from the ,google ,print project47       
,,smeaton                               
,,and                                   
,,lighthouses4                        ,a
 ,,popular ,,biography1 ,,with ,,an     
,,historical ,,introduction             
,,and ,,sequel4                         
,,london3                      ,,john   
,w4 ,,parker1 ,,west ,,strand4          
,m4,,dccc4,,xliv4     ,,preface4   ,one 
of the most useful and pleasing forms   
under which knowledge can be presented  
to the general reader1 is that of the   
biography of distinguished men who have 
contributed to the progress of that     
knowledge in some one or other of its   
various departments4 ,but it too        
frequently happens that the biographical
 notices of great men consist rather of 
personal1 trivial1 and unimportant      
details1 than of a clear and broad      
outline of the influence which they     
exerted upon the pursuit and upon the   
age in which they were distinguished4   
,the true object of biography is1 in    

tracing the progress of an individual1  
to show clearly what result his active  
life has produced on the well-being of  
his fellow-men1 and also what is the    
position which he occupies as one of the
 'great landmarks in the map of human   
nature#a4'  ,yet we are not satisfied   
with a biography which regards its      
subject in his public capacity alone3 we
 are naturally curious to ascertain     
whether the same qualities which        
rendered him celebrated in public       
followed him likewise into private life1
 and distinguished him there4 ,we regard
 with interest in his private capacity  
the man who has been the originator of  
much public good2 we look with an       
attentive eye on his behaviour when he  
stands alone1 when his native impulses  
are under no external excitement1 when  
he is1 in fact1 'in the undress of one  
who has retired from the stage on which 
he felt he had a part to sustain#b4'    
,but a detail of the public and private 
events in the life of a distinguished   

man do not alone suffice to form a just 
estimate of his character4 ,the reader  
requires to be made acquainted with the 
state of a particular branch of         
knowledge at the time when the          
individual appeared whose efforts so    
greatly extended its                    
boundaries2--without this it is quite   
impossible to estimate the worth of the 
man whose life is being perused1 or the 
blessings and advantages conferred upon 
society by his means4  ,on the other    
hand1 in tracing the history of any     
particular branch of knowledge1 unless  
connected with biography1 we lose sight 
of individual efforts2--they are mingled
 with the labours of others1 or are     
absorbed into the history of the whole1 
and are consequently no longer          
individualized3--hence we are likely to 
fail in recognizing the obligations due 
to our distinguished countrymen1 or to  
deprive of their just merit those of our
 foreign brethren whose useful lives    
have influenced distant lands1 as well  

as their own4  ,with these views we     
propose to connect the name of ,,smeaton
 with the interesting subject of        
,,lighthouses4 ,in the first place1 we  
propose to present a brief history of   
,lighthouses1 up to the time when       
,smeaton gave a type for this peculiar  
class of buildings upon dangerous and   
difficult points of coast2 secondly1 a  
general sketch of the life of ,smeaton1 
so far as his very brief biographers    
will allow2 and thirdly1 a history of   
the improvements in ,lighthouses which  
have been effected since the erection of
 the ,eddystone4  ,in this compilation1 
the writer desires to express his       
obligations to the following works3 ,a  
,narrative of the ,building1 and a      
,description of the ,construction of the
 ,eddystone ,lighthouse with ,stone1 by 
,,john ,,smeaton1 fol4 ,london1         
#agia2--,mr4 ,,holmes's short ,memoir of
 ,,smeaton2--,the ,communication of     
,mrs4 ,,dixon1 ,smeaton's daughter1 to  
the ,institution of ,civil              

,engineers2--,an ,account of the        
,bell-,rock ,lighthouse1 including the  
,details of the ,erection1 and peculiar 
,structure of that ,edifice1 by ,,robert
 ,,stevenson1 #dto4 ,edin4 #ahbd2--,the 
,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 and the        
,encyclopdia ,britannica2--,an article  
on ,lighthouses1 by ,m4 ,,arago1 in the 
,annuaire2--,the ,civil ,engineer's and 
,architect's ,journal2--,the ,nautical  
,magazine2--and the ,annual ,reports of 
the ,trinity ,house presented to the    
,house of ,commons4  ,,footnotes3       
,footnote #a3 ,coleridge4  ,footnote #b3
 ,coleridge4     ,,contents4   ,,chapter
 ,i4  ,,early ,,lighthouses4            
,,page  ,origin of ,lighthouses--,beacon
 ,fires--,character of the ,early       
,watch-towers--,cressets--,colossus of  
,rhodes--,the ,pharos of                
,alexandria--,epitome of ,ancient       
,lighthouses--,the ,tour de ,corduan    
#i   ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,the             
,,lighthouses ,,of ,,england4           
,management of ,english                 

,lighthouses--,the ,trinity             
,house--,early ,history of this         
,corporation--,management of            
,lighthouses vested in--,the ,power of  
the ,crown to grant ,patents for        
,lighthouses-- ,recent ,law for the     
,regulation of ,lighthouses--,revenue of
 ,corporation--,rates of ,dues--,how    
collected and disbursed-- ,constitution 
of the ,corporation--,the ,public       
,lights of ,england       #ae           
,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,history ,,of ,,the  
,,eddystone ,,lighthouse ,,to ,,the     
,,time ,,of ,,smeaton4  ,the ,eddystone 
,rocks--,their ,situation and dangerous 
,character--,the first ,lighthouse by   
,winstanley--,its ,progress and         
,completion--,its awful                 
,fate--,rudyerd's                       
,lighthouse--,description of--,its      
,destruction by ,fire--,smeaton         
appointed to construct a ,new ,edifice  
#ba   ,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,biographical   
,,notice ,,of ,,smeaton4  ,birth of     
,smeaton--,his early ,character and     

,employments--,educated for an          
attorney--,his dislike of that          
profession--,becomes ,philosophical     
,instrument ,maker--,his ,scientific    
,inquiries--,is appointed to build the  
,eddystone ,lighthouse--,his subsequent 
,employments--,public ,works designed   
and completed by him--,his ,literary    
,works--,his last ,illness and          
,death--,his ,character-- ,illustrative 
,anecdotes                              
#dj   ,,chapter ,v4  ,,the ,,eddystone  
,,as ,a ,,type ,,of ,,english           
,,lighthouses4  ,a ,stone ,lighthouse   
proposed--,smeaton's first ,visit to the
 ,rock--,operations of the ,first       
,season--,second ,season--,structure of 
the ,foundation--,ingenious ,mode of    
securing the ,stones--,third            
,season--,state of the ,work--,progress 
and ,description of the                 
,work--,accidents to the                
,engineer--,proposal to exhibit a ,light
 before the completion of the ,building 
refused--,fourth ,season-- ,completion  

of the ,work--,appearance of the        
,lighthouse during a ,storm--,situation 
of the ,light-keepers                   
#ej   ,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,the ,,northern 
,,lighthouses4  ,importance of ,lighting
 the ,scottish ,coast--,formation of    
,board of ,commissioners of ,northern   
,lighthouses--,early ,proceedings of the
 ,board--,principal ,northern           
,lighthouses--,the ,isle of ,may        
,lighthouse--,loss of two               
,frigates--,application of the          
,admiralty to the ,lighthouse ,board1 by
 whom the ,duties and the ,island of    
,may are purchased--,numerous           
,shipwrecks on the ,island of           
,sanday--,foundation-stone of           
,start-,point ,lighthouse laid--,rev4   
,w4 ,traill's ,address upon the         
occasion-- ,subsequent ,proceedings on  
,sanday ,island--,north ,ronaldsay      
,lighthouse--,melancholy                
,accident--,importance of the ,northern 
,lighthouses                            
#fd   ,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,the           

,,bell-,,rock ,,lighthouse ,,as ,a      
,,type ,,of ,,scottish ,,lighthouses4   
,history of the ,inch-,cape or          
,bell-,rock ,lighthouse as a ,type of   
the ,northern ,lighthouses--,position   
and ,dangerous ,character of the ,bell  
,rock--,ballad of ,sir ,ralph the       
,rover-- ,proposal to erect a           
,lighthouse--,mr4 ,robert ,stevenson    
selected as ,engineer--,survey of the   
,rock--,exhibition of a ,floating       
,light--,preparations for the           
,lighthouse--,first ,season on the      
,rock--,alarming ,situation of the      
,engineer and ,men--,effects of the     
,stormy ,sea on the ,rock--,erection of 
,beacon--,winter ,employment--,the      
,second ,season--,a new ,tender         
employed--,praam-boats and              
,stone-lighters--,progress of the       
,work--,remarkable appearance of the    
,rock--,foundation ,stone laid--,first  
continuous ,course of ,masonry--,its    
,contents--,third ,season--,progress of 
the ,work--,winter ,operations--,fourth 

,season--,the ,beacon used as a         
,dwelling--,its ,interior               
described--,the ,engineer's ,cabin--,the
 ,lighthouse nearly finished--,mr4      
,smeaton's ,daughter visits the         
,works--,last ,stone laid--,light       
advertized--,lighthouse                 
described--,action of the ,sea and of   
,stormy ,weather upon the               
,lighthouse--,internal ,economy of the  
,lighthouse--,arrangements on           
,shore--,signals--,curious              
,accident--,the ,carr ,rock ,beacon     
#gd   ,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,lighthouses  
,,on ,,sand ,,and ,,cast-,,iron         
,,lighthouses4  ,floating               
,lights--,objections to--,mitchell's    
,screw-moorings-- ,experiments on the   
,maplin ,sand--,foundation--,erection of
 ,screw-pile ,lighthouse--,details of   
the ,wyre ,lighthouse--,proposed        
,lighthouse on the ,goodwin             
,sands--,metallic                       
,lighthouses--,advantages of ,metal over
 ,stone--,details of ,cast-iron         

,lighthouse at ,morant ,point1 ,jamaica 
#aja   ,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,the           
,,lighthouse ,,system4  ,imperfect      
,illumination of the old                
,lighthouses--,first ,improvements--,the
 ,argand ,lamp and ,reflecting          
,mirrors--,revolving ,lights--,the      
,catoptric ,system--,varieties of       
,lights--,the ,dioptric ,system--,its   
,details--,introduction of this ,method 
into ,great ,britain--,comparison of the
 two ,methods--,the ,drummond and       
,voltaic ,lights--,gurney's             
,lamp--,captain ,basil ,hall's          
,experiments--,ventilation of           
,lighthouses                            
#aaj     ,,smeaton ,,and ,,lighthouses4 
,,chapter ,i4  ,,early ,,lighthouses4   
,origin of ,lighthouses--,beacon        
,fires--,character of the ,early        
,watch-towers--,cressets--,colossus of  
,rhodes--,the ,pharos of                
,alexandria--,epitome of ,ancient       
,lighthouses--,the ,tour de             
,corduan4   ,there is perhaps nothing   

better calculated to impress us with the
 skill and ingenuity of man1 and the    
power which scientific knowledge        
imparts1 than the sight of one of the   
beautiful ,lighthouses of modern times4 
,rising1 it may be1 from the point of a 
jutting rock amidst the dashing and     
roaring of the breakers1 it is exposed  
to the utmost fury of the storm3        
graceful in its proportions1 and uniting
 the elements of security and beauty1 it
 resists the terrific assaults of the   
winds and waves1 and bears aloft to the 
help of the tempest-tossed mariner1 the 
warning light that bids him shun the    
rocky shore4 ,the skill now attained in 
the construction of ,lighthouses has    
been of slow and difficult acquirement1 
the fruit of much patient and           
persevering toil1 and of many painful   
experiences3 it will1 therefore1 be     
interesting to trace the steps by which 
a result so important in the history of 
commerce has been successfully achieved4
  ,at a very early period it was        

customary to light up beacon-fires along
 the most frequented coasts4 ,these     
fires were kindled on the summits of    
lofty towers1 which served the double   
purpose of lighthouses1 and temples     
dedicated to the gods4 ,here sacrifices 
were offered to appease the storm1 and  
prayers were made for the safety of the 
mariner4 ,thus these lighthouse-towers  
were invested with a sacred character3  
their beacon-fires were said to be      
inextinguishable2 their priests         
performed the rites and practised the   
arts of divination1 inquiring into the  
success of a proposed voyage1 and making
 votive offerings for past deliverances4
  ,hence it may naturally be supposed1  
that within these watch-towers was to be
 found most of the nautical knowledge of
 the time2 that here were deposited such
 observations on the heavenly bodies as 
were attainable at that early period2   
also rude charts of the coast1          
originally perhaps traced upon the      
walls1 and afterwards formed into       

primitive maps by being transferred and 
extended upon papyrus leaves4 ,here too 
the young seaman might come for         
instruction in the art of navigation1   
simple and imperfect as it must have    
been4 ,here too the aged seaman         
buffetted by the storm might seek refuge
 from its fury1 obtain rest and         
refreshment1 and instructions for the   
continuance of his voyage4  ,these      
ancient lighthouses appear to have      
consisted of a tower of masonry of large
 dimensions2 circular or square in form2
 containing numerous apartments and a   
battlemented top1 within which was      
raised a kind of altarpiece covered with
 a plate of brass4 ,upon this brazen    
hearth a chauffer of curious workmanship
 was placed3 it was in some cases       
supported upon dolphins2 and the grating
 was decorated with foliage and         
emblematical devices4  ,the materials   
employed for maintaining a light in this
 chauffer were1 doubtless1 similar to   
those in the ancient cressets1 or lights

 of the watch1 which were in use not    
only as beacons1 but as common          
street-lights1 before either oil or     
gas-lights were known4 ,some of these   
cressets were formed of a wreathed rope1
 smeared over with pitch1 and placed in 
an elevated cage of iron1 others        
contained combustible materials in a    
hollow pan4 ,occasionally these         
primitive street-lights were placed at  
the summit of a pole1 from either side  
of which1 projecting pieces of wood     
formed a ready mode of ascent to trim   
the light1 and obviated the need of a   
ladder for that purpose4  ,before the   
discovery of the magnetic needle or its 
application at sea1 the towers above    
referred to were very numerous2 so much 
so that nearly every promontory is said 
to have been decorated with its         
lighthouse or temple1 and this was the  
more necessary1 since the mariner dared 
not venture out of sight of the coast1  
but followed with attention all its     
little windings and bendings4  ,there is

 every reason to believe1 that the      
gigantic figure known as the ,colossus  
of ,rhodes formed one of the most       
celebrated beacon-fires of antiquity4   
,about three hundred years before the   
,christian era1 ,charles the disciple of
 ,lysippus constructed this brazen      
statue1 the dimensions of which were so 
vast that a vessel could sail into the  
harbour between its legs1 which spanned 
the entrance4 ,it was partly demolished 
by an earthquake about eighty years     
after its completion2 and so late as the
 year #fgb of the ,christian era1 the   
brass of which it was composed was sold 
by the ,saracens to a ,jewish merchant  
of ,edessa1 for a sum1 it is said1 equal
 to thirty-six thousand pounds4  ,but   
the most celebrated lighthouse of       
antiquity was that erected about the    
year #bhc ,b4 ,c4 by order of ,ptolemy  
,philadelphus1 on the island of ,pharos1
 opposite to ,alexandria4 ,it is from   
the name of this island that lighthouses
 have received their generic name of    

,pharos4 ,strabo records1 that the      
architect ,sostratus1 having first      
secretly carved his own name on the     
solid walls of the building1 covered the
 words with plaster1 and in obedience to
 ,ptolemy's command inscribed thereon1  
',king ,ptolemy to the gods the         
preservers1 for the benefit of sailors4'
 ,the height of this building is stated 
at four hundred feet2 but this1 as well 
as many other accounts relating to it1  
must be an exaggeration4 ,a more modest 
account1 given by the historian         
,josephus1 is likely to be accurate2 but
 even he states that the fire which was 
kept constantly burning at the top was  
visible by seamen at a distance equal to
 about forty miles4  ,the most          
remarkable lighthouses of ancient times 
were situated in and about the          
,mediterranean sea2 they were generally 
placed upon extensive moles1 or near the
 entrance of harbours3 some of them     
still remain4 ,the ,pharos of           
,alexandria1 and that of ,messina1 still

 display their fires1 but it is stated  
that they have shared in none of the    
improvements of modern science2 that    
even in ,spain and ,portugal the        
lighthouse of ,corunna1 or famous tower 
of ,hercules1 exhibits merely a         
coal-fire with so faint a light that    
ships can scarcely perceive it until    
they are in danger of striking against  
the shores4 ,of these ancient lights    
there yet remain those on either side of
 the ,dardanelles2 one in the           
archipelago on the island of ,milo1 two 
in the gulf of ,salonica1 and one near  
,lagos in ,romania2 ,malta1 ,leghorn1   
,civita ,vecchia1 ,genoa1 ,malaga1 ,cape
 ,tarifa1 and other places1 still       
preserve the fires which guided the prow
 and the galley of the masters of the   
old world4  ,the sum of our knowledge of
 the ancient history of lighthouses is  
neither accurate nor extensive3 we      
proceed1 therefore1 to notice those of  
modern times4 ,passing by the many rude 
contrivances for lighting up a coast1   

consisting as they did chiefly of pots  
of fire mounted on poles or rocks1 the  
first lighthouse which merits attention 
is the ,tour de ,corduan1 which1 on     
account of its architectural            
magnificence was long regarded as one of
 the wonders of the world1 in the same  
way as the ,pharos of ,alexandria had   
been in ancient times4  ,the ,tour de   
,corduan is situated on an extensive    
reef about three miles from land1 at the
 mouth of the river ,garonne1 and from  
its position serves as an important     
guide to the shipping of ,bordeaux1 the 
,languedoc ,canal1 and all that part of 
the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,it was founded in 
the year #aehd1 but was not completed   
until #afaj1 in the time of ,henry ,,iv4
 ,its style of architecture is a mixture
 of classic and gothic1 and so very     
elaborate1 that a just idea cannot be   
formed of it without reference to       
drawings in detail4 ,the building is one
 hundred and ninety-seven feet in       
height1 and consists of a number of     

galleries rising above each other1 and  
gradually diminishing in diameter4 ,the 
base consists of an immense platform of 
solid masonry1 surrounded by a wall one 
hundred and thirty-four feet in         
diameter1 so placed as to act as an     
outwork of defence to receive the chief 
shock of the waves4 ,the light-keeper's 
houses and the store-rooms form a       
detached range of buildings on the great
 platform1 from which a private         
staircase conducts to the light-room4   
,at the entrance door of the main tower1
 the busts of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,henry   
,,iv4 are placed in niches1 over these  
are the arms of ,france1 and an         
emblematical figure of ,st4 ,mary1 to   
whom the building is dedicated2 there is
 also another female figure1 holding a  
branch of palm in one hand and a crown  
in the other4  ,in the solid masonry of 
the platform is the fuel-store2 over    
this is the great hall1 twenty-two feet 
square with an arched roof twenty feet  
high4 ,on this floor are also two       

wardrobes and other conveniences4 ,over 
the hall is the king's apartment1       
twenty-one feet square1 with an         
elliptical roof twenty feet in height4  
,this floor has also a vestibule1 two   
wardrobes1 c4 ,the third floor contains 
the chapel1 in which a priest           
occasionally performs mass4 ,its        
diameter is twenty-one feet1 and from   
the floor to the centre of the dome-roof
 the height is forty feet4 ,it is highly
 adorned with mosaic1 and is lighted by 
eight lantern windows4 ,in the crown of 
the dome-roof is a circular opening     
surrounded by a balustrade1 through     
which is seen the ornamental roof of the
 room above4 ,this room is fourteen feet
 in diameter and twenty-seven feet high2
 it is used as a watch-room by the      
light-keepers1 and was probably intended
 as a place to which they could be      
admitted to hear prayers or mass on the 
occasion of a royal visit4 ,over this   
room is an apartment capable of         
containing a stock of fuel sufficient   

for one night's consumption1 and is so  
constructed as to be convertible into a 
room for the exhibition of a light1 in  
case of accident or repairs being       
required in the main light-room4 ,this  
is situated over the store-room just    
referred to1 and is surrounded by a     
balcony and a circular stone parapet4   
,the original lantern1 or light-room1   
was constructed for the combustion of   
oak wood1 exposed in a kind of chauffer 
raised six feet above the floor4 ,the   
room was not glazed1 so that the smoke  
was carried out sideways in the         
direction of the wind4 ,the roof was    
furnished with a sort of chimney in the 
shape of a spire1 which terminated the  
building with a ball4 ,the whole        
light-room was of stone1 and its height 
to the top of the spire-funnel was      
thirty-one feet4  ,from the rude mode by
 which light was obtained1 the stone    
mullions which supported the cupola-roof
 became so much damaged1 that in #agag  
it was necessary to remove the light to 

the apartment below1 till the light-room
 and upper works were restored4 ,but the
 new light being so defective that it   
could not be seen at sea at a greater   
distance than six miles1 many accidents 
and complaints arose1 when it was       
determined to construct the light-room  
of iron instead of stone4 ,by this means
 the light passed with less obstruction1
 and in #agbg1 after a lapse of ten     
years1 it was again exhibited at its    
accustomed height and with increased    
brilliancy4 ,the light was further      
improved in consequence of pit-coal     
being used instead of timber2 and the   
interior of the roof was converted into 
a kind of inverted conical reflector1   
the point of which projected downwards1 
and its base extended nearly to the full
 size of the roof4 ,still1 however1 the 
light being exposed in an open chauffer1
 was little to be depended on at any    
great distance from the shore1 so that  
about the year #aghj reflectors and     
lamps were introduced1 and in #ahbb the 

light received its last improvement by  
the introduction of ,fresnel's beautiful
 apparatus4     ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,the  
,,lighthouses ,,of ,,england4           
,management of ,english                 
,lighthouses--,the ,trinity             
,house--,early      ,history of this    
,corporation--,management of            
,lighthouses      vested in--,the ,power
 of the ,crown to grant ,patents for    
,lighthouses--,recent ,law for the      
,regulation of                          
,lighthouses--,revenue of               
,corporation--,rates of ,dues--,how     
collected and disbursed--,constitution  
of the      ,corporation--,the ,public  
,lights of ,england4   ,it will now be  
necessary to give some account of the   
important institution to whose members  
is entrusted the management of          
,lighthouses1 and of various interests  
connected with the ,seamen and ,shipping
 of this country4 ,this is the          
,corporation of the ,trinity ,house of  
,deptford ,strond1 whose full title is  

as follows3--',the ,master1 ,wardens1   
and ,assistants of the ,guild1          
,fraternity1 or ,brotherhood of the most
 glorious and undivided ,trinity1 and of
 ,st4 ,clement1 in the parish of        
,deptford ,strond1 in the county of     
,kent4'  ,the early records of this     
corporation were destroyed by fire in   
#agad1 so that the origin of the        
institution cannot be precisely stated4 
,but it appears that the purpose for    
which it was first established was1 for 
the increase of correct information of  
the intricacies of navigation connected 
with the channels leading into the      
,thames1 and with the river itself1 and 
that the society was originally an      
association of seamen formed for the    
purpose of forwarding and assisting the 
attainment of the object4  ,in the reign
 of ,henry ,,viii4 the arsenals of      
,woolwich and ,deptford were founded1   
the latter being afterwards put under   
the direction of the ,trinity ,house4   
,it is in this reign that we meet with  

the first official document relating to 
the establishment at ,deptford ,strond4 
,a royal charter of incorporation was   
granted in the sixth year of the reign1 
wherein ,henry grants license to his    
beloved people and subjects1 the shipmen
 and mariners of ,england1 to new begin1
 erect1 create1 ordain1 found1 unite1   
and establish a certain guild or        
perpetual fraternity of themselves and  
other persons1 as well men as women1 in 
the parish-church of ,deptford ,strond1 
in the county of ,kent4 ,this charter   
permits the brethren to elect one       
master1 four wardens1 and eight         
assistants1 to govern and oversee the   
guild1 and have the custody of the lands
 and possessions thereof1 c4 ,queen     
,elizabeth1 in the first year of her    
reign1 recognised all the rights and    
immunities of the corporation1 and in   
the eighth of her reign an act was      
passed enabling them to preserve ancient
 sea-marks1 to erect beacons1 marks1 and
 signs for the sea1 and to grant        

licenses to mariners during the         
intervals of their engagements to ply   
for hire as watermen on the river       
,thames4 ,this act recites the          
destruction of steeples1 woods1 and     
other marks on the coasts1 whereby      
divers ships had been lost1 to the great
 detriment and hurt of the common weal1 
and the perishing of no small number of 
people1 and forbids the destruction of  
any existing marks after notice under a 
penalty of one hundred pounds4  ,in the 
reign of ,james ,i4 a question arose as 
to whether the privileges granted to the
 ,trinity ,house by the act of #hth of  
,elizabeth included lighthouses1 which1 
it would appear1 were not introduced in 
,england at the time it was passed4 ,the
 opinion of ,sir ,francis ,bacon was    
sought in the matter1 and on it an order
 in council was founded1 #bfth ,march1  
#afag4 ,the opinion was1--',that        
lighthouses are marks and signs within  
the meaning of the statute and charter4 
,that there is an authority1 mixed with 

a trust settled in that corporation1 for
 the erection of such lighthouses1 and  
other marks and signs as may serve from 
time to time1 as the accidents and      
moveable nature of the sands and        
channels doth require1 grounded upon the
 skill and experience which they have in
 marine service1 and this authority and 
trust cannot be transferred from them by
 law1 but as they only are answerable   
for the defaults1 so they only are      
trusted with the performance1 it being a
 matter of a high and precious nature1  
in respect of the salvation of ships and
 lives1 and a kind of starlight in that 
element4'  ,there is reason to believe  
that this sensible decision of the      
attorney-general was not altogether     
pleasing to the king1 whose habit of    
selling monopolies and patents was      
thereby checked4 ,that this was the case
 appears from the fact1 that1 on ,sir   
,francis ,bacon becoming lord-keeper1   
the same point of law was revived before
 his successor in the office of         

attorney-general1 ,sir ,henry           
,yelverton4 ,the result of this was a   
report that suited the king's purposes  
better at the time1 but was subsequently
 the cause of much evil1 loss1 and      
expense1 because the management of      
several lighthouses was thenceforth     
entrusted to individuals4 ,without      
interfering with the authority already  
possessed by the ,trinity ,house1 this  
report states that the crown had also a 
power and right by the common-law to    
erect such houses4 ',and therefore1'    
says the report1 'howsoever the ordinary
 authority and trust for the performance
 of this service is committed to the    
said corporation alone1 as persons of   
skill and trust to that purpose1 yet if 
they be not vigilant to perform it in   
all places necessary1 his majesty is not
 restrained to provide them according to
 his regal power and justice1 for the   
safety of his subjects' lives1 goods1   
and shipping1 in all places needful4'   
,thus patents for and leases of         

lighthouses were granted to private     
individuals1 and were no longer the     
exclusive right of the ,trinity ,house4 
,this state of things continued from    
that period nearly to the present time4 
,but the inconvenience and disadvantage 
resulting from the measure had long been
 felt1 and it was found that the        
lighthouse system was1 in too many      
instances1 conducted with a view to     
private interest rather than public     
good4 ,an act was therefore passed1 in  
the sixth and seventh years of the reign
 of his late majesty ,william ,,iv41 in 
order to the attainment of uniformity of
 system in the management of            
lighthouses1 and the reduction and      
equalization of tolls payable in respect
 thereof4 ,by this act provision was    
made for vesting all the lighthouses on 
the coast of ,england in the corporation
 of the ,trinity ,house1 and placing    
those of ,scotland and ,ireland also    
under their supervision4 ,all the       
interest of the crown in lighthouses    

possessed by his majesty was vested in  
the corporation1 in consideration of    
three hundred thousand pounds allowed to
 the ,commissioners of ,crown ,land     
,revenue for the same1 and the          
corporation were permitted to buy up the
 interests of the various lessees of the
 crown and of the corporation1 as well  
as to purchase the other lighthouses    
from the proprietors of them1 subject in
 case of dispute to the assessment of a 
jury4 ,under this act purchases have    
been made by the corporation of nearly  
the whole of the lighthouses not before 
in their possession1 the sum expended   
for that purpose amounting to nearly a  
million of money4  ,the revenues of the 
corporation1 which are very             
considerable1 are derived from tolls    
paid by the shipping deriving benefit   
from the lights1 beacons1 and buoys1 and
 from the ballast supplied4 ,also from  
lands1 stock1 c4 held by the            
corporation1 partly by purchase1 partly 
from legacies1 c4 and donations of      

private individuals4 ,the whole of these
 revenues are employed in necessary     
expenses1 such as constructing and      
maintaining their lighthouses1 and      
lights1 beacons1 and buoys1 and the     
buildings and vessels belonging to the  
corporation1 in the salaries of the     
officers of their different             
establishments1 and in relieving decayed
 seamen and ballastmen and their widows4
 ,many almshouses have been erected and 
are maintained from the same funds4     
,the present house of the corporation is
 on ,tower ,hill4 ,it was built by      
,wyatt in #agic4 ,it is of ,portland    
stone1 with a rustic basement1 over     
which is one story adorned with ,ionic  
columns and pilasters4 ,the ,trinity    
,house was formerly in ,water ,lane1    
where it was twice destroyed by fire4   
,the members of the corporation are     
chosen from among the highest ranks3 of 
the thirty-one elder brethren1 eleven   
are noblemen and heads of the government
 departments1 admirals1 c4 ,these are   

styled honorary members1 and have no    
pecuniary advantage from their          
connection with the institution4 ,the   
present master is the ,duke of          
,wellington4 ,mr4 ,pitt filled that     
office for seventeen years1 and ,william
 ,,iv4 was master at the time of his    
accession to the throne4 ,different     
committees are appointed for attending  
to the various duties of the            
corporation4 ,the deputy master and     
elder brethren are from time to time    
employed in making voyages of inspection
 of their lighthouses and lights1       
beacons and buoys1 and in making surveys
 c4 on the coast1 and reports on        
maritime matters4 ,the salary of the    
deputy master is six hundred pounds per 
annum1 and of the elder brethren three  
hundred pounds each per annum4 ,the     
duties of the corporation also extend to
 the examination of such boys of        
,christ's ,hospital as shall be willing 
to become seamen1 and to apprentice them
 to commanders of ships4 ,also1 the     

appointment of all pilots into and out  
of the ,thames1 prohibiting under       
penalties all other persons from        
exercising the office2 the punishment of
 seamen deserting1 c4 ,all masters of   
the ,navy1 as well as the pilots1 also  
undergo examination before this         
corporation4  ,the rate of dues         
chargeable by the ,trinity ,house before
 the passing of the ,act of #ahcf1      
varied from one sixth of a penny to one 
penny per ton1 on each light passed2 and
 it appears from the ,parliamentary     
,report1 that in #ahcb the net amount of
 revenue was seventy-seven thousand     
three hundred and seventy-one pounds1   
and the expense of maintaining the      
lights thirty-six thousand nine hundred 
and four pounds1 leaving a surplus of   
forty thousand four hundred and         
sixty-seven pounds1 to be expended in   
charity to the amount of thirty-five    
thousand1 and the rest in the erection  
of new lighthouses1 and the maintenance 
of the general establishment4 ,by the   

new ,act the duties levied under former 
,acts were repealed1 and it was enacted 
that every ,british vessel1 and every   
private foreign vessel should pay the   
toll of one half-penny per ton for every
 time of passing1 or deriving advantage 
from any light1 with the exception of   
the ,bell-,rock1 for which one penny per
 ton is the toll4 ,every foreign vessel 
not privileged must pay double toll4    
,exemptions were made in favour of the  
,king's vessels1 those of ,trinity      
,house1 and all vessels going in ballast
 or engaged in the herring fishery4     
,power was given to the commissioners of
 northern lighthouses to erect beacons1 
and moor buoys1 and the harbour-lights  
on the ,scotch coast were placed under  
their controul4 ,this ,act also confers 
on the ,trinity ,house the power of     
entering any lighthouse under the charge
 of other boards1 to inspect their      
condition1 and it gives them a controul 
as to the erection of new lighthouses1  
or the alteration of those already      

existing1 both in ,scotland and         
,ireland4 ,in the event of any          
differences of opinion between the three
 boards1 appeal is to be made to the    
,privy ,council4 ,it is also enacted1   
that accounts of the receipt of all     
monies1 and a report of all alterations 
made during the preceding year1 be      
annually laid before each ,house of     
,parliament4  ,the public lights of     
,england1 including ,heligoland 7a small
 island belonging to ,england situate   
about twenty-five miles from the mouth  
of the ,elbe71 amount to seventy-one in 
number1 and have been arranged in the   
following classes4    #a4 ,those        
belonging to and under the management of
 the      ,corporation of the ,trinity  
,house                       #ee lights 
#b4 ,those in the charge of individuals 
under lease from      the ,trinity      
,house1 and having different periods to 
run                                     
#c        #c4 ,those let by the ,crown  
to individuals for a period of          

years on leases renewed since the year  
#ahbb             #g        #d4 ,lights 
originally held under patents           
subsequently      sanctioned by ,acts of
 ,parliament1 and now in the      hands 
of proprietors                          
#d        #e4 ,at ,heligoland           
#a light    #f4 ,one floating light at  
,benbridge ,lodge                   #a  
---------   ,total number of public     
general lights in ,england          #ga 
lights                                  
---------  ,a list of the lighthouses of
 the ,british ,islands1 corrected to    
,july1 #ahcf1 is published at the       
,hydrographic ,office1 ,admiralty4      
,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,history ,,of ,,the  
,,eddystone ,,lighthouse ,,to ,,the     
,,time ,,of ,,smeaton4       ,the       
,eddystone ,rocks--,their situation and 
dangerous      ,character--,the first   
,lighthouse by ,winstanley--,its        
progress      and ,completion--,its     
awful ,fate--,rudyerd's                 
,lighthouse--,description      of--,its 

,destruction by ,fire--,smeaton         
appointed to construct a      ,new      
edifice4   ,the ,eddystone ,rocks are   
situated nearly ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 from the    
middle of ,plymouth ,sound1 and at a    
distance from the port of ,plymouth of  
nearly fourteen miles4 ,they are        
remarkable for the great variety of     
contrary sets of the tide or current    
among them1 and hence it is supposed    
they derived their appellation4 ,from   
various causes the currents in the      
district of the channel where these     
rocks lie are so exceedingly irregular1 
that it requires much knowledge of the  
local situation to shun the dangers     
connected with them4 ,supposing a line  
to be drawn between the ,lizard and the 
,start points1 the ,eddystone rocks     
would be found nearly on1 or a little   
within that line4 ,the nearest point of 
land to these rocks is the promontory   
called ,ram-head4  ,as the ,eddystone   
rocks lie nearly in the direction of    
ships coasting up and down the channel1 

they were1 previous to the erection of  
the lighthouse1 extremely dangerous1 and
 often fatal to ships1 particularly to  
such as were homeward bound from foreign
 parts2 so that many rich vessels were  
actually lost on these rocks1 it being  
not unusual for the most careful mariner
 to run his vessel upon them during the 
night1 or in foggy weather at high      
water1 when the whole ranges of the     
rocks are entirely covered4  ,if the    
situation of the ,eddystone rocks be    
considered with reference to the ocean  
and the ,bay of ,biscay1 it will be seen
 that they lie exposed to the great and 
heavy swells which come in from all the 
south-western points of the compass4    
,indeed1 it is a fact well known to     
mariners1 that all the heavy seas from  
those quarters come uncontrolled upon   
these rocks1 and break on them with the 
utmost fury4 ,the particular            
conformation of the rocks also tends to 
augment the force and height of the     
seas1 for they not only stretch across  

the channel in a north and south        
direction to the length of above one    
hundred fathoms1 but they lie in a      
sloping manner toward the south-west    
quarter4 ,the effect of this slope in   
stormy weather is to increase the swell 
of the seas to a frightful extent2 and  
even in calm weather1 when the sea is to
 all appearance smooth and unruffled1   
the ground-swell from the ocean         
continues1 and meeting the slope of     
these rocks1 the waves often break upon 
them with great violence4  ,the largest 
and highest of the ,eddystone rocks is  
now called the ,house-rock1 because     
every building which has been attempted 
has had its foundation there2 but even  
on this the most favourable spot for    
such efforts1 there is a peculiar       
difficulty1 arising out of its shape and
 position4 ,there is a sudden drop in   
the surface of the rock1 forming a step 
of about four and a half or five feet   
high1 the upper part somewhat           
over-hanging the perpendicular1 so that 

the seas1 which in moderate weather come
 swelling towards that step1 meet so    
sudden a check thereby that they        
frequently fly to the height of thirty  
or forty feet4 ,this proved a great     
interruption to the works during the    
building of the lighthouse1 for the     
water coming down from this height on   
the area of the building completely     
wetted the work-people1 and either      
suspended their employment or caused    
them to execute it in a very            
uncomfortable situation4 ,this is not   
the case at all times1 but only when the
 ground-swell comes in from the bay1    
which1 however1 is constant during      
south-westerly winds1 and for some time 
after they have subsided4  ,it would    
appear that the many fatal accidents    
which occurred to homeward-bound ships  
had long made it much desired1 as it was
 highly necessary1 that some beacon     
should be erected on the ,eddystone     
rocks4 ,the formidable nature of the    
undertaking1 and the almost insuperable 

difficulties connected with it1 may be  
supposed to have long repressed the     
ardour of the zealous and the humane2   
but at length1 in the year #afif1 a     
person was found hardy enough to        
undertake the task1 and he was soon     
invested with the necessary powers to   
put it in execution4  ,this person was  
,mr4 ,henry ,winstanley1 of ,littlebury1
 ,essex1 whose mechanical abilities had 
previously been known rather by a series
 of eccentric contrivances than by any  
remarkable proof of skill4 ,for         
instance3--in his house at ,littlebury1 
if a visitor entered an apartment and   
saw an old slipper lying on the floor1  
and very naturally proceeded to kick it 
aside with his foot1 a ghost-like figure
 would immediately start up before him1 
and if he retreated from it and took his
 seat in a chair1 a couple of arms would
 immediately clasp him in1 so that it   
would be impossible to disengage himself
 without the assistance of an attendant4
  ,these unpleasant jokes were not      

confined to the house2 for if the       
unfortunate guest took refuge in the    
garden1 and unwittingly entered the     
summer-house by the side of the canal1  
immediately he was sent out afloat to   
the middle of the water1 and could not  
possibly make his escape without the    
intervention of the manager4 ,these     
tricks were apparently played for mere  
amusement2 but ,mr4 ,winstanley at one  
time turned his mechanical contrivances 
to account1 by establishing an          
exhibition at ,hyde-,park ,corner1      
called ',winstanley's ,water-,works1'   
the price of admission being one        
shilling each person4  ,unimportant as  
these particulars may appear1 they serve
 to mark the turn of mind of the first  
engineer of the ,eddystone1 and to      
account in some degree for the whimsical
 nature of the buildings erected by him4
  ,from ,winstanley's own narrative1 we 
find that he began his lighthouse in    
#afif1 and that it took more than four  
years in building1 both on account of   

the greatness of the work1 and the      
difficulty and danger of getting        
backwards and forwards to the place4    
,though nothing was attempted except in 
the summer season1 yet even then1 the   
weather at times would prove so         
unfavourable that for ten or fourteen   
days together1 owing to the ground-swell
 from the main ocean1 the sea would be  
raging about these rocks1 while calm    
elsewhere1 and fly up more than two     
hundred feet1 burying all the works1 and
 making it impossible for the engineer  
to approach4  ,the first summer was     
spent in making twelve holes in the     
rock1 and fastening twelve large irons  
to hold the work that was to be done    
afterwards4 ,it appears that ,winstanley
 and his party made single journies     
every time from ,plymouth1 and had not  
any store-ship lying at moorings as a   
place of constant retreat4 ,this was a  
great oversight1 and unnecessarily      
retarded his work4 ,many journies were  
taken in vain1 when no landing could be 

effected1 and during the work the hours 
of labour were needlessly curtailed by  
preparations for the safety of the      
materials during their absence1 and also
 for their own departure4  ,the second  
summer was employed in making a solid   
round pillar1 twelve feet high and      
fourteen in diameter4 ,this was an      
important step3 the workmen had now some
 small shelter1 and something to hold   
by4 ,the season also proved rather more 
favourable than the preceding2 but the  
labour of conveying materials1 and      
making them secure1 or returning them to
 the boats every night when they left   
work1 was very great4  ,during the third
 year1 this pillar was made good at the 
foundation from the rock to sixteen feet
 in diameter1 and the edifice was raised
 to the height of eighty feet4 ',being  
all finished1' says the engineer1 'with 
the lantern1 and all the rooms that were
 in it1 we ventured to lodge there soon 
after ,midsummer1 for the greater       
dispatch of the work4 ,but the first    

night the weather came bad1 and so      
continued1 that it was eleven days      
before any boats could come near us     
again2 and not being acquainted with the
 height of the sea's rising1 we were    
almost drowned with wet1 and our        
provisions in as bad a condition1 though
 we worked night and day as much as     
possible to make shelter for ourselves4 
,in this storm we lost some of our      
materials1 although we did what we could
 to save them2 but the boat then        
returning1 we all left the house to be  
refreshed on shore3 and as soon as the  
weather did permit we returned and      
finished all1 and put up the light on   
the #adth ,november #afih2 which being  
so late in the year1 it was three days  
before ,christmas before we had relief  
to go on shore again1 and were almost at
 the last extremity for want of         
provisions2 but by good ,providence1    
then two boats came with provisions and 
the family that was to take care of the 
light1 and so ended this year's work4'  

,the fourth year was spent in           
strengthening and enlarging the         
structure4 ,the sea had considerably    
damaged the building during the winter1 
and at times the lantern was so         
completely buried beneath the waves1    
that it was thought expedient to raise  
the height of the edifice4 ,early in the
 spring the building was encompassed    
with a new work of four feet thickness  
from the foundation1 and all was made   
solid nearly twenty feet high4 ,the     
upper part of the building was taken    
down1 and every part was enlarged in its
 proportion4 ,the height was increased  
forty feet2 and yet the sea1 in stormy  
weather1 flew1 to all appearance1 one   
hundred feet above the vane4 ,mr4       
,winstanley has left no description of  
this structure2 but a print1 from a     
drawing said to have been made on the   
spot1 was extant in ,smeaton's time1 so 
that he describes it as consisting of a 
store-room1 with a projecting cabin to  
the south-east1 a kitchen1 a state-room1

 a lodging-room1 an open gallery or     
platform1 an attending or look-out room1
 and a lantern for the lights surrounded
 by a gallery or balcony#c4  ,thus ,mr4 
,winstanley's lighthouse was completed  
in #agjj1 and though destined to remain 
but a short time1 it was a most         
important and heroic step accomplished4 
,mankind were now convinced that the    
erection of a building upon the         
,eddystone rocks was not an             
impracticable thing1 though long deemed 
so2 and if experience now proved that   
the shock of the surges was augmented1  
by the interposition of the building1 to
 a furious extent1 it also led the way  
to further trials and expedients to     
counteract that shock4  ,in ,november   
#agjc ,mr4 ,winstanley went down to     
,plymouth to superintend some repairs   
that had become necessary to the        
lighthouse2 and when he was about to    
proceed with his workmen to the spot1   
some of his friends1 convinced from the 
structure of the lighthouse that it     

could not last long1 ventured to        
intimate their suspicions to him1 and to
 warn him of danger4 ,his reply was1    
that he felt so convinced of the        
strength of his building1 that he only  
wished he might be there in the greatest
 storm that ever blew under the face of 
heaven1 that he might see what effect it
 would have upon the structure4 ,it is  
painful to record this presumptuous     
wish1 and still more so to relate its   
fulfilment4  ,mr4 ,winstanley with his  
work-people and light-keepers had taken 
up their abode at the lighthouse1 when a
 dreadful storm began1 and in the night 
of the #bfth of ,november reached a     
terrific height4 ,indeed of all the     
accounts which history furnishes of     
storms in ,great ,britain1 none is to be
 found of a more awful and devastating  
nature than this4 ,plymouth itself      
suffered severely2 and when morning     
came1 and the height of the tempest was 
past1 there was an eager look out in the
 direction of the lighthouse1 to see    

what injury it might have sustained4    
,but the waters rushed on over the      
,eddystone rocks1 no longer impeded by  
the lofty structure that had been reared
 with such pains and cost4 ,winstanley1 
his work-people1 his light-keepers1 his 
boasted structure--all had been swept   
away by the resistless fury of the winds
 and waves2 and not only this1 but a    
homeward-bound vessel1 the              
',winchelsea1' deprived of the warning  
light that might have averted her fate1 
struck upon these rocks1 and lost nearly
 her whole crew4 ,this lamentable event 
is detailed in most of the public papers
 of the day2 and the loss to the nation1
 as it respected ,winstanley himself1   
who was deemed the only person able to  
reconstruct the edifice1 deeply         
deplored4  ,three years elapsed ere the 
necessary steps were taken fur          
commencing anew this most useful work4  
,it appears from this that some         
obstructions to the undertaking were    
offered1 since it was not until the #dth

 of ,queen ,anne that an ,act of        
,parliament was obtained for the better 
enabling the ,master1 ,wardens1 and     
,assistants of ,trinity ,house1         
,deptford ,strand1 to rebuild the       
,lighthouse4 ,the act runs thus3 ',and  
whereas there now is1 and time out of   
mind has been1 a very dangerous rock1   
called the ,edystone lying off of       
,plymouth1 in the county of ,devon1 upon
 which divers ships and vessels have    
been cast away and destroyed3 and       
whereas upon application some time since
 made to the said ,master1 ,wardens1 and
 ,assistants1 by great numbers of       
masters and owners of shipping to have a
 lighthouse erected upon the said rock1 
offering and agreeing in consequence of 
the great charge1 difficulty1 and hazard
 of such an undertaking1 to pay the said
 ,master1 c4 one penny per ton outwards1
 and the like inwards1 for all ships and
 vessels which should pass such         
lighthouse1 7coasters excepted1 which   
should pay twelve pence only for each   

voyage17 they1 the said ,master1 c4     
having a due regard to the safety and   
preservation of the shipping and        
navigation of this kingdom1 did in the  
year #afif cause a lighthouse to be     
begun to be erected upon the said rock1 
and in three years a light was placed   
therein2 and the said lighthouse in the 
term of five years was with much hazard 
and difficulty1 and at a very great     
expense1 fully built and completed1 to  
the great satisfaction of the           
flag-officers and commanders of the     
fleet and ships of war1 and of all other
 concerned in trade and navigation1 the 
same being not only useful for avoiding 
the dangerous rock upon which it was    
built1 but also as a guide and direction
 to ships passing through the channel   
from and to all parts of the world4 ,and
 whereas the said lighthouse was        
preserved and kept up for several years1
 notwithstanding the great force and    
violence of the wind and sea1 7to which 
it was exposed17 until the late dreadful

 storm in ,november #agjc1 when the same
 was blown down and destroyed3 and      
whereas it was found by experience that 
the said lighthouse 7during the standing
 thereof7 was of public use and benefit 
to this kingdom1 a means to preserve her
 ,majesty's ships of war1 and the       
shipping1 lives1 and estates of her     
subjects4 ,and forasmuch as the speedy  
rebuilding the said lighthouse is       
absolutely necessary for avoiding the   
dangers attending the trade and         
navigation of this kingdom1 and in      
regard the same work is of great charge1
 hazard1 and expense1 and all due and   
proper encouragement ought to be given  
thereto2 to the end therefore that the  
said ,master1 c4 may be encouraged to   
new-erect and build1 or cause to be     
new-erected and built1 the said         
lighthouse with all convenient speed1   
and constantly keep and maintain the    
same for the benefit of the navigation  
and trade of this kingdom1 be it        
enacted1 c4' ,it then proceeds to enact 

the payment of the duties above         
mentioned1 and double on foreign        
vessels1 'from and after the kindling or
 placing a light useful for shipping in 
the said lighthouse4' ,in #agjf a lease 
of ninety-nine years was granted by the 
corporation of ,trinity ,house to a     
,captain ,lovet1 who undertook the      
management of the affairs connected with
 the building4 ,the choice ,captain     
,lovet made of an engineer1 or architect
 and surveyor1 may seem a strange one4  
,he deputed to that office ,john        
,rudyerd1 a silk-mercer who kept a shop 
on ,ludgate ,hill4  ,it does not appear 
that this ,rudyerd had been bred to any 
scientific profession4 ,on the contrary1
 it is reported that his parents and    
family were vagrants1 and notorious for 
the badness of their characters2 but    
that from something promising in the    
aspect of this boy1 a gentleman took him
 into his service1 and gave him         
instruction in reading1 writing1        
accounts1 and mathematics1 in all which 

the boy made ready progress2 so that his
 master was enabled to gratify his      
benevolent intention of advancing him in
 life1 and recommending him to some     
employment above the rank of a servant4 
,thus was laid the foundation of his    
future success4  ,no doubt ,captain     
,lovet had become well assured of the   
genius of this man1 ere he entrusted him
 with a work for which no previous      
experience had qualified him4 ,at any   
rate1 the choice was a wise one4        
,rudyerd's designs proved admirable1 and
 his want of personal experience was in 
a great degree supplied by the help of  
,messrs4 ,smith and ,norcutt1           
shipwrights from ,woolwich1 who worked  
with him the whole time4  ,rudyerd saw  
the errors in ,winstanley's building1   
and avoided them3 instead of a polygon1 
he chose a circle for the outline of his
 building1 and carried up the elevation 
in that form4 ,he studied use and       
simplicity instead of ornament2         
therefore he dispensed with the open    

gallery and other unnecessary appendages
 of the former building4 ,after the     
completion of his work1 ,rudyerd        
published a print of his lighthouse1    
entitled ',a ,prospect and ,section of  
the ,lighthouse on the ,edystone ,rock  
off of ,plymouth2' with the motto1      
,furit natura coercet ars1 dedicated to 
,thomas ,earl of ,pembroke1 then ,lord  
,high ,admiral4  ,rudyerd did not fail  
to observe that owing to the very       
considerable slope of the surface of the
 ,eddystone rock1 nothing would stand   
upon it without artificial means3 he    
therefore concluded1 that if the rock   
were reduced to level bearings1 the     
heavy bodies to be placed upon it would 
then have no tendency to slide4 ,he     
therefore intended to have reduced the  
inclined surface to a set of regular    
steps1 which would have been attended   
with the same good effect1 as if the    
whole could have been reduced to one    
level2 but in consequence of the        
hardness of the rock1 the shortness and 

uncertainty of the intervals in which   
this part of the work was performed1 and
 the great tendency of the lamin of the 
rock to rise in spawls1 according to the
 inclined surface when acted upon by    
tools with sufficient force to make an  
impression1 this part of the work1 i4 e4
 the reducing of the rock to steps1 was 
never perfectly carried out4 ,the face  
of the rock was1 however1 divided into  
seven rather unequal ascents3 thirty-six
 holes were cut in the rock1 to the     
depth of from twenty to thirty inches4  
,these holes were six inches square at  
the top1 gradually narrowing to five    
inches1 and then spreading again and    
flattening to nine inches by three at   
the bottom4 ,they were all cut smooth   
within1 and with great dispatch1 as     
,rudyerd himself informs us1 7though the
 stone was harder than any marble or    
stone thereabouts17 with engines for    
that purpose4 ,every cramp or bolt was  
forged exactly to the size of the hole  
it was designed to fill1 weighing from  

two to five hundred weight1 according to
 its different length and substance4    
,these bolts or branches served to      
fasten the foundation to the rock4  ,the
 method of fixing these branches in the 
rock was ingenious1 and proved quite    
effectual2 so that when ,smeaton took   
out some of these branches more than    
forty years afterwards1 they were       
perfectly sound1 and the iron had not   
even rusted4 ,when the holes were       
finished and cleared of water1 ,rudyerd 
caused a considerable quantity of melted
 tallow to be poured into each hole3 the
 iron branch was then heated to a blue  
heat1 and being put down into the       
tallow1 the key was firmly driven in4   
,thus all the space unfilled by the iron
 would become full of tallow even to    
overflowing4 ,while all remained hot1 a 
quantity of melted pewter was poured    
into the chinks1 and drove out the      
remainder of the tallow1 thus           
effectually filling up every crevice4   
,when all the iron branches were thus   

made fast in the solid rock1 ,rudyerd   
proceeded to fix a course of squared oak
 timbers lengthwise upon the lowest     
step1 so as to reach to the level of the
 step above4 ,another set of timbers    
were then laid crosswise1 so as to cover
 those already laid down1 and also to   
carry the level surface to the height of
 the third step4 ,the third stratum was 
again laid lengthwise1 the fourth       
crosswise1 c41 until a basement of solid
 wood was raised1 two complete courses  
higher than the highest part of the     
rock2 the whole being fitted together1  
and to the rock 7by means of the        
branches7 as closely as possible2 while 
all the timbers1 in their intersections 
with each other1 were trenailed         
together4  ,the branches originally let 
into the solid rock were perforated in  
their upper parts1 some with three and  
some with four holes1 so that in every  
pair 7collectively called a branch7     
there would be about seven holes2 and as
 there were at least thirty-six original

 branches1 there would be two hundred   
and fifty-two holes1 which were about   
seven-eighths of an inch in diameter2   
and consequently were capable of        
receiving as many large bearded spikes  
or jag-bolts1 which being driven through
 the branches into the solid timber held
 the mass firmly down2 while a great    
multiplicity of trenails in the         
intersections confined the strata       
closely and compactly together4  ,in    
this way1 by fixing layer upon layer of 
solid squared oak-timber of the best    
quality1 ,rudyerd was enabled to make a 
solid basement of the required height2  
but in addition to this he judiciously  
acted upon the principle that weight is 
most naturally and effectually resisted 
by weight4 ,he considered that all the  
joints of these timbers were pervious to
 water1 and that it was not possible    
that every portion of the ground layer  
should be precisely and entirely in     
contact with the rock2 and he was well  
aware that where the contact was not    

perfect1 so as to exclude the water     
therefrom1 though the separation was    
only of the thickness of writing-paper1 
yet the action of a wave upon it        
edgewise would produce an equal effect  
towards lifting it upwards1 as if it    
acted immediately upon so much area of  
the bottom as was not in close contact4 
,to counteract therefore every tendency 
of the seas to move the building in any 
direction1 he interposed strata of      
,cornish ,granite4 ,thus the foundation 
was of oak as far as two courses above  
the top of the rock1 then five courses  
of stone were added1 of a foot each in  
thickness1 and these were kept together 
and secured by cramps of iron4 ,two more
 courses of timber then followed1 and   
thus was finished the entire solid      
portion of the basement4  ,rudyerd's    
lighthouse was begun in ,july #agjf1 and
 completely finished in #agji4 ,the     
entry door was full eight feet above the
 highest part of the rock1 and therefore
 an iron ladder of great strength was   

employed as the mode of ascent4 ,the    
floor of the store-room was laid at the 
height of twenty-seven feet above the   
rock4 ,four rooms1 one above another1   
and the lantern1 with its balcony1      
completed the edifice4 ,the main column 
of the building consisted of one simple 
figure1 being an elegant frustum of a   
cone1 unbroken by any projecting        
ornament1 or any thing whereon the      
violence of the storms could lay hold1  
being1 exclusive of its sloping         
foundation1 twenty-two feet eight inches
 upon its largest circular base2        
sixty-one feet high above that circular 
base2 and fourteen feet three inches in 
diameter at the top4 ,the whole edifice1
 with the exception of the courses of   
granite at the base1 which may be       
regarded as ballast1 was composed of    
timber1 skilfully joined and fitted1 and
 exhibiting an excellent specimen of    
shipwrights' work4 ,all the             
window-shutters1 doors1 c4 were so      
formed as when shut to fall in with the 

general surface1 without making any     
unevenness or projection4 ,the only     
projecting parts in the whole building  
were a simple cornice nine inches wide1 
for the protection of the windows of the
 lantern1 which could not of course be  
defended by shutters1 and another       
cornice of similar width at the base1   
which filled up the angle between the   
upright timbers of the building and the 
sloping surface of the rock4 ,the       
lantern was an octagon of ten feet six  
inches in diameter1 externally1 and     
above it1 was a ball of two feet three  
inches diameter4 ,the whole height of   
the lighthouse1 from the lowest side to 
the top of the ball1 was ninety-two     
feet4  ,rudyerd's lighthouse stood in   
need of no material repairs for some    
years2 but at length the upright timbers
 were considerably damaged by the       
attacks of a small worm1 and were       
consequently subject to extensive       
reparation4 ,for many years after the   
establishment of the lighthouse1 it was 

attended by two light-keepers only1     
whose duty it was to keep the windows of
 the lantern clean1 and to watch four   
hours alternately1 for the purpose of   
snuffing and renewing the candles4 ,each
 at the conclusion of his watch took    
care to call the other1 and see him on  
duty before he retired4 ,the duties of  
the lighthouse did not actually require 
more than two men for this service2 but 
a painful incident which occurred at the
 period we are referring to1 caused a   
change in this respect4 ,one of the two 
light-keepers was taken suddenly ill1   
and died2 and the survivor had no means 
of making any one acquainted with the   
circumstance4 ,the signal1 when anything
 was wanted by the light-keepers1 was to
 hoist a large flag upon a flag-staff   
from the balcony rails1 so as to be     
fully extended in the wind1 clear of the
 building4 ,this flag-staff could be    
seen in moderate weather from the       
heights about ,ram-head2 and that it    
might never be hung out in vain1 a      

reward of half a guinea was given to the
 first person who brought tidings of the
 fact to the agent at ,plymouth2 and    
this agent immediately sent out a boat1 
to land at the rock 7if possible71 and  
ascertain what was wanted4 ,the         
remaining light-keeper1 on this         
occasion1 hoisted the accustomed signal1
 which was also observed on shore2 but  
so boisterous was the weather1 that1 for
 a long time1 it was impossible for a   
boat to approach within speaking        
distance of the rocks4 ,during this     
period1 the living man found himself in 
a most awful and distressing situation3 
he knew not how to dispose of the       
corpse2 for if he threw it into the     
waves1 which was his only means of      
getting rid of it1 he feared that he    
might be charged with the murder of his 
companion2 and yet each day that it     
remained1 it was endangering his own    
life1 by the extremely offensive        
condition to which it was reduced4      
,when1 at last1 the people from the boat

 effected a landing1 they found the     
whole building filled with the most     
insufferable odour1 and the dead body in
 such a state that it was impossible to 
remove it to ,plymouth for interment3   
they therefore consigned it to the sea2 
but it was a long time before the rooms 
could be purified or made healthful4    
,this circumstance induced the          
proprietors of the lighthouse to employ 
a third man2 so that1 in case of a      
future accident of the same nature1 or  
the sickness of either1 there might be  
constantly one to supply the place4     
,this regulation afforded a seasonable  
relief to the light-keepers2 for as soon
 as three were appointed to the service1
 a rule was made that in summer each man
 in his turn should be permitted to go  
on shore1 and spend a month with his    
friends and acquaintance4  ,that a      
residence in the lighthouse1 solitary   
and desolate as it must have been1 was  
considered no hardship by those who     
undertook the office1 the following     

anecdote will prove4 ,a skipper was once
 carrying out in his boat a new         
light-keeper to the rock4 ,the man had  
been a shoemaker1 and the skipper said  
to him1 ',friend ,jacob1 how is it that 
you choose to go out to be a            
light-keeper1 when you can earn1 as ,i  
have been told1 half-a-crown or three   
shillings a day on shore1 by making     
leathern hose1--the light-keeper's      
salary is but twenty-five pounds a year1
 which1 you know1 is scarce ten         
shillings a week8' ',i am going to be a 
light-keeper1' said the shoemaker1      
'because ,i don't like confinement4'    
,this answer naturally excited the      
skipper's merriment1 and the shoemaker  
explained his meaning to be that he did 
not like to be confined to work4  ,these
 dwellers on the rock were cut off from 
all communication with their            
fellow-creatures for weeks and months   
together during stormy weather2 and it  
might naturally be expected that under  
these circumstances they should be bound

 to each other by ties of brotherly     
feeling and goodwill4 ,but dissension   
and strife are not shut out from the    
human bosom by mere retirement from the 
busy scenes of life4 ,when only two     
light-keepers inhabited the building1 it
 happened that some visitors1 who had   
repaired thither to gratify their       
curiosity by an examination of the      
lighthouse1 observed to one of the men1 
how very comfortably they might live    
there in a state of retirement4 ',yes1' 
said the man1 'we might live comfortably
 enough1 if we could have the use of our
 tongues2 but it is now a full month    
since my partner and ,i have spoken to  
each other4'  ,connected with ,rudyerd's
 lighthouse an anecdote is told of      
,louis ,,xiv4 which is honourable to his
 feelings4 ,during the progress of the  
work at the ,eddystone rocks1 a ,french 
privateer seized the men employed on the
 building1 and took them1 together with 
their tools1 to ,france1 expecting to be
 handsomely rewarded4 ,while the        

captives lay in prison1 the transaction 
reached the ears of the monarch4 ,he    
immediately ordered them to be released1
 and the captors put in their place1    
declaring1 that though he was at war    
with ,england1 he was not at war with   
mankind4 ,he observed that the          
,eddystone lighthouse was so situated as
 to be of equal service to all nations  
having occasion to navigate the channel 
that divides ,france from ,england1 and 
he therefore directed the men to be sent
 back to their work with presents4  ,the
 value of the principles on which       
,rudyerd had conducted his work was     
abundantly proved by the fact1 that his 
lighthouse continued to brave the force 
of the storms for upwards of forty-six  
years1 and at the end of that period was
 destroyed1 not by water1 but by fire4  
,this sad calamity happened on the #bnd 
of ,december1 #agee4 ,it has never been 
possible fully to investigate the cause 
of the building taking fire1 but it     
appears to have commenced in the very   

top of the lantern or cupola4 ,as the   
whole building was of wood1 it is       
possible that the heat of the candles in
 the lantern1 continued during the long 
period of between forty and fifty years1
 might have brought the thin boards     
which lined the cupola to such a state  
of dryness and inflammability1 that1    
together with the soot which encrusted  
it1 and which was formed from the smoke 
of the candles1 it might have been as   
liable to take fire as a mass of tinder1
 and a single spark from one of the     
candles would be sufficient to effect   
the mischief4 ,the light-keepers        
themselves attributed the fire to the   
copper funnel of the kitchen chimney    
which passed through the cupola4        
,however this might be1 the three       
light-keepers alone remained in the     
edifice1 and when one of them1 whose    
turn it was to watch1 went into the     
lantern at about two o'clock in the     
morning to snuff the candles he found a 
dense smoke1 and upon his opening the   

door of the lantern into the balcony1 a 
flame instantly burst from the inside of
 the cupola4 ,the man alarmed his       
companions1 and they used their utmost  
endeavours to extinguish the fire1 but  
on account of the difficulty of getting 
a sufficient supply of water to the top 
of the building1 they soon found their  
efforts vain1 and were obliged to       
retreat downwards from room to room as  
the fire gathered strength4 ,early in   
the morning the fire was perceived by   
some fishermen1 and intelligence being  
given1 a boat and men were sent out to  
the relief of the poor light-keepers4   
,the boat reached the place at ten      
o'clock1 after the fire had been burning
 eight hours4 ,the light-keepers had    
been driven not only from all the rooms 
and the staircase1 but to avoid the red 
hot timber1 and the falling of the bolts
 upon them1 they had been forced to     
creep into a hole or cave on the east   
side of the rock1 where they were found 
almost in a state of stupefaction4      

,there was great difficulty in getting  
them off the rock1 for the surf was too 
high to enable the boat to effect a     
landing2 but the men themselves becoming
 conscious of their perilous situation1 
and of the efforts that were being made 
to save them1 adopted the only means of 
escape which now remained4 ,by great    
efforts1 a small boat had been got near 
enough to throw a coil of rope upon a   
projection of the rock1 and the         
sufferers had sufficient remaining      
energy to lay hold of it1 and one by one
 to fasten it round their bodies and    
jump into the sea4 ,thus they were towed
 into the small boat1 and thence        
delivered to the large one1 which       
returned with them to ,plymouth4 ,no    
sooner1 however1 were they set on shore 
than one of them made off1 and was never
 afterwards heard of4 ,this suspicious  
circumstance would naturally induce the 
idea that the man had himself originated
 the conflagration2 but the fact of its 
being a lighthouse with no means of     

retreat for the inmates1 and every      
reason to believe that they must perish 
with the building1 is much opposed to   
this idea4 ,in giving an account of this
 circumstance1 ,smeaton says1 ',i would 
rather impute his sudden flight to that 
kind of panic which sometimes1 on       
important occasions1 seizes weak minds2 
making them act without reason1 and in  
so doing commit actions whose tendency  
is the very reverse of what they        
desire4'  ,of the other two             
light-keepers1 one1 named ,henry ,hall1 
had received injuries of a most serious 
nature2 and his case is not a little    
extraordinary4 ,at the time of the fire1
 there was1 according to the usual      
custom1 a tub of water standing in the  
lantern of the lighthouse2 and when this
 man perceived the flames1 he           
immediately exerted himself to the      
utmost in throwing buckets of water up  
into the roof of the cupola4 ,as he was 
doing this1 and looking upwards to see  
the effect of his endeavours1 a quantity

 of lead1 dissolved by the heat of the  
flames1 suddenly rushed from the roof1  
and fell upon his head1 face1 and       
shoulders1 burning him in a severe      
manner4 ,at this moment his mouth       
happened to be open1 and he persisted in
 declaring that some lead had gone down 
his throat1 and was the cause of violent
 internal pain4 ,when removed to his    
cottage at ,stonehouse1 he invariably   
told ,dr4 ,spry1 the medical man who    
attended him1 and who constantly        
administered the proper remedies for the
 burns and injuries he had received1    
that if he would do anything effectual  
to his recovery1 he must relieve his    
stomach of the lead1 which he was sure  
it contained4 ,this story appeared quite
 incredible to ,dr4 ,spry1 who did not  
believe that any human being could exist
 after receiving melted lead into the   
stomach2 much less that he should       
afterwards be able to bear towing       
through the sea from the rock2 and also 
the fatigue and inconvenience from the  

length of time employed in getting him  
ashore1 before any remedies could be    
applied4 ,the man went on without much  
change for the better or for the worse4 
,he took medicines1 and swallowed many  
things both liquid and solid1 until the 
tenth or eleventh day1 when he suddenly 
grew worse1 and on the twelfth day1     
being seized with cold sweats and       
spasms1 he soon afterwards expired4 ,on 
a subsequent examination of the stomach1
 ,dr4 ,spry found1 to his astonishment1 
a solid piece of lead of a flat oval    
form1 which weighed seven ounces and    
five drachms4 ,smeaton saw this piece of
 lead1 and observed that part of the    
coat of the stomach had firmly adhered  
to the convex side of it4 ,dr4 ,spry    
transmitted an account of this very     
singular case to the ,royal ,society3   
but it was not received with entire     
belief until he had1 by subsequent      
experiments upon animals1 borne out the 
fact that it is possible for melted lead
 to be received into the stomach without

 the immediate death of the sufferer2   
though more probable that1 in the great 
majority of cases1 instant death would  
be the result4  ,but to return to the   
,eddystone rock4 ,notwithstanding every 
exertion was made to subdue the flames1 
the lighthouse was totally consumed1    
even to the massive foundations1 and    
nothing was left upon the rock but a    
number of the iron cramps and branches4 
,the value of a lighthouse on the       
,eddystone rock had now been so fully   
proved1 that no time was to be lost in  
endeavouring to build a new one in the  
place of that which had been so         
unfortunately destroyed4 ,an application
 was made to the ,president of the      
,royal ,society1 requesting him to point
 out a person who might appear worthy to
 be entrusted with the work4 ,lord      
,macclesfield 7the then president7      
replied 'that there was one of their own
 body whom he could venture to recommend
 to the work2 yet that the most material
 part of what he knew of him was his    

having within the compass of the last   
seven years recommended himself to the  
society by the communication of several 
mechanical contrivances and             
improvements2 and though he had at first
 made it his business to execute things 
in the instrument way 7without ever     
having been bred to the trade71 yet on  
account of the merit of his performances
 he had been chosen a member of the     
society2 and that for about three years 
past1 having found the business of a    
philosophical instrument maker not      
likely to afford an adequate recompence1
 he had wholly applied himself to       
various branches of mechanics4' ,the    
earl went on to say that this person was
 then in ,scotland1 or in the north of  
,england1 and he should recommend the   
statement of the business to him1 being 
fully confident that he would undertake 
nothing which he did not feel himself   
competent to perform4  ,the person thus 
referred to was ,john ,smeaton1 whose   
history1 so far as the scanty materials 

will allow1 shall here be given to the  
reader4  ,,footnotes3  ,footnote #c3 ,it
 was commonly said at the time1 that    
during a hard gale the sea ran so high  
that it was very possible for a         
six-oared boat to be lifted by the      
waves1 and driven through the open      
gallery of the lighthouse4     ,,chapter
 ,,iv4  ,,biographical ,,notice ,,of    
,,smeaton4       ,birth of              
,smeaton--,his early ,character and     
,employments--,educated      for an     
attorney--,his dislike of that          
profession--,becomes      ,philosophical
 ,instrument ,maker--,his ,scientific   
,inquiries--,is      appointed to build 
the ,eddystone ,lighthouse--,his        
subsequent      ,employments--,public   
,works designed and completed by        
him--,his      ,literary ,works--,his   
last ,illness and ,death--,his          
,character--      ,illustrative         
,anecdotes4   ,john ,smeaton was born   
the #bhth of ,may1 #agbd1 at ,ansthorpe1
 near ,leeds1 ,yorkshire4 ,little is    

recorded of his parentage or early      
education3 but we find that his father  
was a respectable attorney1 and that the
 family lived in a house built by the   
grandfather of the younger ,smeaton4    
,smeaton seems to have been born an     
engineer4 ,the originality of his genius
 and the strength of his understanding  
appeared at a very early age4 ,his      
playthings were not the toys of         
children1 but the tools men work with2  
and his greatest amusement was to       
observe artificers at work1 and to ask  
them questions4 ,having watched some    
millwrights at work1 he conceived the   
idea of constructing a windmill1 and to 
the alarm of his friends was one day    
perceived on the top of his father's    
barn attempting to fix his model4 ,on   
another occasion he accompanied some men
 who went to fix a pump at a            
neighbouring village1 and observing them
 cut off a piece of bored pipe1 he      
managed to procure it1 and made a       
working model of a pump that raised     

water very well4 ,these anecdotes are   
related of him while he was yet a mere  
child in petticoats1 and probably before
 he had attained his sixth year4 ,at the
 age of fourteen or fifteen he had made 
for himself an engine to turn rose-work1
 and he made several presents to his    
friends of boxes in wood and ivory1 as  
specimens of its operation4  ,in the    
year #agdb1 ,mr4 ,holmes1 afterwards his
 partner in the ,deptford ,water-works1 
visited ,smeaton and could not conceal  
his astonishment at the mechanical skill
 displayed by the young engineer2 he    
forged his iron and steel1 and melted   
his metal2 he had tools of every sort   
for working in wood1 ivory1 and metals4 
,he had made a lathe1 by which he had   
cut a perpetual screw in brass1 a thing 
very little known at that day4 ,all     
these resources were not furnished to   
him by rich and wealthy parents1 nor had
 he the advantage of masters in his     
various pursuits2 on the contrary1 by   
the strength of his genius1 and by      

indefatigable industry1 he acquired at  
the age of eighteen an extensive set of 
tools1 and the art of working in most of
 the mechanical trades1 and ,mr4        
,holmes1 himself a good mechanic1 says  
that few men could work better4         
,astronomy was one of his most favourite
 studies1 and he contrived and made     
several astronomical instruments for    
himself and friends4 ,in later years1   
after fitting up an observatory at his  
house at ,ansthorpe1 he devoted much    
time to it when he was there1 even in   
preference to engineering4  ,smeaton's  
father being an attorney was desirous to
 educate his son for the same           
profession4 ,he was therefore sent to   
,london in #agdb1 where during a few    
terms he attended court2 but finding the
 legal profession distasteful to him1   
and not to suit the bent of his genius1 
he wrote a strong memorial on the       
subject to his father1 who had the good 
sense to allow him from that time to    
pursue the path which nature pointed out

 to him4 ,he continued to reside in     
,london1 and about the year #agej he    
commenced the business of mathematical  
instrument maker4 ,in #agea he invented 
a machine to measure a ship's way at    
sea1 and a compass of peculiar          
construction1 touched by ,dr4 ,knight's 
artificial magnet4 ,he made two voyages 
in company with ,dr4 ,knight for the    
purpose of ascertaining the merits of   
these contrivances4  ,in #agec he was   
elected a fellow of the ,royal ,society1
 and his admirable papers inserted in   
the ,transactions of that body          
sufficiently evince how highly he       
deserved that distinction4 ,in #agei he 
received by an unanimous vote their gold
 medal1 for his paper entitled ',an     
,experimental ,inquiry concerning the   
natural powers of wind and water to turn
 mills and other machines depending on a
 circular motion4' ,this paper was the  
result of experiments made on working   
models in #ageb and #agec1 but not      
communicated to the society till #agei1 

by which time he had had abundant       
opportunity of applying these           
experiments to practice in a variety of 
cases1 and for various purposes1 so as  
to assure the society that he had found 
them to answer4 ,he discovered by these 
means that wind and water could be made 
to do one third more than was before    
known4 ,in the year #aged he made a     
voyage to ,holland1 travelling for the  
most part on foot1 or in the            
trekschuiten or drag-boats1 the national
 conveyance of the country1 and thus    
made himself acquainted with the most   
remarkable works of art in the low      
countries4  ,in ,december #agee the     
,eddystone lighthouse was burnt down4   
,mr4 ,weston the chief proprietor1 and  
others1 were desirous of rebuilding it  
in the most substantial manner1 and     
through the recommendation of the ,earl 
of ,macclesfield1 whose friendly conduct
 to ,smeaton we have already noticed1   
they were induced to appoint ,smeaton as
 the most proper person to rebuild it4  

,smeaton undertook the work1 and        
completed it in the summer of #agei4    
,the history of this great undertaking  
belongs to another section of this      
notice4 ,the completion of the work does
 not seem to have had the immediate     
effect of procuring him full employment 
as a civil engineer3 in #agfd1 being in 
,yorkshire1 he offered himself a        
candidate for the office of one of the  
receivers to the ,greenwich ,hospital   
estates#d2 and on the #cast ,december in
 that year he was appointed1 at a full  
board at ,greenwich ,hospital1 in a     
manner highly flattering to himself4 ,in
 this appointment he was greatly        
assisted by his partner ,mr4 ,walter1   
who managed the accounts1 and left      
,smeaton leisure and opportunity to     
exert his abilities on public works1 as 
well as to make many improvements in the
 mills1 and in the estates of ,greenwich
 ,hospital4 ,by the year #agge he had so
 much business as an engineer1 that he  
wished to resign this appointment1 but  

was prevailed upon to continue in the   
office about two years longer4  ,among  
the many valuable public services of    
,smeaton a few only can be mentioned in 
this place4 ,he completed the erection  
of new lighthouses at ,spurn ,head at   
the mouth of the ,humber3 he built the  
fine bridge over the ,tay at ,perth3 he 
laid out the line of the great canal    
connecting the ,forth and ,clyde2 and   
made the river ,calder navigable2 a work
 that required great skill and judgment1
 on account of its impetuous floods4 ,on
 the opening of the great arch at       
,london ,bridge by throwing two arches  
into one1 and the removal of a large    
pier1 the excavation around and under   
the starlings was so considerable1 that 
the bridge was thought to be in great   
danger of falling4 ,smeaton was then in 
,yorkshire1 but was sent for by express1
 and arrived with the utmost dispatch3  
on his arrival the fear that the bridge 
was about to fall prevailed so          
generally1 that few persons would pass  

over or under it4 ,smeaton applied      
himself immediately to examine it1 and  
to sound about the starlings as minutely
 as possible3 his advice to the         
committee was to repurchase the stones  
which had been taken from the middle    
pier1 then lying in ,moorfields1 and to 
throw them into the river to guard the  
starlings4 ,this advice was adopted with
 the utmost alacrity1 by which simple   
means the bridge was probably saved from
 falling1 and time afforded for securing
 it in a more effectual manner4 ',this  
method of stopping the impetuous ravages
 of water1' says ,mr4 ,holmes1 'he had  
practised before with success on the    
river ,calder2 on my calling on him in  
the neighbourhood of ,wakefield1 he     
shewed me the effects of a great flood1 
which had made a considerable passage   
over the land2 this he stopped at the   
bank of the river1 by throwing in a     
quantity of large rough stones1 which   
with the sand1 and other materials      
washed down by the river1 filling up    

their interstices1 had become a barrier 
to keep the river in its usual course4' 
,in #agga ,smeaton and ,holmes made a   
joint purchase of the water-works for   
supplying ,deptford and ,greenwich with 
water4 ,on examining the books of the   
former proprietors1 it appeared to have 
been a losing concern during many years2
 but the skill of ,smeaton soon brought 
the undertaking into such a state as to 
be of general use to those for whom it  
was intended1 and moderately profitable 
to himself and partner4 ,in noticing    
this subject ,mr4 ,holmes makes a few   
general remarks on the character of     
,smeaton3--',his language either in     
speaking or writing was so strong and   
perspicuous1 that there was no          
misunderstanding his meaning1 and ,i had
 that confidence in his abilities as    
never to consider any plan of           
improvement which he proposed1 but only 
to see it executed with scrupulous      
exactness2 at the same time1 he was so  
open to reason in all matters1 that     

during a constant communication of our  
opinions for upwards of twenty years1   
after we had laid them fully before each
 other we always agreed1 and never had  
the slightest difference4'  ,it must be 
remembered that ,smeaton lived before   
the time when the genius of ,watt had   
rendered the steam-engine the useful and
 obedient servant of man2 and           
consequently that much of the power now 
furnished by steam was then supplied by 
the wind4 ,hence the mechanics of       
windmills was an important study to the 
engineer1 and ,smeaton erected a vast   
variety of mills in which he turned to  
useful account the results of his       
experiments in #ageb and #agec4 ,his    
usual habit was to confirm the          
conclusions of theory by direct         
experiment4 ,he also erected a          
steam-engine at ,ansthorpe1 and made    
experiments thereon to ascertain the    
power of ,newcomen's engine1 which he   
improved and brought to a far greater   
degree of certainty both in its         

construction and powers4  ,during many  
years the opinion of ,smeaton was held  
in such high esteem1 that no great works
 were undertaken throughout the kingdom 
without first applying to him2 he was   
constantly consulted in parliament1 and 
was regarded as an ultimate reference on
 all difficult questions connected with 
his profession4 ,it was his constant    
practice to make himself fully          
acquainted with every subject before he 
would engage in it1 and then his known  
integrity and lucid powers of           
description secured the respect and     
attention of all4 ,in the courts of law 
he was frequently complimented by ,lord 
,mansfield and others for the new light 
he threw on difficult subjects4  ,about 
the year #aghe ,smeaton's health began  
to decline1 and he then endeavoured to  
retire from business in order to gain   
time to publish an account of his       
inventions and works4 ,this was one of  
the wishes nearest to his heart1 for1 as
 he often said1 'he thought he could not

 render better service to his country   
than by doing that4' ,he had just       
completed his account of the ,eddystone 
lighthouse when he was prevailed on to  
continue his services as engineer to the
 trustees for ,ramsgate harbour4 ,the   
works at ,ramsgate were begun in #agdi1 
but had been conducted with very        
indifferent success until ,smeaton was  
called in to superintend them in #aggd4 
,he completed the magnificent pier and  
harbour of this place in #agia1 and thus
 established a secure and much needed   
place of shelter in the ,downs4  ,a man 
whose life is so beneficially devoted to
 the service of the public can scarcely 
hope to enjoy leisure and retirement    
during which he may look back upon the  
past1 and leave a written record of his 
exertions4 ,smeaton was so constantly   
and urgently employed that he could not 
achieve much with his pen4 ,on the #afth
 ,september #agib1 he was seized with an
 attack of paralysis induced by         
over-exertion1 and this attack carried  

him to the grave on the #bhth of the    
next month1 in the #fith year of his    
age4  ,during his illness he dictated   
several letters to his old friend ,mr4  
,holmes4 ,in one of them he describes   
minutely his health and feelings1 and   
says1 'in consequence of the foregoing1 
,i conclude myself nine-tenths dead1 and
 the greatest favour the ,almighty can  
do 7as ,i think7 will be to complete the
 other part1 but as it is likely to be a
 lingering illness1 it is only in ,his  
power to say when that is likely to     
happen4' ,his daughter1 ,mrs4 ,dickson1 
says that he always apprehended the     
attack which terminated his life1 as it 
was hereditary in his family4 ,he       
dreaded it only as it gave the          
melancholy possibility of outliving his 
faculties1 or the power of doing good2  
or1 to use his own words1 'lingering    
over the dregs after the spirit had     
evaporated4' ,indeed1 the decay of his  
mental faculties seems to have been that
 which he most dreaded4 ,he would       

sometimes complain of slowness of       
apprehension1 and would then excuse it  
with a smile1 saying1 'it could not be  
otherwise1 the shadow must lengthen as  
the sun went down4' ,when seized with   
paralysis he was resigned to the event1 
anxious to soften any alarm to his      
family1 and was thankful that his       
intellect was spared4 ,but his          
invariable wish was to be released4 ,he 
expressed particular pleasure in seeing 
the usual occupations of his family     
resumed2 and reading1 drawing1 music1   
and conversation excited the same       
interest and the same cheerful and      
judicious observations as ever4 ,one    
evening he was requested to explain some
 phenomena respecting the moon1 which   
was seen from the room shining brightly4
 ,he gave a full explanation1 then fixed
 his eyes full upon the object in       
question1 and after regarding it        
stedfastly for some time1 he observed1  
',how often have ,i looked up to it with
 inquiry and wonder1 and to the period  

when ,i shall have the vast and         
privileged views of an hereafter1 and   
all will be comprehension and pleasure4'
  ,we learn from his daughter ,mrs4     
,dickson1 that early in life ,smeaton   
attracted the notice of the eccentric   
,duke and ,duchess of ,queensbury1 on   
account of the strong personal likeness 
which he bore to their favourite ,gay   
the poet4 ,their first acquaintance was 
made in a singular manner3 it was at    
,ranelagh when walking with ,mrs4       
,smeaton1 he observed an elderly lady   
and gentleman gaze steadily upon him1   
they stopped and the duchess said1      
',sir1 ,i don't know who you are1 or    
what you are1 but so strongly do you    
resemble my poor dear ,gay1 that we must
 be acquainted2 you shall go home and   
sup with us1 and if the minds of the two
 men accord as do the countenance1 you  
will find two cheerful old folks who can
 love you well1 and ,i think1 7or you   
are an hypocrite7 you can as well       
deserve it4' ,the invitation was        

accepted1 and as long as the duke and   
duchess lived the friendship was cordial
 and uninterrupted4 ,during his visits  
cards were sometimes introduced4        
,smeaton detested cards1 and could not  
confine his attention to the game4 ,on  
one occasion the stakes were already    
high1 and it fell to ,smeaton to double 
them when1 neglecting to deal the cards1
 he was busily occupied in making some  
calculations on paper which he placed   
upon the table4 ,the duchess asked      
eagerly what it was1 and ,smeaton       
replied coolly1 ',you will recollect the
 field in which my house stands may be  
about five acres three roods and seven  
perches1 which1 at thirty years'        
purchase1 will be just my stake1 and if 
your grace will make a duke of me1 ,i   
presume the winner will not dislike my  
mortgage4' ,the joke and the lesson had 
their effect1 for they never played     
again but for the merest trifle4        
,smeaton procured a situation in a      
public office for a clerk in whom he    

placed the greatest confidence1 and     
jointly with another became security for
 him to a considerable amount4 ,this man
 committed the crime of forgery1 was    
detected and given up to justice4 ,mrs4 
,dickson says1 ',the same post brought  
news of the melancholy transaction1 of  
the man's compunction and danger1 of the
 claim of the bond forfeited1 and of the
 refusal of the other person to pay the 
moiety6 ,being present when he read his 
letters1 which arrived at a period of   
,mrs4 ,smeaton's declining health1 so   
entirely did the command of himself     
second his anxious attention to her1    
that no emotion was visible on their    
perusal1 nor1 till all was put into the 
best train possible1 did a word or look 
betray the exquisite distress it        
occasioned him4 ,in the interim1 all    
which could soothe the remorse of a     
prisoner1 every means which could save  
7which did1 at least from public        
execution17 were exerted for him1 with a
 characteristic benevolence1 active and 

unobtrusive4'  ,smeaton was a man of    
indefatigable industry and great moral  
probity4 ,with ample opportunity of     
amassing wealth1 he rendered its        
acquisition but a secondary object on   
all occasions2 his first aim always     
being to execute the task intrusted to  
him in the most skilful and perfect     
manner4 ,had his object been to amass a 
fortune1 he might have received many    
lucrative appointments besides those    
which he actually held4 ,the empress    
,catherine of ,russia attempted to      
secure his services for her own country 
by most magnificent offers2 but ,smeaton
 preferred to dedicate his time and     
talents to the service of his country4  
',the disinterested moderation of his   
pecuniary ambition1' says his daughter1 
'every transaction in private life      
evinced2 his public ones bore the same  
stamp2 and after his health had         
withdrawn him from the labours of his   
profession1 many instances may be given 
by those whose concerns induced them to 

press importunately for a resumption of 
it2 and when some of them seemed        
disposed to enforce their entreaties by 
further prospects of lucrative          
recompense1 his reply was strongly      
characteristic of his simple manners and
 moderation4 ,he introduced the old     
woman who took care of his chambers in  
,gray's ,inn1 and showing her1 asserted 
'that her attendance sufficed for all   
his wants4' ,the inference was          
indisputable1 for money could not tempt 
that man to forego his ease1 leisure1 or
 independence1 whose requisites of      
accommodation were compressed within    
such limits6' ,before this1 the princess
 ,daschkaw made an apt comment upon this
 trait of his character2 when1 after    
vainly using every persuasion to induce 
him to accept a carte blanche from the  
empress of ,russia as a recompense for  
directing the vast projects in that     
kingdom--she observed ',sir1 you are a  
great man1 and ,i honour you6 you may   
have an equal in abilities1 perhaps1 but

 in character you stand single4 ,the    
,english minister1 ,sir ,robert         
,walpole1 was mistaken1 and my sovereign
 has the misfortune to find one man who 
has not his price4'  ,in all the social 
duties of life ,smeaton was most        
exemplary2 and he was a lover and       
encourager of real merit in whatever    
station of life he found it4 ,to        
strangers his mode of expression        
appeared warm and even harsh2 but ,mr4  
,holmes refers it to the intense        
application of his mind1 which was      
always in the pursuit of truth1 or      
engaged in investigating difficult      
subjects3 hence1 when anything was said 
that did not tally with his ideas1 he   
would sometimes break out hastily4 ,as a
 friend1 he was warm1 zealous1 and      
sincere2 as a companion1 always         
entertaining and instructive1 and none  
could spend their time in his company   
without improvement4 ,in his person     
,smeaton was of middle stature1 but     
broad and strong-made1 and possessed of 

an excellent constitution4 ,he was      
remarkable for the plainness and        
simplicity of his manners4  ,after his  
death1 his papers consisting of plans1  
reports1 and treatises1 on almost every 
branch of engineering1 were published by
 the ,society of ,civil ,engineers4     
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #d3 ,this was   
the ,derwentwater ,estate which was     
forfeited in the year #agae1 and its    
revenues applied by ,parliament towards 
the funds of ,greenwich ,hospital4 ,it  
consists of mines of lead1 containing   
much silver1 as well as lands4 ,it      
required careful management1 and the    
knowledge of mining details to make it  
profitable4 ,smeaton contrived more     
efficient machines and better modes of  
working the mines and managing the      
estate4     ,,chapter ,v4  ,,the        
,,eddystone ,,as ,a ,,type ,,of         
,,english ,,lighthouses4       ,a ,stone
 ,lighthouse proposed--,smeaton's first 
,visit to the      ,rock--,operations of
 the ,first ,season--,second            

,season--,structure      of the         
,foundation--,ingenious ,mode of        
securing the ,stones--,third            
,season--,state of the ,work--,progress 
and ,description of the                 
,work--,accidents to the                
,engineer--,proposal to exhibit a ,light
      before the completion of the      
,building refused--,fourth ,season--    
,completion of the ,work--,appearance of
 the ,lighthouse during a               
,storm--,situation of the               
,light-keepers4   ,to return to the     
history of the ,eddystone ,lighthouse4  
,when the proposal relating to the      
rebuilding of this edifice was made to  
,smeaton1 and when he had duly weighed  
the subject in his own mind1 he         
delivered his decided opinion that the  
building ought to be constructed        
entirely of stone4 ,some opposition was 
at first raised against this idea1 but  
the proprietors were at length so well  
satisfied with the plans submitted to   
their inspection1 and with the plain1   

straightforward reasoning of ,smeaton on
 the matter1 that they left the whole   
affair in his hands4 ,their chief       
objection had arisen from the opinion1  
supported by that of the best judges1   
that the safety and continuance of      
,rudyerd's lighthouse during so many    
years1 had in a great measure depended  
on the elasticity of the materials of   
which it was composed1 which enabled it 
to give way to the shocks of the sea4   
,indeed it was affirmed1 that in violent
 storms the motion of that wooden       
edifice was so great that trenchers and 
other articles were thrown from the     
shelves in the upper rooms4 ,smeaton    
answered to this1 that the great        
agitation of the late building arose    
from its want of weight1 as well as want
 of strength2 that the edifice he had in
 view would be much heavier and much    
stronger1 so that the building would not
 give way to the sea1 but the sea would 
give way to the building4  ,in the      
spring of #agef ,smeaton first visited  

and examined the ,eddystone rock1       
proving1 as his predecessors had done1  
the extreme difficulty of gaining a     
landing1 or of remaining long enough on 
the rock to carry on his observations4  
,these difficulties suggested to him the
 important and valuable expedient of    
keeping a vessel fixed within a quarter 
of a mile of the rock1 which should be  
capable of lodging the workmen and their
 tools1 and thus enable them to take    
immediate advantage of any favourable   
opportunity of putting out their boat   
and conveying materials at once to the  
,eddystone1 instead of having to take   
the voyage from ,plymouth on each       
occasion4  ,the first actual work done  
on the rock was in ,august1 #agef4 ,two 
companies of workmen were employed1 each
 remaining at the work a week1 that     
every opportunity might be made the most
 of1 and the men relieved by visits to  
the shore4 ,a sloop1 a large yawl with  
sails and oars1 and a boat1 were        
employed to expedite the work4 ,the     

sloop formed the lodging for the company
 working at the rock1 and was anchored  
at a short distance from it4 ,the sloop 
was afterwards replaced by a larger     
store vessel1 called the ,neptune ,buss4
 ,the weather from the #bgth of ,august 
to the #adth of ,september happened to  
be favourable to the work1 so that the  
companies were employed on it at every  
tide4 ,after this1 unsettled weather    
began to prevail1 so that ,smeaton was  
obliged to be satisfied with the        
progress already made1 which consisted  
in the mere preparation of the          
,house-rock for the intended edifice1 by
 cutting two new steps in the lowest    
part of the sloping side of the rock1   
and forming anew the five steps which   
remained of the efforts of ,rudyerd4    
,dove-tailed recesses were also cut in  
all these steps for the reception of the
 stone-work4 ,the remaining part of the 
autumn was spent in expediting necessary
 work on shore1 such as completing the  
work-yard with its machinery and        

conveniences1 and then preparing the    
granite and ,portland stone1 of which   
the lighthouse was to be made4 ,the     
desirability of doing as much of the    
work as possible on shore1 became more  
and more apparent1 as experience showed 
the dangers and accidents likely to     
occur at the rock4 ,during this winter  
,smeaton began seriously to consider the
 great importance to his work1 of       
getting the most perfect cement         
possible1 to resist the extreme violence
 of the sea4 ,he found that nothing of  
the resinous or oily kind would answer1 
as it was impossible to get a dry       
surface at the rock4 ,he therefore went 
through a complete set of experiments on
 cements with a view to produce one     
which would1 in despite of water almost 
continually driven against it with every
 degree of violence1 become so firm in  
its consistence and adhesion to the     
stone1 that it should compose one even  
regular surface with the stone1 without 
needing hoops of iron or copper to      

surround the horizontal joints4 ,in this
 endeavour he considered himself at     
length completely successful4  ,at the  
beginning of ,june1 #ageg1 ,smeaton     
renewed his work at the ,eddystone rock4
 ,the first proceedings were to fix some
 timbers to the east side of the rock   
merely as a defence to the boats1 which 
were frequently damaged by running      
against the sharp edges2 and also to    
erect shears1 windlass1 c4 ,the first   
stone was laid in its place on the #abth
 of ,june4 ,this stone weighed two tons 
and a quarter1 though the ordinary      
weight of the stones did not exceed one 
ton each4 ,the first course consisting  
of four stones was finished during the  
next day4 ,by ,smeaton's plan the stones
 were most ingeniously dove-tailed      
together and into the rock1 so that when
 once fixed1 it was impossible for one  
stone to be separated from the rest4    
,the second course of stones was not    
completed until the #cjth of the same   
month2 several accidents having occurred

 to hinder the progress of the work2 yet
 ,smeaton was in no wise disheartened1  
for in establishing these two courses he
 considered the most difficult and      
arduous part of the work to be already  
accomplished1 since these courses       
brought him up to the same level where  
his predecessor ,mr4 ,rudyerd had begun4
 ,on the #aath of ,july the third       
course1 consisting of twenty-five       
pieces1 was completed1 and on the #cast 
the fourth course of twenty-three       
pieces4 ,the fifth course was closed in 
on the #eth of ,august4 ,when the sixth 
course was completed1 which was on the  
#aath of that month1 ,smeaton had the   
satisfaction to find that the sea did   
not now invariably wash over every part 
of their work at each tide1 which had   
always hitherto been the case in the    
course of laying the previous courses4  
,the greatest difficulties were now     
considered to be successfully           
surmounted1 as each succeeding course   
gave them more time and more room1 and  

they had brought their work to a level  
with the highest part of the rock4  ,up 
to this point all the courses had been  
begun by the stones that were securely  
dove-tailed into the rock1 and further  
made fast by oak-wedges and cement4 ,to 
receive these wedges1 two grooves were  
cut in the waist of each stone1 from the
 top to the bottom of the course1 of an 
inch in depth and three inches in width4
 ,the care with which the               
foundation-work was carried on may be   
gathered from ,smeaton's description of 
the manner of laying each stone4 ',the  
stone to be set being hung in the       
tackle1 and its bed of mortar spread1   
was then lowered into its place1 and    
beat with a heavy wooden maul1 and      
levelled with a spirit level2 and the   
stone being accurately brought to its   
marks1 it was then considered as set in 
its place4 ,the business now was to     
retain it exactly in that position1     
notwithstanding the utmost violence of  
the sea might come upon it1 before the  

mortar was hard enough to resist it4    
,the carpenter now dropped into each    
groove two of the oaken wedges1 one upon
 its head1 the other with its point     
downwards1 so that the two wedges in    
each groove would lie heads and points4 
,with a bar of iron about two inches and
 a half broad1 a quarter of an inch     
thick1 and two feet and a half long1 the
 ends being square1 he could easily 7as 
with a rammer7 drive down one wedge upon
 the other2 very gently at first1 so    
that the opposite pairs of wedges being 
equally tightened1 they would equally   
resist each other1 and the stone would  
therefore keep place4 ,a couple of      
wedges were also1 in like manner1       
pitched at the top of each groove2 the  
dormant wedge1 or that with the point   
upward1 being held in the hand1 while   
the drift-wedge1 or that with its point 
downward1 was driven with a hammer4 ,the
 whole of what remained above the upper 
surface of the stone was then cut off   
with a saw or chisel3 and generally1 a  

couple of thin wedges were driven very  
moderately at the butt-end of the stone2
 whose tendency being to force it out of
 its dove-tail1 they would1 by moderate 
driving1 only tend to preserve the whole
 mass steady together1 in opposition to 
the violent agitation that might arise  
from the sea4' ,in addition to this1 a  
couple of holes having been bored       
through every piece of stone1 one course
 was bound to another by oak trenails   
driven stiffly through1 and made so fast
 that they could more easily be torn    
asunder than pulled out again4 ',no     
assignable power1' says ,smeaton1 'less 
than what would by main stress pull     
these trenails in two could lift one of 
these stones from their beds when so    
fixed1 exclusive of their natural       
weight1 as all agitation was prevented  
by the lateral wedges4' ,the stone being
 thus fixed1 a proper quantity of mortar
 was liquefied2 and the joints having   
been carefully pointed1 up to the upper 
surface1 this mortar or cement was      

poured in with iron ladles so as to     
occupy every void space4 ,the more      
consistent parts of this cement         
naturally settled to the bottom1 and the
 watery parts were absorbed by the      
stone3 the vacancy thus left at the top 
was repeatedly refilled1 until all      
remained solid2 the top was then        
pointed1 and1 when necessary1 defended  
by a coat of plaster4 ,when the whole of
 the foundation was in this manner      
brought to a level1 some other means was
 necessary of attaining the like degree 
of security4 ,for this purpose the      
central stone of the sixth course had a 
hole of one foot square cut quite       
through the middle4 ,eight other        
depressions of one foot square and six  
inches deep were also sunk at equal     
distances in the circumference4 ,a plug 
of strong hard marble1 from the rocks   
near ,plymouth1 one foot square and     
twenty-two inches in length1 was set    
with mortar in the central cavity1 and  
fixed firmly therein with their wedges4 

,this course was thirteen inches in     
height1 so that the marble plug1 which  
reached through it1 stood nine inches   
above the surface4 ,upon this the       
centre-stone of the seventh course was  
fixed1 having a similar hole made in its
 centre1 bedded with mortar and wedged  
as before4 ,by this means no force of   
the sea acting horizontally upon the    
centre-stone1 less than what was capable
 of cutting the marble plug in two1 was 
able to move it from its place2 and to  
prevent the stone the more effectually  
from being lifted1 in case its bed of   
mortar should happen to be destroyed1 it
 was fixed down by four trenails4 ,the  
stones surrounding the central stone    
were dove-tailed to it in the same      
manner as before1 and thus the courses  
proceeded with no other interruption    
than arose from the nature of the       
situation4  ,smeaton tells us that when 
the work had proceeded so far as to     
afford a level platform1 the pleasure he
 took in it1 and the novelty of the     

thing1 led him to walk to and fro upon  
it with much complacency4 ,but making a 
false step1 and not being able to       
recover himself1 he tumbled over the    
brink of the work down among the rocks  
on the west side4 ,the tide had then    
retreated1 so that no serious result    
happened1 but in his fall he dislocated 
his thumb1 and as no medical aid could  
be procured1 he set it himself1 and then
 returned to his work4 ,it was more than
 six months1 however1 before he         
recovered the full use of his thumb4    
,owing to very boisterous weather1 and  
repeated losses of the necessary        
materials left on the rock1 the seventh 
course was not laid until the #gth of   
,september4 ,but ,smeaton had the       
satisfaction to find that all the work  
actually completed1 stood the utmost    
severity of the weather unmoved4 ,at    
this time the sea became so calm that   
the work proceeded rapidly1 and for     
three days in succession the top of the 
work was not wetted4 ,the eighth course 

was completed on the #acth1 but the     
weather again becoming unfavourable1 the
 ninth was not finished until the #cjth1
 and here ,smeaton found it desirable to
 close the operations for this year4    
,the ensuing winter was of so stormy a  
nature as severely to test the strength 
of the work at the ,eddystone4 ,smeaton 
went early in the spring to view it1 and
 says1 ',i was much surprised1          
notwithstanding what had been reported  
of the soundness of the work1 to find it
 so perfectly entire1 for1 except a     
small spawl which had been washed from  
the rock itself1 the whole did not seem 
to have suffered a diminution of so much
 as a grain of sand since ,i left it on 
the #ast of ,october3 on the contrary1  
the cement1 and even the grouted part1  
appeared to be as hard as the stone     
itself1 the whole having become one     
solid mass1 and1 indeed1 it had quite   
that appearance1 as it was covered with 
the same coat of sea-weed as the rock1  
the top of the work excepted1 which was 

washed clean and white4'  ,various      
disasters to the vessels1 moorings1 c4  
near the rock retarded the work in the  
spring of #ageh4 ,it was not till the   
#ajth of ,july that the eleventh course 
was finished4 ,twelve days afterwards   
the twelfth course was laid down4 ,after
 this the work went on better1 so that  
on the #hth of ,august the fourteenth   
course was completed1 and with it what  
was called the fundamental solid4 ,from 
hence begins the building also called   
the ,solid1 which includes the passage  
from the entry-door to the well-hole for
 the stairs4 ,it was now necessary for  
the sake of the well-hole to omit the   
centre-stone4 ,the four stones          
surrounding the centre were therefore   
fastened together by what are called    
hook-scarf joints1 so as to compose1 in 
effect1 one stone4 ,means were also     
taken to prevent them from shifting1 or 
being lifted out of their position4     
,from the #ith to the #bjth of ,august  
there was an uninterrupted continuance  

of fine weather1 so that great progress 
was made4 ,by the latter day the        
eighteenth course was completed1 which  
reunited the building into a complete   
circle1 by covering the passage to the  
staircase4 ,over the head of the        
entry-door the figures #ageh were cut in
 deep characters4 ,during another month1
 by great exertions1 the twenty-fourth  
course was reached and completed4 ,this 
course finished the ,solid1 and formed  
the floor of the store-room1 so that    
,smeaton had every reason to be         
satisfied with the work of this season2 
yet as he had been long meditating on   
the advantage to the public which would 
accrue from setting up a light during   
that very winter1 he resolved to make a 
vigorous effort to get the store-room   
completed and a light erected above it4 
,the building had hitherto been carried 
up solid as high as there was any reason
 to suppose it exposed to the heavy     
stroke of the sea1 i4 e4 to thirty-five 
feet four inches above its base1 and    

twenty-seven feet above the top of the  
rock1 on the common spring-tide         
high-water mark4 ,at this height it was 
reduced to sixteen feet eight inches    
diameter2 and it was necessary to make  
the best use of this space1 and make all
 the room and convenience therein that  
was possible1 consistent with the still 
necessary strength4 ,the rooms being    
made twelve feet four inches in diameter
 would leave twenty-six inches for the  
thickness of the walls4 ,these walls    
were made of single blocks in the       
thickness1 so shaped that sixteen pieces
 formed a complete circle1 and from     
their figure composed a stout wall4     
,these pieces were cramped together with
 iron1 and also secured to the lower    
courses by marble plugs as before4 ,to  
hinder the passage of wet through the   
upright joints1 flat stones were        
introduced into each joint so as partly 
to be lodged in one stone1 partly in    
another1 thus making it tolerably       
certain that the rooms would be kept    

comfortable and dry in all weathers4 ,on
 the #cjth of ,september the            
twenty-eighth course was completely set4
 ,this and the next course received the 
vaulted floor1 which made the ceiling of
 the store-room and floor of the upper  
store-room4 ,for further security1      
therefore1 there was a groove cut round 
the upper surface of this course1 in    
which was placed a circular chain of    
great strength4 ,upon this chain1 in the
 groove1 was poured melted lead1 until  
the cavity was filled up4 ,the next     
course was then laid on1 and this was   
also secured by a chain in like manner1 
it being considered that the courses on 
which the floors rested demanded every  
possible security4 ,the formation of the
 floors1 and the care taken to avoid the
 danger of lateral pressure on the      
walls1 is worthy of notice4 ,each floor 
rested upon two courses2 being firmly   
supported by a triple ledge going       
circularly round the two supporting     
courses4 ',had each floor1' says the    

architect1 'been composed of a single   
stone1 this lying upon the horizontal   
bearings furnished by these ledges1     
would1 while it remained entire1 have no
 lateral pressure or tendency to thrust 
out the sides of the encompassing walls2
 and that in effect the several pieces  
of which the floors were really composed
 might have the same property as whole  
stones1 the centre stone was made large 
enough to admit of an opening1 from     
floor to floor1 to be made through it2  
and being furnished with dove-tails on  
its four sides1 like those of the entire
 solid1 it became the means by which all
 the stones in each floor were connected
 together2 and consequently1 the whole  
would lie upon the ledges like a single 
stone1 without any tendency to spread   
the walls4 ,but if by the accident of a 
heavy body falling1 or otherwise1 any of
 those stones should be broken1 though  
this might not destroy its use as a     
floor2 yet the parts would then exert   
their lateral pressure against the      

walls2 and1 therefore1 as a security    
against this1 it became necessary that  
the circle of the enclosing walls should
 be bound together1 and the building1 as
 it were1 hooped4' ,thus assiduously did
 ,smeaton urge forward the work1 yet    
without neglecting any of the necessary 
precautions for its safety4 ,by the     
#ajth of ,october he had nearly         
completed all the necessary arrangements
 for establishing a light and           
light-keepers at the ,eddystone during  
the same winter1 when he received an    
unexpected and painful refusal from the 
,corporation of ,trinity-,house1 to the 
effect that 'on reading the ,acts of    
,parliament1 the application from the   
merchants and owners of ships1 and      
,winstanley's narrative of the first    
lighthouse erected there1 they are of   
opinion that a light cannot be exhibited
 on the ,eddystone ,rock till the       
lighthouse is re-built4'  ,smeaton      
employed the winter of #ageh-i in       
,london1 preparing everything for the   

final work at the ,eddystone the ensuing
 season4 ,he formed and made out designs
 for the iron rails of the balcony1 the 
cast iron1 the wrought iron1 and the    
copper-works of the lantern1 c4 ,there  
was a violent storm on the #ith of      
,march1 #agei1 which it was supposed    
might have damaged the unfinished       
lighthouse1 as it had done very great   
damage to the ships and houses at       
,plymouth4 ,as soon as it was possible  
to effect a landing the works were      
visited and a report sent to ,smeaton4  
,from this he found1 with pleasure1 that
 not only the solid but the hollow work 
remained perfectly sound and firm2 all  
the mortar having become quite hard1 and
 every part of the work just as it was  
left by the workmen in ,october4  ,the  
commencement of the work for the next   
and last season1 took place on the #eth 
of ,july4 ,on the #bast of the same     
month the second floor was finished1 and
 by the #bith the fortieth course of    
stone was laid down1 and the third floor

 finished4  ,the main column of the     
lighthouse was completed on ,friday1    
,august #agth4 ,it contained in all     
forty-six courses of stone1 and reached 
the height of seventy feet4 ,the beds   
for the light-keepers were fixed in the 
uppermost room1 and the kitchen with its
 fire-place in the room below it1       
whereas in the former house1 the kitchen
 had been the upper room1 doubtless1    
because the funnel for the smoke would  
be shorter4 ,but ,smeaton having been   
informed that with the former           
arrangement the beds and bedding were in
 a very damp and disagreeable state1    
proposed to remedy the evil by allowing 
the copper funnel to pass through the   
bed-room1 and thus to dry the air4 ,this
 plan completely answered the desired   
end2 though it must be observed1 that   
the whole edifice1 even those portions  
of it which were continually subject to 
the action of the waves1 were much more 
impervious to moisture than ,rudyerd's  
edifice2 as may naturally be imagined   

from the difference of material used in 
the building of the lighthouse1 and the 
well-known quality of granite to resist 
humidity4 ,in the upper room1 therefore1
 were fixed three cabin-beds to hold one
 man each1 with three drawers and two   
lockers in each to hold his separate    
property4 ,in the kitchen1 besides the  
fire-place and sink1 were two settles   
with lockers1 a dresser with drawers1   
two cupboards and one platter-case4 ,in 
the lantern a seat was fixed to         
encompass it all round1 except at the   
doorway1 and this served equally to sit 
upon1 or to stand and snuff the candles2
 also to enable a person to look through
 the lowest tier of glass-panes at      
distant objects1 without having occasion
 to go on the outside of the lantern    
into the balcony4  ,besides the windows 
of the lantern ten other windows were   
constructed for the edifice1 namely1 two
 for the store-room1 and four each for  
the other two rooms4 ,in fixing the bars
 for these windows1 an accident occurred

 which had nearly proved fatal to       
,smeaton1 and which he thus             
describes3--',after the boat was gone1  
and it became so dark that we could not 
see any longer to pursue our            
occupations1 ,i ordered a charcoal-fire 
to be made in the upper store-room1 in  
one of the iron-pots we used for melting
 lead1 for the purpose of annealing the 
blank ends of the bars2 and they were   
made red hot altogether in the charcoal4
 ,most of the workmen were set round the
 fire1 and by way of making ourselves   
comfortable1 by screening ourselves and 
the fire from the wind1 the windows were
 shut2 and1 as well as ,i remember1 the 
copper cover or hatch put over the      
man-hole of the floor of the room where 
the fire was2 the hatch above being left
 open for the heated vapour to ascend4  
,i remember to have looked into the fire
 attentively to see that the iron was   
made hot enough1 but not over-heated3 ,i
 also remember ,i felt my head a very   
little giddy2 but the next thing of     

which ,i had any sensation or idea1 was 
finding myself upon the floor of the    
room below1 half drowned with water4 ,it
 seems1 that without being further      
sensible of anything to give me warning1
 the effluvia of the charcoal so        
suddenly overcame all sensation that ,i 
dropped down upon the floor2 and had not
 the people hauled me down to the room  
below1 where they did not spare for cold
 water to throw in my face and upon me1 
,i certainly should have expired upon   
the spot4'  ,by unremitting exertions on
 the part of ,smeaton and his           
work-people1 the balcony-rails1 the     
lantern1 with the cupola and gilt ball1 
the lightning-conductor1 and1 in fact1  
all the remaining parts of the          
lighthouse1 with the stores and         
necessary furniture1 were set in their  
places by the #afth of ,october1 on     
which day a light was once more         
exhibited on the ,eddystone ,rock4  ,it 
may be imagined that ,smeaton took      
peculiar pleasure in this beautiful     

monument of his skill and ingenuity4 ,he
 slept in the lighthouse1 viewed it from
 sea and land1 and made every           
observation that an ingenious and clever
 man might be expected to make4 ,the    
account he gives of its appearance after
 a storm1 as he viewed it with his      
telescope from the garrison at          
,plymouth1 is this3 ',though ,i had had 
many opportunities of viewing the       
unfinished building1 when buried in     
waves in a storm at ,s4 ,w41 yet never  
having before had a view of it under    
this circumstance in its finished state1
 ,i was astonished to find that the     
account given by ,mr4 ,winstanley did   
not appear to be at all exaggerated4 ,at
 intervals of a minute1 and sometimes   
two or three1 ,i suppose when a         
combination happens to produce an       
overgrown wave1 it would strike the rock
 and the building conjointly1 and fly up
 in a white column1 enwrapping it like a
 sheet1 rising at least to double the   
height of the house1 and totally        

intercepting it from sight2 and this    
appearance being momentary1 both as to  
its rising and falling1 one was enabled 
to judge of the comparative height very 
nearly1 by the comparative spaces       
alternately occupied by the house1 and  
by the column of water1 in the field of 
the telescope4'  ,the year #agei closed 
with a series of very stormy weather1   
and as this was the first winter's trial
 of the lighthouse1 it may be supposed  
that there was some anxiety among the   
more timid and doubting of those        
concerned in it4 ,especially was the    
courage of the light-keepers put to the 
test4 ,when a boat could come near them 
after one of these storms1 a letter was 
sent by ,henry ,edwards1 one of the     
light-keepers1 to the manager of the    
works acquainting him that they had had 
such bad weather1 and that the sea ran  
over the house in such a manner1 that   
for twelve days together they could not 
open the door of the lantern or any     
other4 ',the house did shake1' says the 

poor light-keeper1 'as if a man had been
 up in a great tree4 ,the old men were  
almost frightened out of their lives1   
wishing they had never seen the place1  
and cursing those that first persuaded  
them to go there4 ,the fear seized them 
in the back1 but rubbing them with oil  
of turpentine gave them relief4'        
,meanwhile the lighthouse itself bore   
the storm admirably1 and suffered       
nothing from it4 ,two years afterwards a
 tempest of unusual violence occurred1  
causing much loss of life and property  
at ,plymouth4 ,eighty thousand pounds'  
worth of damage were done in the harbour
 and sound1 and a friend of ,smeaton's1 
after writing a full description of the 
several disasters1 adds1 ',in the midst 
of all this horror and confusion1 my    
friend may be assured that ,i was not   
insensible to his honour and credit1 yet
 in spite of the high opinion that ,i   
had of his judgment and abilities1 ,i   
could not but feel the utmost anxiety   
for the fate of the ,eddystone4 ,several

 times in the day ,i swept with my      
telescope from the garrison1 as near as 
,i could imagine1 the line of the       
horizon1 but it was so extremely black1 
fretful1 and hazy1 that nothing could be
 seen1 and ,i was obliged to go to bed  
that night with a mortifying            
uncertainty4 ,but the next morning      
early1 ,i had great joy to see that the 
gilded ball had triumphed over the fury 
of the storm1 and such an one as ,i had 
no conception of4 ,i saw the whole so   
distinctly from the bottom to the top1  
that ,i could be very sure the lantern  
had suffered nothing4 ,it is now my most
 steady belief1 as well as everybody's  
here1 that its inhabitants are rather   
more secure in a storm1 under the united
 force of wind and water1 than we are in
 our houses from the former only4'      
,after this trial of the strength of the
 lighthouse1 there seems no longer to   
have been any apprehension concerning   
it4 ,the light-keepers even became      
attached to the spot1 and found it a    

remarkably healthy and comfortable      
abode4 ,there were often as many as half
 a dozen applications for the office1   
although the salary was only twenty-five
 pounds per annum4  ,one of the         
light-keepers1 after a residence of     
fourteen years on the rock1 became so   
much attached to the place1 that for two
 summers he gave up his turn of going on
 shore to his companions1 and declared  
his intention of doing so on the third2 
but being over-persuaded he went on     
shore to take his month's turn4 ,at the 
lighthouse he had always been a decent1 
sober1 well-behaved man2 but he had no  
sooner got on shore than he went to an  
alehouse and became intoxicated4 ,this  
he continued the whole of his stay2     
which being noticed1 he was carried in  
an intoxicated state on board the       
,eddystone boat and delivered in the    
lighthouse1 where he was expected to    
grow sober2 but after lingering for two 
or three days1 he expired4 ,vacancies1  
however1 seldom occurred in the         

lighthouse4 ,smeaton mentions several   
men who had served there to his         
knowledge ten1 fifteen1 or twenty years4
  ,having thus conducted our readers to 
the close of ,smeaton's arduous         
undertaking1 and noticed its complete   
success1 we may proceed to describe the 
more remarkable lighthouses erected in  
other portions of the kingdom subsequent
 to the labours of this celebrated      
engineer4     ,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,the    
,,northern ,,lighthouses4               
,importance of ,lighting the ,scottish  
,coast--,formation of      ,board of    
,commissioners of ,northern             
,lighthouses--,early      ,proceedings  
of the ,board--,principal ,northern     
,lighthouses--,the ,isle of ,may        
,lighthouse--,loss of two               
,frigates--,application of the          
,admiralty to the ,lighthouse           
,board1 by whom the ,duties and the     
,island of ,may are                     
purchased--,numerous ,shipwrecks on the 
,island of                              

,sanday--,foundation-stone of           
,start-,point ,lighthouse               
laid--,rev4 ,w4 ,traill's ,address upon 
the occasion--,subsequent               
,proceedings on ,sanday ,island--,north 
,ronaldsay      ,lighthouse--,melancholy
 ,accident--,importance of the ,northern
      ,lighthouses4   ,the coast of     
,scotland is deservedly celebrated for  
the skill and enterprise of its         
lighthouse system4 ,this coast1         
extending to about two thousand miles in
 circuit1 is1 perhaps1 the most         
dangerous of any in ,europe4 ,previous  
to the erection of efficient            
lighthouses1 it was frequently strewed  
with wrecks1 and proved how inadequate  
to the protection of the mariner were   
the few feeble lights which were then   
under the controul of private or local  
trusts4 ,accordingly1 in the year #aghf1
 the ,commissioners of ,northern        
,lighthouses were1 by ,act of           
,parliament1 erected into a board1      
consisting of his ,majesty's advocate   

and solicitor-general1 the chief        
magistrates of the principal burghs of  
,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 ,aberdeen1        
,inverness1 ,campbeltown1 and the       
sheriffs or judges ordinary of maritime 
counties4 ,the preamble to the act      
states1 ',that it would conduce greatly 
to the security of ,navigation and the  
,fisheries if four lighthouses were     
erected in the northern parts of ,great 
,britain2' namely1 one on ,kinnaird     
,head1 in ,aberdeenshire1 one on the    
,orkney ,islands1 one on the ,harris    
,isles1 and one at the ,mull of         
,kintyre1 in ,argyleshire4 ,such appears
 to have been the state of trade in     
,scotland about sixty years ago1 that   
the erection of four lighthouses was all
 that was contemplated4 ,but no sooner  
were these four lights erected than     
their importance to navigation was      
immediately acknowledged1 and frequent  
applications were made on the part of   
the shipping interest to erect others4  
,accordingly as the funds of the board  

allowed1 lighthouses or other means of  
exhibiting lights have been erected upon
 many promontories of the main land1 or 
upon islands and reefs lying off the    
coast of ,scotland1 including the ,isle 
of ,man4  ,these lighthouses being for  
the most part situated in remote and    
inaccessible districts1 it was resolved 
'that the engineer should charter a     
vessel annually1 to carry a full        
complement of stores and other          
necessaries for the use of the lights1  
and such artificers1 implements1 and    
materials1 as might from time to time be
 found necessary for making repairs at  
the lighthouses2' the engineer was also 
to pay an annual visit to each          
lighthouse1 and report upon the state   
and condition of the buildings1 and the 
conduct of the light-keepers4  ,no      
public lights on the ,scotch coast are  
in the hands of private individuals4    
,all the light-dues collected from the  
general shipping in ,scotland are       
received by the commissioners for public

 use4 ,there are now twenty-five        
land-lights under the charge of the     
commissioners1 for which due-lights are 
levied2 and there are twenty-eight local
 or harbour-lights under the management 
of trustees and corporate bodies1       
maintained by the dues levied on the    
trade of the respective ports where the 
lights are situated1 and on vessels     
resorting to them4 ,some of these lights
 are established by ,acts of            
,parliament1 others are secured by      
ancient charters to the fraternities of 
the ports1 and others were erected and  
are maintained by the ship-owners and   
merchants of the ports4  ,the earliest  
public light on the ,scottish shores is 
that situated on the ,island of ,may4   
,this island holds a prominent position 
at the entrance of the ,frith of ,forth1
 and from its connection also with the  
estuary leading to the capital of       
,scotland and the principal ports of her
 commerce1 the want of a light seems to 
have been experienced at an early       

period4 ,over the entrance-door of the  
old lighthouse-tower a stone1 neatly cut
 into the figure by which the sun is    
usually represented1 bears the date     
#afce4  ,much dissatisfaction was       
produced after the ,union1 in           
consequence of ,english and ,irish      
vessels being charged with double rates 
as foreigners4 ,the light being also a  
coal-fire exposed in an open chauffer1  
was found to be insufficient4           
,accordingly1 in the year #aghf the     
,chamber of ,commerce of ,edinburgh made
 certain representations to the         
proprietor which induced him to increase
 the magnitude of the light2 the        
chauffer was accordingly enlarged to the
 capacity of a square of three feet2 and
 instead of about two hundred tons of   
coal per annum1 formerly consumed1 the  
quantity of fuel was now doubled4 ,from 
this period the light of ,may became the
 most powerful coal-light in the        
kingdom1 although from its exposure it  
was still found to be very unsteady in  

bad weather1 when most required by the  
mariner4 ,lime-kilns and other          
accidental open fires upon the          
neighbouring shores1 were also apt to be
 mistaken for the ,isle of ,may         
chauffer4 ,to obviate such dangerous    
mistakes1 there was no other method but 
the introduction of a light from oil1   
with reflectors inclosed in a glazed    
light-room4 ,related ineffectual        
applications to the ,duke of ,portland  
7who by marriage had obtained possession
 of the light and ,isle of ,may7 served 
only to illustrate how very             
objectionable it is to allow lighthouses
 and other public works to be carried on
 by a private individual for his sole   
profit4 ,it happened1 however1 that     
among numerous other disasters1 two of  
his ,majesty's ships1 valued at not less
 than a hundred thousand pounds1 were1  
on the #aith ,december1 #ahaj1 wrecked  
near ,dunbar1 in consequence1 it is     
believed1 of the light of a lime-kiln on
 the coast of ,haddingtonshire having   

been mistaken for the coal-light of the 
,isle of ,may4 ,this disaster attracted 
the notice of the ,admiralty to the     
,isle of ,may light1 when it was        
proposed to place it under the control  
of the ,commissioners of ,northern      
,lighthouses4 ,after many negotiations  
an ,act of ,parliament was passed in the
 session of #ahad1 empowering the       
commissioners to purchase the light     
duties and the ,island of ,may1 for the 
sum of sixty thousand pounds4 ,this was 
accordingly done1 and on the completion 
of the purchase1 the first act of the   
commissioners was to reduce the         
light-duty to all ,british vessels1 so  
that ,english and ,irish ships were no  
longer treated as foreigners1 by paying 
double duty4 ,immediate measures were   
also taken for altering and improving   
the light2 a new lighthouse was erected1
 and a light from oil1 with reflectors1 
was exhibited on the #ast ,february1    
#ahaf1 after the existence of a         
coal-light during one hundred and       

eighty-one years4 ,the old              
lighthouse-tower was reduced in height1 
and converted into a guard-room for the 
use and convenience of pilots and       
fishermen4  ,soon after the             
establishment of the ,board of          
,commissioners1 repeated applications   
were made for the erection of new       
lighthouses1 in order to avert the      
misfortunes which occurred every year1  
especially on the low shores of the     
northern isles of ,orkney4 ,in the year 
#aghi a lighthouse had been completed at
 ,north ,ronaldsay1 but the experience  
of twelve years had proved that this was
 not calculated to prevent the numerous 
wrecks on the islands of ,sanday and    
,stronsay4 ,in #agif1 when the engineer 
was on his annual visit1 he was struck  
at seeing the wreck of three            
homeward-bound ships upon the island of 
,sanday1 though situate only about eight
 miles southward of the lighthouse of   
,north ,ronaldsay4 ,in the three        
following years no fewer than eight     

ships were wrecked upon the same fatal  
island4 ,it was therefore resolved1 in  
#ahja1 that a stone-tower or beacon     
should be erected upon the ,start       
,point1 which forms the eastern         
extremity of the low shores of the      
,island of ,sanday2 the building to be  
constructed in such a manner that it    
might1 if necessary1 be converted into a
 lighthouse4  ,in the year #ahjb1 ,mr4  
,stevenson1 the engineer of the         
,northern ,lighthouses1 sailed on his   
annual voyage of inspection1 taking with
 him a foreman and sixteen artificers to
 commence the works at ,start ,point4   
,the vessel reached ,orkney by the #bjth
 ,april1 and even at this advanced part 
of the season the islands were covered  
to the depth of six inches with snow4   
,this1 at any time1 is rather uncommon  
in ,orkney2 but such had been the       
severity of this season in the northern 
regions1 that a flock of wild swans1    
which in severe winters visit these     
islands1 were still seen in considerable

 numbers upon the fresh-water lakes of  
,sanday4 ,those large birds are supposed
 to migrate from ,iceland1 but are      
rarely seen in ,orkney later than the   
month of ,march2 so that their          
appearance in the latter end of ,april  
was regarded as a mark of a very severe 
and long-continued winter in the higher 
latitudes4  ,there being no workable    
sand-stone on ,sanday island1 a quarry  
was opened on the contiguous island of  
,eda1 where it occurred of a tolerably  
good quality4 ,in order to render the   
building substantially water-tight1 it  
had been originally intended to make it 
wholly of hewn-stone built in regular   
courses2 but the quarry of ,eda being   
about fourteen miles distant from the   
works1 the stones had to be conveyed by 
sea through rapid tides2 and there being
 but indifferent creeks or havens1 both 
at the quarry and at the ,start ,point1 
it was found necessary to make only the 
principal stones of hewn work1 while the
 body of the work was executed in rubble

 building1 for which excellent materials
 were at hand1 consisting of a sort of  
sand-stone slate or micaceous schist4   
,the encroachments of the sea had heaped
 up immense quantities of these stones  
at high-water mark all round the ,start 
,point1 the shores of which appeared    
like the ruins of the wall of some large
 city4  ,by the middle of the month of  
,may sufficient materials were collected
 for commencing the building4 ,the      
workmen having expressed a wish to have 
the foundation-stone of the beacon laid 
with masonic ceremony1 preparations were
 accordingly made4 ',the year of our    
,lord #ahjb' was cut upon the           
foundation-stone1 in which a hole was   
perforated for depositing a glass phial 
containing a small parchment-scroll1    
setting forth the intention of the      
building1 the official constitution of  
the ,commissioners of ,northern         
,lighthouses1 and the name of their     
engineer4 ,it also contained several of 
the current coins of ,george ,,iii4 in  

gold1 silver1 and copper4 ,the day fixed
 for the ceremony was the #aeth of ,may4
 ,the weather was dry and tolerably     
agreeable1 though cold with snow upon   
the ground2 the thermometer stood at #ce
 in the shade at noon4 ,the influx of so
 many strangers to the island for this  
work1 and the novelty of the intended   
ceremony1 caused most of the inhabitants
 to be present to witness it4 ,every    
thing being prepared1 the engineer1     
assisted by the foreman of the works1   
applied the square and plummet-level to 
the foundation-stone in compliance with 
ancient custom4 ,the phial was then     
deposited in the cavity prepared for it 
in the stone1 and carefully covered up  
with sand1 when the masonic ceremony was
 concluded in the usual manner4 ,the    
,rev4 ,walter ,traill1 minister of the  
parish1 then offered up a most          
impressive prayer1 imploring the        
blessing of heaven upon the intended    
purposes of the building1 and then      
delivered the following address3--      

',this moment is auspicious4 ,the       
foundation-stone is laid of a building  
of incalculable value2--a work of use1  
not of luxury4 ,pyramids were erected by
 the pride of kings1 to perpetuate the  
memory of men1 whose ambition enslaved  
and desolated the world4 ,but it is the 
benevolent intention of our government1 
on this spot1 to erect a tower--not to  
exhaust1 but to increase the wealth and 
protect the commerce of this happy      
kingdom4 ,to the goodness of ,,god1 in  
the first place1 we are indebted for a  
degree of prosperity unknown to other   
nations4 ,in the next place1 we owe our 
happiness to our insular situation1 and 
attention to maritime affairs4 ,faction 
and civil war have at this period laid  
waste the fairest countries of ,europe2 
while peace has flourished within our   
walls4 ,agriculture1 commerce1 and their
 kindred arts1 have prospered in our    
land4 ,british oak hath triumphed2      
victory hath been attached to the       
,british flag2 and ,british fleets have 

ridden triumphant on the wings of the   
wind4 ,consider the great national      
objects for which this building will be 
erected4 ,to protect commerce1 and to   
guard the lives of those intrepid men   
who for us cheerfully brave the fury of 
the waves and the rage of battle4 ,the  
mariner when he returns to the embraces 
of his wife and children1 after         
ascribing praise to the ,great ,giver of
 safety1 shall bless the friendly light 
which guided him over the deep1 and     
recommend to the protection of heaven   
those who urged1 who planned1 and who   
executed the work4 ,this day shall be   
remembered with gratitude4 ,it shall be 
recorded1 that at the beginning of a new
 century the pious care of government   
was extended to this remote island4     
,these rocks1 so fatal to the most brave
 and honourable part of the community1  
shall lose their terror1 and safety and 
life shall spring from danger and death4
 ,even you1 my friends1 who are employed
 in the execution of this work1 are     

objects of regard and gratitude4 ,you   
have1 for a season1 left the society of 
your families and friends1 to perform a 
work of high interest to your country   
and to mankind4 ,i am confident that you
 will act1 in all respects1 so as to    
deserve and obtain the esteem of the    
people who now surround you4 ,i hope    
that they will discharge to you every   
duty of ,christian hospitality1 and that
 you will have no occasion to feel that 
you are strangers in a strange land4 ,it
 becomes us to remember that all the    
affairs of men are dependent on         
,providence4 ,we may exert talents and  
industry1 but ,god only can bless our   
exertions with success4 ,let our trust  
be in ,him4 ,let us humbly hope that ,he
 will bless this day and this           
undertaking4 ,through ,his aid may there
 arise from this spot a tower of safety 
and protection to the mariner of every  
tongue and nation4'  ,the whole of this 
scene is described as being very        
impressive2 to which the plain1 decent1 

and respectable appearance of the people
 collected on the occasion not a little 
contributed4  ,by continuing steadily at
 work during the summer-months1 the     
beacon was finished in ,september4 ,it  
was terminated1 at the height of one    
hundred feet above the medium level of  
the sea1 with a circular ball of masonry
 measuring fifteen feet in              
circumference4  ,the completion of this 
beacon did not1 however1 prevent the    
frequent occurrence of shipwreck upon   
the island4 ,it had even become         
proverbial with some of the inhabitants 
to observe1 'that if wrecks were to     
happen1 they might as well be sent to   
the poor island of ,sanday as anywhere  
else4' ',on this and the neighbouring   
islands1' says ,mr4 ,stevenson1 'the    
inhabitants have certainly had their    
share of wrecked goods2 for here the eye
 is presented with these melancholy     
remains in almost every form4 ,for      
example1 although quarries are to be met
 with generally in these islands1 and   

the stones are very suitable for        
building dikes1 yet instances occur of  
the land being enclosed1 even to a      
considerable extent1 with ship-timbers4 
,the author has actually seen a park    
paled round1 chiefly with cedar-wood and
 mahogany from the wreck of a ,honduras 
built ship2 and in one island1 after the
 wreck of a ship laden with wine1 the   
inhabitants have been known to take     
claret to their barley-meal porridge1   
instead of their usual beverage4 ,on    
complaining to one of the pilots of the 
badness of his boat's sails1 he replied 
to the author with some degree of       
pleasantry1 ,had it been ,his 7,god's7  
will that you came na here wi' these    
lights1 we might a' had better sails to 
our boats1 and more o' other things4 ,it
 may further be noticed1 that when some 
of ,lord ,dundas's farms are to be let  
in these islands1 a competition takes   
place for the lease2 and it is          
understood that a much higher rent is   
paid than the lands would otherwise     

give1 were it not for the chance of     
making considerably by the agency and   
advantages attending shipwrecks on the  
shores of the respective farms4'  ,in   
his ,report to the ,board in the year   
#ahje1 ,mr4 ,stevenson proposed that the
 ,start ,point beacon should be         
converted into a lighthouse1 and that   
the north ,ronaldsay light should be    
discontinued1 and its tower converted   
into a beacon1 as wrecks were found to  
happen comparatively seldom upon that   
island1 while hardly a year passed      
without instances of this kind in the   
,island of ,sanday2 for owing to the    
projecting points of this strangely     
formed island1 the lowness and whiteness
 of its eastern shores1 and the         
wonderful manner in which the scanty    
patches of land are intersected with    
lakes and pools of water1 it becomes    
even in day-light a deception1 and has  
often been fatally mistaken for an open 
sea4 ,after taking the opinion of       
persons acquainted with the navigation  

of these seas1 the change was adopted2  
the works at the ,start ,point were     
commenced early in the summer of #ahje2 
by the month of ,november the light-room
 was finished1 and the light exhibited  
on the #ast ,january1 #ahjf4  ,a        
melancholy story is connected with the  
completion of the lighthouse on this    
fatal island4 ,the principal mason and  
his assistants being desirous of        
returning home1 proceeded to ,stromness 
on the mainland of ,orkney1 from whence 
they were most likely to get a passage  
to the southward4 ,the party consisted  
of six in number2 and the foreman's     
brother1 wishing to go directly to his  
native place1 took his passage in a     
vessel bound from ,stromness to         
,anstruther1 while the rest embarked on 
board a schooner bound for ,leith4  ,the
 vessel sailed with a fair wind early on
 the #bdth ,december1 #ahjf4 ,on the    
following morning they got sight of     
,kinnaird ,head lighthouse in           
,aberdeenshire1 and had the prospect of 

speedily reaching the ,frith of ,forth2 
but the wind having suddenly shifted to 
the south-east1 and increased to a      
tremendous gale1 the vessel immediately 
put about1 and steered in quest of some 
safe harbour in ,orkney4 ,at two o'clock
 in the afternoon she passed the        
,portland ,frith1 and got into the bay  
of ,long ,hope1 but could not reach the 
proper anchorage2 and at three o'clock  
both anchors were let go in an outer    
roadstead4 ,the storm still continuing  
with unabated force1 the cables parted  
or broke1 and the vessel drifted on the 
island of ,flotta4 ,the utmost efforts  
of those on board to pass a rope to the 
shore1 with the assistance of the       
inhabitants of the island1 proved       
ineffectual2 the vessel struck upon a   
shelving rock1 and1 night coming on1    
sunk in three fathoms water4  ,some of  
the unfortunate crew and passengers     
attempted to swim ashore1 but in the    
darkness of the night they either lost  
their way1 or were dashed upon the rocks

 by the surge of the sea2 while those   
who retained hold of the rigging of the 
ship1 being worn out with fatigue and   
the piercing coldness of the weather    
during a long winter night1 died before 
morning1--when the shore presented the  
dreadful spectacle of the wreck of no   
fewer than five vessels1 with many      
lifeless bodies4  ,during successive    
years the commissioners erected a number
 of lighthouses1 and laboured with      
anxious care to render them as efficient
 as possible4 ,in some cases where the  
nature of the accommodation at the      
lighthouse stations would permit1 a     
guard-room was provided for pilots1 and 
shipwrecked mariners were lodged1 and1  
in necessitous cases1 they have even    
been allowed a sum of money to clothe   
and carry them to their respective      
homes4 ',in this way1' says ,mr4        
,stevenson1 'it has not unfrequently    
fallen to the lot of the keepers of the 
northern lighthouses1 to save the lives 
of perishing seamen1 to succour many    

poor fishermen and pilots1 as well as   
the half-starved and unlucky individuals
 of water-parties1 when driven by stress
 of weather to these lone places of     
abode for safety and shelter4 ,in these 
varied forms1 it will not be too much to
 suppose1 that the practice of          
protecting the navigator in distress1   
which is said to have formed a chief    
part of the design of the fire-towers   
and nautical colleges of the ancients1  
is thus in some measure restored4'      
,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,the ,,bell-,,rock   
,,lighthouse ,,as ,a ,,type ,,of        
,,scottish ,,lighthouses4       ,history
 of the ,inch-,cape or ,bell-,rock      
,lighthouse as a ,type      of the      
,northern ,lighthouses--,position and   
,dangerous      ,character of the ,bell 
,rock--,ballad of ,sir ,ralph the       
,rover--,proposal to erect a            
,lighthouse--,mr4 ,robert ,stevenson    
selected as ,engineer--,survey of the   
,rock--,exhibition of a      ,floating  
,light--,preparations for the           

,lighthouse--,first      ,season on the 
,rock--,alarming ,situation of the      
,engineer and      ,men--,effects of the
 ,stormy ,sea on the ,rock--,erection of
      ,beacon--,winter ,employment--,the
 ,second ,season--,a new ,tender        
employed--,praam-boats and              
,stone-lighters--,progress of the       
,work--,remarkable appearance of the    
,rock--,foundation ,stone               
laid--,first continuous ,course of      
,masonry--,its ,contents--,third        
,season--,progress of the ,work--,winter
 ,operations--,fourth      ,season--,the
 ,beacon used as a ,dwelling--,its      
,interior      described--,the          
,engineer's ,cabin--,the ,lighthouse    
nearly      finished--,mr4 ,smeaton's   
,daughter visits the ,works--,last      
,stone laid--,light                     
advertized--,lighthouse                 
described--,action      of the ,sea and 
of ,stormy ,weather upon the            
,lighthouse--,internal      ,economy of 
the ,lighthouse--,arrangements on       

,shore--,signals--,curious              
,accident--,the ,carr ,rock ,beacon4    
',pharos loquitur4      ',far in the    
bosom of the deep     ,o'er these wild  
shelves my watch ,i keep1     ,a ruddy  
gem of changeful light1     ,bound in   
the dusky brow of night4     ,the seaman
 bids my lustre hail1     ,and scorns to
 strike his timorous sail'#e4  ,the most
 celebrated lighthouse in ,scotland is  
that situated on the dangerous reef     
called the ,inch ,cape or ,bell ,rock4  
,this lighthouse may fairly aspire to   
the title of the ,eddystone of          
,scotland1 whether we regard its high   
importance to navigation1 the danger and
 difficulty of its erection1 the beauty 
of its form1 or its interesting history4
  ,the ,inch ,cape or ,bell ,rock is    
situated on the northern side of the    
entrance of the ,frith of ,forth at a   
distance of eleven miles from the       
promontory called the ,red ,head1 in    
,forfarshire4 ,the dimensions of the    
north-eastern or higher compartment of  

the rock where the lighthouse is built  
are about four hundred and twenty-seven 
feet in length and two hundred and      
thirty feet in breadth4 ,besides these  
dimensions1 the south-western reef      
extends about one thousand feet from the
 main rock4 ,the greatest length of the 
rock1 which may be said to be dangerous 
to shipping1 is about one thousand four 
hundred and twenty-seven feet1 and its  
greatest breadth about three hundred    
feet4 ,it is about twelve feet under    
water at the ordinary height or         
perpendicular rise of spring tides4 ,in 
point of situation1 this rock is one of 
the most dangerous on the coast of      
,great ,britain2 for while it lies in   
one of the most frequented estuaries1 it
 is much lower in the water than any    
rock on which lighthouses are usually   
erected2 and hence the mariner had      
formerly no warning of his danger when  
in its vicinity4 ,indeed1 in fine       
weather the sea is often so smooth1 that
 the place of the rock could not be     

pointed out from the appearance of the  
surface4 ,the ,bell ,rock was therefore 
considered for ages as the chief        
obstruction to the navigation of the    
,frith of ,forth1 and the want of some  
mark to point out its position was long 
lamented4 ,tradition says1 that the     
abbots of the ancient monastery of      
,aberbrothock succeeded in fixing a bell
 upon it in such a way as to be rung by 
the agitation of the waves4 ,it is      
further stated1 that a band of pirates  
having carried off the bell1 were in a  
subsequent voyage all lost on the ,bell 
,rock4 ,this legend is beautifully told 
by ,mr4 ,southey in the following       
ballad4      ,,sir ,,ralph ,,the        
,,rover4      ,no stir in the air1 no   
stir in the sea1     ,the ship was still
 as she could be2     ,her sails from   
heaven received no motion1     ,her keel
 was steady in the ocean4      ,without 
either sign or sound of their shock1    
,the waves flow'd over the ,inchcape    
,rock2     ,so little they rose1 so     

little they fell1     ,they did not move
 the ,inchcape bell4      ,the abbot of 
,aberbrothok     ,had placed that bell  
on the ,inchcape ,rock2     ,on a buoy  
in the storm it floated and swung1      
,and over the waves its warning rung4   
,when the rock was hid by the surge's   
swell1     ,the mariners heard the      
warning bell2     ,and then they knew   
the perilous rock1     ,and blest the   
abbot of ,aberbrothok4      ,the sun in 
heaven was shining gay1     ,all things 
were joyful on that day2     ,the       
sea-birds scream'd as they wheel'd      
round1     ,and there was joyaunce in   
their sound4      ,the buoy of the      
,inchcape bell was seen1     ,a darker  
speck on the ocean green2     ,sir      
,ralph the ,rover walk'd his deck1      
,and he fix'd his eye on the darker     
speck4      ,he felt the cheering power 
of spring1     ,it made him whistle1 it 
made him sing2     ,his heart was       
mirthful to excess1     ,but the        
,rover's mirth was wickedness4      ,his

 eye was on the ,inchcape float1        
,quoth he1 ',my men1 put out the boat1  
,and row me to the ,inchcape ,rock1     
,and ,i'll plague the abbot of          
,aberbrothok4'      ,the boat is        
lower'd1 the boatmen row1     ,and to   
the ,inchcape ,rock they go2     ,sir   
,ralph bent over from the boat1     ,and
 he cut the bell from the ,inchcape     
float4      ,down sunk the bell with a  
gurgling sound1     ,the bubbles rose   
and burst around2     ,quoth ,sir       
,ralph1 ',the next who comes to the rock
     ,won't bless the abbot of          
,aberbrothok4'      ,sir ,ralph the     
,rover sail'd away1     ,he scour'd the 
seas for many a day2     ,and now grown 
rich with plunder'd store1     ,he      
steers his course for ,scotland's shore4
      ,so thick a haze o'erspreads the  
sky1     ,they cannot see the sun on    
high2     ,and the wind hath blown a    
gale all day1     ,at evening it hath   
died away4      ,on the deck the ,rover 
takes his stand1     ,so dark it is they

 see no land3     ,quoth ,sir ,ralph1   
',it will be lighter soon1     ,for     
there is the dawn of the rising moon4'  
',canst hear1' said one1 'the breakers  
roar8     ,for methinks we should be    
near the shore2'     ',now where we are 
,i cannot tell1     ,but ,i wish we     
could hear the ,inchcape bell6'         
,they hear no sound1 the swell is       
strong1     ,though the wind hath fallen
 they drift along1     ,till the vessel 
strikes with a shivering shock1     ',oh
 ,christ6 it is the ,inchcape ,rock4'   
,sir ,ralph the ,rover tore his hair1   
,he curst himself in his despair2       
,the waves rush in on every side1       
,the ship is sinking beneath the tide4  
,but even in his dying fear     ,one    
dreadful sound could the ,rover hear1   
,a sound as if with the ,inchcape bell1 
,the devil below was ringing his knell4 
,but whatever may be the truth of these 
traditions1 it is certain that for a    
long period1 perhaps centuries1 no      
permanent distinguishing mark was       

attached to the rock until the building 
of the present lighthouse1 whose history
 we have now briefly to state4  ,on the 
appointment of a board for the erection 
of lighthouses in ,scotland1 the public 
anxiously expected that some means would
 be taken to guard the mariner from this
 fatal rock2 but the difficulties of the
 undertaking1 the great expense1 and the
 inadequate funds of the board1 all     
contributed to promote delay4 ,in the   
winter of #agii the northern coast of   
,great ,britain was visited with a      
dreadful storm1 and no less than seventy
 vessels were wrecked upon the coast of 
,scotland4 ,this calamity excited so    
strong a sensation that the attention of
 the board was at once directed to this 
object2 and in #ahjb application was    
made to ,parliament to enable the       
commissioners of the northern           
lighthouses to levy certain additional  
duties1 and empower them to borrow a sum
 of money for this work4 ,the ,act was  
not obtained until #ahjf2 but when      

obtained1 this highly important work was
 immediately undertaken4  ,a variety of 
plans were submitted to the             
consideration of the lighthouse board4  
,the beacons of spars which had been    
erected on the rock had been washed     
away1 and many persons feared that a    
more solid structure would share the    
same fate4 ,considering that the rock   
was frequently under water to the depth 
of twelve feet1 some proposed to erect a
 building which should stand on pillars 
of cast-iron or of stone4 ,the          
commissioners1 however1 wisely referred 
the matter to ,mr4 ,robert ,stevenson   
the engineer1 who was to survey the     
rock1 and report upon the practicability
 of erecting a lighthouse upon it4 ,the 
survey was accordingly made2 and during 
its progress1 many instances were       
discovered of the extent of loss which  
this reef had occasioned1 and many      
articles of ships' furnishings were     
found1 as well as various coins1 a      
bayonet1 a silver shoe-buckle1 and many 

other small objects4 ,the result of this
 survey was a report from ,mr4          
,stevenson to the effect1 that a work of
 stone similar to that of the ,eddystone
 lighthouse was practicable2 and having 
sent in his plans1 the commissioners    
submitted them to ,mr4 ,rennie1 who gave
 them his cordial concurrence2 and the  
work was accordingly proceeded with4    
,the time that remained after the       
passing of the ,act in #ahjf was        
employed in making the necessary        
preparations for the summer of the next 
year2 and the commissioners being       
authorized to collect duties on the     
exhibition of a floating light1 a vessel
 was employed to serve the double       
purpose of a floating light1 and a      
tender for the workmen employed in the  
building4 ,accordingly in ,july a ,dutch
 fishing vessel was moored off the ,bell
 ,rock1 at the distance of about two    
miles1 in a depth of about twenty       
fathoms water2 her crew consisting of a 
master1 eight able seamen1 and a boy4   

,this strong crew was necessary1 in case
 the vessel should accidentally drift   
from her station1 and to enable them to 
light or lift their moorings after every
 gale of wind4 ,the vessel was rigged   
with three masts1 on each of which a    
lantern was so placed that the light    
could be seen in all directions4  ,the  
stones and machinery were prepared in a 
work-yard provided for the purpose at   
,arbroath1 the nearest harbour on the   
adjacent coast4 ,in this place barracks 
were erected for the workmen1 that they 
might at all times be ready night or day
 to go off to the ,bell ,rock4 ,a sloop1
 named the ',smeaton1' 7in honour of the
 great engineer who had left so splendid
 a pattern for the present structure17  
had been built expressly for the        
,bell-,rock service1 to be employed as a
 tender for the floating light1 and as a
 stone-lighter for the use of the work3 
it served also to convey the workmen to 
and from the rock4  ,on the #agth       
,august #ahjg the work on the rock was  

begun4 ,the first employment was to bore
 a sufficient number of holes for       
receiving the ends of beams1 for the    
support of a wooden beacon or workshop  
and temporary residence for the workmen4
 ,but this was no easy task4 ,the hard  
compact nature of the sand-stone of     
which the rock is composed soon blunted 
the tools1 and rendered necessary the   
constant employment of a smith with his 
forge4 ,but the operations of this      
useful artificer were even more         
difficult than those of the             
stone-cutters4 ,it often happened that  
after the flood-tide had obliged the    
pickmen to strike work1 a sea would come
 rolling over the rocks1 while the smith
 was in the middle of a 'favourite      
heat1' dashing out the fire1 and        
endangering his indispensable           
instrument1 the bellows2 or if the sea  
was smooth1 the smith had often to stand
 at work knee deep in water1 and the    
tide would rise imperceptibly1 first    
cooling the exterior of the fire-place  

or hearth1 and then quickly blackening  
and extinguishing the fire from below4  
,mr4 ,stevenson describes it as amusing 
to witness the perplexing anxiety of the
 smith when coaxing his fire1 and       
endeavouring to avert the effects of the
 rising tide4 ,sometimes1 while his feet
 were immersed in water1 his face was   
not only scorched but continually       
exposed to volumes of smoke and sparks  
of fire4 ,a great object therefore1 of  
the beacon was to remove the smith above
 the reach of the highest tide4  ,one   
effect of visiting the rock at every    
tide1 and carrying on this noise and    
traffic1 was to banish the herd of seals
 which had hitherto frequented it as a  
resting-place during low water4 ,as many
 as fifty or sixty of these animals had 
been seen at one time on the rock1 but  
now not more than one or two            
occasionally appeared1 and these        
confined their visits to the detached   
outlayers of the rock1 from whence they 
would gaze on the workmen with that look

 of curiosity so remarkable in this     
animal4 ,mr4 ,stevenson was desirous of 
protecting them1 in hopes of taming     
them1 so as to gain that facility of    
studying their habits which was afforded
 at ,small's ,lighthouse1 off the coast 
of ,pembrokeshire1 a favourite resort of
 seals1 where1 by gentle treatment1 they
 had become so tame and familiar as to  
eat bread out of the hands of the       
light-keepers4  ,the operations of this 
season were difficult and hazardous1 the
 men having to row in boats at every    
tide from the rock to the               
floating-light2 and the wind often      
shifting suddenly1 the exertion of      
rowing was very great1 although the     
distance was but two miles4 ,when at the
 rock1 the men had presently to work    
knee-deep in water2 and the roughness of
 the sea was often such as to suspend   
the work for days together1 during which
 time the floating-light would roll so  
unmercifully1 that to put out a boat    
would have probably ensured its instant 

destruction4  ,during this early stage  
of the work there was a moment of       
appalling danger1 which must be noticed 
in detail4 ,on the #bnd of ,sept4 #ahjg1
 there were thirty-two persons upon the 
rock2 and while all the artificers were 
busily occupied1 a gale arose1 during   
which the ',smeaton' broke adrift from  
her moorings4 ,in this perilous         
predicament1 placed upon an insulated   
rock far out in the ocean1 which1 in the
 progress of the flood-tide1 was to be  
laid under water to the depth of at     
least twelve feet1 in a stormy sea1 the 
feelings of the engineer may be better  
conceived than described4 ,there were1  
at this period1 only two boats attached 
to the rock1 whose complement1 even in  
fair weather1 did not exceed twenty-four
 sitters2 but to row to the             
floating-light1 with so much wind1 and  
so heavy a sea1 a complement of eight   
men for each boat was as much as could  
possibly be attempted1 so that1 in this 
way1 about one half of those employed on

 the rock must be left unprovided for4  
,under these circumstances1 had ,mr4    
,stevenson ventured to despatch one of  
the boats1 in expectation of either     
working the ',smeaton' sooner up towards
 the rock1 or in hopes of getting her   
boat brought to the assistance of the   
rest1 this must have given an immediate 
alarm to the artificers1 each of whom   
would have insisted upon taking to his  
own boat1 and leaving the eight         
artificers belonging to the ',smeaton'  
to their chance4  ,the unfortunate      
circumstance of the ',smeaton' and her  
boat having drifted1 was for a          
considerable time1 known only to ,mr4   
,stevenson and to the landing-master1   
who removed to the further part of the  
rock1 where he kept his eye steadily    
upon the progress of the vessel4 ,while 
the artificers were at work1 chiefly in 
sitting and kneeling postures1          
excavating the rock1 or boring with the 
tools1 and while their numerous hammers1
 and the sound of the smith's anvil     

continued1 the situation of things did  
not appear so awful4 ,in this state of  
suspense1 with almost certain           
destruction at hand1 the water began to 
rise upon those who were at work on the 
lower parts of the sites of the beacon  
and lighthouse4 ,from the run of the sea
 upon the rock1 the forge-fire was      
sooner extinguished than usual2 and the 
volumes of smoke having ceased1 objects 
in every direction became visible from  
all parts of the rock4 ,after having had
 about three hours' work1 the men begun1
 pretty generally1 to make towards their
 respective boats for their jackets and 
stockings1 when1 to their astonishment1 
instead of three1 they found only two   
boats1 the third being adrift with the  
',smeaton4' ,not a word was uttered by  
any one1 but all appeared to be silently
 calculating their numbers1 and looking 
to each other with evident marks of     
perplexity depicted on their            
countenances4 ,the landing-master1      
conceiving blame might be attached to   

him for allowing the boat to leave the  
rock1 still kept at a distance4 ,at this
 critical moment ,mr4 ,stevenson was    
standing upon an elevated part of the   
rock1 where he endeavoured to mark the  
progress of the ',smeaton1' not a little
 surprised that her crew did not cut the
 praam adrift which greatly retarded her
 way4 ,the workmen looked steadfastly at
 their leader1 and turned occasionally  
towards the vessel still far to leeward4
 ,all this passed with the most perfect 
silence1 and the melancholy solemnity of
 the group was such that1 ,mr4          
,stevenson states1 it left an impression
 never to be effaced from his mind4  ,in
 the meantime ,mr4 ,stevenson was       
considering various schemes which might 
be adopted for the general safety of the
 party1 in hopes that the ',smeaton'    
might be able to pick up the boats to   
leeward when they were obliged to leave 
the rock4 ,he was1 accordingly1 about to
 address the artificers on the perilous 
nature of their situation1 and to       

propose that all should unstrip their   
upper clothing1 when the higher parts of
 the rock were laid under water1--that  
the seamen should remove every          
unnecessary weight and encumbrance from 
the boats1 and a specified number of men
 should go into each boat1 and that the 
remainder should hang by the gunwales1  
while the boats were to be rowed gently 
towards the ',smeaton1' as the course of
 the ',pharos' or floating-light lay    
rather to windward of the rock4 ,but1   
when he attempted to speak1 his mouth   
was so parched that his tongue refused  
utterance1 and he says1 ',i now learned 
by experience that the saliva is as     
necessary as the tongue itself for      
speech4' ,he then turned to one of the  
pools on the rock1 and drank a little   
salt-water1 which produced immediate    
relief2 and his delight was in no small 
degree increased when1 on rising from   
this nauseous beverage1 some one called 
out1 ',a boat6' ',a boat6' and on       
looking round1 at no great distance1 a  

large boat was seen through the haze    
making towards the rock4  ,the effect of
 this accident was1 that when the bell  
rung next morning1 and the workmen were 
mustered1 out of twenty-six1 only eight1
 besides the foreman and seamen1        
appeared on deck to accompany the       
engineer to the rock4 ',the use of      
argument to persuade the men to embark  
in cases of this kind would have been   
out of place1 as it is not only         
discomfort1 or even the risk of the loss
 of a limb1 but life itself1 that       
becomes the question4' ,the boats       
proceeded with the eight willing        
workmen3 four hours were passed upon the
 rock1 and1 on returning to the         
',pharos1' the eighteen men who remained
 on board seemed quite ashamed of their 
cowardice2 and on again proceeding to   
the rock1 they were the first to embark4
 ,this was the only instance of refusal 
to go to the rock4  ,shortly after this 
occurrence1 the whole party on board the
 ,pharos was exposed to a fearful gale1 

which kept them from the rock during ten
 days and exposed them to imminent      
danger4 ,the floating-light broke       
adrift1 but1 providentially1 no damage  
was sustained4 ,this circumstance1      
however1 imparted a character of extreme
 hazard to life on board the            
floating-light1 that it was difficult to
 provide sailors to man her4 ,on landing
 upon the rock the effects of the gale  
were at once apparent4 ,six large blocks
 of granite1 which had been landed by   
way of experiment1 had been removed from
 their places1 and by the force of the  
sea thrown over a rising ledge into a   
hole at the distance of twelve or       
fifteen paces2 a sufficient evidence of 
the violence of the storm and the       
agitation of the sea on the rock4 ,the  
smith's forge was also shifted from its 
place--the ash-pan of the hearth with   
its ponderous cast-iron back had been   
washed from their places of supposed    
security1 the chains of attachment      
broken1 and these weighty articles found

 at a very considerable distance in a   
hole of the rock4  ,although the sea    
often had a most frightful appearance1  
yet the beacon divested the ,bell ,rock 
of many of its terrors3 its beams       
afforded an excellent guide to shipping1
 and old sailors frequently expressed   
their admiration at the change of       
circumstances which led to their        
cruising with so much confidence both by
 day and night in the immediate vicinity
 of this dangerous rock4 ,it also had a 
beneficial influence on all who were    
actively engaged about the lighthouse by
 inducing a greater confidence of       
safety1 so that at all times when a boat
 could be put to sea or approach this   
sunken reef1 there was not that actual  
danger in landing which formerly        
presented itself1 because in the event  
of the tender going adrift or a boat    
happening to be wrecked upon the rock1  
the beacon could be looked to as a      
refuge till assistance arrived4  ,on the
 #fth ,october1 #ahjg1 the works were   

relinquished for the season4 ,the time  
which had been spent in the rock        
amounted only to one hundred and eighty 
hours1 of which one hundred and         
thirty-three1 or about thirteen and a   
half days of ten hours each1 could be   
said to have been actively employed1 and
 yet during this period1 besides the    
erection of the principal beams of the  
beacon-house1 some considerable progress
 had been made in preparing the site of 
the lighthouse4 ',this reason's work1'  
says the engineer1 'affords a good      
example of what may be executed under   
similar circumstances1 when every heart 
and hand is anxiously and zealously     
engaged1 for the artificers wrought at  
the erection of the beacon as for life2 
or somewhat like men stopping a breach  
in a wall to keep out an overwhelming   
flood4'  ,during winter the men were    
busy in the work-yard preparing the     
stones and laying them course by course 
upon a stone basement1 equal to the     
foundation course of the lighthouse4    

,here the stones were fitted into their 
places1 and carefully numbered and      
marked as they were to lie in the       
building2 a necessary operation1 the    
several courses being dove-tailed and   
connected together1 so as to form one   
mass from the centre to the             
circumference of the building4 ,the     
stones were also bored or fixed with    
trenails of oak and joggles of stone1   
after the manner of the ,eddystone      
lighthouse1 and in this state they were 
laid aside1 and in readiness for being  
shipped in lighters for the rock4       
,considering the importance of a light  
on the ,bell ,rock1 it was at first     
determined that the whole outward casing
 of the lighthouse should be of granite1
 and that sand-stone should be used only
 for the interior work2 but from the    
difficulty of procuring a sufficient    
supply of granite1 it was afterwards    
found necessary to restrict the use of  
it to the lower courses of the building4
 ,the granite was from the ,rubislaw    

quarry1 and was so compact1 that it     
contained only about thirteen and a half
 cubic feet to the ton4 ,the sand-stone 
was from the ,mylnefield quarry1 and    
contained fifteen feet to the ton4  ,as 
soon as the weather would permit1 the   
operations of the second season         
commenced at the rock4 ,the arrangements
 for carrying on the works were made on 
an improved scale4 ,a new vessel 7named 
the ,sir ,joseph ,banks7 was provided as
 a tender for lodging the workmen off   
the rock1 instead of the floating-light4
 ,the new tender was well supplied with 
cooking apparatus1 provisions1 water1   
fuel1 c42 the space not used as         
birthage1 c4 was occupied with casks of 
lime1 cement1 and other articles        
required for the work4 ,the advantage of
 this new arrangement was1 the ease with
 which the tender could be brought to   
the lee side of the rock1 to take the   
people on board at any emergency2       
whereas1 the floating-light1 being      
moored as a guide to shipping1 could not

 be moved about so easily1 to serve the 
purposes of the workmen4 ,every         
precaution was also taken to render the 
praam-boats or stone-lighters buoyant1  
for such was the presentiment of danger 
attached to the landing department1     
that1 in addition to a water-tight      
lining1 each praam was provided with    
twelve strong empty casks1 which were   
stored in the hold1 and were sufficient 
to float and render her buoyant in case 
of accident4 ,the praams therefore      
became so many life-boats1 moored in the
 neighbourhood of the rock4 ,the ,sir   
,joseph ,banks was also furnished with  
large landing boats and a life-boat4    
,the beacon had resisted the wintry     
storms tolerably well4 ,indeed1 the     
force of the waves upon the rock was not
 so great as might have been expected1  
from an interesting and unlooked-for    
cause1 namely1 the extensive beds of    
marine plants which grow upon it4 ',it  
often happened1' says ,mr4 ,stevenson1  
'when heavy seas were rolling along the 

,bell ,rock1 which at a distance        
threatened to overrun the whole1 that1  
upon reaching these beds of fuci1 with  
which the flat and level parts of the   
rock were thickly coated1 the velocity  
and force of the waves were immediately 
checked1 and in a great measure         
destroyed4'  ,on the #beth of ,may      
#ahjh1 the operations of the second     
season were commenced with very         
different feelings1 to those experienced
 during the previous year1 when every   
step was attended with a great degree of
 doubt1 uncertainty1 and danger2 but the
 preparations and precautions1 which had
 been so wisely adopted1 gave a security
 and promptness to the work1 which      
relieved all concerned in it of much    
anxiety4 ,landing upon the rock was at  
all times difficult1 but1 so long as the
 boats were kept from striking upon it1 
the spray which came on board was but   
little heeded4  ,during the early part  
of this season the work proceeded as    
follows3 ,the workmen landed on the rock

 at low water1 and immediately began to 
bale out the water from the foundation  
pit1 while the pumps were also kept in  
action4 ,the work was proceeded with on 
the higher parts of the foundation as   
the water left them4 ,the pumps being   
placed diagonally1 about twenty men were
 employed to work each pump2 and thus   
this great body of water1 extending over
 a circular area of forty-two feet      
diameter1 and of the average depth of   
two feet1 could be drawn off in half an 
hour4 ,the men then proceeded1 for about
 two hours and a half1 to level the     
foundation with their picks1 some of the
 sailors being employed in clearing away
 the chips1 and conveying the iron tools
 to and from the smiths on the beacon1  
where they were sharpened4 ,when the sea
 broke in and overflowed the pit1 the   
party returned in boats to the tender4  
,the appearance of the rock about this  
time is thus described3 ',its surface   
was crowded with men1 the two forges    
flaming1 the one above the other1 upon  

the beacon1 while the anvils thundered  
with the rebounding noise of their      
wooden supports1 and formed a curious   
contrast with the clamour of the        
surges4' ,sometimes1 when the sea was   
smooth1 the beacon had the appearance of
 being afloat upon the water1 with a    
number of men supporting themselves in  
every variety of attitude and position2 
while from the upper part of this wooden
 house1 such volumes of smoke ascended  
from the forges1 that strangers at a    
distance often mistook it for a ship on 
fire4 ,when working by such light at    
night1 the rock presented a remarkable  
aspect to the distant shipping1 the     
numerous lights flitting about1         
apparently below the surface of the     
water1 having a curious and fanciful    
appearance4 ,to the workmen themselves1 
the effect of extinguishing the torches 
was sometimes startling1 and made the   
darkness of the night quite horrible1   
while the sea would assume that         
phosphoric appearance so familiar to the

 sailor1 and dash upon the rock like so 
much liquid fire4  ,as the work         
proceeded1 the smiths were sometimes    
left on the beacon throughout the day1  
and the noise of their anvils was an    
excellent guide to the boats in foggy   
weather4 ,this circumstance confirmed   
the engineer1 as to the propriety of    
erecting in the lighthouse large bells1 
to be tolled by machinery day and night1
 during the continuance of foggy        
weather1 by which the mariner may be    
forewarned of too near an approach to   
the rock4  ,the foundation pit having   
assumed the appearance of a large even  
platform1 and the tides being           
favourable1 it was determined to lay    
down the first course1 which consisted  
of a few irregular and detached stones  
for making up certain inequalities in   
the interior parts of the site of the   
building4 ,having taken the dimensions  
of the first or foundation stone1 a     
model of its figure was made1 and this  
was taken by the engineer in a          

fast-rowing boat to the work-yard at    
,arbroath3 two men were immediately set 
to work upon one of the blocks from the 
,mylnefield quarry1 and as the          
stone-cutters relieved each other1 and  
worked without intermission1 the stone  
was soon prepared1 and sent off next day
 in one of the stone-lighters4 ,on the  
#ith ,july the stone was placed in a    
praam-boat1 decorated with colours for  
the occasion4 ,flags were also displayed
 upon the beacon and from the shipping  
in the offing4 ,the stone was gently    
lowered into the water1 which occupied  
the site of the building1 amidst the    
cheering of all present4 ,the stone was 
necessarily landed at high water1 for   
want of a sufficient length of railway  
for conveying it along the rock at low  
water to the site of the building4  ,on 
the #ajth ,july the sailors displayed   
their flags at all points1 and as many  
as could be spared from the             
floating-light and the tenders landed to
 witness the long desired ceremony of   

laying the first stone of the           
lighthouse4 ,the importance of the      
building was such1 that but for the     
perilous and uncertain nature of any    
arrangement which could have been made  
for this ceremony1 instead of its having
 been performed only in the presence of 
those immediately connected with the    
work1 and a few casual spectators from  
the neighbouring shore1 reckoning in all
 about eighty persons1 many thousands   
would have attended upon an occasion    
which must have called forth the first  
dignitaries of the country in conferring
 upon it the highest honours of masonry4
  ,at eleven o'clock the foundation     
stone was laid to hand4 ,it was square  
in form1 and contained about twenty     
cubic feet1 and had no other inscription
 than the date #ahjh4 ,the engineer1    
attended by his three assistants1       
applied the square1 the level1 and the  
mallet1 and pronounced the following    
benediction3 ',may the ,great ,architect
 of the universe complete and bless this

 building4' ,three hearty cheers were   
then given1 and success to future       
operations drunk with the greatest      
enthusiasm4 ,when the tide began to     
overflow the site the whole party       
returned to the ship2 prayers were read1
 and every heart1 doubtless1 felt more  
than usually thankful4  ,the first      
continuous course was now landed on the 
rock and laid down4 ,mr4 ,stevenson     
gives an enumeration of the various     
kinds and quantity of the work in this  
single course4 ,although only one foot  
in thickness it contained five hundred  
and eight cubic feet of granite in      
outward casing2 eight hundred and       
seventy-six cubic feet of ,mylnefield   
stone in the hearting2 one hundred and  
four tons of solid contents2 one hundred
 and thirty-two superficial feet of     
hewing in the face-work2 four thousand  
five hundred and nineteen superficial   
feet of hewing in the beds1 joints1 and 
joggles2 four hundred and twenty lineal 
feet boring of trenail holes2 three     

hundred and seventy-eight feet lineal   
cutting for wedges2 two hundred and     
forty-six oaken trenails2 three hundred 
and seventy-eight oak-wedges in pairs4  
,in the work-yard about sixty men were  
employed in hewing and preparing the    
various courses of the solid part of the
 building4 ,the second course1 which    
contained some very weighty stones1 was 
laid down upon the platform in the      
middle of the yard1 each stone being    
carefully fitted and marked as it was to
 lie in the building4  ,by the end of   
this season the building was brought to 
a level with the highest part of the    
margin of the foundation pit1 or about  
five and a half feet above the lower bed
 of the foundation-stone4 ,the number of
 hours work upon the rock this season at
 low water amounted to about two hundred
 and sixty-five1 of which number only   
eighty were employed in building4  ,the 
third season was commenced early in the 
spring of #ahji4 ,the first works       
consisted in laying down mooring-chains 

with floating-buoys1 for mooring the    
stone-lighters and praam-boats2 the     
beacon was also fitted out as a more    
permanent residence for the workmen1 in 
order to lessen the amount of sickly    
motion which is so distressing to       
landsmen in a rough sea4 ,by the end of 
,june the men were able to work upon the
 masonry while the rock was under water2
 and on the #hth ,july1 for the first   
time1 the tide ceased to overflow the   
building at low water4 ,with            
considerable exertion the solid part of 
the building1 which reached to the      
height of thirty feet1 was completed by 
,september4 ,by continuing the works a  
month or two longer a much greater      
height might have been attained1 but as 
the engineer foresaw that a diligent    
employment of the next season would     
suffice for the completion of the work1 
he deemed it advisable to leave the     
house in its present solid defensible   
posture1 on which the sea had much less 
hold1 than if part of the hollow portion

 had been built4  ,the winter months    
were occupied in preparing the upper    
courses2 but in consequence of severe   
frosts1 several excellent and valuable  
stones from the ,mylnefield quarry were 
destroyed by absorption of moisture from
 the air1 which moisture expanding in   
the act of freezing1 split the stones1  
and rendered them useless4 ,it was      
therefore determined to construct the   
cornice of the building1 and the parapet
 of the light-room of the ,liver ,rock1 
of the ,craig-,leith quarry1 celebrated 
for its durability and beauty1 and for  
its property of not being liable to be  
affected by the action of frost4 ,these 
stones were prepared at ,edinburgh      
during the winter1 and the iron         
frame-work1 and the several compartments
 of the light-room got ready4  ,having  
during two seasons landed and built     
upwards of one thousand four hundred    
tons of stone upon the rock1 while the  
work was low down in the water1 and     
before the beacon was habitable2 and    

finding that it did not now require more
 than about seven hundred tons to       
complete the masonry1 there was every   
prospect of finishing the lighthouse    
during the season4 ,but as the success  
of the work depended wholly upon the    
stability of the beacon1 every possible 
attention was bestowed upon it1 and     
visits made to the rock during the      
winter months when the weather would    
allow4  ,on the #ajth of ,may operations
 for the season were commenced4 ,the    
building to the height of fifteen feet  
above the rock was found to be thickly  
covered with fuci3 on the east side the 
growth of sea-weed was observed to the  
full height of thirty feet1 and even on 
the top or upper bed of the last-laid   
course it had grown so as to render     
walking somewhat difficult4 ,the men    
therefore set to work to scrape off the 
sea-weed1 in order to apply the moulds  
of the first course of the staircase4   
,the engineer had also to fix the       
position of the entrance-door1 which was

 regulated chiefly by the appearance of 
the growth of the sea-weed on the       
building1 indicating the direction of   
the heaviest seas1 on the opposite side 
of which the door was placed4  ,the     
artificers now took permanent possession
 of the beacon1 and were all heartily   
rejoiced at getting rid of the trouble  
of boating1 and the sickly motion of the
 tender4 ,the beacon1 which has been so 
often named1 and which proved a source  
of so much comfort to the men1 and of   
benefit and dispatch to the work1 stood 
well during the five years that its     
services were required4 ,in its present 
complete form it consisted of three     
floors1 one of which was occupied as the
 cook-house and provision store2 the    
second1 which was much encumbered by the
 meeting of the principal beams1 formed 
only two cabins1 one for the engineer1  
and the other for the foreman4 ,in the  
third compartment were three rows or    
tiers of beds1 capable of accommodating 
about thirty men4 ,below these three    

floors was the temporary floor at the   
height of twenty-five feet above the    
rock1 used for preparing mortar and for 
the smith's workshop4 ,the beacon was   
connected with the building by a        
gangway1 or bridge of timber4  ,mr4     
,stevenson has given an interesting     
description of his cabin in the beacon1 
where he had passed many weeks 'in a    
kind of active retirement1 making       
practical experiment of the fewness of  
the positive wants of man4' ,this cabin 
measured not more than four feet three  
inches in breadth on the floor2 and     
though1 from the oblique direction of   
the beams of the structure1 it widened  
towards the top1 yet it did not admit of
 the full expansion of his arms when he 
stood on the floor1 while its length was
 little more than sufficient for        
suspending a cot-bed during the night4  
,this was tied up to the roof during the
 day1 thus leaving free room for the    
admission of occasional visitants4 ',his
 folding-table was attached with hinges 

immediately under the small window of   
the apartment1 and his books1 barometer1
 thermometer1 portmanteau1 and two or   
three camp-stools1 formed the bulk of   
his moveables4 ,his diet being plain1   
the paraphernalia of the table were     
proportionably simple1 though every     
thing had the appearance of comfort1 and
 even of neatness1 the walls being      
covered with green cloth formed into    
panels with red tape1 and his bed       
festooned with curtains of yellow       
cotton-stuff4 ,if1 in speculating upon  
the absolute wants of man in such a     
state of seclusion1 one was reduced to a
 single book1 the ,sacred ,volume1      
whether considered for the striking     
divinity of its story--the morality of  
its doctrine--or the important truths of
 its ,gospel1 would have proved by far  
the greatest treasure4'  ,as the        
building rose in height the action of   
the sea upon it was regarded with much  
interest4 ,when the wind was blowing1   
accompanied with a heavy surf upon the  

rock1 the appearance towards high water 
is described as being very grand and    
wonderful4 ,waves of considerable       
magnitude rose as high as the solid or  
level of the entrance-door which was to 
the leeward2 but on the windward side   
the sprays flew like lightning up the   
sloping sides of the building1          
occasionally wetting the artificers1 and
 interrupting their operations on the   
top of the walls4  ,in the early part of
 ,july1 the works being nearly          
completed1 great interest was excited by
 a visit from ,mrs4 ,dickson1 the only  
daughter and surviving relative of ,mr4 
,smeaton4 ,she was conveyed to the      
building on board the ',smeaton1' which 
had been thus spontaneously named by the
 engineer from the sense of the         
obligation which a public work of the   
description of the ,bell ,rock owed to  
the labours and abilities of ,mr4       
,smeaton4 ,mrs4 ,dickson seemed to be   
quite overcome with the many concurrent 
circumstances which tended in a peculiar

 manner to revive and enliven the memory
 of her departed father4  ,the #bith of 
,july was a day of great rejoicing at   
the ,bell ,rock4 ,the last stone was    
landed1 and that it might lose none of  
its honours1 the same praam-boat with   
which the first stone of the building   
had been landed was appointed also to   
carry the last4 ,the weather being      
remarkably fine1 all the ships and the  
craft hoisted flags2 the praam which    
carried the stone was towed by the      
seamen in gallant style to the rock1 and
 on its arrival cheers were given as a  
finale to the landing department4 ,on   
the next day1 the ninetieth or last     
course of the building having been laid1
 the lintel of the light-door room1     
being the finishing stone of the        
exterior walls1 was laid with due       
formality by the engineer1 who at the   
same time pronounced the following      
benediction1 ',may the ,great ,architect
 of the ,universe1 under whose blessing 
this perilous work has prospered1       

preserve it as a guide to the mariner4' 
,the remaining details1 referring       
chiefly to the completion of the        
interior of the lighthouse1 are not of  
general interest4 ,they were so far     
advanced by the end of the year #ahaj1  
that the light was advertised to the    
public to be exhibited every night from 
the #ast of ,february #ahaa4 ,the       
advertisement stated the following      
particulars3--',the light will be from  
oil1 with reflectors placed at the      
height of about one hundred and eight   
feet above the medium level of the sea4 
,to distinguish this light from others  
on the coast1 it is made to revolve     
horizontally1 and to exhibit a bright   
light of the natural appearance1 and a  
red-coloured light alternately1 both    
respectively attaining their greatest   
strength1 or most luminous effect1 in   
the space of every four minutes2 during 
that period the bright light will1 to a 
distant observer1 appear like a star of 
the first magnitude1 which after        

attaining its full strength is gradually
 eclipsed to total darkness1 and is     
succeeded by the red-coloured light1    
which in like manner increases to full  
strength and again diminishes and       
disappears4 ,the coloured light1        
however1 being less powerful1 may not be
 seen for a time after the bright light 
is first observed4 ,during the          
continuance of foggy weather and showers
 of snow1 a bell will be tolled by      
machinery1 night and day1 at intervals  
of half a minute4' ,by this management  
the light was found to be so powerful as
 to be seen and readily distinguished at
 the distance of six or seven leagues in
 a clear atmosphere4 ,on the exhibition 
of this light the floating light was    
discontinued4  ,having thus traced the  
building through some of its principal  
stages1 a brief view in its complete    
state may here be desirable4 ,this      
lighthouse is a circular building1      
forty-two feet in diameter at the base  
and thirteen feet in diameter at the    

top4 ,the masonry is one hundred feet   
high1 and the whole structure1 with the 
light-room1 measures one hundred and    
fifteen feet4 ,the ascent from the rock 
to the entrance-door is by a kind of    
trap-ladder1 which is a difficult mode  
for any but the light-keepers1 who are  
accustomed to it4 ,other persons are    
generally hoisted up in a chair by a    
moveable crane4 ,from the entrance a    
circular stair leads to the first       
apartment1 which contains the water1    
fuel1 c4 ,the communication with the    
other apartments is by means of wooden  
steps4 ,the three lower apartments have 
two windows each1 and the upper rooms   
four windows each4 ,all the windows have
 double sash-frames1 glazed with        
plate-glass1 besides storm-shutters of  
timber4 ,the light-room is octagonal1   
twelve feet across and fifteen feet     
high4 ,it is framed of cast iron and    
glazed with polished plate-glass1 each  
plate measuring two feet six inches by  
two feet three inches1 and being        

one-fourth of an inch thick4 ,it is     
covered with a dome and terminates in a 
ball4 ,it is also furnished with a      
lightning-conductor4 ,in the year #ahaf1
 the whole exterior surface having      
become much discoloured by the sprays of
 the sea1 was painted in oil of one     
uniform tint4  ,in the course of the    
first winter some interesting           
observations were made upon the action  
of the weather and the general          
appearance of the lighthouse4 ,during   
rough weather a tremulous vibratory     
motion was found to affect the whole    
house4 ,the tremour was especially felt 
in leaning against the walls in the     
upper apartments when the wind was      
blowing fresh1 or when the house was    
struck by a sea or by a boat coming     
suddenly against it1 and might be       
compared to that which is perceptible in
 a common house upon the slamming of    
particular doors1 or when a carriage    
makes a rattling noise in passing along 
the streets4 ,but this effect is        

attended with no real danger4 ,the late 
eminent ,professor ,robison told ,mr4   
,stevenson that when he visited the     
,eddystone ,lighthouse1 something having
 forcibly struck the building1 he was   
sensible of a vibratory motion in one of
 the rooms in which he was then sitting2
 but instead of producing any alarm in  
his mind1 he assured his friends that it
 was to him the strongest proof of the  
unity and connection of the fabric in   
all its parts4  ,during the storms of   
winter1 ,mr4 ,stevenson says that from  
the ,forfarshire coast 'the lighthouse  
appeared in one of its most interesting 
aspects1 standing proudly among the     
waves while the sea around it was in the
 wildest state of agitation4 ,the       
light-keepers did not seem to be in     
motion1 but the scene was by no means   
still1 as the noise and dashing of the  
waves were unceasing4 ,the seas rose in 
the most surprising manner to the height
 of about seventy feet above the rock1  
and after expending their force in a    

perpendicular direction1 fell in great  
quantities round the base of the        
lighthouse1 while considerable portions 
of the spray were seen adhering1 as it  
were1 to the building1 and gathering    
down its sides in the state of froth as 
white as snow4 ,some of the great waves 
burst and were expended upon the rock   
before they reached the building2 while 
others struck the base1 and embracing   
the walls1 met on the western side of   
the house1 where they dashed together   
and produced a most surprising quantity 
of foam4'  ,the regulations observed in 
attending the ,bell-,rock may be briefly
 stated4 ,the nearest town to the       
lighthouse is that of ,aberbrothock1 or 
,arbroath1 in ,forfarshire1 about eleven
 miles distant4 ,a handsome cutter1     
called ',the ,pharos1' is stationed here
 as a tender to the lighthouse4 ,this   
vessel goes off to the rock every       
fortnight1 or in the course of each set 
of spring-tides1 to relieve the         
light-keepers and to supply the house   

with fuel1 provisions1 c4 ,there are    
four lighthouse-keepers1 three of whom  
are always on duty1 while one is ashore4
 ,if the weather offers no impediment1  
the light-keepers are each six weeks at 
the rock and a fortnight ashore with    
their families4 ,the salaries are from  
fifty to sixty guineas per annum1 with a
 stated allowance for each man of bread1
 beef1 butter1 oatmeal1 vegetables1 and 
small-beer1 with fourpence a day extra  
for tea1 c4 ,they have also a suit of   
uniform clothes every third year4 ,mr4  
,stevenson says that the light-keepers  
were1 upon the whole1 pleased with their
 situation1 and talked in a feeling     
manner of the hardships of mariners whom
 they often saw tossed about during the 
storms of winter4  ,according to the    
present system of ,northern lighthouses1
 the watches in the light-room are as   
regularly relieved as on ship-board4    
,the keeper is liable to immediate      
dismissal if he leave the light-room    
before being regularly relieved2 and for

 securing order and regularity in this  
respect a time-piece is placed in each  
light-room1 and bells are hung in the   
bed-rooms of the dwelling-houses4 ,at   
some of the stations the light-room and 
the bed-rooms are connected by a set of 
tubes1 by blowing gently into which the 
keepers on watch can sound an           
alarum-bell in the room below1 and rouse
 his comrade to change guard4 ,the man  
below answers this call by a            
counterblast through the tubes1 and a   
small index in the light-room is thereby
 raised to signify that the signal has  
been obeyed4  ,at ,arbroath suitable    
buildings are erected for the           
light-keepers' families1 with each a    
piece of enclosed ground1 and a seat in 
the parish-church4 ,connected with these
 buildings are store-houses1 a room for 
the master and crew of the attending    
vessels1 and a signal-tower fifty feet  
high1 at the top of which is a small    
observatory furnished with an excellent 
achromatic telescope1 a flag-staff1 and 

a copper signal-ball measuring eighteen 
feet in diameter4 ,by means of this and 
a corresponding ball at the lighthouse1 
daily signals are kept up to signify    
when all is well4 ,should the ball at   
the rock be allowed to remain down1 as  
is the case when anything is            
particularly wanted1 or in the event of 
sickness1 the tender immediately puts   
out to sea4  ,the expense of this great 
national undertaking1 together with the 
buildings at ,arbroath1 the attending   
vessel1 and the first year's stores1    
amounted to about sixty-one thousand    
three hundred and fifty pounds4  ,we    
cannot close this notice of the ,bell   
,rock lighthouse without recording a    
curious accident which occurred on the  
night of the #ith ,february1 #ahcb1     
about #aj o'clock4 ,a large-herring gull
 struck one of the south-eastern        
mullions of the light-room with such    
force1 that two of the polished plates  
of glass measuring about two feet square
 and a quarter of an inch thick1 were   

shivered to pieces1 and scattered over  
the floor1 to the great alarm of the    
keeper on watch1 and the other two      
inmates1 who rushed instantly into the  
light-room4 ,it happened fortunately1   
that although one of the red shaded     
sides of the reflector-frame was passing
 in its revolution at the moment1 the   
pieces of broken glass were so minute1  
that no injury was done to the valuable 
red glass4 ,the gull was found to       
measure five feet between the tips of   
the wings4 ,in its gullet was found a   
large herring1 and in its throat a piece
 of plate-glass about an inch in length4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,while the ,bell-,rock lighthouse   
was in progress1 ,mr4 ,stevenson was    
often struck with the frequent and      
distressing occurrence of shipwrecks at 
the ,carr ,rock4 ,the ,carr forms the   
seaward termination of a reef of sunken 
rocks which appear at low water1        
extending about a mile and three        
quarters from the shore of ,fifeness1 on

 the northern side of the entrance of   
the ,frith of ,forth4 ,the very         
dangerous position of this rock1 as a   
turning point in the navigation of the  
northern-bound shipping of the ,frith1  
required that this rock1 in connection  
with the several lighthouses of the     
,bell ,rock1 ,isle of ,may1 and         
,inchkeith1 should be made as easily    
distinguishable to the mariner as       
possible4 ,in the course of nine years  
no fewer than sixteen vessels had been  
either lost or stranded on the ,carr    
,rocks4 ,therefore1 in #ahji1 moorings  
were laid down for a floating buoy1 'but
 owing to the heavy swell of sea and the
 rocky sand-stone bottom on this part of
 the coast1 it was found hardly possible
 to prevent the buoy from occasionally  
drifting1 even although it had been     
attached to part of the great chain made
 from bar-iron an inch and a half       
square1 with which the ,bell-,rock      
floating-light had been moored for      
upwards of four years without injury4   

,the moorings of the ,carr ,rock buoy1  
from the continual rubbing upon the     
sand-stone bottom1 were worn through    
with the friction in the course of ten  
months2 and during the four years which 
it rode here1 though regularly examined 
and replaced in the proper season of the
 year1 it was no less than five times   
adrift1 to the great inconvenience and  
hazard of shipping4'  ,such being the   
case1 it was resolved1 however difficult
 and perilous the undertaking1 to erect 
a beacon of masonry upon the rock4 ,the 
length of the ,carr ,rock1 from north to
 south1 measures seventy-five feet1 but 
its greatest breadth1 as seen at        
low-water of spring-tides1 is only      
twenty-three feet2 hence it was not     
possible to obtain a base for a building
 of greater diameter than eighteen feet4
 ,the surface of the rock was also so   
rugged that it was necessary to excavate
 part of the foundation-pit of the      
building to the depth of seven feet4    
,the difficulties were still further    

increased on account of the foundation  
being partly under the level of the     
lowest tides1 so that a coffer-dam was  
required4 ,it was further necessary1    
after each tide's work1 to remove and   
carry ashore part of this coffer-dam2 so
 that on the return of the workmen at   
ebb-tide much time was lost in          
readjusting the coffer-dam1 and in      
pumping the water out of the            
foundation-pit4  ,some idea may be      
formed of the difficulties attending the
 early stages of this work1 from the    
fact that during the whole of the first 
season1 or summer of #ahac1 the workmen 
could not command more than forty-one   
hours' work upon the rock2 during the   
second season the time was only         
fifty-three hours4 ,these two years were
 entirely occupied in excavating and    
preparing the foundation1 and in laying 
ten stones1 or the half course of       
masonry1 which brought the foundation to
 a uniform level for the first entire   
course of the building4 ,mr4 ,stevenson 

contrasts this slow progress with that  
made at the ,bell ,rock during the first
 two seasons4 ,although this building   
was situated twelve miles from the      
shore1 three courses were erected1 the  
diameter of the base being forty-two    
feet1 besides the erection of a         
beacon-house or barrack for the workmen4
 ',the establishment for the works at   
the ,bell ,rock was of course on a much 
larger scale than that of the ,carr     
,rock2 but still the latter was equally 
effective1 and the same apparatus1      
artificers1 and seamen1 were employed at
 both4'  ,during the third year's work1 
the second course of the masonry was    
completed upon the ,carr2 and nine      
stones of the third course were laid by 
the #crd of ,october1 when a heavy      
ground-swell obliged the workmen        
precipitately to leave the rock and take
 to their boats4 ,before the cement was 
fixed1 the surge of the sea had washed  
it out2 the oaken trenails were wrenched
 off1 and the whole of the nine blocks  

of stone swept off the rock and lost in 
deep water1 though they had been        
completely dove-tailed and fitted on the
 same principles as the masonry of the  
,bell-,rock lighthouse1 where not a     
single stone was lost during the whole  
progress of the work4  ,during the      
fourth season1 the operations were      
retarded by several untoward accidents4 
,the wind and the waves sometimes       
destroyed in a moment the labour of     
weeks2 but by dint of skill and untiring
 patience and industry1 they succeeded  
by the month of ,november in completing 
the sixteenth course1 which raised the  
building to the height of about twenty  
feet4  ,the fifth year was particularly 
unfortunate4 ,the whole of the masonry  
having been completed1 the coast was    
visited in ,november with a gale of     
wind1 accompanied with a heavy swell of 
sea1 which washed down the upper part of
 the building1 and reduced it to the    
height of the fifth course1 which formed
 part of the fourth year's work4 ,it was

 therefore determined to modify the     
original design of the work4 ,instead of
 completing this beacon with masonry1   
and providing the machine and large     
bell1 which was to have measured five   
feet across the mouth1 to be tolled by  
the alternate rise and fall of the tide1
 it was now determined to erect six     
columns of cast iron upon the remaining 
courses of masonry1 to terminate in a   
cast iron ball of the diameter of three 
feet1 formed in ribs1 elevated about    
twenty-five feet above the medium level 
of the sea4 ,this beacon was completed  
in ,september #ahba4  ,,footnotes3      
,footnote #e3 ,lines written by ,sir    
,walter ,scott in the ,album of the     
,bell-,rock ,lighthouse1 when he visited
 it in #ahad4     ,,chapter ,,viii4     
,,lighthouses ,,on ,,sand ,,and         
,,cast-,,iron ,,lighthouses4            
,floating ,lights--,objections          
to--,mitchell's ,screw-moorings--       
,experiments on the ,maplin             
,sand--,foundation--,erection of        

,screw-pile ,lighthouse--,details of the
 ,wyre ,lighthouse--,proposed           
,lighthouse on the ,goodwin             
,sands--,metallic                       
,lighthouses--,advantages      of ,metal
 over ,stone--,details of ,cast-iron    
,lighthouse at ,morant      ,point1     
,jamaica4   ,those dangerous approaches 
to a coast which1 from the nature of the
 soil1 have not till very lately        
admitted of the erection of a permanent 
lighthouse1 are usually indicated to the
 navigator by floating lights2 but these
 being nothing more than large lanterns 
suspended in the rigging of a vessel1   
necessarily possess but feeble          
illuminating power4 ,this power is still
 further diminished in a gale of wind1  
when it is most wanted1 by the pitching 
and floundering about of the vessel3    
every now and then she is submerged in  
the trough of the sea1 covered with     
spray and drift1 or1 what is most to be 
dreaded1 she is liable to be blown away 
from her moorings2 an accident which has

 been productive of the most disastrous 
consequences to life and property4  ,the
 details already given will convey some 
notion of the difficulty and danger of  
planting a lighthouse on the solid rock 
in a stormy sea2 we may naturally       
suppose that this difficulty and danger 
must be enormously increased in erecting
 a permanent residence on the shifting  
sands4 ,such1 however1 is by no means   
the case2 one of the recent triumphs of 
engineering has proved that it is not   
always folly to build a house upon the  
sand4  ,this remarkable result has been 
accomplished chiefly by means of        
,mitchell's screw-mooring1 an instrument
 which consists essentially of an       
enormous cast-iron screw of about one   
turn and a half1 having a hollow        
cylindrical centre2 a wrought-iron      
spindle passes through the cylindrical  
socket2 it is somewhat tapering in form1
 and when driven up tight is fixed      
thereto by a forelock passing through   
both2 it is formed with a square head to

 receive the key for screwing it into   
the ground4 ,it is also furnished with a
 collar of wrought iron fitted so as to 
turn freely on the upper part of the    
shaft of the spindle below the collar4  
,the attention of the ,trinity ,house   
having been called to this instrument1  
it was considered applicable to the     
establishment of lighthouses on sands2  
and accordingly a series of experiments 
was undertaken at the cost of that      
honourable body4 ,the spot selected for 
the purpose was on the verge of the     
,maplin ,sand lying at the mouth of the 
,thames1 about twenty miles below the   
,nore1 forming the north side of the    
,swin or ,king's ,channel1 which1 on    
account of its depth1 is much frequented
 by large ships1 as also by colliers and
 other vessels from the north sea4 ,the 
sand is shifting1 and is dry at low     
water spring-tides1 and hitherto a      
floating light has been maintained upon 
it4 ,on this spot it was proposed to    
erect a fixed lighthouse of timber      

framing1 with a lantern and residence   
for the attendants4  ,in the month of   
,august #ahch1 operations were commenced
 by inserting nine of ,mitchell's patent
 mooring-screws1 each four feet and a   
half in diameter1 and furnished with    
shafts of wrought iron about twenty-five
 feet in length and five inches thick4  
,one of these screws served as a centre 
to the remainder1 which occupied the    
angles of an octagon forty-two feet in  
diameter4 ,the screws were turned into  
the sands to the depth of twenty-one    
feet and a half1 the upper extremities  
being left standing about five feet     
above the surface of the sands4 ,for the
 purpose of fixing the screws1 a stage  
or raft of timber1 thirty feet square1  
was floated over the spot1 with a       
capstan in the centre1 which was made to
 fit on the top of the iron shaft1 and  
firmly keyed to it4 ,a power of about   
thirty men was employed for driving the 
screws1 and their labours were continued
 until their united force could scarcely

 turn the capstan4 ,this stage or raft1 
which had been formed in two thicknesses
 crossing each other at right angles1   
and bolted at their intersection1 was1  
as a precautionary measure1 allowed to  
remain4 ,it covered the whole site      
within the piles1 and also extended some
 distance beyond them4 ,a curb about    
eighteen inches high was raised round   
this stage2 on its surface was arranged 
a quantity of brushwood1 and then about 
two hundred tons of rough stone1 which  
sunk the stage into the sand and        
prevented it from being displaced4      
,between the spaces of the stage and the
 brushwood the sand was allowed to wash 
its way1 and it soon filled the         
interstices of the stone4 ,the whole    
mass soon became embedded below the     
surface of the sand1 and gave           
considerable lateral support to the     
piles1 and formed a solid body for the  
water to wash upon4  ,in this state the 
whole was allowed to remain for about   
two years1 during which time every      

change in the surface of the sand was   
observed1 and although early in the year
 #ahci violent storms occurred1 yet the 
screw-piles stood firmly1 and the sand  
at no time was lowered more than three  
feet4 ,in ,august #ahdj the raft was    
found to have completely settled down1  
the piles were as firm as if they had   
been screwed into clay2 a lighthouse was
 therefore erected within the short     
space of three months2 and on the #afth 
,february1 #ahda1 a dioptric fixed light
 was exhibited off this dangerous spot1 
and was visible ten miles off in all    
directions4  ,but while the preparatory 
steps for this lighthouse were being    
taken1 a screw-pile lighthouse was begun
 and completed at ,port ,fleetwood on   
the ,wyre1 near ,lancaster2 which being 
the first of the kind ever constructed1 
deserves particular notice4  ,the       
preparatory stages were of a similar    
nature to those already described4 ,the 
foundation was formed of seven          
screw-piles1 six occupying the angles of

 a hexagon forty-six feet in diameter1  
and the seventh being placed in the     
centre4 ,from each screw proceeded a    
pile fifteen feet in length1 at the     
upper end of which was another screw for
 securing a wooden column4 ,these       
columns were prepared of ,baltic timber2
 the one in the centre was fifty-six    
feet1 and each of the remainder         
forty-six feet in length1 bound firmly  
round with iron hoops and coated with   
pitch4  ,the framing upon which the     
house stands is firmly secured round the
 centre column and to the heads of the  
outer columns by means of hollow        
cast-iron capitals let down over the    
heads of the columns and secured with   
screw-bolts4 ,to give lateral strength  
to the building1 round iron angle-braces
 were applied1 by which means a         
resisting power equal to at least three 
hundred and fifty tons is presented in  
every direction4  ,the platform upon    
which the house stands is twenty-seven  
feet in diameter4 ,the dwelling-house is

 twenty feet in diameter1 and nine feet 
high3 it has an outside door1 and three 
windows1 and is divided into two        
apartments1 one having a fire-place2 the
 floor is tiled1 and the walls and      
ceiling lathed and stuccoed4 ,access to 
the platform is secured by means of a   
,jacob's ladder of wrought iron secured 
to one of the columns3 access to the    
lantern is by a winding stair within the
 house4  ,from the summit of the house  
rises the lantern2 it is twelve-sided1  
ten feet in diameter1 and eight feet    
high4 ,the light is thus elevated about 
forty-six feet above low-water level4   
,it is of the dioptric kind1 and is     
bright1 steady1 and uniform1 ranging    
over an horizon of eight miles1 and     
visible at the distance of ten miles    
from a coaster's deck4 ,during foggy    
weather a bell is tolled by machinery4  
,tide-time for vessels of twelve feet   
draft is also denoted by signals4       
,signals put out by vessels requiring a 
,wyre pilot will also be understood at  

this lighthouse1 where corresponding    
signals are hoisted until the pilot is  
provided4  ,this admirable and useful   
structure was erected in two of the     
shortest day months of the year1 in     
which time day-light did not occur at   
any low-water period2 the workmen       
therefore had to depend on torches and  
moonlight4 ,nor is the portability of   
this form of building its least         
advantage3 should there occur any local 
changes which might threaten the safety 
of the house1 it can be taken down1 and 
erected in another site within a month4 
,perhaps one of the boldest schemes ever
 devised for lighthouses was the        
structure proposed to be erected by ,mr4
 ,bush1 on a plan patented by him1 on   
the ,goodwin ,sands1 or on the ,varne in
 the channel between ,folkestone and    
,cape ,grisnez1 in four fathoms water4  
,this plan1 was recommended to the      
consideration of parliament by several  
merchants1 ship-owners1 and other       
influential persons4 ,the building      

proposed to be called ',the ,light of   
all ,nations1' was to consist of a      
,doric column one hundred and           
twenty-five feet high supporting a      
lantern twelve feet in diameter1        
surmounted by a colossal statue of the  
,queen1 her sceptre being the point of a
 lightning-conductor4 ,this column was  
to rise from a base one hundred feet in 
height1 and fifty in diameter1 to be    
formed by a caisson composed of         
cast-iron plates bolted together3 the   
part under water was to be divided into 
four pyramidal chambers1 opening into   
and supporting one another2 the lower   
one resting on the rock beneath the     
sands1 and the whole forming a conical  
core to the cylindrical base4 ,the only 
part of this plan that was executed was 
the cast-iron caisson1 which was        
deposited in its place among the sands4 
,in this situation1 during one dark and 
stormy night1 it was struck by a ship   
and shivered to a thousand fragments4   
,this untoward accident has led to the  

abandonment of the design4  ,one of the 
characteristics of this country is the  
mode in which we lay out the mineral    
wealth which nature has bestowed upon us
 so liberally in the shape of coal and  
iron4 ,with the assistance of the former
 we mould the latter into a thousand    
shapes of usefulness1 neatness1 and     
durability1 and so much attached are we 
to this material1 that it is daily      
superseding the use of the more cumbrous
 wood and stone1 and other substances   
which were once in great demand4 ,iron  
furnishes most of the multifarious      
instruments required in the mechanical  
and agricultural arts--it ministers     
alike to war and to peace1 by furnishing
 the sword and the ploughshare4 ,it     
supplies some of the most useful        
domestic apparatus for the kitchen1 the 
parlour1 and the bed-room1 and now even 
the bedstead itself may be formed of    
iron4 ,it has been long used in some of 
our great public works3 we have iron    
roads--iron bridges--iron               

statues--steam-boats of iron--houses of 
iron1 and lastly1 iron lighthouses4     
,the suggestion of metallic lighthouses 
originated a few years ago with ,captain
 ,sir ,samuel ,brown1 when it was       
proposed to place a lighthouse on the   
,wolf ,rock near ,land's ,end1 a        
position where it would be exposed to   
the most violent storms of the          
,atlantic4 ,a plan for the erection of a
 stone lighthouse on this point had     
already been drawn up by ,mr4           
,stevenson1 which plan1 ,captain ,brown 
thinks would require fifteen years for  
its execution1 and cost one hundred and 
fifty thousand pounds4 ,captain ,brown  
undertook to erect one of bronze ninety 
feet high for fifteen thousand pounds1  
and to complete it in four months4 ,this
 plan1 from whatever cause1 was not     
entertained1 and with the exception of a
 small lighthouse erected on the        
,gravesend pier1 metallic lighthouses   
excited no attention until the year     
#ahdj1 when application was made to ,mr4

 ,alexander ,gordon1 the eminent        
engineer1 by the commissioners appointed
 by the ,house of ,assembly1 in the     
island of ,jamaica1 to light a dangerous
 point in that island1 called ,morant   
,point1 for the erection of a suitable  
lighthouse at the smallest possible     
cost4 ,on this occasion ,mr4 ,gordon    
proposed the erection of a cast-iron    
structure1 resembling in outline that of
 the ,celtic towers of ,ireland4 ,his   
plans and estimates having been         
accepted1 they were executed with       
remarkable celerity2 and from an account
 furnished by ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,renton1 7the
 manager of the factory at which the    
work for the lighthouse was done17 we   
derive most of the following            
particulars4  ,the advantage which iron1
 when not in contact with sea-water1    
possesses over stone or other materials1
 is that upon a given base a much larger
 internal capacity for dwellings and    
stories can be obtained1 with equal     
stability4 ,with this material plates   

can be cast in large surfaces1 and with 
but few joints4 ,a system of bonding the
 plates may also be adopted1 which will 
ensure the perfect combination of every 
part1 so as to form an entire mass1 and 
thus the best form for strength and     
stability can easily be obtained4 ,from 
the comparatively small bulk and weight 
of the component parts of the structure 
great facilities are afforded for       
transporting and erecting it4 ,thus1 in 
less than three months from the date of 
the contract1 the lighthouse about to be
 described was cast and erected on the  
contractor's premises1 and it was       
expected to have the light exhibited in 
,jamaica in three months more4 ,the     
whole expense was said not to exceed    
one-third the cost of a similar building
 in stone4  ,the structure was to be    
founded on a coral rock a little above  
the level of the sea2 the face of the   
rock is about ten feet below the surface
 of the sand1 and was to be excavated to
 receive the base of the tower1 resting 

on and cased with granite1 to prevent   
the natural filtration of the sea-water 
from acting upon the iron4 ,this course 
of granite is grooved to receive the    
flange of the lower plates of the tower1
 from which lightning-conductors are to 
be continued to the sea4 ,the tower is  
of course itself a lightning-conductor  
of the best kind4 ,the diameter of the  
tower-shaft is eighteen feet six inches 
at its base1 diminishing to eleven feet 
under the cap2 it is formed of nine     
tiers of plates each ten feet in height1
 varying from one to three quarters of  
an inch thick4 ,the circumference is    
formed of eleven plates at the base1 and
 nine at the top3 they are cast with a  
flange all round the inner edges2 and   
when put together these flanges form the
 joints1 which are fastened together    
with nut and screw-bolts1 and caulked   
with iron cement4 ,the cap consists of  
ten radiating plates1 which form the    
floor of the light-room2 they are       
screwed to the tower upon twenty pierced

 brackets1 and are finished by an iron  
railing4 ,the lower portion1 namely1    
twenty-seven feet1 is filled up with    
masonry and concrete1 weighing about    
three hundred tons1 and so connected    
with the rock itself as to form a solid 
core of resistance4 ,the remaining      
portion of the building is divided into 
store-rooms and berths for the          
attendants in the lighthouse4  ,the     
light-room consists of cast-iron plates 
five feet high1 on which are fixed metal
 sash-bars filled with plate-glass2     
these1 terminating with a point1 are    
covered with a copper roof1 whence rises
 a short lightning-rod1 trebly gilt at  
the point4 ,the light is of the         
revolving kind1 consisting of fifteen   
,argand lamps and reflectors1 five in   
each side of an equilateral triangle1   
and so placed as to constitute a        
continuous light1 but with periodical   
flashes4 ,the ,admiralty notice which   
announced the light for exhibition on   
the #ast ,november1 #ahdb1 states that  

the centre of the light is ninety-six   
feet above the level of the sea1 and in 
clear weather the light can be seen from
 a distance of twenty-one miles4  ,to   
preserve as low a temperature as the    
circumstances and climate will permit1  
the iron shell was lined with a         
non-conducting material1 as slate or    
wood1 leaving an annular interstice1    
through which a constant ventilation is 
effected1 so as to carry off the        
excessive heat4  ,to preserve the two   
lower tiers from rusting1 they are      
coated with coal-tar4 ,the tower itself 
is painted white4 ,the only brasing     
which has been thought necessary is a   
few cross tiers at each horizontal      
joint1 over which the iron-tongued      
wood-floors are laid4  ,the several     
rooms are provided with fire apertures1 
fitted with oak sashes filled with      
plate-glass4 ,the approach to the       
doorway1 which is about ten feet above  
the level of the sand1 is by means of   
stone-steps2 ladder-irons are also      

provided in the event of the stone-steps
 being carried away by a hurricane4     
,over the entrance is a large tablet of 
iron supported by two smaller ones2 and 
on them1 on bas-relief1 are inscribed   
the date of erection 7#ahdb71 the names 
of the commissioners1 of the engineer1  
founder1 c4  ,the whole of the castings 
were executed at the foundry 7late      
,bramah and ,robinson's7 at ,pimlico1   
and put together in the yard of the     
manufactory1 prior to their removal to  
,jamaica1 where the work was re-erected 
by a derrick and crab from the inside1  
without the aid of any external         
scaffolding4  ,it is said that the whole
 expense of the lighthouse1 including   
the passage over the ,atlantic1 did not 
exceed seven thousand pounds1 and that  
the entire weight of the iron-work is   
about one hundred tons4 ,the masonry was
 also prepared in this country1 which   
7from the absence of building-stone in  
,jamaica7 was found to be more          
economical than if the work had been    

done on the spot4 ,mr4 ,grove1 as clerk 
of the works1 and two labouring         
engineers1 who had attended to the      
execution of the work in ,england1 were 
sent out for the purpose of erecting the
 lighthouse1 and the necessary apparatus
 upon the site which had been selected4 
,the elevation of the lighthouse above  
the level of the sea is one hundred and 
three feet4  ,since the completion of   
this lighthouse1 ,mr4 ,gordon has been  
employed by the ,ordnance ,office to    
furnish designs and specifications for a
 tower on the same principle1 but of    
larger dimensions and improved details1 
which is to be erected on ,gibbs' ,hill1
 in the island of ,bermuda4             
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,the ,,lighthouse     
,,system4       ,imperfect ,illumination
 of the old ,lighthouses--,first        
,improvements--,the ,argand ,lamp and   
,reflecting ,mirrors--,revolving        
,lights--,the ,catoptric                
,system--,varieties of ,lights--,the    
,dioptric      ,system--,its            

,details--,introduction of this ,method 
into ,great      ,britain--,comparison  
of the two ,methods--,the ,drummond and 
,voltaic      ,lights--,gurney's        
,lamp--,captain ,basil ,hall's          
,experiments--,ventilation      of      
,lighthouses4   ,since there is         
something more or less common in the    
modes of lighting and in the general    
economy of all lighthouses1 a general   
view of the subject is likely to prove  
of more interest than particular        
details4  ,in consequence of the        
rotundity of the earth1 the distance at 
which a beacon light ceases to be       
visible depends upon its elevation4 ,the
 height to which a lighthouse may be    
carried is a simple question of expense4
 ,the greater part of the pharos of the 
,romans were much higher than the most  
celebrated modern towers4 ,yet1 as it   
respects optical effect1 the feeble rays
 which were diffused from the wood or   
coal-fires at their summits1 could never
 have traversed the thick fogs which in 

all climates occasionally overspread the
 lower regions of the atmosphere4       
,nevertheless1 as to the strength of the
 light1 the modern lighthouses were1    
until lately1 little superior to the    
ancient4 ,at the time of the erection of
 the ,eddystone lighthouse civil        
engineering was greatly in advance of   
practical optics4 ,that noble structure 
was lighted by tallow candles1 without  
reflectors or the aid of any kind of    
apparatus for concentrating the light4  
',for more than half a century this     
feeble light was all that directed the  
mariner in the very high-road of        
commerce4' ,so late as the year #ahaa it
 was lighted with twenty-four wax       
candles4 ,in #ahab the ,lizard          
lighthouse1 certainly one of the most   
important in the kingdom1 was maintained
 with coal-fires4 ,the ,bidstone1 a     
leading light to the port of ,liverpool1
 was furnished with an enormous spout   
lamp1 with a wick twelve inches in      
width1 the smoke from which was so great

 as to completely darken the upper      
surface of its reflector4 ,the first    
important improvement was the           
introduction of that admirable invention
 the ,argand ,lamp1 with a double stream
 of air4 ,four or five of these lamps   
would doubtless give as much light as   
the large fires kept by the ,romans2 but
 if those lamps are furnished with      
reflecting mirrors1 the luminous effect 
is prodigiously increased4  ,the light  
of inflamed bodies spreads itself       
equally in all directions4 ,one portion 
is absorbed by the ground1 another is   
dissipated in space4 ,the navigator1    
whose route we are anxious to enlighten1
 profits only by the rays that proceed  
in a horizontal direction1 or nearly so1
 from the lamp to the sea4 ,but such of 
the horizontal rays as are directed     
towards the land are of course entirely 
lost to the purposes of the lighthouse4 
,this zone of horizontal rays forms not 
only a very small portion of the total  
light1 but has also the serious         

inconvenience of becoming much weaker by
 divergence1 so as to convey to a       
distance but a very feeble light4 ,to   
destroy this divergence1 and to profit  
by all the light of the lamp1 was the   
task to be accomplished1 before         
lighthouses could be rendered useful to 
the full extent4  ,the application to   
this purpose of deep metallic mirrors1  
known under the name of parabolic       
mirrors1 has been found effectual to the
 purposes required4 ,when a lamp is     
placed in the focus of such a mirror1   
all the rays which emanate from it are  
reflected from the polished surface1 and
 converge in one direction3 their       
original divergence is destroyed1 and   
they form1 as they issue from the       
apparatus1 a cylinder of light1 parallel
 with the axis of the mirror4 ,this     
light would be transmitted with         
undiminished brilliancy to a great      
distance1 did not the atmosphere absorb 
a portion of it4  ,it must1 however1 be 
admitted1 that this method is not free  

from defect4 ,it is true1 we direct     
towards the horizon of the sea1 a vast  
number of rays1 which would have been   
lost upon the ground1 in space1 or      
landward2 we also destroy the primitive 
divergence of those rays which fall     
within the range of the seaman2 but the 
cylinder of reflected light is of no    
greater size than that of the mirror2   
the zone which it illuminates has       
precisely the same dimensions1 at       
whatever distance1 and1 unless we employ
 a number of similar reflectors         
differently inclined1 there will be a   
number of large spaces in the horizon   
completely obscure1 from which the pilot
 will never see any signal whatever4    
,this serious objection has been removed
 by imparting1 by means of clock-work1 a
 uniform rotatory motion to the         
reflector4 ,the collection of rays      
proceeding from the mirror is thus      
directed to all the points of the       
horizon in succession4 ,every vessel    
perceives the signal-light during one   

instant1 and immediately after it is    
seen to disappear2 and if1 in a great   
extent of coast1 the different lights   
revolve in different times1 the various 
signals become thus individualized4     
,according to the interval of time1     
which elapses between two successive    
appearances or eclipses of the light1   
does the sailor recognize the part of   
the coast which is in view3 he is thus  
no longer liable to mistake a planet1 or
 a star of the first magnitude1 at its  
rising or setting1 or a fire lighted on 
the coast by fishermen1                 
charcoal-burners1 c4 for the light of   
the lighthouse2 mistakes1 which have    
often led to the most deplorable wrecks4
  ,the reflectors originally employed   
were casts in plaster of ,paris1 from a 
mould formed to the parabolic curve1 and
 lined with facets of mirror-glass4 ,the
 power of these reflectors1 however1 was
 comparatively small1 from the          
reflecting surface being composed of    
numerous pieces1 in each of which only  

one point coincided with the curve of   
the parabola4  ,the ,trinity ,house     
having been at great pains to improve   
the reflecting apparatus on the coast of
 ,england1 with the advice and          
assistance of eminent scientific men1   
adopted parabolic reflectors made of    
silvered copper2 and these1 from their  
superior effects1 have ultimately been  
introduced into all the lighthouses of  
the united kingdom4 ,in the northern    
lighthouses1 the reflectors consist of  
copper coated with silver1 in the       
proportion of six ounces of silver to   
one pound avoirdupois of copper1 which  
are rolled together1 and then1 with much
 labour and great nicety1 by a process  
of hammering and polishing1 formed to   
the parabolic curve of a mould made with
 mathematical precision4 ,the focal     
distance of the curve is four inches4   
,the diagram for the ,bell-,rock        
reflectors was drawn by ,professor      
,leslie1 and the mould was made by ,mr4 
,adie the optician4 ,the powers of this 

elegant production of the mechanical art
 are said to be quite astonishing2 and  
by comparing its highly-polished and    
regularly-curved surface with the       
previous glass reflector1 the           
superiority of the former seems to be   
immense3 indeed1 its influence extends  
to the horizon formed by the height of  
the lighthouse-tower and the earth's    
curvature4 ,the reflectors in general   
use measure over the tips twenty-one    
inches as applicable to stationary1 and 
twenty-live inches for revolving lights4
  ,the ,catoptric or reflecting system  
was first adopted under the direction of
 ,borda1 at the ,corduan ,lighthouse1   
probably about the year #aghj4 ,the     
system was soon introduced into         
,england2 and one of the first acts of  
the ,northern ,lights' ,board1 so early 
as #aghf1 was to substitute reflectors  
in place of coast-lights1 which till    
then had been the only beacons on the   
,scotch coast4  ,in the improved lights 
the best spermaceti oil and the ,argand 

lamp have been introduced4 ,the keepers 
are professionally adepts in the        
management of lamps2 and should a drop  
of oil be spilt1 the floor is covered   
with painted floorcloth to receive it4  
,the ,argand lamp-burners are tipped    
with silver1 to prevent the waste and   
imperfection to which copper is subject1
 from the excessive heat of the burner4 
,in appearance the lights may be classed
 as stationary1 revolving1 flashing1 and
 intermittent4 ,in the first1 as its    
name implies1 the light has a steady and
 uniform appearance1 and the reflectors1
 which are smaller than those used for  
revolving lights1 are ranged in circular
 zones upon a chandelier or piece of    
iron frame-work1 with their axes        
inclined at such an angle as shall      
enable them to illuminate every part of 
the horizon4 ,the revolving light       
consists of a frame built upon a        
perpendicular shaft1 and the reflectors1
 which are of large size1 are ranged on 
perpendicular planes or faces1 which are

 made to revolve in periodic times1 by  
means of a train of machinery kept in   
motion by a weight4 ,when one of those  
illuminated planes or faces is brought  
towards the eye of the observer1 the    
light gradually increases to full       
strength3 when1 on the contrary1 the    
angle between two of these faces comes  
round1 the observer is in darkness4 ,by 
these alternate changes1 the            
characteristic of the lighthouse is as  
distinctly marked to the eye of the     
mariner as the opposite extremes of     
light and darkness can make it4 ,the    
flashing light is a modification of the 
revolving light1 and is practically a   
beautiful example of the infinite       
celerity of the passage of light4 ,the  
reflectors are here also ranged upon a  
frame1 with faces which are made to     
revolve with considerable rapidity2 and 
the light thus emerging from a partial  
state of darkness exhibits a momentary  
flash1 resembling a star of the first   
magnitude1 and thereby produces a very  

striking effect4 ,the intermittent light
 bursts suddenly into view1 like a star 
of the first magnitude1 and continues a 
stationary light a minute and a half1   
when it is as suddenly eclipsed for half
 a minute2 and by this simple           
arrangement a strongly marked           
distinction in the lights of the coast  
is introduced4 ,this is accomplished by 
the perpendicular motion of shades      
before the lights4 ,a variety of all    
these lights is introduced by           
interposing before the reflectors plates
 of red glass1 which produce the        
beautiful red light alluded to in the   
lines of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 when he   
notices the 'ruddy gem of changeful     
light4' ,the red and white light is     
caused by the revolution of a frame on  
the sides of which the lights are placed
 alternately1 with and without coloured 
media4 ,there are varieties in this kind
 of light1 some being so arranged that  
two white lights should be seen in      
succession1 and then one red2 and       

others1 that two red should be seen1 and
 then one white4 ,when there is a       
necessity for what is called a          
leading-line1 as a guide for taking some
 channel1 or avoiding some danger1      
double lights are exhibited from two    
towers1 one of which is higher than the 
other2 and when seen in one line1 these 
form a direction for the course of the  
shipping4  ,when the ,french were       
recovering from the long night of       
terror1 during which their commerce had 
been ruined and their ships disabled1   
they directed attention to lighthouses1 
and resolved to discard the very        
imperfect and insignificant reflectors  
then in use4 ,they investigated the     
subject with their usual scientific     
skill1 and the result was the invention 
and adoption of the system of lenses    
instead of reflectors1 known as the     
,dioptric system4  ,a transparent lens  
reduces to parallelism all the luminous 
rays which traverse it1 whatever be     
their original amount of divergence1    

provided these rays proceed from a point
 or focus suitably situated4 ,the       
substitution of glass lenses for        
reflectors is not a new idea1 since we  
find that a proposal to that effect was 
made by a ,london optician to ,mr4      
,smeaton1 in #agei1 for illuminating the
 ,eddystone lighthouse1 but was not     
adopted by him4 ,m4 ,fresnel mentions   
that lenses had been used in ,england so
 far back as #aghi1 in the tower        
light-room at ,portland ,island1 but    
from some cause or other were           
discontinued4  ,on account of the great 
loss of light by reflexion at the       
surface of mirrors1 the ,french adopted 
the lenses1 and they soon discovered the
 source of failure in our use of them2  
they saw that1 in order to render lenses
 superior to reflectors1 the intensity  
of the illuminating flame must be       
considerably increased1 as well as the  
size of the lenses2 also1 that these    
lenses must have a very short focus2 and
 that1 if constructed by the ordinary   

rules1 their thickness would be great1  
their transparency diminished1 and their
 weight far too great for the safety of 
the machinery whereby the lights were   
revolved4 ,fresnel therefore adopted the
 ingenious device proposed by           
,condorcet1 that of constructing a lens 
of a number of distinct pieces4 ,this   
method was also proposed by ,dr4        
,brewster1 in #ahaa4 ,fresnel also      
invented a lamp1 with a number of       
concentric wicks1 the lustre of which   
was twenty-five times greater than the  
best lamps then existing4  ,in a        
lighthouse on the dioptric system1 the  
lantern is constructed with eight sides1
 which form an octagonal prism around   
the lamp in the centre4 ,the centre of  
each side is occupied by a plano-convex 
lens1 something similar to a            
burning-glass1 having a diameter of     
about fifteen inches4 ,this central lens
 is not sufficient to cover the entire  
side4 ,indeed1 a lens of sufficient size
 for the purpose would be very costly   

and bulky1 even supposing it could be   
manufactured4 ,to remedy this defect1   
the central lens is surrounded by a     
series of glass rings1 the external     
surface of which is so formed as to have
 precisely the same optical effect as   
the great central lens4 ,a transverse   
section of one of these zones or rings  
presents the form of a wedge1 one side  
of which is slightly curved4  ,by this  
arrangement each lens transmits to all  
the points of the horizon in succession 
a light equivalent to that of from three
 to four thousand lamps with double     
currents1 and eight times greater than  
the light produced by the silver        
parabolic reflectors2 it is1 according  
to ,arago1 the same amount of light as  
would be obtained if it were possible to
 bring together the third of the whole  
number of gas-lights which illumine the 
streets1 the shops1 and the theatres of 
,paris2 and this wonderful result is    
obtained from a single lamp4  ,this lamp
 has four concentric burners1 which are 

defended from the action of the         
excessive heat produced by their united 
flames1 by means of a superabundant     
supply of oil1 which is thrown up from  
the cistern below by a clock-work       
movement1 and constantly overflows the  
wicks4 ,a very tall chimney is necessary
 in order to supply fresh currents of   
air to each wick with sufficient        
rapidity to support the combustion4 ,the
 carbonization of the wicks is not very 
rapid2 and after they have been burning 
a long time1 the flame is not sensibly  
diminished1 as the great heat evolved   
from the mass of flame promotes the     
rising of the oil in the cotton4  ,in   
the year #ahbj1 in the course of some   
investigations connected with the       
,trigonometrical ,survey of ,great      
,britain1 and conducted by a deputation 
of scientific persons from ,london and  
,paris1 ,m4 ,fresnel exhibited from the 
,french side of the channel1 by means of
 his lens and a large lamp1 a powerful  
light which was observed by the ,english

 across the channel4 ,the brilliancy of 
this light so struck ,lieut4-,col4      
,colby1 of the ,royal ,engineers1 who   
was engaged in these observations1 that 
he immediately corresponded with ,mr4   
,stevenson as to its probable use upon  
the ,scottish coast4 ,a considerable    
time was occupied in inquiry and        
negotiation1 when at length1 on the     
#bfth ,october1 #ahcf1 the light at the 
,isle of ,may was changed from the      
catoptric to the dioptric system1 and a 
committee of the ,royal ,society of     
,edinburgh met at ,dunbar1 a distance of
 thirteen miles from the lighthouse1 to 
make observations on the two lights1    
which were exhibited in contrast4 ,in   
their report they conclude3--  '#a4     
,that at a distance of thirteen miles   
the mean effect of the new light is very
 much superior to the mean effect of the
 old light 7perhaps in the ratio of two 
to one74 #b4 ,that at all distances the 
new light has a prodigious superiority  
to the old1 from the equality of its    

effects in all azimuths4 #c4 ,that the  
new light fulfils rigorously the        
conditions required for the distribution
 of light to the greatest advantage4 #d4
 ,that at distances much exceeding      
thirteen miles1 the new light must still
 be a very effective one1 though to what
 extent the committee have not observed4
 ,the light is understood to be still a 
good one1 when seen from ,edinburgh at a
 distance of about thirty miles4'  ,on a
 further comparison of results1 it was  
found that the light of one of the great
 annular lenses1 used in the revolving  
lights of the first order1 was equal to 
the united effect of about eight of the 
large reflectors employed in the        
revolving lights on the ,scottish coast4
 ,at the ,isle of ,may and ,inchkeith   
the quantity of sperm-oil consumed by   
the great lamp is equal to that burned  
by fourteen of the ,argand lamps used in
 the ,scotch lights4 ,hence by dioptric 
means the consumption of oil necessary  
for the fourteen reflectors will produce

 almost as powerful a light as that     
which would require the oil of          
twenty-four reflectors in the catoptric 
system1 and consequently there is an    
excess of oil equal to that consumed by 
ten reflectors1 or four hundred gallons 
in the year against the ,scotch system4 
,the ,dutch were the first to adopt     
,fresnel's system4 ,in the year #ahcd   
the ,commissioners of ,northern         
,lighthouses sent ,mr4 ,alan ,stevenson 
to ,paris to inspect the system1 and his
 report was so favourable1 that the     
reflecting apparatus of the revolving   
light at ,inchkeith was removed1 and the
 dioptric instruments substituted4 ,the 
new light was exhibited on the evening  
of the #ast of ,october1 #ahce1 and so  
great was the satisfaction afforded1    
that a similar change was made at the   
fixed light of the ,isle of ,may4 ,the  
,trinity-,house of ,london followed next
 in adopting the improved system1 and a 
revolving dioptric light of the first   
order was erected at the ,star ,point in

 ,devonshire4  ,in the lighthouses of   
this country sperm-oil is the most usual
 fuel4 ,in ,france#f an oil is burned   
called ,colza oil1 expressed from the   
seeds of a species of wild cabbage4 ,in 
the lighthouses on the ,mediterranean   
olive-oil is used4 ,in a few lighthouses
 near large towns coal-gas has been     
advantageously adopted4 ,much also has  
been said in favour of the ,drummond and
 ,voltaic lights1 which1 on account of  
their prodigious intensity would appear 
to be most desirable2 but the           
uncertainty which attends their         
exhibition renders it at present        
impossible to adopt them3 but there is a
 yet more fatal objection--the smallness
 of the flame renders them wholly       
inapplicable to dioptric instruments1   
which require a great body of flame in  
order to produce a degree of divergency 
sufficient to render the duration of the
 flash in revolving lights long enough  
to answer the purpose of the mariner4   
,in the year #ahce1 ,mr4 ,gurney        

proposed a lamp of great power in which 
the flame of oil or wax was sustained by
 streams of oxygen gas1 a method said to
 be more economical than the combustion 
of oil in atmospheric air4 ,the ,trinity
 ,house entertained the proposal1 and   
instituted a number of experiments4 ,in 
applying this light to reflectors it is 
intended to use three small flames1 each
 about three-eighths of an inch in      
diameter1 productive1 it is said1 of an 
effect equal to that of ten ,argand     
lamps4 ,but for lenses the burner has   
seventeen films of flame1 and is said to
 possess six times the power of the     
,fresnel lamp4  ,in the year #ahdj1     
,captain ,basil ,hall instituted a      
series of experiments to ascertain      
whether the well-known superior         
brilliancy of a revolving light could   
not be obtained for a fixed or          
continuous light1 that is1 for one      
equally visible in all directions at the
 same moment4 ,his idea was1 that by    
giving a certain velocity of revolution 

to a series of lenses round a fixed     
light1 as in ,fresnel's arrangement1 a  
continuity of illuminative power1 equal 
almost in brilliancy to that of a slowly
 revolving light1 might be produced4    
,the apparatus was arranged so as to    
cause a series of eight lenses one foot 
in diameter and three feet focal        
distance to revolve with any velocity up
 to sixty revolutions per minute round a
 central lamp4 ,the light from this lamp
 being concentrated by refraction       
through the eight lenses into eight     
pencils1 having a divergence of about   
eight degrees each1 illuminated when at 
rest not quite fifty degrees of the     
horizon2 but when this system of lenses 
was put into rapid motion1 every degree 
of the three hundred and sixty degrees  
of the horizon became illuminated1 so   
that to spectators placed all round the 
horizon the light would appear          
continuous and equally brilliant in     
every direction4 ,the only question     
would be1 whether or not this continuous

 light is essentially less intense than 
the light seen through the lenses at    
intervals when in slow motion2 and this 
is a point which further inquiry must   
decide4  ,one of the causes which has   
tended to improve the brilliancy of     
lighthouses1 has produced               
inconveniences1 which long existed      
without remedy4 ,during the combustion  
of a pound of oil1 the union of its     
hydrogen with the oxygen of the air     
produces more than a pound of water in  
the state of vapour4 ,when a cold wind  
is blowing upon the lantern of the      
lighthouse from without1 this vapour is 
condensed into water upon the inner     
surface of the glass1 and in very severe
 weather forms a crust of ice1 in some  
cases1 as much as four inches thick in  
the course of one night4 ,this not only 
very much dims the brilliancy of the    
light to the sailor1 but also entails a 
great amount of labour on the           
light-keepers1 and injury to the        
lantern4 ,the combustion of the oil also

 produces a large quantity of carbonic  
acid gas1 which is of a very deleterious
 nature1 and in many cases rendered the 
light-keepers' rooms almost             
uninhabitable4 ,under these             
circumstances1 the ,trinity ,house made 
application to ,dr4 ,faraday to         
investigate the subject1 with a view to 
the discovery of some remedy4 ,with his 
usual skill and sagacity1 ,dr4 ,faraday 
instituted a number of inquiries and    
experiments1 and visited some of the    
principal lighthouses4 ,the result was  
the contrivance of a complete method of 
ventilating lighthouses4 ,on the        
dioptric system1 the remedy was simple3 
it was merely to erect a tall chimney   
over the central lamp1 and lead it out  
at the roof2 by which means1 the draught
 of the lamp was improved1 and all the  
products of combustion carried off4 ,on 
the catoptric system1 with revolving    
lights1 each lamp was furnished with a  
chimney1 which passed out at its upper  
extremity1 through a small hole in the  

reflector into a fixed central hollow   
shaft1 which served the purpose of a    
ventilating chimney to all the lamps4   
,these plans are said to have been      
eminently successful in removing the    
inconveniences1 which rendered the light
 less efficient1 and the lighthouse an  
unwholesome and even dangerouse place of
 abode4  ,footnote #f3 ,in the year     
#ahcf the coast of ,france were provided
 with no less than ninety-six           
lighthouses4   ,,the ,,end4             
,parker's                               
,collections in ,popular                
,literature4                            
,collections in ,popular ,literature1   
publishing by                      ,john
 ,w4 ,parker1 ,west ,strand1            
,london4   ,it has frequently been      
suggested to the ,publisher1 that he    
might render an acceptable service to   
the friends of ,education1 and greatly  
assist those who desire to promote the  
intellectual amusement of the people1 by
 producing a series of ,popular ,books1 

at low prices1 calculated1 by their     
unexceptionable tendency1 for general   
use in families2 from which ,school     
,libraries might be formed1 ,reward     
,books selected1 and ,lending ,libraries
 supplied2 which1 on account of their   
convenient form and size1 would be      
welcome as ,fireside and ,travelling    
,companions2 books1 in short1 which     
might be found instructive and          
entertaining wherever introduced4       
,these suggestions he is now carrying   
out1 in compliance with certain         
conditions1 namely1 that the works      
produced shall be unexceptionable in    
subject and in treatment2 that the      
series be sufficiently varied to meet   
the requirements of all classes of      
readers2 and that each book shall be    
complete in itself1 and procurable for a
 very small sum4  ,the ,,collections    
,,in ,,popular ,,literature will1       
therefore1 embrace most of the features 
of an ,encyclopdia1 though the subjects 
will not be divided into fragments1 or  

scattered over many volumes2 each       
subject being treated with fulness and  
completeness1 and its information       
brought up to the present time4  ,the   
,plan will embrace new and improved     
,editions of certain ,standard ,english 
books1 but the majority of the works    
will be newly written1 translated1      
compiled1 or abridged1 for the present  
purpose2 and the volumes will appear    
from time to time in sufficient variety 
to extend simultaneously1 and in due    
proportion1 the various branches of     
,popular ,literature4 ,the whole will be
 prepared with an especial view to the  
diffusion of sound opinions--to the     
promulgation of valuable facts and      
correct principles--and to the due      
indulgence of general literary taste4   
,it is not intended that this series    
shall form a periodical1 according to   
the strict acceptation of that term4    
,several works are already published1   
and others will quickly follow2 they    
will all be uniformly bound in cloth and

 lettered4 ,there will be no necessary  
connection between the various works1   
except as regards general appearance1   
and each1 being complete in itself1 may 
be had separately2 nevertheless1 the    
volumes1 distinct1 yet uniform in their 
object1 will together form a valuable   
library1 and may be collected and       
classified under the following heads3   
,i4 ,popular ,history4  ,under the      
comprehensive title of ,history1 we     
purpose giving an extensive series of   
interesting and instructive works4      
,among these will be                    
carefully-considered narratives of some 
of those moral tempests which have so   
often agitated the world1 when men have 
continued a long course of disobedience 
to the laws of ,god and the recognised  
laws of man4 ,we shall make it our      
business to record the change of a      
dynasty1 the rise and career of a       
monarch1 a usurper1 or a ruler1 whose   
actions have thrown a new aspect on the 
political institutions of a country2 we 

shall trace the rise and progress of    
great commercial or manufacturing       
enterprises1 whereby the wealth and     
prosperity of a nation have been        
obviously increased2 we shall notice the
 train of events whereby the prevalent  
or established religion of a country has
 been changed4 ,these and other subjects
 of a like character will enable us to  
bring up many stores from a mine        
peculiarly rich in instructive and      
entertaining matter4  ,it is of course  
impossible1 in such a notice as this1 to
 include all the features of so         
important a division of our             
,,collections ,,in ,,popular            
,,literature as ,history2 but some idea 
may be formed of it from the following  
list of works which are nearly ready for
 publication3       ,a ,history of the  
,invasion of ,russia by ,napoleon       
,bonaparte2      its ,causes and        
,consequences4 #bs4 #f;d4       ,the    
,lord and his ,vassal3 a ,familiar      
,exposition of the ,feudal      ,system 

in the ,middle ,ages2 with its ,causes  
and ,consequences4       ,a ,history of 
the ,french ,revolution2 its ,causes and
      ,consequences4 ,newly written for 
this ,collection4       ,the ,ruins of  
,rome and their ,historical             
,associations2      including an        
,account of the ,modern ,city and its   
,inhabitants4       ,the ,private ,life1
 ,manners1 and ,customs of the ,ancient 
,romans4 ,from the ,french of ,d',arnay2
 carefully edited1 and      forming a   
valuable work for study or amusement4   
,constantinople and its ,historical     
,associations2 with some      ,account  
of its ,institutions and the ,manners   
and ,customs of      the ,people4       
,history of the ,rise and ,progress of  
the ,trading ,communities      of the   
,middle ,ages4       ,trading           
,communities of ,modern ,times2 a       
,popular ,view of the      ,origin1     
,structure1 and ,general ,tendency of   
the ,joint-,stock      ,trading and     
,commercial ,bodies of ,modern ,times4  

,the ,ruins of ,athens and their        
,historical ,associations2 with         
,notices of the ,modern ,city and its   
,inhabitants4       ,a ,history of      
,london1 ,ancient and ,modern4       ,a 
,history of the ,endowed ,schools of    
,great ,britain4       ,the ,incas of   
,peru1 with some ,account of the ,ruins 
of their      ,greatness4       ,a      
popular ,history of the ,british ,army4 
,a popular ,history of the ,british     
,navy4   ,,ii4 ,popular ,biography4     
,one of the most useful and pleasing    
forms under which knowledge can be      
presented to the general reader is that 
of the ,biography of distinguished men1 
who have contributed to the progress of 
that knowledge in some one or other of  
its various departments4 ,but it too    
frequently happens1 that the            
biographical notices of great men       
consist rather of personal1 trivial1 and
 unimportant details1 than of a clear   
and broad outline of the influence which
 they exerted upon the pursuit and upon 

the age in which they were              
distinguished4 ,the true object of      
,biography is1 while tracing the        
progress of an individual1 to show not  
only what result his active life has    
produced on the well-being of his       
fellow-men1 but also the position which 
he occupies as one of the great         
landmarks in the map of human nature4   
,yet we are not satisfied with a        
biography which regards its subject in  
his public capacity alone3 we are       
naturally curious to ascertain whether  
the same qualities which rendered him   
celebrated in public1 followed him      
likewise into private life1 and         
distinguished him there4 ,we regard with
 interest1 in his private capacity1 the 
man who has been the originator of much 
public good3 we look with an attentive  
eye on his behaviour when he stands     
alone1 when his native impulses are     
under no external excitement2 when he   
is1 in fact1 in the undress of one who  
has retired from the stage on which he  

felt he had a part to sustain4  ,but a  
detail of the public and private events 
in the life of a distinguished man1 do  
not alone suffice to form a just        
estimate of his character4 ,the reader  
requires to be made acquainted with the 
state of a particular branch of         
knowledge1 at the time when the         
individual appeared1 whose efforts      
extended its boundaries4 ,without this  
it is impossible to estimate the worth  
of the man1 or the blessings and        
advantages conferred upon society by his
 means4  ,on the other hand1 in tracing 
the history of any particular branch of 
knowledge1 unless connected with        
,biography1 we lose sight of individual 
efforts2 they are mingled with the      
labours of others1 or are absorbed into 
the history of the whole1 and are       
consequently no longer individualized3  
hence we are likely to fail in          
recognising the obligations due to our  
distinguished countrymen1 or to deprive 
of their just merit those of our foreign

 brethren1 whose useful lives have      
influenced distant lands as well as     
their own4  ,with these views it is     
proposed that each ,biography shall     
consist of three distinct portions3  #a 
,the history of a particular department 
of knowledge1 up to the time when the   
individual appeared by whom its         
boundaries were extended4  #b ,a general
 sketch of the life of such individual1 
with particular details of the          
improvements effected by him4  #c ,the  
progress of such branch of knowledge1   
from the date of such improvements up to
 our own times4  ,the following subjects
 will be immediately published3         
,smeaton and ,lighthouses4       ,sir   
,joseph ,banks and the ,royal ,society4 
,sir ,humphrey ,davy and the ,safety    
,lamp4       ,linnus and ,jussieu2 or1  
the ,rise and ,progress of ,systematic  
,botany4       ,cuvier and his ,works2  
or the ,rise and ,progress of ,zoology4 
,brindley and ,canals4       ,watt and  
the ,steam-engine4       ,wedgwood and  

,pottery4       ,telford and ,roads and 
,bridges4       ,caxton and the         
,printing ,press4       ,galileo and the
 ,telescope4       ,sir ,isaac ,newton  
and the ,progress of ,astronomical      
,discovery4       ,sir ,christopher     
,wren and ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4      
,addison and the ,english ,essayists4   
,jeremy ,taylor and some ,account of his
 ,times and ,works4       ,wilberforce  
and the ,slave ,trade4  ,each work being
 a ,popular ,biography1 with an         
,historical ,introduction and ,sequel4  
,,iii4 ,popular ,science and ,art4      
,when we contemplate the arts and       
processes of civilized life1 we cannot  
but be struck with the vast amount of   
invention and ingenuity required for    
their gradual development4 ,not an      
article of clothing or of furniture1 not
 an instrument1 implement1 or machine1  
could have been brought to the state in 
which we find it1 without many          
successive steps of invention1 due to   
different minds1 supplied at different  

times1 and brought to light in different
 countries4 ,but in devoting several of 
our volumes to the ,useful ,arts1 we    
shall not be unmindful of the fact1 that
 ,art is the application of ,science to 
a practical end4 ,it is proposed1       
therefore1 under the comprehensive title
 of ,popular ,science and ,art1 to      
include portions of our knowledge of    
animate and inanimate nature4 ,the      
object will be to assist the general    
reader to regard with an intelligent eye
 the varied phenomena of nature1 to     
gratify the laudable desire of          
understanding what he sees1 and of      
preparing him in some measure to enter  
more fully upon the study of a given    
subject4 ,in this way1 it is hoped to   
effect a useful purpose1 by connecting  
,science and the ,useful ,arts2 for it  
is not1 surely1 in the country of       
,arkwright1 that the ,philosophy of     
,commerce can be thought independent of 
,mechanics2 and where ,davy has         
delivered lectures on ,agriculture1 it  

would be folly to say that the most     
philosophic views of ,chemistry were not
 conducive to the making our valleys    
laugh with corn4  ,the works already    
prepared1 or in course of preparation1  
for this division1 comprise the         
following subjects3       ,the ,useful  
,arts employed in the ,production of    
,food4 #bs4 #f;d4       ,the ,useful    
,arts employed in the ,production of    
,clothing4      #bs4 #f;d4       ,the   
,useful ,arts employed in the           
,construction of ,dwelling ,houses4     
,the ,writing-,desk and its ,contents1  
taken as a ,text for the      ,familiar 
,illustration of many important ,facts  
in ,experimental      ,science4 #bs4    
,examples of ,mechanical ,ingenuity4    
,the ,philosophy of the ,external       
,senses4       ,ancient and ,modern     
,modes of ,measuring ,time1 with curious
      ,illustrations of the application 
of ,clockwork4       ,the ,rise and     
,progress of ,agriculture4       ,the   
,natural ,history of ,birds and ,insects

 injurious to ,farming      and         
,gardening4       ,the ,wonders of the  
,microscope4       ,mathematical ,magic4
  ,the ,fine ,arts will also form an    
interesting portion of this division4   
,the object will be1 in a few popular   
histories1 to trace the origin1 rise1   
and progress of ,sculpture1 ,painting1  
,engraving1 ,music1 c41 and their       
influence on mankind4   ,,iv4 ,popular  
,voyages and ,travels4  ,few subjects   
are more attractive than the narratives 
of celebrated travellers4 ,although they
 tell us of beings who speak another    
tongue1 inhabit a different clime1      
differ altogether from ourselves in     
manners1 customs1 dress1 and            
institutions--yet the sympathy which man
 feels for his fellows makes us delight 
in all the details which talent and     
enterprise procure for us4 ,the personal
 narrative of the traveller has also a  
great charm2 we seem to participate in  
his dangers1 excitements1 and pleasures2
 we add to our knowledge in his company2

 and the truth and sincerity which      
pervade the narrative1 make us feel a   
personal interest in the narrator4 ,it  
is intended to reprint some of the      
narratives of our old ,english          
,navigators1 especially those of        
,discoveries1 which have had most       
influence on the progress of            
,geographical ,knowledge4 ,it will not  
be an objection that these eminent men  
lived at a period of time distant from  
our own2 for their ,narratives are full 
of truths1 told with plain simplicity4  
,but the important labours of modern    
travellers will not be forgotten4 ,in   
describing several interesting portions 
of the earth's surface1 we shall avail  
ourselves of the most trustworthy       
individuals1 and by a careful comparison
 of statements and details1 we hope to  
present graphic descriptions of some of 
the most celebrated countries of the    
world2 as well as of those which have   
only of late years been explored4 ,many 
voyages of discovery have had their     

proceedings recorded in large quartos1  
the price of which places them above the
 reach of the general reader1 while     
their scientific details render them    
unfit for popular use3 a digest of these
 works1 containing an epitome of the    
lighter portions1 and the results of the
 scientific discoveries1 may prove      
acceptable4  ,the following works are   
being prepared for publication3         
,the ,life1 ,adventures1 and            
,discoveries of ,captain ,william       
,dampier2 including a ,history of the   
,buccaneers of ,america4       ,captain 
,cook and the ,circumnavigation of the  
,globe4       ,an ,overland ,journey and
 a ,steam ,voyage to ,india4            
,voyages and ,discoveries in the ,south 
,polar ,regions4       ,voyages and     
,discoveries in the ,northern ,polar    
,regions4       ,voyages and            
,discoveries in ,australasia and        
,polynesia4  ,to these will be added    
digests of ,travels and ,adventures in  
various ,countries of the ,old and ,new 

,worlds4   ,v4 ,popular ,tales and      
,fiction4  ,the design of this          
,collection embraces many favourite old 
works1 which1 though containing much    
that has instructed and delighted our   
predecessors1 are1 nevertheless1 but ill
 adapted in their original form for     
general perusal4 ,among these may be    
reckoned some works of fiction1 the     
excellencies of which are often obscured
 by a grossness of style not uncommon at
 the time when they were composed1 but  
which justly excludes them from         
family-reading in the present day4 ,such
 works would be acceptable if freed from
 objectionable passages2 and in         
undertaking to accomplish this reform1  
without detriment to the spirit of the  
original1 the ,publisher relies on the  
approbation of a large class of persons1
 who will thus be enabled to place in   
the hands of the young1 purified        
editions of those romantic and          
interesting tales which are naturally   
sought for by youthful readers1 whose   

hands they might otherwise reach1       
tainted with their original impurities4 
,every work will be prepared for this   
series by a careful editing1 in order to
 suit the general tone of thought1      
principle1 and feeling which will       
pervade the whole ,collection1 and no   
work will be admitted1 the name of whose
 author is associated with              
considerations painful to ,christian    
feeling1 good taste1 or propriety4      
,among the new works intended to be     
included in this division1 may be       
mentioned a series of tales1            
illustrative of the manners and customs 
of the people of different climes4 ,of  
these1 the following1 among others1 are 
ready for early publication3            
,norah ,toole1 a ,tale of ,ireland2 ,my 
,son ,mike1 or1 the ,irish              
,emigrant in the ,united ,states2 and   
,rob ,maxwell1 a ,tale of      the      
,highlands of ,scotland4       ,the     
,spanish ,merchant and his ,daughter1   
or1 ,life in ,spain2 a      ,tale       

illustrative of ,domestic ,manners and  
,customs4       ,van-ti1 or1 ,life in   
,china2 ,the ,leicesters1 or1 ,life in  
,hindostan4       ,the ,merchant and the
 ,friar2 or1 ,truths and ,fictions of   
the      ,middle ,ages4 ,a ,new         
,edition1 revised by the ,author4       
,the ,life and ,adventures of ,peter    
,wilkins1 a ,cornish ,man4              
,carefully revised and corrected4       
,the most ,delectable ,history of       
,reynard the ,fox2 an old      ,romance1
 thoroughly revised and corrected4      
,the ,life and ,adventures of ,robinson 
,crusoe1 newly revised2      with a new 
,introduction1 and ,illustrations4      
,,vi4 ,popular ,miscellanies4  ,under   
this head will be published1 works of a 
miscellaneous nature which do not fall  
strictly under any of the foregoing     
divisions1 or which may include several 
of those divisions4 ,among the former   
may be mentioned a short series of works
 on in-door and out-door amusements1 the
 object of which is to furnish young    

persons with sources of amusement1      
innocent in their kind1 and healthful in
 their application both to mind and     
body4 ,among the in-door amusements may 
be mentioned a volume which is nearly   
ready for publication on the game of    
,chess4 ,experience has shown that where
 ,chess is introduced as an amusement   
into families and schools1 it exerts a  
highly beneficial influence1 by exciting
 a taste for more exalted sources of    
recreation than are afforded by games of
 chance1 which so far from producing a  
beneficial influence on the mind1 are   
apt to disturb the temper1 excite       
animosity1 and foster a spirit of       
gambling4 ,chess1 on the contrary1 is an
 effort of pure skill2 it gives healthy 
exercise to the mental powers2 it       
requires caution and forbearance on the 
part of both players2 it leaves the     
victor satisfied with having won the    
game without the additional stimulus of 
'a stake2' and it entails no humiliation
 on the vanquished1 but rather prompts  

him to greater exertions4 ,we propose1  
therefore1 to give the history and      
antiquities of the game of ,chess1      
together with a series of ,easy         
,lessons1 the object of which will be to
 make the young student acquainted with 
a few of the leading features of the    
principal openings1 that he may form    
some idea of the richness of the        
territory of ,chess1 and to add a       
selection of ,chess ,problems4 ,chess   
,problems form one of the most          
attractive departments of the game2 they
 enable us1 more perhaps than anything  
else1 to appreciate the subtle skill and
 resources of a first-rate player1 and  
tend to elevate ,chess to the rank of   
mathematical science4  ,among the works 
which include several of the foregoing  
divisions1 is one in four volumes1      
illustrating the ,progress of the ,year1
 wherein the information given is       
arranged under the form of ,daily       
,headings4 ,all the varied phenomena of 
nature2 the animals1 the plants1 the    

minerals1 assume different phases1      
according to the means and acquirements 
of the observer1 the progress of        
science1 and the climate under which the
 descriptions are given4 ,as science    
advances1 the descriptions of           
naturalists admit of modification and   
addition1 in order to keep pace with the
 progress of discovery2 hence our       
,year-books require renewal from time to
 time4 ,the present is an attempt to    
furnish a seasonal account of the       
natural phenomena of the year1 in       
conformity with the present state of    
knowledge4 ,the work1 however1 will not 
be confined to natural history1 but will
 be varied with notices of the arts1    
antiquities1 manners and customs of our 
native country2 choice selections from  
our prose writers and poets2 and a      
series of papers expressly adapted for  
,sunday reading1 so that on whatever    
day1 and at whatever season1 the book be
 taken up1 something appropriate of an  
instructive and amusing nature may be   

found1 calculated either for family     
reading1 or solitary perusal1 as a      
fireside manual1 or a travelling pocket 
companion4  ,the following works are    
intended for early publication3         
,chronicles of the ,seasons1 or the     
,progress of the ,year2      being a    
,course of ,daily ,instruction and      
,amusement from the      ,popular       
,details of the ,natural ,history1      
,science1 ,art1      ,antiquities1 and  
,biography of our ,father ,land4 ,in    
,four      ,books4 ,book the ,first1    
containing the ,months of ,january1     
,february1 and ,march4 #cs4 #f;d4       
,the ,history1 ,antiquities1 and        
,curiosities of the ,game of            
,chess2 including a ,selection of       
,games1 illustrative of the             
,various ,openings1 ,analyzed and       
,explained for the use of      ,young   
,players2 together with a ,choice       
,selection of ,chess      ,problems4    
,the ,sea--the ,highway of the ,world2  
or the ,history and      ,practice of   

,navigation1 in ,ancient and ,modern    
,times1      familiarly explained4      
,the ,houses of all ,nations2 or some   
,account1 ,historical and               
,descriptive1 of the ,progress of       
,national and ,domestic                 
,architecture in all ,parts and ,ages of
 the ,world4       ,the ,games and      
,sports of the ,ancients and ,moderns4  
,an ,account of ,shipwrecks1 ,fires1 and
 other ,calamities1 at ,sea4