n ev5 9 ,russia1 is individual fre$om less4 ,! /ate is z ubiquit\s & z autocratic z "u ! wor/ ,b\rbon or ,ori5tal despots4 ,n[h]e is its h& s heavy ^u ! subject 9 e dep>tm5t ( human life4 ,n[h]e is ! negation ( ! value & ( ! rights ( p]sonal indep5d5ce m absolute1 m complete1 & m effective4 ,yet ,france is a republic ) manhood suffrage & ) an elective legislature4 ,b its c\rts are n ve/$ ) any p[] to cons]ve any rights ( ! p aga9/ legislative caprice4 ,,conclusion ,! !sis ,i h endeavor$ to support 9 ^! lectures1 s f> z ,i h a !sis1 is ?is3 7#a7 t1 aft] all1 human ju/ice consi/s 9 secur+ to ea* individual z mu* lib]ty ( action 9 ! ex]cise ( 8 physical & m5tal p[]s & z mu* lib]ty to enjoy ! fruits ( su* action z is consi/5t ) l lib]ty = o!r individuals1 & ) su* re/rictions only z are necess>y = ! welf>e ( society z a :ole )\t discrim9ation = or aga9/ any individual2 & 7#b7 t t ju/ice is m firmly secur$ by a gov]nm5t ) a division ( p[]s1 ) a writt5 con/itution exclud+ f gov]nm5tal int]f]5ce su* p]sonal rights z long exp]i5ce has %[n to be necess>y bo? = ! happ9ess & effici5cy ( ! individual subject & = ! welf>e & effici5cy ( all2 & 7#c7 f9ally ) an indep5d5t judici>y to def5d ^? rights :5 assail$1 z !y (t5 h be51 & w be1 by impati5t & *angeable majorities4 ,x may be admitt$ t ! c\rts sometimes err 9 _! int]pretation ( ! con/itution & ! laws1 s9ce judges1 h[ev] c>efully select$1 are b m52 b !re mu/ be some:]e 9 ! body politic ( a free /ate "s body ( m5 ) ! p[] ( au?oritative int]pretation ( ! fundam5tal law z well z o!r laws4 ,does e>li] hi/ory or lat] exp]i5ce po9t to any bett] equipp$1 m /able1 m safe tribunal8 ,%\ld n ! p endeavor to raise r ?an l[] ! position ( ! c\rts2 to cons]ve r ?an impair t fre$om1 imp>tiality1 & indep5d5ce ( ! judges decl>$ by ! p ( ,massa*usetts 9 _! ,decl>ation ( ,rights1 aft] ye>s ( gall+ exp]i5ce ( ! contr>y1 to be ess5tial to ! pres]vation ( e individual1 8 life1 lib]ty1 prop]ty & "*8 ,are n !y ! reaction>ies :o1 despite ! lessons ( hi/ory1 w\ld rev]t to ! days ( a dep5d5t1 recallable1 & h5ce timid judici>y8 ,b ju/ice is n fully & c]ta9ly secur$ by ! ma9t5ance ( p>ticul> political in/itutions1 h[ev] excell5t4 ,political in/itutions are n self-act+4 ,!y are only in/rum5talities = ! action ( society4 ,!y are n only to be e/abli%$ & ma9ta9$2 !y are to be adm9i/]$1 & ! be/ in/itutions may be maladm9i/]$4 ,ev5 "u su* a sy/em ( gov]nm5t z ,i h endeavor$ to %[ to be ! be/ yet devis$ to secure ju/ice1 inju/ice is /ill (t5 suff]$ by ! individual or by society4 ,oppressive /atutes )9 ! legislative p[] are too readily enact$4 ,abuses 9 adm9i/ration are too long p]mitt$ to exi/4 ,! only rem$y = ^! is a m enlight5$ public op9ion1 a wid] diffusion ( ! _s ( imp>tiality1 a great] realization ( ! "r & ne$ ( e p]son to life1 lib]ty1 & ! results ( 8 indu/ry & economy4 ,nor are ! judgm5ts ( our c\rts always righte\s4 ,"s ( ! in/ances ( unrighte\s judgm5ts result f failure to asc]ta9 & apply ! tru? z to ! facts ( ! case2 "s f errors 9 judgm5t2 "s f lack ( firmness 9 judges 9 en=c+ ! kn[n rights ( ! individual on ! "o h&1 or ^? ( society on ! o!r2 & p]haps a v few f incompet5cy or corruption4 ,^! causes c be remov$ to a l>ge ext5t1 by a m rigid insi/5ce on skill1 ability1 indu/ry1 le>n+1 & c\rage on ! "p ( ^? assum+ to adm9i/] ju/ice z attorneys & c\nselors4 ,! same insi/5ce 9 ! selection ( judges w less5 ! inju/ice result+ f _! errors 9 judgm5t & f _! lack ( firmness4 ,!re is yet ano!r cause ( inju/ice1 ! delay & exp5se 9 obta9+ ev5 righte\s judgm5ts4 ,x is an axiom1 t ju/ice delay$ is ju/ice d5i$4 ,?is delay & exp5se are (t5 *>g$ aga9/ ! c\rts & judges1 z if !y _h full control ov] judicial proc$ure4 ,x is n ! judges b ! legislature t %apes ! judicial sy/em & prescribes ! judicial proc$ure1 s f> z !y are n fix$ by ! con/itution4 ,x is n ! c\rts b ! legislatures t provide = s _m appeals & all[ s _m /ays & consequ5t delays4 ,judges & lawy]s ! c\ntry ov] are urg+ a m simplifi$1 a m spe$y1 & less exp5sive proc$ure4 ,!y are also urg+ ! e/abli%m5t ( m c\rts ) m judges to cope ) ! con/antly increas+ litigation1 9 ord] t ! wrongs aga9/ ! individual & ! wrongs aga9/ society may be r$ress$ ) a m9imum ( delay & co/4 ,x is ! legislatures t hesitate & (t5 x is ! legislatures t tie ! h&s ( ! judges4 ,9 "s /ates x is s\ght to deprive ! judges ( _! prop] influ5ce 9 jury trials4 ,9 "s /ates x is ev5 s\ght to prev5t !m f say+ m ?an yes or no to propos$ in/ructions to a jury4 ,9 _m /ates ne>ly ! :ole matt] ( proc$ure1 its v>i\s /eps1 are fix$ by /atute & become difficult ( improvem5t4 ,if c\rts c\ld h m p[] & ! legislatures w\ld int]f]e less 9 matt]s ( proc$ure1 ,i am sure ! cause ( ju/ice w\ld be bett] s]v$4 ,9 conclusion1 p]fect ju/ice may n be atta9able by u imp]fect m54 ,z said by ,addison1 omnisci5ce & omnipot5ce are requisite = its full atta9m5t4 ,yet x is our duty & especially ! duty ( ^? ( ! legal pr(ession to atta9 to su* approximation z may be possible4 ,no m noble "w c engage our p[]s2 no great] s]vice c be r5d]$ mank9d4 ,i d n except ! end[m5t ( s*ools1 colleges1 libr>ies1 & ! l1 nor ! end[m5t ( hospitals & o!r *>itable in/itutions4 ,great z are ! virtues ( *>ity1 b5evol5ce1 philan?ropy1 piety & ! l1 ju/ice is a yet great] virtue4 ,to quote ,addison aga91 ,!re is no virtue s truly great & godlike z ju/ice2 & 9 ! words ( ,daniel ,web/]'s eulogy3 ,:oev] labors on ?is edifice ( ju/ice1 cle>s its f\ndations1 /r5g!ns its pill>s1 adorns its entablatures1 or contributes to raise its augu/ dome /ill high] 9 ! skies1 connects himself 9 "n1 fame1 & "* ) t :i* is1 & mu/ be1 z durable z ! frame ( human society4 ,,publi%$ ,,on ,,! ,,f\ndation ,,e/abli%$ ,,9 ,,memory ,,( ,,h5ry ,,weldon ,,b>nes ,,( ,,! ,,class ,,( #ahhb1 ,,yale ,,college ,,/orrs ,,lectures ,publi%$ by ,yale ,univ]sity ,press ,,! ,,re=m ,,( ,,legal ,,proc$ure4 ,by ,,moorfield ,,/orey4 ,price #a4ce net deliv]$4 ,,! ,,judici>y ,,& ,,! ,,p4 ,by ,,fr$]ick ,n4 ,,judson4 ,price #a4ce net deliv]$4 ,,conc]n+ ,,ju/ice4 ,by ,,lucilius ,a4 ,,em]y4 ,price #a4ae net deliv]$4 ,uni=m 9 /yle ) ! ,/orrs ,lectures ,,int]national ,,arbitration ,,& ,,proc$ure4 ,by ,,rob]t ,c4 ,,morris1 ) a =eword by ,,presid5t ,,taft4 ,price #a4ce net deliv]$4